,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,aesthetics    
,,by  ,,dewitt ,h4 ,,parker  ,,professor
 ,,of ,,philosophy ,,in ,,the           
,,university ,,of ,,michigan            
,,preface  ,this book has grown out of  
lectures to students at the ,university 
of ,michigan and embodies my effort to  
express to them the nature and meaning  
of art4 ,in writing it1 ,i have sought  
to maintain scientific accuracy1 yet at 
the same time to preserve freedom of    
style and something of the inspiration  
of the subject4 ,while intended         
primarily for students1 the book will   
appeal generally1 ,i hope1 to people who
 are interested in the intelligent      
appreciation of art4  ,my obligations   
are extensive1--most directly to those  
whom ,i have cited in foot-notes to the 
text1 but also to others whose influence
 is too indirect or pervasive to make   
citation profitable1 or too obvious to  
make it necessary4 ,for the broader     
philosophy of art1 my debt is heaviest1 
,i believe1 to the artists and          

philosophers during the period from     
,herder to ,hegel1 who gave to the study
 its greatest development1 and1 among   
contemporaries1 to ,croce and ,lipps4   
,in addition1 ,i have drawn freely upon 
the more special investigations of      
recent times1 but with the caution      
desirable in view of the very tentative 
character of some of the results4 ,to   
,mrs4 ,robert ,m4 ,wenley ,i wish to    
express my thanks for her very careful  
and helpful reading of the page proof4  
,the appended bibliography is1 of       
course1 not intended to be in any sense 
adequate1 but is offered merely as a    
guide to further reading2 a complete    
bibliography would itself demand almost 
a volume4     ,,contents  ,,chapter     
,i4 ,introduction3 ,purpose and ,method 
,,chapter   ,,ii4 ,the ,definition of   
,art  ,,chapter  ,,iii4 ,the ,intrinsic 
,value of ,art  ,,chapter   ,,iv4 ,the  
,analysis of the ,aesthetic ,experience3
 ,the ,elements of                 the  
,experience  ,,chapter    ,v4 ,the      

,analysis of the ,aesthetic ,experience3
 ,the ,structure of                 the 
,experience  ,,chapter   ,,vi4 ,the     
,problem of ,evil in ,aesthetics1 and   
,its ,solution through                  
the ,tragic1 ,pathetic1 and ,comic      
,,chapter  ,,vii4 ,the ,standard of     
,taste  ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,the          
,aesthetics of ,music  ,,chapter   ,,ix4
 ,the ,aesthetics of ,poetry  ,,chapter 
,x4 ,prose ,literature  ,,chapter       
,,xi4 ,the ,dominion of ,art over       
,nature3 ,painting  ,,chapter  ,,xii4   
,the ,dominion of ,art over ,nature3    
,sculpture  ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,beauty in
 the ,industrial ,arts3 ,architecture   
,,chapter  ,,xiv4 ,the ,function of     
,art3 ,art and ,morality  ,,chapter     
,,xv4 ,the ,function of ,art3 ,art and  
,religion  ,,bibliography     ,,the     
,,principles ,,of ,,aesthetics          
,,chapter ,i  ,,introduction3 ,,purpose 
,,and ,,method  ,although some feeling  
for beauty is perhaps universal among   
men1 the same cannot be said of the     

understanding of beauty4 ,the average   
man1 who may exercise considerable taste
 in personal adornment1 in the          
decoration of the home1 or in the choice
 of poetry and painting1 is at a loss   
when called upon to tell what art is or 
to explain why he calls one thing       
beautiful and another ugly4 ,even the   
artist and the connoisseur1 skilled to  
produce or accurate in judgment1 are    
often wanting in clear and consistent   
ideas about their own works or          
appreciations4 ,here1 as elsewhere1 we  
meet the contrast between feeling and   
doing1 on the one hand1 and knowing1 on 
the other4 ,just as practical men are   
frequently unable to describe or justify
 their most successful methods or       
undertakings1 just as many people who   
astonish us with their fineness and     
freedom in the art of living are        
strangely wanting in clear thoughts     
about themselves and the life which they
 lead so admirably1 so in the world of  
beauty1 the men who do and appreciate   

are not always the ones who understand4 
,very often1 moreover1 the artist and   
the art lover justify their inability to
 understand beauty on the ground that   
beauty is too subtle a thing for        
thought4 ,how1 they say1 can one hope to
 distill into clear and stable ideas    
such a vaporous and fleeting matter as  
,aesthetic feeling8 ,such men are not   
only unable to think about beauty1 but  
skeptical as to the possibility of doing
 so1--contented mystics1 deeply feeling1
 but dumb4  ,however1 there have always 
been artists and connoisseurs who have  
striven to reflect upon their           
appreciations and acts1 unhappy until   
they have understood and justified what 
they were doing2 and one meets with     
numerous art-loving people whose        
intellectual curiosity is rather        
quickened than put to sleep by just that
 element of elusiveness in beauty upon  
which the mystics dwell4 ,long          
acquaintance with any class of objects  
leads naturally to the formation of some

 definition or general idea of them1 and
 the repeated performance of the same   
type of act impels to the search for a  
principle that can be communicated to   
other people in justification of what   
one is doing and in defense of the value
 which one attaches to it4 ,thoughtful  
people cannot long avoid trying to      
formulate the relation of their interest
 in beauty1 which absorbs so much energy
 and devotion1 to other human interests1
 to fix its place in the scheme of life4
 ,it would be surprising1 therefore1 if 
there had been no ,shelleys or ,sidneys 
to define the relation between poetry   
and science1 or ,tolstoys to speculate  
on the nature of all art2 and we should 
wonder if we did not everywhere hear    
intelligent people discussing the       
relation of utility and goodness to     
beauty1 or asking what makes a poem or a
 picture great4  ,now the science of    
aesthetics is an attempt to do in a     
systematic way what thoughtful art      
lovers have thus always been doing      

haphazardly4 ,it is an effort to obtain 
a clear general idea of beautiful       
objects1 our judgments upon them1 and   
the motives underlying the acts which   
create them1--to raise the aesthetic    
life1 otherwise a matter of instinct and
 feeling1 to the level of intelligence1 
of understanding4 ,to understand art    
means to find an idea or definition     
which applies to it and to no other     
activity1 and at the same time to       
determine its relation to other elements
 of human nature2 and our understanding 
will be complete if our idea includes   
all the distinguishing characteristics  
of art1 not simply enumerated1 but      
exhibited in their achieved relations4  
,how shall we proceed in seeking such an
 idea of art8 ,we must follow a twofold 
method3 first1 the ordinary scientific  
method of observation1 analysis1 and    
experiment2 and second1 another and very
 different method1 which people of the  
present day often profess to avoid1 but 
which is equally necessary1 as ,i shall 

try to show1 and actually employed by   
those who reject it4 ,in following the  
first method we treat beautiful things  
as objects given to us for study1 much  
as plants and animals are given to the  
biologist4 ,just as the biologist       
watches the behavior of his specimens1  
analyzes them into their various parts  
and functions1 and controls his studies 
through carefully devised experiments1  
arriving at last at a clear notion of   
what a plant or an animal is--at a      
definition of life2 so the student of   
aesthetics observes works of art and    
other well-recognized beautiful things1 
analyzes their elements and the forms of
 connection of these1 arranges          
experiments to facilitate and guard his 
observations from error and1 as a       
result1 reaches the general idea for    
which he is looking1--the idea of       
beauty4  ,a vast material presents      
itself for study of this kind3 the      
artistic attempts of children and       
primitive men2 the well-developed art of

 civilized nations1 past and present1 as
 creative process and as completed work2
 and finally1 the everyday aesthetic    
appreciations of nature and human life1 
both by ourselves and by the people whom
 we seek out for study4 ,each kind of   
material has its special value4 ,the    
first has the advantage of the          
perspicuity which comes from simplicity1
 similar for our purposes to the value  
of the rudimentary forms of life for the
 biologist4 ,but this advantage of early
 art may be overestimated2 for the      
nature of beauty is better revealed in  
its maturer manifestations1 even as the 
purposes of an individual are more      
fully1 if not more clearly1 embodied in 
maturity than in youth or childhood4    
,yet a purely objective method will not 
suffice to give us an adequate idea of  
beauty4 ,for beautiful things are       
created by men1 not passively           
discovered1 and are made1 like other    
things which men make1 in order to      
realize a purpose4 ,just as a saw is a  

good saw only when it fulfills the      
purpose of cutting wood1 so works of art
 are beautiful only because they embody 
a certain purpose4 ,the beautiful things
 which we study by the objective method 
are selected by us from among countless 
other objects and called beautiful      
because they have a value for us1       
without a feeling for which we should   
not know them to be beautiful at all4   
,they are not1 like sun and moon1       
independent of mind and will and capable
 of being understood in complete        
isolation from man4 ,no world of beauty 
exists apart from a purpose that finds  
realization there4 ,we are1 to be sure1 
not always aware of the existence of    
this purpose when we enjoy a picture or 
a poem or a bit of landscape2 yet it is 
present none the less4 ,the child is    
equally unaware of the purpose of the   
food which pleases him1 yet the purpose 
is the ground of his pleasure2 and we   
can understand his hunger only through a
 knowledge of it4  ,the dependence of   

beauty upon a relation to purpose is    
clear from the fact that in our feelings
 and judgments about art we not only    
change and disagree1 but correct        
ourselves and each other4 ,the history  
of taste1 both in the individual and the
 race1 is not a mere process1 but a     
progress1 an evolution4 ,we were wrong  
in calling that poem beautiful1 we say2 
you are mistaken in thinking that       
picture a good one2 the eighteenth      
century held a false view of the nature 
of poetry2 the ,english                 
,pre-,raphaelites confused the functions
 of poetry and painting2 to-day we      
understand what the truly pictorial is  
better than ,giotto did2 and so on4 ,now
 nothing can be of worth to us1 one     
thing cannot be better than another1 nor
 can we be mistaken as to its value     
except with reference to some purpose   
which it fulfills or does not fulfill4  
,there is no growth or evolution apart  
from a purpose in terms of which we can 
read the direction of change as forward 

rather than backward4  ,this purpose    
cannot be understood by the observation 
and analysis1 no matter how careful1 of 
beautiful things2 for it exists in the  
mind primarily and only through mind    
becomes embodied in things2 and it      
cannot be understood by a mere inductive
 study of aesthetic experiences--the    
mind plus the object--just as they come2
 because1 as we have just stated1 they  
are changeful and subject to correction1
 therefore uncertain and often          
misleading4 ,the aesthetic impulse may  
falter and go astray like any other     
impulse2 a description of it in this    
condition would lead to a very false    
conception4 ,no1 we must employ a       
different method of investigation--the  
,socratic method of self-scrutiny1 the  
conscious attempt to become clear and   
consistent about our own purposes1 the  
probing and straightening of our        
aesthetic consciences4 ,instead of      
accepting our immediate feelings and    
judgments1 we should become critical    

towards them and ask ourselves1 ,what do
 we really seek in art and in life      
which1 when found1 we call beautiful8   
,of course1 in order to answer this     
question we cannot rely on an           
examination of our own preferences in   
isolation from those of our fellow-men4 
,here1 as everywhere1 our purposes are  
an outgrowth of the inherited past and  
are developed in imitation of1 or in    
rivalry with1 those of other men4 ,the  
problem is one of interpreting the      
meaning of art in the system of culture 
of which our own minds are a part4      
,nevertheless1 the personal problem     
remains4 ,aesthetic value is            
emphatically personal2 it must be felt  
as one's own4 ,if ,i accept the         
standards of my race and age1 ,i do so  
because ,i find them to be an expression
 of my own aesthetic will4 ,in the end1 
my own will to beauty must be cleared   
up2 its darkly functioning goals must be
 brought to light4  ,now1 unless we have
 thought much about the matter or are   

gifted with unusual native taste1 we    
shall find that our aesthetic intentions
 are confused1 contradictory1 and       
entangled with other purposes4 ,to      
become aware of this is the first step  
towards enlightenment4 ,we must try to  
distinguish what we want of art from    
what we want of other things1 such as   
science or morality2 for something      
unique we must desire from anything of  
permanent value in our life4 ,in the    
next place we should come to see that we
 cannot want incompatible things2 that1 
for example1 we cannot want art to hold 
the mirror up to life and1 at the same  
time1 to represent life as conforming to
 our private prejudices2 or want a      
picture to have expressive and          
harmonious colors and look exactly like 
a real landscape2 or long for a poetry  
that would be music or a sculpture that 
would be pictorial4 ,finally1 we must   
make sure that our interpretation of the
 aesthetic purpose is representative of 
the actual fullness and manysidedness of

 it2 we should observe1 for example1    
that sensuous pleasure is not all that  
we seek from art2 that truth of some    
kind we seek besides2 and yet that in   
some sort of union we want both4  ,this 
clearing up can be accomplished only in 
closest touch with the actual experience
 of beauty2 it must be performed upon   
our working preferences and judgments4  
,it must be an interpretation of the    
actual history of art4 ,there is no a   
priori method of establishing aesthetic 
standards4 ,just as no one can discover 
his life purpose apart from the process 
of living1 or the purpose of another    
except through sympathy2 so no one can  
know the meaning of art except through  
creating and enjoying and entering into 
the aesthetic life of other artists and 
art lovers4  ,this so-called            
normative--perhaps better1              
critical--moment in aesthetics          
introduces an inevitable personal       
element into every discussion of the    
subject4 ,even as every artist seeks to 

convince his public that what he offers 
is beautiful1 so every philosopher of   
art undertakes to persuade of the       
validity of his own preferences4 ,i     
would not make any secret of this with  
regard to the following pages of this   
book4 ,yet this intrusion of personality
 need not be harmful1 but may1 on the   
contrary1 be valuable4 ,it cannot be    
harmful if the writer proceeds          
undogmatically1 making constant appeals 
to the judgment of his readers and      
claiming no authority for his statements
 except in so far as they find favor    
there4 ,influence rather than authority 
is what he should seek4 ,in presenting  
his views1 as he must1 he should strive 
to stimulate the reader to make a clear 
and consistent formulation of his own   
preferences rather than to impose upon  
him standards ready made4 ,and the good 
of the personal element comes from the  
power which one strong preference or    
conviction has of calling forth another1
 and compelling it to the discovery and 

defense of its grounds4  ,in so far as  
aesthetics is studied by the objective  
method it is a branch of psychology4    
,aesthetic facts are mental facts4 ,a   
work of art1 no matter how material it  
may at first seem to be1 exists only as 
perceived and enjoyed4 ,the marble      
statue is beautiful only when it enters 
into and becomes alive in the experience
 of the beholder4 ,keys and strings and 
vibrations of the air are but stimuli   
for the auditory experience which is the
 real nocturne or etude4 ,ether         
vibrations and the retina upon which    
they impinge are nothing more than      
instruments for the production of the   
colors which1 together with the         
interpretation of them in terms of ideas
 and feelings1 constitute the real      
picture which we appreciate and judge4  
,the physical stimuli and the           
physiological reactions evoked by them  
are important for our purpose only so   
far as they help us to understand the   
inner experiences with which they are   

correlated4 ,a large part of our work1  
therefore1 will consist in the          
psychological analysis of the experience
 of art and the motives underlying its  
production4 ,we shall have to           
distinguish the elements of mind that   
enter into it1 show their               
interrelations1 and differentiate the   
total experience from other types of    
experience4 ,since1 moreover1 art is a  
social phenomenon1 we shall have to draw
 upon our knowledge of social psychology
 to illumine our analysis of the        
individual's experience4 ,art is a      
historical1 even a technical1           
development2 hence the personal         
enjoyment of beauty itself is           
conditioned by factors that spring from 
the traditions of groups of artists and 
art lovers4 ,no one can understand his  
pleasure in beauty apart from the       
pleasure of others4  ,in so far1 on the 
other hand1 as aesthetics is an attempt 
to define the purpose of art and so to  
formulate the standards presupposed in  

judgments of taste1 it is closely       
related to criticism4 ,the relation is  
essentially that between theory and the 
application of theory4 ,it is the office
 of the critic to deepen and diffuse the
 appreciation of particular works of    
art4 ,for this purpose he must possess  
standards2 but he need not be1 and in   
fact often is not1 aware of them4 ,a    
fine taste may serve his ends4 ,not     
infrequently1 however1 the critic       
endeavors to make clear to himself and  
his readers the principles he is        
employing4 ,now1 on its normative side1 
aesthetics is ideally the complete      
rationale of criticism1 the systematic  
achievement1 for its own sake1 of what  
the thoughtful critic attempts with less
 exactness and for the direct purpose of
 appreciation4 ,it is beyond the        
province of aesthetics to criticize any 
particular work of art1 except by way of
 illustration4 ,the importance of       
illustration for the sake of explaining 
and proving general principles is1      

however1 fundamental2 for1 as we have   
seen1 a valuable aesthetic theory is    
impossible unless developed out of the  
primary aesthetic life of enjoyment and 
estimation1 a life of contact with      
individual beautiful things4 ,no amount 
of psychological skill in analysis or   
philosophical aptitude for definition   
can compensate for want of a real love  
of beauty1--of the possession of        
something of the artistic temperament4  
,people who do not love art1 yet study  
it from the outside1 may contribute to  
our knowledge of it through isolated    
bits of analysis1 but their             
interpretations of its more fundamental 
nature are always superficial4 ,hence1  
just as the wise critic will not neglect
 aesthetics1 so the philosopher of art  
should be something of a critic4 ,yet   
the division of labor is clear enough4  
,the critic devotes himself to the      
appreciation of some special            
contemporary or historical field of     
art--,shakespearean drama1 ,renaissance 

sculpture1 ,italian painting1 for       
example2 while the philosopher of art   
looks for general principles1 and gives 
attention to individual works of art and
 historical movements only for the      
purpose of discovering and illustrating 
them4 ,and1 since the philosopher of art
 seeks a universal idea of art rather   
than an understanding of this or that   
particular work of art1 an intimate     
acquaintance with a few examples1       
through which this idea can be revealed 
to the loving eye1 is of more importance
 than a wide but superficial aesthetic  
culture4  ,in our discussion thus far1  
we have been assuming the possibility of
 aesthetic theory4 ,but what shall we   
say in answer to the mystic who tells us
 that beauty is indefinable8 ,first of  
all1 ,i think1 we should remind him that
 his own thesis can be proved or refuted
 only through an attempt at a scientific
 investigation of beauty4 ,every attempt
 to master our experience through       
thought is an adventure2 but the        

futility of adventures can be shown only
 by courageously entering into them4    
,and1 although the failure of previous  
efforts may lessen the probabilities of 
success in a new enterprise1 it cannot  
prove that success is absolutely        
impossible4 ,through greater persistence
 and better methods the new may succeed 
where the old have failed4 ,moreover1   
although we are ready to grant that the 
pathway to our goal is full of pitfalls1
 marked by the wreckage of old theories1
 yet we claim that the skeptic or the   
mystic can know of their existence only 
by traveling over the pathway himself2  
for in the world of the inner life      
nothing can be known by hearsay4 ,if1   
then1 he would really know that the road
 to theoretical insight into beauty is  
impassable1 let him travel with us and  
see2 or1 if not with us1 alone by       
himself or with some one wiser than we  
as guide2 let him compare fairly and    
sympathetically the results of          
theoretical analysis and construction   

with the data of his firsthand          
experience and observe whether the one  
is or is not adequate to the other4     
,again1 the cleft between thought and   
feeling1 even subtle and fleeting       
aesthetic feeling1 is not so great as   
the mystics suppose4 ,for1 after all1   
there is a recognizable identity and    
permanence even in these feelings2 we   
should never call them by a common name 
or greet them as the same despite their 
shiftings from moment to moment if this 
were not true4 ,although whatever is    
unique in each individual experience of 
beauty1 its distinctive flavor or       
nuance1 cannot be adequately rendered in
 thought1 but can only be felt2 yet     
whatever each new experience has in     
common with the old1 whatever is        
universal in all aesthetic experiences1 
can be formulated4 ,the relations of    
beauty1 too1 its place in the whole of  
life1 can be discovered by thought      
alone2 for only by thought can we hold  
on to the various things whose relations

 we are seeking to establish2 without   
thought our experience falls asunder    
into separate bits and never attains to 
unity4 ,finally1 the mystics forget that
 the life of thought and the life of    
feeling have a common root2 they are    
both parts of the one life of the mind  
and so cannot be foreign to each other4 
,the motive impelling to any kind of    
undertaking is usually complex1 and that
 which leads to the development of      
aesthetic theory is no exception to the 
general rule4 ,a disinterested love of  
understanding has certainly played a    
part4 ,every region of experience       
invites to the play of intelligence upon
 it2 the lover of knowledge1 as ,plato  
says1 loves the whole of his object4    
,yet even intelligence1 insatiable and  
impartial as it is1 has its             
predilections4 ,the desire to understand
 a particular type of thing has its     
roots in an initial love of it4 ,as the 
born botanist is the man who finds joy  
in contact with tree and moss and       

mushroom1 so the student of aesthetics  
is commonly a lover of beauty4 ,and1    
although the interest which he takes in 
aesthetic theory is largely just the    
pleasure in possessing clear ideas1 one 
may question whether he would pursue it 
with such ardor except for the continual
 lover's touch with picture and statue  
and poem which it demands4 ,for the     
intelligent lover of beauty1 aesthetic  
theory requires no justification2 it is 
as necessary and pleasurable for him to 
understand art as it is compulsive for  
him to seek out beautiful things to     
enjoy4 ,to love without understanding   
is1 to the thoughtful lover1 an         
infidelity to his object4 ,that the     
interest in aesthetic theory is partly  
rooted in feeling is shown from the fact
 that1 when developed by artists1 it    
takes the form of a defense of the type 
of art which they are producing4 ,the   
aesthetic theory of the ,german         
,romanticists is an illustration of     
this2 ,hebbel and ,wagner are other     

striking examples4 ,these men could not 
rest until they had put into            
communicable and persuasive form the    
aesthetic values which they felt in     
creation4 ,and we1 too1 who are not     
artists but only lovers of beauty1 find 
in theory a satisfaction for a similar  
need with reference to our              
preferences4,footnote3 ,compare         
,santayana3 ,the ,sense of ,beauty1 p4  
#aa4  ,more important to the average man
 is the help which aesthetic theory may 
render to appreciation itself4 ,if to   
the basal interest in beauty be added an
 interest in understanding beauty1 the  
former is quickened and fortified and   
the total measure of enjoyment          
increased4 ,even the love of beauty1    
strong as it commonly is1 may well find 
support through connection with an      
equally powerful and enduring affection4
 ,the aesthetic interest is no exception
 to the general truth that each part of 
the mind gains in stability and         
intensity if connected with the others2 

isolated1 it runs the risk of gradual   
decay in satiety or through the crowding
 out of other competing interests1 which
 if joined with it1 would have kept it  
alive instead4 ,moreover1 the           
understanding of art may increase the   
appreciation of particular works of art4
 ,for the analysis and constant         
attention to the subtler details        
demanded by theory may bring to notice  
aspects of a work of art which do not   
exist for an unthinking appreciation4   
,as a rule1 the appreciations of the    
average man are very inadequate to the  
total possibilities offered1 extending  
only to the more obvious features4      
,often enough besides1 through a mere   
lack of understanding of the purpose of 
art in general and of the more special  
aims of the particular arts1 people     
expect to find what cannot be given1 and
 hence are prejudiced against what they 
might otherwise enjoy4 ,the following   
pages will afford1 ,i hope1 abundant    
illustrations of this truth4  ,finally1 

aesthetic theory may have a favorable   
influence upon the creation of art4 ,not
 that the student of aesthetics can     
prescribe to the artist what he shall or
 shall not do2 for the latter can obey1 
for better or worse1 only the inner     
imperative of his native genius4 ,yet1  
inevitably1 the man of genius receives  
direction and cultivation from the      
aesthetic sentiment of the time into    
which he is born and grown2 even when he
 reacts against it1 he nevertheless     
feels its influence2 a sound conception 
of the nature and purpose of art may    
save him from many mistakes4 ,the       
,french classical tradition in sculpture
 and painting1 which is not merely      
academic1 having become a part of public
 taste1 prevented the production of the 
frightful crudities which passed for art
 in ,germany and ,england during the    
present and past centuries4 ,by helping 
to create a freer and more intelligent  
atmosphere for the artist to be born and
 educated in1 and finer demands upon him

 when once he has begun to produce and  
is seeking recognition1 the student of  
aesthetics may indirectly do not a      
little for him4 ,and surely in our own  
country1 where an educated public taste 
does not exist and the fiercest         
prejudices are rampant1 there is        
abundant opportunity for service4       
,,chapter ,,ii  ,,definition ,,of ,,art 
,since it is our purpose to develop an  
adequate idea of art1 it might seem as  
if a definition were rather our goal    
than our starting point2 yet we must    
identify the field of our investigations
 and mark it off from other regions2 and
 this we can do only by means of a      
preliminary definition1 which the rest  
of our study may then enrich and        
complete4  ,we shall find it fruitful to
 begin with the definition recently     
revived by ,croce3 ,footnote3 ,benedetto
 ,croce3 ,estetica1 translated into     
,english by ,douglas ,ainslie1 under    
title ,aesthetic1 chap4 i4 art is       
expression2 and expression we may       

describe1 for our own ends1 as the      
putting forth of purpose1 feeling1 or   
thought into a sensuous medium1 where   
they can be experienced again by the one
 who expresses himself and communicated 
to others4 ,thus1 in this sense1 a lyric
 poem is an expression--a bit of a      
poet's intimate experience put into     
words2 epic and dramatic poetry are     
expressions--visions of a larger life   
made manifest in the same medium4       
,pictures and statues are also          
expressions2 for they are embodiments in
 color and space-forms of the artists'  
ideas of visible nature and man4 ,works 
of architecture and the other industrial
 arts are embodiments of purpose and the
 well-being that comes from purpose     
fulfilled4  ,this definition1 good so   
far as it goes1 is1 however1 too        
inclusive2 for plainly1 although every  
work of art is an expression1 not every 
expression is a work of art4 ,automatic 
expressions1 instinctive overflowings of
 emotion into motor channels1 like the  

cry of pain or the shout of joy1 are not
 aesthetic4 ,practical expressions also1
 all such as are only means or          
instruments for the realization of      
ulterior purposes--the command of the   
officer1 the conversation of the market 
place1 a saw--are not aesthetic4 ,works 
of art--the ,ninth ,symphony1 the ,ode  
to the ,west ,wind--are not of this     
character4  ,no matter what further     
purposes artistic expressions may serve1
 they are produced and valued for       
themselves2 we linger in them2 we       
neither merely execute them             
mechanically1 as we do automatic        
expressions1 nor hasten through them1   
our minds fixed upon some future end to 
be gained by them1 as is the case with  
practical expressions4 ,both for the    
artist and the appreciator1 they are    
ends in themselves4 ,compare1 for       
example1 a love poem with a declaration 
of love4,footnote3 ,contrast ,croce's   
use of the same illustration3 ,esthetic1
 p4 #bb1 ,english translation4 ,the poem

 is esteemed for the rhythmic emotional 
experience it gives the writer or       
reader2 the declaration1 even when      
enjoyed by the suitor1 has its prime    
value in its consequences1 and the      
quicker it is over and done with and its
 end attained the better4 ,the one1     
since it has its purpose within itself1 
is returned to and repeated2 the other1 
being chiefly a means to an end1 would  
be senseless if repeated1 once the end  
that called it forth is accomplished4   
,the value of the love poem1 although   
written to persuade a lady1 cannot be   
measured in terms of its mere success2  
for if beautiful1 it remains of worth   
after the lady has yielded1 nay1 even if
 it fails to win her4 ,any sort of      
practical purpose may be one motive in  
the creation of a work of art1 but its  
significance is broader than the success
 or failure of that motive4 ,the        
,russian novel is still significant1    
even now1 alter the revolution4 ,as     
beautiful1 it is of perennial worth and 

stands out by itself4 ,but practical    
expressions are only transient links in 
the endless chain of means1 disappearing
 as the wheel of effort revolves4 ,art  
is indeed expression1 but free or       
autonomous expression4  ,the freedom of 
aesthetic expression is1 however1 only  
an intensification of a quality that may
 belong to any expression4 ,for1 in its 
native character1 expression is never   
merely practical2 it brings its own     
reward in the pleasure of the activity  
itself4 ,ordinarily1 when a man makes   
something embodying his need or fancy1  
or says something that expresses his    
meaning1 he enjoys himself in his doing4
 ,there is naturally a generous         
superfluity in all human behavior4 ,the 
economizing of it to what is necessary  
for self-preservation and dominion over 
the environment is secondary1 not       
primary1 imposed under the duress of    
competition and nature4 ,only when      
activities are difficult or their fruits
 hard to get are they disciplined for   

the sake of their results alone2 then   
only does their performance become an   
imperative1 and nature and society      
impose upon them the seriousness and    
constraint of necessity and law4 ,but   
whenever nature and the social          
organization supply the needs of man    
ungrudgingly or grant him a respite from
 the urgency of business1 the           
spontaneity of his activities returns4  
,the doings of children1 of the rich1   
and of all men on a holiday illustrate  
this4 ,compare1 for example1 the speech 
of trade1 where one says the brief and  
needful thing only1 with the talk of    
excursionists1 where verbal expression1 
having no end beyond itself1 develops at
 length and at leisure2 where brevity is
 no virtue and abundant play takes the  
place of a narrow seriousness4  ,but we 
have not yet so limited the field of    
expression that it becomes equivalent to
 the aesthetic2 for not even all of free
 expression is art4 ,the most important 
divergent type is science4 ,science also

 is expression1--an embodiment in words1
 diagrams1 mathematical symbols1        
chemical formula1 or other such media1  
of thoughts meant to portray the objects
 of human experience4 ,scientific       
expressions have1 of course1 a practical
 function2 concepts are plans of action 
or servants of plans1 the most perfect  
and delicate that man possesses4 ,yet   
scientific knowledge is an end in itself
 as well as a utility2 for the mere     
construction and possession of concepts 
and laws is itself a source of joy2 the 
man of science delights in making       
appropriate formulations of nature's    
habits quite unconcerned about their    
possible uses4  ,in science1 therefore1 
there is much free expression2 but      
beauty not yet4 ,no abstract expression 
such as ,euclid's ,elements1 ,newton's  
,principia1 or ,peano's ,formulaire1 no 
matter how rigorous and complete1 is a  
work of art4 ,we admire the             
mathematician's formula for its         
simplicity and adequacy2 we take delight

 in its clarity and scope1 in the ease  
with which it enables the mind to master
 a thousand more special truths1 but we 
do not find it beautiful4 ,equally      
removed from the sphere of the beautiful
 are representations or descriptions of 
mere things1 whether inaccurate or      
haphazard1 as we make them in daily     
life1 or accurate and careful as they   
are elaborated in the empirical         
sciences4 ,no matter how exact and      
complete1 the botanist's or zoologist's 
descriptions of plant and animal life   
are not works of art4 ,they may be      
satisfactory as knowledge1 but they are 
not beautiful4 ,there is an important   
difference between a poet's description 
of a flower and a botanist's1 or between
 an artistic sketch and a photograph1   
conferring beauty upon the former1 and  
withholding it from the latter4  ,the   
central difference is this4 ,the former 
are descriptions not of things only1 but
 of the artist's reactions to things1   
his mood or emotion in their presence4  

,they are expressions of total1 concrete
 experiences1 which include the self of 
the observer as well as the things he   
observes4 ,scientific descriptions1 on  
the other hand1 render objects only2 the
 feelings of the observer toward them   
are carefully excluded4 ,science is     
intentionally objective1--from the point
 of view of the artistic temperament1   
dry and cold4 ,even the realistic novel 
and play1 while seeking to present a    
faithful picture of human life and to   
eliminate all private comment and       
emotion1 cannot dispense with the       
elementary dramatic feelings of         
sympathy1 suspense1 and wonder4 sthetic 
expression is always integral1 embodying
 a total state of mind1 the core of     
which is some feeling2 scientific       
expression is fragmentary or abstract1  
limiting itself to thought4 ,art1 no    
less than science1 may contain truthful 
images of things and abstract ideas1 but
 never these alone2 it always includes  
their life1 their feeling tones1 or     

values4 ,because philosophy admits this 
element of personality1 it is nearer to 
art than science is4 ,yet some men of   
science1 like ,james and ,huxley1 have  
made literature out of science because  
they could not help putting into their  
writings something of their passionate  
interest in the things they discovered  
and described4  ,the1 necessity in art  
for the expression of value is1 ,i      
think1 the principal difference between 
art and science1 rather than1 as ,croce 
,footnote3 ,estetica1 quarta edizione1  
p4#bg2 ,english translation4 p4#cf4     
supposes1 the limitation of art to the  
expression of the individual and of     
,science to the expression of the       
concept4 ,for1 on the one hand1 science 
may express the individual2 and1 on the 
other hand1 art may express the concept4
 ,the geographer1 for example1 describes
 and makes maps of particular regions of
 the earth's surface2 the astronomer    
studies the individual sun and moon4    
,poets like ,dante1 ,lucretius1         

,shakespeare1 and ,goethe express the   
most universal concepts of ethics or    
metaphysics4 ,but what makes men poets  
rather than men of science is precisely 
that they never limit themselves to the 
mere clear statement of the concept1 but
 always express its human significance  
as well4 ,a theory of human destiny is  
expressed in ,prospero's lines--    ,we 
are such stuff   ,as dreams are made of1
 and our little life   ,is rounded with 
a sleep2  but with overtones of feeling 
at the core4 ,or consider the passion   
with which ,lucretius argues for a      
naturalistic conception of the universe4
 ,and the reason why poets clothe their 
philosophical expressions in concrete   
images is not because of any shame of   
the concept1 but just in order the more 
easily and vividly to attach and        
communicate their emotion4 ,their       
general preference for the concrete has 
the same motive2 for there are only a   
few abstractions capable of arousing and
 fixing emotion4  ,even as an element of

 spontaneity is native to all           
expression1 so originally all expression
 is personal4 ,this is easily observable
 in the child4 ,his first uses of words 
as well as of things are touched with   
emotion4 ,every descriptive name conveys
 to him his emotional reaction to the   
object2 disinterested knowledge does not
 exist for him2 every tool1 a knife or a
 fork1 means to him not only something  
to be used1 but the whole background of 
feelings which its use involves4 ,our   
first perceptions of things contain as  
much of feeling and attitude as of color
 and shape and sound and odor4 ,pure    
science and mere industry are           
abstractions from the original integrity
 of perception and expression2          
mutilations of their wholeness forced   
upon the mind through the stress of     
living4 ,to be able to see things       
without feeling them1 or to describe    
them without being moved by their image1
 is a disciplined and derivative        
accomplishment4 ,only as the result of  

training and of haste do the forms and  
colors of objects1 once the stimuli to a
 wondering and lingering attention1     
become mere cues to their recognition   
and employment1 or mere incitements to a
 cold and disinterested analysis and    
description4 ,knowledge may therefore   
enter into beauty when1 keeping its     
liberality1 it participates in an       
emotional experience2 and every other   
type of expression may become aesthetic 
if1 retaining its native spontaneity1 it
 can acquire anew its old power to move 
the heart4 ,to be an artist means to be1
 like the child1 free and sensitive in  
envisaging the world4  ,under these     
conditions1 nature as well as art may be
 beautiful4 ,in themselves1 things are  
never beautiful4 ,this is not apparent  
to common sense because it fails to     
think and analyze4 ,but beauty may      
belong to our perceptions of things4    
,for perception is itself a kind of     
expression1 a process of mind through   
which meanings are embodied in          

sensations4 ,given are only sensations1 
but out of the mind come ideas through  
which they are interpreted as objects4  
,when1 for example1 ,i perceive my      
friend1 it may seem as if the man       
himself were a given object which ,i    
passively receive2 but1 as a matter of  
fact1 all that is given are certain     
visual sensations2 that these are my    
friend1 is pure interpretation--,i      
construct the object in embodying this  
thought in the color and shape ,i see4  
,the elaboration of sensation in        
perception is usually so rapid that1    
apart from reflection1 ,i do not realize
 the mental activity involved4 ,but if  
it turns out that it was some other man 
that ,i saw1 then ,i realize at once    
that my perception was a work of mind1  
an expression of my own thought4 ,of    
course1 not all perceptions are         
beautiful4 ,only as felt to be          
mysterious or tender or majestic is a   
landscape beautiful2 and women only as  
possessed of the charm we feel in their 

presence4 ,that is1 perceptions are     
beautiful only when they embody         
feelings4 ,the sea1 clouds and hills1   
men and women1 as perceived1 awaken     
reactions which1 instead of being       
attributed to the mind from which they  
proceed1 are experienced as belonging to
 the things evoking them1 which         
therefore come to embody them4 ,and this
 process of emotional and objectifying  
perception has clearly no other end than
 just perception itself4 ,we do not gaze
 upon a landscape or a pretty child for 
any other purpose than to get the       
perceptual1 emotional values that       
result4 ,the aesthetic perception of    
nature is1 as ,kant called it1          
disinterested2 that is1 autonomous and  
free4 ,the beauty of nature1 therefore1 
is an illustration of our definition4   
,on the same terms1 life as remembered  
or observed or lived1 may have the      
quality of beauty4 ,in reverie we turn  
our attention back over events in our   
own lives that have had for us a rare   

emotional significance2 these events    
then come to embody the wonder1 the     
interest1 the charm that excited us to  
recollect them4 ,here the activity of   
remembering is not a mere habit set     
going by some train of accidental       
association2 or merely practical1       
arising for the sake of solving some    
present problem by applying the lesson  
of the past to it2 or finally1 not      
unpleasantly insistent1 like the images 
aroused by worry and sorrow1 but        
spontaneous and self-rewarding1 hence   
beautiful4 ,there are also events in the
 lives of other people1 and people      
themselves1 whose lives read like a     
story1 which1 by absorbing our pity or  
joy or awe1 claim from us a like        
fascinated regard4 ,and there are       
actions we ourselves perform1           
magnificent or humble1 like sweeping a  
room1 which1 if we put ourselves into   
them and enjoy them1 have an equal      
charm4 ,and they too have the quality of
 beauty4  ,despite the community between

 beautiful nature and art1 the          
differences are striking4 ,suppose1 in  
order fix our ideas1 we compare one of  
,monet's pictures of a lily pond with   
the aesthetic appreciation of the real  
pond4 ,the pond is undoubtedly beautiful
 every time it is seen2 with its round  
outline1 its sunlit1 flower-covered     
surface1 its background of foliage1 it  
is perhaps the source and expression of 
an unfailing gladness and repose4 ,now  
the painting has very much the same     
value1 but with these essential         
differences4 ,first1 the painting is    
something deliberately constructed and  
composed1 the artist himself controlling
 and composing the colors and shapes1   
and hence their values also2 while the  
natural beauty is an immediate reaction 
to given stimuli1 each observer giving  
meaning to his sensations without       
intention or effort4 ,like the beauty of
 woman1 it is almost a matter of        
instinct4 ,in natural beauty1 there is1 
to be sure1 an element of conscious     

intention1 in so far as we may purposely
 select our point of view and hold the  
object in our attention2 hence this     
contrast with art1 although real and    
important1 is not absolute4 ,moreover1  
beauty in perception and memory is the  
basis of art2 the artist1 while he      
composes1 nevertheless partly           
transcribes significant memories and    
observations4 ,yet1 although relative1  
the difference remains2 art always      
consists of works of art1 natural beauty
 of more immediate experiences4 ,and    
from this difference follows            
another--the greater purity and         
perfection of art4 ,the control which   
the artist exerts over his material     
enables him to make it expressive all   
through2 every element conspires toward 
the artistic end2 there are no          
irrelevant or recalcitrant parts1 such  
as exist in every perception of nature4 
,last1 the beauty of the painting1      
because created in the beholder through 
a fixed and permaneat mechanism         

constructed by the artist1 is           
communicable and abiding1 whereas the   
immediate beauty of nature is           
incommunicable and transient4 ,since the
 sthetic perception of nature has its   
starting point in variable aspects that 
never recur1 no other man could see or  
feel the lily pond as ,monet saw and    
felt it4 ,and1 although in memory we may
 possess a silent gallery of beautiful  
images1 into which we may enter         
privately as long as we live1 in the end
 the flux has its way and at death      
shatters this treasure house            
irrevocably4 ,hence1 only if the beauty 
of the lily pond is transferred to a    
canvas1 can it be preserved and shared4 
,the work of art is the tool of the     
aesthetic life4 ,just as organic        
efficiency is tied to the nerve and     
muscle of the workman and cannot be     
transferred to another1 but the tool1 on
 the other hand1 is exchangeable and    
transmissible 7,i cannot lend or        
bequeath my arm1 but ,i can my boat72   

and just as efficiency is vastly        
increased by the use of tools 7,i can go
 further with my boat than ,i can swim72
 so1 through works of art1 aesthetic    
capacity and experience are enhanced and
 become common possessions1 a part of   
the spiritual capital of the race4      
,moreover1 even as each invention       
becomes the starting point for new ones 
that are better instruments for         
practical ends2 so each work of art     
becomes the basis for new experiments   
through which the aesthetic expression  
of life attains to higher levels4       
,monet's own art1 despite its great     
originality1 was dependent upon all the 
impressionists1 and they1 even when they
 broke away from1 were indebted to1 the 
traditions of ,french painting          
established by centuries4 ,through art1 
the aesthetic life1 which otherwise     
would be a private affair1 receives a   
social sanction and assistance4  ,that  
permanence and communication of         
expression are essential to a complete  

conception of art can be discerned by   
looking within the artistic impulse     
itself4 ,however much the artist may    
affect indifference to the public1 he   
creates expecting to be understood4     
,mere self- expression does not satisfy 
him2 he needs in addition appreciation4 
,deprived of sympathy1 the artistic     
impulse withers and dies or supports    
itself through the hope of eventually   
finding it4 ,the heroism of the poet    
consists in working on in loneliness2   
but his crown of glory is won only when 
all men are singing his songs4 ,and     
every genuine artist1 as opposed to the 
mere improviser or dilettante1 wishes   
his work to endure4,footnote3 ,see      
,anatole ,france3 ,le ,lys ,rouge4 ,moi1
 dit ,choulette1 je pense si peu a      
l'avenir terrestre que j'ai ecrit mes   
plus beaux poemes sur les feuilles de   
papier a cigarettes4 ,elles se sont     
facilement evanuies1 ne laissant a mes  
vers qu'une espece d'existence          
metaphysique4 ,c'etait un air de        

negligence qu'il se donnait4 ,en fait1  
il n'avait jamais perdu une ligne de son
 ecriture4 ,having put his substance    
into it1 he desires its preservation as 
he does his own4 ,his immortality       
through it is his boast4    ,exegi      
monumentum aere perennius   ,regalique  
situ pyramidum altius        99       99
       99       99       99   ,non omnis
 moriar4  ,art is not mere inspiration1 
the transient expression of private     
moods1 but a work of communication1     
meant to endure4  ,there are certain    
distinguishing characteristics of       
aesthetic expression all of which are in
 harmony with the description we have   
given of it4 ,in the first place1 in art
 the sensuous medium of the expression  
receives an attention and possesses a   
significance not to be found in other   
types of expression4 ,although every one
 hears1 no one attends to the sound of  
the voice in ordinary conversation2 one 
looks through it1 as through a glass1 to
 the thought or emotion behind4 ,in our 

routine perceptions of nature1 we are   
not interested in colors and shapes on  
their own account1 but only in order    
that we may recognize the objects       
possessing them2 in a scientific woodcut
 also1 they are indifferent to us1      
except in so far as they impart correct 
information about the objects portrayed4
 ,outside of art1 sensation is a mere   
transparent means to the end of         
communication and recognition4 ,compare 
the poem1 the piece of music1 the       
artistic drawing or painting4 ,there the
 words or tones must be not only heard  
but listened to2 the colors and lines   
not only seen but held in the eye2 of   
themselves1 apart from anything they may
 further mean1 they have the power to   
awaken feeling and pleasure4 ,and this  
is no accident4 ,for the aesthetic      
expression is meant to possess worth in 
itself and is deliberately fashioned to 
hold us to itself1 and this purpose will
 be more certainly and effectively      
accomplished if the medium of the       

expression has the power to move and    
please4 ,we enter the aesthetic         
expression through the sensuous medium2 
hence the artist tries to charm us at   
the start and on the outside2 having    
found favor there1 he wins us the more  
easily to the content lying within4  ,if
 the medium1 moreover1 instead of being 
a transparent embodiment of the artist's
 feelings1 can express them in some     
direct fashion as well1 the power of the
 whole expression will gain4 ,this is   
exactly what the sound of the words of a
 poem or the colors and lines of a      
painting or statue can do4 ,as mere     
sound and as mere color and line1 they  
convey something of the feeling tone of 
the subject which1 as symbols1 they are 
used to represent4 ,for example1 the    
soft flowing lines of ,correggio1 quite 
apart from the objects they represent1  
express the voluptuous happiness of his 
,venus and ,mars2 the slow rhythm of the
 repeated word sounds and the quality of
 the vowels in the opening lines of     

,tithonus are expressive in themselves1 
apart from their meaning1 of the        
weariness in the thoughts of the hero1  
and so serve to re-express and enforce  
the mood of those thoughts4 ,when we    
come to study the particular arts1 we   
shall find this phenomenon of           
re-expression through the medium        
everywhere4  ,a second characteristic   
distinguishing aesthetic expressions    
from other expressions is their superior
 unity4 ,in the latter1 the unity lies  
in the purpose to be attained or in the 
content of the thought expressed2 it is 
teleological or logical4 ,the unity of a
 chair is its purpose1 which demands    
just such parts and in just such a      
mechanical arrangement2 the unity of a  
business conversation is governed by the
 bargain to be closed1 requiring such   
words and such only1 and in the         
appropriate logical and grammatical     
order4 ,the unity of an argument is the 
thesis to be proved2 the unity of a     
diagram is the principle to be          

illustrated or the information to be    
imparted4 ,compare the unity of a sonnet
 or a painting4 ,in a sonnet1 there is a
 unity of thought and sentiment creating
 a fitting grammatical unity in         
language1 but in addition a highly      
elaborate pattern in the words          
themselves that is neither grammatical  
nor logical4 ,in a painting1 besides the
 dramatic unity of the action portrayed1
 as in a battle scene2 or of the spatial
 and mechanical togetherness of things1 
as in a landscape2 there is a harmony of
 the colors1 a composition of the lines 
and masses themselves1 not to be found  
in nature4 ,and1 although the general   
shape and arrangement of the parts of a 
useful object is dominated by its       
purpose1 if it is also beautiful--a     
,louis ,seize chair1 for example--there 
is1 besides1 a design that cannot be    
explained by use4 ,in artistic          
expressions1 therefore1 there exists a  
unity in the material1 superposed upon  
the unity required by the purpose or    

thought expressed4 ,and this property   
follows from the preceding4 ,for1 since 
the medium is valuable in itself1 the   
mind1 which craves unity everywhere1    
craves it there also1 and lingers longer
 and more happily on finding it2 and1   
since the medium can be expressive1 the 
unity of the fundamental mood of the    
thought expressed will overflow into and
 pervade it4 ,hence there occurs an     
autonomous development of unity in the  
material1 raising the total unity of the
 expression to a higher power4          
,,chapter ,,iii  ,,the ,,intrinsic      
,,value ,,of ,,art   ,our definition of 
art can be complete only if it enables  
us to understand the value of art4 ,the 
reader may well ask what possible value 
expression can have when it becomes an  
end in itself4 ,i can understand1 he may
 say1 the value of expression for the   
sake of communication and influence1 but
 what value can it have of itself8 ,at  
this point1 moreover1 we are concerned  
with the intrinsic value immediately    

realized in the experience of art1 not  
with further values that may result from
 it4 ,art1 no less than practical       
expression1 may have effects on other   
experiences1 which have to be considered
 in measuring its total worth2 but these
 we shall leave for investigation in our
 last chapters1 after we have reached   
our fullest comprehension of art2 we are
 interested now1 in order to test and   
complete our definition1 in the resident
 value only4 ,as a help toward reaching 
a satisfactory view1 let us examine     
critically some of the chief theories in
 the field4 ,first1 the theory1 often   
called hedonistic1 that the value of art
 consists in the satisfactions of sense 
which the media of aesthetic expression 
afford--the delight in color and sound  
and rhythmical movement of line and     
form4 ,the theory finds support in the  
industrial arts1 where beauty often     
seems to be only a luxurious charm      
supervening upon utility2 but also in   
painting and sculpture when appreciated 

in their decorative capacity as things  
of beauty4 ,there is a partial truth in 
this theory2 for1 as we have seen1 the  
sensuous media of all the arts tend to  
be developed in the direction of        
pleasure2 and no man who lacks feeling  
for purely sensuous values can enter    
into the fullness of the aesthetic      
experience4 ,but the theory fails in not
 recognizing the expressive function of 
sensation in art4 ,as ,goethe said1 art 
was long formative1 that is1 expressive1
 before it was beautiful1 in the narrow 
sense of charming4,footnote3 ,die kunst 
is lange bildend eh sie schon ist4 ,von 
,deutscher ,baukunst1 #aggc4 ,in order  
to be beautiful1 it is not enough for a 
work of art to offer us delightful      
colors and lines and sounds2 it must    
also have a meaning--it must speak to   
us1 tell us something4  ,the second     
theory which ,i shall examine is the    
moralistic or ,platonic4 ,according to  
this1 art is an image of the good1 and  
has value in so far as through          

expression it enables us to experience  
edifying emotions or to contemplate     
noble objects4 ,the high beauty of the  
,sistine ,madonna1 for example1 would be
 explained as identical with the worth  
of the religious feelings which it      
causes in the mind of the beholder4 ,the
 advantage of art over life is supposed 
to consist in its power to create in the
 imagination better and more inspiring  
objects than life can offer1 and to free
 and control the contemplation of them4 
,this is the narrower interpretation of 
the theory4 ,when the notion of the good
 is liberalized so as to include        
innocent happiness as well as the       
strictly ethical and religious values1  
beauty is conceded to belong to pictures
 of fair women and children1 and to     
lyrics and romances1 provided there is  
nothing in them to shock the moral      
sense4 ,aesthetic value is the          
reflection--the imaginative             
equivalent--of moral or practical value4
  ,the prime difficulty of this theory  

is its inadequacy as an interpretation  
of the whole of actual art2 for1 in     
order to find support among existing    
examples1 it is compelled to make an    
arbitrary selection of such as can be   
made to fit it4 ,actual art is quite as 
much an image of evil as of good2 there 
is nothing devilish which it has not    
represented4 ,and this part of art is   
often of the highest aesthetic merit4   
,velasquez's pictures of dwarfs and     
degenerate princes are as artistic as   
,raphael's ,madonnas2 ,goethe's         
,mephistopheles is one of his supreme   
artistic achievements2 ,shakespeare is  
as successful artistically in his       
delineation of ,lady ,macbeth as of     
,desdemona4 ,now for us who claim that  
the purpose of art must be divined from 
the actual practice of artists1 from the
 inside1 and should not be an arbitrary 
construction1 from the outside1 the     
existence of such examples is sufficient
 to refute the theory in question4 ,if  
the artist finds a value in the         

representation of evil1 value exists    
there and can be discovered4  ,if1      
indeed1 the sole effect of artistic     
expression were to bring to the mind    
objects and emotions in the same fashion
 that ordinary life does1 then the value
 of art1 the image of life1 would be a  
function of the value of the life       
imaged4 ,and just as one seeks contact  
with the good in real life and avoids   
the evil1 so one would seek in art      
imaginative contact with the good alone4
 ,but expression1 and above all artistic
 expression1 does something more than   
present objects to the imagination and  
arouse emotions4 ,art is not life over  
again1 a mere shadow of life2 if it     
were1 what would be its unique value8   
who would not prefer the substance to   
the shadow8 ,the expression of life is  
not life itself2 hence1 even if the evil
 in life be always evil1 the expression 
of it may still be a good4  ,another    
theory1 often called the                
intellectualistic theory1 claims that   

the purpose of art is truth4 ,beauty is 
truth2 truth1 beauty4 ,the immediate    
pleasure which we feel in the beautiful 
is the same as the instant delight in   
the apprehension of truth4 ,there is no 
difference in purpose or value between  
science and art1 but only a difference  
in method--science presents truth in the
 form of the abstract judgment2 art1 in 
the form of the concrete image or       
example4  ,the difficulty with this     
theory is the uncertainty as to what is 
meant by truth2 hence the many shapes it
 assumes4 ,but before going deeply into 
this question1 let us consider some of  
the simple facts which seem to tell for 
and against the theory4 ,there can be no
 doubt that many examples of the        
representative arts--painting1          
sculpture1 novel1 and drama--are praised
 for their truth4 ,we demand truth of   
coloring or line in painting1 of form in
 sculpture1 of character and social     
relation in the drama or novel4 ,on the 
other hand1 we admit aesthetic value to 

fanciful painting and literature1 and to
 expressions of beliefs which no one    
accepts at the present time4 ,we        
appreciate the beauty of ,dante's       
descriptions of the ,inferno and of the 
conversations between him and its       
inhabitants without believing them to be
 reports of fact4 ,no one values the    
,blue ,bird the less because it is not  
an account of an actual occurrence4     
,even with regard to the realistic novel
 and drama1 no one thinks of holding    
them to the standards of historical or  
scientific accuracy4 ,and1 although we  
may demand of a landscape painting      
plausibility of color and line1 we      
certainly do not require that it be a   
representation of any identifiable      
scene4  ,if by truth1 therefore1 be     
meant a description or image of matters 
of fact1 then surely it is not the      
purpose of art to give us this truth4   
,the artist1 to be sure1 may give this1 
as when the landscapist paints some     
locality dear to his client or the      

portraitist paints the client himself2  
but he does not need to do this1 and the
 aesthetic value of his work is         
independent of it2 for the picture      
possesses its beauty even when we know  
nothing of its model4 ,in the language  
of current philosophy1 truth in the     
sense of the correspondence of a        
portrayal to an object external to the  
portrayal1 is not artistic truth4  ,the 
partisans of the intellectualistic      
theory would1 of course1 deny that they 
ever meant truth with this meaning4 ,we 
mean by truth1 they would say1 an       
embodiment in sensuous or imaginative   
form of some universal principle of     
nature and life4 ,the image may be      
entirely fictitious or fanciful1 but so 
long as the principle is illustrated1   
essential truth1 and that is beauty1 is 
attained4 ,but if this were so1 every   
work of art would be the statement of a 
universal truth1 as indeed philosophical
 adherents of this theory have always   
maintained--witness ,hegel4 ,yet what is

 the universal truth asserted in one of 
,monet's pictures of a lily pond8 ,there
 is1 of course1 an observance of the    
general laws of color and space1 but    
does the beauty of the picture consist  
in that8 ,does it not attach to the     
representation of the concrete1         
individual pond8 ,i do not mean that    
there may not be beauty in the          
expression of universals2 in fact1 ,i   
have explicitly maintained that there   
may1 under certain conditions2 ,i am    
simply insisting that beauty may belong 
to expressions of the individual also1  
and that you cannot reduce these to mere
 illustrations of universal ideas4      
,because of its completeness and        
internal harmony1 the philosopher may   
find the simplest melody a revelation of
 the ,absolute2 but even if it were1 its
 beauty would still pertain to it       
primarily as a revelation of the        
individual experience which it embodies4
 ,again1 by reason of the freedom from  
the particular conditions out of which  

it arises acquired by a work of art1 its
 individual meaning easily becomes      
typical1 so that it often serves as a   
universal under which individuals       
similar to those represented are        
subsumed--as when we speak of a ,faust  
or a ,hamlet2 nevertheless1 the adequate
 expression of the individual is at once
 the basis of its beauty and of its     
extended1 universalized significance4   
,it is when works of art are profoundly 
individual that we generalize their     
meaning4 ,in art the individual never   
sinks to the position of a mere specimen
 or example of a universal law4 ,the    
intellectualistic theory is partly true 
of symbolic art1 but not wholly1 for    
even there1 the individuality of the    
symbol counts4 ,and yet1 as we shall    
see1 there is another meaning of        
artistic truth1 which is legitimate4    
,aesthetic value1 therefore1 is not     
alone sensuous value or ethical or      
scientific or philosophical value4 ,a   
work of art may contain one or all of   

these values2 but they do not constitute
 its unique value as art4 ,the foregoing
 attempts to define the value of art    
fail because they renounce the idea of  
unique value1 substituting goodness1    
sensuous pleasure1 or truth-values found
 outside of art4 ,but the intrinsic     
value of art must be unique1 for it is  
the value of a unique activity--the free
 expression of experience in a form     
delightful and permanent1 mediating     
communication4 ,and this value we should
 be able to discover by seeking the     
difference which supervenes upon        
experience through expression of this   
kind4  ,apart from expression1          
experience may be vivid and satisfactory
 as we feel and think and dream and act2
 yet it is always in flux1 coming and   
going1 shifting and unaware4 ,but       
through expression it is arrested by    
being attached to a permanent form1 and 
there can be retained and surveyed4     
,experience1 which is otherwise fluent  
and chaotic1 or when orderly too busy   

with its ends to know itself1 receives  
through expression the fixed1 clear     
outlines of a thing1 and can be         
contemplated like a thing4 ,every one   
has verified the clarifying effect of   
expression upon ideas1 how they thus    
acquire definiteness and coherence1 so  
that even the mind that thinks them can 
hold them in review4 ,but this effect   
upon feeling is no less sure4 ,the      
unexpressed values of experience are    
vague strivings embedded in chaotic     
sensations and images2 these expression 
sorts and organizes by attaching them to
 definite ordered symbols4 ,even what is
 most intimate and fugitive becomes a   
stable object4 ,when put into patterned 
words1 the subtlest and deepest passions
 of a poet1 which before were felt in a 
dim and tangled fashion1 are brought out
 into the light of consciousness4 ,in   
music1 the most elusive moods1 by being 
embodied in ordered sounds1 remain no   
longer subterranean1 but are objectified
 and lifted into clearness4 ,in the     

novel or drama1 the writer is able not  
only to enact his visions of life in the
 imagination1 but1 by bodying them forth
 in external words and acts1 to possess 
them for reflection4 ,in painting1 all  
that is seen and wondered at in nature  
is seen with more delicacy and          
discrimination and felt with greater    
freedom2 or the vague fancies which a   
heated imagination paints upon the      
background of the mind come out more    
vivid and better controlled1 when put   
with care upon a canvas4  ,even ordinary
 expression1 of course1 arrests and     
clarifies experience1 enabling us to    
commune with ourselves2 but since its   
purpose is usually beyond itself1 this  
result is hasty and partial1 limited to 
what is needful for the practical end in
 view4 ,in art alone is this value      
complete4 ,for there1 life is           
intentionally held in the medium of     
expression1 put out into color and line 
and sound for the clear sight and       
contemplation of men4 ,the aim is just  

to create life upon which we may turn   
back and reflect4  ,this effect of      
artistic expression upon experience has 
usually been called intuition4 ,because 
of its connotation of mysterious        
knowledge1 intuition is not a wholly    
satisfactory word1 yet is probably as   
good as any for the purpose of denoting 
what artists and philosophers of art    
have had in mind and what we have been  
trying to describe4 ,other terms might  
also serve--vision1 sympathetic insight 
7sympathetic1 because it includes the   
value of experience2 insight1 because it
 involves possessing experience as a    
whole and ordered1 and as an object for 
reflection74 ,intuition is opposed1 on  
the one hand1 to crude unreflecting     
experience that never observes itself as
 a whole or attains to clearness and    
self-possession2 and1 on the other hand1
 to science1 which gives the elements   
and relations of an experience1 the     
classes to which it belongs1 but loses  
its uniqueness and its values4 ,science 

elaborates concepts of things1 gives us 
knowledge about things2 art presents us 
with the experience of things purified  
for contemplation4 ,scientific truth is 
the fidelity of a description to the    
external objects of experience2 artistic
 truth is sympathetic vision--the       
organization into clearness of          
experience itself4  ,compare1 for       
illustration1 life as we live it from   
day to day with our delineation of it as
 we recall it and tell it to an intimate
 companion2 and then compare that with  
the analysis and classification of it   
which some psychologist or sociologist  
might make4 ,or compare the kind of     
knowledge of human nature that we get   
from ,shakespeare or ,moliere with the  
sort that we get from the sciences4 ,in 
the one case1 knowledge attends a       
personal acquaintance with the          
experience1 a bringing of it home1 a    
feeling for its values1 a realization of
 the inner necessity of its elements2 in
 the other1 it is a mere set of         

concepts4 ,or finally1 compare the      
knowledge of the human figure contained 
in an anatomist's manual with a painting
 of it1 where we not only see it1 but in
 the imagination touch it and move with 
it1 in short live with it4  ,intuition  
is the effect of artistic appreciation  
no less than of artistic creation4 ,if  
the artist's expression of his feelings 
and ideas results in intuition1 our     
appreciation of his work must have the  
same value1 for appreciation is         
expression transferred from the artist  
to the spectator4 ,by means of the      
colors1 lines1 words1 tones that he     
makes1 the artist determines in us a    
process of expression similar to his4   
,out of our own minds we put into the   
sense-symbols he has woven ideas and    
feelings which provide the content and  
meaning he intends4 ,hence all aesthetic
 appreciation is self-expression4 ,this 
is evident in the case of the more      
lyrical types of art4 ,the lyric poem is
 appreciated by us as an expression of  

our own inner life2 music as an         
expression of our own slumberous or     
subconscious moods4 ,yet even the more  
objective types of art1 like the novel  
or the drama1 become forms of           
self-expression1 for we have to build up
 the worlds which they contain in our   
own imagination and emotion4 ,we have to
 live ourselves out in them2 we can     
understand them only in terms of our own
 life4  ,in the appreciation of the more
 objective types of art1 the personality
 expressed is not1 of course1 the actual
 personality2 but rather the self       
extended and expanded through the       
imagination4 ,the things which ,i seem  
to see and enjoy in the landscape       
picture ,i may have never really seen2  
,i may have never really moved through  
the open plain there1 as ,i seem to     
move1 toward the mountain in the        
distance4 ,the acts described in the    
novel or portrayed on the stage ,i do   
not really perform2 the opinions uttered
 by the persons ,i do not hold4 ,and    

yet1 in order to appreciate the picture1
 it must be as if ,i really saw the     
mountain and moved towards it2 in order 
to appreciate the novel or the play1 ,i 
must make the acts and opinions mine4   
,and this ,i can do2 for1 as it is a    
commonplace to note1 each one of us has 
within him capacities of action and     
emotion and thought unrealized--the     
actual self is only one of many that    
might have been--hundreds of possible   
lives slumber in our souls4 ,and no     
matter which of these lives we have     
chosen for our own1 or have had forced  
upon us by our fate1 we always retain a 
secret longing for all the others that  
have gone unfulfilled1 and an           
understanding born of longing4 ,some of 
these we imagine distinctly--those that 
we consciously rejected or that a turn  
of chance might have made ours2 but most
 of them we ourselves have not the power
 even to dream4 ,yet these too beckon us
 from behind1 and the artist provides us
 with their dream4 ,through art we      

secure an imaginative realization of    
interests and latent tendencies to act  
and think and feel which1 because they  
are contradictory among themselves or at
 variance with the conditions of our    
existence1 cannot find free play within 
our experience4 ,that same sort of      
imaginative enlarged expression of self 
that we get vicariously by participating
 in the life of our friends we get also 
from art4,footnote3 ,compare ,santayana3
 ,the ,sense of ,beauty1 p4 #ahf4  ,yet 
in appreciation1 as in creation1        
expression results in intuition4        
,appreciation is no mere imagining1     
transitory and lawless like a daydream4 
,the activity of the imagination is so  
organized in a permanent and perspicuous
 form that we not only live it1 but     
possess it as an object4 ,the activities
 engaged in building up the work of art 
in my own mind are not the whole of me2 
judgment remains free to watch and      
synthesize those that are being         
crystallized there4 ,in looking at a    

portrait1 for example1 the process of   
interpreting the life represented is    
ancillary to a total judgment of        
character4 ,in the novel or drama1 no   
matter with what abandon ,i put myself  
into the persons and situations1 the    
expression of them in outward words and 
acts1 and the organization which the    
artist has imposed upon them1 makes of  
them permanent objects for reflection1  
not mere modes of feeling and imagining 
to endure4 ,self-expression that does   
not attain to objectivity is incomplete 
as art4 ,even music and lyric poetry are
 something more than mere feeling4 ,in  
all genuine art1 experience takes on    
permanence and form--a synthesis1 a     
total meaning1 supervenes within the    
flux of impressions and ideas and moods1
 not excluding1 but embracing and       
controlling them4 ,that is intuition4   
,the insight into experience which art  
provides is the more valuable because it
 is communicable2 to possess it alone   
would be a good1 but to share it is     

better4 ,all values become enhanced when
 we add to them the joy of fellow       
feeling4 ,the universality of aesthetic 
expression carries with it the          
universality of aesthetic insight4      
,merely private and unutterable         
inspirations are not art4 ,beauty does  
for life what science does for          
intelligence2 even as the one           
universalizes thought1 so the other     
universalizes values4 ,in expressing    
himself1 the artist creates a form into 
which all similar experiences can be    
poured and out of which they can all be 
shared4 ,when1 for example1 we listen to
 the hymns of the church or read the    
poems of ,horace1 the significance of   
our experience is magnified because we  
find the feelings of millions there2 we 
are in unison with a vast company living
 and dead4 ,no thing of beauty is a     
private possession4 ,all artists feed on
 one another and into each experience of
 art has gone the mind-work of the ages4
  ,but there are two types of           

universality1 one by exclusion1 the     
other by inclusion4 ,communists like    
,tolstoy demand that art express only   
those feelings that are already common1 
the religious and moral2 they would     
exclude all values that have not become 
those of the race4 ,but this is to      
diminish the importance of art2 for it  
is art's privilege to make feelings     
common by providing a medium through    
which they can be communicated rather   
than merely to express them after they  
have become common4 ,understanding is   
more valuable when it encompasses the   
things that tend to separate and        
distinguish men than when it is limited 
to the things that unite them4 ,there is
 nothing so bizarre that art may not    
express it1 provided it be communicable4
  ,the life of the imagination1 which is
 the life of art1 is1 moreover1 the only
 life that we can have in common4       
,sharing life can never mean anything   
else than possessing the life of one    
another sympathetically4 ,actually to   

lead another's life would involve       
possessing his body1 occupying his      
position1 doing his work1 and so        
destroying him4 ,but through the        
sympathetic imagination we can penetrate
 his life and leave him in possession4  
,to do this thoroughly is possible1     
however1 only with the life of a very   
few people1 with intimates and friends4 
,with the mass1 we can share only ideal 
things like religion or patriotism1 but 
these also are matters of imagination4  
,now art enlarges the scope of this     
common life by creating a new imaginary 
world to which we can all belong1 where 
action1 enjoyment1 and experience do not
 involve competition or depend on       
possession and mastery4  ,finally1 the  
intuitions that art provides are        
relatively permanent4 ,art not only     
extends life and enables us to share it1
 but also preserves it4 ,existence has a
 leak in it1 as ,plato said2 experience 
flows in and then flows out forever4    
,the individual passes from one act to  

another1 from one phase of life to      
another1 childhood1 then youth1 then old
 age4 ,so the race2 one generation      
follows another1 and each type of       
civilization displaces a predecessor4   
,against this flux1 our belief in       
progress comforts us2 maturity is better
 than youth1 we think1 and each         
generation happier and more spiritual   
than the last4 ,yet the consolations of 
progress are partial4 ,for even if we   
always do go on to something better in  
the future1 the past had its unique     
value1 and that is lost ineluctably4    
,the present doubtless repeats much of  
the form of the past--the essential     
aspects of human nature remain the same2
 but the subtle1 distinctive bloom of   
each stage of personal life1 and of each
 period of the world's history1 is      
transient4 ,we cannot again become      
children1 nor can we possess again the  
strenuous freedom of the ,renaissance or
 the unclouded integrity of personality 
of the ,greeks4  ,in the life of the    

individual1 however1 the flux is not    
absolute2 for through memory we preserve
 something of the unique value of our   
past4 ,its vividness1 its fullness1 the 
sharp bite of its reality go2 but a     
subtilized essence remains4 ,and the    
worth that we attach to our personality 
depends largely upon it2 for the        
instinct of self- preservation          
penetrates the inner world2 we strive   
not only to maintain our physical       
existence in the present1 but our       
psychic past as well4 ,in conserving the
 values of the past through memory we   
find a satisfaction akin to that of     
protecting our lives from danger4       
,through memory we feel childhood's joys
 and youth's sweet love and manhood's   
triumphs still our own1 secure against  
the perils of oblivion4  ,now art does  
for the race what memory does for the   
individual4 ,only through expression can
 the past be preserved for all men and  
all time4 ,when the individual perishes1
 his memories go with him2 unless1      

therefore1 he puts them into a form     
where they can be taken up into the     
consciousness of other men1 they are    
lost forever4 ,and just as the          
individual seeks a vicarious            
self-preservation through identifying   
himself with his children and his race1 
and finds compensation for his own death
 in their continuance1 so he rejoices   
when he knows that men who come after   
will appreciate the values of his life4 
,we of the present feel ourselves       
enriched1 in turn1 as by a longer       
memory1 in adding to the active values  
of our own lives the remembered values  
of the past4 ,their desire to know      
themselves immortal is met by our desire
 to unite our lives with all our past4  
,art alone makes this possible4 ,history
 may tell us what men did1 but only the 
poet or other artist can make us relive 
the values of their experience4 ,for    
through expression they make their      
memories1 or their interpretations of   
other men's memories1 ours4 ,art is the 

memory of the race1 the conserver of its
 values4  ,the distinguishing           
characteristics of aesthetic expression 
observed by us--the pleasurableness of  
the medium1 the enhanced unity--serve   
intuition as that has been described by 
us4 ,one of the strongest objections    
against the theory of art as intuition1 
as that theory has been developed by    
,croce1 for example1 is that it provides
 no place for charm4 ,yet without charm 
there is no complete beauty1 and any    
interpretation of the facts of the      
aesthetic experience which neglects this
 element is surely inadequate4 ,but     
charm although an indispensable1 is not 
an independent1 factor in the experience
 of art2 for it serves intuition4 ,it   
does so in two ways4 ,the charm of the  
medium1 by drawing attention to itself1 
increases the objectivity of the        
experience expressed4 ,even when the    
experiences felt into color and line and
 sound are poignantly our own1 to live  
pleasantly in any one of these          

sensations is to live as an object to   
oneself1 the life sharing the           
externality of the medium--we put our   
life out there more readily when it is  
pleasant there4 ,and the charm of the   
medium serves intuition in another way4 
,when the activities of thought and     
feeling and imagination released by the 
work of art are delightful1 they become 
more delightful still if the medium in  
which they function is itself           
delightful4 ,to imagine    ,charm'd     
magic casements1 opening on the foam    
,of perilous seas1 in fairy lands       
forlorn  is a pleasure by itself1 but   
more pleasurable1 and therefore more    
spontaneous1 because of the melody of   
sound in which it is enveloped4 ,and    
when the activities expressed are not   
pleasant1 the expression of them in a   
delightful medium helps to induce us to 
make them our own and accept them       
notwithstanding4 ,the medium becomes a  
charming net to hold us1 and because of 
its allurements we give ourselves the   

more freely to its spirit within4 ,the  
following1 for example1 is not an       
agreeable thought3    ,to-morrow1 and   
to-morrow1 and to-morrow1   ,creeps in  
this petty pace from day to day1   ,to  
the last syllable of recorded time2     
,and all our yesterdays have lighted    
fools   ,the way to dusty death4  ,yet  
the expression of this thought is       
pleasant1 among other reasons1 because  
of the rhythmic charm of language4 ,we  
shall come back to this fact in our     
chapter on ,the ,problem of ,evil in    
,aesthetics4 ,there is no contradiction 
between the fair form of a work of art  
and its content1 however repellent4 ,for
 if we value the sympathetic knowledge  
of life1 we shall be glad of any means  
impelling us to undertake what alone can
 give this--a friendly dwelling with    
life itself4 ,thus the decorative and   
the expressive functions of art are     
reconciled--pleasure and intuition meet4
  ,just as from time to time pleasure in
 sensation has been one-sidedly thought 

to be the purpose of art1 so likewise   
the unity characteristic of beautiful   
things4 ,indeed1 beauty and order have  
become almost synonymous in popular     
thought4 ,and1 to be sure1 this unity1  
as we have already remarked1 has its own
 value2 the mind delights in order just 
for its own sake1 and the artist1 who is
 bent on making something worthful on   
its own account1 strives to develop it  
for that reason4 ,and yet unity is no   
more independent of expression and      
intuition than sensation is2 it too     
enters into their service4 ,many forms  
of unity in works of art are themselves 
media of expression--the simplest and   
most striking example is perhaps the    
rhythmical ordering of sounds in poetry 
and music1 the emotional value of which 
everybody appreciates4 ,in a later      
chapter1 ,i shall try to show that the  
same is true of harmony and balance4 ,in
 another way1 also1 unity serves        
intuition4 ,for the existence of order  
in an experience is indispensable to    

that wholeness of view1 that mastery in 
the mind1 which is half of intuition4   
,the merely various1 the chaotic1 the   
disorganized1 cannot be grasped or      
understood4 ,in order that an experience
 may be understood1 its items must be   
strung together by some principle in    
terms of which they may demand each     
other and constitute a whole4           
,organization is understanding4 ,every  
work of art1 every beautiful thing1 is  
organized1 and1 as we have observed1    
organized not merely in the thought or  
other meaning expressed1 but throughout1
 in the sensuous medium as well4  ,so   
far the value which we have discovered  
in artistic expression has been that of 
delightful and orderly sympathetic      
vision4 ,this is supplemented from still
 another source of value4 ,through      
artistic expression pent-up emotions    
find a welcome release4 ,no matter how  
poignant be the experience expressed1   
the weight1 the sting of it disappears  
through expression4 ,for through        

expression1 as we have seen1 the        
experience is drawn from the dark depths
 of the self to the clear and orderly   
surface of the work of art2 the emotions
 that weighed are lifted out and up into
 color and line and sound1 where the    
mind can view and master them4 ,mere    
life gives place to the contemplation of
 life2 and contemplation imposes on life
 some of the calm that is its own4 ,the 
most violent and unruly passions may be 
the material of art1 but once they are  
put into artistic form they are mastered
 and refined4 ,there is an art of       
passion1 but no passionate art          
7,schiller74 ,through expression1 the   
repression1 the obstruction of feeling  
is broken down2 the mere effort to find 
and elaborate a fitting artistic form   
for the material diverts the attention  
and provides other occupation for the   
mind2 an opportunity is given to reflect
 upon and understand the experience1    
bringing it somehow into harmony with   
one's total life1--through all these    

means procuring relief4 ,it is          
impossible to cite the famous passage   
from ,goethe's ,poetry and ,truth too   
often3--    ,and thus began that bent of
 mind from which ,i could not   deviate 
my whole life through2 namely1 that of  
turning into   an image1 into a poem1   
everything that delighted or troubled   
me1 or otherwise occupied my attention1 
and of coming to   some certain         
understanding with myself thereupon4444 
,all the works therefore that have been 
published by me are   only fragments of 
one great confession4  ,footnote3       
,english translation1 edited by ,parke  
,godwin1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4#ff4  ,this effect 
of artistic expression belongs1 of      
course1 to other forms of expression4   
,every confession1 every confidential   
outpouring of emotion1 is an example4   
,we have all verified the truth that to 
formulate feeling is to be free with    
reference to it2 not that we thereby get
 rid of it1 but that we are able to look
 it in the face1 and find some place for

 it in our world where we can live on   
good terms with it4 ,the greatest       
difficulty in bearing with any          
disappointment or sorrow comes not from 
the thing itself--for after all we have 
other things to live for--but from its  
effect upon the presuppositions1 so to  
speak1 of our entire existence4 ,the    
mind has an unconscious set of axioms or
 postulates which it assumes in the     
process of living2 now anything that    
seems to contradict these1 as a great   
calamity does1 by destroying the logic  
of life1 makes existence seem           
meaningless and corrupts that faith in  
life which is the spring of action4 ,in 
order for the health of the mind to be  
restored1 the contradictory fact must be
 somehow reconciled with the mind's     
presuppositions1 and the rationality of 
existence reaffirmed4 ,but an           
indispensable preliminary to this is    
that we should clearly envisage and     
reflect upon the fact1 viewing it in its
 larger relations1 where it will lose   

its overwhelming significance4 ,now that
 is what expression1 by stabilizing and 
clarifying experience1 enables us to do4
  ,a great many works of art besides    
,goethe's1 not merely of lyric poetry1  
but also of the novel and drama1 among  
them some of the greatest1 like the     
,divine ,comedy1 so far as they spring  
intimately from the life of the artist1 
are fragments of a great confession1 and
 have had the sanitary value of a       
confession for their creators4 ,it is   
not always possible to trace the        
personal feelings and motives lying     
behind the artist's fictions2 for the   
suffering soul covers its pains with    
subtle disguises2 yet even when we do   
not know them1 we can divine them4 ,we  
are certain1 for example1 that          
,watteau's gay pictured visions were the
 projection--and confession--of his own 
disappointed dreams4 ,the great         
advantage of art over ordinary          
expression1 in this respect1 is its     
universality4 ,art is the confessional  

of the race4 ,the artist provides a     
medium through which all men can confess
 themselves and heal their souls4 ,in   
making the artist's expression ours1 we 
find an equal relief4 ,who does not feel
 a revival of some old or present       
despair of his own when he reads3--     
,un grand sommeil noir   ,tombe sur ma  
vie2   ,dormez toute espoir1   ,dormez  
toute envie6    ,je ne vois plus rien1  
,je perds la memoire   ,du mal et du    
bien4444   ,oh1 la triste histoire6  yet
 who does not at the same time          
experience its assuagement8 ,and this   
effect is not confined to lyrical art1  
for so far as1 in novel and drama1 we   
put ourselves in the place of the       
dramatis persona1 we can pour our own   
emotional experiences into them and     
through them find relief for ourselves4 
,just so1 ,aristotle recognized the     
cathartic or healing influence of art1  
both in music and the drama--through    
pity and fear effecting the proper      
purgation of these emotions4 ,footnote3 

,poetics1 #f1 #b4 ,politics1 #e1 #g4    
,the delightsomeness of the work of art 
and its self-sufficient freedom1        
standing in contrast with the drab or   
difficult realities of nature and       
personal striving1 serve also to make of
 beauty a consoler and healer4 ,in place
 of a confused medley of sense          
impressions1 art offers orderly and     
pleasant colors or sounds2 instead of a 
real life of duties hard to fulfill and 
ambitions painfully accomplished1 art   
provides an imagined life which1 while  
imitating and thus preserving the       
interest of real life1 remains free from
 its hazards and burdens4 ,i would not  
base the value of art on the contrast   
between art and life2 yet it is         
unlikely1 ,i think1 if life were not so 
bound and disordered1 that art would    
seem so free and perfect2 and it is     
often true that those who suffer and    
struggle most love art best4 ,the unity 
of the work of art1 in which each       
element suggests another within its     

world1 keeping you there and shutting   
you out momentarily from the real world 
to which you must presently return1 and 
the sensuous charm of the medium1       
fascinating your eyes and ears1 bring   
forgetfulness and a temporary release4  
,to sum the results of the last two     
chapters4 ,art is expression1 not of    
mere things or ideas1 but of concrete   
experience with its values1 and for its 
own sake4 ,it is experience held in a   
delightful1 highly organized sensuous   
medium1 and objectified there for       
communication and reflection4 ,its value
 is in the sympathetic mastery and      
preservation of life in the mind4       
,,chapter ,,iv  ,,the ,,analysis ,,of   
,,the ,,aesthetic ,,experience3 ,,the   
,,elements ,,of ,,the ,,experience      
,thus far we have sought to define art1 
to form a concrete idea of the          
experience of art1 and to place it in   
its relations to other facts4 ,we shall 
now pass from synthetic definition to   
psychological analysis4 ,we want to pick

 out the elements of mind entering into 
the experience of art and exhibit their 
characteristic relations4 ,in the       
present chapter we shall concern        
ourselves chiefly with the elements1    
leaving the study of most of the        
problems of structure to the following  
chapter4  ,every experience of art      
,footnote3 ,throughout this discussion1 
,i use experience of art1 aesthetic     
experience1 and beauty with the same    
meaning4 contains1 in the first place1  
the sensations which are the media of   
expression4 ,in a painting1 for example1
 there are colors2 in a piece of music1 
tones2 in a poem1 word-sounds4 ,to this 
material1 secondly1 are attached vague  
feelings4 ,it is characteristic of      
aesthetic expressions1 as we have       
observed1 that their media1 quite apart 
from anything that they may mean or     
represent1 are expressive of moods--the 
colors of a painting have a stimmung1 so
 have tones and words1 when rhythmically
 composed4 ,the simplest aesthetic      

experiences1 like the beauty of single  
musical tones or colors1 are of no      
greater complexity2 yet almost all works
 of art contain further elements2 for as
 a rule the sensations do not exist for 
their own sakes alone1 but possess a    
function1 to represent things4 ,the     
colors of a landscape painting are not  
only interesting to us as beautiful     
colors1 but as symbols of a landscape2  
the words of a ballad charm and         
stimulate us not only through their     
music1 but because of actions or events 
which they bring before the mind4 ,this 
involves1 psychologically speaking1 that
 certain ideas--of trees and clouds in  
the painting1 of men and their deeds in 
the poem--are associated to the sense   
elements and constitute their meaning4  
,such ideas or meanings are the third   
class of elements in the aesthetic      
experience4 ,but these ideas1 in their  
turn1 also arouse emotions1 only not of 
the indefinite sort which belong to the 
sense elements1 but definite1 like the  

emotions aroused by things and events in
 real life4 ,for example1 ,rembrandt's  
,man with the ,gold ,helmet will not    
only move us in a vague way through the 
character and rhythm of its lines and   
colors1 but will1 in addition1 stimulate
 sentiments of respect and veneration1  
similar to those that we should feel if 
the old warrior were himself before us4 
,in such definite feelings we have1     
then1 a fourth class of mental elements4
 ,a fifth class will make our list      
complete4 ,it consists of images from   
the various sense departments--sight1   
hearing1 taste1 smell1 temperature1     
movement--which arise in connection with
 the ideas or meanings1 making them     
concrete and full4 ,for example1 some of
 the colors in a landscape painting will
 not only give us the idea that there is
 sunlight there1 but will also arouse   
faint images of warmth1 which will make 
the idea more vivid2 other colors1      
representing the clouds1 will produce   
faint sensations of softness2 still     

others1 representing flowers1 may       
produce faint odors4  ,let us study     
sensation as an element in beauty1      
first4 ,sensation is the door through   
which we enter into the experience of   
beauty2 and1 again1 it is the foundation
 upon which the whole structure rests4  
,without feeling for the values of      
sensation1 men may be sympathetic and   
intelligent1 but they cannot be lovers  
of the beautiful4 ,they may1 for        
example1 appreciate the profound or     
interesting ideas in poetry1 but unless 
they can connect them with the          
rhythm-values of the sounds of the      
words1 they have only an intellectual or
 emotional1 not an aesthetic experience4
  ,yet1 despite the omnipresence and    
supreme worth of sensation in beauty1   
not all kinds are equally fit for       
entrance into the experience4 ,from the 
time of ,plato1 who writes of fair      
sights and sounds only1 vision and      
hearing have been recognized as the     
preeminently aesthetic senses4 ,these   

senses provide the basis for all the    
arts--music and poetry are arts of      
sound2 painting1 sculpture1 and         
architecture are arts of vision4 ,and   
there are good reasons for their special
 fitness4 ,most cogent of all is the    
fact that vision and hearing are the    
natural media of expression2 sounds1 be 
they words or musical tones1 convey     
thoughts and feelings2 so do visual     
sensations--the facial expression or    
gesture seen communicates the inner life
 of the speaker2 and even abstract      
colors and space-forms1 like red and the
 circle1 have independent feeling-tones4
 ,a taste or a temperature sensation may
 be pleasant or unpleasant1 but has no  
meaning1 either by itself1 as a color or
 a tone has1 or through association1 as 
a word has4 ,it has no connection with  
the life of feeling or of thought4 ,its 
chief significance is practical--sweet  
invites to eating1 cold impels to the   
seeking of a warm shelter1 touch is a   
preliminary to grasping4 ,all the       

so-called lower senses are bound up with
 instincts and actions4 ,of course      
sights and sounds have also a           
significance for instinct--the color and
 form and voice of the individual of the
 opposite sex1 for example4 ,but1 before
 acting on the prompting of instinct1   
the lover may pause and enjoy the       
appealing color and form2 he may connect
 his feelings with them and hold on to  
and delight in the resulting            
experience--an emotional appreciation of
 the object may intervene between the   
stimulus and the appropriate action1 and
 even supplant it4 ,in this way1 vision 
and hearing may free themselves from the
 merely practical and become autonomous 
embodiments of feeling4 ,the distance   
between the seen or heard object and the
 body is important4 ,the objects of     
touch and taste1 on the other hand1 have
 to be brought into contact with the    
body2 the practical reaction then       
follows2 there is no time during which  
it may be suspended4  ,important also1  

especially for the beauty of art1 is our
 greater power to control sensations of 
vision and hearing4 ,only colors and    
sounds can be woven into complex and    
stable wholes4 ,tastes and odors1 when  
produced simultaneously or in           
succession1 do not keep their           
distinctness as colors and sounds do1   
but blur and interfere with each other4 
,no one1 however ingenious1 could       
construct a symphony of odors or a      
picture of tastes4 ,nevertheless1 the   
possibility of controlling colors and   
sounds and of creating stable and public
 objects out of them1 is only a         
secondary reason for their aesthetic    
fitness4 ,even if one could construct   
instruments for the orderly production  
of tastes and odors--and simple         
instruments of this kind have been      
devised--one could not make works of art
 out of them2 for a succession of such  
sensations would express nothing2 they  
would still be utterly without meaning4 
,the fundamental reason for the         

superiority of sights and sounds is     
their expressiveness1 their connection  
with the life of feeling and thought4   
,they take root in the total self2      
whereas the other elements remain1 for  
the most part1 on the surface4  ,under  
favorable conditions1 however1 all      
sensations may enter into the sthetic   
experience4 ,despite the close          
connection between the lower senses and 
the impulses serving practical life1    
there is a certain disinterestedness in 
all pleasant sensations4 ,fine wines and
 perfumes offer tastes and odors which  
are sought and enjoyed apart from the   
satisfaction of hunger2 in dancing1     
movement sensations are enjoyed for     
their own sake2 in the bath1 heat and   
cold4 ,but1 as we have seen1 it is not  
sufficient for a sensation to be free   
from practical ends in order to become  
aesthetic2 it must be connected with the
 larger background of feeling2 it must  
be expressive4 ,now1 under certain      
circumstances and in particular cases1  

this may occur1 even in the instance of 
the lower senses4 ,the perfume of       
flowers1 of roses and of violets1 has a 
strong emotional appeal2 it is their    
soul as the poets say4 ,the odor of     
incense in a cathedral may be an        
important element in devotion1 fusing   
with the music and the architecture4 ,or
 recall the odor of wet earth and       
reviving vegetation during a walk in the
 woods on a spring morning4 ,even       
sensations of taste may become          
aesthetic4 ,an oft-cited example is the 
taste of wine on a ,rhine steamer4      
,guyau1 the ,french poet-philosopher1   
mentions the taste of milk after a hard 
climb in the ,pyrenees4 ,footnote3 ,les 
,problemes de l'esthetique              
contemporaine1 #hme edition1 p4 #fc4 ,a 
drink of water from a clear spring would
 serve equally well as an example       
familiar to all4 ,the warmth of a fire1 
of sunlight1 of a cozy room1 or the cold
 of a star-lit winter night have an     
emotional significance almost1 if not   

quite1 equal to that of the visual      
sensations from these objects4 ,touch   
seems to be irretrievably bound up with 
grasping and using1 but the touch of a  
well-loved person may be a free and     
glowing experience1 sharing with sight  
in beauty4 ,the movement sensations     
during a run in the open air or in      
dancing are not only free from all      
practical purpose1 but are elements in  
the total animation4 ,and other examples
 will come to the mind of every reader4 
,footnote3 ,compare ,volkelt3 ,system   
der ,aesthetik1 ,bd4 ,i1 ,zweites       
,capitel1 ,s4 #ib4  ,as our             
illustrations show1 the lower senses    
enter into the beauty of nature only2   
they do not enter into the beauty of    
art4 ,their beauty is therefore vague   
and accidental4 ,it usually depends1    
moreover1 upon some support from vision1
 with the beauty of which it fuses4     
,apart from the picturesque surroundings
 seen1 the mountain milk and the ,rhine 
wine would lose much of their beauty2   

the warmth of sunlight or of fire1      
without the brightness of these objects1
 the odor of flowers without their form 
and color1 would be of small aesthetic  
worth4 ,through connection with vision  
the lower senses acquire something of   
its permanence and independence4 ,people
 differ greatly in their capacity to    
render the lower senses aesthetic2 it is
 essentially a matter of refinement1 of 
power to free them from their natural   
root in the practical and instinctive1  
and lift them into the higher region of 
sentiment4 ,but every kind of sensation1
 however low1 may become beautiful2 this
 is not to degrade beauty1 but to       
ennoble sensation4  ,from a             
psychological standpoint1 sensation is  
the datum of the aesthetic experience1  
the first thing there1 while its power  
to express depends upon a further       
process which links it up with thoughts 
and feelings4 ,we must inquire1         
therefore1 how this linkage takes       
place--how1 for example1 it comes about 

that the colors of a painting are       
something more than mere colors1 being1 
in addition1 embodiments of trees and   
sky and foliage1 and of liveliness and  
gayety and other feelings appropriate to
 a spring landscape4 ,let us consider   
the linkage with feeling first4  ,there 
are two characteristics of aesthetic    
feeling in its relation to sensations   
and ideas which must be taken into      
account in any explanation2 its         
objectification in them and the         
universality of this connection4        
,expression is embodiment4 ,we find     
gayety in the colors of the painting1   
joy in the musical tones1 happiness in  
the pictured face1 tenderness in the    
sculptured pose4 ,we hear the feeling in
 the sounds and see it in the lines and 
colors4 ,the happiness seems to belong  
to the face1 the joy to the tones1 in   
the same simple and direct fashion as   
the shape of the one or the pitch of the
 others4 ,the feelings have become true 
attributes4 ,it is only by analysis that

 we pick them out1 separate them from   
the other elements of idea or sensation 
in the whole1 and then1 for the purpose 
of scientific explanation1 inquire how  
they came to be connected4 ,and this    
connection is not one that depends upon 
the accidents of personal experience4   
,it is not1 for example1 like the       
emotional significance that the sound of
 the voice of the loved one has for the 
lover1 which even he may some day cease 
to feel1 and which other men do not feel
 at all4 ,it is rather typified by the  
emotional value of a melody1 which1     
through psychological processes common  
to all men1 becomes a universal language
 of feeling4 ,the work of art is a      
communicable1 not a private expression4 
,as we have observed1 the elements of   
feeling in the aesthetic experience are 
of two broad kinds--either vague1 when  
directly linked with the sensuous       
medium1 or else definite1 when this     
linkage is mediated by ideas through    
which the medium is given content and   

meaning4 ,the former kind1 which ,i     
shall consider first1 comprises all     
cases of the emotional expressiveness of
 the medium itself1--of tones and       
word-sounds and their rhythms and       
patterns1 of colors and lines and       
space-forms and their designs4 ,the     
detailed study of this expressiveness ,i
 shall leave to the chapters on the     
arts2 here ,i wish merely to indicate   
the kind of psychological process       
involved4  ,in many cases the           
psychological principle of association  
operates4 ,the tender expressiveness of 
certain curved lines1 like those of the 
,greek amphora1 for example1 is due1    
partially at least1 to association with 
lines of the human body1 with which     
normally this feeling is associated4    
,the associated object1 together with   
its feeling tone1 are sufficiently      
common to the experience of all men to  
account for the universality of the     
emotion1 and the isolation of the       
stimulus--abstract line--from its usual 

context of color and bulk accounts for  
the vagueness4 ,sometimes1 on the other 
hand1 expressiveness seems to be due to 
a direct psychological relation between 
the sense-stimulus and the emotion4     
,this is almost certainly the case with 
rhythms1 and1 as ,i shall argue in the  
chapters on painting and music1 is at   
least partially true of colors and      
tones4 ,the expressiveness is at once   
too immediate and too universal to      
depend upon association with definite   
things and events1 or personal1         
emotional crises4 ,a rhythm1 for        
example1 may be exciting the first time 
it is heard2 one does not have to wait  
to hear it at a battle-charge2 a melody 
may be sad even when one has never heard
 it sung by chance at parting4 ,of      
course the fact that associations are   
not remembered is no proof that they do 
not operate2 but it is difficult to     
conceive of any which could operate in  
these cases4 ,for this reason1 ,i think1
 we must suppose that certain           

sense-stimuli and combinations of       
stimuli not only produce in the sensory 
areas of the brain the appropriate      
sensations1 but that their effects are  
prolonged1 overflowing into the motor   
channels and there causing a total      
reaction of the organism1 the conscious 
aspect of which is a vague feeling4 ,the
 organic resonance is too slight and    
diffuse to produce a true emotion2 hence
 only a mood results4  ,in all the      
representative arts the vague           
expressiveness of the medium is         
reinforced through emotions aroused by  
ideas which interpret sensation as an   
element of a thing4 ,the green in the   
painting is not only green1 but green of
 the sea2 the red is not only red1 but  
red of the sky2 the curved line is not a
 mere curve1 it is the outline of a     
wave4 ,the totality of colors and lines 
is not a mere color and line            
composition1 but a marine landscape4    
,the feeling tones of the elements of   
this complex and of the complex itself  

are not only those of the colors and    
lines as such1 but of the interpretative
 ideas as well2 which in turn are the   
same as those of the corresponding real 
things4 ,the psychological process is   
here simple enough4 ,the feeling tone of
 the sea is carried by the idea of the  
sea1 which now fuses with the green     
color and wavy lines of the painting4   
,but in order fully to explain the      
phenomena of aesthetic expression1 it is
 not sufficient to show how the         
connection between feeling and sensation
 and idea takes place2 it is necessary1 
in addition1 to explain the nature of   
this connection4 ,the feeling is not    
experienced by us as what it is--our    
reaction to the sensations or           
represented objects--but rather as an   
objective quality of them4 ,the sounds  
are sad1 the curve tender1 the sea      
placid and reposeful4 ,why is this8     
,the explanation is1 ,i think1 as       
follows4 ,despite their usual           
subjectivity1 feelings tend to be       

located in the objective world whenever 
they are in conflict with or not        
directly rooted in the personal life or 
character of the individual4 ,in        
listening to music1 for example1        
feelings of despair and terror may be   
aroused in me who am perhaps secure and 
happy2 and even if the feelings are     
joyous1 they are not occasioned by any  
piece of personal good fortune--my      
situation in life is the same now as    
before4 ,hence1 finding no lodgment in  
the ego1 and having to exist somewhere1 
they seek a domicile in the sounds      
evoking them4 ,and1 in general1 works of
 art arouse but offer no personal       
occasions for feeling1 and therefore    
absorb it into themselves4  ,the process
 of objectification may1 however1 go    
further4 ,it often happens in the       
aesthetic experience that feelings are  
not objectified alone1 but carry with   
them the idea of the self--,i come to   
feel myself as joyous or despairing in  
the sounds4 ,the extent to which the    

idea of the self thus follows the       
objectified feelings depends largely    
upon the amount of their reverberation  
throughout the organism4 ,when this is  
small1 and the feelings are vague and   
tenuous1 as in color appreciation1 there
 is little or no definite projection of 
the idea of the self2 when1 on the other
 hand1 it is large and the emotions are 
strong1 as oftentimes in music1 where   
breathing1 circulation1 hand and foot   
are affected1 then ,i myself seem to be 
there1--striving1 pursuing1 struggling1 
in the sounds4 ,i am where my body is4  
,the projection of the idea of the self 
is facilitated for the same reason when 
the body is actually employed in the    
creation of the work of art1 as in      
singing and acting4 ,it also occurs more
 readily when the life expressed in the 
work of art is akin to the spectator's4 
,thus1 an emotional and suggestible     
woman1 in watching a fine performance of
 ,magda1 inevitably puts herself in the 
place of the heroine if she has herself 

lived through a similar experience4 ,but
 when the life expressed is strikingly  
foreign to our own1 the projection of   
the idea of self is more difficult2 the 
duality between subject and object tends
 to remain4  ,these phenomena have      
excited special attention when1 as in   
painting and sculpture and the drama1 a 
human being is represented4 ,suppose1   
for example1 ,i see a statue of a runner
 ready to start4 ,i not only see the    
form and color of the marble and        
recognize them as a man's2 ,i also feel 
emotions of excitement1 tension1 and    
expectation such as ,i should myself    
feel were ,i too posed and waiting to   
run a race4 ,and these emotions ,i      
experience as the man's1 and as his1 not
 in a vague way1 but as definitely      
present in his sculptured form1 even in 
particular parts of it1--in the swelling
 chest and tightened limbs4 ,or consider
 another case4 ,suppose ,i see ,franz   
,hals' ,laughing ,cavalier4 ,i feel     
jollity in the face1 as the cavalier's4 

,yet in both cases ,i may feel the      
emotions as also my own--as if ,i too   
were about to run or were laughing4 ,and
 the projection of the idea of the self 
will occur most readily if ,i am myself 
a runner or a jolly person4 ,in both    
instances1 moreover1 the process will be
 mediated by impulses to movements that 
are the normal accompaniments of the    
emotions in question4 ,if ,i observe    
myself carefully1 ,i may find that my   
own chest is tending to swell and my own
 limbs to tighten1 in imitation of the  
runner's1 or my own pupils to dilate and
 the muscles of my face to wrinkle and  
to part1 in imitation of the            
,dutchman's4 ,and these                 
movement-impulses ,i objectify4 ,i not  
only see jollity in the face1 but       
laughter as well2 in the statue1 not    
only excitement1 but running4 ,and      
again--where my body is1 there am ,i2 so
 ,i am jolly with the cavalier and      
excited with the runner4 ,the psychology
 of this process is simple enough4 ,in  

my experience there is a plain          
connection between the sight of a       
movement and sensations attendant upon  
movement1 and further1 a connection     
between some of these movements1 namely1
 the expressive movements1 and the      
emotions which they express4 ,in        
accordance with the law of association  
by contiguity1 whenever any one of      
several mental elements usually         
connected together is present in the    
mind1 the others tend to arise also4 ,so
 here4 ,seeing the semblance of tight   
muscles and a smiling face1 ,i feel the 
emotions which have these visual        
associates1 experience the correlated   
movement-sensations1 project them all   
into the object which initiated the     
process4  ,in recent years1 a great deal
 has been made of these                 
movement-sensations in explaining       
aesthetic feeling4 ,footnote3 ,see the  
discussions in ,lee and ,thompson3      
,beauty and ,ugliness4 ,yet in the case 
of all people who are not strongly of   

the motor type1 people in whose mental  
make-up movement plays a minor part in  
comparison with vision and other        
sensations1 they play a secondary role1 
or even hardly any role at all4 ,most   
spectators1 indeed1 instead of actually 
making slight movements imitative of the
 movements seen or represented1 and     
experiencing the corresponding          
sensations1 make no movements at all and
 simply experience movement images2 this
 substitution of image for movement     
probably occurs in the minds of all     
except the most imitative4 ,most people1
 even of the motor type1 do not smile   
when they see the ,laughing ,cavalier or
 start to run when they see the statue  
of the runner2 careful observation of   
themselves would disclose only faint    
movement images which seem to play about
 their lips or limbs--mere images of    
movement have supplanted movements4 ,and
 many visualists would not find any     
images at all4 ,however1 although the   
mistake has been committed by some      

investigators of supposing that         
everybody experiences movement because  
they themselves1 being of the motor     
type1 do1 it cannot be denied1 ,i think1
 that such people attain to a vividness 
of aesthetic living not reached by      
others4 ,they appreciate beauty with    
their bodies as well as with their      
souls4 ,and in their case too1 as has   
been shown1 aesthetic appreciation is   
more strongly histrionic--they not only 
put themselves into the work of art1 but
 the idea of themselves as well4        
,following the ,german school of        
einfuehlung1 ,i have insisted throughout
 this discussion on the importance of   
feeling in the aesthetic experience2 yet
 ,i do not think the voice of those     
people can be neglected who claim that  
their experience with works of art is of
 slight or no emotional intensity4      
,there are people who would report that 
they feel no jollity when they see the  
,laughing ,cavalier1 or anguish when    
they read the ,ugolino ,canto in the    

,inferno2 yet such people often have a  
highly developed aesthetic taste4 ,how  
can this difference be accounted for8   
,starting with the emotional            
appreciation of art as primary1 we can  
account for it in this wise4 ,it is a   
familiar phenomenon in the mental life  
for a concept or idea of an emotional   
experience to take the place of that    
experience4 ,what man has not rejoiced  
when the simple and cold judgment1 ,i   
suffered then1 has come to supplant a   
recurring torment8 ,or who that has     
lived constantly with a sick person has 
not observed how1 looking on the face of
 pain1 inevitably the mere comment1 he  
is in distress1 comes to supplant the   
liveliest sympathetic thrill8 ,there are
 many reasons for this4 ,the idea or    
judgment is a less taxing thing than an 
emotion1 and so is substituted for it in
 the mind1 which everywhere seeks       
economy of effort4 ,the idea is also    
more efficient from a practical point of
 view1 because it leads directly to     

action and does not divert and waste    
energy in diffused and useless          
movements4 ,the physician simply        
recognizes the states of mind of his    
patients1 he does not sympathize with   
them4 ,finally our own reactions to an  
objectified emotion may interfere with  
the emotion4 ,if1 for example1 we see an
 angry man1 our own fear of him may     
entirely supplant our sympathetic       
feeling of his anger4 ,in general1 in   
our dealings with our fellow men1 we are
 too busy with our attitudes and plans  
with reference to them1 and too much    
concerned with economizing our emotional
 energy1 to get a sympathetic intuition 
of their inner life1 and so are content 
with an intellectual recognition of it4 
,now this habit of substituting the more
 rapid and economical process of        
judgment for the longer and more taxing 
one of sympathy1 is carried over into   
the world of art4  ,nevertheless1 the   
world of art is a region especially     
fitted for einfuehlung4 ,for there the  

need for quick action1 which in life    
tends to syncopate emotion1 does not    
exist4 ,the characteristic attitude of  
art is leisurely absorption in an       
object1 giving time for all the         
possibilities of feeling or other       
experience to develop4 ,moreover1 in art
 there is not the same saving need for  
the substitution of idea for feeling as 
in real life4 ,for in art1 feeling is   
not so strong as in life2 even when the 
artist expresses his own personal       
experience1 he lightens its emotional   
burden through expression1 and we1 when 
we make his experience ours1 find a     
similar relief4 ,the emotion is genuine1
 only weakened in intensity4 ,in other  
cases1 where the artist constructs a    
world of fictitious characters and      
events1 our knowledge that they are not 
real suffices to diminish the intensity 
of the emotions aroused4 ,for emotions  
have the practical function of inciting 
to action1 and when action is           
impossible1 as in the purely ideal world

 of the artist1 they cannot keep their  
natural intensity4 ,we cannot feel so   
strongly over the mere idea of an event 
as over a real event4 ,were it          
otherwise1 who could stand the strain of
 ,hamlet or ,othello8  ,throughout this 
discussion of the elements of the       
experience of art1 ,i have used the     
terms emotion and feeling with an       
inclusive meaning1 to cover impulses as 
well as feelings in the narrower sense4 
,for in the aesthetic experience1 there 
are impulses--impulses to move when     
action is represented in picture and    
statue1 impulses to act1 as when1 in    
watching a play1 we put ourselves in the
 place of the persons4 ,but such        
impulses are always checked through the 
realization that they come from sources 
unrelated to our purposes1 and fail to  
get the reenforcement or consent of the 
total self necessary to action4 ,in     
reading or singing the ,marseillaise1 to
 cite an example from poetry1 ,i        
experience all kinds of impulses--to    

shoulder a musket1 to march1 to         
kill--but no one of them is carried out4
 ,now an inhibited impulse is scarcely  
distinguishable from an emotion4 ,with  
few exceptions1 the impulses in art do  
not issue in resolves1 decisions1       
determinations to act2 or1 if they do1  
the determinations refer to acts to be  
executed in the future1 in an experience
 distinct and remote from the           
sthetic--the ,marseillaise has doubtless
 produced such resolutions in the minds 
of ,frenchmen2 and there is much art    
that is productive in that way1         
providing the birth in beauty of which  
,plato wrote4 ,footnote3 ,in the        
,symposium4 ,in art1 impulses result in 
immediate action only when action is    
itself the medium of expression1 as in  
the dance1 where impulses to movement   
pass over into motion4 ,of course such  
actions still remain aesthetic since    
they serve no practical end and are     
valued for themselves4  ,if the question
 were raised1 which is more fundamental 

in the aesthetic experience1 idea or    
emotion8 the answer would have to be1   
emotion4 ,for there exists at least one 
great art where no explicit ideas are   
present1 music1 whereas art without     
emotion does not exist4 ,take away the  
emotional content from expression and   
you get either a mere play of           
sensations1 like fireworks1 or else     
pseudo-science1 like the modern         
naturalistic play4 ,however1 the supreme
 importance of the idea in art cannot be
 denied4 ,every complex work of art1    
save music1 is an expression of ideas as
 well as of feelings1 and even in music 
there exists the tendency for feeling to
 seek definition in ideas--do we not say
 a musical idea8 ,and do we not find the
 masters of so abstract an art as       
ornament employing their materials to   
represent symbolic conceptions8 ,i wish 
to call the attention of the reader to  
certain very general considerations     
touching the nature and function of     
ideas in the aesthetic experience1      

leaving the study of the concrete       
problems to the more special chapters4  
,first1 the relation of the idea to the 
sense medium of the expression4 ,here1  
,i think1 we find something comparable  
to the process of einfuehlung4 ,for in  
art1 ideas1 like feelings1 are          
objectified in sensation4 ,only         
sensations are given2 out of the mind   
come ideas through which the former are 
interpreted and made into the semblance 
of things4 ,consider1 for example1      
,rembrandt's ,night-,watch4 ,a festal   
mood is there in the golds and reds1 and
 gloom in the blacks2 but there also are
 the men and drums and arms4 ,if we     
wished to push the analogy with         
einfuehlung1 we might coin a            
corresponding term--einmeinung1         
inmeaning4 ,in all the representative   
arts1 this is a process of equal        
importance with infeeling2 for the      
artist strives just as much to realize  
his ideas of objects in the sense       
material of his art as to put his moods 

there4  ,when1 moreover1 we consider    
that the expression of the more complex 
and definite emotions is dependent upon 
the expression of ideas of nature and   
human life1 we see that the process is  
really a single one4 ,feeling is a      
function of ideas2 if1 then1 we demand  
sincerity in the one1 we must equally   
demand conviction in the other4 ,the    
poet could not convey to us his pleasure
 at the sight of nature or his awe of   
death unless he could somehow bring us  
into their presence4 ,the painter could 
not express the moods of sunlight or of 
shadow until he had invented a technique
 for their representation4 ,clear and   
confident seeing is a condition of      
feeling4 ,hence every advance in the    
imitation of nature is an advance in the
 power of expression4 ,the demand for   
fidelity of representation1 for truth to
 nature1 so insistently made by the     
common man in his criticism of art1 is  
justified even from the point of view of
 expressionism4  ,yet this fidelity of  

representation does not involve exact   
reproduction of nature4 ,the limitations
 of the media of the arts definitely    
exclude this4 ,no painter can reproduce 
on a canvas the infinite detail of any  
object or exactly imitate its colors and
 lines4 ,in the single matter of        
brightness1 for example1 his medium is  
hopelessly inadequate2 even the light of
 the moon is beyond his power1 not to   
speak of the light of the sun2 he has to
 substitute a relative for an absolute  
scale of values4 ,the sculptor cannot   
reproduce the color or hair of the human
 body4 ,however1 this failure exactly to
 imitate nature does not prevent the    
artist from suggesting to us ideas of   
the objects in which he is interested4  
,if the outline of the marble be that of
 a man1 we get the idea of a man2 if the
 color and shape be that of a tree1 we  
get the idea of a tree4 ,our acceptance 
of these ideas is1 of course1 only      
partial2 for we are equally susceptible 
to the negative suggestions of the      

whiteness of the marble and the         
smallness of the outline of the tree4   
,every work of art represents a sort of 
compromise between reality and          
unreality1 belief and disbelief4        
,nevertheless1 despite this compromise1 
the purpose of art is uncompromisingly  
attained4 ,for art does not seek to give
 us nature over again1 but to express   
its feeling tones1 and these are        
conveyed when we get an idea of the     
corresponding object1 even if that idea 
is inadequate from a strictly scientific
 point of view4 ,we do not react        
emotionally to the infinite detail of   
any object1 but only to its presence as 
a whole and to certain salient features4
 ,the artist succeeds when he constructs
 a humanized image of the object--one   
which arouses and becomes a center for  
feeling4 ,this image1 when made of a few
 elements1 may be far more telling than 
a much more accurate copy2 for there is 
no diffusion of interest to irrelevant  
aspects4 ,how effective a medium for    

expression are the few and simple lines 
of ,beardsley's draftsmanship6 ,the     
amount of detail necessary to convey an 
emotionally effective idea is relative  
to the technique of the different arts  
and varies also with the suggestibility 
and discrimination of the observer4     
,here no a priori principles can be laid
 down for what only the experimental    
practice of the artist can determine4   
,moreover1 the negative suggestions of a
 work of art1 although they are         
effective in preventing entire belief in
 the reality of the idea expressed1 do  
not hinder the communication and        
appreciation of the attached feelings4  
,just so long as the belief attitude is 
not wholly extinguished1 this is the    
case2 and the skillful artist takes care
 of that4 ,of course1 an attitude of    
self-surrender1 of willingness to accept
 suggestions1 has to be present and we  
cooperate with the artist in creating   
it4 ,aesthetic belief implies sufficient
 abandon that we may react emotionally  

to a suggestion1 but not enough that we 
may react practically4 ,we let the idea 
tell upon our feelings2 we do not let it
 incite us to action4 ,the aesthetic    
plausibility of an idea depends largely 
upon its initial plausibility with the  
artist4 ,there is nothing more          
contagious than belief4 ,to utter things
 with an accent of conviction is half   
the battle in getting oneself believed4 
,if the artist pretends to believe      
something and expresses himself with an 
air of assurance1 we accept it1 no      
matter how preposterous it may be from  
the practical or scientific point of    
view4 ,think of ,rabelais6  ,a work of  
art is a logical system4 ,it presupposes
 certain assumptions1 postulates1       
conventions1 which we must accept if we 
are to live in its world4 ,now1 in order
 that we may accept them1 the artist    
must first have vividly accepted them   
himself4 ,only if they have become a    
very part of him1 can they become at all
 valid for us4 ,the failure of          

classicistic art in a non-classical age1
 of ,pre-,raphaelitism after ,raphael1  
is a failure in this--the artist has    
never lived even imaginatively in the   
world he depicts4 ,his belief is an     
artifice and a sham1 and he cannot      
impose upon us with his pretense4 ,but  
once we have accepted the artist's      
postulates1 then we are prepared to     
follow him in his conclusions4 ,in the  
,homeric world1 we shall not balk at the
 intercourse between gods and men2 in   
mediaeval painting and drama1 we shall  
accept miracle2 in ,alice in            
,wonderland1 we shall accept any        
dream-like enchantment4 ,but we demand  
that the conclusions shall follow from  
the premises1 that the whole be         
consistent4 ,we cannot tolerate miracle 
in a realistic novel or drama1 or       
glaring inaccuracy of fact in a         
historical novel1 because they are in   
contradiction to the laws of reality    
tacitly assumed4 ,the final demand which
 we make of any work1 of art is that it 

live4 ,what can be made to live for us  
may be beautiful to us4 ,but nothing can
 draw our life into itself which has not
 drawn the artist's1 or which is untrue 
to its own inner logic4  ,one of the    
most life-creating elements of a work of
 art is imagery4 ,everywhere in art the 
tendency exists for ideas to be filled  
out1 rendered concrete and vivid1       
through images4 ,in looking at a        
painting of a summer landscape1 for     
example1 we not only recognize the      
colors as meaning sunlight1 but actually
 experience them as warm2 in looking at 
a statue we not only recognize its      
surface as that of the body of a woman1 
but we feel its softness and smoothness2
 which involves that the ideas of       
sunlight and a human body1 employed in  
interpreting the sensations received    
from these works of art1 are developed  
back into the original mass of images   
from which they were derived4 ,however1 
although ideas are formed from images1  
they are not images1--as our ordinary   

employment of them in recognizing       
objects attests4 ,we may and usually do1
 for example1 recognize a mirror as     
smooth without experiencing it as       
smooth--the image equivalent of the idea
 remains latent4 ,our ordinary          
experience with objects is too hasty and
 too intent on practical ends for images
 to develop4 ,on the other hand1 the    
leisurely attitude characteristic of the
 aesthetic experience is favorable to   
the recall of images2 hence1 just as in 
the aesthetic perception of objects we  
put our feelings into them1 so equally  
we import into them the relevant images4
 ,the aesthetic reaction tends to be    
total4 ,our demand for feeling in art   
also requires the image2 for feelings   
are more vividly attached to images than
 to abstract ideas4 ,it is a fact       
familiar in the experience of everybody 
that the strength of the emotional tone 
of an object is a function of the       
clearness of the image which we form of 
it on recall4 ,we can preserve the      

feeling tone of a past event or an      
absent object only if we can keep a     
vivid image of it2 as our image of it   
becomes vague1 our interest in it       
dissipates4 ,everywhere in our          
experience the image mediates between   
feeling and idea4 ,so in art4 ,images   
have no more an independent and         
self-sufficient status in art than      
sensations have2 like the latter they   
are a means for the expression of       
feeling4 ,in the painting of sunlight1  
for example1 the images of warmth carry 
joyousness and a sense of ease2 in the  
statue1 the tactile images convey the   
emotional response to the represented   
object4 ,in literature the              
expressiveness of images is perhaps even
 more impressive4 ,consider how longing 
is aroused by the tactile1 gustatory1   
and thermal images in the oft-quoted    
lines of ,keats3--    ,o1 for a draught 
of vintage6 that hath been   ,cool'd a  
long age in the deep-delved earth4      
,examples might be multiplied           

indefinitely4  ,in literature alone of  
the arts1 images from all departments of
 sense can be aroused4 ,visual images   
play a greater role there than in       
painting and sculpture1 for the reason  
that1 in the latter1 visual sensations  
take their place--we do not image what  
we can see4 ,in sculpture1 the greater  
part of the imagery is of touch and     
motion--in the imagination1 we feel the 
surfaces and move with the represented  
motions2 the whiteness or blackness of  
the materials prevents the arousal of   
the image of the color of the body4 ,in 
painting1 besides the temperature images
 already mentioned1 there are touch     
images--in still-life1 for example1 when
 silks and furs are represented2 images 
of odors1 in flower pieces2 of motion1  
in pictures which depict motion1 as in  
the racing horses of ,degas2 of taste1  
in pictures of wine and fruit4 ,of      
course the kind and amount of imagery   
depend upon the imaginal type to which  
the spectator belongs and the wealth of 

the imaginal furnishing of his mind4 ,in
 any art1 moreover1 the chief and       
requisite thing is expression through   
the sense medium1 which should never be 
obscured by expression through          
associated images4 ,it is not the       
primary business of a flower painter to 
arouse images of perfume1 but to compose
 colors and lines2 nor the function of  
the musician to arouse the visual images
 which accompany the musical experience 
of many people1 but to compose sounds4  
,in sculpture1 on the other hand1 images
 of touch and movement play an almost   
necessary part1 for they are constituent
 elements in the representation of form 
and motion2 yet it is not indispensable 
to the appreciation of sculpture that   
images of the sweet odor of the human   
body be awakened4 ,the image is seldom  
the basis of aesthetic appreciation2 it 
is more often its completion4 ,but we   
shall go into these matters more in     
detail in our special chapters4  ,in the
 representative arts1 particularly      

painting and sculpture1 the associated  
images are fused with the visual        
sensations which constitute the medium4 
,i see the softness and                 
sweet-odorousness of the painted rose   
petal1 just as ,i see the real rose soft
 and sweet2 ,i see the surface of the   
statue firm and shapely1 just as ,i see 
the human body so4 ,this is because the 
ideas of the things represented in      
painting and sculpture seem to be       
actually present in the visual          
sensations which they interpret2 the    
flower and the man seem to be there     
before me4 ,in these arts1 aesthetic    
perception is a fusion of image with    
sensation in much the way that normal   
perception is4 ,in literature and music1
 on the other hand1 the connection      
between the sense medium of the art and 
the associated images is less close2 and
 for the reason that the sounds are no  
part of the things which they bring     
before the mind4 ,in looking at a       
picture of a rose1 ,i see the red as an 

element of the rose represented2        
whereas1 in reading about a rose1 ,i    
only seem to hear a voice describing it4
 ,in the latter case1 therefore1 the    
olfactory and visual images have a      
certain remoteness and independence of  
the word-sounds2 ,i do not actually see 
and smell them in the sounds4 ,however1 
in the case of familiar words with a    
strong emotional significance1 the      
fusion of image with sound may be almost
 complete4 ,who1 for example1 does not  
see a sweet and red image of a rose into
 the word-sounds when he reads3--       
,oh1 my love's like a red1 red rose     
,that's newly sprung in ,june4  ,or1    
when ,dante describes the selva oscura1 
who does not see the darkness in the    
word oscura8 ,in all such cases a strong
 feeling tone binds together the        
word-sound with the image4 ,this fusion 
is most striking in poetry because of   
the highly emotional material with which
 it works4  ,the ideas and images       
associated with a work of art depend    

very largely on the education1          
experience1 and idiosyncrasy of the     
spectator4 ,the scholar1 for example1   
will put tenfold more meaning into his  
reading of the ,divine ,comedy than the 
untrained person4 ,or compare ,pater's  
interpretation of the ,mona ,lisa with  
,muther's4 ,can we say that certain     
ideas and images belong properly to the 
work of art1 while others do not8 ,with 
regard to this1 we can1 ,i think1 set up
 two criteria4 ,first1 the intention of 
the artist--whatever the artist meant   
his work to express3 that it expresses4 
,yet1 since this can never be certainly 
and completely discovered1 there must   
always remain a large region of         
undetermined interpretation4 ,now for   
judging the relevancy of this penumbra  
of meaning and association the following
 test applies--does it bring us back to 
the sensuous medium of the work of art  
or lead us away8 ,anything is legitimate
 which we actually put into the form of 
the work of art and keep there1 while   

whatever merely hangs loose around it is
 illegitimate4 ,for example1 if while   
listening to music we give ourselves up 
to personal memories and fancies1 we are
 almost sure to neglect the sounds and  
their structure2 we cannot objectify the
 former in the latter2 with the result  
that the composition is largely lost to 
us4 ,naturally1 no hard and fast lines  
can be drawn1 especially in the case of 
works of vague import like music2 yet we
 can use this criterion as a principle  
for regulating and inhibiting our       
associations4 ,it demands of us a       
wide-awake and receptive appreciation4  
,the genuine meanings and associations  
of a work of art are those which are the
 irresistible and necessary results of  
the sense stimuli working upon an       
attentive percipient2 the rest are not  
only arbitrary1 but injurious4  ,to     
this1 some people would doubtless object
 on the ground that art was made for man
 and not man for art4 ,the work of art1 
they would claim1 should interpret the  

personal experience of the spectator2   
hence whatever he puts into it belongs  
there of right4 ,there are1 however1 two
 considerations limiting the validity of
 this assertion4 ,first1 the work of art
 is primarily an expression of the      
artist's personality and1 second1 its   
purpose is to provide a common medium of
 expression for the experience of all   
men4 ,if interpretation remains a purely
 individual affair1 both its relation to
 the artist and the possibility of a    
common aesthetic experience through it  
are destroyed4 ,for this reason we      
should1 ,i believe1 deliberately seek to
 make our appreciations historically    
sound and definite4 ,and in the social  
and historical appreciation resulting1  
we shall find our own lives--not so     
different from the artist's and our     
fellows'--abundantly and sufficiently   
expressed4     ,,chapter ,v  ,,the      
,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,aesthetic       
,,experience3 ,,the ,,structure ,,of    
,,the ,,experience   ,in our discussion 

of first principles1 we set down a high 
degree of unity as one of the           
distinguishing characteristics of works 
of art4 ,in this we followed close upon 
ancient tradition2 for the markedly     
structural character of beauty was      
noticed by the earliest observers4      
,plato1 the first philosopher of art1   
identified beauty with simplicity1      
harmony1 and proportion1 and ,aristotle 
held the same view4 ,they were so       
impressed with aesthetic unity that they
 compared it with the other most highly 
unified type of thing they knew1 the    
organism2 and ever afterwards it has    
been called organic unity4 ,with the    
backing of such authority1 unity in     
variety was long thought to be the same 
as beauty2 and1 although this view is   
obviously one-sided1 no one has since   
succeeded in persuading men that an     
object can be beautiful without unity4  
,since art is expression1 its unity is1 
unavoidably1 an image of the unity of   
the things in nature and mind which it  

expresses4 ,a lyric poem reflects the   
unity of mood that binds together the   
thoughts and images of the poet2 the    
drama and novel1 the unity of plan and  
purpose in the acts of men and the      
fateful sequence of causes and effects  
in their lives4 ,the statue reflects the
 organic unity of the body2 the         
painting1 the spatial unity of visible  
things4 ,in beautiful artifacts1 the    
basal unity is the purpose or end       
embodied in the material structure4     
,but the unity of works of art is not   
wholly derivative2 for it occurs in the 
free arts like music1 where nothing is  
imitated1 and even in the representative
 arts1 as we have observed1 it is closer
 than in the things which are imaged4   
,aesthetic unity is therefore unique    
and1 if we would understand it1 we must 
seek its reason in the peculiar nature  
and purpose of art4 ,since1 moreover1   
art is a complex fact1 the explanation  
of its unity is not simple2 the unity   
itself is very intricate and depends    

upon many cooperating factors4  ,in the 
case of the imitative arts1 taking the  
given unity of the objects represented  
as a basis1 the superior unity of the   
image is partly due to the singleness of
 the artist's interest4 ,for art1 as we 
know1 is never the expression of mere   
things1 but of things so far as they    
have value4 ,out of the infinite        
fullness of nature and of life1 the     
artist selects those elements that have 
a unique significance for him4          
,music1 when soft voices die1           
,vibrates in the memory2   ,odors1 when 
sweet violets sicken1   ,live within the
 sense they quicken2   ,rose leaves1    
when the rose is dead1   ,are heaped for
 the beloved's bed2   ,and so thy       
thoughts when thou art gone1   ,love    
itself shall slumber on4  ,observe how1 
out of the countless things which he    
knows1 the poet has chosen those which  
he feels akin to his faith in the       
immortality of love4 ,the painter would 
not1 if he could1 reproduce all the     

elements of a face1 but only those that 
are expressive of the interpretation of 
character he wishes to convey4 ,the     
novelist and the dramatist proceed in a 
like selective fashion in the treatment 
of their material4 ,in the lives of men 
there are a thousand actions and        
events--casual spoken words1 recurrent  
processes such as eating and dressing1  
hours of idleness and futility which1   
because repetitious1 habitual1 or       
inconsequential1 throw no light upon    
that alone in which we are              
interested1--character and fortune4 ,to 
describe a single example of these facts
 suffices4 ,in the novel and drama1     
therefore1 the personalities and life   
histories of men have a simplicity and  
singleness of direction not found in    
reality4 ,the artist seeks everywhere   
the traits that individualize and       
characterize1 and neglects all others4  
,moreover1 since the aim of art is to   
afford pleasure in the intuition of     
life1 the artist will try to reveal the 

hidden unities that so delight the mind 
to discover4 ,he will aim to penetrate  
beneath the surface of experience       
observed by common perception1 to its   
more obscure logic underneath4 ,in this 
way he will go beyond what the mere     
mechanism of imitation requires4 ,the   
poet1 for example1 manifests latent     
emotional harmonies among the most      
widely sundered things4 ,the subtle     
novelist shows how single elements of   
character1 apparently isolated acts or  
trivial incidents1 are fateful of       
consequences4 ,he discloses the minute  
reactions of one personality upon       
another4 ,or he enters into the soul of 
man himself1 into his private and       
individual selfhood1 and uncovers the   
hidden connections between thought and  
feeling and impulse4 ,finally1 he may   
take the wider sweep of society and     
tradition into view and track out their 
part in the molding of man and his fate4
 ,in the search for unity1 the artist is
 on common ground with the man of       

science2 but with this difference3 the  
artist is concerned with laws operating 
in concrete1 individual things in which 
he is interested2 while the scientist   
formulates them in the abstract4 ,for   
the artist1 unity is valuable as        
characterizing a significant individual2
 for the scientist1 it is valuable in   
itself1 and the individual only as an   
example of it4  ,this same purpose of   
affording pleasure in sympathetic vision
 leads the artist not only to present   
the unity of life1 but so to organize   
its material that it will be clear to   
the mind which perceives it4 ,too great 
a multitude of elements1 elements that  
are not assorted into groups and tied by
 relations or principles1 cannot be     
grasped4 ,hence the artist infuses into 
the world which he creates a new and    
wholly subjective simplicity and unity1 
to which there is no parallel in nature4
 ,the composition of elements in a      
picture does not correspond to any      
actual arrangement of elements in a     

landscape1 but to the demands of visual 
perspicuity4 ,the division of a novel   
into chapters1 of the chapters into     
paragraphs1 of the paragraphs into      
sentences1 although it may answer in    
some measure to the objective divisions 
of the life-story related1 corresponds  
much more closely to the subjective need
 for ready apprehension4 ,the artist    
meets this need halfway in the          
organization of the material which he   
presents4 ,full beauty depends upon an  
adaptation of the object to the senses1 
attention1 and synthetic functions of   
the mind4 ,the long1 rambling novel of  
the eighteenth century is a more        
faithful image of the fullness and      
diversity of life1 but it answers ill to
 the limited sweep of the mind1 its     
proneness to fatigue1 and its craving   
for wholeness of view4  ,but even all   
the reasons so far invoked--the         
necessity for significance1 the interest
 in unity1 the demand for               
perspicuity--do not1 ,i think1 suffice  

to explain the structure of works of    
art4 ,for structure has1 oftentimes1 a  
direct emotional appeal1 which has not  
yet been taken into account1 and which  
is a leading motive for its presence4   
,consider1 for example1 symmetry4 ,a    
symmetrical disposition of parts is     
indeed favorable to perspicuity2 for it 
is easier to find on either side what we
 have already found on the other1 the   
sight of one side preparing us for the  
sight of the other2 and such an         
arrangement is flattering to our craving
 for unity1 for we rejoice seeing the   
same pattern expressed in the two parts2
 yet the experience of symmetry is      
richer still3 it includes an agreeable  
feeling of balance1 steadfastness1      
stability4 ,this is most evident in the 
case of visual objects1 like a ,greek   
vase1 where there is a plain division   
between right and left similar halves2  
but it is also felt in music when there 
is a balance of themes in the earlier   
and later parts of a composition1 and in

 literature in the well-balanced        
sentence1 paragraph1 or poem4 ,to cite  
the very simplest example1 if ,i read1  
on the one hand 444 on the other hand1  
,i have a feeling of balanced tensions  
precisely analogous to what ,i          
experience when ,i look at a vase4      
,structure is not a purely intellectual 
or perceptive affair2 it is also motor  
and organic1 and that means emotional4  
,it is felt with the body as well as    
understood by the mind4 ,i have used the
 case of symmetry to bring out this     
truth1 but ,i might have used other     
types of unification1 each of which has 
its unique feeling tone1 as ,i shall    
show presently1 after ,i have analyzed  
them4  ,keeping in mind the motives     
which explain the structure of works of 
art1 ,i wish now to distinguish and     
describe the chief types4 ,there are1 ,i
 think1 three of these1 of which each   
one may include important special       
forms--unity in variety1 dominance1 and 
equilibrium4  ,unity in variety was the 

earliest of the types to be observed and
 is the most fundamental4 ,it is the    
organic unity so often referred to in   
criticism4 ,it involves1 in the first   
place1 wholeness or individuality4      
,every work of art is a definite single 
thing1 distinct and separate from other 
things1 and not divisible into parts    
which are themselves complete works of  
art4 ,no part can be taken away without 
damage to the whole1 and when taken out 
of the whole1 the part loses much of its
 own value4 ,the whole needs all of its 
parts and they need it2 there they live 
and move and have their being4 ,the     
unity is a unity of the variety and the 
variety is a differentiation of the     
unity4,footnote3 ,cf4 ,lipps3           
,aesthetik1 ,bd4 ,i1 ,drittes ,kapitel4 
,the variety is of equal importance with
 the unity1 for unity can assert itself 
and work only through the control of a  
multiplicity of elements4 ,the analogy  
between the unity of the work of art and
 the unity of the organism is still the 

most accurate and illuminating4 ,for1   
like the work of art1 the body is a     
self-sufficient and distinctive whole1  
whose unified life depends upon the     
functioning of many members1 which1 for 
their part1 are dead when cut away from 
it4  ,the conception of unity in variety
 as organic represents an ideal or norm 
for art1 which is only imperfectly      
realized in many works4 ,there are few  
novels which would be seriously damaged 
by the omission of whole chapters1 and  
many a rambling essay in good standing  
would permit pruning without injury1    
unless indeed we are made to feel that  
the apparently dispensable material     
really contributes something of fullness
 and exuberance1 and so is not          
superfluous1 after all4 ,the unity in   
some forms of art is tighter than in    
others2 in a play closer than in a      
novel2 in a sonnet more compact than in 
an epic4 ,in extreme examples1 like ,the
 ,thousand and ,one ,nights1 the        
,decameron1 the ,canterbury ,tales1 the 

unity is almost wholly nominal1 and the 
work is really a collection1 not a      
whole4 ,with all admissions1 it remains 
true1 however1 that offenses against the
 principle of unity in variety diminish 
the aesthetic value of a work4 ,these   
offenses are of two kinds--the inclusion
 of the genuinely irrelevant1 and       
multiple unity1 like double composition 
in a picture1 or ambiguity of style in a
 building4 ,there may be two or more    
parallel lines of action in a play or a 
novel1 two or more themes in music1 but 
they must be interwoven and             
interdependent4 ,otherwise there occurs 
the phenomenon aptly called by ,lipps   
aesthetic rivalry--each part claims to  
be the whole and to exclude its         
neighbor2 yet being unable to do this1  
suffers injury through divided          
attention4  ,unity in variety may exist 
in any one or more of three modes--the  
harmony or union of cooperating         
elements2 the balance of contrasting or 
conflicting elements2 the development or

 evolution of a process towards an end  
or climax4 ,the first two are           
predominantly static or spatial2 the    
last1 dynamic and temporal4 ,i know of  
no better way of indicating the         
characteristic quality of each than by  
citing examples4  ,aesthetic harmony    
exists whenever some identical quality  
or form or purpose is embodied in       
various elements of a whole--sameness in
 difference4 ,the repetition of the same
 space-form in architecture1 like the   
round arch and window in the ,roman     
style2 the recurrence of the same motive
 in music2 the use of a single hue to   
color the different objects in a        
painting1 as in a nocturne of ,whistler3
 these are simple illustrations of      
harmony4 ,an almost equally simple case 
is gradation or lawful change of quality
 in space and time--the increase or     
decrease of loudness in music of        
saturation or brightness of hue in      
painting1 the gentle change of direction
 of a curved line4 ,in these cases there

 is1 of course1 a dynamic or dramatic   
effect1 if you take the elements in     
sequence2 but when taken simultaneously 
and together1 they are a harmony1 not a 
development4 ,simplest of all is the    
harmony between like parts of regular   
figures1 such as squares and circles2 or
 between colors which are neighboring in
 hue4 ,harmonious also are characters in
 a story or play which are united by    
feelings of love1 friendship1 or        
loyalty4 ,thus there is harmony between 
,hamlet and ,horatio1 or between the    
,cid and his followers4  ,aesthetic     
balance is the unity between elements   
which1 while they oppose or conflict    
with one another1 nevertheless need or  
supplement each other4 ,hostile things1 
enemies at war1 business men that       
compete1 persons that hate each other1  
have as great a need of their opponents1
 in order that there may be a certain   
type of life1 as friends have1 in order 
that there may be love between them2 and
 in relation to each other they create a

 whole in the one case as in the other4 
,there is as genuine a unity between    
contrasting colors and musical themes as
 there is between colors closely allied 
in hue or themes simply transposed in   
key4 ,contrasting elements are always   
the extremes of some series1 and are    
unified1 despite the contrast1 because  
they supplement each other4 ,things     
merely different1 no matter how         
different1 cannot contrast1 for there   
must be some underlying whole1 to which 
both belong1 in which they are unified4 
,in order that this unity may be felt1  
it is often necessary to avoid absolute 
extremes1 or at least to mediate between
 them4 ,among colors1 for example1 hues 
somewhat closer than the complementary  
are preferred to the latter1 or1 if the 
extremes are employed1 each one leads up
 to the other through intermediate hues4
 ,the unity of contrasting colors is a  
balance because1 as extremes1 they take 
an equal hold on the attention4 ,the    
well-known accentuation of contrasting  

elements does not interfere with the    
balance1 because it is mutual4 ,a       
balanced unity is also created by       
contrasts of character1 as in ,goethe's 
,tasso1 or by a conflict between social 
classes or parties1 as in ,hauptmann's  
,die ,weber4 ,balanced1 finally1 is the 
unity between the elements of a         
painting1 right and left1 which draw the
 attention in opposite directions4 ,the 
third type of unity appears in any      
process or sequence in which all the    
elements1 one after another1 contribute 
towards the bringing about of some end  
or result4 ,it is the unity             
characteristic of all teleologically    
related facts4 ,the sequence cannot be a
 mere succession or even a simple causal
 series1 but must also be purposive1    
because1 in order to be aesthetic1 the  
goal which is reached must have value4  
,causality is an important aspect of    
this type of unity1 as in the drama1 but
 only because a teleological series of  
actions depends upon a chain of causally

 related means and ends4 ,the type is of
 two varieties3 in the one1 the movement
 is smooth1 each element being          
harmoniously related to the last2 in the
 other1 it is difficult and dramatic1   
proceeding through the resolution of    
oppositions among its elements4 ,the    
movement usually has three stages3 an   
initial phase of introduction and       
preparation2 a second phase of          
opposition and complication2 then a     
final one1 the climax or catastrophe1   
when the goal is reached2 there may also
 be a fourth1--the working out of the   
consequences of this last4              
,illustrations of this mode of unity    
are3 the course of a story or a play    
from the introduction of the characters 
and the complication of the plot to the 
denouement or solving of the problem2   
the development of a character in a     
novel from a state of simplicity or     
innocence through storm and stress into 
maturity or ruin2 the evolution of a    
sentiment in a sonnet towards its final 

statement in the last line or two2 the  
melody1 in its departure from the       
keynote1 its going forth and return2 the
 career of a line4  ,as ,i have         
indicated before1 each type of unity has
 its specific emotional quality4 ,the   
very word harmony which we use to denote
 the first mode is itself connotative of
 a way of being affected1 of being moved
 emotionally4 ,the mood of this mode is 
quiet1 oneness1 peace4 ,we feel as if we
 were closely and compactly put         
together4 ,if now1 within the aesthetic 
whole1 we emphasize the variety1 we     
begin to lose the mood of peace2        
tensions arise1 until1 in the case of   
contrast and opposition1 there is a     
feeling of conflict and division in the 
self2 yet without loss of unity1        
because1 if the whole is aesthetic1 each
 of the opposing elements demands the   
other2 hence there is balance between   
them1 and this also we not only know to 
be there1 but feel there4 ,the          
characteristic mood of the evolutionary 

type of unity is equally unique--either 
a sense of easy motion1 when the process
 is unobstructed1 or excitement and     
breathlessness1 when there is           
opposition4  ,the different types of    
unity are by no means exclusive of each 
other and are usually found together in 
any complex work of art4 ,symmetry      
usually involves a combination of       
harmony and balance4 ,the symmetrical   
halves of a ,greek vase1 for example1   
are harmonious in so far as their size  
and shape are the same1 yet balanced as 
being disposed in opposite directions1  
right and left4 ,rhythm is temporal     
symmetry1 and so also represents a      
combination of harmony and balance4     
,static rhythm is only apparent2 for in 
every seeming case1 the rhythm really   
pervades the succession of acts of      
attention to the elements rather than   
the elements themselves2 a colonnade1   
for example1 is rhythmical only when the
 attention moves from one column to     
another4 ,there is harmony in rhythm1   

for there is always some law--metrical  
scheme in poetry1 time in music1        
similarity of column and equality of    
interval between them in a              
colonnade--pervading the elements4 ,but 
there is also balance2 for as the       
elements enter the mind one after the   
other1 there is rivalry between the     
element now occupying the focus of the  
attention and the one that is about to  
present an equal claim to this position4
 ,because of its intrinsic value1 we    
tend to hold on to each element as we   
hear or see it1 but are forced to       
relinquish it for the sake of the one   
that follows2 only for a moment can we  
keep both in the conscious span2 the    
recurrence and overcoming of the        
resulting tension1 as we follow the     
succession through1 creates the         
pulsation so characteristic of rhythm4  
,the opposition of the elements as in   
turn they crowd each other out does not1
 however1 interfere with the harmony1   
for they have an existence all together 

in memory1 where the law binding them   
can be felt1--a law which each element  
as it comes into consciousness is       
recognized as fulfilling4 ,since we     
usually look forward to the end of the  
rhythmical movement as a goal1 rhythm   
often exists in combination with        
evolution1 and is therefore the most    
inclusive of all artistic structural    
forms4 ,in a poem1 for example1 the     
metrical rhythm is a framework overlying
 the development of the thought4        
,dramatic unity is found combined with  
balance even in the static arts1 as1 for
 example1 in the combination of blue and
 gold1 where the balance is not quite   
equal1 because of a slight movement from
 the blue to the more brilliant and     
striking gold4 ,i have already shown how
 harmony1 opposition1 and evolution may 
be combined in a melody4 ,in the drama1 
also1 all three are present4 ,there is a
 balance of opposing and conflicting    
wills or forces2 this is unstable2      
whence movement follows1 leading on to  

the catastrophe1 where the problem is   
solved2 and throughout there is a single
 mood or atmosphere in which all        
participate1 creating an enveloping     
harmony despite the tension and action4 
,and other illustrations of combinations
 of types will come to the mind of every
 reader4  ,each form of unity has its   
difficulties and dangers1 which must be 
avoided if perfection is to be attained4
 ,in harmony there may be too much      
identity and too little difference or   
variety1 with the result that the whole 
becomes tedious and uninteresting4 ,this
 is the fault of rigid symmetry and of  
all other simple geometrical types of   
composition1 which1 for this reason1    
have lost their old popularity in the   
decorative and pictorial arts4 ,in      
balance1 on the other hand1 the danger  
is that there may be too great a        
variety1 too strong an opposition2 the  
elements tend to fly apart1 threatening 
the integrity of the whole4 ,for it is  
not sufficient that wholeness exist in a

 work of art2 it must also be felt4 ,for
 example1 in ,pre-,raphaelite paintings 
and in most of the ,secession work of   
our own day1 the color contrasts are too
 strong2 there is no impression of      
visual unity4 ,in the dramatic type of  
unity there are two chief dangers--that 
the evolution be tortuous1 so that we   
lose our way in its bypaths and mazes2  
or1 on the other hand1 that the end be  
reached too simply and quickly2 in the  
one case1 we lose heart for the journey 
because of the obstacles2 in the other1 
we lose interest and are bored for want 
of incidents4  ,we come now to the      
second great principle of aesthetic     
structure-- ,dominance4,footnote3 ,cf4  
,lipps3 ,aesthetik1 ,bd4 ,i1 ,s4 #ec1   
,viertes ,kapitel ,in an aesthetic whole
 the elements are seldom all on a level2
 some are superior1 others subordinate4 
,the unity is mediated through one or   
more accented elements1 through which   
the whole comes to emphatic expression4 
,the attention is not evenly distributed

 among the parts1 but proceeds from     
certain ones which are focal and        
commanding to others which are of lesser
 interest4 ,and the dominant elements   
are not only superior in significance2  
they are1 in addition1 representative of
 the whole2 in them1 its value is       
concentrated2 they are the key by means 
of which its structure can be           
understood4 ,they are like good rulers  
in a constitutional state1 who are at   
once preeminent members of the community
 and signal embodiments of the common   
will4 ,anything which distinguishes and 
makes representative of the whole serves
 to make dominant4 ,in a                
well-constructed play there are one or  
more characters which are central to the
 action1 in whom the spirit and problem 
of the piece are embodied1 as ,hamlet in
 ,hamlet and ,brand in ,brand2 in every 
plot there is the catastrophe or turning
 point1 for which every preceding       
incident is a preparation1 and of which 
every following one is a consequent2 in 

a melody there is the keynote2 in the   
larger composition there are the one or 
more themes whose working out is the    
piece2 in a picture there are certain   
elements which especially attract the   
attention1 about which the others are   
composed4 ,in the more complex rhythms1 
in meters1 for example1 the elements are
 grouped around the accented ones4 ,in  
an aesthetic whole there are certain    
qualities and positions which1 because  
of their claim upon the attention1 tend 
to make dominant any elements which     
possess them4 ,in space-forms the center
 and the edges are naturally places of  
preeminence4 ,the eye falls first upon  
the center and then is drawn away to the
 boundaries4 ,in old pictures1 the      
,madonna or ,christ is placed in the    
center and the angels near the          
perimeter2 in fancy work it is the      
center and the border which women       
embroider4 ,in time1 the beginning1     
middle1 and end are the natural places  
of importance2 the beginning1 because   

there the attention is fresh and        
expectant2 towards the middle1 because  
there we tend to rest1 looking backward 
to the commencement and forward to the  
end2 the end itself1 because being last 
in the mind1 its hold upon the memory is
 firmest4 ,in any process the beginning 
is important as the start1 the plan1 the
 preparation2 the middle as the climax  
and turning point2 the end as the       
consummation4 ,of course by the middle  
is not meant a mathematical point of    
division into equal parts1 but a        
psychological point1 which is usually   
nearer the end1 because the impetus of  
action and purpose carry forward and    
beyond4 ,thus in a plot the beginning   
stands out as setting the problem and   
introducing the characters and          
situation2 then the movement of the     
action1 gathering force increasingly as 
it proceeds1 breaks at some point well  
beyond the middle2 in the last part the 
problem is solved and the consequences  
of the action are revealed4 ,large size 

is another quality which distinguishes  
and tends to make dominant1 as in the   
tower and the mountain4 ,in one of      
,memling's paintings1 ,st4 ,ursula and  
the ,maidens1 which1 when ,i saw it1 was
 in ,bruges1 the lady is represented    
twice as tall as the full grown girls   
whom she envelops in her protecting     
cloak2 yet1 despite the unnaturalness1  
we do not experience any incongruity2   
for it is rational to our feeling4      
,intensity of any sort is another       
property which creates                  
dominance--loudness of sound in music2  
concentration of light in painting1 as  
in ,rembrandt2 stress in rhythm2 depth  
and scope of purpose and feeling1 as in 
the great characters of fiction4 ,the   
effectiveness of intensity may be       
greatly increased through contrast--the 
pianissimo after the fortissimo2 the    
pathos of the fifth act of ,hamlet set  
off by the comedy of the first scene4   
,sometimes all the natural              
qualifications of eminence are united in

 a single work3 in old paintings1 for   
example1 the ,christ ,child1 spiritually
 the most significant element of the    
whole1 will be of supernatural size1    
will occupy the center of the picture1  
will have the light concentrated upon   
him1 and will be dressed in brightly    
gleaming garments4  ,as ,i have already 
indicated1 there may be more than one   
dominant element2 for instance1 two or  
more principal characters in a novel or 
play--,lord and ,lady ,macbeth1 ,sancho 
and ,don ,quixote1 ,othello and         
,desdemona1 ,brand and his wife4 ,in    
this case1 there must be either         
subordination among them1 a hierarchical
 arrangement2 or else reciprocity or    
balance1 as in the illustrations cited1 
where it is difficult to tell which is  
the more important of the two2 otherwise
 they would pull the whole apart4 ,the  
advantage of several dominant elements  
lies in the greater animation1 and when 
the work is large1 in the superior      
organization1 which they confer4 ,in    

order that there may be perspicuity1 it 
is necessary1 when there are many       
elements1 that they be separated into   
minor groups around high points which   
individualize and represent them1 and so
 take their place in the mind1 mediating
 between them and unity when a final    
synthesis of the whole is to be made4   
,the third great principle of aesthetic 
structure is equilibrium or             
impartiality4 ,this is a principle      
counteracting dominance4 ,it demands1   
despite the subordination among the     
elements1 that none be neglected4 ,each1
 no matter how minor its part in the    
whole1 must have some unique value of   
its own1 must be an end as well as a    
means4 ,dominance is the aristocratic   
principle in art1 the rule of the best2 
this is the democratic principle1 the   
demand for freedom and significance for 
all4 ,just as1 in a well-ordered state1 
the happiness of no individual or class 
of individuals is sacrificed to that of 
other individuals or classes2 so in art1

 each part must be elaborated and       
perfected1 not merely for the sake of   
its contribution to the whole1 but for  
its own sake4 ,there should be no mere  
figure-heads or machinery4 ,loving care 
of detail1 of the incidental1           
characterizes the best art4  ,of course 
this principle1 like the others1 is an  
ideal or norm1 which is only imperfectly
 realized in many works of art4 ,many a 
poet finds it necessary to fill in his  
lines and many a painter and musician   
does the like with his pictures or      
compositions4 ,there is much mere       
scaffolding and many lay-figures in     
drama and novel4 ,but the work of the   
masters is different4 ,there each line  
or stroke or musical phrase1 each       
character or incident1 is unique or     
meaningful4 ,the greatest example of    
this is perhaps the ,divine ,comedy1    
where each of the hundred cantos and    
each line of each canto is perfect in   
workmanship and packed with             
significance4 ,there is1 of course1 a   

limit to this elaboration of the parts1 
set by the demands for unity and        
wholeness4 ,the individuality of the    
elements must not be so great that we   
rest in them severally1 caring little or
 nothing for their relations to one     
another and to the whole4 ,the          
contribution of this principle is       
richness4 ,unity in variety gives       
wholeness2 dominance1 order2            
equilibrium1 wealth1 interest1 vitality4
  ,the structure of works of art is even
 more complicated than would appear from
 the description given thus far4 ,for   
there is not only the unity of the      
elements among themselves1 but between  
the two aspects of each element and of  
the whole--the form and content4        
,this--the unity between the sense      
medium and whatever of thought and      
feeling is embodied in it--is the       
fundamental unity in all expression4 ,it
 is the unity between a word and its    
meaning1 a musical tone and its mood1 a 
color and shape and what they represent4

 ,since1 however1 it is indispensable to
 all expression1 it is not peculiar to  
art4 ,and to a large extent1 even in the
 creative work of the artist1 this unity
 is given1 not made2 the very materials 
of the artist consisting of elementary  
expressions--words1 tones1 colors1      
space-forms--in which the unity of form 
and content has already been achieved1  
either by an innate psycho-physical     
process1 as is the case with tones and  
simple rhythms1 or by association and   
habit1 as is the case with the words of 
any natural language1 or the            
object-meanings which we attach to      
colors and shapes4 ,the poet does not   
work with sounds1 but with words which  
already have their definite meanings2   
his creation consists of the larger     
whole into which he weaves them4 ,of    
course1 even in the case of ordinary    
verbal expression1 the thought often    
comes first before its clothing in      
words1 when there is a certain process  
of choice and fitting2 and in painting  

there is always the possibility of      
varying conventional forms2 yet even so1
 in large measure1 the elements of the  
arts are themselves expressions1 in     
which a unity of form and content       
already exists4  ,in art1 however1 there
 are subtler aspects to the relation    
between form and content1 and these have
 a unique aesthetic significance4 ,for  
there1 as we know1 the elements of the  
medium1 colors and lines and sounds1 and
 the patterns of these1 their harmonies 
and structures and rhythms1 are         
expressive1 in a vague way1 of feeling2 
hence1 when the artist employs them as  
embodiments of his ideas1 he has to     
select them1 not only as carriers of    
meaning1 but as communications of mood4 
,now1 in order that his selection be    
appropriate1 it is clearly necessary    
that the feeling tone of the form be    
identical with that of the content which
 he puts into it4 ,the medium as such   
must reexpress and so enforce the values
 of the content4 ,this is the harmony1  

as distinguished from the mere unity1 of
 form and content1 the existence of     
which in art is one of its              
distinguishing properties4 ,i have      
already called attention to this in our 
second chapter4 ,it involves1 as we     
observed1 that in painting1 for example1
 the feeling tone of the colors and     
lines should be identical with that of  
the objects to be represented2 in       
poetry1 that the emotional quality of   
meter and rhythm should be attuned to   
the incidents and sentiments expressed4 
,otherwise the effect is ugly or        
comical4  ,when we come to the work of  
art1 this harmony is already achieved4  
,but for the artist it is something     
delicately to be worked out4 ,yet1 just 
as in ordinary expression form and      
content often emerge in unison1 the     
thought itself being a word and the word
 a thought2 so in artistic creation1 the
 mother mood out of which the creative  
act springs1 finds immediate and        
forthright embodiment in a congenial    

form4 ,such a spontaneous and perfect   
balance of matter and form is1 however1 
seldom achieved without long and painful
 experimentation and practice1 both by  
the artist himself in his own private   
work1 and by his predecessors1 whose    
results he appropriates4 ,large         
traditional and oftentimes rigid forms1 
such as the common metrical and musical 
schemes and architectural orders1 into  
which the personal matter of expression 
may aptly fall1 are thus elaborated in  
every art4 ,as against every looser and 
novel form1 they have the advantages    
first1 of being more readily and        
steadily held in the memory1 where they 
may gather new and poignant             
associations2 second1 of coming to us   
already freighted with similar          
associations out of the past2 and last1 
of compelling the artist1 in order that 
he may fit his inspiration into them1 to
 purify it of all irrelevant substance4 
,impatient artists rebel against forms1 
but wise ones either accommodate their  

genius to them1 until they become in the
 end a second and equally spontaneous   
nature1 or else create new forms1 as    
definite as the old4     ,,chapter ,,vi 
,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,evil ,,in        
,,aesthetics1 ,,and ,,its ,,solution    
,,through ,,the ,,tragic1 ,,pathetic1   
,,and ,,comic   ,when1 in our third     
chapter1 we defined the purpose of art1 
we indicated that it was broad enough to
 include the expression of evil1 but we 
did not show in detail how this was     
possible4 ,that is our present theme4   
,art is sympathetic representation2 the 
effort not only to reveal an object to  
us1 but to unite us with it4 ,the artist
 finds no difficulty in accomplishing   
this purpose with reference to one class
 of objects--those which1 apart from    
portrayal1 we call beautiful4 ,to these 
we are drawn immediately because they   
serve directly the ends of life4 ,nature
 sees to it that we dwell with pleasure 
on the sight of healthy children1       
well-grown women1 and bountiful         

landscapes4 ,and to the representations 
of such objects we are attracted by the 
same instincts that attract us to the   
things themselves4 ,no special power of 
art is required that we take delight in 
them2 the task of the artist is half    
accomplished before he begins4 ,yet the 
scope of art is wider than this1 for it 
represents evil as well as good4 ,death 
as well as life1 sickness and deformity 
as well as health1 suffering as well as 
joy1 sin equally with goodness1 come    
within its purview4 ,and these also it  
not only reveals to us but makes good to
 know1 so good in fact that they are    
perhaps the preferred objects of        
artistic representation4 ,but instead of
 being able to rely on instincts that   
would draw us to these objects1 art has 
to overcome those that would lead us    
away from them4 ,it has to conquer our  
natural horror at death1 pain at        
suffering1 and revulsion against        
wickedness4 ,how does it8 ,that is the  
problem of evil in sthetics4  ,there are

 many means by which this problem is    
solved4 ,in the first place1 the mere   
fact that art is representation and not 
reality does much toward overcoming any 
feelings of moral or physical repugnance
 we might have toward the objects       
represented4 ,these feelings exist for  
the sake of action2 hence1 when action  
is impossible--and we cannot act on the 
unreal--although they may still persist1
 they become less strong4 ,toward the   
merely imaginary1 the practical and     
moral attitudes1 which towards the real 
would lead to condemnation and          
withdrawal1 lose their relevance and    
tend to disappear4 ,that is one of the  
advantages of art over the more         
immediate perception of life4 ,it is    
difficult to take a purely aesthetic    
attitude towards all of life1 to seek   
only to get into sympathetic contact    
with it for the sake of an inner        
realization of what it is2 much of it   
touches us too closely on the side of   
our practical and moral interests4 ,a   

certain man1 for example1 does not      
belong to our set1 or his ways are so   
bohemian that it would imperil our      
social position or the safety of our    
souls to get acquainted with him2 so we 
reject him and cast him into the outer  
darkness of our disapproval--or he      
rejects us4 ,such a person1 we feel1 is 
to be avoided or haply1 if we be saints1
 to be saved from himself2 but not to be
 accepted and understood4 ,and even if  
we succeed in freeing ourselves from the
 moral point of view1 we are still      
preoccupied with the practical1 if the  
man happens to interest us commercially2
 we have not the time nor the desire to 
see his nature as a whole4 ,not so in   
art4 ,as a character in a novel1 a man  
cannot be employed2 nor can it be a     
hazard to keep company with him2 and his
 soul is surely beyond our saving2 the  
only thing left for us to do is to      
sympathize with and try to understand   
him1 to enter into communion with his   
spirit4 ,by freeing life from the       

practical and moral1 art gives the      
imagination full sway4 ,this1 to be     
sure1 is only a negative force working  
in the direction of beauty1 yet is      
important none the less because it      
enables the more positive influences to 
function easily4  ,one of these is what 
,i would call sympathetic curiosity1    
which may encompass all images of life4 
,things which1 if met with in life1     
would certainly repel1 when presented in
 image1 simply excite our curiosity to  
know4 ,of course some are impelled by   
the same interest to get into contact   
with all experience--,homo sum3 humani  
nihil alienum a me puto--yet with the   
great majority the impulses to withdraw 
are too strong4 ,but all have a desire  
for further knowledge when a mere idea  
of human life1 however repellent1 is    
presented2 for the instinct of          
gregariousness1 which creates a special 
interest in our kind1 works with full   
force in the mind to strengthen         
curiosity4 ,there is no part of human   

experience which it does not embrace4   
,we can well forego knowledge of stars  
and trees1 but we cannot remain ignorant
 of anything human4 ,as the moth to the 
flame1 we are led1 even against our     
will1 into all of life1 even the most   
unpleasant4 ,the charm possessed by the 
novel and unplumbed1 by such stories as 
,jude the ,obscure1 or by the weird     
imaginings of a ,baudelaire1 comes from 
this source4 ,it is no mere scientific  
curiosity1 because it includes that     
consciousness of kind1 which makes us   
feel akin to all we know4  ,sympathetic 
curiosity1 however1 seldom works alone1 
for other interests1 less worthy and    
therefore often unavowed1 usually       
cooperate to overcome our repugnances   
towards the unpleasant4 ,many of our    
repugnances are not simple and original 
like those felt towards death1 darkness1
 and deformity1 but highly complex      
products of education1 which may be     
dissolved by a strong appeal to the more
 primitive instincts which they seek to 

repress4 ,an artist may1 for example1   
through a vivid portrayal1 so excite the
 animal lust and cruelty which lurk     
hidden in all of us as to make the most 
morally reprehensible objects           
acceptable4 ,nature has taken many a    
revenge on civilization through art4    
,although no one should demand that     
these appeals be entirely excluded1 yet 
when they operate alone1 without the    
sublimation of insight1 they are        
flagrantly unaesthetic in their         
influence1 because they deprive the work
 of art of its freedom4  ,another means 
which the artist may employ in order to 
win us is the appeal of sense4 ,however 
repellent be the objects which he       
represents1 if he can clothe them in a  
sensuous material which will charm us1  
he will have exerted a powerful         
countervailing force4 ,we have already  
had occasion to observe this in our     
first chapter4 ,through the call of     
sense we are invited to enter and are   
made welcome at the very threshold of   

the work of art4 ,engaging lines1       
winsome colors and tones1 and compelling
 rhythms can overcome almost any        
repugnance that we might otherwise feel 
for the subject-matter4 ,their primary  
appeals are superior to all the         
reservations of civilization4 ,no wonder
 that the stern moralists who would keep
 beauty for the clean and holy have been
 afraid of art6 ,yet the delight of     
sense1 because its emotional effect is  
diffused1 does not interfere with the   
contemplative serenity of art1 as       
unbridled passion does2 it even quiets  
passion by diverting the attention to   
itself2 hence may always be employed by 
the artist4 ,a good example of the      
aesthetic fascination of sensation is   
,von ,stuck's ,salome in the ,art       
,institute of ,chicago4 ,for all normal 
feeling1 ,salome dancing with the head  
of ,john the ,baptist is a revolting    
object2 yet how beautiful the artist has
 made his picture through the simple    
loveliness of gold and red6  ,it would  

be a mistake1 however1 to infer the     
indifference of the subject-matter in   
art4 ,the creation of a work of art is  
based on a primary aesthetic experience 
of nature or human life1 and not        
everything is capable of producing such 
an experience in all men4 ,the subject  
must be one towards which the artist or 
spectator is able to take the sthetic   
attitude of emotional1 yet free1        
perception4 ,some people are unable to  
lay aside their moral prepossessions    
towards certain phases of life or even  
towards representation of them2 the idea
 affects them as would the reality4 ,for
 such people even the genius of a       
,beardsley is too feeble to create an   
experience of beauty out of the material
 with which he works4 ,or again1 some   
people cannot objectify their sensual   
egotistic impulses and feelings2 for    
them the reading of a ,boccaccio1 for   
example1 is only a substitute for such  
feelings1 not a means of insight into   
them4 ,it requires a robust intellectual

 attitude1 a predominance of mind over  
feeling and instinct1 aesthetically to  
appreciate some works of art4 ,but for  
those who can receive it1 the           
representation of any phase of life may 
afford an aesthetic experience1 may     
create a thing good to know1 if only it 
be mastered by the mind and embodied in 
a charming form4  ,the charm of sense   
together with the satisfaction of       
insight are sufficient to explain the   
conquest of evil by art4 ,yet further   
means have been employed--the special   
appeals of the tragic1 pathetic1 and    
comic4  ,what any one may mean by tragic
 is largely a matter of personal        
definition or tradition2 yet there is1  
,i think1 a common essence upon which   
all would agree4 ,first1 tragedy always 
involves the manful struggle of a       
personality in the pursuit of some end1 
at the cost of suffering1 perhaps of    
death and failure4 ,the opposition may  
come from nature1 as in ,the            
,grammarian's ,funeral2 from fate1 as in

 the ,oedipus2 from social and political
 interests1 as in ,antigone2 that is of 
little moment2 it is important solely   
that the battle be accepted and waged   
unflinchingly to the issue4 ,in this    
ultimate sense1 most of human life is   
tragic2 because it involves a continual 
warfare with circumstances1 which the   
majority of people carry on with a      
silent heroism4 ,originally1 only the   
glorious and spectacular conflicts of   
great personalities were deemed worthy  
of representation in art2 but with the  
growth of sympathy the range of tragic  
portrayal has gradually been extended   
over almost the whole of human life4    
,the peasant in his struggle for        
subsistence against a niggardly soil1 or
 the patient woman who loses the bloom  
of her youth in the unremitting effort  
to maintain her children1 are tragic    
figures4  ,second1 it is part of the    
essence of tragedy that the conflict    
should be recognized as necessary and   
its issue as inevitable4 ,in one form or

 another1 whether as ,greek or          
,christian or naturalistic1 fatality has
 remained an abiding element in the idea
 of tragedy4 ,the purpose or passion or 
sentiment which impels the hero to      
undertake and maintain the struggle must
 be a part of his nature so integral    
that nothing else is possible for him4  
,ich kann nicht anders is the cry of    
every tragic personality4 ,and the      
opposition which he meets from other    
persons1 from social forces or natural  
circumstances1 must seem to be equally  
fateful--must be represented as issuing 
from a counter determination or law no  
less inescapable than the hero's will4  
,even when the catastrophe depends upon 
some so-called accident1 it must be made
 to appear necessary that our human     
purposes should sometimes be caught and 
strangled in the web of natural fact    
which envelops them4  ,the reasons for  
our acceptance of tragedy are not       
difficult to find and have been noted1  
with more or less clearness1 by all     

students4 ,we accept it much as the hero
 accepts his own struggle--he believes  
in the values which he is fighting for  
and we sympathetically make his will    
ours4 ,moreover1 we discover a special  
value in his courage which1 we feel1    
compensates for the evil of his         
suffering1 defeat1 or death4 ,so long as
 we set any value on life1 it is        
impossible for us not to esteem courage2
 for courage is at once the defense     
against attack of all our possessions   
and the source1 in personal initiative  
and aggressive action1 of newer and     
larger life4 ,and any shrinking that we 
may feel against the sternness of the   
struggle is quenched both by the hero's 
example and by our recognition of its   
necessity4 ,since we are not            
participants of it1 our protest would be
 futile1 and even if we played a part in
 it1 we should be as foolish as we      
should be weak1 not to recognize that   
the will which opposes us is as         
inflexible as our own--such is          

life--that is our ultimate comment4 ,an 
appreciation of tragedy involves1       
therefore1 a sure discernment of the    
essential disharmony of existence1 yet  
at the same time1 a feeling for the     
moral values which it may create2       
neither the optimist nor the utilitarian
 can enter into its world4  ,there are1 
however1 works of art in which sheer    
evil1 without any compensating          
development of character1 is portrayed2 
where indeed the struggle may even cause
 decay of character4 ,in ,zola's ,the   
,dram ,shop1 for example1 the story is  
the tale of the moral decline1 through  
unfortunate circumstances and vicious   
surroundings1 of the sweet1 pliant      
,gervaise4 ,instead of developing a     
resistance to circumstances which would 
have made them yield a value even in    
defeat1 she lets herself go and is      
spoiled beneath them4 ,she has no friend
 to help or guardian angel to save4 ,we 
do not blame her1 for1 with her soft    
nature1 she could not do otherwise than 

crumble under the hard press of fate2   
neither can we admire her1 for she lacks
 the adamantine stuff of which heroes   
are made4 ,this is pathos1 not tragedy4 
,and just as most of human life involves
 tragedy in so far as it develops a     
strength to meet the dangers which      
threaten it1 so likewise it involves    
pathos1 in so far as it seldom resists  
at every point1 but gives way1 blighted 
without hope4 ,many a man or woman      
issues from life's conflicts weaker1 not
 stronger2 broken1 not defiant2         
petulant1 not sweetened2 and at the hour
 of death there are few heroes4 ,yet    
there may be beauty in the story of this
 human weakness and weariness4 ,whence  
comes it8 ,how can the representation of
 this sheer evil become a good8 ,the    
principle involved is a simple one4     
,announced first1 as far as ,i know1 by 
,mendelssohn1 it has recently been much 
more scientifically and penetratingly   
analyzed by ,lipps1 although wrongly    
applied by him to the tragic rather than

 the pathetic4,footnote3 ,cf4 ,lipps3   
,der ,streit ber die ,tragodie1 and     
,aesthetik1 ,bd4 ,i1 ,s4 #eii4  ,it is a
 familiar and generally recognized      
experience1 as ,lipps has observed1 that
 any threat or harm done to a value     
evokes in us a heightened appreciation  
of its worth4 ,parting is a sweet sorrow
 because only then do we fully realize  
the worth of what we are losing2 the    
beauty of youth that dies is more       
beautiful because in death its radiance 
shines the brighter in our memory4 ,a   
good in contemplation comes to take the 
place of a lost good in reality4 ,just  
as we hold on the more tightly to things
 that are slipping away from us in a    
vain effort to keep them1 so to save    
ourselves from utter sorrow1 we build up
 in the imagination a fair image of what
 we have lost1 free of the dust of the  
world4 ,this makes the peculiar charm of
 the delicate and fragile1 of weak      
things and little things1 of the        
transient and perishable2 they awaken in

 us the tender1 protective impulse while
 they last1 and when they are gone they 
suffer at our hands an idealization     
which the strong and enduring can never 
receive4 ,our pity for them mediates an 
increased love of them2 we mock at fate 
which deprives us of them by keeping    
them secure and fairer in our memory4   
,as in life1 so in art4 ,beneath and    
around the pictured destruction and ruin
 there opens up to us a more poignant   
vision of the loveliness of what was or 
might have been4 ,at the end of ,the    
,dram ,shop1 when ,gervaise sinks into  
ruin1 we inevitably revert to the       
beginning and see again1 only more      
intensely1 the gentle girl that she was1
 or else1 going forward1 we imagine what
 she might have been1 if only she had   
been given a chance4 ,the form of a     
possible good rises up from under the   
actual evil4 ,the story of oppression   
becomes the praise of freedom2 the      
picture of death1 a vision of life4 ,i  
know of no finer example of this in all 

literature than ,sophocles' ,ajax4 ,ajax
 has offended ,athena1 so he1 the hero  
of the ,grecian host1 is seized with the
 mad desire to do battle with cattle and
 sheep4 ,in lucid intervals he laments  
to his wife the shameful fate which has 
befallen him4 ,how glorious his former  
prowess appears lost in so ridiculous a 
counterfeit6 ,and his despair creates   
its magic4  ,in almost all so-called    
tragedies1 true tragedy and pathos are  
intermingled2 for we feel both pity and 
admiration1 and the pity intensifies the
 admiration4 ,the danger that threatens 
or the disaster that overwhelms the     
values which the hero embodies make us  
realize their worth the more4           
,throughout the ,antigone we admire the 
heroine's tragic courage of devotion2   
but it is at the point when1 just before
 her death1 she laments her youth and   
beauty that shall go fruitless--        
,alechron1 anymenaion1 oute ton gamon   
mepos lachousan oute paideion tpophaes  
that we feel the fullness of strength   

that was needed for the sacrifice4 ,one 
might perhaps think this lament a       
blemish of weakness in a picture of     
fortitude2 but the impression is just   
the opposite1 ,i believe2 for force is  
measured by what it overcomes4  ,there  
are so many different theories of       
tragedy that it would be impossible1    
were it worth while1 to embark on a     
criticism of all of them4 ,there are    
certain ones1 however1 which1 because of
 their wide acceptance1 demand some     
attention at our hands4 ,first1 it is   
often assumed that a tragedy should     
represent the good as ultimately        
triumphing1 despite suffering and       
failure4 ,but how can the good triumph  
when the hero fails and dies8 ,only1 it 
is answered1 if the hero represents a   
cause which may win despite or even     
because of his individual doom2 and it  
is with this cause1 not with him1 that  
we chiefly sympathize4 ,this was        
,hegel's view1 who demanded that the    
tragic hero represent some universal    

interest which1 when purged of the      
one-sidedness and uncompromising        
insistence of the hero's championing1   
may nevertheless endure and triumph in  
its genuine worth4 ,in the ,antigone1   
,hegel's favorite example1 the cause of 
family loyalty finds recognition through
 the punishment of ,creon for the girl's
 death2 while at the same time the      
principle of the sovereignty of the     
state is upheld through her sacrifice4  
,there are many tragedies which conform1
 at least partially1 to this scheme2 but
 not all1 hence it cannot be a universal
 norm4 ,in ,romeo and ,juliet1 for      
example1 although the death of the young
 people serves to bring about a         
reconciliation of their families1 the   
real principle for which they           
suffered--the right of private choice in
 matters of love--is in no way furthered
 by the outcome of the play4 ,and1      
although it is always possible to       
universalize the good which is sought by
 any will1 it is not possible to deflect

 upon a principle the full intensity of 
our sympathy1 away from the individual1 
concrete passion and action4 ,whenever a
 great personality is represented1 it is
 his personal suffering and fortitude   
that win at once our pity and our       
admiration4 ,for private sorrows1 for   
the ruin of character1 for the death of 
those whom we are made to love1 there   
can be no complete atonement in the     
universal2 because it is with the       
individual that we are chiefly          
concerned4 ,no2 the reconciliation lies 
where we have placed it--in tragedy1 in 
the personal heroism of the strong      
character2 in pathos1 in the vision1 not
 in the triumph1 of the good4  ,the     
ordinary ,protestant theological theory 
of tragedy is even more inadequate than 
the ,hegelian4 ,for1 by assuming that   
there is no genuine loss in the world1  
that every evil is compensated for in   
the future lives of the heroes1 it takes
 away the sting from their sacrifice and
 so deprives them of their crown of     

glory4 ,it makes every adventure a      
calculation of prudence and every       
despair a farce4 ,it is remote from the 
reality of experience where men stake   
all on a chance and1 instead of         
receiving the good by an act of grace1  
wring it by blood and tears from evil4  
,on much the same level of thinking is  
the moralistic theory which requires    
that the misfortunes of the hero should 
be the penalty for some fault or        
weakness4 ,this view1 which has the     
authority of ,aristotle1 is also based  
on the doctrine of the justice of the   
world-order4 ,it was pretty consistently
 carried out in the classical ,greek    
drama2 although there suffering is not  
exacted as an external retribution1 but 
as the inevitable consequence of the    
turbulent passions of the characters2   
for even the punishment for offenses    
against the gods is of the nature of a  
personal revenge which they take4       
,later1 of course1 when the gods        
retreated into the background of human  

life1 retributive justice was conceived 
more abstractly4 ,now1 it must be       
admitted1 ,i think1 that this idea1 so  
deeply rooted in the popular mind1 has  
exerted a profound influence on the     
drama2 yet it cannot be applied         
universally without sophistry4 ,to be   
sure1 in ,romeo and ,juliet1 the young  
people were disobedient and headstrong2 
in ,lear1 the old father was foolishly  
trustful of his wicked daughters2 these 
frailties brought about their ruin4 ,but
 did they deserve so hard a fate as     
theirs8 ,did not ,lear suffer as much   
for his folly as his daughters for their
 wickedness8 ,this is always true in    
life1 and ,shakespeare holds the mirror 
up to nature--but is it consistent with 
the theory of retributive justice8 ,one 
can usually trace back to some element  
of his nature1 physical or moral1 the   
misfortunes that befall an individual2  
even those which we call accidents1 as  
,galton claimed1 are often due to some  
inherent defect of attention which makes

 us fail to respond protectively at the 
right moment4 ,if we take the self to   
include the entire organism1 then it    
remains true that we cooperate as a     
partial cause in all that happens to us4
 ,ophelia's weak and unresisting brain  
must share with the stresses which      
surrounded her the responsibility for   
her madness4 ,in this sense1 and in this
 sense only1 do we deserve our fate1 be 
it good or ill4 ,yet1 when interpreted  
in this broadest meaning1 retributive   
justice loses all ethical significance4 
,and the cosmic disharmony appears all  
the more glaring4 ,it ceases to be      
chargeable to an external fate or ,god1 
to the environment or convention1 which 
might perhaps be mastered and remolded2 
and is seen pervading the nature of     
reality itself1 no accidental           
circumstance1 but essential evil1       
ineradicable4 ,the greatest tragic poets
 see it thus4 ,and then blame turns to  
understanding and resentment into pity4 
,retributive justice1 as the motive     

force of tragedy1 has for us lost its   
meaning4 ,we no longer feel the         
necessity of justifying the ways of ,god
 to man1 because we have ceased to      
believe that there exists any single1   
responsible power4 ,the good is not a   
preordained and automatically           
accomplished fact1 but an achievement of
 finite effort1 appearing here and there
 in the world when individuals1 instead 
of contending against each other1       
cooperate for their mutual advantage4   
,in addition to the comic1 there is much
 artistic representation of evil which  
can be classed neither as pathetic nor  
as tragic4 ,neither moral admiration nor
 idealization are aroused by the        
characters portrayed4 ,they may be great
 criminals like ,lady ,macbeth or ,iago1
 or the undistinguished and disorderly  
people of modern realistic literature1  
yet in either case we find them good to 
know4 ,and we do so1 not merely because 
we enjoy1 as disinterested onlookers1   
the spectacle of human existence1 but   

because the artist makes us enter into  
it and realize its values4 ,for even    
that which from the moral point of view 
we pronounce evil is1 so long as it     
maintains itself1 a good thing from its 
own point of view4 ,every will1 however 
blind and careless1 seeks a good and    
finds it1 if only in hope and the effort
 to attain4 ,through the intimacy of his
 descriptions and often against our     
resistance1 the artist may compel us to 
adopt the attitude of the life which he 
is portraying1 constraining us to feel  
the inner necessity of its choices1 the 
compulsion of its delights4 ,it is      
difficult to abandon ourselves thus to  
sympathy with what is wrong in life     
itself1 because we have in mind the     
consequences and relations which make it
 wrong2 yet we all do so at times1      
whenever we let ourselves go1 charmed by
 its momentary offering4 ,but in the    
world of art this is easier1 because    
there the values1 being merely          
represented1 can have no sinister       

effects4 ,when great personalities are  
portrayed1 this abandon is readiest2 for
 the strength or poignancy of their     
natures carries us away as by a         
whirlwind4 ,witness ,lady ,macbeth when 
she summons the powers of hell to unsex 
her for her murderous task1 or ,vanni   
,fucci in the ,inferno1,footnote3       
,inferno1 ,canto #be1 #a-c4 who mocks at
 ,god4 ,for the instant1 we become as   
they and feel their ecstasy of pride and
 power as our own4 ,yet the great artist
 can awaken this sympathy even for      
characters that are small and weak4 ,in 
,gogol's ,dead ,souls1 for example1     
there are no heroes4 ,the most          
interesting characters are the country  
gentlemen who return to their estates   
planning to write books which will      
regenerate ,russia4 ,but the old habits 
of life in the remote district are too  
strong4 ,so1 instead of writing1 they   
fall back into the routine of their     
ancestors and merely smoke and dream4   
,here are failure and mediocrity2 yet so

 intimate is the artist's story that we 
not only understand it all1 but feel how
 good it is--to dream our lives away4 ,i
 do not doubt that in this story there  
are elements of pathos and comedy2 yet1 
in general1 the delineation is too      
objective for either2 we neither laugh  
nor cry1 but are simply borne on1       
unresisting1 ourselves become a part of 
the silent tide of ,russian life4  ,the 
problem of evil in aesthetics may       
finally be solved by the use of the     
comic4 ,for in comedy we take pleasure  
in an object which1 in the broadest     
sense1 is evil4 ,in order for an object 
to be comical there must be a standard  
or norm1 an accepted system1 within     
which the object pretends but fails to  
fit1 and with reference to which1       
therefore1 it is evil4 ,there must be   
some points of contact between the      
object and the standard in order that   
there may be pretense1 but not enough   
points for fulfillment4 ,if we never had
 any definite expectations with         

reference to things1 never made any     
demands upon them2 if instead of judging
 them by our preconceived ideas1 we took
 them just as they came and changed our 
ideas to meet them1--there would be     
nothing comical4 ,or1 if everything     
fitted into our expectations and was as 
we planned it1 then again there would be
 nothing comical4 ,in a world without   
ideas1 the comic could not exist4 ,the  
comic depends upon our apperceiving an  
object in terms of some idea and finding
 it incongruous4 ,the most elementary   
illustrations demonstrate this4 ,the    
unusual is the original comic2 to the   
child all strange things are            
comical--the ,chinaman with his pigtail1
 the negro with his black skin1 the new 
fashion in dress1 the clown with his    
paint and his antics4 ,as we get used to
 things1 and that means as we come to   
form ideas of them into which they will 
fit1 adjusting the mind to them1 rather 
than seeking to adjust them to the mind1
 they cease to be comical4 ,so fashions 

in dress or manners which were comical  
once1 become matters of course and we   
laugh no longer4 ,enduringly comic are  
only those objects that persistently    
create expectations and as persistently 
violate them4 ,such objects are few     
indeed2 but they exist1 and constitute  
the perennial1 yet never wearying1 stock
 in trade of comedy4 ,but the comic     
spirit does not have to depend upon them
 exclusively1 for1 as life changes1 it  
constantly raises new expectations and  
offers new objects which at once provoke
 and fail to meet them4 ,everything1    
therefore1 is potentially comical and1  
in the course of human history1 few     
things can escape a laugh2 some curious 
mind is sure1 sooner or later1 to bring 
them under a new idea against which they
 will be shown up to be absurd4 ,the    
sanctities of religion1 love1 and       
political allegiance have not been      
exempt4  ,why1 if the comical object is 
always opposed to our demands1 should we
 take pleasure in it8 ,how can we be    

reconciled to things that are admittedly
 incongruous with our standards8 ,why   
are we not rather displeased and angry  
with them8 ,investigators have usually  
looked for a single source of pleasure  
in the comic1 but of those which have   
been suggested at least two1 ,i think1  
contribute something4 ,first1 by        
adopting the point of view of the       
standard as our own1 identifying        
ourselves with it1 and through the      
contrast of ourselves with the object1  
we may take pleasure in the resulting   
exaltation of ourselves4 ,the pleasure  
in the comic is often closely akin to   
that which we feel in distinction of any
 kind4 ,we feel ourselves superior to   
the object at which we laugh4 ,there is 
pride in much of laughter and not       
infrequently cruelty1 a delight in the  
absurdities of other men because they   
exalt ourselves as the representatives  
of the rational and normal4 ,there is   
often a touch of malice even in the     
laughter of the child4 ,nevertheless1   

the pleasure in the comic is still      
contemplative1 and so far aesthetic1    
because it is a pleasure in perception1 
not in action4 ,no matter how evil be   
the comic object1 we do not seek to     
destroy or remodel it2 action is        
sublimated into laughter4  ,but the     
pleasure in the comic may arise through 
our taking the opposite point of        
view--that of the funny thing itself4   
,instead of upholding the point of view 
of the standard1 we may identify        
ourselves with the object4 ,if the comic
 spirit is oftentimes the champion of   
the normal and conventional1 it is as   
often the mischief-maker and rebel4     
,whenever the maintaining of a standard 
involves strain through the inhibition  
of instinctive tendencies1 to relax and 
give way to impulse causes a pleasure   
which centers itself upon the object    
that breaks the tension4 ,the intrusive 
animal that interrupts the solemn       
occasion1 the child that wittingly or   
not scoffs at our petty formalities     

through his naive behavior1 win our     
gratitude1 not our scorn4 ,they provide 
an opportunity for the welcome release  
of nature from convention4 ,and the     
greater the strain of the tension1 the  
greater the pleasure and the more       
insignificant the object or event that  
will bring relief and cause laughter4   
,the perennial comic pleasure in the    
risque is derived from this source4     
,there is an element of comic pleasure  
in the perpetration of any mischievous  
or unconventional act4 ,those things    
which men take most seriously1          
,schopenhauer has said1 namely1 love and
 religion1 and we might add1 morality1  
are the most abundant sources of the    
comic1 because they involve the most    
strain and therefore offer the easiest  
chances for a playful release4 ,even    
utter and absolute nonsense is comical  
because it undoes all ,kant's categories
 of mind4  ,hence1 contrary to the      
theory of ,bergson1 the spontaneous as  
well as the mechanical and rigid may be 

comical4 ,sometimes the same object may 
be comical from both the points of view 
which we have specified2 this is always 
true1 as we shall see1 in the most      
highly developed comedy4 ,for example1  
we may laugh at the child's prank       
because it is so absurd from the point  
of view of our grown-up expectations as 
to reasonable conduct1 and at the same  
time1 taking the part of the child1     
rejoice at the momentary relief from    
them which it offers us4 ,our scorn is  
mixed with sympathy4 ,and oftentimes the
 child himself will hold both points of 
view at once1 laughing at his own       
absurdity and exulting nevertheless in  
his own freedom4 ,this is the essence of
 slyness4 ,it follows1 moreover1 that a 
thing which was comical for one of the  
reasons assigned may become comical for 
the other1 by a simple change in the    
point of view regarding it4 ,for the    
behavior which first pleased us because 
it was unconventional tends itself to   
become a new convention1 with reference 

to which the old convention then becomes
 the object of a laughter which is      
scornful4 ,the tables are turned3 the   
rebel laughs at the king4  ,the         
foregoing explanation of why we find the
 comical pleasant also explains why so  
many of our other pleasures are         
intermixed with the comical--why so     
often we not only smile when we are     
pleased1 but laugh4 ,for1 in the case of
 all except the most elementary         
enjoyments1 our pleasures are connected 
with the satisfaction of definite       
expectations regarding the actions or   
events of our daily lives4 ,but1 owing  
to the dulling effect of habit1 the     
pleasure attendant upon these           
satisfactions gradually becomes smaller 
and smaller or even negligible2 until1  
as a result1 only the novel and         
surprising events which surpass our     
expectations give us large pleasure2 but
 these are comical4 ,with the child1    
whose expectations are rigid and few in 
number because of his lack of           

discrimination and small experience1    
almost all pleasures1 like almost all   
events1 are of the nature of surprises4 
,the child almost always laughs when he 
is pleased4 ,the slang phrase to be     
highly tickled expresses with precision 
this close connection between laughter  
and pleasure4 ,moreover1 as the         
complexity of life increases1 its       
strains and repressions are multiplied1 
with the result that any giving way to  
an impulse contains a slight element of 
the mischievous or ridiculous2 whence1  
for this reason too1 the pleasant is    
also the comical4 ,in fact1 most of the 
pleasures of highly complex and         
reflective persons are tinged with      
laughter4  ,we expect art to accomplish 
three great results--reconciliation1    
revelation1 and sympathy4 ,so far we    
have shown how comic art may accomplish 
the first2 we have yet to prove how it  
may accomplish the rest4 ,in his book   
,le ,rire1 ,bergson has expressed the   
view that comedy is explicitly          

falsifying and unsympathetic4 ,as to the
 former charge1 we can1 ,i think1       
convince ourselves of the opposite if we
 examine certain of the more obvious    
methods of comedy1 particularly those   
which might seem at first sight to lend 
support to his contention4 ,one of the  
most common of these is exaggeration4   
,the simplest example is caricature1    
where certain features of an object are 
purposely exaggerated4 ,the effect is1  
of course1 comical1 because we expect   
the normal and duly-proportioned4 ,what 
a manifest falsification1 one might     
assert6 ,yet just the opposite is the   
actual result4 ,for every good          
caricaturist selects for exaggeration   
prominent and characteristic traits1    
through which by the very emphasis that 
is placed upon them1 the nature of the  
individual is better understood4        
,another favorite method is abstraction4
 ,certain traits are presented as if    
they were the whole man4 ,we get the    
typical comic figures of the novel and  

drama2 the physician who is only a      
physician2 the lawyer who injects the   
legal point of view into every          
circumstance of life2 the lover or the  
miser who is just love or greed2 the    
people who1 as in ,dickens1 meet every  
situation with the same phrase or       
attitude1 ,this1 too1 looks like a plain
 falsification of human nature1 because1
 however strong be the professional bias
 or however overmastering the ruling    
passion1 real people are always more    
complex and many-sided1 having other    
modifying and counteracting elements of 
character which prevent their speech and
 actions from being completely          
monotonous and mechanical4              
,nevertheless1 we can again acquit the  
comic writer of falsification1 because  
we understand the method which he is    
employing1 the trick of his trade4 ,he  
deceives no one4 ,on the contrary1 he   
enables us to perceive the logic of     
certain elementary springs of character4
 ,following the method of the           

experimentalist1 he selects certain     
aspects from the total complexity of a  
phenomenon and shows how they work when 
isolated from the rest4 ,and1 like the  
man of science1 he provides insight into
 the normal1 because we can accept his  
results as at least partially or        
approximately true4 ,art of this kind is
 abstract and therefore less valuable   
than the portrayal of the concrete2 yet 
only the dogmatist who insists on the   
restriction of art to the individual can
 reject it4  ,there is1 however1 a third
 common method of comical representation
 which neither exaggerates nor          
abstracts1 but preserves the            
concreteness of the finest art--we may  
call it the method of contrast4 ,it     
consists in exhibiting the contrast     
between the actual conduct of men and   
women and the standard1--either that    
which they themselves profess to live up
 to or our own1 which we impose upon    
them4 ,their pretenses are unmasked or  
their absurdities shown up against the  

ideal of reasonableness4 ,we behold the 
bourgeois who would be a gentleman      
remain bourgeois and the women who would
 be scholars remain women4 ,success in  
comedy of this kind depends upon        
possessing the ability to formulate the 
implicit assumptions underlying the     
behavior of the people portrayed or to  
make one's own standards with reference 
to them valid for the spectator4 ,here  
is no falsification1 but1 on the        
contrary1 a vivid revelation of the     
truth2 because1 just as by placing two  
colors in contrast with one another the 
hue of each is intensified1 so by       
setting man in relief against the       
background of what he ought to be1 we   
perceive his real nature more sharply4  
,as the child dressed like a grown-up   
appears all the more childish for his   
garb1 so man appears the more human for 
his pretenses4 ,to be sure1 in order to 
increase the comical effect1 this method
 is often employed in conjunction with  
that of exaggeration4 ,the ,athenian    

democracy was probably not quite so     
stupid as ,aristophanes represents it2  
the average ,britisher is not so        
philistine as ,shaw paints him4 ,yet the
 measure of exaggeration may be small   
and we readily discount it4 ,and        
finally1 whereas in simple              
representation there is a revelation of 
the object only1 in comical             
representation there is a two-fold      
revelation1--of the ideal and of the    
incongruous reality4 ,the former is     
always indirectly revealed2 for1 as we  
know1 the very existence of the comic   
depends upon it4 ,the man who laughs1   
his notion of the right and the         
reasonable1 his attitude towards the    
world and life1 become manifest through 
the things which he laughs at4 ,only a  
man of a certain kind1 with a certain   
sympathy and antipathy1 could laugh as  
he laughs4 ,the comic writer1 however   
much of a scoffer and a skeptic1 and    
however much he may deny it1 is always  
an idealist4 ,and it is for the         

revelation of themselves as much as for 
the revelation of the people whom they  
portray that we value the work of a     
,swift1 a ,voltaire1 or a ,thackeray4   
,another charge which has been brought  
against the comic is that it is         
unsympathetic4 ,its attitude1 it is     
said1 is one of externality1 opposed    
therefore to the intimacy necessary for 
the complete aesthetic reaction4        
,whereas simple aesthetic representation
 places us within the object itself1    
comical representation only exhibits a  
relation between it and an idea4 ,we    
judge it from our point of view1 not    
from its own4 ,the pleasure in pride and
 superiority which we feel towards the  
comical object seems also inconsistent  
with sympathy2 for sympathy would create
 a fellow feeling with it1 and place us 
not above1 but on a level with it4 ,if  
we do sympathize1 the comic object      
ceases to be comical and becomes        
pathetic4 ,we can find the follies and  
sins of men comical just so long as we  

do not sympathize with the sufferings   
which they entail4 ,there is nothing    
comical that may not also become        
pathetic2 and the difference depends    
exactly on the presence or absence of   
sympathy4 ,nothing1 for example1 is more
 pathetic than death2 yet if you keep   
yourself free of its sorrow1 there is   
nothing more comical--that man1 a little
 lower in his own estimation than the   
angels1 should come to this1 a lump of  
clay4  ,it is unquestionably true that a
 free1 disinterested attitude is        
essential to comedy4 ,you must not let  
yourself be carried away by any feeling2
 if you are over-serious you cannot     
laugh2 you must keep to reflection and  
comparison4 ,yet this attitude is not   
utterly destructive of all feeling4 ,man
 is complex enough at once to feel and  
to reflect4 ,he can pity as well as     
laugh4 ,the pathetic and the comic are  
constantly conjoined--witness our       
feeling towards ,don ,quixote or towards
 any of the great characters of         

,thackeray--we do not know whether to   
laugh or to cry4 ,and in the most       
effective comedy1 the standard applied  
to the comical object is not foreign1   
but rather1 as we have observed1 the    
implicit standard of the object itself1 
discernible only by the most intimate   
acquaintance with it4 ,the sting of     
laughter comes from our acceptance of it
 as valid for ourselves2 we blush and   
join in the laugh at ourselves4 ,the    
mischievous-comic1 moreover1 depends    
directly upon sympathy2 for it requires 
that we take the point of view of the   
funny thing2 our pleasure in it implies 
a secret sympathy for it--we hold it up 
to a standard1 yet all the time are in  
sympathy with its rebellion4 ,when we   
laugh at the prank of the child1 love is
 mixed with the laugh4 ,the dual nature 
of man as at once a partisan of         
convention and of the impulses that it  
seeks to regulate1 is nowhere better    
illustrated than in the comic4 ,finally1
 disinterestedness is not peculiar to   

comedy2 for it pervades all art4        
,feeling must be dominated by           
reflection2 even pathos demands this1   
for1 if we lose ourselves in sorrowful  
feeling1 no fair image can arise and    
steady us4  ,there is1 however1 much    
comedy that is obviously unsympathetic1 
even hostile4 ,there is satire1 which   
condemns1 as well as humor which        
pardons4 ,the one blames the unexpected 
and unconventional1 the other           
sympathizes with it4 ,comedy is either  
biting or kindly4 ,the one is moralistic
 and reformatory in its aim1 the other  
is aesthetic and contemplative4 ,because
 of its failure in sympathy1 satirical  
comedy is incomplete as art4 ,it        
provides insight and pleasure in the    
object1 but no union with it4 ,it does  
not attain to beauty1 which is free and 
reconciling4 ,kindly comedy or humor1 on
 the other hand1 is full beauty1        
combining sympathy with judgment1       
abandon with reflection4 ,nevertheless1 
satire tends inevitably towards humor4  

,for what we laugh at gives us pleasure1
 and what pleases us we must inevitably 
come to like1 and what we like cannot   
long fail to win our sympathy4 ,i do not
 think that even a ,swift or a ,voltaire
 could have been irreconcilably opposed 
to a world which offered them so much   
merriment4 ,the satire1 which begins in 
moral fervor1 must end in understanding4
 ,the bond that binds us to our fellows 
is too strong to be broken by the       
aloofness of our condemnation4 ,the same
 intelligence that discerns the         
incongruity between what men ought to be
 and what they are1 cannot fail to      
penetrate the impelling reasons for the 
failure4 ,only in humor is sympathetic  
insight complete4 ,satire has the       
temporal usefulness of a practical      
expedient1 humor the eternal value of   
beauty4     ,,chapter ,,vii  ,,the      
,,standard ,,of ,,taste   ,our interest 
in art is seldom a matter of mere       
feeling or appreciation2 usually it is a
 matter of judgment as well4 ,beginning 

in feeling1 the sthetic experience      
passes over into comparison and         
estimation--into criticism1 and there   
finds its normal completion4 ,this1     
which is evidently true of the aesthetic
 life of artists and connoisseurs1 is   
true also of average men4 ,we all enjoy 
the beautiful in silence1 but afterwards
 we want to talk about it to our        
friends4 ,if conversation about art were
 suppressed1 the interest in it would   
hardly survive4 ,on this side1 the      
enjoyment of art is intensely sociable1 
for to the civilized man sociability    
means discourse4  ,but1 as ,kant pointed
 out1 it is characteristic of           
conversation about art that the         
participants try to reach agreement in  
their judgments without acknowledging   
common principles with reference to     
which disputes can be decided4 ,and yet1
 since no man is content to hold an     
opinion all by himself1 but each tries  
to persuade the others of the validity  
of his own judgment1 it would seem as if

 there must be some axioms or postulates
 admitted by all4 ,hence what ,kant     
called the antinomy of taste3           
,thesis--the judgment of taste is not   
based on principles1 for otherwise we   
would determine it by proofs2           
antithesis--the judgment of taste is    
based on principles1 for otherwise1     
despite our disagreements1 we should not
 be quarreling about it4  ,in accordance
 with this situation1 two opposed       
theories of criticism have always       
existed4 ,on the one hand1 in face of   
the apparent lawlessness of beauty1 some
 thinkers have believed that there exist
 principles which can be applied to     
works of art to test their beauty with a
 certainty equal to that of the         
principles of logic in their application
 to inferences4 ,lessing1 for example1  
in the ,hamburgische ,dramaturgic wrote 
that the laws laid down by ,aristotle in
 the ,poetics were as certain in their  
application to the drama as ,euclid's   
,elements in geometry4 ,this comparison 

is a forcible statement of belief in the
 existence of aesthetic standards1 held 
by the entire classical tradition1 and  
still held by those who are spiritually 
akin to it1 although of course no one   
to-day would claim--and when it came to 
details ,lessing himself did not        
claim--that the judgment of ,aristotle  
or of any one else is infallible4       
,to-day those who believe in the        
possibility of rational aesthetic       
criticism think that reflection upon the
 purpose and methods of the arts results
 in the formulation of broad principles 
by means of which judgments of taste can
 be appraised and a community of taste  
achieved4 ,these principles1 they would 
admit1 are more difficult of application
 than the simpler logical rules1 owing  
to the greater subtlety and complexity  
of art1 yet1 when found1 have an equal  
validity within their own field4  ,on   
the other hand1 the view that there is  
no disputing about tastes has never     
lacked adherents4 ,according to this    

view1 criticism can be only a report of 
personal1 enthusiastic appreciation or  
repugnance without claim to             
universality4 ,anatole ,france1 surely a
 master of such criticism1 has expressed
 this conviction as follows3            
,l'estetique ne repose sur rien de      
solide4 ,c'est un chateau en ,pair4 ,on 
veut l'appuyer sur ,pethique4 ,mais il  
n'y a pas d'ethique4 ,il n'y a pas de   
sociologie 444 ,and again1 in the same  
preface to ,la ,vie ,litteraire3 ,pour  
fonder la critique1 on parle de         
tradition et de consentement universel4 
,il n'y en a pas4 ,l'opinion presque    
general1 il est vrai1 favorise certains 
oeuvres4 ,mais c'est en vertu d'un      
prejuge1 et nullement par choix et par  
effet d'une preference spontane4 ,les   
oeuvres que tout le monde admire sont   
celles que personne n'examine4 ,although
 the classic view is1 ,i think1 nearer  
the truth1 let us examine the arguments 
that may be advanced in favor of the    
impressionistic theory1 as it has been  

called4 ,what is there about aesthetic  
appreciation that makes it seemingly so 
recalcitrant to law8  ,first1 every     
aesthetic experience is unique1 and     
therefore1 it is claimed1 incomparable4 
,art is the expression of personality1  
and personality is always individual4   
,but unique things are1 in the end1     
incapable of classification1 hence are  
not amenable to general laws or         
principles4 ,of course1 works of art can
 be classified by following some        
abstract characteristic1 arranged in a  
series according as this quality is     
realized in them to a greater or less   
degree2 but1 in so far as a work is     
beautiful1 it contains at least one     
quality not possessed by other works1   
the quality that gives it its           
distinctive flavor1--which is1 indeed1  
its beauty4 ,the impressionist would    
admit1 for example1 that in intellectual
 power ,keats's ,eve of ,st4 ,agnes is  
inferior to ,wordsworth's ,intimations2 
also that it lacks the moral grandeur of

 the latter2 but would claim1 on the    
other hand1 that in saying this1 one is 
far from judging the beauty of ,keats's 
poem1 because that is completely lacking
 in ,wordsworth4 ,so far as the poem is 
beautiful1 it is unique2 hence you get  
no farther with it through comparison   
with some other poem4 ,you either       
appreciate it absolutely or you do not2 
if you do1 well and good2 you may then  
write a prose poem about it1 if you     
desire1 and so communicate some of your 
feeling for it to another person2 if you
 do not appreciate it1 no one can blame 
you or quarrel with you2 all that any   
one can do is to invite you to read     
again1 and1 perhaps through his         
eloquence1 seek to inspire you with--his
 own enthusiasm4 ,every work of art is  
superlative4 ,just as the lover thinks  
his sweetheart the most beautiful woman 
in the world1 so he who appreciates a   
work of art finds it supreme4 ,and among
 superlatives there is no comparison1 no
 better or worse4  ,from another point  

of view1 moreover1 the aesthetic        
experience seems unfavorable to         
comparison and classification4 ,for a   
work of art demands a complete abandon  
of self1 an entire absorption in it of  
attention and emotion4 ,every picture   
has a frame1 and every other work of art
 an ideal boundary to keep you in its   
world4 ,beyond the frame you shall not  
go2 beyond the stage you shall not pass2
 beyond the outline of the statue you   
shall not look4 ,and if you do pass     
beyond1 you have lost the full intensity
 and flower of the experience2 and      
whatever comparisons you then make will 
not concern its original and genuine    
beauty4 ,every work of art is jealous2  
to appreciate it aright1 you must for   
the moment appreciate it singly1 without
 thought of another4 ,finally1 the      
impressionist or skeptic would maintain 
that an alleged aesthetic principle     
would necessarily be abstracted from    
extant works of art2 hence could not be 
applied to new art4 ,a thing which does 

not belong within a class cannot be     
judged by principles governing that     
class4 ,in so far1 therefore1 as a work 
of art is original1 it must frustrate   
any attempt to judge it by traditional1 
historical standards--and what other    
standards are there8  ,although the two 
facts of the aesthetic experience--its  
uniqueness and claim to complete        
sympathy--upon which the skeptical      
opinion can be based1 are undoubted1 the
 inferences deduced from them do not    
follow4 ,if they did follow1 the        
aesthetic experience would be           
fundamentally different from every other
 type2 it would be totally atomic and   
discrete1 instead of fluid and          
continuous like the rest4 ,but its      
apparent discreteness is due to a       
failure to distinguish between the      
silent1 unobtrusive working of          
comparison and the more obvious and     
self-conscious working4 ,when rapt in   
the contemplation of a work of art1 ,i  
may seemingly have no thought for other 

works2 relative isolation and           
circle-like self-completeness are       
characteristic of the aesthetic         
experience2 yet1 as a matter of fact1   
the completeness of my reaction and the 
measure of my delight and absorption are
 partly determined by the accordance of 
the given work of art with a certain    
expectation or set of mind with         
reference to objects of its sort4 ,i can
 consent fully to the will of the artist
 only if he has first consented to my   
will as expressed in other works which  
,i have enjoyed and praised4 ,the       
situation in aesthetics is no different 
from that which exists in any other     
field of values2 through many           
experiences of good things ,i come to   
form a type or standard of what such    
things should be like2 and1 if any new  
thing of the kind is presented to me1 ,i
 cannot be so well pleased with it if it
 does not conform4 ,the type may never  
be formulated by me explicitly1 yet it  
will operate none the less4 ,the        

formation of what is called good taste  
occurs by exactly this process4 ,the    
first work of art that ,i see1 if it    
please me1 becomes my first measure4 ,if
 ,i see a second1 in order to win my    
approval1 it will either have to satisfy
 the expectation aroused by the first1  
or else surpass it4 ,in the latter case1
 a standard somewhat different from the 
old is created through the new          
experience2 and1 when ,i have acquired a
 large acquaintance with works of art1  
there grows up a standard which is the  
resultant of all of them--a type or     
schema no longer associated with        
particular works4 ,sometimes1 however1  
it happens that the standard continues  
to be embodied in some one or few works 
which1 because of outstanding           
excellence1 serve as explicit paradigms 
governing judgment2 such works are      
classics in the true sense4 ,and the    
impressionist is certainly wrong in his 
contention that the aesthetic           
appreciation of a work of art excludes  

the recall of other works and conscious 
comparison with them4 ,it is only when  
appreciation is of the more naive sort  
that this is the case4 ,the trained     
observer1 on seeing one of ,vermeer's   
pictures1 for example1 cannot fail to   
think of other works of the same artist2
 and1 if he is learned in the history of
 art1 he may even recall the whole      
development of ,dutch painting4 ,for the
 moment1 perhaps1 at the beginning1 the 
single work will completely absorb the  
attention2 but1 as we linger in         
appreciation and reflect upon it1 our   
memory is sure to work4 ,and the process
 of memory and comparison cannot be     
excluded on the ground that it is an    
external1 irrelevant context to         
appreciation2 for it actually functions 
to determine the degree of pleasure and 
absorption in a work of art4 ,moreover1 
this process of memory and comparison is
 not confined to the individual         
observer2 it is social and historical as
 well4 ,all art movements are inspired  

by the desire to improve on1 or to      
create something different from1 the    
conserved tradition4 ,the process of    
creation itself involves comparison and 
the recognition of a standard4 ,and for 
our civilization at any rate these      
movements are international4 ,they are  
not the products of isolated discrete   
groups1 impenetrable to each other1 but 
of a relatively universal1 continuous   
experience4  ,as for the uniqueness of  
aesthetic value1 that1 to be sure1 is a 
fact2 yet uniqueness is never the whole 
of any object4 ,those aspects which ally
 it with other things are just as       
genuinely its own as those which        
differentiate it from them2 they equally
 are a part of its beauty4 ,the attempt 
to separate any part of a work of art   
from the rest as the real part is an    
unwarranted and arbitrary dismemberment4
 ,the work is whole1 and beauty belongs 
to it as whole4 ,hence1 when1 through   
comparison1 you attend to the qualities 
that are shared with other works1 you   

are still judging the reality and beauty
 of the object1 quite as much as when   
you seek to taste its unique flavor4 ,a 
competent judgment can neglect no       
aspect4 ,the judgment that a work of art
 is better or worse than another in some
 general aspect touches it just as      
surely as the feeling for its           
distinctiveness4 ,and if it be true that
 so far as things are unique they are   
all on a level1 it is equally true that 
so far as they are not unique they are  
capable of being serialized1 and our    
total judgment upon them must follow the
 lines of comparison4  ,it is           
impossible1 therefore1 not to compare   
works of art one with another4 ,we will 
concede to the impressionist that       
anything which anybody finds beautiful  
is beautiful momentarily2 but we must   
insist on the everyday fact that1       
because of the operation of the standard
 as a result of growing experience in   
art1 what once seemed beautiful often   
ceases to seem so4 ,and we must also    

insist that among the things surviving  
as beautiful we inevitably set up a     
hierarchy1 a scale4 ,a plurality of     
values1 each unique and in its own way  
indispensable to a complete world of    
values1 is not inconsistent with        
relations of higher and lower among     
them4 ,the impressionist has taught us  
to love variety and to renounce the     
bigotry of the old refusal to accept    
anything short of the highest4 ,but in  
aesthetics--and in ethics too1 ,i       
believe--the standpoint of ,spinoza     
rules3 ,god is revealed in the mouse as 
well as in the angel1 although less in  
the mouse than in the angel2 and1 ,i    
should add1 the revelation through the  
humbler mouse is necessary to a complete
 revelation of ,god1 that is1 of the    
,good4 ,or1 as ,nietzsche said1 ,vieler 
,edlern naemlich bedarf es1 dass es     
,adel gebe6 ,our appreciation of        
,midsummer ,night's ,dream does not     
prevent us from appreciating ,alice in  
,wonderland1 just as our esteem for the 

man does not hinder our feeling for the 
peculiar charm of the child4  ,what     
takes place through the process of      
comparison is this3 we come increasingly
 to realize what we want of art4 ,every 
artist seeks to express something in    
terms of the material with which he     
works4 ,but it is only by experimenting 
with his medium that he learns what he  
can and what he cannot do2 and it is    
only by constant hospitable1 yet        
discriminating appreciation by us       
spectators that we1 in our turn1        
discover what to demand of him and      
commend4 ,consider1 for example1 the    
history of painting4 ,that we want of a 
picture1 sometimes the delineation of   
emotion and action1 yes2 but above all  
and always1 the representation of       
visible nature1 with space and          
atmosphere and light--this purpose has  
been developed slowly and as the result 
of many experiments and comparisons4    
,but having won it1 we are secure in it4
 ,we shall still appreciate the beauty  

of the primitives and academics1 but we 
shall not be able again to prefer them  
to the plein-airistes4 ,or recall the   
development of ,english poetry4 ,we     
still admit the contribution of ,dryden 
and ,pope1 but we shall never have to   
fight over again the battle won by      
,wordsworth and his contemporaries for  
imagination and emotion4 ,our conception
 of the purpose of poetry has been      
enriched by an insight that we cannot   
permanently lose4 ,there are1 to be     
sure1 retrograde movements in the       
arts--like the ,pre-,raphaelite movement
 in painting--but they are soon         
recognized as such4  ,now with reference
 to the purpose of art to express in a  
given material1 there are1 ,i think1 a  
few general principles of judgment      
applying to all the arts1 implicitly or 
explicitly recognized in criticism1 and 
capable of formulation4 ,first1 the     
complete use of the medium4 ,we prefer1 
other things being equal1 the work of   
art that has fully exploited the        

expressive possibilities of its medium  
to one that has failed to do so4 ,as an 
illustration1 ,i would cite the almost  
universal condemnation1 at the present  
time1 of neo-classical sculpture1 in    
which the touch values of the surfaces  
of statues were destroyed4 ,of course   
some compensating gain may be claimed--a
 greater visual purity2 yet1 as we shall
 see1 from the point of view of         
expression1 the gain was negligible     
compared with the loss4 ,so likewise1   
unless the vers-libristes can show some 
positive gain in expression1--a power to
 do something that normal verse cannot  
do1 their work must rank lower than     
normal verse1 which makes fuller use of 
the rhythmic possibilities of language4 
,second1 the unique use of the material4
 ,what we want of art depends1 not only 
on comparison between works of art      
belonging to the same genre1 but on     
comparison of the purposes of different 
genres1 indeed of the different arts    
themselves4 ,what we want of painting   

depends upon what we want of sculpture2 
what we want of poetry depends upon what
 we want of painting and music4 ,we     
compare picture with picture2 but       
equally we compare picture with statue  
and poem4 ,we do not want the sculptor  
to try to do what the painter can do    
better1 and vice-versa2 or the poet to  
encroach on the domains proper to the   
musician and painter4 ,we do not want   
poetry to be merely imagistic or merely 
musical when we have another art that   
can give us much better pictures and    
still another that can give us much     
better music than any word-painting or  
word-music4 ,when we read a poem1 we do 
not want to be made to think how much   
better the same thing could be done in a
 different medium4 ,there is nothing so 
salutary in keeping an art to its proper
 task as a flourishing condition of the 
other arts4 ,here the great example is  
,france1 where the limitations of the   
different arts have been best recognized
 all the while the highest level of     

perfection has been reached in many arts
 contemporaneously4  ,third1 the perfect
 use of the medium in the effort to     
fulfill the artistic purpose of         
sympathetic representation--the power to
 delight the senses and create sympathy 
for the object expressed1 on the one    
hand1 and the range of the vision of the
 object1 on the other2 the depth and the
 breadth of the aesthetic experience4   
,with reference to the former we ask3   
how vividly does the work of art force  
us to see2 how completely does it make  
us enter into the world it has created2 
and1 in doing this1 how poignantly has  
it charmed us1 how close has it united  
us to itself8 ,the measure of this is   
partly subjective and irreducible to    
rules2 yet experience in the arts       
establishes a norm or schema of         
appreciation through the process of     
comparison1 largely unconscious1 by     
which what we call good taste is        
acquired4 ,there are certain works of   
art that seem to have fulfilled this    

requirement in the highest possible     
degree1 thus attaining to perfection    
within their compass4 ,such1 for        
example1 are some of ,sappho's or       
,goethe's lyrics1 or the ,fifth ,canto  
of the ,inferno4 ,nothing more perfect1 
more beautiful of their kind can be     
conceived4 ,and to see how works of art 
may differ in degree of perfection of   
sympathetic vision1 one has only to     
recall lesser works expressing the same 
themes4 ,yet we recognize greater works 
even than those cited--works in which1  
although the sympathetic vision is no   
more penetrating and compelling1 it is  
broader1 more inclusive4 ,goethe's      
,faust is greater than any of his lyrics
 because the range of experience which  
it expresses is vaster4 ,a ,velasquez is
 greater than a ,peter ,de ,hooch       
because1 in addition to an equal beauty 
of expression through color and line and
 composition1 an equal dominion over    
light and space1 it contains a marvelous
 revelation of the inner life1 which is 

absent from the latter4 ,according to   
,berenson1 no one has yet painted the   
perfect landscape because thus far only 
a certain few aspects have been         
expressed1 but not all4  ,there are1 ,i 
think1 certain qualities which are      
generally recognized as necessary to the
 perfect fulfillment of the artistic    
purpose of a work2 which follow1 indeed1
 from the very meaning of art4 ,thus1   
without uniqueness and freshness there  
can be no perfection in artistic        
expression4 ,a well-worn or even an     
identical expression may have value in  
the solution of a practical problem1 or 
in bringing men into good-natured       
relationships with one another in social
 life2 as when1 for example1 the officer
 cries ,halt6 repeatedly1 or we say     
,good morning at breakfast2 because1 in 
such cases1 the expression gets its     
significance from the context in which  
it belongs4 ,but in art1 where          
expression is freed from the particular 
setting within which it arises1 thus    

attaining universality1 the repetitious 
and imitative1 having no environment    
from which they may derive new meaning1 
are purposeless4 ,they are1 indeed1     
worse than negligible1 because having   
grown into the habit of expecting       
originality1 we are disappointed and    
bored when we fail to find it4          
,originality is1 of course1 relative2 it
 is not incompatible with the           
reminiscence of old works--what works of
 art are not reminiscent8--but it does  
prohibit saying the old things over     
again in the same medium2 the artist    
must have a new message to put into the 
medium2 or else1 if the old themes are  
still near to his heart1 he must invent 
a new form in which to express them1    
from which they will derive a new music4
 ,closely allied to freshness are       
spontaneity and inner necessity1 the    
signs of a genuine1 as opposed to a     
factitious1 expression4 ,if we get the  
impression from a work of art that no   
part could be otherwise--not a single   

line or note or stroke of the           
brush--then we have the same sort of    
feeling towards it that we have towards 
the living thing that was not made by   
hands capriciously1 but grew in its     
inevitable way in accordance with the   
laws of its own nature4 ,of course1     
works of art are products of thought1 of
 plan1 and conscious purpose2 they are  
seldom composed all at one flash1 but   
grow tentatively into their final form2 
nevertheless1 in the words of ,kant1 ,a 
work of art must look like nature1      
albeit we know that it is art4 ,sense   
charm and order are also necessary2 for 
they are the conditions of a perfect    
sympathy and vision4 ,we are indulgent  
towards the vigorous1 impatient passion 
that bubbles over into rough and        
careless music or poetry1 but are not   
satisfied with it4 ,for art's task is   
not merely to express1 but to dominate  
through expression1 to create out of    
expression1 beauty2 and without order   
and charm of sense1 there is no beauty4 

,compose your passion1 we say to the    
musician2 pattern it forth1 we say to   
the poet2 it will not lose its vigor2   
rather it will acquire a new power2 for 
thus it will achieve restraint1 the sign
 of art's dominion4  ,the recognition of
 the principles indicated presupposes1  
of course1 that art really has a purpose
 with reference to which it can be      
judged as successful or unsuccessful4   
,but ,i do not see how this can very    
well be denied4 ,art is one of the      
oldest of human activities1 one might   
almost say institutions1 and it is      
inconceivable that it should not have   
been directed by some intention1        
conscious or unconscious4 ,to be sure1  
men have expressed this intention in    
varying1 often in inconsistent ways1 but
 the same is true of all other human    
activities and institutions4 ,few would 
deny1 ,i suppose1 that science and the  
state have purposes2 yet how various    
have been the definitions of them4      
,these variations have corresponded1    

without doubt1 to adaptations to new    
conditions1 yet throughout some unique  
purpose in human life has been          
subserved4 ,so with art4 ,art has been  
identified now with one interest and now
 with another2 what people want of art  
differs from one age to another1 and    
each must define that for itself2 yet   
throughout there has been a core of     
identity in the purposes it has served4 
,in our own age we witness the attempt  
to distinguish the purpose of art from  
the purposes of other elements of       
civilization1 with which it has often   
been fused and confused1--science1      
religion1 morality4 ,correspondingly we 
witness the effort to limit the         
functions of political control2 to take 
from its jurisdiction religion1 culture1
 love4 ,and this effort is for the sake 
of a fuller and freer realization of    
values4  ,furthermore1 not only has art 
a general function1 but this function is
 differentiated among the different art 
forms and genres4 ,no work of art can be

 judged without reference to its        
function4 ,its beauty consists in the   
fulfillment of this function4 ,now this 
function is1 of course1 largely unique  
for each art form and for each          
particular work of art1 and every work  
has to be judged with reference to its  
individual purpose1 yet a knowledge of  
other works of the same artist and the  
same genre1 and of the general history  
of art1 helps to divine this purpose and
 to judge of its relative success4      
,there is a large measure of continuity 
in the intentions of a given artist and 
school of art4 ,the development of      
painting in the last century is a       
striking illustration of such           
continuity4 ,the painters sought to     
develop a definite tradition1 thinking  
of themselves as carrying further the   
work of their predecessors4 ,of course  
these developments were largely         
technical in character1 but beauty      
itself is the fruition of technique4    
,the people who base a skeptical opinion

 upon the historical changes in taste   
forget that taste is necessarily a      
growth2 that it is developed by trial   
and error1 through and despite the      
following of many false paths4 ,only if 
the standard were something delivered to
 men by divine revelation--as indeed the
 old dogmatists came very close to      
believing-- would it be strange and     
inconsistent for changes to occur4 ,but 
if1 as is the fact1 the standard is     
experimental and representative of      
actual artistic purposes1 then change is
 normal4 ,moreover1 the standard is not 
single and absolute1 but plural and     
relative4 ,growth in taste means not    
only development along a given line1    
within a given form1 but enlargement    
through the origination of new forms and
 beauties4 ,it is not like the straight 
line growth of an animal1 but rather    
radial1 like the growth of a plant1     
sending out branches in every direction4
 ,an art may attain to perfection in a  
certain genre1 and then continue only   

through the creation of new types4 ,thus
 sculpture and architecture reached a   
kind of perfection in the classic1      
beyond which it was impossible to       
go--the only possible development lay in
 the creation of new types4  ,if it is  
true1 then1 that the existence of       
standards has a sound basis in the      
aesthetic experience1 how can their     
apparent failure to work and secure     
unanimity of judgment be explained8 ,how
 account for the actual chaos of        
judgment8 ,partly1 at least1 because    
many judgments passed on works of art   
are not aesthetic judgments at all4     
,these must be eliminated if any        
consensus is to be won4 ,we may call    
these judgments pseudo- sthetic         
judgments4 ,they fall naturally into    
several classes1 which it will be worth 
while to describe4  ,first1 there is the
 very large class of partisan           
judgments--judgments based1 not upon a  
free appreciation1 but upon some        
personal predilection or transient      

appeal4 ,to this class belong the       
special preferences of boyhood and      
youth--the liking for ,cooper and ,jules
 ,verne1 for example-- and those due to 
nationality1 like the ,englishman's     
choice of ,thackeray and the            
,frenchman's of ,balzac1 or1 what is a  
more flagrant case1 the long resistance 
of the ,french public to the beauty of  
,wagner's music4 ,the former type of    
judgment is corrected by the simple     
process of maturing1 when the beauties  
appreciated in youth are not lost1 but  
only given their due place in the       
hierarchy of aesthetic values2 the      
latter type1 on the other hand1 being   
more deeply based1 is more difficult to 
remedy4 ,but that even this prejudice   
can be largely overcome is shown by the 
example of critics who1 through         
prolonged sympathetic study1 come to    
prefer the art of a foreign land4 ,a    
notable example of this is              
,meier-,graeffe1 who condemns almost all
 of modern ,german painting and exalts  

the ,french4 ,footnote3 ,see his ,modern
 ,art1 and his special studies of       
,manet1 ,renoir1 and ,degas4 ,patriotic 
preferences are so difficult to overcome
 because they spring from limitations of
 sympathy4 ,sympathy depends upon       
acquaintance1 and few of us can acquire 
the same expertness in an alien language
 or artistic form that we possess in our
 own4 ,yet1 understanding the reason for
 these deficiencies of judgment1 we can 
go to work to improve them1 through     
increasing our knowledge of foreign art4
  ,no less inevitable psychologically is
 the preference for works of art that   
treat of the problems and conditions of 
contemporary life4 ,part of this1 to be 
sure1 is expressive merely of some      
transient mood of the popular mind4 ,the
 enthusiasm1 happily passing1 for the   
plays of ,brieux or the craze for       
,algerian landscapes in ,france after   
the acquirement of the colony1 are      
examples4 ,such preferences1 being      
superficially motivated1 correct        

themselves with ease1 giving way to some
 new fashion in taste4 ,the preference  
for works of art that reflect the more  
serious and permanent problems of       
contemporary society is more firmly     
rooted4 ,men inevitably seek the        
artistic expression of the things that  
deeply concern them4 ,the problems of   
the reconstruction of the family1 of the
 working classes1 and of government must
 continue to inspire art and to         
determine our interest in it1 until new 
difficulties occupy our minds4 ,the mere
 passage of time1 however1 brings a     
remedy for critical injustices flowing  
from this source2 for1 when present     
problems are solved1 the difference     
between living art1 which expresses     
them1 and historical art1 vanishes4     
,then1 only those works which reflect   
the eternal enigmas have any advantage  
over the others4 ,the same process tends
 to eliminate the prejudice1 rooted in  
temperament1 in favor of the old and    
familiar in art2 or1 following a        

different bent1 in favor of the new and 
startling4 ,in such cases1 a just       
estimate can be made only when the new  
becomes the old1 and both are reduced to
 a common level4  ,another type of      
pseudo-aesthetic judgment is the        
imitative4 ,by this ,i mean the judgment
 which is made because somebody else has
 made it1 particularly somebody in      
authority4 ,the imitative judgment is   
the expression1 in the field of         
aesthetics1 of what ,trotter has called 
herd instinct1 ,footnote3 ,see his ,the 
,herd ,instinct in ,peace and ,war1     
first part4 the tendency on the part of 
the gregarious animal to make his acts  
and habits conform to those of another  
member of the same group1 particularly  
if that member is a leader or represents
 the majority4 ,the dislike of          
loneliness and the love of companionship
 operate1 as we have already had        
occasion to notice1 even in the sphere  
of the spirit4 ,differences here        
separate people just as other           

differences do4 ,in art1 herd instinct  
tends to make the judgment of the       
authoritative or fashionable critic take
 the place of spontaneous and sincere   
judgment4 ,i do not mean that such      
judgments are usually consciously       
insincere2 although they often are so1  
since men seek to ingratiate themselves 
by flattering even the aesthetic        
opinions of those whose love or         
protection they desire4 ,i do mean1     
however1 that they tend to suppress     
opinions which would reflect an         
autonomous appreciation4 ,moreover1     
whatever may be said for herd-instinct  
in the realm of politics and morals1    
where the need for common action makes  
necessary some sort of consensus among  
the members of a group1 very little can 
be said for it in aesthetics1 where no  
practical issues are directly involved4 
,there1 herd instinct simply substitutes
 sham appreciation for a vital and      
healthy reaction4 ,of course1 imitative 
judgments must be distinguished from    

those that agree because they are based 
on a genuine contagion or community of  
feeling4 ,this distinction may be a     
difficult one for the outsider to make2 
but is not so for the individual        
concerned4 ,i do not deny the value of  
authority in aesthetics2 what ,i am     
inveighing against is the substitution  
of authority for sincerity4 ,in art1 the
 suasion of the norm should be          
absolutely free1 with no penalty except 
isolation from the best4 ,the only value
 of authority is to counteract laziness 
and superficiality of appreciation2 to  
stimulate those who would rest content  
with first impressions to a more        
studious and attentive examination4     
,yet1 however great be our natural      
desire to convince others of beauty1 we 
want their conviction to be as sincere  
as our own3 we do not want it to be     
factitious1--suggested or dragooned4 ,it
 is often too easy1 rather than too     
hard1 to win agreement4  ,the question  
of the place of authority in aesthetics 

is raised again by a consideration of   
another class of pseudo-aesthetic       
judgments1 which ,i shall call ignorant 
judgments4 ,these judgments are         
perfectly sincere1 but express an       
aesthetic experience that is imperfect1 
owing to defective understanding of art4
 ,so many people judge works of art as  
if they could assimilate them           
immediately1 without any knowledge of   
their purpose and technique4 ,they fail 
to recognize that a work of art has a   
language1 with a vocabulary and grammar1
 which has to be mastered through study4
 ,a work of art is a possibility of a   
certain complex of values1 not a given  
actuality that can be grasped by merely 
stretching out the hand4 ,very little of
 any work of art is given--just a few   
sense stimuli2 the rest is an emotional 
and meaningful reaction1 which has to be
 completed in a determinate fashion4 ,a 
work of art is a question to which the  
right answer has to be found4 ,and in   
order to find the answer1 it is         

necessary to know both what to look for 
and what not to look for4 ,for example1 
in judging ,japanese prints1 one must   
realize1 from the limitation of the     
medium1 that one cannot look for all the
 fullness of expression of shadow and   
atmosphere possible in an oil painting2 
or in judging decorative or             
post-impressionistic painting1 one must 
realize that the purpose of the artist  
is chiefly to obtain musical effects    
from color and line1 not to represent   
nature realistically4  ,because works of
 art are ideals1 possibilities of       
experience1 and not given things which  
everybody can appreciate without        
knowledge and effort1 ,i am skeptical of
 all results obtained in laboratories of
 experimental aesthetics1 where college 
students are asked to judge works of    
painting1 music1 and sculpture4 ,an     
uninstructed majority vote cannot decide
 any question in aesthetics4 ,such      
experiments1 with the exception of those
 that concern the most elementary       

reactions1 yield interesting statistical
 results about the groups employed as   
subjects1 but are of no value in        
aesthetics4 ,and what wonder that we    
should find people disagreeing in their 
judgments when1 because of ignorance1   
they are not reporting about the same   
objects6  ,finally1 an aesthetic        
consensus is possible only if           
non-aesthetic standards and all         
judgments based on false conceptions of 
the purpose of art are eliminated4 ,some
 of these judgments ,i have already     
discussed--the scientific and the       
moralistic4 ,the purpose of art is      
sympathetic vision1 not scientific truth
 or edification4 ,it is often necessary1
 in order to win a vision of actual     
life1 for the artist to possess         
scientific knowledge2 but only as a     
means1 not as an end4 ,and again1       
insight into the more enduring          
preferences of men and the conditions of
 their happiness1 upon which rational   
moral standards are founded1 is         

indispensable to a complete             
interpretation of life2 but there is    
much of life that can be envisaged      
sympathetically1 that is1 artistically  
and beautifully1 with small hold on     
ethical wisdom4 ,no one1 ,i suppose1    
would regard de ,maupassant as a wise   
man in the ,greek sense of possessing a 
philosophical grasp of the norms which  
make up the conscience of men1 yet few  
would deny him the supreme gift of      
delineating the pathos and comedy of    
passion4 ,i do not doubt that men will  
always judge works of art from abstract 
standpoints2 that to-day they will judge
 them from the points of view of science
 and morals1 since we are so dominated  
by their sway2 but ,i do claim that     
these standards are not aesthetic1 and  
that so long as they control our        
estimates of art1 there can never be    
anything except chaos in taste2 for they
 will always come into conflict with the
 genuinely aesthetic point of view4     
,and1 ,i ask1 why not grant to art its  

autonomy8 ,if art has a unique purpose1 
different from that of science or       
morals1 why should we not judge it in   
terms of that purpose8  ,of course1     
since man's nature is one1 not many1 it 
will always be impossible entirely to   
get rid of the non-aesthetic bases of   
judgment4 ,personal predilection for a  
certain kind of subject-matter1         
patriotic preference for one's own      
language and style1 the influence of    
authority and the lure of the crowd1 the
 intrusion of the moralistic and the    
scientific bias1--all these must1 to a  
greater or less degree1 divide and      
dispute the hegemony of taste4          
,nevertheless1 although it is impossible
 to reach a pure aesthetic judgment1 we 
ought to strive to approach it1 and1 by 
dint of training and clear thinking     
about art1 we can approach it4 ,we ought
 to do this1 not because of any         
formalism or purism1 but for the sake of
 preserving the unique value of art1    
which is covered up or destroyed by the 

intrusion of non-aesthetic standards of 
judgment4 ,for judgment does influence  
feeling1 especially such a delicate and 
subtle thing as aesthetic feeling4 ,the 
patriotic and the partisan judgments    
narrow appreciation1 the imitative      
substitute a judgment for a feeling1 the
 moralistic and scientific prejudices   
often inhibit the possibility of the    
aesthetic reaction at the start1 or1 if 
they allow it to begin1 prevent the full
 sympathy and abandon which are required
 for its consummation4 ,we can get      
scientific truth from science1 why then 
seek it in art8 ,we can obtain moral    
wisdom from the philosopher and priest1 
why require it of the artist8 ,reformers
 and statesmen will enlighten us        
concerning reconstruction1 why not turn 
to them8 ,i do not mean1 of course1 that
 art may not express the mystery and the
 wonder of science1 the voice of        
conscience1 the cry of distress2 but    
even this is not science1 or sociology1 
or morals2 and art must and should also 

express dark passion1 hot hate or love1 
and joy--in the sea1 in sunlight1 in the
 shadow of leaves on the grass1 in the  
bodies of men and women--and the other  
myriad forms of human life and nature   
that are neither right nor true1 but    
simply are4 ,and furthermore3 the       
tyranny of the scientific and the moral 
is the death of art4 ,art can live only 
when free4 ,so long as men are subject  
to the exclusive habit of condemning and
 praising and analyzing and classifying1
 they are incapable of a free           
envisagement and expression4 ,between   
sociology and ,puritanism1 the artistic 
novel and the drama have become all but 
impossible in this country4 ,during the 
nineteenth century1 the predilection1   
among the ,pre-,raphaelites1 for the    
scientific and moral nearly killed      
landscape painting in ,england1 its     
birthplace4 ,and only in ,france1 where 
alone of modern nations the moral and   
hygienic attitude towards the human body
 has not completely driven out the      

artistic1 has there been a vital and    
enduring sculpture4  ,if the aesthetic  
judgment is given autonomy1 a sure      
foundation for aesthetic norms can be   
established1 because then art will be   
judged with reference to a perfectly    
definite purpose4 ,feeling will always  
tell us whether a thing is beautiful or 
not2 but feeling itself will depend upon
 whether the implicit purpose of art has
 been realized2 and1 when we            
reflectively consider a work in relation
 to other works1 we shall have a solid  
basis for comparison4 ,judgment will    
have a foundation in reason as well as  
in feeling4 ,we shall ask of the artist1
 not whether he has instructed us or    
edified us1 but solely whether he has   
given us a new and sympathetic vision of
 some part of our experience4 ,the kind 
of vision that he gives us will depend1 
of course1 upon the materials of his    
art--it will be one thing in sound1     
another in color or line or patterned   
words4 ,even as we demand of art in     

general a unique value1 as fulfilling a 
unique function1 so we shall demand of  
the different arts that each provide us 
with the unique beauty which its        
materials can create4 ,we shall         
therefore commend the separation of the 
arts and view with suspicion any attempt
 to fuse them4 ,whatever be his         
materials1 we shall demand of the artist
 always the same result3 that he make us
 see1 and command our sympathy and      
delight for his vision4 ,any judgment   
that we make1 or any standard that we   
set up1 must proceed upon a knowledge of
 this master purpose and of the         
materials and technique of the          
particular art through which it is to be
 realized4 ,and such standards1         
experimental and tentative1 but         
nevertheless potent and directive1 are  
capable of discovery and formulation4   
,some of the larger and more important  
of these we shall try to set forth in   
our chapters on the special arts4 ,an   
artist who works within these standards 

is sure to produce something beautiful2 
one who breaks them will fail or1       
rarely1 find some hitherto undiscovered1
 surprising beauty in the medium4       
,there still remains for consideration  
the fear lest the recognition of        
standards may discourage new experiments
 and so interfere with the creative     
impulse4 ,it is true that tragedies have
 occurred when criticism has been       
unsympathetic and malicious--remember   
,keats and the struggles of the early   
,french impressionistic painters--but   
even then ,i doubt if any real harm to  
art has resulted4 ,for the situation in 
aesthetics differs from the situation in
 ethics and politics where the retarding
 effect of convention is undeniable4 ,in
 art there can never be the same        
closeness of alliance between convention
 and vested interests that is so        
repressive a force in the world4 ,it is 
probably true indeed that1 as ,plato    
said1 when the modes of music change1 so
 do constitutions change2 for example1  

there is doubtless to-day some          
connection between imagist poetry1      
post-impressionistic painting1 ,russian 
music1 and revolutionary                
sentiment--witness1 in our own country1 
,the ,masses and ,the ,seven ,arts--but 
the link is too delicate to alarm the   
powers that be4 ,the upholding of a     
standard must be allied with material   
interests if it is to be repressive of  
creation and novelty4 ,but1 as a free   
force1 operating solely by influence1   
the standard has the effect only of     
keeping alive the love of excellence1   
and1 by providing some stability in the 
old1 creating that contrast between the 
new and the old1 so stimulating to the  
new itself4 ,for the impulse to         
originate operates best alongside of and
 in opposition to the desire to         
conserve4 ,france has been the great    
originator in the plastic arts during   
recent times2 but it has also been the  
only country where a genuine traditional
 standard has existed4 ,when tradition  

is based on experiments1 as in art1 it  
cannot be in essence hostile to them4   
,and all valid aesthetic principles are 
sufficiently broad and abstract not to  
interfere with novelty and creation4    
,when such principles as we have tried  
to formulate are admitted1 the world of 
aesthetic judgments can be organized and
 some consensus about the beautiful     
achieved4 ,without an approach to a     
consensus1 the aesthetic impulse can    
never be content2 for it is indefeasibly
 sociable4 ,agreement in judgments      
depends upon a common experience1 and   
this also art can provide4 ,for beauty  
is constituted of elementary reactions  
to sense stimuli which are well-nigh    
universal among men1 and of symbols and 
meanings which can be learned like any  
language4 ,the delight in harmony and   
balance1 order and symmetry and rhythm1 
and again1 the pleasure in the unique   
and well finished1 are felt by every    
one4 ,the entire form side of art1 its  
structure or design1 is based on        

fundamental and enduring elements of    
human nature4 ,the symbolism of         
sensation1 its musical expressiveness1  
as we have called it1 is rooted likewise
 in reactions and interpretations that  
either are1 or may become1 through      
suggestion and training1 common         
property4 ,there are1 of course1 the    
people who have no feeling for tones1   
and through defective memory for tones1 
no appreciation of musical design2 there
 are also those who are insensitive to  
color and line4 ,in many cases1 through 
the training of the attention1 these    
defects can be overcome2 yet1 in others1
 they are permanent and incurable4 ,this
 fact limits the universality of art2   
oftentimes1 when two people are         
discussing a work1 they are not talking 
about the same object2 for a large part 
of its potentialities are lost to one of
 them4 ,nevertheless1 the validity of   
empirical standards among those who are 
capable of appreciating the whole of a  
work of art is not touched by this fact4

 ,those who can agree1 ultimately will  
agree4 ,as for art as representation1   
that is a language readily acquired4 ,it
 is an easier and more natural language 
than ordinary speech4 ,what is meant by 
the colors and lines of a painting or   
statue1 or by the mimic of the drama1 is
 immediately grasped by any intelligent 
person2 for to make use of images of    
things in order to represent them is a  
universal habit among men4 ,the painting
 and sculpture of the ,chinese are      
intelligible to us2 not so their speech4
 ,of course1 to some extent1 the        
language of painting and sculpture is   
conventional2 the limits of accuracy of 
imitation are not set by nature1 except 
at the extremes1 but by the tradition or
 practice of painters4 ,yet the         
convention is a simple one1 easily      
understood and accepted4     ,,chapter  
,,viii  ,,the ,,aesthetics ,,of ,,music 
,in this and the following chapters     
which treat of the arts1 ,i plan to make
 a concrete application of the aesthetic

 theory thus far developed4 ,i want to  
show how the general principles which we
 have tried to establish can be used to 
explain the facts of our artistic       
experience4 ,in doing this ,i shall hope
 to achieve a double purpose3 first1 to 
verify anew our theory of art1 and      
second1 to deepen and enlighten         
appreciation4  ,i begin with music      
because1 as we shall see1 there is a    
musical factor in all the arts1 an      
understanding of which at the beginning 
will enable us to proceed much more     
easily in our survey of them4 ,i shall  
confine myself to an elementary         
analysis2 for a more detailed study     
would take us beyond the bounds of      
general aesthetics and would require a  
knowledge of the special technique of   
the arts which we cannot presuppose4    
,moreover1 we shall not concern         
ourselves with the origin or history of 
the arts further than is needful for an 
understanding of their general          
character4 ,we are investigating the    

theory1 not the history1 of taste1 and  
are more interested in the present      
developed aesthetic consciousness than  
in its rudimentary forms4  ,as we       
appreciate it to-day1 music lends itself
 readily to our definition of art4 ,it  
is a personal expression--who1 when     
listening to music which he enjoys1 does
 not feel himself poured forth in the   
tones8 ,it is social and public--what   
brings us together under the sway of a  
common emotion more effectively than    
concert or opera8 ,it is a fixed and    
permanent expression1 for we can renew  
it so long as men preserve the score    
where it is written2 and1 finally1 it is
 free--who can find any practical or    
moral or scientific purpose in an etude 
of ,chopin or a symphony of ,mozart8    
,music is the most signal example of a  
mode of expression that has attained to 
a complete and pure aesthetic character1
 an unmixed beauty4 ,yet this was not   
true of music in its earlier forms1 and 
a long process of development was       

necessary before freedom was realized4  
,for we must look for the beginning of  
music in any and all sounds through     
which primitive men sought to express   
and communicate themselves4 ,these were1
 first of all1 the cries of the human   
voice1 expressive of fear and need and  
joy--at once direct outpourings of basic
 emotions and signals to one's fellows1 
to help1 to satisfy1 and to sympathize4 
,in the voice nature provided man with a
 direct and immediate instrument for the
 expression and communication of himself
 through sound4 ,then1 perhaps by       
accident1 man discovered that he could  
make sounds in other ways1 through      
materials separate from his body1 and so
 he constructed drums and cymbals and   
gongs2 and by means of these1 too1 he   
communicated his needs and stimulated   
himself to rage and excitement--and his 
enemy to fear--in war dance and battle  
rush4 ,and in doing this he was         
imitating nature1 whose noises1 exciting
 and terrifying1 he had long known3 the 

clap of thunder1 the whistle of the     
wind1 the roar of the waves1 the        
crackling of burning wood1 the crash of 
fallen and breaking things4  ,out of    
unbeautiful noise sprang beautiful      
music4 ,men discovered that through the 
voice they could make not only          
expressive noises1 but also pleasant    
tones2 they found1 perhaps by accident1 
that they could do much the same thing  
with reeds and strings2 they observed   
that when they beat their drums at      
regular intervals to mark the motion of 
the dance1 they not only danced together
 more easily1 but also experienced joy  
in the very sounds they made2 or that   
when they threshed the corn with        
rhythmic strokes or rowed a boat in     
rhythmic unison1 their task was         
lightened and their wearied attention   
distracted to the pleasure of their     
noise4 ,hence at their dances of love or
 war or religion1 they sang instead of  
shouted2 and their instruments of       
irregular and expressive noise became   

instruments of rhythmical and melodious 
tones4 ,eventually1 having experienced  
the pleasure there is in tones and      
rhythmical sounds1 they made them for   
their own sake1 apart from any          
connection with tribal festivals1 and   
the free art of music was born4 ,and    
yet1 as we shall see1 the significance  
of music depends largely upon the fact  
that tones are akin to noises2 music    
could not take such a hold of the       
emotions of men did they not overhear in
 the tones the meaningful and poignant  
noises of voice and nature2 to          
understand music1 we must think of it   
against its background of expressive    
noise4 ,in music we still seem to hear a
 voice that breaks the silence and      
speaks1 the thunder that terrifies4     
,the material of music consists of      
tones1 the conscious counterparts of    
periodic1 longitudinal vibrations of the
 air4 ,tones differ among themselves in 
many attributes1 of which the following 
are of chief importance for music3      

pitch1 determined by rate of vibration1 
through which tones differ as higher and
 lower2 color1 determined by the        
complexity of the vibration wave1 the   
presence of overtones of different pitch
 along with the fundamental tone in the 
total sound2 intensity1 dependent upon  
the amplitude of the vibration1 through 
which tones of the same pitch differ as 
soft or loud2 and finally1 quality1 that
 specific character of a tone1 by reason
 of which middle ,c1 for example1 is    
more like the ,c of the octave below or 
above than like its nearer neighbors1 ,b
 or ,d1 whence the series of tones1     
although in pitch linear and            
one-dimensional1 is in quality periodic1
 returning again and again upon itself1 
as we go up or down the scale4          
,footnote3 ,see ,geza ,revesz3          
,tonpsychologie4  ,the number of        
qualities in use in music--twelve in our
 scale of equal temperament--is1 of     
course1 not all there are in the world  
of tones2 they are a human and arbitrary

 selection1 governed by technical and   
historical motives1 into which we shall 
not enter4 ,peoples with a different    
culture have made a different selection4
 ,but we are not concerned with the     
music of angels or of orientals1 but    
with our own4 ,with these twelve1 with  
their possible variations in pitch1     
loudness1 and tone-color1 the musician  
has a rich and adequate material4  ,all 
the elements of an aesthetic experience 
are present in striking simplicity even 
in the single musical tone4 ,there is   
the sensuous medium1 the sound2 there is
 a life expressed1 a feeling aroused in 
us1 yet so completely objectified in the
 sound that it seems to belong to the   
latter on equal terms with color or     
quality or loudness2 there is a unity   
and variety and orderly structure in the
 dominance of the fundamental among the 
overtones and the fusion of all in the  
total clang4 ,thus every note is a      
complete little aesthetic organism4 ,yet
 the beauty of single tones is very     

slight1--less1 ,i think1 than that of   
single colors2 they need the contrast or
 the agreement in consonance with other 
tones in order to awaken much feeling2  
they must be members of a wider whole2  
observe how1 when sounded after other   
tones1 they become enriched through the 
contrasting or consonant memory of those
 tones4 ,nevertheless1 the single tone  
has its feeling1 however slight1 and to 
understand this is to go a long way     
toward understanding the more complex   
structures of music4  ,in the first     
place1 tones1 unlike noises1 are all    
pleasant4 ,although we cannot be sure   
why this is true1 there can be little   
doubt1 ,i think1 that the regularity of 
the vibrations of the former1 in        
contrast with the irregularity of the   
latter1 is largely responsible4 ,the    
clang1 with its ordered complexity1 is a
 stimulus that incites the sense organ  
and connected motor tracts to a unified 
and definite response1 unlike noise1    
which creates confusion4 ,the pleasure  

in the single tone is similar1 in its   
causes1 to the pleasure in the          
consonance of two tones4 ,as we should  
expect from this analogy1 the pleasure  
is greater in rich tones1 which contain 
many partials1 than in thin tones1 which
 are relatively uninteresting4 ,but the 
feeling of tones is something more than 
mere pleasantness2 it is also a mood4   
,now this mood of tones is partly due to
 associations1--some superficial in     
character1 like the pastoral quality of 
flute tones or the martial character of 
bugle tones1 others more fundamental2   
but it has also a still deeper-lying    
root4 ,for a sound stimulus awakens not 
only a sensory process in the ear1 the  
correlative of which is a sensation1 but
 also incipient motor reactions1 which1 
if carried out1 would be an emotion1 but
 which1 being too slight and diffuse1   
produce only what we call a mood4 ,every
 sensation has a meaning for the        
organism in an environment where it has 
constantly to be on its guard for danger

 or assistance2 every sensation is      
therefore connected with the mechanism  
of reaction1 with its attendant         
emotions4 ,in ordinary experience1 there
 are objects present to which the       
organism may actually respond1 but in   
the aesthetic experience there are no   
real objects towards which a significant
 reaction can take place2 in music1 the 
source of the sound is obviously of no  
practical importance1 while in such arts
 as painting and sculpture where        
interesting objects are represented1 the
 objects themselves are absent2 hence   
the reaction is never carried out1 but  
remains incipient1 a vague feeling      
which1 finding no object upon which it  
may work itself off1 is suffused upon   
the sensation4 ,these sense feelings are
 the subtle1 but basal1 material of all 
beauty4  ,the variety of moods expressed
 in tones is almost endless4 ,when we   
experience them1 they come to us as the 
inner life of the total concrete tones1 
but they depend actually upon the       

working together of all the tonal       
attributes1--color1 quality1 pitch1 and 
loudness4 ,there is the subtle intimacy 
of violin tones compared with the clear 
arresting ring of the trumpet2 the      
emotional differences between qualities 
like ,c and ,g1 too delicate for        
expression in words2 the piercing       
excitement of the high1 bright tones1   
compared with the earnest depth of the  
low1 dull tones2 the almost terrifying  
effect of loud tones compared with the  
soothing influence of soft tones4  ,the 
precise psychophysical mechanism through
 which the different moods are aroused  
is for the most part hidden from us2 yet
 in certain particulars we can form some
 idea of it4 ,for example1 the richness 
of feeling in the tones of certain      
instruments as compared with others is  
doubtless due to the fact that through  
the presence of more overtones and the  
admixture of noise1 the reaction is more
 complex2 the tense excitement of high  
and loud tones1 as compared with the    

soft and low1 is probably connected with
 the fact that their higher vibration   
rate and greater amplitude of vibration 
produce a more marked effect1 a more    
pervasive disturbance1--the organism    
does not right itself and recover so    
rapidly and easily4 ,these direct and   
native elements of feeling are then     
broadened out and intensified through   
other elements that come in by way of   
association4 ,for example1 in order to  
sing high tones1 a greater tension and  
exertion of the vocal chords is needed  
than for low tones2 loud tones suggest  
loud noises1 which1 as in breaking and  
crashing and thundering1 are inevitably 
associated with fear2 the loud is also  
the near and present and threatening1   
the low is distant and safe4 ,although  
each tone1 as separate and individual1  
possesses its own feeling in its own    
right1 the tonal effects are immensely  
accentuated by contrast with one        
another1--the high against the low1 the 
poor against the rich1 the loud against 

the soft--and through the summation1 by 
means of repetition1 of the influences  
of many tones of like character2 the    
full meaning of music depends upon the  
relations of tones1 especially the      
temporal relations4  ,this fact was     
fully recognized by ,aristotle1 who     
raised the question why tones are so    
much more expressive than colors4 ,music
 is almost the sole important art that  
relies on the expressiveness of the     
sense material alone1 independent of any
 element of meaning4 ,to be sure1 the   
beauty of oriental rugs depends entirely
 on their color and line harmonies2 for 
the meanings which the patterns have for
 their oriental makers is generally     
unknown to us of the western world2 yet 
what we feel when we contemplate them   
cannot compare in volume and intensity  
with what we experience when we listen  
to music4 ,and ,aristotle correctly     
assigned one of the chief reasons for   
the superior significance of music--its 
temporal character4 ,a color or line    

scheme may express a momentary mood1    
with perhaps just the most rudimentary  
movement as we go from the dark to the  
bright colors1 or as we follow the      
motion of the lines as they curve or    
converge2 yet it cannot express an      
action or process that begins1 proceeds1
 continues1 ends4 ,when we look at the  
colors or lines of a painting or rug1 we
 feel intensely1 but there is no        
development or process of feeling2 if   
the mind moves1 it moves inevitably not 
with1 but away from1 what it sees4 ,but 
tones are given to us in succession2 we 
are forced to move with them2 hence they
 come to express for us1 in ways which  
we shall try to analyze1 the changing   
and developing process of the inner     
life4  ,in its temporal aspect1 music   
has two chief characteristics1 rhythm   
and melody4 ,in our music these are     
inseparable2 yet they can be separated  
for the purposes of analysis2 and a     
rhythmical roll of drumbeats or a       
careless succession of tones            

harmonically related proves that each   
may produce an aesthetic effect without 
the other4 ,we shall consider melody    
first4  ,a mere succession of tones1    
however pleasing separately1 does not   
make a melody2 for melody depends on a  
definite scale and on certain relations 
between the tones of the scale4 ,these  
relations illustrate the three modes of 
aesthetic unity4 ,first1 there is       
harmony4 ,tones are harmonically related
 when they belong to the leading chords 
of the key4 ,the tones of such chords1  
when sounded together1 are consonant4   
,now harmony1 which is an aesthetic     
feeling1 although not identical with    
consonance1 which is a purely sensory   
relation between tones1 depends         
nevertheless upon consonance4 ,in order 
to understand harmony1 we must therefore
 first understand consonance1 and1 in   
order to do this1 we must begin by      
describing the experience and then look 
for its possible causes4 ,footnote3     
,consult the discussions in ,karl       

,stumpf1 ,tonpsychologie2 ,carl ,emil   
,seashore1 ,the ,psychology of ,musical 
,talent1 chap4 ,,vii4 ,as for the first1
 consonant tones1 when sounded together1
 seem to fit one another1 almost to     
fuse1 despite the fact that the         
different tones are distinguishable in  
the whole4 ,this fitting together1 in   
turn1 seems to depend on a resemblance  
or partial identity between them4 ,for  
example1 the most consonant tones are a 
note and its octave1 which are1 perhaps1
 actually identical in quality2 but     
lesser intervals are also alike1 as for 
example a note and its fifth1 which are 
more readily mistaken for one another   
than two dissonant tones1 say a note and
 its seventh4 ,as for the explanation of
 consonance1 we know that consonant     
tones have identical partial tones and  
are caused by vibration rates that stand
 to one another in simple ratios4 ,thus 
in a clang composed of a tone and its   
fifth1 the first partial of the fifth is
 the second partial of the prime1 and   

the vibration ratios are as two to      
three4 ,the bearing of this second fact 
on the question of partial identity will
 become clear if we consider the        
concrete case of a tone produced by #bd 
vibrations per second1 whose fifth would
 then be produced by #cf vibrations per 
second1 and then consider the same tone 
and its dissonant second1 the ratio of  
whose vibrations is #bd to #bg2 in the  
former case1 there is a common part of  
#f vibrations1 a fourth of the total    
number of the first tone2 in the latter1
 only #c1 an eighth4 ,that identity of  
partial tones is not a sufficient       
explanation of consonance--as ,helmholtz
 thought it to be--is proved by the fact
 that simple tones1 which have no       
partials1 may still be consonant4       
,nevertheless1 an identity of partials  
does undoubtedly contribute to the      
consonance of the complex tones used in 
our music2 ultimately1 however1 the     
final reason for consonance must be     
sought in some underlying identity      

within the tones themselves1 an identity
 that seems to be given psychologically 
in their resemblance1 and with which    
physically the simplicity of their      
vibration ratios probably has something 
to do4 ,and that in music the feeling of
 harmony should depend upon partial     
identity is what we should expect from  
our previous study of harmony in        
general4 ,footnote3 ,see page #hg4  ,the
 second of the tonal relations upon     
which melody depends is contrast4       
,first1 there is the contrast between   
the high and the low2 even when notes   
are harmonically related1 as a note and 
its fifth1 they are in contrast1 in so  
far as the one is measurably higher and 
more distant than the other4 ,of equal  
importance is the rivalry between the   
fundamental tones in the leading        
harmonic chords2 for example1 the       
rivalry between the tonic and the       
dominant4 ,for each of these claims to  
be the center of the melodic            
progression1 and draws to itself all the

 tones which belong to its chord4       
,dissonance is a cause of rivalry2 for a
 dissonant tone is one that will not fit
 into a given harmony2 yet since it is  
still a part of the melody1 must have   
its home somewhere1 and belongs         
therefore in another harmony1 which1    
through this tone1 is set up in rivalry 
with the prevailing one4 ,a tone that   
did not belong to any harmony would not 
be a dissonance1 but a discord1--a tone 
without meaning musically4 ,dissonances1
 like other contrasts1 enrich the melody
 by establishing rival harmonies2       
discords destroy melodies4 ,just as the 
drama has little significance without   
conflict1 so melodies are uninteresting 
without dissonances4  ,were it not for  
the third of the tonal relations1       
melodies would lack unity and system and
 go to pieces under the stress of rival 
forces4 ,this third relation may be call
 finality2 ,footnote3 ,the explanation  
of this is obscure2 there is no         
unanimity among the specialists in      

musical theory4 it belongs among        
relations we have called evolutionary4  
,by it is meant the fact that certain   
tones demand and naturally lead into    
other tones1 in which they seem to find 
their completion or fulfillment4 ,for   
example1 the tones of a chord demand the
 fundamental tone of the chord2         
dissonances must be resolved1--must be  
followed by other tones of their own    
harmony2 the diatonic tones over and    
above the tonic--the upleader and       
downleader--naturally lead into the     
tonic2 and all the tones demand1 either 
immediately or through the mediation of 
other tones1 the tonic of the scale to  
which they belong4 ,this principle of   
finality1 which1 in the classic music1  
is the basis of what is called tonality1
 by establishing the tonic as the center
 of reference and point of completion of
 all tones1 gives to melody its dramatic
 unity4 ,through it1 by creating the    
tonic chord as fundamental1 the rivalry 
between the tonic1 dominant1 and        

subdominant is overcome1 and all        
dissonances finally resolved into unity4
 ,definite scales and tonal laws and    
schemes of composition are of the utmost
 importance for musical composition2    
there are1 of course1 many of these     
besides the classical1 and they are all 
partly conventional2 but that does not  
matter so long as1 by being well known1 
they enable the melody to move along    
definite lines1 arousing and fulfilling 
definite expectations4 ,those forms of  
modernist music that dispense with      
scales altogether1 in which therefore   
there are no fixed points de repere like
 the tonic or dominant of the older     
music1 can express chance momentary     
moods by means of rich and strange      
colors1 but not an orderly and          
purposeful experience4  ,of course1 in  
our modern harmonic music the melodic   
movement proceeds by means1 not of      
single tones1 but of chords4 ,yet no new
 principle is introduced by this fact4  
,for the chords have in part merely the 

significance of highly enriched tones1  
the harmonized tones of the chords      
taking the place of the partials of the 
single notes and imparting a more       
voluminous color1 which may have its own
 beauty as such2 and1 in addition1 they 
simply confer upon the melody another   
dimension1 as it were1 the tonal        
relations of harmony and contrast       
operating between the tones of the      
chords simultaneously1 as well as       
temporally between the successive       
elements of the melody4  ,the orderly   
beauty which the tonal relations confer 
upon music is further enriched and      
complicated by rhythm4 ,rhythm in music 
is of two sorts3 a rhythm of time and a 
rhythm of accent1 or increased loudness4
 ,through the one1 the duration of a    
musical composition is divided up into  
approximately equal parts filled by     
notes and rests of definite length1 and 
through the other1 the light notes are  
subordinated to the heavy notes4 ,the   
two1 however1 are interrelated2 for the 

bars are divided from each other by the 
accents1 and the accents recur at       
approximately equal intervals4  ,the    
pleasure in rhythmical arrangement is   
derived from two sources3 first1 from   
the need for perspicuity which is       
fulfilled through the regular grouping  
of the tonal elements in the            
bars1--their length being adjusted to   
the average length of an attention wave1
 and the number of tones that fill them 
to the number of items which can be     
taken in at one act of attention1--and  
through the subordination of the light  
to the heavy within the bars1 the bars  
to the measures1 and the measures to the
 periods4 ,the second source of         
satisfaction in rhythm is the           
combination of feelings of balance and  
harmony aroused--a rhythm is not only a 
pleasing perspicuous order1 but an      
emotion4 ,footnote3 ,see chap4 ,v1 p4#ij
 ,for every recurring accent and        
interval competes with its predecessor  
for the mind's attention1 yet is in     

agreement with it since it1 too1        
fulfills the law that pervades them all4
  ,the full significance of both melody 
and rhythm depends1 however1 upon their 
interrelation1 the concrete musical     
structure1 the motive or melody in the  
complete sense1 being an indissoluble   
unity of both4 ,now if we take the term 
will with a broad meaning1              
,schopenhauer's characterization of     
melody as an image of the will still    
remains the truest aesthetic            
interpretation of it4 ,for1 when we hear
 it1 we not only hear1 but attend to    
what we hear2 we hear each tone in its  
relations of harmony or contrast or     
fulfillment to other tones1 freighted   
with memories of its predecessors and   
carrying with it expectations1 which the
 following tones fulfill or deny4 ,the  
melody begins1 let us suppose1 with the 
tonic note4 ,this note then becomes for 
us a plan or purpose2 for as it goes1 it
 leaves in the mind a memory of itself1 
no mere pale sensation--no image ever   

is--but a motor set1 an expectation and 
desire to hear the note again4 ,if the  
next note is harmonically related1 this 
purpose is partially fulfilled and we   
get the satisfaction of a partial       
success4 ,if1 however1 the tone does not
 belong to the tonic chord1 but1 let us 
suppose1 to the subdominant1 it comes as
 a hindrance1 an obstacle1 or perhaps as
 a new and rival purpose springing up in
 the course of the fulfillment of the   
old1--a purpose which can be satisfied  
only through the other tones of its     
chord4 ,hence the tension of conflicting
 expectations and the excitement as now 
the one and now the other is fulfilled  
in the succeeding notes4 ,yet1 since all
 other harmonies are subordinated to the
 tonic harmony1 and even through their  
very opposition increase our desire for 
it1 they must give way to the           
fundamental purpose with which we       
started2 and when the tonic does        
eventually triumph1 it fulfills not only
 itself1 but all lesser desires of the  

melody2 in it we find what we have been 
seeking1 we arrive where we set out to  
go4 ,and in this success we not only    
obtain what we first wanted1 but        
more--an experience enriched by every   
conflict1 and harmonious ultimately     
through the inner adjustment and        
resolution of its elements2 for in      
hearing the final note we hear the      
memories of all previous tones1 also4   
,when the departures from the keynote   
are many and distant and sudden1 and the
 melody wanders into the bypaths of     
foreign harmonies1 moving along broken  
and zigzag lines1 it expresses an       
exciting1 a dangerous and difficult     
adventure2 when1 however1 the departures
 are gradual and confined for the most  
part within the limits of a single      
harmony1 moving in a smooth and curving 
path1 it expresses a life that is secure
 and happy1 tending to repose as the    
line approaches the horizontal1 and as  
repetitions of the same note            
predominate4  ,rhythm enters into melody

 to differentiate and emphasize4 ,by    
means of accent and time-value1 the     
different tones are weighted and their  
relative value fixed4 ,the heavy tones  
assert their will with a more insistent 
energy2 the long tones upon which we    
linger make a deeper and more lasting   
impression2 while the light and short   
tones in contrast become points of mere 
passing and transition4 ,if1 moreover1  
we include the element of tempo1 then   
all the temporal feelings are introduced
 into melody--the excitement of rapid   
motion1 the calmness of the slow2 the   
agony of delay1 of waiting and          
postponement1 with the triumph and      
relief when the expected note arrives at
 last4 ,finally1 the effects of shading 
must be added1 the contrasts between    
piano and forte--loudness that brings   
the tones so near that they may seem    
threatening in their insistence2        
softness that makes them seem far away  
and dreamlike4  ,following the large    
idea introduced by ,schopenhauer1 which 

was enriched by the minuter studies of  
,lotze1 ,wundt1 and ,lipps1 we may sum  
the foregoing analysis in the statement 
that music expresses the abstract       
aspects of action1 its ease or          
difficulty1 its advance or retrocession1
 its home coming or its wandering1 its  
hesitation or its surety1 its conflicts 
and its contrasts1 its force or its     
weakness1 its swiftness or slowness1 its
 abruptness or smoothness1 its          
excitement or repose1 its success or    
failure1 its seriousness or play4 ,then1
 in addition1 as we shall see1 all modes
 of emotion that are congruous with this
 abstract form may by association be    
poured into its mold1 so that the       
content of music becomes not a mere form
 of life1 but life itself4  ,it is1 of  
course1 obvious that our analysis has   
confined itself to the barest elements  
of the musical experience4 ,our music   
to-day1 with its many-voiced harmonies1 
with its procession of chords instead of
 single tones1 with its modulation into 

related keys1 has an infinite wealth and
 complexity defying description4 ,a     
large part of the astonishing effect of 
music is derived from the fact that in a
 brief space we seem to hear and absorb 
so much3 the careers of multitudinous   
lives compressed into an instant4 ,yet  
the meaning of the complex whole can be 
understood1 ,i think1 from such an      
analysis of the simple structure as has 
been given4  ,the methods by which the  
larger musical wholes are built up      
illustrate principles of aesthetic      
structure with which we are already     
familiar4 ,there is the harmonious      
unification of parts through the simple 
repetition of motives1 their inversion  
or imitation in higher or lower keys1   
either successively or simultaneously2  
the execution of the same theme in      
another time or tempo2 and through the  
interweaving of themes4 ,there is the   
balance of contrasted or competing      
themes2 the subordination of the lesser 
to the more striking and insistent      

motives2 the preparation for1 emergence 
and triumph of1 a final passage that    
resolves all dissonances and adjusts all
 conflicts4 ,because of music's         
abstractness1 the connection between the
 parts of a musical composition may be  
loose or subtle1 taxing the synthetic   
powers even of the educated listener2   
yet some contrast or analogy of feeling 
must always unite them4 ,the structure  
of the whole may be either static or    
dramatic2 in the former case the        
dramatic element is confined to the     
themes1 the purpose of the whole being  
merely to work out all their significant
 variations1--to embroider and repeat   
them in new keys and rhythms and tempos1
 and to contrast them with other themes4
 ,repetition is the great creative      
principle of musical development1 the   
composer seeking to say over again in   
ever new forms what he has said before4 
,and this1 again because of the         
abstractness of music1 is a significant 
process2 to repeat the concrete is      

tiresome and trivial1 but an abstract   
form is always enriched by appearing in 
a new shape4  ,the explanation of       
musical expression thus far given1      
although it suffices to account for the 
basis of all musical feeling1 is1 ,i    
think1 inadequate to its full volume and
 intensity4 ,there is a concreteness of 
emotional content in some musical       
compositions--an arousal of terror and  
longing and despair and joy--infinitely 
richer than any abstract forms of       
feeling4  ,to account for this1 two     
sources of explanation suggest          
themselves4 ,first1 the arousing of     
emotions through deep-lying effects of  
rhythm4 ,it is a well-known fact1 cited 
in most discussions of this subject1    
that the motor mechanism of the body is 
somehow attuned to rhythm4 ,when we hear
 rhythmical sounds1 we not only follow  
them with the attention1 we follow them 
also with our muscles1 with hand and    
foot and head and heart and respiratory 
apparatus4 ,even when we do not visibly 

move in unison with the rhythm--as we   
usually do not--we tend to do so1 which 
proves that in any case the motor       
mechanism of the body is stimulated and 
brought into play by the sounds4 ,there 
is a direct psychophysical connection   
between the hearing of rhythmic sounds  
and the tendency to execute certain     
movements4 ,but there is an equally     
direct relation between emotions and    
tendencies to movements1 through which  
the former find expression and are given
 effect in the outer world4 ,to every   
kind of emotion--love and hate and fear 
and sorrow and joy--there corresponds a 
specific mode of motor manifestation4   
,the connection between rhythmic sound  
and emotion is therefore plain2 the link
 is a common motor scheme4 ,rhythms     
arouse into direct and immediate        
activity the motor sets that are the    
physical basis of the emotions1 and     
hence arouse the corresponding emotions 
themselves1 without any ground for them 
outside of the organism4 ,and these     

emotions1 since they are aroused by the 
sounds and not by any object to which   
they might be directed and upon which   
they might work themselves off in a     
meaningful reaction1 are interwoven into
 the sounds1--they and the sounds come  
to us as a single indissoluble whole of 
experience4 ,the emotions become the    
content of the sounds4 ,and hence the   
strangeness of the musical              
experience--the fact that we feel so    
deeply over nothing4  ,the second cause 
for the concreteness of the musical     
experience ,i take to be certain        
emotions and feelings which are aroused 
by association1 not with the rhythmic   
elements of music alone1 but with the   
tone-color1 intensity1 and melody also4 
,there is a human quality1 a poignancy  
and intimacy1 about much music1 which   
can be understood only through its      
analogy with the sounds of the human    
voice4 ,for the human voice is          
emotionally expressive through its mere 
sound alone3 one can know a large part  

of what is going on in the breasts of   
people who talk in a foreign tongue just
 by listening to the sound of their     
voices--their excitement or boredom1    
their anger1 love1 or resentment2 and   
one becomes conscious of these emotions1
 as in hearing music1 without knowing   
what they are all about4 ,all human     
emotions betray themselves in speech    
through the rise and fall1 range of     
intervals1 loudness or softness1 tempo  
and differences of duration of tone4    
,now1 although it is far too much to say
 that music is actually an imitation of 
the voice1 it is nevertheless true1 as  
,diderot thought1 that in certain       
musical passages we overhear the voice4 
,there is never any exact similarity    
between music and vocal sounds1 but     
there is enough resemblance to awaken by
 association the feelings that are the  
normal accompaniments of such sounds4   
,any tone analogies that there happen to
 be are felt as such4 ,this is notably  
true of all music that has a peculiar   

lyrical and human quality1--the music   
that readily becomes popular because it 
seems to speak direct to the heart4     
,originally1 all music was song1 and    
since speech and song employ the same   
organ1 it would be surprising indeed if 
something of the same expression of the 
emotions that overflows into the one    
should not also overflow into the other1
 and that musicians should not1         
unconsciously or consciously1 tend to   
choose their melodies because of such   
analogies4 ,instrumental music probably 
got its first melodies from song1 and   
despite its vast present complexity and 
independence1 has never completely lost 
touch with song4 ,since the first       
meaningful sounds that we hear are those
 of the voice1 music must always have   
for us the significance of a glorified  
speech4  ,the fault of the original     
proposers of the speech theory was that 
they thought it a complete explanation  
of the facts of musical expression4 ,its
 explanatory value is1 however1 strictly

 limited1 and supplemental to the more  
basic considerations adduced2 yet it    
remains a necessary part of the complex 
theory of the complex fact we are       
studying4 ,and the acceptance of it as  
such does not imply a belief in the     
speech theory of the origin of music4   
,song did not grow out of impassioned   
speech1 but arose coeval with speech1   
when men found--perhaps by              
accident--that they could make with     
their voices pure and pleasing tones and
 intervals of tones1 and express        
something of their inner selves in so   
doing4 ,yet1 as ,i have suggested1 it   
would be strange if speech did not react
 upon song--if the first vocal tones    
were not purified words1 and the first  
intervals an approximation to those of  
speech4 ,thus in song1 lyric poetry and 
music arose together as a single art for
 the expression of feeling1 until the   
development of instrumental music freed 
the one and the invention of writing    
freed the other2 while speech kept to   

its different and original purpose--the 
expression of ideas for practical ends1 
and produced an aesthetic form of its   
own only at a later period and under    
independent influences4  ,the complete  
understanding of musical expression     
involves1 finally1 as was suggested at  
the beginning of this chapter1 the      
recognition of the analogy that exists  
between music and the noises produced by
 nature and human activities4 ,through  
the imitation of their rhythm1 force1   
and tempo1 some of these can be directly
 suggested by musicians4 ,yet this      
direct suggestion1 although employed by 
the greatest composers1 plays a         
subordinate part in music1 and1 since it
 introduces an element of representation
 of the outer world--tonmalerei--is     
usually felt to involve a departure from
 the prime purpose of music3 the        
expression of the inner world through   
the emotional effects of pure sound4 ,in
 the best program music1 therefore1 the 
purpose of the composer is not the mere 

imitation of nature--which is never art 
at all1 and in music is always          
recognized as an unsaesthetic tour de   
force of mere cleverness--but rather the
 arousal of the feelings caused by      
nature4 ,and as an aid in the expression
 of such feelings1 imitation1 when      
delicately suggestive rather than       
blatant1 will always play a part4       
,there are1 however1 subtler and remoter
 analogies between music and noise1     
which produce their effects whether the 
musician wills them or not4 ,such1 for  
example1 are loud bursts of tone        
suggesting falling or crashing1 events  
which usually have a terrifying         
significance2 crescendoes1 suggesting   
the approach of things1 so often full of
 expectancy and excitement2             
diminuendoes1 suggesting a gradual      
departure or fading away1 bearing relief
 or regret4 ,and there are doubtless    
hundreds of other such associations1 too
 minute or remote or long- forgotten to 
recover1 which add their mite of feeling

 to swell and make vast the musical     
emotion4 ,as ,fechner pointed out1 these
 associations may work quite            
unconsciously1 giving evidence of their 
functioning only through the feeling    
tones which they release4 ,so important 
is the part which sound plays in our    
lives that there must be an especially  
large number of such underground        
associations aroused by music4 ,all of  
our experiences are connected together  
by subconscious filiation2 but it is    
only in art that their residual feeling 
tones have a full opportunity to come   
into the mind2 for in everyday life they
 are crowded out by the hurry of        
practical concerns4 ,in the earlier     
stages of the development of music they 
must have contributed a still larger    
share to musical expression1 when the   
different forms of music were connected 
by habit and convention with particular 
crises and occasions1 religious1        
domestic1 and social1 in the life of    
individuals and groups4 ,but even       

to-day1 despite the new freedom of      
music1 they are not absent4  ,looking   
back over our analysis of music1 we see 
that it is characterized by the         
expression of emotion without the       
representation of the causes or objects 
of emotion4 ,this fact1 which has now   
become a well-recognized part of        
aesthetic theory1 distinguishes music   
from all the other arts4 ,music supplies
 us with no definite images of nature1  
as painting and sculpture do1 and with  
no ideas1 as poetry does4 ,it contains  
feelings1 but no meanings4 ,music offers
 us no background for emotion1 no       
objects upon which it may be directed1  
no story1 no mise en scene4 ,it supplies
 us with the feeling tones of things and
 events1 but not with the things or     
events themselves4 ,it moves wholly in a
 world of its own1 a world of pure      
feeling1 with no embodiment save only   
sound4 ,it may express terror1 but not  
terror over this or that2 joy1 but      
whether the joy that comes from sight of

 the morning or of the beloved1 it      
cannot tell4 ,in one brief space of     
time1 it may arouse despair1 hope1      
triumph--but all over nothing4          
,yet--and this is the central paradox of
 music--despite its abstractness1 nay1  
because of this very quality1 it remains
 the most personal and intimate of the  
arts4 ,for1 itself offering no images of
 things and events to which we may      
attach the feelings which it arouses1 we
 supply our own4 ,we fill in the        
impersonal form of musical feeling with 
the concrete emotions of our own lives2 
it is our strivings1 our hopes and      
fears1 which music expresses4 ,by       
denying us access to the world about us1
 music compels us to turn in upon       
ourselves2 it is we who live there in   
the sounds4 ,for1 as we have seen1 the  
rhythmic tones seize hold not only of   
our attention1 but of our bodies        
also--hand and foot and head and heart1 
resounding throughout the whole         
organism4 ,and1 where our bodies are1   

there are we4 ,moreover1 our life there 
in the sounds need not remain without   
objects because the music does not      
describe them to us2 for out of our own 
inner selves we may build up an         
imaginary world for our feelings4 ,as we
 listen to the music1 we shall see the  
things we hope for or fear or desire2 or
 else transport ourselves among purely  
fanciful objects and events4 ,music is a
 language which we all understand       
because it expresses the basic mold of  
all emotion and striving2 yet it is a   
language which no two people understand 
in the same way1 because each pours into
 that mold his own unique experience4   
,in itself abstract and objectless1 it  
may thus become1 in varying ways1       
concrete and alive4  ,the great variety 
in the interpretation of musical        
compositions has often been used as an  
argument against the existence of       
emotions in music1 but is1 as we have   
seen1 the inevitable result of their    
abstractness4 ,this abstractness may1   

indeed1 be so great that apparently     
opposite concrete emotions1 such as love
 and religious adoration1 despair and   
joy1 may be aroused in different people1
 according to different circumstances1  
by the same piece4 ,the music of the    
opera can be used in the cathedral4 ,yet
 strikingly dissimilar emotions have    
common elements--worship is the love of 
,god2 joy may be a rage equally with    
disappointment2 and at their highest    
intensity1 all opposed emotions tend to 
pass over into each other3 hope into    
fear1 love into hate1 exaltation into   
depression4 ,the elementary feelings out
 of which our complex emotions are built
 are few and simple2 hence each one of  
the latter is identical in some         
ingredients with the others4 ,and even  
the elementary feelings may have common 
aspects of intensity and tempo1 of      
strain and excitement4 ,some musical    
compositions1 like the fugues of ,bach1 
seem to express nothing more than such  
extremely abstract modes of feeling1    

without arousing any associations that  
would impel the mind to make a more     
concrete interpretation4 ,to express    
feelings of this kind in language is1 of
 course1 impossible1 for the reason that
 our emotional vocabularies have been   
constructed to communicate only the     
emotions of everyday life4 ,other types 
of music--like the romantic tone poetry 
of a later day--which are more abundant 
in their associations1 and hence richer 
in their emotional content1 are         
difficult of translation for another    
reason3 the rapidity of succession and  
subtlety of intermixture of the         
expressed feelings are beyond the reach 
of words1 even of a poet's1 which       
inevitably stabilize and isolate what   
they denote4  ,but abstract and         
objectless emotions occur in other      
regions of experience beside the        
musical1 even beyond the entire field of
 the aesthetic4 ,all except the most    
healthy-minded and practical people are 
at times filled with vague fears1       

longings1 and joys1 the objects or      
causes of which they cannot formulate4  
,normally1 feeling is directed towards  
definite objects and leads to action    
upon them1 but may nevertheless become  
isolated from its proper connections1   
and function without issue4 ,the extreme
 cases of this are the pathological     
states of mania and depression1 where   
such feelings assume proportions        
dangerous to the existence of the       
individual4 ,intoxication and hysteria  
present analogous1 though more transient
 phenomena4 ,and one may observe the    
autonomous development of mere feeling  
even in the healthy life1 as when one   
remains jolly after all occasion for it 
has ceased1 or angry after the cause for
 anger has been removed4 ,all feelings  
tend to acquire a strength beyond what  
is necessary for action and to endure   
after their proper objects and          
conditions have disappeared2 hence the  
luxury of grief and revenge and         
sentimentality4  ,in their most general 

character1 musical emotions stand on a  
level with other purposeless emotions1  
except that they are deliberately       
induced and elaborated to an extent and 
complexity unmatched elsewhere4 ,but    
while these emotions are morbid and evil
 outside of music1 within music they are
 innocent4 ,for outside of music they   
spring from dislocations of the         
practical and striving core of the      
personality1 where1 if persistently     
indulged in1 they exacerbate the        
disturbance of which they are the sign1 
interfering with action and eventually  
endangering the health and happiness of 
the individual2 while in music1 being   
induced from the outside by mere sounds1
 they have no ground within the         
personality itself where they can take  
root1 and hence exert only a harmless   
and transient effect upon the mind2 they
 belong to the surface1 not to the      
substance of the self1 to imagination1  
not to the will4 ,or when1 as sometimes 
happens1 the deeper and perhaps morbid  

strata of the self are reached by the   
sounds1 the feelings which are awakened 
from their sleep there1 where they might
 be productive of evil dreams1 find an  
orderly and welcome release in the      
sounds--they are not only aroused1 but  
carried off by the music4 ,this the     
,greeks understood when they employed   
music as a healer of the soul and called
 this effect catharsis4  ,if1 indeed1   
music were just a means for the arousal 
of feelings1 it would not be a fine art1
 but an orgy4 ,for1 in order to be      
aesthetic1 feelings must be not merely  
stimulated by1 but objectified in1 the  
sense medium1 where they can be mastered
 and known4 ,but the intimacy of music  
is not in contradiction with the freedom
 and objectivity characteristic of all  
art4 ,for musical feelings1 although    
they are experienced as our own1 are    
nevertheless also experienced as the    
sounds2 in music we live1 not as we live
 ordinarily1 within our bodies1 but out 
there1 in a rarer and unpractical       

medium--tone4 ,and in this new region we
 gain dominion over our feelings1       
through the order which the form of the 
music imposes upon them1 and also       
self-knowledge1 because1 in being       
externalized in the sounds1 our feelings
 become an object for our reflection and
 understanding4 ,in music the light of  
reflection is turned straight upon      
ourselves4  ,the poignancy of music     
depends upon just this fact that through
 it we get a revelation of ourselves to 
ourselves4 ,in the other arts1 this     
revelation is indirect1 occurring       
through the representation of the lives 
of other1 real or fictitious1           
personalities2 but in music1 it is      
direct2 for there the object of         
expression is oneself4 ,even in the     
lyric poem1 where the reader and the    
poet tend to become identical1 the unity
 is less complete2 for when embodied in 
words1 feelings become more exterior    
than when put forth into tones2 a tone  
is closer to the self1 because like a   

cry or a laugh1 it is less articulate4  
,moreover1 words are means of           
communication as well as expression2    
they therefore embody of any experience 
only as much as can be passed from      
speaker to hearer2 the unique is for the
 most part lost on the way2 but in music
 the full personal resonance of         
experience is retained4 ,in music we get
 so close to ourselves that at times it 
is almost frightening4  ,and this is the
 reason why1 on all the high or serious 
occasions of human life1 music is alone 
adequate to express its inner meaning4  
,at a marriage or a funeral1 in church  
or at a festival1 the ceremonial is     
traditional and social2 it expresses the
 historical and group significance of   
the situation1 but not that which is    
unique and just one's own2 it always    
contains1 moreover1 much that is        
outgrown and unacceptable--a creed of   
life or love or death that belongs to   
the past1 not to us4 ,but the music     
embodies all that we really believe and 

feel about the fact1 its intimate1      
emotional essence1 clear of everything  
irrelevant and external4  ,but music    
does more than express the inexpressible
 in ourselves2 it gives us entrance into
 a supernatural world of feeling4       
,except at the rare high moments of our 
lives1 its joys and despairs are too    
exalted for us2 they are not ours2 they 
belong to gods and heroes4 ,in music the
 superman is born into our feelings4    
,music does for the emotions what       
mythology and poetry do for the         
imagination and philosophy for the      
intellect--it brings us into touch with 
a more magnificent life1 for which we   
have perhaps the potency1 but not the   
opportunity here4 ,and in doing this1   
music performs a great service2 for1    
outside of love and war1 life1 which    
offers endless occasions for intense    
thought and action1 provides few for    
passionate feeling4  ,thus far our study
 of the art has been confined to        
so-called absolute music4 ,we must now  

complete our survey by a rapid          
consideration of the union of music with
 the other arts4 ,because of its        
abstractness1 music1 of all the arts1   
lends itself most readily to combination
 with others2 yet even in the case of   
music the possibility of union is       
limited by the existence of a clear     
identity between the arts combined4     
,thus1 music goes well with the temporal
 arts1 poetry1 the dance1 and the drama1
 and particularly well with the first   
two because they are rhythmical2 it will
 also unite with architecture1 because  
that is another abstract art2 but with  
the static1 concrete arts like painting 
and sculpture1 it will not fuse4 ,one   
might perhaps accompany a picture with a
 single chord whose emotional meaning   
was the same as that of the color scheme
 and the objects represented1 but not   
with more2 for the aesthetic experience 
of the picture is instantaneous and     
complete1 while that of the music       
requires time for its development and   

fruition2 hence the two would soon fall 
apart1 and a person would either have to
 ignore the music or cease to look at   
the picture4  ,originally1 of course1   
music was always combined with some     
other art1 and first of all1 probably   
with the dance4 ,in its earliest form1  
the dance was a communal religious      
expression1 about which we shall have   
little to say1 since it belongs to the  
past1 not to living art4 ,for to-day the
 dance is a free art like music4 ,the   
beauty of the dance consists1 first1 in 
the free and rhythmical expression of   
impulses to movement4 ,this expression1 
which is direct for the dancer who      
actually carries out her impulses in    
real motion1 is for the spectator       
indirect and ideal1 for he experiences  
only movement-images aroused by         
movements seen1 and then1 by feeling    
these into the limbs of the dancer1     
dances with her in the imagination4 ,and
 to secure this free and large1 even    
though vicarious1 expression of pent-up 

impulses to movement is very grateful to
 us whose whole movement life is        
impoverished1 because restricted by     
convention and occupation to a few      
narrow types4 ,but the dance would have 
little interest for men were it not for 
another element in its beauty3 the      
expression of the amorous feelings of   
the spectator4 ,these1 although really  
located in the breast of the spectator1 
are nevertheless embodied in the        
personality of the dancer1 whose charm  
they constitute4 ,finally1 the content  
of the dance may be further enriched    
through the use of symbolic costume and 
mimetic gestures1 suggesting emotions   
like joy or love or grief1 emotionally  
toned ideas like spring1 or actions such
 as courtship4 ,now music1 with its own 
rhythmical order and voluminous         
emotional content1 has an obvious       
kinship with the rhythmic form and      
amorous substance of the dance1 and so  
can well serve to accompany it4  ,the   
result of the union is to enforce the   

rhythmic experience through the medium  
of sound1 the dance keeping time with   
the music1 and1 through the heightened  
emotional tone and increased            
suggestibility created by the music1 to 
deepen the sympathetic rapport between  
dancer and spectator4 ,thus the music is
 given a concrete interpretation through
 the dance1 and the dance gains in      
emotional power through the music4 ,in  
the union1 the gain to the dance is     
clear and absolute2 but the music pays a
 price for the concreteness of content  
which it secures1 by forfeiting its     
power to express chance inner           
moods--what it gains in definiteness it 
loses in scope and universality4 ,and   
only music with a strong and evident    
rhythm is capable of union with the     
dance2 the more complex and subtle      
music1 aside from the impossibility of  
making its delicate rhythms fit into    
those of a dance1 has a variety and     
sublimity of meaning so far transcending
 the personality of any human being1    

that to attempt to focus it in a dancer1
 no matter how charming1 would be a     
travesty4  ,of equal naturalness and    
almost equal antiquity with the union of
 music with the dance1 is its union with
 poetry4 ,in song this union is a real  
fusion2 for the tones are the vocal     
word-sounds themselves1 purified into   
music4 ,here1 of course1 unlike absolute
 music1 the tones are expressive1 not   
only as other tones are through their   
mere sound1 but also through their      
meaning4 ,and this can well be2 for as  
,schopenhauer remarked1 just as the     
universal may be illustrated by any     
object which embodies it1 so the vague  
musical content of a tone may be fused  
with the concrete meaning of a word of  
like feeling4 ,and for many hearers     
music doubtless gains by thus becoming  
articulate2 for1 being unable to supply 
out of their own imagination the        
concreteness which music lacks1 they    
welcome having this done for them by the
 poet2 yet the gain is not without a    

corresponding loss4 ,for when the       
musical meaning is specialized through  
the emotions that are the burden of the 
song1 it necessarily loses the power    
which it would otherwise have of        
expressing one's own inner life--once   
more1 what it gains in definiteness it  
loses in scope4 ,it no longer possesses 
the unique function of the musical4     
,hence1 if we love the music1 we shall  
not care whether or not we understand   
the meaning of the words1 and what we   
shall value in the song will be only the
 peculiar intimacy which it derives from
 its instrument1 the voice4 ,only rarely
 is it otherwise1 as in some of the     
songs of ,schumann1 when the poetic     
interpretation is so beautiful and so   
completely at one with the musical      
feeling1 that we prefer to accept it    
rather than substitute our own          
interpretation for the poet's4 ,but even
 so1 the music1 if genuine1 will have   
value without the words4 ,at the        
opposite pole are those songs1 often    

popular1 where the music1 having little 
worth in itself1 is a mere accompaniment
 for the words4 ,in all cases1 however1 
the music can lend to the poetry some of
 the intimacy which is its own1 so that 
its burden has a deeper echo in the     
soul4  ,yet much of poetry is unfit for 
union with music4 ,this is true1 first1 
of all highly intellectual poetry1 where
 the emotions are embodied in complex   
and abstract ideas4 ,one could not1 for 
example1 readily set ,browning to music4
 ,music may be deep1 mystic1 even       
metaphysical in its meaning1 but it     
cannot be dialectical4 ,the emotions    
that accompany subtle thought1 even when
 intense1 are not of the voluminous1    
massive kind which music expresses2 they
 lack the bodily resonance of the       
latter2 they are1 moreover1 clean-cut   
and static1 while in music everything   
flows in half-lights1 like a river      
moving in moonlight4 ,on the other hand1
 poems which express rapidly developing 
states of mind1 which contain quick1    

subtle transitions1 are equally unfit   
for union with music4 ,for music1       
although always in motion1 is always in 
slow motion2 it needs time to get under 
way1 and time for its development in    
embroidering1 varying1 and repeating its
 theme4 ,and this difficulty applies in 
a general way to every union between    
poetry and music4 ,for words are        
primarily practical and communicative1  
and therefore cut short the passion     
which they express2 whereas tones1 never
 having had any other purpose than      
expression1 draw it out and let it have 
its way4 ,moreover1 poetry1 because of  
its definiteness1 is compatible with    
only a limited range of variation1      
beyond which it becomes monotonous1     
while music1 because of its             
abstractness1 permits of variations     
almost endless1 and is enriched by every
 new shape in which its meaning can     
appear4 ,if1 therefore1 poetry is to    
keep time with the slow movement of the 
music and conform to its mode of        

development1 the verses have to be      
repeated again and again2 but this      
destroys the poetic form--as in the     
oratorio1 with its senseless iterations4
  ,finally1 the temporal and            
developmental character of the drama    
would seem to fit it for union with     
music4 ,yet the union of these two arts 
is confronted with the same difficulties
 that beset the connection between      
poetry and music4 ,the movement of the  
acting drama is swift and straight1 that
 of music is slow and circular2 hence if
 the music is to have its way1 the      
action of the drama must stand4 ,in     
consequence of this1 there is little    
real action in most operas1 prolonged   
dialogues in song taking its place4     
,only rarely--as for example in         
,strauss' ,salome1 perhaps--is the form 
of the drama preserved4 ,as a rule the  
unity of the musical form is also       
destroyed1 the thread of the story being
 substituted for it4 ,last1 as in the   
song1 the universality of the music is  

renounced in favor of the interpretation
 given to it by the program4 ,in the    
leit-motif1 indeed1 as ,wagner uses it1 
where a musical phrase is provided with 
a fixed connotation of ideas and acts   
which is understood by the hearer       
whenever it recurs1 opera ceases to be  
music at all in the strict sense1 and   
becomes a musical language4 ,yet in the 
opera1 as in the song1 the music1 when  
genuine1 possesses its own independent  
meaning1 which can be appreciated       
without the mise en scene or the        
program4 ,and then only rarely1 as in   
the ,toreador song in ,carmen1 is the   
action so close to the inner meaning of 
the music1 that the latter seems to gain
 by the interpretation4  ,it follows    
that ,wagner's dream of making the opera
 a sum of all the values of poetry1     
drama1 and music1 and so an art more    
beautiful than any one of them1 is      
fallacious4 ,for1 as we have repeatedly 
seen1 in uniting the arts1 there is gain
 as well as loss2 something of the form 

or meaning of each has to be sacrificed4
 ,the work that results from the        
combination is really a new art-form1 in
 which the elements are changed and     
their individuality partly destroyed2   
and its value is a new value1 which may 
be equal to1 but is certainly no greater
 than1 that of any other art-form4 ,to  
put the matter epigrammatically1 when   
the arts are added together1 one plus   
one does not equal two1 but only one    
again4     ,,chapter ,,ix  ,,the        
,,aesthetics ,,of ,,poetry   ,our study 
of music in the preceding chapter has   
prepared us for the study of poetry1 for
 the two arts are akin4 ,both are arts  
of sound and both employ rhythm as a    
principle of order in sound4 ,they had a
 twin birth in song1 and although they  
have grown far apart1 they come together
 again in song4 ,in many ways1 music is 
the standard for verse4 ,yet1 despite   
these resemblances1 the differences     
between the arts are striking4 ,in place
 of music's disembodied feelings1 poetry

 offers us concrete intuitions of       
life1--the rehearsal of emotions        
attached to real things and clean-cut   
ideas4 ,poetry is a music with a        
definite meaning1 and that is no music  
at all4 ,much of poetry1 gnomic and     
narrative1 probably grew out of speech  
by regularizing its natural rhythm1     
independent of music4 ,to-day poetry is 
written to be read1 not to be sung2 it  
is an art of speech1 not of song4  ,all 
speech is communication1 an utterance   
from a speaker to a hearer4 ,in the case
 of ordinary speech1 the aim is to      
effect some change of mind in the       
interlocutor that will lead to an action
 beneficial to one or both of the       
persons concerned4 ,ordinary speech is  
practical2 its end is to influence      
conduct2 it is command1 exhortation1    
prayer1 or threat4 ,poetry1 on the other
 hand1 is the spontaneous overflow of   
powerful feelings2 its purpose is to    
express life for the sake of the values 
which expression itself may create1 and 

to communicate them to others4          
,footnote3 ,compare ,f4 ,n4 ,scott1 ,the
 ,most ,fundamental ,differentia of     
,poetry and ,prose1 in ,modern ,language
 ,association ,publications1 ,v4 #ai1   
pp4 #bej-bfi4 ,the values are given in  
the utterance itself2 they do not have  
to be waited for to come from something 
which may develop subsequently4 ,they   
are the universal aesthetic values which
 may result from any free expression of 
life--the contemplative reliving of its 
joys1 or the mastery of its pains       
through the courageous facing of them in
 reflection4  ,since the appeal of      
poetry is to the sympathy and           
thoughtfulness which all men possess1   
there is no need that it be directed1 as
 ordinary speech is1 to particular men  
and women whose help or advantage is    
sought4 ,the poet addresses himself to  
man in general1 and only so to you and  
me4 ,even when ostensibly directed to   
some particular person1 a poem has an   
audience which is really universal4     

,except in the first moment of creative 
fervor1 the friend invoked is never     
intended to be the sole recipient of the
 poet's words4 ,oftentimes the poet     
appeals to the dead or to natural       
objects which cannot hear him4 ,one     
might perhaps infer from this that there
 is no genuine impulse to communication 
in poetry2 that it is pure expression1 a
 dialogue with self4 ,but this would be 
a false inference2 for there is always  
some hint in every poem that a vague    
background of possible auditors is      
bespoken4 ,no matter how intimate and   
spontaneous1 no poem can escape being   
social1 and hence1 in varying degrees1  
self-conscious4 ,art is autonomous      
expression meant to be contagious4  ,the
 appeal of scientific expression is also
 to something universal in men--to their
 love of knowledge and understanding4   
,but there is this difference between   
poetry and science3 science seeks merely
 the intellectual mastery of things and 
ideas1 and so is careless of their      

values2 while poetry1 even when         
descriptive or thoughtful1 ever has life
 as its theme--the way man reacts to his
 environment and his thought4 ,poetry is
 never purely descriptive or            
dialectical4 ,and this difference in the
 substance of the expression determines 
a difference in the direction of        
interest within the expression4 ,in     
scientific expression1 words lead us    
away to things--pure description1 or to 
their meanings--mathematics and         
dialectic2 but in poetry1 since the     
values which we attach to things and    
ideas come from within out of ourselves 
and are embodied in the words1 they keep
 us to themselves2 we dwell in the      
expression itself1 in the verbal        
experience--its total content of sounds 
which we hear1 ideas which we           
understand1 and feelings which we       
appreciate1 is of worth to us4  ,since  
poetry is an art of speech1 we can      
understand it only through a study of   
words1 which are its media4 ,a single   

word is seldom an integral element of   
speech2 yet it may fairly be called the 
atom1 the ultimate constituent of       
speech4 ,now a word is a structure of a 
potentially fourfold complexity4 ,first1
 it is a phenomenon of sound and        
movement--something heard and uttered4  
,its sound1 and the movement-sensations 
from vocal cords and tongue and lips    
which accompany its production1 are the 
sensuous shell of the word4 ,second1    
embodied in this as the speaker utters  
it1 associated to it as the hearer      
understands it1 is its meaning4 ,the    
meaning is either an idea of a concrete 
thing or situation1 or an abstraction4  
,this is the irreducible minimum of a   
word1 but is seldom all4 ,for1 in       
poetry1 some emotional response to the  
object meant by the word impels to its  
utterance1 and this is embodied in it   
when it is uttered1 and a similar       
feeling is awakened in the auditor when 
it is heard or read4 ,a word not only   
mirrors a situation through its meaning1

 but preserves something of the mind's  
response2 it communicates the total     
experience1--the self as well as the    
object4 ,finally1 the meaning of a word 
may not remain a mere idea1 but may grow
 out into one or more of the concrete   
images of which it is the residuum4     
,when1 for example1 ,i utter the word   
ocean1 ,i may not only know what ,i mean
 and re-experience my joy in the sea1   
but my meaning may be clothed in images 
of the sight and touch and odor of the  
sea--vicariously1 through these images1 
all my sense experiences of the sea may 
be present in the mind4 ,a word1        
therefore1 sounds and is articulated1   
means1 expresses feeling1 and evokes    
images4 ,all understanding of poetry    
depends upon the knowledge and proper   
evaluation of the functioning of these  
aspects of a word4 ,let us consider in a
 general way each one of them4  ,in     
ordinary speech1 the sound and          
articulation of a word1 although        
indispensable to utterance1 and         

therefore a necessary part of it1 are of
 little or no value in themselves2 for  
our interest is centered upon the       
meaning or upon the action which is     
expected to result from its             
understanding4 ,we do not attend to the 
quality and rhythm of the word- sounds  
which we utter or hear1 and the         
articulatory sensations1 although felt1 
have only a shadowy existence in the    
fringe of inattention4 ,but in poetry1  
which is speech made beautiful1 the mere
 sound of the words has value4 ,in      
hearing poetry1 we not only understand1 
but listen2 we appreciate not only the  
ideas and emotions conveyed1 but the    
word-sounds and their rhythms as well4  
,even in silent reading1 poetry is a    
voice which we delight to hear4         
,footnote3 ,and for many this inner     
speech consists quite as much of        
articulation as of sound4 ,the sound of 
a word is really a complex of actual    
sounds plus associated articulation     
impulses4 ,throughout the remainder of  

this chapter1 when ,i refer to the sound
 of words1 ,i shall have in mind this   
entire complex4 ,we may therefore say   
that in silent reading poetry is a voice
 which we delight both to hear and to   
use4  ,yet1 despite the importance which
 sound acquires in poetry1 it never     
achieves first place2 it never becomes  
independent1 as in music2 but shares    
hegemony with the other aspects of the  
word4 ,in practical or scientific       
speech1 the chief aspect is meaning2 for
 it is the meaning which gives us       
knowledge and guides our acts4 ,indeed1 
for all practical purposes1 the meaning 
of words consists in the actions which  
are to be performed on hearing them4 ,if
 ,i ask a man the way and he tells me1  
the quality of his voice1 the interest  
which he takes in telling me1 and the   
images which float across his mind are  
of no importance to me1 so long as ,i   
can follow his directions4 ,but in      
poetry the situation alters once more4  
,for there1 since expression itself has 

become the end1 and all action upon it  
is inhibited1 the feeling which prompts 
it becomes a significant part of what ,i
 appreciate4 ,in poetry the meanings are
 secondary to emotions4 ,yet the        
meanings are still indispensable2 for   
they indicate the concrete objects or   
ideas towards which emotion is directed4
 ,in ordinary speech1 meanings are      
guides to action2 in aesthetic speech1  
they are formulations of feelings4 ,and 
just in this power of a word to fixate  
emotion lies the chief difference       
between poetry and music1 where feeling1
 being aroused by sound alone1 is vague 
and objectless4  ,ideally1 every word in
 a poem should be charged with feeling2 
but actually this is not the case1 for  
many words1 taken by themselves1 are too
 abstract or commonplace to possess any4
 ,words all too familiar1 or            
connectives1 like and and but and or1   
are examples of this2 the former may be 
avoided by the poet1 but the latter are 
indispensable4 ,originally1 no doubt1   

every word had an emotional coloring1 if
 only that of a child's curiosity2 and  
some words have meanings too deeply     
rooted in feeling ever to lose it4 ,no  
amount of familiarity can deprive such  
words as death and love and ,god of     
their emotional value4 ,words like these
 must forever recur in the vocabulary of
 poets4 ,yet1 since in living discourse 
a meaning is seldom complete in a single
 word1 but requires several words in a  
phrase or sentence1 a word which by     
itself would be cold may participate in 
the general warmth of the whole of which
 it is a part4 ,consider1 for example1  
the last line of the final stanza of    
,wordsworth's ,the ,lost ,love3--       
,she lived unknown1 and few could know  
,when ,lucy ceased to be2   ,but she is 
in her grave1 and ,o6      ,the         
difference to me6  ,the first three     
words1 by themselves1 are completely    
bare of emotional coloring1 yet1 taken  
together with the last1 and in          
connection with the whole stanza1 and in

 the setting of the entire poem1 they   
are aglow with the most poignant        
passion4  ,as for the image1 the last of
 the aspects of a word1 the judgment of 
,edmund ,burke1 in his ,essay on the    
,sublime and ,beautiful still remains   
true3 in reading words or in listening  
to them1 we get the sound and the       
meaning and their impressions           
7emotions71 but the images which float  
across the mind1 if there are any1 are  
often too vague or too inconstant to be 
of much relevance to the experience4    
,they are1 moreover1 highly individual  
in nature1 differing in kind and        
clearness from person to person4 ,the   
recent researches into imageless        
thinking are a striking confirmation of 
,burke's observation4 ,it is now pretty 
clearly established that the meaning of 
words is something more than the images1
 visual or other1 which they arouse4    
,probably the meaning is always carried 
by some sort of imagery1 differing with 
the mental make-up of the reader1 but   

the meaning cannot be equated to the    
imagery4 ,for example1 you and ,i both  
understand the word ocean2 but when ,i  
read the word1 ,i get a visual image of 
green water and sunlight1 while you     
perhaps get an auditory image of the    
sound of the waves as they break upon   
the shore4 ,sound1 meaning1 feeling1    
these are the essential constituents of 
discourse2 imagery is variable and      
accidental4 ,it is impossible1          
therefore1 to found the theory of poetry
 on the image-making power of words4    
,footnote3 ,for the opposite view1      
consult ,max ,eastman3 ,the ,enjoyment  
of ,poetry4 ,and yet1 imagery plays a   
primary role in poetic speech4 ,for1 as 
we have observed so often1 feelings are 
more vital and permanent when embedded  
in concrete sensations and images than  
when attached to abstract meanings4     
,through the image1 the poet confers    
upon his art some of the sensuousness   
which it would otherwise lack4 ,it is   
not necessary that the image appear     

clear in the mind2 for its emotional    
value can be conveyed even when it is   
obscure and marginal4 ,when1 for        
example1 we read1    ,freeze1 freeze1   
thou bitter sky1   ,thou dost not bite  
so nigh   ,as benefits forgot1  the word
 bitter may arouse no vivid gustatory   
image1 the word bite no clear image of  
pain2 yet even when these images are    
very dim1 they serve none the less to   
establish the feeling of intense        
disagreeableness which the poet wishes  
to convey4 ,poetry1 therefore1 because  
it is more emotional than ordinary      
speech1 is more abundantly imaginal4    
,having distinguished in a general way  
the four elements of speech--sound1     
meaning1 feeling1 and imagery--we are   
prepared to study them singly in greater
 detail4 ,we want to build out of a     
study of these elements a synthetic view
 of the nature and function of poetry1  
and apply our results to some of its    
newer and more clamant forms4 ,let us   
begin with sound4 ,in our first chapter 

we observed that the medium of an art   
tends to become expressive in           
itself1--that in poetry the mere sound  
and articulation of words1 quite apart  
from anything which they mean1 may      
arouse and communicate feelings4 ,what  
we have called the primary              
expressiveness of the medium is nowhere 
better illustrated than in poetry4 ,but 
just what is expressed through sound1   
and how8  ,every lover of poetry is     
aware of the large share which the mere 
sound of the words contributes to its   
beauty4 ,this is true even when we      
abstract from rhythm1 which we shall    
neglect for the time being1 and think   
only of euphony1 alliteration1          
assonance1 and rime4 ,there is a joy    
truly surprising in the mere repetition 
of vowels and consonants4 ,for myself1  
,i find a pleasure in the mere          
repetition of vowels and consonants all 
out of proportion to what1 a priori1 ,i 
should be led to expect from so slight a
 cause4 ,and yet we have the familiar   

analogies by means of which we can      
understand this seemingly so strange    
delight1 the repeat in a pattern1       
consonance in chord and melody4 ,if the 
repetition of the same color or line in 
painting1 the same tone in music1 can   
delight us1 why not the repetition of   
the same word-sound8 ,in all cases a    
like feeling of harmony is produced4    
,and the same general principle applies 
to explain it4 ,all word-sounds as we   
utter or hear them leave memory traces  
in the mind1 which are not pure images  
7no memory traces are71 but also motor  
sets1 tendencies or impulses to the     
remaking of the sounds4 ,the doing of   
any deed--a word is also a deed--creates
 a will to its doing again2 hence the   
satisfaction when that will is fulfilled
 in the repeated sound1 when the image  
melts with the fact4 ,and the same law  
that rules in music and design holds    
here also3 there must not be too much of
 consonance1 of repetition1 else the    
will becomes satiated and fatigued2     

there must be difference as well as     
identity1--the novelty and surprise     
which accompany the arousal of a still  
fresh and unappeased impulse4 ,this is  
well provided for in alternate rimes1   
where the will to one kind of sound is  
suspended by the emergence of a         
different sound with its will1 and where
 the fulfillment of the one balances the
 fulfillment of the other4 ,all these   
facts are illustrated in such a stanza  
as this3--    ,fear no more the heat o' 
the sun     ,nor the furious winter's   
rages2    ,thou thy worldly task hast   
done1     ,home art gone and ta'en thy  
wages2    ,golden lads and girls all    
must1     ,as chimney sweepers1 come to 
dust4  ,here1 for example1 the f-sound  
in fear finds harmonious fulfillment in 
furious2 the t-sound in task1 its mate  
in ta'en2 the g-sound in golden1 its    
match in girls2 sun and done1 rages and 
wages1 illustrate a balance of          
harmonies2 while in the consonance of   
must and dust1 the whole movement of the

 stanza comes to full and finished      
harmony4  ,thus taken together1         
word-sounds1 as mere sounds1 are        
expressive of the general form-feelings 
of harmony and balance4 ,but can they   
express anything singly8 ,is there      
anything in poetry comparable to the    
expressiveness of single tones or of    
colors like red and blue and yellow8 ,to
 this1 ,i think1 the answer must be1    
little or nothing4 ,almost all the      
expressiveness of single words comes    
from their meaning4 ,at all events1 the 
sound and meaning of a word are so      
inextricably fused that1 even when we   
suspect that it may have some           
expressiveness on its own account1 we   
are nearly incapable of disentangling   
it4 ,as ,william ,james has remarked1 a 
word-sound1 when taken by itself apart  
from its meaning1 gives an impression of
 mere queerness4 ,and when it does seem 
to have some distinctive quality1 we do 
not know how much really belongs to the 
sound and how much to some lingering bit

 of meaning which we have failed to     
separate in our analysis4 ,for example1 
because of its initial s-sound and its  
hard consonants1 the word struggle seems
 to express1 in the effort required to  
pronounce it1 something of the emotional
 tone of struggle itself2 but how do we 
know that this is not due to the        
association with its meaning1 which we  
have been unable to abstract from8 ,even
 true onomatopoetic words like bang or  
crack derive1 ,i suspect1 most of their 
specific quality from their meaning4    
,they do have1 to be sure1 a certain    
mimetic impressiveness as mere sounds2  
but that is very vague2 the meaning     
makes it specific4 ,the sheer length of 
the word multitudinous in ,shakespeare's
 line1 the multitudinous seas           
incarnadine1 seems to express something 
of the vastness and prolixity of the    
seas2 but would it if it were not used  
as an adjective describing the seas1 and
 if it did not have just the meaning    
that it has8 ,of course1 in this case1  

the mere sound is effective1 but it gets
 most of its effectiveness because it   
happens to have a certain meaning4      
,moreover1 even the very sound quality  
of words depends much upon their        
meaning2 we pronounce them in a certain 
way1 with a certain slowness or         
swiftness1 a certain emphasis upon      
particular syllables1 with a high or low
 intonation1 in accordance with the     
emotion which we feel into them4 ,this  
is true of the word struggle just cited4
 ,or consider another example4 ,take the
 word blow4 ,who1 in reading this word  
in ,blow1 blow1 thou winter wind1 would 
not increase its explosiveness just in  
order to make its expressiveness        
correspond to its meaning8  ,there is1  
therefore1 a fundamental difference in  
this respect between single word-sounds 
and single colors or tones2 they are not
 sufficiently impressive in themselves1 
not sufficiently separable from their   
meanings1 to have anything except the   
slightest value as mere sounds4 ,in     

collocation1 however1 and quite apart   
from rhythm and alliteration1 this      
minute expressiveness may add up to a   
considerable amount4 ,in ,matthew       
,arnold's lines1    ,swept by confused  
alarms of struggle and flight   ,where  
ignorant armies crash by night1  the    
hardness and difficulty of the          
consonants in their cumulative force    
become an independent element of        
expressiveness1 strengthening that of   
the meaning of the words4 ,or in        
,tennyson's oft-quoted line1 the        
murmuring of innumerable bees1 the      
sounds taken together have a genuine    
imitative effect1 in which something of 
the drowsy feeling of the hive is       
present4  ,following the general law of 
harmony between form and content1 the   
beauty of sound should be functional2   
that is1 it should never be developed   
for its own sake alone1 but also to     
intensify1 through re-expression1 the   
mood of the thoughts4 ,the sound-values 
are too lacking in independence to be   

purely ornamental4 ,poetry does indeed  
permit of embellishment--the pleasurable
 elaboration of sensation--yet should   
never degenerate into a mere            
tintinnabulation of sounds4 ,the rimes  
in binding words should bind thoughts   
also2 the tonalities or contrasts of    
vowel and consonant should echo         
harmonies or strains in pervasive moods4
  ,it is by rhythm1 however1 that the   
chief expressiveness of the mere medium 
is imparted to verse4 ,but here again we
 shall find sound and meaning           
intertwined--a rhythm in thought        
governing a rhythm in sound4  ,only as a
 result of recent investigations can a  
satisfactory theory of modern verse be  
constructed4 ,the making of this theory 
has been largely hampered1 on the one   
hand1 by the application of the         
quantitative principles of classical    
verse to our poetry2 and1 on the other  
hand1 by forcing the analogy between    
music and verse4 ,the insufficiency of  
the quantitative scheme for ,english    

verse is not difficult to perceive4     
,such a scheme presupposes that         
syllables have a fixed quantity of      
duration1 as either long or short1 and  
that rhythm consists in the regularity  
of their distribution4 ,but1 although   
there are differences in the duration of
 syllables1 some being longer than      
others1 there are no fixed rules to     
determine whether a syllable is short or
 long2 and1 what is a more serious      
objection1 it is impossible to find any 
regularity in the occurrence of shorts  
and longs in normal ,english verse1--in 
all verse that has not been written with
 the explicit purpose of imitating the  
,greek or ,latin4 ,an examination of any
 line of verse will verify these        
statements4 ,take1 for example1 the     
first three lines of ,shakespeare's     
song1    ,blow1 blow1 thou winter wind1 
,thou art not so unkind      ,as man's  
ingratitude4  ,here the quantitative    
scansion is perhaps as follows3--    - -
 - - ,u -   - - ,u x ,u -   ,u - ,u - ,u

 -  ,i have given the word so a double  
scansion because ,i conceive it         
impossible to determine whether it is   
really long or short4 ,at any rate1     
there is certainly no regularity in the 
distribution of shorts and longs1 except
 in the last of the three lines1 and no 
correspondence1 except in that line1    
between the quantitative scansion and   
the rhythmical movement of the verses4  
,and whenever such a correspondence     
exists1 it is due either to the fact    
that the incidence of stress tends to   
lengthen a syllable or to the fact that1
 oftentimes1 in polysyllabic words1 mere
 length will produce a stress4 ,this is 
the modicum of truth in the quantitative
 view4 ,but obviously stress governs1   
quantity obeys4  ,although the          
quantitative theory of modern verse has 
been pretty generally abandoned1 it     
cannot be said that the ordinary view   
which regards the foot as the unit of   
verse and its rhythm as determined by a 
regular distribution of accented and    

unaccented syllables1 is in a much      
better case4 ,for in the first place1 by
 accent is usually meant word-accent2   
but monosyllabic words have no          
word-accent2 hence1 in a succession of  
such syllables1 the accent must be      
determined by some other factor2 and1   
granting this1 there is the further fact
 to be reckoned with1 that poetic accent
 is relative--the supposedly unaccented 
syllable is often very highly accented1 
more highly in fact than some of the    
so-called accented ones4 ,consider1 for 
example1 the line1 ,from sullen earth   
sings hymns at heaven's gate1 where the 
word sings1 which in accordance with the
 conventional iambic scansion would be  
an unaccented syllable1 is really       
strongly accented1 more strongly1       
indeed1 than earth which has an accent4 
,as for the division of the line into   
feet1 that is a pure artifice3 who1 in  
the actual reading of the above line1   
would divide the words sullen and heaven
 into two parts8  ,the basis of rhythm  

is1 therefore1 not word-accent4 ,value  
stress is the basis4,footnote3          
,throughout the discussion of rhythm ,i 
borrow from ,mark ,h4 ,liddell3 ,an     
,introduction to the ,study of ,poetry4 
,certain words1 because of their logical
 or emotional importance1 have a greater
 claim upon the attention1 and this     
inner stress finds outward expression in
 an increased loudness1 duration1 and   
explosiveness of sound4 ,stress         
coincides with the word-accent of       
polysyllabic words because the accent is
 placed on those syllables1 usually the 
root-syllables1 which carry the         
essential meaning4 ,and this stress is  
not simply present or absent in a       
syllable1 but greater in some than in   
others2 in iambic rhythm1 usually       
greater in the even than in the         
preceding odd syllable2 in trochaic1    
greater in the odd than in the          
immediately preceding even one4 ,the    
rhythm is rather an undulation of       
stresses than an alternation of stress  

and lack of stress1 something1          
therefore1 far more complex and         
variegated than the old scheme would    
imply4 ,and of this undulation1 not the 
foot1 but the line is the unit4 ,the    
character of the undulation of the whole
 line determines the type of the rhythm1
 which may be very different in the case
 of lines of precisely the same kind of 
feet4 ,for example1 the line quoted     
above1 ,from sullen earth sings hymns at
 heaven's gate1 has a distinctly        
different rhythm from such another      
iambic line as ,shall ,i compare thee to
 a summer's day8 ,this difference is    
due1 in part at least1 to the fact that 
the highest peaks of the wave in the    
former are in the center of the line1 in
 sings and hymns1 while in the latter   
they are at the end1 in summer's and    
day4 ,this undulation of stress is      
present in prose and in ordinary speech2
 for there also there is a rise and fall
 of stress corresponding to the varying 
values of the words and syllables2 but  

in prose1 the undulation is irregular1  
while in poetry1 it is regularized4     
,from the foregoing it is clear that    
rhythm does not exist in the mere sound 
of the words alone1 but in the thought  
back of them as well4 ,the sounds1 as   
such1 have no rhythm in themselves2 they
 acquire rhythm through the subjective  
processes of significant utterance or   
listening4 ,the rhythm is primarily in  
these activities1 and from them is      
transferred to the sounds in which they 
are embodied4 ,this comes out with      
additional force when we go farther into
 the analysis of the rhythm of verse4   
,we have just seen that the line is one 
unit of the rhythm 7this is true even   
when there are run-over lines1 because  
we make a slight pause after the ends of
 such lines too72 but within the line   
itself there are sub-units4 ,these      
sub-units are units of thought4 ,every  
piece of written or spoken language is a
 continuous flow of thought4 ,but the   
movement is not perfectly fluid2 for it 

is broken up into elementary pulses of  
ideas1 following discontinuously upon   
each other4 ,in prose the succession of 
pulses is complex and irregular1 without
 any obvious pattern2 but in poetry the 
movement is simple and regular and the  
pattern is clear4 ,just as in poetry    
there is a rhythm of stress which       
represents a regularizing of the natural
 undulations in the stress of speech1 so
 there is also a more deep-lying rhythm1
 which arises through a simplification  
and regularizing of the movement of     
thought-pulsations4 ,the fundamental    
rhythm consists in an alternation of    
subject-group and predicate-group4      
,this duality1 although always retained 
as basal1 may1 however1 be broken up    
into a three- or four-part movement     
whenever the connecting links between   
the subject-idea and the predicate-idea 
acquire sufficient importance1 or       
whenever the one or the other of the two
 becomes sufficiently complex to consist
 of lesser parts4 ,for example1 in      

,shakespeare's thirty-first sonnet1 the 
thought-divisions are three for each of 
the following lines3--    ,thy bosom  is
 endeared  with all hearts   ,which ,i  
by lacking  have supposed  dead2   ,and 
there  reigns love1  and all love's     
loving parts1   ,and all those friends  
which ,i thought  buried4  ,these       
divisions are marked by pauses or       
casuras4  ,here1 then1 in the           
regularizing of the number of           
thought-pulsations1 we have another type
 of rhythm in poetry1 and a rhythm      
which1 coming from within1 finds outward
 expression in sound4 ,cutting across   
the rhythm of stress1 it breaks up the  
latter with its pauses1 and imparts to  
the whole movement variety and richness4
  ,but speech has not only its natural  
rhythm of stress-undulation and         
thought-pulsations2 it has also1 as we  
saw in the last chapter1 a melody4 ,the 
rise and fall of stress goes hand and   
hand with a rise and fall of pitch4 ,the
 different forms of discourse1 and the  

different emotions that accompany them1 
are each expressed with characteristic  
variations in pitch4 ,accepting ,wundt's
 summary of the facts1 we find that1    
generally speaking1 in the declarative  
statement and the command1 the pitch    
rises in the first thought-division1 to 
fall in the second2 while in the        
question and the condition1 the pitch   
rises and falls in the first1 and then  
rises again in the second4 ,doubt1      
expectation1 tension1 excitement--all   
the forward looking moods of            
incompleteness--tend to find expression 
in a rising melody2 while assurance1    
repose1 relaxation1 fulfillment1 are    
embodied in a falling melody4 ,the high 
tones are dynamic and stimulating2 the  
low tones1 static and peaceful4 ,now in 
ordinary speech and prose1 the change   
from one tone to another is constant and
 irregular1 following the variation of  
mood in the substance of the discourse4 
,how is it with verse8 ,there is a      
simplification and tonality--identity in

 tone--which is absent from prose4 ,the 
melody is more obvious and distinctive1 
because there is a greater simplicity in
 sentence structure and a higher unity  
of mood4 ,yet there is no absolute      
regularity2 and the amount of it differs
 with the different kinds of poetry3    
there is more in the simple lyric than  
in the complex narrative2 more1 for     
example1 in ,shakespeare's sonnets than 
in his dramas4 ,the inexpressible beauty
 of some lines of verse comes doubtless 
from a fugitive melody which we now     
grasp1 now lose4  ,the existence of     
speech melody and the tonalities of     
rime1 assonance1 and alliteration       
suggest an analogy between verse and    
music4 ,for some people1 this analogy is
 decisive4 ,yet the fundamental         
difference between music and verse must 
be insisted on with equal force2 the    
purity of tone and fixity of intervals  
between tones1 which is distinctive of  
music1 is absent from verse4 ,in        
comparison with music1 the melodiousness

 of verse is confused and chaotic2 and  
this condemns to failure any attempt to 
identify the laws of the two arts4      
,still1 we are not yet at the end of the
 analogy4 ,those who interpret verse in 
terms of music believe that1 underlying 
or supplanting the rhythm of stress1    
there is another rhythm1 similar to time
 in music1 and capable of expression in 
musical language4 ,there is1 it is      
claimed1 an equality of duration between
 one line and another1 and between one  
foot in a line and another2 these larger
 and lesser stretches of duration being 
divided up between syllables and pauses1
 each syllable and pause occupying a    
fixed quantity of time2 just as in music
 each bar is divided up between notes   
and rests of definite value4 ,lanier1   
for example writes the first line of    
,poe's ,raven as follows3--,footnote3   
,the ,science of ,english ,verse1 p4    
#abh4  ,illustration    ,once up  on a  
mid-night  drear-y2  ,fascinating as    
this procedure is1 it is nevertheless a 

distortion of the facts4 ,poetry is     
meant to be read1 not to be sung2 when  
it is put to music and sung1 it acquires
 a character which otherwise does not   
belong to it4 ,we must not be misled by 
the historical connection between verse 
and song1 nor by the frequency with     
which some verses are set to music4 ,our
 poetry must be understood as we        
experience it to-day1 not as it was     
experienced in its origins4 ,and there  
is surely much poetry which no one wants
 to sing4 ,no one wants to sing a sonnet
 or ,miltonic blank verse4 ,the attempt 
to apply musical notation to verse is a 
tour de force4 ,careful observation and 
experience show that the syllables in   
verse have no fixed duration values1 and
 that there is no constant ratio between
 them4  ,nevertheless1 musical time is  
not wholly absent from verse4 ,you      
cannot set it to the metronome or       
express it in musical notation1 yet it  
is there4 ,when lines have the same     
number of syllables1 the time required  

to read them is approximately the same1 
and we tend to make the duration of the 
thought-divisions equal4 ,our time-sense
 is so fallible1 we do not notice the   
departures from exactness2 and when the 
durations of processes are nearly equal 
and the values which we attach to them  
are equal1 then we are conscious of them
 as equal4 ,attention-value and         
time-value are subjectively equivalent4 
,words which weigh with us give us      
pause1 and we reckon in the time of the 
pause to make up for a deficiency in the
 time required to read or utter the     
syllables4 ,and so time-rhythm enters as
 still another factor in the complex    
rhythm of verse4  ,the importance of    
this rhythm differs1 however1 with the  
different kinds of verse4 ,in lyric     
poetry closely allied to song1 it is    
clear and strong2 while in the more     
reflective and dramatic poetry1 it is   
only an undertone4 ,in some cases1 as in
 the nursery rime1    ,hot cross buns1  
hot cross buns1   ,if your daughters    

don't like 'em1   ,give 'em to your     
sons4   ,one a penny1 two a penny1      
,hot cross buns1  there is almost no    
rhythm of stress1 but there is a rhythm 
of time2 for despite the inequality in  
the number of syllables1 each line has  
approximately the same duration1 even   
the last line with its three            
monosyllabic words being lengthened out 
into equality with the others4 ,the     
variety in the rhythm is secured through
 the unequal number of syllables in the 
same stretch of duration1 the more rapid
 movement of many syllables being set   
off over against the slower movement of 
the few4 ,similarly1 ,tennyson's poem1  
which should be scanned as ,i shall     
indicate1 has a rhythm which is chiefly 
musical4    ,break1  break1  break1     
,on thy cold1  grey stones1  ,o sea6    
,and ,i would  that my tongue  might    
utter   ,the thoughts  ,that arise  in  
me4  ,the stresses are nearly even      
throughout2 the meter cannot be         
accurately described as iambic1         

trochaic1 or anapestic2 yet there is a  
rhythm in the approximate temporal      
equality of the thought-moments4 ,these 
verses are1 however1 rather songs than  
poems4 ,the failure to distinguish      
between verses which are songs and those
 which are poems accounts1 ,i believe1  
for the extremes to which the musical   
theory of verse has been carried4       
,still another element of poetry which  
allies it to music is the repetition of 
the thought-content4 ,why repetition    
should be musical we already know3 music
 is an art which seeks to draw out and  
elaborate pure emotion2 repetition      
serves this end by constantly bringing  
the mind back to dwell upon the same    
theme4 ,moreover1 repetition involves   
retardation2 for a movement cannot      
progress rapidly if it has to return    
upon itself2 and this slowness gives    
time for the full value of a feeling to 
be worked out4 ,in all the more         
emotional and lyric poetry we find1     
therefore1 recurrence of theme3 the     

thought is repeated again and again2 in 
new forms1 perhaps1 yet still the same  
in essence1 successive lines or stanzas 
taking up the same burden2 sometimes    
there is exact recurrence of thought1 as
 in the refrain4 ,and this repetition in
 the thought is embodied in a repetition
 of the elements of the sound-pattern2  
the wave type is repeated from verse to 
verse or recurs again and again2 there  
is recurrence of melodic form or        
parallelism between contrasted melodies 
in different stanzas2 there is tonality 
of vowel and consonant sounds in rime   
and assonance and alliteration2 there   
may be an approach to identity in the   
time-duration of the various units4     
,parallelism or repetition is the       
fundamental scheme of such poetry4 ,but 
between repetition with its retardation 
of movement and progress towards a goal 
there is a necessary antagonism2 hence  
in the more dramatic and narrative forms
 of poetry1 although recurrence is never
 entirely absent1 there is less of it1  

and the movement approximates to that of
 prose4 ,emotion demands repetition1 but
 action demands progression4  ,after our
 analysis of the rhythm of poetry1 we   
are in a position to inquire into what  
can be expressed through it1 and how    
psychologically this expression can be  
explained4  ,the expressiveness of      
rhythm is like that of music1 vague and 
objectless1 for which reason rhythm is  
properly called the music of verse4     
,almost everything in a general way     
which we have said about the            
expressiveness of music applies to      
poetic rhythm4 ,this expressiveness     
cannot be translated into words with any
 exactness2 the most that can be done is
 to find a set of words into which it   
will roughly fit1 leaving much vacant   
space of meaning4 ,that the emotional   
values of rhythms have character is1    
however1 proved by the fact that some   
rhythms are better vehicles for certain 
kinds of thought than others are4 ,yet  
it often happens that1 just as1 in song 

or opera1 the same melody is used to    
express joy or grief1 love or religious 
emotion1 so approximately the same      
rhythmic form is employed in the        
expression of apparently antagonistic   
emotions4 ,nevertheless1 this fact is   
not fatal to expression2 for1 in the    
first place1 there is much variety of   
rhythm within a given metrical form1 so 
that what superficially may seem to be  
the same rhythm is really a different   
one2 and1 in the second place1 as we    
have already observed in the case of    
music1 there is much--in form and energy
 of movement--which contrasting emotions
 have in common1 and this may be        
expressed in the rhythmic type4 ,think  
of the wide sweep of emotions which have
 been expressed in the sonnet form6 ,yet
 consider what varieties of rhythm and  
speech melodies are possible within this
 form1 and how1 nevertheless1 there is  
an identity of character in all         
sonnets--how they are all thoughtful1   
all restrained1 yet unfaltering in their

 movement6  ,without going into details1
 which would lie beyond the scope of    
general sthetics1 it is possible to     
state the following broad facts 7compare
 the similar facts relating to melody7  
with reference to poetic rhythms3 a     
rising rhythm expresses striving or     
restlessness2 a falling rhythm1 quiet1  
steadfastness4 ,there is1 however1 no   
absolute contrast between the two kinds1
 because a falling rhythm is still a    
rhythm1 and that means a movement which 
necessarily contains something of       
instability and unrest4 ,the contrast is
 sharpest in the anapestic and dactylic1
 less sharp in the trochaic and iambic4 
,many a trochaic rhythm becomes in      
effect iambic when the division of the  
thought moments and the distribution of 
the pauses make the rhythm rise after   
the first few words2 and conversely1    
many an iambic rhythm becomes trochaic  
through a similar shift in the          
attention4 ,within a single line1       
therefore1 there may be both rising and 

falling pulsations4 ,much of the rare   
beauty of poetry comes from such subtle 
combinations of rhythmic qualities4     
,through time and tempo also1 poetic    
rhythm is expressive1 much after the    
manner of music2 by these means too1 in 
addition to the mode of                 
stress-undulation1 it imitates the      
temporal and dynamic course of action   
and emotion1 and so tends to arouse     
congruous types of feeling in the mind2 
it is swift or slow1 gliding or abrupt1 
retarded or accelerated4 ,compare the   
slow and retarded rhythm of ,when ,i    
have fears that ,i may cease to be1 so  
well adapted to express the gravity of  
the thought1 with the rapid and         
accelerated movement of ,hail to thee1  
blithe spirit6 so full of a quick       
joyousness4 ,or compare the light legato
 movement of ,bird of the wilderness1   
blithesome and cumberless1 with the     
heavy staccato movement of ,waste       
endless and boundless and flowerless4   
,yet1 for all its expressiveness1 the   

music of verse can never stand alone4   
,it is too bare and tenuous by itself to
 win and keep the attention or to evoke 
much feeling4 ,it does not possess the  
purity of color1 the loudness1 force1 or
 volume of sound that belong to music   
and make music1 almost alone of the     
arts1 capable of existing as mere form4 
,the rhythm of poetry1 derived very     
largely from a rhythm of thought1 has   
need of thought for significance4 ,the  
thought and the music are one4 ,for this
 reason poetry is better1 ,i think1 when
 read to oneself than when read aloud2  
for then the sound and the sense are    
more intimate2 the attention is not     
drawn off to the former away from the   
latter4 ,moreover1 try as he will1 the  
poet can never make his word-sounds     
fully harmonious2 some roughness and    
dissonance will remain2 but in silent   
reading these qualities disappear4      
,however1 although by itself of small   
significance1 the musical element in    
verse makes all the difference between  

poetry and prose4 ,through its own vague
 expressiveness it fortifies the        
emotional meaning of the poetic         
language1 and1 at the same time1        
sublimates it by scattering it in the   
medium4 ,and finally it imparts an      
intimacy1 a personal flavor1 which also 
allies poetry with music2 for the       
substance of rhythm is the movement of  
our own inner processes2 the rhythm of  
thoughts and sounds is a rhythm in our  
own listening and attending1 our own    
thinking and feeling2 the emotional     
values spring from us as well as from   
the subject-matter4 ,hence even         
narrative and dramatic poetry have a    
lyrical tone2 we ourselves are          
implicated in the actions and events    
portrayed4  ,the demands made by the    
form of poetry upon its substance are   
similar to those made by music upon the 
words in a song1 only less stringent4   
,the content must be emotional and      
significant2 it cannot be trite and     
cold4 ,the meaning of words would permit

 the poet to bring before the mind all  
possible objects1 events1 and ideas1 but
 the music of words would be incongruous
 with most of them4 ,events narrated    
must be stirring1 thoughts uttered must 
be emotionally toned1 things described  
must be related to human life and       
action4 ,poetry may desert the royal    
themes of long ago--arma virumque cano1 
maenin aeide thea--and relate the lowly 
life of common folk1 even the sordid    
life of the poor and miserable1 but when
 doing so throws over it the musical    
glamour of verse and arouses the heat of
 sympathy and passion4 ,although1 since 
it makes use of words1 poetry should    
always have a meaning1 it need not have 
the definiteness of meaning of logical  
thought2 it may suggest rather than     
explicate2 its music is compatible with 
vagueness4 ,but vagueness is not        
obscurity2 the poet should always make  
us feel that we understand him2 he      
should not seek to mystify us1 or keep  
us guessing at his meaning4 ,yet1 since 

the poet operates with words and not    
with mere sounds1 great subtlety and    
precision of thought are possible in    
poetry1 although not argument and       
dialectic4 ,poetry may express the      
results of reflection1 so far as they   
are of high emotional value1 but cannot 
well reproduce its processes2 the steps 
of analysis and inference are too cold  
and hard for the muse to climb4  ,on the
 other hand1 poetry does not permit of  
the development and iteration of pure   
feeling which we find in music2 for     
poetic rhythms and melodies lack the    
variety and fluency of the musical4 ,yet
 poetry is capable1 where music is not1 
of expressing brief1 quick outbursts of 
feeling2 for a few words1 by referring  
to the causes and conditions of feeling1
 may adequately express what music needs
 time and many tones to convey4 ,poetry 
wins beauty by concentration1 whereas   
music gains by expansion4 ,there is also
 a similar relation between prose and   
poetry in this respect2 the severity of 

the form imposes upon poetry a          
simplicity which contrasts with the     
breadth and complexity of prose4 ,as    
,schopenhauer remarked1 every good poem 
is short2 long poems always contain     
stretches either of unmusical verse or  
unpoetic music4 ,yet1 in comparison with
 prose1 the tempo of music is slow2 we  
have to linger in the medium in order   
that its rhythmic and tonal beauties may
 impress us1 and this slowness of       
movement is imparted to the thought2    
even narrative and dramatic poetry      
suffer retardation2 for which reason the
 poetic form must be abandoned if great 
rapidity of expression is sought4  ,from
 our study of the materials and forms of
 its expression1 it becomes clear how   
the subject-matter of poetry is the     
inner life of mood and striving and     
passionate human action4 ,emotions may  
be poured forth in words1 and1 by means 
of words1 actions may be described4 ,but
 neither passion nor action appear in   
poetry as they are lived and enacted2   

for the poet1 working in a medium of    
words1 has to translate them into       
thoughts4 ,words cannot embody the real 
experiences which they express2         
experience is fleeting and falls away   
from the words1 which retain only an    
echo of what they mean4 ,only what can  
be relived in memory can be contained in
 a word1 and not even all of that2 for a
 word is not a mere embodiment of an    
experience1 but a communication also1   
and only its public and universal       
content can pass from a speaker to a    
hearer4 ,now1 this socialized content of
 a word is a thought4 ,even passion the 
most spontaneous and lyrical has to be  
translated into thought1--not the       
abstract thought of scientific          
expression1 but the emotionally toned   
thought of art1 thought which1 while    
condensing experience1 still keeps its  
values4 ,emotional thought is the       
substance of poetry4 ,however1 albeit an
 image of the inner life1 poetry does   
not volatilize it into pure feeling as  

music does1 but distinguishes its       
objects and assigns its causes4 ,poetry 
is concrete and articulate where music  
is abstract and blind4 ,since words1    
through their meanings and associated   
images1 can express things as well as   
man's reactions to them1 poetry can also
 reflect the natural environment of     
life1 its habitat and seat4 ,and yet1   
because the poet has to translate things
 into ideas1 nature never appears in    
poetry as it is in itself1 but as it is 
implicated in mind4 ,for the poet1 sea  
and sky1 the woods and plains and       
rivers1 birds and flowers1 are the      
symbols of human destiny or the loci of 
human action4 ,emotion overflows into   
nature1 but this involves the taking up 
of nature into man4 ,not nature1 but    
man's thoughtful life is the poet's     
theme4  ,if the foregoing statement is  
correct1 emotional thought rather than  
imagery is the substance of poetry4 ,for
 poetry1 as music with a meaning1 can be
 quite free of definite images4 ,in la  

sua volantade e nostra pace 7,in his    
will is our peace7 ,footnote3 ,dante3   
,paradiso1 #c1 #he4 is beautiful poetry1
 yet there is no image4 ,the thought    
formulates a mood and finds a sensuous  
embodiment in musical language1 and that
 suffices for beauty4 ,and yet in       
poetry1 as has been observed1 thought   
tends to descend into imagery4 ,by being
 connected with a sensuous material1 a  
thought acquires a firmer support for   
feeling than it could possess of itself 
as a mere concept4 ,especially effective
 is the descent to the lower senses2 for
 they are closest to the roots of       
emotion4 ,let me recall again the       
,shakespearean lyric which ,i have      
quoted before in a similar connection1  
omitting the last lines of each         
stanza3--    ,blow1 blow1 thou winter   
wind1   ,thou art not so unkind    ,as  
man's ingratitude2    ,thy tooth is not 
so keen   ,because thou art not seen1   
,although thy breath be rude4           
,freeze1 freeze1 thou bitter sky1       

,thou dost not bite so nigh    ,as      
benefits forgot2    ,though thou the    
waters warp1   ,thy sting is not so     
sharp    ,as friend remembered not4     
,here are images of cold--winter1       
freeze2 of touch--blow1 breath2 of      
pain--tooth1 bite1 sting1 sharp2 of     
taste--bitter4 ,how vividly they convey 
the ache of desolation6 ,only in words  
which are imaginative as well as musical
 are the full resources of verbal       
expression employed4  ,all the various  
forms of metaphorical language have the 
same purpose3 by substituting for a more
 abstract1 conceptual mode of expression
 a more sensuous and imaginative one1 to
 vivify the emotional quality of the    
situation4 ,when ,keats sings1    444 on
 the shore   ,of the wide world ,i stand
 and think   ,till ,love and ,fame to   
nothingness do sink1  he has in mind to 
convey to us that renunciation of merely
 personal ambitions which comes to us   
when we survey all time and all         
existence4 ,and how does he do it8 ,by  

evoking the image of the wide stretch of
 the shore of the sea1 which1 making us 
feel our nothingness as we stand and    
look out upon it1 has the same effect1  
only more poignant4 ,of the world we    
have no image--not so1 of the shore of  
the world2 and toward what we cannot    
imagine we cannot easily feel4          
,oftentimes the metaphor is latent1 a   
mere adjective undeveloped in its       
implications1 as in bitter sky2 yet the 
purpose is the same4 ,incidentally the  
poet unifies our world for us through   
his metaphors2 not as the scientist does
 by pointing out causal and class       
relations1 but by exhibiting the        
emotional affinities of things4 ,he     
increases the value of single things by 
giving them the values of other things4 
,every metaphor should serve this       
purpose of emotional expression and     
unification1 should be part of an       
emotional thought2 otherwise it is a    
mere tour de force of cleverness1       
unrelated to the poetic interest and    

intrinsically absurd1--the world has no 
shore and the wind is not bitter2       
feeling alone can justify such          
comparisons4 ,moreover1 too many        
metaphors1 or metaphors too elaborately 
developed1 by scattering the attention1 
or by drawing it away from the meaning  
of which the image should be a part1    
have the effect of no image at all4 ,the
 poetry of ,francis ,thompson1 for      
example1 loses rather than gains        
vitality through its imaginative        
exuberance4 ,we object to decadent      
poets1 not because they are sensuous1   
but because they lack feeling2 with them
 sensation1 instead of supporting       
emotion1 supplants it4 ,such poets seek 
to atone for their want of vigorous     
feeling by stimulating our eyes and     
ears4  ,if1 as ,i believe1 emotional    
thought rather than imagery is the      
essence of poetry1 then the modern      
school of imagists and their ,french    
forbears among the ,parnassiens are     
mistaken4 ,their effort comes in the end

 to a revival of the old thesis ut      
pictura poesis1 the attempt to make     
poetry a vision of nature rather than an
 expression of the inner life4 ,they    
would lead poetry away from the         
subjectivity of emotion into the outer  
object world4 ,now1 it is indeed        
possible for the poet to represent      
nature through the images which words   
evoke in the mind1 and these images may 
have significance for feeling4 ,their   
very evocation in musical language is   
bound to lend them some warmth of mood4 
,yet--as ,lessing showed in his         
,laocoon1 despite all the crabbed       
narrowness of his treatment--it is      
hopeless for the poet to enter into     
rivalry with the painter or sculptor4   
,the colors and forms of things which   
the poet paints for the eye of the mind 
are mere shadows in comparison with     
those which we really see4,footnote3    
,the best the poet-painter can do is to 
express his memories of the outer world2
 but apart from some vivid emotion1     

memories are unsatisfactory in          
comparison with realities4 ,we admire   
the marvelous workmanship of such verses
 as the following of ,gautier1 but they 
leave us cold2 even the melody of the   
language is incapable of making them    
warm4 ,how poor they are beside a       
painting6    ,les femmes passent sous   
les arbres   ,en martre1 hermine et     
menu-vair   ,et les deesses1 frileux    
marbres1   ,ont pris aussi l'abit       
d'hiver4    ,la ,venus ,anadyomene      
,est en pelisse a capuchon3   ,flore1   
que la brise malmene1   ,plonge ses     
mains dans son manchon4    ,et pour la  
saison1 les bergeres   ,de ,coysevox et 
de ,coustou1   ,trouvant leures echarpes
 legeres   ,ont des boas autour du cou4 
,of course1 poetic pictures can be      
painted--,gautier has painted them--but 
the standard for each art is set by what
 it can do uniquely well4 ,if the poet  
works in the domain of the painter1 we  
tend to judge him by the alien standards
 of another art1 where he is bound to   

fall short2 while if he works within his
 own province1 we judge him by his own  
autonomous laws1 under which he can     
achieve perfection4  ,oftentimes1       
confessing the inability of the image to
 stand alone1 these poets make it into a
 symbol of some mood or emotional       
thought4 ,yet the image remains the     
chief object of the poet's care2 it was 
clearly the first thing in his mind2 the
 interpretation is an afterthought4 ,the
 poem therefore falls into two parts--a 
picture and an interpretation1 with     
little organic relation between them4   
,another one of ,gautier's poems will   
serve to illustrate what ,i             
mean4,footnote3 ,there are some good    
examples of this in ,baudelaire's       
,fleures du ,mat4 ,see for              
one1,l',albatros4  ,,les ,,colombes     
,sur le coteau1 la-bas ou sont les      
tombes1   ,un beau palmier1 comme un    
panache vert1   ,dresse sa tete1 ou le  
soir les colombes   ,viennent nicher et 
se mettre a couvert1    ,mais le matin  

elles quittent les branches2   ,comme un
 collier qui s'egrene1 on les voit      
,s'eparpiller dans ,fair bleu1 toutes   
blanches1   ,et se poser plus loin sur  
quelque toil4    ,mon ame est l'arbre ou
 tous les soirs1 comme elles1   ,de     
blancs essaims de folles visions        
,tombent des cieux1 en palpitant des    
ailes1   ,pour s'envoler des les        
premiers rayons4  ,finally1 the effort  
to detach poetry from the inner world   
and make it an expression of outer      
things1 is incompatible with its musical
 character4 ,for music is essentially   
subjective1 an expression of pure mood  
unaffixed to objects4 ,as rhythmical1   
poetry shares the inwardness of music2  
wherefore1 unless its rhythm is to be a 
mere functionless1 ornamental dress1    
whatever it expresses should have its   
source in the inner man4 ,of course1    
through their meanings1 word-sounds     
indicate the causes and objects of      
emotion--and this differentiates music  
from poetry--but in poetry the emotion  

is still the primary thing1 springing   
from inner strivings1 and not from      
objects1 as in painting and sculpture4  
,it is therefore no accident that the   
contemporary imagists tend to abandon   
the forms of verse2 their poetry has    
little or no regular rhythm2 it         
approximates to prose4 ,for in          
proportion as poetry becomes free1 it   
ceases to be tied to musical            
expressiveness1 and may become          
objective1 without prejudice to its own 
nature4 ,prose poetry1 and prose too1 of
 course1 may be highly emotional and    
subjective1 for words can express       
emotions directly without any rhythmical
 ordering2 yet prose need not be        
subjective1 as poetry must be4 ,there is
 no absolute difference between prose   
and poetry2 for even prose has its      
rhythm and its euphony1 its             
expressiveness of the medium2 yet in    
prose the rhythm is irregular and       
accidental and the expressiveness of the
 medium incomplete1 while in poetry the 

rhythm is regular and pervasive and     
ideally every sound-element1 as mere    
sound1 is musical4 ,but this more       
complete musical expressiveness of the  
medium restricts poetry to a more inward
 world4  ,by abandoning the strict forms
 and restraints of regular rhythms1 the 
writers of free verse think to gain     
spontaneity and something of the        
amplitude of prose2 yet it is doubtful  
whether they gain as much as they lose4 
,for1 in the hands of the skillful poet1
 the form1 having become second nature1 
ceases to be a bond2 and the expression1
 by taking on regularity of rhythm1     
acquires a concentration and mnemonic   
value which free verse cannot achieve4  
,in comparison with free verbal         
expressions1 verse forms are1 indeed1   
artifices2 yet they are not artificial1 
in the bad sense of functionless1 for   
they possess irreplaceable values4      
,nevertheless1 it would be strange if   
they were not from time to time         
abandoned1 the poet reverting to the    

freedom of ordinary speech2 just as now 
and then1 in civilized communities1 we  
find vigorous and sincere men who tire  
of culture and take to the woods4  ,the 
triplicity of the word1 as sound1 image1
 meaning1 provides a certain            
justification for the variety of tastes 
in poetry1 and accounts for the         
difficulty of setting up a single       
universal standard4 ,there is an        
unstable equilibrium between the three  
aspects of words2 hence poetry tends to 
become predominantly music or painting  
or thought1 yet can never succeed in    
becoming completely any one of these4   
,and it is inevitable that some people  
should be more sensitive to one rather  
than to another of the aspects of words1
 preferring therefore the more musical1 
or the more thoughtful1 or the more     
pictorial poetry4 ,and so we have poems 
that would be music1 and others that    
would be pictures1 and still others that
 would be epigrams4 ,and each kind has a
 certain right and beauty2 but no kind  

has the unique beauty that is poetical4 
,we do not ask their makers not to      
produce them1 nor do we condemn the     
pleasures which they afford us1 but we  
cannot commend them without reservation4
 ,for the best poems achieve a synthesis
 of the elements of words1--they are at 
once musical and imaginative and        
thoughtful4 ,yet with difficulty2 for   
there is an antagonism among the        
elements3 when the music is insistent1  
the thought is obscured2 when the images
 are elaborate1 their meaning is lost to
 sight2 when the thought is subtle or   
profound1 it rejects the image and is   
careless of sound4 ,swinburne's poetry  
is full of philosophy1 but is so        
sensuous and musical that we miss its   
thoughts2 ,browning is too subtle a     
thinker to be a musician4 ,the          
complexity of poetry is the source of   
its strength1 lending it something of   
the inwardness of music and the         
plasticity of the pictorial arts2 but is
 also the source of its weakness4       

,seldom does it achieve the technical   
purity and perfection of music and      
painting and sculpture4 ,music has a    
clear and simple medium1 painting and   
sculpture work with colors and forms    
which almost are what they represent2   
but word-sounds are not what they mean1 
and what they mean is not precisely the 
same as the images which they evoke2 too
 often the correspondence is factitious 
and artificial1 rarely is there fusion4 
,yet1 as ,i have tried to show1 when    
meaning is made central1 sound may fit  
it closely1 and when the meaning is     
emotional1 the music of sound may echo  
its cry1 and the image1 instead of      
rebelling1 may serve4 ,emotional thought
 is the essence of poetry and the link  
between its music and its pictures4  ,of
 the different modes of poetry1 the     
lyric has rightly seemed the most       
typical4 ,being an expression of a      
single1 simple mood1 its subject-matter 
is most closely akin to the musical     
expressiveness of the rhythm and euphony

 of the medium4 ,when1 moreover1 the    
mood is a common one1 there occurs that 
identification of self with the passion 
expressed characteristic of music3 the  
utterance becomes ours as well as the   
poet's2 the ,i of the poem is the ,i who
 read4 ,this is especially true when the
 setting and causes of the emotion are  
without name or place or date2 the poem 
then shares the timelessness and        
universality of music4 ,in such a lyric 
there is complete symmetry in the       
relation between speaker and hearer2 the
 poet unburdens his heart to us1 and we 
in receiving his message tell it back to
 him4 ,when1 on the other hand1 in      
explaining his feelings1 the poet       
relates them to events and persons which
 have been no part of our experience1   
this symmetry is lost2 we no longer     
utter the poem ourselves1 but merely    
hear the poet speak4 ,such poetry is    
already approaching the dramatic2 for   
although still the expression of the    
poet's life1 it is no longer an         

expression of the reader's life1 and the
 poet also1 as he lives past his        
experience1 must come at length to view 
it as if it were another's4  ,and yet1  
paradoxical as it may sound1 dramatic   
poetry is dramatic in proportion as it  
is lyrical--that is1 according to the   
degree to which the poet has made the   
life of others his own4 ,dramatic       
poetry1 when truly poetic1 is a series  
of lyrics of the less universal type4   
,in another respect1 however1 dramatic  
poetry is essentially different from the
 lyrical4 ,for1 in dramatic poetry1 each
 utterance is a response or invitation  
to another utterance1 while in lyric    
poetry1 utterance is complete in itself4
 ,the one is social1 the other personal3
 in the appreciation of the lyric1 the  
reader is just himself2 in the          
appreciation of dramatic poetry1 he is a
 whole society1 becoming now this man   
and now that4 ,the unity of the one is  
the unity of a single mood2 the unity of
 the other is the interaction of the    

dramatis person as it works itself out  
in the mind of the reader4 ,and this    
difference1 as we have seen1 is imaged  
in the form4 ,being self-contained1 the 
lyric is a harmonious whole1 in which   
the parts may be repeated for emphasis2 
looking backward and forward1 the       
dramatic utterance is a progressive and 
incomplete whole1 which cannot stay for 
iteration4 ,lyric poetry is like a      
communication from friend to friend1    
intimate and meditative2 dramatic poetry
 is like a passionate conversation which
 one overhears4  ,the life portrayed in 
the epic poem is even less direct than  
that which is portrayed in the drama2   
for there the poet does not impersonate 
the agents in the story1 but describes  
them4 ,his description is the first     
thing which we get2 we get the action   
only indirectly through that4 ,hence the
 story-teller himself--his manner of    
telling1 his reactions to what he tells1
 his sympathy1 humor1 and               
intelligence--are part of what he       

expresses4 ,he himself is partly theme4 
,no matter how hard he may try to do so1
 he cannot exclude himself2 through his 
choice of words1 through his            
illustrations1 through his style1 which 
is the man1 he will reveal himself4     
,footnote3 ,see ,lipps3 ,aesthetik1 ,bd4
 #a1 s4 #die et seq4 ,we inevitably     
apprehend1 not merely his thoughts1 but 
him thinking4 ,in the epic form of      
poetry1 the poet has1 moreover1 an      
opportunity for a more direct mode of   
self-revelation1 an opportunity for     
comment and judgment upon the life which
 he portrays4 ,and this we should       
accept1 not in a spirit of controversy  
or criticism1 but with sympathy1 as a   
part of the total aesthetic expression1 
striving to get1 not only the poet's    
story1 but his point of view regarding  
it as well4  ,this duality in the life  
of the epic involves a two-foldness in  
its time4 ,in both lyric and dramatic   
poetry1 life moves before us as a single
 stream actual in the present2 but in   

the epic there is the time of the       
story-teller1 which is present1 and the 
time of the events that he relates1     
which is past4 ,and being past1 these   
events appear as it were at a distance1 
at arms' length and remote2 they lack   
the vivid reality of things present4    
,moreover1 since the past is finished1  
unlike the present which is ever moving 
and creating itself anew1 the epic1 in  
comparison with the drama1 comes to us  
with its parts as it were coexisting and
 complete1 more after the manner of     
space than of time4 ,and just as a      
spatial thing allows us to survey its   
parts by turn1 since they are all there 
before we look2 so1 in reading an epic1 
we feel that we can proceed at our      
leisure and1 despite the causal         
relation1 take the incidents in any     
order4 ,it is not so in the drama1 where
 events move rapidly and make themselves
 in a determined sequence4 ,this is what
 ,goethe meant when he said that        
substantiality was the category of the  

epic1 causality of the drama1 although1 
of course1 this distinction is not      
absolute4  ,finally1 the fact that the  
epic poet tells rather than impersonates
 his story1 enables him to enlarge its  
scope2 for by means of descriptions he  
can introduce nature as one of the      
persons of the action4 ,footnote3       
,compare ,munsterberg3 ,the ,eternal    
,values1 p4 #bcc4 ,he can show the      
molding influence of nature upon man1   
and how man1 in turn1 interacts not only
 with his fellows1 but with his         
environment4 ,fate1 in the sense of the 
non-human determinants of man's career1 
can show its hand4 ,in the ,odyssey1 for
 example1 shipwreck and the interference
 of the gods are factors as decisive as 
,odysseus' courage and cunning4 ,by     
contrast1 in lyric poetry1 nature is    
merely a reflection of moods2 in        
dramatic poetry1 it is simply the       
passive1 causally ineffective stage for 
a social experience wholly determined by
 human agents4 ,this distinction is1    

however1 not absolute4 ,in ,brand1 for  
example1 through the stage directions   
and the utterance of the persons1 we are
 indirectly made aware of the control   
exerted by the physical background of   
the action2 in the ,greek drama we learn
 this from the ,chorus and the          
,prologue4     ,,chapter ,x  ,,prose    
,,literature   ,there is an almost      
universal feeling1 expressed in many    
common phrases1 that prose literature is
 not one of the fine arts4 ,the reason  
is this3 in prose literature there is a 
conspicuous absence of beauty of form   
and sensation1 of the decorative1 in    
comparison with the other arts4 ,the    
vague expressiveness and charm of the   
medium1 the musical aspect1 is largely  
lacking4 ,not wholly lacking1 of course1
 as a multitude of beautiful passages   
testify2 yet1 in general1 it remains    
true that1 in prose1 the medium tends to
 be transparent1 sacrificing itself in  
order that nothing may stand between    
what it reveals to thought and the      

imagination4 ,it fulfills its function  
when the words are not unpleasant to the
 ear1 and when their flow1 adapting     
itself to the span and pulsation of the 
attention1 is so smooth as to become    
unnoticeable1 like the movement of a    
ship on a calm sea1--when it is a means 
to an end1 not an end in itself4  ,prose
 literature is1 therefore1 incompletely 
beautiful4 ,the full meaning and value  
of the aesthetic are not to be found    
there1 but rather in poetry1 painting1  
sculpture1 music1 architecture4 ,yet    
prose literature remains art1 if        
incomplete art--a free1 personal        
expression of life1 for the sake of     
contemplation4 ,as free1 it differs from
 verbal expression in the service of    
practical ends1 and as personal1 it     
cannot be classed with science4         
,throughout the long course of its      
history1 it has tended to become now the
 one1 now the other of these--and its   
lack of the decorative element has done 
much to make this possible--but its     

power to outlast the moral and political
 issues which it has so often sought to 
direct1 and its well-merited rejection  
by sociologists and psychologists as    
anything more than material for their   
work1 are sufficient evidence and       
warning of where it properly            
belongs1--among the arts4 ,the sacrifice
 of the musical element in the medium   
does not have to be justified on        
practical grounds as making for         
efficiency1 or on scientific grounds as 
favoring analysis1 but may be understood
 from the artistic standpoint4 ,for it  
was only through a method and medium    
that renounced the musical manner of    
poetry1 with its vaguely expressive1 yet
 rigid forms1 that the fullness and     
minuteness of life could be represented4
  ,even the more fluently musical manner
 of poetical prose is unsuited as a     
medium for the expression of the kind of
 life which is represented in normal    
prose4 ,poetical prose is appropriate   
for the expression of deeds and         

sentiments of high and mystical import  
only1 but not for the expression of the 
more commonplace or definitely and      
complexly articulated phases of life4   
,for the latter1 the broader and freer  
and more literal method of strict prose 
is the only appropriate medium of       
expression4 ,the unmusical character of 
prose style is not determined by        
weakness1 but by adaptation to function4
  ,and1 although the medium of prose is 
attenuated almost to the vanishing      
point1 where it may seem to be lost1 it 
may nevertheless borrow from its content
 a beauty of rhythm1 imagery1 and form  
that will seem to be its very own4 ,for 
in language1 as we observed in our      
discussion of poetry1 the meaning and   
the symbol are so closely one1 that it  
becomes impossible1 except by analysis1 
to distinguish them4 ,prose rhythm is   
fundamentally a rhythmical movement of  
ideas1 like poetic rhythm1 only without 
regularization2 yet1 since the ideas are
 carried by the words1 it belongs to    

them also2 images blossom from ideas1   
yet they too seem to belong to the words
 in which they are incarnated2 and the  
harmony and symmetry which thoughts and 
images may contain as we compose them   
synthetically in the memory1 make an    
architecture of words4 ,the transparent 
medium of prose shares the beauty of its
 content1 just as a perfect glass       
partakes of the color of the light which
 it transmits4  ,the psychologic roots  
of prose literature are the impulses to 
self- revelation and to acquaintance    
with life4 ,every thing that has once   
entered into our lives1 no matter how   
intimate1 craves to come out2 the       
instinct of gregariousness extends1 as  
we have noted1 to the whole of the mind4
 ,the completely private and            
uncommunicated makes us as uncertain and
 afraid of ourselves as physical        
loneliness4 ,but in addition to the     
dislike for any form of isolation1 even 
when purely spiritual1 there is another 
factor which determines                 

self-revelation1--the desire for praise4
 ,we want a larger audience for our     
exploits than the people immediately    
involved in them1 so we tell them to any
 listening ear4 ,the friend whispering  
his confession illustrates the one      
motive2 the hero bragging of his deeds  
illustrates the other4  ,the desire to  
hear another's story is the obverse of  
the desire to tell one about oneself1   
just as the impulse to welcome a friend 
is the complement of his impulse to seek
 our companionship2 we receive from him 
exactly what he takes from us1--an      
enlargement of our social world1 the    
creation of another social bond4 ,if we 
cannot hear his story from his own lips1
 we want to hear it from some third     
person1 who will surely be glad to      
relate it1 since he1 as bearer of the   
news1 will bring to himself something of
 the glory of the hero4 ,there is malice
 enough in gossip1 but most of it is the
 purest kind of mental and emotional    
satisfaction4 ,our interest in it is of 

exactly the same kind as our interest in
 novels and romances4 ,the stories which
 we tell about ourselves and our friends
 make up the ephemeral1 yet real prose  
literature of daily life4  ,most stories
 probably had their origin in more or   
less literal transcriptions from real   
life4 ,history is the basis of          
literature4 ,however1 as stories are    
passed from one person to another1      
fiction encroaches upon fact4 ,details  
are forgotten and have to be filled out 
from the imagination2 then a sheer      
delight in invention enters in2 it is so
 interesting to see if you can make a   
world as good as the real one1 or even  
outdo it in strangeness and wonder1     
provided1 of course1 you can still get  
yourself believed4 ,even in the relation
 of real events1 creation inevitably    
plays a part2 the whole of any story is 
not worth telling2 there must be        
selection1 emphasis upon the most       
striking particulars1 and synthesis4    
,besides the opportunity which it gives 

of unhampered control over the story1   
fiction has still other advantages4 ,the
 interest which we take in tales of real
 life is bound up with personal appeals4
 ,this is most racy in gossip1 but      
something of the kind lingers in all    
narratives of fact4 ,literature can     
become disinterested and universal in   
its appeal only when1 keeping the       
semblance of life1 it becomes a work of 
pure imagination4 ,it is then1 as       
,aristotle said1 more philosophical1    
that is1 more universal and typical1    
than history4  ,another advantage of    
fiction as compared with history is its 
completeness4 ,the knowledge which we   
possess of the lives of others is the   
veriest fragment4 ,we know1 of course1  
our own lives best2 but even of these1  
unless we are at the end of our years1  
we do not know the outcome4 ,we know    
next well the life of an intimate--wife1
 child1 sweetheart1 friend--yet not all 
of that2 there is much he will not tell 
us and much else which we cannot        

observe2 for even he dwells with us for 
a brief time only1 and then is gone4 ,of
 other people1 we can know still less2  
we can observe something1 we can get    
more from hearsay2 but that is a chaos  
of impressions2 the larger part is      
inference and construction1 a work of   
the imagination1 which may or may not be
 true4 ,even the biography1 carefully   
made from all available data in the way 
of personal recollections1 letters1 and 
diaries1 although it may approach to    
wholeness1 remains1 nevertheless1 very  
largely a construction1 a work of       
literary fiction4 ,the autobiography    
comes still closer2 yet1 since it is    
designed for a public which cannot be   
expected to view it in a solidly        
detached fashion1 it suffers from the   
reticence which inevitably intrudes to  
suppress4 ,in fiction alone1 none except
 artistic motives need intervene to bid 
silence4  ,however1 although fiction be 
a purely ideal world of imagined life1  
it is essentially the same as the real  

social world4 ,for that world is also   
imaginary4 ,we have direct experience of
 our own lives alone2 the lives of      
others can exist for us only in our     
thought about them4 ,to be sure1 our    
daily contact with the bodies of our    
friends and associates gives to this    
thought something of the pungency of    
self-knowledge2 yet in absence1 they    
live for us1 as the characters in a     
novel1 only in our thought4 ,and the    
majority of the people1 personally      
unknown to us1 who make up our larger   
social world--and for most of us this   
includes the great ones who are such    
potent factors in determining it--are   
real to us in the same way that ,diana  
or ,esmond are real4 ,all historical    
figures belong to this world of         
imagination4 ,our friends too1 as they  
pass out of our lives or die1 and we    
ourselves eventually1 will sink into it4
  ,our interest in the fictional world  
of the writer is1 moreover1 essentially 
the same as our interest in the real    

world4 ,its persons arouse in us the    
same emotions of admiration1 love1 or   
dislike4 ,they satisfy the same need for
 social stimulation1 the same curiosity 
about life4 ,just as we have certain    
instincts and habits of movement that   
make us restless when they are not      
satisfied1 and afford us a wild joy in  
walking and running when we are released
 from confinement1 so we have certain   
instincts and habits of feeling towards 
persons which demand objects and produce
 joy when companions are found4 ,an     
unsatisfied or superabundant sociability
 lies back of our love of fiction4 ,we  
read because we are lonely or because   
our fellow men have become trite and    
fail to stimulate us sufficiently4 ,if  
our fellows were not so reticent1 if    
they would talk to us and tell us their 
stories with the freedom and the        
brightness of a ,stevenson1 or if their 
lives were so fresh and vivid that we   
never found them dull1 perhaps we should
 not read at all4 ,but1 as it is1 we can

 satisfy our craving for knowledge of   
life only by extending our social world 
through fiction4 ,fiction may teach us1 
edify us1 make us better men--it may    
serve all these purposes incidentally1  
but its prime purpose as art is to      
provide us with new objects for social  
feeling and knowledge4  ,the interest   
which we take in fictitious action is   
also like that which we take in real    
action4 ,the same emotions of desire for
 the attainment of a goal1 suspense1    
hope1 fear1 excitement1 curiosity and   
its satisfaction1 joy1 despair1 are     
aroused4 ,and we have a need to         
experience these emotions at high pitch 
greater than our everyday lives can     
satisfy4 ,our lives are seldom          
adventurous all over2 there are         
monotonous interludes with no melody1   
offering us little that is new to learn4
 ,our love for war and sport shows that 
we were not built organically for       
humdrum4 ,now literature helps to make  
up for this deficiency in real life by  

providing us with adventures in which we
 can participate imaginatively1 and from
 which we can derive new knowledge4 ,if 
real life did supply us with all the    
intense living that we demand1 we might 
not care to read1 although the love of  
adventure grows by feeding1 and many an 
active man revels in tales which        
simulate his own exploits4  ,it follows 
that the novelist should imitate life1  
yet at the same time raise its pitch4   
,the realists imitate life deliberately1
 and we measure their worth by their    
truth1 but they select the intense      
moments4 ,the romancers and weavers of  
fairy tales1 on the other hand1 instead 
of choosing the vivid moments of real   
life1 in order to stimulate the         
emotions1 accomplish the same end by    
exciting wonder and amazement at the    
exaggerations and unheard-of novelties  
which they create4 ,yet even they give  
us truth1 not truth in the sense of     
fact1 but in the sense of a world which 
arouses the same elementary emotions1   

intensified though they be through      
amazement1 as are aroused by fact4 ,it  
matters not how outlandish their tales  
so long as they do this4 ,love stories  
are so widely interesting because love  
is the one very vivid emotion in most   
people's lives1 although there are other
 experiences--warfare1 the pursuit of   
great aims1 the clash of purposes and   
beliefs1 the growth of souls--equally   
intense4 ,dante's three themes1 ,venus1 
,salus1 ,virtus1,footnote3 ,see his ,de 
,vulgari ,eloquentia4 broadly           
interpreted1 cover the range of literary
 subjects4  ,of course1 since we secure 
no personal triumphs in reading1 and    
every one wishes to play his own part   
successfully in real life1 literature   
cannot become a substitute for life1    
except with the artist who triumphs in  
making his story4 ,nevertheless1 as     
,henry ,james says1 fiction may and     
should compete with life1 and this it   
can do by giving us the feelings aroused
 by action without imposing upon us the 

responsibilities and the fateful results
 of action itself2 there we can learn   
new things about life without incurring 
the risks of participation in it4 ,we   
can play the part of the adventurer     
without being involved in any blame2 we 
can fall in love with the heroine       
without any subsequential entanglements2
 we can be a hero without suffering the 
penalties of heroism2 we can travel into
 foreign lands without deserting our    
business or emptying our purses4 ,hence1
 although no one would exchange life for
 literature1 one is better content1     
having literature1 to forego much of    
life4  ,the elements of every story are 
these five3 character1 incident1 nature1
 fate1 and milieu--the social1          
historical1 and intellectual background4
 ,character and incident are capable of 
some degree of separation1 so far as1 in
 novels of adventure1 the personalities 
necessary to carry on the action may be 
very abstract or elementary1 and so far 
as1 in so-called psychological novels1  

the number of events related may be very
 small and their interest dependent upon
 their effect on character2 but one     
without the other is as inconceivable in
 a story as it is in life itself1 and   
the development of fiction has been     
steadily in the direction of their      
interdependence4 ,aristotle's dictum    
regarding the superior importance of    
plot over character applies to the drama
 only1 and because character cannot well
 be revealed there except through       
action4 ,the construction of character  
depends upon the delineation of         
distinctive and recognizable physical   
traits1 a surprisingly small number     
sufficing1 a mere name being almost     
enough2 upon the definition of the      
individual's position in a group--his   
relation to family1 townspeople1 and    
other associates--a matter of capital   
importance2 and1 finally1 information   
about his more permanent interests and  
attitudes4 ,this construction is best   
made piecemeal1 the character disclosing

 itself gradually during the story1 as  
it does in life1 and growing under the  
stress of circumstances4 ,the old idea  
of fixity of character does not suit our
 modern notions of growth2 we demand    
that character be created by the story2 
it should not preexist1 as ,schopenhauer
 thought it should1 with its nature as  
determinate and its reactions as        
predictable as those of a chemical      
substance4 ,and although in their broad 
outlines the possibilities of human     
nature are perhaps fewer in number than 
the chemical substances1 the variations 
of these types in their varying         
environments are infinite4 ,to create a 
poignant uniqueness while preserving the
 type is the supreme achievement of the 
writer of fiction4 ,we want as many of  
the details of character1 and no more1  
as are necessary to this end4  ,by      
incident is meant action expressing     
character or action or event determining
 fate4 ,there are a thousand actions1   
mechanical or habitual1 performed by us 

all1 which throw no light upon our      
individuality4 ,almost all of these the 
novelist may neglect1 or if he wishes to
 describe them1 a single example will   
serve to reveal whatever uniqueness they
 may hide4 ,there are an equal number of
 actions and events like blind alleys   
leading nowhere2 from these also the    
novelist abstracts2 it is only when he  
can trace some effect upon fate or      
character that he is interested4 ,the   
delineation of nature or the milieu is  
governed by the same reference3 a social
 or intellectual environment1 no matter 
how interesting in itself1 without      
potent individualities which it molds1  
or scenery1 no matter how romantic1     
unless it is a theater of action or a   
spiritual influence upon persons1 has no
 place in a story4 ,each of these1      
however1 may by itself become the       
subject-matter of a literary essay1     
provided the writer's own moods and     
appreciations are included2 otherwise it
 is a topic for sociology1 history1 or  

topography1 not for literature4  ,by    
fate in a story ,i mean the writer's    
feeling for causality4 ,as the maker of 
an image of life1 the writer must       
portray life as molded by its past and  
by all the circumstances surrounding it4
 ,he must present character as          
determined by personal influence1 by    
nature and the milieu2 he must have a   
vivid sense for the interrelation of    
incidents4 ,the feeling for fate is     
independent of any special philosophical
 view of the world2 it does not imply   
fatalism or the denial of the           
spontaneous and originative force of    
personality2 it is simply recognition of
 the wholeness of life4 ,nor1 again1    
does it imply the possibility of        
predicting the end of a story from the  
beginning1 for the living sequence1     
forging its links as it proceeds1 is not
 mechanical2 but it does imply that     
after things have happened we must be   
able to perceive their relatedness--the 
beginning1 middle1 and end as one whole4

 ,in the story1 there must be the same  
kind of combination of necessity and    
contingency that there is in life3 we   
must be sure that every act and incident
 will have its effect1 and we must be   
able to divine1 in a general way1 what  
that effect will be2 but owing to the   
complexity of life1 which prevents us   
from knowing all the data of its        
problems1 and owing to the spontaneity  
of its agents and the creative syntheses
 within its processes1 we must never be 
able to be certain just what the effect 
will be like2 our every calculation must
 be subject to the correction of        
surprise4 ,suspense and excitement must 
go hand in hand with a feeling for a    
developing inner necessity4 ,there is no
 story without both4 ,yet no formula for
 the amount of each can be devised4 ,the
 dependence of man upon nature makes    
inevitable the occurrence of what we    
call accidents1 violent breaks in the   
tissue of personal and social life1     
unaccountable from the point of view of 

our human purposes4 ,by admitting the   
part played by the non-human background 
in determining fate1 the naturalistic   
school of writers have enlarged the     
vision of the novelist beyond the range 
of the tender-minded sentimentalist4 ,it
 is to be expected1 moreover1 that      
coincidences should occur1--the meeting 
of independent lines of causation with  
consequences fateful to each4 ,a careful
 investigation would disclose that most 
interesting careers have been largely   
determined by coincidences4 ,the only   
demand that we can make of the artist in
 this regard is that he do not give us  
so many of these that his work will seem
 unreal4 ,we must not feel that he is   
making the story in order to surprise us
 and thrill us--the purpose of          
melodrama2 the story should make itself4
 ,hardy's ,the ,return of the ,native is
 an illustration of failure here2 the   
coincidences are so many that it seems  
magical1 the work of a capricious       
genius1 not of nature4  ,by fate in a   

story we do not mean1 of course1 the    
mere causal concatenation of events1 for
 some relation to a purposeful life is  
always implied4 ,but since this relation
 is a general condition applying to all 
art1 we shall consider it here only as  
it affects the unity of a story4 ,no    
rule can be laid down for the compass of
 a story2 it may cover a small incident1
 as in many short stories1 or it may    
embrace the whole or the most           
significant part of a life4 ,the        
requirement that there be a beginning1  
middle1 and end holds1 but does not     
enlighten us as to what constitutes an  
end4 ,death makes one natural end to a  
story1 since it makes an end to life    
itself2 but within the span of a life   
the parts are not so clearly defined4   
,yet despite the continuity and         
overlapping of the parts of life1 there 
are certain natural breaks and          
divisions1--the working out of a plan to
 fulfillment or disaster1 the           
termination or consummation of a love   

affair1 the commission of a crime with  
its consequences1 or more subtle things1
 such as the breaking up of an old      
attitude and the formation of a new one4
 ,in life itself there are incidents    
that are closed because they cease to   
affect us deeply any more1 purposes     
which we abandon because we can get no  
farther with them or because they have  
found their natural fulfillment1 points 
of view which we have to relinquish     
because life supplies us with new facts 
which they do not include4 ,the unity of
 a story should mirror these natural    
unities4 ,the search for the wholeness  
of life should not blind us to the      
relative isolation of its parts2 and    
there is fate in the parts as well as in
 the whole4  ,the selection of incidents
 for their bearing upon fate1 the       
selection of significant traits for the 
construction of character1 with the     
resulting unity and simplicity of the   
parts and the whole1 is responsible for 
most of the ideality of fiction as      

compared with real life4 ,real life is a
 confused medley of impressions of      
people and events1 a mixture of the     
important and the unimportant1 the      
consequential and the inconsequential1  
with no evident pattern4 ,of this1      
literary art is the verklartes ,bild4   
,it is not because1 in literature1 men  
are happier and nobler that life seems  
superior there2 but because its outlines
 are sharper1 its design more           
perspicuous1 the motives that sway it   
better understood4 ,it has the advantage
 over life that a landscape flooded with
 sunshine has over one shrouded in      
darkness4  ,the way the literary artist 
builds up the ideal social world of     
fiction follows closely the method which
 we all employ in constructing the real 
social world4 ,in real life we start    
from certain perceived acts and         
utterances1 to which we then attach     
purposive meanings1 and between which we
 establish relations4 ,the process of   
interpretation is so rapid that1        

although strictly inferential in        
character and having imagination as its 
seat1 it seems1 nevertheless1 like      
direct perception4 ,as we see people act
 and hear them talk1 it is as if we had 
a vision1 confused indeed1 yet direct1  
of their inner lives4 ,and yet1 as we   
have insisted1 the real social world is 
constructed1 not perceived4  ,the       
literary artist1 unless he calls        
dramatic art to his aid1 cannot present 
the persons and acts of his story2 he   
can only describe them and report their 
talk4 ,description must take the place  
of vision1 a recorded conversation the  
place of a heard one4 ,yet1 by these    
means1 the artist can give us almost as 
direct an intuition as we get from life 
itself2 he can make us seem to see and  
overhear4 ,from the acts which he       
describes we can infer the motives of   
the characters1 and from the reported   
conversations we can learn their        
opinions and dreams4 ,or the novelist   
may insert a letter which we can read as

 if it were real4 ,the resulting image  
of life will be clearer than any we     
could construct for ourselves2 for the  
artist can report life more carefully   
than we could observe it2 and he can    
make his characters more articulate in  
the expression of themselves than       
ordinary men1 giving them a gift of     
tongues like his own4 ,this last is     
especially characteristic of the drama1 
where sometimes1 as in ,shakespeare1 men
 speak more like gods than like men4    
,and we can listen to the intimate      
conversation of friends and lovers1 upon
 which1 in real life1 we would not      
intrude4  ,this direct method of        
exposition through the description of   
acts and events and the record of       
conversations is the basis of every     
vivid story4 ,it leaves the necessary   
inferences to the reader1 just as life  
leaves them to the observer4 ,in the    
hands of a master like ,fontane1 this   
method is incomparable2 nothing can     
supplant it4 ,it is the only method     

available for the dramatist1 who1       
however1 can make it still more         
effective through histrionic portrayal4 
,yet it does not suffice to satisfy our 
craving for knowledge of life1 for only 
the broader1 more obvious feelings can  
be inferred from the acts of men2 the   
subtler and more remote escape4 ,even in
 conversation these cannot all be       
revealed2 for many of them are too      
intimate to be spoken1 and many again   
are unknown even to those who hold them4
 ,to-day we ask of the novelist that he 
disclose the finest1 most hidden tissues
 of the soul4 ,to this end1 the         
microscopy of analysis1 the so-called   
psychological method1 must be employed4 
,the novelist must perform upon his     
characters the same sort of dissection  
that we perform when1 introspecting1 we 
seek out the obscurer grounds of our    
conduct4 ,and in the pursuit of this    
knowledge the novelist can oftentimes do
 better with his characters than we can 
do with ourselves4 ,for utter sincerity 

regarding ourselves is impossible2 the  
desire to think well of ourselves       
prevents us from recognizing the truth  
about ourselves4 ,the novelist1 on the  
contrary1 can be unprejudiced and can   
know fully what he himself is creating4 
,in order to accomplish this same       
purpose1 the dramatist has to introduce 
bits of self-analysis1 unusually sincere
 and penetrating1 spoken aloud1--in the 
old style1 monologues4 ,and yet1 without
 sacrificing the truthfulness of his own
 art1 he cannot go so deep here as the  
novelist4  ,through his analysis of his 
characters1 the novelist must1 however1 
construct them2 otherwise he is a       
psychologist1 not an artist4 ,a         
synthetic vision of personality must    
supervene upon the dissection1 and the  
emotional interest in character and     
action must subsist alongside of the    
intellectual interest4 ,he must not let 
us lose the vivid sense of a living     
presence4 ,in order to keep this1 he    
must continue to employ the direct      

method of description of person and     
action1 and report of conversation4 ,how
 far the analytic method may be carried 
and at the same time the sense of       
personality kept intact1 may be inferred
 from the work of ,henry ,james1 who1   
nevertheless1 seems at times to fail to 
bring the out-going threads of his      
thought back into the web which he is   
weaving4  ,again1 in order to reach the 
social1 historical1 and metaphysical    
background of life--the milieu1 the     
method of thought is the only available 
one4 ,for the milieu is not anything    
that can be seen or heard or touched2 it
 does not manifest itself to perception1
 but has to be constructed by a process 
of inference and synthesis4 ,much of it1
 to be sure1 can be divined from the    
acts and conversations1 from the dress  
and manners of the characters1 but there
 is always more that has to be directly 
expounded4 ,the writer cannot rely upon 
the reader's perspicacity to make the   
right inferences1 or upon his knowledge 

to supply sufficient data2 nor can he   
make his characters tell all that he may
 want told about their past and the life
 of the world in which they live1 and   
through the influence of which they have
 become what they are4 ,the novelist    
must construct for the reader the mise  
en scene of his story4 ,yet this must be
 held in complete subordination to the  
story4 ,the intellectual background must
 lie behind1 not athwart the story2 it  
must be created for the sake of the     
story1 not the story for its sake4  ,a  
philosophy of life1 even1 is the        
inevitable presupposition of every      
story4 ,for no writer1 no matter how    
direct and empirical he may be in his   
methods1 can escape from looking at life
 through the glass of certain political1
 social1 and religious ideas4 ,he may   
have none of his own construction1 yet  
he will unconsciously share those of his
 age4 ,the prose literature of our own  
age1 aside from some minor differences  
of technique1 differs from that of the  

past chiefly through its more democratic
 and naturalistic views of life4 ,and   
just as we rightly ask of the novelist  
that he enlighten us regarding the      
subtler causation of human action1 so   
with equal right we may ask him to      
exhibit the relations of the persons and
 incidents which he describes to social 
organization1 spiritual movements1 and  
nature2 for only so can they be seen in 
their complete reality4 ,yet right here 
lurks a danger threatening the enduring 
beauty of every story thus made         
complete4 ,for the social and cosmic    
background of life1 as we have observed1
 can be constructed only through        
thought1 and thought1 particularly      
regarding such matters1 is peculiarly   
liable to error4 ,the artist who goes   
very deep into this is sure to make     
mistakes4 ,even when he tries to use the
 latest sociological1 economic1 and     
political theories1 he runs great risks2
 for these theories are always one-sided
 and subject to correction2 they never  

prove themselves to be what the artist  
thinks and wants them to be--concrete   
views which he can apply with utter     
faith4 ,how many stories of the century 
past have been marred by the author's   
too ready application of ,darwinism to  
social life6 ,when we can separate the  
story from its intellectual background1 
the inadequacy of the latter matters    
little2 for we can apply metaphysical   
and political criticism to the theory   
and enjoy the story aesthetically2 but  
many of our writers come to life with   
preconceived ideas deeply affecting     
their delineation of it4 ,the picture no
 longer seems true because we feel that 
a false theory has prevented the artist 
from viewing life concretely and        
clearly4 ,we could1 for example1 accept 
as natural and inevitable the ending of 
,tess of the ,d',urbervilles1 if ,hardy 
had not presented it as an illustration 
of the cruel sport of the gods4 ,as it  
stands with the author's commentary1 we 
suspect that the girl's fate might have 

been different1--that perhaps he gave it
 this turn in order to prove his theory 
of life4  ,this fault is especially     
flagrant in the theory-ridden fiction of
 to-day4 ,determination through the past
 is overemphasized as against the       
influence of present1 novel factors in a
 growing experience2 heredity is given  
undue weight as against the inborn      
originality of personality and the      
uniqueness acquired through unique      
experiences2 the influence of sensual   
motives is stressed at the expense of   
the moral2 and so on through all the    
other abstractions and insufficiencies  
of scientific novel writing4 ,the writer
 may well profit by everything he can   
learn from science2 but he should not   
let his knowledge prevent him from      
seeing life concretely and as a whole4  
,the literary man's science and         
philosophy are bound to be condemned by 
the expert1 but his concrete            
delineations of life based on direct    
observation and vivid sympathy and      

imagination are impeccable4 ,his        
theories may be false1 but these will   
always be true4 ,nothing can take their 
place in fiction4 ,it is they which give
 enduring value to such tales as ,morte 
d',arthur1 despite all the crudity of   
the intellectual background4            
,reflections upon life may become matter
 for literature in the essay1 quite     
apart from any story4 ,but the essay1   
like the story1 unless it is to compete 
at a disadvantage with science and      
philosophy1 must rely upon first-hand   
personal acquaintance with life1 and    
artistic expression4 ,the more abstract 
and theoretical it becomes1 the more    
precarious its worth4 ,i do not mean    
that the essayist may not generalize1   
but his generalizations should be       
limited to the scope of his experience  
of life4 ,i do not mean that he should  
not philosophize1 but his philosophy    
should be1 like ,goethe's or ,emerson's1
 an expression of intuition and faith4  
,properly1 the literary essay is a      

distinct artistic genre--the expression 
of a concrete thinking personality1 and 
its value consists in the living wisdom 
it contains4 ,such essays as those of a 
,montaigne or a ,la ,rochefoucauld make 
excellent materials for the social      
sciences1 and can never be displaced by 
them as sources of knowledge of life4   
,considerations similar to those which  
we have adduced regarding the implied   
philosophy of a story apply to its moral
 purpose4 ,we cannot demand of the      
writer that he have no moral purpose or 
that he leave morality out of his story4
 ,for1 since the artist is also a man1  
he cannot rid himself of an ethical     
interest in human problems or with good 
conscience fail to use his art to help  
toward their solution4 ,his observations
 of moral experience will inevitably    
result in beliefs about it1 and these   
will reveal themselves in his work4 ,yet
 we should demand that his view of what 
life ought to be shall not falsify his  
representation of life as it is4 ,just  

as soon as the moral of a tale obtrudes1
 we begin to suspect that the tale is   
false4 ,we have such suspicions about   
,bourget1 for example1 because1 as in   
,une ,divorce1 we are never left in     
doubt from the beginning as to the      
conventions he is advocating4 ,and along
 with the feeling for the reality of the
 story goes the feeling for the validity
 of the moral2 they stand and fall      
together4 ,a story's moral1 like life's 
moral1 is convincing in proportion as it
 is an inference from the facts4 ,the   
novelist1 fearing that we may not have  
the wits to discern it1 is justified in 
drawing this inference himself2 yet it  
must show itself to be strictly an      
inference from the story--the story must
 not seem to have been constructed to   
prove it4 ,die ,weltgeschichte ist das  
,weltgericht1 wrote ,schiller2 even so1 
the delineation of life is the criticism
 of life4 ,to show the scope of         
disillusion1 monotony1                  
repression--life's generous impulses    

narrowed and made timid by the social1  
economic1 and political machine--would  
be a criticism of our modern world2     
there would be no need of moralizing4   
,this the ,russian novelists seem to    
have understood2 they judged ,russian   
life by describing it4  ,the man who    
writes literature as a means for        
promulgating political or moral ideas is
 either a conservative who desires to   
return to the conventions of the past1  
or else a radical who seeks the         
establishment of a new mode of life4    
,the method employed by the former      
usually consists in exposing the        
restlessness and unhappiness of people  
who live in accordance with advanced    
ideas in comparison with the contentment
 of those who follow the older          
traditions4 ,such stories are1 however1 
inconclusive1 because they imply the    
false sociological thesis that the      
remedy for present ills is a return to  
the customs of the past4 ,happiness can 
indeed exist only in a stable society2  

but each age must create its own order  
to suit its changing needs2 it cannot1  
if it would1 go back to the old4 ,these 
stories1 therefore1 although they often 
contain truthful and valuable pictures  
of the ills of contemporary life1 and   
are useful in helping to conserve what  
is good in the spirit of the past1 are  
nevertheless bound to be futile in their
 main endeavor4  ,the method of the     
radical usually consists of two parts3  
one of criticism1 designed to show the  
misery due to existing laws and         
institutions2 another of construction1  
the disclosure of a new and better      
system4 ,but here1 too1 the constructive
 part of the story is likely to be weak4
 ,for whether the writer sets forth his 
program by putting it into the mouth of 
one of his characters or appends it as a
 commentary to his story1 the           
practicability of his scheme is always  
open to question4 ,it is only through   
trial that any scheme can be shown to be
 workable4 ,there is1 however1 a new    

method that deserves better the name of 
experimental romance than ,zola's own   
works4 ,it consists in portraying people
 living in accordance with new          
sentiments and ideals1 or even under new
 institutions imaginatively constructed4
 ,yet this method also has its weakness1
 for it is difficult to make people     
believe in the reality of a life that   
has not been actually lived4 ,still1    
this difficulty is not fatal2 for       
experiments in living are constantly    
being made all around us1 which the     
discerning novelist needs only to       
observe and report4 ,he can show the    
success of these or how1 if they fail1  
their failure is due1 not to anything   
inherently vicious1 but simply to       
adverse law and opinion4 ,life is full  
of such stories waiting for some        
novelist who is not too timid to tell   
them4  ,we are thus brought round again 
to the thesis that the enduringly       
valuable elements of every story are its
 concrete creations of life4 ,in the    

end1 the story teller's fame will rest  
upon his power to create and reveal     
character and upon his sense for fate4  
,there is just one thing that should be 
added to this--a rich emotional attitude
 toward life4 ,it is the greater wealth 
of this that makes a novelist like      
,thackeray or ,anatole ,france superior 
to one like ,balzac4 ,the personality   
that tells the story is as much a part  
of the total work as the characters and 
events portrayed1 and must be taken into
 account in any final judgment of the   
whole4 ,without the author's vivid and  
rich participation1 we who read can     
never be fully engaged1 and we shall    
find more of life in the story1 the more
 there is of him in it4     ,,chapter   
,,xi  ,,the ,,dominion ,,of ,,art ,,over
 ,,nature3 ,,painting   ,in literature1 
as we observed in our last two chapters1
 nature does not find aesthetic         
expression on its own account4 ,in the  
lyric1 nature appears only as the       
reflection of personal moods and        

thoughts1 in the drama and novel and    
epic only as the theater of human action
 or the determiner of human fate4 ,in   
painting and sculpture1 on the other    
hand1 the expression of nature is the   
primary aim4 ,of course1 in so far as   
this expression is aesthetic1 it is an  
expression not of nature alone1 but of  
our responses as well2 but nature is the
 starting point1 not emotion as in lyric
 poetry1 nor the effect upon destiny as 
in the epic4  ,because they are         
expressions of nature1 and because the  
copying of the human body1 of trees1    
clouds1 and the like is an indispensable
 part of their practice1 painting and   
sculpture have seemed to give support to
 the theory of art as imitation4 ,yet1  
although the activity of imitation is a 
means to the creation of picture and    
statue1 the mere fact of being a copy is
 not the purpose of the completed work  
nor the ground of our pleasure in it4   
,not its relation to anything outside   
itself1 no matter how important for its 

making1 but its own intrinsic qualities 
constitute its aesthetic worth4  ,this  
was true of the earliest efforts in     
these arts4 ,the primitive artist copied
 not for the sake of copying1 but       
because he ascribed a magical power to  
images4 ,in the image he believed he    
somehow possessed the object itself1 and
 so could control it2 to the image1     
therefore1 was transferred all the value
 and potence of the object4 ,the object 
represented was deeply significant2 it  
was perhaps the animal upon which the   
tribe depended for its food1 its totem  
or guardian divinity2 or else1 as among 
the ,egyptians1 it was the man himself1 
of whom the image was meant to be an    
enduring habitation for the soul4 ,if   
primitive men had copied indifferent    
objects1 then we might infer that the   
mere making of an image was the end in  
view2 but this they did not do1 and it  
has never been the practice of any      
vigorous group of artists4 ,only when   
the means are valued instead of the     

end--technique in place of beauty--does 
this occur4 ,through such a mistaking of
 aims1 new instruments of expression may
 be discovered1 useful for a future     
genius1 but no genuine art is produced4 
,the genuine artist copies1 not for the 
sake of copying1 but in order to create 
a work of independent beauty4  ,this    
same transference of value to the image1
 with the consequent freeing of the     
image from the model1 can be observed   
even in commemorative art4 ,a king      
desires1 perhaps1 to perpetuate his     
memory2 how better than through some    
enduring likeness in stone or paint8    
,while he is alive and after his death  
this image will remind his subjects of  
him and his valorous deeds4 ,the        
relation to the model seems to be       
fundamental2 but in proportion to the   
success of the artist in making a       
likeness1 the stone or paint will be    
made to seem all alive1 and for those   
who cannot come into direct relations   
with the monarch1 he will be effectively

 present in the statue or picture1 even 
when1 through death1 he is removed from 
all social and practical relations4 ,who
 does not feel that ,philip the ,fourth 
is present on the ,velasquez canvas2    
where else could one find him so alive8 
,if the work is artistic1 the           
spectator's interest will center in     
feeling the life in the color and line  
or sculptured form2 that it happens to  
be an imitation of something else will  
become of secondary importance4 ,this is
 clearest when the name of the subject  
is not known2 then surely it is the life
 before us that can alone concern us4   
,any feeble copy would serve as a       
reminder1 but a living drawing or statue
 brings the man or woman into our       
presence4 ,the aesthetic interest in the
 work as living supervenes upon the     
interest in it as a mere reminder of    
life4  ,this freedom from the model and 
attainment of intrinsic worth in the    
work of art itself is furthered through 
the realization of beauty in the medium 

of expression4 ,the colors1 lines1 and  
shapes which the artist uses have a     
direct appeal to the eye and through the
 eye to feeling2 hence arise preferences
 for the most agreeable and expressive4 
,the artist discovered that he could    
express his emotion not only through    
representing its object1 but through the
 very colors or lines or shapes used in 
the delineation4 ,these effects1 found  
by chance perhaps in the first instance1
 would later be striven for consciously4
 ,in this way1 through some grace of    
line1 or symmetry of form1 or harmony of
 color1 the statue or picture would     
acquire a power to please quite         
independent of any ulterior use or      
purpose2 once more1 it would become     
alive and of value on its own account4  
,we shall begin our study of the        
representative arts with drawing and    
painting--representation in two         
dimensions--not because they preceded   
sculpture historically1 but because1    
being more complex arts1 a solution of  

the problems which they raise makes a   
subsequent survey of the similar        
problems of the simpler art relatively  
easy4  ,the media of pictorial          
expression are color and line1 and      
expression is attained through them in a
 twofold fashion4 ,in a picture1 every  
element of color or line is expressive  
directly1 just as color and line1 of    
some vague feeling or mood1 and1 in     
addition1 chiefly through its           
resemblance1 represents some action or  
object4 ,the former kind of expression  
is indispensable4 ,no matter how        
realistic the imitation1 unless the     
picture thrill like music1 through its  
mere colors or lines1 it is             
aesthetically relatively ineffective4   
,it is not sufficient that the picture  
move us through the vicarious presence  
on the canvas of a moving object2 it    
must stir us in a more immediate fashion
 through the direct appeal of sense4    
,for example1 a picture which presents  
us with a semblance of the sea will hold

 us through the power which the sea has 
over us2 but it will not hold us so fast
 as a picture of the same subject which1
 in addition1 grips us through its      
greens and blues and wavy lines4 ,the   
one sways us only through the           
imagination1 the other through our      
senses as well4  ,sensitiveness to color
 as such1 so self-evident to one who    
possesses it1 seems to be wanting1      
except in rudimentary fashion1 in a     
great many people4 ,they are probably   
few1 however1 who do not feel some      
stirrings when they look through the    
stained glass of a cathedral window or  
upon the red of ,venetian glass1 or who 
are entirely indifferent to the color of
 silk4 ,the reason for emotional        
color-blindness is probably not a native
 incapacity to be affected1 but rather a
 diversion of attention2 color has come 
to be only a sign for the recognition   
and subsequent use of things1 a signal  
for a practical or intellectual         
reaction4 ,in our haste to recognize and

 use we fail to see1 and give ourselves 
no time to be moved by mere seeing4 ,but
 when1 as in art1 contemplation1 the    
filling of the mind with the object1 is 
the aim1 the power to move of the       
sensuous surface of things may come     
again into its rights4  ,the emotional  
response to color1 vague and abstract   
and objectless1 is1 like music1         
incapable of adequate expression in     
words1 and for the same reason4 ,words  
are capable of expressing only the      
larger and fairly well-defined emotions2
 such subtle shadings and complex       
mixtures of feeling as are conveyed by  
color and sound are mostly beyond their 
ken4 ,colors make us feel and dream as  
music does in the same incommunicable   
fashion4 ,or rather the only possibility
 of communicating them is through the   
color schemes arousing them4 ,and for   
one who appreciates color this is       
sufficient2 he can point to the colors  
and say--that is what ,i feel4 ,to      
render his feeling also in words would  

be a superfluous business1 supposing    
they could be adequate to express it2   
or1 if they were adequate1 that would   
make expression through color           
superfluous4 ,the value of any medium   
consists in its power to express what   
none other can4 ,nevertheless1 it is    
possible to find rough verbal           
equivalents for the simpler colors4     
,thus every one would probably agree    
with ,lipps and call a pure yellow      
happy1 a deep blue quiet and earnest1   
red passionate1 violet wistful2 would   
perhaps feel that orange partakes at    
once of the happiness of yellow and the 
passion of red1 while green partakes of 
the happiness of yellow and the quiet of
 blue2 and in general that the brighter 
and warmer tones are joyful and         
exciting1 the darker and colder1 more   
inward and restful4  ,to explain the    
expressiveness of color sensations is as
 difficult as to account for the        
parallel phenomenon in sounds4 ,here as 
there resort is had to the principle of 

association4 ,colors get1 it is thought1
 their value for feeling either through 
some connection with emotionally toned  
objects1 like vegetation1 light1 the    
sky1 blood1 darkness1 and fire1 or else 
through some relation to emotional      
situations1 like mourning or danger1    
which they have come to symbolize4 ,and 
there is little doubt that such         
associations play a part in determining 
the emotional meaning of colors--the    
reticence and distance of blue1 the     
happiness of yellow1 for example1 are   
partly explained through the fact that  
blue is the color of the sky1 yellow the
 color of sunlight2 the meaning of black
 is due1 partly at any rate1 to         
association with mourning4 ,yet neither 
of these types of association seems     
sufficient to explain the full emotional
 meaning of colors4 ,the conventional   
meanings of colors seem rather          
themselves to need explanation than to  
serve as explanations--why is red the   
sign of danger1 purple royal1 white a   

symbol of purity1 black a symbol of     
mourning8 ,is it not because these      
colors had some native1 original        
expressiveness which fashion and habit  
have only made more definite and turned 
to special uses8 ,and if we can explain 
the reticence of blue through           
association with the sky1 can we thus   
explain its quietness8 ,can the warmth  
of fire and the excitement of blood     
explain quite all the depth of          
passionate feeling in red8 ,the factors 
enumerated play a part in the complex   
effect1 but there seem to be elements   
still unaccounted for4  ,in order to    
explain the total phenomenon we must    
admit1 as in the case of tones1 some    
direct effect of the sensory light      
stimulus upon the feelings4 ,rays of    
light affect not only the sensory       
apparatus1 causing sensations of color2 
their influence is prolonged into the   
motor channels1 causing a total attitude
 of the organism1 the correlate of a    
feeling4 ,it would be strange if any    

sensory stimulus were entirely cut off  
by itself and did not find its way into 
the motor stream4 ,but these overflows  
are too diffuse to be noticed in        
ordinary experience2 they are obscured  
through association or are not given    
time to rise to the level of clear      
consciousness1 because we are           
preoccupied with the practical or       
cognitive significance of the colors2   
only in the quiet and isolation of      
contemplation can they come into the    
focus4 ,of course the student of the    
evolution of mind will want to go behind
 these color emotions and inquire why a 
given color is connected with a given   
reaction4 ,he may even want to connect  
them with instinctive responses of      
primitive men4 ,but here we can only    
speculate2 we cannot know4  ,the problem
 is further complicated through the fact
 that private color- associations are   
formed obscuring the aesthetic meanings1
 which can be rediscovered only through 
the elimination of the former4 ,color   

preferences are often determined in this
 way2 yet sometimes they spring from    
another and more radical source--an     
affinity between personal temperament   
and the feeling tone of the preferred   
color4 ,a consistent choice of blues and
 grays indicates a specific kind of man 
or woman1 very different from the       
chooser of yellows and reds4  ,although 
single color tones are expressive1 they 
seldom exist alone in works of art4     
,significant expression requires        
variety4 ,the invention of original and 
expressive color combinations is a rare 
gift of genius4 ,rough rules of color   
combination have been devised from the  
practice of artists and from experiment1
 the following of which will enable one 
to produce faultless patterns1 but      
without genius will never enable one to 
create a new expression4 ,color         
combinations are either harmonious or   
balanced1 the former produced by colors 
or tones of colors very close to one    
another1 the latter by the contrasting  

or widely sundered4 ,in the one case1 we
 get the quiet commingling of feelings  
akin to each other2 in the other1 the   
lively tension of feelings opposed4     
,compare1 for example1 the effect of a  
,whistler nocturne with a ,monet        
landscape4 ,the colors that do not go   
well together are such as are not close 
enough for union nor far enough apart   
for contrast4 ,they are like            
personalities not sufficiently at one to
 lose themselves in each other1 yet not 
sufficiently unlike to be mutually      
stimulating and enlarging1 between whom 
there can be only a fruitless rivalry   
turning into hate4 ,such are certain    
purples and reds1 certain greens and    
blues4 ,yet1 through proper mediation1  
any two colors can be brought into a    
composition4 ,all colors are brought    
together in nature through the sunlight1
 and in painting or weaving by giving to
 rival colors the same sheen or         
brightness4 ,or again1 the union may be 
effected by combining the two with a    

third which is in a relation of balance 
or harmony with each1 as in the favorite
 scheme of blue1 red1 and green4        
,despite their ability to express1      
colors cannot stand alone2 they must be 
the colors of something1 they must make 
line or shape4 ,lines1 on the other     
hand1 seem to be independent of color1  
as in drawings and etchings2 yet there  
is really some color even there--black  
and white and tones of gray4 ,that color
 and line are independent of one another
 in beauty1 is1 however1 shown by works1
 such as ,millet's1 which are good in   
line but poor in color4 ,lines have1 as 
we have already seen1 the same duality  
of function as colors3 they express     
feeling directly through their character
 as mere lines and they represent       
objects by suggesting them through      
resemblance4  ,there is1 in fact1 for   
those who can feel it1 a life in lines  
of the same abstract and objectless sort
 as exists in colors and tones4 ,lines  
give rise to motor impulses and make one

 feel and dream1 as music does4 ,there  
are many who are cold to this effect2   
yet few can fail to get something of the
 vibration or mood of the lines of a    
,greek vase painting1 a ,botticelli     
canvas1 or a ,rembrandt etching4 ,the   
life of lines is more allied to that of 
tones than of colors because it         
possesses a dynamic movement quality    
which is absent from the latter4 ,this  
life is1 in fact1 twofold3 on the one   
hand it is a career1 with a beginning1  
middle1 and end1 something to be willed 
or enacted2 on the other hand it is a   
temperament or character1 a property of 
the line as a whole1 to be felt4 ,these 
two aspects of aesthetic lines are      
closely related2 they stand to one      
another much as the temperament or      
character of a man stands to his life   
history1 of which it is at once the     
cause and the result4 ,just as we get a 
total impression of a man's nature by   
following the story of his life1 so we  
get the temperamental quality of lines  

by following them with the eye2 and just
 as all of our knowledge of a man's acts
 enters into our intuition of his       
nature1 so we discover the character of 
the total line by a synthesis of its    
successive elements4  ,it is as         
difficult1 more difficult1 perhaps1 to  
put into words the temperamental quality
 of lines as to do the parallel thing   
with colors4 ,lines are infinite in     
their possible variations1 and the fine 
shades of feeling which they may express
 exceed the number of words in the      
emotional vocabulary of any language4   
,moreover1 in any drawing1 the character
 of each line is partly determined      
through the context of other lines2 you 
cannot take it abstractly with entire   
truth4 ,it is1 however1 possible to find
 verbal equivalents for the character of
 the main types of lines4 ,horizontal   
lines convey a feeling of repose1 of    
quiet1 as in the wall-paintings of      
,puvis de ,chavannes2 vertical lines1 of
 solemnity1 dignity1 aspiration1 as in  

so much of the work of ,boecklin2       
crooked lines of conflict and activity1 
as in the woodcuts of ,durer2 while     
curved lines have always been recognized
 as soft and voluptuous and tender1 as  
in ,correggio and ,renoir4 ,the         
supposition that the curved line is the 
sole line of beauty is the result of a  
narrow and effeminate idea of the       
aesthetic2 yet it must be admitted that 
this form1 since it permits of the      
greatest amount of variation1 has the   
highest power of expression2 but in many
 of its more complex varieties it loses 
much of its soft feminine quality1 and  
takes on some of the strength of the    
other forms4  ,the expressiveness of    
lines is determined by several--at least
 three-- factors4 ,in the first place1  
the perception of lines is an active    
process4 ,in order to get a line we have
 to follow it with the eye2 and if we do
 not now follow it with our fingers1 we 
at least followed similar lines thus in 
the past4 ,now this process of the      

perception of a line requires of us an  
energy of attention to the successive   
elements of the line as we pass over    
them and a further expenditure of energy
 in remembering and synthesizing them   
into a whole4 ,this energy1 since it is 
evoked by the line and is not connected 
with any definite inner striving of the 
self1 is felt by us to belong to the    
line1 to be an element in its life1 as  
clearly its own as its shape4 ,for      
example1 a line with many sudden turns  
or changes of direction is an energetic 
and exciting line because it demands in 
perception a constant and difficult and 
shifting attention2 a straight line1 on 
the contrary1 because simple and        
unvarying in its demands upon the       
attention1 is monotonous and reposeful2 
while the curved line1 with its lawful  
and continuous changes1 at once         
stimulating yet never distracting       
attention1 possesses the character of   
progressive and happy action4 ,this1 the
 primary source of the vital            

interpretation of lines is supplemented 
by elements derived from association4   
,lines suggest to us the movements of   
our bodies along paths of similar form1 
and we interpret them according to the  
feeling of these movements2 in the      
imagination1 we may seem to move along  
the very lines themselves as paths4     
,every skater or runner knows the       
difficulty of moving along a path full  
of sudden turns and angles1 a difficulty
 which1 if he is in good trim1 may      
nevertheless afford him pleasure in the 
overcoming2 the delightful and various  
ease of moving along curved lines2 the  
monotony of a long1 straight path1 but  
the quick triumph of going right to the 
end along a short and terminal line of  
this character4 ,but lines suggest to us
 not only the movements1 but also the   
attitudes of our bodies4 ,they may be   
straight and rising1--rigid or dignified
 or joyously expanding2 they may be     
horizontal and lie down and rest2 they  
may be falling and sorrowful2 or the    

shapes whose outlines they form may be  
heavy or light1 delicate or ungainly or 
graceful1 as bodies are4 ,finally1 the  
interpretation of lines may be further  
enriched as follows3 ,the sight of a    
line suggests the drawing of it1 the    
sweep of the brush that made it2 we     
ourselves1 in the imagination once more1
 may re-create the line after the       
artist1 and feel1 just as he must have  
felt1 the mastery1 ease1 vigor1 or      
delicacy of the execution into the line 
itself4 ,few can fail to get this effect
 from the paintings of ,franz ,hals1 for
 example1 where the abounding energy of 
the artist is apparent in each stroke of
 the brush4 ,artists feel this life in  
execution most strongly2 yet1 since     
almost every one has had some practice  
in drawing lines1 it is potentially a   
universal quality in a painting4  ,lines
 may be unified according to the three  
modes of harmony1 balance1 and          
evolution4 ,the repetition of the same  
kind of line confers a harmonious       

unification upon a drawing1 as in       
,tintoretto's ,bacchus and ,ariadne1    
where the circle is to be found repeated
 in the crown and ring1 in the heads of 
the three figures1 in the breasts of    
,ariadne4 ,similar to this sameness of  
form is sameness of direction or        
parallelism of lines4 ,another kind of  
harmonious unification of lines is      
continuity1 where out of different lines
 or shapes a single line is made4 ,the  
classical geometrical forms of          
composition1 as the circular or         
pyramidal1 are good examples of this4   
,the ,odalisque of ,ingres1 where all   
the lines of the body constitute a      
single line1 is a notable case4 ,what   
,ruskin has called the approach1        
intersection1 interweaving of lines1    
like the sea waves on the shore1--the   
conspiracy of all the lines in a drawing
 to form one single network1 of which   
illustrations could be found in the work
 of every draftsman1 is a kind of       
harmony of line4 ,symmetrically disposed

 shapes1 and lines whose directions are 
opposed1 have the balanced form of      
unity4 ,here1 from a given point as     
center1 the attention is drawn in       
contrary yet equal ways4 ,examples of   
this type of composition are abundant   
among the ,old ,masters2 as a rigid form
 it is1 however1 disappearing4 ,that the
 dramatic type of unity is to be found  
in lines will be confirmed by every one 
who has observed the movement1 the      
career of lines4 ,whenever shapes are so
 disposed that they form a line leading 
up to a given shape1 wherever1 again1   
lines converge to a single point1 there 
is a clear case of evolution2 we begin  
by attending to the line at a certain   
point1 proceed in a certain direction1  
then reach a terminal point1 the goal of
 the process4 ,in ,leonardo's ,last     
,supper1 the convergence of the         
perspective lines and the lines formed  
by the groups of ,apostles is a case of 
evolution4 ,the different types of      
unification are1 of course1 not         

exclusive4 ,in the painting just        
referred to1 all three are present3     
,christ and the ,apostles are arranged  
along a single line1 the two ends of    
which1 despite their symmetrical and    
balanced disposition1 converge to one   
central point1 the ,christ4 ,every      
pyramidal form of composition is a      
combination of balance between the      
elements at the bases of the triangle1  
convergence towards the apex1 and       
harmony through the participation of the
 three elements in a single form4 ,one  
of the most interesting and complex     
types of organization of lines is       
rhythm--the balanced1 harmonious        
movement of lines4 ,a line is rhythmical
 when there is a balanced alternation of
 direction in its movement1 a turning   
now to the right and now to the left1 or
 vice versa2 proportion in the length of
 the segments made by the turns2 and    
general direction--a tending somewhere4 
,as is assumed in the preceding         
paragraph1 the elements of lines may be 

shapes or masses1 as well as points4    
,that is1 not only do lines made up of  
points form shapes1 but shapes in their 
turn1 when arranged on a surface1       
necessarily make lines4 ,such lines are1
 as a rule1 not continuous2 yet since   
the eye takes the shapes successively   
and in a given direction1 they are      
nevertheless true lines and possess the 
qualities of ordinary simple lines4 ,the
 arrangement of masses in an undulating 
line1 say in a landscape painting1 has  
essentially the same value for feeling  
as a similar continuous line2 compare   
this with a horizontal arrangement of   
masses1 which has all the quiet and     
repose of a simple horizontal line4     
,colors and lines1 relying on the direct
 expressiveness which we have been      
studying1 may stand by themselves1 as in
 an oriental rug2 yet in painting they  
have another function3 to represent4    
,and even in the purely ornamental use  
of color and line1 the tendency towards 
representation is apparent everywhere2  

either the lines are derivatives of     
schematized pictures of men and plants  
and animals1 or else such objects are   
introduced as motives without disguise4 
,in painting1 therefore1 the color red  
has value not only as so much red1 but  
as standing for the red of a girl's lips
 or cheeks2 and that curved line is of  
significance1 not as mere line alone1   
but as the curve of her limbs4 ,in this 
way the native value of the sense       
symbols becomes suffused and enriched   
with the values of the things they      
represent4 ,the two functions of color  
and of line should never be indifferent 
to each other2 representation should not
 become a mere excuse for decoration1   
the objects represented having no value 
in themselves2 nor should color and line
 be used as mere signs of interesting   
objects1 without reference to their     
intrinsic value4 ,on the contrary1 the  
two functions should play into each     
other's hands4 ,if1 for example1 the    
human body is represented1 the colors   

and lines employed should be so disposed
 that they decorate the surface of the  
picture and hold us there through their 
sheer rhythm and quality2 yet1 at the   
same time1 and through their very       
ornamental power1 they should make us   
feel the more keenly the values of the  
object they represent4 ,between the     
immediate values of the colors and lines
 there should exist unity3 stimulating  
colors should go with stimulating lines1
 quiet colors with quiet lines2 and the 
resulting feeling tone of the medium    
should be in harmony with the feeling of
 the objects represented2 the one should
 give the other over again1 and so each 
enforce the other4  ,since it is not the
 purpose of any art to represent mere   
things1 but to express concrete states  
of the soul1 the center of which is     
always some feeling1 exact fidelity in  
the representation of objects is not    
necessary for good painting or drawing4 
,only so much of things needs to be     
represented as is necessary to give back

 the life of them4 ,necessary above all 
is the object as a whole1 for to this   
our feelings are attached2 now this can 
usually be far better represented       
through an impressionistic sketch1 which
 gives only the significant features1   
than by a painstaking and detailed      
drawing4 ,since1 furthermore1 the life  
of things can be conveyed through color 
and line as such1 a certain departure   
from realism is legitimate for this end4
 ,without some freedom from the exact   
truth of the colors and lines of things1
 the artist is unable to choose and     
compose them for expressive purposes2   
when exactly like the objects which they
 represent1 they tend to lose all       
expressive power of their own1 becoming 
mere signs or equivalents of things4 ,a 
certain amount of variation from the    
normal may be necessary in order that   
the sense symbols shall call attention  
to themselves1 in order that we be      
prevented1 as we are not in the ordinary
 observation of nature1 from looking    

through them to the things which they   
mean4 ,whenever1 moreover1 the artist   
wishes to render a unique reaction to a 
scene1 he can do so only through a      
courageous use of the subtle language of
 color and line1 which may require a    
distortion of the real local qualities  
of things2 for1 if he makes a plain1    
realistic copy of the scene itself1 he  
can evoke1 and so express1 only the     
normal emotional responses to it4  ,when
 such departures from the truth of      
things are properly motivated1 no one   
can be offended by them1 any more than  
when the brilliant hues of nature appear
 black and white in a charcoal drawing4 
,the amount of realism in any work of   
art is largely a matter of tacit        
convention4 ,an artist may1 if he       
wishes1 use color with no pretense at   
giving back the real colors of objects1 
but for purely expressive purposes      
alone1 relying on line for purposes of  
representation4 ,this is often done in  
,japanese prints4 ,all that is necessary

 is that we should understand what the  
artist is doing and find what he        
presents to us real and alive4 ,on the  
other hand1 an expressive use of color  
and line leading to a distortion of     
objects out of all possibility of       
recognition1 or even a use which makes  
them seem unreal and awry1 is without   
excuse4 ,for since colors and lines are 
employed to bring things before the     
imagination1 they should be made to     
serve this purpose successfully2 the    
value which belongs to the things should
 have a chance to appear2 but this can  
happen only if they seem to be actually 
present before us4 ,painting is not a   
mere music of color and line expressive 
of abstract and objectless emotions     
alone1 but a poetry1 which1 through the 
picturing of objects to which emotions  
are attached1 renders the latter        
concrete and definite4 ,not mere        
feeling1 such as a color or a line by   
itself can convey1 but feeling in the   
presence of nature1 which can be        

expressed only when color and line are  
made into a recognizable image of       
nature1 is the substance of painting4   
,one cannot express the feeling of the  
weight and bulk of objects1 of their    
distribution in three dimensions1 or the
 value of their shadows or atmospheric  
enveloping1 without the representation  
of weight and bulk and shadow and       
atmosphere and perspective4 ,every      
increase in the power to represent      
nature1 every advance in the mastery of 
the object1 adds a new power over the   
expression of feeling1 which varies with
 the object4 ,the realist is1 therefore1
 right in his demand that nature itself 
be painted2 only he should remember that
 the nature which presents itself in art
 is never the naked object1 but veiled  
in feeling2 and1 as so veiled1 may      
sometimes be seen pretty much as it     
really is2 then again with parts        
concealed1 and sometimes even           
transformed4 ,both a realism that tries 
to unite fidelity to the full qualities 

of the object with musical expression in
 the medium1 and so to render the more  
typical responses to nature1 which      
depend1 for the most part1 on the object
 itself1 and a symbolism or             
expressionism that sacrifices fidelity  
for the expression1 through the mere    
medium1 of more personal responses1 are 
in their rights4 ,only the limits of    
both tendencies are illegitimate--the   
use of color and line to produce mere   
images of things on the one hand1 or    
purely musical effects on the other4    
,the subject matter or content of       
painting is determined by its language1 
color1 and line4 ,these1 as we have     
seen1 by an imitation more or less      
exact1 represent nature1 the world of   
concrete things as directly presented to
 us in vision1 colored and shapely4 ,the
 inner world is expressed only so far as
 it is revealed in the gestures and     
attitudes of the bodies of men or so far
 as it is a mood attached to things and 
their colors and shapes4 ,now space is  

the universal container in which all    
elements of the visible world are       
disposed4 ,every painting1 therefore1   
should include a representation of      
space2 it should never represent things 
as if they stood alone without          
environment or relation4 ,even in the   
portrait of a single individual some    
relation to space should be indicated2  
this is accomplished by the background1 
in which the figures should be made to  
lie1 and to which they should seem to   
belong4 ,in front1 the space of a       
picture is limited by the plane of the  
surface on which it is painted2         
everything should appear to belong in   
the space back of this2 nothing should  
seem to come forward out towards the    
spectator4 ,but behind this1 backwards1 
the space represented is unlimited1 and 
its infinite depths may well be         
indicated by the convergence of         
perspective lines and the gradual fading
 of the outlines and colors of objects4 
,the represented space of the picture is

 not1 of course1 the real space of the  
canvas or of the room in which the      
picture hangs4 ,the former is infinite1 
while the latter is only so many square 
feet in area4 ,the frame serves the     
purpose of cutting off the represented  
space from all relation to the real     
space1 of which the frame itself is a   
part4 ,a confusion of these two spaces  
is sometimes found in crude work and in 
the comments of people upon genuine     
works of art4 ,i have1 for example1 seen
 a picture of a lion with iron bars     
riveted to the frame and extending over 
it1--a represented lion in a real cage6 
,and ,i once heard a man criticise one  
of ,degas' paintings on the ground that 
if the dancing girl were to straighten  
her bent body she would bump her head on
 the frame6 ,the rule that the color of 
the frame should harmonize with the main
 tones of the picture is no proof that  
they belong together2 its purpose is    
merely to protect the colors of the     
painting from being changed through     

their neighborhood with those of the    
frame4  ,although painting is           
essentially a spatial art1 it includes a
 temporal element1 the specious present1
 the single moment of action or of      
motion4 ,the lines are not dead and     
static1 but alive2 they progress and    
vibrate2 by their means a smile1 the    
rippling of a stream1 the gesture of    
surprise1 the movement of a dance1 may  
be depicted4 ,successive moments1 the   
different phases of an action or        
movement1 cannot1 however1 be           
represented4 ,strict unities of space   
and time should be observed in painting4
 ,only contiguous parts of space and    
only one moment of time should be       
represented inside a single frame4 ,both
 these unities were violated in old     
religious paintings where sometimes the 
,nativity1 ,flight into ,egypt1         
,crucifixion1 and ,resurrection were all
 portrayed on one canvas4  ,the space of
 painting is no abstract aspect of      
things such as the geometer elaborates4 

,to be in a common space with other     
things1 implies1 for the pictorial      
intuition of the world1 to be played    
upon by the same light and to be        
enveloped in the same atmosphere4       
,space1 light1 and air constitute the   
milieu in which everything lives and    
moves and has its being in painting4 ,to
 every difference in the arrangement and
 foreshortening of objects1 to every    
variation in their lights and shadows   
and aerial quality1 the sensitive soul  
responds4 ,the close proximity of       
objects in a tiny room has an effect    
upon feeling very different from their  
wide distribution over a broad space4   
,an equal difference depends upon       
whether light is concentrated upon      
objects or evenly distributed over them2
 upon whether it is bright or dim2 upon 
whether they are near and clear in a    
thin air or far and hazy in a thick and 
heavy cloud4 ,the masters of light and  
air1 ,rembrandt1 ,claude1 ,turner1 evoke
 myriad moods through these subtle      

influences4 ,a long development and the 
following of many false paths was       
necessary before painting discovered its
 true function as an expression of the  
elements1 the once hard outlines of     
things softening in their enveloping    
embrace4  ,the representation of space1 
which painting alone of all the arts can
 achieve1 does not imply1 however1 a    
representation of the full plastic      
quality of individual objects1 which is 
the function of sculpture4 ,this1 to be 
sure1 can be done in painting1 as the   
great sculptor-painters of the          
,renaissance have shown2 but it cannot  
be done so well as in sculpture2 and    
when done tends to interfere with other 
things4 ,it makes objects stand out too 
much by themselves1 destroying their    
felt unity with other elements on the   
canvas1 so that when provided with all  
the colors of life1 they seem rather    
real than painted1 and look as if they  
wished to leave the world of            
representation1 where they belong1 and  

touch hands with the spectator4 ,the    
depth and the extent of space1 the      
distance and the distribution of        
objects1 light and shade and air1 are   
all independent of the plasticity of    
individual things1 which tends to       
disappear in proportion as they are     
emphasized4 ,only when attention is     
directed to the individual object does  
its full plasticity appear2 see it as an
 element of the environing whole1 and it
 flattens out to view4  ,there are1 in  
fact1 two ways of seeing1 to each of    
which corresponds a mode of painting4   
,on the one hand1 we may see            
distributively1 holding objects as      
individuals each in our attention1      
neglecting light and space and air4 ,or 
else we may see synthetically1 first the
 whole which light and space and air    
compose1 and then individual things as  
bearers of these4 ,the one is the more  
practical way of seeing2 because1 for   
practical purposes1 the separate thing  
that can be grasped and used is all     

important1 and the film of light and air
 and the neighborhood of other things   
are of no account4 ,the other is more   
theoretical and sthetic2 for to a pure  
vision which does not think of handling1
 there are no separate things1 but only 
differences of shape and color and      
location in a single object1 the visible
 whole4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 ,lipps1         
,aesthetik1 ,bd4 #b1 s4 #afe1 et seq4   
,in the type of painting corresponding  
to the first way of seeing1 objects are 
represented more as we think them to be1
 or as we should find them on further   
exploration1 than as they actually      
appear to sight at any given moment2 the
 outlines are clear and sharp and detail
 is emphasized4 ,this mode of painting  
is most in place for interiors where    
there is an even distribution and no    
striking effects of light and shade1 as 
in so many genre pictures of the ,dutch 
school2 but above all when the human    
significance of objects or their        
dramatic relations1 which depend upon   

their being taken as separate things1 is
 to be expressed4 ,for example1 to get  
the expression of the action of a woman 
pouring water into a jug1 it is         
necessary that we feel the shape and    
color of the latter as aspects of a     
tangible reality having a distinct      
purpose1 that of holding water2 and this
 purposefulness makes of the object a   
separate1 individual thing4 ,yet a too  
great distinction of objects and a too  
great elaboration of detail1 as in      
,meissonier and the ,english            
,pre-,raphaelites1 is inartistic2 the   
picture breaks up into separate parts   
and all feeling of unity is lost4 ,in   
the work of the ,flemish and ,dutch1 on 
the contrary1 we take delight in the    
perspicuity of things without losing the
 sense of wholeness2 for there is a     
sameness and simplicity of color tone   
which unites them4 ,a genuine and unique
 sthetic value is possessed by such     
work1--that of clear intuition of the   
visual detail and human significance of 

things4  ,very often the unification in 
painting of this type is dramatic       
chiefly--some link of action or of      
symbolism which the elements of the     
picture have as meanings1 a unity of    
content1 therefore1 and not a coloristic
 or a linear unity4 ,the colors are     
essentially local colors1 serving first 
to characterize and distinguish the     
objects properly1 and then to lend to   
them severally high value through       
brightness and temperament2 although    
harmonizing as mere colors1 they are    
held together more through some         
connection in what they mean than       
through a unity of pure expression4 ,the
 dominance of any one mass1 too1 depends
 more upon its superior significance as 
meaning than upon its claim upon the    
attention through any intrinsic quality 
of color4 ,nevertheless1 even if        
secondary1 the unity and dominance      
through color and line must be present1 
and should be consonant with the unity  
and subordination in the meanings4 ,the 

painting of the great ,italian masters  
was of this character4 ,in a ,madonna   
picture1 for example1 the elements      
representing the ,holy ,family are      
united through the spiritual oneness of 
the objects which they represent1 and   
the ,madonna is dominant through her    
superior significance for the religious 
life4 ,the colors serve to characterize 
and distinguish the figures2 yet between
 the former there is a harmony          
corresponding to the inner harmony of   
the latter2 the spiritual dominance of  
the ,madonna is expressed in a purely   
formal fashion through her larger size1 
central position1 and more brightly     
gleaming garments4  ,in painting which  
corresponds to the synthetic way of     
seeing1 all particular objects are      
subordinated to space and light and air2
 their outlines are melting1 suggested  
rather than seen1 and there is little   
emphasis on detail4 ,turner's painting  
of light and the more recent examples of
 impressionism afford abundant examples 

of this4 ,in this style1 unification is 
effected almost wholly through color and
 line as such1 and through the light and
 space and air which they represent4    
,just to live in the same atmosphere or 
in the path of the same light1 to be    
enveloped in the same darkness or       
shadow1 or merely to participate in a   
single composition of colors or rhythm  
of lines serves to unite objects4 ,the  
relative importance of elements1 too1 is
 determined rather by some intrinsic    
quality which arrests attention than by 
any supremacy as meanings4  ,through    
such materials and methods as we have   
described1 the possibilities and limits 
of expression in painting are           
determined4 ,first of all1 painting has 
the power1 through color and line as    
such1 to express the purely musical     
emotions2 this we demand of painting    
just as we demand music of verse3       
without word-music1 there is no poetry1 
no matter how high the theme2 so without
 color and line music1 no matter how    

skillful the representation or how noble
 the subject1 there is no picture4      
,painting may give little more than     
this4 ,in much of still-life painting1  
for example1 the values attached to the 
objects represented are borrowed from   
the music of the medium4 ,and even when 
the objects represented have a value in 
themselves1 the superiority of their    
representation over the mere perception 
of them in nature comes from this       
source4 ,why1 for example1 does the     
painting of flowers by a real master    
afford a richer aesthetic experience    
than real flowers8 ,painted flowers have
 no perfume1 rightly called the soul of 
flowers4 ,it is because in painting the 
expressiveness of the purer and more    
subtly harmonious colors more than      
compensates for the lack of odor4       
,through the music of color and line we 
are made responsive to common things    
which otherwise would leave us cold1 or 
if we are responsive to them1 our       
sensitiveness becomes finer and keener4 

,it is largely because he is so         
accomplished a musician in color and    
composition that ,jan ,vermeer can make 
the inside of a room or some commonplace
 act by a commonplace person the object 
of an intense and sympathetic           
contemplation4  ,for the beauty of      
landscape also1 which the art of        
painting has created and which during   
the last century has become its favorite
 theme1 the music of color is equally   
essential4 ,in its highest form1 that   
beauty requires emotional responsiveness
 combined with the power accurately to  
observe and reproduce the qualities of  
things2 without observation and         
reproduction1 the feeling is            
incommunicable2 without feeling1 the    
imitation is lifeless4 ,love of the     
object1 which at once reveals and makes 
responsive1 mediates the highest        
achievements of the art4 ,by translating
 the object into the language of        
abstract color and line1 it is purified 
for feeling2 for those qualities toward 

which feeling is indifferent are        
eliminated2 only so much as can enter   
into an expressive color or line        
composition survives4 ,the artist gives 
us the illusion that he is reproducing  
our familiar world all the while that he
 is glorifying it through the beauty of 
the colors in which he paints it4 ,the  
painting of the human body1 especially  
the nude human body1 belongs to the same
 class of subjects as the painting of   
landscapes4 ,for the human body         
unclothed1 and as unclothed severed from
 the conventional social world1 is a    
part of nature and speaks to us as      
nature does through form and color4 ,to 
bring that object before us with all its
 expressive detail2 to make us1 in the  
imagination1 move with it and touch it2 
to caress it with our eyes2 to awaken   
that passionate interest which makes us 
see and feel it more vividly than       
anything else in the world1 yet to      
subdue passion wholly to a glowing      
contemplation1 this is one of the       

highest achievements of pictorial art4  
,and the artistic right to represent it 
in the woods by lake or stream1 or in   
the meadow among other natural things1  
must be accorded to the artist despite  
all protests of convention and habit2 we
 never actually find it there1 to be    
sure1 yet there it belongs for          
imaginative feelings4 ,the maidens in   
,corot's paintings1 for example1 seem to
 belong as naturally to the landscape as
 the very trees themselves4  ,but the   
painter can depict the human body not   
merely as something sensuously          
beautiful1 but as expressive1 through   
gesture and pose and countenance1 of    
character and thought4 ,the complex     
psychic life of man is thus open to him 
for delineation4 ,in the portrait1      
through the attentive study of the many 
varying expressions of the inner life1  
leading to the selection of some        
characteristic pose or action1 the      
artist concentrates into a single image 
what seems to him to be the distinctive 

nature of the man4 ,and he can express  
this nature over again1 and so more     
effectively reveal it1 in the mere      
colors and lines which he uses4 ,thus   
,franz ,hals has embodied the abundance 
and good cheer of his burghers in the   
boldness and brightness of the lines and
 colors with which he paints them2 and  
,hogarth1 in the ,shrimp ,girl1 through 
the mere singularity of line and color1 
has created the eerie impression which  
we attach to the girl herself4 ,the best
 portraits subordinate everything else1 
such as costume and background1 to the  
painting of the inner life4 ,thus       
,velasquez brings before us the souls of
 his little ,infantas despite the queer 
head-dresses and frocks which must have 
threatened to smother them4 ,the        
background should serve the same end2 if
 elaborate1 it should represent a       
fitting environment2 and if plain it    
should throw the figure into relief4    
,alongside of the portrait as a painting
 of the soul should be placed pictures  

of ideal characters2 ideal1 not in the  
sense of good1 but in the sense of more 
highly complex and unified than actually
 existing persons4 ,such pictures       
symbolize for us the quintessence and   
highest level of definite types of life4
 ,manet's ,olympia and ,goya's ,maja    
belong here equally with ,leonardo's    
,christ or ,mona ,lisa1 with ,raphael's 
,madonnas and ,michelangelo's gods and  
angels4 ,in them is attained the most   
intense concentration of psychic life   
possible4  ,it is now pretty generally  
recognized that the unities of time and 
space exclude from the sphere of        
painting story telling and history1     
which require for effective             
representation more than the single     
moment included in painting4 ,in order  
to tell a story in painting1 one has to 
supplement what is seen with ideas which
 can be obtained only from a catalogue  
or other source external to the picture2
 one has to add in thought to the moment
 given on the canvas the missing moments

 of the action4 ,but a work of art      
should be complete in itself and so far 
as possible self-explanatory2 it should 
not lead us away from itself1 but keep  
us always to itself4 ,if the scene      
represented be a part of a story1 the   
story should be so well known that its  
connection with the picture can be      
immediately recognized without external 
aid1 and should admit of a certain      
completeness in its various parts4 ,the 
life of ,christ is such a story2        
everybody knows it and can interpret a  
picture portraying it forthwith2 its    
various incidents and situations have   
each a unique and complete significance 
in themselves4 ,historical paintings are
 not necessarily bad1 of course1 but the
 good ones are good despite the history1
 and a proof of their excellence        
consists in the fact that when we see   
them they make us forget for the moment 
our historical erudition4  ,this norm   
does not exclude from the sphere of     
painting the expression of the relation 

of man to his fellows2 it simply        
confines painting to the delineation of 
momentary and self-sufficient glimpses  
of social life4 ,pictures representing a
 mother and child1 a pair of lovers1 a  
family group1 festival1 tavern scene1 or
 battle charge are illustrations4 ,in   
,dutch painting the social life of      
,holland in the seventeenth century     
found its record2 yet there is little or
 no anecdote4 ,the genre1 the           
representation of a group of people     
united by some common interest and with 
an appropriate background1 has the same 
legitimacy1 if not the same eminence1 as
 the portrait4 ,it does not possess the 
rank of the portrait because1 since the 
interest is rather in the action or the 
situation portrayed1 the figures are    
more merely typical1 being developed    
only so far as is necessary to carry the
 action2 seldom is a subtle and         
individualized inner life portrayed4    
,objections are rightly raised1 however1
 against pathetic1 sentimental1 and     

moralistic painting4 ,here color and    
line1 the whole picture in fact1 counts 
for little or nothing except to stir an 
emotion1 usually of grief or pity or    
love1 or to preach a sermon2 the unity  
of form and content is sacrificed1 the  
one becoming a mere means to the other4 
,but1 as we know1 it is never the       
purpose of art merely to stir feeling2  
its purpose is to objectify feeling2 if 
the art be painting1 to put feeling into
 color and line1 and only when feeling  
is experienced as there is it aesthetic 
feeling at all4 ,and what shall we think
 of a picture like the ,doctor of ,luke 
,fildes'1 which is so pathetic that one 
cannot bear to look at it8 ,surely a    
picture should make one want to see it6 
,of course ,i do not mean that an artist
 cannot paint pathetic and sentimental  
subjects4 ,the great painters of the    
,passion would disprove that with       
reference to the former and ,watteau    
with reference to the latter4 ,but a    
power to achieve beauty of color and    

line and to objectify pathos and        
sentiment through them was possessed by 
these painters to a degree to which few 
others have attained4 ,for moralistic   
painting1 however1 there can be no      
excuse4 ,you can paint visible things   
and as much of the soul as can appear   
through them2 you cannot paint abstract 
ethical maxims4 ,of course a painter may
 intend his picture to be an            
illustration of some moral maxim1 or may
 even1 as ,hogarth did1 paint it to     
expose the sins of his age and create a 
beautiful work notwithstanding2 but only
 if1 in the result1 this purpose is     
irrelevant and the concrete delineation 
everything4     ,,chapter ,,xii         
,,sculpture   ,the sculptor has this    
advantage over all other artists1 that  
his chief subject is the most beautiful 
thing in the world--the human body4 ,in 
two ways the body is supremely          
beautiful3 as an expression of mind and 
as an embodiment of sensuous charm4 ,in 
the body mind has become actually       

incarnate2 there purpose1 emotion1 and  
thought have taken shape and            
manifestation4 ,and this shape1 through 
its appeal to the amorous1 parental1 and
 gregarious feelings1 and through the   
complete organization of its parts1 has 
no rival in loveliness4 ,what wonder1   
therefore1 that sculptors have always   
thought of their work as simply one of  
mere imitation of nature1 the divine4   
,yet in sculpture1 as in the other arts1
 the imitative process is never slavish1
 but selective and inventive4 ,for the  
body is interesting to the artist only  
in so far as it is beautiful1 that is1  
so far as it has charm and exhibits the 
control of mind2 some of its details and
 many of its attitudes1 having no       
relation to either1 are unfit for       
imitation2 and1 although inspired by his
 model1 the sculptor seeks to create out
 of his impressions a still more        
harmonious object4  ,to give to his     
material the semblance of the body      
beautiful is the technical problem of   

the sculptor4 ,although this semblance  
is primarily for sight1 it is not       
exclusively so4 ,for in sculpture shape 
is not two-dimensional1 but plastic2 and
 for the full appreciation of           
plasticity1 the cooperation of touch is 
required4 ,moreover1 not only the       
perception of the form1 but also a large
 part of the appreciation of the charm  
of the body depends upon touch4 ,of     
course we do not ordinarily touch       
statues1 but they should make us want to
 touch them1 and we should touch        
them--in the imagination4 ,the surfaces 
of the statue should therefore be so    
modeled as to give us1 in the           
imagination1 the pleasures that we get  
when we touch the living body4 ,it is   
well known that these touch values were 
destroyed by the neo-classicists when   
they polished the surfaces of their     
statues4 ,such sculpture for the eye    
only is almost as good when reproduced  
in an engraving that preserves its      
visual quality1 and is therefore lacking

 in complete sculptural beauty4 ,but no 
plane reproduction can replace the best 
,greek1 ,italian1 or ,french work4  ,the
 life of the statue should1 however1 be 
more than skin deep4 ,we should         
appreciate it through sensations of     
motion and strain as well as through    
sight and touch1 feeling the tenseness  
or relaxation of the muscles and tendons
 beneath4 ,we should move with its      
motion or rest with its repose4 ,and    
this does not mean that we should merely
 know that an attitude of quiet or of   
motion is represented2 we should        
actually experience quiet or motion4 ,in
 our own bodies sensations corresponding
 to these should be awakened by the     
visual image of the statue1 yet should  
be fused with the latter1 becoming for  
our perception its1 not ours1 in        
accordance with the mechanism of        
einfuhlung described in our fourth      
chapter4 ,the light rhythmic motion of  
the figures in ,carpeaux's ,dance should
 thrill in our own limbs1 yet seem to   

thrill in theirs4  ,because it preserves
 the full three-dimensional presence of 
the body1 sculpture is1 next to the     
drama1 the most realistic of the arts4  
,this realism is not1 however1 an       
unmixed advantage for general           
appreciation4 ,for1 finding the shape of
 the body1 men sometimes demand its     
color and life1 complaining that the    
statue is cold and dead2,footnote3 ,see 
,byron1 ,don ,juan1 ,canto ,,ii1 cxviii4
 or else1 giving life to the form1 they 
react to it practically and socially1 as
 they would toward the real body4 ,yet1 
for the one attitude1 the art itself    
cannot be held responsible1 but rather  
some want of genius in the artist or    
lack of imagination in the spectator2   
and as for the other1 although only a   
bloodless dogma would demand the        
elimination of passion and interest from
 the appreciation of sculpture--for     
unless the marble arouse the natural    
feelings toward the body it is no       
successful expression--nevertheless1    

good taste does demand that1 through    
attention to form and a sense of the    
unreality of the object1 these feelings 
be subdued to contemplation4  ,in order 
to keep the statue on the ideal plane1  
it should not be too realistically      
fashioned4 ,if it looks too much like a 
man1 we shall first treat it as a man1  
as we do one of ,jarley's or ,mme4      
,tissaud's waxworks1 and then after we  
have been undeceived1 we shall have     
toward it an uncanny feeling1 totally   
unaesthetic1 as towards a corpse4 ,the  
statue1 therefore1 if life-sized1 should
 not be given the colors or clothing of 
life4 ,tinting is not excluded1 provided
 no attempt is made at exact imitation2 
and when the statue is of heroic1 or    
less than the normal size1 as in        
porcelain1 both coloring and clothing   
may be more realistic4 ,no hard and fast
 rules can be formulated2 yet the       
principle is plain--there should be     
realism in one aspect1 above all in     
shape1 in order that there may be an    

aesthetic semblance of life1 but not in 
all1 in order that the statue may not be
 a mere substitute for life1 awakening  
the reactions appropriate to life4      
,moreover1 appreciating the beauty of   
his material1 the sculptor may not wish 
to cover it up1 as he would if he tinted
 it4 ,as in painting1 the attainment of 
beauty in the medium may interfere with 
full realism in execution4 ,for the sake
 of beauty of color1 the worker in      
bronze will be content to see the white 
man black1 and for the sake of beauty of
 line he may even sacrifice something of
 exactness in the rendering of shape4   
,for there is a beauty in the media of  
sculpture1 apart from what they may     
represent1 quite as real1 if not as     
obvious1 as in the other arts4 ,and     
without this beauty1 there is no        
artistic sculpture4 ,its subtlety does  
not diminish its importance or its      
effect upon our feeling1 for it makes   
all the difference between a mere       
imitation of nature and a work of art   

charming and compelling4 ,we do not need
 to recognize its existence explicitly  
in order to appreciate it2 yet1 as soon 
as our attention is called to it1 we    
admit it and accord to it that rare     
influence which before was felt but     
nameless4  ,in the first place1 the     
color of the material is expressive4    
,the black and gold of bronze have a    
depth and intensity1 the whiteness of   
marble a coldness1 clarity1 and1        
serenity1 inescapable4 ,the weight and  
hardness1 or lightness and softness1 of 
the material1 also count4 ,if people do 
not feel the expressiveness of these    
qualities directly1 they nevertheless do
 feel it indirectly1 whenever they      
appreciate the superior fitness of      
marble and bronze for the embodiment of 
the heroic and supernatural1 and of the 
light and fragile porcelain for the more
 fleeting and trivial phases of life4   
,size1 too1 is expressive4 ,there is a  
daintiness and tenderness about a little
 statue1 contrasting strongly with the  

grandeur and majesty of one of heroic   
size4 ,the usual small size of the terra
 cotta figurines among the ,greeks was  
appropriate for the genre subjects which
 they so frequently represented1 and an 
,aphrodite in this material is rather   
the ,earthly than the ,heavenly ,love4  
,there is also an evident beauty of line
 in sculpture1 similar to the beauty of 
line in painting4 ,the curved line is   
expressive of movement and grace2 the   
horizontal1 of repose2 the crooked line1
 of energy and conflict4 ,compare1 from 
this point of view1 ,rodin's ,the ,aged 
,helmet- ,maker's ,wife with his        
,danaid1--how expressive of struggle and
 suffering are the uneven lines of the  
former1 how voluptuous the curves of the
 latter6 ,michelangelo is the great     
example of the use of tortuous lines for
 the expression of conflict4 ,undulating
 vertical lines are largely responsible 
for the grace and dignity of the classic
 sculpture4  ,there is an organic unity 
of line in sculpture1 similar again to  

that in painting4 ,and by line ,i mean  
not only surface lines1 but the lines   
made by the planes in which the body    
lies1 the lines of pose and attitude4   
,the predominance of a single type of   
line1 the union of many lines to form a 
single continuous line1 balance and     
symmetry of line1 proportion of length  
and parallelism1 are all to be found in 
sculpture4 ,especially important is     
rhythm--the harmonious1 balanced        
movement of lines4 ,in the ,venus de    
,milo1 for example1 the plane of the    
lower limbs from the feet to the knees  
moves to the left2 there is an opposite 
and balancing movement from the right   
knee to the waist2 the first movement is
 repeated in the parallel line from the 
right hip to the top of the head2 this1 
in turn1 is balanced by a line in the   
opposite direction running from the left
 hip to the right shoulder1 parallel to 
the second line2 but the equilibrium of 
line is not a rigid one1 for the body as
 a whole moves in an undulating line to 

the left1 imparting grace and a total   
unity4  ,the beauty of line in sculpture
 is1 of course1 no invention of the     
artist2 for nature has created it in the
 body itself4 ,the sculptor takes this  
beauty as the basis of his work1        
remodeling only by the elimination of   
details1 through which purer effects of 
line are obtained1 or by the selection  
and emphasis of pose1 through which     
these effects are rendered more         
intensely expressive4 ,all              
conventionalization is in the interest  
of increased beauty of line4 ,but too   
great a sacrifice of the natural        
contours of the body1 as in some of the 
work of the ,cubists1 results in a      
lifelessness that cannot be atoned for  
by any formal beauty4  ,the unification 
of line in sculpture is a matter not    
only of lines within the whole and of   
single contours1 but of the total visual
 form of the whole1 of silhouette4      
,although three-dimensional1 every      
statue casts a two-dimensional image on 

the retina4 ,it makes as many of these  
plane pictures as there are points of   
view from which it can be seen4 ,one can
 easily convince oneself of this by     
viewing a statue from a distance1 when  
it will flatten out to a mere outline or
 silhouette4 ,as such1 it should be     
clear and simple and pleasing1 capable  
of being grasped as a whole irrespective
 of detail4 ,michelangelo demanded that 
every statue be capable of being put    
inside of some simple geometrical       
figure1 like a pyramid or a cube2 that  
there be no wayward arms or legs1 but   
close attachment to the body1 so close  
that the statue might be rolled down    
hill without any part being broken off4 
,this last is perhaps too rigorous a    
requirement1 but the best work of all   
periods exhibits visual clarity and     
concentration4,footnote3 ,compare ,adolf
 ,hildebrand1 ,the ,problem of ,form in 
,painting and ,sculpture4  ,within its  
contours the statue stands alone4 ,this 
is the essential difference between     

painting and sculpture2 the painted     
thing is always a part of a larger      
spatial whole within which it exists in 
relation to other things1 while the     
sculptured thing exists by itself2 the  
space of the statue is the space which  
it fills2 there is no further space to  
which it belongs1 no background in which
 it lies4 ,the space of sculpture1 like 
the space of painting1 is of course a   
represented or imaginary space1 to be   
carefully distinguished from the real   
space of the room in which it is placed 
and the floor upon which it stands4 ,the
 pedestal serves the same purpose in    
sculpture as the frame in the sister    
art2 it cuts off the ideal space which  
the statue fills from the real space    
where it is housed1 raising it above the
 common ground of real life1 with its   
practical and social attitudes1 into the
 realm of contemplation4 ,the pedestal  
should be of a different material from  
the statue1 else it belongs with the    
latter1 and fails to perform its        

separating junction4 ,the plate1 on the 
other hand1 should be of the same       
material1 otherwise the statue would be 
made to stand on our earth1 and in the  
same space with us4  ,however1 just as  
in painting every object should be      
represented as belonging to a wider     
whole of space1 so in sculpture1 every  
part of the body should be represented  
as belonging to the whole body4 ,if1    
therefore1 only a part of the body is   
sculptured1 it should be evident that it
 is a part and not the whole4 ,in the   
portrait statue1 for example1 if the    
head alone is represented1 there should 
appear1 along with the head1 as much of 
the bust as will suggest attachment to  
the body1 in order that it may not seem 
decapitated6 ,it is because the torso is
 so obviously a fragment of an ideal    
whole that we do not feel it to be an   
uncanny mutilation of a man or woman4   
,in its present condition1 the ,venus de
 ,milo is not the statue of an armless  
woman1 but a statue of part of a whole  

woman4  ,a statue is not sufficiently   
unified by representing a single        
individual or several individuals united
 by some common interest or by          
participation in some common action2 the
 unity in the object should be expressed
 through a unity in the material of     
representation4 ,the finest taste       
requires that every statue should be    
made of only one kind of material4 ,one 
part1 say the body1 should not be of    
marble1 and another part1 say the       
girdle1 of gold or bronze4 ,such a      
combination of materials gives the      
impression of two things juxtaposed1 not
 of a single whole4 ,if in defense of   
this one were to say that through the   
difference of materials real differences
 in the object are portrayed1           
consistency would require that the      
principle be carried out1 that the hair 
be of another material1 and the eyes of 
still a third1 with the result of making
 the statue a sheer agglomerate4 ,and   
when more than one individual is        

represented1 even a unity of material is
 not sufficient2 it is necessary1 in    
addition1 that the several figures in   
the group be in contact with each       
,other4 ,it is not enough that they     
stand on the same plate2 for the real   
empty space that we see between them    
will keep them apart4 ,the ideal space  
to which they belong1 and the spiritual 
or dramatic oneness1 should be mediated 
by a material touch of hands or other   
parts of the body4 ,compare1 in this    
connection1 ,rodin's ,citizens of       
,calais where this principle is         
violated1 with the three figures from   
the summit of his ,hell ,gate1 where it 
is observed4 ,in the former we simply   
know that the figures belong together1  
but we do not feel them as              
together4,footnote3 ,compare ,lipps1    
,aesthetik1 ,bd4 #b1 ,fuenftes ,kapitel4
  ,in the normal type of sculpture only 
one figure is represented4 ,for this1   
there is1 perhaps1 a chief point of     
regard1 in front1 the same as that which

 we ordinarily occupy with reference to 
our fellow men4 ,yet1 since the body is 
beautiful from every point of view1 the 
statue1 unless designed to fit into a   
niche1 should be so made that we shall  
want to move around it and survey it    
from every angle4 ,here is another      
difference between painting and         
sculpture4 ,in the group1 however1 where
 several figures are represented united 
by some common interest or by           
participating in some common action1    
this difference is already beginning to 
disappear4 ,for1 in order to appreciate 
the dramatic significance of the group1 
the point of regard from in front is    
essential4 ,the other aspects remain    
important for their corporeal beauty1   
but1 since that is not ordinarily paired
 with an equal inner significance1 they 
come to acquire a secondary place4      
,impressionistic sculpture represents a 
further departure from the normal and in
 the direction of the pictorial4 ,here  
part of the block from which the statue 

has been hewn is left an integral member
 of the piece2 and out of it the figure 
seems to grow1 as it were4 ,it performs 
in the whole a function corresponding to
 the background of a portrait--the      
representation of the environment4      
,thus1 in ,meunier's ,the ,miner1 the   
block represents the mine2 in ,rodin's  
,orpheus and ,eurydice1 it represents   
the mouth of ,hades2 in his ,mystery of 
the ,spring1 a basin4 ,through the      
possibility of thus representing the    
relation of man to his environment a    
notable extension in the scope of       
sculpture is obtained4  ,when a         
background is introduced1 the figure or 
figures1 being members of a larger      
whole1 require less detailed treatment1 
less clearness of outline4 ,their parts 
may even be left in large measure       
unfinished1 the contours melting        
together with the block4 ,a special     
point of regard1 from which alone the   
figures are modeled1 is obviously       
essential4 ,striking is the contrast of 

this type with the classic1 where the   
utmost precision in modeling is         
necessary4 ,along with the diminished   
emphasis on clearness of form goes an   
increased effort at the portrayal of the
 inner1 more spiritual life2 sentiment  
and mystery find an unwonted place in   
the art4 ,rodin's ,psyche is a good     
illustration4 ,yet1 despite these       
differences1 the classic demand for     
living surfaces1 for rhythmical lines1  
for perspicuity and totality of         
silhouette1 for singleness and unity of 
material1 abides4  ,however1 when the   
block attains prominence1 the           
unification of the different figures    
through contact is no longer of equal   
necessity4 ,the background serves the   
purpose of bringing the figures         
together1 of providing a material bond  
between them4 ,this is especially true  
in the various kinds of relief1 between 
which and sculpture in the round1       
impressionistic sculpture is a sort of  
compromise4 ,in relief there may even be

 a representation of perspective1 the   
figures seeming to lie behind each      
other1 flatter and smaller to indicate  
distance4 ,but we shall not enter into  
the technique of this1 which obviously  
approaches that of painting4  ,when the 
charm of the body is the prime object of
 expression1 those actions and poses    
which exhibit grace and vigor are the   
ones naturally chosen4 ,this beauty is  
best revealed in the single figure1     
because in the group there is usually   
some dramatic interest which diverts    
attention from it4 ,the figure is       
preferably wholly or partially undraped1
 or when drapery is used1 it should     
reveal the body underneath and possess  
beauty of line of its own4 ,elaboration 
of drapery for its own sake1 or in order
 to display virtuosity in modeling1     
shows lack of true sculptural vision1   
which always has its eye on the naked   
form4 ,aside from lack of charm1 the old
 and crippled are avoided because their 
inharmonious lines would appear again in

 a statue which reproduced them2 it is  
not possible1 as in painting1 to make a 
harmony out of them through relation to 
other lines in the total work1 for no   
other lines exist2 nor can their natural
 ugliness be so easily made acceptable  
through beauty of color and light4      
,nevertheless1 no one can dogmatically  
assert that the artist must confine     
himself in his choice of subjects4 ,if  
by harmonizing the distorted lines of an
 ugly body with each other1 and by      
enhancing the given purity and          
expressiveness of his material1 the     
artist can create a beauty of form      
overlying the repellence of the subject1
 and if he can make us feel the tragedy 
or pathos of age and disease1 no one can
 gainsay his work4 ,in his ,aged        
,helmet-,maker's ,wife1 ,rodin has      
perhaps accomplished this4 ,footnote3   
,see ,rodin's own defense of this statue
 in his ,l',art1 chap4 ,,ii4  ,in the   
classic sculpture the expression of the 
inner life is subordinate to the        

expression of corporeal beauty4 ,or1 so 
far as mind is revealed1 the revelation 
occurs through the body as a            
whole1--through attitude and pose and   
act4 ,in this way complete unity between
 the inner and the outer beauty is      
preserved4 ,for when through subtle     
modeling of the face the expression of  
the intense and individualized life of  
thought is attempted1 the beauties of   
soul and body tend to fall apart and    
become rivals for attention4 ,in classic
 sculpture1 therefore1 the face is      
rightly somewhat inexpressive1 or       
better1 is expressive of only the broad 
and typical human emotions4 ,fine or    
deep qualities may1 however1 be         
expressed2 for dignity1 poise1          
intelligence1 sorrow1 and active joy    
make themselves manifest in the total   
habitus of the body no less than in the 
face4  ,the work of ,michelangelo is a  
further proof that sculpture can express
 the spiritual life1 not only in the    
face1 but in the body also4 ,the        

expression there is no different in     
essential kind from that found in the   
heroic classic sculpture4 ,it is        
universal1 typical1 not individual1     
personal2 of the gods1 not of men4 ,its 
quality alone differs2 it is monstrous1 
pathological1 grandiose1 instead of     
serene and happily balanced4  ,but      
sculpture can also portray the          
individualized psychic life4 ,footnote3 
,consult the discussion in ,rodin's     
,l',art1 chap4 ,,vii4 ,for this1 the    
portrait bust is the most appropriate   
medium of expression4 ,by separating the
 head1 the natural seat of mind1 from   
the rest of the body1 the rivalry       
between the beauty of soul and form is  
obviated4 ,how much sculpture can do in 
this way is shown by the work of the    
,greeks and ,romans in ancient times1   
and by such men as ,houdon and ,rodin   
among the moderns4 ,think of the intense
 and concentrated expression of thought 
and emotion in the ,voltaire of ,houdon 
and the ,dalou of ,rodin6 ,success      

depends largely upon the modeling of the
 subtle lines of the face1 where the    
more highly specialized workings of the 
mind leave their impress4 ,whatever of  
character the face may express can be   
expressed over again in its image4 ,of  
course the unique responses of mind to  
definite situations1 such as1 for       
example1 the conversation of a man with 
his fellows1 cannot be portrayed in     
sculpture1 which isolates the           
individual4 ,but the characteristic mood
 and attitude1 the permanent residuum   
and condition of these responses1 can be
 portrayed2 and this constitutes        
personality or character4 ,as           
,schopenhauer declared1 the character of
 a man is better revealed in the face   
when he is in repose than when he is    
responding to other men1 for there is   
always a certain amount of dissimulation
 or insincerity in social intercourse4  
,the impossibility of rendering the     
color and animation of the eye          
constitutes a real deficiency1 but1 as  

has often been pointed out1 this is     
partly minimized through the fact that  
the expression of the eye depends       
largely upon the brows2 by itself1 the  
eye is inexpressive4 ,the portrait      
statue has much the same purpose as the 
bust1 and hence should be draped4 ,the  
heroic1 equestrian statue1 however1     
expresses rather the imposing1 socially 
perceptible side of the man1 than the   
inner life of thought and sentiment     
revealed in the bust4  ,the development 
of sculpture has produced nothing more  
beautiful than the solitaire statues    
which the ,greeks have left us2 and when
 we think of ,greek sculpture we usually
 have in mind these marble or bronze    
images of gods and heroes4 ,but we      
should not forget the figurines of terra
 cotta1 a genre sculpture1 representing 
men and women in the acts and attitudes 
of daily life1 at work and at play4 ,the
 ideal of sculpture should not be       
pitched too high4 ,there is no reason   
why1 with the example set by the        

,greeks1 sculpture should not portray   
the lighter and more usual phases of    
human life4 ,if sculpture is to strike  
new paths1 and be something more than a 
repetition of classical models1 it must 
become more realistic4 ,and1 as we have 
already noted1 by making use of the     
block as a sort of background1 even some
 relation of man to his environment can 
be represented4 ,through the group the  
simpler relations of man with his       
fellows--comradeship1 love1 conflict1 or
 common action--can be expressed2       
although the power of sculpture is      
greatly limited in this direction4      
,sculpture is often taxed by people who 
emphasize the importance of the         
political and industrial mechanism with 
inability to portray large groups of men
 and the more complex relations arising 
out of the dependence of man upon nature
 and society4 ,but one may well urge the
 compensating worth which sculpture will
 always possess of recalling men to a   
sense of the value and beauty of the    

individual as such1 especially in an age
 like our own where they tend to be     
forgotten4  ,the principles that apply  
to the use of historical1 literary1 and 
symbolic themes in painting hold with   
increased force in sculpture4 ,we must  
admit the right of the sculptor to      
illustrate simple and well-known        
historical or fictitious situations4 ,at
 the same time1 however1 we must        
remember that a work of this kind is    
subject to a twofold standard3 first and
 indispensable1 the sculptural1 is the  
form animate and beautiful2 then1 are   
the life and action appropriate to the  
idea8 ,the first is alone absolutely    
unequivocal4 ,the second1 on the other  
hand1 is largely relative2 for unless   
the sculptor has carried out the idea in
 so masterly a fashion that we can think
 of no other possibility--as ,phidias is
 said to have done with his statue of   
,zeus--there must always be something   
arbitrary about any particular          
representation4 ,this arbitrary element 

is increased in symbolic sculpture4 ,you
 can perhaps depict an actual or        
fictitious human situation by means of  
sculptured bodies and make your image   
seem inevitable2 but how can you make   
bodies the vehicles of abstractions8    
,moreover1 sculpture is a realistic art2
 it presents us with the semblance of   
living forms1 and if these forms are    
monstrous or are shown accomplishing    
impossible things1 they cannot escape a 
certain aspect of the ridiculous4 ,i    
have in mind ,rodin's ,man and ,his     
,thought4 ,if the man were only         
represented fashioning the figure with  
his hands1 his hands guided by his      
thought2 but the hands are inactive1 and
 the figure grows by thought alone6 ,or 
consider ,the ,hand of ,god by the same 
artist4 ,to say that we are in the hands
 of ,god is a good metaphorical way of  
expressing our dependence upon the      
,destiny that shapes our ends2 but it is
 another thing to exhibit us as actually
 enfolded by a hand4  ,the more         

sensitive we are to the beauty of the   
body and of the mind1 so far as manifest
 through the body1 the better content we
 shall be with normal sculpture and the 
less urgently we shall demand symbolism4
 ,of course all statues may become      
symbolic1 as all works of art may1 in   
the sense of possessing a universal     
meaning won by generalizing their       
individual significance4 ,symbolic in   
this legitimate way were the statues of 
the ,greek gods2 thus ,aphrodite1 who   
was lovely1 became ,love1 and ,athena1  
who was wise1 became ,wisdom4 ,but there
 is nothing arbitrary in such symbolism4
     ,,chapter ,,xiii  ,,beauty ,,in    
,,the ,,industrial ,,arts3              
,,architecture   ,in the arts which we  
have studied so far1 beauty has been the
 sole or chief end2 in the industrial   
arts1 beauty can be only a part of their
 total meaning4 ,no matter how much of  
an artist a builder or a potter may be1 
he is necessarily controlled by the     
practical needs which houses and pots   

subserve4 ,this was the original        
condition of all artists2 for in the    
beginning1 before life's various aims   
were distinguished and pursued in       
isolation1 the beautiful was always     
married to some other interest4 ,our    
method of study has1 therefore1 reversed
 the temporal order2 but with intent1   
for we believe that the nature of a     
thing is better revealed in its final   
than in its rudimentary form4 ,to       
complete our survey of the arts1 we     
must1 however1 give some consideration  
to those works in which the unity of the
 useful and the beautiful is still      
preserved2 and as an example we have    
chosen architecture1 the most           
magnificent of them all4  ,first1 we    
must clear up what might seem to be an  
inconsistency in our thinking4 ,in our  
definition of art we insisted upon the  
freedom of beauty and the contrast      
between the aesthetic and the practical 
attitudes1 yet now we are admitting that
 some things may be at once useful and  

beautiful4 ,it would seem as if we must 
either modify our definition of art or  
else deny beauty to such objects as     
bridges and buildings4 ,but we cannot do
 the latter1 for the beauty of ,brooklyn
 bridge or ,notre ,dame in ,paris is a  
matter of direct feeling1 which no      
theory can disestablish4 ,and it is     
impossible to solve the problem by      
supposing that in the industrial arts   
beauty and utility are extraneous to    
each other1 two separable aspects1 which
 have no intimate connection4 ,for the  
fact that a bridge spans a river or that
 a church is a place of worship is an   
element in its beauty4 ,the aesthetic   
meaning of the object depends upon the  
practical meaning4 ,you cannot reduce   
the beauty of a bridge or a cathedral to
 such factors as mere size and fine     
proportions1 without relation to        
function4 ,no preconceived idea of the  
purity of beauty can undermine our      
intuition of the beauty of utility4     
,yet the dependence of beauty upon      

utility in the industrial arts is not at
 variance with the freedom from         
practical attitudes which we have       
claimed for it4 ,for the beauty is still
 in the realm of perception1 of         
contemplation1 not of use4 ,it is a     
pleasure in seeing how the purpose is   
expressed in the form and material of   
the object1 not a pleasure in the       
possession of the object or an enjoyment
 of its benefits4 ,i may take pleasure  
in the vision of purpose well embodied  
in an object which another man          
possesses1 and my admiration will be as 
disinterested as my appreciation of a   
statue4 ,and even if ,i do make use of  
the object1 ,i may still get an         
aesthetic experience out of it1 whenever
 ,i pause and survey it1 delighting in  
it as an adequate expression of its     
purpose and my own joy in using it4     
,then beauty supervenes upon mere       
utility1 and a value for contemplation  
grows out of and1 for the moment1       
supplants a value in use4 ,i now take   

delight in the perception of an object  
when formerly ,i took delight only in   
its use2 ,i now enjoy the expression of 
purpose for its present perceived       
perfection1 when once ,i enjoyed it only
 for its ulterior results4 ,such        
intervals of restful contemplation      
interrupt the activity of every         
thoughtful maker or user of tools4 ,thus
 the practical life may enter into the  
aesthetic1 and that which grows out of  
exigence may develop into freedom4      
,there is one more objection which may  
be urged against the aesthetic character
 of the expression of practical purpose1
 namely1 that the appreciation of it is 
an affair of intellect1 not of feeling4 
,this would indeed be fatal if it were  
necessarily true2 but all men who love  
their work know that they put into      
admiration for their tools as much of   
warm emotion as of mind4 ,there remains1
 however1 the genuine difficulty of     
communicating this emotional perception 
of useful objects1 of making it         

universal4 ,it must be admitted that the
 attitude of the average beholder       
towards a useful object is usually      
practical1 not contemplative1 or else   
purely intellectual1 an effort to       
understand its structure1 with the idea 
of eventual use4 ,most works of         
industrial art produce no aesthetic     
experience whatever4 ,but to be a       
genuine and complete work of fine art1  
an object must be so made that it will  
immediately impel the spectator to      
regard it aesthetically4  ,from what we 
have already established1 we know how   
this requirement can be met3 by         
elaborating the outer aspects of the    
object in the direction of pleasure and 
expression4 ,by this means the beauty of
 mere appearance will strike and occupy 
the mind1 inducing the aesthetic        
attitude towards the outside1 from which
 it may then spread and embrace the     
inner1 purposive meaning4 ,the obviously
 disinterested and warmly emotional     
admiration of the shape will prevent the

 admiration for the purposive adaptation
 from being cold and abstract4 ,hence1  
although from the point of view of      
utility the beauty of mere appearance   
may seem to be a superfluity1 it is     
almost indispensable from an aesthetic  
point of view1 since it raises the      
appreciation of the purpose to the      
aesthetic plane4 ,and we can understand 
how enthusiastic workmen1 whose         
admiration for their work is already    
aesthetic1 must necessarily desire to   
consecrate and communicate this feeling 
by beautifying the appearance of their  
products2 how inevitably1 through the   
ages1 they have made things not only as 
perfect as they could1 but as charming4 
,when developed for the ends of the     
aesthetic life1 the useful object       
exhibits1 therefore1 two levels of      
beauty3 first1 that of appearance1 of   
form and sensation1 line and shape and  
color2 and second1 that of purpose      
spoken in the form4 ,the first is of the
 vague and immediate character so well  

known to us2 the second is more definite
 and less direct1 since it depends upon 
the interpretation of the object in     
terms of its function4 ,the relation    
between the two is like that which      
obtains1 in a painting1 between color   
and line1 on the one hand1 and          
representation1 on the other4 ,when the 
first level of beauty is richly         
developed on its own account1 it becomes
 ornament4 ,in a ,greek vase1 for       
example1 there is a beauty of           
symmetrical1 well-proportioned shape1   
delicate coloring of surface1 and       
decorative painting1 which might be felt
 by people who knew nothing of its use2 
and1 in addition1 for those who have    
this knowledge1 a beauty in the fine    
balance of parts in the adjustment of   
clay to its final cause4 ,these factors1
 which we have distinguished by         
analysis1 should1 however1 be felt as   
one in the aesthetic intuition of the   
object2 the form1 although beautiful in 
itself1 should reveal the function1 and 

the decoration1 no matter how charming1 
should be appropriate and subordinate4  
,otherwise1 as indeed so often happens1 
the beauty of one aspect may completely 
dominate the others2 when the object    
either remains a pretty ornament        
perhaps1 but is functionally dead2 or   
else1 if it keep this life1 loses its   
unity in a rivalry of beautiful aspects4
  ,all these points are strikingly      
illustrated in architecture4 ,the       
architects claim that their art is a    
liberal one aiming at beauty1 yet most  
buildings to-day are objects of         
practical interest alone4 ,their doors  
are merely for entrance1 their windows  
for admission of light1 their walls for 
inclosure4 ,few people1 as they hurry in
 or out of an office building or a      
railway station1 stay to contemplate the
 majesty of the height or the elegance  
of the facade2 they transact their      
business1 buy their tickets1 check their
 luggage1 and go4 ,even when the        
building has some claim to beauty1 the  

mood of commercial life stifles         
observation2 or1 if the building is     
observed1 there is no strong emotion or 
vivid play of imagination1 no permanent 
impression of beauty lingering in the   
memory1 no enrichment of the inner life1
 such as a musical air or a poem        
affords1 but only a transient and       
fruitless recognition4 ,for this reason 
many have thought that buildings must   
become useless1 as castles and ruined   
temples are1 in order to be beautiful4  
,yet1 in proportion as this is true1 it 
involves a failure on the part of       
architecture1 a failure to make the     
useful a part of the beautiful4 ,a      
building1 which was designed to be a    
habitation of man1 when taken apart from
 the life which it was meant to shelter 
and sustain1 is an abstraction or a vain
 ornament at best4 ,if the company which
 peopled it are gone1 it can win        
significance only if we re-create them  
in the imagination1 moving in the halls 
or worshiping at the altars4 ,we cannot 

get rid of the practical for the sake of
 the aesthetic1 but must take up the    
practical into the aesthetic4 ,for this 
reason architecture has achieved its    
greatest successes where its uses have  
been most largely and freely emotional1 
most closely akin to the brooding spirit
 of beauty--in religious buildings4     
,most buildings1 it must be admitted1   
are not beautiful at all4 ,in order to  
be beautiful1 they should be alive1 and 
alive all over1 as a piece of sculpture 
is alive2 there should be no            
unresponsive surfaces or details2 but   
most of our buildings are dead--dead    
walls1 dead lines1 oblong boxes1 neat   
and commodious1 but dead4 ,the practical
 problems which the architect has to    
solve are so complex and difficult1 and 
the materials which he uses are so      
refractory1 that there is inevitably a  
sacrifice of the beauty of appearance to
 utility4 ,the very size of a building  
makes it aesthetically unmanageable all 
over4 ,here the lesser industrial arts1 

like the goldsmith's1 have an advantage 
in the superior control which the       
workman can exert over his materials2   
his work is that of a single mind and   
hand2 it does not require1 as           
architecture does1 the cooperation of a 
crowd of unfeeling artisans4 ,in        
architecture1 mechanical necessities and
 forms threaten to supplant aesthetic   
principles and shapes4 ,the heavy square
 blocks1 the rectangular lines1 seem the
 antithesis of life and beauty4 ,all    
warmth1 all movement1 all love is round1
 or at least oval4444 ,only the cold1   
immovable1 indifferent1 and hateful is  
straight and square4444 ,life is round1 
and death is angular4 ,footnote3 ,ellen 
,key1 ,the ,few and the ,many1          
translated from a quotation in ,max     
,dessoir1 ,aesthetik und ,allgemeine    
,kunstwissenschaft1 page #cif4 ,what    
vividness of imagination or sentiment   
can transmute these dead and hollow     
masses into a life universally felt8    
,and yet1 in a series of works of art   

among the most magnificent that man     
possesses1 this miracle was achieved4   
,the ,greek temples and ,gothic         
cathedrals are so much alive that they  
seem not to have been made with hands1  
but to have grown4 ,the straight lines  
have been modified into delicate curves1
 the angles have given place to arches1 
the stiff and mathematical have been    
molten into movement and surprise1 the  
heaviness has been so nicely balanced or
 overcome that it has been changed into 
lightness1 with the help of human and   
animal sculpture and floral carving the 
inorganic has been transformed into the 
organic1 by means of painting and       
stained glass even the dull surfaces of 
walls and windows have been made to glow
 into life4 ,artists wrought each       
portion and detail1 and built the whole 
for the glory of ,god and the city1 a   
monument for quiet contemplation1 not a 
mere article to be used4 ,with few      
exceptions1 any architectural beauty    
that we create is but a feeble echo of  

theirs4 ,some day we may be able to     
produce something worthy to be placed by
 its side1 but only when we have        
sanctified our life with communal aims4 
,the aesthetic effect of a building     
depends upon many factors1 of which only
 a few can be analyzed by us in this    
short chapter4 ,if we abstract from its 
relation to purpose1 architecture is    
fundamentally an art of spatial form4   
,working freely with it1 under the sole 
limitation of function1 the architect   
can make of this form a complex1        
various1 and beautiful language         
intelligible to all men1 and possessed  
of a systematic1 yet fluent logic4 ,of  
this language the simplest element is   
line4 ,at first view1 as we approach a  
building from the outside1 its beauty1  
as in the case of sculpture1 is         
essentially pictorial4 ,for1 although a 
building is a three-dimensional solid in
 reality1 each view of it is a          
two-dimensional surface1 bounded by     
lines and divided and diversified within

 by other lines4 ,now these lines have  
their life and beauty like the lines of 
a picture4 ,how they get this life and  
what its specific quality is in the case
 of particular lines1 we need not       
explain again2 but no one can fail to   
feel the upward movement of the vertical
 lines of the ,gothic style1 the repose 
of the horizontal lines of the          
,renaissance style1 the playful grace of
 the ,rococo4 ,naturally1 since the     
front of a building1 where one enters1  
is the most important and the most      
constantly in view1 its pictorial beauty
 is elaborated with especial care by the
 architect4 ,this is the justification  
of the overshadowing preeminence of the 
facade in ,renaissance palaces1 which   
indeed was oftentimes the only visible  
part of the outside of the building4    
,when1 however1 the building is         
perspicuous all round1 it should1 like a
 statue1 present a beautiful view from  
every standpoint4  ,in architecture1 as 
in painting1 the visual elements are    

adapted to one or the other of the two  
chief ways of seeing4 ,either the       
surfaces are seen as wholes primarily   
and the details in subordination2 or    
else the parts stand out clear and      
distinct1 and the whole is their        
summation4 ,the former is always the    
case when the surfaces are left plain   
with few divisions1 or1 if the surfaces 
are divided1 when the lines intersect   
and intermingle1 as is exemplified in   
late ,renaissance or ,baroque work1     
where the walls are covered with lavish 
ornament1 the enframement of windows is 
broken by moldings and sculpture which  
carry into the surrounding spaces1 and  
where1 instead of embracing one story1  
the orders comprise the entire height of
 the building4 ,the second possibility  
is well illustrated by the early        
classical ,renaissance1 where the       
surface of each story1 sharply separated
 from the others by the line of the     
frieze1 is divided regularly by arches  
or columns1 each window clearly         

enframed1 and every sculptured ornament 
provided with a niche4  ,there is1      
however1 this fundamental difference    
between architectural and pictorial     
lines3 the latter are usually pure      
kinematical lines1 lines of free and    
un-resisted movement1 while the former  
are usually dynamical1 lines of force   
which move against the resistance of    
mass4 ,in a picture objects are         
volatilized into light and have lost all
 weight2 but in architecture1 since they
 are present in reality and not in mere 
semblance1 their weight is retained4 ,a 
,greek column1 for example1 not only    
moves upward1 but also against the      
superincumbent load of the entablature  
which it carries4 ,the difference       
between the two arts can be appreciated 
by comparing the picture of a building  
with the building itself2 in the former1
 despite the fact that we know how heavy
 the dome or pediment is1 and how strong
 therefore the piers or columns that    
support it1 we hardly feel them as heavy

 or strong at all--the forces and masses
 have been transformed into abstract    
lines and shapes4 ,sometimes1 however1  
architectural lines and surfaces remain 
purely kinematical2 on the inside of our
 rooms1 for example1 when the surfaces  
are smooth1 and especially when they are
 decorated1 we often feel no tension of 
conflicting forces1 but only a quiet    
play of movements2 it is as if the walls
 had been changed into the paper or     
paint that covers them4 ,the vividness  
of the expression of mechanical forces  
in architecture depends1 moreover1 upon 
the kind of materials employed2 it is   
greater in marble than in wood1 and less
 in our modern constructions of steel   
and glass1 where the piers move in      
single vertical lines from the bottom to
 the top of the building1 than in the   
old forms1 where the upper part of the  
building is frankly carried by the      
lower4  ,the mere expression of         
mechanical forces in a building would   
not1 however1 be aesthetic by itself1 no

 matter how obvious to the mind4 ,we    
must not only know these forces to be   
there1 we must also feel them as there2 
we must appreciate them in terms of our 
own experiences in supporting weights   
and overcoming resistances4 ,we must    
transform the mechanical into the vital1
 the material into the human4 ,art is an
 expression of life1 not of mathematics4
 ,and this translation is not the result
 of an unusual1 artificial attitude     
assumed for the sake of aesthetic       
appreciation2 it is the natural mode of 
apperceiving force and mass4 ,we cannot 
see a column supporting an entablature  
without feeling that it stands firm to  
bear the weight1 much as we should stand
 if we were in its place4 ,if this is a 
pathetic fallacy1 it is one which we all
 inevitably commit4 ,even the skeptic1  
if he were to examine carefully into his
 own mind1 would find that he commits   
it1 whenever he gives to the column1 not
 a casual or merely calculating regard1 
but a free and earnest attention4 ,if he

 gives his mind to the column and lets  
the column take hold of his mind1       
allowing his psychological mechanism to 
work unhampered1 he will commit it4 ,the
 aesthetic intuition of force--the human
 way of appreciating it--is1 in fact1   
primary2 the purely mechanical and      
mathematical is an abstraction1         
superimposed for practical and          
scientific purposes4  ,the interplay of 
humanized mechanical energies1 of which 
architecture is the expression1 may be  
conceived as the resultant of four chief
 forces1 acting each in a definite      
direction3 upward1 downward1 outward1   
and inward4 ,the downward force is      
associated with the weight of the       
materials of which the building is      
constructed4 ,to all physical objects we
 ascribe a tendency toward the earth4   
,an unsupported weight will fall1 and   
even when supported will exert a        
pressure downward4 ,and this tendency is
 no mere directed force in the physical 
sense1 but an impulse1 in the personal  

sense4 ,for when with hand or shoulder  
we support a weight1 we inevitably      
interpret it in terms of our own        
voluntary muscular exertion in resisting
 it2 even as we strive to resist it1 so 
it seems to strive to fall4 ,although   
this force is exerted downward1 it shows
 itself in the horizontal lines of a    
building1 in string courses1 parapets1  
cornices1 friezes2 for the horizontal is
 the line parallel to the earth1 toward 
which the force is directed1 and along  
which we lie when we rest4,footnote3    
,compare the discussion of ,lipps1      
,aesthetik1 ,bd4 #a1 ,dritter           
,abschnitt1 although ,i am far from     
accepting all of his analyses4  ,opposed
 to the downward force is the upward    
force4 ,if an object does not fall1 it  
must be supported by a force in the     
upward direction2 the hand must exert a 
force perpendicular to the mass which it
 carries2 the body must hold itself     
erect in order to bear its own weight4  
,just so1 an architectural member1 if it

 is not to collapse1 must raise itself  
upward4 ,upward forces are revealed by  
the vertical lines of a building--the   
prevailing lines of columns1 piers1     
shafts1 pinnacles1 towers1 spires4 ,we  
interpret vertical lines as moving      
upward1 partly because the eye moves    
upward in scanning them1 partly because 
we ourselves move in lines of this      
general direction in going from the     
bottom to the top of a building4 ,even  
when we are at the top of a building we 
apprehend its vertical lines as rising  
rather than as descending1 because we   
ourselves had to rise in order to get   
there4 ,converging lines1 as of towers  
and spires1 we also interpret in the    
same way as going to the point of       
meeting above4  ,acting in conjunction  
with the downward force is an outward   
one4 ,the lower parts of a construction 
tend to spread out as they give way     
under the weight of the superincumbent  
masses2 if they are very much broader   
than the latter1 they give the          

impression of great weight carried4 ,as 
a result1 a horizontal line is          
introduced1 and the longer it is in     
comparison with the vertical line of    
height1 the heavier the effect4         
,compare1 for example1 the impression   
made by a tall and thin triangular      
shape1 with a low and broad one2 and    
compare also the relative lengths of the
 horizontal and the vertical lines4 ,the
 former shape seems simply to rise1     
while the latter lifts4 ,we seem to     
observe the working of this outward     
force1 as ,lipps has remarked1 in the   
spreading out of the trunks of trees at 
the base and in the feet of animals2 and
 we feel it in ourselves whenever we    
spread our limbs apart to brace         
ourselves to withstand a load4          
,whenever the outward force is resisted1
 it gives evidence of the existence of a
 force operating in the opposed         
direction--inward4 ,without this force1 
the lower parts of a construction would 
lack all solidity and spread like a     

molten mass on the ground4 ,this is     
especially striking where the material1 
instead of spreading outward and        
downward1 seems to press itself inward  
and upward4 ,compare1 for example1 a    
shape whose base-line is smaller than   
the line of its top with one in which   
the reverse holds true4 ,the former     
gives the impression of lightness and   
agility1 with a prevailing upward trend1
 the other an impression of weight and  
heaviness1 with a prevailing trend      
towards the ground4 ,obviously1 the     
outward and the inward forces are       
correlative and complementary3 we have  
already observed that a construction    
would collapse without the inward2 we   
can now see that it would disappear     
entirely without the outward4           
,obviously1 also1 the inward and upward 
go together1 and the downward and       
outward4  ,even a plain rectangular wall
 manifests the interplay of these       
forces4 ,the horizontal dimension       
represents the downward and outward     

force of the weight2 the vertical       
dimension1 the upward forces1 which     
prevent the wall from collapsing in     
itself and hold it upright2 while the   
lateral boundaries give evidence of the 
inward tension that keeps the mass      
together4 ,but the most beautiful       
expressions of architectural forces are 
to be found in the historical styles4   
,in each style there is a characteristic
 relationship between the forces1       
imparting a distinctive feeling4 ,i     
shall offer a brief analysis of some of 
these4  ,many have recognized that the  
classical ,greek construction1 as       
illustrated in the ,doric temple1       
expresses a fine equilibrium between the
 upward and the downward forces1        
embodied in the vertical and horizontal 
lines respectively4 ,the upward force is
 manifest primarily in the vertical     
columns1 and is emphasized there by the 
flutings1 the slight progressive        
narrowing toward the top1 and the inward
 effort of the necking just below the   

echinus4 ,the downward force is embodied
 in the horizontal lines of the lintel1 
architrave1 cornice1 and in the hanging 
mutules and gutta4 ,the two forces come 
to rest in the abaci1 which1 as the     
crowning members of the columns1        
directly carry the weight of the entire 
entablature4 ,the equilibrium between   
the horizontal and the vertical         
tendencies is1 however1 not a static but
 a moving one2 for the two opposing     
forces are present in every part of the 
building from the stylobate to the ridge
 of the triangular pediment4 ,the       
downward force is already manifest in   
the widened base of the column1 where it
 works in conjunction with the inward   
tendency1 and shows its effect at the   
critical points at the top of the       
supporting column--in the spreading     
echinus with its horizontal bands       
beneath and in the horizontal lines of  
the abaci4 ,the upward force1 on the    
other hand1 is continued right through  
the solid mass of the entablature1 in   

the vertical lines of the triglyphs1 in 
the antefixes1 and even to the very apex
 of the building1 where the ascending   
lines of the triangular pediment meet4  
,the resulting total effect is that of a
 perfect1 yet swaying balance4  ,the    
aesthetic effect derived from the       
interplay of forces in the ,ionic form  
is similar to that in the ,doric1 only  
more delicate and elastic4 ,the slender 
columns1 being less rugged and resistant
 than the ,doric1 seem to transmit the  
weight supported1 which shows itself1   
therefore1 in the outward spreading     
molded base2 but this apparent lack of  
strength in the column is compensated   
for by the elastic energy in the coiled 
spring of the volutes1 upon which1 with 
the slight mediation of a narrow band1  
the entablature rests4 ,here most of the
 upward energy of the ,ionic form is    
concentrated2 for although the dentils  
of the frieze perform the function of   
the triglyphs1 they are too small to do 
it effectively2 the style lacks1        

therefore1 the gentle harmonizing of    
forces all over1 characteristic of the  
,doric1 and evinces instead a clean-cut 
elastic tension at a given point4 ,this 
effect is1 however1 somewhat softened by
 the breaking up of the downward force  
of weight by means of the recessed      
divisions of the architrave4 ,in the    
,corinthian capital1 which has the same 
general feeling as the ,ionic1 the      
elastic tension is still further        
diminished through the renewed emphasis 
on the mediating abacus1 the reduction  
of the size of the volutes1 and the     
overhanging floral carvings4 ,however1  
by reason of the strength given by the  
bell and the projecting outward and     
upward curving form of the abacus1 the  
suggestion of weakness in the           
,corinthian form is overcome1 but the   
gentleness remains4  ,if the ,greek     
construction expresses a balance between
 the upward and downward forces1 the    
arched forms that followed express the  
victory of the upward4 ,in the arch the 

upward force1 instead of being arrested 
where the support meets the mass to be  
carried1 is continued throughout the    
mass itself4 ,of the two chief types of 
arches1 the round and the pointed1 each 
has a specific feeling4 ,we shall study 
the round form first1 where the vertical
 tendency is indeed victorious1 but only
 through reconciliation and compromise4 
,in the round arch all four forces are  
beautifully expressed4 ,the upward is   
manifest1 first1 in the vertical pier1  
which acts very much as the column does1
 and1 in ,roman work1 was often replaced
 by the column4 ,the opposing downward  
force is expressed in the horizontal    
upper bound of the arch and in the line 
of the impost1 also horizontal1 which   
breaks the vertical line and so marks   
the place where the two forces come into
 sharpest conflict4 ,in this conflict1  
the vertical is victorious2 for1 instead
 of being stopped by the impost1 it is  
carried up throughout the entire        
construction by means of the upward and 

inward curving of the arch4 ,the very   
curve of the arch shows1 however1 that  
the victory is not absolute2 for its    
circular form is obviously determined as
 a compromise between an inward         
centripetal force1 moving upward and    
diminishing the breadth of the arch to a
 mere point at its apex1 and an outward 
centrifugal force1 gradually spreading  
the arch downward until it reaches its  
greatest breadth at the impost1 where it
 is arrested by the opposing vertical   
force in the pier4 ,to the historical   
imagination1 the round arch seems1      
therefore1 to express the genial        
classical idea of a control by the      
higher nature which nevertheless did no 
violence to the demands of the lower4   
,in the spherical dome the effect is the
 same1 only the interplay of forces     
operates in three dimensions instead of 
two4  ,when arches are superposed1 the  
upward movement proceeds in stages1     
beginning anew at each horizontal       
division of the wall space4 ,the use of 

entablatures applied to the wall and of 
engaged columns1 common in ,roman work1 
seems to involve an attempt at a fusion 
of two contradictory styles1 and is     
usually condemned as such4 ,this        
contradiction can be solved1 however1 by
 viewing the entablatures as mere       
weightless lines of division of the     
wall1 usually marking off the different 
stories1 and by viewing the columns in a
 similar fashion as having no supporting
 function--which is actually the        
case--and as simply serving the purpose 
of framing the arches4 ,at most they    
merely indicate the direction of the    
chief contending forces1--the parallel  
lintels signalizing the force of weight1
 and the vertical columns1 standing one 
upon the other1 pointing the movement of
 the upward force4 ,they have1          
therefore1 a pictorial rather than a    
dynamic significance4  ,differences of  
feeling in arched forms depend upon the 
relative height of arches and supporting
 piers and columns4 ,the vertical effect

 is strongly emphasized when the latter 
are relatively high1 while the effect of
 weight is increased in flattened       
arches1 which for this reason are       
especially appropriate for crypts and   
prison entrances4 ,interesting          
complications are introduced in arcades 
or intersecting vaults1 where a single  
column serves as a support for two or   
more arches2 for there the vertical     
force is divided1 flowing in different  
directions in the little triangular     
piece of wall between1 or along the ribs
 of the vaults4 ,something similar      
occurs in the ,byzantine dome on        
pendentives1 only instead of supporting 
the horizontal weight of a gallery or a 
vault1 the triangular pendentives meet  
the outward thrust of a superposed dome4
  ,in ,renaissance architecture and the 
modern classical revivals1 where ,greek 
and ,roman styles are freely adapted to 
novel modes of life and purpose1 no     
essentially new form was added to       
architectural speech4 ,there were       

combinations of old forms into more     
complex structures1 but no new important
 elements4 ,the most outstanding novelty
 is perhaps the reversed relation       
between the whole and the parts4        
,footnote3 ,see ,p4 ,frankl1 ,die       
,entwicklungsphasen der neueren         
,baukunst1 #aiad4 ,in the classic       
styles1 whether arched or ,greek1 the   
whole is built up of the parts          
additively2 each is a relatively        
independent center of energy complete in
 itself2 first the columns1 then the    
architrave1 frieze1 and cornice1 then   
the pediment2 or first one row of       
arches1 then another row on top of this1
 and so on4 ,coordination is the        
governing principle4 ,but in the modern 
adaptations1 even where coordination    
rather than subordination rules in the  
pictorial sphere1 the whole is first    
dynamically and the parts are secondary4
 ,in the typical ,renaissance facade1   
for example1 the arches of the windows  
are rather openings in the walls than   

supporting members4 ,they are centers of
 little eddies of force1 rather than    
independent parts of the main           
determining stream of energy4 ,the wall 
rises as a whole to its heavy           
overhanging cornice1 despite the        
horizontal divisions marking the        
stories4 ,there are1 however1 important 
differences between the various modern  
types2 the earlier ,renaissance forms1  
for example1 keeping closer to the      
antique than the later ,baroque and     
,rococo4  ,the complete triumph of the  
vertical tendency1 foreshadowed in the  
,roman1 was proclaimed in ,gothic       
architecture in the use of the pointed  
arch4 ,for in the round arch the        
vertical has not conquered after all2   
the horizontal is still active there1   
even to the apex of the arch1 where the 
tangential line is parallel to the      
earth1 the line of weight4 ,but in the  
pointed style the victory of the        
vertical is clearly decisive1--the      
upward and inward forces1 by elongating 

and narrowing the curve of the arch to a
 point1 have dominated the downward and 
outward4 ,the great height of the piers1
 the gabled roofs1 the ribs of the      
vaults the pointed form of the windows1 
the towers1 spires1 and pinnacles1--all 
proclaim it4 ,yet this victory does not 
occur without opposition2 for the higher
 the vaulting1 the greater the weight to
 be carried2 the greater1 therefore1 the
 outward thrust1 which had to find its  
expression and its stay in the buttress4
 ,but even the buttress1 although it    
bears witness to the outward and        
horizontal force of weight1 was         
nevertheless so fashioned with its gable
 and pinnacle1 or its own arched form1  
as to aid the upward movement4 ,the     
thinness of walls and partitions1 and   
the piercing of these with arches and   
windows1 by lightening the force of     
weight1 also contributed to increase the
 vertical movement4 ,at sight of a true 
,gothic cathedral1 we feel ourselves    
fairly lifted off the ground and rushed 

upward4  ,in thinking of the beauty of  
architecture1 we are all too apt to     
consider the exterior exclusively1      
forgetting that the inside of a         
building1 where we live1 is even more   
important practically1 and is capable of
 at least as great an aesthetic effect4 
,the characteristic aesthetic effect of 
the interior is a function of the       
inclosed space1 the volume1 not of the  
inclosing walls taken singly4 ,the walls
 are only the limits of this space1 they
 are not the space itself4 ,of course1  
the walls within have their own beauty1 
of surface and pervading energy1 but    
this does not differ markedly from that 
of the walls seen from the outside1 and 
what we have established for the one    
holds for the other4 ,but the beauty of 
the inclosed space is something entirely
 new4  ,in itself1 however1 mere volume 
of space is no more aesthetic than mere 
bounding line or surface2 in order to   
become beautiful1 it must become alive4 
,but how can space--the most abstract   

thing in the world--become alive8 ,by   
having the activities which it incloses 
felt into it4 ,just as our bodies are   
felt to be alive because our activities 
express themselves there1 so our rooms1 
because we live and move within them4   
,as we enter a cathedral and look down  
the long aisle1 the movement of our eyes
 inevitably suggests the movement of our
 bodies2 or1 as we look up and our eyes 
follow the ribs of the vaulting1 it is  
as if we ourselves were borne aloft2 in 
the imagination we move through the open
 spaces2 and since we do not actually   
move1 we locate our impulses to         
movement1 not in our bodies1 but in the 
space through which we take our imagined
 flight4 ,every object suggests movement
 to it1 and we fill the intervening     
space with this imagined movement1      
provided only we stay our activities and
 give time for the imagination to work  
its will4 ,thus all space may become    
alive with the possibilities of movement
 which it offers4  ,the aesthetic       

effects of volume vary chiefly according
 to size and shape4 ,in order to be     
appreciated1 these effects must in      
general be somewhat striking2 otherwise 
they pass unnoticed1 and we simply take 
the interiors of our buildings as       
matters of course4  ,it is a curious    
fact that an impression of vastness can 
be secured by inclosing a relatively    
small space4 ,a square1 like the ,place 
de la ,concorde1 or even the inside of a
 cathedral1 produces a feeling of size  
almost1 if not quite1 as great as an    
open prairie or sea4 ,the reason1 ,i    
suppose1 is that an inclosed space      
offers definite points as stimuli and   
goals for suggested movements4 ,as we   
imaginatively reach out and touch these 
points1 we seem to encompass their      
distance2 and the volume of our own     
bodies seems to be magnified            
accordingly4 ,the boundaries of the     
space become a second and greater       
integument4 ,this is of decisive        
importance2 for the aesthetic           

appreciation of size is relative to an  
appreciation of the size of our own     
bodies2 in nature itself there is       
nothing either large or small4 ,along   
with the sense of vastness goes a sense 
of freedom2 the one is the aesthetic    
experience resulting from the           
imaginative reaching of the goal of a   
movement1 the other is the feeling of   
the imagined movement itself4  ,when1 on
 the other hand1 an inclosure is small1 
as in the case of a cell1 and especially
 when the ceiling or vault is low1 as in
 a crypt1 it feels cabined and confined1
 because our own possibilities of       
movement are restricted4 ,in order to   
avoid this feeling1 if a space is       
limited in one direction1 it must be    
free in another2 if narrow1 it must be  
long2 if small in plan1 it must be high1
 as in a tower4  ,the form of an        
inclosed space is also expressive4      
,there are two chief types1 the         
longitudinal and the radial2 but since  
these may exist either in plan or in    

elevation1 four possibilities result3   
the longitudinal-horizontal1 as in an   
aisle2 the longitudinal-vertical1 as in 
a tower2 the radial-horizontal1         
illustrated by every equilateral        
plan--triangle1 square1 regular polygon1
 and above all1 the most perfect form of
 this type1 the circle2 and finally1 the
 radial-vertical1 of which domed spaces1
 like the ,pantheon or ,st4 ,paul's1 are
 examples4 ,the terms used to designate 
them1 together with the examples1 afford
 a good idea of what these space forms  
are1 making further description         
unnecessary4 ,it is interesting to      
observe how different the expression of 
the square and the triangle is when they
 determine the plan of an inclosed space
 from what it is when they are the      
shapes of walls4 ,footnote3 ,compare    
,fritz ,hoeber3 ,systematik der         
,architekturproportionen1 ,,ii1 ,b1 a4  
,in the case of the latter1 according to
 the analysis which we have given of    
them1 the figures represent an interplay

 of antagonistic horizontal and vertical
 forces1 about an axis drawn            
perpendicular to the midpoint of the    
base line2 while as plans they express  
forces homogeneous in kind radiating    
from their centers4 ,the feeling of     
longitudinal forms is one of continued  
movement1 forward or upward as the case 
may be2 when the distance is very great1
 the feeling is of infinity1 either of  
vista1 as in an aisle1 or of height1 as 
in a tower1 for even when the point at  
the end is clearly seen and known1 we   
continue it in the imagination4 ,the    
radial forms1 on the other hand1 even   
when the axes are very long1 express    
completeness and security1 for no matter
 how far we go in any one direction1 we 
have to proceed along a line which      
brings us back to our starting point2 in
 following to the top the movement of   
the curved line of a dome or an apse1   
the continuation of the same line       
carries us down on the other side to a  
point corresponding to the one from     

which we set out2 if we wander1 we      
return home4  ,with reference to the    
division of interiors into parts1 the   
same two types are exemplified which we 
found in studying the visual and the    
dynamic aspects of buildings4 ,either   
the parts of the interior space are     
clearly marked off from each other1 and 
the perception of the whole which they  
constitute is reached by a process of   
summation2 or else1 to one standing     
within1 the space is first perceived as 
a whole1 and its parts1 lacking clear   
definition1 are perceived subsequently4 
,in the former type1 the parts are of   
pronounced individuality1 and the whole 
is their free and joint work2 in the    
latter1 the parts are merged1 and tend  
to be lost in the whole4 ,these two     
possibilities exist whether the space be
 of radial or longitudinal form4 ,in    
general1 the classical styles lend      
themselves to the coordinate type of    
division of the interior1 while the     
later styles favor the subordination of 

the parts to the whole4  ,the other     
factors in the beauty of architecture1  
besides the expression of the forces    
resident in its forms1 can receive only 
scant notice from us4 ,among these is   
light--its admission1 exclusion1 and    
diffusion4 ,a house with ample windows  
flooded with sunshine shares the feeling
 of an open day2 a cathedral1 dimly     
lighted1 stimulates a mood of brooding  
mystery and meditation1 like some dark  
forest4 ,another factor is color4 ,color
 plays a double part in architecture3   
first1 to enliven the neutral tones of  
certain materials2 and second1 to impart
 specific moods4 ,it was no barbaric    
taste1 but a keen feeling for life and  
warmth that induced the ,greeks to paint
 their temples2 and without their rose  
windows1 ,gothic cathedrals are like    
faces from which the glow of life is    
departing4 ,the different colors have   
the same feelings in architecture that  
they have in painting4 ,the reds and    
purples of ecclesiastical stained glass 

stimulate the passion of adoration1 the 
blues deepen it1 and the yellows seem to
 offer a glimpse of heavenly bliss4     
,sound1 its presence or its absence1 is 
another factor in architectural         
expression3 the quiet of the church in  
contrast with the noise of the busy     
street outside1 the peal of the organ1  
or the chorus of young voices4 ,although
 architecture is a spatial art and music
 a temporal art1 they nevertheless go   
well together because the emotions      
aroused by both are vague and           
voluminous1 and the sounds1             
reverberating from the walls and filling
 the inclosed spaces1 seem to fuse with 
them4 ,ornamental carving performs a    
diversifying and enlivening function    
similar to that of color4 ,so long as   
its lines follow those of the           
architectural forms1 it may well be rich
 and elaborate4 ,it is fitting1         
moreover1 that buildings designed to be 
houses of the gods should contain their 
images1 and that the same spirit that   

expresses itself in playful lines should
 become embodied in griffin and         
gargoyle4 ,finally1 erected in the open1
 with no shelter or enframement1 a      
building is1 in large measure1 a part of
 nature and possesses something of the  
beauty of nature4 ,rooted to one place  
like a tree1 it shares the beauty of its
 site1 and responds to the ever varying 
effects of light and shadow1 rain and   
mist and snow4  ,the abstract beauty of 
architecture can be understood without  
any knowledge of the purposes of        
buildings4 ,a ,hindu who knows nothing  
of our civilization cannot fail to be   
responsive to ,notre ,dame1 any more    
than we can fail to admire the beauty of
 ,taj ,mahal4 ,the very simplest        
architectural forms1 like the pyramids  
or the ,washington monument1 provided   
they are of sufficient size and mass1   
speak an eloquent language which is     
immediately understood4 ,and the content
 of their speech is not so abstract as  
might be judged from our previous       

studies of it2 for in architecture1 as  
in music1 concrete emotions and         
sentiments flow into the channel cut by 
the form4 ,longing1 aspiration1 and     
mystery have universally been felt into 
a form pointing skyward2 and the feeling
 of incompleteness has been lost1 and   
security regained1 in an overarching    
dome4  ,there is1 however1 this         
difference between architecture and     
music4 ,in music1 the emotional content 
is purely personal2 while in            
architecture1 it may become social and  
historical4 ,architectural purposes are 
all social3 the purposes of a family1 a 
nation1 a cult4 ,and the purposes of the
 greatest of buildings--of those which  
serve the nation and religion--are also 
historical2 about them gather the       
traditions of a community4 ,centers of  
the life of a people1 created by it and 
enduring with it1 they become its       
symbols2 or outlasting it1 memorials and
 witnesses to it4 ,the vague emotions   
aroused by the architectural forms are  

pointed and enriched by this spirit3 the
 vastness1 seclusion1 magnificence1     
mystery1 and aspiration of the ,gothic  
cathedral become associated with the    
life of the medieval ,catholic church2  
the fine balance1 clarity1 and          
simplicity of the ,greek temple with the
 best in ,greek culture4 ,this          
interpretation of a building in terms of
 its purpose and history is necessary to
 a complete aesthetic appreciation4     
,without it1 a building may have many   
beauties1 all the beauties which we have
 analyzed2 but they are all separate1   
and there is no beauty of the whole4 ,it
 is the life which the many parts and   
aspects serve that makes them into one4 
,i shall close this chapter with a brief
 discussion of architectural            
composition4 ,the unity of a building is
 constituted primarily by the necessary 
adjustment of part to part which makes  
possible the life that it incloses4 ,how
 the parts serve this purpose is not    
immediately evident to intuition2 nor   

can it be2 yet it should be intelligible
 to a thoughtful study4 ,the knowledge  
thus gained may then enter into an      
imaginative vision1 for which the       
building will seem like an organism     
pulsing with life4  ,this purposive     
unity cannot well be secured without    
spatial contiguity2 here1 as in         
sculpture1 a unified life demands a     
unified material4 ,yet sometimes        
detached structures belong together     
functionally1 and may be felt as one    
aesthetically1 provided they are similar
 in design and some one of them is      
dominant2 otherwise1 each claims to be a
 distinct individual1 and aesthetic     
rivalry is the result4  ,functional     
unity1 although necessary1 is not       
sufficient for aesthetic unity2 in      
addition1 there must be formal          
unity--design1 composition4 ,to study   
this adequately would require a separate
 treatise1 which has not yet been       
written1 so far as ,i know1 with        
anything approaching philosophical depth

 and completeness2 but for our plan it  
will be sufficient to show how the      
general principles of aesthetic form are
 illustrated in architecture2 and       
because of the perspicuity of things    
spatial1 these principles are nowhere   
else so lucidly manifest4  ,since       
architecture is a spatial art1 unity in 
variety is chiefly a matter of harmony  
and balance rather than of evolution1   
and of these harmony is perhaps the most
 conspicuous4 ,harmony is secured in    
many ways4  ,first1 by giving the whole 
building or parts of the building a     
simple geometrical form readily         
perceived1--for example1 the cruciform  
plan of many ,gothic cathedrals1 the    
oblong plan and oblong surmounted by a  
triangle in the facade of the ,greek    
temple1 the octagonal shape of a        
,renaissance chapel4 ,a higher degree of
 harmony is obtained when the same shape
 is repeated throughout the various     
parts of the building1--the cylinder in 
the columns1 the triangle or semicircle 

in the arches and gables4 ,a step       
further is taken in the same direction  
when the different similar parts are all
 of the same size1 as in the ,greek     
temple1 where the columns are all of one
 size1 and similar parts of columns of  
equal size1 and the metopes and         
triglyphs likewise4  ,a more complex    
type of harmony1 since it admits of     
greater variety1 is proportionality4    
,proportionality may be of various      
kinds4 ,it may be merely the existence  
of a definite numerical relation between
 the dimensions of single parts1 or the 
areas of various parts1 of a building4  
,this1 in turn1 may be either a simple  
arithmetical relation1 such as exists   
between the parts of a ,greek facade1   
each being some simple multiple of the  
unit or module2 or a more complex       
relation like the ,golden ,section1     
where the smaller is to the larger      
dimension as the larger is to the sum of
 both2 or like that which obtains when  
different parts form a geometrical      

series1 where each is smaller or larger 
than the preceding by some fraction of  
the latter4 ,the relation between the   
length and breadth of the facade of the 
,ducal ,palace in ,florence illustrates 
the ,golden ,section2 the heights of the
 stories of the ,peller ,house in       
,nuremberg form a geometrical series4   
,this type of harmony is most complete  
when the proportion between the         
dimensions of the different parts is the
 same as that of the whole building1--by
 the ancients called concinnitas because
 it produces a feeling akin to that of  
musical harmony4 ,dominance of a        
particular kind of line1 horizontal or  
vertical1 also gives harmony4 ,finally1 
harmony is secured by sameness of       
direction of line3 the alignment of     
windows or parallelism between moldings 
dividing the surfaces of walls1 for     
example4  ,the relations1 so seemingly  
mathematical1 upon which architectural  
harmony is based1 need not be exact1 for
 two reasons3 minor deviations are not  

perceptible1 and even when perceptible1 
they give to the whole a feeling of     
life4 ,our experience with living things
 has taught us that1 despite their      
orderliness1 there is no exact          
mathematical regularity in their        
proportions2 hence forms which cannot be
 precisely formulated are better fitted 
to symbolize life to us than the rigidly
 geometrical4 ,the same experience has  
taught us that the curvilinear forms are
 closer to life than the angular2 hence 
again the tendency1 for aesthetic       
purposes1 to introduce minute departures
 from the plumb-line and rule4 ,there   
is1 however1 a type of life specifically
 human1 the life of reason1 which is    
best symbolized by mathematical         
relations2 hence the ,greeks1 and all   
those who have followed the classical   
ideal1 all who have had a passion for   
reason1 have felt the circle and the    
square1 and every other exact embodiment
 of clarity and intelligence1 to be     
beautiful4 ,in no other art has the     

passion for the intelligible been so    
perfectly expressed as in classical     
architecture4  ,next in importance to   
harmony as a mode of unity in variety in
 architecture is balance4 ,balance      
implies emphatic variety1 or contrast4  
,one mode of balance1 that between the  
upward and the downward tendencies1 we  
have already discussed4 ,there is       
another mode1 similar to that which     
exists in painting and sculpture1 the   
balance between the right and left      
members of a building4 ,in order that   
this type of balance may be appreciated1
 there must be some axis or line of     
mediation between the parts1 from which 
the opposing tendencies take their      
start2 otherwise we view the parts      
together1 instead of in opposition4 ,for
 example1 there is balance between two  
wings of a building which are separated 
by some central member or link2 balance 
between the aisles of a church on either
 side of the nave2 balance between the  
sets of three columns right and left of 

the door in the ,greek hexastyle temple4
 ,such cases of symmetry between equal  
right and left parts are the simplest   
examples of balance2 but there are      
other1 more complex types4 ,for example1
 the parts may be unequal1 yet balance  
nevertheless1 provided their inequality 
is compensated for by some enrichment of
 design or ornament in the lesser part4 
,or again1 there may be a balance       
between contrasting shapes1 such as the 
square and the triangle1 when they make 
an equal claim upon the attention4      
,although1 since architecture is a      
static art1 evolution is not so         
important as harmony and balance1 it    
exists nevertheless4 ,in a colonnade1 as
 you look down it1 with the height of   
the columns diminishing in perspective1 
there is a rhythmical movement of eye   
and attention toward the last column as 
a goal4 ,there is the same rhythmical   
movement in following the arches on     
either side of the nave of a church     
leading to the apse4  ,there is a       

rhythmical movement in the progressive  
diminution of the height of the stories 
of a building1 going towards the top4   
,in such spatio-temporal rhythms1 the   
proportional equality between the       
members corresponds to the equal        
intervals in temporal rhythms1 and the  
alternation between member and          
intervening space1 or between member and
 line of division1 corresponds to the   
alternation between heavy and light     
accents4 ,last1 evolution is present in 
architecture1 whenever1 often without   
rhythmical divisions1 the attention is  
impelled to move along lines that meet  
at a point which serves as a climax1 as 
in all triangular forms where the lines 
lead up to the apex1--pointed windows or
 arches1 towers ending in belfries or   
pinnacles4  ,dominance1 with its        
correlative1 subordination1 are         
everywhere present in architecture4 ,in 
general1 size and a central position1   
which usually go together1 determine    
preeminence4 ,the largest masses and    

those which occupy a central position   
inevitably rule the others4 ,the towers 
and the facade dominate the exterior of 
a ,gothic cathedral1 the middle doorway 
is superior to those which flank it1 and
 within1 the central and larger nave    
dominates the smaller aisles on either  
side4 ,when there are many dominant     
elements1 as is necessarily the case in 
a large building1 they must be unified  
by balance1 if there are two1 or by     
subordination to one of them1 if three  
or more2 otherwise1 each claims to be   
the whole and the building falls apart  
into its members4 ,there cannot well be 
three vertical dominant parts1 because  
the central one makes a claim to        
preeminence which cannot be satisfied   
without superiority in size4 ,a central 
member should1 therefore1 either be made
 larger than those flanking it1 or else 
should be reduced to the status of a    
mere subordinate link between the       
others4  ,in the horizontal division of 
a building into stories--as1 for        

example1 in the ,palazzo ,farnese near  
,rome--it is easier for the prominent   
parts to be equal1 because they are     
better united by the evident contiguity 
of their masses1 by their inclosure in a
 simple geometrical shape1 and          
enframement between base and overhanging
 cornice4 ,yet here also we observe the 
tendency to make the middle larger or   
otherwise dominant1 exemplified even in 
the building cited1 where the central   
part is distinguished by the ornamental 
shield1 upon which the attention is     
focused4 ,when there are four horizontal
 divisions1 our tendency is to divide   
them into groups of two2 but unless this
 grouping is clearly marked by a molding
 or other such device1 our purpose is   
defeated because each of the two can    
itself be divided into two parts1 whence
 we get the four parts again1 among     
which there is not sufficient unity4    
,when1 however1 there are more than four
 stories1 they cease to function as     
individuals and become members of a     

series1 the rhythm of which creates the 
necessary unity4 ,even in this case1    
however1 the tendency toward grouping   
into three with the middle dominant     
persists2 for1 as a rule1 the stories   
are divided by moldings into three      
parts1 of which the central part is the 
largest4 ,four equal stories are        
difficult because they at once resist an
 arrangement into threes and yet fall   
short of being the series which they    
suggest4 ,when a series of stories is   
divided into three parts1 a superior    
aesthetic effect is gained if the height
 of each story diminishes in some       
regular ratio from the bottom to the    
top1 thus expressing the gradual        
overcoming of the downward force by the 
upward1--the rhythm becomes dynamical as
 well as kinematical4  ,all good        
architectural styles illustrate the     
principle of impartiality1 which demands
 the careful elaboration of parts4 ,yet1
 as we have indicated1 there are two    
possibilities3 some styles are founded  

on the idea of the subordination of the 
parts to the whole1 and so permit of a  
less elaborate execution of details1    
while others are based on the idea of   
coordination among the parts within the 
whole1 and so require that each part be 
vividly clear1 distinct from the others1
 and possessed of a pronounced          
individual beauty4 ,these two types are 
exemplified in each of the three aspects
 of a building--the visual1 the dynamic1
 and the voluminal4 ,for the ,greek and 
,roman architecture and for that of the 
,renaissance1 the former was the ideal2 
while the latter is clearly             
characteristic of the more modern forms2
 between these stand the ,byzantine1    
,romanesque1 and ,gothic1 in which a    
union of the two types1 in what has well
 been called an organic type1 was       
attempted1 and perhaps achieved in the  
last4 ,the former has the feeling of the
 mechanical1 rational view of life1     
which is the classical2 the latter has  
the feeling of the mystical and organic 

view1 which is modern4,footnote3 ,see   
,p4 ,frankl1 ,die ,entwieklungsphasen   
der neueren ,baukunst1 #aiad4           
,,chapter ,,xiv  ,,the ,,function ,,of  
,,art3 ,,art ,,and ,,morality   ,that an
 interest is innocent and pleasure      
giving is no longer considered          
sufficient to justify its existence2 it 
must also1 in order to be sanctioned in 
our jealous and economical world1 prove 
itself a beneficent influence upon the  
total man and the group4 ,for the time  
being at least1 the day of laissez-faire
 is done2 men can no longer appeal to   
their personal needs1 their inner       
necessities1 or even their consciences1 
in defense of their activities4 ,public 
opinion1 and sometimes reason1 are the  
only arbiters of right4 ,it may well    
happen that1 in a new age1 men will be  
more generous and less exacting1 once   
again recognizing inherent rights in    
spontaneous activities2 but that age is 
not ours4 ,not even art can claim       
privilege2 in vain will the artist boast

 of his genius or the art-lover of his  
delights1 if he can exhibit no pervasive
 good4 ,it is not enough1 therefore1    
that we should have described the       
peculiar1 inward value of art2 we must  
further establish that it has a function
 in the general life4  ,three classes of
 people1 the puritans1 the philistines1 
and the proletarians1 question the value
 of art in this sense4 ,these classes   
are1 of course1 not new to our          
civilization1 but are rather perennial  
types of human nature1 appearing under  
one or another name and guise in every  
age4 ,to the puritan1 art is immoral2 to
 the philistine1 it is useless2 to the  
proletarian1 it is a cruel waste4  ,one 
illustration of the complexity of human 
culture is the fact that art has now    
been regarded as the symbol and ally of 
goodness1 and now as its enemy4 ,this   
paradox can1 ,i think1 be partly        
explained by making a distinction       
between the ethical and the moral point 
of view regarding conduct4 ,from the one

 point of view1 the good belongs to all 
free1 creative acts that look toward the
 growth and happiness of individuals2   
from the other point of view1 it        
consists in conformity to law1          
convention1 and custom4 ,it is evident  
that these two attitudes must sometimes 
come into open or secret conflict4 ,for 
law and convention represent either an  
effort to fix and stabilize modes of    
conduct that have proved themselves to  
be good under certain conditions2 or    
else1 as is more often true than is     
admitted1 an attempt to generalize the  
good of some special class or type of   
men and impose it as a norm for all2 and
 obviously these efforts will1 from time
 to time1 be opposed either to the      
freedom of individuals1 or to their     
growth1 under changing conditions4  ,now
 in the sense defined1 the spirit of art
 is fundamentally ethical and1 at the   
same time1 fundamentally non-moral4 ,it 
is fundamentally ethical1 for art is    
itself a freely creative and happy      

activity1 and tends to propagate itself 
in spontaneity in other fields2 it is an
 inspiration in every struggle for      
liberty and the remolding of the world4 
,the artist and art lover1 who value the
 expression of individuality in art1    
cannot fail to appreciate it outside of 
art4 ,on the other hand1 the spirit of  
art is fundamentally non-moral1 for the 
sthetic attitude is one of sympathy--an 
attempt at once to express life and to  
feel at one with it2 it demands of us   
that we take the point of view of the   
life expressed and1 for the moment at   
any rate1 refrain from a merely external
 judgment4 ,through art we are compelled
 to sympathize with the aspiration      
towards growth1 towards happiness1 even 
when it leads to rebellion against our  
own standards and towards what we call  
sin4 ,the sympathy1 realism1 and        
imagination of art are antagonistic to  
conformist morality4 ,by making us      
intimately acquainted with individuals1 
art leads to skepticism of all general  

rules4  ,the puritan1 therefore1 who is 
an exponent of the extremest and        
narrowest conformist morality1 is more  
nearly right in his interpretation of   
the relation between art and morality   
than more liberal people who1 because of
 their love of art1 seek to ignore or   
palliate the facts4 ,hence1 in order to 
defend art1 one must reckon seriously   
with the puritan4  ,the puritan is      
fearful1 above all1 of works of art that
 represent moral evil4 ,the method of   
artistic representation1 which aims at  
awakening sympathy for the life         
portrayed1 is bound1 he thinks1 to      
demoralize both the artist and the      
spectator4 ,but art is something more   
than sympathy1 and there are other      
aspects of the aesthetic experience     
which tend to render that sympathy      
innocuous1 even from the standpoint of  
the puritan4 ,in the first place1 the   
sympathy is usually with an imagined    
life that has no direct relation to the 
will and gives the spectator no         

opportunity to enter into and share     
it--he participates through the         
imagination1 not through the senses4    
,moreover1 neither the mind nor the will
 is a tabula rasa2 no mature person     
comes to a work of art without certain  
habits and preferences already          
predetermined1 which no mere imagination
 can destroy1 but only1 if at all1 some 
concrete opportunity and temptation4    
,hence men can lead a manifold life1    
partly in the imagination and partly in 
action1 without any corruption of heart 
or paralysis of will4 ,in real conduct1 
to lead a double life is demoralizing   
because there choices are exclusive and 
each of the two lives tends to interfere
 with and spoil the other2 but          
imagination does not conflict with      
reality1 for they have no point of      
contact and do not belong to the same   
world4  ,in the second place1 a work of 
art is an appeal to mind as well as to  
sympathetic feeling4 ,it is no mere     
stirring of emotion and passion1 but a  

means to insight into them4 ,the        
attitude of reflection which it         
engenders is unfavorable to impetuous   
action4 ,providing no immediate stimulus
 to action1 it allows time for a better 
second thought to intervene4 ,even when 
it offers suggestions for unwonted acts1
 it furnishes the spirit and the        
knowledge requisite for determining     
whether they will fit into the scheme of
 life of the spectator4 ,it is          
characteristic of the puritanic critics 
of art1 in their eagerness to find      
motives for condemnation1 to overlook   
this element of reflection4  ,it is     
forgotten1 finally1 that by providing an
 imaginative experience of passion and  
adventure1 art often becomes rather a   
substitute for than an incentive to     
them4 ,the perfection of form1 the deep 
repose and circle-like completeness of  
the work of art1 tend to prevent one    
from seeking a corresponding real       
experience1 which would have none of    
these qualities1 but perhaps only misery

 and wear and tear instead4 ,thus the   
work of art may propagate itself in a   
search for new aesthetic experiences    
rather than in analogous conduct4  ,to  
the artist who is living the evil life  
which he expresses1 there can be even   
less danger in expression1 than to the  
spectator4 ,for the expression is not   
the cause of his life1 but only its     
efflorescence4 ,the roots of evil lie   
deep below in the subsoil of instinct4  
,without expression1 life would be much 
the same1 only secret instead of        
articulate4 ,the puritan shows a        
shocking naivete in thinking that he can
 reform life by destroying its          
utterance4 ,moreover1 to express life   
implies a certain mastery over it1 a    
power of detachment and reflection1     
which are fundamentally ethical and may 
lead to a new way of living4  ,every    
form of life has an inalienable right to
 expression4 ,in order to be judged     
fairly1 it must be allowed to plead for 
itself1 and art is its best spokesman4  

,and that we should know life           
sympathetically is of practical         
importance2 for otherwise we shall not  
know how to change it or indeed that it 
ought to be changed at all4 ,only by    
knowing other ways of life can we be    
certain of the relative worth of our own
 way2 knowledge alone gives certitude4  
,without knowledge we run the risk of   
becoming ruthless destroyers of things  
which an intelligent sympathy might well
 preserve and find a place for in the   
world4  ,to all these considerations the
 puritan will doubtless oppose a truth  
impossible to deny4 ,experience1 he will
 say1 is one1 not many2 imagination and 
action are not separated by an          
impassable wall2 things merely imagined 
or dreamed1 even when they do not       
directly issue in action1 may           
nevertheless influence conduct through a
 slow and subtle transforming effect    
upon the sentiments and valuations which
 make up its background4 ,character can 
be maintained only by a vigilant and    

steady control over impulses which are  
always threatening rebellion2 purity of 
mind only through the rigid exclusion of
 the sensual1 luxurious1 and ignoble2   
imaginative sympathy with evil1 even    
when sublimated in art1 must necessarily
 undermine the one and becloud the      
other4 ,if thine eye offend thee1 cut it
 out and cast it from thee4  ,the truth 
which the puritan announces does not1 ,i
 think1 warrant the inference which he  
draws from it or alter the situation as 
,i have described it4 ,for morality1 to 
be genuine1 must be a choice2 the good  
must know its alternative or it is not  
good4 ,only those who already have a    
penchant for sin will be corrupted by   
imaginative sympathy with passion2 a    
character that cannot resist such an    
influence is already undermined4 ,life  
itself is the great temptation2 how can 
one who cannot look with equanimity upon
 statues and pictures fail to be seduced
 by live men and women8 ,if men can     
resist the suggestions that emanate from

 life they can surely withstand those   
that come from art4 ,and mere purity of 
mind is not equal in value to that      
insight into the whole of life which a  
freely creative art provides4 ,we wish  
to penetrate sympathetically all of our 
existence2 nothing human shall remain   
foreign to us2 we would enter into it   
all2 there is no region of the          
grotesque1 the infernal1 or the sinful  
from which we would be shut out4 ,in    
comparison with the sublimity of this   
demand for the complete appreciation of 
life1 the warnings of a rigorous        
moralism seem timorous1 and the         
sanctuary of purity in which it would   
have us take refuge1 a prison4          
,whatever conflict there may be between 
the spirit of art and conformist        
morality1 there is none with a genuine  
and rational ethics4 ,for the latter    
would formulate ways of living suited to
 the diversity of individuals and       
sympathetic with their every impulse and
 fancy4 ,it would impose external       

constraint only where necessary for the 
existence and perpetuation of social    
life1 leaving to personal tact1 good    
will1 and temperance the finer          
adjustments of strain4 ,but apart from  
aesthetic culture1 there can be no      
rational morality1 for that alone       
engenders the imaginative sympathy with 
individual diversity upon which the     
latter rests4 ,without imaginative      
sympathy morality will always be coarse1
 ruthless1 and expressive of the needs  
and sentiments of some special type     
which sets out to reform or govern the  
world4 ,under such a regimen1 which is  
actual in every community devoid of     
imagination1 virtue must always remain  
suspect and vice tolerable2 the one a   
hypocrisy1 the other a secret and venial
 indulgence1 and nature will take its   
revenge upon the law in violent or      
perverse compensations4 ,hence1 instead 
of being a hindrance1 art ought to be a 
help to a rational morality3 its realism
 should foster sincerity1 its           

imagination1 sympathy and justice4 ,the 
moralist inspired by art would seek to  
impose upon men only that kind of form  
and order which is characteristic of    
art--one which respects the             
peculiarities of the material with which
 it works1 and issues in a system in    
which all elements freely participate4  
,footnote3 ,compare ,schiller1 ,on the  
,aesthetic ,education of ,man1 ,fourth  
,letter3 ,the civilized man makes nature
 his friend1 and honors her freedom1    
while he merely fetters her caprice4    
,the philistine's objection to art is   
that it is useless4 ,and if we only knew
 what was really useful1 this would be a
 damning indictment4 ,but1 not being    
much given to abstract reflection1 the  
philistine is usually at a loss to      
inform us4 ,however1 by talking with    
him1 we can eventually divine what he   
thinks the useful to be4 ,useful is what
 contributes to the procurement of those
 things which he and his congeners      
value--material wealth1 power1 and      

sensual enjoyment4 ,art is useless      
because it will not prepare a banquet1  
build a bridge1 or help to run a        
business corporation4 ,the artist is a  
contemptible fellow because he cares    
more for his art than for the things of 
the world2 for whatever the worldling   
values he thinks every one else should  
value4  ,to the artist1 criticism of    
this kind seems to betray the most      
shameless arrogance1 and he meets       
contempt with contempt4 ,who is he that 
would be the judge between worldly goods
 and beauty8 ,surely the philistine is  
no competent judge2 for he only can     
judge fairly between two values who     
appreciates both1 and1 by his own       
confession1 the philistine does not     
appreciate art4 ,hence the claim of the 
philistine seems not to merit           
consideration4 ,through his lack of     
sympathy for art1 he puts himself beyond
 the possibility of fruitful debate4 ,in
 this he is unlike the puritan1 who is  
often all too sensitive to beauty for   

his own good--hence his alarms4  ,if the
 objection of the philistine were the   
same as the proletarian's1 that art is a
 luxury1 a waste of the energies of the 
community1 which might better be        
employed in feeding the hungry and      
saving sinners1 it would be more worthy 
of a hearing2 and so he often represents
 it4 ,but in this he is hardly sincere2 
and the appropriate answer is a tu      
quoque1 the fitting reply to every piece
 of insincere criticism4 ,does the      
philistine feed the poor and save the   
sinners8 ,who is commonly more careless 
of the workers' needs and more cruel to 
the fallen in his self-righteous        
probity8 ,for the philistine is often a 
puritan4 ,and who is more luxurious than
 he8 ,who consumes more in his own      
person of the energies of the toilers8  
,it costs little to maintain an artist1 
but it taxes thousands to support the   
philistine and his wife4 ,of course1 in 
return1 the worldling performs a service
 to the community in the organization of

 industries1 but many of these do not   
sustain the needs of the masses and are 
devoted to the manufacture of luxuries  
for the well-to-do4  ,the insincerity of
 the philistine's attitude is disclosed 
by his changed attitude towards the     
artist who acquires fame and wealth     
through his art4 ,for now that the      
artist shows himself capable of getting 
the things the philistine values1 the   
latter accords him esteem4 ,or let an   
interest in art become fashionable1 and 
once again the philistine is won over4  
,the traditional hostility between the  
philistine and the artist is offensive  
to reason1 which would discover points  
of contact and reconciliation between   
all attitudes4 ,one apparent place of   
meeting might seem to be just the       
worldling's love of luxury itself4      
,luxury is a development of pleasure of 
sense beyond the necessary1 paralleling 
the freedom and refinement of sensation 
in art4 ,there is1 moreover1 a certain  
imaginative quality in reputation and   

glory1 so well-prized by the worldling1 
which1 as we shall see1 is akin to the  
ideality of art4 ,and yet both the      
imagination and the luxury of the       
worldling are usually lacking in one    
element essential to real kinship with  
the spirit of art--disinterestedness4   
,the worldling's dreams of glory are    
projections of ambition1 his luxuries   
subtle stimulations of appetite or      
instruments of display1 her             
self-adornment a fine self-exhibition or
 coquetry4 ,the love of insight1 the    
free emotion1 the enjoyment of sensuous 
harmonies for their own sake1 are       
lacking or subordinate4 ,glory and      
luxury are too often mere masks of      
ambition and appetite1 and at best      
counterfeits of beauty4 ,nevertheless1  
the luxurious developments of ambition  
and appetite are ever on the verge of   
tending toward the aesthetic4 ,for when 
ambition has no longer to struggle      
against the world and is satisfied1 the 
imagination that served it may become   

free2 and when appetite is cloyed1 the  
instrumentalities of sensuous pleasure  
can find a new meaning as beautiful4    
,then the worldling becomes the patron  
of the artist and the two are           
reconciled4 ,and all along this result  
was preparing4 ,for instinct seldom     
completely dominates imagination and    
sensation2 there is always some         
aesthetic freedom in the self-adornment 
and display of the wealthy4 ,the absence
 of anxiety may release aesthetic       
interests that would have died in the   
struggle for existence2 prosperity is   
often the herald of beauty4  ,the       
proletarian's criticism of art is of    
unimpeachable sincerity1 for when he    
talks of art as a luxury he speaks from 
the heart and in answer to bitter       
experience of want4 ,there is a genuine 
element of moral indignation in his     
feeling that there must be something    
wrong with a public conscience that     
countenances1 even glorifies            
extravagance1 all the while that women  

slave and children die of underfeeding  
and neglect4 ,this feeling is           
intensified when he compares the        
thousands paid for a single hour of a   
prima donna's song or a playwright's wit
 with his own yearly wage laboriously   
earned4 ,what supreme worth does art    
possess that it should be valued so     
disproportionately8  ,yet1 sincere as   
this complaint is1 it is largely        
misdirected2 for art is not the         
extravagance which it may superficially 
seem to be4 ,most of the best art has   
been produced by poor men who never     
dreamed of the prices that would be paid
 for their work when they were old or   
after they were dead4 ,and these prices 
represent no consumption of the labor   
and capital of the community1 but only a
 transference of wealth from one man to 
another4 ,even when the artist is paid  
large sums for his picture or opera or  
play1 these sums do not represent their 
real cost1 but only what they can       
command in a market controlled by rich  

consumers4 ,the real cost of genuine art
 is very small--only enough to maintain 
the artist in freedom for his work2 for 
he would still produce without the      
incentive of large rewards4 ,the seeming
 extravagance of art cannot1 therefore1 
be blamed upon art itself1 but upon the 
price system of modern capitalist       
economy4 ,and this1 of course1 is       
clearly perceived by the intellectual   
proletarians1 who are willing to accord 
to the artist a place of honor as       
fellow-worker and comrade1 and direct   
their attacks1 not upon him1 but upon   
capitalism4  ,there is1 however1 a      
deeper root to the proletarian's        
grievance against the artist--the       
feeling that the moral principle of     
mutuality is violated in their          
relationship4 ,the workman plows for    
him1 cooks for him1 builds for him1     
spins for him1 but what does he do in   
return8 ,he paints pictures1 makes      
statues1 writes novels or poems or plays
 or sonatas which the workman has       

neither the leisure nor the education to
 enjoy4 ,the money paid by the artist to
 the artisan represents nothing which   
the former rightfully owns or can give1 
but only a claim to the labor of other  
men1 enforced by the system of          
wage-economy4 ,of course1 not only art  
but all speculation1 all pure science   
and disinterested historical knowledge1 
is subject to this criticism4 ,and such 
criticism is no longer purely academic1 
for to-day there exist large masses of  
men in every community determined to    
bring about a world dictatorship of the 
proletariat based on just this principle
 of mutuality in the relations of men4  
,is this principle itself rational1 and 
would art survive in a regime which     
embodied it8 ,these1 ,i repeat1 are no  
longer speculative1 but intensely       
practical problems4  ,those who fear for
 art in a society where the process of  
democratization should go to its extreme
 limit of development point to the      
moving picture1 the cheap magazine story

 and novel1 the vaudeville and musical  
comedy1 as a hint of what to expect4    
,these1 they will say1 are the popular  
forms of art1 to the production of which
 the artist would have to devote his    
time and skill in return for            
subsistence4 ,under the present system  
the people get what they want1 but in a 
proletarian state nobody would be       
allowed to get anything else4  ,of      
course1 as to what would happen in a    
workers' republic1 were it ever         
constituted1 we can only speculate2 but 
where we cannot know1 there hope has an 
equal chance with fear4 ,we have the    
single example of the ,russian          
experiment from which to make           
inferences1 the general validity of     
which is seriously limited by the       
peculiarities of the ,russian nature and
 situation4 ,but there1 at any rate1 we 
do know that efforts have been made to  
advance general education1 to bring the 
classic literature within reach of the  
masses1 and to encourage opera and      

drama4 ,in ,russia1 at all events1 the  
leaders of the revolutionary movement   
have sought rather to destroy what they 
believe to be a monopoly of culture than
 culture itself2 and in ,england also   
they have a similar aim4  ,there can be 
little doubt1 ,i think1 that our        
capitalist economy does promote a       
monopoly of culture4 ,through their     
control of the market1 the wealthy are  
able to bid up the prices of works of   
art until they are beyond the reach of  
the less prosperous4 ,as a result1 the  
best paintings and sculptures1 with the 
exception of those that find their way  
into museums1 are accumulated in        
inaccessible private collections1 and   
opera and music are made needlessly     
expensive4 ,one very evil consequence is
 the substitution of a purely pecuniary 
standard of valuation for aesthetic     
standards4 ,i know a painter who made   
the experiment of reducing the price of 
his pictures to twenty-five dollars1 in 
the hope that many people who really    

loved art but were unable to pay large  
prices would buy them1 and that thus1 by
 selling many of his pictures at a low  
price1 he would be able to make as much 
money as if he sold only a few at the   
prevailing high rates4 ,the experiment  
failed completely1 for people thought   
that paintings at such a low price must 
be inferior1 and even those who could   
afford to buy them1 would not4 ,the     
painter now tried the reverse experiment
 and raised the prices of all his works1
 with much better success1 for people   
reasoned--the higher the price1 the     
better the picture4 ,but worst of all1  
through the purely commercial motives   
governing those who undertake to supply 
the people with works of art1 the public
 taste is corrupted2 little or no       
attempt is made to educate the masses1  
but merely to give them anything that   
will entertain them after a day of      
fatiguing labor1--anything that will    
sell4 ,the demoralizing effect of       
commercialism upon artists themselves is

 too well known to require more than a  
reminder2 hasty work for the sake of    
money supplants careful work for the    
sake of beauty2 whole arts1 like that of
 oriental rug weaving1 are thereby      
threatened with extinction2 and1 instead
 of producing spontaneous art that would
 express themselves1 people allow       
themselves to be merely entertained by  
things supplied to them1 nasty and      
cheap--folk art disappears4  ,if1 on the
 other hand1 the commercial motive were 
eliminated1 who can say what might not  
result1 in each community1 from the     
experimentation of men who could not    
make money but only honor and a living  
from the profession of providing people 
with interesting ways of spending their 
leisure4 ,the increased efficiency of   
machine tool work will inevitably make  
possible a great reduction in hours of  
labor1 when the workers themselves      
control industry for their own benefit  
rather than for that of a class bent on 
still further increasing its own wealth 

and power4 ,it is entirely possible that
 the leisure of men will then absorb as 
much of their devoted energies as work  
does now1 and that they will be educated
 for the one as well as for the other4  
,it is not impossible to hope that1 the 
machine tool supplanting the slave1 the 
commonwealth of workers will develop as 
free and liberal a life as existed among
 the citizens of ancient ,greece4 ,then 
perhaps each group will have its        
painters1 actors1 and musicians just as 
surely as it now has its judges1        
aldermen1 and police4  ,it is impossible
 to judge what art might do for people  
in a reorganized society by what it does
 for them now4 ,art has its roots in    
interests that are well nigh universal4 
,everybody loves to dance1 to sing1 to  
tell a story2 everybody loves either to 
paint or be painted1 to sculpture or be 
sculptured4 ,again1 everybody is at     
least potentially sensitive to rhythm1  
harmony1 and balance1 and to the        
beauties of lines1 colors1 and tones4   

,it is not native incapacity1 but rather
 a failure in aesthetic education due to
 the one-sided emphasis on work rather  
than play1 industry rather than leisure1
 success rather than happiness1 that is 
responsible for much of the seeming lack
 of artistic appreciation among the     
masses4 ,under a different social system
 the people may come to recognize the   
artist as a fellow-worker1 elaborating  
his products in exchange for other      
desirable things1 and may accord him    
welcome rather than envy4  ,however1 it 
will doubtless always remain true that  
the subtler and more intellectual types 
of art can never become popular4 ,like  
higher mathematics1 they will continue  
to be completely intelligible only to   
the few4 ,yet ,i can conceive of no     
social system likely to grow out of     
modern tendencies that would suppress   
them4 ,the artist in the new state would
 have his leisure1 as other men would1  
in which he could devote himself to the 
refinements of his art4 ,it is doubtful 

whether he would have less time for that
 then than he has now4 ,how many artists
 under our present system waste a large 
part of their lives doing hack work of  
various kinds to make a living2 only the
 fortunate few are masters of           
themselves4 ,moreover1 under any social 
system1 men would be permitted to spend 
their surplus income as they chose1 and 
the art lovers of the future are as     
likely to spend it for art then as now4 
,not being so rich1 they could not      
reward the artist so munificently as    
some are rewarded now2 but even now most
 working artists are poor1 and the      
impulse to art is independent of large  
rewards4 ,heretical and unpopular       
artists1 who could find no public       
backing1 would come to be supported by  
their own special clients1 as they are  
to-day4 ,in a complex rational society1 
the principle of mutuality would be     
transitive rather than strictly         
symmetrical--a woman would cook for a   
machine designer although she got no    

machine in return1 provided the designer
 made one1 say1 for the shoemaker1 who  
could thus supply her with shoes4 ,just 
so1 there is no moral objection to the  
artist's receiving goods and services   
from people to whose life he contributes
 nothing personally1 so long as these   
people are compensated by those whose   
life he does enrich4 ,in other words1   
part of the reward which the art lover  
would receive for the work he performed 
would be paid1 not to himself1 but to   
the artist--art would be voluntarily    
supported by those who appreciated it4  
,no complex social life could be        
maintained under the principle of strict
 mutuality1 and certainly no system that
 undertook to preserve the variety and  
spontaneity of human interests4 ,only a 
complete dead-level regimentation of    
human life in accordance with the       
average desires of the masses1 which is 
unlikely1 would destroy the more        
intellectual and subtle types of art1   
and1 by the same token1 speculation and 

disinterested higher learning4 ,the     
higher culture has survived many        
revolutions2 it will survive the next1  
when it comes4     ,,chapter ,,xv  ,,the
 ,,function ,,of ,,art3 ,,art ,,and     
,,religion   ,the distinctive purpose of
 art1 so we have argued throughout this 
study1 is culture1 the enrichment of the
 spirit4 ,but lovers of art have always 
claimed for it more active and broader  
influences4 ,to my thinking1 most of    
such claims1 especially in our age1 like
 similar claims for religion1 are       
greatly exaggerated4 ,passion1          
convention1 economic fact in the largest
 sense1 practical intelligence1 these   
are the dominant forces swaying men1 not
 beauty1 not religion4 ,indeed1 one who 
would compare the influence of art upon 
life at the present time with its       
influence upon primitive societies might
 infer the early extinction of that     
influence altogether4 ,for among        
primitive men the influence of art is   
all-pervading4 ,with them art is        

inseparable from utility and communal   
activities1 upon which it has an        
immediate modifying or strengthening    
effect4 ,the movement of civilization1  
with the exception of the ,greek1       
mediaval1 and renaissance city states1  
has involved a breaking away from this  
original unity until1 among ourselves1  
art is developed and enjoyed in         
isolation from the rest of life4 ,art is
 valued for its own sake1 for its       
contribution to culture1 not for any    
further influence upon life1 and this   
freedom has come to be part of its very 
meaning4 ,instead of being interested   
only in pictures and statues            
representing ourselves1 our rulers1 our 
gods1 or our neighborhood1 we enjoy     
imitations of people who have had no    
effect upon our lives whatever and      
scenes which we have never visited1 and 
we repair to museums to see them2       
instead of employing music to beautify  
our daily life1 we leave that life for  
the concert hall1 where we shut         

ourselves away for a few hours of       
absolute musical experience4 ,prose     
literature and the drama1 when inspired 
by contemporary social problems1 offer  
exceptions to this isolation1 for       
through their ability to express ideas  
they can exert a more pervasive         
influence4 ,although social problems are
 solved in obedience to forces and      
demands beyond the control of artists1  
literary expression is effective in     
persuading and drawing into a movement  
men whose status would tend to make them
 hostile or indifferent1 as in ,russia1 
where numerous men and women of the     
aristocratic and wealthy classes became 
revolutionaries by reason of literature4
 ,and yet the literary arts also have   
acquired a large measure of isolation   
and independence4 ,a play representing  
,viennese life is appreciated in ,new   
,york1 a novel of contemporary manners  
in ,england is enjoyed in ,america4     
,literature does not depend for its     
interest upon its ability to interpret  

and influence the life that the reader  
himself lives2 he values it more because
 it extends than because it reflects    
that life4 ,people decry art for art's  
sake1 but in vain4  ,the development of 
the relation of religion to life has    
been parallel to the development of art4
 ,originally1 religion penetrated every 
activity2 now1 by contrast1 it has been 
removed from one after another of the   
major human pursuits4 ,agriculture1     
formerly undertaken under the guidance  
of religion2 science1 once the          
prerogative of the priesthood2 art1 at  
one time inseparable from worship2      
politics1 once governed by the church   
and pretending a divine sanction2 war1  
until yesterday waged with the fancied  
cooperation of the gods--even these are 
now under complete secular control4 ,to 
be sure1 there is some music1 sculpture1
 painting1 and poetry still in the      
service of religion1 but its relative   
proportion is small2 kings and          
congresses still appeal for divine aid  

in times of crisis1 but that is         
perfunctory2 men still pray for rain    
during drought1 but without faith4 ,no  
one would pretend that our commerce and 
manufacturing have any direct relation  
to religion4 ,people still invoke divine
 authority for moral prescriptions1 but 
the sanctions actually operating are    
social instincts and fear of public     
opinion and the law4 ,religion retains a
 direct and potent influence only in the
 institution of marriage1 the experience
 of death1 philosophy1 and the social   
life and charities conducted by the     
churches4 ,yet even in these spheres the
 influence is declining1 and1 so far as 
it persists1 is becoming indirect4      
,civil and contractual marriage are     
slowly supplanting religious marriage2  
there are thousands living in our large 
cities who do not feel the need of the  
church to establish and cement their    
social life2 most philosophers disclaim 
any religious motive or authority for   
their investigations or beliefs4 ,only  

over death does religion still hold     
undisputed sway4  ,however1 despite the 
separation of religion and art from     
life1 they may continue to exert        
influence upon it4 ,but1 barring some   
new integration of the sundered elements
 of our culture1 which we may deeply    
desire but cannot predict1 this         
influence must be indirect and subtle1  
and must occur independent of any       
institutional control4 ,in the case of  
both it consists in imparting to life a 
new meaning and perfection1 thus making 
possible a more complete affirmation of 
life and a freer and more genial        
attitude and conduct4  ,for unless the  
spirit of art or of religion is infused 
into life1 we never find it quite       
satisfactory4 ,to be sure1 men sometimes
 think they find perfection in certain  
things--in practical or moral endeavor1 
in love or in pleasure2 but unless art  
or religion is mixed into them1 they    
always prove to be1 in the end1         
disappointing4 ,no practical purpose is 

ever quite successful2 there is always  
some part of the plan left              
unaccomplished2 and the success itself  
is only momentary1 for time eventually  
engulfs it and forgets it4 ,practical   
life does not produce any permanent and 
complete work2 its task is done only to 
be done over again2 every house has to  
be repaired or torn down1 every road    
rebuilt2 every invention is displaced by
 a new one4 ,this is true even on the   
higher planes of practical life1 in     
political and social reconstruction4    
,certain evils may be removed1 certain  
abuses remedied1 but new ones always    
arise to take their places2 and even    
when the entire system is remodeled and 
men think that the day of freedom and   
justice has dawned at last1 they find1  
after a generation1 a new tyranny and a 
new injustice4 ,the movement of life    
makes it impossible for any plan to long
 endure4 ,hence the disillusion1 the    
feeling of futility that so often       
poisons the triumphs of practical men4  

,and without the spirit of art or of    
religion even love does not satisfy4    
,for imagination creates the perfection 
of its object and1 aside from           
institutional bonds fast loosening1 a   
faith in the continued growth with one  
another and with a child1 which is      
essentially religious1 creates the      
permanence and meaning of its bond4     
,love's raptures1 in so far as they are 
instinctive1 are1 of course1 independent
 of any view of life2 but apart from    
imagination and faith in one another1   
love does not keep its quality or renew 
itself in memory1 nor can it survive    
death which always impends to destroy4  
,men often seek escape from the feeling 
of imperfection in frivolity1 but ennui 
is the inevitable consequence1 and      
reflection with its doubts cannot be    
stilled4  ,by contrast1 in the religious
 experience and in beauty men feel that 
they find perfection2 hence the attitude
 of self-surrender and joyousness       
characterizing both4 ,the abandon of the

 spectator who decrees that for the     
moment his life shall be that of the    
work of art1 is matched in the mystical 
experience by the emotion expressed in  
,dante's line1 ,in his will is our      
peace4 ,and in both the self-surrender  
is based on a felt harmony between the  
individual and the object--the beautiful
 thing appeals to the senses1 its form  
is adapted to the structure of the mind1
 its content is such as to win interest 
and sympathy2 the divine is believed to 
realize and quiet all of our desires4   
,but while in beauty we feel ourselves  
at home with the single object1 in      
religion we feel at rest in the         
universe4  ,when religion and art are   
separated from the other parts of life1 
as they are fast becoming now1 the      
peculiar quality of the experiences     
which they offer can be rendered        
universal only by freely infusing it    
everywhere1 through faith1 in the case  
of the one1 through imaginative         
re-creation1 in the case of the other4  

,the religious experience is a seeming  
revelation of a perfect meaning in life 
as a whole2 this meaning must now be    
imparted to the details of life4 ,by a  
free act of faith the scattered and     
imperfect fragments must be built into a
 purposive unity4 ,the poisonous feeling
 of futility1 will then be lost2 each   
task1 no matter how petty or            
ineffectual1 will become momentous as   
contributing something toward the       
realization of a good beyond our little 
existence2 and we1 however lowly1 will  
find ourselves sublime as instruments of
 destiny4 ,there is nothing vain to him 
who believes4 ,and if the believer      
cannot build a meaning into history and 
social life as he knows them            
empirically1 he may extend them by faith
 in a future life1 through which his    
purposes will be given the promise of   
eternity and the tie between parents and
 children1 friends and lovers and       
co-workers1 an invincible seriousness   
and worth4 ,being at peace with the     

universe1 he may be reconciled to the   
accidents of his life as expressions of 
its ,will4  ,the method of              
reconciliation through religion can well
 be understood by its effect on the     
attitude towards evil4 ,to one who has  
faith in the world as perfect1 evil     
becomes an illusion that would disappear
 to an adequate vision of the ,divine4  
,the supposedly evil thing becomes      
really a good thing--a necessary means  
to the fulfillment of the divine plan1  
either in the earthly progress of       
humanity or in the future life2 or if   
the more mystical types of religion     
provide the starting point1 where       
individuality itself is felt to be an   
illusion1 a factor in the               
self-realization of the ,absolute4 ,the 
evil thing remains1 of course1 what it  
was1 but the interpretation1 and        
therefore the attitude towards it1 is   
transformed4 ,pain1 sorrow1 and         
misfortune become agents for the        
quickening of the spirit1 death a door  

opening to unending vistas4  ,the       
attitude of faith is not embodied in    
dogmatic and speculative religious      
doctrines alone2 for it finds expression
 in other beliefs--in progress1 in the  
possibility of a sunny social order1 in 
the perpetuity of human culture1 in the 
peculiar mission of one's race or       
country4 ,such beliefs are expressions  
primarily of faith1 not of knowledge2   
like religion1 they are interpretations 
of life based on aspiration1 not on     
evidence2 and through them men secure   
the same sort of re-enforcement of      
motive1 courage1 and consolation that   
they derive from the doctrines called   
religious4 ,but the sphere of faith is  
wider even than this2 the almost        
instinctive belief that each man has in 
his own longevity and success1 the trust
 in the permanence of friendship and    
love1 the confidence in the unique value
 of one's work or genius--these are also
 convictions founded more on desire than
 on knowledge1 and may function in the  

same way as religion in a man's life4   
,the re-affirmation of life which art   
may inspire is independent of any belief
 or faith about the world4 ,it occurs   
rather through the application to the   
objects and incidents of life of a      
spirit and attitude borrowed from       
artistic creation and appreciation4 ,it 
is a generalization of the aesthetic    
point of view to cover life as well as  
art2 an attempt to bring beauty from art
 into the whole of life4 ,although      
to-day works of art themselves are      
severed from direct contact with the    
rest of life1 something of the intention
 and method of the artist may linger and
 be carried over into it4 ,art1 the     
image of life1 may now serve as a model1
 after which the latter1 in its turn1   
will be patterned4  ,the spirit of art  
has two forms1 one constructive1 the    
other contemplative1 and both may be    
infused into life4 ,when the former is  
put there1 each act and task is         
performed as if it were a work of art4  

,this involves throwing the whole self  
into it1 not only thought and patience1 
but enthusiasm and loving finish1 even  
as the artist puts them into his work1  
so that it becomes a happy              
self-expression4 ,nothing shall         
interfere with or mar it1 or spoil its  
value when recalled4 ,the imperfection  
and transiency of the result are then   
forgotten in the inspiration of         
endeavor2 and the work or act1 no matter
 how insignificant1 becomes perfect as  
an experience and as a memory4 ,the     
generations may judge it as they will1  
but as an expression of the energies of 
my own soul1 it is divine4 ,of course1  
from the industry of our time1 where    
most work is mechanical and meaningless 
to him who performs it1 the spirit of   
art has largely fled4 ,yet there still  
remain tasks which we all have to       
execute1 if not in business1 then at    
home1 which1 by arousing our interest   
and invention1 may become materials for 
the spirit of art4 ,we have at least our

 homes1 our pleasures1 our relations    
with one another1 our private           
adventures1 where we can still be free  
and genial and masterly4 ,and for our   
work1 art will continue to be an ideal1 
sorrowfully appealing4  ,the scope of   
the spirit of art may be extended beyond
 the single task or act to embrace the  
whole of one's life4 ,impulse offers a  
plastic material to which form may be   
given4 ,the principles of harmony1      
balance1 evolution1 proper              
subordination1 and perfection of detail1
 indispensable to beauty in art1 are    
conditions of happiness in life4 ,the   
form of a work of art and the form of a 
happy life are the same1 as ,plato      
insisted4 ,footnote3 ,see1 for example1 
,the ,gorgias1 #ejc1 #ejd4 ,in order to 
yield satisfaction1 the different parts 
of life must exemplify identity of      
motive1 continuity and orderliness in   
the fulfillment of purpose1 lucidity of 
relation1 yet diversity for stimulation 
and totality4 ,there must be a selective

 scheme to absorb what is congenial and 
reject the unfit4 ,this sense for form  
in life may lead to the same results as 
morality1 but the point of departure and
 the sanction are different4 ,morality  
is largely based on conformity1 on      
submission to the general will1 and is  
rendered effective by fear of public    
disapproval and supernatural taboos2    
while the aesthetic direction of life   
has its roots in the love of form and   
meaning1 and its sanction in personal   
happiness4 ,moreover1 to the reflective 
person1 looking before and after1 life  
has the same sort of reality as a story1
 and is bound to be judged in some      
measure like a story4 ,the past and the 
future live only in the imagination1 and
 when we survey them there they may     
please us with their interest1          
liveliness1 and meaning1 much as a work 
of art would1 or displease us with their
 vanity and chaos4 ,in this way         
personality may acquire an imaginative  
value fundamentally aesthetic4 ,this is 

different from moral value1 which has   
reference to the relation of a life to  
social ideals2 it is more comprehensive 
than the religious judgment1 which is   
interested only in saving the soul2     
because it includes every element of    
life1--sense1 imagination1 and          
achievement1 welcoming all1 so long as  
they contribute something to a          
significant1 moving whole4  ,the feeling
 for perfection of form and imaginative 
meaning in life is no invention of      
philosophers and aesthetes1 but part of 
the normal reaction to conduct4         
,everybody feels that certain acts1 or  
even certain wishes1 are to be rejected 
by himself1 not because they are        
intrinsically bad or wrong1 but because 
they are inconsistent with his          
particular nature1 and1 on the other    
hand1 that there are certain interests  
that should be cultivated1 not because  
they are universally right or good1 but 
because they are needed to give his life
 complete meaning4 ,and again1 all      

except the meanest and most repressed   
souls desire somewhat to shine1 if not  
in the world at large1 at least among   
their friends1 and act with a view to   
appearance and to some total survey of  
their lives that would consider not     
merely its goodness or usefulness1 but  
its imaginative emotional appeal4 ,this 
appeal is the strongest on the death of 
a great man2 this lives longest in the  
memory4 ,the love of the romantic and   
adventurous is partly instinctive1 but  
largely imaginative1 for it has in view 
not merely the rapturous pleasures of   
the hazardous moment1 but the remembered
 delights of recall and expression to   
others4 ,the love of glory is also      
imaginative1 a feeling for the dramatic 
extending even beyond the grave4 ,the   
ambitious man seeks to make a story out 
of his life for posterity to read and   
remember1 just as the artist makes one  
out of fictitious material4 ,more might 
develop out of this love of form and    
drama in life4 ,we have it to a certain 

degree of cultivation in picturesque and
 refined manners1 dress1 and ceremonial1
 but even there it is hampered through  
conventionality and want of invention2  
further evolved and extended into the   
deeper strata of life1 it would lead to 
a more interesting and productive       
existence4 ,surely1 if ,god is an artist
 as well as a judge1 he will welcome    
into heaven not only those who have     
lived well1 but also those who have     
lived beautifully4  ,there is no        
necessity1 finally1 why the constructive
 spirit of art should be confined to the
 personal life and should not1 in some  
measure at least1 penetrate the         
community and even the state4 ,by       
appealing to imaginative feeling1 the   
activities of various individuals and   
groups1 when coordinated and given a    
purposeful unity1 produce an aesthetic  
effect4 ,the organization of a business 
or a university may easily come to have 
such a value for one who has helped to  
create it1 especially if the place where

 the communal spirit operates is        
beautiful1--the office1 the campus1 the 
shop4 ,seldom1 to be sure1 do we find   
this value in our busy and haphazard    
,america1 but in many quarters the      
intention to create it is awake4 ,as for
 the state1 it is1 of course1 too little
 dominated by disinterested intelligence
 to be beautiful2 yet ,plato's ideal of 
statecraft as a fine art still rules the
 innermost dream of men4  ,the          
contemplative spirit of art is perhaps  
more important than the constructive in 
its application to life4 ,not that any  
sharp line can be drawn between them1   
for contemplation must always attend or 
follow creation1 to judge and enjoy2 yet
 towards that part of life which we     
cannot control1 our attitude must be    
rather that of the spectator than the   
creator4 ,we cannot interfere with the  
greater part of life2 we can1 however1  
observe it and1 in the imagination1     
transform it1 where we can then envisage
 it as we should a work of art4 ,as we  

watch it1 life itself may become        
beautiful1 and instead of giving        
ourselves to it half-heartedly and with 
reserve1 we shall accept it with        
something of the abandon of passionate  
love1--,in thee my soul hath her content
 so absolute4 ,to this end it is        
necessary to detach life from our more  
selfish interests and ambitions1 from   
the habits of thought1 annoying and     
preoccupying1 that relate to self alone4
 ,to the worldly and self- centered1    
life is interesting only so far as it   
refers to pride or ambition or passion2 
otherwise it is indifferent1 as none of 
their concern4 ,but to the religious and
 to the aesthetically minded1 there is  
no part of life that may not be of      
interest2 to the former1 because they   
impute something of transcendent        
perfection to it all2 to the latter1    
because they have set themselves the    
inexhaustible task of its free1         
imaginative appreciation4  ,to this end1
 it is also necessary1 after learning to

 view life objectively and impersonally1
 to attend to it leisurely and          
responsively1 as we should to a work of 
art1 allowing full scope to the         
disinterested feelings of curiosity1    
pity1 sympathy1 and wonder to create    
emotional participation4  ,then the     
world may become for us the most        
magnificent spectacle of all4 ,to       
imaginative feeling1 every landscape is 
a potential painting1 every life-story a
 romance1 history a drama1 every man or 
woman a statue or portrait4 ,beauty is  
everywhere1 where we who are perhaps not
 artists but only art lovers can find   
it2 we cannot embody it in enduring form
 or throw over it the glamour of        
sensuous loveliness1 but we can perceive
 it with that free appreciation that is 
the essence of art4 ,and for this1 of   
course1 the artists have prepared us2 it
 is they who1 by first exhibiting life  
as beautiful in art1 have shown us that 
it may be beautiful as mirrored in the  
observing mind4 ,one region after       

another has been conquered by them4 ,the
 poets and the painters created the     
beauty of the mountains1 of windmills   
and canals1 of frozen wastes and        
monotonous prairies1 of peasants and    
factories and railway stations and      
slums4 ,themselves the first to feel the
 value of these things1 through some    
personal attachment or communion with   
them1 they have made it universal       
through expression4 ,their works have   
become types through which we apperceive
 and appreciate the world3 we see       
,french landscapes as ,lorrain and      
,corot saw them1 peasants after the     
fashion of ,millet1 the stage after     
,degas4 ,in vain men have prophesied    
limits to the victorious advance of art4
 ,just at the time when1 in the middle  
of the last century1 some men feared    
that science and industry had banished  
beauty from the world1 the              
impressionists and realists disclosed it
 in factory and steamboat and mine4 ,in 
this way modern art1 which might seem   

through its isolation to have taken     
beauty away from the world to itself1   
has given it back again4  ,the spirit of
 art1 no less than of religion1 can help
 us to triumph over the evils of life4  
,there are three ways of treating evil  
successfully3 the practical way1 to     
overcome it and destroy it2 the         
religious way1 by faith to deny its     
existence2 the aesthetic way1 to rebuild
 it in the imagination4 ,the first is   
the way of all strong men2 but its scope
 is limited2 for some of the evils of   
life are insuperable2 against these our 
only recourse is faith or the spirit of 
art4 ,the method of art consists in     
taking towards life itself the same     
attitude that the artist takes towards  
his materials when he makes a comedy or 
a tragedy out of them2 life itself      
becomes the object of laughter or of    
tragic pity and fear and admiration4 ,as
 we observed in our chapter on ,the     
,problem of ,evil in ,aesthetics1       
laughter is an essentially aesthetic    

attitude1 for it implies the ability    
disinterestedly to face a situation1    
although one which opposes our standards
 and expectations1 and to take pleasure 
in it4 ,all sorts of personal feelings  
may be mixed with laughter1 bitterness  
and scorn and anger2 but the fact that  
we laugh shows that they are not        
dominant2 in laughter we assert our     
freedom from the yoke of circumstance   
and make it yield us pleasure even when 
it thwarts us4 ,laughter celebrates a   
twofold victory1 first over ourselves1  
in that we do not allow our             
disappointments to spoil our serenity1  
and second over the world1 in that1 even
 when it threatens to render us unhappy1
 we prevent it4 ,fate may rob us of     
everything1 but not of freedom of spirit
 and laughter2 oftentimes we must either
 laugh or cry1 but tears bring only     
relief1 laughter brings merriment as    
well4  ,even with the devil laughter may
 effect reconciliation4 ,practical men  
will try to destroy him1 but so far they

 have not succeeded2 men of faith will  
prophesy his eventual ruin1 but         
meanwhile we have to live in his        
company2 and how can we live there at   
peace with ourselves unless with        
laughter at his antics and our own vain 
efforts to restrain them8 ,surely the   
age-long struggle against him justifies 
us in making this compromise for our    
happiness4 ,we who in our lifetime      
cannot defeat him can at least make him 
yield us this meed of laughter for our  
pains4 ,people who think that laughter  
at evil is a blasphemy against the good 
set too high a valuation upon their     
conventions4 ,no one can laugh without  
possessing a standard1 but to laugh is  
to recognize that life is of more worth 
than any ideal and happiness better than
 any morality4  ,and if by laughter we  
cannot triumph over evil1 we may perhaps
 achieve this end by appreciating it as 
an element in tragedy or pathos4 ,for   
once we take a contemplative attitude   
towards life1 foregoing praise and      

blame1 there is no spectacle equal to it
 for tragic pity and fear and           
admiration4 ,there is a heroism in life 
equal to any in art1 in which we may    
live imaginatively1 and in so living    
forgive the evil that is its necessary  
condition4 ,or1 when life is pathetic   
rather than tragic1 suffering and fading
 and weak rather than strong and steady 
and resisting1 we may win insight from  
the pitiable reality into the possible  
and ideal2 the shadow of evil will      
suggest to us the light of the good1 and
 for this vision we shall bless life    
even when it disappoints our hopes4 ,the
 very precariousness of values1 which is
 an inevitable accompaniment of them1   
will serve to intensify their worth for 
us2 we shall be made the more           
passionately to love life1 with the joys
 that it offers us1 because we so       
desperately realize its transiency4 ,our
 knowledge of the inescapableness of    
death and failure will quiet our        
laments1 leaving us at least serene and 

resigned where our struggles and        
protests would be unavailing4 ,it is by 
thus generalizing the point of view of  
art so that we adopt it towards our own 
life that we secure the catharsis of    
tragedy4 ,instead of letting sorrow     
overwhelm us1 we may win self-possession
 through the struggle against it2       
instead of feeling that there is nothing
 left when the loved one dies1 we may   
keep in memory a cherished image1 more  
poignant and beautiful because the      
reality is gone1 and loving this we     
shall love life also that has provided  
it4  ,finally1 in subtle ways1 the      
influence of art1 while remaining       
indirect1 may affect practical action in
 a more concrete fashion4 ,for silently1
 unobtrusively1 when constantly attended
 to1 a work of art will transform the   
background of values out of which action
 springs4 ,the beliefs and sentiments   
expressed will be accepted not for the  
moment only1 aesthetically and          
playfully1 but for always and           

practically2 they will become a part of 
our nature4 ,the effect is not merely to
 enlarge the scope of our sympathies by 
making us responsive1 as all art does1  
to every human aspiration1 but rather to
 strengthen into resolves those         
aspirations that meet in us an answering
 need4 ,this influence is especially    
potent during the early years of life1  
before the framework of valuations has  
become fixed4 ,what young man nursed on 
,shelley's poetry has not become a lover
 of freedom and an active force against 
all oppression8 ,but even in maturer    
years art may work in this way4 ,one    
cannot live constantly with the ,hermes 
of ,praxiteles without something of its 
serenity entering into one's soul to    
purge passion of violence1 or with      
,goethe's poetry without its wisdom     
making one wise to live4 ,the effect is 
not to cause any particular act1 but so 
to mold the mind that every act         
performed is different because of this  
influence4  ,i would compare this       

influence to that of friends4 ,friends  
may1 of course1 influence conduct       
directly and immediately through advice 
and persuasion1 but that is not the most
 important effect of their lives4 ,more 
important is the gradual diffusion of   
their attitudes and the enlightenment   
following their example4 ,through living
 their experiences with them1 we come to
 adopt their valuations as our own2 by  
observing how they solve their problems1
 we get suggestions as to how to solve  
ours4 ,art provides us with a           
companionship of the imagination1 a new 
friendship4 ,the sympathetic touch with 
the life there expressed enlarges our   
understanding of the problems and       
conditions of all life1 and so leads to 
a freer and wiser direction of our own4 
,on the one hand new and adventurous    
methods of living are suggested1 and on 
the other hand the eternal limits of    
action are enforced4  ,once more ,i     
would compare the influence of art with 
that of religion4 ,the effect of        

religion upon conduct is partly due to  
the institutions with which it is       
connected and the supernatural sanctions
 which it attaches to the performance of
 duty2 but partly also1 and more        
enduringly1 to the stories of the gods4 
,now these stories1 even when believed1 
have an existence in the imagination    
precisely comparable to that of works of
 art1 and their influence upon sentiment
 is of exactly the same order4 ,they are
 most effective when beautiful1 as the  
legends of ,christ and ,buddha are      
beautiful2 and they function by the     
sympathetic transference of attitude    
from the story to the believer4 ,even   
when no longer accepted as true their   
influence may persist1 for the values   
they embody lose none of their          
compulsion4 ,and1 although as an        
interpretation of life based upon faith 
religion is doubtless eternal1 its      
specific forms are probably all         
fictitious2 hence each particular       
religion is destined to pass from the   

sphere of faith to that of art4 ,the    
,greek religion has long since gone     
there1 and there also a large part of   
our own will some day go--what is lost  
for faith is retained for beauty4       
,,bibliography  ,general ,works         
,english4  ,,santayana1 ,g4 ,the ,sense 
of ,beauty1 #ahig2 ,reason in ,art1     
#aijf4 ,,muensterberg1 ,h4 ,the         
,principles of ,art ,education1 #aije2  
,the  ,eternal ,values1 ,part #c1 #aiji4
 ,,lee and ,,thompson4 ,beauty and      
,ugliness1 #aiaa4 ,,carritt1 ,e4 ,i4    
,the ,theory of ,beauty1 #aiad4         
,,knight1 ,,wm4 ,the ,philosophy of the 
,beautiful1 ,part #a1 #ahia2  ,part #b1 
#ahic4 ,,puffer1 ,,ethel4 ,the          
,psychology of ,beauty1 #aije4 ,,brown1 
,,baldwin4 ,the ,fine ,arts1 #ahib4     
,,rowland1 ,e4 ,the ,significance of    
,art1 #aiac4 ,,marshall1 ,r4 ,pain1     
,pleasure1 and ,aesthetics1 #ahid2      
,aesthetic  ,principles1 #ahie4 ,,sully1
 ,j41 and ,,robertson1 ,g4 ,c4          
,aesthetics4 ,,bosanquet1 ,b4 ,history  

of ,aesthetics1 #aijd2 ,three ,lectures 
on  ,aesthetics1 #aiad4 ,,gordon1       
,,kate4 ,aesthetics1 #aiji4  ,german4   
,,lipps1 ,t4 ,aesthetik1 #aijc-aije4    
,,volkelt1 ,j4 ,system der ,aesthetik1  
#aije-aiad4 ,,dessoir1 ,m4 ,aesthetik   
und ,allgemeine ,kunstwissenschaft1     
#aijf4 ,,cohn1 ,j4 ,allgemeine          
,aesthetik1 #aija4 ,,meumann1 ,e4       
,aesthetik der ,gegenwart1 #aiab2       
,system der  ,aesthetik1 #aiad4 ,,utitz1
 ,e4 ,grundlegung der ,allgemeinen      
,kunstwissenschaft1 ,bd4 #a1  #aiad4    
,,mueller-,,frienfels1 ,r4 ,psychologic 
der ,kunst1 #aiab4 ,,witasek1 ,s4       
,grundzuege der ,allgemeinen ,aesthetik1
 #aijd4 ,,groos1 ,k4 ,der ,aesthetische 
,genuss1 #aijb4 ,,lange1 ,k4 ,das ,wesen
 der ,kunst1 #aija4 ,,fiedler1 ,c4 ,der 
,ursprung der ,kuenstlerischen          
,thaetigkeit1 #aija4 ,,kant1 ,i4 ,kritik
 der ,urteilskraft1 #agij2 ,english     
translation by  ,j4 ,h4 ,bernard1 #ahib4
  ,french4  ,,taine1 ,h4 ,the           
,philosophy of ,art1 ,english           

translation1 #ahfg4 ,,sully-,,prudhomme1
 ,r4 ,f4 ,a4 ,l',expression dans les    
beaux arts1 #ahhc4 ,,guyau1 ,j4 ,m4 ,les
 problemes de l'estetique contemporaine1
 #ahhd2  ,l',art au point de vue        
sociologique1 #ahhi4 ,,bray1 ,l4 ,du    
,beau1 #aijb4 ,,seailles1 ,g4 ,essai sur
 le genie en l'art1 #ahig4 ,,souriau1   
,p4 ,la suggestion en l'art1 #aiji4     
,,lalo1 ,,ch4 ,les ,sentiments          
esthetiques1 #aiaj2 ,introduction       
l'estetique1 #aiac4 ,,dussauze1 ,h4 ,les
 ,regies estetiques et les lois du      
sentiment1 #aiaa4 ,,fontaine1 ,a4 ,essai
 sur le principe et les lois de la      
critique d'art1  #aiji4  ,italian4      
,,croce1 ,b4 ,estetica1 #aijb2 ,english 
translation1 #aiji2 ,french             
translation1 #aijd2 ,german translation1
 #aije2 ,breviario di  estetica1 #aiac4 
,,pilo1 ,m4 ,estetica4 ,,porena1 ,m4    
,che cos' e il bello8 #aije4            
,,experimental ,,aesthetics  ,,fechner1 
,g4 ,t4 ,vorschule der ,aesthetik1      
#ahgf4 ,,kuelpe1 ,o4 ,der gegenwaertige 

,stand der experimentellen ,aesthetik1  
in ,bericht ueber den #bten ,kongress   
fuer experimentelle  ,psychologie1      
#aijg4 ,,stratton1 ,g4 ,m4 ,psychology  
and ,culture1 #aijc4 ,,valentine1 ,c4   
,w4 ,experimental ,psychology of        
,beauty4 ,,myers1 ,c4 ,s4 ,introduction 
to ,experimental ,psychology1 #aiaa4    
,,wundt1 ,,wm4 ,physiological           
,psychology4 ,,lalo1 ,,ch4 ,l',estetique
 experimentale contemporaine1 #aijh4    
,works on the ,origins of ,art  ,,hirn1 
,y4 ,the ,origins of ,art1 #aijj4       
,,grosse1 ,e4 ,the ,beginnings of ,art1 
,english translation1 #ahig4            
,,wallaschek1 ,r4 ,primitive ,music1    
#aijc4 ,,buecher1 ,k4 ,arbeit und       
,rhythmus1 #ahii4 ,,gummebe1 ,f4 ,b4    
,the ,beginnings of ,poetry1 #aija4     
,,groos1 ,k4 ,the ,play of ,man1 #aija4 
,,frazer1 ,j4 ,g4 ,the ,golden ,bough1  
#aijg-aiae4 ,,wundt1 ,,wm4              
,volkerpsychologie1 #aiaa2 ,elements of 
,folk ,psychology1  #aiaf4 ,,spearing1  
,h4 ,g4 ,the ,childhood of ,art1 #aiac4 

,additional ,references for ,special    
,subjects  ,chapter ,six4--,the ,tragic4
  ,,aristotle4 ,poetics4 ,,corneille1   
,p4 ,discours de la tragedie1 #affj4    
,,lessing1 ,g4 ,e4 ,hamburgische        
,dramaturgic1 #agfg4 ,,schopenhauer4    
,the ,world as ,will and ,idea2 ,english
 translation1  ,vol4 #a1 ,bk4 #c2 ,vol4 
#c1 ,ch4 #bg4 ,,hegel1 ,g4 ,w4 ,f1      
,vorlesungen ueber die ,aesthetik1 #cter
 ,abschnitt1  #ctes ,kapitel4 ,,hebbel1 
,f4 ,ein ,wort ueber das ,drama1 #ahdc4 
,,lipps1 ,t4 ,der ,streit ueber die     
,tragoedie1 #ahia4 ,,volkelt1 ,j4       
,aesthetik des ,tragischen1 #aijf2      
,system der ,aesthetik1  ,bd4 #b1 #aiaj4
 ,,bradley1 ,a4 ,c4 ,oxford ,lectures on
 ,poetry1 #aiji4 ,,butcher1 ,s4 ,h4     
,aristotle's ,theory of ,poetry and     
,fine ,art1 #ahih4 ,,nietzsche1 ,,fr4   
,die ,geburt der ,tragoedie1 #ahgj4     
,chapter ,six4--,the ,comic4  ,,lipps1  
,t4 ,komik und ,humor1 #ahih4 ,,bergson1
 ,h4 ,laughter1 ,english translation1   
#aiac4 ,,freud1 ,s4 ,wit1 and ,its      

,relation to the ,unconscious1 ,english 
translation1 #aiaf4 ,,martin1 ,l4 ,j4   
,experimental ,prospecting in the       
,fields of the  ,comic1 ,american       
,journal of ,psychology1 ,vol4 #af1     
#aije4 ,,schopenhauer1 ,a4 ,the ,world  
as ,will and ,idea1 ,english            
translation1  ,vol4 #b1 ,ch4 #h4        
,,volkelt1 ,j4 ,system der ,aesthetik1  
,bd4 #b1 #aijj4 ,,sully1 ,j4 ,essay on  
,laughter1 #aijb4 ,,spencer1 ,h4        
,physiology of ,laughter1 in ,essays1   
,scientific1  ,political and            
,speculative4 ,,sidis1 ,b4 ,psychology  
of ,laughter1 #aiac4 ,,meredith1        
,,george4 ,an ,essay on ,comedy1 #ahig4 
,chapter ,seven4--,the ,standard of     
,taste4  ,,taine1 ,h4 ,the ,ideal in    
,art1 #ahfg4 ,,lemaitre1 ,j4 ,les       
,contemporains4 ,,france1 ,a4 ,la ,vie  
litteraire4 ,,brunetiere1 ,,ferd4       
,questions de critique1 #ahhi4          
,,babbitt1 ,,irving4 ,the ,new ,laocoon1
 #aiaj4 ,,gates1 ,l4 ,e4 ,impressionism 
and ,appreciation1 in ,the ,atlantic    

,monthly1 ,july1 #aijj4 ,,balfour1 ,a4  
,j4 ,criticism and ,beauty1 #aiaj4      
,,pater1 ,,walter4 ,the ,renaissance1   
#ahgc4 ,,symonds1 ,j4 ,a4 ,essays1      
,speculative and ,suggestive1 #ahij4    
,,caine1 ,t4 ,,hall4 ,cobwebs of        
,criticism1 #ahhc4 ,,hennequin1 ,e4 ,la 
,critique scientifique1 #ahhh4          
,,spingarn1 ,j4 ,e4 ,creative           
,criticism1 #aiag4  ,chapter            
,eight4--,music4  ,,riemann1 ,h4        
,elemente der musikalischen ,aesthetik1 
#aijj4 ,,hanslick1 ,e4 ,vom             
,musikalisch-,schoenen1 #aath ed41      
#aiaj4 ,,gehring1 ,a4 ,the ,basis of    
,musical ,pleasure1 #aiaj4 ,,combarieu1 
,j4 ,music3 ,its ,laws and ,evolution1  
#aiaj4 ,,gurney1 ,e4 ,the ,power of     
,sound1 #ahhj4 ,,busoni1 ,f4 ,sketch of 
a ,new ,athetic of ,music1 #aiaa4       
,,lalo1 ,c4 ,esquisse d'une estetique   
musicale scientifique1 #aijh4 ,,ambros1 
,w4 ,a4 ,die ,grenzen der ,musik und    
,poesie1 #ahgb4 ,,wagner1 ,r4 ,das      
,kunstwerk der ,zukunft2 ,oper und      

,drama4 ,,stumpf1 ,c4 ,tonpsychologie1  
#ahhc1 #ahij1 and articles in           
,zeitschrift  fuer ,psychologie4        
,,helmholtz4 ,sensations of tone1 #ahie4
 ,,meyer1 ,,max4 ,contributions to a    
,psychological ,theory of ,music1       
,university of ,missouri ,studies1      
#aija1a4 ,no4 #a2  ,the ,psychology of  
,music1 in ,american ,journal of        
,psychology1 #aijc3 #ad4 ,,bingham1 ,w4 
,,van ,,dyke4 ,studies in ,melody1      
#aiaj4 ,,lipps4 ,zur ,theorie der       
,melodie1 in ,zeitschrift fuer          
,psychologie1 #aijb3bg4 ,,revesz1       
,,geza4 ,tonpsychologie1 #aiac4         
,,spencer1 ,h4 ,the ,origin and         
,function of ,music4 ,,bolton4 ,rhythm1 
in ,american ,journal of ,psychology1   
,vol4 #f4 ,,meumann1 ,e4 ,untersuchungen
 zur ,psy4 u4 ,aest4 d4 ,rhythmus1  in  
,philosophische ,studien1 ,x4 ,,stetson1
 ,r4 ,h4 ,a ,motor ,theory of ,rhythm   
and ,discrete ,succession1  in          
,psychological ,review1 ,vol4 #ab4      
,chapter ,nine4--,poetry4  ,,aristotle4 

,poetics4 ,,sidney1 ,,sir ,,philip4     
,defense of ,poesy1 #aeha4 ,,wordsworth1
 ,,wm4 ,preface to the ,lyrical         
,ballads1 #ahjj4 ,,shelley1 ,p4 ,b4 ,a  
,defense of ,poetry1 #ahba4 ,,bradley1  
,a4 ,c4 ,oxford ,lectures on ,poetry1   
#aiji4 ,,scott1 ,f4 ,n4 ,the ,most      
,fundamental ,differentia of ,poetry and
  ,prose1 ,modern ,language ,association
 ,publications1 ,v4 #ai1 pp4 #bej-bfi1  
,,mill1 ,j4 ,s4 ,thoughts on ,poetry and
 ,its ,varieties1 in ,dissertations  and
 ,discussions1 ,vol4 #a4 ,,santayana1   
,g4 ,elements of ,poetry1 in ,poetry and
 ,religion1 #aijj4 ,,lanier1 ,s4        
,science of ,english ,verse1 #ahhj4     
,,eastman1 ,,max4 ,the ,enjoyment of    
,poetry4 ,,souriau1 ,p4 ,la ,reverie    
esthetique1 #aijf4 ,,liddell1 ,,mark ,h4
 ,an ,introduction to the ,study of     
,poetry1 #aijb4 ,,werner1 ,r4 ,m4 ,lyrik
 und ,lyriker1 #ahij4 ,,lowell1 ,,amy4  
,tendencies in ,modern ,american        
,poetry1 #aiag4 ,,gummere1 ,f4 ,b4 ,a   
,handbook of ,poetics1 #ahie4           

,,roetteken4 ,poetik1 #aiaa4 ,,burke1   
,,edmund4 ,a ,philosophical ,enquiry    
into ,our ,ideas of the  ,sublime and   
,beautiful1 ,part #d1 #agef4 ,,mackail1 
,j4 ,w4 ,lectures on ,poetry1 #aiaa4    
,,poe1 ,e4 ,a4 ,the ,philosophy of      
,composition2 ,the ,poetic ,principle4  
,,omond1 ,t4 ,s4 ,a ,study of ,meter1   
#aijc4 ,,verrier1 ,p4 ,metrique         
anglaise1 #aiji4 ,,dilthey1 ,w4 ,das    
,erlebnis und ,die ,dichtung1 #aijg4    
,,stetson1 ,r4 ,h4 ,rhythm and ,rhyme1  
in ,harvard ,psychological ,studies1    
,vol4 #a4  ,chapter ,ten4--,prose       
,literature4  ,,schopenhauer1 ,a4 ,the  
,art of ,literature4 ,,goethe ,,and     
,,schiller4 ,correspondence1 passim4    
,,green1 ,t4 ,h4 ,the ,value and        
,influence of ,works of ,fiction1 #ahfb4
 ,,lewes1 ,g4 ,h4 ,principles of        
,success in ,literature1 #ahib4         
,,arnold1 ,m4 ,essays in ,criticism1    
#ahfi4 ,,zola1 ,e4 ,the ,experimental   
,novel and ,other ,essays1 translated by
  ,b4 ,m4 ,sherman1 #ahic4 ,,besant1    

,w41 and ,,james1 ,h4 ,the ,art of      
,fiction1 #ahhe4 ,,pater1 ,w4           
,appreciations1 with an ,essay on       
,style1 #ahhi4 ,,stevenson1 ,r4 ,l4 ,on 
,style in ,literature1 in ,contemporary 
,review1 #dg3edh4 ,,bourget1 ,p4 ,etudes
 et ,portraits1 #aiaa4 ,,flaubert1 ,g4  
,correspondance1 published #ahhg4       
,,elster1 ,e4 ,prinzipien der           
,literaturwissenschaft1 #ahig1 #aiaa4   
,,freitag1 ,g4 ,technique of the ,drama1
 ,english translation1 #ahie4           
,,matthews1 ,j4 ,b4 ,a ,study of the    
,drama1 #aiaj4 ,,jones1 ,h4 ,a4 ,the    
,foundations of a ,national ,drama1     
#aiac4 ,,woodbridge1 ,e4 ,the ,drama3   
,its ,laws and ,its ,technique1 #ahih4  
,,de ,,maupassant1 ,,guy4 ,le ,roman1 in
 ,pierre et ,jean4  ,for additional     
references on ,poetry and ,prose1       
consult ,an ,introduction to the        
,methods and ,materials of ,literary    
,criticism1 by ,c4 ,m4 ,gayley and ,f4  
,n4 ,scott1 #ahii4  ,chapter            
,eleven4--,painting4  ,,meier-,,graefe1 

,j4 ,modern ,art1 ,english translation1 
#aijh4 ,,ross1 ,,denmon4 ,a ,theory of  
,pure ,design1 #aijg2 ,on ,drawing and  
,painting1 #aiab4 ,,berenson1 ,b4       
,central ,italian ,painters of the      
,renaissance4 ,,poore1 ,h4 ,r4          
,pictorial ,composition1 #aijc4 ,,van   
,,dyke1 ,j4 ,c4 ,art for ,art's ,sake1  
#ahie4 ,,utitz1 ,e4 ,grundzuege der     
,aesthetischen ,farbenlehre1 #aijh4     
,,waetzoldt1 ,,wm4 ,die ,kunst des      
,portraets1 #aijh4 ,,weight1 ,,wm4 ,h4  
,modern ,painting1 #aiae4 ,,lipps1 ,t4  
,aesthetik1 ,bd4 #a1 #eter ,abschnitt1  
,bd4 #b1 #gtes ,kapitel4 ,,goethe4      
,farbenlehre4 ,,souriatj1 ,p4           
,l',estetique du mouvement1 #ahhi4      
,,stratton1 ,g4 ,m4 ,eye ,movement1 and 
the ,aesthetics of ,visual  ,form1 in   
,philosophische ,studien1 ,,xx4 ,,cohn1 
,j4 ,experimented ,untersuchungen ueber 
die ,gefuehls-betonung  der ,farben1 in 
,philosophische ,studien1 #aj3 #ebb4    
,,baker and ,,chown4 ,experiments on    
,color1 in the ,university of  ,toronto 

,studies4 ,,lee and ,,thompson4 ,beauty 
and ,ugliness1 in ,contemporary ,review1
 #ahig4 ,,chevreul1 ,m4 ,e4 ,the        
,principles of ,harmony and ,contrast of
 ,colors1 #ahee4  ,chapter              
,twelve4--,sculpture4  ,,hildebrand1 ,a4
 ,the ,problem of ,form in ,painting and
 ,sculpture1  ,english translation1     
#aijg4 ,,rodin1 ,a4 ,art1 ,english      
translation1 #aiab4 ,,herder1 ,j4 ,g4   
,plastik1 #aggh4 ,,lipps1 ,t4           
,aesthetik1 ,bd4 #b1 #etes u4 etes      
,kapitel4 ,,lessing4 ,laocoon1 #agff4   
,,cornelius1 ,h4 ,elementargesetze der  
bildenden ,kunst1 #aijh4  ,chapter      
,thirteen4--,architecture4  ,,lipps1 ,t4
 ,raumaesthetik1 #ahig2 ,aesthetik1 ,bd4
 #a1 #aijc4 ,,scott1 ,g4 ,the           
,architecture of ,humanism1 #aiad4      
,,robinson1 ,j4 ,b4 ,architectural      
,composition1 #aijh4 ,,van ,,pelt1 ,j4  
,v4 ,essentials of ,composition1 #aiac4 
,,guadet1 ,j4 ,elements et theorie de   
l'architecture1 #aiji4                  
,,viollet-,,le-,,duc1 ,e4 ,e4           

,entretiens sur l'architecture1         
#ahfc-gb4 ,,ruskin1 ,j4 ,seven ,lamps of
 ,architecture1 #aheg4 ,,frankl1 ,p4    
,die ,entwicklungsphasen der neueren    
,baukunst1 #aiad4 ,,worringer1 ,w4      
,formprobleme der ,gothik1 #aiab4       
,,woelffun1 ,h4 ,renaissance und        
,barock1 #ahhh4  ,chapter               
,fourteen4--,art and ,morality4         
,,plato4 ,republic1 ,ion1 ,phaedrus1    
,symposium1 ,gorgias4 ,,tolstoy1 ,l4    
,what is ,art8 ,english translation1    
#ahii4 ,,schiller1 ,f4 ,letters on the  
,aesthetic ,education of ,man1          
#agic-agie4 ,,morris1 ,,wm4 ,hopes and  
,fears for ,art1 #ahhb4 ,,wilde1 ,o41   
,,morris1 ,,wm41 and ,,owen1 ,w4 ,c4    
,the ,soul of ,man1  ,the ,socialist    
,ideal--,art1 and ,the ,coming          
,solidarity4 ,,ruskin1 ,j4 ,lectures on 
,art1 #aijj4 ,,symonds1 ,j4 ,a4 ,essays1
 ,speculative and ,suggestive1 #ahij4   
,,paulhan1 ,,fr4 ,le ,mensonge de       
l',art1 #aijg4 ,,whistler1 ,j4 ,mc,n4   
,ten o',clock1 #ahhh4 ,,guyau1 ,j4 ,m4  

,l',art au point de vue sociologique1   
#ahhi4 ,,cassagne1 ,a4 ,la theorie de   
l'art pour l'art en ,france1 #aijf4     
,chapter ,fifteen4--,art and ,religion4 
,,lang1 ,a4 ,myth1 ,ritual1 and         
,religion1 #aiac4 ,,della ,,seta1 ,a4   
,religion and ,art1 #aiad4 ,,harrison1  
,j4 ,ancient ,art and ,ritual1 #aiac4   
,,murray1 ,g4 ,four ,stages of ,greek   
,religion1 #aiab4 ,,reinach1 ,s4        
,orpheus1 #aiji4 ,,santayana1 ,g4       
,poetry and ,religion1 #aijj4 ,,frazer1 
,j4 ,g4 ,the ,golden ,bough4 ,,hegel1   
,g4 ,w4 ,f4 ,introduction to the        
,philosophy of ,fine ,art1  translated  
by ,bosanquet1 #ahhf4 ,,muensterberg1   
,h4 ,philosophie der ,werte1 #aijh4     
,,wundt1 ,,wm4 ,volkerpsychologie1      
#aiaa4 ,,santayana1 ,g4 ,three          
,philosophical ,poets1 #aiaj4