,a ,c5tury's ,progress ,,9 ,a/ronomy ,,by ,,hector ,,macph]son1 ,jun4 ,,memb] ,,( ,,! ,,soci,t ,,a/ronomique ,,de ,,france2 ,,memb] ,,( ,,! ,,soci,t ,,belge ,d',,a/ronomie2 ,,au?or ,,( #8,,a/ronom]s ,,( ,,to-,,day' ,,william ,,blackwood ,,& ,,sons ,,ed9burgh ,,& ,,london ,,mcmvi ,all ,rights res]v$ ,,preface4 ,! pres5t volume orig9at$ 9 a desire to pres5t1 9 small compass1 a record ( ! m>vell\s progress 9 a/ronomy dur+ ! pa/ hundr$ ye>s4 ,indebt$ness %\ld be ackn[l$g$ to ! valuable works ( ,pr(essor ,newcomb1 ,pr(essor ,s*iap>elli1 ,pr(essor ,l[ell1 ,pr(essor ,"y1 ,sir ,rob]t ,ball1 ,mr ,gore1 ,m4 ,flamm>ion1 & ,miss ,cl]ke1 :o1 z ! hi/orian ( mod]n a/ronomy1 occupies a place at once au?oritative & unique4 ,portions ( ,*apt]s ,,ii4 & ,,xii4 h already appe>$ 9 ! =m ( an article on ! ,con/ruction ( ! ,heav5s1 contribut$ by ! writ] to ! ,am]ican p]iodical1 #8,popul> ,a/ronomy4' ,bal]no1 ,mid-,lo?ian1 ,octob] #aijf4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,page ,,*apt] ,i4 #a ,,h]s*el ,,! ,,pione]4 ,influ5ce ( ,h]s*el's "w--,8 *>act]i/ics--,bir? & e>ly ye>s--,emigration to ,engl&--,c>ol9e ,h]s*el--,discov]y ( ,uranus--,k+'s ,a/ronom]--,latt] ye>s & dea?--,dea? ( ,c>ol9e ,h]s*el ,,*apt] ,,ii4 #ae ,,h]s*el ,,! ,,discov]]4 ,sol> rese>*es--,/udy ( ,v5us--,( ,m>s--,! ,a/]oids--,jupit]--,saturn--,discov]y ( satellites--,uranian satellites--,comet>y rese>*es--,motion ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em--,discov]y ( b9>y />s--,clu/]s & nebul--,nebul\s />s--,! ,nebul> ,hypo!sis--,/>-gaug+--,! disc-!ory--,subord9ate clu/]s--,ab&onm5t ( ! disc-!ory--,second me?od ( />-gaug+--,e/imate ( ,h]s*el's "w ,,*apt] ,,iii4 #dc ,,! ,,sun4 ,s*wabe & ! sun-spot p]iod--,rese>*es ( ,wolf1 ,lamont1 ,sab9e1 ,gauti]--,obs]vations ( ,c>r+ton & ,spr]--,c>e] & "w ( ,fraunh(]--,spectrum analysis--,"w ( ,kir*h(f--,sol> eclipse "w--,! ,sol> prom95ces--,janss5 & ,locky]--,hugg9s & ,zlln]--,"w ( ,"y--,! ,italian spectroscopi/s1 ,sec*i1 ,respighi1 ,tac*9i--,c>e] ( ,tac*9i--,! rev]s+ lay]--,! ,corona--,doppl]'s pr9ciple--,rotation ( ! ,sun--,"w ( ,dunr--,janss5's sol> atlas--,maund] & magnetism--,sol> !ories--,di/ance ( ! ,sun--,summ>y ,,*apt] ,,iv4 #fe ,,! ,,moon4 ,life & "w ( ,s*rt]--,( ,mdl]--,( ,s*midt--,*anges on ! ,moon--,sel5ography 9 ,engl&--,lun> atmosph]e--,lun> photography--,"w ( ,w4 ,h4 ,pick]+--,! new ,sel5ography--,! ,moon's heat--,motion ( ! ,moon--,accel]ation ( ! ,moon's mean motion--,"w ( ,laplace1 ,adams1 ,delaunay ,,*apt] ,v4 #hj ,,! ,,inn] ,,planets4 ,! problem ( ,vulcan--,m]cury--,"w ( ,s*rt]--,s*iap>elli1 8 life & "w--,"w ( ,l[ell--,spectrum ( ,m]cury--,v5us--,rotation p]iod3 "w ( ,s*rt]1 ,di ,vico1 ,s*iap>elli1 ,tac*9i1 ,l[ell--,atmosph]e & surface ( ,v5us--,! ,e>?3 v>iation ( latitude--,m>s--,rotation ( ,m>s--,surface--,discov]y ( canals--,"w ( ,s*iap>elli & ,l[ell--,int]pretation ( ! canals--,! !ory ( intellig5t life--,spectrum ( ,m>s--,satellites--,! ,a/]oids--,bode's law--,"w ( ,piazzi & ,olb]s--,application ( photography by ,wolf--,discov]y ( ,eros ,,*apt] ,,vi4 #ajc ,,! ,,out] ,,planets4 ,physical condition ( ,jupit]--,"w ( ,zlln] & ,proctor--,! r$ spot--,satellites--,discov]y ( fif? satellite--,six? & sev5? satellites--,r+s ( ,saturn3 ,bond1 ,maxwell1 ,keel]--,/ruve's !ory--,globe ( ,saturn--,new satellites--,uranus & its satellites--,discov]y ( ,neptune--,adams & ,le ,v]ri]--,satellite--,trans-,neptunian planets ,,*apt] ,,vii4 #abc ,,comets4 ,life & "w ( ,olb]s--,8 repulsion !ory--,life & "w ( ,encke--,8 comet--,biela's comet--,faye's comet--,return ( ,halley's comet--,donati's comet--,comet ( #ahfa--,spectroscopic /udy ( comets--,!ory ( ,brdikh9e--,spectra ( comets--,comets ( #ahhj & #ahhb--,! capture !ory--,comet>y photography ,,*apt] ,,viii4 #ach ,,meteors4 ,meteoric %[] ( #ahcc--,"w ( ,olm/$--,"w ( ,erman & ,kirkwood--,( ,h4 ,a4 ,newton--,adams & ! meteoric orbit--,%[] ( #ahff--;,connection ( comets & meteors--,"w ( ,s*iap>elli--,%[] ( meteors 9 #ahgb--#8,le ,/elle ,cad5ti'--,meteoric obs]vation--,a4 ,s4 ,h]s*el--,"w ( ,d5n+--,/ation>y radiants--,bolides & a]olites--,orig9 ( a]olites ,,*apt] ,,ix4 #aej ,,! ,,/>s4 ,di/ance ( ! />s--,life & "w ( ,bessel--,/udies ( ,/ruve--,life & "w ( ,h5d]son--,"w ( ,pet]s1 ,otto ,/ruve1 ,brnn[1 & ,ball--,measures ( ,gill--,p>allax ( fir/-magnitude />s--,relative & absolute p>allax--,"w ( ,kapteyn--,application ( photography--,/>-catalogues--,argel&]'s #8,dur*mu/]ung'--,"w ( ,s*nfeld--,"w ( ,g\ld--,! #8,cape ,photographic ,dur*mu/]ung'--,"w ( ,gill & ,kapteyn--,int]national *>t ( ! heav5s--,"w ( ,peck--,prop] motions ( ! />s--,/>-drift--,discov]ies ( ,proctor & ,flamm>ion--,radial motion--,"w ( ,hugg9s1 ,vogel1 & ,campbell--,sol> motion ,,*apt] ,x4 #afi ,,! ,,light ,,( ,,! ,,/>s4 ,"w ( ,fraunh(] & ,donati--,life & "w ( ,sec*i--,8 types ( spectra--,life & "w ( ,hugg9s--,photography ( spectra--,life & "w ( ,vogel--,8 classification ( spectra--,"w ( ,dunr--,( ,pick]+--,spectroscopic catalogues--,analysis ( spectra--,/ell> photometry--,life & "w ( ,e4 ,c4 ,pick]+--,v>iable />s--,"w ( ,goodricke--,( ,argel&]1 ,s*midt1 ,heis1 ,s*nfeld--,/udies ( ,dunr--,( ,gore--,photographic discov]ies--,classification--,algol v>iables3 _! explanation--,explanation ( o!r v>iables-- ,argus--,tempor>y />s--,( #ahdh--,( #ahff--,( #ahgf--,( #ahhe--,( #ahib--,photographic discov]ies--,nova ,p]sei1 #aija--,new /> ( #aijc--,!ories ( tempor>y />s ,,*apt] ,,xi4 #aig ,,/ell> ,,sy/ems ,,& ,,nebul4 ,life & "w ( ,john ,h]s*el--,b9>y />s--,computation ( orbits--,"w ( ,wilhelm ,/ruve--,( ,otto ,/ruve--,( ,burnham--,satellites ( ,sirius & ,procyon--,a/ronomy ( ! invisible--,"w ( ,pick]+ & ,vogel--,spectroscopic b9>ies--,"w ( ,blopolsky & ,campbell--,/>-clu/]s--,nature ( nebul--,spectroscopic "w ( ,hugg9s--,( ,copel&--,nebul> photography--,"w ( ,rob]ts1 ,b>n>d1 ,wolf--,( ,keel] ,,*apt] ,,xii4 #bad ,,/ell> ,,di/ribution ,,& ,,! ,,/ructure ,,( ,,! ,,univ]se4 ,"w ( ,john ,h]s*el--,rese>*es ( ,wilhelm ,/ruve--,ext9ction ( light--,mdl]'s 8c5tral sun0--,di/ribution ( nebul--,"w ( ,proctor--,aggregation ( />s on ! ,galaxy--,"w ( ,gore & ,s*iap>elli--,/udies ( ,g\ld--,rese>*es ( ,kapteyn--,( ,newcomb--,is ! ,univ]se limit$8 ,newcomb's argum5t--,obs]vations ( ,celoria--,rese>*es ( ,seelig]--,ext]nal ,univ]ses--,gore's speculations ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 #bbg ,,cele/ial ,,evolution4 ,laplace's nebul> hypo!sis--,helmholtz & sol> contraction--,!ories ( sol> heat--,objections to ,laplace's !ory--,faye's hypo!sis--,ball's exposition--,! meteoritic !ory ( ,proctor--,its ext5sion by ,locky]--,evolution ( ! />s--,vogel's ord] ( evolution--,tidal friction3 "w ( ,d>w9--,see's explanation ( d\ble />s--,future ( ! ,univ]se ,a ,,c5tury',s ,,progress ,,9 ,,a/ronomy4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,h]s*el ,,! ,,pione]4 ,9 a/ronomy1 z 9 o!r sci5ces1 ! pa/ hundr$ ye>s has be5 a p]iod ( unp>allel$ progress4 ,new me?ods h be5 devis$1 fre% discov]ies h be5 made1 new !ories h be5 prop\nd$2 ! field ( "w has wid5$ enorm\sly4 ,9 fact1 ! sci5ce ( ! heav5s has become n only b\ndless 9 its possibilities1 b m awe-inspir+ & m>vell\s4 ,to :om 9 ! ma9 is ?is great advance due8 ,to ! great pione] ( :at may be call$ mod]n a/ronomy--,william ,h]s*el4 ,n only did ,h]s*el recon/ruct ! sci5ce & wid5 its b\nds1 b 8 p[]ful g5ius direct$ ! c\rse ( n9ete5? c5tury rese>*4 ,z an a/ronomical obs]v] he has nev] be5 surpass$4 ,9 ! bread? ( 8 views he 0 equall$ only by ,newton2 & inde$ he excell$ ,newton 9 8 unwe>i$ obs]vations & 8 sweep+ conceptions ( ! ,univ]se4 ,to quote 8 own rem>k to ! poet ,campbell1 he 8look$ f>!r into space ?an ev] human be+ did be=e him40 ,h]s*el /udi$ a/ronomy 9 all its aspects4 ,9 all ! bran*es ( mod]n a/ronomy he 0 a pione]4 ,he obs]v$ ! ,sun1 ,moon1 & planets1 devot+ special att5tion to ,m>s & ,saturn4 ,he d\bl$ ! diamet] ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em by ! discov]y ( ,uranus4 ,he discov]$ sev]al satellites & /udi$ comets4 ,he 0 pre-em95tly ! f\nd] ( sid]eal a/ronomy4 ,he discov]$ b9>y />s1 ?us trac+ ! law ( gravitation 9 ! di/ant />-dep?s2 :ile to him is due ! cr$it ( ! discov]y ( ! motion ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em4 ,he f\nd$ ! /udy ( />-clu/]s & nebul1 prop\nd$ ! nebul> hypo!sis1 & devis$ two me?ods ( />-gaug+4 ,above all1 he 0 ! fir/ to attempt ! solution ( "o ( ! noble/ problems ev] attack$ by man--! /ructure ( ! ,univ]se4 ,9 fact1 ! latt] problem 0 ! end & aim ( 8 obs]vations4 ,z ,miss ,cl]ke rem>ks1 8,! magnific5ce ( ! idea1 :i* 0 root$ 9 8 m9d f ! />t1 places him ap>t f & above all prec$+ obs]v]s40 ,mo/ ( ! dep>tm5ts ( mod]n a/ronomy f9d a meet+-place 9 ,h]s*el1 z ! bran*es run to ! root ( ! tree4 ,he discuss$ a/ronomy f e po9t ( view4 ,be=e1 h[ev]1 proce$+ to exam9e ! "w ( ?is great man1 x is well to note a few ( 8 *>act]i/ics4 ,^! *>act]i/ics1 once und]/ood1 give u ! key to 8 rese>*es4 ,be=e we c ma/] ,h]s*el ! a/ronom] we mu/ und]/& ,h]s*el ! man4 ,not)/&+ ! fact t ,h]s*el sp5t mo/ ( 8 life 9 ,engl&1 & t he is includ$ 9 ! #8,diction>y ( ,national ,biography1' he 0 pre-em95tly a ,g]man4 ,l mo/ ,g]mans 8 /yle ( writ+ 0 some:at obscure1 & ?is 0 emphasis$ :5 he wrote 9 ,engli%1 ow+ to 8 imp]fect comm& ( ! language4 ,_h he writt5 9 ,g]man z well z 9 ,engli%1 he w\ld probably h be5 bett] und]/ood 9 8 native c\ntry1 :]e errone\s views ( 8 !ories 7 long ent]ta9$4 ,ev5 s di/+ui%$ an a/ronom] z ,wilhelm ,/ruve1 :5 translat+ ,h]s*el's pap]s into ,g]man1 made a mi/ake :5 translat+ a c]ta9 passage1 :i* leaves ! errone\s impression t ,h]s*el believ$ ! ,univ]se to be inf9ite--a mi/ake :i* w\ld n h aris5 _h he writt5 9 ,g]man4 ,! /ud5t ( ,h]s*el %\ld also be c>eful 9 quot+ ! views ( ! great a/ronom]4 ,_h ,h]s*el at ! close ( 8 life writt5 a volume conta9+ 8 f9al views on ! con/ruction ( ! heav5s1 ?is w\ld n h be5 necess>y2 b ,h]s*el did n write su* a volume4 ,8 rese>*es 7 embodi$ 9 a s]ies ( pap]s communicat$ to ! ,royal ,society f #aghj to #ahah4 ,z he obs]v$ ! heav5s 8 op9ions progress$1 s t a /atem5t ( 8 views at any giv5 "t 0 by no means a /atem5t ( 8 f9al op9ions4 ,! late ,r4 ,a4 ,proctor1 :o 0 ! fir/ great expon5t ( ,h]s*el 9 ,engl&1 has well said3 8,x seems to h be5 suppos$ t 8 pap]s c\ld be treat$ z we might treat su* a "w z ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el's #8,outl9es ( ,a/ronomy'2 t extracts might be made f any "p ( any pap] )\t ref]5ce to ! position :i* ! pap] *anc$ to occupy 9 ! entire s]ies40 ,h]s*el1 l ! true /ud5t ( nature1 held !ories v lightly4 ,!y 7 to him b roads to ! tru?4 ,unlike _m sci5ti/s1 he did n int]pret obs]vations by hypo!sis3 he fram$ 8 !ories to fit 8 obs]vations4 ,if he f\nd t a c]ta9 !ory did n agree ) :at he actually saw 9 ! heav5s1 he ab&on$ x3 he did n hesitate to *ange 8 views z 8 inve/igations proce$$4 8,no fe> ( #8committ+ himself1'0 says ,miss ,cl]ke 9 h] admirable "w on #8,! ,h]s*els1' 8det]r$ him f imp>t+ ! ?\ghts t accompani$ 8 multitud9\s obs]vations4 ,he felt committ$ to no?+ b tru?40 ,9 ! m9d ( ,h]s*el imag9ation & obs]vation 7 m>vell\sly bl5d$4 ,he 0 a philosophical a/ronom]4 ,al?\gh 8 imag9ation 0 a v vivid "o he did n all[ 8 fancies to run away ) him1 z ,kepl] sometimes did3 on ! o!r h&1 he did n1 l ,flam/e$1 refra9 f speculat+ altoge!r4 8,we ought10 he wrote 9 #aghe1 8to avoid two opposite extremes4 ,if we indulge a fanciful imag9ation1 & build worlds ( our own1 we mu/ n wond] at our go+ wide f ! pa? ( tru? & nature4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if we add obs]vation to obs]vation1 )\t attempt+ to draw n only c]ta9 conclusions b also conjectural views f !m1 we (f5d aga9/ ! v end = :i* only obs]vations ought to be made40 ,^! *>act]i/ics--! lightness ) :i* he held 8 !ories1 8 vivid imag9ation1 & 8 philosophical reason+--are ! secrets ( ,h]s*el's success z an a/ronom]4 ,ne>ly all 8 ideas & speculations h be5 confirm$4 ,z ,arago has said1 8,we _c b feel a deep rev]5ce = t p[]ful g5ius t has sc>cely ev] err$40 ,h]s*el1 l all o!r great /ud5ts ( ,nature1 0 deeply religi\s4 ,he c\ld n obs]ve ! heav5s )\t feel+ aw$ at ! m>vels :i* 8 telescopes reveal$4 ,9 8 own words1 8,x is surely a v laudable ?+ to receive in/ruction f ! ,great ,workma/] ( ,nature40 ,fri$ri* ,wilhelm ,h]s*el1 born 9 ,hanov] on ,novemb] #ae1 #agch1 0 ! f\r? *ild ( ,isaac ,h]s*el1 an oboi/ 9 ! b& ( ! ,hanov]ian ,gu>d4 ,isaac ,h]s*el1 a native ( ,dresd51 0 an accompli%$ musician1 & all 8 *ildr51 t5 9 numb]1 inh]it$ 8 tal5t4 ,( ^! t51 six surviv$1 & only two became fam\s4 ,^! 7 ,william1 ! great a/ronom]1 & 8 si/] ,c>ol9e 7born on ,m>* #af1 #agej71 :o became a /ud5t ( ! heav5s only second to h] bro!r4 ,at ! g>rison s*ool 9 ,hanov]1 :]e ! ,h]s*els 7 educat$1 ,william ,h]s*el %[$ int5se love & aptitude = le>n+1 & 0 m dilig5t & p]sev]+ ?an 8 bro!r ,jacob1 8 s5ior by f\r ye>s4 ,9 #agec he became oboi/ 9 ! b& ( ! ,hanov]ian ,gu>d 9 :i* 8 fa!r 0 n[ b&ma/]4 ,9 h] valuable memoirs1 8 si/] relates t h] fa!r 0 v int]e/$ 9 a/ronomy1 & t he taught 8 *ildr5 ! names ( ! con/ellations4 ,william became devot$ to ! sci5ce1 & con/ruct$ a small cele/ial globe on :i* equator & ecliptic 7 engrav$4 ,b 8 /udies 7 mu* hamp]$4 ,8 "m _h a great dislike to le>n+3 %e _h no sympa?y ) aspirations1 & tri$ to prev5t h] *ildr5 becom+ well educat$4 ,above all1 ! ,hanov]ian ,gu>d 0 ord]$ to ,engl& 9 #agee1 :5 a ,fr5* invasion 0 fe>$1 & to t c\ntry ,h]s*el proce$$1 along ) 8 fa!r & bro!r4 ,return+ to ,g]many 9 #agef1 ! ,hanov]ian ,gu>d 0 employ$ ! foll[+ ye> 9 ! ,sev5 ,ye>s' ,w>4 ,hanov] 0 invad$ by ! ,fr5*1 &1 conscription be+ ! rule1 ! musicians 7 n exempt$ f s]vice4 ,"u ! comm& ( ! ,duke ( ,cumb]l& ! ,gu>d suff]$ a t]rible defeat at ,ha/5beck4 ,william ,h]s*el sp5t ! night aft] ! battle 9 a dit*1 & decid$ t soldi]+ w\ld n be 8 pr(ession4 ,he des]t$1 &1 ) ! cons5t ( 8 p>5ts1 he sail$ = ,engl&4 ,aft] 8 arrival at ,dov]1 he w&]$ ?r\gh ! c\ntry 9 se>* ( musical employm5t4 ,at l5g?1 9 #agfj1 he 0 appo9t$ to tra9 ! b& ( ! ,durham ,militia1 & f\r ye>s lat] paid a secret visit to ,hanov]1 :]e he 0 welcom$ by 8 fa!r1 ^: heal? 0 n[ fail+1 & by 8 si/] ,c>ol9e4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye> he 0 promot$ to ! po/ ( organi/ at ,halifax1 & 9 #agff he remov$ to ,ba? z oboi/ 9 ,l9ley's ,or*e/ra4 ,f9ally1 9 #agfg1 he became organi/ 9 ! new ,octagon ,*apel at ,ba?4 ,h]s*el 0 n[ tw5ty-n9e ye>s old1 & kn[n z a fam\s musician4 ,z ,miss ,cl]ke rem>ks3 8,! ,octagon ,*apel soon became a c5tre ( fa%ionable attraction1 & he soon f\nd himself lift$ on ! wave ( public fav\r4 ,pupils ( high rank ?rong$ to him1 & 8 lessons (t5 m\nt$ to ?irty-five a-week40 ,9 ! ye> ( 8 appo9tm5t 8 fa!r di$1 ag$ sixty1 aft] a life ( tr\ble & h>d%ip4 ,8 dea? 0 a great bl[ to 8 daught] ,c>ol9e1 :om he _h educat$ :5 h] "m 0 f home4 ,c>ol9e ,h]s*el 0 naturally possess$ ( musical ability1 b h] "m & eld] bro!r _h det]m9$ t %e %\ld be a h\semaid1--a det]m9ation :i* ,william1 :o 0 devot$ly atta*$ to 8 si/]1 oppos$4 ,f9ally1 9 #aggb1 he visit$ ,hanov]1 & took 8 si/] to ,engl& ) him to act z 8 h\sekeep]4 ,b = h] unwe>i$ devotion x is d\btful :e!r ,william ,h]s*el w\ld h become ! great a/ronom]4 ,ab\t ! "t ( 8 appo9tm5t 9 ,ba? ,h]s*el comm5c$ ! /udy ( languages & ma!matics1 read+ ,maclaur9's #8,fluxions' & ,f]guson's #8,a/ronomy4' ,! p]usal ( ! latt] volume reviv$ 8 love = a/ronomy4 ,aft] f\rte5 or sixte5 h\rs' tea*+ he w\ld retire to 8 b$room & read ( ! wond]s ( ! heav5s4 ,8 int]e/ increas$ z he proce$$1 until1 9 8 own words1 8,i resolv$ to take no?+ ^u tru/1 b to see ) my own eyes all t o!r m5 _h se5 be=e me40 ,accord+ly he hir$ a small reflector4 ,inquir+ ! price ( a l>g] in/rum5t1 he f\nd x to be q beyond 8 means4 ,!n 9 #aggb1 :5 8 si/] came to keep 8 h\se = him1 he resolv$ to make 8 own telescope4 ,fir/ he tri$ ! fitt+ ( l5ses into pa/ebo>d tubes1 b ?is be+ a total failure1 he b\ght ! app>atus ( a ,quak] optician :o _h con/ruct$1 or attempt$ to con/ruct1 reflect+ telescopes4 ,9 ,june #aggc1 assi/$ by 8 si/] & by 8 bro!r ,alex&]1 !n 9 ,ba?1 he comm5c$ "w4 ,8 fir/ speculum mirror 0 five in*es 9 diamet]2 &1 :ile x 0 9 process ( con/ruction1 he 0 oblig$ to hold 8 h&s on x = sixte5 h\rs at a /ret*1 :ile 8 si/] suppli$ 8 food & read #8,! ,arabian ,nights1' #8,don ,quixote1' & o!r tales al\d to him to pass ! "t4 ,at la/1 aft] two hundr$ failures1 he f9i%$ a #e-;in* reflector1 & on ,m>* #d1 #aggd1 he obs]v$ ! ,orion nebula4 ,no soon] _h ,h]s*el comm5c$ 8 cele/ial explorations ?an he resolv$ to survey ! entire heav5s1 leav+ no spot unvisit$4 ,9 #agge he comm5c$ 8 review ( ! heav5s1 b f9d+ 8 telescope inadequate he began ! "w ( telescope-mak+ afre%4 ,mean:ile he _h mu* to di/ract him f a/ronomy4 ,9 #aggf he became director ( ! ,public ,conc]ts at ,ba?4 ,yet 8 en?usiasm 0 unb\nd$3 he w\ld run to 8 h\se betwe5 ! acts at ! !atre to obs]ve ! heav5s4 ,9 #aggi1 :5 obs]v+ ! ,moon f ! /reet 9 front ( 8 h\se1 a g5tleman ask$ p]mission to see ! cele/ial wond]s1 a reque/ :i* ,h]s*el grant$4 ,! g5tleman1 ,dr ,watson ( ,ba?1 introduc$ ,h]s*el to ! ,lit]>y ,society1 & we f9d him 9 #aghj contribut+ two pap]s to ! ,royal ,society on ,mira ,ceti & ! ,moon4 ,9 ! same ye> he comm5c$ 8 second review ( ! heav5s1 & dur+ its progress he made 8 fir/ great discov]y4 ,on ,m>* #ac1 #agha1 :ile survey+ ! con/ellation ,gem9i1 he discov]$ a fa9t object di/+ui%$ by a disc1 :i* he conclud$ to be a tailless comet1 b :i* 0 soon %[n to be a new planet beyond ! orbit ( ,saturn4 ,?is 0 ! fir/ planet>y discov]y made )9 ! memory ( man4 ,k+ ,george ,,iii4 summon$ ,h]s*el to ,london1 & gave him a p5sion ( #bjj a-ye>1 ) ! title ( ,k+'s ,a/ronom]1 p>don+ him also = 8 des]tion f ! army m ?an tw5ty ye>s previ\sly4 ,h]s*el !n nam$ ! new planet ! 8,georgium ,sidus10 a title n[ ab&on$ & replac$ by ,uranus4 ,william & ,c>ol9e ,h]s*el n[ mov$ to ,dat*et1 ne> ,w9dsor1 9 #aghe to ,clay ,hall1 & f9ally1 9 #aghf1 to ,sl\gh1--8! spot ( all ! _w10 said ,arago1 8:]e ! greate/ numb] ( discov]ies h be5 made40 ,"h ,h]s*el & 8 si/] work$ = ne>ly =ty ye>s4 ,he communicat$ to ! ,royal ,society pap] aft] pap] on a/ronomy 9 all its aspects4 ,he also cont9u$ ! "w ( telescope-mak+1 & con/ruct$1 9 #aghi1 8 #dj-;foot reflector1 ! wond] ( ! age4 ,9 #aghg 8 si/] 0 appo9t$ 8 assi/ant1 & toge!r ! ,h]s*els work$ f dusk to dawn4 ,c>ol9e ,h]s*el h]self detect$ eight comets & num]\s nebul4 ,%e relates 9 h] memoirs t on "o occasion1 :ile %e 0 act+ z assi/ant1 ! ink froze 9 h] p54 ,b su* inconv5i5ces matt]$ n to ! ,h]s*els4 ,z ,miss ,cl]ke has well rem>k$1 8,e s]5e d>k night 0 to him a preci\s opportunity1 avail$ ( to ! la/ m9ute4 ,! !rmomet] might desc5d bel[ z]o1 ink might freeze1 mirrors might crack2 b1 provid$ ! />s %one1 he & 8 si/] work$ on f dusk to dawn4444 ,on "o occasion he is said to h work$ )\t int]mission at ! telescope & ! desk = sev5ty-two h\rs40 ,hon\rs 7 %[]$ on ,h]s*el4 ,he 0 knight$ 9 #ahaf1 & became ,presid5t ( ! ,royal ,a/ronomical ,society 9 #ahbj1 besides receiv+ sev]al honor>y degrees4 ,b hon\rs 9 no way elat$ him4 ,advanc+ ye>s 9 no way affect$ 8 wond]ful m9d4 ,b 8 duties z ,k+'s ,a/ronom] necessitat$ 8 act+ z 8%[man ( ! heav5s0 on ! visits ( royalties to ,w9dsor1 (t5 aft] a :ole day's "w1 :5 re/ 0 absolutely necess>y4 ,?is trem5d\s /ra91 :i* reflects little cr$it on ! ,c\rt1 prov$ too mu* = ! old man4 ,8 heal? began to give way1 al?\gh 8 m9d 0 z vigor\s z ev]4 ,h]s*el contribut$ 8 la/ pap] to ! ,royal ,society 9 #ahah1 & ?ree ye>s lat] s5t a li/ ( d\ble />s to ! new ,a/ronomical ,society4 ,he made 8 la/ obs]vation on ,june #a1 #ahba4 ,8 /r5g? _h n[ left him1 & to ?is he c\ld n reconcile himself4 ,z ,miss ,cl]ke puts x1 8,all 8 old in/9cts 7 /ill alive1 only ! bodily p[] to c>ry out _! behe/s 0 gone4 ,an unp>allel$ c>e] ( a*ievem5t left him unsatisfi$ ) :at he _h done4444 ,8 /rong n]ves 7 at la/ %att]$40 ,aft] a prolong$ p]iod ( fail+ heal? he di$ at ,sl\gh1 at ! age ( eighty-?ree1 on ,augu/ #be1 #ahbb4 ,on ,septemb] #g he 0 buri$ 9 ! *ur*-y>d ( ,/ ,laur5ce at ,upton4 ,on 8 tomb/one are engrav$ ! words--8,clorum p]rupit clau/ra0--he broke ?r\gh ! b>ri]s ( ! skies4 ,! dea? ( h] bro!r 0 a t]rible bl[ to ,c>ol9e ,h]s*el4 ,expect+ to live only a twelvemon?1 %e return$ to ,hanov] to ! home ( h] bro!r1 ,dietri* ,h]s*el4 ,b %e liv$ tw5ty-five ye>s among p :o c>$ no?+ = a/ronomy4 ,%e 0 delight$ at ,sir ,john ,h]s*el's cont9uation ( 8 fa!r's "w4 ,%e compil$ a catalogue ( all ! clu/]s & nebul obs]v$ by h] bro!r1 = :i* %e receiv$ ! gold m$al ( ! ,a/ronomical ,society1 & %e 0 creat$ an honor>y memb]4 ,9 #ahdf %e receiv$ f ! ,k+ ( ,prussia ! gold m$al ( sci5ce4 ,b no hon\rs made h] 9 any way elat$4 ,%e always held t :oev] said mu* ( h] said too little ( h] bro!r4 ,aft] a prolong$ decl9e ( heal?1 %e di$ on ,janu>y #i1 #ahdh1 ag$ n9ety-sev5 ye>s1 & 0 buri$ beside h] fa!r 9 ! *ur*y>d ( ! ,g>t5geme9de at ,hanov]1 leav+ beh9d h] a noble example ( self-sacrifice & devotion4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,h]s*el ,,! ,,discov]]4 ,"o result ( ,h]s*el's discov]ies among ! />s & nebul is t 8 /udies ( ! ,sun & planets1 ) ! exception ( ! discov]y ( ,uranus1 h be5 completely ?r[n into ! %ade4 ,nev]!less1 8 "w 9 sol> & planet>y a/ronomy alone w\ld h ga9$ = him a high] position 9 a/ronomy ?an 8 contempor>ies4 ,! planets1 satellites1 & comets 7 all att5tively /udi$ by ! great a/ronom]2 inde$1 ! sci5tific inve/igation ( ! surfaces ( ,m>s & ,saturn began ) ,h]s*el4 8,8 att5tion to ! ,sun10 ,miss ,cl]ke truly rem>ks1 8might h be5 exclusive1 s dilig5t 0 8 scrut9y ( its %9+ surface40 ,sunspots 7 specially inve/igat$ by ,h]s*el1 :o closely /udi$ _! peculi>ities1 reg>d+ !m z depressions 9 ! sol> atmosph]e4 ,he also paid mu* att5tion to ! facul1 b c\ld n obs]ve !m to ! nor? & s\? ( ! ,sun1 ?us prov+ _! connection ) ! spots :i* are conf9$ to ! regions nor? & s\? ( ! equator4 8,!re is all ov] ! ,sun a great unev5ness10 said ,h]s*el1 8:i* has ! appe>ance ( a mixture ( small po9ts ( an unequal light2 b !y are evid5tly a r\ghness ( high & l[ p>ts40 ,h]s*el's sol> obs]vations 7 v valuable1 & did mu* = our k ( ! orb ( day4 ,8 !ory ( ! ,sun's con/itution--a developm5t ( ! hypo!sis put =w>d by ,alex&] ,wilson 7#agad-aghf71 ,pr(essor ( ,a/ronomy 9 ,glasg[--01 h[ev]1 v f> f ! tru?4 ,?is 0 almo/ ! only in/ance 9 :i* ,h]s*el 0 mi/ak54 ,he reg>d$ ! ,sun z a cool1 d>k globe1 8a v em95t1 l>ge1 & lucid planet1 evid5tly ! fir/1 or1 9 /rictness ( speak+1 ! only prim>y "o ( our sy/em40 ,9 8 op9ion an ext5sive atmosph]e surr\nd$ ! ,sun1 ! upp] /ratum =m+ :at ,s*rt] nam$ ! 8photosph]e40 ,?is atmosph]e1 e/imat$ z two or ?ree ?\s& miles 9 dep?1 0 reg>d$ z giv+ out light & heat4 ,bel[ ?is %9+ atmosph]e !re exi/$1 ,h]s*el believ$1 a region ( cl\ds protect+ ! globe ( ! ,sun f ! gl[+ atmosph]e1 & reflect+ mu* ( ! light int]cept$ by !m4 ,! spots 7 believ$ to be op5+s 9 ^! atmosph]es1 caus$ by ! action ( w9ds1 ! umbra or d>k portion ( ! spot ?us repres5t+ ! globe ( ! ,sun1 :i* ,h]s*el believ$ to be 8ri*ly /or$ ) inhabitants40 ,?is !ory held its gr\nd = _m ye>s4 ,newton1 x is true1 believ$ ! ,sun to be gase\s1 b he prop\nd$ no hypo!sis ( its con/itution4 ,h]s*el's !ory1 on ! o!r h&1 0 fully develop$1 plausible1 & attractive4 ,x 0 held by em95t m5 ( sci5ce until #ahfj1 :5 ! revelations ( ! spectroscope %[$ x to be q unt5able4 ,! !ory 0 support$ = _m ye>s by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 :o1 h[ev]1 ab&on$ x 9 #ahfd4 ,h]s*el made sev]al attempts to asc]ta9 :e!r any connection exi/$ betwe5 ! /ate ( ! ,sun & ! condition ( ! ,e>?4 ,9 #ahja he 0 incl9$ to believe t 8"s tempor>y defect ( vegetation0 result$ f ! abs5ce ( sun-spots1 :i*1 he ?\ght1 8may lead u to expect a copi\s emission ( heat1 &1 !re=e1 mild seasons40 ,h]s*el believ$1 9 fact1 t food became de> at ! times ( spot-m9ima4 ,x may be rem>k$ t ,h]s*el nev] not$ ! spot-p]iod ( elev5 ye>s1 ! discov]y ( :i* 0 aft]w>ds made by ,s*wabe4 ,h]s*el closely scrut9is$ ! surfaces ( ! planets4 ,m]cury alone 0 neglect$ by him4 ,f #aggg to #agic he obs]v$ ,v5us1 ) ! object ( det]m9+ ! rotation p]iod1 b he 0 unable to obs]ve any m>k+s on ! surface ( ! planet4 ,he did n place reliance on ,s*rt]'s value ( ! rotation p]iod 7ab\t tw5ty-?ree h\rs74 ,mean:ile1 ,s*rt] ann\nc$ ! exi/5ce on ,v5us ( m\nta9s :i* rose to five or six times ! height ( ,*imborazo4 ,z to ^!1 said ,h]s*el1 8,i may v5ture to say t no eye :i* is n consid]ably bett] ?an m9e1 or assi/$ by mu* bett] in/rum5ts1 w ev] get a sight ( !m40 ,h]s*el demon/rat$ ! exi/5ce ( an ext5sive atmosph]e r\nd ,v5us4 8,! analogy betwe5 ,m>s & ! ,e>?10 ,h]s*el wrote 9 #aghc1 8is p]haps by f> ! greate/ 9 ! :ole ,sol> ,sy/em40 ,9 #aggg he began1 9 8 h\se at ,ba?1 a s]ies ( obs]vations on ! r$ planet1 :i* yield$ results ( ! utmo/ importance4 ,fix+ 8 att5tion on ! :ite spots at ! nor? & s\? poles1--discov]$ by ,m>aldi1 nephew ( ,cass9i1--he soon asc]ta9$ ! fact t !y wax$ & wan$ 9 size1 ! nor? pol> cap %r9k+ dur+ ! summ] ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 increas+ 9 w9t]1 & vice v]sa 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,he reg>d$ ! caps z masses ( sn[ & ice deposit$ f 8a consid]able1 ?\gh mod]ate1 atmosph]e10 a !ory n[ g5]ally accept$4 ,h]s*el gave an imm5se impetus to ! /udy ( ,m>s4 ,he c>efully exam9$ ! planet's surface1 & ! d>k m>k+s 7 reg>d$ by him z oceans4 ,dur+ ,h]s*el's lifetime ! f\r small planets1 ,c]es1 ,pallas1 ,juno1 & ,ve/a1 7 discov]$ by ,piazzi1 ,olb]s1 & ,h>d+4 ,! great a/ronom] 0 mu* int]e/$ 9 ^! small worlds4 ,he comm5c$ a se>* ?r\gh ! ,zodiacal con/ellations = new planets1 b fail$4 ,he 0 ( op9ion t _m m9or planets w\ld be discov]$4 ,accept+ ,olb]s' !ory ( ! disruption ( a primitive planet1 ,h]s*el calculat$ t ,m]cury might be brok5 up into #ce1jjj globes equal to ,pallas4 ,mean:ile ,h]s*el nam$ ! f\r new planets 8,a/]oids10 ow+ to _! m9ute size4 ,he e/imat$ ! diamet] ( ,c]es at #afb miles & ,pallas at #adg miles1 b ,pr(essor ,b>n>d's measures h %[n !m to be l>g]4 ,9 connection ) ! discov]y ( ! ,a/]oids1 ,h]s*el %[$ a v f9e _s4 ,9 #8,! ,ed9burgh ,review' ,br\gham decl>$ t ,h]s*el _h devis$ ! ^w 8a/]oid10 s t ! discov]ies ( ,piazzi & ,olb]s might be kept on a l[] level ?an 8 own discov]y ( ,uranus4 ,_m sci5ti/s w\ld h be5 mu* (f5d$ at ?is contemptible insult1 b ,h]s*el m]ely rem>k$ t he _h incurr$ 8! illib]al criticism ( #8,! ,ed9burgh ,review1'0 & t ! discov]y ( ! ,a/]oids 8add$ m to ! ornam5t ( our sy/em ?an ! discov]y ( ano!r planet c\ld h done40 ,9 ,h]s*el's "t a/ronom]s 7 acqua9t$ ) ?ree ( ! out] planets1--,jupit]1 ,saturn1 & ,uranus1--all ( :i* 7 closely /udi$ by ! great a/ronom]4 ,! belts ( ,jupit] 7 suppos$ by him to be analog\s to ! 8trade-w9ds0 9 ! atmosph]e ( ! ,e>?2 :ile ! drift+-spots on ,jupit]'s disc & _! irregul> movem5ts 7 c>efully not$4 ,8 obs]vations on ! f\r satellites ( ,jupit] l$ him to believe t1 l our ,moon1 !y rotat$ on _! axes 9 a p]iod equal to t ( _! revolution r\nd _! prim>y--an op9ion %>$ by ,laplace1 & by _m mod]n a/ronom]s4 ,h]s*el's rese>*es reg>d+ ,saturn 71 h[ev]1 mu* m important ?an ^? on ,jupit]4 ,! globe ( ! planet1 ! r+s & ! satellites1 7 fav\rite objects ( /udy at ,ba? & ,sl\gh4 ,9 #agid he p]ceiv$ a spot on ! surface ( ,saturn1 & made ! fir/ det]m9ation ( ! rotation ( ! planet1 :i* he fix$ z #aj h\rs #af m9utes1--a result confirm$ by mod]n a/ronom]s4 ,! r+s 7 subject$ to ! close/ scrut9y4 ,h]s*el believ$ !m to be solid1 & he also consid]$ !m to revolve r\nd ,saturn 9 ab\t #aj h\rs4 ,x appe>s t he obs]v$ ! fam\s 8dusky r+10 b suppos$ x to be a belt on ! surface ( ! planet4 ,he also /udi$ ,cass9i's division 9 ! r+1 asc]ta9+ its reality4 ,on complet+ 8 fam\s #dj-;foot reflector1 ,h]s*el1 on ,augu/ #bh1 #aghi1 turn$ x on ,saturn & its five kn[n satellites4 ,ne> ! planet1 & 9 ! plane ( ! r+1 0 se5 ano!r object1 :i* ,h]s*el believ$ to be a six? satellite4 ,to settle ! "q1 he wat*$ ! planet = sev]al h\rs to see if ! object w\ld p>take 9 ! planet's motion4 ,f9d+ t x did1 he ann\nc$ x z a new satellite1 :i* he f\nd to revolve r\nd ,saturn 9 #a day #h h\rs4 ,ab\t ?ree weeks lat]1 on ,septemb] #ag1 ,h]s*el discov]$ ano!r satellite yet clos] to ,saturn1 revolv+ r\nd ! planet 9 ab\t #bb h\rs4 ,^! two satellites 7 n se5 by any a/ronom]s except ,h]s*el2 & aft] 8 dea? !y c\ld n be obs]v$4 ,8 son1 h[ev]1 r$iscov]$ !m4 ,! eigh? satellite1 ,japetus1 0 %[n by ,h]s*el to rotate on its axis 9 a p]iod equal to t ( its revolution1 & 8 obs]vations 7 confirm$ by mod]n obs]v]s4 8,i _c10 ,h]s*el said1 8help reflect+ ) "s pleasure on ! discov]y ( an analogy :i* %[s t a c]ta9 uni=m plan is c>ri$ on among ! second>ies ( our ,sol> ,sy/em2 & we may conjecture t probably mo/ ( ! satellites are gov]n$ by ! same law40 ,9 ,april #ahje ,h]s*el obs]v$ ! globe ( ,saturn to pres5t n a sph]ical b a 8squ>e-%\ld]$0 aspect4 ,x 0 = long believ$ t ?is 0 an optical illusion2 b ,proctor & o!rs h %[n t x is q possible = /orms 9 ,saturn's atmosph]e to cause ! planet's app>5t di/ortion 9 %ape4 ,h]s*el paid mu* att5tion to ! planet ,uranus1 :i* he discov]$ on ,m>* #ac1 #agha4 ,! discov]y ( ,uranus1 :i* 0 m5tion$ 9 a previ\s *apt]1 0 9 a s5se ! mo/ /rik+ ( ,h]s*el's a*ievem5ts4 ,uranus 0 ! fir/ planet discov]$ )9 ! memory ( man3 besides1 ! discov]y enl>g$ ! diamet] ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em f #hhf to #aggb millions ( miles4 ,?r\gh\t 8 lifetime ,h]s*el ref]r$ to ! planet z ! 8,georgium ,sidus10 out ( gratitude to ,george ,,iii4 = appo9t+ him ,k+'s ,a/ronom]2 b ! a/ronom]s ( ,france & ,g]many1 :o1 z ,sir ,rob]t ,ball rem>ks1 8saw no reason :y ! ,k+ ( ,engl& %\ld be associat$ ) ,jupit] & ,saturn10 oppos$ ?is t]m4 ,lal&e call$ ! planet 8,h]s*el10 b ,h]s*el's c\ntrym51 ! ,g]mans1 nam$ x ,uranus1 9 keep+ ) ! cu/om ( designat+ ! planets f ! ,greek my?ology4 ,! "n ( ,uranus ultimately prevail$4 ,9 ,janu>y #aghg ,h]s*el discov]$ two satellites to ,uranus1 ) ! aid ( 8 #bj-;foot telescope4 ,^! satellites he believ$ to revolve r\nd ,uranus 9 #h days & #ac days respectively1 & accord+ly he made a draw+ ( :at _! positions %\ld be on ,febru>y #aj4 ,on t day he f\nd !m 9 _! pr$ict$ places4 ,9 #agig he ann\nc$ t ! satellites revolv$ r\nd ,uranus 9 orbits at "r angles to ! ecliptic1 & 9 a retrograde direction4 ,9 subsequ5t ye>s ,h]s*el believ$ t he _h discov]$ o!r f\r satellites to ,uranus1 b he 0 unable to confirm 8 belief4 ,z ,mr ,gore says1 "s ( ! satellites 8mu/1 !re=e1 h be5 ei!r optical #8gho/s' or else small fix$ />s :i* happ5$ to be ne> ! planet's pa? at ! "t ( obs]vation4 ,h]s*el also suspect$ t he c\ld see traces ( r+s r\nd ,uranus l ^? r\nd ,saturn1 b 8 obs]vation 0 nev] confirm$1 ei!r by himself or o!r obs]v]s40 ,al?\gh ,h]s*el made sev]al important obs]vations on ! ,moon1 & measur$ ! heights ( ! lun> m\nta9s1 he 0 n a devot$ /ud5t ( our satellite4 ,c>ol9e ,h]s*el rem>ks 9 h] memoirs t if x _h n be5 = cl\ds or moonlight1 nei!r h] bro!r nor h]self w\ld h got any sleep2 add+ t ,h]s*el on ! moonlight nights prep>$ 8 pap]s or made visits to ,london4 ,h[ev]1 he did make "s inve/igations1 & 9 #aghc & #aghg believ$ himself to h witness$ ! eruption ( ?ree lun> volcanoes4 ,he aft]w>ds conclud$1 h[ev]1 t :at he believ$ to be eruptions 0 really ! reflexion ( e>?-%9e f ! :ite peaks ( ! lun> m\nta9s4 ,h]s*el nev] discov]$ a comet1 leav+ t bran* ( a/ronomy to 8 si/]1 :o discov]$ eight ( ^! objects4 ,he 01 h[ev]1 mu* int]e/$ 9 comets1 & att5tively /udi$ !m1 introduc+ ! t]ms ( 8head10 8nucleus10 & 8coma40 ,h]s*el anticipat$ ! view t comets are n la/+1 b are p>tly dis9tegrat$ at _! p]ihelion passages4 ,he 0 ( op9ion t !y travell$ f /> to />4 ,! ext5t ( _! tails & app5dages he ?\ght to be a te/ ( _! age4 ,we h n[ complet$ our sket* ( ,h]s*el's important lab\rs reg>d+ our ,sol> ,sy/em4 ,z ,miss ,cl]ke says1 8,a :ole cycle ( discov]ies & successful inve/igations began & end$ ) him40 ,b ?r\gh obs]v+ ! />s he made a fur!r discov]y 9 connection ) ! ,sol> ,sy/em2 inde$1 "o ( ! greate/ discov]ies 9 ! hi/ory ( a/ronomy--! movem5t ?r\gh space ( ! ,sun1 c>ry+ ) x planets & comets4 8,if ! prop] motion ( ! />s be admitt$10 said ,h]s*el1 8:o c d5y t ( our ,sun80 ,( c\rse x 0 pla9 t ! motion ( ! ,sun c\ld only be detect$ ?r\gh ! result+ app>5t motion ( ! />s4 ,?us1 if ! ,sun is mov+ 9 a c]ta9 direction1 ! />s 9 front w appe> to op5 out1 :ile ^? beh9d w close up4 ,b ! problem is by no means s easy z ?is4 ,! />s are also 9 motion1 &1 be=e ! sol> motion c be discov]$1 ! prop] motions ( ! />s--!mselves v m9ute--h to be decompos$ into two p>ts1 ! real motion ( ! />1 & ! app>5t motion1 result+ f ! movem5t ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em4 ,to any a/ronom] b ,h]s*el ! problem w\ld h be5 insoluble4 ,only sixty ye>s _h elaps$ s9ce ,halley _h ann\nc$ ! prop] motions ( ! bright] />s :i* _h be5 previ\sly suppos$ to be immovable--h5ce ! "n ( 8fix$ />s40 ,h]s*el did n deal ) ! motions ( _m />s4 ,only a few prop] motions 7 kn[n ) accuracy :5 he attack$ ! problem 9 #aghc4 ,mak+ use ( ! prop] motions ( sev5 />s1 & sep>at+ ! real f ! app>5t motion1 he f\nd t ! ,sol> ,sy/em 0 mov+ t[>ds a po9t 9 ! con/ellation ,h]cules1 ! 8apex0 be+ m>k$ by ! /> ,h]culis4 ,! rate ( ! sol> motion1 ,h]s*el ?\ght1 0 8c]ta9ly n less ?an t :i* ! ,e>? has 9 h] annual orbit40 ,?is extraord9>y discov]y 0 "o ( ,h]s*el's greate/ works4 8,its directness & app>5t artlessness10 ,miss ,cl]ke rem>ks1 8/rike u dumb ) wond]40 ,9 #ahje ,h]s*el aga9 attack$ ! subject1 utilis+ ! prop] motions ( ?irty-six />s4 ,8 second inquiry1 on ! :ole1 confirm$ 8 previ\s result1 ! 8apex0 be+ aga9 situat$ 9 ,h]cules2 b ! det]m9ation ( #aghc 0 probably ! m accurate ( ! two4 ,h]s*el 0 f> 9 advance ( 8 "t reg>d+ ! sol> motion4 ,! two greate/ a/ronom]s ( ! next g5]ation1 ,bessel & ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 reject$ ! results rea*$ by ,sir ,william ,h]s*el4 ,b 9 #ahcg ,argel&]1 aft] a pr(\nd ma!matical discussion1 confirm$ ,h]s*el's views1 & prov$ ! sol> motion to be a reality4 ,s9ce t date ! problem has be5 attack$ by v>i\s me?ods by ,otto ,/ruve1 ,gauss1 ,mdl]1 ,airy1 ,dunk91 ,ludwig ,/ruve1 ,newcomb1 ,kapteyn1 ,campbell1 & o!rs1 ) ! result t ! reality ( ! sol> motion & ( ! direction fix$ by ,h]s*el has be5 prov$ beyond a d\bt4 ,z ,sir ,rob]t ,ball well rem>ks1 ma!maticians h exhau/$ e ref9em5t1 8b only to confirm ! tru? ( t spl5did !ory :i* seems to h be5 "o ( ! fla%es ( ,h]s*el's g5ius40 ,9 8 volume #8,h]s*el & 8 ,"w1' ,mr ,james ,sime writes3 8,to ,h]s*el belongs ! cr$it n m]ely ( hav+ suspect$ ! revolution ( sun ar\nd sun 9 ! f>-di/ant realms ( space1 b also ( actually detect+ t ?is 0 go+ on among ! />s40 ,?r\gh\t 8 c>e] d\ble />s 7 fav\rite objects ( obs]vation4 ,! /udy ( d\ble />s 0 comm5c$ by ,h]s*el :ile a musician 9 ,ba?4 ,be=e 8 day1 ( c\rse1 d\ble />s _h be5 discov]$ & /udi$1 b x 0 believ$ t ! proximity ( two />s 0 m]ely an optical accid5t1 ! bright] /> be+ mu* ne>] to u ?an ! o!r4 ,h]s*el1 at fir/ %>+ ! g5]al view1 obs]v$ d\ble />s 9 ! hope ( measur+ _! relative p>allaxes2 assum+ "o /> to be mu* f>!r away f ! ,sol> ,sy/em ?an ano!r1 he attempt$ to measure ! p>allactic displacem5t ( ! bright] /> relatively to ! position ( ! fa9t]4 8,?is10 he aft]w>ds wrote1 8introduc$ a new s]ies ( obs]vations4 ,i resolv$ to exam9e e /> 9 ! heav5s ) ! utmo/ att5tion1 t ,i might fix my obs]vations ^u ^? t w\ld be/ answ] my end4 ,i took "s pa9s to f9d out :at d\ble />s _h be5 record$ by a/ronom]s2 b my situation p]mitt$ me n to consult ext5sive libr>ies1 nor1 inde$1 0 x v mat]ial2 = z ,i int5d$ to view ! heav5s myself1 ,nature1 t great volume1 appe>$ to me to conta9 ! be/ catalogue40 ,h]s*el1 on ,janu>y #aj1 #aghb1 submitt$ to ! ,royal ,society a catalogue ( #bfi d\ble />s3 ( ^! he himself discov]$ #bbg4 ,9 ,decemb] #aghd he =w>d$ ano!r catalogue1 conta9+ #dcd />s4 ,he soon f\nd t he 0 unable to measure /ell> p>allax1 & ! idea dawn$ on him t ! d\ble />s 7 physically connect$ by ! law ( gravitation1 ?\gh he made no ann\ncem5t to t effect = _m ye>s4 ,on ,july #a1 #ahjb1 ,h]s*el in=m$ ! ,royal ,society t 8casual situations w n acc\nt = ! multipli$ ph5om5a ( d\ble />s4444 ,i %all soon communicate a s]ies ( obs]vations1 prov+ t _m ( !m h already *ang$ _! situation 9 a progressive c\rse1 d5ot+ a p]iodical revolution r\nd ea* o!r40 ,9 #ahjc he %[$ t _m />s 7 revolv+ r\nd _! c5tres ( gravity1 prov+ !m1 9 8 own words1 to be 8intimately held toge!r by ! bond ( mutual attraction40 ,9 o!r words1 ,h]s*el discov]$ t ! law ( gravitation prevail$ 9 ! ,/ell> ,univ]se1 z well z 9 our ,sol> ,sy/em--t ! law :i* ,newton asc]ta9$ to prevail 9 ! ,sol> ,sy/em ext5d$ ?r\gh\t ! dep? ( space4 ,h]s*el did n m]ely prove ! revolution ( ! b9>y />s2 he assign$ p]iods to ^? :i* he _h p>ticul>ly /udi$4 ,he believ$ ! p]iod ( ,ca/or to be #cdb ye>s2 ,leonis #abjj ye>s2 ,s]p5tis #cge ye>s2 & ,botis #afha ye>s4 ,h]s*el did n compute ! orbits ma!matically4 ,?is 0 n done = ne>ly ?irty ye>s1 :5 ! calculation ( b9>y />-orbits 0 comm5c$ by ,sav>y1 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 & ,encke4 ,9 #aghb ! ,fr5* a/ronom]1 ,*>les ,messi] 7#agcj-ahag71 publi%$ a li/ ( #ajc nebul4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye> ,h]s*el comm5c$ 8 fam\s sweeps ( ! heav5s ) 8 l>ge reflectors1 & dur+ ^! he made _m rem>kable discov]ies4 ,9 #aghf he publi%$ 9 ! #8,philosophical ,transactions' ( ! ,royal ,society a catalogue ( a ?\s& new nebul & />-clu/]s1 9 :i* he gave ! position ( ea* object ) a %ort description ( its appe>ance1 writt5 by ,c>ol9e ,h]s*el :ile h] bro!r actually _h ! object be=e 8 eyes4 ,9 #aghf ,h]s*el publi%$ a catalogue ( ano!r ?\s& clu/]s & nebul1 foll[$ 9 #ahjb by a li/ ( #ejj2 mak+ a total ( #bejj clu/]s & nebul discov]$ by ! great a/ronom]4 ,?is alone w\ld h ga9$ a great "n = ,william ,h]s*el 9 ?is bran* ( a/ronomy4 ,9 ! space ( only tw5ty ye>s #bejj nebul & clu/]s _h be5 discov]$4 ,! v>i\s nebul & clu/]s 7 divid$ into eight classes1 z foll[s3 ! fir/ class be+ 8bright nebul10 ! second 8fa9t nebul10 ! ?ird 8v fa9t nebul10 ! f\r? 8planet>y nebul10 s nam$ by ,h]s*el f _! resemblance to planet>y discs1 ! fif? class conta9$ 8v l>ge nebul10 ! six? 8v compress$ & ri* clu/]s ( />s10 ! sev5? 8pretty mu* compress$ clu/]s ( l>ge or small />s10 & ! eigh? 8co>sely scatt]$ clu/]s ( />s40 ,at fir/ ,h]s*el believ$ all nebul to be clu/]s ( />s1 ! irresolvable nebul be+ suppos$ to be f>!r f our sy/em ?an ! resolvable nebul4 ,z _m ( ! nebul :i* ,messi] c\ld n resolve _h yield$ to ,h]s*el's in/rum5ts1 ,h]s*el believ$ t increase ( telescopic p[] w\ld resolve ! hazy spots ( light :i* rema9$ nebul\s4 ,9 ! pap] ( #aghe1 9 :i* ,h]s*el dealt ) ! con/ruction ( ! heav5s1 he /at$ 8 belief t _m ( ! nebul 7 ext]nal galaxies--univ]ses beyond ! ,milky ,way2 & 9 #aghf he rem>k$ t he _h discov]$ fifte5 hundr$ univ]ses6 ,arago1 ,mit*el1 ,ni*ol1 ,*amb]s1 & o!r writ]s q mis9t]pret$ ,h]s*el's views on ! nebul :5 !y said t he believ$ !m to be all ext]nal galaxies4 ,9 #aghe ,h]s*el believ$ _m to be connect$ ) ! sid]eal sy/em2 consid]+ t 9 "s p>ts ( ! ,galaxy 8! />s are n[ draw+ t[>ds v>i\s second>y c5tres1 & w 9 "t sep>ate into diff]5t clu/]s40 ,he 0 com+ to ! view t ! />-clu/]s 7 second>y aggregations )9 ! ,galaxy1 probably ! true !ory4 ,he po9t$ out t 9 ,scorpio1 ! clu/] ,messi] #hj is b\nd$ by a black *asm1 f\r degrees wide1 f :i* he believ$ ! />s _h be5 drawn 9 ! c\rse ( "t to =m ! clu/]4 ,8 si/] records t "o night1 aft] a 8long1 awful sil5ce10 he exclaim$ on com+ on ?is *asm--8,hi] i/ wahrhaftig e9 ,lo* im ,himmel60 7,"h1 truly1 is a hole 9 ! heav5s47 ,h]s*el 0 n[ gradually giv+ up 8 !ory ( ext]nal galaxies & 8 8disc-!ory0 ( ! ,univ]se2 b he /ill believ$ ev5 ! nebul\s objects to be irresolvable only ?r\gh imm5sity ( di/ance4 ,9 #agia1 h[ev]1 he drew att5tion to a rem>kable /> 9 ,taurus1 surr\nd$ by a nebul\s atmosph]e1 reg>d+ :i* he wrote1 8,view1 = in/ance1 ! n9ete5? clu/] ( my six? class1 & aft]w>ds ca/ y\r eye on ?is cl\dy />4 ,our judgm5t1 ,i w v5ture to say1 w be t ! nebulosity ab\t ! /> is n ( a />ry nature4 ,we !re=e ei!r h a c5tral body :i* is n a />1 or h a /> :i* is involv$ 9 a %9+ fluid1 ( a nature totally unkn[n to u40 ,& ) caution he add$ t 8! envelope ( a cl\dy /> is m fit to produce a /> by its cond5sation ?an to dep5d ^u ! /> = its exi/5ce40 ,?is 0 writt5 9 #agia1 five ye>s be=e ,laplace prop\nd$ 8 nebul> !ory4 ,mean:ile ,h]s*el1 believ+ t 8^! nebul\s />s may s]ve z a clue to unravel o!r my/]i\s ph5om5a10 f\nd t ! !ory ( a 8%9+ fluid0 w\ld suit ! appe>ance ( ! irresolvable planet>y nebul & ! great nebula 9 ,orion mu* bett] ?an ! extravagant idea ( 8ext]nal univ]ses40 ,h]s*el n[ consid]$ ! ,orion nebula to be mu* ne>] to ! ,sol> ,sy/em ?an he =m]ly did1 & ceas$ to reg>d x z ext]nal to ! ,galaxy4 ,= tw5ty ye>s ,h]s*el pati5tly obs]v$ ! nebul1 & x 0 n until #ahaa t he prop\nd$ 8 nebul> hypo!sis ( ! evolution ( ! ,sun & />s4 ,he f\nd ! gase\s matt] 9 all /ages ( cond5sation1 f ! diffus$ cl\dy nebul l t 9 ,orion1 ?r\gh ! planet>y nebula & ! regul> nebula1 to ! p]fect />s1 l ,sirius & ! ,sun4 ,h]s*el's nebul> !ory 0 a gr& conception1 & a magnific5t attack on ! secrets ( nature4 ,sir ,rob]t ,ball says3 8,n f ab/ract speculation l ,kant1 nor f ma!matical sugge/ion l ,laplace1 b f accurate & labori\s /udy ( ! heav5s1 0 ! great ,william ,h]s*el l$ to ! conception ( ! nebul> !ory ( evolution40 ,h]s*el's nebul> !ory 0 wid] & less rigor\s ?an t ( ,laplace4 ,laplace rea*$ 8 !ory by reason+ backw>ds2 ,h]s*el by obs]v+ ! nebul 9 process ( cond5sation4 ,consequ5tly1 :ile ,laplace's !ory has requir$ modification1 ,h]s*el's1 f its wid?1 is univ]sally accept$1 because !re is no?+ ma!matically rigor\s 9 x4 ,! great ,g]man did n g into details l 8 ,fr5* contempor>y4 ,he sket*$ ! evolution ( ! />s 9 a wid] s5se4 ,! a/ronom]'s 8#aejj univ]ses10 ,miss ,cl]ke rem>ks1 8_h n[ logically ceas$ to exi/40 ,h]s*el _h ga!r$ mu* evid5ce ab\t nebul> di/ribution :i* %att]$ 8 belief 9 ext]nal univ]ses1 al?\gh he /ill ?\ght 9 #ahah t "s galaxies 7 includ$ among ! non-gase\s nebul4 ,9 #aghd ,h]s*el po9t$ out t ! clu/]s & nebul 8are arrang$ to run 9 /rata02 & "s "t lat] he f\nd t ! nebul 7 aggregat$ ne> ! galactic poles2 9 o!r words1 :]e nebul are num]\s1 />s are sc>ce1 & vice v]sa4 ,s rigor\sly did ?is rule hold1 t :5 dictat+ 8 obs]vations to 8 si/] ,c>ol9e1 he w\ld1 on not+ a paucity ( />s1 w>n h] to 8prep>e = nebul40 8,a k ( ! con/ruction ( ! heav5s has always be5 ! ultimate object ( my obs]vations40 ,s ,h]s*el wrote 9 #ahaa4 ,all 8 inve/igations 7 second>y to ! problem :i* 0 con/antly be=e 8 m9d--! ext5t & /ructure ( ! ,univ]se4 ,he aspir$ to be ! ,cop]nicus ( ! ,sid]eal ,sy/em4 ,al?\gh ,bruno1 ,kepl]1 ,wright1 ,kant1 & ,lamb]t _h speculat$ reg>d+ ! con/ruction ( ! heav5s1 !y _h n ! slighte/ evid5ce on :i* to base _! ideas4 ,!re 0 no sci5ce ( sid]eal a/ronomy4 ,! />s 7 obs]v$ only to assi/ navigation1 & ! prim>y object ( />-catalogues 0 to fur!r k ( ! motions ( ! planets4 ,9 ,h]s*el's day1 also1 ! di/ances ( ! />s _h n be5 measur$1 & he _h to base 8 views on ! di/ribution ( ! />s4 ,9 #aghd1 !re=e1 he comm5c$ a survey ( ! heav5s1 9 ord] to asc]ta9 ! numb] ( />s 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! sky4 ,?is me?od1 :i* he nam$ 8/>-gaug+10 consi/$ 9 c\nt+ ! numb] ( />s 9 ! telescopic field4 ,totally he secur$ #cdjj gauges4 ,8 /udies %[$ t 9 ! region ( ! ,galaxy ! />s 7 mu* m num]\s ?an ne> ! galactic poles4 ,sometimes he saw z _m z #ehh />s 9 a telescopic field1 at o!r times only #b4 ,he rem>k$ t he _h 8(t5 kn[n m ?an #ej1jjj pass be=e 8 sight )9 an h\r40 ,assum+ t ! />s 71 on ! av]age1 ( ab\t ! same size1 & scatt]$ ?r\gh space ) "s approa* to uni=mity1 ,h]s*el 0 able to compute ! ext5t to :i* 8 telescope p5etrat$ into space2 &1 assum+ t ! ,univ]se 0 f9ite & t 8 8gaug+-telescope0 0 suffici5tly p[]ful to completely resolve ! ,milky ,way1 he 0 enabl$ to sket* ! %ape & ext5t ( ! ,univ]se4 ,?us ,h]s*el conclud$ t ! ,univ]se ext5d$ 9 ! direction ( ! ,galaxy to #hej times ! mean di/ance ( />s ( ! fir/ magnitude4 ,9 ! direction ( ! galactic poles ! ?ickness 0 only #aee times ! di/ance ( />s ( ! same magnitude4 ,h]s*el 0 ?us enabl$ to sket* ! probable =m ( ! ,univ]se1 :i* he reg>d$ z clov5 at "o ( its extremities1 ! cleft be+ repres5t$ by ! fam\s gap 9 ! ,milky ,way4 ,! ,univ]se 01 9 fact1 suppos$ to be a clov5 disc1 & ! ,milky ,way 0 m]ely a va/ly ext5d$ portion ( x & n a region ( actual clu/]+4 ,on ?is !ory ! clu/]s & nebul 7 suppos$ to be galaxies ext]nal to ! ,univ]se4 ,ev5 9 #aghe1 h[ev]1 ,h]s*el believ$ t !re 7 regions 9 ! ,milky ,way :]e ! />s 7 m closely clu/]$ ?an o!rs4 8,x w\ld n be difficult10 he wrote 9 #aghe1 8to po9t out two or ?ree hundr$ ga!r+ clu/]s 9 our sy/em40 ,/range to say1 ,h]s*el's orig9al ideas reg>d+ ! ,univ]se 7 accept$ = _m ye>s by a/ronomical writ]s4 ,arago accept$ ,h]s*el's orig9al !ory1 unaw>e t he _h 9 reality ab&on$ x1 & he 0 foll[$ by a ho/ ( ,fr5* & ,engli% writ]s :o did n take ! tr\ble to read ea* ( ,h]s*el's pap]s1 m]ely quot+ t ( #aghe1 & believ+ t x repres5t$ 8 f9al ideas on ! subject4 ,ev5 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el seems to h be5 unaw>e t 8 fa!r gave up ! disc !ory ( ! ,univ]se4 ,! fam\s ,g]man a/ronom]1 ,wilhelm ,/ruve1 aft] an exhau/ive /udy ( ,h]s*el's pap]s1 0 enabl$ to prove 9 #ahdg t ! !ory _h be5 ab&on$ by ,h]s*el2 & 9 ,engl& ! late ,r4 ,a4 ,proctor indep5d5tly demon/rat$ ! same ?+4 ,mean:ile1 suppos+ ,h]s*el _h n giv5 up 8 !ory1 x w\ld be q unt5able4 ,aft] consid]+ ! fact t ! bright] />s1 d[n to ! n9? magnitude1 aggregate on ! ,milky ,way1 ,mr ,gore says3 8,z ! />s are by hypo!sis suppos$ to be uni=mly di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t e "p ( ! disc1 & z ! limit+ circles = />s to ! eigh? & n9? magnitudes fall well )9 ! ?ickness ( ! disc1 !re is no reason :y />s ( ^! magnitudes %\ld n be q z num]\s 9 ! direction ( ! galactic poles z 9 t ( ! ,milky ,way itself4 ,we see1 !re=e1 t ! disc !ory fails to repres5t ! obs]v$ facts1 & t ,/ruve & ,proctor 7 amply ju/ifi$ 9 _! op9ion t ! !ory is :olly unt5able1 & %\ld be ab&on$40 ,! obs]vations made by ,h]s*el himself ev5tually prov$ fatal to ! disc !ory--a hypo!sis :i* he _h all along held v lightly4 ,8 ideas ab\t subord9ate clu/]s )9 ! ,milky ,way 7 soon confirm$1 & ?\gh 9 #agii he /ill adh]$ to ! disc !ory1 he wrote 9 #ahjb1 8,i am n[ conv9c$1 by a long inspection & cont9u$ exam9ation ( x1 t ! ,milky ,way itself consi/s ( />s v diff]5tly scatt]$ f ^? :i* are imm$iately ab\t u4 ,?is imm5se />ry aggregation is by no means uni=m4 ,! />s ( :i* x is compos$ are v unequally scatt]$0--a conclusion q oppos$ to ! disc !ory1 :]e ! ,milky ,way 0 suppos$ to be m]ely an ext5d$ portion ( ! ,univ]se4 ,9 #ahaa ,h]s*el wrote z foll[s3 8,i mu/ freely confess t by cont9u+ my sweeps ( ! heav5s1 my op9ion ( ! arrangem5t ( ! />s1 & _! magnitudes1 & "s o!r p>ticul>s1 has und]gone a gradual *ange2 &1 inde$1 :5 ! novelty ( ! subject is consid]$ we _c be surpris$ t _m ?+s =m]ly tak5 = grant$ %\ld on exam9ation prove to be diff]5t f :at !y 7 g5]ally b incauti\sly suppos$ to be4 ,= in/ance1 an equal scatt]+ ( ! />s may be admitt$ 9 c]ta9 calculations2 b :5 we exam9e ! ,milky ,way1 or ! closely compress$ clu/]s ( />s1 ( :i* my catalogues h record$ s _m in/ances1 ?is suppos$ equality ( scatt]+ mu/ be giv5 up40 ,?is 0 ! virtual ab&onm5t ( ! disc !ory4 ,six ye>s lat] ,h]s*el ann\nc$ t 9 six cases he _h fail$ to resolve ! ,milky ,way1 /at+ t 8 telescopes c\ld n fa?om x4 ,?is 0 ! ab&onm5t ( 8 second assumption--namely1 t 8 telescope 0 suffici5tly p[]ful to p5etrate to ! limits ( ! ,univ]se4 ,yet he /ill ?\ght t "s ( ! />-clu/]s might be ext]nal galaxies1 al?\gh he c\ld n ev5 dogmatically ass]t our ,univ]se to be limit$4 ,9 an error ( translation1 ,/ruve left ! impression t ,h]s*el believ$ our ,univ]se to be unfa?omable or inf9ite1 & 0 oblig$ to devise a mo/ artificial !ory ( ! ext9ction ( light to acc\nt = ! fact t ! sky did n %9e ) ! brilliance ( ! ,sun1 :i* x w\ld d 7 ! />s inf9ite 9 numb]4 ,( c\rse1 ,h]s*el did n actually believe ! ,univ]se to be inf9ite1 &1 _h he liv$1 he w\ld probably h %[n t all ! />-clu/]s :i* we see are includ$ )9 ! b\nds ( our f9ite ,galaxy4 ,9 #ahad ,h]s*el 0 8/ill engag$ 9 a s]ies ( obs]vations = asc]ta9+ a scale :]eby ! ext5t ( ! ,univ]se1 z f> z x is possible = u to p5etrate into space1 may be fa?om$40 ,9 #ahag he describ$ ano!r me?od ( />-gaug+1 :i* ,arago & o!r writ]s h confus$ ) t :i* he devis$ 9 #aghe4 ,! two me?ods1 h[ev]1 7 q di/9ct f ea* o!r4 ,9 ! fir/ sy/em1 "o telescope 0 us$ on diff]5t regions ( ! heav5s2 :]eas 9 ! second me?od1 v>i\s telescopes 7 us$ on id5tical regions4 ,! pr9ciple 0 t ! telescopic p[] necess>y to resolve gr\ps ( />s indicates ! di/ance at :i* ! />s ( ! gr\ps lie4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 also assum$ an equal di/ribution ( />s1 & z ! late ,mr ,proctor says1 8,i conceive t no "q c exi/ t ! pr9ciple is uns\nd1 & t ,h]s*el w\ld himself h ab&on$ x _h he te/$ x e>li] 9 8 obs]v+ c>e]4444 ,9 apply+ x1 ,sir ,w4 ,h]s*el f\nd regions ( ! heav5s v limit$ 9 ext5t1 :]e ! bright] />s 7clu/]$ l ! fa9t]7 7 easily resolv$ ) l[ p[]s1 b :]e 8 l>ge/ telescopes c\ld n resolve ! fa9te/4 ,^! regions1 if ! pr9ciple 7 true1 mu/ be long1 spike-%ap$ /> gr\ps1 ^: l5g? is direct$ exactly t[>ds ! a/ronom] on ,e>?1--an utt]ly incr$ible arrangem5t40 ,h]s*el1 at ! "t ( 8 dea?1 left unsolv$ ! problem ( ! con/ruction ( ! heav5s4 ,x is /ill unsolv$1 & w d\btless rema9 s until a/ronom]s "k m ab\t ! di/ances & motions ( ! />s4 ,8 la/ obs]vation ( ! ,galaxy %[$ t ev5 ) 8 #dj-;foot reflector he c\ld n fa?om x4 ,consequ5tly1 z we h m5tion$1 ,/ruve & 8 successors reg>d$ ! ,univ]se z inf9ite--a !ory :i* has n[ receiv$ its dea?-bl[4 ,h]s*el 0 und\bt$ly correct :5 he /at$ 8 belief 9 a limit$ ,univ]se4 ,h]s*el's />-gauges1 & ^? ( 8 son1 /ill rema9 ( imm5se value to a/ronom]s 9 any discussion ( ! con/ruction ( ! heav5s4 ,?us1 al?\gh !y fail$ to reveal to ,h]s*el ! /ructure ( ! ,univ]se1 !y h be5 ( mu* use to 8 successors4 ,h]s*el's discussion ( ! supreme problem--! ultimate object ( 8 obs]vations--con/itutes "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ *apt]s 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 & m>ks a new era 9 human ?\ght4 ,9 ! words ( ,miss ,cl]ke3 8,"o _c reflect )\t amazem5t t ! special life-task set himself by ?is /ruggl+ musician--orig9ally a p5niless des]t] f ! ,hanov]ian ,gu>d--0 no?+ less ?an to se>* out ! #8con/ruction ( ! heav5s4' ,he did n accompli% x1 = t 0 impossible2 b he nev] rel9qui%$1 &1 9 grappl+ ) x1 laid deep & sure ! f\ndations ( sid]eal sci5ce40 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,sun4 ,f\r ye>s aft] ! dea? ( ,h]s*el1 an apo!c>y 9 ! little ,g]man t[n ( ,dessau procur$ a small telescope1 ) :i* he began to obs]ve ! ,sun4 ,! "n ( ?is apo!c>y 0 ,samuel ,he9ri* ,s*wabe 7#aghi-ahge74 ,9 #ahbf he comm5c$ to obs]ve ! spots on ! ,sun's disc1 c\nt+ !m f day to day1 m = self-amusem5t ?an f any hope ( discov]y2 = previ\s a/ronom]s _h agre$ t no law regulat$ ! numb] ( ! sun-spots4 ,e cle> day ,s*wabe po9t$ 8 telescope at ! ,sun & took 8 record ( ! spots2 ?is he cont9u$ = =ty-?ree ye>s1 until )9 a few ye>s ( 8 dea? on ,april #aa1 #ahge4 ,z e>ly z #ahdc ,s*wabe h9t$ t a possible p]iod ( t5 ye>s regulat$ ! di/ribution ( ! spots on ! ,sun1 b no att5tion 0 giv5 to 8 idea4 ,9 #ahea1 h[ev]1 ! result ( 8 tw5ty-six ye>s ( obs]vation 0 publi%$ 9 ,humboldt's #8,cosmos1' & ,s*wabe 0 able to %[ t ! spots increas$ & decreas$ 9 a p]iod ( ab\t t5 ye>s4 ,a/ronom]s at once recognis$ ! importance ( ,s*wabe's "w1 & 9 #aheg he 0 rew>d$ by ! ,gold ,m$al ( ! ,royal ,a/ronomical ,society ( ,london4 ,rudolf ,wolf 7#ahac-ahib7 ( ! ,zri* ,obs]vatory n[ und]took to se>* ?r\gh ! records ( sun-spot obs]vation1 f ! days ( ,galileo & ,s*e9]1 to f9d traces ( ! sol> cycle discov]$ by ,s*wabe4 ,he 0 successful1 & 0 enabl$ to correct ,s*wabe's e/imate ( ! l5g? ( ! p]iod1 fix+ x z on ! av]age #aaaa ye>s4 ,additional int]e/1 h[ev]1 0 giv5 to ,s*wabe's & ,wolf's inve/igations by ! rem>kable discov]ies :i* foll[$4 ,9 ,septemb] #ahea ,john ,lamont 7#ahje-ahgi71 a ,scotti% a/ronom]1--born at ,braem> 9 ,ab]de5%ire1 b employ$ z director ( ! ,muni* ,obs]vatory1--aft] se>*+ ?r\gh ! magnetic records collect$ at ,gtt+5 & ,muni*1 discov]$ t ! magnetic v>iations indicat$ a p]iod ( #aj ye>s4 ,soon aft] ?is ,sir ,edw>d ,sab9e 7#aghh-ahhc71 ! ,engli% physici/1 f a discussion ( an entirely diff]5t set ( obs]vations1 indep5d5tly demon/rat$ ! same ?+1 prov+ conclusively t once 9 ab\t t5 ye>s magnetic di/urbances rea*$ _! height ( viol5ce2 & ,sab9e 0 n sl[ to notice ! correspond5ce betwe5 ! magnetic p]iod & ! sun-spot p]iod4 ,9 ! same ye> 7#aheb7 ,wolf & ,alfr$ ,gauti] 7#agic-ahha7 indep5d5tly made ! same discov]y1 :i* _h ?us be5 made by f\r sep>ate inve/igators4 ,9 ! same ye> an ,engli% amateur a/ronom]1 ,ri*>d ,*ri/oph] ,c>r+ton 7#ahbf-ahge71 comm5c$ a s]ies ( sol> obs]vations :i* l$ to "s rem>kable discov]ies4 ,f obs]vations on ! spots1 ,c>r+ton discov]$ t :ile ! ,sun's rotation 0 p]=m$ 9 #be days at ! equator1 x 0 protract$ to #bg days midway betwe5 ! equator & ! poles4 ,9 #aheh ,c>r+ton demon/rat$ ! fact t spots are sc>ce 9 ! vic9ity ( ! sol> equator1 b are conf9$ to two zones on ei!r side1 becom+ sc>ce aga9 at ?irty-five degrees nor? or s\? ( ! equator4 ,contempor>y ) ,c>r+ton 0 ,fri$ri* ,wilhelm ,gu/av ,spr] 7#ahbb-ahie71 :o 0 born 9 ,b]l9 9 #ahbb & di$ at ,giess51 ,july #g1 #ahie4 ,he comm5c$ 8 sol> obs]vations ab\t ! same "t z ,c>r+ton1 & indep5d5tly discov]$ ! ,sun's equatorial accel]ation4 ,f obs]vations at 8 little private obs]vatory at ,anclam 9 ,pom]ania1 cont9u$ at ! ,a/rophysical ,obs]vatory 9 ,potsdam1 ,spr] demon/rat$ a rem>kable law reg>d+ sun-spots4 ,?is law is ?us describ$ by a well-kn[n a/ronom]3 8,! di/urbance :i* produces ! spots ( a giv5 sun-spot p]iod fir/ manife/s itself 9 two belts ab\t ?irty degrees nor? & s\? ( ! ,sun's equator4 ,^! belts !n draw 9 t[>d ! equator1 & ! sun-spot maximum occurs :5 _! latitude is ab\t sixte5 degrees2 :ile ! di/urbance gradually & f9ally dies out at a latitude ( eight or t5 degrees4 ,two or ?ree ye>s be=e ?is disappe>ance1 h[ev]1 two new zones ( di/urbance %[ !mselves4 ,?us1 at ! sun-spot m9imum !re are f\r well-m>k$ spot-belts1--two ne> ! equator1 due to ! expir+ di/urbance1 & two 9 high latitudes1 due to ! newly beg9n+ outbreak40 ,^! rem>kable discov]ies1 :i* result$ f ! inve/igations ( ,s*wabe1 ,c>r+ton1 & ,spor]1 are a brilliant example ( :at may be done by amateurs 9 a/ronomy4 ,at ! "t :5 ,c>r+ton & ,spr] 7 pursu+ ^! rese>*es1 ! spectroscope came into use z an a/ronomical in/rum5t1 & s9ce #ahei sol> a/ronomy has be5 almo/ entirely spectroscopic4 ,be=e we c rightly und]/& ! pr9ciples ( spectroscopic a/ronomy1 we mu/ g back to ! life & "w ( its f\nd]--,joseph von ,fraunh(]4 ,! son ( a poor glazi]1 ,joseph von ,fraunh(] 0 born on ,m>* #f1 #aghg1 at ,/raub+1 9 ,bav>ia4 ,8 fa!r & "m hav+ di$ :5 _! son 0 q "y1 ! boy1 on acc\nt ( 8 pov]ty1 0 appr5tic$ to a look+-glass manufactur] 9 ,muni* nam$ ,wei*selb]g]1 :o act$ tyrannically1 keep+ him all day at h>d "w4 ,/ill ! lad borr[$ "s old books1 & sp5t 8 nights 9 /udy4 ,"y ,fraunh(] lodg$ 9 an old t5em5t 9 ,muni*1 :i* on ,july #ba1 #ahja1 collaps$1 bury+ 9 its ru9s its occupants4 ,all 7 kill$ b ,fraunh(]1 :o1 ?\gh s]i\sly injur$1 0 dug out f ! ru9s f\r h\rs lat]4 ,! di/ress+ accid5t 0 witness$ by ,pr9ce ,maximilian ,joseph1 ,elector ( ,bav>ia4 ,he became int]e/$ 9 ,fraunh(]1 & pres5t$ him ) a sum ( money4 ,( ?is he made good use4 ,he 0 already int]e/$ 9 optics1 & he b\ght "s books on t subject1 z well z a glass-poli%+ ma*9e4 ,! rema9d] ( ! money s]v$ to procure 8 release f 8 tyrannical ma/]1 ,wei*selb]g]4 ,fraunh(] became acqua9t$ ) prom95t sci5ti/s at ,muni*1 :o provid$ him ) books on optics & ma!matics4 ,mean:ile ! "y optician occupi$ 8 "t 9 %ap+ & f9i%+ l5ses4 ,9 #ahjf he ent]$ ! optical dep>tm5t ( ! ,optical & ,physical ,in/itute ( ,muni*1 & ! foll[+ ye>1 :5 only tw5ty ye>s ( age1 0 appo9t$ to ! *ief po/ 9 t dep>tm5t4 ,9 #ahad he comm5c$ 8 inve/igations ) ! prism1 :i* h made 8 "n fam\s4 ,newton _h f\nd t1 9 pass+ ?r\gh a prism1 :ite light is disp]s$ into its prim>y col\rs1 mak+ up ! b& ( col\r$ light kn[n z ! sol> spectrum4 ,b he fail$ to recognise ! exi/5ce ( d>k l9es 9 ! spectrum4 ,casually se5 9 #ahjb by ,william ,hyde ,wolla/on 7#aghf-ahbh71 an ,engli% physici/1 ^! l9es 7 fir/ ?or\ghly exam9$ by ,fraunh(]4 ,all[+ light f ! ,sun to pass ?r\gh a prism atta*$ to ! telescope1 he 0 amaz$ to f9d sev]al d>k l9es 9 ! spectrum4 ,by ! ye> #ahad he _h detect$ no less ?an #cjj or #djj ( ^! l9es4 ,fraunh(] nam$ ! m prom95t l9es by ! lett]s ( ! alphabet1 f ,a 9 ! r$ to ,h 9 ! violet4 ,!y are n[ kn[n z ! ,fraunh(] l9es4 ,at fir/ he 0 mu* p]plex$ reg>d+ ! nature ( ! d>k l9es4 ,he suspect$ t !y might be an optical effect1 dep5d+ on ! quality ( ! glass us$1 & he tri$ diff]5t prisms1 b ! l9es 7 /ill to be se54 ,!n he turn$ 8 prism to bright cl\ds to see if !y 7 visible 9 reflect$ sunlight1 & he f\nd t !y 74 ,he exam9$ ! ,moon & aga9 p]ceiv$ !m1 z moonlight is m]ely reflect$ sunlight2 & !y 7 also conspicu\s 9 ! spectra ( ! planets4 ,x 0 ?us prov$ t ^! l9es 7 *>act]i/ic ( sunlight1 :e!r direct or reflect$4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 /ill possible t !y might be caus$ by ! passage ( ! rays ( light f ! cele/ial bodies ?r\gh ! ,e>?'s atmosph]e4 ,9 ord] to te/ ?is !ory1 ,fraunh(] exam9$ ! spectra ( ! bright] />s4 ,he f\nd t ! l9es visible 9 ! sol> spectrum 7 n to be se5 9 ! spectra ( ! />s1 ?us prov+ t ! l9es 7 n m]ely an atmosph]ic effect4 ,ea* />1 ,fraunh(] obs]v$1 _h a diff]5t spectrum f bo? ! ,sun & f o!r />s4 ,^! spectra 7 also *>act]is$ by num]\s d>k l9es1 mu* fa9t] ?an ^? 9 ! sol> spectrum4 ,al?\gh he asc]ta9$ ! exi/5ce ( ! d>k l9es 9 ! ,sun's spectrum1 ,fraunh(] nev] really f\nd out :at !y repres5t$4 ,z ,miss ,gib]ne expresses x1 8,al?\gh he n[ saw ! l9es he c\ld n und]/& !m3 he c\ld n read :at !y said4 ,!y spoke to him inde$ ab\t ! ,sun1 b !y spoke to him 9 a =eign language1 ! key to :i* he did n possess40 ,h[ev]1 he express$ ! belief t ! pair ( l9es 9 ! sol> spectrum1 :i* he m>k$ ,d1 co9cid$ ) ! pair ( bright l9es emitt$ by inc&esc5t sodium4 ,al?\gh he d\btless suspect$ t ! l9es convey$ intellig5ce reg>d+ ! elem5ts 9 ! ,sun1 he nev] 0 able prop]ly to deciph] _! mean+4 ,_h he liv$1 he w\ld probably h made ! great discov]y2 b ^! inve/igations 7 cut %ort by 8 sudd5 & untimely dea? on ,june #g1 #ahbf4 ,aft] ! dea? ( ,fraunh(]1 v little 0 done to =w>d ! /udy ( spectrum analysis4 ,inve/igations 9 ?is bran* ( rese>* 7 made1 h[ev]1 by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el 7#agib-ahga71 ,william ,all5 ,mill] 7#ahag-ahgj71 ,sir ,david ,brew/] 7#agha-ahfh71 & o!rs4 ,two fam\s m5 ( sci5ce _h p>tly discov]$ ! secret4 ,^! 7 ,sir ,george ,/okes 7#ahai-aijc71 ( ,cambridge1 & ,&]s ,john ,ang/rm 7#ahab-ahgb7 ( ,upsala4 ,( ,ang/rm's "w1 publi%$ 9 #ahec1 x has be5 said t x w\ld 8h obta9$ a high celebrity if x _h appe>$ 9 ,fr5*1 ,engli%1 or ,g]man1 in/ead ( ,sw$i%40 ,x 0 n until #ahei t ! pr9ciples ( spectrum analysis 7 fully enunciat$ by ,gu/av ,rob]t ,kir*h(f 7#ahbd-ahhg71 & 8 colleague 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,heidelb]g1 ,rob]t ,wilhelm ,buns5 7#ahaa-ahii74 ,kir*h(f demon/rat$ t a lum9\s solid or liquid gives a cont9u\s spectrum1 & a gase\s sub/ance a spectrum ( bright l9es4 ,9 ! words ( ,miss ,cl]ke1 8,sub/ances ( e k9d are opaque to ! precise rays :i* !y emit at ! same temp]ature4 ,t is to say1 !y /op ! k9ds ( light or heat :i* !y are !n actually 9 a condition to radiate4444 ,?is pr9ciple is fundam5tal to sol> *emi/ry4 ,x gives ! key to ! hi]oglyphics ( ! ,fraunh(] l9es4 ,! id5tical *>act]s :i* are writt5 bright 9 t]re/rial spectra are writt5 d>k 9 ! unroll$ %eaf ( sun-rays40 ,kir*h(f made sev]al det]m9ations ( ! sub/ances 9 ! ,sun1 prov+ ! exi/5ce ( sodium1 iron1 calcium1 magnesium1 nickel1 b>ium1 copp]1 & z9c4 ,8 great map ( ! sol> spectrum 0 publi%$ by ! ,b]l9 ,academy 9 #ahfj1 & repres5t$ an enorm\s am\nt ( lab\r4 ,x 0 succe$$ by ano!r map by ,ang/rm1 publi%$ 9 #ahfh4 ,b bo? ( ^! maps h be5 rec5tly sup]s$$ by ! inve/igations ( ,sir ,joseph ,norman ,locky] 7born #ahcf71 & ( ! ,am]ican physici/1 ,h5ry ,augu/us ,r[l& 7#ahdh-aija74 ,r[l& l>gely increas$ our k ( ! elem5ts 9 ! sol> atmosph]e4 ,! spectroscope _h become1 by #ahfh1 a recognis$ in/rum5t ( a/ronomical rese>*1 & 9 t ye> x 0 appli$ dur+ ! fam\s total eclipse1 visible 9 ,india4 ,!re 7 _m eclipse problems1 aris+ f ! obs]vations made by ! eclipse exp$itions ( #ahdb1 #ahea1 & #ahfj4 ,! eclipse ( #ahea _h f9ally prov$ t ! r$ flames se5 surr\nd+ ! ,sun dur+ total eclipses belong$ to ! ,sun1 & n to ! ,moon1 z _m a/ronom]s _h believ$4 ,at ! eclipse ( #ahfj1 visible 9 ,spa91 ! ,italian a/ronom]1 ,angelo ,sec*i 7#ahah-ahgh71 & ! ,engli%man1 ,w>r5 ,de la ,rue 7#ahae-ahhi71 secur$ photographs ( ! sol> prom95ces4 ,! problem ( #ahfh 0 ! con/itution ( ^! prom95ces4 ,pi]re ,jules ,cs> ,janss51 born 9 ,p>is 9 #ahbd1 0 /ation$ at ,guntoor1 9 ,india1 to obs]ve ! eclipse4 ,he succe$$ 9 obs]v+ ! spectrum ( ! prom95ces dur+ ! progress ( totality1 & f\nd x to be "o ( bright l9es1 prov+ ! gase\s nature ( ! sun-flames4 ,dur+ ! progress ( ! eclipse1 ,janss5 0 specially /ruck by ! brilliancy ( ! bright l9es1 & x occurr$ to him t ! prom95ce-spectrum c\ld be obs]v$ 9 full daylight1 if suffici5t disp]sive p[] 0 us$ to enfeeble ! ord9>y cont9u\s spectrum4 ,at t5 o'clock on ! foll[+ morn+1 ,augu/ #ai1 #ahfh1 ,janss5 appli$ 8 spectroscope to ! sun1 & obs]v$ ! prom95ce-spectrum4 ,aft] a mon?'s obs]vation 9 ,india1 he s5t to ! ,fr5* ,academy an acc\nt ( 8 success4 ,a %ort "t1 h[ev]1 be=e 8 report arriv$1 ! ,academy _h receiv$ a simil> "o f ,locky]1 :o _h indep5d5tly made ! same discov]y4 ,two ye>s previ\sly1 9 #ahff1 ! new me?od _h occurr$ to him1 b 8 spectroscope 0 n p[]ful en\gh2 & al?\gh he ord]$ a m p[]ful "o at once1 x 0 n until ,octob] #af1 #ahfh1 t he _h ! in/rum5t 9 8 h&s4 ,f\r days lat] he obs]v$ ! prom95ce-spectrum 9 full daylight4 ,! next advance 9 ! /udy ( ! prom95ces 0 ann\nc$ 9 #ahfi4 ,janss5 & ,locky] _h %[n a/ronom]s h[ to obs]ve ! spectrum ( ! prom95ces2 b ! rese>*es ( o!r two fam\s a/ronom]s enabl$ obs]v]s to see ! =ms ( ! prom95ces4 ,^! two m5 7 ,william ,hugg9s 7born #ahbd7 & ,johann ,c>l ,fri$ri* ,zlln]4 ,! latt] a/ronom]1 born 9 ,leipzig 9 #ahcd1 0 "o ( ! mo/ successful /ud5ts ( ! sol> prom95ces4 ,he 0 ,pr(essor ( ,a/rophysics 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,leipzig1 a position :i* he fill$ ) success until 8 untimely dea? on ,april #be1 #ahhb4 ,indep5d5tly ( ,hugg9s1 he f\nd t by op5+ ! slit ( ! spectroscope wid]1 ! =ms ( ! prom95ces !mselves c\ld be se54 ,! /udy ( ! prom95ces 0 at once tak5 up by ! mo/ fam\s sol> obs]v]s3 ^! 7 ,hugg9s & ,locky] 9 ,engl&1 ,spr] & ,zlln] 9 ,g]many1 ,janss5 9 ,france1 ,sec*i1 ,respighi1 & ,tac*9i 9 ,italy1 ,"y 9 ,am]ica4 ,to ,*>les ,augu/us ,"y 7born #ahcd7 we owe ! c>eful /udy ( individual prom95ces4 ,on ,septemb] #g1 #ahga1 he obs]v$ ! mo/ gigantic outbur/ on ! sun ev] witness$1 fragm5ts ( an explod$ prom95ce rea*+ a height ( #ajj1jjj miles3 ,"y1 also1 made ! fir/ attempt to photograph ! prom95ces4 ,to ! ,italian s*ool ( a/ronom]s1 h[ev]1 we owe ! p]si/5t & sy/ematic /udy ( ! prom95ces4 ,among !m ! ?ree greate/ names are ,angelo ,sec*i 7#ahah-ahgh71 ,lor5zo ,respighi 7#ahbd-ahhi71 & ,pietro ,tac*9i 7#ahch-aije74 ,aft] ! dea? ( ,sec*i1 ! recognis$ head ( spectroscopy 9 ,italy 0 ,pietro ,tac*9i4 ,born at ,mod5a 9 #ahch1 he 0 appo9t$ director at ,mod5a 9 #ahei1 assi/ant at ,pal]mo 9 #ahfc1 & director at ,rome 9 #ahgi4 ,9 #ahgj he comm5c$ to take daily obs]vations ( ! prom95ces1 not+ _! sizes1 =ms1 & di/ribution1 & ^! obs]vations 7 cont9u$ = ?irty-"o ye>s1 until )9 f\r ye>s ( ,tac*9i's dea?1 :i* took place on ,m>* #bd1 #aije4 ,tac*9i did = ! /udy ( ! prom95ces :at ,s*wabe did = ! spots4 ,! ,italian spectroscopi/s f\nd t ! prom95ces increas$ & decreas$ e elev5 ye>s 9 h>mony ) ! spots4 ,tac*9i demon/rat$ t ! /ream]s ( ! sol> corona orig9ate 9 regions :]e ! prom95ces are mo/ num]\s1 & t ! %ape ( ! corona1 on ! :ole1 v>ies 9 sympa?y ) ! prom95ces4 ,! rese>*es ( ,locky] indicat$ t ! prom95ces orig9at$ 9 a %all[ gase\s atmosph]e :i* he t]m$ ! *romosph]e4 ,=m]ly a/ronom]s _h to obs]ve only isolat$ prom95ces1 b 9 #ahib an ,am]ican a/ronom]1 ,george ,ell]y ,hale 7born #ahfh71 =m]ly director ( ! ,y]kes ,obs]vatory1 & n[ director ( ! ,sol> ,obs]vatory 9 ,cali=nia1 succe$$ 9 photograph+1 by an +5i\s process1 ! :ole ( ! *romosph]e1 prom95ces1 & facul visible on ! sol> surface4 ,ano!r sol> envelope 0 discov]$ 9 #ahgj by ,dr ,*>les ,augu/us ,"y1 :o f #ahff to #ahgg direct$ ! ,obs]vatory at ,d>tm\?1 ,new ,hamp%ire1 & f #ahgg to #aije1 t at ,pr9ceton1 ,new ,j]sey4 ,dur+ ! eclipse ( ,decemb] #bb1 #ahgj1 ,"y 0 /ation$ at ,t5ez de ,front5a1 ,spa94 ,z ! sol> cresc5t grew app>5tly ?9n] be=e ! disc ( ! ,moon1 8! d>k l9es ( ! spectrum10 he says1 8& ! spectrum itself gradually fad$ away1 until all at once1 z sudd5ly z a bur/+ rocket %oots out its />s1 ! :ole field ( view 0 fill$ ) bright l9es1 m num]\s ?an "o c\ld c\nt4 ,! ph5om5on 0 s sudd51 s unexpect$1 & s wond]fully beautiful1 z to =ce an involunt>y exclamation40 ,! ph5om5on 0 obs]v$ = two seconds1 & ! impression 0 left on ! a/ronom] t a bright l9e _h tak5 ! place ( e d>k "o 9 ! sol> spectrum1 ! spectrum be+ completely rev]s$4 ,h5ce ! "n :i* 0 giv5 to ! hypo!tical envelope--8! rev]s+ lay]40 ,= long ! exi/5ce ( ! rev]s+ lay] 0 disput$ by num]\s a/ronom]s4 ,9 #ahif photographs tak5 dur+ ! sol> eclipse ( t ye> f9ally demon/rat$ ! exi/5ce ( ! 8fla% spectrum0 z se5 by ,"y4 ,! la/ ( ! sol> app5dages1 ! corona1 c only be se5 dur+ total eclipses4 ,! rese>*es ( ,"y & ,janss5 indicate t x is p>tly gase\s & p>tly meteoric 9 its con/itution2 & v>i\s photographs1 tak5 at ! eclipses s9ce #ahgj1 h demon/rat$ its v>iation 9 %ape1 :i* is 9 h>mony ) ! elev5-ye> p]iod4 ,sev]al attempts h be5 made to obs]ve ! corona )\t an eclipse4 ,9 #ahhb ,hugg9s made ! attempt1 b fail$1 & ,hale1 ) 8 photographic process1 _h no bett] success4 ,m rec5tly1 9 #aijd1 a ,russian a/ronom]1 ,alexis ,hansky1 obs]v+ f ! top ( ,mont ,blanc1 secur$ "s photographs on :i* he believes ! corona is repres5t$1 b s f> 8 obs]vations h n be5 confirm$ by o!r a/ronom]s4 ,! application ( ! spectroscope to ! motions on ! sol> surface is p]haps "o ( ! mo/ wond]ful triumphs 9 a/ronomical sci5ce4 ,9 #ahdb ,*ri/ian ,doppl] 7#ahjc-ahec71 ,pr(essor ( ,ma!matics at ,prague1 _h express$ ! view t ! col\r ( a lum9\s body mu/ be *ang$ by its motion ( approa* or recession4 ,x 0 obvi\s to ,doppl] t if ! body 0 approa*+1 a l>g] numb] ( light waves mu/ be ent]+ ! eye ( ! obs]v] ?an if x 7 retreat+4 ,miss ,cl]ke ?us illu/rates ,doppl]'s pr9ciple3 8,suppose %ots to be fir$ at a t>get at fix$ int]vals ( "t4 ,if ! m>ksman advances1 say1 tw5ty paces betwe5 ea* dis*>ge ( 8 rifle1 x is evid5t t ! %ots w fall fa/] on ! t>get ?an if he /ood /ill2 if1 on ! contr>y1 he retires by ! same am\nt1 !y w /rike at correspond+ly long] int]vals40 ,x occurr$ to v>i\s a/ronom]s t x w\ld be possible to measure cyclones & hurricanes 9 ! ,sun1 n by *ange ( col\r 9 ! spectrum1 b by ! %ift+ ( ! l9es2 & 9 #ahgj ?is 0 successfully done by ,locky]4 ,9 ! next few ye>s ef=ts to measure ! sol> rotation 7 made by ,"y1 ,zlln]1 & o!rs1 :o succe$$ 9 measur+ ! displacem5t ( ! l9es1 b n ! "t ( rotation4 ,?is 0 res]v$ = ! fam\s ,sw$i% a/ronom]1 ,dunr4 ,nils ,*ri/oph] ,dunr1 born 9 #ahci 9 ,scania1 0 employ$ z an assi/ant at ,lund ,obs]vatory f #aheh to #ahhh1 :5 he 0 appo9t$ director ( ! ,obs]vatory at ,upsala4 ,9 t ye> he comm5c$ a /udy ( ! sol> rotation1 measur+ x by means ( ,doppl]'s pr9ciple4 ,he confirm$ ! telescopic "w ( ,c>r+ton & ,spr] on ! equatorial accel]ation1 & measur$ ! displacem5t up to )9 fifte5 degrees ( ! poles4 ,he br\ght out ! surpris+ fact t ! rotation p]iod ( ! ,sun is !re protract$ to #ch days4 ,^! rem>kable rese>*es 7 publi%$ 9 #ahia4 ,9 #ahgc ! ,a/ronom]-,royal ( ,engl& comm5c$ at ,gre5wi* ,obs]vatory to photograph ! ,sun daily4 ,?is "w has be5 c>ri$ on !re by ,edw>d ,walt] ,maund] 7born #ahea71 & ,gre5wi* ,obs]vatory possesses a photographic record ( sun-spots4 ,at ! ,meudon ,a/rophysical ,obs]vatory1 ne> ,p>is1 ,janss5 has1 s9ce #ahgf1 secur$ photographs ( ! sol> surface1 :i* 7 compris$ 9 a great atlas1 publi%$ by him 9 ,janu>y #aijd4 ,^! photographs h reveal$ a rem>kable ph5om5on--! 8rseau photosph]ique10 ! di/ribution ov] ! sol> surface ( blurr$ pat*es ( light1 :i* ,janss5 consid]s are inh]5t 9 ! ,sun4 ,! ,gre5wi* records ( sun-spots & ( magnetic di/urbances h be5 made use ( by ,maund] 9 8 rem>kable /udies1 promulgat$ 9 #aijd1 ( ! connection betwe5 sun-spots & t]re/rial magnetism4 ,maund] f9ds t on ! av]age magnetic /orms are dep5d5t on ! pres5ce ( sun-spots1 & on ! size ( ! spot4 ,! magnetic action1 he f9ds1 does n radiate equally 9 all directions f ! sun-spots1 b along def9ite & re/rict$ l9es4 ,h]s*el's hypo!sis ( a d>k & cool globe b5ea? ! sol> photosph]e 0 se5 to be unt5able aft] ! introduction ( ! spectroscope4 ,! fir/ important !ory z to ! sol> con/itution 0 t advanc$ 9 #ahfe by ! ,fr5* a/ronom]1 ,h]v ,faye 7#ahad-aijb74 ,num]\s o!r !ories 7 aft]w>ds advanc$ by ,sec*i1 ,zlln]1 ,"y1 & o!rs1 b a complete description ( ! v>i\s developm5ts 9 sol> !oris+ _c be giv5 "h4 ,!re is no complete 8!ory0 ( ! exact con/itution ( e "p ( ! ,sun1 b ! unpret5ti\s 8,views ( ,pr(essor ,"y on ! ,con/itution ( ! ,sun10 :i* appe>$ 9 ,april #aijd 9 #8,popul> ,a/ronomy1' repres5t ! late/ ideas ( ! =emo/ sol> inve/igator4 ,pr(essor ,"y reg>ds ! rev]s+ lay] & ! *romosph]e z 8simply ! uncond5s$ vap\rs & gases :i* =m ! atmosph]e 9 :i* ! cl\ds ( ! photosph]e are susp5d$40 ,he says t ! contraction !ory ( ,helmholtz1--expla9$ 9 ano!r *apt]1--advanc$ to expla9 ! ma9t5ance ( ! ,sun's heat1 is true s f> z x goes2 b t x is all ! tru? is n[ made d\btful by ! discov]y ( radium1 :i* 8sugge/s t o!r p[]ful s\rces ( en]gy may co-op]ate ) ! me*anical 9 ma9ta9+ ! ,sun's heat40 ,! important "q ( ! di/ance ( ! ,sun 0 ?or\ghly inve/igat$ 9 #ahbd by ,johann ,franz ,encke 7#agia-ahfe71 !n ( ,seeb]g1 ne> ,go?a1 :o1 f a discussion ( ! transits ( ,v5us 9 #agfa & #agfi1 f\nd a p>allax ( #hega1 correspond+ to a mean di/ance ( #ie1jjj1jjj miles4 ,?is value 0 accept$ = ?irty ye>s1 until ,pet] ,&reas ,hans5 7#agie-ahgd71 9 #ahed1 & ,urban ,jean ,joseph ,le ,v]ri] 7#ahaa-ahgg71 9 #aheh1 f\nd f ma!matical inve/igations t ! di/ance indicat$ 0 too great4 ,prep>ations 7 accord+ly made = ! obs]vation ( ! transits ( ,v5us1 :i* took place respectively on ,decemb] #h1 #ahgd1 & ,decemb] #f1 #ahhb4 ,on ! fir/ occasion _m exp$itions 7 s5t to view ! transit1 consi/+ ( ,fr5*1 ,g]man1 ,am]ican1 ,engli%1 ,scotti%1 ,italian1 ,russian1 & ,dut* a/ronom]s1 & x 0 hop$ t ! sol> p>allax w\ld be accurately measur$ once = all4 ,h[ev]1 ! transit1 al?\gh fav\r$ ) good wea!r1 0 n successful1 ow+ to ! difficulty ( mak+ exact measurem5ts1 by reason ( ! illum9ation & refraction 9 ! atmosph]e ( ,v5us4 ,accord+ly ! values d$uc$ = ! p>allax 7 f> f unanim\s4 ,! transit ( #ahhb 0 n obs]v$ s ext5sively1 z a/ronom]s _h f\nd ! transit ( ,v5us to be by no means ! be/ me?od4 ,9 #ahgg ,sir ,david ,gill 7born #ahdc71 ! great ,scotti% a/ronom]1 det]m9$ ! sol> p>allax successfully f measures ( ! p>allax ( ,m>s 9 opposition4 ,8 value 0 #hgh1 correspond+ to #ic1jhj1jjj miles4 ,"s ye>s previ\s to ?is ,johann ,gottfri$ ,galle 7born #ahab71 ! ,g]man a/ronom]1 _h1 f measurem5ts ( ! p>allax ( ! a/]oid ,flora1 d$uc$ a sol> p>allax ( #hhg4 ,gill's "w at ! ,cape 9 #ahhh1 on ! ,a/]oids1 0 successful 9 giv+ a m accurate value ?an ! transit ( ,v5us3 9 #aijj & #aija measures ( ! p>allax ( ! a/]oid ,eros1 ! ne>e/ m9or planet1 7 made by _m diff]5t obs]vatories1 & agree ) ! o!r results4 ,! values :i* h be5 d]iv$ f ! velocity ( light1 & f ! con/ant ( ab]ration1 are fairly 9 agreem5t ) ^? d]iv$ f direct measurem5t4 ,on ! :ole1 ! mo/ probable value ( ! p>allax is ab\t #hh1 indicat+ a mean di/ance ( ab\t #ib1gjj1jjj miles1 ) a 8probable error0 ( ab\t #aej1jjj miles4 ,:at a diff]5t picture ! sun pres5ts to u at ! beg9n+ ( ! tw5tie? c5tury f t :i* x pres5t$ to ,h]s*el & 8 contempor>ies at ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5?6 ,to ,h]s*el1 ! ,sun 0 a cool d>k globe1 surr\nd$ by a lum9\s atmosph]e4 ,z ! outcome ( ! rese>*es & discov]ies outl9$ 9 ?is *apt]1 ! ,sun is n[ se5 to be a va/ c5tral _w1 :i* is ov] a million times l>g] ?an ! ,e>?4 ,9 ! words ( an able writ]1 8,x is mo/ probably a _w ( gases1 :]e mo/ ( ! metals & metallic gases t we "k exi/ only z vap\rs1 ev5 at ! ,sun's surface1 hott] ?an any furnace on e>?1 & gett+ a /ill fi]c] heat = e mile ( desc5t l[]4 ,( t heat 9 ! ,sun's int]ior we c =m no conception4 ,! pressure )9 ! ,sun is equally inconceivable4 ,a cannon-ball weigh+ #ajj lb4 on e>? w\ld weigh #bgjj on ! ,sun4 ,?us a mighty conflict goes on unceas+ly betwe5 imprison$ & exp&+ gases & vap\rs /ruggl+ to bur/ out1 & massive pressures hold+ !m d[n4 ,= reasons we _c fully und]/&1 no equilibrium is rea*$4 ,= millions ( ye>s up-ru%es & d[n-ru%es ( ! :ite-hot mat]ials h be5 proce$+ on t bright photosph]e :i* gives u light1 & looks a picture ( calm & quiesc5ce4 ,above t is a comp>atively ?9 rose-col\r$ lay]1 ! *romosph]e1 agitat$ ) fi]y #8prom95ces1' & outside all ^! ! coronal glory--all alike po9t+ to immeasurable activities40 ,! foll[+ rem>k ( ,pr(essor ,newcomb %[s our inability to realise ! sol> activity4 8,suppose10 he says1 8e foot ( space 9 a :ole c\ntry cov]$ ) #ac-;in* cannon1 all po9t$ upw>d1 & all dis*>g$ at once4 ,! result w\ld comp>e ) :at is go+ on inside ! photosph]e ab\t z mu* z a boy's popgun comp>es ) ! cannon40 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,moon4 ,x is some:at rem>kable t ! "o cele/ial body :i* ,h]s*el neglect$ 0 our satellite1 ! ,moon2 & x is also rem>kable t ! ,moon 0 = _m ye>s ! *ief object ( /udy ( 8 contempor>y a/ronom]1 ,johann ,hi]onymus ,s*rt] 7#agde-ahaf74 ,born at ,erfurt1 ne> ,hanov]1 on ,augu/ #cj1 #agde1 ,johann ,hi]onymus ,s*rt] 0 orig9ally int5d$ = ! /udy ( law1 = :i* he 0 s5t to ! ,univ]sity ( ,gtt+54 ,at ! same "t he /udi$ ma!matics1 & p>ticul>ly a/ronomy1 "u ! ma!matician1 ,kae/n] ( ,gtt+54 ,deeply int]e/$ 9 music1 he became acqua9t$ ) ! ,h]s*el family1 &1 inspir$ by ,william ,h]s*el's example1 det]m9$ to /udy ! heav5s4 ,9 #aggi he became ! possessor ( a small a*romatic refractor1 & comm5c$ to obs]ve ! ,sun & ,moon4 ,9 #aggh he ent]$ ! legal pr(ession at ,hanov]1 & f\r ye>s lat] he 0 appo9t$ 8ob]amtmann0 or ,*ief ,magi/rate ( ,lili5?al--8! ,vale ( ,lilies0--9 ! ,du*y ( ,brem54 ,at ,lili5?al ,s*rt] erect$ a small obs]vatory1 & acquir$ 9 #aghe "o ( ,h]s*el's #g-;foot reflectors4 ,9 #agib ! a/ronom] sup]9t5d$ ! con/ruction ( a #ac-;foot reflector1 made by ,s*rad] ( ,kiel1 :o transf]r$ 8 work%op to ,lili5?al4 ,) ^! in/rum5ts ! great "w ( ,s*rt] 0 accompli%$4 ,s*rt] direct$ 8 p[]s ( obs]vation to ! /udy ( ! ,moon4 ,he orig9at$ ! /udy ( ! surface ( ! ,moon1 & f\nd$ ! bran* ( a/ronomy kn[n z sel5ography1 or ! /udy ( ! ,moon's surface4 ,! f\ndations ( ?is bran* 7 laid 9 #agia ) ! publication ( ,s*rt]'s #8,sel5o-topographis*e ,fragm5te'4 ,! a/ronom] det]m9$ to make a comp>ative /udy ( ! surface ( our satellite1 & be=e #ahja discov]$ elev5 8rills0 or clefts on ! ,moon's surface1 & recognis$ a l>ge numb] ( crat]s4 ,he likewise believ$ t he _h se5 a lun> atmosph]e1 an obs]vation ( :i* 0 made by him 9 ,febru>y #agib4 ,s*rt] seems nev] to h d\bt$ :at ,h]s*el & 8 contempor>ies believ$--t ! ,moon 0 a liv+ _w ) volcanoes 9 active eruption1 surr\nd$ by an atmosph]e1 & inhabit$ by be+s l ourselves4 ,un=tunately1 ,s*rt] 0 n good at mak+ draw+s ( :at he saw2 nev]!less1 he accompli%$ a va/ am\nt ( "w4 ,9 ! little obs]vatory at ,lili5?al ! f\ndations 7 laid ( ! comp>ative /udy ( ! surface ( ! ,moon4 ,b ^! obs]vations 7 de/9$ to be rudely int]rupt$4 ,9 #ahaj ,hanov] 0 occupi$ by ! invad+ troops ( ,napoleon1 & ,s*rt] lo/ 8 appo9tm5t z ,*ief ,magi/rate ( ,lili5?al1 & also 8 income4 ,b !re 0 worse to foll[4 ,on ,april #bj1 #ahac1 ?ree ye>s aft]1 ! ,fr5*1 "u ,v&amme1 ) t cruelty :i* seems to belong to w>f>e1 occupi$ ,lili5?al1 & set fire to ! little village4 ,a few days lat] ! ,fr5* soldi]s ent]$ ! obs]vatory & burn$ x to ! gr\nd4 ,all ,s*rt]'s preci\s obs]vations1 accumulat$ aft] ?irty-f\r ye>s' lab\r1 7 de/roy$ ) a few exceptions1 ! obs]vations on ,m>s n>r[ly escap+ ! conflagration4 ,unable to =get ! de/ruction ( 8 obs]vatory1 & )\t ! means to repair ! loss1 he liv$ only ?ree ye>s aft] ! disa/]4 ,he di$ on ,augu/ #bi1 #ahaf1 8leav+ beh9d him10 says ,mr ,ar?ur ,mee1 8an imp]i%able record1 & a noble example to obs]v]s ( all "t40 ,wilhelm ,got!lf ,lohrmann1 a l&-surveyor ( ,dresd51 cont9u$ ! obs]vations ( ,s*rt]1 & 9 #ahbd publi%$ f\r ( ! tw5ty-five propos$ sections ( a l>ge lun> *>t4 ,9 #ahbg1 h[ev]1 8 sight began to fail1 & he 0 oblig$ to ab&on 8 int5tion4 ,b a successor _h already appe>$ on ! sc5e4 ,johann ,he9ri* von ,mdl] 7#agid-ahgd7 0 born 9 ,b]l9 9 #agid1 &1 aft] a sev]e /ruggle to e>n a liv+1 ent]$ ! ,univ]sity ( ,b]l9 9 #ahag4 ,9 #ahbd he became acqua9t$ ) ,wilhelm ,be] 7#agig-ahej71 a weal?y bank]1 :o _h come to him = in/ruction 9 a/ronomy1 & :o erect$ 9 #ahbi an obs]vatory ne> 8 villa 9 ,b]l91 :]e pupil & tutor pursu$ _! /udies4 ,9 #ahcj ,mdl]1 ) ,be]'s assi/ance1 comm5c$ a great trigonometrical survey ( ! surface ( ! ,moon4 ,! obs]vations ( ,be] & ,mdl] 7 made ) no l>g] in/rum5t ?an a #c-;in* refractor4 ,!y asc]ta9$ ! positions ( #iai lun> spots1 & measur$ ! height ( #ajie m\nta9s4 ,_! great *>t ( ! ,moon--:i* 0 aft]w>ds foll[$ by a small] "o--0 issu$ 9 f\r p>ts dur+ #ahcd-cf4 8,! am\nt ( detail10 wrote ,proctor1 8is rem>kable1 & ! lab\r actually be/[$ ^u ! "w w appe> incr$ible40 ,! *>t has nei!r be5 revis$ nor sup]s$$1 & x rema9s to ?is day "o ( ! /&>d works on ! subject4 ,! *>t 0 succe$$ 9 #ahcg by a descriptive volume entitl$ #8,d] ,mond4' ,9 ?is "w ,be] & ,mdl] did mu* = ! progress ( lun> a/ronomy4 ,_! obs]vations l$ to a *ange ( op9ion reg>d+ our satellite's physical condition4 ,h]s*el1 ,s*rt]1 ,olb]s1 & o!r a/ronom]s seem to h consid]$ ! ,moon a liv+ _w4 ,mdl] decl>$ t x 0 a dead _w4 ,he believ$ x to be de/itute ( life ( any k9d1 & ! *anges obs]v$ by ,s*rt] & o!r obs]v]s 7 put d[n z illusions4 #8,d] ,mond' 0 ! end ( ,mdl]'s "w 9 lun> a/ronomy1 =1 receiv+ an appo9tm5t at ,dorpat1 he w5t !re 9 #ahdf1 & reta9$ 8 po/ until )9 a few ye>s ( 8 dea?1 :i* took place at ,hanov] on ,m>* #ad1 #ahgd4 ,mdl]'s successor 9 ! field ( lun> a/ronomy 0 ,johann ,fri$ri* ,julius ,s*midt 7#ahbe-ahhd71 :o 0 born at ,eut9 9 ,lbeck 9 #ahbe4 ,at a v e>ly age he gave indications ( a ta/e = a/ronomy4 ,=tunately 8 fa!r possess$ a small h& telescope1 ) :i* "y ,s*midt comm5c$ 8 lun> /udies4 ,appo9t$ assi/ant at ,bonn & ,olmtz & director at ,a!ns successively1 he kept up 8 p]si/5t /udy ( ! surface ( ! ,moon = ov] =ty ye>s4 ,9 #ahci1 :5 f\rte5 ye>s ( age1 he began ! valuable s]ies ( obs]vations :i* 7 de/9$ to =m ! basis ( 8 great *>t ( ! surface ( ! ,moon4 ,betwe5 #ahec & #aheh1 :5 employ$ at ,olmtz1 ,s*midt made & calculat$ no few] ?an #djjj micrometrical measures ( ! altitudes ( lun> m\nta9s4 ,be=e #ahff ,s*midt _h f\nd no few] ?an #bgh 8rills10 & 8 discov]ies 7 ! means ( augm5t+ ! numb] ( ^! curi\s objects to ne>ly a ?\s&4 ,9 a ^w1 x may be said t ,s*midt drew out a lun> geography1 & ! result ( 8 lab\rs1 toge!r ) ^? ( ,s*rt] & ,mdl]1 is t 9 a s5se we n[ "k ! features ( ! ,moon bett] ?an ^? ( ! ,e>?4 ,= in/ance1 a/ronom]s see ! :ole surface ( ! ,moon spread be=e _! eyes1 :ile geograph]s c nev] h a simil> view ( ! t]re/rial features3 we h nev] se5 ! poles ( ! ,e>?1 :ile ! lun> poles are well kn[n to a/ronom]s4 ,= tw5ty ye>s aft] 8 appo9tm5t at ,a!ns1 ,s*midt work$ at fix+ ! positions ( lun> objects1 measur+ ! heights ( m\nta9s & ! dep?s ( crat]s4 ,an idea ( 8 en?usiasm 9 con/ruct+ 8 great *>t may be ga9$ f ! fact t he made almo/ a ?\s& orig9al sket*es4 ,mdl]'s dogmatic ass]tion t ! ,moon 0 entirely a dead _w 0 g5]ally believ$ until ,s*midt made obs]vations to ! contr>y4 ,f #ahcg to #ahff ! popul> op9ion 0 t our satellite 0 an absolutely dead _w4 ,consequ5tly !re 0 little progress 9 lun> a/ronomy dur+ ^? ?irty ye>s4 ,al?\gh ,mdl]'s view 0 mu* ne>] ! tru? ?an ! op9ions ( 8 pr$ecessors1 x 0 also too positive4 ,8 confid5t ass]tion1 :i* 0 receiv$ )\t hesitation1 0 nev] que/ion$ until ,s*midt came ^u ! sc5e4 ,to ,s*midt ! ,moon 0 n entirely dead1 & x 0 he :o br\ght =w>d indisputable evid5ce z to ! exi/5ce ( *anges on its surface4 ,9 ,octob] #ahff he ann\nc$ t ! crat] ,l9n _h lo/ all appe>ance ( su*1 & t x _h become entirely effac$4 ,lohrmann & ,mdl] _h obs]v$ x "u a totally diff]5t aspect1 z also _h ,s*midt himself f #ahdj to #ahdc4 ,!re 0 great excitem5t 9 ! a/ronomical _w on ,s*midt's ann\ncem5t1 & _m a/ronom]s d5i$ ! *ange1 al?\gh ,s*midt's obs]vation 0 confirm$ by ,sec*i & ,webb4 ,! evid5ce 9 fav\r ( x prepond]at$1 & v few obs]v]s n[ consid] ! ,moon's surface to be absolutely *angeless4 ,9 #ahfe ,s*midt _h begun to arrange 8 obs]vations on ! ,moon into ! =m ( a *>t4 ,at fir/ he decid$ to h a *>t ( six feet diamet]1 divid$1 l t ( ,mdl]1 into f\r sections4 ,b 9 ,april #ahfh1 on mak+ an e/imate ( ! value ( su* a *>t1 he 0 dissatisfi$1 & det]m9$ to con/ruct a map ( ! same size divid$ into tw5ty-five sections in/ead ( f\r4 ,he began ! "w 9 #ahfh1 & aft] six ye>s ! great map 0 complet$4 ,aft] "s delay ! ,g]man ,gov]nm5t und]took to issue ! *>t at _! exp5se1 & x 0 publi%$ 9 #ahgi1 aft] f\rte5 ye>s ( prep>ation4 ,x conta9$ no few] ?an #cj1jjj objects1 & its complet$ diamet] 0 six feet ?ree in*es--m ?an d\ble ! size ( any previ\s map ( ! ,moon4 ,inde$1 x 0 probably ! greate/ contribution ev] made to lun> a/ronomy4 ,s*midt liv$ only a few ye>s aft] ! publication ( 8 great *>t4 ,he di$ at ,a!ns1 9 8 fifty-n9? ye>1 ,febru>y #h1 #ahhd4 ,s*midt's ann\ncem5t ( ! *ange 9 ! appe>ance ( ,l9n 0 foll[$ 9 #ahgh by a /atem5t by ,h]mann ,joseph ,kle9 7born #ahdb7 ( ,cologne1 to ! effect t a new crat] _h be5 =m$ to ! nor? ( ! well-kn[n lun> crat]1 ,hyg9us4 ,! *ange 9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 is by no means s c]ta9 z 9 t ( ,l9n4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! majority ( ! /ud5ts ( ! ,moon 7 ,g]mans4 ,9 ,engl& ! /udy 0 n tak5 up until #ahfd1 :5 a ,lun> ,committee ( ! ,briti% ,association 0 appo9t$4 ,"s good lun> "w 0 done by ! well-kn[n a/ronom]1 ,?omas ,william ,webb 7#ahjg-ahhe71 :ile ! /udy 0 popul>is$ by ,james ,nasmy? 7#ahjh-ahij71 ! fam\s eng9e]1 :o publi%$1 9 #ahgd1 9 conjunction ) ,james ,c>p5t] ( ,gre5wi* ,obs]vatory1 a beautifully-illu/rat$ volume entitl$ #8,! ,moon4' ,?is 0 succe$$1 9 #ahgf1 by ! l>g] "w ( ,edmund ,neison 7n[ ,nevill71 ,gov]nm5t ,a/ronom] ( ,natal4 ,ab\t ?is "t sev]al ,engli% a/ronom]s1 devot$ to ! /udy ( ! ,moon1 =m$ !mselves into ! ,sel5ographical ,society4 ,aft] a few ye>s1 h[ev]1 ! society came to an end1 & ! en?usia/s =m$ !mselves into ! lun> section ( ! ,briti% ,a/ronomical ,association1 on ! f\ndation ( t society 9 #ahij4 ,*ief among ^? ,engli% sel5ograph]s 0 ,?omas ,gwyn ,elg] 7#ahcg-ahig71 ^: obs]vations ( ! ,moon & draw+s ( ! v>i\s crat]s 7 ( ! utmo/ value4 ,two ye>s be=e 8 dea?1 9 #ahie1 ,elg] publi%$ 8 important "w1 #8,! ,moon1' along ) an exhau/ive *>t ( ! visible face ( our satellite4 ,h]s*el & ,s*rt] firmly believ$ 9 ! exi/5ce ( a lun> atmosph]e1 ! latt] believ+ t he _h actually obs]v$ ! ,moon's atmosph]ic envelope4 ,e>ly 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury x 0 soon obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t on ! ,moon pass+ ov] & occult+ />s1 ^! />s disappe>$ sudd5ly beh9d ! ,moon's limb1 in/ead ( gradually1 z !y %\ld h done1 _h an atmosph]e ( any d5sity exi/$4 ,accord+ly a/ronom]s gave up believ+ 9 a lun> atmosph]e4 ,on ,janu>y #d1 #ahfe1 ,hugg9s obs]v$ ) 8 spectroscope ! occultation ( a small /> 9 ,pisces4 ,!re 0 n ! slighte/ sign ( absorption 9 a lun> atmosph]e2 ! entire spectrum vani%$ at once4 ,lun> photography 0 introduc$ z long ago z #aheh by ,lewis ,morris ,ru!rfurd 7#ahaf-ahib71 ! well-kn[n ,am]ican a/ronom]2 b = ye>s v little 0 done 9 ?is matt]1 al?\gh ,ru!rfurd secur$ fairly good photographs4 ,ru!rfurd1 ,de la ,rue1 & ! old] a/ronomical photograph]s took photographs ( ! entire ,moon1 b ?is plan 0 ab&on$ 9 fav\r ( :at ,miss ,cl]ke calls 8bit by bit photography40 ,ab\t #ahij ?is me?od 0 introduc$1 & has be5 foll[$ ) success by ,maurice ,loewy 7born #ahcc71 & 8 assi/ant1 ,pusiex1 at ! ,p>is ,obs]vatory2 by ,ladislas ,we9ek at ,prague2 by ! a/ronom]s ( ! ,lick ,obs]vatory2 & by ,william ,h5ry ,pick]+ 7born #aheh71 ! di/+ui%$ a/ronom] ( ,h>v>d1 ^: discov]ies & inve/igations h creat$ q a new int]e/ 9 lun> a/ronomy4 ,^! inve/igations 7 comm5c$ 9 #ahia at ,arequipa1 on ! slope ( ! ,&es1 9 ,p]u4 ,an occultation ( ,jupit]1 witness$ by ,w4 ,h4 ,pick]+ on ,octob] #ab1 #ahib1 gave support to ! view t a v t5u\s lun> atmosph]e does exi/4 ,9 #aijj he e/abli%$1 ne> ,m&eville1 ,jamaica1 a tempor>y a/ronomical /ation1 :]e he obta9$ _m excell5t photographs4 ,totally he secur$ eighty plates4 ,^! appe>$1 z ! fir/ complete photographic lun> atlas ev] publi%$1 9 8 "w #8,! ,moon' 7#aijc71 9 :i* he sums up all 8 obs]vations s9ce #ahia1 & concludes t 8! evid5ce 9 fav\r ( ! idea t volcanic activity ^u ! ,moon has n yet ceas$ is pretty /rong1 if n fairly conclusive40 ,pick]+ po9ts out t ! d5sity ( ! lun> atmosph]e is n great] ?an "o t5-?\s&? ( t at ! ,e>?'s surface1 &1 "u ^! circum/ances1 wat] _c exi/ above freez+-po9t1 :i* ( c\rse br+s u to ! subject ( sn[4 ,he consid]s t sn[ is obs]v$ on ! m\nta9 peaks & ne> ! poles ( ! ,moon1 & he believes 8 conclusion to be v]ifi$ by obs]vations on ! well-kn[n crat]1 ,l9n4 ,he br+s =w>d evid5ce ( ! probable exi/5ce on ! ,moon ( organic life1 po9t+ out t ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! conditions ( ! ,e>? & ! ,moon is n s great z t above & bel[ ! ocean on our own planet4 ,he has collect$ evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( some?+ resembl+ vegetation on ! ,moon 8com+ up1 fl\ri%+1 & dy+1 j z vegetation spr+s & )]s on ! ,e>?40 ,! fir/ successful attempt to measure ! heat+ p[] ( moonlight 0 made 9 #ahdf on ,m\nt ,vesuvius by ,melloni1 an ,italian physici/1 ^: results 7 confirm$ f\r ye>s lat] by ,zant$es*i1 ano!r ,italian4 ,! mo/ important "w 9 ?is direction 0 accompli%$ by ! pres5t ,e>l ( ,rosse 7born 9 #ahdj71 :o 9 ! ye>s #ahfi-gb believ$ himself to h measur$ ! lun> heat2 b ^! conclusions 7 n altoge!r confirm$ by ! obs]vations ( ,dr ,otto ,bo$dick] 7,"l ,rosse's a/ronom]71 dur+ ! total lun> eclipse ( ,octob] #d1 #ahhd4 ,fur!r inve/igations on ?is subject 7 aft]w>ds made by ,samuel ,pi]pont ,langley 7#ahcd-aijf71 ( ,alleghany1 & by 8 assi/ant1 ,frank ,v4 ,! motion ( ! ,moon & its p]turbations 7 made ! subject ( deep /udy by ! fam\s ,pi]re ,simon ,laplace 7#agdi-ahbg71 ! contempor>y ( ,h]s*el1 & ! wor?y successor ( ,newton4 ,he devot$ mu* att5tion to ! secul> accel]ation ( ! ,moon's mean motion1 a problem :i* _h baffl$ ! greate/ ma!maticians4 ,aft] a pr(\nd discussion he f\nd1 9 #aghg1 t ! av]age di/ance ( ! ,e>? & ,moon f ! ,sun _h be5 sl[ly increas+ = sev]al c5turies1 ! result be+ an increase 9 ! ,moon's velocity4 ,9 ! ?ird volume ( ! #8,mcanique ,cle/e' ,laplace work$ out ! lun> !ory 9 great detail1 al?\gh he calculat$ no lun> tables4 ,aft] 8 dea? ! subject 0 tak5 up by ,*>les ,!odore ,damoiseau 7#agfh-ahdf71 & ! mo/ important advance 0 made by ,giovanni ,antonio ,amadeo ,plana 7#agha-ahfd71 ! director ( ! ,tur9 ,obs]vatory1 :o publi%$ 9 #ahcb a v complete lun> !ory4 ,! "w ( ,plana 0 foll[$ by t ( ,pet] ,&reas ,hans5 7#agie-ahgd71 ^: lun> tables 7 us$ = ! ,nautical ,almanac1 & :om ,pr(essor ,simon ,newcomb consid]s to be ! greate/ ma/] ( cele/ial me*anics s9ce ,laplace4 ,! !ory ( ! ,moon's motion 0 work$ out 9 detail by ! fam\s a/ronom] ,*>les ,eug5e ,delaunay 7#ahaf-ahgb71 :o f #ahgj till #ahgb occupi$ ! po/ ( director ( ! ,p>is ,obs]vatory4 ,delaunay 0 ab\t to "w out ! lun> tables :51 9 #ahgb1 he 0 accid5tally dr[n$ by ! capsiz+ ( a pleasure-boat at ,*]b\rg4 ,! "w accompli%$ 9 ?is direction by ,simon ,newcomb 7born #ahce7 is ( great importance1 p>ticul>ly 9 8 correction ( ,hans5's tables4 ,john ,c\* ,adams 7#ahai-ahib71 "o ( ! discov]]s ( ,neptune1 :ile at "w on ! lun> !ory1 _h occasion to correct ,laplace's suppos$ solution ( ! accel]ation ( ! lun> motion4 ,on go+ ov] ! calculation ,adams f\nd t sev]al quantities1 omitt$ by ,laplace z unimportant1 %[$ t ! ,moon has a m9ute increase ( spe$ = :i* ! !ory ( gravitation w n acc\nt1--a conclusion oppos$ by ,plana1 ,hans51 & ,pontc\lant1 b fully confirm$ by ,delaunay4 ,delaunay sugge/$ 9 #ahfe t ! m9ute app>5t increase 0 due to ! ret>dation ( ! ,e>?'s rotation by tidal friction4 ,?is br+s u to ! subject ( cele/ial evolution1 :i* is discuss$ 9 ano!r *apt]4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,! ,,inn] ,,planets4 ,mu* progress has be5 made dur+ ! la/ hundr$ ye>s 9 our k ( ! planets4 ,9 fact1 ! /udy ( ,m]cury only dates f ! comm5cem5t ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,our k ( ! vic9ity ( ! ,sun is v limit$1 & ,m]cury is difficult ( obs]vation4 ,s limit$1 9 fact1 is our k ( ! ,sun's surr\nd+s1 t x is n yet kn[n = c]ta9 :e!r !re is a planet1 or planets1 betwe5 ,m]cury & ! ,sun4 ,p]turbations 9 ! motion ( ! p]ihelion ( ,m]cury's orbit l$ ,le ,v]ri] 9 #ahei to ! belief t a planet ( ab\t ! size ( ,m]cury1 or else a zone ( a/]oids1 exi/$ betwe5 ,m]cury & ! ,sun4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 obvi\s t su* a planet c\ld only be se5 :5 9 transit across ! ,sun's disc1 or dur+ a total eclipse4 ,mean:ile a ,fr5* doctor1 ,lesc>bault1 in=m$ ,le ,v]ri] t he _h se5 a r\nd object 9 transit ov] ! ,sun's disc4 ,le ,v]ri]1 c]ta9 t ?is 0 ! miss+ planet1 nam$ x 8,vulcan10 & calculat$ its orbit1 assign+ x a revolution p]iod ( tw5ty days4 ,b x 0 nev] se5 aga94 ,transits ( 8,vulcan0 7 fix$ = #ahgg & #ahhb1 b no?+ 0 se5 on ^! dates4 ,dur+ ! total eclipse ( ,july #bi1 #ahgh1 two obs]v]s--,james ,watson 7#ahch-ahhj71 ! well-kn[n a/ronom]1 & ,lewis ,swift 7born #ahbj7--;believ$ !mselves to h discov]$ two sep>ate planets1 & ultimately claim$ two planets ea*1 :i* 7 nev] he>d ( aga94 ,dur+ ! total eclipse ( #ahhc an active wat* = 8suspici\s objects0 0 kept1 b ) no result4 ,at ! eclipses ( #aijj & #aija respectively1 photographs 7 expos$ by ! ,am]ican a/ronom]s1 ,w4 ,h4 ,pick]+ & ,*>les ,dillon ,p]r9e 7born #ahfg71 b on none ( ^! plates c\ld any trace ( 8,vulcan0 be f\nd4 ,at ! total eclipse ( ,augu/ #cj1 #aije1 plates 7 aga9 expos$1 b no ann\ncem5t has be5 made ( an intra-,m]curial planet2 & ! preval5t op9ion among a/ronom]s is t no planet comp>able ) ,m]cury 9 size exi/s betwe5 t planet & ! ,sun4 ,! /udy ( ! physical appe>ance ( ,m]cury 0 inaugurat$ by ,s*rt]1 :o 9 #ahjj notic$ t ! s\!rn horn ( ! cresc5t pres5t$ a blunt$ appe>ance1 :i* he attribut$ to ! exi/5ce ( a m\nta9 elev5 miles 9 height4 ,f obs]vations ( ?is m\nta9 he came to ! conclusion t ! planet rotat$ 9 #bd h\rs #d m9utes4 ,?is 0 aft]w>ds r$uc$ by ,fri$ri* ,wilhelm ,bessel 7#aghd-ahdf7 to #bd h\rs #ec seconds4 ,aft] ! "t ( ,s*rt] !re 0 no a/ronom] :o paid mu* att5tion to ei!r ,m]cury or ,v5us until ! arrival on ! sc5e ( ! mo/ p]si/5t planet>y obs]v] & "o ( ! =emo/ a/ronom]s ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,giovanni ,virg9io ,s*iap>elli 0 born at ,savigliano1 9 ,pi$mont1 9 #ahce1 & graduat$ at ,tur9 9 #ahed4 ,call$ to ,milan z assi/ant 9 ! ,br]a ,obs]vatory 9 #ahfj1 he became director 9 #ahfb1 & !re = ?irty-eight ye>s he /udi$ a/ronomy 9 all its aspects1 mak+ a great "n = himself 9 v>i\s bran*es ( ! sci5ce4 ,9 #aijj he retir$ f ! po/ ( director1 & pursues 8 a/ronomical rese>*es 9 8 retirem5t4 ,9 #ahhb ,s*iap>elli took up ! /udy ( ,m]cury 9 ! cle> air ( ,milan4 ,in/ead ( obs]v+ ! planet ?r\gh ! ev5+ haze1 l ,s*rt] & o!rs1 he exam9$ x by day1 & 0 enabl$ to foll[ x h\rly in/ead ( look+ at x = a %ort p]iod :5 ne> ! horizon4 ,at l5g?1 aft] sev5 ye>s' obs]vation1 he ann\nc$1 on ,decemb] #h1 #ahhi1 t ,m]cury p]=ms only "o rotation dur+ its revolution r\nd ! ,sun--9 fact1 t its day & ye> co9cide4 ,z a consequ5ce1 ! planet keeps ! same face t[>ds ! ,sun1 "o side hav+ ev]la/+ day & ! o!r p]petual night2 b ow+ to ! libratory movem5t ( ,m]cury--! result ( uni=m motion on its axis & irregul> motion 9 its orbit--! ,sun rises & sets on a small zone ( ! planet's surface4 ,s*iap>elli's obs]vations indicat$ t ,m]cury is a mu* spott$ globe1 ) a mod]ately d5se atmosph]e1 & he 0 enabl$ to =m a *>t ( its surface-m>k+s4 ,s*iap>elli's conclusions rema9$ until #ahif unconfirm$ & yet n d5i$1 al?\gh mo/ a/ronom]s 7 sceptical on ! subject4 ,9 #ahif ! subject 0 tak5 up by ! ,am]ican a/ronom]1 ,p]cival ,l[ell 7born #ahee71 :o1 9 ! cle> air ( ,arizona1 confirm$ ,s*iap>elli's conclusions1 fix+ #hh days z ! p]iod ( rotation4 ,he rem>k$1 h[ev]1 t no signs ( an atmosph]e or cl\ds 7 visible to him4 ,! surface ( ,m]cury1 he says1 is col\rless1--8a geography 9 black & :ite40 ,! det]m9ation ( ! rotation p]iod by ,s*iap>elli & ,l[ell is n[ g5]ally accept$1 & is confirm$ by ! !ory ( tidal friction4 ,x is only "r to add t ,william ,fr$]ick ,d5n+ 7born #ahdh7 9 #ahha suspect$ a rotation p]iod ( #be h\rs1 b ?is rema9s unconfirm$4 ,9 ,april #ahga ! spectrum ( ,m]cury 0 exam9$ by ,h]mann ,c>l ,vogel 7born #ahdb7 at ,bo?kamp4 ,he suspect$ traces ( an atmosph]e simil> to ours1 b 0 n c]ta94 ,( m int]e/ are ! photometric obs]vations ( ,zlln] 9 #ahgd4 ,^! obs]vations indicat$ t ! surface ( ,m]cury is rugg$ & m\nta9\s1 & comp>able ) ! ,moon1--a conclusion support$ by ,l[ell's obs]vations 9 #ahif4 ,v5us1 ! ne>e/ planet to ! ,e>?1 has be5 att5tively /udi$ = ?ree c5turies1 & /ill comp>atively little is kn[n reg>d+ x4 ,?is is due to its rem>kable brilliancy1 comb9$ ) its proximity to ! ,sun4 ,! great problem at ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury 0 ! rotation ( ! planet4 ,9 #aggi ! subject 0 tak5 up by ,s*rt] at ,lili5?al4 ,n9e ye>s lat]1 f a fa9t /reak visible on ! disc1 he conclud$ t rotation 0 p]=m$ 9 #bc h\rs #bh m9utes1 & 9 #ahaa ?is 0 r$uc$ by sev5 m9utes2 b z ,h]s*el 0 unable to obs]ve ! m>k+s se5 by ,s*rt]1 _m a/ronom]s 7 incl9$ to be sceptical reg>d+ ! accuracy ( ! ,lili5?al obs]v]s results4 ,s*rt] also obs]v$ ! s\!rn horn ( ,v5us :5 9 ! cresc5t =m to be blunt$1 & he ascrib$ ?is to ! exi/5ce ( a great m\nta91 five or six times ! elevation ( ,*imborazo2 :ile he obs]v$ irregul>ities along ! t]m9ator1 :i* he consid]$ to be m /rongly m>k$ ?an ^? on ! ,moon4 ,s*rt]'s op9ion on ?is po9t1 al?\gh reject$ by ,h]s*el1 0 confirm$ by ,mdl]1 ,z5g]1 ,ertborn1 ,d5n+1 & by ! ,italian a/ronom] ,francesco ,di ,vico 7#ahje-ahdh71 director ( ! ,obs]vatory ( ! ,collegio ,romano4 ,9 #ahci ,di ,vico attack$ ! problem ( ! rotation1 & 8 results 7 confirmatory ( ^? ( ,s*rt]4 ,he e/imat$ t ! axis ( ,v5us 0 incl9$ at an angle ( #ec to ! plane ( its orbit4 ,mean:ile a s]ies ( important obs]vations _h be5 made on ,v5us by ! ,scotti% a/ronom] & !ologian1 ,?omas ,dick 7#aggb-aheg71 :o sugge/$ daylight obs]vations on ,v5us to solve ! problem ( ! rotation4 ,9 #ahgg ! "q 0 attack$ by ,s*iap>elli1 :o comm5c$ a s]ies ( obs]vations on ,v5us at ,milan 9 t ye>4 ,! results ( 8 /udies 7 summ$ up 9 #ahij 9 five pap]s contribut$ to ! ,milan ,academy4 ,he came to ! conclusion t ! m>k+s obs]v$ by ,s*rt]1 ,di ,vico1 & o!rs 7 n really p]man5t1 & conc5trat$ 8 att5tion on r\nd :ite spots1 :i* rema9$ fix$ 9 position4 ,in/ead ( obs]v+ ,v5us 9 ! ev5+1 ,s*iap>elli foll[$ x by day1 wat*+ x cont9u\sly on "o occasion = eight h\rs4 ,b ! m>k+s rema9$ fix$4 ,s*iap>elli accord+ly conclud$ t ! planet's rotation 0 p]=m$ 9 probably #bbe days1 equal to ! "t ( revolution4 ,"o face is turn$ t[>ds ! ,sun cont9ually1 :ile ! o!r is p]petually 9 d>kness4 ,! ann\ncem5t 0 s />tl+ t1 z ,miss ,cl]ke says1 8a clam\r ( contradiction 0 imm$iately rais$1 & a l>ge am\nt ( evid5ce on bo? sides ( ! "q has s9ce be5 collect$40 ,p]rot9 at ,nice1 ,tac*9i at ,rome1 ,c]ulli at ,t]amo1 ,masc>i at ,catania & ,m\nt ,etna1 & ,l[ell 9 ,arizona1 all 9 fav\rable climates1 confirm$ ,s*iap>elli's results1 z also did a second s]ies ( obs]vations by ! ,milan a/ronom] himself 9 #ahie4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,nei/51 ,tr\velot1 ,camille ,flamm>ion 7born #ahdb71 & o!rs1 "u less fav\rable climatic conditions1 arriv$ at a p]iod ( #bd h\rs4 ,ari/>* ,blopolsky 7born #ahed71 f spectroscopic obs]vations at ,pulk[a1 by means ( ,doppl]'s pr9ciple1 f\nd a p]iod ( #ab h\rs4 ,l[ell1 by ! same pr9ciple1 f\nd1 9 #aija-jc1 a p]iod ( #bbe days1 9 agreem5t ) ,s*iap>elli's results4 ,?is is ! la/ ^w on ! subject4 ,s*iap>elli's rotation p]iod1 confirm$ by ! !ory ( tidal friction1 is g5]ally accept$4 ,t ,v5us has an atmosph]e 0 "o ( ! conclusions rea*$ by ,s*rt] 9 #agib2 & 9 ?is at lea/ he 0 correct1 z ! atmosph]e ( ,v5us1 illum9at$ by ! sol> rays1 has be5 se5 ext5d+ r\nd ! entire disc ( ! planet4 ,spectroscopic obs]vations by ,tac*9i1 ,ricco1 & ,"y1 dur+ ! transits ( #ahgd & #ahhb1 indicat$ ! exi/5ce ( wat]-vap\r 9 ! planet's atmosph]e4 ,v little has be5 discov]$ reg>d+ ! 8geography0 ( ,v5us4 ,:ite pat*es at ! suppos$ 8poles0 ( ! planet 7 obs]v$ 9 #ahac by ,franz von ,grui?uis51 & 9 #ahgh by ! ,fr5* a/ronom] ,tr\velot 7#ahbg-ahie74 ,! second>y light ( ,v5us1 simil> to ! 8old ,moon 9 ! new ,moon's arms10 0 repeat$ly obs]v$ s9ce ! "t ( ,s*rt] by ,vogel1 ,lohse1 ,z5g]1 & o!rs4 ,vogel attribut$ x to twilight1 & ,lamp1 a ,g]man obs]v]1 to electrical processes analog\s to our auror4 ,9 #ahhg a ,belgian a/ronom]1 ,paul ,/roobant1 submitt$ to a se>*+ exam9ation all ! suppos$ obs]vations ( a satellite ( ,v5us1 & 0 enabl$ to expla9 ne>ly all ! suppos$ satellites z small />s :i* happ5$ to lie ne> ! planet's pa? 9 ! sky at ! "t ( obs]vation4 ,! /udy ( our own planet c h>dly be said to belong to ! realm ( a/ronomy4 ,nev]!less1 x is ?r\gh a/ronomical obs]vation t ! motion ( ! ,nor? ,pole has be5 discov]$4 ,= _m ye>s x has be5 a problem :e!r !re is a v>iation ( latitude result+ f ! motion ( ! pole4 ,eul] _h decl>$1 f !oretical inve/igation1 t1 7 !re su* a motion1 ! p]iod mu/ be #aj mon?s4 ,! "q 0 reviv$ 9 #ahhe by ! obs]vations ( ,se? ,c>lo ,*&l] 7born #ahdf7 at ,cambridge1 ,mass41 ) 8 newly-inv5t$ in/rum5t1 ! 8almucant>10 :i* indicat$ an appreciable v>iation ( latitude4 ,?is 0 confirm$ by ,fri$ri* ,k/n] 7born #ahef71 n[ director ( ! ,obs]vatory at ,bonn4 ,! idea n[ occurr$ to ,*&l] to se>* ?r\gh ! old] records to discov] if !re 0 any trace ( ! v>iation ( latitude1 ) ! result t he br\ght out a p]iod ( #ad mon?s in/ead ( #aj4 ,?is ar\s$ mu* int]e/1 & _m prom95t a/ronom]s d5i$ ,*&l]'s results1 :i* 7 ann\nc$ 9 #ahia4 ,z a well-kn[n a/ronom] has express$ x1 8,eul]'s "w _h %[n :at p]iod ! motion mu/ h1 & any appe>ance ( ano!r p]iod mu/ be due to "s error 9 ! obs]vations4 ,*&l] repli$ to ! effect t he did n c>e = ,eul]'s ma!matics3 ! obs]vations pla9ly %[$ #ad mon?s1 & if ,eul] said #aj1 he mu/ h made ! mi/ake4 ,i d n exagg]ate ! situation 9 ! lea/2 x 0 a deadlock3 ,*&l] & obs]vation aga9/ ! :ole weight ( obs]vation & !ory40 ,x 0 n[ %[n by ,newcomb t ,eul] _h assum$ ! ,e>? to be an absolutely rigid body1 :ile mod]n inve/igations %[ t x is n s4 ,*&l]'s discov]y is n[ accept$1 & proves t ! ,nor? ,pole is n fix$ 9 position1 b has a small p]iodic motion1 ?\gh nev] twelve y>ds f its mean position4 ,t ! small result+ v>iation 9 ! position ( ! />s has be5 notic$ at all is a /rik+ illu/ration ( ! accuracy ( a/ronomical obs]vation4 ,( all ! planets ,m>s has be5 mo/ /udi$ dur+ ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,_m illu/ri\s a/ronom]s h devot$ ye>s to ! /udy ( ! r$ planet1 ) ! result t m is kn[n ( ! surface ( ,m>s ?an ( any o!r cele/ial body1 ) ! exception ( ! ,moon4 ,aft] ! "t ( ,h]s*el1 ! lead+ /ud5ts ( ,m>s 7 ,be] & ,mdl]1 :o c>efully /udi$ ! planet f #ahbh to #ahci4 ,!y id5tifi$ at ea* opposition ! same d>k spots1 frequ5tly obscur$ by mi/s1 & !y also made ! mo/ accurate det]m9ation ( ! rotation p]iod1 :i* !y fix$ at #bd h\rs #cg m9utes #bc seconds4 ,?is e/imate 0 confirm$ 9 #ahfb by ,fri$ri* ,kais] 7#ahjh-ahgb7 ( ,leyd51 9 #ahfi by ,ri*>d ,an?ony ,proctor 7#ahcg-ahhh71 & 9 #ahib by ,h5ricius ,g]>dus van de ,s&e ,bakhuyz5 7born #ahch71 director ( ! ,leyd5 ,obs]vatory4 ,9 #ahfb ,locky] id5tifi$ ! v>i\s m>k+s se5 by ,be] & ,madl] 9 #ahcj4 ,! o!r great names 9 ,m>tian /udy prior to #ahgg are ,angelo ,sec*i & ,william ,rutt] ,dawes 7#agii-ahfh71 :o /udi$ ,m>s f #aheb to #ahfe & secur$ a v valuable s]ies ( draw+s4 ,^! draw+s 7 us$ by ,proctor = ! con/ruction ( ! fir/ reliable map ( ,m>s1 :i* 0 publi%$ 9 #ahgj 9 8 "w1 #8,o!r ,worlds ?an ,ours4' ,proctor gave names to ! v>i\s ,m>tian features1 ! r$di%-o*re portions ( ! disc be+ nam$ cont95ts & ! blui%-gre5 portions seas2 & ,proctor's views on ,m>s f\nd fav\r = _m ye>s4 ,9 #ahgg1 h[ev]1 ,s*iap>elli op5$ a new era 9 ! /udy ( ,m>s4 ,9 ,septemb] ( t ye>1 dur+ ! v fav\rable opposition ( ! planet1 ,s*iap>elli1 :ile execut+ a trigonometrical survey ( ! disc1 discov]$ t ! cont95ts 7 cut up by num]\s long d>k /reaks1 :i* he call$ canali4 ,9 #ahgi1 to 8 surprise1 he f\nd t "s ( ! canals _h become d\ble2 & he confirm$ ?is 9 #ahha & at subsequ5t oppositions4 ,mean:ile1 z ,s*iap>elli 0 ! only obs]v] :o _h hi!rto se5 ! canals1 !re 0 mu* scepticism z to _! reality4 ,9 #ahhf1 h[ev]1 !y 7 se5 at ! ,nice ,obs]vatory by ,h5ri ,p]rot9 7#ahde-aijd71 :o also obs]v$ _! duplication4 ,s9ce #ahhf !y h be5 obs]v$ by _m a/ronom]s1 includ+ ,camille ,flamm>ion 9 ,france1 ,william ,fr$]ick ,d5n+ 7born #ahdh7 9 ,engl&1 ,v9c5zo ,c]ulli 7born #ahei7 9 ,italy1 ,p]cival ,l[ell & ,w4 ,h4 ,pick]+ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 #ahib ,w4 ,h4 ,pick]+ successfully obs]v$ ! canals1 & discov]$ at ! junctions ( two or m canals r\nd black spots1 to :i* he gave ! "n ( 8lakes10 9 keep+ ) ! view t ! d>k regions ( ! planet 7 seas4 ,9 #ahid ,p]cival ,l[ell erect$ at ,flag/aff1 ,arizona1 an obs]vatory = ! specific purpose ( obs]v+ ,m>s & its canals 9 good & /eady air4 ,he 0 assi/$ by ,w4 ,h4 ,pick]+ & by ,&rew ,ellicott ,d\glass 7born #ahfg74 ,dur+ a ye>'s /udy ,d\glass measur$ ! ,m>tian atmosph]e & discov]$ canals cross+ ! d>k regions ( ! planet1 f9ally disprov+ ! idea ( _! aque\s "*4 ,l[ell recognis$ all ,s*iap>elli's canals1 & discov]$ _m m4 ,he also att5tively /udi$ ! s\? pol> cap ( ,m>s1 :i* disappe>$ entirely on ,octob] #ab1 #ahid4 ,l[ell notic$1 also1 t z ! cap melt$ ! canals became d>k]1 z if wat] 0 be+ convey$ d[n2 & accord+ly he adopt$ ! view put =w>d by ,s*iap>elli1 t ! canals are wat]ways l9$ on ei!r side by banks ( vegetation4 ,8 obs]vations 7 publi%$ 9 ! end ( #ahie 9 8 "w #8,m>s4' ,he is ( op9ion t ! r$di%-o*re regions or 8cont95ts0 are des]ts1 & ! gre5i% areas m>%y tracts ( vegetation4 ,! lakes are nam$ by him 8oases10 &1 z ,miss ,cl]ke obs]ves1 he 8does n %r9k f ! full implication ( ! t]m40 ,he reg>ds ! canals z /rips ( vegetation f]tilis$ by a small canal1 mu* too small to be se51 an idea :i* orig9at$ ) ,w4 ,h4 ,pick]+4 ,! canals are believ$ by ,l[ell to be wat]ways d[n :i* ! wat] f ! melt+ pol> cap is convey$ to ! v>i\s oases4 ,he consid]s1 9 fact1 t ! canals are con/ruct$ by intellig5t be+s ) ! express purpose ( f]tilis+ ! oases1 reg>d$ by him z c5tres ( population4 ,he rem>ks t wat] is sc>ce on ! planet1 ow+ to its small size1 & z a consequ5ce ! inhabitants are =c$ to utilise e drop4 ,! canal sy/em is ! result4 ,l[ell's !ory has n be5 cordially receiv$--al?\gh x is n[ gradually ga9+ popul>ity1--& sev]al o!r hypo!ses h be5 prop\nd$ to expla9 ! canals4 ,proctor1 :o di$ "s ye>s be=e ,l[ell's !ory 0 giv5 to ! _w1 reg>d$ !m z riv]s1 b ?is view may n[ be look$ ^u z ab&on$4 ,x 0 sugge/$ t ! canals might be cracks 9 ! surface ( ,m>s or meteors pl\gh+ tracks above x3 & ,pr(essor ,john ,m>t9 ,s*aeb]le 7born #ahec7 ( ! ,lick ,obs]vatory put =w>d ! view t ! canals 7 *a9s ( m\nta9s runn+ ov] ! light & d>k regions4 ,none ( ^! !ories1 h[ev]1 ga9$ popul>ity1 & _h to give way to a m popul> !ory1 ! 8illusion0 hypo!sis1 put =w>d by ! ,italian a/ronom] ,c]ulli1 & support$ by ,newcomb & ,maund]4 ,on ! basis ( ! illusion !ory1 ,newcomb expla9s t ! 8canali=m0 appe>ance 8is n to be reg>d$ z a pure illusion on ! "o h& or an exact repres5tation ( objects on ! o!r4 ,x gr[s out ( ! spontane\s action ( ! eye 9 %ap+ slight & irregul> comb9ations ( light & %ade1 too m9ute to be sep>ately made out into regul> =ms40 ,exp]im5ts 7 made by ,maund] 9 #aijb1 & ! results po9t$ to ! tru? ( ! !ory t ! canals 7 really illusions4 ,b ! /udies ( ,l[ell at ! oppositions ( #aijc & #aije h s]i\sly weak5$ ! hypo!sis ( ,c]ulli & ,maund]1 & /rongly confirm ! !ory ( ! artificial orig9 ( ! canals4 ,9 #aijc ,l[ell 0 enabl$1 f a /udy ( ! developm5t ( ! canals1 to %[ ! probability ( _! artificial nature1 & 8 /udy ( ! d\ble canals %[$ a di/9ct plan 9 _! di/ribution4 ,f9ally1 on ,may #aa1 #aije1 sev]al photographs ( ,m>s 7 secur$ at ! ,l[ell ,obs]vatory1 on :i* ! canals appe>$1 n z dots ( light & %ade1 z on ! illusion !ory1 b z /raight d>k l9es4 ,?is goes f> to prove ! reality ( ! canals1--9 spite ( ! ridicule ca/ on !m & _! obs]v]s1--& consequ5tly ! tru? ( ! !ory ( intellig5t life 9 ,m>s4 ,mean:ile ! old-fa%ion$ ,m>tian obs]vations h be5 cont9u$ 9 less fav\rable climates ?an ,arizona & ,italy by v>i\s a/ronom]s1 among !m ! fam\s ,camille ,flamm>ion1 ! ,am]ican a/ronom]s ,james ,edw>d ,keel] 7#aheg-aijj71 ,edw>d ,em]son ,b>n>d 7born #aheg71 ! ,engli% a/ronom] ,w4 ,f4 ,d5n+1 & o!rs4 ,^! consci5ti\s & pa9/ak+ obs]v]s h done mu* = ,m>tian /udy 9 increas+ ! numb] ( accurate del9eations ( ! ,m>tian surface4 ,! spectrum ( ,m>s 0 fir/ exam9$ by ,hugg9s 9 #ahfg4 ,he f\nd di/9ct traces ( wat]-vap\r1 & ?is 0 confirm$ by ,vogel 9 #ahgb1 & by ,maund] "s ye>s lat]4 ,9 #ahid1 h[ev]1 ,william ,wallace ,campbell 7born #ahfb71 ! ,am]ican a/ronom]1 obs]v+ f ! ,lick ,obs]vatory1 ,cali=nia1 0 unable to detect ! slighte/ diff]5ce betwe5 ! spectra ( ,m>s & ! ,moon1 indicat+ t ,m>s _h no appreciable atmosph]e2 & f ?is he d$uc$ t ! ,m>tian pol> caps c\ld n be compos$ ( sn[ & ice1 b ( froz5 c>bonic acid gas4 ,9 #ahie1 h[ev]1 ,vogel confirm$ 8 previ\s obs]vations1 & reaffirm$ ! pres5ce ( wat]-vap\r 9 ! ,m>tian atmosph]e4 ,dur+ ! opposition ( #ahcj1 ,mdl] und]took an ext5sive se>* = a ,m>tian satellite1 b 0 unsuccessful4 ,9 #ahfb ! se>* 0 resum$ by ,he9ri* ,l\is ,d',arre/ 7#ahbb-ahge71 ! fam\s ,g]man obs]v]1 :o 0 also unsuccessful4 ,accord+ly ! r$ planet 0 ref]r$ to by ,t5nyson z ! 8moonless ,m>s40 ,9 #ahgg ! se>* 0 tak5 up by ,asaph ,hall1 ! self-made ,am]ican a/ronom]1 born at ,go%51 ,connecticut1 9 #ahbi1 & employ$ f #ahfb to #ahia at ! ,naval ,obs]vatory1 ,wa%+ton4 ,dur+ ! fam\s opposition ( ,augu/ #ahgg1 fav\r$ by ! great #bf-;in* refractor1 he succe$$ 9 discov]+ two v small satellites ( ,m>s1 to :i* he gave ! names ( ,phobos & ,deimos4 ,he det]m9$ ! "t ( revolution ( ,phobos at #g h\rs #ci m9utes1 & t ( ,deimos at #cj h\rs #ag m9utes1--,phobos revolv+ r\nd ,m>s m ?an ?ree times = "o rotation ( ! planet on its axis4 ,^! two satellites are v small1 n m ?an ?irty miles 9 diamet]4 ,aft] ,hall's successful se>*1 photographs 7 expos$ at ! ,p>is ,obs]vatory = o!r ,m>tian satellites1 b none 0 discov]$4 ,no fur!r moons h be5 f\nd belong+ to ! r$ planet1 nor is x likely t any fur!r satellites ( ,m>s are 9 exi/5ce4 ,! discov]y ( a zone ( small planets 9 ! space betwe5 ,m>s & ,jupit] belongs completely to ! n9ete5? c5tury1 al?\gh ! exi/5ce ( a planet 9 ! vacant space 0 suspect$ ?ree c5turies ago4 ,9 #aggb ! subject 0 tak5 up by ,johann ,el]t ,bode 7#agdg-ahbf71 aft]w>ds director ( ! ,b]l9 ,obs]vatory1 :o inve/igat$ a curi\s num]ical relation%ip1 s9ce kn[n z ,bode's ,law1 connect+ ! di/ances ( ! planets4 ,if f\r is add$ to ea* ( ! numb]s--#j1 #c1 #f1 #ab1 #bd1 #dh1 #if1 & #aib1 ! result+ s]ies repres5ts pretty accurately ! di/ances ( ! planets f ! ,sun1 ?us--#d 7,m]cury71 #g 7,v5us71 #aj 7,! ,e>?71 #af 7,m>s71 #bh1 #eb1 7,jupit]71 & #ajj 7,saturn74 ,aft] ! discov]y ( ,uranus1 9 #agha1 x 0 f\nd t x fill$ up ! numb] #aif4 ,bode1 h[ev]1 saw t ! numb] #bh1 betwe5 ,m>s & ,jupit]1 0 vacant1 & pr$ict$ ! discov]y ( ! planet4 ,aid$ by ,franz ,xavi] von ,za* 7#aged-ahcb71 he call$ a congress ( a/ronom]s1 :i* assembl$ 9 #ahjj at ,s*rt]'s obs]vatory at ,lili5?al1 :51 = ! purpose ( se>*+ = ! miss+ planet1 ! zodiac 0 divid$ into tw5ty-f\r zones1 ea* ( :i* 0 giv5 to a sep>ate a/ronom]4 ,"o ( !m 0 res]v$ = ,giuseppe ,piazzi 7#agdf-ahbf71 director ( ! ,obs]vatory ( ,pal]mo4 ,born 9 #agdf at ,ponte1 9 ,lomb>dy1 ,giuseppe ,piazzi1 aft] ent]+ ! ,!at9e ,ord] ( monks1 became 9 #aghj ,pr(essor ( ,ma!matics at ,pal]mo1 :]e an obs]vatory 0 erect$ 9 #agia2 & at t obs]vatory ,piazzi work$ till 8 dea? 9 #ahbf4 ,9 #agib he comm5c$ a great />-catalogue1 & :ile mak+ 8 nightly obs]vations he discov]$1 on ,janu>y #a1 #ahja--! fir/ night ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1--:at he took to be a tailless comet1 b :i* prov$ to be a small planet revolv+ r\nd ! sun 9 ! vacant space4 ,! discov]y 0 hail$ by ,bode & ,von ,za* ) mu* en?usiasm1 & ,piazzi nam$ ! planet ,c]es4 ,! little planet 01 h[ev]1 soon lo/ 9 ! rays ( ! sun be=e suffici5t obs]vations _h be5 made2 b ! great ma!matician1 ,fri$ri* ,gauss 7#aggg-ahee71 came to ! rescue1 & po9t$ out ! spot :]e ! planet 0 to be r$iscov]$4 ,9 t spot x 0 f\nd on ,decemb] #ca1 #ahja1 by ,von ,za* at ,go?a1 & on ! foll[+ ev5+ by ,he9ri* ,olb]s 7#ageh-ahdj7 at ,brem54 ,on ,m>* #bh1 #ahjb1 :ile obs]v+ ,c]es f 8 h\se at ,brem51 ,olb]s 0 /ruck by ! pres5ce ( a /range object ne> ! pa? ( ! planet4 ,at fir/ he suppos$ x to be a v>iable /> at maximum brilliance1 b a few h\rs %[$ him t x 0 9 motion1 & 0 !re=e ano!r planet4 ,he nam$ x ,pallas1 & prop\nd$ ! !ory t ! two 8,a/]oids0--s nam$ by ,h]s*el--7 fragm5ts ( a trans-,m>tian planet1 :i*1 ?r\gh "s accid5t1 _h be5 %att]$ to pieces 9 ! remote pa/4 ,olb]s urg$ ! necessity ( se>*+ = m small planets4 ,8 advice 0 tak54 ,9 #ahjd ,k>l ,ludwig ,h>d+ 7#agfe-ahcd71 ,s*rt]'s assi/ant1 discov]$ ,juno1 & ,olb]s himself detect$ ,ve/a1 ,m>* #bi1 #ahjg4 ,aft] #ahaf ! se>* 0 rel9qui%$1 z no m planets 7 discov]$4 ,9 #ahcj1 h[ev]1 a ,g]man amateur1 ,k>l ,ludwig ,h5cke 7#agic-ahff71 ex-po/ma/] ( ,driess51 comm5c$ a se>* = new planets1 :i* 0 rew>d$1 aft] fifte5 ye>s1 by ! discov]y ( ,a/ra1 ,decemb] #h1 #ahde4 ,on ,july #a1 #ahdg1 he made ano!r discov]y1 t ( ,hebe4 ,a few weeks lat]1 ,john ,russell ,h9d 7#ahbc-ahie71 ! ,engli% a/ronom]1 discov]$ ,iris4 ,s9ce #ahdg n a ye> has pass$ )\t "o or m planets be+ f\nd1 sometimes z _m z tw5ty be+ discov]$ 9 a s+le ye>4 ,"s a/ronom]s h made ! se>* = a/]oids _! *ief bus9ess4 ,! pr9cipal a/]oid discov]]s h be5 ,*ri/ian ,h4 ,f4 ,pet]s 7#ahac-ahij71 ,h5ri ,p]rot91 ,paul ,h5ry 7#ahdh-aije71 ,prosp] ,h5ry 7#ahdi-aijc71 ,james ,watson1 ,rob]t ,lu!r 7#ahbb-aijj71 ,johann ,palisa 7born #ahdh71 & ,max ,wolf 7born #ahfc74 ,9 #ahia a new impulse 0 giv5 to a/]oid /udy by ! application ( photography by ,max ,wolf to ! discov]y ( ! m9or planets4 ,x occurr$ to ,wolf t ! a/]oid w\ld be repres5t$ on ! plate by a trail1 caus$ by its motion dur+ ! "t ( exposure2 & assi/$ by ,arnold ,s*wassmann 7born #ahgj71 ,luigi ,c>n]a 7born #ahge71 & o!rs1 ,wolf has discov]$ ov] a hundr$ a/]oids1 & he has ! :ole field ( a/]oid hunt+ to himself4 ,few m9or planets are n[ discov]$ by ! old] me?od4 ,9 #aija ,wolf inv5t$ 8 new in/rum5t ( rese>*1 ! /]eo-comp>ator1 :i*1 on ! pr9ciple ( ! old-fa%ion$ /]eoscope1 repres5ts ! planet>y bodies z susp5d$ 9 space f> 9 front ( ! />s4 ,9 ?is way ?is +5i\s a/ronom] has be5 enabl$ to discov] a/]oids at ! fir/ glance3 ye> by ye> fre% discov]ies are ann\nc$ f ! ,heidelb]g ,obs]vatory1 until m ?an five hundr$ a/]oids are n[ kn[n4 ,wan+ int]e/ 9 ! ev]-increas+ family ( a/]oids 0 reviv$ 9 #ahih by ! discov]y by ,k>l ,gu/av ,witt 7born #ahff7 ( a small planet1 to :i* he gave ! "n ( ,eros1 :i* comes ne>] to ! ,e>? ?an ,m>s1 & :i* is ( great assi/ance to a/ronom]s 9 ! det]m9ation ( ! sol> p>allax4 ,= "s "t prior to #ahih a/ronom]s _h consid]$ x a wa/e ( "t to se>* = new a/]oids2 b ?is idea is n n[ s popul>1 9 view ( ! b5efit conf]r$ on a/ronomy by ! discov]y ( ,eros4 ,( ! physical nature ( ! a/]oids a/ronom]s "k no?+4 ,only ! f\r l>ge/ h be5 measur$4 ,= _m ye>s x 0 suppos$ t ,ve/a1 ! brighte/ ( ! a/]oids1 0 also ! l>ge/4 ,! measures ( ,b>n>d ) ! great ,lick refractor 9 #ahie1 h[ev]1 %[$ t ,c]es is ! l>ge/1 ) a diamet] ( #dgg miles4 ,pallas comes next1 ) a diamet] ( #cjd miles2 :ile ! diamet]s ( ,ve/a & ,juno are respectively #bci & #abj miles4 ,b>n>d saw no traces ( atmosph]e r\nd any ( ! a/]oids4 ,x %\ld be /at$ t 9 #ahgb ,vogel ?\ght he c\ld detect an 8air-l9e0 9 ! spectrum ( ,ve/a3 he admitt$ t ! obs]vation requir$ confirmation1 b x has n be5 corroborat$ ei!r by himself or any o!r obs]v]4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,out] ,,planets4 ,jupit]1 ! greate/ planet ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em1 has p]haps be5 m p]si/5tly /udi$ by a/ronom]s ?an any o!r4 ,9 ! e>ly n9ete5? c5tury ! preval5t idea 0 t ,jupit] 0 a _w simil> to ! ,e>?1 only mu* l>g]1--a view held by ,h]s*el & o!r fam\s a/ronom]s1 & put =w>d by ,brew/] 9 #8,m ,worlds ?an ,"o4' ,?is view prevail$ = _m ye>s1 al?\gh ,buffon 9 #aggh1 & ,kant 9 #aghe1 _h /at$ _! belief 9 ! idea t ,jupit] 0 /ill 9 a /ate ( great heat--9 fact1 t ! great planet 0 a semi-sun4 ,?is idea1 h[ev]1 0 long 9 be+ adopt$ by a/ronom]s1 & v little att5tion 0 paid to ,nasmy?'s expression ( ! same op9ion 9 #ahec4 ,! old] view /ill held ! field--namely1 t ! belts ( ,jupit] repres5t$ trade-w9ds1 & t a _w simil> to ! t]re/rial lay bel[ ! ,jovian cl\ds4 ,9 #ahfj ,george ,philip ,bond 7#ahbf-ahfe71 director ( ! ,h>v>d ,obs]vatory1 f\nd f exp]im5ts t ,jupit] seem$ to give out m light ?an x receiv$1 b he did n d>e to sugge/ t ,jupit] 0 self-lum9\s1 consid]+ t ! inh]5t light might result f ,jovian auroras4 ,9 #ahfe ,zlln] %[$ t ! rapid motions ( ! cl\d-belts on bo? ,jupit] & ,saturn indicat$ a high int]nal temp]ature4 ,at ! di/ance ( ,jupit] sun-heat is only "o tw5ty-sev5? z great z on ! ,e>?1 & w\ld be q incapable ( =m+ cl\ds _m times d5s] ?an ^? on ! ,e>?4 ,9 #ahga ,zlln] drew att5tion to ! equatorial accel]ation ( ,jupit]1 analog\s to ! same ph5om5on on ! ,sun4 ,9 #ahgj ^! op9ions ( ,zlln]'s 7 adopt$ & support$ by ,proctor 9 8 #8,o!r ,worlds ?an ,ours4' ,9 8 subsequ5t volumes ,proctor did mu* to popul>ise ! idea1 :i* is n[ accept$ all ov] ! a/ronomical _w4 ,dur+ ! c5tury _m valuable obs]vations on ,jupit] 7 made by num]\s obs]v]s1 among !m ,airy1 ,mdl]1 ,webb1 ,s*midt1 & o!rs4 ,mu* "t 0 devot$ to ! accurate det]m9ation ( ! rotation p]iod1 :i* 0 fix$ at #i h\rs #ee m9utes #cfef seconds by ,d5n+ 9 obs]vations f #ahhj to #aijc4 ,no really important discov]y 0 made till #ahgh1 :5 ,nie/5 at ,brussels discov]$ ! 8great r$ spot10 a ruddy object #be1jjj miles long by #gjjj broad1 atta*$ to a :ite zone b5ea? ! s\!rn equatorial belt4 ,?is rem>kable object has be5 obs]v$ ev] s9ce4 ,9 #ahgi its col\r 0 brick-r$ & v conspicu\s1 b x soon began to fade1 & ,ricc's obs]vation at ,pal]mo 9 #ahhc 0 ?\ght to be ! la/4 ,aft] "s mon?s1 h[ev]1 x bright5$ up1 &1 not)/&+ *anges ( =m & col\r1 x is /ill visible1 a p]man5t feature ( ! ,jovian disc4 ,9 #ahgi a gr\p ( 8facul10 simil> to ^? on ! ,sun1 0 obs]v$ at ,mosc[ by ,!odor ,alex&rovit* ,brdikh9e 7#ahca-aijd71 & at ,potsdam by ,wilhelm ,oswald ,lohse 7born #ahde74 ,x 0 soon obs]v$ t ! rotation p]iod1 z det]m9$ f ! great r$ spot1 0 n con/ant1 b cont9ually increas+4 ,a :ite spot 9 ! vic9ity complet$ its rotation 9 #e m9utes less1 indicat+ ! diff]5ces ( rotation on ,jupit]4 ,! great r$ spot has be5 obs]v$ s9ce its discov]y by ,d5n+ at ,bri/ol & ,george ,h\gh 7born #ahcf7 at ,*icago4 ,tw5ty-eight ye>s ( obs]vation h n solv$ ! my/]y ( its nature4 ,! rese>*es made on x1 9 ! words ( ,miss ,cl]ke1 8af=d$ gr\nds only = negative conclusions z to its nature4 ,x c]ta9ly did n repres5t ! outp\r+s ( a ,jovian volcano2 x 0 9 no s5se atta*$ to ! ,jovian soil--if ! phrase h any application to ! planet2 x 0 n a m]e disclosure ( a gl[+ mass else:]e see!d ov] by roll+ vap\rs40 ,9 #ahgj ,ar?ur ,c[p] ,rany>d 7#ahde-ahid71 ! well-kn[n ,engli% a/ronom]1 began to collect records ( unusual ph5om5a on ! ,jovian disc to see if any p]iod regulat$ _! appe>ance4 ,he came to ! conclusion t1 on ! :ole1 !re 0 h>mony betwe5 ! m>k+s on ,jupit] & ! elev5-ye> p]iod on ! ,sun4 ,! !ory ( inh]5t light 9 ,jupit]1 h[ev]1 has n be5 confirm$4 ,! great planet 0 exam9$ spectroscopically by ,hugg9s f #ahfb to #ahfd1 & by ,vogel f #ahga to #ahgc4 ,! spectrum %[$1 9 addition to ! l9es ( reflect$ sunlight1 "s l9es indicat+ aque\s vap\r1 & o!rs :i* h n be5 id5tifi$ ) any t]re/rial sub/ance4 ,a photographic /udy ( ! spectrum ( ,jupit] 0 made at ! ,l[ell ,obs]vatory by ,sliph] 9 #aijd1 probably ! mo/ exhau/ive inve/igation on ! subject4 ,! spectroscope has1 h[ev]1 giv5 little support to ! !ory ( inh]5t light1 & 8we are driv5 to conclude t native emissions f ,jupit]'s visible surface are local & fitful1 n p]man5t & g5]al40 ,h]s*el's idea1 t ! rotations ( ! f\r satellites ( ,jupit] 7 co9cid5t ) _! revolutions1 has on ! :ole be5 confirm$ by rec5t rese>*es1 al?\gh 9 ! case ( ! two ne> satellites 7,io & ,europa7 ,w4 ,h4 ,pick]+'s obs]vations 9 #ahic indicat$ %ort] rotation p]iods4 ,!re is mu* to le>n reg>d+ ! geography ( ! satellites1 al?\gh 9 #ahia ,s*aeb]le & ,campbell at ! ,lick ,obs]vatory obs]v$ belts on ! surface ( ,ganym$e1 ! ?ird satellite analog\s to ^? on ,jupit]4 ,surface-m>k+s on ! satellites h also be5 se5 by ,b>n>d at ! ,lick ,obs]vatory1 & by ,d\glass at ,flag/aff4 ,s9ce ! "t ( ,galileo no addition _h be5 made to ! sy/em ( satellites revolv+ r\nd ,jupit]4 ,pr(\nd surprise 0 creat$1 !re=e1 by ! ann\ncem5t ( ! discov]y ( a fif? satellite by ,b>n>d at ! ,lick ,obs]vatory1 on ,septemb] #i1 #ahib4 ,! satellite1 "o ( ! fa9te/ ( telescopic objects1 0 discov]$ ) ! great #cf-;in* telescope1 & its exi/5ce 0 soon confirm$ by ,&rew ,anslie ,common 7#ahda-aijc71 ) 8 great #e-;foot reflector at ,eal+1 ne> ,london4 ,! new satellite 0 f\nd by ,b>n>d to revolve r\nd ,jupit] 9 #aa h\rs #eg m9utes at a mean di/ance ( #aab1jjj miles4 ,al?\gh ! exi/5ce ( o!r satellites ( ,jupit] 0 pr$ict$ by ,sir ,rob]t ,/awell ,ball 7born #ahdj7 soon aft] ! discov]y ( ! fif?1 mu* surprise 0 creat$ by ! ann\ncem5t1 9 ,janu>y #aije1 t a six? satellite _h be5 discov]$ by ,p]r9e1 :o1 9 ! foll[+ mon?1 ann\nc$ ! discov]y ( a sev5?4 ,^! discov]ies 7 made by photography1 ! objects be+ v fa9t4 ,! p]iods ( revolution 7 f\nd to be #bdb days & #bjj days = ! six? & sev5? satellites respectively1 ! mean di/ances be+ #f1ifh1jjj & #f1acf1jjj miles4 ,x is possible t !y may belong to a zone ( a/]oidal satellites4 ,9 fact1 ! fif? moon may belong to a simil> zone1 s t ,jupit] may h two a/]oidal zones2 b ?is is anticipat+ future discov]y4 ,a p>ticul> *>m has always atta*$ itself to ! /udy ( ,saturn1 ! r+$ planet4 ,! magnific5t sy/em ( r+s has = two & a half c5turies be5 ! object ( wond] & admiration 9 ! ,sol> ,sy/em1 & accord+ly !y h be5 exhau/ively /udi$ by _m em95t obs]v]s4 ,:ile obs]v+ ! two bright r+s ( ,saturn on ,june #aj1 #ahch1 ,galle notic$ :at ,miss ,cl]ke calls 8a veil-l ext5sion ( ! lucid r+ across half ! d>k space sep>at+ x f ! planet40 ,no att5tion1 h[ev]1 0 paid to ,galle's obs]vation4 ,on ,novemb] #ae1 #ahej1 ,william ,cran* ,bond 7#aghi-ahei71 ( ! ,h>v>d ,obs]vatory 9 ,massa*usetts1 discov]$ ! same ph5om5on "u its true =m--t ( a dusky r+ int]ior to ! m brilliant "o4 ,a =tnight lat]1 be=e ! news ( ,bond's obs]vation1 ,dawes made ! same discov]y indep5d5tly at ,wat]+bury 9 ,engl&4 ,?is r+ is kn[n z ! dusky or 8crape0 r+4 ,! discov]y ( ! dusky r+ br\ght to ! front ! problem ( ! composition ( ! r+-sy/em4 ,laplace & ,h]s*el consid]$ ! r+s to be solid1 b ?is 0 d5i$ 9 #ahdh by ,ed\>d ,ro*e 7#ahbj-ahhj71 :o believ$ !m to consi/ ( small p>ticles1 & 9 #ahea by ,g4 ,p4 ,bond1 :o ass]t$ t ! v>iations 9 ! appe>ance ( ! sy/em 7 suffici5t to negative ! idea ( _! solidity2 b he sugge/$ t ! r+s 7 fluid4 ,9 #aheg ! "q 0 tak5 up by ! ,scotti% physici/1 ,james ,cl]k-,maxwell 7#ahca-ahgi71 :o prov$ by ma!matical calculation t ! r+s c\ld be nei!r solid nor fluid1 b 7 due to an aggregation ( small p>ticles1 s closely cr[d$ toge!r z to pres5t ! appe>ance ( a cont9u\s :ole4 ,cl]k-,maxwell's explanation--:i* _h be5 sugge/$ by ! y\ng] ,cass9i 9 #agae1 & by ,?omas ,wright 9 #agej--0 at once adopt$1 & has s9ce be5 prov$ by obs]vation4 ,9 #ahhh ,hugo ,seelig] 7born #ahdi71 director ( ! ,muni* ,obs]vatory1 %[$ f photometric obs]vations ! correctness ( ! satellite-!ory2 :ile ,b>n>d 9 #ahhi witness$ an eclipse ( ! satellite ,japetus by ! dusky r+4 ,! satellite did n disappe>1 b 0 se5 ) p]fect di/9ctness4 ,! f9al demon/ration ( ! meteoric nature ( ! r+s 0 made by ,keel] at ! ,alleghany ,obs]vatory 9 #ahie1 ) ! aid ( ! spectroscope4 ,by means ( ,doppl]'s pr9ciple1 he f\nd t ! inn] edge ( ! r+ revolv$ 9 a mu* %ort] "t ?an ! out]1 prov+ conclusively t !y c\ld n be solid4 ,?is 0 confirm$ by ! obs]vations ( ,campbell at ,m\nt ,hamilton1 ,h5ri ,desl&res at ,meudon1 & ,blopolsky at ,pulk[a4 ,9 #ahea a />tl+ !ory reg>d+ ,saturn's r+s 0 put =w>d by ! fam\s ,otto ,wilhelm von ,/ruve 7#ahai-aije74 ,comp>+ 8 measurem5ts on ! r+s made at ,pulk[a 9 #ahej & #ahea ) ^? ( o!r a/ronom]s = ! pa/ two hundr$ ye>s1 he rea*$ ! conclusion t ! inn] diamet] ( ! r+ 0 decreas+ at ! rate ( sixty miles a-ye>1 & t ! bodies compos+ ! r+s 7 be+ drawn clos] to ! planet4 ,accord+ly1 ,/ruve calculat$ t only ?ree c5turies w\ld be requir$ to br+ ab\t ! precipitation ( ! r+-sy/em on to ! globe ( ,saturn4 ,9 #ahha & #ahhb ,/ruve1 expect+ a fur!r decrease1 made ano!r s]ies ( measures1 b ^! did n confirm 8 !ory1 :i* 0 accord+ly ab&on$4 ,! /udy ( ! globe ( ,saturn has made less progress ?an t ( ! r+s4 ,! surface ( ! planet _h be5 kn[n s9ce be=e ! "t ( ,h]s*el to be cov]$ ) belts1 b z spots seldom appe> on ,saturn1 only "o det]m9ation ( ! rotation p]iod _h be5 made1 t by ,h]s*el4 ,mu* int]e/ 0 ar\s$1 !re=e1 by ! discov]y1 by ,hall1 at ,wa%+ton1 on ,decemb] #g1 #ahgf1 ( a bright equatorial spot4 ,hall /udi$ ?is spot dur+ sixty rotations ( ! planet1 det]m9+ ! p]iod z #aj h\rs #ad m9utes #bd seconds4 ,?is 0 confirm$ by ,d5n+ 9 #ahia1 & by ,/anley ,williams1 an ,engli% obs]v]1 9 ! same ye>4 ,on ,june #af1 #aijc1 ,b>n>d1 at ! ,y]kes ,obs]vatory1 discov]$ a bright spot1 f :i* he d$uc$ a rotation p]iod ( #aj h\rs #ci m9utes1--a p]iod consid]ably long] ?an t f\nd by ,hall4 ,9 ! same ye> v>i\s spots on ,saturn 7 obs]v$ by ,d5n+1 :o f\nd a p]iod ( #aj h\rs #cg m9utes #efd seconds1 & at ,b>celona by ,jos ,comas ,sola1 n[ director ( ! ,obs]vatory !re1 :o may be consid]$ ,spa9's lead+ a/ronom]4 ,! result ( ^! obs]vations has be5 to %[ t ! spots on ,saturn h probably a prop] motion ( _! own1 ap>t f ! rotation ( ! planet4 ,z to ! spectrum ( ,saturn1 little has be5 le>n$4 ,x closely resembles t ( ,jupit]4 ,9 #ahfg ,janss51 obs]v+ f ! summit ( ,m\nt ,etna1 f\nd traces ( aque\s vap\r 9 ! planet's atmosph]e4 ,9 ! *apt]s on ,h]s*el we h se5 t he discov]$ ! six? & sev5? satellites ( ,saturn4 ,! next discov]y 0 made on ,septemb] #ai1 #ahdh1 by ,w4 ,c4 ,bond1 at ,h>v>d1 ,massa*usetts1 & indep5d5tly by ,william ,lassell 7#agii-ahhj71 at ,/>field1 ne> ,liv]pool4 ,! new satellite receiv$ ! "n ( ,hyp]ion1 & 0 f\nd to be situat$ at a di/ance ( ab\t #idf1jjj miles f ,saturn4 ,its small size l$ ,sir ,john ,h]s*el to ! idea t x might be an a/]oidal satellite4 ,fifty ye>s elaps$ be=e ano!r satellite ( ,saturn 0 discov]$4 ,9 #ahhh ,w4 ,h4 ,pick]+ comm5c$ a photographic se>* = new satellites ( ! planet4 ,at la/1 on develop+ "s photographs ( ,saturn1 tak5 on ,augu/ #af1 #ag1 & #ah1 #ahih1 he f\nd traces ( a new satellite :i* he nam$ 8,phbe40 ,b1 z ! satellite 0 n se5 or photograph$ aga9 = "s ye>s1 _m a/ronom]s 7 sceptical z to its exi/5ce4 ,h[ev]1 photographs tak5 9 #aijj1 #aija1 & #aijb reveal$ ! satellite1 :i* 0 aga9 photograph$ 9 #aijd1 & se5 visually by ,b>n>d 9 ! same ye> ) ! #dj-;in* ,y]kes telescope4 ,at t "t ! discov]] br\ght out ! amaz+ fact t ! motion ( ! satellite is retrograde--a fact :i* he attempts to expla9 by a new !ory ( ! =m] rotation ( ,saturn4 ,he likewise demon/rat$ t its di/ance f ,saturn v>i$ f #f1abj1jjj to #i1gdj1jjj miles4 ,e>ly 9 #aije ,pick]+ ann\nc$ ! discov]y ( a t5? satellite ( ,saturn1 :i* receiv$ ! "n ( ,!mis1 ) a p]iod & mean di/ance ne>ly simil> to ,hyp]ion1 s t ,sir ,john ,h]s*el's idea ( ,hyp]ion be+ an a/]oidal satellite is be+ confirm$ aft] a lapse ( half a c5tury4 ,if little is kn[n ( ! globe ( ,saturn1 /ill less is kn[n reg>d+ ,uranus4 ,dusky b&s resembl+ ^? ( ,jupit] 7 obs]v$ by ,"y at ,pr9ceton 9 #ahhc4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye> ,paul & ,prosp] ,h5ry disc]n$ at ,p>is two grey p>allel l9es on ! disc ( ! planet4 ,?is 0 confirm$ by ! obs]vations ( ,p]rot9 at ,nice1 :i* also indicat$ rotation 9 a p]iod ( t5 h\rs4 ,9 #ahij ,p]rot9 aga9 took up ! /udy & re-obs]v$ ! d>k b&s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 no def9ite results reg>d+ ! planet 7 obta9$ by ! ,lick obs]v]s 9 #ahhi & #ahij4 ,measurem5ts ( ! planet by ,"y1 ,s*iap>elli1 ,p]rot91 & o!rs indicate a consid]able pol> compression4 ,! spectrum ( ! planet has be5 /udi$ by ,sec*i1 ,hugg9s1 ,vogel1 ,keel]1 ,sliph]1 & o!rs4 ,! spectrum %[s six b&s ( orig9al absorption1 a l9e ( hydrog51 :i*1 says ,miss ,cl]ke1 8implies accord+ly ! pres5ce ( free hydrog5 9 ! ,uranian atmosph]e1 :]e a temp]ature mu/ ?us prevail suffici5tly high to r$uce wat] to its con/itu5t elem5ts40 ,f a photographic /udy ( ! spectrum at ! ,l[ell ,obs]vatory 9 #aijd1 ,sliph] obs]v$ a l9e correspond+ to t ( helium1 indicat+ ! pres5ce ( t elem5t 9 ! planet's atmosph]e4 ,h]s*el left our k ( ! ,uranian satellites 9 a v unc]ta9 /ate4 ,! two out] satellites1 ,titania & ,ob]on1 7 r$iscov]$ 9 #ahbh by 8 son1 b ! o!r f\r1 :i* he 0 believ$ to h discov]$1 7 nev] se5 aga94 ,9 #ahdg two inn] satellites1 ,ariel & ,umbriel1 7 discov]$ by ,lassell & ,otto ,/ruve respectively1 _! exi/5ce be+ f9ally confirm$ by ,lassell's obs]vations 9 #ahea4 ,aft] ! discov]y ( ,uranus by ,h]s*el1 ma!matical a/ronom]s det]m9$ its orbit & calculat$ its position 9 ! future4 ,alexis ,b\v>d1 ! calculat+ p>tn] ( ,laplace1 publi%$ tables ( ! planet's motions1 f\nd$ on obs]vations made by v>i\s a/ronom]s :o _h consid]$ x a /> be=e its discov]y by ,h]s*el2 b z ! planet 0 n 9 ! exact position :i* ,b\v>d pr$ict$1 he reject$ ! e>li] obs]vations altoge!r4 ,= a few ye>s ! planet con=m$ to ! ,fr5*man's pr$ictions1 b %ortly aft]w>ds x 0 aga9 obs]v$ to move 9 an irregul> mann]1 & ! discrepancy betwe5 obs]vation & ! calculations ( ma!maticians became intol]able4 ,did ! law ( gravitation n hold good = ! fronti]s ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em8 ,gradually a/ronom]s arriv$ at ! conclusion t ,uranus 0 be+ attract$ (f its c\rse by ! influ5ce ( an unse5 body1 an ext]ior planet4 ,b\v>d himself 0 "o ( ! fir/ to make ! sugge/ion1 b di$ be=e ! planet 0 discov]$4 ,an ,engli% amateur1 ! ,rev4 ,t4 ,j4 ,hussey1 resolv$ to make1 9 #ahcd1 a det]m9ation ( ! place ( ! unse5 body1 b f\nd 8 p[]s inadequate2 & 9 #ahdj ,bessel laid 8 plans = an inve/igation ( ! problem1 b fail+ heal? prev5t$ him c>ry+ out 8 design4 ,9 #ahda a /ud5t at ! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge resolv$ to grapple ) ! problem4 ,john ,c\* ,adams1 born at ,lidcot 9 ,cornwall 9 #ahai1 ent]$ 9 #ahci ! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge1 :]e he graduat$ 9 #ahdc4 ,f #aheh ,pr(essor ( ,a/ronomy at ,cambridge1 & f #ahfa director ( ! ,obs]vatory1 he di$ on ,janu>y #ba1 #ahib1 aft] a life sp5t 9 devotion to ma!matical a/ronomy4 ,9 #ahdc1 on tak+ 8 degree1 he comm5c$ ! inve/igation ( ! orbit ( ,uranus4 ,= two ye>s he work$ at ! difficult "q1 & by ,septemb] #ahde came to ! conclusion t a planet revolv+ at a c]ta9 di/ance beyond ,uranus w\ld produce ! obs]v$ irregul>ities4 ,he h&$ to ,james ,*allis 7#ahjc-ahhb71 ! director ( ! ,cambridge ,obs]vatory1 a pap] conta9+ ! elem5ts ( :at 0 nam$ by ,adams 8! new planet40 ,on ,octob] #ba ( ! same ye> he visit$ ,gre5wi* ,obs]vatory1 & left a pap] conta9+ ! elem5ts ( ! planet1 & approximately fix+ its position 9 ! heav5s4 ,b ! ,a/ronom]-,royal ( ,engl&1 ,sir ,george ,biddell ,airy 7#ahja-ahib71 _h little fai? 9 ! calculations ( ! "y ma!matician4 ,he always consid]$ ! correctness ( a di/ant ma!matical result to be a subject r ( moral ?an ( ma!matical evid5ce3 9 fact1 reg>d+ ,uranus1 ! ,a/ronom]-,royal almo/ call$ 9 "q ! correctness ( ! law ( gravitation4 ,besides1 ! novelty ( ! inve/igations ar\s$ scepticism1 & ! fact t ,adams 0 a "y man1 & inexp]i5c$1 w5t aga9/ ,airy's acceptance ( ! !ory4 ,h[ev]1 he wrote to ,adams que/ion+ him on ! s\ndness ( 8 idea4 ,adams ?\ght ! matt] trivial1 & did n reply4 ,airy1 !re=e1 took no int]e/ 9 ! inve/igations1 & no /eps 7 tak5 to se>* = ! unse5 planet4 ,mean:ile ! ,rev4 ,w4 ,r4 ,dawes happ5$ to see ,adams' pap]s ly+ at ,gre5wi*1 & wrote to 8 fri5d1 ! well-kn[n a/ronom] ,lassell1 :o 0 9 possession ( a v f9e reflector1 erect$ at 8 resid5ce ne> ,liv]pool1 ask+ him to se>* = ! planet4 ,b ,lassell 0 suff]+ f a spra9$ ankle1 & ,dawes' lett] 0 accid5tally de/roy$ by a h\semaid4 ,s ,adams' !ory rema9$ 9 obscurity4 ,! "q n[ came "u ! notice ( ,franois ,jean ,dom9ique ,arago 7#aghf-ahec71 ! director ( ! ,p>is ,obs]vatory4 ,he recognis$ 9 a "y fri5d ( 8 a ris+ g5ius1 :o 0 compet5t to solve ! problem4 ,urban ,jean ,joseph ,le ,v]ri]1 born at ,sa9t ,lo1 9 ,norm&y1 9 #ahaa1 became 9 #ahcg a/ronomical tea*] 9 ! cole ,polyte*nique1 & 9 #ahec director ( ! ,p>is ,obs]vatory4 ,9 consequ5ce ( diff]5ces ) 8 /aff he 0 oblig$1 9 #ahgj1 to resign f ?is position1 b two ye>s lat] 0 re/or$ to ! po/1 :i* he held till 8 dea? on ,septemb] #bc1 #ahgg4 ,9 #ahde1 ignorant ( ! fact t ,adams _h already solv$ ! problem1 ,le ,v]ri] began 8 inve/igations ( ! irregul> motions ( ,uranus4 ,9 a memoir communicat$ to ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces 9 ,novemb] ( t ye>1 he demon/rat$ t no kn[n causes c\ld produce ^! di/urbances4 ,9 a second memoir1 dat$ ,june #a1 #ahdf1 he ann\nc$ t an ext]ior planet alone c\ld produce ^! effects4 ,b ,le ,v]ri] _h n[ be=e him ! difficult task ( assign+ an approximate position to ! unse5 body1 s t x might be telescopically discov]$4 ,aft] mu* calculation ,le ,v]ri]1 9 8 ?ird memoir 7,augu/ #ca1 #ahdf71 assign$ to ! planet a position 9 ! con/ellation ,aqu>ius4 ,mean:ile "o ( ,le ,v]ri]'s pap]s happ5$ to rea* ,airy4 ,see+ its resemblance to ,adams' pap]s1 :i* _h be5 ly+ on 8 desk = mon?s1 8 scepticism vani%$1 & he sugge/$ to ,*allis t ! planet %\ld be se>*$ = ) ! ,cambridge equatorial4 ,9 ,july #ahdf ! se>* 0 comm5c$4 ,! planet 0 actually obs]v$ on ,augu/ #d & #ab1 b1 ow+ to ! abs5ce ( /> maps1 x 0 n recognis$4 8,aft] f\r days ( obs]v+10 he wrote to ,airy1 8! planet 0 9 my grasp if ,i _h only exam9$ or mapp$ ! obs]vations40 ,le ,v]ri] wrote to ,encke1 ! illu/ri\s director ( ! ,b]l9 ,obs]vatory1 desir+ him to make a telescopic se>* = a planet>y object situat$ 9 ! con/ellation ,aqu>ius1 z bright z a /> ( ! eigh? magnitude & possess$ ( a visible disc4 8,look :]e ,i tell y10 wrote ! ,fr5* a/ronom]1 8& y w see an object su* z ,i describe40 ,encke ord]$ 8 two assi/ants1 ,galle & ,d',arre/1 to make a se>* on ! night ( ,septemb] #bc1 #ahdf4 ,9 a few h\rs ,galle obs]v$ an object n m>k$ 9 ! />-maps ( ! ,b]l9 ,obs]vatory1 :i* _h be5 rec5tly publi%$4 ,! foll[+ night suffic$ to %[ t ! object 0 9 motion1 & 0 !re=e a new planet4 ,on ,septemb] #bi ,*allis f\nd ! planet at ,cambridge1 b he 0 too late1 z ! priority ( ! discov]y 0 n[ lo/ to ,adams4 ,! planet receiv$ ! "n ( 8,neptune40 ,= "s "t1 inde$1 x appe>$ z if ! ,fr5* a/ronom] alone 0 to receive ! hon\r ( ! discov]y4 ,b on ,octob] #c1 #ahdf1 a lett] f ,sir ,john ,h]s*el appe>$ 9 ! #8,a!num' 9 :i* he ref]r$ to ! discov]y made by ,adams4 ,! ,fr5* sci5ti/s 7 extremely jeal\s4 ,inde$1 ,arago actually decl>$ t1 :5 ,neptune 0 "u discussion1 ! entire hon\r %\ld g to ,le ,v]ri]1 & ! "n ( ,adams %\ld n ev5 be m5tion$1--,arago's l9e ( reason+ be+ t x 0 n ! man :o fir/ made a discov]y :o %\ld receive ! cr$it1 b he :o fir/ made x public4 ,h[ev]1 ! cr$it ( ! discov]y is n[ giv5 equally to ,adams & ,le ,v]ri]1 bo? ( :om are reg>d$ z among ! greate/ ( a/ronom]s4 ,only a =tnight aft] ! discov]y ( ,neptune1 ! a/ronom] ,lassell obs]v$ a satellite to ! di/ant planet on ,octob] #aj1 #ahdf4 ,?is discov]y 0 confirm$ 9 ,july #ahdg by ! discov]] himself1 & %ortly aft]w>ds by ,bond & ,otto ,/ruve4 ,reg>d+ ! globe ( ,neptune1 we "k practically no?+4 ,no m>k+s ( any k9d h be5 obs]v$ on its surface4 ,h[ev]1 9 #ahhc & #ahhd1 ,maxwell ,hall1 an a/ronom] 9 ,jamaica1 notic$ c]ta9 v>iations ( brilliance :i* sugge/$ a rotation-p]iod ( eight h\rs1 b ?is 0 n confirm$ by any o!r a/ronom]4 ,! spectrum ( ,neptune has be5 inve/igat$ by v>i\s obs]v]s1 :o h f\nd x to be simil> to t ( ,uranus4 ,! exi/5ce ( a trans-,neptunian planet has be5 suspect$ by _m a/ronom]s4 ,9 ,novemb] #ahgi ! fir/ idea ( its exi/5ce 0 ?r[n out by ,flamm>ion 9 8 #8,popul> ,a/ronomy4' ,flamm>ion notic$ t all ! p]iodical comets 9 ! ,sol> ,sy/em h _! aphelion ne> ! orbit ( a planet4 ,?us ,jupit] owns ab\t eighte5 comets2 ,saturn owns "o1 & probably two2 ,uranus two or ?ree2 & ,neptune six4 ,! ?ird comet ( #ahfb1 h[ev]1 along ) ! ,augu/ meteors1 goes f>!r out ?an ! orbit ( ,neptune4 ,accord+ly1 ,flamm>ion sugge/$ ! exi/5ce ( a great planet1 assign+ x a p]iod ( #ccj ye>s & a di/ance ( #djjj millions ( miles4 ,two indep5d5t inve/igators1 ,david ,peck ,todd 7born #ahee7 9 ,am]ica & ,george ,=bes 9 ,scotl&1 h s9ce und]tak5 to f9d ! planet4 ,todd1 utilis+ ! 8residual p]turbations0 ( ,uranus1 assign$ a p]iod ( #cge ye>s = 8 planet4 ,=bes1 on ! o!r h&1 work+ f ! comet !ory1 /at$ 8 belief 9 ! exi/5ce ( two planets ) p]iods ( #ajjj & #ejjj ye>s respectively4 ,9 ,octob] #aija he comput$ ! position ( ! new planet on ! cele/ial sph]e1 fix+ its position 9 ! con/ellation ,libra1 & comput+ its size to be great] ?an ,jupit]4 ,a se>* 0 made by means ( photography1 9 #aijb1 b )\t success4 ,nev]!less1 a/ronom]s are pretty confid5t ( ! exi/5ce ( "o or m trans-,neptunian planets4 ,l[ell is v def9ite on ?is subject :5 he says 9 reg>d to meteor gr\ps1 8,! ,p]seids & ! ,lyrids g out to meet ! unkn[n planet1 :i* circles at a di/ance ( ab\t =ty-five a/ronomical units f ! ,sun4 ,x may seem /range to speak ?us confid5tly ( :at no mortal eye has se51 b ! f+] ( ! sign-bo>d ( ph5om5a po9ts s cle>ly z to ju/ify ! def9ite article4 ,! eye ( analysis has already suspect$ ! invisible40 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,comets4 ,at ! "t ( ,h]s*el ! anci5t sup]/itions 9 reg>d to comets _h to a great ext5t vani%$1 ?anks ma9ly to ! return ( ,halley's comet 9 #ageh4 ,yet1 al?\gh comets _h ceas$ to be objects ( t]ror1 no explanation or rational !ory ( _! nature 0 put =w>d until ! appe>ance ( ! great comet ( #ahaa4 ,?is comet 0 visible f ,m>* #bf1 #ahaa1 to ,augu/ #ag1 #ahab1 a p]iod ( #eaj days4 ,x 0 "o ( ! mo/ magnific5t comets ev] se51 its tail be+ #ajj millions ( miles 9 l5g? & its head #abg1jjj miles 9 diamet]4 ,?is wond]ful ph5om5on 0 ! subject ( mu* inve/igation1 p>ticul>ly by ,olb]s1 ! great ,g]man a/ronom]4 ,he9ri* ,wilhelm ,mat?ias ,olb]s 0 born at ,arb]g51 a village ne> ,brem51 ,octob] #aa1 #ageh4 ,8 fa!r 0 a cl]gyman :o1 9 addition to consid]able ma!matical p[]s1 0 an en?usia/ic lov] ( a/ronomy4 ,at ! age ( ?irte5 "y ,olb]s became deeply int]e/$ 9 t sci5ce4 ,:ile tak+ an ev5+ walk 9 ! mon? ( ,augu/1 he obs]v$ ! ,pleiades1 & det]m9$ to f9d out to :i* con/ellation !y belong$4 ,he !re=e b\ght "s books on a/ronomy1 along ) a few *>ts ( ! sky1 & he began to /udy ! sci5ce ) mu* en?usiasm4 ,he read e book he c\ld lay 8 h&s on1 & a few mon?s suffic$ to make him acqua9t$ ) all ! con/ellations4 ,9 #aggg1 :5 9 8 n9ete5? ye>1 ,olb]s ent]$ ! ,univ]sity ( ,gtt+5 to /udy m$ic9e1 & at ! same "t he le>n$ mu* reg>d+ ma!matics & a/ronomy f ! ma!matician ,kae/n]4 ,:5 tw5ty-"o ye>s ( age he obs]v$ ! />s at ,gtt+51 & devis$ a me?od ( calculat+ ! orbits ( comets1 ! idea com+ to him :ile he 0 att5d+ at ! b$side ( a fell[-/ud5t :o _h tak5 ill4 8,al?\gh n made public until #agig10 writes ,miss ,cl]ke1 8#8,olb]s' me?od' 0 !n univ]sally adopt$1 & is /ill reg>d$ z ! mo/ exp$iti\s & conv5i5t 9 cases :]e absolute rig\r is n requir$4 ,by its introduction1 n only _m a toilsome & ?ankless h\r 0 sp>$1 b work]s 7 multipli$ & enc\rag$ 9 ! pursuit ( lab\rs m useful ?an attractive40 ,t[>ds ! end ( #agha he return$ to ,brem51 settl$ z a m$ical doctor1 & cont9u$ 9 practice = ab\t =ty-"o ye>s4 ,b al?\gh he _h adopt$ p]haps ! mo/ toilsome pr(ession1 8 love ( sci5ce prevail$1 & night aft] night he explor$ ! heav5s ) untir+ zeal4 ,he nev] slept m ?an f\r h\rs1 & ! upp] "p ( 8 h\se 9 ! ,s&gasse1 9 ,brem51 0 fitt$ up ) a/ronomical in/rum5ts4 ,! l>ge/ telescope :i* he possess$ 0 a refractor #c in*es 9 ap]ture4 ,he rema9$ 9 active practice till #ahbc1 :5 he retir$1 & 0 enabl$ to devote m att5tion to 8 belov$ sci5ce4 ,he di$ on ,m>* #b1 #ahdj1 at ! advanc$ age ( eighty-"o4 ,miss ,cl]ke says ( ,olb]s1 8,night aft] night1 dur+ half a c5tury & upw>ds1 he discov]$1 calculat$1 or obs]v$ ! comet>y visitants ( nor!rn skies40 ,he 0 ! discov]] ( ! comet ( #ahae1 kn[n z ,olb]s' comet4 ,x moves r\nd ! ,sun 9 a p]iod ( ov] sev5ty ye>s1 & return$ to p]ihelion 9 #ahhg1 =ty-sev5 ye>s aft] ! dea? ( its discov]]4 ,! great comet ( #ahaa 0 ! subject ( a memoir :i* ,olb]s publi%$ ! foll[+ ye>1 & 9 :i* he orig9at$ ! 8electrical repulsion0 !ory ( comets' tails4 ,ev5 aft] ! fulfilm5t ( ,halley's great pr$iction1 comets 7 /ill look$ ^u ) pr(\nd awe1 & ! popul> fe> reg>d+ !m 0 /ill preval5t4 ,olb]s1 h[ev]1 %[$ t ! tails ( comets result$ f purely natural causes4 ,he reg>d$ ! ,sun z possess$ ( a repulsive z well z an attractive =ce1 & consid]$ ! tails to be vap\rs repell$ f ! nucleus ( ! comet by ! ,sun4 ,he calculat$ t 9 ! comet ( #ahaa ! p>ticles ( matt] expell$ f ! head rea*$ ! tail 9 elev5 m9utes1 ) a velocity comp>able to t ( light4 ,! !ory ( electrical repulsion1 s9ce elaborat$ by o!r obs]v]s1 is n[ g5]ally accept$ among a/ronom]s4 ,no o!r hypo!sis repres5ts 9 su* a complete mann] ! =mation & gr[? ( ! lum9\s app5dages ( ! cele/ial bodies s picturesquely call$ 8pale-w+$ mess5g]s0 z t put =w>d by ! physician ( ,brem54 ,"s ye>s aft] ,olb]s' fam\s !ory 0 giv5 to ! _w1 a great advance 0 made 9 comet>y a/ronomy by ano!r great ,g]man a/ronom]1 8 fri5d & pupil ,encke4 ,! son ( a ,hamburg cl]gyman1 ,johann ,franz ,encke 0 born 9 t city 9 #agia1 & di$ 9 #ahfe at ,sp&au4 ,aft] tak+ "p 9 ! w> aga9/ ,napoleon1 he 0 9 #ahbb appo9t$ director ( ! ,go?a ,obs]vatory1 be+ call$ to ,b]l9 9 #ahbe4 ,9 e>ly life he 0 ! pupil ( ,olb]s & ,gauss1 & 8 inve/igations & discov]ies =m$ an epo* 9 a/ronomy4 ,8 mo/ fam\s discov]y relat$ to ! little comet :i* be>s 8 "n4 ,! comet 0 discov]$ by ,j4 ,l4 ,pons 7#agfa-ahca7 at ,m>seilles1 al?\gh x _h previ\sly be5 se5 by ,m*a9 & ,c>ol9e ,h]s*el4 ,9 #ahai ,encke comput$ ! orbit ( ! comet1 & boldly ann\nc$ t x w\ld reappe> 9 #ahbb1 its p]iod be+ ab\t #c ye>s1 or #abjh days4 ,9 #ahbb ! comet1 true to ,encke's pr$iction1 return$ to p]ihelion1 & 0 obs]v$ at ,p>amatta 9 ,au/ralia1 ! p]ihelion passage tak+ place )9 ?ree h\rs ( ! "t pr$ict$ by ,encke4 ,z ,miss ,cl]ke rem>ks1 8,! importance ( ?is ev5t w be bett] und]/ood :5 x is rememb]$ t x 0 only ! second in/ance ( ! recognis$ return ( a comet2 & t x1 moreov]1 e/abli%$ ! exi/5ce ( a new class ( cele/ial bodies1 di/+ui%$ z comets ( %ort p]iod40 ,9 #ahbe ! comet 0 aga9 obs]v$ by ,valz1 pass+ p]ihelion on ,septemb] #af1 & 9 #ahbh x 0 se5 by ,/ruve4 ,encke n[ made a v rem>kable discov]y4 ,det]m9+ its p]iod ) great accuracy1 9 #ahcb he f\nd t 8 comet return$ to p]ihelion two & a half h\rs be=e ! pr$ict$ "t4 ,z ?is repeat$ly happ5$1 ,encke put =w>d ! !ory t ! accel]ation 0 due to ! exi/5ce ( a resi/+ m$ium 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! ,sun1 too r>efi$ to ret>d ! planet>y motions1 b q d5se en\gh to make ! comet's pa? small]1 & to ev5tually precipitate x on ! ,sun4 ,! !ory 0 widely accept$1 b aft] #ahfh ! accel]ation began to decrease1 dim9i%+ by "o-half2 besides1 no o!r comet is ?us accel]at$1 & ! hypo!sis has accord+ly be5 ab&on$4 ,! second comet recognis$ z p]iodic 0 t discov]$ on ,febru>y #bg1 #ahbf1 by an ,au/rian (fic]1 ,wilhelm von ,biela 7#aghb-ahef71 & t5 days lat] by ! ,fr5* obs]v]1 ,gamb>t 7#ahjj-ahcf71 bo? ( :om1 9 comput+ its orbit1 notic$ a rem>kable simil>ity to ! orbits ( comets :i* appe>$ 9 #aggb & #ahje4 ,accord+ly1 !y conclud$ x to be p]iodic1 ) a p]iod ( betwe5 six & sev5 ye>s4 ,! comet return$ 9 #ahcb4 ,9 #ahbh ,olb]s _h publi%$ c]ta9 calculations %[+ t portions ( ! comet w\ld sweep ov] ! "p ( ! ,e>?'s orbit a mon? lat] ?an ! ,e>? itself4 ,?is gave rise to a panic t ! comet w\ld de/roy ! ,e>?1 :i* did n subside till x 0 ann\nc$ by ,arago t ! ,e>? & ! comet w\ld at no "t approa* to )9 fifty million miles ( ea* o!r4 ,! comet return$ aga9 9 ! end ( #ahde4 ,x 0 kept well 9 view by a/ronom]s 9 ,europe & ,am]ica4 ,on ,decemb] #ai1 #ahdf1 ,h9d notic$ t ! comet 0 pe>-%ap$1 & t5 days lat] x _h divid$ 9 two4 ,! two comets return$ aga9 9 #aheb & 7 well obs]v$2 b !y 7 nev] se5 aga91 at lea/ z comets4 ,_! subsequ5t hi/ory belongs to meteoric a/ronomy4 ,a comet discov]$ by ,faye at ,p>is 9 #ahdc 0 f\nd to h a p]iod ( sev5 & a half ye>s4 ,x has return$ regul>ly s9ce its discov]y1 true to a/ronomical pr$iction4 ,its motion 0 p>ticul>ly inve/igat$ = traces ( a resi/+ m$ium1 by ,didrik ,magnus ,axel ,mll] 7#ahcj-ahif71 director ( ! ,lund ,obs]vatory1 :o rea*$ a negative conclusion4 ,9 #ahce ,halley's comet return$ to p]ihelion1 & 0 att5tively /udi$ by ! mo/ fam\s a/ronom]s ( ! age4 ,x 0 p>ticul>ly /udi$ by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el & by ,bessel1 :o assi/$ 9 develop+ ,olb]s' !ory ( electrical repulsion4 ,b ! mo/ brilliant comet ( ! c5tury 0 t :i* sudd5ly appe>$ on ,febru>y #bh1 #ahdc1 9 ! vic9ity ( ! ,sun4 ,?is great comet1 ^: c5tre approa*$ ! ,sun )9 #gh1jjj miles1 ru%$ pa/ its p]ihelion at ! spe$ ( #cff miles a second4 ,! comet's tail rea*$ ! l5g? ( #bjj millions ( miles4 ,! comet ( #ahdc 0 h[ev] out%one1 n 9 brilliance b z a cele/ial spectacle1 by ! great comet discov]$ on ,june #b1 #aheh1 by ,giovanni ,batti/a ,donati 7#ahbf-ahgc7 at ,flor5ce1 & s9ce kn[n by 8 "n4 ,x became visible to ! nak$ eye on ,augu/ #ai1 & 0 telescopically obs]v$ until ,m>* #d1 #ahei4 ,!re 0 abundance ( "t1 !re=e1 to /udy ! comet1 :i* 0 exhau/ively obs]v$ by ,g4 ,p4 ,bond at ,h>v>d4 ,8 obs]vations conv9c$ him t ! light f ,donati's comet 0 m]ely reflect$ sun%9e1 & ?is 0 g5]ally accept$4 ,ano!r great comet appe>$ 9 #ahfa4 ,l t ( #ahdc1 its appe>ance 0 sudd51 be+ obs]v$ aft] sunset on ,june #cj1 #ahfa1 :51 says ,miss ,cl]ke1 8a gold5 yell[ planet>y disc1 wrapt 9 d5se nebulosity1 %one out :ile ! ,june twilight 9 ^! latitudes 0 /ill 9 its fir/ /r5g?40 ,on ! same ev5+ ! ,e>? & ! ,moon pass$ ?r\gh ! tail ( ! great comet4 ,! va/ majority ( p nev] knew t su* a ph5om5on _h tak5 place1 & ev5 ! a/ronom]s only notic$ a s+ul> phosphoresc5ce 9 ! sky--a pro( ( ! extreme t5uity ( comets4 ,! fir/ application ( ! spectroscope to ! light ( comets 0 made by ,donati 9 #ahfd4 ,! spectrum 0 f\nd to consi/ ( ?ree bright b&s1 b ,donati 0 unable to id5tify !m4 ,h[ev]1 8 obs]vation gave ! dea?-bl[ to ! !ory t comets %one by reflect$ light alone1 = x impli$ ! exi/5ce ( gl[+ gas 9 !m4 ,on ! appe>ance 9 #ahfh ( ! p]iodic comet discov]$ by ,fri$ri* ,augu/ ,!odor ,w9necke 7#ahce-ahig71 ! spectrum 0 exam9$ by ,hugg9s1 :o id5tifi$ ! bright b&s ) ! spectrum ( hydroc>bon4 ,?is 0 confirm$ 9 reg>d to ,coggia's comet ( #ahgd by ,hugg9s himself1 & also ,brdikh9e & ,vogel4 ,! hydroc>bon spectrum is *>act]i/ic ( comets1 & has be5 recognis$ 9 all ^? spectroscopically /udi$4 ,! "t _h n[ come = a m complete !ory ( comets ?an t ( ,olb]s4 ,! !ory ( electrical repulsion 0 develop$ 9 #ahga by ,zlln]1 ^: pr9ciple ( inve/igation is ?us describ$ by ,miss ,cl]ke3 8,! efficacy ( sol> electrical repulsion relatively to sol> attraction gr[s z ! size ( ! p>ticle dim9i%es40 ,if ! p>ticle is small en\gh1 x w obey ! repulsive1 & n ! attractive1 p[] ( ! ,sun4 ,zlln] consid]$ t ! smalle/ p>ticles ( comets obey$ ! repulsive p[]1 & ?us =m$ ! tails ( comets4 ,! developm5t ( a complete comet>y !ory is due1 h[ev]1 to ! g5ius ( a ,russian a/ronom]4 ,!odor ,alex&rovit* ,brdikh9e1 born 9 #ahca at ,nicolaieff1 0 employ$ at ,mosc[ ,obs]vatory f #aheg to #ahij1 :5 he 0 promot$ to ! position ( director at ,pulk[a4 ,he resign$ 9 #ahie1 & sp5t 8 la/ ye>s 9 ,/ ,pet]sburg1 :]e he di$ on ,may #ad1 #aijd4 ,f ! beg9n+ ( 8 a/ronomical c>e] he 0 devot$ to ! /udy ( comets & _! tails1 b x 0 ! appe>ance ( ,coggia's comet 9 #ahgd :i* m>k$ ! comm5cem5t ( 8 mo/ important obs]vations4 ,9 t ye>1 on mak+ c]ta9 calculations reg>d+ ! hypo!tical repulsive =ce ex]t$ by ! ,sun on v>i\s comets1 he rea*$ ! conclusion t ! values repres5t+ ! int5sity ( ! repulsion fell into ?ree classes4 ,?is 0 ! fir/ h9t ( a classification ( comet>y tails4 ,mean:ile he c>efully /udi$ ! tails ( comets bo? f direct obs]vation & f draw+s4 ,9 #ahgg he wrote3 8,i suspect t comets are divisible into gr\ps1 = ea* ( :i* ! repulsive =ce is p]haps ! same40 ,subsequ5t inve/igations l$ ,brdikh9e to divide ! tails ( comets into ?ree types4 ,! fir/ type consi/s ( long1 /raight tails1 po9t$ directly away f ! ,sun1 repres5t$ by ! tails ( ! great comets ( #ahaa1 #ahdc1 & #ahfa4 ,9 ! second type1 repres5t$ by ,donati's & ,coggia's comets1 ! tails1 al?\gh po9t$ away f ! ,sun1 appe> consid]ably curv$4 ,9 ! ?ird type ! tails are1 to quote ,miss ,cl]ke1 8%ort1 /rongly-b5t1 bru%like emanations1 & 9 bright comets seem to be only f\nd 9 comb9ation ) tails ( ! high] classes40 ,9 #ahgi ,brdikh9e fully develop$ 8 comet>y !ory4 ,assum+ ! reality ( ! repulsive =ce1 he conclud$ t to produce tails ( ! fir/ type1 ! repulsion requires to be twelve times great] ?an ! sol> attraction2 ! production ( tails ( ! second type necessitates a repulsive =ce ab\t equal to gravity2 :ile ! =ce produc+ ?ird-type tails has only "o-f\r? ! p[] ( gravitation4 ,x 0 conclud$ t ! tails are =m$ by p>ticles ( matt] repell$ f ! comet by ! repulsive =ce ( ! ,sun1 & 9 tails ( ! fir/ type ! velocity ) :i* ^! p>ticles leave ! body ( ! comet is f\r or five miles a second4 ,brdikh9e rea*$ ! conclusion t ! ,sun's repulsive =ce is inv>iable1 & t ! diff]5t types ( tails are =m$ by ! same =ce act+ on diff]5t elem5ts4 ,! numb]s #ab1 #a1 & 1 are inv]sely proportional to ! atomic weights ( hydrog51 hydroc>bon gas1 & iron vap\r4 ,"h1 !n1 0 ! key to ! my/]y4 ,brdikh9e po9t$ out t 9 all probability ! fir/-type tails are =m$ ( hydrog51 ! second ( hydroc>bon1 & ! ?ird ( iron1 ) a mixture ( sodium & o!r elem5ts4 ,)9 a few ye>s ( ! publication ( ,brdikh9e's !ory1 five bright comets made _! appe>ance1 & !re 0 abundant *ance ( te/+ ! !ory spectroscopically4 ,9 #ahhb ,well's comet 0 p>ticul>ly /udi$ at ,gre5wi* by ,maund]1 :o disc]n$ a sodium-l9e 9 its spectrum4 ,! magnific5t comet :i* appe>$ 9 #ahhb 0 spectroscopically /udi$ at ,dune*t 9 ,ab]de5%ire by ,ralph ,copel& 7#ahcg-aije71 ,a/ronom]-,royal ( ,scotl&1 :o id5tifi$ 9 its spectrum ! prom95t iron-l9es z well z ! sodium-l9e4 ,^! obs]vations 7 c]ta9ly confirmatory ( ,brdikh9e's !ory4 ,x %\ld also be /at$1 h[ev]1 t sev]al comets h %[n1 9 addition to ! hydroc>bon spectrum1 t ( reflect$ sunlight1 :i* proves t ! light we receive f comets is ( a comp\nd nature4 ,! comet :i* appe>$ 9 #ahhj 0 ann\nc$ by ,b5jam9 ,ap?orp ,g\ld 7#ahbd-ahif7 to be a return ( ! great comet ( #ahdc4 ,calculations by ,g\ld1 ,copel&1 & ,h9d reveal$ a close simil>ity betwe5 ! elem5ts ( ! two orbits4 ,ev5tually x _h to be admitt$ t ! comets 7 sep>ate bodies travell+ 9 ! same orbit4 ,!n1 two ye>s lat]1 ! great ,septemb] comet ( #ahhb 0 f\nd to revolve 9 ! same orbit z ^? ( #affh1 #ahdc1 & #ahhj4 ,f\r ye>s lat]1 ano!r comet1 discov]$ 9 #ahhg1 0 f\nd to move 9 ! same pa?4 ,closely alli$ to ?is subject is ! exi/5ce ( 8comet families10 demon/rat$ by ,hoek ( ,utre*t 9 #ahfe1 & m5tion$ 9 our *apt] on ! ,out] ,planets4 ,^! comets are f\nd to be dep5d5t on ! planets1 ,jupit]1 ,saturn1 ,uranus1 & ,neptune1 ea* possess+ a comet-gr\p4 ,v>i\s !ories h be5 advanc$ to acc\nt = ! exi/5ce ( ^! gr\ps4 ,"o ( ^! !ories is t ! comets h be5 captur$ by ! v>i\s planets1 :o h =c$ !m into _! pres5t orbits4 ,a ma!matical /udy by ,jean ,pi]re ,octave ,call&rean 7#aheb-aijd7 %[s t ! l>ge numb] ( comets possess$ by ! v>i\s planets may be expla9$ by ! dis9tegration ( l>ge comets into small ones4 ,! capture !ory1 x mu/ be rememb]$1 is purely hypo!tical1 & mu/ n be reg>d$ z any?+ b a !ory4 ,all t we really "k is ! exi/5ce ( comet-families1 & ( comets mov+ 9 ! same orbits4 ,! fir/ photograph ( a comet 0 t ( ,donati's1 tak5 9 #aheh by ,bond4 ,9 #ahha ,tebbutt's comet 0 photograph$ 9 ,engl& by ,hugg9s1 & 9 ,am]ica by ,h5ry ,drap] 7#ahcg-ahhb71 :ile 9 #ahhb ,gill secur$ excell5t photographs ( ! great ,septemb] comet4 ,! fir/ photographic discov]y ( a comet 0 made by ,b>n>d 9 #ahib4 ,s9ce !n photography has be5 mu* us$ 9 comet>y a/ronomy4 ,no bright comets h appe>$ s9ce #ahhb1--;if we except ! comet ( #aija1 only se5 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1--al?\gh sev]al h be5 j visible to ! nak$ eye1 among !m ,swift's comet ( #ahib & ,p]r9e's 9 ! autumn ( #aijb4 ,telescopic comets1 h[ev]1 are v num]\s1 & a ye> nev] passes )\t "o or m be+ discov]$4 ,! ord9>y p]iodic comets1 su* z ,encke's1 ,faye's1 & o!rs1 are v fa9t1 & are becom+ fa9t] at ea* return--a cle> pro( t comets die1 z ,kepl] said ?ree c5turies ago4 ,?is br+s u to ! subject ( ! next *apt]1 ,meteoric ,a/ronomy4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,meteors4 ,!re is no m int]e/+ *apt] 9 ! hi/ory ( a/ronomy ?an t relat+ to meteors4 ,a hundr$ ye>s ago %oot+-/>s 7 n consid]$ to be a/ronomical ph5om5a4 ,!y 7 suppos$ to be m]ely inflammable vap\rs :i* caught fire 9 ! upp] regions ( our atmosph]e1 al?\gh bo? ,halley & ! sci5ti/ ,ern/ ,*ladni 7#agef-ahbg7 _h notions ( _! cele/ial orig94 ,= ?irty-?ree ye>s aft] ! beg9n+ ( ! c5tury1 h[ev]1 no?+ 0 he>d ( meteoric a/ronomy1 nor 0 ! subject consid]$ z "p ( ! a/ronom]'s lab\rs4 ,a great meteoric %[] took place on ! night ( ,novemb] #ab & morn+ ( ,novemb] #ac1 #ahcc4 ,! %[] 0 probably ! gr&e/ ev] witness$1 ! %oot+-/>s be+ lit]ally innum]able4 ,! display 0 be/ obs]v$ 9 ,am]ica1 & 0 att5tively wat*$ by ,d5ison ,olm/$ 7#agia-ahei71 ,pr(essor ( ,ma!matics at ,yale1 & by ! ,am]ican physici/1 ,a4 ,c4 ,tw9+ 7#ahja-ahhd74 ,^! inve/igators discov]$ t all ! meteors :i* fell dur+ ! great %[] seem$ to come f ! same "p ( ! cele/ial vault4 ,9 o!r words1 _! pa?s1 :5 trac$ back1 7 f\nd to conv]ge to a po9t ne> ! /> ,leonis4 ,?is obs]vation gave ! dea?-bl[ to ! !ory ( _! t]re/rial orig94 ,! po9t kn[n z ! 8radiant0 0 cle>ly a po9t indep5d5t ( ! ,e>?4 ,olm/$ also recognis$ ! fact t ! %[] _h tak5 place 9 ! previ\s ye>1 & he reg>d$ x z produc$ by a sw>m ( p>ticles mov+ r\nd ! ,sun 9 a p]iod ( #ahb days4 ,soon aft] ?is x 0 notic$ t ! ph5om5on took place 9 #ahcd & subsequ5t ye>s ) gradually decreas+ int5sity4 ,x 0 !n rememb]$ t ,humboldt _h obs]v$ 9 ,novemb] #agii a v brilliant %[]1 & accord+ly ,olb]s sugge/$ t ano!r %[] might be se5 9 #ahfg4 ,! fall+ />s ( ,augu/ 7 next prov$ by ,adolphe ,quetelet 7#agia-ahgd7 to =m ano!r meteoric sy/em2 & accord+ly ! !ory ( ,olm/$ t ! ,novemb] meteors mov$ r\nd ! ,sun 9 #ahb days _h to be ab&on$1 =1 says ,miss ,cl]ke1 8,if x w\ld be a violation ( probability to attribute to "o su* agglom]ation a p]iod ( an exact ye> or sub-multiple ( a ye>1 x w\ld be pla9ly absurd to suppose ! movem5ts ( two or m regulat$ by su* highly artificial conditions40 ,accord+ly ,erman sugge/$ 9 #ahci ! !ory t meteors revolv$ 9 clos$ r+s1 int]sect+ ! t]re/rial orbit2 & t :5 ! ,e>? cross$ ?r\gh ! po9t ( int]section1 x met "s memb]s ( ! sw>m4 ,! subject n[ rema9$ 9 abeyance = ?irty-f\r ye>s1 if we except "s wond]ful ideas put =w>d 9 #ahfa by ,daniel ,kirkwood 7#ahac-ahif71 an ,am]ican a/ronom]1 :o /at$ 8 belief 9 ! dis9tegration ( comets into meteors2 b little att5tion 0 paid to 8 op9ions4 ,9 #ahfd ! subject 0 tak5 up by ,hub]t ,anson ,newton 7#ahcj-ahif71 ,pr(essor at ,yale1 :o und]took a se>* ?r\gh anci5t records = ! ?irty-?ree-ye> p]iod ( ! ,leonids or ,novemb] meteors4 ,8 se>* 0 highly successful1 & hav+ demon/rat$ ! exi/5ce ( ! p]iod1 ,newton set himself to det]m9e ! orbit4 ,he indicat$ five possible orbits = ! sw>m1 rang+ f #cc ye>s to #ced days4 ,newton 0 unable to solve ! "q ma!matically2 b "h ,adams1 ! discov]] ( ,neptune1 came to ! rescue1 & demon/rat$ t ! p]iod ( #cc ye>s 0 alone possible1 & t ! o!rs 7 unt5able4 ,^! inve/igations1 complet$ 9 ,m>* #ahfg1 prov$ ! exi/5ce ( a great meteoric orbit ext5d+ to ! orbit ( ,uranus4 ,mean:ile ,newton _h pr$ict$ a meteoric %[] on ! ev5+ ( ,novemb] #ac & morn+ ( ,novemb] #ad1 #ahff4 ,8 pr$iction 0 fulfill$4 ,! %[] 0 inf]ior to t ( #ahcc1 b 0 /ill a magnific5t spectacle4 ,sir ,rob]t ,ball1 !n employ$ at ,"l ,rosse's ,obs]vatory1 obs]v$ ! %[]1 & records ! impossibility ( c\nt+ ! meteors4 ,?is great %[] attract$ ! att5tion ( a/ronom]s all ov] ! _w to ! /udy ( meteors4 ,mean:ile ,s*iap>elli _h be5 work+ at ! subject = "s "t1 & 9 f\r lett]s address$ to ,sec*i1 t[>ds ! end ( #ahff1 he %[$ t meteors 7 memb]s ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em1 possess$ ( a great] velocity ?an t ( ! ,e>?1 & travell+ 9 orbits resembl+ ^? ( comets1 9 ! fact t !y mov$ 9 no p>ticul> plane1 & t _! motion 0 bo? direct & retrograde4 ,s*iap>elli comput$ ! orbit ( ! ,p]seids or ,augu/ meteors1 & 0 a/oni%$ to f9d x id5tical ) ! comet ( ,augu/ #ahfb4 ,?is 0 a pro( ( ! connection betwe5 ^! two app>5tly widely diff]5t types ( cele/ial bodies4 ,e>ly 9 #ahfg ,s*iap>elli f\nd t ,le ,v]ri]'s elem5ts = ! orbit ( ! ,leonids 7 id5tical ) ^? ( ! comet ( #ahff1 discov]$ by ,ern/ ,tempel 7#ahba-ahhi74 ,pet]s ( ,altona _h mean:ile rea*$ ! same conclusion2 :ile ,edmund ,weiss 7born #ahcg7 ( ,vi5na po9t$ out ! simil>ity ( ! orbit ( a />-%[] on ,april #bj & t ( ! comet ( #ahfa4 ,he also drew att5tion1 indep5d5tly ( ,galle & ,d',arre/1 to ! close connection betwe5 ! orbits ( ! lo/ ,biela's comet & ! ,&rom$id meteors ( ,novemb]4 ,all d\bt z to ! connection ( comets & meteors 0 remov$ by ! great %[] on ,novemb] #bg1 #ahgb4 ,biela's lo/ comet 0 due at p]ihelion 9 #ahgb1 & al?\gh se>*$ = 0 n obs]v$2 b :5 ! ,e>? cross$ its orbit1 a great meteoric %[] took place4 8,x became evid5t10 says ,miss ,cl]ke1 8t ,biela's comet 0 %$d+ ov] u ! pulv]is$ products ( its dis9tegration40 ,! %[] 0 little inf]ior to t ( #ahff4 ,mean:ile ,ern/ ,kl9k]fues 7#ahbg-ahhd71 ,pr(essor at ,gtt+51 believ+ t ,biela's comet itself _h enc\nt]$ ! ,e>?1 telegraph$ to ,norman ,rob]t ,pogson 7#ahbi-ahia71 ,gov]nm5t a/ronom] at ,madras1 to se>* = ! comet 9 ! opposite region ( ! sky4 ,pogson did obs]ve a comet1 b c]ta9ly n ,biela's1 al?\gh probably ano!r fragm5t ( ! miss+ body4 ,! !ory ( ! actual dis9tegration ( comets 0 enunciat$ by ,s*iap>elli 9 #ahgc1 & develop$ 9 8 "w #8,le ,/elle ,cad5ti4' ,he 0 l$ to reg>d comets z cosmical cl\ds =m$ 9 space by 8! local conc5tration ( cele/ial matt]40 ,he !n rem>ks t a cosmical cl\d seldom p5etrates to ! int]ior ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em1 8unless x has be5 trans=m$ into a p>abolic curr5t10 :i* may occupy ye>s1 or c5turies1 9 pass+ its p]ihelion1 8=m+ 9 space a riv]1 ^: transv]se dim5sions are v small ) respect to its l5g?3 ( su* curr5ts1 ^? :i* are enc\nt]$ by ! e>? 9 its annual motion are r5d]$ visible to u "u ! =m ( %[]s ( meteors div]g+ f a c]ta9 radiant40 ,s*iap>elli next po9t$ out t :5 ! curr5t ( meteors enc\nt]s a planet1 ! result+ p]turbations cause "s ( ! meteoric bodies to move 9 sep>ate orbits1 =m+ ! bolides & a]olites :i* fall f ! sky at int]vals4 8,! t]m fall+ />s0 he says1 8expresses simply & precisely ! tru? respect+ !m4 ,^! bodies h ! same relation to comets t ! small planets betwe5 ,m>s & ,jupit] h to ! l>g] planets40 ,9 ! ?ird *apt] ( 8 #8,le ,/elle ,cad5ti' he explicitly /ates t 8! meteoric curr5ts are ! products ( ! dissolution ( comets1 & consi/ ( m9ute p>ticles :i* c]ta9 comets h ab&on$ along _! orbits1 by reason ( ! dis9tegrat+ =ce :i* ! ,sun & planets ex]t on ! r>e mat]ials ( :i* !y are compos$40 ,9 #ahgh ,alex&] ,/ew>t ,h]s*el 7born #ahcf71 son ( ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 & a fam\s meteoric obs]v]1 publi%$ a li/ ( kn[n or suspect$ co9cid5ces ( meteoric & comet>y orbits1 am\nt+ to sev5ty-six4 ,mean:ile mu* progress has s9ce be5 made 9 ! obs]vation ( meteoric %[]s & ! det]m9ation ( _! radiant po9ts4 ,9 ?is bran* ( a/ronomy1 by f> ! greate/ "n is t ( ,william ,fr$]ick ,d5n+1 ! self-made ,engli% a/ronom]4 ,born at ,r$po/1 9 ,som]set1 9 #ahdh1 8 c>e] ( meteoric obs]vation comm5c$ 9 #ahff4 ,= ! pa/ =ty ye>s he has att5tively devot$ himself to ! obs]vation ( meteors4 ,f #ahgb to #aijc he det]m9$ ! radiant po9ts ( no few] ?an #aagi meteoric %[]s4 ,9 addition to ?is1 he publi%$1 9 #ahii1 a catalogue ( meteoric radiants1 conta9+ #dcfg2 & he has c>efully /udi$ ! rem>kable objects kn[n z fireballs or 8sporadic meteors40 ,he has occasionally be5 able to trace a connection betwe5 fireballs & weak meteoric %[]s1 b he concludes t !y 8mu/ ei!r be m]ely s+le sporadic bodies1 or else ! survivors ( "s meteor gr\p1 ne>ly exhau/$ by ! wa/e ( its mat]ial dur+ _m pa/ ages40 ,all ( ,d5n+'s meteoric "w has be5 done 9 8 sp>e "t1 = x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t he pursues ! pr(ession ( acc\ntant 9 ,bri/ol1 & t only 8 leisure h\rs h be5 devot$ to ! sci5ce ( a/ronomy4 ,8 rese>*es h be5 entirely conduct$ ) ! unaid$ eye4 ,8 only in/rum5t is a p]fectly /raight w&1 :i* he uses z a help & corrective to ! eye 9 ascrib+ ! pa?s ( ! meteors4 ,?anks to ! labori\s "w ( ?is able ,engli% a/ronom]1 ! obs]vation ( meteors is n[ a sci5tific bran* ( a/ronomy4 ,9 ! words ( ,maund]1 8= six ?\s& ye>s m5 />$ at meteors & le>n$ no?+1 = sixty ye>s !y h /udi$ !m & le>n$ mu*1 & half ( :at we "k has be5 taught u 9 half t "t by ! ef=ts ( a s+le obs]v]40 ,fur!r meteoric %[]s f ,biela's comet 7 se5 9 #ahhe & #ahib4 ,! ,leonid %[] 0 confid5tly pr$ict$ = #ahii1 9 accordance ) ! ?irty-?ree-ye> p]iod1 b ! great display did n come (f1 ei!r 9 #ahii or #aijj4 ,9 #aija !re 0 a c]ta9 weak %[] obs]v$ 9 ,am]ica2 & simil> displays took place 9 #aijc & #aijd4 ,_m explanations h be5 giv5 z to ! failure ( ! %[]1 ! mo/ probable idea be+ t ! attraction ( ,jupit] div]t$ ! meteors f _! c\rse4 ,d5n+'s obs]vations on meteors result$1 z e>ly z #ahgg1 9 ! discov]y ( s-call$ 8/ation>y radiants40 ,! radiant-po9t ( a long endur+ %[] usually exhibits an app>5t motion1 result+ f ! comb9$ orbital motions ( ! ,e>? & ! meteors2 b ,d5n+ f\nd t 9 "s cases ! %[]1 ?\gh la/+ = mon?s1 p]si/5tly exhibit$ ! same radiant-po9t1 imply+ t ! motion ( ! ,e>? mu/ be insignificant comp>$ ) t ( ! meteors1 comput$ by ,rany>d at #hhj miles p] second4 ,! difficulty ( admitt+ s great a velocity l$ ! ,fr5* a/ronom]1 ,franois ,felix ,tiss]& 7#ahde-ahif71 to d\bt ! exi/5ce ( ^! /ation>y radiants2 b ! fact ( _! exi/5ce _c be d\bt$1 al?\gh no really satisfactory explanation has be5 (f]$4 ,ano!r type ( meteors comprises ! bodies t]m$ respectively z bolides1 uranoli?s1 & a]olites1--/ones :i* fall to ! ,e>? f ! sky4 ,9 #ahjj ! ,fr5* ,academy decl>$ ! acc\nts ( /ones hav+ fall5 f ! heav5s to be absolutely untrue4 ,?ree ye>s lat] an a]olite fell at ,laigle1 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,orne1 on ,april #bf1 #ahjc1 att5d$ by a t]rific explosion4 ,9 ! words ( ,flamm>ion1 8,num]\s witnesses affirm$ t "s m9utes aft] ! appe>ance ( a great bolide1 mov+ f s\?-ea/ to nor?-ea/1 & :i* _h be5 p]ceiv$ at ,al5on1 ,ca51 & ,falaise1 a fe>ful explosion1 foll[$ by detonations l ! report ( cannon & ! fire ( musketry1 proce$$ f an isolat$ black cl\d 9 a v cle> sky4 ,a great numb] ( meteoric /ones 7 !n precipitat$ on ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 :]e !y 7 collect$1 /ill smok+1 ov] an ext5t ( c\ntry :i* measur$ no less ?an sev5 miles 9 l5g?40 ,"s a]olites1 in/ead ( be+ %att]$ into fragm5ts1 h be5 obs]v$ to fall to ! ,e>? intact1 & bury !mselves 9 ! gr\nd4 ,num]\s in/ances h be5 obs]v$ dur+ ! la/ c5tury1 & masses ( meteoric /ones h be5 f\nd 9 positions :i* cle>ly indicate t !y mu/ h fall5 f ! sky4 ,*emi/s h made analyses ( ! elem5ts 9 ^! rem>kable bodies1 & h f\nd !m to conta9 iron1 magnesium1 silicon1 oxyg51 nickel1 cobalt1 t91 copp]1 c4 ,! spectrum ( ^! a]olites1 rais$ to inc&esc5ce1 has be5 /udi$ by ,vogel & by ! ,sw$i% obs]v]1 ,b]nh>dt ,hasselb]g 7born #ahdh71 :o detect$ ! pres5ce ( hydroc>bons1 :i* are also pres5t 9 comet>y spectra4 ,:5 ! exi/5ce ( a]olites z cele/ial bodies 0 fir/ recognis$1 ,laplace sugge/$ t !y _h be5 eject$ f volcanoes on ! ,moon4 ,?is !ory1 al?\gh support$ by ,olb]s & o!r a/ronom]s1 0 soon reject$4 ,next1 x 0 sugge/$ t !y 7 eject$ f ! ,sun1 & ,proctor believ$ !m to come f ! giant planets4 ,a v detail$ discussion ( ! subject is to be f\nd 9 ,ball's #8,/ory ( ! ,heav5s' 7#ahhf71 9 :i* he expresses views 9 h>mony ) ^? ( ! ,au/rian physici/ ,ts*]mak4 ,ball demon/rat$ t ! meteors :i* fall to ! ,e>? _c h come f any o!r planet1 nor f ! ,sun4 ,accord+ly1 he conclud$ t !y 7 orig9ally eject$ by ! volcanoes ( ! ,e>? _m ages ago1 :5 !y 7 active en\gh to ?r[ up pieces ( matt] ) a velocity great en\gh to c>ry !m away f ! ,e>? altoge!r4 ,su* meteors w\ld1 h[ev]1 int]sect ! t]re/rial orbit at ea* revolution4 ,! alt]native !ory to ?is1 support$ by ,s*iap>elli & ,locky]1 is t ! a]olites are m]ely l>g] memb]s ( ! meteor-sw>ms1 :i* h be5 deflect$ f _! pa?s4 ,! *ief objection to ?is !ory is ! abs5ce ( connection betwe5 ! meteoric %[]s & ! falls ( a]olites & bolides4 ,only on "o occasion 0 a meteoric /one obs]v$ to fall dur+ a %[]4 ,on ,novemb] #bg1 #ahhe1 dur+ ! %[] ( ,&rom$id meteors f ,biela's comet1 a l>ge bolide1 weigh+ m ?an eight p\nds1 fell at ,mazapil1 9 ,mexico4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 0 ! only case hi!rto obs]v$2 & x may h be5 m]ely a co9cid5ce4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,! ,,/>s4 ,! mo/ rem>kable progress 9 a/ronomy dur+ ! pa/ c5tury has be5 9 ! dep>tm5t ( sid]eal sci5ce1 or ! /udy ( ! ,suns ( space1 obs]v$ = _! own sakes1 & n m]ely = ! purpose ( det]m9+ ! positions ( ! ,sun & ,moon1 & to assi/ navigation4 ,?anks to ,h]s*el1 ! n9ete5? c5tury witness$ ! /eady developm5t ( /ell> a/ronomy1 comb9$ ) _m important discov]ies & inve/igations4 ,! "o pre-,h]s*elian problem 9 sid]eal a/ronomy 0 ! di/ance ( ! />s4 ,ow+ to its be>+ on ! ,cop]nican !ory1 ! problem 0 attack$ by ! a/ronom]s ( ! sev5te5? & eighte5? c5turies4 ,h]s*el made num]\s attempts to detect ! p>allax ( ! bright] />s1 b fail$4 ,mean:ile !re _h be5 _m illusions4 ,piazzi believ$ t 8 in/rum5ts--:i* 9 reality 7 worn out & unfit = use--_h reveal$ p>allaxes 9 ,sirius1 ,aldeb>an1 ,procyon1 & ,vega2 ,cal&relli1 ano!r ,italian1 & ,john ,br9kley 7#agfc-ahce71 ,a/ronom]-,royal ( ,irel&1 7 simil>ly delud$2 & 9 #ahba x 0 %[n by ,fri$ri* ,georg ,wilhelm ,/ruve 7#agic-ahfd71 ! great ,g]man a/ronom]1 t no in/rum5ts !n 9 use c\ld possibly be successful 9 measur+ ! /ell> p>allax4 ,a few ye>s lat]1 h[ev]1 ,fraunh(] br\ght ! refractor to a degree ( p]fection surpass+ all previ\s ef=ts4 ,9 #ahbi he m\nt$ = ! obs]vatory at ,knigsb]g a heliomet]1 ! object-glass ( :i* 0 divid$ 9 two1 & capable ( v accurate measurem5ts4 ,?is heliomet] ev5tually reveal$ ! p>allax ( ! />s 9 ! able h&s ( ,fri$ri* ,wilhelm ,bessel4 ,fri$ri* ,wilhelm ,bessel 0 born at ,m9d51 on ! ,wes]1 s\?-we/ ( ,hanov]1 on ,july #bb1 #aghd4 ,8 fa!r 0 an obscure ,gov]nm5t (ficial1 unable to provide a univ]sity education = 8 son4 ,bessel's love ( figures1 toge!r ) an av]sion to ,lat91 l$ him to pursue a comm]cial c>e]4 ,at ! age ( f\rte51 !re=e1 he ent]$ z an appr5tic$ cl]k ! bus9ess ( ,kuhl5kamp ,sons1 9 ,brem54 ,he 0 n cont5t1 h[ev]1 to rema9 9 t humble position4 ,8 great ambition 0 to become sup]c>go on "o ( ! trad+ exp$itions s5t to ,*9a2 & s he le>n$ ,engli%1 ,spani%1 & geography4 ,b he nev] became a sup]c>go4 ,9 ord] to be fully equipp$ = su* a position1 he det]m9$ to le>n h[ to take obs]vations at sea1 & 8 acqua9tance ) obs]vation ar\s$ a desire to /udy a/ronomy4 ,he con/ruct$ = himself a sextant1 & by means ( ?is1 along ) a common clock1 he det]m9$ ! longitude ( ,brem54 ,su* en?usiasm c\ld n be long )\t its rew>d4 ,= sev]al ye>s ,bessel rema9$ a cl]k1 & ! h\rs devot$ to /udy 7 ^? sp>$ f sleep4 ,he /udi$ ! works ( ,bode1 ,von ,za*1 ,lal&e1 & ,laplace1 & 9 two ye>s 0 able to compute ! orbits ( comets by means ( ma!matics4 ,f "s obs]vations ( ,halley's comet at its appe>ance 9 #afjg1 ,bessel calculat$ its orbit1 & =w>d$ ! calculation to ,olb]s1 !n ! greate/ au?ority on comet>y a/ronomy4 ,olb]s 0 delight$ at ?is "w1 & he s5t ! results to ,von ,za*1 :o publi%$ !m4 ,! self-taught "y a/ronom] _h accompli%$ a piece ( "w :i* fifte5 ye>s be=e _h tax$ ! skill & pati5ce ( ! ,fr5* ,academy ( ,sci5ces4 ,9 #ahje1 ,h>d+1 ,s*rt]'s assi/ant at ,lili5?al1 resign$ 8 position = a m promis+ "o at ,gtt+54 ,olb]s procur$ = ,bessel ! (f] ( ! vacant po/1 :i* ! latt] accept$4 ,at ,lili5?al ,bessel receiv$ 8 tra9+ z a practical a/ronom]4 ,he rema9$ 9 ,s*rt]'s obs]vatory until #ahji4 ,al?\gh only tw5ty-five ye>s ( age1 he _h become s well kn[n 9 ,g]many t 9 t ye> he 0 appo9t$ ,pr(essor ( ,a/ronomy 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,knigsb]g1 & 0 *os5 to sup]9t5d ! erection ( ! new obs]vatory !re4 ,)9 a few ye>s a cl]k 9 a comm]cial (fice _h work$ 8 way f obscurity to fame4 ,9 #ahac ! ,knigsb]g ,obs]vatory 0 complet$1 & "h ,bessel work$ = ?irty-?ree ye>s1 until 8 dea?1 on ,m>* #ag1 #ahdf4 ,x 0 only ab\t t5 ye>s be=e 8 dea? t he comm5c$ 8 se>* = ! /ell> p>allax1 ) ! aid ( ,fraunh(]'s magnific5t heliomet]4 ,he det]m9$ to make a s]ies ( measures on a small d\ble /> ( ! fif? magnitude 9 ! con/ellation ,cygnus1 nam$ #fa ,cygni1 ! l>ge prop] motion ( :i* l$ him to suspect its proximity to ! ,sol> ,sy/em4 ,f ,augu/ #ahcg to ,septemb] #ahch he made obs]vations on #fa ,cygni1 & he f\nd t !re 0 an annual displacem5t :i* c\ld only be attribut$ to p>allax4 ,9 ord] to h no mi/ake1 he made ano!r ye>'s obs]vations1 :i* confirm$ ! results he arriv$ at previ\sly1 & all d\bt 0 remov$ by a ?ird s]ies4 ,! result+ p>allax 0 #jcdhc1 correspond+ to a di/ance ( #fjj1jjj times ! ,e>?'s di/ance f ! ,sun4 ,?is 0 confirm$ "s ye>s lat] by ,c4 ,a4 ,f4 ,pet]s at ,pulk[a1 & /ill lat] by ,otto ,/ruve1 :o e/imat$ ! di/ance at =ty billions ( miles4 ,mean:ile1 ,f4 ,g4 ,w4 ,/ruve1 work+ at ,pulk[a1 f\nd a p>allax ( #jbfac = ,vega1 b ?is 0 aft]w>ds f\nd to be consid]ably 9 error4 ,accord+ly1 ,/ruve does n rank ) ,bessel z a successful measur] ( />-di/ance4 ,b indep5d5tly ( ,bessel1 ano!r accurate measure _h be5 made by ,?omas ,h5d]son1 ! great ,scotti% a/ronom]4 ,born 9 ,dundee 9 #agih1 ,?omas ,h5d]son 0 ! y\nge/ ( five *ildr5 ( a h>d-work+ tradesman4 ,aft] education 9 8 native t[n he w5t to ,ed9burgh1 :]e he work$ = ye>s z an advocate's cl]k1 pursu+ /udies 9 a/ronomy z a recreation f 8 boyhood4 ,9 #ahca he _h become s well kn[n1 t he receiv$ ! appo9tm5t ( ,a/ronom]-,royal at ! new obs]vatory at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope4 ,b ! climate ( ,s\? ,africa did n suit 8 heal?1 & aft] a ye> he return$ to ,scotl&4 ,9 #ahcd he became ,pr(essor ( ,a/ronomy 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,ed9burgh1 & ,a/ronom]-,royal ( ,scotl&1 :i* position he held till 8 dea? on ,novemb] #bc1 #ahdd1 at ! e>ly age ( =ty-six4 ,dur+ a ye>'s "w at ! ,cape1 ,h5d]son und]took a s]ies ( obs]vations on ! bright s\!rn />1 ,c5tauri1 ) a view to det]m9+ its p>allax4 ,^! obs]vations 7 made 9 #ahcb & #ahcc1 b 7 n r$uc$ until ,h5d]son's return to ,scotl&4 ,at l5g?1 on ,janu>y #c1 #ahci1 he ann\nc$ to ! ,royal ,a/ronomical ,society t he _h succe$$ 9 measur+ ! p>allax ( ,c5tauri1 :i* he det]m9$ z ab\t "o second ( arc1 correspond+ to a di/ance ( ab\t tw5ty billions ( miles4 ,?is result 0 confirm$ by ! obs]vations ( ,?omas ,macle> 7#agid-ahgi71 8 successor at ! ,cape1 & by ^? ( lat] obs]v]s1 notably ,sir ,david ,gill1 :o has r$uc$ ! p>allax to #jge4 ,o!r det]m9ations ( /ell> p>allax1 "s g5u9e & o!rs illusory1 7 made soon aft] ^! successful obs]vations4 ,c4 ,a4 ,f4 ,pet]s & ,otto ,/ruve at ,pulk[a 7 among ! mo/ fam\s p>allax-hunt]s 9 ! middle ( ! c5tury4 ,"o ( ! mo/ successful se>*]s aft] p>allax 0 ! ,g]man a/ronom] ,fri$ri* ,brnn[ 7#ahba-ahia71 :o 0 employ$ f #ahfe to #ahgd z ,a/ronom]-,royal ( ,irel&4 ,he det]m9$ ! p>allax ( ,vega z #jac1 & ?is 0 confirm$ 9 #ahhf by ,hall at ,wa%+ton3 :ile he measur$ ! p>allax ( ! /> ,groombridge #ahcj1 :i* turn$ out to be #jji4 ,he resign$ 8 po/ 9 #ahgd1 & 8 successor at ,dubl9 ,obs]vatory prov$ to be 8 successor also 9 ?is bran* ( a/ronomy4 ,rob]t ,/awell ,ball1 born 9 ,dubl9 9 #ahdj1 0 a/ronom] to ,"l ,rosse 9 #ahfe & #ahff1 & became 9 #ahgd ,a/ronom]-,royal ( ,irel& 9 succession to ,brnn[1 a position :i* he fill$ until 8 appo9tm5t 9 #ahib z ,pr(essor ( ,a/ronomy at ,cambridge1 & director ( ! obs]vatory !re4 ,dur+ 8 t]m ( (fice 9 ,dubl9 he und]took1 9 #ahha1 a 8sweep+ se>*0 = l>ge p>allaxes1 !reby disprov+ c]ta9 ideas z to ! proximity to ! ,e>? ( r$ & tempor>y />s2 :ile he also det]m9$ ! p>allax ( ! /> #afah ,groombridge4 ,b ! greate/ ext5sion ( our k ( /ell> di/ances1 9 rec5t ye>s1 is due to a ,scotti% a/ronom]1 :o has ma9ta9$ ! reputation ( ,scotl&1 & also ( ! ,cape ,obs]vatory1 9 ?is l9e ( rese>*4 ,born 9 ,ab]de5 9 #ahdc1 ,david ,gill direct$ ,"l ,l9dsay's private obs]vatory at ,dune*t1 9 ,ab]de5%ire1 f #ahgf to #ahgi4 ,9 ! latt] ye> he succe$$ ,edw>d ,james ,/one 7#ahca-ahig7 z ,a/ronom]-,royal at ! ,cape1 a position :i* he has s9ce fill$ ) conspicu\s ability4 ,f #ahha he has be5 engag$ 9 ! hunt = p>allax4 ,9 conjunction ) ,william ,lewis ,elk9 7born #ahee71 n[ director ( ,yale ,college ,obs]vatory1 he det]m9$ ! p>allaxes ( n9e />s ) ! aid ( ,"l ,l9dsay's heliomet]4 ,9 #ahhg1 ) a l>g] in/rum5t1 he resum$ ! se>*1 :ile ,elk9 work$ 9 co-op]ation ) him1 b at ,yale ,obs]vatory1 :]e he und]took ! measurem5t ( ! p>allaxes ( nor!rn />s4 ,he fix$ 9 #ahhh an av]age p>allax = fir/-magnitude />s1 :i* 0 det]m9$ at #jjhi1 correspond+ to a j\rney = light ( ?irty-six ye>s4 ,mo/ ( ! successful det]m9ations ( p>allax h be5 made by ! 8relative0 me?od--t is1 ! det]m9ation ( ! displacem5t ( a /> 9 ref]5ce to ano!r />1 assum$ to be situat$ at an immeasurable di/ance4 ,! me?od ( absolute p>allax1 on ! o!r h&1--! />'s displacem5t 9 "r asc5sion & decl9ation1--has be5 seldom us$1 ow+ to ! labori\s r$uction :i* has to be gone ?r\gh be=e ! result c be rea*$4 ,9 #ahhe1 h[ev]1 a s]ies ( obs]vations 7 und]tak5 at ,leyd5 by ,jacobus ,cornelius ,kapteyn 7born #ahea71 :o det]m9$ by ! absolute me?od ! p>allaxes ( fifte5 nor!rn />s4 ,! fir/ application ( photography to ! problem 0 due to ! zeal & en]gy ( ,*>les ,prit*>d 7#ahjh-ahic71 ,pr(essor ( ,a/ronomy at ,ox=d1 :o det]m9$ by ?is me?od ! p>allax ( #fa ,cygni1 :i* he ann\nc$ 9 #ahhf to be #jdch1 9 agreem5t ) ,ball's det]m9ation4 ,he also det]m9$ ! av]age p>allax ( second-magnitude />s1 :i* came out z #jjef4 ,s9ce ! "t ( ,prit*>d's obs]vations v>i\s o!r m or less satisfactory det]m9ations ( p>allax h be5 made4 ,few ( ! p>allax det]m9ations are probably v accurate1 & none exact2 b an idea ( ! difficulty ( ! measurem5t may be ga!r$ f ! rem>k ( an ,am]ican writ]1 ,mr ,g4 ,p4 ,s]viss1 t ! displacem5t 8is ab\t equal to ! app>5t di/ance betwe5 ! heads ( two p9s1 plac$ an in* ap>t1 & view$ f a di/ance ( a hundr$ & eighty miles40 ,closely alli$ to ! "q ( p>allax is ! det]m9ation ( ! exact positions ( ! />s & ! =mation ( />-catalogues4 ,9 ?is bran*1 too1 mu* is due to ! g5ius ( ,bessel4 ,! obs]vations ( ,bradley at ,gre5wi* f #agej to #agfb 7 r$uc$ by ,bessel into ! =m ( a catalogue1 :i* 0 publi%$ 9 #ahah1 ) ! title ( #8,fundam5ta ,a/ronomi4' ,dur+ ! ye>s #ahba to #ahbc ,bessel took #ge1jaa obs]vations1 by :i* he br\ght up ! numb] ( accurately kn[n />s to #ej1jjj4 ,at ! same "t notable catalogues _h be5 con/ruct$1 p>ticul>ly by ! ,engli% a/ronom]1 ,francis ,baily 7#aggd-ahdd71 & by ,giovanni ,sant9i 7#aghf-ahgg71 director ( ! obs]vatory at ,padua2 b ,bessel's successor 9 ?is bran* ( rese>* 0 ,fri$ri* ,wilhelm ,augu/ ,argel&] 7#agii-ahge74 ,9 #ahba he became assi/ant to ,bessel at ,knigsb]g1 9 #ahbc director ( ! ,obs]vatory at ,abo1 9 ,f9l&1 & 9 #ahcg ( t at ,bonn4 ,"h he comm5c$ 9 #aheb ! great #8,bonn ,dur*mu/]ung1' a catalogue & atlas ( #cbd1aih />s visible 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,! great catalogue 0 publi%$ 9 #ahfc4 ,aft] ,argel&]'s dea? x 0 ext5d$ s z to include #acc1fei />s 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 by 8 assi/ant ,edu>d ,s*nfeld 7#ahbh-ahia71 :o succe$$ him 9 #ahge z director ( ,bonn ,obs]vatory1 :]e he di$ 9 #ahia4 ,mean:ile a great] und]tak+ 0 comm5c$ 9 #ahfe by ! ,a/ronomis*e ,gesells*aft4 ,?is 0 ! co-op]ation ( ?irte5 obs]vatories 9 ,europe & ,am]ica = ! exact det]m9ation ( ! places ( #ajj1jjj ( ,argel&]'s />s4 ,9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 work+ at ,cordova 9 ,arg5t9a1 0 ! great ,am]ican a/ronom]1 ,g\ld1 ^: #8,uranometria ,arg5t9a1' publi%$ 9 #ahgi1 gives ! magnitudes ( #haih />s1 & ^: ,arg5t9e ,g5]al ,catalogue1 conta9+ ref]5ce ( #cb1ddh />s1 0 publi%$ 9 #ahhf4 ,! late ,radcliffe obs]v]1 ,/one1 publi%$ a useful catalogue 9 #ahhj f 8 obs]vations at ! ,cape4 ,! application ( photography to ! "w ( />-*>t+ dates f #ahhb1 :5 ,gill photograph$ ! comet ( #ahhb1 & 0 /ruck ) ! di/9ctness ( ! />s on ! backgr\nd4 ,= "s "t he _h contemplat$ ! ext5sion ( ! #8,dur*mu/]ung1' f ! po9t :]e ,s*nfeld left x1 to ! s\!rn pole1 & ! idea /ruck him to utilise photography = ! purpose4 ,9 #ahhe1 accord+ly1 ,gill comm5c$ "w1 & 9 f\r ye>s all ! photographs 7 tak54 ,! r$uction ( ! obs]vations into ! =m ( a catalogue 0 spontane\sly und]tak5 by ! great ,dut* a/ronom]1 ,kapteyn1 :o 0 occupi$ ) ! "w = f\rte5 ye>s1 until 9 #aijj ! great catalogue1 kn[n z ! #8,cape ,photographic ,dur*mu/]ung1' 0 complet$4 ,half a million />s are repres5t$ on ! plates tak5 at ! ,cape4 ,by ! "t ! #8,dur*mu/]ung' 0 complet$1 a great] und]tak+ 0 9 progress4 ,paul & ,prosp] ,h5ry1 a/ronom]s at ! ,p>is ,obs]vatory1 :5 engag$ 9 cont9u+ ,*acornac's ecliptic *>ts1 appli$ photography to _! "w1 & f\nd x v successful4 ,accord+ly ,gill's proposal1 on ,june #d1 #ahhf1 ( an ,int]national ,congress ( ,a/ronom]s1 to und]take a photographic survey ( ! heav5s1 0 en?usia/ically receiv$ by ! ,fr5* a/ronom]s4 ,! ,congress met at ,p>is 9 #ahhg1 "u ! presid5t%ip ( ,amde ,m\*ez 7#ahba-ahib71 director ( ! ,p>is ,obs]vatory1 fifty-six a/ronom]s ( all nations be+ pres5t4 ,! ,congress resolv$ to con/ruct a ,photographic ,*>t1 & a ,catalogue1 ! =m] conta9+ tw5ty million />s1 ! latt] a million & a qu>t]4 ,meet+s 7 held 9 ,p>is 9 #ahia1 #ahic1 #ahif1 & #aijj to sup]9t5d ! progress ( ! "w1 :i* is n[ 7#aijf7 well advanc$ t[>ds completion4 ,a unique /> catalogue is 9 c\rse ( prep>ation by ! ,scotti% a/ronom]1 ,william ,peck 7born #ahfb71 a/ronom] to ! ,city ( ,ed9burgh s9ce #ahhi4 ,mr ,peck's catalogue is accompani$ by a s]ies ( *>ts4 ,8 />-magnitudes are ^? ( all fam\s catalogues r$uc$ to a /&>d scale4 ,?is catalogue1 ! result ( m ?an fifte5 ye>s' "w1 w be an important addition to ! _m valuable works ( ! k9d already 9 exi/5ce1 & w fur!r increase ! already great reputation ( ,scotsm5 9 practical a/ronomy4 ,! det]m9ation ( ! prop] motions ( ! />s is ano!r important bran* ( practical a/ronomy 9 :i* mu* progress has be5 made s9ce ! "t ( ,h]s*el4 ,/>s ) mu* l>g] prop] motions ?an ^? ( ! fir/ magnitude h be5 discov]$4 ,= _m ye>s ! small six?-magnitude /> 9 ,ursa ,major1 #ahcj ,groombridge1 0 suppos$ to be ! swifte/ ( ! />s1 & 0 nam$ by ,newcomb ! 8runaway />40 ,b 9 #ahig1 on exam9+ ! plates ( ! #8,cape ,dur*mu/]ung1' ,kapteyn discov]$ a /ill swift] /> ( ! eigh? magnitude1 situat$ 9 ! s\!rn con/ellation1 ,pictor4 ,! rate ( its motion is ov] eight seconds ( arc ye>ly2 & an idea ( ! va/ di/ance ( ! />s may be obta9$ by ! /atem5t t x w\ld take #bjj ye>s = ! />--kn[n z ,g\ld's ,cordova ,zones1 ,v ,h\r #bdc--to move ov] a space equal to ! moon's diamet]4 ,important obs]vations h be5 made on ! /ell> motions1 & on _! be>+ on ! /ructure ( ! ,univ]se1 by v>i\s a/ronom]s1 includ+ ,j4 ,c4 ,kapteyn & ,ludwig ,/ruve 7born #aheh71 son ( ,otto ,/ruve2 b ^! mu/ be res]v$ = a lat] *apt]4 ,ri*>d ,an?ony ,proctor1 born at ,*elsea1 9 ,london1 9 #ahcg1 graduat$ at ,cambridge 9 #ahfj4 ,= ! next tw5ty-eight ye>s he e>n$ 8 liv+ by publi%+ _m volumes on a/ronomy1 popul> & te*nical1 fifty-sev5 hav+ appe>$ at ! "t ( 8 dea?1 :i* took place at ,new ,york on ,septemb] #ab1 #ahhh4 ,not)/&+ ! va/ am\nt ( "w be/[$ on 8 books1 8 orig9al inve/igations 7 p]man5t contributions to a/ronomical sci5ce4 ,9 #ahgj he und]took to *>t ! directions & am\nts ( #afjj prop] motions4 ,:ile engag$ on ?is "w1 x occurr$ to him t x w\ld be 8desirable & useful to se>* = subord9ate laws ( motion40 ,he f\nd1 f ! labori\s process ( *>t+1 t five ( ! sev5 />s ( ! ,pl\gh _h a motion 9 common--t is to say1 7 mov+ 9 ! same direction at ! same rate4 ,?is ph5om5on 0 t]m$ by ,proctor 8/>-drift40 ,he also recognis$ o!r in/ances ( />-drift 9 o!r portions ( ! heav5s4 ,! subject 0 soon aft]w>ds tak5 up by ! ,fr5* a/ronom]1 ,camille ,flamm>ion4 ,born 9 #ahdb at ,montigny-le-,roi1 9 ,haute ,m>ne1 ,flamm>ion 0 appo9t$ assi/ant to ,le ,v]ri] 9 #aheh1 b gave up 8 po/ 9 #ahfb4 ,employ$ successively at ! ,bureau des ,longitudes1 & z editor ( sci5tific pap]s1 he f\nd$ 9 #ahhb 8 private obs]vatory at ,juvisy-sur-,orge1 :]e he has s9ce cont9u$ 8 inve/igations4 ,foll[+ up ,proctor's discov]y ( />-drift1 ,flamm>ion drew *>ts ( prop] motions4 ,he demon/rat$ ! 8common prop] motion0 ( ,regulus & an eigh?-magnitude />1 ,lal&e #ai1gdi1 f a comp>ison ( 8 measures 9 #ahgg ) ^? ( ,*ri/ian ,may] a c5tury previ\sly2 :ile he discov]$ _m o!r in/ances4 ,8 reflections on ^! motions1 z giv5 9 8 #8,popul> ,a/ronomy1' are wor?y ( reproduction3 8,su* are ! /up5d\s motions :i* c>ry e sun1 e sy/em1 e _w1 all life1 & all de/9y 9 all directions ( ! inf9ite imm5sity1 ?r\gh ! b\ndless1 bottomless abyss2 9 a void = ev] op51 ev] yawn+1 ev] black1 & ev] unfa?omable2 dur+ an et]nity1 )\t days1 )\t ye>s1 )\t c5turies1 or measures4 ,su* is ! aspect1 gr&1 spl5did1 & sublime1 ( ! univ]se :i* flies ?r\gh space be=e ! dazzl$ & /upefi$ gaze ( ! t]re/rial a/ronom]1 born to-day to die to-morr[1 on a globule lo/ 9 ! inf9ite night40 ,measures ( prop] motion only enable u to det]m9e ! motion ( />s across ! l9e ( sight4 ,!y d n tell u :e!r ! /> is advanc+ or rec$+4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 ! spectroscope comes to our aid by means ( ,doppl]'s pr9ciple1 describ$ 9 ! *apt] on ! ,sun4 ,x occurr$ to ,hugg9s t1 by obs]v+ ! displacem5t ( ! l9es 9 ! spectra ( ! />s1 he c\ld det]m9e _! motion 9 ! l9e ( sight4 ,8 fir/ results 7 ann\nc$ 9 #ahfh4 ,9 ! case ( ,sirius1 ! displacem5t ( ! l9e m>k$ ,f 0 believ$ to indicate a velocity ( recession ( #bi miles a second4 ,"s "t lat] ,hugg9s ann\nc$ t ,betelgeux1 ,rigel1 ,ca/or1 & ,regulus 7 retreat+1 :ile ,arcturus1 ,pollux1 ,vega1 & ,d5eb 7 approa*+4 ,soon aft] ?is successful "w ! subject 0 tak5 up by ,maund] at ,gre5wi* & by ,vogel at ,bo?kamp2 b ! delicacy ( ! measurem5ts prev5t$ satisfactory results f be+ rea*$ ?r\gh visual obs]vations1 & accord+ly ! measurem5ts 7 v discordant4 ,9 #ahhg ,h4 ,c4 ,vogel1 work+ at ,potsdam ,a/rophysical ,obs]vatory1 appli$ photography to ! measurem5t ( radial motion4 ,assi/$ by ,julius ,s*e9] 7born #aheh71 he det]m9$ ! radial motions ( fifty-"o bright />s by photograph+ ! /ell> spectra & measur+ ! photographs4 ,vogel f\nd #aj miles a second to be ! av]age velocity ( />s 9 ! l9e ( sight1 ! t5d5cy ( ! eye be+ to exagg]ate ! displacem5ts4 ,! swifte/ ( ! />s measur$ by ,vogel prov$ to be ,aldeb>an1 ) a velocity ( recession ( #cj miles a second4 ,s9ce #ahib ! subject has be5 pursu$ by ,vogel himself ) ! new #cj-;in* refractor at ,potsdam1 by ,campbell at ! ,lick ,obs]vatory1 ,blopolsky at ,pulk[a1 & o!r obs]v]s4 ,t[>ds ! end ( #ahif ,campbell und]took1 ) ! #cf-;in* ,lick refractor1 a s]ies ( measures on radial motion1 & _m important discov]ies 7 made4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 mu/ be res]v$ = ! *apt] deal+ ) d\ble />s4 ,h]s*el's great discov]y1 f ! app>5t motions ( ! />s1 ( ! movem5t ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em 0 n accept$ by ! next g5]ation ( a/ronom]s4 ,bessel decl>$ 9 #ahah t !re 0 absolutely no evid5ce to %[ t ! ,sun 0 mov+ t[>ds ,h]cules4 ,ev5 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el reject$ 8 fa!r's views1 al?\gh "s confirmatory results _h be5 rea*$ by ,gauss4 ,at l5g?1 9 #ahcg1 ,argel&]1 9 a memorable pap]1 bas$ on 8 obs]vations at ,abo1 9 ,f9l&1 attack$ ! problem1 & demon/rat$1 f a discussion ( ! motions ( #cij />s1 q indep5d5tly ( ,h]s*el's "w1 t ! ,sol> ,sy/em 0 mov+ t[>ds ,h]cules4 ,?is 0 confirm$ 9 #ahda by ,otto ,/ruve1 9 #ahdg by ,?omas ,gall[ay1 & 9 #ahei & #ahfc by ,airy & ,edw9 ,dunk9 7#ahba-ahih71 assi/ant at ,gre5wi* ,obs]vatory4 ,mean:ile1 9 #ahhf1 ,ar?ur ,auw]s1 p]man5t ,secret>y ( ! ,b]l9 ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 complet$ ! re-r$uction ( ,bradley's obs]vations at ,gre5wi*1 & br\ght out #cjj reliable prop] motions1 :i* 7 utilis$ by ,ludwig ,/ruve1 ^: inve/igation remov$ ! sol> apex f ,h]cules to ! neighb\r+ con/ellation ,lyra3 ?is slight *ange 0 confirm$ by ,osc> ,/umpe1 ( ,bonn1 & ,lewis ,boss 7born #ahdg71 director ( ! ,obs]vatory at ,albany1 ,new ,york4 ,an inve/igation by ,newcomb fully confirm$ ! previ\s results4 ,9 #aijj1 #aija1 & #aijb ,kapteyn made ?ree di/9ct inve/igations on ! sol> motion1 & /ill fur!r confirm$ ! previ\s inve/igations4 ,^! inve/igations are fully confirm$ by ! application to ! "q ( ,doppl]'s pr9ciple ( measur+ radial motion4 ,! spectroscopic rese>*es ( ,campbell at ! ,lick ,obs]vatory place ! sol> apex v ne> ! position assign$ to x by ,newcomb & ,kapteyn4 ,campbell f9ds ! sol> velocity to be ab\t #ab miles a second1 & ,kapteyn ?9ks a velocity ( ab\t #aa miles a second is 8! mo/ probable value t c at pres5t be adopt$40 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,! ,,light ,,( ,,! ,,/>s4 8,t a sci5ce ( /ell> *emi/ry %\ld n only h become possible1 b %\ld already h made mat]ial advances1 is assur$ly "o ( ! mo/ amaz+ features 9 ! swift progress ( k our age has witness$40 ,s writes ,miss ,agnes ,m>y ,cl]ke1 ! hi/orian ( mod]n a/ronomy4 ,z long ago z #ahbc ,fraunh(] obs]v$ ! spectra ( ! bright] />s1 & ga!r$ ! fir/ h9t ( ! gr\p+ ( ! />s into ?ree classes4 ,!n1 aft] ,fraunh(]'s dea?1 ! subject lay 9 abeyance = ?irty-sev5 ye>s4 ,at l5g?1 9 #ahfj1 on ,kir*h(f's explanation ( ! ,fraunh(] l9es1 ! /udy ( /ell> spectra 0 inaugurat$ at ,flor5ce by ,donati1 :o c>efully fix$ ! positions ( ! m important l9es4 ,8 in/rum5tal means1 h[ev]1 7 v limit$1 & 8 obs]vations 7 n successful4 ,9 #ahfb ,ru!rfurd1 9 ,new ,york1 comm5c$ ! /udy ( /ell> spectra1 b %ortly aft]w>ds turn$ 8 att5tion to a/ronomical photography4 ,! actual f\nd]s ( /ell> spectroscopy 7 ! em95t ,italian obs]v]1 ,angelo ,sec*i1 & ! illu/ri\s ,engli%man1 ,william ,hugg9s4 ,angelo ,sec*i 0 born 9 #ahah at ,reggio1 9 ! ,emilia4 ,educat$ 9 ! ,collegio ,romano1 he 0 orda9$ prie/ 9 #ahdg1 b 8 love ( sci5ce1 & p>ticul>ly a/ronomy1 dates f ! beg9n+ ( 8 c>e]4 ,9 #ahdi he succe$$ ,di ,vico z director ( ! ,obs]vatory ( ! ,collegio ,romano4 ,?is po/ he fill$ ) conspicu\s ability = a p]iod ( tw5ty-n9e ye>s1 until 8 dea? on ,febru>y #bf1 #ahgh4 ,to ,sec*i is due ! cr$it ( ! fir/ spectroscopic survey ( ! heav5s4 ,he review$ ! spectra ( #djjj />s1 & classifi$ !m into f\r di/9ct gr\ps1 :i* are recognis$ to ?is day4 ,! fir/ type embraces ov] half ( ^? :i* ,sec*i exam9$4 ,?is type is repres5t$ by ,sirius1 ,vega1 ,altair1 & o!r blui%-:ite />s1 & is *>act]is$ by ! int5sity ( ! hydrog5 l9es4 ,! second type embraces ! yell[ />s1 su* z ,capella1 ,arcturus1 ,aldeb>an1 ,pollux1 & ! ,sun itself1 & is kn[n z ! ,sol> type4 ,! spectra ( ^! />s closely resemble t ( ! ,sun1 & are di/+ui%$ by innum]able l9es4 ,sec*i's ?ird type1 or r$ />s1 repres5t$ by ,betelgeux1 ,ant>es1 & o!rs1 are *>act]is$ by /rong absorption b&s1 & ! spectra h be5 describ$ z 8flut$40 ,! ?ird-type />s are comp>atively sc>ce comp>$ ) ! fir/ & second1 & ! f\r? is ev5 less num]\s4 ,! f\r?-type />s are also r$ ) broad absorption l9es4 ,to ,sec*i's f\r types a fif? 0 add$ 9 #ahfg by ,wolf & ,rayet ( ,p>is ,obs]vatory--namely1 ! gase\s />s4 ,sec*i aim$ at a compreh5sive survey ( ! /ell> spectra1 & he accompli%$ mu* valuable "w4 ,he did n devote 8 "t to analys+ individual />s4 ,?is bran* ( /udy--analysis ( spectra & ! det]m9ation ( ! elem5ts 9 ! />s--0 und]tak5 by 8 contempor>y1 ,william ,hugg9s1 "o ( ! greate/ a/ronom]s :om ,engl& has ev] produc$4 ,born 9 ,london 9 #ahbd1 ,william ,hugg9s comm5c$ 8 a/ronomical rese>*es at ! age ( tw5ty-eight4 ,9 #ahef he erect$1 at ,tulse ,hill1 ,london1 an obs]vatory :i* he equipp$ at great exp5se4 ,he comm5c$ obs]vations on ! usual a/ronomical l9es1 tak+ times ( transits & mak+ draw+s ( ! surfaces ( ! planets4 ,b he soon tir$ ( ! r\t9e ( ord9>y a/ronomical "w1 & on ! publication ( ,kir*h(f's explanation ( ! ,fraunh(] l9es 9 ! sol> spectrum1 he comm5c$ to inve/igate ! spectra ( ! />s4 ,hav+ con/ruct$ a suitable spectroscope1 he comm5c$ obs]vations 9 #ahfb 9 conjunction ) 8 fri5d1 ,william ,all5 ,mill]1 ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry 9 ,london4 ,he exhau/ively inve/igat$ ! two r$ />s1 ,betelgeux & ,aldeb>an1 asc]ta9+ ! exi/5ce 9 ! =m] /> ( sodium1 iron1 calcium1 magnesium1 & bismu?2 & 9 ! latt] /> ! same elem5ts1 ) ! addition ( tellurium1 antimony1 & m]cury4 ,9 #ahfc ,hugg9s made an attempt to photograph ! spectra ( ! />s1 &1 inde$1 obta9$ pr9ts ( ,sirius & ,capella1 b no l9es 7 visible 9 !m4 ,9 #ahgd ,drap] ( ,new ,york obta9$ a photograph ( ! spectrum ( ,vega1 %[+ f\r l9es4 ,two ye>s lat] ,hugg9s aga9 attack$ ! problem1 & secur$ a photograph ( ! spectrum ( ,vega1 %[+ sev5 /rong l9es4 ,9 #ahgi he 0 enabl$ to communicate satisfactory results ( 8 "w to ! ,royal ,society1 & s9ce !n he has secur$ _m admirable repres5tations4 ,9 #ahii ! monum5tal "w1 #8,an ,atlas ( ,repres5tative ,/ell> ,spectra1' ! jo9t "w ( ,sir ,william & ,lady ,hugg9s1 0 publi%$4 ,9 #ahgd ! ,g]man ,gov]nm5t e/abli%$ at ,potsdam ! ,a/rophysical ,obs]vatory1 = ! spectroscopic /udy ( ! ,sun & />s4 ,a position on ! /aff 0 giv5 to ,h]mann ,c>l ,vogel1 ^: rese>*es 9 a/ronomical spectroscopy rank ) ^? ( ,sec*i & ,hugg9s4 ,born 9 ,leipzig 9 #ahdb1 he 0 f #ahfe to #ahfi employ$ 9 ! ,leipzig ,obs]vatory4 ,call$ to ,bo?kamp z director 9 #ahgj1 he resign$ 8 po/ 9 #ahgd to accept a position on ! /aff at ,potsdam ,obs]vatory4 ,9 #ahhb he became director ( t ,in/itution1 :i* position he /ill reta9s4 ,9 #ahgd ,vogel revis$ ,sec*i's classification ( /ell> spectra1 & 9 #ahie he fur!r improv$ on x4 ,8 classification improves r ?an sup]s$es ! previ\s "w ( ,sec*i2 nev]!less1 he approa*$ ! "q f a diff]5t /&po9t4 ,vogel conclud$ 9 #ahgd t a rational s*eme ( /ell> classification 8c only be arriv$ at by proce$+ f ! /&po9t t ! phrase ( developm5t ( ! p>ticul> body is1 9 g5]al1 mirror$ 9 its spectrum40 ,vogel divides ,sec*i's fir/ type into ?ree classes4 ,9 ! fir/ type1 designat$ ,ia1--repres5t$ by ,sirius & ,vega1--! metallic l9es are 8v fa9t & f9e10 & ! hydrog5 l9es conspicu\s4 ,9 ,ib no hydrog5 l9es are visible1 :ile 9 ,ic ! hydrog5 l9es are bright4 ,?is class includes ! gase\s />s4 ,9 #ahie1 aft] ! recognition ( helium 9 ! />s by 8 assi/ant1 ,s*e9]1 ,vogel sep>at$ ! />s ( class ,ib f ! fir/ type altoge!r4 ,^! />s are sometimes designat$ z 8,type ,o10 & sometimes z helium />s & ,orion />s1 z ! majority ( ! />s 9 ,orion are ( t type4 ,! sol> type is divid$ into two classes1 ,,iia be+ repres5t$ by ! ,sun1 ,capella1 & o!r well-kn[n />s1 :ile ,,iib includes ! ,wolf-,rayet />s4 ,sec*i's ?ird & f\r? types are bo? classifi$ by ,vogel z ( ! ?ird type4 ,^! r$ />s 7 specially /udi$ f #ahgh to #ahhd by ,dunr at ,lund4 ,8 results 7 publi%$ 9 a descriptive catalogue :i* appe>$ at ,/ockholm 9 #ahhd4 ,8 rese>*es relat$ to ! spectra ( #ceb />s1 #big ( ,sec*i's ?ird type & #ee ( 8 f\r?4 ,dunr is p]haps ! greate/ au?ority on />s ) b&$ spectra4 ,vogel's classification ( spectra is g5]ally adopt$ by a/ronom]s1 al?\gh o!rs h be5 propos$ by ,locky] & by ,edw>d ,*>les ,pick]+ 7born #ahdf71 director ( ! ,h>v>d ,obs]vatory4 ,locky]'s classification 0 design$ to fit 9 ) 8 8meteoritic hypo!sis10 discuss$ 9 ! *apt] on ,cele/ial ,evolution4 ,! />s 7 divid$ by ,locky] into sev5 gr\ps1 accord+ to 8 views ( _! temp]ature1 ris+ ?r\gh gase\s />s1 r$ />s ( ,sec*i's ?ird type1 & a division ( sol> />s to ! ,sirian type1 & fall+ ?r\gh a second division ( ! sol> type to r$ />s ( ,sec*i's f\r? type4 ,! fir/ spectroscopic />-catalogue 0 publi%$ 9 #ahhc by ,vogel1 assi/$ by ,gu/av ,mll] 7born #ahea71 a son-9-law ( ,spr]4 ,! catalogue conta9$ details ( #djea />s to ! sev5? magnitude1 & m ?an half ( ^! prov$ to be ( ,sec*i's fir/ type4 ,vogel's "w 0 complet$ 9 diff]5t latitudes by ,dunr at ,upsala1 & by ,nicolaus ,!ge von ,konkoly 7born #ahdb7 at ,o',gyalla 9 ,hung>y4 ,! fam\s #8,drap] ,catalogue' ranks z ! greate/ catalogue ( /ell> spectra4 ,x 0 und]tak5 at ,h>v>d ,obs]vatory by ,e4 ,c4 ,pick]+1 9 ! =m ( a memorial to ,h5ry ,drap]1 ! successful spectroscopi/4 ,comm5c$ 9 #ahhf1 & publi%$ 9 #ahij1 x conta9s photographs ( ! spectra ( no few] ?an #aj1cea />s1 d[n to ! eigh? magnitude4 ,pick]+ subdivid$ ,sec*i's types into v>i\s classes1 ! fir/ or ,sirian into f\r classes1 ! second into eight1 :ile ! ?ird & f\r? types ea* con/itute a sep>ate class4 ,pick]+ designat$ 8 classes by ! capital lett]s ( ! alphabet4 ,mu* useful "w has be5 done also 9 ! analysis ( ! v>i\s spectra4 ,julius ,s*e9]1 n[ 8*ief obs]v]0 at ,potsdam ,a/rophysical ,obs]vatory1 has1 s9ce #ahij1 done mu* valuable "w 9 ?is direction4 ,special att5tion 0 devot$ to ! spectrum ( ,capella1 #dij l9es 9 ! spectrum ( :i* 7 measur$ by ,s*e9]4 ,9 8 own words1 8he believes a complete pro( ( ! absolute agreem5t betwe5 its spectrum & t ( ! ,sun to be !reby furni%$40 ,o!r />s ( ! ,sirian & sol> classes 7 exhau/ively /udi$ by ,s*e9]4 ,! /udy ( ! exact brilliance ( ! />s 0 a bran* ( rese>* long neglect$1 yet x is ( mu* importance 9 a/ronomy1 = x is only ?r\gh exact measurem5t ( /ell> brilliance t /ell> v>iation c be detect$4 ,h]s*el comm5c$ ! /udy1 :i* 0 cont9u$ by 8 son at ! ,cape1 b x is only )9 ! la/ tw5ty ye>s t /ell> photometry has become a recognis$ bran* ( a/ronomy2 & ! cr$it ( ?is is due to ! en]gy & zeal ( ! great ,am]ican obs]v]1 ,edw>d ,*>les ,pick]+4 ,born 9 ,bo/on 9 #ahdf1 ,edw>d ,*>les ,pick]+ 0 appo9t$ 9 #ahfe ,in/ructor ( ma!matics 9 ! ,lawr5ce ,sci5tific ,s*ool at ,h>v>d1 aft] a di/+ui%$ univ]sity c>e]4 ,9 #ahgf he succe$$ ,w9lock z director ( ! ,h>v>d ,obs]vatory1 & 9 ! foll[+ ye> he comm5c$ 8 photometric /udies4 ,he inv5t$ an in/rum5t nam$ ! m]idian photomet]1 ) ! aid ( :i* he succe$$ 9 det]m9+1 9 ! ye>s #ahgi to #ahhb1 ! exact brilliance ( #dbfj />s to ! six? magnitude betwe5 ! nor? cele/ial pole & ?irty degrees ( s\? decl9ation4 ,at a lat] date he devis$ a l>g] photomet]1 ) :i* he made ov] "o million obs]vations4 ,pick]+ next ext5d$ 8 survey to ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 erect+ ! photomet] on ! slope ( ! ,&es1 :]e ! ,h>v>d auxili>y /ation at ,arequipa is n[ locat$1 & :]e #hjjj det]m9ations ( /ell> brilliance 7 made4 ,mean:ile ,prit*>d1 at ,ox=d1 publi%$ 9 #ahhe 8 #8,uranometria ,nova ,oxoni5sis1' ) photometric det]m9ations ( ! brilliance ( #bghd />s f ! pole to t5 degrees ( s\? decl9ation4 ,bo? ( ^! catalogues 7 epo*-mak+ works1 & te/ify to ! en?usiasm & p]sev]ance ( ! a/ronom]s :o design$ !m4 ,! /udy ( /ell> photometry glides into t ( /ell> v>iation4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury ! numb] ( kn[n v>iable />s 0 v small1 z a glance at ! li/ giv5 9 ,brew/]'s edition ( ,f]guson's ,a/ronomy 7#ahaa7 w %[4 ,"s rem>kable inve/igations 7 due to ! ,engli% a/ronom]1 ,john ,goodricke 7#agfd-aghf71 :o r$iscov]$ ! v>iability ( ! /> ,algol1 & accurately det]m9$ its p]iod 9 #aghb4 ,goodricke sugge/$ t ! regul> v>iations 9 ! light ( ,algol 7 due to ! p>tial eclipse ( its light by a d>k satellite1 a hypo!sis n[ fully confirm$4 ,two ye>s lat]1 9 #aghd1 ,goodricke discov]$ o!r two v>iables1 ,cephei & ,lyr4 ,he di$ 9 #aghf at ! age ( tw5ty-"o1 & ?us v>iable-/> a/ronomy 0 depriv$ ( its f\nd]4 ,! f\ndation ( v>iable-/> a/ronomy z an exact bran* ( ! sci5ce is due to ,argel&]4 ,9 ! ye>s #ahcg-ahde1 :ile resid+ at ,bonn dur+ ! erection ( ! obs]vatory1 ( :i* he _h be5 made director1 he erect$ a tempor>y obs]vatory1 & !re he c>efully det]m9$ ! magnitudes ( all />s visible 9 ,c5tral ,europe4 ,f ?is he 0 l$ to ! discussion ( /ell> v>iation1 to :i* subject he cont9u$ to give mu* att5tion4 ,he 0 ! fir/ to describe a me?od ( obs]v+ v>iable />s sci5tifically & accurately1--a me?od consi/+ 9 e/imat+ 9 8/eps0 or 8grades0 ! diff]5ce 9 brilliance betwe5 ! v>iable1 or suspect$ v>iable1 & o!r />s :i* are select$ = comp>ison1 & :i* are ( v>i\s degrees ( brilliance1 s t !y may be available = comp>ison ) ! v>iable ?r\gh\t its fluctuations4 ,argel&]'s 8/eps0 are t5?s ( a magnitude1 & ,gore describes ! me?od ( obs]vation z foll[s3 8,if we call a & b ! comp>ison />s1 & v ! v>iable1 a be+ bright] ?an b1 & if v is judg$ to be midway 9 brightness betwe5 a & b1 we write a#ev#e;b4 ,if v is slightly ne>] to b1 we write a#fv#d;b4 ,we may also write a#cv#g;b1 or a#gv#c;b1 ! sum ( ! /eps be+ always t540 ,?is me?od1 describ$ 9 #ahdd1 l$ to _m discov]ies at ,bonn 9 ! foll[+ tw5ty ye>s by ,argel&] & 8 assi/ants ,s*midt & ,s*nfeld4 ,at ?is "t ,edu>d ,heis 7#ahjf-ahgg71 at ,mn/]1 :o also ranks z "o ( ! f\nd]s ( meteoric a/ronomy1 :ile engag$ on ! con/ruction ( 8 great atlas1 att5tively det]m9$ ! *ange ( magnitude ( />s visible to ! nak$ eye2 & by means ( ! nak$ eye1 ! op]a-glass1 & a small telescope1 he amass$ a l>ge numb] ( obs]vations4 ,at ! same "t two ,engli% obs]v]s1 ,h9d & ,pogson1 7 mak+ rem>kable discov]ies :i* greatly increas$ ! numb] ( kn[n v>iables4 ,among ,h9d's discov]ies 7 ,s ,cancri ( ! ,algol type2 :ile ,s*midt discov]$ ano!r ( ! same class1 ,libr1 & also ! fam\s ,gem9orum4 ,:ile director ( ! ,obs]vatory ( ,mannheim1 an in/itution equipp$ ) v antiquat$ in/rum5ts1 ,s*nfeld devot$ himself to ! /udy ( v>iable />s1 & increas$ ! numb] ( kn[n v>iables consid]ably4 ,9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e ,g\ld1 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 did = ! obs]vation ( v>iable />s :at ,argel&] did 9 ! nor!rn4 ,9 #ahgd a v important1 al?\gh n s obvi\s1 s]vice to v>iable-/> a/ronomy 0 r5d]$ by ! ,dani% obs]v]1 ,hans ,c>l ,fr$rik ,*ri/ian ,s*jell]up 7#ahbg-ahhg74 ,he translat$ f ,arabic into ,fr5* ! works ( ! ,p]sian a/ronom] ( a ?\s& ye>s ago1 ,al-,sufi1 & ?us r5d]$ 8 obs]vations available to mod]n a/ronom]s4 ,al-,sufi 0 a mo/ accurate obs]v]1 &1 by comp>+ 8 catalogue ) ^? ( mod]n obs]v]s1 x c be f\nd :e!r />s h *ang$ 9 brilliance dur+ ! pa/ ?\s& ye>s4 ,! /udy ( v>iable />s has be5 pursu$ 9 rec5t ye>s by _m a/ronom]s1 bo? by means ( photography & by ! visual me?od4 ,! mo/ important names 9 ! visual discov]y ( v>iables are ,gu/av ,mll] & ,paul ,fri$ri* ,f]d9& ,kempf 7born #ahef7 ( ,potsdam2 ,alex&] ,william ,rob]ts ( ,lov$ale1 ,s\? ,africa2 ,se? ,c>lo ,*&l] ( ,bo/on2 ,nils ,*ri/oph] ,dunr at ,upsala2 & ,john ,ell>d ,gore 7born #ahde7 9 ,dubl94 ,! rese>*es ( ,j4 ,e4 ,gore are a brilliant example ( h[ mu* may be done = a/ronomy by means ( v mod]ate in/rum5ts4 ,born 9 #ahde at ,a?lone1 9 ,connaught1 he w5t to ,india 9 #ahfh z eng9e] on ! ,sirh9d ,canal 9 ! ,punjab4 ,:ile 9 ,india he erect$ 8 small telescopes on brick pill>s1 & took obs]vations1 _m ( !m ( /ell> brilliance4 ,9 #ahgi he return$ to ,irel&1 & s9ce !n has devot$ himself to a/ronomy ) zeal & en?usiasm4 ,8 discov]ies & inve/igations ( v>iables h be5 made by means ( ! b9ocul>4 ,on ,decemb] #ac1 #ahhe1 he discov]$ a rem>kable /> 9 ,orion1 :i* 0 at fir/ consid]$ to be tempor>y1 & call$ 8,nova ,orionis10 b 0 aft]w>ds f\nd to be a long-p]iod v>iable />4 ,rec5tly photography has come mu* to ! front 9 ! discov]y ( v>iable />s4 ,pick]+ at ,h>v>d1 & ,wolf at ,heidelb]g1 h p>ticul>ly di/+ui%$ !mselves 9 ?is bran*1 & ! numb] ( kn[n v>iables is n[ v l>ge1 z e ye> br+s fre% discov]ies1 mo/ly by aid ( photography4 ,_m ( ^! newly-discov]$ v>iables are 9 />-clu/]s & nebul4 ,pick]+ propos$ 9 #ahhj ! foll[+ classification ( v>iable />s1 :i* has be5 adopt$ all ov] ! sci5tific _w3 ,class ,i41 tempor>y />2 ,class ,,ii41 />s und]go+ 9 sev]al mon?s l>ge v>iations1 su* z ,mira ,ceti & ,u ,orionis2 ,class ,,iii41 irregul> v>iables1 su* z ,betelgeux & ,h]culis2 ,class ,,iv41 %ort-p]iod v>iables1 su* z ,cephei1 ,gem9orum1 & ,lyr2 ,class ,v41 8,algol v>iables10 :i* und]go v>iations la/+ b a few h\rs4 ,x is d\btful :e!r new />s %\ld be includ$ 9 a classification ( v>iables1 al?\gh 9 "o case1 at lea/1 a new /> 0 f\nd to be a long-p]iod v>iable4 ,to ^! a six? class may n[ be add$4 ,?is class1 ! detection ( :i* is ma9ly due to ! pr(\nd inve/igations ( ,gore1 is compos$ ( :at h be5 t]m$ 8secul> v>iables10 :i* und]go sl[ fluctuations 9 p]iods ( _m ye>s1 & sometimes ( c5turies4 ,?is ,class includes ,urs ,majoris1 ,al-,f>d1 ,draconis1 ,s]p5tis1 ,pegasi1 #hc ,urs ,majoris1 ,piscis ,au/ralis1 ,leonis1 ,ophiu*i1 ,crat]is1 & o!rs4 ,! secul> v>iations ( "s ( ^! />s h be5 detect$ by ,gore himself dur+ ! pa/ ?irty ye>s1 :ile 9 o!r cases he has detect$ !m by comp>ison ( ! mo/ important />-catalogues1 f ,hipp>*us & ,al-,sufi d[n to our own "t4 ,9 "s cases ! /> 9 "q seems to be sl[ly ga9+ 9 brilliance1 9 o!rs sl[ly dim9i%+4 ,?anks to ! application ( ! spectroscope1 mu* is n[ kn[n ( ! cause ( ! light *anges 9 v>iable />s4 ,goodricke's !ory ( ! v>iations ( ,algol 0 !oretically confirm$ by ! rese>*es ( ,e4 ,c4 ,pick]+ 9 #ahhj4 ,9 #ahhi ,vogel prov$ beyond a d\bt t ! v>iation 9 ! light ( ,algol is due to ! p>tial eclipse ( its light by a d>k satellite4 ,x 0 obvi\s to ,vogel t1 z bo? ,algol & its companion are 9 revolution r\nd _! common c5tre ( gravity1 ! motion ( ,algol 9 ! l9e ( sight might be detect$ by ! spectroscopic me?od ( obs]vation4 ,vogel f\nd t be=e ea* eclipse ,algol 0 retreat+ f our sy/em1 :ile on recov]+ x gave signs ( rapid approa*1 prov+ conclusively t bo? ! /> & its d>k satellite 7 9 revolution r\nd _! c5tre ( gravity1--,algol suff]+ p>tial eclipse only because ! plane ( ! orbit lies 9 our l9e ( sight4 ,algol1 !re=e1 is n inh]5tly a v>iable />1 b m]ely a b9>y4 ,foll[+ up 8 rese>*es1 ,vogel1 assum+ t ! bright & d>k />s are ( equal d5sity1 arriv$ at ! conclusion t ,algol is a globe ab\t "o & a half million miles 9 diamet]1 ! satellite equall+ ! size ( ! ,sun1 & ! c5tres ( ! />s be+ sep>at$ by ab\t #c1bcj1jjj miles4 ,?us1 v>iable />s ( ! ,algol type are n v>iable 9 ! true s5se ( ! ^w4 ,ev5 ! mo/ irregul> ( ! ,algol v>iables h be5 expla9$4 ,p]haps ! mo/ irregul> 0 ,y ,cygni1 discov]$ by ,*&l] 9 #ahhf4 ,x 0 soon f\nd1 h[ev]1 t ! v>iations recurr$ ) great irregul>ity3 9 less ?an two ye>s ! phases diff]$ by z mu* z sev5 h\rs f ! pr$ict$ times4 ,at l5g? ! subject 0 tak5 up by ,dunr at ,upsala4 ,a s]ies ( obs]vations made ) ! #ad-;in* refractor at ,upsala 9 #ahia & #ahib conv9c$ him 9 ! latt] ye> t two eclipses take place 9 ! c\rse ( "o revolution3 "o /> occults ! o!r4 ,dunr %[$ t ! int]vals betwe5 m9ima 7 ?us--#a day #i h\rs2 #a day #ae h\rs2 #a day #i h\rs1 & s on4 ,?us1 ! fir/1 ?ird1 fif?1 & sev5? sets ( m9ima obey$ a diff]5t law f ! second1 f\r?1 six?1 & eigh?4 ,dunr prov$ t two />s revolve r\nd _! c5tre ( gravity 9 less ?an ?ree days1 alt]nately occult+ ea* o!r1 :ile ! ellipticity ( ! orbit expla9s ! irregul>ity ( ! light *anges4 ,9 ,april #aijj ,dunr gave 8 f9al conclusions z foll[s3 8,! v>iable /> ,y ,cygni consi/s ( two />s ( equal size & equal brightness1 :i* move ab\t _! common c5tre ( gravity 9 an elliptical orbit1 ^: major axis is eight times ! radius ( ! />s40 ,he also /at$ ! exact p]iod ( revolution & ! ecc5tricity ( ! orbit4 ,9 ! case ( ! %ort-p]iod v>iables1 su* z ,lyr1 ,cephei1 ,gem9orum1 & ,aquil1 ! v>iations d n seem to be due to eclipse4 ,x 0 discov]$ by ,pr(essor ,pick]+ t ,lyr is a spectroscopic b9>y1 b ,vogel & ,keel] %[$ t ! suppos$ orbit is incompatible ) ! eclipse !ory4 ,vogel says3 8,i am conv9c$ t ,lyr repres5ts a b9>y or multiple sy/em1 ! fundam5tal revolutions ( :i* 9 #ab days #bb h\rs 9 "s way control ! light *ange40 ,! eclipse !ory1 h[ev]1 is /ill ma9ta9$ by ,blopolsky1 :o has fram$ a hypo!sis accord+ to :i* ! *ief m9imum ( ! />'s light corresponds ) ! obscuration ( ! less] />1 ! less] m9imum ) t ( ! prim>y1 imply+ t ! prim>y is mu* less lum9\s 9 proportion to its light ?an its satellite1--a /ate ( affairs :i* ,miss ,cl]ke concludes to be improbable4 ,! v>iable />s1 ,cephei & ,aquil1 7 bo? f\nd 9 #ahid by ,blopolsky to be b9>ies2 b z ! times ( m9imum light d n correspond ) ^? ( eclipses 9 ! hypo!tical orbits1 he concludes t ! v>iations _c be expla9$ on ! eclips+ satellite !ory4 ,miss ,cl]ke is incl9$ to ! !ory t ! increase ( lum9osity 9 %ort-p]iod v>iables is due to tidal action1 s t :ile ! revolutions ( ! />s control _! v>iability1 !y are inh]5tly un/able 9 light4 ,a l>ge numb] ( ^! />s are kn[n1 & x is a rem>kable fact t ! majority ( ^! v>iables lie on or ne> ! ,galaxy1 s t _! v>iations h probably some?+ to d ) _! vic9ity4 ,we n[ come to ! long-p]iod v>iables ( :i* ,mira ,ceti1 ,cygni1 & ,u ,orionis are examples4 ,al?\gh v>y+ 9 regul> p]iods1 g5]ally ( ab\t a ye>1 !y are subject to rem>kable irregul>ities1 s t an exact p]iod _c be assign$ ev5 to ,mira ,ceti1 ( :i* ! maxima are at times ret>d$ & at o!rs accel]at$ ) no app>5t law4 ,! spectroscopic inve/igations ( ,campbell 9 #ahih h %[n t ,mira ,ceti is a solit>y />1 :ile bright l9es ( hydrog5 appe> 9 its spectrum at maximum1 %[+ t ! v>iations are due to p]iodical conflagrations 9 its atmosph]es4 ,9 _m o!r long-p]iod v>iables bright l9es h be5 obs]v$4 ,a rem>kable fact reg>d+ ^! />s is ! am\nt ( _! light *ange4 ,mira ,ceti1 = in/ance1 v>ies f ! fir/ to ! n9? magnitude1 & ,u ,orionis f ! six? to ! twelf?4 ,z ,m4 ,flamm>ion says1 8! long] ! p]iod ! great] ! v>iation40 ,ano!r rem>kable fact is t _! light curves %[ a curi\s resemblance to ! curves ( ! sol> spots1 only on a va/ly great] scale1 :i* indicates t1 relatively1 ^! long-p]iod v>iables are mu* old] ?an our ,sun1 ! small v>iations 9 ! light ( :i* are imp]ceptible4 8,"h1 if any:]e10 says ,miss ,cl]ke1 8w be f\nd ! secret ( /ell> v>iability40 ,to ! irregul> v>iables no p]iod c be assign$4 ,betelgeux1 9 ,orion1 ! v>iation ( :i* 0 not$ by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el 9 #ahdj1 is a typically irregul> v>iable4 ,b ! mo/ extraord9>y ( all v>iables is ,argus1 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 :i* is probably a connect+ l9k betwe5 v>iable & tempor>y />s4 ,! travell] ,bur*ell1 f #ahaa to #ahae1 obs]v$ ! /> z ( ! second magnitude1 b 9 #ahbg he not$ x to be ( ! fir/ magnitude4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye> x fell to ! second magnitude4 ,9 #ahcd ,sir ,john ,h]s*el not$ ! /> to be betwe5 ! fir/ & second magnitude1 & 9 #ahch x rose to ! fir/1 be+ equal to ,c5tauri4 ,aft] a decl9e1 x became 9 #ahdc equal to ,canopus1 & n mu* inf]ior to ,sirius4 ,!n x began to fade1 & 9 #ahfh x 0 only ( ! six? magnitude4 ,9 #ahii ,innes e/imat$ x z #gga4 ,rudolf ,wolf sugge/$ a p]iod ( #df ye>s1 & ,loomis #fg ye>s2 b a/ronom]s g5]ally agree ) ,s*nfeld t ! /> has no regul> p]iod4 ,! fir/ tempor>y /> ( ! n9ete5? c5tury 0 discov]$ by ,h9d1 9 ,london1 ,april #bh1 #ahdh4 ,x 0 ( ! fif? magnitude at maximum1 & soon aft] began to fade1 fall+ to ! t5? magnitude4 ,9 #ahfj a new /> appe>$ 9 ! clu/] ,messi] #hj 9 ,scorpio1 & 0 discov]$ by ,auw]s at ,knigsb]g4 ,x rea*$ only ! sev5? magnitude4 ,on ! night ( ,may #ab1 #ahff1 a new /> ( ! second magnitude blaz$ out 9 ! con/ellation ,corona ,borealis4 ,x 0 fir/ obs]v$ at ,tuam1 9 ,irel&1 by ! ,iri% a/ronom]1 ,john ,birm+ham4 ,f\r h\rs e>li] ,s*midt _h be5 obs]v+ t "p ( ! heav5s1 & x 0 n !n visible4 ,birm+ham at once communicat$ ! discov]y to ,hugg9s1 at ,tulse ,hill1 :o _h comm5c$ 8 spectroscopic obs]vations4 ,on ,may #af ,hugg9s obs]v$ its spectrum4 ,9 ! words ( ,miss ,cl]ke1 8,! /> %[$ :at 0 describ$ z a d\ble spectrum4 ,to ! dusky flut+s ( ,sec*i's ?ird type1 f\r brilliant rays 7 add$4 ,! *ief ( ^! agre$ 9 position ) l9es ( hydrog52 s t ! imm$iate cause ( ! outbur/ 0 pla9ly p]ceiv$ to h be5 ! eruption1 or ignition1 ( va/ masses ( t subtle k9d ( matt]40 ,n9e days aft] ! appe>ance ( ! new /> x 0 invisible to ! nak$ eye1 & aft]w>ds fell to ! t5? magnitude4 ,9 #ahef ,s*nfeld _h obs]v$ x at ,bonn z a telescopic />1 s t x 0 n a 8new />0 9 ! true s5se ( ! ^w4 ,! next tempor>y /> obs]v$ 0 discov]$ by ,s*midt1 at ,a!ns1 ,novemb] #bd1 #ahgf4 ,x 0 ( ! ?ird magnitude1 situat$ 9 ! con/ellation ,cygnus4 ,on ,decemb] #b its spectrum 0 exam9$ at ,p>is by ,alfr$ ,cornu 7#ahda-aijb71 & "s days lat] at ,potsdam by ,vogel & ,lohse4 ,x 0 closely simil> to t ( ! new /> ( #ahff1 bright l9es ( hydrog5 & o!r elem5ts /&+ out 9 front ( an 8absorption0 spectrum4 ,by ! end ( #ahgf ! /> 0 ( ! sev5? magnitude4 ,on ,septemb] #b1 #ahgg1 ,nova ,cygni 0 obs]v$ at ,dune*t1 & its spectrum 0 f\nd to h be5 trans=m$ into t ( a planet>y nebula4 ,?ree ye>s lat]1 h[ev]1 ! ord9>y /ell> spectrum reappe>$4 ,a new /> appe>$ 9 ! c5tre ( ! great nebula 9 ,&rom$a 9 ,augu/ #ahhe4 ,! fir/ ann\ncem5t ( ! discov]y 0 by ,k>l ,ern/ ,albre*t ,h>twig 7born #ahea71 :o obs]v$ ! new /> on ,augu/ #ca2 b x _h be5 previ\sly se5 by sev]al o!r obs]v]s4 ,on ,septemb] #a x 0 ( ! sev5? magnitude1 & by ,m>* ( ! foll[+ ye> _h fall5 to ! sixte5?4 ,obs]v$ by ,vogel1 ,"y1 & ,hasselb]g1 ! new /> gave a cont9u\s spectrum1 b ,hugg9s & ,copel& succe$$ 9 disc]n+ bright l9es4 ,hall1 at ,wa%+ton1 und]took a s]ies ( measures to detect ! p>allax ( ,nova ,&rom$1 b 8 ef=ts 7 unsuccessful4 ,! discov]y ( ! next tempor>y /> 0 ann\nc$ ,febru>y #a1 #ahib1 by ! ,rev4 ,?omas ,d4 ,&]son1 a ,scotti% amateur a/ronom]1 9 a po/-c>d to ! ,a/ronom]-,royal ( ,scotl&4 ,! /> 0 situat$ 9 ! con/ellation ,auriga4 ,an exam9ation ( photographs1 tak5 at ,h>v>d ,obs]vatory1 %[$ t ! new /> _h appe>$ ,decemb] #aj1 #ahia1 & _h ris5 to a maximum ( ! f\r? magnitude t5 days lat]4 ,on a photograph tak5 by ,max ,wolf on ,decemb] #h ! new /> 0 n visible4 ,aft] ,&]son's visual discov]y1 ! spectrum ( ! new /> 0 /udi$ by ,copel&1 ,hugg9s1 ,locky]1 ,vogel1 ,campbell1 & o!rs4 ,bright hydrog5 l9es 7 visible 9 ! spectrum1 :i* appe>$ to be actually d\ble1 giv+ support to ! !ory t ! outbur/ 0 ! result ( a collision betwe5 two d>k bodies2 & ?is 0 confirm$ by ! measurem5ts ( radial motion by ! ,potsdam a/ronom]s4 ,aft] ,m>* #i1 #ahib1 ! new /> /eadily fad$1 fall+ to ! sixte5? magnitude on ,april #bf4 ,b on ,augu/ #ag ,edw>d ,s+elton ,hold5 7born #ahdf71 director ( ! ,lick ,obs]vatory1 & 8 assi/ants1 ,s*aeb]le & ,campbell1 f\nd x ( ! t5? magnitude4 ,on ,augu/ #ai ,b>n>d f\nd x trans=m$ into a planet>y nebula3 :ile v>i\s spectroscopic obs]vations ( ! reviv$ ,nova reveal$ ! nebul> l9es4 ,by ! end ( #ahid ! new /> _h fad$ to ! elev5? magnitude1 & e>ly 9 #aija 0 obs]v$ z a m9ute nebula4 ,aft] #ahib sev]al new />s appe>$1 & 7 detect$ on photographic plates by ,mrs ,flem+ 7born #aheg71 ( ,h>v>d ,obs]vatory4 ,! fir/ ( ^!1 9 ! s\!rn con/ellation ,norma1 0 discov]$ 9 #ahic by its peculi> spectrum on a ,drap] spectrographic plate tak5 at ,h>v>d4 ,b ! new /> rose only to ! sev5? magnitude4 ,o!r new />s 7 discov]$ 9 ,c>9a 7,argo7 9 #ahie1 9 ,c5taurus 9 #ahie1 9 ,sagitt>ius 9 #ahih1 & 9 ,aquila 9 #aijj4 ,nova ,sagitt>ii 01 at its brighte/1 fully equal to ,nova ,aurig1 & 0 pla9ly visible to ! nak$ eye1 b 0 nev] obs]v$ visually4 ,a tempor>y />1 appropriately designat$ 8! new /> ( ! new c5tury10 blaz$ out 9 ,p]seus on ! night ( ,febru>y #ba1 #aija4 ,x 0 discov]$ indep5d5tly by sev]al obs]v]s3 on ,febru>y #ba1 by ,borisiak1 a /ud5t at ,kiev1 9 ,russia2 on ! foll[+ morn+1 by ,&]son 9 ,ed9burgh2 & on ! next ev5+1 by ,gore at ,dubl91 ,nordvig 9 ,d5m>k1 ,grimml] at ,erlang51 & o!r obs]v]s4 ,:5 fir/ se5 by ,&]son1 x 0 equal to ,algol1 ( ! second magnitude4 ,a photograph by ,williams at ,brighton %[$ t x mu/ h be5 fa9t] ?an ! twelf? magnitude on ,febru>y #bj4 ,on ! ev5+ ( ,febru>y #bc ! /> 0 bright] ?an ,capella1 & 0 !n ! brighte/ /> 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,on ,febru>y #be x fell to ! fir/ magnitude2 on ,m>* #a to ! second1 & on ,m>* #f to ! ?ird4 ,dur+ ! spr+ & summ] ! light fluctuat$ consid]ably1 b 9 ,septemb] & ,octob] fad$ to ! #fg magnitude4 ,9 ,m>* #aijb x 0 ( ! eigh? magnitude1 & 9 ,july #aijc ( ! twelf?4 ,! spectrum ( ,nova ,p]sei 0 f\nd by ,pick]+ to be ( ! ,orion type on ,febru>y #bb & #bc4 ,on ,febru>y #bd ! spectrum _h become "o ( ! bright & d>k l9es1 & ! hydrog5 l9es indicat$ a velocity ( #gjj to #ajjj miles a second4 ,measures ( ! sodium & calcium l9es1 by ,campbell & o!rs1 indicat$ a velocity ( only ?ree miles a second1 s t ! displacem5ts ( ! hydrog5 l9es may h be5 due to an outbur/ ( hydrog5 9 ! />4 ,! spectrum 0 c>efully /udi$ dur+ ! spr+ & summ] by ,pick]+1 ,locky]1 ,hugg9s1 ,vogel1 & o!rs4 ,on ,june #be ,pick]+ report$ t ! spectrum 0 sl[ly *ang+ into t ( a gase\s nebula4 ,9 ,augu/ & ,septemb] #aija ! nebul> spectrum became m app>5t4 ,9 ,augu/ #aija ,wolf at ,heidelb]g discov]$ a fa9t trace ( nebula ne> ! nova4 ,on ,septemb] #bj ?is nebula 0 photograph$ by ,george ,rit*ey at ! ,y]kes ,obs]vatory1 & 0 se5 to be ( a spiral =m4 ,?is 0 confirm$ by ,p]r9e1 :o also f\nd1 f plates tak5 9 ,novemb]1 t ! nebula 0 mov+ at ! rate ( elev5 m9utes ( arc a ye>4 ,?is extraord9>y velocity 0 exce$+ly puzzl+ to a/ronom]s1 & at l5g? ,kapteyn sugge/$ t ! nebula %one only by reflect$ light f ! new />1 & t ! app>5t motion 0 an illusion caus$ by ! fl>e ( ! explosion travell+ out f ! nova4 ,on ,m>* #af1 #aijc1 ,h]b]t ,hall ,turn] 7born #ahfa71 ,pr(essor ( ,a/ronomy at ,ox=d1 discov]$ a new /> ( ! sev5? magnitude 9 ! con/ellation ,gem9i1 f an exam9ation ( photographic plates4 ,photographs tak5 at ,h>v>d %[$ t on ,m>* #a x mu/ h be5 fa9t] ?an ! twelf? magnitude1 :ile five days lat] x 0 ( ! fif?4 ,9 ,augu/ #aijc ,pick]+ f\nd its spectrum nebul>4 ,9 ,augu/ #aije ano!r small nova 0 f\nd by ,mrs ,flem+ on ! ,h>v>d photographs1 situat$ 9 ,aquila4 ,_m !ories h be5 advanc$ to acc\nt = tempor>y />s4 ,flamm>ion has %[n t a body surr\nd$ by a hydrog5 atmosph]e1 on graz+ a d>k body envelop$ 9 oxyg51 w\ld produce a trem5d\s explosion4 ,9 #ahib ,hugg9s sugge/$ t ! outbur/ ( ,nova ,aurig 0 due to ! ne> approa* ( two bodies ) l>ge velocities1 di/urbances ( a tidal nature result+ & produc+ enorm\s outbur/s4 ,vogel sugge/$ t ! new /> 0 due to ! enc\nt] ( a d>k /> ) a worn-out sy/em ( planets2 :ile ,locky] believes all new />s to be due to ! collision ( sw>ms ( meteors4 ,p]haps ! mo/ probable !ory is t ( ,seelig]1 :i* attributes ^! outbur/s to ! movem5t ( a d>k body ?r\gh nebul\s matt]1 :i* is ext5sively diffus$ ?r\gh\t space4 ,?is !ory expla9s ! *anges 9 ! spectra z well z ! revivals ( brightness :i* *>act]is$ ,nova ,aurig & ! fluctuations ( ,nova ,p]sei4 ,9 a pap] read to ! ,royal ,society ( ,ed9burgh 9 ,novemb] #aijd1 ! ,g]man a/ronom]1 ,jacobus ,halm1 ( ! ,royal ,obs]vatory1 ,ed9burgh1 ext5d$ & develop$ ,seelig]'s !ory1 %[+ also t ! necess>y consequ5ce ( su* an enc\nt] z ! !ory assumes is ! =mation ( an atmosph]e ( inc&esc5t gases1 foll[$ by t ( a revolv+ r+ ( nebul\s matt]4 ,9 ! h&s ( ,halm1 !re=e1 ,seelig]'s !ory leads to ! nebul> hypo!sis z advanc$ by ,laplace & ,h]s*el4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,/ell> ,,sy/ems ,,& ,,nebul4 ,! /udy ( d\ble />s1 comm5c$ by ,h]s*el1 0 tak5 up aft] 8 dea? by sev]al ( ! =emo/ a/ronom]s1 & has s9ce be5 pursu$ by q a numb] ( obs]v]s & comput]s4 ,h]s*el's imm$iate successor 9 ! /udy ( d\ble />s 0 8 son1 :o ranks only second to 8 fa!r z a /ud5t ( /ell> sy/ems4 ,born at ,sl\gh on ,m>* #g1 #agib1 ,john ,fr$]ick ,william ,h]s*el pass$ 8 *ildhood 8)9 ! %ad[ ( ! great telescope40 ,al?\gh 8 e>ly life 0 sp5t ) 8 fa!r & aunt1 a/ronomy does n appe> to h tak5 up 8 att5tion z a boy4 ,*emi/ry1 h[ev]1 always int]e/$ him1 &1 z 8 aunt record$1 ev5 :ile a *ild he 0 fond ( mak+ exp]im5ts4 ,he 0 educat$ at ,hit*am1 & aft]w>ds at ,eton4 ,he 0 delicate1 h[ev]1 s 8 "m remov$ him f s*ool1 & he 0 tra9$ at ,sl\gh by ,mr ,rog]s1 a ,scotti% ma!matician4 ,at ! age ( sev5te5 ,h]s*el ent]$ ! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge1 & ,c>ol9e ,h]s*el1 :o 0 exce$+ly pr\d ( him1 record$ 9 h] memoirs t he ga9$ all ! fir/ prizes )\t exception4 ,he left ! ,univ]sity 9 #ahac4 ,john ,h]s*el did n turn 8 att5tion to a/ronomy until he _h atta9$ ! age ( tw5ty-f\r4 ,9 a lett] to a fri5d1 ,septemb] #aj1 #ahaf1 he said1 8,i am go+1 "u my fa!r's directions1 to take up />-gaz+40 ,x 0 only rev]5ce = 8 fa!r t made him turn to a/ronomy1 & he gave up ! sci5ce he lov$ mo/--*emi/ry4 ,b 8 unselfi%ness receiv$ its rew>d4 ,9 #ahbj ,john ,h]s*el con/ruct$ 8 fir/ reflector "u 8 fa!r's guidance4 ,f\r ye>s previ\sly he _h begun to obs]ve d\ble />s1 :i* _h be5 = long /udi$ by 8 fa!r1 :o discov]$ _! revolutions4 ,^! obs]vations 7 cont9u$ f #ahba to #ahbc at ! ,obs]vatory ( ,sir ,james ,s\? 7#aghf-ahfg74 ,john ,h]s*el & ,s\? measur$ #chj ( ! eld] ,h]s*el's d\ble />s4 ,^! inve/igations ga9$ = ,h]s*el & ,s\? ! ,lal&e ,prize ( ! ,fr5* ,academy & ! ,gold ,m$al ( ! ,royal ,a/ronomical ,society4 ,:5 8 "m di$ ,sir ,john ,h]s*el decid$ to sail to ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope to make an inve/igation ( ! />s ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 :i* until !n _h be5 mu* neglect$4 ,he 0 (f]$ a free passage 9 a %ip ( w>1 b decl9$4 ,9 ,novemb] #ahcc he left ,engl&1 tak+ ) him 8 great telescopes4 ,9 two mon?s he arriv$ at ,cape ,t[n1 & erect$ 8 a/ronomical in/rum5ts at ,feldhaus51 a %ort di/ance (f4 ,9 ,octob] #ahce he in=m$ 8 aunt t he _h almo/ complet$ 8 survey ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,dur+ 8 8sweeps0 ( ! heav5s he discov]$ #abjb d\ble />s1 & #agjh nebul & />-clu/]s4 ,9 #ahch he return$ to ,engl&1 & devot$ ! rema9d] ( 8 life to ! publication ( 8 results1 z well z to o!r bran*es ( sci5ce4 ,he di$ at ,coll+wood1 9 ,k5t1 on ,may #aa1 #ahga1 at ! age ( sev5ty-n9e4 ,john ,h]s*el's fav\rite objects ( /udy 7 d\ble />s1 ( :i* he discov]$ #ccdg 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 & #abjb 9 ! s\!rn4 ,he also comput$ sev]al /ell> orbits2 b ! fir/ calculation ( a /ell> orbit 0 made by ! ,fr5* a/ronom] ,felix ,sav>y 7#agig-ahda71 :o comput$ ! orbit ( ,urs ,majoris1 & f\nd ! p]iod to be ab\t sixty ye>s4 ,contempor>y ) ,john ,h]s*el 0 8 great rival 9 d\ble-/> a/ronomy1 ,fri$ri* ,georg ,wilhelm ,/ruve4 ,born at ,altona 9 #agic1 ,/ruve took 8 degree 9 #ahaa at ! ,russian ,univ]sity ( ,dorpat4 ,9 #ahac he became director ( ! ,dorpat ,obs]vatory1 & 0 9 #ahci promot$ to ,pulk[a1 z director ( ! great ,obs]vatory !re1 rema9+ at its head until )9 ?ree ye>s ( 8 dea?1 on ,novemb] #bc1 #ahfd4 ,/ruve's fir/ record$ obs]vation 0 on ! d\ble /> ,ca/or4 ,9 #ahai he comm5c$ to measure ! position-angles ( d\ble />s1 ( :i* he publi%$ a catalogue ( #gie4 ,9 #ahbe he comm5c$ a review ( ! heav5s d[n to fifte5 degrees s\?1 & ?us discov]$ #bbjj previ\sly unkn[n objects4 ,! results 7 publi%$ 9 ,/ruve's #8,m5sur ,m]ometric1' :i* appe>$ 9 #ahcf1 giv+ ! places1 di/ances1 col\rs1 position-angles1 & relative brilliance ( #caab d\ble & multiple />s4 ,/ruve's successor 9 ?is bran* ( a/ronomy 0 8 son1 ,otto ,wilhelm von ,/ruve1 born 9 #ahai at ,dorpat1 :o became 9 #ahcg assi/ant to 8 fa!r1 & 9 #ahfa succe$$ him z director ( ! ,pulk[a ,obs]vatory4 ,9 #ahij he retir$ f ?is po/1 settl+ 9 ,g]many1 at ,c>lsruhe1 :]e1 on ,april #ad1 #aije1 he di$ 9 8 eighty-six? ye>4 ,otto ,/ruve detect$ #ejj d\ble />s1 among !m ,&rom$1 discov]$ 9 #ahdb1 & ,equulei1 discov]$ 9 #aheb1 )9 a p]iod ( betwe5 five & elev5 ye>s4 ,v>i\s o!r a/ronom]s h devot$ !mselves to ! obs]vation ( d\ble />s1 among !m ,ercole ,demb[ski 7#ahae-ahha71 ( ,milan2 ,k>l ,h]mann ,/ruve 7born #ahed71 son ( ,otto ,/ruve2 ,william ,dob]ck 7born #ahde72 ,william ,j4 ,hussey 7born #ahfd71 n[ director ( ! ,detroit ,obs]vatory2 ,camille ,flamm>ion2 ,n4 ,c4 ,dunr2 ,g4 ,v4 ,s*iap>elli2 ,?omas ,jeff]son ,jackson ,see 7born #ahff74 ,b ! greate/ liv+ discov]] is ,%]burne ,wesley ,burnham 7born #ahch71 n[ employ$ at ! ,y]kes ,obs]vatory1 9 ,wiscons94 ,born 9 #ahch at ,!t=d1 ,v]mont1 he comm5c$ 8 c>e] z a %or?& report]1 /udy+ a/ronomy 9 8 leisure h\rs4 ,) a small #f-;in* refractor1 m\nt$ 9 a home-made obs]vatory1 ,burnham comm5c$ 9 #ahga 8 discov]ies ( d\ble />s1 :i* soon attract$ ! att5tion ( not$ a/ronom]s1 :o p]mitt$ him to use l>g] telescopes1 ) :i* he cont9u$ 8 rese>*es4 ,8 fir/ (ficial appo9tm5t 0 9 #ahhh1 :5 he became *ief assi/ant at ! ,lick ,obs]vatory1 :i* position he resign$ 9 #ahib4 ,"s ye>s lat] he became a/ronom] 9 ! ,y]kes ,obs]vatory4 ,altoge!r he has discov]$ #acjh d\ble />s1 ) telescopes rang+ f a #f-;in* refractor to ! gigantic #dj-;in* ( ! ,y]kes ,obs]vatory4 ,! computation ( d\ble-/> orbits has be5 und]tak5 by v>i\s a/ronom]s1 among !m ,mdl]1 ,kl9k]fues1 ,dunr1 ,flamm>ion1 ,seelig]1 ,see1 ,gore1 ,burnham1 ,rob]t ,grant ,aitk5 7born #ahfd7 ( ! ,lick ,obs]vatory1 & ,giovanni ,celoria 7born #ahdb71 :o 01 f #ahff to #aijj1 assi/ant 9 ! ,br]a ,obs]vatory ( ,milan1 & s9ce #aijj director ( t in/itution4 ,on ,june #i1 #ahij1 ,gore pres5t$ to ! ,royal ,iri% ,academy a catalogue ( comput$ b9>ies conta9+ ref]5ce to fifty-n9e />s4 ,9 #ahdd ,bessel discov]$ a rem>kable irregul>ity 9 ! prop] motion ( ,sirius4 ,he ascrib$ ?is to ! gravitational influ5ce ( "s obscure body1 probably a l>ge satellite4 ,9 #aheg ,pet]s calculat$ an orbit = ! suppos$ satellite ) a p]iod ( #ej ye>s4 ,9 #ahfa an orbit 0 comput$ by ,truman ,h5ry ,saf=d 7#ahcf-aija71 :i* indicat$ ! position ( ! satellite4 ,close to ?is position x 0 accid5tally discov]$ by ,alvan ,cl>k 7#ahcb-ahig71 ! fam\s ,am]ican optician4 ,! p]iod ( ! /> seems to be ab\t #ej ye>s4 ,9 #ahdd ,bessel notic$ irregul>ities 9 ! prop] motion ( ,procyon1 & put =w>d ! idea ( a di/urb+ satellite1 z 9 ! case ( ,sirius4 ,?is 0 confirm$ by ,mdl]1 & 9 #ahgd an orbit 0 comput$ by ,auw]s1 :o f\nd a p]iod ( #dj ye>s4 ,9 #ahif ! satellite 0 f\nd by ,s*aeb]le ) ! #cf-;in* refractor ( ! ,lick ,obs]vatory4 ,a p]iod ( #dj ye>s 0 f\nd by ,see1 9 agreem5t ) ! hypo!tical orbit4 ,9 putt+ =w>d ^! !ories z to invisible /ell> satellites1 ,bessel rem>k$ t 8light is no real prop]ty ( mass10 & t ! exi/5ce ( c\ntless visible />s is no?+ aga9/ ! exi/5ce ( c\ntless invisible & d>k ones4 ,9 ?is he laid ! f\ndation ( ! bran* ( sci5ce t]m$ by ,mdl] ! 8,a/ronomy ( ! invisible40 ,9 rec5t ye>s ! a/ronomy ( ! invisible has become a recognis$ bran* ( a/ronomical rese>*1 ?r\gh ! application & int]pretation ( ,doppl]'s pr9ciple 9 spectroscopic obs]vations4 ,9 ! c\rse ( photograph+ ! /ell> spectra = ! ,drap] ,catalogue1 ,e4 ,c4 ,pick]+ photograph$ ! spectrum ( ,miz> 7 ,urs ,majoris7 9 #ahhg & aga9 9 #ahhi4 ,on "s ( ^! photographs ! l9e ,k 0 se5 d\ble1 :ile on o!rs x 0 se5 "u its normal aspect4 ,?is d\bl+ ( ! l9es indicat$ t ! /> :i* we see z s+le is 9 reality compos$ ( two bodies 9 revolution r\nd _! c5tre ( gravity1 s close toge!r t ev5 ! l>ge/ telescopes _c divide !m4 ,pick]+ assign$ a p]iod ( #ajd days1 b 9 #aija ,vogel dim9i%$ ?is to #bj days4 ,9 ! same ye> ! /> ,aurig 0 simil>ly f\nd to be d\ble2 & 9 #ahij ,vogel1 f photographs tak5 at ,potsdam1 indep5d5tly inaugurat$ ! discov]y ( spectroscopic b9>ies4 ,9 ! spectrum ( ,spica he discov]$ ! spectral l9es to be1 n d\bl$1 b p]iodically displac$1 indicat+ ! exi/5ce ( a d>k or ne>ly d>k companion1 bo? />s revolv+ r\nd _! c5tre ( gravity4 ,spica 0 se5 to belong to ! same class z ,algol1 only t 9 ! case ( ,algol ! plane ( ! satellite's orbit passes ?r\gh ! ,e>? & eclipses ! />1 :ile 9 ! case ( ,spica ! orbit is incl9$1 & ! /> is con/ant 9 light4 ,! l9e ( rese>* comm5c$ by ,vogel & ,pick]+ 0 soon foll[$ up by ^! inve/igators1 z well z by ,blopolsky at ,pulk[a1 ,campbell at ! ,lick ,obs]vatory1 ,sliph] at ! ,l[ell ,obs]vatory1 & by ,edw9 ,brant ,fro/ 7born #ahff71 n[ director ( ! ,y]kes ,obs]vatory1 & 8 assi/ant1 ,walt] ,adams4 ,9 #ahid ,blopolsky discov]$ ! duplicity ( sev]al v>iable />s1 & 9 #ahif t ( ,ca/or1 9 ,gem9i4 ,late 9 #ahif ,campbell und]took a sy/ematic inve/igation ( radial motions1 & has s9ce discov]$ ab\t sixty spectroscopic b9>ies1--among !m1 9 #ahii1 ! ,pole ,/>1 & 9 #aijj ,capella4 ,! latt] discov]y 0 made indep5d5tly by ,hugh ,frank ,newall 7born #aheg7 at ,cambridge1 9 ,engl&4 ,x 0 f\nd by ,campbell t ! revolution ( ! />s r\nd _! c5tre ( gravity is p]=m$ 9 #ajd days2 & x soon became app>5t t1 ow+ to ! l>ge size ( ! orbit1 ! duplicity ( ,capella might be obs]v$ telescopically4 ,at ,gre5wi* ! /> 0 se5 to be elongat$1 b at ! ,lick ,obs]vatory x 0 se5 p]si/5tly s+le4 ,campbell f9ds t ( #bhe />s obs]v$ by him1 m ?an "o 9 n9e is a spectroscopic b9>y4 ,he concludes t at lea/ "o /> 9 five or six w be f\nd to be spectroscopically d\ble1 & consid]s t 8! prov5 exi/5ce ( s l>ge a numb] ( /ell> sy/ems1 diff]+ s widely 9 /ructure f ! ,sol> ,sy/em1 gives rise to a suspicion at lea/ t our sy/em is n ( ! prevail+ type ( /ell> sy/ems40 ,! /udy ( triple & multiple />s is ( deep int]e/1 b ! orbits ( ^! objects _c be said to be fully inve/igat$ by any means4 ,! fir/ application ( ! problem ( ?ree bodies to /ell> a/ronomy 0 made by ,seelig] 9 #ahhi4 ,8 rese>*es1 relat+ to ! fam\s />1 ,cancri1 disclos$ ! exi/5ce ( ?ree />s revolv+ r\nd a d>k body1 app>5tly ! mo/ massive 9 ! sy/em4 ,! sy/em ( ,cancri1 at lea/1 seems to be modell$ on ! ,ptolemaic design4 ,9 ! /udy ( />-clu/]s & nebul1 z 9 ! inve/igation ( d\ble />s1 ,h]s*el's successor 0 8 son4 ,8 obs]vations1 bo? 9 ,engl& & at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 result$ 9 a l>ge numb] ( new discov]ies1 & ! results ( 8 /udies 9 ?is direction 7 publi%$ 9 #ahfd 9 8 catalogue ( all kn[n clu/]s & nebul1 am\nt+ to #ejgi4 ,?is catalogue 0 enl>g$ & revis$ 9 #ahhh by ,john ,l\is ,emil ,drey] 7born #aheb71 a ,dani% a/ronom]1 b director ( ! ,obs]vatory at ,armagh1 9 ,irel&2 & ! same obs]v] publi%$ f #ahhh to #ahid a supplem5t>y li/1 br++ ! numb] ( kn[n clu/]s & nebul to ab\t #aj1jjj4 ,9 ! e>ly "p ( 8 c>e]1 ,john ,h]s*el held firmly to ! views ( 8 fa!r ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 />-clu/]s & nebul1 consid]+ ! latt] to be compos$ ( 8%9+ fluid40 ,b he fell (f f ?is view ) ! resolution into />s ( _m irresolvable nebul4 ,9 #ahde ,william ,p>sons1 ?ird ,e>l ( ,rosse 7#ahjj-ahfg71 erect$ at ,birr ,ca/le1 9 ,irel&1 8 great #f-;foot reflector1 :i* /ill surpasses all o!r telescopes 9 po9t ( size4 ,) ?is in/rum5t ,"l ,rosse believ$ himself to h resolv$ ! ,crab nebula 9 ,taurus & ! ,nebula 9 ,orion1 :i* 0 also said to h be5 resolv$ by ,bond ) ! #ae-;in* refractor at ,h>v>d2 & 9 #ahed ,olm/$ decl>$ ! 8resolution0 ( ^! nebul to be ! signal = ! r5unciation ( ,h]s*el's nebul> !ory4 ,mo/ a/ronom]s fell 9 ) ! view t all ! nebul 7 di/ant clu/]s1 :i* w\ld ev5tually be resolv$ into />s1 al?\gh x is only "r to /ate t ! ,scotti% a/ronom]1 ,john ,pr+le ,ni*ol 7#ahjd-ahei71 & "s o!r inve/igators1 held to ! !ory ( ,h]s*el4 ,! solution ( ! great problem 0 9 #ahfd1 :5 on ,augu/ #bi ( t ye> ,hugg9s turn$ 8 spectroscope on a bright planet>y nebula 9 ,draco4 ,to 8 amazem5t ! spectrum 0 "o ( bright l9es1 prov+ conclusively t ! nebula 0 n a />-clu/]1 b a mass ( gl[+ gas1--hydrog51 & "s o!r unkn[n sub/ance1 n[ nam$ 8nebulium40 ,by #ahfh ,hugg9s _h obs]v$ ! spectra ( sev5ty nebul4 ,( ^! "o-?ird prov$ to be gase\s1 among !m ! great ,orion nebula :i* ,"l ,rosse 0 believ$ to h resolv$ into />s4 ,9 ! spectrum ( ! latt]1 ! 8*ief nebul> l9e0 0 at fir/ ascrib$ by ,hugg9s to nitrog51 b ?is 0 a mi/ake4 ,lat]1 x 0 believ$ by ,locky] to co9cide ) ! flut+ ( magnesium1 b ?is 0 disprov$ by ,hugg9s 9 #ahhi-ij1 & by ,keel] 9 #ahij-ia4 ,! great nebula 9 ,&rom$a & ! great spiral 9 ,canes ,v5atici 7 f\nd by ,hugg9s to display a cont9u\s spectrum1 & a simil> discov]y 0 made 9 reg>d to ! clu/] ,m #ac 9 ,h]cules1 & o!r />-clu/]s4 ,9 ! case ( ! nebul1 x is n believ$ t ! cont9u\s spectrum is due to ! exi/5ce ( sun-l bodies1 z a gas "u pressure w\ld give a cont9u\s spectrum4 ,! ,orion nebula has be5 m ?or\ghly /udi$ ?an any o!r object ( its class4 ,! application ( photography to spectroscopy has done mu* to fur!r ! /udy ( ! l9es 9 ! nebul> spectrum4 ,9 #ahhf ,copel& detect$ 9 ! spectrum ( ! ,orion nebula ! yell[ ray ( helium4 ,on ,febru>y #ac1 #ahij1 ,s*e9] ann\nc$ an important discov]y1 namely1 ! possession by bo? ! nebula & ! />s 9 ,orion--) ! exception ( ,betelgeux--( a l9e1 :i* appe>$ bright 9 ! nebul> spectra & d>k 9 ! /ell>4 ,?is l9e 0 id5tifi$ by ,vogel1 ,locky]1 & o!rs ) t ( helium4 ,nebul> photography 0 inaugurat$ 9 #ahhj by ,drap]1 :o obta9$ a rem>kably good repres5tation ( ! ,orion nebula 9 t ye>4 ,8 "w 9 ?is direction1 cut %ort by 8 dea? 9 #ahhb1 0 tak5 up by ,janss5 at ,meudon1 & by ,common 9 ,engl&1 :o obta9$1 9 #ahhc1 sev]al excell5t photographs4 ,lat] photographs h %[n ! ,orion nebula to be mu* m ext5d$ ?an visual obs]vations w\ld lead "o to expect4 ,a photograph secur$ 9 #ahij by ,w4 ,h4 ,pick]+ reveal$ ! nebul\s matt] 9 ,orion 9 its true =m1 t ( a gigantic spiral1 />t+ f ne> ,bellatrix1 sweep+ pa/ ,orionis & ,rigel to 1 & jo9+ ) ! great nebula surr\nd+ 2 ! entire con/ellation be+ ?us %[n to be enwrapp$ 9 nebul\s haze4 ,9 #ahhe nebul> photography 0 comm5c$ by ,isaac ,rob]ts 7#ahbi-aijd71 ! ,engli% amateur a/ronom]1 :o secur$ admirable repres5tations ( clu/]s & nebul4 ,he publi%$1 9 #ahic & #aijj1 two volumes ( collect$ photographs ( clu/]s & nebul4 ,?is monum5tal "w 0 ?us ref]r$ to by ,dr ,william ,james ,locky]3 8,dr ,rob]ts has n only nobly enri*$ a/ronomical sci5ce1 b has rais$ a monum5t to himself :i* w la/ z long z a/ronomy has any int]e/ = mank9d40 ,p]haps ! mo/ rem>kable revelation made by photography 9 ?is bran* ( rese>* has be5 ! discov]y ( ! nebul 9 ! ,pleiades4 ,9 #ahei ,tempel obs]v$ at ,flor5ce an elliptical nebula s\? ( ! /> ,m]ope4 ,on ,novemb] #af1 #ahhe1 ! bro!rs ,h5ry obta9$ at ,p>is a photograph ( ! ,pleiades1 reveal+ ! exi/5ce ( a small spiral nebula4 ,?is 0 confirm$ by visual obs]vations1 & p>ticul>ly by ! photographs ( ,rob]ts1 :i* also %[$ ! entire clu/] to be nebul\s1 & t 8! nebulosity ext5ds 9 /ream]s & fleecy masses1 till x seems almo/ to fill ! spaces betwe5 ! />s1 & to ext5d f> beyond !m40 ,9 #ahhh a fur!r advance 0 made by ! bro!rs ,h5ry1 :o f\nd sev5 />s to be /rung on a nebul\s /reak4 ,s9ce #ahij nebul> photography has be5 pursu$ by ,max ,wolf 9 ,g]many1 & by ,e4 ,e4 ,b>n>d & ,j4 ,e4 ,keel] 9 ,am]ica4 ,wolf's photographs ( ! con/ellation ,cygnus br\ght out ! close connection betwe5 ! />s & ! ext5sively diffus$ nebulosities discov]$ by him4 ,9 #aija ,wolf discov]$ a 8nebelhauf50 or clu/] ( nebul1 & 9 #aijb publi%$ a catalogue ( #aebh nebul r\nd ! pole ( ! ,galaxy1 %[+ !m to be sy/ematically di/ribut$4 ,keel] made 8 memorable obs]vations ) ! great #cf-;in* reflect+ telescope1 :i* 0 con/ruct$ 9 ,engl& _m ye>s ago by ,common4 ,x aft]w>ds pass$ into ! h&s ( ,mr ,crossley ( ,halifax1 :o pres5t$ x to ! ,lick ,obs]vatory4 ,) ?is great in/rum5t ,keel] comm5c$ to take photographs ( ! heav5s4 ,on "o occasion he photograph$ a well-kn[n nebula1 & on develop+ ! plate 0 surpris$ to f9d sev5 new nebul besides t :i* he _h photograph$4 ,on ano!r occasion he expos$ a plate to a nebula 9 ,pegasus4 ,he 0 amaz$ to f9d altoge!r tw5ty-"o nebul includ$ 9 ! photograph4 ,to give ano!r in/ance1 a plate direct$ to ! con/ellation ,&rom$a conta9$ no few] ?an ?irty-two nebul\s objects4 ,?is has giv5 an enorm\s ext5sion to our k ( ! nebul4 ,b ev5 ?is is n all4 ,keel] f\nd on 8 plates num]\s po9ts ( light :i* seem to be also nebul1 ei!r too small or too remote to appe> z su*4 ,app>5tly1 h[ev]1 !y are n />s4 ,keel]'s "w conv9c$ him t1 on a mode/ e/imate1 !re mu/ be at lea/ "o hundr$ & tw5ty ?\s& new nebul )9 rea* ( ! ,crossley reflector4 ,half ( ^!1 he ann\nc$1 7 probably spiral4 ,an idea ( ! va/ importance ( ,keel]'s "w may be ga9$ if we reflect t ! obs]vations ( all ! e>li] a/ronom]s result$ 9 ! discov]y ( six ?\s& nebul4 ,! inve/igations ( ,keel]1 9 all probability1 7 ! means ( add+ #abj1jjj m4 ,_m obs]vations h be5 made on nebul1 = ! purpose ( asc]ta9+ _! prop] motions--b )\t success4 ,measurem5ts 7 made by ,d',arre/ 9 #aheg & by ,burnham 9 #ahia1 b none ( ^! reveal$ any motion ( ! nebul across ! l9e ( sight4 ,ev5 ! new spectroscopic me?od ( det]m9+ motions 9 ! l9e ( sight1 9 ! h&s ( ,hugg9s1 fail$ 9 ! case ( ! nebul4 ,) ! great ,lick refractor at 8 disposal1 ,keel] attack$ ! subject 9 #ahij1 & measur$ ! radial velocities ( t5 nebul4 ,he f\nd t ! well-kn[n planet>y nebula 9 ,draco 0 mov+ t[>ds ! ,sol> ,sy/em at ! rate ( #dj miles a second2 = ! ,orion nebula he f\nd a motion ( recession ( #aa miles a second2 b probably ?is belongs *iefly to ! movem5t ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em 9 ! opposite direction4 ,un=tunately ,keel] did n live to c>ry on 8 inve/igations 9 nebul> a/ronomy4 ,8 e>ly dea? br\ght to an abrupt end ^! fruitful inve/igations4 ,appo9t$ director ( ! ,lick ,obs]vatory 9 #ahih1 he di$ sudd5ly at ,san ,francisco on ,augu/ #ab1 #aijj1 at ! e>ly age ( =ty-two4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,/ell> ,,di/ribution ,,& ,,! ,,/ructure ,,( ,,! ,,univ]se4 ,aft] ! dea? ( ,h]s*el !re 0 little done 9 ! direction ( fur!r+ our k ( /ell> di/ribution1 or ! con/ruction ( ! heav5s4 ,"h1 z else:]e1 ,h]s*el's imm$iate successor 0 8 son1 ^: />-gauges1 bo? 9 ,engl& & 9 ,s\? ,africa1 7 a wor?y sequel to ^? ( 8 fa!r2 b ,john ,h]s*el1 9 8 books on a/ronomy1 reproduc$ 8 fa!r's disc-!ory1 unaw>e t ! eld] ,h]s*el _h himself ab&on$ x4 ,! "w ( ! y\ng] ,h]s*el 0 entirely supplem5t>y to t ( 8 fa!r4 ,to ,wilhelm ,/ruve belongs ! cr$it ( %[+ ! disc-!ory to be unt5able1 & ( demon/rat+ t ,h]s*el _h ab&on$ x4 ,?is he 0 able to d aft] a p]usal ( ,h]s*el's pap]s1 pres5t$ to him by ,john ,h]s*el4 ,hav+ demon/rat$ ?is1 he und]took a s]ies ( inve/igations :i* result$ 9 8 fam\s !ory ( ! ,univ]se4 ,?is 0 publi%$ 9 8 "w #8tudes d',a/ronomie ,/ellaire1' :i* 0 publi%$ 9 #ahdg4 ,8 rese>*es 7 bas$ on ! />-catalogues ( ,bessel1 ,piazzi1 & o!rs2 & deal+ ) #eb1aii />s1 he discuss$ ! numb] ( />s 9 ea* zone ( ,"r ,asc5sion4 ,he f\nd1 9 ! words ( ,mr ,gore1 8t ! numb]s increase f h\r i to h\r vi1 :]e !y atta9 a maximum4 ,!y !n dim9i% to a m9imum at h\r xiii1 & rise to ano!r b small] maximum at h\r xviii1 aga9 decreas+ to a second m9imum at h\r xxii4 ,z ! h\rs vi & xviii are ^? cross$ by ! ,milky ,way1 ! result is v significant40 ,he conclud$ ! ,galaxy to be produc$ by a collection ( irregul>ly-cond5s$ clu/]s1 ! />s cond5s$ 9 p>allel planes4 ,next1 he consid]$ ! ,univ]se z p]haps inf9itely ext5d$ 9 ! direction ( ! ,galaxy1 & accord+ly he put =w>d ! idea t ! light f ! fa9t] & m di/ant />s 0 ext+ui%$ 9 its passage ?r\gh ! e!r ( space1 :i* he reg>d$ z imp]fectly transp>5t4 ,! !ory1 z ,/ruve prop\nd$ x1 0 dispos$ ( by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 :o rem>k$ t we 7 n p]mitt$ to believe t at "o "p ( ! sky our view 0 limit$ by ext9ction1 :ile at ano!r a cle> view "r ?r\gh ! ,galaxy c\ld be _h2 & by ,rob]t ,grant 7#ahad-ahib71 director ( ! ,glasg[ ,obs]vatory1 :o %[$ t1 7 ! !ory true1 ! ,galaxy %\ld pres5t a uni=m appe>ance ?r\gh\t its c\rse4 ,on ! :ole1 ,/ruve's !ory 0 no improvem5t on ,h]s*el's2 =1 z ,encke po9t$ out1 ,/ruve's !ory 0 built on five assumptions1 all ( :i* 7 que/ionable4 ,at ! "t ( ,/ruve's inve/igation ,mdl]1 at ,dorpat1 0 engag$ 9 an attempt to solve ! "q ( ! con/ruction ( ! heav5s by q ano!r me?od1 t ( /ell> prop] motion4 ,he det]m9$ to inve/igate ! subject ( prop] motion 9 ord] to discov] ! c5tral body ( ! ,milky ,way4 ,if su* a c5tre exi/$1 h[ev]1 ! motions ne> x w\ld be some:at diff]5t f ^? 9 ! ,sol> ,sy/em4 ,9 our ,sol> ,sy/em ! planets ne>e/ ! ,sun move swifte/1 ow+ to ! /r5g? ( ! =ce ( gravitation4 ,9 ! ,sid]eal ,sy/em1 on ! o!r h&1 ! movem5ts at ! c5tre1 z ,mdl] po9t$ out1 w\ld be sl[e/4 ,z !re w\ld be no v l>ge prepond]at+ body1 ! mutual attractions ( ! diff]5t />s w\ld cause ! bodies at ! b\nd>ies ( ! ,univ]se to move fa/] ?an ^? at ! c5tre1 ! c5tral sun--! object ( ,mdl]'s se>*--be+ 9 a /ate ( re/ relative to ! ,sid]eal ,sy/em4 ,mdl] accord+ly began to se>* ! heav5s = a region ( sluggi% prop] motions4 ,9 ! con/ellation ,taurus1 ,mdl] notic$ t ! prop] motions ( ! />s 7 v sl[4 ,! idea occurr$ to him t ! bright r$ /> ,aldeb>an might be ! c5tral sun1 b its v l>ge prop] motion 0 obvi\sly aga9/ ?is inf]5ce4 ,/> aft] /> 0 n[ subject$ by ,mdl] to ! mo/ c>eful scrut9y4 ,at l5g?1 aft] a labori\s inve/igation1 he ann\nc$ t ! /> :i* fulfill$ ! conditions ( a c5tral body 0 ,alcyone1 ! brighte/ ( ! ,pleiades1 a gr\p possess$ ( no prop] motion except t due to ! sun's drift 9 ! opposite direction4 ,9 #ahdf ,mdl] publi%$ 8 hypo!sis 9 8 elaborate "w1 #8,! ,c5tral ,sun4' ,he ann\nc$ t 8 obs]vations _h l$ him to ! conclusion t ,alcyone occupi$ ! c5tre ( gravity ( ! ,sid]eal ,sy/em1 & 0 ! po9t r\nd :i* ! />s ( ! ,galaxy 7 all revolv+4 ,8 pr(\nd imag9ation1 h[ev]1 did n /op "h4 ,?is speculation l$ him to ! sublime ?\ght t ! c5tre ( ! ,univ]se 0 ! ,abode ( ! ,creator4 ,9 #ahdg ,/ruve reject$ ,mdl]'s !ory z 8mu* too haz>d\s10 & ?is has be5 ! g5]al op9ion ( a/ronom]s4 ,mdl]'s !ory is n[ reg>d$ z q unt5able4 ,h]s*el's e>li] idea t ! nebul 7 ext]nal galaxies 0 long held by ! majority ( a/ronom]s1 9 pref]5ce to 8 lat] & m advanc$ ideas4 ,! suppos$ resolution ( ! nebul by ,"l ,rosse's telescope gave support to ?is ext]nal galaxy !ory4 ,x 0 cle>ly %[n1 h[ev]1 by ,william ,:ewell 7#agid-ahff7 9 #ahec1 & by ,h]b]t ,sp5c] 7#ahbj-aijc7 9 #aheh1 t ! sy/ematic di/ribution ( ! nebul 9 reg>d to ! />s preclud$ ! possibility ( _! be+ ext]nal galaxies4 ,?is 0 confirm$ by ! spectroscopic discov]y ( ! gase\s nature ( "s ( ! nebul1 & by ! lat] rese>*es ( ,r4 ,a4 ,proctor4 ,n only did ,proctor make fre% discov]ies1 b x fell to him to cle> away ! errone\s ideas reg>d+ ! con/ruction ( ! heav5s1 & to put ! /udy on a new basis4 ,9 #ahgj ,proctor plott$ on a s+le *>t all ! />s1 to ! numb] ( #cbd1aih1 conta9$ 9 ,argel&]'s #8,dur*mu/]ung' *>ts4 ,?is "w gave ! dea?-bl[ to ! 8disc-!ory40 ,9 8 own words1 8,9 ! v regions :]e ! ,h]s*elian gauges %[$ ! m9ute/ telescopic />s to be mo/ cr[d$1 my *>t ( #cbd1aih />s %[s ! />s ( ! high] ord]s 7d[n to ! elev5? magnitude7 to be s cr[d$1 t by _! m]e aggregation )9 ! mass !y %[ ! ,milky ,way ) all its /reams & clu/]+s4 ,x is utt]ly impossible t excessively remote />s c\ld seem to be clu/]$ exactly :]e relatively ne> />s 7 ri*ly spread40 ,proctor %[$ also t 9 all probability ! />s compos+ ! nebul\s light ( ! ,galaxy are mu* small] ?an ! bright] />s1 & n at su* a great di/ance z _! fa9tness w\ld lead u to suppose1--a conclusion confirm$ by ! "w ( ,celoria4 ,proctor 0 n s =tunate 9 !oris+ z 9 direct inve/igation4 ,he ?\ght t ! ,magellanic cl\ds 7 probably ext]nal galaxies2 & fur!r1 he put =w>d ! idea t ! ,milky ,way is a spiral1 ! gaps & coal-sacks be+ due to loops 9 ! /ream1 b nei!r ( ^! ideas has f\nd fav\r ) a/ronom]s4 ,b ! *ief "w accompli%$ by ,proctor 0 a revision ( our k ( ! ,univ]se1 :i* he ?us describes3 8,)9 "o & ! same region coexi/ />s ( _m ord]s ( real magnitude1 ! greate/ be+ ?\s&s ( times l>g] ?an ! lea/4 ,all ! nebul hi!rto discov]$1 :e!r gase\s & /ell>1 irregul>1 planet>y1 r+-=m$1 or elliptic1 exi/ )9 ! limits ( ! ,sid]eal ,sy/em40 ,proctor's discov]y ( ! excess ( bright />s on ! ,galaxy 0 confirm$ by ,jean ,*>les ,h\zeau 7#ahbj-ahhh71 director ( ! ,brussels ,obs]vatory4 ,"s "t lat] ,j4 ,e4 ,gore c>efully exam9$ ! positions ( all ! bright] />s 9 ! nor!rn & s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,foll[+ ?is1 he made an enum]ation ( ! />s 9 ! atlas ( ,heis & 9 ! *>ts con/ruct$ by ,h>d+2 ! outcome ( ! inve/igation be+ to %[ t />s ( ea* individual magnitude tak5 sep>ately t5d to aggregate on ! ,galaxy1 ! aggregation be+ notic$ ev5 9 fir/-magnitude />s4 ,gore fur!r po9t$ out _m cases ( close connection betwe5 ! lucid />s & ! galactic light4 ,a simil> inve/igation 0 und]tak5 by ,s*iap>elli 9 #ahhi4 ,s*iap>elli1 bas+ 8 "w on ! catalogue ( ,g\ld & ! photometric measures ( ,pick]+1 con/ruct$ a s]ies ( planisph]es :i* demon/rat$ ! cr[d+ ( ! lucid />s t[>ds ! plane ( ! ,galaxy4 ,^! inve/igations 7 /ill fur!r cont9u$ by ,simon ,newcomb1 :o demon/rat$ t 8! d>k] regions ( ! ,galaxy are only slightly ri*] 9 />s visible to ! nak$ eye ?an o!r p>ts ( ! heav5s1 :ile ! bright areas are betwe5 #fj & #ajj p] c5t ri*] ?an ! d>k areas40 ,! ,dut* a/ronom]1 ,*>les ,ea/on1 f9ds a connection betwe5 ! di/ribution ( n9?-magnitude />s & ! lum9\s & obscure spots 9 ! ,galaxy4 ,x 0 notic$ by ,g\ld1 f obs]vations made at ,cordova1 t 8a belt or /ream ( bright />s appe>s to girdle ! heav5s v ne>ly 9 a great circle :i* int]sects ! ,milky ,way40 ,accord+ to ,g\ld1 ! belt includes ,orion1 ,canis ,major1 ,argo1 ,crux1 ,c5taurus1 ,lupus1 & ,scorpio 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 & ,taurus1 ,p]seus1 ,cassiopeia1 ,cepheus1 ,cygnus1 & ,lyra 9 ! nor!rn4 ,?is 0 int]pret$ by ,celoria z indicat+ ! exi/5ce ( two galactic r+s1 b ,g\ld consid]$ ! zone ( bright />s to =m ) ! ,sun a subord9ate clu/] ( ab\t five hundr$ />s )9 ! ,galaxy4 ,p]haps ! mo/ elaborate inve/igations on ! /ructure ( ! ,univ]se h be5 ^? ( ,kapteyn1 comm5c$ 9 #ahia4 ,9 t ye> he demon/rat$ t />s are blu] & m easily photograph$ 9 ! ,galaxy ?an else:]e1 a discov]y indep5d5tly made by ,gill at ! ,cape1 & ,pick]+ at ,h>v>d4 ,9 #ahic ,kapteyn ann\nc$ 8 conclusions1 d]iv$ f a novel me?od ( /udy+ ! di/ance ( ! />s f _! prop] motions4 ,9 ord] to rea* a def9ite idea ( ! di/ances ( ! />s1 he made use ( ! compon5t ( ! prop] motion1 measur$ at "r angles to a great circle ( ! sph]e :i* passes ?r\gh a giv5 /> & ! apex ( ! sol> motion4 ,he f\nd t />s ( ! fir/ spectral type h small] prop] motions ?an ^? ( ! second1 indicat+ t />s ( ! second type are on ! av]age ne>] to ! ,sol> ,sy/em ?an ^? ( ! fir/1 ! ne> vic9ity conta9+ almo/ exclusively second-type />s4 ,kapteyn conclud$ t ! gr\p ( second-type />s =m$ "o sy/em1 nam$ ! sol> clu/]1 :i* he consid]$ to be r\ghly sph]ical 9 %ape4 ,9 #aijb he ab&on$ ?is idea1 reta9+1 h[ev]1 8 op9ions z to ! relative di/ances ( ! diff]5t types4 ,t ! second-type />s are ne>] to ! ,sun ?an ! fir/ is1 he rem>k$ 9 a lett] to ! writ]1 incontrov]tible4 ,9 ! inve/igation ( ! motions 91 & ext5t (1 ! ,univ]se1 ! "n ( ,simon ,newcomb /&s out pre-em95tly4 ,born 9 #ahce at ,wallace1 9 ,nova ,scotia1 he w5t to ! ,/ates 9 #ahec4 ,9 #ahfb he receiv$ an appo9tm5t at ,wa%+ton ,obs]vatory1 & he reta9$ an (ficial position until #ahig4 ,?r\gh\t 8 sci5tific c>e] he has be5 specially attract$ by ! "q ( ! con/ruction ( ! heav5s1 :i* he fully discuss$ 9 8 book on #8,! ,/>s' 9 #aija4 ,newcomb's inve/igations h %[n t "s ( ! />s are n p]man5t memb]s ( ! ,sid]eal ,sy/em1 among !m ! swiftly-mov+ #ahcj ,groombridge4 ,he has %[n t ! ,/ell> ,univ]se does n possess t =m ( /ability :i* is se5 9 ! ,sol> ,sy/em4 ,newcomb consid]s ! ,univ]se to be limit$ 9 ext5t1 z oppos$ to ! op9ions ( ,/ruve & o!rs1 :o believ$ x to be inf9ite4 ,he has br\ght cle>ly be=e 8 read]s a calculation1 bas$ on ! kn[n law t !re are ?ree times z _m />s ( any giv5 magnitude z ( t imm$iately bright]1 ! increase ( numb] comp5sat+ = ! decrease ( brilliance4 ,7 ! ,univ]se inf9itely ext5d$1 ! :ole heav5s w\ld %9e ) ! brilliance ( ! ,sun4 ,newcomb1 !re=e1 concludes t 8t collection ( />s :i* we call ! ,univ]se is limit$ 9 ext5t40 ,positive evid5ce t ?is is ! case 0 obta9$ by ,giovanni ,celoria1 n[ director ( ! ,milan ,obs]vatory1 9 ! c\rse ( a s]ies ( />-gauges at ! nor? galactic pole4 ,us+ a small refractor1 %[+ />s b>ely to ! elev5? magnitude1 he f\nd he c\ld see exactly ! same numb] ( />s z ,h]s*el's l>ge reflector1 indicat+ t increase ( optical p[] w n increase ! numb] ( />s visible 9 t direction4 ,celoria's obs]vation c only be expla9$ on ! assumption t ! ,univ]se is limit$ 9 ext5t1 z o!rwise ,h]s*el's telescope %\ld h %[n m />s ?an ,celoria's1 ev5 grant+ an ext9ction ( light1--a !ory :i* ,newcomb1 ,s*iap>elli1 & o!rs h %[n to be q unt5able4 ,t ! ,univ]se is limit$ 9 ext5t is ab\t all t is kn[n = c]ta91 al?\gh ev5 ?is has be5 call$ 9 "q1 notably by ,e4 ,w4 ,maund] & ,h4 ,h4 ,turn]4 ,! problem ( ! con/ruction ( ! heav5s is by no means solv$1 al?\gh sev]al m or less probable !ories h be5 advanc$4 ,a s]ies ( inve/igations on /ell> di/ribution1 f #ahhd to #ahih1 l$ ,hugo ,seelig]1 director ( ! ,muni* ,obs]vatory1 to "s rem>kable d$uctions4 ,he believes ! ,univ]se to be flatt5$ at ! galactic poles4 ,! ,galaxy is ! zone ( /ell> cond5sation1 & he concludes ! di/ance ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em f ! inn] bord] ( ! zone to be #ejj times ! di/ance ( ,sirius1 :ile ! ext]nal bord] is #aajj times t di/ance4 ,! ,univ]se is f9ite 9 ext5t1 its limits be+ ab\t #ijjj light ye>s f ! ,sol> ,sy/em4 ,9 ,seelig]'s op9ion ! ext9ction ( light may come into play beyond our ,univ]se1 & prev5t u see+ o!r collections ( />s4 ,! "q ( ext]nal univ]ses is purely a hypo!tical "o1 al?\gh !re is und\bt$ly mu* to be said 9 its fav\r4 ,^! univ]ses h nev] be5 se51 & we c only speculate z to _! exi/5ce4 ,! la/ ^w on ! subject is by ,gore1 9 #ahic1 9 8 elaborate "w1 #8,! ,visible ,univ]se4' ,he reg>ds ! ,sol> ,sy/em z a sy/em ( ! fir/ ord]1 & ! ,galaxy & its fell[-univ]ses ( ! second4 ,he makes a calculation ( ! possible di/ance ( an ext]nal univ]se ( 8 second ord]4 ,he assumes ! di/ance ( ! ne>e/ univ]se f our ,galaxy z proportional to t sep>at+ ! ,sun f ,c5tauri1 & rea*es ! amaz+ conclusion t ! di/ance ( ! ne>e/ ,galaxy is no less ?an #ebj1adi1fjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj miles1--a di/ance :i* light1 ) its inconceivable velocity ( #ahf1jjj miles a second1 w\ld take almo/ n9ety millions ( ye>s to trav]se4 ,^! calculations absolutely ov]:elm ! m9d1 :i* is unable to compreh5d su* va/ di/ances4 ,our univ]se is inde$1 z ,flamm>ion expresses x1 a po9t 9 ! inf9ite4 ,! calculations ( ,j4 ,e4 ,gore repres5t our highe/ sci5tific conception ( ! univ]se4 ,he sums up 8 inve/igations ) ! foll[+ words3 8,al?\gh we mu/ consid] ! numb] ( visible />s z /rictly f9ite1 ! numb]s ( />s & sy/ems really exi/+1 b invisible to u1 may be practically inf9ite4 ,c\ld we spe$ our flight ?r\gh space on angel w+s beyond ! conf9es ( our limit$ univ]se to a di/ance s great t ! int]val :i* sep>ates u f ! remote/ fix$ /> might be consid]$ z m]ely a /ep on our cele/ial j\rney1 :at fur!r creations might n !n be reveal$ to our wond]+ vision8 ,sy/ems ( a high] ord] might !re be unfold$ to our view1 comp>$ ) :i* ! :ole ( our visible heav5s might appe> l a gra9 ( s& on ! ocean %ore1--sy/ems p]haps /ret*+ out to inf9ity be=e u1 & rea*+ at la/ ! glori\s #8mansions' ( ! ,almighty1 ! ,?rone ( ! ,et]nal40 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,cele/ial ,,evolution4 ,9 ! second *apt] we outl9$ ! nebul> hypo!sis z prop\nd$ by ,h]s*el4 ,"s "t e>li] ! ,fr5* ma!matician1 ,laplace1 _h put =w>d 8 !ory ( ! evolution ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em4 ,pi]re ,simon ,laplace 0 born at ,beaumont-en-,auge1 ne> ,honfleur1 9 #agdi1 & 0 educat$ 9 ! ,milit>y ,s*ool ( 8 native t[n4 ,9 #agfg he became ,assi/ant ,pr(essor ( ,ma!matics at ,beaumont1 & "s ye>s lat] at ! ,milit>y ,s*ool 9 ,p>is1 :i* position he reta9$ = _m ye>s4 ,memb] ( ! ,in/itute & ,m9i/] ( ! ,int]ior "u ,napoleon1 he 0 creat$ a ,m>quis by ,l\is ,,xviii41 & di$ at ,arcuile on ,m>* #e1 #ahbg4 ,9 ! la/ *apt] ( 8 popul> "w1 ! #8,sy/me du ,monde1' ,laplace put =w>d 8 nebul> !ory 8) t di/ru/ :i* ev]y?+ ought to inspire t is n ! result ( obs]vation or calculation40 ,laplace notic$ t 9 ! ,sol> ,sy/em all ! planets revolv$ r\nd ! ,sun 9 ! same direction1 f we/ to ea/1 & t ! satellites ( ! planets obey$ ! same law4 ,he also obs]v$ t ! ,sun1 ,moon1 & planets rotat$ on _! axes 9 ! same direction z !y revolv$ r\nd ! ,sun2 also t ! planets mov$ r\nd ! ,sun1 & ! satellites r\nd _! prim>ies1 9 almo/ ! same plane z ! ,e>?'s orbit1 ! plane ( ! ecliptic4 ,x 0 evid5t t ^! rem>kable congruities 7 n ! result ( *ance1 & accord+ly ,laplace express$ 8 belief t ! ,sol> ,sy/em orig9at$ f a great nebula1 :i* 9 cond5s+ deta*$ v>i\s r+s 9 ! process ( rotation4 ,^! r+s cond5s$ into ! v>i\s planets & _! satellites4 ,laplace's !ory 0 p[]fully support$ by ,h]s*el's obs]vations ( ! v>i\s nebul 9 ! heav5s4 ,b1 ) ! suppos$ resolution ( ! v>i\s nebul aft] ! erection ( ! ,rosse reflector 9 #ahde1 ! evid5ce 9 fav\r ( ! nebul> !ory seem$ to be greatly r$uc$4 ,9 #ahfd1 h[ev]1 ! discov]y ( ! gase\s nebul1 by means ( ! spectroscope1 gave fur!r support to ! !ory4 ,p[]ful aid 0 l5t to ! nebul> hypo!sis by ! fam\s ,g]man physici/1 ,h]mann ,ludwig ,f]d9& von ,helmholtz 7#ahba-ahid71 9 #ahed1 9 8 !ory ( ! ma9t5ance ( ! ,sun's heat4 ,_m !ories _h be5 already advanc$ to acc\nt = ?is4 ,aft] ! discov]y ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy1 ,julius ,rob]t ,may]1 "o ( ! discov]]s1 put =w>d ! !ory t ! ,sol> heat 0 su/a9$ by ! infl[ ( meteorites f space1 & ?is idea 0 develop$ 9 #ahed by ,sir ,william ,?omson1 n[ ,"l ,kelv9 7born #ahbd71 b x 0 soon app>5t t ! supply ( meteors requir$ to su/a9 ! ,sol> heat 0 su* z w\ld h increas$ ! mass ( ! ,sun v consid]ably4 ,accord+ly ! hypo!sis 0 p>tially ab&on$1 & 0 succe$$ by t ( ,helmholtz1 :o po9t$ out t ! radiation ( ! ,sun's heat 0 ! result ( its contraction ?r\gh cool+4 ,! rate 0 !n e/imat$ at #chj feet ye>ly1 or a second ( arc 9 #fjjj ye>s4 ,?is !ory 0 at once g5]ally accept$4 ,x assumes ! ,sun to be /ill contract+1 & !re=e1 on go+ backw>ds 9 imag9ation1 we rea* a p]iod :5 ! ,sun mu/ h be5 mu* l>g] ?an n[1 &1 9 fact1 ext5d$ beyond ! orbit ( ,neptune4 ,sev]al objections to ,laplace's nebul> !ory 7 urg$ by v>i\s inve/igators4 ,among ^! 0 ! retrograde motions ( ! satellites ( ,uranus & ,neptune1 & ! extremely rapid revolution ( ! inn] satellite ( ,m>s4 ,o!r objections 7 urg$ by ,bab9et1 ,kirkwood1 & o!rs1 & at l5g? a sweep+ re=m ( ! nebul> !ory 0 propos$ by ,faye 9 #ahhd1 9 8 "w1 #8,sur l',orig9e du ,monde4' ,faye put =w>d ! idea t all ! planets int]ior to ! orbit ( ,uranus 7 =m$ inside ! sol> nebula1 :ile ,uranus & ,neptune came into exi/5ce aft] ! developm5t ( ! ,sun 0 f> advanc$4 ,b ! objections to ,faye's !ory are =midable1 & ! hypo!sis has n be5 accept$4 ,a popul> exposition ( ! nebul> !ory 0 giv5 9 #aija 9 ,ball's "w on #8,! ,e>?'s ,beg9n+4' ,he exhau/ively discusses ! :ole "q1 & expla9s ! retrograde motion ( ! satellites ( ,uranus & ,neptune z due to ! fact t ! planes ( ! orbits ( ! satellites w ev5tually be br\ght to co9cide ) ! ecliptic4 ,^! motions1 says ,ball1 d n disprove ! nebul> !ory4 8,!y r illu/rate ! fact t ! great evolution :i* has wr\ght ! ,sol> ,sy/em into its pres5t =m has n f9i%$ its "w3 x is /ill 9 progress40 ,! !ory t ! ,sun's heat 0 ma9ta9$ by meteors1 0 ext5d$ by ,proctor 9 #ahgj to expla9 ! gr[? ( ! planets ?r\gh meteoric aggregation z well z nebul> cond5sation4 ,c]ta9ly ! !ory1 z develop$ by ,proctor1 acc\nt$ fairly well = ! v>i\s features ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em2 b ! highe/ developm5t ( ! meteoritic !ory is due to ,locky]1 :o publi%$ 8 views 9 #ahij1 9 8 "w1 #8,! ,meteoritic ,hypo!sis4' ,locky] claims t 8 views are m]ely ext5sions ( ,s*iap>elli's ideas reg>d+ ! conc5tration ( cele/ial matt]4 ,he consid]$ ! *ief nebul> l9e to be id5tical ) ! remnant ( ! magnesium flut+1 :i* is conspicu\s 9 cometic & meteoric spectra2 b ,hugg9s & ,keel]1 ) m p[]ful in/rum5ts1 disprov$ ! suppos$ co9cid5ce4 ,locky] consid]s t 8all self-lum9\s bodies 9 ! cele/ial space are compos$ ei!r ( sw>ms ( meteorites or ( masses ( meteoric vap\r produc$ by heat4 ,! heat is br\ght ab\t by ! cond5sation ( meteor sw>ms1 due to gravity1 ! vap\r be+ f9ally cond5s$ into a solid globe40 ,locky] divid$ ! />s into sev5 gr\ps1 accord+ to temp]ature1 ! ord] ( evolution be+ f r$ />s ?r\gh a division ( second-type />s to ,sirian />s1 reg>d$ z ! hotte/ />s2 ?r\gh a second division ( sol> />s to f\r?-type />s4 ,9 fact1 ! !ory aspires to give a complete explanation ( all cele/ial ph5om5a1 f meteors to nebul4 ,newcomb1 h[ev]1 consid]s t ! objections to ! !ory are insup]able1 & 8 op9ion is %>$ by ! majority ( a/ronom]s1 _m ( :om1 h[ev]1 consid] t !re are elem5ts ( tru? 9 ! !ory2 b ,locky] und\bt$ly c>ri$ 8 ideas to an extravagant ext5t4 ,locky]'s evolution>y ord] ( ! />s is n support$ by ,vogel4 ,zlln] sugge/$ 9 #ahfe t yell[ & r$ />s are simply :ite />s 9 a fur!r /age ( cool+2 b ,ang/rm %[$ t atmosph]ic composition is a saf] crit]ion ( age ?an col\r4 ,vogel's classification1 fir/ publi%$ 9 #ahgd1 & fur!r develop$ 9 #ahie1 is f ! /&po9t ( evolution4 ,he consid]s ,orion />s & ,sirian />s to be ! y\nge/ orbs4 ,sol> />s are consid]$ by ,vogel to h wa/$ mu* ( _! /ore ( radiation1 & r$ />s are view$ z 8effete suns1 ha/5+ rapidly d[n ! road to f9al ext9ction40 ,he consid]s />s ( ,sec*i's f\r? type to be also dy+ suns1 bo? types repres5t+ alt]native roads = />s ( ! ,sol> type 9 _! decl9e into d>k />s4 ,?is view is support$ by ,dunr1 & is di/9ctly confirm$ by ,hale's obs]vations ) ! ,y]kes telescope4 ,vogel's views1 9 fact1 are g5]ally accept$ among a/ronom]s4 ,! nebul> !ory1 modifi$ by subsequ5t rese>*1 seems de/9$ to hold its own aga9/ all attacks4 ,di/9ctly supplem5t>y to ! nebul> !ory are ! rem>kable rese>*es1 comm5c$ 9 #ahgi1 by ,sir ,george ,h[>d ,d>w9 7born #ahde71 son ( ,*>les ,d>w9 ! great biologi/4 ,george ,h[>d ,d>w9 0 born 9 #ahde1 at ,d[ne 9 ,k5t1 0 educat$ at ,cambridge1 & /udi$ = ! law2 b 9 #ahgc he return$ to ,cambridge1 :]e he became ,plumian ,pr(essor ( ,a/ronomy 9 #ahhc4 ,9 #ahgi he communicat$ to ! ,royal ,society ! fir/ ( 8 pap]s on tidal friction1 :i* 7 summ$ up 9 8 book on #8,! ,tides1' publi%$ 9 #ahih4 ,he f9ds t ! tides act ^u ! ,e>? z a brake does ^u a ma*9e1--!y t5d to ret>d its rotation4 ,consequ5tly1 ! day is gr[+ long]1 ! ,moon's orbit is becom+ enl>g$1 & its p]iod ( revolution is be+ l5g!n$4 ,at pres5t ! day is ab\t tw5ty-f\r h\rs long1 & ! mon? ab\t tw5ty-sev5 days4 ,! day1 h[ev]1 w be l5g!n$ at a m rapid rate ?an ! mon?1 & 9 ! remote future ! day & mon? w bo? la/ fifty-five ( our pres5t days4 ,! ,moon w revolve r\nd ! ,e>? 9 ! same p]iod t ! ,e>? rotates on its axis1 & ! two bodies w p]=m _! circuit r\nd ! ,sun z if unit$ by a b>4 ,n only c we =esee ! future ( ! ,e>?-,moon ,sy/em1 b we c also read ! pa/4 ,accord+ to ,d>w9's !ory1 ! ,e>?1 9 ! remote pa/1 0 probably rotat+ on its axis 9 a v %ort p]iod1 betwe5 ?ree & five h\rs4 ,! ,moon mu/ !n h be5 mu* ne>] u ?an x is n[1 & 0 probably revolv+ r\nd its prim>y 9 ! same p]iod t ! ,e>? took to rotate on its axis4 ,! two globes1 !n gase\s1 mu/ h be5 revolv+ almo/ 9 actual contact4 ,_h ! mon? be5 ev5 a second %ort] ?an ! day1 ! ,moon mu/ inevitably h fall5 back on ! ,e>?4 ,z x 01 ! condition ( affairs c\ld n endure4 ,! condition ( ! ,moon resembl$ t ( an egg balanc$ on its po9t4 ,! ,moon mu/ ei!r rec$e f ! ,e>? or fall back ^u x4 ,! sol> tide "h int]f]$1 & caus$ ! ,moon to rec$e f its prim>y until x rea*$ its pres5t di/ance ( #bci1jjj miles4 ,! fact t ! ,e>? & ,moon 7 almo/ 9 contact sugge/s t !y 7 probably 9 contact4 ,9 o!r words1 ! ,moon orig9ally =m$ "p ( ! ,e>?1 :i*1 9 consequ5ce ( its %ort-rotation p]iod1 & probably also ow+ to ! int]f]5ce ( ! sol> tide1 split into two portions1 & ! small] ( ^! n[ =ms ! ,moon4 ,x is likely t ! matt] n[ =m+ ! ,moon 0 deta*$ f ! ,e>? 9 sep>ate p>ticles4 ,j z ! tides rais$ by ! ,moon t5d to ret>d ! motion ( ! ,e>?1 s ! ,e>? tides rais$ 9 ! ,moon h already done _! "w4 ,! ,moon n[ rotates on its axis 9 ! same "t z x revolves r\nd ! ,e>?4 ,"p ( ! evolution ( ! ,e>?-,moon sy/em is complet$4 ,s*iap>elli's discov]y t ! rotation p]iods ( bo? ,v5us & ,m]cury co9cide ) _! times ( revolution is di/9ctly confirmatory ( ,d>w9's !ory4 ,9 8 *apt] on ! 8,evolution ( ,cele/ial ,sy/ems0 9 8 book on #8,! ,tides1' ,d>w9 discusses ! di/ribution ( ! satellites ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em4 ,he says ( ! evolution ( a planet3 8,we h se5 t r+s %\ld be %$ f ! c5tral nucleus :5 ! contraction ( ! nebula has induc$ a c]ta9 degree ( augm5tation ( rotation4 ,n[1 if ! rotation 7 ret>d$ by "s ext]nal cause1 ! g5esis ( a r+ might be ret>d$ or entirely prev5t$40 ,he !n rem>ks t probably ! =mation ( ! ,moon 0 ret>d$1 & 9 ! case ( ,m]cury & ,v5us1 sol> tidal friction prev5t$ satellite =mation4 ,?is expla9s :y ,m]cury & ,v5us h no satellites1 ! ,e>? only "o1 ,m>s two1 :ile ! ext]ior planets h ea* sev]al satellites4 ,! !ory ( tidal friction 0 ext5d$ 9 #ahib to ! explanation ( ! d\ble />s by ! ,am]ican a/ronom]1 ,see4 ,see %[$ by ma!matical calculation ! effects ( tidal friction 9 %ap+ ! ecc5tric orbits ( ! b9>y />s1 ! c\rse ( evolution be+ trac$ f d\ble />s1 revolv+ almo/ 9 contact1 :i* ! spectroscope reveals1 to ! telescopic d\bles4 ,see's rese>*es h done mu* to supplem5t ^? ( ,d>w91 :o consid]s t !re are two types ( cosmical evolution1--! ,laplacian1 & ! 8second0 or lun> type4 ,l[ell1 9 8 "w on #8,! ,sol> ,sy/em' 7#aijc71 adds six congruities to ^? rem>k$ by ,laplace & 8 successors4 ,^! are1 8,all ! satellites turn ! same face to _! prim>ies 7s f> z we c judge72 ,m]cury1 & probably ,v5us1 d ! same to ! ,sun2 "o law gov]ns position & size 9 ! ,sol> ,sy/em & 9 all ! satellite sy/ems2 orbital incl9ations 9 ! satellite sy/ems increase ) di/ance f ! prim>y2 ! out] planets %[ a great] tilt ( axis to orbit-plane ) increas$ di/ance f ! ,sun 7s f> z detectable72 ! inn] planets %[ a simil> relation40 ,! fate ( ! av]age sol> /> is sket*$ out by ,vogel's classification1 & by any evolution>y hypo!sis :i* we may adopt4 ,9 ! words ( ,l[ell3 8,?\gh we _c z yet review ) ! m9d's eye our pa/1 we c1 to an ext5t1 =esee our future4 ,we c ) sci5tific confid5ce look =w>d to a "t :5 ea* ( ! bodies compos+ our ,sol> ,sy/em %all turn an un*ang+ face 9 p]petuity to ! ,sun4 ,ea* w !n h rea*$ ! end ( its evolution set 9 ! un*ang+ />e ( dea?4 ,!n ! ,sun itself w g out1 becom+ a cold & lifeless mass2 & ! ,sol> ,sy/em w circle unse51 gho/like1 9 space1 await+ only ! resurrection ( ano!r cosmic cata/rophe40 ,z to :at ?is cosmic cata/rophe w be1 sci5ce gives no def9ite idea2 nor c a/ronom]s say ) c]ta9ty :e!r ! ,univ]se w come to an end by ! ext9ction ( its lum9>ies1 or :e!r ! suns & planets w be br\ght back to lum9osity aga92 b ! human m9d %r9ks f ! idea ( a dead ,univ]se4 ,at ?is po9t sci5ce has said its la/ ^w1 & mu/ give place to religion4 ,9 our day we may repeat ) deep] mean+ ! words ( ! ,scotti% a/ronom]1 ,?omas ,dick3 8,"h imag9ation mu/ drop its w+1 s9ce x c p5etrate no fur!r into ! dom9ions ( ,him :o sits on ! ,?rone ( ,imm5sity4 ,ov]:elm$ ) a view ( ! magnific5ce ( ! ,univ]se1 & ( ! p]fections ( its ,almighty ,au?or1 we c only fall pro/rate 9 deep humility & exclaim1 #8,great & m>vell\s are ,?y works1 ,"l ,god ,almighty4'0 ,,index4 ,a ,absolute p>allax1 #aeh4 ,adams1 ,j4 ,c41 #gh1 #aaf1 #aag1 #aah1 #aai1 #abj1 #adj4 ,adams1 ,w41 #bje4 ,a]olites1 #adg1 #adh1 #adi4 ,airy1 ,sir ,g4 ,b41 #bg1 #ajd1 #aag1 #abj4 ,aitk51 ,r4 ,g41 #bjb4 ,alcyone 7 ,tauri71 #bag4 ,aldeb>an 7 ,tauri71 #aea1 #aff1 #agj1 #agb4 ,algol 7 ,p]sei71 #agh1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #ahd1 #aic1 #bjd4 ,al-,sufi1 #ahj1 #ahc4 ,altair 7 ,aquil71 #agj4 ,&]son1 ,t4 ,d41 #aia1 #aib4 ,&rom$a nebula1 #ahj1 #bjh4 ,&rom$ 771 #bja4 ,&rom$ 7,nova71 #ahj4 ,&rom$id meteors1 #adb1 #adi4 ,ang/rm1 ,a4 ,j41 #ej1 #ea4 ,ant>es 7 ,scorpii71 #aga4 ,aquila1 #aie4 ,aquil 771 #ahe1 #ahf4 ,arago1 ,f4 ,j4 ,d41 #f1 #aa1 #ca1 #cg1 #dj1 #aah1 #abj1 #abi4 ,arcturus 7 ,bootis71 #afe1 #agj4 ,arequipa ,obs]vatory1 #ge4 ,argel&]1 ,f4 ,w4 ,a41 #bg1 #aei1 #afg1 #agh1 #agi1 #ahj1 #bah4 ,argo ,navis1 #bba4 ,argus 771 #ahg1 #ahh4 ,armagh ,obs]vatory1 #bjf4 ,a/]oids1 #ai1 #fb1 #ig-ajb4 ,a/ronom]-,royal ( ,scotl&1 #acd1 #aee1 #aia2 ( ,engl&1 #ei1 #ag2 ( ,irel&1 #aea1 #aef4 ,a/ronomy ( ! invisible1 #bjc4 ,aurig 7,nova71 #aia1 #aib1 #aie4 ,auw]s1 ,a41 #afg1 #ahh1 #bjc4 ,b ,bab9et1 #bcj4 ,baily1 ,f41 #aei4 ,bakhuyz51 ,h4 ,g41 #ia4 ,ball1 ,sir ,r4 ,s41 #bc1 #cd1 #ajh1 #ada1 #adi1 #aef1 #aeh1 #bcj4 ,b>n>d1 ,e4 ,e41 #ai1 #ie1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aac1 #acf1 #aia1 #baa4 ,be]1 ,w41 #fh1 #fi1 #ij4 ,bellatrix 7 ,orionis71 #bji4 ,blopolsky1 ,a41 #hg1 #aaj1 #aff1 #ahe1 #ahf1 #bjd1 #bje4 ,b]l9 ,obs]vatory1 #aai1 #abj4 ,bessel1 ,f4 ,w41 #bd1 #hb1 #aaf1 #aea1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aed1 #aei1 #afg1 #bjb1 #bjc4 ,betelgeux 7 ,orionis71 #afe1 #aga1 #agb1 #ahb1 #ahg4 ,biela1 ,w41 #abh4 ,biela's comet1 #abh1 #abi1 #adb1 #adc1 #adf1 #adi4 ,birm+ham1 ,j41 #ahi4 ,bode1 ,j4 ,e41 #ig1 #ih1 #aeb4 ,bode's ,law1 #ig4 ,bo$dick]1 ,o41 #gg4 ,bond1 ,g4 ,p41 #ajc1 #aji1 #acj1 #acf1 #bjg4 ,bond1 ,w4 ,c41 #aji1 #aab1 #abj4 #8,bonn ,dur*mu/]ung1' #aei1 #afj1 #bah4 ,bonn ,obs]vatory1 #hh1 #ig1 #afj4 ,botis 771 #cj4 ,borisiak1 #aib4 ,boss1 ,l41 #afh4 ,b\v>d1 ,a41 #aae1 #aaf4 ,bradley1 ,j41 #aei1 #afg4 ,brdikh9e1 ,t4 ,a41 #aje1 #aca1 #acb1 #acc1 #acd1 #ace4 ,brew/]1 ,sir ,d41 #ej1 #aja1 #agh4 ,br9kley1 ,j41 #aea4 ,brnn[1 ,f41 #aef4 ,bruno1 ,g41 #ce4 ,buffon1 #ajc4 ,buns51 ,r4 ,w41 #ea4 ,bur*ell1 #ahh4 ,burnham1 ,s4 ,w41 #bja1 #bjb1 #bab4 ,c ,call&reau1 ,o41 #acf4 ,call&relli1 #aea4 ,cambridge ,obs]vatory1 #aaf4 ,campbell1 ,t4 7,poet71 #b4 ,campbell1 ,w4 ,w41 #bd1 #ajg1 #aaj1 #aff1 #afh1 #ahg1 #aia1 #aic1 #bjd1 #bje4 ,canals ( ,m>s1 #ia1 #ib1 #ic1 #id1 #ie4 ,cancri 771 #bjf4 ,cancri 7,s71 #ahj4 ,canis ,major1 #ahh4 #8,cape ,dur*mu/]ung1' #afa1 #afb4 ,cape ,obs]vatory1 #aee1 #aeg4 ,capella 7 ,aurig71 #agj1 #agf1 #aic1 #bje4 ,c>n]a1 ,l41 #ajj4 ,c>p5t]1 ,j41 #gc4 ,c>r+ton1 ,r4 ,c41 #de1 #df1 #ei4 ,cass9i1 ,d41 #ba4 ,cassiopeia1 #bba4 ,ca/or 7 ,gem9orum71 #cj1 #bjj1 #bje4 ,celoria1 ,g41 #bjb1 #bah1 #bba1 #bbc1 #bbd4 ,c5tauri 771 #aee1 #ahh1 #bbe4 ,c5taurus1 #bba4 ,cephei 771 #agh1 #ahb1 #ahe1 #ahf4 ,cepheus1 #bba4 ,c]es1 #ai1 #ih1 #aja4 ,c]ulli1 ,v41 #hf1 #ia1 #id4 ,*acornac1 #afa4 ,*allis1 ,j41 #aaf1 #aai1 #abj4 ,*amb]s1 ,g4 ,f41 #ca4 ,*&l]1 ,s4 ,c41 #hh1 #hi1 #aha1 #ahd4 ,*ladni1 ,e41 #ach4 ,*romosph]e1 sol>1 #ee1 #ef4 ,cl>k1 ,a41 #bjb4 ,cl]ke1 ,miss ,a4 ,m41 #c1 #e1 #h1 #ab1 #ac1 #ae1 #be1 #bf1 #cd1 #db1 #eh1 #ge1 #hf1 #ib1 #aje1 #aji1 #abd1 #abe1 #aca1 #acb1 #acc1 #adj1 #adb1 #afi1 #ahf1 #ahg1 #ahi4 ,cl]k-,maxwell1 ,j41 #aji1 #aaj4 ,coggia's comet1 #aca1 #acb1 #acc4 ,comet families1 #ace4 ,comets1 #bd1 #abc-acg1 #ada1 #adb1 #adc1 #add1 #adf1 #adi1 #aeb4 ,common1 ,a4 ,a41 #ajg1 #bji4 ,copel&1 ,r41 #acd1 #ace1 #aij1 #bjh4 ,cornu1 ,a41 #ahi4 ,corona ,borealis1 #ahh4 ,corona1 sol>1 #ee1 #eg1 #fd4 ,coron 7,nova71 #ahh1 #ahi4 ,crossley1 ,e41 #baa4 ,crux1 #bba4 ,cygni 7#fa71 #aeb1 #aeh4 ,cygni 7,y71 #ahd1 #ahe4 ,cygni 7,nova71 #ahi1 #aij4 ,cygnus1 #aeb1 #ahi1 #bba4 ,d ,damoiseau1 #gh4 ,d',arre/1 ,h4 ,l41 #if1 #aai1 #adb1 #bab4 ,d>tm\? ,obs]vatory1 #ef4 ,d>w91 ,sir ,g4 ,h41 #bcc1 #bcd1 #bce1 #bcf4 ,dawes1 ,w4 ,r41 #ij1 #aag4 ,de la ,rue1 ,w41 #eb1 #ge4 ,delaunay1 ,c4 ,e41 #gh1 #gi4 ,demb[ski1 ,e41 #bja4 ,d5eb 7 ,cygni71 #afe4 ,d5n+1 ,w4 ,f41 #hd1 #he1 #ia1 #ie1 #aje1 #aaa1 #aab1 #add1 #ade1 #adf4 ,desl&res1 ,h41 #aaj4 ,dick1 ,t41 #he1 #bch4 ,disc-!ory1 #cb1 #cf1 #ch1 #ci1 #bad1 #bah4 ,di ,vico1 ,f41 #he1 #hf1 #agj4 ,dob]ck1 ,w41 #bja4 ,donati1 ,g4 ,b41 #acj1 #aca1 #afi4 ,donati's comet1 #acj1 #acc1 #acf4 ,doppl]1 ,c41 #eg1 #eh4 ,doppl]'s ,pr9ciple1 #eh1 #ei1 #hg1 #aaj1 #afe1 #afh1 #bjc4 ,d\glass1 ,a4 ,e41 #ib1 #ajg4 ,draconis 771 #ahb4 ,drap]1 ,h41 #acf1 #agb1 #age4 ,drey]1 ,j4 ,l4 ,e41 #bjf4 ,dune*t ,obs]vatory1 #aeg4 ,dunr1 ,n4 ,c41 #eh1 #ei1 #agd1 #age1 #aha1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #bja1 #bjb1 #bcc4 ,dunk91 ,e41 #bg1 #afg4 ,duns9k ,obs]vatory1 #aef4 ,e ,e>?1 #gf1 #ig1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #adg1 #adh1 #adi1 #aec1 #aed1 #aef1 #bcf4 ,e>?-,moon sy/em1 #bcd1 #bce4 ,ea/on1 ,c41 #bba4 ,eclipses1 lun>1 #gg4 ,eclipses1 sol>1 #ef1 #eg1 #hj1 #ha4 ,ed9burgh 7,royal7 ,obs]vatory1 #aie4 ,electrical repulsion !ory1 #abf4 ,elg]1 ,t4 ,g41 #gd4 ,elk91 ,w4 ,l41 #aeg4 ,encke1 ,j4 ,f41 #cj1 #fa1 #aai1 #abg1 #abh1 #baf4 ,encke's comet1 #abg1 #abh1 #acg4 ,erman1 #adj4 ,eros1 #fb1 #aja4 ,ertborn1 #he4 ,eul]1 ,l41 #hh1 #hi4 ,evolution1 planet>y1 #bbh1 #bbi1 #bcj1 #bca4 ,evolution1 /ell>1 #cc1 #cd1 #bca1 #bcb4 ,f ,faye1 ,h41 #fj1 #abi1 #bcj4 ,faye's comet1 #abi1 #acg4 ,f]guson1 ,j41 #i1 #agh4 ,flamm>ion1 ,c41 #hg1 #ia1 #ie1 #aba1 #adg1 #afd1 #ahg1 #aie1 #bja1 #bjb1 #bbf4 ,flam/e$1 ,j41 #e4 ,flem+1 ,mrs1 #aib1 #aie4 ,=bes1 ,g41 #abb4 ,fraunh(]1 ,j4 #dg1 #dh1 #di1 #ej1 #c1 #aea1 #aec1 #afi4 ,fraunh(] l9es1 #dh1 #di1 #ej1 #ea1 #afi1 #agb4 ,fro/1 ,e4 ,b41 #bje4 ,g ,galactic poles1 #ce1 #bbd4 ,galaxies1 ext]nal1 #cb1 #bah1 #bbe1 #bbf4 ,galaxy1 or ,milky ,way1 #cb1 #cf-db1 #ahf1 #baa1 #bae1 #baf1 #bag1 #bai1 #bbj1 #bba1 #bbd1 #bbe4 ,galileo1 #dd1 #ajg4 ,galle1 ,j4 ,g41 #fb1 #ajh1 #aji1 #aai1 #adb4 ,gall[ay1 ,t41 #afg4 ,gamb>t1 #abh4 ,gauss1 ,c4 ,f41 #bg1 #ih1 #afg4 ,gauti]1 ,a41 #de4 ,gem9i1 #aa1 #aid4 ,gem9orum 7,nova71 #aid4 ,gem9orum 771 #ahj1 #ahb1 #ahe4 ,george ,,iii41 #aa1 #bc4 ,gill1 ,sir ,d41 #fb1 #acf1 #aee1 #aeg1 #afj1 #afa1 #bba4 ,glasg[ ,obs]vatory1 #baf4 ,goodricke1 ,j41 #agh1 #ahc4 ,gore1 ,j4 ,e41 #bd1 #ch1 #agi1 #aha1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #aib1 #bjb1 #bae1 #bbj1 #bbe1 #bbf4 ,g\ld1 ,b4 ,a41 #ace1 #afj1 #afc1 #ahj1 #bbj1 #bba4 ,grant1 ,r41 #baf4 ,gravitation1 law (1 #bi4 ,gre5wi* ,obs]vatory1 #ei1 #aag4 ,grimml]1 #aib4 ,groombridge 7#ahcj71 #aef1 #afb1 #bbc4 ,groombridge 7#afah71 #aef4 ,grui?uis51 #hg4 ,h ,hale1 ,g4 ,e41 #ee1 #eg1 #bcc4 ,hall1 ,a41 #if1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aef1 #aij4 ,hall1 ,maxwell1 #aba4 ,halley1 ,e41 #ach4 ,halley's comet1 #abc1 #acj1 #aeb4 ,halm1 ,j41 #aie1 #aif4 ,hans51 ,p4 ,a41 #fa1 #gh1 #gi4 ,hansky1 ,a41 #eg4 ,h>d+1 ,k4 ,l41 #ii1 #aec1 #bbj4 ,h>twig1 ,e41 #aij4 ,h>v>d ,obs]vatory1 #agd1 #age1 #aia4 ,hasselb]g1 ,b41 #adh1 #aij4 ,heis1 ,e41 #agi1 #bbj4 ,heliomet]1 #aec1 #aeg4 ,helium />s1 #agd4 ,helmholtz1 ,h41 #fa1 #bbi4 ,h5cke1 ,k4 ,l41 #ii4 ,h5d]son1 ,t41 #aed1 #aee4 ,h5ry1 ,paul & ,prosp]1 #ajj1 #aad1 #baj4 ,h]cules1 #afg4 ,h]culis 771 #ahb4 ,h]culis 771 #bf4 ,h]s*el1 ,william1 #a-db1 #dc1 #fj1 #fc1 #fe1 #fi1 #gd1 #gg1 #he1 #ij1 #ii1 #ajc1 #aji1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aae1 #abc1 #aej1 #afb1 #afg1 #agf1 #aif1 #aig1 #bjg1 #bad1 #baf1 #bah1 #bbd1 #bbg4 ,h]s*el1 ,a41 #add4 ,h]s*el1 ,c>ol9e1 #f1 #h1 #i1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #cj1 #ce1 #abg1 #aih4 ,h]s*el1 ,sir ,j41 #d1 #ag1 #bg1 #cj1 #cg1 #ej1 #aab1 #aac1 #abj1 #acj1 #add1 #afg1 #ahg1 #ahh1 #aig1 #aih1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bad1 #bae4 ,h9d1 ,j4 ,r41 #ii1 #abi1 #ace1 #ahj1 #ahh4 ,hoek1 #ace4 ,hold51 ,e4 ,s41 #aia4 ,h\gh1 ,g41 #aje4 ,h\zeau1 ,j4 ,c41 #bbj4 ,hugg9s1 ,lady1 #agb4 ,hugg9s1 ,sir ,w41 #ed1 #eg1 #gd1 #ie1 #ajf1 #aad1 #aca1 #acf1 #afe1 #agj1 #aga1 #agb1 #agc1 #ahi1 #aij1 #aia1 #aic1 #aie1 #bjg1 #bjh1 #bab1 #bca4 ,humboldt1 ,a41 #dd1 #aci4 ,hussey1 ,w4 ,j41 #aaf1 #bja4 ,i ,innes1 ,r41 #ahh4 ,intra-,m]curial planet1 #hj1 #ha4 ,italian spectroscopi/s1 #ed1 #ee4 ,j ,janss51 ,p4 ,j4 ,c41 #eb1 #ec1 #ed1 #eg1 #ei1 #aab1 #bji4 ,juno1 #ai1 #ii1 #aja4 ,jupit]1 #bj1 #ge1 #ig1 #aja-ajh1 #aab1 #aad1 #aba1 #abb1 #ace1 #add1 #adf4 ,juvisy ,obs]vatory1 #afd4 ,k ,kae/n]1 #fe1 #abd4 ,kais]1 ,f41 #ij4 ,kant1 ,i41 #cd1 #ce1 #aja1 #ajc4 ,kapteyn1 ,j4 ,c41 #bg1 #aeh1 #afa1 #afb1 #afh1 #bba1 #bbb4 ,keel]1 ,j4 ,e41 #ie1 #aad1 #ahe1 #bjh1 #baa1 #bab1 #bac1 #bca4 ,kelv91 ,"l1 #bbi4 ,kempf1 ,p41 #aha4 ,kepl]1 ,j41 #e1 #ce1 #acg4 ,kir*(f1 ,g4 ,r41 #fa1 #afi1 #agb4 ,kirkwood1 ,d41 #adj1 #bcj4 ,kle91 ,h4 ,j41 #gc4 ,kl9k]fues1 ,e41 #adb1 #bjb4 ,konkoly1 ,n41 #age4 ,k/n]1 ,f41 #hh4 ,l ,lal&e1 #bc1 #aeb4 ,lamb]t1 ,j4 ,h41 #cd4 ,lamont1 ,j41 #dd4 ,langley1 ,s4 ,p41 #gg4 ,laplace1 ,p4 ,s41 #bj1 #cc1 #cd1 #gg1 #aji1 #adh1 #aeb1 #aie1 #bbg1 #bbh1 #bbi4 ,lassell1 ,w41 #aab1 #aae1 #aag1 #abj4 ,latitude1 v>iation (1 #hh1 #hi4 ,leipzig ,obs]vatory1 #agc4 ,leonid meteors1 #aci1 #adj1 #adb4 ,leonis 771 #ahc4 ,lesc>bault1 #hj4 ,le ,v]ri]1 ,u4 ,j4 ,j41 #fa1 #hj1 #ha1 #aah1 #aai1 #abj1 #adb1 #afd4 ,leyd5 ,obs]vatory1 #ia4 ,libr 771 #ahj4 ,lick ,obs]vatory1 #ic1 #ajg1 #aff1 #afh1 #aia1 #bac4 ,light1 ext9ction (1 #dj1 #bae1 #baf1 #bbd1 #bbe4 ,l9dsay1 ,"l1 #aeg4 ,l9n1 #ga1 #gb4 ,locky]1 ,sir ,j4 ,n41 #eb1 #ec1 #ed1 #ee1 #eh1 #adi1 #agd1 #aia1 #aic1 #aie1 #bjh1 #bji1 #bca1 #bcb4 ,locky]1 ,w4 ,j4 ,s41 #baj4 ,loewy1 ,m41 #ge4 ,lohrmann1 ,w4 ,g41 #fh1 #ga4 ,lohse1 ,w4 ,o41 #hh1 #aje4 ,loomis1 #ahh4 ,l[ell1 ,p41 #hc1 #hd1 #hf1 #hg1 #ia1 #ib1 #ic1 #id1 #abb1 #bcf1 #bcg4 ,l[ell ,obs]vatory1 #ib1 #id1 #ajf1 #aad4 ,lund ,obs]vatory1 #ei4 ,lupus1 #bba4 ,lu!r1 ,r41 #ajj4 ,lyra1 #bba4 ,lyra 771 #agh1 #ahb1 #ahe4 ,lyrid meteors1 #abb4 ,m ,maclaur91 ,c41 #i4 ,macle>1 ,sir ,t41 #aee4 ,mdl]1 ,j4 ,h41 #bg1 #fh1 #fi1 #ga1 #if1 #ajd1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #baf1 #bag1 #bah4 ,magellanic cl\ds1 #bai4 ,magnetism1 #dd1 #fj4 ,m>s1 #ah1 #ai1 #ij-ig1 #aja1 #add1 #bcf4 ,maund]1 ,e4 ,w41 #ei1 #fj1 #id1 #ie1 #acd1 #ade1 #aff1 #bbd4 ,masc>i1 ,a41 #hf4 ,may]1 ,c41 #afd4 ,may]1 ,j4 ,r41 #bbi4 ,mazapil meteorite1 #adi4 ,m*a91 #abg4 ,mee1 ,a41 #fh4 ,melloni1 #gf4 ,m]cury1 #ah1 #hj1 #ha-hd1 #ig1 #bcf4 ,messi]1 ,c41 #cj4 ,meteorites1 #adg1 #adh1 #adi1 #bbi1 #bca4 #8,meteoritic ,hypo!sis1' #bca1 #bcb4 ,meteors1 #ach-adi4 ,meudon ,obs]vatory1 #ei4 ,milan ,obs]vatory1 #hb1 #bjb1 #bbd4 ,milky ,way4 ,see ,galaxy4 ,mill]1 ,w4 ,a41 #ej1 #agb4 ,mira ,ceti1 #aa1 #ahb1 #ahf1 #ahg4 ,mit*el1 ,o4 ,m41 #ca4 ,miz> 7 ,urs ,majoris71 #bjd4 ,mll]1 ,a41 #abi4 ,moon1 !1 #aj1 #bd1 #fe-gi1 #ij1 #ie1 #adh1 #bbh4 ,mosc[ ,obs]vatory1 #acb4 ,m\*ez1 ,a41 #afa4 ,mll]1 ,g41 #age1 #aha4 ,muni* ,obs]vatory1 #dd1 #bbd4 ,n ,napoleon1 #fg1 #abg4 ,nasmy?1 ,j41 #gc1 #ajc4 ,nebul1 #cj1 #ca1 #bjg-bac1 #bbh4 ,nebul> ,hypo!sis1 #cc1 #aie1 #bbg1 #bbh1 #bbi1 #bcj1 #bcc4 ,neison 7,nevill71 ,e41 #gc4 ,nei/51 #hf1 #aje4 ,neptune1 #abj1 #aba1 #ace1 #bbi1 #bcj4 ,newall1 ,h4 ,f41 #bje4 ,newcomb1 ,s41 #bg1 #fd1 #gh1 #hi1 #id1 #afb1 #afh1 #bbj1 #bbb1 #bbc1 #bbd1 #bcb4 ,newton1 ,h4 ,a41 #adj1 #ada4 ,newton1 ,sir ,i41 #b1 #ag1 #bi1 #gg4 ,ni*ol1 ,j4 ,p41 #ca1 #bjg4 ,nordvig1 ,l41 #aib4 ,o ,olb]s1 ,h4 ,w4 ,m41 #ai1 #bj1 #fi1 #ih1 #ii1 #abc1 #abd1 #abe1 #abf1 #abg1 #abi1 #acj1 #aci1 #adh1 #aeb1 #aec4 ,olb]s' comet1 #abe4 ,olm/$1 ,d41 #ach1 #bjg4 ,ophiu*i 771 #ahc4 ,orion1 #bba4 ,orion nebula1 #aj1 #cc1 #bjg1 #bjh1 #bji1 #bac4 ,orion />s1 #agd1 #aic1 #bji1 #bcb4 ,orionis 771 #bji4 ,orionis 771 #bji4 ,orionis 771 #bji4 ,orionis 7,u71 #aha1 #ahb1 #ahf1 #ahg4 ,p ,palisa1 ,j41 #ajj4 ,pallas1 #ai1 #ii1 #aja4 ,p>allax1 sol>1 #fa1 #fb1 #fc1 #aja4 ,p>allax1 /ell>1 #aej-aeh1 #aij4 ,p>is ,congresses1 #afa4 ,p>is ,obs]vatory1 #gh1 #aah1 #aga4 ,p]r9e1 ,c4 ,d41 #ha1 #ajh1 #aid4 ,p]r9e's comet1 #acf4 ,p]rot91 ,h41 #hf1 #ia1 #ajj1 #aad4 ,peck1 ,w41 #afb4 ,p]sei 7,nova71 #aib1 #aic1 #aid1 #aie4 ,p]seid meteors1 #abb1 #ada4 ,p]seus1 #aib1 #bba4 ,pet]s1 ,c4 ,h4 ,f41 #ajj4 ,pet]s1 ,c4 ,a4 ,f41 #adb1 #aec1 #aee1 #bjb4 ,photography1 a/ronomical1 #ed1 #ef1 #eg1 #ei1 #ge1 #ha1 #id1 #ajh1 #aac1 #acf1 #aeh1 #afj1 #afa1 #agb1 #age1 #aib1 #aic1 #aid1 #bjc1 #bjh1 #bji1 #baj1 #baa1 #bab4 ,photometry1 #agf1 #agg4 ,piazzi1 ,g41 #ai1 #bj1 #ih1 #aej4 ,pick]+1 ,e4 ,c41 #agd1 #age1 #agf1 #agg1 #aha1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #ahe1 #aic1 #aid1 #bjc1 #bjd1 #bbj1 #bba4 ,pick]+1 ,w4 ,h41 #ge1 #gf1 #ha1 #ia1 #ib1 #ic1 #ajg1 #aac1 #bji4 ,plana1 ,g41 #gh1 #gi4 ,pleiades1 #abd1 #baj1 #bag4 ,pogson1 ,n4 ,r41 #adb1 #ahj4 ,pole ,/>1 #bje4 ,pollux1 #afe1 #agj4 ,pons1 ,j4 ,l41 #abg4 ,pontc\lant1 #gi4 ,potsdam ,obs]vatory1 #df1 #agc1 #agf4 ,prit*>d1 ,c41 #aeh1 #agg4 ,proctor1 ,r4 ,a41 #d1 #bj1 #ch1 #da1 #ij1 #ia1 #ajd1 #adh1 #afc1 #afd1 #bah1 #bai1 #bbj1 #bca4 ,procyon 7 ,canis ,m9oris71 #aea1 #bjc4 ,prom95ces1 sol>1 #eb1 #ec1 #ee1 #fd4 ,puiseux1 ,p41 #ge4 ,pulk[a ,obs]vatory1 #bjj4 ,q ,quetelet1 ,a41 #aci4 ,r ,radiant po9ts1 meteoric1 #aci1 #add1 #ade1 #adf4 ,rany>d1 ,a4 ,c41 #ajf1 #adf4 ,r$ spot on ,jupit]1 #aje1 #ajf4 ,regulus 7 ,leonis71 #afd1 #afe4 ,relative p>allax1 #aeg4 ,rseau1 ,photosph]ique1 #ei4 ,resi/+ m$ium1 #abh4 ,respighi1 ,l41 #ee4 ,rev]s+ lay]1 #ef1 #eg4 ,ricco1 ,a41 #hg1 #aje4 ,rigel 7 ,orionis71 #afe1 #bji4 ,rit*ey1 ,g41 #aid4 ,rob]ts1 ,a4 ,w41 #aha4 ,rob]ts1 ,i41 #bji1 #baj4 ,ro*e1 ,e41 #aji4 ,roman ,college ,obs]vatory1 #he4 ,rosse1 ?ird ,e>l (1 #ada1 #aef1 #bjg1 #bjh1 #bah4 ,rosse1 f\r? ,e>l (1 #gg4 ,rotation ( ! ,sun1 #eh1 #ei2 ( ! planets1 #hb1 #hc1 #hd1 #he1 #hf1 #hg1 #ajd1 #aaa1 #aab4 ,r[l&1 ,h4 ,a41 #eb4 ,ru!rfurd1 ,l4 ,m41 #ge1 #afi4 ,s ,sab9e1 ,sir ,e41 #dd4 ,saf=d1 ,t4 ,h41 #bjb4 ,sant9i1 ,g41 #aei4 ,sav>y1 ,f41 #cj1 #aii4 ,satellites1 #if1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aab1 #aac1 #aae1 #abj1 #aba1 #bcf4 ,saturn1 #bj1 #ba1 #bb1 #ig1 #ajc1 #ajh-aac1 #aba1 #ace4 ,s*aeb]le1 ,j4 ,m41 #ic1 #ajg1 #aia1 #bjc4 ,s*e9]1 ,c41 #dd4 ,s*e9]1 ,j41 #aff1 #agd1 #agf4 ,s*iap>elli1 ,g4 ,v41 #hb1 #hc1 #hd1 #he1 #hf1 #hg1 #ia1 #ib1 #aad1 #ada1 #adc1 #adi1 #bja1 #bbj1 #bbd1 #bca1 #bce4 ,s*jell]up1 ,h41 #ahj4 ,s*midt1 ,j4 ,f4 ,j41 #fi1 #gj1 #ga1 #gb1 #gc1 #ajd1 #agi1 #ahj1 #ahi4 ,s*nfeld1 ,e41 #afj1 #agi1 #ahj1 #ahh1 #ahi4 ,s*rt]1 ,j4 ,h41 #af1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh1 #fi1 #gj1 #gd1 #ha1 #hb1 #hd1 #he1 #hf1 #hg1 #ig1 #ii1 #aec4 ,s*wabe1 ,s4 ,h41 #ah1 #dc1 #dd1 #df1 #ee4 ,s*wassman1 ,a41 #ajj4 ,sec*i1 ,a41 #eb1 #ed1 #ee1 #fj1 #gb1 #ij1 #aad1 #ada1 #agj1 #aga1 #agc4 ,sec*i's types ( /ell> spectra1 #agj1 #aga1 #agc1 #agd1 #age1 #ahi1 #bcb4 ,see1 ,t4 ,j4 ,j41 #bja1 #bjb1 #bcf4 ,seelig]1 ,h41 #aaj1 #aie1 #aif1 #bjb1 #bjf1 #bbd1 #bbe4 ,s]viss1 ,g4 ,p41 #aeh4 ,sirius 7 ,canis ,majoris71 #aea1 #agj1 #agc1 #ahh1 #bjb1 #bbe4 ,sliph]1 ,v4 ,m41 #ajf1 #aad1 #bjd4 ,sime1 ,j41 #bg4 ,sola1 ,j4 ,c41 #aab4 ,sol> clu/]1 #bba1 #bbb4 ,sol> sy/em1 motion (1 #bf1 #bg1 #afg1 #afh4 ,s\?1 ,sir ,j41 #aih4 ,spectroscopic b9>ies1 #bjc1 #bjd1 #bje4 ,sp5c]1 ,h41 #bah4 ,spica 7 ,virg9is71 #bjd4 ,spr]1 ,f4 ,w4 ,g41 #de1 #df1 #ed1 #ei4 ,/>-catalogues1 #aei1 #afj1 #afa1 #afb4 ,/>-clu/]s1 #cj1 #ca1 #cb1 #bjf1 #baj4 ,/>-drift1 #afd4 ,/>-gaug+1 #cf1 #dj1 #da1 #bbd4 ,/>s1 di/ance (1 #aej-aeh4 ,/>s1 di/ribution (1 #ce1 #ci1 #dj1 #aih-bad4 ,/>s1 d\ble1 #bh1 #bi1 #cj1 #aig-bjf4 ,/>s1 gase\s1 #aga1 #agd4 ,/>s1 prop] motion (1 #afb1 #afc1 #afd1 #afe4 ,/>s1 radial motion (1 #afe1 #aff4 ,/>s1 tempor>y1 #aef1 #ahb1 #ahh-aif4 ,/>s1 triple & multiple1 #bjf4 ,/>s1 v>iable1 #agg-ahh4 ,/ell> spectra1 #afi-agf1 #ahg1 #ahi1 #aij1 #aia1 #aic1 #aid4 ,/ell> univ]se1 #ce-db1 #bad1 #bae-bbf4 ,/]eo-comp>ator1 #ajj1 #aja4 ,/okes1 ,sir ,g41 #ej4 ,/one1 ,e4 ,j41 #aeg1 #afj4 ,/roobant1 ,p41 #hh4 ,/ruve1 ,f4 ,g4 ,w41 #c1 #cg1 #ch1 #dj1 #db1 #abh1 #aea1 #aec1 #bjj1 #bad1 #bae1 #baf1 #bah4 ,/ruve1 ,h41 #bja4 ,/ruve1 ,l41 #bg1 #afc1 #afg4 ,/ruve1 ,o4 ,w41 #bg1 #aaj1 #aae1 #abj1 #aec1 #aef1 #afc1 #bjj1 #bja4 ,/umpe1 ,o41 #afg4 ,sun1 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 #dj1 #dc-fd1 #fe1 #hj1 #ha1 #aje1 #abe1 #abh1 #agj1 #bbb1 #bbh1 #bbi1 #bcj1 #bcg4 ,swift1 ,l41 #ha4 ,swift's comet1 #acf4 ,t ,tac*9i1 ,p41 #ee1 #hf1 #hg4 ,taurus1 #bag1 #bba4 ,tempel1 ,e41 #baj4 ,t5nyson1 #if4 ,tidal friction1 #gi1 #hg1 #bcc1 #bcd1 #bce1 #bcf4 ,tiss]&1 ,f4 ,f41 #adf4 ,todd1 ,d4 ,p41 #abb4 ,trans-,neptunian planet1 #aba1 #abb4 ,tr\velot1 ,e41 #hf1 #hg4 ,ts*]mak1 #adh4 ,tulse ,hill ,obs]vatory1 #aga4 ,turn]1 ,h4 ,h41 #aid1 #bbd4 ,tw9+1 ,a4 ,c41 #aci4 ,u ,upsala ,obs]vatory1 #ei4 ,uranometria ,arg5t9a1 #afj4 ,uranus1 #aa1 #bj1 #bb1 #bc1 #ig1 #aac1 #aad1 #aae1 #aah1 #aba1 #ace1 #ada1 #bcj4 ,ursa ,major1 #afb1 #afd4 ,urs ,majoris 771 #ahb4 ,urs ,majoris 771 #aii4 ,v ,v5us1 #ah1 #hd-hh1 #ig1 #bce1 #bcf4 ,v5us1 transits (1 #fa1 #fb1 #hg4 ,vega 7 ,lyr71 #aea1 #afe1 #agj1 #agb1 #agc4 ,v1 ,f4 ,w41 #gg4 ,ve/a1 #ai1 #ii1 #aja1 #ajb4 ,vogel1 ,h4 ,c41 #hd1 #hh1 #ie1 #ajb1 #ajf1 #aad1 #aca1 #adh1 #aff1 #agc1 #agd1 #age1 #ahc1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #aij1 #aia1 #aic1 #aie1 #bjd1 #bji1 #bcb1 #bcc1 #bcg4 ,vulcan1 #ha4 ,w ,wa%+ton ,obs]vatory1 #if1 #bbc4 ,watson1 ,j4 ,c41 #ha1 #ajj4 ,webb1 ,t4 ,w41 #gb1 #gc1 #ajd4 ,we9ek1 ,l41 #ge4 ,weiss1 ,e41 #adb4 ,well's comet1 #acd4 ,:ewell1 ,w41 #bah4 ,williams1 ,a4 ,s41 #aaj1 #aic4 ,wilson1 ,a41 #af4 ,w9lock1 ,j41 #agg4 ,w9necke1 ,f4 ,a4 ,t41 #aca4 ,witt1 ,k4 ,g41 #aja4 ,wolf1 ,max1 #ajj1 #aha1 #aia1 #aid1 #baa4 ,wolf1 ,r41 #dd1 #de1 #ahh4 ,wolf & ,rayet1 #aga4 ,wolf-,rayet />s1 #aga1 #agd4 ,wolla/on1 ,w4 ,h41 #dh4 ,wright1 ,t41 #cd1 #aaj4 ,y ,yale ,obs]vatory1 #aeg4 ,y]kes ,obs]vatory1 #ee1 #aaa1 #bjb4 ,"y1 ,c4 ,a41 #ed1 #ef1 #eg1 #eh1 #fj1 #hg1 #aad1 #aij4 ,z ,za*1 ,f4 ,x41 #ig1 #ih1 #aeb4 ,zant$es*i1 #gg4 ,z5g]1 #he1 #hh4 ,zlln]1 ,j4 ,c4 ,f41 #ed1 #eh1 #fj1 #hd1 #ajc1 #acb1 #bcb4 ,,corrig5da4 ,p4 #cj1 l4 #e1 = 8objects0 read 8orbits40 ,p4 #cf1 l4 #ac1 = 8unable0 read 8able40 ,p4 #fa1 l4 #ag1 = 8#h4cga0 read 8#h4ega40 ,p4 #fc1 l4 #ba1 = 8bases0 read 8gases40 ,p4 #ajj1 l4 #af1 = 8,s*wussmann0 read 8,s*wassmann40 ,p4 #afg1 l4 #bh1 = 8,/rumpe0 read 8,/umpe40 ,p4 #ahd1 l4 #aa1 = 8/>-v>iables0 read 8v>iable />s40 ,p4 #aii1 l4 #bc1 = 8#bajb0 read 8#abjb40 ,,! ,,end4 ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,william ,,blackwood ,,& ,,sons4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes --,sil5tly correct$ a few typos1 & incorporat$ ! corrig5da into ! text4 --,reta9$ publication in=mation f ! pr9t$ edition3 ?is e,book is public-doma9 9 ! c\ntry ( publication4 --,9 ! text v]sions only1 text 9 italics is delimit$ by und]scores4