,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,ae/hetics  ,,by   
,,dewitt ,h4 ,,p>k]  ,,pr(essor ,,(     
,,philosophy ,,9 ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,(    
,,mi*igan    ,,preface  ,?is book has   
gr[n out ( lectures to /ud5ts at !      
,univ]sity ( ,mi*igan & embodies my ef=t
 to express to !m ! nature & mean+ (    
art4 ,9 writ+ x1 ,i h s\ght to ma9ta9   
sci5tific accuracy1 yet at ! same "t to 
pres]ve fre$om ( /yle & some?+ ( !      
inspiration ( ! subject4 ,:ile int5d$   
prim>ily = /ud5ts1 ! book w appeal      
g5]ally1 ,i hope1 to p :o are int]e/$ 9 
! intellig5t appreciation ( art4  ,my   
obligations are ext5sive1--mo/ directly 
to ^? :om ,i h cit$ 9 foot-notes to !   
text1 b also to o!rs ^: influ5ce is too 
indirect or p]vasive to make citation   
pr(itable1 or too obvi\s to make x      
necess>y4 ,= ! broad] philosophy ( art1 
my debt is heavie/1 ,i believe1 to !    
arti/s & philosoph]s dur+ ! p]iod f     
,h]d] to ,hegel1 :o gave to ! /udy its  
greate/ developm5t1 &1 among            
contempor>ies1 to ,croce & ,lipps4 ,9   

addition1 ,i h drawn freely ^u ! m      
special inve/igations ( rec5t times1 b )
 ! caution desirable 9 view ( ! v       
t5tative "* ( "s ( ! results4 ,to ,mrs4 
,rob]t ,m4 ,w5ley ,i wi% to express my  
?anks = h] v c>eful & helpful read+ ( ! 
page pro(4  ,! app5d$ bibliography is1 (
 c\rse1 n int5d$ to be 9 any s5se       
adequate1 b is (f]$ m]ely z a guide to  
fur!r read+2 a complete bibliography    
w\ld itself dem& almo/ a volume4        
,,cont5ts  ,,*apt]    ,i4 ,introduction3
 ,purpose & ,me?od  ,,*apt]   ,,ii4 ,!  
,def9ition ( ,art  ,,*apt]  ,,iii4 ,!   
,intr9sic ,value ( ,art  ,,*apt]   ,,iv4
 ,! ,analysis ( ! ,ae/hetic ,exp]i5ce3  
,! ,elem5ts (                 !         
,exp]i5ce  ,,*apt]    ,v4 ,! ,analysis (
 ! ,ae/hetic ,exp]i5ce3 ,! ,/ructure (  
! ,exp]i5ce  ,,*apt]   ,,vi4 ,! ,problem
 ( ,evil 9 ,ae/hetics1 & ,its ,solution 
?r\gh                 ! ,tragic1        
,pa!tic1 & ,comic  ,,*apt]  ,,vii4 ,!   
,/&>d ( ,ta/e  ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,!       
,ae/hetics ( ,music  ,,*apt]   ,,ix4 ,! 

,ae/hetics ( ,poetry  ,,*apt]    ,x4    
,prose ,lit]ature  ,,*apt]   ,,xi4 ,!   
,dom9ion ( ,art ov] ,nature3 ,pa9t+     
,,*apt]  ,,xii4 ,! ,dom9ion ( ,art ov]  
,nature3 ,sculpture  ,,*apt] ,,xiii4    
,beauty 9 ! ,indu/rial ,arts3           
,ar*itecture  ,,*apt]  ,,xiv4 ,!        
,function ( ,art3 ,art & ,morality      
,,*apt]   ,,xv4 ,! ,function ( ,art3    
,art & ,religion  ,,bibliography     ,,!
 ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,ae/hetics  ,,*apt] ,i
  ,,introduction3 ,,purpose ,,& ,,me?od 
,al?\gh "s feel+ = beauty is p]haps     
univ]sal among m51 ! same _c be said ( !
 und]/&+ ( beauty4 ,! av]age man1 :o may
 ex]cise consid]able ta/e 9 p]sonal     
adornm5t1 9 ! decoration ( ! home1 or 9 
! *oice ( poetry & pa9t+1 is at a loss  
:5 call$ ^u to tell :at art is or to    
expla9 :y he calls "o ?+ beautiful &    
ano!r ugly4 ,ev5 ! arti/ & !            
connoisseur1 skill$ to produce or       
accurate 9 judgm5t1 are (t5 want+ 9 cle>
 & consi/5t ideas ab\t _! own works or  
appreciations4 ,"h1 z else:]e1 we meet !

 contra/ betwe5 feel+ & do+1 on ! "o h&1
 & kn[+1 on ! o!r4 ,j z practical m5 are
 frequ5tly unable to describe or ju/ify 
_! mo/ successful me?ods or und]tak+s1 j
 z _m p :o a/oni% u ) _! f95ess & fre$om
 9 ! art ( liv+ are /rangely want+ 9    
cle> ?\ghts ab\t !mselves & ! life :i*  
!y lead s admirably1 s 9 ! _w ( beauty1 
! m5 :o d & appreciate are n always !   
ones :o und]/&4  ,v (t51 moreov]1 !     
arti/ & ! art lov] ju/ify _! inability  
to und]/& beauty on ! gr\nd t beauty is 
too subtle a ?+ = ?\ght4 ,h[1 !y say1 c 
"o hope to di/ill into cle> & /able     
ideas su* a vapor\s & fleet+ matt] z    
,ae/hetic feel+8 ,su* m5 are n only     
unable to ?9k ab\t beauty1 b skeptical z
 to ! possibility ( do+ s1--cont5t$     
my/ics1 deeply feel+1 b dumb4  ,h[ev]1  
!re h always be5 arti/s & connoisseurs  
:o h /riv5 to reflect ^u _!             
appreciations & acts1 unhappy until !y h
 und]/ood & ju/ifi$ :at !y 7 do+2 & "o  
meets ) num]\s art-lov+ p ^:            
intellectual curiosity is r quick5$ ?an 

put to sleep by j t elem5t ( elusiv5ess 
9 beauty ^u :i* ! my/ics dwell4 ,long   
acqua9tance ) any class ( objects leads 
naturally to ! =mation ( "s def9ition or
 g5]al idea ( !m1 & ! repeat$ p]=mance (
 ! same type ( act impels to ! se>* = a 
pr9ciple t c be communicat$ to o!r p 9  
ju/ification ( :at "o is do+ & 9 def5se 
( ! value :i* "o atta*es to x4 ,?\ghtful
 p _c long avoid try+ to =mulate !      
relation ( _! int]e/ 9 beauty1 :i*      
absorbs s mu* en]gy & devotion1 to o!r  
human int]e/s1 to fix its place 9 !     
s*eme ( life4 ,x w\ld be surpris+1      
!re=e1 if !re _h be5 no ,%elleys or     
,sidneys to def9e ! relation betwe5     
poetry & sci5ce1 or ,tol/oys to         
speculate on ! nature ( all art2 & we   
%\ld wond] if we did n ev]y:]e he>      
intellig5t p discuss+ ! relation (      
utility & goodness to beauty1 or ask+   
:at makes a poem or a picture great4    
,n[ ! sci5ce ( ae/hetics is an attempt  
to d 9 a sy/ematic way :at ?\ghtful art 
lov]s h ?us always be5 do+ haphaz>dly4  

,x is an ef=t to obta9 a cle> g5]al idea
 ( beautiful objects1 our judgm5ts ^u   
!m1 & ! motives und]ly+ ! acts :i*      
create !m1--to raise ! ae/hetic life1   
o!rwise a matt] ( in/9ct & feel+1 to !  
level ( intellig5ce1 ( und]/&+4 ,to     
und]/& art means to f9d an idea or      
def9ition :i* applies to x & to no o!r  
activity1 & at ! same "t to det]m9e its 
relation to o!r elem5ts ( human nature2 
& our und]/&+ w be complete if our idea 
includes all ! di/+ui%+ *>act]i/ics (   
art1 n simply enum]at$1 b exhibit$ 9 _! 
a*iev$ relations4  ,h[ %all we proce$ 9 
seek+ su* an idea ( art8 ,we mu/ foll[ a
 tw(old me?od3 fir/1 ! ord9>y sci5tific 
me?od ( obs]vation1 analysis1 &         
exp]im5t2 & second1 ano!r & v diff]5t   
me?od1 :i* p ( ! pres5t day (t5 pr(ess  
to avoid1 b :i* is equally necess>y1 z  
,i %all try to %[1 & actually employ$ by
 ^? :o reject x4 ,9 foll[+ ! fir/ me?od 
we treat beautiful ?+s z objects giv5 to
 u = /udy1 mu* z plants & animals are   
giv5 to ! biologi/4 ,j z ! biologi/     

wat*es ! behavior ( 8 specim5s1 analyzes
 !m into _! v>i\s p>ts & functions1 &   
controls 8 /udies ?r\gh c>efully devis$ 
exp]im5ts1 arriv+ at la/ at a cle>      
notion ( :at a plant or an animal is--at
 a def9ition ( life2 s ! /ud5t (        
ae/hetics obs]ves works ( art & o!r     
well-recogniz$ beautiful ?+s1 analyzes  
_! elem5ts & ! =ms ( connection ( ^!1   
arranges exp]im5ts to facilitate & gu>d 
8 obs]vations f error &1 z a result1    
rea*es ! g5]al idea = :i* he is         
look+1--! idea ( beauty4  ,a va/ mat]ial
 pres5ts itself = /udy ( ?is k9d3 !     
arti/ic attempts ( *ildr5 & primitive   
m52 ! well-develop$ art ( civiliz$      
nations1 pa/ & pres5t1 z creative       
process & z complet$ "w2 & f9ally1 !    
ev]yday ae/hetic appreciations ( nature 
& human life1 bo? by ourselves & by ! p 
:om we seek out = /udy4 ,ea* k9d (      
mat]ial has its special value4 ,! fir/  
has ! advantage ( ! p]spicuity :i* comes
 f simplicity1 simil> = our purposes to 
! value ( ! rudim5t>y =ms ( life = !    

biologi/4 ,b ?is advantage ( e>ly art   
may be ov]e/imat$2 = ! nature ( beauty  
is bett] reveal$ 9 its matur]           
manife/ations1 ev5 z ! purposes ( an    
individual are m fully1 if n m cle>ly1  
embodi$ 9 maturity ?an 9 y\? or         
*ildhood4  ,yet a purely objective me?od
 w n suffice to give u an adequate idea 
( beauty4 ,= beautiful ?+s are creat$ by
 m51 n passively discov]$1 & are made1 l
 o!r ?+s :i* m5 make1 9 ord] to realize 
a purpose4 ,j z a saw is a good saw only
 :5 x fulfills ! purpose ( cutt+ wood1 s
 works ( art are beautiful only because 
!y embody a c]ta9 purpose4 ,! beautiful 
?+s :i* we /udy by ! objective me?od are
 select$ by u f among c\ntless o!r      
objects & call$ beautiful because !y h a
 value = u1 )\t a feel+ = :i* we %\ld n 
"k !m to be beautiful at all4 ,!y are n1
 l sun & moon1 indep5d5t ( m9d & w &    
capable ( be+ und]/ood 9 complete       
isolation f man4 ,no _w ( beauty exi/s  
ap>t f a purpose t f9ds realization !re4
 ,we are1 to be sure1 n always aw>e ( ! 

exi/5ce ( ?is purpose :5 we enjoy a     
picture or a poem or a bit ( l&scape2   
yet x is pres5t none ! less4 ,! *ild is 
equally unaw>e ( ! purpose ( ! food :i* 
pleases him1 yet ! purpose is ! gr\nd ( 
8 pleasure2 & we c und]/& 8 hung] only  
?r\gh a k ( x4  ,! dep5d5ce ( beauty ^u 
a relation to purpose is cle> f ! fact t
 9 our feel+s & judgm5ts ab\t art we n  
only *ange & disagree1 b correct        
ourselves & ea* o!r4 ,! hi/ory ( ta/e1  
bo? 9 ! individual & ! race1 is n a m]e 
process1 b a progress1 an evolution4 ,we
 7 wrong 9 call+ t poem beautiful1 we   
say2 y are mi/ak5 9 ?9k+ t picture a    
good "o2 ! eighte5? c5tury held a false 
view ( ! nature ( poetry2 ! ,engli%     
,pre-,raphaelites confus$ ! functions ( 
poetry & pa9t+2 to-day we und]/& :at !  
truly pictorial is bett] ?an ,giotto    
did2 & s on4 ,n[ no?+ c be ( wor? to u1 
"o ?+ _c be bett] ?an ano!r1 nor c we be
 mi/ak5 z to its value except ) ref]5ce 
to "s purpose :i* x fulfills or does n  
fulfill4 ,!re is no gr[? or evolution   

ap>t f a purpose 9 t]ms ( :i* we c read 
! direction ( *ange z =w>d r ?an        
backw>d4  ,?is purpose _c be und]/ood by
 ! obs]vation & analysis1 no matt] h[   
c>eful1 ( beautiful ?+s2 = x exi/s 9 !  
m9d prim>ily & only ?r\gh m9d becomes   
embodi$ 9 ?+s2 & x _c be und]/ood by a  
m]e inductive /udy ( ae/hetic           
exp]i5ces--! m9d plus ! object--j z !y  
come2 because1 z we h j /at$1 !y are    
*angeful & subject to correction1 !re=e 
unc]ta9 & (t5 mislead+4 ,! ae/hetic     
impulse may falt] & g a/ray l any o!r   
impulse2 a description ( x 9 ?is        
condition w\ld lead to a v false        
conception4 ,no1 we mu/ employ a diff]5t
 me?od ( inve/igation--! ,socratic me?od
 ( self-scrut9y1 ! consci\s attempt to  
become cle> & consi/5t ab\t our own     
purposes1 ! prob+ & /raight5+ ( our     
ae/hetic consci5ces4 ,in/ead ( accept+  
our imm$iate feel+s & judgm5ts1 we %\ld 
become critical t[>ds !m & ask          
ourselves1 ,:at d we really seek 9 art &
 9 life :i*1 :5 f\nd1 we call beautiful8

 ,( c\rse1 9 ord] to answ] ?is "q we _c 
rely on an exam9ation ( our own         
pref]5ces 9 isolation f ^? ( our        
fell[-m54 ,"h1 z ev]y:]e1 our purposes  
are an outgr[? ( ! inh]it$ pa/ & are    
develop$ 9 imitation (1 or 9 rivalry )1 
^? ( o!r m54 ,! problem is "o (         
int]pret+ ! mean+ ( art 9 ! sy/em (     
culture ( :i* our own m9ds are a "p4    
,nev]!less1 ! p]sonal problem rema9s4   
,ae/hetic value is emphatically p]sonal2
 x mu/ be felt z "o's own4 ,if ,i accept
 ! /&>ds ( my race & age1 ,i d s because
 ,i f9d !m to be an expression ( my own 
ae/hetic w4 ,9 ! end1 my own w to beauty
 mu/ be cle>$ up2 its d>kly function+   
goals mu/ be br\ght to light4  ,n[1     
unless we h ?\ght mu* ab\t ! matt] or   
are gift$ ) unusual native ta/e1 we %all
 f9d t our ae/hetic int5tions are       
confus$1 contradictory1 & entangl$ ) o!r
 purposes4 ,to become aw>e ( ?is is !   
fir/ /ep t[>ds enlight5m5t4 ,we mu/ try 
to di/+ui% :at we want ( art f :at we   
want ( o!r ?+s1 su* z sci5ce or         

morality2 = some?+ unique we mu/ desire 
f any?+ ( p]man5t value 9 our life4 ,9 !
 next place we %\ld come to see t we _c 
want incompatible ?+s2 t1 = example1 we 
_c want art to hold ! mirror up to life 
&1 at ! same "t1 to repres5t life z     
con=m+ to our private prejudices2 or    
want a picture to h expressive &        
h>moni\s colors & look exactly l a real 
l&scape2 or long = a poetry t w\ld be   
music or a sculpture t w\ld be          
pictorial4 ,f9ally1 we mu/ make sure t  
our int]pretation ( ! ae/hetic purpose  
is repres5tative ( ! actual fullness &  
manysid$ness ( x2 we %\ld obs]ve1 =     
example1 t s5su\s pleasure is n all t we
 seek f art2 t tru? ( "s k9d we seek    
besides2 & yet t 9 "s sort ( union we   
want bo?4  ,?is cle>+ up c be accompli%$
 only 9 close/ t\* ) ! actual exp]i5ce (
 beauty2 x mu/ be p]=m$ ^u our work+    
pref]5ces & judgm5ts4 ,x mu/ be an      
int]pretation ( ! actual hi/ory ( art4  
,!re is no a priori me?od ( e/abli%+    
ae/hetic /&>ds4 ,j z no "o c discov] 8  

life purpose ap>t f ! process ( liv+1 or
 ! purpose ( ano!r except ?r\gh sympa?y2
 s no "o c "k ! mean+ ( art except ?r\gh
 creat+ & enjoy+ & ent]+ into ! ae/hetic
 life ( o!r arti/s & art lov]s4  ,?is   
s-call$ normative--p]haps bett]1        
critical--mom5t 9 ae/hetics introduces  
an inevitable p]sonal elem5t into e     
discussion ( ! subject4 ,ev5 z e arti/  
seeks to conv9ce 8 public t :at he (f]s 
is beautiful1 s e philosoph] ( art      
und]takes to p]suade ( ! validity ( 8   
own pref]5ces4 ,i w\ld n make any secret
 ( ?is ) reg>d to ! foll[+ pages ( ?is  
book4 ,yet ?is intrusion ( p]sonality   
ne$ n be h>mful1 b may1 on ! contr>y1 be
 valuable4 ,x _c be h>mful if ! writ]   
proce$s undogmatically1 mak+ con/ant    
appeals to ! judgm5t ( 8 read]s & claim+
 no au?ority = 8 /atem5ts except 9 s f> 
z !y f9d favor !re4 ,influ5ce r ?an     
au?ority is :at he %\ld seek4 ,9 pres5t+
 8 views1 z he mu/1 he %\ld /rive to    
/imulate ! read] to make a cle> &       
consi/5t =mulation ( 8 own pref]5ces r  

?an to impose ^u him /&>ds ready made4  
,& ! good ( ! p]sonal elem5t comes f !  
p[] :i* "o /rong pref]5ce or conviction 
has ( call+ =? ano!r1 & compell+ x to ! 
discov]y & def5se ( its gr\nds4  ,9 s f>
 z ae/hetics is /udi$ by ! objective    
me?od x is a bran* ( psy*ology4         
,ae/hetic facts are m5tal facts4 ,a "w (
 art1 no matt] h[ mat]ial x may at fir/ 
seem to be1 exi/s only z p]ceiv$ &      
enjoy$4 ,! m>ble /atue is beautiful only
 :5 x ent]s into & becomes alive 9 !    
exp]i5ce ( ! behold]4 ,keys & /r+s &    
vibrations ( ! air are b /imuli = !     
auditory exp]i5ce :i* is ! real nocturne
 or etude4 ,e!r vibrations & ! ret9a ^u 
:i* !y imp+e are no?+ m ?an in/rum5ts = 
! production ( ! colors :i*1 toge!r ) ! 
int]pretation ( !m 9 t]ms ( ideas &     
feel+s1 con/itute ! real picture :i* we 
appreciate & judge4 ,! physical /imuli &
 ! physiological reactions evok$ by !m  
are important = our purpose only s f> z 
!y help u to und]/& ! inn] exp]i5ces )  
:i* !y are correlat$4 ,a l>ge "p ( our  

"w1 !re=e1 w consi/ 9 ! psy*ological    
analysis ( ! exp]i5ce ( art & ! motives 
und]ly+ its production4 ,we %all h to   
di/+ui% ! elem5ts ( m9d t ent] into x1  
%[ _! int]relations1 & diff]5tiate !    
total exp]i5ce f o!r types ( exp]i5ce4  
,s9ce1 moreov]1 art is a social         
ph5om5on1 we %all h to draw ^u our k (  
social psy*ology to illum9e our analysis
 ( ! individual's exp]i5ce4 ,art is a   
hi/orical1 ev5 a te*nical1 developm5t2  
h5ce ! p]sonal enjoym5t ( beauty itself 
is condition$ by factors t spr+ f !     
traditions ( gr\ps ( arti/s & art lov]s4
 ,no "o c und]/& 8 pleasure 9 beauty    
ap>t f ! pleasure ( o!rs4  ,9 s f>1 on !
 o!r h&1 z ae/hetics is an attempt to   
def9e ! purpose ( art & s to =mulate !  
/&>ds presuppos$ 9 judgm5ts ( ta/e1 x is
 closely relat$ to criticism4 ,!        
relation is ess5tially t betwe5 !ory & !
 application ( !ory4 ,x is ! (fice ( !  
critic to deep5 & diffuse ! appreciation
 ( p>ticul> works ( art4 ,= ?is purpose 
he mu/ possess /&>ds2 b he ne$ n be1 & 9

 fact (t5 is n1 aw>e ( !m4 ,a f9e ta/e  
may s]ve 8 ends4 ,n infrequ5tly1 h[ev]1 
! critic endeavors to make cle> to      
himself & 8 read]s ! pr9ciples he is    
employ+4 ,n[1 on its normative side1    
ae/hetics is ideally ! complete         
rationale ( criticism1 ! sy/ematic      
a*ievem5t1 = its own sake1 ( :at !      
?\ghtful critic attempts ) less         
exactness & = ! direct purpose (        
appreciation4 ,x is beyond ! prov9ce (  
ae/hetics to criticize any p>ticul> "w (
 art1 except by way ( illu/ration4 ,!   
importance ( illu/ration = ! sake (     
expla9+ & prov+ g5]al pr9ciples is1     
h[ev]1 fundam5tal2 =1 z we h se51 a     
valuable ae/hetic !ory is impossible    
unless develop$ out ( ! prim>y ae/hetic 
life ( enjoym5t & e/imation1 a life (   
contact ) individual beautiful ?+s4 ,no 
am\nt ( psy*ological skill 9 analysis or
 philosophical aptitude = def9ition c   
comp5sate = want ( a real love (        
beauty1--( ! possession ( some?+ ( !    
arti/ic temp]am5t4 ,p :o d n love art1  

yet /udy x f ! outside1 may contribute  
to our k ( x ?r\gh isolat$ bits (       
analysis1 b _! int]pretations ( its m   
fundam5tal nature are always sup]ficial4
 ,h5ce1 j z ! wise critic w n neglect   
ae/hetics1 s ! philosoph] ( art %\ld be 
some?+ ( a critic4 ,yet ! division (    
labor is cle> en\gh4 ,! critic devotes  
himself to ! appreciation ( "s special  
contempor>y or hi/orical field (        
art--,%akespe>ean drama1 ,r5aissance    
sculpture1 ,italian pa9t+1 = example2   
:ile ! philosoph] ( art looks = g5]al   
pr9ciples1 & gives att5tion to          
individual works ( art & hi/orical      
movem5ts only = ! purpose ( discov]+ &  
illu/rat+ !m4 ,&1 s9ce ! philosoph] (   
art seeks a univ]sal idea ( art r ?an an
 und]/&+ ( ?is or t p>ticul> "w ( art1  
an intimate acqua9tance ) a few         
examples1 ?r\gh :i* ?is idea c be       
reveal$ to ! lov+ eye1 is ( m importance
 ?an a wide b sup]ficial ae/hetic       
culture4  ,9 our discussion ?us f>1 we h
 be5 assum+ ! possibility ( ae/hetic    

!ory4 ,b :at %all we say 9 answ] to !   
my/ic :o tells u t beauty is indef9able8
 ,fir/ ( all1 ,i ?9k1 we %\ld rem9d him 
t 8 own !sis c be prov$ or refut$ only  
?r\gh an attempt at a sci5tific         
inve/igation ( beauty4 ,e attempt to    
ma/] our exp]i5ce ?r\gh ?\ght is an     
adv5ture2 b ! futility ( adv5tures c be 
%[n only by c\rage\sly ent]+ into !m4   
,&1 al?\gh ! failure ( previ\s ef=ts may
 less5 ! probabilities ( success 9 a new
 ent]prise1 x _c prove t success is     
absolutely impossible4 ,?r\gh great]    
p]si/5ce & bett] me?ods ! new may succe$
 :]e ! old h fail$4 ,moreov]1 al?\gh we 
are ready to grant t ! pa?way to our    
goal is full ( pitfalls1 m>k$ by !      
wreckage ( old !ories1 yet we claim t ! 
skeptic or ! my/ic c "k ( _! exi/5ce    
only by travel+ ov] ! pa?way himself2 = 
9 ! _w ( ! inn] life no?+ c be kn[n by  
he>say4 ,if1 !n1 he w\ld really "k t !  
road to !oretical insight into beauty is
 impassable1 let him travel ) u & see2  
or1 if n ) u1 alone by himself or ) "s  

"o wis] ?an we z guide2 let him comp>e  
fairly & sympa!tically ! results (      
!oretical analysis & con/ruction ) !    
data ( 8 fir/h& exp]i5ce & obs]ve :e!r !
 "o is or is n adequate to ! o!r4       
,aga91 ! cleft betwe5 ?\ght & feel+1 ev5
 subtle & fleet+ ae/hetic feel+1 is n s 
great z ! my/ics suppose4 ,=1 aft] all1 
!re is a recognizable id5tity & p]man5ce
 ev5 9 ^! feel+s2 we %\ld nev] call !m  
by a common "n or greet !m z ! same     
despite _! %ift+s f mom5t to mom5t if   
?is 7 n true4 ,al?\gh :atev] is unique 9
 ea* individual exp]i5ce ( beauty1 its  
di/9ctive flavor or nuance1 _c be       
adequately r5d]$ 9 ?\ght1 b c only be   
felt2 yet :atev] ea* new exp]i5ce has 9 
common ) ! old1 :atev] is univ]sal 9 all
 ae/hetic exp]i5ces1 c be =mulat$4 ,!   
relations ( beauty1 too1 its place 9 !  
:ole ( life1 c be discov]$ by ?\ght     
alone2 = only by ?\ght c we hold on to !
 v>i\s ?+s ^: relations we are seek+ to 
e/abli%2 )\t ?\ght our exp]i5ce falls   
asund] into sep>ate bits & nev] atta9s  

to unity4 ,f9ally1 ! my/ics =get t !    
life ( ?\ght & ! life ( feel+ h a common
 root2 !y are bo? p>ts ( ! "o life ( !  
m9d & s _c be =eign to ea* o!r4  ,!     
motive impell+ to any k9d ( und]tak+ is 
usually complex1 & t :i* leads to !     
developm5t ( ae/hetic !ory is no        
exception to ! g5]al rule4 ,a dis9t]e/$ 
love ( und]/&+ has c]ta9ly play$ a "p4  
,e region ( exp]i5ce invites to ! play (
 intellig5ce ^u x2 ! lov] ( k1 z ,plato 
says1 loves ! :ole ( 8 object4 ,yet ev5 
intellig5ce1 insatiable & imp>tial z x  
is1 has its pr$ilections4 ,! desire to  
und]/& a p>ticul> type ( ?+ has its     
roots 9 an initial love ( x4 ,z ! born  
botani/ is ! man :o f9ds joy 9 contact )
 tree & moss & mu%room1 s ! /ud5t (     
ae/hetics is commonly a lov] ( beauty4  
,&1 al?\gh ! int]e/ :i* he takes 9      
ae/hetic !ory is l>gely j ! pleasure 9  
possess+ cle> ideas1 "o may "q :e!r he  
w\ld pursue x ) su* ardor except = !    
cont9ual lov]'s t\* ) picture & /atue & 
poem :i* x dem&s4 ,= ! intellig5t lov] (

 beauty1 ae/hetic !ory requires no      
ju/ification2 x is z necess>y &         
pleasurable = him to und]/& art z x is  
compulsive = him to seek out beautiful  
?+s to enjoy4 ,to love )\t und]/&+ is1  
to ! ?\ghtful lov]1 an infidelity to 8  
object4 ,t ! int]e/ 9 ae/hetic !ory is  
p>tly root$ 9 feel+ is %[n f ! fact t1  
:5 develop$ by arti/s1 x takes ! =m ( a 
def5se ( ! type ( art :i* !y are        
produc+4 ,! ae/hetic !ory ( ! ,g]man    
,romantici/s is an illu/ration ( ?is2   
,hebbel & ,wagn] are o!r /rik+ examples4
 ,^! m5 c\ld n re/ until !y _h put into 
communicable & p]suasive =m ! ae/hetic  
values :i* !y felt 9 creation4 ,& we1   
too1 :o are n arti/s b only lov]s (     
beauty1 f9d 9 !ory a satisfaction = a   
simil> ne$ ) ref]5ce to our             
pref]5ces4,footnote3 ,comp>e ,santayana3
 ,! ,s5se ( ,beauty1 p4 #aa4  ,m        
important to ! av]age man is ! help :i* 
ae/hetic !ory may r5d] to appreciation  
itself4 ,if to ! basal int]e/ 9 beauty  
be add$ an int]e/ 9 und]/&+ beauty1 !   

=m] is quick5$ & =tifi$ & ! total       
measure ( enjoym5t increas$4 ,ev5 ! love
 ( beauty1 /rong z x commonly is1 may   
well f9d support ?r\gh connection ) an  
equally p[]ful & endur+ affection4 ,!   
ae/hetic int]e/ is no exception to !    
g5]al tru? t ea* "p ( ! m9d ga9s 9      
/ability & int5sity if connect$ ) !     
o!rs2 isolat$1 x runs ! risk ( gradual  
decay 9 satiety or ?r\gh ! cr[d+ out (  
o!r compet+ int]e/s1 :i* if jo9$ ) x1   
w\ld h kept x alive in/ead4 ,moreov]1 ! 
und]/&+ ( art may increase !            
appreciation ( p>ticul> works ( art4 ,= 
! analysis & con/ant att5tion to !      
subtl] details dem&$ by !ory may br+ to 
notice aspects ( a "w ( art :i* d n exi/
 = an un?9k+ appreciation4 ,z a rule1 ! 
appreciations ( ! av]age man are v      
inadequate to ! total possibilities     
(f]$1 ext5d+ only to ! m obvi\s         
features4 ,(t5 en\gh besides1 ?r\gh a   
m]e lack ( und]/&+ ( ! purpose ( art 9  
g5]al & ( ! m special aims ( ! p>ticul> 
arts1 p expect to f9d :at _c be giv51 & 

h5ce are prejudic$ aga9/ :at !y might   
o!rwise enjoy4 ,! foll[+ pages w af=d1  
,i hope1 abundant illu/rations ( ?is    
tru?4  ,f9ally1 ae/hetic !ory may h a   
favorable influ5ce ^u ! creation ( art4 
,n t ! /ud5t ( ae/hetics c prescribe to 
! arti/ :at he %all or %all n d2 = !    
latt] c obey1 = bett] or worse1 only !  
inn] imp]ative ( 8 native g5ius4 ,yet1  
inevitably1 ! man ( g5ius receives      
direction & cultivation f ! ae/hetic    
s5tim5t ( ! "t into :i* he is born &    
gr[n2 ev5 :5 he reacts aga9/ x1 he      
nev]!less feels its influ5ce2 a s\nd    
conception ( ! nature & purpose ( art   
may save him f _m mi/akes4 ,! ,fr5*     
classical tradition 9 sculpture & pa9t+1
 :i* is n m]ely academic1 hav+ become a 
"p ( public ta/e1 prev5t$ ! production (
 ! frightful crudities :i* pass$ = art 9
 ,g]many & ,engl& dur+ ! pres5t & pa/   
c5turies4 ,by help+ to create a fre] & m
 intellig5t atmosph]e = ! arti/ to be   
born & educat$ 91 & f9] dem&s ^u him :5 
once he has begun to produce & is seek+ 

recognition1 ! /ud5t ( ae/hetics may    
indirectly d n a little = him4 ,& surely
 9 our own c\ntry1 :]e an educat$ public
 ta/e does n exi/ & ! fi]ce/ prejudices 
are rampant1 !re is abundant opportunity
 = s]vice4     ,,*apt] ,,ii  ,,def9ition
 ,,( ,,art   ,s9ce x is our purpose to  
develop an adequate idea ( art1 x might 
seem z if a def9ition 7 r our goal ?an  
our />t+ po9t2 yet we mu/ id5tify !     
field ( our inve/igations & m>k x (f f  
o!r regions2 & ?is we c d only by means 
( a prelim9>y def9ition1 :i* ! re/ ( our
 /udy may !n enri* & complete4  ,we %all
 f9d x fruitful to beg9 ) ! def9ition   
rec5tly reviv$ by ,croce3 ,footnote3    
,b5$etto ,croce3 ,e/etica1 translat$    
into ,engli% by ,d\glas ,a9slie1 "u     
title ,ae/hetic1 *ap4 i4 art is         
expression2 & expression we may         
describe1 = our own ends1 z ! putt+ =? (
 purpose1 feel+1 or ?\ght into a s5su\s 
m$ium1 :]e !y c be exp]i5c$ aga9 by ! "o
 :o expresses himself & communicat$ to  
o!rs4 ,?us1 9 ?is s5se1 a lyric poem is 

an expression--a bit ( a poet's intimate
 exp]i5ce put into words2 epic &        
dramatic poetry are expressions--visions
 ( a l>g] life made manife/ 9 ! same    
m$ium4 ,pictures & /atues are also      
expressions2 = !y are embodim5ts 9 color
 & space-=ms ( ! arti/s' ideas ( visible
 nature & man4 ,works ( ar*itecture & ! 
o!r indu/rial arts are embodim5ts (     
purpose & ! well-be+ t comes f purpose  
fulfill$4  ,?is def9ition1 good s f> z x
 goes1 is1 h[ev]1 too inclusive2 =      
pla9ly1 al?\gh e "w ( art is an         
expression1 n e expression is a "w (    
art4 ,automatic expressions1 in/9ctive  
ov]fl[+s ( emotion into motor *annels1 l
 ! cry ( pa9 or ! %\t ( joy1 are n      
ae/hetic4 ,practical expressions also1  
all su* z are only means or in/rum5ts = 
! realization ( ult]ior purposes--!     
comm& ( ! (fic]1 ! conv]sation ( ! m>ket
 place1 a saw--are n ae/hetic4 ,works ( 
art--! ,n9? ,symphony1 ! ,ode to ! ,we/ 
,w9d--are n ( ?is "*4  ,no matt] :at    
fur!r purposes arti/ic expressions may  

s]ve1 !y are produc$ & valu$ = !mselves2
 we l+] 9 !m2 we nei!r m]ely execute !m 
me*anically1 z we d automatic           
expressions1 nor ha/5 ?r\gh !m1 our m9ds
 fix$ ^u "s future end to be ga9$ by !m1
 z is ! case ) practical expressions4   
,bo? = ! arti/ & ! appreciator1 !y are  
ends 9 !mselves4 ,comp>e1 = example1 a  
love poem ) a decl>ation (              
love4,footnote3 ,contra/ ,croce's use ( 
! same illu/ration3 ,e/hetic1 p4 #bb1   
,engli% translation4 ,! poem is e/eem$ =
 ! rhy?mic emotional exp]i5ce x gives ! 
writ] or read]2 ! decl>ation1 ev5 :5    
enjoy$ by ! suitor1 has its prime value 
9 its consequ5ces1 & ! quick] x is ov] &
 done ) & its end atta9$ ! bett]4 ,! "o1
 s9ce x has its purpose )9 itself1 is   
return$ to & repeat$2 ! o!r1 be+ *iefly 
a means to an end1 w\ld be s5seless if  
repeat$1 once ! end t call$ x =? is     
accompli%$4 ,! value ( ! love poem1     
al?\gh writt5 to p]suade a lady1 _c be  
measur$ 9 t]ms ( its m]e success2 = if  
beautiful1 x rema9s ( wor? aft] ! lady  

has yield$1 nay1 ev5 if x fails to w9   
h]4 ,any sort ( practical purpose may be
 "o motive 9 ! creation ( a "w ( art1 b 
its significance is broad] ?an ! success
 or failure ( t motive4 ,! ,russian     
novel is /ill significant1 ev5 n[1 alt] 
! revolution4 ,z beautiful1 x is (      
p]5nial wor? & /&s out by itself4 ,b    
practical expressions are only transi5t 
l9ks 9 ! endless *a9 ( means1 disappe>+ 
z ! :eel ( ef=t revolves4 ,art is inde$ 
expression1 b free or autonom\s         
expression4  ,! fre$om ( ae/hetic       
expression is1 h[ev]1 only an           
int5sification ( a quality t may belong 
to any expression4 ,=1 9 its native "*1 
expression is nev] m]ely practical2 x   
br+s its own rew>d 9 ! pleasure ( !     
activity itself4 ,ord9>ily1 :5 a man    
makes some?+ embody+ 8 ne$ or fancy1 or 
says some?+ t expresses 8 mean+1 he     
enjoys himself 9 8 do+4 ,!re is         
naturally a g5]\s sup]fluity 9 all human
 behavior4 ,! economiz+ ( x to :at is   
necess>y = self-pres]vation & dom9ion   

ov] ! environm5t is second>y1 n prim>y1 
impos$ "u ! duress ( competition &      
nature4 ,only :5 activities are         
difficult or _! fruits h>d to get are !y
 discipl9$ = ! sake ( _! results alone2 
!n only does _! p]=mance become an      
imp]ative1 & nature & society impose ^u 
!m ! s]i\sness & con/ra9t ( necessity & 
law4 ,b :5ev] nature & ! social         
organization supply ! ne$s ( man        
ungrudg+ly or grant him a respite f !   
urg5cy ( bus9ess1 ! spontaneity ( 8     
activities returns4 ,! do+s ( *ildr51 ( 
! ri*1 & ( all m5 on a holiday illu/rate
 ?is4 ,comp>e1 = example1 ! spee* (     
trade1 :]e "o says ! brief & ne$ful ?+  
only1 ) ! talk ( excursioni/s1 :]e v]bal
 expression1 hav+ no end beyond itself1 
develops at l5g? & at leisure2 :]e      
brevity is no virtue & abundant play    
takes ! place ( a n>r[ s]i\sness4  ,b we
 h n yet s limit$ ! field ( expression t
 x becomes equival5t to ! ae/hetic2 = n 
ev5 all ( free expression is art4 ,! mo/
 important div]g5t type is sci5ce4      

,sci5ce also is expression1--an         
embodim5t 9 words1 diagrams1 ma!matical 
symbols1 *emical =mula1 or o!r su* m$ia1
 ( ?\ghts meant to portray ! objects (  
human exp]i5ce4 ,sci5tific expressions  
h1 ( c\rse1 a practical function2       
concepts are plans ( action or s]vants (
 plans1 ! mo/ p]fect & delicate t man   
possesses4 ,yet sci5tific k is an end 9 
itself z well z a utility2 = ! m]e      
con/ruction & possession ( concepts &   
laws is itself a s\rce ( joy2 ! man (   
sci5ce delights 9 mak+ appropriate      
=mulations ( nature's habits q unconc]n$
 ab\t _! possible uses4  ,9 sci5ce1     
!re=e1 !re is mu* free expression2 b    
beauty n yet4 ,no ab/ract expression su*
 z ,euclid's ,elem5ts1 ,newton's        
,pr9cipia1 or ,peano's ,=mulaire1 no    
matt] h[ rigor\s & complete1 is a "w (  
art4 ,we admire ! ma!matician's =mula = 
its simplicity & adequacy2 we take      
delight 9 its cl>ity & scope1 9 ! ease )
 :i* x enables ! m9d to ma/] a ?\s& m   
special tru?s1 b we d n f9d x beautiful4

 ,equally remov$ f ! sph]e ( ! beautiful
 are repres5tations or descriptions (   
m]e ?+s1 :e!r inaccurate or haphaz>d1 z 
we make !m 9 daily life1 or accurate &  
c>eful z !y are elaborat$ 9 ! empirical 
sci5ces4 ,no matt] h[ exact & complete1 
! botani/'s or zoologi/'s descriptions (
 plant & animal life are n works ( art4 
,!y may be satisfactory z k1 b !y are n 
beautiful4 ,!re is an important diff]5ce
 betwe5 a poet's description ( a fl[] & 
a botani/'s1 or betwe5 an arti/ic sket* 
& a photograph1 conf]r+ beauty ^u ! =m]1
 & )hold+ x f ! latt]4  ,! c5tral       
diff]5ce is ?is4 ,! =m] are descriptions
 n ( ?+s only1 b ( ! arti/'s reactions  
to ?+s1 8 mood or emotion 9 _! pres5ce4 
,!y are expressions ( total1 concrete   
exp]i5ces1 :i* include ! self ( ! obs]v]
 z well z ! ?+s he obs]ves4 ,sci5tific  
descriptions1 on ! o!r h&1 r5d] objects 
only2 ! feel+s ( ! obs]v] t[>d !m are   
c>efully exclud$4 ,sci5ce is            
int5tionally objective1--f ! po9t ( view
 ( ! arti/ic temp]am5t1 dry & cold4 ,ev5

 ! reali/ic novel & play1 :ile seek+ to 
pres5t a fai?ful picture ( human life & 
to elim9ate all private comm5t &        
emotion1 _c disp5se ) ! elem5t>y        
dramatic feel+s ( sympa?y1 susp5se1 &   
wond]4 /hetic expression is always      
integral1 embody+ a total /ate ( m9d1 ! 
core ( :i* is "s feel+2 sci5tific       
expression is fragm5t>y or ab/ract1     
limit+ itself to ?\ght4 ,art1 no less   
?an sci5ce1 may conta9 tru?ful images ( 
?+s & ab/ract ideas1 b nev] ^! alone2 x 
always includes _! life1 _! feel+ tones1
 or values4 ,because philosophy admits  
?is elem5t ( p]sonality1 x is ne>] to   
art ?an sci5ce is4 ,yet "s m5 ( sci5ce1 
l ,james & ,huxley1 h made lit]ature out
 ( sci5ce because !y c\ld n help putt+  
into _! writ+s some?+ ( _! passionate   
int]e/ 9 ! ?+s !y discov]$ & describ$4  
,!1 necessity 9 art = ! expression (    
value is1 ,i ?9k1 ! pr9cipal diff]5ce   
betwe5 art & sci5ce1 r ?an1 z ,croce    
,footnote3 ,e/etica1 qu>ta edizione1    
p4#bg2 ,engli% translation4 p4#cf4      

supposes1 ! limitation ( art to !       
expression ( ! individual & ( ,sci5ce to
 ! expression ( ! concept4 ,=1 on ! "o  
h&1 sci5ce may express ! individual2 &1 
on ! o!r h&1 art may express ! concept4 
,! geograph]1 = example1 describes &    
makes maps ( p>ticul> regions ( ! e>?'s 
surface2 ! a/ronom] /udies ! individual 
sun & moon4 ,poets l ,dante1 ,lucretius1
 ,%akespe>e1 & ,goe! express ! mo/      
univ]sal concepts ( e?ics or            
metaphysics4 ,b :at makes m5 poets r ?an
 m5 ( sci5ce is precisely t !y nev]     
limit !mselves to ! m]e cle> /atem5t ( !
 concept1 b always express its human    
significance z well4 ,a !ory ( human    
de/9y is express$ 9 ,prosp]o's l9es--   
,we are su* /uff   ,z dreams are made (1
 & our little life   ,is r\nd$ ) a      
sleep2  b ) ov]tones ( feel+ at ! core4 
,or consid] ! passion ) :i* ,lucretius  
argues = a naturali/ic conception ( !   
univ]se4 ,& ! reason :y poets clo! _!   
philosophical expressions 9 concrete    
images is n because ( any %ame ( !      

concept1 b j 9 ord] ! m easily & vividly
 to atta* & communicate _! emotion4 ,_! 
g5]al pref]5ce = ! concrete has ! same  
motive2 = !re are only a few ab/ractions
 capable ( ar\s+ & fix+ emotion4  ,ev5 z
 an elem5t ( spontaneity is native to   
all expression1 s orig9ally all         
expression is p]sonal4 ,?is is easily   
obs]vable 9 ! *ild4 ,8 fir/ uses ( words
 z well z ( ?+s are t\*$ ) emotion4 ,e  
descriptive "n conveys to him 8         
emotional reaction to ! object2         
dis9t]e/$ k does n exi/ = him2 e tool1 a
 knife or a =k1 means to him n only     
some?+ to be us$1 b ! :ole backgr\nd (  
feel+s :i* its use involves4 ,our fir/  
p]ceptions ( ?+s conta9 z mu* ( feel+ & 
attitude z ( color & %ape & s\nd & odor4
 ,pure sci5ce & m]e indu/ry are         
ab/ractions f ! orig9al integrity (     
p]ception & expression2 mutilations ( _!
 :ol5ess =c$ ^u ! m9d ?r\gh ! /ress (   
liv+4 ,to be able to see ?+s )\t feel+  
!m1 or to describe !m )\t be+ mov$ by _!
 image1 is a discipl9$ & d]ivative      

accompli%m5t4 ,only z ! result ( tra9+ &
 ( ha/e d ! =ms & colors ( objects1 once
 ! /imuli to a wond]+ & l+]+ att5tion1  
become m]e cues to _! recognition &     
employm5t1 or m]e incitem5ts to a cold &
 dis9t]e/$ analysis & description4 ,k   
may !re=e ent] into beauty :51 keep+ its
 lib]ality1 x p>ticipates 9 an emotional
 exp]i5ce2 & e o!r type ( expression may
 become ae/hetic if1 reta9+ its native  
spontaneity1 x c acquire anew its old   
p[] to move ! he>t4 ,to be an arti/     
means to be1 l ! *ild1 free & s5sitive 9
 envisag+ ! _w4  ,"u ^! conditions1     
nature z well z art may be beautiful4 ,9
 !mselves1 ?+s are nev] beautiful4 ,?is 
is n app>5t to common s5se because x    
fails to ?9k & analyze4 ,b beauty may   
belong to our p]ceptions ( ?+s4 ,=      
p]ception is itself a k9d ( expression1 
a process ( m9d ?r\gh :i* mean+s are    
embodi$ 9 s5sations4 ,giv5 are only     
s5sations1 b out ( ! m9d come ideas     
?r\gh :i* !y are int]pret$ z objects4   
,:51 = example1 ,i p]ceive my fri5d1 x  

may seem z if ! man himself 7 a giv5    
object :i* ,i passively receive2 b1 z a 
matt] ( fact1 all t is giv5 are c]ta9   
visual s5sations2 t ^! are my fri5d1 is 
pure int]pretation--,i con/ruct ! object
 9 embody+ ?is ?\ght 9 ! color & %ape ,i
 see4 ,! elaboration ( s5sation 9       
p]ception is usually s rapid t1 ap>t f  
reflection1 ,i d n realize ! m5tal      
activity involv$4 ,b if x turns out t x 
0 "s o!r man t ,i saw1 !n ,i realize at 
once t my p]ception 0 a "w ( m9d1 an    
expression ( my own ?\ght4 ,( c\rse1 n  
all p]ceptions are beautiful4 ,only z   
felt to be my/]i\s or t5d] or maje/ic is
 a l&scape beautiful2 & wom5 only z     
possess$ ( ! *>m we feel 9 _! pres5ce4  
,t is1 p]ceptions are beautiful only :5 
!y embody feel+s4 ,! sea1 cl\ds & hills1
 m5 & wom51 z p]ceiv$1 awak5 reactions  
:i*1 in/ead ( be+ attribut$ to ! m9d f  
:i* !y proce$1 are exp]i5c$ z belong+ to
 ! ?+s evok+ !m1 :i* !re=e come to      
embody !m4 ,& ?is process ( emotional & 
objectify+ p]ception has cle>ly no o!r  

end ?an j p]ception itself4 ,we d n gaze
 ^u a l&scape or a pretty *ild = any o!r
 purpose ?an to get ! p]ceptual1        
emotional values t result4 ,! ae/hetic  
p]ception ( nature is1 z ,kant call$ x1 
dis9t]e/$2 t is1 autonom\s & free4 ,!   
beauty ( nature1 !re=e1 is an           
illu/ration ( our def9ition4  ,on ! same
 t]ms1 life z rememb]$ or obs]v$ or     
liv$1 may h ! quality ( beauty4 ,9      
rev]ie we turn our att5tion back ov]    
ev5ts 9 our own lives t h _h = u a r>e  
emotional significance2 ^! ev5ts !n come
 to embody ! wond]1 ! int]e/1 ! *>m t   
excit$ u to recollect !m4 ,"h ! activity
 ( rememb]+ is n a m]e habit set go+ by 
"s tra9 ( accid5tal association2 or     
m]ely practical1 aris+ = ! sake ( solv+ 
"s pres5t problem by apply+ ! lesson ( !
 pa/ to x2 or f9ally1 n unpleasantly    
insi/5t1 l ! images ar\s$ by worry &    
sorr[1 b spontane\s & self-rew>d+1 h5ce 
beautiful4 ,!re are also ev5ts 9 ! lives
 ( o!r p1 & p !mselves1 ^: lives read l 
a /ory1 :i*1 by absorb+ our pity or joy 

or awe1 claim f u a l fasc9at$ reg>d4 ,&
 !re are actions we ourselves p]=m1     
magnific5t or humble1 l sweep+ a room1  
:i*1 if we put ourselves into !m & enjoy
 !m1 h an equal *>m4 ,& !y too h !      
quality ( beauty4  ,despite ! community 
betwe5 beautiful nature & art1 !        
diff]5ces are /rik+4 ,suppose1 9 ord]   
fix our ideas1 we comp>e "o ( ,monet's  
pictures ( a lily pond ) ! ae/hetic     
appreciation ( ! real pond4 ,! pond is  
und\bt$ly beautiful e "t x is se52 ) its
 r\nd outl9e1 its sunlit1 fl[]-cov]$    
surface1 its backgr\nd ( foliage1 x is  
p]haps ! s\rce & expression ( an unfail+
 gladness & repose4 ,n[ ! pa9t+ has v   
mu* ! same value1 b ) ^! ess5tial       
diff]5ces4 ,fir/1 ! pa9t+ is some?+     
delib]ately con/ruct$ & compos$1 ! arti/
 himself controll+ & compos+ ! colors & 
%apes1 & h5ce _! values also2 :ile !    
natural beauty is an imm$iate reaction  
to giv5 /imuli1 ea* obs]v] giv+ mean+ to
 8 s5sations )\t int5tion or ef=t4 ,l ! 
beauty ( woman1 x is almo/ a matt] (    

in/9ct4 ,9 natural beauty1 !re is1 to be
 sure1 an elem5t ( consci\s int5tion1 9 
s f> z we may purposely select our po9t 
( view & hold ! object 9 our att5tion2  
h5ce ?is contra/ ) art1 al?\gh real &   
important1 is n absolute4 ,moreov]1     
beauty 9 p]ception & memory is ! basis (
 art2 ! arti/1 :ile he composes1        
nev]!less p>tly transcribes significant 
memories & obs]vations4 ,yet1 al?\gh    
relative1 ! diff]5ce rema9s2 art always 
consi/s ( works ( art1 natural beauty ( 
m imm$iate exp]i5ces4 ,& f ?is diff]5ce 
foll[s ano!r--! great] purity &         
p]fection ( art4 ,! control :i* ! arti/ 
ex]ts ov] 8 mat]ial enables him to make 
x expressive all ?r\gh2 e elem5t        
conspires t[>d ! arti/ic end2 !re are no
 irrelevant or recalcitrant p>ts1 su* z 
exi/ 9 e p]ception ( nature4 ,la/1 !    
beauty ( ! pa9t+1 because creat$ 9 !    
behold] ?r\gh a fix$ & p]maneat me*anism
 con/ruct$ by ! arti/1 is communicable &
 abid+1 :]eas ! imm$iate beauty ( nature
 is incommunicable & transi5t4 ,s9ce !  

/hetic p]ception ( nature has its />t+  
po9t 9 v>iable aspects t nev] recur1 no 
o!r man c\ld see or feel ! lily pond z  
,monet saw & felt x4 ,&1 al?\gh 9 memory
 we may possess a sil5t gall]y (        
beautiful images1 into :i* we may ent]  
privately z long z we live1 9 ! end !   
flux has its way & at dea? %att]s ?is   
treasure h\se irrevocably4 ,h5ce1 only  
if ! beauty ( ! lily pond is transf]r$  
to a canvas1 c x be pres]v$ & %>$4  ,!  
"w ( art is ! tool ( ! ae/hetic life4 ,j
 z organic effici5cy is ti$ to ! n]ve & 
muscle ( ! workman & _c be transf]r$ to 
ano!r1 b ! tool1 on ! o!r h&1 is        
ex*angeable & transmissible 7,i _c l5d  
or bequea? my arm1 b ,i c my boat72 & j 
z effici5cy is va/ly increas$ by ! use (
 tools 7,i c g fur!r ) my boat ?an ,i c 
swim72 s1 ?r\gh works ( art1 ae/hetic   
capacity & exp]i5ce are enhanc$ & become
 common possessions1 a "p ( ! spiritual 
capital ( ! race4 ,moreov]1 ev5 z ea*   
inv5tion becomes ! />t+ po9t = new ones 
t are bett] in/rum5ts = practical ends2 

s ea* "w ( art becomes ! basis = new    
exp]im5ts ?r\gh :i* ! ae/hetic          
expression ( life atta9s to high]       
levels4 ,monet's own art1 despite its   
great orig9ality1 0 dep5d5t ^u all !    
impressioni/s1 & !y1 ev5 :5 !y broke    
away f1 7 indebt$ to1 ! traditions (    
,fr5* pa9t+ e/abli%$ by c5turies4 ,?r\gh
 art1 ! ae/hetic life1 :i* o!rwise w\ld 
be a private affair1 receives a social  
sanction & assi/ance4  ,t p]man5ce &    
communication ( expression are ess5tial 
to a complete conception ( art c be     
disc]n$ by look+ )9 ! arti/ic impulse   
itself4 ,h[ev] mu* ! arti/ may affect   
indiff]5ce to ! public1 he creates      
expect+ to be und]/ood4 ,m]e self-      
expression does n satisfy him2 he ne$s 9
 addition appreciation4 ,depriv$ (      
sympa?y1 ! arti/ic impulse )]s & dies or
 supports itself ?r\gh ! hope (         
ev5tually f9d+ x4 ,! h]oism ( ! poet    
consi/s 9 work+ on 9 lonel9ess2 b 8 cr[n
 ( glory is won only :5 all m5 are s++ 8
 songs4 ,& e g5u9e arti/1 z oppos$ to ! 

m]e improvis] or dilettante1 wi%es 8 "w 
to endure4,footnote3 ,see ,anatole      
,france3 ,le ,lys ,r\ge4 ,moi1 dit      
,*\lette1 je p5se si peu a l'av5ir      
t]re/re que j'ai ecrit mes plus beaux   
poemes sur les feuilles de papi] a      
cig>ettes4 ,elles se sont facilem5t     
evanuies1 ne laissant a mes v]s qu'une  
espece d'exi/5ce metaphysique4 ,c'etait 
un air de neglig5ce qu'il se donnait4   
,en fait1 il n'avait jamais p]du une    
ligne de son ecriture4 ,hav+ put 8      
sub/ance into x1 he desires its         
pres]vation z he does 8 own4 ,8         
immortality ?r\gh x is 8 boa/4    ,exegi
 monum5tum a]e p]5nius   ,regalique situ
 pyramidum altius        99       99    
99       99       99   ,non omnis mori>4
  ,art is n m]e inspiration1 ! transi5t 
expression ( private moods1 b a "w (    
communication1 meant to endure4  ,!re   
are c]ta9 di/+ui%+ *>act]i/ics (        
ae/hetic expression all ( :i* are 9     
h>mony ) ! description we h giv5 ( x4 ,9
 ! fir/ place1 9 art ! s5su\s m$ium ( ! 

expression receives an att5tion &       
possesses a significance n to be f\nd 9 
o!r types ( expression4 ,al?\gh e "o    
he>s1 no "o att5ds to ! s\nd ( ! voice 9
 ord9>y conv]sation2 "o looks ?r\gh x1 z
 ?r\gh a glass1 to ! ?\ght or emotion   
beh9d4 ,9 our r\t9e p]ceptions ( nature1
 we are n int]e/$ 9 colors & %apes on _!
 own acc\nt1 b only 9 ord] t we may     
recognize ! objects possess+ !m2 9 a    
sci5tific woodcut also1 !y are indiff]5t
 to u1 except 9 s f> z !y imp>t correct 
in=mation ab\t ! objects portray$4      
,outside ( art1 s5sation is a m]e       
transp>5t means to ! end ( communication
 & recognition4 ,comp>e ! poem1 ! piece 
( music1 ! arti/ic draw+ or pa9t+4 ,!re 
! words or tones mu/ be n only he>d b   
li/5$ to2 ! colors & l9es n only se5 b  
held 9 ! eye2 ( !mselves1 ap>t f any?+  
!y may fur!r mean1 !y h ! p[] to awak5  
feel+ & pleasure4 ,& ?is is no accid5t4 
,= ! ae/hetic expression is meant to    
possess wor? 9 itself & is delib]ately  
fa%ion$ to hold u to itself1 & ?is      

purpose w be m c]ta9ly & effectively    
accompli%$ if ! m$ium ( ! expression has
 ! p[] to move & please4 ,we ent] !     
ae/hetic expression ?r\gh ! s5su\s      
m$ium2 h5ce ! arti/ tries to *>m u at ! 
/>t & on ! outside2 hav+ f\nd favor !re1
 he w9s u ! m easily to ! cont5t ly+ )94
  ,if ! m$ium1 moreov]1 in/ead ( be+ a  
transp>5t embodim5t ( ! arti/'s feel+s1 
c express !m 9 "s direct fa%ion z well1 
! p[] ( ! :ole expression w ga94 ,?is is
 exactly :at ! s\nd ( ! words ( a poem  
or ! colors & l9es ( a pa9t+ or /atue c 
d4 ,z m]e s\nd & z m]e color & l9e1 !y  
convey some?+ ( ! feel+ tone ( ! subject
 :i*1 z symbols1 !y are us$ to repres5t4
 ,= example1 ! s(t fl[+ l9es (          
,correggio1 q ap>t f ! objects !y       
repres5t1 express ! voluptu\s happ9ess (
 8 ,v5us & ,m>s2 ! sl[ rhy?m ( ! repeat$
 ^w s\nds & ! quality ( ! v[els 9 ! op5+
 l9es ( ,ti?onus are expressive 9       
!mselves1 ap>t f _! mean+1 ( ! we>9ess 9
 ! ?\ghts ( ! h]o1 & s s]ve to          
re-express & en=ce ! mood ( ^? ?\ghts4  

,:5 we come to /udy ! p>ticul> arts1 we 
%all f9d ?is ph5om5on ( re-expression   
?r\gh ! m$ium ev]y:]e4  ,a second       
*>act]i/ic di/+ui%+ ae/hetic expressions
 f o!r expressions is _! sup]ior unity4 
,9 ! latt]1 ! unity lies 9 ! purpose to 
be atta9$ or 9 ! cont5t ( ! ?\ght       
express$2 x is teleological or logical4 
,! unity ( a *air is its purpose1 :i*   
dem&s j su* p>ts & 9 j su* a me*anical  
arrangem5t2 ! unity ( a bus9ess         
conv]sation is gov]n$ by ! b>ga9 to be  
clos$1 requir+ su* words & su* only1 & 9
 ! appropriate logical & grammatical    
ord]4 ,! unity ( an argum5t is ! !sis to
 be prov$2 ! unity ( a diagram is !     
pr9ciple to be illu/rat$ or ! in=mation 
to be imp>t$4 ,comp>e ! unity ( a sonnet
 or a pa9t+4 ,9 a sonnet1 !re is a unity
 ( ?\ght & s5tim5t creat+ a fitt+       
grammatical unity 9 language1 b 9       
addition a highly elaborate patt]n 9 !  
words !mselves t is nei!r grammatical   
nor logical4 ,9 a pa9t+1 besides !      
dramatic unity ( ! action portray$1 z 9 

a battle sc5e2 or ( ! spatial &         
me*anical toge!rness ( ?+s1 z 9 a       
l&scape2 !re is a h>mony ( ! colors1 a  
composition ( ! l9es & masses !mselves1 
n to be f\nd 9 nature4 ,&1 al?\gh !     
g5]al %ape & arrangem5t ( ! p>ts ( a    
useful object is dom9at$ by its purpose1
 if x is also beautiful--a ,l\is ,seize 
*air1 = example--!re is1 besides1 a     
design t _c be expla9$ by use4 ,9       
arti/ic expressions1 !re=e1 !re exi/s a 
unity 9 ! mat]ial1 sup]pos$ ^u ! unity  
requir$ by ! purpose or ?\ght express$4 
,& ?is prop]ty foll[s f ! prec$+4 ,=1   
s9ce ! m$ium is valuable 9 itself1 !    
m9d1 :i* craves unity ev]y:]e1 craves x 
!re also1 & l+]s long] & m happily on   
f9d+ x2 &1 s9ce ! m$ium c be expressive1
 ! unity ( ! fundam5tal mood ( ! ?\ght  
express$ w ov]fl[ into & p]vade x4 ,h5ce
 !re occurs an autonom\s developm5t (   
unity 9 ! mat]ial1 rais+ ! total unity (
 ! expression to a high] p[]4           
,,*apt] ,,iii  ,,! ,,intr9sic ,,value   
,,( ,,art   ,our def9ition ( art c be   

complete only if x enables u to und]/& !
 value ( art4 ,! read] may well ask :at 
possible value expression c h :5 x      
becomes an end 9 itself4 ,i c und]/&1 he
 may say1 ! value ( expression = ! sake 
( communication & influ5ce1 b :at value 
c x h ( itself8 ,at ?is po9t1 moreov]1  
we are conc]n$ ) ! intr9sic value       
imm$iately realiz$ 9 ! exp]i5ce ( art1 n
 ) fur!r values t may result f x4 ,art1 
no less ?an practical expression1 may h 
effects on o!r exp]i5ces1 :i* h to be   
consid]$ 9 measur+ its total wor?2 b ^! 
we %all leave = inve/igation 9 our la/  
*apt]s1 aft] we h rea*$ our fulle/      
compreh5sion ( art2 we are int]e/$ n[1 9
 ord] to te/ & complete our def9ition1 9
 ! resid5t value only4 ,z a help t[>d   
rea*+ a satisfactory view1 let u exam9e 
critically "s ( ! *ief !ories 9 ! field4
 ,fir/1 ! !ory1 (t5 call$ h$oni/ic1 t ! 
value ( art consi/s 9 ! satisfactions ( 
s5se :i* ! m$ia ( ae/hetic expression   
af=d--! delight 9 color & s\nd &        
rhy?mical movem5t ( l9e & =m4 ,! !ory   

f9ds support 9 ! indu/rial arts1 :]e    
beauty (t5 seems to be only a luxuri\s  
*>m sup]v5+ ^u utility2 b also 9 pa9t+ &
 sculpture :5 appreciat$ 9 _! decorative
 capacity z ?+s ( beauty4 ,!re is a     
p>tial tru? 9 ?is !ory2 =1 z we h se51 !
 s5su\s m$ia ( all ! arts t5d to be     
develop$ 9 ! direction ( pleasure2 & no 
man :o lacks feel+ = purely s5su\s      
values c ent] into ! fullness ( !       
ae/hetic exp]i5ce4 ,b ! !ory fails 9 n  
recogniz+ ! expressive function (       
s5sation 9 art4 ,z ,goe! said1 art 0    
long =mative1 t is1 expressive1 be=e x 0
 beautiful1 9 ! n>r[ s5se (             
*>m+4,footnote3 ,die kun/ is lange      
bild5d eh sie s*on i/4 ,von ,deuts*]    
,baukun/1 #aggc4 ,9 ord] to be          
beautiful1 x is n en\gh = a "w ( art to 
(f] u delightful colors & l9es & s\nds2 
x mu/ also h a mean+--x mu/ speak to u1 
tell u some?+4  ,! second !ory :i* ,i   
%all exam9e is ! morali/ic or ,platonic4
 ,accord+ to ?is1 art is an image ( !   
good1 & has value 9 s f> z ?r\gh        

expression x enables u to exp]i5ce      
edify+ emotions or to contemplate noble 
objects4 ,! high beauty ( ! ,si/9e      
,madonna1 = example1 w\ld be expla9$ z  
id5tical ) ! wor? ( ! religi\s feel+s   
:i* x causes 9 ! m9d ( ! behold]4 ,!    
advantage ( art ov] life is suppos$ to  
consi/ 9 its p[] to create 9 !          
imag9ation bett] & m inspir+ objects ?an
 life c (f]1 & to free & control !      
contemplation ( !m4 ,?is is ! n>r[]     
int]pretation ( ! !ory4 ,:5 ! notion ( !
 good is lib]aliz$ s z to include       
innoc5t happ9ess z well z ! /rictly     
e?ical & religi\s values1 beauty is     
conc$$ to belong to pictures ( fair wom5
 & *ildr51 & to lyrics & romances1      
provid$ !re is no?+ 9 !m to %ock ! moral
 s5se4 ,ae/hetic value is !             
reflection--! imag9ative equival5t--(   
moral or practical value4  ,! prime     
difficulty ( ?is !ory is its inadequacy 
z an int]pretation ( ! :ole ( actual    
art2 =1 9 ord] to f9d support among     
exi/+ examples1 x is compell$ to make an

 arbitr>y selection ( su* z c be made to
 fit x4 ,actual art is q z mu* an image 
( evil z ( good2 !re is no?+ devili% :i*
 x has n repres5t$4 ,& ?is "p ( art is  
(t5 ( ! highe/ ae/hetic m]it4           
,velasquez's pictures ( dw>fs & deg5]ate
 pr9ces are z arti/ic z ,raphael's      
,madonnas2 ,goe!'s ,mephi/opheles is "o 
( 8 supreme arti/ic a*ievem5ts2         
,%akespe>e is z successful arti/ically 9
 8 del9eation ( ,lady ,macbe? z (       
,desdemona4 ,n[ = u :o claim t ! purpose
 ( art mu/ be div9$ f ! actual practice 
( arti/s1 f ! inside1 & %\ld n be an    
arbitr>y con/ruction1 f ! outside1 !    
exi/5ce ( su* examples is suffici5t to  
refute ! !ory 9 "q4 ,if ! arti/ f9ds a  
value 9 ! repres5tation ( evil1 value   
exi/s !re & c be discov]$4  ,if1 inde$1 
! sole effect ( arti/ic expression 7 to 
br+ to ! m9d objects & emotions 9 ! same
 fa%ion t ord9>y life does1 !n ! value (
 art1 ! image ( life1 w\ld be a function
 ( ! value ( ! life imag$4 ,& j z "o    
seeks contact ) ! good 9 real life &    

avoids ! evil1 s "o w\ld seek 9 art     
imag9ative contact ) ! good alone4 ,b   
expression1 & above all arti/ic         
expression1 does some?+ m ?an pres5t    
objects to ! imag9ation & ar\se         
emotions4 ,art is n life ov] aga91 a m]e
 %ad[ ( life2 if x 71 :at w\ld be its   
unique value8 :o w\ld n pref] ! sub/ance
 to ! %ad[8 ,! expression ( life is n   
life itself2 h5ce1 ev5 if ! evil 9 life 
be always evil1 ! expression ( x may    
/ill be a good4  ,ano!r !ory1 (t5 call$ 
! intellectuali/ic !ory1 claims t !     
purpose ( art is tru?4 ,beauty is tru?2 
tru?1 beauty4 ,! imm$iate pleasure :i*  
we feel 9 ! beautiful is ! same z !     
in/ant delight 9 ! appreh5sion ( tru?4  
,!re is no diff]5ce 9 purpose or value  
betwe5 sci5ce & art1 b only a diff]5ce 9
 me?od--sci5ce pres5ts tru? 9 ! =m ( !  
ab/ract judgm5t2 art1 9 ! =m ( !        
concrete image or example4  ,!          
difficulty ) ?is !ory is ! unc]ta9ty z  
to :at is meant by tru?2 h5ce ! _m %apes
 x assumes4 ,b be=e go+ deeply into ?is 

"q1 let u consid] "s ( ! simple facts   
:i* seem to tell = & aga9/ ! !ory4 ,!re 
c be no d\bt t _m examples ( !          
repres5tative arts--pa9t+1 sculpture1   
novel1 & drama--are prais$ = _! tru?4   
,we dem& tru? ( color+ or l9e 9 pa9t+1 (
 =m 9 sculpture1 ( "* & social relation 
9 ! drama or novel4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we    
admit ae/hetic value to fanciful pa9t+ &
 lit]ature1 & to expressions ( beliefs  
:i* no "o accepts at ! pres5t "t4 ,we   
appreciate ! beauty ( ,dante's          
descriptions ( ! ,inf]no & ( !          
conv]sations betwe5 him & its           
inhabitants )\t believ+ !m to be reports
 ( fact4 ,no "o values ! ,blue ,bird !  
less because x is n an acc\nt ( an      
actual occurr5ce4 ,ev5 ) reg>d to !     
reali/ic novel & drama1 no "o ?9ks (    
hold+ !m to ! /&>ds ( hi/orical or      
sci5tific accuracy4 ,&1 al?\gh we may   
dem& ( a l&scape pa9t+ plausibility (   
color & l9e1 we c]ta9ly d n require t x 
be a repres5tation ( any id5tifiable    
sc5e4  ,if by tru?1 !re=e1 be meant a   

description or image ( matt]s ( fact1 !n
 surely x is n ! purpose ( art to give u
 ?is tru?4 ,! arti/1 to be sure1 may    
give ?is1 z :5 ! l&scapi/ pa9ts "s      
locality de> to 8 cli5t or ! portraiti/ 
pa9ts ! cli5t himself2 b he does n ne$  
to d ?is1 & ! ae/hetic value ( 8 "w is  
indep5d5t ( x2 = ! picture possesses its
 beauty ev5 :5 we "k no?+ ( its model4  
,9 ! language ( curr5t philosophy1 tru? 
9 ! s5se ( ! correspond5ce ( a portrayal
 to an object ext]nal to ! portrayal1 is
 n arti/ic tru?4  ,! p>tisans ( !       
intellectuali/ic !ory w\ld1 ( c\rse1 d5y
 t !y ev] meant tru? ) ?is mean+4 ,we   
mean by tru?1 !y w\ld say1 an embodim5t 
9 s5su\s or imag9ative =m ( "s univ]sal 
pr9ciple ( nature & life4 ,! image may  
be entirely fictiti\s or fanciful1 b s  
long z ! pr9ciple is illu/rat$1 ess5tial
 tru?1 & t is beauty1 is atta9$4 ,b if  
?is 7 s1 e "w ( art w\ld be ! /atem5t ( 
a univ]sal tru?1 z inde$ philosophical  
adh]5ts ( ?is !ory h always             
ma9ta9$--witness ,hegel4 ,yet :at is !  

univ]sal tru? ass]t$ 9 "o ( ,monet's    
pictures ( a lily pond8 ,!re is1 (      
c\rse1 an obs]vance ( ! g5]al laws (    
color & space1 b does ! beauty ( !      
picture consi/ 9 t8 ,does x n atta* to !
 repres5tation ( ! concrete1 individual 
pond8 ,i d n mean t !re may n be beauty 
9 ! expression ( univ]sals2 9 fact1 ,i h
 explicitly ma9ta9$ t !re may1 "u c]ta9 
conditions2 ,i am simply insi/+ t beauty
 may belong to expressions ( !          
individual also1 & t y _c r$uce ^! to   
m]e illu/rations ( univ]sal ideas4      
,because ( its complet5ess & int]nal    
h>mony1 ! philosoph] may f9d ! simple/  
melody a revelation ( ! ,absolute2 b ev5
 if x 71 its beauty w\ld /ill p]ta9 to x
 prim>ily z a revelation ( ! individual 
exp]i5ce :i* x embodies4 ,aga91 by      
reason ( ! fre$om f ! p>ticul>          
conditions out ( :i* x arises acquir$ by
 a "w ( art1 its individual mean+ easily
 becomes typical1 s t x (t5 s]ves z a   
univ]sal "u :i* individuals simil> to ^?
 repres5t$ are subsum$--z :5 we speak ( 

a ,fau/ or a ,hamlet2 nev]!less1 !      
adequate expression ( ! individual is at
 once ! basis ( its beauty & ( its      
ext5d$1 univ]saliz$ significance4 ,x is 
:5 works ( art are pr(\ndly individual t
 we g5]alize _! mean+4 ,9 art !         
individual nev] s9ks to ! position ( a  
m]e specim5 or example ( a univ]sal law4
 ,! intellectuali/ic !ory is p>tly true 
( symbolic art1 b n :olly1 = ev5 !re1 ! 
individuality ( ! symbol c\nts4 ,& yet1 
z we %all see1 !re is ano!r mean+ (     
arti/ic tru?1 :i* is legitimate4        
,ae/hetic value1 !re=e1 is n alone      
s5su\s value or e?ical or sci5tific or  
philosophical value4 ,a "w ( art may    
conta9 "o or all ( ^! values2 b !y d n  
con/itute its unique value z art4 ,!    
=ego+ attempts to def9e ! value ( art   
fail because !y r5\nce ! idea ( unique  
value1 sub/itut+ goodness1 s5su\s       
pleasure1 or tru?-values f\nd outside ( 
art4 ,b ! intr9sic value ( art mu/ be   
unique1 = x is ! value ( a unique       
activity--! free expression ( exp]i5ce 9

 a =m delightful & p]man5t1 m$iat+      
communication4 ,& ?is value we %\ld be  
able to discov] by seek+ ! diff]5ce :i* 
sup]v5es ^u exp]i5ce ?r\gh expression ( 
?is k9d4  ,ap>t f expression1 exp]i5ce  
may be vivid & satisfactory z we feel & 
?9k & dream & act2 yet x is always 9    
flux1 com+ & go+1 %ift+ & unaw>e4 ,b    
?r\gh expression x is arre/$ by be+     
atta*$ to a p]man5t =m1 & !re c be      
reta9$ & survey$4 ,exp]i5ce1 :i* is     
o!rwise flu5t & *aotic1 or :5 ord]ly too
 busy ) its ends to "k itself1 receives 
?r\gh expression ! fix$1 cle> outl9es ( 
a ?+1 & c be contemplat$ l a ?+4 ,e "o  
has v]ifi$ ! cl>ify+ effect ( expression
 ^u ideas1 h[ !y ?us acquire def9it5ess 
& coh]5ce1 s t ev5 ! m9d t ?9ks !m c    
hold !m 9 review4 ,b ?is effect ^u feel+
 is no less sure4 ,! unexpress$ values (
 exp]i5ce are vague /riv+s emb$d$ 9     
*aotic s5sations & images2 ^! expression
 sorts & organizes by atta*+ !m to      
def9ite ord]$ symbols4 ,ev5 :at is mo/  
intimate & fugitive becomes a /able     

object4 ,:5 put into patt]n$ words1 !   
subtle/ & deepe/ passions ( a poet1 :i* 
be=e 7 felt 9 a dim & tangl$ fa%ion1 are
 br\ght out into ! light ( consci\sness4
 ,9 music1 ! mo/ elusive moods1 by be+  
embodi$ 9 ord]$ s\nds1 rema9 no long]   
subt]ranean1 b are objectifi$ & lift$   
into cle>ness4 ,9 ! novel or drama1 !   
writ] is able n only to enact 8 visions 
( life 9 ! imag9ation1 b1 by body+ !m =?
 9 ext]nal words & acts1 to possess !m =
 reflection4 ,9 pa9t+1 all t is se5 &   
wond]$ at 9 nature is se5 ) m delicacy &
 discrim9ation & felt ) great] fre$om2  
or ! vague fancies :i* a heat$          
imag9ation pa9ts ^u ! backgr\nd ( ! m9d 
come out m vivid & bett] controll$1 :5  
put ) c>e ^u a canvas4  ,ev5 ord9>y     
expression1 ( c\rse1 arre/s & cl>ifies  
exp]i5ce1 enabl+ u to commune )         
ourselves2 b s9ce its purpose is usually
 beyond itself1 ?is result is ha/y &    
p>tial1 limit$ to :at is ne$ful = !     
practical end 9 view4 ,9 art alone is   
?is value complete4 ,= !re1 life is     

int5tionally held 9 ! m$ium (           
expression1 put out into color & l9e &  
s\nd = ! cle> sight & contemplation (   
m54 ,! aim is j to create life ^u :i* we
 may turn back & reflect4  ,?is effect (
 arti/ic expression ^u exp]i5ce has     
usually be5 call$ intuition4 ,because ( 
its connotation ( my/]i\s k1 intuition  
is n a :olly satisfactory ^w1 yet is    
probably z good z any = ! purpose (     
d5ot+ :at arti/s & philosoph]s ( art h  
_h 9 m9d & :at we h be5 try+ to         
describe4 ,o!r t]ms might also          
s]ve--vision1 sympa!tic insight         
7sympa!tic1 because x includes ! value (
 exp]i5ce2 insight1 because x involves  
possess+ exp]i5ce z a :ole & ord]$1 & z 
an object = reflection74 ,intuition is  
oppos$1 on ! "o h&1 to crude unreflect+ 
exp]i5ce t nev] obs]ves itself z a :ole 
or atta9s to cle>ness & self-possession2
 &1 on ! o!r h&1 to sci5ce1 :i* gives ! 
elem5ts & relations ( an exp]i5ce1 !    
classes to :i* x belongs1 b loses its   
uniqu5ess & its values4 ,sci5ce         

elaborates concepts ( ?+s1 gives u k    
ab\t ?+s2 art pres5ts u ) ! exp]i5ce (  
?+s purifi$ = contemplation4 ,sci5tific 
tru? is ! fidelity ( a description to ! 
ext]nal objects ( exp]i5ce2 arti/ic tru?
 is sympa!tic vision--! organization    
into cle>ness ( exp]i5ce itself4        
,comp>e1 = illu/ration1 life z we live x
 f day to day ) our del9eation ( x z we 
recall x & tell x to an intimate        
companion2 & !n comp>e t ) ! analysis & 
classification ( x :i* "s psy*ologi/ or 
sociologi/ might make4 ,or comp>e ! k9d 
( k ( human nature t we get f ,%akespe>e
 or ,moli]e ) ! sort t we get f !       
sci5ces4 ,9 ! "o case1 k att5ds a       
p]sonal acqua9tance ) ! exp]i5ce1 a br++
 ( x home1 a feel+ = its values1 a      
realization ( ! inn] necessity ( its    
elem5ts2 9 ! o!r1 x is a m]e set (      
concepts4 ,or f9ally1 comp>e ! k ( !    
human figure conta9$ 9 an anatomi/'s    
manual ) a pa9t+ ( x1 :]e we n only see 
x1 b 9 ! imag9ation t\* x & move ) x1 9 
%ort live ) x4  ,intuition is ! effect (

 arti/ic appreciation no less ?an (     
arti/ic creation4 ,if ! arti/'s         
expression ( 8 feel+s & ideas results 9 
intuition1 our appreciation ( 8 "w mu/ h
 ! same value1 = appreciation is        
expression transf]r$ f ! arti/ to !     
spectator4 ,by means ( ! colors1 l9es1  
words1 tones t he makes1 ! arti/        
det]m9es 9 u a process ( expression     
simil> to 84 ,out ( our own m9ds we put 
into ! s5se-symbols he has wov5 ideas & 
feel+s :i* provide ! cont5t & mean+ he  
int5ds4 ,h5ce all ae/hetic appreciation 
is self-expression4 ,?is is evid5t 9 !  
case ( ! m lyrical types ( art4 ,! lyric
 poem is appreciat$ by u z an expression
 ( our own inn] life2 music z an        
expression ( our own slumb]\s or        
subconsci\s moods4 ,yet ev5 ! m         
objective types ( art1 l ! novel or !   
drama1 become =ms ( self-expression1 =  
we h to build up ! worlds :i* !y conta9 
9 our own imag9ation & emotion4 ,we h to
 live ourselves out 9 !m2 we c und]/& !m
 only 9 t]ms ( our own life4  ,9 !      

appreciation ( ! m objective types (    
art1 ! p]sonality express$ is n1 (      
c\rse1 ! actual p]sonality2 b r ! self  
ext5d$ & exp&$ ?r\gh ! imag9ation4 ,!   
?+s :i* ,i seem to see & enjoy 9 !      
l&scape picture ,i may h nev] really    
se52 ,i may h nev] really mov$ ?r\gh !  
op5 pla9 !re1 z ,i seem to move1 t[>d ! 
m\nta9 9 ! di/ance4 ,! acts describ$ 9 !
 novel or portray$ on ! /age ,i d n     
really p]=m2 ! op9ions utt]$ by ! p]sons
 ,i d n hold4 ,& yet1 9 ord] to         
appreciate ! picture1 x mu/ be z if ,i  
really saw ! m\nta9 & mov$ t[>ds x2 9   
ord] to appreciate ! novel or ! play1 ,i
 mu/ make ! acts & op9ions m9e4 ,& ?is  
,i c d2 =1 z x is a commonplace to note1
 ea* "o ( u has )9 him capacities (     
action & emotion & ?\ght unrealiz$--!   
actual self is only "o ( _m t might h   
be5--hundr$s ( possible lives slumb] 9  
our s\ls4 ,& no matt] :i* ( ^! lives we 
h *os5 = our own1 or h _h =c$ ^u u by   
our fate1 we always reta9 a secret long+
 = all ! o!rs t h gone unfulfill$1 & an 

und]/&+ born ( long+4 ,"s ( ^! we imag9e
 di/9ctly--^? t we consci\sly reject$ or
 t a turn ( *ance might h made ours2 b  
mo/ ( !m we ourselves h n ! p[] ev5 to  
dream4 ,yet ^! too beckon u f beh9d1 & !
 arti/ provides u ) _! dream4 ,?r\gh art
 we secure an imag9ative realization (  
int]e/s & lat5t t5d5cies to act & ?9k & 
feel :i*1 because !y are contradictory  
among !mselves or at v>iance ) !        
conditions ( our exi/5ce1 _c f9d free   
play )9 our exp]i5ce4 ,t same sort (    
imag9ative enl>g$ expression ( self t we
 get vic>i\sly by p>ticipat+ 9 ! life ( 
our fri5ds we get also f art4,footnote3 
,comp>e ,santayana3 ,! ,s5se ( ,beauty1 
p4 #ahf4  ,yet 9 appreciation1 z 9      
creation1 expression results 9          
intuition4 ,appreciation is no m]e      
imag9+1 transitory & lawless l a        
daydream4 ,! activity ( ! imag9ation is 
s organiz$ 9 a p]man5t & p]spicu\s =m t 
we n only live x1 b possess x z an      
object4 ,! activities engag$ 9 build+ up
 ! "w ( art 9 my own m9d are n ! :ole ( 

me2 judgm5t rema9s free to wat* &       
syn!size ^? t are be+ cry/alliz$ !re4 ,9
 look+ at a portrait1 = example1 !      
process ( int]pret+ ! life repres5t$ is 
ancill>y to a total judgm5t ( "*4 ,9 !  
novel or drama1 no matt] ) :at ab&on ,i 
put myself into ! p]sons & situations1 !
 expression ( !m 9 outw>d words & acts1 
& ! organization :i* ! arti/ has impos$ 
^u !m1 makes ( !m p]man5t objects =     
reflection1 n m]e modes ( feel+ & imag9+
 to endure4 ,self-expression t does n   
atta9 to objectivity is incomplete z    
art4 ,ev5 music & lyric poetry are      
some?+ m ?an m]e feel+4 ,9 all g5u9e    
art1 exp]i5ce takes on p]man5ce & =m--a 
syn!sis1 a total mean+1 sup]v5es )9 !   
flux ( impressions & ideas & moods1 n   
exclud+1 b embrac+ & controll+ !m4 ,t is
 intuition4  ,! insight into exp]i5ce   
:i* art provides is ! m valuable because
 x is communicable2 to possess x alone  
w\ld be a good1 b to %>e x is bett]4    
,all values become enhanc$ :5 we add to 
!m ! joy ( fell[ feel+4 ,! univ]sality (

 ae/hetic expression c>ries ) x !       
univ]sality ( ae/hetic insight4 ,m]ely  
private & unutt]able inspirations are n 
art4 ,beauty does = life :at sci5ce does
 = intellig5ce2 ev5 z ! "o univ]salizes 
?\ght1 s ! o!r univ]salizes values4 ,9  
express+ himself1 ! arti/ creates a =m  
into :i* all simil> exp]i5ces c be p\r$ 
& out ( :i* !y c all be %>$4 ,:51 =     
example1 we li/5 to ! hymns ( ! *ur* or 
read ! poems ( ,horace1 ! significance (
 our exp]i5ce is magnifi$ because we f9d
 ! feel+s ( millions !re2 we are 9      
unison ) a va/ company liv+ & dead4 ,no 
?+ ( beauty is a private possession4    
,all arti/s fe$ on "o ano!r & into ea*  
exp]i5ce ( art has gone ! m9d-"w ( !    
ages4  ,b !re are two types (           
univ]sality1 "o by exclusion1 ! o!r by  
inclusion4 ,communi/s l ,tol/oy dem& t  
art express only ^? feel+s t are already
 common1 ! religi\s & moral2 !y w\ld    
exclude all values t h n become ^? ( !  
race4 ,b ?is is to dim9i% ! importance (
 art2 = x is art's privilege to make    

feel+s common by provid+ a m$ium ?r\gh  
:i* !y c be communicat$ r ?an m]ely to  
express !m aft] !y h become common4     
,und]/&+ is m valuable :5 x encompasses 
! ?+s t t5d to sep>ate & di/+ui% m5 ?an 
:5 x is limit$ to ! ?+s t unite !m4 ,!re
 is no?+ s biz>re t art may n express x1
 provid$ x be communicable4  ,! life ( !
 imag9ation1 :i* is ! life ( art1 is1   
moreov]1 ! only life t we c h 9 common4 
,%>+ life c nev] mean any?+ else ?an    
possess+ ! life ( "o ano!r              
sympa!tically4 ,actually to lead ano!r's
 life w\ld involve possess+ 8 body1     
occupy+ 8 position1 do+ 8 "w1 & s       
de/roy+ him4 ,b ?r\gh ! sympa!tic       
imag9ation we c p5etrate 8 life & leave 
him 9 possession4 ,to d ?is ?or\ghly is 
possible1 h[ev]1 only ) ! life ( a v few
 p1 ) intimates & fri5ds4 ,) ! mass1 we 
c %>e only ideal ?+s l religion or      
patriotism1 b ^! also are matt]s (      
imag9ation4 ,n[ art enl>ges ! scope (   
?is common life by creat+ a new imag9>y 
_w to :i* we c all belong1 :]e action1  

enjoym5t1 & exp]i5ce d n involve        
competition or dep5d on possession &    
ma/]y4  ,f9ally1 ! intuitions t art     
provides are relatively p]man5t4 ,art n 
only ext5ds life & enables u to %>e x1 b
 also pres]ves x4 ,exi/5ce has a leak 9 
x1 z ,plato said2 exp]i5ce fl[s 9 & !n  
fl[s out =ev]4 ,! individual passes f "o
 act to ano!r1 f "o phase ( life to     
ano!r1 *ildhood1 !n y\?1 !n old age4 ,s 
! race2 "o g5]ation foll[s ano!r1 & ea* 
type ( civilization displaces a         
pr$ecessor4 ,aga9/ ?is flux1 our belief 
9 progress com=ts u2 maturity is bett]  
?an y\?1 we ?9k1 & ea* g5]ation happi] &
 m spiritual ?an ! la/4 ,yet !          
consolations ( progress are p>tial4 ,=  
ev5 if we always d g on to some?+ bett] 
9 ! future1 ! pa/ _h its unique value1 &
 t is lo/ ineluctably4 ,! pres5t        
d\btless repeats mu* ( ! =m ( ! pa/--!  
ess5tial aspects ( human nature rema9 ! 
same2 b ! subtle1 di/9ctive bloom ( ea* 
/age ( p]sonal life1 & ( ea* p]iod ( !  
_w's hi/ory1 is transi5t4 ,we _c aga9   

become *ildr51 nor c we possess aga9 !  
/r5u\s fre$om ( ! ,r5aissance or !      
uncl\d$ integrity ( p]sonality ( !      
,greeks4  ,9 ! life ( ! individual1     
h[ev]1 ! flux is n absolute2 = ?r\gh    
memory we pres]ve some?+ ( ! unique     
value ( our pa/4 ,its vividness1 its    
fullness1 ! %>p bite ( its reality g2 b 
a subtiliz$ ess5ce rema9s4 ,& ! wor? t  
we atta* to our p]sonality dep5ds l>gely
 ^u x2 = ! in/9ct ( self- pres]vation   
p5etrates ! inn] _w2 we /rive n only to 
ma9ta9 our physical exi/5ce 9 ! pres5t1 
b our psy*ic pa/ z well4 ,9 cons]v+ !   
values ( ! pa/ ?r\gh memory we f9d a    
satisfaction ak9 to t ( protect+ our    
lives f dang]4 ,?r\gh memory we feel    
*ildhood's joys & y\?'s sweet love &    
manhood's triumphs /ill our own1 secure 
aga9/ ! p]ils ( oblivion4  ,n[ art does 
= ! race :at memory does = ! individual4
 ,only ?r\gh expression c ! pa/ be      
pres]v$ = all m5 & all "t4 ,:5 !        
individual p]i%es1 8 memories g ) him2  
unless1 !re=e1 he puts !m into a =m :]e 

!y c be tak5 up into ! consci\sness (   
o!r m51 !y are lo/ =ev]4 ,& j z !       
individual seeks a vic>i\s              
self-pres]vation ?r\gh id5tify+ himself 
) 8 *ildr5 & 8 race1 & f9ds comp5sation 
= 8 own dea? 9 _! cont9uance1 s he      
rejoices :5 he kn[s t m5 :o come aft] w 
appreciate ! values ( 8 life4 ,we ( !   
pres5t feel ourselves enri*$1 9 turn1 z 
by a long] memory1 9 add+ to ! active   
values ( our own lives ! rememb]$ values
 ( ! pa/4 ,_! desire to "k !mselves     
immortal is met by our desire to unite  
our lives ) all our pa/4 ,art alone     
makes ?is possible4 ,hi/ory may tell u  
:at m5 did1 b only ! poet or o!r arti/ c
 make u relive ! values ( _! exp]i5ce4  
,= ?r\gh expression !y make _! memories1
 or _! int]pretations ( o!r m5's        
memories1 ours4 ,art is ! memory ( !    
race1 ! cons]v] ( its values4  ,!       
di/+ui%+ *>act]i/ics ( ae/hetic         
expression obs]v$ by u--! pleasurabl5ess
 ( ! m$ium1 ! enhanc$ unity--s]ve       
intuition z t has be5 describ$ by u4 ,"o

 ( ! /ronge/ objections aga9/ ! !ory (  
art z intuition1 z t !ory has be5       
develop$ by ,croce1 = example1 is t x   
provides no place = *>m4 ,yet )\t *>m   
!re is no complete beauty1 & any        
int]pretation ( ! facts ( ! ae/hetic    
exp]i5ce :i* neglects ?is elem5t is     
surely inadequate4 ,b *>m al?\gh an     
indisp5sable1 is n an indep5d5t1 factor 
9 ! exp]i5ce ( art2 = x s]ves intuition4
 ,x does s 9 two ways4 ,! *>m ( ! m$ium1
 by draw+ att5tion to itself1 increases 
! objectivity ( ! exp]i5ce express$4    
,ev5 :5 ! exp]i5ces felt into color &   
l9e & s\nd are poignantly our own1 to   
live pleasantly 9 any "o ( ^! s5sations 
is to live z an object to oneself1 !    
life %>+ ! ext]nality ( ! m$ium--we put 
our life out !re m readily :5 x is      
pleasant !re4 ,& ! *>m ( ! m$ium s]ves  
intuition 9 ano!r way4 ,:5 ! activities 
( ?\ght & feel+ & imag9ation releas$ by 
! "w ( art are delightful1 !y become m  
delightful /ill if ! m$ium 9 :i* !y     
function is itself delightful4 ,to      

imag9e    ,*>m'd magic casem5ts1 op5+ on
 ! foam   ,( p]il\s seas1 9 fairy l&s   
=lorn  is a pleasure by itself1 b m     
pleasurable1 & !re=e m spontane\s1      
because ( ! melody ( s\nd 9 :i* x is    
envelop$4 ,& :5 ! activities express$   
are n pleasant1 ! expression ( !m 9 a   
delightful m$ium helps to induce u to   
make !m our own & accept !m not)/&+4 ,! 
m$ium becomes a *>m+ net to hold u1 &   
because ( its allurem5ts we give        
ourselves ! m freely to its _s )94 ,!   
foll[+1 = example1 is n an agreeable    
?\ght3    ,to-morr[1 & to-morr[1 &      
to-morr[1   ,creeps 9 ?is petty pace f  
day to day1   ,to ! la/ syllable (      
record$ "t2   ,& all our ye/]days h     
light$ fools   ,! way to du/y dea?4     
,yet ! expression ( ?is ?\ght is        
pleasant1 among o!r reasons1 because ( !
 rhy?mic *>m ( language4 ,we %all come  
back to ?is fact 9 our *apt] on ,!      
,problem ( ,evil 9 ,ae/hetics4 ,!re is  
no contradiction betwe5 ! fair =m ( a "w
 ( art & its cont5t1 h[ev] repell5t4 ,= 

if we value ! sympa!tic k ( life1 we    
%all be glad ( any means impell+ u to   
und]take :at alone c give ?is--a fri5dly
 dwell+ ) life itself4 ,?us ! decorative
 & ! expressive functions ( art are     
reconcil$--pleasure & intuition meet4   
,j z f "t to "t pleasure 9 s5sation has 
be5 "o-sid$ly ?\ght to be ! purpose (   
art1 s likewise ! unity *>act]i/ic (    
beautiful ?+s4 ,inde$1 beauty & ord] h  
become almo/ synonym\s 9 popul> ?\ght4  
,&1 to be sure1 ?is unity1 z we h       
already rem>k$1 has its own value2 ! m9d
 delights 9 ord] j = its own sake1 & !  
arti/1 :o is b5t on mak+ some?+ wor?ful 
on its own acc\nt1 /rives to develop x =
 t reason4 ,& yet unity is no m         
indep5d5t ( expression & intuition ?an  
s5sation is2 x too ent]s into _! s]vice4
 ,_m =ms ( unity 9 works ( art are      
!mselves m$ia ( expression--! simple/ & 
mo/ /rik+ example is p]haps ! rhy?mical 
ord]+ ( s\nds 9 poetry & music1 !       
emotional value ( :i* ev]ybody          
appreciates4 ,9 a lat] *apt]1 ,i %all   

try to %[ t ! same is true ( h>mony &   
balance4 ,9 ano!r way1 also1 unity s]ves
 intuition4 ,= ! exi/5ce ( ord] 9 an    
exp]i5ce is indisp5sable to t :ol5ess ( 
view1 t ma/]y 9 ! m9d1 :i* is half (    
intuition4 ,! m]ely v>i\s1 ! *aotic1 !  
disorganiz$1 _c be grasp$ or und]/ood4  
,9 ord] t an exp]i5ce may be und]/ood1  
its items mu/ be /rung toge!r by "s     
pr9ciple 9 t]ms ( :i* !y may dem& ea*   
o!r & con/itute a :ole4 ,organization is
 und]/&+4 ,e "w ( art1 e beautiful ?+1  
is organiz$1 &1 z we h obs]v$1 organiz$ 
n m]ely 9 ! ?\ght or o!r mean+ express$1
 b ?r\gh\t1 9 ! s5su\s m$ium z well4  ,s
 f> ! value :i* we h discov]$ 9 arti/ic 
expression has be5 t ( delightful &     
ord]ly sympa!tic vision4 ,?is is        
supplem5t$ f /ill ano!r s\rce ( value4  
,?r\gh arti/ic expression p5t-up        
emotions f9d a welcome release4 ,no     
matt] h[ poignant be ! exp]i5ce         
express$1 ! weight1 ! /+ ( x disappe>s  
?r\gh expression4 ,= ?r\gh expression1 z
 we h se51 ! exp]i5ce is drawn f ! d>k  

dep?s ( ! self to ! cle> & ord]ly       
surface ( ! "w ( art2 ! emotions t      
weigh$ are lift$ out & up into color &  
l9e & s\nd1 :]e ! m9d c view & ma/] !m4 
,m]e life gives place to ! contemplation
 ( life2 & contemplation imposes on life
 "s ( ! calm t is its own4 ,! mo/ viol5t
 & unruly passions may be ! mat]ial (   
art1 b once !y are put into arti/ic =m  
!y are ma/]$ & ref9$4 ,!re is an art (  
passion1 b no passionate art 7,s*ill]74 
,?r\gh expression1 ! repression1 !      
ob/ruction ( feel+ is brok5 d[n2 ! m]e  
ef=t to f9d & elaborate a fitt+ arti/ic 
=m = ! mat]ial div]ts ! att5tion &      
provides o!r occupation = ! m9d2 an     
opportunity is giv5 to reflect ^u &     
und]/& ! exp]i5ce1 br++ x someh[ into   
h>mony ) "o's total life1--?r\gh all ^! 
means procur+ relief4 ,x is impossible  
to cite ! fam\s passage f ,goe!'s       
,poetry & ,tru? too (t53--    ,& ?us    
began t b5t ( m9d f :i* ,i c\ld n       
deviate my :ole life ?r\gh2 namely1 t ( 
turn+ into   an image1 into a poem1     

ev]y?+ t delight$ or tr\bl$   me1 or    
o!rwise occupi$ my att5tion1 & ( com+ to
   "s c]ta9 und]/&+ ) myself !reupon4444
   ,all ! works !re=e t h be5 publi%$ by
 me are   only fragm5ts ( "o great      
confession4  ,footnote3 ,engli%         
translation1 edit$ by ,p>ke ,godw91     
,vol4 ,i1 p4#ff4  ,?is effect ( arti/ic 
expression belongs1 ( c\rse1 to o!r =ms 
( expression4 ,e confession1 e          
confid5tial outp\r+ ( emotion1 is an    
example4 ,we h all v]ifi$ ! tru? t to   
=mulate feel+ is to be free ) ref]5ce to
 x2 n t we !reby get rid ( x1 b t we are
 able to look x 9 ! face1 & f9d "s place
 = x 9 our _w :]e we c live on good t]ms
 ) x4 ,! greate/ difficulty 9 be>+ ) any
 disappo9tm5t or sorr[ comes n f ! ?+   
itself--= aft] all we h o!r ?+s to live 
=--b f its effect ^u ! presuppositions1 
s to speak1 ( our entire exi/5ce4 ,! m9d
 has an unconsci\s set ( axioms or      
po/ulates :i* x assumes 9 ! process (   
liv+2 n[ any?+ t seems to contradict ^!1
 z a great calamity does1 by de/roy+ !  

logic ( life1 makes exi/5ce seem        
mean+less & corrupts t fai? 9 life :i*  
is ! spr+ ( action4 ,9 ord] = ! heal? ( 
! m9d to be re/or$1 ! contradictory fact
 mu/ be someh[ reconcil$ ) ! m9d's      
presuppositions1 & ! rationality (      
exi/5ce reaffirm$4 ,b an indisp5sable   
prelim9>y to ?is is t we %\ld cle>ly    
envisage & reflect ^u ! fact1 view+ x 9 
its l>g] relations1 :]e x w lose its    
ov]:elm+ significance4 ,n[ t is :at     
expression1 by /abiliz+ & cl>ify+       
exp]i5ce1 enables u to d4  ,a great _m  
works ( art besides ,goe!'s1 n m]ely (  
lyric poetry1 b also ( ! novel & drama1 
among !m "s ( ! greate/1 l ! ,div9e     
,com$y1 s f> z !y spr+ intimately f !   
life ( ! arti/1 are fragm5ts ( a great  
confession1 & h _h ! sanit>y value ( a  
confession = _! creators4 ,x is n always
 possible to trace ! p]sonal feel+s &   
motives ly+ beh9d ! arti/'s fictions2 = 
! suff]+ s\l cov]s its pa9s ) subtle    
disguises2 yet ev5 :5 we d n "k !m1 we c
 div9e !m4 ,we are c]ta91 = example1 t  

,watteau's gay pictur$ visions 7 !      
projection--& confession--( 8 own       
disappo9t$ dreams4 ,! great advantage ( 
art ov] ord9>y expression1 9 ?is        
respect1 is its univ]sality4 ,art is !  
confessional ( ! race4 ,! arti/ provides
 a m$ium ?r\gh :i* all m5 c confess     
!mselves & heal _! s\ls4 ,9 mak+ !      
arti/'s expression ours1 we f9d an equal
 relief4 ,:o does n feel a revival ( "s 
old or pres5t despair ( 8 own :5 he     
reads3--    ,un gr& sommeil noir        
,tombe sur ma vie2   ,dormez t\te       
espoir1   ,dormez t\te envie6    ,je ne 
vois plus ri51   ,je p]ds la memoire    
,du mal et du bi54444   ,oh1 la tri/e   
hi/oire6  yet :o does n at ! same "t    
exp]i5ce its assuagem5t8 ,& ?is effect  
is n conf9$ to lyrical art1 = s f> z1 9 
novel & drama1 we put ourselves 9 !     
place ( ! dramatis p]sona1 we c p\r our 
own emotional exp]i5ces into !m & ?r\gh 
!m f9d relief = ourselves4 ,j s1        
,ari/otle recogniz$ ! ca?>tic or heal+  
influ5ce ( art1 bo? 9 music & !         

drama--?r\gh pity & fe> effect+ ! prop] 
purgation ( ^! emotions4 ,footnote3     
,poetics1 #f1 #b4 ,politics1 #e1 #g4  ,!
 delightsom5ess ( ! "w ( art & its      
self-suffici5t fre$om1 /&+ 9 contra/ ) !
 drab or difficult realities ( nature & 
p]sonal /riv+1 s]ve also to make (      
beauty a consol] & heal]4 ,9 place ( a  
confus$ m$ley ( s5se impressions1 art   
(f]s ord]ly & pleasant colors or s\nds2 
in/ead ( a real life ( duties h>d to    
fulfill & ambitions pa9fully accompli%$1
 art provides an imag9$ life :i*1 :ile  
imitat+ & ?us pres]v+ ! int]e/ ( real   
life1 rema9s free f its haz>ds & burd5s4
 ,i w\ld n base ! value ( art on !      
contra/ betwe5 art & life2 yet x is     
unlikely1 ,i ?9k1 if life 7 n s b\nd &  
disord]$1 t art w\ld seem s free &      
p]fect2 & x is (t5 true t ^? :o suff] & 
/ruggle mo/ love art be/4 ,! unity ( !  
"w ( art1 9 :i* ea* elem5t sugge/s ano!r
 )9 its _w1 keep+ y !re & %utt+ y out   
mom5t>ily f ! real _w to :i* y mu/      
pres5tly return1 & ! s5su\s *>m ( !     

m$ium1 fasc9at+ y\r eyes & e>s1 br+     
=getfulness & a tempor>y release4  ,to  
sum ! results ( ! la/ two *apt]s4 ,art  
is expression1 n ( m]e ?+s or ideas1 b (
 concrete exp]i5ce ) its values1 & = its
 own sake4 ,x is exp]i5ce held 9 a      
delightful1 highly organiz$ s5su\s      
m$ium1 & objectifi$ !re = communication 
& reflection4 ,its value is 9 !         
sympa!tic ma/]y & pres]vation ( life 9 !
 m9d4     ,,*apt] ,,iv  ,,! ,,analysis  
,,( ,,! ,,ae/hetic ,,exp]i5ce3 ,,!      
,,elem5ts ,,( ,,! ,,exp]i5ce   ,?us f>  
we h s\ght to def9e art1 to =m a        
concrete idea ( ! exp]i5ce ( art1 & to  
place x 9 its relations to o!r facts4   
,we %all n[ pass f syn!tic def9ition to 
psy*ological analysis4 ,we want to pick 
out ! elem5ts ( m9d ent]+ into !        
exp]i5ce ( art & exhibit _! *>act]i/ic  
relations4 ,9 ! pres5t *apt] we %all    
conc]n ourselves *iefly ) ! elem5ts1    
leav+ ! /udy ( mo/ ( ! problems (       
/ructure to ! foll[+ *apt]4  ,e exp]i5ce
 ( art ,footnote3 ,?r\gh\t ?is          

discussion1 ,i use exp]i5ce ( art1      
ae/hetic exp]i5ce1 & beauty ) ! same    
mean+4 conta9s1 9 ! fir/ place1 !       
s5sations :i* are ! m$ia ( expression4  
,9 a pa9t+1 = example1 !re are colors2 9
 a piece ( music1 tones2 9 a poem1      
^w-s\nds4 ,to ?is mat]ial1 secondly1 are
 atta*$ vague feel+s4 ,x is *>act]i/ic (
 ae/hetic expressions1 z we h obs]v$1 t 
_! m$ia1 q ap>t f any?+ t !y may mean or
 repres5t1 are expressive ( moods--!    
colors ( a pa9t+ h a /immung1 s h tones 
& words1 :5 rhy?mically compos$4 ,!     
simple/ ae/hetic exp]i5ces1 l ! beauty (
 s+le musical tones or colors1 are ( no 
great] complexity2 yet almo/ all works (
 art conta9 fur!r elem5ts2 = z a rule ! 
s5sations d n exi/ = _! own sakes alone1
 b possess a function1 to repres5t ?+s4 
,! colors ( a l&scape pa9t+ are n only  
int]e/+ to u z beautiful colors1 b z    
symbols ( a l&scape2 ! words ( a ballad 
*>m & /imulate u n only ?r\gh _! music1 
b because ( actions or ev5ts :i* !y br+ 
be=e ! m9d4 ,?is involves1              

psy*ologically speak+1 t c]ta9 ideas--( 
trees & cl\ds 9 ! pa9t+1 ( m5 & _! de$s 
9 ! poem--are associat$ to ! s5se       
elem5ts & con/itute _! mean+4 ,su* ideas
 or mean+s are ! ?ird class ( elem5ts 9 
! ae/hetic exp]i5ce4 ,b ^! ideas1 9 _!  
turn1 also ar\se emotions1 only n ( !   
indef9ite sort :i* belong to ! s5se     
elem5ts1 b def9ite1 l ! emotions ar\s$  
by ?+s & ev5ts 9 real life4 ,= example1 
,rembr&t's ,man ) ! ,gold ,helmet w n   
only move u 9 a vague way ?r\gh ! "* &  
rhy?m ( its l9es & colors1 b w1 9       
addition1 /imulate s5tim5ts ( respect & 
v5]ation1 simil> to ^? t we %\ld feel if
 ! old w>rior 7 himself be=e u4 ,9 su*  
def9ite feel+s we h1 !n1 a f\r? class ( 
m5tal elem5ts4 ,a fif? class w make our 
li/ complete4 ,x consi/s ( images f !   
v>i\s s5se dep>tm5ts--sight1 he>+1 ta/e1
 smell1 temp]ature1 movem5t--:i* arise 9
 connection ) ! ideas or mean+s1 mak+ !m
 concrete & full4 ,= example1 "s ( !    
colors 9 a l&scape pa9t+ w n only give u
 ! idea t !re is sunlight !re1 b w also 

ar\se fa9t images ( w>m?1 :i* w make !  
idea m vivid2 o!r colors1 repres5t+ !   
cl\ds1 w produce fa9t s5sations (       
s(tness2 /ill o!rs1 repres5t+ fl[]s1 may
 produce fa9t odors4  ,let u /udy       
s5sation z an elem5t 9 beauty1 fir/4    
,s5sation is ! door ?r\gh :i* we ent]   
into ! exp]i5ce ( beauty2 &1 aga91 x is 
! f\ndation ^u :i* ! :ole /ructure re/s4
 ,)\t feel+ = ! values ( s5sation1 m5   
may be sympa!tic & intellig5t1 b !y _c  
be lov]s ( ! beautiful4 ,!y may1 =      
example1 appreciate ! pr(\nd or int]e/+ 
ideas 9 poetry1 b unless !y c connect !m
 ) ! rhy?m-values ( ! s\nds ( ! words1  
!y h only an intellectual or emotional1 
n an ae/hetic exp]i5ce4  ,yet1 despite !
 omnipres5ce & supreme wor? ( s5sation 9
 beauty1 n all k9ds are equally fit =   
entrance into ! exp]i5ce4 ,f ! "t (     
,plato1 :o writes ( fair sights & s\nds 
only1 vision & he>+ h be5 recogniz$ z ! 
preem95tly ae/hetic s5ses4 ,^! s5ses    
provide ! basis = all ! arts--music &   
poetry are arts ( s\nd2 pa9t+1          

sculpture1 & ar*itecture are arts (     
vision4 ,& !re are good reasons = _!    
special fitness4 ,mo/ cog5t ( all is !  
fact t vision & he>+ are ! natural m$ia 
( expression2 s\nds1 be !y words or     
musical tones1 convey ?\ghts & feel+s2 s
 d visual s5sations--! facial expression
 or ge/ure se5 communicates ! inn] life 
( ! speak]2 & ev5 ab/ract colors &      
space-=ms1 l r$ & ! circle1 h indep5d5t 
feel+-tones4 ,a ta/e or a temp]ature    
s5sation may be pleasant or unpleasant1 
b has no mean+1 ei!r by itself1 z a     
color or a tone has1 or ?r\gh           
association1 z a ^w has4 ,x has no      
connection ) ! life ( feel+ or ( ?\ght4 
,its *ief significance is               
practical--sweet invites to eat+1 cold  
impels to ! seek+ ( a w>m %elt]1 t\* is 
a prelim9>y to grasp+4 ,all ! s-call$   
l[] s5ses are b\nd up ) in/9cts &       
actions4 ,( c\rse sights & s\nds h also 
a significance = in/9ct--! color & =m & 
voice ( ! individual ( ! opposite sex1 =
 example4 ,b1 be=e act+ on ! prompt+ (  

in/9ct1 ! lov] may pause & enjoy !      
appeal+ color & =m2 he may connect 8    
feel+s ) !m & hold on to & delight 9 !  
result+ exp]i5ce--an emotional          
appreciation ( ! object may int]v5e     
betwe5 ! /imulus & ! appropriate action1
 & ev5 supplant x4 ,9 ?is way1 vision & 
he>+ may free !mselves f ! m]ely        
practical & become autonom\s embodim5ts 
( feel+4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ! se5 or he>d
 object & ! body is important4 ,!       
objects ( t\* & ta/e1 on ! o!r h&1 h to 
be br\ght into contact ) ! body2 !      
practical reaction !n foll[s2 !re is no 
"t dur+ :i* x may be susp5d$4           
,important also1 especially = ! beauty (
 art1 is our great] p[] to control      
s5sations ( vision & he>+4 ,only colors 
& s\nds c be wov5 into complex & /able  
:oles4 ,ta/es & odors1 :5 produc$       
simultane\sly or 9 succession1 d n keep 
_! di/9ctness z colors & s\nds d1 b blur
 & int]f]e ) ea* o!r4 ,no "o1 h[ev]     
+5i\s1 c\ld con/ruct a symphony ( odors 
or a picture ( ta/es4 ,nev]!less1 !     

possibility ( controll+ colors & s\nds &
 ( creat+ /able & public objects out (  
!m1 is only a second>y reason = _!      
ae/hetic fitness4 ,ev5 if "o c\ld       
con/ruct in/rum5ts = ! ord]ly production
 ( ta/es & odors--& simple in/rum5ts (  
?is k9d h be5 devis$--"o c\ld n make    
works ( art out ( !m2 = a succession (  
su* s5sations w\ld express no?+2 !y w\ld
 /ill be utt]ly )\t mean+4 ,! fundam5tal
 reason = ! sup]iority ( sights & s\nds 
is _! expressiv5ess1 _! connection ) !  
life ( feel+ & ?\ght4 ,!y take root 9 ! 
total self2 :]eas ! o!r elem5ts rema91 =
 ! mo/ "p1 on ! surface4  ,"u favorable 
conditions1 h[ev]1 all s5sations may    
ent] into ! /hetic exp]i5ce4 ,despite ! 
close connection betwe5 ! l[] s5ses & ! 
impulses s]v+ practical life1 !re is a  
c]ta9 dis9t]e/$ness 9 all pleasant      
s5sations4 ,f9e w9es & p]fumes (f] ta/es
 & odors :i* are s\ght & enjoy$ ap>t f !
 satisfaction ( hung]2 9 danc+1 movem5t 
s5sations are enjoy$ = _! own sake2 9 ! 
ba?1 heat & cold4 ,b1 z we h se51 x is n

 suffici5t = a s5sation to be free f    
practical ends 9 ord] to become         
ae/hetic2 x mu/ be connect$ ) ! l>g]    
backgr\nd ( feel+2 x mu/ be expressive4 
,n[1 "u c]ta9 circum/ances & 9 p>ticul> 
cases1 ?is may occur1 ev5 9 ! in/ance ( 
! l[] s5ses4 ,! p]fume ( fl[]s1 ( roses 
& ( violets1 has a /rong emotional      
appeal2 x is _! s\l z ! poets say4 ,!   
odor ( inc5se 9 a ca!dral may be an     
important elem5t 9 devotion1 fus+ ) !   
music & ! ar*itecture4 ,or recall ! odor
 ( wet e>? & reviv+ vegetation dur+ a   
walk 9 ! woods on a spr+ morn+4 ,ev5    
s5sations ( ta/e may become ae/hetic4   
,an (t-cit$ example is ! ta/e ( w9e on a
 ,rh9e /eam]4 ,guyau1 ! ,fr5*           
poet-philosoph]1 m5tions ! ta/e ( milk  
aft] a h>d climb 9 ! ,pyr5ees4          
,footnote3 ,les ,problemes de           
l'e/hetique contempora9e1 #hme edition1 
p4 #fc4 ,a dr9k ( wat] f a cle> spr+    
w\ld s]ve equally well z an example     
famili> to all4 ,! w>m? ( a fire1 (     
sunlight1 ( a cozy room1 or ! cold ( a  

/>-lit w9t] night h an emotional        
significance almo/1 if n q1 equal to t (
 ! visual s5sations f ^! objects4 ,t\*  
seems to be irretrievably b\nd up )     
grasp+ & us+1 b ! t\* ( a well-lov$     
p]son may be a free & gl[+ exp]i5ce1 %>+
 ) sight 9 beauty4 ,! movem5t s5sations 
dur+ a run 9 ! op5 air or 9 danc+ are n 
only free f all practical purpose1 b are
 elem5ts 9 ! total animation4 ,& o!r    
examples w come to ! m9d ( e read]4     
,footnote3 ,comp>e ,volkelt3 ,sy/em d]  
,ae/hetik1 ,bd4 ,i1 ,zweites ,capitel1  
,s4 #ib4  ,z our illu/rations %[1 ! l[] 
s5ses ent] into ! beauty ( nature only2 
!y d n ent] into ! beauty ( art4 ,_!    
beauty is !re=e vague & accid5tal4 ,x   
usually dep5ds1 moreov]1 ^u "s support f
 vision1 ) ! beauty ( :i* x fuses4 ,ap>t
 f ! picturesque surr\nd+s se51 ! m\nta9
 milk & ! ,rh9e w9e w\ld lose mu* ( _!  
beauty2 ! w>m? ( sunlight or ( fire1 )\t
 ! brightness ( ^! objects1 ! odor (    
fl[]s )\t _! =m & color1 w\ld be ( small
 ae/hetic wor?4 ,?r\gh connection )     

vision ! l[] s5ses acquire some?+ ( its 
p]man5ce & indep5d5ce4 ,p diff] greatly 
9 _! capacity to r5d] ! l[] s5ses       
ae/hetic2 x is ess5tially a matt] (     
ref9em5t1 ( p[] to free !m f _! natural 
root 9 ! practical & in/9ctive1 & lift  
!m into ! high] region ( s5tim5t4 ,b e  
k9d ( s5sation1 h[ev] l[1 may become    
beautiful2 ?is is n to degrade beauty1 b
 to ennoble s5sation4  ,f a psy*ological
 /&po9t1 s5sation is ! datum ( !        
ae/hetic exp]i5ce1 ! fir/ ?+ !re1 :ile  
its p[] to express dep5ds ^u a fur!r    
process :i* l9ks x up ) ?\ghts & feel+s4
 ,we mu/ inquire1 !re=e1 h[ ?is l9kage  
takes place--h[1 = example1 x comes ab\t
 t ! colors ( a pa9t+ are some?+ m ?an  
m]e colors1 be+1 9 addition1 embodim5ts 
( trees & sky & foliage1 & ( livel9ess &
 gayety & o!r feel+s appropriate to a   
spr+ l&scape4 ,let u consid] ! l9kage ) 
feel+ fir/4  ,!re are two *>act]i/ics ( 
ae/hetic feel+ 9 its relation to        
s5sations & ideas :i* mu/ be tak5 into  
acc\nt 9 any explanation2 its           

objectification 9 !m & ! univ]sality (  
?is connection4 ,expression is          
embodim5t4 ,we f9d gayety 9 ! colors ( !
 pa9t+1 joy 9 ! musical tones1 happ9ess 
9 ! pictur$ face1 t5d]ness 9 ! sculptur$
 pose4 ,we he> ! feel+ 9 ! s\nds & see x
 9 ! l9es & colors4 ,! happ9ess seems to
 belong to ! face1 ! joy to ! tones1 9 !
 same simple & direct fa%ion z ! %ape ( 
! "o or ! pit* ( ! o!rs4 ,! feel+s h    
become true attributes4 ,x is only by   
analysis t we pick !m out1 sep>ate !m f 
! o!r elem5ts ( idea or s5sation 9 !    
:ole1 & !n1 = ! purpose ( sci5tific     
explanation1 inquire h[ !y came to be   
connect$4 ,& ?is connection is n "o t   
dep5ds ^u ! accid5ts ( p]sonal exp]i5ce4
 ,x is n1 = example1 l ! emotional      
significance t ! s\nd ( ! voice ( ! lov$
 "o has = ! lov]1 :i* ev5 he may "s day 
cease to feel1 & :i* o!r m5 d n feel at 
all4 ,x is r typifi$ by ! emotional     
value ( a melody1 :i*1 ?r\gh            
psy*ological processes common to all m51
 becomes a univ]sal language ( feel+4 ,!

 "w ( art is a communicable1 n a private
 expression4  ,z we h obs]v$1 ! elem5ts 
( feel+ 9 ! ae/hetic exp]i5ce are ( two 
broad k9ds--ei!r vague1 :5 directly l9k$
 ) ! s5su\s m$ium1 or else def9ite1 :5  
?is l9kage is m$iat$ by ideas ?r\gh :i* 
! m$ium is giv5 cont5t & mean+4 ,! =m]  
k9d1 :i* ,i %all consid] fir/1 comprises
 all cases ( ! emotional expressiv5ess (
 ! m$ium itself1--( tones & ^w-s\nds &  
_! rhy?ms & patt]ns1 ( colors & l9es &  
space-=ms & _! designs4 ,! detail$ /udy 
( ?is expressiv5ess ,i %all leave to !  
*apt]s on ! arts2 "h ,i wi% m]ely to    
indicate ! k9d ( psy*ological process   
involv$4  ,9 _m cases ! psy*ological    
pr9ciple ( association op]ates4 ,! t5d] 
expressiv5ess ( c]ta9 curv$ l9es1 l ^? (
 ! ,greek amphora1 = example1 is due1   
p>tially at lea/1 to association ) l9es 
( ! human body1 ) :i* normally ?is feel+
 is associat$4 ,! associat$ object1     
toge!r ) its feel+ tone1 are suffici5tly
 common to ! exp]i5ce ( all m5 to acc\nt
 = ! univ]sality ( ! emotion1 & !       

isolation ( ! /imulus--ab/ract l9e--f   
its usual context ( color & bulk acc\nts
 = ! vagu5ess4 ,sometimes1 on ! o!r h&1 
expressiv5ess seems to be due to a      
direct psy*ological relation betwe5 !   
s5se-/imulus & ! emotion4 ,?is is almo/ 
c]ta9ly ! case ) rhy?ms1 &1 z ,i %all   
argue 9 ! *apt]s on pa9t+ & music1 is at
 lea/ p>tially true ( colors & tones4 ,!
 expressiv5ess is at once too imm$iate &
 too univ]sal to dep5d ^u association ) 
def9ite ?+s & ev5ts1 or p]sonal1        
emotional crises4 ,a rhy?m1 = example1  
may be excit+ ! fir/ "t x is he>d2 "o   
does n h to wait to he> x at a          
battle-*>ge2 a melody may be sad ev5 :5 
"o has nev] he>d x sung by *ance at     
p>t+4 ,( c\rse ! fact t associations are
 n rememb]$ is no pro( t !y d n op]ate2 
b x is difficult to conceive ( any :i*  
c\ld op]ate 9 ^! cases4 ,= ?is reason1  
,i ?9k1 we mu/ suppose t c]ta9          
s5se-/imuli & comb9ations ( /imuli n    
only produce 9 ! s5sory areas ( ! bra9 !
 appropriate s5sations1 b t _! effects  

are prolong$1 ov]fl[+ into ! motor      
*annels & !re caus+ a total reaction ( !
 organism1 ! consci\s aspect ( :i* is a 
vague feel+4 ,! organic resonance is too
 slight & diffuse to produce a true     
emotion2 h5ce only a mood results4  ,9  
all ! repres5tative arts ! vague        
expressiv5ess ( ! m$ium is re9=c$ ?r\gh 
emotions ar\s$ by ideas :i* int]pret    
s5sation z an elem5t ( a ?+4 ,! gre5 9 !
 pa9t+ is n only gre51 b gre5 ( ! sea2 !
 r$ is n only r$1 b r$ ( ! sky2 ! curv$ 
l9e is n a m]e curve1 x is ! outl9e ( a 
wave4 ,! totality ( colors & l9es is n a
 m]e color & l9e composition1 b a m>9e  
l&scape4 ,! feel+ tones ( ! elem5ts (   
?is complex & ( ! complex itself are n  
only ^? ( ! colors & l9es z su*1 b ( !  
int]pretative ideas z well2 :i* 9 turn  
are ! same z ^? ( ! correspond+ real    
?+s4 ,! psy*ological process is "h      
simple en\gh4 ,! feel+ tone ( ! sea is  
c>ri$ by ! idea ( ! sea1 :i* n[ fuses ) 
! gre5 color & wavy l9es ( ! pa9t+4  ,b 
9 ord] fully to expla9 ! ph5om5a (      

ae/hetic expression1 x is n suffici5t to
 %[ h[ ! connection betwe5 feel+ &      
s5sation & idea takes place2 x is       
necess>y1 9 addition1 to expla9 ! nature
 ( ?is connection4 ,! feel+ is n        
exp]i5c$ by u z :at x is--our reaction  
to ! s5sations or repres5t$ objects--b r
 z an objective quality ( !m4 ,! s\nds  
are sad1 ! curve t5d]1 ! sea placid &   
reposeful4 ,:y is ?is8  ,! explanation  
is1 ,i ?9k1 z foll[s4 ,despite _! usual 
subjectivity1 feel+s t5d to be locat$ 9 
! objective _w :5ev] !y are 9 conflict )
 or n directly root$ 9 ! p]sonal life or
 "* ( ! individual4 ,9 li/5+ to music1 =
 example1 feel+s ( despair & t]ror may  
be ar\s$ 9 me :o am p]haps secure &     
happy2 & ev5 if ! feel+s are joy\s1 !y  
are n occasion$ by any piece ( p]sonal  
good =tune--my situation 9 life is !    
same n[ z be=e4 ,h5ce1 f9d+ no lodgm5t 9
 ! ego1 & hav+ to exi/ some:]e1 !y seek 
a domicile 9 ! s\nds evok+ !m4 ,&1 9    
g5]al1 works ( art ar\se b (f] no       
p]sonal occasions = feel+1 & !re=e      

absorb x into !mselves4  ,! process (   
objectification may1 h[ev]1 g fur!r4 ,x 
(t5 happ5s 9 ! ae/hetic exp]i5ce t      
feel+s are n objectifi$ alone1 b c>ry ) 
!m ! idea ( ! self--,i come to feel     
myself z joy\s or despair+ 9 ! s\nds4 ,!
 ext5t to :i* ! idea ( ! self ?us foll[s
 ! objectifi$ feel+s dep5ds l>gely ^u ! 
am\nt ( _! rev]b]ation ?r\gh\t !        
organism4 ,:5 ?is is small1 & ! feel+s  
are vague & t5u\s1 z 9 color            
appreciation1 !re is little or no       
def9ite projection ( ! idea ( ! self2   
:51 on ! o!r h&1 x is l>ge & ! emotions 
are /rong1 z (t5times 9 music1 :]e      
brea?+1 circulation1 h& & foot are      
affect$1 !n ,i myself seem to be        
!re1--/riv+1 pursu+1 /ruggl+1 9 ! s\nds4
 ,i am :]e my body is4 ,! projection ( !
 idea ( ! self is facilitat$ = ! same   
reason :5 ! body is actually employ$ 9 !
 creation ( ! "w ( art1 z 9 s++ & act+4 
,x also occurs m readily :5 ! life      
express$ 9 ! "w ( art is ak9 to !       
spectator's4 ,?us1 an emotional &       

sugge/ible woman1 9 wat*+ a f9e p]=mance
 ( ,magda1 inevitably puts h]self 9 !   
place ( ! h]o9e if %e has h]self liv$   
?r\gh a simil> exp]i5ce4 ,b :5 ! life   
express$ is /rik+ly =eign to our own1 ! 
projection ( ! idea ( self is m         
difficult2 ! duality betwe5 subject &   
object t5ds to rema94  ,^! ph5om5a h    
excit$ special att5tion :51 z 9 pa9t+ & 
sculpture & ! drama1 a human be+ is     
repres5t$4 ,suppose1 = example1 ,i see a
 /atue ( a runn] ready to />t4 ,i n only
 see ! =m & color ( ! m>ble & recognize 
!m z a man's2 ,i also feel emotions (   
excitem5t1 t5sion1 & expectation su* z  
,i %\ld myself feel 7 ,i too pos$ &     
wait+ to run a race4 ,& ^! emotions ,i  
exp]i5ce z ! man's1 & z 81 n 9 a vague  
way1 b z def9itely pres5t 9 8 sculptur$ 
=m1 ev5 9 p>ticul> p>ts ( x1--9 ! swell+
 *e/ & tight5$ limbs4 ,or consid] ano!r 
case4 ,suppose ,i see ,franz ,hals'     
,laugh+ ,cavali]4 ,i feel jollity 9 !   
face1 z ! cavali]'s4 ,yet 9 bo? cases ,i
 may feel ! emotions z also my own--z if

 ,i too 7 ab\t to run or 7 laugh+4 ,& ! 
projection ( ! idea ( ! self w occur mo/
 readily if ,i am myself a runn] or a   
jolly p]son4 ,9 bo? in/ances1 moreov]1 !
 process w be m$iat$ by impulses to     
movem5ts t are ! normal accompanim5ts ( 
! emotions 9 "q4 ,if ,i obs]ve myself   
c>efully1 ,i may f9d t my own *e/ is    
t5d+ to swell & my own limbs to tight51 
9 imitation ( ! runn]'s1 or my own      
pupils to dilate & ! muscles ( my face  
to wr9kle & to "p1 9 imitation ( !      
,dut*man's4 ,& ^! movem5t-impulses ,i   
objectify4 ,i n only see jollity 9 !    
face1 b laught] z well2 9 ! /atue1 n    
only excitem5t1 b runn+4 ,& aga9--:]e my
 body is1 !re am ,i2 s ,i am jolly ) !  
cavali] & excit$ ) ! runn]4 ,! psy*ology
 ( ?is process is simple en\gh4 ,9 my   
exp]i5ce !re is a pla9 connection betwe5
 ! sight ( a movem5t & s5sations        
att5dant ^u movem5t1 & fur!r1 a         
connection betwe5 "s ( ^! movem5ts1     
namely1 ! expressive movem5ts1 & !      
emotions :i* !y express4 ,9 accordance )

 ! law ( association by contiguity1     
:5ev] any "o ( sev]al m5tal elem5ts     
usually connect$ toge!r is pres5t 9 !   
m9d1 ! o!rs t5d to arise also4 ,s "h4   
,see+ ! semblance ( tight muscles & a   
smil+ face1 ,i feel ! emotions :i* h ^! 
visual associates1 exp]i5ce ! correlat$ 
movem5t-s5sations1 project !m all into !
 object :i* initiat$ ! process4  ,9     
rec5t ye>s1 a great deal has be5 made ( 
^! movem5t-s5sations 9 expla9+ ae/hetic 
feel+4 ,footnote3 ,see ! discussions 9  
,lee & ,?ompson3 ,beauty & ,ugl9ess4    
,yet 9 ! case ( all p :o are n /rongly (
 ! motor type1 p 9 ^: m5tal make-up     
movem5t plays a m9or "p 9 comp>ison )   
vision & o!r s5sations1 !y play a       
second>y role1 or ev5 h>dly any role at 
all4 ,mo/ spectators1 inde$1 in/ead (   
actually mak+ slight movem5ts imitative 
( ! movem5ts se5 or repres5t$1 &        
exp]i5c+ ! correspond+ s5sations1 make  
no movem5ts at all & simply exp]i5ce    
movem5t images2 ?is sub/itution ( image 
= movem5t probably occurs 9 ! m9ds ( all

 except ! mo/ imitative4 ,mo/ p1 ev5 ( !
 motor type1 d n smile :5 !y see !      
,laugh+ ,cavali] or />t to run :5 !y see
 ! /atue ( ! runn]2 c>eful obs]vation ( 
!mselves w\ld disclose only fa9t movem5t
 images :i* seem to play ab\t _! lips or
 limbs--m]e images ( movem5t h supplant$
 movem5ts4 ,& _m visuali/s w\ld n f9d   
any images at all4 ,h[ev]1 al?\gh !     
mi/ake has be5 committ$ by "s           
inve/igators ( suppos+ t ev]ybody       
exp]i5ces movem5t because !y !mselves1  
be+ ( ! motor type1 d1 x _c be d5i$1 ,i 
?9k1 t su* p atta9 to a vividness (     
ae/hetic liv+ n rea*$ by o!rs4 ,!y      
appreciate beauty ) _! bodies z well z )
 _! s\ls4 ,& 9 _! case too1 z has be5   
%[n1 ae/hetic appreciation is m /rongly 
hi/rionic--!y n only put !mselves into !
 "w ( art1 b ! idea ( !mselves z well4  
,foll[+ ! ,g]man s*ool ( e9fuehlung1 ,i 
h insi/$ ?r\gh\t ?is discussion on !    
importance ( feel+ 9 ! ae/hetic         
exp]i5ce2 yet ,i d n ?9k ! voice ( ^? p 
c be neglect$ :o claim t _! exp]i5ce )  

works ( art is ( slight or no emotional 
int5sity4 ,!re are p :o w\ld report t !y
 feel no jollity :5 !y see ! ,laugh+    
,cavali]1 or angui% :5 !y read ! ,ugol9o
 ,canto 9 ! ,inf]no2 yet su* p (t5 h a  
highly develop$ ae/hetic ta/e4 ,h[ c ?is
 diff]5ce be acc\nt$ =8  ,/>t+ ) !      
emotional appreciation ( art z prim>y1  
we c acc\nt = x 9 ?is wise4 ,x is a     
famili> ph5om5on 9 ! m5tal life = a     
concept or idea ( an emotional exp]i5ce 
to take ! place ( t exp]i5ce4 ,:at man  
has n rejoic$ :5 ! simple & cold        
judgm5t1 ,i suff]$ !n1 has come to      
supplant a recurr+ torm5t8 ,or :o t has 
liv$ con/antly ) a sick p]son has n     
obs]v$ h[1 look+ on ! face ( pa91       
inevitably ! m]e comm5t1 he is 9        
di/ress1 comes to supplant ! livelie/   
sympa!tic ?rill8 ,!re are _m reasons =  
?is4 ,! idea or judgm5t is a less tax+  
?+ ?an an emotion1 & s is sub/itut$ = x 
9 ! m9d1 :i* ev]y:]e seeks economy (    
ef=t4 ,! idea is also m effici5t f a    
practical po9t ( view1 because x leads  

directly to action & does n div]t & wa/e
 en]gy 9 diffus$ & useless movem5ts4 ,! 
physician simply recognizes ! /ates (   
m9d ( 8 pati5ts1 he does n sympa?ize )  
!m4 ,f9ally our own reactions to an     
objectifi$ emotion may int]f]e ) !      
emotion4 ,if1 = example1 we see an angry
 man1 our own fe> ( him may entirely    
supplant our sympa!tic feel+ ( 8 ang]4  
,9 g5]al1 9 our deal+s ) our fell[ m51  
we are too busy ) our attitudes & plans 
) ref]5ce to !m1 & too mu* conc]n$ )    
economiz+ our emotional en]gy1 to get a 
sympa!tic intuition ( _! inn] life1 & s 
are cont5t ) an intellectual recognition
 ( x4 ,n[ ?is habit ( sub/itut+ ! m     
rapid & economical process ( judgm5t = !
 long] & m tax+ "o ( sympa?y1 is c>ri$  
ov] into ! _w ( art4  ,nev]!less1 ! _w (
 art is a region especially fitt$ =     
e9fuehlung4 ,= !re ! ne$ = quick action1
 :i* 9 life t5ds to syncopate emotion1  
does n exi/4 ,! *>act]i/ic attitude (   
art is leisurely absorption 9 an object1
 giv+ "t = all ! possibilities ( feel+  

or o!r exp]i5ce to develop4 ,moreov]1 9 
art !re is n ! same sav+ ne$ = !        
sub/itution ( idea = feel+ z 9 real     
life4 ,= 9 art1 feel+ is n s /rong z 9  
life2 ev5 :5 ! arti/ expresses 8 own    
p]sonal exp]i5ce1 he light5s its        
emotional burd5 ?r\gh expression1 & we1 
:5 we make 8 exp]i5ce ours1 f9d a simil>
 relief4 ,! emotion is g5u9e1 only      
weak5$ 9 int5sity4 ,9 o!r cases1 :]e !  
arti/ con/ructs a _w ( fictiti\s *>act]s
 & ev5ts1 our k t !y are n real suffices
 to dim9i% ! int5sity ( ! emotions      
ar\s$4 ,= emotions h ! practical        
function ( incit+ to action1 & :5 action
 is impossible1 z 9 ! purely ideal _w ( 
! arti/1 !y _c keep _! natural int5sity4
 ,we _c feel s /rongly ov] ! m]e idea ( 
an ev5t z ov] a real ev5t4 ,7 x o!rwise1
 :o c\ld /& ! /ra9 ( ,hamlet or ,o!llo8 
,?r\gh\t ?is discussion ( ! elem5ts ( ! 
exp]i5ce ( art1 ,i h us$ ! t]ms emotion 
& feel+ ) an inclusive mean+1 to cov]   
impulses z well z feel+s 9 ! n>r[] s5se4
 ,= 9 ! ae/hetic exp]i5ce1 !re are      

impulses--impulses to move :5 action is 
repres5t$ 9 picture & /atue1 impulses to
 act1 z :51 9 wat*+ a play1 we put      
ourselves 9 ! place ( ! p]sons4 ,b su*  
impulses are always *eck$ ?r\gh !       
realization t !y come f s\rces unrelat$ 
to our purposes1 & fail to get !        
re5=cem5t or cons5t ( ! total self      
necess>y to action4 ,9 read+ or s++ !   
,m>seillaise1 to cite an example f      
poetry1 ,i exp]i5ce all k9ds (          
impulses--to %\ld] a musket1 to m>*1 to 
kill--b no "o ( !m is c>ri$ out4 ,n[ an 
inhibit$ impulse is sc>cely di/+ui%able 
f an emotion4 ,) few exceptions1 !      
impulses 9 art d n issue 9 resolves1    
decisions1 det]m9ations to act2 or1 if  
!y d1 ! det]m9ations ref] to acts to be 
execut$ 9 ! future1 9 an exp]i5ce di/9ct
 & remote f ! /hetic--! ,m>seillaise has
 d\btless produc$ su* resolutions 9 !   
m9ds ( ,fr5*m52 & !re is mu* art t is   
productive 9 t way1 provid+ ! bir? 9    
beauty ( :i* ,plato wrote4 ,footnote3 ,9
 ! ,symposium4 ,9 art1 impulses result 9

 imm$iate action only :5 action is      
itself ! m$ium ( expression1 z 9 !      
dance1 :]e impulses to movem5t pass ov] 
into motion4 ,( c\rse su* actions /ill  
rema9 ae/hetic s9ce !y s]ve no practical
 end & are valu$ = !mselves4  ,if ! "q 7
 rais$1 :i* is m fundam5tal 9 ! ae/hetic
 exp]i5ce1 idea or emotion8 ! answ] w\ld
 h to be1 emotion4 ,= !re exi/s at lea/ 
"o great art :]e no explicit ideas are  
pres5t1 music1 :]eas art )\t emotion    
does n exi/4 ,take away ! emotional     
cont5t f expression & y get ei!r a m]e  
play ( s5sations1 l fireworks1 or else  
pseudo-sci5ce1 l ! mod]n naturali/ic    
play4 ,h[ev]1 ! supreme importance ( !  
idea 9 art _c be d5i$4 ,e complex "w (  
art1 save music1 is an expression (     
ideas z well z ( feel+s1 & ev5 9 music  
!re exi/s ! t5d5cy = feel+ to seek      
def9ition 9 ideas--d we n say a musical 
idea8 ,& d we n f9d ! ma/]s ( s ab/ract 
an art z ornam5t employ+ _! mat]ials to 
repres5t symbolic conceptions8 ,i wi% to
 call ! att5tion ( ! read] to c]ta9 v   

g5]al consid]ations t\*+ ! nature &     
function ( ideas 9 ! ae/hetic exp]i5ce1 
leav+ ! /udy ( ! concrete problems to ! 
m special *apt]s4  ,fir/1 ! relation ( !
 idea to ! s5se m$ium ( ! expression4   
,"h1 ,i ?9k1 we f9d some?+ comp>able to 
! process ( e9fuehlung4 ,= 9 art1 ideas1
 l feel+s1 are objectifi$ 9 s5sation4   
,only s5sations are giv52 out ( ! m9d   
come ideas ?r\gh :i* ! =m] are int]pret$
 & made into ! semblance ( ?+s4         
,consid]1 = example1 ,rembr&t's         
,night-,wat*4 ,a fe/al mood is !re 9 !  
golds & r$s1 & gloom 9 ! blacks2 b !re  
also are ! m5 & drums & arms4 ,if we    
wi%$ to pu% ! analogy ) e9fuehlung1 we  
might co9 a correspond+ t]m--e9me9ung1  
inmean+4 ,9 all ! repres5tative arts1   
?is is a process ( equal importance )   
infeel+2 = ! arti/ /rives j z mu* to    
realize 8 ideas ( objects 9 ! s5se      
mat]ial ( 8 art z to put 8 moods !re4   
,:51 moreov]1 we consid] t ! expression 
( ! m complex & def9ite emotions is     
dep5d5t ^u ! expression ( ideas ( nature

 & human life1 we see t ! process is    
really a s+le "o4 ,feel+ is a function (
 ideas2 if1 !n1 we dem& s9c]ity 9 ! "o1 
we mu/ equally dem& conviction 9 ! o!r4 
,! poet c\ld n convey to u 8 pleasure at
 ! sight ( nature or 8 awe ( dea? unless
 he c\ld someh[ br+ u into _! pres5ce4  
,! pa9t] c\ld n express ! moods (       
sunlight or ( %ad[ until he _h inv5t$ a 
te*nique = _! repres5tation4 ,cle> &    
confid5t see+ is a condition ( feel+4   
,h5ce e advance 9 ! imitation ( nature  
is an advance 9 ! p[] ( expression4 ,!  
dem& = fidelity ( repres5tation1 = tru? 
to nature1 s insi/5tly made by ! common 
man 9 8 criticism ( art1 is ju/ifi$ ev5 
f ! po9t ( view ( expressionism4  ,yet  
?is fidelity ( repres5tation does n     
involve exact reproduction ( nature4 ,! 
limitations ( ! m$ia ( ! arts def9itely 
exclude ?is4 ,no pa9t] c reproduce on a 
canvas ! inf9ite detail ( any object or 
exactly imitate its colors & l9es4 ,9 ! 
s+le matt] ( brightness1 = example1 8   
m$ium is hopelessly inadequate2 ev5 !   

light ( ! moon is beyond 8 p[]1 n to    
speak ( ! light ( ! sun2 he has to      
sub/itute a relative = an absolute scale
 ( values4 ,! sculptor _c reproduce !   
color or hair ( ! human body4 ,h[ev]1   
?is failure exactly to imitate nature   
does n prev5t ! arti/ f sugge/+ to u    
ideas ( ! objects 9 :i* he is int]e/$4  
,if ! outl9e ( ! m>ble be t ( a man1 we 
get ! idea ( a man2 if ! color & %ape be
 t ( a tree1 we get ! idea ( a tree4    
,our acceptance ( ^! ideas is1 ( c\rse1 
only p>tial2 = we are equally           
susceptible to ! negative sugge/ions ( !
 :it5ess ( ! m>ble & ! smallness ( !    
outl9e ( ! tree4 ,e "w ( art repres5ts a
 sort ( compromise betwe5 reality &     
unreality1 belief & disbelief4          
,nev]!less1 despite ?is compromise1 !   
purpose ( art is uncompromis+ly atta9$4 
,= art does n seek to give u nature ov] 
aga91 b to express its feel+ tones1 & ^!
 are convey$ :5 we get an idea ( !      
correspond+ object1 ev5 if t idea is    
inadequate f a /rictly sci5tific po9t ( 

view4 ,we d n react emotionally to !    
inf9ite detail ( any object1 b only to  
its pres5ce z a :ole & to c]ta9 sali5t  
features4 ,! arti/ succe$s :5 he        
con/ructs a humaniz$ image ( !          
object--"o :i* ar\ses & becomes a c5t] =
 feel+4 ,?is image1 :5 made ( a few     
elem5ts1 may be f> m tell+ ?an a mu* m  
accurate copy2 = !re is no diffusion (  
int]e/ to irrelevant aspects4 ,h[       
effective a m$ium = expression are ! few
 & simple l9es ( ,be>dsley's            
draftsman%ip6 ,! am\nt ( detail necess>y
 to convey an emotionally effective idea
 is relative to ! te*nique ( ! diff]5t  
arts & v>ies also ) ! sugge/ibility &   
discrim9ation ( ! obs]v]4 ,"h no a      
priori pr9ciples c be laid d[n = :at    
only ! exp]im5tal practice ( ! arti/ c  
det]m9e4  ,moreov]1 ! negative          
sugge/ions ( a "w ( art1 al?\gh !y are  
effective 9 prev5t+ entire belief 9 !   
reality ( ! idea express$1 d n h9d] !   
communication & appreciation ( ! atta*$ 
feel+s4 ,j s long z ! belief attitude is

 n :olly ext+ui%$1 ?is is ! case2 & !   
skillful arti/ takes c>e ( t4 ,( c\rse1 
an attitude ( self-surr5d]1 ( will+ness 
to accept sugge/ions1 has to be pres5t &
 we coop]ate ) ! arti/ 9 creat+ x4      
,ae/hetic belief implies suffici5t ab&on
 t we may react emotionally to a        
sugge/ion1 b n en\gh t we may react     
practically4 ,we let ! idea tell ^u our 
feel+s2 we d n let x incite u to action4
 ,! ae/hetic plausibility ( an idea     
dep5ds l>gely ^u its initial            
plausibility ) ! arti/4 ,!re is no?+ m  
contagi\s ?an belief4 ,to utt] ?+s ) an 
acc5t ( conviction is half ! battle 9   
gett+ oneself believ$4 ,if ! arti/      
pret5ds to believe some?+ & expresses   
himself ) an air ( assurance1 we accept 
x1 no matt] h[ prepo/]\s x may be f !   
practical or sci5tific po9t ( view4 ,?9k
 ( ,rabelais6  ,a "w ( art is a logical 
sy/em4 ,x presupposes c]ta9 assumptions1
 po/ulates1 conv5tions1 :i* we mu/      
accept if we are to live 9 its _w4 ,n[1 
9 ord] t we may accept !m1 ! arti/ mu/  

fir/ h vividly accept$ !m himself4 ,only
 if !y h become a v "p ( him1 c !y      
become at all valid = u4 ,! failure (   
classici/ic art 9 a non-classical age1 (
 ,pre-,raphaelitism aft] ,raphael1 is a 
failure 9 ?is--! arti/ has nev] liv$ ev5
 imag9atively 9 ! _w he depicts4 ,8     
belief is an artifice & a %am1 & he _c  
impose ^u u ) 8 pret5se4 ,b once we h   
accept$ ! arti/'s po/ulates1 !n we are  
prep>$ to foll[ him 9 8 conclusions4 ,9 
! ,hom]ic _w1 we %all n balk at !       
int]c\rse betwe5 gods & m52 9 m$iaeval  
pa9t+ & drama1 we %all accept miracle2 9
 ,alice 9 ,wond]l&1 we %all accept any  
dream-l en*antm5t4 ,b we dem& t !       
conclusions %all foll[ f ! premises1 t !
 :ole be consi/5t4 ,we _c tol]ate       
miracle 9 a reali/ic novel or drama1 or 
gl>+ inaccuracy ( fact 9 a hi/orical    
novel1 because !y are 9 contradiction to
 ! laws ( reality tacitly assum$4 ,!    
f9al dem& :i* we make ( any "w1 ( art is
 t x live4 ,:at c be made to live = u   
may be beautiful to u4 ,b no?+ c draw   

our life into itself :i* has n drawn !  
arti/'s1 or :i* is untrue to its own    
inn] logic4  ,"o ( ! mo/ life-creat+    
elem5ts ( a "w ( art is imag]y4 ,ev]y:]e
 9 art ! t5d5cy exi/s = ideas to be     
fill$ out1 r5d]$ concrete & vivid1 ?r\gh
 images4 ,9 look+ at a pa9t+ ( a summ]  
l&scape1 = example1 we n only recognize 
! colors z mean+ sunlight1 b actually   
exp]i5ce !m z w>m2 9 look+ at a /atue we
 n only recognize its surface z t ( !   
body ( a woman1 b we feel its s(tness & 
smoo?ness2 :i* involves t ! ideas (     
sunlight & a human body1 employ$ 9      
int]pret+ ! s5sations receiv$ f ^! works
 ( art1 are develop$ back into ! orig9al
 mass ( images f :i* !y 7 d]iv$4 ,h[ev]1
 al?\gh ideas are =m$ f images1 !y are n
 images1--z our ord9>y employm5t ( !m 9 
recogniz+ objects atte/s4 ,we may &     
usually d1 = example1 recognize a mirror
 z smoo? )\t exp]i5c+ x z smoo?--! image
 equival5t ( ! idea rema9s lat5t4 ,our  
ord9>y exp]i5ce ) objects is too ha/y & 
too int5t on practical ends = images to 

develop4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! leisurely      
attitude *>act]i/ic ( ! ae/hetic        
exp]i5ce is favorable to ! recall (     
images2 h5ce1 j z 9 ! ae/hetic p]ception
 ( objects we put our feel+s into !m1 s 
equally we import into !m ! relevant    
images4 ,! ae/hetic reaction t5ds to be 
total4 ,our dem& = feel+ 9 art also     
requires ! image2 = feel+s are m vividly
 atta*$ to images ?an to ab/ract ideas4 
,x is a fact famili> 9 ! exp]i5ce (     
ev]ybody t ! /r5g? ( ! emotional tone ( 
an object is a function ( ! cle>ness ( !
 image :i* we =m ( x on recall4 ,we c   
pres]ve ! feel+ tone ( a pa/ ev5t or an 
abs5t object only if we c keep a vivid  
image ( x2 z our image ( x becomes      
vague1 our int]e/ 9 x dissipates4       
,ev]y:]e 9 our exp]i5ce ! image m$iates 
betwe5 feel+ & idea4 ,s 9 art4 ,images h
 no m an indep5d5t & self-suffici5t     
/atus 9 art ?an s5sations h2 l ! latt]  
!y are a means = ! expression ( feel+4  
,9 ! pa9t+ ( sunlight1 = example1 !     
images ( w>m? c>ry joy\sness & a s5se ( 

ease2 9 ! /atue1 ! tactile images convey
 ! emotional response to ! repres5t$    
object4 ,9 lit]ature ! expressiv5ess (  
images is p]haps ev5 m impressive4      
,consid] h[ long+ is ar\s$ by ! tactile1
 gu/atory1 & !rmal images 9 ! (t-quot$  
l9es ( ,keats3--    ,o1 = a draught (   
v9tage6 t ha? be5   ,cool'd a long age 9
 ! deep-delv$ e>?4  ,examples might be  
multipli$ indef9itely4  ,9 lit]ature    
alone ( ! arts1 images f all dep>tm5ts (
 s5se c be ar\s$4 ,visual images play a 
great] role !re ?an 9 pa9t+ & sculpture1
 = ! reason t1 9 ! latt]1 visual        
s5sations take _! place--we d n image   
:at we c see4 ,9 sculpture1 ! great] "p 
( ! imag]y is ( t\* & motion--9 !       
imag9ation1 we feel ! surfaces & move ) 
! repres5t$ motions2 ! :it5ess or       
blackness ( ! mat]ials prev5ts ! ar\sal 
( ! image ( ! color ( ! body4 ,9 pa9t+1 
besides ! temp]ature images already     
m5tion$1 !re are t\* images--9          
/ill-life1 = example1 :5 silks & furs   
are repres5t$2 images ( odors1 9 fl[]   

pieces2 ( motion1 9 pictures :i* depict 
motion1 z 9 ! rac+ horses ( ,degas2 (   
ta/e1 9 pictures ( w9e & fruit4 ,( c\rse
 ! k9d & am\nt ( imag]y dep5d ^u !      
imag9al type to :i* ! spectator belongs 
& ! weal? ( ! imag9al furni%+ ( 8 m9d4  
,9 any art1 moreov]1 ! *ief & requisite 
?+ is expression ?r\gh ! s5se m$ium1 :i*
 %\ld nev] be obscur$ by expression     
?r\gh associat$ images4 ,x is n ! prim>y
 bus9ess ( a fl[] pa9t] to ar\se images 
( p]fume1 b to compose colors & l9es2   
nor ! function ( ! musician to ar\se !  
visual images :i* accompany ! musical   
exp]i5ce ( _m p1 b to compose s\nds4 ,9 
sculpture1 on ! o!r h&1 images ( t\* &  
movem5t play an almo/ necess>y "p1 = !y 
are con/itu5t elem5ts 9 ! repres5tation 
( =m & motion2 yet x is n indisp5sable  
to ! appreciation ( sculpture t images (
 ! sweet odor ( ! human body be awak5$4 
,! image is seldom ! basis ( ae/hetic   
appreciation2 x is m (t5 its completion4
 ,b we %all g into ^! matt]s m 9 detail 
9 our special *apt]s4  ,9 !             

repres5tative arts1 p>ticul>ly pa9t+ &  
sculpture1 ! associat$ images are fus$ )
 ! visual s5sations :i* con/itute !     
m$ium4 ,i see ! s(tness &               
sweet-odor\sness ( ! pa9t$ rose petal1 j
 z ,i see ! real rose s(t & sweet2 ,i   
see ! surface ( ! /atue firm & %apely1 j
 z ,i see ! human body s4 ,?is is       
because ! ideas ( ! ?+s repres5t$ 9     
pa9t+ & sculpture seem to be actually   
pres5t 9 ! visual s5sations :i* !y      
int]pret2 ! fl[] & ! man seem to be !re 
be=e me4 ,9 ^! arts1 ae/hetic p]ception 
is a fusion ( image ) s5sation 9 mu* !  
way t normal p]ception is4 ,9 lit]ature 
& music1 on ! o!r h&1 ! connection      
betwe5 ! s5se m$ium ( ! art & !         
associat$ images is less close2 & = !   
reason t ! s\nds are no "p ( ! ?+s :i*  
!y br+ be=e ! m9d4 ,9 look+ at a picture
 ( a rose1 ,i see ! r$ z an elem5t ( !  
rose repres5t$2 :]eas1 9 read+ ab\t a   
rose1 ,i only seem to he> a voice       
describ+ x4 ,9 ! latt] case1 !re=e1 !   
olfactory & visual images h a c]ta9     

remot5ess & indep5d5ce ( ! ^w-s\nds2 ,i 
d n actually see & smell !m 9 ! s\nds4  
,h[ev]1 9 ! case ( famili> words ) a    
/rong emotional significance1 ! fusion (
 image ) s\nd may be almo/ complete4    
,:o1 = example1 does n see a sweet & r$ 
image ( a rose into ! ^w-s\nds :5 he    
reads3--    ,oh1 my love's l a r$1 r$   
rose   ,t's newly sprung 9 ,june4  ,or1 
:5 ,dante describes ! selva oscura1 :o  
does n see ! d>kness 9 ! ^w oscura8 ,9  
all su* cases a /rong feel+ tone b9ds   
toge!r ! ^w-s\nd ) ! image4 ,?is fusion 
is mo/ /rik+ 9 poetry because ( ! highly
 emotional mat]ial ) :i* x works4  ,!   
ideas & images associat$ ) a "w ( art   
dep5d v l>gely on ! education1 exp]i5ce1
 & idiosyncrasy ( ! spectator4 ,! s*ol>1
 = example1 w put t5fold m mean+ into 8 
read+ ( ! ,div9e ,com$y ?an ! untra9$   
p]son4 ,or comp>e ,pat]'s int]pretation 
( ! ,mona ,lisa ) ,mu!r's4 ,c we say t  
c]ta9 ideas & images belong prop]ly to !
 "w ( art1 :ile o!rs d n8 ,) reg>d to   
?is1 we c1 ,i ?9k1 set up two crit]ia4  

,fir/1 ! int5tion ( ! arti/--:atev] !   
arti/ meant 8 "w to express3 t x        
expresses4 ,yet1 s9ce ?is c nev] be     
c]ta9ly & completely discov]$1 !re mu/  
always rema9 a l>ge region ( undet]m9$  
int]pretation4 ,n[ = judg+ ! relevancy (
 ?is p5umbra ( mean+ & association !    
foll[+ te/ applies--does x br+ u back to
 ! s5su\s m$ium ( ! "w ( art or lead u  
away8 ,any?+ is legitimate :i* we       
actually put into ! =m ( ! "w ( art &   
keep !re1 :ile :atev] m]ely hangs loose 
ar\nd x is illegitimate4 ,= example1 if 
:ile li/5+ to music we give ourselves up
 to p]sonal memories & fancies1 we are  
almo/ sure to neglect ! s\nds & _!      
/ructure2 we _c objectify ! =m] 9 !     
latt]2 ) ! result t ! composition is    
l>gely lo/ to u4 ,naturally1 no h>d &   
fa/ l9es c be drawn1 especially 9 ! case
 ( works ( vague import l music2 yet we 
c use ?is crit]ion z a pr9ciple =       
regulat+ & inhibit+ our associations4 ,x
 dem&s ( u a wide-awake & receptive     
appreciation4 ,! g5u9e mean+s &         

associations ( a "w ( art are ^? :i* are
 ! irresi/ible & necess>y results ( !   
s5se /imuli work+ ^u an att5tive        
p]cipi5t2 ! re/ are n only arbitr>y1 b  
injuri\s4  ,to ?is1 "s p w\ld d\btless  
object on ! gr\nd t art 0 made = man & n
 man = art4 ,! "w ( art1 !y w\ld claim1 
%\ld int]pret ! p]sonal exp]i5ce ( !    
spectator2 h5ce :atev] he puts into x   
belongs !re ( "r4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 two  
consid]ations limit+ ! validity ( ?is   
ass]tion4 ,fir/1 ! "w ( art is prim>ily 
an expression ( ! arti/'s p]sonality &1 
second1 its purpose is to provide a     
common m$ium ( expression = ! exp]i5ce (
 all m54 ,if int]pretation rema9s a     
purely individual affair1 bo? its       
relation to ! arti/ & ! possibility ( a 
common ae/hetic exp]i5ce ?r\gh x are    
de/roy$4 ,= ?is reason we %\ld1 ,i      
believe1 delib]ately seek to make our   
appreciations hi/orically s\nd &        
def9ite4 ,& 9 ! social & hi/orical      
appreciation result+1 we %all f9d our   
own lives--n s diff]5t f ! arti/'s & our

 fell[s'--abundantly & suffici5tly      
express$4     ,,*apt] ,v  ,,! ,,analysis
 ,,( ,,! ,,ae/hetic ,,exp]i5ce3 ,,!     
,,/ructure ,,( ,,! ,,exp]i5ce   ,9 our  
discussion ( fir/ pr9ciples1 we set d[n 
a high degree ( unity z "o ( ! di/+ui%+ 
*>act]i/ics ( works ( art4 ,9 ?is we    
foll[$ close ^u anci5t tradition2 = !   
m>k$ly /ructural "* ( beauty 0 notic$ by
 ! e>lie/ obs]v]s4 ,plato1 ! fir/       
philosoph] ( art1 id5tifi$ beauty )     
simplicity1 h>mony1 & proportion1 &     
,ari/otle held ! same view4 ,!y 7 s     
impress$ ) ae/hetic unity t !y comp>$ x 
) ! o!r mo/ highly unifi$ type ( ?+ !y  
knew1 ! organism2 & ev] aft]w>ds x has  
be5 call$ organic unity4 ,) ! back+ (   
su* au?ority1 unity 9 v>iety 0 long     
?\ght to be ! same z beauty2 &1 al?\gh  
?is view is obvi\sly "o-sid$1 no "o has 
s9ce succe$$ 9 p]suad+ m5 t an object c 
be beautiful )\t unity4  ,s9ce art is   
expression1 its unity is1 unavoidably1  
an image ( ! unity ( ! ?+s 9 nature &   
m9d :i* x expresses4 ,a lyric poem      

reflects ! unity ( mood t b9ds toge!r ! 
?\ghts & images ( ! poet2 ! drama &     
novel1 ! unity ( plan & purpose 9 ! acts
 ( m5 & ! fateful sequ5ce ( causes &    
effects 9 _! lives4 ,! /atue reflects ! 
organic unity ( ! body2 ! pa9t+1 !      
spatial unity ( visible ?+s4 ,9         
beautiful artifacts1 ! basal unity is ! 
purpose or end embodi$ 9 ! mat]ial      
/ructure4  ,b ! unity ( works ( art is n
 :olly d]ivative2 = x occurs 9 ! free   
arts l music1 :]e no?+ is imitat$1 & ev5
 9 ! repres5tative arts1 z we h obs]v$1 
x is clos] ?an 9 ! ?+s :i* are imag$4   
,ae/hetic unity is !re=e unique &1 if we
 w\ld und]/& x1 we mu/ seek its reason 9
 ! peculi> nature & purpose ( art4      
,s9ce1 moreov]1 art is a complex fact1 !
 explanation ( its unity is n simple2 ! 
unity itself is v intricate & dep5ds ^u 
_m coop]at+ factors4  ,9 ! case ( !     
imitative arts1 tak+ ! giv5 unity ( !   
objects repres5t$ z a basis1 ! sup]ior  
unity ( ! image is p>tly due to !       
s+l5ess ( ! arti/'s int]e/4 ,= art1 z we

 "k1 is nev] ! expression ( m]e ?+s1 b (
 ?+s s f> z !y h value4 ,out ( ! inf9ite
 fullness ( nature & ( life1 ! arti/    
selects ^? elem5ts t h a unique         
significance = him4    ,music1 :5 s(t   
voices die1   ,vibrates 9 ! memory2     
,odors1 :5 sweet violets sick51   ,live 
)9 ! s5se !y quick52   ,rose leaves1 :5 
! rose is dead1   ,are heap$ = !        
belov$'s b$2   ,& s ?y ?\ghts :5 ?\ art 
gone1   ,love itself %all slumb] on4    
,obs]ve h[1 out ( ! c\ntless ?+s :i* he 
kn[s1 ! poet has *os5 ^? :i* he feels   
ak9 to 8 fai? 9 ! immortality ( love4 ,!
 pa9t] w\ld n1 if he c\ld1 reproduce all
 ! elem5ts ( a face1 b only ^? t are    
expressive ( ! int]pretation ( "* he    
wi%es to convey4 ,! noveli/ & ! dramati/
 proce$ 9 a l selective fa%ion 9 !      
treatm5t ( _! mat]ial4 ,9 ! lives ( m5  
!re are a ?\s& actions & ev5ts--casual  
spok5 words1 recurr5t processes su* z   
eat+ & dress+1 h\rs ( idl5ess & futility
 :i*1 because repetiti\s1 habitual1 or  
inconsequ5tial1 ?r[ no light ^u t alone 

9 :i* we are int]e/$1--"* & =tune4 ,to  
describe a s+le example ( ^! facts      
suffices4 ,9 ! novel & drama1 !re=e1 !  
p]sonalities & life hi/ories ( m5 h a   
simplicity & s+l5ess ( direction n f\nd 
9 reality4 ,! arti/ seeks ev]y:]e !     
traits t individualize & *>act]ize1 &   
neglects all o!rs4  ,moreov]1 s9ce ! aim
 ( art is to af=d pleasure 9 ! intuition
 ( life1 ! arti/ w try to reveal ! hidd5
 unities t s delight ! m9d to discov]4  
,he w aim to p5etrate b5ea? ! surface ( 
exp]i5ce obs]v$ by common p]ception1 to 
its m obscure logic und]nea?4 ,9 ?is way
 he w g beyond :at ! m]e me*anism (     
imitation requires4 ,! poet1 = example1 
manife/s lat5t emotional h>monies among 
! mo/ widely sund]$ ?+s4 ,! subtle      
noveli/ %[s h[ s+le elem5ts ( "*1       
app>5tly isolat$ acts or trivial        
incid5ts1 are fateful ( consequ5ces4 ,he
 discloses ! m9ute reactions ( "o       
p]sonality ^u ano!r4 ,or he ent]s into !
 s\l ( man himself1 into 8 private &    
individual selfhood1 & uncov]s ! hidd5  

connections betwe5 ?\ght & feel+ &      
impulse4 ,f9ally1 he may take ! wid]    
sweep ( society & tradition into view & 
track out _! "p 9 ! mold+ ( man & 8     
fate4 ,9 ! se>* = unity1 ! arti/ is on  
common gr\nd ) ! man ( sci5ce2 b ) ?is  
diff]5ce3 ! arti/ is conc]n$ ) laws     
op]at+ 9 concrete1 individual ?+s 9 :i* 
he is int]e/$2 :ile ! sci5ti/ =mulates  
!m 9 ! ab/ract4 ,= ! arti/1 unity is    
valuable z *>act]iz+ a significant      
individual2 = ! sci5ti/1 x is valuable 9
 itself1 & ! individual only z an       
example ( x4  ,?is same purpose ( af=d+ 
pleasure 9 sympa!tic vision leads !     
arti/ n only to pres5t ! unity ( life1 b
 s to organize its mat]ial t x w be cle>
 to ! m9d :i* p]ceives x4 ,too great a  
multitude ( elem5ts1 elem5ts t are n    
assort$ into gr\ps & ti$ by relations or
 pr9ciples1 _c be grasp$4 ,h5ce ! arti/ 
infuses into ! _w :i* he creates a new &
 :olly subjective simplicity & unity1 to
 :i* !re is no p>allel 9 nature4 ,!     
composition ( elem5ts 9 a picture does n

 correspond to any actual arrangem5t (  
elem5ts 9 a l&scape1 b to ! dem&s (     
visual p]spicuity4 ,! division ( a novel
 into *apt]s1 ( ! *apt]s into p>agraphs1
 ( ! p>agraphs into s5t5ces1 al?\gh x   
may answ] 9 "s measure to ! objective   
divisions ( ! life-/ory relat$1         
corresponds mu* m closely to !          
subjective ne$ = ready appreh5sion4 ,!  
arti/ meets ?is ne$ halfway 9 !         
organization ( ! mat]ial :i* he pres5ts4
 ,full beauty dep5ds ^u an adaptation ( 
! object to ! s5ses1 att5tion1 & syn!tic
 functions ( ! m9d4 ,! long1 rambl+     
novel ( ! eighte5? c5tury is a m fai?ful
 image ( ! fullness & div]sity ( life1 b
 x answ]s ill to ! limit$ sweep ( ! m9d1
 its pron5ess to fatigue1 & its crav+ = 
:ol5ess ( view4  ,b ev5 all ! reasons s 
f> invok$--! necessity = significance1 !
 int]e/ 9 unity1 ! dem& = p]spicuity--d 
n1 ,i ?9k1 suffice to expla9 ! /ructure 
( works ( art4 ,= /ructure has1         
(t5times1 a direct emotional appeal1 :i*
 has n yet be5 tak5 into acc\nt1 & :i*  

is a lead+ motive = its pres5ce4        
,consid]1 = example1 symmetry4 ,a       
symmetrical disposition ( p>ts is inde$ 
favorable to p]spicuity2 = x is easi] to
 f9d on ei!r side :at we h already f\nd 
on ! o!r1 ! sight ( "o side prep>+ u = !
 sight ( ! o!r2 & su* an arrangem5t is  
flatt]+ to our crav+ = unity1 = we      
rejoice see+ ! same patt]n express$ 9 ! 
two p>ts2 yet ! exp]i5ce ( symmetry is  
ri*] /ill3 x includes an agreeable feel+
 ( balance1 /eadfa/ness1 /ability4 ,?is 
is mo/ evid5t 9 ! case ( visual objects1
 l a ,greek vase1 :]e !re is a pla9     
division betwe5 "r & left simil> halves2
 b x is also felt 9 music :5 !re is a   
balance ( !mes 9 ! e>li] & lat] p>ts ( a
 composition1 & 9 lit]ature 9 !         
well-balanc$ s5t5ce1 p>agraph1 or poem4 
,to cite ! v simple/ example1 if ,i     
read1 on ! "o h& 444 on ! o!r h&1 ,i h a
 feel+ ( balanc$ t5sions precisely      
analog\s to :at ,i exp]i5ce :5 ,i look  
at a vase4 ,/ructure is n a purely      
intellectual or p]ceptive affair2 x is  

also motor & organic1 & t means         
emotional4 ,x is felt ) ! body z well z 
und]/ood by ! m9d4 ,i h us$ ! case (    
symmetry to br+ out ?is tru?1 b ,i might
 h us$ o!r types ( unification1 ea* (   
:i* has its unique feel+ tone1 z ,i %all
 %[ pres5tly1 aft] ,i h analyz$ !m4     
,keep+ 9 m9d ! motives :i* expla9 !     
/ructure ( works ( art1 ,i wi% n[ to    
di/+ui% & describe ! *ief types4 ,!re   
are1 ,i ?9k1 ?ree ( ^!1 ( :i* ea* "o may
 include important special =ms--unity 9 
v>iety1 dom9ance1 & equilibrium4  ,unity
 9 v>iety 0 ! e>lie/ ( ! types to be    
obs]v$ & is ! mo/ fundam5tal4 ,x is !   
organic unity s (t5 ref]r$ to 9         
criticism4 ,x involves1 9 ! fir/ place1 
:ol5ess or individuality4 ,e "w ( art is
 a def9ite s+le ?+1 di/9ct & sep>ate f  
o!r ?+s1 & n divisible into p>ts :i* are
 !mselves complete works ( art4 ,no "p c
 be tak5 away )\t damage to ! :ole1 & :5
 tak5 out ( ! :ole1 ! "p loses mu* ( its
 own value4 ,! :ole ne$s all ( its p>ts 
& !y ne$ x2 !re !y live & move & h _!   

be+4 ,! unity is a unity ( ! v>iety & ! 
v>iety is a diff]5tiation ( !           
unity4,footnote3 ,cf4 ,lipps3 ,ae/hetik1
 ,bd4 ,i1 ,drittes ,kapitel4 ,! v>iety  
is ( equal importance ) ! unity1 = unity
 c ass]t itself & "w only ?r\gh !       
control ( a multiplicity ( elem5ts4 ,!  
analogy betwe5 ! unity ( ! "w ( art & ! 
unity ( ! organism is /ill ! mo/        
accurate & illum9at+4 ,=1 l ! "w ( art1 
! body is a self-suffici5t & di/9ctive  
:ole1 ^: unifi$ life dep5ds ^u !        
function+ ( _m memb]s1 :i*1 = _! "p1 are
 dead :5 cut away f x4  ,! conception ( 
unity 9 v>iety z organic repres5ts an   
ideal or norm = art1 :i* is only        
imp]fectly realiz$ 9 _m works4 ,!re are 
few novels :i* w\ld be s]i\sly damag$ by
 ! omission ( :ole *apt]s1 & _m a rambl+
 essay 9 good /&+ w\ld p]mit prun+ )\t  
injury1 unless inde$ we are made to feel
 t ! app>5tly disp5sable mat]ial really 
contributes some?+ ( fullness &         
exub]ance1 & s is n sup]flu\s1 aft] all4
 ,! unity 9 "s =ms ( art is tight] ?an 9

 o!rs2 9 a play clos] ?an 9 a novel2 9 a
 sonnet m compact ?an 9 an epic4 ,9     
extreme examples1 l ,! ,?\s& & ,"o      
,nights1 ! ,decam]on1 ! ,cant]bury      
,tales1 ! unity is almo/ :olly nom9al1 &
 ! "w is really a collection1 n a :ole4 
,) all admissions1 x rema9s true1 h[ev]1
 t (f5ses aga9/ ! pr9ciple ( unity 9    
v>iety dim9i% ! ae/hetic value ( a "w4  
,^! (f5ses are ( two k9ds--! inclusion (
 ! g5u9ely irrelevant1 & multiple unity1
 l d\ble composition 9 a picture1 or    
ambiguity ( /yle 9 a build+4 ,!re may be
 two or m p>allel l9es ( action 9 a play
 or a novel1 two or m !mes 9 music1 b !y
 mu/ be int]wov5 & int]dep5d5t4 ,o!rwise
 !re occurs ! ph5om5on aptly call$ by   
,lipps ae/hetic rivalry--ea* "p claims  
to be ! :ole & to exclude its neighbor2 
yet be+ unable to d ?is1 suff]s injury  
?r\gh divid$ att5tion4  ,unity 9 v>iety 
may exi/ 9 any "o or m ( ?ree modes--!  
h>mony or union ( coop]at+ elem5ts2 !   
balance ( contra/+ or conflict+ elem5ts2
 ! developm5t or evolution ( a process  

t[>ds an end or climax4 ,! fir/ two are 
pr$om9antly /atic or spatial2 ! la/1    
dynamic & temporal4 ,i "k ( no bett] way
 ( indicat+ ! *>act]i/ic quality ( ea*  
?an by cit+ examples4  ,ae/hetic h>mony 
exi/s :5ev] "s id5tical quality or =m or
 purpose is embodi$ 9 v>i\s elem5ts ( a 
:ole--sam5ess 9 diff]5ce4 ,! repetition 
( ! same space-=m 9 ar*itecture1 l !    
r\nd ar* & w9d[ 9 ! ,roman /yle2 !      
recurr5ce ( ! same motive 9 music2 ! use
 ( a s+le hue to color ! diff]5t objects
 9 a pa9t+1 z 9 a nocturne ( ,:i/l]3 ^! 
are simple illu/rations ( h>mony4 ,an   
almo/ equally simple case is gradation  
or lawful *ange ( quality 9 space &     
"t--! increase or decrease ( l\dness 9  
music ( saturation or brightness ( hue 9
 pa9t+1 ! g5tle *ange ( direction ( a   
curv$ l9e4 ,9 ^! cases !re is1 ( c\rse1 
a dynamic or dramatic effect1 if y take 
! elem5ts 9 sequ5ce2 b :5 tak5          
simultane\sly & toge!r1 !y are a h>mony1
 n a developm5t4 ,simple/ ( all is !    
h>mony betwe5 l p>ts ( regul> figures1  

su* z squ>es & circles2 or betwe5 colors
 :i* are neighbor+ 9 hue4 ,h>moni\s also
 are *>act]s 9 a /ory or play :i* are   
unit$ by feel+s ( love1 fri5d%ip1 or    
loyalty4 ,?us !re is h>mony betwe5      
,hamlet & ,horatio1 or betwe5 ! ,cid & 8
 foll[]s4  ,ae/hetic balance is ! unity 
betwe5 elem5ts :i*1 :ile !y oppose or   
conflict ) "o ano!r1 nev]!less ne$ or   
supplem5t ea* o!r4 ,ho/ile ?+s1 enemies 
at w>1 bus9ess m5 t compete1 p]sons t   
hate ea* o!r1 h z great a ne$ ( _!      
oppon5ts1 9 ord] t !re may be a c]ta9   
type ( life1 z fri5ds h1 9 ord] t !re   
may be love betwe5 !m2 & 9 relation to  
ea* o!r !y create a :ole 9 ! "o case z 9
 ! o!r4 ,!re is z g5u9e a unity betwe5  
contra/+ colors & musical !mes z !re is 
betwe5 colors closely alli$ 9 hue or    
!mes simply transpos$ 9 key4 ,contra/+  
elem5ts are always ! extremes ( "s      
s]ies1 & are unifi$1 despite ! contra/1 
because !y supplem5t ea* o!r4 ,?+s m]ely
 diff]5t1 no matt] h[ diff]5t1 _c       
contra/1 = !re mu/ be "s und]ly+ :ole1  

to :i* bo? belong1 9 :i* !y are unifi$4 
,9 ord] t ?is unity may be felt1 x is   
(t5 necess>y to avoid absolute extremes1
 or at lea/ to m$iate betwe5 !m4 ,among 
colors1 = example1 hues some:at clos]   
?an ! complem5t>y are pref]r$ to !      
latt]1 or1 if ! extremes are employ$1   
ea* "o leads up to ! o!r ?r\gh          
int]m$iate hues4 ,! unity ( contra/+    
colors is a balance because1 z extremes1
 !y take an equal hold on ! att5tion4 ,!
 well-kn[n acc5tuation ( contra/+       
elem5ts does n int]f]e ) ! balance1     
because x is mutual4 ,a balanc$ unity is
 also creat$ by contra/s ( "*1 z 9      
,goe!'s ,tasso1 or by a conflict betwe5 
social classes or p>ties1 z 9           
,hauptmann's ,die ,web]4 ,balanc$1      
f9ally1 is ! unity betwe5 ! elem5ts ( a 
pa9t+1 "r & left1 :i* draw ! att5tion 9 
opposite directions4 ,! ?ird type (     
unity appe>s 9 any process or sequ5ce 9 
:i* all ! elem5ts1 "o aft] ano!r1       
contribute t[>ds ! br++ ab\t ( "s end or
 result4 ,x is ! unity *>act]i/ic ( all 

teleologically relat$ facts4 ,! sequ5ce 
_c be a m]e succession or ev5 a simple  
causal s]ies1 b mu/ also be purposive1  
because1 9 ord] to be ae/hetic1 ! goal  
:i* is rea*$ mu/ h value4 ,causality is 
an important aspect ( ?is type ( unity1 
z 9 ! drama1 b only because a           
teleological s]ies ( actions dep5ds ^u a
 *a9 ( causally relat$ means & ends4 ,! 
type is ( two v>ieties3 9 ! "o1 !       
movem5t is smoo?1 ea* elem5t be+        
h>moni\sly relat$ to ! la/2 9 ! o!r1 x  
is difficult & dramatic1 proce$+ ?r\gh !
 resolution ( oppositions among its     
elem5ts4 ,! movem5t usually has ?ree    
/ages3 an initial phase ( introduction &
 prep>ation2 a second phase ( opposition
 & complication2 !n a f9al "o1 ! climax 
or cata/rophe1 :5 ! goal is rea*$2 !re  
may also be a f\r?1--! work+ out ( !    
consequ5ces ( ?is la/4 ,illu/rations (  
?is mode ( unity are3 ! c\rse ( a /ory  
or a play f ! introduction ( ! *>act]s &
 ! complication ( ! plot to ! d5\em5t or
 solv+ ( ! problem2 ! developm5t ( a "* 

9 a novel f a /ate ( simplicity or      
innoc5ce ?r\gh /orm & /ress into        
maturity or ru92 ! evolution ( a s5tim5t
 9 a sonnet t[>ds its f9al /atem5t 9 !  
la/ l9e or two2 ! melody1 9 its dep>ture
 f ! keynote1 its go+ =? & return2 !    
c>e] ( a l9e4  ,z ,i h indicat$ be=e1   
ea* type ( unity has its specific       
emotional quality4 ,! v ^w h>mony :i* we
 use to d5ote ! fir/ mode is itself     
connotative ( a way ( be+ affect$1 ( be+
 mov$ emotionally4 ,! mood ( ?is mode is
 quiet1 on5ess1 peace4 ,we feel z if we 
7 closely & compactly put toge!r4 ,if   
n[1 )9 ! ae/hetic :ole1 we emphasize !  
v>iety1 we beg9 to lose ! mood ( peace2 
t5sions arise1 until1 9 ! case ( contra/
 & opposition1 !re is a feel+ ( conflict
 & division 9 ! self2 yet )\t loss (    
unity1 because1 if ! :ole is ae/hetic1  
ea* ( ! oppos+ elem5ts dem&s ! o!r2 h5ce
 !re is balance betwe5 !m1 & ?is also we
 n only "k to be !re1 b feel !re4 ,!    
*>act]i/ic mood ( ! evolution>y type (  
unity is equally unique--ei!r a s5se (  

easy motion1 :5 ! process is unob/ruct$1
 or excitem5t & brea?lessness1 :5 !re is
 opposition4  ,! diff]5t types ( unity  
are by no means exclusive ( ea* o!r &   
are usually f\nd toge!r 9 any complex "w
 ( art4 ,symmetry usually involves a    
comb9ation ( h>mony & balance4 ,!       
symmetrical halves ( a ,greek vase1 =   
example1 are h>moni\s 9 s f> z _! size &
 %ape are ! same1 yet balanc$ z be+     
dispos$ 9 opposite directions1 "r &     
left4 ,rhy?m is temporal symmetry1 & s  
also repres5ts a comb9ation ( h>mony &  
balance4 ,/atic rhy?m is only app>5t2 = 
9 e seem+ case1 ! rhy?m really p]vades !
 succession ( acts ( att5tion to !      
elem5ts r ?an ! elem5ts !mselves2 a     
colonnade1 = example1 is rhy?mical only 
:5 ! att5tion moves f "o column to      
ano!r4 ,!re is h>mony 9 rhy?m1 = !re is 
always "s law--metrical s*eme 9 poetry1 
"t 9 music1 simil>ity ( column &        
equality ( int]val betwe5 !m 9 a        
colonnade--p]vad+ ! elem5ts4 ,b !re is  
also balance2 = z ! elem5ts ent] ! m9d  

"o aft] ! o!r1 !re is rivalry betwe5 !  
elem5t n[ occupy+ ! focus ( ! att5tion &
 ! "o t is ab\t to pres5t an equal claim
 to ?is position4 ,because ( its        
intr9sic value1 we t5d to hold on to ea*
 elem5t z we he> or see x1 b are =c$ to 
rel9qui% x = ! sake ( ! "o t foll[s2    
only = a mom5t c we keep bo? 9 !        
consci\s span2 ! recurr5ce & ov]com+ ( !
 result+ t5sion1 z we foll[ ! succession
 ?r\gh1 creates ! pulsation s *>act]i/ic
 ( rhy?m4 ,! opposition ( ! elem5ts z 9 
turn !y cr[d ea* o!r out does n1 h[ev]1 
int]f]e ) ! h>mony1 = !y h an exi/5ce   
all toge!r 9 memory1 :]e ! law b9d+ !m c
 be felt1--a law :i* ea* elem5t z x     
comes into consci\sness is recogniz$ z  
fulfill+4 ,s9ce we usually look =w>d to 
! end ( ! rhy?mical movem5t z a goal1   
rhy?m (t5 exi/s 9 comb9ation )          
evolution1 & is !re=e ! mo/ inclusive ( 
all arti/ic /ructural =ms4 ,9 a poem1 = 
example1 ! metrical rhy?m is a framework
 ov]ly+ ! developm5t ( ! ?\ght4         
,dramatic unity is f\nd comb9$ ) balance

 ev5 9 ! /atic arts1 z1 = example1 9 !  
comb9ation ( blue & gold1 :]e ! balance 
is n q equal1 because ( a slight movem5t
 f ! blue to ! m brilliant & /rik+ gold4
 ,i h already %[n h[ h>mony1 opposition1
 & evolution may be comb9$ 9 a melody4  
,9 ! drama1 also1 all ?ree are pres5t4  
,!re is a balance ( oppos+ & conflict+  
wills or =ces2 ?is is un/able2 :5ce     
movem5t foll[s1 lead+ on to !           
cata/rophe1 :]e ! problem is solv$2 &   
?r\gh\t !re is a s+le mood or atmosph]e 
9 :i* all p>ticipate1 creat+ an envelop+
 h>mony despite ! t5sion & action4 ,&   
o!r illu/rations ( comb9ations ( types w
 come to ! m9d ( e read]4  ,ea* =m (    
unity has its difficulties & dang]s1 :i*
 mu/ be avoid$ if p]fection is to be    
atta9$4 ,9 h>mony !re may be too mu*    
id5tity & too little diff]5ce or v>iety1
 ) ! result t ! :ole becomes t$i\s &    
un9t]e/+4 ,?is is ! fault ( rigid       
symmetry & ( all o!r simple geometrical 
types ( composition1 :i*1 = ?is reason1 
h lo/ _! old popul>ity 9 ! decorative & 

pictorial arts4 ,9 balance1 on ! o!r h&1
 ! dang] is t !re may be too great a    
v>iety1 too /rong an opposition2 !      
elem5ts t5d to fly ap>t1 ?reat5+ !      
integrity ( ! :ole4 ,= x is n suffici5t 
t :ol5ess exi/ 9 a "w ( art2 x mu/ also 
be felt4 ,= example1 9 ,pre-,raphaelite 
pa9t+s & 9 mo/ ( ! ,secession "w ( our  
own day1 ! color contra/s are too /rong2
 !re is no impression ( visual unity4 ,9
 ! dramatic type ( unity !re are two    
*ief dang]s--t ! evolution be tortu\s1 s
 t we lose our way 9 its bypa?s & mazes2
 or1 on ! o!r h&1 t ! end be rea*$ too  
simply & quickly2 9 ! "o case1 we lose  
he>t = ! j\rney because ( ! ob/acles2 9 
! o!r1 we lose int]e/ & are bor$ = want 
( incid5ts4  ,we come n[ to ! second    
great pr9ciple ( ae/hetic /ructure--    
,dom9ance4,footnote3 ,cf4 ,lipps3       
,ae/hetik1 ,bd4 ,i1 ,s4 #ec1 ,vi]tes    
,kapitel ,9 an ae/hetic :ole ! elem5ts  
are seldom all on a level2 "s are       
sup]ior1 o!rs subord9ate4 ,! unity is   
m$iat$ ?r\gh "o or m acc5t$ elem5ts1    

?r\gh :i* ! :ole comes to emphatic      
expression4 ,! att5tion is n ev5ly      
di/ribut$ among ! p>ts1 b proce$s f     
c]ta9 ones :i* are focal & comm&+ to    
o!rs :i* are ( less] int]e/4 ,& !       
dom9ant elem5ts are n only sup]ior 9    
significance2 !y are1 9 addition1       
repres5tative ( ! :ole2 9 !m1 its value 
is conc5trat$2 !y are ! key by means (  
:i* its /ructure c be und]/ood4 ,!y are 
l good rul]s 9 a con/itutional /ate1 :o 
are at once preem95t memb]s ( !         
community & signal embodim5ts ( ! common
 w4 ,any?+ :i* di/+ui%es & makes        
repres5tative ( ! :ole s]ves to make    
dom9ant4 ,9 a well-con/ruct$ play !re   
are "o or m *>act]s :i* are c5tral to ! 
action1 9 :om ! _s & problem ( ! piece  
are embodi$1 z ,hamlet 9 ,hamlet & ,br& 
9 ,br&2 9 e plot !re is ! cata/rophe or 
turn+ po9t1 = :i* e prec$+ incid5t is a 
prep>ation1 & ( :i* e foll[+ "o is a    
consequ5t2 9 a melody !re is ! keynote2 
9 ! l>g] composition !re are ! "o or m  
!mes ^: work+ out is ! piece2 9 a       

picture !re are c]ta9 elem5ts :i*       
especially attract ! att5tion1 ab\t :i* 
! o!rs are compos$4 ,9 ! m complex      
rhy?ms1 9 met]s1 = example1 ! elem5ts   
are gr\p$ ar\nd ! acc5t$ ones4 ,9 an    
ae/hetic :ole !re are c]ta9 qualities & 
positions :i*1 because ( _! claim ^u !  
att5tion1 t5d to make dom9ant any       
elem5ts :i* possess !m4 ,9 space-=ms !  
c5t] & ! edges are naturally places (   
preem95ce4 ,! eye falls fir/ ^u ! c5t] &
 !n is drawn away to ! b\nd>ies4 ,9 old 
pictures1 ! ,madonna or ,*ri/ is plac$ 9
 ! c5t] & ! angels ne> ! p]imet]2 9     
fancy "w x is ! c5t] & ! bord] :i* wom5 
embroid]4 ,9 "t1 ! beg9n+1 middle1 & end
 are ! natural places ( importance2 !   
beg9n+1 because !re ! att5tion is fre% &
 expectant2 t[>ds ! middle1 because !re 
we t5d to re/1 look+ backw>d to !       
comm5cem5t & =w>d to ! end2 ! end       
itself1 because be+ la/ 9 ! m9d1 its    
hold ^u ! memory is firme/4 ,9 any      
process ! beg9n+ is important z ! />t1 !
 plan1 ! prep>ation2 ! middle z ! climax

 & turn+ po9t2 ! end z ! consummation4  
,( c\rse by ! middle is n meant a       
ma!matical po9t ( division into equal   
p>ts1 b a psy*ological po9t1 :i* is     
usually ne>] ! end1 because ! impetus ( 
action & purpose c>ry =w>d & beyond4    
,?us 9 a plot ! beg9n+ /&s out z sett+ !
 problem & introduc+ ! *>act]s &        
situation2 !n ! movem5t ( ! action1     
ga!r+ =ce increas+ly z x proce$s1 breaks
 at "s po9t well beyond ! middle2 9 !   
la/ "p ! problem is solv$ & !           
consequ5ces ( ! action are reveal$4     
,l>ge size is ano!r quality :i*         
di/+ui%es & t5ds to make dom9ant1 z 9 ! 
t[] & ! m\nta94 ,9 "o ( ,meml+'s pa9t+s1
 ,/4 ,ursula & ! ,maid5s1 :i*1 :5 ,i saw
 x1 0 9 ,bruges1 ! lady is repres5t$    
twice z tall z ! full gr[n girls :om %e 
envelops 9 h] protect+ cloak2 yet1      
despite ! unnaturalness1 we d n exp]i5ce
 any incongruity2 = x is rational to our
 feel+4 ,int5sity ( any sort is ano!r   
prop]ty :i* creates dom9ance--l\dness ( 
s\nd 9 music2 conc5tration ( light 9    

pa9t+1 z 9 ,rembr&t2 /ress 9 rhy?m2 dep?
 & scope ( purpose & feel+1 z 9 ! great 
*>act]s ( fiction4 ,! effectiv5ess (    
int5sity may be greatly increas$ ?r\gh  
contra/--! pianissimo aft] ! =tissimo2 !
 pa?os ( ! fif? act ( ,hamlet set (f by 
! com$y ( ! fir/ sc5e4 ,sometimes all ! 
natural qualifications ( em95ce are     
unit$ 9 a s+le "w3 9 old pa9t+s1 =      
example1 ! ,*ri/ ,*ild1 spiritually !   
mo/ significant elem5t ( ! :ole1 w be ( 
sup]natural size1 w occupy ! c5t] ( !   
picture1 w h ! light conc5trat$ ^u him1 
& w be dress$ 9 brightly gleam+ g>m5ts4 
,z ,i h already indicat$1 !re may be m  
?an "o dom9ant elem5t2 = in/ance1 two or
 m pr9cipal *>act]s 9 a novel or        
play--,"l & ,lady ,macbe?1 ,san*o & ,don
 ,quixote1 ,o!llo & ,desdemona1 ,br& & 8
 wife4 ,9 ?is case1 !re mu/ be ei!r     
subord9ation among !m1 a hi]>*ical      
arrangem5t2 or else reciprocity or      
balance1 z 9 ! illu/rations cit$1 :]e x 
is difficult to tell :i* is ! m         
important ( ! two2 o!rwise !y w\ld pull 

! :ole ap>t4 ,! advantage ( sev]al      
dom9ant elem5ts lies 9 ! great]         
animation1 & :5 ! "w is l>ge1 9 !       
sup]ior organization1 :i* !y conf]4 ,9  
ord] t !re may be p]spicuity1 x is      
necess>y1 :5 !re are _m elem5ts1 t !y be
 sep>at$ into m9or gr\ps ar\nd high     
po9ts :i* individualize & repres5t !m1 &
 s take _! place 9 ! m9d1 m$iat+ betwe5 
!m & unity :5 a f9al syn!sis ( ! :ole is
 to be made4  ,! ?ird great pr9ciple (  
ae/hetic /ructure is equilibrium or     
imp>tiality4 ,?is is a pr9ciple         
c\nt]act+ dom9ance4 ,x dem&s1 despite ! 
subord9ation among ! elem5ts1 t none be 
neglect$4 ,ea*1 no matt] h[ m9or its "p 
9 ! :ole1 mu/ h "s unique value ( its   
own1 mu/ be an end z well z a means4    
,dom9ance is ! ari/ocratic pr9ciple 9   
art1 ! rule ( ! be/2 ?is is ! democratic
 pr9ciple1 ! dem& = fre$om &            
significance = all4 ,j z1 9 a well-ord]$
 /ate1 ! happ9ess ( no individual or    
class ( individuals is sacrific$ to t ( 
o!r individuals or classes2 s 9 art1 ea*

 "p mu/ be elaborat$ & p]fect$1 n m]ely 
= ! sake ( its contribution to ! :ole1 b
 = its own sake4 ,!re %\ld be no m]e    
figure-heads or ma*9]y4 ,lov+ c>e (     
detail1 ( ! incid5tal1 *>act]izes ! be/ 
art4  ,( c\rse ?is pr9ciple1 l ! o!rs1  
is an ideal or norm1 :i* is only        
imp]fectly realiz$ 9 _m works ( art4 ,_m
 a poet f9ds x necess>y to fill 9 8 l9es
 & _m a pa9t] & musician does ! l ) 8   
pictures or compositions4 ,!re is mu*   
m]e scaffold+ & _m lay-figures 9 drama &
 novel4 ,b ! "w ( ! ma/]s is diff]5t4   
,!re ea* l9e or /roke or musical phrase1
 ea* "* or incid5t1 is unique or        
mean+ful4 ,! greate/ example ( ?is is   
p]haps ! ,div9e ,com$y1 :]e ea* ( !     
hundr$ cantos & ea* l9e ( ea* canto is  
p]fect 9 workman%ip & pack$ )           
significance4 ,!re is1 ( c\rse1 a limit 
to ?is elaboration ( ! p>ts1 set by !   
dem&s = unity & :ol5ess4 ,!             
individuality ( ! elem5ts mu/ n be s    
great t we re/ 9 !m sev]ally1 c>+ little
 or no?+ = _! relations to "o ano!r & to

 ! :ole4 ,! contribution ( ?is pr9ciple 
is ri*ness4 ,unity 9 v>iety gives       
:ol5ess2 dom9ance1 ord]2 equilibrium1   
weal?1 int]e/1 vitality4  ,! /ructure ( 
works ( art is ev5 m complicat$ ?an w\ld
 appe> f ! description giv5 ?us f>4 ,=  
!re is n only ! unity ( ! elem5ts among 
!mselves1 b betwe5 ! two aspects ( ea*  
elem5t & ( ! :ole--! =m & cont5t4       
,?is--! unity betwe5 ! s5se m$ium &     
:atev] ( ?\ght & feel+ is embodi$ 9     
x--is ! fundam5tal unity 9 all          
expression4 ,x is ! unity betwe5 a ^w & 
its mean+1 a musical tone & its mood1 a 
color & %ape & :at !y repres5t4 ,s9ce1  
h[ev]1 x is indisp5sable to all         
expression1 x is n peculi> to art4 ,& to
 a l>ge ext5t1 ev5 9 ! creative "w ( !  
arti/1 ?is unity is giv51 n made2 ! v   
mat]ials ( ! arti/ consi/+ ( elem5t>y   
expressions--words1 tones1 colors1      
space-=ms--9 :i* ! unity ( =m & cont5t  
has already be5 a*iev$1 ei!r by an      
innate psy*o-physical process1 z is !   
case ) tones & simple rhy?ms1 or by     

association & habit1 z is ! case ) !    
words ( any natural language1 or !      
object-mean+s :i* we atta* to colors &  
%apes4 ,! poet does n "w ) s\nds1 b )   
words :i* already h _! def9ite mean+s2 8
 creation consi/s ( ! l>g] :ole into :i*
 he weaves !m4 ,( c\rse1 ev5 9 ! case ( 
ord9>y v]bal expression1 ! ?\ght (t5    
comes fir/ be=e its clo?+ 9 words1 :5   
!re is a c]ta9 process ( *oice & fitt+2 
& 9 pa9t+ !re is always ! possibility ( 
v>y+ conv5tional =ms2 yet ev5 s1 9 l>ge 
measure1 ! elem5ts ( ! arts are !mselves
 expressions1 9 :i* a unity ( =m &      
cont5t already exi/s4  ,9 art1 h[ev]1   
!re are subtl] aspects to ! relation    
betwe5 =m & cont5t1 & ^! h a unique     
ae/hetic significance4 ,= !re1 z we "k1 
! elem5ts ( ! m$ium1 colors & l9es &    
s\nds1 & ! patt]ns ( ^!1 _! h>monies &  
/ructures & rhy?ms1 are expressive1 9 a 
vague way1 ( feel+2 h5ce1 :5 ! arti/    
employs !m z embodim5ts ( 8 ideas1 he   
has to select !m1 n only z c>ri]s (     
mean+1 b z communications ( mood4 ,n[1 9

 ord] t 8 selection be appropriate1 x is
 cle>ly necess>y t ! feel+ tone ( ! =m  
be id5tical ) t ( ! cont5t :i* he puts  
into x4 ,! m$ium z su* mu/ reexpress & s
 en=ce ! values ( ! cont5t4 ,?is is !   
h>mony1 z di/+ui%$ f ! m]e unity1 ( =m &
 cont5t1 ! exi/5ce ( :i* 9 art is "o (  
its di/+ui%+ prop]ties4 ,i h already    
call$ att5tion to ?is 9 our second      
*apt]4 ,x involves1 z we obs]v$1 t 9    
pa9t+1 = example1 ! feel+ tone ( !      
colors & l9es %\ld be id5tical ) t ( !  
objects to be repres5t$2 9 poetry1 t !  
emotional quality ( met] & rhy?m %\ld be
 attun$ to ! incid5ts & s5tim5ts        
express$4 ,o!rwise ! effect is ugly or  
comical4  ,:5 we come to ! "w ( art1 ?is
 h>mony is already a*iev$4 ,b = ! arti/ 
x is some?+ delicately to be work$ out4 
,yet1 j z 9 ord9>y expression =m &      
cont5t (t5 em]ge 9 unison1 ! ?\ght      
itself be+ a ^w & ! ^w a ?\ght2 s 9     
arti/ic creation1 ! "m mood out ( :i* ! 
creative act spr+s1 f9ds imm$iate &     
=?right embodim5t 9 a cong5ial =m4 ,su* 

a spontane\s & p]fect balance ( matt] & 
=m is1 h[ev]1 seldom a*iev$ )\t long &  
pa9ful exp]im5tation & practice1 bo? by 
! arti/ himself 9 8 own private "w1 & by
 8 pr$ecessors1 ^: results he           
appropriates4 ,l>ge traditional &       
(t5times rigid =ms1 su* z ! common      
metrical & musical s*emes & ar*itectural
 ord]s1 into :i* ! p]sonal matt] (      
expression may aptly fall1 are ?us      
elaborat$ 9 e art4 ,z aga9/ e loos] &   
novel =m1 !y h ! advantages fir/1 ( be+ 
m readily & /eadily held 9 ! memory1 :]e
 !y may ga!r new & poignant             
associations2 second1 ( com+ to u       
already freight$ ) simil> associations  
out ( ! pa/2 & la/1 ( compell+ ! arti/1 
9 ord] t he may fit 8 inspiration into  
!m1 to purify x ( all irrelevant        
sub/ance4 ,impati5t arti/s rebel aga9/  
=ms1 b wise ones ei!r accommodate _!    
g5ius to !m1 until !y become 9 ! end a  
second & equally spontane\s nature1 or  
else create new =ms1 z def9ite z ! old4 
,,*apt] ,,vi  ,,! ,,problem ,,( ,,evil  

,,9 ,,ae/hetics1 ,,& ,,its ,,solution   
,,?r\gh ,,! ,,tragic1 ,,pa!tic1 ,,&     
,,comic   ,:51 9 our ?ird *apt]1 we     
def9$ ! purpose ( art1 we indicat$ t x 0
 broad en\gh to include ! expression (  
evil1 b we did n %[ 9 detail h[ ?is 0   
possible4 ,t is our pres5t !me4  ,art is
 sympa!tic repres5tation2 ! ef=t n only 
to reveal an object to u1 b to unite u )
 x4 ,! arti/ f9ds no difficulty 9       
accompli%+ ?is purpose ) ref]5ce to "o  
class ( objects--^? :i*1 ap>t f         
portrayal1 we call beautiful4 ,to ^! we 
are drawn imm$iately because !y s]ve    
directly ! ends ( life4 ,nature sees to 
x t we dwell ) pleasure on ! sight (    
heal?y *ildr51 well-gr[n wom51 &        
b\ntiful l&scapes4 ,& to !              
repres5tations ( su* objects we are     
attract$ by ! same in/9cts t attract u  
to ! ?+s !mselves4 ,no special p[] ( art
 is requir$ t we take delight 9 !m2 !   
task ( ! arti/ is half accompli%$ be=e  
he beg9s4 ,yet ! scope ( art is wid] ?an
 ?is1 = x repres5ts evil z well z good4 

,dea? z well z life1 sickness & de=mity 
z well z heal?1 suff]+ z well z joy1 s9 
equally ) goodness1 come )9 its purview4
 ,& ^! also x n only reveals to u b     
makes good to "k1 s good 9 fact t !y are
 p]haps ! pref]r$ objects ( arti/ic     
repres5tation4 ,b in/ead ( be+ able to  
rely on in/9cts t w\ld draw u to ^!     
objects1 art has to ov]come ^? t w\ld   
lead u away f !m4 ,x has to conqu] our  
natural horror at dea?1 pa9 at suff]+1 &
 revulsion aga9/ wick$ness4 ,h[ does x8 
,t is ! problem ( evil 9 /hetics4  ,!re 
are _m means by :i* ?is problem is      
solv$4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! m]e fact t art
 is repres5tation & n reality does mu*  
t[>d ov]com+ any feel+s ( moral or      
physical repugnance we might h t[>d !   
objects repres5t$4 ,^! feel+s exi/ = !  
sake ( action2 h5ce1 :5 action is       
impossible--& we _c act on !            
unreal--al?\gh !y may /ill p]si/1 !y    
become less /rong4 ,t[>d ! m]ely        
imag9>y1 ! practical & moral attitudes1 
:i* t[>ds ! real w\ld lead to           

condemnation & )drawal1 lose _!         
relevance & t5d to disappe>4 ,t is "o ( 
! advantages ( art ov] ! m imm$iate     
p]ception ( life4 ,x is difficult to    
take a purely ae/hetic attitude t[>ds   
all ( life1 to seek only to get into    
sympa!tic contact ) x = ! sake ( an inn]
 realization ( :at x is2 mu* ( x t\*es u
 too closely on ! side ( our practical &
 moral int]e/s4 ,a c]ta9 man1 = example1
 does n belong to our set1 or 8 ways are
 s bohemian t x w\ld imp]il our social  
position or ! safety ( our s\ls to get  
acqua9t$ ) him2 s we reject him & ca/   
him into ! out] d>kness ( our           
disapproval--or he rejects u4 ,su* a    
p]son1 we feel1 is to be avoid$ or      
haply1 if we be sa9ts1 to be sav$ f     
himself2 b n to be accept$ & und]/ood4  
,& ev5 if we succe$ 9 free+ ourselves f 
! moral po9t ( view1 we are /ill        
preoccupi$ ) ! practical1 if ! man      
happ5s to int]e/ u comm]cially2 we h n !
 "t nor ! desire to see 8 nature z a    
:ole4 ,n s 9 art4 ,z a "* 9 a novel1 a  

man _c be employ$2 nor c x be a haz>d to
 keep company ) him2 & 8 s\l is surely  
beyond our sav+2 ! only ?+ left = u to d
 is to sympa?ize ) & try to und]/& him1 
to ent] into communion ) 8 _s4 ,by free+
 life f ! practical & moral1 art gives !
 imag9ation full sway4 ,?is1 to be sure1
 is only a negative =ce work+ 9 !       
direction ( beauty1 yet is important    
none ! less because x enables ! m       
positive influ5ces to function easily4  
,"o ( ^! is :at ,i w\ld call sympa!tic  
curiosity1 :i* may encompass all images 
( life4 ,?+s :i*1 if met ) 9 life1 w\ld 
c]ta9ly repel1 :5 pres5t$ 9 image1      
simply excite our curiosity to "k4 ,(   
c\rse "s are impell$ by ! same int]e/ to
 get into contact ) all exp]i5ce--,homo 
sum3 humani nihil ali5um a me puto--yet 
) ! great majority ! impulses to )draw  
are too /rong4 ,b all h a desire = fur!r
 k :5 a m]e idea ( human life1 h[ev]    
repell5t1 is pres5t$2 = ! in/9ct (      
greg>i\sness1 :i* creates a special     
int]e/ 9 our k9d1 works ) full =ce 9 !  

m9d to /r5g!n curiosity4 ,!re is no "p (
 human exp]i5ce :i* x does n embrace4   
,we c well =ego k ( />s & trees1 b we _c
 rema9 ignorant ( any?+ human4 ,z ! mo? 
to ! flame1 we are l$1 ev5 aga9/ our w1 
into all ( life1 ev5 ! mo/ unpleasant4  
,! *>m possess$ by ! novel & unplumb$1  
by su* /ories z ,jude ! ,obscure1 or by 
! weird imag9+s ( a ,baudelaire1 comes f
 ?is s\rce4 ,x is no m]e sci5tific      
curiosity1 because x includes t         
consci\sness ( k9d1 :i* makes u feel ak9
 to all we "k4  ,sympa!tic curiosity1   
h[ev]1 seldom works alone1 = o!r        
int]e/s1 less wor?y & !re=e (t5 unav[$1 
usually coop]ate to ov]come our         
repugnances t[>ds ! unpleasant4 ,_m (   
our repugnances are n simple & orig9al l
 ^? felt t[>ds dea?1 d>kness1 & de=mity1
 b highly complex products ( education1 
:i* may be dissolv$ by a /rong appeal to
 ! m primitive in/9cts :i* !y seek to   
repress4 ,an arti/ may1 = example1 ?r\gh
 a vivid portrayal1 s excite ! animal   
lu/ & cruelty :i* lurk hidd5 9 all ( u z

 to make ! mo/ morally repreh5sible     
objects acceptable4 ,nature has tak5 _m 
a rev5ge on civilization ?r\gh art4     
,al?\gh no "o %\ld dem& t ^! appeals be 
entirely exclud$1 yet :5 !y op]ate      
alone1 )\t ! sublimation ( insight1 !y  
are flagrantly unae/hetic 9 _! influ5ce1
 because !y deprive ! "w ( art ( its    
fre$om4  ,ano!r means :i* ! arti/ may   
employ 9 ord] to w9 u is ! appeal (     
s5se4 ,h[ev] repell5t be ! objects :i*  
he repres5ts1 if he c clo! !m 9 a s5su\s
 mat]ial :i* w *>m u1 he w h ex]t$ a    
p[]ful c\nt]vail+ =ce4 ,we h already _h 
occasion to obs]ve ?is 9 our fir/ *apt]4
 ,?r\gh ! call ( s5se we are invit$ to  
ent] & are made welcome at ! v ?re%old (
 ! "w ( art4 ,engag+ l9es1 w9some colors
 & tones1 & compell+ rhy?ms c ov]come   
almo/ any repugnance t we might o!rwise 
feel = ! subject-matt]4 ,_! prim>y      
appeals are sup]ior to all ! res]vations
 ( civilization4 ,no wond] t ! /]n      
morali/s :o w\ld keep beauty = ! clean &
 holy h be5 afraid ( art6 ,yet ! delight

 ( s5se1 because its emotional effect is
 diffus$1 does n int]f]e ) !            
contemplative s]5ity ( art1 z unbridl$  
passion does2 x ev5 quiets passion by   
div]t+ ! att5tion to itself2 h5ce may   
always be employ$ by ! arti/4 ,a good   
example ( ! ae/hetic fasc9ation (       
s5sation is ,von ,/uck's ,salome 9 !    
,art ,in/itute ( ,*icago4 ,= all normal 
feel+1 ,salome danc+ ) ! head ( ,john ! 
,bapti/ is a revolt+ object2 yet h[     
beautiful ! arti/ has made 8 picture    
?r\gh ! simple lovel9ess ( gold & r$6   
,x w\ld be a mi/ake1 h[ev]1 to inf] !   
indiff]5ce ( ! subject-matt] 9 art4 ,!  
creation ( a "w ( art is bas$ on a      
prim>y ae/hetic exp]i5ce ( nature or    
human life1 & n ev]y?+ is capable (     
produc+ su* an exp]i5ce 9 all m54 ,!    
subject mu/ be "o t[>ds :i* ! arti/ or  
spectator is able to take ! /hetic      
attitude ( emotional1 yet free1         
p]ception4 ,"s p are unable to lay aside
 _! moral prepossessions t[>ds c]ta9    
phases ( life or ev5 t[>ds repres5tation

 ( !m2 ! idea affects !m z w\ld !       
reality4 ,= su* p ev5 ! g5ius ( a       
,be>dsley is too feeble to create an    
exp]i5ce ( beauty out ( ! mat]ial ) :i* 
he works4 ,or aga91 "s p _c objectify _!
 s5sual egoti/ic impulses & feel+s2 = !m
 ! read+ ( a ,boccaccio1 = example1 is  
only a sub/itute = su* feel+s1 n a means
 ( insight into !m4 ,x requires a robu/ 
intellectual attitude1 a pr$om9ance (   
m9d ov] feel+ & in/9ct1 ae/hetically to 
appreciate "s works ( art4 ,b = ^? :o c 
receive x1 ! repres5tation ( any phase (
 life may af=d an ae/hetic exp]i5ce1 may
 create a ?+ good to "k1 if only x be   
ma/]$ by ! m9d & embodi$ 9 a *>m+ =m4   
,! *>m ( s5se toge!r ) ! satisfaction ( 
insight are suffici5t to expla9 !       
conque/ ( evil by art4 ,yet fur!r means 
h be5 employ$--! special appeals ( !    
tragic1 pa!tic1 & comic4  ,:at any "o   
may mean by tragic is l>gely a matt] (  
p]sonal def9ition or tradition2 yet !re 
is1 ,i ?9k1 a common ess5ce ^u :i* all  
w\ld agree4 ,fir/1 trag$y always        

involves ! manful /ruggle ( a p]sonality
 9 ! pursuit ( "s end1 at ! co/ (       
suff]+1 p]haps ( dea? & failure4 ,!     
opposition may come f nature1 z 9 ,!    
,gramm>ian's ,fun]al2 f fate1 z 9 !     
,o$ipus2 f social & political int]e/s1 z
 9 ,antigone2 t is ( little mom5t2 x is 
important solely t ! battle be accept$ &
 wag$ unfl9*+ly to ! issue4 ,9 ?is      
ultimate s5se1 mo/ ( human life is      
tragic2 because x involves a cont9ual   
w>f>e ) circum/ances1 :i* ! majority ( p
 c>ry on ) a sil5t h]oism4 ,orig9ally1  
only ! glori\s & spectacul> conflicts ( 
great p]sonalities 7 deem$ wor?y (      
repres5tation 9 art2 b ) ! gr[? (       
sympa?y ! range ( tragic portrayal has  
gradually be5 ext5d$ ov] almo/ ! :ole ( 
human life4 ,! peasant 9 8 /ruggle =    
subsi/5ce aga9/ a nigg>dly soil1 or !   
pati5t woman :o loses ! bloom ( h] y\? 9
 ! unremitt+ ef=t to ma9ta9 h] *ildr51  
are tragic figures4  ,second1 x is "p ( 
! ess5ce ( trag$y t ! conflict %\ld be  
recogniz$ z necess>y & its issue z      

inevitable4 ,9 "o =m or ano!r1 :e!r z   
,greek or ,*ri/ian or naturali/ic1      
fatality has rema9$ an abid+ elem5t 9 ! 
idea ( trag$y4 ,! purpose or passion or 
s5tim5t :i* impels ! h]o to und]take &  
ma9ta9 ! /ruggle mu/ be a "p ( 8 nature 
s integral t no?+ else is possible =    
him4 ,i* kann ni*t &]s is ! cry ( e     
tragic p]sonality4 ,& ! opposition :i*  
he meets f o!r p]sons1 f social =ces or 
natural circum/ances1 mu/ seem to be    
equally fateful--mu/ be repres5t$ z     
issu+ f a c\nt] det]m9ation or law no   
less inescapable ?an ! h]o's w4 ,ev5 :5 
! cata/rophe dep5ds ^u "s s-call$       
accid5t1 x mu/ be made to appe> necess>y
 t our human purposes %\ld sometimes be 
caught & /rangl$ 9 ! web ( natural fact 
:i* envelops !m4  ,! reasons = our      
acceptance ( trag$y are n difficult to  
f9d & h be5 not$1 ) m or less cle>ness1 
by all /ud5ts4 ,we accept x mu* z ! h]o 
accepts 8 own /ruggle--he believes 9 !  
values :i* he is fight+ = & we          
sympa!tically make 8 w ours4 ,moreov]1  

we discov] a special value 9 8 c\rage   
:i*1 we feel1 comp5sates = ! evil ( 8   
suff]+1 defeat1 or dea?4 ,s long z we   
set any value on life1 x is impossible =
 u n to e/eem c\rage2 = c\rage is at    
once ! def5se aga9/ attack ( all our    
possessions & ! s\rce1 9 p]sonal        
initiative & aggressive action1 ( new] &
 l>g] life4 ,& any %r9k+ t we may feel  
aga9/ ! /]nness ( ! /ruggle is qu5*$ bo?
 by ! h]o's example & by our recognition
 ( its necessity4 ,s9ce we are n        
p>ticipants ( x1 our prote/ w\ld be     
futile1 & ev5 if we play$ a "p 9 x1 we  
%\ld be z fooli% z we %\ld be weak1 n to
 recognize t ! w :i* opposes u is z     
inflexible z our own--su* is life--t is 
our ultimate comm5t4 ,an appreciation ( 
trag$y involves1 !re=e1 a sure disc]nm5t
 ( ! ess5tial di%>mony ( exi/5ce1 yet at
 ! same "t1 a feel+ = ! moral values :i*
 x may create2 nei!r ! optimi/ nor !    
utilit>ian c ent] into its _w4  ,!re    
are1 h[ev]1 works ( art 9 :i* %e] evil1 
)\t any comp5sat+ developm5t ( "*1 is   

portray$2 :]e inde$ ! /ruggle may ev5   
cause decay ( "*4 ,9 ,zola's ,! ,dram   
,%op1 = example1 ! /ory is ! tale ( !   
moral decl9e1 ?r\gh un=tunate           
circum/ances & vici\s surr\nd+s1 ( !    
sweet1 pliant ,g]vaise4 ,in/ead (       
develop+ a resi/ance to circum/ances :i*
 w\ld h made !m yield a value ev5 9     
defeat1 %e lets h]self g & is spoil$    
b5ea? !m4 ,%e has no fri5d to help or   
gu>dian angel to save4 ,we d n blame h]1
 =1 ) h] s(t nature1 %e c\ld n d o!rwise
 ?an crumble "u ! h>d press ( fate2     
nei!r c we admire h]1 = %e lacks !      
adamant9e /uff ( :i* h]oes are made4    
,?is is pa?os1 n trag$y4 ,& j z mo/ (   
human life involves trag$y 9 s f> z x   
develops a /r5g? to meet ! dang]s :i*   
?reat5 x1 s likewise x involves pa?os1 9
 s f> z x seldom resi/s at e po9t1 b    
gives way1 blight$ )\t hope4 ,_m a man  
or woman issues f life's conflicts      
weak]1 n /rong]2 brok51 n defiant2      
petulant1 n sweet5$2 & at ! h\r ( dea?  
!re are few h]oes4 ,yet !re may be      

beauty 9 ! /ory ( ?is human weakness &  
we>9ess4 ,:5ce comes x8 ,h[ c !         
repres5tation ( ?is %e] evil become a   
good8 ,! pr9ciple involv$ is a simple   
"o4 ,ann\nc$ fir/1 z f> z ,i "k1 by     
,m5delssohn1 x has rec5tly be5 mu* m    
sci5tifically & p5etrat+ly analyz$ by   
,lipps1 al?\gh wrongly appli$ by him to 
! tragic r ?an ! pa!tic4,footnote3 ,cf4 
,lipps3 ,d] ,/reit b] die ,tragodie1 &  
,ae/hetik1 ,bd4 ,i1 ,s4 #eii4  ,x is a  
famili> & g5]ally recogniz$ exp]i5ce1 z 
,lipps has obs]v$1 t any ?reat or h>m   
done to a value evokes 9 u a height5$   
appreciation ( its wor?4 ,p>t+ is a     
sweet sorr[ because only !n d we fully  
realize ! wor? ( :at we are los+2 !     
beauty ( y\? t dies is m beautiful      
because 9 dea? its radiance %9es !      
bright] 9 our memory4 ,a good 9         
contemplation comes to take ! place ( a 
lo/ good 9 reality4 ,j z we hold on ! m 
tightly to ?+s t are slipp+ away f u 9 a
 va9 ef=t to keep !m1 s to save         
ourselves f utt] sorr[1 we build up 9 ! 

imag9ation a fair image ( :at we h lo/1 
free ( ! du/ ( ! _w4 ,?is makes !       
peculi> *>m ( ! delicate & fragile1 (   
weak ?+s & little ?+s1 ( ! transi5t &   
p]i%able2 !y awak5 9 u ! t5d]1          
protective impulse :ile !y la/1 & :5 !y 
are gone !y suff] at our h&s an         
idealization :i* ! /rong & endur+ c nev]
 receive4 ,our pity = !m m$iates an     
increas$ love ( !m2 we mock at fate :i* 
deprives u ( !m by keep+ !m secure &    
fair] 9 our memory4  ,z 9 life1 s 9 art4
 ,b5ea? & ar\nd ! pictur$ de/ruction &  
ru9 !re op5s up to u a m poignant vision
 ( ! lovel9ess ( :at 0 or might h be54  
,at ! end ( ,! ,dram ,%op1 :5 ,g]vaise  
s9ks into ru91 we inevitably rev]t to ! 
beg9n+ & see aga91 only m int5sely1 !   
g5tle girl t %e 01 or else1 go+ =w>d1 we
 imag9e :at %e might h be51 if only %e  
_h be5 giv5 a *ance4 ,! =m ( a possible 
good rises up f "u ! actual evil4 ,!    
/ory ( oppression becomes ! praise (    
fre$om2 ! picture ( dea?1 a vision (    
life4 ,i "k ( no f9] example ( ?is 9 all

 lit]ature ?an ,sophocles' ,ajax4 ,ajax 
has (f5d$ ,a!na1 s he1 ! h]o ( !        
,grecian ho/1 is seiz$ ) ! mad desire to
 d battle ) cattle & %eep4 ,9 lucid     
int]vals he lam5ts to 8 wife ! %ameful  
fate :i* has befall5 him4 ,h[ glori\s 8 
=m] pr[ess appe>s lo/ 9 s ridicul\s a   
c\nt]feit6 ,& 8 despair creates its     
magic4  ,9 almo/ all s-call$ trag$ies1  
true trag$y & pa?os are int]m+l$2 = we  
feel bo? pity & admiration1 & ! pity    
int5sifies ! admiration4 ,! dang] t     
?reat5s or ! disa/] t ov]:elms ! values 
:i* ! h]o embodies make u realize _!    
wor? ! m4 ,?r\gh\t ! ,antigone we admire
 ! h]o9e's tragic c\rage ( devotion2 b x
 is at ! po9t :51 j be=e h] dea?1 %e    
lam5ts h] y\? & beauty t %all g         
fruitless--    ,ale*ron1 anym5aion1 oute
 ton gamon   mepos la*\san oute paideion
 tpophaes  t we feel ! fullness ( /r5g? 
t 0 ne$$ = ! sacrifice4 ,"o might p]haps
 ?9k ?is lam5t a blemi% ( weakness 9 a  
picture ( =titude2 b ! impression is j !
 opposite1 ,i believe2 = =ce is measur$ 

by :at x ov]comes4  ,!re are s _m       
diff]5t !ories ( trag$y t x w\ld be     
impossible1 7 x wor? :ile1 to emb>k on a
 criticism ( all ( !m4 ,!re are c]ta9   
ones1 h[ev]1 :i*1 because ( _! wide     
acceptance1 dem& "s att5tion at our h&s4
 ,fir/1 x is (t5 assum$ t a trag$y %\ld 
repres5t ! good z ultimately triumph+1  
despite suff]+ & failure4 ,b h[ c ! good
 triumph :5 ! h]o fails & dies8 ,only1 x
 is answ]$1 if ! h]o repres5ts a cause  
:i* may w9 despite or ev5 because ( 8   
individual doom2 & x is ) ?is cause1 n )
 him1 t we *iefly sympa?ize4 ,?is 0     
,hegel's view1 :o dem&$ t ! tragic h]o  
repres5t "s univ]sal int]e/ :i*1 :5     
purg$ ( ! "o-sid$ness & uncompromis+    
insi/5ce ( ! h]o's *ampion+1 may        
nev]!less endure & triumph 9 its g5u9e  
wor?4 ,9 ! ,antigone1 ,hegel's favorite 
example1 ! cause ( family loyalty f9ds  
recognition ?r\gh ! puni%m5t ( ,creon = 
! girl's dea?2 :ile at ! same "t !      
pr9ciple ( ! sov]eignty ( ! /ate is     
upheld ?r\gh h] sacrifice4 ,!re are _m  

trag$ies :i* con=m1 at lea/ p>tially1 to
 ?is s*eme2 b n all1 h5ce x _c be a     
univ]sal norm4 ,9 ,romeo & ,juliet1 =   
example1 al?\gh ! dea? ( ! "y p s]ves to
 br+ ab\t a reconciliation ( _!         
families1 ! real pr9ciple = :i* !y      
suff]$--! "r ( private *oice 9 matt]s ( 
love--is 9 no way fur!r$ by ! outcome ( 
! play4 ,&1 al?\gh x is always possible 
to univ]salize ! good :i* is s\ght by   
any w1 x is n possible to deflect ^u a  
pr9ciple ! full int5sity ( our sympa?y1 
away f ! individual1 concrete passion & 
action4 ,:5ev] a great p]sonality is    
repres5t$1 x is 8 p]sonal suff]+ &      
=titude t w9 at once our pity & our     
admiration4 ,= private sorr[s1 = ! ru9 (
 "*1 = ! dea? ( ^? :om we are made to   
love1 !re c be no complete atonem5t 9 ! 
univ]sal2 because x is ) ! individual t 
we are *iefly conc]n$4 ,no2 !           
reconciliation lies :]e we h plac$ x--9 
trag$y1 9 ! p]sonal h]oism ( ! /rong "*2
 9 pa?os1 9 ! vision1 n 9 ! triumph1 ( !
 good4  ,! ord9>y ,prote/ant !ological  

!ory ( trag$y is ev5 m inadequate ?an ! 
,hegelian4 ,=1 by assum+ t !re is no    
g5u9e loss 9 ! _w1 t e evil is comp5sat$
 = 9 ! future lives ( ! h]oes1 x takes  
away ! /+ f _! sacrifice & s deprives !m
 ( _! cr[n ( glory4 ,x makes e adv5ture 
a calculation ( prud5ce & e despair a   
f>ce4 ,x is remote f ! reality (        
exp]i5ce :]e m5 /ake all on a *ance &1  
in/ead ( receiv+ ! good by an act (     
grace1 wr+ x by blood & te>s f evil4    
,on mu* ! same level ( ?9k+ is !        
morali/ic !ory :i* requires t !         
mis=tunes ( ! h]o %\ld be ! p5alty = "s 
fault or weakness4 ,?is view1 :i* has ! 
au?ority ( ,ari/otle1 is also bas$ on ! 
doctr9e ( ! ju/ice ( ! _w-ord]4 ,x 0    
pretty consi/5tly c>ri$ out 9 !         
classical ,greek drama2 al?\gh !re      
suff]+ is n exact$ z an ext]nal         
retribution1 b z ! inevitable consequ5ce
 ( ! turbul5t passions ( ! *>act]s2 =   
ev5 ! puni%m5t = (f5ses aga9/ ! gods is 
( ! nature ( a p]sonal rev5ge :i* !y    
take4 ,lat]1 ( c\rse1 :5 ! gods retreat$

 into ! backgr\nd ( human life1         
retributive ju/ice 0 conceiv$ m         
ab/ractly4 ,n[1 x mu/ be admitt$1 ,i    
?9k1 t ?is idea1 s deeply root$ 9 !     
popul> m9d1 has ex]t$ a pr(\nd influ5ce 
on ! drama2 yet x _c be appli$          
univ]sally )\t sophi/ry4 ,to be sure1 9 
,romeo & ,juliet1 ! "y p 7 disob$i5t &  
head/rong2 9 ,le>1 ! old fa!r 0 fooli%ly
 tru/ful ( 8 wick$ daught]s2 ^!         
frailties br\ght ab\t _! ru94 ,b did !y 
des]ve s h>d a fate z !irs8 ,did n ,le> 
suff] z mu* = 8 folly z 8 daught]s = _! 
wick$ness8 ,?is is always true 9 life1 &
 ,%akespe>e holds ! mirror up to        
nature--b is x consi/5t ) ! !ory (      
retributive ju/ice8 ,"o c usually trace 
back to "s elem5t ( 8 nature1 physical  
or moral1 ! mis=tunes t befall an       
individual2 ev5 ^? :i* we call accid5ts1
 z ,galton claim$1 are (t5 due to "s    
inh]5t defect ( att5tion :i* makes u    
fail to respond protectively at ! "r    
mom5t4 ,if we take ! self to include !  
entire organism1 !n x rema9s true t we  

coop]ate z a p>tial cause 9 all t happ5s
 to u4 ,ophelia's weak & unresi/+ bra9  
mu/ %>e ) ! /resses :i* surr\nd$ h] !   
responsibility = h] madness4 ,9 ?is     
s5se1 & 9 ?is s5se only1 d we des]ve our
 fate1 be x good or ill4 ,yet1 :5       
int]pret$ 9 ?is broade/ mean+1          
retributive ju/ice loses all e?ical     
significance4 ,& ! cosmic di%>mony      
appe>s all ! m gl>+4 ,x ceases to be    
*>geable to an ext]nal fate or ,god1 to 
! environm5t or conv5tion1 :i* might    
p]haps be ma/]$ & remold$2 & is se5     
p]vad+ ! nature ( reality itself1 no    
accid5tal circum/ance1 b ess5tial evil1 
in]adicable4 ,! greate/ tragic poets see
 x ?us4 ,& !n blame turns to und]/&+ &  
res5tm5t into pity4  ,retributive       
ju/ice1 z ! motive =ce ( trag$y1 has = u
 lo/ its mean+4 ,we no long] feel !     
necessity ( ju/ify+ ! ways ( ,god to    
man1 because we h ceas$ to believe t !re
 exi/s any s+le1 responsible p[]4 ,!    
good is n a preorda9$ & automatically   
accompli%$ fact1 b an a*ievem5t ( f9ite 

ef=t1 appe>+ "h & !re 9 ! _w :5         
individuals1 in/ead ( cont5d+ aga9/ ea* 
o!r1 coop]ate = _! mutual advantage4  ,9
 addition to ! comic1 !re is mu* arti/ic
 repres5tation ( evil :i* c be class$   
nei!r z pa!tic nor z tragic4 ,nei!r     
moral admiration nor idealization are   
ar\s$ by ! *>act]s portray$4 ,!y may be 
great crim9als l ,lady ,macbe? or ,iago1
 or ! undi/+ui%$ & disord]ly p ( mod]n  
reali/ic lit]ature1 yet 9 ei!r case we  
f9d !m good to "k4 ,& we d s1 n m]ely   
because we enjoy1 z dis9t]e/$ onlook]s1 
! spectacle ( human exi/5ce1 b because !
 arti/ makes u ent] into x & realize its
 values4 ,= ev5 t :i* f ! moral po9t (  
view we pron\nce evil is1 s long z x    
ma9ta9s itself1 a good ?+ f its own po9t
 ( view4 ,e w1 h[ev] bl9d & c>eless1    
seeks a good & f9ds x1 if only 9 hope & 
! ef=t to atta94 ,?r\gh ! intimacy ( 8  
descriptions & (t5 aga9/ our resi/ance1 
! arti/ may compel u to adopt ! attitude
 ( ! life :i* he is portray+1 con/ra9+ u
 to feel ! inn] necessity ( its *oices1 

! compulsion ( its delights4 ,x is      
difficult to ab&on ourselves ?us to     
sympa?y ) :at is wrong 9 life itself1   
because we h 9 m9d ! consequ5ces &      
relations :i* make x wrong2 yet we all d
 s at times1 :5ev] we let ourselves g1  
*>m$ by its mom5t>y (f]+4 ,b 9 ! _w (   
art ?is is easi]1 because !re ! values1 
be+ m]ely repres5t$1 c h no s9i/]       
effects4 ,:5 great p]sonalities are     
portray$1 ?is ab&on is readie/2 = !     
/r5g? or poignancy ( _! natures c>ries u
 away z by a :irlw9d4 ,witness ,lady    
,macbe? :5 %e summons ! p[]s ( hell to  
unsex h] = h] murd]\s task1 or ,vanni   
,fucci 9 ! ,inf]no1,footnote3 ,inf]no1  
,canto #be1 #a-c4 :o mocks at ,god4 ,= !
 in/ant1 we become z !y & feel _! ec/asy
 ( pride & p[] z our own4 ,yet ! great  
arti/ c awak5 ?is sympa?y ev5 = *>act]s 
t are small & weak4 ,9 ,gogol's ,dead   
,s\ls1 = example1 !re are no h]oes4 ,!  
mo/ int]e/+ *>act]s are ! c\ntry g5tlem5
 :o return to _! e/ates plann+ to write 
books :i* w reg5]ate ,russia4 ,b ! old  

habits ( life 9 ! remote di/rict are too
 /rong4 ,s1 in/ead ( writ+1 !y fall back
 into ! r\t9e ( _! ance/ors & m]ely     
smoke & dream4 ,"h are failure &        
m$iocrity2 yet s intimate is ! arti/'s  
/ory t we n only und]/& x all1 b feel h[
 good x is--to dream our lives away4 ,i 
d n d\bt t 9 ?is /ory !re are elem5ts ( 
pa?os & com$y2 yet1 9 g5]al1 !          
del9eation is too objective = ei!r2 we  
nei!r laugh nor cry1 b are simply borne 
on1 unresi/+1 ourselves become a "p ( ! 
sil5t tide ( ,russian life4  ,! problem 
( evil 9 ae/hetics may f9ally be solv$  
by ! use ( ! comic4 ,= 9 com$y we take  
pleasure 9 an object :i*1 9 ! broade/   
s5se1 is evil4 ,9 ord] = an object to be
 comical !re mu/ be a /&>d or norm1 an  
accept$ sy/em1 )9 :i* ! object pret5ds b
 fails to fit1 & ) ref]5ce to :i*1      
!re=e1 x is evil4 ,!re mu/ be "s po9ts (
 contact betwe5 ! object & ! /&>d 9 ord]
 t !re may be pret5se1 b n en\gh po9ts =
 fulfillm5t4 ,if we nev] _h any def9ite 
expectations ) ref]5ce to ?+s1 nev] made

 any dem&s ^u !m2 if in/ead ( judg+ !m  
by our preconceiv$ ideas1 we took !m j z
 !y came & *ang$ our ideas to meet      
!m1--!re w\ld be no?+ comical4 ,or1 if  
ev]y?+ fitt$ into our expectations & 0 z
 we plann$ x1 !n aga9 !re w\ld be no?+  
comical4 ,9 a _w )\t ideas1 ! comic c\ld
 n exi/4 ,! comic dep5ds ^u our         
app]ceiv+ an object 9 t]ms ( "s idea &  
f9d+ x incongru\s4 ,! mo/ elem5t>y      
illu/rations demon/rate ?is4 ,! unusual 
is ! orig9al comic2 to ! *ild all /range
 ?+s are comical--! ,*9aman ) 8 pigtail1
 ! negro ) 8 black sk91 ! new fa%ion 9  
dress1 ! cl[n ) 8 pa9t & 8 antics4 ,z we
 get us$ to ?+s1 & t means z we come to 
=m ideas ( !m into :i* !y w fit1 adju/+ 
! m9d to !m1 r ?an seek+ to adju/ !m to 
! m9d1 !y cease to be comical4 ,s       
fa%ions 9 dress or mann]s :i* 7 comical 
once1 become matt]s ( c\rse & we laugh  
no long]4 ,endur+ly comic are only ^?   
objects t p]si/5tly create expectations 
& z p]si/5tly violate !m4 ,su* objects  
are few inde$2 b !y exi/1 & con/itute ! 

p]5nial1 yet nev] we>y+1 /ock 9 trade ( 
com$y4 ,b ! comic _s does n h to dep5d  
^u !m exclusively1 =1 z life *anges1 x  
con/antly raises new expectations & (f]s
 new objects :i* at once provoke & fail 
to meet !m4 ,ev]y?+1 !re=e1 is          
pot5tially comical &1 9 ! c\rse ( human 
hi/ory1 few ?+s c escape a laugh2 "s    
curi\s m9d is sure1 soon] or lat]1 to   
br+ !m "u a new idea aga9/ :i* !y w be  
%[n up to be absurd4 ,! sanctities (    
religion1 love1 & political allegiance h
 n be5 exempt4  ,:y1 if ! comical object
 is always oppos$ to our dem&s1 %\ld we 
take pleasure 9 x8 ,h[ c we be reconcil$
 to ?+s t are admitt$ly incongru\s ) our
 /&>ds8 ,:y are we n r displeas$ & angry
 ) !m8 ,inve/igators h usually look$ = a
 s+le s\rce ( pleasure 9 ! comic1 b ( ^?
 :i* h be5 sugge/$ at lea/ two1 ,i ?9k1 
contribute some?+4 ,fir/1 by adopt+ !   
po9t ( view ( ! /&>d z our own1 id5tify+
 ourselves ) x1 & ?r\gh ! contra/ (     
ourselves ) ! object1 we may take       
pleasure 9 ! result+ exaltation (       

ourselves4 ,! pleasure 9 ! comic is (t5 
closely ak9 to t :i* we feel 9 di/9ction
 ( any k9d4 ,we feel ourselves sup]ior  
to ! object at :i* we laugh4 ,!re is    
pride 9 mu* ( laught] & n infrequ5tly   
cruelty1 a delight 9 ! absurdities ( o!r
 m5 because !y exalt ourselves z !      
repres5tatives ( ! rational & normal4   
,!re is (t5 a t\* ( malice ev5 9 !      
laught] ( ! *ild4 ,nev]!less1 ! pleasure
 9 ! comic is /ill contemplative1 & s f>
 ae/hetic1 because x is a pleasure 9    
p]ception1 n 9 action4 ,no matt] h[ evil
 be ! comic object1 we d n seek to      
de/roy or remodel x2 action is sublimat$
 into laught]4  ,b ! pleasure 9 ! comic 
may arise ?r\gh our tak+ ! opposite po9t
 ( view--t ( ! funny ?+ itself4 ,in/ead 
( uphold+ ! po9t ( view ( ! /&>d1 we may
 id5tify ourselves ) ! object4 ,if !    
comic _s is (t5times ! *ampion ( !      
normal & conv5tional1 x is z (t5 !      
mis*ief-mak] & rebel4 ,:5ev] ! ma9ta9+ (
 a /&>d involves /ra9 ?r\gh ! inhibition
 ( in/9ctive t5d5cies1 to relax & give  

way to impulse causes a pleasure :i*    
c5t]s itself ^u ! object t breaks !     
t5sion4 ,! intrusive animal t int]rupts 
! solemn occasion1 ! *ild t witt+ly or n
 sc(fs at our petty =malities ?r\gh 8   
naive behavior1 w9 our gratitude1 n our 
scorn4 ,!y provide an opportunity = !   
welcome release ( nature f conv5tion4 ,&
 ! great] ! /ra9 ( ! t5sion1 ! great] ! 
pleasure & ! m insignificant ! object or
 ev5t t w br+ relief & cause laught]4 ,!
 p]5nial comic pleasure 9 ! risque is   
d]iv$ f ?is s\rce4 ,!re is an elem5t (  
comic pleasure 9 ! p]petration ( any    
mis*iev\s or unconv5tional act4 ,^? ?+s 
:i* m5 take mo/ s]i\sly1 ,s*op5hau] has 
said1 namely1 love & religion1 & we     
might add1 morality1 are ! mo/ abundant 
s\rces ( ! comic1 because !y involve !  
mo/ /ra9 & !re=e (f] ! easie/ *ances = a
 playful release4 ,ev5 utt] & absolute  
nons5se is comical because x undoes all 
,kant's categories ( m9d4  ,h5ce1       
contr>y to ! !ory ( ,b]gson1 !          
spontane\s z well z ! me*anical & rigid 

may be comical4 ,sometimes ! same object
 may be comical f bo? ! po9ts ( view :i*
 we h specifi$2 ?is is always true1 z we
 %all see1 9 ! mo/ highly develop$      
com$y4 ,= example1 we may laugh at !    
*ild's prank because x is s absurd f !  
po9t ( view ( our gr[n-up expectations z
 to reasonable conduct1 & at ! same "t1 
tak+ ! "p ( ! *ild1 rejoice at ! mom5t>y
 relief f !m :i* x (f]s u4 ,our scorn is
 mix$ ) sympa?y4 ,& (t5times ! *ild     
himself w hold bo? po9ts ( view at once1
 laugh+ at 8 own absurdity & exult+     
nev]!less 9 8 own fre$om4 ,?is is !     
ess5ce ( slyness4 ,x foll[s1 moreov]1 t 
a ?+ :i* 0 comical = "o ( ! reasons     
assign$ may become comical = ! o!r1 by a
 simple *ange 9 ! po9t ( view reg>d+ x4 
,= ! behavior :i* fir/ pleas$ u because 
x 0 unconv5tional t5ds itself to become 
a new conv5tion1 ) ref]5ce to :i* ! old 
conv5tion !n becomes ! object ( a       
laught] :i* is scornful4 ,! tables are  
turn$3 ! rebel laughs at ! k+4  ,! =ego+
 explanation ( :y we f9d ! comical      

pleasant also expla9s :y s _m ( our o!r 
pleasures are int]mix$ ) ! comical--:y s
 (t5 we n only smile :5 we are pleas$1 b
 laugh4 ,=1 9 ! case ( all except ! mo/ 
elem5t>y enjoym5ts1 our pleasures are   
connect$ ) ! satisfaction ( def9ite     
expectations reg>d+ ! actions or ev5ts (
 our daily lives4 ,b1 ow+ to ! dull+    
effect ( habit1 ! pleasure att5dant ^u  
^! satisfactions gradually becomes      
small] & small] or ev5 negligible2      
until1 z a result1 only ! novel &       
surpris+ ev5ts :i* surpass our          
expectations give u l>ge pleasure2 b ^! 
are comical4 ,) ! *ild1 ^: expectations 
are rigid & few 9 numb] because ( 8 lack
 ( discrim9ation & small exp]i5ce1 almo/
 all pleasures1 l almo/ all ev5ts1 are (
 ! nature ( surprises4 ,! *ild almo/    
always laughs :5 he is pleas$4 ,! slang 
phrase to be highly tickl$ expresses )  
precision ?is close connection betwe5   
laught] & pleasure4 ,moreov]1 z !       
complexity ( life increases1 its /ra9s &
 repressions are multipli$1 ) ! result t

 any giv+ way to an impulse conta9s a   
slight elem5t ( ! mis*iev\s or          
ridicul\s2 :5ce1 = ?is reason too1 !    
pleasant is also ! comical4 ,9 fact1 mo/
 ( ! pleasures ( highly complex &       
reflective p]sons are t+$ ) laught]4    
,we expect art to accompli% ?ree great  
results--reconciliation1 revelation1 &  
sympa?y4 ,s f> we h %[n h[ comic art may
 accompli% ! fir/2 we h yet to prove h[ 
x may accompli% ! re/4 ,9 8 book ,le    
,rire1 ,b]gson has express$ ! view t    
com$y is explicitly falsify+ &          
unsympa!tic4 ,z to ! =m] *>ge1 we c1 ,i 
?9k1 conv9ce ourselves ( ! opposite if  
we exam9e c]ta9 ( ! m obvi\s me?ods (   
com$y1 p>ticul>ly ^? :i* might seem at  
fir/ sight to l5d support to 8          
cont5tion4 ,"o ( ! mo/ common ( ^! is   
exagg]ation4 ,! simple/ example is      
c>icature1 :]e c]ta9 features ( an      
object are purposely exagg]at$4 ,!      
effect is1 ( c\rse1 comical1 because we 
expect ! normal & duly-proportion$4 ,:at
 a manife/ falsification1 "o might      

ass]t6 ,yet j ! opposite is ! actual    
result4 ,= e good c>icaturi/ selects =  
exagg]ation prom95t & *>act]i/ic traits1
 ?r\gh :i* by ! v emphasis t is plac$ ^u
 !m1 ! nature ( ! individual is bett]   
und]/ood4 ,ano!r favorite me?od is      
ab/raction4 ,c]ta9 traits are pres5t$ z 
if !y 7 ! :ole man4 ,we get ! typical   
comic figures ( ! novel & drama2 !      
physician :o is only a physician2 !     
lawy] :o injects ! legal po9t ( view    
into e circum/ance ( life2 ! lov] or !  
mis] :o is j love or gre$2 ! p :o1 z 9  
,dick5s1 meet e situation ) ! same      
phrase or attitude1 ,?is1 too1 looks l a
 pla9 falsification ( human nature1     
because1 h[ev] /rong be ! pr(essional   
bias or h[ev] ov]ma/]+ ! rul+ passion1  
real p are always m complex & _m-sid$1  
hav+ o!r modify+ & c\nt]act+ elem5ts (  
"* :i* prev5t _! spee* & actions f be+  
completely monoton\s & me*anical4       
,nev]!less1 we c aga9 acquit ! comic    
writ] ( falsification1 because we und]/&
 ! me?od :i* he is employ+1 ! trick ( 8 

trade4 ,he deceives no "o4 ,on !        
contr>y1 he enables u to p]ceive ! logic
 ( c]ta9 elem5t>y spr+s ( "*4 ,foll[+ ! 
me?od ( ! exp]im5tali/1 he selects c]ta9
 aspects f ! total complexity ( a       
ph5om5on & %[s h[ !y "w :5 isolat$ f !  
re/4 ,&1 l ! man ( sci5ce1 he provides  
insight into ! normal1 because we c     
accept 8 results z at lea/ p>tially or  
approximately true4 ,art ( ?is k9d is   
ab/ract & !re=e less valuable ?an !     
portrayal ( ! concrete2 yet only !      
dogmati/ :o insi/s on ! re/riction ( art
 to ! individual c reject x4  ,!re is1  
h[ev]1 a ?ird common me?od ( comical    
repres5tation :i* nei!r exagg]ates nor  
ab/racts1 b pres]ves ! concret5ess ( !  
f9e/ art--we may call x ! me?od (       
contra/4 ,x consi/s 9 exhibit+ ! contra/
 betwe5 ! actual conduct ( m5 & wom5 & !
 /&>d1--ei!r t :i* !y !mselves pr(ess to
 live up to or our own1 :i* we impose ^u
 !m4 ,_! pret5ses are unmask$ or _!     
absurdities %[n up aga9/ ! ideal (      
reasonabl5ess4 ,we behold ! b\rgeois :o 

w\ld be a g5tleman rema9 b\rgeois & !   
wom5 :o w\ld be s*ol>s rema9 wom54      
,success 9 com$y ( ?is k9d dep5ds ^u    
possess+ ! ability to =mulate ! implicit
 assumptions und]ly+ ! behavior ( ! p   
portray$ or to make "o's own /&>ds )    
ref]5ce to !m valid = ! spectator4 ,"h  
is no falsification1 b1 on ! contr>y1 a 
vivid revelation ( ! tru?2 because1 j z 
by plac+ two colors 9 contra/ ) "o ano!r
 ! hue ( ea* is int5sifi$1 s by sett+   
man 9 relief aga9/ ! backgr\nd ( :at he 
ought to be1 we p]ceive 8 real nature m 
%>ply4 ,z ! *ild dress$ l a gr[n-up     
appe>s all ! m *ildi% = 8 g>b1 s man    
appe>s ! m human = 8 pret5ses4 ,to be   
sure1 9 ord] to increase ! comical      
effect1 ?is me?od is (t5 employ$ 9      
conjunction ) t ( exagg]ation4 ,!       
,a!nian democracy 0 probably n q s /upid
 z ,ari/ophanes repres5ts x2 ! av]age   
,briti%] is n s phili/9e z ,%aw pa9ts   
him4 ,yet ! measure ( exagg]ation may be
 small & we readily disc\nt x4 ,&       
f9ally1 :]eas 9 simple repres5tation !re

 is a revelation ( ! object only1 9     
comical repres5tation !re is a two-fold 
revelation1--( ! ideal & ( ! incongru\s 
reality4 ,! =m] is always indirectly    
reveal$2 =1 z we "k1 ! v exi/5ce ( !    
comic dep5ds ^u x4 ,! man :o laughs1 8  
notion ( ! "r & ! reasonable1 8 attitude
 t[>ds ! _w & life1 become manife/ ?r\gh
 ! ?+s :i* he laughs at4 ,only a man ( a
 c]ta9 k9d1 ) a c]ta9 sympa?y &         
antipa?y1 c\ld laugh z he laughs4 ,!    
comic writ]1 h[ev] mu* ( a sc(f] & a    
skeptic1 & h[ev] mu* he may d5y x1 is   
always an ideali/4 ,& x is = !          
revelation ( !mselves z mu* z = !       
revelation ( ! p :om !y portray t we    
value ! "w ( a ,swift1 a ,voltaire1 or a
 ,?ack]ay4  ,ano!r *>ge :i* has be5     
br\ght aga9/ ! comic is t x is          
unsympa!tic4 ,its attitude1 x is said1  
is "o ( ext]nality1 oppos$ !re=e to !   
intimacy necess>y = ! complete ae/hetic 
reaction4 ,:]eas simple ae/hetic        
repres5tation places u )9 ! object      
itself1 comical repres5tation only      

exhibits a relation betwe5 x & an idea4 
,we judge x f our po9t ( view1 n f its  
own4 ,! pleasure 9 pride & sup]iority   
:i* we feel t[>ds ! comical object seems
 also inconsi/5t ) sympa?y2 = sympa?y   
w\ld create a fell[ feel+ ) x1 & place u
 n above1 b on a level ) x4 ,if we d    
sympa?ize1 ! comic object ceases to be  
comical & becomes pa!tic4 ,we c f9d !   
follies & s9s ( m5 comical j s long z we
 d n sympa?ize ) ! suff]+s :i* !y       
entail4 ,!re is no?+ comical t may n    
also become pa!tic2 & ! diff]5ce dep5ds 
exactly on ! pres5ce or abs5ce (        
sympa?y4 ,no?+1 = example1 is m pa!tic  
?an dea?2 yet if y keep y\rself free (  
its sorr[1 !re is no?+ m comical--t man1
 a little l[] 9 8 own e/imation ?an !   
angels1 %\ld come to ?is1 a lump ( clay4
  ,x is unque/ionably true t a free1    
dis9t]e/$ attitude is ess5tial to com$y4
 ,y mu/ n let y\rself be c>ri$ away by  
any feel+2 if y are ov]-s]i\s y _c      
laugh2 y mu/ keep to reflection &       
comp>ison4 ,yet ?is attitude is n utt]ly

 de/ructive ( all feel+4 ,man is complex
 en\gh at once to feel & to reflect4 ,he
 c pity z well z laugh4 ,! pa!tic & !   
comic are con/antly conjo9$--witness our
 feel+ t[>ds ,don ,quixote or t[>ds any 
( ! great *>act]s ( ,?ack]ay--we d n "k 
:e!r to laugh or to cry4 ,& 9 ! mo/     
effective com$y1 ! /&>d appli$ to !     
comical object is n =eign1 b r1 z we h  
obs]v$1 ! implicit /&>d ( ! object      
itself1 disc]nible only by ! mo/        
intimate acqua9tance ) x4 ,! /+ (       
laught] comes f our acceptance ( x z    
valid = ourselves2 we blu% & jo9 9 !    
laugh at ourselves4 ,! mis*iev\s-comic1 
moreov]1 dep5ds directly ^u sympa?y2 = x
 requires t we take ! po9t ( view ( !   
funny ?+2 our pleasure 9 x implies a    
secret sympa?y = x--we hold x up to a   
/&>d1 yet all ! "t are 9 sympa?y ) its  
rebellion4 ,:5 we laugh at ! prank ( !  
*ild1 love is mix$ ) ! laugh4 ,! dual   
nature ( man z at once a p>tisan (      
conv5tion & ( ! impulses t x seeks to   
regulate1 is n[h]e bett] illu/rat$ ?an 9

 ! comic4 ,f9ally1 dis9t]e/$ness is n   
peculi> to com$y2 = x p]vades all art4  
,feel+ mu/ be dom9at$ by reflection2 ev5
 pa?os dem&s ?is1 =1 if we lose         
ourselves 9 sorr[ful feel+1 no fair     
image c arise & /eady u4  ,!re is1      
h[ev]1 mu* com$y t is obvi\sly          
unsympa!tic1 ev5 ho/ile4 ,!re is satire1
 :i* condemns1 z well z humor :i*       
p>dons4 ,! "o blames ! unexpect$ &      
unconv5tional1 ! o!r sympa?izes ) x4    
,com$y is ei!r bit+ or k9dly4 ,! "o is  
morali/ic & re=matory 9 its aim1 ! o!r  
is ae/hetic & contemplative4 ,because ( 
its failure 9 sympa?y1 satirical com$y  
is incomplete z art4 ,x provides insight
 & pleasure 9 ! object1 b no union ) x4 
,x does n atta9 to beauty1 :i* is free &
 reconcil+4 ,k9dly com$y or humor1 on ! 
o!r h&1 is full beauty1 comb9+ sympa?y )
 judgm5t1 ab&on ) reflection4           
,nev]!less1 satire t5ds inevitably t[>ds
 humor4 ,= :at we laugh at gives u      
pleasure1 & :at pleases u we mu/        
inevitably come to l1 & :at we l _c long

 fail to w9 our sympa?y4 ,i d n ?9k t   
ev5 a ,swift or a ,voltaire c\ld h be5  
irreconcilably oppos$ to a _w :i* (f]$  
!m s mu* m]rim5t4 ,! satire1 :i* beg9s 9
 moral f]vor1 mu/ end 9 und]/&+4 ,! bond
 t b9ds u to our fell[s is too /rong to 
be brok5 by ! alo(ness ( our            
condemnation4 ,! same intellig5ce t     
disc]ns ! incongruity betwe5 :at m5     
ought to be & :at !y are1 _c fail to    
p5etrate ! impell+ reasons = ! failure4 
,only 9 humor is sympa!tic insight      
complete4 ,satire has ! temporal        
usefulness ( a practical exp$i5t1 humor 
! et]nal value ( beauty4     ,,*apt]    
,,vii  ,,! ,,/&>d ,,( ,,ta/e   ,our     
int]e/ 9 art is seldom a matt] ( m]e    
feel+ or appreciation2 usually x is a   
matt] ( judgm5t z well4 ,beg9n+ 9 feel+1
 ! /hetic exp]i5ce passes ov] into      
comp>ison & e/imation--into criticism1 &
 !re f9ds its normal completion4 ,?is1  
:i* is evid5tly true ( ! ae/hetic life (
 arti/s & connoisseurs1 is true also (  
av]age m54 ,we all enjoy ! beautiful 9  

sil5ce1 b aft]w>ds we want to talk ab\t 
x to our fri5ds4 ,if conv]sation ab\t   
art 7 suppress$1 ! int]e/ 9 x w\ld h>dly
 survive4 ,on ?is side1 ! enjoym5t ( art
 is int5sely sociable1 = to ! civiliz$  
man sociability means disc\rse4  ,b1 z  
,kant po9t$ out1 x is *>act]i/ic (      
conv]sation ab\t art t ! p>ticipants try
 to rea* agreem5t 9 _! judgm5ts )\t     
ackn[l$g+ common pr9ciples ) ref]5ce to 
:i* disputes c be decid$4 ,& yet1 s9ce  
no man is cont5t to hold an op9ion all  
by himself1 b ea* tries to p]suade !    
o!rs ( ! validity ( 8 own judgm5t1 x    
w\ld seem z if !re mu/ be "s axioms or  
po/ulates admitt$ by all4 ,h5ce :at     
,kant call$ ! ant9omy ( ta/e3 ,!sis--!  
judgm5t ( ta/e is n bas$ on pr9ciples1 =
 o!rwise we w\ld det]m9e x by pro(s2    
anti!sis--! judgm5t ( ta/e is bas$ on   
pr9ciples1 = o!rwise1 despite our       
disagreem5ts1 we %\ld n be qu>rel+ ab\t 
x4  ,9 accordance ) ?is situation1 two  
oppos$ !ories ( criticism h always      
exi/$4 ,on ! "o h&1 9 face ( ! app>5t   

lawlessness ( beauty1 "s ?9k]s h believ$
 t !re exi/ pr9ciples :i* c be appli$ to
 works ( art to te/ _! beauty ) a       
c]ta9ty equal to t ( ! pr9ciples ( logic
 9 _! application to inf]5ces4 ,less+1 =
 example1 9 ! ,hamburgis*e ,dramaturgic 
wrote t ! laws laid d[n by ,ari/otle 9 !
 ,poetics 7 z c]ta9 9 _! application to 
! drama z ,euclid's ,elem5ts 9 geometry4
 ,?is comp>ison is a =cible /atem5t (   
belief 9 ! exi/5ce ( ae/hetic /&>ds1    
held by ! entire classical tradition1 & 
/ill held by ^? :o are spiritually ak9  
to x1 al?\gh ( c\rse no "o to-day w\ld  
claim--& :5 x came to details ,less+    
himself did n claim--t ! judgm5t (      
,ari/otle or ( any "o else is           
infallible4 ,to-day ^? :o believe 9 !   
possibility ( rational ae/hetic         
criticism ?9k t reflection ^u ! purpose 
& me?ods ( ! arts results 9 ! =mulation 
( broad pr9ciples by means ( :i*        
judgm5ts ( ta/e c be apprais$ & a       
community ( ta/e a*iev$4 ,^! pr9ciples1 
!y w\ld admit1 are m difficult (        

application ?an ! simpl] logical rules1 
ow+ to ! great] subtlety & complexity ( 
art1 yet1 :5 f\nd1 h an equal validity  
)9 _! own field4  ,on ! o!r h&1 ! view t
 !re is no disput+ ab\t ta/es has nev]  
lack$ adh]5ts4 ,accord+ to ?is view1    
criticism c be only a report ( p]sonal1 
en?usia/ic appreciation or repugnance   
)\t claim to univ]sality4 ,anatole      
,france1 surely a ma/] ( su* criticism1 
has express$ ?is conviction z foll[s3   
,l'e/etique ne repose sur ri5 de solide4
 ,c'e/ un *ateau en ,pair4 ,on veut     
l'appuy] sur ,pe?ique4 ,mais il n'y a   
pas d'e?ique4 ,il n'y a pas de          
sociologie 444 ,& aga91 9 ! same preface
 to ,la ,vie ,litt]aire3 ,p\r fond] la  
critique1 on p>le de tradition et de    
cons5tem5t univ]sel4 ,il n'y en a pas4  
,l'op9ion presque g5]al1 il e/ vrai1    
favorise c]ta9s oeuvres4 ,mais c'e/ en  
v]tu d'un prejuge1 et nullem5t p> *oix  
et p> effet d'une pref]5ce spontane4    
,les oeuvres que t\t le monde admire    
sont celles que p]sonne n'exam9e4       

,al?\gh ! classic view is1 ,i ?9k1 ne>] 
! tru?1 let u exam9e ! argum5ts t may be
 advanc$ 9 favor ( ! impressioni/ic     
!ory1 z x has be5 call$4 ,:at is !re    
ab\t ae/hetic appreciation t makes x    
seem+ly s recalcitrant to law8  ,fir/1 e
 ae/hetic exp]i5ce is unique1 & !re=e1 x
 is claim$1 incomp>able4 ,art is !      
expression ( p]sonality1 & p]sonality is
 always individual4 ,b unique ?+s are1 9
 ! end1 incapable ( classification1 h5ce
 are n am5able to g5]al laws or         
pr9ciples4 ,( c\rse1 works ( art c be   
classifi$ by foll[+ "s ab/ract          
*>act]i/ic1 arrang$ 9 a s]ies accord+ z 
?is quality is realiz$ 9 !m to a great] 
or less degree2 b1 9 s f> z a "w is     
beautiful1 x conta9s at lea/ "o quality 
n possess$ by o!r works1 ! quality t    
gives x its di/9ctive flavor1--:i* is1  
inde$1 its beauty4 ,! impressioni/ w\ld 
admit1 = example1 t 9 intellectual p[]  
,keats's ,eve ( ,/4 ,agnes is inf]ior to
 ,wordswor?'s ,intimations2 also t x    
lacks ! moral gr&eur ( ! latt]2 b w\ld  

claim1 on ! o!r h&1 t 9 say+ ?is1 "o is 
f> f judg+ ! beauty ( ,keats's poem1    
because t is completely lack+ 9         
,wordswor?4 ,s f> z ! poem is beautiful1
 x is unique2 h5ce y get no f>!r ) x    
?r\gh comp>ison ) "s o!r poem4 ,y ei!r  
appreciate x absolutely or y d n2 if y  
d1 well & good2 y may !n write a prose  
poem ab\t x1 if y desire1 & s           
communicate "s ( y\r feel+ = x to ano!r 
p]son2 if y d n appreciate x1 no "o c   
blame y or qu>rel ) y2 all t any "o c d 
is to invite y to read aga91 &1 p]haps  
?r\gh 8 eloqu5ce1 seek to inspire y )--8
 own en?usiasm4 ,e "w ( art is          
sup]lative4 ,j z ! lov] ?9ks 8 swee!>t !
 mo/ beautiful woman 9 ! _w1 s he :o    
appreciates a "w ( art f9ds x supreme4  
,& among sup]latives !re is no          
comp>ison1 no bett] or worse4  ,f ano!r 
po9t ( view1 moreov]1 ! ae/hetic        
exp]i5ce seems unfavorable to comp>ison 
& classification4 ,= a "w ( art dem&s a 
complete ab&on ( self1 an entire        
absorption 9 x ( att5tion & emotion4 ,e 

picture has a frame1 & e o!r "w ( art an
 ideal b\nd>y to keep y 9 its _w4       
,beyond ! frame y %all n g2 beyond !    
/age y %all n pass2 beyond ! outl9e ( ! 
/atue y %all n look4 ,& if y d pass     
beyond1 y h lo/ ! full int5sity & fl[] (
 ! exp]i5ce2 & :atev] comp>isons y !n   
make w n conc]n its orig9al & g5u9e     
beauty4 ,e "w ( art is jeal\s2 to       
appreciate x aright1 y mu/ = ! mom5t    
appreciate x s+ly1 )\t ?\ght ( ano!r4   
,f9ally1 ! impressioni/ or skeptic w\ld 
ma9ta9 t an alleg$ ae/hetic pr9ciple    
w\ld necess>ily be ab/ract$ f extant    
works ( art2 h5ce c\ld n be appli$ to   
new art4 ,a ?+ :i* does n belong )9 a   
class _c be judg$ by pr9ciples gov]n+ t 
class4 ,9 s f>1 !re=e1 z a "w ( art is  
orig9al1 x mu/ fru/rate any attempt to  
judge x by traditional1 hi/orical       
/&>ds--& :at o!r /&>ds are !re8  ,al?\gh
 ! two facts ( ! ae/hetic exp]i5ce--its 
uniqu5ess & claim to complete           
sympa?y--^u :i* ! skeptical op9ion c be 
bas$1 are und\bt$1 ! inf]5ces d$uc$ f !m

 d n foll[4 ,if !y did foll[1 ! ae/hetic
 exp]i5ce w\ld be fundam5tally diff]5t f
 e o!r type2 x w\ld be totally atomic & 
discrete1 in/ead ( fluid & cont9u\s l ! 
re/4 ,b its app>5t discret5ess is due to
 a failure to di/+ui% betwe5 ! sil5t1   
unobtrusive work+ ( comp>ison & ! m     
obvi\s & self-consci\s work+4 ,:5 rapt 9
 ! contemplation ( a "w ( art1 ,i may   
seem+ly h no ?\ght = o!r works2 relative
 isolation & circle-l self-complet5ess  
are *>act]i/ic ( ! ae/hetic exp]i5ce2   
yet1 z a matt] ( fact1 ! complet5ess (  
my reaction & ! measure ( my delight &  
absorption are p>tly det]m9$ by !       
accordance ( ! giv5 "w ( art ) a c]ta9  
expectation or set ( m9d ) ref]5ce to   
objects ( its sort4 ,i c cons5t fully to
 ! w ( ! arti/ only if he has fir/      
cons5t$ to my w z express$ 9 o!r works  
:i* ,i h enjoy$ & prais$4 ,! situation 9
 ae/hetics is no diff]5t f t :i* exi/s 9
 any o!r field ( values2 ?r\gh _m       
exp]i5ces ( good ?+s ,i come to =m a    
type or /&>d ( :at su* ?+s %\ld be l2 &1

 if any new ?+ ( ! k9d is pres5t$ to me1
 ,i _c be s well pleas$ ) x if x does n 
con=m4 ,! type may nev] be =mulat$ by me
 explicitly1 yet x w op]ate none ! less4
 ,! =mation ( :at is call$ good ta/e    
occurs by exactly ?is process4 ,! fir/  
"w ( art t ,i see1 if x please me1      
becomes my fir/ measure4 ,if ,i see a   
second1 9 ord] to w9 my approval1 x w   
ei!r h to satisfy ! expectation ar\s$ by
 ! fir/1 or else surpass x4 ,9 ! latt]  
case1 a /&>d some:at diff]5t f ! old is 
creat$ ?r\gh ! new exp]i5ce2 &1 :5 ,i h 
acquir$ a l>ge acqua9tance ) works (    
art1 !re gr[s up a /&>d :i* is !        
resultant ( all ( !m--a type or s*ema no
 long] associat$ ) p>ticul> works4      
,sometimes1 h[ev]1 x happ5s t ! /&>d    
cont9ues to be embodi$ 9 "s "o or few   
works :i*1 because ( out/&+ excell5ce1  
s]ve z explicit p>adigms gov]n+ judgm5t2
 su* works are classics 9 ! true s5se4  
,& ! impressioni/ is c]ta9ly wrong 9 8  
cont5tion t ! ae/hetic appreciation ( a 
"w ( art excludes ! recall ( o!r works &

 consci\s comp>ison ) !m4 ,x is only :5 
appreciation is ( ! m naive sort t ?is  
is ! case4 ,! tra9$ obs]v]1 on see+ "o (
 ,v]me]'s pictures1 = example1 _c fail  
to ?9k ( o!r works ( ! same arti/2 &1 if
 he is le>n$ 9 ! hi/ory ( art1 he may   
ev5 recall ! :ole developm5t ( ,dut*    
pa9t+4 ,= ! mom5t1 p]haps1 at ! beg9n+1 
! s+le "w w completely absorb !         
att5tion2 b1 z we l+] 9 appreciation &  
reflect ^u x1 our memory is sure to "w4 
,& ! process ( memory & comp>ison _c be 
exclud$ on ! gr\nd t x is an ext]nal1   
irrelevant context to appreciation2 = x 
actually functions to det]m9e ! degree (
 pleasure & absorption 9 a "w ( art4    
,moreov]1 ?is process ( memory &        
comp>ison is n conf9$ to ! individual   
obs]v]2 x is social & hi/orical z well4 
,all art movem5ts are inspir$ by !      
desire to improve on1 or to create      
some?+ diff]5t f1 ! cons]v$ tradition4  
,! process ( creation itself involves   
comp>ison & ! recognition ( a /&>d4 ,& =
 our civilization at any rate ^!        

movem5ts are int]national4 ,!y are n !  
products ( isolat$ discrete gr\ps1      
imp5etrable to ea* o!r1 b ( a relatively
 univ]sal1 cont9u\s exp]i5ce4  ,z = !   
uniqu5ess ( ae/hetic value1 t1 to be    
sure1 is a fact2 yet uniqu5ess is nev] !
 :ole ( any object4 ,^? aspects :i* ally
 x ) o!r ?+s are j z g5u9ely its own z  
^? :i* diff]5tiate x f !m2 !y equally   
are a "p ( its beauty4 ,! attempt to    
sep>ate any "p ( a "w ( art f ! re/ z ! 
real "p is an unw>rant$ & arbitr>y      
dismemb]m5t4 ,! "w is :ole1 & beauty    
belongs to x z :ole4 ,h5ce1 :51 ?r\gh   
comp>ison1 y att5d to ! qualities t are 
%>$ ) o!r works1 y are /ill judg+ !     
reality & beauty ( ! object1 q z mu* z  
:5 y seek to ta/e its unique flavor4 ,a 
compet5t judgm5t c neglect no aspect4 ,!
 judgm5t t a "w ( art is bett] or worse 
?an ano!r 9 "s g5]al aspect t\*es x j z 
surely z ! feel+ = its di/9ctiv5ess4 ,& 
if x be true t s f> z ?+s are unique !y 
are all on a level1 x is equally true t 
s f> z !y are n unique !y are capable ( 

be+ s]ializ$1 & our total judgm5t ^u !m 
mu/ foll[ ! l9es ( comp>ison4  ,x is    
impossible1 !re=e1 n to comp>e works (  
art "o ) ano!r4 ,we w conc$e to !       
impressioni/ t any?+ :i* anybody f9ds   
beautiful is beautiful mom5t>ily2 b we  
mu/ insi/ on ! ev]yday fact t1 because (
 ! op]ation ( ! /&>d z a result ( gr[+  
exp]i5ce 9 art1 :at once seem$ beautiful
 (t5 ceases to seem s4 ,& we mu/ also   
insi/ t among ! ?+s surviv+ z beautiful 
we inevitably set up a hi]>*y1 a scale4 
,a plurality ( values1 ea* unique & 9   
its own way indisp5sable to a complete  
_w ( values1 is n inconsi/5t ) relations
 ( high] & l[] among !m4 ,! impressioni/
 has taught u to love v>iety & to r5\nce
 ! bigotry ( ! old refusal to accept    
any?+ %ort ( ! highe/4 ,b 9 ae/hetics--&
 9 e?ics too1 ,i believe--! /&po9t (    
,sp9oza rules3 ,god is reveal$ 9 ! m\se 
z well z 9 ! angel1 al?\gh less 9 ! m\se
 ?an 9 ! angel2 &1 ,i %\ld add1 !       
revelation ?r\gh ! humbl] m\se is       
necess>y to a complete revelation (     

,god1 t is1 ( ! ,good4 ,or1 z ,nietzs*e 
said1 ,viel] ,edl]n naemli* b$>f es1    
dass es ,adel gebe6 ,our appreciation ( 
,midsumm] ,night's ,dream does n prev5t 
u f appreciat+ ,alice 9 ,wond]l&1 j z   
our e/eem = ! man does n h9d] our feel+ 
= ! peculi> *>m ( ! *ild4  ,:at takes   
place ?r\gh ! process ( comp>ison is    
?is3 we come increas+ly to realize :at  
we want ( art4 ,e arti/ seeks to express
 some?+ 9 t]ms ( ! mat]ial ) :i* he     
works4 ,b x is only by exp]im5t+ ) 8    
m$ium t he le>ns :at he c & :at he _c d2
 & x is only by con/ant hospitable1 yet 
discrim9at+ appreciation by u spectators
 t we1 9 our turn1 discov] :at to dem& (
 him & comm5d4 ,consid]1 = example1 !   
hi/ory ( pa9t+4 ,t we want ( a picture1 
sometimes ! del9eation ( emotion &      
action1 yes2 b above all & always1 !    
repres5tation ( visible nature1 ) space 
& atmosph]e & light--?is purpose has be5
 develop$ sl[ly & z ! result ( _m       
exp]im5ts & comp>isons4 ,b hav+ won x1  
we are secure 9 x4 ,we %all /ill        

appreciate ! beauty ( ! primitives &    
academics1 b we %all n be able aga9 to  
pref] !m to ! ple9-airi/es4 ,or recall !
 developm5t ( ,engli% poetry4 ,we /ill  
admit ! contribution ( ,dryd5 & ,pope1 b
 we %all nev] h to fight ov] aga9 !     
battle won by ,wordswor? & 8            
contempor>ies = imag9ation & emotion4   
,our conception ( ! purpose ( poetry has
 be5 enri*$ by an insight t we _c       
p]man5tly lose4 ,!re are1 to be sure1   
retrograde movem5ts 9 ! arts--l !       
,pre-,raphaelite movem5t 9 pa9t+--b !y  
are soon recogniz$ z su*4  ,n[ ) ref]5ce
 to ! purpose ( art to express 9 a giv5 
mat]ial1 !re are1 ,i ?9k1 a few g5]al   
pr9ciples ( judgm5t apply+ to all !     
arts1 implicitly or explicitly recogniz$
 9 criticism1 & capable ( =mulation4    
,fir/1 ! complete use ( ! m$ium4 ,we    
pref]1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ! "w ( art t  
has fully exploit$ ! expressive         
possibilities ( its m$ium to "o t has   
fail$ to d s4 ,z an illu/ration1 ,i w\ld
 cite ! almo/ univ]sal condemnation1 at 

! pres5t "t1 ( neo-classical sculpture1 
9 :i* ! t\* values ( ! surfaces ( /atues
 7 de/roy$4 ,( c\rse "s comp5sat+ ga9   
may be claim$--a great] visual purity2  
yet1 z we %all see1 f ! po9t ( view (   
expression1 ! ga9 0 negligible comp>$ ) 
! loss4 ,s likewise1 unless !           
v]s-libri/es c %[ "s positive ga9 9     
expression1--a p[] to d some?+ t normal 
v]se _c d1 _! "w mu/ rank l[] ?an normal
 v]se1 :i* makes full] use ( ! rhy?mic  
possibilities ( language4  ,second1 !   
unique use ( ! mat]ial4 ,:at we want (  
art dep5ds1 n only on comp>ison betwe5  
works ( art belong+ to ! same g5re1 b on
 comp>ison ( ! purposes ( diff]5t g5res1
 inde$ ( ! diff]5t arts !mselves4 ,:at  
we want ( pa9t+ dep5ds ^u :at we want ( 
sculpture2 :at we want ( poetry dep5ds  
^u :at we want ( pa9t+ & music4 ,we     
comp>e picture ) picture2 b equally we  
comp>e picture ) /atue & poem4 ,we d n  
want ! sculptor to try to d :at ! pa9t] 
c d bett]1 & vice-v]sa2 or ! poet to    
encroa* on ! doma9s prop] to ! musician 

& pa9t]4 ,we d n want poetry to be m]ely
 imagi/ic or m]ely musical :5 we h ano!r
 art t c give u mu* bett] pictures &    
/ill ano!r t c give u mu* bett] music   
?an any ^w-pa9t+ or ^w-music4 ,:5 we    
read a poem1 we d n want to be made to  
?9k h[ mu* bett] ! same ?+ c\ld be done 
9 a diff]5t m$ium4 ,!re is no?+ s       
salut>y 9 keep+ an art to its prop] task
 z a fl\ri%+ condition ( ! o!r arts4 ,"h
 ! great example is ,france1 :]e !      
limitations ( ! diff]5t arts h be5 be/  
recogniz$ all ! :ile ! highe/ level (   
p]fection has be5 rea*$ 9 _m arts       
contemporane\sly4  ,?ird1 ! p]fect use (
 ! m$ium 9 ! ef=t to fulfill ! arti/ic  
purpose ( sympa!tic repres5tation--! p[]
 to delight ! s5ses & create sympa?y = !
 object express$1 on ! "o h&1 & ! range 
( ! vision ( ! object1 on ! o!r2 ! dep? 
& ! bread? ( ! ae/hetic exp]i5ce4 ,)    
ref]5ce to ! =m] we ask3 h[ vividly does
 ! "w ( art =ce u to see2 h[ completely 
does x make u ent] into ! _w x has      
creat$2 &1 9 do+ ?is1 h[ poignantly has 

x *>m$ u1 h[ close has x unit$ u to     
itself8 ,! measure ( ?is is p>tly       
subjective & irr$ucible to rules2 yet   
exp]i5ce 9 ! arts e/abli%es a norm or   
s*ema ( appreciation ?r\gh ! process (  
comp>ison1 l>gely unconsci\s1 by :i* :at
 we call good ta/e is acquir$4 ,!re are 
c]ta9 works ( art t seem to h fulfill$  
?is requirem5t 9 ! highe/ possible      
degree1 ?us atta9+ to p]fection )9 _!   
compass4 ,su*1 = example1 are "s (      
,sappho's or ,goe!'s lyrics1 or ! ,fif? 
,canto ( ! ,inf]no4 ,no?+ m p]fect1 m   
beautiful ( _! k9d c be conceiv$4 ,& to 
see h[ works ( art may diff] 9 degree ( 
p]fection ( sympa!tic vision1 "o has    
only to recall less] works express+ !   
same !mes4 ,yet we recognize great]     
works ev5 ?an ^? cit$--works 9 :i*1     
al?\gh ! sympa!tic vision is no m       
p5etrat+ & compell+1 x is broad]1 m     
inclusive4 ,goe!'s ,fau/ is great] ?an  
any ( 8 lyrics because ! range (        
exp]i5ce :i* x expresses is va/]4 ,a    
,velasquez is great] ?an a ,pet] ,de    

,hoo* because1 9 addition to an equal   
beauty ( expression ?r\gh color & l9e & 
composition1 an equal dom9ion ov] light 
& space1 x conta9s a m>vel\s revelation 
( ! inn] life1 :i* is abs5t f ! latt]4  
,accord+ to ,b]5son1 no "o has yet pa9t$
 ! p]fect l&scape because ?us f> only a 
c]ta9 few aspects h be5 express$1 b n   
all4  ,!re are1 ,i ?9k1 c]ta9 qualities 
:i* are g5]ally recogniz$ z necess>y to 
! p]fect fulfillm5t ( ! arti/ic purpose 
( a "w2 :i* foll[1 inde$1 f ! v mean+ ( 
art4 ,?us1 )\t uniqu5ess & fre%ness !re 
c be no p]fection 9 arti/ic expression4 
,a well-worn or ev5 an id5tical         
expression may h value 9 ! solution ( a 
practical problem1 or 9 br++ m5 into    
good-natur$ relation%ips ) "o ano!r 9   
social life2 z :51 = example1 ! (fic]   
cries ,halt6 repeat$ly1 or we say ,good 
morn+ at breakfa/2 because1 9 su* cases1
 ! expression gets its significance f ! 
context 9 :i* x belongs4 ,b 9 art1 :]e  
expression is fre$ f ! p>ticul> sett+ )9
 :i* x arises1 ?us atta9+ univ]sality1 !

 repetiti\s & imitative1 hav+ no        
environm5t f :i* !y may d]ive new mean+1
 are purposeless4 ,!y are1 inde$1 worse 
?an negligible1 because hav+ gr[n into !
 habit ( expect+ orig9ality1 we are     
disappo9t$ & bor$ :5 we fail to f9d x4  
,orig9ality is1 ( c\rse1 relative2 x is 
n incompatible ) ! rem9isc5ce ( old     
works--:at works ( art are n            
rem9isc5t8--b x does prohibit say+ ! old
 ?+s ov] aga9 9 ! same m$ium2 ! arti/   
mu/ h a new message to put into ! m$ium2
 or else1 if ! old !mes are /ill ne> to 
8 he>t1 he mu/ inv5t a new =m 9 :i* to  
express !m1 f :i* !y w d]ive a new      
music4 ,closely alli$ to fre%ness are   
spontaneity & inn] necessity1 ! signs ( 
a g5u9e1 z oppos$ to a factiti\s1       
expression4 ,if we get ! impression f a 
"w ( art t no "p c\ld be o!rwise--n a   
s+le l9e or note or /roke ( ! bru%--!n  
we h ! same sort ( feel+ t[>ds x t we h 
t[>ds ! liv+ ?+ t 0 n made by h&s       
caprici\sly1 b grew 9 its inevitable way
 9 accordance ) ! laws ( its own nature4

 ,( c\rse1 works ( art are products (   
?\ght1 ( plan1 & consci\s purpose2 !y   
are seldom compos$ all at "o fla%1 b gr[
 t5tatively into _! f9al =m2 nev]!less1 
9 ! words ( ,kant1 ,a "w ( art mu/ look 
l nature1 albeit we "k t x is art4 ,s5se
 *>m & ord] are also necess>y2 = !y are 
! conditions ( a p]fect sympa?y &       
vision4 ,we are indulg5t t[>ds !        
vigor\s1 impati5t passion t bubbles ov] 
into r\gh & c>eless music or poetry1 b  
are n satisfi$ ) x4 ,= art's task is n  
m]ely to express1 b to dom9ate ?r\gh    
expression1 to create out ( expression1 
beauty2 & )\t ord] & *>m ( s5se1 !re is 
no beauty4 ,compose y\r passion1 we say 
to ! musician2 patt]n x =?1 we say to ! 
poet2 x w n lose its vigor2 r x w       
acquire a new p[]2 = ?us x w a*ieve     
re/ra9t1 ! sign ( art's dom9ion4  ,!    
recognition ( ! pr9ciples indicat$      
presupposes1 ( c\rse1 t art really has a
 purpose ) ref]5ce to :i* x c be judg$ z
 successful or unsuccessful4 ,b ,i d n  
see h[ ?is c v well be d5i$4 ,art is "o 

( ! olde/ ( human activities1 "o might  
almo/ say in/itutions1 & x is           
inconceivable t x %\ld n h be5 direct$  
by "s int5tion1 consci\s or unconsci\s4 
,to be sure1 m5 h express$ ?is int5tion 
9 v>y+1 (t5 9 inconsi/5t ways1 b ! same 
is true ( all o!r human activities &    
in/itutions4 ,few w\ld d5y1 ,i suppose1 
t sci5ce & ! /ate h purposes2 yet h[    
v>i\s h be5 ! def9itions ( !m4 ,^!      
v>iations h correspond$1 )\t d\bt1 to   
adaptations to new conditions1 yet      
?r\gh\t "s unique purpose 9 human life  
has be5 subs]v$4 ,s ) art4 ,art has be5 
id5tifi$ n[ ) "o int]e/ & n[ ) ano!r2   
:at p want ( art diff]s f "o age to     
ano!r1 & ea* mu/ def9e t = itself2 yet  
?r\gh\t !re has be5 a core ( id5tity 9 !
 purposes x has s]v$4 ,9 our own age we 
witness ! attempt to di/+ui% ! purpose (
 art f ! purposes ( o!r elem5ts (       
civilization1 ) :i* x has (t5 be5 fus$ &
 confus$1--sci5ce1 religion1 morality4  
,correspond+ly we witness ! ef=t to     
limit ! functions ( political control2  

to take f its jurisdiction religion1    
culture1 love4 ,& ?is ef=t is = ! sake (
 a full] & fre] realization ( values4   
,fur!rmore1 n only has art a g5]al      
function1 b ?is function is diff]5tiat$ 
among ! diff]5t art =ms & g5res4 ,no "w 
( art c be judg$ )\t ref]5ce to its     
function4 ,its beauty consi/s 9 !       
fulfillm5t ( ?is function4 ,n[ ?is      
function is1 ( c\rse1 l>gely unique =   
ea* art =m & = ea* p>ticul> "w ( art1 & 
e "w has to be judg$ ) ref]5ce to its   
individual purpose1 yet a k ( o!r works 
( ! same arti/ & ! same g5re1 & ( !     
g5]al hi/ory ( art1 helps to div9e ?is  
purpose & to judge ( its relative       
success4 ,!re is a l>ge measure (       
cont9uity 9 ! int5tions ( a giv5 arti/ &
 s*ool ( art4 ,! developm5t ( pa9t+ 9 ! 
la/ c5tury is a /rik+ illu/ration ( su* 
cont9uity4 ,! pa9t]s s\ght to develop a 
def9ite tradition1 ?9k+ ( !mselves z    
c>ry+ fur!r ! "w ( _! pr$ecessors4 ,(   
c\rse ^! developm5ts 7 l>gely te*nical 9
 "*1 b beauty itself is ! fruition (    

te*nique4  ,! p :o base a skeptical     
op9ion ^u ! hi/orical *anges 9 ta/e =get
 t ta/e is necess>ily a gr[?2 t x is    
develop$ by trial & error1 ?r\gh &      
despite ! foll[+ ( _m false pa?s4 ,only 
if ! /&>d 7 some?+ deliv]$ to m5 by     
div9e revelation--z inde$ ! old         
dogmati/s came v close to believ+-- w\ld
 x be /range & inconsi/5t = *anges to   
occur4 ,b if1 z is ! fact1 ! /&>d is    
exp]im5tal & repres5tative ( actual     
arti/ic purposes1 !n *ange is normal4   
,moreov]1 ! /&>d is n s+le & absolute1 b
 plural & relative4 ,gr[? 9 ta/e means n
 only developm5t along a giv5 l9e1 )9 a 
giv5 =m1 b enl>gem5t ?r\gh ! orig9ation 
( new =ms & beauties4 ,x is n l !       
/raight l9e gr[? ( an animal1 b r       
radial1 l ! gr[? ( a plant1 s5d+ out    
bran*es 9 e direction4 ,an art may atta9
 to p]fection 9 a c]ta9 g5re1 & !n      
cont9ue only ?r\gh ! creation ( new     
types4 ,?us sculpture & ar*itecture     
rea*$ a k9d ( p]fection 9 ! classic1    
beyond :i* x 0 impossible to g--! only  

possible developm5t lay 9 ! creation (  
new types4  ,if x is true1 !n1 t !      
exi/5ce ( /&>ds has a s\nd basis 9 !    
ae/hetic exp]i5ce1 h[ c _! app>5t       
failure to "w & secure unanimity (      
judgm5t be expla9$8 ,h[ acc\nt = !      
actual *aos ( judgm5t8 ,p>tly1 at lea/1 
because _m judgm5ts pass$ on works ( art
 are n ae/hetic judgm5ts at all4 ,^! mu/
 be elim9at$ if any cons5sus is to be   
won4 ,we may call ^! judgm5ts pseudo-   
/hetic judgm5ts4 ,!y fall naturally into
 sev]al classes1 :i* x w be wor? :ile to
 describe4  ,fir/1 !re is ! v l>ge class
 ( p>tisan judgm5ts--judgm5ts bas$1 n ^u
 a free appreciation1 b ^u "s p]sonal   
pr$ilection or transi5t appeal4 ,to ?is 
class belong ! special pref]5ces (      
boyhood & y\?--! lik+ = ,coop] & ,jules 
,v]ne1 = example-- & ^? due to          
nationality1 l ! ,engli%man's *oice (   
,?ack]ay & ! ,fr5*man's ( ,balzac1 or1  
:at is a m flagrant case1 ! long        
resi/ance ( ! ,fr5* public to ! beauty (
 ,wagn]'s music4 ,! =m] type ( judgm5t  

is correct$ by ! simple process (       
matur+1 :5 ! beauties appreciat$ 9 y\?  
are n lo/1 b only giv5 _! due place 9 ! 
hi]>*y ( ae/hetic values2 ! latt] type1 
on ! o!r h&1 be+ m deeply bas$1 is m    
difficult to rem$y4 ,b t ev5 ?is        
prejudice c be l>gely ov]come is %[n by 
! example ( critics :o1 ?r\gh prolong$  
sympa!tic /udy1 come to pref] ! art ( a 
=eign l&4 ,a notable example ( ?is is   
,mei]-,graeffe1 :o condemns almo/ all ( 
mod]n ,g]man pa9t+ & exalts ! ,fr5*4    
,footnote3 ,see 8 ,mod]n ,art1 & 8      
special /udies ( ,manet1 ,r5oir1 &      
,degas4 ,patriotic pref]5ces are s      
difficult to ov]come because !y spr+ f  
limitations ( sympa?y4 ,sympa?y dep5ds  
^u acqua9tance1 & few ( u c acquire !   
same exp]tness 9 an ali5 language or    
arti/ic =m t we possess 9 our own4 ,yet1
 und]/&+ ! reason = ^! defici5cies (    
judgm5t1 we c g to "w to improve !m1    
?r\gh increas+ our k ( =eign art4  ,no  
less inevitable psy*ologically is !     
pref]5ce = works ( art t treat ( !      

problems & conditions ( contempor>y     
life4 ,"p ( ?is1 to be sure1 is         
expressive m]ely ( "s transi5t mood ( ! 
popul> m9d4 ,! en?usiasm1 happily pass+1
 = ! plays ( ,brieux or ! craze =       
,alg]ian l&scapes 9 ,france aft] !      
acquirem5t ( ! colony1 are examples4    
,su* pref]5ces1 be+ sup]ficially        
motivat$1 correct !mselves ) ease1 giv+ 
way to "s new fa%ion 9 ta/e4 ,! pref]5ce
 = works ( art t reflect ! m s]i\s &    
p]man5t problems ( contempor>y society  
is m firmly root$4 ,m5 inevitably seek !
 arti/ic expression ( ! ?+s t deeply    
conc]n !m4 ,! problems ( ! recon/ruction
 ( ! family1 ( ! work+ classes1 & (     
gov]nm5t mu/ cont9ue to inspire art & to
 det]m9e our int]e/ 9 x1 until new      
difficulties occupy our m9ds4 ,! m]e    
passage ( "t1 h[ev]1 br+s a rem$y =     
critical inju/ices fl[+ f ?is s\rce2 =1 
:5 pres5t problems are solv$1 ! diff]5ce
 betwe5 liv+ art1 :i* expresses !m1 &   
hi/orical art1 vani%es4 ,!n1 only ^?    
works :i* reflect ! et]nal enigmas h any

 advantage ov] ! o!rs4 ,! same process  
t5ds to elim9ate ! prejudice1 root$ 9   
temp]am5t1 9 favor ( ! old & famili> 9  
art2 or1 foll[+ a diff]5t b5t1 9 favor (
 ! new & />tl+4 ,9 su* cases1 a j       
e/imate c be made only :5 ! new becomes 
! old1 & bo? are r$uc$ to a common      
level4  ,ano!r type ( pseudo-ae/hetic   
judgm5t is ! imitative4 ,by ?is ,i mean 
! judgm5t :i* is made because somebody  
else has made x1 p>ticul>ly somebody 9  
au?ority4 ,! imitative judgm5t is !     
expression1 9 ! field ( ae/hetics1 ( :at
 ,trott] has call$ h]d in/9ct1          
,footnote3 ,see 8 ,! ,h]d ,in/9ct 9     
,peace & ,w>1 fir/ "p4 ! t5d5cy on ! "p 
( ! greg>i\s animal to make 8 acts &    
habits con=m to ^? ( ano!r memb] ( !    
same gr\p1 p>ticul>ly if t memb] is a   
lead] or repres5ts ! majority4 ,!       
dislike ( lonel9ess & ! love (          
companion%ip op]ate1 z we h already _h  
occasion to notice1 ev5 9 ! sph]e ( !   
_s4 ,diff]5ces "h sep>ate p j z o!r     
diff]5ces d4 ,9 art1 h]d in/9ct t5ds to 

make ! judgm5t ( ! au?oritative or      
fa%ionable critic take ! place (        
spontane\s & s9c]e judgm5t4 ,i d n mean 
t su* judgm5ts are usually consci\sly   
ins9c]e2 al?\gh !y (t5 are s1 s9ce m5   
seek to +ratiate !mselves by flatt]+ ev5
 ! ae/hetic op9ions ( ^? ^: love or     
protection !y desire4 ,i d mean1 h[ev]1 
t !y t5d to suppress op9ions :i* w\ld   
reflect an autonom\s appreciation4      
,moreov]1 :atev] may be said =          
h]d-in/9ct 9 ! realm ( politics &       
morals1 :]e ! ne$ = common action makes 
necess>y "s sort ( cons5sus among !     
memb]s ( a gr\p1 v little c be said = x 
9 ae/hetics1 :]e no practical issues are
 directly involv$4 ,!re1 h]d in/9ct     
simply sub/itutes %am appreciation = a  
vital & heal?y reaction4 ,( c\rse1      
imitative judgm5ts mu/ be di/+ui%$ f ^? 
t agree because !y are bas$ on a g5u9e  
contagion or community ( feel+4 ,?is    
di/9ction may be a difficult "o = !     
outsid] to make2 b is n s = ! individual
 conc]n$4 ,i d n d5y ! value ( au?ority 

9 ae/hetics2 :at ,i am inveigh+ aga9/ is
 ! sub/itution ( au?ority = s9c]ity4 ,9 
art1 ! suasion ( ! norm %\ld be         
absolutely free1 ) no p5alty except     
isolation f ! be/4 ,! only value (      
au?ority is to c\nt]act laz9ess &       
sup]ficiality ( appreciation2 to        
/imulate ^? :o w\ld re/ cont5t ) fir/   
impressions to a m /udi\s & att5tive    
exam9ation4 ,yet1 h[ev] great be our    
natural desire to conv9ce o!rs ( beauty1
 we want _! conviction to be z s9c]e z  
our own3 we d n want x to be            
factiti\s1--sugge/$ or dragoon$4 ,x is  
(t5 too easy1 r ?an too h>d1 to w9      
agreem5t4  ,! "q ( ! place ( au?ority 9 
ae/hetics is rais$ aga9 by a            
consid]ation ( ano!r class (            
pseudo-ae/hetic judgm5ts1 :i* ,i %all   
call ignorant judgm5ts4 ,^! judgm5ts are
 p]fectly s9c]e1 b express an ae/hetic  
exp]i5ce t is imp]fect1 ow+ to defective
 und]/&+ ( art4 ,s _m p judge works (   
art z if !y c\ld assimilate !m          
imm$iately1 )\t any k ( _! purpose &    

te*nique4 ,!y fail to recognize t a "w (
 art has a language1 ) a vocabul>y &    
gramm>1 :i* has to be ma/]$ ?r\gh /udy4 
,a "w ( art is a possibility ( a c]ta9  
complex ( values1 n a giv5 actuality t c
 be grasp$ by m]ely /ret*+ out ! h&4 ,v 
little ( any "w ( art is giv5--j a few  
s5se /imuli2 ! re/ is an emotional &    
mean+ful reaction1 :i* has to be        
complet$ 9 a det]m9ate fa%ion4 ,a "w (  
art is a "q to :i* ! "r answ] has to be 
f\nd4 ,& 9 ord] to f9d ! answ]1 x is    
necess>y to "k bo? :at to look = & :at n
 to look =4 ,= example1 9 judg+         
,japanese pr9ts1 "o mu/ realize1 f !    
limitation ( ! m$ium1 t "o _c look = all
 ! fullness ( expression ( %ad[ &       
atmosph]e possible 9 an oil pa9t+2 or 9 
judg+ decorative or po/-impressioni/ic  
pa9t+1 "o mu/ realize t ! purpose ( !   
arti/ is *iefly to obta9 musical effects
 f color & l9e1 n to repres5t nature    
reali/ically4  ,because works ( art are 
ideals1 possibilities ( exp]i5ce1 & n   
giv5 ?+s :i* ev]ybody c appreciate )\t k

 & ef=t1 ,i am skeptical ( all results  
obta9$ 9 laboratories ( exp]im5tal      
ae/hetics1 :]e college /ud5ts are ask$  
to judge works ( pa9t+1 music1 &        
sculpture4 ,an un9/ruct$ majority vote  
_c decide any "q 9 ae/hetics4 ,su*      
exp]im5ts1 ) ! exception ( ^? t conc]n !
 mo/ elem5t>y reactions1 yield int]e/+  
/ati/ical results ab\t ! gr\ps employ$ z
 subjects1 b are ( no value 9 ae/hetics4
 ,& :at wond] t we %\ld f9d p disagree+ 
9 _! judgm5ts :51 because ( ignorance1  
!y are n report+ ab\t ! same objects6   
,f9ally1 an ae/hetic cons5sus is        
possible only if non-ae/hetic /&>ds &   
all judgm5ts bas$ on false conceptions (
 ! purpose ( art are elim9at$4 ,"s ( ^! 
judgm5ts ,i h already discuss$--!       
sci5tific & ! morali/ic4 ,! purpose (   
art is sympa!tic vision1 n sci5tific    
tru? or edification4 ,x is (t5 necess>y1
 9 ord] to w9 a vision ( actual life1 = 
! arti/ to possess sci5tific k2 b only z
 a means1 n z an end4 ,& aga91 insight  
into ! m endur+ pref]5ces ( m5 & !      

conditions ( _! happ9ess1 ^u :i*        
rational moral /&>ds are f\nd$1 is      
indisp5sable to a complete int]pretation
 ( life2 b !re is mu* ( life t c be     
envisag$ sympa!tically1 t is1           
arti/ically & beautifully1 ) small hold 
on e?ical wisdom4 ,no "o1 ,i suppose1   
w\ld reg>d de ,maupassant z a wise man 9
 ! ,greek s5se ( possess+ a             
philosophical grasp ( ! norms :i* make  
up ! consci5ce ( m51 yet few w\ld d5y   
him ! supreme gift ( del9eat+ ! pa?os & 
com$y ( passion4 ,i d n d\bt t m5 w     
always judge works ( art f ab/ract      
/&po9ts2 t to-day !y w judge !m f !     
po9ts ( view ( sci5ce & morals1 s9ce we 
are s dom9at$ by _! sway2 b ,i d claim t
 ^! /&>ds are n ae/hetic1 & t s long z  
!y control our e/imates ( art1 !re c    
nev] be any?+ except *aos 9 ta/e2 = !y w
 always come into conflict ) ! g5u9ely  
ae/hetic po9t ( view4 ,&1 ,i ask1 :y n  
grant to art its autonomy8 ,if art has a
 unique purpose1 diff]5t f t ( sci5ce or
 morals1 :y %\ld we n judge x 9 t]ms ( t

 purpose8  ,( c\rse1 s9ce man's nature  
is "o1 n _m1 x w always be impossible   
entirely to get rid ( ! non-ae/hetic    
bases ( judgm5t4 ,p]sonal pr$ilection = 
a c]ta9 k9d ( subject-matt]1 patriotic  
pref]5ce = "o's own language & /yle1 !  
influ5ce ( au?ority & ! lure ( ! cr[d1 !
 intrusion ( ! morali/ic & ! sci5tific  
bias1--all ^! mu/1 to a great] or less  
degree1 divide & dispute ! hegemony (   
ta/e4 ,nev]!less1 al?\gh x is impossible
 to rea* a pure ae/hetic judgm5t1 we    
ought to /rive to approa* x1 &1 by d9t (
 tra9+ & cle> ?9k+ ab\t art1 we c       
approa* x4 ,we ought to d ?is1 n because
 ( any =malism or purism1 b = ! sake (  
pres]v+ ! unique value ( art1 :i* is    
cov]$ up or de/roy$ by ! intrusion (    
non-ae/hetic /&>ds ( judgm5t4 ,= judgm5t
 does influ5ce feel+1 especially su* a  
delicate & subtle ?+ z ae/hetic feel+4  
,! patriotic & ! p>tisan judgm5ts n>r[  
appreciation1 ! imitative sub/itute a   
judgm5t = a feel+1 ! morali/ic &        
sci5tific prejudices (t5 inhibit !      

possibility ( ! ae/hetic reaction at !  
/>t1 or1 if !y all[ x to beg91 prev5t ! 
full sympa?y & ab&on :i* are requir$ =  
its consummation4 ,we c get sci5tific   
tru? f sci5ce1 :y !n seek x 9 art8 ,we c
 obta9 moral wisdom f ! philosoph] &    
prie/1 :y require x ( ! arti/8 ,re=m]s &
 /atesm5 w enlight5 u conc]n+           
recon/ruction1 :y n turn to !m8 ,i d n  
mean1 ( c\rse1 t art may n express !    
my/]y & ! wond] ( sci5ce1 ! voice (     
consci5ce1 ! cry ( di/ress2 b ev5 ?is is
 n sci5ce1 or sociology1 or morals2 &   
art mu/ & %\ld also express d>k passion1
 hot hate or love1 & joy--9 ! sea1 9    
sunlight1 9 ! %ad[ ( leaves on ! grass1 
9 ! bodies ( m5 & wom5--& ! o!r myriad  
=ms ( human life & nature t are nei!r "r
 nor true1 b simply are4 ,& fur!rmore3 !
 tyranny ( ! sci5tific & ! moral is !   
dea? ( art4 ,art c live only :5 free4 ,s
 long z m5 are subject to ! exclusive   
habit ( condemn+ & prais+ & analyz+ &   
classify+1 !y are incapable ( a free    
envisagem5t & expression4 ,betwe5       

sociology & ,puritanism1 ! arti/ic novel
 & ! drama h become all b impossible 9  
?is c\ntry4 ,dur+ ! n9ete5? c5tury1 !   
pr$ilection1 among ! ,pre-,raphaelites1 
= ! sci5tific & moral ne>ly kill$       
l&scape pa9t+ 9 ,engl&1 its bir?place4  
,& only 9 ,france1 :]e alone ( mod]n    
nations ! moral & hygi5ic attitude t[>ds
 ! human body has n completely driv5 out
 ! arti/ic1 has !re be5 a vital & endur+
 sculpture4  ,if ! ae/hetic judgm5t is  
giv5 autonomy1 a sure f\ndation =       
ae/hetic norms c be e/abli%$1 because !n
 art w be judg$ ) ref]5ce to a p]fectly 
def9ite purpose4 ,feel+ w always tell u 
:e!r a ?+ is beautiful or n2 b feel+    
itself w dep5d ^u :e!r ! implicit       
purpose ( art has be5 realiz$2 &1 :5 we 
reflectively consid] a "w 9 relation to 
o!r works1 we %all h a solid basis =    
comp>ison4 ,judgm5t w h a f\ndation 9   
reason z well z 9 feel+4 ,we %all ask ( 
! arti/1 n :e!r he has in/ruct$ u or    
edifi$ u1 b solely :e!r he has giv5 u a 
new & sympa!tic vision ( "s "p ( our    

exp]i5ce4 ,! k9d ( vision t he gives u w
 dep5d1 ( c\rse1 ^u ! mat]ials ( 8      
art--x w be "o ?+ 9 s\nd1 ano!r 9 color 
or l9e or patt]n$ words4 ,ev5 z we dem& 
( art 9 g5]al a unique value1 z fulfill+
 a unique function1 s we %all dem& ( !  
diff]5t arts t ea* provide u ) ! unique 
beauty :i* its mat]ials c create4 ,we   
%all !re=e comm5d ! sep>ation ( ! arts &
 view ) suspicion any attempt to fuse   
!m4 ,:atev] be 8 mat]ials1 we %all dem& 
( ! arti/ always ! same result3 t he    
make u see1 & comm& our sympa?y &       
delight = 8 vision4 ,any judgm5t t we   
make1 or any /&>d t we set up1 mu/      
proce$ ^u a k ( ?is ma/] purpose & ( !  
mat]ials & te*nique ( ! p>ticul> art    
?r\gh :i* x is to be realiz$4 ,& su*    
/&>ds1 exp]im5tal & t5tative1 b         
nev]!less pot5t & directive1 are capable
 ( discov]y & =mulation4 ,"s ( ! l>g] & 
m important ( ^! we %all try to set =? 9
 our *apt]s on ! special arts4 ,an arti/
 :o works )9 ^! /&>ds is sure to produce
 some?+ beautiful2 "o :o breaks !m w    

fail or1 r>ely1 f9d "s hi!rto           
undiscov]$1 surpris+ beauty 9 ! m$ium4  
,!re /ill rema9s = consid]ation ! fe>   
le/ ! recognition ( /&>ds may disc\rage 
new exp]im5ts & s int]f]e ) ! creative  
impulse4 ,x is true t trag$ies h occurr$
 :5 criticism has be5 unsympa!tic &     
malici\s--rememb] ,keats & ! /ruggles ( 
! e>ly ,fr5* impressioni/ic pa9t]s--b   
ev5 !n ,i d\bt if any real h>m to art   
has result$4 ,= ! situation 9 ae/hetics 
diff]s f ! situation 9 e?ics & politics 
:]e ! ret>d+ effect ( conv5tion is      
und5iable4 ,9 art !re c nev] be ! same  
clos5ess ( alliance betwe5 conv5tion &  
ve/$ int]e/s t is s repressive a =ce 9 !
 _w4 ,x is probably true inde$ t1 z     
,plato said1 :5 ! modes ( music *ange1 s
 d con/itutions *ange2 = example1 !re is
 d\btless to-day "s connection betwe5   
imagi/ poetry1 po/-impressioni/ic pa9t+1
 ,russian music1 & revolution>y         
s5tim5t--witness1 9 our own c\ntry1 ,!  
,masses & ,! ,sev5 ,arts--b ! l9k is too
 delicate to al>m ! p[]s t be4 ,!       

uphold+ ( a /&>d mu/ be alli$ ) mat]ial 
int]e/s if x is to be repressive (      
creation & novelty4 ,b1 z a free =ce1   
op]at+ solely by influ5ce1 ! /&>d has ! 
effect only ( keep+ alive ! love (      
excell5ce1 &1 by provid+ "s /ability 9 !
 old1 creat+ t contra/ betwe5 ! new & ! 
old1 s /imulat+ to ! new itself4 ,= !   
impulse to orig9ate op]ates be/         
alongside ( & 9 opposition to ! desire  
to cons]ve4 ,france has be5 ! great     
orig9ator 9 ! pla/ic arts dur+ rec5t    
times2 b x has also be5 ! only c\ntry   
:]e a g5u9e traditional /&>d has exi/$4 
,:5 tradition is bas$ on exp]im5ts1 z 9 
art1 x _c be 9 ess5ce ho/ile to !m4 ,&  
all valid ae/hetic pr9ciples are        
suffici5tly broad & ab/ract n to int]f]e
 ) novelty & creation4  ,:5 su*         
pr9ciples z we h tri$ to =mulate are    
admitt$1 ! _w ( ae/hetic judgm5ts c be  
organiz$ & "s cons5sus ab\t ! beautiful 
a*iev$4 ,)\t an approa* to a cons5sus1 !
 ae/hetic impulse c nev] be cont5t2 = x 
is indefeasibly sociable4 ,agreem5t 9   

judgm5ts dep5ds ^u a common exp]i5ce1 & 
?is also art c provide4 ,= beauty is    
con/itut$ ( elem5t>y reactions to s5se  
/imuli :i* are well-nigh univ]sal among 
m51 & ( symbols & mean+s :i* c be le>n$ 
l any language4 ,! delight 9 h>mony &   
balance1 ord] & symmetry & rhy?m1 &     
aga91 ! pleasure 9 ! unique & well      
f9i%$1 are felt by e "o4 ,! entire =m   
side ( art1 its /ructure or design1 is  
bas$ on fundam5tal & endur+ elem5ts (   
human nature4 ,! symbolism ( s5sation1  
its musical expressiv5ess1 z we h call$ 
x1 is root$ likewise 9 reactions &      
int]pretations t ei!r are1 or may       
become1 ?r\gh sugge/ion & tra9+1 common 
prop]ty4 ,!re are1 ( c\rse1 ! p :o h no 
feel+ = tones1 & ?r\gh defective memory 
= tones1 no appreciation ( musical      
design2 !re are also ^? :o are          
ins5sitive to color & l9e4 ,9 _m cases1 
?r\gh ! tra9+ ( ! att5tion1 ^! defects c
 be ov]come2 yet1 9 o!rs1 !y are p]man5t
 & incurable4 ,?is fact limits !        
univ]sality ( art2 (t5times1 :5 two p   

are discuss+ a "w1 !y are n talk+ ab\t !
 same object2 = a l>ge "p ( its         
pot5tialities are lo/ to "o ( !m4       
,nev]!less1 ! validity ( empirical /&>ds
 among ^? :o are capable ( appreciat+ ! 
:ole ( a "w ( art is n t\*$ by ?is fact4
 ,^? :o c agree1 ultimately w agree4 ,z 
= art z repres5tation1 t is a language  
readily acquir$4 ,x is an easi] & m     
natural language ?an ord9>y spee*4 ,:at 
is meant by ! colors & l9es ( a pa9t+ or
 /atue1 or by ! mimic ( ! drama1 is     
imm$iately grasp$ by any intellig5t     
p]son2 = to make use ( images ( ?+s 9   
ord] to repres5t !m is a univ]sal habit 
among m54 ,! pa9t+ & sculpture ( !      
,*9ese are intelligible to u2 n s _!    
spee*4 ,( c\rse1 to "s ext5t1 ! language
 ( pa9t+ & sculpture is conv5tional2 !  
limits ( accuracy ( imitation are n set 
by nature1 except at ! extremes1 b by ! 
tradition or practice ( pa9t]s4 ,yet !  
conv5tion is a simple "o1 easily        
und]/ood & accept$4     ,,*apt] ,,viii  
,,! ,,ae/hetics ,,( ,,music   ,9 ?is & !

 foll[+ *apt]s :i* treat ( ! arts1 ,i   
plan to make a concrete application ( ! 
ae/hetic !ory ?us f> develop$4 ,i want  
to %[ h[ ! g5]al pr9ciples :i* we h tri$
 to e/abli% c be us$ to expla9 ! facts (
 our arti/ic exp]i5ce4 ,9 do+ ?is ,i    
%all hope to a*ieve a d\ble purpose3    
fir/1 to v]ify anew our !ory ( art1 &   
second1 to deep5 & enlight5             
appreciation4  ,i beg9 ) music because1 
z we %all see1 !re is a musical factor 9
 all ! arts1 an und]/&+ ( :i* at !      
beg9n+ w enable u to proce$ mu* m easily
 9 our survey ( !m4 ,i %all conf9e      
myself to an elem5t>y analysis2 = a m   
detail$ /udy w\ld take u beyond ! b\nds 
( g5]al ae/hetics & w\ld require a k ( !
 special te*nique ( ! arts :i* we _c    
presuppose4 ,moreov]1 we %all n conc]n  
ourselves ) ! orig9 or hi/ory ( ! arts  
fur!r ?an is ne$ful = an und]/&+ ( _!   
g5]al "*4 ,we are inve/igat+ ! !ory1 n !
 hi/ory1 ( ta/e1 & are m int]e/$ 9 !    
pres5t develop$ ae/hetic consci\sness   
?an 9 its rudim5t>y =ms4  ,z we         

appreciate x to-day1 music l5ds itself  
readily to our def9ition ( art4 ,x is a 
p]sonal expression--:o1 :5 li/5+ to     
music :i* he enjoys1 does n feel himself
 p\r$ =? 9 ! tones8 ,x is social &      
public--:at br+s u toge!r "u ! sway ( a 
common emotion m effectively ?an conc]t 
or op]a8 ,x is a fix$ & p]man5t         
expression1 = we c r5ew x s long z m5   
pres]ve ! score :]e x is writt52 &1     
f9ally1 x is free--:o c f9d any         
practical or moral or sci5tific purpose 
9 an etude ( ,*op9 or a symphony (      
,moz>t8 ,music is ! mo/ signal example (
 a mode ( expression t has atta9$ to a  
complete & pure ae/hetic "*1 an unmix$  
beauty4 ,yet ?is 0 n true ( music 9 its 
e>li] =ms1 & a long process ( developm5t
 0 necess>y be=e fre$om 0 realiz$4 ,= we
 mu/ look = ! beg9n+ ( music 9 any & all
 s\nds ?r\gh :i* primitive m5 s\ght to  
express & communicate !mselves4 ,^! 71  
fir/ ( all1 ! cries ( ! human voice1    
expressive ( fe> & ne$ & joy--at once   
direct outp\r+s ( basic emotions &      

signals to "o's fell[s1 to help1 to     
satisfy1 & to sympa?ize4 ,9 ! voice     
nature provid$ man ) a direct & imm$iate
 in/rum5t = ! expression & communication
 ( himself ?r\gh s\nd4 ,!n1 p]haps by   
accid5t1 man discov]$ t he c\ld make    
s\nds 9 o!r ways1 ?r\gh mat]ials sep>ate
 f 8 body1 & s he con/ruct$ drums &     
cymbals & gongs2 & by means ( ^!1 too1  
he communicat$ 8 ne$s & /imulat$ himself
 to rage & excitem5t--& 8 enemy to      
fe>--9 w> dance & battle ru%4 ,& 9 do+  
?is he 0 imitat+ nature1 ^: noises1     
excit+ & t]rify+1 he _h long kn[n3 !    
clap ( ?und]1 ! :i/le ( ! w9d1 ! ro> ( !
 waves1 ! crackl+ ( burn+ wood1 ! cra% (
 fall5 & break+ ?+s4  ,out ( unbeautiful
 noise sprang beautiful music4 ,m5      
discov]$ t ?r\gh ! voice !y c\ld make n 
only expressive noises1 b also pleasant 
tones2 !y f\nd1 p]haps by accid5t1 t !y 
c\ld d mu* ! same ?+ ) re$s & /r+s2 !y  
obs]v$ t :5 !y beat _! drums at regul>  
int]vals to m>k ! motion ( ! dance1 !y n
 only danc$ toge!r m easily1 b also     

exp]i5c$ joy 9 ! v s\nds !y made2 or t  
:5 !y ?re%$ ! corn ) rhy?mic /rokes or  
r[$ a boat 9 rhy?mic unison1 _! task 0  
light5$ & _! we>i$ att5tion di/ract$ to 
! pleasure ( _! noise4 ,h5ce at _!      
dances ( love or w> or religion1 !y sang
 in/ead ( %\t$2 & _! in/rum5ts (        
irregul> & expressive noise became      
in/rum5ts ( rhy?mical & melodi\s tones4 
,ev5tually1 hav+ exp]i5c$ ! pleasure !re
 is 9 tones & rhy?mical s\nds1 !y made  
!m = _! own sake1 ap>t f any connection 
) tribal fe/ivals1 & ! free art ( music 
0 born4 ,& yet1 z we %all see1 !        
significance ( music dep5ds l>gely ^u ! 
fact t tones are ak9 to noises2 music   
c\ld n take su* a hold ( ! emotions ( m5
 did !y n ov]he> 9 ! tones ! mean+ful & 
poignant noises ( voice & nature2 to    
und]/& music1 we mu/ ?9k ( x aga9/ its  
backgr\nd ( expressive noise4 ,9 music  
we /ill seem to he> a voice t breaks !  
sil5ce & speaks1 ! ?und] t t]rifies4  ,!
 mat]ial ( music consi/s ( tones1 !     
consci\s c\nt]p>ts ( p]iodic1           

longitud9al vibrations ( ! air4 ,tones  
diff] among !mselves 9 _m attributes1 ( 
:i* ! foll[+ are ( *ief importance =    
music3 pit*1 det]m9$ by rate (          
vibration1 ?r\gh :i* tones diff] z high]
 & l[]2 color1 det]m9$ by ! complexity (
 ! vibration wave1 ! pres5ce ( ov]tones 
( diff]5t pit* along ) ! fundam5tal tone
 9 ! total s\nd2 int5sity1 dep5d5t ^u ! 
amplitude ( ! vibration1 ?r\gh :i* tones
 ( ! same pit* diff] z s(t or l\d2 &    
f9ally1 quality1 t specific "* ( a tone1
 by reason ( :i* middle ,c1 = example1  
is m l ! ,c ( ! octave bel[ or above ?an
 l its ne>] neighbors1 ,b or ,d1 :5ce ! 
s]ies ( tones1 al?\gh 9 pit* l9e> &     
"o-dim5sional1 is 9 quality p]iodic1    
return+ aga9 & aga9 ^u itself1 z we g up
 or d[n ! scale4 ,footnote3 ,see ,geza  
,revesz3 ,tonpsy*ologie4  ,! numb] (    
qualities 9 use 9 music--twelve 9 our   
scale ( equal temp]am5t--is1 ( c\rse1 n 
all !re are 9 ! _w ( tones2 !y are a    
human & arbitr>y selection1 gov]n$ by   
te*nical & hi/orical motives1 into :i*  

we %all n ent]4 ,peoples ) a diff]5t    
culture h made a diff]5t selection4 ,b  
we are n conc]n$ ) ! music ( angels or (
 ori5tals1 b ) our own4 ,) ^! twelve1 ) 
_! possible v>iations 9 pit*1 l\dness1 &
 tone-color1 ! musician has a ri* &     
adequate mat]ial4  ,all ! elem5ts ( an  
ae/hetic exp]i5ce are pres5t 9 /rik+    
simplicity ev5 9 ! s+le musical tone4   
,!re is ! s5su\s m$ium1 ! s\nd2 !re is a
 life express$1 a feel+ ar\s$ 9 u1 yet s
 completely objectifi$ 9 ! s\nd t x     
seems to belong to ! latt] on equal t]ms
 ) color or quality or l\dness2 !re is a
 unity & v>iety & ord]ly /ructure 9 !   
dom9ance ( ! fundam5tal among ! ov]tones
 & ! fusion ( all 9 ! total clang4 ,?us 
e note is a complete little ae/hetic    
organism4 ,yet ! beauty ( s+le tones is 
v slight1--less1 ,i ?9k1 ?an t ( s+le   
colors2 !y ne$ ! contra/ or ! agreem5t 9
 consonance ) o!r tones 9 ord] to awak5 
mu* feel+2 !y mu/ be memb]s ( a wid]    
:ole2 obs]ve h[1 :5 s\nd$ aft] o!r      
tones1 !y become enri*$ ?r\gh ! contra/+

 or consonant memory ( ^? tones4        
,nev]!less1 ! s+le tone has its feel+1  
h[ev] slight1 & to und]/& ?is is to g a 
long way t[>d und]/&+ ! m complex       
/ructures ( music4  ,9 ! fir/ place1    
tones1 unlike noises1 are all pleasant4 
,al?\gh we _c be sure :y ?is is true1   
!re c be little d\bt1 ,i ?9k1 t !       
regul>ity ( ! vibrations ( ! =m]1 9     
contra/ ) ! irregul>ity ( ! latt]1 is   
l>gely responsible4 ,! clang1 ) its     
ord]$ complexity1 is a /imulus t incites
 ! s5se organ & connect$ motor tracts to
 a unifi$ & def9ite response1 unlike    
noise1 :i* creates confusion4 ,!        
pleasure 9 ! s+le tone is simil>1 9 its 
causes1 to ! pleasure 9 ! consonance (  
two tones4 ,z we %\ld expect f ?is      
analogy1 ! pleasure is great] 9 ri*     
tones1 :i* conta9 _m p>tials1 ?an 9 ?9  
tones1 :i* are relatively un9t]e/+4 ,b !
 feel+ ( tones is some?+ m ?an m]e      
pleasantness2 x is also a mood4 ,n[ ?is 
mood ( tones is p>tly due to            
associations1--"s sup]ficial 9 "*1 l !  

pa/oral quality ( flute tones or !      
m>tial "* ( bugle tones1 o!rs m         
fundam5tal2 b x has also a /ill         
deep]-ly+ root4 ,= a s\nd /imulus awak5s
 n only a s5sory process 9 ! e>1 !      
correlative ( :i* is a s5sation1 b also 
incipi5t motor reactions1 :i*1 if c>ri$ 
out1 w\ld be an emotion1 b :i*1 be+ too 
slight & diffuse1 produce only :at we   
call a mood4 ,e s5sation has a mean+ = !
 organism 9 an environm5t :]e x has     
con/antly to be on its gu>d = dang] or  
assi/ance2 e s5sation is !re=e connect$ 
) ! me*anism ( reaction1 ) its att5dant 
emotions4 ,9 ord9>y exp]i5ce1 !re are   
objects pres5t to :i* ! organism may    
actually respond1 b 9 ! ae/hetic        
exp]i5ce !re are no real objects t[>ds  
:i* a significant reaction c take place2
 9 music1 ! s\rce ( ! s\nd is obvi\sly (
 no practical importance1 :ile 9 su*    
arts z pa9t+ & sculpture :]e int]e/+    
objects are repres5t$1 ! objects        
!mselves are abs5t2 h5ce ! reaction is  
nev] c>ri$ out1 b rema9s incipi5t1 a    

vague feel+ :i*1 f9d+ no object ^u :i* x
 may "w itself (f1 is suffus$ ^u !      
s5sation4 ,^! s5se feel+s are ! subtle1 
b basal1 mat]ial ( all beauty4  ,!      
v>iety ( moods express$ 9 tones is almo/
 endless4 ,:5 we exp]i5ce !m1 !y come to
 u z ! inn] life ( ! total concrete     
tones1 b !y dep5d actually ^u ! work+   
toge!r ( all ! tonal attributes1--color1
 quality1 pit*1 & l\dness4 ,!re is !    
subtle intimacy ( viol9 tones comp>$ ) !
 cle> arre/+ r+ ( ! trumpet2 ! emotional
 diff]5ces betwe5 qualities l ,c & ,g1  
too delicate = expression 9 words2 !    
pi]c+ excitem5t ( ! high1 bright tones1 
comp>$ ) ! e>ne/ dep? ( ! l[1 dull      
tones2 ! almo/ t]rify+ effect ( l\d     
tones comp>$ ) ! soo?+ influ5ce ( s(t   
tones4  ,! precise psy*ophysical        
me*anism ?r\gh :i* ! diff]5t moods are  
ar\s$ is = ! mo/ "p hidd5 f u2 yet 9    
c]ta9 p>ticul>s we c =m "s idea ( x4 ,= 
example1 ! ri*ness ( feel+ 9 ! tones (  
c]ta9 in/rum5ts z comp>$ ) o!rs is      
d\btless due to ! fact t ?r\gh ! pres5ce

 ( m ov]tones & ! admixture ( noise1 !  
reaction is m complex2 ! t5se excitem5t 
( high & l\d tones1 z comp>$ ) ! s(t &  
l[1 is probably connect$ ) ! fact t _!  
high] vibration rate & great] amplitude 
( vibration produce a m m>k$ effect1 a m
 p]vasive di/urbance1--! organism does n
 "r itself & recov] s rapidly & easily4 
,^! direct & native elem5ts ( feel+ are 
!n broad5$ out & int5sifi$ ?r\gh o!r    
elem5ts t come 9 by way ( association4  
,= example1 9 ord] to s+ high tones1 a  
great] t5sion & ex]tion ( ! vocal *ords 
is ne$$ ?an = l[ tones2 l\d tones sugge/
 l\d noises1 :i*1 z 9 break+ & cra%+ &  
?und]+1 are inevitably associat$ ) fe>2 
! l\d is also ! ne> & pres5t & ?reat5+1 
! l[ is di/ant & safe4 ,al?\gh ea* tone1
 z sep>ate & individual1 possesses its  
own feel+ 9 its own "r1 ! tonal effects 
are imm5sely acc5tuat$ by contra/ ) "o  
ano!r1--! high aga9/ ! l[1 ! poor aga9/ 
! ri*1 ! l\d aga9/ ! s(t--& ?r\gh !     
summation1 by means ( repetition1 ( !   
influ5ces ( _m tones ( l "*2 ! full     

mean+ ( music dep5ds ^u ! relations (   
tones1 especially ! temporal relations4 
,?is fact 0 fully recogniz$ by          
,ari/otle1 :o rais$ ! "q :y tones are s 
mu* m expressive ?an colors4 ,music is  
almo/ ! sole important art t relies on !
 expressiv5ess ( ! s5se mat]ial alone1  
indep5d5t ( any elem5t ( mean+4 ,to be  
sure1 ! beauty ( ori5tal rugs dep5ds    
entirely on _! color & l9e h>monies2 = !
 mean+s :i* ! patt]ns h = _! ori5tal    
mak]s is g5]ally unkn[n to u ( ! we/]n  
_w2 yet :at we feel :5 we contemplate !m
 _c comp>e 9 volume & int5sity ) :at we 
exp]i5ce :5 we li/5 to music4 ,&        
,ari/otle correctly assign$ "o ( ! *ief 
reasons = ! sup]ior significance (      
music--its temporal "*4 ,a color or l9e 
s*eme may express a mom5t>y mood1 )     
p]haps j ! mo/ rudim5t>y movem5t z we g 
f ! d>k to ! bright colors1 or z we     
foll[ ! motion ( ! l9es z !y curve or   
conv]ge2 yet x _c express an action or  
process t beg9s1 proce$s1 cont9ues1     
ends4 ,:5 we look at ! colors or l9es ( 

a pa9t+ or rug1 we feel int5sely1 b !re 
is no developm5t or process ( feel+2 if 
! m9d moves1 x moves inevitably n )1 b  
away f1 :at x sees4 ,b tones are giv5 to
 u 9 succession2 we are =c$ to move )   
!m2 h5ce !y come to express = u1 9 ways 
:i* we %all try to analyze1 ! *ang+ &   
develop+ process ( ! inn] life4  ,9 its 
temporal aspect1 music has two *ief     
*>act]i/ics1 rhy?m & melody4 ,9 our     
music ^! are insep>able2 yet !y c be    
sep>at$ = ! purposes ( analysis2 & a    
rhy?mical roll ( drumbeats or a c>eless 
succession ( tones h>monically relat$   
proves t ea* may produce an ae/hetic    
effect )\t ! o!r4 ,we %all consid]      
melody fir/4  ,a m]e succession ( tones1
 h[ev] pleas+ sep>ately1 does n make a  
melody2 = melody dep5ds on a def9ite    
scale & on c]ta9 relations betwe5 !     
tones ( ! scale4 ,^! relations illu/rate
 ! ?ree modes ( ae/hetic unity4 ,fir/1  
!re is h>mony4 ,tones are h>monically   
relat$ :5 !y belong to ! lead+ *ords ( !
 key4 ,! tones ( su* *ords1 :5 s\nd$    

toge!r1 are consonant4 ,n[ h>mony1 :i*  
is an ae/hetic feel+1 al?\gh n id5tical 
) consonance1 :i* is a purely s5sory    
relation betwe5 tones1 dep5ds nev]!less 
^u consonance4 ,9 ord] to und]/& h>mony1
 we mu/ !re=e fir/ und]/& consonance1 &1
 9 ord] to d ?is1 we mu/ beg9 by        
describ+ ! exp]i5ce & !n look = its     
possible causes4 ,footnote3 ,consult !  
discussions 9 ,k>l ,/umpf1              
,tonpsy*ologie2 ,c>l ,emil ,sea%ore1 ,! 
,psy*ology ( ,musical ,tal5t1 *ap4      
,,vii4 ,z = ! fir/1 consonant tones1 :5 
s\nd$ toge!r1 seem to fit "o ano!r1     
almo/ to fuse1 despite ! fact t !       
diff]5t tones are di/+ui%able 9 ! :ole4 
,?is fitt+ toge!r1 9 turn1 seems to     
dep5d on a resemblance or p>tial id5tity
 betwe5 !m4 ,= example1 ! mo/ consonant 
tones are a note & its octave1 :i* are1 
p]haps1 actually id5tical 9 quality2 b  
less] int]vals are also alike1 z =      
example a note & its fif?1 :i* are m    
readily mi/ak5 = "o ano!r ?an two       
dissonant tones1 say a note & its sev5?4

 ,z = ! explanation ( consonance1 we "k 
t consonant tones h id5tical p>tial     
tones & are caus$ by vibration rates t  
/& to "o ano!r 9 simple ratios4 ,?us 9 a
 clang compos$ ( a tone & its fif?1 !   
fir/ p>tial ( ! fif? is ! second p>tial 
( ! prime1 & ! vibration ratios are z   
two to ?ree4 ,! be>+ ( ?is second fact  
on ! "q ( p>tial id5tity w become cle>  
if we consid] ! concrete case ( a tone  
produc$ by #bd vibrations p] second1 ^: 
fif? w\ld !n be produc$ by #cf          
vibrations p] second1 & !n consid] !    
same tone & its dissonant second1 !     
ratio ( ^: vibrations is #bd to #bg2 9 !
 =m] case1 !re is a common "p ( #f      
vibrations1 a f\r? ( ! total numb] ( !  
fir/ tone2 9 ! latt]1 only #c1 an eigh?4
 ,t id5tity ( p>tial tones is n a       
suffici5t explanation ( consonance--z   
,helmholtz ?\ght x to be--is prov$ by ! 
fact t simple tones1 :i* h no p>tials1  
may /ill be consonant4 ,nev]!less1 an   
id5tity ( p>tials does und\bt$ly        
contribute to ! consonance ( ! complex  

tones us$ 9 our music2 ultimately1      
h[ev]1 ! f9al reason = consonance mu/ be
 s\ght 9 "s und]ly+ id5tity )9 ! tones  
!mselves1 an id5tity t seems to be giv5 
psy*ologically 9 _! resemblance1 & ) :i*
 physically ! simplicity ( _! vibration 
ratios probably has some?+ to d4 ,& t 9 
music ! feel+ ( h>mony %\ld dep5d ^u    
p>tial id5tity is :at we %\ld expect f  
our previ\s /udy ( h>mony 9 g5]al4      
,footnote3 ,see page #hg4  ,! second ( !
 tonal relations ^u :i* melody dep5ds is
 contra/4 ,fir/1 !re is ! contra/ betwe5
 ! high & ! l[2 ev5 :5 notes are        
h>monically relat$1 z a note & its fif?1
 !y are 9 contra/1 9 s f> z ! "o is     
measurably high] & m di/ant ?an ! o!r4  
,( equal importance is ! rivalry betwe5 
! fundam5tal tones 9 ! lead+ h>monic    
*ords2 = example1 ! rivalry betwe5 !    
tonic & ! dom9ant4 ,= ea* ( ^! claims to
 be ! c5t] ( ! melodic progression1 &   
draws to itself all ! tones :i* belong  
to its *ord4 ,dissonance is a cause (   
rivalry2 = a dissonant tone is "o t w n 

fit into a giv5 h>mony2 yet s9ce x is   
/ill a "p ( ! melody1 mu/ h its home    
some:]e1 & belongs !re=e 9 ano!r h>mony1
 :i*1 ?r\gh ?is tone1 is set up 9       
rivalry ) ! prevail+ "o4 ,a tone t did n
 belong to any h>mony w\ld n be a       
dissonance1 b a discord1--a tone )\t    
mean+ musically4 ,dissonances1 l o!r    
contra/s1 enri* ! melody by e/abli%+    
rival h>monies2 discords de/roy         
melodies4 ,j z ! drama has little       
significance )\t conflict1 s melodies   
are un9t]e/+ )\t dissonances4  ,7 x n = 
! ?ird ( ! tonal relations1 melodies    
w\ld lack unity & sy/em & g to pieces "u
 ! /ress ( rival =ces4 ,?is ?ird        
relation may be call f9ality2 ,footnote3
 ,! explanation ( ?is is obscure2 !re is
 no unanimity among ! speciali/s 9      
musical !ory4 x belongs among relations 
we h call$ evolution>y4 ,by x is meant !
 fact t c]ta9 tones dem& & naturally    
lead into o!r tones1 9 :i* !y seem to   
f9d _! completion or fulfillm5t4 ,=     
example1 ! tones ( a *ord dem& !        

fundam5tal tone ( ! *ord2 dissonances   
mu/ be resolv$1--mu/ be foll[$ by o!r   
tones ( _! own h>mony2 ! diatonic tones 
ov] & above ! tonic--! uplead] &        
d[nlead]--naturally lead into ! tonic2 &
 all ! tones dem&1 ei!r imm$iately or   
?r\gh ! m$iation ( o!r tones1 ! tonic ( 
! scale to :i* !y belong4 ,?is pr9ciple 
( f9ality1 :i*1 9 ! classic music1 is ! 
basis ( :at is call$ tonality1 by       
e/abli%+ ! tonic z ! c5t] ( ref]5ce &   
po9t ( completion ( all tones1 gives to 
melody its dramatic unity4 ,?r\gh x1 by 
creat+ ! tonic *ord z fundam5tal1 !     
rivalry betwe5 ! tonic1 dom9ant1 &      
subdom9ant is ov]come1 & all dissonances
 f9ally resolv$ into unity4 ,def9ite    
scales & tonal laws & s*emes (          
composition are ( ! utmo/ importance =  
musical composition2 !re are1 ( c\rse1  
_m ( ^! besides ! classical1 & !y are   
all p>tly conv5tional2 b t does n matt] 
s long z1 by be+ well kn[n1 !y enable ! 
melody to move along def9ite l9es1 ar\s+
 & fulfill+ def9ite expectations4 ,^?   

=ms ( mod]ni/ music t disp5se ) scales  
altoge!r1 9 :i* !re=e !re are no fix$   
po9ts de rep]e l ! tonic or dom9ant ( ! 
old] music1 c express *ance mom5t>y     
moods by means ( ri* & /range colors1 b 
n an ord]ly & purposeful exp]i5ce4  ,(  
c\rse1 9 our mod]n h>monic music !      
melodic movem5t proce$s by means1 n (   
s+le tones1 b ( *ords4 ,yet no new      
pr9ciple is introduc$ by ?is fact4 ,= ! 
*ords h 9 "p m]ely ! significance (     
highly enri*$ tones1 ! h>moniz$ tones ( 
! *ords tak+ ! place ( ! p>tials ( !    
s+le notes & imp>t+ a m volum9\s color1 
:i* may h its own beauty z su*2 &1 9    
addition1 !y simply conf] ^u ! melody   
ano!r dim5sion1 z x 71 ! tonal relations
 ( h>mony & contra/ op]at+ betwe5 !     
tones ( ! *ords simultane\sly1 z well z 
temporally betwe5 ! successive elem5ts (
 ! melody4  ,! ord]ly beauty :i* ! tonal
 relations conf] ^u music is fur!r      
enri*$ & complicat$ by rhy?m4 ,rhy?m 9  
music is ( two sorts3 a rhy?m ( "t & a  
rhy?m ( acc5t1 or increas$ l\dness4     

,?r\gh ! "o1 ! duration ( a musical     
composition is divid$ up into           
approximately equal p>ts fill$ by notes 
& re/s ( def9ite l5g?1 & ?r\gh ! o!r1 ! 
light notes are subord9at$ to ! heavy   
notes4 ,! two1 h[ev]1 are int]relat$2 = 
! b>s are divid$ f ea* o!r by ! acc5ts1 
& ! acc5ts recur at approximately equal 
int]vals4  ,! pleasure 9 rhy?mical      
arrangem5t is d]iv$ f two s\rces3 fir/1 
f ! ne$ = p]spicuity :i* is fulfill$    
?r\gh ! regul> gr\p+ ( ! tonal elem5ts 9
 ! b>s1--_! l5g? be+ adju/$ to ! av]age 
l5g? ( an att5tion wave1 & ! numb] (    
tones t fill !m to ! numb] ( items :i* c
 be tak5 9 at "o act ( att5tion1--&     
?r\gh ! subord9ation ( ! light to !     
heavy )9 ! b>s1 ! b>s to ! measures1 & !
 measures to ! p]iods4 ,! second s\rce (
 satisfaction 9 rhy?m is ! comb9ation ( 
feel+s ( balance & h>mony ar\s$--a rhy?m
 is n only a pleas+ p]spicu\s ord]1 b an
 emotion4 ,footnote3 ,see *ap4 ,v1 p4#ij
 ,= e recurr+ acc5t & int]val competes )
 its pr$ecessor = ! m9d's att5tion1 yet 

is 9 agreem5t ) x s9ce x1 too1 fulfills 
! law t p]vades !m all4  ,! full        
significance ( bo? melody & rhy?m       
dep5ds1 h[ev]1 ^u _! int]relation1 !    
concrete musical /ructure1 ! motive or  
melody 9 ! complete s5se1 be+ an        
indissoluble unity ( bo?4 ,n[ if we take
 ! t]m w ) a broad mean+1 ,s*op5hau]'s  
*>act]ization ( melody z an image ( ! w 
/ill rema9s ! true/ ae/hetic            
int]pretation ( x4 ,=1 :5 we he> x1 we n
 only he>1 b att5d to :at we he>2 we he>
 ea* tone 9 its relations ( h>mony or   
contra/ or fulfillm5t to o!r tones1     
freight$ ) memories ( its pr$ecessors & 
c>ry+ ) x expectations1 :i* ! foll[+    
tones fulfill or d5y4 ,! melody beg9s1  
let u suppose1 ) ! tonic note4 ,?is note
 !n becomes = u a plan or purpose2 = z x
 goes1 x leaves 9 ! m9d a memory (      
itself1 no m]e pale s5sation--no image  
ev] is--b a motor set1 an expectation & 
desire to he> ! note aga94 ,if ! next   
note is h>monically relat$1 ?is purpose 
is p>tially fulfill$ & we get !         

satisfaction ( a p>tial success4 ,if1   
h[ev]1 ! tone does n belong to ! tonic  
*ord1 b1 let u suppose1 to ! subdom9ant1
 x comes z a h9drance1 an ob/acle1 or   
p]haps z a new & rival purpose spr++ up 
9 ! c\rse ( ! fulfillm5t ( ! old1--a    
purpose :i* c be satisfi$ only ?r\gh !  
o!r tones ( its *ord4 ,h5ce ! t5sion (  
conflict+ expectations & ! excitem5t z  
n[ ! "o & n[ ! o!r is fulfill$ 9 !      
succe$+ notes4 ,yet1 s9ce all o!r       
h>monies are subord9at$ to ! tonic      
h>mony1 & ev5 ?r\gh _! v opposition     
increase our desire = x1 !y mu/ give way
 to ! fundam5tal purpose ) :i* we />t$2 
& :5 ! tonic does ev5tually triumph1 x  
fulfills n only itself1 b all less]     
desires ( ! melody2 9 x we f9d :at we h 
be5 seek+1 we arrive :]e we set out to  
g4 ,& 9 ?is success we n only obta9 :at 
we fir/ want$1 b m--an exp]i5ce enri*$  
by e conflict1 & h>moni\s ultimately    
?r\gh ! inn] adju/m5t & resolution ( its
 elem5ts2 = 9 he>+ ! f9al note we he> ! 
memories ( all previ\s tones1 also4 ,:5 

! dep>tures f ! keynote are _m & di/ant 
& sudd51 & ! melody w&]s into ! bypa?s (
 =eign h>monies1 mov+ along brok5 &     
zigzag l9es1 x expresses an excit+1 a   
dang]\s & difficult adv5ture2 :51 h[ev]1
 ! dep>tures are gradual & conf9$ = !   
mo/ "p )9 ! limits ( a s+le h>mony1 mov+
 9 a smoo? & curv+ pa?1 x expresses a   
life t is secure & happy1 t5d+ to repose
 z ! l9e approa*es ! horizontal1 & z    
repetitions ( ! same note pr$om9ate4    
,rhy?m ent]s into melody to diff]5tiate 
& emphasize4 ,by means ( acc5t &        
"t-value1 ! diff]5t tones are weight$ & 
_! relative value fix$4 ,! heavy tones  
ass]t _! w ) a m insi/5t en]gy2 ! long  
tones ^u :i* we l+] make a deep] & m    
la/+ impression2 :ile ! light & %ort    
tones 9 contra/ become po9ts ( m]e pass+
 & transition4 ,if1 moreov]1 we include 
! elem5t ( tempo1 !n all ! temporal     
feel+s are introduc$ into melody--!     
excitem5t ( rapid motion1 ! calmness ( !
 sl[2 ! agony ( delay1 ( wait+ &        
po/ponem5t1 ) ! triumph & relief :5 !   

expect$ note arrives at la/4 ,f9ally1 ! 
effects ( %ad+ mu/ be add$1 ! contra/s  
betwe5 piano & =te--l\dness t br+s !    
tones s ne> t !y may seem ?reat5+ 9 _!  
insi/5ce2 s(tness t makes !m seem f>    
away & dreamlike4  ,foll[+ ! l>ge idea  
introduc$ by ,s*op5hau]1 :i* 0 enri*$ by
 ! m9ut] /udies ( ,lotze1 ,wundt1 &     
,lipps1 we may sum ! =ego+ analysis 9 ! 
/atem5t t music expresses ! ab/ract     
aspects ( action1 its ease or           
difficulty1 its advance or retrocession1
 its home com+ or its w&]+1 its         
hesitation or its surety1 its conflicts 
& its contra/s1 its =ce or its weakness1
 its swiftness or sl[ness1 its          
abruptness or smoo?ness1 its excitem5t  
or repose1 its success or failure1 its  
s]i\sness or play4 ,!n1 9 addition1 z we
 %all see1 all modes ( emotion t are    
congru\s ) ?is ab/ract =m may by        
association be p\r$ into its mold1 s t !
 cont5t ( music becomes n a m]e =m (    
life1 b life itself4  ,x is1 ( c\rse1   
obvi\s t our analysis has conf9$ itself 

to ! b>e/ elem5ts ( ! musical exp]i5ce4 
,our music to-day1 ) its _m-voic$       
h>monies1 ) its procession ( *ords      
in/ead ( s+le tones1 ) its modulation   
into relat$ keys1 has an inf9ite weal? &
 complexity defy+ description4 ,a l>ge  
"p ( ! a/oni%+ effect ( music is d]iv$ f
 ! fact t 9 a brief space we seem to he>
 & absorb s mu*3 ! c>e]s ( multitud9\s  
lives compress$ into an in/ant4 ,yet !  
mean+ ( ! complex :ole c be und]/ood1 ,i
 ?9k1 f su* an analysis ( ! simple      
/ructure z has be5 giv54  ,! me?ods by  
:i* ! l>g] musical :oles are built up   
illu/rate pr9ciples ( ae/hetic /ructure 
) :i* we are already famili>4 ,!re is ! 
h>moni\s unification ( p>ts ?r\gh !     
simple repetition ( motives1 _! inv]sion
 or imitation 9 high] or l[] keys1 ei!r 
successively or simultane\sly2 !        
execution ( ! same !me 9 ano!r "t or    
tempo2 & ?r\gh ! int]weav+ ( !mes4 ,!re 
is ! balance ( contra/$ or compet+ !mes2
 ! subord9ation ( ! less] to ! m /rik+ &
 insi/5t motives2 ! prep>ation =1       

em]g5ce & triumph (1 a f9al passage t   
resolves all dissonances & adju/s all   
conflicts4 ,because ( music's           
ab/ractness1 ! connection betwe5 ! p>ts 
( a musical composition may be loose or 
subtle1 tax+ ! syn!tic p[]s ev5 ( !     
educat$ li/5]2 yet "s contra/ or analogy
 ( feel+ mu/ always unite !m4 ,!        
/ructure ( ! :ole may be ei!r /atic or  
dramatic2 9 ! =m] case ! dramatic elem5t
 is conf9$ to ! !mes1 ! purpose ( ! :ole
 be+ m]ely to "w out all _! significant 
v>iations1--to embroid] & repeat !m 9   
new keys & rhy?ms & tempos1 & to contra/
 !m ) o!r !mes4 ,repetition is ! great  
creative pr9ciple ( musical developm5t1 
! compos] seek+ to say ov] aga9 9 ev]   
new =ms :at he has said be=e4 ,& ?is1   
aga9 because ( ! ab/ractness ( music1 is
 a significant process2 to repeat !     
concrete is tiresome & trivial1 b an    
ab/ract =m is always enri*$ by appe>+ 9 
a new %ape4  ,! explanation ( musical   
expression ?us f> giv51 al?\gh x        
suffices to acc\nt = ! basis ( all      

musical feel+1 is1 ,i ?9k1 inadequate to
 its full volume & int5sity4 ,!re is a  
concret5ess ( emotional cont5t 9 "s     
musical compositions--an ar\sal ( t]ror 
& long+ & despair & joy--inf9itely ri*] 
?an any ab/ract =ms ( feel+4  ,to acc\nt
 = ?is1 two s\rces ( explanation sugge/ 
!mselves4 ,fir/1 ! ar\s+ ( emotions     
?r\gh deep-ly+ effects ( rhy?m4 ,x is a 
well-kn[n fact1 cit$ 9 mo/ discussions (
 ?is subject1 t ! motor me*anism ( !    
body is someh[ attun$ to rhy?m4 ,:5 we  
he> rhy?mical s\nds1 we n only foll[ !m 
) ! att5tion1 we foll[ !m also ) our    
muscles1 ) h& & foot & head & he>t &    
respiratory app>atus4 ,ev5 :5 we d n    
visibly move 9 unison ) ! rhy?m--z we   
usually d n--we t5d to d s1 :i* proves t
 9 any case ! motor me*anism ( ! body is
 /imulat$ & br\ght into play by ! s\nds4
 ,!re is a direct psy*ophysical         
connection betwe5 ! he>+ ( rhy?mic s\nds
 & ! t5d5cy to execute c]ta9 movem5ts4  
,b !re is an equally direct relation    
betwe5 emotions & t5d5cies to movem5ts1 

?r\gh :i* ! =m] f9d expression & are    
giv5 effect 9 ! out] _w4 ,to e k9d (    
emotion--love & hate & fe> & sorr[ &    
joy--!re corresponds a specific mode (  
motor manife/ation4 ,! connection betwe5
 rhy?mic s\nd & emotion is !re=e pla92 !
 l9k is a common motor s*eme4 ,rhy?ms   
ar\se into direct & imm$iate activity ! 
motor sets t are ! physical basis ( !   
emotions1 & h5ce ar\se ! correspond+    
emotions !mselves1 )\t any gr\nd = !m   
outside ( ! organism4 ,& ^! emotions1   
s9ce !y are ar\s$ by ! s\nds & n by any 
object to :i* !y might be direct$ & ^u  
:i* !y might "w !mselves (f 9 a mean+ful
 reaction1 are int]wov5 into !          
s\nds1--!y & ! s\nds come to u z a s+le 
indissoluble :ole ( exp]i5ce4 ,!        
emotions become ! cont5t ( ! s\nds4 ,&  
h5ce ! /rang5ess ( ! musical exp]i5ce--!
 fact t we feel s deeply ov] no?+4  ,!  
second cause = ! concret5ess ( ! musical
 exp]i5ce ,i take to be c]ta9 emotions &
 feel+s :i* are ar\s$ by association1 n 
) ! rhy?mic elem5ts ( music alone1 b ) !

 tone-color1 int5sity1 & melody also4   
,!re is a human quality1 a poignancy &  
intimacy1 ab\t mu* music1 :i* c be      
und]/ood only ?r\gh its analogy ) !     
s\nds ( ! human voice4 ,= ! human voice 
is emotionally expressive ?r\gh its m]e 
s\nd alone3 "o c "k a l>ge "p ( :at is  
go+ on 9 ! brea/s ( p :o talk 9 a =eign 
tongue j by li/5+ to ! s\nd ( _!        
voices--_! excitem5t or bor$om1 _! ang]1
 love1 or res5tm5t2 & "o becomes        
consci\s ( ^! emotions1 z 9 he>+ music1 
)\t kn[+ :at !y are all ab\t4 ,all human
 emotions betray !mselves 9 spee* ?r\gh 
! rise & fall1 range ( int]vals1 l\dness
 or s(tness1 tempo & diff]5ces (        
duration ( tone4 ,n[1 al?\gh x is f> too
 mu* to say t music is actually an      
imitation ( ! voice1 x is nev]!less     
true1 z ,did]ot ?\ght1 t 9 c]ta9 musical
 passages we ov]he> ! voice4 ,!re is    
nev] any exact simil>ity betwe5 music & 
vocal s\nds1 b !re is en\gh resemblance 
to awak5 by association ! feel+s t are !
 normal accompanim5ts ( su* s\nds4 ,any 

tone analogies t !re happ5 to be are    
felt z su*4 ,?is is notably true ( all  
music t has a peculi> lyrical & human   
quality1--! music t readily becomes     
popul> because x seems to speak direct  
to ! he>t4 ,orig9ally1 all music 0 song1
 & s9ce spee* & song employ ! same      
organ1 x w\ld be surpris+ inde$ if      
some?+ ( ! same expression ( ! emotions 
t ov]fl[s into ! "o %\ld n also ov]fl[  
into ! o!r1 & t musicians %\ld n1       
unconsci\sly or consci\sly1 t5d to *oose
 _! melodies because ( su* analogies4   
,in/rum5tal music probably got its fir/ 
melodies f song1 & despite its va/      
pres5t complexity & indep5d5ce1 has nev]
 completely lo/ t\* ) song4 ,s9ce ! fir/
 mean+ful s\nds t we he> are ^? ( !     
voice1 music mu/ always h = u !         
significance ( a glorifi$ spee*4  ,!    
fault ( ! orig9al propos]s ( ! spee*    
!ory 0 t !y ?\ght x a complete          
explanation ( ! facts ( musical         
expression4 ,its explanatory value is1  
h[ev]1 /rictly limit$1 & supplem5tal to 

! m basic consid]ations adduc$2 yet x   
rema9s a necess>y "p ( ! complex !ory ( 
! complex fact we are /udy+4 ,& !       
acceptance ( x z su* does n imply a     
belief 9 ! spee* !ory ( ! orig9 ( music4
 ,song did n gr[ out ( impassion$ spee*1
 b arose coeval ) spee*1 :5 m5          
f\nd--p]haps by accid5t--t !y c\ld make 
) _! voices pure & pleas+ tones &       
int]vals ( tones1 & express some?+ ( _! 
inn] selves 9 s do+4 ,yet1 z ,i h       
sugge/$1 x w\ld be /range if spee* did n
 react ^u song--if ! fir/ vocal tones 7 
n purifi$ words1 & ! fir/ int]vals an   
approximation to ^? ( spee*4 ,?us 9     
song1 lyric poetry & music arose toge!r 
z a s+le art = ! expression ( feel+1    
until ! developm5t ( in/rum5tal music   
fre$ ! "o & ! inv5tion ( writ+ fre$ !   
o!r2 :ile spee* kept to its diff]5t &   
orig9al purpose--! expression ( ideas = 
practical ends1 & produc$ an ae/hetic =m
 ( its own only at a lat] p]iod & "u    
indep5d5t influ5ces4  ,! complete       
und]/&+ ( musical expression involves1  

f9ally1 z 0 sugge/$ at ! beg9n+ ( ?is   
*apt]1 ! recognition ( ! analogy t exi/s
 betwe5 music & ! noises produc$ by     
nature & human activities4 ,?r\gh !     
imitation ( _! rhy?m1 =ce1 & tempo1 "s (
 ^! c be directly sugge/$ by musicians4 
,yet ?is direct sugge/ion1 al?\gh       
employ$ by ! greate/ compos]s1 plays a  
subord9ate "p 9 music1 &1 s9ce x        
introduces an elem5t ( repres5tation ( !
 out] _w--tonmal]ei--is usually felt to 
involve a dep>ture f ! prime purpose (  
music3 ! expression ( ! inn] _w ?r\gh ! 
emotional effects ( pure s\nd4 ,9 ! be/ 
program music1 !re=e1 ! purpose ( !     
compos] is n ! m]e imitation (          
nature--:i* is nev] art at all1 & 9     
music is always recogniz$ z an          
unsae/hetic t\r de =ce ( m]e            
clev]ness--b r ! ar\sal ( ! feel+s caus$
 by nature4 ,& z an aid 9 ! expression (
 su* feel+s1 imitation1 :5 delicately   
sugge/ive r ?an blatant1 w always play a
 "p4  ,!re are1 h[ev]1 subtl] & remot]  
analogies betwe5 music & noise1 :i*     

produce _! effects :e!r ! musician wills
 !m or n4 ,su*1 = example1 are l\d bur/s
 ( tone sugge/+ fall+ or cra%+1 ev5ts   
:i* usually h a t]rify+ significance2   
cresc5does1 sugge/+ ! approa* ( ?+s1 s  
(t5 full ( expectancy & excitem5t2      
dim9u5does1 sugge/+ a gradual dep>ture  
or fad+ away1 be>+ relief or regret4 ,& 
!re are d\btless hundr$s ( o!r su*      
associations1 too m9ute or remote or    
long- =gott5 to recov]1 :i* add _! mite 
( feel+ to swell & make va/ ! musical   
emotion4 ,z ,fe*n] po9t$ out1 ^!        
associations may "w q unconsci\sly1 giv+
 evid5ce ( _! function+ only ?r\gh !    
feel+ tones :i* !y release4 ,s important
 is ! "p :i* s\nd plays 9 our lives t   
!re mu/ be an especially l>ge numb] (   
su* und]gr\nd associations ar\s$ by     
music4 ,all ( our exp]i5ces are connect$
 toge!r by subconsci\s filiation2 b x is
 only 9 art t _! residual feel+ tones h 
a full opportunity to come into ! m9d2 =
 9 ev]yday life !y are cr[d$ out by !   
hurry ( practical conc]ns4 ,9 ! e>li]   

/ages ( ! developm5t ( music !y mu/ h   
contribut$ a /ill l>g] %>e to musical   
expression1 :5 ! diff]5t =ms ( music 7  
connect$ by habit & conv5tion ) p>ticul>
 crises & occasions1 religi\s1 dome/ic1 
& social1 9 ! life ( individuals &      
gr\ps4 ,b ev5 to-day1 despite ! new     
fre$om ( music1 !y are n abs5t4  ,look+ 
back ov] our analysis ( music1 we see t 
x is *>act]iz$ by ! expression ( emotion
 )\t ! repres5tation ( ! causes or      
objects ( emotion4 ,?is fact1 :i* has n[
 become a well-recogniz$ "p ( ae/hetic  
!ory1 di/+ui%es music f all ! o!r arts4 
,music supplies u ) no def9ite images ( 
nature1 z pa9t+ & sculpture d1 & ) no   
ideas1 z poetry does4 ,x conta9s feel+s1
 b no mean+s4 ,music (f]s u no backgr\nd
 = emotion1 no objects ^u :i* x may be  
direct$1 no /ory1 no mise en sc5e4 ,x   
supplies u ) ! feel+ tones ( ?+s &      
ev5ts1 b n ) ! ?+s or ev5ts !mselves4 ,x
 moves :olly 9 a _w ( its own1 a _w (   
pure feel+1 ) no embodim5t save only    
s\nd4 ,x may express t]ror1 b n t]ror   

ov] ?is or t2 joy1 b :e!r ! joy t comes 
f sight ( ! morn+ or ( ! belov$1 x _c   
tell4 ,9 "o brief space ( "t1 x may     
ar\se despair1 hope1 triumph--b all ov] 
no?+4  ,yet--& ?is is ! c5tral p>adox ( 
music--despite its ab/ractness1 nay1    
because ( ?is v quality1 x rema9s ! mo/ 
p]sonal & intimate ( ! arts4 ,=1 itself 
(f]+ no images ( ?+s & ev5ts to :i* we  
may atta* ! feel+s :i* x ar\ses1 we     
supply our own4 ,we fill 9 ! imp]sonal  
=m ( musical feel+ ) ! concrete emotions
 ( our own lives2 x is our /riv+s1 our  
hopes & fe>s1 :i* music expresses4 ,by  
d5y+ u access to ! _w ab\t u1 music     
compels u to turn 9 ^u ourselves2 x is  
we :o live !re 9 ! s\nds4 ,=1 z we h    
se51 ! rhy?mic tones seize hold n only (
 our att5tion1 b ( our bodies also--h& &
 foot & head & he>t1 res\nd+ ?r\gh\t !  
:ole organism4 ,&1 :]e our bodies are1  
!re are we4 ,moreov]1 our life !re 9 !  
s\nds ne$ n rema9 )\t objects because ! 
music does n describe !m to u2 = out (  
our own inn] selves we may build up an  

imag9>y _w = our feel+s4 ,z we li/5 to !
 music1 we %all see ! ?+s we hope = or  
fe> or desire2 or else transport        
ourselves among purely fanciful objects 
& ev5ts4 ,music is a language :i* we all
 und]/& because x expresses ! basic mold
 ( all emotion & /riv+2 yet x is a      
language :i* no two p und]/& 9 ! same   
way1 because ea* p\rs into t mold 8 own 
unique exp]i5ce4 ,9 itself ab/ract &    
objectless1 x may ?us become1 9 v>y+    
ways1 concrete & alive4  ,! great v>iety
 9 ! int]pretation ( musical            
compositions has (t5 be5 us$ z an       
argum5t aga9/ ! exi/5ce ( emotions 9    
music1 b is1 z we h se51 ! inevitable   
result ( _! ab/ractness4 ,?is           
ab/ractness may1 inde$1 be s great t    
app>5tly opposite concrete emotions1 su*
 z love & religi\s adoration1 despair & 
joy1 may be ar\s$ 9 diff]5t p1 accord+  
to diff]5t circum/ances1 by ! same      
piece4 ,! music ( ! op]a c be us$ 9 !   
ca!dral4 ,yet /rik+ly dissimil> emotions
 h common elem5ts--wor%ip is ! love (   

,god2 joy may be a rage equally )       
disappo9tm5t2 & at _! highe/ int5sity1  
all oppos$ emotions t5d to pass ov] into
 ea* o!r3 hope into fe>1 love into hate1
 exaltation into depression4 ,! elem5t>y
 feel+s out ( :i* our complex emotions  
are built are few & simple2 h5ce ea* "o 
( ! latt] is id5tical 9 "s +r$i5ts ) !  
o!rs4 ,& ev5 ! elem5t>y feel+s may h    
common aspects ( int5sity & tempo1 (    
/ra9 & excitem5t4 ,"s musical           
compositions1 l ! fugues ( ,ba*1 seem to
 express no?+ m ?an su* extremely       
ab/ract modes ( feel+1 )\t ar\s+ any    
associations t w\ld impel ! m9d to make 
a m concrete int]pretation4 ,to express 
feel+s ( ?is k9d 9 language is1 ( c\rse1
 impossible1 = ! reason t our emotional 
vocabul>ies h be5 con/ruct$ to          
communicate only ! emotions ( ev]yday   
life4 ,o!r types ( music--l ! romantic  
tone poetry ( a lat] day--:i* are m     
abundant 9 _! associations1 & h5ce ri*] 
9 _! emotional cont5t1 are difficult (  
translation = ano!r reason3 ! rapidity (

 succession & subtlety ( int]mixture ( !
 express$ feel+s are beyond ! rea* (    
words1 ev5 ( a poet's1 :i* inevitably   
/abilize & isolate :at !y d5ote4  ,b    
ab/ract & objectless emotions occur 9   
o!r regions ( exp]i5ce beside ! musical1
 ev5 beyond ! entire field ( ! ae/hetic4
 ,all except ! mo/ heal?y-m9d$ &        
practical p are at times fill$ ) vague  
fe>s1 long+s1 & joys1 ! objects or      
causes ( :i* !y _c =mulate4 ,normally1  
feel+ is direct$ t[>ds def9ite objects &
 leads to action ^u !m1 b may nev]!less 
become isolat$ f its prop] connections1 
& function )\t issue4 ,! extreme cases (
 ?is are ! pa?ological /ates ( mania &  
depression1 :]e su* feel+s assume       
proportions dang]\s to ! exi/5ce ( !    
individual4 ,intoxication & hy/]ia      
pres5t analog\s1 ?\gh m transi5t        
ph5om5a4 ,& "o may obs]ve ! autonom\s   
developm5t ( m]e feel+ ev5 9 ! heal?y   
life1 z :5 "o rema9s jolly aft] all     
occasion = x has ceas$1 or angry aft] ! 
cause = ang] has be5 remov$4 ,all feel+s

 t5d to acquire a /r5g? beyond :at is   
necess>y = action & to endure aft] _!   
prop] objects & conditions h disappe>$2 
h5ce ! luxury ( grief & rev5ge &        
s5tim5tality4  ,9 _! mo/ g5]al "*1      
musical emotions /& on a level ) o!r    
purposeless emotions1 except t !y are   
delib]ately induc$ & elaborat$ to an    
ext5t & complexity unmat*$ else:]e4 ,b  
:ile ^! emotions are morbid & evil      
outside ( music1 )9 music !y are        
innoc5t4 ,= outside ( music !y spr+ f   
dislocations ( ! practical & /riv+ core 
( ! p]sonality1 :]e1 if p]si/5tly       
indulg$ 91 !y exac]bate ! di/urbance (  
:i* !y are ! sign1 int]f]+ ) action &   
ev5tually endang]+ ! heal? & happ9ess ( 
! individual2 :ile 9 music1 be+ induc$ f
 ! outside by m]e s\nds1 !y h no gr\nd  
)9 ! p]sonality itself :]e !y c take    
root1 & h5ce ex]t only a h>mless &      
transi5t effect ^u ! m9d2 !y belong to !
 surface1 n to ! sub/ance ( ! self1 to  
imag9ation1 n to ! w4 ,or :51 z         
sometimes happ5s1 ! deep] & p]haps      

morbid /rata ( ! self are rea*$ by !    
s\nds1 ! feel+s :i* are awak5$ f _!     
sleep !re1 :]e !y might be productive ( 
evil dreams1 f9d an ord]ly & welcome    
release 9 ! s\nds--!y are n only ar\s$1 
b c>ri$ (f by ! music4 ,?is ! ,greeks   
und]/ood :5 !y employ$ music z a heal] (
 ! s\l & call$ ?is effect ca?>sis4  ,if1
 inde$1 music 7 j a means = ! ar\sal (  
feel+s1 x w\ld n be a f9e art1 b an     
orgy4 ,=1 9 ord] to be ae/hetic1 feel+s 
mu/ be n m]ely /imulat$ by1 b objectifi$
 91 ! s5se m$ium1 :]e !y c be ma/]$ &   
kn[n4 ,b ! intimacy ( music is n 9      
contradiction ) ! fre$om & objectivity  
*>act]i/ic ( all art4 ,= musical feel+s1
 al?\gh !y are exp]i5c$ z our own1 are  
nev]!less also exp]i5c$ z ! s\nds2 9    
music we live1 n z we live ord9>ily1 )9 
our bodies1 b out !re1 9 a r>] &        
unpractical m$ium--tone4 ,& 9 ?is new   
region we ga9 dom9ion ov] our feel+s1   
?r\gh ! ord] :i* ! =m ( ! music imposes 
^u !m1 & also self-k1 because1 9 be+    
ext]naliz$ 9 ! s\nds1 our feel+s become 

an object = our reflection & und]/&+4 ,9
 music ! light ( reflection is turn$    
/raight ^u ourselves4  ,! poignancy (   
music dep5ds ^u j ?is fact t ?r\gh x we 
get a revelation ( ourselves to         
ourselves4 ,9 ! o!r arts1 ?is revelation
 is indirect1 occurr+ ?r\gh !           
repres5tation ( ! lives ( o!r1 real or  
fictiti\s1 p]sonalities2 b 9 music1 x is
 direct2 = !re ! object ( expression is 
oneself4 ,ev5 9 ! lyric poem1 :]e !     
read] & ! poet t5d to become id5tical1 !
 unity is less complete2 = :5 embodi$ 9 
words1 feel+s become m ext]ior ?an :5   
put =? into tones2 a tone is clos] to ! 
self1 because l a cry or a laugh1 x is  
less articulate4 ,moreov]1 words are    
means ( communication z well z          
expression2 !y !re=e embody ( any       
exp]i5ce only z mu* z c be pass$ f      
speak] to he>]2 ! unique is = ! mo/ "p  
lo/ on ! way2 b 9 music ! full p]sonal  
resonance ( exp]i5ce is reta9$4 ,9 music
 we get s close to ourselves t at times 
x is almo/ fright5+4  ,& ?is is ! reason

 :y1 on all ! high or s]i\s occasions ( 
human life1 music is alone adequate to  
express its inn] mean+4 ,at a m>riage or
 a fun]al1 9 *ur* or at a fe/ival1 !    
c]emonial is traditional & social2 x    
expresses ! hi/orical & gr\p            
significance ( ! situation1 b n t :i* is
 unique & j "o's own2 x always conta9s1 
moreov]1 mu* t is outgr[n &             
unacceptable--a cre$ ( life or love or  
dea? t belongs to ! pa/1 n to u4 ,b !   
music embodies all t we really believe &
 feel ab\t ! fact1 its intimate1        
emotional ess5ce1 cle> ( ev]y?+         
irrelevant & ext]nal4  ,b music does m  
?an express ! inexpressible 9 ourselves2
 x gives u entrance into a sup]natural  
_w ( feel+4 ,except at ! r>e high mom5ts
 ( our lives1 its joys & despairs are   
too exalt$ = u2 !y are n ours2 !y belong
 to gods & h]oes4 ,9 music ! sup]man is 
born into our feel+s4 ,music does = !   
emotions :at my?ology & poetry d = !    
imag9ation & philosophy = ! intellect--x
 br+s u into t\* ) a m magnific5t life1 

= :i* we h p]haps ! pot5cy1 b n !       
opportunity "h4 ,& 9 do+ ?is1 music     
p]=ms a great s]vice2 =1 outside ( love 
& w>1 life1 :i* (f]s endless occasions =
 int5se ?\ght & action1 provides few =  
passionate feel+4  ,?us f> our /udy ( ! 
art has be5 conf9$ to s-call$ absolute  
music4 ,we mu/ n[ complete our survey by
 a rapid consid]ation ( ! union ( music 
) ! o!r arts4 ,because ( its            
ab/ractness1 music1 ( all ! arts1 l5ds  
itself mo/ readily to comb9ation ) o!rs2
 yet ev5 9 ! case ( music ! possibility 
( union is limit$ by ! exi/5ce ( a cle> 
id5tity betwe5 ! arts comb9$4 ,?us1     
music goes well ) ! temporal arts1      
poetry1 ! dance1 & ! drama1 & p>ticul>ly
 well ) ! fir/ two because !y are       
rhy?mical2 x w also unite ) ar*itecture1
 because t is ano!r ab/ract art2 b ) !  
/atic1 concrete arts l pa9t+ &          
sculpture1 x w n fuse4 ,"o might p]haps 
accompany a picture ) a s+le *ord ^:    
emotional mean+ 0 ! same z t ( ! color  
s*eme & ! objects repres5t$1 b n ) m2 = 

! ae/hetic exp]i5ce ( ! picture is      
in/antane\s & complete1 :ile t ( ! music
 requires "t = its developm5t &         
fruition2 h5ce ! two w\ld soon fall     
ap>t1 & a p]son w\ld ei!r h to ignore ! 
music or cease to look at ! picture4    
,orig9ally1 ( c\rse1 music 0 always     
comb9$ ) "s o!r art1 & fir/ ( all1      
probably ) ! dance4 ,9 its e>lie/ =m1 ! 
dance 0 a communal religi\s expression1 
ab\t :i* we %all h little to say1 s9ce x
 belongs to ! pa/1 n to liv+ art4 ,=    
to-day ! dance is a free art l music4 ,!
 beauty ( ! dance consi/s1 fir/1 9 !    
free & rhy?mical expression ( impulses  
to movem5t4 ,?is expression1 :i* is     
direct = ! danc] :o actually c>ries out 
h] impulses 9 real motion1 is = !       
spectator indirect & ideal1 = he        
exp]i5ces only movem5t-images ar\s$ by  
movem5ts se51 & !n1 by feel+ ^! into !  
limbs ( ! danc]1 dances ) h] 9 !        
imag9ation4 ,& to secure ?is free &     
l>ge1 ev5 ?\gh vic>i\s1 expression (    
p5t-up impulses to movem5t is v grateful

 to u ^: :ole movem5t life is impov]i%$1
 because re/rict$ by conv5tion &        
occupation to a few n>r[ types4 ,b !    
dance w\ld h little int]e/ = m5 7 x n = 
ano!r elem5t 9 its beauty3 ! expression 
( ! amor\s feel+s ( ! spectator4 ,^!1   
al?\gh really locat$ 9 ! brea/ ( !      
spectator1 are nev]!less embodi$ 9 !    
p]sonality ( ! danc]1 ^: *>m !y         
con/itute4 ,f9ally1 ! cont5t ( ! dance  
may be fur!r enri*$ ?r\gh ! use (       
symbolic co/ume & mimetic ge/ures1      
sugge/+ emotions l joy or love or grief1
 emotionally ton$ ideas l spr+1 or      
actions su* z c\rt%ip4 ,n[ music1 ) its 
own rhy?mical ord] & volum9\s emotional 
cont5t1 has an obvi\s k9%ip ) ! rhy?mic 
=m & amor\s sub/ance ( ! dance1 & s c   
well s]ve to accompany x4  ,! result ( !
 union is to en=ce ! rhy?mic exp]i5ce   
?r\gh ! m$ium ( s\nd1 ! dance keep+ "t )
 ! music1 &1 ?r\gh ! height5$ emotional 
tone & increas$ sugge/ibility creat$ by 
! music1 to deep5 ! sympa!tic rapport   
betwe5 danc] & spectator4 ,?us ! music  

is giv5 a concrete int]pretation ?r\gh !
 dance1 & ! dance ga9s 9 emotional p[]  
?r\gh ! music4 ,9 ! union1 ! ga9 to !   
dance is cle> & absolute2 b ! music pays
 a price = ! concret5ess ( cont5t :i* x 
secures1 by =feit+ its p[] to express   
*ance inn] moods--:at x ga9s 9          
def9it5ess x loses 9 scope &            
univ]sality4 ,& only music ) a /rong &  
evid5t rhy?m is capable ( union ) !     
dance2 ! m complex & subtle music1 aside
 f ! impossibility ( mak+ its delicate  
rhy?ms fit into ^? ( a dance1 has a     
v>iety & sublimity ( mean+ s f>         
transc5d+ ! p]sonality ( any human be+1 
t to attempt to focus x 9 a danc]1 no   
matt] h[ *>m+1 w\ld be a trave/y4  ,(   
equal naturalness & almo/ equal         
antiquity ) ! union ( music ) ! dance1  
is its union ) poetry4 ,9 song ?is union
 is a real fusion2 = ! tones are ! vocal
 ^w-s\nds !mselves1 purifi$ into music4 
,"h1 ( c\rse1 unlike absolute music1 !  
tones are expressive1 n only z o!r tones
 are ?r\gh _! m]e s\nd1 b also ?r\gh _! 

mean+4 ,& ?is c well be2 = z ,s*op5hau] 
rem>k$1 j z ! univ]sal may be illu/rat$ 
by any object :i* embodies x1 s ! vague 
musical cont5t ( a tone may be fus$ ) ! 
concrete mean+ ( a ^w ( l feel+4 ,& = _m
 he>]s music d\btless ga9s by ?us becom+
 articulate2 =1 be+ unable to supply out
 ( _! own imag9ation ! concret5ess :i*  
music lacks1 !y welcome hav+ ?is done = 
!m by ! poet2 yet ! ga9 is n )\t a      
correspond+ loss4 ,= :5 ! musical mean+ 
is specializ$ ?r\gh ! emotions t are !  
burd5 ( ! song1 x necess>ily loses ! p[]
 :i* x w\ld o!rwise h ( express+ "o's   
own inn] life--once m1 :at x ga9s 9     
def9it5ess x loses 9 scope4 ,x no long] 
possesses ! unique function ( ! musical4
 ,h5ce1 if we love ! music1 we %all n   
c>e :e!r or n we und]/& ! mean+ ( !     
words1 & :at we %all value 9 ! song w be
 only ! peculi> intimacy :i* x d]ives f 
its in/rum5t1 ! voice4 ,only r>ely is x 
o!rwise1 z 9 "s ( ! songs ( ,s*umann1 :5
 ! poetic int]pretation is s beautiful &
 s completely at "o ) ! musical feel+1 t

 we pref] to accept x r ?an sub/itute   
our own int]pretation = ! poet's4 ,b ev5
 s1 ! music1 if g5u9e1 w h value )\t !  
words4 ,at ! opposite pole are ^? songs1
 (t5 popul>1 :]e ! music1 hav+ little   
wor? 9 itself1 is a m]e accompanim5t = !
 words4 ,9 all cases1 h[ev]1 ! music c  
l5d to ! poetry "s ( ! intimacy :i* is  
its own1 s t its burd5 has a deep] e*o 9
 ! s\l4  ,yet mu* ( poetry is unfit =   
union ) music4 ,?is is true1 fir/1 ( all
 highly intellectual poetry1 :]e !      
emotions are embodi$ 9 complex & ab/ract
 ideas4 ,"o c\ld n1 = example1 readily  
set ,br[n+ to music4 ,music may be deep1
 my/ic1 ev5 metaphysical 9 its mean+1 b 
x _c be dialectical4 ,! emotions t      
accompany subtle ?\ght1 ev5 :5 int5se1  
are n ( ! volum9\s1 massive k9d :i*     
music expresses2 !y lack ! bodily       
resonance ( ! latt]2 !y are1 moreov]1   
clean-cut & /atic1 :ile 9 music ev]y?+  
fl[s 9 half-lights1 l a riv] mov+ 9     
moonlight4 ,on ! o!r h&1 poems :i*      
express rapidly develop+ /ates ( m9d1   

:i* conta9 quick1 subtle transitions1   
are equally unfit = union ) music4 ,=   
music1 al?\gh always 9 motion1 is always
 9 sl[ motion2 x ne$s "t to get "u way1 
& "t = its developm5t 9 embroid]+1 v>y+1
 & repeat+ its !me4 ,& ?is difficulty   
applies 9 a g5]al way to e union betwe5 
poetry & music4 ,= words are prim>ily   
practical & communicative1 & !re=e cut  
%ort ! passion :i* !y express2 :]eas    
tones1 nev] hav+ _h any o!r purpose ?an 
expression1 draw x out & let x h its    
way4 ,moreov]1 poetry1 because ( its    
def9it5ess1 is compatible ) only a      
limit$ range ( v>iation1 beyond :i* x   
becomes monoton\s1 :ile music1 because (
 its ab/ractness1 p]mits ( v>iations    
almo/ endless1 & is enri*$ by e new %ape
 9 :i* its mean+ c appe>4 ,if1 !re=e1   
poetry is to keep "t ) ! sl[ movem5t ( !
 music & con=m to its mode ( developm5t1
 ! v]ses h to be repeat$ aga9 & aga92 b 
?is de/roys ! poetic =m--z 9 ! oratorio1
 ) its s5seless it]ations4  ,f9ally1 !  
temporal & developm5tal "* ( ! drama    

w\ld seem to fit x = union ) music4 ,yet
 ! union ( ^! two arts is confront$ ) ! 
same difficulties t beset ! connection  
betwe5 poetry & music4 ,! movem5t ( !   
act+ drama is swift & /raight1 t ( music
 is sl[ & circul>2 h5ce if ! music is to
 h its way1 ! action ( ! drama mu/ /&4  
,9 consequ5ce ( ?is1 !re is little real 
action 9 mo/ op]as1 prolong$ dialogues 9
 song tak+ its place4 ,only r>ely--z =  
example 9 ,/rauss' ,salome1 p]haps--is !
 =m ( ! drama pres]v$4 ,z a rule ! unity
 ( ! musical =m is also de/roy$1 ! ?read
 ( ! /ory be+ sub/itut$ = x4 ,la/1 z 9 !
 song1 ! univ]sality ( ! music is r5\nc$
 9 favor ( ! int]pretation giv5 to x by 
! program4 ,9 ! leit-motif1 inde$1 z    
,wagn] uses x1 :]e a musical phrase is  
provid$ ) a fix$ connotation ( ideas &  
acts :i* is und]/ood by ! he>] :5ev] x  
recurs1 op]a ceases to be music at all 9
 ! /rict s5se1 & becomes a musical      
language4 ,yet 9 ! op]a1 z 9 ! song1 !  
music1 :5 g5u9e1 possesses its own      
indep5d5t mean+1 :i* c be appreciat$ )\t

 ! mise en sc5e or ! program4 ,& !n only
 r>ely1 z 9 ! ,toreador song 9 ,c>m51 is
 ! action s close to ! inn] mean+ ( !   
music1 t ! latt] seems to ga9 by !      
int]pretation4  ,x foll[s t ,wagn]'s    
dream ( mak+ ! op]a a sum ( all ! values
 ( poetry1 drama1 & music1 & s an art m 
beautiful ?an any "o ( !m1 is fallaci\s4
 ,=1 z we h repeat$ly se51 9 unit+ !    
arts1 !re is ga9 z well z loss2 some?+ (
 ! =m or mean+ ( ea* has to be          
sacrific$4 ,! "w t results f !          
comb9ation is really a new art-=m1 9 :i*
 ! elem5ts are *ang$ & _! individuality 
p>tly de/roy$2 & its value is a new     
value1 :i* may be equal to1 b is c]ta9ly
 no great] ?an1 t ( any o!r art-=m4 ,to 
put ! matt] epigrammatically1 :5 ! arts 
are add$ toge!r1 "o plus "o does n equal
 two1 b only "o aga94     ,,*apt] ,,ix  
,,! ,,ae/hetics ,,( ,,poetry   ,our /udy
 ( music 9 ! prec$+ *apt] has prep>$ u =
 ! /udy ( poetry1 = ! two arts are ak94 
,bo? are arts ( s\nd & bo? employ rhy?m 
z a pr9ciple ( ord] 9 s\nd4 ,!y _h a tw9

 bir? 9 song1 & al?\gh !y h gr[n f>     
ap>t1 !y come toge!r aga9 9 song4 ,9 _m 
ways1 music is ! /&>d = v]se4 ,yet1     
despite ^! resemblances1 ! diff]5ces    
betwe5 ! arts are /rik+4 ,9 place (     
music's disembodi$ feel+s1 poetry (f]s u
 concrete intuitions ( life1--! rehe>sal
 ( emotions atta*$ to real ?+s &        
clean-cut ideas4 ,poetry is a music ) a 
def9ite mean+1 & t is no music at all4  
,mu* ( poetry1 gnomic & n>rative1       
probably grew out ( spee* by regul>iz+  
its natural rhy?m1 indep5d5t ( music4   
,to-day poetry is writt5 to be read1 n  
to be sung2 x is an art ( spee*1 n (    
song4  ,all spee* is communication1 an  
utt]ance f a speak] to a he>]4 ,9 ! case
 ( ord9>y spee*1 ! aim is to effect "s  
*ange ( m9d 9 ! int]locutor t w lead to 
an action b5eficial to "o or bo? ( !    
p]sons conc]n$4 ,ord9>y spee* is        
practical2 its end is to influ5ce       
conduct2 x is comm&1 exhortation1 pray]1
 or ?reat4 ,poetry1 on ! o!r h&1 is !   
spontane\s ov]fl[ ( p[]ful feel+s2 its  

purpose is to express life = ! sake ( ! 
values :i* expression itself may create1
 & to communicate !m to o!rs4 ,footnote3
 ,comp>e ,f4 ,n4 ,scott1 ,! ,mo/        
,fundam5tal ,diff]5tia ( ,poetry &      
,prose1 9 ,mod]n ,language ,association 
,publications1 ,v4 #ai1 pp4 #bej-bfi4 ,!
 values are giv5 9 ! utt]ance itself2 !y
 d n h to be wait$ = to come f some?+   
:i* may develop subsequ5tly4 ,!y are !  
univ]sal ae/hetic values :i* may result 
f any free expression ( life--!         
contemplative reliv+ ( its joys1 or !   
ma/]y ( its pa9s ?r\gh ! c\rage\s fac+ (
 !m 9 reflection4  ,s9ce ! appeal (     
poetry is to ! sympa?y & ?\ghtfulness   
:i* all m5 possess1 !re is no ne$ t x be
 direct$1 z ord9>y spee* is1 to p>ticul>
 m5 & wom5 ^: help or advantage is      
s\ght4 ,! poet addresses himself to man 
9 g5]al1 & only s to y & me4 ,ev5 :5    
o/5sibly direct$ to "s p>ticul> p]son1 a
 poem has an audi5ce :i* is really      
univ]sal4 ,except 9 ! fir/ mom5t (      
creative f]vor1 ! fri5d invok$ is nev]  

int5d$ to be ! sole recipi5t ( ! poet's 
words4 ,(t5times ! poet appeals to !    
dead or to natural objects :i* _c he>   
him4 ,"o might p]haps inf] f ?is t !re  
is no g5u9e impulse to communication 9  
poetry2 t x is pure expression1 a       
dialogue ) self4 ,b ?is w\ld be a false 
inf]5ce2 = !re is always "s h9t 9 e poem
 t a vague backgr\nd ( possible auditors
 is bespok54 ,no matt] h[ intimate &    
spontane\s1 no poem c escape be+ social1
 & h5ce1 9 v>y+ degrees1 self-consci\s4 
,art is autonom\s expression meant to be
 contagi\s4  ,! appeal ( sci5tific      
expression is also to some?+ univ]sal 9 
m5--to _! love ( k & und]/&+4 ,b !re is 
?is diff]5ce betwe5 poetry & sci5ce3    
sci5ce seeks m]ely ! intellectual ma/]y 
( ?+s & ideas1 & s is c>eless ( _!      
values2 :ile poetry1 ev5 :5 descriptive 
or ?\ghtful1 ev] has life z its !me--!  
way man reacts to 8 environm5t & 8      
?\ght4 ,poetry is nev] purely           
descriptive or dialectical4 ,& ?is      
diff]5ce 9 ! sub/ance ( ! expression    

det]m9es a diff]5ce 9 ! direction (     
int]e/ )9 ! expression4 ,9 sci5tific    
expression1 words lead u away to        
?+s--pure description1 or to _!         
mean+s--ma!matics & dialectic2 b 9      
poetry1 s9ce ! values :i* we atta* to   
?+s & ideas come f )9 out ( ourselves & 
are embodi$ 9 ! words1 !y keep u to     
!mselves2 we dwell 9 ! expression       
itself1 9 ! v]bal exp]i5ce--its total   
cont5t ( s\nds :i* we he>1 ideas :i* we 
und]/&1 & feel+s :i* we appreciate1 is (
 wor? to u4  ,s9ce poetry is an art (   
spee*1 we c und]/& x only ?r\gh a /udy (
 words1 :i* are its m$ia4 ,a s+le ^w is 
seldom an integral elem5t ( spee*2 yet x
 may fairly be call$ ! atom1 ! ultimate 
con/itu5t ( spee*4 ,n[ a ^w is a        
/ructure ( a pot5tially f\rfold         
complexity4 ,fir/1 x is a ph5om5on (    
s\nd & movem5t--some?+ he>d & utt]$4    
,its s\nd1 & ! movem5t-s5sations f vocal
 cords & tongue & lips :i* accompany its
 production1 are ! s5su\s %ell ( ! ^w4  
,second1 embodi$ 9 ?is z ! speak] utt]s 

x1 associat$ to x z ! he>] und]/&s x1 is
 its mean+4 ,! mean+ is ei!r an idea ( a
 concrete ?+ or situation1 or an        
ab/raction4 ,?is is ! irr$ucible m9imum 
( a ^w1 b is seldom all4 ,=1 9 poetry1  
"s emotional response to ! object meant 
by ! ^w impels to its utt]ance1 & ?is is
 embodi$ 9 x :5 x is utt]$1 & a simil>  
feel+ is awak5$ 9 ! auditor :5 x is he>d
 or read4 ,a ^w n only mirrors a        
situation ?r\gh its mean+1 b pres]ves   
some?+ ( ! m9d's response2 x            
communicates ! total exp]i5ce1--! self z
 well z ! object4 ,f9ally1 ! mean+ ( a  
^w may n rema9 a m]e idea1 b may gr[ out
 into "o or m ( ! concrete images ( :i* 
x is ! residuum4 ,:51 = example1 ,i utt]
 ! ^w ocean1 ,i may n only "k :at ,i    
mean & re-exp]i5ce my joy 9 ! sea1 b my 
mean+ may be clo!d 9 images ( ! sight & 
t\* & odor ( ! sea--vic>i\sly1 ?r\gh ^! 
images1 all my s5se exp]i5ces ( ! sea   
may be pres5t 9 ! m9d4 ,a ^w1 !re=e1    
s\nds & is articulat$1 means1 expresses 
feel+1 & evokes images4 ,all und]/&+ (  

poetry dep5ds ^u ! k & prop] evaluation 
( ! function+ ( ^! aspects ( a ^w4 ,let 
u consid] 9 a g5]al way ea* "o ( !m4  ,9
 ord9>y spee*1 ! s\nd & articulation ( a
 ^w1 al?\gh indisp5sable to utt]ance1 & 
!re=e a necess>y "p ( x1 are ( little or
 no value 9 !mselves2 = our int]e/ is   
c5t]$ ^u ! mean+ or ^u ! action :i* is  
expect$ to result f its und]/&+4 ,we d n
 att5d to ! quality & rhy?m ( ! ^w-     
s\nds :i* we utt] or he>1 & !           
articulatory s5sations1 al?\gh felt1 h  
only a %ad[y exi/5ce 9 ! fr+e (         
inatt5tion4 ,b 9 poetry1 :i* is spee*   
made beautiful1 ! m]e s\nd ( ! words has
 value4 ,9 he>+ poetry1 we n only       
und]/&1 b li/52 we appreciate n only !  
ideas & emotions convey$1 b ! ^w-s\nds &
 _! rhy?ms z well4 ,ev5 9 sil5t read+1  
poetry is a voice :i* we delight to he>4
 ,footnote3 ,& = _m ?is inn] spee*      
consi/s q z mu* ( articulation z ( s\nd4
 ,! s\nd ( a ^w is really a complex (   
actual s\nds plus associat$ articulation
 impulses4 ,?r\gh\t ! rema9d] ( ?is     

*apt]1 :5 ,i ref] to ! s\nd ( words1 ,i 
%all h 9 m9d ?is entire complex4 ,we may
 !re=e say t 9 sil5t read+ poetry is a  
voice :i* we delight bo? to he> & to    
use4  ,yet1 despite ! importance :i*    
s\nd acquires 9 poetry1 x nev] a*ieves  
fir/ place2 x nev] becomes indep5d5t1 z 
9 music2 b %>es hegemony ) ! o!r aspects
 ( ! ^w4 ,9 practical or sci5tific      
spee*1 ! *ief aspect is mean+2 = x is ! 
mean+ :i* gives u k & guides our acts4  
,inde$1 = all practical purposes1 !     
mean+ ( words consi/s 9 ! actions :i*   
are to be p]=m$ on he>+ !m4 ,if ,i ask a
 man ! way & he tells me1 ! quality ( 8 
voice1 ! int]e/ :i* he takes 9 tell+ me1
 & ! images :i* float across 8 m9d are (
 no importance to me1 s long z ,i c     
foll[ 8 directions4 ,b 9 poetry !       
situation alt]s once m4 ,= !re1 s9ce    
expression itself has become ! end1 &   
all action ^u x is inhibit$1 ! feel+ :i*
 prompts x becomes a significant "p (   
:at ,i appreciate4 ,9 poetry ! mean+s   
are second>y to emotions4 ,yet ! mean+s 

are /ill indisp5sable2 = !y indicate !  
concrete objects or ideas t[>ds :i*     
emotion is direct$4 ,9 ord9>y spee*1    
mean+s are guides to action2 9 ae/hetic 
spee*1 !y are =mulations ( feel+s4 ,& j 
9 ?is p[] ( a ^w to fixate emotion lies 
! *ief diff]5ce betwe5 poetry & music1  
:]e feel+1 be+ ar\s$ by s\nd alone1 is  
vague & objectless4  ,ideally1 e ^w 9 a 
poem %\ld be *>g$ ) feel+2 b actually   
?is is n ! case1 = _m words1 tak5 by    
!mselves1 are too ab/ract or commonplace
 to possess any4 ,words all too famili>1
 or connectives1 l & & b & or1 are      
examples ( ?is2 ! =m] may be avoid$ by !
 poet1 b ! latt] are indisp5sable4      
,orig9ally1 no d\bt1 e ^w _h an         
emotional color+1 if only t ( a *ild's  
curiosity2 & "s words h mean+s too      
deeply root$ 9 feel+ ev] to lose x4 ,no 
am\nt ( famili>ity c deprive su* words z
 dea? & love & ,god ( _! emotional      
value4 ,words l ^! mu/ =ev] recur 9 !   
vocabul>y ( poets4 ,yet1 s9ce 9 liv+    
disc\rse a mean+ is seldom complete 9 a 

s+le ^w1 b requires sev]al words 9 a    
phrase or s5t5ce1 a ^w :i* by itself    
w\ld be cold may p>ticipate 9 ! g5]al   
w>m? ( ! :ole ( :i* x is a "p4 ,consid]1
 = example1 ! la/ l9e ( ! f9al /anza (  
,wordswor?'s ,! ,lo/ ,love3--    ,%e    
liv$ unkn[n1 & few c\ld "k      ,:5     
,lucy ceas$ to be2   ,b %e is 9 h]      
grave1 & ,o6      ,! diff]5ce to me6  ,!
 fir/ ?ree words1 by !mselves1 are      
completely b>e ( emotional color+1 yet1 
tak5 toge!r ) ! la/1 & 9 connection ) ! 
:ole /anza1 & 9 ! sett+ ( ! entire poem1
 !y are agl[ ) ! mo/ poignant passion4  
,z = ! image1 ! la/ ( ! aspects ( a ^w1 
! judgm5t ( ,edmund ,burke1 9 8 ,essay  
on ! ,sublime & ,beautiful /ill rema9s  
true3 9 read+ words or 9 li/5+ to !m1 we
 get ! s\nd & ! mean+ & _! impressions  
7emotions71 b ! images :i* float across 
! m9d1 if !re are any1 are (t5 too vague
 or too incon/ant to be ( mu* relevance 
to ! exp]i5ce4 ,!y are1 moreov]1 highly 
individual 9 nature1 diff]+ 9 k9d &     
cle>ness f p]son to p]son4 ,! rec5t     

rese>*es into imageless ?9k+ are a /rik+
 confirmation ( ,burke's obs]vation4 ,x 
is n[ pretty cle>ly e/abli%$ t ! mean+ (
 words is some?+ m ?an ! images1 visual 
or o!r1 :i* !y ar\se4 ,probably ! mean+ 
is always c>ri$ by "s sort ( imag]y1    
diff]+ ) ! m5tal make-up ( ! read]1 b ! 
mean+ _c be equat$ to ! imag]y4 ,=      
example1 y & ,i bo? und]/& ! ^w ocean2 b
 :5 ,i read ! ^w1 ,i get a visual image 
( gre5 wat] & sunlight1 :ile y p]haps   
get an auditory image ( ! s\nd ( ! waves
 z !y break ^u ! %ore4 ,s\nd1 mean+1    
feel+1 ^! are ! ess5tial con/itu5ts (   
disc\rse2 imag]y is v>iable & accid5tal4
 ,x is impossible1 !re=e1 to f\nd ! !ory
 ( poetry on ! image-mak+ p[] ( words4  
,footnote3 ,= ! opposite view1 consult  
,max ,ea/man3 ,! ,enjoym5t ( ,poetry4 ,&
 yet1 imag]y plays a prim>y role 9      
poetic spee*4 ,=1 z we h obs]v$ s (t51  
feel+s are m vital & p]man5t :5 emb$d$ 9
 concrete s5sations & images ?an :5     
atta*$ to ab/ract mean+s4 ,?r\gh !      
image1 ! poet conf]s ^u 8 art "s ( !    

s5su\sness :i* x w\ld o!rwise lack4 ,x  
is n necess>y t ! image appe> cle> 9 !  
m9d2 = its emotional value c be convey$ 
ev5 :5 x is obscure & m>g9al4 ,:51 =    
example1 we read1    ,freeze1 freeze1 ?\
 bitt] sky1   ,?\ do/ n bite s nigh   ,z
 b5efits =got1  ! ^w bitt] may ar\se no 
vivid gu/atory image1 ! ^w bite no cle> 
image ( pa92 yet ev5 :5 ^! images are v 
dim1 !y s]ve none ! less to e/abli% !   
feel+ ( int5se disagreeabl5ess :i* !    
poet wi%es to convey4 ,poetry1 !re=e1   
because x is m emotional ?an ord9>y     
spee*1 is m abundantly imag9al4  ,hav+  
di/+ui%$ 9 a g5]al way ! f\r elem5ts (  
spee*--s\nd1 mean+1 feel+1 & imag]y--we 
are prep>$ to /udy !m s+ly 9 great]     
detail4 ,we want to build out ( a /udy (
 ^! elem5ts a syn!tic view ( ! nature & 
function ( poetry1 & apply our results  
to "s ( its new] & m clamant =ms4 ,let u
 beg9 ) s\nd4 ,9 our fir/ *apt] we      
obs]v$ t ! m$ium ( an art t5ds to become
 expressive 9 itself1--t 9 poetry ! m]e 
s\nd & articulation ( words1 q ap>t f   

any?+ :i* !y mean1 may ar\se &          
communicate feel+s4 ,:at we h call$ !   
prim>y expressiv5ess ( ! m$ium is n[h]e 
bett] illu/rat$ ?an 9 poetry4 ,b j :at  
is express$ ?r\gh s\nd1 & h[8  ,e lov] (
 poetry is aw>e ( ! l>ge %>e :i* ! m]e  
s\nd ( ! words contributes to its       
beauty4 ,?is is true ev5 :5 we ab/ract f
 rhy?m1 :i* we %all neglect = ! "t be+1 
& ?9k only ( euphony1 allit]ation1      
assonance1 & rime4 ,!re is a joy truly  
surpris+ 9 ! m]e repetition ( v[els &   
consonants4 ,= myself1 ,i f9d a pleasure
 9 ! m]e repetition ( v[els & consonants
 all out ( proportion to :at1 a priori1 
,i %\ld be l$ to expect f s slight a    
cause4 ,& yet we h ! famili> analogies  
by means ( :i* we c und]/& ?is seem+ly s
 /range delight1 ! repeat 9 a patt]n1   
consonance 9 *ord & melody4 ,if !       
repetition ( ! same color or l9e 9      
pa9t+1 ! same tone 9 music1 c delight u1
 :y n ! repetition ( ! same ^w-s\nd8 ,9 
all cases a l feel+ ( h>mony is produc$4
 ,& ! same g5]al pr9ciple applies to    

expla9 x4 ,all ^w-s\nds z we utt] or he>
 !m leave memory traces 9 ! m9d1 :i* are
 n pure images 7no memory traces are71 b
 also motor sets1 t5d5cies or impulses  
to ! remak+ ( ! s\nds4 ,! do+ ( any     
de$--a ^w is also a de$--creates a w to 
its do+ aga92 h5ce ! satisfaction :5 t w
 is fulfill$ 9 ! repeat$ s\nd1 :5 !     
image melts ) ! fact4 ,& ! same law t   
rules 9 music & design holds "h also3   
!re mu/ n be too mu* ( consonance1 (    
repetition1 else ! w becomes satiat$ &  
fatigu$2 !re mu/ be diff]5ce z well z   
id5tity1--! novelty & surprise :i*      
accompany ! ar\sal ( a /ill fre% &      
unappeas$ impulse4 ,?is is well provid$ 
= 9 alt]nate rimes1 :]e ! w to "o k9d ( 
s\nd is susp5d$ by ! em]g5ce ( a diff]5t
 s\nd ) its w1 & :]e ! fulfillm5t ( ! "o
 balances ! fulfillm5t ( ! o!r4 ,all ^! 
facts are illu/rat$ 9 su* a /anza z     
?is3--    ,fe> no m ! heat o' ! sun     
,nor ! furi\s w9t]'s rages2    ,?\ ?y   
worldly task ha/ done1     ,home art    
gone & ta'en ?y wages2    ,gold5 lads & 

girls all mu/1     ,z *imney sweep]s1   
come to du/4  ,"h1 = example1 ! f-s\nd 9
 fe> f9ds h>moni\s fulfillm5t 9 furi\s2 
! t-s\nd 9 task1 its mate 9 ta'en2 !    
g-s\nd 9 gold51 its mat* 9 girls2 sun & 
done1 rages & wages1 illu/rate a balance
 ( h>monies2 :ile 9 ! consonance ( mu/ &
 du/1 ! :ole movem5t ( ! /anza comes to 
full & f9i%$ h>mony4  ,?us tak5 toge!r1 
^w-s\nds1 z m]e s\nds1 are expressive ( 
! g5]al =m-feel+s ( h>mony & balance4 ,b
 c !y express any?+ s+ly8 ,is !re any?+ 
9 poetry comp>able to ! expressiv5ess ( 
s+le tones or ( colors l r$ & blue &    
yell[8 ,to ?is1 ,i ?9k1 ! answ] mu/ be1 
little or no?+4 ,almo/ all !            
expressiv5ess ( s+le words comes f _!   
mean+4 ,at all ev5ts1 ! s\nd & mean+ ( a
 ^w are s inextricably fus$ t1 ev5 :5 we
 suspect t x may h "s expressiv5ess on  
its own acc\nt1 we are ne>ly incapable (
 dis5tangl+ x4 ,z ,william ,james has   
rem>k$1 a ^w-s\nd1 :5 tak5 by itself    
ap>t f its mean+1 gives an impression ( 
m]e que]ness4 ,& :5 x does seem to h "s 

di/9ctive quality1 we d n "k h[ mu*     
really belongs to ! s\nd & h[ mu* to "s 
l+]+ bit ( mean+ :i* we h fail$ to      
sep>ate 9 our analysis4 ,= example1     
because ( its initial s-s\nd & its h>d  
consonants1 ! ^w /ruggle seems to       
express1 9 ! ef=t requir$ to pron\nce x1
 some?+ ( ! emotional tone ( /ruggle    
itself2 b h[ d we "k t ?is is n due to !
 association ) its mean+1 :i* we h be5  
unable to ab/ract f8 ,ev5 true          
onomatopoetic words l bang or crack     
d]ive1 ,i suspect1 mo/ ( _! specific    
quality f _! mean+4 ,!y d h1 to be sure1
 a c]ta9 mimetic impressiv5ess z m]e    
s\nds2 b t is v vague2 ! mean+ makes x  
specific4 ,! %e] l5g? ( ! ^w multitud9\s
 9 ,%akespe>e's l9e1 ! multitud9\s seas 
inc>nad9e1 seems to express some?+ ( !  
va/ness & prolixity ( ! seas2 b w\ld x  
if x 7 n us$ z an adjective describ+ !  
seas1 & if x did n h j ! mean+ t x has8 
,( c\rse1 9 ?is case1 ! m]e s\nd is     
effective1 b x gets mo/ ( its           
effectiv5ess because x happ5s to h a    

c]ta9 mean+4 ,moreov]1 ev5 ! v s\nd     
quality ( words dep5ds mu* ^u _! mean+2 
we pron\nce !m 9 a c]ta9 way1 ) a c]ta9 
sl[ness or swiftness1 a c]ta9 emphasis  
^u p>ticul> syllables1 ) a high or l[   
intonation1 9 accordance ) ! emotion :i*
 we feel into !m4 ,?is is true ( ! ^w   
/ruggle j cit$4 ,or consid] ano!r       
example4 ,take ! ^w bl[4 ,:o1 9 read+   
?is ^w 9 ,bl[1 bl[1 ?\ w9t] w9d1 w\ld n 
increase its explosiv5ess j 9 ord] to   
make its expressiv5ess correspond to its
 mean+8  ,!re is1 !re=e1 a fundam5tal   
diff]5ce 9 ?is respect betwe5 s+le      
^w-s\nds & s+le colors or tones2 !y are 
n suffici5tly impressive 9 !mselves1 n  
suffici5tly sep>able f _! mean+s1 to h  
any?+ except ! slighte/ value z m]e     
s\nds4 ,9 collocation1 h[ev]1 & q ap>t f
 rhy?m & allit]ation1 ?is m9ute         
expressiv5ess may add up to a           
consid]able am\nt4 ,9 ,mat!w ,arnold's  
l9es1    ,swept by confus$ al>ms (      
/ruggle & flight   ,:]e ignorant armies 
cra% by night1  ! h>dness & difficulty (

 ! consonants 9 _! cumulative =ce become
 an indep5d5t elem5t ( expressiv5ess1   
/r5g!n+ t ( ! mean+ ( ! words4 ,or 9    
,t5nyson's (t-quot$ l9e1 ! murmur+ (    
innum]able bees1 ! s\nds tak5 toge!r h a
 g5u9e imitative effect1 9 :i* some?+ ( 
! dr[sy feel+ ( ! hive is pres5t4       
,foll[+ ! g5]al law ( h>mony betwe5 =m &
 cont5t1 ! beauty ( s\nd %\ld be        
functional2 t is1 x %\ld nev] be        
develop$ = its own sake alone1 b also to
 int5sify1 ?r\gh re-expression1 ! mood (
 ! ?\ghts4 ,! s\nd-values are too lack+ 
9 indep5d5ce to be purely ornam5tal4    
,poetry does inde$ p]mit (              
embelli%m5t--! pleasurable elaboration (
 s5sation--yet %\ld nev] deg5]ate into a
 m]e t9t9nabulation ( s\nds4 ,! rimes 9 
b9d+ words %\ld b9d ?\ghts also2 !      
tonalities or contra/s ( v[el &         
consonant %\ld e*o h>monies or /ra9s 9  
p]vasive moods4  ,x is by rhy?m1 h[ev]1 
t ! *ief expressiv5ess ( ! m]e m$ium is 
imp>t$ to v]se4 ,b "h aga9 we %all f9d  
s\nd & mean+ int]tw9$--a rhy?m 9 ?\ght  

gov]n+ a rhy?m 9 s\nd4  ,only z a result
 ( rec5t inve/igations c a satisfactory 
!ory ( mod]n v]se be con/ruct$4 ,! mak+ 
( ?is !ory has be5 l>gely hamp]$1 on !  
"o h&1 by ! application ( ! quantitative
 pr9ciples ( classical v]se to our      
poetry2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 by =c+ ! analogy
 betwe5 music & v]se4 ,! insuffici5cy ( 
! quantitative s*eme = ,engli% v]se is n
 difficult to p]ceive4 ,su* a s*eme     
presupposes t syllables h a fix$        
quantity ( duration1 z ei!r long or     
%ort1 & t rhy?m consi/s 9 ! regul>ity ( 
_! di/ribution4 ,b1 al?\gh !re are      
diff]5ces 9 ! duration ( syllables1 "s  
be+ long] ?an o!rs1 !re are no fix$     
rules to det]m9e :e!r a syllable is %ort
 or long2 &1 :at is a m s]i\s objection1
 x is impossible to f9d any regul>ity 9 
! occurr5ce ( %orts & longs 9 normal    
,engli% v]se1--9 all v]se t has n be5   
writt5 ) ! explicit purpose ( imitat+ ! 
,greek or ,lat94 ,an exam9ation ( any   
l9e ( v]se w v]ify ^! /atem5ts4 ,take1 =
 example1 ! fir/ ?ree l9es (            

,%akespe>e's song1    ,bl[1 bl[1 ?\ w9t]
 w9d1   ,?\ art n s unk9d      ,z man's 
+ratitude4  ,"h ! quantitative scansion 
is p]haps z foll[s3--    - - - - ,u -   
- - ,u x ,u -   ,u - ,u - ,u -  ,i h    
giv5 ! ^w s a d\ble scansion because ,i 
conceive x impossible to det]m9e :e!r x 
is really long or %ort4 ,at any rate1   
!re is c]ta9ly no regul>ity 9 !         
di/ribution ( %orts & longs1 except 9 ! 
la/ ( ! ?ree l9es1 & no correspond5ce1  
except 9 t l9e1 betwe5 ! quantitative   
scansion & ! rhy?mical movem5t ( !      
v]ses4 ,& :5ev] su* a correspond5ce     
exi/s1 x is due ei!r to ! fact t !      
incid5ce ( /ress t5ds to l5g!n a        
syllable or to ! fact t1 (t5times1 9    
polysyllabic words1 m]e l5g? w produce a
 /ress4 ,?is is ! modicum ( tru? 9 !    
quantitative view4 ,b obvi\sly /ress    
gov]ns1 quantity obeys4  ,al?\gh !      
quantitative !ory ( mod]n v]se has be5  
pretty g5]ally ab&on$1 x _c be said t ! 
ord9>y view :i* reg>ds ! foot z ! unit (
 v]se & its rhy?m z det]m9$ by a regul> 

di/ribution ( acc5t$ & unacc5t$         
syllables1 is 9 a mu* bett] case4 ,= 9 !
 fir/ place1 by acc5t is usually meant  
^w-acc5t2 b monosyllabic words h no     
^w-acc5t2 h5ce1 9 a succession ( su*    
syllables1 ! acc5t mu/ be det]m9$ by "s 
o!r factor2 &1 grant+ ?is1 !re is !     
fur!r fact to be reckon$ )1 t poetic    
acc5t is relative--! suppos$ly unacc5t$ 
syllable is (t5 v highly acc5t$1 m      
highly 9 fact ?an "s ( ! s-call$ acc5t$ 
ones4 ,consid]1 = example1 ! l9e1 ,f    
sull5 e>? s+s hymns at heav5's gate1 :]e
 ! ^w s+s1 :i* 9 accordance ) !         
conv5tional iambic scansion w\ld be an  
unacc5t$ syllable1 is really /rongly    
acc5t$1 m /rongly1 inde$1 ?an e>? :i*   
has an acc5t4 ,z = ! division ( ! l9e   
into feet1 t is a pure artifice3 :o1 9 !
 actual read+ ( ! above l9e1 w\ld divide
 ! words sull5 & heav5 into two p>ts8   
,! basis ( rhy?m is1 !re=e1 n ^w-acc5t4 
,value /ress is ! basis4,footnote3      
,?r\gh\t ! discussion ( rhy?m ,i borr[ f
 ,m>k ,h4 ,liddell3 ,an ,introduction to

 ! ,/udy ( ,poetry4 ,c]ta9 words1       
because ( _! logical or emotional       
importance1 h a great] claim ^u !       
att5tion1 & ?is inn] /ress f9ds outw>d  
expression 9 an increas$ l\dness1       
duration1 & explosiv5ess ( s\nd4 ,/ress 
co9cides ) ! ^w-acc5t ( polysyllabic    
words because ! acc5t is plac$ on ^?    
syllables1 usually ! root-syllables1 :i*
 c>ry ! ess5tial mean+4 ,& ?is /ress is 
n simply pres5t or abs5t 9 a syllable1 b
 great] 9 "s ?an 9 o!rs2 9 iambic rhy?m1
 usually great] 9 ! ev5 ?an 9 ! prec$+  
odd syllable2 9 tro*aic1 great] 9 ! odd 
?an 9 ! imm$iately prec$+ ev5 "o4 ,!    
rhy?m is r an undulation ( /resses ?an  
an alt]nation ( /ress & lack ( /ress1   
some?+1 !re=e1 f> m complex & v>iegat$  
?an ! old s*eme w\ld imply4 ,& ( ?is    
undulation1 n ! foot1 b ! l9e is ! unit4
 ,! "* ( ! undulation ( ! :ole l9e      
det]m9es ! type ( ! rhy?m1 :i* may be v 
diff]5t 9 ! case ( l9es ( precisely !   
same k9d ( feet4 ,= example1 ! l9e quot$
 above1 ,f sull5 e>? s+s hymns at       

heav5's gate1 has a di/9ctly diff]5t    
rhy?m f su* ano!r iambic l9e z ,%all ,i 
comp>e !e to a summ]'s day8 ,?is        
diff]5ce is due1 9 "p at lea/1 to ! fact
 t ! highe/ peaks ( ! wave 9 ! =m] are 9
 ! c5t] ( ! l9e1 9 s+s & hymns1 :ile 9 !
 latt] !y are at ! end1 9 summ]'s & day4
 ,?is undulation ( /ress is pres5t 9    
prose & 9 ord9>y spee*2 = !re also !re  
is a rise & fall ( /ress correspond+ to 
! v>y+ values ( ! words & syllables2 b 9
 prose1 ! undulation is irregul>1 :ile 9
 poetry1 x is regul>iz$4  ,f ! =ego+ x  
is cle> t rhy?m does n exi/ 9 ! m]e s\nd
 ( ! words alone1 b 9 ! ?\ght back ( !m 
z well4 ,! s\nds1 z su*1 h no rhy?m 9   
!mselves2 !y acquire rhy?m ?r\gh !      
subjective processes ( significant      
utt]ance or li/5+4 ,! rhy?m is prim>ily 
9 ^! activities1 & f !m is transf]r$ to 
! s\nds 9 :i* !y are embodi$4 ,?is comes
 out ) additional =ce :5 we g f>!r into 
! analysis ( ! rhy?m ( v]se4 ,we h j se5
 t ! l9e is "o unit ( ! rhy?m 7?is is   
true ev5 :5 !re are run-ov] l9es1       

because we make a slight pause aft] !   
ends ( su* l9es too72 b )9 ! l9e itself 
!re are sub-units4 ,^! sub-units are    
units ( ?\ght4 ,e piece ( writt5 or     
spok5 language is a cont9u\s fl[ (      
?\ght4 ,b ! movem5t is n p]fectly fluid2
 = x is brok5 up into elem5t>y pulses ( 
ideas1 foll[+ discont9u\sly ^u ea* o!r4 
,9 prose ! succession ( pulses is       
complex & irregul>1 )\t any obvi\s      
patt]n2 b 9 poetry ! movem5t is simple &
 regul> & ! patt]n is cle>4 ,j z 9      
poetry !re is a rhy?m ( /ress :i*       
repres5ts a regul>iz+ ( ! natural       
undulations 9 ! /ress ( spee*1 s !re is 
also a m deep-ly+ rhy?m1 :i* arises     
?r\gh a simplification & regul>iz+ ( !  
movem5t ( ?\ght-pulsations4 ,!          
fundam5tal rhy?m consi/s 9 an alt]nation
 ( subject-gr\p & pr$icate-gr\p4  ,?is  
duality1 al?\gh always reta9$ z basal1  
may1 h[ev]1 be brok5 up into a ?ree- or 
f\r-"p movem5t :5ev] ! connect+ l9ks    
betwe5 ! subject-idea & ! pr$icate-idea 
acquire suffici5t importance1 or :5ev] !

 "o or ! o!r ( ! two becomes suffici5tly
 complex to consi/ ( less] p>ts4 ,=     
example1 9 ,%akespe>e's ?irty-fir/      
sonnet1 ! ?\ght-divisions are ?ree = ea*
 ( ! foll[+ l9es3--    ,?y bosom  is    
ende>$  ) all he>ts   ,:i* ,i by lack+  
h suppos$  dead2   ,& !re  reigns love1 
& all love's lov+ p>ts1   ,& all ^?     
fri5ds  :i* ,i ?\ght  buri$4  ,^!       
divisions are m>k$ by pauses or casuras4
  ,"h1 !n1 9 ! regul>iz+ ( ! numb] (    
?\ght-pulsations1 we h ano!r type (     
rhy?m 9 poetry1 & a rhy?m :i*1 com+ f   
)91 f9ds outw>d expression 9 s\nd4      
,cutt+ across ! rhy?m ( /ress1 x breaks 
up ! latt] ) its pauses1 & imp>ts to !  
:ole movem5t v>iety & ri*ness4  ,b spee*
 has n only its natural rhy?m (         
/ress-undulation & ?\ght-pulsations2 x  
has also1 z we saw 9 ! la/ *apt]1 a     
melody4 ,! rise & fall ( /ress goes h& &
 h& ) a rise & fall ( pit*4 ,! diff]5t  
=ms ( disc\rse1 & ! diff]5t emotions t  
accompany !m1 are ea* express$ )        
*>act]i/ic v>iations 9 pit*4 ,accept+   

,wundt's summ>y ( ! facts1 we f9d t1    
g5]ally speak+1 9 ! decl>ative /atem5t &
 ! comm&1 ! pit* rises 9 ! fir/         
?\ght-division1 to fall 9 ! second2 :ile
 9 ! "q & ! condition1 ! pit* rises &   
falls 9 ! fir/1 & !n rises aga9 9 !     
second4 ,d\bt1 expectation1 t5sion1     
excitem5t--all ! =w>d look+ moods (     
incomplet5ess--t5d to f9d expression 9 a
 ris+ melody2 :ile assurance1 repose1   
relaxation1 fulfillm5t1 are embodi$ 9 a 
fall+ melody4 ,! high tones are dynamic 
& /imulat+2 ! l[ tones1 /atic &         
peaceful4 ,n[ 9 ord9>y spee* & prose1 ! 
*ange f "o tone to ano!r is con/ant &   
irregul>1 foll[+ ! v>iation ( mood 9 !  
sub/ance ( ! disc\rse4 ,h[ is x ) v]se8 
,!re is a simplification &              
tonality--id5tity 9 tone--:i* is abs5t f
 prose4 ,! melody is m obvi\s &         
di/9ctive1 because !re is a great]      
simplicity 9 s5t5ce /ructure & a high]  
unity ( mood4 ,yet !re is no absolute   
regul>ity2 & ! am\nt ( x diff]s ) !     
diff]5t k9ds ( poetry3 !re is m 9 !     

simple lyric ?an 9 ! complex n>rative2  
m1 = example1 9 ,%akespe>e's sonnets ?an
 9 8 dramas4 ,! inexpressible beauty (  
"s l9es ( v]se comes d\btless f a       
fugitive melody :i* we n[ grasp1 n[     
lose4  ,! exi/5ce ( spee* melody & !    
tonalities ( rime1 assonance1 &         
allit]ation sugge/ an analogy betwe5    
v]se & music4 ,= "s p1 ?is analogy is   
decisive4 ,yet ! fundam5tal diff]5ce    
betwe5 music & v]se mu/ be insi/$ on )  
equal =ce2 ! purity ( tone & fixity (   
int]vals betwe5 tones1 :i* is di/9ctive 
( music1 is abs5t f v]se4 ,9 comp>ison )
 music1 ! melodi\sness ( v]se is confus$
 & *aotic2 & ?is condemns to failure any
 attempt to id5tify ! laws ( ! two arts4
 ,/ill1 we are n yet at ! end ( !       
analogy4 ,^? :o int]pret v]se 9 t]ms (  
music believe t1 und]ly+ or supplant+ ! 
rhy?m ( /ress1 !re is ano!r rhy?m1      
simil> to "t 9 music1 & capable (       
expression 9 musical language4 ,!re is1 
x is claim$1 an equality ( duration     
betwe5 "o l9e & ano!r1 & betwe5 "o foot 

9 a l9e & ano!r2 ^! l>g] & less] /ret*es
 ( duration be+ divid$ up betwe5        
syllables & pauses1 ea* syllable & pause
 occupy+ a fix$ quantity ( "t2 j z 9    
music ea* b> is divid$ up betwe5 notes &
 re/s ( def9ite value4 ,lani]1 = example
 writes ! fir/ l9e ( ,poe's ,rav5 z     
foll[s3--,footnote3 ,! ,sci5ce ( ,engli%
 ,v]se1 p4 #abh4  ,illu/ration    ,once 
up  on a  mid-night  dre>-y2  ,fasc9at+ 
z ?is proc$ure is1 x is nev]!less a     
di/ortion ( ! facts4 ,poetry is meant to
 be read1 n to be sung2 :5 x is put to  
music & sung1 x acquires a "* :i*       
o!rwise does n belong to x4 ,we mu/ n be
 misl$ by ! hi/orical connection betwe5 
v]se & song1 nor by ! frequ5cy ) :i* "s 
v]ses are set to music4 ,our poetry mu/ 
be und]/ood z we exp]i5ce x to-day1 n z 
x 0 exp]i5c$ 9 its orig9s4 ,& !re is    
surely mu* poetry :i* no "o wants to s+4
 ,no "o wants to s+ a sonnet or         
,miltonic blank v]se4 ,! attempt to     
apply musical notation to v]se is a t\r 
de =ce4 ,c>eful obs]vation & exp]i5ce %[

 t ! syllables 9 v]se h no fix$ duration
 values1 & t !re is no con/ant ratio    
betwe5 !m4  ,nev]!less1 musical "t is n 
:olly abs5t f v]se4 ,y _c set x to !    
metronome or express x 9 musical        
notation1 yet x is !re4 ,:5 l9es h !    
same numb] ( syllables1 ! "t requir$ to 
read !m is approximately ! same1 & we   
t5d to make ! duration ( !              
?\ght-divisions equal4 ,our "t-s5se is s
 fallible1 we d n notice ! dep>tures f  
exactness2 & :5 ! durations ( processes 
are ne>ly equal & ! values :i* we atta* 
to !m are equal1 !n we are consci\s ( !m
 z equal4 ,att5tion-value & "t-value are
 subjectively equival5t4 ,words :i*     
weigh ) u give u pause1 & we reckon 9 ! 
"t ( ! pause to make up = a defici5cy 9 
! "t requir$ to read or utt] !          
syllables4 ,& s "t-rhy?m ent]s z /ill   
ano!r factor 9 ! complex rhy?m ( v]se4  
,! importance ( ?is rhy?m diff]s1 h[ev]1
 ) ! diff]5t k9ds ( v]se4 ,9 lyric      
poetry closely alli$ to song1 x is cle> 
& /rong2 :ile 9 ! m reflective &        

dramatic poetry1 x is only an und]tone4 
,9 "s cases1 z 9 ! nurs]y rime1    ,hot 
cross buns1 hot cross buns1   ,if y\r   
daught]s don't l 'em1   ,give 'em to y\r
 sons4   ,"o a p5ny1 two a p5ny1   ,hot 
cross buns1  !re is almo/ no rhy?m (    
/ress1 b !re is a rhy?m ( "t2 = despite 
! inequality 9 ! numb] ( syllables1 ea* 
l9e has approximately ! same duration1  
ev5 ! la/ l9e ) its ?ree monosyllabic   
words be+ l5g!n$ out into equality ) !  
o!rs4 ,! v>iety 9 ! rhy?m is secur$     
?r\gh ! unequal numb] ( syllables 9 !   
same /ret* ( duration1 ! m rapid movem5t
 ( _m syllables be+ set (f ov] aga9/ !  
sl[] movem5t ( ! few4 ,simil>ly1        
,t5nyson's poem1 :i* %\ld be scann$ z ,i
 %all indicate1 has a rhy?m :i* is      
*iefly musical4    ,break1  break1      
break1   ,on ?y cold1  grey /ones1  ,o  
sea6   ,& ,i w\ld  t my tongue  might   
utt]   ,! ?\ghts  ,t arise  9 me4  ,!   
/resses are ne>ly ev5 ?r\gh\t2 ! met] _c
 be accurately describ$ z iambic1       
tro*aic1 or anape/ic2 yet !re is a rhy?m

 9 ! approximate temporal equality ( !  
?\ght-mom5ts4 ,^! v]ses are1 h[ev]1 r   
songs ?an poems4 ,! failure to di/+ui%  
betwe5 v]ses :i* are songs & ^? :i* are 
poems acc\nts1 ,i believe1 = ! extremes 
to :i* ! musical !ory ( v]se has be5    
c>ri$4  ,/ill ano!r elem5t ( poetry :i* 
allies x to music is ! repetition ( !   
?\ght-cont5t4 ,:y repetition %\ld be    
musical we already "k3 music is an art  
:i* seeks to draw out & elaborate pure  
emotion2 repetition s]ves ?is end by    
con/antly br++ ! m9d back to dwell ^u ! 
same !me4 ,moreov]1 repetition involves 
ret>dation2 = a movem5t _c progress     
rapidly if x has to return ^u itself2 & 
?is sl[ness gives "t = ! full value ( a 
feel+ to be work$ out4 ,9 all ! m       
emotional & lyric poetry we f9d1 !re=e1 
recurr5ce ( !me3 ! ?\ght is repeat$ aga9
 & aga92 9 new =ms1 p]haps1 yet /ill !  
same 9 ess5ce1 successive l9es or /anzas
 tak+ up ! same burd52 sometimes !re is 
exact recurr5ce ( ?\ght1 z 9 ! refra94  
,& ?is repetition 9 ! ?\ght is embodi$ 9

 a repetition ( ! elem5ts ( !           
s\nd-patt]n2 ! wave type is repeat$ f   
v]se to v]se or recurs aga9 & aga92 !re 
is recurr5ce ( melodic =m or p>allelism 
betwe5 contra/$ melodies 9 diff]5t      
/anzas2 !re is tonality ( v[el &        
consonant s\nds 9 rime & assonance &    
allit]ation2 !re may be an approa* to   
id5tity 9 ! "t-duration ( ! v>i\s units4
 ,p>allelism or repetition is !         
fundam5tal s*eme ( su* poetry4 ,b betwe5
 repetition ) its ret>dation ( movem5t &
 progress t[>ds a goal !re is a necess>y
 antagonism2 h5ce 9 ! m dramatic &      
n>rative =ms ( poetry1 al?\gh recurr5ce 
is nev] entirely abs5t1 !re is less ( x1
 & ! movem5t approximates to t ( prose4 
,emotion dem&s repetition1 b action     
dem&s progression4  ,aft] our analysis (
 ! rhy?m ( poetry1 we are 9 a position  
to inquire into :at c be express$ ?r\gh 
x1 & h[ psy*ologically ?is expression c 
be expla9$4  ,! expressiv5ess ( rhy?m is
 l t ( music1 vague & objectless1 = :i* 
reason rhy?m is prop]ly call$ ! music ( 

v]se4 ,almo/ ev]y?+ 9 a g5]al way :i* we
 h said ab\t ! expressiv5ess ( music    
applies to poetic rhy?m4 ,?is           
expressiv5ess _c be translat$ into words
 ) any exactness2 ! mo/ t c be done is  
to f9d a set ( words into :i* x w r\ghly
 fit1 leav+ mu* vacant space ( mean+4 ,t
 ! emotional values ( rhy?ms h "* is1   
h[ev]1 prov$ by ! fact t "s rhy?ms are  
bett] vehicles = c]ta9 k9ds ( ?\ght ?an 
o!rs are4 ,yet x (t5 happ5s t1 j z1 9   
song or op]a1 ! same melody is us$ to   
express joy or grief1 love or religi\s  
emotion1 s approximately ! same rhy?mic 
=m is employ$ 9 ! expression ( app>5tly 
antagoni/ic emotions4 ,nev]!less1 ?is   
fact is n fatal to expression2 =1 9 !   
fir/ place1 !re is mu* v>iety ( rhy?m )9
 a giv5 metrical =m1 s t :at            
sup]ficially may seem to be ! same rhy?m
 is really a diff]5t "o2 &1 9 ! second  
place1 z we h already obs]v$ 9 ! case ( 
music1 !re is mu*--9 =m & en]gy (       
movem5t--:i* contra/+ emotions h 9      
common1 & ?is may be express$ 9 !       

rhy?mic type4 ,?9k ( ! wide sweep (     
emotions :i* h be5 express$ 9 ! sonnet  
=m6 ,yet consid] :at v>ieties ( rhy?m & 
spee* melodies are possible )9 ?is =m1 &
 h[1 nev]!less1 !re is an id5tity ( "* 9
 all sonnets--h[ !y are all ?\ghtful1   
all re/ra9$1 yet unfalt]+ 9 _! movem5t6 
,)\t go+ into details1 :i* w\ld lie     
beyond ! scope ( g5]al /hetics1 x is    
possible to /ate ! foll[+ broad facts   
7comp>e ! simil> facts relat+ to melody7
 ) ref]5ce to poetic rhy?ms3 a ris+     
rhy?m expresses /riv+ or re/lessness2 a 
fall+ rhy?m1 quiet1 /eadfa/ness4 ,!re   
is1 h[ev]1 no absolute contra/ betwe5 ! 
two k9ds1 because a fall+ rhy?m is /ill 
a rhy?m1 & t means a movem5t :i*        
necess>ily conta9s some?+ ( in/ability &
 unre/4 ,! contra/ is %>pe/ 9 ! anape/ic
 & dactylic1 less %>p 9 ! tro*aic &     
iambic4 ,_m a tro*aic rhy?m becomes 9   
effect iambic :5 ! division ( ! ?\ght   
mom5ts & ! di/ribution ( ! pauses make !
 rhy?m rise aft] ! fir/ few words2 &    
conv]sely1 _m an iambic rhy?m becomes   

tro*aic ?r\gh a simil> %ift 9 !         
att5tion4 ,)9 a s+le l9e1 !re=e1 !re may
 be bo? ris+ & fall+ pulsations4 ,mu* ( 
! r>e beauty ( poetry comes f su* subtle
 comb9ations ( rhy?mic qualities4       
,?r\gh "t & tempo also1 poetic rhy?m is 
expressive1 mu* aft] ! mann] ( music2 by
 ^! means too1 9 addition to ! mode (   
/ress-undulation1 x imitates ! temporal 
& dynamic c\rse ( action & emotion1 & s 
t5ds to ar\se congru\s types ( feel+ 9 !
 m9d2 x is swift or sl[1 glid+ or       
abrupt1 ret>d$ or accel]at$4 ,comp>e !  
sl[ & ret>d$ rhy?m ( ,:5 ,i h fe>s t ,i 
may cease to be1 s well adapt$ to       
express ! gravity ( ! ?\ght1 ) ! rapid &
 accel]at$ movem5t ( ,hail to !e1 bli!  
_s6 s full ( a quick joy\sness4 ,or     
comp>e ! light legato movem5t ( ,bird ( 
! wild]ness1 bli!some & cumb]less1 ) !  
heavy /accato movem5t ( ,wa/e endless & 
b\ndless & fl[]less4  ,yet1 = all its   
expressiv5ess1 ! music ( v]se c nev] /& 
alone4 ,x is too b>e & t5u\s by itself  
to w9 & keep ! att5tion or to evoke mu* 

feel+4 ,x does n possess ! purity (     
color1 ! l\dness1 =ce1 or volume ( s\nd 
t belong to music & make music1 almo/   
alone ( ! arts1 capable ( exi/+ z m]e   
=m4 ,! rhy?m ( poetry1 d]iv$ v l>gely f 
a rhy?m ( ?\ght1 has ne$ ( ?\ght =      
significance4 ,! ?\ght & ! music are "o4
 ,= ?is reason poetry is bett]1 ,i ?9k1 
:5 read to oneself ?an :5 read al\d2 =  
!n ! s\nd & ! s5se are m intimate2 !    
att5tion is n drawn (f to ! =m] away f !
 latt]4 ,moreov]1 try z he w1 ! poet c  
nev] make 8 ^w-s\nds fully h>moni\s2 "s 
r\ghness & dissonance w rema92 b 9 sil5t
 read+ ^! qualities disappe>4 ,h[ev]1   
al?\gh by itself ( small significance1 !
 musical elem5t 9 v]se makes all !      
diff]5ce betwe5 poetry & prose4 ,?r\gh  
its own vague expressiv5ess x =tifies ! 
emotional mean+ ( ! poetic language1 &1 
at ! same "t1 sublimates x by scatt]+ x 
9 ! m$ium4 ,& f9ally x imp>ts an        
intimacy1 a p]sonal flavor1 :i* also    
allies poetry ) music2 = ! sub/ance (   
rhy?m is ! movem5t ( our own inn]       

processes2 ! rhy?m ( ?\ghts & s\nds is a
 rhy?m 9 our own li/5+ & att5d+1 our own
 ?9k+ & feel+2 ! emotional values spr+ f
 u z well z f ! subject-matt]4 ,h5ce ev5
 n>rative & dramatic poetry h a lyrical 
tone2 we ourselves are implicat$ 9 !    
actions & ev5ts portray$4  ,! dem&s made
 by ! =m ( poetry ^u its sub/ance are   
simil> to ^? made by music ^u ! words 9 
a song1 only less /r+5t4 ,! cont5t mu/  
be emotional & significant2 x _c be     
trite & cold4 ,! mean+ ( words w\ld     
p]mit ! poet to br+ be=e ! m9d all      
possible objects1 ev5ts1 & ideas1 b !   
music ( words w\ld be incongru\s ) mo/ (
 !m4 ,ev5ts n>rat$ mu/ be /irr+1 ?\ghts 
utt]$ mu/ be emotionally ton$1 ?+s      
describ$ mu/ be relat$ to human life &  
action4 ,poetry may des]t ! royal !mes (
 long ago--arma virumque cano1 ma59     
aeide !a--& relate ! l[ly life ( common 
folk1 ev5 ! sordid life ( ! poor &      
mis]able1 b :5 do+ s ?r[s ov] x !       
musical glam\r ( v]se & ar\ses ! heat ( 
sympa?y & passion4 ,al?\gh1 s9ce x makes

 use ( words1 poetry %\ld always h a    
mean+1 x ne$ n h ! def9it5ess ( mean+ ( 
logical ?\ght2 x may sugge/ r ?an       
explicate2 its music is compatible )    
vagu5ess4 ,b vagu5ess is n obscurity2 ! 
poet %\ld always make u feel t we und]/&
 him2 he %\ld n seek to my/ify u1 or    
keep u guess+ at 8 mean+4 ,yet1 s9ce !  
poet op]ates ) words & n ) m]e s\nds1   
great subtlety & precision ( ?\ght are  
possible 9 poetry1 al?\gh n argum5t &   
dialectic4 ,poetry may express ! results
 ( reflection1 s f> z !y are ( high     
emotional value1 b _c well reproduce its
 processes2 ! /eps ( analysis & inf]5ce 
are too cold & h>d = ! muse to climb4   
,on ! o!r h&1 poetry does n p]mit ( !   
developm5t & it]ation ( pure feel+ :i*  
we f9d 9 music2 = poetic rhy?ms &       
melodies lack ! v>iety & flu5cy ( !     
musical4 ,yet poetry is capable1 :]e    
music is n1 ( express+ brief1 quick     
outbur/s ( feel+2 = a few words1 by     
ref]r+ to ! causes & conditions ( feel+1
 may adequately express :at music ne$s  

"t & _m tones to convey4 ,poetry w9s    
beauty by conc5tration1 :]eas music ga9s
 by expansion4 ,!re is also a simil>    
relation betwe5 prose & poetry 9 ?is    
respect2 ! sev]ity ( ! =m imposes ^u    
poetry a simplicity :i* contra/s ) !    
bread? & complexity ( prose4 ,z         
,s*op5hau] rem>k$1 e good poem is %ort2 
long poems always conta9 /ret*es ei!r ( 
unmusical v]se or unpoetic music4 ,yet1 
9 comp>ison ) prose1 ! tempo ( music is 
sl[2 we h to l+] 9 ! m$ium 9 ord] t its 
rhy?mic & tonal beauties may impress u1 
& ?is sl[ness ( movem5t is imp>t$ to !  
?\ght2 ev5 n>rative & dramatic poetry   
suff] ret>dation2 = :i* reason ! poetic 
=m mu/ be ab&on$ if great rapidity (    
expression is s\ght4  ,f our /udy ( !   
mat]ials & =ms ( its expression1 x      
becomes cle> h[ ! subject-matt] ( poetry
 is ! inn] life ( mood & /riv+ &        
passionate human action4 ,emotions may  
be p\r$ =? 9 words1 &1 by means ( words1
 actions may be describ$4 ,b nei!r      
passion nor action appe> 9 poetry z !y  

are liv$ & enact$2 = ! poet1 work+ 9 a  
m$ium ( words1 has to translate !m into 
?\ghts4 ,words _c embody ! real         
exp]i5ces :i* !y express2 exp]i5ce is   
fleet+ & falls away f ! words1 :i* reta9
 only an e*o ( :at !y mean4 ,only :at c 
be reliv$ 9 memory c be conta9$ 9 a ^w1 
& n ev5 all ( t2 = a ^w is n a m]e      
embodim5t ( an exp]i5ce1 b a            
communication also1 & only its public & 
univ]sal cont5t c pass f a speak] to a  
he>]4 ,n[1 ?is socializ$ cont5t ( a ^w  
is a ?\ght4 ,ev5 passion ! mo/          
spontane\s & lyrical has to be translat$
 into ?\ght1--n ! ab/ract ?\ght (       
sci5tific expression1 b ! emotionally   
ton$ ?\ght ( art1 ?\ght :i*1 :ile       
cond5s+ exp]i5ce1 /ill keeps its values4
 ,emotional ?\ght is ! sub/ance (       
poetry4 ,h[ev]1 albeit an image ( ! inn]
 life1 poetry does n volatilize x into  
pure feel+ z music does1 b di/+ui%es its
 objects & assigns its causes4 ,poetry  
is concrete & articulate :]e music is   
ab/ract & bl9d4 ,s9ce words1 ?r\gh _!   

mean+s & associat$ images1 c express ?+s
 z well z man's reactions to !m1 poetry 
c also reflect ! natural environm5t (   
life1 its habitat & seat4 ,& yet1       
because ! poet has to translate ?+s into
 ideas1 nature nev] appe>s 9 poetry z x 
is 9 itself1 b z x is implicat$ 9 m9d4  
,= ! poet1 sea & sky1 ! woods & pla9s & 
riv]s1 birds & fl[]s1 are ! symbols (   
human de/9y or ! loci ( human action4   
,emotion ov]fl[s into nature1 b ?is     
involves ! tak+ up ( nature into man4 ,n
 nature1 b man's ?\ghtful life is !     
poet's !me4  ,if ! =ego+ /atem5t is     
correct1 emotional ?\ght r ?an imag]y is
 ! sub/ance ( poetry4 ,= poetry1 z music
 ) a mean+1 c be q free ( def9ite       
images4 ,9 la sua volantade e no/ra pace
 7,9 8 w is our peace7 ,footnote3       
,dante3 ,p>adiso1 #c1 #he4 is beautiful 
poetry1 yet !re is no image4 ,! ?\ght   
=mulates a mood & f9ds a s5su\s         
embodim5t 9 musical language1 & t       
suffices = beauty4 ,& yet 9 poetry1 z   
has be5 obs]v$1 ?\ght t5ds to desc5d    

into imag]y4 ,by be+ connect$ ) a s5su\s
 mat]ial1 a ?\ght acquires a firm]      
support = feel+ ?an x c\ld possess (    
itself z a m]e concept4 ,especially     
effective is ! desc5t to ! l[] s5ses2 = 
!y are close/ to ! roots ( emotion4 ,let
 me recall aga9 ! ,%akespe>ean lyric :i*
 ,i h quot$ be=e 9 a simil> connection1 
omitt+ ! la/ l9es ( ea* /anza3--        
,bl[1 bl[1 ?\ w9t] w9d1   ,?\ art n s   
unk9d    ,z man's +ratitude2    ,?y too?
 is n s ke5   ,because ?\ art n se51    
,al?\gh ?y brea? be rude4    ,freeze1   
freeze1 ?\ bitt] sky1   ,?\ do/ n bite s
 nigh    ,z b5efits =got2    ,?\gh ?\ ! 
wat]s w>p1   ,?y /+ is n s %>p    ,z    
fri5d rememb]$ n4  ,"h are images (     
cold--w9t]1 freeze2 ( t\*--bl[1 brea?2 (
 pa9--too?1 bite1 /+1 %>p2 (            
ta/e--bitt]4 ,h[ vividly !y convey ! a*e
 ( desolation6 ,only 9 words :i* are    
imag9ative z well z musical are ! full  
res\rces ( v]bal expression employ$4    
,all ! v>i\s =ms ( metaphorical language
 h ! same purpose3 by sub/itut+ = a m   

ab/ract1 conceptual mode ( expression a 
m s5su\s & imag9ative "o1 to vivify !   
emotional quality ( ! situation4 ,:5    
,keats s+s1    444 on ! %ore   ,( ! wide
 _w ,i /& & ?9k   ,till ,love & ,fame to
 no?+ness d s9k1  he has 9 m9d to convey
 to u t r5unciation ( m]ely p]sonal     
ambitions :i* comes to u :5 we survey   
all "t & all exi/5ce4 ,& h[ does he d x8
 ,by evok+ ! image ( ! wide /ret* ( !   
%ore ( ! sea1 :i*1 mak+ u feel our      
no?+ness z we /& & look out ^u x1 has ! 
same effect1 only m poignant4 ,( ! _w we
 h no image--n s1 ( ! %ore ( ! _w2 &    
t[>d :at we _c imag9e we _c easily feel4
 ,(t5times ! metaphor is lat5t1 a m]e   
adjective undevelop$ 9 its implications1
 z 9 bitt] sky2 yet ! purpose is ! same4
 ,incid5tally ! poet unifies our _w = u 
?r\gh 8 metaphors2 n z ! sci5ti/ does by
 po9t+ out causal & class relations1 b  
by exhibit+ ! emotional aff9ities ( ?+s4
 ,he increases ! value ( s+le ?+s by    
giv+ !m ! values ( o!r ?+s4 ,e metaphor 
%\ld s]ve ?is purpose ( emotional       

expression & unification1 %\ld be "p (  
an emotional ?\ght2 o!rwise x is a m]e  
t\r de =ce ( clev]ness1 unrelat$ to !   
poetic int]e/ & intr9sically absurd1--! 
_w has no %ore & ! w9d is n bitt]2 feel+
 alone c ju/ify su* comp>isons4         
,moreov]1 too _m metaphors1 or metaphors
 too elaborately develop$1 by scatt]+ ! 
att5tion1 or by draw+ x away f ! mean+ (
 :i* ! image %\ld be a "p1 h ! effect ( 
no image at all4 ,! poetry ( ,francis   
,?ompson1 = example1 loses r ?an ga9s   
vitality ?r\gh its imag9ative exub]ance4
 ,we object to decad5t poets1 n because 
!y are s5su\s1 b because !y lack feel+2 
) !m s5sation1 in/ead ( support+        
emotion1 supplants x4 ,su* poets seek to
 atone = _! want ( vigor\s feel+ by     
/imulat+ our eyes & e>s4  ,if1 z ,i     
believe1 emotional ?\ght r ?an imag]y is
 ! ess5ce ( poetry1 !n ! mod]n s*ool (  
imagi/s & _! ,fr5* =be>s among !        
,p>nassi5s are mi/ak54 ,_! ef=t comes 9 
! end to a revival ( ! old !sis ut      
pictura poesis1 ! attempt to make poetry

 a vision ( nature r ?an an expression (
 ! inn] life4 ,!y w\ld lead poetry away 
f ! subjectivity ( emotion into ! out]  
object _w4 ,n[1 x is inde$ possible = ! 
poet to repres5t nature ?r\gh ! images  
:i* words evoke 9 ! m9d1 & ^! images may
 h significance = feel+4 ,_! v evocation
 9 musical language is b\nd to l5d !m "s
 w>m? ( mood4 ,yet--z ,less+ %[$ 9 8    
,laocoon1 despite all ! crabb$ n>r[ness 
( 8 treatm5t--x is hopeless = ! poet to 
ent] into rivalry ) ! pa9t] or sculptor4
 ,! colors & =ms ( ?+s :i* ! poet pa9ts 
= ! eye ( ! m9d are m]e %ad[s 9         
comp>ison ) ^? :i* we really            
see4,footnote3 ,! be/ ! poet-pa9t] c d  
is to express 8 memories ( ! out] _w2 b 
ap>t f "s vivid emotion1 memories are   
unsatisfactory 9 comp>ison ) realities4 
,we admire ! m>vel\s workman%ip ( su*   
v]ses z ! foll[+ ( ,gauti]1 b !y leave u
 cold2 ev5 ! melody ( ! language is     
incapable ( mak+ !m w>m4 ,h[ poor !y are
 beside a pa9t+6    ,les femmes pass5t  
s\s les arbres   ,en m>tre1 h]m9e et    

m5u-vair   ,et les deesses1 frileux     
m>bres1   ,ont pris aussi l'abit d'hiv]4
    ,la ,v5us ,anadyom5e   ,e/ en       
pelisse a capu*on3   ,flore1 que la     
brise malm5e1   ,plonge ses ma9s dans   
son man*on4    ,et p\r la saison1 les   
b]g]es   ,de ,coysevox et de ,c\/\1     
,tr\vant leures e*>pes leg]es   ,ont des
 boas aut\r du c\4  ,( c\rse1 poetic    
pictures c be pa9t$--,gauti] has pa9t$  
!m--b ! /&>d = ea* art is set by :at x c
 d uniquely well4 ,if ! poet works 9 !  
doma9 ( ! pa9t]1 we t5d to judge him by 
! ali5 /&>ds ( ano!r art1 :]e he is b\nd
 to fall %ort2 :ile if he works )9 8 own
 prov9ce1 we judge him by 8 own         
autonom\s laws1 "u :i* he c a*ieve      
p]fection4  ,(t5times1 confess+ !       
inability ( ! image to /& alone1 ^!     
poets make x into a symbol ( "s mood or 
emotional ?\ght4 ,yet ! image rema9s !  
*ief object ( ! poet's c>e2 x 0 cle>ly !
 fir/ ?+ 9 8 m9d2 ! int]pretation is an 
aft]?\ght4 ,! poem !re=e falls into two 
p>ts--a picture & an int]pretation1 )   

little organic relation betwe5 !m4      
,ano!r "o ( ,gauti]'s poems w s]ve to   
illu/rate :at ,i mean4,footnote3 ,!re   
are "s good examples ( ?is 9            
,baudelaire's ,fleures du ,mat4 ,see =  
"o1,l',albatros4  ,,les ,,colombes      
,sur le coteau1 la-bas ou sont les      
tombes1   ,un beau palmi]1 comme un     
pana*e v]t1   ,dresse sa tete1 ou le    
soir les colombes   ,vi5n5t ni*] et se  
mettre a c\v]t1    ,mais le mat9 elles  
quitt5t les bran*es2   ,comme un colli] 
qui s'egr5e1 on les voit    ,s'ep>pill] 
dans ,fair bleu1 t\tes blan*es1   ,et se
 pos] plus lo9 sur quelque toil4    ,mon
 ame e/ l'arbre ou t\s les soirs1 comme 
elles1   ,de blancs essaims de folles   
visions   ,tomb5t des cieux1 en         
palpitant des ailes1   ,p\r s'envol] des
 les premi]s rayons4  ,f9ally1 ! ef=t to
 deta* poetry f ! inn] _w & make x an   
expression ( out] ?+s1 is incompatible )
 its musical "*4 ,= music is ess5tially 
subjective1 an expression ( pure mood   
unaffix$ to objects4 ,z rhy?mical1      

poetry %>es ! inw>dness ( music2 :]e=e1 
unless its rhy?m is to be a m]e         
functionless1 ornam5tal dress1 :atev] x 
expresses %\ld h its s\rce 9 ! inn] man4
 ,( c\rse1 ?r\gh _! mean+s1 ^w-s\nds    
indicate ! causes & objects ( emotion--&
 ?is diff]5tiates music f poetry--b 9   
poetry ! emotion is /ill ! prim>y ?+1   
spr++ f inn] /riv+s1 & n f objects1 z 9 
pa9t+ & sculpture4 ,x is !re=e no       
accid5t t ! contempor>y imagi/s t5d to  
ab&on ! =ms ( v]se2 _! poetry has little
 or no regul> rhy?m2 x approximates to  
prose4 ,= 9 proportion z poetry becomes 
free1 x ceases to be ti$ to musical     
expressiv5ess1 & may become objective1  
)\t prejudice to its own nature4 ,prose 
poetry1 & prose too1 ( c\rse1 may be    
highly emotional & subjective1 = words c
 express emotions directly )\t any      
rhy?mical ord]+2 yet prose ne$ n be     
subjective1 z poetry mu/ be4 ,!re is no 
absolute diff]5ce betwe5 prose & poetry2
 = ev5 prose has its rhy?m & its        
euphony1 its expressiv5ess ( ! m$ium2   

yet 9 prose ! rhy?m is irregul> &       
accid5tal & ! expressiv5ess ( ! m$ium   
incomplete1 :ile 9 poetry ! rhy?m is    
regul> & p]vasive & ideally e           
s\nd-elem5t1 z m]e s\nd1 is musical4 ,b 
?is m complete musical expressiv5ess ( !
 m$ium re/ricts poetry to a m inw>d _w4 
,by ab&on+ ! /rict =ms & re/ra9ts (     
regul> rhy?ms1 ! writ]s ( free v]se ?9k 
to ga9 spontaneity & some?+ ( !         
amplitude ( prose2 yet x is d\btful :e!r
 !y ga9 z mu* z !y lose4 ,=1 9 ! h&s ( !
 skillful poet1 ! =m1 hav+ become second
 nature1 ceases to be a bond2 & !       
expression1 by tak+ on regul>ity (      
rhy?m1 acquires a conc5tration &        
mnemonic value :i* free v]se _c a*ieve4 
,9 comp>ison ) free v]bal expressions1  
v]se =ms are1 inde$1 artifices2 yet !y  
are n artificial1 9 ! bad s5se (        
functionless1 = !y possess irreplaceable
 values4 ,nev]!less1 x w\ld be /range if
 !y 7 n f "t to "t ab&on$1 ! poet rev]t+
 to ! fre$om ( ord9>y spee*2 j z n[ &   
!n1 9 civiliz$ communities1 we f9d      

vigor\s & s9c]e m5 :o tire ( culture &  
take to ! woods4  ,! triplicity ( ! ^w1 
z s\nd1 image1 mean+1 provides a c]ta9  
ju/ification = ! v>iety ( ta/es 9       
poetry1 & acc\nts = ! difficulty ( sett+
 up a s+le univ]sal /&>d4 ,!re is an    
un/able equilibrium betwe5 ! ?ree       
aspects ( words2 h5ce poetry t5ds to    
become pr$om9antly music or pa9t+ or    
?\ght1 yet c nev] succe$ 9 becom+       
completely any "o ( ^!4 ,& x is         
inevitable t "s p %\ld be m s5sitive to 
"o r ?an to ano!r ( ! aspects ( words1  
pref]r+ !re=e ! m musical1 or ! m       
?\ghtful1 or ! m pictorial poetry4 ,& s 
we h poems t w\ld be music1 & o!rs t    
w\ld be pictures1 & /ill o!rs t w\ld be 
epigrams4 ,& ea* k9d has a c]ta9 "r &   
beauty2 b no k9d has ! unique beauty t  
is poetical4 ,we d n ask _! mak]s n to  
produce !m1 nor d we condemn ! pleasures
 :i* !y af=d u1 b we _c comm5d !m )\t   
res]vation4 ,= ! be/ poems a*ieve a     
syn!sis ( ! elem5ts ( words1--!y are at 
once musical & imag9ative & ?\ghtful4   

,yet ) difficulty2 = !re is an          
antagonism among ! elem5ts3 :5 ! music  
is insi/5t1 ! ?\ght is obscur$2 :5 !    
images are elaborate1 _! mean+ is lo/ to
 sight2 :5 ! ?\ght is subtle or pr(\nd1 
x rejects ! image & is c>eless ( s\nd4  
,sw9burne's poetry is full ( philosophy1
 b is s s5su\s & musical t we miss its  
?\ghts2 ,br[n+ is too subtle a ?9k] to  
be a musician4 ,! complexity ( poetry is
 ! s\rce ( its /r5g?1 l5d+ x some?+ ( ! 
inw>dness ( music & ! pla/icity ( !     
pictorial arts2 b is also ! s\rce ( its 
weakness4 ,seldom does x a*ieve !       
te*nical purity & p]fection ( music &   
pa9t+ & sculpture4 ,music has a cle> &  
simple m$ium1 pa9t+ & sculpture "w )    
colors & =ms :i* almo/ are :at !y       
repres5t2 b ^w-s\nds are n :at !y mean1 
& :at !y mean is n precisely ! same z ! 
images :i* !y evoke2 too (t5 !          
correspond5ce is factiti\s & artificial1
 r>ely is !re fusion4 ,yet1 z ,i h tri$ 
to %[1 :5 mean+ is made c5tral1 s\nd may
 fit x closely1 & :5 ! mean+ is         

emotional1 ! music ( s\nd may e*o its   
cry1 & ! image1 in/ead ( rebell+1 may   
s]ve4 ,emotional ?\ght is ! ess5ce (    
poetry & ! l9k betwe5 its music & its   
pictures4  ,( ! diff]5t modes ( poetry1 
! lyric has rightly seem$ ! mo/ typical4
 ,be+ an expression ( a s+le1 simple    
mood1 its subject-matt] is mo/ closely  
ak9 to ! musical expressiv5ess ( ! rhy?m
 & euphony ( ! m$ium4 ,:51 moreov]1 !   
mood is a common "o1 !re occurs t       
id5tification ( self ) ! passion        
express$ *>act]i/ic ( music3 ! utt]ance 
becomes ours z well z ! poet's2 ! ,i ( !
 poem is ! ,i :o read4 ,?is is          
especially true :5 ! sett+ & causes ( ! 
emotion are )\t "n or place or date2 !  
poem !n %>es ! timelessness &           
univ]sality ( music4 ,9 su* a lyric !re 
is complete symmetry 9 ! relation betwe5
 speak] & he>]2 ! poet unburd5s 8 he>t  
to u1 & we 9 receiv+ 8 message tell x   
back to him4 ,:51 on ! o!r h&1 9 expla9+
 8 feel+s1 ! poet relates !m to ev5ts & 
p]sons :i* h be5 no "p ( our exp]i5ce1  

?is symmetry is lo/2 we no long] utt] ! 
poem ourselves1 b m]ely he> ! poet      
speak4 ,su* poetry is already approa*+ !
 dramatic2 = al?\gh /ill ! expression ( 
! poet's life1 x is no long] an         
expression ( ! read]'s life1 & ! poet   
also1 z he lives pa/ 8 exp]i5ce1 mu/    
come at l5g? to view x z if x 7 ano!r's4
  ,& yet1 p>adoxical z x may s\nd1      
dramatic poetry is dramatic 9 proportion
 z x is lyrical--t is1 accord+ to !     
degree to :i* ! poet has made ! life (  
o!rs 8 own4 ,dramatic poetry1 :5 truly  
poetic1 is a s]ies ( lyrics ( ! less    
univ]sal type4 ,9 ano!r respect1 h[ev]1 
dramatic poetry is ess5tially diff]5t f 
! lyrical4 ,=1 9 dramatic poetry1 ea*   
utt]ance is a response or invitation to 
ano!r utt]ance1 :ile 9 lyric poetry1    
utt]ance is complete 9 itself4 ,! "o is 
social1 ! o!r p]sonal3 9 ! appreciation 
( ! lyric1 ! read] is j himself2 9 !    
appreciation ( dramatic poetry1 he is a 
:ole society1 becom+ n[ ?is man & n[ t4 
,! unity ( ! "o is ! unity ( a s+le     

mood2 ! unity ( ! o!r is ! int]action ( 
! dramatis p]son z x works itself out 9 
! m9d ( ! read]4 ,& ?is diff]5ce1 z we h
 se51 is imag$ 9 ! =m4 ,be+             
self-conta9$1 ! lyric is a h>moni\s     
:ole1 9 :i* ! p>ts may be repeat$ =     
emphasis2 look+ backw>d & =w>d1 !       
dramatic utt]ance is a progressive &    
incomplete :ole1 :i* _c /ay = it]ation4 
,lyric poetry is l a communication f    
fri5d to fri5d1 intimate & m$itative2   
dramatic poetry is l a passionate       
conv]sation :i* "o ov]he>s4  ,! life    
portray$ 9 ! epic poem is ev5 less      
direct ?an t :i* is portray$ 9 ! drama2 
= !re ! poet does n imp]sonate ! ag5ts 9
 ! /ory1 b describes !m4 ,8 description 
is ! fir/ ?+ :i* we get2 we get ! action
 only indirectly ?r\gh t4 ,h5ce !       
/ory-tell] himself--8 mann] ( tell+1 8  
reactions to :at he tells1 8 sympa?y1   
humor1 & intellig5ce--are "p ( :at he   
expresses4 ,he himself is p>tly !me4 ,no
 matt] h[ h>d he may try to d s1 he _c  
exclude himself2 ?r\gh 8 *oice ( words1 

?r\gh 8 illu/rations1 ?r\gh 8 /yle1 :i* 
is ! man1 he w reveal himself4          
,footnote3 ,see ,lipps3 ,ae/hetik1 ,bd4 
#a1 s4 #die et seq4 ,we inevitably      
appreh5d1 n m]ely 8 ?\ghts1 b him ?9k+4 
,9 ! epic =m ( poetry1 ! poet has1      
moreov]1 an opportunity = a m direct    
mode ( self-revelation1 an opportunity =
 comm5t & judgm5t ^u ! life :i* he      
portrays4 ,& ?is we %\ld accept1 n 9 a  
_s ( controv]sy or criticism1 b )       
sympa?y1 z a "p ( ! total ae/hetic      
expression1 /riv+ to get1 n only !      
poet's /ory1 b 8 po9t ( view reg>d+ x z 
well4  ,?is duality 9 ! life ( ! epic   
involves a two-foldness 9 its "t4 ,9 bo?
 lyric & dramatic poetry1 life moves    
be=e u z a s+le /ream actual 9 ! pres5t2
 b 9 ! epic !re is ! "t ( ! /ory-tell]1 
:i* is pres5t1 & ! "t ( ! ev5ts t he    
relates1 :i* is pa/4 ,& be+ pa/1 ^!     
ev5ts appe> z x 7 at a di/ance1 at arms'
 l5g? & remote2 !y lack ! vivid reality 
( ?+s pres5t4 ,moreov]1 s9ce ! pa/ is   
f9i%$1 unlike ! pres5t :i* is ev] mov+ &

 creat+ itself anew1 ! epic1 9 comp>ison
 ) ! drama1 comes to u ) its p>ts z x 7 
coexi/+ & complete1 m aft] ! mann] (    
space ?an ( "t4 ,& j z a spatial ?+     
all[s u to survey its p>ts by turn1 s9ce
 !y are all !re be=e we look2 s1 9 read+
 an epic1 we feel t we c proce$ at our  
leisure &1 despite ! causal relation1   
take ! incid5ts 9 any ord]4 ,x is n s 9 
! drama1 :]e ev5ts move rapidly & make  
!mselves 9 a det]m9$ sequ5ce4 ,?is is   
:at ,goe! meant :5 he said t            
sub/antiality 0 ! category ( ! epic1    
causality ( ! drama1 al?\gh1 ( c\rse1   
?is di/9ction is n absolute4  ,f9ally1 !
 fact t ! epic poet tells r ?an         
imp]sonates 8 /ory1 enables him to      
enl>ge its scope2 = by means (          
descriptions he c introduce nature z "o 
( ! p]sons ( ! action4 ,footnote3       
,comp>e ,mun/]b]g3 ,! ,et]nal ,values1  
p4 #bcc4 ,he c %[ ! mold+ influ5ce (    
nature ^u man1 & h[ man1 9 turn1        
int]acts n only ) 8 fell[s1 b ) 8       
environm5t4 ,fate1 9 ! s5se ( !         

non-human det]m9ants ( man's c>e]1 c %[ 
its h&4 ,9 ! ,odyssey1 = example1       
%ipwreck & ! int]f]5ce ( ! gods are     
factors z decisive z ,odysseus' c\rage &
 cunn+4 ,by contra/1 9 lyric poetry1    
nature is m]ely a reflection ( moods2 9 
dramatic poetry1 x is simply ! passive1 
causally ineffective /age = a social    
exp]i5ce :olly det]m9$ by human ag5ts4  
,?is di/9ction is1 h[ev]1 n absolute4 ,9
 ,br&1 = example1 ?r\gh ! /age          
directions & ! utt]ance ( ! p]sons1 we  
are indirectly made aw>e ( ! control    
ex]t$ by ! physical backgr\nd ( !       
action2 9 ! ,greek drama we le>n ?is f !
 ,*orus & ! ,prologue4     ,,*apt] ,x   
,,prose ,,lit]ature   ,!re is an almo/  
univ]sal feel+1 express$ 9 _m common    
phrases1 t prose lit]ature is n "o ( !  
f9e arts4 ,! reason is ?is3 9 prose     
lit]ature !re is a conspicu\s abs5ce (  
beauty ( =m & s5sation1 ( ! decorative1 
9 comp>ison ) ! o!r arts4 ,! vague      
expressiv5ess & *>m ( ! m$ium1 ! musical
 aspect1 is l>gely lack+4 ,n :olly      

lack+1 ( c\rse1 z a multitude (         
beautiful passages te/ify2 yet1 9 g5]al1
 x rema9s true t1 9 prose1 ! m$ium t5ds 
to be transp>5t1 sacrific+ itself 9 ord]
 t no?+ may /& betwe5 :at x reveals to  
?\ght & ! imag9ation4 ,x fulfills its   
function :5 ! words are n unpleasant to 
! e>1 & :5 _! fl[1 adapt+ itself to !   
span & pulsation ( ! att5tion1 is s     
smoo? z to become unnoticeable1 l !     
movem5t ( a %ip on a calm sea1--:5 x is 
a means to an end1 n an end 9 itself4   
,prose lit]ature is1 !re=e1 incompletely
 beautiful4 ,! full mean+ & value ( !   
ae/hetic are n to be f\nd !re1 b r 9    
poetry1 pa9t+1 sculpture1 music1        
ar*itecture4 ,yet prose lit]ature rema9s
 art1 if incomplete art--a free1 p]sonal
 expression ( life1 = ! sake (          
contemplation4 ,z free1 x diff]s f v]bal
 expression 9 ! s]vice ( practical ends1
 & z p]sonal1 x _c be class$ ) sci5ce4  
,?r\gh\t ! long c\rse ( its hi/ory1 x   
has t5d$ to become n[ ! "o1 n[ ! o!r (  
^!--& its lack ( ! decorative elem5t has

 done mu* to make ?is possible--b its   
p[] to outla/ ! moral & political issues
 :i* x has s (t5 s\ght to direct1 & its 
well-m]it$ rejection by sociologi/s &   
psy*ologi/s z any?+ m ?an mat]ial = _!  
"w1 are suffici5t evid5ce & w>n+ ( :]e x
 prop]ly belongs1--among ! arts4 ,!     
sacrifice ( ! musical elem5t 9 ! m$ium  
does n h to be ju/ifi$ on practical     
gr\nds z mak+ = effici5cy1 or on        
sci5tific gr\nds z favor+ analysis1 b   
may be und]/ood f ! arti/ic /&po9t4 ,= x
 0 only ?r\gh a me?od & m$ium t r5\nc$ !
 musical mann] ( poetry1 ) its vaguely  
expressive1 yet rigid =ms1 t ! fullness 
& m9ut5ess ( life c\ld be repres5t$4    
,ev5 ! m flu5tly musical mann] (        
poetical prose is unsuit$ z a m$ium = ! 
expression ( ! k9d ( life :i* is        
repres5t$ 9 normal prose4 ,poetical     
prose is appropriate = ! expression (   
de$s & s5tim5ts ( high & my/ical import 
only1 b n = ! expression ( ! m          
commonplace or def9itely & complexly    
articulat$ phases ( life4 ,= ! latt]1 ! 

broad] & fre] & m lit]al me?od ( /rict  
prose is ! only appropriate m$ium (     
expression4 ,! unmusical "* ( prose /yle
 is n det]m9$ by weakness1 b by         
adaptation to function4  ,&1 al?\gh !   
m$ium ( prose is att5uat$ almo/ to !    
vani%+ po9t1 :]e x may seem to be lo/1 x
 may nev]!less borr[ f its cont5t a     
beauty ( rhy?m1 imag]y1 & =m t w seem to
 be its v own4 ,= 9 language1 z we      
obs]v$ 9 our discussion ( poetry1 !     
mean+ & ! symbol are s closely "o1 t x  
becomes impossible1 except by analysis1 
to di/+ui% !m4 ,prose rhy?m is          
fundam5tally a rhy?mical movem5t (      
ideas1 l poetic rhy?m1 only )\t         
regul>ization2 yet1 s9ce ! ideas are    
c>ri$ by ! words1 x belongs to !m also2 
images blossom f ideas1 yet !y too seem 
to belong to ! words 9 :i* !y are       
inc>nat$2 & ! h>mony & symmetry :i*     
?\ghts & images may conta9 z we compose 
!m syn!tically 9 ! memory1 make an      
ar*itecture ( words4 ,! transp>5t m$ium 
( prose %>es ! beauty ( its cont5t1 j z 

a p]fect glass p>takes ( ! color ( !    
light :i* x transmits4  ,! psy*ologic   
roots ( prose lit]ature are ! impulses  
to self- revelation & to acqua9tance )  
life4 ,e ?+ t has once ent]$ into our   
lives1 no matt] h[ intimate1 craves to  
come out2 ! in/9ct ( greg>i\sness       
ext5ds1 z we h not$1 to ! :ole ( ! m9d4 
,! completely private & uncommunicat$   
makes u z unc]ta9 & afraid ( ourselves z
 physical lonel9ess4 ,b 9 addition to ! 
dislike = any =m ( isolation1 ev5 :5    
purely spiritual1 !re is ano!r factor   
:i* det]m9es self-revelation1--! desire 
= praise4 ,we want a l>g] audi5ce = our 
exploits ?an ! p imm$iately involv$ 9   
!m1 s we tell !m to any li/5+ e>4 ,!    
fri5d :isp]+ 8 confession illu/rates !  
"o motive2 ! h]o bragg+ ( 8 de$s        
illu/rates ! o!r4  ,! desire to he>     
ano!r's /ory is ! obv]se ( ! desire to  
tell "o ab\t oneself1 j z ! impulse to  
welcome a fri5d is ! complem5t ( 8      
impulse to seek our companion%ip2 we    
receive f him exactly :at he takes f    

u1--an enl>gem5t ( our social _w1 !     
creation ( ano!r social bond4 ,if we _c 
he> 8 /ory f 8 own lips1 we want to he> 
x f "s ?ird p]son1 :o w surely be glad  
to relate x1 s9ce he1 z be>] ( ! news1 w
 br+ to himself some?+ ( ! glory ( !    
h]o4 ,!re is malice en\gh 9 gossip1 b   
mo/ ( x is ! pure/ k9d ( m5tal &        
emotional satisfaction4 ,our int]e/ 9 x 
is ( exactly ! same k9d z our int]e/ 9  
novels & romances4 ,! /ories :i* we tell
 ab\t ourselves & our fri5ds make up !  
ephem]al1 yet real prose lit]ature (    
daily life4  ,mo/ /ories probably _h _! 
orig9 9 m or less lit]al transcriptions 
f real life4 ,hi/ory is ! basis (       
lit]ature4 ,h[ev]1 z /ories are pass$ f 
"o p]son to ano!r1 fiction encroa*es ^u 
fact4 ,details are =gott5 & h to be     
fill$ out f ! imag9ation2 !n a %e]      
delight 9 inv5tion ent]s 92 x is s      
int]e/+ to see if y c make a _w z good z
 ! real "o1 or ev5 outdo x 9 /rang5ess &
 wond]1 provid$1 ( c\rse1 y c /ill get  
y\rself believ$4 ,ev5 9 ! relation (    

real ev5ts1 creation inevitably plays a 
"p2 ! :ole ( any /ory is n wor? tell+2  
!re mu/ be selection1 emphasis ^u ! mo/ 
/rik+ p>ticul>s1 & syn!sis4  ,besides ! 
opportunity :i* x gives ( unhamp]$      
control ov] ! /ory1 fiction has /ill o!r
 advantages4 ,! int]e/ :i* we take 9    
tales ( real life is b\nd up ) p]sonal  
appeals4 ,?is is mo/ racy 9 gossip1 b   
some?+ ( ! k9d l+]s 9 all n>ratives (   
fact4 ,lit]ature c become dis9t]e/$ &   
univ]sal 9 its appeal only :51 keep+ !  
semblance ( life1 x becomes a "w ( pure 
imag9ation4 ,x is !n1 z ,ari/otle said1 
m philosophical1 t is1 m univ]sal &     
typical1 ?an hi/ory4  ,ano!r advantage (
 fiction z comp>$ ) hi/ory is its       
complet5ess4 ,! k :i* we possess ( !    
lives ( o!rs is ! v]ie/ fragm5t4 ,we "k1
 ( c\rse1 our own lives be/2 b ev5 ( ^!1
 unless we are at ! end ( our ye>s1 we d
 n "k ! outcome4 ,we "k next well ! life
 ( an intimate--wife1 *ild1 swee!>t1    
fri5d--yet n all ( t2 !re is mu* he w n 
tell u & mu* else :i* we _c obs]ve2 =   

ev5 he dwells ) u = a brief "t only1 &  
!n is gone4 ,( o!r p1 we c "k /ill less2
 we c obs]ve some?+1 we c get m f       
he>say2 b t is a *aos ( impressions2 !  
l>g] "p is inf]5ce & con/ruction1 a "w (
 ! imag9ation1 :i* may or may n be true4
 ,ev5 ! biography1 c>efully made f all  
available data 9 ! way ( p]sonal        
recollections1 lett]s1 & di>ies1 al?\gh 
x may approa* to :ol5ess1 rema9s1       
nev]!less1 v l>gely a con/ruction1 a "w 
( lit]>y fiction4 ,! autobiography comes
 /ill clos]2 yet1 s9ce x is design$ = a 
public :i* _c be expect$ to view x 9 a  
solidly deta*$ fa%ion1 x suff]s f !     
retic5ce :i* inevitably intrudes to     
suppress4 ,9 fiction alone1 none except 
arti/ic motives ne$ int]v5e to bid      
sil5ce4  ,h[ev]1 al?\gh fiction be a    
purely ideal _w ( imag9$ life1 x is     
ess5tially ! same z ! real social _w4 ,=
 t _w is also imag9>y4 ,we h direct     
exp]i5ce ( our own lives alone2 ! lives 
( o!rs c exi/ = u only 9 our ?\ght ab\t 
!m4 ,to be sure1 our daily contact ) !  

bodies ( our fri5ds & associates gives  
to ?is ?\ght some?+ ( ! pung5cy (       
self-k2 yet 9 abs5ce1 !y live = u1 z !  
*>act]s 9 a novel1 only 9 our ?\ght4 ,& 
! majority ( ! p1 p]sonally unkn[n to u1
 :o make up our l>g] social _w--& = mo/ 
( u ?is includes ! great ones :o are su*
 pot5t factors 9 det]m9+ x--are real to 
u 9 ! same way t ,diana or ,esmond are  
real4 ,all hi/orical figures belong to  
?is _w ( imag9ation4 ,our fri5ds too1 z 
!y pass out ( our lives or die1 & we    
ourselves ev5tually1 w s9k into x4  ,our
 int]e/ 9 ! fictional _w ( ! writ] is1  
moreov]1 ess5tially ! same z our int]e/ 
9 ! real _w4 ,its p]sons ar\se 9 u !    
same emotions ( admiration1 love1 or    
dislike4 ,!y satisfy ! same ne$ = social
 /imulation1 ! same curiosity ab\t life4
 ,j z we h c]ta9 in/9cts & habits (     
movem5t t make u re/less :5 !y are n    
satisfi$1 & af=d u a wild joy 9 walk+ & 
runn+ :5 we are releas$ f conf9em5t1 s  
we h c]ta9 in/9cts & habits ( feel+     
t[>ds p]sons :i* dem& objects & produce 

joy :5 companions are f\nd4 ,an         
unsatisfi$ or sup]abundant sociability  
lies back ( our love ( fiction4 ,we read
 because we are lonely or because our   
fell[ m5 h become trite & fail to       
/imulate u suffici5tly4 ,if our fell[s 7
 n s retic5t1 if !y w\ld talk to u &    
tell u _! /ories ) ! fre$om & !         
brightness ( a ,/ev5son1 or if _! lives 
7 s fre% & vivid t we nev] f\nd !m dull1
 p]haps we %\ld n read at all4 ,b1 z x  
is1 we c satisfy our crav+ = k ( life   
only by ext5d+ our social _w ?r\gh      
fiction4 ,fiction may tea* u1 edify u1  
make u bett] m5--x may s]ve all ^!      
purposes incid5tally1 b its prime       
purpose z art is to provide u ) new     
objects = social feel+ & k4  ,! int]e/  
:i* we take 9 fictiti\s action is also l
 t :i* we take 9 real action4 ,! same   
emotions ( desire = ! atta9m5t ( a goal1
 susp5se1 hope1 fe>1 excitem5t1         
curiosity & its satisfaction1 joy1      
despair1 are ar\s$4 ,& we h a ne$ to    
exp]i5ce ^! emotions at high pit* great]

 ?an our ev]yday lives c satisfy4 ,our  
lives are seldom adv5tur\s all ov]2 !re 
are monoton\s int]ludes ) no melody1    
(f]+ u little t is new to le>n4 ,our    
love = w> & sport %[s t we 7 n built    
organically = humdrum4 ,n[ lit]ature    
helps to make up = ?is defici5cy 9 real 
life by provid+ u ) adv5tures 9 :i* we c
 p>ticipate imag9atively1 & f :i* we c  
d]ive new k4 ,if real life did supply u 
) all ! int5se liv+ t we dem&1 we might 
n c>e to read1 al?\gh ! love ( adv5ture 
gr[s by fe$+1 & _m an active man revels 
9 tales :i* simulate 8 own exploits4  ,x
 foll[s t ! noveli/ %\ld imitate life1  
yet at ! same "t raise its pit*4 ,!     
reali/s imitate life delib]ately1 & we  
measure _! wor? by _! tru?1 b !y select 
! int5se mom5ts4 ,! romanc]s & weav]s ( 
fairy tales1 on ! o!r h&1 in/ead ( *oos+
 ! vivid mom5ts ( real life1 9 ord] to  
/imulate ! emotions1 accompli% ! same   
end by excit+ wond] & amazem5t at !     
exagg]ations & unhe>d-( novelties :i* !y
 create4 ,yet ev5 !y give u tru?1 n tru?

 9 ! s5se ( fact1 b 9 ! s5se ( a _w :i* 
ar\ses ! same elem5t>y emotions1        
int5sifi$ ?\gh !y be ?r\gh amazem5t1 z  
are ar\s$ by fact4 ,x matt]s n h[       
outl&i% _! tales s long z !y d ?is4     
,love /ories are s widely int]e/+       
because love is ! "o v vivid emotion 9  
mo/ p's lives1 al?\gh !re are o!r       
exp]i5ces--w>f>e1 ! pursuit ( great     
aims1 ! cla% ( purposes & beliefs1 !    
gr[? ( s\ls--equally int5se4 ,dante's   
?ree !mes1 ,v5us1 ,salus1               
,virtus1,footnote3 ,see 8 ,de ,vulg>i   
,eloqu5tia4 broadly int]pret$1 cov] !   
range ( lit]>y subjects4  ,( c\rse1 s9ce
 we secure no p]sonal triumphs 9 read+1 
& e "o wi%es to play 8 own "p           
successfully 9 real life1 lit]ature _c  
become a sub/itute = life1 except ) !   
arti/ :o triumphs 9 mak+ 8 /ory4        
,nev]!less1 z ,h5ry ,james says1 fiction
 may & %\ld compete ) life1 & ?is x c d 
by giv+ u ! feel+s ar\s$ by action )\t  
impos+ ^u u ! responsibilities & !      
fateful results ( action itself2 !re we 

c le>n new ?+s ab\t life )\t incurr+ !  
risks ( p>ticipation 9 x4 ,we c play !  
"p ( ! adv5tur] )\t be+ involv$ 9 any   
blame2 we c fall 9 love ) ! h]o9e )\t   
any subsequ5tial entanglem5ts2 we c be a
 h]o )\t suff]+ ! p5alties ( h]oism2 we 
c travel into =eign l&s )\t des]t+ our  
bus9ess or empty+ our purses4 ,h5ce1    
al?\gh no "o w\ld ex*ange life =        
lit]ature1 "o is bett] cont5t1 hav+     
lit]ature1 to =ego mu* ( life4  ,!      
elem5ts ( e /ory are ^! five3 "*1       
incid5t1 nature1 fate1 & milieu--!      
social1 hi/orical1 & intellectual       
backgr\nd4 ,"* & incid5t are capable (  
"s degree ( sep>ation1 s f> z1 9 novels 
( adv5ture1 ! p]sonalities necess>y to  
c>ry on ! action may be v ab/ract or    
elem5t>y1 & s f> z1 9 s-call$           
psy*ological novels1 ! numb] ( ev5ts    
relat$ may be v small & _! int]e/       
dep5d5t ^u _! effect on "*2 b "o )\t !  
o!r is z inconceivable 9 a /ory z x is 9
 life itself1 & ! developm5t ( fiction  
has be5 /eadily 9 ! direction ( _!      

int]dep5d5ce4 ,ari/otle's dictum reg>d+ 
! sup]ior importance ( plot ov] "*      
applies to ! drama only1 & because "* _c
 well be reveal$ !re except ?r\gh       
action4 ,! con/ruction ( "* dep5ds ^u ! 
del9eation ( di/9ctive & recognizable   
physical traits1 a surpris+ly small     
numb] suffic+1 a m]e "n be+ almo/ en\gh2
 ^u ! def9ition ( ! individual's        
position 9 a gr\p--8 relation to family1
 t[nspeople1 & o!r associates--a matt] (
 capital importance2 &1 f9ally1         
in=mation ab\t 8 m p]man5t int]e/s &    
attitudes4 ,?is con/ruction is be/ made 
piecemeal1 ! "* disclos+ itself         
gradually dur+ ! /ory1 z x does 9 life1 
& gr[+ "u ! /ress ( circum/ances4 ,! old
 idea ( fixity ( "* does n suit our     
mod]n notions ( gr[?2 we dem& t "* be   
creat$ by ! /ory2 x %\ld n preexi/1 z   
,s*op5hau] ?\ght x %\ld1 ) its nature z 
det]m9ate & its reactions z pr$ictable z
 ^? ( a *emical sub/ance4 ,& al?\gh 9 _!
 broad outl9es ! possibilities ( human  
nature are p]haps few] 9 numb] ?an !    

*emical sub/ances1 ! v>iations ( ^!     
types 9 _! v>y+ environm5ts are inf9ite4
 ,to create a poignant uniqu5ess :ile   
pres]v+ ! type is ! supreme a*ievem5t ( 
! writ] ( fiction4 ,we want z _m ( !    
details ( "*1 & no m1 z are necess>y to 
?is end4  ,by incid5t is meant action   
express+ "* or action or ev5t det]m9+   
fate4 ,!re are a ?\s& actions1 me*anical
 or habitual1 p]=m$ by u all1 :i* ?r[ no
 light ^u our individuality4 ,almo/ all 
( ^! ! noveli/ may neglect1 or if he    
wi%es to describe !m1 a s+le example w  
s]ve to reveal :atev] uniqu5ess !y may  
hide4 ,!re are an equal numb] ( actions 
& ev5ts l bl9d alleys lead+ n[h]e2 f ^! 
also ! noveli/ ab/racts2 x is only :5 he
 c trace "s effect ^u fate or "* t he is
 int]e/$4 ,! del9eation ( nature or !   
milieu is gov]n$ by ! same ref]5ce3 a   
social or intellectual environm5t1 no   
matt] h[ int]e/+ 9 itself1 )\t pot5t    
individualities :i* x molds1 or sc5]y1  
no matt] h[ romantic1 unless x is a !at]
 ( action or a spiritual influ5ce ^u    

p]sons1 has no place 9 a /ory4 ,ea* (   
^!1 h[ev]1 may by itself become !       
subject-matt] ( a lit]>y essay1 provid$ 
! writ]'s own moods & appreciations are 
includ$2 o!rwise x is a topic =         
sociology1 hi/ory1 or topography1 n =   
lit]ature4  ,by fate 9 a /ory ,i mean ! 
writ]'s feel+ = causality4 ,z ! mak] (  
an image ( life1 ! writ] mu/ portray    
life z mold$ by its pa/ & by all !      
circum/ances surr\nd+ x4 ,he mu/ pres5t 
"* z det]m9$ by p]sonal influ5ce1 by    
nature & ! milieu2 he mu/ h a vivid s5se
 = ! int]relation ( incid5ts4 ,! feel+ =
 fate is indep5d5t ( any special        
philosophical view ( ! _w2 x does n     
imply fatalism or ! d5ial ( ! spontane\s
 & orig9ative =ce ( p]sonality2 x is    
simply recognition ( ! :ol5ess ( life4  
,nor1 aga91 does x imply ! possibility (
 pr$ict+ ! end ( a /ory f ! beg9n+1 = ! 
liv+ sequ5ce1 =g+ its l9ks z x proce$s1 
is n me*anical2 b x does imply t aft]   
?+s h happ5$ we mu/ be able to p]ceive  
_! relat$ness--! beg9n+1 middle1 & end z

 "o :ole4 ,9 ! /ory1 !re mu/ be ! same  
k9d ( comb9ation ( necessity & cont+5cy 
t !re is 9 life3 we mu/ be sure t e act 
& incid5t w h its effect1 & we mu/ be   
able to div9e1 9 a g5]al way1 :at t     
effect w be2 b ow+ to ! complexity (    
life1 :i* prev5ts u f kn[+ all ! data ( 
its problems1 & ow+ to ! spontaneity (  
its ag5ts & ! creative syn!ses )9 its   
processes1 we mu/ nev] be able to be    
c]ta9 j :at ! effect w be l2 our e      
calculation mu/ be subject to !         
correction ( surprise4 ,susp5se &       
excitem5t mu/ g h& 9 h& ) a feel+ = a   
develop+ inn] necessity4 ,!re is no /ory
 )\t bo?4 ,yet no =mula = ! am\nt ( ea* 
c be devis$4 ,! dep5d5ce ( man ^u nature
 makes inevitable ! occurr5ce ( :at we  
call accid5ts1 viol5t breaks 9 ! tissue 
( p]sonal & social life1 unacc\ntable f 
! po9t ( view ( our human purposes4 ,by 
admitt+ ! "p play$ by ! non-human       
backgr\nd 9 det]m9+ fate1 ! naturali/ic 
s*ool ( writ]s h enl>g$ ! vision ( !    
noveli/ beyond ! range ( ! t5d]-m9d$    

s5tim5tali/4 ,x is to be expect$1       
moreov]1 t co9cid5ces %\ld occur1--!    
meet+ ( indep5d5t l9es ( causation )    
consequ5ces fateful to ea*4 ,a c>eful   
inve/igation w\ld disclose t mo/ int]e/+
 c>e]s h be5 l>gely det]m9$ by          
co9cid5ces4 ,! only dem& t we c make ( !
 arti/ 9 ?is reg>d is t he d n give u s 
_m ( ^! t 8 "w w seem unreal4 ,we mu/ n 
feel t he is mak+ ! /ory 9 ord] to      
surprise u & ?rill u--! purpose (       
melodrama2 ! /ory %\ld make itself4     
,h>dy's ,! ,return ( ! ,native is an    
illu/ration ( failure "h2 ! co9cid5ces  
are s _m t x seems magical1 ! "w ( a    
caprici\s g5ius1 n ( nature4  ,by fate 9
 a /ory we d n mean1 ( c\rse1 ! m]e     
causal concat5ation ( ev5ts1 = "s       
relation to a purposeful life is always 
impli$4 ,b s9ce ?is relation is a g5]al 
condition apply+ to all art1 we %all    
consid] x "h only z x affects ! unity ( 
a /ory4 ,no rule c be laid d[n = !      
compass ( a /ory2 x may cov] a small    
incid5t1 z 9 _m %ort /ories1 or x may   

embrace ! :ole or ! mo/ significant "p (
 a life4 ,! requirem5t t !re be a       
beg9n+1 middle1 & end holds1 b does n   
enlight5 u z to :at con/itutes an end4  
,dea? makes "o natural end to a /ory1   
s9ce x makes an end to life itself2 b )9
 ! span ( a life ! p>ts are n s cle>ly  
def9$4 ,yet despite ! cont9uity &       
ov]lapp+ ( ! p>ts ( life1 !re are c]ta9 
natural breaks & divisions1--! work+ out
 ( a plan to fulfillm5t or disa/]1 !    
t]m9ation or consummation ( a love      
affair1 ! commission ( a crime ) its    
consequ5ces1 or m subtle ?+s1 su* z !   
break+ up ( an old attitude & ! =mation 
( a new "o4 ,9 life itself !re are      
incid5ts t are clos$ because !y cease to
 affect u deeply any m1 purposes :i* we 
ab&on because we c get no f>!r ) !m or  
because !y h f\nd _! natural fulfillm5t1
 po9ts ( view :i* we h to rel9qui%      
because life supplies u ) new facts :i* 
!y d n include4 ,! unity ( a /ory %\ld  
mirror ^! natural unities4 ,! se>* = !  
:ol5ess ( life %\ld n bl9d u to !       

relative isolation ( its p>ts2 & !re is 
fate 9 ! p>ts z well z 9 ! :ole4  ,!    
selection ( incid5ts = _! be>+ ^u fate1 
! selection ( significant traits = !    
con/ruction ( "*1 ) ! result+ unity &   
simplicity ( ! p>ts & ! :ole1 is        
responsible = mo/ ( ! ideality ( fiction
 z comp>$ ) real life4 ,real life is a  
confus$ m$ley ( impressions ( p & ev5ts1
 a mixture ( ! important & !            
unimportant1 ! consequ5tial & !         
inconsequ5tial1 ) no evid5t patt]n4 ,(  
?is1 lit]>y art is ! v]kl>tes ,bild4 ,x 
is n because1 9 lit]ature1 m5 are happi]
 & nobl] t life seems sup]ior !re2 b    
because its outl9es are %>p]1 its design
 m p]spicu\s1 ! motives t sway x bett]  
und]/ood4 ,x has ! advantage ov] life t 
a l&scape flood$ ) sun%9e has ov] "o    
%r\d$ 9 d>kness4  ,! way ! lit]>y arti/ 
builds up ! ideal social _w ( fiction   
foll[s closely ! me?od :i* we all employ
 9 con/ruct+ ! real social _w4 ,9 real  
life we />t f c]ta9 p]ceiv$ acts &      
utt]ances1 to :i* we !n atta* purposive 

mean+s1 & betwe5 :i* we e/abli%         
relations4 ,! process ( int]pretation is
 s rapid t1 al?\gh /rictly inf]5tial 9  
"* & hav+ imag9ation z its seat1 x      
seems1 nev]!less1 l direct p]ception4 ,z
 we see p act & he> !m talk1 x is z if  
we _h a vision1 confus$ inde$1 yet      
direct1 ( _! inn] lives4 ,& yet1 z we h 
insi/$1 ! real social _w is con/ruct$1 n
 p]ceiv$4  ,! lit]>y arti/1 unless he   
calls dramatic art to 8 aid1 _c pres5t !
 p]sons & acts ( 8 /ory2 he c only      
describe !m & report _! talk4           
,description mu/ take ! place ( vision1 
a record$ conv]sation ! place ( a he>d  
"o4 ,yet1 by ^! means1 ! arti/ c give u 
almo/ z direct an intuition z we get f  
life itself2 he c make u seem to see &  
ov]he>4 ,f ! acts :i* he describes we c 
inf] ! motives ( ! *>act]s1 & f !       
report$ conv]sations we c le>n _!       
op9ions & dreams4 ,or ! noveli/ may     
ins]t a lett] :i* we c read z if x 7    
real4 ,! result+ image ( life w be cle>]
 ?an any we c\ld con/ruct = ourselves2 =

 ! arti/ c report life m c>efully ?an we
 c\ld obs]ve x2 & he c make 8 *>act]s m 
articulate 9 ! expression ( !mselves ?an
 ord9>y m51 giv+ !m a gift ( tongues l 8
 own4 ,?is la/ is especially *>act]i/ic 
( ! drama1 :]e sometimes1 z 9           
,%akespe>e1 m5 speak m l gods ?an l m54 
,& we c li/5 to ! intimate conv]sation (
 fri5ds & lov]s1 ^u :i*1 9 real life1 we
 w\ld n intrude4  ,?is direct me?od (   
exposition ?r\gh ! description ( acts & 
ev5ts & ! record ( conv]sations is !    
basis ( e vivid /ory4 ,x leaves !       
necess>y inf]5ces to ! read]1 j z life  
leaves !m to ! obs]v]4 ,9 ! h&s ( a ma/]
 l ,fontane1 ?is me?od is incomp>able2  
no?+ c supplant x4 ,x is ! only me?od   
available = ! dramati/1 :o1 h[ev]1 c    
make x /ill m effective ?r\gh hi/rionic 
portrayal4 ,yet x does n suffice to     
satisfy our crav+ = k ( life1 = only !  
broad]1 m obvi\s feel+s c be inf]r$ f ! 
acts ( m52 ! subtl] & m remote escape4  
,ev5 9 conv]sation ^! _c all be reveal$2
 = _m ( !m are too intimate to be spok51

 & _m aga9 are unkn[n ev5 to ^? :o hold 
!m4 ,to-day we ask ( ! noveli/ t he     
disclose ! f9e/1 mo/ hidd5 tissues ( !  
s\l4 ,to ?is end1 ! microscopy (        
analysis1 ! s-call$ psy*ological me?od1 
mu/ be employ$4 ,! noveli/ mu/ p]=m ^u 8
 *>act]s ! same sort ( dissection t we  
p]=m :51 introspect+1 we seek out !     
obscur] gr\nds ( our conduct4 ,& 9 !    
pursuit ( ?is k ! noveli/ c (t5times d  
bett] ) 8 *>act]s ?an we c d )          
ourselves4 ,= utt] s9c]ity reg>d+       
ourselves is impossible2 ! desire to ?9k
 well ( ourselves prev5ts u f recogniz+ 
! tru? ab\t ourselves4 ,! noveli/1 on ! 
contr>y1 c be unprejudic$ & c "k fully  
:at he himself is creat+4 ,9 ord] to    
accompli% ?is same purpose1 ! dramati/  
has to introduce bits ( self-analysis1  
unusually s9c]e & p5etrat+1 spok5       
al\d1--9 ! old /yle1 monologues4 ,& yet1
 )\t sacrific+ ! tru?fulness ( 8 own    
art1 he _c g s deep "h z ! noveli/4     
,?r\gh 8 analysis ( 8 *>act]s1 ! noveli/
 mu/1 h[ev]1 con/ruct !m2 o!rwise he is 

a psy*ologi/1 n an arti/4 ,a syn!tic    
vision ( p]sonality mu/ sup]v5e ^u !    
dissection1 & ! emotional int]e/ 9 "* & 
action mu/ subsi/ alongside ( !         
intellectual int]e/4 ,he mu/ n let u    
lose ! vivid s5se ( a liv+ pres5ce4 ,9  
ord] to keep ?is1 he mu/ cont9ue to     
employ ! direct me?od ( description (   
p]son & action1 & report ( conv]sation4 
,h[ f> ! analytic me?od may be c>ri$ &  
at ! same "t ! s5se ( p]sonality kept   
intact1 may be inf]r$ f ! "w ( ,h5ry    
,james1 :o1 nev]!less1 seems at times to
 fail to br+ ! out-go+ ?reads ( 8 ?\ght 
back into ! web :i* he is weav+4  ,aga91
 9 ord] to rea* ! social1 hi/orical1 &  
metaphysical backgr\nd ( life--! milieu1
 ! me?od ( ?\ght is ! only available "o4
 ,= ! milieu is n any?+ t c be se5 or   
he>d or t\*$2 x does n manife/ itself to
 p]ception1 b has to be con/ruct$ by a  
process ( inf]5ce & syn!sis4 ,mu* ( x1  
to be sure1 c be div9$ f ! acts &       
conv]sations1 f ! dress & mann]s ( !    
*>act]s1 b !re is always m t has to be  

directly exp\nd$4 ,! writ] _c rely ^u ! 
read]'s p]spicacity to make ! "r        
inf]5ces1 or ^u 8 k to supply suffici5t 
data2 nor c he make 8 *>act]s tell all t
 he may want told ab\t _! pa/ & ! life (
 ! _w 9 :i* !y live1 & ?r\gh ! influ5ce 
( :i* !y h become :at !y are4 ,! noveli/
 mu/ con/ruct = ! read] ! mise en sc5e (
 8 /ory4 ,yet ?is mu/ be held 9 complete
 subord9ation to ! /ory4 ,! intellectual
 backgr\nd mu/ lie beh9d1 n a?w>t !     
/ory2 x mu/ be creat$ = ! sake ( ! /ory1
 n ! /ory = its sake4  ,a philosophy (  
life1 ev51 is ! inevitable              
presupposition ( e /ory4 ,= no writ]1 no
 matt] h[ direct & empirical he may be 9
 8 me?ods1 c escape f look+ at life     
?r\gh ! glass ( c]ta9 political1 social1
 & religi\s ideas4 ,he may h none ( 8   
own con/ruction1 yet he w unconsci\sly  
%>e ^? ( 8 age4 ,! prose lit]ature ( our
 own age1 aside f "s m9or diff]5ces (   
te*nique1 diff]s f t ( ! pa/ *iefly     
?r\gh its m democratic & naturali/ic    
views ( life4 ,& j z we rightly ask ( ! 

noveli/ t he enlight5 u reg>d+ ! subtl] 
causation ( human action1 s ) equal "r  
we may ask him to exhibit ! relations ( 
! p]sons & incid5ts :i* he describes to 
social organization1 spiritual movem5ts1
 & nature2 = only s c !y be se5 9 _!    
complete reality4 ,yet "r "h lurks a    
dang] ?reat5+ ! endur+ beauty ( e /ory  
?us made complete4 ,= ! social & cosmic 
backgr\nd ( life1 z we h obs]v$1 c be   
con/ruct$ only ?r\gh ?\ght1 & ?\ght1    
p>ticul>ly reg>d+ su* matt]s1 is        
peculi>ly liable to error4 ,! arti/ :o  
goes v deep into ?is is sure to make    
mi/akes4 ,ev5 :5 he tries to use ! late/
 sociological1 economic1 & political    
!ories1 he runs great risks2 = ^! !ories
 are always "o-sid$ & subject to        
correction2 !y nev] prove !mselves to be
 :at ! arti/ ?9ks & wants !m to         
be--concrete views :i* he c apply ) utt]
 fai?4 ,h[ _m /ories ( ! c5tury pa/ h   
be5 m>r$ by ! au?or's too ready         
application ( ,d>w9ism to social life6  
,:5 we c sep>ate ! /ory f its           

intellectual backgr\nd1 ! inadequacy ( !
 latt] matt]s little2 = we c apply      
metaphysical & political criticism to ! 
!ory & enjoy ! /ory ae/hetically2 b _m (
 our writ]s come to life ) preconceiv$  
ideas deeply affect+ _! del9eation ( x4 
,! picture no long] seems true because  
we feel t a false !ory has prev5t$ !    
arti/ f view+ life concretely & cle>ly4 
,we c\ld1 = example1 accept z natural & 
inevitable ! end+ ( ,tess ( !           
,d',urb]villes1 if ,h>dy _h n pres5t$ x 
z an illu/ration ( ! cruel sport ( !    
gods4 ,z x /&s ) ! au?or's comm5t>y1 we 
suspect t ! girl's fate might h be5     
diff]5t1--t p]haps he gave x ?is turn 9 
ord] to prove 8 !ory ( life4  ,?is fault
 is especially flagrant 9 ! !ory-ridd5  
fiction ( to-day4 ,det]m9ation ?r\gh !  
pa/ is ov]emphasiz$ z aga9/ ! influ5ce (
 pres5t1 novel factors 9 a gr[+         
exp]i5ce2 h]$ity is giv5 undue weight z 
aga9/ ! inborn orig9ality ( p]sonality &
 ! uniqu5ess acquir$ ?r\gh unique       
exp]i5ces2 ! influ5ce ( s5sual motives  

is /ress$ at ! exp5se ( ! moral2 & s on 
?r\gh all ! o!r ab/ractions &           
insuffici5cies ( sci5tific novel writ+4 
,! writ] may well pr(it by ev]y?+ he c  
le>n f sci5ce2 b he %\ld n let 8 k      
prev5t him f see+ life concretely & z a 
:ole4 ,! lit]>y man's sci5ce &          
philosophy are b\nd to be condemn$ by ! 
exp]t1 b 8 concrete del9eations ( life  
bas$ on direct obs]vation & vivid       
sympa?y & imag9ation are impeccable4 ,8 
!ories may be false1 b ^! w always be   
true4 ,no?+ c take _! place 9 fiction4  
,x is !y :i* give endur+ value to su*   
tales z ,morte d',ar?ur1 despite all !  
crudity ( ! intellectual backgr\nd4     
,reflections ^u life may become matt] = 
lit]ature 9 ! essay1 q ap>t f any /ory4 
,b ! essay1 l ! /ory1 unless x is to    
compete at a disadvantage ) sci5ce &    
philosophy1 mu/ rely ^u fir/-h& p]sonal 
acqua9tance ) life1 & arti/ic           
expression4 ,! m ab/ract & !oretical x  
becomes1 ! m prec>i\s its wor?4 ,i d n  
mean t ! essayi/ may n g5]alize1 b 8    

g5]alizations %\ld be limit$ to ! scope 
( 8 exp]i5ce ( life4 ,i d n mean t he   
%\ld n philosophize1 b 8 philosophy %\ld
 be1 l ,goe!'s or ,em]son's1 an         
expression ( intuition & fai?4 ,prop]ly1
 ! lit]>y essay is a di/9ct arti/ic     
g5re--! expression ( a concrete ?9k+    
p]sonality1 & its value consi/s 9 ! liv+
 wisdom x conta9s4 ,su* essays z ^? ( a 
,montaigne or a ,la ,ro*ef\cauld make   
excell5t mat]ials = ! social sci5ces1 & 
c nev] be displac$ by !m z s\rces ( k ( 
life4  ,consid]ations simil> to ^? :i*  
we h adduc$ reg>d+ ! impli$ philosophy (
 a /ory apply to its moral purpose4 ,we 
_c dem& ( ! writ] t he h no moral       
purpose or t he leave morality out ( 8  
/ory4 ,=1 s9ce ! arti/ is also a man1 he
 _c rid himself ( an e?ical int]e/ 9    
human problems or ) good consci5ce fail 
to use 8 art to help t[>d _! solution4  
,8 obs]vations ( moral exp]i5ce w       
inevitably result 9 beliefs ab\t x1 & ^!
 w reveal !mselves 9 8 "w4 ,yet we %\ld 
dem& t 8 view ( :at life ought to be    

%all n falsify 8 repres5tation ( life z 
x is4 ,j z soon z ! moral ( a tale      
obtrudes1 we beg9 to suspect t ! tale is
 false4 ,we h su* suspicions ab\t       
,b\rget1 = example1 because1 z 9 ,une   
,divorce1 we are nev] left 9 d\bt f !   
beg9n+ z to ! conv5tions he is advocat+4
 ,& along ) ! feel+ = ! reality ( ! /ory
 goes ! feel+ = ! validity ( ! moral2 !y
 /& & fall toge!r4 ,a /ory's moral1 l   
life's moral1 is conv9c+ 9 proportion z 
x is an inf]5ce f ! facts4 ,! noveli/1  
fe>+ t we may n h ! wits to disc]n x1 is
 ju/ifi$ 9 draw+ ?is inf]5ce himself2   
yet x mu/ %[ itself to be /rictly an    
inf]5ce f ! /ory--! /ory mu/ n seem to h
 be5 con/ruct$ to prove x4 ,die         
,weltges*i*te i/ das ,weltg]i*t1 wrote  
,s*ill]2 ev5 s1 ! del9eation ( life is !
 criticism ( life4 ,to %[ ! scope (     
disillusion1 monotony1                  
repression--life's g5]\s impulses n>r[$ 
& made timid by ! social1 economic1 &   
political ma*9e--w\ld be a criticism (  
our mod]n _w2 !re w\ld be no ne$ (      

moraliz+4 ,?is ! ,russian noveli/s seem 
to h und]/ood2 !y judg$ ,russian life by
 describ+ x4  ,! man :o writes lit]ature
 z a means = promulgat+ political or    
moral ideas is ei!r a cons]vative :o    
desires to return to ! conv5tions ( !   
pa/1 or else a radical :o seeks !       
e/abli%m5t ( a new mode ( life4 ,! me?od
 employ$ by ! =m] usually consi/s 9     
expos+ ! re/lessness & unhapp9ess ( p :o
 live 9 accordance ) advanc$ ideas 9    
comp>ison ) ! cont5tm5t ( ^? :o foll[ ! 
old] traditions4 ,su* /ories are1 h[ev]1
 inconclusive1 because !y imply ! false 
sociological !sis t ! rem$y = pres5t    
ills is a return to ! cu/oms ( ! pa/4   
,happ9ess c inde$ exi/ only 9 a /able   
society2 b ea* age mu/ create its own   
ord] to suit its *ang+ ne$s2 x _c1 if x 
w\ld1 g back to ! old4 ,^! /ories1      
!re=e1 al?\gh !y (t5 conta9 tru?ful &   
valuable pictures ( ! ills ( contempor>y
 life1 & are useful 9 help+ to cons]ve  
:at is good 9 ! _s ( ! pa/1 are         
nev]!less b\nd to be futile 9 _! ma9    

endeavor4  ,! me?od ( ! radical usually 
consi/s ( two p>ts3 "o ( criticism1     
design$ to %[ ! mis]y due to exi/+ laws 
& in/itutions2 ano!r ( con/ruction1 !   
disclosure ( a new & bett] sy/em4 ,b "h1
 too1 ! con/ructive "p ( ! /ory is      
likely to be weak4 ,= :e!r ! writ] sets 
=? 8 program by putt+ x into ! m\? ( "o 
( 8 *>act]s or app5ds x z a comm5t>y to 
8 /ory1 ! practicability ( 8 s*eme is   
always op5 to "q4 ,x is only ?r\gh trial
 t any s*eme c be %[n to be workable4   
,!re is1 h[ev]1 a new me?od t des]ves   
bett] ! "n ( exp]im5tal romance ?an     
,zola's own works4 ,x consi/s 9 portray+
 p liv+ 9 accordance ) new s5tim5ts &   
ideals1 or ev5 "u new in/itutions       
imag9atively con/ruct$4 ,yet ?is me?od  
also has its weakness1 = x is difficult 
to make p believe 9 ! reality ( a life t
 has n be5 actually liv$4 ,/ill1 ?is    
difficulty is n fatal2 = exp]im5ts 9    
liv+ are con/antly be+ made all ar\nd u1
 :i* ! disc]n+ noveli/ ne$s only to     
obs]ve & report4 ,he c %[ ! success ( ^!

 or h[1 if !y fail1 _! failure is due1 n
 to any?+ inh]5tly vici\s1 b simply to  
adv]se law & op9ion4 ,life is full ( su*
 /ories wait+ = "s noveli/ :o is n too  
timid to tell !m4  ,we are ?us br\ght   
r\nd aga9 to ! !sis t ! endur+ly        
valuable elem5ts ( e /ory are its       
concrete creations ( life4 ,9 ! end1 !  
/ory tell]'s fame w re/ ^u 8 p[] to     
create & reveal "* & ^u 8 s5se = fate4  
,!re is j "o ?+ t %\ld be add$ to ?is--a
 ri* emotional attitude t[>d life4 ,x is
 ! great] weal? ( ?is t makes a noveli/ 
l ,?ack]ay or ,anatole ,france sup]ior  
to "o l ,balzac4 ,! p]sonality t tells !
 /ory is z mu* a "p ( ! total "w z !    
*>act]s & ev5ts portray$1 & mu/ be tak5 
into acc\nt 9 any f9al judgm5t ( ! :ole4
 ,)\t ! au?or's vivid & ri*             
p>ticipation1 we :o read c nev] be fully
 engag$1 & we %all f9d m ( life 9 !     
/ory1 ! m !re is ( him 9 x4     ,,*apt] 
,,xi  ,,! ,,dom9ion ,,( ,,art ,,ov]     
,,nature3 ,,pa9t+   ,9 lit]ature1 z we  
obs]v$ 9 our la/ two *apt]s1 nature does

 n f9d ae/hetic expression on its own   
acc\nt4 ,9 ! lyric1 nature appe>s only z
 ! reflection ( p]sonal moods & ?\ghts1 
9 ! drama & novel & epic only z ! !at] (
 human action or ! det]m9] ( human fate4
 ,9 pa9t+ & sculpture1 on ! o!r h&1 !   
expression ( nature is ! prim>y aim4 ,( 
c\rse1 9 s f> z ?is expression is       
ae/hetic1 x is an expression n ( nature 
alone1 b ( our responses z well2 b      
nature is ! />t+ po9t1 n emotion z 9    
lyric poetry1 nor ! effect ^u de/9y z 9 
! epic4  ,because !y are expressions (  
nature1 & because ! copy+ ( ! human     
body1 ( trees1 cl\ds1 & ! l is an       
indisp5sable "p ( _! practice1 pa9t+ &  
sculpture h seem$ to give support to !  
!ory ( art z imitation4 ,yet1 al?\gh !  
activity ( imitation is a means to !    
creation ( picture & /atue1 ! m]e fact (
 be+ a copy is n ! purpose ( ! complet$ 
"w nor ! gr\nd ( our pleasure 9 x4 ,n   
its relation to any?+ outside itself1 no
 matt] h[ important = its mak+1 b its   
own intr9sic qualities con/itute its    

ae/hetic wor?4  ,?is 0 true ( ! e>lie/  
ef=ts 9 ^! arts4 ,! primitive arti/     
copi$ n = ! sake ( copy+1 b because he  
ascrib$ a magical p[] to images4 ,9 !   
image he believ$ he someh[ possess$ !   
object itself1 & s c\ld control x2 to ! 
image1 !re=e1 0 transf]r$ all ! value & 
pot5ce ( ! object4 ,! object repres5t$ 0
 deeply significant2 x 0 p]haps ! animal
 ^u :i* ! tribe dep5d$ = its food1 its  
totem or gu>dian div9ity2 or else1 z    
among ! ,egyptians1 x 0 ! man himself1 (
 :om ! image 0 meant to be an endur+    
habitation = ! s\l4 ,if primitive m5 _h 
copi$ indiff]5t objects1 !n we might    
inf] t ! m]e mak+ ( an image 0 ! end 9  
view2 b ?is !y did n d1 & x has nev] be5
 ! practice ( any vigor\s gr\p ( arti/s4
 ,only :5 ! means are valu$ in/ead ( !  
end--te*nique 9 place ( beauty--does ?is
 occur4 ,?r\gh su* a mi/ak+ ( aims1 new 
in/rum5ts ( expression may be discov]$1 
useful = a future g5ius1 b no g5u9e art 
is produc$4 ,! g5u9e arti/ copies1 n = !
 sake ( copy+1 b 9 ord] to create a "w (

 indep5d5t beauty4  ,?is same transf]5ce
 ( value to ! image1 ) ! consequ5t free+
 ( ! image f ! model1 c be obs]v$ ev5 9 
commemorative art4 ,a k+ desires1       
p]haps1 to p]petuate 8 memory2 h[ bett] 
?an ?r\gh "s endur+ lik5ess 9 /one or   
pa9t8 ,:ile he is alive & aft] 8 dea?   
?is image w rem9d 8 subjects ( him & 8  
valor\s de$s4 ,! relation to ! model    
seems to be fundam5tal2 b 9 proportion  
to ! success ( ! arti/ 9 mak+ a lik5ess1
 ! /one or pa9t w be made to seem all   
alive1 & = ^? :o _c come into direct    
relations ) ! mon>*1 he w be effectively
 pres5t 9 ! /atue or picture1 ev5 :51   
?r\gh dea?1 he is remov$ f all social & 
practical relations4 ,:o does n feel t  
,philip ! ,f\r? is pres5t on !          
,velasquez canvas2 :]e else c\ld "o f9d 
him s alive8 ,if ! "w is arti/ic1 !     
spectator's int]e/ w c5t] 9 feel+ ! life
 9 ! color & l9e or sculptur$ =m2 t x   
happ5s to be an imitation ( some?+ else 
w become ( second>y importance4 ,?is is 
cle>e/ :5 ! "n ( ! subject is n kn[n2 !n

 surely x is ! life be=e u t c alone    
conc]n u4 ,any feeble copy w\ld s]ve z a
 rem9d]1 b a liv+ draw+ or /atue br+s ! 
man or woman into our pres5ce4 ,!       
ae/hetic int]e/ 9 ! "w z liv+ sup]v5es  
^u ! int]e/ 9 x z a m]e rem9d] ( life4  
,?is fre$om f ! model & atta9m5t (      
intr9sic wor? 9 ! "w ( art itself is    
fur!r$ ?r\gh ! realization ( beauty 9 ! 
m$ium ( expression4 ,! colors1 l9es1 &  
%apes :i* ! arti/ uses h a direct appeal
 to ! eye & ?r\gh ! eye to feel+2 h5ce  
arise pref]5ces = ! mo/ agreeable &     
expressive4 ,! arti/ discov]$ t he c\ld 
express 8 emotion n only ?r\gh repres5t+
 its object1 b ?r\gh ! v colors or l9es 
or %apes us$ 9 ! del9eation4 ,^!        
effects1 f\nd by *ance p]haps 9 ! fir/  
in/ance1 w\ld lat] be /riv5 =           
consci\sly4 ,9 ?is way1 ?r\gh "s grace (
 l9e1 or symmetry ( =m1 or h>mony (     
color1 ! /atue or picture w\ld acquire a
 p[] to please q indep5d5t ( any ult]ior
 use or purpose2 once m1 x w\ld become  
alive & ( value on its own acc\nt4  ,we 

%all beg9 our /udy ( ! repres5tative    
arts ) draw+ & pa9t+--repres5tation 9   
two dim5sions--n because !y prec$$      
sculpture hi/orically1 b because1 be+ m 
complex arts1 a solution ( ! problems   
:i* !y raise makes a subsequ5t survey ( 
! simil> problems ( ! simpl] art        
relatively easy4  ,! m$ia ( pictorial   
expression are color & l9e1 & expression
 is atta9$ ?r\gh !m 9 a tw(old fa%ion4  
,9 a picture1 e elem5t ( color or l9e is
 expressive directly1 j z color & l9e1 (
 "s vague feel+ or mood1 &1 9 addition1 
*iefly ?r\gh its resemblance1 repres5ts 
"s action or object4 ,! =m] k9d (       
expression is indisp5sable4 ,no matt] h[
 reali/ic ! imitation1 unless ! picture 
?rill l music1 ?r\gh its m]e colors or  
l9es1 x is ae/hetically relatively      
ineffective4 ,x is n suffici5t t !      
picture move u ?r\gh ! vic>i\s pres5ce  
on ! canvas ( a mov+ object2 x mu/ /ir u
 9 a m imm$iate fa%ion ?r\gh ! direct   
appeal ( s5se4 ,= example1 a picture :i*
 pres5ts u ) a semblance ( ! sea w hold 

u ?r\gh ! p[] :i* ! sea has ov] u2 b x w
 n hold u s fa/ z a picture ( ! same    
subject :i*1 9 addition1 grips u ?r\gh  
its gre5s & blues & wavy l9es4 ,! "o    
sways u only ?r\gh ! imag9ation1 ! o!r  
?r\gh our s5ses z well4  ,s5sitiv5ess to
 color z su*1 s self-evid5t to "o :o    
possesses x1 seems to be want+1 except 9
 rudim5t>y fa%ion1 9 a great _m p4 ,!y  
are probably few1 h[ev]1 :o d n feel "s 
/irr+s :5 !y look ?r\gh ! /a9$ glass ( a
 ca!dral w9d[ or ^u ! r$ ( ,v5etian     
glass1 or :o are entirely indiff]5t to !
 color ( silk4 ,! reason = emotional    
color-bl9dness is probably n a native   
incapacity to be affect$1 b r a div]sion
 ( att5tion2 color has come to be only a
 sign = ! recognition & subsequ5t use ( 
?+s1 a signal = a practical or          
intellectual reaction4 ,9 our ha/e to   
recognize & use we fail to see1 & give  
ourselves no "t to be mov$ by m]e see+4 
,b :51 z 9 art1 contemplation1 ! fill+ (
 ! m9d ) ! object1 is ! aim1 ! p[] to   
move ( ! s5su\s surface ( ?+s may come  

aga9 into its rights4  ,! emotional     
response to color1 vague & ab/ract &    
objectless1 is1 l music1 incapable (    
adequate expression 9 words1 & = ! same 
reason4 ,words are capable ( express+   
only ! l>g] & fairly well-def9$         
emotions2 su* subtle %ad+s & complex    
mixtures ( feel+ z are convey$ by color 
& s\nd are mo/ly beyond _! k54 ,colors  
make u feel & dream z music does 9 !    
same incommunicable fa%ion4 ,or r ! only
 possibility ( communicat+ !m is ?r\gh !
 color s*emes ar\s+ !m4 ,& = "o :o      
appreciates color ?is is suffici5t2 he c
 po9t to ! colors & say--t is :at ,i    
feel4 ,to r5d] 8 feel+ also 9 words w\ld
 be a sup]flu\s bus9ess1 suppos+ !y c\ld
 be adequate to express x2 or1 if !y 7  
adequate1 t w\ld make expression ?r\gh  
color sup]flu\s4 ,! value ( any m$ium   
consi/s 9 its p[] to express :at none   
o!r c4 ,nev]!less1 x is possible to f9d 
r\gh v]bal equival5ts = ! simpl] colors4
 ,?us e "o w\ld probably agree ) ,lipps 
& call a pure yell[ happy1 a deep blue  

quiet & e>ne/1 r$ passionate1 violet    
wi/ful2 w\ld p]haps feel t orange       
p>takes at once ( ! happ9ess ( yell[ & !
 passion ( r$1 :ile gre5 p>takes ( !    
happ9ess ( yell[ & ! quiet ( blue2 & 9  
g5]al t ! bright] & w>m] tones are      
joyful & excit+1 ! d>k] & cold]1 m inw>d
 & re/ful4  ,to expla9 ! expressiv5ess (
 color s5sations is z difficult z to    
acc\nt = ! p>allel ph5om5on 9 s\nds4 ,"h
 z !re resort is _h to ! pr9ciple (     
association4 ,colors get1 x is ?\ght1 _!
 value = feel+ ei!r ?r\gh "s connection 
) emotionally ton$ objects1 l           
vegetation1 light1 ! sky1 blood1        
d>kness1 & fire1 or else ?r\gh "s       
relation to emotional situations1 l     
m\rn+ or dang]1 :i* !y h come to        
symbolize4 ,& !re is little d\bt t su*  
associations play a "p 9 det]m9+ !      
emotional mean+ ( colors--! retic5ce &  
di/ance ( blue1 ! happ9ess ( yell[1 =   
example1 are p>tly expla9$ ?r\gh ! fact 
t blue is ! color ( ! sky1 yell[ ! color
 ( sunlight2 ! mean+ ( black is due1    

p>tly at any rate1 to association )     
m\rn+4 ,yet nei!r ( ^! types (          
association seems suffici5t to expla9 ! 
full emotional mean+ ( colors4 ,!       
conv5tional mean+s ( colors seem r      
!mselves to ne$ explanation ?an to s]ve 
z explanations--:y is r$ ! sign ( dang]1
 purple royal1 :ite a symbol ( purity1  
black a symbol ( m\rn+8 ,is x n because 
^! colors _h "s native1 orig9al         
expressiv5ess :i* fa%ion & habit h only 
made m def9ite & turn$ to special uses8 
,& if we c expla9 ! retic5ce ( blue     
?r\gh association ) ! sky1 c we ?us     
expla9 its quietness8 ,c ! w>m? ( fire &
 ! excitem5t ( blood expla9 q all ! dep?
 ( passionate feel+ 9 r$8 ,! factors    
enum]at$ play a "p 9 ! complex effect1 b
 !re seem to be elem5ts /ill unacc\nt$  
=4  ,9 ord] to expla9 ! total ph5om5on  
we mu/ admit1 z 9 ! case ( tones1 "s    
direct effect ( ! s5sory light /imulus  
^u ! feel+s4 ,rays ( light affect n only
 ! s5sory app>atus1 caus+ s5sations (   
color2 _! influ5ce is prolong$ into !   

motor *annels1 caus+ a total attitude ( 
! organism1 ! correlate ( a feel+4 ,x   
w\ld be /range if any s5sory /imulus 7  
entirely cut (f by itself & did n f9d   
its way into ! motor /ream4 ,b ^!       
ov]fl[s are too diffuse to be notic$ 9  
ord9>y exp]i5ce2 !y are obscur$ ?r\gh   
association or are n giv5 "t to rise to 
! level ( cle> consci\sness1 because we 
are preoccupi$ ) ! practical or         
cognitive significance ( ! colors2 only 
9 ! quiet & isolation ( contemplation c 
!y come into ! focus4 ,( c\rse ! /ud5t (
 ! evolution ( m9d w want to g beh9d ^! 
color emotions & inquire :y a giv5 color
 is connect$ ) a giv5 reaction4 ,he may 
ev5 want to connect !m ) in/9ctive      
responses ( primitive m54 ,b "h we c    
only speculate2 we _c "k4  ,! problem is
 fur!r complicat$ ?r\gh ! fact t private
 color- associations are =m$ obscur+ !  
ae/hetic mean+s1 :i* c be r$iscov]$ only
 ?r\gh ! elim9ation ( ! =m]4 ,color     
pref]5ces are (t5 det]m9$ 9 ?is way2 yet
 sometimes !y spr+ f ano!r & m radical  

s\rce--an aff9ity betwe5 p]sonal        
temp]am5t & ! feel+ tone ( ! pref]r$    
color4 ,a consi/5t *oice ( blues & grays
 indicates a specific k9d ( man or      
woman1 v diff]5t f ! *oos] ( yell[s &   
r$s4  ,al?\gh s+le color tones are      
expressive1 !y seldom exi/ alone 9 works
 ( art4 ,significant expression requires
 v>iety4 ,! inv5tion ( orig9al &        
expressive color comb9ations is a r>e   
gift ( g5ius4 ,r\gh rules ( color       
comb9ation h be5 devis$ f ! practice (  
arti/s & f exp]im5t1 ! foll[+ ( :i* w   
enable "o to produce faultless patt]ns1 
b )\t g5ius w nev] enable "o to create a
 new expression4 ,color comb9ations are 
ei!r h>moni\s or balanc$1 ! =m] produc$ 
by colors or tones ( colors v close to  
"o ano!r1 ! latt] by ! contra/+ or      
widely sund]$4 ,9 ! "o case1 we get !   
quiet comm+l+ ( feel+s ak9 to ea* o!r2 9
 ! o!r1 ! lively t5sion ( feel+s oppos$4
 ,comp>e1 = example1 ! effect ( a ,:i/l]
 nocturne ) a ,monet l&scape4 ,! colors 
t d n g well toge!r are su* z are n     

close en\gh = union nor f> en\gh ap>t = 
contra/4 ,!y are l p]sonalities n       
suffici5tly at "o to lose !mselves 9 ea*
 o!r1 yet n suffici5tly unlike to be    
mutually /imulat+ & enl>g+1 betwe5 :om  
!re c be only a fruitless rivalry turn+ 
into hate4 ,su* are c]ta9 purples & r$s1
 c]ta9 gre5s & blues4 ,yet1 ?r\gh prop] 
m$iation1 any two colors c be br\ght    
into a composition4 ,all colors are     
br\ght toge!r 9 nature ?r\gh ! sunlight1
 & 9 pa9t+ or weav+ by giv+ to rival    
colors ! same %e5 or brightness4 ,or    
aga91 ! union may be effect$ by comb9+ !
 two ) a ?ird :i* is 9 a relation (     
balance or h>mony ) ea*1 z 9 ! favorite 
s*eme ( blue1 r$1 & gre54  ,despite _!  
ability to express1 colors _c /& alone2 
!y mu/ be ! colors ( some?+1 !y mu/ make
 l9e or %ape4 ,l9es1 on ! o!r h&1 seem  
to be indep5d5t ( color1 z 9 draw+s &   
et*+s2 yet !re is really "s color ev5   
!re--black & :ite & tones ( gray4 ,t    
color & l9e are indep5d5t ( "o ano!r 9  
beauty1 is1 h[ev]1 %[n by works1 su* z  

,millet's1 :i* are good 9 l9e b poor 9  
color4 ,l9es h1 z we h already se51 !   
same duality ( function z colors3 !y    
express feel+ directly ?r\gh _! "* z m]e
 l9es & !y repres5t objects by sugge/+  
!m ?r\gh resemblance4  ,!re is1 9 fact1 
= ^? :o c feel x1 a life 9 l9es ( ! same
 ab/ract & objectless sort z exi/s 9    
colors & tones4 ,l9es give rise to motor
 impulses & make "o feel & dream1 z     
music does4 ,!re are _m :o are cold to  
?is effect2 yet few c fail to get some?+
 ( ! vibration or mood ( ! l9es ( a     
,greek vase pa9t+1 a ,botticelli canvas1
 or a ,rembr&t et*+4 ,! life ( l9es is m
 alli$ to t ( tones ?an ( colors because
 x possesses a dynamic movem5t quality  
:i* is abs5t f ! latt]4 ,?is life is1 9 
fact1 tw(old3 on ! "o h& x is a c>e]1 ) 
a beg9n+1 middle1 & end1 some?+ to be   
will$ or enact$2 on ! o!r h& x is a     
temp]am5t or "*1 a prop]ty ( ! l9e z a  
:ole1 to be felt4 ,^! two aspects (     
ae/hetic l9es are closely relat$2 !y /& 
to "o ano!r mu* z ! temp]am5t or "* ( a 

man /&s to 8 life hi/ory1 ( :i* x is at 
once ! cause & ! result4 ,j z we get a  
total impression ( a man's nature by    
foll[+ ! /ory ( 8 life1 s we get !      
temp]am5tal quality ( l9es by foll[+ !m 
) ! eye2 & j z all ( our k ( a man's    
acts ent]s into our intuition ( 8       
nature1 s we discov] ! "* ( ! total l9e 
by a syn!sis ( its successive elem5ts4  
,x is z difficult1 m difficult1 p]haps1 
to put into words ! temp]am5tal quality 
( l9es z to d ! p>allel ?+ ) colors4    
,l9es are inf9ite 9 _! possible         
v>iations1 & ! f9e %ades ( feel+ :i* !y 
may express exce$ ! numb] ( words 9 !   
emotional vocabul>y ( any language4     
,moreov]1 9 any draw+1 ! "* ( ea* l9e is
 p>tly det]m9$ ?r\gh ! context ( o!r    
l9es2 y _c take x ab/ractly ) entire    
tru?4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 possible to f9d     
v]bal equival5ts = ! "* ( ! ma9 types ( 
l9es4 ,horizontal l9es convey a feel+ ( 
repose1 ( quiet1 z 9 ! wall-pa9t+s (    
,puvis de ,*avannes2 v]tical l9es1 (    
solemnity1 dignity1 aspiration1 z 9 s   

mu* ( ! "w ( ,boeckl92 crook$ l9es (    
conflict & activity1 z 9 ! woodcuts (   
,dur]2 :ile curv$ l9es h always be5     
recogniz$ z s(t & voluptu\s & t5d]1 z 9 
,correggio & ,r5oir4 ,! supposition t ! 
curv$ l9e is ! sole l9e ( beauty is !   
result ( a n>r[ & effem9ate idea ( !    
ae/hetic2 yet x mu/ be admitt$ t ?is =m1
 s9ce x p]mits ( ! greate/ am\nt (      
v>iation1 has ! highe/ p[] ( expression2
 b 9 _m ( its m complex v>ieties x loses
 mu* ( its s(t fem99e quality1 & takes  
on "s ( ! /r5g? ( ! o!r =ms4  ,!        
expressiv5ess ( l9es is det]m9$ by      
sev]al--at lea/ ?ree-- factors4 ,9 !    
fir/ place1 ! p]ception ( l9es is an    
active process4 ,9 ord] to get a l9e we 
h to foll[ x ) ! eye2 & if we d n n[    
foll[ x ) our f+]s1 we at lea/ foll[$   
simil> l9es ?us 9 ! pa/4 ,n[ ?is process
 ( ! p]ception ( a l9e requires ( u an  
en]gy ( att5tion to ! successive elem5ts
 ( ! l9e z we pass ov] !m & a fur!r     
exp5diture ( en]gy 9 rememb]+ & syn!siz+
 !m into a :ole4 ,?is en]gy1 s9ce x is  

evok$ by ! l9e & is n connect$ ) any    
def9ite inn] /riv+ ( ! self1 is felt by 
u to belong to ! l9e1 to be an elem5t 9 
its life1 z cle>ly its own z its %ape4  
,= example1 a l9e ) _m sudd5 turns or   
*anges ( direction is an en]getic &     
excit+ l9e because x dem&s 9 p]ception a
 con/ant & difficult & %ift+ att5tion2 a
 /raight l9e1 on ! contr>y1 because     
simple & unv>y+ 9 its dem&s ^u !        
att5tion1 is monoton\s & reposeful2 :ile
 ! curv$ l9e1 ) its lawful & cont9u\s   
*anges1 at once /imulat+ yet nev]       
di/ract+ att5tion1 possesses ! "* (     
progressive & happy action4 ,?is1 !     
prim>y s\rce ( ! vital int]pretation (  
l9es is supplem5t$ by elem5ts d]iv$ f   
association4 ,l9es sugge/ to u !        
movem5ts ( our bodies along pa?s (      
simil> =m1 & we int]pret !m accord+ to !
 feel+ ( ^! movem5ts2 9 ! imag9ation1 we
 may seem to move along ! v l9es        
!mselves z pa?s4 ,e skat] or runn] kn[s 
! difficulty ( mov+ along a pa? full (  
sudd5 turns & angles1 a difficulty :i*1 

if he is 9 good trim1 may nev]!less af=d
 him pleasure 9 ! ov]com+2 ! delightful 
& v>i\s ease ( mov+ along curv$ l9es2 ! 
monotony ( a long1 /raight pa?1 b !     
quick triumph ( go+ "r to ! end along a 
%ort & t]m9al l9e ( ?is "*4 ,b l9es     
sugge/ to u n only ! movem5ts1 b also ! 
attitudes ( our bodies4 ,!y may be      
/raight & ris+1--rigid or dignifi$ or   
joy\sly exp&+2 !y may be horizontal &   
lie d[n & re/2 !y may be fall+ &        
sorr[ful2 or ! %apes ^: outl9es !y =m   
may be heavy or light1 delicate or      
unga9ly or graceful1 z bodies are4      
,f9ally1 ! int]pretation ( l9es may be  
fur!r enri*$ z foll[s3 ,! sight ( a l9e 
sugge/s ! draw+ ( x1 ! sweep ( ! bru% t 
made x2 we ourselves1 9 ! imag9ation    
once m1 may re-create ! l9e aft] !      
arti/1 & feel1 j z he mu/ h felt1 !     
ma/]y1 ease1 vigor1 or delicacy ( !     
execution into ! l9e itself4 ,few c fail
 to get ?is effect f ! pa9t+s ( ,franz  
,hals1 = example1 :]e ! ab\nd+ en]gy ( !
 arti/ is app>5t 9 ea* /roke ( ! bru%4  

,arti/s feel ?is life 9 execution mo/   
/rongly2 yet1 s9ce almo/ e "o has _h "s 
practice 9 draw+ l9es1 x is pot5tially a
 univ]sal quality 9 a pa9t+4  ,l9es may 
be unifi$ accord+ to ! ?ree modes (     
h>mony1 balance1 & evolution4 ,!        
repetition ( ! same k9d ( l9e conf]s a  
h>moni\s unification ^u a draw+1 z 9    
,t9toretto's ,bac*us & ,ariadne1 :]e !  
circle is to be f\nd repeat$ 9 ! cr[n & 
r+1 9 ! heads ( ! ?ree figures1 9 !     
brea/s ( ,ariadne4 ,simil> to ?is       
sam5ess ( =m is sam5ess ( direction or  
p>allelism ( l9es4 ,ano!r k9d ( h>moni\s
 unification ( l9es is cont9uity1 :]e   
out ( diff]5t l9es or %apes a s+le l9e  
is made4 ,! classical geometrical =ms ( 
composition1 z ! circul> or pyramidal1  
are good examples ( ?is4 ,! ,odalisque (
 ,+res1 :]e all ! l9es ( ! body         
con/itute a s+le l9e1 is a notable case4
 ,:at ,rusk9 has call$ ! approa*1       
int]section1 int]weav+ ( l9es1 l ! sea  
waves on ! %ore1--! conspiracy ( all !  
l9es 9 a draw+ to =m "o s+le network1 ( 

:i* illu/rations c\ld be f\nd 9 ! "w ( e
 draftsman1 is a k9d ( h>mony ( l9e4    
,symmetrically dispos$ %apes1 & l9es ^: 
directions are oppos$1 h ! balanc$ =m ( 
unity4 ,"h1 f a giv5 po9t z c5t]1 !     
att5tion is drawn 9 contr>y yet equal   
ways4 ,examples ( ?is type ( composition
 are abundant among ! ,old ,ma/]s2 z a  
rigid =m x is1 h[ev]1 disappe>+4 ,t !   
dramatic type ( unity is to be f\nd 9   
l9es w be confirm$ by e "o :o has obs]v$
 ! movem5t1 ! c>e] ( l9es4 ,:5ev] %apes 
are s dispos$ t !y =m a l9e lead+ up to 
a giv5 %ape1 :]ev]1 aga91 l9es conv]ge  
to a s+le po9t1 !re is a cle> case (    
evolution2 we beg9 by att5d+ to ! l9e at
 a c]ta9 po9t1 proce$ 9 a c]ta9         
direction1 !n rea* a t]m9al po9t1 ! goal
 ( ! process4 ,9 ,leon>do's ,la/ ,supp]1
 ! conv]g5ce ( ! p]spective l9es & !    
l9es =m$ by ! gr\ps ( ,apo/les is a case
 ( evolution4 ,! diff]5t types (        
unification are1 ( c\rse1 n exclusive4  
,9 ! pa9t+ j ref]r$ to1 all ?ree are    
pres5t3 ,*ri/ & ! ,apo/les are arrang$  

along a s+le l9e1 ! two ends ( :i*1     
despite _! symmetrical & balanc$        
disposition1 conv]ge to "o c5tral po9t1 
! ,*ri/4 ,e pyramidal =m ( composition  
is a comb9ation ( balance betwe5 !      
elem5ts at ! bases ( ! triangle1        
conv]g5ce t[>ds ! apex1 & h>mony ?r\gh !
 p>ticipation ( ! ?ree elem5ts 9 a s+le 
=m4 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ & complex types 
( organization ( l9es is rhy?m--!       
balanc$1 h>moni\s movem5t ( l9es4 ,a l9e
 is rhy?mical :5 !re is a balanc$       
alt]nation ( direction 9 its movem5t1 a 
turn+ n[ to ! "r & n[ to ! left1 or vice
 v]sa2 proportion 9 ! l5g? ( ! segm5ts  
made by ! turns2 & g5]al direction--a   
t5d+ some:]e4  ,z is assum$ 9 ! prec$+  
p>agraph1 ! elem5ts ( l9es may be %apes 
or masses1 z well z po9ts4 ,t is1 n only
 d l9es made up ( po9ts =m %apes1 b     
%apes 9 _! turn1 :5 arrang$ on a        
surface1 necess>ily make l9es4 ,su* l9es
 are1 z a rule1 n cont9u\s2 yet s9ce !  
eye takes ! %apes successively & 9 a    
giv5 direction1 !y are nev]!less true   

l9es & possess ! qualities ( ord9>y     
simple l9es4 ,! arrangem5t ( masses 9 an
 undulat+ l9e1 say 9 a l&scape pa9t+1   
has ess5tially ! same value = feel+ z a 
simil> cont9u\s l9e2 comp>e ?is ) a     
horizontal arrangem5t ( masses1 :i* has 
all ! quiet & repose ( a simple         
horizontal l9e4  ,colors & l9es1 rely+  
on ! direct expressiv5ess :i* we h be5  
/udy+1 may /& by !mselves1 z 9 an       
ori5tal rug2 yet 9 pa9t+ !y h ano!r     
function3 to repres5t4 ,& ev5 9 ! purely
 ornam5tal use ( color & l9e1 ! t5d5cy  
t[>ds repres5tation is app>5t ev]y:]e2  
ei!r ! l9es are d]ivatives ( s*ematiz$  
pictures ( m5 & plants & animals1 or    
else su* objects are introduc$ z motives
 )\t disguise4 ,9 pa9t+1 !re=e1 ! color 
r$ has value n only z s mu* r$1 b z /&+ 
= ! r$ ( a girl's lips or *eeks2 & t    
curv$ l9e is ( significance1 n z m]e l9e
 alone1 b z ! curve ( h] limbs4 ,9 ?is  
way ! native value ( ! s5se symbols     
becomes suffus$ & enri*$ ) ! values ( ! 
?+s !y repres5t4 ,! two functions (     

color & ( l9e %\ld nev] be indiff]5t to 
ea* o!r2 repres5tation %\ld n become a  
m]e excuse = decoration1 ! objects      
repres5t$ hav+ no value 9 !mselves2 nor 
%\ld color & l9e be us$ z m]e signs (   
int]e/+ objects1 )\t ref]5ce to _!      
intr9sic value4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! two    
functions %\ld play into ea* o!r's h&s4 
,if1 = example1 ! human body is         
repres5t$1 ! colors & l9es employ$ %\ld 
be s dispos$ t !y decorate ! surface ( !
 picture & hold u !re ?r\gh _! %e] rhy?m
 & quality2 yet1 at ! same "t1 & ?r\gh  
_! v ornam5tal p[]1 !y %\ld make u feel 
! m ke5ly ! values ( ! object !y        
repres5t4 ,betwe5 ! imm$iate values ( ! 
colors & l9es !re %\ld exi/ unity3      
/imulat+ colors %\ld g ) /imulat+ l9es1 
quiet colors ) quiet l9es2 & ! result+  
feel+ tone ( ! m$ium %\ld be 9 h>mony ) 
! feel+ ( ! objects repres5t$2 ! "o %\ld
 give ! o!r ov] aga91 & s ea* en=ce !   
o!r4  ,s9ce x is n ! purpose ( any art  
to repres5t m]e ?+s1 b to express       
concrete /ates ( ! s\l1 ! c5t] ( :i* is 

always "s feel+1 exact fidelity 9 !     
repres5tation ( objects is n necess>y = 
good pa9t+ or draw+4 ,only s mu* ( ?+s  
ne$s to be repres5t$ z is necess>y to   
give back ! life ( !m4 ,necess>y above  
all is ! object z a :ole1 = to ?is our  
feel+s are atta*$2 n[ ?is c usually be  
f> bett] repres5t$ ?r\gh an             
impressioni/ic sket*1 :i* gives only !  
significant features1 ?an by a pa9/ak+ &
 detail$ draw+4 ,s9ce1 fur!rmore1 ! life
 ( ?+s c be convey$ ?r\gh color & l9e z 
su*1 a c]ta9 dep>ture f realism is      
legitimate = ?is end4 ,)\t "s fre$om f !
 exact tru? ( ! colors & l9es ( ?+s1 !  
arti/ is unable to *oose & compose !m = 
expressive purposes2 :5 exactly l !     
objects :i* !y repres5t1 !y t5d to lose 
all expressive p[] ( _! own1 becom+ m]e 
signs or equival5ts ( ?+s4 ,a c]ta9     
am\nt ( v>iation f ! normal may be      
necess>y 9 ord] t ! s5se symbols %all   
call att5tion to !mselves1 9 ord] t we  
be prev5t$1 z we are n 9 ! ord9>y       
obs]vation ( nature1 f look+ ?r\gh !m to

 ! ?+s :i* !y mean4 ,:5ev]1 moreov]1 !  
arti/ wi%es to r5d] a unique reaction to
 a sc5e1 he c d s only ?r\gh a c\rage\s 
use ( ! subtle language ( color & l9e1  
:i* may require a di/ortion ( ! real    
local qualities ( ?+s2 =1 if he makes a 
pla91 reali/ic copy ( ! sc5e itself1 he 
c evoke1 & s express1 only ! normal     
emotional responses to x4  ,:5 su*      
dep>tures f ! tru? ( ?+s are prop]ly    
motivat$1 no "o c be (f5d$ by !m1 any m 
?an :5 ! brilliant hues ( nature appe>  
black & :ite 9 a *>coal draw+4 ,! am\nt 
( realism 9 any "w ( art is l>gely a    
matt] ( tacit conv5tion4 ,an arti/ may1 
if he wi%es1 use color ) no pret5se at  
giv+ back ! real colors ( objects1 b =  
purely expressive purposes alone1 rely+ 
on l9e = purposes ( repres5tation4 ,?is 
is (t5 done 9 ,japanese pr9ts4 ,all t is
 necess>y is t we %\ld und]/& :at !     
arti/ is do+ & f9d :at he pres5ts to u  
real & alive4 ,on ! o!r h&1 an          
expressive use ( color & l9e lead+ to a 
di/ortion ( objects out ( all           

possibility ( recognition1 or ev5 a use 
:i* makes !m seem unreal & awry1 is )\t 
excuse4 ,= s9ce colors & l9es are       
employ$ to br+ ?+s be=e ! imag9ation1 !y
 %\ld be made to s]ve ?is purpose       
successfully2 ! value :i* belongs to !  
?+s %\ld h a *ance to appe>2 b ?is c    
happ5 only if !y seem to be actually    
pres5t be=e u4 ,pa9t+ is n a m]e music (
 color & l9e expressive ( ab/ract &     
objectless emotions alone1 b a poetry1  
:i*1 ?r\gh ! pictur+ ( objects to :i*   
emotions are atta*$1 r5d]s ! latt]      
concrete & def9ite4 ,n m]e feel+1 su* z 
a color or a l9e by itself c convey1 b  
feel+ 9 ! pres5ce ( nature1 :i* c be    
express$ only :5 color & l9e are made   
into a recognizable image ( nature1 is !
 sub/ance ( pa9t+4 ,"o _c express !     
feel+ ( ! weight & bulk ( objects1 ( _! 
di/ribution 9 ?ree dim5sions1 or ! value
 ( _! %ad[s or atmosph]ic envelop+1 )\t 
! repres5tation ( weight & bulk & %ad[ &
 atmosph]e & p]spective4 ,e increase 9 !
 p[] to repres5t nature1 e advance 9 !  

ma/]y ( ! object1 adds a new p[] ov] !  
expression ( feel+1 :i* v>ies ) !       
object4 ,! reali/ is1 !re=e1 "r 9 8 dem&
 t nature itself be pa9t$2 only he %\ld 
rememb] t ! nature :i* pres5ts itself 9 
art is nev] ! nak$ object1 b veil$ 9    
feel+2 &1 z s veil$1 may sometimes be   
se5 pretty mu* z x really is2 !n aga9 ) 
p>ts conceal$1 & sometimes ev5 trans=m$4
 ,bo? a realism t tries to unite        
fidelity to ! full qualities ( ! object 
) musical expression 9 ! m$ium1 & s to  
r5d] ! m typical responses to nature1   
:i* dep5d1 = ! mo/ "p1 on ! object      
itself1 & a symbolism or expressionism t
 sacrifices fidelity = ! expression1    
?r\gh ! m]e m$ium1 ( m p]sonal          
responses1 are 9 _! rights4 ,only !     
limits ( bo? t5d5cies are               
illegitimate--! use ( color & l9e to    
produce m]e images ( ?+s on ! "o h&1 or 
purely musical effects on ! o!r4  ,!    
subject matt] or cont5t ( pa9t+ is      
det]m9$ by its language1 color1 & l9e4  
,^!1 z we h se51 by an imitation m or   

less exact1 repres5t nature1 ! _w (     
concrete ?+s z directly pres5t$ to u 9  
vision1 color$ & %apely4 ,! inn] _w is  
express$ only s f> z x is reveal$ 9 !   
ge/ures & attitudes ( ! bodies ( m5 or s
 f> z x is a mood atta*$ to ?+s & _!    
colors & %apes4 ,n[ space is ! univ]sal 
conta9] 9 :i* all elem5ts ( ! visible _w
 are dispos$4 ,e pa9t+1 !re=e1 %\ld     
include a repres5tation ( space2 x %\ld 
nev] repres5t ?+s z if !y /ood alone )\t
 environm5t or relation4 ,ev5 9 !       
portrait ( a s+le individual "s relation
 to space %\ld be indicat$2 ?is is      
accompli%$ by ! backgr\nd1 9 :i* !      
figures %\ld be made to lie1 & to :i* !y
 %\ld seem to belong4 ,9 front1 ! space 
( a picture is limit$ by ! plane ( !    
surface on :i* x is pa9t$2 ev]y?+ %\ld  
appe> to belong 9 ! space back ( ?is2   
no?+ %\ld seem to come =w>d out t[>ds ! 
spectator4 ,b beh9d ?is1 backw>ds1 !    
space repres5t$ is unlimit$1 & its      
inf9ite dep?s may well be indicat$ by ! 
conv]g5ce ( p]spective l9es & ! gradual 

fad+ ( ! outl9es & colors ( objects4  ,!
 repres5t$ space ( ! picture is n1 (    
c\rse1 ! real space ( ! canvas or ( !   
room 9 :i* ! picture hangs4 ,! =m] is   
inf9ite1 :ile ! latt] is only s _m squ>e
 feet 9 area4 ,! frame s]ves ! purpose (
 cutt+ (f ! repres5t$ space f all       
relation to ! real space1 ( :i* ! frame 
itself is a "p4 ,a confusion ( ^! two   
spaces is sometimes f\nd 9 crude "w & 9 
! comm5ts ( p ^u g5u9e works ( art4 ,i  
h1 = example1 se5 a picture ( a lion )  
iron b>s rivet$ to ! frame & ext5d+ ov] 
x1--a repres5t$ lion 9 a real cage6 ,&  
,i once he>d a man criticise "o (       
,degas' pa9t+s on ! gr\nd t if ! danc+  
girl 7 to /raight5 h] b5t body %e w\ld  
bump h] head on ! frame6 ,! rule t !    
color ( ! frame %\ld h>monize ) ! ma9   
tones ( ! picture is no pro( t !y belong
 toge!r2 its purpose is m]ely to protect
 ! colors ( ! pa9t+ f be+ *ang$ ?r\gh _!
 neighborhood ) ^? ( ! frame4  ,al?\gh  
pa9t+ is ess5tially a spatial art1 x    
includes a temporal elem5t1 ! speci\s   

pres5t1 ! s+le mom5t ( action or (      
motion4 ,! l9es are n dead & /atic1 b   
alive2 !y progress & vibrate2 by _!     
means a smile1 ! rippl+ ( a /ream1 !    
ge/ure ( surprise1 ! movem5t ( a dance1 
may be depict$4 ,successive mom5ts1 !   
diff]5t phases ( an action or movem5t1  
_c1 h[ev]1 be repres5t$4 ,/rict unities 
( space & "t %\ld be obs]v$ 9 pa9t+4    
,only contigu\s p>ts ( space & only "o  
mom5t ( "t %\ld be repres5t$ inside a   
s+le frame4 ,bo? ^! unities 7 violat$ 9 
old religi\s pa9t+s :]e sometimes !     
,nativity1 ,flight into ,egypt1         
,crucifixion1 & ,resurrection 7 all     
portray$ on "o canvas4  ,! space ( pa9t+
 is no ab/ract aspect ( ?+s su* z !     
geomet] elaborates4 ,to be 9 a common   
space ) o!r ?+s1 implies1 = ! pictorial 
intuition ( ! _w1 to be play$ ^u by !   
same light & to be envelop$ 9 ! same    
atmosph]e4 ,space1 light1 & air         
con/itute ! milieu 9 :i* ev]y?+ lives & 
moves & has its be+ 9 pa9t+4 ,to e      
diff]5ce 9 ! arrangem5t & =e%ort5+ (    

objects1 to e v>iation 9 _! lights &    
%ad[s & a]ial quality1 ! s5sitive s\l   
responds4 ,! close proximity ( objects 9
 a t9y room has an effect ^u feel+ v    
diff]5t f _! wide di/ribution ov] a     
broad space4 ,an equal diff]5ce dep5ds  
^u :e!r light is conc5trat$ ^u objects  
or ev5ly di/ribut$ ov] !m2 ^u :e!r x is 
bright or dim2 ^u :e!r !y are ne> & cle>
 9 a ?9 air or f> & hazy 9 a ?ick &     
heavy cl\d4 ,! ma/]s ( light & air1     
,rembr&t1 ,claude1 ,turn]1 evoke myriad 
moods ?r\gh ^! subtle influ5ces4 ,a long
 developm5t & ! foll[+ ( _m false pa?s 0
 necess>y be=e pa9t+ discov]$ its true  
function z an expression ( ! elem5ts1 ! 
once h>d outl9es ( ?+s s(t5+ 9 _!       
envelop+ embrace4  ,! repres5tation (   
space1 :i* pa9t+ alone ( all ! arts c   
a*ieve1 does n imply1 h[ev]1 a          
repres5tation ( ! full pla/ic quality ( 
individual objects1 :i* is ! function ( 
sculpture4 ,?is1 to be sure1 c be done 9
 pa9t+1 z ! great sculptor-pa9t]s ( !   
,r5aissance h %[n2 b x _c be done s well

 z 9 sculpture2 & :5 done t5ds to       
int]f]e ) o!r ?+s4 ,x makes objects /&  
out too mu* by !mselves1 de/roy+ _! felt
 unity ) o!r elem5ts on ! canvas1 s t :5
 provid$ ) all ! colors ( life1 !y seem 
r real ?an pa9t$1 & look z if !y wi%$ to
 leave ! _w ( repres5tation1 :]e !y     
belong1 & t\* h&s ) ! spectator4 ,! dep?
 & ! ext5t ( space1 ! di/ance & !       
di/ribution ( objects1 light & %ade &   
air1 are all indep5d5t ( ! pla/icity (  
individual ?+s1 :i* t5ds to disappe> 9  
proportion z !y are emphasiz$4 ,only :5 
att5tion is direct$ to ! individual     
object does its full pla/icity appe>2   
see x z an elem5t ( ! environ+ :ole1 & x
 flatt5s out to view4  ,!re are1 9 fact1
 two ways ( see+1 to ea* ( :i*          
corresponds a mode ( pa9t+4 ,on ! "o h&1
 we may see di/ributively1 hold+ objects
 z individuals ea* 9 our att5tion1      
neglect+ light & space & air4 ,or else  
we may see syn!tically1 fir/ ! :ole :i* 
light & space & air compose1 & !n       
individual ?+s z be>]s ( ^!4 ,! "o is ! 

m practical way ( see+2 because1 =      
practical purposes1 ! sep>ate ?+ t c be 
grasp$ & us$ is all important1 & ! film 
( light & air & ! neighborhood ( o!r ?+s
 are ( no acc\nt4 ,! o!r is m !oretical 
& /hetic2 = to a pure vision :i* does n 
?9k ( h&l+1 !re are no sep>ate ?+s1 b   
only diff]5ces ( %ape & color & location
 9 a s+le object1 ! visible :ole4       
,footnote3 ,cf4 ,lipps1 ,ae/hetik1 ,bd4 
#b1 s4 #afe1 et seq4  ,9 ! type ( pa9t+ 
correspond+ to ! fir/ way ( see+1       
objects are repres5t$ m z we ?9k !m to  
be1 or z we %\ld f9d !m on fur!r        
exploration1 ?an z !y actually appe> to 
sight at any giv5 mom5t2 ! outl9es are  
cle> & %>p & detail is emphasiz$4 ,?is  
mode ( pa9t+ is mo/ 9 place = int]iors  
:]e !re is an ev5 di/ribution & no /rik+
 effects ( light & %ade1 z 9 s _m g5re  
pictures ( ! ,dut* s*ool2 b above all :5
 ! human significance ( objects or _!   
dramatic relations1 :i* dep5d ^u _! be+ 
tak5 z sep>ate ?+s1 is to be express$4  
,= example1 to get ! expression ( !     

action ( a woman p\r+ wat] into a jug1 x
 is necess>y t we feel ! %ape & color ( 
! latt] z aspects ( a tangible reality  
hav+ a di/9ct purpose1 t ( hold+ wat]2 &
 ?is purposefulness makes ( ! object a  
sep>ate1 individual ?+4 ,yet a too great
 di/9ction ( objects & a too great      
elaboration ( detail1 z 9 ,meissoni] & !
 ,engli% ,pre-,raphaelites1 is in>ti/ic2
 ! picture breaks up into sep>ate p>ts &
 all feel+ ( unity is lo/4 ,9 ! "w ( !  
,flemi% & ,dut*1 on ! contr>y1 we take  
delight 9 ! p]spicuity ( ?+s )\t los+ ! 
s5se ( :ol5ess2 = !re is a sam5ess &    
simplicity ( color tone :i* unites !m4  
,a g5u9e & unique /hetic value is       
possess$ by su* "w1--t ( cle> intuition 
( ! visual detail & human significance (
 ?+s4  ,v (t5 ! unification 9 pa9t+ (   
?is type is dramatic *iefly--"s l9k (   
action or ( symbolism :i* ! elem5ts ( ! 
picture h z mean+s1 a unity ( cont5t1   
!re=e1 & n a colori/ic or a l9e> unity4 
,! colors are ess5tially local colors1  
s]v+ fir/ to *>act]ize & di/+ui% !      

objects prop]ly1 & !n to l5d to !m      
sev]ally high value ?r\gh brightness &  
temp]am5t2 al?\gh h>moniz+ z m]e colors1
 !y are held toge!r m ?r\gh "s          
connection 9 :at !y mean ?an ?r\gh a    
unity ( pure expression4 ,! dom9ance (  
any "o mass1 too1 dep5ds m ^u its       
sup]ior significance z mean+ ?an ^u its 
claim ^u ! att5tion ?r\gh any intr9sic  
quality ( color4 ,nev]!less1 ev5 if     
second>y1 ! unity & dom9ance ?r\gh color
 & l9e mu/ be pres5t1 & %\ld be         
consonant ) ! unity & subord9ation 9 !  
mean+s4 ,! pa9t+ ( ! great ,italian     
ma/]s 0 ( ?is "*4 ,9 a ,madonna picture1
 = example1 ! elem5ts repres5t+ ! ,holy 
,family are unit$ ?r\gh ! spiritual     
on5ess ( ! objects :i* !y repres5t1 & ! 
,madonna is dom9ant ?r\gh h] sup]ior    
significance = ! religi\s life4 ,!      
colors s]ve to *>act]ize & di/+ui% !    
figures2 yet betwe5 ! =m] !re is a      
h>mony correspond+ to ! inn] h>mony ( ! 
latt]2 ! spiritual dom9ance ( ! ,madonna
 is express$ 9 a purely =mal fa%ion     

?r\gh h] l>g] size1 c5tral position1 & m
 brightly gleam+ g>m5ts4  ,9 pa9t+ :i*  
corresponds to ! syn!tic way ( see+1 all
 p>ticul> objects are subord9at$ to     
space & light & air2 _! outl9es are     
melt+1 sugge/$ r ?an se51 & !re is      
little emphasis on detail4 ,turn]'s     
pa9t+ ( light & ! m rec5t examples (    
impressionism af=d abundant examples (  
?is4 ,9 ?is /yle1 unification is effect$
 almo/ :olly ?r\gh color & l9e z su*1 & 
?r\gh ! light & space & air :i* !y      
repres5t4 ,j to live 9 ! same atmosph]e 
or 9 ! pa? ( ! same light1 to be        
envelop$ 9 ! same d>kness or %ad[1 or   
m]ely to p>ticipate 9 a s+le composition
 ( colors or rhy?m ( l9es s]ves to unite
 objects4 ,! relative importance (      
elem5ts1 too1 is det]m9$ r by "s        
intr9sic quality :i* arre/s att5tion ?an
 by any supremacy z mean+s4  ,?r\gh su* 
mat]ials & me?ods z we h describ$1 !    
possibilities & limits ( expression 9   
pa9t+ are det]m9$4 ,fir/ ( all1 pa9t+   
has ! p[]1 ?r\gh color & l9e z su*1 to  

express ! purely musical emotions2 ?is  
we dem& ( pa9t+ j z we dem& music (     
v]se3 )\t ^w-music1 !re is no poetry1 no
 matt] h[ high ! !me2 s )\t color & l9e 
music1 no matt] h[ skillful !           
repres5tation or h[ noble ! subject1 !re
 is no picture4 ,pa9t+ may give little m
 ?an ?is4 ,9 mu* ( /ill-life pa9t+1 =   
example1 ! values atta*$ to ! objects   
repres5t$ are borr[$ f ! music ( !      
m$ium4 ,& ev5 :5 ! objects repres5t$ h a
 value 9 !mselves1 ! sup]iority ( _!    
repres5tation ov] ! m]e p]ception ( !m 9
 nature comes f ?is s\rce4 ,:y1 =       
example1 does ! pa9t+ ( fl[]s by a real 
ma/] af=d a ri*] ae/hetic exp]i5ce ?an  
real fl[]s8 ,pa9t$ fl[]s h no p]fume1   
rightly call$ ! s\l ( fl[]s4 ,x is      
because 9 pa9t+ ! expressiv5ess ( ! pur]
 & m subtly h>moni\s colors m ?an       
comp5sates = ! lack ( odor4 ,?r\gh !    
music ( color & l9e we are made         
responsive to common ?+s :i* o!rwise    
w\ld leave u cold1 or if we are         
responsive to !m1 our s5sitiv5ess       

becomes f9] & ke5]4 ,x is l>gely because
 he is s accompli%$ a musician 9 color &
 composition t ,jan ,v]me] c make !     
inside ( a room or "s commonplace act by
 a commonplace p]son ! object ( an      
int5se & sympa!tic contemplation4  ,= ! 
beauty ( l&scape also1 :i* ! art ( pa9t+
 has creat$ & :i* dur+ ! la/ c5tury has 
become its favorite !me1 ! music ( color
 is equally ess5tial4 ,9 its highe/ =m1 
t beauty requires emotional             
responsiv5ess comb9$ ) ! p[] accurately 
to obs]ve & reproduce ! qualities ( ?+s2
 )\t obs]vation & reproduction1 ! feel+ 
is incommunicable2 )\t feel+1 !         
imitation is lifeless4 ,love ( ! object1
 :i* at once reveals & makes responsive1
 m$iates ! highe/ a*ievem5ts ( ! art4   
,by translat+ ! object into ! language (
 ab/ract color & l9e1 x is purifi$ =    
feel+2 = ^? qualities t[>d :i* feel+ is 
indiff]5t are elim9at$2 only s mu* z c  
ent] into an expressive color or l9e    
composition survives4 ,! arti/ gives u !
 illusion t he is reproduc+ our famili> 

_w all ! :ile t he is glorify+ x ?r\gh !
 beauty ( ! colors 9 :i* he pa9ts x4 ,! 
pa9t+ ( ! human body1 especially ! nude 
human body1 belongs to ! same class (   
subjects z ! pa9t+ ( l&scapes4 ,= !     
human body unclo!d1 & z unclo!d sev]$ f 
! conv5tional social _w1 is a "p (      
nature & speaks to u z nature does ?r\gh
 =m & color4 ,to br+ t object be=e u )  
all its expressive detail2 to make u1 9 
! imag9ation1 move ) x & t\* x2 to c>ess
 x ) our eyes2 to awak5 t passionate    
int]e/ :i* makes u see & feel x m       
vividly ?an any?+ else 9 ! _w1 yet to   
subdue passion :olly to a gl[+          
contemplation1 ?is is "o ( ! highe/     
a*ievem5ts ( pictorial art4 ,& ! arti/ic
 "r to repres5t x 9 ! woods by lake or  
/ream1 or 9 ! mead[ among o!r natural   
?+s1 mu/ be accord$ to ! arti/ despite  
all prote/s ( conv5tion & habit2 we nev]
 actually f9d x !re1 to be sure1 yet !re
 x belongs = imag9ative feel+s4 ,!      
maid5s 9 ,corot's pa9t+s1 = example1    
seem to belong z naturally to ! l&scape 

z ! v trees !mselves4  ,b ! pa9t] c     
depict ! human body n m]ely z some?+    
s5su\sly beautiful1 b z expressive1     
?r\gh ge/ure & pose & c\nt5ance1 ( "* & 
?\ght4 ,! complex psy*ic life ( man is  
?us op5 to him = del9eation4 ,9 !       
portrait1 ?r\gh ! att5tive /udy ( ! _m  
v>y+ expressions ( ! inn] life1 lead+ to
 ! selection ( "s *>act]i/ic pose or    
action1 ! arti/ conc5trates into a s+le 
image :at seems to him to be ! di/9ctive
 nature ( ! man4 ,& he c express ?is    
nature ov] aga91 & s m effectively      
reveal x1 9 ! m]e colors & l9es :i* he  
uses4 ,?us ,franz ,hals has embodi$ !   
abundance & good *e] ( 8 burgh]s 9 !    
boldness & brightness ( ! l9es & colors 
) :i* he pa9ts !m2 & ,hog>?1 9 ! ,%rimp 
,girl1 ?r\gh ! m]e s+ul>ity ( l9e &     
color1 has creat$ ! e]ie impression :i* 
we atta* to ! girl h]self4 ,! be/       
portraits subord9ate ev]y?+ else1 su* z 
co/ume & backgr\nd1 to ! pa9t+ ( ! inn] 
life4 ,?us ,velasquez br+s be=e u ! s\ls
 ( 8 little ,infantas despite ! que]    

head-dresses & frocks :i* mu/ h ?reat5$ 
to smo!r !m4 ,! backgr\nd %\ld s]ve !   
same end2 if elaborate1 x %\ld repres5t 
a fitt+ environm5t2 & if pla9 x %\ld ?r[
 ! figure into relief4 ,alongside ( !   
portrait z a pa9t+ ( ! s\l %\ld be plac$
 pictures ( ideal *>act]s2 ideal1 n 9 ! 
s5se ( good1 b 9 ! s5se ( m highly      
complex & unifi$ ?an actually exi/+     
p]sons4 ,su* pictures symbolize = u !   
qu9tess5ce & highe/ level ( def9ite     
types ( life4 ,manet's ,olympia &       
,goya's ,maja belong "h equally )       
,leon>do's ,*ri/ or ,mona ,lisa1 )      
,raphael's ,madonnas & ,mi*elangelo's   
gods & angels4 ,9 !m is atta9$ ! mo/    
int5se conc5tration ( psy*ic life       
possible4  ,x is n[ pretty g5]ally      
recogniz$ t ! unities ( "t & space      
exclude f ! sph]e ( pa9t+ /ory tell+ &  
hi/ory1 :i* require = effective         
repres5tation m ?an ! s+le mom5t includ$
 9 pa9t+4 ,9 ord] to tell a /ory 9      
pa9t+1 "o has to supplem5t :at is se5 ) 
ideas :i* c be obta9$ only f a catalogue

 or o!r s\rce ext]nal to ! picture2 "o  
has to add 9 ?\ght to ! mom5t giv5 on ! 
canvas ! miss+ mom5ts ( ! action4 ,b a  
"w ( art %\ld be complete 9 itself & s  
f> z possible self-explanatory2 x %\ld n
 lead u away f itself1 b keep u always  
to itself4 ,if ! sc5e repres5t$ be a "p 
( a /ory1 ! /ory %\ld be s well kn[n t  
its connection ) ! picture c be         
imm$iately recogniz$ )\t ext]nal aid1 & 
%\ld admit ( a c]ta9 complet5ess 9 its  
v>i\s p>ts4 ,! life ( ,*ri/ is su* a    
/ory2 ev]ybody kn[s x & c int]pret a    
picture portray+ x =?)2 its v>i\s       
incid5ts & situations h ea* a unique &  
complete significance 9 !mselves4       
,hi/orical pa9t+s are n necess>ily bad1 
( c\rse1 b ! good ones are good despite 
! hi/ory1 & a pro( ( _! excell5ce       
consi/s 9 ! fact t :5 we see !m !y make 
u =get = ! mom5t our hi/orical          
erudition4  ,?is norm does n exclude f !
 sph]e ( pa9t+ ! expression ( ! relation
 ( man to 8 fell[s2 x simply conf9es    
pa9t+ to ! del9eation ( mom5t>y &       

self-suffici5t glimpses ( social life4  
,pictures repres5t+ a "m & *ild1 a pair 
( lov]s1 a family gr\p1 fe/ival1 tav]n  
sc5e1 or battle *>ge are illu/rations4  
,9 ,dut* pa9t+ ! social life ( ,holl& 9 
! sev5te5? c5tury f\nd its record2 yet  
!re is little or no anecdote4 ,! g5re1 !
 repres5tation ( a gr\p ( p unit$ by "s 
common int]e/ & ) an appropriate        
backgr\nd1 has ! same legitimacy1 if n !
 same em95ce1 z ! portrait4 ,x does n   
possess ! rank ( ! portrait because1    
s9ce ! int]e/ is r 9 ! action or !      
situation portray$1 ! figures are m     
m]ely typical1 be+ develop$ only s f> z 
is necess>y to c>ry ! action2 seldom is 
a subtle & individualiz$ inn] life      
portray$4  ,objections are rightly      
rais$1 h[ev]1 aga9/ pa!tic1 s5tim5tal1 &
 morali/ic pa9t+4 ,"h color & l9e1 !    
:ole picture 9 fact1 c\nts = little or  
no?+ except to /ir an emotion1 usually (
 grief or pity or love1 or to prea* a   
s]mon2 ! unity ( =m & cont5t is         
sacrific$1 ! "o becom+ a m]e means to ! 

o!r4 ,b1 z we "k1 x is nev] ! purpose ( 
art m]ely to /ir feel+2 its purpose is  
to objectify feel+2 if ! art be pa9t+1  
to put feel+ into color & l9e1 & only :5
 feel+ is exp]i5c$ z !re is x ae/hetic  
feel+ at all4 ,& :at %all we ?9k ( a    
picture l ! ,doctor ( ,luke ,fildes'1   
:i* is s pa!tic t "o _c be> to look at  
x8 ,surely a picture %\ld make "o want  
to see x6 ,( c\rse ,i d n mean t an     
arti/ _c pa9t pa!tic & s5tim5tal        
subjects4 ,! great pa9t]s ( ! ,passion  
w\ld disprove t ) ref]5ce to ! =m] &    
,watteau ) ref]5ce to ! latt]4 ,b a p[] 
to a*ieve beauty ( color & l9e & to     
objectify pa?os & s5tim5t ?r\gh !m 0    
possess$ by ^! pa9t]s to a degree to :i*
 few o!rs h atta9$4 ,= morali/ic pa9t+1 
h[ev]1 !re c be no excuse4 ,y c pa9t    
visible ?+s & z mu* ( ! s\l z c appe>   
?r\gh !m2 y _c pa9t ab/ract e?ical      
maxims4 ,( c\rse a pa9t] may int5d 8    
picture to be an illu/ration ( "s moral 
maxim1 or may ev51 z ,hog>? did1 pa9t x 
to expose ! s9s ( 8 age & create a      

beautiful "w not)/&+2 b only if1 9 !    
result1 ?is purpose is irrelevant & !   
concrete del9eation ev]y?+4     ,,*apt] 
,,xii  ,,sculpture   ,! sculptor has ?is
 advantage ov] all o!r arti/s1 t 8 *ief 
subject is ! mo/ beautiful ?+ 9 ! _w--! 
human body4 ,9 two ways ! body is       
supremely beautiful3 z an expression (  
m9d & z an embodim5t ( s5su\s *>m4 ,9 ! 
body m9d has become actually inc>nate2  
!re purpose1 emotion1 & ?\ght h tak5    
%ape & manife/ation4 ,& ?is %ape1 ?r\gh 
its appeal to ! amor\s1 p>5tal1 &       
greg>i\s feel+s1 & ?r\gh ! complete     
organization ( its p>ts1 has no rival 9 
lovel9ess4 ,:at wond]1 !re=e1 t         
sculptors h always ?\ght ( _! "w z      
simply "o ( m]e imitation ( nature1 !   
div9e4 ,yet 9 sculpture1 z 9 ! o!r arts1
 ! imitative process is nev] slavi%1 b  
selective & inv5tive4 ,= ! body is      
int]e/+ to ! arti/ only 9 s f> z x is   
beautiful1 t is1 s f> z x has *>m &     
exhibits ! control ( m9d2 "s ( its      
details & _m ( its attitudes1 hav+ no   

relation to ei!r1 are unfit = imitation2
 &1 al?\gh inspir$ by 8 model1 !        
sculptor seeks to create out ( 8        
impressions a /ill m h>moni\s object4   
,to give to 8 mat]ial ! semblance ( !   
body beautiful is ! te*nical problem ( !
 sculptor4 ,al?\gh ?is semblance is     
prim>ily = sight1 x is n exclusively s4 
,= 9 sculpture %ape is n two-dim5sional1
 b pla/ic2 & = ! full appreciation (    
pla/icity1 ! coop]ation ( t\* is        
requir$4 ,moreov]1 n only ! p]ception ( 
! =m1 b also a l>ge "p ( ! appreciation 
( ! *>m ( ! body dep5ds ^u t\*4 ,( c\rse
 we d n ord9>ily t\* /atues1 b !y %\ld  
make u want to t\* !m1 & we %\ld t\*    
!m--9 ! imag9ation4 ,! surfaces ( !     
/atue %\ld !re=e be s model$ z to give  
u1 9 ! imag9ation1 ! pleasures t we get 
:5 we t\* ! liv+ body4 ,x is well kn[n t
 ^! t\* values 7 de/roy$ by !           
neo-classici/s :5 !y poli%$ ! surfaces (
 _! /atues4 ,su* sculpture = ! eye only 
is almo/ z good :5 reproduc$ 9 an       
engrav+ t pres]ves its visual quality1 &

 is !re=e lack+ 9 complete sculptural   
beauty4 ,b no plane reproduction c      
replace ! be/ ,greek1 ,italian1 or ,fr5*
 "w4  ,! life ( ! /atue %\ld1 h[ev]1 be 
m ?an sk9 deep4 ,we %\ld appreciate x   
?r\gh s5sations ( motion & /ra9 z well z
 ?r\gh sight & t\*1 feel+ ! t5s5ess or  
relaxation ( ! muscles & t5dons b5ea?4  
,we %\ld move ) its motion or re/ ) its 
repose4 ,& ?is does n mean t we %\ld    
m]ely "k t an attitude ( quiet or (     
motion is repres5t$2 we %\ld actually   
exp]i5ce quiet or motion4 ,9 our own    
bodies s5sations correspond+ to ^! %\ld 
be awak5$ by ! visual image ( ! /atue1  
yet %\ld be fus$ ) ! latt]1 becom+ = our
 p]ception its1 n ours1 9 accordance ) !
 me*anism ( e9fuhlung describ$ 9 our    
f\r? *apt]4 ,! light rhy?mic motion ( ! 
figures 9 ,c>peaux's ,dance %\ld ?rill 9
 our own limbs1 yet seem to ?rill 9     
!irs4  ,because x pres]ves ! full       
?ree-dim5sional pres5ce ( ! body1       
sculpture is1 next to ! drama1 ! mo/    
reali/ic ( ! arts4 ,?is realism is n1   

h[ev]1 an unmix$ advantage = g5]al      
appreciation4 ,=1 f9d+ ! %ape ( ! body1 
m5 sometimes dem& its color & life1     
compla9+ t ! /atue is cold &            
dead2,footnote3 ,see ,byron1 ,don ,juan1
 ,canto ,,ii1 cxviii4 or else1 giv+ life
 to ! =m1 !y react to x practically &   
socially1 z !y w\ld t[>d ! real body4   
,yet1 = ! "o attitude1 ! art itself _c  
be held responsible1 b r "s want ( g5ius
 9 ! arti/ or lack ( imag9ation 9 !     
spectator2 & z = ! o!r1 al?\gh only a   
bloodless dogma w\ld dem& ! elim9ation (
 passion & int]e/ f ! appreciation (    
sculpture--= unless ! m>ble ar\se !     
natural feel+s t[>d ! body x is no      
successful expression--nev]!less1 good  
ta/e does dem& t1 ?r\gh att5tion to =m &
 a s5se ( ! unreality ( ! object1 ^!    
feel+s be subdu$ to contemplation4  ,9  
ord] to keep ! /atue on ! ideal plane1 x
 %\ld n be too reali/ically fa%ion$4 ,if
 x looks too mu* l a man1 we %all fir/  
treat x z a man1 z we d "o ( ,j>ley's or
 ,mme4 ,tissaud's waxworks1 & !n aft] we

 h be5 undeceiv$1 we %all h t[>d x an   
uncanny feel+1 totally unae/hetic1 z    
t[>ds a corpse4 ,! /atue1 !re=e1 if     
life-siz$1 %\ld n be giv5 ! colors or   
clo?+ ( life4 ,t9t+ is n exclud$1       
provid$ no attempt is made at exact     
imitation2 & :5 ! /atue is ( h]oic1 or  
less ?an ! normal size1 z 9 porcela91   
bo? color+ & clo?+ may be m reali/ic4   
,no h>d & fa/ rules c be =mulat$2 yet ! 
pr9ciple is pla9--!re %\ld be realism 9 
"o aspect1 above all 9 %ape1 9 ord] t   
!re may be an ae/hetic semblance ( life1
 b n 9 all1 9 ord] t ! /atue may n be a 
m]e sub/itute = life1 awak5+ ! reactions
 appropriate to life4 ,moreov]1         
appreciat+ ! beauty ( 8 mat]ial1 !      
sculptor may n wi% to cov] x up1 z he   
w\ld if he t9t$ x4 ,z 9 pa9t+1 !        
atta9m5t ( beauty 9 ! m$ium may int]f]e 
) full realism 9 execution4 ,= ! sake ( 
beauty ( color1 ! work] 9 bronze w be   
cont5t to see ! :ite man black1 & = !   
sake ( beauty ( l9e he may ev5 sacrifice
 some?+ ( exactness 9 ! r5d]+ ( %ape4   

,= !re is a beauty 9 ! m$ia ( sculpture1
 ap>t f :at !y may repres5t1 q z real1  
if n z obvi\s1 z 9 ! o!r arts4 ,& )\t   
?is beauty1 !re is no arti/ic sculpture4
 ,its subtlety does n dim9i% its        
importance or its effect ^u our feel+1 =
 x makes all ! diff]5ce betwe5 a m]e    
imitation ( nature & a "w ( art *>m+ &  
compell+4 ,we d n ne$ to recognize its  
exi/5ce explicitly 9 ord] to appreciate 
x2 yet1 z soon z our att5tion is call$  
to x1 we admit x & accord to x t r>e    
influ5ce :i* be=e 0 felt b nameless4  ,9
 ! fir/ place1 ! color ( ! mat]ial is   
expressive4 ,! black & gold ( bronze h a
 dep? & int5sity1 ! :it5ess ( m>ble a   
coldness1 cl>ity1 &1 s]5ity1            
inescapable4 ,! weight & h>dness1 or    
lightness & s(tness1 ( ! mat]ial1 also  
c\nt4 ,if p d n feel ! expressiv5ess (  
^! qualities directly1 !y nev]!less d   
feel x indirectly1 :5ev] !y appreciate !
 sup]ior fitness ( m>ble & bronze = !   
embodim5t ( ! h]oic & sup]natural1 & ( !
 light & fragile porcela9 = ! m fleet+ &

 trivial phases ( life4 ,size1 too1 is  
expressive4 ,!re is a da9t9ess &        
t5d]ness ab\t a little /atue1 contra/+  
/rongly ) ! gr&eur & maje/y ( "o ( h]oic
 size4 ,! usual small size ( ! t]ra     
cotta figur9es among ! ,greeks 0        
appropriate = ! g5re subjects :i* !y s  
frequ5tly repres5t$1 & an ,aphrodite 9  
?is mat]ial is r ! ,e>?ly ?an ! ,heav5ly
 ,love4  ,!re is also an evid5t beauty (
 l9e 9 sculpture1 simil> to ! beauty (  
l9e 9 pa9t+4 ,! curv$ l9e is expressive 
( movem5t & grace2 ! horizontal1 (      
repose2 ! crook$ l9e1 ( en]gy &         
conflict4 ,comp>e1 f ?is po9t ( view1   
,rod9's ,! ,ag$ ,helmet- ,mak]'s ,wife )
 8 ,danaid1--h[ expressive ( /ruggle &  
suff]+ are ! unev5 l9es ( ! =m]1 h[     
voluptu\s ! curves ( ! latt]6           
,mi*elangelo is ! great example ( ! use 
( tortu\s l9es = ! expression (         
conflict4 ,undulat+ v]tical l9es are    
l>gely responsible = ! grace & dignity (
 ! classic sculpture4  ,!re is an       
organic unity ( l9e 9 sculpture1 simil> 

aga9 to t 9 pa9t+4 ,& by l9e ,i mean n  
only surface l9es1 b ! l9es made by !   
planes 9 :i* ! body lies1 ! l9es ( pose 
& attitude4 ,! pr$om9ance ( a s+le type 
( l9e1 ! union ( _m l9es to =m a s+le   
cont9u\s l9e1 balance & symmetry ( l9e1 
proportion ( l5g? & p>allelism1 are all 
to be f\nd 9 sculpture4 ,especially     
important is rhy?m--! h>moni\s1 balanc$ 
movem5t ( l9es4 ,9 ! ,v5us de ,milo1 =  
example1 ! plane ( ! l[] limbs f ! feet 
to ! knees moves to ! left2 !re is an   
opposite & balanc+ movem5t f ! "r knee  
to ! wai/2 ! fir/ movem5t is repeat$ 9 !
 p>allel l9e f ! "r hip to ! top ( !    
head2 ?is1 9 turn1 is balanc$ by a l9e 9
 ! opposite direction runn+ f ! left hip
 to ! "r %\ld]1 p>allel to ! second l9e2
 b ! equilibrium ( l9e is n a rigid "o1 
= ! body z a :ole moves 9 an undulat+   
l9e to ! left1 imp>t+ grace & a total   
unity4  ,! beauty ( l9e 9 sculpture is1 
( c\rse1 no inv5tion ( ! arti/2 = nature
 has creat$ x 9 ! body itself4 ,!       
sculptor takes ?is beauty z ! basis ( 8 

"w1 remodel+ only by ! elim9ation (     
details1 ?r\gh :i* pur] effects ( l9e   
are obta9$1 or by ! selection & emphasis
 ( pose1 ?r\gh :i* ^! effects are r5d]$ 
m int5sely expressive4 ,all             
conv5tionalization is 9 ! int]e/ (      
increas$ beauty ( l9e4 ,b too great a   
sacrifice ( ! natural cont\rs ( ! body1 
z 9 "s ( ! "w ( ! ,cubi/s1 results 9 a  
lifelessness t _c be aton$ = by any =mal
 beauty4  ,! unification ( l9e 9        
sculpture is a matt] n only ( l9es )9 ! 
:ole & ( s+le cont\rs1 b ( ! total      
visual =m ( ! :ole1 ( silh\ette4 ,al?\gh
 ?ree-dim5sional1 e /atue ca/s a        
two-dim5sional image on ! ret9a4 ,x     
makes z _m ( ^! plane pictures z !re are
 po9ts ( view f :i* x c be se54 ,"o c   
easily conv9ce oneself ( ?is by view+ a 
/atue f a di/ance1 :5 x w flatt5 out to 
a m]e outl9e or silh\ette4 ,z su*1 x    
%\ld be cle> & simple & pleas+1 capable 
( be+ grasp$ z a :ole irrespective (    
detail4 ,mi*elangelo dem&$ t e /atue be 
capable ( be+ put inside ( "s simple    

geometrical figure1 l a pyramid or a    
cube2 t !re be no wayw>d arms or legs1 b
 close atta*m5t to ! body1 s close t !  
/atue might be roll$ d[n hill )\t any "p
 be+ brok5 (f4 ,?is la/ is p]haps too   
rigor\s a requirem5t1 b ! be/ "w ( all  
p]iods exhibits visual cl>ity &         
conc5tration4,footnote3 ,comp>e ,adolf  
,hildebr&1 ,! ,problem ( ,=m 9 ,pa9t+ & 
,sculpture4  ,)9 its cont\rs ! /atue /&s
 alone4 ,?is is ! ess5tial diff]5ce     
betwe5 pa9t+ & sculpture2 ! pa9t$ ?+ is 
always a "p ( a l>g] spatial :ole )9 :i*
 x exi/s 9 relation to o!r ?+s1 :ile !  
sculptur$ ?+ exi/s by itself2 ! space ( 
! /atue is ! space :i* x fills2 !re is  
no fur!r space to :i* x belongs1 no     
backgr\nd 9 :i* x lies4 ,! space (      
sculpture1 l ! space ( pa9t+1 is ( c\rse
 a repres5t$ or imag9>y space1 to be    
c>efully di/+ui%$ f ! real space ( !    
room 9 :i* x is plac$ & ! floor ^u :i* x
 /&s4 ,! p$e/al s]ves ! same purpose 9  
sculpture z ! frame 9 ! si/] art2 x cuts
 (f ! ideal space :i* ! /atue fills f ! 

real space :]e x is h\s$1 rais+ x above 
! common gr\nd ( real life1 ) its       
practical & social attitudes1 into !    
realm ( contemplation4 ,! p$e/al %\ld be
 ( a diff]5t mat]ial f ! /atue1 else x  
belongs ) ! latt]1 & fails to p]=m its  
sep>at+ junction4 ,! plate1 on ! o!r h&1
 %\ld be ( ! same mat]ial1 o!rwise !    
/atue w\ld be made to /& on our e>?1 & 9
 ! same space ) u4  ,h[ev]1 j z 9 pa9t+ 
e object %\ld be repres5t$ z belong+ to 
a wid] :ole ( space1 s 9 sculpture1 e "p
 ( ! body %\ld be repres5t$ z belong+ to
 ! :ole body4 ,if1 !re=e1 only a "p ( ! 
body is sculptur$1 x %\ld be evid5t t x 
is a "p & n ! :ole4 ,9 ! portrait /atue1
 = example1 if ! head alone is          
repres5t$1 !re %\ld appe>1 along ) !    
head1 z mu* ( ! bu/ z w sugge/ atta*m5t 
to ! body1 9 ord] t x may n seem        
decapitat$6 ,x is because ! torso is s  
obvi\sly a fragm5t ( an ideal :ole t we 
d n feel x to be an uncanny mutilation (
 a man or woman4 ,9 its pres5t          
condition1 ! ,v5us de ,milo is n ! /atue

 ( an armless woman1 b a /atue ( "p ( a 
:ole woman4  ,a /atue is n suffici5tly  
unifi$ by repres5t+ a s+le individual or
 sev]al individuals unit$ by "s common  
int]e/ or by p>ticipation 9 "s common   
action2 ! unity 9 ! object %\ld be      
express$ ?r\gh a unity 9 ! mat]ial (    
repres5tation4 ,! f9e/ ta/e requires t e
 /atue %\ld be made ( only "o k9d (     
mat]ial4 ,"o "p1 say ! body1 %\ld n be (
 m>ble1 & ano!r "p1 say ! girdle1 ( gold
 or bronze4 ,su* a comb9ation ( mat]ials
 gives ! impression ( two ?+s juxtapos$1
 n ( a s+le :ole4 ,if 9 def5se ( ?is "o 
7 to say t ?r\gh ! diff]5ce ( mat]ials  
real diff]5ces 9 ! object are portray$1 
consi/5cy w\ld require t ! pr9ciple be  
c>ri$ out1 t ! hair be ( ano!r mat]ial1 
& ! eyes ( /ill a ?ird1 ) ! result (    
mak+ ! /atue a %e] agglom]ate4 ,& :5 m  
?an "o individual is repres5t$1 ev5 a   
unity ( mat]ial is n suffici5t2 x is    
necess>y1 9 addition1 t ! sev]al figures
 9 ! gr\p be 9 contact ) ea* ,o!r4 ,x is
 n en\gh t !y /& on ! same plate2 = !   

real empty space t we see betwe5 !m w   
keep !m ap>t4 ,! ideal space to :i* !y  
belong1 & ! spiritual or dramatic       
on5ess1 %\ld be m$iat$ by a mat]ial t\* 
( h&s or o!r p>ts ( ! body4 ,comp>e1 9  
?is connection1 ,rod9's ,citiz5s (      
,calais :]e ?is pr9ciple is violat$1 ) !
 ?ree figures f ! summit ( 8 ,hell      
,gate1 :]e x is obs]v$4 ,9 ! =m] we     
simply "k t ! figures belong toge!r1 b  
we d n feel !m z toge!r4,footnote3      
,comp>e ,lipps1 ,ae/hetik1 ,bd4 #b1     
,fu5ftes ,kapitel4  ,9 ! normal type (  
sculpture only "o figure is repres5t$4  
,= ?is1 !re is1 p]haps1 a *ief po9t (   
reg>d1 9 front1 ! same z t :i* we       
ord9>ily occupy ) ref]5ce to our fell[  
m54 ,yet1 s9ce ! body is beautiful f e  
po9t ( view1 ! /atue1 unless design$ to 
fit into a ni*e1 %\ld be s made t we    
%all want to move ar\nd x & survey x f e
 angle4 ,"h is ano!r diff]5ce betwe5    
pa9t+ & sculpture4 ,9 ! gr\p1 h[ev]1 :]e
 sev]al figures are repres5t$ unit$ by  
"s common int]e/ or by p>ticipat+ 9 "s  

common action1 ?is diff]5ce is already  
beg9n+ to disappe>4 ,=1 9 ord] to       
appreciate ! dramatic significance ( !  
gr\p1 ! po9t ( reg>d f 9 front is       
ess5tial4 ,! o!r aspects rema9 important
 = _! corporeal beauty1 b1 s9ce t is n  
ord9>ily pair$ ) an equal inn]          
significance1 !y come to acquire a      
second>y place4  ,impressioni/ic        
sculpture repres5ts a fur!r dep>ture f !
 normal & 9 ! direction ( ! pictorial4  
,"h "p ( ! block f :i* ! /atue has be5  
hewn is left an integral memb] ( !      
piece2 & out ( x ! figure seems to gr[1 
z x 74 ,x p]=ms 9 ! :ole a function     
correspond+ to ! backgr\nd ( a          
portrait--! repres5tation ( !           
environm5t4 ,?us1 9 ,meuni]'s ,! ,m9]1 !
 block repres5ts ! m9e2 9 ,rod9's       
,orpheus & ,eurydice1 x repres5ts ! m\? 
( ,hades2 9 8 ,my/]y ( ! ,spr+1 a bas94 
,?r\gh ! possibility ( ?us repres5t+ !  
relation ( man to 8 environm5t a notable
 ext5sion 9 ! scope ( sculpture is      
obta9$4  ,:5 a backgr\nd is introduc$1 !

 figure or figures1 be+ memb]s ( a l>g] 
:ole1 require less detail$ treatm5t1    
less cle>ness ( outl9e4 ,_! p>ts may ev5
 be left 9 l>ge measure unf9i%$1 !      
cont\rs melt+ toge!r ) ! block4 ,a      
special po9t ( reg>d1 f :i* alone !     
figures are model$1 is obvi\sly         
ess5tial4 ,/rik+ is ! contra/ ( ?is type
 ) ! classic1 :]e ! utmo/ precision 9   
model+ is necess>y4 ,along ) ! dim9i%$  
emphasis on cle>ness ( =m goes an       
increas$ ef=t at ! portrayal ( ! inn]1 m
 spiritual life2 s5tim5t & my/]y f9d an 
unwont$ place 9 ! art4 ,rod9's ,psy*e is
 a good illu/ration4 ,yet1 despite ^!   
diff]5ces1 ! classic dem& = liv+        
surfaces1 = rhy?mical l9es1 = p]spicuity
 & totality ( silh\ette1 = s+l5ess &    
unity ( mat]ial1 abides4  ,h[ev]1 :5 !  
block atta9s prom95ce1 ! unification ( !
 diff]5t figures ?r\gh contact is no    
long] ( equal necessity4 ,! backgr\nd   
s]ves ! purpose ( br++ ! figures toge!r1
 ( provid+ a mat]ial bond betwe5 !m4    
,?is is especially true 9 ! v>i\s k9ds (

 relief1 betwe5 :i* & sculpture 9 !     
r\nd1 impressioni/ic sculpture is a sort
 ( compromise4 ,9 relief !re may ev5 be 
a repres5tation ( p]spective1 ! figures 
seem+ to lie beh9d ea* o!r1 flatt] &    
small] to indicate di/ance4 ,b we %all n
 ent] into ! te*nique ( ?is1 :i*        
obvi\sly approa*es t ( pa9t+4  ,:5 ! *>m
 ( ! body is ! prime object (           
expression1 ^? actions & poses :i*      
exhibit grace & vigor are ! ones        
naturally *os54 ,?is beauty is be/      
reveal$ 9 ! s+le figure1 because 9 !    
gr\p !re is usually "s dramatic int]e/  
:i* div]ts att5tion f x4 ,! figure is   
pref]ably :olly or p>tially undrap$1 or 
:5 drap]y is us$1 x %\ld reveal ! body  
und]nea? & possess beauty ( l9e ( its   
own4 ,elaboration ( drap]y = its own    
sake1 or 9 ord] to display virtuosity 9 
model+1 %[s lack ( true sculptural      
vision1 :i* always has its eye on ! nak$
 =m4 ,aside f lack ( *>m1 ! old &       
crippl$ are avoid$ because _! inh>moni\s
 l9es w\ld appe> aga9 9 a /atue :i*     

reproduc$ !m2 x is n possible1 z 9      
pa9t+1 to make a h>mony out ( !m ?r\gh  
relation to o!r l9es 9 ! total "w1 = no 
o!r l9es exi/2 nor c _! natural ugl9ess 
be s easily made acceptable ?r\gh beauty
 ( color & light4 ,nev]!less1 no "o c   
dogmatically ass]t t ! arti/ mu/ conf9e 
himself 9 8 *oice ( subjects4 ,if by    
h>moniz+ ! di/ort$ l9es ( an ugly body )
 ea* o!r1 & by enhanc+ ! giv5 purity &  
expressiv5ess ( 8 mat]ial1 ! arti/ c    
create a beauty ( =m ov]ly+ ! repell5ce 
( ! subject1 & if he c make u feel !    
trag$y or pa?os ( age & disease1 no "o c
 ga9say 8 "w4 ,9 8 ,ag$ ,helmet-,mak]'s 
,wife1 ,rod9 has p]haps accompli%$ ?is4 
,footnote3 ,see ,rod9's own def5se ( ?is
 /atue 9 8 ,l',art1 *ap4 ,,ii4  ,9 !    
classic sculpture ! expression ( ! inn] 
life is subord9ate to ! expression (    
corporeal beauty4 ,or1 s f> z m9d is    
reveal$1 ! revelation occurs ?r\gh !    
body z a :ole1--?r\gh attitude & pose & 
act4 ,9 ?is way complete unity betwe5 ! 
inn] & ! out] beauty is pres]v$4 ,= :5  

?r\gh subtle model+ ( ! face !          
expression ( ! int5se & individualiz$   
life ( ?\ght is attempt$1 ! beauties (  
s\l & body t5d to fall ap>t & become    
rivals = att5tion4 ,9 classic sculpture1
 !re=e1 ! face is rightly some:at       
inexpressive1 or bett]1 is expressive ( 
only ! broad & typical human emotions4  
,f9e or deep qualities may1 h[ev]1 be   
express$2 = dignity1 poise1 intellig5ce1
 sorr[1 & active joy make !mselves      
manife/ 9 ! total habitus ( ! body no   
less ?an 9 ! face4  ,! "w ( ,mi*elangelo
 is a fur!r pro( t sculpture c express !
 spiritual life1 n only 9 ! face1 b 9 ! 
body also4 ,! expression !re is no      
diff]5t 9 ess5tial k9d f t f\nd 9 !     
h]oic classic sculpture4 ,x is univ]sal1
 typical1 n individual1 p]sonal2 ( !    
gods1 n ( m54 ,its quality alone diff]s2
 x is mon/r\s1 pa?ological1 gr&iose1    
in/ead ( s]5e & happily balanc$4  ,b    
sculpture c also portray ! individualiz$
 psy*ic life4 ,footnote3 ,consult !     
discussion 9 ,rod9's ,l',art1 *ap4      

,,vii4 ,= ?is1 ! portrait bu/ is ! mo/  
appropriate m$ium ( expression4 ,by     
sep>at+ ! head1 ! natural seat ( m9d1 f 
! re/ ( ! body1 ! rivalry betwe5 !      
beauty ( s\l & =m is obviat$4 ,h[ mu*   
sculpture c d 9 ?is way is %[n by ! "w (
 ! ,greeks & ,romans 9 anci5t times1 &  
by su* m5 z ,h\don & ,rod9 among !      
mod]ns4 ,?9k ( ! int5se & conc5trat$    
expression ( ?\ght & emotion 9 !        
,voltaire ( ,h\don & ! ,dal\ ( ,rod96   
,success dep5ds l>gely ^u ! model+ ( !  
subtle l9es ( ! face1 :]e ! m highly    
specializ$ work+s ( ! m9d leave _!      
impress4 ,:atev] ( "* ! face may express
 c be express$ ov] aga9 9 its image4 ,( 
c\rse ! unique responses ( m9d to       
def9ite situations1 su* z1 = example1 ! 
conv]sation ( a man ) 8 fell[s1 _c be   
portray$ 9 sculpture1 :i* isolates !    
individual4 ,b ! *>act]i/ic mood &      
attitude1 ! p]man5t residuum & condition
 ( ^! responses1 c be portray$2 & ?is   
con/itutes p]sonality or "*4 ,z         
,s*op5hau] decl>$1 ! "* ( a man is bett]

 reveal$ 9 ! face :5 he is 9 repose ?an 
:5 he is respond+ to o!r m51 = !re is   
always a c]ta9 am\nt ( dissimulation or 
ins9c]ity 9 social int]c\rse4 ,!        
impossibility ( r5d]+ ! color &         
animation ( ! eye con/itutes a real     
defici5cy1 b1 z has (t5 be5 po9t$ out1  
?is is p>tly m9imiz$ ?r\gh ! fact t !   
expression ( ! eye dep5ds l>gely ^u !   
br[s2 by itself1 ! eye is inexpressive4 
,! portrait /atue has mu* ! same purpose
 z ! bu/1 & h5ce %\ld be drap$4 ,!      
h]oic1 eque/rian /atue1 h[ev]1 expresses
 r ! impos+1 socially p]ceptible side ( 
! man1 ?an ! inn] life ( ?\ght & s5tim5t
 reveal$ 9 ! bu/4  ,! developm5t (      
sculpture has produc$ no?+ m beautiful  
?an ! solitaire /atues :i* ! ,greeks h  
left u2 & :5 we ?9k ( ,greek sculpture  
we usually h 9 m9d ^! m>ble or bronze   
images ( gods & h]oes4 ,b we %\ld n =get
 ! figur9es ( t]ra cotta1 a g5re        
sculpture1 repres5t+ m5 & wom5 9 ! acts 
& attitudes ( daily life1 at "w & at    
play4 ,! ideal ( sculpture %\ld n be    

pit*$ too high4 ,!re is no reason :y1 ) 
! example set by ! ,greeks1 sculpture   
%\ld n portray ! light] & m usual phases
 ( human life4 ,if sculpture is to /rike
 new pa?s1 & be some?+ m ?an a          
repetition ( classical models1 x mu/    
become m reali/ic4 ,&1 z we h already   
not$1 by mak+ use ( ! block z a sort (  
backgr\nd1 ev5 "s relation ( man to 8   
environm5t c be repres5t$4 ,?r\gh ! gr\p
 ! simpl] relations ( man ) 8           
fell[s--comrade%ip1 love1 conflict1 or  
common action--c be express$2 al?\gh !  
p[] ( sculpture is greatly limit$ 9 ?is 
direction4 ,sculpture is (t5 tax$ by p  
:o emphasize ! importance ( ! political 
& indu/rial me*anism ) inability to     
portray l>ge gr\ps ( m5 & ! m complex   
relations aris+ out ( ! dep5d5ce ( man  
^u nature & society4 ,b "o may well urge
 ! comp5sat+ wor? :i* sculpture w always
 possess ( recall+ m5 to a s5se ( !     
value & beauty ( ! individual z su*1    
especially 9 an age l our own :]e !y t5d
 to be =gott54  ,! pr9ciples t apply to 

! use ( hi/orical1 lit]>y1 & symbolic   
!mes 9 pa9t+ hold ) increas$ =ce 9      
sculpture4 ,we mu/ admit ! "r ( !       
sculptor to illu/rate simple & well-kn[n
 hi/orical or fictiti\s situations4 ,at 
! same "t1 h[ev]1 we mu/ rememb] t a "w 
( ?is k9d is subject to a tw(old /&>d3  
fir/ & indisp5sable1 ! sculptural1 is ! 
=m animate & beautiful2 !n1 are ! life &
 action appropriate to ! idea8 ,! fir/  
is alone absolutely unequivocal4 ,!     
second1 on ! o!r h&1 is l>gely relative2
 = unless ! sculptor has c>ri$ out !    
idea 9 s ma/]ly a fa%ion t we c ?9k ( no
 o!r possibility--z ,phidias is said to 
h done ) 8 /atue ( ,zeus--!re mu/ always
 be some?+ arbitr>y ab\t any p>ticul>   
repres5tation4 ,?is arbitr>y elem5t is  
increas$ 9 symbolic sculpture4 ,y c     
p]haps depict an actual or fictiti\s    
human situation by means ( sculptur$    
bodies & make y\r image seem inevitable2
 b h[ c y make bodies ! vehicles (      
ab/ractions8 ,moreov]1 sculpture is a   
reali/ic art2 x pres5ts u ) ! semblance 

( liv+ =ms1 & if ^! =ms are mon/r\s or  
are %[n accompli%+ impossible ?+s1 !y _c
 escape a c]ta9 aspect ( ! ridicul\s4 ,i
 h 9 m9d ,rod9's ,man & ,8 ,?\ght4 ,if !
 man 7 only repres5t$ fa%ion+ ! figure )
 8 h&s1 8 h&s guid$ by 8 ?\ght2 b ! h&s 
are inactive1 & ! figure gr[s by ?\ght  
alone6 ,or consid] ,! ,h& ( ,god by !   
same arti/4 ,to say t we are 9 ! h&s (  
,god is a good metaphorical way (       
express+ our dep5d5ce ^u ! ,de/9y t     
%apes our ends2 b x is ano!r ?+ to      
exhibit u z actually enfold$ by a h&4   
,! m s5sitive we are to ! beauty ( !    
body & ( ! m9d1 s f> z manife/ ?r\gh !  
body1 ! bett] cont5t we %all be ) normal
 sculpture & ! less urg5tly we %all dem&
 symbolism4 ,( c\rse all /atues may     
become symbolic1 z all works ( art may1 
9 ! s5se ( possess+ a univ]sal mean+ won
 by g5]aliz+ _! individual significance4
 ,symbolic 9 ?is legitimate way 7 !     
/atues ( ! ,greek gods2 ?us ,aphrodite1 
:o 0 lovely1 became ,love1 & ,a!na1 :o 0
 wise1 became ,wisdom4 ,b !re is no?+   

arbitr>y 9 su* symbolism4     ,,*apt]   
,,xiii  ,,beauty ,,9 ,,! ,,indu/rial    
,,arts3 ,,ar*itecture   ,9 ! arts :i* we
 h /udi$ s f>1 beauty has be5 ! sole or 
*ief end2 9 ! indu/rial arts1 beauty c  
be only a "p ( _! total mean+4 ,no matt]
 h[ mu* ( an arti/ a build] or a pott]  
may be1 he is necess>ily controll$ by ! 
practical ne$s :i* h\ses & pots subs]ve4
 ,?is 0 ! orig9al condition ( all       
arti/s2 = 9 ! beg9n+1 be=e life's v>i\s 
aims 7 di/+ui%$ & pursu$ 9 isolation1 ! 
beautiful 0 always m>ri$ to "s o!r      
int]e/4 ,our me?od ( /udy has1 !re=e1   
rev]s$ ! temporal ord]2 b ) int5t1 = we 
believe t ! nature ( a ?+ is bett]      
reveal$ 9 its f9al ?an 9 its rudim5t>y  
=m4 ,to complete our survey ( ! arts1 we
 mu/1 h[ev]1 give "s consid]ation to ^? 
works 9 :i* ! unity ( ! useful & !      
beautiful is /ill pres]v$2 & z an       
example we h *os5 ar*itecture1 ! mo/    
magnific5t ( !m all4  ,fir/1 we mu/ cle>
 up :at might seem to be an inconsi/5cy 
9 our ?9k+4 ,9 our def9ition ( art we   

insi/$ ^u ! fre$om ( beauty & ! contra/ 
betwe5 ! ae/hetic & ! practical         
attitudes1 yet n[ we are admitt+ t "s   
?+s may be at once useful & beautiful4  
,x w\ld seem z if we mu/ ei!r modify our
 def9ition ( art or else d5y beauty to  
su* objects z bridges & build+s4 ,b we  
_c d ! latt]1 = ! beauty ( ,brooklyn    
bridge or ,notre ,dame 9 ,p>is is a     
matt] ( direct feel+1 :i* no !ory c     
dise/abli%4 ,& x is impossible to solve 
! problem by suppos+ t 9 ! indu/rial    
arts beauty & utility are extrane\s to  
ea* o!r1 two sep>able aspects1 :i* h no 
intimate connection4 ,= ! fact t a      
bridge spans a riv] or t a *ur* is a    
place ( wor%ip is an elem5t 9 its       
beauty4 ,! ae/hetic mean+ ( ! object    
dep5ds ^u ! practical mean+4 ,y _c r$uce
 ! beauty ( a bridge or a ca!dral to su*
 factors z m]e size & f9e proportions1  
)\t relation to function4 ,no           
preconceiv$ idea ( ! purity ( beauty c  
und]m9e our intuition ( ! beauty (      
utility4  ,yet ! dep5d5ce ( beauty ^u   

utility 9 ! indu/rial arts is n at      
v>iance ) ! fre$om f practical attitudes
 :i* we h claim$ = x4 ,= ! beauty is    
/ill 9 ! realm ( p]ception1 (           
contemplation1 n ( use4 ,x is a pleasure
 9 see+ h[ ! purpose is express$ 9 ! =m 
& mat]ial ( ! object1 n a pleasure 9 !  
possession ( ! object or an enjoym5t (  
its b5efits4 ,i may take pleasure 9 !   
vision ( purpose well embodi$ 9 an      
object :i* ano!r man possesses1 & my    
admiration w be z dis9t]e/$ z my        
appreciation ( a /atue4 ,& ev5 if ,i d  
make use ( ! object1 ,i may /ill get an 
ae/hetic exp]i5ce out ( x1 :5ev] ,i     
pause & survey x1 delight+ 9 x z an     
adequate expression ( its purpose & my  
own joy 9 us+ x4 ,!n beauty sup]v5es ^u 
m]e utility1 & a value = contemplation  
gr[s out ( &1 = ! mom5t1 supplants a    
value 9 use4 ,i n[ take delight 9 !     
p]ception ( an object :5 =m]ly ,i took  
delight only 9 its use2 ,i n[ enjoy !   
expression ( purpose = its pres5t       
p]ceiv$ p]fection1 :5 once ,i enjoy$ x  

only = its ult]ior results4 ,su*        
int]vals ( re/ful contemplation int]rupt
 ! activity ( e ?\ghtful mak] or us] (  
tools4 ,?us ! practical life may ent]   
into ! ae/hetic1 & t :i* gr[s out (     
exig5ce may develop into fre$om4  ,!re  
is "o m objection :i* may be urg$ aga9/ 
! ae/hetic "* ( ! expression ( practical
 purpose1 namely1 t ! appreciation ( x  
is an affair ( intellect1 n ( feel+4    
,?is w\ld inde$ be fatal if x 7         
necess>ily true2 b all m5 :o love _! "w 
"k t !y put into admiration = _! tools z
 mu* ( w>m emotion z ( m9d4 ,!re rema9s1
 h[ev]1 ! g5u9e difficulty ( communicat+
 ?is emotional p]ception ( useful       
objects1 ( mak+ x univ]sal4 ,x mu/ be   
admitt$ t ! attitude ( ! av]age behold] 
t[>ds a useful object is usually        
practical1 n contemplative1 or else     
purely intellectual1 an ef=t to und]/&  
its /ructure1 ) ! idea ( ev5tual use4   
,mo/ works ( indu/rial art produce no   
ae/hetic exp]i5ce :atev]4 ,b to be a    
g5u9e & complete "w ( f9e art1 an object

 mu/ be s made t x w imm$iately impel ! 
spectator to reg>d x ae/hetically4  ,f  
:at we h already e/abli%$1 we "k h[ ?is 
requirem5t c be met3 by elaborat+ ! out]
 aspects ( ! object 9 ! direction (     
pleasure & expression4 ,by ?is means !  
beauty ( m]e appe>ance w /rike & occupy 
! m9d1 induc+ ! ae/hetic attitude t[>ds 
! outside1 f :i* x may !n spread &      
embrace ! inn]1 purposive mean+4 ,!     
obvi\sly dis9t]e/$ & w>mly emotional    
admiration ( ! %ape w prev5t !          
admiration = ! purposive adaptation f   
be+ cold & ab/ract4 ,h5ce1 al?\gh f !   
po9t ( view ( utility ! beauty ( m]e    
appe>ance may seem to be a sup]fluity1 x
 is almo/ indisp5sable f an ae/hetic    
po9t ( view1 s9ce x raises !            
appreciation ( ! purpose to ! ae/hetic  
plane4 ,& we c und]/& h[ en?usia/ic     
workm51 ^: admiration = _! "w is already
 ae/hetic1 mu/ necess>ily desire to     
consecrate & communicate ?is feel+ by   
beautify+ ! appe>ance ( _! products2 h[ 
inevitably1 ?r\gh ! ages1 !y h made ?+s 

n only z p]fect z !y c\ld1 b z *>m+4    
,:5 develop$ = ! ends ( ! ae/hetic life1
 ! useful object exhibits1 !re=e1 two   
levels ( beauty3 fir/1 t ( appe>ance1 ( 
=m & s5sation1 l9e & %ape & color2 &    
second1 t ( purpose spok5 9 ! =m4 ,!    
fir/ is ( ! vague & imm$iate "* s well  
kn[n to u2 ! second is m def9ite & less 
direct1 s9ce x dep5ds ^u ! int]pretation
 ( ! object 9 t]ms ( its function4 ,!   
relation betwe5 ! two is l t :i* obta9s1
 9 a pa9t+1 betwe5 color & l9e1 on ! "o 
h&1 & repres5tation1 on ! o!r4 ,:5 !    
fir/ level ( beauty is ri*ly develop$ on
 its own acc\nt1 x becomes ornam5t4 ,9 a
 ,greek vase1 = example1 !re is a beauty
 ( symmetrical1 well-proportion$ %ape1  
delicate color+ ( surface1 & decorative 
pa9t+1 :i* might be felt by p :o knew   
no?+ ( its use2 &1 9 addition1 = ^? :o h
 ?is k1 a beauty 9 ! f9e balance ( p>ts 
9 ! adju/m5t ( clay to its f9al cause4  
,^! factors1 :i* we h di/+ui%$ by       
analysis1 %\ld1 h[ev]1 be felt z "o 9 ! 
ae/hetic intuition ( ! object2 ! =m1    

al?\gh beautiful 9 itself1 %\ld reveal !
 function1 & ! decoration1 no matt] h[  
*>m+1 %\ld be appropriate & subord9ate4 
,o!rwise1 z inde$ s (t5 happ5s1 ! beauty
 ( "o aspect may completely dom9ate !   
o!rs2 :5 ! object ei!r rema9s a pretty  
ornam5t p]haps1 b is functionally dead2 
or else1 if x keep ?is life1 loses its  
unity 9 a rivalry ( beautiful aspects4  
,all ^! po9ts are /rik+ly illu/rat$ 9   
ar*itecture4 ,! ar*itects claim t _! art
 is a lib]al "o aim+ at beauty1 yet mo/ 
build+s to-day are objects ( practical  
int]e/ alone4 ,_! doors are m]ely =     
entrance1 _! w9d[s = admission ( light1 
_! walls = inclosure4 ,few p1 z !y hurry
 9 or out ( an (fice build+ or a railway
 /ation1 /ay to contemplate ! maje/y ( !
 height or ! elegance ( ! facade2 !y    
transact _! bus9ess1 buy _! tickets1    
*eck _! luggage1 & g4 ,ev5 :5 ! build+  
has "s claim to beauty1 ! mood (        
comm]cial life /ifles obs]vation2 or1 if
 ! build+ is obs]v$1 !re is no /rong    
emotion or vivid play ( imag9ation1 no  

p]man5t impression ( beauty l+]+ 9 !    
memory1 no enri*m5t ( ! inn] life1 su* z
 a musical air or a poem af=ds1 b only a
 transi5t & fruitless recognition4 ,=   
?is reason _m h ?\ght t build+s mu/     
become useless1 z ca/les & ru9$ temples 
are1 9 ord] to be beautiful4 ,yet1 9    
proportion z ?is is true1 x involves a  
failure on ! "p ( ar*itecture1 a failure
 to make ! useful a "p ( ! beautiful4 ,a
 build+1 :i* 0 design$ to be a          
habitation ( man1 :5 tak5 ap>t f ! life 
:i* x 0 meant to %elt] & su/a91 is an   
ab/raction or a va9 ornam5t at be/4 ,if 
! company :i* peopl$ x are gone1 x c w9 
significance only if we re-create !m 9 !
 imag9ation1 mov+ 9 ! halls or wor%ip+  
at ! alt>s4 ,we _c get rid ( ! practical
 = ! sake ( ! ae/hetic1 b mu/ take up ! 
practical into ! ae/hetic4 ,= ?is reason
 ar*itecture has a*iev$ its greate/     
successes :]e its uses h be5 mo/ l>gely 
& freely emotional1 mo/ closely ak9 to !
 brood+ _s ( beauty--9 religi\s build+s4
  ,mo/ build+s1 x mu/ be admitt$1 are n 

beautiful at all4 ,9 ord] to be         
beautiful1 !y %\ld be alive1 & alive all
 ov]1 z a piece ( sculpture is alive2   
!re %\ld be no unresponsive surfaces or 
details2 b mo/ ( our build+s are        
dead--dead walls1 dead l9es1 oblong     
boxes1 neat & commodi\s1 b dead4 ,!     
practical problems :i* ! ar*itect has to
 solve are s complex & difficult1 & !   
mat]ials :i* he uses are s refractory1 t
 !re is inevitably a sacrifice ( !      
beauty ( appe>ance to utility4 ,! v size
 ( a build+ makes x ae/hetically        
unmanageable all ov]4 ,"h ! less]       
indu/rial arts1 l ! goldsmi?'s1 h an    
advantage 9 ! sup]ior control :i* !     
workman c ex]t ov] 8 mat]ials2 8 "w is t
 ( a s+le m9d & h&2 x does n require1 z 
ar*itecture does1 ! coop]ation ( a cr[d 
( unfeel+ artisans4 ,9 ar*itecture1     
me*anical necessities & =ms ?reat5 to   
supplant ae/hetic pr9ciples & %apes4 ,! 
heavy squ>e blocks1 ! rectangul> l9es1  
seem ! anti!sis ( life & beauty4 ,all   
w>m?1 all movem5t1 all love is r\nd1 or 

at lea/ oval4444 ,only ! cold1          
immovable1 indiff]5t1 & hateful is      
/raight & squ>e4444 ,life is r\nd1 &    
dea? is angul>4 ,footnote3 ,ell5 ,key1  
,! ,few & ! ,_m1 translat$ f a quotation
 9 ,max ,dessoir1 ,ae/hetik und         
,allgeme9e ,kun/wiss5s*aft1 page #cif4  
,:at vividness ( imag9ation or s5tim5t c
 transmute ^! dead & holl[ masses into a
 life univ]sally felt8  ,& yet1 9 a     
s]ies ( works ( art among ! mo/         
magnific5t t man possesses1 ?is miracle 
0 a*iev$4 ,! ,greek temples & ,go?ic    
ca!drals are s mu* alive t !y seem n to 
h be5 made ) h&s1 b to h gr[n4 ,!       
/raight l9es h be5 modifi$ into delicate
 curves1 ! angles h giv5 place to ar*es1
 ! /iff & ma!matical h be5 molt5 into   
movem5t & surprise1 ! heav9ess has be5 s
 nicely balanc$ or ov]come t x has be5  
*ang$ into lightness1 ) ! help ( human &
 animal sculpture & floral c>v+ !       
inorganic has be5 trans=m$ into !       
organic1 by means ( pa9t+ & /a9$ glass  
ev5 ! dull surfaces ( walls & w9d[s h   

be5 made to gl[ into life4 ,arti/s      
wr\ght ea* portion & detail1 & built !  
:ole = ! glory ( ,god & ! city1 a       
monum5t = quiet contemplation1 n a m]e  
article to be us$4 ,) few exceptions1   
any ar*itectural beauty t we create is b
 a feeble e*o ( !irs4 ,"s day we may be 
able to produce some?+ wor?y to be plac$
 by its side1 b only :5 we h sanctifi$  
our life ) communal aims4 ,! ae/hetic   
effect ( a build+ dep5ds ^u _m factors1 
( :i* only a few c be analyz$ by u 9 ?is
 %ort *apt]4 ,if we ab/ract f its       
relation to purpose1 ar*itecture is     
fundam5tally an art ( spatial =m4 ,work+
 freely ) x1 "u ! sole limitation (     
function1 ! ar*itect c make ( ?is =m a  
complex1 v>i\s1 & beautiful language    
intelligible to all m51 & possess$ ( a  
sy/ematic1 yet flu5t logic4 ,( ?is      
language ! simple/ elem5t is l9e4 ,at   
fir/ view1 z we approa* a build+ f !    
outside1 its beauty1 z 9 ! case (       
sculpture1 is ess5tially pictorial4 ,=1 
al?\gh a build+ is a ?ree-dim5sional    

solid 9 reality1 ea* view ( x is a      
two-dim5sional surface1 b\nd$ by l9es & 
divid$ & div]sifi$ )9 by o!r l9es4 ,n[  
^! l9es h _! life & beauty l ! l9es ( a 
picture4 ,h[ !y get ?is life & :at its  
specific quality is 9 ! case ( p>ticul> 
l9es1 we ne$ n expla9 aga92 b no "o c   
fail to feel ! upw>d movem5t ( ! v]tical
 l9es ( ! ,go?ic /yle1 ! repose ( !     
horizontal l9es ( ! ,r5aissance /yle1 ! 
playful grace ( ! ,rococo4 ,naturally1  
s9ce ! front ( a build+1 :]e "o ent]s1  
is ! mo/ important & ! mo/ con/antly 9  
view1 its pictorial beauty is elaborat$ 
) especial c>e by ! ar*itect4 ,?is is ! 
ju/ification ( ! ov]%ad[+ preem95ce ( ! 
facade 9 ,r5aissance palaces1 :i* inde$ 
0 (t5times ! only visible "p ( ! outside
 ( ! build+4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! build+ is    
p]spicu\s all r\nd1 x %\ld1 l a /atue1  
pres5t a beautiful view f e /&po9t4  ,9 
ar*itecture1 z 9 pa9t+1 ! visual elem5ts
 are adapt$ to "o or ! o!r ( ! two *ief 
ways ( see+4 ,ei!r ! surfaces are se5 z 
:oles prim>ily & ! details 9            

subord9ation2 or else ! p>ts /& out cle>
 & di/9ct1 & ! :ole is _! summation4 ,! 
=m] is always ! case :5 ! surfaces are  
left pla9 ) few divisions1 or1 if !     
surfaces are divid$1 :5 ! l9es int]sect 
& int]m+le1 z is exemplifi$ 9 late      
,r5aissance or ,b>oque "w1 :]e ! walls  
are cov]$ ) lavi% ornam5t1 ! enframem5t 
( w9d[s is brok5 by mold+s & sculpture  
:i* c>ry into ! surr\nd+ spaces1 & :]e1 
in/ead ( embrac+ "o /ory1 ! ord]s       
comprise ! entire height ( ! build+4 ,! 
second possibility is well illu/rat$ by 
! e>ly classical ,r5aissance1 :]e !     
surface ( ea* /ory1 %>ply sep>at$ f !   
o!rs by ! l9e ( ! frieze1 is divid$     
regul>ly by ar*es or columns1 ea* w9d[  
cle>ly enfram$1 & e sculptur$ ornam5t   
provid$ ) a ni*e4  ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ?is  
fundam5tal diff]5ce betwe5 ar*itectural 
& pictorial l9es3 ! latt] are usually   
pure k9ematical l9es1 l9es ( free &     
un-resi/$ movem5t1 :ile ! =m] are       
usually dynamical1 l9es ( =ce :i* move  
aga9/ ! resi/ance ( mass4 ,9 a picture  

objects are volatiliz$ into light & h   
lo/ all weight2 b 9 ar*itecture1 s9ce !y
 are pres5t 9 reality & n 9 m]e         
semblance1 _! weight is reta9$4 ,a      
,greek column1 = example1 n only moves  
upw>d1 b also aga9/ ! sup]9cumb5t load (
 ! entablature :i* x c>ries4 ,! diff]5ce
 betwe5 ! two arts c be appreciat$ by   
comp>+ ! picture ( a build+ ) ! build+  
itself2 9 ! =m]1 despite ! fact t we "k 
h[ heavy ! dome or p$im5t is1 & h[ /rong
 !re=e ! pi]s or columns t support x1 we
 h>dly feel !m z heavy or /rong at      
all--! =ces & masses h be5 trans=m$ into
 ab/ract l9es & %apes4 ,sometimes1      
h[ev]1 ar*itectural l9es & surfaces     
rema9 purely k9ematical2 on ! inside (  
our rooms1 = example1 :5 ! surfaces are 
smoo?1 & especially :5 !y are decorat$1 
we (t5 feel no t5sion ( conflict+ =ces1 
b only a quiet play ( movem5ts2 x is z  
if ! walls _h be5 *ang$ into ! pap] or  
pa9t t cov]s !m4 ,! vividness ( !       
expression ( me*anical =ces 9           
ar*itecture dep5ds1 moreov]1 ^u ! k9d ( 

mat]ials employ$2 x is great] 9 m>ble   
?an 9 wood1 & less 9 our mod]n          
con/ructions ( /eel & glass1 :]e ! pi]s 
move 9 s+le v]tical l9es f ! bottom to !
 top ( ! build+1 ?an 9 ! old =ms1 :]e ! 
upp] "p ( ! build+ is frankly c>ri$ by !
 l[]4  ,! m]e expression ( me*anical    
=ces 9 a build+ w\ld n1 h[ev]1 be       
ae/hetic by itself1 no matt] h[ obvi\s  
to ! m9d4 ,we mu/ n only "k ^! =ces to  
be !re1 we mu/ also feel !m z !re2 we   
mu/ appreciate !m 9 t]ms ( our own      
exp]i5ces 9 support+ weights & ov]com+  
resi/ances4 ,we mu/ trans=m ! me*anical 
into ! vital1 ! mat]ial into ! human4   
,art is an expression ( life1 n (       
ma!matics4 ,& ?is translation is n !    
result ( an unusual1 artificial attitude
 assum$ = ! sake ( ae/hetic             
appreciation2 x is ! natural mode (     
app]ceiv+ =ce & mass4 ,we _c see a      
column support+ an entablature )\t feel+
 t x /&s firm to be> ! weight1 mu* z we 
%\ld /& if we 7 9 its place4 ,if ?is is 
a pa!tic fallacy1 x is "o :i* we all    

inevitably commit4 ,ev5 ! skeptic1 if he
 7 to exam9e c>efully into 8 own m9d1   
w\ld f9d t he commits x1 :5ev] he gives 
to ! column1 n a casual or m]ely        
calculat+ reg>d1 b a free & e>ne/       
att5tion4 ,if he gives 8 m9d to ! column
 & lets ! column take hold ( 8 m9d1     
all[+ 8 psy*ological me*anism to "w     
unhamp]$1 he w commit x4 ,! ae/hetic    
intuition ( =ce--! human way (          
appreciat+ x--is1 9 fact1 prim>y2 !     
purely me*anical & ma!matical is an     
ab/raction1 sup]impos$ = practical &    
sci5tific purposes4  ,! int]play (      
humaniz$ me*anical en]gies1 ( :i*       
ar*itecture is ! expression1 may be     
conceiv$ z ! resultant ( f\r *ief =ces1 
act+ ea* 9 a def9ite direction3 upw>d1  
d[nw>d1 outw>d1 & inw>d4 ,! d[nw>d =ce  
is associat$ ) ! weight ( ! mat]ials (  
:i* ! build+ is con/ruct$4 ,to all      
physical objects we ascribe a t5d5cy    
t[>d ! e>?4 ,an unsupport$ weight w     
fall1 & ev5 :5 support$ w ex]t a        
pressure d[nw>d4 ,& ?is t5d5cy is no m]e

 direct$ =ce 9 ! physical s5se1 b an    
impulse1 9 ! p]sonal s5se4 ,= :5 ) h& or
 %\ld] we support a weight1 we          
inevitably int]pret x 9 t]ms ( our own  
volunt>y muscul> ex]tion 9 resi/+ x2 ev5
 z we /rive to resi/ x1 s x seems to    
/rive to fall4 ,al?\gh ?is =ce is ex]t$ 
d[nw>d1 x %[s itself 9 ! horizontal l9es
 ( a build+1 9 /r+ c\rses1 p>apets1     
cornices1 friezes2 = ! horizontal is !  
l9e p>allel to ! e>?1 t[>d :i* ! =ce is 
direct$1 & along :i* we lie :5 we       
re/4,footnote3 ,comp>e ! discussion (   
,lipps1 ,ae/hetik1 ,bd4 #a1 ,dritt]     
,abs*nitt1 al?\gh ,i am f> f accept+ all
 ( 8 analyses4  ,oppos$ to ! d[nw>d =ce 
is ! upw>d =ce4 ,if an object does n    
fall1 x mu/ be support$ by a =ce 9 !    
upw>d direction2 ! h& mu/ ex]t a =ce    
p]p5dicul> to ! mass :i* x c>ries2 !    
body mu/ hold itself erect 9 ord] to be>
 its own weight4 ,j s1 an ar*itectural  
memb]1 if x is n to collapse1 mu/ raise 
itself upw>d4 ,upw>d =ces are reveal$ by
 ! v]tical l9es ( a build+--! prevail+  

l9es ( columns1 pi]s1 %afts1 p9nacles1  
t[]s1 spires4 ,we int]pret v]tical l9es 
z mov+ upw>d1 p>tly because ! eye moves 
upw>d 9 scann+ !m1 p>tly because we     
ourselves move 9 l9es ( ?is g5]al       
direction 9 go+ f ! bottom to ! top ( a 
build+4 ,ev5 :5 we are at ! top ( a     
build+ we appreh5d its v]tical l9es z   
ris+ r ?an z desc5d+1 because we        
ourselves _h to rise 9 ord] to get !re4 
,conv]g+ l9es1 z ( t[]s & spires1 we    
also int]pret 9 ! same way z go+ to !   
po9t ( meet+ above4  ,act+ 9 conjunction
 ) ! d[nw>d =ce is an outw>d "o4 ,! l[] 
p>ts ( a con/ruction t5d to spread out z
 !y give way "u ! weight ( ! sup]9cumb5t
 masses2 if !y are v mu* broad] ?an !   
latt]1 !y give ! impression ( great     
weight c>ri$4 ,z a result1 a horizontal 
l9e is introduc$1 & ! long] x is 9      
comp>ison ) ! v]tical l9e ( height1 !   
heavi] ! effect4 ,comp>e1 = example1 !  
impression made by a tall & ?9 triangul>
 %ape1 ) a l[ & broad "o2 & comp>e also 
! relative l5g?s ( ! horizontal & !     

v]tical l9es4 ,! =m] %ape seems simply  
to rise1 :ile ! latt] lifts4 ,we seem to
 obs]ve ! work+ ( ?is outw>d =ce1 z     
,lipps has rem>k$1 9 ! spread+ out ( !  
trunks ( trees at ! base & 9 ! feet (   
animals2 & we feel x 9 ourselves :5ev]  
we spread our limbs ap>t to brace       
ourselves to )/& a load4  ,:5ev] !      
outw>d =ce is resi/$1 x gives evid5ce ( 
! exi/5ce ( a =ce op]at+ 9 ! oppos$     
direction--inw>d4 ,)\t ?is =ce1 ! l[]   
p>ts ( a con/ruction w\ld lack all      
solidity & spread l a molt5 mass on !   
gr\nd4 ,?is is especially /rik+ :]e !   
mat]ial1 in/ead ( spread+ outw>d &      
d[nw>d1 seems to press itself inw>d &   
upw>d4 ,comp>e1 = example1 a %ape ^:    
base-l9e is small] ?an ! l9e ( its top )
 "o 9 :i* ! rev]se holds true4 ,! =m]   
gives ! impression ( lightness &        
agility1 ) a prevail+ upw>d tr5d1 ! o!r 
an impression ( weight & heav9ess1 ) a  
prevail+ tr5d t[>ds ! gr\nd4 ,obvi\sly1 
! outw>d & ! inw>d =ces are correlative 
& complem5t>y3 we h already obs]v$ t a  

con/ruction w\ld collapse )\t ! inw>d2  
we c n[ see t x w\ld disappe> entirely  
)\t ! outw>d4 ,obvi\sly1 also1 ! inw>d &
 upw>d g toge!r1 & ! d[nw>d & outw>d4   
,ev5 a pla9 rectangul> wall manife/s !  
int]play ( ^! =ces4 ,! horizontal       
dim5sion repres5ts ! d[nw>d & outw>d =ce
 ( ! weight2 ! v]tical dim5sion1 ! upw>d
 =ces1 :i* prev5t ! wall f collaps+ 9   
itself & hold x upright2 :ile ! lat]al  
b\nd>ies give evid5ce ( ! inw>d t5sion t
 keeps ! mass toge!r4 ,b ! mo/ beautiful
 expressions ( ar*itectural =ces are to 
be f\nd 9 ! hi/orical /yles4 ,9 ea* /yle
 !re is a *>act]i/ic relation%ip betwe5 
! =ces1 imp>t+ a di/9ctive feel+4 ,i    
%all (f] a brief analysis ( "s ( ^!4    
,_m h recogniz$ t ! classical ,greek    
con/ruction1 z illu/rat$ 9 ! ,doric     
temple1 expresses a f9e equilibrium     
betwe5 ! upw>d & ! d[nw>d =ces1 embodi$ 
9 ! v]tical & horizontal l9es           
respectively4 ,! upw>d =ce is manife/   
prim>ily 9 ! v]tical columns1 & is      
emphasiz$ !re by ! flut+s1 ! slight     

progressive n>r[+ t[>d ! top1 & ! inw>d 
ef=t ( ! neck+ j bel[ ! e*9us4 ,! d[nw>d
 =ce is embodi$ 9 ! horizontal l9es ( ! 
l9tel1 ar*itrave1 cornice1 & 9 ! hang+  
mutules & gutta4 ,! two =ces come to re/
 9 ! abaci1 :i*1 z ! cr[n+ memb]s ( !   
columns1 directly c>ry ! weight ( !     
entire entablature4 ,! equilibrium      
betwe5 ! horizontal & ! v]tical t5d5cies
 is1 h[ev]1 n a /atic b a mov+ "o2 = !  
two oppos+ =ces are pres5t 9 e "p ( !   
build+ f ! /ylobate to ! ridge ( !      
triangul> p$im5t4 ,! d[nw>d =ce is      
already manife/ 9 ! wid5$ base ( !      
column1 :]e x works 9 conjunction ) !   
inw>d t5d5cy1 & %[s its effect at !     
critical po9ts at ! top ( ! support+    
column--9 ! spread+ e*9us ) its         
horizontal b&s b5ea? & 9 ! horizontal   
l9es ( ! abaci4 ,! upw>d =ce1 on ! o!r  
h&1 is cont9u$ "r ?r\gh ! solid mass ( !
 entablature1 9 ! v]tical l9es ( !      
triglyphs1 9 ! antefixes1 & ev5 to ! v  
apex ( ! build+1 :]e ! asc5d+ l9es ( !  
triangul> p$im5t meet4 ,! result+ total 

effect is t ( a p]fect1 yet sway+       
balance4  ,! ae/hetic effect d]iv$ f !  
int]play ( =ces 9 ! ,ionic =m is simil> 
to t 9 ! ,doric1 only m delicate &      
ela/ic4 ,! sl5d] columns1 be+ less rugg$
 & resi/ant ?an ! ,doric1 seem to       
transmit ! weight support$1 :i* %[s     
itself1 !re=e1 9 ! outw>d spread+ mold$ 
base2 b ?is app>5t lack ( /r5g? 9 !     
column is comp5sat$ = by ! ela/ic en]gy 
9 ! coil$ spr+ ( ! volutes1 ^u :i*1 ) ! 
slight m$iation ( a n>r[ b&1 !          
entablature re/s4 ,"h mo/ ( ! upw>d     
en]gy ( ! ,ionic =m is conc5trat$2 =    
al?\gh ! d5tils ( ! frieze p]=m !       
function ( ! triglyphs1 !y are too small
 to d x effectively2 ! /yle lacks1      
!re=e1 ! g5tle h>moniz+ ( =ces all ov]1 
*>act]i/ic ( ! ,doric1 & ev9ces in/ead a
 clean-cut ela/ic t5sion at a giv5 po9t4
 ,?is effect is1 h[ev]1 some:at s(t5$ by
 ! break+ up ( ! d[nw>d =ce ( weight by 
means ( ! recess$ divisions ( !         
ar*itrave4 ,9 ! ,cor9?ian capital1 :i*  
has ! same g5]al feel+ z ! ,ionic1 !    

ela/ic t5sion is /ill fur!r dim9i%$     
?r\gh ! r5ew$ emphasis on ! m$iat+      
abacus1 ! r$uction ( ! size ( ! volutes1
 & ! ov]hang+ floral c>v+s4 ,h[ev]1 by  
reason ( ! /r5g? giv5 by ! bell & !     
project+ outw>d & upw>d curv+ =m ( !    
abacus1 ! sugge/ion ( weakness 9 !      
,cor9?ian =m is ov]come1 b ! g5tl5ess   
rema9s4  ,if ! ,greek con/ruction       
expresses a balance betwe5 ! upw>d &    
d[nw>d =ces1 ! ar*$ =ms t foll[$ express
 ! victory ( ! upw>d4 ,9 ! ar* ! upw>d  
=ce1 in/ead ( be+ arre/$ :]e ! support  
meets ! mass to be c>ri$1 is cont9u$    
?r\gh\t ! mass itself4 ,( ! two *ief    
types ( ar*es1 ! r\nd & ! po9t$1 ea* has
 a specific feel+4 ,we %all /udy ! r\nd 
=m fir/1 :]e ! v]tical t5d5cy is inde$  
victori\s1 b only ?r\gh reconciliation &
 compromise4  ,9 ! r\nd ar* all f\r =ces
 are beautifully express$4 ,! upw>d is  
manife/1 fir/1 9 ! v]tical pi]1 :i* acts
 v mu* z ! column does1 &1 9 ,roman "w1 
0 (t5 replac$ by ! column4 ,! oppos+    
d[nw>d =ce is express$ 9 ! horizontal   

upp] b\nd ( ! ar* & 9 ! l9e ( ! impo/1  
also horizontal1 :i* breaks ! v]tical   
l9e & s m>ks ! place :]e ! two =ces come
 into %>pe/ conflict4 ,9 ?is conflict1 !
 v]tical is victori\s2 =1 in/ead ( be+  
/opp$ by ! impo/1 x is c>ri$ up ?r\gh\t 
! entire con/ruction by means ( ! upw>d 
& inw>d curv+ ( ! ar*4 ,! v curve ( !   
ar* %[s1 h[ev]1 t ! victory is n        
absolute2 = its circul> =m is obvi\sly  
det]m9$ z a compromise betwe5 an inw>d  
c5tripetal =ce1 mov+ upw>d & dim9i%+ !  
bread? ( ! ar* to a m]e po9t at its     
apex1 & an outw>d c5trifugal =ce1       
gradually spread+ ! ar* d[nw>d until x  
rea*es its greate/ bread? at ! impo/1   
:]e x is arre/$ by ! oppos+ v]tical =ce 
9 ! pi]4 ,to ! hi/orical imag9ation1 !  
r\nd ar* seems1 !re=e1 to express !     
g5ial classical idea ( a control by !   
high] nature :i* nev]!less did no       
viol5ce to ! dem&s ( ! l[]4 ,9 !        
sph]ical dome ! effect is ! same1 only !
 int]play ( =ces op]ates 9 ?ree         
dim5sions in/ead ( two4  ,:5 ar*es are  

sup]pos$1 ! upw>d movem5t proce$s 9     
/ages1 beg9n+ anew at ea* horizontal    
division ( ! wall space4 ,! use (       
entablatures appli$ to ! wall & ( engag$
 columns1 common 9 ,roman "w1 seems to  
involve an attempt at a fusion ( two    
contradictory /yles1 & is usually       
condemn$ z su*4 ,?is contradiction c be 
solv$1 h[ev]1 by view+ ! entablatures z 
m]e weightless l9es ( division ( ! wall1
 usually m>k+ (f ! diff]5t /ories1 & by 
view+ ! columns 9 a simil> fa%ion z hav+
 no support+ function--:i* is actually !
 case--& z simply s]v+ ! purpose ( fram+
 ! ar*es4 ,at mo/ !y m]ely indicate !   
direction ( ! *ief cont5d+ =ces1--!     
p>allel l9tels signaliz+ ! =ce ( weight1
 & ! v]tical columns1 /&+ "o ^u ! o!r1  
po9t+ ! movem5t ( ! upw>d =ce4 ,!y h1   
!re=e1 a pictorial r ?an a dynamic      
significance4  ,diff]5ces ( feel+ 9 ar*$
 =ms dep5d ^u ! relative height ( ar*es 
& support+ pi]s & columns4 ,! v]tical   
effect is /rongly emphasiz$ :5 ! latt]  
are relatively high1 :ile ! effect (    

weight is increas$ 9 flatt5$ ar*es1 :i* 
= ?is reason are especially appropriate 
= crypts & prison entrances4 ,int]e/+   
complications are introduc$ 9 arcades or
 int]sect+ vaults1 :]e a s+le column    
s]ves z a support = two or m ar*es2 =   
!re ! v]tical =ce is divid$1 fl[+ 9     
diff]5t directions 9 ! little triangul> 
piece ( wall betwe51 or along ! ribs ( !
 vaults4 ,some?+ simil> occurs 9 !      
,byzant9e dome on p5d5tives1 only in/ead
 ( support+ ! horizontal weight ( a     
gall]y or a vault1 ! triangul> p5d5tives
 meet ! outw>d ?ru/ ( a sup]pos$ dome4  
,9 ,r5aissance ar*itecture & ! mod]n    
classical revivals1 :]e ,greek & ,roman 
/yles are freely adapt$ to novel modes (
 life & purpose1 no ess5tially new =m 0 
add$ to ar*itectural spee*4 ,!re 7      
comb9ations ( old =ms into m complex    
/ructures1 b no new important elem5ts4  
,! mo/ out/&+ novelty is p]haps ! rev]s$
 relation betwe5 ! :ole & ! p>ts4       
,footnote3 ,see ,p4 ,frankl1 ,die       
,entwicklungsphas5 d] neu]5 ,baukun/1   

#aiad4 ,9 ! classic /yles1 :e!r ar*$ or 
,greek1 ! :ole is built up ( ! p>ts     
additively2 ea* is a relatively         
indep5d5t c5t] ( en]gy complete 9       
itself2 fir/ ! columns1 !n ! ar*itrave1 
frieze1 & cornice1 !n ! p$im5t2 or fir/ 
"o r[ ( ar*es1 !n ano!r r[ on top ( ?is1
 & s on4 ,coord9ation is ! gov]n+       
pr9ciple4 ,b 9 ! mod]n adaptations1 ev5 
:]e coord9ation r ?an subord9ation rules
 9 ! pictorial sph]e1 ! :ole is fir/    
dynamically & ! p>ts are second>y4 ,9 ! 
typical ,r5aissance facade1 = example1 !
 ar*es ( ! w9d[s are r op5+s 9 ! walls  
?an support+ memb]s4 ,!y are c5t]s (    
little eddies ( =ce1 r ?an indep5d5t    
p>ts ( ! ma9 det]m9+ /ream ( en]gy4 ,!  
wall rises z a :ole to its heavy        
ov]hang+ cornice1 despite ! horizontal  
divisions m>k+ ! /ories4 ,!re are1      
h[ev]1 important diff]5ces betwe5 !     
v>i\s mod]n types2 ! e>li] ,r5aissance  
=ms1 = example1 keep+ clos] to ! antique
 ?an ! lat] ,b>oque & ,rococo4  ,!      
complete triumph ( ! v]tical t5d5cy1    

=e%ad[$ 9 ! ,roman1 0 proclaim$ 9 ,go?ic
 ar*itecture 9 ! use ( ! po9t$ ar*4 ,= 9
 ! r\nd ar* ! v]tical has n conqu]$ aft]
 all2 ! horizontal is /ill active !re1  
ev5 to ! apex ( ! ar*1 :]e ! tang5tial  
l9e is p>allel to ! e>?1 ! l9e ( weight4
 ,b 9 ! po9t$ /yle ! victory ( ! v]tical
 is cle>ly decisive1--! upw>d & inw>d   
=ces1 by elongat+ & n>r[+ ! curve ( !   
ar* to a po9t1 h dom9at$ ! d[nw>d &     
outw>d4 ,! great height ( ! pi]s1 !     
gabl$ ro(s1 ! ribs ( ! vaults ! po9t$ =m
 ( ! w9d[s1 ! t[]s1 spires1 &           
p9nacles1--all proclaim x4 ,yet ?is     
victory does n occur )\t opposition2 = !
 high] ! vault+1 ! great] ! weight to be
 c>ri$2 ! great]1 !re=e1 ! outw>d ?ru/1 
:i* _h to f9d its expression & its /ay 9
 ! buttress4 ,b ev5 ! buttress1 al?\gh x
 be>s witness to ! outw>d & horizontal  
=ce ( weight1 0 nev]!less s fa%ion$ )   
its gable & p9nacle1 or its own ar*$ =m1
 z to aid ! upw>d movem5t4 ,! ?9ness (  
walls & p>titions1 & ! pi]c+ ( ^! )     
ar*es & w9d[s1 by light5+ ! =ce (       

weight1 also contribut$ to increase !   
v]tical movem5t4 ,at sight ( a true     
,go?ic ca!dral1 we feel ourselves fairly
 lift$ (f ! gr\nd & ru%$ upw>d4  ,9 ?9k+
 ( ! beauty ( ar*itecture1 we are all   
too apt to consid] ! ext]ior            
exclusively1 =gett+ t ! inside ( a      
build+1 :]e we live1 is ev5 m important 
practically1 & is capable ( at lea/ z   
great an ae/hetic effect4  ,! *>act]i/ic
 ae/hetic effect ( ! int]ior is a       
function ( ! inclos$ space1 ! volume1 n 
( ! inclos+ walls tak5 s+ly4 ,! walls   
are only ! limits ( ?is space1 !y are n 
! space itself4 ,( c\rse1 ! walls )9 h  
_! own beauty1 ( surface & p]vad+ en]gy1
 b ?is does n diff] m>k$ly f t ( ! walls
 se5 f ! outside1 & :at we h e/abli%$ = 
! "o holds = ! o!r4 ,b ! beauty ( !     
inclos$ space is some?+ entirely new4   
,9 itself1 h[ev]1 m]e volume ( space is 
no m ae/hetic ?an m]e b\nd+ l9e or      
surface2 9 ord] to become beautiful1 x  
mu/ become alive4 ,b h[ c space--! mo/  
ab/ract ?+ 9 ! _w--become alive8 ,by    

hav+ ! activities :i* x incloses felt   
into x4 ,j z our bodies are felt to be  
alive because our activities express    
!mselves !re1 s our rooms1 because we   
live & move )9 !m4 ,z we ent] a ca!dral 
& look d[n ! long aisle1 ! movem5t ( our
 eyes inevitably sugge/s ! movem5t ( our
 bodies2 or1 z we look up & our eyes    
foll[ ! ribs ( ! vault+1 x is z if we   
ourselves 7 borne al(t2 9 ! imag9ation  
we move ?r\gh ! op5 spaces2 & s9ce we d 
n actually move1 we locate our impulses 
to movem5t1 n 9 our bodies1 b 9 ! space 
?r\gh :i* we take our imag9$ flight4 ,e 
object sugge/s movem5t to x1 & we fill !
 int]v5+ space ) ?is imag9$ movem5t1    
provid$ only we /ay our activities &    
give "t = ! imag9ation to "w its w4 ,?us
 all space may become alive ) !         
possibilities ( movem5t :i* x (f]s4  ,! 
ae/hetic effects ( volume v>y *iefly    
accord+ to size & %ape4 ,9 ord] to be   
appreciat$1 ^! effects mu/ 9 g5]al be   
some:at /rik+2 o!rwise !y pass unnotic$1
 & we simply take ! int]iors ( our      

build+s z matt]s ( c\rse4  ,x is a      
curi\s fact t an impression ( va/ness c 
be secur$ by inclos+ a relatively small 
space4 ,a squ>e1 l ! ,place de la       
,concorde1 or ev5 ! inside ( a ca!dral1 
produces a feel+ ( size almo/1 if n q1 z
 great z an op5 prairie or sea4 ,!      
reason1 ,i suppose1 is t an inclos$     
space (f]s def9ite po9ts z /imuli &     
goals = sugge/$ movem5ts4 ,z we         
imag9atively rea* out & t\* ^! po9ts1 we
 seem to encompass _! di/ance2 & !      
volume ( our own bodies seems to be     
magnifi$ accord+ly4 ,! b\nd>ies ( !     
space become a second & great]          
integum5t4 ,?is is ( decisive           
importance2 = ! ae/hetic appreciation ( 
size is relative to an appreciation ( ! 
size ( our own bodies2 9 nature itself  
!re is no?+ ei!r l>ge or small4 ,along )
 ! s5se ( va/ness goes a s5se ( fre$om2 
! "o is ! ae/hetic exp]i5ce result+ f ! 
imag9ative rea*+ ( ! goal ( a movem5t1 !
 o!r is ! feel+ ( ! imag9$ movem5t      
itself4  ,:51 on ! o!r h&1 an inclosure 

is small1 z 9 ! case ( a cell1 &        
especially :5 ! ceil+ or vault is l[1 z 
9 a crypt1 x feels cab9$ & conf9$1      
because our own possibilities ( movem5t 
are re/rict$4 ,9 ord] to avoid ?is      
feel+1 if a space is limit$ 9 "o        
direction1 x mu/ be free 9 ano!r2 if    
n>r[1 x mu/ be long2 if small 9 plan1 x 
mu/ be high1 z 9 a t[]4  ,! =m ( an     
inclos$ space is also expressive4 ,!re  
are two *ief types1 ! longitud9al & !   
radial2 b s9ce ^! may exi/ ei!r 9 plan  
or 9 elevation1 f\r possibilities       
result3 ! longitud9al-horizontal1 z 9 an
 aisle2 ! longitud9al-v]tical1 z 9 a    
t[]2 ! radial-horizontal1 illu/rat$ by e
 equilat]al plan--triangle1 squ>e1      
regul> polygon1 & above all1 ! mo/      
p]fect =m ( ?is type1 ! circle2 &       
f9ally1 ! radial-v]tical1 ( :i* dom$    
spaces1 l ! ,pan!on or ,/4 ,paul's1 are 
examples4 ,! t]ms us$ to designate !m1  
toge!r ) ! examples1 af=d a good idea ( 
:at ^! space =ms are1 mak+ fur!r        
description unnecess>y4 ,x is int]e/+ to

 obs]ve h[ diff]5t ! expression ( !     
squ>e & ! triangle is :5 !y det]m9e !   
plan ( an inclos$ space f :at x is :5 !y
 are ! %apes ( walls4 ,footnote3 ,comp>e
 ,fritz ,hoeb]3 ,sy/ematik d]           
,ar*itekturproportion51 ,,ii1 ,b1 a4  ,9
 ! case ( ! latt]1 accord+ to ! analysis
 :i* we h giv5 ( !m1 ! figures repres5t 
an int]play ( antagoni/ic horizontal &  
v]tical =ces1 ab\t an axis drawn        
p]p5dicul> to ! midpo9t ( ! base l9e2   
:ile z plans !y express =ces homog5e\s 9
 k9d radiat+ f _! c5t]s4 ,! feel+ (     
longitud9al =ms is "o ( cont9u$ movem5t1
 =w>d or upw>d z ! case may be2 :5 !    
di/ance is v great1 ! feel+ is (        
inf9ity1 ei!r ( vi/a1 z 9 an aisle1 or (
 height1 z 9 a t[]1 = ev5 :5 ! po9t at !
 end is cle>ly se5 & kn[n1 we cont9ue x 
9 ! imag9ation4 ,! radial =ms1 on ! o!r 
h&1 ev5 :5 ! axes are v long1 express   
complet5ess & security1 = no matt] h[ f>
 we g 9 any "o direction1 we h to proce$
 along a l9e :i* br+s u back to our />t+
 po9t2 9 foll[+ to ! top ! movem5t ( !  

curv$ l9e ( a dome or an apse1 !        
cont9uation ( ! same l9e c>ries u d[n on
 ! o!r side to a po9t correspond+ to !  
"o f :i* we set out2 if we w&]1 we      
return home4  ,) ref]5ce to ! division (
 int]iors into p>ts1 ! same two types   
are exemplifi$ :i* we f\nd 9 /udy+ !    
visual & ! dynamic aspects ( build+s4   
,ei!r ! p>ts ( ! int]ior space are      
cle>ly m>k$ (f f ea* o!r1 & ! p]ception 
( ! :ole :i* !y con/itute is rea*$ by a 
process ( summation2 or else1 to "o /&+ 
)91 ! space is fir/ p]ceiv$ z a :ole1 & 
its p>ts1 lack+ cle> def9ition1 are     
p]ceiv$ subsequ5tly4 ,9 ! =m] type1 !   
p>ts are ( pron\nc$ individuality1 & !  
:ole is _! free & jo9t "w2 9 ! latt]1 ! 
p>ts are m]g$1 & t5d to be lo/ 9 ! :ole4
 ,^! two possibilities exi/ :e!r ! space
 be ( radial or longitud9al =m4 ,9      
g5]al1 ! classical /yles l5d !mselves to
 ! coord9ate type ( division ( !        
int]ior1 :ile ! lat] /yles favor !      
subord9ation ( ! p>ts to ! :ole4  ,! o!r
 factors 9 ! beauty ( ar*itecture1      

besides ! expression ( ! =ces resid5t 9 
its =ms1 c receive only scant notice f  
u4 ,among ^! is light--its admission1   
exclusion1 & diffusion4 ,a h\se ) ample 
w9d[s flood$ ) sun%9e %>es ! feel+ ( an 
op5 day2 a ca!dral1 dimly light$1       
/imulates a mood ( brood+ my/]y &       
m$itation1 l "s d>k =e/4 ,ano!r factor  
is color4 ,color plays a d\ble "p 9     
ar*itecture3 fir/1 to enliv5 ! neutral  
tones ( c]ta9 mat]ials2 & second1 to    
imp>t specific moods4 ,x 0 no b>b>ic    
ta/e1 b a ke5 feel+ = life & w>m? t     
induc$ ! ,greeks to pa9t _! temples2 &  
)\t _! rose w9d[s1 ,go?ic ca!drals are l
 faces f :i* ! gl[ ( life is dep>t+4 ,! 
diff]5t colors h ! same feel+s 9        
ar*itecture t !y h 9 pa9t+4 ,! r$s &    
purples ( ecclesia/ical /a9$ glass      
/imulate ! passion ( adoration1 ! blues 
deep5 x1 & ! yell[s seem to (f] a       
glimpse ( heav5ly bliss4 ,s\nd1 its     
pres5ce or its abs5ce1 is ano!r factor 9
 ar*itectural expression3 ! quiet ( !   
*ur* 9 contra/ ) ! noise ( ! busy /reet 

outside1 ! peal ( ! organ1 or ! *orus ( 
"y voices4 ,al?\gh ar*itecture is a     
spatial art & music a temporal art1 !y  
nev]!less g well toge!r because !       
emotions ar\s$ by bo? are vague &       
volum9\s1 & ! s\nds1 rev]b]at+ f ! walls
 & fill+ ! inclos$ spaces1 seem to fuse 
) !m4 ,ornam5tal c>v+ p]=ms a div]sify+ 
& enliv5+ function simil> to t ( color4 
,s long z its l9es foll[ ^? ( !         
ar*itectural =ms1 x may well be ri* &   
elaborate4 ,x is fitt+1 moreov]1 t      
build+s design$ to be h\ses ( ! gods    
%\ld conta9 _! images1 & t ! same _s t  
expresses itself 9 playful l9es %\ld    
become embodi$ 9 griff9 & g>goyle4      
,f9ally1 erect$ 9 ! op51 ) no %elt] or  
enframem5t1 a build+ is1 9 l>ge measure1
 a "p ( nature & possesses some?+ ( !   
beauty ( nature4 ,root$ to "o place l a 
tree1 x %>es ! beauty ( its site1 &     
responds to ! ev] v>y+ effects ( light &
 %ad[1 ra9 & mi/ & sn[4  ,! ab/ract     
beauty ( ar*itecture c be und]/ood )\t  
any k ( ! purposes ( build+s4 ,a ,h9du  

:o kn[s no?+ ( our civilization _c fail 
to be responsive to ,notre ,dame1 any m 
?an we c fail to admire ! beauty ( ,taj 
,mahal4 ,! v simple/ ar*itectural =ms1 l
 ! pyramids or ! ,wa%+ton monum5t1      
provid$ !y are ( suffici5t size & mass1 
speak an eloqu5t language :i* is        
imm$iately und]/ood4 ,& ! cont5t ( _!   
spee* is n s ab/ract z might be judg$ f 
our previ\s /udies ( x2 = 9 ar*itecture1
 z 9 music1 concrete emotions & s5tim5ts
 fl[ into ! *annel cut by ! =m4 ,long+1 
aspiration1 & my/]y h univ]sally be5    
felt into a =m po9t+ skyw>d2 & ! feel+ (
 incomplet5ess has be5 lo/1 & security  
rega9$1 9 an ov]>*+ dome4  ,!re is1     
h[ev]1 ?is diff]5ce betwe5 ar*itecture &
 music4 ,9 music1 ! emotional cont5t is 
purely p]sonal2 :ile 9 ar*itecture1 x   
may become social & hi/orical4          
,ar*itectural purposes are all social3 !
 purposes ( a family1 a nation1 a cult4 
,& ! purposes ( ! greate/ ( build+s--(  
^? :i* s]ve ! nation & religion--are    
also hi/orical2 ab\t !m ga!r !          

traditions ( a community4 ,c5t]s ( !    
life ( a p1 creat$ by x & endur+ ) x1 !y
 become its symbols2 or outla/+ x1      
memorials & witnesses to x4 ,! vague    
emotions ar\s$ by ! ar*itectural =ms are
 po9t$ & enri*$ by ?is _s3 ! va/ness1   
seclusion1 magnific5ce1 my/]y1 &        
aspiration ( ! ,go?ic ca!dral become    
associat$ ) ! life ( ! m$ieval ,ca?olic 
*ur*2 ! f9e balance1 cl>ity1 &          
simplicity ( ! ,greek temple ) ! be/ 9  
,greek culture4 ,?is int]pretation ( a  
build+ 9 t]ms ( its purpose & hi/ory is 
necess>y to a complete ae/hetic         
appreciation4 ,)\t x1 a build+ may h _m 
beauties1 all ! beauties :i* we h       
analyz$2 b !y are all sep>ate1 & !re is 
no beauty ( ! :ole4 ,x is ! life :i* !  
_m p>ts & aspects s]ve t makes !m into  
"o4  ,i %all close ?is *apt] ) a brief  
discussion ( ar*itectural composition4  
,! unity ( a build+ is con/itut$        
prim>ily by ! necess>y adju/m5t ( "p to 
"p :i* makes possible ! life t x        
incloses4 ,h[ ! p>ts s]ve ?is purpose is

 n imm$iately evid5t to intuition2 nor c
 x be2 yet x %\ld be intelligible to a  
?\ghtful /udy4 ,! k ?us ga9$ may !n ent]
 into an imag9ative vision1 = :i* !     
build+ w seem l an organism puls+ )     
life4  ,?is purposive unity _c well be  
secur$ )\t spatial contiguity2 "h1 z 9  
sculpture1 a unifi$ life dem&s a unifi$ 
mat]ial4 ,yet sometimes deta*$ /ructures
 belong toge!r functionally1 & may be   
felt z "o ae/hetically1 provid$ !y are  
simil> 9 design & "s "o ( !m is dom9ant2
 o!rwise1 ea* claims to be a di/9ct     
individual1 & ae/hetic rivalry is !     
result4  ,functional unity1 al?\gh      
necess>y1 is n suffici5t = ae/hetic     
unity2 9 addition1 !re mu/ be =mal      
unity--design1 composition4 ,to /udy ?is
 adequately w\ld require a sep>ate      
treatise1 :i* has n yet be5 writt51 s f>
 z ,i "k1 ) any?+ approa*+ philosophical
 dep? & complet5ess2 b = our plan x w be
 suffici5t to %[ h[ ! g5]al pr9ciples ( 
ae/hetic =m are illu/rat$ 9 ar*itecture2
 & because ( ! p]spicuity ( ?+s spatial1

 ^! pr9ciples are n[h]e else s lucidly  
manife/4  ,s9ce ar*itecture is a spatial
 art1 unity 9 v>iety is *iefly a matt] (
 h>mony & balance r ?an ( evolution1 & (
 ^! h>mony is p]haps ! mo/ conspicu\s4  
,h>mony is secur$ 9 _m ways4  ,fir/1 by 
giv+ ! :ole build+ or p>ts ( ! build+ a 
simple geometrical =m readily           
p]ceiv$1--= example1 ! cruci=m plan ( _m
 ,go?ic ca!drals1 ! oblong plan & oblong
 surm\nt$ by a triangle 9 ! facade ( !  
,greek temple1 ! octagonal %ape ( a     
,r5aissance *apel4 ,a high] degree (    
h>mony is obta9$ :5 ! same %ape is      
repeat$ ?r\gh\t ! v>i\s p>ts ( !        
build+1--! cyl9d] 9 ! columns1 !        
triangle or semicircle 9 ! ar*es &      
gables4 ,a /ep fur!r is tak5 9 ! same   
direction :5 ! diff]5t simil> p>ts are  
all ( ! same size1 z 9 ! ,greek temple1 
:]e ! columns are all ( "o size1 &      
simil> p>ts ( columns ( equal size1 & ! 
metopes & triglyphs likewise4  ,a m     
complex type ( h>mony1 s9ce x admits (  
great] v>iety1 is proportionality4      

,proportionality may be ( v>i\s k9ds4 ,x
 may be m]ely ! exi/5ce ( a def9ite     
num]ical relation betwe5 ! dim5sions (  
s+le p>ts1 or ! areas ( v>i\s p>ts1 ( a 
build+4 ,?is1 9 turn1 may be ei!r a     
simple ari?metical relation1 su* z exi/s
 betwe5 ! p>ts ( a ,greek facade1 ea*   
be+ "s simple multiple ( ! unit or      
module2 or a m complex relation l !     
,gold5 ,section1 :]e ! small] is to !   
l>g] dim5sion z ! l>g] is to ! sum (    
bo?2 or l t :i* obta9s :5 diff]5t p>ts  
=m a geometrical s]ies1 :]e ea* is      
small] or l>g] ?an ! prec$+ by "s       
fraction ( ! latt]4 ,! relation betwe5 !
 l5g? & bread? ( ! facade ( ! ,ducal    
,palace 9 ,flor5ce illu/rates ! ,gold5  
,section2 ! heights ( ! /ories ( !      
,pell] ,h\se 9 ,nuremb]g =m a           
geometrical s]ies4 ,?is type ( h>mony is
 mo/ complete :5 ! proportion betwe5 !  
dim5sions ( ! diff]5t p>ts is ! same z t
 ( ! :ole build+1--by ! anci5ts call$   
conc9nitas because x produces a feel+   
ak9 to t ( musical h>mony4 ,dom9ance ( a

 p>ticul> k9d ( l9e1 horizontal or      
v]tical1 also gives h>mony4 ,f9ally1    
h>mony is secur$ by sam5ess ( direction 
( l9e3 ! alignm5t ( w9d[s or p>allelism 
betwe5 mold+s divid+ ! surfaces ( walls1
 = example4  ,! relations1 s seem+ly    
ma!matical1 ^u :i* ar*itectural h>mony  
is bas$1 ne$ n be exact1 = two reasons3 
m9or deviations are n p]ceptible1 & ev5 
:5 p]ceptible1 !y give to ! :ole a feel+
 ( life4 ,our exp]i5ce ) liv+ ?+s has   
taught u t1 despite _! ord]l9ess1 !re is
 no exact ma!matical regul>ity 9 _!     
proportions2 h5ce =ms :i* _c be         
precisely =mulat$ are bett] fitt$ to    
symbolize life to u ?an ! rigidly       
geometrical4 ,! same exp]i5ce has taught
 u t ! curvil9e> =ms are clos] to life  
?an ! angul>2 h5ce aga9 ! t5d5cy1 =     
ae/hetic purposes1 to introduce m9ute   
dep>tures f ! plumb-l9e & rule4 ,!re is1
 h[ev]1 a type ( life specifically      
human1 ! life ( reason1 :i* is be/      
symboliz$ by ma!matical relations2 h5ce 
! ,greeks1 & all ^? :o h foll[$ !       

classical ideal1 all :o h _h a passion =
 reason1 h felt ! circle & ! squ>e1 & e 
o!r exact embodim5t ( cl>ity &          
intellig5ce1 to be beautiful4 ,9 no o!r 
art has ! passion = ! intelligible be5 s
 p]fectly express$ z 9 classical        
ar*itecture4  ,next 9 importance to     
h>mony z a mode ( unity 9 v>iety 9      
ar*itecture is balance4 ,balance implies
 emphatic v>iety1 or contra/4 ,"o mode (
 balance1 t betwe5 ! upw>d & ! d[nw>d   
t5d5cies1 we h already discuss$4 ,!re is
 ano!r mode1 simil> to t :i* exi/s 9    
pa9t+ & sculpture1 ! balance betwe5 ! "r
 & left memb]s ( a build+4 ,9 ord] t ?is
 type ( balance may be appreciat$1 !re  
mu/ be "s axis or l9e ( m$iation betwe5 
! p>ts1 f :i* ! oppos+ t5d5cies take _! 
/>t2 o!rwise we view ! p>ts toge!r1     
in/ead ( 9 opposition4 ,= example1 !re  
is balance betwe5 two w+s ( a build+ :i*
 are sep>at$ by "s c5tral memb] or l9k2 
balance betwe5 ! aisles ( a *ur* on ei!r
 side ( ! nave2 balance betwe5 ! sets ( 
?ree columns "r & left ( ! door 9 !     

,greek hexa/yle temple4 ,su* cases (    
symmetry betwe5 equal "r & left p>ts are
 ! simple/ examples ( balance2 b !re are
 o!r1 m complex types4 ,= example1 !    
p>ts may be unequal1 yet balance        
nev]!less1 provid$ _! inequality is     
comp5sat$ = by "s enri*m5t ( design or  
ornam5t 9 ! less] "p4 ,or aga91 !re may 
be a balance betwe5 contra/+ %apes1 su* 
z ! squ>e & ! triangle1 :5 !y make an   
equal claim ^u ! att5tion4  ,al?\gh1    
s9ce ar*itecture is a /atic art1        
evolution is n s important z h>mony &   
balance1 x exi/s nev]!less4 ,9 a        
colonnade1 z y look d[n x1 ) ! height ( 
! columns dim9i%+ 9 p]spective1 !re is a
 rhy?mical movem5t ( eye & att5tion t[>d
 ! la/ column z a goal4 ,!re is ! same  
rhy?mical movem5t 9 foll[+ ! ar*es on   
ei!r side ( ! nave ( a *ur* lead+ to !  
apse4  ,!re is a rhy?mical movem5t 9 !  
progressive dim9ution ( ! height ( !    
/ories ( a build+1 go+ t[>ds ! top4 ,9  
su* spatio-temporal rhy?ms1 !           
proportional equality betwe5 ! memb]s   

corresponds to ! equal int]vals 9       
temporal rhy?ms1 & ! alt]nation betwe5  
memb] & int]v5+ space1 or betwe5 memb] &
 l9e ( division1 corresponds to !       
alt]nation betwe5 heavy & light acc5ts4 
,la/1 evolution is pres5t 9 ar*itecture1
 :5ev]1 (t5 )\t rhy?mical divisions1 !  
att5tion is impell$ to move along l9es t
 meet at a po9t :i* s]ves z a climax1 z 
9 all triangul> =ms :]e ! l9es lead up  
to ! apex1--po9t$ w9d[s or ar*es1 t[]s  
end+ 9 belfries or p9nacles4  ,dom9ance1
 ) its correlative1 subord9ation1 are   
ev]y:]e pres5t 9 ar*itecture4 ,9 g5]al1 
size & a c5tral position1 :i* usually g 
toge!r1 det]m9e preem95ce4 ,! l>ge/     
masses & ^? :i* occupy a c5tral position
 inevitably rule ! o!rs4 ,! t[]s & !    
facade dom9ate ! ext]ior ( a ,go?ic     
ca!dral1 ! middle doorway is sup]ior to 
^? :i* flank x1 & )91 ! c5tral & l>g]   
nave dom9ates ! small] aisles on ei!r   
side4 ,:5 !re are _m dom9ant elem5ts1 z 
is necess>ily ! case 9 a l>ge build+1 !y
 mu/ be unifi$ by balance1 if !re are   

two1 or by subord9ation to "o ( !m1 if  
?ree or m2 o!rwise1 ea* claims to be !  
:ole & ! build+ falls ap>t into its     
memb]s4 ,!re _c well be ?ree v]tical    
dom9ant p>ts1 because ! c5tral "o makes 
a claim to preem95ce :i* _c be satisfi$ 
)\t sup]iority 9 size4 ,a c5tral memb]  
%\ld1 !re=e1 ei!r be made l>g] ?an ^?   
flank+ x1 or else %\ld be r$uc$ to !    
/atus ( a m]e subord9ate l9k betwe5 !   
o!rs4  ,9 ! horizontal division ( a     
build+ into /ories--z1 = example1 9 !   
,palazzo ,f>nese ne> ,rome--x is easi] =
 ! prom95t p>ts to be equal1 because !y 
are bett] unit$ by ! evid5t contiguity (
 _! masses1 by _! inclosure 9 a simple  
geometrical %ape1 & enframem5t betwe5   
base & ov]hang+ cornice4 ,yet "h also we
 obs]ve ! t5d5cy to make ! middle l>g]  
or o!rwise dom9ant1 exemplifi$ ev5 9 !  
build+ cit$1 :]e ! c5tral "p is di/+ui%$
 by ! ornam5tal %ield1 ^u :i* ! att5tion
 is focus$4 ,:5 !re are f\r horizontal  
divisions1 our t5d5cy is to divide !m   
into gr\ps ( two2 b unless ?is gr\p+ is 

cle>ly m>k$ by a mold+ or o!r su*       
device1 our purpose is defeat$ because  
ea* ( ! two c itself be divid$ into two 
p>ts1 :5ce we get ! f\r p>ts aga91 among
 :i* !re is n suffici5t unity4 ,:51     
h[ev]1 !re are m ?an f\r /ories1 !y     
cease to function z individuals & become
 memb]s ( a s]ies1 ! rhy?m ( :i* creates
 ! necess>y unity4 ,ev5 9 ?is case1     
h[ev]1 ! t5d5cy t[>d gr\p+ into ?ree ) !
 middle dom9ant p]si/s2 =1 z a rule1 !  
/ories are divid$ by mold+s into ?ree   
p>ts1 ( :i* ! c5tral "p is ! l>ge/4 ,f\r
 equal /ories are difficult because !y  
at once resi/ an arrangem5t into ?rees &
 yet fall %ort ( be+ ! s]ies :i* !y     
sugge/4 ,:5 a s]ies ( /ories is divid$  
into ?ree p>ts1 a sup]ior ae/hetic      
effect is ga9$ if ! height ( ea* /ory   
dim9i%es 9 "s regul> ratio f ! bottom to
 ! top1 ?us express+ ! gradual ov]com+ (
 ! d[nw>d =ce by ! upw>d1--! rhy?m      
becomes dynamical z well z k9ematical4  
,all good ar*itectural /yles illu/rate !
 pr9ciple ( imp>tiality1 :i* dem&s !    

c>eful elaboration ( p>ts4 ,yet1 z we h 
indicat$1 !re are two possibilities3 "s 
/yles are f\nd$ on ! idea ( !           
subord9ation ( ! p>ts to ! :ole1 & s    
p]mit ( a less elaborate execution (    
details1 :ile o!rs are bas$ on ! idea ( 
coord9ation among ! p>ts )9 ! :ole1 & s 
require t ea* "p be vividly cle>1 di/9ct
 f ! o!rs1 & possess$ ( a pron\nc$      
individual beauty4 ,^! two types are    
exemplifi$ 9 ea* ( ! ?ree aspects ( a   
build+--! visual1 ! dynamic1 & !        
volum9al4 ,= ! ,greek & ,roman          
ar*itecture & = t ( ! ,r5aissance1 ! =m]
 0 ! ideal2 :ile ! latt] is cle>ly      
*>act]i/ic ( ! m mod]n =ms2 betwe5 ^! /&
 ! ,byzant9e1 ,romanesque1 & ,go?ic1 9  
:i* a union ( ! two types1 9 :at has    
well be5 call$ an organic type1 0       
attempt$1 & p]haps a*iev$ 9 ! la/4 ,!   
=m] has ! feel+ ( ! me*anical1 rational 
view ( life1 :i* is ! classical2 ! latt]
 has ! feel+ ( ! my/ical & organic view1
 :i* is mod]n4,footnote3 ,see ,p4       
,frankl1 ,die ,entwieklungsphas5 d]     

neu]5 ,baukun/1 #aiad4     ,,*apt] ,,xiv
  ,,! ,,function ,,( ,,art3 ,,art ,,&   
,,morality   ,t an int]e/ is innoc5t &  
pleasure giv+ is no long] consid]$      
suffici5t to ju/ify its exi/5ce2 x mu/  
also1 9 ord] to be sanction$ 9 our      
jeal\s & economical _w1 prove itself a  
b5efic5t influ5ce ^u ! total man & !    
gr\p4 ,= ! "t be+ at lea/1 ! day (      
laissez-faire is done2 m5 c no long]    
appeal to _! p]sonal ne$s1 _! inn]      
necessities1 or ev5 _! consci5ces1 9    
def5se ( _! activities4 ,public op9ion1 
& sometimes reason1 are ! only arbit]s (
 "r4 ,x may well happ5 t1 9 a new age1  
m5 w be m g5]\s & less exact+1 once aga9
 recogniz+ inh]5t rights 9 spontane\s   
activities2 b t age is n ours4 ,n ev5   
art c claim privilege2 9 va9 w ! arti/  
boa/ ( 8 g5ius or ! art-lov] ( 8        
delights1 if he c exhibit no p]vasive   
good4 ,x is n en\gh1 !re=e1 t we %\ld h 
describ$ ! peculi>1 inw>d value ( art2  
we mu/ fur!r e/abli% t x has a function 
9 ! g5]al life4  ,?ree classes ( p1 !   

puritans1 ! phili/9es1 & ! prolet>ians1 
"q ! value ( art 9 ?is s5se4 ,^! classes
 are1 ( c\rse1 n new to our             
civilization1 b are r p]5nial types (   
human nature1 appe>+ "u "o or ano!r "n &
 guise 9 e age4 ,to ! puritan1 art is   
immoral2 to ! phili/9e1 x is useless2 to
 ! prolet>ian1 x is a cruel wa/e4  ,"o  
illu/ration ( ! complexity ( human      
culture is ! fact t art has n[ be5      
reg>d$ z ! symbol & ally ( goodness1 &  
n[ z its enemy4 ,?is p>adox c1 ,i ?9k1  
be p>tly expla9$ by mak+ a di/9ction    
betwe5 ! e?ical & ! moral po9t ( view   
reg>d+ conduct4 ,f ! "o po9t ( view1 !  
good belongs to all free1 creative acts 
t look t[>d ! gr[? & happ9ess (         
individuals2 f ! o!r po9t ( view1 x     
consi/s 9 con=mity to law1 conv5tion1 & 
cu/om4 ,x is evid5t t ^! two attitudes  
mu/ sometimes come into op5 or secret   
conflict4 ,= law & conv5tion repres5t   
ei!r an ef=t to fix & /abilize modes (  
conduct t h prov$ !mselves to be good "u
 c]ta9 conditions2 or else1 z is m (t5  

true ?an is admitt$1 an attempt to      
g5]alize ! good ( "s special class or   
type ( m5 & impose x z a norm = all2 &  
obvi\sly ^! ef=ts w1 f "t to "t1 be     
oppos$ ei!r to ! fre$om ( individuals1  
or to _! gr[?1 "u *ang+ conditions4  ,n[
 9 ! s5se def9$1 ! _s ( art is          
fundam5tally e?ical &1 at ! same "t1    
fundam5tally non-moral4 ,x is           
fundam5tally e?ical1 = art is itself a  
freely creative & happy activity1 & t5ds
 to propagate itself 9 spontaneity 9 o!r
 fields2 x is an inspiration 9 e /ruggle
 = lib]ty & ! remold+ ( ! _w4 ,! arti/ &
 art lov]1 :o value ! expression (      
individuality 9 art1 _c fail to         
appreciate x outside ( art4 ,on ! o!r   
h&1 ! _s ( art is fundam5tally          
non-moral1 = ! /hetic attitude is "o (  
sympa?y--an attempt at once to express  
life & to feel at "o ) x2 x dem&s ( u t 
we take ! po9t ( view ( ! life express$ 
&1 = ! mom5t at any rate1 refra9 f a    
m]ely ext]nal judgm5t4 ,?r\gh art we are
 compell$ to sympa?ize ) ! aspiration   

t[>ds gr[?1 t[>ds happ9ess1 ev5 :5 x    
leads to rebellion aga9/ our own /&>ds &
 t[>ds :at we call s94 ,! sympa?y1      
realism1 & imag9ation ( art are         
antagoni/ic to con=mi/ morality4 ,by    
mak+ u intimately acqua9t$ )            
individuals1 art leads to skepticism (  
all g5]al rules4  ,! puritan1 !re=e1 :o 
is an expon5t ( ! extreme/ & n>r[e/     
con=mi/ morality1 is m ne>ly "r 9 8     
int]pretation ( ! relation betwe5 art & 
morality ?an m lib]al p :o1 because ( _!
 love ( art1 seek to ignore or palliate 
! facts4 ,h5ce1 9 ord] to def5d art1 "o 
mu/ reckon s]i\sly ) ! puritan4  ,!     
puritan is fe>ful1 above all1 ( works ( 
art t repres5t moral evil4 ,! me?od (   
arti/ic repres5tation1 :i* aims at      
awak5+ sympa?y = ! life portray$1 is    
b\nd1 he ?9ks1 to demoralize bo? ! arti/
 & ! spectator4 ,b art is some?+ m ?an  
sympa?y1 & !re are o!r aspects ( !      
ae/hetic exp]i5ce :i* t5d to r5d] t     
sympa?y innocu\s1 ev5 f ! /&po9t ( !    
puritan4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! sympa?y is  

usually ) an imag9$ life t has no direct
 relation to ! w & gives ! spectator no 
opportunity to ent] into & %>e x--he    
p>ticipates ?r\gh ! imag9ation1 n ?r\gh 
! s5ses4 ,moreov]1 nei!r ! m9d nor ! w  
is a tabula rasa2 no mature p]son comes 
to a "w ( art )\t c]ta9 habits &        
pref]5ces already pr$et]m9$1 :i* no m]e 
imag9ation c de/roy1 b only1 if at all1 
"s concrete opportunity & temptation4   
,h5ce m5 c lead a manifold life1 p>tly 9
 ! imag9ation & p>tly 9 action1 )\t any 
corruption ( he>t or p>alysis ( w4 ,9   
real conduct1 to lead a d\ble life is   
demoraliz+ because !re *oices are       
exclusive & ea* ( ! two lives t5ds to   
int]f]e ) & spoil ! o!r2 b imag9ation   
does n conflict ) reality1 = !y h no    
po9t ( contact & d n belong to ! same   
_w4  ,9 ! second place1 a "w ( art is an
 appeal to m9d z well z to sympa!tic    
feel+4 ,x is no m]e /irr+ ( emotion &   
passion1 b a means to insight into !m4  
,! attitude ( reflection :i* x eng5d]s  
is unfavorable to impetu\s action4      

,provid+ no imm$iate /imulus to action1 
x all[s "t = a bett] second ?\ght to    
int]v5e4 ,ev5 :5 x (f]s sugge/ions =    
unwont$ acts1 x furni%es ! _s & ! k     
requisite = det]m9+ :e!r !y w fit into !
 s*eme ( life ( ! spectator4 ,x is      
*>act]i/ic ( ! puritanic critics ( art1 
9 _! eag]ness to f9d motives =          
condemnation1 to ov]look ?is elem5t (   
reflection4  ,x is =gott51 f9ally1 t by 
provid+ an imag9ative exp]i5ce ( passion
 & adv5ture1 art (t5 becomes r a        
sub/itute = ?an an inc5tive to !m4 ,!   
p]fection ( =m1 ! deep repose & circle-l
 complet5ess ( ! "w ( art1 t5d to prev5t
 "o f seek+ a correspond+ real exp]i5ce1
 :i* w\ld h none ( ^! qualities1 b      
p]haps only mis]y & we> & te> in/ead4   
,?us ! "w ( art may propagate itself 9 a
 se>* = new ae/hetic exp]i5ces r ?an 9  
analog\s conduct4  ,to ! arti/ :o is    
liv+ ! evil life :i* he expresses1 !re c
 be ev5 less dang] 9 expression1 ?an to 
! spectator4 ,= ! expression is n !     
cause ( 8 life1 b only its effloresc5ce4

 ,! roots ( evil lie deep bel[ 9 !      
subsoil ( in/9ct4 ,)\t expression1 life 
w\ld be mu* ! same1 only secret in/ead (
 articulate4 ,! puritan %[s a %ock+     
naivete 9 ?9k+ t he c re=m life by      
de/roy+ its utt]ance4 ,moreov]1 to      
express life implies a c]ta9 ma/]y ov]  
x1 a p[] ( deta*m5t & reflection1 :i*   
are fundam5tally e?ical & may lead to a 
new way ( liv+4  ,e =m ( life has an    
inali5able "r to expression4 ,9 ord] to 
be judg$ fairly1 x mu/ be all[$ to plead
 = itself1 & art is its be/ spokesman4  
,& t we %\ld "k life sympa!tically is ( 
practical importance2 = o!rwise we %all 
n "k h[ to *ange x or inde$ t x ought to
 be *ang$ at all4 ,only by kn[+ o!r ways
 ( life c we be c]ta9 ( ! relative wor? 
( our own way2 k alone gives c]titude4  
,)\t k we run ! risk ( becom+ ru?less   
de/roy]s ( ?+s :i* an intellig5t sympa?y
 might well pres]ve & f9d a place = 9 ! 
_w4  ,to all ^! consid]ations ! puritan 
w d\btless oppose a tru? impossible to  
d5y4 ,exp]i5ce1 he w say1 is "o1 n _m2  

imag9ation & action are n sep>at$ by an 
impassable wall2 ?+s m]ely imag9$ or    
dream$1 ev5 :5 !y d n directly issue 9  
action1 may nev]!less influ5ce conduct  
?r\gh a sl[ & subtle trans=m+ effect ^u 
! s5tim5ts & valuations :i* make up its 
backgr\nd4 ,"* c be ma9ta9$ only by a   
vigilant & /eady control ov] impulses   
:i* are always ?reat5+ rebellion2 purity
 ( m9d only ?r\gh ! rigid exclusion ( ! 
s5sual1 luxuri\s1 & ignoble2 imag9ative 
sympa?y ) evil1 ev5 :5 sublimat$ 9 art1 
mu/ necess>ily und]m9e ! "o & becl\d !  
o!r4 ,if ?9e eye (f5d !e1 cut x out &   
ca/ x f !e4  ,! tru? :i* ! puritan      
ann\nces does n1 ,i ?9k1 w>rant !       
inf]5ce :i* he draws f x or alt] !      
situation z ,i h describ$ x4 ,=         
morality1 to be g5u9e1 mu/ be a *oice2 !
 good mu/ "k its alt]native or x is n   
good4 ,only ^? :o already h a p5*ant =  
s9 w be corrupt$ by imag9ative sympa?y )
 passion2 a "* t _c resi/ su* an        
influ5ce is already und]m9$4 ,life      
itself is ! great temptation2 h[ c "o :o

 _c look ) equanimity ^u /atues &       
pictures fail to be s$uc$ by live m5 &  
wom58 ,if m5 c resi/ ! sugge/ions t     
emanate f life !y c surely )/& ^? t come
 f art4 ,& m]e purity ( m9d is n equal 9
 value to t insight into ! :ole ( life  
:i* a freely creative art provides4 ,we 
wi% to p5etrate sympa!tically all ( our 
exi/5ce2 no?+ human %all rema9 =eign to 
u2 we w\ld ent] into x all2 !re is no   
region ( ! grotesque1 ! inf]nal1 or !   
s9ful f :i* we w\ld be %ut out4 ,9      
comp>ison ) ! sublimity ( ?is dem& = !  
complete appreciation ( life1 ! w>n+s ( 
a rigor\s moralism seem timor\s1 & !    
sanctu>y ( purity 9 :i* x w\ld h u take 
refuge1 a prison4  ,:atev] conflict !re 
may be betwe5 ! _s ( art & con=mi/      
morality1 !re is none ) a g5u9e &       
rational e?ics4 ,= ! latt] w\ld =mulate 
ways ( liv+ suit$ to ! div]sity (       
individuals & sympa!tic ) _! e impulse &
 fancy4 ,x w\ld impose ext]nal con/ra9t 
only :]e necess>y = ! exi/5ce &         
p]petuation ( social life1 leav+ to     

p]sonal tact1 good w1 & temp]ance ! f9] 
adju/m5ts ( /ra94 ,b ap>t f ae/hetic    
culture1 !re c be no rational morality1 
= t alone eng5d]s ! imag9ative sympa?y )
 individual div]sity ^u :i* ! latt]     
re/s4 ,)\t imag9ative sympa?y morality w
 always be co>se1 ru?less1 & expressive 
( ! ne$s & s5tim5ts ( "s special type   
:i* sets out to re=m or gov]n ! _w4 ,"u 
su* a regim51 :i* is actual 9 e         
community devoid ( imag9ation1 virtue   
mu/ always rema9 suspect & vice         
tol]able2 ! "o a hypocrisy1 ! o!r a     
secret & v5ial indulg5ce1 & nature w    
take its rev5ge ^u ! law 9 viol5t or    
p]v]se comp5sations4 ,h5ce1 in/ead ( be+
 a h9drance1 art ought to be a help to a
 rational morality3 its realism %\ld    
fo/] s9c]ity1 its imag9ation1 sympa?y & 
ju/ice4 ,! morali/ inspir$ by art w\ld  
seek to impose ^u m5 only t k9d ( =m &  
ord] :i* is *>act]i/ic ( art--"o :i*    
respects ! peculi>ities ( ! mat]ial )   
:i* x works1 & issues 9 a sy/em 9 :i*   
all elem5ts freely p>ticipate4          

,footnote3 ,comp>e ,s*ill]1 ,on !       
,ae/hetic ,education ( ,man1 ,f\r?      
,lett]3 ,! civiliz$ man makes nature 8  
fri5d1 & honors h] fre$om1 :ile he m]ely
 fett]s h] caprice4  ,! phili/9e's      
objection to art is t x is useless4 ,&  
if we only knew :at 0 really useful1 ?is
 w\ld be a damn+ indictm5t4 ,b1 n be+   
mu* giv5 to ab/ract reflection1 !       
phili/9e is usually at a loss to in=m u4
 ,h[ev]1 by talk+ ) him1 we c ev5tually 
div9e :at he ?9ks ! useful to be4       
,useful is :at contributes to !         
procurem5t ( ^? ?+s :i* he & 8 cong5]s  
value--mat]ial weal?1 p[]1 & s5sual     
enjoym5t4 ,art is useless because x w n 
prep>e a banquet1 build a bridge1 or    
help to run a bus9ess corporation4 ,!   
arti/ is a contemptible fell[ because he
 c>es m = 8 art ?an = ! ?+s ( ! _w2 =   
:atev] ! worldl+ values he ?9ks e "o    
else %\ld value4  ,to ! arti/1 criticism
 ( ?is k9d seems to betray ! mo/        
%ameless arrogance1 & he meets contempt 
) contempt4 ,:o is he t w\ld be ! judge 

betwe5 worldly goods & beauty8 ,surely !
 phili/9e is no compet5t judge2 = he    
only c judge fairly betwe5 two values :o
 appreciates bo?1 &1 by 8 own           
confession1 ! phili/9e does n appreciate
 art4 ,h5ce ! claim ( ! phili/9e seems n
 to m]it consid]ation4 ,?r\gh 8 lack (  
sympa?y = art1 he puts himself beyond ! 
possibility ( fruitful debate4 ,9 ?is he
 is unlike ! puritan1 :o is (t5 all too 
s5sitive to beauty = 8 own good--h5ce 8 
al>ms4  ,if ! objection ( ! phili/9e 7 !
 same z ! prolet>ian's1 t art is a      
luxury1 a wa/e ( ! en]gies ( !          
community1 :i* might bett] be employ$ 9 
fe$+ ! hungry & sav+ s9n]s1 x w\ld be m 
wor?y ( a he>+2 & s he (t5 repres5ts x4 
,b 9 ?is he is h>dly s9c]e2 & !         
appropriate answ] is a tu quoque1 !     
fitt+ reply to e piece ( ins9c]e        
criticism4 ,does ! phili/9e fe$ ! poor &
 save ! s9n]s8 ,:o is commonly m c>eless
 ( ! work]s' ne$s & m cruel to ! fall5 9
 8 self-righte\s probity8 ,= ! phili/9e 
is (t5 a puritan4 ,& :o is m luxuri\s   

?an he8 ,:o consumes m 9 8 own p]son ( !
 en]gies ( ! toil]s8 ,x co/s little to  
ma9ta9 an arti/1 b x taxes ?\s&s to     
support ! phili/9e & 8 wife4 ,( c\rse1 9
 return1 ! worldl+ p]=ms a s]vice to !  
community 9 ! organization ( indu/ries1 
b _m ( ^! d n su/a9 ! ne$s ( ! masses & 
are devot$ to ! manufacture ( luxuries =
 ! well-to-d4  ,! ins9c]ity ( !         
phili/9e's attitude is disclos$ by 8    
*ang$ attitude t[>ds ! arti/ :o acquires
 fame & weal? ?r\gh 8 art4 ,= n[ t !    
arti/ %[s himself capable ( gett+ ! ?+s 
! phili/9e values1 ! latt] accords him  
e/eem4 ,or let an int]e/ 9 art become   
fa%ionable1 & once aga9 ! phili/9e is   
won ov]4  ,! traditional ho/ility betwe5
 ! phili/9e & ! arti/ is (f5sive to     
reason1 :i* w\ld discov] po9ts ( contact
 & reconciliation betwe5 all attitudes4 
,"o app>5t place ( meet+ might seem to  
be j ! worldl+'s love ( luxury itself4  
,luxury is a developm5t ( pleasure (    
s5se beyond ! necess>y1 p>allel+ !      
fre$om & ref9em5t ( s5sation 9 art4 ,!re

 is1 moreov]1 a c]ta9 imag9ative quality
 9 reputation & glory1 s well-priz$ by !
 worldl+1 :i*1 z we %all see1 is ak9 to 
! ideality ( art4 ,& yet bo? !          
imag9ation & ! luxury ( ! worldl+ are   
usually lack+ 9 "o elem5t ess5tial to   
real k9%ip ) ! _s ( art--dis9t]e/$ness4 
,! worldl+'s dreams ( glory are         
projections ( ambition1 8 luxuries      
subtle /imulations ( appetite or        
in/rum5ts ( display1 h] self-adornm5t a 
f9e self-exhibition or coquetry4 ,! love
 ( insight1 ! free emotion1 ! enjoym5t (
 s5su\s h>monies = _! own sake1 are     
lack+ or subord9ate4 ,glory & luxury are
 too (t5 m]e masks ( ambition &         
appetite1 & at be/ c\nt]feits ( beauty4 
,nev]!less1 ! luxuri\s developm5ts (    
ambition & appetite are ev] on ! v]ge ( 
t5d+ t[>d ! ae/hetic4 ,= :5 ambition has
 no long] to /ruggle aga9/ ! _w & is    
satisfi$1 ! imag9ation t s]v$ x may     
become free2 & :5 appetite is cloy$1 !  
in/rum5talities ( s5su\s pleasure c f9d 
a new mean+ z beautiful4 ,!n ! worldl+  

becomes ! patron ( ! arti/ & ! two are  
reconcil$4 ,& all along ?is result 0    
prep>+4 ,= in/9ct seldom completely     
dom9ates imag9ation & s5sation2 !re is  
always "s ae/hetic fre$om 9 !           
self-adornm5t & display ( ! weal?y4 ,!  
abs5ce ( anxiety may release ae/hetic   
int]e/s t w\ld h di$ 9 ! /ruggle =      
exi/5ce2 prosp]ity is (t5 ! h]ald (     
beauty4  ,! prolet>ian's criticism ( art
 is ( unimpea*able s9c]ity1 = :5 he     
talks ( art z a luxury he speaks f !    
he>t & 9 answ] to bitt] exp]i5ce ( want4
 ,!re is a g5u9e elem5t ( moral         
indignation 9 8 feel+ t !re mu/ be      
some?+ wrong ) a public consci5ce t     
c\nt5ances1 ev5 glorifies extravagance1 
all ! :ile t wom5 slave & *ildr5 die (  
und]fe$+ & neglect4 ,?is feel+ is       
int5sifi$ :5 he comp>es ! ?\s&s paid = a
 s+le h\r ( a prima donna's song or a   
playwright's wit ) 8 own ye>ly wage     
labori\sly e>n$4 ,:at supreme wor? does 
art possess t x %\ld be valu$ s         
disproportionately8  ,yet1 s9c]e z ?is  

compla9t is1 x is l>gely misdirect$2 =  
art is n ! extravagance :i* x may       
sup]ficially seem to be4 ,mo/ ( ! be/   
art has be5 produc$ by poor m5 :o nev]  
dream$ ( ! prices t w\ld be paid = _! "w
 :5 !y 7 old or aft] !y 7 dead4 ,& ^!   
prices repres5t no consumption ( ! labor
 & capital ( ! community1 b only a      
transf]5ce ( weal? f "o man to ano!r4   
,ev5 :5 ! arti/ is paid l>ge sums = 8   
picture or op]a or play1 ^! sums d n    
repres5t _! real co/1 b only :at !y c   
comm& 9 a m>ket controll$ by ri*        
consum]s4 ,! real co/ ( g5u9e art is v  
small--only en\gh to ma9ta9 ! arti/ 9   
fre$om = 8 "w2 = he w\ld /ill produce   
)\t ! inc5tive ( l>ge rew>ds4 ,! seem+  
extravagance ( art _c1 !re=e1 be blam$  
^u art itself1 b ^u ! price sy/em (     
mod]n capitali/ economy4 ,& ?is1 (      
c\rse1 is cle>ly p]ceiv$ by !           
intellectual prolet>ians1 :o are will+  
to accord to ! arti/ a place ( honor z  
fell[-work] & comrade1 & direct _!      
attacks1 n ^u him1 b ^u capitalism4     

,!re is1 h[ev]1 a deep] root to !       
prolet>ian's grievance aga9/ ! arti/--! 
feel+ t ! moral pr9ciple ( mutuality is 
violat$ 9 _! relation%ip4 ,! workman    
pl[s = him1 cooks = him1 builds = him1  
sp9s = him1 b :at does he d 9 return8   
,he pa9ts pictures1 makes /atues1 writes
 novels or poems or plays or sonatas :i*
 ! workman has nei!r ! leisure nor !    
education to enjoy4 ,! money paid by !  
arti/ to ! artisan repres5ts no?+ :i* ! 
=m] rightfully owns or c give1 b only a 
claim to ! labor ( o!r m51 en=c$ by !   
sy/em ( wage-economy4 ,( c\rse1 n only  
art b all speculation1 all pure sci5ce &
 dis9t]e/$ hi/orical k1 is subject to   
?is criticism4 ,& su* criticism is no   
long] purely academic1 = to-day !re exi/
 l>ge masses ( m5 9 e community det]m9$ 
to br+ ab\t a _w dictator%ip ( !        
prolet>iat bas$ on j ?is pr9ciple (     
mutuality 9 ! relations ( m54 ,is ?is   
pr9ciple itself rational1 & w\ld art    
survive 9 a regime :i* embodi$ x8 ,^!1  
,i repeat1 are no long] speculative1 b  

int5sely practical problems4  ,^? :o fe>
 = art 9 a society :]e ! process (      
democratization %\ld g to its extreme   
limit ( developm5t po9t to ! mov+       
picture1 ! *eap magaz9e /ory & novel1 ! 
vaudeville & musical com$y1 z a h9t (   
:at to expect4 ,^!1 !y w say1 are !     
popul> =ms ( art1 to ! production ( :i* 
! arti/ w\ld h to devote 8 "t & skill 9 
return = subsi/5ce4 ,"u ! pres5t sy/em !
 p get :at !y want1 b 9 a prolet>ian    
/ate nobody w\ld be all[$ to get any?+  
else4  ,( c\rse1 z to :at w\ld happ5 9 a
 work]s' republic1 7 x ev] con/itut$1 we
 c only speculate2 b :]e we _c "k1 !re  
hope has an equal *ance ) fe>4 ,we h !  
s+le example ( ! ,russian exp]im5t f :i*
 to make inf]5ces1 ! g5]al validity (   
:i* is s]i\sly limit$ by ! peculi>ities 
( ! ,russian nature & situation4 ,b !re1
 at any rate1 we d "k t ef=ts h be5 made
 to advance g5]al education1 to br+ !   
classic lit]ature )9 rea* ( ! masses1 & 
to enc\rage op]a & drama4 ,9 ,russia1 at
 all ev5ts1 ! lead]s ( ! revolution>y   

movem5t h s\ght r to de/roy :at !y      
believe to be a monopoly ( culture ?an  
culture itself2 & 9 ,engl& also !y h a  
simil> aim4  ,!re c be little d\bt1 ,i  
?9k1 t our capitali/ economy does       
promote a monopoly ( culture4 ,?r\gh _! 
control ( ! m>ket1 ! weal?y are able to 
bid up ! prices ( works ( art until !y  
are beyond ! rea* ( ! less prosp]\s4 ,z 
a result1 ! be/ pa9t+s & sculptures1 ) !
 exception ( ^? t f9d _! way into       
museums1 are accumulat$ 9 inaccessible  
private collections1 & op]a & music are 
made ne$lessly exp5sive4 ,"o v evil     
consequ5ce is ! sub/itution ( a purely  
pecuni>y /&>d ( valuation = ae/hetic    
/&>ds4 ,i "k a pa9t] :o made ! exp]im5t 
( r$uc+ ! price ( 8 pictures to         
tw5ty-five doll>s1 9 ! hope t _m p :o   
really lov$ art b 7 unable to pay l>ge  
prices w\ld buy !m1 & t ?us1 by sell+ _m
 ( 8 pictures at a l[ price1 he w\ld be 
able to make z mu* money z if he sold   
only a few at ! prevail+ high rates4 ,! 
exp]im5t fail$ completely1 = p ?\ght t  

pa9t+s at su* a l[ price mu/ be inf]ior1
 & ev5 ^? :o c\ld af=d to buy !m1 w\ld  
n4 ,! pa9t] n[ tri$ ! rev]se exp]im5t & 
rais$ ! prices ( all 8 works1 ) mu*     
bett] success1 = p reason$--! high] !   
price1 ! bett] ! picture4 ,b wor/ ( all1
 ?r\gh ! purely comm]cial motives gov]n+
 ^? :o und]take to supply ! p ) works ( 
art1 ! public ta/e is corrupt$2 little  
or no attempt is made to educate !      
masses1 b m]ely to give !m any?+ t w    
ent]ta9 !m aft] a day ( fatigu+         
labor1--any?+ t w sell4 ,! demoraliz+   
effect ( comm]cialism ^u arti/s !mselves
 is too well kn[n to require m ?an a    
rem9d]2 ha/y "w = ! sake ( money        
supplants c>eful "w = ! sake ( beauty2  
:ole arts1 l t ( ori5tal rug weav+1 are 
!reby ?reat5$ ) ext9ction2 &1 in/ead (  
produc+ spontane\s art t w\ld express   
!mselves1 p all[ !mselves to be m]ely   
ent]ta9$ by ?+s suppli$ to !m1 na/y &   
*eap--folk art disappe>s4  ,if1 on ! o!r
 h&1 ! comm]cial motive 7 elim9at$1 :o c
 say :at might n result1 9 ea*          

community1 f ! exp]im5tation ( m5 :o    
c\ld n make money b only honor & a liv+ 
f ! pr(ession ( provid+ p ) int]e/+ ways
 ( sp5d+ _! leisure4 ,! increas$        
effici5cy ( ma*9e tool "w w inevitably  
make possible a great r$uction 9 h\rs ( 
labor1 :5 ! work]s !mselves control     
indu/ry = _! own b5efit r ?an = t ( a   
class b5t on /ill fur!r increas+ its own
 weal? & p[]4 ,x is entirely possible t 
! leisure ( m5 w !n absorb z mu* ( _!   
devot$ en]gies z "w does n[1 & t !y w be
 educat$ = ! "o z well z = ! o!r4 ,x is 
n impossible to hope t1 ! ma*9e tool    
supplant+ ! slave1 ! commonweal? (      
work]s w develop z free & lib]al a life 
z exi/$ among ! citiz5s ( anci5t        
,greece4 ,!n p]haps ea* gr\p w h its    
pa9t]s1 actors1 & musicians j z surely z
 x n[ has its judges1 ald]m51 & police4 
,x is impossible to judge :at art might 
d = p 9 a reorganiz$ society by :at x   
does = !m n[4 ,art has its roots 9      
int]e/s t are well nigh univ]sal4       
,ev]ybody loves to dance1 to s+1 to tell

 a /ory2 ev]ybody loves ei!r to pa9t or 
be pa9t$1 to sculpture or be sculptur$4 
,aga91 ev]ybody is at lea/ pot5tially   
s5sitive to rhy?m1 h>mony1 & balance1 & 
to ! beauties ( l9es1 colors1 & tones4  
,x is n native incapacity1 b r a failure
 9 ae/hetic education due to ! "o-sid$  
emphasis on "w r ?an play1 indu/ry r ?an
 leisure1 success r ?an happ9ess1 t is  
responsible = mu* ( ! seem+ lack (      
arti/ic appreciation among ! masses4 ,"u
 a diff]5t social sy/em ! p may come to 
recognize ! arti/ z a fell[-work]1      
elaborat+ 8 products 9 ex*ange = o!r    
desirable ?+s1 & may accord him welcome 
r ?an envy4  ,h[ev]1 x w d\btless always
 rema9 true t ! subtl] & m intellectual 
types ( art c nev] become popul>4 ,l    
high] ma!matics1 !y w cont9ue to be     
completely intelligible only to ! few4  
,yet ,i c conceive ( no social sy/em    
likely to gr[ out ( mod]n t5d5cies t    
w\ld suppress !m4 ,! arti/ 9 ! new /ate 
w\ld h 8 leisure1 z o!r m5 w\ld1 9 :i*  
he c\ld devote himself to ! ref9em5ts ( 

8 art4 ,x is d\btful :e!r he w\ld h less
 "t = t !n ?an he has n[4 ,h[ _m arti/s 
"u our pres5t sy/em wa/e a l>ge "p ( _! 
lives do+ hack "w ( v>i\s k9ds to make a
 liv+2 only ! =tunate few are ma/]s (   
!mselves4 ,moreov]1 "u any social sy/em1
 m5 w\ld be p]mitt$ to sp5d _! surplus  
income z !y *ose1 & ! art lov]s ( !     
future are z likely to sp5d x = art !n z
 n[4 ,n be+ s ri*1 !y c\ld n rew>d !    
arti/ s munific5tly z "s are rew>d$ n[2 
b ev5 n[ mo/ work+ arti/s are poor1 & ! 
impulse to art is indep5d5t ( l>ge      
rew>ds4 ,h]etical & unpopul> arti/s1 :o 
c\ld f9d no public back+1 w\ld come to  
be support$ by _! own special cli5ts1 z 
!y are to-day4 ,9 a complex rational    
society1 ! pr9ciple ( mutuality w\ld be 
transitive r ?an /rictly symmetrical--a 
woman w\ld cook = a ma*9e design] al?\gh
 %e got no ma*9e 9 return1 provid$ !    
design] made "o1 say1 = ! %oemak]1 :o   
c\ld ?us supply h] ) %oes4 ,j s1 !re is 
no moral objection to ! arti/'s receiv+ 
goods & s]vices f p to ^: life he       

contributes no?+ p]sonally1 s long z ^! 
p are comp5sat$ by ^? ^: life he does   
enri*4 ,9 o!r words1 "p ( ! rew>d :i* ! 
art lov] w\ld receive = ! "w he p]=m$   
w\ld be paid1 n to himself1 b to !      
arti/--art w\ld be volunt>ily support$  
by ^? :o appreciat$ x4 ,no complex      
social life c\ld be ma9ta9$ "u !        
pr9ciple ( /rict mutuality1 & c]ta9ly no
 sy/em t und]took to pres]ve ! v>iety & 
spontaneity ( human int]e/s4 ,only a    
complete dead-level regim5tation ( human
 life 9 accordance ) ! av]age desires ( 
! masses1 :i* is unlikely1 w\ld de/roy !
 m intellectual & subtle types ( art1 &1
 by ! same tok51 speculation & dis9t]e/$
 high] le>n+4 ,! high] culture has      
surviv$ _m revolutions2 x w survive !   
next1 :5 x comes4     ,,*apt] ,,xv  ,,! 
,,function ,,( ,,art3 ,,art ,,&         
,,religion   ,! di/9ctive purpose ( art1
 s we h argu$ ?r\gh\t ?is /udy1 is      
culture1 ! enri*m5t ( ! _s4 ,b lov]s (  
art h always claim$ = x m active &      
broad] influ5ces4 ,to my ?9k+1 mo/ ( su*

 claims1 especially 9 our age1 l simil> 
claims = religion1 are greatly          
exagg]at$4 ,passion1 conv5tion1 economic
 fact 9 ! l>ge/ s5se1 practical         
intellig5ce1 ^! are ! dom9ant =ces sway+
 m51 n beauty1 n religion4 ,inde$1 "o :o
 w\ld comp>e ! influ5ce ( art ^u life at
 ! pres5t "t ) its influ5ce ^u primitive
 societies might inf] ! e>ly ext9ction (
 t influ5ce altoge!r4 ,= among primitive
 m5 ! influ5ce ( art is all-p]vad+4 ,)  
!m art is insep>able f utility &        
communal activities1 ^u :i* x has an    
imm$iate modify+ or /r5g!n+ effect4 ,!  
movem5t ( civilization1 ) ! exception ( 
! ,greek1 m$iaval1 & r5aissance city    
/ates1 has involv$ a break+ away f ?is  
orig9al unity until1 among ourselves1   
art is develop$ & enjoy$ 9 isolation f !
 re/ ( life4 ,art is valu$ = its own    
sake1 = its contribution to culture1 n =
 any fur!r influ5ce ^u life1 & ?is      
fre$om has come to be "p ( its v mean+4 
,in/ead ( be+ int]e/$ only 9 pictures & 
/atues repres5t+ ourselves1 our rul]s1  

our gods1 or our neighborhood1 we enjoy 
imitations ( p :o h _h no effect ^u our 
lives :atev] & sc5es :i* we h nev]      
visit$1 & we repair to museums to see   
!m2 in/ead ( employ+ music to beautify  
our daily life1 we leave t life = !     
conc]t hall1 :]e we %ut ourselves away =
 a few h\rs ( absolute musical exp]i5ce4
 ,prose lit]ature & ! drama1 :5 inspir$ 
by contempor>y social problems1 (f]     
exceptions to ?is isolation1 = ?r\gh _! 
ability to express ideas !y c ex]t a m  
p]vasive influ5ce4 ,al?\gh social       
problems are solv$ 9 ob$i5ce to =ces &  
dem&s beyond ! control ( arti/s1 lit]>y 
expression is effective 9 p]suad+ &     
draw+ into a movem5t m5 ^: /atus w\ld   
t5d to make !m ho/ile or indiff]5t1 z 9 
,russia1 :]e num]\s m5 & wom5 ( !       
ari/ocratic & weal?y classes became     
revolution>ies by reason ( lit]ature4 ,&
 yet ! lit]>y arts also h acquir$ a l>ge
 measure ( isolation & indep5d5ce4 ,a   
play repres5t+ ,vi5nese life is         
appreciat$ 9 ,new ,york1 a novel (      

contempor>y mann]s 9 ,engl& is enjoy$ 9 
,am]ica4 ,lit]ature does n dep5d = its  
int]e/ ^u its ability to int]pret &     
influ5ce ! life t ! read] himself lives2
 he values x m because x ext5ds ?an     
because x reflects t life4 ,p decry art 
= art's sake1 b 9 va94  ,! developm5t ( 
! relation ( religion to life has be5   
p>allel to ! developm5t ( art4          
,orig9ally1 religion p5etrat$ e         
activity2 n[1 by contra/1 x has be5     
remov$ f "o aft] ano!r ( ! major human  
pursuits4 ,agriculture1 =m]ly und]tak5  
"u ! guidance ( religion2 sci5ce1 once !
 pr]ogative ( ! prie/hood2 art1 at "o "t
 insep>able f wor%ip2 politics1 once    
gov]n$ by ! *ur* & pret5d+ a div9e      
sanction2 w>1 until ye/]day wag$ ) !    
fanci$ coop]ation ( ! gods--ev5 ^! are  
n[ "u complete secul> control4 ,to be   
sure1 !re is "s music1 sculpture1 pa9t+1
 & poetry /ill 9 ! s]vice ( religion1 b 
its relative proportion is small2 k+s & 
congresses /ill appeal = div9e aid 9    
times ( crisis1 b t is p]functory2 m5   

/ill pray = ra9 dur+ dr\ght1 b )\t fai?4
 ,no "o w\ld pret5d t our comm]ce &     
manufactur+ h any direct relation to    
religion4 ,p /ill invoke div9e au?ority 
= moral prescriptions1 b ! sanctions    
actually op]at+ are social in/9cts & fe>
 ( public op9ion & ! law4 ,religion     
reta9s a direct & pot5t influ5ce only 9 
! in/itution ( m>riage1 ! exp]i5ce (    
dea?1 philosophy1 & ! social life &     
*>ities conduct$ by ! *ur*es4 ,yet ev5 9
 ^! sph]es ! influ5ce is decl9+1 &1 s f>
 z x p]si/s1 is becom+ indirect4 ,civil 
& contractual m>riage are sl[ly         
supplant+ religi\s m>riage2 !re are     
?\s&s liv+ 9 our l>ge cities :o d n feel
 ! ne$ ( ! *ur* to e/abli% & cem5t _!   
social life2 mo/ philosoph]s disclaim   
any religi\s motive or au?ority = _!    
inve/igations or beliefs4 ,only ov] dea?
 does religion /ill hold undisput$ sway4
  ,h[ev]1 despite ! sep>ation ( religion
 & art f life1 !y may cont9ue to ex]t   
influ5ce ^u x4 ,b1 b>r+ "s new          
integration ( ! sund]$ elem5ts ( our    

culture1 :i* we may deeply desire b _c  
pr$ict1 ?is influ5ce mu/ be indirect &  
subtle1 & mu/ occur indep5d5t ( any     
in/itutional control4 ,9 ! case ( bo? x 
consi/s 9 imp>t+ to life a new mean+ &  
p]fection1 ?us mak+ possible a m        
complete affirmation ( life & a fre] & m
 g5ial attitude & conduct4  ,= unless ! 
_s ( art or ( religion is infus$ into   
life1 we nev] f9d x q satisfactory4 ,to 
be sure1 m5 sometimes ?9k !y f9d        
p]fection 9 c]ta9 ?+s--9 practical or   
moral endeavor1 9 love or 9 pleasure2 b 
unless art or religion is mix$ into !m1 
!y always prove to be1 9 ! end1         
disappo9t+4 ,no practical purpose is ev]
 q successful2 !re is always "s "p ( !  
plan left unaccompli%$2 & ! success     
itself is only mom5t>y1 = "t ev5tually  
engulfs x & =gets x4 ,practical life    
does n produce any p]man5t & complete   
"w2 its task is done only to be done ov]
 aga92 e h\se has to be repair$ or torn 
d[n1 e road rebuilt2 e inv5tion is      
displac$ by a new "o4 ,?is is true ev5  

on ! high] planes ( practical life1 9   
political & social recon/ruction4 ,c]ta9
 evils may be remov$1 c]ta9 abuses      
rem$i$1 b new ones always arise to take 
_! places2 & ev5 :5 ! entire sy/em is   
remodel$ & m5 ?9k t ! day ( fre$om &    
ju/ice has dawn$ at la/1 !y f9d1 aft] a 
g5]ation1 a new tyranny & a new         
inju/ice4 ,! movem5t ( life makes x     
impossible = any plan to long endure4   
,h5ce ! disillusion1 ! feel+ ( futility 
t s (t5 poisons ! triumphs ( practical  
m54 ,& )\t ! _s ( art or ( religion ev5 
love does n satisfy4 ,= imag9ation      
creates ! p]fection ( its object &1     
aside f in/itutional bonds fa/ loos5+1 a
 fai? 9 ! cont9u$ gr[? ) "o ano!r & ) a 
*ild1 :i* is ess5tially religi\s1       
creates ! p]man5ce & mean+ ( its bond4  
,love's raptures1 9 s f> z !y are       
in/9ctive1 are1 ( c\rse1 indep5d5t ( any
 view ( life2 b ap>t f imag9ation & fai?
 9 "o ano!r1 love does n keep its       
quality or r5ew itself 9 memory1 nor c x
 survive dea? :i* always imp5ds to      

de/roy4 ,m5 (t5 seek escape f ! feel+ ( 
imp]fection 9 frivolity1 b ennui is !   
inevitable consequ5ce1 & reflection )   
its d\bts _c be /ill$4  ,by contra/1 9 !
 religi\s exp]i5ce & 9 beauty m5 feel t 
!y f9d p]fection2 h5ce ! attitude (     
self-surr5d] & joy\sness *>act]iz+ bo?4 
,! ab&on ( ! spectator :o decrees t = ! 
mom5t 8 life %all be t ( ! "w ( art1 is 
mat*$ 9 ! my/ical exp]i5ce by ! emotion 
express$ 9 ,dante's l9e1 ,9 8 w is our  
peace4 ,& 9 bo? ! self-surr5d] is bas$  
on a felt h>mony betwe5 ! individual & !
 object--! beautiful ?+ appeals to !    
s5ses1 its =m is adapt$ to ! /ructure ( 
! m9d1 its cont5t is su* z to w9 int]e/ 
& sympa?y2 ! div9e is believ$ to realize
 & quiet all ( our desires4 ,b :ile 9   
beauty we feel ourselves at home ) !    
s+le object1 9 religion we feel at re/ 9
 ! univ]se4  ,:5 religion & art are     
sep>at$ f ! o!r p>ts ( life1 z !y are   
fa/ becom+ n[1 ! peculi> quality ( !    
exp]i5ces :i* !y (f] c be r5d]$ univ]sal
 only by freely infus+ x ev]y:]e1 ?r\gh 

fai?1 9 ! case ( ! "o1 ?r\gh imag9ative 
re-creation1 9 ! case ( ! o!r4 ,!       
religi\s exp]i5ce is a seem+ revelation 
( a p]fect mean+ 9 life z a :ole2 ?is   
mean+ mu/ n[ be imp>t$ to ! details (   
life4 ,by a free act ( fai? ! scatt]$ & 
imp]fect fragm5ts mu/ be built into a   
purposive unity4 ,! poison\s feel+ (    
futility1 w !n be lo/2 ea* task1 no     
matt] h[ petty or ineffectual1 w become 
mom5t\s z contribut+ some?+ t[>d !      
realization ( a good beyond our little  
exi/5ce2 & we1 h[ev] l[ly1 w f9d        
ourselves sublime z in/rum5ts ( de/9y4  
,!re is no?+ va9 to him :o believes4 ,& 
if ! believ] _c build a mean+ into      
hi/ory & social life z he kn[s !m       
empirically1 he may ext5d !m by fai? 9 a
 future life1 ?r\gh :i* 8 purposes w be 
giv5 ! promise ( et]nity & ! tie betwe5 
p>5ts & *ildr51 fri5ds & lov]s &        
co-work]s1 an inv9cible s]i\sness &     
wor?4 ,be+ at peace ) ! univ]se1 he may 
be reconcil$ to ! accid5ts ( 8 life z   
expressions ( its ,w4  ,! me?od (       

reconciliation ?r\gh religion c well be 
und]/ood by its effect on ! attitude    
t[>ds evil4 ,to "o :o has fai? 9 ! _w z 
p]fect1 evil becomes an illusion t w\ld 
disappe> to an adequate vision ( !      
,div9e4 ,! suppos$ly evil ?+ becomes    
really a good ?+--a necess>y means to ! 
fulfillm5t ( ! div9e plan1 ei!r 9 !     
e>?ly progress ( humanity or 9 ! future 
life2 or if ! m my/ical types ( religion
 provide ! />t+ po9t1 :]e individuality 
itself is felt to be an illusion1 a     
factor 9 ! self-realization ( !         
,absolute4 ,! evil ?+ rema9s1 ( c\rse1  
:at x 01 b ! int]pretation1 & !re=e !   
attitude t[>ds x1 is trans=m$4 ,pa91    
sorr[1 & mis=tune become ag5ts = !      
quick5+ ( ! _s1 dea? a door op5+ to     
un5d+ vi/as4  ,! attitude ( fai? is n   
embodi$ 9 dogmatic & speculative        
religi\s doctr9es alone2 = x f9ds       
expression 9 o!r beliefs--9 progress1 9 
! possibility ( a sunny social ord]1 9 !
 p]petuity ( human culture1 9 ! peculi> 
mission ( "o's race or c\ntry4 ,su*     

beliefs are expressions prim>ily ( fai?1
 n ( k2 l religion1 !y are              
int]pretations ( life bas$ on           
aspiration1 n on evid5ce2 & ?r\gh !m m5 
secure ! same sort ( re-en=cem5t (      
motive1 c\rage1 & consolation t !y d]ive
 f ! doctr9es call$ religi\s4 ,b ! sph]e
 ( fai? is wid] ev5 ?an ?is2 ! almo/    
in/9ctive belief t ea* man has 9 8 own  
longevity & success1 ! tru/ 9 ! p]man5ce
 ( fri5d%ip & love1 ! confid5ce 9 !     
unique value ( "o's "w or g5ius--^! are 
also convictions f\nd$ m on desire ?an  
on k1 & may function 9 ! same way z     
religion 9 a man's life4  ,!            
re-affirmation ( life :i* art may       
inspire is indep5d5t ( any belief or    
fai? ab\t ! _w4 ,x occurs r ?r\gh !     
application to ! objects & incid5ts (   
life ( a _s & attitude borr[$ f arti/ic 
creation & appreciation4 ,x is a        
g5]alization ( ! ae/hetic po9t ( view to
 cov] life z well z art2 an attempt to  
br+ beauty f art into ! :ole ( life4    
,al?\gh to-day works ( art !mselves are 

sev]$ f direct contact ) ! re/ ( life1  
some?+ ( ! int5tion & me?od ( ! arti/   
may l+] & be c>ri$ ov] into x4 ,art1 !  
image ( life1 may n[ s]ve z a model1    
aft] :i* ! latt]1 9 its turn1 w be      
patt]n$4  ,! _s ( art has two =ms1 "o   
con/ructive1 ! o!r contemplative1 & bo? 
may be infus$ into life4 ,:5 ! =m] is   
put !re1 ea* act & task is p]=m$ z if x 
7 a "w ( art4 ,?is involves ?r[+ ! :ole 
self into x1 n only ?\ght & pati5ce1 b  
en?usiasm & lov+ f9i%1 ev5 z ! arti/    
puts !m into 8 "w1 s t x becomes a happy
 self-expression4 ,no?+ %all int]f]e )  
or m> x1 or spoil its value :5 recall$4 
,! imp]fection & transi5cy ( ! result   
are !n =gott5 9 ! inspiration (         
endeavor2 & ! "w or act1 no matt] h[    
insignificant1 becomes p]fect z an      
exp]i5ce & z a memory4 ,! g5]ations may 
judge x z !y w1 b z an expression ( !   
en]gies ( my own s\l1 x is div9e4 ,(    
c\rse1 f ! indu/ry ( our "t1 :]e mo/ "w 
is me*anical & mean+less to him :o p]=ms
 x1 ! _s ( art has l>gely fl$4 ,yet !re 

/ill rema9 tasks :i* we all h to        
execute1 if n 9 bus9ess1 !n at home1    
:i*1 by ar\s+ our int]e/ & inv5tion1 may
 become mat]ials = ! _s ( art4 ,we h at 
lea/ our homes1 our pleasures1 our      
relations ) "o ano!r1 our private       
adv5tures1 :]e we c /ill be free & g5ial
 & ma/]ly4 ,& = our "w1 art w cont9ue to
 be an ideal1 sorr[fully appeal+4  ,!   
scope ( ! _s ( art may be ext5d$ beyond 
! s+le task or act to embrace ! :ole (  
"o's life4 ,impulse (f]s a pla/ic       
mat]ial to :i* =m may be giv54 ,!       
pr9ciples ( h>mony1 balance1 evolution1 
prop] subord9ation1 & p]fection (       
detail1 indisp5sable to beauty 9 art1   
are conditions ( happ9ess 9 life4 ,! =m 
( a "w ( art & ! =m ( a happy life are !
 same1 z ,plato insi/$4 ,footnote3 ,see1
 = example1 ,! ,gorgias1 #ejc1 #ejd4 ,9 
ord] to yield satisfaction1 ! diff]5t   
p>ts ( life mu/ exemplify id5tity (     
motive1 cont9uity & ord]l9ess 9 !       
fulfillm5t ( purpose1 lucidity (        
relation1 yet div]sity = /imulation &   

totality4 ,!re mu/ be a selective s*eme 
to absorb :at is cong5ial & reject !    
unfit4 ,?is s5se = =m 9 life may lead to
 ! same results z morality1 b ! po9t (  
dep>ture & ! sanction are diff]5t4      
,morality is l>gely bas$ on con=mity1 on
 submission to ! g5]al w1 & is r5d]$    
effective by fe> ( public disapproval & 
sup]natural taboos2 :ile ! ae/hetic     
direction ( life has its roots 9 ! love 
( =m & mean+1 & its sanction 9 p]sonal  
happ9ess4 ,moreov]1 to ! reflective     
p]son1 look+ be=e & aft]1 life has !    
same sort ( reality z a /ory1 & is b\nd 
to be judg$ 9 "s measure l a /ory4 ,!   
pa/ & ! future live only 9 ! imag9ation1
 & :5 we survey !m !re !y may please u )
 _! int]e/1 livel9ess1 & mean+1 mu* z a 
"w ( art w\ld1 or displease u ) _!      
vanity & *aos4 ,9 ?is way p]sonality may
 acquire an imag9ative value            
fundam5tally ae/hetic4 ,?is is diff]5t f
 moral value1 :i* has ref]5ce to !      
relation ( a life to social ideals2 x is
 m compreh5sive ?an ! religi\s judgm5t1 

:i* is int]e/$ only 9 sav+ ! s\l2       
because x includes e elem5t (           
life1--s5se1 imag9ation1 & a*ievem5t1   
welcom+ all1 s long z !y contribute     
some?+ to a significant1 mov+ :ole4  ,! 
feel+ = p]fection ( =m & imag9ative     
mean+ 9 life is no inv5tion (           
philosoph]s & ae/hetes1 b "p ( ! normal 
reaction to conduct4 ,ev]ybody feels t  
c]ta9 acts1 or ev5 c]ta9 wi%es1 are to  
be reject$ by himself1 n because !y are 
intr9sically bad or wrong1 b because !y 
are inconsi/5t ) 8 p>ticul> nature1 &1  
on ! o!r h&1 t !re are c]ta9 int]e/s t  
%\ld be cultivat$1 n because !y are     
univ]sally "r or good1 b because !y are 
ne$$ to give 8 life complete mean+4 ,&  
aga91 all except ! meane/ & mo/ repress$
 s\ls desire some:at to %9e1 if n 9 ! _w
 at l>ge1 at lea/ among _! fri5ds1 & act
 ) a view to appe>ance & to "s total    
survey ( _! lives t w\ld consid] n m]ely
 its goodness or usefulness1 b its      
imag9ative emotional appeal4 ,?is appeal
 is ! /ronge/ on ! dea? ( a great man2  

?is lives longe/ 9 ! memory4 ,! love ( !
 romantic & adv5tur\s is p>tly          
in/9ctive1 b l>gely imag9ative1 = x has 
9 view n m]ely ! raptur\s pleasures ( ! 
haz>d\s mom5t1 b ! rememb]$ delights (  
recall & expression to o!rs4 ,! love (  
glory is also imag9ative1 a feel+ = !   
dramatic ext5d+ ev5 beyond ! grave4 ,!  
ambiti\s man seeks to make a /ory out ( 
8 life = po/]ity to read & rememb]1 j z 
! arti/ makes "o out ( fictiti\s        
mat]ial4 ,m might develop out ( ?is love
 ( =m & drama 9 life4 ,we h x to a c]ta9
 degree ( cultivation 9 picturesque &   
ref9$ mann]s1 dress1 & c]emonial1 b ev5 
!re x is hamp]$ ?r\gh conv5tionality &  
want ( inv5tion2 fur!r evolv$ & ext5d$  
into ! deep] /rata ( life1 x w\ld lead  
to a m int]e/+ & productive exi/5ce4    
,surely1 if ,god is an arti/ z well z a 
judge1 he w welcome into heav5 n only ^?
 :o h liv$ well1 b also ^? :o h liv$    
beautifully4  ,!re is no necessity1     
f9ally1 :y ! con/ructive _s ( art %\ld  
be conf9$ to ! p]sonal life & %\ld n1 9 

"s measure at lea/1 p5etrate ! community
 & ev5 ! /ate4 ,by appeal+ to imag9ative
 feel+1 ! activities ( v>i\s individuals
 & gr\ps1 :5 coord9at$ & giv5 a         
purposeful unity1 produce an ae/hetic   
effect4 ,! organization ( a bus9ess or a
 univ]sity may easily come to h su* a   
value = "o :o has help$ to create x1    
especially if ! place :]e ! communal _s 
op]ates is beautiful1--! (fice1 !       
campus1 ! %op4 ,seldom1 to be sure1 d we
 f9d ?is value 9 our busy & haphaz>d    
,am]ica1 b 9 _m qu>t]s ! int5tion to    
create x is awake4 ,z = ! /ate1 x is1 ( 
c\rse1 too little dom9at$ by dis9t]e/$  
intellig5ce to be beautiful2 yet        
,plato's ideal ( /atecraft z a f9e art  
/ill rules ! inn]mo/ dream ( m54  ,!    
contemplative _s ( art is p]haps m      
important ?an ! con/ructive 9 its       
application to life4 ,n t any %>p l9e c 
be drawn betwe5 !m1 = contemplation mu/ 
always att5d or foll[ creation1 to judge
 & enjoy2 yet t[>ds t "p ( life :i* we  
_c control1 our attitude mu/ be r t ( ! 

spectator ?an ! creator4 ,we _c int]f]e 
) ! great] "p ( life2 we c1 h[ev]1      
obs]ve x &1 9 ! imag9ation1 trans=m x1  
:]e we c !n envisage x z we %\ld a "w ( 
art4 ,z we wat* x1 life itself may      
become beautiful1 & in/ead ( giv+       
ourselves to x half-he>t$ly & ) res]ve1 
we %all accept x ) some?+ ( ! ab&on (   
passionate love1--,9 !e my s\l ha? h]   
cont5t s absolute4 ,to ?is end x is     
necess>y to deta* life f our m selfi%   
int]e/s & ambitions1 f ! habits ( ?\ght1
 annoy+ & preoccupy+1 t relate to self  
alone4 ,to ! worldly & self- c5t]$1 life
 is int]e/+ only s f> z x ref]s to pride
 or ambition or passion2 o!rwise x is   
indiff]5t1 z none ( _! conc]n4 ,b to !  
religi\s & to ! ae/hetically m9d$1 !re  
is no "p ( life t may n be ( int]e/2 to 
! =m]1 because !y impute some?+ (       
transc5d5t p]fection to x all2 to !     
latt]1 because !y h set !mselves !      
inexhau/ible task ( its free1 imag9ative
 appreciation4  ,to ?is end1 x is also  
necess>y1 aft] le>n+ to view life       

objectively & imp]sonally1 to att5d to x
 leisurely & responsively1 z we %\ld to 
a "w ( art1 all[+ full scope to !       
dis9t]e/$ feel+s ( curiosity1 pity1     
sympa?y1 & wond] to create emotional    
p>ticipation4  ,!n ! _w may become = u !
 mo/ magnific5t spectacle ( all4 ,to    
imag9ative feel+1 e l&scape is a        
pot5tial pa9t+1 e life-/ory a romance1  
hi/ory a drama1 e man or woman a /atue  
or portrait4 ,beauty is ev]y:]e1 :]e we 
:o are p]haps n arti/s b only art lov]s 
c f9d x2 we _c embody x 9 endur+ =m or  
?r[ ov] x ! glam\r ( s5su\s lovel9ess1 b
 we c p]ceive x ) t free appreciation t 
is ! ess5ce ( art4 ,& = ?is1 ( c\rse1 ! 
arti/s h prep>$ u2 x is !y :o1 by fir/  
exhibit+ life z beautiful 9 art1 h %[n u
 t x may be beautiful z mirror$ 9 !     
obs]v+ m9d4 ,"o region aft] ano!r has   
be5 conqu]$ by !m4 ,! poets & ! pa9t]s  
creat$ ! beauty ( ! m\nta9s1 ( w9dmills 
& canals1 ( froz5 wa/es & monoton\s     
prairies1 ( peasants & factories &      
railway /ations & slums4 ,!mselves !    

fir/ to feel ! value ( ^! ?+s1 ?r\gh "s 
p]sonal atta*m5t or communion ) !m1 !y h
 made x univ]sal ?r\gh expression4 ,_!  
works h become types ?r\gh :i* we       
app]ceive & appreciate ! _w3 we see     
,fr5* l&scapes z ,lorra9 & ,corot saw   
!m1 peasants aft] ! fa%ion ( ,millet1 ! 
/age aft] ,degas4 ,9 va9 m5 h prophesi$ 
limits to ! victori\s advance ( art4 ,j 
at ! "t :51 9 ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury1  
"s m5 fe>$ t sci5ce & indu/ry _h bani%$ 
beauty f ! _w1 ! impressioni/s & reali/s
 disclos$ x 9 factory & /eamboat & m9e4 
,9 ?is way mod]n art1 :i* might seem    
?r\gh its isolation to h tak5 beauty    
away f ! _w to itself1 has giv5 x back  
aga94  ,! _s ( art1 no less ?an (       
religion1 c help u to triumph ov] !     
evils ( life4 ,!re are ?ree ways (      
treat+ evil successfully3 ! practical   
way1 to ov]come x & de/roy x2 ! religi\s
 way1 by fai? to d5y its exi/5ce2 !     
ae/hetic way1 to rebuild x 9 !          
imag9ation4 ,! fir/ is ! way ( all /rong
 m52 b its scope is limit$2 = "s ( !    

evils ( life are insup]able2 aga9/ ^!   
our only rec\rse is fai? or ! _s ( art4 
,! me?od ( art consi/s 9 tak+ t[>ds life
 itself ! same attitude t ! arti/ takes 
t[>ds 8 mat]ials :5 he makes a com$y or 
a trag$y out ( !m2 life itself becomes !
 object ( laught] or ( tragic pity & fe>
 & admiration4 ,z we obs]v$ 9 our *apt] 
on ,! ,problem ( ,evil 9 ,ae/hetics1    
laught] is an ess5tially ae/hetic       
attitude1 = x implies ! ability         
dis9t]e/$ly to face a situation1 al?\gh 
"o :i* opposes our /&>ds & expectations1
 & to take pleasure 9 x4 ,all sorts (   
p]sonal feel+s may be mix$ ) laught]1   
bitt]ness & scorn & ang]2 b ! fact t we 
laugh %[s t !y are n dom9ant2 9 laught] 
we ass]t our fre$om f ! yoke (          
circum/ance & make x yield u pleasure   
ev5 :5 x ?w>ts u4 ,laught] celebrates a 
tw(old victory1 fir/ ov] ourselves1 9 t 
we d n all[ our disappo9tm5ts to spoil  
our s]5ity1 & second ov] ! _w1 9 t1 ev5 
:5 x ?reat5s to r5d] u unhappy1 we      
prev5t x4 ,fate may rob u ( ev]y?+1 b n 

( fre$om ( _s & laught]2 (t5times we mu/
 ei!r laugh or cry1 b te>s br+ only     
relief1 laught] br+s m]rim5t z well4    
,ev5 ) ! devil laught] may effect       
reconciliation4 ,practical m5 w try to  
de/roy him1 b s f> !y h n succe$$2 m5 ( 
fai? w prophesy 8 ev5tual ru91 b        
mean:ile we h to live 9 8 company2 & h[ 
c we live !re at peace ) ourselves      
unless ) laught] at 8 antics & our own  
va9 ef=ts to re/ra9 !m8 ,surely !       
age-long /ruggle aga9/ him ju/ifies u 9 
mak+ ?is compromise = our happ9ess4 ,we 
:o 9 our lifetime _c defeat him c at    
lea/ make him yield u ?is me$ ( laught] 
= our pa9s4 ,p :o ?9k t laught] at evil 
is a blasphemy aga9/ ! good set too high
 a valuation ^u _! conv5tions4 ,no "o c 
laugh )\t possess+ a /&>d1 b to laugh is
 to recognize t life is ( m wor? ?an any
 ideal & happ9ess bett] ?an any         
morality4  ,& if by laught] we _c       
triumph ov] evil1 we may p]haps a*ieve  
?is end by appreciat+ x z an elem5t 9   
trag$y or pa?os4 ,= once we take a      

contemplative attitude t[>ds life1 =ego+
 praise & blame1 !re is no spectacle    
equal to x = tragic pity & fe> &        
admiration4 ,!re is a h]oism 9 life     
equal to any 9 art1 9 :i* we may live   
imag9atively1 & 9 s liv+ =give ! evil t 
is its necess>y condition4 ,or1 :5 life 
is pa!tic r ?an tragic1 suff]+ & fad+ & 
weak r ?an /rong & /eady & resi/+1 we   
may w9 insight f ! pitiable reality into
 ! possible & ideal2 ! %ad[ ( evil w    
sugge/ to u ! light ( ! good1 & = ?is   
vision we %all bless life ev5 :5 x      
disappo9ts our hopes4 ,! v prec>i\sness 
( values1 :i* is an inevitable          
accompanim5t ( !m1 w s]ve to int5sify _!
 wor? = u2 we %all be made ! m          
passionately to love life1 ) ! joys t x 
(f]s u1 because we s desp]ately realize 
its transi5cy4 ,our k ( ! inescapabl5ess
 ( dea? & failure w quiet our lam5ts1   
leav+ u at lea/ s]5e & resign$ :]e our  
/ruggles & prote/s w\ld be unavail+4 ,x 
is by ?us g5]aliz+ ! po9t ( view ( art s
 t we adopt x t[>ds our own life t we   

secure ! ca?>sis ( trag$y4 ,in/ead (    
lett+ sorr[ ov]:elm u1 we may w9        
self-possession ?r\gh ! /ruggle aga9/ x2
 in/ead ( feel+ t !re is no?+ left :5 ! 
lov$ "o dies1 we may keep 9 memory a    
*]i%$ image1 m poignant & beautiful     
because ! reality is gone1 & lov+ ?is we
 %all love life also t has provid$ x4   
,f9ally1 9 subtle ways1 ! influ5ce (    
art1 :ile rema9+ indirect1 may affect   
practical action 9 a m concrete fa%ion4 
,= sil5tly1 unobtrusively1 :5 con/antly 
att5d$ to1 a "w ( art w trans=m !       
backgr\nd ( values out ( :i* action     
spr+s4 ,! beliefs & s5tim5ts express$ w 
be accept$ n = ! mom5t only1            
ae/hetically & playfully1 b = always &  
practically2 !y w become a "p ( our     
nature4 ,! effect is n m]ely to enl>ge !
 scope ( our sympa?ies by mak+ u        
responsive1 z all art does1 to e human  
aspiration1 b r to /r5g!n into resolves 
^? aspirations t meet 9 u an answ]+ ne$4
 ,?is influ5ce is especially pot5t dur+ 
! e>ly ye>s ( life1 be=e ! framework (  

valuations has become fix$4 ,:at "y man 
nurs$ on ,%elley's poetry has n become a
 lov] ( fre$om & an active =ce aga9/ all
 oppression8 ,b ev5 9 matur] ye>s art   
may "w 9 ?is way4 ,"o _c live con/antly 
) ! ,h]mes ( ,praxiteles )\t some?+ (   
its s]5ity ent]+ into "o's s\l to purge 
passion ( viol5ce1 or ) ,goe!'s poetry  
)\t its wisdom mak+ "o wise to live4 ,! 
effect is n to cause any p>ticul> act1 b
 s to mold ! m9d t e act p]=m$ is       
diff]5t because ( ?is influ5ce4  ,i w\ld
 comp>e ?is influ5ce to t ( fri5ds4     
,fri5ds may1 ( c\rse1 influ5ce conduct  
directly & imm$iately ?r\gh advice &    
p]suasion1 b t is n ! mo/ important     
effect ( _! lives4 ,m important is !    
gradual diffusion ( _! attitudes & !    
enlight5m5t foll[+ _! example4 ,?r\gh   
liv+ _! exp]i5ces ) !m1 we come to adopt
 _! valuations z our own2 by obs]v+ h[  
!y solve _! problems1 we get sugge/ions 
z to h[ to solve ours4 ,art provides u )
 a companion%ip ( ! imag9ation1 a new   
fri5d%ip4 ,! sympa!tic t\* ) ! life !re 

express$ enl>ges our und]/&+ ( !        
problems & conditions ( all life1 & s   
leads to a fre] & wis] direction ( our  
own4 ,on ! "o h& new & adv5tur\s me?ods 
( liv+ are sugge/$1 & on ! o!r h& !     
et]nal limits ( action are en=c$4  ,once
 m ,i w\ld comp>e ! influ5ce ( art ) t (
 religion4 ,! effect ( religion ^u      
conduct is p>tly due to ! in/itutions ) 
:i* x is connect$ & ! sup]natural       
sanctions :i* x atta*es to ! p]=mance ( 
duty2 b p>tly also1 & m endur+ly1 to !  
/ories ( ! gods4 ,n[ ^! /ories1 ev5 :5  
believ$1 h an exi/5ce 9 ! imag9ation    
precisely comp>able to t ( works ( art1 
& _! influ5ce ^u s5tim5t is ( exactly ! 
same ord]4 ,!y are mo/ effective :5     
beautiful1 z ! leg5ds ( ,*ri/ & ,buddha 
are beautiful2 & !y function by !       
sympa!tic transf]5ce ( attitude f ! /ory
 to ! believ]4 ,ev5 :5 no long] accept$ 
z true _! influ5ce may p]si/1 = ! values
 !y embody lose none ( _! compulsion4   
,&1 al?\gh z an int]pretation ( life    
bas$ ^u fai? religion is d\btless       

et]nal1 its specific =ms are probably   
all fictiti\s2 h5ce ea* p>ticul>        
religion is de/9$ to pass f ! sph]e (   
fai? to t ( art4 ,! ,greek religion has 
long s9ce gone !re1 & !re also a l>ge "p
 ( our own w "s day g--:at is lo/ = fai?
 is reta9$ = beauty4    ,,bibliography  
,g5]al ,works  ,engli%4  ,,santayana1   
,g4 ,! ,s5se ( ,beauty1 #ahig2 ,reason 9
 ,art1 #aijf4 ,,mu5/]b]g1 ,h4 ,!        
,pr9ciples ( ,art ,education1 #aije2 ,! 
,et]nal ,values1 ,"p #c1 #aiji4 ,,lee & 
,,?ompson4 ,beauty & ,ugl9ess1 #aiaa4   
,,c>ritt1 ,e4 ,i4 ,! ,!ory ( ,beauty1   
#aiad4 ,,knight1 ,,wm4 ,! ,philosophy ( 
! ,beautiful1 ,"p #a1 #ahia2  ,"p #b1   
#ahic4 ,,puff]1 ,,e!l4 ,! ,psy*ology (  
,beauty1 #aije4 ,,br[n1 ,,baldw94 ,!    
,f9e ,arts1 #ahib4 ,,r[l&1 ,e4 ,!       
,significance ( ,art1 #aiac4 ,,m>%all1  
,r4 ,pa91 ,pleasure1 & ,ae/hetics1      
#ahid2 ,ae/hetic  ,pr9ciples1 #ahie4    
,,sully1 ,j41 & ,,rob]tson1 ,g4 ,c4     
,ae/hetics4 ,,bosanquet1 ,b4 ,hi/ory (  
,ae/hetics1 #aijd2 ,?ree ,lectures on   

,ae/hetics1 #aiad4 ,,gordon1 ,,kate4    
,ae/hetics1 #aiji4  ,g]man4  ,,lipps1   
,t4 ,ae/hetik1 #aijc-aije4 ,,volkelt1   
,j4 ,sy/em d] ,ae/hetik1 #aije-aiad4    
,,dessoir1 ,m4 ,ae/hetik und ,allgeme9e 
,kun/wiss5s*aft1 #aijf4 ,,cohn1 ,j4     
,allgeme9e ,ae/hetik1 #aija4 ,,meumann1 
,e4 ,ae/hetik d] ,geg5w>t1 #aiab2 ,sy/em
 d]  ,ae/hetik1 #aiad4 ,,utitz1 ,e4     
,grundlegung d] ,allgeme95              
,kun/wiss5s*aft1 ,bd4 #a1  #aiad4       
,,muell]-,,fri5fels1 ,r4 ,psy*ologic d] 
,kun/1 #aiab4 ,,witasek1 ,s4 ,grundzuege
 d] ,allgeme95 ,ae/hetik1 #aijd4        
,,groos1 ,k4 ,d] ,ae/hetis*e ,g5uss1    
#aijb4 ,,lange1 ,k4 ,das ,wes5 d] ,kun/1
 #aija4 ,,fi$l]1 ,c4 ,d] ,ursprung d]   
,ku5/l]is*5 ,?aetigkeit1 #aija4 ,,kant1 
,i4 ,kritik d] ,urteilskraft1 #agij2    
,engli% translation by  ,j4 ,h4 ,b]n>d1 
#ahib4  ,fr5*4  ,,ta9e1 ,h4 ,!          
,philosophy ( ,art1 ,engli% translation1
 #ahfg4 ,,sully-,,prudhomme1 ,r4 ,f4 ,a4
 ,l',expression dans les beaux arts1    
#ahhc4 ,,guyau1 ,j4 ,m4 ,les problemes  

de l'e/etique contempora9e1 #ahhd2      
,l',art au po9t de vue sociologique1    
#ahhi4 ,,bray1 ,l4 ,du ,beau1 #aijb4    
,,seailles1 ,g4 ,essai sur le g5ie en   
l'art1 #ahig4 ,,s\riau1 ,p4 ,la         
sugge/ion en l'art1 #aiji4 ,,lalo1 ,,*4 
,les ,s5tim5ts e/hetiques1 #aiaj2       
,introduction  l'e/etique1 #aiac4       
,,dussauze1 ,h4 ,les ,regies e/etiques  
et les lois du s5tim5t1 #aiaa4          
,,fonta9e1 ,a4 ,essai sur le pr9cipe et 
les lois de la critique d'art1  #aiji4  
,italian4  ,,croce1 ,b4 ,e/etica1 #aijb2
 ,engli% translation1 #aiji2 ,fr5*      
translation1 #aijd2 ,g]man translation1 
#aije2 ,brevi>io di  e/etica1 #aiac4    
,,pilo1 ,m4 ,e/etica4 ,,por5a1 ,m4 ,*e  
cos' e il bello8 #aije4  ,,exp]im5tal   
,,ae/hetics  ,,fe*n]1 ,g4 ,t4 ,vors*ule 
d] ,ae/hetik1 #ahgf4 ,,kuelpe1 ,o4 ,d]  
geg5wa]tige ,/& d] exp]im5tell5         
,ae/hetik1  9 ,b]i*t ueb] d5 #bt5       
,kongress fu] exp]im5telle  ,psy*ologie1
 #aijg4 ,,/ratton1 ,g4 ,m4 ,psy*ology & 
,culture1 #aijc4 ,,val5t9e1 ,c4 ,w4     

,exp]im5tal ,psy*ology ( ,beauty4       
,,my]s1 ,c4 ,s4 ,introduction to        
,exp]im5tal ,psy*ology1 #aiaa4 ,,wundt1 
,,wm4 ,physiological ,psy*ology4 ,,lalo1
 ,,*4 ,l',e/etique exp]im5tale          
contempora9e1 #aijh4  ,works on !       
,orig9s ( ,art  ,,hirn1 ,y4 ,! ,orig9s (
 ,art1 #aijj4 ,,grosse1 ,e4 ,! ,beg9n+s 
( ,art1 ,engli% translation1 #ahig4     
,,wallas*ek1 ,r4 ,primitive ,music1     
#aijc4 ,,bue*]1 ,k4 ,arbeit und         
,rhy?mus1 #ahii4 ,,gummebe1 ,f4 ,b4 ,!  
,beg9n+s ( ,poetry1 #aija4 ,,groos1 ,k4 
,! ,play ( ,man1 #aija4 ,,fraz]1 ,j4 ,g4
 ,! ,gold5 ,b\gh1 #aijg-aiae4 ,,wundt1  
,,wm4 ,volk]psy*ologie1 #aiaa2 ,elem5ts 
( ,folk ,psy*ology1  #aiaf4 ,,spe>+1 ,h4
 ,g4 ,! ,*ildhood ( ,art1 #aiac4        
,additional ,ref]5ces = ,special        
,subjects  ,*apt] ,six4--,! ,tragic4    
,,ari/otle4 ,poetics4 ,,corneille1 ,p4  
,disc\rs de la trag$ie1 #affj4 ,,less+1 
,g4 ,e4 ,hamburgis*e ,dramaturgic1      
#agfg4 ,,s*op5hau]4 ,! ,_w z ,w & ,idea2
 ,engli% translation1  ,vol4 #a1 ,bk4   

#c2 ,vol4 #c1 ,*4 #bg4 ,,hegel1 ,g4 ,w4 
,f1 ,vorlesung5 ueb] die ,ae/hetik1 #ct]
 ,abs*nitt1  #ctes ,kapitel4 ,,hebbel1  
,f4 ,e9 ,wort ueb] das ,drama1 #ahdc4   
,,lipps1 ,t4 ,d] ,/reit ueb] die        
,trago$ie1 #ahia4 ,,volkelt1 ,j4        
,ae/hetik des ,tragis*51 #aijf2 ,sy/em  
d] ,ae/hetik1  ,bd4 #b1 #aiaj4          
,,bradley1 ,a4 ,c4 ,ox=d ,lectures on   
,poetry1 #aiji4 ,,but*]1 ,s4 ,h4        
,ari/otle's ,!ory ( ,poetry & ,f9e ,art1
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,psy*ology ( ,music1 9 ,am]ican ,j\rnal 
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9 ,psy*ological ,review1 ,vol4 #ab4     
,*apt] ,n9e4--,poetry4  ,,ari/otle4     
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