,,! ,,ess5tials ,,( ,,logic be+ ,,t5 ,,lectures ,,on ,,judgm5t ,,& ,,inf]5ce by ,,b]n>d ,,bosanquet ,,=m]ly ,,fell[ ,,( ,,univ]sity ,,college1 ,,ox=d ,,macmillan ,,& ,,co4 ,,london ,,& ,,new ,,york #ahie ,! "r ( ,translation is res]v$ ,ri*>d ,clay ,sons1 ,limit$1 ,london ,bungay4 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,footnotes h be5 plac$ "u ! p>agraphs to :i* !y relate4 ,a few add$ footnotes & additions to ,bosanquet's footnotes1 giv+ ! equival5ts ( ,greek words 9 ! text1 are 9 squ>e brackets4 ,bosanquet's m>g9al notes h be5 us$ z subhead+s4 ,page numb]s f ! orig9al are 9 braces 4 v ,,preface ,9 ?is c\rse ( lectures ,i h attempt$ to c>ry out1 "u ! fre] conditions ( ! ,univ]sity ,ext5sion sy/em1 a purpose conceiv$ _m ye>s ago at ,ox=d4 ,x 0 sugge/$ to me by ! answ] ( a fri5d1 engag$ l myself f "t to "t 9 tea*+ elem5t>y ,logic1 to ! "q :i* ,i put to him1 8,:at d y aim at 9 tea*+ ,logic to beg9n]s8 ,:at d y ?9k c reasonably be hop$ =80 8,if ! m5 c\ld le>n :at an ,inf]5ce is1 x w\ld be some?+10 0 ! reply4 ,! c\rse ( lectures :i* ,i n[ publi% 0 project$ 9 ! _s ?us indicat$4 ,?\gh only ! two la/ disc\rses deal explicitly ) ,inf]5ce1 yet ^? :i* prec$e !m contribute1 ,i hope1 no less ess5tially1 to expla9 ! nature ( t s+le developm5t :i* 9 "s /ages we call ,judgm5t1 & 9 o!rs ,inf]5ce4 ,s f> z ,i c\ld see1 ! attempt to g to ! he>t ( ! subject1 h[ev] imp]fectly execut$1 0 appreciat$ by ! /ud5ts1 & 0 rew>d$ ) a s]i\s att5tion :i* w\ld n h be5 comm&$ by ! trivialities ( =mal ,logic1 al?\gh m ent]ta9+ & less ab/ruse4 ,! details ( traditional t]m9ology may be f\nd 9 ,jevons's ,elem5t>y ,lessons 9 ,logic 7,macmillan74 ,^? vi :o desire to pursue ! /udy m 9 ! s5se ( ! pres5t "w1 may be ref]r$ above all to ,bradley's ,pr9ciples ( ,logic1 & also to ,lotze's ,logic 7,e4 ,tr471 & to ,sigw>t's great "w on ,logic1 ! ,engli% translation ( :i*1 j complet$1 op5s a /oreh\se ( k & robu/ good s5se to ! ,engli% /ud5t4 ,my own l>g] ,logic expresses 9 ext5so ! views :i* ^! lectures set out 9 a %ort] =m4 ,i hope x w be admitt$ by my critics t ?is exp]im5t1 :e!r successful or unsuccessful1 0 wor? mak+1 & t except 9 ! ,univ]sity ,ext5sion sy/em1 x c\ld n easily h be5 made4 ,b]n>d ,bosanquet4 ,london1 ,janu>y #ahie4 vii ,,cont5ts ,,lecture ,i ,,! ,,problem ,,( ,,logic #a4 ,difficulty ( ! ,sci5ce #a #b4 ,! ,problem /at$ #c #c4 ,_w z ,idea #d #d4 8,_w0 #e #e4 ,! ,animal's ,_w #f #f4 ,! ,_w z 8,objective0 #g i4 ,common s5se #h ii4 ,common-s5se ,!ory #h iii4 ,philosophic ,!ory #aa #g4 ,our sep>ate 8,worlds0 #ad #h4 ,subjective ,idealism #ai ,,lecture ,,ii ,,judgm5t ,,z ,,! ,,consci\sness ,,( ,a ,,_w #a4 ,defect ( ,subjective ,idealism #ba #b4 ,! ,_w z ,k #bb #c4 ,k is 9 ! =m ( ,judgm5t #bc a4 ,necess>y #bc b4 ,univ]sal #bf c4 ,con/ructive #bg #d4 ,! ,cont9u\s ,affirmation ( ,wak+ ,consci\sness #cc #e4 ,comp>ison ) ,_w z ,w #cg #f4 ,di/ribution ( ,att5tion #dj viii ,,lecture ,,iii ,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,logic ,,to ,,k #a4 ,mean+ ( 8,=m0 #db #b4 ,=m ( ,k dep5d5t on ,cont5t #di #c4 ,! ,relation ( ,"p & ,:ole z ,=m det]m9$ by ,cont5t #ed #d4 ,nature ( ,k #eh #e4 ,conclusion #ei ,,lecture ,,iv ,,types ,,( ,,judgm5t1 ,,& ,,! ,,g5]al ,,conditions ,,involv$ ,,9 ,,ass]tion #a4 ,correspond5ce betwe5 ,types ( ,judgm5t & ,nature ( ,objects z ,k #fa a4 ,imp]sonal ,judgm5t #fa b4 ,p]ceptive ,judgm5t #fb c4 ,prop] ,names 9 ,judgm5t #fd d4 ,ab/ract ,judgm5t #fe #b4 ,! ,g5]al ,def9ition ( ,judgm5t #ff i4 ,:at is impli$ 9 claim+ ,tru? #fg ii4 ,by :at means ! claim is made #fi iii4 ,! k9d ( ,ideas :i* c claim ,tru? #gd a4 ,idea z ,psy*ical ,pres5tation #gd b4 ,idea z ,id5tical ,ref]5ce #gd ,,lecture ,v ,,! ,,proposition ,,& ,,! ,,"n #a4 ,judgm5t translat$ into ,language #hj #b4 ,proposition & ,s5t5ce #hb #c4 ,diff]5ce betwe5 ,proposition & ,judgm5t #hb #d4 8,p>ts ( ,spee*0 #he #e4 ,d5otation & ,connotation #hh #f4 ,h ,prop] ,names ,connotation8 #ia #g4 ,inv]se ,ratio ( ,connotation & ,d5otation #id ix ,,lecture ,,vi ,,p>ts ,,( ,,! ,,judgm5t1 ,,& ,,its ,,unity #a4 ,p>ts ( ! ,judgm5t #ih #b4 ,copula #ii #c4 ,are ,subject & ,pr$icate necess>y8 #ajj #d4 ,two ,ideas or ,?+s #aja a4 ,two ,ideas #ajb i4 ,m5tal ,transition #ajb ii4 ,abs5ce ( ,ass]tion #ajc b4 ,two ,?+s #ajd #e4 ,di/9ction betwe5 ,subject & ,pr$icate #ajg ,,lecture ,,vii ,,! ,,categorical ,,& ,,! ,,hypo!tical ,,judgm5ts #a4 ,"s ,criticisms on ! ord9>y s*eme ( ,judgm5t #aab a4 ,:y we ne$ a ,s*eme #aab b4 ,! ,common ,s*eme #aac #b4 ,:i* ,judgm5ts are ,categorical8 #aaf 7#a7 ,! 8,p>ticul>0 ,judgm5t #aaf a4 ,natural ,mean+ #aaf b4 ,limit$ ,mean+ #aag 7#b7 8,s+ul>0 ,judgm5t #aah 7#c7 8,univ]sal0 ,judgm5t #aai 7#d7 8,hypo!tical0 ,judgm5t #aba 7#e7 8,disjunctive0 ,judgm5t #abc ,,lecture ,,viii ,,negation1 ,,& ,,opposition ,,( ,,judgm5ts #a4 ,di/9ction betwe5 ,contr>y & ,contradictory ,opposition #abf #b4 ,contr>y ,negation #abh #c4 ,:y use ,negation8 #acj #d4 ,/age ( ,significant ,negation2 ,comb9ation ( ,contr>y & ,contradictory #acb #e4 ,negative ,judgm5t express+ ,fact #acd #f4 ,op]ation ( ! ,d5i$ ,idea #ace x ,,lecture ,,ix ,,inf]5ce ,,& ,,! ,,syllogi/ic ,,=ms #a4 ,inf]5ce 9 ,g5]al #acg #b4 ,conditions ( ! ,possibility ( ,inf]5ce #aci #c4 ,sy/em ! ultimate condition ( ,inf]5ce #adj #d4 ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce #ada #e4 ,numb] ( ,in/ances #adb #f4 ,figures ( ,syllogism1 illu/rat+ ,progress f ,guess-"w to ,demon/ration #adf ,,lecture ,x ,,induction1 ,,d$uction1 ,,& ,,causation #a4 ,induction #aea a4 ,by simple ,enum]ation #aea b4 ,enum]ation always has a ,gr\nd #aeb c4 ,p]fect ,induction #aeb d4 ,sy/em #aec e4 ,analogy z ,/ep t[>ds ,sy/em #aee f4 ,negative ,in/ance #aeh g4 ,classification & ,g5]alisation #aei h4 ,hypo!sis #afa #b4 ,d$uction #afb a4 ,subsumption #afc b4 ,con/ruction #afc #c4 ,causation #afd #d4 ,! ,po/ulate ( ,k #afe #e4 ,conclusion #aff #a ,,lecture ,i ,,! ,,problem ,,( ,,logic ,difficulty ( ! sci5ce #a4 ,!re is no sci5ce m difficult ?an t on :i* we are ent]+ 9 ^! lectures4 ,x is wor? :ile to discuss ! nature ( ?is difficulty4 ,x is a "q ( int]e/ r ?an ( intricacy4 ,all sci5ces h1 p]haps1 mu* ! same possibilities ( broad !ory & subtle analysis4 ,b ,logic /&s alone 9 ! difficulty ) :i* ! /ud5t su/a9s 8 p]suasion t its po9t ( view is wor? apply+4 ,9 mo/ o!r sci5ces1 ev5 9 ! philosophical sci5ces1 !re is a cont9ual /imulus to s5se-p]ception1 to curiosity1 to human int]e/4 ,! le>n] is call$ ^u to dissect animals or plants1 to und]take delicate manipulations ) beautifully contriv$ in/rum5ts1 to acqua9t himself ) ! hi/ory ( nations1 ) ! g5esis ( worlds1 ) /range & novel speculations ^u ! nature ( space1 or ) ! indu/ry & well-be+ ( v>i\s classes among mank9d at ! pres5t day4 ,& ^! elem5ts ( novelty1 ^! /imulations ( s5se-p]ception or ( practical int]e/1 c>ry u =w>d imp]ceptibly1 & su/a9 our #b eag]ness to analyse & comb9e 9 !oretic complet5ess ! novel matt] ?us con/antly imp++ ^u u4 ,9 ,philosophy1 & m especially 9 ,logic1 we c promise little or no?+ ( ?is k9d4 ,! tea*] ( ,philosophy1 f ,socrates d[nw>ds1 has talk$ ab\t common ?+s1 ?+s already famili> to 8 he>]s4 ,& al?\gh he calls ^u !m to ?9k ( ^! ?+s 9 a peculi> way1 & f an unaccu/om$ po9t ( view1 yet x is likely to be felt t he is dem&+ a new ef=t1 )\t supply+ a new int]e/4 ,& x is a common exp]i5ce1 t aft] a "t ! m9d rebels aga9/ ?is artificial attitude1 :i* fatigues )\t in/ruct+1 if we h accu/om$ ourselves to und]/& by in/ruction ! accumulation ( new s5se-p]ceptions & ! ext5sion ( hi/orical or sci5tific vision ov] a wid] sup]ficial area4 ,n[ ?is ,i _c help1 & ,i w n disguise4 ,9 ,philosophy1 & 9 ,logic above all1 x mu/ be s4 ,! :ole po9t & mean+ ( ! /udy is t 9 x we re-trav]se famili> gr\nd1 & survey x by unfamili> processes4 ,we d n1 except accid5tally1 s mu* z wid5 our m5tal horizon4 ,= ^? :o c>e to und]/&1 to trace ! connect+ pr9ciples & functions t p]meate our intellectual _w1 !re is inde$ an int]e/ ( a peculi> k9d4 ,b ev5 exp]i5c$ /ud5ts w occasionally feel ! /ra9 ( att5d+ to difficult di/9ctions1 entirely )\t ! excitem5t ( novelty 9 s5se-p]ception or ( a practical be>+ ^u human life4 ,x is ?is t makes ,logic probably ! h>de/ ( all ! sci5ces4 #c ,! problem /at$ #b4 ,we _c hope to vanqui% ?is difficulty unless we face x boldly f ! fir/4 ,!re are 9 ! old-fa%ion$ ,logic-books tricks & puzzles1 fallacies & rep>tees1 :i* c 9 "s degree be made amus+2 b ( ^! ,i d n int5d to speak4 ,! c\rse by :i* alone ,i c hope hone/ly to awak5 a true logical int]e/ among any :o may be q unfamili> ) ! subject1 is to approa* ! matt] descriptively1 & try to set be=e y fully & fairly :at ! problem is :i* ! process ( k has to meet4 ,& !n x may be possible to claim a g5u9e !oretical curiosity--none ! less g5u9e t x may be t+$ ) a sympa?y = man's common bir?right ( intellig5ce--= ! detail$ explanation ( ! means by :i* ?is problem is solv$ f day to day4 ,su* an explanation is ! sci5ce ( ,logic4 ,! problem may be ?us introduc$4 ,sev]al ( ^? pres5t h1 ,i believe1 att5d$ a previ\s c\rse ( lectures on ,psy*ology4 ,!y h le>n$1 ,i presume1 to ?9k ( ! m9d z ! c\rse ( consci\sness1 a cont9u\s connect$ pres5tation1 m or less emphasis+ )9 x v>i\s images1 & gr\ps ( images & ideas1 :i* may be r\ghly said to act & re-act ^u ea* o!r1 to coh]e 9 sy/ems1 & to give rise to ! p]ception ( self4 ,?is c\rse ( consci\sness1 includ+ c]ta9 lat5t elem5ts1 ! exi/5ce ( :i* x is necess>y to assume1 is an individual m9d1 atta*$ to a p>ticul> body1 & s f> z we "k1 n sep>able f ! actions & affections ( t body4 ,:at is ! connection betwe5 su* a c\rse ( consci\sness 9 any individual1 & ! _w z t individual kn[s & wills x8 ,?is is ! po9t at #d :i* ,psy*ology passes into ,logic4 ,psy*ology treats ( ! c\rse ( ideas & feel+s2 ,logic ( ! m5tal con/ruction ( reality4 ,h[ does ! c\rse ( my private ideas & feel+s conta9 9 x1 = me1 a _w ( ?+s & p]sons :i* are n m]ely 9 my m9d8 ,_w z ,idea #c4 ,s*op5hau] call$ 8 great "w1 ,! ,_w z ,w & ,idea4 #a ,leav+ out ,w = ! mom5t1 let u consid] ! _w 8z ,idea40 8#8,! _w is my idea2' #b ?is is a tru? :i* holds good = ev]y?+ t lives & kn[s1 ?\gh man alone c br+ x into reflective & ab/ract consci\sness4 ,if he really does ?is1 he has atta9$ to philosophical wisdom4 ,x !n becomes cle> & c]ta9 to him t :at he kn[s is n a sun & an e>?1 b only an eye t sees a sun1 a h& t feels an e>?2 t ! _w :i* surr\nds him is !re only z an idea1 i4e4 only 9 relation to some?+ else1 ! consci\sness :i* is himself4 ,if any tru? c be ass]t$ a priori1 x is ?is2 = x is ! expression ( ! mo/ g5]al =m ( all possible & ?9kable exp]i5ce3 a =m :i* is m g5]al ?an "t1 space1 or causality1 = !y all pre-suppose x4 44444 8,no tru?1 !re=e1 is m c]ta91 m indep5d5t ( all o!rs1 & less 9 ne$ ( pro( ?an ?is1 t all t exi/s = k1 &1 !re=e1 ?is :ole _w1 is only object 9 relation to subject1 p]ception ( a p]ceiv]1 9 a ^w1 idea4 ,?is is obvi\sly true ( ! pa/ & ! future1 z well z ( ! pres5t1 ( :at is f>!/ (f1 z ( #e :at is ne>2 = x is true ( "t & space !mselves1 9 :i* alone ^! di/9ctions arise4 ,all t 9 any way belongs or c belong to ! _w is inevitably ?us condition$ ?r\gh ! subject & exi/s only = ! subject4 ,! _w is idea40 #a ,e4 ,tr4 7,trubn]1 #ahhc74 #b ,s*op5hau]1 op4 cit4 beg9n+4 ,! _w1 !n1 = ea* ( u1 exi/s 9 ! m$ium ( our m9d4 ,x is a sort ( build+1 ( :i* ! mat]ials are our ideas & p]ceptions4 ,! 8_w0 #d4 ,s mu* = 8idea40 ,:at d we mean by 8_w08 ,a succession ( images pass+ be=e u1 or r mak+ up our consci\sness1 l a dream1 is n a _w4 ,! t]m is v expressive2 x is a fav\rite ^w 9 ,%akespe>e4 ,:5 ! c\rti] says -- 8,h]eaft]1 9 a bett] _w ?an ?is1 ,i %all desire m love & k ( y10 he does n mean1 z ,i us$ to ?9k1 89 heav502 he means 9 a bett] condition ( social affairs4 ,9 8mad _w1 mad k+s1 mad composition10 ! t]m means m especially ! set ( political & family connections )9 :i* extraord9>y rev]sals ( behavi\r h j tak5 place4 ,(t5 we use ! expression1 ) a qualify+ epi!t1 to indicate "s p>ticul> sph]e ( connect$ action1 8! ecclesia/ical _w10 8! political _w10 & s =?4 ,always !re seems to be impli$ ! notion ( a set ( ?+s or p]sons b\nd toge!r by "s common quality :i* enables !m to act ^u ea* o!r1 & to con/itute :at is te*nically t]m$ a 8:ole40 ,! 8_w0 p> excell5ce1 !n1 ought to mean ! "o connect$ set ( ?+s & p]sons :i* we all recognise #f & ref] to z ! same1 & z includ+ ourselves along ) all :o use ! ^w 9 ! same s5se4 ,!n ! 8_w z idea0 means no less ?an ?is1 t ! sy/em ( ?+s & p]sons :i* surr\nds all ( u1 & :i* ea* ( u speaks ( & ref]s to z ! same = e "o1 exi/s = ea* ( u z some?+ built up 9 8 own m9d--! m9d atta*$ to 8 own body--& out ( ! mat]ial ( 8 own m9d4 ,! animal's _w #e4 ,let u illu/rate ?is build+ up by ?9k+ ( ! _w1 our surr\nd+s1 z an animal mu/ be aw>e ( x4 ,! l[e/ beg9n+s ( sight1 = example1 give no col\r & no %ape4 ,an animal 9 ?is /age c1 probably1 only j take w>n+ if a d>k object comes betwe5 him & ! light4 ,!re=e he _c h ! ord]$ visual image ( space def9itely /ret*+ away all r\nd him1 :i* is ! prim>y basis ( our idea ( a _w4 ,he c move1 no d\bt1 b !re is no?+ to make u suppose t he records & co-ord9ates ! results ( 8 movem5ts into any?+ l t p]man5t ord] ( objects :i* mu/ be con/ruct$ 9 "s way by a human be+ ev5 ?\gh born bl9d4 ,succession1 we might say1 is mu* m p[]ful ) animals ?an co-exi/5ce2 b we %\ld h to gu>d ourselves aga9/ suppos+ t ?is 0 :at we mean by succession1 t is1 a process def9itely recognis$ z 9 "t1 ) a connection ( "s reasonable k9d betwe5 its phases4 ,= ! mo/ "p ) animals out ( sight is out ( m9d2 if s1 ! pres5t is n int]pret$1 enl>g$1 & arrang$ ) ref]5ce to :at is n pres5t 9 "t or space by !m z x is by u4 ,& !re=e ! consci\sness ( a s+le sy/em ( ?+s1 #g p]man5t1 & di/9ct f ! mom5t>y pres5tations ( ! s5ses1 _c1 9 all probability1 gr[ up = !m4 ,if s1 !y h no real _w1 b only a dream _w1 #a i4e4 a _w n contra/$ ) ! /ream ( pres5tation1 nor tak5 z ! common !atre ( all actions & ev5ts4 ,?is diff]5ce betwe5 ! _w ( an animal & t ( a human be+1 is a r\gh measure ( :at man does by m5tal or intellectual con/ruction 9 mak+ 8 _w4 #a ,! "* ( ! s5sory p[]s1 :i* are /ronge/ 9 _m animals1 contributes to ?is conclusion4 ,mr4 ,f4,h4 ,bradley is sure t 8 dog's sy/em ( logic1 if he _h "o1 w\ld run1 8,:at exi/s smells2 :at does n smell is no?+40 ,! s5se ( smell c sc>cely give rise to ! idea ( a _w ( objects4 ,x has h>dly any capacity ( /ructural disc]nm5t4 ,! _w z objective #f4 ,we h n[ got ! idea ( a 8_w10 z a sy/em ( ?+s & p]sons connect$ toge!r1 tak5 to be ! same = oneself at diff]5t times & = diff]5t m9ds at ! same "t1 yet exi/+1 = oneself1 9 ! m$ium ( "o's individual consci\sness4 ,we see at once t we _c /op "h4 ,we h really got a contradiction4 ,if ! p>ts ( our _w are connect$ ) ea* o!r1 !y are n m]ely dep5d5t ^u u1 t is1 ^u ! *anges ( our consci\sness4 ,& we all take !m to be indep5d5t ( u1 9 ! s5se t we d n suppose ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( our p]ception to make any diff]5ce to ! _w except by ! cont9uance or cessation ( our p]ception ( x or ( its p>ts4 ,?is is ! /ate ( m9d 9 :i* we practically live1 philosoph]s & all4 ,i d n really take notice ( any diff]5ce 9 mode ( exi/5ce betwe5 ! wall 9 front ( me1 :i* ,i see1 & ! wall beh9d me1 :i* ,i #h d n see4 ,:ile y are 9 ?is lecture-hall1 if y ?9k ( y\r rooms at home1 y ?9k ( !m z !y look1 t is1 z !y w\ld look if y 7 !re to see !m4 ,h[ else1 inde$1 c\ld y ?9k ( !m8 ,?is is practically necess>y1 & !re=e1 = practical purposes1 true4 ,b if y take x z a !ory1 omitt+ ! hypo!tical factor1 8if ,i 0 !re to see10 y g wrong4 ,y !n treat y\r _w z be+1 outside y\r consci\sness1 ! same t x is inside y\r consci\sness1 )\t all[+ = ! )drawal ( y\r consci\sness4 ,y are !n on ! way to ?9k t ! _w1 z y see1 he>1 & feel x1 is outside y\r m9d1 & t ! sight1 he>+1 feel+1 & ! ideas born ( !m1 are inside y\r m9d z a sort ( fa9t & imp]fect copy ( ! _w :i* y !n call 8ext]nal10 9 ! s5se ( outside ! m9d4 ,common s5se i4 ,! fir/ position 0 t ( common s5se4 ,! second is t ( common-s5se !ory4 ,common s5se is q ju/ifi$4 ,x says1 8,?+s affect ea* o!r1 b ! m]e pres5ce & abs5ce ( our p]ception does n affect !m40 ,= practical purposes we mu/ treat !m z be+1 :5 unappreh5d$ by our m9ds1 j ! same z :5 appreh5d$ by our m9ds4 ,?is is ! fir/ idea or r po/ulate--= x is n a !oretical idea--( objectivity4 ,objective 8indep5d5t ( our consci\sness = practical purposes40 ,common-s5se !ory ii4 ,9 describ+ ! second position z t ( common-s5se !ory ,i d n ref] to ! doctr9e ( any regul> s*ool ( philosoph]s4 ,!re 0 a ,scot* s*ool ( philosophy--! s*ool ( ,reid 9 ! eighte5? c5tury--commonly call$ ! common-s5se s*ool4 ,i w say #i bel[ h[ ,i ?9k ?is s*ool 0 relat$ to ! position :i* ,i am n[ describ+4 ,b my pres5t purpose is to hit (f ! simple !ory ( reality :i* common-s5se p make = !mselves :5 !y reflect4 ,n[ ?is !ory1 9 :i* we all live except :5 we make a special ef=t1 accepts ! di/9ction betwe5 ?+s & ! m9d4 ,= example1 x def9es tru? z ! con=mity ( ideas to objects4 ,t means some?+ ( ?is k9d3 ! ideas are inside our heads1 & ! objects are outside our heads4 ,if we are to h k1 ! objects h to be repres5t$ inside our heads1 & !y get 9 ?r\gh ! s5ses4 ,& !n y h two simil> =ms ( ! _w1 "o outside our heads1 :i* is real1 & ano!r l x b less p]fect & )\t solidity or causal p[]1 inside our heads1 :i* is ideal or m5tal4 ,?is is :at ,i call ! common-s5se !ory ( ! ,objective4 ,l common s5se1 x assumes t !re is a _w :i* ! )drawal ( our individual consci\sness does n affect1 b :i* p]si/s & acts all ! same4 ,unlike common s5se1 x lays d[n an ass]tion z to ! nature ( ?is _w1 viz4 t x is1 ap>t f our consci\sness1 ! same z x is = our consci\sness4 ,! _w 9 consci\sness1 x assumes1 is subjective1 ! _w out ( consci\sness is objective1 & ! =m] is an imp]fect copy ( ! latt] 9 a feebl] mat]ial4 ,! s*ools ( common-s5se philosophy1 su* z are repres5t$ by ,locke & ,reid1 are n q s simple-m9d$ z ! reflection ( ord9>y common s5se1 because e sy/ematic ?9k] sees at once t ! "q />es him 9 ! face1 8,if ! _w outside ! m9d is copi$ #aj by ! _w inside ! m9d1 h[ c we ev] "k :e!r ! copy con=ms to ! orig9al80 ,we are by ! hypo!sis inside ! m9d2 :atev] has pass$ ?r\gh ! s5ses is inside ! m9d4 ,we _c z at pres5t advis$ get at any?+ outside ! s5ses or outside ! m9d4 ,9 face ( ?is "q1 ! common-s5se philosophies h two c\rses op54 ,!y may />t f ! idea ( ?+s outside ! m9d1 b admit t 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! s5ses ! ?+s are 9 "s p>tial respects trans=m$--z = in/ance1 t !y acquire col\r1 s\nd1 & smell 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! s5ses--?is is :at ,locke says4 ,or aga91 /ill />t+ f ! idea ( ?+s outside ! m9d1 !y may simply ass]t t p]ception is ( su* a nature t x gives u ?+s z !y really are4 ,! =m] 0 ! view ( ,locke1 ! latt] t ( ,reid4 ,?is latt] view obvi\sly might pass into ! mo/ extreme idealism1 & its int]pretation1 if x does n s pass1 is exce$+ly difficult4 ,b :atev] may h be5 ! view ( ! hi/orical 8common-s5se s*ool10 #a ! common-s5se !ory :i* we all make = ourselves involves a sep>ation betwe5 ! m9d & reality4 ,! objective _w is ! _w z indep5d5t ( m9d1 & indep5d5t ( m9d means exi/+ & act+ outside m9d1 exactly1 or almo/ exactly1 z x seems to exi/ & act be=e ! m9d4 #a ,see ,se?1 ,scotti% ,philosophy 7,blackwood1 #ahhe74 ,n[ ?is is an absolute cul-de-sac4 ,if ! objective is t :i* is outside p]ception1 ! objective is out ( our rea*1 & ! _w ( our p]ception c nev] be objective4 ,?is is ! pass to :i* we are br\ght by tak+ #aa common s5se z ! guide ( !ory & n z its mat]ial4 ,philosophical !ory4 iii4 ,!re is no way out b by retrac+ our /eps1 & avoid+ a false turn :i* we took 9 pass+ f common s5se to common-s5se !ory4 ,x 0 q true t ! _w is unaffect$ by ! )drawal ( my individual p]ception & consci\sness 7except 9 s f> z ,i act$ qua bodily ?+ 9 ! _w72 b x does n foll[ f ?is t if x becomes ! object ( a consci\sness 9 me1 x c be s o!rwise ?an z pres5t$ )9 t consci\sness4 ,we mu/ di/+ui% betwe5 ! idea t ! objective is outside consci\sness & !re=e n 9 consci\sness1 & ! idea t ! objective c be 9 ! individual consci\sness1 b id5tifi$ ) some?+ beyond ! individual consci\sness4 ,x may be t consci\sness is capable ( conta9+ a _w1 n z a copy ( a ready-made orig9al1 b z some?+ :i* x makes = itself by a necess>y process1 & :i* ref]s beyond ?is f9ite & mom5t>y consci\sness4 ,accord+ to ^! ideas1 ! objective is1 %ortly /at$1 :atev] we are oblig$ to ?9k4 ,?is1 ?\gh x is 9 our ?\ght1 is n consid]$ m]ely z our ?\ght1 or z a tra9 ( images or :ole ( pres5tation 9 our m9ds4 ,t is an artificial po9t ( view1 ! po9t ( view ( psy*ology1 & we mu/ c>efully avoid />t+ f x4 ,b k ref]s beyond its m5tal self1 & has no limitation 9 "t or 9 k9d except its own necessity4 ,?us1 ,i am =c$ to ?9k1 by a c]ta9 context ( ideas & p]ceptions1 t !re is n[ a fire burn+ 9 my /udy at home4 ,?is judgm5t is n b>r$ by ! fact t my m9d1 z a #ab function atta*$ to my body1 is "h ?ree miles away4 ,! ?\ght is objective = me1 s long z ,i am oblig$ to ?9k x4 ,my pres5ce 9 or abs5ce f ! room :]e ! fire is burn+ has no effect on ! "q1 except z x furni%es me ) evid5ce "o way or ! o!r4 ,n only abs5ce 9 space is no ob/acle1 b succession 9 "t is no ob/acle4 ,my ?\ght1 :i* is "h & n[1 ref]s confid5tly to :at has happ5$ 9 long int]vals ( "t1 if ! necessity ( consi/5cy obliges x to d s4 ,?us if ,i g back to my room & f9d ! fire out & ! room v cold1 ,i inf] )\t hesitation to c]ta9 acts & ev5ts :i* are ne$$ to expla9 ?is /ate ( ?+s4 ,& int]pretations or explanations ( ?is k9d make up my _w1 :i* is = me 9 my ?\ght1 b is pres5t$ z m ?an my ?\ght1 & _c be a _w at all unless x is m ?an 9 my ?\ght4 ,x is 9 z f> z my ?\ght con/ructs & pres5ts a _w :i* is m ?an my mom5t>y psy*ical /ate1 t my ?\ght1 & ! _w z pres5t$ to me 9 x1 is objective4 ,! _w is n a set ( my ideas1 b x is a set ( objects & relations ( :i* ,i frame an idea1 & ! exi/5ce ( :i* has no mean+ = me except z pres5t$ 9 ! idea :i* #a frame4 ,we are n to ?9k ( 7i7 ,ideas1 & 7ii7 ,?+s :i* !y repres5t2 ! ideas1 tak5 z p>ts ( a _w1 are ! ?+s4 ,we beg9 to see1 !n1 h[ ! nature ( k meets ! puzzle :i* ,i /at$ above4 ,h[1 ,i ask$1 c a connect$ 8_w10 ^: p>ts act on "o ano!r q indep5d5tly ( my p]ception1 be 9 my individual m9d8 ,i answ] t x does n foll[1 because ! _w is = me #ac only 9 my pres5tation1 t my pres5tation is ! only ?+ :i* goes on 9 ! _w4 8,:at ,i am oblig$ to ?9k0 may repres5t a real developm5t dep5d+ on laws & a sy/em :i* is n conf9$ to my individual c\rse ( consci\sness4 ,! 8objective0 9 ?is s5se is = ,logic an assumption1 or r a fact to be analys$4 ,we d n attempt to prove its exi/5ce1 except 9 ! s5se ( call+ att5tion to its nature 9 detail4 ,x w be se5 t 8outside ! m9d0 ceases1 on ?is view ( objectivity1 to h mean+ z reg>ds any?+ t c be relat$ to u4 8,outside0 is a relation ( bodies to "o ano!r2 b ev]y?+1 ab\t :i* we c s mu* z ask a "q1 is s f> inside ! m9d1 i4e4 giv5 9 its cont9uum ( pres5tation or idea4 ,i w recapitulate ! ?ree conceptions ( ! 8objective40 7#a7 ,accord+ to practical 8common s5se0 ! objective is indep5d5t ( our consci\sness 9 ! s5se t ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( our consci\sness makes no diff]5ce to ! op]ation ( ?+s ^u ea* o!r4 7#b7 ,accord+ to 8common-s5se !ory0 ! objective is indep5d5t ( our consci\sness 9 ! s5se t ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( our consci\sness makes no diff]5ce 9 ! mode ( be+ ( ?+s 7viz4 t ! _w 9 consci\sness approa*es objectivity by resembl+ or reproduc+ a simil> & q objective _w outside consci\sness74 7#c7 ,accord+ to philosophical !ory ! objective is indep5d5t ( our consci\sness 9 ! s5se t x is :at we are con/ra9$ to ?9k 9 ord] to make our consci\sness consi/5t ) itself4 8,:at we are con/ra9$ to #ad ?9k0 is n conf9$1 9 its ref]5ce to our ?\ght1 or to ?\ght at all4 ,our sep>ate worlds4 #g4 ,?us1 = ! purposes ( ,logic1 we mu/ turn our usual ideas upside d[n4 ,we mu/ try to imag9e some?+ ( ?is k9d4 ,we h all se5 a circul> panorama4 ,ea* "o ( u1 we mu/ ?9k1 is %ut up alone inside su* a panorama1 :i* is movable & flexible1 & foll[s him :]ev] he goes4 ,! ?+s & p]sons depict$ 9 x move & act ^u "o ano!r2 b all ?is is 9 ! panorama1 & n beyond x4 ,! individual _c get outside ?is encircl+ sc5]y1 & no "o else c get inside x4 ,ap>t f x1 prior to x1 we h no self2 x is inde$ ! /uff ( :i* oneself is made4 ,is e "o's panorama exactly ! same8 ,no1 !y are n exactly ! same4 ,!y are =m$ r\nd diff]5t c5tres1 ea* p]son diff]+ f all ! o!rs by individual qualities1 & by 8 position t[>ds ! po9ts & processes :i* det]m9e 8 picture4 ,=--& "h is ! rem>kable po9t--e "o ( u has pa9t$ = himself ! picture )9 :i* he is %ut up1 & he is p]petually pa9t+ & re-pa9t+ x1 n by copy+ f "s orig9al1 b by arrang+ & complet+ confus$ images & t9ts t are always appe>+ magically on 8 canvas4 ,n[ ?is magical panorama1 f :i* ! individual _c escape1 & ! laws ( :i* are ! laws ( 8 exp]i5ce1 is simply 8 own m9d reg>d$ z a cont5t or a _w4 ,8 own body & m9d1 reg>d$ z ?+s1 are )9 ! panorama1 j z o!r p's bodies & m9ds are4 ,! :ole _w1 = ea* ( u1 is our c\rse ( consci\sness1 9 s f> z ?is is reg>d$ z a sy/em ( objects :i* we are oblig$ to #ae ?9k4 ,n1 9 s f> z x really is a sy/em1 = an onlook]1 say = a psy*ologi/4 ,= no d\bt e *ild's m9d1 & e animal's m9d1 is a work+ sy/em ( pres5tations1 :i* a psy*ologi/ may /udy & analyse f )\t4 ,consci\sness is consci\sness ( a _w only 9 s f> z x pres5ts a sy/em1 a :ole ( objects1 act+ on "o ano!r1 & !re=e indep5d5t ( ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( ! consci\sness :i* pres5ts !m4 ,i take ano!r v r\gh metaphor to expla9 ?is curi\s contra/ betwe5 my m9d z a work+ sy/em1 obs]vable f )\t1 & belong+ to my individual body--di/+ui%able f ! ?irty or =ty q diff]5t m9ds belong+ to ! ?irty or =ty p]sons 9 ?is room--& my m9d z a cont9uum ( pres5tations :i* includes1 z objects1 itself1 & all ! o!r m9ds 9 ! room1 & ! :ole _w s f> z ,i h any consci\s relation to x :atev]4 ,all ( u are famili> ) ! appe>ance ( a microscope ready adju/$ = use1 ) its little lamp1 its mirror & illum9at+ app>atus "u ! /age1 ) a specim5 on ! /age "u ! object-glass1 its object-glass & its eye-piece4 ,any "o :o und]/&s ! work+ ( a microscope f9ds ?is a mo/ sugge/ive spectacle4 ,he foll[s 9 8 imag9ation ! light z x comes f ! lamp to ! mirror1 ?r\gh ! illum9at+ l5ses1 ?r\gh ! transp>5t specim51 ?r\gh p]haps a doz5 l5ses arrang$ z an object-glass )9 an in* ( di/ance1 ?r\gh ! eye-piece & into ! obs]v]'s eye4 ,give him ! p>ts1 l5ses1 prisms1 & mirrors into 8 h&s1 & he w te/ !m all1 & tell y exactly h[ !y "w4 ,?is #af sci5tific onlook] may be comp>$ to ! psy*ologi/ look+ at ano!r man's m9d4 ,he sees x z a ?+ among o!r ?+s1 a work+ sy/em ( p>ts4 ,b !re is "o ?+ t ! m]e onlook] _c see4 ,he _c see ! object4 ,t c only be se5 by look+ ?r\gh ! tube4 ,& e "o has felt1 ,i %\ld ?9k1 ! magical trans=mation1 sugge/ive ( look+ ?r\gh ano!r man's eye & m9d1 :i* occurs :5 y put y\r eye to ! eye-piece ( an optical in/rum5t4 ,! outside _w ( o!r objects1 ! tube1 ! /age1 ! mirror1 ! by/&]s1 ! ext]nal light1 all disappe>1 & y see no?+ b ! field ( vision & :atev] di/9ctly pictur$ /ructure may be display$ )9 x4 ,! obs]v] :o looks ?r\gh ! tube may be comp>$ ) ea* "o ( u z he contemplates 8 own _w ( k & p]ception4 ,?is is a ?+ t no "o else c ev] d4 ,! metaphor1 inde$1 breaks d[n1 9 s f> z ea* ( u is able to obs]ve ! hi/ory & "* ( 8 own m9d z an object )9 ! field ( pres5tation :i* is be=e 8 m9d4 ,( c\rse su* a metaphor mu/ break d[n at "s po9t4 ,b x rema9s true t ! m9d1 :ile directly obs]v+ its field ( objects1 _c obs]ve its own peculi>ities1 & :5 turn$1 z we say1 ^u itself1 is /ill obs]v+ only a "p ( itself4 ,x rema9s true t my m9d conta9s ! :ole pres5t$ _w = me & is m]ely "o among ?\s&s ( simil> m9d-?+s = y4 ,?us1 ,i repeat1 ! _w = ea* ( u is our c\rse ( consci\sness1 look$ at 9 t way 9 :i* x pres5ts a #ag sy/ematic1 organis$ picture ( int]-act+ objects1 n 9 t way 9 :i* x is a /ream ( ideas & feel+s1 tak+ place 9 our sev]al heads4 ,9 ! =m] po9t ( view x is ! _w z our idea2 9 ! latt] po9t ( view x is simply ! consci\sness atta*$ to our body4 ,we might soon puzzle ourselves ) ! contradictions :i* arise if we fail to di/+ui% ^! po9ts ( view4 ,9 "o s5se my m9d is 9 my head1 9 ! o!r s5se my head is 9 my m9d4 ,9 ! "o s5se ,i am 9 space1 9 ! o!r s5se space is 9 me4 ,j s1 h[ev] r\gh ! metaphor1 f "o po9t ( view ! microscope is "o among a ho/ ( ?+s se5 f ! outside2 f ! o!r po9t ( view all t we see is 9 ! microscope1 :i* is itself n se5 at all4 ,x is 9 ?is latt] s5se t our m5tal equipm5t is look$ at1 :5 x is reg>d$ z k2 & x is 9 ?is s5se t x =ms a panorama :i* absolutely %uts 9 e "o ( u into 8 own circle ( ideas4 7,x is n impli$1 we %\ld c>efully obs]ve1 t 8 ideas or exp]i5ce are 9 any way second>y to 8 self1 or sep>able f x1 or an adjective ( x47 ,!n h[ does x happ5 t our sep>ate worlds1 ! panoramas :i* we con/ruct1 d n contradict "o ano!r8 ,! answ] is1 t !y correspond4 ,x is ?is conception f :i* we mu/ />t 9 ,logic4 ,we mu/ le>n to reg>d our sep>ate worlds ( k2 z some?+ con/ruct$ by def9ite processes1 & correspond+ to ea* o!r 9 consequ5ce ( ! common nature ( ^! processes4 ,we "k t we beg9 ap>t4 ,we beg9 9 fact1 ?\gh n consci\s ( our limits1 ) feel+s & fancies & unorganis$ exp]i5ces :i* give u little or no #ah common gr\nd & p[] ( co-op]ation ) o!r p4 ,b z ! con/ructive process advances1 ! correspond5ce betwe5 our worlds is wid5$ & deep5$1 & ! great] proportion ( :at we are oblig$ to ?9k is 9 h>mony ) :at o!r p are oblig$ to ?9k4 ,n[ ( c\rse ?is w\ld n be s unless reality1 ! :ole actual sy/em 9 :i* we f9d ourselves1 7 self-consi/5t4 ,b m ?an t1 x w\ld n be s unless ! nature ( intellig5ce 7 ! same 9 e m9d4 ,x is ?is common nature ( intellig5ce1 toge!r ) its diff]5tiat$ adaptations to reality1 t we h to deal ) 9 ,logic4 ,?us ! sep>ate worlds1 9 :i* we are all %ut up1 mu/ be consid]$ z correspond+ s f> z !y are objective1 t is1 s f> z !y approa* :at we are ultimately oblig$ to ?9k4 ,i say 8correspond+10 because t is ! t]m :i* expresses ! relation betwe5 sy/ems :i* repres5t ! same ?+ by ! same rules1 b ) diff]5t />t+-po9ts4 ,draw+s 9 p]spective ( ! same build+ f diff]5t po9ts ( view are su* correspond+ sy/ems2 ! p>ts repres5t$ answ] ea* to ea*1 b ! same "p is ne> or l>ge 9 "o draw+1 & di/ant & small 9 ano!r2 n1 h[ev]1 by *ance1 b z a def9ite consequ5ce ( ! same laws4 ,our sep>ate worlds may be comp>$ to su* draw+s3 ! ?+s 9 !m are id5tifi$ by _! relations & functions1 s t we c und]/& ea* o!r1 i4e4 make id5tical ref]5ces1 ?\gh my draw+ be tak5 f ! ea/1 & y\rs f ! we/4 ,! ?+s d n look q ! same 9 our diff]5t worlds2 besides be+ tak5 f diff]5t /&po9ts1 bo? draw+s are imp]fect & incorrect4 ,b s #ai long z we c make out ! correspond5ce1 we h a basis = co-op]ation & = discussion4 ,logic %[s u ! pr9ciples & processes by :i*1 "u ! giv5 influ5ces1 ^! draw+s are con/ruct$4 ,subjective ,idealism #h4 ,if we m]ely hold to ! doctr9e ( sep>ate worlds1 )\t insi/+ ^u _! correspond5ce ) ea* o!r & ) reality1 we fall back into ! position ( subjective idealism1 :i* is a natural completion ( common-s5se !ory1 :51 in/ead ( turn+ r\nd to retrace its pa?1 x runs deep] into ! cul-de-sac4 ,x is a v obvi\s reflection1 t ea* ( u is %ut up )9 8 own m9d1 & mu* easi] to grasp ?an ! reason = assum+ a real sy/em :i* appe>s diff]5tly1 ?\gh correspond+ly1 9 ! c5tres ( consci\sness :i* are ourselves4 ,we _c get at any?+ b 9 t]ms ( consci\sness2 h[ c we ju/ify ! assumption t our consci\sness ( a _w ( objects is root$ 9 reality1 e4g41 t objects may rightly be treat$ z p]si/+ & int]-act+ :5 our p]sonal consci\sness is )drawn8 ,& if we once d\bt ?is1 !n :y %\ld we assume t our ideas ne$ be or t5d to be consi/5t ) !mselves & ea* o!r1 z = ! "t !y app>5tly are8 ,subjective ,idealism necess>ily arises if ! common-s5se !ory ( two worlds1 ! real outside ! m9d1 & ! ideal1 copy+ x1 )9 ! m9d1 is pu%$ to its conclusion4 ,! real1 outside ! m9d1 be+ inaccessible1 falls away4 ,! argum5ts ( ?is ,idealism1 z ,hume said1 8admit ( no answ] & produce no conviction40 #a ,b ,i #bj m5tion ! idea1 because ,i d n ?9k t any "o c really und]/& ! problem ( ,logic1 or inde$ ( sci5ce 9 g5]al1 )\t hav+ ?or\ghly ?\ght himself into ! difficulty ( ,subjective ,idealism4 ,x is necess>y to be :olly dissatisfi$ ) common-s5se !ory1 & ) ! notion ( a ready-made _w set up = u to copy 9 ! m9d1 be=e ! logical analysis ( intellectual con/ruction c h int]e/ or mean+ = u4 ,& to produce ?is dissatisfaction is ! value ( ,subjective ,idealism4 #a ,vol4 iv4 p4 #agf 7ed4 ( #ahed71 ,inquiry conc]n+ ,human ,und]/&+1 sect4 #ab4 #ba ,,lecture ,,ii 8,,judgm5t0 ,,z ,,! ,,consci\sness ,,( ,a ,,_w ,defect ( ,subjective ,idealism #a4 ,! la/ lecture 0 devot$ to expla9+ ! di/9ction betwe5 ! /ream ( pres5tations & ! _w z x is = k4 ,i end$ by call+ att5tion to ! !ory kn[n z 8,subjective ,idealism40 ,?is1 ,i said1 has ! m]it ( =c+ ^u u ! "q1 8,h[ d we get f m9d to reality8 ,h[ d we get f subjective to objective80 ,= we h always to rememb] t our k is )9 consci\sness1 ?\gh x may ref] outside x4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,subjective ,idealism has ! defect ( conf\nd+ ! v di/9ction :i* we took s mu* tr\ble to make pla94 ,its ess5ce lies 9 ascrib+ to ! _w ( k prop]ties :i* are only true ( ! /ream ( pres5tation4 ,x is q true t ! actual pres5tations ( ?is room1 :i* ea* ( u has 9 8 head at ?is mom5t1 are all diff]5t f ea* o!r1 & diff]5t f any :i* we h _h be=e1 & %all ev] h aga94 ,e m9ute1 e second1 !y diff]2 !y are p]i%+ exi/5ces1 :olly m5tal1 & ea* ( !m :5 pa/ is irrecov]ably gone4 ,t is ! prop]ty ( a pres5tation )9 ! c\rse ( consci\sness4 ,x is a p>ticul> p]i%+ exi/5ce4 #bb ,b ,subjective ,idealism says1 8,because ^! m5tal exi/5ces are p>ticul> p]i%+ exi/5ces1 & all k consi/s 9 !m z its m$ium1 !re=e ! object ( k is no?+ beyond ^! m5tal facts1 & is n root$ 9 a p]man5t sy/em #a indep5d5t ( our m5tal connections40 ,"h we mu/ *eck ! inf]5ce1 & reply1 8,no1 x does n foll[4 ,! pres5tations :i* !mselves come & g may ref] to some?+ 9 common1 & ?r\gh !m all we may become aw>e ( some?+ t is n :olly 9 any ( !m40 ,9 o!r words1 !re is 9 ,k no passage f subjective to objective1 b only a developm5t ( ! objective4 #a ,our e/imate ( ,b]keley's view mu/ dep5d on ! degree 9 :i* we judge him to h id5tifi$ ! ,deity )1 or sep>at$ ,him f1 a p]man5t & univ]sal sy/em4 ,! /atem5t 9 ! text applies fairly to ,hume4 ,! _w z ,k #b4 ,!re=e we say1 com+ clos] to our subject1 t 8,k is ! m$ium 9 :i* our _w1 z an int]relat$ :ole1 #a exi/s = u40 ,?is is m ?an say+ t x exi/s 9 m9d or pres5tation1 because ! m]e c\rse ( consci\sness ne$ n am\nt to ,k4 ,a _w1 t is1 a sy/em ( ?+s act+ on "o ano!r1 c\ld n exi/ m]ely 9 ! c\rse ( our ideas4 ,b ,k1 we said1 is ! m5tal con/ruction ( reality4 ,x consi/s ( :at we are oblig$ to ass]t 9 ?\ght1 & because we are all oblig$ to ?9k ass]torily accord+ to ! same me?ods1 ! results ( our ?9k+ =m correspond+ sy/ems--sy/ems t correspond alike to ea* o!r & to reality4 7,i may be ask$1 does n ?is agreem5t ( #bc our k dep5d on ! agreem5t ( ! physical /imuli suppli$ to u by nature1 z well z on ! homog5e\sness ( our intellig5ces8 ,! answ] is1 t ^! /imuli1 or nature1 h no priority 9 ,k4 ,_! id5tity is m]ely a case or consequ5ce ( ! id5tity ( our exp]i5ce z a :ole4 ,we are reg>d+ nature z a sy/em develop$ 9 exp]i5ce1 n z an unkn[n some:at beh9d x4 ,to suppose t solid or ext5d$ exi/5ce someh[ comes be=e & acc\nts = ev]y?+ else1 is a =m ( ! common-s5se !ory we h dismiss$4 ,k & ,tru? h _! limitations z =ms ( ,reality1 b an appeal to solidity or ext5sion w n furni% ! requir$ supplem5tation47 #a ,! words italicis$ make a res]vation 9 fav\r ( feel+1 :i* has its own =m ( reality1 b is n relational4 ,k is 9 ! =m ( ,judgem5t #c4 ,all t we h be5 say+ ab\t ,k is summ$ up 9 ! s5t5ce1 8,k is a judgm5t1 an affirmation40 ,we ne$ n tr\ble ourselves yet ab\t negation4 ,we all "k :at affirmative ass]tion is1 & x is ne> en\gh = ! pres5t to say t all k is judgm5t 9 ! s5se ( affirmative ass]tion4 ,i w expla9 h[ we sum up all we h said ( k by call+ x a judgm5t4 ,judgm5t or affirmation always implies ?ree prop]ties1 ?\gh !y are n always recognis$4 ,x is 7a7 necess>y1 7b7 univ]sal1 & 7c7 con/ructive4 ,judgm5t necess>y 7a7 ,judgm5t is necess>y4 ,9 say+ ?is1 we express all t we said ab\t ! objectivity ( ! _w 9 k4 8,objective0 meant1 we conclud$1 :at we are oblig$ to ?9k4 ,& judgm5t is necess>y1 because x expresses :at we are oblig$ to ?9k2 oblig$1 t is1 n z we are oblig$ to feel pa91 z an unexpla9$ & #bd isolat$ fact1 b oblig$ by a necessity op]ative )9 ! movem5t ( our consci\sness1 ?\gh n1 ( c\rse1 !oretically recognis$ z necessity 9 common ?9k+4 ,?us1 9 ! simple/ phases ( ,judgm5t1 necessity does beg9 to approa* ! k9d ( necessity by :i* we feel pa9 or are visit$ by p]si/5t irrational associations4 ,we c trace an explicit s5se ( necessity 9 any sci5tific matt]1 or 9 any d\btful & complex matt]s 9 :i* we are aw>e ( our own reflections4 ,we con/antly he> & read su* phrases z1 8,i am unable to resi/ ! conclusion02 8,i am =c$ to believe02 8,i am driv5 to ?9k02 8,i h no alt]native b to suppose40 ,^! are e-day phrases 9 controv]sy & 9 !oretical discussion4 ,& :at !y all mean is j :at 0 insi/$ on 9 ! la/ lecture2 ! objective or real = u is :at we are oblig$ to ?9k4 ,giv5 our p]ceptive /ate & our m5tal equipm5t1 ! judgm5t foll[s4 ,9 trivial or simple judgm5ts ?is necessity is h>d] to obs]ve )9 consci\sness1 & approa*es m & m to ! m]e con/ra9t ex]cis$ ^u u by physical reality4 ,9 a judgm5t ( m]e s5su\s comp>ison1 su* z a 8col\r-mat*10 ! necessity is n t ( an intellectual sy/em1 b almo/ t ( a feel+ :i* we _c dispel4 ,! *ief intellectual lab\r is "h negative1 & consi/s 9 precautions to remove all di/urb+ influ5ces1 bo? m5tal & mat]ial1 s z to let ! p]ception op]ate freely on ! m9d4 ,b yet "h is necessity2 we nev] = a mom5t ?9k t we c modify ! result2 our aim is simply to di/+ui% f all o!rs ! p>ticul> /r& ( necessity by :i* we desire to be guid$4 #be ,x is easy = an obs]v] to detect intellectual necessity 9 judgm5t1 ev5 :]e ! judg+ subject is :olly unreflective4 ,if y contradict an obvi\s judgm5t made by an un$ucat$ man1 he w no d\bt be q unable to po9t out ! intellectual necessity :i* con/ra9s him to x1 i4e4 to argue 9 support ( x2 b he w be bewild]$ & probably indignant1 :i* %[s t1 unkn[n to himself1 8 :ole intellectual exi/5ce is really impea*$ by impea*m5t ( a necess>y conclusion f x4 ,_m p _c see ! diff]5ce betwe5 impea*+ _! argum5t & impea*+ _! v]acity2 & ?is confusion arises1 ,i presume1 f a j feel+ t _! :ole m9d is on its trial 9 ! "o case z 9 ! o!r1 al?\gh !y d n di/+ui% betwe5 ! =ms ( its action :i* are conc]n$4 ,we are told1 inde$1 9 =mal logic1 t ord9>y /atem5ts ( fact d n claim necessity2 b ?is m]ely arises f conf9+ necessity to explicit necessity express$ 9 a special grammatical =m4 ,b1 x may be object$1 we d n always feel t e trivial judgm5t emanates f & s implicates our :ole m5tal con/itution & equipm5t4 ,if ,i say to a fri5d1 8,i saw y at ,*>+ ,cross ye/]day10 & he says1 8,no1 y c\ld n1 = ,i 0 out ( t[n10 !n1 unless ,i 0 v c]ta9 inde$1 ,i %\ld admit hav+ made a mi/ake1 & ?9k no m ab\t ! matt]4 ,t only means1 7#a7 t ! unity ( ! m9d is n ?or\ghly complete--!re are _m m or less deta*$ sy/ems 9 ! m9d1 & "o ( !m may n be v deeply inwr\ght 9 ! :ole intellectual frame2 & 7#b7 ! necessity ( ?\ght may itself modify ! c]ta9ty ( ! fact1 e4g4 ,i "k t #bf a mi/ake ( id5tity is q a common ?+1 & ?is k co-op]ates ) my fri5d's d5ial4 ,b 9 any p]ceptive judgm5t1 h[ev] unimportant its imm$iate cont5t1 if x is cle> & p]si/5t1 a contradiction is a mo/ s]i\s ?+4 ,!re is a well-kn[n =m ( bewild]m5t connect$ ) ! judgm5t ( direction2 if y =get or d n "k ( a turn t y h tak51 & come out1 = example1 on famili> gr\nd f ! ,nor? :5 y ?9k y are com+ on x f ! ,s\?1 s t objects h ! rev]se position ( :at y expect$1 !n1 suppos+ t y _c expla9 ! contradiction1 ! result is sometimes a v grave p]plexity2 "s m5 are q unh+$ by x = ! mom5t1 & a psy*ologi/ 9 ,france #a has giv5 x a new "n1 8,v]tigo ( ,direction40 ,?is aga9 %[s h[ y\r :ole intellectual nature is /ak$ ^u ! mo/ trifl+ p]ception1 & if y seem to be =c$ to a flat contradiction ev5 9 ! simple/ judgm5t y are almo/ 8beside y\rself40 #a ,m4 ,b9et4 ,see ,m9d1 x4 #aef4 ,judgm5t univ]sal 7b7 ,judgm5t is univ]sal4 ,!re are diff]5t s5ses ( 8univ]sal0 z ( 8necess>y40 ,we are n[ speak+ only 9 ! wide/ s5se1 9 :i* univ]sality is a prop]ty ( all judgm5t :atev]4 ,if we assume t all our intellectual natures are ! same1 !n to be univ]sal is a m]e consequ5ce ( be+ necess>y4 ,i n only feel t my judgm5t is inevitable = me1 b ,i nev] ?9k ( d\bt+ t1 giv5 ! same mat]ials1 x is obligatory = e o!r intellig5t be+4 ,if "s "o disagrees ) a judgm5t ( m9e1 ,i try to put ! case be=e him z x is 9 my m9d4 ,& ,i am absolutely sure t if ,i c\ld d s1 he #bg w\ld be oblig$ to judge z ,i d4 ,if x 7 n s1 we %\ld nev] ?9k ( argu+4 ,we %\ld simply say1 8,p]haps 8 m9d is diff]5tly con/itut$ f m9e10 z1 9 fact1 ) ref]5ce to special sets ( dom9ant ideas1 & to special prov9ces ( exp]i5ce1 we (t5 d say4 ,b ^! we reg>d z h9drances1 imp]fections1 accid5ts4 ,we d n d\bt t ! sy/em ( reason is active 9 him z 9 u4 ,& ?us1 z reason is ess5tially a sy/em1 ! univ]sality ( judgm5t involves some?+ m4 ,we n only ?9k t our judgm5t is obligatory ^u e "o else1 9 z f> z !y h ! same mat]ials1 b we ?9k t x mu/ be consi/5t ) ! judgm5ts ( all o!r p]sons1 j z mu* z ) our own4 ,if x is inconsi/5t ) any o!r judgm5t1 we ?9k t "o ( ! two mu/ be wrong2 t is1 we w n admit ! possibility t ! real _w1 z o!rs con/ruct x1 is out ( h>mony ) ! real _w z we con/ruct x4 ,?us k1 be+ judgm5t1 is necess>y & univ]sal1 & 9 ! wide/ s5se ?is is true ( all judgm5ts4 ,judgm5t is con/ructive 7c7 ,^! are two prop]ties ( ! ,judgm5t1 b !y d n tell u :at x is4 ,we %all ( c\rse exam9e its nature m fully 9 ! lat] lectures4 ,at pres5t we ne$ only ?9k ( x z affirmation4 ,?is may be simply describ$ z 8pron\nc+ ! int]pretation ( our p]ceptions to =m "o sy/em ) ! data ( our p]ceptions40 ,we may at once admit ! di/9ction betwe5 data & int]pretation to be only relative4 ,its relativity is ! consequ5ce ( ! con/ruct$ or s to speak artificial #bh "* ( our real _w4 ,we c get at no data unqualifi$ by judgm5t4 ,we may take z an example our p]ception ( ?+s 9 space4 ,h[ mu* ( :at we see is giv5 9 pres5t s5se-p]ception8 ,?is is a "q to :i* !re is no def9ite answ]4 ,we d n "k :at ! pres5tations ( vision 7 l be=e we _h le>nt to see z a fully consci\s human be+ sees4 ,we h no "r to assume1 t aft] we h le>n$ to see 9 ?is way ! actual s5se-pres5tation rema9s ! same z x 0 9 a diff]5t /age ( our visual education4 ,we c give no precise mean+ 9 ! way ( a "t-limit to ! pres5tness ( p]ception4 ,b we "k ?is mu*1 t x takes a long "t & _m k9ds ( exp]i5ce to le>n to see z an educat$ human be+ sees1 & t ?is acquir$ capacity is nev] at a /&-/ill1 b is always be+ ext5d$ or dim9i%$ accord+ to ! vitality1 gr[?1 or atrophy ( our app]ceptive masses4 ,!re is always a c]ta9 elem5t ( amplification or int]pretation1 :i* by exp]i5ce1 or att5tive introspection we c elim9ate f ! data1 app>5tly =c$ ^u u by reality1 al?\gh ^! data !mselves are modifi$ ?r\gh & ?r\gh bo? by habitual int]pretation1 & by ! v def9+ att5tion :i* aims at elim9at+ all amplification f !m4 ,b yet ! :ole ( s5se-p]ception has a peculi> quality 9 be+ pres5t4 ,artificial ?\gh x is1 x yet1 relatively speak+1 conta9s an irr$ucible datum4 ,x is di/+ui%able f ev]y?+ :i* is n pres5t4 ,x is p]vad$ by some?+ :i* we _c r$uce to #bi intellectual relation1 ?\gh if we )drew f x all t is relation1 ! app>5t datum w\ld be gone4 ,n[ ,k is ! affirmation or judgm5t :i* id5tifies ! con/ructive int]pretation ( our pres5t p]ception ) ! reality :i* pres5t p]ception =ces ^u u4 ,?is is cle> en\gh to beg9 )1 b w h to be modifi$ bel[ to suit ! m circuit\s or m$iate types ( ,judgm5t4 ,i take two examples1 "o f sight & "o f s\nd4 ,"h is a table4 ,9 common language we %\ld all say1 8,we see t is a table40 ,! expression is q correct1 because human see+ is a judgm5t4 ,b yet1 if y 7 ask$ to r$uce y\r p]ception to t]ms ( sight pure & simple--,i mean ( visual s5sation--:y1 unless y 7 an analytic psy*ologi/ or a v skilful arti/1 y w\ld n be able to d x4 ,to speak ( "o po9t only1 y w\ld h to elim9ate ! attribute ( dep? & di/ance4 ,t is all1 s f> z m]e vision is conc]n$1 y\r !ory & y\r int]pretation4 ,! problem = an arti/ is to get back1 at 8 high plane ( p]ceptive p[]1 to :at 9 !ory w\ld be ! l[] plane4 ,he has to re-translate 8 p]ception ( a ?+ 9 space into a flat col\r$ surface4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 8 flat picture & a real object 9 space is a r\gh measure ( ! diff]5ce made by int]pretation or implication 9 ! datum ( s5se-p]ception :5 we say1 judg+ by sight only1 8,t is a table40 ,all ! exp]i5ces ( t\* & motion1 f :i* we h le>n$ to p]ceive ! solidity ( ! object1 are1 !oretically speak+1 put into ! judgm5t by u4 ,!y are n giv5 by ! eye alone1 al?\gh we _c n[ #cj sep>ate !m f t :i* is giv5 by ! eye alone4 ,= ! arti/'s flat picture1 :i* ,i us$ z an illu/ration1 is n a /age 9 our visual education4 ,our visual education has proce$$ p>i passu ) our education by t\* & motion2 & we saw objects 9 space z solids1 long be=e we reflect$ t = ! eye alone a col\r$ surface w\ld naturally appe> z flat4 #a #a ,! view t dep? is a visual datum 9 ! same s5se z bread? seems to me 9 flagrant contradiction ) exp]i5ce4 ,b = our pres5t purpose ! "q is only "o ( degree1 z no "o ma9ta9s1 t ei!r dep? or bread? are se5 )\t education z an adult sees !m4 ,b ?is impossibility ( gett+ at an orig9al datum only %[s h[ entirely we are "r 9 say+ t our _w is con/ruct$ by judgm5t4 ,= ! process ( int]pretative amplification passes q cont9u\sly f ! unconsci\s to ! consci\s2 & e def9itely express$ judgm5t1 ?\gh p]fectly homog5e\s ) ! processes :i* h qualifi$ its datum1 & ?\gh x may fall :olly )9 ! maximum ( :at 9 ord9>y p>lance we %\ld call a simple giv5 p]ception1 conta9s an id5tification ( "s ideal elem5t1 enl>gem5t1 or int]pretation1 ) t relatively giv5 elem5t :i* reveals itself ?r\gh a peculi> quality ( pres5tness p]vad+ ! 8giv50 p]ception4 ,9 ! example 8,t is a table10 ! unity ( judgm5t is s well %[n t ! id5tification becomes almo/ unreal4 ,9 fact1 we nev] judge except to satisfy an int]e/ & s simple a judgm5t us$ z an example1 ap>t f any context :i* c\ld expla9 ! ne$ = x1 has an air ( unreality4 ,y may he> a *ild make su* a judgm5t #ca con/antly 9 ! %e] pleasure ( recognition4 ,an adult w\ld nev] make x explicitly unless 9 "s p>ticul> context2 b x is made1 z ,i %all ma9ta9 bel[1 by ! m]e glance ( 8 eye :i* takes 9 ! table z a real object 9 a real _w ( space4 ,its appe>ance to ! eye is 9 ?is case ! datum1 :ile ! int]pretation consi/s 9 con/ru+ ?is appe>ance z a solid individual exi/5ce 9 space4 ,we w look at an example 9 :i* ! discrim9ation ( elem5ts is easi]4 ,take ! affirmation1 8,t is a cab10 assum+ x to be made f m]ely he>+ a s\nd4 ,9 ?is we c mu* m ne>ly sep>ate ! datum or m9imum ( s5se f our enl>gem5t or int]pretation ( x1 & we "k t our int]pretation is liable to be wrong2 t is to say1 ! reality into :i* we ought to con/rue ! s\nd may be "s o!r k9d ( vehicle1 & n a cab4 ,n[ comp>e ?is ) ! affirmation1 8,t 7:i* ,i see7 is a cab40 ,?is judgm5t ( sight-p]ception1 ?\gh its t]ms are m inextricably int]wov51 has j ! same elem5ts 9 x z ! judgm5t ( s\nd-p]ception1 8,t 7:i* ,i he>7 is a cab40 ,9 ! s\nd-p]ception ! /ructure is q pla94 ,a p>ticul> complex quality 9 ! s\nd sugge/s z its objective explanation1 :at is p]fectly di/+ui%able f x 9 ?\ght1 ! movem5t ( a cab on a p>ticul> k9d ( pavem5t4 ,! quality ( ! s\nd1 its r\ghness1 l\dness1 increase & decrease1 all =m po9ts ( connection ) ! s\nd ( a cab z we "k x1 & ) ! spe$1 weight1 etc4 ( su* a vehicle4 ,b x is q easy to consid] ! s\nd 9 itself ap>t f its int]pretation1 & we sometimes feel ! #cb int]pretation to be m imm$iate1 & sometimes m inf]5tial4 ,we sometimes say1 8,i he> a cab10 j z we say1 8,i see "o10 b 9 case ( s\nd we m (t5 p]haps say1 8,t s\nds l--0 su* & su* a ?+1 :i* indicates a d\bt1 & ! beg9n+ ( consci\s inf]5ce4 ,?us we see h[ cont9u\s is ! m5tal con/ruction ( reality4 ,f our unreflective education 9 see+1 he>+1 & t\*+1 to ! explicit judgm5t ( ! tra9$ obs]v]1 :i* 9 its turn passes readily into inf]5ce1 !re is no def9ite break4 ,once ! idea ( reality1 or ( a _w1 is appli$ 9 practice 7,i d n say reflectively grasp$71 !re is no fur!r difficulty 9 pr9ciple ?r\gh\t ! :ole process ( its con/ruction4 ,we may !n sum up s f>3 our k1 or our _w 9 k1 exi/s = u z a judgm5t1 t is1 z an affirmation 9 :i* our pres5t p]ception is amplifi$ by an ideal int]pretation :i* is id5tifi$ ) x4 ,?is int]pretation or enl>gem5t claims necessity or univ]sality1 & is !re=e objective z our _w1 i4e4 is :at we are oblig$ to ?9k1 & :at we are all oblig$ to ?9k4 ,! :ole sy/em 9 process ( con/ruction1 viz4 our pres5t p]ception z ext5d$ by int]pretation1 is :at we mean by reality1 only ) a res]vation 9 fav\r ( =ms ( exp]i5ce :i* are n intellectual at all4 ,e judgm5t !n affirms some?+ to be real1 & !re=e affirms reality to be def9$1 9 "p1 by t some?+4 ,k exi/s 9 ! =m ( affirmations ab\t reality4 ,& our _w z exi/+ = u 9 ! m$ium ( k consi/s1 = u1 ( a /&+ affirmation ab\t reality4 #cc ,cont9u\s affirmation ( wak+ consci\sness #d4 ,?is /&+ affirmation ab\t reality may be describ$ 9 o!r words z 8! cont9u\s affirmative judgm5t ( ! wak+ consci\sness40 ,9 ! common logic-books y w f9d judgm5t treat$ only z ! 8proposition10 t is1 z an ass]tion made 9 language4 ,t is a v conv5i5t way ( treat+ ! judgm5t1 & is n false1 if y rememb] t ! proposition1 t is1 ! ass]tory s5t5ce1 is r a translation ( ! judgm5t ?an ! judgm5t itself4 ,b ! judgm5t express$ 9 a proposition is always "s "o def9ite ass]tion1 ) a limit$ subject & pr$icate4 ,we %all speak ( ! judgm5t 9 ?is s5se--! usual s5se--lat]4 ,b to-day ,i want to describe ! judgm5t 9 a m ext5d$ s5se1 t is1 z co-ext5sive ) ! wak+ human consci\sness1 s f> z aw>e ( a _w4 ,if ,judgm5t consi/s 9 ! ext5sion ( our p]ceptions by an int]pretation consid]$ z equally real ) _! cont5t1 x cle>ly is n conf9$ to ! p>ticul> facts & tru?s :i* f "t to "t we utt] 9 language4 ,& m ?an ?is1 ev]y?+ t we d def9itely utt]1 implies a great deal :i* is n def9itely utt]$4 ,if ,i say1 8,i h to cat* ! tra9 at ,sloane ,squ>e to g d[n to ,essex ,hall10 ,i only m5tion ! reality ( "o tra91 "o squ>e1 & "o build+4 ,b my ass]tion %ades (f into innum]able facts1 ! equal reality ( :i* z elem5ts 9 my _w is necess>y to make ?is judgm5t intelligible & true4 ,x implies ! real exi/5ce ( ! und]gr\nd railway1 :i* implies t ( ,london1 & !re=e t ( ! surface ( our globe 9 a c]ta9 def9ite ord]1 & ( ! civilis$ _w4 ,x implies ! reality ( ?is build+ & ( ! meet+s :i* we hold 9 x1 ( ! ,univ]sity #cd ,ext5sion sy/em1 & ( my own life & habits z enabl+ me to take "p 9 ! "w ( t sy/em4 ,only a "p ( ?is is 9 ! focus ( my att5tion z ,i judge2 b ! :ole is a cont9u\s context1 ! p>ts ( :i* are insep>able2 & al?\gh ,i d n affirm ! :ole ( x 9 s _m words1 :5 ,i say t ,i am com+ d[n "h by tra9 ?is ev5+1 yet if any "p ( x 0 n affirm$ ! re/ w\ld1 s to speak1 fall to pieces1 i4e4 w\ld lose relations 9 ! abs5ce ( :i* its mean+ w\ld be de/roy$4 ,o!r deta*$ p>ts ( "o's life & k may seem to be sep>able f ! cont5t ( su* a judgm5t2 b on look+ closely we see t ?is is n ! case4 ,s long z we are awake1 our :ole _w is conceiv$ z real1 & =ms = u a s+le imm5se affirmation1 :i* hangs f pres5t p]ception1 & %>es its con/ra9+ p[]4 ,my pres5t p]ception is ! illum9at$ spot1 & %ades (f gradually into ! re/ :i* =ms ! backgr\nd1 receiv+ f ?is backgr\nd its organis$ sy/ematic individuality1 :ile impress+ ^u x a relation to its own s5su\s pres5tness4 ,we h only to reflect1 9 ord] to illu/rate ?is connection1 on ! way 9 :i* ! idea ( ,london =ms a det]m9+ backgr\nd = ! pres5t p]ception ( ?is room1 :ile on ! o!r h& x is p]ceiv$ by u z real 9 our pres5tation ( ?is room4 ,& inde$ ! simple/ example ( :at ,i am po9t+ out is ! arrangem5t ( objects & places 9 space4 ,! visual picture :i* ea* ( u =ms ( ?is room is c]ta9ly an affirmative judgm5t4 ,x is a judgm5t because x consi/s ( ideas affirm$ z true ( reality4 ,z we look r\nd1 all ! di/ances ( ! objects & ! walls f #ce ea* o!r1 & _! %apes & position1 seem to be impr9t$ on our m9ds )\t an ef=t4 ,b really !y are conclusions f long education 9 ! art ( see+ & f ! exp]i5ce ( ! o!r s5ses4 ,!y are an enl>gem5t or int]pretation ( s5se-p]ception1 tak5 z real1 i4e4 z =m+ a sy/em :i* is "o ) ! cont5t ( s5se-p]ception1 & t\*es u ?r\gh s5se-p]ception1 & !re=e !y exi/ = u 9 ! =m ( ,judgm5t4 ,&1 z ,i describ$ be=e1 our :ole _w1 bo? ( ?+s 9 space & ( our own hi/ory & circum/ances1 is also affirm$ z ! backgr\nd impli$ 9 ?is picture4 ,t is to say1 x is all connect$ toge!r1 x is all tak5 z equally real1 & x is all v\*$ = by its connection ) :at is giv5 to u 9 p]ception4 ,:at d we mean by say+ t ! ,antipodes are real1 & impli$ 9 my p]ception ( ?is room8 ,we mean t !y are an elem5t1 necess>y to educat$ ?\ght1 9 ! same sy/em ) :i* ,i am 9 contact at ?is mom5t by sight1 t\*1 & he>+1 ! sy/em ( reality4 ,& ?\gh ,i may n h explicitly ?\ghts ( !m s9ce ent]+ ! room till n[1 yet1 if !y 7 no "p ( my affirm$ sy/em ( ideas1 my p]ception ( any?+ 9 space w\ld be q diff]5t f :at x is4 ,?is s5se ( necess>y connection is conf9$1 ,i ?9k1 to our wak+ consci\sness4 ,( c\rse !re are degrees betwe5 wak+ & dream+2 b ,i %\ld be incl9$ to set up ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( judgm5t z a v fair te/ ( ^? degrees4 ,we say t a man is awake 9 z f> z he is aw>e 7i7 ( a reality :i* is n 8 m]e c\rse ( consci\sness1 & 7ii47 ( ! same reality ( :i* o!r #cf p are aw>e2 i4e4 9 z f> z he id5tifies 8 pres5t p]ception ) a reality1 & t ! real reality4 ,x is said t surprise1 i4e4 ! s5se ( conflict betwe5 expectation & ! reality1 is abs5t ,9 dreams1 & 9 a v rem>kable passage ,aes*ylus id5tifies ! life ( ! savage 9 8 7imag9>y7 primitive /ate ) a dream-life1 consid]$ z a life ( s5su\s pres5tation1 9 :i* ! int]pretative judgm5t ( p]ception 0 abs5t4 ,) extraord9>y pr(\ndness1 9 portray+ ?is all b animal exi/5ce1 he /rikes out all ^? relations to ! objective _w by :i* man =ms = himself a sy/em t goes beyond ! pres5t1 s z to leave ! /ream ( pres5tation )\t any backgr\nd ( organis$ reality4 #a #a ,i quote f ,mrs4 ,br[n+'s ,translation ( ! ,prome!us ,b\nd1 :i* seems close en\gh = ! pres5t purpose4 8,& let me tell y1 n z taunt+ m51 ,b tea*+ y ! int5tion ( my gifts1 ,h[ fir/1 behold+1 !y beheld 9 va94 ,& he>+1 he>d n1 b1 l %apes 9 dreams1 ,mix$ all ?+s wildly d[n ! t$i\s "t1 ,nor knew to build a h\se aga9/ ! sun ,) wicket$ sides1 nor any woodwork knew1 ,b liv$1 l silly ants1 b5ea? ! gr\nd1 ,9 holl[ caves unsunn$4 ,!re came to !m ,no /eadfa/ sign ( w9t]1 nor ( spr+ ,fl[]-p]fum$1 nor ( summ] full ( fruit4 ,b bl9dly & lawlessly !y did all ?+s1 ,until ,i taught !m h[ ! />s d rise ,& set 9 my/]y1 & devis$ = !m ,numb]1 ! induc] ( philosophies4 ,! syn!sis ( lett]s1 & besides1 ,! artific] ( all ?+s1 ,memory1 ,t sweet muse-"m40 ,pr41 v4 #dde1 ff4 ,! expression 8see+ saw n1 & he>+ he>d n0 appe>s to sugge/ ! contra/ ( pres5tation & objective p]ception4 #cg ,x may be ask$1 8,:y %\ld n a man =m = himself a sy/em :i* int]prets 8 own p]ception1 b is discrepant f ! sy/em ( e "o else8 ,%\ld we 9 t case c\nt him z awake80 ,yes1 he w\ld be awake1 b he w\ld be mad4 ,suppose1 be+ a common man1 he int]prets all 8 p]ceptions into a sy/em :i* makes him out to be ,k+ ( ,engl&2 9 su* a case he _c be set d[n z dream+1 because he is alleg+ a connection :i* goes beyond 8 pres5t p]ception1 & has1 o/5sibly1 be5 prop\nd$ z an int]pretation ( x into a sy/ematic ord] ( ?+s4 ,he has 9 %ort a _w1 b he has brok5 away f ! _w1 & !re=e we pron\nce him mad4 ,a completely new vision ( life may cause a man to be ?\ght mad4 #a #a ,see ,br[n+'s ,epi/le ( ,k>%i%4 ,! :ole _w1 !n1 ( our wak+ #a consci\sness may be treat$ z a s+le connect$ pr$icate affirm$ z an enl>gem5t ( pres5t p]ception4 ,all t we take to be real is by ! m]e fact ( be+ s tak51 br\ght )9 an affirmative judgm5t4 #a ,i d n mean to say t judgm5t & consci\sness ( a _w c be :olly abs5t 9 dreams1 & (t5 no d\bt !y are di/9ctly pres5t4 ,b 9 ^? dreams1 9 my own exp]i5ce ! normal ones1 :i* leave beh9d a m]e impression t unrecognisable images h pass$ be=e ! m9d1 judgm5t & ! s5se ( reality mu/ surely h all b disappe>$4 ,i am incl9$ to ?9k t dreams are v mu* rationalis$ 9 recollection & description4 ,comp>ison ) _w z ,w #e4 ,to fur!r illu/rate ! relation ( :at1 9 our p]man5t judgm5t1 is di/9ctly ?\ght1 :at is dimly ?\ght1 & :at is impli$1 let u look = a mom5t at :at we may call 8! _w z w40 ,?is is n ! doctr9e ( ,s*op5hau] 9 8 "w1 ,! ,_w z ,w & ,idea1 #ch al?\gh ! two conceptions h some?+ 9 common4 ,8 is a metaphysical doctr9e1 9 :i* he says t ! fundam5tal reality ( ! ,univ]se mu/ be conceiv$ z ,w4 ,we h no?+ to d ) t4 ,we are speak+ m]ely ( :at ! _w is = u1 & = u x is n only a sy/em ( reality b a sy/em ( purposes4 ,our _w ( w is a p]man5t factor ( our wak+ consci\sness1 j z mu* z our _w ( k4 ,n[ our w is made up ( a great numb] ( purposes1 m or less connect$ toge!r1 j z our k is made up ( a great numb] ( prov9ces & regions m or less connect$ toge!r4 ,& j z 9 our k at any mom5t mu* is cle>1 mu* is dim1 mu* is impli$1 & ! :ole =ms a cont9u\s context1 s x is ) our purposes4 ,:51 = example1 "o /&s look+ at a picture1 "o's imm$iate consci\s purpose is to /udy ! picture4 ,"o also ent]ta9s dimly or by =ce ( habit ! purpose to rema9 /&+1 :i* is a curi\s ?\gh common in/ance ( w4 ,we d n att5d to ! purpose ( walk+ or /&+1 yet we only walk or /& 79 normal conditions ( m9d7 z long z we w to d s4 ,if we g to sleep or fa9t1 we %all fall d[n4 ,purpose1 l judgm5t1 is conf9$ to ! wak+ consci\sness4 ,b fur!r2 ! purpose :i* "o ent]ta9s 9 /&+ to look at a picture is n really an isolat$ p9-po9t ( w4 ,x is upp]mo/ 9 ! m9d at ! mom5t 9 :i* we c>ry x out1 b x is only ! upp]mo/ /ratum1 or p]haps r ! pres5t po9t atta9$ ^u a def9ite road1 )9 an intricate =mation or network ( purposes1 :i* tak5 toge!r con/itute ! _w ( w4 ,! purpose ( look+ #ci at a picture %ades (f into ! m g5]al purpose ( le>n+ to take pleasure 9 :at is good ( its k9d1 :i* is aga9 set 9 a c]ta9 place )9 ! conception ( our life & ! way 9 :i* we desire to sp5d x1 & our purposes ?r\gh\t e p>ticul> day are fitt$ into "o ano!r1 & give a p>ticul> sett+ & col\r to ea* o!r1 & to ea* p>ticul> day1 & week1 & ye>4 ,n[ less or m ( all ?is may be cle>ly 9 ! m9d :5 we are c>ry+ out a p>ticul> mom5t>y aim4 ,b x is q c]ta9 t 9 a human life ! p>ticul> mom5t>y aim d]ives its significance f ?is backgr\nd ( o!r purposes2 &1 if !y 7 to fall away1 ! di/9ct mom5t>y purpose w\ld *ange its "* & become q a feeble & empty ?+4 ,?us we h1 9 our _w ( w1 a p>allel case :i* illu/rates ! nature ( our _w ( k4 ,!re is ! cle> w to look at ! picture1 ! dim w to cont9ue /&+1 & ! impli$ w to c>ry out c]ta9 g5]al aims1 & foll[ a c]ta9 r\t9e or c\rse ( life1 :i* gives ! mom5t>y purpose its entire sett+ & backgr\nd4 ,i h spok5 ( ! w 9 ord] to illu/rate ! judgm5t1 because ! dim & impli$ elem5ts are p]haps m easy to obs]ve 9 ! case ( ! w4 ,almo/ all our common wak+ life is c>ri$ on by actions su* z walk+ & sitt+1 :i* we h>dly "k t we w1 b :i* we c\ld n d if we did n w !m4 ,& also ! great] "p ( our life is r )9 a sph]e ( w :i* has become objective = u 9 our pr(ession1 int]e/s1 & ideals1 ?an a p]petual active *oice betwe5 #dj alt]natives su* z br+s ! act ( volition be=e u 9 ! mo/ /rik+ way4 ,j s x is ) judgm5t4 ,our speak+ & writ+ is a v small "p ( our judg+1 j z our consci\s *oice betwe5 alt]natives #a is a v small "p ( our will+4 #a ,i d n = a mom5t sugge/ t our 8consci\s *oice0 is ultimately diff]5t 9 k9d f our habitual p]si/5ce 9 a c\rse ( life4 ,i only take x z an in/ance 9 :i* we fully att5d to our volition4 ,di/ribution ( ,att5tion #f4 ,?us ! _w ( k & ! _w ( w mu/ ea* ( !m be reg>d$ z a cont9uum = ! wak+ consci\sness4 ,:5ev] we are awake1 we are judg+2 :5ev] we are awake we are will+4 ,! di/ribution ( att5tion 9 ^! two worlds is v closely analog\s4 ,9 bo?1 x is impossible to att5d to our :ole _w at ! same mom5t4 ,b 9 bo?1 our _w is tak5 z be+ a s+le connect$ sy/em2 & !re=e 7i47 att5tion %ades (f gradually f ! mom5t>y focus ( illum9ation into less & less int5sity ov] ! o!r p>ts ( ! cont9u\s judgm5t or purpose2 b 7ii47 t :i* is 9 ! focus ( att5tion dep5ds = its quality ^u t :i* is less di/9ctly or n at all 9 ! focus ( att5tion4 ,& z att5tion dim9i%es 9 int5sity1 ! implication ( reality does n dim9i% ) x4 ,9 o!r words1 9 spite ( ! inequality ( att5tion1 ! reality ( our :ole _w is impli$ 9 ! reality ( :i* at any mom5t we are di/9ctly aw>e4 ,b be+ di/9ctly aw>e ( reality is ano!r "n = judgm5t4 ,n[ ! common logical judgm5ts :i* we %all h to analyse & classify are simply ^? p>ts ( ?is cont9u\s affirmation ( consci\sness :i* are f "t #da to "t sep>ately made di/9ct4 ,ea* ( !m !re=e mu/ be reg>d$ z a p>tial expression ( ! nature ( reality1 & ! subject w always be ,reality 9 "o =m1 & ! pr$icate reality 9 ano!r =m4 ,! ultimate & complete judgm5t w\ld be ! :ole ( ,reality pr$icat$ ( itself4 ,all our logical judgm5ts are su* portions & fragm5ts ( ?is judgm5t z we c grasp at ! mom5t4 ,"s ( ^! ga!r up 9 a sy/em :ole prov9ces ( reality1 o!rs m]ely enl>ge1 int]pret1 or analyse ! cont5t ( a v simple s5se-p]ception4 ,we %all n g f> wrong 9 practice if we />t f ?is judgm5t ( ,p]ception z ! fundam5tal k9d ( ,judgm5t4 ,! real subject 9 ,judgm5t is always ,reality 9 "s p>ticul> datum or qualification1 & ! t5d5cy ( ,judgm5t is always to be a def9ition ( ,reality4 ,we see ! p>ts ( ,judgm5t mo/ cle>ly 9 su* ?\ghts z 8,?is is blue02 8,?is is a fl[]02 8,t light is ! ris+ sun02 8,t s\nd is ! surf on a s&y %ore40 ,9 ^! we c pla9ly di/+ui% ! elem5t ( pres5tation & ! int]pretative con/ruction or analytic syn!sis :i* is by ! judgm5t id5tifi$ ) x4 #db ,,lecture ,,iii ,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,logic ,,to ,,k ,mean+ ( 8,=m0 #a4 ,i spoke ( ! :ole _w1 :i* we take to be real1 z pres5t$ to u 9 ! %ape ( a cont9u\s judgm5t4 ,x is ! task ( ,logic to analyse ! /ructure ( ?is ,judgm5t1 ! p>ts ( :i* are ,judgm5ts4 ,! fir/ ?+ is !n to consid] :at sort ( prop]ties ( ,judgm5ts we att5d to 9 ,logic4 ,x is commonly said t ,logic is a =mal sci5ce2 t is1 t x deals ) ! =m1 & n ) ! cont5t or matt] ( k4 ,?is ^w 8=m0 is always meet+ u 9 philosophy4 8,species0 is ,lat9 = =m1 z & #a are ,greek = =m4 ,! =m ( any object prim>ily means its appe>ance1 t :i* ! m9d c c>ry away1 :ile ! object z a physical reality1 z mat]ial1 rema9s :]e x 04 ,x ne$ n mean %ape z oppos$ to col\r2 t is a n>r[] usage4 ,! ,greek op9ion 0 no d\bt root$ 9 "s su* notion z t 9 kn[+ or rememb]+ a ?+ ! m9d possess$ its =m or image )\t its matt]4 ,?us ! =m came to /& = ! kn[able %ape or /ructure :i* makes a ?+ :at x is1 & by :i* we recognise x :5 we see x4 ,?is 0 its species or its idea1 ! 8image10 z x is us$ 9 ! phrase1 8,let u make man 9 our own image40 ,s 9 any "w ( ! h&s #dc ( man1 ! =m 0 ! %ape giv5 by ! workman1 & came out ( 8 m9d1 :ile ! matt] 0 ! /uff or mat]ial out ( :i* ! ?+ 0 made4 #a 8eidos0 & 8idea04 ,tr4 ,! mom5t we contemplate a classification ( ! sci5ces1 we see t ?is is a purely relative di/9ction4 ,!re is no matt] )\t =m4 ,if x 0 9 ?is deep s5se )\t =m1 x w\ld be )\t prop]ties1 & s incapable ( act+ or be+ act$ ^u4 ,9 a knife ! matt] is /eel1 ! =m is ! %ape ( ! blade4 ,b ! qualities ( /eel aga9 dep5d1 we mu/ suppose1 ^u a c]ta9 "* & arrangem5t 9 its p>ticles1 & ?is is1 z ,bacon w\ld h call$ x1 ! =m ( /eel4 ,b tak5 z purely relative1 ! di/9ction is good prima facie4 ,/eel has its own =m1 b ! knife has its =m1 & ! matt] /eel c take _m o!r =ms besides t ( a knife4 ,m>ble has its own =m1 its def9able prop]ties z m>ble 7*emical & me*anical71 b 9 a /atue1 m>ble is ! matt]1 & ! =m is ! %ape giv5 by ! sculptor4 ,n[ apply+ ?is di/9ction to k 9 g5]al1 we see t all sci5ce is =mal1 & !re=e x is no di/9ction to say t ,logic is a =mal sci5ce4 ,geometry is a =mal sci5ce2 ev5 molecul> physics is a =mal sci5ce4 ,all sci5ce is =mal1 because all sci5ce consi/s 9 trac+ out ! univ]sal *>act]i/ics ( ?+s1 ! /ructure t makes !m :at !y are4 ,! p>ticul> 8=m10 !n1 ) :i* a sci5ce deals is simply ! k9d ( prop]ties t come "u ! po9t ( view f :i* t sci5ce 9 p>ticul> looks at ?+s4 ,b a v g5]al sci5ce is m emphatically =mal ?an #dd a v special sci5ce4 ,t is to say1 x deals ) prop]ties :i* are pres5t$ 9 "s degree by ev]y?+2 & s 9 e object a great multitude ( prop]ties are disreg>d$ by x1 are treat$ by x z matt] & n z =m4 ,9 ?is s5se ,logic is emphatically 8=mal10 ?\gh n ne>ly s =mal z x is (t5 suppos$ to be4 ,! subject-matt] ( ,logic1 !n1 is ,k qua ,k1 or ! =m ( k2 t is1 ! prop]ties :i* are possess$ by objects or ideas 9 s f> z !y are memb]s ( ! _w ( k4 ,& x is q ess5tial to di/+ui% ! =m ( k 9 ?is s5se f its matt] or cont5t4 ,! 8matt]0 ( k is ! :ole region ( facts dealt ) by sci5ce & p]ception4 ,if ,logic dealt ) ?is 9 ! way 9 :i* k deals ) x1 i4e4 simply z a process ( acquir+ & organis+ exp]i5ce1 !n ,logic w\ld simply be ano!r "n = ! :ole range ( sci5ce1 hi/ory1 & p]ception4 ,!n !re w\ld be no di/9ction betwe5 logic & sci5ce or common s5se1 & 9 try+ to asc]ta91 say1 ! wave-l5g? ( r$ light1 or ! cab-f>e f ,*elsea to ,essex ,hall1 we %\ld be inve/igat+ a logical problem4 ,b we see at once t ?is is n :at we mean by /udy+ k z k4 ,sci5ce or common s5se aims at a p>ticul> answ] to ea* problem ( ?is k9d4 ,logic aims at und]/&+ ! type & pr9ciples bo? ( ! problem & ( its answ]4 ,! details ( ! p>ticul> answ] are ! 8matt] ( fact40 ,! type & pr9ciples :i* are f\nd 9 all su* p>ticul> answ]s may be reg>d$ z ! =m ( fact1 i4e4 t :i* makes ! fact a fact 9 k4 ,jevons appe>s to me to make a t]rible blund] at ?is #de po9t4 ,he says #a--8,"o "n :i* has be5 giv5 to ,logic1 namely ! ,sci5ce ( ,sci5ces1 v aptly describes ! all-ext5sive p[] ( logical pr9ciples4 ,! cultivators ( special bran*es ( k appe> to h be5 fully aw>e ( ! allegiance !y owe to ! highe/ ( ! sci5ces1 = !y h usually giv5 names imply+ ?is allegiance4 ,! v "n ( ,logic occurs z "p ( ne>ly all ! names adopt$ = ! sci5ces1 :i* are (t5 vulg>ly call$ ! #8ologies1' b are really ! #8logics1' ! #8o' be+ only a connect+ v[el or "p ( ! previ\s ^w4 ,?us geology is logic appli$ to expla9 ! =mation ( ! e>?'s cru/2 biology is logic appli$ to ! ph5om5a ( life2 psy*ology is logic appli$ to ! nature ( ! m9d2 & ! same is ! case ) physiology1 entomology1 zoology1 t]atology1 morphology1 an?ropology1 !ology1 ecclesiology1 ?alattology1 & ! re/4 ,ea* sci5ce is ?us di/9ctly confess$ to be a special logic4 ,! "n ( ,logic itself is d]iv$ f ! common ,greek ^w 1 :i* usually means ^w1 or ! sign & outw>d manife/ation ( any inw>d ?\ght4 ,b ! same ^w 0 also us$ to d5ote ! inw>d ?\ght or reason+ ( :i* words are ! expression1 & x is ?us probably t lat] ,greek writ]s on reason+ 7 l$ to call _! sci5ce 1 or logical sci5ce1 also or logical art4 #b ,! adjective 1 be+ us$ alone1 soon came to be ! "n ( ! sci5ce1 j z ,ma!matic1 ,rhetoric1 & o!r names end+ 9 #8ic' 7 orig9ally adjectives1 b h be5 conv]t$ into sub/antives40 #a ,elem5t>y ,lessons1 p4 #f4 #b 8logos01 8epi/eme logike01 8te*ne logike0 & 8logike04 ,tr4 #df ,?is acc\nt ( ! connection betwe5 ! "n 8,logic0 & ! t]m9ations ( ! names ( ! sci5ces appe>s precisely wrong4 ,:atev] may h be5 ! exact mean+ ( ! expression 8,logic10 or 8,logical curriculum10 #a or 8art10 or 8sci5ce0 :5 fir/ employ$1 !re c be no d\bt t ! ^w logical _h a sub/antive ref]5ce to t ab\t :i* ! sci5ce or tea*+ 9 "q 0 to treat4 ,! t]m 8logic10 !re=e1 corresponds n to ! syllables 8logy0 9 su* a ^w z 8,zoology10 b to ! syllables 8,zoo10 :i* indicate ! prov9ce ( ! special sci5ce1 & n its "* z a sci5ce4 ,zoology means connect$ disc\rse 77 ab\t liv+ creatures4 ,logic meant a curriculum1 or sci5ce or art deal+ ) connect$ disc\rse4 ,! phrase 8,sci5ce ( ,sci5ces10 rightly int]pret$1 has ! same mean+4 ,x does n mean t ,logic is a ,sci5ce :i* comprises all ! special sci5ces1 b t ,logic is a ,sci5ce deal+ ) ^? g5]al prop]ties & relations :i* all sci5ces qua sci5ces h 9 common1 b omitt+1 z f its po9t ( view matt] & n =m1 ! p>ticul> details ( cont5t by :i* e sci5ce answ]s ! p>ticul> que/ions :i* x asks4 ,x is wild1 & mo/ mis*iev\s1 to say t 8e sci5ce is a special logic10 or t 8biology is ,logic appli$ to ! ph5om5a ( life40 ,?is confusion de/roys ! :ole dis9t]e/$ness :i* is necess>y to true sci5tific ,logic1 & causes ! logical /ud5t always to h 8 eye on puzzles1 & special me?ods1 & int]f]5ces by :i* he may tea* ! /ud5t ( sci5ce h[ to p]=m ! concrete lab\r ( rese>*4 ,we q admit t #dg a look]-on may sometimes see m ( ! game1 & no wise inve/igator w\ld contemn a priori ! sugge/ions ( a /ud5t l ,goe!1 or ,mill1 or ,lotze1 because _! au?or 0 n exclusively engag$ 9 ! obs]vation ( nature4 ,b all ?is is second>y4 ,! idea t ,logic is a judge ( sci5tific results1 able to pass s5t5ce1 9 virtue ( "s g5]al crit]ion1 ^u _! validity & invalidity1 arises f a deep-ly+ misconception ( ! nature ( tru? :i* naturally allies itself ) ! above confusion betwe5 ,logic & ! special sci5ces4 #a pragmateia ,tr44 ,see ,prantl1 i4 #ede4 ,!re=e ! relation betwe5 cont5t or matt] ( k1 & ! =m :i* is its g5]al *>act]i/ic z k1 is ( ?is k9d4 ,we c ei!r /udy ! objects ( k directly z we p]ceive !m1 or indirectly1 z examples ( ! way 9 :i* we "k4 ,z /udi$ = _! own sake1 !y are reg>d$ z ! matt] or cont5t 9 :i* ! g5]al =m ( k f9ds individual realisation4 ,9 botany1 = in/ance1 we h a l>ge numb] ( actual plants classifi$ & expla9$ 9 _! relation to "o ano!r4 ,a botani/ is int]e/$ directly 9 ! aff9ities & evolution ( ^! plants1 & 9 ! pr9ciples ( biology :i* und]lie _! hi/ory4 ,he pu%es 8 rese>*es fur!r & fur!r into ! individual matt]s t come to light1 )\t1 z a rule1 m ?an a pass+ reflection ^u ! ab/ract nature ( ! me?ods :i* he is creat+ z 8 "w proce$s4 ,he classifies1 expla9s1 obs]ves1 exp]im5ts1 !orises1 g5]alises1 to ! be/ ( 8 p[]1 solely 9 ord] to grasp & r5d] intelligible ! region ( concrete fact t lies be=e him4 ,n[ :ile 8 p>ticul> results & discov]ies #dh con/itute ! 8=m0 or kn[able prop]ties ( ! plant-_w z ! object ( botanical sci5ce1 ! sci5ce :i* inquires into ! g5]al nature ( k mu/ treat ^! p>ticul> results z 8m]e matt]0--z some?+ ) :i* x is n directly conc]n$1 any m ?an ! art :i* makes a /atue is prim>ily & directly conc]n$ ) ! *emical & me*anical prop]ties ( m>ble4 ,! 8=m0 or kn[able prop]ties ) :i* ! g5]al sci5ce ( k is directly conc]n$1 consi/s 9 ^? me?ods & processes :i* ! man ( sci5ce1 develop+ ! modes 9 :i* common s5se naturally works1 con/ructs unconsci\sly z he goes along4 ,?us1 n ! nature & aff9ities ( ! plant-_w1 b classification1 explanation1 obs]vation1 exp]im5t1 !ory1 are ! ph5om5a 9 virtue ( :i* ! organis$ /ructure ( botanical sci5ce p>ticipates 9 ! =m ( k1 & its objects become1 9 ^! respects1 objects ( logical !ory4 ,h5ce "s prop]ties & relations ( objects1 be+ ! =m or kn[able /ructure ( ! concrete objects z a special dep>tm5t ( nature1 correspond to ! m]e matt]1 /uff1 or cont5t ( ,k 9 g5]al1 :ile o!r prop]ties & relations ( objects1 be+ _! =m or kn[able /ructure z ent]+ into a _w ( reality display$ to our intellig5ce1 correspond to ! =m ( ,k z treat$ ( by a g5]al inquiry into its *>act]i/ics1 :i* we call ,logic4 ,x is j z ! qualities or 8=ms0 ( ! diff]5t metals ( :i* knives c be made are m]e matt] or irrelevant detail :5 we are discuss+ ! g5]al 8=m0 or quality ( a good knife1 #di :atev] its mat]ial4 ,a res]vation on ?is head appe>s 9 ! foll[+ section4 ,=m ( ,k dep5d5t on ,cont5t #b4 ,= ! =m ( ,k dep5ds 9 "s degree ^u its matt]4 ,x is v important to realise ?is tru?2 = if ,logic is swamp$ by be+ id5tifi$ ) ! :ole range ( special sci5ces1 x is kill$ by be+ empti$ ( all adaptation to liv+ intellig5ce4 ,:at is call$ ,=mal ,logic p> excell5ce 9 all its %apes1 :e!r antiquat$ z 9 ,hamilton's or ,?omson's ,=mal ,laws ( ,?\ght1 or fre%ly work$ out on a symbolic basis z by ,boole & o!rs1 has1 x appe>s to me1 ?is initial defect1 :5 consid]$ z a g5]al !ory ( ,logic4 ,z a contribution to su* a !ory1 e me?od :i* w "w und\bt$ly has its place1 & indicates & dep5ds ^u "s *>act]i/ic ( real ?\ght4 ,b 9 ! c5tral !ory itself1 & especially 9 s %ort an acc\nt ( x z mu/ be attempt$ 9 ^! lectures1 ,i %\ld be incl9$ to condemn all attempts to employ symbols = any?+ m ?an ! mo/ pass+ illu/ration ( po9ts 9 logical processes4 ,all su* attempts1 ,i mu/ ma9ta91 %>e ) ! old-fa%ion$ laws ( ,id5tity1 ,contradiction1 & ,exclud$ ,middle ! initial fallacy ( repres5t+ a judgm5t by some?+ :i* is n & _c be 9 any way an adequate symbol ( "o4 ,if1 9 ord] to get at ! pure =m ( ,k1 we re/rict ourselves to v ab/ract *>act]i/ics 9 :i* all k appe>s1 v r\ghly speak+1 to agree1 & :i* c be symboliz$ = work+ purposes by comb9ations ( signs :i* h n ! ess5tial prop]ties ( ideal cont5ts1 !n we h ab initio sub/itut$ = ! judgm5t some?+ :i* is a v #ej ab/ract coroll>y f ! nature ( judgm5t1 & may or n = c]ta9 purposes & )9 c]ta9 limits be a fair repres5tative ( x4 ,we _c & mu/ n exclude f ! =m ( ,k its modifications accord+ to 8matt]10 & its nature z exi/+ only 9 8matt]40 ,9 fact1 ! peculi> 8=m0 ( ev]y?+ dep5ds 9 "s degree on its 8matt]40 ,a /atue 9 m>ble is a little diff]5tly treat$ if x is copi$ 9 bronze4 ,a knife is prop]ly made ( /eel2 y c only make a bad "o ( iron1 or copp]1 or fl9t1 & y _c make "o at all ( wax4 ,diff]5t matt]s w m or less take ! same =m1 b only )9 c]ta9 limits4 ,s x is 9 ,k4 ,! nature ( objects z ,k--= we mu/ rememb] t 8=m0 9 our s5se is n some?+ put into ! 8matt]10 some?+ ali5 or indiff]5t to x1 b is simply its own inmo/ "* reveal$ by ! /ructural relations 9 :i* x is f\nd capable ( /&+ #a--;dep5ds on ! way 9 :i* _! p>ts are connect$ toge!r4 #a ,! example ( ! m>ble /atue may seem to contradict ?is idea2 & no d\bt ! indiff]5ce ( matt] to =m is a "q ( degree4 ,b ! feel+ = mat]ial is a mo/ important elem5t 9 f9e art2 & 9 k !re is only a relative di/9ction betwe5 =mal & mat]ial relations4 ,let u comp>e1 = example1 ! use ( numb] 9 und]/&+ objects ( diff]5t k9ds4 ,suppose !re are f\r books 9 a heap on ! table4 ,?is heap ( books is ! object4 ,we desire to conceive x z a :ole consi/+ ( p>ts4 ,9 ord] to d s we simply c\nt !m 8"o1 two1 ?ree1 f\r books40 ,if "o is tak5 away1 !re is "o less to c\nt2 if "o is add$1 !re is "o m4 ,b ! books !mselves1 z books1 are n #ea alt]$ by tak+ away "o f !m or add+ "o to !m4 ,!y are p>ts indiff]5t to ea* o!r1 =m+ a heap :i* is suffici5tly analys$ or syn!sis$ by c\nt+ its p>ts4 ,b n[ in/ead ( f\r books 9 a heap1 let u ?9k ( ! f\r sides ( a squ>e4 ,( c\rse we c c\nt !m1 z we c\nt$ ! books2 b we h n conceiv$ ! nature ( ! squ>e by c\nt+ its sides4 ,t does n di/+ui% x f f\r /raight l9es drawn anyh[ 9 space4 ,9 ord] to appreciate :at a squ>e is1 we mu/ consid] t ! sides are equal /raight l9es1 put toge!r 9 a p>ticul> way s z to make a figure ) f\r "r angles2 we mu/ di/+ui% x f a figure ) f\r equal sides1 b its angles n "r angles1 & f a f\r-sid$ figure ) "r angles1 b ) only its opposite sides equal2 & note t if we %ort5 up "o side into no?+1 ! squ>e becomes a triangle1 ) altoge!r diff]5t prop]ties f ^? ( a squ>e2 if we put 9 ano!r side x becomes a p5tagon1 & s on4 ,^! two ?+s1 ! heap ( books & ! squ>e1 are prima facie objects ( p]ception4 ,we commonly speak ( a diagram on a blackbo>d or 9 a book z 8a squ>e0 if we h reason to take x z approximately exact1 & z int5d$ = a squ>e4 ,b on look+ clos]1 we soon see t ! 8matt]10 or individual attributes1 ( ea* ( ^! objects ( our appreh5sion dem&s a diff]5t =m ( k f t necess>y to ! o!r4 ,! judgm5t 8,?is heap ( books has f\r books 9 x0 is a judgm5t ( enum]ative p]ception4 ,! judgm5t 8,! squ>e has f\r sides0 is a judgm5t ( sy/ematic necessity4 #eb ,:y did we n keep ! two judgm5ts 9 ! same logical %ape8 ,:y did we say 8,?is heap0 & 8,! squ>e08 ,:y did we n say 8?is0 9 bo? propositions1 or 8!0 9 bo? propositions8 ,because ! diff]5t 8matt]0 dem&s ?is diff]5ce ( =m4 ,let u try4 8,! heap ( books has f\r books 9 x40 ,probably we int]pret ?is proposition to mean j ! same z if we _h said 8,?is heap40 ,t is ow+ to ! fact t ! judgm5t naturally occurs to u 9 its "r =m4 ,b if we int]pret 8,! heap0 on ! analogy ( our int]pretation ( 8,! squ>e10 our judgm5t w h become false4 ,x w h come to mean 8,e heap ( books has f\r books 9 x10 & a judgm5t ( p]ception w n be> ?is enl>gem5t4 ,! subject is composite1 & "o1 ! mo/ ess5tial ( its elem5ts1 is de/roy$ by ! *ange f 8?is0 to 8!40 ,let u try aga94 ,let u say 8,?is squ>e has f\r sides40 ,t is n exactly false1 b x is ridicul\s4 ,e squ>e mu/ h f\r sides1 & by say+ 8?is squ>e0 we /rongly imply t f\rsid$ness is a relation ( :i* we are aw>e *iefly1 if n exclusively1 9 ! object att5d$ to 9 ! mom5t ( judg+1 simply ?r\gh ! appreh5sion ( t mom5t4 ,by ?is implication ! =m ( ! judgm5t ab&ons & all b d5ies ! "* ( sy/ematic necessity :i* its cont5t naturally dem&s4 ,x is l say+1 8,x appe>s to me t 9 ! pres5t in/ance two & two make f\r40 ,! numb] ( sides 9 a squ>e1 !n1 is n a m]e fact ( p]ception1 :ile ! numb] ( books 9 a heap is su* a fact4 ,b y may answ] by sugge/+ ! case t an #ec un9/ruct$ p]son--say a *ild1 ) a squ>e figure be=e him1 & hav+ he>d ! "n squ>e appli$ to figures g5]ally resembl+ t figure1 may simply obs]ve ! numb] ( sides1 )\t kn[+ any ( ! geometrical prop]ties connect$ ) x2 w he n !n be "r 9 say+1 8,?is squ>e has f\r sides08 ,c]ta9ly n4 ,9 t case he has no "r to call x a squ>e4 ,x w\ld only be a "n he _h pick$ up )\t kn[+ :at x meant4 ,all he has ! "r to say w\ld be1 8,?is object0 or 8,?is figure has f\r sides40 ,t w\ld be a consi/5t judgm5t ( m]e p]ception1 true z f> z x w5t4 ,x is always possible to appreh5d ! m complex objects ( k 9 ! simpl] =ms2 b !n !y are n appreh5d$ adequately1 n z complex objects4 ,x is also possible to apply v complex =ms ( k to v simple objects4 ,mo/ tru?s t c be laid d[n q 9 ! ab/ract ab\t a human m9d c\ld also be appli$ 9 "s s5se or o!r to any speck ( protoplasm1 or to any pebble on ! sea%ore4 ,& e simple =m ( k is always be+ pu%$ on1 by its own defects & inconsi/5cies1 9 ! direction ( m complex =ms4 ,s f> ,i h be5 try+ to %[ t objects are capable ( be+ diff]5t 9 _! nature z k z well z 9 _! individual prop]ties2 & t _! diff]5t natures z k dep5d on ! way 9 :i* _! p>ts are connect$ toge!r4 ,we took two objects ( k1 & f\nd t ! mode ( connection betwe5 ! p>ts requir$ two q diff]5t k9ds ( judgm5t to express !m4 ,let u look at ! reason ( ?is4 #ed ,! relation ( ,"p & ,:ole #c4 ,! relation ( ,"p & ,:ole is a =m ( ! relation ( ,id5tity & ,diff]5ce4 ,e ,judgm5t expresses ! unity ( "s p>ts 9 a :ole1 or ( "s diff]5ces 9 an ,id5tity4 ,?is is ! mean+ ( 8con/ruction0 9 k4 ,we saw t k exi/s 9 judgm5t z a con/ruction 7tak+ ?is to include ma9t5ance7 ( reality4 ,! expression :ole & p>ts may be us$ 9 a /rict or 9 a lax s5se4 ,9 a /rict s5se x means a :ole ( quantity1 t is1 a :ole consid]$ z made up by ! addition ( p>ts ( ! same k9d1 z a foot is made up ( twelve in*es4 ,9 ?is s5se ! :ole is ! sum ( ! p>ts4 ,& ev5 9 ?is s5se ! :ole is repres5t$ )9 e "p by an id5tity ( quality t runs ?r\gh !m all4 ,o!rwise !re w\ld be no?+ to e>m>k !m z belong+ to ! p>ticul> :ole or k9d ( :ole 9 "q4 ,p>ts ( l5g? make up a :ole ( l5g?1 p>ts ( weight a :ole ( weight1 p>ts ( int5sity a :ole ( int5sity1 9 s f> z a :ole ( int5sity is quantitative1 :i* is n a p]fectly easy "q4 ,:oles l ^! are 8,sums0 or 8,totals04 ,! relation ( :ole to "p 9 ?is s5se is a v simple case ( ! relation ( diff]5ces 9 an id5tity1 b = t v reason is n ! easie/ case to appreciate4 ,! relation is s simple t x is apt to pass unnotic$1 & 9 deal+ ) num]ical computation we are apt to =get t 9 application to any concrete problem ! numb]s mu/ be numb]s ( some?+ hav+ a common quality1 & t ! nature ( ?is some?+ may affect ! result z relat$ to real fact1 ?\gh n z a conclusion f pure #ee num]ical premisses4 ,9 a :ole ( pure numb] ! indiff]5ce ( p>ts to :ole rea*es its maximum4 ,! unit rema9s absolutely ! same1 into :atev] total ( addition x may ent]4 ,9 a :ole ( diff]5tiat$ memb]s1 su* z a squ>e1 all ?is beg9s to be diff]5t4 ,a side 9 a squ>e possesses1 by ! fact ( be+ a side1 v diff]5t relations & prop]ties f ^? ( a /raight l9e conceiv$ 9 isolation4 ,9 ?is case ! :ole is n made up m]ely by add+ ! p>ts toge!r4 ,x is a geometrical :ole1 & its p>ts are comb9$ accord+ to a special =m ( necessity :i* is root$ 9 ! nature ( space4 ,speak+ g5]ally1 ! po9t is t p>ts mu/ occupy c]ta9 p]fectly def9ite places z reg>ds ea* o!r4 ,y _c make a squ>e by m]ely add+ ?ree "r angles to "o1 nor by tak+ a giv5 /raight l9e & add+ ?ree m equal /raight l9es to its l5g?4 ,y mu/ con/ruct 9 a def9ite way s z to fulfil def9ite conditions4 ,! id5tity %[s itself 9 ! diff]5t elem5ts :i* make x up1 n z a m]e repeat$ quality1 b z a prop]ty ( contribut+1 ea* "p 9 a di/9ctive way1 to ! nature ( ! :ole4 ,su* an id5tity is n a m]e total or sum1 ?\gh ,i imag9e t its relations c be fully express$ 9 t]ms ( quantity1 c]ta9 diff]5tiat$ objects or conceptions be+ giv5 7e4g4 l9e & angle74 ,i take a fur!r in/ance to put a %>p po9t ^u ?is di/9ction4 ,! relation ( :ole & p>ts is n[h]e m p]fect1 %ort ( a liv+ m9d1 ?an 9 a "w ( art4 ,!re is a v f9e ,turn] l&scape n[ #a 9 ! 8,old #ef ,ma/]s0 ,exhibition at ,burl+ton ,h\se--! picture ( ! two bridges at ,walton-on-,?ames4 ,! picture is full ( detail--figures1 animals1 trees1 & a curv+ riv]-b$4 ,b ,i am told t if "o attempts to cut out ! smalle/ appreciable fragm5t ( all ?is detail1 "o w f9d t x _c be done )\t ru9+ ! :ole effect ( ! picture4 ,t means t ! individual totality is s weld$ toge!r by ! ma/]'s selective composition1 t1 accord+ to ,ari/otle's def9ition ( a true 8:ole10 if any "p is modifi$ or remov$ ! total is entirely alt]$1 8= t ( :i* ! pres5ce or abs5ce makes no diff]5ce is no true "p ( ! :ole40 #b #a ,febru>y #ahib4 #b ,poetics1 #h ,( c\rse1 9 say+ t ! "p is ?us ess5tial to ! :ole1 x is impli$ t ! :ole reacts ^u & transfigures ! "p4 ,x is 9 & by ?is trans=mation t its p]vad+ id5tity makes itself felt ?r\gh\t all ! elem5ts by :i* x is con/itut$4 ,z ! picture w\ld be ru9$ if a little pat* ( col\r 7 remov$1 s ! little pat* ( col\r might be su* z to be devoid ( all value if se5 on a piece ( pap] by itself4 ,i w give an extreme in/ance1 almo/ am\nt+ to a t\r de =ce1 f ! art ( poetry1 9 illu/ration ( ?is pr9ciple4 ,we con/antly he> & use 9 daily life ! phrase1 8,x all comes to ! same ?+ 9 ! end40 ,p]haps 9 ! v commone/ spee* we use x less fully1 omitt+ ! ^w 8?+02 b ! s5t5ce z writt5 above is a p]fectly famili> platitude1 ) no special import1 nor grace ( s\nd or rhy?m4 ,n[1 9 "o ( ! clos+ /anzas ( ,br[n+'s poem ,any ,wife to ,any ,husb&1 ?is s5t5ce1 only modifi$ #eg by ! sub/itution ( 8at0 = 8910 =ms an entire l9e4 #a ,& ,i ?9k x w g5]ally be felt t !re are few m /ately & pa!tic passages ?an ?is 9 mod]n poetry4 ,bo? ! rhy?m & sonor\sness ( ! :ole poem1 & also its burd5 ( ideal feel+1 are communicat$ to ! l9e 9 "q by ! context 9 :i* x is fram$4 ,?r\gh ! rhy?m ?us prescrib$ to x1 & ?r\gh ! *>act]i/ic emotion :i* x contributes to reveal1 ! 8:ole0 ( ! poem re-acts ^u ?is "p1 & conf]s ^u x a quality :i*1 ap>t f su* a sett+1 we %\ld nev] h dream$ t x 0 capable ( possess+4 #a ,9 ord] to rem9d ! read] ( ! effect ( ?is passage x is necess>y to quote a few l9es be=e & aft]-- 8,re-issue words & looks f ! old m9t1 ,pass !m afre%1 no matt] ^: ! pr9t1 ,image & sup]scription once !y bore6 ,re-co9 ?yself & give x !m to sp5d1-- ,x all comes to ! same ?+ at ! end1 ,s9ce m9e ?\ wa/1 m9e art & m9e %alt be1 ,fai?ful or fai?less1 seal+ up ! sum ,or lavi% ( my treasure1 ?\ mu/ come ,back to ! he>t's place "h ,i keep = !e60 ,we are n "h conc]n$ ) ! peculi> 8ae/hetic0 nature ( works ( art1 :i* makes !m1 al?\gh rational1 nev]!less unique individuals4 ,i only adduc$ ! above examples to %[1 9 unmi/akable cases1 :at is actually meant :5 we speak ( 8a :ole0 z con/itut$ by a p]vad+ id5tity :i* exhibits itself 9 ! congru\s or co-op]at+ nature ( all ! con/itu5t p>ts4 ,9 :oles ( a high] k9d ?an ! :ole ( m]e quantity ! p>ts no long] repeat ea* o!r4 ,!y are n m]ely di/9ct1 #eh b diff]5t4 ,yet ! common or cont9u\s nature %[s itself )9 ea* ( !m4 ,! p>ts ( a sum-total1 tak+ !m = conv5i5ce ( summation z equal p>ts1 may be call$ units2 #a ! p>ts ( an ab/ract sy/em1 su* z a geometrical figure1 may be call$ elem5ts 7,i _c answ] = ma!matical usage71 & ! p>ts ( a concrete sy/em1 an ae/hetic product1 a m9d1 or a society1 might be call$ memb]s4 #a ,a unit ( measurem5t implies 9 addition t x has be5 equat$ ) "s accept$ /&>d4 ,if ,i divide ! l5g? ( my room into ?irty equal p>ts1 ea* "p is a 8unit0 9 ! sum-total2 b ,i h n measur$ ! room till ,i h equat$ "o su* "p ) a kn[n /&>d1 & ?us made x into a unit 9 ! g5]al sy/em ( l5g? equations4 ,b e k9d ( :ole is an id5tity1 & its p>ts are always diff]5ces )9 x4 ,nature ( ,k #d4 ,x w be well to sum up "h :at we h le>nt ( ! nature ( k 9 g5]al1 be=e pass+ to ! def9ition & classification ( ,judgm5t4 ,k is always ,judgm5t4 ,judgm5t is con/ructive1 = u1 ( ! real _w4 ,con/ruct+ ! real _w means int]pret+ or amplify+ our pres5t p]ception by :at we are oblig$ to ?9k1 :i* we take z all belong+ to a s+le sy/em "o ) itself1 & ) :at con/ra9s u 9 s5se-p]ception1 & objective 9 ! s5se t its p>ts act on ea* o!r indep5d5tly ( our individual appreh5sion1 & t we are oblig$ to ?9k !m ?us4 ,! process ( con/ruction is always t ( exhibit+ a :ole 9 its p>ts1 i4e4 an id5tity 9 its diff]5ces2 t is to say1 x is always bo? analytic & syn!tic4 ,! objects ( k diff] 9 ! mode ( relation betwe5 _! #ei p>ts & ! :ole1 & ?us give rise to diff]5t types ( judgm5t & inf]5ce2 & ?is diff]5ce 9 ! =m ( k is a diff]5ce 9 ! cont5t ( ,logic1 :i* deals ) ! objects ( exp]i5ce only f ! po9t ( view ( _! prop]ties z objects 9 an intellectual _w4 ,conclusion #e4 ,i hope t ^! g5]al lectures1 :i*1 z ,i am q aw>e1 h anticipat$ ! treatm5t ( _m difficult que/ions :i* !y h n attempt$ to solve1 h be5 successful 9 putt+ ! problem ( ,logic be=e u ) "s degree ( vividness4 ,if ?is problem 7 ?or\ghly impress$ ^u our m9ds1 ,i %\ld say t we _h already ga9$ some?+ def9ite f ?is c\rse ( /udy4 ,! po9ts :i* ,i desire to emphasise are two4 7#a7 ,i hope t we h le>n$ to realise ! _w ( our k z a liv+ gr[?1 su/a9$ by ! en]gy ( our intellig5ce2 & to und]/& t we d n />t ) a ready-made _w 9 common1 b c only ent] ^u ! inh]itance ( sci5ce & civilisation z ! result ( c\rage1 lab\r1 & reasonable p]sev]ance2 & fur!r1 t we reta9 ?is inh]itance j z long z our endurance & capacity hold out1 & no long]4 ,& 7#b7 ,i h attempt$ to make cle> t ?is liv+ gr[?1 our k1 is l ! vegetable or animal _w 9 be+ compos$ ( inf9ite m9or sy/ems1 ea* & all ( :i* are at bottom ! same function ) correspond+ p>ts or elem5ts1 modifi$ by adaption to ! environm5t4 ,s t ! task ( analys+ ! =m ( judgm5t be>s a c]ta9 resemblance to t ( analys+ ! =ms ( plants4 ,j z f ! s+le cell ( ! undiff]5tiat$ ,alga1 to #fj ! mo/ highly organis$ fl[] or tree1 we h ! same =mation1 ) its *>act]i/ic functions & op]ations1 s f ! undiff]5tiat$ judgm5t1 :i* 9 l+ui/ic =m resembles an ejaculation or int]jection1 to ! reasonable sy/ems ( exact or philosophical sci5ce1 we f9d ! same sy/ematic function ) correspond+ elem5ts4 ,b ! _w ( k has a unity :i* ! _w ( organic individuals _c claim2 & ?is :ole sy/em ( functions is itself1 = our intellig5ce1 approximately a s+le function or sy/em1 correspond+ 9 /ructure to ea* ( its individual p>ts1 z ?\gh ! plant _w or animal _w 7 itself 9 turn a plant or animal4 ,we _c hope to exhau/ ! %apes tak5 by ! p]vad+ fundam5tal function ( intellig5ce4 ,we %all only attempt to und]/& ! analogies & diff]5ces betwe5 "s few ( its lead+ types4 #fa ,,lecture ,,iv ,,types ,,( ,,judgm5t ,,& ,,! ,,g5]al ,,conditions ,,involv$ ,,9 ,,ass]tion ,correspond5ce betwe5 types ( ,judgm5t & nature ( objects z ,k #a4 ,! "q ( correspond5ce betwe5 ! types ( ,judgm5t & ! ord]s ( ,k 0 really anticipat$ 9 discuss+ ! relation betwe5 ! cont5t & ! =m ( k4 ,we saw t ! cont5t or matt] & nature kn[n det]m9es on ! :ole ! =m or me?od ( k by :i* x c be kn[n4 ,i give a few cases ( ?is correspond5ce1 n pr(ess+ to complete ! li/4 ,we %\ld accu/om ourselves to ?9k ( ^! =ms z con/itut+ a progression 9 ! s5se t ea* ( !m betrays a ref]5ce to an ideal ( k :i* 9 itself x is unable to fulfil1 & !re=e inevitably sugge/s "s fur!r or div]g5t =m4 ,& ! defect by :i* ! =ms contradict ! ideal1 is felt by u z a defect 9 _! grasp ( reality1 9 _! pres5tation ( real connections4 8,imp]sonal0 ,judgm5t a4 ,we ?9k ( ! judgm5t z pr$icat+ an ideal cont5t ( a subject indicat$ 9 pres5t p]ception4 ,b !re are judgm5ts :i* sc>cely h an imm$iate subject at all1 su* z 8,h[ hot60 8,bad60 8,x hurts60 ,9 ! judgm5ts ?us repres5t$ ! true subject is "s #fb undef9$ aspect ( ! giv5 complex pres5tation4 ,( c\rse ! words :i* we use are n an absolutely safe guide to ! judgm5t--!y may be m]ely an abbreviation4 ,b !re are typical judgm5ts ( ?is k9d 9 :i* we m]ely mean to connect "s namable cont5t ) t :i* c only be def9$ z ! focus ( att5tion at ! mom5t4 ,su* judgm5ts might be call$ pr$ications ( m]e quality4 ,! only l9k by :i* !y b9d _! p>ts into a :ole is a feel+ ref]r$ to our mom5t>y surr\nd+s4 ,a m]e quality1 if n def9$ or analys$1 or a feel+ ( pleasure or pa91 is ! sort ( object :i* c be express$ 9 su* a judgm5t4 ,p]ceptive ,judgm5t b4 ,!n we h ! v wide sph]e ( p]ceptive judgm5t1 :i* we may mo/ conv5i5tly conf9e to judgm5ts :i* h 9 ! subject elem5ts analog\s to 8,?is10 8,"h10 8,n[40 ,su* p>ticles z ^! indicate an ef=t to di/+ui% elem5ts )9 ! complex pres5t$4 ,!y h no cont5t beyond ! ref]5ce to pres5tation1 &1 9 8"h0 & 8n[10 an implication t ! pres5t is tak5 9 a p>ticul> k9d ( cont9uum4 ,o!rwise !y mean no?+ m or o!r ?an is meant by po9t+ ) ! f+]4 ,we may or may n help out a 8subject0 ( ?is k9d by def9ite ideas atta*$ to x z conditions ( ! judgm5t4 ,if we d1 we are already on ! road to a new =m ( k1 incompatible ) ! judgm5t ( p]ception4 ,= s long z we keep a demon/rative1 spatial or temporal1 ref]5ce 9 ! ?\ght1 ! subject ( judgm5t is n cut loose f our p]sonal focus ( pres5tation4 ,& z ! exi/5ce ( su* a focus is und5iable1 we are secure aga9/ criticism s f> z ! #fc cont5t ( ! subject is conc]n$4 ,b if we beg9 to specify x1 we d s at our p]il4 ,su* judgm5ts z ^! h be5 call$ 8,analytic judgm5ts ( s5se40 #a ,! t]m is n g5]ally accept$ 9 ?is mean+1 b is conv5i5tly illu/rative ( ! nature ( ^! judgm5ts4 ,x is int5d$ to imply t !y are a break+ up & recon/ruction ( :at1 9 our usual loose way ( talk+1 is said to be giv5 9 s5se-p]ception4 ,!y rema9 on ! :ole )9 ! complex ( 8t :i*0 is pres5t$4 #a ,mr4 ,f4,h4 ,bradley1 ,pr9ciples ( ,logic1 p4 #dh4 ,f ! po9t ( view :i* we h tak51 su* judgm5ts are n conf9$ to :at we ?9k x wor? :ile to say1 b are ! ess5ce ( e ord]ly & objective p]ception ( ! _w ar\nd u4 ,9 a wak+ human consci\sness no?+ is unaffirm$4 ,we h no o!r t]m ?an p]ception to express ! process :i* is employ$ 9 sci5tific obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,b x is pla9 t s soon z ! judgm5t t ref]s to 8,?is0 is modifi$ ?r\gh ! inevitable dem& = qualification by exact ideas--8,?is hurts me10 8,:at hurts y80 8,?is old spra91 at ! pace we are walk+0--a conflict ( elem5ts has aris5 )9 ! judgm5t4 ,& z commonplace p]ception passes into sci5tific obs]vation1 ! qualify+ ideas1 on :i* tru? & relevancy dep5d1 dw>f ! importance ( ! 8?is10 & ultimately ou/ x altoge!r4 ,t is a simple case 9 :i* ! ideal ( k & ! nature ( reality op]ate )9 ! judgm5t to split asund] its primitive =m4 ,! subject z express$ by a pure demon/rative refuses to #fd take acc\nt ei!r ( tru?1 i4e4 consi/5cy ) k z a :ole1 or ( relevancy1 i4e4 consi/5cy ) ! relation involv$ 9 ! p>ticul> pr$ication t may be 9 "q4 ,our commonplace p]ception halts betwe5 ^! two extremes4 ,x deals ) ! _w ( individual objects & p]sons1 :i*1 be+ already sy/ematis$ accord+ to our curr5t obs]vations & int]e/s1 has1 s long z we keep to its ord]1 a suffici5t degree ( tru? & relevancy = ! ne$s ( daily life4 ,?us if ,i say1 8,?is book w d z a desk to write ^u10 ! tru? ( ! qualification 8book0 7i4e4 ! reality ( ! subject7 is assum$ on ! gr\nd ( ! facility ( recognis+ a well-kn[n 8?+10 :ile ! relevancy ( ! qualification 8book0 is n que/ion$1 because we accept an individual ?+ z an object ( habitual int]e/ qua individual1 & d n dem& t :5ev] x is nam$ ^? prop]ties alone %\ld be indicat$ :i* are relevant to ! purpose = :i* x is nam$4 ,! 8?+0 is a curr5t co9 ( popul> ?\ght1 & makes common p]ception workable )\t /ra9+ aft] a special relevancy 9 ! subject ( e pr$ication4 ,su* special relevancy leads ultimately to ! ideal ( def9ition1 9 :i* subject & pr$icate are adequate to ea* o!r & necess>ily connect$4 ,a def9itory judgm5t drops ! demon/rative & relies on qualify+ ideas alone4 ,x is !re=e an ab/ract univ]sal ,judgm5t1 :ile ! ,judgm5t ( ,p]ception1 s long z x reta9s ! demon/rative1 is a ,s+ul> ,judgm5t4 ,prop] names 9 ,judgm5t c4 ,b a v curi\s example ( a div]g5ce or half-way h\se 9 ,k is t =m ( ! s+ul> ,judgm5t 9 :i* ! subject is a prop] "n4 ,a prop] "n is #fe designative & n def9itory4 ,x may be describ$ z a g5]alis$ demon/rative pron\n--a demon/rative pron\n :i* has ! same p>ticul> ref]5ce 9 ! m\? ( e "o :o uses1 x1 & beyond ! giv5 pres5t ( "t4 ,s ! ref]5ce ( a prop] "n is a good example ( :at we call$ a univ]sal or an id5tity4 ,t :i* is ref]r$ to by su* a "n is a p]son or ?+ ^: exi/5ce is ext5d$ 9 "t & its p>ts b\nd toge!r by "s cont9u\s quality--an individual p]son or ?+ & ! :ole ( ?is individuality is ref]r$ to 9 :atev] is affirm$ ab\t x4 ,?us ! ref]5ce ( su* a "n is univ]sal1 n z includ+ m ?an "o individual1 b z includ+ 9 ! id5tity ( ! individual numb]less diff]5ces--! acts1 ev5ts1 & relations t make up its hi/ory & situation4 ,:at k9ds ( ?+s are call$ by ,prop] ,names1 & :y8 ,?is "q is ak9 to ! doctr9e ( ,connotation & ,d5otation1 :i* w be discuss$ 9 ! next lecture4 ,x is a v good problem to ?9k ov] be=eh&1 not+ especially ! limit+ cases1 9 :i* ei!r "s p give prop] names to ?+s to :i* o!r p d n give !m1 or "s ?+s are giv5 prop] names :ile o!r ?+s ( ! same g5]al k9d are n4 ,^! judgm5ts1 :i* are bo? ,s+ul> & ,univ]sal1 may p]haps be call$ = di/9ction's sake 8,individual0 ,judgm5ts4 ,ab/ract ,judgm5t d4 ,! demon/rative p]ception may also be replac$ by a m or less complete analysis or def9ition4 ,)9 ?is prov9ce ,def9ition ( a concrete :ole is "o extreme1 e4g4 8,human ,society is a sy/em ( wills02 #ff t ( an ab/ract :ole ! o!r extreme1 8#ab #g #e40 ,!re are all degrees1 betwe5 ^! two1 9 ! am\nt ( modification :i* ! p>ts und]go by belong+ to ! :ole4 ,!re are also all sorts ( incomplete def9itions1 express+ m]ely ! effects ( s+le conditions out ( ^? :i* g to make up a :ole4 ,^! =m ! ab/ract univ]sal judgm5ts ( ! exact sci5ces1 su* z1 8,if wat] is heat$ to #bab ,fahr4 "u "o atmosph]e x boils40 ,9 all ^! cases "s idea1 8ab/ract0 z be+ cut loose f ! focus ( pres5t p]ception1 :e!r ab/ract or concrete 9 its cont5t1 replaces ! demon/rative ( ! judgm5t :i* is a p]ception4 ,^! are ! judgm5ts :i* 9 ! ord9>y logical classification rank z univ]sal4 ,! g5]al def9ition ( ,judgm5t #b4 ,x 0 q "r ( u to consid] "s types ( judgm5t be=e try+ to def9e x g5]ally4 ,x is hopeless to und]/& a def9ition unless ! object to be def9$ is tol]ably famili>4 ,we h said a great deal ab\t k & ab\t judgm5t z ! organ or m$ium ( k4 ,n[ we want to /udy p>ticul> judgm5ts 9 _! p>ts & work+1 & obs]ve h[ !y p]=m _! function ( con/ruct+ reality4 ,n[1 = our purpose1 we may take ! cle>e/ cases ( judgm5t1 viz4 ! mean+s ( propositions4 ,! di/9ctive "* ( ,judgm5t z contra/$ ) e o!r act ( m9d is t x claims to be true1 i4e4 pre-supposes ! di/9ction betwe5 tru? & falsity4 ,fir/1 we h to consid] :at is impli$ 9 claim+ tru?4 ,secondly1 by :at means tru? is claim$ 9 ,judgm5t4 #fg ,?irdly1 ! nature ( ! ideas = :i* alone tru? c be claim$4 ,:at is impli$ 9 claim+ tru? 7i47 ,claim+ tru? implies ! di/9ction betwe5 tru? & falsity4 ,i d n say1 8betwe5 tru? & falsehood10 because falsehood includes a lie1 & a lie is n prima facie1 an error or falsity ( k4 ,x is1 z may be said ( a "q1 altoge!r address$ to ano!r p]son1 & has no exi/5ce z a di/9ct species )9 k4 ,?us a lie is call$ by ,plato 8falsehood 9 words02 ! t]m 8falsehood 9 ! m9d0 he res]ves = ignorance or error1 :i* he treats z ! wor/ ( ! two1 :i* f an intellectual po9t ( view x pla9ly is4 ,no di/9ction betwe5 tru? & falsity c exi/ unless1 9 ! act or /ate :i* claims tru?1 !re is a ref]5ce to some?+ outside psy*ical occurr5ce 9 ! c\rse ( ideas4 ,falsity or error are relations t imply exi/5ces :i*1 hav+ reality ( "o k9d1 claim 9 addition to ?is ano!r k9d ( reality :i* !y h n4 ,9 fact1 all ?+s t are call$ false1 are call$ s because !y claim a place or prop]ty :i* !y d n possess4 ,!y mu/ exi/1 9 ord] to be false4 ,x is 9 ! non-fulfilm5t1 by _! exi/5ce1 ( "s claim or pret5sion :i* x sugge/s1 t falsity consi/s4 ,& s x is 9 ! fulfilm5t ( su* a claim t tru? has a mean+4 ,a false co9 exi/s z a piece ( metal2 x is false because x pret5ds to a place 9 ! monet>y sy/em :i* its prop]ties or hi/ory #a contradict4 #a ,= x is1 ,i suppose1 te*nically false1 ev5 if ov] value1 if n co9$ by ^? :o h ! exclusive legal "r to co94 ,z ! claim to be true is made by e judgm5t 9 its #fh =m1 !re c be no judgm5t )\t "s recognition ( a diff]5ce betwe5 psy*ical occurr5ces & ! sy/em ( reality4 ,t is to say1 !re is no judgm5t unless ! judg+ m9d is m or less aw>e t x is possible to h an idea :i* is n 9 accordance ) reality4 ,?us1 if an animal has no real _w di/9ct f 8 tra9 ( m5tal images1 if1 t is1 & j because1 ^! are 8 _w directly1 & )\t discord1 he _c judge4 ,! "q is1 e4g4 :5 he seems disappo9t$1 :e!r ! pleasant image #a simply disappe>s & a less pleasant image takes its place1 or :e!r ! errone\s image 0 di/+ui%$ z an elem5t 9 8a m]e idea10 :i* c\ld be reta9$ & comp>$ ) ! sy/ematis$ p]ceptions :i* =ce x out1 z an idea ) reality4 #a ,x w be obs]v$ t we are n treat+ ! m5tal images z be+ tak5 = su* by ! primitive m9d4 ,x is j 9 z f> z !y are n yet tak5 = su* t !y are m]ely su*4 ,mr4 ,james says t ! fir/ s5sation is = ! *ild ! univ]se 7,psy*ology ,,ii4 #g74 ,b x is a univ]se 9 :i* all is equally m]e fact1 & !re is no di/9ction ( tru? & falsehood1 or reality & unreality4 ,t c only come :5 an exi/5t is f\nd to be a fraud4 ,we mu/ all ( u h se5 a dog %[ signs ( pleasure :5 he notices prep>ations = a walk1 & !n express ! extreme ( unhapp9ess :5 ! walk is n tak5 at all1 or he is left at home4 ,p int]pret ^! ph5om5a v c>elessly4 ,!y say 8he ?\ght t he 0 go+ to be tak5 out40 ,if he did 8?9k t1 etc10 !n he made a judgm5t4 ,?is w\ld imply t he di/+ui%es betwe5 ! images sugge/$ to 8 m9d1 & ! reality ( _! cont5t z ! future ev5t ( go+ out1 & knew t he might h ! "o )\t ! o!r foll[+4 ,b ( #fi c\rse x is q possible t ! dog has no di/9ct expectation ( some?+ diff]5t f 8 pres5t images1 b m]ely d]ives pleasure f !m1 :i* he expresses1 & suff]s & expresses pa9 :5 !y are replac$ by some?+ else4 ,x is "h1 no d\bt1 9 ! conflict ( sugge/ion & p]ception1 t judgm5t orig9ates4 ,on ! o!r h&1 animals1 especially dome/ic animals1 d seem to use ! imp]ative1 :i* p]haps implies t !y "k :at !y want1 & h x def9itely contra/$ ) _! pres5t ideas z some?+ to be realis$4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 ! claim ( tru? m>ks ! m9imum ( ,judgm5t4 ,!re c be no judgm5t until we di/+ui% psy*ical fact f ! ref]5ce to ,reality4 ,a m]e m5tal fact z su* is n true or false4 ,9 o!r words1 !re is no judgm5t unless !re is some?+ t1 =mally speak+1 is capable ( be+ d5i$4 ,:5 y\r dog sees y g to ! front door1 he may h an image ( hunt+ a rabbit sugge/$ to 8 m9d1 b s f> !re is no?+ t c be d5i$4 ,if he has ! image1 ( c\rse he has4 ,!re is no?+ t c be d5i$ until ! mean+ ( ?is image is treat$ z a fur!r fact beyond ! image itself1 9 a sy/em indep5d5t ( ! mom5t>y consci\sness 9 8 m9d4 ,!n x is possible to say1 8,no1 ! fact does n correspond to y\r idea10 i4e4 :at we are ultimately oblig$ to ?9k z a sy/em is inconsi/5t ) ! idea z y affirm$ x ( ! same sy/em4 ,by :at means ! claim to tru? is made 7ii47 ,! fir/ ?+ !n 9 ,judgm5t is t we mu/ h a _w ( reality di/+ui%$ f ! c\rse ( our ideas4 ,!reupon ! claim to tru? is actually made by atta*+ ! mean+ ( an idea to "s po9t 9 ! real #gj _w4 ,?is c only be done :]e an id5tity is recognis$ betwe5 reality & our mean+4 ,?us 7keep+ to ! ,judgm5t ( ,p]ception7 ,i say1 8,?is table is made ( oak40 ,?is table is giv5 9 p]ception already qualifi$ by numb]less judgm5ts2 x is a po9t 9 ! cont9u\s sy/em or tissue :i* we take z reality4 ,among its qualities x has a c]ta9 gra9 & col\r 9 ! wood4 ,i "k ! col\r & gra9 ( oak-wood1 & if !y are ! same z ^? ( ! table1 !n ! mean+ or cont5t 8made ( oak0 coalesces ) ?is po9t 9 reality1 & in/ead ( m]ely say+1 8,?is table is made ( wood t has su* & su* a gra9 & col\r10 ,i am able to say 8,?is table is made ( oak-wood40 ,?is example %[s ! true di/9ction betwe5 ! ,logical ,subject & ,pr$icate4 ,! fact is1 t ! ultimate subject 9 ,judgm5t is always ,reality4 ,( c\rse ! logical subject may be q diff]5t f ! grammatical subject4 ,"s k9ds ( words _c 9 /rict gramm> be made subjects ( a s5t5ce1 ?\gh !y c repres5t a logical subject q well3 e4g4 8,n[ is ! "t40 8,"h is ! "r place40 ,adv]bs1 ,i suppose1 _c be grammatical subjects4 ,b 9 ^! s5t5ces !y /& = ! logical subjects1 c]ta9 po9ts 9 ! p]ceptive s]ies4 ,! true logical subject !n is always reality1 h[ev] mu* disguis$ by qualifications or conditions4 ,! logical pr$icate is always ! mean+ ( an idea2 & ! claim to be true consi/s 9 ! affirmation ( ! mean+ z belong+ to ! tissue ( reality at ! po9t indicat$ by ! subject4 ,! connection is always made by id5tity ( #ga cont5t at ! po9t :]e ! idea jo9s ! reality1 s t ! judgm5t always appe>s z a revelation ( some?+ :i* is 9 reality4 ,x simply develops1 acc5ts1 or gives accuracy to a recognis$ quality ( ! real4 ,?is is easily se5 9 cases ( simple quality--e4g4 8,?is col\r is sky-blue40 ,! col\r is giv51 & ! judgm5t m]ely id5tifies x ) sky-blue1 & s reveals ano!r elem5t belong+ to its id5tity1 ! elem5t ( be+ se5 9 ! sky on a cle> day4 ,! analysis is n q s easy :5 !re is a concrete subject l a p]son2 = h[ c !re be an id5tity betwe5 a p]son & a fact8 8,a4,b4 pass$ me 9 ! /reet ?is aft]noon40 ,betwe5 :at elem5ts is ! id5tity 9 ?is case8 ,x is betwe5 him1 z an individual :om ,i "k by sight 9 o!r places1 & him z he appe>$ ?is aft]noon 9 p>ticul> surr\nd+s4 ,8 id5tity already ext5ds ?r\gh a great _m diff]5t p>ticul>s ( "t & place1 & ?is judgm5t m]ely recognises "o m p>ticul> z includ$ 9 ! same cont9u\s hi/ory4 8,he 9 ?is context belongs to him 9 a =m] context40 ,9 ?is simple case ! op]ative id5tity is probably t ( my fri5d's p]sonal appe>ance2 b ! judgm5t is n m]ely ab\t t b ab\t 8 :ole p]sonality1 ( :i* 8 p]sonal appe>ance is m]ely tak5 z a sign4 ,any ass]tion :i* is incr$ible because ! id5tical quality is want+ w illu/rate ! requir$ /ructure4 ,!re is a /ory comm5t$ on by ,?ack]ay 9 "o ( 8 occasional pap]s1 :i* impli$ t ! ,duke ( ,well+ton took home note-pap] f a club to :i* he did n #gb belong4 7,?ack]ay gives ! true explanation ( ! fact on :i* ! sugge/ion 0 f\nd$47 ,! id5tity conc]n$ 9 ?is case w\ld be t ( "*4 ,c we f9d an id5tity betwe5 ! "* involv$ 9 a piece ( meanness l t sugge/$ & ! "* ( ! ,duke ( ,well+ton8 ,no2 & prima facie !re=e ! judgm5t is false4 ,! id5tity :i* %\ld b9d x toge!r breaks x 9 two4 ,b yet1 aga93 suppos+ ! ext]nal evid5ce to be /rong en\gh1 we may h to accept a fact :i* conflicts ) a man's "* z we conceive x4 ,t is s3 9 su* a case "o k9d ( id5tity appe>s to contradict ! o!r4 ,i may ?9k t ,i saw a man ) my own eyes1 do+ some?+ :i* :olly contradicts 8 "* z ,i judge x4 ,!n !re is a conflict betwe5 id5tity 9 p]sonal appe>ance & id5tity 9 "*1 & we h to criticise ! two e/imates ( id5tity--i4e4 to ref] !m bo? to our g5]al sy/em ( k1 & to accept ! connection :i* c be be/ adapt$ to t sy/em4 ,we h got1 !n1 z ! active elem5ts 9 ,judgm5t a ,subject 9 ,reality1 ! mean+ ( an idea1 & an id5tity betwe5 !m4 ,is ?is en\gh8 ,h we ! peculi> act ( affirmation :]ev] we h ^! conditions8 ,?is is n ! "q by :at elem5ts ( language ! judgm5t is r5d]$4 ,we %all speak ( t 9 ! next lecture4 ,! "q is n[1 simply1 8,is a significant idea1 ref]r$ to reality1 always an ass]tion80 ,! fir/ answ] seems to be t su* an idea is always 9 an ass]tion1 b ne$ n con/itute ! :ole ( an #gc ass]tion4 ,if we ?9k ( a subject 9 judgm5t :i* is repres5t$ by a relative s5t5ce1 x seems cle> t any idea :i* c /& a pr$icate c also =m a "p ( a subject4 8,! exhibition :i* x is propos$ to hold at ,*icago 9 #ahic0--;has 9 effect j ! same elem5ts ( mean+1 & j ! same ref]5ce to a po9t 9 our _w ( reality z if ! s5t5ce ran1 8,x is propos$ to hold an exhibition at ,*icago 9 #ahic40 ,9 common p>lance we %\ld say1 t 9 ! =m] case we ent]ta9 an idea--or conceive or repres5t x--:ile 9 ! latt] case we affirm x4 ,b if we g on to say t ! =m] k9d ( s5t5ce z truly repres5ts ! nature ( ?\ght z ! latt]1 !n x seems t we are mi/ak54 ,ev5 language does n admit su* a clause to ! rank ( an indep5d5t s5t5ce4 ,if we insi/ on consid]+ x 9 its isolation1 we probably eke x out 9 ?\ght by an un>ticulat$ affirmation su* z t :i* con/itutes an imp]sonal judgm5t2 9 o!r words1 we affirm x to belong to reality "u "s condition :i* rema9s unspecifi$4 ,?us ! l+ui/ic =m ( ! relative clause1 z also ! sep>ate exi/5ce ( ! spok5 or writt5 ^w1 produces an illusion :i* has gov]n$ ! great] "p ( logical !ory s f> z conc]ns ! sep>ation betwe5 concept & judgm5t1 i4e4 betwe5 ent]ta9+ ideas & affirm+ !m 9 reality4 ,9 our wak+ life1 all ?\ght is judgm5t1 e idea is ref]r$ to reality1 & 9 be+ s ref]r$1 is ultimately affirm$ ( reality4 ,! sep>ation ( elem5ts 9 ! texture ( ,judgm5t into ,subjects & ,pr$icates :i*1 z sep>at$1 are conceiv$ z possible ,subjects & ,pr$icates1 is !re=e #gd !oretical & ideal1 an analysis ( a liv+ tissue1 n an enum]ation ( loose bricks out ( :i* some?+ is ab\t to be built up4 ,! k9d ( ideas :i* c claim tru? 7iii47 8,idea0 has two pr9cipal mean+s4 7a7 ,a psy*ical pres5tation & 7b7 ,an id5tical ref]5ce4 ,?is di/9ction is ! same z t betwe5 our c\rse ( ideas & our _w ( k4 ,we mu/ try n[ to def9e x m accurately4 7a7 ,an idea z a psy*ical pres5tation is /rictly a p>ticul>4 ,e mom5t ( consci\sness is full ( a giv5 complex ( pres5tation :i* passes away & c nev] be repeat$ )\t "s diff]5ce4 ,= ?is purpose a repres5tation is j ! same z a pres5tation2 is1 9 fact1 a pres5tation4 ,its detail at any giv5 mom5t is fill$ 9 by ! influ5ce ( ! mom5t1 & x c nev] occur aga9 ) precisely ! same elem5ts ( detail z be=e4 ,if we use ! t]m 8idea0 9 ?is s5se1 z a mom5t>y p>ticul> m5tal /ate1 x is nons5se to speak ( hav+ ! same idea twice1 or ( ref]r+ x to a reality o!r ?an our m5tal life4 ,! idea 9 ?is s5se is a psy*ical image4 ,we _c illu/rate ?is usage by any recognisable "p ( our m5tal furniture1 = e su* "p :i* c be describ$ & indicat$ by a g5]al "n1 is some?+ m ?an a psy*ical image4 ,we c only say t t :i* at any mom5t we h 9 consci\sness1 :5 our wak+ p]ception enc\nt]s reality1 is su* an idea1 & s too is ! image suppli$ by memory1 :5 consid]$ simply z a datum1 a fact1 9 our m5tal hi/ory4 7b7 ,to get at ! o!r s5se ( 8idea0 we %\ld ?9k #ge ( ! mean+ ( a ^w2 a v simple case is t ( a prop] "n4 ,:at is ! mean+ ( 8,/4 ,paul's ,ca!dral 9 ,london08 ,no two p :o h se5 x h c>ri$ away precisely ! same image ( x 9 _! m9ds1 nor does memory1 :5 x repres5ts ! ,ca!dral to ea* ( !m1 supply ! same image 9 e detail & association twice ov] to ! same p]son1 nor d we = a mom5t ?9k t su* an image is ! ,ca!dral4 #a ,yet we nei!r d\bt t ! "n means some?+1 & t ! same to all ^? :o employ x1 nor t x means ! same to ea* ( !m at "o "t t x did at e o!r "t4 ,! psy*ical images :i* =m$ ! fir/ vision ( x are dead & gone = ev]1 & s1 aft] e occasion on :i* x has be5 rememb]$1 are ^? 9 :i* t memory 0 evok$4 ,! ess5ce ( ! idea does n lie 9 ! peculi>ities ( any "o ( _! v>y+ pres5tations1 b 9 ! id5tical ref]5ce t runs ?r\gh !m all1 & to :i* !y all s]ve z mat]ial1 & ! cont5t ( ?is ref]5ce is ! object ( our ?\ght4 #a ,:5 we are actually look+ at ! ,ca!dral1 we say1 8,t is ! ,ca!dral40 ,does n ?is mean t we take our mom5t>y image1 to :i* we po9t1 to be ! reality ( ! ,ca!dral8 ,n precisely s4 ,x is ! 8t10 n our def9ite pr$ication ab\t x1 :i* makes u s confid5t4 ,! 8t0 is id5tifi$ by our judgm5t1 b goes beyond x4 ,9 ord] to di/+ui% & employ ?is ref]5ce x is necess>y t !re %\ld be a symbol = x1 & s long z x br+s u to ! object :i* is ! c5tre ( ! entire sy/em1 ?is symbol may v>y )9 consid]able limits4 ,! commone/ & mo/ secure means ( ref]5ce is #gf ! ^w or "n4 #a ,s confid5t are we 9 ! 8conv5tional0 or artificially adapt$ "* ( ?is m>k or sign ( ref]5ce1 t we are incl9$ to treat x z absolutely unv>y+ on e occasion ( utt]ance4 ,b ( c\rse x is n unv>y+4 ,x diff]s 9 s\nd e "t x is spok51 & 9 context & appe>ance e "t we see x 9 a writt5 %ape4 ,our reliance ^u x z id5tical ?r\gh\t dep5ds on ! fact t x has a recognisable "* to :i* its v>iations are irrelevant1 & :i* practically cru%es out ^! v>iations f our att5tion4 ,unless we are on ! look-out = mispronunciations or mispr9ts1 !y d n int]f]e at all ) our att5tion to ! ma9 ref]5ce ( words4 ,we "k t x is almo/ impossible to detect mispr9ts s long z "o reads a book ) att5tion to its mean+4 ,?is !n is a fair p>allel to ! di/9ction :i* we are consid]+ betwe5 two k9ds ( ideas4 ,if ! mom5t>y s\nd or look ( a ^w is analog\s to idea z psy*ical pres5tation1 8! ^w0 z a p]man5t possession ( our k is analog\s to ! idea z a ref]5ce to an object 9 our sy/ematic _w1 & is ! normal in/rum5t ( su* a ref]5ce4 #a 8,a "n is a s\nd :i* has significance accord+ to conv5tion10 i4e4 accord+ to rational agreem5t4--,ar4 de ,int]p4 #af;a #ai4 ,b ei!r ) ! ^w or )\t x !re may be a symbol ( ano!r k9d4 ,any psy*ical image t falls )9 c]ta9 limits may appe> z ! mom5t>y vehicle ( ! con/ant ref]5ce to an object4 ,j z 9 recognis+ ! ref]5ce ( a ^w we omit to notice ! acc5t & l\dness ) :i* x is pron\nc$1 or ! quality ( ! pap] on :i* x is pr9t$1 j s 9 recognis+ ! #gg ref]5ce ( a psy*ical image our att5tion fails to note its mom5t>y context1 col\r+1 & detail4 ,if x includes some?+ t def9itely belongs to a sy/ematic object 9 our _w ( objects1 t is en\gh1 unless c\nt]act$ by cross ref]5ces1 to effect ! sugge/ion we require1 & t1 & no?+ else1 arre/s our att5tion = ! mom5t4 ,:5 ,i ?9k ( ,/4 ,paul's ,ca!dral1 x may be ! we/ front1 or ! dome se5 f ! outside1 or ! gall]y se5 f ! inside1 t happ5s to occur to my m9d2 & fur!r1 t :i* does occur to me occurs 9 a p>ticul> =m or col\r+1 dictat$ by ! condition ( my memory & att5tion at ! mom5t4 ,b ^! peculi>ities are dw>f$ by ! mean+1 & unless ,i consid] !m = psy*ological purposes1 ,i d n "k t !y are !re4 ,x is ! typical elem5t only1 ! elem5t :i* po9ts to ! common ref]5ce 9 :i* my int]e/ c5tres1 t =ms ! cont5t ( ! idea 9 ?is s5se1 tak5 n z a transi5t feature ( ! m5tal complex1 b z def9itely sugge/+ a con/ant object 9 our con/ruct$ _w4 ,& x sugge/s ?is object because x1 ! typical elem5t1 is a common po9t t l9ks toge!r ! v>i\s cases & ! v>i\s pres5tations 9 :i* ! object is giv5 to u4 ,9 ?is s5se x is a univ]sal or an id5tity4 ,h[ c ?is conception ( a logical idea be appli$ to a p]fectly simple pres5tation8 ,x w\ld be impossible s to apply x1 b !re does n seem to be su* a ?+ z a simple pres5tation 9 ! s5se ( a pres5tation t has no connection z a univ]sal ) any?+ else4 ,9 ! image ( a p>ticul> blue col\r1 we _c inde$ sep>ate out :at makes x blue f :at makes x ! p>ticul> #gh %ade ( blue t x is4 ,b nev]!less its blu5ess makes x a symbol to u ( blue 9 g5]al1 & :5 s ?\ght (1 cru%es out ( sight all ! visible peculi>ities t att5d e spatial surface4 ,we und]/& p]fectly well t ! col\r is blue1 & t 9 say+ ?is we h gone beyond ! limits ( ! mom5t>y image1 & h ref]r$ some?+ 9 x z a univ]sal quality to our _w ( objects4 ,an idea1 9 ?is s5se1 is bo? less & m ?an a psy*ical image4 ,x conta9s less1 b /&s = m4 ,x includes only :at is c5tral & *>act]i/ic 9 ! detail ( ea* m5tal pres5tation1 & !re=e omits mu*4 ,b x is n tak5 z a m5tal pres5tation at all1 b z a cont5t belong+ to a sy/ematic _w ( objects indep5d5t ( my ?\ght1 & !re=e /&s = some?+ :i* is n m]e psy*ical image4 ,if !re=e we are ask$ to display x z an image1 z some?+ fix$ 9 a p]man5t outl9e1 h[ev] pale or meagre1 we _c d s4 ,x is n an ab/ract image1 b a concrete habit or t5d5cy4 ,x c only be display$ 9 ! judgm5t1 t is1 9 a concrete case ( ref]5ce to reality4 ,ap>t f ?is1 x is a m]e ab/raction ( analysis1 a t5d5cy to op]ate 9 a c]ta9 way ^u c]ta9 psy*ical pres5tations4 ,psy*ically speak+1 x is :5 realis$ 9 judgm5t a process m or less sy/ematic1 ext5d+ ?r\gh "t1 & deal+ ) mom5t>y pres5tations z its mat]ial4 ,9 o!r words1 we may describe x z a selective rule1 %[n by its work+s b n consci\sly be=e ! m9d--= if x 71 x w\ld no long] be an idea1 b an idea ( an idea4 ,e judgm5t1 :e!r made ) language or )\t1 #gi is an in/ance ( su* an idea1 :i* may be call$ a symbolic idea z di/9ct f a psy*ical image2 8symbolic0 because ! m5tal units or images involv$ are n z su* tak5 z ! :ole ( ! object = :i* !y /&1 b are 9 a second>y s5se1 z ! ^w 9 a prim>y s5se1 symbols or vehicles only4 ,su* ideas c h tru? claim$ = !m1 because !y h a ref]5ce beyond _! m5tal exi/5ce4 ,!y po9t to an object 9 a sy/em ( p]man5t objects1 & t to :i* !y po9t may or may n suit ! relation :i* !y claim = x4 ,!re=e ! judgm5t c only be made by help ( symbolic ideas4 ,m]e m5tal facts1 occurr5ces 9 my m5tal hi/ory1 tak5 z su*1 _c ent] into judgm5t4 ,:5 we judge ab\t !m1 z 9 ! la/ s5t5ce1 !y are n !mselves subject or pr$icate1 b are ref]r$ to1 l any o!r facts1 by help ( a selective process deal+ ) our curr5t m5tal images ( !m4 ,we %all n be f> wrong !n1 if 9 e judgm5t1 "u :atev] disguises x may assume1 we look = elem5ts analog\s to ^? :i* are manife/ 9 ! simple p]ceptive judgm5t1 8,?is is gre510 or 8,t is a horse40 ,! relation betwe5 ^! & m elaborate =ms ( affirmation1 su* z ! ab/ract judgm5t ( sci5ce1 has p>tly be5 indicat$ 9 ! e>li] portion ( ?is lecture4 ,! g5]al def9ition ( judgm5t has !re=e be5 suffici5tly sugge/$ on p4 #gb4 ,judgm5t is ! ref]5ce ( a significant idea to a subject 9 reality1 by means ( an id5tity ( cont5t betwe5 !m4 #hj ,,lecture ,v ,,! ,,proposition ,,& ,,! ,,"n ,judgm5t translat$ into language4 #a4 ,judgm5t express$ 9 words is a ,proposition4 ,mu/ ,judgm5t be express$ 9 words8 ,we h assum$ t ?is ne$ n be s4 ,mill #a says ( ,inf]5ce t 8x is an op]ation :i* usually takes place by means ( words1 & 9 complicat$ cases c take place 9 no o!r way40 ,! same is true ( ,judgm5t4 #a ,logic vol4 ,i4 c4 i41 init4 ,we may say 9 g5]al t words are n ne$$1 :5 ?9k+ ab\t objects by help ( pictorial images w d ! "w dem&$ ( ! m9d1 i4e4 :5 p]fectly individualis$ connections 9 space & "t are 9 "q4 ,mr4 ,/\t #a gives *ess-play+ z an example4 ,) ! bo>d be=e him1 ev5 an ord9>y play] does n ne$ words to describe to himself ! move :i* he is ab\t to make4 #a ,9 ,m9d1 no4 #fb4 ,words are ne$$ :5 we h to att5d to ! g5]al plan ( any sy/em1 z 9 ?9k+ ab\t organisms ) ref]5ce to _! type1 or ab\t political relations--ab\t any?+1 t is1 :i* is n ( su* a nature t ! memb]s ( ! idea c be symbolis$ 9 pictorial =m4 ,x w\ld be difficult1 = example1 to compreh5d ! respiration ( plants "u a symbolic picture-idea drawn #ha f ! respiration ( ! high] animals4 ,! relations :i* con/itute a common elem5t betwe5 ! two processes d n include ! movem5ts1 feel+s1 & visible *anges 9 ! circulatory fluid f :i* our image ( animal respiration is *iefly drawn2 & we c\ld h>dly frame a pictorial idea t w\ld duly insi/ on ! *emical & organic conditions on :i* ! common elem5t ( ! process dep5ds4 ,9 a case ( ?is k9d ! ^w is ! symbol :i* enables u to hold toge!r 9 a coh]5t sy/em1 ?\gh n 9 a s+le image1 ! relations :i* make up ! cont5t ( our ?\ght4 8,words0 may be ( _m diff]5t k9ds--spok51 writt51 indicat$ by deaf & dumb signs2 all ( ^! are d]iv$ f ! ^w z x is 9 spee*1 al?\gh writ+ & pr9t+ become practically indep5d5t ( s\nd1 & we read1 l ! deaf & dumb alphabet1 directly by ! eye4 ,!n !re may be any k9d ( conv5tional signals ei!r = lett]s1 words1 or s5t5ces1 & any k9d ( ciph] or memoria te*nica ei!r = private or = g5]al use--9 ^! ! 8conv5tional0 nature ( language rea*es its climax1 & ! relation to a natural gr[? ( spee* has disappe>$4 ,& f9ally !re are all =ms ( picture-writ+1 :i* ne$ n1 s f> z its intr9sic nature goes1 h any connection ) spee* at all1 & :i* seems to =m a direct transition betwe5 picture-?9k+ & ?9k+ ?r\gh ! writt5 sign4 ,all ^! mu/ be consid]$ "u ! head ( language1 z a fix$ sy/em or signs = mean+s1 be=e we c ultimately pron\nce t we ?9k )\t words4 ,e ,judgm5t1 h[ev]1 c be express$ 9 words1 #hb ?\gh n e ,judgm5t ne$ be s express$ or c readily be s4 ,proposition & s5t5ce4 #b4 ,a ,judgm5t express$ 9 words is a ,proposition1 :i* is "o k9d ( s5t5ce4 ,a comm& "q or wi% is a s5t5ce b n a proposition4 ,a deta*$ relative clause #a is n ev5 a complete s5t5ce4 ,! mean+ ( ! imp]ative & ! "q seems to include "s act ( w2 ! mean+ ( a proposition is always giv5 out simply = fact or tru?4 ,we ne$ n consid] any s5t5ce t has no mean+ at all4 #a ,see above1 ,lect4 ,,iv4 ,diff]5ce betwe5 ,proposition & ,judgm5t #c4 ,almo/ all ,engli% logicians speak ( ! ,proposition & n ( ! ,judgm5t4 #a ,?is does n matt]1 s long z we are agre$ ab\t :at !y mean4 ,!y mu/ mean ! proposition z und]/ood1 & ?is is :at we call ! judgm5t4 #a ,s ,mill1 ,v5n1 ,jevons1 ,ba9 7see 8 note1 p4 #hj74 ,9 ord] to make ?is di/9ction cle>1 let u consid] ! proposition z x rea*es u f )\t1 t is to say1 ei!r z spok5 or z writt54 ,! words1 ! p>ts ( su* a proposition1 z we he> or read !m1 are sep>ate & successive ei!r 9 "t alone1 or 9 "t & space4 ,fur!r1 ! m]e s\nds or signs c be ma/]$ ap>t f ! mean+4 ,y c repeat !m or copy !m )\t und]/&+ !m 9 ! lea/1 z e4g4 9 ! case ( a proposition 9 an unkn[n language4 ,s f>1 ! proposition has n become a judgm5t1 & ,i d n suppose t any logician w\ld admit t x des]v$ ! "n ev5 ( a proposition4 ,b if n1 !n we mu/ n confuse ! attributes :i* x has be=e x becomes a proposition ) ^? :i* x has aft]4 #hc ,fur!r1 9 und]/&+ a proposition1 or 9 con/ru+ a s5t5ce into a proposition 7if ! s5t5ce only becomes a proposition :5 und]/ood71 !re are _m degrees4 ,i read ^u a po/c>d1 8,a meet+ w be held on ,saturday next by ! ,wom5's ,lib]al ,association1 to discuss ! taxation ( gr\nd-r5ts40 ,! mean+ ( su* a s5t5ce takes "t to grasp1 & if ! words are read al\d to u1 mu/ ( necessity be appreh5d$ by degrees4 ,we und]/& v quickly t a meet+ is to be held next ,saturday4 ,?is und]/&+ is already a judgm5t4 ,x is some?+ q diff]5t f m]ely repeat+ ! words :i* we read4 ,x consi/s 9 realis+ !m z mean+s1 & br++ ^! mean+s toge!r into a connect$ idea1 & affirm+ ?is idea to belong to our real _w4 ,! mean+s are n sep>ate1 outside "o ano!r1 z ! words are :5 we fir/ he> or read !m4 ,!y ent] into ea* o!r1 modify ea* o!r1 & become p>ts ( an ideal :ole4 ,?is gradual appreh5sion ( a s5t5ce recalls to "o ! boyi% amusem5t ( melt+ d[n bits ( lead 9 a ladle4 ,at fir/ ! pieces all lie ab\t1 rigid & out ( contact2 b z !y beg9 to be fus$ a fluid sy/em is =m$ 9 :i* !y give up _! rigidity & indep5d5ce1 & ent] into ! close/ possible contact1 s t _! movem5ts & position det]m9e ea* o!r4 ,b /ill "s p>ts1 l words n yet grasp$1 rema9 h>d & sep>ate1 & x is only :5 ! melt+ is complete t ?is isolation is de/roy$1 & !re are no long] deta*$ fragm5ts1 b a fluid body su* t all its p>ts are 9 ! close/ connection ) "o ano!r4 ,?us !n 9 und]/&+ a s5t5ce we h a judgm5t #hd f ! fir/4 ,! re/ ( ! process ( und]/&+ consi/s 9 complet+ ! cont5t ( ?is judgm5t by fus+ ) x ! mean+s ( ! words n yet appreh5d$2 & 9 ! complet5ess ) :i* ?is is effect$ !re w always be great diff]5ces ( degree betwe5 diff]5t m9ds1 & also betwe5 ! same m9d at diff]5t times4 ,"s ( u atta* a complete & di/9ct mean+ to ! words 8,wom5's ,lib]al ,association02 "s ( u d n "k1 or h =gott51 exactly :at x is1 & :at are its aims & hi/ory4 ,all ( u h "s conception ( ! purpose describ$ z 8taxation ( gr\nd r5ts10 b ! phrase conveys a p]fectly def9ite s*eme h>dly to "o 9 a ?\s& read]s4 ,nev]!less1 9 s f> z we h "s symbolic idea :i* ref]s to ?is place or context 9 ! _w ( objects1 ! cont5t ( ?is idea ent]s into & modifies ! total mean+ :i* 9 appreh5d+ ! s5t5ce be=e u we affirm ( reality4 ,! he>d or writt5 proposition 7or s5t5ce1 if x is n a proposition till und]/ood7 s]ves z an in/rum5t by :i* we build up 9 our intellectual _w a sort ( plan or s*eme ( connect$ mean+s1 & also1 n subsequ5tly b concurr5tly ) ?is "w ( build+1 affirm ! :ole cont5t ?us be+ put toge!r to be true ( reality4 ,!n we h :at ,i call a ,judgm5t4 ,x is n t ! words are necess>ily =gott52 !y1 or at lea/ ! pr9cipal significant t]ms1 are probably /ill 9 ! m9d z guides & symbols2 b yet a con/ructive "w has be5 done2 a complex exp]i5ce has be5 call$ up & analys$1 & its p>ts fitt$ toge!r 9 a c]ta9 def9ite ord] by ! op]ation ( univ]sal ideas or mean+s1 ea* ( :i* is a sy/em play+ #he into o!r sy/ems2 & ! :ole ?us realis$ has be5 add$ z an ext5sion to ! significance ( ! cont9u\s judgm5t :i* =ms our wak+ consci\sness4 ,! inconv5i5ce ( ! t]m 8proposition0 is t x t5ds to confuse ! he>d or writt5 s5t5ce 9 its sep>ate words ) ! proposition z appreh5d$ & intellectually affirm$4 ,& ^! two ?+s h q diff]5t *>act]i/ics4 ,p>ts ( ,spee* #d4 ,?us we mu/ be v c>eful h[ we apply ! conception ( 8p>ts ( spee*40 ,! grammatical analysis :i* classifies words z sub/antives1 adjectives1 adv]bs1 v]bs1 & ! l1 is n to be tak5 z tell+ u :at words are by !mselves1 b j ! opposite1 viz4 :at !y d :5 employ$ 9 a significant s5t5ce4 ,!y are /udi$ sep>ately = conv5i5ce 9 att5d+ to !m1 z we may /udy ! :eels & pi/ons ( an eng9e2 b ! "w :i* gives !m _! names c only be done :5 !y are toge!r4 ,?is tru? is (t5 express$ by say+ t 8! s5t5ce is ! unit ( language10 i4e4 a ^w tak5 by itself _c h a complete mean+--unless x is a v]b1 or us$ ) v]bal =ce1 = a v]b is an unanalys$ s5t5ce4 ,if any "o uses a sub/antive or adv]b by itself1 we ?9k t he has n f9i%$ 8 s5t5ce1 & no mean+ is convey$ to our m9ds4 ,we ask him1 8,well1 :at ab\t x80 ,! same is true1 z we saw1 ( a relative clause4 ,if we read 9 a newspap] su* a clause z ?is1 8,! epidemic ( influ5za1 :i* has appe>$ 9 ,engl& = ?ree successive seasons10 foll[$ by a full /op1 we %\ld inf]1 )\t hesitation1 t "s words _h dropp$ out by accid5t4 ,( c\rse su* a #hf comb9ation ( words w\ld make u ?9k some?+1 b ! mean+ :i* we might ascribe to x w\ld be conjectural2 we %\ld necess>ily complete ! ?\ght = ourselves by "s affirmation--"s relation to reality--:ile recognis+ t no su* relation 0 giv5 9 ! clause z we read x4 ,no?+ less ?an a s5t5ce1 or1 omitt+ ! wi% & ! comm&1 no?+ less ?an a proposition1 conveys a mean+ 9 :i* ! m9d c acquiesce z n requir+ to be supplem5t$ conjecturally4 ,!re are traces 9 language t indicate ! s5t5ce to h be5 hi/orically prior to ! ^w4 ,i "q :e!r ! ^w c\ld be c]ta9ly di/+ui%$ )9 ! s5t5ce 9 e>ly languages t h n be5 r$uc$ to writ+4 ,! t5d5cy ( reflective analysis1 z 9 gramm> & diction>ies1 is to give x a m & m1 artificial isolation4 ,! ,greeks did n sep>ate _! words 9 writ+1 & !y wrote d[n ! *ange 9 a t]m9al consonant produc$ by ! initial lett] ( ! next ^w1 j z if x 0 )9 a comp\nd ^w4 ,nor _h !y really any curr5t t]m co-ext5sive ) our 8^w40 ,:]e we %\ld say 8! ^w #8horse'0 !y mo/ commonly use ! neut] article 8!0 foll[$ by ! ^w 9 "q z if 9 quotation-m>ks 70! #8horse'874 ,9 def9+ n\n & v]b1 ,ari/otle has no simple class "n l 0^w8 to employ z a common elem5t ( ! def9ition1 b uses ! curi\s description 0a portion ( disc\rse1 ( :i* no "p has a mean+ by itself48 ,( c\rse1 s+le words (t5 /& z signs = propositions4 ,x is int]e/+ to note ! pregnant mean+ ( a s+le ^w 9 ! m\? ( a *ild4 ,?us 8/ool0 0 #hg us$ to mean 87#a7 ,:]e is my /ool8 7#b7 ,my /ool is brok52 7#c7 ,lift me on to ! /ool2 7#d7 ,"h is a /ool40 #a ,!re is 9 ?is an int]e/+ conflict ( =m & mean+1 ow+ to ! *ild ( ,european race hav+ at comm& only 8p>ts ( spee*40 ,9 a less analytical language he might h at comm& a s\nd correspond+ to a s5t5ce r ?an to a 8n\n sub/antive40 #a ,prey]1 quot$ 9 ,hffd+1 ,psy*41 #agf4 ,! v]b ( inflect$ languages1 #a su* z ,greek or ,lat91 9 :i* ! 8nom9ative case0 ne$ n be suppli$ ev5 by a pron\n1 is ! type = u ( a s5t5ce n yet brok5 up4 #a ,9 ,g]man & ,engli%1 ?\gh ! v]b is inflect$1 cu/om =bids x to /& )\t ! pron\n4 ,! be>+ ( ?is tru? on ,logic is to make u treat x 9 two p>ts & n 9 ?ree4 ,we d n treat ( ,"n1 ,proposition1 ,syllogism1 or ( ,concept1 ,judgm5t1 ,inf]5ce1 b only ( ! two latt] p>ts4 ,! "n or concept has no reality 9 liv+ language or liv+ ?\ght1 except :5 ref]r$ to its place 9 a proposition or judgm5t4 ,we ought n to ?9k ( propositions z built up by putt+ words or names toge!r1 b ( words or names z di/+ui%$ ?\gh n sep>able elem5ts 9 propositions4 ,ari/otle takes ! simple & /raight=w>d view4 8,a t]m is ! elem5t into :i* a proposition is brok5 up1 su* z subject & pr$icate40 #a ,( c\rse diff]5t languages sep>ate ! p>ts ( ! proposition v diff]5tly1 #hh & un$ucat$ p h>dly sep>ate !m at all4 ,=mal ,logic breaks d[n ! grammatical mean+ ( 8"n10 s f> z to treat z a 8logical "n0 any complex words t c /& z ,subject or ,pr$icate 9 a ,proposition 7e4g4 a relative clause74 #a ,anal4 prior41 #bd;b1 #af4 ,! opposite view seems to be express$ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! p]i ,h]m5eias1 de ,int]pretatione1 t ! sep>ate ^w corresponds to ! sep>ate idea4 ,i h attempt$ to expla9 ?is z an illusion1 p4 #gc1 above4 ,d5otation & ,connotation #e4 ,! doctr9e ( ! mean+ ( names has suff]$ f _! relation to propositions n be+ borne 9 m9d4 ,mill's discussion #a is v s5sible1 b1 z always1 v c>eless ( /rict sy/em4 ,m especially x seems a pity to /ate ! "q z if x conc]n$ a division ( names into ,connotative & ,non-connotative2 because 9 ?is way we f ! fir/ let g ( ! idea t ! mean+ ( a "n has necess>ily two aspects1 #b & we almo/ b9d ourselves to make out t !re are "s non-connotative names4 ,x is bett] to consid] ?is latt] subject on its m]its4 ,mill says t an ord9>y significant "n su* z 8man0 8signifies ! subjects directly1 ! attributes indirectly2 x d5otes ! subjects1 & implies or involves or indicates1 or1 z we %all say h5ce=?1 connotes1 ! attributes40 ,9 %ort1 ! d5otation ( a "n consi/s ( ! ?+s to :i* x applies1 ! connotation consi/s ( ! prop]ties :i* x implies4 ,! d5otation is made up ( individuals & ! connotation ( attributes4 ,d5otation is also call$ ,ext5sion1 especially if we are speak+ ( ,concepts r ?an ( names4 ,connotation is !n call$ ,int5sion4 ,9 ! ,g]man writ]s x is m usual to say t ! ,ext5sion or ,area 7,umfang7 consi/s n ( ! individuals1 b ( ! species t are conta9$ 9 #hi ! mean+ ( a g5]al "n4 ,!y oppose x to ,cont5t 7,inhalt7 correspond+ to our 8,connotation40 ,?us ! 8,area0 ( 8rose0 w\ld n be ! individual roses 9 ! _w1 b r all ! species ( rose 9 ! _w 7,rosa ,can9a1 ,rosa ,rubig9osa1 etc474 ,?is raises a difficulty z to ! d5otation ( a specific "n1 b p]haps repres5ts ! actual process ( ?\ght1 9 ! case ( a g5]ic "n1 bett] ?an t :i* ,mill adopts4 ,! diff]5ce is n important4 #a ,logic1 ,bk4 ,i4 c4 ii4 #e4 ,cf4 ,v5n1 #agd & #ahc1 & ,ba91 #dh4 #b ,see ,bradley1 p4 #aee4 ,well1 !n1 accord+ to ,mill1 :5 we say1 8,! ,m>%al ,niel is a yell[ rose10 we ref] directly to a gr\p ( real or possible objects1 & we mean t all ^! individual objects are yell[ roses4 ,! attributes are only m5tion$ by ! way1 or impli$4 ,s ,dr4 ,v5n says t ! d5otation is real1 & ! connotation is notional4 ,b !re is ano!r side to ?is "q4 ,! objects may be :at y mean b ! attributes seem to be ! mean+1 = h[ c y 7especially on ,mill's !ory ( ! proposition7 ref] to any objects except ?r\gh ^! attributes1 unless inde$ y c po9t to !m ) y\r f+]8 ,& s aga9 x seems1 especially if we consid] ,mill's acc\nt ( pr$ication1 z if ! ,connotation 7 ! prim>y mean+ & ! ,d5otation ! second>y mean+4 ,! ,connotation det]m9es ! ,d5otation2 & if we 8def9e0 ! mean+ ( ! "n x is ! ,connotation t we /ate4 ,& s ,mill tells u two or ?ree pages fur!r on1 t :5ev] ! names giv5 to objects h prop]ly any mean+1 ! mean+ resides n 9 :at !y d5ote1 b 9 :at !y connote4 ,9 %ort1 #ij ! d5otation ( a g5]al "n is simply ! mean+ ( its plural1 or ( its s+ul>1 9 t s5se 9 :i* x implies a plural1 :ile ! connotation is ! mean+ p] se1 n consid]$ 9 its in/ances4 ,x is cle> !n t e "n has ^! two k9ds ( mean+--fir/1 a cont5t1 & !n in/ances1 :e!r possible or actual1 ( ! cont5t2 & ! two are obvi\sly insep>able1 al?\gh !y are di/+ui%able4 ,ultimately1 inde$1 ! d5otation itself is an attribute1 & s "p ( ! connotation4 ,x is "o ( ! attributes ( man to be a unit 9 ! plurality m51 i4e4 to be 8a man40 ,x may be said t "s names h no plural4 ,if s1 ^! w\ld be non-d5otative r ?an non-connotative1 b 9 fact ?is is n true4 ,! cont5t ( a significant "n c always1 unless h9d]$ by a special conv5tion 7see bel[ on prop] names71 be prima facie reg>d$1 9 respect ( its actual embodim5t1 z a unit aga9/ o!r possible units4 ,grant+ t !re may be an object1 :i* accord+ to our k c only be real z an isolat$ case1 ! v consid]ation ( x z su* a case is en\gh to di/+ui% its exi/5ce1 :e!r real or possible1 f its cont5t4 ,?us1 z a real or possible exi/5ce1 ! object is ipso facto consid]$ 9 ! light ( a p>ticul>1 & z capable ( ent]+ into a plurality4 ,b its nature or cont5t1 ! mean+ ( its "n1 _c ent] into a plurality4 ,two mean+s1 two connotations1 are alt]native & irreconcilable4 ,d5otation & connotation are ?us simply ! p>ticul>1 or p>ticul>s1 :i* embody or are ?\ght ( z embody+ a cont5t1 & ! s+le or univ]sal cont5t itself4 #ia ,h ,prop] ,names ,connotation8 #f4 ,!re=e ,i ?9k t ,mill is wrong1 :5 he goes on1 8,! only names ( objects :i* connote no?+ are ,prop] ,names1 & ^! h1 /rictly speak+1 no signification40 #a ,if ! "n has no signification1 = :at reason1 or by :at means1 is x atta*$ to a p]son or a place8 ,y may say t x is only a conv5tional m>k4 ,b a m>k :i* has p[] to select f all objects 9 ! _w1 & br+ to our m9ds1 a p>ticul> abs5t object1 is surely a significant m>k4 ,grant$ t x is conv5tional1 yet by :at me*anism1 & = :at purpose1 does ! conv5tion op]ate8 #a ,cf4 ,v5n1 #ahc ff1 & ,bradley1 #aef4 ,mill's po9t1 h[ev]1 is q cle>4 ,to be told ! "n ( a p]son or object does n in=m u ( 8 or its attributes4 ,directly1 x only w>ns u by :at sign ! same p]son or object w be recognisable 9 language aga94 #a ,if a "n is *ang$1 ! new "n tells u no?+ diff]5t f ! old1 #b :]eas if an object t 0 call$ vegetable is n[ call$ animal1 our conception ( x is radically trans=m$4 ,a "n expresses ! cont9u$ id5tity ( an object1 & ?is implies only a hi/orical cont9uity ( attributes & relations1 & no con/ant attribute :atev]4 #a ,we _c make x a di/9ctive m>k ( prop] names t !y recur 9 diff]5t & q disconnect$ mean+s1 because ! words :i* are us$ z g5]al names h ?is same prop]ty4 ,nor c we say t a prop] "n is n us$ 9 ! same s5se ( m ?an "o object4 ,family names & national names make ?is pla9ly untrue4 ,?r\gh ^!1 & names typically employ$1 !re is a cle> gradation f prop] to g5]al names4 #b ,! case ( m>riage may be urg$4 ,b a lady's *ange ( "n does n by itself indicate m>riage4 ,x is a m]e fact1 :i* may h v>i\s explanations4 ,! *ange ( title 7f 8,miss0 to 8,mrs407 is m significant1 b x is n a *ange ( "n4 #ib ,?us a prop] "n is a contradiction 9 t]ms4 #a ,a "n %\ld h a mean+4 ,b a mean+ _c be prop]--t is1 p>ticul>4 ,! "n-^w is !re=e l a demon/rative pron\n1 if ?is 7 atta*$1 by a special conv5tion1 to "o id5tifiable object only4 ,x acquires mean+1 b its mean+ is an ev]-gr[+ contradiction ) its usage4 ,! mean+ is necess>ily g5]al1 ! usage is ex hypo!si p>ticul>4 #a ,s1 f ! complem5t>y po9t ( view1 is a g5]al "n4 ,a "n1 x may be urg$1 is meant to designate a p>ticul> ?+ or ?+s4 ,& ?is a "n ) a true 8mean+0 _c d4 ,?is conv5tion ( usage1 :i* prev5ts a prop] "n f becom+ g5]al1 i4e4 f be+ cut loose & us$ simply = its mean+1 is always on ! po9t ( break+ d[n4 #a ,*ri/ian names usually indicate sex2 family names1 ?\gh n[ ) little c]ta9ty1 desc5t & relation%ip4 ,!re are g]ms ( a g5]al mean+ )9 ! sev]al usages ( names2 :ile a ,solon1 a ,croesus1 a ,*ri/ian1 a ,mahometan1 h become purely g5]al names cut loose f all unique ref]5ce4 ,/ill 9 a prop] "n1 z su*1 we h no "r to build on any g5]al mean+4 ,recognition is its only purpose2 & ! law p]mits1 x has be5 said1 t a man %\ld h "o "n = ,mondays1 ,w$nesdays1 & ,fridays1 & ano!r = ,tuesdays1 ,?ursdays1 & ,saturdays4 ,! ess5ce ( a "n is a ref]5ce to unique id5tity2 x employs mean+ only to e/abli% id5tity4 #a ,see note on la/ page4 ,:at k9ds ( ?+s h prop] names giv51 !n8 ,always ?+s individually kn[n to ! p :o give #ic ! "n1 & int]e/+ to !m = "s reason beyond g5]ic or specific qualities4 ,pet animals h names1 :5 o!r animals ( ! same k9d h n4 ,! peasants ?r\gh\t ,engl& use names1 x is said1 = all ! fields1 al?\gh /rang]s are n usually acqua9t$ ) !m4 ,a ,prop] ,"n1 !n1 has a connotation1 b n a fix$ g5]al connotation4 ,x is atta*$ to a unique individual1 & connotes :atev] may be involv$ 9 8 id5tity1 or is in/rum5tal 9 br++ x be=e ! m9d4 ,:5 we ?9k ( hi/ory1 ! importance ( prop] names becomes v great4 ,?is is ! *>act]i/ic logical diff]5ce betwe5 hi/ory & sci5ce4 8,engl&0 & 8,france0 are prop] names1 names ( individual exi/5ces 9 contact ) our _w ( p]ception1 n sci5tific ab/ractions4 ,ev5 ! words1 8#ahib ,a4,d410 are p>tly ( ! nature ( a prop] "n4 ,!y say no?+ m]ely g5]al or ab/ract ab\t ?is ye>2 !y assign ! ye> a "n by c\nt+ =w>ds f a unique po9t 9 ! s]ies ( ye>s1 itself designat$ by ! "n ( a hi/orical p]sonage4 ,ev]y?+ t is simply di/+ui%$ by its place 9 ! s]ies ( ev5ts 9 space & "t is 9 "s degree a prop] "n4 ,?us we c\ld n id5tify ! ,fr5* ,revolution by m]e sci5tific def9ition4 ,x is kn[n by its prop] "n1 z a unique ev5t1 9 a p>ticul> place & "t4 ,:5 ?us id5tifi$ x may h all k9ds ( g5]al ideas atta*$ to x4 ,x w\ld be h>d to %[ t 8,our e>?10 8,our sol> sy/em0 are n prop] names1 9 virtue ( _! uniqu5ess4 #id ,inv]se ratio ( ,connotation & ,d5otation #g4 ,x has sometimes be5 said t ,connotation is 9 inv]se ratio #a to ,d5otation4 ,mill expla9s ! fact ^u :i* any su* idea re/s4 #b ,if we arrange ?+s 9 classes1 su* t ! "o class includes ! o!r--e4g4 ,species 8,butt]cup10 ,g5us 8,ranunculus10 ,ord] 8,ranunculaceae10--( c\rse ! g5us w conta9 _m species besides ! "o m5tion$1 & ! ord] _m g5]a besides ! "o m5tion$4 ,! object ( ! arrangem5t is t !y %\ld d s1 & ?us br+ out ! graduat$ natural aff9ities :i* prevail 9 ! _w4 ,?us ! d5otation ( ! g5us-"n is l>g] ?an t #c ( ! species1 & ! d5otation ( ! ord]-"n is l>g] ?an t ( ! g5us-"n4 #a ,see ,v5n1 p4 #agd1 = ref]5ce to ,hamilton4 ,v5n po9ts out ! fallacy4 #b ,logic1 ,bk4 ,i4 *4 vii4 #e4 #c ,or 8?an ! species10 if we take ! d5otation z made up ( species4 ,b fur!r1 9 su* an arrangem5t ! g5us c conta9 only ! attributes :i* are common to all ! species1 & ! ord] c conta9 only ! attributes :i* are common to all ! g5]a2 s ! g5us-"n implies few] attributes 7less connotation7 ?an any "o species-"n "u x1 & ! ord]-"n implies few] attributes 7less connotation7 ?an any "o g5us-"n "u x4 ,t is ! fact :i* sugge/s ! conception ( ,d5otation & ,connotation z v>y+ inv]sely4 ,b 9 any case x w\ld n be "r to speak ?us ma!matically ( an inv]se ratio1 because !re is no mean+ 9 a num]ical comp>ison ( attributes & #ie individuals1 & ! addition ( "o attribute w exclude sometimes m & sometimes few] individuals4 #a #a ,see ,jevons1 p4 #dj4 ,& !re are m important objections to ! :ole idea ( a correspond+ gradation 9 ^! two k9ds ( mean+4 ,! idea ( ab/raction ?us impli$ is altoge!r wrong4 ,! mean+ ( a g5us-"n does n omit ! prop]ties 9 :i* ! species diff]4 ,if x did1 x w\ld omit ne>ly all prop]ties4 ,:at happ5s is t ! g5us-idea repres5ts ! g5]al plan on :i* ! species are built1 b provides = ea* ( ! p>ts t con/itute ! :ole1 v>y+ 9 ! specific cases )9 c]ta9 limits4 ,?us 9 ! ,ranunculaceae "s species h no petals4 ,b we d n omit ! "* 8petals0 f ! g5us-idea4 ,we /ate ! g5]al plan s f> z ?is elem5t is conc]n$ z 8,petals five or m2 r>ely none40 ,?is is read by a botani/ to mean t 9 "s gr\ps ! petals t5d to be abort$1 & sometimes are actually miss+4 ,9 a symbolic repres5tation ( ! g5us-idea su* a prop]ty may /& z ,a1 & its v>i\s specific =ms z ,a#a1 ,a#b1 ,a#c1 etc4 ,!re is no?+ to prev5t ^! specific phases approa*+ & sometimes rea*+ z]o4 ,no d\bt if ! classification is pursu$ 9 ! direction ( 8univ]sals0 conta9+ few] & few] prop]ties1 x is possible to arrive at concepts :i* appe> to h a l>g] d5otation & a small] connotation ?an ^? 8bel[0 !m4 8,ranunculaceae10 8,dicotyl$ons10 8,plants10 8,organisms40 ,b ?is is only because we *oose to =m our sy/em by t process ( ab/raction :i* consi/s 9 leav+ out prop]ties4 ,e4g4 comp>+ ,fr5*m5 ) m5 9 g5]al1 #if we assume t 8,fr5*man0 indicates 7a7 all ! qualities ( humanity z su*1 & 7b7 ! qualities ( ,fr5* humanity 9 addition to ^!4 ,b is ?is s 9 fact8 ,humanity1 consid]$ z a wid]1 & !re=e z a deep]1 idea1 may h m cont5t1 z well z m area1 ?an ,fr5*manity4 ,we d n really1 9 ?9k+ ( humanity1 omit f our s*ematic ?\ght all ref]5ces to qualities ( ,greek1 ,jew1 ,engli%1 & ,g]man1 & _! be>+ & int]action ^u "o ano!r4 ,x is only t we h be5 drill$ to assume a c]ta9 neatness 9 ! pyramidal arrangem5t by :i* we va9ly try to r$uce ! mean+ ( a great idea to some?+ t has no sy/em & no int]-relation ( p>ts1 b approa*es z ne> z possible 9 fixity to ! "* ( a def9ite image1 ?\gh f> remov$ f su* a "* 9 ! impossibility ( br++ x be=e ! m9d4 ,s we c only say1 8! great] ! d5otation ! less ! connotation10 & 8vice v]s01 9 z f> z we arrange ideas by progressive ab/raction 9 ! s5se ( progressive omission4 ,b x is n ! only way ( reg>d+ !m4 ,?+s may develop new int]-relations z _! numb] increases4 ,has ! community1 z ,mr4 ,bradley asks1 less mean+ ?an ! individual p]son8 ,b we mu/ n consid] ! community1 w\ld be ! answ]2 we mu/ simply consid] ! relation ( an idea ( "o individual to any idea t applies to _m individuals4 ,?is is simply to rule out ^? relations t arise )9 progressively l>g] :oles4 ,we c d s1 if we ?9k ! exclusion necess>y 9 ! int]e/s ( logical purity1 b x is only by do+ s t we c ma9ta9 ! traditional view ( connotation & d5otation4 ,x is wor? :ile to ?9k out ! #ig matt] = ourselves 9 relation to su* famili> ideas z ^? ( man & animal4 ,x is pla9 t ! idea ( 8animal0 _c omit all ref]5ce to intellig5ce1 b mu/ 9 "s way all[ = ! diff]5t phases ( ?is prop]ty :i* run ?r\gh\t ! animal k+dom1 & only f9d a climax 9 man4 ,& x is pla9 also1 t ev5 if intellig5ce 7 :olly omitt$1 ?is w\ld n leave beh9d1 z 9 a simple /ratification1 prop]ties 9 :i* ! :ole animal k+dom 0 ! same4 ,man's animality is modifi$ ?r\gh\t 9 a way correspond+ to 8 rationality1 s t no g5]al idea c\ld be fram$ includ+ him & o!r animals1 simply by collect+ prop]ties :i* are ! same & omitt+ ^? :i* are diff]5t4 ,! idea ( 8man0 really becomes ri*] :5 consid]$ 9 ! light ( a comp>ison #a ) ! re/ ( ! animal _w4 ,our great sy/ems ( natural classification1 repres5t+ aff9ities graduat$ by desc5t1 are :at give ! view :i* we h criticis$ a c]ta9 objective importance4 ,b !y d n e/abli% x z an exclusive logical doctr9e4 #a ,if we insi/ on ?r[+ ! :ole ( ?is comp>ison1 9 explicit %ape1 into ! complete idea ( man1 !n ! progress to ! idea 8animal0 c add no?+2 ev5 s1 h[ev]1 x loses no?+1 b simply becomes ! same set ( relations1 look$ at1 s to speak1 f ! o!r end4 #ih ,,lecture ,,vi ,,p>ts ,,( ,,! ,,judgm5t1 ,,& ,,its ,,unity ,p>ts ( ! ,judgm5t #a4 ,! result ( tak+ ! ,judgm5t z "o ) ! ,proposition has be5 to assume t its p>ts 7 ! same z ^? ( ! ,proposition2 #a & moreov] ! same z ^? ( ! ,proposition 9 a v artificial =m1 viz4 z analys$ into ?ree sep>able elem5ts1 8,subject10 8,pr$icate10 8,copula10 commonly repres5t$ 9 ! examples ( ! text-books by ,sub/antive1 ,adjective or ,sub/antive1 & ! ,v]b 8is40 #a ,?is assumption involves 7see ,lecture ,v47 a confusion betwe5 ! ,proposition z ?or\ghly und]/ood1 & ! ,proposition z a s]ies ( p>tially significant s\nds or signs4 ,= obvi\s reasons1 ?is confusion is v readily made4 ,= ! op]ation ( ,=mal ,logic x is almo/ necess>y to h ^! p>ts1 because x is requisite to transpose ! t]ms 7z 9 ,conv]sion7 )\t *ang+ _! mean+1 #a & to get rid ( t5ses1 :i* d n belong to ,sci5tific ,judgm5t1 & are v tr\blesome 9 ,=mal ,inf]5ce4 #a ,if ! 8pr$icate0 is a ,sub/antive1 ?is pres5ts no difficulty2 & if x is an ,adjective1 x c be done by a little /ra9+ ( gramm>1 or ! ins]tion ( 8?+0 or 8?+s40 ,) a v]b x is m clumsy4 ,?us 9 ,=mal ,logic we pref] ! %ape ( s5t5ce 8,gold is lu/r\s0 to 8,gold glitt]s10 & 8,! bridge is #ii crack$0 to 8,!re is a crack 9 ! bridge40 ,& practically all propositions c be ?r[n into ?is %ape1 :i* is conv5i5t = comp>+ !m4 ,! educational value ( elem5t>y =mal logic consi/s *iefly1 ,i am conv9c$1 9 ! ex]cise ( p>aphras+ poetical or rhetorical ass]tions into ?is typical %ape1 ) ! lea/ possible sacrifice ( mean+4 ,! commone/ mi/akes 9 ! "w ( beg9n]s1 )9 my exp]i5ce z a tea*]1 consi/ 9 failures to int]pret rightly ! s5t5ce giv5 = analysis4 ,b ?is type is n really ultimate4 ,! judgm5t c be convey$ )\t a grammatical subject1 & )\t ! v]b 8is0--inde$ )\t any grammatical v]b at all4 ,on ! :ole ?is agrees ) ,mill's view 9 ! *apt] 8,( ,propositions40 #a ,he po9ts out 7 #a7 t we really ne$ no?+ b ! ,subject & ,pr$icate1 & t ! copula is a m]e sign ( _! connection z ,subject & ,pr$icate4 ,he does n1 h[ev]1 discuss ! case 9 :i* ! grammatical ,subject is abs5t4 #a ,mill's ,logic1 ,bk4 ,i4 *4 iv4 ,copula #b4 ,9 analys+ ! ,judgm5t z an act ( ?\ght we may beg9 by dismiss+ ! sep>ate ,copula4 ,x has no sep>ate exi/5ce 9 ?\ght correspond+ to its sep>ate place 9 ! typical proposition ( ,=mal ,logic4 ,x has come to be consid]$ sep>ately1 because ! ab/ract v]b 8is0 is us$ 9 our languages z a sign ( ! complete enunciation4 ,b !re is n 9 ! ,judgm5t any sep>ate significant idea--any ?ird idea--com+ 9 betwe5 ! ,subject & ,pr$icate ( ,judgm5t4 ,we %\ld try to ?9k ( ! ,copula n z a l9k1 sep>able & always #ajj intr9sically ! same1 #a connect+ two di/9ct ?+s4 ,we %\ld ?9k ( x r z ! grip ) :i* ! p>ts ( a s+le complex :ole coh]e ) "o ano!r1 diff]+ accord+ to ! nature ( ! :ole & ! int]-dep5d5ce ( its p>ts4 ,b5no ,erdmann #b has /rik+ly express$ ?is po9t ( view by say+1 t 9 ! ,judgm5t1 8,! dead ride fa/10 ! ,subject is 8! dead10 ! ,pr$icate 8fa/ rid+10 & ! ,copula 8! fa/ rid+ ( ! dead40 ,9 o!r words1 ! ,copula is simply ! ,judgm5t consid]$ exclusively z a cohesion betwe5 p>ts ( a complex idea1 ! individual connection betwe5 :i* c only be indicat$ by supply+ ! idea ( ^? p>ts !mselves4 #a ,9 a comic ,logic1 ) pictures1 meant to /imulate dull m9ds at a ,univ]sity1 ,i h se5 ! ,copula repres5t$ z ! c\pl+-l9k betwe5 two railway c>riages4 ,?is is an excell5t type ( ! way 9 :i* we %\ld n ?9k ( x4 #b ,logik1 p4 #ahi4 ,are ,subject & ,pr$icate necess>y8 #c4 ,! explicit ,pr$icate is m necess>y ?an ! explicit ,subject4 ,we h spok5 ( ,judgm5ts express$ by "o ^w1 8,fire60 8,?ieves60 etc41 & also ( imp]sonal ,propositions1 8,x is ra9+10 8,x is ?aw+40 ,^! two classes ( ,judgm5ts %[ h>dly any explicit ,subject at all4 ,b we c\ld n ass]t any?+ )\t a ,pr$icate--t w\ld be to ass]t )\t ass]t+ any?+ 9 p>ticul>4 ,z ^! ,judgm5ts h1 r\ghly speak+1 a ,pr$icate & no ,subject1 ,i d n ?9k x conv5i5t to call !m1 ) ,dr4 ,v5n1 exi/5tial judgm5ts4 ,x is true t !y ref] to reality1 b _! peculi>ity is 9 n ref]r+ to a di/9ct subject4 ,& :5 us$ = def9ite & complex ass]tions !y become v artificial1 e4g4 8,!re is a #aja ,briti% ,con/itution by :i* our lib]ties are gu>ante$40 ,in/ead ( organis+ ! cont5t ( ! ,judgm5t1 su* a =m ( ass]tion simply tosses ! :ole ( x into ! ,pr$icate 9 a s+le mass4 ,! "q is only "o ( words2 b x appe>s to me m conv5i5t to res]ve ! t]m ,exi/5tial judgm5ts = ^? highly artificial ass]tions :i* actually employ ! ,pr$icate 8exi/0 or 8exi/5ce10 e4g4 8,matt] exi/s40 ,^! are at ! opposite end ( ! scale f ^? la/-m5tion$1 & are ! ne>e/ approa* to ,judgm5t ) ,subject & no ,pr$icate4 ,t is to say1 _! ,pr$icate is ! g5]alis$ ab/ract =m ( pr$ication #a )\t any special cont5t--! k9d & degree ( exi/5ce ass]t$ be+ und]/ood f ! context4 #a ,express$ 9 ,greek by ! ^w correspond+ to 8is10 us$ ) an acc5t1 :i* does n belong to x 9 its ord9>y use4 ,he is good aga?os e/i2 ,he exi/s e/i ,tr44 ,except1 h[ev]1 9 ! case ( ^! peculi>ly ab/ract & reflective ass]tions1 x mu/ be laid d[n t a pr$icat$ cont5t is necess>y to judgm5t1 :ile an explicit subject ( pr$ication is unnecess>y4 ,two ,ideas ( ,?+s #d4 ,if x is possible1 9 "s cases1 to ?r[ ! :ole cont5t ( judgm5t into ! pr$icate1 ?is r disposes u to criticise ! notion t !re mu/ be two di/9ct matt]s1 objects1 ideas1 or cont5ts1 9 e judgm5t4 ,! notion 9 "q has two =ms4 ,x is ?\ght t ! ,judgm5t consi/s 9 putt+ two ideas toge!r1 #a or1 #ajb ,t ! ,judgm5t consi/s 9 comp>+ two or m ?+s4 #b #a ,= ?is conception1 see ,hamilton's ,lectures on ,logic1 i4 #bbg1 & = a criticism on x4 ,mill's ,logic1 ,bk4 ,i4 *4 v41 init1 ,dr4 ,v5n seems to incl9e to ,hamilton's view1 b ,i d n feel sure t he int5ds to discuss ! "q 9 ! =m 9 :i* x is ref]r$ to 9 ! text4 ,see 8 ,empirical ,logic1 pp4 #baj & #baa4 #b ,see ,jevons1 pp4 #fa-b2 & ,mill1 ,bk4 ,i4 *4 iii41 init42 & *4 iv41 init4 ,two ,ideas 7a7 ,! notion ( 8two ideas0 has two pr9cipal difficulties4 ,notion ( m5tal transition pure & simple 7i47 ,9 its simple/ %ape ! notion ( 8two ideas0 involves ! great blund] :i* ,i expla9$ 9 ,lecture ,,iv4 ,x sugge/s t ! p>ts ( ,judgm5t are sep>ate & successive psy*ical /ates1 & t ! ,judgm5t consi/s 9 a *ange f ! "o to ! o!r4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 z ,i und]/& him1 consid]s e relation to be appreh5d$ z a m5tal *ange or passage f "o idea to ano!r4 ,?is view w\ld degrade logical connection into m]e psy*ical transition4 ,i d n say t !re is no psy*ical transition 9 ,judgm5t4 ,i d say t psy*ical transition is n en\gh to make a ,judgm5t4 ,! p>ts ( ,judgm5t1 z we saw 9 ! la/ lecture1 d n succe$ "o ano!r sep>ately l ! p>ts ( a s5t5ce4 ,! relation betwe5 ,subject & ,pr$icate is n a relation betwe5 m5tal /ates1 b is itself ! cont5t ( a s+le ?\gh cont9u\s m5tal /ate4 ,mill has rightly t\*$ on ?is po9t4 8,:5 ,i say t fire causes heat1 d ,i mean t my idea ( fire causes my idea ( heat80 #a & s on4 ,! fact is t 8,fire-caus+-heat0 is itself ! s+le cont5t or mean+ repres5t$ 9 my symbolic idea2 x is n a succession ( psy*ical /ates 9 my m9d1 or a passage f ! idea ( fire to ! idea ( caus+ heat4 #a ,logic1 ,bk4 ,i4 *4 ,v4 ,i4 #ajc ,abs5ce ( ass]tion 7ii47 ,b fur!r1 und]/&+ n[ t ! ,judgm5t is compos$ ( a s+le ideal cont5t1 & is n a transition f "o m5tal /ate to ano!r1 !re is /ill a difficulty 9 ! conception t its compon5t elem5ts are no?+ b ideas4 ,if ! ,subject 9 ,judgm5t is no m ?an an ideal cont5t1 h[1 by :at means1 does ! ,judgm5t claim to be true ( ,reality8 8,! ,subject _c belong to ! cont5t or fall )9 x1 = 9 t case x w\ld be ! idea attribut$ to itself40 #a ,if ! ,subject 7 only a "p ( an ideal cont5t x w\ld n claim to be true ( ,reality1 & :]e x appe>s to be only an ideal cont5t !re is mu* dispute 9 :at s5se ! ,judgm5t does claim to be true ( ,reality4 8,violations ( a law ( nature are impossible40 8,! ?ree angles ( a triangle are equal to two "r angles40 8,all trespass]s w be prosecut$40 ,9 ^! ,judgm5ts we %\ld f9d x h>d to make out t ! ,subjects are real ?+s correspond+ to our ideas4 ,& yet1 if !y are n1 h[ c ! ,judgm5t atta* itself to ,reality8 ,?is is ! difficult "q ( ! di/9ction betwe5 ! categorical & ! hypo!tical ,judgm5t1 & we %all h to return to x4 ,9 ! meantime1 we mu/ adh]e to our judgm5t ( p]ception z ! true und]ly+ type4 ,! ,subject is "h n an idea1 b is ! giv5 reality1 ?is or t1 & ! ,judgm5t is n a conjunction ( two ideas1 b is pres5t reality qualifi$ by an idea4 ,we say1 8,x is v hot10 mean+ t heat1 ! g5]al quality embodi$ = u 9 an ideal cont5t1 is true (--=ms "o tissue )--! surr\nd+s :i* "h & n[ press ^u our att5tion4 ,or aga91 8,?is is r$10 #ajd i4e4 ! cont5t ( ! idea r$ is :at my att5tion selects & emphasises )9 ! mass ( detail pres5t$ to x 9 its own unique focus :i* ! pron\n 8?is0 simply po9ts out z ?\gh ) ! f+]4 ,we %all f9d su* a /ructure und]ly+ all ! m artificial =ms ( ,judgm5t4 #a ,bradley's ,pr9ciples ( ,logic1 p4 #ad4 ,two ,?+s 7b7 ,?us x w\ld seem t ,jevons & ,mill are mu* ne>] ! real po9t :5 !y say t ! proposition has to d ) two ,?+s1 or ) a ,?+ & a gr\p ( ,?+s4 ,b we mu/ notice 9 pass+ t ,mill1 #a aft] fight+ h>d aga9/ call+ !m ,ideas1 takes our brea? away by say+ t !y are /ates ( consci\sness4 ,!re is1 ( c\rse1 a difficulty1 :i* ,i w n try to deal ) n[1 9 ! fact t h[ev] mu* we ref] to ?+s1 we h no?+ to "w ) intellectually b our ideas ( !m1 & 9 "s types ( ,judgm5t ! ref]5ce to real ?+s is difficult to trace4 ,mill fur!r emphasises ?is by %[+1 t :at we ass]t 9 ord9>y g5]al ,judgm5t is co-exi/5ce ( attributes4 #b 8,n[ :5 we say1 ,man is mortal1 we mean t :]ev] ^! v>i\s m5tal & physical ph5om5a 7! attributes ( man7 are all f\nd1 !n we h assurance t ! o!r physical & m5tal ph5om5on call$ dea?1 w n fail to take place40 ,t is1 no d\bt1 a v indirect way ( ref]r+ to ! real ?+s :i* we call m54 ,moreov]1 he treats all conclusions 9 geometry & me*anics z hypo!tical4 #c ,all ?is we %all h to return to1 9 ord] to reconcile x ) our doctr9e2 :i* is app>5tly co9cid5t ) #aje ,mill's view 9 ! place fir/ allud$ to1 t ! subject 9 ,judgm5t is always reality4 #a ,logic1 ,bk4 ,i4 *4 ,v4 #e4 #b ,ibid41 #d4 #c ,ibid41 ,bk4 ,,ii4 *4 vi4 #c1 #d4 ,b our po9t at pres5t is only ! duality ascrib$ to ! ,judgm5t by say+ t x ess5tially deals ) two ?+s or gr\ps ( ?+s4 ,jevons ev5 says #a t e ,judgm5t is a comp>ison ( two ?+s--?\gh ^! 8?+s0 are really1 x w\ld seem1 gr\ps ( ?+s4 #b ,we ?us h x impress$ ^u our m9ds t !re is "o 8?+0 correspond+ to ! ,subject-^w 7or clause7 ( ! ,propositional s5t5ce1 & ano!r 8?+0 correspond+ to ! ,pr$icate-^w 7or clause71 & t ^! are someh[ sep>ate1 l two railway c>riages1 till we br+ !m toge!r by ! c\pl+-l9k ( ! copula4 ,?is is a v inconv5i5t way ( look+ at ! matt]4 ,x is n true t all ,judgm5t is comp>ison1 9 ! prop] & usual s5se ( ! ^w4 ,x is n true t ,judgm5t involves two ?+s2 two or m ?+s may be m5tion$ 9 a ,judgm5t1 b !y _c correspond respectively to ! ,subject & ,pr$icate4 ,x is a real ,comp>ison if y say1 8,a4,b4 is tall] ?an ,c4,d410 b ,c4,d4 is "h n a t]m 9 ! ,judgm5t4 ,! "o p]son1 ,a4,b41 is qualifi$ by ! ideal cont5t 8tall] ?an ,c4,d410 & ! idea ( ,a4,b4 s qualifi$ is ref]r$ to1 or discrim9at$ )91 p]ceptive reality4 ,comp>ison is a r complex process1 & consi/s 9 a cross-ref]5ce by :i* ea* ( two objects is judg$ accord+ to a /&>d furni%$ by ! o!r2 b ?is complex process is n necess>y to all ,judgm5t1 & _c be express$ ) complete conv5i5ce 9 a s+le ,judgm5t4 ,& 9 #ajf any case ! two objects t ent] into ! comp>ison d n correspond to two ess5tial p>ts ( ,judgm5t4 #a ,elem5t>y ,lessons 9 ,logic1 p4 #fa4 #b ,ibid4 p4 #fb4 ,x is f> m simple & true to say t ,judgm5t is always ! analysis & syn!sis ( elem5ts 9 "s "o ?+ or ideal cont5t4 8,gold is yell[0 has n )9 x1 z ,jevons says x has1 #a any direct comp>ison ( gold ) o!r yell[ sub/ances4 ,x simply drags to light ! prop]ty 8yell[0 z di/9ct )9 ! complex ( attributes belong+ to gold1 :ile at ! same "t insi/+ t ?is prop]ty--?is mean+ ( an idea--belongs to1 is ( "o piece )1 p]ceiv$ reality 9 s f> z gold is giv5 9 su* reality4 ,! ,judgm5t exhibits ! cont5t 9 its p>ts4 ,x breaks x up1 & pron\nces x to be all ( "o tissue1 by "o & ! same indivisible act4 ,we %\ld practically h a mu* fair] *ance ( see+ cle>ly :at ,judgm5t is if we began by consid]+ x z n two ?+s or two t]ms -- b z "o ?+ or "o t]m drawn out into elem5ts by discrim9at+ selection4 ,ev5 if ! p>adox t e 8,?+0 is a ,judgm5t neglects "s necess>y di/9ctions1 ,i am conv9c$ t we %all und]/& ,judgm5t mu* m cle>ly if we d our be/ to approa* x f ?is po9t ( view4 ,:5ev] we look or li/51 & notice features & qualities 9 ! p]ceptions t arre/ ! eye & e>1 we are rapidly & cont9u\sly judg+4 8,! fire is crackl+10 8,! daylight is wan+10 8,t book%elf is n full10 8,! w9d[-curta9 is twi/$40 ,9 none ( ^! cases is !re any sep>ation o!r ?an an intellectual di/9ction betwe5 ! pr$icat$ cont5t & ! p]ceiv$ reality4 ,! ,judgm5t is simply a di/9ct #ajg insi/5ce on a quality )9 a c]ta9 focus ( reality z belong+ to t reality4 ,?is is ! fundam5tal nature ( ,judgm5t4 #a ,loc4 cit4 ,!re=e1 to draw our conclusion z to ! ,unity ( ! ,judgm5t1 x is n a transition f "o m5tal /ate to ano!r2 ! relation ( :i* x consi/s is n betwe5 ideas 9 x1 b is ! cont5t ( ! idea :i* =ms x4 ,judgm5t is n prim>ily comp>ison betwe5 two ?+s2 x is a ?+ or cont5t display$ z possess+ "s def9ite relation or quality )9 its id5tity4 ,e ,judgm5t is ! cont5t ( "o idea1 b y may ( c\rse di/+ui% relations betwe5 ideal elem5ts )9 ?is idea4 8,fire causes heat0 is a s+le cont5t or idea1 ! nature ( fire1 exp&$ into "o ( its prop]ties4 ,di/9ction betwe5 ,subject & ,pr$icate #e4 ,b !n1 if ! :ole ,judgm5t is a s+le cont5t1 :at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ,subject & ,pr$icate1 & is x necess>y to di/+ui% ,subject f ,pr$icate at all8 ,if "s ,judgm5ts c be made )\t explicit ,subjects1 _c all be made 9 t way8 ,?is sugge/ion is v useful z c>ry+ on ! simple/ type ( ,judgm5t ?r\gh\t ! :ole !ory ( ,judgm5t4 ,by a little torture ( expression any ,judgm5t c be ?r[n into a =m 9 :i* undef9$ ,reality is ! g5]al subject1 & ! :ole mass ( ! ,judgm5t is ! ,pr$icate4 8,william ,pitt 0 a great /atesman0 8,!re 0 a great /atesman nam$ ,william ,pitt02 8,! ?ree angles ( e triangle are equal to two "r angles0 8,!re are figures kn[n z triangles ) _! ?ree angles equal to two "r angles02 8,all citiz5s are memb]s ( a moral ord]0 8,!re is a moral ord]1 includ+ ! #ajh relations ( citiz5%ip02 8,all trespass]s w be prosecut$0 8,"h are conditions :i* ensure ! prosecution ( possible trespass]s40 ,or y might always put a subject1 8,reality is su* t0--8,reality is *>act]is$ by40 ,?us we see t1 z we h said be=e1 9 e ,judgm5t ! ultimate subject is ,reality1 ! _w 9 contact ) u z we h already qualifi$ x by previ\s ,judgm5t4 ,x is a less mi/ake to reject ! ,subject & ,pr$icate 9 ! ,judgm5t altoge!r1 ?an to ?9k t !y are sep>ate ?+s or ideas1 & t 9 judg+ y pass or *ange f "o to ! o!r4 ,always be> 9 m9d t x is possible to mass ! :ole ,judgm5t z a s+le ,pr$icate directly or indirectly true ( ,reality4 ,hav+ said ?is mu*1 to make ! ,unity ( ! ,judgm5t unmi/akable1 we may n[ safely di/+ui% betwe5 ! ,subject & ,pr$icate 9 ! ,judgm5t4 ,& we %all f9d ! safe/ clue to be t ! explicit ,subject1 :5 !re is "o1 m>ks ! place at :i*1 or ! conditions "u :i*1 ,reality accepts ! ,pr$icate4 ,! natural ,subject is concrete1 & ! ,pr$icate ab/ract2 ! ,subject real1 & ! ,pr$icate ideal1 b pron\nc$ to be real4 ,! reason ( ?is is t e ,judgm5t is ! connection ( p>ts 9 a :ole1 & to be a :ole is ! *>act]i/ic ( reality4 ,9 o!r words1 ! natural c\rse ( ?\ght is to def9e fur!r :at is already 9 great "p def9$1 & our real _w is t :i* we h s f> def9$4 ,! isolat$ judgm5ts ( ! text-books make x v h>d to grasp ?is1 because y seem to beg9 any:]e = no connect$ reason at all4 ,b if we reflect on actual ?\ght1 #aji we f9d t1 z ,mr4 ,/\t v clev]ly says1 we are always develop+ a 8subject0 :i* is 9 our m9ds 79 ! ord9>y s5se ( a 8subject ( conv]sation071 & ?is subject is "s region or prov9ce ( ! _w ( reality4 ,n[ ! explicit ,subject 9 ,judgm5t or ! grammatical ,subject 9 ,proposition does n always set out ! full nature ( ?is1 b m]ely "s m>k or po9t 9 x :i* we wi% to insi/ ^u4 ,s t we may f9d 9 ,judgm5t almo/ any?+ s]v+ z explicit ,subject4 ,?us1 z ,ari/otle said q pla9ly & s5sibly1 x is natural to say 8,! horse is :ite10 b we may h occasion to say 8,?is :ite is a horse02 x dep5ds on ! way 9 :i* ! ,subject comes into our m9ds4 #a ,usually ! ,subject w be :at ,dr4 ,v5n calls ! heavi] t]m1 i4e4 ! t]m ) m connotation4 ,:5 !re is no diff]5ce ( concret5ess betwe5 p>ts & :ole1 ! ,judgm5t becomes rev]sible z 9 ! equation #g #e #ab4 ,!re is no di/9ction "h betwe5 ,subject & ,pr$icate4 ,! real und]ly+ unity or ,subject is ! num]ical sy/em4 #a ,see ,pr(4 ,ba91 p4 #ef1 ^u ! ,univ]se1 & ,univ]se ( ,disc\rse1 i4e4 ! g5]al subject :i* y h 9 y\r m9d4 ,!re=e by recognis+ ,subject & ,pr$icate we repres5t ! organisation ( k1 & ! connection ( inh]5ce or consequ5ce )9 ! cont5t ( our k4 ,if we d n recognise ?is di/9ction we ?r[ ! :ole ( ,judgm5t into an undiff]5tiat$ mass ( fact1 runn+ all ass]tion into ! same m\ld1 8,x is ! case t10 etc4 ,"o difficulty /ill rema9s4 ,if ! relation betwe5 ,subject & ,pr$icate is )9 an idea1 & n betwe5 ideas--t is1 if ! :ole explicit cont5t1 ,subject & #aaj ,pr$icate toge!r1 c be reg>d$ z pr$icat$ ( reality1--:y is ! act ( pr$ication express$ by a v]b1 i4e4 a sign ( activity )9 ?is cont5t8 ,:y is a v]b (t5 if n always ! =m ( pr$ication :i* connotes ,subject & ,pr$icate8 ,n because x is a "t-^w4 ,on ! contr>y1 we want to get rid ( ! t5se 9 ,logic4 ,! "t ( a ,judgm5t ought to be det]m9$ only by ! special connection betwe5 ,subject & ,pr$icate1 n by t5se1 because t5se is always subjective1 m]ely relative to ! "t ( speak+1 & is accid5tal to ! cont5t ( ,judgm5t4 ,action seems ne>] to :at we want2 ! v]b expresses bo? action & pr$icate4 ,b ! idea ( action aga9 does n make a pr$ication1 & ! v]b 8is0 does n really indicate action4 ,p]haps x is ! demon/rative elem5t 9 a f9ite v]b t makes x ! vehicle ( pr$ication1 i4e4 9 a f9ite v]b y h a mean+ ref]r$ by a demon/rative elem5t to some?+ else4 ,orig9ally ! mean+ 0 always an action2 8is0 ( c\rse meant 8brea!s40 ,b n[ ! v]b has lo/ vitality by we> & te>1 & only ref]s some?+ to some?+ else4 ,! puzzle is t ! ,judgm5t is n ref]r$ to u :o make x1 b is express$ z if x 0 accompli%$ by some?+ outside u4 ,t puzzle po9ts to ! ess5tial feature :i* we insi/$ on1 viz4 its objectivity2 9 pr$ication we ref] :at is m5tally our act to a subject t repres5ts ! real _w1 n to ourselves at all4 ,:5 ,i say 8,glad/one comes to ,london ?is week10 ! v]b :i* expresses ,glad/one's action also expresses t my real _w 9 8 p]son accepts ! qualification 8com+ to ,london ?is week40 ,because ( ?is objectivity ( ?\ght1 ,i attribute to #aaa ! real _w & n to myself ! connection :i* is pres5t$ to my m9d1 & s x takes its place z an act ( ! real _w4 ,b ,i might ?r[ ! :ole cont5t into ! ,pr$icate by say+1 8,! ideal cont5t #8,glad/one com+ to ,london ?is week' is a pr$ication true ( ,reality40 ,?us ?\gh ! di/9ction betwe5 ,subject & ,pr$icate be/ exhibits ! liv+ /ructure ( k1 we mu/ bew>e ( ! notion t two ideas or two ?+s are ne$$ = ,judgm5t4 #aab ,,lecture ,,vii ,,! ,,categorical ,,& ,,hypo!tical ,,*>act]s ,,9 ,,judgm5t ,"s criticism on ! ord9>y s*eme #a #a4 ,we w fir/ consid] :y we want to exam9e ! types ( ,judgm5t1 & !n :at arrangem5t ( !m be/ fulfils our want4 #a ,read ,mill1 *4 iv4 7,bk4 ,i471 on ,propositions2 ,v5n1 ,empirical ,logic1 *4 ix41 x4 ,cf4 ,k & ,reality pp4 #eg-h2 & ,v5n1 p4 #bfd4 ,ord9>y /atem5t1 ,jevons1 p4 #fj1 ff42 cf4 p4 #afc4 ,:y we ne$ an arrangem5t 7a7 ,if we att5d$ purely to ! propositions 9 common use1 we %\ld get an unmanageable v>iety ( =ms1 ?\gh ! reality ( ?\ght w\ld be fairly repres5t$4 ,we _c q d ?is2 we mu/ try to select ! =ms :i* = "s reason are ! mo/ fundam5tal & con/ant4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is possible to ?9k simply ( :at is conv5i5t 9 logical comb9ation2 & !n = work+ ) syllogi/ic ,logic we get ! well-kn[n s*eme ( f\r propositions1 ea* ) ,subject & ,pr$icate2 & = work+ ) symbolic ,logic we get ! exi/5tial s*eme 9 :i* ,subject & ,pr$icate disappe>1 & 8,all ,s4 are ,p40 turns into 8,!re exi/s no ,s4 :i* is n ,p402 or we get ,jevons' ,equational ,logic1 9 :i* 8,all ,a is ,b0 /&s z ,a ,,ab4 ,n[ e ,judgm5t has a great _m aspects1 #aac be+ really a v complex sy/ematic act ( m9d1 & a logical me?od c be f\nd$ on any ( ^! aspects :i* is suffici5tly con/ant to /& = ! ,judgm5t4 ,y c take 8,all m5 are mortal0 to mean 8,!re are no n-mortal m510 or 8,m5 "s mortals10 or two or ?ree m mean+s4 ,! two =m] are artificial or =mal coroll>ies f ! natural ,judgm5t1 repres5t+ x = "s purposes b omitt+ a great "p ( its natural mean+4 ,!y tell y no?+ ab\t a relation ( causality betwe5 ! cont5t ( man & ! prop]ty mortal1 & !y de/roy all implication ( exi/5ce 9 ! ,subject man4 ,:at we want is nei!r to foll[ m]e ev]yday language1 nor be guid$ by m]e conv5i5ce ( logical comb9ation4 ,we want to look at ! ,judgm5t on its m]its ) ref]5ce to its p[] ( express+ ! pr9cipal k9ds ( our exp]i5ce1 :i* 9 fact are con/ruct$ 9 ! m$ium ( ,judgm5t4 ,! great k+doms ( intellectual exp]i5ce are ,p]ception1 ,hi/ory1 & ,sci5ce1 & ( ^! ?ree1 ,sci5ce1 includ+ ,philosophy1 is ! =m t[>ds :i* all k presses on1 & its judgm5t mu/ !re=e be consid]$ z ! mo/ complete type4 ,! common s*eme 7b7 ,) ?is purpose 9 m9d1 let u look at ! traditional s*eme1 omitt+ ! negative ,judgm5ts ( :i* we h n yet spok54 ,we may dismiss ! ,indef9ite ,judgm5t 8,m5 are mortal0 z imp]fect by n be+ 8quantifi$10 & we h left1 z ,categorical ,judgm5ts1 ! ,p>ticul> ,affirmative 8,"s m5 are mortal10 ! ,univ]sal ,affirmative 8,all m5 are mortal10 & ! ,s+ul> ,affirmative 8,socrates is mortal40 ,! ,s+ul> ,affirmative1 h[ev]1 is n treat$ ( any fur!r "u ! old s*eme1 #aad because 9 x ! ,subject is tak5 9 its full ext5t1 & !re=e ! ,s+ul> ,affirmative ,judgm5t is rank$ ) ! ,univ]sal ,affirmative4 ,s z ,categorical ,judgm5ts we h left ! ,p>ticul> ,affirmative & ! ,univ]sal ,affirmative4 ,outside ! acc\nt ( ! ,categorical ,judgm5t we f9d ! ,hypo!tical & ,disjunctive ,judgm5ts t\*$ on z a sort ( ,app5dix1 /&+ z 8,conditional40 ,! hi/orical reason ( ?is is1 t !y 7 n recognis$ by ,ari/otle1 & h nev] be5 incorporat$ 9 ! diagram ( judgm5ts employ$ 9 traditional ,logic4 ,!n on ! ord9>y s*eme we h-- ,categorical4 ,conditional4 ,p>ticul> ,univ]sal ,hypo!tical ,disjunctive ,judgm5ts4 ,judgm5ts1 ,judgm5ts4 includ+ ,s+ul> ,judgm5ts4 ,! defects ( ?is s*eme f our po9t ( view are-- 7i47 ,our ,imp]sonal & ,demon/rative ,judgm5ts are omitt$4 ,!y might be class$ "u ! p>ticul>1 :i* also has an undef9$ elem5t 9 ! subject4 7ii47 ,! ,s+ul> ,judgm5t 7( :i* ! *ief in/ance is ! judgm5t ) prop] "n7 is rightly class$ z ,univ]sal1 b yet is wrongly absorb$ 9 ! ab/ract univ]sal1 f :i* x ought to be di/+ui%$4 7iii47 ,9 ! treatm5t ( ! ,univ]sal ,judgm5t !re are two defects-- 7#a7 ,! ,collective ,judgm5t1 result+ f enum]ation1 #aae direct or indirect1 is n di/+ui%$ f ! ,g5]ic ,judgm5t1 re/+ on a connection ( cont5t or presumption ( causality4 8,all ! #a pap]s h be5 look$ ov]0 %\ld be di/+ui%$ f 8,all triangles h _! ?ree angles equal to two "r angles40 #a 8,!0 z "h us$ inde$ practically 8^!10 s t1 by our analysis1 su* a judgm5t has no claim to rank z a univ]sal judgm5t ,x is difficult to f9d a pla9ly collective judgm5t :i* has n "s aff9ity to judgm5t ) demon/rative pron\n or prop] "n4 ,a judgm5t 9 :i* 8,all ,m4,p4's0 /&s z subject1 has aff9ity ) ! latt]4 7#b7 ,! nature ( ! ,univ]sal ,judgm5t is n exam9$ ) a view to ! di/9ction betwe5 ,categorical & ,hypo!tical4 ,! common ,logic does n g beh9d ! grammatical =m1 :i* on ?is po9t is n decisive4 7iv47 ,! ,hypo!tical ,judgm5t #a is said to consi/ ( two categorical propositions1 or to be 8complex0 ,b ( c\rse x is a simple judgm5t1 prima facie express+ a relation ( reason & consequ5t4 ,its p>ts are n ,judgm5ts1 = !y are n su* z to /& alone4 #a ,ba91 p4 #he2 ,jevons1 p4 #afj4 7v47 ,! ,disjunctive ,judgm5t is (t5 7e4g4 by ,mill & ,ba97 said to be equival5t to two ,hypo!tical ,judgm5ts4 ,! /range ?+ is t bo? ( ^! writ]s take ! wrong two4 #a ,if we all[ conv]sion ( a ,hypo!tical ,judgm5t two are en\gh1 b ( c\rse !y mu/ be ! two :i* _c be got f ea* o!r by conv]sion1 viz4 ! two beg9n+1 8,if ,a is ,b 4440 & 8,if ,a is n ,b 4440 respectively4 ,if we d n admit conv]sion we mu/ h all f\r4 ,let ! disjunction be1 8,?is signal light is ei!r r$ or gre540 ,9 ord] to "k ?is we mu/ "k n #aaf only t1 8,if x is r$ x is n gre50 7) its equival5t1 8,if x is gre5 x is n r$071 b t1 8,if x is n r$ x is gre50 7) its equival5t1 8,if x is n gre5 x is r$074 ,! =m] by itself leaves op5 ! possibility t x may be n r$ or gre51 b blue or yell[2 ! latt] by itself ! possibility t :5 x is r$ x may also at ! same "t be gre54 ,! =m] secures t ! two t]ms exclude ea* o!r2 ! latt]1 t1 tak5 toge!r1 !y exclude all o!r pr$icates4 #a ,mill1 *4 iv42 ,ba91 p4 #hf4 ,9 any case1 ! disjunctive is m ?an any comb9ation ( ,hypo!ticals1 & really t5ds to be ,categorical1 & ought n to be claim$ z ,conditional4 ,:i* are ,categorical8 #b4 ,we w n[ look at ^! ,judgm5ts 9 ord]1 consid] _! real mean+1 & also asc]ta9 ! limits ( ! ,categorical ,judgm5t1 viz4 t :i* affirms ! exi/5ce ( its ,subject1 or 9 o!r words1 ass]ts a fact4 ,! ,p>ticul> ,judgm5t 7i7 ,! ,p>ticul> ,judgm5t ( common ,logic1 8,"s ,s4 is ,p410 has diff]5t mean+s accord+ z x is und]/ood naturally1 or ti$ d[n to be a result ( enum]ation4 ,9 any case x is an imp]fect1 unsci5tific ,judgm5t1 9 :i* ! m9d _c re/1 because x has an undef9$ limitation impos$ ^u ! ,subject4 ,its natural mean+ 7a7 ,= ! natural mean+1 take ! example1 8,"s eng9es c drag a tra9 at a mile a m9ute = a long di/ance40 #a ,?is does n mean a c]ta9 numb] ( eng9es1 ?\gh ( c\rse !y are a c]ta9 numb]4 ,x #aag means c]ta9 eng9es ( a p>ticul> make1 n specifi$ 9 ! ,judgm5t4 ,! ,judgm5t is ,categorical1 because ! undef9$ res]vation implies a ref]5ce to some?+ unanalys$1 b m]ely t\*$ or pres5t$ 9 exp]i5ce4 ,if x 0 a m]e idea x w\ld h to be cle>2 & if ! full description or def9ition 7 ins]t$1 ! ,judgm5t w\ld cease to affirm ! exi/5ce ( ! eng9es 9 "q4 ,& ! ,judgm5t itself *all5ges ?is completion4 #a ,to be accurate1 ! ,judgm5t w\ld dem& ! ins]tion ( precise details ab\t tra91 di/ance1 & o!r matt]s4 ,b ?is illu/rates ! po9t ( ! text1 because ! assignm5t ( su* details w\ld naturally ext5d to ! ,subject1 & !n ! 8,"s0 w\ld be displac$4 ,a n>r[] mean+ 7b7 ,a m artificial mean+ is to take ! ,judgm5t z n =m$ by imp]fect description1 b by imp]fect enum]ation 7und]/&+ x almo/ :olly 9 d5otation74 8,"s ,cons]vatives are 9 fav\r ( wom5's suffrage40 ,?is means or may mean t we h c\nt$ a c]ta9 numb]1 l>ge or small1 :o are s1 & we may or may n "k ab\t ! o!rs4 ,?us und]/ood1 ! ,judgm5t *all5ges complete enum]ation2 x conta9s ( c\rse ! elem5ts ( a fraction--half1 mo/1 n9e-t5?s (1 & s on4 ,?is aga9 is ,categorical2 n m]ely because x implies c\nt+1 b because x implies c\nt+ units sep>ately giv5 to exp]i5ce4 ,! ,p>ticul> ,judgm5t does n include our ,imp]sonal & ,demon/rative ,judgm5ts2 !y are n class$ 9 ! common text-books4 ,b z ref]r+ to p]ception !y too are categorical & ass]t facts1 :e!r !y h ideas to help out ! p]ceptive ref]5ce or n4 ,& !re is no reason aga9/ includ+ !m "u ! ,p>ticul> ,judgm5t4 ,! ass]tion1 8,?is eng9e c drag a tra9 a mile a m9ute10 is mu* ! same k9d ( ,judgm5t z1 8,"s eng9es c1 etc40 ,ei!r ( ^! w\ld be false #aah if no su* eng9es exi/$4 ,^! ,judgm5ts are ( ! ess5ce ( p]ception4 ,!y h ! connection ( cont5t & ! undef9$ complex ( pres5tation /ruggl+ toge!r 9 !m4 ,!y ass]t fact4 ,s+ul> ,judgm5t 7#b7 ,! ,s+ul> ,judgm5t ( ! common ,logic is pretty mu* our ,judgm5t ) a prop] "n1 :i* ,i call ,individual1 & :i*1 z we saw1 is 9 "p rightly call$ univ]sal--because ! ,subject ext5ds beyond p]ception1 & ! ,pr$icate foll[s ! ,subject4 ,b x is a concrete or individual ,univ]sal1 n an ab/ract ,univ]sal1 & !re=e ass]ts ! exi/5ce ( its ,subject4 ,! reason :y x is tak5 to ass]t ! reality ( its ,subject mu/ be1 ,i suppose1 t x c ass]t ?is1 its ,subject be+ a "n = an exi/5ce t has limit$ reality )9 ! temporal s]ies1 & _c ass]t any?+ else1 n hav+ any g5]al fix$ cont5t or connotation :i* c\ld imply a g5]al connection ( ,subject & ,pr$icate4 ,! g5]al connection ( cont5t :i* is s fatal to ! ass]t+ ( fact does n exi/ 9 ?is case4 ,we see ?is 9 ,mill's in/ance4 8,! summit ( ,*imborazo is :ite10 ,:5 ! ,subject is a unique "n ) precise connotation1 8,! c5tre ( gravity ( ! mat]ial univ]se is v>iable10 !n we are pass+ into ! ab/ract ,univ]sal1 & ,i ?9k we may take su* a ,judgm5t p]haps z "o ( ! be/ examples ( a conjunction ( categorical & hypo!tical mean+1 i4e4 ( a connection ( cont5t ascrib$ to a ,subject affirm$ to exi/4 ,b usually "o mean+ or ! o!r is upp]mo/4 ,^! ,judgm5ts1 call$ ,s+ul> or ,individual1 correspond to ! region ( hi/ory or n>rative4 ,! realities #aai ) :i* !y deal h _! def9ite position 9 a s+le sy/em ( "t & space1 & ?is is (t5 made emphatic by ! use ( t5ses4 ,b ^! *ange ) ! date relative to ! speak]1 s t a ,judgm5t ) real t5se mu/ once h be5 false1 or mu/ become false by lapse ( "t4 ,?us ! ,judgm5t ( fact may be n absolutely true4 ,no?+ is g5u9ely true :i* a *ange ( date c make false4 ,! p]man5tly true "t-relations betwe5 ,subject & ,pr$icate are det]m9$ by _! cont5t1 & ! copula is n a t5se1 b a m]e sign ( affirmation4 ,! ,s+ul> z ,categorical is %>ply di/+ui%$ f ! ,ab/ract ,univ]sal1 ) :i* common ,logic classes x4 ,univ]sal ,judgm5t 7#c7 ,d[n to ?is po9t ! judgm5t /ates a fact4 ,:5 we come to ! ord9>y univ]sal affirmative1 we see at once t x may express v diff]5t mean+s4 ,9 its natural mean+ x /rongly implies t its ,subject has a p>ticul> exi/5ce )9 ! s]ies ( "t & space1 b h>dly ass]ts x4 ,import ( ,propositions ,mill1 = example1 says 8! objects are no long] individually designat$1 !y are po9t$ out only by _! attributes20 8mo/ ( !m n kn[n individually at all40 ,t means t ! explicit ,subject is n made ( individuals4 ,! natural mean+ is disput$2 ,i incl9e to ?9k ) ,v5n1 t ! ,subject is naturally tak5 m 9 ,d5otation 7n solely1 :i* is unmean+71 & ! ,pr$icate m 9 connotation4 ,b cle>ly 9 lit]al =m ! ,subject is simply a significant idea1 & its exi/5ce 9 ?+s or ev5ts is n affirm$ ?\gh x may be /rongly impli$4 ,hamilton #a #abj says q calmly--8#8,ra9y wea!r is wet wea!r' is a ,categorical ,proposition2 #8,if x ra9s x w be wet' is ,hypo!tical40 ,betwe5 ! two ,i c see no di/9ction ( mean+ at all4 #b ,if inde$ we take ! ,univ]sal ,affirmative 9 ! pure s5se ( aggregate =m$ by enum]ation1 & !re=e f9ite1 x may be said t we ass]t ! exi/5ce ( ! individuals compos+ x2 b ?is is a v unreal view ( ! mean+ ( ! ,judgm5t 7?\gh sugge/$ by its cu/om>y =m71 & ev5 !n x w\ld be h>d to prove t we cont9ue to ?9k ( ! ,subject z individuals4 ,?is ref]5ce to a f9ite aggregate makes ! ,collective ,judgm5t or ,judgm5t ( ,allness4 ,x _c really exi/ 9 ! case ( a class l man1 ( unkn[n ext5sion1 & is conf9$1 at its wide/1 to su* cases z 8,all pres5t ,memb]s ( ,p>liam5t h to take a l9e on ! ,iri% "q40 ,?is might be ,categorical1 b ne$ n be s4 #a ,lectures1 vol1 iii4 p4 #cbg4 #b ,contra/ ,jevons1 ,elem5t>y ,logic1 p4 #afc4 ,o!rwise1 ! ,univ]sal ,affirmative ( common ,logic is lit]ally ,hypo!tical1 ?\gh 9 "s cases x may /rongly imply ! ass]tion ( reality4 ,dr4 ,v5n has discuss$ ?is "q4 #a ,he says ! implication ( exi/5ce is mu* /rong] ) a s+le-^w ,subject ?an ) a _m-word$ ,subject2 i4e4 p]haps ) a natural ?an ) an artificial conception4 ,b 9 any case1 ! express$ bond ) p]ception is lo/1 & 9 pure =m ! ,subject is a m]e ab/ract idea1 s t ! relations ( cont5t entirely pr$om9ate ov] ! implication ( exi/5ce4 #a ,empirical ,logic1 pp4 #beh-i4 ,?us ! ,univ]sal ,affirmative 9 its full mean+ fairly #aba repres5ts ! sci5ces ( classification1 comb9+ a subord9ate mean+ ( ,allness or num]ical totality ) a prim>y mean+ ( connotation ( attributes or presum$ causality4 ,:5 we say 8,all ! ,butt]cup family h an inf]ior corolla10 ( c\rse we mean t !re is a reason = ?is4 ,(t5 we omit ! t]m all1 z 9 8,heat is a mode ( motion40 ,9 do+ ?is we wipe out ! la/ trace ( a ref]5ce to individual objects1 & we pass to ! pure hypo!tical =m :i* absolutely neglects ! exi/5ce ( objects4 8,hypo!tical0 ,judgm5t 7#d7 ,! simple/ type ( ?is ,judgm5t is1 if ,a is ,b x is ,c4 ,?is ,judgm5t corresponds to ab/ract sci5ce1 b x is only mak+ explicit :at 0 impli$ 9 ! ,univ]sal ,affirmative4 ,t express$ a presumption ( causality1 ?is expresses a cle> ,reason & ,consequ5t or sci5tific necessity4 ,! po9t ( ?is =m is 7i47 t x drops all ref]5ce to individual objects1 7ii47 t x *all5ges y to expla9 h[ ! ,subject-cont5t is ti$ to ! ,pr$icate-cont5t4 8,wat] boils at #bab10 is a /atem5t we %\ld g5]ally pass 9 s-call$ ,categorical =m1 because x does n *all5ge any great accuracy ( connection4 ,b 8,if wat] boils1 x is at a temp]ature ( #bab10 puts u ^u ask+1 8,is ! condition adequate80 & we see at once t we mu/ at lea/ say1 8,if wat] boils "u pressure ( "o atmosph]e1 x is at a temp]ature ( #bab10 or else ! judgm5t is untrue4 ,( c\rse we may apply ! =m rightly or wrongly1 z y may fill up y\r c5sus pap] rightly or wrongly4 ,we c only say t x calls ^u y to put 9 an adequate condition4 ,!re=e ,i r object to ! =m 8,if ,a is1 ,b is10 because x adds v little to ! s-call$ ,categorical %ape4 #abb ,we h n[ to ask h[ ! ,hypo!tical ,judgm5t connects its cont5t ) reality1 i4e4 h[ x is a ,judgm5t at all8 ,& ! same explanation mu/ apply to s-call$ ,categorical ,judgm5ts1 :i* c be ?r[n into ?is =m )\t *ange ( mean+4 ,! po9t f :i* ! explanation />ts is tak+ hypo!sis z supposition4 ,?is is mu* m true1 ,i ?9k1 ?an connect+ x ) d\bt4 ,9 ,dr4 ,v5n's ,empirical ,logic ! connection ( ,hypo!tical ,judgm5t & d\bt to my m9d disfigures ! :ole treatm5t ( ! ,sci5tific ,judgm5t4 ,supposition is di/9ct f affirmation--t is true--b j because x is di/9ct f affirmation1 x _c indicate d\bt4 ,x probably arose out ( d\bt1 b z a me?od ( sci5ce x does n imply d\bt1 b only ! accurate limitation ( att5tion4 ,:at d\bt is !re :5 we judge 8,if equals be add$ to equals1 ! :oles are equal08 ,we are att5d+ to "o p>ticul> ?read ( ! nexus4 ,hypo!tical ,judgm5t1 !n1 is ,judgm5t t />ts f a supposition4 ,e supposition is made ^u a c]ta9 basis ( ,reality4 ,take z an extreme case1 8,if y ask p]mission ( ,a4,b41 he w refuse x40 ,?is is a supposition & its result1 on ! basis ( ! kn[n "* ( ,a4,b4 ,& ! full judgm5t is 8,a4,b4 is ( su* a "*1 t1 suppos+ y ask him = p]mission1 etc40 ,! ,hypo!tical ,judgm5t may be true1 z an ass]tion ab\t ,a4,b4's "*1 ?\gh y may nev] ask4 ,"h1 !n1 is ! clue to ! analysis ( all ,ab/ract ,judgm5ts1 ,l ,p]ceptive ,judgm5t1 !y affirm some?+ ( ,reality1 b !y d ?is indirectly & n directly4 #abc ,und]ly+ !m !re is ! impli$ ,categorical ,judgm5t1 8,reality has a "*1 su* t1 suppos+ s & s1 ! consequ5ce w be s & s40 ,& if ?is impli$ ass]tion is true1 !n ! ,hypo!tical ,judgm5t is true1 al?\gh its t]ms may be n only unreal1 b impossible4 8,if a microscopic object-l5s ) a focal l5g? ( #a_/ajj 94 7 us$1 its magnify+ p[] ) an ,a eye-piece w\ld be s _m diamet]s40 ,?is is a m]e matt] ( calculation1 & is unque/ionably true1 dep5d+ ^u ! effects ( refraction ^u ! optical image4 ,b ,i d n suppose t su* an object-l5s c\ld be made1 or us$4 ,does su* a ,judgm5t1 al?\gh true1 express a fact8 ,no1 ,i %\ld say n1 al?\gh common usage v>ies4 ,i rememb] a ,pall ,mall lead+ article :i* said1 8,x is an absolute fact1 t1 if ,mr4 ,glad/one _h n done some?+--! ,gov]nm5t w\ld h committ$--"s iniquity or o!r40 ,is ?is :at we call a fact8 ,we obs]ve t ! cont5t actually m5tion$ 0 nev] real at all4 ,! impli$ connection ) reality is 8,!re exi/$ 9 reality a condition ( ?+s 7unspecifi$7 9 :i* if ,mr4 ,glad/one1 etc41 etc40 ,are ma!matical tru?s facts1 & 9 :at s5se8 ,ab/ract tru? ne$ n1 & p]haps _c express fact1 b implies fact indirectly4 ,disjunctive ,judgm5t 7#e7 ,! ,disjunctive ,judgm5t 8,a is ei!r ,b or ,c10 is aga9 n a judgm5t ( d\bt b a mode ( ,k1 ,x may be tak5 z num]ical2 !n x gives rise to ! /atem5t ( ,*ances4 ,b 9 its p]fect =m x is appropriate to ! exposition ( a cont5t z a sy/em1 & x may be tak5 z return+ to ! ,categorical ,judgm5t1 & comb9+ x ) ! ,hypo!tical1 because its #abd cont5t is naturally tak5 z an individual1 be+ necess>ily concrete4 ,! peculi> po9t ( ! ,disjunctive is t x makes negation positively significant4 8,?is signal light %[s ei!r r$ or gre540 ,"h we h ! categorical elem5t1 8,?is signal light %[s "s col\r10 & on ! top ( ?is ! two ,hypo!tical ,judgm5ts1 8,if x %[s r$ x does n %[ gre510 8,if x does n %[ r$ x does %[ gre540 ,y _c make x up out ( ! two ,hypo!tical ,judgm5ts alone2 !y d n give y ! ass]tion t 8x %[s "s col\r40 #a #a ,! example 9 ! text1 *os5 = its simplicity1 may be object$ to z involv+ p]ceptive concret5ess by ! pron\n 8?is40 ,y c h a disjunction1 x may be said1 deal+ ) 8! triangle0 z su*2 & :y %\ld ?is be m 8,categorical0 ?an ! ass]tion t ! triangle has its angles ?ree "r angles8 ,/ill1 x might be repli$1 ! developm5t ( a s+le nature into a numb] ( precise & necess>y alt]natives1 always gives x an implication ( self-complet5ess4 ,does ?is /ate a fact8 ,i ?9k x implies a fact mu* m di/9ctly ?an ! hypo!tical does1 b ( c\rse x is a "q :e!r an alt]native c be call$ a fact4 ,x seems a precise expression ( "s k9ds ( reality1 b x is n a solid s+le mom5t>y fact4 ,x is v appropriate to ! objects ( philosophy z ! high] concrete sci5ce1 :i* are conceiv$ z sy/ems ( facts be>+ def9ite relations to ea* o!r2 e4g4 8,society is a /ructure ( individual *>act]s1 hav+ positions :i* are n int]*angeable40 ,tak5 all z a mass1 !y are conjunctively connect$1 b tak5 9 di/+ui%able relations !y are disjunctively relat$4 ,a human be+ z su* has "s position & no o!r1 & ?is is ultimately det]m9$ by #abe ! nature ( ! social :ole to :i* he belongs4 ,he is if ?is1 no?+ else1 & if no?+ else1 !n ?is4 ,a m artificial example1 :i* illu/rates ! degree 9 :i* actual ab/ract k & purpose c be embodi$ by man 9 ma*9]y1 is ! int]lock+ sy/em ( po9ts & signals at a great railway /ation4 ,i suppose t ! ess5ce ( su* a sy/em lies 9 arrangem5ts = necess>ily clos+ e track to all b "o at a "t ( any tracks :i* cross x or conv]ge into x4 ,! track ,x receives tra9s f ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d2 if ! entrance = ^? f ,a is op51 ,b1 ,c1 & ,d are ipso facto clos$2 if ,a1 ,b1 & ,c are clos$1 ,d is op51 & s on4 ,?is is a disjunction consci\sly & purposely incorporat$ 9 mat]ial fact1 & diff]s f a ,disjunctive ,judgm5t only 9 s f> z exi/5ce necess>ily diff]s f discursive ?\ght4 ,! disjunction seems to complete ! sy/em ( judgm5ts1 includ+ all ! o!rs 9 itself1 & x is wrong 9 pr9ciple to di/+ui%1 e4g4 betwe5 a hypo!tical & categorical disjunction1 or to consid] h[ a disjunction c be d5i$4 ,= disjunction 9 itself implies a k9d ( individuality :i* is beyond m]e fact & m]e ab/ract tru?1 ?\gh alli$ to bo?2 & all intelligible negation is "u1 n (1 a disjunction4 ,negation ( a disjunction w\ld mean ?r[+ aside ! :ole ( "s def9ite gr\p ( ?\ghts z fallaci\s1 & go+ back to beg9 aga9 ) a judgm5t ( ! simple/ k9d4 ,x am\nts to say+1 8,none ( y\r di/9ctions t\* ! po9t2 y mu/ beg9 afre%40 #abf ,,lecture ,,viii ,,negation1 ,,& ,,opposition ,,( ,,judgm5ts ,di/9ction betwe5 ,contr>y & ,contradictory opposition #a #a4 ,! only important po9t 9 ! traditional diagram ( opposition ( ,judgm5ts is ! di/9ction betwe5 contr>y & contradictory opposition1 ! opposition1 t is1 betwe5 ,a & ,e1 & ! opposition betwe5 ,a & ,o1 or ,e & ,i4 #a ,read ,ba91 pp4 #ee-f1 on 8,negative ,names & ! ,univ]se ( ! ,proposition10 also on 8,negative ,propositions10 p4 #hc ff42 ,v5n1 ,empirical ,logic1 pp4 #bad--bag2 ,jevons1 ,elem5t>y ,logic1 ix41 on 8,opposition ( ,propositions02 ,mill1 *4 iv4 #b4 ,9 ,contr>y ,opposition ! "o ,judgm5t n only d5ies ! o!r1 b goes on to d5y or ass]t some?+ m besides4 ,! m]e grammatical %ape 8,no man is mortal0 conceals ?is1 b we easily see t x says m ?an is necess>y to d5y ! o!r1 8,all m5 are mortal40 ,9 ,contradictory ,opposition1 ! "o ,judgm5t does absolutely no?+ m ?an is involv$ 9 de/roy+ ! o!r4 ,! ,contr>y ,negation has ! advantage 9 positive1 or at lea/ 9 def9ite import4 ,! ,contradictory or pure ,negation has ! advantage 9 ! exhau/ive disjunction :i* x involves4 ,?is is pla9 if we reflect t ,contr>y ,negation only #abg re/s on ! ,law ( ,contradiction1 8,x is n bo? ,a & n ,a40 ,ord9>y ,diagram ( ,opposition ( ,judgm5ts4 ,! diagram has diagonal l9es1 n repres5t$ "h1 f corn] ,a to corn] ,o1 & f corn] ,e to corn] ,i1 ea* labell$ 8,contradictory ,opposition04 ,tr4 ,a ,e ,contr>y ,opposition4 ,sub-contr>y ,opposition4 ,i ,o ,a ,univ]sal ,affirmative4 ,all m5 are mortal4 ,e ,univ]sal ,negative4 ,no m5 are mortal4 ,i ,p>ticul> ,affirmative4 ,"s m5 are mortal4 ,o ,p>ticul> ,negative4 ,"s m5 are n mortal4 ,sub-contr>y ,opposition has no real mean+2 ! judgm5ts s oppos$ are compatible4 ,x is n true bo? t 8,all ,m4,p4's are wise10 & t 8,no ,m4,p4's are wise10 b bo? may be false2 :ile ,contradictory ,negation implies ! ,law ( ,exclud$ ,?ird or exclud$ ,middle1 8,x is ei!r ,a or n ,a10 ! pr9ciple ( disjunction1 or r1 ! simple/ case ( x4 ,x is n #abh false bo? t 8,all ,m4,p4's are wise0 & t 8,"s ,m4,p4's are n wise40 ,! po9t is1 !n1 on ! "o h&1 t 9 ,contradiction y c g f falsehood to tru?1 #a :ile 9 ,contr>iety y c only g f tru? to falsehood2 b also t 9 ,contradiction ! ,affirmative & ,negative are n at all on a level 9 mean+1 :ile 9 ,contr>iety !y are mu* m ne>ly s4 ,!n if we leave out ! relations ( m]e plurality1 ( ,all & ,"s1 :i* enable y to get contr>y negation 9 pure negative =m 9 ! common ,logic1 we may say g5]ally t 9 contr>y negation some?+ is ass]t$1 & 9 contradictory negation tak5 q lit]ally no?+ is ass]t$1 b we h a 8b>e d5ial10 a pr$icate is m]ely remov$4 ,9 actual ?\ght ?is _c be q realis$1 because a b>e d5ial is really mean+less1 & we always h 9 our m9d "s subject or univ]se ( disc\rse )9 :i* ! d5ial is con/ru$ def9itely4 ,b ?is def9ite con/ru+ is n ju/ifi$ by ! b>e =m ( contradiction1 :i* consi/s simply 9 de/roy+ a pr$ication & n replac+ x by ano!r4 ,9 z f> z y replace x by ano!r1 def9$ or undef9$1 y are go+ =w>d t[>ds contr>y negation4 #a ,i4e4 ,contradictory alt]natives are exhau/ive4 ,contr>y ,negation #b4 ,?us1 ,contr>y ,negation 9 its ess5ce is affirmation ) a negative int5tion1 & we may take z a type ( x 9 ?is wid] s5se ! affirmation ( a positive "* ) ! int5tion ( d5y+ ano!r positive "*4 ,e4g4 :5 y d5y 8,?is is a "r-angl$ triangle0 by ass]t+ 8,?is is an equilat]al triangle10 y h typical contr>y negation4 ,x is n really safe to speak ( contr>ies except ) ref]5ce to judgm5ts1 int5d$ to d5y ea* #abi o!r2 b x is common to speak ( species ( ! same g5us z contr>ies or opposites1 because ! same ?+ _c be bo?4 #a #a ,ba91 p4 #ee ff4 ,we mu/ !re=e di/+ui% contr>y f diff]5t4 ,( c\rse ! same ?+ or cont5t has _m diff]5t qualities1 & ev5 comb9es qualities t we are apt to call contr>y or opposite4 ,b z ,plato 0 fond ( po9t+ out1 a ?+ _c h diff]5t or oppos+ qualities 9 ! same relation1 t is to say1 belong+ to ! same subject "u ! same condition4 ,! same ?+ may be blue 9 "o "p ( x & gre5 9 ano!r1 & ! same "p ( x may be blue by daylight & gre5 by c&lelight4 ,b ! same surface _c be blue & gre5 at once by ! same light to ! same eye look+ 9 ! same direction4 ,diff]5t qualities become contr>y :5 !y claim to /& 9 ! same relation to ! same subject4 ,"r-angl$ triangles & equilat]al triangles d n d5y ea* o!r if we leave !m 9 peace side by side4 ,!y are !n m]ely diff]5t species ( ! same g5us1 or diff]5t comb9ations ( ! same angul> space4 ,b if y say1 8,?is triangle is "r-angl$10 & ,i say 8,x is equilat]al10 !n !y d5y ea* o!r1 & become true contr>ies4 ,!n ! mean+ ( d5ial is always ( ! nature ( contr>y d5ial4 ,z we always speak & ?9k )9 a g5]al subject or univ]se ( disc\rse1 x foll[s t e d5ial sub/itutes "s affirmation = ! judgm5t :i* x d5ies4 ,! only judgm5ts 9 :i* ?is is n ! case are ^? call$ by an unmean+ tradition ,inf9ite ,judgm5ts1 i4e4 judgm5ts 9 :i* ! negative pr$icate #acj includes e det]m9ation :i* has applicability to ! ,subject4 ,?is is because ! attribute d5i$ has no applicability to ! ,subject1 & !re=e all t has applicability is undiscrim9at+ly affirm$1 9 o!r words1 ! judgm5t has no mean+4 8,virtue is n-squ>e40 ,?is sugge/s no def9ite positive quality applicable to virtue1 & !re=e is idle4 ,y may safely analyse a significant negative judgm5t1 8,a is n ,b0 z 8,a is n ,b b ,c10 or z 8,a is ,x1 :i* excludes ,b40 ,= ,x may be undet]m9$1 8a col\r n r$40 ,b !n if ! mean+ is always affirmative or positive1 :y d we ev] use ! negative =m8 ,:y use ,negation8 #c4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we use x because x indicates exclusion1 & )\t x we _c di/+ui% betwe5 m]e diff]5ts on ! "o h& & contr>ies on ! o!r4 ,if y ask me1 8,are y go+ to ,victoria1 ,london ,*a?am & ,dov] /ation80 & ,i answ]1 8,i am go+ to ,victoria1 ,london ,brighton & ,s\? ,coa/10 t w n be satisfactory to y1 unless y happ5 to "k be=eh& t ^! /ations are s arrang$ t if y are at "o y are n at ! o!r4 ,!y might be a s+le /ation us$ by diff]5t companies1 & call$ indiff]5tly by ! "n ( ei!r4 ,to make x cle> t ! sugge/ion & ! answ] are incompatible1 ,i mu/ say1 8,i am n go+ to ,victoria1 ,london ,*a?am & ,dov]10 & ,i may add or n add1 8,i am go+ to ,victoria1 ,london ,brighton & ,s\? ,coa/40 ,t tells y t ! "o pr$icate excludes ! o!r1 & t is ! fir/ reason :y we use ! g5]alis$ =m ( exclusion1 i4e4 negation4 ,b 9 ! second place1 x c give u m1 & some?+ absolutely necess>y to our k1 & t is n #aca m]ely exclusion1 b exhau/ion4 ,9 lit]al =m negation is absolutely exhau/ive1 t is to say1 contradictory4 ,! ,judgm5t 8,a is n ,b0 =ms an exhau/ive alt]native to ! ,judgm5t 8,a is ,b10 s t no ?ird case beyond ^! two is possible1 & !re=e y c argue f ! falsehood ( ei!r to ! tru? ( ! o!r4 ,n[ ?is =m is pot5tially ( imm5se value = k1 & all disjunction consi/s 9 apply+ x2 b z x /&s 9 ! ab/ract x is wor?less1 because x is an empty =m4 8,a is r$ or n-r$40 ,if ei!r ( ^! is false ! o!r is true4 ,b :at d y ga9 by ?is8 ,y are n entitl$ to put any positive mean+ ^u n-r$2 if y d s y slide into m]e contr>y negation1 & ! inf]5ce f falsehood becomes a fallacy4 ,make an argum5t1 8,! s\l is r$ or n-r$40 8,x is n-r$ x is "s o!r col\r ?an r$40 ,! argum5t is futile4 ,we h con/ru$ 8n-r$0 z a positive contr>y1 & t be+ s1 ! disjunction is no long] exhau/ive4 ,we _h no "r to say t ! s\l is ei!r r$ or "s o!r col\r2 ! law ( ,exclud$ ,middle does n w>rant t4 ,i pause to say t ! pro( ( ! exhau/iv5ess ( negation1 i4e4 t two negatives make an affirmative--t if ,a is n n-,b1 x foll[s t ,a is ,b--is a disput$ problem1 ! problem kn[n z d\ble negation4 ,h[ d y "k t :at is n n-r$ mu/ be r$8 ,i take ! law ( ,exclud$ ,middle simply z a def9ition ( ! b>e =m ( d5ial1 or ! di/9ction betwe5 ?is & n-?is2 8n-?is0 be+ ! b>e ab/raction ( ! o!r ?an ?is4 ,o!rs say t e negation presupposes an affirmation2 s 8,a is n-,b0 presupposes ! affirmation 8,a is ,b10 & #acb if y knock d[n ! negative1 ! orig9al affirmative is left /&+4 ,sigw>t & ,b4 ,erdmann say ?is4 ,i ?9k x mon/r\s4 ,i d n believe t y mu/ f9d an affirmative /&+ be=e y c d5y4 ,/age ( ,significant ,negation4 ,comb9ation ( ,contr>y & ,contradictory #d4 ,well1 !n1 ! po9t we h rea*$ is ?is4 ,:at we mean 9 d5ial is always ! contr>y1 some?+ positive4 ,:at we say 9 d5ial--9 o!r words1 ! lit]al =m :i* we use--always approa*es ! contradictory1 i4e4 is pure exclusion4 ,! ,contr>y ( ! diagram d5ies m ?an x ne$1 b /ill its =m is t ( exclusion4 ,n[ we h se5 t 9 d5ial1 z us$ 9 common spee*1 we get ! b5efit ( bo? affirmation & exclusion1 b 9 accurate ?\ght we want to d mu* m ?an ?is2 we want to get ! :ole b5efit ( ! negative =m--t is1 to get a positive mean+ toge!r ) n only exclusion1 b exhau/ion4 ,i w put ! ?ree cases 9 "o example1 beg9n+ ) m]e affirmations ( diff]5t facts4 ,diff]5t ,affirmations 7#a7 8,he goes by ?is tra9 to-day40 8,he goes by t tra9 to-morr[40 ,?is conjunction1 z simply /at$1 gives no inf]5ce f ! tru? or falsehood ( ei!r /atem5t to ! tru? or falsehood ( ! o!r4 ,contr>y ,opposition1 exclusive 7#b7 8,he goes by ?is tra910 & 8,he goes by t tra910 ) a mean+ equival5t to 8,no1 he goes by t40 ,if x is true t 9 ! s5se sugge/$ by ! context he goes by ?is tra91 !n x is n true t he goes by ! o!r1 & if x is true1 9 ! s5se expla9$1 t he goes by ! o!r1 !n he does n g by ?is4 ,ea* excludes ! o!r1 b bo? may be exclud$ by a ?ird alt]native4 ,if x is n true t he goes by ?is #acc tra9--no?+ foll[s4 ,!re may be any numb] ( tra9s he might g by1 or he might give up go+2 i4e4 y\r ,univ]se ( disc\rse1 y\r implicit mean+ is n expressly limit$4 ,if x is n true to say1 8,no1 he goes by t0--tak+ ! :ole mean+ toge!r1 & n sep>at+ its p>ts1 = ?is comb9ation is ess5tial to ! 8contr>y0--no?+ foll[s z to ! tru? ( ! o!r /atem5t4 ,he may n be go+ at all1 or may be go+ by "s ?ird tra91 or by road4 ,comb9$ ,contr>y & ,contradictory ,negation ,b if y limit y\r ,univ]se1 or g5]al subject1 !n y c comb9e ! value ( contr>y & contradictory negation4 ,!n y say1 7#c7 8,he goes ei!r by ?is tra9 or by t40 ,!n y c inf] n only f 8,he goes by ?is tra910 t 8,he does n g by t10 b f 8,he does n g by ?is tra90 to 8,he does g by t40 ,! alt]native betwe5 8,a is ,b0 & 8,a is n-,b0 rema9s exhau/ive1 b n-,b has be5 giv5 a positive value1 because we h limit$ ! possibilities by def9ite k4 ,! processes ( accurate ?9k+ & obs]vation aim almo/ entirely at giv+ a positive value ,c to n-,b1 & a positive value ,b to n-,c1 "u a disjunction1 because x is !n t y def9e exactly :]e & )9 :at conditions ,c :i* is n ,b passes into ,b :i* is n ,c4 ,take ! disjunction1 8,s\nd is ei!r musical or noise40 ,if ! successive vibrations are ( a uni=m p]iod x is musical s\nd2 if !y are ( irregul> p]iods x is noise4 ,?is is a disjunction :i* assumes ! =m1 ,a is ei!r ,b or ,c4 ,t is to say1 ,if x is ,b x is n ,c4 ,if x is n ,b x is ,c4 #acd ,!re=e ,i ?9k t all 8det]m9ation is negation0--( c\rse1 h[ev]1 n b>e negation1 b significant negation2 ! ess5ce ( x consi/s 9 correct+ & confirm+ our judgm5t ( ! nature ( a positive ph5om5on by %[+ t j :5 its condition ceases1 j !n some?+ else beg9s1 & :5 y h exhau/$ ! :ole op]ation ( ! sy/em ( conditions 9 "q1 s t f any "o phase ( _! effects y c read (f :at x is n b ! o!rs are1 !n y h almo/ all ! k we c get4 ,! 8,j-n0 is ! important po9t1 & ?is is only giv5 by a positive negation )9 a def9ite sy/em4 ,y want to expla9 or def9e ! case 9 :i* ,a becomes ,b4 ,y want obs]vation ( n-,b2 b almo/ ! :ole _w is =mally or b>ely n-,b1 s t y are lo/ 9 *aos4 ,:at y mu/ d is to f9d ! po9t )9 ,a1 :]e ,a#a :i* is ,b passes into ,a#b :i* is ,c1 & t w give y ! j-n-,b :i* is ! valuable negative in/ance4 ,negative judgm5t express+ fact #e4 ,y w f9d x said t a ,negative ,judgm5t _c express fact2 e4g4 t a ,judgm5t ( ,p]ception _c be negative4 ,?is is wor? reflect+ ^u2 ,i hope t :at has be5 said makes cle> h[ f> x is true4 ,! b>e =m ( ,negation is n adequate to fact2 x conta9s m]e empt9ess or ignorance2 we n[h]e 9 our p]ception come ^u a m]e 8n-some?+40 ,no d\bt negation is 9 ?is way m subjective ?an affirmation4 ,b !n z x fills up 9 mean+1 ! d5ial becomes m & m on a level ) ! affirmation1 till at la/ 9 sy/ematic k bo? become d\ble-edg$--e affirmative d5ies1 & e negative affirms4 ,:5 a man :o is bo? a #ace musician & a physici/ says1 8?is comp\nd tone ,a is a discord ,y10 he kn[s exactly h[ mu* ( a discord1 :at ratio ( vibration makes x s mu* ( a discord1 h[ mu* x w\ld h to *ange to become a concord 7,x :i* is n ,y71 & :at *ange 9 ! vibration ratio f a#a to a#b w\ld be ne$$ to make x a concord4 ,to su* k z ?is1 ! accurate negation is j z expressive z ! affirmation1 & x does n matt] :e!r he says 8,a is ,y10 or 8,a is by s mu* n ,x40 ,x becomes1 z ,v5n says1 all b impossible to di/+ui% ! affirmation f ! negation4 ,no d\bt affirmative t]ms come 9 at ?is /age1 ?\gh ! mean+ is negative4 ,obs]ve 9 ?is connection h[ we sometimes use ! ne>e/ ^w we c ?9k (1 kn[+ t ! negative gives ! positive indirectly--8,he 01 ,i won't say insol5t10 mean+ j n or 8all b0 insol5t2 or aga91 8,t 0 n "r10 r ?an say+ bluntly 8wrong40 ,op]ation ( ! d5i$ idea #f4 ,e significant negation 8,a is n ,b0 c be analys$ z 8,a is ,x :i* excludes ,b40 ,( c\rse ,x may n be a di/9ct ,c2 e4g4 we may be able to see t ,a is n r$1 b we may n be able to make out = c]ta9 :at col\r x is2 !n ! col\r ,x is 8an unkn[n col\r :i* excludes r$40 ,h[ does ! reject$ idea op]ate 9 ,judgm5t8 ,i suppose x op]ates by sugge/+ a ,judgm5t :i* z y make x de/roys "s ( its own *>act]i/ics4 ,x is really an expression ( ! confirmatory negative in/ance or 8j-n40 ,j :5 two p>allel /raight l9es sw+ s t !y c meet1 j !n ! two int]ior angles beg9 to be less ?an two "r angles1 :i* tells u t ! #acf /raight l9es are ceas+ to be p>allel4 ,j 9 z mu* z two /raight l9es beg9 to enclose a space we become aw>e t "o or o!r ( !m is n /raight1 s t ,a 9 turn+ f ,y to ,x turns p>i passu f ,a#a to ,a#b1 & we are !re=e ju/ifi$ 9 say+ t ,a1 :5 x is ,y1 _c be ,x4 ,?is lecture may pave ! way = ,induction1 by giv+ "s idea ( ! importance ( ! negative in/ance :i* ,bacon prea*$ s assidu\sly4 ,9 a real sy/em ( sci5ce ! conceptions are negative t[>ds ea* o!r m]ely z def9+ ea* o!r4 ,"o ( !m is n 9 itself m negative ?an ano!r4 ,su* a conception1 e4g41 is t ( a triangle comp>$ ) two p>allel /raight l9es :i* are cut by a ?ird l9e4 ,if ! p>allels are swung s z to meet1 !y become a triangle :i* ga9s 9 its ?ird angle :at ! p>allels lose on ! two int]ior angles1 & ! total ( two "r angles rema9s ! same4 ,?us 9 say+ t p>allels cut by a ?ird /raight l9e _c =m a triangle1 & t ! ?ree angles ( a triangle are equal to two "r angles1 we are express+ ! fronti] :i* is at once ! dem>cation betwe5 two sets ( geometrical relations1 & ! positive grasp or connection ( ! "o ) ! o!r4 ,! negation is no b> to a positive cont9uity 9 ! organism ( ! sci5ce1 b is ess5tial to def9+ its nature & con/itu5t elem5ts4 ,?is is ! be>+ ( significant negation :5 fully develop$4 #acg ,,lecture ,,ix ,,inf]5ce ,,& ,,! ,,syllogi/ic ,,=ms ,inf]5ce 9 g5]al #a #a4 ,! ,problem ( ,inf]5ce is some?+ ( a p>adox4 ,inf]5ce consi/s 9 ass]t+ z fact or tru?1 on ! gr\nd ( c]ta9 giv5 facts or tru?s1 some?+ :i* is n includ$ 9 ^? data4 ,we h n got inf]5ce unless ! conclusion1 7i47 is necess>y f ! premisses1 & 7ii47 goes beyond ! premisses4 ,to put ! p>adox q r\ghly--we h n got inf]5ce unless ! conclusion is 7i47 9 ! premisses1 & 7ii47 outside ! premisses4 ,?is is ! problem :i* ex]cises ,mill s mu* 9 ! *apt]1 8,function & ,value ( ! ,syllogism40 ,we %\ld notice especially 8 #g1 8! univ]sal type ( ! reason+ process40 ,! po9t ( x is to make ! ju/ice ( inf]5ce dep5d ^u relations ( cont5t1 :i* are judg$ ( by :at he calls induction4 ,t is q "r1 b ! "q /ill returns ^u u1 8,:at k9d ( relations ( cont5t mu/ we h1 9 ord] to realise ! p>adox ( ,inf]5ce80 ,?is ! 8type ( inf]5ce0 r %irks4 ,see ,mill's rem>ks :5 he is br\ght face to face ) #ach ,induction1 ,bk4 ,,iii4 *4 f4 #b4 ,an ,inf]5ce1 z he !re recognises1 ei!r does n hold at all1 or x holds 89 all cases ( a c]ta9 description10 i4e41 x dep5ds on univ]sals4 #a ,read = ,lectures ,,ix4 & ,x41 ,mill1 ,bk4 ,,ii *4 i41 ii41 iii42 ,bk4 ,,iii4 *4 i4 & ii4 at lea/2 ,v5n1 *4 xiv41 xv42 ,jevons1 ,lessons xv4 & xxiv42 ,de ,morgan's ,budget ( ,p>adoxes4 ,i ought to w>n y at once t ?\gh we may h novelty 9 ! conclusion ( ,inf]5ce 7z 9 multiplication ( l>ge numb]s71 ! necessity is m ess5tial ?an ! novelty4 ,9 fact1 mu* ( ,inf]5ce consi/s 9 demon/rat+ ! connection ( matt]s t z facts are pretty famili>4 ,( c\rse1 h[ev]1 !y are always modifi$ 9 ! process1 & 9 t s5se !re is always novelty4 ,y obta9 ! mo/ vital idea ( ,inf]5ce by />t+ f ! conclusion z a sugge/ion1 or ev5 z an obs]vation1 & ask+ y\rself h[ x is prov$1 or expla9$1 & treat+ ! :ole process z a s+le m$iate judgm5t1 i4e4 a reason$ affirmation4 ,take ! obs]vation1 8,! tide at new & full moon is exceptionally high40 ,9 sci5tific inf]5ce ?is is fill$ out by a middle t]m4 ,we may pr(itably ?9k ( ! 8middle t]m10 z ! copula or grip :i* holds ! conclusion toge!r1 made explicit & def9itely /at$4 ,?us ! judgm5t pulls out l a telescope1 exhibit+ fre% p>ts )9 x1 z x passes into inf]5ce4 8,! tide at new & full moon1 be+ at ^! times ! lun> tide plus ! sol> tide1 is exceptionally high40 ,?is is ! sort ( inf]5ce :i* is really commone/ 9 sci5ce4 ,su* an inf]5ce w\ld no d\bt give u ! conclusion if we did n "k x by obs]vation1 b x happ5s 9 _m cases t we d "k x by obs]vation1 & :at ! inf]5ce gives u is ! connection1 :i* ( c\rse may enable u to correct ! obs]vation4 #aci ,conditions ( ! possibility ( ,inf]5ce #b4 ,9 ! /ricte/ =mal s5se !re c be no inf]5ce f p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s4 ,:5 !re seems to be su* inf]5ce1 x is m]ely t ! gr\nd ( inf]5ce is n m5tion$1 sometimes because x is obvi\s1 sometimes because x is n cle>ly specifi$ 9 ! m9d4 ,suppose we say1 8,morley & ,h>c\rt w g = ,dise/abli%m5t1 & ,i ?9k1 !re=e1 t ,glad/one w40 ,i d n express any connect+ l9k1 m]ely because e "o sees at once t ,i am inf]r+ f ! int5tions ( "s ,lib]al lead]s to ^? ( ano!r4 ,if ! t]ms are really p>ticul>s1 8,x is ,a1 ,y is ,b1 ,z is ,c10 "o is helpless2 !y d n po9t to any?+ fur!r at all2 !re is no bridge f "o to ! o!r4 ,inf]5ce _c possibly take place except ?r\gh ! m$ium ( an id5tity or univ]sal :i* acts z a bridge f "o case or relation to ano!r4 ,if ea* p>ticul> 0 %ut up )9 itself z 9 ! lett]s tak5 z an in/ance j n[1 y c\ld nev] get f "o :i* is giv5 to ano!r :i* is n giv51 or to a connection n giv5 betwe5 two :i* are giv54 ,take ! simple/ conceivable case1 :i* h>dly am\nts to ,inf]5ce1 t ( produc+ a giv5 /raight l9e4 ,h[ is x t ?is is possible8 ,because ! direction ( ! /raight l9e is univ]sal & self-id5tical z aga9/ possible directions 9 space1 & x acts z a rule :i* c>ries y beyond ! giv5 portion ( x4 ,?is might fairly be call$ an 8imm$iate inf]5ce40 ,s ,i presume t any curve c be con/ruct$ out ( a suffici5t portion ( ! curve1 al?\gh1 except ) a circle1 ?is is m ?an repeat+ ! same l9e ov] aga94 ,! cont5t has a nature :i* #adj is capable ( prescrib+ its own cont9uation4 ,a curve is n a direction2 a tru? :i* is a puzzle to ! non-ma!matician--x is a law ( cont9u\s *ange ( direction4 ,sy/em ! ultimate condition ( ,inf]5ce #c4 ,ultimately ! condition ( inf]5ce is always a sy/em4 ,& x w help u 9 gett+ a vital notion ( inf]5ce if we ?9k1 to beg9 )1 ( ! int]dep5d5ce ( relations 9 space--9 geometrical figures1 or1 to take a commonplace example1 9 ! adju/m5t ( a ,*9ese puzzle or a dissect$ map4 ,or any ( ! propositions ab\t ! prop]ties ( triangles are a good example4 ,h[ c "o prop]ty or attribute det]m9e ano!r1 s t y c say1 8,giv5 ?is1 !re mu/ be t08 ,?is c only be answ]$ by po9t+ to ! nature ( a :ole ) p>ts1 or a sy/em1 :i* j means ?is1 a gr\p ( relations or prop]ties or ?+s s held toge!r by a common nature t y c judge f "s ( !m :at ! o!rs mu/ be4 ,n all sy/ems admit ( precise calculation & demon/ration1 b :]ev] !re is inf]5ce at all !re is at lea/ an id5tity ( cont5t :i* may be m or less develop$ into a precise relation betwe5 p>ts4 ,= example1 we _c con/ruct geometrically ! life & "* ( an individual man2 we c argue f 8 "* to "s ext5t1 b ! connection ( facts 9 8 p]sonal id5tity is all t we c inf] = c]ta92 & ev5 ?is involves a c]ta9 context ( facts1 z 9 circum/antial evid5ce4 ,yet ?is simple/ l9k+ toge!r ( occurr5ces by p]sonal id5tity is en\gh to give v />tl+ inf]5ces4 ,?ack]ay's /ory ( ! prie/ is a good in/ance ( inf]5ce f m]e id5tity4 8,an old abb1 talk+ among a p>ty ( intimate fri5ds1 happ5$ #ada to say1 #8,a prie/ has /range exp]i5ces2 :y1 ladies1 my fir/ p5it5t 0 a murd]]4' ,^u ?is1 ! pr9cipal nobleman ( ! neighb\rhood ent]s ! room4 #8,ah1 ,abb1 "h y are2 d y "k1 ladies1 ,i 0 ! ,abb's fir/ p5it5t1 & ,i promise y my confession a/oni%$ him6'0 ,"h ! inf]5ce dep5ds solely on individual id5tity1 :i* is1 z we saw1 a k9d ( univ]sal4 ,b 9 ?is case 0 !re really an inf]5ce8 ,does n ! conclusion fall inside ! premisses8 ,x mu/ 9 "o s5se fall inside ! premisses1 or x is n true4 ,b x does n fall inside !m until we h br\ght !m into contact by _! po9t ( id5tity & melt$ !m d[n into ! same judgm5t4 ,i admit t ^! inf]5ces f individual id5tity1 assum+ ! t]ms n to be ambigu\s1 are only j )9 ! l9e ( rational inf]5ce1 b1 z we see 9 ?is case1 !y br+ toge!r ! p>ts ( a v ext5d$ univ]sal4 ,:at is ! l[] limit ( inf]5ce8 ,imm$iate ,inf]5ce #d4 ,9 ! doctr9e ( imm$iate ,inf]5ce common ,logic treats ( ,conv]sion & ! ,opposition ( judgm5ts4 ,is a m]e transposition ( ,subject & ,pr$icate1 :]e ! tru? ( ! new judgm5t foll[s f t ( ! old1 an inf]5ce8 ,x is a matt] ( degree4 #a ,does x give any?+ new8 8,! ,que5 is a woman40 8,a woman is ! ,que540 ,if we make a real diff]5ce betwe5 ! implications ( a ,subject & a ,pr$icate1 we seem to get some?+ new2 b x is a po9t ( little int]e/4 #adb ,comp>ison or ,recognition are m l imm$iate inf]5ces4 ,comp>ison means t we d n let ourselves p]ceive freely1 b take a p>ticul> cont5t z ! means ( app]ception ( ano!r cont5t1 i4e4 z ! m$ium ?r\gh :i* we look at x4 ,i d n m]ely look at ! second1 b ,i look at x ) ! fir/ 9 my m9d4 ,& s f> ,i may be said to inf]1 )\t ! =m ( pro(1 f data ( p]ception to a relation betwe5 !m4 8,y are tall] ?an me10 is a result obta9$ by consid]+ y\r height f ! po9t ( view ( m9e1 or vice v]s4 ,recognition is some:at simil>4 ,x is m ?an a m]e p]ception1 because x implies reproduction ( elem5ts n giv51 & an id5tification ) !m4 ,i recognise ?is man z s-&-s1 i4e4 ,i see he is id5tical ) ! p]son :o did s-&-s4 ,x is a judgm5t1 b x goes beyond ! prim>y judgm5t1 8,he is su* & su*10 & is really inf]r$ f x4 ,x is a matt] ( degree4 ,almo/ e ,judgm5t c be brok5 up into elem5ts1 & recognition fades gradually into cognition--we 8recognise0 an example ( a law1 a "r1 a duty1 an au?ority2 n t we knew x1 ! special case1 be=e1 b t 9 analys+ x we f9d a pr9ciple :i* comm&s our ass5t1 & ) :i* we id5tify ! p>ticul> in/ance be=e u4 #a ,! collective or g5]al judgm5t1 z commonly expla9$1 _c be conv]t$ 8simply10 because ! pr$icate is 8wid]0 ?an ! subject1 & ! same rule is accept$ = ! relation ( consequ5t to antec$5t4 ,! aim ( sci5ce1 x might almo/ be said1 is to get beyond ! k9d ( judgm5t to :i* ?is rule applies4 ,numb] ( ,in/ances #e4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 guess-"w & demon/ration re/s on ! diff]5ce betwe5 a deta*$ quality or relation /rik+ en\gh to sugge/ some?+ to u1 & a sy/em ?or\ghly kn[n 9 its p>ts z dep5d+ on "o ano!r4 ,?is is s ev5 9 recognis+ an individual p]son2 x is necess>y to "k t ! quality by :i* y recognise him is "o t no "o else possesses1 or else #adc x is guess-"w4 ,/ill m is ?is ! case 9 attempt+ a sci5tific connection4 ,all sci5tific connection is really by sy/em z betwe5 ! p>ts ( ! cont5t4 ,a quality is (t5 =c$ on our att5tion by be+ repeat$ a great _m times 9 "s p>ticul> k9d ( occurr5ce1 b z long z we d n "k its causal connection ) ! prop]ties & relations involv$ 9 ! occurr5ce x is only guess-"w to treat !m z ess5tially connect$4 ,?is is a matt] v easy to confuse1 & v important4 ,x is easy to confuse1 because a numb] ( in/ances does help u really 9 inf]5ce1 z x always ins5sibly gives u an imm5se comm& ( cont5t2 t is to say1 )\t kn[+ x we correct & enl>ge our idea ( ! probable connection a little ) e in/ance4 ,s ! connection betwe5 ! prop]ties t /rike u becomes mu* l>g] & also m correct ?an x is to p :o h only se5 a few in/ances4 ,b ?is is because ! in/ances are all a little diff]5t1 & s correct ea* o!r1 & %[ transitions f m obvi\s =ms to less obvi\s =ms ( ! prop]ties 9 "q :i* lead u up to a true und]/&+ ( !m4 ,if ! in/ances 7 all exactly ! same !y w\ld n help u 9 ?is way1 b our guess w\ld /ill be a guess1 h[ev] _m in/ances might h sugge/$ x4 ,i rememb] t a great _m ye>s ago ,i h>dly believ$ 9 ! /one-age tools be+ really tools made by m54 ,i _h only se5 a few bad specim5s1 "o or two ( :i* ,i /ill ?9k 7 j accid5tally brok5 fl9ts :i* an old c\ntry cl]gyman took = /one-age tools4 ,?is 0 to me !n a m]e guess1 viz4 t ! cutt+ %ape prov$ #add ! fl9ts to h be5 made by m54 ,& obvi\sly1 if ,i _h se5 hundr$s ( specim5s no bett] ?an ^!1 ,i %\ld h treat$ x z a m]e guess all ! same4 ,b ,i happ5$ to g to ,salisbury1 & !re ,i saw ! fam\s ,blackmore ,museum1 :]e !re are n only hundr$s ( specim5s1 b specim5s arrang$ 9 s]ies f ! mo/ beautiful knives & arr[-heads to ! rude/4 ,!re "o's eye caught ! common look ( !m at once1 ! bett] specim5s help+ "o to int]pret ! worse1 & ! guess 0 almo/ turn$ into a demon/ration1 because "o's eyes 7 op5$ to ! sort ( h&work :i* ^! ?+s exhibit1 & to ! way 9 :i* !y are *ipp$ & flak$4 ,n[ ?is v important op]ation ( numb] ( examples1 9 help+ ! m9d to an explanation1 is always be+ confus$ ) ! effect ( m]e repetition ( examples1 :i* does n help y to an explanation1 i4e4 a repetition 9 :i* "o tells y no m ?an ano!r4 ,b ^! m]e repetitions op]ate prima facie 9 a diff]5t way1 viz4 by mak+ y ?9k !re is an unkn[n cause 9 fav\r ( ! comb9ation ( prop]ties :i* recurs1 & lead up to ! old-fa%ion$ p]fect ,induction & ! doctr9e ( *ances1 & n to demon/ration4 #a #a ,ultimately ! calculus ( *ances may be said to re/ on ! same pr9ciple z ,induction1 9 s f> z ! repetition ( examples d]ives its =ce f ! 7unspecifi$7 v>iety ( contexts ?r\gh :i* ?is repetition %[s a c]ta9 result to be p]si/5t4 ,b 9 su* a calculus ! presumption f recurr5ce 9 su* a v>iety ( contexts is only e/imat$1 & n analys$4 ,on ! road f guess-"w to demon/ration1 & g5]ally assi/$ by great exp]i5ce1 we h skilful #ade guess-"w1 ! fir/ /age ( discov]y4 ,?is dep5ds on ! capacity = hitt+ ^u qualities :i* are connect$ by causation1 ?\gh ! connection rema9s to be prov$4 ,s a c\ntryman or a sailor gets to judge ( ! wea!r2 x is n m]ely t he has se5 s _m in/ances1 b he has be5 taught by a great v>iety ( in/ances to recognise ! ess5tial po9ts1 & has =m$ probably a mu* m complex judgm5t ?an he c put into words4 ,s aga9 a doctor or a nurse c see h[ ill a pati5t is1 ?\gh x does n foll[ t !y c\ld always say :y ?is appe>ance goes ) ?is degree ( illness4 ,9 proportion z y m]ely presume a causal connection1 x is guess-"w or pure discov]y4 ,9 z f> z y c analyse a causal connection x is demon/ration or pro(2 & = ,logic1 discov]y _c be treat$ ap>t f pro(1 except z skilful guess-"w4 ,9 z f> z !re is gr\nd = ! guess1 s f> x approa*es to pro(2 9 z f> z !re is no gr\nd1 x gives no?+ = ,logic to get hold (--is m]e caprice4 ,a good sci5tific guess really dep5ds on a %rewd eye = ! ess5tial po9ts4 ,i am n ma!matician en\gh to give ! hi/ory ( ! discov]y ( ,neptune by ,lev]ri] & ,adams1 8calculat+ a planet into exi/5ce by enorm\s heaps ( algebra10 #a b x mu/ h begun z a guess1 ,i %\ld suppose x 0 sugge/$ be=e ,adams & ,lev]ri] took x up1 on ! gr\nd ( ! anomal\s movem5ts ( ,uranus indicat+ an attraction unacc\nt$ = by ! kn[n sol> sy/em4 ,& ,i suppose t ?is guess w\ld gradually gr[ into demon/ration z x became cle> t no?+ b a new planet w\ld expla9 ! anomalies ( #adf ! orbit ( ,uranus4 ,& at la/ ! calculators 7 able to tell ! telescopi/ almo/ exactly :]e to look = ! unkn[n planet4 ,! pro( 9 ?is case prec$$ ! obs]vation or discov]y by p]ception1 & ?is makes x a v dramatic example2 b if ! obs]vation _h come e>li]1 x w\ld n ,i suppose h disp5s$ ) ! precise pro( ( ,neptune's effect on ,uranus1 ?\gh x might h made x easi]4 #a ,de ,morgan1 ,budget ( ,p>adoxes1 p4 #ec4 ,figures ( ,syllogism #f4 ,9 illu/ration ( ?is progress f guess-"w to sci5ce1 #a ,i w give an example ( ! ?ree ,ari/otelian figures ( ! ,syllogism4 ,i omit ! f\r?4 ,i assume t ! heavi] t]m1 or ! t]m mo/ l a 8?+10 is fitt$ to be ! ,subject1 & ! t]m m l an attribute to be ! ,pr$icate4 ,! syllogi/ic rules dep5d practically on ! fact t common ,logic1 foll[+ common spee* & ?\ght1 treats ! ,pr$icate z wid] ?an ! ,subject1 :i* corresponds to ,mill's view 7also ! common sci5tific view71 t ! same effect may h sev]al alt]native causes 7n a comp\nd cause1 b diff]5t possible causes71 & t consequ5t is wid] ?an antec$5t4 #b ,x is ?is assumption t prev5ts affirmative propositions f be+ simply conv]tible1 i4e4 prev5ts 8,all m5 are mortal0 f be+ id5tical ) 8,all mortals are m510 & b = x !re w\ld be no diff]5ce ( figure at all1 z !re is n = inf]5ce by equation4 #a ,cf4 ,plato's ,republic1 ,bk4 ,,vi41 end4 #b ,see p4 #ada1 note4 ,?is progression is "h m]ely meant to illu/rate ! univ]sal or sy/ematic connection ( p>ticul>s 9 process ( dis5gag+ itself4 ,b ,i d n say t ! fir/ #adg figure ) a major premise is a natural =m = all argum5ts4 ,i take ! s*eme ( ! fir/ ?ree figures f ,jevons1 & sugge/ _! mean+ z foll[s3-- ,x d5otes ! major t]m4 ,y d5otes ! middle t]m4 ,z d5otes ! m9or t]m4 #a/ ,fig4 #bnd ,fig4 #crd ,fig4 ,major ,premise ,,yx ,,xy ,,yx ,m9or ,premise ,,zy ,,zy ,,yz ,conclusion ,,zx ,,zx ,,zx ,fig4 #c4 ,an obs]vation & a guess4 ,ye/]day x ra9$ 9 ! ev5+4 ,all ye/]day ! smoke t5d$ to s9k4 ,! smoke s9k+ 7 may be 7 a sign ( ra94 7 is sometimes 7 ,! conclusion _c be g5]al 9 ?is figure1 because no?+ g5]al has be5 said 9 ! premisses ab\t ! subject ( ! conclusion4 ,s x is v suitable = a m]e sugge/$ connection giv5 9 a s+le cont5t--t ( ! "t 8ye/]day10 imply+ moreov] t bo? ! po9ts 9 "q h some?+ to d ) ! /ate ( ! atmosph]e on t s+le day4 ,fig4 #b4 ,a t5tative ju/ification4 ,smoke t goes d[nw>ds is heavi] ?an air ,p>ticles ( moi/ure are heavi] ?an air4 ,p>ticles ( moi/ure may be 9 ! desc5d+ smoke4 ,a univ]sal conclusion 9 ?is figure w\ld be =mally bad4 ,b we d n c>e = t1 because we only mean x to be t5tative1 & we d n draw a univ]sal affirmative #adh conclusion4 ,we express its badness by qu]y+ x1 or by say+ 8may be40 ,! reason :y x is =mally bad is t no?+ g5]al has be5 said 9 ! premisses ab\t ! middle t]m or reason1 s t x is possible t ! two ,subjects d n t\* ea* o!r )9 x1 i4e4 t ! sugge/$ special cause1 moi/ure1 is n connect$ ) ! special effect1 ! s9k+ ( ! smoke4 ,! g5]al reason 8heavi] ?an air0 may include bo? special sugge/$ cause & special sugge/$ effect )\t _! t\*+4 ,smoke & moi/ure may bo? s9k 9 air1 b = diff]5t & unconnect$ reasons4 ,/ill1 :5 a special cause is sugge/$ :i* is probably pres5t 9 "p1 & :i* w\ld act 9 ! way requir$ by ! g5]al "* ( ! effect1 !re is a c]ta9 probability t x is ! op]ative cause1 subject to fur!r analysis2 & ! argum5t has sub/antive value1 ?\gh bad 9 =m4 ,! only good argum5ts 9 ?is figure h negative conclusions1 e4g4-- ,smoke t is heavi] ?an air goes d[nw>ds4 ,smoke on dry days does n g d[nw>ds4 ,smoke on dry days is n heavi] ?an air4 ,?is conclusion is =mal1 because ! negative ?r[s ! second ,subject altoge!r outside ! ,pr$icate1 & s outside ! fir/ ,subject4 ,! "o cont5t always has a *>act]i/ic :i* c nev] atta* to ! o!r1 & consequ5tly x is cle> t "s g5u9e und]ly+ diff]5ce keeps !m ap>t4 ,su* an inf]5ce w\ld corroborate ! sugge/ion previ\sly obta9$ t ! pres5ce ( moi/ure 0 ! active cause ( ! desc5d+ smoke on days :5 ra9 0 com+4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a completely reason$ judgm5t4 #adi ,all p>ticles t s9k 9 ! air 9 damp wea!r m ?an 9 dry1 are load$ ) moi/ure :5 !y s9k4 ,smoke t desc5ds be=e ra9 is an example ( p>ticles t s9k 9 ! air 9 damp wea!r m ?an 9 dry4 ,smoke t desc5ds be=e ra9 is load$ ) moi/ure :5 x desc5ds 7& !re=e its s9k+ is n accid5tally a sign ( ra91 b is really connect$ ) ! cause ( ra974 ,! major premise belongs only to ?is figure4 ,9 ! o!r x is m]e tradition to call x s1 & _! two premisses are ! same 9 k9d1 & contribute equally to ! conclusion1 & = t reason ! affirmative conclusion 0 n g5]al or n =mal4 ,if y\r g5]al conclusion is to foll[ by m]e =m1 y mu/ %[ y\r pr9ciple z explicitly cov]+ y\r conclusion4 ,b if y d ?is1 !n ( c\rse y are *>g$ ) begg+ ! "q4 ,&1 9 a s5se1 t is :at y mean to d1 :5 y set out to make y\r argum5t complete by its m]e =m4 ,if y h bon fide to con/ruct a comb9ation ( y\r data1 y _c pr$ict :e!r ! conclusion w take ?is =m or t =m4 ,us+ a major premise meant1 8,we h got a pr9ciple t cov]s ! conclusion1 & s expla9s ! case be=e u40 ,grant+ t ! major premise involves ! m9or premise & conclusion1 t is j ! reason :y x is imp]ative to express !m4 ,! mean+ ( ! ,syllogism is t x analyses ! :ole actual ?\ght2 ! fault is to suppose t novelty is ! po9t ( inf]5ce4 ,! ,syllogism %[s y h[ y mu/ und]/& ei!r premise 9 ord] t x may cov] #aej ! conclusion4 ,or1 />t+ f ! conclusion z a curr5t popul> belief1 or z an isolat$ obs]vation or sugge/ion by an individual obs]v] 7& ?is is practically ! way 9 :i* our sci5ce on any subject z a rule takes its rise71 ! *>act]i/ic process ?r\gh ! ?ree /ages describ$ above consi/s 9 fir/ not+ ! giv5 circum/ances "u :i*1 accord+ to ! prima facie belief or obs]vation1 ! conjunction 9 "q takes place 78ye/]day10 i4e4 89 ! /ate ( ! atmosph]e ye/]day072 secondly 9 analys+ or consid]+ ^? giv5 circum/ances1 to f9d )9 !m some?+ :i* looks l a g5]al prop]ty1 a law1 or causal op]ation1 :i* may atta* ! conjunction 9 "q to ! sy/ematic :ole ( our exp]i5ce 7! pres5ce ( some?+ heavi] ?an air 9 ! atmosph]e72 & ?irdly1 9 ! exhibition ( ?is gr\nd or reason z a pr9ciple1 9 ! light ( :i* ! prim>y belief or obs]vation 7probably a good deal modifi$7 becomes a "p ( our sy/ematic intelligible _w4 #aea ,,lecture ,x ,,induction1 ,,d$uction1 ,,& ,,causation ,induction #a #a4 ,induction has always meant "s process t />ts f in/ances2 ! ,greek ^w = x is us$ by ,ari/otle bo? 9 8 own ,logic & 9 describ+ ! me?od ( ,socrates4 ,x meant ei!r 8br++ up in/ance aft] in/ance10 or 8c>ry+ ! he>] on by in/ances40 ,& /ill 9 speak+ ( ,induction we ?9k ( "s process t consi/s 9 do+ some?+ ) a numb] ( in/ances4 ,b we f9d t ?is notion really breaks d[n1 & ! contradiction betwe5 ,mill & o!r writ]s 7,jevons1 *4 i47 %[s exactly h[ x breaks d[n4 ,! "q is :e!r "o exp]im5t w e/abli% an inductive tru?4 ,we w review ! mean+s ( ! t]m1 & %[ h[ !y *ange4 #a ,read ,n4 ,locky]'s ,elem5ts ( ,a/ronomy2 ,abney's ,col\r ,measurem5t2 ,introduction to ,ba9 on ,induction2 ,jevons's ,elem5t>y ,lessons on 8,obs]vation & ,exp]im5t0 p4 #bbh1 & on ,induction1 p4 #bad 7ab\t ,mill74 ,induction by simple ,enum]ation 7a7 ,induction by simple enum]ation 0 :at ,bacon 0 always attack+1 & say+1 q rightly1 t x 0 n sci5tific4 ,x is ! me?od :i* ,i /at$ 9 ! ,?ird ,figure ( ! syllogism1 almo/ a conv]sational me?od2 ! m]e beg9n+ ( obs]vation4 8,i am sure ! influ5za is a s]i\s illness2 all my fri5ds :o h _h x h be5 dreadfully pull$ d[n40 #aeb ,a ,b ,c h be5 s]i\sly ill4 ,,abc h _h influ5za4 ,influ5za is a s]i\s illness4 ,n[ ?is popul> k9d ( inf]5ce1 z ,bacon says1 8,prec>ie concludit1 et p]iculo exponitur ab in/antia contradictoria40 ,suppose y come across "o slight case ( influ5za1 ! conclusion is upset4 ,?is type ( reason+ really appeals to two q opposite pr9ciples2 "o ! pr9ciple ( c\nt+1 :i* leads up to /ati/ics & ! old-fa%ion$ p]fect ,induction or ! !ory ( *ance1 ! o!r ! pr9ciple ( sci5tific sy/em4 ,enum]ation always has a gr\nd 7b7 ,9 c\nt+1 we d n ?9k ( ! reason :y we c\nt1 b !re always is a reason1 :i* is giv5 9 ! nature ( ! :ole ^: p>ts we are c\nt+4 ,if ,i c\nt ! memb]s ( ?is audi5ce1 x is because ,i want to "k h[ _m units ! :ole audi5ce consi/s (4 ,i d n ask :y ea* unit is !re2 c\nt+ is diff]5t f sci5tific analysis2 b yet ! connection betwe5 :ole & "p is pres5t 9 my reason = c\nt+4 ,s really1 ?\gh ,i only say1 8,"o1 two1 ?ree1 f\r1 etc410 ea* unit dem&s a judgm5t1 8,?is is "o memb]--t makes two memb]s1 t makes ?ree memb]s10 etc4 ,c\nt+ is ! con/ruction ( a total ( units %>+ a common nature2 measurem5t is a =m ( c\nt+ 9 :i* ! units are also ref]r$ to "s o!r /&>d besides ! :ole 9 "q1 e4g4 ! /&>d p\nd or in*4 ,p]fect ,induction 7c7 ,m]e c\nt+ or 8enum]ation0 only helps y 9 induction by comp>ison ) "s o!r num]ical result1 &1 if imp]fect1 only to ! ext5t ( sugge/+ t !re #aec is a common cause or !re is n a common cause4 ,e4g4 if y ?r[ a six ) "o die fifty times runn+1 y inf] t ! die is probably load$4 ,?is is because y comp>e ! result ) t :i* y expect if ! die is fair1 viz4 a six once 9 e six ?r[s4 ,y inf] t !re is a special cause fav\r+ "o side4 ,! pr9ciple is t ignorance is imp>tial4 ,if y "k no reason = "o case m ?an ano!r1 y take !m z equal fractions ( reality2 if results are n equal fractions ( reality1 y inf] a special reason fav\r+ "o case4 #a ,pure c\nt+ _c help y 9 ,induction 9 any way b ?is4 ,p]fect ,induction simply means t ! total is limit$ & ! limit is rea*$2 y h c\nt$ #ajj p] c5t1 ( ! possible cases1 & ! *ance becomes c]ta9ty4 ,! result is a m]e collective judgm5t4 #a ,see ,lecture ,,ix1 p4 #add1 note4 ,sy/em 7d7 ,! pr9ciple ( sci5tific sy/em is q a diff]5t ?+4 ,ess5tially1 x has no?+ to d ) numb] or ) a g5]alis$ conclusion4 ,x is m]ely ?is1 8,:at is once true is always true1 & :at is n true nev] 0 true40 ,! aim ( sci5tific induction is to f9d out 8,:at is true10 i4e4 :at is consi/5t ) ! giv5 sy/em4 ,we nev] d\bt ?is pr9ciple2 if we did we c\ld h no sci5ce4 ,if obs]vation contradicts our be/-e/abli%$ sci5tific laws1 & we _c suppose an error 9 ! obs]vation1 we mu/ inf] t ! law 0 wrongly1 i4e4 untruly /at$4 ,!re=e1 z ,mill says1 "o case is en\gh1 if y c f9d ! tru? ab\t x4 ,p object t y _c make a :ole sci5ce out ( "o case1 & !re=e y mu/ h a numb] ( in/ances4 ,t is a #aed practical po9t to be borne 9 m9d1 b x has no real sci5tific mean+4 8,in/ance0 _c be def9$ except z "o obs]vation1 :i* is a purely accid5tal limitation4 ,! po9t is1 t y use y\r in/ances n by c\nt+ cases ( giv5 t]ms1 b by asc]ta9+ :at ! t]ms really are 7i4e4 modify+ !m71 & :at is _! real connection4 ,?is is ! simple secret ( ,mill's /ruggle to base sci5tific ,induction1 on ,induction by simple ,enum]ation2 ! latt] is n ! evid5ce1 b ! beg9n+ ( elicit+ ! evid5ce--s t ! ,sci5tific ,induction is f> m c]ta9 ?an t on :i* ,mill bases x4 ,ari/otle's /atem5t is ! cle>e/ & pr(\nde/ t has ev] be5 made4 #a 8,nor is x possible to obta9 sci5tific k by way s5se-p]ception4 ,= ev5 if s5se-p]ception reveals a c]ta9 "* 9 its object1 yet we necess>ily p]ceive ?is1 "h1 & n[4 ,! univ]sal1 :i* is ?r\gh\t all1 x is impossible to p]ceive2 = x is n a ?is-n[2 if x _h be5 x w\ld n h be5 univ]sal1 = :at is always & ev]y:]e we call univ]sal4 ,s9ce !n demon/ration 7sci5ce7 is univ]sal1 & su* elem5ts x is impossible to p]ceive by s5se1 x is pla9 t we _c obta9 sci5tific k by way ( s5se4 ,b x is cle> t ev5 if we _h be5 able to p]ceive by s5se e4g4 by measurem5t t ! ?ree angles ( a triangle are equal to two "r angles1 we %\ld /ill h _h to se>* = a demon/ration1 & %\ld n1 z "s say1 h kn[n x sci5tifically 7)\t "o72 = we necess>ily p]ceive 9 p>ticul> cases only1 b sci5ce comes by kn[+ ! univ]sal4 ,:]e=e if we c\ld h be5 on ! moon1 & se5 ! e>? com+ betwe5 x & ! #aee sun1 we %\ld n 7by t m]e p]ception7 h kn[n ! cause ( ! eclipse4 ,n b :at by see+ ?is frequ5tly happ5 we %\ld h grasp$ ! univ]sal1 & obta9$ a demon/ration2 = ! univ]sal becomes evid5t out ( a plurality ( p>ticul>s1 & ! univ]sal is valuable because x reveals ! cause20 & aga91 #b 8,& t ! se>* ( sci5ce is = ! middle t]m is made pla9 9 ^? cases 9 :i* ! middle t]m is p]ceptible to s5se4 ,= we se>* :]e we h _h no p]ception1--z = ! reason 7or middle t]m7 ( an eclipse1--to "k if !re is a reason or n4 ,b if we _h be5 ^u ! moon1 we %\ld n h _h to inquire if ! process 7( an eclipse z su*1 & n "s o!r k9d ( d>kness7 takes place1 or = :at reason1 b bo? w\ld h be5 pla9 at once4 ,! p]ception w\ld h be51 #8,! e>? is n[ com+ betwe51' c>ry+ ) x ! obvi\s fact1 #8,! moon is n[ suff]+ an eclipse1' & out ( ?is ! univ]sal 7connection7 w\ld h aris540 #a ,ari/otle1 ,an4 ,po/4 #hg1 b4 #bh4 #b ,ibid4 #ij1 a4 #bd4 ,analogy 7e7 ,i %[$ y a me?od on ! way to ?is 9 ! %ape ( ,ari/otle's second figure1 :i* we may call analogy4 ,! pla9 sign ( x is1 t y give up c\nt+ ! in/ances & beg9 to weigh !m1 s t ! attributes :i* are pr$icates fall into ! middle t]m or reason4 ,9 ! =m] inf]5ce ab\t influ5za we did n suppose t y _h any idea :y influ5za 0 a s]i\s illness2 b 9 analogy !re is "s sugge/ion ( ?is k9d1 s t ! connection is exam9$ into4 ,"h at once y beg9 to get sugge/$ explanations & confirmation f ! #aef sy/em ( k4 ,y _c h analogy by m]ely c\nt+ attributes4 ,i beg9 f ,enum]ative ,sugge/ion drawn f obs]vation ( ,butt]flies4 #a4 ,?ree species ( g5us x closely resemble ?ree species ( y4 #b4 ,! species ( x w\ld be protect$ by resembl+ y 7because y is di/a/eful to birds74 ,! resemblance may be a 8protective resemblance10 i4e4 a resemblance br\ght ab\t by survival ( ^? ?us protect$4 ,on ?is !re naturally foll[s ,analogy4 #a4 ,protective resemblances naturally increase ?r\gh s]ies ( species f slight] to clos] resemblances4 #b4 ,! resemblances 9 "q increase 9 g5us x ?r\gh s]ies ( species f slight] to clos] resemblance to y4 ,! resemblances 9 "q %[ important signs ( be+ protective resemblances4 ,:5 we get ?us f>1 a s+le syllogism w n really repres5t ! argum5t4 ,x c only analyse ) conv5i5ce a s+le /ep 9 inf]5ce4 ,b n[ we h connect$ ! reason ( ! resemblances ) ! :ole doctr9e ( natural selection1 ! gradual approximation ( ! species is mo/ /rik+1 & we c\ld set up a corroborative analogy on ! basis ( e feature & detail ( ^! resemblances1 ! t5d5cy ( :i* w\ld be to %[ t no cause or comb9ation ( causes o!r ?an t sugge/$ is likely to acc\nt = ! obs]v$ resemblances4 #aeg ,i give a confirmatory negative analogy4 #a4 ,no protective resemblance c gr[ up :]e !re is no initial t5d5cy to resemblance4 #b4 ,! non-resembl+ species 9 ! g5us x %[ no initial t5d5cy t[>ds y4 ,! non-resemblances obs]v$ are su* z c\ld n produce protective resemblances4 ,?is is a =mally bad argum5t f two negative premisses ju/ifi$ by its positive mean+1 :i* implies t j :]e ! alleg$ effect ceases1 ! alleg$ cause ceases too4 ,if y look at ! case 9 ! ,natural ,hi/ory ,museum #a y see ! normal ,pi]9ae d[n "o side1 n approa*+ ,euplo9ae4 ,!y are ! positive examples1 negatively confirm+ ! explanation ( ^? :i* d approa* ,euplo9ae4 ,^! latt] all />t f "s =m :i* v>i$ slightly1 by accid5t we presume1 t[>ds ,euplo9ae1 & !n ?is p>tially resembl+ s]ies splits into ?ree sets1 ea* lead+ up to a diff]5t & complete protective resemblance4 #a ,^! cases 9 ! entrance-hall ( ! ,natural ,hi/ory ,museum at ,s\? ,k5s+ton af=d excell5t practical illu/rations ( ,inductive ,me?od4 ,i /rongly urge ! ,london /ud5t to try 8 h& at =mulat+ !m4 ,i said m]e numb] 0 no help 9 sci5tific ,induction4 ,b d n ^! ?ree sets ( resemblances make a /rong] pro( ?an any "o w\ld8 ,yes1 because we ne$ a presumption aga9/ accid5t4 ,y w\ld n want ?is if y c\ld unveil :at really happ5s 9 "o case1 b z inf9ite conditions are op]ative 9 su* matt]s1 & x is impossible to exp]im5t accurately1 #a ?is _c be done2 #aeh & x might be said t "o su* resemblance 0 an accid5t1 i4e4 t x 0 ow+ to causes indep5d5t ( ! protection4 ,b z ! cases become m num]\s x becomes m improbable t diff]5t circum/ances produce ! same effect1 :i* w\ld !n be a m]e co9cid5ce1 9 s _m diff]5t cases4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we knew by positive & negative analysis :at circum/ance did produce ! effect1 ?is confirmation w\ld be useless4 #a ,ultimately1 no exp]im5ts are absolutely accurate4 ,!re is always an unexhau/$ backgr\nd 9 :i* unsuspect$ causes ( error may be lat5t4 ,negative ,in/ance 7f7 ,9 ord] to %[ exactly :at circum/ance produces a giv5 effect1 a sy/em mu/ be br\ght to be> on ! ph5om5on ?r\gh negation4 ,! only te/ ( tru? is t x is t :i* enables y to organise y\r ?\ght & p]ception4 ,! fir/ means ( do+ ?is is ,obs]vation1 !n ,exp]im5t1 !n ,classification & ,hypo!sis1 :i* takes u into ,d$uction4 ,obs]vation is inaccurate1 until y beg9 to di/+ui% :at is connect$ f :at is n connect$4 ,:5 y d ?is1 y are v ne> exp]im5t1 ! use ( :i* is to introduce p]fectly def9ite & measurable *anges into :at y are obs]v+4 #a ,!re is no absolute di/9ction betwe5 obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,look+ at a tissue ?r\gh a microscope is obs]vation2 putt+ on a pol>iscope1 ?\gh x *anges ! image altoge!r1 is obs]vation2 if y w>m ! /age1 or put an acid on ! object1 t1 ,i suppose1 is exp]im5t1 because y int]f]e ) ! object #aei itself4 ,:at %\ld we say1 = example1 z to spectroscopic analysis ( ! ,sun's corona8 #a ,jevons1 loc4 cit41 esp4 quot4 f ,h]s*el 7p4 #bcd74 ,! mom5t y beg9 accurate obs]vation y get a negative ) positive value1 :i* is really ! conv]se by negation ( y\r positive obs]vation1 a#a is b#a2 b#b 7:i* is j n-b#a7 is a#b 7:i* is j n-a#a74 ,?us ! two may be repres5t$ z ! same judgm5t 9 positive & negative =ms1 :i* confirm "o ano!r4 8,yell[ is a comp\nd ( r$ & gre50--9 ,exp]im5t1 8if1 & z f> z y take away ! r$ or ! gre5 y de/roy ! yell[40 ,t describes an exp]im5t ) ! col\r-box4 ,i h inv]t$ ! ord] 9 ! conv]sions 9 compliance ) ! rule ( common ,logic1 t ,pr$icate is wid] ?an ,subject2 b 9 accurate matt] x is a false rule1 & v inconv5i5t4 ,! common rule means t a man :o is dr[n$ is dead1 b a man :o is dead ne$ n h be5 dr[n$2 b ( c\rse if he has ! signs ( dea? by dr[n+ !n he has be5 dr[n$4 ,classification & ,g5]alisation 7g7 ,classification is a consequ5ce ( all sy/ematic !ory2 x is n a sep>ate me?od ( sci5ce4 ,x is m]ely ! arrangem5t ( positive cont5ts negatively relat$4 ,no d\bt :]e we h a k9d ( family relations betwe5 individuals classification is m prom95t1 & 9 ! !ory ( cont9u\s matt] or op]ation1 :]e individualities are n rem>kable--e4g4 9 geometry--x is less prom95t4 ,b bo? are always !re--classification & !ory4 ,classification :i* expresses no !ory is wor?less1 except t int5d$ = conv5i5t ref]5ce1 su* z alphabetical classification4 ,"u classification ,i may say a ^w on g5]alisation4 #afj ,! common idea ( inf]5ce f _m cases1 because !y are _m1 to all cases ( ! same k9d1 is q )\t ju/ification4 ,! only g5u9e & fundam5tal law ( g5]alisation is 8,once true always true40 ,b ?is might fail to suffice = our practical purposes1 because x might save its tru? by ab/raction4 ,let u take ! example1 8,wat] is made ( oxyg5 & hydrog540 ,if t is true once1 x is always true 9 ! same s5se4 ,if y f9d "s fluid ( a diff]5t composition :i* y are incl9$ to call wat]1 !n y mu/ id5tify or di/+ui% ! two1 & ?is is a m]e "q ( classification4 ,practically1 h[ev]1 we c\ld n get on unless our k _h "s degree ( exhau/iv5ess1 i4e4 unless we knew r\ghly t mo/ ( :at we take = wat] w h ! alleg$ prop]ties4 ,b no ,induction or analysis1 h[ev] accurate1 c assure u aga9/ confusion & error1 viz4 assure u t ev]y?+ we take to be wat] w be made ( oxyg5 & hydrog51 nor t wat] w always be f\nd on ! e>?4 ,i call ?is accurate analysis1 :i* may be made 9 a s+le in/ance only1 & is ! only p]fectly sci5tific g5]alisation1 g5]alisation by m]e det]m9ation4 ,its classification is hypo!tical1 i4e4 9 x ! individuals are m]ely possible individuals4 ,b ?is passes into ano!r k9d ( g5]alisation1 :i* may be call$ g5]alisation by concrete sy/em1 z :5 we atta* sci5tific analysis to "s ext5sive individual reality1 e4g4 to ! sol> sy/em or ! race ( man4 ,!n our judgm5ts h a place 9 ! real _w1 & our classification is categorical classification4 ,! g5]alisation 9 ?is case does n foll[ f ! judgm5t be+ ext5d$ #afa ov] a great plurality ( possible simil> subjects1 b f ! subject to :i* x applies hav+ z an organis$ totality a l>ge place 9 ! _w2 e4g4 8,! human race alone gives moral int]e/ to ! hi/ory ( bur planet40 ,^! judgm5ts come by mak+ explicit ! reality :i* und]lies su* hypo!tical judgm5ts z 8all m5 are capable ( morality40 ,x means t we actually v5ture to assign a place 9 ! univ]se to ! sy/em we are speak+ (4 ,!n1 ?\gh x is an individual1 & unique1 its "n has a mean+1 & is n a m]e prop] "n4 ,! sol> sy/em is good in/ance4 ,judgm5ts ab\t x or p>ts ( x are univ]sal b n purely hypo!tical1 & z our k ( ?is k9d increases x becomes ev5 a little exhau/ive4 ,g5]alisation by m]e lik5ess or analogy1 on ! o!r h&1 is prec>i\s4 ,x is :at popul> !ory has 9 its m9d 9 speak+ ( ,induction1 viz4 a conclusion f a tru? to judgm5ts conc]n+ all simil> cases1 e4g4 f 8,wat] is made ( ,oxyg5 & ,hydrog50 to 8,all liquids :i* we *oose to take = wat] are made ( ,oxyg5 & ,hydrog540 ,no sci5tific me?od c possibly give u ?is result4 ,9 z f> z x has value x dep5ds ^u our guess+ rightly by analogy4 ,x may be repli$1 8t ! signs ( recognition are set d[n 9 ! law or tru?40 ,well1 if !y are c]ta91 g5]alisation by m]e det]m9ation is en\gh2 if !y are d\btful1 no induction c w>rant y\r judgm5t ( !m 9 p>ticul> cases4 ,practically1 ( c\rse1 we get !m "r pretty (t51 al?\gh wrong v (t54 ,hypo!sis 7h7 ,hypo!sis is m]ely supposition2 x consi/s 9 sugge/+ a fact z if x 7 real1 :5 x is ! only way ( #afb complet+ giv5 facts into a consi/5t sy/em4 ,if ! hypo!sis is prov$ t is a demon/ration4 ,x has be5 said t 8,facts are only famili> !ories40 ,if a bell r+s 9 ! h\se1 ,i say unhesitat+ly1 8,"s "o rang t bell40 ,once 9 t5 ye>s x may be rung1 n by a p]son1 b by "s me*anical accid5t1 9 :i* case ! 8"s "o0 is a hypo!sis1 b "o always treats x z a fact4 ,! only pro( ( a hypo!sis is its be+ ! only "o t w fit ! facts1 i4e4 make our sy/em ( reality relatively self-consi/5t4 ,we believe _m ?+s we c nev] v]ify by p]ception1 e4g4 ! exi/5ce ( ! c5tre ( ! e>?1 or t y h an idea 9 y\r m9ds2 & if we g to ultimate analysis1 p]ception itself involves hypo!sis1 & a =tiori all exp]im5t involves hypo!sis4 ,e exp]im5tal int]f]5ce ) nature involves "s supposition z to a possible connection :i* x is int5d$ to confirm or disprove4 ,d$uction #b4 ,classification & hypo!sis br+ u into ,d$uction1 :i* is n really a sep>ate k9d ( inf]5ce f ,induction1 b is a "n giv5 to sci5ce :5 x becomes sy/ematic1 s t x goes f ! :ole to ! p>ts1 & n f ! p>ts to ! :ole4 ,9 ,induction y are f9d+ out ! sy/em piecemeal1 9 ,d$uction y already h ! clue2 b ! sy/em1 & ! sy/em only1 is ! gr\nd ( inf]5ce 9 bo?4 ,induction is t5tative because we d n "k ! sy/em completely4 ,_! relation may be fairly repres5t$ by ! relation ( ! fir/ figure ( ! ,syllogism to ! second & ?ird4 ,! diff]5ce is m]ely t 9 d$uction we are sure ( hav+ k :i* cov]s ! :ole sy/em4 ,if a man obs]v$1 8,! diff]5ce #afc betwe5 ! d>k blood 9 ! ve9s & ! bright blood 9 ! art]ies calls = explanation10 t is ! beg9n+ ( ,induction4 ,if a man /ates ! circulation ( ! blood z an explanation1 t is ,d$uction4 ,really ,induction is only a popul> "n = su* ,inf]5ce z deals ) numb]s ( in/ances4 ,mill's exp]im5tal me?ods d n dep5d ^u numb] ( in/ances1 b only ^u cont5t2 !y presuppose ! in/ances already brok5 up into conditions ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 & consequ5ts a1 b1 c4 ,i mu/ di/+ui% subsumption & con/ruction z two =ms ( d$uction4 ,only ! =m] prop]ly employs ,syllogism 9 ! fir/ figure4 ,subsumption 7a7 ,subsumption is argum5t by subject & attribute2 i4e4 :5 we d n "k ! sy/em s z to con/ruct ! detail1--e4g4 a man's "*1--& c only /ate 9 :at individual sy/em ! details occur4 ,!n we really want ! major premise to lay d[n ! prop]ties ( ! sy/em1 & all d$uction c !re=e be employ$ ) a major premise1 e4g4 a ma!matical argum5t might ultimately take ! =m1 8space is su* t two p>allels _c meet40 ,con/ruction ,b 7b7 :5 ! nature ( ! subject is v obvi\s1 & ! comb9ations 9 x v def9ite1 !n ! major premise is sup]flu\s1 & adds no?+ to ! elem5ts ( ! comb9ation4 8,a to "r ( ,b1 ,b to "r ( ,c4 ,a to "r ( ,c40 ,?is is cle>1 b x is n =mal2 z a syllogism x has f\r t]ms4 ,x is simply a con/ruction 9 a s]ies ( :i* ! nature is obvi\s4 ,& if y ins]t a major premise x w\ld be1 8,:at is to ! "r ( any?+ is to ! "r #afd ( t :i* ! =m] is to ! "r (10 & t is simply ! nature ( ! s]ies impli$ 9 ! inf]5ce /at$ 9 an ab/ract =m4 8,inf]5ce is a con/ruction foll[$ by an intuition40 #a ,! con/ruction1 ,i ?9k1 h[ev]1 mu/ be a /age ( ! intuition4 ,i am !re=e incl9$ to sugge/ t a factor ( g5]al insight into pr9ciple is neglect$ 9 ?is def9ition1 f :i* mu* may und\bt$ly be le>n$4 #a ,bradley1 ,pr9ciples ( ,logic1 p4 #bce4 ,causation #c4 ,i h said v little ab\t causation4 ,! fact is1 t 9 ,logic ! cause necess>ily fades away into ! reason1 t is1 ! explanation4 ,if we foll[ ,mill's acc\nt1 we see h[ ?is takes place4 ,i w put ! /ages v briefly4 ,cause 7a7 ,we />t1 no d\bt1 by ?9k+ ( a cause z a real ev5t 9 "t1 ! priority ( :i* is ! condition ( ano!r ev5t1 ! effect4 ,pull ! trigg]--cause--& ! gun goes (f--effect4 ,complete conditions 7b7 ,! mom5t we look clos] at x1 we see t ?is w n d1 & we beg9 to say ) ,mill1 t ! cause is ! antec$5t :i* includes all ! conditions ( ! effect4 ,! plurality ( alt]native causes breaks d[n1 ?r\gh ! conditions def9+ ! effect4 ,pull ! trigg]8--yes1 b ! c>tridge mu/ be 9 its place1 ! /rik] mu/ be /raight1 ! cap mu/ be 9 ord]1 ! p[d] mu/ be dry & *emically fit1 & s on1 & s on1 till x becomes pretty cle> t ! cause is a sy/em ( circum/ances :i* include ! effect4 ,law 7c7 ,b !n our tr\bles are n end$4 ,only ! ess5tial & inv>iable conditions ent] into ! cause1 if ! #afe cause is inv>iable4 ,?is beg9s to cut away ! p>ticul> circum/ances ( ! case4 ,y ne$ n use ! trigg]1 nor ev5 ! cap2 y may ignite p[d] 9 _m ways4 ,y may h _m k9ds ( explosives4 ,all t is ess5tial is to h an explosion ( a c]ta9 =ce & n too great rapidity4 ,!n y w get ?is p>adox4 ,:at is m]ely ess5tial to ! effect1 is always some?+ less ?an any comb9ation ( real 8?+s0 :i* w produce ! effect1 because e real ?+ has _m prop]ties irrelevant to ?is p>ticul> effect4 ,s1 if ! cause means some?+ real1 z a mat]ial object is real1 x _c be inv>iable & ess5tial4 ,if x is n some?+ real1 & is ess5tial1 x f9es d[n into a reason or law--! antec$5t 9 a hypo!tical judgm5t4 ,gr\nd1 or real sy/em ) kn[n laws 7d7 ,we c only escape ?is by id5tify+ bo? cause & reason ) ! complete gr\nd2 t is1 ! nature ( a sy/em ( reality )9 :i* ! cause & effect bo? lie4 ,b ev5 !n1 ?\gh ! gr\nd is real1 x is n antec$5t 9 "t4 ,we see1 inde$1 t ! conditions ( an effect mu/ be cont9u\s ?r\gh ! effect4 ,if ! process 7 tak5 z cut 9 two at any po9t1 its connection w\ld be de/roy$4 ,if a cause & b effect 7 really deta*$ ev5ts1 :at diff]5ce c\ld x make if1 in/ead ( a1 c prec$$ b8 ,po/ulate ( ,k #d4 ,! po/ulate ( ,k1 !n1 is v badly /at$ z ,uni=mity ( ,nature4 ,t 0 due to ! vulg> notion ( ,inductive 8g5]alisation40 ,x mu/ be /at$ 9 two p>ts3 fir/1 8,once true always true20 & secondly1 8,our tru? is en\gh = u10 t is1 x cov]s en\gh ( ! univ]se = our practical & !oretical ne$s4 ,! #aff two p>ts may be put toge!r by say+1 8,! univ]se is a rational sy/em10 tak+ rational to mean n only ( su* a nature t x c be kn[n by intellig5ce1 b fur!r ( su* a nature t x c be kn[n & h&l$ by our intellig5ce4 ,conclusion #e4 ,^! lectures h be5 unavoidably descriptive r ?an ?or\gh1 & yet1 z ,i w>n$ y1 descriptive ( prop]ties :i* are 9 a s5se n at all new1 b q famili>1 & ev5 trite4 ,y w n feel1 at fir/1 t ! full int]e/ :i* ,i claim$ = ! sci5ce ( k1 really atta*es to ^! dry relations ( ab/ract ?\ght4 ,y w get no p]man5t good unless y c>ry ! /udy =w>d = y\rselves1 & use ^! ideas z a clue to f9d y\r be>+s 9 ! great _w ( k4 ,& ,i w\ld give y "o h9t ab\t ?is4 ,i d n sugge/ t y %\ld neglect philosophy b yet y %\ld rememb] t philosophy c tell y no new facts1 & c make no discov]ies4 ,all t x c tell y is ! significant connection ( :at y already "k4 ,& if y "k little or no?+1 philosophy has little or no?+ to tell y4 ,plato says1 8,! synoptical man1 ! man :o has a conspectus ( k1 is ! philosoph]2 & ! man :o is n synoptical1 :o _c see two subjects 9 _! relation1 is no philosoph]40 ,by all means read good logical books2 b also & m especially read good & ?or\gh sy/ematic books on sci5ce1 or hi/ory1 or politics1 or f9e art--,i d n mean on all ( ^! subjects1 b on "s1 :]ev] y\r int]e/ leads y4 ,y _c le>n ! nature ( inf]5ce1 ( sy/ematic necessity1 ( ! con/ruction ( reality1 by read+ logic exclusively2 y mu/ #afg feel x & possess x by work+ 9 ! _w ( concrete k4 ,i give "o example 9 pass+4 ,if y /udy social que/ions1 te/ = y\rselves ! value ( /ati/ics--i4e4 sets ( enum]ative judgm5ts4 ,consid] :at ! causal analysis ( any problem dem&s2 rememb] t all enum]ation implies a gr\nd or :ole1 on :i* its value dep5ds2 & contra/ ! exhau/ive exam9ation ( an in/ance ?or\ghly kn[n1 ) ! enum]ation ( ?\s&s ( cases lump$ "u a g5]al pr$icate4 ,det]m9e always to "k ! tru?2 welcome all in=mation & all sugge/ion1 b rememb] t tru? is always sy/ematic1 & t e judgm5t1 :5 y scrut9ise x1 dem&s a full] & full] connection ) ! /ructure ( life4 ,x is n clev]ness or le>n+ t makes ! philosoph]2 x is a c]ta9 _s2 op5ness ( m9d1 ?or\ghness ( "w1 & hatr$ ( sup]ficiality4 ,ea* ( u1 :atev] 8 opportunities1 c become 9 a true s5se1 if he has ! real philosophic _s1 9 ,plato's magnific5t words1 8,! spectator ( all "t & ( all exi/5ce40 ,,! ,,end