,transcriber's ,notes4    ,hyphenation  
has been standardised4    ,a number of  
different spellings have been retained1 
e4g4 rubies_/rubyes1                    
encrusted_/incrusted4          ,,the    
,,pearl    ,illustration3 ,h4 ,m4       
,,queen ,,alexandra ,,and ,,her ,,pearls
            ,,the ,,pearl      ,,its    
,,story1 ,,its ,,charm1    ,,and ,,its  
,,value      ,,by    ,w4 ,r4 ,,cattelle 
,,author ,,of    ,,precious ,,stones    
,,with ,,sixteen ,,illustrations        
,illustration      ,,philadelphia       
,,london    ,j4 ,b4 ,,lippincott        
,,company    ,,mdccccvii                
,,copyright1 #aijg      ,,by ,j4 ,b4    
,,lippincott ,,company      ,published  
,september1 #aijg         ,electrotyped 
and printed by ,j4 ,b4 ,lippincott      
,company    ,the ,washington ,square    
,press1 ,philadelphia1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4      
,,note      ,in these pages the story of
 the pearl is told from its birth and   
growth  under tropic seas1 through the  
search for it by dark skinned divers  of

 the ,orient and its journeyings by the 
hands of men who traffic in  precious   
things1 until it becomes finally the    
cherished familiar of  the great4       
,historical and traditional allusions1  
the sentiment and  superstitions1 the   
romance of ancient and noble            
associations1 drawn  to it through the  
ages1 are garnered here and to them     
added the more  prosaic facts which a   
merchant's experience suggests1 to      
enable lovers  of the dainty sea-gem to 
discriminate4 ,the qualities which make 
some  pearls of great value and the     
imperfections which render others less  
valuable are described in detail1 that  
owners and buyers may appreciate  at    
their true value the gems they have or  
would purchase and the market  price of 
all kinds is given4 ,means for the      
detection of imitations are  included4  
,long time has been given to microscopic
 research and though much  remains to be
 learned of the genesis of the pearl1 it
 is hoped that  something of value has  

been added to the knowledge of ,nature's
  wonderful and curious processes       
whereby through the humblest she makes  
a jewel fit to adorn the most beautiful 
of her creatures--woman4           99   
99       99       99       99    ,my    
thanks are due ,messrs4 ,combes  ,van   
,roden of ,philadelphia for the  loan of
 the original photographs from which    
were made the reproductions  of the     
portraits of ,queen ,alexandra1 ,the    
,marchioness of ,londonderry1  ,countess
 ,torby and ,princess ,lazareff1 which  
will1 ,i trust1 be of great  interest to
 lovers of pearls3 also to ,mr4 ,ludwig 
,stross for much  valuable information  
about ,oriental pearl fisheries4        
,w4 ,r4 ,c4          ,,contents         
,,page      ,,at ,,the ,,bottom ,,of    
,,the ,,deep ,,blue ,,sea               
#ac      ,a ,,pearl ,,of ,,legend       
#be      ,,antiquity ,,of ,,the ,,pearl 
#ci      ,,the ,,fashion ,,of ,,pearls  
#fi      ,,varieties                    
#hi      ,,color                        

#aja      ,,imperfections               
#aaa      ,,genesis ,,of ,,the ,,pearl  
#abg      ,,methods ,,of ,,fishing      
#agg      ,,habitat ,,of ,,the ,,pearl  
,,oyster                     #aii       
,,pearl ,,fisheries                     
#baa      ,,price                       
#bge      ,,imitation ,,and ,,doctored  
,,pearls                   #bie         
,,facts ,,and ,,fancies                 
#caa      ,,pearls ,,in ,,literature    
#cce      ,,glossary                    
#cfc      ,,general ,,characteristics   
,,of ,,pearls ,,and ,,shells    ,,from  
,,the ,,various ,,fisheries             
#cfi          ,,illustrations           
,,page      ,h4 ,m4 ,,queen ,,alexandra 
,,and ,,her ,,pearls  ,frontispiece     
,,the ,,rajah ,,of ,,dholpur            
#ba    ,whose ,pearls ,have ,been       
,valued at #g1ejj1jjj      ,,princess   
,,abamalek ,,lazareff1 ,n,e ,,demidoff  
#gj    ,from the ,painting by           
,vitelleschi      ,,varying ,,forms ,,of
 ,,pearls                          #hc  

,,panama ,,pearl-,,shell1 ,,showing     
,,mud-,,blisters1    ,,borers ,,and     
,,pearl                                 
#ib      ,,tuamotu ,,pearl-,,shell      
#abg      ,,australian ,,pearl-,,shell  
#abi      ,,venezuelan ,,pearl-,,shell  
,,with ,,pearl ,,attached      #aca     
,,manila ,,pearl-,,shell ,,with ,,the   
,,lip ,,conserved       #add            
,,mississippi ,,nigger-,,head ,,pearl   
,,mussel            #adf                
,,venezuelan ,,pearl-,,shell ,,showing  
,,baroque          #afa      ,,native   
,,australian ,,pearl-,,divers           
#ahh      ,,east ,,indian               
,,pearl-,,divers ,,resting              
#bae      ,,pearl-,,fishing ,,in ,,the  
,,mississippi ,,river          #bfb     
,,the ,,marchioness ,,of ,,londonderry  
#bhc      ,,countess ,,torby            
#cbf          ,,at ,,the ,,bottom ,,of  
,,the ,,deep ,,blue ,,sea      ,the sea 
in all her moods has a strange          
fascination for the children of  the dry
 land4 ,the rumble and thunder of her   

never ending procession  of rolling     
breakers1 rising and falling1 tumbling  
over the sands1 to  race hissing back to
 shelter under the curling crest of an  
eternal  successor2 the mad recurring   
dash which cannot be discouraged1 of    
great waters upon unyielding rocks whose
 grim faces smile at the  spume         
fountains falling back upon them2 the   
wash and mutter of rocky  shoals2 the   
suck and bellow of her caverns and the  
monotone she chants1  heedless of       
hearers to the ages2 all these charm the
 hearts of men  and bring them into the 
fellowship of spirits they feel1 but    
cannot  understand4 ,for the moods of   
the sea and the ways of the wind are    
akin  to the heart of a man4 ,his eyes  
dance with the flicker of light in  the 
path of the sun over watery wastes2 his 
breast heaves in unison  with the       
multitudinous swellings of the sea2 he  
finds peace in the  slumber of her calms
 and exults in her mad race before the  
drive of  the tempest1 but he seldom    

thinks below the surface and knows      
little  of the things she hides in her  
deeps4 ,yet a world lives there1 very   
strange and full of enchantments4       
,sheltered under the breasts of the  sea
 and undisturbed by the furies of the   
upper world1 myriads of living          
creatures1 graceful1 beautiful1         
wonderful1 traverse the peaceful        
depths4 ,in the vast and fathomless     
solitudes1 things grow and take on      
form1 meet for the eyes of the gods4 ,in
 everlasting touch with soft  currents1 
trees of coral grow from rocky beds and 
finny tribes of  every shape and hue    
glide in and out among their fantastic  
branches4  ,water covering all1 on      
hills1 plateaus1 shelving stretches1    
sandy bars  and rocky shoals2 in        
valleys1 chasms and even in the dread   
abysses1  are things as strange to man  
as ,jupiter or ,saturn holds2 weird as  
the  creatures of our dreams2 uncanny as
 the pictures a riotous imagination     
paints and some as beautiful4    ,near  

the shore and a few miles out1 where the
 bottom of the sea is but  a few fathoms
 deep and where man can go and come and 
live1 there are  among other marvellous 
creations1 shells of wonderful structure
 and  beautiful to look upon4 ,one by   
one these have been discovered during   
past ages by the adventurous and for    
their usefulness or beauty have         
awakened the desire of those who dwell  
upon the earth4 ,the chank1 the  sacred 
shell of the ,hindus1 has been used by  
the priests of ,buddha for  centuries as
 a horn to call the faithful4 ,shankar  
the ,destroyer1 of  ,hindu mythology1   
and ,vishnu1 each hold a chank shell in 
one of their  hands4    ,the shell whorl
 usually runs from left to right1       
sometimes it is found  with the whorl   
reversed and these were so highly       
regarded by ,hindus1  ,cingalese and    
,chinese that in old times they were    
sold for their weight  in gold4 ,even   
now they bring a good price in the      
eastern markets4 ,they  are kept in the 

pagodas of ,china to hold the sacred    
oil3 the priests  of ,ceylon administer 
medicine by them4 ,in ,dacca the chank  
is cut into  armlets and anklets for    
,hindu women upon whose persons they are
 left  after death4 ,the delicate pink  
cameos carved from the ,queen ,conch    
have delighted feminine eyes of almost  
every race4 ,the ,pearly ,nautilus      
decks many a dainty lady's table and is 
wrought into a thousand quaint          
conceits4 ,the silky byssus of the      
,pinna has been woven into fabrics  of  
such fineness as to be thought worthy of
 acceptance by ,popes and  princes4     
,before ,europe knew of their existence1
 the people of ,china and ,japan1  the  
,maoris of ,new ,zealand1 the ,indians  
of our ,pacific coast and the  brown    
skinned natives of far-off islands of   
the ,southern ,seas1 were  delighting   
themselves with the magnificent coloring
 and iridescence of  the ,haliotis even 
as ancient ,greece and ,rome made       
ornaments from the  ,venus ,ear-shell1  

as they called it1 brought from the     
ruder coasts and  islands further west4 
,in these later days the costly outer   
garments of  proud dames are ornamented 
with buttons cut from the same          
resplendent  shell4 ,but of all the     
beautiful things old ocean pays as      
tribute to the  adventurous spirit of   
man1 the pearl-oyster and the gem found 
sometimes  in it are most precious4     
,from unknown times when man discovered 
them until now1 mother-of-pearl  shells 
and their pearly treasures have held    
desire constant and the  eyes of modern 
queens brighten when the opening of the 
gift casket  reveals a string of these  
spheres of beauty just as eyes did in   
the  far-off ,indies thousands of years 
ago4 ,when ,europe was a land of        
barbarians and ,america an unknown      
country of savages1 dusky fingers  that 
held the life and destiny of millions1  
toyed lovingly with pearls1  even as now
 the favored few who enter the sanctum  
sanctorum of fortune1  pride themselves 

in the possession of them and find      
pleasure for cloyed  desire1 in every   
addition to their store4    ,in all     
ages1 pearls have been the social       
insignia of rank among the  highly      
civilized4 ,no other gem was so         
abundantly used for adornment by  the   
princes of the east4 ,above great       
diamonds from the mines of ,india  or   
glowing rubies from ,burmah1 the ocean  
gem became peerless among the  ancient  
nations of ,asia and as their power     
began to wane and the tide  of empire   
swept westward1 there went with it the  
love of pearls4 ,the  rulers of ,rome   
when she was ,empress of the world      
sought pearls1 so also  have the rich   
and powerful of every nation as it rose 
to affluence1  and now in this new      
western star of ,empire the men who hold
 the vast  wealth of these ,united      
,states in their hands1 when they place 
their  consorts on the last plane of    
social eminence1 buy pearls4    ,before 
the machine-like system of modern       

industry had combined  ownership and    
seized the vast natural reservoirs which
 hold the  diamonds of ,africa1 and     
brought the output to a known average   
yield of  so many carats to so many     
loads1 and established the cost of      
mining1  washing1 shipping and          
marketing1 separately or together1 to   
the  fraction of a penny1 there was a   
fascination in the hunt for diamonds    
there1 the charm of which drew thousands
 to the fields4    ,from the discovery  
of them as baubles in the hands of      
children and the  ,hottentots1 or       
plastered in the mud walls of ,boer     
farm-houses through  the search for them
 along the ,vaal ,river1 to the time    
where findings  led men to the kopjes1  
which capped the great chimneys of      
diamond  bearing clay1 where they staked
 and worked their individual claims1 the
  ever present hope of finding a royal  
gem among the small stones which  formed
 the every-day yield1 gave edge to      
appetite and the spur to toil1  and the 

stories of fortunes diverted from one   
man to another by the  lapse of a few   
minutes at the beginning or expiration  
of a lease1 or by  the line separating  
the mining rights of one from another1  
read like  fairy tales4    ,more        
exciting yet is the search for them     
when1 as in ,brazil1 they lie  scattered
 over the river beds where one man hunts
 in vain and another  by chance stumbles
 upon a pocket full1 or as in ,india1   
where one must  dig for them blindly    
into detrital matter ten or twelve feet 
under a  later covering of earth4 ,who  
has not felt the stir of it while       
reading  of miners in ,brazil using     
diamonds worth a king's ransom as       
counters  in their games of chance1 or  
of a naked ,hindu1 emaciated and        
diseased  carrying about his person1    
wrapped in a bit of soiled cloth1 a gem 
found by chance which the richest prince
 of ,india would covet4 ,so also  do the
 tales of rubies brought from ,death's  
,valley of ,burmah renew  within us the 

glow which fired the heart of youth when
 we read of  ,aladdin and his lamp4     
,but none of these are so redolent of   
romance as the story of the  pearl4     
,beneath the rolling of the sea1 where  
the waves pace softly  and restlessly   
like caged lions1 or lift themselves    
roaring to answer  the voice of the     
storm2 where at times the water lies    
green and  placid under burning skies2  
at times1 lashed by tornado and monsoon1
  becoming a seething caldron of black  
perdition2 where spice-laden  vessels   
sail1 and where in the old days1        
privateers and pirates lay in  wait for 
prey1 there1 at the bottom of the sea1  
unruffled by storm or  pirate1 unmindful
 of sun and calm1 myriads of delicate   
creatures toil  ceaselessly to strew old
 ocean's bed with gems4 ,the chaste     
spheres  with which you toy1 while      
counting up the cost of hanging them    
round  some fair neck1 at one time lay  
fathoms deep1 the ocean rolling over    
them4 ,dusky fishermen1 at risk of life1

 brought them up and turbanned          
merchants gave great sums of money to   
own them2 ships carried them1 and       
dealers in precious things handled1     
sorted1 examined and matched them1  ere 
they came to rest in festooned rows     
within the velvet covers your  jeweller 
opens to you4    ,illustration3 ,,the   
,,rajah ,,of ,,dholpur    ,whose pearls 
were valued at #g1ejj1jjj    ,on almost 
every tropical sea that washes a shore  
near the equator1  when the time of     
storm is over1 boats ride over the      
shallows1 and men  dive from them for   
the pearl oyster as they have done for  
ages4 ,black  slaves for ,arab masters  
in the ,red ,sea and the ,persian ,gulf3
 ,tamil  and ,singhalese in the ,indian 
waters3 ,polynesians about the islands  
of the ,south ,seas3 ,indians and other 
natives along the ,atlantic and         
,pacific coasts of tropical ,america1   
and not a few white men in dress  off   
the coasts of ,australia4 ,your pearls  
have seen the dusky man-fish  come      

silently and swiftly from the world of  
air to wrench the gaping  shells that   
held them1 from their anchorage4 ,it may
 be your pearl lay  twenty fathoms deep 
in the clear water of some lonely atoll 
in the  great ,pacific1 among branching 
coral1 and found its way from water's   
solitudes to the light of the ,sun and  
admiring eyes by the hand of a          
bright-eyed ,polynesian4 ,it may have   
come from ,egypt or the ,indies1 from   
,australia or ,mexico2 but from whatever
 quarter of the globe it came and  by   
whom1 it was born and grew somewhere at 
the bottom of the sea4          ,a      
,,pearl ,,of ,,legend      ,long ago1   
ere the great ,nations of ,europe came  
into existence2 before  ,rome was1 or   
,greece had made history3 when the power
 of the ,earth  dwelt in the lands of   
the ,sun and was for good or evil in the
 hands of  princes1 there lived in      
,travancore a ruler of renown4 ,of those
 who came  from the north1 he with his  
followers had subjugated the fierce     

native  tribes inhabiting the country   
for many miles along the seacoast and   
back to the mountainous interior4 ,over 
all1 to the utmost bounds of his        
territory1 the land was fertile and very
 beautiful4 ,along the shores1  but a   
short distance from the ocean1 were     
numerous shallow stretches  of water1   
formed by the meeting of the inland     
streams with the swift  current of the  
sea which there sweeps the coast4 ,in   
them fish abounded1  yet were they free 
from the dangers of the outer waters1 so
 that young  and old could there disport
 themselves without fear4 ,though the   
tropic  heat was often great there were 
no parched and barren wastes in the     
land1 for the rains were many and the   
streams which ran to the sea  from the  
mountains were numerous4 ,everywhere    
luxuriant verdure swayed  to breezes    
that played to and fro over the rolling 
lowlands and about  the hillsides1 now  
coming from the water and now from the  
mountains4  ,coffee1 rice1 the palm1    

cocoanut1 the areca-nut1 the pepper1    
tamarind1  and other tropical fruits and
 trees grew in rank abundance1 and huge 
forest timbers sheltered many noble     
creatures of the wild4    ,at the first 
coming of this prince1 fighting was     
constant and bloody4  ,the hill tribes1 
more war-like than those of many lands1 
made frequent  descents from their      
fastnesses1 seeking by every ruse of    
barbarous  warfare to exterminate the   
intruder4 ,but this man was wary and    
alert4  ,possessing the confidence of   
his followers1 they obeyed him with     
unquestioning obedience4 ,quick to move1
 merciless in his reprisals1 he  was    
soon feared by all the surrounding      
country and as it became known  that he 
was also just and generous1 peace       
presently followed4    ,then did he seek
 to establish his kingdom wisely and    
well4 ,he  encouraged his subjects to   
cultivate the land1 to fish the waters1 
and  to trade with those who came by    
ship and over-land bringing all manner  

of things for barter4    ,though he and 
his people were devout believers in the 
,veda1 yet did  he tolerate the faith of
 others1 and considered the low-born1   
for  ,brahmanism had not yet established
 the extremes of caste which came       
later4 ,he himself was a ,kshattriya but
 he ruled the ,brahmans and would  not  
permit injustice to the ,sudras1        
therefore was he as a god among his     
people4    ,and this prince was good to 
look upon4 ,tall and straight as a tree 
of  the forest1 the fine lines of his   
grave impassive face were made alive  by
 the light of eyes keen as an eagle's1  
inscrutable as those of a lion  when he 
looks beyond4    ,one son only had he1  
for the others had all fallen in battle4
 ,the son  was like the sire1 and the   
father's heart was knit to him as steel 
when  it is welded4    ,now the time    
came when it was good that the young    
prince should marry1  for he was        
man-grown and had been invested with the
 sacrificial cord4  ,so the prince his  

father said to him1 ,my son1 thou       
standest alone to  guard the manes of   
thy fathers4 ,it is meet that the sons  
of my son be  alive upon the earth1 that
 when the time is come ,i die in peace  
and  return to the place from whence ,i 
came1 in confidence4 ,i will find for   
thee a wife4 ,and the young prince      
answered1 ,let it be as my lord  wills4 
,now there was in the country beyond the
 hills1 on the eastern coast of  ,india1
 a prince whose daughter was famed for  
her beauty and he also  was ,kshattriya4
 ,to him the ruler of ,travancore sent  
certain of those  who were near him1 and
 a wise priest in whom he had great     
confidence1  to treat with the father of
 the maid4 ,and these when they had     
arrived1  made haste to do their lord's 
bidding1 nor was it difficult to obtain 
his desire1 for the prince of           
,travancore was in great repute4 ,so as 
soon as could be1 the maid become the   
wife of the heir of ,travancore4        
,report had not lied concerning the     

beauty of the girl1 and such other      
qualities had she that the heart of her 
husband melted to her and  became as the
 gold of a jewel when it holds a ruby   
most precious4    ,in due time a son was
 born to them1 and the father and his   
sire and all  the people with them were 
exceeding glad1 for said they1 ,now is  
wisdom  and power established on the    
throne of ,travancore and a son's son   
will  guard the name of our lord4       
,now when the princess was a maid in the
 land of her father1 a ,rover  from the 
coast of ,kandy had greatly desired her1
 and when she was  carried away to      
,travancore he was very wroth4 ,it was  
told that he would  seek vengeance1 but 
another year passed and another son came
 and both  the children and the mother  
thrived4    ,but one day1 when many     
sea-boats lay within the harbor of a    
city of  ,travancore where much trading 
was done with men who came from far-off 
countries and when multitudes were      
gathered there1 it chanced that the     

princess passed by the market-place4    
,suddenly1 a great number of them  that 
were there from foreign shores1 gathered
 together1 and drawing  swords1 rushed  
upon the guards which accompanied her4  
,these1 with the  bearers they          
over-powered1 and ere the bewildered    
populace knew the  meaning of the       
tumult1 the princess was dragged from   
her attendants and  hurried to a boat   
waiting and ready to sail4 ,immediately 
this glided  swiftly toward the sea     
followed by many others manned by       
ruffians who  had lately mingled with   
the men on shore as peaceful traders4   
,they were  followers of the ,kandy     
,rover4    ,in a very little while1 the 
,king1 with the trusted priest of his   
household1 the prince and many picked   
men of the ,king's body-guard  rode     
furiously to the water-side4 ,the face  
of the ,king was very stern1  but only  
in the flashings of his eyes could be   
seen the unrelenting  vengeance which   
moved him4 ,quietly he gave orders to   

man his ships of  war4 ,then it was     
found that every one of them had been   
damaged4 ,not  until the sailors made   
ready to sail were the hindrances       
observable1  and in no case was the evil
 great1 or so that it could not be      
presently  repaired1 for fearing        
discovery the doers of it sought only to
 delay  the sailing of the ,king's      
ships1 as the ships of the ,rover were  
swift1  and after they were out of the  
harbor1 ,travancore had none which could
  overtake them4 ,then was the wrath of 
the ,king terrible to look upon4    ,now
 while the prince and his followers     
chafed1 and the dismayed  populace      
watched the work of the men who sought  
to make the boats ready  to sail1 the   
,king filled them with the fiercest of  
his soldiers1 being  resolved that if   
the pirate escaped him on the sea he    
would follow him  to his lair with swift
 and overwhelming vengeance4 ,while     
these things  were being done1 the      
,rover passed out to the open sea and in

 sight of  all the people turned his    
prows to the south4    ,then the        
,brahman1 standing where the lapping    
waters encircled his feet1  stretched   
forth his hands toward the white sails  
as they spread to the  west wind and    
called upon ,shankar to destroy the     
despoiler4 ,immediately  the wind died  
out and the ships were becalmed4 ,then  
the heart of the  ,king swelled with    
fierce joy4    ,at his orders all the   
lighter boats were filled with men and  
oars  were provided that they might row 
to the attack1 and the young prince     
stood in the front of the fastest one4  
,but while the people whetted           
themselves for battle1 the ,brahman     
still stood and prayed4 ,and  presently 
the air became thick4 ,though no clouds 
appeared the sky faded  rapidly from    
sight1 and the sun could no more be seen
 and the light of  it was as the color  
of fire in thick smoke only4            
,darkness as of chaos and a silence like
 that of a dead world  encompassed the  

people1 and a great dread gripped them4 
,suddenly there  came from the sea a    
breath of sighing broken by sobs very   
heartrending1  and this was followed by 
the sound of churning and lashing water4
 ,soon  a furious wind swept the coast  
in gusts which rested only that they    
might gather strength to rage1 as the   
rush of rioters is momentarily  stayed  
between whiles4 ,and the black air1     
writhing like smoke1 was  driven hither 
and thither1 and shaken by the din of   
thunder4 ,fierce  lightnings pierced the
 darkness and in passing gave lurid     
glimpses of  the sea's frenzy and the   
wind-swept earth4 ,but though the storm 
raged  so that the roaring sickened the 
hearts of the people1 the ,brahman      
remained unmoved1 his hands stretched   
toward the sea where the ,rover  and his
 fleet were when it began4    ,presently
 the wind passed1 and the people looking
 seaward saw that  there were no ships  
there1 but the foam of the surf was     
black with  wreckage1 and tossing in it 

were the forms of dead men4 ,the ,rover 
and his followers had all perished4 ,but
 the joy of the ,king and his  people   
was savage1 and their thoughts were     
black1 for the princess was  with them  
that were destroyed4 ,then the people   
made haste to spread  themselves along  
the coast to watch if perchance the gods
 might cast  her ashore alive1 but no   
living thing appeared1 neither was her  
body  seen4    ,now while these things  
were being done1 great clouds1 very     
thick and  black1 gathered1 and rolling 
together1 poured themselves in torrents 
into the sea4 ,so thickly did the rain  
fall that the waves were beaten  down   
and the sea became as a threshing-floor 
on which the rain fell  white and       
hissing4 ,the ,brahman watching1 said   
,behold6 the ,heavens  weep1 and        
turning1 he went straightway to the     
temple4    ,for many hours thereafter   
did the torrents fall and all           
,travancore  mourned1 the lamentations  
of the people being very loud1 for the  

,king  and his son were much beloved and
 it was known that the prince was       
sorely distressed1 and the more so that 
his sword must needs be idle  for there 
were none left upon whom he could take  
vengeance4    ,now when the elements    
were at peace again1 the ,king gave     
orders that  certain fishermen of his   
people who were expert divers1 should   
explore  the bottom of the sea where the
 ships of the ,rover were destroyed4    
,one  of these discovered the body of   
the princess and brought it to shore4   
,and when they prepared it for burial1  
the women found fastened upon  one of   
the hands a shell-fish1 the two shells  
of which had closed upon  a finger when 
it fell between them as they gaped4 ,and
 when the shells  were pried apart1     
there rolled from between them a round  
bone1 white  and shining1 yet of a      
luster so soft and beautiful that no man
 had seen  the like4 ,and the ,brahman  
when he saw it said1 ,herein are the    
tears of  ,heaven which fell into the   

sea congealed and have become a gem     
which  is beyond price4 ,and he named it
 ,pearl1 and carried it to the ,king4   
,then the ,king after he had heard the  
story of it1 sent for the chief  man of 
them that worked in gold and commanded  
him that he make for the  pearl a       
setting most precious1 and when it was  
done he gave it to the  prince his son  
saying1 ,above all things let this be   
first among the  jewels of ,travancore  
for-ever4 ,and the prince when he looked
 upon it  said1 ,the beauty of it is    
like the brightness of her eyes when    
they  veiled themselves before my       
passion1 and he prized it more than all 
the diamonds and rubies in his          
treasure-house4    ,from that day1 when 
the fishermen dived for the chank1 they 
sought  also for shells like unto that  
in which the ,king's pearl was found1   
and after great rains many more pearls  
were brought from the depths  of the    
sea1 and fishermen following the coast1 
found them on the  shoals between ,india

 and ,kandy in great plenty4 ,these were
 carried to  the ,king1 for no man dared
 to sell them1 yet did the ,king reward 
the  finders very liberally4 ,so the    
store of them in the ,king's treasury   
grew1 and for that there were no gems   
like them in all the earth1 the  fame of
 them spread1 and travellers came from  
many and far-off lands to  look upon the
 pearls of ,travancore4                 
,,antiquity ,,of ,,the ,,pearl      ,how
 long the pearl has been used as a jewel
 is unknown4 ,it is seen all  through   
the pages of history1 from the long ago 
days when records were  inscribed on the
 leaves of plants1 to the rapid-fire    
prints of to-day1  which unceasingly    
scatter to myriads the knowledge of     
things as they  occur4    ,back of      
history1 pearls loom everywhere in the  
mists of tradition  like delicate but   
imperishable orbs of beauty set in the  
smoulder  of burned out days and        
passions4 ,and wherever their tranquil  
light  attracts the eye of imagination1 

the ghosts of the great are seen1  for  
pearls lie in the hair of royalty and   
clasp the fair necks of  ,queens4 ,upon 
them shine the eyes of turbanned princes
 who valued them  above the blood and   
life of thousands of subjects4 ,shades  
of imperious  fingers1 long since fallen
 to the elements1 toy with them3 they   
deck  the spectral gatherings of the    
mighty in all lands and ages1 and there 
is no dream of song or story which does 
not hold them among the chief           
enchantments4 ,as the fair moon hangs   
from the brow of night when she  broods 
over lonely waters1 so does the pearl   
shine in the shades of the  ages4    ,in
 this country abundant evidence exists  
that before the advent of the  white    
man1 or of the red-skins as we know     
them1 the aborigines1 from  the cold    
rise of the ,mississippi to the glades  
of ,florida1 used them  for their       
adornment4 ,in savage wilds1 and on     
coasts that knew not the  sight of ships
 or other shores1 copper-skinned natives

 treasured the  glistening things they  
found in the mollusks of the sea-shoals 
and  inland streams4 ,quantities of     
pearls have been found in the ,indian   
mounds1 many of them loose1 others      
strung for necklaces and wristlets1     
some mounted in quaint and primitive    
fashion1 all showing that in  the days  
of unbroken forests and swarming game   
and roving tribes of  untrammeled       
savages1 in the tepees of the braves1   
their queens wore  pearls even as they  
are worn now by fairer successors in the
 palaces  reared where once were forests
 and camping-grounds4 ,in those days    
the savage lords of the undivided earth 
knew nothing of whirring  lathes and    
drills2 of hardened points of steel     
turning with lightning  rapidity and    
unerring precision4 ,slowly they burned 
a way through the  gem with hot copper  
wire1 destroying thereby with ruthless  
ignorance  the delicate beauty of jewels
 fit for royalty4 ,to them the slender  
prongs of gold with which the modern    

jeweller holds the lustrous  balls1     
uncovered and in safety1 were unknown4  
,instead1 the savage set  them in holes 
bored in the teeth of animals1 possibly 
to enhance the  relics of a great fight 
with some fierce beast that succumbed   
finally  to his prowess3 possibly to add
 beauty to the grim reminders of her    
lord's valor when he hung them round the
 neck of a favored mate4 ,the  ,indian  
of this continent was much more         
primitive in the art of the  jeweller   
than in the manufacture of implements   
for war and the chase4  ,gaudy colors   
extracted from plants and minerals      
appealed more to his  unthinking eye    
than a chaste form of beauty4 ,with     
these he could stain  his blankets1     
record on skins of slaughtered animals  
his deeds1 or  paint in hideous signs   
upon his face the malignancy of war4    
,his time  and thought and ingenuity    
were given to things which would        
contribute  to his master passion and   
glorify its deeds4 ,the scalps of his   

enemies1  the skins of animals he       
slaughtered1 the feathers of birds that 
fell  to his unerring arrow1 the teeth  
of bears and mountain lions slain  in   
desperate encounters1 these were his    
jewels4 ,nor was his sexual  instinct   
sufficiently refined to enthrone his    
mate4 ,she was his slave1  and her      
reward for toil was pride in his deeds  
and glory4 ,he knew  little of the      
tender homage which brings gifts and    
lays them at the  feet of woman4        
,instinctively he made a setting for his
 pearls of bears'  teeth1 that they     
might carry the scent of blood and tell 
the story of  his conquest4             
,nevertheless1 among these rude tribes  
of wolfish savages1  sequestered from   
the touch of other people more refined1 
the modest  pearl found favor1 and in it
 they unconsciously paid tribute to one 
of  the purest forms of beauty4 ,but    
even this recognition must have been    
the growth of years1 possibly of ages1  
for not until the understanding  of     

worth has become general among a people 
is value established1  and only things  
valuable are stored4 ,as desire for a   
thing for its  inherent qualities       
spreads1 there is added a larger number 
of those  who seek to possess it for the
 profit they can make in supplying that 
desire4 ,not many years ago1 fishermen  
along the streams of remote parts  of   
,kentucky had no eye for the beauty of a
 pearl1 and no knowledge that  men and  
women lived who prized them4 ,if while  
fishing1 the fisherman's  hook fell     
between the gaping valves of a mollusk  
it was immediately  seized4 ,the        
disgusted angler thereupon angrily      
pulled the nuisance out1  and if upon   
disengaging the hook from the bivalve1  
he found within the  shells a pearl1 it 
was immediately tossed back into the    
stream for  luck2 for the beginning of a
 day's sport with a catch of that kind  
was ill-luck and the fates could only be
 appeased by the finding of a  pearl1 or
 a mussel egg as he would call it1 in   

the mollusk1 and its  return to the     
water4 ,there lives yet on the banks of 
the ,clinch ,river1  an old pearler1 the
 distress of many a speculator for his  
knowledge of  pearls and their value1   
who sometimes sorrowfully relates how he
 thus  in bygone years angrily threw    
away many good pearls1 one of them the  
finest ball pearl he has ever seen4 ,if 
these gems were so regarded  by the     
ignorant white settlers of the west     
until the advent of men who  had learned
 to appreciate them either for their    
beauty or the price  they would bring   
from the outside world1 it may be       
surmised that the  awakening of the     
ancient ,indian to their beauty1 must   
have been a much  slower process1       
unassisted as it was by men from beyond 
their limits  who had long regarded them
 as precious4 ,at first1 probably1      
pearls were  thrown to the children as  
playthings1 as diamonds were in the     
,cape3  then the young squaws gradually 
opened their eyes to the fact that the  

white shining things enhanced the charms
 of their smooth copper skins  by       
contrast3 the brave sought them to      
please the maid he would bring  to his  
tepee3 perhaps rovers brought news that 
in the far south1 in  lands of houses   
and teocalli and much magnificence1 or  
farther off  among the ,incas1 these    
baubles were prized by the chiefs4 ,so  
gradually  it dawned upon some that the 
eggs of the mollusk were beautiful1 and 
upon others that they could be bartered 
for skins1 blankets1 or arrows1         
possibly for a pony1 and so they came to
 be gathered and stored and  displayed  
as things which enriched the owner4     
,how far back in the ages the use of    
pearls on this continent extends  cannot
 be estimated4 ,the discovery of them in
 the mounds east of  the ,mississippi1  
which are credited to an ancient race   
that finally  succumbed to the similar  
but more war-like red men found here    
when  the country was discovered by     
,europeans1 suggests many centuries4    

,and  the use of pearls to the extent   
manifest by the discoveries1 favors  the
 theory that the mound-builders had     
reached a degree of refinement  never   
attained by the ,north ,american        
,indians of record4 ,when white men     
invaded the ,north ,american continent1 
they found tribes of red men as  rugged 
as the coasts of ,new ,england4 ,inured 
to hardships1 despising  pain1          
contemptuous of death1 they lived by    
hunting and found their  chief pleasure 
in the slaughter of their enemies4      
,camping at will1  their lodges were    
here to-day and there to-morrow1 and    
brutal if  heroic1 they roamed over     
fields once inhabited by a race which   
had  passed1 but left evidence that they
 were sufficiently civilized to         
appreciate the pearl4    ,in ,florida   
and ,south ,america1 the conditions1    
when the country was  discovered by the 
,spaniards1 were different4 ,the ancient
 races1  corresponding with the         
mound-builders of the north1 undisturbed

 by  the incursions of stronger tribes1 
had continued to progress and had       
reached a high degree of barbarous      
luxury4    ,in ,mexico1 when ,montezuma 
gave audience to ,cortez1 he was ablaze 
with  gold and silver and precious      
stones4 ,his cloak and sandals were     
adorned  with pearls4 ,pearls were used 
to decorate temples1 canoes and even the
  paddles4 ,indian women had great      
strings of them coiled around their     
necks and arms1 and the chiefs used them
 freely on all occasions of  state4 ,it 
was the same on the ,colombian coasts4  
,at the island of ,cubagua and on the   
main coast1 ,columbus found great       
quantities of pearls1 as did ,de ,soto  
and his followers when they landed  at  
,tampa ,bay1 known by the ,spaniards as 
,spiritu ,santo1 in ,florida  in #aeci4 
,the ,incas of ,peru also owned many    
fine pearls4 ,though the  natives of all
 these countries ignorantly injured the 
gems by cooking  the oyster to extract  
them1 or by their crude methods of      

boring1 and  reckoned them of little    
value as compared with the ,european    
idea1 they  nevertheless esteemed them  
as jewels and must have done so for     
ages1  for the invaders found them in   
the sepulchres of the dead1 so altered  
by the processes of time that they      
retained nothing of their original      
beauty4    ,from these premises         
therefore it can be said of the         
antiquity of the  pearl in this         
hemisphere1 that it had been used as a  
jewel for some  centuries before the    
early part of the sixteenth century4    
,the ,european regard for the pearl at  
this time may be estimated by the       
eagerness with which pearls were sought 
on the ,american continent by  the      
adventurers of ,spain1 and by the pains 
they took on the arrival  here of a new 
expedition1 to convey assurances to the 
,king of ,spain  that pearls were to be 
had in the new conquest4 ,in the        
commission  appointing ,de ,soto to the 
governorship of ,cuba1 and as adelantado

 of  ,florida1 ,charles ,v4 stipulated  
that of the gold1 silver1 stones and    
pearls1 obtained by barter or in battle 
or otherwise1 a certain portion  should 
be reserved for the ,crown4    ,in all  
the courts of ,europe during the        
fifteenth and sixteenth  centuries the  
pearl was1 if not the chief1 one of the 
most prominent  jewels4 ,mary1 ,queen of
 ,scots1 possessed a rosary of pearls   
which  excited the envy of ,catherine de
 ,mdicis and ,elizabeth of ,england1    
both  of whom sought diligently to      
acquire them when the ,scotch ,queen    
became  mired by misfortune4    ,the    
virgin queen of ,england when she went  
in state to chapel1 wore  pendent pearls
 in her ears after the fashion of ,rome1
 and borders of  large pearls fastened  
on her dress4 ,when in her time ,sir    
,thomas ,gresham  of ,london1 a wealthy 
subject1 wished to show the ,spanish    
,ambassador1  who had boasted of the    
magnificence of his ,sovereign's court1 
how  prodigal her liege subjects could  

be in her honor1 nothing occurred to    
him more striking than to grind to      
powder a large pearl and mix it with    
the wine he drank to her health4 ,this  
act of the ,english merchant shows  that
 the pearl was then regarded by the     
great as the acme of costliness  and    
beauty4    ,from the reign of ,francis  
,i4 of ,france to that of ,louis ,,xiii4
 the  pearl was prominent in all jewels 
of note1 and from that time to the      
death of ,maria ,theresa of ,austria    
toward the close of the eighteenth      
century1 it was worn in preference to   
all other gems4 ,it was during the      
reign of ,louis ,,xiii4 that ,tavernier1
 the celebrated ,french ,jeweller and   
traveller1 assisted by that monarch1    
made his journeys into ,asia4 ,the      
account of his travels1 published later1
 are highly esteemed for their          
truthfulness1 and are regarded as exact1
 if prosaic statements of fact4    ,the 
desire for the gem in ,europe at this   
time was so great that  ,tavernier      

purchased over half a million dollars'  
worth from the ,arabian  ,sea4 ,probably
 the immense quantities of pearls sent  
to ,spain from the  ,indies by her      
rovers in the early part of the         
sixteenth century1 caused  the vogue of 
that gem during the three centuries     
following1 for not  much mention is made
 of them in western ,europe prior to    
that time4  ,nevertheless pearls were   
esteemed in the ,british ,isles as early
 as the  eleventh century1 for it is    
recorded that ,gilbert1 ,bishop of      
,limerick1  sent a present of ,irish    
pearls from the fishery at ,omagh1 to   
,anselm1  ,archbishop of ,canterbury1   
about #ajid1 and ,scotch pearls were not
 only  in demand in ,britain but on the 
continent also as early as the twelfth  
century4 ,in #acee1 the ,parisian       
goldsmiths forbade by statute1 workers  
in gold and silver to set ,scotch pearls
 with the ,oriental4    ,the ,oriental  
pearl probably came into ,europe first  
from ,egypt through  the incursions of  

the ,macedonians into that country4     
,later1 when  ,alexander overran ,persia
 his followers doubtless became yet more
  familiar with the gem1 for they spread
 through ,arabia and the ,persian  ,gulf
 where ancient fisheries also existed4  
,pearls were not well known west and    
north of ,asia and ,africa at this      
time1 for a writer of ,mytilene in the  
island of ,lesbos1 about #cej ,b4,c41   
which was but a few years before        
,alexander's conquest of ,persia1 says3 
,in the ,indian ,sea1 off the coasts of 
,armenia1 ,persia1 ,susiana and         
,babylonia1 a fish like an oyster is    
caught1 from the flesh of which men     
pick out white bones called by them     
'pearls'4 ,this would indicate that     
knowledge of them was being carried at  
that time by returning soldiers1        
camp-followers and travellers1 and these
 men probably brought home  also many of
 the white bones obtained by trade or   
looting4 ,whatever  the method by which 
they were introduced1 pearls came into  

favor1 and  the favor increased as they 
were brought with other jewels from the 
looted treasuries of eastern potentates4
 ,the ,macedonians established          
fisheries in the ,red ,sea1 where the   
,egyptians obtained their chief  supply1
 and the ,romans later brought them also
 from the ,arabian ,sea4    ,three      
centuries ,b4,c41 the power of the      
,macedonians commenced to wane2  ,rome  
began to rise and overrun the countries 
which had been subject  to the          
,macedonians2 and pearls were thereby   
carried further west4 ,the  ,romans     
adopted the pearl as a jewel of the     
first importance if not  the chief of   
all1 probably because they had found    
them so regarded by  the older royalties
 they plundered4 ,as the riches of      
surrounding and  far-off countries which
 she raided1 poured into the coffers of 
,rome1  and the city grew to be the     
centre of power and wealth1 the excesses
  of the rich became ludicrous to the   
verge of insanity4 ,in their wild       

extravagances the pearl was prominent4  
,affected doubtless by the splendor of  
,asiatic courts1 the rude soldiers  of  
,rome learned to regard the pearl as a  
royal luxury1 and therefore  adopted it 
as a sign of great wealth and power4    
,enormous sums were paid  for pearls of 
rare size and beauty4 ,great leaders of 
men vied with  each other in the effort 
to add to their collections4 ,it is said
 that  ,julius ,csar's chief incentive  
for pushing his conquests into the west 
so far1 was his desire to obtain the    
pearls to be found in the streams  of   
the ,british ,isles4 ,the ,emperor      
,caligula decked his favorite horse     
with a necklace of pearls4 ,pliny says  
of ,lollia ,paulina1 ,caligula's  wife1 
that he had seen her so bedecked with   
pearls and precious stones  that she    
glittered and shone like the sun as she 
went4 ,clodius1 the  glutton1 claiming  
for them a very delicate flavor1 placed 
one by the  plate of each guest at a    
great banquet to be mixed with the wine4

 ,this  same profligate1 either setting 
the example or emulating ,cleopatra1    
swallowed in a cup of wine one worth    
eight thousand pounds that he  might    
have the pleasure of consuming so much  
value at once4    ,if in the intrigues  
so common then1 a woman's influence was 
required1  pearls were given her4 ,to   
convey an indirect bribe to a man of    
high  station a pearl of great price was
 presented to a member of his family4   
,women wore them while they slept that  
they might possess them in their        
dreams2 they hung them in loose clusters
 suspended from the ears1  that the     
tinkling might remind them of the beauty
 they could not see1  and to attract the
 admiration and envy of others4 ,these  
were called  crotalia1 meaning rattles4 
,young men of fortune in ,athens and    
,rome  followed the ,persian fashion of 
wearing one in the right ear1 hung as a 
clapper in a small bell of metal4 ,so   
strong and general did the desire  to   
own them become that ,csar forbade      

unmarried women1 and women under  a     
certain rank1 to wear them4    ,perhaps 
never in the history of jewels has the  
vogue of one so nearly  approached a    
frenzy as that of the pearl in ,rome    
during her days of  extreme power and   
grandeur4 ,the high esteem in which it  
was held there  is reflected in the     
,scriptures4 ,the ,saviour used it in   
,his parables as  a symbol4 ,the gates  
of the ,holy ,city1 as the prophet ,john
 saw it in  his vision1 were pearls4    
,from that time until now1 writers have 
used  pearls to symbolize purity1       
innocence and the highest type of       
feminine  beauty4 ,to say that a woman's
 teeth were like pearls has been the    
poets' favorite adulation1 and the      
discovery and sale of great pearls  has 
been deemed of sufficient importance by 
travellers and historians  to record    
them4    ,much of the literature of     
pearls is founded on the statements of  
,pliny  regarding them3 many1 if not    
most1 of the absurd beliefs as to their 

origin and superstitions concerning     
them1 may be traced to the same  source2
 and though these ancient errors have   
been repeatedly exposed  by later       
scientists and naturalists the poetic   
absurdities of the  industrious ,roman  
compiler1 gathered from contemporaneous 
writers and  tradition are current      
to-day1 for they appeal more to the     
child-like  human love of the indefinite
 wonderful than the exact statements of 
research1 though the latter are really  
more marvellous4    ,though jewels are  
regarded by many as baubles and of      
little account  among the great         
commercial interests of the world1 they 
have been  an important factor in       
shaping the destiny of nations1 changing
  the borders of great countries and    
thereby aiding the progress of          
civilization4 ,as pearls helped         
materially to bring ,rome to the        
,british  ,isles and the colonists of   
,spain to ,south ,america1 so it is     
quite  probable that the pearls of      

,egypt had their influence in drawing   
the  ,macedonians to that country1 to be
 followed by the ,romans when the       
latter sought to overturn the           
,macedonian empire4 ,beyond this1 their 
influence among those who held the reins
 in the government of empires1  or those
 having power with them that did1 cannot
 be estimated4    ,passing beyond the   
days of ,greece and ,rome to more remote
 times and  countries1 we come to the   
realms of conjecture4 ,we know that     
pearls  were known and used as jewels in
 ,egypt under the ,ptolemies4 ,chares of
  ,mytilene mentioned that they were    
worn by women of the ,east about the    
neck and arms and even upon the feet4   
,it is said there is a word for  them in
 a ,chinese dictionary four thousand    
years old4    ,there is evidence that   
they had been used in ,india and the far
 ,east  long before the ,west had       
knowledge of those countries1 but we    
have  nothing recorded which penetrates 
the past beyond three to four  hundred  

years ,b4,c41 for there is not as much  
mention made of them in  ancient        
writings familiar to the ,west as of    
other precious stones4  ,nevertheless   
the pearl is among the most ancient in  
the nomenclature  of jewels because when
 it did come to be written of only the  
one thing  could be meant4 ,nature      
produces nothing similar with which it  
could  be confounded1 whereas it is not 
certain that the diamond1 ruby1 and     
other stones as we know them1 were      
intended when the names by which we     
designate them were used4 ,such         
indiscriminate use of names has been    
made by translators that it is difficult
 to determine what the stones  really   
were about which ancient authors wrote4 
,the names of those in  the ,jewish     
,high ,priest's breastplate1 given in   
our ,english version of  the ,old       
,testament1 undoubtedly misrepresent the
 stones actually used1  and the only    
thing authorities agree upon regarding  
the names is that  they are incorrect4  

,as there was no definite knowledge of  
the crystallography and chemistry  of   
stones in the old days1 writers referred
 to them often in general  terms rather 
than by specific names1 and these were  
translated into the  names of later     
times according to the understanding of 
the translator1  who had neither expert 
knowledge of his own nor reliable       
literature  from which to gather        
information or guidance4 ,an            
illustration of this  general confusion 
occurs in the book of ,job ,,xxviii4    
#ah4 ,it is written  there1 ,no mention 
shall be made of coral1 or of pearls2   
for the price  of wisdom is above       
rubies4 ,scholars tell us that the words
 translated  here coral and pearls1     
signify found in high places1 and are   
thought to be precious stones though the
 variety is unknown4 ,the ,targum       
renders the first ,sandalchin1 probably 
our sardonyx4 ,junius and  ,tremellius  
translated it ,sandaztros in their      
,latin version of the ,old  ,testament1 

whereas ,pliny described it as a sort of
 carbuncle having  shining golden drops 
in the body of it4    ,after the same   
manner the last sentence1 ,for the price
 of wisdom is  above rubies is rendered 
by the great oriental scholar ,bochart1 
,the  extraction of wisdom is greater   
than the extraction of pearls1 and      
other authorities agree with him4       
,although there is evidence that many if
 not all the precious stones  of to-day 
were known and used by the ancients1 it 
is equally evident  that they were much 
confounded and very roughly classified  
by general  appearance only1 and as     
various peoples gave them different     
names1 all  records of them are as      
misleading as the recorders were        
ignorant of  their differential         
qualities4 ,even with the rapid increase
 of knowledge  in the last few          
centuries1 not until quite lately has   
science drawn the  lines clearly between
 stones similar in appearance though    
essentially  different and furnished    

means for the detection of those        
inherent  differences4 ,it is impossible
 therefore to learn by ancient writings 
how long any of the precious stones have
 been known and used as jewels1  for we 
do not know positively what the stone   
was by the name given in  old writings  
or by the translator of them4 ,the pearl
 only has not been  thus generally      
confounded with other gems4    ,once    
only are pearls mentioned in the ,old   
,testament--the instance  quoted from   
the book of ,job4 ,it would seem        
therefore1 that although  used as       
jewels1 they were not regarded as of    
great value in the ,east  prior to about
 #djj years ,b4,c41 at which time the   
last of the sacred  ,jewish books is    
supposed to have been written4 ,true1   
royalty wore them  in ,egypt and the    
people of ,persia and ,arabia used them 
very generally  for personal adornment2 
but they were abundant in those         
countries and  there had been no demand 
for them beyond their borders1          

therefore1  though beautiful1 they were 
common and not appreciated fully4 ,upon 
the  influx of foreign invaders from    
shores that yielded no such gems their  
status changed rapidly4 ,the greedy     
avidity with which ,greeks and ,romans  
seized them1 and the demand for them    
from the ,west which came later1  gave  
these natives of pearl-producing shores 
a new idea of the value of  their pearls
 and the trinkets became gems4    ,it   
was a condition similar to that which   
arose nineteen hundred years  later when
 the ,spaniards invaded ,america4 ,at   
their first coming the  natives gave    
them freely large quantities of pearls  
and gleefully  traded magnificent gems  
for broken pieces of gaudily painted and
  varnished porcelain4 ,as one to-day   
might take a new acquaintance for  a    
day's fishing to a well-stocked stream1 
so the ,indians took the  ,spaniards to 
the pearl banks to show them how they   
obtained their  pearls4 ,with pleasure  
and probably some amusement1 they       

watched the  eagerness with which the   
strangers sought the pearls1 and        
doubtless  wondered at the gratification
 displayed when they found any4    ,the 
,egyptians and ,asiatics being more     
highly civilized undoubtedly  valued    
their pearls more than the ,south       
,american ,indians did1 but  naturally  
they would not appreciate them so highly
 as they did after  foreign desire had  
depleted their hoards and established a 
constant  demand for them1 greater than 
the yield of their fisheries4    ,that  
this condition prevailed in ,egypt and  
,asia prior to the advent  of           
,europeans1 is indicated by the apparent
 ignorance of the writer of  the book of
 ,job concerning pearls4 ,the word used 
in ,chapter ,,xxviii4  #ah is simply the
 translator's sign for an unknown       
quantity1 and as  the pearl is an apt   
symbol and illustration of many ideas   
connected  with or embodied in the cult 
of the ,jewish ,church1 the fact that   
the  ,jewish writers did not so use it1 

though the precious metals and other    
precious stones were so used1 and though
 their books were written  in various   
countries1 suggests that the pearl in   
those days was not  reckoned of equal   
importance with gold and silver and     
stones like those  set in the ,jewish   
,high ,priest's breastplate for         
instance4    ,that a very considerable  
change in the world's estimate of the   
pearl  took place during the four       
centuries ,b4,c4 is illustrated by the  
references made to pearls in the ,new   
,testament4 ,rome had made of the  white
 bones from a shell-fish of the fourth  
century ,b4,c41 a gem for  the rich and 
powerful and so generally established it
 in the public  estimation that the     
sacred writers used it to illustrate    
their greatest  conceptions of beauty   
and spiritual worth4    ,the ,saviour   
likened the ,kingdom of ,heaven to a    
pearl of great price3  under the        
similitude of pearls ,he counseled the  
reservation of holy  things from men    

incapable of appreciating them4 ,paul   
and ,john numbered  them among the      
costly adornments in the pride of life  
and with  the most precious articles of 
merchandise4 ,from that day1 with the   
extension of commerce1 and the growth of
 ,western nations in affluence  and     
refinement1 the demand for pearls grew  
and spread until even the  rude island  
of ,britain learned to appreciate them4 
,the quantities of large and beautiful  
pearls stored in the  treasure-houses of
 ,hindu princes suggest that they have  
existed as  jewels in ,india for a very 
long period1 but for how many centuries 
cannot be definitely stated4 ,the       
probability is that in very remote      
ages1 rude fishermen of tropic seas all 
over the world1 while fishing  for food 
were attracted by the lustrous objects  
found occasionally in  the oysters which
 they gathered and that they saved them 
as things  likely to please some maid or
 matron of their affections4 ,a favor   
for  them once established1 they would  

be sought1 and with the growth of       
intelligence and refinement would come  
increased appreciation4 ,there is  a    
close analogy in all things between the 
development of the individual  and      
nations1 and even of the world4 ,each   
progresses on the same lines1  the      
difference consists in the magnitude and
 duration of the processes  only4    ,to
 the child1 pearls are playthings2 to   
youth1 pretty baubles2 to  mature years1
 important gems2 to age1 most beautiful 
and wonderful  creations1 and the more  
intelligent and refined the individual1 
the  more quickly are these stages of   
regard reached4    ,so probably1 in     
countries where they were found1 pearls 
have risen  with the evolution of a     
great nation out of a primitive race1   
from the  rude favor of toilers of the  
sea1 to a high place in the esteem of   
the  princes of a cultivated people4 ,it
 is quite probable that when the        
,aryans from the north spread over      
,india1 they found pearls among the     

possessions of the natives of the       
,madras and ,malabar coasts1 if not of  
the interior and north1 as ,spain found 
them among the natives of ,south        
,america4 ,having a higher order of     
intelligence1 they would naturally      
estimate the gem as of greater value    
than the aborigines would4    ,as the   
invaders in the course of centuries     
gradually divided themselves  into      
castes1 the gem would come largely into 
the hands of the highest  and its value 
would increase with the affluence of the
 ruling class1  according to the ratio  
existing between their wealth and that  
of the  average community2 for the      
centralization of wealth establishes a  
price  for its imperishable forms which 
debars the masses from ownership4 ,so1  
probably1 the ,aryans from the north    
acquired the pearls they found in  the  
possession of the ,dasyus4 ,when the    
shepherd invaders were settled  in the  
territory they had conquered and became 
divided into castes  of ,vaisyas1       

,kshattriya and ,brahman1 pearls        
gravitated to the upper  classes1 to be 
garnered later by their princes as the  
government  assumed a tyrannical form2  
and so it is that the great pearls of   
,india  found in ancient times are among
 the jewels of the princes of ,india1 or
  of the ,shah of ,persia and the       
,afghan ,ameers1 who in turn looted some
 of  the richest treasuries of ,india4  
,in countries east of ,india one can    
only imagine the history of pearls  for 
there are no records of them4 ,year     
after year1 for centuries and  cycles1  
in undiscovered deeps1 the beds of the  
sea were strewn with  noble gems that   
through all their years of beauty lay   
neglected3 the  soft luster of          
succeeding charms appealed in vain for  
eyes which never  came1 and when the    
slow processes of time had brought decay
 they passed  unseen to the catacombs of
 ,nature4    ,so it was in many a tropic
 sea1 on unknown shores and about       
islands  holding strange creatures and  

stranger men4 ,in the still1 clear      
waters  of far-away lagoons1 treasures  
of pearls1 released by the death of     
their creators1 have rolled to a        
resting-place on coral reefs1 to lie    
there until the sea1 atom by atom1      
devoured them4 ,could all the pearls    
hoarded by every nation on earth be     
gathered together1 the mighty sum  would
 be small compared with the number of   
those which lie buried  beneath the     
ocean4    ,but1 one by one1 slant-eyed  
,celestials1 ,maoris1 ,malays1 ,papuans1
  ,polynesians and others1 discovering1 
learned to prize and hoard the  pearl4  
,then came men from far-off wonderlands1
 whose great ships spread  their sails  
to the winds of the deep waters and who 
could endure for  many days the         
solitudes of the great seas4 ,these in  
the early days made  war to plunder1 but
 were replaced as the centuries passed1 
by others  who gave gaudy beads and     
cloths of many colors and water that    
fired the  soul and other wonderful     

things1 in exchange for the white beads 
of the  sea1 and so the pearls of the   
unenlightened children of the ,south    
,seas  passed to the princes of the     
,west1 even as the same restless        
spirits1  spreading their sails to the  
winds of the great seas in the opposite 
direction1 brought them east from more  
barbarous shores far away to the        
westward4    ,our knowledge of pearls   
reaches back about twenty-three hundred 
years1  through the writings of ,pliny1 
who nearly nineteen hundred years ago   
gathered the facts of his day and the   
rumors of traditions concerning  them4  
,beyond that we can only surmise that in
 prehistoric ages1 with  the dawn of    
intelligence in the infantile period of 
the race1 men  dwelling near tropic seas
 were attracted by them as children are 
by  bright and pretty baubles2 and that 
as humanity by families1 tribes and     
nations1 grew out of savagery to the    
mental stature of a man1 so pearls  grew
 to be jewels very precious4            

,,the ,,fashion ,,of ,,pearls           
,although the pearl like all other      
jewels1 has had its periods of  extreme 
and general public favor1 unlike other  
gems if it is once  appreciated by an   
individual or a nation it is never      
utterly discarded  by either4 ,if not   
the fashion1 pearls are always in       
fashion4 ,far as we  can look back among
 the dim1 uncertain figures of the      
mystic past whose  shades stand where   
the unknown multitudes have fallen1 we  
find pearls4    ,the princes of ,india  
through all their generations1 the      
dynasties of  ,egypt1 the royalties of  
,persia1 the wild chiefs of ,arab       
tribes1 the  potentates of ,greece1     
,rome and ,venice1 the houris of        
,turkey1 the ,queens  of every ,european
 court1 from the time they found a place
 in history  until now1 all wear pearls4
 ,at first thought this seems strange1  
for  of all gems the origin of the pearl
 is most humble4 ,no titanic forces1    
groaning in the travail of subterranean 

convulsions1 crushed and ground  and    
fired its particles to shape and beauty4
 ,it grew1 a few fathoms  deep1 where   
the waters are at peace1 in the embrace 
of a mollusk and  out of its exudations4
    ,illustration3 ,,princess ,,abamalek
 ,,lazareff    7 ,from the painting by  
,vitelleschi 7    ,from this lowly      
parentage it rises at once to a place   
among the  noblest1 for it is the       
aristocrat of gems and finds its warmest
  admirers among the aristocrats of all 
nations4 ,the favorites of fortune  the 
world over in all ages have succumbed to
 the modest beauty of the  pearl4 ,its  
ascendancy marks not alone the          
refinement of the individuals  with whom
 it finds favor1 but the high status of 
the nation where it  is widely          
appreciated4 ,the pearl is the favorite 
of those who are  surfeited with jewels4
 ,one may become tired of the diamond's 
splendor1  but those who learn to       
appreciate the unobtrusive loveliness of
 the  pearl1 seldom lose that fondness  

for them which it develops4 ,it is  the 
one gem which does not satiate4 ,the    
love of pearls usually marks  a         
connoisseur of gems and one accustomed  
to the possession of jewels4  ,diamonds 
emblazon the gates of luxury but pearls 
are the familiars of  the luxurious4    
,glittering gems are admired by all     
classes but usually  the pearl is fully 
appreciated only by old countries and   
persons to  the manor born4 ,it is in   
the treasure-houses of the princes of   
the  ,orient and among the jewels of    
great and noble families that one must  
look for the pearls gathered during the 
centuries4 ,except in ,italy and        
,arabia1 where all classes prize them1  
the pearl is not a jewel of the  people1
 but of the gentry and the very rich who
 come in contact with  them4    ,it is  
essentially a jewel for the wealthy4    
,unostentatious1 exquisite1  it is      
insufficient for those who have no other
 jewels and unfit for  common wear4 ,of 
a nature too delicate for rough usage1  

it must be well  cared for and properly 
housed4 ,even then the hand of time     
bears heavily  upon it for it is        
susceptible to many influences which do 
not affect  other gems4 ,comparatively  
soft1 the lustrous skin is injured by   
rough  and careless contact with other  
jewels4 ,the gold of the setting1 in    
time1 cuts into the surface where it    
binds1 or if it is pierced and  strung1 
the rings of nacre about the orifices   
gradually peel away4 ,hot  water injures
 it2 gases discolor it4 ,as the cheek of
 beauty grows dim  with age1 so         
gradually the brilliancy of youth fades 
from the pearl  and the complexion of it
 is changed4 ,and yet it retains a      
certain  loveliness which may well be   
compared to the exquisite serenity with 
which the maturer years of some women   
are adorned4    ,the pearl1 therefore1  
being essentially a jewel of the rich1  
is not  affected as others by the whims 
of fashion4 ,in ,oriental countries1    
where the lives of the masses and what  

little property they hold are           
practically at the mercy of their       
rulers1 the centuries make little       
change in conditions and less in        
fashions4 ,the nobles have always       
possessed the jewels of the various     
eastern countries and the fashion       
continues through generations and       
dynasties1 to accumulate and hold  them 
until some stronger power takes them    
away by force4 ,as the people  hammered 
heavy bracelets and anklets out of the  
precious metals1 not  alone for display1
 but also to hoard them1 so their       
princes hoarded  jewels4    ,in the old 
times these hoards of the precious      
metals were periodically  gathered by   
the requisitions of the princes on the  
people1 and of  jewels by the demands of
 a successful invader upon the princes2 
but  while the possessors changed1 the  
fashion remained always the same1 and   
whether the ,shah of ,persia1 the ,ameer
 of ,afghanistan1 or the ,mogul1  there 
has been no variation in the constant   

desire to obtain more  jewels1 pearls   
among them1 and to display them after   
the same fashion  through all the       
generations4    ,to some extent this is 
true of pearls in the ,occident also4   
,since  ,rome set the fashion there has 
not been a time in the history of any   
,european nation1 once it had risen to  
the pearl-wearing eminence1 when  the   
upper classes did not wear pearls4      
,there is this difference between  the  
,east and the ,west however2 whereas the
 men of the ,east wear them1  in the    
,west1 pearls are worn almost entirely  
by women alone4 ,the more  rugged life  
of ,european men1 the coarser fabrics of
 their garments to  suit climatic needs1
 and their virile distaste for          
effeminate display1  all combine to bar 
them from a jewel suited only to soft   
silks and  linens or the touch of softer
 flesh4    ,in ancient times1 among     
,asiatics1 fashion probably did not     
culminate  in any direction1 as to-day1 
in a vogue4 ,the inability of the masses

  to follow a fashion of the upper      
classes1 both for lack of means and     
permission to do so2 the absence of all 
rapid methods of communication  between 
sections of country within and without  
national borders1  with the consequent  
limitations of a knowledge of men and   
things to  community affairs1 and the   
paucity of manufacturing possibilities1 
all combined to make fashions permanent4
 ,with the awakening of the  vigorous   
barbarian tribes of ,europe to a        
knowledge of their power1 and  their    
rapid civilization1 came the frenzied   
desire of men new to the  situation1 to 
crowd as much as possible into the span 
of life4    ,rome rioted in the         
accumulations of ages4 ,with an appetite
 whetted by  an heredity of unsatisfied 
desire1 she drank the finest vintages   
and  gourmandized the choicest morsels  
of the world1 immune from present       
punishment for excess by a long ancestry
 of hard and simple life4 ,every  land  
that she could reach1 sent to her the   

best of all their products1  and from   
the incoming tide of things new to her  
experience1 she  adopted many fashions1 
among them that of wearing pearls4 ,for 
several  centuries they were in vogue1  
so much so that edicts were issued      
restricting them to certain classes4    
,since that time1 the very general  use 
of them by persons of high station in   
,europe1 beyond all other  gems1 seems  
to have been confined to the seventeenth
 and eighteenth  centuries and is now   
being revived at the opening of the     
twentieth4    ,there is one fashion of  
wearing pearls which is common to all   
ages  and races1 viz4 strung as beads in
 chains to hang about the neck4 ,the    
mound-builders of ,north ,america1 the  
,indians of the ,mississippi ,valley1   
of ,virginia1 of the coasts of ,florida1
 of the lands around the ,gulf  of      
,mexico and everywhere in ,new ,spain1  
all wore them so4 ,egyptians1           
,persians1 ,arabians1 ,hindus1          
,singhalese and ,south ,sea islanders1  

many of  them without knowledge of      
countries or peoples beyond their own or
 very  near territory1 alike adopted    
this fashion4 ,and it has been followed 
by  every newer people1 as they acquired
 by trade or the sword1 the pearls  with
 which to so adorn themselves4    ,in   
lands of tropic heat the women wound    
these strings of pearls about  their    
arms1 wrists and ankles also4 ,nor was  
the fashion confined to  women4 ,when   
the ,spaniards first reached these      
shores1 the caciques of  ,florida and   
the incas of ,peru1 on occasions of     
,state1 wore ropes of  pearls around    
their necks1 and so to this day do the  
rajahs and princes  of ,india and the   
eastern islands4 ,the more civilized    
peoples used round  pearls1 and became  
more critical about the quality and     
perfection of  the gems as they grew in 
wealth and refinement4    ,the necklaces
 found in the ,indian mounds are made   
principally of  baroques1 some of them  
rounded1 but many of them long1 slender 

pieces1  bored a short distance from the
 thinner end1 so that they hung in      
pendant festoons4 ,as with all primitive
 races1 the magnificence of  size       
appealed to the ,indians of this        
hemisphere1 as it did also to  the      
,spanish adventurers who first landed on
 the coasts of ,america4 ,a  chronicler 
of events during the time when ,de ,soto
 was governor of the  province which now
 forms several of the ,southern ,states1
 mentions that  a cacique brought as a  
present to the governor at the town of  
,ichiaha1  a string of pearls as large  
as filberts1 five feet long4    ,it is  
noticeable1 that in all the accounts    
given of the wealth of  pearls          
discovered in the possession of the     
natives1 the ,spaniards  rarely say     
anything about the shape or quality of  
the pearls seen  or taken1 but always   
mention the size when large4 ,they do1  
however1  constantly deplore the        
discoloration caused by the use of fire 
in  the process of boring them4 ,one may

 imagine the chagrin of these           
freebooters on finding heaps of royal   
gems wrecked by the ignorance  of the   
plundered2 the value burned out of them1
 like bank notes for  millions mutilated
 beyond redemption4 ,the pearls         
composing this  five-foot string were   
all discolored1--good enough for        
,indians1 but of  little value in ,spain
 and ,europe4    ,round baroques are    
strung for necklaces to this day1       
especially  in ,italy1 where the        
peasantry save from their small earnings
 the  equivalent of two to three hundred
 dollars1 to them an enormous sum1  to  
buy the coveted necklace of pearls4     
,these necklaces are composed  usually  
of several strands of small rounded     
baroques weighing about  one to two     
grains each and connected by bars4      
,usually there are three  to five       
strands1 but some are made with as many 
as eleven or twelve4  ,necklaces are    
made also in the same way1 of small     
round pearls1 and the  bars1 of which   

there are generally four1 including that
 containing the  clasp1 are studded with
 diamonds4    ,the ,asiatics prefer     
strings of large pearls1 graduating in  
size on  either side from a large       
central one4 ,a number of these of      
increasing  length and fastened together
 at the clasp are worn by ,oriental     
royalties1 so that each string festoons 
below the preceding one1 the  lowest and
 longest string sometimes hanging to the
 waist4 ,there are few  however even    
among the ,hindu princes whose store of 
large pearls is  equal to such          
prodigality4    ,when pearl necklaces   
were adopted by the ,romans after their 
conquests  in ,egypt1 ,persia and       
,india1 they vied with the monarchs they
 had  conquered1 some of their rulers   
acquiring pearls of enormous value4 ,the
  wife of ,caligula owned pearls worth  
two million dollars1 but ,oriental      
treasure-houses held greater            
accumulations4 ,the pearls of the late  
,rana  of ,dholpur in ,upper ,india1    

were valued at seven and a half million 
dollars4 ,from ,rome the fashion spread 
with the advance of civilization        
through all the nations of ,europe and  
followed their colonizations  westward4 
,only in the last decade has the use of 
pearls in the ,united  ,states become   
sufficiently general to place them in   
the list of things  that are a fashion4 
,many large pearls of pear1 egg1 or drop
 shape1 and some round1 are used  as    
pendants1 to be hung on slender gold    
neck chains1 or suspended from  brooches
 of diamonds4 ,they are bored at the    
smaller end to a depth of  about        
one-eighth of an inch1 the hole is      
filled with a composition  which hardens
 rapidly1 and in this a gold wire1      
looped at one end for  connecting1 is   
inserted4 ,formerly the pearl was       
drilled quite through  and the          
suspending wire riveted1 but this is    
rarely done now as it  lessens the value
 of the pearl and destroys the perfect  
pendant effect4  ,this is a ,european   

fashion4 ,the ,chinese mount pearls by  
boring into  the body of the pearl at   
two1 three or four points and inserting 
the  bent ends of spreading wires so    
that the gem is clasped as by spreading 
finger tips4    ,pear-shaped pearls were
 used in ,rome for pendant purposes as  
now and  were known as elenchi4 ,after  
the ,roman fashion of crotalia or       
castanet eardrops had passed1 drop      
pearls continued in more or less  favor 
throughout succeeding centuries as      
eardrops1 the matching of one  nearly   
doubling the value of both4 ,of late1   
egg and pear-shaped pearls  have been   
used largely as heads for scarf pins4   
,they are drilled and  set on a gold    
wire or pegged as it is called1 in the  
manner described  for pendants but with 
the smaller end resting upon a light    
gold ring  soldered to the scarf pin1 or
 in a small cup1 so that the pressure1  
while inserting the pin1 is distributed 
over the body of the pearl and  upon the
 end1 instead of upon the inner wall in 

contact with the end of  the pin4       
,the ,persians used pearls largely in   
the jewelling of royal headgear1  for   
,pompey is said to have brought home    
twenty crowns of pearls with  the loot  
from his eastern raid4 ,hindu princes   
strung them on straight  wires of equal 
length and bound a number of them       
together1 to be  fastened as pompons or 
aigrettes1 to their turbans4 ,they      
encrusted and  edged their robes with   
them as also did the royalties and      
nobles of  ,europe during the middle    
ages4 ,seed pearls were strung in       
lengths of  four to six feet and the    
strands twisted together like a rope4   
,this  fashion continues to this day1   
such ropes of pearls sometimes measuring
  five feet in length4    ,the          
semi-barbarous ,indian tribes of        
,america did not confine the use  of    
pearls altogether to personal adornment4
 ,they decorated their  idols1 state    
canoes1 the handles of the paddles1 and 
the figures in  their temples with them1

 and they buried enormous quantities in 
the  sepulchres with their dead4 ,there 
is no evidence that this latter form  of
 extravagance was at any time general in
 ,asia or ,europe1 but ,julius  ,csar   
made a buckler of ,british pearls which 
he hung up in the temple  of ,venus     
,genetrix after dedicating it to her4   
,among the ancients it does not appear  
that pearls were used in  connection    
with the precious metals to a great     
extent4 ,collars of gold  and silver    
with large pearls as pendants were      
sometimes seen upon the  necks of       
,indians by the ,spaniards when they    
landed on this continent1  but in ,asia1
 ,africa1 and upon their first          
introduction into ,europe1  pearls were 
not used with the metals as freely as   
other gems4 ,as the  art of the jeweller
 developed however1 they came into more 
general  use and are now utilized with  
gold in every form of jewelry4 ,round   
and button pearls with diamonds or other
 stones1 or alone1 are set in  gold as  

brooches1 ear-rings1 finger-rings1      
bracelets1 hair-ornaments1  scarf-pins1 
dress-pins1 studs1 cuff and dress       
buttons1 etc41 and  baroques are also   
used for the same purposes4 ,brooches1  
lockets and  pendants are paved with    
solid masses of half pearls4    ,some   
ancient swords of ,hindu warriors betray
 a curious custom4 ,a groove  with      
over-lapping edges was sunk in the blade
 and into this pearls were  introduced  
from the hilt end to represent the tears
 of enemies4 ,there  are blades so      
constructed in the collection of ,indian
 swords presented  to ,king ,edward of  
,england when1 as the ,prince of ,wales1
 he visited  ,india4    ,jewellers      
frequently avail themselves of the odd  
shapes in which  baroques occur to      
construct unique jewels4 ,nature        
frequently gives them  a resemblance to 
animals1 and sometimes to the human     
figure and face1  which may be          
accentuated by the jeweller's art so as 
to make the  resemblance striking4 ,in  

one notable instance lately1 a baroque  
was  so mounted that it might easily    
pass as a modelled portrait of ,queen   
,victoria4 ,baroques resembling bird's  
wings are common and are often  made    
effective by mounting them on a bird of 
gold4 ,others remind one  of fish1      
birds1 insects1 and beasts of various   
kinds4 ,clustered pearls  enveloped     
together sometimes look like dog's      
heads1 in which two of  the enveloped   
pearls near the surface pass for eyes4  
,long1 slender  baroques are set to     
resemble the petals of a chrysanthemum1 
and others1  mounted singly in sepals of
 gold1 are suggestive of the buds of    
various  flowers1 roses1 lilies1 etc4   
,illustration3 ,,varying ,,forms ,,of   
,,pearls    #a-e ,abalone ,baroques4 #f 
,blister4 #g-aj ,twinned ,pearls4 #aa-ba
 ,baroques4  #bb-bi ,round ,baroques4   
#cj-ca ,wing ,pearls4 #cb-ce ,button    
,pearls4 #cf-cg  ,colored ,round        
,pearls4 #ch-da ,white ,round ,pearls4  
#db ,jockey ,cap4      ,round and button

 pearls are used extensively now1 and   
have been at  various periods formerly1 
as centres for circles1 or clusters of  
diamonds mounted as scarf-pins1         
finger-rings and formerly1 when they    
were worn1 as ear-rings4 ,the pearls are
 sometimes drilled and set on  a peg2   
sometimes they are held by claws or     
prongs as the diamonds  surrounding them
 are4    ,pearls are very generally used
 now as studs by men for evening dress1 
usually mounted on pegs so as to avoid  
the display of any gold4    ,but all    
fashions of wearing pearls except as    
necklaces1 are ephemeral4  ,the fashion 
of pearl necklaces has been constant for
 thousands of  years1 though it is only 
brought to general public notice when   
some new  country with its great and    
rapid accretions of wealth1 adopts it4  
,the  markets of the world are then     
affected1 the price of the gem rises1   
and  this in turn tempts ancient and    
impoverished families to unlock their   
jewel cases to the bidding of the       

nouveau riche4 ,that this condition  has
 existed from the beginning of this     
century is shown by the sales  which are
 being made constantly in ,europe at the
 great public auctions  of jewels4 ,in  
#aija the ,comtesse de ,castiglione     
necklace was sold for  #hd1jjj4 ,at the 
sale of the ,princess ,mathilde jewels  
in ,paris1 a three  strand necklace of  
#acc pearls weighing #ccbj grains1 once 
the property  of ,queen ,sophie of      
,holland1 brought #hhe1jjj francs1 which
 with the  taxes to the purchaser made  
the cost #ahh1jjj4 ,at the same sale1 a 
seven strand collar given by ,napoleon  
,i4 to the ,queen of ,westphalia1       
weighing #d1bjj grs41 brought #hi1jjj1  
and another collar once owned by  the   
same ,queen containing thirty-three     
black pearls1 weighing #ajdj grs4  was  
sold for #bj1bdj4 ,several fine strings 
were sold in ,london in #aijc4  ,among  
them a three-row necklace from the      
,aquila ,jewels for #bb1djj4  ,a string 
of #aih finely matched gem pearls1 round

 and graduated1 was  sold at ,christie's
 for #f1ejj pounds4 ,a triple row of    
#aec of the same  kind brought #f1ejj   
pounds4 ,many important sales have been 
made in the  ,states1 during the last   
ten years especially1 but as they were  
made  privately1 and as buyers here are 
averse to any publicity they are  not   
chronicled4 ,it is a fact well known to 
jewellers1 that ,americans  in their    
home market are extremely difficult4    
,they demand a degree of  perfection1   
not only in the gems themselves1 but    
also in the matching  of them1 rarely   
exacted in other countries4 ,there are  
strings of pearls  in this country which
 if less magnificent1 for extreme       
perfection and  beauty are seldom       
equalled by the more notorious jewels of
 ,europe1  and princely sums have been  
paid for single pieces of great size and
  purity4 ,greater quantities of the    
coveted treasures of the earth  are     
pouring into the lap of the ,united     
,states of ,america through the         

channels of peaceful industry1 than were
 ever gathered to a nation in  the olden
 times by the marauders of the sword1   
and the jewel cases of  our princes of  
commerce will soon eclipse those held by
 the scions of  ancient freebooters4    
,,varieties      ,true pearls are       
divided primarily into two classes1     
oriental1 and  fresh-water4 ,by true    
pearls those creations are meant which  
consist of  concentric layers of nacre  
or mother-of-pearl1 as distinguished    
from  similar formations by mollusks out
 of material that is not pearly4    ,in 
the early days pearls brought from the  
,orient were therefore called  ,oriental
 pearls4 ,for the same reason the fine  
mellow luster which  characterized and  
made them superior to others came to be 
known as the  orient of the pearl4      
,these pearls were taken from oysters   
found on  the coasts of ,ceylon1        
,arabia1 and the ,red ,sea4 ,later1 when
 the same  kind of oysters containing   
similar pearls were found in other seas1

  they were also classified with them1  
until the term oriental is now  applied 
usually to all true pearls taken from   
salt water mollusks1 to  distinguish    
them from those found in the fresh water
 mussels and other  products of ocean   
shell-fish which1 though similar in     
construction and  composition1 are not  
nacreous4 ,occasionally1 however1 the   
term is  still applied specifically to  
pearls from the ,indian ,seas1 though   
their  orient or luster is not always   
finer than that of like pearls found  in
 many other localities4    ,pearl       
oysters are varieties of the ,avicula   
,margaritifera1 of which  the           
,meleagrina ,margaritifera is the most  
prolific of mother-of-pearl  and pearls 
combined1 and1 the ,indian excepted1    
yields the finest  pearls4 ,all pearl   
oysters do not produce sufficient       
mother-of-pearl  to make their shells   
valuable1 nor do they all contain       
pearls4 ,the  name therefore applies to 
all oysters whose secretions are        

productive1  in some degree1 of         
mother-of-pearl and therefore under     
favorable  conditions of pearls also4   
,fresh-water or sweet-water pearls are1 
as the name signifies1 those  found in  
the mollusks of inland waters4 ,this    
mollusk is a mussel4 ,the  name mussel  
in ,anglo-,saxon signifies something    
which retires on being  touched4 ,it is 
known as ,unio of which there are many  
pearl-bearing  varieties4    ,in both   
the sea oyster and the fresh-water      
mussel1 other nacreous  formations occur
 of irregular shape called baroque      
pearls4 ,the  orientals approach more   
nearly to the globular and hemispherical
 form  of true pearls1 having frequently
 the lumpy rotundity of a snowball and  
sometimes sections which are smooth and 
round4 ,the fresh-water baroques  are   
usually very irregular1 often           
fantastically so4 ,many resemble  the   
incisor teeth of man or distorted grains
 of corn4 ,slender pieces  similar to   
the wing of a bird and therefore called 

wing pearls1 or  hinge pearls because   
they are found near the hinge of the    
shell1  are common4 ,some are shaped    
like a flat spike nail4 ,unlike oriental
  baroques1 the surface of a large      
proportion of the fresh-waters is       
grooved or indented and some show a     
beautiful iridescence4 ,large button    
baroques of fine luster and iridescent1 
especially when they have a  decided    
tinge of pink1 have come to be known of 
late as rose pearls4  ,another variety  
of pink baroques having a fairly regular
 shape with a  lustrous and finely      
irregular pimply surface are known as   
strawberry  pearls4 ,these terms are    
applied indiscriminately to the two     
varieties  however4    ,another nacreous
 formation found in the mother-of-pearl 
oyster shells  is the blister4 ,it is   
produced by the raising of the nacreous 
deposits above the level of the shell to
 cover some intruder of  considerable   
size4 ,this results in a growth similar 
in shape to a  blister on the flesh1    

hence the name4 ,it is cut out of the   
shell and  used in various ways as a set
 for jewelry1 or to imitate the bodies  
of insects or small animals4 ,others    
with a slightly higher dome and  rounded
 oval shape1 regular in form1 are called
 turtlebacks4    ,illustration3 ,,panama
 ,,pearl-,,shell1 ,,showing             
,,mud-,,blisters1 ,,borers1 ,,and       
,,pearl    ,some of these hollow shells 
of pearl have been found to cover small 
fish1 lizards1 etc4 ,the writer saw one 
which appeared to be a  large           
button-pearl4 ,on lifting1 it proved to 
be a shell of several  thicknesses of   
nacre covering a small shell-fish about 
a half-inch in  diameter4 ,the          
imprisoned mollusk was shrunken and     
crumbling so that the  nacreous covering
 could be lifted from over it1 a hollow 
dome of pearl4  ,mud blisters are common
 in some waters and depreciate the      
quality of  the shell and are otherwise 
useless4 ,a typical mud-blister appears 
in  the shell illustrated herewith4     

,the ,abalone pearl occurs usually as a 
baroque or blister but  occasionally it 
is found solid and spherical4 ,although 
it is not  classed among true pearls1 a 
few globular pieces found are entitled  
to  a place among them because they are 
sometimes identical in construction  and
 have a similar pearly luster1 it is    
however very liable to crack  and break 
and can seldom be pierced with safety4  
,the shell-fish from which it takes the 
name is the ,haliotis1 called  here the 
,abalone4 ,it is known under many       
names--ear-shell1 ,venus's  ear1 etc4   
,in the ,english ,channel ,islands it is
 the ormer1 and on the  adjacent coast  
of ,france where it is very abundant the
 name for it is  similar--ormier4 ,the  
,aelonians called it the ,ear of ,venus4
 ,the shell  is ear-shaped1 flattened1  
slightly spiral and has a series of     
round  holes near the edge curving with 
the last whorl toward the boss4 ,as  it 
grows1 the oldest of these are          
successively filled up and the last     

remaining open1 serves as the anal      
channel4 ,the exterior is very rough    
and unsightly1 but the mother-of-pearl  
interior is one of the most  exquisite  
pieces of color work painted by the hand
 of nature and to  this is added an     
enlivening iridescence most fascinating4
 ,like it1 the  pearl formations are    
deeply tinted4 ,brownish reds1 peacock  
greens1 and  dark grays are the         
prevailing colors4 ,they are seldom of  
even color or  luster1 many of them     
having but one lustrous point where a   
pearly glaze  seems to have been        
incorporated with the earthenware like  
surface4    ,usually the pearls when    
round and lustrous are not constructed  
as  compactly as those of the bivalves4 
,the texture of the skins vary in       
quality and the frequent presence of    
intermediary strata of black  conchiolin
 which shrink1 makes them liable to     
crack and break4 ,the  blisters run very
 even in these two qualities of color   
and luster and  though seldom quite as  

brilliant as the nacre of the shell1 are
 very  beautiful and often curiously    
formed4 ,these blister-baroques are like
  two blisters joined at the edges1 and 
are liable to separate there4 ,the      
interior consists chiefly of black      
conchiolin1 rough and somewhat shiny4   
,the ,conch pearl1 found in the ,conch  
7,strombus gigas7 of the ,west  ,indies1
 also is not a true pearl4 ,the shell is
 used largely for  ornamental purposes1 
especially for the cutting of cameos1   
and also  in porcelain works4 ,it is a  
large shell1 sometimes weighing four or 
five pounds4 ,formerly great quantities 
were exported to ,england from  the     
,bahamas2 in one year as many as three  
hundred thousand4 ,conch  pearls are    
devoid of nacreous luster1 the surface  
having an appearance  like china4 ,they 
are slightly transparent and show under 
the surface a  series of delicate wavy  
markings4    ,the silky sheen of these  
lines causes them to appear lighter than
 the  body color of the pearl1 and they 

seem to branch toward the surface1      
changing kaleidoscopically as the pearl 
is turned4 ,almost without  exception   
the shape is ovoid1 or a flattened      
ovoid1 though some are  distorted4 ,in  
color they range from very pale to deep 
pink and coral  red1 the ends being     
usually much lighter than the body and  
often  white4 ,in the deeper tints they 
are more uniform in color1 and as they  
are apt to be less lustrous and         
transparent as the shade deepens to  red
 they show less plainly the             
distinguishing wavy lines1 and may be   
easily mistaken for pieces of coral cut 
to the shape and polished4 ,they  are   
very delicate and therefore easily      
fractured or cracked4 ,as the  natives  
usually obtain the pearls by cooking the
 fish1 for which they  have a great     
liking1 a large proportion of the few   
which come into the  market are cracked4
 ,it is claimed also that the color     
fades with time4  ,they are sometimes   
called ,nassau pearls4    ,pearls       

similar in appearance to the ,conch1    
except that the wavy lines  are absent  
and the skin rarely as brilliant1 are   
taken with true pearls  from the small  
varieties of the ,avicula1 especially   
about the coast of  ,venezuela4 ,some   
are white as chalk1 many are tinted in  
various shades  of gray1 yellow and     
brownish reds4 ,they have the shining   
appearance of  china in different       
degrees1 but no nacreous luster4 ,the   
skins of many  of these are peculiarly  
constructed1 they show modified         
characteristics  of various parts of the
 shell4 ,the surface wave lines are     
present  to some extent1 together with  
curious malformations of prisms and     
conchiolin4    ,the hexagonal faces look
 as though they had been doubled up upon
  themselves together with a layer of   
conchiolin1 the latter appearing  as    
thick black ,v or ,u shaped marks in the
 faces of the distorted  hexagons4      
,heretofore these have been considered  
valueless1 but it is  possible that with

 the increasing vogue of pearls and the 
growing  desire for oddities1 they will 
be utilized in the cheaper forms of     
jewelry4    ,creations similar in       
construction to pearls are found        
occasionally  in the common oyster and  
clam4 ,though entirely devoid of the    
pearly  texture and luster1 some of them
 are very perfect in shape and          
smoothness of skin4 ,whether taken from 
the oyster or clam they are  usually    
called clam pearls4 ,the color of the   
oyster pearl is  generally a light drab4
 ,the clam pearls are mostly purplish   
red or  blue1 often dark enough to      
appear black4 ,those taken from the     
oyster  are generally round2 those from 
the clam are more frequently ovoid4     
,occasionally one or both ends of the   
oval are lighter in color1 as  the      
,conch pearl is1 changing there to a    
dark red or purple4 ,when the  color is 
very dark and the skin uncommonly good1 
they have been sold  for black pearls by
 unscrupulous dealers4 ,they are        

accounted of little  value1 though      
exceptionally large pieces will         
sometimes sell for as  much as one      
hundred to a hundred and fifty dollars4 
,similar to these1  pearly formations   
characterized by a glazed1 or glassy1 or
 shiny  surface1 are found in many      
molluscan varieties1 bivalves and       
univalves1  but none of these are true  
pearls4    ,pearls similar to the pink  
,conch are found in the shank or chank  
of  ,ceylon 7,turbinella scolymus74     
,this is the sacred shell of the ,hindus
  and the national emblem of ,travancore
 in the ,madras presidency1 ,india4     
,vishnu carries a chank called          
,devadatta in his hand4 ,it is said his 
first incarnation was for the purpose of
 destroying ,shankhsura 7the  giant     
chank shell71 and thereby regaining the 
,vedas1 which had been  stolen and taken
 to ocean deeps4          ,,color       
,the ideal color for a pearl is white4  
,although all fine white pearls  show by
 comparison a tint of some color1 a fine

 white must be free  from an appearance 
which can only be described as dark4 ,it
 is not  color always but a certain     
density which makes the gem appear dead 
by  comparison with the soft1 warm1     
life-like white of the perfect pearl4   
,the layers or skins of some pearls are 
more transparent than others and  this  
imparts a liveliness which is absent in 
the more dense4    ,upon looking at a   
string of pearls held between the eye   
and the light1  some will appear much   
lighter than others and show a          
translucent band  about one-fifth the   
diameter of the pearl1 extending from   
the edge of  the circumference inward4  
,such pearls upon examination will be   
found  much finer in color and texture  
than those which have the appearance    
beside them of dark opaque spots when   
held against the light4    ,there is    
also a white which is not dark and is   
yet dead4 ,to some  extent it is        
characteristic of all fresh-water       
pearls4 ,it is a chalky1  milky white   

that even when lustrous1 carries a      
reminder of chalk in  the texture and   
lacks the essential life of the ideal   
pearl4 ,color  in the highest perfection
 is found in the pearls of the ,ceylon  
and  ,australian waters1 the former     
being also very lustrous1 and such are  
sometimes termed by the trade ,madras1  
after the city where the ,indian  pearls
 have been marketed for ages4 ,it must  
not be inferred however  that pearls    
equally good are not found in other     
localities1 but that  the color averages
 better1 and the number of gems of ideal
 color and  luster is greater from the  
,ceylon fisheries than elsewhere4 ,the  
color  and texture1 and therefore       
luster1 of fine ,indian pearls is seldom
  equalled1 never surpassed4    ,to     
those who are without experience1 and   
see for the first time a  large quantity
 of pearls apparently alike in color1 it
 would seem an  easy matter to match any
 required number2 but in attempting to  
gather  sufficient for a single strand  

necklace1 one would learn that a parcel 
or series of pearls1 seemingly all      
white1 contains a surprisingly  great   
variety of shades or tones of color2    
that which appears at first  sight quite
 easy becomes in the attempt extremely  
difficult4 ,probably  nothing requires a
 sharper eye1 a more delicate sense of  
color and  greater patience1 than the   
assembling of a finely matched string of
  pearls4 ,bearing in mind that size1   
shape1 color1 and perfection1 must  all 
correspond1 it is not surprising that   
few strings exist which are  above      
criticism4    ,those who buy them seldom
 realize what enormous quantities of    
pearls1  and skilful and painstaking    
effort is necessary1 to match perfectly1
  thirty or more1 especially of large   
size4 ,pearls which1 separated by a  few
 inches seem alike1 when brought close  
together reveal differences  of texture 
and tone of color sufficiently          
pronounced to arrest the eye  and       
destroy that ideal perfection of purity 

which permits no spot to  mar the       
symmetry of an assemblage of these      
emblematic gems4 ,it was said  in old   
times that to match a pearl perfectly   
was to double the value  of both2 one   
may imagine therefore the difficulty    
which confronts the  modern jeweller    
when he undertakes in this critical age 
to match thirty  or forty4    ,the color
 most common in pearls of all seas is   
yellow1 but it is not so  with          
fresh-water ones4 ,other colors are     
seldom found except as tints in  white  
pearls1 but distinctly yellow oriental  
pearls are abundant4 ,the  tones of     
color in the white are1 yellow1 blue1   
pink and green4 ,they are  so slight    
that it is difficult to recognize them  
except by comparison4  ,the blue and    
pink are considered best1 the champions 
of each being  about equal4 ,the green  
come next in favor and the yellow last4 
,this  order applies fully however to   
the ,occident only4 ,some ,oriental     
peoples  do not draw such fine          

distinctions1 and the ,chinese prefer   
the creamy  yellow to any other4    ,the
 blue pearls1 or ,panama pearls as they 
are sometimes called  in the trade1 must
 not be confounded with the blue white  
pearls just  mentioned4 ,blue pearls are
 of a dingy1 slaty blue tint4 ,they have
  a dark appearance and the luster is   
seldom good4 ,as many of this  character
 are found in the ,panama waters such   
pearls are often sold as  ,panama       
pearls4 ,they are even less desirable   
than those which are  decidedly yellow1 
though persons of a little knowledge    
will often buy  them in preference to   
others which are better1 because they   
are not  yellow and are cheap4          
,fancies include all decided colors1 or 
those having a rare and  beautiful tint4
 ,yellow pearls as generally found are  
not classed among  them because the     
color is not fine1 but dark1--brackish  
one might term  it4 ,a clean buttercup  
yellow1 or an orange yellow1 would be   
fancy  however4 ,on the other hand a    

deep pink is seldom fine as the color is
  then almost invariably muddy1 whereas 
the clean delicate light pink  pearls   
are rare and highly esteemed4 ,a clear  
grass green is never seen  but the color
 occurs in very beautiful bronze and    
peacock shadings4  ,various shades of   
blue1 rose1 copper1 and red with bronze 
effects1 and  black are included in this
 classification4    ,black pearls are   
much prized1 and the term covers a wide 
range of  dark shades of gray1 slate1   
brown and red4 ,the ideal color however 
is sufficiently deep to be1 as the name 
indicates1 black1 though it  has not the
 metallic appearance of hematite1 nor   
the polished shine  of the black clam   
pearl4 ,black pearls having a bronze    
effect are  open to suspicion1          
especially if they are pierced1 as many 
of them  are artificially colored and   
are liable to fade4 ,such pearls have a 
somewhat metallic appearance1 are seldom
 very lustrous1 and if there  is a rough
 chalky place in the skin it will be    

blacker there than  elsewhere4    ,it is
 difficult to give rules by which to    
judge color1 but there is  a quality    
which can only be described as clean4   
,it is free from  muddiness and is      
desirable in pearls as in all other     
gems4    ,the proportion of fancy colors
 is greater in fresh-water pearls than  
in  the orientals4 ,in the ,united      
,states the fisheries which have yielded
  the finest fancies are those of       
,wisconsin1 ,kentucky and ,tennessee4   
,of  sea pearls1 most of the fine black 
ones come from the coasts of ,mexico4   
,beautiful colored pearls are found in  
fisheries of the ,oceanic ,islands1  for
 instance at the ,isles of ,new         
,caledonia and ,gambier1 and in ,china  
and ,japan4    ,to make close           
comparisons of color in pearls1 place   
them on white  cotton under or opposite 
a strong natural light4 ,to judge shape 
and  luster1 roll them on black cloth4  
,these are the most trying conditions   
and it should be remembered by those who

 test them thus1 that no  position as   
jewels when worn can be so unfavorable  
or trying4          ,,imperfections     
,few pearls are perfect4 ,the great     
majority of small pearls even1 fail  in 
one or more of the ideal qualities1 and 
as the size increases  perfection       
becomes more rare4 ,a perfect pearl is  
not necessarily of the  finest luster1  
but it must be lustrous and of even     
luster all over4 ,if  round1 it must be 
spherically round2 if pear or ovoid1    
symmetrically  so1 and the skin must be 
free from blemishes4    ,baroque and    
button pearls are naturally imperfect   
pearls1 the former  being fantastically 
irregular in shape and the latter       
partially  deformed4 ,imperfections of  
shape in what are termed round pearls   
are  more numerous than those           
unaccustomed to handling them would     
suppose4    ,a lot of pearls which to   
the casual glance seem to be all quite  
round1  will be found often on close    
examination to contain many1 if not a   

majority1 that are not4 ,upon rolling   
them separately1 irregularities  will   
appear which the luster and contiguity  
of others concealed4 ,it  will be       
discovered that the domes of some are   
slightly flattened at  one part of the  
sphere2 in others at two opposite points
 so as to form  a double domed disk4    
,very many have slight protuberances    
above the  contour of the sphere1 or    
places in the spherical line1 which     
though  not flat1 are depressed4 ,while 
these minor imperfections of shape do   
not materially hurt the beauty of the   
pearl1 they do decrease the value       
somewhat1 and as they are quite common  
even among fine selected pearls  they   
accentuate the rarity of the perfectly  
spherical4    ,the adventures of a pearl
 from the moment when the mollusk begins
 to  cover its nucleus with nacre1 until
 the fisher squeezes it from the  folds 
of the creature's mantle1 are many and  
varied4 ,a few only escape  untoward    
happenings4 ,the fortunate1 born where  

the mollusk gathers and  spreads its    
choice secretions of mother-of-pearl1   
with room to grow  on every side1 are   
nursed in the lap of good fortune and   
uncheckered1  round out layer by layer  
to perfection4    ,but some are not so  
fortunate4 ,in some way cramped1 they   
are held  against the unyielding shell  
and grow flat on one side4 ,these are   
the  button pearls4 ,others either from 
an irregular rolling1 or unequal  action
 of the mollusk's mantle1 become        
imperfectly round4 ,sometimes  foreign  
particles attach themselves to a growing
 pearl and becoming  enveloped with it  
in future layers1 make an uneven        
surface4    ,not infrequently two round 
pearls grow side by side until they     
touch1  and together are enveloped by   
succeeding deposits2 a twinned pearl is 
the result4 ,for some reason1 drop and  
pear-shaped pearls are seldom  imperfect
 in shape4 ,they may not be ideal but   
the form is usually good  and the       
contour even and regular4 ,this would   

imply that the simple  rolling motion by
 the fish is more regular than the more 
complicated  movements necessary to form
 a sphere4    ,imperfections in the     
texture and luster of the skin are said 
to be due  to the movement of the       
growing pearl among the zones of the    
mollusk's  mantle supplying the varied  
material for the epidermis1 middle      
shell1  and lining4 ,the difficulties   
confronting this theory are explained in
  the chapter on the ,genesis of        
,pearls4 ,these imperfections consist   
generally of dead white chalky spots and
 streaks1 distributed over the  surface 
of the pearl1 oftentimes so small as to 
escape notice except  under the loup4   
,sometimes these imperfections take the 
form of rings  or bands which encircle  
the pearl4 ,pearls so marked are rarely 
if  ever round1 but ovoid1 capsule1 or  
cartridge shaped1 and these chalky      
lines always encircle the cylinder2 they
 never cross the dome4 ,rings  around   
the dome occur1 but the surface over    

them is of equal luster4  ,frequently   
the entire outer skin is without luster4
 ,whether this arises  from lack of some
 element in the exudations of the       
mollusk from which  the pearl is        
created1 or from an imperfect           
crystallization of the  calcium         
carbonate1 is not known4 ,such skins    
have the usual nacreous  surface wave   
lines and are often lustrous immediately
 under the outer  plates of the skin4   
,it is possible that these chalky skins 
may result from the extraction  of the  
pearl from the mollusk during a         
transitional stage1 and that  the       
presence of spots and streaks of that   
character1 scattered over  an otherwise 
lustrous surface1 indicates that the    
secretions of the  creature's mantle did
 not hold some essential ingredient in  
sufficient  quantity to secure perfect  
crystallization and thereby cover the   
entire  surface with transparent plates 
of calcium carbonate4 ,it may be also   
that a lack of essential elements in the

 creature's exudations1 causes  a       
cessation of the mantle's action which  
by all signs appears necessary  for the 
production of transparent plates of     
nacre4    ,peelers are pearls of        
imperfect skins having indications of a 
better  one underneath4 ,speculators buy
 these pearls at a low price and skin   
them4 ,sometimes they are rewarded by a 
smaller1 but much more valuable  pearl4 
,many times the under skins are no      
better or worse1 or if better1  the loss
 in size and weight1 together with the  
cost of the work1 make  it unprofitable4
    ,peeling should not be attempted    
with cylindrical shaped pearls having   
chalky bands or rings around them1 as   
such imperfections usually  penetrate to
 the interior in pearls of that         
character4 ,cylindrical  pearls are     
almost invariably fresh-waters4 ,the    
imperfections disclosed  in the under   
skins by peeling1 are commonly          
irregularities of shape  which have been
 rounded over to the improvement of the 

sphericity of  the pearl4    ,it is     
currently reported among the pearl      
hunters who fish the  western and       
southern streams1 that the finding of   
soft pearls is not  infrequent4 ,upon   
opening the mussel1 they sometimes see  
through the  mantle of the creature1 an 
apparently fine pearl which upon being  
taken  out proves to be a soft          
jelly-like substance1 the form of which 
is  usually destroyed in squeezing it   
out4 ,these men do not believe that  a  
pearl is formed in layers1 but think    
that all pearls are originally  globules
 of a similar soft substance1 hardening 
later to a compact  solid ball and they 
call them mussel eggs4    ,many pearls  
taken from the small thin-shelled       
varieties of the ocean  mollusk1 as for 
instance those of ,venezuela1 are devoid
 in part1 or  wholly1 of the nacreous   
luster and instead have a china-like or 
waxy  luster1 or a dead chalky skin4 ,a 
large proportion of the ,abalone  pearls
 and baroques are lustrous only in part1

 one section having an  earthenware     
appearance4 ,many appear to be formed of
 interstratified  layers of nacre and   
conchiolin4 ,this construction is very  
distinct in  a formation peculiar to the
 ,abalone1 consisting of two nacreous   
shells  joined perfectly at the edges1  
the inside walls of both being covered  
with rough black conchiolin4            
,peculiarities in the quality of the    
nacre sometimes give an appearance  of  
uneven shape which does not exist in    
reality4 ,the light falling  upon such  
pearls produces a knobby effect1 as     
though there were  protuberances on the 
surface4 ,the texture of others is such 
that when  looked at squarely from the  
front they appear pyramidal in form1 the
  rounded apex pointing toward the      
observer4 ,such pearls have a soft1     
waxy appearance generally4    ,another  
common imperfection consists of pits in 
the surface4 ,these may  result from    
various causes3 in many cases from the  
dislodgement and  rolling of a pearl    

which has been flattened during earlier 
stages by  pressure in one position     
against the shell4 ,freed from this     
hindrance  to spherical growth1 the     
later concentric layers would round over
  the edge of the flat spot and thereby 
leave a pit1 or cavity1 in the  centre4 
,in other cases pressure against the    
pearl1 or the partial inclusion  of     
foreign substances1 especially of an    
organic nature which decay  before being
 entirely covered1 are possible causes4 
,the reverse of  this also occurs2      
grains of sand or other minute particles
 adhering to  the surface are covered by
 succeeding layers1 thereby producing   
knobs1  more or less observable         
according to the lapse of time between  
their  inclusion and the taking of the  
pearl from the oyster4    ,if           
undisturbed1 the fish will by the       
deposit of sufficient layers of  nacre1 
fill the intervals and round the surface
 again4 ,that this is  done in time is  
shown by the occurrence of pearls having

 an even dome  over a nucleus formed by 
a cluster of small round and irregular  
pearls  enveloped together4 ,in the     
process of skinning1 or the removal of  
one  or more of the layers of nacre1 it 
is sometimes found that a depression    
has been filled by a thickening of the  
deposits in the hollow2 at  other times 
extra layers fill the space1 and these  
flaking out with  the outer skin reveal 
the hidden irregularity which lay       
beneath the  round surface1 thus        
necessitating the removal of several    
entire skins  before a sphere is reached
 again4 ,the under skins of some pearls 
appear  to have failed to completely    
envelop the nucleus4 ,the cavity        
resulting  is then filled to an even    
surface and is succeeded by fully       
developed  skins4 ,it is1 therefore1 not
 certain that a pearl1 perfect in form  
and  skin when found1 has been so at all
 stages of its growth4 ,broken pearls   
sometimes show not only differences of  
color but of thickness in the           

successive layers4 ,the skins of        
fresh-water pearls especially are often 
very irregular in thickness4    ,many   
pearls have cracks in them4 ,these      
generally escape the observation  of    
inexpert persons1 as they are usually   
under the outer layer4  ,the fact that  
they rarely extend to the surface       
suggests that the  solidification1 or   
drying out of the confined interior     
layers1 may be  the cause4 ,these are   
considered detrimental and dangerous by 
dealers1  so that pearls with cracks in 
them will not bring as high a price as  
they would if free from them4    ,as    
cracked pearls are liable to break1     
especially when pierced for  stringing1 
it is well to avoid them1 though the    
percentage of those  which do break is  
small4 ,in reality these cracks are more
 of an  imperfection than a danger4     
,occasionally they are quite noticeable 
and  are then a bad imperfection1 but   
frequently a sharp eye or the loup  only
 will detect them4 ,surface cracks      

however are quite perceptible4  ,they   
are dangerous and are considered a      
serious imperfection4    ,there is a    
peculiarity of rare occurrence which1 as
 it is a departure  from the ideal1 may 
be termed an imperfection1 though some  
regard it of  value as unique4 ,it is a 
similarity under the surface of some    
pearls  to a metal which has been       
hammered into small flat spots identical
 in  appearance with the jewelry in     
vogue during the latter part of the     
#aith  century made of hammered gold4   
,it is scarcely noticeable except under 
a loup1 when the fine lines dividing the
 confused planes appear4 ,these  pearls 
are usually slightly pink or pinkish    
yellow4 ,sometimes these  planes        
resemble the facets on a cut diamond1   
generally lozenge shape1  and often     
grouped similar to those on the under   
side of a diamond4    ,small holes and  
blisters on the surface are quite       
common1 but  ordinarily they are        
scarcely perceptible to the naked eye4  

,many faults can be concealed by the    
jeweller when the pearl is mounted4     
,slightly buttoned pearls are set on a  
peg in the centre of a small  shallow   
cup2 they then appear quite round4 ,a   
spot1 blister1 or cavity1  in a round   
pearl can be obliterated by pegging1 or 
hidden in the  setting4 ,great          
irregularities in the sphericity are    
lost to the eye  when the gem is set in 
the prongs of a ring or other piece of  
jewelry4  ,pearls shaped like a double  
convex lens may be made to look round1  
or very nearly so1 by piercing them so  
that the flattened domes are  brought in
 contact on the cord holding them       
together as a necklace4    ,piercing and
 stringing obliterates or hides many    
flaws4 ,by careful  selection1 the      
jeweller can utilize pearls having a    
blemish by drilling  through the spot   
where the flaw is1 and if there is      
another on the  opposite side that also 
will disappear4 ,other imperfections    
near the  hole are often hidden in      

necklaces1 as they cannot be seen when  
the  pearls are held close together on  
the string4 ,it is for this reason  that
 a string of pearls can often be bought 
for less than a like number  of loose   
pearls apparently no better but which in
 reality are much  more perfect in shape
 and free from flaws4 ,imperfections    
unseen in the  strung pearls would be   
quite noticeable in the loose and       
undrilled4    ,the irregularities of    
baroques cannot properly be called      
imperfections2  nevertheless a baroque  
is more valuable as it is free from     
indentations  and approaches the round  
in appearance1 or has sides which will  
give it  a round face when mounted4 ,the
 curious forms into which nature moulds 
many of them are very attractive1 and as
 they lend themselves to the            
imaginative skill of the jeweller1 are  
valuable4 ,the faults common to  them   
are rough places uncovered by nacre and 
colored streaks or spots1  usually      
yellow tending to brown4 ,these         

discolorations are confined  generally  
to the point where the baroque was      
attached to the shell1 but  not         
infrequently they extend far enough to  
leave no front which would  be quite    
clean to the eye1 when mounted4         
,oriental baroques as a rule are more   
lustrous1 more even in shape and  seldom
 discolored4 ,many of them are          
sufficiently regular to string for      
necklaces1 and some can be used in      
jewelry so that on the face they  appear
 like round1 drop1 or pear-shaped       
pearls4          ,,genesis ,,of ,,pearls
    ,illustration3 ,,tuamotu            
,,pearl-,,shell    ,pearls are found in 
certain marine and fresh-water mollusks4
 ,the  former are usually termed        
oysters1 though zologists regard it in  
some  instances as a misnomer4 ,the     
sea-fish is the avicula margaritifera1 a
  bivalve of which there are many       
varieties1 all of similar shape and     
nature but differing widely in the size1
 weight1 coloring1 and quality  of the  

shell4    ,of them1 the genus meleagrina
 is the largest1 has the heaviest shell1
  and furnishes the greatest quantity of
 the beautiful substance known as       
mother-of-pearl4 ,the other extreme is  
the small1 frail-shelled variety  taken 
off the coast of ,venezuela1 called     
sometimes avicula squamulosa4  ,similar 
to this is the margaritifera vulgaris1  
or avicula fucata1 of  ,ceylon4 ,the    
pearl oyster of the ,persian ,gulf      
though similar is somewhat  larger4     
,exact and uniform classification of the
 pearl-bearing mollusks of the  sea does
 not exist1 nor is it necessary in this 
connection1 as the one  distinctive     
feature which places them in the class  
under consideration  is the possession  
of a nacreous lining to the shell1 for  
no shell fish  can produce a true pearl 
without it4 ,the fresh-water            
pearl-bearing  mollusk is a mussel1 unio
 margaritifera1 also found in many      
varieties1  but all characterized alike 
by the nacreous lining of the shell4    

,these creatures1 living upon the earth 
where water always covers  it1 create in
 the building of their habitations a    
material of great  beauty1 and sometimes
 produce gems which princes covet4 ,of  
the most  delicate nature1 they build   
for themselves out of the water by which
  they are surrounded1 houses strong and
 enduring1 fitted for their  protection 
from the rough chances of life1 yet so  
furnished within that  they suffer no   
inconvenience from the rugged strength  
which encloses  them4 ,few things are   
coarser than the exterior of these      
domiciles1  but nothing in nature is    
finer or more exquisitely beautiful than
 the  substance with which they are     
lined4    ,the avicula margaritifera is 
a habitant of the coral reefs and shoals
  about the islands and shores of the   
tropics2 there are none living  now in  
northern latitudes1 though fossils of   
many species are found  north of the    
present boundary of their habitations4  
,an idea can be  formed of the general  

shape and appearance of pearl-oyster    
shells by  the neighboring illustrations
 of three varieties4 ,these show the two
  extremes of the marine mollusk1 the   
meleagrina of the ,south ,sea and       
,australia1 and the squamulosa of       
,venezuela4    ,illustration3           
,,australian ,,pearl-,,shell    ,in some
 of the small species1 that of the      
,venezuelan ,coast for  instance1 the   
outer shell is yellowish1 with fan-like 
markings of dark  reddish brown         
radiating from the boss or beak and     
growing darker as  they near the lip4   
,this shell is thin and frail4 ,the     
nacreous lining is  also thin but       
brilliantly iridescent and shows a      
series of fine lines  and irregular     
fissure-like markings extending outward 
from the hinge  and crossed by bands of 
color which curve with the outline of   
the lip  edge of the shell4    ,these   
colors1 as brilliant but more evasive   
than the hues of the  rainbow1 are not  
due to the presence of a pigment2 they  

arise from a  phenomenon of light and   
form one of the most wonderful          
illustrations  of the ease with which   
our senses play tricks upon judgment and
  understanding4 ,it is the striated    
surface and the very thin transparent   
plates of nacre1 which cause a double   
interference and produce the  beautiful 
iridescence peculiar to the lining of   
these shells4    ,interference1 as it is
 called1 is an optical phenomenon       
arising from  two causes4 ,when light   
falls upon a sufficiently thin          
transparent  surface covering a denser  
substratum not exactly parallel with it1
  part of the light is at once          
reflected4 ,of that which passes through
  to the under surface a part also is in
 turn reflected through the  first      
surface1 and the confusion of rays or   
interference resulting1  produces to the
 eye the sensation of color4            
,illustration3 ,,venezuelan             
,,pearl-,,shell1 ,,with ,,pearl         
,,attached    ,a familiar illustration  

is seen when a thin film of oil is      
spread over  water4 ,the other way in   
which iridescence by interference is    
produced  in shells1 may be demonstrated
 by drawing fine lines close together on
  glass with a diamond4 ,light falling  
upon them will make the surface         
iridescent4 ,melted wax dropped upon    
this striated surface would1 upon       
removal1 show a like iridescence1       
reproduced with the impression of  the  
fine lines4 ,the outer markings of the  
large ,australian shell are  similar to 
the small ,venezuelan4 ,the             
mother-of-pearl interior is not so      
iridescent4    ,pearls and the shells in
 which they grow are composed almost    
entirely  of calcium carbonate or lime4 
,a small percentage of organic matter   
and  water are the other ingredients4   
,as pearls are accidental and the result
 of a misdirection of normal  processes1
 a general knowledge of those processes 
is necessary to an  insight into the    
nature and genesis of the pearl1 and as 

pearl shells  and the pearls in them are
 constructed on the same general plan1 a
  knowledge of the former will assist to
 a better understanding of the  gem and 
its eccentricities4 ,the mother-of-pearl
 shell is built up of  a series of      
calcium carbonate plates or prisms set  
in organic matter4  ,in the material of 
the inner shell1 the calcium carbonate  
greatly  preponderates2 on the outside  
of the shell1 the organic matter is     
largely in excess4 ,in the building of  
its shell1 the animal deposits  the     
finest material and does the best and   
most compact work where  the house is in
 touch with itself1 the walls becoming  
coarser in  construction and quality as 
they approach the outer surface4    ,in 
the inside of the shell1 the calcium    
carbonate plates are very  fine and     
transparent1 and the animal membrane in 
which they are set  is of extreme       
tenuity4 ,in the middle shell these     
plates become more  chalky and less     
compact2 in the exterior shell they are 

set in a  thicker binding of organic    
matter and terminate outside in rough1  
horny  fringes1 completely covering the 
shell4    ,in a general way therefore1  
the animal deposits the best of its     
secretions about itself and pushes out  
to the outer extremities1 the  coarser  
elements which are fitted to preserve   
the finer parts of the  shell1 as the   
finer parts of the shell are fitted to  
protect the  delicate organism which    
they enclose4 ,the building of the shell
 is done  by a membraneous covering of  
the fish which entirely envelops the    
body  and is attached to the shell a    
short distance from the inner edge1     
leaving a rim of membrane free around   
the fish and the edges of the two       
valves4 ,this membrane is called the    
mantle4 ,it extracts lime from the      
water1 and at different parts exudes    
modified solutions of it mixed  with    
animal tissue1 suitable for the         
construction of the various parts  of   
the shell4    ,the exterior of the shell

 or epidermis consists of conchiolin1   
an organic compound4 ,it is a           
horny-looking substance1 and in the     
large salt-water shells and in most of  
the fresh-water mussels1 the            
nigger-head of the ,mississippi ,valley 
especially1 it appears to the  eye as a 
series of extensions1 sometimes         
terminating in ridges1  which curve     
about the umbo and spread to the edge of
 the shell1 each  extension coming from 
under the one preceding4 ,in some       
varieties it  is attached as an         
excrescence to the prismatic formation  
immediately  under it1 and may be easily
 detached in thin flakes3 a rusty black 
in  some1 brownish-yellow in all on the 
inner surface and in some on the        
outside4 ,the substance is generally    
opaque1 but contains spots of which     
some are translucent1 resembling horn or
 amber1 while others are more           
transparent1 similar in formation to the
 inner parts of the shell4    ,in most  
of the marine and fresh-water varieties1

 unlike the  nigger-head1 the conchiolin
 exterior does not easily flake off4 ,in
  these the outer shell is composed of  
wave-like plate extensions1             
superimposed one upon the other         
recedingly from the lip to the umbo  as 
in the others1 but without the ridges1  
the plates being flat and  the edges    
more irregular4 ,these extensions are   
formed of a number  of horizontal       
composite plates1 which penetrate the   
shell to the  mother-of-pearl4    ,not  
only may they be separated into thinner 
horizontal plates1 but  they divide     
vertically into prisms4 ,under the      
microscope the edge of  a composite     
plate appears as a number of prisms     
placed side by side  lengthwise across  
the plate edge1 but showing dark1       
intersecting lines  through the series  
where they divide as plates4    ,these  
prisms appear on the face of the plates 
as translucent hexagons1  separated by  
dark lines like a tessellated floor1 and
 under a powerful  microscope are seen  

to be composed of similar smaller       
particles1  also joined together by a   
binder of tissue4 ,the exposed parts of 
the  epidermis plates1 forming the outer
 skin of the shell1 are more dense  than
 the unexposed portions2 the hexagonal  
dividing lines are thick and  blurred1  
and the faces are almost opaque1 whereas
 in the unexposed  parts1 the faces are 
translucent and the hexagonal markings  
are clear  and fine4    ,though         
constructed in the same way throughout1 
these plates appear to  follow the      
general plan of shell construction1 the 
preponderance of  calcium carbonate in  
the interior parts gradually changing to
 an excess  of organic matter as they   
become exposed to form the outer part of
  the shell4 ,the outer shell is in some
 varieties of a brownish-yellow  with   
radiating fan-like markings of a deeper 
tint or red2 in others1  dark gray and  
brown to almost black4 ,immediately     
under the surface1  the plates become   
lighter in color1 and finally almost    

white as they  approach the nacreous    
interior4    ,in all varieties the outer
 plates lie almost parallel with the    
extension of the shell1 so that1 lapping
 each other as they do1 the  outer      
contour of the shell is raised by a     
series of low steps from  the edge to   
the umbo4 ,these plates appear to have  
been superimposed  one upon the other4  
,on the contrary1 they are added on the 
under  side4 ,starting from the umbo1   
which is the oldest part1 the shell is  
enlarged by the addition of a succession
 of plates from beneath1 each  series   
extending a little beyond its           
predecessor1 the rough conchiolin       
fringe at their extremities forming the 
outer covering of the shell4  ,following
 the growth of the epidermis1 the shell 
and the lining are  also extended and   
built up1 so that the entire shell is   
constantly  pushed to dimensions        
necessary for the proper and commodious 
housing of  its growing tenant4         
,under the thin coat of epidermis on the

 ,unio nigger-head1 is a stratum  of    
prism plates similar to the outer plates
 of the ,venezuelan oyster4  ,the prism 
faces are however smaller and the       
organic intersections are  thicker and  
darker4 ,immediately under and abutting1
 is another series  of plates which     
penetrate the shell almost horizontally 
at the lip end1  to the lining2         
diagonally at the thick part of the     
shell near the umbo  to another series  
of the same kind4 ,here1 owing to their 
diagonal set1  upon peeling off the     
epidermis and the epidermis plates1 the 
edges  appear as a series of fine lines 
curving about and spreading out from    
the umbo4 ,the plates set outward1 away 
from the umbo1 from the lower or  inner 
edge4    ,the effect is similar to that 
made by a pack of cards set diagonally  
so  as to spread the edges sufficiently 
to show the merest trifle of the  faces 
of the cards between the edges4 ,the    
arrangement of these plates1  not only  
produces a series of fine lines curving 

about the umbo1 but1  as the edges are  
slightly irregular1 another series of   
fine lines  cross the others at right   
angles1 radiating from the umbo4 ,this  
doubly  striated surface1 by            
interference1 produces an iridescence   
more full of  color than the            
mother-of-pearl of any but the          
thin-shelled varieties4    ,though      
similar in construction1 these plates   
differ from those of the  epidermis4 ,in
 some respects they suggest a           
transitional stage between  the outer   
and inner shell4 ,a plate1 as it        
separates from the series and  which    
appears as one line in the striated     
surface of plate edges1 is  in reality a
 number of very thin plates1 or waves1  
so welded together  that they cannot    
easily be separated4 ,in this and the   
presence of fine  surface lines marking 
the wave edges1 they resemble the       
nacreous plates4    ,the composite plate
 is opaque1 but when split so that light
 can  penetrate there appears on the    

face1 markings similar to the unexposed 
portions of the ,venezuelan epidermis   
plates only the hexagonal faces  are    
very much smaller and less distinct4 ,so
 also the edge of the  composite plate  
appears as series of prisms crossing it 
from face  to face on the plate1 in sets
 which show plainly1 lines marking the  
juncture of the individual plates or    
waves4 ,although the individual  plates 
or waves1 can only be separated with    
great difficulty1 together1  as         
composite plates1 they can be flaked off
 from the shell very easily1  and they  
crumble and break into fragments under  
slight pressure4  ,the component plates 
or waves are very thin1 and appear under
 the  microscope as white and           
translucent planes marked by outlines of
 the  prism faces4    ,the inner series 
of these plates as they near the        
nacreous lining  become harder and more 
compact1 and incline more and more to a 
horizontal position1 so that at the     
point where they abut upon the  nacre it

 is not easy to distinguish them from   
the nacreous plates4 ,at  the thinner   
end of the shell1 about the edges1 the  
plates are all of  this nature4 ,they   
grow more friable and chalky as they    
incline to the  perpendicular1 where the
 series are more numerous and are       
situated at  the thicker part of the    
shell about the umbo4    ,adjoining the 
inner edges of the middle shell plates  
is the nacreous  lining4 ,in this the   
calcium carbonate takes the same form as
 the  mineral aragonite and is identical
 with it4 ,as a mass however1 the       
specific gravity is somewhat less1 owing
 to the inclusion of organic  matter    
with the mineral in the shell4 ,this    
material is harder1 finer1  more        
compact1 and contains less organic      
matter than that of which the  middle   
and outer shell is composed4    ,the    
lining is constructed of thin waves of  
transparent calcium  carbonate set in   
animal tissue of great tenuity4 ,this is
 the  mother-of-pearl1 and the gem      

differs from it only in its more or less
  rounded and independent formation4    
,the plates of which the lining is      
composed lie almost parallel to the     
plates of the epidermis4 ,they are  bent
 a little toward the interior at the    
inner surface of the shell1  but the    
general sectional structure of a shell1 
cutting from the umbo  to the lip1 is   
fairly represented by that stem of the  
letter ,x which  extends from the right 
upper to the left lower1 the diagonal   
line  representing the middle shell2 the
 horizontal lines at the extremities    
show the general trend of the epidermis 
and the nacreous lining4 ,the  diagonal 
trend downward is from the epidermis    
toward the boss-end of  the shell4      
,the nacreous plates1 or                
mother-of-pearl1 unlike those of the    
middle  shell of the nigger-head1 cannot
 be easily separated4 ,on cutting them  
across the grain they appear as distinct
 and separate strata and show  dividing 
lines1 yet the mass is compact to a     

great degree4 ,upon being  broken1 these
 strata separate only at the edges1 so  
that the entire set  usually breaks     
diagonally1 showing a small strip of the
 surface of each  plate along the broken
 edge and forming a series of ragged    
edge steps4    ,these plates or strata  
are composed of a great many very thin  
waves  following one upon the other1 and
 thereby producing series of fine1      
irregular lines upon the surface which1 
though trending generally in  straight  
lines1 curve and twist about as do the  
edges of water waves1  when they run up 
on the sands of the sea-shore4 ,it is   
the lapping of  these thin transparent  
waves1 and the minute undulations of the
 layer  edges reflecting through the    
transparent plates1 which produce the   
soft  luster peculiar to the linings of 
the shells and the surface of pearls1   
and which is known as pearly4    ,the   
wave edges do not usually produce       
iridescence1 but if the waves  are very 
thin and transparent the undulating     

lines of many under waves  following    
close upon each other appear on the     
surface1 under the  microscope1 as dark 
lines when the light is passed through  
the skin1 or  silvery lines if the light
 be thrown upon it from above2 to the   
naked  eye this becomes the tempered    
brilliancy of the pearl's orient4 ,under
  the microscope these waves appear to  
be constructed of minute hexagonal      
plates or prisms set in animal membrane4
    ,a set of waves forming a plate1    
when broken at right angles to the      
trend of the wave1 shows under the      
microscope a rough irregular edge1  and 
the small plates of which they are      
composed sometimes appear  separated    
individually from the mass though more  
often they are  dislodged in clusters or
 strips4 ,broken with the trend of the  
wave  edges1 the plate breaks diagonally
 in steps with undulating edges1  which 
correspond in appearance with the       
successive underlying waves as  they are
 seen through the surface under the     

microscope4    ,although distinct       
dividing lines between the plates appear
 when a  sectional cut is made across   
the grain1 there is no indication of a  
division between the waves which make up
 the plates1 and there is no  apparent  
difference in the structure or          
compactness at the junction of  the     
plates though a clean division can only 
be made there4 ,it would  appear1       
therefore1 that the plates mark         
intervals in the process of             
construction and that the animal tissue 
is somewhat thicker between the  plates 
than between the waves of which they are
 composed1 where the  formative process 
has been continuous4    ,in all parts of
 the shell1 the calcium carbonate takes 
the hexagonal  form3 in the nacre1 as   
thin waves composed of hexagonal faces1 
and  in the middle shell and epidermis1 
as plates of hexagonal particles        
grouped as hexagonal prisms whose       
terminations form the front and back  of
 a plate4 ,all the parts show a similar 

plan of construction1 i4e4  1 separable 
plates composed of thinner plates more  
compacted together1  and these in turn  
of infinitesimal hexagons of calcium    
carbonate2 full  plates1 component      
plates1 and particles1 all alike        
surrounded by animal  tissue4    ,the   
shell is built up of secretions from the
 water in which the  oyster lives1 made 
by the mantle1 a membraneous covering of
 the fish4  ,the function of this       
mantle1 in part1 is to obtain from the  
water  the elements required and exude  
it at different parts of its folds  in  
the various forms required for the      
several parts of the shell4  ,the       
necessary lime exists in the surrounding
 water and is supplied  sometimes by the
 calcareous beds upon which the oysters 
grow1 and in  other cases by surrounding
 vegetation4    ,in all mother-of-pearl 
oysters and the fresh-water mussel unio1
 the  lining is usually quite thick1 but
 in some pearl-bearing species having   
small1 frail shells1 it is1 though      

beautiful1 too thin to be of use4 ,in   
the meleagrina1 this nacreous lining    
lies in the interior of the shell  like 
a congealed pearl wave1 the smooth even 
rim following the curve  of the shell   
about an inch to an inch and a half     
within the jagged edge  of the          
epidermis1 as shown in the ,manilla     
shell illustrated herewith1  in which   
the lip1 usually trimmed off for        
commercial purposes1 is  preserved4 ,the
 lining of the meleagrina is not as     
iridescent as that of  the thin shell   
varieties4    ,thus the shell is being  
constantly enlarged at the edge1 by a   
deposit  of the exudations of the       
mantle2 conchiolin for the epidermis    
outside1  lime for the prisms and inner 
layers of transparent plates1 until the 
shell has attained its full growth in   
size1 after which some varieties        
continue to lay on nacre only4          
,illustration3 ,,manila ,,pearl-,,shell 
,,with ,,the ,,lip ,,conserved    ,the  
linings of some have a black rim1       

extending from the hinge on one  side1  
around the edge to the hinge on the     
other side4 ,viewed from the  edge this 
dark band appears to be a sixteenth to  
half an inch wide  7widest at the lip71 
fading out as it becomes lost under the 
thicker  white nacre of the interior1   
but turn the shell up and look at it    
squarely from the front and it is black 
only around the extreme edge  where it  
joins the epidermis4 ,this kind of shell
 is found in the  ,pacific about the    
islands of ,polynesia and is called the 
black  shell4 ,in others the nacre is   
white to the edge4 ,the iridescence of  
the  white shell generally shows more   
play of color than that of the black4   
,the white shell is usually somewhat    
flatter and broader than the black1  and
 the epidermis is light yellowish-brown4
 ,this variety is found in  great       
abundance on the northern and western   
coasts of ,australia4 ,the  yellow1     
greenish and grayish shells 7these      
colors refer to the edge of  the        

lining71 are similar in every way1 but  
inferior1 the yellow being  the best of 
the three4    ,the shell lining of a    
common form of the unio1 or fresh-water 
mussel  pictured at page #adf1 like that
 of the meleagrina1 shows little        
iridescence except at the edges outside 
the pallial lines1 where the  nacre is  
comparatively thin1 and at the striated 
surface of the scar  or bed of the      
adductor muscle4 ,in quality of color   
and luster it is  inferior to the nacre 
of the sea fish1 the white being more   
chalky in  appearance and the luster    
less pearly4 ,the material of which the 
shell  is composed and its construction 
are however almost identical with that  
of the salt-water mollusk4 ,in fact all 
shells are made of the same  ingredients
 and are constructed on the same general
 principles by the  animals inhabiting  
them4    ,illustration3 ,,mississippi   
,,nigger-,,head ,,pearl ,,mussel        
,this description of pearl shells has   
been given here because a  knowledge of 

the shell enables one to understand the 
formation and  characteristics of a true
 pearl1 and the differences which exist 
between the gem and other similar       
formations formed in pearl and other    
oysters1 mussels1 and univalves4 ,many  
such formations are found1 having  the  
elements and constructed like one or    
both of the outer parts of  the shell1  
and some1 in part like the lining1 but  
these are not true  pearls2 the gem has 
neither the material nor construction of
 the middle  and outer shell4 ,except   
that the pearl1 because of its form1 is 
rarely  iridescent even to a slight     
degree1 whereas the nacreous lining of  
some  pearl-bearing shells is           
brilliantly so1 the pearl and the nacre 
of the  shell in which it grows1 are    
essentially the same4 ,pearls are more  
or  less spherical and independent      
formations1 made by the fish on the     
same plan and from the same secretions  
with which it lines the shell1          
misdirected by abnormal conditions4     

,those constructed like any other  part 
of the shell are not true pearls4       
,the normal instinctive action of the   
mollusk is self-protective and          
adaptive4 ,by the secretive action of   
its mantle it gathers from the  water in
 which it lives1 material to build a    
shell with a rough and  rugged exterior 
for its enemies1 and adapted to resist  
the chemical  activities by which it is 
surrounded1 and a perfectly smooth      
lining  suitable as an interposition for
 its own delicate organism4    ,barring 
accidents1 the building functions of the
 animal are employed  only in the       
extension of the shell to meet the needs
 of its own growth  and protection4 ,but
 should a particle of secretion intended
 for the  shell1 harden within the folds
 of the oyster's mantle1 or some        
parasite  or other intruder present     
itself within the nacre-forming sphere1 
the  instinctive action which lines the 
rougher part of the shell is also       
directed toward the foreigner1 and it is

 at once covered with a like  deposit4  
,this is the birth of a pearl1 and it   
grows layer by layer as  long as it     
remains within the scope of the nacre   
building instinct4  ,these layers1 or   
skins as they are called1 are seldom    
iridescent4  ,occasionally a pearl of   
that character is found1 but it is      
generally  from a fresh-water mussel1   
and the nacreous plates are of unusual  
tenuity4    ,although the pearl like the
 lining of the mollusk's shell is       
composed  of carbonate of lime in series
 of thin waves lapping each other1 each 
series constituting a plate or separable
 layer1 there is a distinct  difference 
in construction4    ,whereas the lining 
is a series of horizontal layers1 the   
pearl is made  up of concentric layers1 
each addition enveloping those preceding
  it4 ,these skins however are not      
always absolutely distinct and          
separate4 ,instead of being like a      
succession of globular skins1 each      
completely covered by its successor1 the

 growth is often spiral and  the        
construction is as if the nucleus had   
been rolled one1 two1 or  three complete
 revolutions in a continuous plate of   
nacre1 and the  spiral envelope then    
finally merged into another plate and   
the process  repeated4 ,that which to a 
casual glance1 therefore1 appears to be 
six  rings of nacre in a sectional cut1 
is in reality1 several spirals of  two  
or three turns each4    ,it is also     
noticeable that whereas the wave edges1 
with all their  eccentricities1 trend   
generally in one direction in the shell 
nacre1  in the pearl1 the lines twist   
and curl with a concentric tendency1 as 
though the waves had been laid on by    
turning or rolling the pearl in  the    
material of which it is composed4    ,a 
white pearl on being cut in half shows a
 number of faint dark rings  one within 
the other1 from the surface to the      
nucleus in the centre2  usually these   
rings occur at almost regular intervals4
 ,upon close  examination under the     

microscope1 it will be seen that the    
inner part  of these intervals is white1
 and that the color gradually changes to
 a  yellowish tint which deepens until  
it culminates in that which appears  as 
a dark line against the succeeding outer
 formation1 the material of  which is   
also white in the beginning4 ,although  
this change of color is  very slight1 a 
section between two rings will often    
show three distinct  bands2 the inner   
white1 the centre one faintly yellow and
 the outer  one of a deeper tint4 ,in   
some cases the dark concentric rings    
succeed  each other very closely1 in    
which case no abrupt changes of color   
between them are noticeable4 ,the       
material occupying the space between    
the rings is the sectional appearance of
 the skin of pearl4 ,upon  applying a   
weak acid to the surface of an entire   
section of a pearl1  it effervesces1 and
 the inner colorless parts of the bands 
are at once  attacked4 ,after several   
hours the white inner part of the skins 

will  show depressions where the calcium
 carbonate has been dissolved1 and  the 
outer parts of the skins will be marked 
by coarse black rings of  undissolved   
animal tissue1 similar in appearance to 
the epidermis of  the shell4 ,now as    
these skins are made up of many very    
thin waves of  calcium carbonate lapping
 each other and set in animal tissue1 it
 would  appear1 therefore1 that in the  
beginning these waves of transparent    
calcium carbonate are set in animal     
tissue of extreme tenuity and that  the 
proportion of animal tissue increases   
with the growth of the skin  until it   
reaches a stage provocative of a new    
skin1 which begins with  purer layers of
 the smoother crystallized mineral like 
its predecessor1  and identical with the
 nacre of the shell4 ,if this be so1 it 
would  account for the various tints of 
color and degrees of luster in white    
pearls and for the fact that the outer  
skins of very lustrous pearls  are      
usually very thin also4 ,similar        

conditions exist in colored pearls1     
though the presence of a pigment makes  
them less noticeable4 ,the skins  of the
 haliotis pearl1 which separate easily1 
usually show remarkable  luster on the  
inner surface4    ,sometimes the nucleus
 is surrounded by a confused mass       
without apparent  concentric markings1  
as though it had been enveloped in nacre
 which had  solidified while stationary1
 or the first deposit shows the         
concentric  skin arrangement at one     
segment of the circle only2 followed by 
layers  which appear in the depressions 
of the mass and are continued until     
they finally include the whole pearl4   
,these layers are usually very  thin1   
and the partial or segmentary layer     
formation is quite common in  the early 
stages of the pearl's growth4 ,at that  
period the concentric  lines are also   
irregular1 and in many cases where the  
curve is true1  they extend about one   
quarter of the circumference only1      
another  concentric skin being lapped on

 the ends1 as though the globular skin  
had been formed in sections4    ,as     
before stated1 it often happens that the
 skin division lines are  spiral1 as    
though the nucleus had been rolled one  
way in the nacreous  material4 ,in all  
cases the first deposits of a skin1 that
 is the first  of the nacreous waves of 
which a skin is composed1 appear to be  
most  transparent and lustrous4 ,the    
component waves of nacre then gradually 
become more impregnated with animal     
tissue until they apparently reach  a   
stage which induces either a rest on the
 part of the fish1 to gather  nacreous  
material1 or a new deposit of less      
impure nacre1 to protect  itself from   
the increasing impurity of the pearl's  
skin4    ,the skins undoubtedly mark    
certain stages in the formation of  the 
pearl1 though the skin and the nacreous 
waves of which it is  composed are often
 confounded4 ,in the skinning of pearls 
an entire  skin is seldom peeled off4   
,the surface is scraped1 a number of the

  component waves being taken off1 until
 the luster is improved and  it is then 
supposed that the entire outer skin has 
been removed4 ,a  close examination     
however1 will show1 by breakages in the 
surface  of the waves1 that the under   
skin with its peculiar and systematic   
arrangement of surface wave edges1 has  
not been reached4    ,a sectional view  
as seen in a half pearl would lead one  
to infer that a  free pearl in the      
beginning lies stationary in the oyster2
 is turned or  partially rolled as it   
grows larger2 and finally1 on attaining 
about a  one grain size1 is kept in     
constant motion with a concentric       
rolling in  the nacreous exudations of  
the mantle which are deposited upon it4 
,the nuclei of pearls were long thought 
to be grains of sand1 but late  and     
careful research has shown that in the  
majority of cases they are  minute      
parasitic or domiciliary worms4         
,professor ,herdman and ,james ,hornell1
 after three consecutive  inspections of

 the oyster banks in the ,gulf of       
,manaar in #aijb-c1 stated  in a paper  
contributed to the ,british ,association
 for the advancement  of science1 that  
after examining many hundreds of oysters
 and  decalcifying a large number of    
pearls1 they had come to the conclusion1
  that grains of sand and other         
inorganic particles formed the nuclei of
  pearls only under exceptional         
circumstances1 as for instance1 when the
  shell was injured by the breaking of  
the ears1 which would enable sand  to   
get into the interior4    ,pearls1 or   
pearly excrescences on the interior of  
the shell1 were due  to the intrusion of
 leucodore1 clione and other borers4    
,pearls found  in the mussels1          
especially at the levator and pallial   
insertions1 were  formed around         
calcospherules1 minute calcareous       
concretions produced  in the tissues4   
,but most of the fine pearls found free 
in the body of  the ,ceylon oyster1     
contained the remains of                

platyhelminthian parasites4  ,these     
observations agree with the opinions    
formed1 after careful study1  by several
 eminent conchologists4    ,the action  
of the mollusk results differently as   
the object to  be covered is free within
 the folds of the creature's mantle or1 
rising above the surface of the nacreous
 lining1 presses upon it4 ,if  free1 the
 intruder is enveloped by the animal's  
exudations and the  deposits become     
concentric instead of level1 or nearly  
so1 as in the  construction of the      
shell4 ,it is said that the foreign     
substance acts  as an irritant1 causing 
the fish to exude its secretions        
abnormally in  order to protect itself1 
and thereby creating a diseased         
condition2  but from the fact that the  
process continues after the intruder has
  been enveloped and rendered as        
non-irritant as the natural lining of   
the shell1 it would appear that the     
introduction of a foreign element       
simply draws upon it the normal impulse 

of the fish to cover with nacre         
anything with which it comes in contact1
 and that the method of doing  it is    
similar to the instinctive rolling      
action of the tongue when some          
insoluble globule is put in the mouth1  
for not only do free pearls grow        
spherically1 but a nucleus fast to the  
shell is not covered simply but  it     
grows to a pearl1 round and domelike1 as
 nearly spherical as its  juncture with 
the shell will permit4    ,not only is  
the composition of a pearl identical    
with the lining of  the shell where it  
is formed1 but in a general way its     
appearance and  characteristics are the 
same1 except that free pearls are       
sometimes  colored when the nacre of the
 shell is white4    ,button pearls1     
warts and baroques1 grown fast to the   
shell1 are usually  like the surrounding
 nacre in every respect4    ,salt-water 
pearls are characterized by the soft    
velvety luster of the  oriental         
mother-of-pearl1 and fresh-waters1 like 

the lining of the  unio1 have a somewhat
 thinner looking and more chalky        
texture4    ,abalone pearls have the    
irregular surface and coloring of the   
haliotis4  ,conch pearls resemble the   
delicate pink china-like lining of the  
shell1  and clam pearls have the glazed 
earthenware appearance of the inside  of
 a clam shell4 ,the one material        
difference between a pearl and the      
lining of the shell in which it grows   
is1 that in the one case the  fish      
deposits the nacre over an even surface1
 and in the other wraps  it around a    
central point with delicate precision in
 successive filmy  layers4              
,dissection shows that a pearl during   
growth is liable to many mishaps4  ,as  
with the human creature1 a promising    
youth may end in a wretched  maturity4  
,it is also possible that an ugly period
 may be redeemed  by later happenings1  
and the thing that was worthless in its 
early  existence1 be found in its age   
worthy of a place among the great gems4 

,pearls found with a dull1 chalky       
exterior sometimes have lustrous skins  
beneath4 ,sometimes a bony-looking      
formation will be found1 on breaking    
it1 to have a variety of skins in the   
interior1 some of which are very        
lustrous1 others white and chalky1 like 
the middle shell of the mollusk4        
,many of these dead pearls are formed   
throughout of this material4  ,others1  
perfectly spherical1 are simply         
successive layers of prism  groups like 
the conchiolin plates of the shell4     
,upon cutting these  through the centre 
the skins are shown by the concentric   
rings marking  their divisions and the  
prismatic formation appears as          
glistening  lines radiating from the    
nucleus to the surface4 ,under the      
microscope  these layers1 which are     
thicker than the nacreous skins of true 
pearls1 appear identical with the       
epidermis plates1 except that they  are 
concentric instead of flat1 and are free
 from the coarse1 rough1  conchiolin    

deposit which forms the extreme outer   
coating of the shells4  ,this deposit is
 also found1 however1 in some pearl     
formations1 as  many of the abalone     
baroques1 especially when they are      
somewhat flat  in shape1 are like two   
pearl blisters joined1 with the         
shell-building  process reversed1 the   
rough1 black conchiolin being inside1   
and the  nacre outside4 ,undoubtedly    
pearls containing hidden qualities which
  made them once gems are thrown away as
 valueless1 while others found  just as 
nature had covered their earlier        
coarseness with a coat of  beauty1 are  
worn and excite much admiration for     
their skin-deep beauty4    ,though the  
successive skins of a pearl do not      
usually vary much in  color1 except in  
abalone pearls1 it does happen          
occasionally1 for the  removal of dark  
yellow skins sometimes discloses another
 of better  color--a good pink for      
instance4 ,from the sectional appearance
 of pearls  it seems probable1 that in  

the majority of cases the color of      
yellow  pearls would be improved by the 
removal of the outer waves of the outer 
skin4    ,changes in shape sometimes    
occur during the growth of the pearl1   
the  tendency being always toward the   
rounding of the surface4 ,if the        
nucleus is fast to the shell1 a dome is 
built over and around it4 ,if  the      
nucleus permits1 the nacre is deposited 
not only over but under  its edges to   
the point of contact with the shell1 so 
that a button  pearl connected with the 
shell at the centre only1 results4 ,two 
pearls held against the shell and       
growing side by side are separately     
enveloped until they touch each other1  
after which they are included  in single
 deposits of nacre and the depression   
between their domes  becomes less       
distinct with each successive coating4  
,similarly1 a  cluster of small pearls  
lying together often forms the nucleus  
of a  large rounded baroque or button   
pearl4 ,examination of such formations  

shows1 that up to a certain period the  
pearls have a separate existence  and   
growth4 ,they then become joined in an  
irregular mass of twinned  pearls1 and  
finally1 if allowed to remain in the    
oyster long enough1  all individuality  
is lost in the tendency to round over4  
,the same  thing occurs when grains of  
sand or other intrusions become attached
  to a growing pearl4 ,they are quite   
prominent when first included  in the   
nacreous deposit and can be easily      
detached from the under  pearl by       
breaking through the layer which binds  
them on2 but they  are soon obliterated 
by succeeding deposits4 ,this filling-in
 process  is sometimes accomplished by  
additional layers in the depression1    
sometimes by thicker layers4 ,it happens
 occasionally1 when skinning a  round   
pearl1 that one of these fillings is    
uncovered and flakes out1  leaving the  
pearl irregular1 as it was in a former  
stage of its growth4    ,although pearls
 naturally grow spherically1 many free  

pearls are more  or less buttoned1 that 
is1 have a flat place from which the    
pearl  rises like a dome1 high or low4  
,this happens when the pearl is held    
during growth by the fish against the   
shell with a part of its body           
intervening4 ,according to              
circumstances1 the pearl varies in form 
from  slightly button1 to a low dome1   
rising from a plane at its greatest     
diameter4 ,should a pearl of this       
description become dislodged1 the       
rounding action of the mollusk would    
begin at once to obliterate the  plane4 
,if undisturbed1 the process would      
result eventually in changing the       
button to a round or nearly round pearl1
 but should the pearl be taken  from the
 fish before the metamorphosis is       
completed1 a depression1 or  pit1 would 
mar its contour4 ,when borers intrude   
through the shell1 the  presentation is 
at once covered with nacre1 and         
successive deposits  are built up around
 it resulting in the nacreous wart known

 as a  baroque4 ,the rounding action of 
the mollusk is clearly shown in these   
excrescences1 as the borer is not simply
 covered and levelled with  the shell1  
but the slight elevation above the level
 of the lining  receives a continuity of
 concentric deposits which finally raise
 it  very considerably above the surface
 and separate it in construction  from  
the lining to which it is attached4 ,the
 shell herewith reproduced  illustrates 
the result4 ,borers pierced it at the   
thick part of the  hinge1 and burrowing 
down1 entered the interior at the point 
where  the baroque is shown4 ,in rare   
instances1 pearls attached to the shell 
do escape the concentric deposition1 for
 they have been found buried  under even
 layers of nacre1 when the              
mother-of-pearl was cut up in the       
process of manufacture4                 
,illustration3 ,,venezuelan             
,,pearl-,,shell1 ,,showing ,,baroque    
,from the appearance of the stri when   
they are divided lengthwise1            

pear-shaped pearls appear to have been  
spherical at one time4 ,during a  stage 
in the growth1 the forming layer has    
curved away from the centre  at one     
section of the sphere to a point4       
,succeeding layers1 following  the      
innovation1 are deposited around the    
extension until it becomes  sufficiently
 elongated to give the pearl the obovoid
 form4    ,many pearls are shaped like a
 capsule4 ,the ends of most are rounded 
up to a full dome2 some have somewhat   
flatter ends2 many are long and         
cylindrical like an ordinary capsule2   
others are short and appear  in shape   
like two high button pearls joined at   
their bases2 while  some resemble a     
cartridge1 one end being almost flat and
 the other a  somewhat pointed dome4 ,it
 is noticeable that such pearls have a  
chalky  line around the middle1 and     
sometimes there is a lustrous band      
between  two4 ,these chalky lines are   
found1 on peeling such a pearl1 to      
extend  through all the interior layers4

 ,similarly1 a high button joined at its
  entire circumference to the shell1 if 
the junction is abrupt1 has an          
intersecting chalky line1 marking the   
juncture of the two1 between the  luster
 of the pearl and the shell lining4 ,if 
the base of the pearl and  the shell    
form a curve there is no chalky line of 
demarcation4    ,this suggests that     
whenever the animal is unable to envelop
 the thing  upon which the mantle       
deposits its secretions completely or is
 not in  touch with every part of it1   
there is at the extremity of its action1
  an unnacreous deposit1 corresponding  
to the deposit of conchiolin or         
calcite1 at the extreme edge of the     
shell which precedes the nacreous       
layers following within and slightly    
back of it4 ,as the luster of the  pearl
 arises from the transparency of the    
calcium carbonate modified  by the      
undulating lines formed by the edges of 
the wave-plates1 it may  be that the    
lapping action of the mantle is         

necessary for the regular  formation and
 crystallization of these plates1 and   
that at points  beyond the reach of this
 action1 the depositions of the mantle  
are  therefore not pearly4    ,much is  
necessarily conjectural as to the modus 
operandi by which the  shell and the    
pearl are formed but the invariable     
tendency toward  sphericity suggests    
that the nucleus of a pearl1 when free  
within the  mollusk's mantle1 is not    
only enveloped in its exudations1 but is
  either kept constantly moving with a  
rolling motion or lapped on all  sides  
by the membrane which exudes upon it the
 nacreous material4    ,the instances   
cited of the short capsule shaped pearl 
and the high  button joined to the      
shell1 which seem to escape the nacreous
 deposit  at the basis of the domes1    
favor the lapping or licking method of  
depositing the nacreous solution and    
this action by the mollusk would  result
 in a constant rolling or turning motion
 imparted to the object  if it were free

 within the creature's body4 ,the       
licking and rolling  action of the      
mollusk1 modified by the conceivable    
influences of  position in the shell1   
would account for the spherical form    
with all  the various modifications in  
which the pearl is found4    ,to account
 for the variation of quality which     
undoubtedly exists in the  successive   
skins of some pearls1 and the           
imperfections in the nacre of  the same 
skin1 the theory has been advanced that 
the secretions for the  lining1 the     
shell proper1 and the epidermis1 are    
exuded by different  parts of the       
mantle2 the pearl traverses during      
growth these different  bands and its   
skins are modified by the secretions1 as
 they come within  the various zones of 
influence4 ,but there are several facts 
which seem  to oppose the theory4    ,in
 the first place all these parts of the 
mantle which supply the  material for   
the epidermis1 the middle shell1 and the
 lining1 are  enclosed within the shell 

and in touch with the lining yet each   
receives the exudations of that part of 
the mantle which supplies the  material 
suitable for it1 the mantle invariably  
pushing the coarser  excretions         
outwardly to the shell's exterior4      
,again1 whatever the  quality of the    
skin of the pearl may be1 it is never of
 conchiolin  like the outer epidermis   
and though sometimes similar to the     
plates1  of which the conchiolin is the 
exposed fringe1 it always contains      
sufficient nacre to render the surface  
smooth4 ,the fact that the skins  of a  
pearl do sometimes correspond with the  
different parts of the  shell1 and that 
the same skin on the surface is         
occasionally partly  nacreous and       
unnacreous1 in connection with the      
variation of quality  which exists in   
the internal composition of the skin1   
favors an idea  that the mixed and      
variable quantity of nacre in the skins 
may be  caused by the abnormal position 
of the mantle wrapped about the growing 

pearl which would thereby come more or  
less under the influence of the  calcite
 and conchiolin zones distorted from    
their normal extension and  action4     
,it has also been suggested that the    
oyster deposits the nacreous  layer in a
 fluid state and then rests until the   
deposit hardens1 when  the process is   
repeated4 ,to a certain extent this may 
be true though  apparently it could not 
be a yearly process as pearls found in  
the  small varieties of the avicula     
which mature in four to six years and   
die out in seven years1 often contain a 
greater number of layers than  the years
 of the mollusk's life1 and no pearl is 
ever found with a soft  exterior1 though
 it seems possible that pearls with a   
dead white chalky  exterior are taken   
from the oyster at a period when the    
crystallization  of the outer skin has  
not been perfected1 or that they have   
escaped  some action1 chemical or of the
 animal1 necessary for the formation  of
 the lustrous waves of nacre4 ,mr4      

,ludwig ,stross1 who has had much       
experience at the pearl fisheries1 says 
that he has frequently found  pearls of 
fair size in shells of the ,lingah type 
which could not be  over twelve to      
fifteen months old4 ,some of these      
pearls weighed fully  three grains4 ,as 
there are many apparent skins in a pearl
 of that  size1 the divisions could not 
mark either years1 seasons1 or breeding 
periods4 ,in some experiments made by   
,mr4 ,stross1 he found that borings     
made to the interior of a living        
mollusk's shell were closed by a film   
of hard nacre in two days4    ,the known
 facts about a pearl are these4 ,it is  
composed of about  ninety-two per cent4 
carbonate of lime1 about six per cent4  
organic  matter and a little over two   
per cent4 water in combination almost   
identical with the lining of the shell  
in which it grows and similar  to the   
mineral aragonite4 ,in construction it  
is usually a series  of layers1 which   
can sometimes be peeled off entirely1   

each one  successively enveloping its   
predecessors apparently as an           
independent  structure though itself    
composed of a number of thin lapping    
waves4  ,upon cutting through these     
layers the divisions appear as a series 
of rings and the intervals1 though      
composed of many thin waves1  appear    
compact4 ,it grows spherically or with  
such modifications as  the exigencies of
 position in the shell would reasonably 
account for4  ,these facts seem to      
justify the hypothesis that a foreign   
substance  upon entering the shell of a 
pearl oyster is at once enveloped or    
washed in the creature's exudations2    
that the organic matter of the          
secretions forms a filmy envelope in    
which the mineral contained in  them is 
precipitated or crystallizes in         
wave-like layers of crystals  of great  
tenuity1 and that as these layers harden
 the process is  repeated1 and that     
during the process the creature either  
revolves  the object1 or about it1 as it

 is free1 or fastened to the shell4 ,it 
is also possible that changes in the    
organic matter interwoven with  the     
calcium carbonate may produce some      
chemical action resulting in  the       
crystallization of the lime1 and the    
crystallization in turn be  provocative 
of another deposit1 each process in turn
 being almost  simultaneous and that the
 process is continued until a paucity of
  mineral in the exudations induces a   
rest for recuperation1 after which  the 
process is repeated1 the result being a 
succession of composite  skins as we    
find them4 ,whatever the cause1 it is   
evident in all parts  of the shell and  
in the pearl that continuity of         
construction is  periodically arrested  
to be resumed upon exactly the same     
plan1 except  that the material used in 
the succeeding layer of the pearl may be
  formed occasionally like another of   
the shell sections though usually  it is
 like the preceding one4    ,marked     
differences in the same skin occur more 

frequently in the pearl  formations of  
univalves4 ,the skins of the abalone    
pearl especially1 are  frequently       
nacreous in part only4    ,pearl oysters
 are found in immense numbers on banks  
having a calcareous  foundation4 ,they  
are extraordinarily prolific1 the spat  
of one oyster  being estimated at       
upwards of several hundred thousands to 
millions1  so that were it not for the  
natural enemies of their young and the  
liability of being swept away and       
scattered by storms before they have    
anchored1 the banks would be            
over-crowded with the myriads produced4 
,some idea of the numbers may be gained 
from the fact that during the  fishing  
season the ,ceylon divers raise about   
one million each day4    ,the oysters   
are seldom found in water with a        
temperature below #ge  degrees and they 
seem to thrive best in warm sheltered   
bays and inlets1  especially when the   
banks are situated far from the equator4
 ,they  attach themselves to the beds by

 a bunch of tough threads which pass    
out through an aperture in the shells1  
near the hinge1 and fasten on  the rocks
 and stones2 consequently the oysters do
 not lie flat1 as  might be supposed1   
but maintain an upright position1 hinge 
down1 lip  end up1 and the shell        
slightly open for the passage of the    
food-laden  water1 as the fresh-water   
mussels do4 ,these threads are called   
the  beard or byssus1 and are composed  
of material similar to the epidermis  of
 the shell4    ,the abalone1 which is a 
univalve1 holds on to the rocks by the  
foot1 a  flat muscular appendage used   
for locomotion and also as an anchor on 
the principle of the leather toy known  
to boys as a sucker4    ,although pearls
 of value are found only in shells      
containing  mother-of-pearl1 a small    
proportion only of the mother-of-pearl  
shells  contains pearls1 and many       
varieties in which pearls are found do  
not yield enough nacre to make the      
shells valuable4 ,the size of the       

meleagrina in some seas is remarkable4  
,that at page #abg1 photographed  from a
 ,tuamotu shell1 measures #h-g_/h inches
 by #f-g_/h inches and weighs           
twenty-eight ounces troy4    ,it is of  
the black-edge variety1 contains a large
 quantity of fine  quality              
mother-of-pearl1 and has a beautiful    
small pearl attached to  the lining near
 the center of the shell4 ,though large1
 it is not full  grown4 ,it is probably 
twelve to fourteen years old and would  
continue  to lay on mother-of-pearl and 
so grow thicker and heavier until       
sixteen  to eighteen years of age1 when 
the oyster would reach maturity4 ,the   
,australian white shell at page #abi is 
a young shell--that is1 it has not      
attained the full thickness and weight  
of a mature shell4 ,the shells at  pages
 #aca and #afa are from the coast of    
,venezuela2 they measure #b-a_/d  by    
#b-a_/d inches and weigh seven          
pennyweights each4    ,the common form  
of the pearl-bearing fresh-water mussel 

unio  7nigger-head7 is illustrated at   
page #adf4 ,this shell measures #c-c_/d 
by  #b-c_/d inches and weighs #c-a_/b   
ounces4 ,it is from the ,middle ,west of
  the ,united ,states4 ,in construction 
it resembles the meleagrina1 the        
epidermis being dark1 though not as     
rough as that of the oyster1 and  the   
lining white1 showing slight iridescence
 around the lip-edge and  to a greater  
degree on the adductor muscle scar4 ,the
 mother-of-pearl  under the epidermis at
 the thick or hinge end is quite        
iridescent1 and  the lines which make   
the color play are plainly discernible  
under the  loup4    ,the largest and    
finest pearls1 also the greatest number1
 are found  usually in distorted shells4
 ,this has given rise to the idea that  
they  are a symptom of disease in the   
fish1 but having in mind the functions  
of the three zones of the creature's    
mantle by which they supply  separately 
material for the epidermis1 middle shell
 and lining1 one  may conceive that if1 

by some extraordinary cause1 the        
secretions of  one of these is largely  
withdrawn from the natural channel1 the 
losing  part of the shell would warp the
 normal growth of the others to its own 
dwarfage4    ,when the nacre grows to a 
pearl1 contrary to the intent of nature1
  instead of a lining for the shell     
endeavoring to keep pace with the       
growing oyster1 the full-growing        
exterior is distorted in accommodating  
itself to the undersized lining4 ,in    
view of the fact that an oyster         
sometimes contains a large number of    
pearls 7one shell in ,new ,caledonia    
contained #bef7 the diversion of nacre  
sufficient to cover them1 or  to produce
 one large pearl1 might reasonably be   
expected to result  in a considerable   
distortion of the shell4 ,it may also be
 that the  displacement of the mantle1  
caused by the wrapping of itself about  
the  growing pearl1 interferes with the 
even deposit of shell material about    
the edges of the shell and so distorts  

it4    ,because deformed shells are more
 fruitful of pearls some have advocated 
the practice of throwing                
perfectly-formed shells back into the   
sea  unopened1 but1 inasmuch as the     
mother-of-pearl of the shells often     
exceeds in value the pearls found in    
them1 this is not likely to  happen4    
,few fisheries could be made to pay if  
they were fished for the  pearls alone4 
,in many of them the shells yield #ij   
per cent4 of the  total value and are in
 fact the sole incentive for the        
investment of  the necessary capital4   
,luckily for the world's supply of      
pearls1 however1 the disturbers of  the 
mollusk which cause these gems by their 
intrusions appear to be  more abundant  
in waters where the shell is valueless1 
the banks about  ,ceylon especially     
being infested with the cestodes which  
are commonly  the nuclei of ,indian     
pearls4 ,it is interesting also to learn
 that ,mr4  ,james ,hornell 7inspector  
of the pearl banks7 finds these worms in

  another stage in the file-fish1 which 
frequents the banks to prey upon  the   
oysters1 and confidently expects to find
 them in the adult stage in  the shark1 
which in turn devours the file-fish4    
,it is the opinion of ,jameson of       
,london and others1 that the parasite   
which causes the formation of pearls in 
the mussels of ,europe is  frequently   
the larva of distomum somater1 from the 
eider-duck and  scoter1 and that the    
larva first inhabits ,tapes1 or the     
cockle1 before  getting into the mussel4
    ,generally the nuclei appear to be  
the bodies or eggs of minute            
parasites--distoma1 filaria1 bucephalus1
 etc41 and they vary in  different      
localities according to the animal life 
of the neighborhood4  ,in the still     
parts of the river ,elster1 where       
water-mites 7,limnochares  anodont7 were
 abundant1 ,kuchenmeister found that the
 mollusks  contained more pearls4       
,,methods ,,of ,,fishing      ,the beds 
of the marine shell-fish from which     

pearls are taken lie  always under      
water4 ,unlike others which are         
sometimes left exposed by  the tides1 to
 be gathered by man without difficulty1 
the pearl oyster  is never left         
uncovered by the sea4 ,it is found      
usually on shoals some  distance from   
shore1 sometimes but five to seven feet 
from the surface2  more frequently      
fifteen to forty feet deep1 and often   
one hundred to  one hundred and         
twenty-five and even one hundred and    
fifty feet deep4    ,everywhere1 then1  
man's quest for pearls is confronted by 
the heaving1  restless waters of the    
sea1 for the greater part of the year   
rough and  turbulent1 frequently lashed 
to furious racing by tropic tempests but
  through which he must in any case go  
to get them4 ,in a few places where  the
 beds lie in shallow inlets and         
sheltered bays they can be dredged1  but
 almost universally the oysters are     
gathered by divers4 ,during the  greater
 part of the year1 when storms rage1    

diving is very dangerous  if not quite  
impossible2 but when the song of the sea
 is hushed to low  crooning1 and the    
gentle roll of the waves does no more   
than playfully  slap the boats in       
passing1 then in the seas where men dive
 for pearls  they gather to the harvest 
of gems4    ,there are two ways of      
diving--naked1 and with dress4 ,the     
former is the  common method throughout 
the ,orient and is practised to-day     
after the  same manner that it was in   
the days of the ,pharaohs and the       
,csars1  for the primitive method       
survives with few variations wherever   
eastern  people control the fisheries4  
,in the fishing season one sees now in  
the ,red ,sea and the ,persian ,gulf    
and about ,ceylon1 the same scenes as   
they were enacted there before  ,rome   
was a city1 or ,france a nation1 or the 
,macedonians overran ,egypt4  ,naked    
divers1 diving into fifteen to forty    
feet of water1 use few aids4  ,they     
grease their bodies1 put greased cotton 

in the ears and a forked  stick1 or     
tortoise-shell clip1 upon the nostrils  
to compress them1 hang  a wide-mouthed  
wicker basket or net at the waist1 and  
they are ready4    ,there are several   
methods of naked diving3 head-first from
 a  spring-board attached to the side of
 the boat1 as the ,malabar coast        
,hindus and some of the ,egyptians do2  
swimming to the bottom1 as  practised in
 the deep waters of the ,south ,sea2 and
 dropping to the  oyster bed with a     
stone4 ,the latter is the most common   
way in ,indian1  ,egyptian1 and ,arabian
 waters1 especially where the banks lie 
in forty  to fifty feet of water4       
,standing on the spring-board a few     
seconds to fill his lungs1 the          
head-first diver suddenly plunges       
overboard and passes smoothly and       
rapidly through the water straight to   
the shoal below4 ,gathering  quickly as 
many oysters as possible while his      
breath lasts1 he  places them in the net
 at his waist1 attaches them to a       

convenient  rope hanging from the boat's
 side and shoots to the surface4 ,there 
he recuperates by lazily floating about 
if the water is shallow1 if  deeper1 by 
climbing back into the boat for his next
 plunge4 ,if diving  in pairs1 one rests
 while his partner dives4    ,expert    
divers who dive singly have an          
attendant1 a manduck1 who  attends to   
the lines and looks out for his         
interests generally4 ,the  manduck drops
 a line with the oyster basket overboard
 and attaches to  it another weighted   
with a forty to fifty pound stone4      
,these are so  fastened that they can be
 quickly released4 ,the diver then drops
 into  the water feet first and placing 
his foot in a loop in the line over  the
 stone puts the basket on it1 and       
releasing the lines1 sinks to the       
bottom4 ,disengaging himself1 he        
proceeds to fill his basket while the   
attendant pulls up the stone and adjusts
 it for the next descent4 ,when  ready  
to return he signals his attendant1 and 

holding on to the line  with the basket 
is drawn to the surface1 occasionally   
accelerating his  own return by climbing
 the rope hand over hand at the same    
time4 ,he  rests in the water by the    
boat's side until ready to dive again1  
making  seven or eight descents before  
climbing into the boat for a longer rest
  and sun-bath4    ,the divers of       
,india1 ,arabia and the ,red ,sea are   
natives of the ,madras  ,presidency1    
descendants of ,arab fishers at ,jaffna 
in ,ceylon1 ,arabs1 and  ,egyptian      
,negroes4 ,they travel long distances to
 the fisheries and there  are many of   
them between the ,red ,sea and ,ceylon4 
,at the last fishing  in the ,gulf of   
,manaar there were about forty-five     
hundred4 ,their dress  during the time  
of the fishing consists of a loin cloth 
only4 ,they have  many hereditary and   
class superstitions1 chief of which is  
their faith  in shark-charmers4 ,while  
waiting for the fishing to begin they   
also  seek to get from the fates an     

inkling of the luck which will attend   
them4 ,one common method is by breaking 
a cocoanut on the diving stone2  the    
more clean and even the break1 the      
better the luck4    ,the mortality among
 divers at the fisheries is not great in
 ,asiatic  waters4 ,pneumonia is the    
greatest scourge1 fatalities in diving  
being  few4 ,it is necessary however to 
select robust men for depths beyond     
forty feet2 comparatively few can work  
without injurious effects below  that4  
,some curious mixtures of ancient days  
and present times1 of the  ,pharaohs and
 infant industries1 are seen4 ,one may  
see a black slave  diver in the ,red    
,sea hanging over the edge of his boat  
taking  observations through an old tin 
kerosene can with a bit of glass in one 
end of it4 ,this he sinks a little way  
in the water and gazes through  it      
below4 ,presently the can is discarded1 
over he goes and returns  shortly with a
 few shells2 while near by a clumsy     
monster emerges and  a diver in dress   

climbs into his boat4 ,this use of      
modern tin cans and  glass is adopted in
 seas where the shells are scattered and
 is common  to pearl-divers the world   
over4    ,the ,moros have a method of   
fishing in very calm weather peculiar to
  themselves4 ,they drop a three-prong  
catcher attached to a rattan rope  upon 
the oyster bunches and so haul them up  
to the boat4 ,this can only  be done    
when the sea is perfectly still1 as even
 a ripple would render  a sight of the  
oysters impossible4 ,ordinarily they    
dive to any depth  down to twenty       
fathoms4    ,many attempts have been    
made to introduce dress-diving among the
  natives of the east but so far few    
have been successful4 ,results from     
experiments have not compared favorably 
with naked diving and so1  with few     
exceptions1 naked diving is still the   
rule in the east where  natives control 
the fishings4    ,but of all1 the       
,polynesians1 both male and female1     
adhere most closely  to the old way4    

,most of them will not even use a stone 
to assist the  descent1 and they        
probably reach greater depths than the  
naked divers  of any other sea4         
,travellers report that1 at a coral     
atoll in the  ,southern ,pacific owned  
by the ,french government and known as  
,hikuereu1  where the natives of ,tahiti
 and other islands flock during the     
season  to fish for pearls1 the boys and
 girls and women are almost as expert   
as the men4    ,whole families          
congregate here1 remaining during the   
season housed in  huts framed of light  
cocoanut palms roofed with leaves4      
,these they  bring with them1 some      
coming several hundred miles4 ,the      
shells are  mostly in sixty to seventy  
feet of water2 some however are brought 
from a depth of one hundred feet4 ,it is
 reported that a boy1 on an  exhibition 
dive1 remained under water for two      
minutes and forty  seconds1 going to a  
depth of a little over one hundred feet4
 ,he was  in sight all the time1 the    

water being so transparent that he could
  be seen on the bottom1 leisurely      
selecting pieces of coral for the       
officers of the ship above4 ,these      
divers hang in the water by one hand    
grasping the gunwale of the boat while  
they examine the bottom for  oysters    
through a glass which they hold below   
the surface in the other  hand4    ,when
 shells are sighted the glass is        
discarded1 the lungs are filled  several
 times and the air expelled slowly4     
,upon reaching a certain fit  condition 
a long breath is taken until the lungs  
are inflated to their  utmost capacity2 
the diver then suddenly lets go1 sinks a
 few feet  below the surface1 turns     
quickly and head-first swims rapidly to 
the  bottom4    ,arriving there1 he     
pulls himself along by grasping the     
coral branches  and breaking the shells 
loose from their anchorage with his     
right  hand1 which is protected by a    
cloth wrapping1 and stows them away  in 
a cocoanut fibre basket slung over the  

shoulder4 ,this done1 he  straightens   
himself and shoots to the surface with  
astonishing  rapidity1 seeming to leap  
up from the water as he arrives with    
almost  sufficient impetus to carry him 
into the waiting canoe4 ,in a few       
minutes he is ready to dive again4 ,in  
some localities where divers were       
employed the women were preferred1 not  
because they could do better  work      
always1 but one could depend on them    
more safely4 ,this was true of  the     
divers in ,torres ,straits between      
,queensland and ,new ,guinea4    ,before
 dress-diving was introduced these naked
 natives would dive  into ten or twelve 
fathoms and bring up an oyster under    
each arm4 ,the  shells were large1      
weighing three to six pounds together   
and sometimes  ten1 but they contained  
few pearls and those were generally     
small4  ,as they were brought up the    
oysters were searched for pearls and the
  fish used for food4 ,the shells sold  
in ,sydney then for eight to nine       

hundred dollars the ton4 ,years ago the 
women of ,chile about the ,bay of       
,concepcion claimed as a right the      
fishing for mussels4 ,the men rowed     
them out to the beds and stuck long     
poles into the shoal below1 down  which 
the women would slide1 returning with   
both hands full of mussels4  ,the       
fishing was done from canoes1 each      
holding one man and one woman4  ,the    
women did not consider this a hardship  
but a privilege of which  they were     
quite jealous1 for they devoted the     
proceeds of their catch  to the purchase
 of finery4    ,wonderful stories are   
told of the great depths to which these 
naked  divers go and the great length of
 time they can remain under water4      
,many of these tales are gross          
exaggerations1--yarns which have grown  
more wonderful with the telling1 or the 
reports of careless or  inexperienced   
observers4 ,as a matter of fact at most 
of the fisheries1  twenty to thirty feet
 is good diving1 and from forty to fifty

 feet is  the maximum depth4 ,sixty to  
eighty seconds is the average limit of  
time they remain under water4 ,if one   
will try to hold the breath for  sixty  
seconds1 even while remaining perfectly 
still1 it will be at once  understood   
that to do so while moving and working  
rapidly under water  is a great feat4   
,nevertheless there have been instances 
undoubtedly1  where naked divers have   
gone to much greater depths and remained
  under for several minutes4 ,such cases
 are rare however and occur most        
frequently among the natives of the     
,south ,sea ,islands1 who1 male and     
female1 are expert divers from childhood
 and spend much of their lives  in the  
water4    ,visitors have claimed that   
natives of the ,tongarewa ,islands1 in  
longitude one hundred and fifty-eight   
degrees ,w4 and latitude nine  degrees  
,s41 can do twenty to twenty-five       
fathoms and will even go  deeper when   
tempted by the sight of a few oysters   
lying in a hole or  depression near by4 

,going below twenty-five fathoms results
 almost  invariably in a sort of        
paralysis4 ,the diver comes up howling  
and  incapable of motion and unless     
companions at once seize and rub him    
vigorously with salt water until        
circulation is restored1 a process      
lasting sometimes many hours1 he dives  
no more4 ,if restored he will  dive     
again next day1 and such is their       
recklessness that the same  temptation  
would lead him to take the risk again4  
,monsters abound in these waters4       
,should the diver be attacked by a      
devil-fish1 shark1 or sword-fish1 he    
does not use a knife1 as blood  would   
attract other devils of the sea and     
becloud the water to his own  confusion4
 ,instead he seeks to avoid his enemy1  
and if the troubler  is a sword-fish1   
tries to find shelter among the rocks4  
,if the fish  departs quickly1 he       
escapes2 but the time of a live man one 
hundred  feet under water is short and  
sometimes the sword-fish over-stays it4 

,helmets have been used to a certain    
extent in all parts of the world4  ,many
 of them were clumsy affairs1 abhorred  
by all native divers1 and  were a bad   
introduction to the dress used in the   
large operations of  big fisheries such 
as those of ,australia and the ,pacific 
coast of this  continent4 ,in the seas  
about ,australia1 modern appliances are 
being  rapidly introduced4 ,the         
,australians use them if possible1      
wherever they  fish4 ,on their own coast
 all diving is now done in dress2 but   
among  some of the islands of the       
,pacific1 where they are extending their
  interests1 native prejudice is still  
able to hinder the use of it4           
,probably the chief reason for the      
general use of the dress on the         
,australian coast so early was that the 
shallows were soon exhausted1  and naked
 diving was not successful beyond a     
depth of fifty feet4 ,with  the dress1 a
 diver can work at much greater depths1 
remain under water  an hour or two1 and 

work all the year round4                
,illustration3     ,copyright1 #ahib1 by
 ,the ,century ,company4     ,,native   
,,australian ,,pearl-,,divers    ,in    
fisheries like those of ,ceylon1 where  
the banks are seldom over  forty feet   
deep and well known1 being fished over  
and over again at one  season of the    
year only1 at comparatively short       
intervals 7four to  six years71 the     
necessity for dress-diving is less and  
the naked native  diver will probably   
survive for many years although modern  
innovations  are gradually creeping in  
even among the fisheries controlled by  
,orientals4    ,the dress consists of a 
rubber suit all in one piece1 which the 
diver  gets into through the neck2      
leaden-soled boots1 corselet to which   
the  helmet is screwed1 and chest and   
back weights4 ,the diver dresses and    
steps on to the ladder hanging over the 
boat's side4 ,the air-pipe1  life-line1 
and helmet are attached1 the man at the 
air-pump is set to  work1 and last of   

all the face glass is screwed up4    ,a 
plunge1 a splash1 and he drops swiftly  
through the heaving billows to  the     
quiet depths below1 his life in the     
hands of the tender he has left  in the 
boat4 ,this man must feel the diver     
constantly by the life-line1  keep him  
supplied with air and be ready for any  
of the emergencies  always liable to    
arise4 ,only an alert man of good       
judgment and quick  action should tend  
the life-line1 though the most          
successful diver1 a  ,japanese1 on the  
,australian coast some years ago1 had   
the best tender  of that section in the 
person of his wife4    ,if it is the    
diver's first plunge1 his ears and head 
will be racked  with pain as he         
descends4 ,this pain will leave him when
 he reaches  bottom1 but on his return  
to the surface he will find his nose and
  ears bleeding and will probably spit  
blood also4 ,after this he will  not    
experience pain in diving1 but in common
 with nearly all divers  will never be  

quite free from extreme irritability and
 bad temper while  below2 he will also  
have gained the diver's ability to blow 
smoke  through the ears4    ,diving is  
injurious to the health and1 if         
persisted in1 produces  deafness and    
incipient paralysis4 ,few of the divers 
on the ,australian  coast now are       
aborigines4 ,their antipathy to the     
dress amounted in many  cases to a      
superstition1 so as the fishing was     
pushed out to deeper  waters and the    
dress became a necessity1 they were     
discarded with the  old methods4 ,it is 
said that in the old times diving had a 
peculiar  effect upon the black-haired  
natives4 ,by the end of the fishing     
season  the color of their hair became  
yellow though the natural hue returned  
later4    ,with the dress1 a diver can  
work comfortably at one hundred to a    
hundred and twenty-five feet1 but men   
who know the fisheries doubt if  that   
can be exceeded4 ,nor does it seem      
needful to go deeper1 for in  seas which

 have been explored at greater depths it
 is usually found  that the bottom      
consists of ooze unsuitable for the life
 and growth of  the oyster4    ,beyond  
those inherent to the art of diving1    
either method has its  peculiar         
difficulties after bottom is reached4   
,in naked diving1  especially at the    
shoals of ,ceylon and ,venezuela1 where 
the shells  are small and abundant1 it  
is simply a question of gathering as    
many  as possible while the breath lasts
 and looking out for the dangerous      
fishes indigenous to tropical waters4   
,sharks are common in many of the       
pearl-oyster seas1 but experienced      
divers do not fear them greatly1 as the 
fish1 formidable as it may  appear1 and 
dangerous as it is when it can come upon
 one unawares1  is easily frightened4   
,many expert swimmers of the ,indian and
 ,pacific  oceans do not hesitate to    
attack them in their own element4       
,usually  vigorous splashing will       
frighten them away4 ,the dress-divers of

  ,australia scare them off by allowing 
a jet of air to escape4 ,as the  bubbles
 start for him1 the man-eating monster  
shoots away from them as  if            
terror-stricken4    ,the                
diamond-flounder of the ,pacific and    
,indian oceans1 a huge flat fish  with a
 habit of seizing its prey between the  
side fins and crushing it1  is more     
dangerous4 ,if a dress-diver of         
experience sees one of these            
approaching1 he is apt to shut off the  
air-escape of his helmet and  signal to 
his tender that he is coming to the     
surface as fast as he can  get there4   
,the rock-cod also is sometimes         
troublesome on the ,australian coast4   
,occasionally he attains an enormous    
size4 ,this fish lies hidden in         
submarine caves1 his head protruding and
 his monstrous jaws yawning  vertically 
wide like an entrance to the cave       
itself4 ,but accidents from  the        
denizens of the sea are comparatively   
few2 the physical results of  deep-sea  

diving are more to be dreaded1 for      
paralysis hovers close to  the          
thirty-fathom line4    ,although        
dress-diving has the advantage over     
naked diving that it gives  a supply of 
air to breathe while at work1 it also   
entails dangers and  difficulties from  
which the old method is free4 ,an       
imperfect supply  of air may cause the  
bursting of a blood-vessel4 ,fouling of 
the lines  might not only cut off the   
air supply entirely1 but prevent the    
man1  anchored by his heavy dress under 
twenty fathoms of water more or less1   
from signalling the man at the          
life-line4 ,as on dry land1 there are   
holes and precipices at the bottom of   
the sea to be avoided4    ,in some seas 
there are swift currents and as the     
dress-diver remains  under water for    
some time1 instead of returning at once 
like his naked  brother1 he must keep   
moving with it1 and as he moves1 the    
boat must  move in unison and his tender
 must keep the lines free4 ,both diver  

and tender must be skilful and alert to 
do this4 ,nor is it always  easy in     
deep-sea diving to find the oysters4    
,they lie in scattered  bunches1 often  
hidden by sponges1 coral or other sea   
growths1 their  gray or moss-grown      
exteriors scarcely to be distinguished  
from the  surroundings2 if in mud1 only 
an inch or so of the sharp lips of the  
two valves projecting above the surface 
are in evidence2 while if in  stooping  
to gather the shells he should fall1 he 
is likely to shoot  feet foremost to the
 surface4    ,though dress-diving has   
heretofore been confined almost entirely
 to  white men1 the ,japanese1 ,chinese1
 ,malays1 ,south ,sea ,islanders1 and   
others in different places1 are now     
being educated to it chiefly  through an
 ,australian fishery4    ,at the        
northwestern corner of ,australia1 a    
thousand miles from the  nearest        
railroad and ten days from the nearest  
port1 there are  pearl fisheries where  
the climate is so hot that white men    

cannot be  obtained for the work4       
,colored men are shipped there from     
,singapore to  man the boats1 the       
pearl-fishers giving a bond to the      
government of #ajj  pounds sterling for 
each man employed1 as a guarantee that  
he will not  go to other parts of the   
state4 ,a fleet of about three hundred  
boats  and fifteen hundred men are      
employed there1 the supply station being
 at  ,broome township4    ,in all       
things1 when once the improvements of   
science gain a foothold  anywhere in the
 world1 the whole earth succumbs        
eventually to their  advantages1 and so 
with diving2 the habits and prejudices  
of thousands  of years will be forced by
 commercial pressure to submit          
themselves to  modern appliances1 and   
the picturesque nakedness of the swarthy
 orient  will soon be hidden under the  
ugly but useful dress of civilization4  
,,habitat ,,of ,,the ,,pearl ,,oyster   
,the ,pearl ,oyster is found in more or 
less abundance on the shoals and  reefs 

about the shores of every land within a 
belt of the earth lying  between #cj    
degrees north and south of the equator4 
,coral reefs and  limestone foundations 
usually form the beds on which they     
propagate4  ,beyond these limits the    
abalone is found at ,japan1 on the      
,california  coast1 ,queen ,charlotte's 
,island1 the ,cape1 ,australia1 ,new    
,zealand1  ,china1 about the ,english   
,channel1 and on the coast of ,france1  
where the  shores are washed by         
equatorial currents4 ,it exists also on 
the shores  of ,india and the ,canary   
,islands4    ,the largest and heaviest  
shells1 which yield fine mother-of-pearl
 most  abundantly are confined almost   
entirely to the ,pacific ,ocean within  
twenty degrees south of the equator4    
,the best white shells come from  the   
northern shores of ,australia and the   
,aroo islands4 ,the best black  shells  
are found about ,tahiti1 the ,gambier   
,islands1 and the ,tuamotu              
,archipelago4 ,of the big yellow        

variety1 the best are obtained in the   
,merguian ,archipelago and ,dutch       
,indies4 ,the shells of this district at
  ,ceram1 ,batjan1 and elsewhere1 vary  
somewhat but the bulk of them are       
yellow4    ,beginning with the east     
coast of ,africa1 the pearl oyster is   
found in  the ,red ,sea1 where it has   
been fished for ages4 ,the shell here is
 of  medium size and weight2 much larger
 than those of ,venezuela1 ,ceylon1  or 
the ,persian ,gulf and smaller than the 
shells of the ,pacific4 ,the            
mother-of-pearl is not of the finest    
quality and is used now for  inferior   
work only4 ,it was more used formerly   
but since the fresh-water  unio shell of
 the ,united ,states came into the      
market1 it has displaced  to a great    
degree the ,egyptian and ,panama shells4
 ,the inner edge of the  ,red ,sea shell
 is of a greenish-gray color4    ,south 
of the ,red ,sea1 on the ,east of the   
,african coast1 pearl oysters  are found
 in a number of places between ,zanzibar

 and ,inhambane1  particularly at the   
,bazaruto ,islands1 but nowhere in      
sufficient  abundance to develop the    
fishing for them into a regular         
industry4 ,good  mother-of-pearl is     
abundant on the ,german ,east ,african  
coast1 but the  oysters carry few       
pearls4    ,travelling east1 they are   
next found in large numbers in that arm 
of  the ,arabian ,sea known as the      
,persian ,gulf4 ,here they have existed 
for  many centuries4 ,the mollusk is of 
the smaller species and the shells  are 
known in the market as ,lingahs1 from   
the name of the centre of  the pearl    
trade in this district4 ,the shells are 
of no commercial  importance4    ,after 
these come the ancient fisheries of     
,india1 the most prolific  in the world4
 ,the oysters here are smaller than     
those of the ,arabian  ,sea and the     
shells are of no value1 but they mature 
rapidly and yield  great quantities of  
pearls4 ,myriads of them cover the      
shoals and banks  between the coast of  

,india1 at the ,south-eastern point1 and
 ,ceylon1 and  as the beds are under    
government supervision1 they cannot be  
destroyed  by the reckless fishing of   
immature oysters4    ,crossing the ,bay 
of ,bengal and the ,malay ,peninsula1   
between longitudes  #ajj and #abj       
degrees ,e41 there are pearl oysters on 
the coasts of ,china1  the ,merguian    
,archipelago and western ,australia4    
,between longitudes #abj  degrees ,e4   
and #aej degrees ,e41 these mollusks    
flourish on many coasts1  including     
those of ,japan1 the ,sulu ,archipelago1
 the ,dutch ,indies1 the  ,spice        
,islands1 the ,banda ,islands1 the ,aroo
 ,islands1 ,new ,guinea and  northern   
,australia4    ,the ,australian shells  
are large and the lining is white and   
fine4 ,as  shell fisheries they are the 
largest in the world and although the   
value of the pearls found is small      
compared with the amount realized  from 
the sale of the shells it is            
considerable and growing4 ,the ,aroo    

shells are white like the ,australian4  
,those from the ,banda ,islands are  a  
smaller black-edge shell4 ,most of the  
others like the ,manila shell of  the   
,sulu ,islands1 are yellow4    ,at      
longitude #afe degrees ,e4 the fisheries
 of ,new ,caledonia are becoming        
notable for the number of fine fancy    
colored pearls found there4 ,both       
avicula margaritifera and meleagrina    
margaritifera are taken off the  west   
coast4    ,in the waters of the ,fiji   
,islands1 longitude #ahj degrees ,e4    
pearl  oysters of the black-edge shell  
variety similar to the ,bandas but a    
little larger are fairly abundant4      
,fine shells1 often containing very     
beautiful pearls1 are taken off the     
coasts of ,tahiti1 ,gambier1 and        
throughout the ,tuamotu ,archipelago1   
lying between longitudes #acj degrees   
,w4 and #aej degrees ,w4 ,the shells    
are of the black-edge type1 large and   
heavy4 ,the nacre is thick and has  a   
particularly mellow luster2 throughout  

this section both shells and  pearls    
rank among the best4    ,all over the   
,south ,sea1 pearl oysters are found    
about the islands and  in the lagoons   
within the atolls which stud it1 but in 
quantities too  small in many places to 
induce capital to establish fisheries4  
,fishing  for them is confined therefore
 to native divers who are rewarded by   
the  occasional find of a few pearls1   
which often they sell at ridiculous     
prices to the stray traders who may     
chance to come their way4    ,this      
eastward journey now brings us to the   
,pacific coast of the  ,american        
continent4 ,here the pearl-bearing      
mollusk is found on  the shores of      
,lower ,california1 about the ,islands  
of the ,gulf of  ,california1 at various
 points on the ,mexican coast-line south
 to  ,acapulco and at ,panama4 ,they    
exist also on the coast of ,ecuador but 
of  late years fishing has not proved   
remunerative and it is now carried on   
in a desultory way only4 ,they are found

 also on the western coast of           
,nicaragua4    ,the ,mexican shells     
known as ,panama shell or bullock shell 
have a dark1  dirty1 greenish rim and   
are much less valuable than the white or
 black  shell4 ,similarly1 dark1        
slaty-colored pearls are known as       
,panamas  because many pearls taken on  
this coast are of that character4 ,this 
color tendency however often results    
more advantageously as many of the      
pearls are sufficiently dark to be      
classed as fancy and some beautiful     
black and red pearls are found in these 
waters4 ,panama pearls also have  the   
reputation of being softer than others4 
,there are pearl oysters  also on the   
,peruvian coast but this section has not
 yet been fished4    ,on the ,atlantic  
side of ,america pearl oysters are      
abundant in the  ,gulf of ,campeche and 
on the shoals about the islands and     
shores of  ,venezuela4 ,the shells of   
,central ,america are similar to the    
,panamas  only more yellow1 while those 

of ,venezuela are small and valueless4  
,between the east coast of ,america and 
the ,red ,sea are no fisheries  save at 
,haiti1 for no discoveries of any       
importance have been made on  the       
western coast of ,africa4               
,consideration of these homes of the    
pearl oyster shows it to be a  tropical 
fish and that it attains greater        
dimensions in the ,pacific  ,ocean and  
near the equator than elsewhere4 ,beyond
 #cj degrees north it  is found only at 
two points1 the western shore of        
,america and on the  ,japanese coast4   
,these shores are washed by equatorial  
currents4 ,the  small varieties of the  
,indian seas and ,venezuela1 mature     
rapidly in  four to six years1 and if   
not taken they die out after the seventh
  year4 ,the meleagrina of the ,pacific 
however1 though it attains its  full    
size in six to eight years1 continues to
 lay on shell-nacre up  to twelve and   
even twenty years4 ,a shell which is of 
good size but  comparatively thin is    

called by the dealers in mother-of-pearl
 a  young shell4 ,the ,australian       
pictured at page #abi is such an one4   
,the  ,tuamotu at page #abg is not full 
grown but well along in years1 probably 
fourteen to sixteen years old4    ,of   
the sea mollusks yielding formations    
which1 though not true pearls1  are so  
called1 7,strombus gigas71 is a native  
of the ,west ,indies4  ,another1 a      
gasteropod1 the ear-shell 7,haliotis7   
known in the ,united  ,states as the    
abalone1 is found on the coasts of      
,california1 ,japan1 the  ,english      
,channel ,islands and elsewhere4 ,the   
,californians are divided  into three   
classes1 the blue backs1 about six      
inches long1 and green  and red-ears1   
which are half as large again4 ,pinnas  
yielding black  seed-pearls are found   
south of the ,island of ,mafia on the   
east coast  of ,africa4 ,on the banks   
and shoals between ,mafia and ,zanzibar 
is a red  mussel from which white pearls
 are taken4    ,the fresh-water         

pearl-bearing mussel1 the unio1 unlike  
the sea oyster  is most abundant north  
of #cj degrees ,n4 ,in ,china and the   
,hawaiian  ,island ,oahu it is found a  
little to the south of #cj degrees ,n41 
and  it has been discovered lately in   
,southern ,rhodesia a little north of   
#cj degrees ,s41 but the countries and  
streams in which the unio is  plentiful 
and where it yields the most pearls lie 
within latitudes #cj  degrees ,n4 and   
#fj degrees ,n4 ,they have been taken   
from the streams of  ,great ,britain    
since the times when the ,romans had a  
colony here4 ,they  exist in ,bohemia1  
,saxony1 ,bavaria1 ,lapland1 ,canada1   
,labrador and in  great quantities in   
the ,united ,states4          ,,pearl   
,,fisheries      ,the pearl fisheries of
 the ,red ,sea are at ,lohia4 ,at the   
lower end  of the ,red ,sea1 at ,massawa
 on the ,african side1 and at ,lohia on 
the  ,arabian side1 are a number of     
small barren islands2 the banks lie in  
shallow water between them4 ,the        

industry is financed by merchants1      
principally natives of ,bombay1 ,india1 
who in partnership with the  ,bedouin   
boat-owners1 control the fishing4 ,the  
,bedouin captain takes  with him a few  
,arabs to man the boat and a number of  
black slaves as  divers4 ,the shells    
have a market value for mother-of-pearl 
but the  quality is inferior4 ,they have
 a greenish-gray edge and are fairly    
heavy and formerly they were much in    
demand4    ,of late years the           
fresh-water unio shells have replaced   
them to a  certain extent for cheap     
material but the shells are yet about   
ninety  per cent4 of the value of the   
fishings4 ,returns show exports of      
pearls  averaging one hundred thousand  
dollars per annum but as a large  number
 go direct to ,bombay and are not       
reported1 this does not fairly          
represent the extent of the industry4   
,the beds vary in depth1 thirty to forty
 feet being the maximum depth  fished4  
,naked native diving is the rule1 but   

the ,italian government  has lately     
farmed out concessions at ,dahlak and   
,farsan where they are  experimenting   
with helmets4 ,the fishing season is    
from the beginning of  ,march to the end
 of ,may4    ,the arm of the ,arabian   
sea lying between ,arabia and ,persia   
known as the  ,persian ,gulf1 has always
 been rich in pearl oysters and is a    
prolific  source of supply to-day4      
,these banks are fished chiefly for the 
pearls4  ,the shell1 though larger than 
the ,ceylon1 is of the ,lingah class as 
it is called1 and is of little value for
 mother-of-pearl4    ,though pearl      
oysters are found all along the coast of
 ,arabia1 the most  productive shoals   
are between the ,islands of ,halool and 
,katar4 ,these  shoals commence at the  
,island of ,bahrein immediately off the 
,arab  coast near the centre of the gulf
 and continue east and south along  the 
district of ,katar for nearly two       
hundred miles after which the  banks are
 lost in deep water4 ,the chief centre  

of the pearl trade is  ,lingah1 hence   
the name given to the shells of this    
district4 ,most of  the pearls go to    
,bombay and are known as ,bombay pearls1
 many of them  having a distinctly      
yellow tint4 ,the whitest and finest go 
to ,bagdad  and eventually the best go  
to ,europe4 ,india takes the irregular  
ones  and ,china gets the seed-pearls4  
,the principal banks are at ,bahrein4   
,this island is the most important  one 
of a group situated in an indentation of
 the ,arabian coast and is  about       
seventy miles long and twenty-five      
broad4    ,small boats carrying from    
five to fifteen men fish the shallows   
near  the coast1 but larger boats1      
manned by from twenty to fifty men1 put 
out for the banks further from shore    
into deep water4 ,these remain  out     
during the entire season coming into    
port once or twice only for  supplies4  
,the owners of the boats are generally  
poor4 ,they depend upon  the dealers for
 advances at the beginning of the season

 for supplies1  and many of them are    
therefore practically in a state of     
bondage4    ,when the deep-water boats  
reach the fishing grounds1 half the crew
  is selected for diving4 ,the diver    
uses a small braided mat basket as  a   
receptacle for the shells and has a long
 line attached to him by  which he can  
signal to the man in the boat who       
manages it4 ,there is  a man to each    
diver's line4 ,except for the short     
intervals at the  surface necessary for 
air and rest1 the divers remain in the  
water for  hours4 ,the oyster-beds vary 
in depth from six to eighteen feet in   
the  shallows1 to forty feet at the     
banks4    ,the duration of the fishing  
season depends on the temperature of the
  water4 ,it lasts usually through      
,july1 ,august1 and ,september1 though  
some of the larger boats remain out from
 the end of ,june until the  beginning  
of ,october4    ,the pearls are sold by 
weight1 sales being made sometimes while
 at sea  and a duty equalling about     

twenty per cent4 is levied on the spot4 
,a  large number of ,hindu traders come 
during the season to buy1 returning  to 
,india at the close as they have done   
for centuries4    ,no exact statistics  
of the output of these fisheries are to 
be had  but the yield is said to average
 well2 some authorities placing the     
value of the fisheries of the entire    
district in the sixties at nearly  two  
millions of dollars per annum1 and the  
number of boats engaged at  #d1jjj to   
#e1jjj4    ,illustration3               
,copyright1 #aijf1 by ,the ,century     
,company4     ,,east ,,indian           
,,pearl-,,divers ,,resting    ,as       
ancient as those of the ,arabian sea and
 even more important are the  pearl     
fisheries of ,india4 ,these are also    
fished for the pearls1 the  shells of   
these waters being smaller than those of
 the ,persian ,gulf and  valueless for  
mother-of-pearl4 ,the pearls however    
average whiter than  those of the ,red  
,sea and the ,persian ,gulf4 ,although  

equally fine pearls  are found in other 
waters the ,ceylon1 or ,madras pearls as
 they are  called1 have long been       
esteemed the best because of their good 
average  color and quality4 ,these banks
 are situated in the ,gulf of ,manaar   
between the southern point of ,india and
 the island of ,ceylon4    ,on the      
,madras 7,india7 side the banks are off 
,tinnevalli and ,madura  at ,tuticorin4 
,the ,indian revenue realized a profit  
of #ac1jjj from a  fishing here in      
#ahbb1 and #aj1jjj from another in      
#ahcj4 ,examinations  showed that there 
were not sufficient oysters for         
profitable fishing  after that until    
#ahfj1 when the government netted       
#bj1jjj1 and a  fishing the following   
year1 #ahfa1 was equally successful4    
,the banks  failed in #ahfb and there   
was no fishery until #ahgd4 ,pollution  
of the  water from the ,indian shores   
has been detrimental to these banks and 
they are now of little importance4      
,on the ,ceylon side1 the banks lie six 

to eight miles off the west  shore and a
 little south of the island of ,manaar4 
,fishing has been an  industry from     
early times before history began4 ,there
 are records of  these fisheries under  
the kings of ,kandy and later by the    
,portuguese  after they took possession 
of ,ceylon about #aeje1 to #afee when   
the  island passed into the hands of the
 ,dutch4 ,in old times they were  called
 the fisheries of ,aripo after a fort on
 the coast4 ,not until the  ,english    
gained control were the fisheries so    
managed that definite  knowledge of the 
results could be obtained4    ,after the
 ,dutch gave way to the ,english1 until 
#aijc1 these fisheries  had yielded a   
net income to the government of over    
#a1jjj1jjj4 ,this  covered a period of  
over one hundred years1 as the ,british 
occupied  ,ceylon in #agif4 ,in the     
early years of this period and prior to 
that1  the fishings1 or rights to fish1 
were sold to the highest bidders1       
usually ,hindu merchants4 ,in #agif the 

fishing brought #fj1jjj4 ,the year      
after the ,british took possession1     
#agig1 it realized #aaj1jjj that  amount
 having been paid by ,candappa ,chetty1 
a native of ,jaffna for the  fishery    
right1 and for that of #agih1 the same  
renter paid #adj1jjj4    ,these         
fishings1 which were prolonged1 so      
exhausted the banks that the  fishery of
 #agii yielded but #cj1jjj4 ,from #agii 
to #ahjb the yearly  product ranged from
 #ab1jjj to #ee1jjj4 ,in #ahjd they were
 leased for  #abj1jjj but from that time
 on declined so that in #ahbh they      
brought  only #cj1fab4 ,there were no   
fishings from #ahbj to #ahbg1 nor in    
#ahcd  and after #ahcg1 until #ahee4    
,the supply failed in #ahfd and for     
several  succeeding years1 and again for
 a decade1 after five successful        
fishings from #ahhg to #ahia4 ,the      
average yearly profit up to #ahia was   
about #cd1jjj4    ,the ,ceylon and      
,madras fisheries are now in charge of a
 government  officer1 who spends a part 

of each year inspecting the various     
banks  so as to be informed as to the   
whereabouts of mature oysters1 and the  
location and progress of the young and  
immature4 ,they keep a record of  their 
condition at different periods1 and     
regulate the fisheries by  permitting   
fishing only when they consider the     
banks to be ripe for it4    ,the oysters
 mature in from four to six years so    
that ordinarily a  bank may be fished   
once in that period1 but it sometimes   
happens  that the young oysters are     
swept away by violent storms or crowded 
out by natural enemies4 ,in #aija the   
,ceylon banks were found to be in  a bad
 way1 there were plenty of young oysters
 but none full-grown4  ,the government  
officers could not account for the      
condition1 and in  response to a report 
of the facts the government sent ,prof4 
,w4 ,a4  ,herdman to ,ceylon in #aijb4  
,he examined the whole of the bottom of 
the  ,gulf of ,manaar and discovered    
banks on which were full-grown oysters1 

so that a fishing was fixed for the     
#bcrd of ,february #aijc4 ,weather      
prevented commencement until the second 
of ,march1 when fishing began  and      
lasted forty-two working days until     
,april the fourteenth4 ,the  fishings   
take place in ,march and ,april because 
the sea is usually calm  at that period4
    ,the banks lie in five to ten       
fathoms over a shallow area nearly fifty
  miles long by twenty miles broad1     
opposite ,aripo4 ,a steep declivity on  
the western edge gives the sea a depth  
of one hundred fathoms in a few  miles4 
,in the centre of the southern part of  
the ,gulf of ,manaar1 west  of the      
,chilaw pearl-banks1 the sea is one to  
two thousand fathoms deep4    ,of all   
the paars1 or oyster-beds 7paar means   
rock or hard bottom7 the  ,periya paar  
is the largest4 ,it is about eleven     
nautical miles long and  from one to two
 miles broad4 ,situated in about five to
 ten fathoms  close to the top of the   
western slope of the shallows1 and      

running  north and south about twenty   
miles from land1 it is exposed to the   
southwest monsoon which runs up toward  
the ,bay of ,bengal for about six       
months of the year4 ,the natives call   
this the mother-paar1 believing  that   
the young oysters are carried from it to
 the other paars1 which  are thus       
stocked at its expense4    ,between     
#ahhj and #aijb twenty-one examinations 
showed that the ,periya  paar had been  
naturally stocked eleven times with     
enormous quantities  of young oysters1  
which as regularly disappeared before   
they were  old enough to yield a        
fishing4 ,the most reliable paars are in
 the  ,cheval district and it is        
probable that the government1 acting on 
the  suggestion of ,prof4 ,herdman1 will
 hereafter dredge the breeding ,periya  
paar of its young oysters and plant them
 where they will be able to  mature4 ,it
 is estimated that many millions of     
millions of oysters have  been lost from
 this paar during the last twenty-five  

years4    ,a fishing is not only a      
matter of commercial importance1 but of 
wide-spread interest among the natives  
of ,ceylon and ,india4 ,the romance  of 
the situation1 the hope of gain1 the    
great gathering of people  from many and
 far-off countries1 the opportunities   
for barter1 the  possibilities of       
securing priceless gems for little1 and 
for making  money quickly1 all appeal to
 the oriental mind4    ,for this they   
will endure the discomforts of long and 
painful journeys  and the dangers of    
crowded camp life with a recklessness   
that  contrasts curiously with the wild 
panics into which they are sometimes    
thrown1 as for instance in #ahhi1 when  
the ,ceylon fishing collapsed on        
account of cholera4 ,in a few hours a   
fleet of #bjj boats disappeared1  the   
camp was burned1 and the multitude gone4
    ,great precautions are taken by the 
government officials in every           
direction4 ,when they have decided that 
there are banks in condition  to be     

fished1 notice of a fishing is          
advertised4 ,the following  notification
 of the fishery for #aijd is an         
illustration4    ,government            
,notification4    ,pearl fishery of     
#aijd4    ,notice is hereby given that a
 pearl fishery will take place at       
,marichchikaddi1 in the ,island of      
,ceylon1 on or about ,march #ad1 #aijd4 
#a4 ,the bank to be fished is the       
southwest ,cheval ,paar which is        
estimated to contain #ac1jjj1jjj        
oysters4    #b4 ,it is notified that the
 first day's fishing will take place on 
the  first favorable day after ,march   
#ac4    #c4 ,marichchikaddi is on the   
main land1 eight miles by sea south of  
,sillavaturai and supplies of good water
 and provisions can be obtained  there4 
#d4 ,the fishery will be conducted on   
account of the ,government1 and the     
oysters put up for sale in such lots as 
may be deemed expedient4    #e4 ,the    
arrangements of the fishery will be the 
same as have been usual  on similar     

occasions4 ,persons attending the       
fishery camp from ,india  will be       
permitted to travel to ,ceylon by either
 of the following  routes3 7#a7         
,tuticorin to ,colombo or 7#b7 ,paumben 
to ,marichchikaddi  and by no other4    
,arrangements will be made as at the    
last fishery1  for travellers to proceed
 from ,paumben direct to the camp4 ,the 
only  restriction imposed on travellers 
by the ,paumben route will be           
inspection by the medical officers at   
,paumben4    #f4 ,all payments to be    
made in ready money in ,ceylon currency4
    #g4 ,drafts on the banks in ,colombo
 or bills on the agents of this         
,government in ,india1 at ten days      
sight1 will be taken on letters of      
credit produced to warrant the drawing  
of such drafts or bills4    #h4 ,for the
 convenience of purchasers1 the         
treasurer at ,colombo and the  different
 ,government agents of provinces will be
 authorized to receive  cash deposits   
from parties intending to become        

purchasers1 and receipts  of these      
officers will be taken in payment of any
 sums due on account  of the fishery4   
#i4 ,no deposit will be received for a  
less sum than ,rs4 #bej4    ,by ,his    
,excellency's command4    ,everard ,im  
,thurm1 ,colonial ,secretary4 ,colonial 
,secretary's ,office1  ,colombo1 ,feb4  
#bg1 #aijd4    ,the sanitary precautions
 are of the utmost importance1 for a    
plague  stricken ,hindu1 if he were     
dying1 would still endeavor to go where 
he  might get rich quickly4    ,as the  
time draws near1 thousands of           
speculators and sightseers  from farther
 and nearer ,india arrive4 ,berbers1    
,arabs1 ,persians1 and  ,burmese1 mingle
 with the ,singhalese and ,tamil divers4
 ,a town of huts  to accommodate perhaps
 #ej1jjj springs into existence4        
,steamer service  to ,colombo is        
started1 post and telegraph service is  
established and  sanitary measures put  
in force4 ,conjurors employed by the    
divers go  through incantations to      

preserve them from the sharks which     
abound in  these waters4    ,this       
shark-charming power is believed to be  
hereditary and not  dependent on the    
religion of the conjuror and he can1 if 
ill or absent1  convey the power to a   
substitute so that it will be respected 
by the  sharks4 ,to make matters doubly 
sure the divers arm themselves with  a  
short1 pointed piece of ironwood4 ,this 
however is not their main  reliance for 
a wise woman was able to avert a panic  
which was well  under way1 after one of 
the divers was bitten at the ,tuticorin 
fishing  of #ahij4 ,excepting the loss  
of a limb occasionally not much damage  
is  done by the sharks1 a fact which    
sustains the implicit faith of the      
natives in their shark-charmers4        
,when the day set by the ,government    
officials arrives1 the fleet puts  to   
sea after numerous ceremonies4 ,the     
boats1 which range from ten  to fifteen 
tons1 are grouped in fleets of sixty to 
seventy4 ,beside  the divers they are   

manned by ten or more sailors1 a        
steersman1 and  if possible by a        
shark-charmer 7pillal karras74 ,the     
boats leave at  midnight in order to be 
ready on the banks at sunrise4 ,at the  
firing  of a signal gun diving          
commences4 ,a stone of granite1 shaped  
like a  pyramid and weighing about      
thirty to forty pounds1 is attached     
through  a hole at the smaller end to   
the cord by which the diver is lowered4 
,some divers prefer a half-moon stone   
fastened to the waist4 ,above the  stone
 when attached to the line is a loop for
 the diver's foot4 ,the  divers work in 
pairs1 one going down and the other     
remaining in the  boat to attend to the 
line1 and in some cases exchanging      
positions as  the diver becomes         
exhausted4 ,naked divers stay below     
fifty to eighty  seconds on an average1 
though some can remain under water      
longer4  ,each man makes forty to fifty 
descents a day and brings up fifteen to 
thirty oysters each time4 ,as a rule the

 maximum depth in these waters  is about
 forty-two feet though fishing at twelve
 and thirteen fathoms  is reported4 ,the
 divers work from sunrise to noon1 which
 allowing for  shifts gives each man    
four hours diving for a day's work4 ,a  
gun is  fired as a signal for the day's 
fishing to cease and the fleet starts   
at once for shore4 ,upon arriving there 
the oysters are immediately  landed by  
coolies who carry them in baskets1 on   
their backs1 to the  ,kottu1 or         
government stockade4 ,there they are    
counted and each  boat-load is divided  
into three equal parts2 ,two of these   
are chosen  by officials for the        
government and the remaining heap is the
 boats'  share4 ,formerly the catch was 
divided into four parts of which the    
government took three4 ,of the boats'   
share the divers get in some cases  two 
thirds4 ,as soon as the division is     
made1 those belonging to the  boat are  
quickly traded or sold to the numerous  
small speculators which  abound in the  

camp4 ,six evenings in the week the     
government auctions  off the catch in   
lots of one thousand4    ,while each    
day's catch is being counted the average
 run is carefully  watched by experts   
who judge by the size1 weight and       
general appearance  of the oysters as to
 the probable yield of pearls4 ,opinions
 so formed  are usually quite correct   
and bidding at the auctions are based on
  them to a great extent4 ,the principal
 buyers are from ,madras1 ,bombay1  and 
other cities on the ,coromandel and     
,malabar coasts of ,india1 though  local
 speculators buy many4 ,the catch runs  
about one million per day4  ,in #aijc   
forty-four million oysters were taken1  
but they realized much  less than the   
catch of #aijd1 when the number was not 
quite twenty-six  and three-quarter     
millions1 though it netted the          
government #cej1jjj2  #aije1 however1   
will be the record year as it is claimed
 the profits  will reach the large sum  
of #hcj1jjj4 ,these figures represent   

the  government's share only4    ,the   
price realized at these sales varies not
 only with the season  but from         
day-to-day4 ,ten to fourteen dollars per
 thousand is a fair  average1 though    
there are days when as much as          
twenty-four dollars is  realized4       
,prices have ranged from #g4ej to #dj4jj
 per thousand in one  season4 ,the net  
proceeds go to the revenue of ,ceylon4  
,this has been the system under which   
the ,ceylon fisheries were managed      
until lately4 ,for some reason unknown  
to the public1 the government1  after a 
season of unequalled profit in #aije1   
leased the fisheries to  a company1 the 
,pearl ,fishers of ,ceylon 7,limited71  
for a period of  twenty years from      
,january #a1 #aijf4 ,the company is to  
pay the government  #ajc1ccc per annum  
and is to expend annually upon the      
improvement  of the fishery not less    
than #af1fff1 or more than #ej1jjj1 at  
the discretion of the government4 ,the  
expenses of supervision and  protection 

by the government must also be borne by 
the company4    ,as a result of the     
first fishery 7#aijf71 the company after
 setting  aside #di1fbh for             
depreciations and reserve and carrying  
forward  #gg1chb1 show a profit of      
#bef1ifj which affords dividends of #cf 
cents  on ordinary shares and #ah cents 
on deferred shares1 a remarkably good   
beginning4 ,the government revenue from 
the fishery of #aije was #hja1hhb  after
 the expenses1 #gc1eaj were deducted2   
over #aaa1jjj more than the  profit of  
#aijd which was the most successful up  
to that time4    ,the inspector of      
pearl-banks anticipated a good fishery  
in #aijf but was  of the opinion that   
after a small fishery in #aijg and      
probably #aijh the  banks would fail for
 some years as they have done in the    
past4    ,after the pearls are taken    
from the dead oysters they are first    
sorted  for size4 ,this is done by      
passing them through a series of ten    
small  brass sieves known as baskets1   

containing from twenty to one thousand  
holes4 ,the sieves have twenty1 thirty1 
fifty1 eighty1 one hundred1 two         
hundred1 four hundred1 six hundred1     
eight hundred and one thousand  holes   
respectively4 ,the pearls are then      
sorted for color and quality1  weighed  
and valued4 ,as with all things1 really 
fine pieces are rare1  the great mass   
being ordinary or poor4 ,herein lies the
 attraction and  excitement of the      
business for some will find great gems4 
,one may  imagine the keen interest of  
the swarthy buyer who has parted with   
his hoards1 hoping to find a pearl of   
great price when he washes  the lustrous
 spheres from the putrid mass of        
decaying fish3 the eager  search2 the   
joy when his eye lights upon a big1     
white1 shining sphere  rising up among  
the heap of little ones2 the growing    
exultation as he  picks it out and with 
feverish interest rolls it about between
 his  fingers to find it without flaw or
 blemish1 or the keen disappointment    

should his inspection show1 as it most  
frequently does1 that it is full  of    
imperfections4    ,hovering about are   
the buyers for the great ,hindu         
merchants1 agents of  far-off princes   
and ,europeans1 all watching sharply for
 great finds  and ready to enter into   
the combat of wits which marks an       
oriental  trading4    ,if one remembers 
that there are probably twenty-five     
thousand traders  congregated on the hot
 sands of this far-off shore1 the fair  
dame1  whose neck is clasped by a string
 of these precious globules1 may        
conjure from their lustrous skins1      
scenes as wild and weird as any  fairy  
tale that set her youth to dreaming4    
,the pearls are sorted into a number of 
grades4 ,those perfect in  sphericity   
and luster are called ani4 ,anitari     
meaning followers  or companions1 are of
 the same general character1 but poorer 
in  those important qualities4 ,masanku 
are somewhat irregular in shape and     
faulty1 especially in luster and color4 

,the poorest of this class1  lacking the
 essential qualities1 are separated into
 another grade and  called kallipu4     
,next come kural1 double or twinned1 and
 pisal1  are misshapen or clustered4    
,folded or bent pearls are madanku1 and 
what we would call rejection1 a mixed   
lot of all sorts and sizes  too poor to 
include in any of the regular           
classifications1 are termed  vadivu4    
,seed-pearls1 the very small pearls of  
which there are great  quantities1 are  
known as tul4 ,many of these are ground 
to chunam or  shell-lime1 and used as an
 ingredient in a favorite masticatory4  
,the assortments being made1 they are   
weighed and recorded in kalanchu        
7kalungy7 and manchadi 7manjaday74 ,the 
kalanchu is a brass weight equal  to #fg
 grains troy1 and the manchadi is a     
small red berry that is of  very even   
weight when full sized1 and is reckoned 
twenty to a kalanchu4    ,in the        
valuation of ani1 anitari and vadivu1   
the individual size1 form1  and color is

 considered1 but the others are simply  
valued by weight4    ,the modus operandi
 of these fisheries like all others     
managed by  ,orientals continues much   
the same from fishing to fishing4       
,experiments  have been made at the     
,tuticorin fishery with helmeted divers 
but their  catch compared unfavorably   
with that of the naked natives1 who will
  sometimes under favorable             
circumstances bring up two thousand in a
  day4 ,it is said that the ,x-ray is   
being used to some extent in the        
examination of shells and that those    
found to be without pearls are  thrown  
back into the sea1 but it is doubtful if
 the general use would  be practical or 
advantageous while oysters remain       
abundant2 so far1 the  use of it has    
been experimental only4    ,fine pearls 
are found in ,dutch ,india among the    
,molucca ,islands4 ,fishing  is done by 
the natives1 and as they seldom go      
deeper than ten or twelve  feet the     
probability is that they do not get the 

finest shells or  pearls1 for it seems  
to be quite well established that the   
shells taken  from deep water are larger
 and more likely to contain large       
pearls4  ,whether this arises from deep 
water being more favorable to growth1 or
  an unmolested opportunity to grow1 has
 not been determined4    ,hitherto the  
,netherlands ,indian government has     
opposed encroachment  upon the rights of
 the natives and colonists1 and has     
patrolled the  waters with small        
gunboats to prevent any attempt by      
,europeans to fish4  ,but lately        
concessions have been made to ,british  
firms so that shell  is being shipped   
direct to ,london1 and it is now thought
 that these  fisheries will soon rival  
the ,australian4 ,the pearls were       
formerly  bought from natives1          
principally of the ,island of ,aroe1 by 
,chinese and  ,arabs who took them to   
,macassar4 ,from there they were sent   
first to  ,singapore and then to        
,london1 ,paris1 and ,amsterdam4 ,most  

of the pearls  brought to ,macassar are 
baroques1 though fine specimens of more 
regular  shape arrive there             
occasionally4 ,the mother-of-pearl from 
these shells  is of good quality4       
,some pearls are found at the ,bazaruto 
,islands1 ,portuguese ,east ,africa1  a 
few miles from the coast1 midway between
 ,inhambane and ,beira4 ,a  concession  
was granted to a company about #ahib1   
but bad management1  lack of funds and  
political difficulties1 killed the      
enterprise4    ,general reports indicate
 that it is very difficult for any      
enterprise  subject to the officials of 
this district to succeed4 ,the ,bazaruto
  ,kaffirs still fish1 but without      
system or intelligence4 ,they are       
wasteful and damage many of the pearls  
by cooking the oyster4 ,the few  found  
are shipped by ,indian traders to       
,bombay and ,zanzibar4    ,pearl fishing
 has been attempted on the coast of     
,german ,east ,africa  at ,zanzibar     
,island and south1 between the ,island  

of ,mafia and the main  coast4          
,mother-of-pearl is abundant but few    
pearls have been found and  there has   
been no sustained effort4 ,there are    
large coral banks about  the islands of 
the coast favorable for the growth of   
mother-of-pearl  and there is shallow   
water over large areas4    ,good white  
pearls have been taken from a red mussel
 found there4 ,south  of the ,island of 
,mafia are beds of large pinna shells   
which yield  black seed-pearls4 ,there  
are pearl-shell fisheries in the        
,merguian  ,archipelago and in the      
government of ,burmah and some pearls   
are found4  ,the banks1 scattered over  
an area of eleven thousand square miles1
 are  rented from the government and    
rights to fish are sublet on royalty4   
,the fishing is nearly all done by      
helmeted divers4    ,avicula and        
meleagrina margaritifera are taken off  
the west coast of  ,new ,caledonia4     
,from the former large numbers of pearls
 are taken1 and  from the latter1 very  

beautiful white pearls4 ,fine colored   
pearls pink1  yellow1 gray and black are
 often found in this district4 ,a       
variety  of oyster commonly called      
shoulder of mutton1 and another         
shell-fish  called jamboneau 7pinna7 of 
which the pearl is very fine1 are also  
found in these waters4    ,a syndicate  
was formed in ,paris to exploit these   
beds and obtained  concessions covering 
one hundred and thirty miles4 ,owing to 
the  difficulty of getting divers1 the  
waters had not been exploited to any    
great depth up to #ahih1 the regular    
fishings being confined to the  shallows
 of six to seven feet1 though larger    
shells were known to be in  deeper      
water4 ,more systematic work with modern
 appliances and in deeper  waters has   
since been done with good success1 but  
late reports show an  accumulation of   
shell and indications that the industry 
has not been  profitable4    ,in #aijd  
the price of shell 7black-edge          
mother-of-pearl7 fell to #bej1  ,u4 ,s4 

gold per ton of #bbdj pounds1 from #gjj1
 the former price1 with  six hundred    
tons stored in ,london1 ,paris1 ,berlin1
 ,new ,york and ,san  ,francisco1 making
 a prospective loss of #bgj1jjj for     
#aijd4 ,there was  an attempt to limit  
the production by a return to native    
diving4  ,with dress the output would be
 about #ejj tons for the year1 with     
naked-diving #bjj tons less4 ,this would
 operate against the local  government1 
as it not only levies #ch4fj ,u4,s4 gold
 per metric ton as an  export duty1 but 
makes a large profit on the diving      
machines by way of  license4 ,the pearl 
fisheries of ,french ,oceanica therefore
 face a grave  situation4    ,pearls are
 found occasionally on the western coast
 of ,nicaragua at  ,san ,juan del       
,norte4 ,the ,panama coast still yields 
great quantities  of pearls as it has   
done for many years4 ,when ,spain       
controlled the  northwestern section of 
,south ,america with the ,isthmus to the
 borders  of ,guatemala1 under the name 

of ,colombia1 immense quantities of     
pearls  were sent home by the colonists4
    ,it is recorded that #fig pounds of 
pearls were imported into ,seville  from
 ,colombia in #aehg4 ,a large proportion
 of these undoubtedly came  from the    
coasts of what is now ,venezuela4 ,the  
,panama or bullock shell  as it is      
called1 is not of the finest quality and
 the pearls are apt  to be dark and     
inferior to the ,indian pearls in luster
 as well as in  color2 nevertheless fine
 pearls are found there and the         
fisheries yield  a greater average of   
black pearls than any other4 ,beautiful 
iridescent  pearls are also found there4
    ,the ,pearl islands are on the east 
side of the ,bay of ,panama about forty 
miles from the city4 ,the banks there   
may only be fished by divers but        
between ,chiriqui and ,veragua dredging 
is allowed4 ,since the ,united  ,states 
government has become interested in this
 section there is a  tendency here to   
exploit the ,panama coasts and companies

 have been  formed in the ,states for   
that purpose4 ,the pearl fisheries      
formerly  carried on along the coast of 
,ecuador about two hundred miles north  
of  ,guayaquil1 are no longer operated4 
,on the ,atlantic coast of ,south       
,america the most fruitful pearl-banks  
lie along the coast of ,venezuela and   
west to ,rio ,hacha on the ,colombian   
coast4 ,this was the first part of the  
,american mainland sighted by  ,columbus
 and the quantities of pearls owned by  
the natives did much  to draw the tide  
of adventurers which set this way in the
 sixteenth  century4    ,the oysters are
 taken from reefs and bars about one    
mile from shore and  about the islands4 
,the principal beds are at ,el ,tirano1 
north-east1  and ,macanao1 north-west of
 the island of ,margarita4 ,there are   
fisheries  also at the neighboring      
,islands of ,coche and ,cubagua4 ,about 
four  hundred sail-boats of from three  
to fifteen tons1 employing two  thousand
 men1 are constantly at work in these   

fisheries4    ,a ,french company        
purchased a concession about the year   
#aijj from a  ,venezuelan to fish in    
this neighborhood4 ,it was to pay the   
,venezuelan  government #aj per cent4 of
 the profits as royalty and use divers  
and  diving apparatus so as to select   
the oysters and avoid waste of the      
immature4 ,fishing by natives is done   
mostly by dredging with metal  scoops4  
,it is estimated that upwards of        
#fjj1jjj worth of pearls are  found     
about the island of ,margarita per      
annum1 most of them going to  the ,paris
 market4    ,exclusive rights have been 
granted a ,venezuelan citizen by the    
local  government lately to exploit the 
,gulf of ,cariaco for pearls and other  
sea products4 ,the contract is for      
twenty-five years4 ,certain advantages  
are guaranteed by the government which  
is to receive fifteen per cent4  of the 
net profits of the enterprise4    ,about
 forty or fifty years ago several       
,english companies conducted  profitable

 fisheries in the lower ,gulf of        
,maracaibo and on the coasts  of the    
,goajira territory and ,paraguana4 ,they
 employed ,indians as  divers4          
,revolutionary troubles during the last 
twenty-five years so  demoralized the   
,indians1 that the industry was finally 
broken up4  ,reports from authoritative 
sources indicate1 that not only could   
paying fisheries be established here1   
but that the interior is rich in        
minerals and precious stones4    ,until 
lately there have been few restrictions 
upon fishing along  the ,venezuelan     
coast beyond a tax of fifty dollars     
imposed by local  authorities upon the  
buyers and the payment of fifteen       
bolivars 7#b4ij7  by each boat for a    
fishing permit at ,margarita4    ,the   
oysters of this coast mature rapidly and
 like those of ,ceylon live  but six or 
seven years4 ,they are small and the    
shells are so thin that  they can be    
crushed between the fingers4 ,they are  
of the ,lingah type  and are named by   

some avicula squamulosa4 ,the nacreous  
lining is also  very thin1 but lustrous 
and beautifully iridescent4 ,the pearls 
run  small and very many of them are    
quite yellow4    ,many fine white pearls
 are found however1 though they incline 
frequently to a waxy luster and are     
often marred by chalky spots4 ,great    
quantities of baroques1 notably         
beautiful for color and orient1 are     
found4 ,round pearls with a china-like  
skin in many colors are also  quite     
common4 ,the average size and quality is
 not equal to those of the  ,indian     
waters1 though it is much better than is
 generally credited1 as  the traders in 
this country for some inexplicable      
reason have an idea  that ,venezuelan   
pearls are necessarily poorer than      
others4    ,this notion has probably    
been fostered among ,american buyers by 
the  ,parisian dealers who at present   
well nigh control the output of  these  
fisheries and naturally fear the        
diversion to a neighboring  market which

 now pays a heavy toll to ,paris on     
pearls taken from this  continent4 ,it  
is true an unusually large percentage of
 cracked pearls  is found among         
,venezuelans1 and they lose perceptibly 
in weight after  being brought from the 
fisheries the loss averaging fully      
one-eighth of  one per cent41           
nevertheless many pearls of the finest  
quality are taken  from these fisheries4
 ,all pearls are subject to slight      
variations in  weight4    ,it was from  
the fisheries of ,colombia that ,philip 
,,ii4 of ,spain received  the large     
pearl of #bej carats1 about the size and
 shape of a pigeon's  egg1 so often     
mentioned in the chronicles of precious 
stones4    ,the management of the pearl 
fisheries of the ,colombia of to-day is 
in the hands of the central bank of     
,colombia which is empowered to         
transact business pertaining to property
 belonging to the government4  ,this    
institution holds a public auction and  
awards the lease of the  rights to fish 

for pearls1 coral1 etc41 on the         
,colombian coasts of the  ,atlantic and 
,pacific oceans1 to the most desirable  
bidder4 ,the lessee  must be governed by
 the rules and regulations laid down by 
the bank4  ,the lease is for five years 
and went into effect ,august #ast1      
#aijf4    ,new pearl oyster-beds were   
discovered in #aijc in the ,gulf of     
,campche  near ,coatzacoalcos and       
application was made by a ,mexican to   
the  ,mexican government for a          
concession to work them4 ,there are     
extensive  beds1 which are constantly   
fished1 along the eastern coast of      
,lower  ,california from its junction   
with the ,united ,states to ,cape ,san  
,lucas4  ,la ,paz is the principal      
centre of the fisheries4 ,an ,english   
syndicate  has a concession from the    
,mexican government which was lately    
renewed1  for fishing about ,la ,paz4   
,pearls worth #cej1jjj1 among them many 
fine  black pearls1 and five thousand   
tons of shells valued at #a1bej1jjj1    

were taken in #aijd4 ,this syndicate    
employs all the modern appliances4      
,beds are known and worked from ,la ,paz
 to and about the island of ,loreto  on 
the east coast1 and at the island of    
,tiburon over on the ,east side  of the 
gulf1 and from ,mazatlan all along the  
coast of ,mexico proper to  the boundary
 line of ,guatemala4 ,these beds were   
discovered by ,cortez in  #aecf and were
 worked spasmodically for two centuries2
 then for a period  they were fished so 
constantly and thoroughly that the      
market was  over-loaded with pearls and 
the supply of oysters seriously         
diminished4  ,of late years fishing has 
been again carried on systematically and
 with  sufficient judgment to prevent   
the immediate destruction of the beds as
  before4    ,a pearl oyster-bed ten    
miles long has lately been located at   
the ,punta  de ,santa ,cristoval4 ,the  
,mexican season for fishing varies in   
localities  from ,may to ,november1 or  
,june to ,december4 ,the day's work of  

the diver  commences at near the ebb    
tide and ends shortly after the         
beginning  of the flood tide1 about     
three hours in all4 ,much fishing is    
done by  independent naked native       
divers1 in a manner similar to that of  
the  ,hindus and ,arabs1 but some of the
 large concessionaires supply their     
divers with helmets and other modern    
appliances4    ,schooners of various    
sizes having several boats1 carry the   
fishing  parties to the banks and the   
men live on them through the entire     
season4 ,the daily catches are delivered
 to an armed boat which carries  the    
oysters ashore1 where they are at once  
searched for pearls4 ,these  when found 
are immediately sorted and valued1 a    
percentage going to  the diver in       
addition to his wages1 if he is a       
regular employee of the  ,company4      
,the oysters are found adhering to rocks
 by the byssus1 generally in  bunches1  
hinge-side down1 curved side up and the 
shells slightly  parted4 ,the diver cuts

 them loose with a knife and deposits   
them in  his basket or net4 ,one hundred
 to a hundred and fifty is a good day's 
work for a naked diver1 but with the    
appliances now being introduced1  a     
diver in dress can raise fully double   
that number4 ,it should be  remembered  
that there are elements of uncertainty  
and irregularity in  the catch of the   
meleagrina4 ,as compared with the       
enormous and crowded  beds of the small 
varieties as they exist in the ,gulf of 
,manaar and at  the island of           
,margarita1 ,venezuela1 where they can  
be literally scooped  up1 the scattered 
bunches of the meleagrina do not afford 
easy data for  reckoning averages4      
,on the coasts of ,china1 ,japan1       
,korea1 some of the ,south ,sea         
,islands1  the ,english ,channel        
islands1 the ,canary islands1 about ,st4
 ,malo on  the coast of ,france1 at     
,queen ,charlotte's island and along the
 coast  of ,california from north of    
,san ,francisco to the border of ,lower 

,california1 at the ,cape of ,good      
,hope1 ,india1 ,australia and ,new      
,zealand1  a shell-fish is taken which  
has considerable commercial value and   
yields pearls to a limited extent4      
,it is called in this country abalone4  
,in the ,channel islands it  is known as
 the ormer4 ,it is the ,haliotis or     
,ear-shell4 ,the ,greeks  called it     
venus ear-shell and used it as a food1  
considering it most  nutritious4 ,old   
,english writers praised it as a        
delicious morsel under  the name of     
ormond saying that it was bigger and    
infinitely better than  the oyster4     
,this shell-fish attaches itself to the 
rocks by a flat1  disk-shaped foot and  
must be taken when the tide is low4 ,the
 fisherman  can then insert a knife by  
stealth under the foot and taking the   
fish  unawares1 destroy the suction4    
,otherwise the hold of the fish could   
not  be broken without destroying the   
shell4 ,new ,zealanders call the fish   
itself the mutton fish4    ,the         

,japanese1 ,chinese and ,indians of the 
,pacific coast have long used  it as an 
article of food4 ,the shells are        
valuable on account of the  very        
beautiful nacreous lining which is      
exceptionally good material for  buttons
 and various ornamental purposes4 ,the  
lining has an exquisite  play of colors 
in the richest tones of peacock greens  
and reds4 ,there  are about seventy     
species of the ,haliotis and the shells 
vary greatly  in size4 ,the ,british    
ormer 7,h4 tuberculata7 is of small     
size1 about  six inches long and is     
silvery4 ,the shells are sometimes      
called in  trade aurora shells4 ,after  
being well beaten to make them tender   
the  animals are used for food4    ,the 
ormer or auris marina was esteemed by   
the ancients as a very sweet  and       
luscious dish4 ,the people of the       
,channel islands ornament their  houses 
with the shells and farmers use them to 
frighten the birds from  their          
corn-fields4 ,they string several       

together and suspend them from  the end 
of a slender pole stuck in the ground4  
,the wind swaying them1  makes a        
constant clatter4 ,the ,haliotis iris of
 ,new ,zealand is green and  brilliantly
 iridescent4 ,a ,cape of ,good ,hope    
species 7,h4 ,mida71 under  the         
epidermis is tinged with color1         
principally orange4    ,some of the more
 beautiful species were formerly very   
abundant on the  coasts of ,china and   
,japan1 but the constant use of the     
animal for many  years as a food stuff  
has made them less common there and the 
,chinese  and ,japanese now obtain a    
large part of their supply from         
,california1  where the haliotis or     
abalone1 as it is called is taken in    
great  quantities4 ,the two most        
beautiful species found on this coast   
are1 the  ,haliotis splendens1 a        
magnificent shell of rainbow coloring in
 which  peacock green predominates1 and 
,h4 rufescens1 the lining of which is   
red4 ,when found1 the latter is usually 

thickly incrusted and coated  with      
vegetation4 ,the green and red range    
from seven to ten inches1 the  latter   
being generally the larger4    ,another 
variety1 ,h4 cracherodii1 very dark     
green or black without1 and  with no    
apparent beauty1 has a small opalescent 
bit inside the shell  which is cut out  
and made into articles of jewelry4 ,this
 is common in  crevices of rocks4 ,a    
variety called bluebacks has a bright   
clayey blue  exterior4 ,the ,indians of 
the ,pacific coast have used these      
shells as  material for jewelry and     
decoration for centuries1 but not until 
the  button-makers of ,europe and ,new  
,york began to utilize them did they    
become an item of importance among the  
exports of the ,pacific coast4    ,few  
pearls are found in the abalone but they
 yield a considerable  number of large  
rounded baroques and excrescences1 rich 
and beautiful  in color and of fair     
luster1 also odd-shaped pieces like     
blisters  matched and joined at the     

edges4 ,the greens have a bronze        
appearance  and the reds and pinks are  
often iridescent4 ,quite a number of    
good  peelers are found among them4     
,these are pearly formations which can  
be improved by taking off one or more of
 the outer skins4    ,pearl-fishing1    
principally by ,greeks1 has been carried
 on about the  west and south coast of  
,haiti1 but lately the government has   
granted  a concession to four of its    
citizens covering nine years with the   
privilege of renewal at the end of that 
period4 ,this will prohibit  all others 
from fishing unless they rent the       
privilege from the  concessionaires4    
,to the south of the ,philippines1 pearl
 fisheries were worked by the  natives  
before the arrival of the ,spaniards1   
and the industry is still  carried on1  
chiefly by antiquated methods4 ,the     
coasts of the ,sulu  islands1 at ,jolo  
and elsewhere and about the island of   
,mindanao1 have  yielded many fine      
pearls and continue to do so4 ,the      

shells from these  waters furnish very  
fine mother-of-pearl4    ,all things    
considered1 the largest and best        
equipped fisheries in the  world to-day 
are those on the coast of ,australia4   
,not as many pearls  are found as at    
,ceylon4 ,the main object of fishing is 
the shell1 which  is large1 heavy1 and  
furnishes the best quality of           
mother-of-pearl of  the white variety4  
,from ,charlotte's ,bay on the          
north-eastern coast1  all along the     
northern coast and around to ,exmouth   
,gulf on the western  coast1 pearl      
oysters are abundant4 ,farther south at 
,sharks ,bay1 the  oysters are smaller  
and the pearls1 though of good shape and
 luster1  run yellow4 ,shells from the  
coast of ,queensland are sold as ,sydney
  shell2 those from the northern        
territory of ,south ,australia1 as ,port
  ,darwin shell1 and from there to      
,exmouth ,gulf on the western coast1    
they  are marketed as ,west ,australian 
shell4    ,the fishing is carried on by 

organized companies having capital1 and 
every modern appliance of practical     
value is utilized4 ,the divers fish     
with the dress4 ,the usual method of    
fishing is for a schooner of eighty  to 
one hundred tons to put out with a      
number of luggers of from eight  to ten 
tons4 ,each lugger is manned by a       
captain1 a cook1 one man at  the        
life-line1 two men at the air-pumps and 
one diver4 ,each lugger will  average   
half a ton of shells per month ranging  
from #afjj to #bjjj to the  ton4 ,the   
pearls like the shells run white4       
,the ,australians are not only pushing  
this industry along their own  coast1   
but are extending operations along the  
islands north toward the  equator1      
wherever it is possible4 ,and wherever  
they go they carry with  them the best  
modern appliances and methods4 ,lately  
however operations  have been           
considerably curtailed in the ,torres   
straits owing to the  enforcement of    
laws for the protection of divers4      

,lack of men for diving caused some of  
the operators to use questionable  means
 to obtain a supply4 ,boats were sent   
through the ,south ,sea among  the      
islands and aborigines1 ,chinese1 and   
even ,european sailors1 were  kidnapped 
and held in practical slavery4 ,many    
lives have been lost in  these fisheries
 and the evils connected with the       
industry became so  notorious that the  
government took action4 ,it is probable 
that the  business will be reorganized  
and either conducted by the state or    
under  government supervision4 ,natives 
are now being trained to use the dress4 
,few pearls are found and it not        
infrequently happens that as many as    
fifteen to twenty tons of shells are    
raised without finding a single  pearl  
of value4 ,at this time shells from     
these fisheries bring from  #ejj to #gej
 per ton in the ,new ,york market4      
,helmets have been used to  some extent 
throughout the ,pacific for a number of 
years1 but many were  crude affairs1    

carelessly managed and the loss of life 
was as great as  by naked-diving4 ,the  
training of the natives to the use of   
the more  modern appliances will however
 engender confidence and the probability
  is that dress-diving will become      
general in the south seas wherever the  
industry is organized4    ,as a rule the
 largest oysters and pearls1 where there
 is a calcareous  foundation for the    
bed1 are taken from the deeper waters1  
and it is  probable that as modern      
appliances are more generally used by   
the  larger organizations now taking    
hold of the industry1 the fisheries     
will be extended with good results in   
many localities to waters beyond  the   
shallows now fished4 ,more systematic   
methods will prevent waste  and the     
destruction of the beds4    ,the        
,english ,colonial governments of ,india
 are doing much in this  direction4 ,by 
keeping experts upon the ground1 they   
have learned how to  fish without       
destroying the beds1 and to fish when it

 is possible for  the oysters to contain
 pearls4 ,strict supervision and        
protection of the  beds result in more  
frequent fishings and greater returns to
 both the  government and the fishermen4
    ,this example is being followed1 and
 pearl fisheries are gradually  coming  
either under governmental supervision or
 into the hands of  concessionaires1    
whose large investment makes the        
preservation of the  beds a business    
necessity1 whether they fish mainly for 
pearls or  shells4    ,the best pearls  
and the largest number are found usually
 in mature  shells which are distorted2 
it has been stated as a possibility1    
that  in the future some of the new rays
 will be used in fisheries where the    
pearl is the main object of the fisher1 
to ascertain if the oyster  contains any
 before destroying it4 ,m4 ,dubois of   
,lyons has experimented  with ,roentgen 
rays for that purpose4    ,as the fish  
is enormously prolific it is more       
probable however that  effort will be   

directed instead toward the preservation
 of the mollusk  from the enemies and   
accidents which are occasionally greater
 than its  productiveness4    ,one of   
the greatest dangers in ,indian waters  
to a bed of young oysters  is a little  
mollusk known locally in ,ceylon as     
suran 7,modiola74 ,these  cluster in    
masses on the sea bottom and spreading  
over the surface of  the coral1 crowd   
out the delicate young of oysters       
recently deposited4    ,the ,japanese   
fisheries suffer from the occasional    
infection of the  waters by a weed1     
dinoflagellata gonyaulax4 ,it           
accumulates in immense  quantities1     
causing a wide discoloration of the sea 
water and is very  destructive to an    
oyster-bed4 ,it is called the red       
current or red tide4  ,so far no        
preventive or remedy has been found4    
,hitherto the most general and fatal    
danger to oyster-beds has been the      
ungoverned extravagance of irresponsible
 fishers who seek to harvest  in the    

present regardless of the future1 but   
these are gradually being  made amenable
 to restrictive laws as authorities     
awake to the value of  the industry4 ,a 
greater danger which threatens the unio 
of ,american  streams1 is the pollution 
of the water by the discharge of the    
refuse  of factories and the sewage of  
cities into them4 ,a mussel bed will    
recover in time when denuded by fishers1
 but sewage and poison kills it  out    
entirely4    ,although fresh-water      
pearl-bearing mussels are found in the  
streams of  many countries1 only in the 
,united ,states are they taken in       
sufficient  quantities to make the      
fishings important as an industry4 ,they
 are  to be found throughout the        
,mississippi drainage area and in part  
of  that of the ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,few    
exist on the ,pacific coast and those of
  the ,atlantic coast are generally     
inferior as pearl-mussels4 ,there are   
many varieties of the unio which yield  
pearls4 ,latin names are given  by      

different writers to distinguish them1  
but as scientists differ  in their      
classifications1 the names are not      
always uniform and are  not sufficiently
 well established to be useful1         
descriptively1 to the  general reader4  
,in treating of the various kinds of    
pearl-bearing  unios of the ,united     
,states therefore in these pages1 the   
common names  by which they are known   
will as a rule be used with the         
scientific  names appended1 as revised  
by the department of mollusks of the    
,united  ,states ,national ,museum4     
,from the times of ,roman colonization  
until now1 pearls have been taken  from 
the mussels of ,british streams4 ,there 
are three varieties of  pearl-bearing   
mussels in ,great ,britain3 ,painter's  
mussel 7,u4 pictorum71  the ,swollen    
,river mussel 7,u4 tumidus7 and the     
,pearl mussel 7,u4  margaritifera74     
,the first two occur only in the streams
 and ponds of ,england and ,wales  and  
the pearls found in them are of inferior

 quality4 ,the latter  inhabits the     
streams of ,scotland and the northern   
counties of ,england  and to some extent
 are found in ,ireland and ,wales also4 
,the shell is  oblong1 rather flat and  
heavy and about five and one-half inches
 long4  ,the exterior surface is rough1 
and blackish-brown2 the pearly interior 
has a tint of flesh color mottled by    
stains of dull green4 ,it was from  this
 variety the ,perthshire ,tay pearls    
were taken1 which gained so  much       
notoriety in the middle of the          
eighteenth century when some fifty      
thousand dollars worth were sent to     
,london from this stream in three       
years4    ,scotch pearl-fishing was     
revived in #ahfj and some fine ones were
  sold to ,queen ,victoria1 the ,empress
 of the ,french1 the ,duchess of        
,hamilton and others4 ,pearl-mussels    
have been found in ,lochs ,rannoch1     
,tay1 ,lubnaig and ,earn1 also in the   
,don1 the ,leith and other streams4     
,some are found in the ,welsh streams1  

and the river ,bann in ,ireland  was    
noted for the fine pearls found in it4  
,many years ago there was a  pearl      
fishery at ,omagh in the north of       
,ireland4 ,an old writer claims  that   
,csar obtained pearls of such bigness in
 ,britain that he tried the  weight of  
them by his hand4    ,the fishers wade  
for them in shallow pools1 or thrust    
sticks between  the open valves1 or drag
 branches over them1 for as soon as     
anything  enters between the two shells 
they close upon it at once4 ,the mussels
  are found generally set up in the sand
 of the river-bed with the open  side1  
if the current is very strong1 turned   
away from it4 ,the custom  of the       
peasantry is to fish for them in the    
autumn after harvest4    ,pearl-mussels 
are found also in ,saxony1 ,bavaria1    
,bohemia1 ,mesopotamia1  ,lapland1      
,canada1 ,labrador1 the ,hawaiian       
,island ,oahu1 ,japan 7especially  the  
anodonta japonica71 ,china1 the ,united 
,states and ,italy1 in the  ,gwaai and  

,shangani rivers of ,southern ,rhodesia1
 ,south ,africa4 ,nowhere  are they     
found however in such quantities or in  
so many varieties as in  the ,united    
,states4 ,the number taken from the     
streams here of late years  has been so 
great that the shells have largely      
displaced the marine  ,egyptian and have
 affected the demand for the better     
qualities of ,south  ,sea               
mother-of-pearl4 ,the pearls found in   
them also have been of such  quality and
 quantity that they now have an         
important place among the  jewels of the
 world4    ,old records and the contents
 of ,indian mounds show that the unio   
was  taken from the rivers by the       
aborigines for the pearls they sometimes
  contained2 but no wide interest in    
this possible wealth of the rivers      
appears to have developed among their   
white successors until the  finding in  
#aheg of a large pearl weighing         
ninety-three grains at ,notch  ,brook   
near ,paterson1 ,n4 ,j4 ,it was         

afterwards sold to the ,empress  ,eugnie
 of ,france for #bejj4 ,this became     
noised abroad and immediately           
multitudes began to search for pearls4  
,mussels were gathered and destroyed by 
the million1 few pearls being  found4   
,the excitement subsided as the         
searchers learned how few got  adequate 
reward for their time and labor4 ,they  
soon began to realize  that the finding 
of a pearl of value is usually preceded 
by the opening  of hundreds or thousands
 of shells containing none1 and that in 
the  aggregate1 the shells thrown away  
were worth more than the few pearls     
found4    ,another pearl hunt developed 
along the ,little ,miami ,river in ,ohio
 from  the finding of several fine      
pearls near ,waynesville in #ahgf4 ,this
  reached its height in #ahgh4 ,in      
#ahhj1 pearls began to come into the    
,new  ,york market from the ,west and   
,south4 ,immense beds have been fished  
in  the ,white1 ,wabash and ,ohio       
,rivers in ,indiana4 ,in the summer of  

#ahhi  a number of fine pearls were     
found in the south-western corner of    
,wisconsin1 in ,crawford1 ,grant1       
,lafayette and ,green counties4 ,not    
only  were they notable for             
extraordinary luster1 but many were of  
beautiful  color4 ,the sale of some at  
prices which seemed fabulous to the     
people  of that section1 when it became 
generally known1 caused such a scramble 
for them by the natives that the streams
 were rapidly denuded of  mussels1 and  
that section has become of much less    
importance than  others since developed4
 ,prairie du ,chien is the center of the
 ,wisconsin  market1 from which point   
the shells are distributed to the button
  factories4    ,the following year     
7#ahij7 pearl-bearing mussels were found
 in several  of the central counties of 
,illinois--,mc,lean1 ,tazewell and      
,woodford1 in  the ,mackinaw river and  
tributaries1 but no discovery equalling 
that of  ,wisconsin occurred until #ahig
 when the ,arkansas beds were           

discovered4 ,a  peculiarity of this     
district is that whereas the unio is    
usually most  abundant in swift clear   
water having a sandy or gravelly bottom1
 many  are found here in the mud4       
,they have been taken over a wide       
territory from the rivers and streams   
of the eastern half of the state1       
including the ,black1 ,white1 ,cache1   
,st4 ,francis1 ,ouachita1 ,saline and   
,dorcheat rivers1 and in the valley of  
the ,arkansas4 ,following this were     
finds in ,indian ,territory1 ,missouri1 
,georgia and ,tennessee1 the latter     
being the most prolific4 ,the finest    
pearls in ,tennessee are found in the   
fluter1 or lake shell1 which is  the    
same as the mussel known on the ,wabash 
as the wash-board4 ,a yellow  shell is  
found in the ,clinch ,river similar to  
the mucket of ,arkansas1  from which    
pearls are taken4    ,unlike the pearl  
oyster1 the unio seems to be more       
prolific of pearls  in the shallows and 
riffles near the edges of the rivers4   

,most of the  fine pearls are found     
between the pallial line and the lip in 
the free  portion of the mantle4 ,those 
found within the pallial line1 where the
  mantle is attached to the shell1 are  
seldom as lustrous or perfect4          
,pearls are found in many ,states       
besides those mentioned1 but the        
fishing is done quietly and in some     
cases the sources of supply are  known  
to only a few who in the marketing of   
their pearls carefully  avoid giving any
 information4 ,this is particularly true
 of some of the  eastern states4        
,streams in the ,northwestern section of
 ,new ,york ,state  are regularly       
fished1 but without excitement4 ,the    
large fisheries of  the ,mississippi and
 ,west are fished principally for the   
mother-of-pearl  in the shells4 ,as with
 some of the marine fisheries1 the pearl
 is  regarded as an extra4    ,the      
mussels are taken in various ways4 ,in  
,canada1 boats drag brush and  the      
branches of trees over the river        

bottoms1 gathering the mussels  into the
 boat as the twigs become clogged4 ,in  
the large beds often  found in our      
,western ,rivers1 fishing is done       
wherever possible by  dredging4 ,metal  
scoops1 hand1 shoulder and scissor-rakes
 are used and  the mollusks1 taken in   
immense quantities are cooked to open   
them1  then cleaned of the meat which is
 afterwards examined for pearls4  ,this 
method is used where the mussels lie in 
great masses or on sandy  bottoms4      
,where there are boulders or large      
stones1 a great number of  hooks are    
dragged over the beds4    ,the mussels1 
partially buried1 lie lip-end up and the
 shell slightly  parted4 ,should        
anything come within this gaping        
aperture1 the mussel at  once closes    
upon it1 nipping on with such tenacity  
that the hold is not  loosed until the  
fisher draws it into the boat and       
forcibly releases  the hook4 ,it is said
 the mollusk's shell would remain thus  
tightly  closed for ten or twelve hours4

 ,after dragging the hooks over the bed1
  the mussels are taken off and the     
process repeated4    ,illustration3     
,,pearl-,,fishing ,,in ,,the            
,,mississippi ,,river    ,various rough 
devices are used1 the principle in all  
being the same4  ,one1 illustrative1    
consists of a piece of lead pipe or an  
iron bar  several feet long1 from which 
depend a number of double or triple     
hooks  several inches apart4 ,this is   
dropped overboard1 the rope on which it 
is hung is fastened to the stern of the 
boat1 and the boatman rows over  the    
mussel bed dragging it after him4 ,men  
who dredge for the mollusks  are called 
clammers4 ,pearlers are those who at odd
 times fish for the  mussels with pearls
 as the main object4 ,this class is     
composed of the  backwoods natives who  
live about the streams in which the     
mussels  are found4 ,they are people who
 usually follow their inclinations  as  
nearly as they can1 working only as it  
becomes requisite to  obtain the few    

coarse necessities of their lives4 ,with
 them also are  small farmers who at    
seasons when farm work is not pressing1 
seek the  excitement and possible profit
 of the hunt for pearls4    ,for all    
such persons the occupation has a great 
fascination4 ,the  difficulties of      
following the streams through almost    
impenetrable  surroundings1 the coarse  
fare of bacon1 meal and coffee2 the long
  tramps back and forth to their        
mountain huts1 or the exposure to night 
in the tangle of the woods1 have no     
terrors for them2 they are but  common  
experiences4    ,few pearls of value are
 found1 but the occasional pearl which  
each one  does get1 makes expectation   
tingle1 and hope recounts again and     
again  the great finds which others have
 made4 ,there are curious happenings    
which illustrate the uncertainties of   
the work4    ,it is told on the ,clinch 
river in ,east ,tennessee that a        
pearler1 having  patiently fished all   
day1 examining the fish from time to    

time as  little heaps of them were      
gathered1 without finding even a small  
pearl1  finally decided to quit4 ,he was
 about to examine his last small heap   
when a man standing by offered him fifty
 cents for the lot4 ,the offer  was     
accepted4 ,from the first shell opened1 
the buyer extracted a ball  pearl which 
was afterwards sold for one thousand    
dollars4 ,two of the  finest pearls     
taken one season from the same section  
were obtained from  a heel-splitter1    
carelessly dug out of the sand by a man 
wading in  the shallows of the river4   
,the heel-splitter is a large           
thin-shelled  variety1 so named by the  
natives because of the sharp1 cutting   
quality  of the shell which protrudes   
from the sand of the river4 ,they rarely
  contain pearls1 but when they do1 the 
pearls are usually fine4    ,the largest
 proportion of fine pearls to the yield 
of any section since  discoveries have  
been recorded1 came from ,wisconsin1 and
 many of the  best of these1 especially 

of the fancy colored ones1 were taken   
from  ,sugar river4 ,many of these were 
exceptionally beautiful in both color   
and luster and a good proportion of them
 were also round4    ,much is written   
and told of the marvellous pearls found 
in our streams  worth large sums of     
money4 ,such pearls are found           
undoubtedly but not  in such quantities 
as one might think from the enthusiastic
 reports  current in daily papers4      
,finds are written up by reporters who  
know  nothing of pearls and prefer to   
write a readable story of wondrous gems 
and great values to a statement of plain
 unvarnished facts4 ,in this the        
news-gatherer is assisted by some simple
 native with an eye single to a  good   
price and a capacity for exaggerated    
ideas of value impossible to  ,maiden   
,lane4    ,it is no uncommon trick when 
buyers are present1 to find again1 a    
pearl1 which has been to ,new ,york and 
back and the ruse often succeeds4       
,pearls are frequently sold at the      

fisheries for much more than they  would
 bring in the east4 ,in fact it is      
difficult to buy ordinary pearls  at a  
reasonable price4 ,the natives will     
sometimes sell a really fine  pearl for 
less than it is worth because they do   
not understand the  relative values of  
quality2 but they usually over-estimate 
pieces of  poor quality4    ,a large    
majority of those found in our          
fresh-water mussels fail in some        
essential quality4 ,many are chalky1 or 
lustrous at one or two points  only4    
,others are faulty in shape1 or if      
spherical1 deeply pitted4  ,really fine 
pieces are usually small or button1 and 
when large1 are  baroques4 ,some of the 
latter are magnificent4 ,weighing fifty 
to over  one hundred grains1 with skins 
of extraordinary luster and iridescence2
  white1 or of a beautiful pink tint1   
these strawberry or rose pearls1  as    
they are called1 frequently excel1 by   
every standard of beauty1 the  imperfect
 spheres which command a greater price  

in the market because  they are round4  
,the most common variety of unio in     
,american rivers1 especially in the     
,mississippi river1 is that known as the
 nigger-head 7,quadrula ebena74  ,it is 
also the principal species used for     
button-making4    ,similar is the       
warty-back 7,quadrula pustulosa7 so     
called because the  shell has a number  
of warts or excrescences on the outside 
of the  valves4 ,the bull-head          
7,pleurobena ,aesopus7 is found in      
abundance with  the nigger-head4 ,it has
 a blackish-brown exterior1 presenting  
several  radiating ridges1 and a white  
lining4 ,the two latter are inferior as 
material for buttons as the shells are  
brittle4 ,the mucket 7,lampsilis        
ligamentinus7 is a large shell1 average 
size #d inches1 has a dark brown        
exterior and cream-white lining4 ,it is 
too thin and brittle to make  first     
class material for buttons though fine  
pearls are sometimes found  in them4    
,the sand-shells furnish good material  

for buttons4 ,they are long1  sometimes 
six inches1 and narrow4 ,they are       
usually found on sandy  bottoms and are 
said to move from the channel toward the
 shores in  the morning and back in the 
evening4 ,the most abundant is the      
yellow  sand-shell 7,lampsilis          
anodontoides7 so called from its bright 
yellowish  brown exterior4 ,another     
kind1 the black sand-shell 7,lampsilis  
rectus7  has a black epidermis4 ,a      
smaller variety1 less abundant now than 
formerly1 is the slough sand-shell      
7,lampsilis fallaciosus74 ,these are    
generally found in coves or the mouths  
of rivulets4    ,the deer-horn or       
buckhorn 7,tritigonia verrucosa7 is a   
large variety1  sometimes attaining a   
length of nine inches in the ,iowa      
river1 though  the average in the       
,mississippi is about five inches4 ,the 
shell1 as the  name indicates1 has a    
rough1 warty exterior4 ,the supply is   
small and  uncertain4    ,another rare  
species is the butterfly 7,plagiola     

securis74 ,it is a  small1 flat1 thick  
shell of fine color1 and the valves are 
butterfly in  shape with a reddish-brown
 epidermis striped by darker radiating  
lines4  ,it is abundant only in the     
,illinois and ,ohio rivers4    ,the     
hatchet-back1 hackle-back1 or           
heel-splitter 7,symphynota  complanata71
 is a large black mussel having a thin  
sharp-edged shell1  one valve-edge      
projecting4 ,it yields few pearls though
 fine specimens  are occasionally found 
in this variety4    ,the blue-point     
7,quadrula undulata7 has a large1 thick 
shell1 with  ridges on the exterior1    
curving round the umbones and extending 
to  the edge4 ,like the black-edge      
meleagrina1 the nacre at the edge is    
discolored4 ,in this case by a bluish or
 purplish tint4    ,some idea of the    
enormous quantities of mussels contained
 in some of  these beds in our western  
rivers may be gained from the reports of
 the  fisheries in the first years of   
their discovery4 ,ten thousand tons of  

shells were taken in three years near   
,new ,boston1 ,ill41 from one bed4      
,reckoned by the usual average this     
would mean not less than #ajj1jjj1jjj   
shells4 ,in some beds1 the mussels have 
been found several feet deep1  the      
bottom layers being dead4               
,notwithstanding the enormous numbers1  
these beds are often completely         
exhausted in a few seasons4 ,when the   
beds are first discovered1 men  will    
take as much as #aejj to #bjjj pounds of
 shell each1 in a day's  fishing4 ,in   
one hundred pounds of shells as they are
 taken1 the average  number of valves or
 half shells will be1 nigger-heads1     
about one  thousand2 sand-shells1 nine  
hundred2 muckets1 eight hundred1 which  
would be an average of nine thousand    
mussels per ton4    ,the meat in a ton  
of nigger-heads weighs over three       
hundred pounds4  ,this is usually       
removed by the fishermen by boiling the 
mussels for ten  or fifteen minutes in  
crude sheet iron tanks when the shells  

open and  the fleshy part falls out or  
may be easily removed by hand4 ,to show 
how little the pearls they may contain  
enter into the calculations of  these   
fishermen1 it may be stated here that   
the shell-buyers pay about  twenty-five 
per cent4 less for the mussels as taken 
from the river than  they do for the    
shells when cleaned4    ,on the         
,californian coast when the divers      
worked independently1 they  preferred to
 sell the oysters unopened4 ,they       
received about #d4ej  per thousand on an
 average for the shells and double for  
the oysters  complete4    ,the fishing  
season for pearlers is from ,august to  
,december4 ,the large  operations for   
shell1 in the early days of the         
industry1 were confined  to the same    
period1 but of late1 fishing is carried 
on throughout the  year1 immense        
quantities being taken through the ice4 
,the shells are  better in cold weather1
 being less brittle than when exposed in
 the  boats during warm weather4        

,fishing through the ice is very        
wasteful  however1 as the undersized1   
which are dropped back from the scoops  
and  rakes in the summer1 when thrown   
out on the ice are allowed to remain    
there and die4    ,the price of shells  
varies considerably from season to      
season4  ,an average price for          
nigger-heads is about ten dollars per   
ton2  sand-shells bring about twice as  
much1 muckets half that price1 and  the 
other varieties together will average   
about twenty-five per cent4  more than  
nigger-heads1 though among these the    
deer-horn is worth about  four times as 
much as the nigger-head4    ,in the     
first six months of #ahih nearly four   
thousand tons of mussel  shells were    
sold by mussel fishermen on the         
,mississippi4 ,they brought  about      
thirty-nine thousand dollars1 #id per   
cent4 of these were  nigger-heads4      
,the spawning time of the unio varies   
with different species4 ,in the  central
 ,mississippi basin it is normally      

,february1 ,march and ,april for        
nigger-head1 and summer and early fall  
for the mucket and sand-shell4    ,the  
unio is a slow growing animal4 ,under   
normal conditions it takes  ten years   
for a nigger-head to reach a size of    
three inches2 fifteen  to eighteen years
 to attain a shell diameter of #d-a_/b  
inches4 ,this  corresponds very closely 
with the life of the meleagrina1 though 
the  shell of the latter ceases to grow 
in size at about eight or ten years4    
,after that it continues to lay on      
thickness up to eighteen or twenty      
years4    ,although the discoveries so  
far in ,africa are unimportant1 it is   
possible1 now that the unio is known to 
exist there1 that the streams  of that  
wonderful land of precious things may   
add a companion gem to  the vast natural
 hoards there of the diamond4 ,in two   
years succeeding  his first find1 the   
discoverer secured one hundred and fifty
 pearls at  an average of one pearl to  
eight hundred shells4    ,authorities   

tell us that the nucleus of a           
mussel-pearl is usually  the larva of a 
distoma4 ,nuclei of pearls vary         
according to the  circumstances         
surrounding the beds of the shell-fish  
and those  circumstances have much to do
 with the occurrence of the pearl4      
,,price      ,value1 except in things   
which are constant and constantly       
changing  hands1 is a matter of opinion4
 ,price is the expression of that       
opinion  in money terms4 ,except in a   
few staple sizes and qualities1 pearls  
are affected by so many details which   
determine their value that it  is       
difficult to formulate rules to         
correspond and establish a base by      
which all may be judged4    ,shape1     
size1 color1 luster1 and perfection1    
afford a multiplicity of  combinations  
sufficient to puzzle the judgment of the
 most expert1  and when to this is added
 the fact that there is no other one    
like  the piece to be valued so as to   
gauge opinion1 there remains but one    

finality1 the agreement between buyer   
and seller on a price4    ,disregarding 
the fluctuations of price occasioned by 
temporary  influences and the variations
 arising from local causes1 this chapter
  is intended to give information of the
 price of pearls in the ,united  ,states
 to retail dealers1 and an idea of the  
relative value of  different qualities  
and shapes4    ,first it should be      
remembered that the price of pearls is  
reckoned  by the square of the weight1  
with the pearl-grain1 #a_/d carat1 as   
the  unit4 ,given the price at #c4jj per
 grain base or multiple1 a half grain   
pearl would be half of #c4jj or #a4ej   
per grain flat1 or seventy-five  cents  
for the pearl4 ,at the same price a one 
grain pearl would be at  #c4jj per grain
 multiple1 #c4jj per grain flat and     
#c4jj for the pearl4  ,upon the same    
basis a two grain pearl would be twice  
three are six1  #f4jj per grain flat and
 twice six are twelve1 #ab4jj for the   
pearl4  ,or it may be stated thus3      

multiply the grain number by itself and 
the  product by the base price1 as a #f 
gr4 pearl at #c4jj base1 #f  #f  #cf    
#c  #ajh dollars1 the price of the      
pearl4 ,this rule applies to all  but   
rejections or those too poor for        
classification1 and extraordinary       
pieces which by their extreme rarity    
pass beyond the governance of  rules4   
,the sign used in quoting a multiple    
price is a square4 ,this  placed after a
 price quoted means that it is the      
multiple price per  grain1 not the flat 
grain price4    ,the price of pearls has
 increased even more than that of       
diamonds in  the last fifteen years4 ,in
 common with many other things it has   
risen  with the rapid increase of wealth
 and the tremendous additions to the    
world's stock of the standard or measure
 of values1--gold4 ,beyond this1  the   
demand for pearls1 owing to the adoption
 of them as a fashion in  the ,united   
,states where a large proportion of the 
world's wealth is  being created1 has   

been stimulated to such a degree that   
the price of  them has advanced in a    
greater ratio to the depreciation of    
gold and  other forms of wealth than    
most commodities4    ,twenty years ago  
good round ,indian pearls up to five    
grains could be  bought for #a4ej base2 
to-day such pearls would cost #d4ej base
 and  whereas in those days pieces of   
extraordinary luster were allowed to    
remain in the parcels and were sold at  
the same rate with the others1  they are
 now culled from the lots and held for  
extraordinary prices4  ,size also now   
counts beyond the multiple of the       
square4 ,the quality  held at #d4ej base
 up to five grains costs #f4jj above    
that size1 and  at ten grains will bring
 #h4jj and over4    ,the yield of fine  
white pearls in sizes over ten grains is
 not large  and as there has been and is
 a steady demand for large pearls for   
the  centres of necklaces1 sizes from   
ten to fifteen grains bring from eight  
to eleven dollars multiple when matched4

 ,egg and pear-shaped pearls of  the    
same grade1 from five grains down1 are  
worth twenty-five to thirty  per cent4  
less than round pearls2 between five and
 ten grains ten to  fifteen per cent4   
less1 and as they near fifteen grains   
and over the  pear-shape become of equal
 value with the round4    ,imperfections
 which can be hidden by the setting     
decrease the price  twenty to thirty per
 cent41 and there is about the same     
difference  between button and round    
pearls1 according to the size of the    
plane4  ,the difference is still greater
 in the larger sizes4 ,a yellow color   
reduces the value in the market from    
fifteen to fifty per cent4  according to
 the depth and quality of the tint4 ,the
 so-called blue  pearls1 which are of a 
dark leaden white1 are worth about half 
as much  as ordinary white1 and about   
one-third the price of fine white       
,indians4  ,these blue pearls must not  
be confounded with the deep gray1 slate1
 or  black pearls1 included in the      

general term black pearls1 as the latter
  frequently command fancy prices4      
,salt-water pearls taken from the       
smaller varieties of the avicula of     
some seas1 though of the same grade in  
the qualities of color1 luster  and     
shape1 are nevertheless worth less than 
,indian pearls1 because they  lack a    
certain quality of texture which the    
latter1 together with those  of some    
other waters1 possess to an eminent     
degree4    ,american fresh-water pearls 
have been and are lower in price than   
,orientals4 ,they have however commanded
 much better prices of late than        
formerly and are increasing in value4   
,at present they bring about  one-third 
less than corresponding qualities from  
the seas4 ,there is a  greater          
difference in the price of baroques4    
,fine ,venezuelan baroques  from a half 
to seven or eight grains are worth now  
thirty-five to fifty  cents base4       
,some of these when mounted appear like 
round or pear-shape pearls and  are in  

good demand4 ,larger pieces can rarely  
be made to appear other  than baroque   
and do not therefore command as good    
figures4 ,they seldom  bring more than  
five dollars per grain flat1 in sizes   
from ten to  twenty grains4 ,fresh-water
 pearls likewise fetch better prices    
reckoned  by the multiple in the smaller
 sizes1 though they are usually quoted  
by the grain flat at five to twenty-five
 cents under ten grains1 and            
twenty-five cents to three dollars per  
grain in larger sizes4    ,iridescent1  
finely tinted1 very lustrous1           
strawberry1 and rose baroques  of large 
size1 are worth five dollars per grain  
and very exceptional  pieces bring even 
more4 ,slugs1 or ordinary baroques1 are 
sold all the  way from six dollars an   
ounce to ten cents per grain4 ,good     
wing-pearls  can be bought at one to    
five cents per grain2 small wings and   
rejections are sold by the ounce4       
,perfectly round fresh-water pearls of  
good quality and even skin are  rare and

 prices are advancing steadily4 ,good   
buttons have advanced  fully twenty-five
 per cent4 in the last year4 ,fine      
fancies such  as were found at one time 
in the ,sugar ,river1 ,wisconsin1 since 
the  fisheries there have been          
exhausted1 are scarce and high4    ,the 
low prices paid by button manufacturers 
for mussel shells for the               
mother-of-pearl in them during the past 
year1 has been one of the chief  factors
 in reducing the quantity of pearls     
found and the consequent  increase of   
price4 ,it seldom pays the fisher to    
gather mussels for  pearls only2 it is  
the steady returns from the sale of the 
shells which  ensures an adequate reward
 for his labors4 ,shells that once      
brought  twenty dollars per ton fell    
during the early part of #aije to a     
third of  that amount and later went as 
low as two dollars and a half4 ,they are
  now going up again4    ,many pearls   
are seriously injured by the practice of
 fishers who rely  upon the sale of the 

shells for their returns1 of throwing   
the mussels  into vats of hot water to  
open them4 ,the pearls released from the
  shells fall to the bottom and getting 
too near the hot iron are killed1  which
 means that the luster is partially or  
wholly destroyed4    ,dredging is now   
quite common and is doing much to       
deplete the  mussel-beds of the west4   
,when one bed is completely divested of 
shells1  the clammer moves on to another
 and repeats the process1 so that the   
supply of fresh-water pearls is coming  
to depend on the constant  discovery of 
new mussel-beds4 ,unless legislation    
regulates the industry  the ,american   
supply will soon cease4    ,the cheapest
 fresh-water pearls in the market to-day
 are the finest4  ,the pearlers along   
the streams of the west and south will  
no longer  part with the pearls they    
find to the speculators at the old time 
prices4 ,in fact they generally want    
much more than they are worth and  often
 get more than the speculator can afford

 to pay to ensure a profit  when he     
comes to sell them in the business      
centres4    ,but these fishers know     
little of the merits and value of the   
finer  qualities4 ,they do not yet      
realize the great difference in value   
which accrues as the pearl exceeds the  
average of luster1 color1 or            
perfection1 consequently the speculator 
can often buy a very fine pearl  for    
little more than he would have to pay   
for an ordinary pearl and  though he    
knows that the piece is worth much more 
than he has paid1 and  tries to get as  
nearly what it is worth as he can1 both 
his judgment  and disposition to sell   
are affected by the low price he has    
paid and  the chances are that he too in
 turn will sell it at much less than its
  relative value as compared with the   
ordinary market price of poor or  medium
 quality goods4    ,illustration3 ,,the 
,,marchioness ,,of ,,londonderry        
,this condition will gradually change4  
,as in the past the fisher learned  more

 and more of the market value of        
ordinary pearls1 so also he will  learn 
to know the price of exceptional pieces 
and to know them when he  has them4     
,even now1 speculators hold fine large  
pearls at high prices  because of the   
ready sale for them in ,europe4    ,it  
is difficult to compare the price of    
pearls in ancient times  with that of   
to-day4 ,we make much finer and closer  
assortments and  gradations of quality  
and the business now is on a more       
distinctly  commercial basis4 ,people   
generally are better informed and more  
critical2 they are not influenced by    
wonder1 sentiment1 superstition  and the
 ,arabian ,nights atmosphere1 as much as
 formerly4    ,the ,orient is not as    
strange and far away as it was4 ,in the 
old times1  jewellers could and         
undoubtedly did take advantage of the   
awe with  which things from the         
mysterious ,east were regarded1 and of  
the general  ignorance1 to obtain large 
sums for very ordinary if not inferior  

gems4 ,even in these days1 many are     
influenced more by the source from      
whence they come than by a critical     
knowledge of the gems they buy4  ,some1 
who would not buy the most beautiful    
fresh-water pearl1 will  pay an         
exorbitant price for one poorer and less
 valuable because it  is oriental4 ,la  
,pellegrina in the hands of an obscure  
dealer would be  passed unnoticed by    
many who would be enraptured by a more  
ordinary gem  from a jeweller or person 
of renown4    ,it is presumable         
therefore that prejudice was more       
influential when  ignorance prevailed to
 a greater extent than now4 ,john       
,spruce of  ,edinburgh in #agje         
complained that he could not sell a     
necklace or  pendant of fine ,scotch    
pearls in ,scotland4 ,he says the       
generality seek  for oriental pearls    
because farther fetched1 and continues3 
,at this  very day ,i can show some of  
our own ,scots pearls as fine1 more hard
  and transparent than any oriental4 ,it

 is true that the oriental can be       
easier matched1 because they are all of 
a yellow water1 yet foreigners  covet   
,scots pearls4    ,the price in those   
days was regulated by general appearance
 and loosely  with regard to weight1    
rather than by definite assortment and  
the exact  system of reckoning by the   
multiple of the weight as now1 for he   
says1  ,if a ,scotch pearl be of a fine 
transparent color and perfectly round   
and of any great bigness1 it may be     
worth #ae to #ej rix dollars1 yea ,i    
have given #ajj rix dollars 7about      
#hb4jj ,u4 ,s47 for one4    ,in #ahfb1  
,scotch pearls sold for about           
seventy-five cents to ten or  twelve    
dollars each1 an extraordinary piece    
bringing occasionally  as much as       
twenty-five dollars1 but after they were
 brought to the  favorable notice of    
persons of distinction and it was known 
that ,queen  ,victoria had bought one   
for one hundred and ten dollars1 the    
price of  them quadrupled4 ,in the time 

of ,charles ,,ii4 of ,england an ,irish 
pearl  weighing #add grains was valued  
at two hundred dollars4 ,in ,london     
during the early part of the nineteenth 
century1 pearls from ,panama of  good   
size and quality brought about four     
dollars per grain4    ,about #ahfe1 fine
 oriental pearls were sold in ,london   
for #a4be to #a4ej  per grain in sizes  
up to three grains4 ,over that the price
 increased  gradually with the size so  
that five grainers were worth about     
#b4ej  per grain2 ten grainers1 #e4ej   
per grain2 twenty grainers #ac4jj per   
grain and thirty grainers about #ag4jj  
per grain4 ,if their fine grade         
equalled ours1 there has been a         
remarkable advance in the last forty    
years1 as fine oriental round pearls of 
thirty grains to-day1 are worth  in the 
,united ,states #bdj4jj per grain flat4 
,up to this time and after1 prices were 
quoted very generally by the  carat4    
,later1 the method of reckoning by the  
square or multiple became  more general1

 and the price went to about two dollars
 per carat1 in  ,london1 or fifty cents 
per grain base for ordinary sizes1 the  
larger  ones being valued by the piece  
according to the individual rarity and  
particular qualities1 as before4 ,at the
 ,navigator's islands in #aheh1  fine   
round pearls of one to two grains were  
valued at about fifty  cents per grain1 
the price increasing until those of     
twenty grains  were considered worth    
twenty dollars per grain4 ,second class 
pearls  under one grain1 averaging half 
a grain1 were sold for about five cents 
a grain4 ,the same grade about nine     
grains average1 were worth about        
sixty-five cents per grain4    ,a third 
and fourth grade brought about          
twenty-five and fifty per  cent4 less   
respectively4 ,these prices1 compared   
with those of ,london1  indicate that   
fine1 large1 round pearls commanded     
better prices then in  the ,east than   
they did in ,europe4 ,seed pearls sold  
at ,tahiti for ten to  fifteen dollars  

per pound4 ,the island of ,labuan1 a    
,british possession  in the ,east       
,indian archipelago1 shipped pearls to  
,singapore in the  sixties at an average
 price of ten to fifteen cents per      
grain4 ,in #ahga1  #ce ounces of pearls 
shipped from ,guayaquil were valued at  
#ajj4jj per  ounce4    ,as in former    
times1 at many places where the fishing 
is done by  independent naked divers1   
especially among the remote islands of  
the  ,south ,sea1 there is no grading of
 pearls or definite ideas of value4     
,the natives dispose of their pearls1 as
 they are able1 to traders1  often for a
 very small price4 ,it is so to-day at  
many points in the  ,sulu archipelago   
from ,mindanao to the ,tawi ,tawi       
islands4 ,the smaller  established      
fisheries of the seas east of ,china    
assort roughly and sell  in bulk to     
buyers from neighboring trading centers4
    ,the output of the large fisheries  
is practically controlled by the  great 
merchants of neighboring cities who know

 the methods and  intricacies peculiar  
to the localities4 ,for instance1 the   
pearls of  ,ceylon go to ,madras1 and   
,bombay handles the bulk of those from  
the  ,arabian coast and the ,red ,sea4  
,lower ,california pearls are marketed  
chiefly at ,la ,paz4 ,those from        
,venezuela are shipped principally to   
,paris and definite figures cannot be   
obtained4 ,a few are brought to the     
,united ,states direct from ,venezuela1 
chiefly by ,syrians who barter for  them
 with the independent divers4 ,these    
traders have no knowledge of  market    
rates for assorted goods but sell them  
in mixed lots for as much  as they can  
get4    ,the price of pearls of the     
first grade1 in ,ceylon in #aijd1       
weighing  four grains and upwards each1 
was about #e4jj per grain4 ,at          
,macassar1  prices for the irregular    
shaped pearls of the ,dutch ,indies     
ranged from  twenty-five cents to #a4be 
per grain base according to quality4    
,at the ,ceylon fisheries1 two-thirds of

 the oysters taken have been the        
government's share4 ,these were         
auctioned off daily4 ,the prices varied 
considerably1 not only from fishing to  
fishing1 but daily during the  season4  
,if the oysters sold one day1 yielded   
well1 prices went up and  vice versa4   
,in #ahfj1 at the beginning of the      
,tinnevelly fishery1 they  realized ,rs 
#ae4 7#g4ej7 per thousand and rose later
 to ,rs #dj4 7#bj4jj74  ,in #ahfa on the
 contrary they sold in the early part of
 the season for  #ce4jj to #dj4jj and   
fell to #bj4jj1 at one time touching    
#h4ej4    ,in #ahga1 the ,tuticorin     
catch brought a little over #dj4jj per  
thousand  average4 ,the average price   
paid in #aheh at the ,ceylon fisheries  
was  a little less than ten dollars1 and
 as the pearl yield was good1 the       
speculators made enormous profits4 ,in  
consequence1 the average of #ahei  went 
up to #bb4ej1 the oysters bringing at   
one time during the season  as much as  
#db4jj2 #ahfj realized an average of    

#ff4jj1 the highest  price paid during  
the season being #ij4jj4    ,the fishery
 of #ahfc though it realized more for   
the government on  account of the large 
catch1 brought an average of #cc4ej per 
thousand  only4 ,in #ahgd the oysters   
brought about #dj4jj per thousand4 ,of  
late  years the average has been less1  
ranging from #ab4jj to #ad4jj though  at
 times double that price has been paid4 
,the pearls found in the oysters came   
quickly into the hands of ,hindu        
merchants who assorted them and shipped 
a large part to ,europe at  prices much 
less than those which rule in the       
,united ,states1 though  they usually   
made a good profit over cost4 ,with the 
leasing of the  ,ceylon fisheries much  
of this speculative business will       
undoubtedly be  eliminated and the      
pearls marketed at more regular prices4 
,at fisheries where mother-of-pearl is  
the chief factor of the industry1  it is
 difficult to get statistics of the     
number or value of the pearls  found1   

but in a general way ,india governs the 
market4 ,prices in other  sections      
adjust themselves to ,madras and ,bombay
 with such modifications  as quality and
 place would naturally make4            
,mother-of-pearl shell varies in price  
from #bej4jj to #ejj4jj per  ton for    
,mexican to #gjj4jj to #hjj4jj per ton  
for the white shell of  ,australia and  
the ,south ,sea4          ,,imitation   
,,and ,,doctored ,,pearls      ,in      
common with all other precious things1  
pearls have been long  imitated4 ,the   
early method of making imitation or     
mock-pearls as they  were called1 was to
 cut them out of the mother-of-pearl and
 polish  them4 ,another crude way was to
 make solid beads of glass containing   
various ingredients which gave them a   
slight similarity to the nacreous       
luster of the pearl4 ,beads of gypsum or
 alabaster were soaked in oil  and      
coated with wax4 ,the scales of the     
bleak fish dissolved in liquid  ammonia 
or vinegar1 was also used for covering  

beads1 the solution  imparting a        
somewhat pearly appearance4    ,to coat 
one thousand ounces of glass beads1 a   
,french manufacturer used  three ounces 
of fish-scales1 one ounce white wax1 one
 ounce pulverized  alabaster and half an
 ounce fine parchment glue4 ,another    
made beads of  opal glass which he      
covered with several layers of          
isinglass2 over  this was laid another  
coating of a mixture of spirits of      
turpentine and  copal1 and a fat oil to 
exclude moisture from the isinglass1    
following  it with a thin layer of      
tinted enamel to give resemblance to the
 orient  of the pearl4    ,some claimed 
that the best artificial pearls were    
made from pulverized  pearls4 ,seed     
pearls or valueless baroques were ground
 to a fine powder1  soaked in           
lemon-juice or vinegar and mixed with   
gum tragacanth4 ,the  paste after being 
shaped and partially dried1 was then    
enclosed in a  loaf and baked in an     
oven4 ,the luster was obtained by a     

final coating  of fish-scale solution4  
,a lighter and better imitation was made
 by  blowing hollow glass beads4 ,the   
inside surface was covered with a       
preparation from the fish-scales1 after 
which the bead was filled with  wax4    
,this method continues in use to-day4   
,the fish-scale solution used is a      
guanine1 the mucus which lubricates  the
 scales of the bleak fish 7alburnus     
lucidus74 ,the white scales of  the fish
 are carefully scraped into a horse-hair
 sieve over a shallow  tub of fresh     
water4 ,the first water is thrown away4 
,the scales are  then washed and        
pressed4 ,the mucus sinks to the bottom 
and is gathered  as an oily mass1 very  
brilliant and bluish-white4 ,this is    
packed with  ammonia in tin boxes and   
sealed for shipment4 ,it takes about    
#bj1jjj  fish to make one pound of the  
mucus4    ,a cheap imitation pearl is   
made of opal glass1 a bluish-white milky
  appearing material1 to which a pearly 
effect is given by treating it  with    

fluoric acid4 ,imitation black pearls   
are made from hematite1 but  as they    
require careful finishing to hide the   
metallic luster and are  much heavier   
than pearls1 they are seldom used4      
,the ,chinese and ,japanese have been   
much more ingenious in their methods    
and have long produced1 with enforced   
aid from the animal1 imitations  which  
are in part real pearl4 ,the former     
insert in the ,chinese  pearl-mussel    
7anodonta herculea7 small figures of    
,buddha upon which the  fish proceeds to
 deposit its nacre4 ,when they are      
coated1 which occurs  in from one to two
 or three years1 the pearly figures are 
extracted and  sold to the devout4      
,the ,japanese do more4 ,they attempt to
 produce a marketable gem and  have so  
far succeeded that a considerable number
 have been sold of late  in the ,united 
,states and in many cases the public buy
 them not knowing  that they are an     
artificial production4 ,the base upon   
which the nacre  is deposited appears to

 be composed of a substance resembling  
porcelain  shaped like a low dome       
hollowed out on the under side and      
having a hole  in the centre of the     
cavity4    ,as there is no nacre on the 
under side1 it must1 when the button is 
placed in the mussel1 be thereby        
protected from the action of the fish   
except at the edges where the nacreous  
deposit probably joins it to the  shell 
but in such a manner that it can be     
easily detached4 ,the pearl  covered    
button is then fitted to a piece of     
polished mother-of-pearl of  the same   
exterior size and shape and the two are 
neatly joined1 forming  a double low    
domed piece of pearl on one side1 and   
mother-of-pearl on  the other4 ,these   
,japanese pearls as they are called1    
when mounted in  a setting constructed  
to hide the under side1 have the        
appearance of  imperfect spheres of     
natural pearl4    ,the beds where the   
culture of these artificial pearls is   
carried on1  are situated in the ,bay of

 ,ago1 a few miles south of the ,temple 
of ,ise1  in central ,japan on the      
,pacific side4 ,it is a quiet piece of  
water1  in a coast broken by numerous   
inlets and coves4 ,a little north of the
  centre of the bay is a small island   
called ,tadoko where the necessary      
buildings and the men connected with the
 industry are4 ,around the  island and  
near it1 about #a1jjj acres of sea      
bottom are leased and used  for the     
pearl oyster cultivation4 ,the water is 
about five to seven  fathoms deep4      
,the oyster used is the one common to   
the waters of ,japan1 the ,avicula      
martensii ,dunker4 ,in ,may and ,june1  
stones weighing six to eight pounds  are
 scattered over the bottom of the       
sheltered shallows which run up  into   
the land1 where the spat is collected4  
,the breeding season is in  ,july to    
,august and in the latter month very    
tiny shells attached to the  stones by  
the byssus may be seen already4    ,the 
number increases as the season advances 

until in ,november1 in order  to protect
 the young fish from the approaching    
winter cold1 the stones  lying in very  
shallow water are removed with the      
adhering oysters to  deeper water--over 
six feet4 ,after three years the oysters
 are taken  out and the nuclei of the   
culture pearl inserted4 ,this done1 they
 are  spread over the sea bottom1 about 
one to every square foot and left       
undisturbed for four years4 ,they are   
then taken out and opened and  both the 
culture pearls and whatever natural     
pearls there may be1 are  harvested4 ,at
 present1 upwards of a quarter of a     
million oysters are  treated annually4  
,experiments are being made constantly1 
in the ,united ,states and ,europe1  to 
improve upon the hollow glass bead lined
 with fish-scale but so far  without    
success4 ,the finest of these imitate   
the natural pearl very  well and if     
finely mounted similar to the genuine1  
will deceive many  while worn4 ,closer  
observation will reveal the glassy shine

 of the  surface and it will be found   
under the loup to contain numerous small
  holes4 ,the specific gravity is also  
less4    ,one finds occasionally in     
lots1 a mock-pearl which has been cut   
and  polished from the mother-of-pearl1 
but imitations of this character  are   
scarce and find no place in the market4 
,the few made are found  usually in     
parcels of fresh-water pearls and are   
put there by  unscrupulous dealers1 as  
also are hematite balls and even        
buckshot1 to  be sold with the lot by   
weight as genuine pearls4    ,since the 
price of pearls has advanced so rapidly1
 much ingenuity has  been shown in the  
improvement of poor pearls4 ,button     
pearls grown to  the shell are broken   
out and the under or flat side carefully
 scraped  and smoothed to hide the      
irregular lines of juncture between the 
pearl  and the shell4 ,protuberances on 
the surface of round pearls are scraped 
off and the broken skin edges smoothed  
down so as to be unnoticeable to  the   

naked eye4    ,in a like manner chalky  
rings and spots are toned down4 ,surface
 cracks  are filled by soaking the      
pearls in a solution and if the pearl   
has  been pierced1 interior cracks can  
also be rendered unobservable4 ,a       
serious objection to pierced pearls     
arises from the ease with which         
interior defects can be doctored where  
the skin is pierced and a  boring made  
through the nacreous layers4 ,not only  
are cracks made to  disappear1 but      
coloring matter can be introduced       
between the skins4 ,a  white pearl of   
very poor color can by such means be    
changed temporarily  into a black pearl 
which will command a fancy price4 ,this 
illegitimate  doctoring of pearls1      
whereby defects are hidden and a        
fictitious  appearance of quality       
imparted to last long enough to make    
sales  at exorbitant prices1 should not 
be confounded with the legitimate       
improvement of pearls which is now      
growing to be an industry of some       

importance4 ,experts are now able by    
careful manipulation to restore to  some
 extent the luster which has been lost  
by wear or age4    ,formerly this was   
done by skinning the pearl1 i4e4 1      
removing the  outer skin by peeling it  
carefully off with the edge of a sharp  
knife1  an unsatisfactory method at     
best1 as the under skin may not be good 
and  if all the outer skin is not taken 
off1 the broken edges of the layers     
composing the skin1 mar the luster and  
color when the pearl is worn4  ,few also
 succeed in removing a skin without     
scratching the new one  disclosed by its
 removal4    ,pearls having a decidedly 
bad outer skin with a good one under it1
  can only be materially improved by    
removing the bad skin1 but owing  to the
 liability of finding equally bad       
imperfections underneath1  or           
irregularities which would necessitate  
the removal of several  skins with a    
consequent loss of size and weight1     
pearls with minor  imperfections or lack

 of luster are now slowly rubbed between
 the  fingers1 the abrasion being       
assisted by various substances which    
differ  with the judgment and experience
 of the operator1 the preparation being 
in all cases kept secret by the expert  
using it4 ,many fine pearls which  have 
lost their pristine luster are now      
considerably improved by this  method1  
and without the dangers involved and the
 necessary loss of  weight1 consequent  
on peeling4    ,large numbers of poor or
 imperfect pearls are scraped or        
otherwise  doctored by the traders and  
speculators at the fisheries4 ,these men
  acquire such pearls at a slight cost1 
and by various methods fix them  so that
 by mixing them in lots with good       
pearls1 they often make large  profits4 
,they also mix in many cracked pearls4  
,this is done more often  at ,margarita 
and the other ,venezuelan fisheries     
where the proportion  of cracked pearls 
is greater than in the ,indian and      
,south ,sea fisheries4    ,the skins of 

a pearl may also be removed by the      
application of weak  acids1 but this    
method requires careful and expert      
handling or the acid  will act          
irregularly and leave the surface1 if   
improved in luster1  uneven and pitted4 
,few important fresh-water baroques and 
irregular pearls leave the west  without
 receiving the attention of the         
speculators through whose hands  they   
pass1 and the scraping is often very    
roughly done4 ,rough and  discolored    
projections are broken or filed off and 
then scraped over  with a knife edge4   
,while fresh1 the broken skin edges left
 thus will  often pass unnoticed by a   
careless buyer1 but they become         
discolored  and dead later4 ,unless one 
buys of a dealer in whom implicit       
confidence  may be placed1 not alone for
 honesty but for his knowledge of       
pearls1  it is better to examine all    
pearls under a glass before purchasing4 
,as many persons both in the trade and  
out of it1 are not sufficiently         

familiar with pearls to be quite sure of
 their ability to detect the  genuine   
from fine imitations1 the following     
points of difference  will be of        
service4 ,all imitation pearls made of  
some solid material  are heavier than   
the genuine and lack the pearly         
characteristics  of the fine imitations 
even4 ,if made of solid glass without   
acid  finish1 they are shiny and too    
poor to require a second consideration1 
if acid finished they have a            
ground-glass appearance which is        
unmistakable4 ,if made of other material
 of a vitreous nature1 they  are heavier
 than pearls1 dull in luster or without 
luster1 dark in  color and unmistakably 
lacking in pearly characteristics4 ,the 
only  dangerous imitations are the      
,japan culture pearls and the hollow1   
glass  bead-pearls4 ,the former may     
always be recognized by the             
mother-of-pearl  back1 the latter by    
various signs4    ,all these hollow     
glass beads1 have one or two holes4     

,they are coated  on the inside with    
fish-scale solution and filled with wax4
 ,some are  treated with acid or        
sand-blasted to tone down the shiny1    
glassy  appearing surface1 and to hide  
the blow-holes in the glass4 ,the effect
  is quite pearly1 but the color is     
somewhat darker and they show some      
iridescence4 ,without the surface       
treatment they are more shiny and  under
 the loup one will discover the small   
blow-holes peculiar to  surfaces which  
have been molten4    ,the rims of the   
holes have a smooth1 rounded1 congealed 
appearance1  whereas holes in pearls    
have a rough1 square1 chalky edge4 ,on  
looking  diagonally into the hole of a  
glass bead1 the glass will appear as a  
dark ring against the wax filling1 and  
where there are two holes1 one  will    
almost invariably have a ring in the    
glass1 a short distance from  and around
 it4 ,the surface over the ring is      
smooth1 though it looks as  if it were  
ridged2 the ring is in the glass1 not on

 it4    ,these hollow-blown glass pearls
 are lighter than the real pearls  also4
 ,there is one never failing test       
however which discovers even  the best  
of these most dangerous imitations4     
,drop a small spot of ink  from the     
point of a pen upon one1 and hold it    
between the eye and the  light1 when two
 spots will appear1 the one nearest to  
the eye being a  reflection from the    
inner wall of the glass resting against 
the wax1  of the actual ink spot on the 
surface4 ,the duplicate spot will be    
lighter in color than the original4 ,on 
a real pearl there would be no  such    
reflection1 nor would it appear on a    
solid bead imitation1 but  as before    
stated1 the weight of the latter betrays
 them1 as they are  heavier than the    
real1 nor do they look as pearly1 and on
 holding them  between the eye and light
 they do not show the translucency at   
the edge  of the circumference peculiar 
in a more or less degree1 to the gem4   
,,facts ,,and ,,fancies      ,in ancient

 days there was a belief in the east    
that at the full of the  moon the       
pearl-oyster rose to the surface of the 
sea and opened its  shell to receive the
 falling dew-drops4 ,these congealing1  
hardened  into pearls4 ,similarly1 the  
natives of ,india believed that ,buddha 
in  certain months showered upon the    
earth1 dew-drops from heaven1 which  the
 oyster1 floating on the waters to      
breathe1 received and held until  they  
hardened and became pearls4 ,these      
poetical imaginations of the  ,orientals
 were carried west with the pearls4     
,poets embodied them in  verse4 ,prose  
writers1 losing the poetry of the fable1
 trimmed them to  the bare statements of
 impossible facts4 ,an ,english writer  
early in the  eighteenth century        
speaking of the mussels in the streams  
of northern  ,england said that gaping  
eagerly and sucking in their dewy       
streams  they did conceive and bring    
forth a great plenty of pearls4         
,later writers also attributed the      

origin of pearls to the reception  of   
raindrops from heaven by the oyster1 and
 one gravely asserted that  the         
fishermen always found more pearls after
 a season of heavy rains4  ,he did not  
state that the oysters rose to the      
surface of the sea to  receive the      
raindrops1 neither did he explain how   
these drops from  heaven passed through 
the brine to the oyster inviolate4      
,pliny was more  definite2 he stated    
that the quality of the pearls varied   
with that of  the dew from which they   
were formed and were clear or turbid as 
it was4  ,the pearl would be            
pale-colored if the weather was cloudy  
when the dew  fell into the shell1 and  
large if the dew was plentiful4 ,thunder
 during  the reception of the drop      
resulted in a hollow pearl and if       
lightning  caused the shell to close    
suddenly the pearl would be small4      
,the people of ,java and ,borneo had a  
belief which should have been yet  more 
difficult to acquire4 ,they asserted    

that the pearls themselves  breed and   
increase in number if placed in cotton4 
,clusters of twinned  pearls were said  
to be produced thus1 and it is related  
that some had  the audacity to sell     
breeding pearls claiming to distinguish 
the male  from the female4 ,this fable  
also travelled west and was received by 
the credulous4 ,m4 ,s4 ,lovell in his   
,edible ,mollusks says1 ,a ,spanish     
lady informed a friend of mine that if  
seed-pearls were shut up in  cotton-wool
 they would increase either in size or  
in number4    ,to this day the ancient  
superstition1 or belief1 is believed not
 only  by sea-board ,malays1 but by     
,europeans1 and there are those who     
claim  to own breeding pearls and to    
have bred from them4 ,the pearls are    
placed in a box with a layer of         
cotton-seed and a few grains of rice1   
under and over them4 ,the box is then   
closed and in a year1 if one  account   
given is a fair statement of average    
results1 one may look for  a four-fold  

increase1 though the children will not  
be as large as the  parents4 ,some of   
them may be as large as a pin head4 ,the
 rice will look  crumbly and worm-eaten4
    ,another breeder of pearls says that
 the breeding pearls themselves  grow in
 size and if the box has been kept      
undisturbed1 there will be  found with  
them at the end of the year others of   
various sizes1 some  almost microscopic4
 ,a year later these would be larger4   
,it is also  said that when a pearl is  
about to breed1 a small black speck     
makes  its appearance on the surface1   
and that during the period of breeding  
the pearl changes its shape from a      
sphere to an irregular ovoid1 and       
develops layers of scales on the surface
 visible to the naked eye4    ,after a  
time1 the breeding pearls change their  
orient to a dirty white1  the scales    
having peeled off4 ,in all cases the    
rice looks as though  some beetle had   
taken a circular bite out of the end of 
each kernel4  ,somehow a perusal of the 

accounts of the remarkable results1     
leaves  the reader with a conglomerate  
impression of transformed rice and      
imagination4    ,nevertheless1 the      
breeding of pearls in cotton-wool or    
cotton-seed with  rice1 is asserted and 
believed1 and the methods by which the  
wonder is  accomplished may be had with 
great circumstance and some variations  
from those who have experimented4 ,no   
greater evidence exists of the          
child-like faith of people in the old   
times than the incredible stories  about
 precious stones which were current in  
those days4    ,it is equally wonderful 
that although it took centuries to      
disprove  them1 they received credence  
for more centuries after they were shown
  to be impossible and one hears those  
same delightful fairy stories  about    
angel's tears1 drops of dew from heaven1
 raindrops1 etc41  seriously quoted in  
this matter-of-fact land to-day1 often  
by people  who after a moment's thought 
would become conscious of their fallacy4

    ,but romance abhors reason1 and     
though oysters cannot rise to the       
surface of the sea1 nor raindrops pass  
immaculate through the ocean  to the    
gaping mollusks1 nor the downpour of one
 season increase the  yield at once of  
things which are the growth of years1   
there will long  remain some who will   
refuse the dictum of the biologist1 that
 unless  the dews of heaven and the     
tears of angels carry much lime in      
solution1  the calcareous surroundings  
of the oyster's bed must have more to do
  with the genesis of the pearl than    
anything dropped into the ocean by  the 
clouds above it1 and will still cling to
 fancy in the face of fact4  ,meantime  
the priests of ,buddha exact charity    
oysters from the fishers  of their      
faith1 that the god thus propitiated may
 cause the oysters to  yield more       
pearls4    ,a question often raised1 and
 which by its periodical revival seems  
to be a favorite with newspapers and    
magazines1 as well as1 to the  general  

public1 is1 ,do pearls live and die8 ,it
 originated probably in  observations of
 certain changes that occasionally take 
place in pearls  which could be readily 
construed by a speculative or           
imaginative mind  to mean death4        
,sometimes with pearls the brilliancy of
 youth fades and  passes and the clear  
skin of early days takes on the hue of  
age4    ,if now a ready pen waited on   
fancy to state the facts it would       
establish an imaginative theory for     
centuries1 for like gossip1 a thing     
once printed in a book will long pass on
 unquestioned and be quoted  or         
re-stated many times4 ,there are pearls 
which for certain qualities  invite as a
 descriptive term the word live4 ,there 
are others which by  comparison appear1 
and are described1 as dead4 ,then there 
are others  that lose by untoward       
circumstances the live qualities they   
once  possessed and without dying become
 dead pearls4 ,the calcite carbonate    
crystals of which they are formed       

dissolve in acids and are affected to  a
 certain extent by the acidity of the   
excretions of the human skin1           
sufficiently in some cases to destroy1  
or at any rate dim1 their luster4       
,gases in the atmosphere1 sudden changes
 in temperature1 heat1 and  various     
other influences operate more or less in
 the same direction4  ,the chemical     
changes thus produced might with poetic 
license be called  the death of the     
pearl and in a sense the term would be  
true were the  whole pearl involved1 but
 as a rule these misfortunes affect the 
outer  skin of the pearl only1 so if    
that dies death is but skin deep1 a live
  pearl remaining beneath it4    ,as    
life and death means the segregation of 
particles into a compact  individuality 
and their final dissolution1 pearls like
 all other things  in the restless      
economy of nature live and die1 but the 
loss of some  of its native charms by   
the gem is not more a sign of death than
 the  rougher cuticle of a weather      

beaten sailor with which exposure has   
replaced the smooth skin of the boy4    
,nevertheless the idea of death coming  
to the pearl fascinates and             
enterprising writers succeed in         
frequently placing very interesting  and
 readable articles before the public    
which incite the wonderment  of the     
reader and perpetuate the impression    
that this beloved gem is  some sort of a
 living creature subject to human       
vicissitudes4 ,lately  a story appeared 
in current publications which told how  
the pearls of  a lady's necklace        
sickened and lost their beauty4 ,much   
distressed she  carried them to the     
expert dealer of whom she bought them   
who gravely  advised her to let her maid
 wear them whereupon1 they recovered    
from  the illness and their lustrous    
beauty was restored4    ,twentieth      
century versions of fables older than   
this era are common2  shrewd traders and
 writers use them1 nor are they always  
careful to  attach the fable to the     

particular gem to which1 by right of    
ancient  usage1 it belongs4 ,the magical
 loss of color in the presence of       
impending danger to its wearer is the   
ruby's prerogative1 but1 though  pearls 
may lose their charms by exposure to    
heat1 gas and rough usage1  the wily    
orientals of remote or later ages       
provided no traditional  recovery more  
wonderful than the prosaic method of    
feeding them to  fowls and cutting them 
out of the gizzard an hour or two later4
    ,the pearl is generally considered  
to be the emblem of innocence and       
purity4 ,a pretty fashion in vogue among
 parents who can afford it1 is  of      
giving a pearl to each of their         
daughters on their birthdays4 ,these    
are carefully matched and strung so that
 the string grows to a necklace  for    
maturer years4    ,along with the       
emblematic idea and the fanciful notion 
of their origin1  there comes to us from
 the old days a superstition concerning 
pearls  which probably grew out of the  

statement that they were the congealed  
tears of heaven4 ,it was supposed that  
they brought tears to their  possessors4
 ,the idea originated probably about a  
thousand years ago in  western ,europe4 
,it did not exist in ,rome during the   
time of the ,csars  for the pearl was   
then the sign of power and affluence and
 was coveted  by men and women alike and
 it remains a most popular gem in ,italy
  to-day4    ,this absurdity has been   
kept alive by stories of prominent      
persons in  whose experience occurrences
 seemed to confirm the claim4 ,the      
,queen  of ,henry ,,iv4 of ,france      
dreamt that her diamonds were turned to 
pearls  the night previous to her       
husband's assassination by ,ravaillac4  
,the  consort of ,james ,,iv4 of        
,scotland dreamt of pearls three nights 
in  succession before the disastrous    
battle of ,flodden ,field in which he   
lost his life4 ,these and similar       
stories which appeal to a love of the   
mysterious and wonderful have been      

perpetuated by writers of books1 so     
that even to-day there are women who    
coveting pearls still fear to own  them4
    ,but to be out of the fashion is    
more dreadful to women than tears1  so  
it has come to pass that with the       
increasing vogue of the pearl1  less is 
heard of the superstition and it is     
dying1 not of age or the  contempt of   
knowledge1 but by the potency of        
fashion4    ,a story already referred to
 in these pages1 that has been current  
for over two thousand years during which
 time it has been mentioned  by almost  
every writer about pearls1 deserves1 for
 its antiquity and  absurdity1          
consideration here4 ,it is of ,cleopatra
 and the pearl worth  upwards of three  
hundred thousand dollars she is said to 
have dissolved  in wine to drink in     
costly fashion to her lover4 ,this was1 
of course1  impossible4 ,she may1 with  
the help of the wine have swallowed it  
like  a pill or1 as ,sir ,thomas        
,gresham did later1 have ground it to   

powder  and mixed it with the wine she  
drank1 but to dissolve a pearl of great 
size as one of this value would be1 was 
a conjurer's feat4    ,the lime of which
 a pearl is chiefly composed will       
dissolve in acid1  but the gem although 
softened1 would remain a pulpy mass held
 by the  organic matter interwoven      
throughout the strata of calcium        
carbonate4  ,whatever she really did1 or
 in what form she swallowed the pearl1  
if  she did so1 ,cleopatra and her pearl
 are better known to-day to the  general
 public than either of her ,roman       
lovers1 and they will probably  be      
handed down through many generations yet
 to come4    ,to exaggerate is a common 
tendency4 ,dealers usually place        
inordinately  high figures on           
exceptional gems which they do for      
several reasons3  the great price       
excites wonder and interest2 it makes a 
large profit  possible2 it permits      
considerable reduction to a shrewd      
buyer2 and it  pleases the person who   

finally purchases it1 for if the sale is
 made  public the first asking price is 
usually given as the value of the       
jewel1 and sometimes even that is       
exceeded4 ,the buyer prefers to have  it
 so because it increases the importance 
of his possession in the  public mind   
and paves the way for a good price if he
 too at any time  should wish to sell4  
,one reads constantly in the daily      
papers of sales where the prices  given 
are enormously beyond the sums actually 
paid1 for the public like  big figures4 
,reporters know this and do not fail to 
supply the demand4  ,for instance3 in an
 eastern city of the ,united ,states1 a 
man while at  a lunch counter found a   
pearl in the oyster he was eating4 ,he  
took it  at once to a jeweller of his   
acquaintance who handed it to a ,new    
,york  pearl-dealer present and asked   
him to value it4    ,the pearl was large
 and round but1 like all such formations
 in the  edible oyster1 quite devoid of 
the nacre which constitutes a true      

pearl4 ,the dealer so informed them1    
adding casually1 ,if it were a true     
pearl it would be worth several thousand
 dollars4 ,an evening paper  that day   
had a half column story about it with1  
,a pearl worth five  thousand dollars   
found in an oyster at a lunch-counter1  
in black  head-lines1 and the morning   
papers of the following day enlarged the
  story by adding fanciful details4     
,undoubtedly in the old days of license 
when immense fortunes were  made not    
only in trade but by piratical wars1    
large prices were paid  by fortune's    
favorites for pearls but it is extremely
 probable that  report1 bruited from    
mouth to mouth1 exaggerated even more   
than the  printed fables of our times   
do4 ,it is doubtful if the pearls of    
ancient  chronicles were as fine1 judged
 by the standards of to-day1 as we      
imagine or that all of them were as     
large as reported4 ,the public were     
more ignorant about them than now and   
also more credulous and these  invite   

exaggeration4    ,very large pearls     
which for perfection of shape1 luster   
and freedom  from flaws are beyond      
criticism1 are the most rare of all     
gems4 ,the  conditions under which a    
pearl grows1 makes large size1 without  
the  development of irregularities in   
the form and imperfections in the  skin1
 almost impossible2 and as they all grow
 in the same way1 by the  same process1 
out of the same sources of supply and   
subject to the same  limitations1 we    
find big and little1 fine and ordinary1 
in about the  same proportions as they  
occurred thousands of years ago2 the    
fish that  made them then makes them    
now1 in the same kind of a narrow       
workshop  and within the bounds of a    
life whose duration has not changed4    
,of very ancient historic pearls1 the   
only one of which we have reliable  and 
expert knowledge1 is that of the ,shah  
of ,persia seen by ,tavernier4  ,this   
and ,la ,peregrina are supposed to be   
still in existence4 ,of the  very large 

pearls generally mentioned by writers1  
three undoubtedly  exist1 viz41 ,la     
,pellegrina1 the ,beresford ,hope and   
one of medium  quality in the ,austrian 
,crown weighing about twelve hundred    
grains4    ,it is probable that very    
many pearls have been found1 which if   
generally known would have become       
celebrated1 but of those chronicled1    
most have passed out of public          
knowledge4 ,it is probable that some of 
those about which much has been written 
were not as beautiful as others  which  
have escaped notoriety4 ,the writer's   
habit of drawing upon the  past to      
illustrate a subject1 has narrowed the  
literature of pearls  to reiterated     
records of a few great pearls which one 
by one have been  brought to public     
notice during the past centuries4       
,exact and reliable statements about    
gems are a modern innovation4 ,in  the  
old times unverified report was the only
 evidence the general  public had of    
them4 ,crown jewellers1 not always quite

 reliable1  would make public some      
statements in general terms about the   
jewels  of a reigning house4            
,occasionally1 as in the case of        
,france1 the  state had the crown jewels
 inventoried so that some fairly        
definite  knowledge could be had of     
them4 ,infrequently a traveller         
published  his observations1 made under 
more or less favorable circumstances1   
of the jewels of some oriental prince4  
,chief of these was ,tavernier1  the    
,french jeweller4 ,he not only had      
expert knowledge of gems but was  able  
by recommendations of the ,french court1
 to gain such access to  the jewels of  
eastern princes and dealers that he     
could make critical  examinations of    
them4    ,for various reasons it is     
extremely difficult also in these days  
to  obtain accurate knowledge of        
extraordinary gems4 ,dealers for        
business  reasons are chary of          
information1 nor will they make such    
pieces  common by allowing many to see  

and handle them4 ,the buyer is equally  
averse to publicity1 so that exact      
knowledge does not pass far beyond  the 
dealer and his customer as a rule4      
,the finest pearl known is that in the  
,museum of ,zosima1 in ,moscow1  called 
,la ,pellegrina4 ,it is perfectly round 
and so lustrous that it  appears to be  
transparent4 ,it weighs about #aab      
grains and was bought of  the captain of
 an ,east ,india ship at ,leghorn4      
,the largest known pearl to-day is in   
the ,beresford ,hope collection  shown  
at the ,south ,kensington ,museum1      
,london4 ,it is two inches long and  its
 circumference is four and a half       
inches4 ,it weighs three ounces  7#ahah 
grains74    ,illustration3 ,,countess   
,,torby    ,tavernier saw a pearl in    
#affc belonging to the ,shah of ,persia 
which  was valued at #cbjj tomans or    
about #cbj1jjj of our money4 ,it was    
very  perfect1 pear-shaped1 and nearly  
three inches long4 ,it is believed to   
have come from the ancient fishery at   

,catifa in ,arabia4 ,even this great    
sum was exceeded by ,pliny in his       
estimate of the pearl ,cleopatra is     
said to have swallowed4 ,he placed the  
value of that at #cge1jjj4 ,as  the     
,shah's pearl was about three inches    
long1 ,cleopatra's must have  been large
 enough to reflect on the story         
connected with it4    ,it is said       
,julius ,csar presented a pearl valued  
at an equivalent of  nearly #bej1jjj to 
,servilla the sister of ,cato of ,utica 
and mother of  ,marcus ,junius ,brutus4 
,the pearl taken from the ear-drop of   
,caecilia  ,metella by ,clodius to      
dissolve and drink in vinegar was valued
 at  #dj1jjj4    ,a large pear-shaped   
pearl weighing one thousand grains was  
found at the  island of ,margarita off  
the ,colombian coast and given to       
,philip ,,ii4 of  ,spain4 ,some reports 
say it was obtained in #aegi2 others    
give the date  as #aefj and say it was  
presented to the monarch by ,don ,diego 
de ,temes4  ,it was valued then at      

something over #cj1jjj1 but ,freco1 the 
king's  jeweller1 said it might be worth
 twice to twenty times as much for such 
a gem was priceless4 ,it was later known
 among the crown jewels as ,la          
,peregrina4 ,prior to this1 a companion 
of ,magellan reported having seen  two  
pearls as large as hen's eggs in the    
possession of the ,rajah of  ,borneo4   
,the pearl which ,sir ,thomas ,gresham  
drank in his wine to ,elizabeth of      
,england is said to have been worth     
seventy-five thousand dollars4 ,it  was 
reported some years ago that the ,queen 
of the ,gambiers owned a  pearl of      
extraordinary luster1 as large as a     
pigeon's egg4 ,there is a  story that in
 #aggi a pearl weighing #bcab grains    
which cost in ,india  #bb1ejj1 was      
offered for sale in ,st4 ,petersburg4   
,it was called the  sleeping lion       
because of its shape and must have been 
therefore a  baroque4    ,the republic  
of ,venice presented a pearl to ,soliman
 ,the ,magnificent1  ,sultan of ,turkey1

 which was valued at #hj1jjj1 and ,pope 
,leo ,x4 bought  one of a ,venetian     
jeweller for #gj1jjj4 ,these sums make  
the prices  of to-day seem insignificant
 and it is very probable that many of   
the pearls which brought such large     
amounts would not pass criticism  now4  
,perhaps one reason for the scarcity of 
large pearls among those  taken from the
 fisheries in this age is that many of  
them are classed  as baroques or are not
 sufficiently fine and perfect to       
attract  attention4 ,they pass therefore
 among those considered unworthy of     
notice4    ,a brown pearl valued at     
#be1jjj was exhibited by ,marchisini of 
,florence  at the ,maritime             
,international ,exhibition at ,naples in
 #ahga4 ,among the  ,dudley pearls      
exhibited at the ,london ,exhibition of 
#ahgb was a necklace  of exceptionally  
fine pearls valued at #aej1jjj4 ,the    
late ,czar of  ,russia spent twenty-five
 years in collecting sufficient perfect 
,virgin  pearls to form a necklace for  

his wife4 ,the ,countess ,henckel owns a
  necklace of pearls which for value and
 associations is unrivalled4  ,it is    
composed of three strands1 each at one  
time being a separate  and historical   
necklace4 ,one was the famous necklace  
belonging to the  ,empress ,eugnie which
 has been valued at #bj1jjj2 one known  
as the  necklace of the ,virgin of      
,atokha1 formerly owned by a member of  
the  ,spanish nobility1 the third       
belonged to the ex-,queen of ,naples4   
,for  value this is exceeded by a single
 strand necklace of large pearls  lately
 bought by a western millionaire of the 
,united ,states4 ,it is  composed of    
thirty-seven pearls ranging from        
eighteen to fifty-two and  three-quarter
 grains each1 the latter being the      
largest central pearl4  ,the combined   
weight of the pearls is #igi-c_/d grains
 and the value is  given at #djj1jjj4   
,a very beautiful and nearly perfect    
pear-shaped pearl was found on  the     
north-east coast of ,australia in the   

seventies4 ,it weighed #aei  grains4    
,there is a pearl about the size of a   
pigeon's egg in the  ,french crown      
jewels1 valued at #h1jjj4 ,many fine    
pearls1 especially  black or colored1   
have been found on the ,mexican coast   
during the last  twenty-five years1     
among them a black pearl of #afb grains 
and another  of #ajh grains1 a white    
pear-shape weighing #agf grains1 an oval
 of  #abh grains1 and three weighing    
#cjj grains1 #ahj grains and #cgb grains
  respectively1 the first two being     
found in the same year4    ,in the      
,world's ,fair in ,paris1 #ahhi1 seven  
black pearls from this  district1 valued
 at #bb1jjj were exhibited4 ,these and  
others are  described in ,gems and      
,precious ,stones by ,kunz4 ,no         
fresh-water pearl  has attained an equal
 notoriety with the ,queen pearl found  
at ,notch  ,brook near ,paterson1 ,new  
,jersey1 in #aheg4 ,it weighed #ic      
grains and was  sold to the ,empress    
,eugnie4    ,another round pearl of #djj

 grains1 ruined by boiling1 had it been 
properly extracted from the mussel1     
would probably have been the  finest and
 most notable pearl of this age1 though 
another as large as  a pigeon's egg1    
dropped from the mollusk and lost when  
the shell was  opened1 might have       
rivalled it4 ,the finder was wading in a
 stream in  ,ohio1 feeling for the      
projecting edges of the mussels with his
 feet1  and opening them as he brought  
them to the surface1 as was custom      
there4 ,this1 however1 may have been    
like the fish that got away4            
,,pearls ,,in ,,literature      ,in all 
countries where woman has been enthroned
 in the respect as well  as the         
affections of man1 the pearl has been   
inseparably connected  with her in his  
mind as a peculiarly fitting            
accompaniment to feminine  loveliness4  
,in the romantic dreams of youth1 which 
hide betimes  the harsh realism of life 
under a golden haze of imagery2 where   
belted knights and fair ladies live and 

move unfettered1 and all the  impossible
 delights of sweet desire free from     
untoward consequences are  reasonable2  
where invincible swords have no thought 
of the horrors of  carnage1 and         
unimpeded love is without cold          
calculation or following of  sorrow1    
pearls everywhere shimmer4    ,and when 
in his exalted moods man paints the     
shadow picture of the  goddess of his   
life1 he finds one gem alone befitting  
with which to  deck her1 namely1 the    
pearl4 ,this has come to pass probably  
because  the ideal qualities of woman   
and the sea-gem are alike1 purity and   
modesty4 ,the beauty of the most        
lustrous pearl is unobtrusive and its   
quality is virginal4 ,in our visions of 
the spectral past1 the shades of  the   
consorts of the mighty all wear them4   
,pearls hang pendent from the ears of   
,egypt's voluptuous queens1  and ,rome's
 proud matrons4 ,pearls clasp the dainty
 flesh of ,moslem  houris and rest in   
the soft folds of draperies that cling  

about those  daughters of the ,orient1  
the common mortals of their day might   
not  look upon4 ,great pearls hang      
festooned and pendent round the necks of
  lightly draped ,dianas of the warm    
south lands1 and coiled about the  brown
 arms of the daughters of the chiefs in 
far-off islands of the  ,south ,seas4   
,upon reclining figures in the ancient  
palaces of ,persia and ,arab tents3     
wherever the proud women of the         
conquering occident move in stately     
measure across the high terraces of     
noble placement3 in all dreams  of fair 
women and brave men1 are swords and     
pearls4 ,and this is so  because in all 
the ages1 women of high position have   
loved pearls and  writers have told it4 
,in our old world so far1 neither earth 
nor sea  has yielded ought else so fit  
to lie in the bosom of woman1 or to     
symbolize her character and beauty1 as  
the chaste and dainty pearl4    ,this   
high atmosphere of precious supremacy   
and reverence1 which  surrounds the gem 

now as it has for more than twenty      
centuries1 is  a legacy of ,rome4 ,the  
east loved pearls as beautiful and      
precious  trinkets2 while ,rome gave to 
them imperial honors and drew around    
them  the mystic circle of patrician    
favor4 ,and since that day1 in every    
land  where an aristocracy existed or   
came into existence1 pearls have been   
the familiars of the exclusive4    ,this
 natural fitness of the gem for refined 
associations is recognized  by ,emerson 
in his ,friendship4 ,he says3           
,thou foolish ,hafiz6 ,say6 do churls   
,know the worth of ,oman's pearls8      
,give the gem which dims the moon       
,to the noblest1 or to none4    ,it is a
 late echo of the scriptural saying1    
,cast not your pearls  before swine4 ,no
 modern poet shows more knowledge of the
 nature1 or a  more just appreciation of
 the delicate beauty of the gem than    
,emerson4  ,in his ,may ,day1 speaking  
of the tardiness of the spring1 he      
writes3  ,slow grows the palm1 too slow 

the pearl4    ,evidently he knew of the 
slow process by which the successive    
coats of  filmy nacre increase the size 
of the growing gem4 ,likewise a couplet 
in ,nature betrays the poet's           
observation of the iridescent nature of 
the colors in mother-of-pearl1 and in   
the gem occasionally when those         
fleeting tints are added to the beauty  
of its luster2 the lines are a  dainty  
illustration3        ,illusions like the
 tints of pearl1      ,or changing      
colors of the sky4    ,some of the great
 poets1 notably ,tennyson1 apparently   
confuse the  gem with its               
mother-of-pearl1 or refer to the latter 
only when they  speak of pearl4 ,in his 
,recollections of the ,arabian ,nights1 
however1  ,tennyson in describing one of
 his beauties evidently refers to the   
gem3                ,and a brow of pearl
      ,tressed with redolent ebony4     
,writing of the mermaid1 the lines are  
more suggestive of the shell  nacre3    
,combing her hair      ,under the sea1  

,in a golden curl      ,with a comb of  
pearl4    ,again in a sonnet1 he        
evidently refers to mother-of-pearl when
 he says3        ,all night through     
archways of the bridgd pearl1      ,and 
portals of pure silver1 walks the moon4 
,this indiscriminate use of the gem's   
name to appropriate its pearly          
characteristics is a common poetic      
license4 ,in ,ben ,jonson's ,hymn to    
,diana1 he bids her1        ,lay thy bow
 of pearl apart4    ,sometimes metaphor 
is worse mixed1 as when ,milton in      
,paradise ,lost  describes the waters   
above the firmament about the gate of   
,heaven thus3                ,and       
underneath a bright sea flowed      ,of 
jasper1 or of liquid pearl4    ,in this 
poem of gorgeous description1 the author
 makes several  allusions to the gem and
 some of them1 especially those in his  
word  paintings of scenes in ,eden1 are 
poetically beautiful and true4 ,one     
delightful to the eye of the mind1      
,how from that sapphire fount the crispd

 brooks      ,rolling on orient pearls  
and sands of gold1    and another in the
 description of morning in ,eden1       
equally beautiful  though it takes more 
license3        ,now ,morn1 her rosy    
steps in th' eastern clime              
,advancing1 sow'd the earth with orient 
pearl4    ,in his ,epitaph on the       
,marchioness of ,winchester1 a couplet  
shows that  he was familiar with the    
superstition of sorrow connected with   
them3        ,and those pearls of dew   
she wears1      ,proove to be presaging 
tears4    ,herrick also associated      
pearls and tears though more happily as 
in  ,corinna's ,maying4        ,besides1
 the childhood of the day has kept1     
,against you come1 some orient pearls   
unwept4    ,the same poet makes charming
 reference to pearls in his poem        
entitled3  ,to ,daffodils4        ,or as
 the pearls of morning dew        ,ne'er
 to be found again4    ,shakespeare made
 frequent reference to the gem1         
sometimes to illustrate  the            

magnificence of wealth and station but  
more frequently in  connection with dew 
and tears4 ,oberon says3        ,and    
that same dew1 which some time on the   
buds      ,was wont to swell like round 
and orient pearls4    ,king ,richard    
,,iii4 when he argues with ,queen       
,elizabeth for her daughter's  hand in  
marriage1 promises with smooth and      
brazen villainy to so offset  the wrongs
 he had done her1 that3        ,the     
liquid drops of tears that you have shed
      ,shall come again1 transformed to 
orient pearls4    ,in ,king ,john       
,elinor speaking to ,constance of       
,arthur1 says1 ,draw  those heaven      
moving pearls from his poor eyes2 and in
 ,king ,lear1 one  of the gentlemen1    
speaking of the ,queen of ,france when  
she received the  news he carried1      
describes her mood thus3                
,those happy smilets1      ,that played 
on her ripe lip1 seemed not to know     
,what guests were in her eyes1 which    
parted thence1      ,as pearls from     

diamonds dropp'd4    ,in ,midsummer     
,night's ,dream1 ,lysander says to      
,helen3        ,to-morrow night1 when   
,phbe doth behold      ,her silver      
visage in the wat'ry glass1             
,decking with liquid pearl the bladed   
grass4    ,among his recognitions of    
pearls as a sign of the luxury of wealth
 and  high position1 he makes a lord    
say1 in the ,taming of the ,shrew1      
,or wilt thou ride8 ,thy horses shall be
 trapp'd      ,their harness studded all
 with gold and pearl4    ,and in ,king  
,henry ,v1 the ,king while deploring the
 sorrows incident to  kingship1 says3   
',tis not      ,the intertissued robe of
 gold and pearl      ,that beats upon   
the high shore of this world4    ,these 
two quotations indicate that the ,roman 
custom of decorating  robes and even the
 harness of horses with pearls was      
followed in  ,shakespeare's day by the  
nobles4    ,a line suggestive of the    
high-esteem in which the pearl was held 
in  his day1 and often quoted1 occurs in

 ,othello's grand but heart-broken      
self-denunciation just before he stabs  
himself3                        ,of one1
 whose hand      ,like the base ,indian1
 threw a pearl away1      ,richer than  
all his tribe4    ,it is evident also   
that stories were current then of the   
western  ,indian's ignorant prodigality 
in the disposition of things common to  
him but very precious among more        
enlightened people4    ,in ,king        
,richard ,,iii1 ,duke ,clarence sees in 
his dream of drowning1  ,wedges of gold1
 great anchors1 heaps of pearl4         
,several times the great dramatist puts 
the gem in somewhat grewsome  setting4  
,in ,a ,sea ,dirge however1 the bare    
horror of the idea which  grins at one  
in similar connections1 is transformed  
by the poetry in  which it is draped3   
,these are pearls that were his eyes3   
,nothing of him that doth fade1         
,but doth suffer a sea-change           
,into something rich and strange4    ,a 
favorite use of the sea-gem by the      

lighter poets is to adorn their  images 
of physical beauty4 ,in ,don ,juan1     
,byron1 describing one of the  ,turk's  
houris in the harem1 says3              
,was slumbering with soft breath1       
,and lips apart1 which show'd the pearls
 beneath1    and another poet writes    
similarly3        ,those cherries fairly
 do enclose      ,of orient pearls a    
double row4    ,shelley confines his    
references to pearls almost entirely to 
descriptions of ,nature dew-bedecked1 as
 in the ,revolt of ,islam1        ,i    
sate with ,cythna2 drooping briony1     
pearled      ,with dew from the mild    
streamlet's shattered wave1    and      
another in ,prometheus ,unbound where   
the chorus of spirits sing3        ,nor 
aught save where some cloud of dew1     
,hangs each a pearl in the pale flowers 
,of the green laurel blown anew4    ,in 
,arethusa he uses them to enhance the   
idea of regal magnificence in  these    
lines3        ,where the ,ocean ,powers 
,sit on their pearld thrones4    ,the   

poets rarely refer to the gem as a      
symbol of spiritual attributes  though  
it is peculiarly adapted by its natural 
qualities to illustrate  purity1        
innocence1 and other qualities of the   
human soul3 nor is it  often connected  
with religious ideas4 ,among the few1   
,andrew ,marvell in  his ,song of the   
,emigrants in ,burmuda1 avails himself  
of it somewhat  prosaically thus1       
,he cast 7of which we rather boast7     
,the ,gospel's pearl upon our coast4    
,one of the most poetically beautiful   
references ever made to the  ,ocean's   
modest jewel occurs in the ,the ,rosary 
by ,robert ,cameron  ,rogers4           
,the hours ,i spend with thee1 dear     
heart1        ,are as a string of pearls
 to me2      ,i count them over every   
one apart1                      ,my     
rosary4      ,each hour a pearl1 each   
pearl a prayer1        ,to still a heart
 in absence wrung2      ,i tell each    
bead unto the end1 and there            
,a cross is hung4    ,no poet has made  

more frequent allusion to pearls than   
,thomas ,moore4 ,his  poems give        
evidence that he had read much of them  
in ancient writings  and was alive to   
their poetic value4 ,in his description 
of ,ireland in  ,fairest6 ,put on       
,awhile1 the lines--        ,lakes1     
where the pearl lies hid1      ,and     
caves1 where the gem is sleeping1       
were founded on the statements of       
,nennius1 a ,british writer of the      
,i,xth  century1 concerning ,irish      
pearls4 ,in passing1 it is worthy of    
notice  that ,nennius recorded also that
 the princes of ,ireland hung them      
behind  their ears2 a fashion similar to
 that of ,persian and ,athenian youth   
many centuries earlier4 ,from ,cardanus1
 ,moore learned of the ancient  fable   
that pearls were improved by leaving    
them awhile with doves1 and  utilizes   
the fancy in ,a ,dream of ,antiquity    
thus3        ,as pearls1 we're told1    
that fondling doves      ,have played   
with1 wear a smoother whiteness4    ,an 

early reference to the gem is found in  
his ,odes of ,anacreon ,no4  ,,xxii3    
,or even those envious pearls that show 
,so faintly round that neck of snow--   
,if this ode was really written by      
,anacreon1 that poet must have been     
more familiar with pearls than some     
later ,grecian writers4 ,a similar  idea
 quite as beautifully expressed occurs  
in ,the ,loves of the ,angels4          
,then too the pearl from out its shell  
,unsightly1 in the sunless sea1         
7,as 'twere a spirit1 forced to dwell   
,in form unlovely7 was set free1        
,and round the neck of woman threw      
,a light it lent and borrowed too4      
,unlike most of the poets1 ,moore does  
not describe the sparkling  dew-drop as 
pearly and his references to tears of   
pearls include the  idea of             
metamorphosis1 as in ,the ,light of the 
,haram4        ,and precious their tears
 as that rain from the sky1             
,which turns into pearls as it falls in 
the sea4    ,these lines embody the     

ancient ,hindu superstition which is    
also  apparent in his ,lines to--3      
,put off the fatal zone you wear1       
,the shining pearls around it      ,are 
tears1 that fell from ,virtue there1    
,the hour when ,love unbound it4    ,in 
his adoration of female beauty1 he often
 holds the lustrous gem as a  foil to   
the exceeding charms of woman1 or to    
lift her to higher esteem  by holding   
her1 for preciousness1 above the gem4   
,beyond all other  things most lovely1  
only woman was lovelier yet4 ,in ,to    
weave a ,garland  for the ,rose1 he     
writes3        ,where is the pearl whose
 orient lustre      ,would not1 beside  
thee1 look less bright8    ,and in one  
of the ,odes to ,nea1 he expresses the  
jealous regard of  love thus3        ,if
 ,i were yonder conch of gold           
,and thou the pearl within it placed1   
,i would not let an eye behold          
,the sacred gem my arms embraced4    ,of
 the threads in which the woof of ,the  
,genius of ,harmony is woven1  there is 

one that sings thus to the passing of   
the shuttle3        ,to the small rill1 
that weeps along        ,murmuring o'er 
beds of pearl4    ,betraying as he did  
so frequently in his poems1 such a high 
regard for  the pearl1 it is somewhat   
curious that the gem was used           
descriptively  in connection with       
himself4 ,n4 ,p4 ,willis1 describing    
,thomas ,moore as he  met him at ,lady  
,blessington's said of him1 ,his        
forehead shines with  the lustre and    
smooth polish of a pearl4    ,schiller  
takes the gem from the warm touch of    
human sentiment and  builds it into a   
grand conception1 poetical but untrue to
 ,nature4 ,in  common with other poets1 
he credits the pearl with a play of     
color  seldom found even to a limited   
degree though it does occur in the      
mother-of-pearl4 ,in ,parables and      
,riddles1 he describes the rainbow      
thus3        ,a bridge of pearls its    
fabric weaves1        ,a gray sea       
arching proudly over4    ,in ,the       

,celebrated ,woman he alludes twice to  
pearls2 once when the  husband1         
bemoaning the passage of his choice     
vintages down the throats  of           
unappreciative celebrities1 realizes    
that the only reward from his  spouse   
for his endurance of it is1 sour        
looks--deep sighs4 ,because he  has no  
stomach for her notables and their wit1 
she regrets--        ,that such a pearl 
should fall to swine--    ,later on the 
husband refers satirically to the       
meeting of learned ,dons  and folks of  
fashion at their resorts1 where he says3
        ,all sorts of ,fame sit         
cheek-by-jowl1      ,pearls in that     
string--the ,table d',hote4    ,few     
later writers have set the pearl in as  
wide a range of ideas or in  language as
 beautiful as ,edmund ,spenser4 ,the    
tears of ,stella in ,the  ,mourning     
,muse of ,thestylis are more precious   
and gem-like than those  in any lines   
which have followed until now4 ,in these
 lines they are  priceless jewels       

royally set4        ,and from those two 
bright starres to him sometime so deere1
      ,her heart sent drops of pearle1  
which fell in foyson downe      ,twixt  
lilly and the rose4    ,as a means to   
wake imagination to the physical charms 
of woman his use  of the gem is equally 
happy and graceful1 for there is always 
a soul in  the flesh of his beauty as   
when he depicts the charms of a fair one
 in  one of his ,sonnets4        ,but   
fairest she1 when so she doth display   
,the gate with pearles and rubyes richly
 dight2      ,through which her words so
 wise do make their way      ,to bear   
the message of her gentle spright4      
,in another place he expresses the      
worship of his love in this fashion3    
,for loe1 my love doth in her selfe     
containe      ,all this worlds riches   
that may farre be found2      ,if       
,pearles1 her teeth be ,pearles1 both   
pure and round4    ,several of his poems
 show the fashion of pearls in his day  
as for  instance where he describes the 

,scarlet ,lady in ,the ,faerie ,queene  
as--        ,a goodly ,lady clad in     
scarlet red1      ,purfled with gold and
 pearle of rich assay4    and ,hymen in 
,epithalamion--        ,her long loose  
yellow locks lyke golden wyre1          
,sprinckled with perle4    ,there is a  
passing breath of spice-laden gales and 
the wonder magic of  ships in far-off   
seas1 carrying to perils and adventure  
men seeking  the treasures of strange   
lands1 while he tells in ,virgil's ,gnat
 of the  shepherd's content3        ,ne 
ought the whelky pearles esteemeth hee1 
,which are from ,indian seas brought far
 away4    ,poets are reminded not only  
of the teeth and neck of beauty by the  
luster of the pearl but of the forehead 
also4 ,whittier like ,tennyson  gives to
 woman a brow of pearl4 ,in ,memories   
the girl has--        ,eyes glad with   
smiles1 and brow of pearl1    and in    
,stanzas1 he places the beauty of flesh 
above that of the  dainty jewel thus3   
,o'er a forehead more pure than the     

,parian stone--      ,shaming the light 
of those ,orient pearls      ,which bind
 o'er its whiteness thy soft wreathing  
curls4    ,similarly ,heinrich ,heine in
 ,longfellow's translation of ,the ,sea 
hath  its ,pearls says3        ,and     
fairer than pearls and stars            
,flashes and beams my love4    ,probably
 in no poem is the pearl referred to so 
frequently or with  so wide significance
 as in ,whittier's ,the ,vaudois        
,teacher4 ,the  missionary in his guise 
of peddler having obtained an audience  
with the  fair chatelaine1 while        
extolling his wares1 says3        ,and  
my pearls are pure as thy own fair neck1
 with whose radiant        light they   
vie4    ,naturally1 this wisdom of the  
serpent with which his innocence was    
garnished brought favorable response3   
,and the lady smiled on the worn old man
 through the dark and        clustering 
curls1      ,which veiled her brow as   
she bent to view his silks and          
glittering        pearls4    ,after she 

had bought of his trinkets1 the old     
teacher carefully  introduces the       
covered object of his visit4        ,oh1
 lady fair1 ,i have yet a gem which a   
purer lustre flings1      ,than the     
diamond flash of the jewelled crown on  
the lofty brow        of ,kings1      ,a
 wonderful pearl of exceeding price1    
whose virtue shall not decay4    ,this  
statement at once arouses a keen        
interest1 for in those days great  gems 
came from unexpected sources and by     
unlikely hands and coming  seldom1      
excited desire to an extent unknown in  
these abundant times4  ,glancing at the 
mirrored pearls in her own hair the lady
 says3        ,bring forth thy pearl of 
exceeding worth1 thou traveller gray    
and old--      ,and name the price of   
thy precious gem1 and my page shall     
count        thy gold4    ,here is the  
golden opportunity of the zealot4 ,from 
its place of  concealment beneath the   
tempting wares in his pack he takes a   
shabby  little book and gives it to her 

saying3        ,here1 lady fair1 is the 
pearl of price1 may it proove as such   
to thee1      ,nay--keep thy gold--,i   
ask it not2 for the ,word of ,god is    
free6    ,nor does the religious mind of
 ,whittier fail to remember the gates of
  pearl1 for in ,ego he speaks of       
,the pearl gates of the ,better ,land4  
,carlyle makes reference to the gem in a
 line greater in conception  and more   
poetic than most of those which occur in
 the rhymes of the  poets--,she died in 
beauty1 like a pearl dropped from some  
diadem4    ,in ,ruffini's ,dr4 ,antonio1
 man and woman are set in marriage as a 
foil and complement of each other though
 the metaphor shows some                
misunderstanding of the qualities of    
gems1 for black diamonds are not  as    
fiery as others4 ,the lines are3        
,the fiery black diamond casting lustre 
over the ,oriental pearl3 the           
,oriental pearl in return lending       
softness to the black diamond4          
,dryden does not forget pearls when he  

caparisons the royal mighty and  in     
,palamon and ,arcite fitly thus         
describes ,emetrius1 ,king of ,inde3    
,his surcoat o'er his arms was cloth of 
,thrace1      ,adorned with pearls all  
orient1 round and great4    ,it is      
remarkable that so many poets have seen 
in the pearl a simile  for raindrops and
 dew4 ,among them1 ,browning in the song
 from ,pippa  ,passes1 sees--           
,the hill-side's dew-pearled4    ,at its
 best1 the pearl is not luminous1       
neither does it flash nor  sparkle3 the 
quality of it is softly lustrous as of  
light that  smolders2 but transferring  
by imagery the mist-white texture of    
dew when it is spread over leaf and     
grass blade1 to the transparent         
dew-drop1 poets see in the sparkling    
globule1 which in the sun is of         
diamantine brilliancy1 a simile of the  
pearl4    ,in ,by the ,fireside however1
 ,browning creates a rain of pearls1 a  
truer figure than pearly raindrops3     
,break the rosary in a pearly rain1     

,and gather what we let fall4    ,the   
metaphors of ,lowell are more true to   
the nature of the pearl and  its        
characteristics than those of many      
poets4 ,one1 seldom used though  most   
appropriate1 occurs in ,the ,first ,snow
 ,fall4        ,and the poorest twig on 
the elm-tree        ,was ridged inch    
deep with pearl4    ,another instance of
 combined truth and poetry may be found 
in ,an  ,invitation3        ,a cloud    
,byzantium newly born1      ,with       
flickering spires and dome of pearl4    
,and in ,pictures from ,appledore the   
same poet in the embodiment of a        
delightful idea in words says of the    
moon3        ,rather to call it the     
canoe      ,hollowed out of a single    
pearl4    ,in these illustrations1      
imagination is true to nature on either 
hand1  for the beady ridges of the half 
melted or frozen snow on the tree       
twigs1 the soft luster of a white cloud 
dome and the pale round moon1  alike are
 characterized by beauties which are    

pearly4 ,in his more  involved metaphor 
the same nice avoidance of incongruity  
is noticeable4  ,though raindrops are   
not pearly1 the white fringe of a       
shore-driven  wave is1 which he notes in
 ,sea-,weed3        ,for the same wave  
that rims the ,carib shore      ,with   
momentary brede of pearl and gold4      
,there is a hint of ,cleopatra and ,sir 
,thomas ,gresham in his lines ,to ,h4   
,w4 ,l4        ,let them drink molten   
pearls nor dream the cost2    and in the
 lines from ,memoria ,positum there is  
an understanding of  the processes by   
which the gem grows3        ,this death 
hath far choicer ends      ,than slowly 
to impearl in hearts of friends2    and 
in the poetic fancy in ,a ,familiar     
,epistle to a ,friend--        ,old     
sorrows crystallized into pearls4       
,nor does he omit the time-honored      
custom of poets to place the gem  among 
the chief jewels of the great and in the
 mouth of beauty1 for  in ,the ,singing 
,leaves he makes the ,king's eldest     

daughter ask of her  royal father when  
he journeys3        ,o1 bring me pearls 
and diamonds great1    and in ,a ,fable 
for ,critics he says3        ,your      
goddess of freedom1 a tight1 buxom girl1
      ,with lips like a cherry and teeth
 like a pearl4    ,bryant does not often
 allude to pearls1 but in two instances1
 both in  ,the ,flood of ,years1 they   
appear in beautiful setting4 ,in the    
first3        ,a beam like that of      
moonlight turns the spray      ,to      
glistening pearls4    ,later on1        
describing the ocean of the past1 he    
sees--        ,dim glimmerings of lost  
jewels1 far within      ,the sleeping   
waters1 diamond1 sardonyx1      ,ruby   
and topaz1 pearl and chrysolite4    ,the
 general use of pearls in the barbaric  
splendor of the great in  the days of   
,rome and ,egypt and ,persia1 appears in
 ,tasso's ,jerusalem  ,delivered4 ,in   
the wizard's dwelling3        ,nor      
failed there urns of crystal1 pearl1 and
 gold1    and1        ,high on the      

,soldan's helm1 in scales of pearl      
,a rampant dragon grinn'd malignant     
things2    and also1                    
,the ,pastors of the flocks      ,have  
on their sacerdotal albs1 which pass    
,in front divided o'er their golden     
frocks1      ,clasp'd with aigraffes of 
pearl4    ,in the review of the oriental
 hordes1 ,armida's car is thus          
described1        ,her car1 that        
glorious as ,aurora's roll'd1      ,with
 rubies1 pearls1 and hyacinths glisten'd
 clear4    ,among those who passed the  
,egyptian prince1 were3                 
,the ,islanders with fleecy curls1      
,whose homes are compassed by th'       
,arabian waves2      ,by whom those     
shells which breed the ,persian pearls  
,are dived and fish'd for1 in their     
green sea caves4    ,the name of the gem
 is used in rare fashion in picturing   
the enchanted  wood through which       
,rinaldo wanders3        ,impearl'd with
 manna was each fresh leaf nigh4    ,and
 twice does the sweat of the human face 

become pearly in the poet's             
imagination3 once when ,armida watches  
,rinaldo sleeping3        ,the living   
heat-dews that impearl'd his face1      
,she with her veil wiped tenderly away4 
,in the second instance1 speaking of    
,armida1 the poet says3                 
,she dies      ,of the sweet passion1   
and the heat that pearls1      ,yet more
 her ardent aspect beautifies4          
,thomson sees pearls only in the        
dew-impearled earth1 and one must       
admit1 after looking upon the liquid    
globules hanging in rows from the       
spreading twigs of trees before the     
morning sun has found them in their     
shaded quarters1 that the pendent       
spheres are suggestive1 and that the    
poet's eye needs but little assistance  
from imagination to see in them  the    
soft round gems of the ocean4    ,in all
 ages1 prose and fiction have treated of
 pearls as a form of  exceeding         
preciousness and a chief evidence of    
high station and  barbaric splendor4    

,the lute of poetry has held few        
additional strings4  ,modern writers    
have added little to the imaginations of
 the ancients4  ,all the changes made by
 successive poets have been rung on the 
tears1  dew-drops1 and beauty's teeth1  
handed down from long ago4    ,the wide 
ranges of the pearl's modest worth1     
exalted purity1 and  singular beauty1   
yet remain to illustrate the thoughts of
 future  genius4 ,imagination has not   
yet brooded often over the humble and   
distorted creatures1 whose gnarled and  
twisted forms1 lying among their  myriad
 shapely brethren are evidence of a     
precious sacrifice of self  to leave a  
heritage of beauty2 nor dreamed of the  
silent acres under  turbulent waters    
where the gem1 one day to adorn the neck
 of beauty  or the diadem of royalty1 is
 reared4 ,what play for imagination lies
  between the birth of this creation of 
one of the humblest of ,earth's         
creatures1 and the high placement to    
which it rises as soon as it is         

discovered4    ,there are deserted      
wastes of sand and water under torrid   
skies1  populated almost momentarily    
with teeming multitudes whose jargon    
fills the former silences with a world  
wide medley of tongues4 ,as in  a dream1
 the tremulous air is stirred by the    
struggling movement of  naked slaves1   
turbanned orientals1 men from all lands 
of the occident1  the moving throng     
weaving constantly new patterns from the
 variegated  colors and fantastic       
costumes of living threads4 ,and        
everywhere1  beneath the prosaic motion 
of labor and trading1 is the quiver of  
hope1  the excitement of the gambler2   
the poetry of human passions1 unseen1   
but felt4    ,there are in unfrequented 
seas1 where some lonely atoll draws its 
circle round a still lagoon1 treasures  
greater than its cargo and the  stately 
ship sailing heedless by4 ,so like the  
undiscovered pearls of  the ocean's bed1
 the universe holds an exhaustless store
 of thoughts  and truths for those who  

come after the discoverers of this age4 
,thought runs in grooves and the grooves
 outlast many generations2  scarcely in 
a cycle does one look over the ridge and
 find a species  foreign to the rut4    
,within the walls which the past builds 
for the present it is more easy  to     
adopt than to bring forth1 and so the   
ancient metaphors1 age after  age1 are  
with some changes of raiment thrown back
 upon the world again4  ,but in this new
 era of acquisition1 while this sea-gem 
is again lifted  to the serene heights  
of most exalted favor1 perhaps it will  
not only  shine upon the persons of the 
fair1 but adorn1 in simile and metaphor 
as beautiful as the old1 the pages of   
romance and poetry4          ,,glossary 
,,abalone4--,name given on the          
,california coast and in the ,united    
,states   to the ,haliotis4             
,,ball-,,pearl4--,name given to round   
pearls by pearlers at the inland        
fisheries of the ,united ,states4       
,,baroque4--,a pearly formation of      

irregular shape4     ,,base4--,a basic  
price1 subject to the square of the     
pearl's weight4     ,,baskets4--,brass  
sieves used in ,india for separating    
pearls of different   sizes4            
,,black-,,shell4--,pearl oyster shells  
of which the nacreous lining has a      
black-edge4     ,,blister4--,a piece of 
the mother-of-pearl lining of a         
pearl-oyster   shell1 raised above the  
surface like a blister4                 
,,bluebacks4--,shell of a variety of    
,haliotis4     ,,blue-,,pearls4--,dark1 
slaty blue-white pearls1 principally    
from the   ,mexican coast4     ,,bombay 
,,pearls4--,fine pearls from the        
,arabian and ,red ,seas1 so named       
because marketed through that city4     
,,button ,,pearls4--,shaped like a dome1
 high or low1 rising from a plane   and 
called high buttons1 buttons or low     
buttons1 accordingly4                   
,,clammer4--,one who fishes for mussels 
by dredging for the shells              
principally4     ,,dead                 

,,pearls4--,pearls with a chalky or waxy
 skin having little or no   luster4     
,,dress4--,diving apparatus consisting  
of a one piece dress from the neck      
down1 corselet1 helmet1 air-pipes and   
life-line4     ,,drop-,,pearl4--,ovoid1 
or obovoid1 not necessarily of perfect  
shape4     ,,drilled ,,pearls4--,pearls 
with one hole for setting on peg1 or    
quite   through the centre for          
stringing4 ,chinese drill two or three  
small   holes half way between          
circumference and bottom1 for           
holding-wires4     ,,egg                
,,pearls4--,ovoid3 shaped like an egg4  
,,flat4--,in connection with price      
quotation means1 price per grain        
regardless of size4     ,,fresh-,,water 
,,pearls4--,pearls taken from inland    
streams4     ,,green ,,ears4--,shell of 
,haliotis having green mother-of-pearl  
lining4     ,,half ,,pearls4--,round    
pearls sawed in half4                   
,,helmet4--,diving head-gear4           
,,lingahs4--,pearl oyster shells from   

the ,arabian ,sea and others of         
similar size and quality4     ,,madras  
,,pearls4--,fine white pearls from the  
,ceylon fisheries1 so called   because  
marketed principally in that city4      
,,manul4--,loose or soft sand sea bottom
 7,ceylon74     ,,multiple4--,price of  
pearls subject to the multiple of       
weight4     ,,mussel-,,egg4--,name given
 to pearls by ,tennesseans4             
,,nacre4--,the substance of which pearls
 and the lining of pearl-shells         
consists4     ,,naked ,,diving4--,diving
 without any appliances4                
,,orient4--,as applied to pearls1 the   
luster of the skin4     ,,oriental      
,,pearls4--,generally1 pearls from salt 
water2 specifically1   pearls from the  
,indian ,seas4     ,,ounce              
,,pearls4--,poor grades sold by the     
ounce4     ,,paar4--,ceylon name for    
rock or hard bottom oyster-bed4         
,,pearler4--,one who fishes for mussels 
for the pearls4                         
,,pear-,,shape4--,shaped like a pear2   

obovoid4     ,,peeler4--,a pearl with an
 imperfect skin1 the removal of which   
would   improve the pearl4              
,,red-,,ears4--,abalone shell with      
pearly red interior4                    
,,rose-,,pearls4--,pink1 iridescent1    
fresh-water baroques4                   
,,seed-,,pearls4--,very small round     
pearls4     ,,slugs4--,nacreous         
excrescences from the ,unio4            
,,skin4--,as applied to pearls1 the     
outer layer of nacre4                   
,,square4--,method of reckoning the cost
 of a pearl of any size at a lot        
price1 by the square of price given1    
with the grain as a unit4               
,,strawberry-,,pearls4--,large1 pink1   
iridescent and lustrous baroques1       
fairly regular in shape1 with the       
appearance of being thickly sanded      
under the nacre4     ,,sweet-,,water    
,,pearls4--,pearls from fresh-water4    
,,true-,,pearls4--,pearls formed of     
nacre as distinguished from similar     
formations which are not nacreous4      

,,twinned-,,pearls4--,pearls enveloped  
together in one or more layers of       
nacre4                                  
,,white-,,shell4--,pearl-oyster shells  
with nacre white to the edge4           
,,yellow-,,shell4--,pearl-oyster shells 
with yellowish nacre4          ,,general
 ,,characteristics  ,,of ,,pearls ,,and 
,,shells  ,,from ,,the ,,various        
,,fisheries       ,,arabian             
,,sea4--,pearls have fine orient1 but   
the color inclines to     yellow4       
,shells are larger than those of ,ceylon
 but of little value for                
mother-of-pearl3 iridescent1 black-edge 
m4 of p42 known as ,lingahs4            
,,aroe4--,pearls usually good orient2   
many of irregular shape4     ,shells are
 of medium size1 black-edge and         
iridescent4     ,,auckland4--,pearls    
white1 but not remarkable for luster4   
,shells1 medium size1 black-edge m4 of  
p4     ,,australia4--,pearls of         
,australia generally are of good color1 
but not as   lustrous as those of other 

sections4     ,shells usually large and 
heavy and the nacre is white4           
,,bandas4--,pearls good4     ,shells are
 small but heavy and good2 black to     
greenish edge nacre4                    
,,ceylon4--,pearls average finest in the
 world for orient and color4            
,shells1 small and valueless for m4 of  
p4     ,,costa ,,rica4--,pearls good    
average4     ,shells1 medium size1      
greenish yellow edge4     ,,egyptian    
7,,red ,,sea74--,pearls good but run    
yellow4     ,shells1 medium size and    
nacre has greenish edge4                
,,fiji4--,practically the same as the   
,bandas4     ,,gambier4--,pearls good1  
many fancy colors4     ,shells1 large1  
fine nacre with very black edge4        
,,haiti4--,pearls fine1 shells good4    
,,manilla4--7,includes ,batjan1 ,bima1  
,ceram1 ,salawatti1 ,sooloo1 etc47      
,pearls1 good color and orient4         
,shells1 large1 good1 yellow edge nacre4
     ,,merguian ,,archipelago4--,pearls 
and shells similar to the ,manillas4    

,,mexico ,,and ,,panama4--,pearls fair2 
blacks1 grays and fancy colors often    
fine4     ,shells1 medium size3 nacre   
has greenish edge4     ,,south ,,sea    
,,islands4--,pearls usually fine4       
,shells generally large1 heavy and fine 
black edge m4 of p4                     
,,venezuela4--,pearls1 good luster and  
color--many fine baroques4     ,shells3 
small1 beautifully iridescent1 but      
valueless4      ,,pearls4               
,hardness1 #c4e-d      ,sp4 ,gr41       
#a4ei-a4fb      ,,composition4          
,carbonate of ,lime          #ia4gb     
,organic matter              #e4id      
,water                       #b4cd      
,,index          ,a        ,abalone1    
#ib1 #agj1 #aii1 #bdd4        ,acapulco1
 #bjc4        ,advance of price1 #bgg4  
,aelonians1 #ic4        ,alexander1 #ej4
        ,ancient fisheries1 #bab4       
,angel's tears1 #cae4        ,anselm1   
,archbishop of ,canterbury1 #di4        
,aquila ,jewels1 #he4        ,arabian   
,sea1 #di1 #ea1 #bja4        ,aragonite1

 #afg4        ,aripo1 #bai4             
,arkansas1 discovery of pearls in1 #bei4
        ,aroo ,islands1 #aii1 #bjb4     
,aryans1 #fd4        ,atokha1 ,virgin   
of1 #cbi4        ,auris ,marina1 #bdf4  
,aurora ,shells1 #bdf4                  
,australia1 #bja1 #bdi4        ,avicula 
fucata1 #abg4        squamulosa1 #abg1  
#bci4          ,b        ,bagdad1 #bac4 
,bahamas1 #ie4        ,bahrein1 #bab4   
,ball pearl1 #dd4        ,banda         
,islands1 #bjb4        ,baroques1 #hb1  
#ia1 #aee1 #afa4        ,base price1    
#bgf4        ,baskets1 #bbh4            
,batjan1 #bjj4        ,bazaruto         
,islands1 #bjj1 #bcc4        ,beira1    
#bcc4        ,beresford ,hope pearl1    
#cbd1 #cbf4        ,black-,shell1 #add4 
,blister1 #ib4        ,blue-point1 #bfh4
        ,bochart1 #eg4        ,bones1   
pearls called1 #ej1 #fa4        ,boss1  
#adj4        ,breastplate1 ,jewish ,high
 ,priest's1 #ef1 #fa4        ,breeding  
of pearls1 #cab4        ,brown pearls1  
#cbi4        ,bull-head1 #bff4          

,butterfly1 #bfh4        ,byssus1 #bdc4 
,c        ,cacique1 #gf4                
,calcospherules1 #aed4        ,caligula1
 #eb4        ,campeche1 ,gulf of1 #bda4 
,cape ,san ,lucas1 #bdb4                
,cariaco1 ,gulf of1 #bch4               
,castiglione necklace1 #hd4             
,catifa1 #cbf4        ,celebrated       
,pearls1 #cbd4        ,ceram1 #bjj4     
,cestodes1 #agc4        ,chank1 #ae1    
#ih4        ,charles ,v41 #dg4          
,charlotte ,bay1 #bdi4        ,cheval   
paar1 #bba4        ,chilaw pearl banks1 
#bai4        ,chiriqui1 #bcg4           
,chunam1 #bca4        ,clammers1 #bfb1  
#bhb4        ,clam pearls1 #ig4         
,cleopatra's pearl1 #eb1 #cbj1 #cbf4    
,clinch ,river1 #bfj1 #bfc4             
,clione1 #aed4        ,clodius1 #eb1    
#cbg4        ,coatzacoalcos1 #bda4      
,coche1 #bch4        ,colombia1 #bcf1   
#bda4        ,color of pearls1 #aja4    
,columbus1 #df4        ,conch1 #af1 #id4
        ,conchiolin1 #acc4              
,cortez1 #df1 #bdb4        ,cracked     

pearls1 #aai1 #cja4        ,crotalia1   
#ec1 #hj4        ,cubagua1 #df1 #bch4   
,culture pearls1 #bii4          ,d      
,dahlak1 #bab4        ,dasyus1 #fd4     
,death of ,pearls1 #caf4                
,deer-horn1 #bfg4        ,de ,soto1 #df1
 #dg1 #gf4        ,devadatta1 #ih4      
,dew-drop origin of ,p41 #caa4          
,diamonds1 #dd1 #ef1 #gj4               
,diving1 ,dress1 #agh1 #ahh1 #aib4      
,naked1 #agh4        ,dredging1 #bhb4   
,dress1 #ahi4        ,dudley pearls1    
#cbi4        ,dutch ,indies1 #bjj1 #bcb4
          ,e        ,ear of ,venus1 #ic4
        ,ear-shell1 #ic1 #bde4          
,ecuador1 #bjc1 #bcg4        ,edward    
,,vii41 #hb4        ,elenchi1 #hj4      
,elizabeth1 ,queen1 #dh4        ,el     
,tirano1 #bcg4        ,exmouth ,gulf1   
#bdi4          ,f        ,facts and     
,fancies1 #caa4        ,farsan1 #bab4   
,fiji ,islands1 #bjb4        ,file-fish1
 #agd4        ,fisheries1 ,arabian ,sea1
 #bab4        ,ancient1 #bja1 #bee4     
,australian1 #aid1 #bjb1 #bdi4          

,fisheries1 ,british1 #bee4             
,campeche1 gulf of1 #bda4               
,ceylon1 #bja1 #bae1 #bhi4              
,colombia1 #bcg1 #bda4        ,dutch    
,indies1 #bcb4        ,ecuador1 #bcg4   
,english1 #bdb4        ,german ,east    
,africa1 #bcd4        ,haiti1 #bdh4     
,indian1 #bad4        ,irish1 #bee4     
,la ,paz1 #bdb4        ,lower           
,california1 #bdb4        ,madras1 #bae4
        ,merguian archipelago1 #bja1    
#bcd4        ,mexican1 #bdb4        ,new
 ,caledonia1 #bcd4        ,nicaragua1   
#bcf4        ,omagh1 #bef4              
,panama1 #bcg4        ,persian ,gulf1   
#bab4        ,philippines1 #bdh4        
,portuguese ,east ,africa1 #bcc4        
,red ,sea1 #baa4        ,scotch1 #bef4  
,so4 ,african1 #beg4        ,venezuela1 
#bcg1 #bci4        ,fishing1 ,ceylon    
gov't notification1 #bba4        ,depth 
of1 #bbe1 #bcb4        ,mexican1 ,season
 of1 #bdc4        ,u4 ,s4 mussel1 #beh4 
,polynesian1 #ahc4        primitive     
method1 #agi4        time under water1  

#bbe4        ,tongarewa ,islands1 #ahf4 
with dress1 #ahh4        prices         
realized1 #bbg1 #bhi4        ,flodden   
,field1 #cbj4        ,fluter mussel1    
#bfj4        ,francis ,i41 #dh4         
,fresh-water pearls1 #ij4          ,g   
,gambier1 #aii1 #bjc1 #cbh4             
,genesis of ,pearls1 #abg4              
,gilbert1 ,bishop of ,limerick1 #di     
,goajira1 #bci4        ,government      
,notification1 #bba4        ,gresham1   
,sir ,thomas1 #dh1 #cba4                
,guatemala1 #bdb4        ,guayaquil1    
#bcg1 #bhg4        ,gulf of ,california1
 #bjc4        ,campeche1 #bjd1 #bda4    
,gwaai ,river1 #beg4          ,h        
,habitat of oysters and mussels1 #aii4  
,haiti1 #bje1 #bdh4        ,haliotis1   
#af1 #ic1 #bjf1 #bdd4                   
cracherodii1 #bdg4        iris1 #bdf4   
mida1 #bdf4        rufescens1 #bdg4     
splendens1 #bdg4        tuberculata1    
#bde4        ,heel-splitter1 #bfh4      
,i        ,ichiaha1 #gf4                
,illinois1 discovery of pearls1 #bei4   

,imitation pearls1 #bie4                
,imperfections1 #aaa4        ,incas1    
#dd1 #df1 #gf4        ,inhambane1 #bjj4 
,interference1 #acj4                    
,iridescence1 #acj4          ,j         
,jamboneau1 #bce4        ,james ,,iv41  
#cbj4        ,japan1 #bjb4        ,jolo1
 #bdh4        ,julius ,csar1 #eb1 #ha1  
#bef1 #cbg4          ,k                 
,kalanchu1 #bca4        ,katar1 #bab4   
,kshattriya1 #bg1 #fd4          ,l      
,lampsilis anodontoides1 #bfg4          
fallaciosus1 #bfg4        ligamentinus1 
#bfg4        rectus1 #bfg4        ,la   
,pellegrina1 #cbd1 #cbf4        ,la     
,paz1 #bdb4        ,la ,peregrina1 #cbd1
 #cbg4        ,largest ,pearl1 #cbf4    
,lesbos1 #ej4        ,lingah1 #bja1     
#bab4        ,lohia1 #baa4              
,lollia ,pollena1 #eb4        ,loreto1  
#bdb4        ,louis ,,xiii41 #di4       
,lower ,california1 #bdb4          ,m   
,macanao1 #bch4        ,macassar1 #bcc4 
,madura1 #bae4        ,mafia1 #bjf1     
#bcd4        ,malabar1 #fc1 #agi4       

,manaar1 #baf4        ,manchadi1 #bca4  
,manduck1 #agi4        ,mantle1 #acb4   
,maracaibo1 #bci4        ,margarita1    
#bch4        ,maria ,theresa1 #di4      
,marichchikaddi1 #bba4        ,mary     
,queen of ,scots1 #dh4        ,massawa1 
#baa4        ,mathilde1 ,princess1 #hd4 
,maturity of ,pearl ,oysters1 #bje4     
,mazatlan1 #bdb4        ,meleagrina1    
#ij1 #abg4        ,merguian             
,archipelago1 #bjj1 #bcd4               
,methods of ,fishing1 #agg4             
,mindanao1 #bdh4        ,montezuma1 #df4
        ,moros1 #ahb4                   
,mother-paar1 #bai4        ,mounds1     
,indian1 #dj1 #de1 #gf1 #beg4           
,mucket1 #bff4        ,mud-blisters1    
#ib4        ,multiple1 #bgf4            
,mussel1 #ij1 #beg4        ,mussel-egg1 
#dc1 #aaf4        ,mussel ,anodonta     
herculea1 #big4        blue-point1 #bfh4
        bull-head1 #bff4                
butterfly1 #bfh4        deer-horn1 #bfg4
        fluter1 #bfj4                   
,hatchet-back1 #bfh4                    

heel-splitter1 #bfh4        ,lake1 #bfj4
        margaritifera1 #bee4            
mucket1 #bff4        nigger-head1 #bff4 
painter's1 #bee4        pearl1 #bee4    
red1 #bcd4        swollen-river1 #bee4  
sand-shell1 #bfg4        warty-back1    
#bff4        wash-board1 #bfj4          
,mutton-fish1 #bde4        ,mytilene1   
#ej4          ,n        ,nassau pearls1 
#if4        ,nautillus1 #af4        ,new
 ,caledonia1 #agb1 #bjb1 #bcd4          
,new ,guinea1 #bjb4        ,nicaragua1  
#bjd4        ,nigger-head1 #acf1 #bff4  
,nomenclature1 #ef4        ,notch ,brook
 pearl1 #beh1 #ccj4        ,nuclei of   
pearls1 #aec1 #agd1 #bgb4          ,o   
,oahu1 #bjf4        ,ohio pearls1 #beh4 
,old ,testament reference1 #ef4         
,omagh1 #di1 #bef4        ,oriental     
pearls1 #hi4        ,origin of pearls   
7fables71 #caa4        ,ormer1 #ic1     
#bdf4          ,p        ,painter's     
mussel1 #bee4        ,panama1 #bjc4     
,paraguana1 #bci4        ,parasites1    
#agd4        ,pearls1 ,abalone1 #ib1    

#aef4        assortment of1 #bbh4       
baroque1 #aee1 #afa1 #bgi4        black1
 #ig1 #aje4        blister1 #ib4        
blue1 #ajd1 #bgh4        ,bombay1 #bac4 
button1 #aee1 #afj4        clam1 #ig1   
#aef4        colors of1 #aja4           
conch1 #id1 #aef4        cracked1 #aai4 
culture1 #bih4        fancy1 #aje1 #bjb4
        free1 #aed4        fresh-water1 
#hi1 #ij1 #bgi4        hammered1 #abj4  
hinge1 #ia4        imitation1 #bie4     
,japan1 #bih4        ,madras1 #ajb1     
#bae1 #bgg4        ,nassau1 #if4        
oriental1 #hi4        ,panama1 #ajd1    
#bjd4        pear-shape1 #hj1 #afa4     
rose1 #ia4        seed1 #bca4           
,shah of ,persia1 #cbf4        slugs1   
#bhj4        soft1 #aaf4                
strawberry1 #ia4        true1 #hi4      
twinned1 #aei4        wing1 #ia1 #bhj4  
,pearl-,oysters1 #aii4        ,pearlers1
 #bfb1 #bhb4        ,peelers1 #aae1     
#bdh1 #cjb4        ,peeling pearls1     
#aae1 #cjb4        ,periya paar1 #bbj4  
,persian ,gulf1 #ej1 #bja4              

,perthshire ,tay pearls1 #bef4          
,peru1 #df1 #bjd4        ,philip ,,ii41 
#bda4        ,pinna1 #af1 #bjf1 #bce4   
,plagiola securis1 #bfh4                
,pleurobena aesopus1 #bff4              
,pliny1 #eb1 #ed1 #ff4                  
,polynesians1 #ahc4        ,pope ,leo   
,x4 pearl1 #cbh4        ,price of       
pearls1 #bge4        ,punta de ,santa   
,cristoval1 #bdc4          ,q           
,quadrula ebena1 #bff4        pustulosa1
 #bff4        undulata1 #bfh4           
,queen pearl1 #ccj4          ,r         
,rana of ,dholpur1 #gh4                 
,ravaillac1 #cbj4        ,red ,current1 
#bec4        ,red ,sea1 #ea1 #bjj4      
,rhodesia1 ,southern1 #bjf4        ,rio1
 ,hacha1 #bcg4        ,roman fashions1  
#hj1 #cdb4        ,rose pearls1 #ia1    
#bff4          ,s        ,sandalchin1   
#eg4        ,sandaztros1 #eg4           
,sand-shells1 #bfg4        ,san ,juan   
del ,norte1 #bcf4        ,season for    
mussel fishing1 #bgj4        ,seed      
pearls1 #bca4        ,shankar1 #ae1 #ca4

        ,shangani ,river1 #beg4         
,shankhsura1 #ih4        ,sharks ,bay1  
#bdi4        ,shark-charmer1 #bbd4      
,shell ,australian1 #ade1 #bjb4         
black1 #add1 #aii1 #bjb4        bullock1
 #bjd1 #bcf4        distorted1 #agb1    
#beb4        ,egyptian1 #bjj4           
grayish1 #ade1 #bjj4        greenish1   
#ade1 #baa4        ,lingah1 #bab4       
,shell ,mexican1 #bjd4        ,panama1  
#bjd1 #bcf4        ,port ,darwin1 #bdi4 
price of1 #bce1 #bea1 #bgj1 #bij4       
red-ears1 #bjf4        ,sydney1 #bdi4   
,tuamotu1 #agj1 #bjj4        ,unio1     
#acf1 #bjj1 #baa4        ,venezuelan1   
#bjj4        ,west ,australian1 #bdi4   
white1 #ade1 #aga4        yellow1 #ade1 
#bjj4        young1 #bje4               
,shoulder of mutton1 #bce4        ,sir  
,thomas ,gresham1 #dh1 #cbh4            
,sleeping ,lion1 #cbh4        ,slugs1   
#bhj4        ,soliman ,pearl1 #cbh4     
,sophie1 ,queen1 #hd4        ,southern  
,rhodesia1 #bjf1 #beg4        ,spat1    
#afi4        ,spawning time1 #bga4      

,spice ,islands1 #bjb4        ,spiritu  
,santo1 #df4        ,spruce1 ,john1     
#bhd4        ,strawberry-pearls1 #ia1   
#bff4        ,strombus gigas1 #id1 #bjf4
        ,sugar ,river1 #bfd4            
,sulu ,islands1 #bjb1 #bdh4             
,superstitions1 #aha1 #caa4             
,suran1 #bec4        ,sweet-water       
pearls1 #ij1 #bgi4        ,swollen      
,river mussel1 #bee4        ,symphynota 
complanata1 #bfh4          ,t           
,tahiti1 #bjc4        ,tampa ,bay1 #df4 
,targum1 #eg4        ,tavernier1 #di1   
#cbe4        ,tiburon1 #bdb4            
,tinnevalli1 #bae4        ,tongarewa    
,islands1 #ahf4        ,travancore1 #be1
 #ih4        ,tremellius1 #eg4          
,tritigonia verrucosa1 #bfg4            
,true pearls1 #hi4        ,tuamotu      
,archipelago1 #bjj1 #bjc4               
,turbinella ,scolymus1 #ih4             
,turtle-backs1 #ib4        ,tuticorin1  
#bae4          ,u        ,umbo1 #aci4   
,unio1 #ij1 #abg1 #acf1 #bjf4           
,unit of weight1 #bgf4          ,v      

,variation in weight of ,p41 #bda4      
,varieties1 #hi4        ,venezuela1 #if1
 #bcg4        ,venus ear-shell1 #af1    
#ic1 #bde4        ,venus ,genetrix1 #ha4
        ,veragua1 #bcg4        ,vishnu1 
#ae1 #ih4          ,w                   
,warty-back1 #bff4        ,weight of    
mussel shells1 #bfi4        meat1 #bfi4 
,westphalia ,queen necklace1 #hd4       
,white bones1 #ej1 #fa4        ,white   
shell1 #ade1 #aii4        ,wisconsin    
pearls1 #bei4          ,x        ,x     
,rays1 #bca4          ,y        ,yellow 
shells1 #bjj4          ,z               
,zanzibar1 #bjj1 #bcd4                  
,transcriber's ,notes    ,page #aac3    
changed pear-shape to pear-shaped       
7pear-shaped pearls7  ,page #cbb3       
changed aquaintance to acquaintance     
,page #cda3 changed villany to villainy 
,page #cdi3 changed ,throgh to ,through