,,vol4 ,,iii1 ,,pp4 #ec-bjd1 ,,pls4 #b-bj1 ,,may #bi1 #ahia ,,the ,,national ,,geographic ,,magazine ,,an ,,expedition ,,to ,,mount ,,st4 ,,elias1 ,,alaska ,,israel ,c4 ,,russell ,,washington ,,published ,,by ,,the ,,national ,,geographic ,,society ,price #a4ej4 #ec ,,vol4 ,,iii1 ,,pp4 #ec-bjd1 ,,pls4 #b-bj1 ,,may #bi1 #ahia ,,the ,,national ,,geographic ,,magazine ,,an ,,expedition ,,to ,,mount ,,st4 ,,elias1 ,,alaska ,,by ,,israel ,c4 ,,russell4 7,accepted for publication ,march #ah1 #ahia47 ,,contents4 ,page4 ,introduction--,the ,southern ,coast of ,alaska 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ee ,part ,i--,previous ,explorations in the ,st4 ,elias ,region 4 4 4 4 4 4 #eh ,bering1 #agda 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #eh ,cook1 #aggh 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #eh ,la ,prouse1 #aghf 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #eh ,dixon1 #aghg 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #fj ,douglas1 #aghh 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #fb ,malaspina1 #agib 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #fb ,vancouver1 #agid 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ff ,belcher1 #ahcg 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #fh ,tebenkof1 #aheb 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #fi ,united ,states ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey1 #ahgd1 #ahhj 4 4 4 4 #gj ,new ,york ,times ,expedition1 #ahhf 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #gb ,topham ,expedition1 #ahhh 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #gc ,part ,,ii--,narrative of the ,st4 ,elias ,expedition of #ahij 4 4 4 4 4 #ge ,organization 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ge ,from ,seattle to ,sitka 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #gh ,from ,sitka to ,yakutat ,bay 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #gi ,canoe ,trip up ,yakutat ,bay 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ha ,base ,camp on the ,shore of ,yakutat ,bay 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #hf ,first ,day's ,tramp 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #hi ,canoe ,trip in ,disenchantment ,bay 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #if ,from ,yakutat ,bay to ,blossom ,island 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ajc ,blossom ,island 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aac ,life above the ,snow-,line 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #abb ,first ,camp in the ,snow 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #abd #ed ,across ,pinnacle ,pass 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #abi ,first full ,view of ,st4 ,elias 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ace ,summit of ,pinnacle ,pass ,cliffs 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #acg ,across ,seward ,glacier to ,dome ,pass 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #adb ,up the ,agassiz ,glacier 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #adg ,camp on the ,newton ,glacier 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aej ,highest ,point reached 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aea ,alone in the highest ,camp 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aed ,the ,return 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aeh ,suggestions 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #afc ,part ,,iii--,sketch of the ,geology of the ,st4 ,elias ,region 4 4 4 4 4 #afg ,general ,features 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #afg ,yakutat ,system 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #afg ,pinnacle ,system 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #agj ,st4 ,elias ,schist 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #agc ,geological ,structure 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #agd ,part ,,iv--,glaciers of the ,st4 ,elias ,region 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #agf ,natural ,divisions of ,glaciers 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #agf ,alpine ,glaciers 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #agf ,characteristics of ,alpine ,glaciers above the ,snow-,line 4 4 #ahj ,characteristics of ,alpine ,glaciers below the ,show-,line 4 4 #ahc ,piedmont ,glaciers 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ahe ,part ,v--,height and ,position of ,mount ,st4 ,elias 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ahi ,appendix ,a--,official ,instructions governing the ,expedition 4 4 4 #aib ,appendix ,b--,report on topographic ,work2 by ,mark ,b4 ,kerr 4 4 4 4 4 #aie ,appendix ,c--,report on auriferous ,sands from ,yakutat ,bay2 by ,j4 ,stanley-,brown 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aif ,appendix ,d--,report on fossil ,plants2 by ,lester ,f4 ,ward 4 4 4 4 4 #aii ,index 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bja ,,illustrations4 ,plate #b--,sketch ,map of ,alaska 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #eg #c--,map of the ,st4 ,elias ,region1 after ,la ,prouse 4 4 4 4 4 #ei #d--,map of the ,eastern ,shore of ,yakutat ,bay1 after ,dixon 4 #fa #e--,map of the ,st4 ,elias ,region1 after ,malaspina 4 4 4 4 4 #fd #f--,map of ,bay de ,monti1 after ,malaspina 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #fd #g--,map of ,disenchantment ,bay1 after ,malaspina 4 4 4 4 4 4 #fg #h--,sketch ,map of ,st4 ,elias ,region1 by ,mark ,b4 ,kerr 4 4 4 4 #gd #i--,the ,hubbard ,glacier2 drawn from ,photograph by ,a4 ,l4 ,broadbent 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ii #aj--,wall of ,ice on ,eastern ,side of the ,atrevida ,glacier2 from a ,photograph 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aje #aa--,view on the ,atrevida ,glacier2 from a ,photograph 4 4 4 4 #aje #ab--;,entrance of an ,ice-,tunnel2 from a ,photograph 4 4 4 4 4 #ajf #ac--;,deltas in an ,abandoned ,lake-,bed2 from a ,photograph 4 4 #ajf #ad--;,a ,river on the ,lucia ,glacier2 from a ,photograph 7reproduced from ,the ,century1 ,april1 #ahia7 4 4 4 4 #ajf #ee #ae--;,entrance to a ,glacial ,tunnel2 from a ,photograph 4 4 4 4 #ajg #af--,view of the ,malaspina ,glacier from ,blossom ,island2 from a ,photograph 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #abj #ag--,moraines on the ,marvine ,glacier2 from a ,photograph 4 4 #abc #ah--,view of the ,hitchcock ,range from near ,dome ,pass 4 4 4 4 #add #ai--,view of ,mount ,st4 ,elias from ,dome ,pass2 drawn from a ,photograph 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #adf #bj--,view of ,mount ,st4 ,elias from ,seward ,glacier2 drawn from a ,photograph 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #age ,figure #a--;,diagram illustrating the ,formation of ,icebergs 4 4 4 4 #aja #b--,view of a glacial ,lakelet2 from a ,photograph 4 4 4 4 4 #abj #c--,section of a glacial ,lakelet 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #abj #d--;,diagram illustrating the ,formation of marginal ,crevasses 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #abh #e--;,crevasses near ,pinnacle ,pass2 from a ,photograph 4 4 4 4 #acj #f--,snow ,crests on ,ridges and ,peaks2 from ,field ,sketches 4 #adc #g--;,faulted ,pebble from ,pinnacle ,pass 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aga #h--;,faulted ,pebble from ,pinnacle ,pass 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aga ,,introduction4 ,,the ,,southern ,,coast ,,of ,,alaska4 ,the southern coast of ,alaska is remarkable for the regularity of its general outline4 ,if a circle a thousand miles in diameter be inscribed on a map of the northern ,pacific with a point in about latitude #ed and longitude #ade as a center1 a large part of its northern periphery will be found to coincide with the southern shore of ,alaska between ,dixon entrance on the east and the ,alaska peninsula on the west4 ,on the northern part of this great coast-circle lies the region explored in the summer of #ahij and described in the following pages4 ,from ,cross sound1 at the northern end of the great system of islands forming southeastern ,alaska1 westward along the base of the ,fairweather range1 the mountains are exceedingly rugged1 and present some of the finest coast scenery in the world4 ,there are but two inlets east of ,yakutat bay on this shore which afford shelter even for small boats4 ,these are ,lituya bay and ,dry bay4 ,ships may enter ,lituya bay1 at certain stages of the tide1 and find a safe harbor within2 but the approaches to ,dry bay are not navigable4 ,west of ,yakutat bay the coast is equally inhospitable all the way to ,prince ,william sound4 #ef ,as if to compensate for the lack of refuge on either end1 there is in the center of this great stretch of rock-bound coast1 over #cjj miles in extent1 a magnificent inlet known as ,yakutat bay1 in which a thousand ships could find safe anchorage4 ,on some old maps this bay is designated as ,baie de ,monti1 ,admiralty bay and ,bering bay1 as will be seen when its discovery and history are discussed on another page4 ,the southern shore of ,alaska1 for a distance of #bjj miles along the bases of the ,fairweather and ,st4 ,elias ranges1 is formed of a low table-land intervening between the mountains and the sea4 ,yakutat bay is the only bight in this plateau sufficiently deep to reach the mountain to the northward4 ,this bay has a broad opening to the sea2 the distance between its ocean capes is twenty miles1 and its extension inland is about the same4 ,its eastern shore is fringed with low1 wooded islands1 among which are sheltered harbors1 safe from every wind that blows4 ,the most accessible of these is ,port ,mulgrave1 near its entrance on the eastern side4 ,the shores of ,yakutat bay1 on both the east and the west1 are low and densely wooded for a distance of twenty-five miles from the ocean1 where the foot-hills of the mountains begin4 ,at the head of the bay the land rises in steep bluffs and forms picturesque mountains1 snow-capped the year round4 ,these highlands1 although truly mountainous in their proportions1 are but the foot-hills of still nobler uplifts immediately northward4 ,the bay extends through an opening in the first range to the base of the white peaks beyond4 ,this opening was examined a century ago by explorers in search of the delusive ,northwest passage1 in the hope that it would lead to the long-sought ,strait of ,annan--the dream of many voyagers4 ,it was surveyed by the expedition in command of ,malaspina in #agib1 and on account of his frustrated hopes was named ,puerto del ,desengao1 or ,disenchantment bay1 as it has been rendered by ,english writers4 ,the waters of ,yakutat and ,disenchantment bays are deep1 and broken only by islands and reefs along their eastern shores4 ,a few soundings made in ,disenchantment bay within half a mile of the land showed a depth of from #dj to #abj fathoms4 ,the swell of the ocean is felt up to the very head of the inlet1 indicating1 as was remarked to me by ,captain ,c4 ,l4 ,hooper1 that there are no bars or reefs to break the force of the incoming swells4 #eg ,the lowlands bordering ,yakutat bay on the southeast are composed of assorted glacial dbris4 ,much of the country is low and swampy1 and is reported to contain numerous lakelets4 ,northwest of the bay the plateau is higher than toward the southeast1 and has a general elevation of about #ejj feet at a distance of a mile from the shore2 but the height increases toward the interior1 where a general elevation of #a1ejj feet is attained over large areas4 ,all of this plateau1 excepting a narrow fringe along the shore1 is formed by a great glacier1 belonging to what is termed in this paper the ,piedmont type4 ,there are many reasons for believing that the plateau southeast of ,yakutat bay was at one time covered by a glacier similar to the one now existing on the northwest4#a ,footnote #a3 ,this matter will be discussed in part ,,iv of this paper1 where it is also shown that ,yakutat bay itself was formerly occupied by glacial ice4 ,the mountains on the northern border of the seaward-stretching table-lands1 both southeast and northwest of ,yakutat bay1 are abrupt and present steep southward-facing bluffs4 ,this escarpment is formed of stratified sandstones and shales1 and owes its origin to the upheaval of the rocks along a line of fracture4 ,in other words1 it is a gigantic fault scarp4 ,the gravel and bowlders forming the plateau extending oceanward have been accumulating on a depressed orographic block 7or mass of strata moved as a unit by mountain-making forces71 which has undergone some movement in very recent times1 as is recorded by a terrace on the fault scarp bordering it4 ,west of ,yakutat the geological structure is more complex1 and long mountain spurs project into the platform of ice skirting the ocean4 ,filling the valleys between the mountain spurs1 there are many large seaward-flowing glaciers1 tributary to the great ,piedmont ice-sheet4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this brief sketch of the geography of ,yakutat bay1 together with the accompanying outline map of ,alaska 7plate #b71 will1 it is hoped1 aid in making intelligible the following historical sketch and the narrative of the present expedition4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #b4 ,,sketch ,,map ,,of ,,alaska4 #eh ,,part ,i4 ,,previous ,,explorations ,,in ,,the ,,st4 ,,elias ,,region4#b ,footnote #b3 ,for more complete bibliographic references than space will allow in this paper1 the reader is referred to ,dall and ,baker's ,partial list of books1 pamphlets1 papers in serials1 journals and other publications on ,alaska and adjacent regions2 in ,pacific ,coast ,pilot3 ,coasts and ,inlets of ,alaska2 second series4 ,u4 ,s4 ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey1 ,washington1 #ahgi2 #d1 pp4 #bbe-cge4 ,,bering1 #agda4 ,the first discovery of the southern coast of ,alaska was made by ,vitus ,bering and ,alexei ,cherikof1 in the vessels ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul1 in #agda4 ,on ,july #bj of that year1 ,bering saw the mountains of the mainland1 but anchored his vessels at ,kyak island1 #ahj miles west of ,yakutat bay1 without touching the continental shore4 ,a towering1 snow-clad summit northeast of ,kyak island was named ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 after the patron saint of the day4 ,,cook1 #aggh4 ,the next explorer to visit this portion of ,alaska was ,captain ,james ,cook1 who sailed past the entrance of ,yakutat bay on ,may #d1 #aggh4 ,thinking that this was the bay in which ,bering anchored1 he named it ,bering's bay4 ,mount ,st4 ,elias was seen in the northwest at a distance of #dj leagues1 but no attempt was made to measure its height4 ,,la ,p,,rouse1 #aghf4c ,footnote #c3 ,voyage de la ,prouse autour du monde4 ,four vols41 #d1 and atlas2 ,paris1 #agig2 vol4 #b1 pp4 #acj-aej4 ,yakutat bay1 in which we are specially interested1 was next seen by the celebrated ,french navigator1 ,j4 ,f4 ,g4 de la ,prouse1 in command of the frigates ,la ,boussole and ,l',astrolabe1 on ,june #bc1 #aghf4 ,the chart showing the route followed by ,la ,prouse during this portion of his voyage is reproduced in plate #c4 ,in the splendid atlas accompanying the narrative of his travels1 the explorer pictures the quaint1 high-pooped vessels in which he #ei circumnavigated the globe4 ,these ,french frigates were the first to cruise off ,yakutat bay4 ,the last vessel to navigate those waters was the ,united ,states revenue steamer ,corwin1 which took our little exploring party on board in ,september1 #ahij1 and then steamed northward to the ice-cliffs at the head of ,disenchantment bay4 ,so far as ,i am aware1 the ,corwin is the only vessel that has floated on the waters of that inlet north of ,haenke island4 ,one hundred years has made a revolution in naval architecture1 but has left this portion of the ,alaska coast still unexplored4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #c4 ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,st4 ,,elias ,,region1 ,,after ,,la ,p,,rouse4 ,la ,prouse sailed northward from the ,sandwich islands1 and first saw land1 which proved to be a portion of the ,st4 ,elias range1 on ,june #bc4 ,at first the shore was obscured by fog1 which1 as stated in the narrative of the voyage1 suddenly disappearing1 all at once disclosed to us a long chain of mountains covered with snow1 which1 if the weather had been clear1 we would have been able to have seen thirty leagues farther off4 ,we discovered ,bering's ,mount ,saint ,elias1 the summit of which appeared above the clouds4 ,the first view of the land is described as not awakening the feelings of joy which usually accompany the first view of an unknown shore after a long voyage4 ,to quote the navigator's own words3 ,those immense heaps of snow1 which covered a barren land without trees1 were far from agreeable to our view4 ,the mountains appeared a little remote from the sea1 which broke against a bold and level land1 elevated about a hundred and fifty or two hundred fathoms4 ,this black rock1 which appeared as if calcined by fire1 destitute of all verdure1 formed a striking contrast to the whiteness of the snow1 which was perceptible through the clouds2 it served as the base to a long ridge of mountains1 which appeared to stretch fifteen leagues from east to west4 ,at first we thought ourselves very near it1 the summit of the mountains appeared to be just over our heads1 and the snow cast forth a brightness calculated to deceive eyes not accustomed to it2 but in proportion as we advanced we perceived in front of the high ground hillocks covered with trees1 which we took for islands4 ,after some delay1 on account of foggy weather1 an officer was despatched to the newly discovered land2 but on returning he reported that there was no suitable anchorage to be found4 ,it is difficult at this time to understand the reason for this adverse report1 unless a landing was attempted on the western side of ,yakutat bay1 where there are no harbors4 #fj ,the name ,baie de ,monti was given to the inlet in honor of ,de ,monti1 the officer who first landed4 ,the location of this bay1 as described in the narrative and indicated on the map accompanying the report of the voyage1 shows that it corresponds with the ,yakutat bay of modern maps4 ,observations made at this time by ,m4 ,dagelet1 the astronomer of the expedition1 determined the elevation of ,mount ,st4 ,elias to be #a1ihj toises4 ,considering the toise as equivalent to #f4cidei ,english feet1 this measurement places the elevation of the mountain at #ab1ffj feet4 ,what method was used in making this measurement is not recorded1 and we have therefore no means of deciding the degree of confidence to be placed in it4 ,after failing to find an anchorage at ,yakutat bay4 ,la ,prouse sailed eastward1 and on ,june #bi discovered another bay1 which he supposed to be the inlet named ,bering's bay by ,captain ,cook4 ,it will be remembered that ,cook's ,bering's bay is ,yakutat bay as now known4 ,it is evident that the ,french navigator made an error in his identification1 as the inlet designated as ,bering's bay on his chart corresponds with that now known as ,dry bay4 ,on the maps referred to1 a stream is represented as emptying into the head of this bay and rising a long distance northward2 this is evidently ,alsek river1 the existence of which was for a long time doubted1 but has recently been established beyond all question4 ,finding it impossible to enter ,dry bay1 ,la ,prouse continued eastward and discovered ,lituya bay1 as now known1 but which he named ,port des ,francais4 ,here his ships anchored1 after experiencing great difficulty in entering the harbor1 and remained for many days1 during which trade was carried on with the ,indians1 while surveys were made of the adjacent shores4 ,,dixon1 #aghg4d ,footnote #d3 ,the ,voyage around the ,world2 but more particularly to the ,northwest ,coast of ,america4 ,performed in #aghh-aghi1 in the ,king ,george and ,queen ,charlotte2 ,captains ,portlock and ,dixon3 #d1 ,london1 #aghi4 ,although the actual discovery of ,yakutat bay is to be credited to the ,french1 the first exploration of its shores was made by an ,english captain4 ,on ,may #bc1 #aghg1 ,captain ,george ,dixon anchored his vessel1 the ,queen ,charlotte1 within the shelter of its southeastern cape1 and1 in honor of ,constance ,john ,phipps1 ,lord ,mulgrave1 named the haven there discovered ,port #fa ,mulgrave4 ,the harbor is described in the narrative of ,dixon's voyage as being entirely surrounded by low1 flat islands1 where scarcely any snow could be seen1 and well sheltered from any winds whatever4 ,the voyage of the ,queen ,charlotte was not made for the purpose of increasing geographic knowledge1 but with a commercial object4 ,trade was at once opened with the natives1 but resulted less favorably than was desired1 as only sixteen sea-otter skins and a few less valuable furs were secured4 ,on the chart accompanying the narrative of ,dixon's voyage the inlet now known as ,yakutat bay is named ,admiralty bay4 ,a survey of the adjacent shores and inlets was made1 and the astronomical position of the anchorage was approximately determined4 ,the map resulting from these surveys1 the first ever made of any portion of ,yakutat bay1 is reproduced on a reduced scale as plate #d4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #d4 ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,eastern ,,shore ,,of ,,yakutat ,,bay1 ,,after ,,dixon4 ,at the time of ,dixon's voyage1 the inhabitants numbered about seventy1 including men1 women1 and children1 and were thus described3 ,they are of about middle size1 their limbs straight and well shaped1 but1 like the rest of the inhabitants we have seen on the coast1 are particularly fond of painting their faces with a variety of colors1 so that it is not any easy matter to discover their real complexion4 ,an amusing instance is narrated of inducing a woman to wash her face1 when it was discovered that-- ,her countenance had all the cheerful glow of an ,english milk maid1 and the healthy red which flushed her cheeks was even beautifully contrasted with the whiteness of her neck2 her eyes were black and sparkling2 her eyebrows the same color1 and most beautifully arched2 her forehead so remarkably clear that the transparent veins were seen meandering even in their minutest branches--in short1 she was what would be reckoned as handsome even in ,england4 ,the symmetry of her features1 however1 was marred1 at least in the eyes of her ,english admirer1 by the habit of wearing a labret in the slit of her lower lip4 ,during our recent visit to ,port ,mulgrave we did not find the native women answering to the glowing description of the voyager who discovered the harbor2 but this may be owing to the fact that we did not prevail upon any of them to wash their faces4 ,one other discrepancy must be noted between the records of ,dixon's voyage and my own observations1 made one hundred #fb years later4 ,the houses of the natives are described in the narrative just cited as-- ,the most wretched hovels that can possibly be conceived3 a few poles stuck in the ground1 without order or regularity1 recrossed and covered with loose boards1 444 quite insufficient to keep out the snow and rain4 ,while this description would apply to the temporary shelters now used by the ,yakutat ,indians when on their summer hunting and fishing expeditions1 it by no means describes the houses in which they pass the winter4 ,these are large and substantially built of planks hewn from spruce trees1 and in some instances supported from the inside by four huge posts1 carved and painted to represent grotesque figures4 ,in the center of the roof there is a large opening through which the smoke escapes from the fire kindled in an open space in the floor4 ,but few of the ,indian villages of ,alaska1 excepting perhaps the homes of the ,thlinkets in the ,alexandrian archipelago1 are better built or more comfortable than those at ,port ,mulgrave4 ,on the map of ,port ,mulgrave already referred to1 ,point ,turner and ,point ,carrew appear4 ,the former was named for the second mate of the ,queen ,charlotte1 who was the first of her officers to land2 the second name was probably designed to honor another officer of the expedition1 but of this ,i am not positive4 ,,douglas1 #aghh4e ,footnote #e3 ,voyage of the ,iphigenia2 ,captain ,douglas3 in ,voyages made in the years #aghh-aghi from ,china to the ,northwest ,coast of ,america4 ,john ,meares1 #d1 ,london1 #agij4 ,in #aghh1 another trading vessel1 the ship ,iphigenia1 in command of ,captain ,douglas1 visited the southern shore of ,alaska and anchored in ,yakutat bay2 but no special account of the country or the inhabitants is recorded in the narrative of the voyage4 ,,malaspina1 #agib4f ,footnote #f3 ,relacion del viage hecho por las goletas ,sutil y ,mexicana en el ao de #agib para reconocer el estrecho de ,fuca2 con una introduccion en que se da noticia de las expediciones executadas anteriormente por los ,espaoles en busca del paso del noroeste de la ,amrica ,por ,don ,dionisio ,alcala ,galiano4 ,madrid1 #ahjb accompanied by an atlas4 ,pp4 ,,cxii-,,cxxi4 ,about a hundred years ago the interest felt by the maritime nations of ,europe in a ,northwest passage1 connecting the #fc northern ,atlantic with the northern ,pacific1 was revived by the renewal of the discussion as to the authenticity of ,maldonado's reported discovery of the ,strait of ,annan4 ,the western entrance to this strait was supposed to be about in the position of ,yakutat bay4 ,spain1 in particular1 after three hundred years of exploration and discovery in all parts of the world1 was still anxious to extend her conquests1 and1 if possible1 to discover the long-sought ,northwest passage4 ,two of her ships1 the ,descubierta and ,atrevida1 were then at ,acapulco1 in command of ,don ,alejandro ,malaspina1 who was engaged in a voyage of discovery4 ,malaspina1 like ,columbus1 was a native of ,italy in the service of ,spain4 ,orders were sent to him to cruise northward and test the truth of ,maldonado's report4 ,the narrative of this voyage is supposed to have been written by ,don ,dionisio ,alcala ,galiano1 but his name does not appear on the title page4 ,still more curious is the fact that ,malaspina's name is omitted from the narrative of his own voyage4 ,on his return to ,spain1 he was thrown into prison1 on account of court intrigues1 and his discoveries were suppressed for many years4 ,malaspina left ,acapulco on the first of ,may1 #agia1 and reached the vicinity of the present site of ,sitka on ,june #be4 ,two days later1 ,mount ,fairweather1 or ,monte ,buen-tiempo1 as it is designated on ,spanish maps1 was sighted4 ,continuing northwestward1 the entrance to ,yakutat bay was reached4 ,the opening through the first range of mountains at its head seemed to correspond to ,maldonado's description of the entrance to the mythical ,strait of ,annan4 ,the eastern shore of ,yakutat bay1 called ,almiralty bay on the ,spanish chart1 was explored1 and an excursion was made in boats into ,disenchantment bay as far as ,haenke island4 ,disenchantment bay1 as the name appears on modern charts1 was named ,desengao bay by ,malaspina1 as previously stated1 in allusion to the frustration of his hopes on not finding a passage leading to the ,atlantic4 ,explorations in ,disenchantment bay were checked by ice1 which descended from the north and filled all of the inlets north of ,haenke island4 ,this is indicated on the map forming plate #g 7page #fg71 which is reproduced from the atlas accompanying the narrative of ,malaspina's voyage4 ,special interest attaches to this map for the reason that by comparing it with that forming plate #h 7page #ge71 made #ajj years later1 the retreat #fd of the glaciers during that interval can be determined4#g ,at the time of ,malaspina's expedition1 the ,hubbard and ,dalton glaciers were united1 and were probably also joined by some of the neighboring glaciers which do not now reach tide-water2 the whole forming a confluent ice stream which occupied all of ,disenchantment bay northeast of ,haenke island4 ,footnote #g3 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that the map1 plate #h1 is not from detailed surveys2 the portion referred to was sketched from a few stations only and is much generalized4 ,a portion of the general map of the coast of southern ,alaska1 showing the route followed by the ,descubierta and the ,atrevida1 and depicting the topography of the adjacent shores1 has been reproduced in plate #e4 ,it will be noticed that on this map ,lituya bay is called ,pt4 des ,francais1 while ,dry bay is designated as ,bering's bay4 ,these and other names were adopted from the maps of ,la ,prouse4 ,a map of ,bahia de ,monti1 from ,malaspina's report1 is reproduced in plate #f4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #e4 ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,st4 ,,elias ,,region1 ,,after ,,malaspina4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #f4 ,,map ,,of ,,bay ,,de ,,monti1 ,,after ,,malaspina4 ,an extract from ,galiano's account of ,malaspina's discoveries in ,yakutat and ,disenchantment bays1#h translated by ,robert ,stein1 of the ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey1 is here inserted1 in order that the reader may be able to form an independent judgment of the value of the evidence just referred to as bearing on the retreat of the glaciers3 ,an observatory was established on shore1 and some absolute altitudes were taken in order to furnish a basis for the reckoning of the watches2 but the great concourse of ,indians1 their importunity and thievishness1 made it necessary to transfer all the instruments on board4 ,still the latitude was determined1 the watches were regulated1 the number of oscillations made by the simple pendulum was observed1 and the height of ,mount ,st4 ,elias was measured1 being #f1ejg4f varas #ag1hdg feet above sea-level4 ,the launches being ready1 put to sea on ,july #b with the commander of the expedition1 in order to reconnoitre the channel promised by the opening1 similar to that depicted by ,ferrer ,maldonado in his voyage2 but the small force of the tide noticed at the entrance1 and the indications of the natives1 made it plain not only that the desired passage did not exist there1 but that the extent of the channel was very short2 which was also rendered evident by the perpetual frost covering the inner west shore4 ,the launches anchored there1 having penetrated into the channel with great difficulty1 the oars being clogged by the floating masses of snow2 they measured a base1 made some marks1 gathered various objects and stones for the naturalists1 and1 having reached the line of perpetual frost1 #fe returned to the bay where they had anchored4#i ,they there observed the latitude to be #ei #ei' #cj1 and six azimuths of the sun1 which gave the variation of the needle as #cb #di'4 ,before leaving that anchorage the commander buried a bottle with record of the reconnoissance and possession taken in the name of the king4 ,they called the harbor ,desangao1 the opening ,bahia de las ,bancas1 and the island in the interior ,haenke1 in memory of ,d4 ,tadeo ,haenke1 botanist and naturalist of the expedition4 ,on the third day they set out on their voyage to ,mulgrave1 where they arrived on the #fth1 after reconnoitering various channels and islands north of that port and mapping them4 ,footnote #h3 ,ibid41 pp4 ,,xciv-,,cxvi4 ,footnote #i3 ,on the coast of the mainland east of ,knight island4--,i4 ,c4 ,r4 ,following the portion of the narrative above quoted1 there is an account of the natives1 containing much information of interest to ethnologists1 but which it is not necessary to follow in a geographic report4 ,on ,july #e the corvettes sailed westward1 and made a reconnoissance as far as ,montegue island4 ,returning eastward1 they again sighted ,mount ,st4 ,elias on ,july #bb4 ,on the #bhth they were three leagues west of the capes which terminate in ,bering bay ,dry bay2 the mountain of that name being about five leagues distant from the coast and rising #e1cfh4c varas #ad1gbb feet above the sea-level1 and in latitude #ei #j' #db and longitude #b #d' from ,port ,mulgrave4 ,mount ,bering does not appear on any map that ,i have seen4 ,which of the numerous high peaks in the vicinity of ,dry bay should be designated by that name remains to be determined4 ,in a record of the astronomical work of ,malaspina's expedition#aj there are some interesting observations on the position and elevation of ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 a translation of which1 by ,mr4 ,stein1 is here given3 ,true longitude of ,mulgrave west of ,cadiz1 #acc #bd' #ab4 ,on the same day1 the #cjth of ,june #agib1 at the observatory of ,mulgrave1 at #f;h4 #cj' in the morning1 the true altitude of the sun was observed to be #af #ad' #bj1 and its inclination being #bc #aa' #cj and the latitude #ei #cd' #bj1 the true azimuth of the sun from north to east was concluded to be #ga #dc' #j4 ,but having measured on the same occasion with the theodolite #aaj #cc' from the sun's vertical to the vertical of ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 the difference between these two quantities is the astronomic azimuth4 ,hence1 from #ff the observatory of ,mulgrave1 said mountain bears ,n4 #ch #ej' ,w41 a distance of #ee4a miles1 deduced by means of good observations from the ends of a sufficient base4 ,a quadrant was used to measure the angle of apparent altitude of the mountain1 #b #ch' #f1 and allowing for terrestrial refraction1 which is one-tenth of the distance of #ee4a miles1 the true altitude was found to be #b #cd' #ci2 whence its elevation above sea-level was concluded to be #b1gic toises #ag1hfj feet1 and the length of the tangent to the horizon1 #aeb miles1 allowance being made for the increase due to terrestrial refraction4444 ,lastly1 with the rhumb1 or astronomic azimuth1 and the distance from the observatory of ,mulgrave to ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 it was ascertained that that mountain was #dc' #ae to the north and #a #i' to the west1 whence its latitude is found to be #fj #ag' #ce and its longitude #acd #cc' #aj west of ,cadiz4 ,footnote #aj3 ,memorias sobre las observaciones astronomicas hechas por les navegantes ,espaoles en distintos lugares del globe2 ,por ,don ,josef ,espinosa y ,tello4 ,madrid1 en la ,imprente real1 ,ao de #ahji1 #b vols41 large #h2 vol4 #a1 pp4 #eg-fj4 ,taking the longitude of ,cadiz as #f #ai' #jg ,w4 7,san ,sebastian light-house71 the longitude of ,st4 ,elias from this determination would be #adj #eb' #ag ,w4 ,,vancouver1 #agid4aa ,footnote #aa3 ,a ,voyage of ,discovery to the ,northern ,pacific ,ocean and around the ,world1 #agij-'ie2 new edition1 #f vols41 ,london1 #ahja4 ,the citations which follow are from vol4 #e1 pp4 #cdh-djg4 ,the next vessels to visit ,yakutat bay after ,malaspina's voyage1 so far as known1 were the ,discovery and ,chatham1 under command of ,captain ,george ,vancouver4 ,this voyage increased knowledge of the geography of southern ,alaska more than any that preceded it1 and was also of greater importance than any single expedition of later date to that region4 ,the best maps of southern ,alaska published at the present day are based largely on the surveys of ,vancouver4 ,the ,discovery1 under the immediate command of ,vancouver1 and the ,chatham1 in charge of ,peter ,puget1 cruised eastward along the southern coast of ,alaska in #agid4 ,the ,discovery passed the entrance to ,yakutat bay without stopping1 but the ,chatham anchored there1 and important surveys were carried on under ,puget's directions4 ,on ,june #bh1 the ,discovery was in the vicinity of ,icy bay1 where the shore of the ocean seemed to be composed of solid ice4 ,eastward from ,icy bay the coast is described as bordered by lowlands rising with a gradual and uniform ascent to the foot-hills of lofty mountains1 whose summits are but the base from which ,mount ,st4 ,elias towers magnificently into the regions of #fg perpetual frost4 ,a low projecting point on the western side of the entrance to ,yakutat bay was named ,point ,manby4 ,the coast beyond this toward the northeast became less wooded1 and seemed to produce only a brownish vegetation1 which farther eastward entirely disappeared4 ,the country was then bare and composed of loose stones4 ,the narrative contains an interesting account of the grand coast scenery from ,st4 ,elias to the eastern end of the ,fairweather range2 but this does not at present claim attention4 ,while the ,chatham continued her cruise eastward1 ,puget ascended ,yakutat bay nearly to its head1 and also navigated some of the channels between the islands along its eastern shore4 ,a cape on the eastern side1 where the bay penetrates the first range of foot-hills1 was named ,point ,latouche2 but the same landmark had previously been designated ,pa4 de la ,esperanza by ,malaspina4 ,the bay at the head of the inlet1 which ,malaspina had named ,desangao1 was named ,digges sound1 after one of the officers of the ,chatham4 ,boats were sent to explore this inlet1 but found it closed from side to side by a firm1 compact body of ice1 beyond which1 to the back of the ice1 a small inlet appeared to extend ,n4 #ee ,e4 about a league4#ab ,footnote #ab3 ,vancouver's ,voyage1 vol4 #e1 p4 #chi4 ,these observations confirm those made by ,malaspina and indicated on the chart reproduced on plate #g1 where the ice front is represented as reaching as far south as ,haenke island4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #g4 ,,map ,,of ,,disenchantment ,,bay1 ,,after ,,malaspina4 ,the evidence furnished by ,malaspina and ,vancouver as to the former extent of the glaciers at the head of ,yakutat bay is in harmony with observations made by ,vancouver's party in ,icy strait and ,cross sound4#ac ,early in ,july1 #agid1 these straits were found to be heavily encumbered with floating ice4 ,at the present time but little ice is met with in that region4 ,on ,vancouver's charts there is no indication that he was aware of the existence of ,glacier bay1 although one of his officers1 in navigating ,icy strait1 passed its immediate entrance4 ,these records1 although somewhat indefinite and of negative character1 indicate that the fields of floating ice at the mouth of ,glacier bay were much more extensive a hundred years ago than at present2 but they do not show where the glaciers of that region formerly terminated4 ,footnote #ac3 ,ibid41 pp4 #dag-dba4 ,after the return of the ,chatham's boats from the exploration of #fh ,disenchantment bay1 an exploration of the eastern shore of ,yakutat bay was made4 ,the following extract indicates the character of work done there3 ,digges' sound ,disenchantment bay was the only place in the bay that presented the least prospect of any interior navigation1 and this was necessarily very limited by the close connected range of lofty snowy mountains that stretched along the coast at no great distance from the seaside4 ,mr4 ,puget's attention was next directed to the opening in the low land1 but as the wind was variable and adverse to the progress of the vessel1 a boat was again despatched to continue the investigation of these shores1 which are compact from ,point ,latouche and were then free from ice4 ,this opening was found to be formed by an island about two miles long1 in a direction ,s4 #ej ,e4 and ,n4 #ej ,w41 and about a mile broad1 lying at the distance of about half a mile from the mainland4 ,opposite to the south part of this1 named by ,mr4 ,puget ,,knight',s ,,island1 is ,eleanor's cove1 which is the eastern extremity of ,beering's ,yakutat bay1 in latitude #ei #dd'1 longitude #bbj #ea'4 ,knight's island admits of a navigable passage all round it1 but there is an islet situated between it and the mainland on its northeast side4 ,from ,eleanor's cove the coast takes a direction ,s4 #cj ,w4 about six miles to the east point of a channel leading to the southwest between the continent and some islands that lie off it4 ,this was considered to lead along the shores of the mainland to ,point ,mulgrave1 and in the event of its proving navigable1 the examination of the bay would have been complete1 and the vessel brought to our appointed place of meeting1 which was now supposed to be no very great distance4 ,in endeavoring to reach ,port ,mulgrave by a channel leading between the islands on the eastern side of the bay and the mainland1 the ,chatham grounded1 and was gotten off with considerable difficulty4 ,many observations concerning the geography and the natives are recorded in the narrative of this exploration4 ,,belcher1 #ahcg4ad ,footnote #ad3 ,narrative of a ,voyage round the ,world1 performed in the ship ,sulphur during the years #ahcf-ahdb2 by ,captain ,sir ,edward ,belcher3 #b vols41 #h1 ,london1 #ahdc4 ,the next account#ae of explorations around ,yakutat bay that #fi has come to hand is by ,sir ,edward ,belcher1 who visited that coast in ,her ,majesty's ship ,sulphur in #ahcg4 ,footnote #ae3 ,a fort was built by the ,russians1 in #agie1 on the strip of land separating ,bay de ,monti from the ocean1 and was colonized by convicts from ,russia4 ,in #ahjc1 all of the settlers were killed and the fort was destroyed by the ,yakutat ,indians4 ,so complete was this massacre that no detailed account of it has ever appeared4 7,alaska and its ,resources1 by ,w4 ,h4 ,dall1 #ahgj1 pp4 #caf1 #cag1 #cbc47 ,in the narrative of this voyage1 a brief account is given of the ice cliffs at ,icy bay1 which are stated to have a height of about thirty feet and to present the appearance of veined marble4 ,where the ice was exposed to the sea it was excavated into alcoves and archways1 recalling to the narrator's mind the ,chalk cliffs of ,england4 ,point ,riou1 as named by ,vancouver1 was not recognized1 and the inference seems to be that it was formed of ice and was dissolved away between the visits of ,vancouver and ,belcher4 ,accompanying the narrative of ,belcher's voyage is an illustration showing ,mount ,st4 ,elias as it appears from the sea near ,icy bay1 which represents the mountain more accurately than some similar pictures published more recently4 ,the ,sulphur anchored in ,port ,mulgrave2 but no account is given of the character of the surrounding country4 ,,tebenkof1 #aheb4af ,footnote #af3 ,atlas of the ,northwest ,coast of ,america from ,bering strait to ,cape ,corrientes and the ,aleutian ,islands etc43 #b1 ,st4 ,petersburg1 #aheb4 ,with index and hydrographic observations3 #h1 ,st4 ,petersburg1 #aheb4 ,tebenkof's notes1 which are often referred to by writers on ,alaska1 consist principally of compilations from reports of ,russian traders1 which were intended to accompany and explain an atlas of the shores of northwestern ,america1 published in #aheb in ,st4 ,petersburg and in ,sitka4 ,map number #g of the atlas represents the southern coast of ,alaska from ,lituya bay westward to ,icy bay4 ,on the same sheet there is a more detailed chart of the islands along the eastern border of ,yakutat bay4 ,the height of ,st4 ,elias is given as #ag1jjj feet2 its position1 latitude #fa #b' #f and longitude #adj #d'1 distant #cj miles from the sea4#ag ,it is stated that in #ahci the mountain began at times to smoke through a crater on its southeastern slope4 ,at the time of an earthquake at ,sitka 7#ahdg7 it is said to have emitted flames and ashes4 ,footnote #ag3 ,in a foot-note on page #cc it is stated that ,captain ,vasilef1 in the ship ,otkrytie 7,discovery71 ascertained the height of ,mount ,fairweather to be #ac1idf feet4 #gj ,it will be seen from the account of the exploration carried on last summer that ,mount ,st4 ,elias is composed of stratified rocks1 with no indication of volcanic origin2 and these reports of eruption must consequently be considered erroneous4 ,the low country between ,mount ,st4 ,elias and the sea is described by ,tebenkof as a tundra covered with forests and grass2 through cracks in the gravelly soil1 ice could be seen beneath4 ,more recent knowledge shows that this statement also is erroneous4 ,the adjacent ocean is stated to be shallow1 with shelving bottom2 at a distance of half a verst1 five to twelve fathoms were obtained1 and at two miles from land1 thirty to forty fathoms 7of seven feet74 ,the ,pimpluna rocks are said to have been discovered in #aggi by the ,spanish captain ,arteiga4 ,they were also seen in #agid by the helmsman ,talin1 in the ship ,orel1 and named after his vessel4 ,these observations are interesting1 and indicate that possibly there may be submerged moraines in the region where these rocks are reported to exist4 ,many other observations are recorded concerning the mountains and the bays in the vicinity of ,yakutat4 ,while of interest to navigation and to geographers1 these have no immediate connection with the region explored during the recent expedition4 ,,united ,,states ,,coast ,,and ,,geodetic ,,survey1 #ahgd1ah #ahhj4ai ,footnote #ah3 ,appendix ,no4 #aj1 ,report of the ,superintendent of the ,u4 ,s4 ,coast ,survey for the year #ahge3 ,washington1 #ahgh1 pp4 #aeg-ahh4 ,footnote #ai3 ,pacific ,coast ,pilot1 ,alaska1 part #a3 ,washington1 #ahhc1 p4 #bab4 ,the surveys carried on in #ahgd by the ,united ,states ,coast ,survey on the shores of ,alaska embraced the region about ,yakutat bay4 ,they were conducted by ,w4 ,h4 ,dall and ,marcus ,baker4 ,besides the survey of the coast-line1 determinations were made of the heights and positions of several mountain peaks between ,glacier bay and ,cook inlet4 ,dall's account of this survey contains a brief sketch of previous explorations and a summary of the measurements of the higher peaks of the region4 ,this material has been used on another page in discussing the height of ,mount ,st4 ,elias4 ,besides the geographic data gathered by the ,united ,states ,coast ,survey1 many observations were made on geology and on the glaciers of the region about ,yakutat bay and ,mount ,st4 ,elias4 ,exception must be taken1 in the light of more recent #ga explorations1 to some of the conclusions reached in this connection1 as will appear in the chapter devoted to geology and glaciers4 ,a description of the ,st4 ,elias region in the ,pacific ,coast ,pilot supplements the paper in the coast survey report for #ahge4 ,this is an exhaustive compilation from all available sources of information interesting to navigators4 ,it contains1 besides1 a valuable summary of what was known at the time of its publication concerning the history and physical features of the country to which it relates4 ,in this publication the true character of the ,malaspina glacier was first recorded and its name proposed4 ,the description is as follows3 ,at ,point ,manby and eastward to the ,kwik river the shore was bordered by trees1 apparently willows and alders1 with a somewhat denser belt a little farther back4 ,behind this rises a bluff or bank of high land1 as described by various navigators4 ,about the vicinity of ,tebienkoff's ,nearer ,point the trees cease1 but begin again near the river4 ,the bluff or table-land behind rises higher than the river valley and completely hides it from the southward1 and is in summer bare of vegetation 7except a few rare patches on its face7 and apparently is composed of glacial dbris1 much of which is of a reddish color4 ,in ,may1 #ahgd1 when observed by the ,u4 ,s4 ,coast ,survey party of that year1 the extensive flattened top of this table-land or plateau was covered with a smooth and even sheet of pure white snow4 ,in the latter part of ,june1 #ahhj1 however1 this snow had melted1 and for the first time the real and most extraordinary character of this plateau was revealed4 ,within the beach and extending in a northwesterly direction to the valley behind it1 at the foot of the ,st4 ,elias ,alps an undetermined distance1 this plateau1 or a large part of it1 is one great field of buried ice4 ,almost everywhere nothing is visible but bowlders1 dirt and gravel2 but at the time mentioned1 back of the bight between ,point ,manby and ,nearer ,point1 for a space of several square miles the coverlid of dirt had fallen in1 owing to the melting of the ice beneath1 and revealed a surface of broken pinnacles of ice1 each crowned by a patch of dirt1 standing close to one another like a forest of prisms1 these decreasing in height from the summit of the plateau gradually in a sort of semicircular sweep toward the beach1 near which1 however1 the dirt and dbris again predominate1 forming a sort of terminal moraine to this immense1 buried1 immovable glacier1 for it is nothing else4 ,trains of large bowlders were visible here and there1 and the general trend of the glacier seemed to be northwest and southeast4 ,between ,disenchantment bay and the foot of ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 on the flanks of the ,alps1 seventeen glaciers were counted1 of which about ten were behind this plateau1 but none are of very large size1 and the sum total of them all seemed far too little to supply the waste of the plateau if it were to possess motion4 ,the lower ends of these small glaciers come #gb down into the river valley before mentioned and at right angles in general to the trend of the plateau4 ,to the buried glacier the ,u4 ,s4 ,coast ,survey has applied the name of ,malaspina1 in honor of that distinguished and unfortunate explorer4 ,no connection could be seen between the small glaciers and the ,malaspina plateau1 as the former dip below the level of the summit of the latter4 ,the ,malaspina had no nv1 nor was there any high land in the direction of its axis as far as the eye could reach4 ,everywhere1 except where the pinnacles protruded and in a few spots on the face of the bluff1 it was covered with a thick stratum of soil1 gravel and stones1 here and there showing small patches of bright green herbage4 ,the bluff westward from ,point ,manby may probably prove of the same character4 ,mount ,cook and ,mount ,vancouver are named in the ,pacific ,coast ,pilot1 and their elevations and positions are definitely stated4 ,mount ,malaspina was also named1 but its position is not given4 ,during the expedition of last summer it was found impracticable to decide definitely to which peak the name of the great navigator was applied4 ,so existing nomenclature was followed as nearly as possible by attaching ,malaspina's name to a peak about eleven miles east of ,mount ,st4 ,elias4 ,its position is indicated on the accompanying map1 plate #h 7page #ge74 ,several charts of the southern coast of ,alaska accompany the reports of the ,united ,states ,coast ,survey for #ahge1 referred to above4 ,a part of these have been independently published4 ,these charts were used in mapping the coast-line as it appears on plate #h1 and were frequently consulted while writing the following pages4 ,,new ,,york ,,times ,,expedition1 #ahhf4 ,an expedition sent out by the ,new ,york ,times1 in charge of ,lieutenant ,frederick ,schwatka1 for the purpose of making geographic explorations and climbing ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 left ,sitka on the ,u4 ,s4 ,s4 ,pinta1 on ,july #aj1 #ahhf1 and reached ,yakutat bay two days later4 ,as it was found impracticable to obtain the necessary assistance from the ,indians to continue the voyage to ,icy bay1 whence the start inland was planned to be made1 ,captain ,n4 ,e4 ,nichols1 the commander of the ,pinta1 concluded to take the expedition to its destination in his vessel4 ,on ,july #ag a landing was made through the surf at ,icy bay1 and exploration at once began4 ,the party consisted of ,lieutenant ,schwatka1 in charge2 ,professor ,william ,libbey1 ,jr42 and ,lieutenant ,h4 ,w4 ,seton-,karr4 #gc ,the camp hands were ,john ,dalton1 ,joseph ,woods1 and several ,indian packers4#bj ,footnote #bj3 ,the accounts of this expedition are as follows3 ,report from ,lieutenant ,schwatka in the ,new ,york ,times1 ,october #ag1 #ahhf2 ,some of the ,geographical ,features of ,southeastern ,alaska1 by ,william ,libbey1 ,jr41 in ,bull4 ,am4 ,geog4 ,soc41 #ahhf1 pp4 #bgi-cjj2 ,shores and ,alps of ,alaska1 by ,h4 ,w4 ,seton-,karr1 ,london1 #ahhg1 #h1 pp4 ,l-,,xcv1 #adb-adh2 ,the ,alpine ,regions of ,alaska1 by ,lieutenant ,seton-,karr1 in ,proc4 ,roy4 ,geog4 ,soc41 vol4 ,,ix1 #ahhg1 pp4 #bfi-bhe2 ,the ,expedition of ,the ,new ,york ,times 7#ahhf71 by ,lieutenant ,schwatka1 in ,the ,century ,magazine1 ,april1 #ahia1 pp4 #hfe-hgb4 ,from ,icy bay the expedition proceeded inland1 for about sixteen miles1 in a line leading nearly due north1 toward the summit of ,mount ,st4 ,elias4 ,the highest point reached1 #g1bjj feet1 was on the foot-hills of the main range now called the ,karr hills4 ,the time occupied by the expedition1 after leaving ,icy bay1 was nine or ten days4 ,so far as known1 no systematic surveys were carried on4 ,an interesting account of this expedition appeared in ,seton-,karr's book1 ,the ,shores and ,alps of ,alaska4 ,many observations on the glaciers and moraines of the region explored are recorded in this work4 ,the map published with it has been used in compiling the western portion of the map forming plate #h1 where the route of the expedition is indicated4 ,another account1 especially valuable for its records of scientific observations1 by ,professor ,libbey1 was published by the ,american ,geographic ,society4 ,the ,guyot1 ,agassiz and ,tyndall glaciers1 the ,chaix hills1 and ,lake ,castani received their names during this expedition4 ,lieutenant ,schwatka's graphic and entertaining account of this expedition1 published in ,the ,century ,magazine for ,april1 #ahia1 gives many details of the exploration and illustrates many of the characteristic features of southern ,alaska4 ,,topham ,,expedition1 #ahhh4 ,an expedition conducted by ,messrs4 ,w4 ,h4 and ,edwin ,topham1 of ,london1 ,george ,broka1 of ,brussels1 and ,william ,williams1 of ,new ,york1 was made in #ahhh4 ,like the ,times expedition1 it had for its main object the ascent of ,mount ,st4 ,elias4 ,icy bay was reached1 by means of canoes from ,yakutat bay1 on ,july #ac1 and an inland journey was made northward which #gd covered a large part of the area traversed by the previous expedition4 ,the highest elevation reached1 according to aneroid barometer and boiling-point measurements1 was #aa1dfj feet4 ,this was on the southern side of ,st4 ,elias4 ,the only accounts of this expedition which have come to my notice are an interesting article by ,william ,williams in ,scribner's ,magazine1#ba and a more detailed report by ,h4 ,w4 ,topham1 accompanied by a map#bb and by a fine illustration of ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 in the ,alpine ,journal4#bc ,footnote #ba3 ,new ,york1 ,april1 #ahhi1 pp4 #chg-djc4 ,footnote #bb3 ,topham's map was used in compiling the western portion of the map forming plate #h1 and his route is there indicated4 ,footnote #bc3 ,london1 ,august1 #ahhi1 pp4 #bde-cga4 ,this brief review of explorations carried on in the ,st4 ,elias region previous to the expedition sent out in #ahij by the ,national ,geographic ,society is incomplete in many particulars1#bd but will indicate the most promising sources of information concerning the country described in the following pages4 ,footnote #bd3 ,yakutat bay has been visited by vessels of the ,united ,states ,navy and ,united ,states ,revenue ,marine and by numerous trading vessels2 but reports of observations made during these voyages have not been found during a somewhat exhaustive search of literature relating to ,alaska4 #ge ,,part ,,ii4 ,,narrative ,,of ,,the ,,st4 ,,elias ,,expedition ,,of #ahij4 ,,organization4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #h4 ,,sketch ,,map ,,of ,,mount ,,st4 ,,elias ,,region1 ,,alaska1 ,by ,mark ,b4 ,kerr4 ,a long-cherished desire to study the geography1 geology1 and glaciers of the region around ,mount ,st4 ,elias was finally gratified when1 in the summer of #ahij1 the ,national ,geographic ,society made it possible for me to undertake an expedition to that part of ,alaska4 ,the expedition was organized under the joint auspices of the ,national ,geographic ,society and the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 but was greatly assisted by individuals who felt an interest in the extension of geographic knowledge4 ,for the inception of exploration and for securing the necessary funds1 credit is due ,mr4 ,willard ,d4 ,johnson4 ,the names of those who subscribed to the exploration fund of the ,society are as follows3 ,boynton ,leach4 ,henry ,gannett4 ,everett ,hayden4 ,charles ,j4 ,bell4 ,richardson ,clover4 ,j4 ,s4 ,diller4 ,c4 ,m4 ,mc,carteney4 ,j4 ,w4 ,powell4 ,c4 ,a4 ,williams4 ,j4 ,g4 ,judd4 ,willard ,d4 ,johnson4 ,a4 ,graham ,bell4 ,israel ,c4 ,russell4 ,gardiner ,g4 ,hubbard4 ,gilbert ,thompson4 ,a4 ,w4 ,greely4 ,harry ,king4 ,j4 ,w4 ,dobbins4 ,morris ,bien4 ,j4 ,w4 ,hays4 ,wm4 ,b4 ,powell4 ,edmund ,alton4 ,z4 ,t4 ,carpenter4 ,bailey ,willis4 ,charles ,nordhoff4 ,e4 ,s4 ,hosmer4 ,rogers ,birnie1 ,jr4 ,i was chosen by the ,board of ,managers of the ,national ,geographic ,society and by the ,director of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey to take charge of the expedition and to carry on geological and glacial studies4 ,mr4 ,mark ,b4 ,kerr1 topographer on the ,geological ,survey1 was assigned as an assistant1 with the duty of making a topographical map of the region explored4 #gf ,mr4 ,e4 ,s4 ,hosmer1 of ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 volunteered his services as general assistant4#be ,footnote #be3 ,copies of all instructions governing the work of the expedition are given in ,appendix ,a4 ,mr4 ,kerr left ,washington on ,may #bd for ,san ,francisco1 where he made arrangements for his special work1 and reported to me at ,seattle on ,june #ae4 ,i left ,washington on ,may #be and went directly to ,seattle1 where the necessary preparations for exploring an unknown and isolated region were made4 ,from the large number of frontiersmen and sailors who applied for positions on the expedition1 seven men were selected as camp hands4 ,the foreman of this force was ,j4 ,h4 ,christie1 of ,seattle1 who had spent the previous winter in charge of an expedition in the ,olympian mountains1 and was well versed in all that pertains to frontier life4 ,the other camp hands were ,j4 ,h4 ,crumback1 ,l4 ,s4 ,doney1 ,w4 ,l4 ,lindsley1 ,william ,partridge1 ,thomas ,stamy1 and ,thomas ,white4 ,the individual members of the party will be mentioned frequently during this narrative2 but ,i wish to state at the beginning that very much of the success of the enterprise was due to the hard and faithful work of the camp hands1 to each one of whom ,i feel personally indebted4 ,two dogs1 ,bud and ,tweed1 belonging to ,mr4 ,christie1 also became members of the expedition4 ,all camp supplies1 including tents1 blankets1 rations1 etc41 were purchased at ,seattle4 ,rations for ten men for one hundred days1 on the basis of the subsistence furnished by the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 were purchased and suitably packed for transportation in a humid climate4 ,twenty-five tin cans were obtained1 each measuring #f x #ab x #ad inches1 and in each a mixed ration sufficient for one man for fifteen days was packed and hermetically sealed4 ,these rations1 thus secured against moisture and in convenient shape for carrying on the back 7or packing71 were for use above the timber line1 where cooking was possible only by means of oil stoves4 ,the remainder of the supplies1 intended for use where fuel for camp-fires could be obtained1 were secured either in tin cans or in canvas sacks4 ,for cooking above timber line1 two double-wick oil stoves were provided1 the usual cast-iron bases being replaced by smaller reservoirs of tin1 in order to avoid unnecessary weight4 ,coal oil was carried in five-gallon cans1 but a few rectangular cans #gg holding one gallon each were provided for use while on the march4 ,subsequent experience proved that this arrangement was satisfactory4 ,four seven-by-seven tents1 with ridge ropes1 and two pyramidal nine-by-nine center-pole tents1 with flies1 were provided1 all made of cotton drilling4 ,the smaller tents were for use in the higher camps1 and the larger ones for the base camps4 ,the tents were as light as seemed practicable1 and were found to answer well the purpose for which they were intended4 ,each man was supplied with one double ,hudson ,bay blanket1 a water-proof coat1 a water-proof hat 7the most serviceable being the sou'westers used by seamen71 and an alpenstock4#bf ,each man also carried a sheet made of light duck1 seven feet square1 to protect his blankets and to be used as a shelter-tent if required4 ,each member of the party was also required to have heavy boots or shoes1 and suitable woolen clothing4 ,each man was furnished with two pieces of hemp cod-line1 #ej feet in length1 to be used in packing blankets and rations4 ,the lines were doubled many times1 so as to distribute the weight on the shoulders1 and were connected with two leather straps for buckling about the package to be carried4 ,the cod-lines were used instead of ordinary pack-straps1 for the reason that they distribute the weight on the shoulder over a broader area1 and also because they can be made immediately available for climbing1 crossing streams1 etc41 when required4 ,several extra lines of the same material were also taken as a reserve1 or to be used in roping the party together when necessary4 ,several of the party carried rifles1 for each of which a hundred rounds of fixed ammunition were issued4 ,two ice-axes for the party were also provided4 ,footnote #bf3 ,light rubber cloth was ordered from ,san ,francisco for the purpose of allowing each man a water-proof sheet to place under his blankets1 but was not received in time to be used4 ,a canvas boat was made by the men while en route for the field1 but there was no occasion to use it1 except as a cover for a cache left at one of the earlier camps4 ,subsequent experience showed that snow-shoes and one or two sleds would have been serviceable2 but these were not taken4 ,our instruments were furnished by the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey4 ,the list included one transit1 one gradienter1 one sextant1 two prismatic compasses1 one compass clinometer1 #gh four pocket thermometers1 two psychrometers1 one field-glass1 two mercurial barometers1 three aneroids1 steel tape-lines1 and two photographic outfits4 ,,from ,,seattle ,,to ,,sitka4 ,preparations having been completed1 the expedition sailed from ,seattle ,june #af1 on the steamer ,queen1 belonging to the ,pacific ,coast ,steamship ,company1 in command of ,captain ,james ,carroll1 and reached ,sitka on the morning of ,june #bd4 ,this portion of our voyage was through the justly celebrated inland passage of ,british ,columbia and southeastern ,alaska1 and was in every way delightful4 ,we touched at ,victoria and ,wrangell1 and1 after threading the ,wrangell narrows1 entered ,frederick sound1 where the first floating ice was seen4 ,the bergs were from a neighboring glacier1 which enters the sea at the head of a deep inlet1 too far away to be seen from the course followed by the ,queen4 ,the route northward led through ,stephens passage1 and afforded glimpses of glaciers both on the mainland and on ,admiralty island4 ,in ,taku inlet several hours were spent in examining the glaciers1 two of which come down to the sea4 ,one on the western side of the fjord1 an ice-stream known as the ,norris glacier1 descends through a deep valley and expands into a broad ice-foot on approaching the water1 though it is not washed by the waves1 owing to an accumulation of mud about its extremity4 ,another ice-stream is the ,taku glacier1 situated at the head of the inlet4 ,it comes boldly down to the water1 and ends in a splendid sea-cliff of azure blue1 some #bej feet high4 ,the adjacent waters are covered with icebergs shed by the glacier4 ,some of the smaller fragments were hoisted on board the ,queen for table use4 ,the bold1 rocky shores of the inlet are nearly bare of vegetation1 and indicate by their polished and striated surfaces that glaciers of far greater magnitude than those now existing formerly flowed through this channel4 ,after leaving ,taku inlet1 a day was spent at ,juneau2 and then the ,queen steamed up ,lynn canal to ,pyramid harbor1 near its head4 ,for picturesque beauty1 this is probably the finest of the fjords of ,alaska4 ,several glaciers on each side of the inlet come down nearly to the sea1 and all the higher mountains are buried beneath perpetual snow4 ,on returning from ,lynn canal1 the ,queen visited ,glacier bay1 and here passengers were allowed a few hours on shore at the ,muir glacier4 ,the day of our visit #gi was unusually fine1 and a splendid view of the great ice-stream with its many tributaries was obtained from a hill-top about a thousand feet high1 on its eastern border4 ,the glacier discharges into the head of the bay and forms a magnificent line of ice-cliffs over two hundred feet high and three miles in extent4 ,this portion of the coast of ,alaska has been described by several writers2 yet its bleak shores are still in large part unexplored4 ,to the west of the bay rise the magnificent peaks of the ,fairweather range1 from which flow many great ice-streams4 ,the largest of the glaciers descending from these mountains into ,glacier bay is called the ,pacific glacier4 ,like the ,muir glacier1 it discharges vast numbers of icebergs into the sea4 ,the day after leaving ,glacier bay we arrived at ,sitka1 and as soon as practicable called on ,lieutenant-,commander ,o4 ,f4 ,farenholt1 of the ,u4 ,s4 ,s4 ,pinta1 who had previously received instructions from the ,secretary of the ,navy to take us to ,yakutak bay4 ,we also paid our respects to the ,governor and other ,alaskan officials1 and made a few final preparations for the start westward4 ,,from ,,sitka ,,to ,,yakutat ,,bay4 ,all of our effects having been transferred to the ,pinta1 we put to sea early on the morning of ,june #be4 ,honorable ,lyman ,e4 ,knapp1 ,governor of ,alaska1 taking advantage of the sailing of the ,pinta1 accompanied us on the voyage4 ,mr4 ,henry ,boursin1 census enumerator1 also joined us for the purpose of obtaining information concerning the ,indians at ,yakutak4 ,the morning we left ,sitka was misty1 with occasional showers2 but even these unfavorable conditions could not obscure the beauty of the wild1 densely wooded shore along which we steamed4 ,the weather throughout the voyage was thick and foggy and the sea rough4 ,we anchored in ,de ,monti bay1 the first indentation on the eastern shore of ,yakutat bay1 late the following afternoon1 without having obtained so much as a glimpse of the magnificent scenery of the rugged ,fairweather range4 ,at ,yakutat we found two small ,indian villages1 one on ,khantaak island and the other on the mainland to the eastward 7both shown on plate #h74 ,the village on ,khantaak island is the older of the two1 and consists of six houses built along the water's edge4 ,the houses are made of planks1 each hewn from a single #hj log1 after the manner of the ,thlinkets generally4 ,they are rectangular1 and have openings in the roofs1 with wind guards1 for the escape of smoke4 ,the fires1 around which the families gather1 are built in the centers of the spaces below4 ,the houses are entered by means of oval openings1 elevated two feet above the ground on platforms along their fronts4 ,in the interior of each there is a rectangular space about twenty feet square surrounded by raised platforms1 the outer portions of which are shut off by partitions and divided into smaller chambers4 ,the canoes used at ,yakutat are each hewn from a single spruce log1 and are good examples of the boats in use throughout southern ,alaska4 ,they are of all sizes1 from a small craft scarcely large enough to hold a single ,indian to graceful boats forty or fifty feet in length and capable of carrying a ton of merchandise with a dozen or more men4 ,they have high1 overreaching stems and sterns1 which give them a picturesque1 gondola-like appearance4 ,the village on the mainland is less picturesque1 if such a term may be allowed1 than the group of houses already described1 but it is of the same type4 ,near at hand1 along the shore to the southward1 there are two log houses1 one of which is used at present as a mission by ,reverend ,carl ,j4 ,hendriksen and his assistant1 the other being occupied as a trading post by ,sitka merchants4 ,the ,yakutat ,indians are the most westerly branch of the great ,thlinket family which inhabits all of southeastern ,alaska and a portion of ,british ,columbia4 ,in intelligence they are above the average of ,indians generally1 and are of a much higher type than the native inhabitants of the older portion of the ,united ,states4 ,they are quick to learn the ways of the white man1 and are especially shrewd in bargaining4 ,they are canoe ,indians par excellence1 and pass a large part of their lives on the water in quest of salmon1 seals1 and sea-otter4 ,during the summer of our visit1 about thirty sea-otter were taken4 ,they are usually shot in the primitive manner with copper-pointed arrows1 although repeating rifles of the most improved patterns are owned by the natives1 in spite of existing laws against selling breech-loading arms to ,indians4 ,the fur of the sea-otter is acknowledged to be the most beautiful1 and is the most highly prized of all pelts4 ,those taken at ,yakutat during our visit were sold at an average price of about seventy-five dollars4 ,this1 #ha together with the sale of less valuable skins and the money received for baskets1 etc41 made by the women for the tourist trade in ,sitka1 brought a considerable revenue to the village4 ,improvident1 like nearly all ,indians1 the ,yakutat villagers soon spend at the trading post the money earned in this way4 ,the ,yakutats belong without question to the ,thlinket stock2 but visits from tribes farther westward1 who travel in skin boats1 are known to have been made1 and it seems probable that some mixture of ,thlinket and ,innuit blood may occur in the natives at ,yakutat4 ,but if such admixture has occurred1 the ,innuit element is so small that it escapes the notice of one not skilled in ethnology4 ,we found ,mr4 ,hendriksen most kind and obliging1 and are indebted to him for many favors and great assistance4 ,arrangements were made with him for reading a base-barometer three times a day during ,july and ,august4 ,he also assisted us by acting as an interpreter1 and in hiring ,indians and canoes4 ,the weather continued thick and stormy after reaching ,yakutat bay1 and ,captain ,farenholt did not think it advisable to take his vessel up the main inlet1 where many dangers were reported to exist4 ,a canoe having been purchased from the trader and others hired from the ,indians1 a start was made from the head of ,yakutat bay early on the morning of ,june #bh1 in company with two of the ,pinta's boats loaded with supplies1 under the command of ,ensign ,c4 ,w4 ,jungen4 ,,canoe ,,trip ,,up ,,yakutat ,,bay4 ,bidding good-bye to our friends on the ,pinta1 to whom we were indebted for many favors1 we started for our trip up the bay in a pouring rain-storm4 ,our way at first led through the narrow1 placid water-ways dividing the islands on the eastern side of the bay4 ,the islands and the shores of the mainland are densely wooded1 and appeared picturesque and inviting even through the veil of mist and rain that shrouded them4 ,the forests consist principally of spruce trees1 so dense and having such a tangle of underbrush that it is only with the greatest difficulty that one can force a way through them2 while the ground beneath the forest1 and even the trunks and branches of the living trees1 are covered and festooned with luxuriant growths of mosses and lichens4 ,our trip along these wooded shores1 but half revealed #hb through the drifting mist1 was novel and enjoyable in spite of discomforts due to the rain4 ,we rejoiced at the thought that we were nearing the place where the actual labors of the expedition would begin2 we were approaching the unknown2 visions of unexplored regions filled with new wonders occupied our fancies1 and made us eager to press on4 ,about noon on the first day we pitched our tents on a strip of shingle skirting the shore of the mainland to the east of ,knight island4 ,the ,pinta's boats spread their white wings and sailed away to the southward before a freshening wind1 and our last connection with civilization was broken4 ,as one of the frontiersmen of our party remarked1 we were at home once more4 ,it may appear strange to some that any one could apply such a term to a camp on the wild shore of an unexplored country2 but the ,bohemian spirit is so strong in some breasts1 and the restraint of civilization so irksome1 that the homing instinct is reversed and leads irresistibly to the wilderness and to the silent mountain tops4 ,the morning after arriving at our first camp1 ,kerr1 ,christie1 and ,hendriksen1 with all the camp hands except two1 went on with the canoes1 and in a few hours reached the entrance of ,disenchantment bay4 ,they found a camping place about twelve miles ahead1 on a narrow strip of shingle beneath the precipices of ,point ,esperanza1 and there established our second camp4 ,my necessary delay at ,camp #a was utilized1 so far as possible1 in learning what ,i could concerning the adjacent country1 and in making a beginning in the study of its geology4 ,our camp was at the immediate base of the mountains1 and on the northeastern side of the wide plateau bordering the continent4 ,the plateau stretches southeastward for twenty or thirty miles1 and is low and heavily forested4 ,the eastern shore of the bay near our first camp is formed of bluffs about #aej feet high1 which have been eaten back by the waves so as to expose fine sections of the strata of sand1 gravel and bowlders of which the plateau is composed4 ,all the lowlands bordering the mountains have1 apparently1 a common history1 and doubtless owe their origin principally to the deposition of dbris brought from the mountains by former glaciers4 ,when this material was deposited1 or soon afterward1 the land was depressed about #aej feet lower than at present1 as is shown by a terrace cut along the base of the mountains at that elevation4 ,the steep mountain face #hc extending northwestward from ,camp #a to the mouth of ,disenchantment bay bears evidence of being the upheaved side of a fault of quite recent origin4 ,the steep inclination and shattered condition of the rocks along this line are evidently due to the crushing which accompanied the displacement4 ,in the wild gorge above our first camp1 a small glacier was found descending to within #ejj feet of the sea-level1 and giving rise to a wild1 roaring stream of milky water4 ,efforts to reach the glacier were frustrated by the density of the dripping vegetation and by the clouds that obscured the mountains4 ,a canoe trip was made to a rocky islet between ,knight island and the mainland toward the north4 ,the islet1 like the rocks in the adjacent mountain range1 is composed of sandstone1 greatly shattered and seamed1 and nearly vertical in attitude4 ,its surface was densely carpeted with grass and brilliant flowers4 ,many sea birds had their homes there4 ,from its summit a fine view was obtained of the cloud-capped mountains toward the northeast1 of the dark forest covering ,knight island1 and of the broad plateau toward the southeast4 ,some of the most charming effects in the scenery of the forest-clad and mist-covered shores of ,alaska are due to the wreaths of vapor ascending from the deep forests during the interval in which the warm sunlight shines through the clouds2 and on the day of our visit to the islet1 the forests1 when not concealed by mist1 sent up smoke-like vapor wreaths of many fantastic shapes to mingle with the clouds in which the higher mountains disappeared4 ,at ,camp #a the personnel of the party was unexpectedly reduced4 ,mr4 ,hosmer was ill1 and remained with me at camp instead of pushing on with ,kerr and ,christie2 and the weather continuing stormy1 he concluded to abandon the expedition and return to the mission at ,port ,mulgrave4 ,having secured the services of an ,indian who chanced to pass our camp in his canoe1 ,mr4 ,hosmer bade us good-bye1 ensconced himself in the frail craft1 and started for sunnier lands4 ,it was subsequently learned that he reached ,yakutak without mishap1 and a few days later sailed for ,sitka in a small trading schooner4 ,our force during the remainder of the season1 not including ,mr4 ,hendriksen and the ,indians1 whose services were engaged for only a few days1 numbered nine men all told4 ,on the evening of ,june #cj we had a bright camp-fire blazing on the beach to welcome the returning party4 ,near sunset a #hd canoe appeared in the distance1 and a shot was fired as it came round a bend in the shore4 ,we felt sure that our companions were returning1 and piled drift-wood on the roaring camp-fire to cheer them after their hard day's work on the water4 ,as the canoe approached1 each dip of the paddle sent a flash of light to us1 and we could distinguish the men at their work2 but we soon discovered that it was occupied not by our own party but by ,indians returning from a seal hunt in ,disenchantment bay4 ,they brought their canoe high on the beach1 and made themselves at home about our camp-fire4 ,there were seven or eight well-built young men in the party1 all armed with guns4 ,in former times such an arrival would have been regarded with suspicion2 but thanks to the somewhat frequent visits of war vessels to ,yakutat1 and also to the labors of missionaries1 the wild spirits of the ,indians have been greatly subdued and reduced to semi-civilized condition during the past quarter of a century4 ,just as the long twilight deepened into night1 another craft came around the distant headland1 but less swiftly than the former one2 and soon our picturesque canoe1 with ,christie at the stern steering with a paddle in true ,indian fashion1 grated on the shingle beach4 ,christie has spent many years of his life with the ,indians of the ,northwest1 and has adopted some of their habits4 ,on beginning frontier life once more1 he discarded the hat of the white man1 and wore a blue cloth tied tightly around his forehead and streaming off in loose ends behind4 ,the change was welcome1 for it added to the picturesque appearance of the party4 ,the men1 weary with their long row against currents and head-winds1 greatly enjoyed the camp-fire4 ,our ,indian visitors1 after lunching lightly on the leaf-stalks of a plant resembling celery 7,archangelica71 which grows abundantly everywhere on the lowlands of southern ,alaska1 departed toward ,yakutat4 ,supper was served in one of the large tents1 and we all rolled ourselves in our blankets for the night4 ,the next day1 ,july #a1 we abandoned ,camp #a1 passed by ,camp #b1 and late in the afternoon reached the northwestern side of ,yakutat bay1 opposite ,point ,esperanza4 ,our trip along the wild shore1 against which a heavy surf was breaking1 was full of novelty and interest4 ,the mountains rose sheer from the water to a height of two or three thousand feet4 ,about their bases1 like #he dark drapery1 following all the folds of the mountain side1 ran a band of vegetation2 but the spruce forests had mostly disappeared1 and only a few trees were seen here and there in the deeper caons4 ,the position of the terrace along the base of the mountain1 first noticed at ,camp #a1 could be plainly traced1 although densely covered with bushes4 ,the mountain peaks above were all sharp and angular1 indicating at a glance that they had never been subjected to glacial action4 ,the sandstone and shales forming the naked cliffs are fractured and crushed1 and are evidently yielding rapidly to the weather2 but the characteristic red color due to rock decay could not be seen4 ,the prevailing tone of the mountains1 when not buried beneath vegetation or covered with snow1 is a cold gray4 ,bright1 warm1 summer skies are needed to reveal the variety and beauty of that forbidding region4 ,our large canoe behaved well1 although heavily loaded4 ,sometimes the wind was favorable1 when an extemporized sail lessened the fatigue of the trip4 ,the landing on the northwestern shore was effected1 through a light surf1 on a sandy beach heavily encumbered with icebergs4 ,as it was hazardous to beach the large canoe with its load of boxes and bags1 the heavy freight was transferred1 a few pieces at a time1 to smaller canoes1 each manned by a single ,indian1 and all was safely landed beyond the reach of the breakers4 ,camp #c was established on the sandy beach just above the reach of the tide and near the mouth of a roaring brook4 ,the drift-wood along the shore furnished abundant fuel for a blazing camp-fire2 our tents were pitched1 and once more we felt at home4 ,two canoes were dispatched1 in care of ,doney1 to the camp on the opposite shore 7,camp #b71 with instructions to bring over the equipments left there4 ,kerr went over also for the purpose of making a topographic station on the bluff forming ,point ,esperanza should the morrow's weather permit4 ,it was curious to note the care which our ,indians took of their canoes4 ,not only were they drawn high up on the beach1 out of the reach of all possible tides1 but each canoe was swathed in wet cloths1 especially at the prow and stern1 to prevent them from drying and cracking4 ,the canoes1 being fashioned from a single spruce log1 are especially liable to split if allowed to dry thoroughly4 ,the day after our arrival1 all of our party and all of our camp #hf outfit were assembled at ,camp #c4 ,mr4 ,hendriksen and our ,indian friends took their departure1 and the work for which we had come so far was actually begun4 ,,base ,,camp ,,on ,,the ,,shore ,,of ,,yakutat ,,bay4 ,about the tents at ,camp #c the rank grass grew waist-high1 sheltering the strawberries and dwarf raspberries that bloomed beneath4 ,a little way back from the shore1 clumps of alders1 interspersed with spruce trees1 marked the beginning of the forest which covered the hills toward the west and southwest4 ,toward the north rose rugged mountains1 their summits shrouded in mist2 in the steep gorges on their sides the ends of glaciers gleamed white1 like foaming cataracts descending from cloudland4 ,the day following our arrival dawned bright and beautiful4 ,every cloud vanished from the mountains as by magic1 revealing their magnificent summits in clear relief4 ,we found ourselves at the base of a rugged mountain range extending far southeastward and northwestward1 its first rampart so breached as to allow the waters of the ocean to extend into the very midst of the great peaks beyond4 ,through this opening we had a splendid view of the snow-clad mountains filling the northern sky and stretching away in lessening perspective toward the east until they blended with the distant clouds4 ,topographic work was started1 and the preparation of packs for the journey inland was begun at once2 and all hands were kept busy4 ,a base-line was measured by ,mr4 ,kerr1 and a beginning was made in the development of a system of triangulation which was carried on throughout the season4 ,our stay at the camp on the shore extended over a week1 and enabled us to become familiar with many of the changes in the rugged scenery surrounding ,yakutat bay4 ,the bay itself was covered with icebergs for most of the time4 ,owing to the prevailing winds and the action of shore currents1 the ice accumulated on the coast adjacent to our camp4 ,for many days the beach toward both the north and the south1 as far as the eye could reach1 was piled high with huge masses of blue and white ice4 ,when the bay was rough1 the surf roared angrily among the stranded bergs and1 dashing over them1 formed splendid sheets of foam2 while on bright1 sunny days the bay gleamed and flashed in the sunlight as the summer winds gently rippled #hg its surface1 and the thousands of icebergs crowding the azure plain seemed a numberless fleet of fairy boats with crystal hulls and fantastic sails of blue and white4 ,when the long summer days drew to a close and gave place to the soft northern twilight1 which in summer lasts until the glow of the returning sun is seen in the east1 the sea and mountains assumed a soft1 mysterious beauty never realized by dwellers in more southern climes4 ,the hours of twilight were so enchanting1 the varying shades and changing tints on the mighty snow-fields robing the mountains were so exquisite in their gradations that1 even when weary with many hours of toil1 the explorer could not resist the charm1 and paced the sandy shore until the night was far spent4 ,sometimes in the twilight hours1 long after the sun disappeared1 the summits of the majestic peaks toward the east were transformed by the light of the after-glow into mountains of flame4 ,as the light faded1 the cold shadow of the world crept higher and higher up the crystal slopes until only the topmost spires and pinnacles were gilded by the sunset glow4 ,at such times1 when our eyes were weary with watching the gorgeous transformation of the snow-covered mountains and were turned to the far-reaching seaward view1 we would be startled by the sight of a vast city1 with battlements1 towers1 minarets1 and domes of fantastic architecture1 rising where we knew that only the berg-covered waters extended4 ,the appearance of these phantom cities was a common occurrence during the twilight hours4 ,although we knew at once that the ghostly spires were but a trick of the mirage1 yet their ever-changing shapes and remarkable mimicry of human habitations were so striking that they never lost their novelty2 and they were never the same on two successive evenings4 ,one of the most common deceptions of the mirage is the transformation of icebergs into the semblance of fountains gushing from the sea and expanding into graceful1 sheaf-like shapes4 ,the strangest freaks due to the refraction of light on hot deserts1 which are usually supposed to be the home of the mirage1 do not excite the traveler's wonder so much as the phantom cities seen in the uncertain twilight amid the ice-packs of the north4 ,when the slowly deepening twilight transformed mountains and seas into a dreamland picture1 the harvest moon1 strangely out of place in far northern skies1 spread a sheet of silver behind the dark headlands toward the southeast1 and then slowly appeared1 not rising boldly toward the zenith1 but tracing a low #hh arch in the southern heavens1 to soon disappear into the sea toward the southwest4 ,brief as were her visits1 they were always welcome and always brought the feeling that distant homes were nearer when the same light was visible to us and to loved ones far away4 ,the soft moonlight dimmed the twilight1 the after-glow faded from the highest peaks1 and the short northern night came on4 ,after returning from the mountains1 late in ,september1 we were again encamped on the northwestern shore of ,yakutat bay4 ,a heavy northeast storm swept down from the mountains and awakened all the pent-up fury of the waves4 ,the beach was crowded with bergs1 among which the surf broke in great sheets of feathery foam2 clouds of spray were dashed far above the icy ramparts1 carrying with them fragments of ice torn from the bergs over which they swept2 while the stranded bergs rocked violently to and fro as the waves burst over them4 ,sometimes the raging waters1 angered by opposition1 lifted the bergs in their mighty arms and1 turning them over and over1 dashed them high on the beach4 ,it seemed as if spirits of the deep1 unable to leave the water-world1 were hurling their weapons at unseen enemies on the land4 ,the fearful grandeur of the raging waters and of the dark storm-swept skies was1 perhaps1 enhanced by the fact that the landward-blowing gale1 combined with a rising tide1 threatened to sweep away our frail home4 ,each succeeding wave1 as it rolled shoreward1 sent a sheet of foam roaring and rushing up the beach and creeping nearer and nearer to our shelter until only a few inches intervened between the highwater line and the crest of the sand bank that protected us4 ,the limit was reached at last1 however1 and the water slowly retreated1 leaving a fringe of ice within arm's length of our tents4 ,the wild scene along the shore was especially grand at night4 ,the stranded bergs1 seen through the gloom1 formed strange moving shapes1 like vessels in distress4 ,the white banners of spray seemed signals of disaster4 ,an ,armada1 more numerous than ever sailed from the ports of ,spain1 was being crushed and ground to pieces by the hoarse wind and raging surf4 ,sleep was impossible1 even if one cared to rest when sea and air and sky were joined in fierce conflict4 ,our tents1 spared by the waves1 were dashed down by the fierce north winds1 and a lake in the forest toward the west overflowed its banks and discharged its flooding waters through our encampment4 ,at last1 tired and #hi discomforted1 we abandoned our tents and retreated to the neighboring forest and there took refuge in a cabin built near where a coal seam outcrops1 and remained until the storm had spent its force4 ,but ,i have anticipated1 and must return to the thread of my narrative4 ,,first ,,day',s ,,tramp4 ,the impressions received during the first day spent on shore in a new country are always long remembered4 ,of several first days in my own calendar1 there are none that exceed in interest my first excursions through the forest and over the hills west of ,yakutat bay4 ,every one about camp having plenty of work to occupy him through the day1 ,i started out early on the morning of ,july #b1 with only ,bud and ,tweed for companions4 ,my objects were to reconnoiter the country to the westward1 to learn what ,i could concerning its geology and glaciers1 and to choose a line of march toward ,mount ,st4 ,elias4 ,to the north of our camp1 and about a mile distant1 rose a densely wooded hill about #cjj feet high1 with a curving outline1 convex southward4 ,this hill had excited my curiosity on first catching sight of the shore1 and ,i decided to make it my first study4 ,its position at the mouth of a steep gorge in the hills beyond1 down which a small glacier flowed1 suggested that it might be an ancient moraine1 deposited at a time when the ice-stream advanced farther than at present4 ,my surprise therefore was great when1 after forcing my way through the dense thickets1 ,i reached the top of the hill1 and found a large kettle-shaped depression1 the sides of which were solid walls of ice fifty feet high4 ,this showed at once that the supposed hill was really the extremity of a glacier1 long dead and deeply buried beneath forest-covered dbris4 ,in the bottom of the kettle-like depression lay a pond of muddy water1 and1 as the ice-cliffs about the lakelet melted in the warm sunlight1 miniature avalanches of ice and stones1 mingled with sticks and bushes that had been undermined1 frequently rattled down its sides and splashed into the waters below4 ,further examination revealed the fact that scores of such kettles are scattered over the surface of the buried glacier4 ,this ice-stream is that designated the ,galiano glacier on the accompanying map4 ,continuing on my way toward the mouth of the gorge in the #ij mountains above1 ,i forced my way for nearly a mile through dense thickets1 frequently making wide detours to avoid the kettle holes4 ,at length the vegetation became less dense1 and gave place to broad open fields of rocks and dirt1 covering the glacier from side to side4 ,this dbris was clearly of the nature of a moraine1 as the ice could be seen beneath it in numerous crevasses2 but no division into marginal or medial moraines could be distinguished4 ,it is really a thin1 irregular sheet of comminuted rock1 together with angular masses of sandstone and shale1 the largest of which are ten or fifteen feet in diameter4 ,when seen from a little distance the dbris completely conceals the ice and forms a barren1 rugged surface1 the picture of desolation4 ,after traversing this naked area the clear ice in the center of the gorge was reached4 ,all about were wild cliffs1 stretching up toward the snow-covered peaks above2 several cataracts of ice1 formed by tributary glaciers descending through rugged1 highly inclined channels1 were in sight2 while the snow-fields far above gleamed brilliantly in the sunlight1 and now and then sent down small avalanches to awaken the echoes of the cliffs and fill the still air with a ,babel of tongues4 ,pushing on toward the western border of the glacier1 across the barren field of stones1 ,i came at length to the brink of a precipice of dirty ice more than a hundred feet high1 at the foot of which flowed a swift stream of turbid water4 ,a few hundred yards below1 this stream suddenly disappeared beneath an archway formed by the end of a glacial tunnel1 and its further course was lost to view4 ,it was a strange sight to see a swift1 foaming river burst from beneath overhanging ice-cliffs1 roar along over a bowlder-covered bed1 and then plunge into the mouth of a cavern1 leaving no trace of its lower course except a dull1 heavy rumbling far down below the icy surface4 ,a still grander example of these glacial streams1 observed a few days later1 is described on another page4 ,the bank of the gulf opposite the point at which ,i first reached it is formed by a steep mountain-side supporting a dense growth of vegetation4 ,here and there1 however1 streams of water plunge down the slope1 making a chain of foaming cascades1 and opening the way through the vegetation4 ,it seemed practicable to traverse one of these stream beds without great difficulty1 and thus to reach the plateau which ,i knew1 from a more distant view1 to exist above4 #ia ,crossing the glacial river above the upper archway1 ,i reached the mountain side and began to ascend4 ,the task was far more difficult than anticipated4 ,the bushes1 principally of alder and currant1 grew dense and extended their branches down the steep slope in such a manner that at times it was utterly impossible to force a way through them4 ,much of the way ,i crawled on hands and knees up the steep watercourse beneath the dense tangle of vegetation overhanging from either bank and interlacing in the center4 ,on nearing the top ,i was so fortunate as to strike a bear trail1 along which the animal had forced his way through the bushes1 making an opening like a tunnel4 ,through this ,i ascended to the top of the slope1 coming out in a wild amphitheatre in the side of the mountain4 ,the bottom of the amphitheatre was exceedingly rough1 owing to confused moraine-heaps1 and held a number of small lakes4 ,on account of its elevation1 it was not densely covered with bushes1 and no trees were in sight except along its southern margin4 ,about its northern border ran a broad terrace1 marking the height of the great glacier which formerly occupied the site of ,yakutat bay4 ,the terrace formed a convenient pathway leading westward to a sharp ridge running out from the mountains and connecting with an outstanding butte1 which promised to afford an unobstructed view to the westward4 ,pressing on1 ,i found that the terrace on which ,i was traveling at length became a free ridge1 some three hundred feet high1 with steep slopes on either side1 like a huge railroad embankment4 ,this ridge swept across the valley in a graceful curve1 and shut off a portion of the western part of the amphitheatre from the general drainage4 ,in the portion thus isolated there was a lake without an outlet1 still frozen4 ,the snow banks bordering the frozen lake were traced in every direction by the trails of bears4 ,continuing my tramp1 ,i crossed broad snow-fields1 climbed the ridge to the westward1 and obtained a far-reaching1 unobstructed view of the surrounding country4 ,the elevation reached was only about #a1ejj feet above sea-level1 but was above the timber line4 ,the mountain slopes toward the north were bare of vegetation and generally covered with snow4 ,the first object to claim attention was the huge pyramid forming the summit of ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 which stood out clear and sharp against the northwestern sky4 ,although thirty-six miles distant1 it dominated all other peaks in view and rose far above #ib the rugged crests of nearer ranges1 many of which would have been counted magnificent mountains in a less rugged land4 ,this was the first view of the great peak obtained by any of our party4 ,not a cloud obscured the defination of the mountain2 and the wonderful transparency of the atmosphere1 after so many days of mist and rain1 was something seldom if ever equalled in less humid lands4 ,much nearer than ,st4 ,elias1 and a little west of north of my station1 rose ,mount ,cook1 one of the most beautiful peaks in the region4 ,its summit1 unlike the isolated pyramid in which ,st4 ,elias terminates1 is formed of three white domes1 with here and there subordinate pinnacles of pure white1 shooting up from the snow-fields like great crystals4 ,on the southern side of ,mount ,cook there are several rugged and angular ridges1 which sweep away for many miles and project like headlands into the sea of ice1 known as the ,malaspina glacier1 bordering the ocean toward the southwest4 ,between the main ridges there are huge trunk glaciers1 each contributing its flood of ice to the great glacier below2 and each secondary valley and each amphitheatre among the peaks1 no matter how small1 has its individual glacier1 and the majority of these are tributary to the larger ice-streams4 ,all the mountains in sight exceeding #b1jjj feet in elevation were white with snow1 except the sharpest ridges and boldest precipices4 ,the attention of the geologist is attracted by the fact that all the foot-hills of ,mount ,cook are composed of gray sandstone and black shale2 and he also observes that the angular mountain crest so sharply drawn against the sky furnishes abundant evidence that the mountains were never subjected to the abrasion of a continuous ice-sheet4 ,as ,i stood on the steep-sloped ridge1 the ,atrevida and ,lucia glaciers1 their surfaces covered from side to side with angular masses of sandstone and shale1 lay at my feet2 while farther up the valley the dbris on the surface of the ice disappeared1 and all above was a winter landscape4 ,the brown1 desolate dbris-fields on the glacier at my feet extended far southward1 and covered the expanded ice-foot in which the glacier terminates4 ,most curious of all was the fact that the moraines on the lower border of the glacier were concealed from view by a dense covering of vegetation1 and in places were clothed with forests of spruce trees4 ,to the southward1 beyond the end of the ,lucia glacier1 and separated from it by a torrent-swept bowlder-bed1 lay a vast #ic plateau of ice which stretched toward the south and west farther than the eye could reach4 ,this is the ,malaspina glacier1 shown on plate #h4 ,its borders1 like the expanded extremity of the ,lucia glacier1 are covered with dbris1 on the outer margins of which dense vegetation has taken root4 ,all the central portion of the ice-sheet is clear of moraines1 and shone in the sunlight like a vast snow-field4 ,the heights formerly reached by the nearer glaciers were plainly marked along the mountain sides by well-defined terraces1 sloping with the present drainage4 ,when the ,lucia glacier was at its flood the ridge on which ,i stood was only #bjj or #cjj feet above its surface2 now it approaches #a1jjj feet4 ,turning toward the southeast1 ,i could look down upon the waters of ,yakutat bay1 with its thousands of floating icebergs1 and could distinguish the white breakers as they rolled in on ,ocean cape4 ,beyond ,yakutat stretches a forest-covered plateau between the mountains and the sea1 and the eye could range far over the mountains bordering this plateau on the northeast4 ,in the distance1 fully a hundred miles away1 stood ,mount ,fairweather1 its position rendered conspicuous by a bank of shining clouds floating serenely above its cold summit4 ,the mountains directly east of ,yakutat bay rise to a general height of about #h1jjj feet1 but are without especially prominent peaks4 ,in a general way they form a rugged plateau1 which has been dissected in various channels to depth of #b1jjj or #c1jjj feet4 ,nearly all of the plateau1 including mountains and valleys1 is covered with snow-fields and glaciers2 but none of the ice-streams1 so far as can be seen from a distance1 descend below an elevation of about #d1jjj or #e1jjj feet4 ,this region is as yet untraversed2 and when the explorer enters it1 it is quite possible that deep drainage lines will be found through which glaciers may descend nearly or quite to sea-level4 ,after drinking in the effect of the magnificent landscape and endeavoring to impress every detail in the rugged topography upon my memory1 and having finished writing my notes1 it was time to return2 for the sun was already declining toward the west4 ,wishing to see more of the wonderful land about me1 ,i concluded to descend the western slope of the ridge upon which ,i stood1 and to return to camp by following a stream which issues from the ,atrevida glacier directly below my station and empties into ,yakutat bay a mile or two south of our third camp4 #id ,the quickest and easiest way down was to slide on the snow4 ,using my alpenstock as a brake1 ,i descended swiftly several hundred feet without difficulty1 the dogs bounding along beside me1 when on looking up ,i was startled to see two huge brown bears on the same snow surface1 a little to the left and not more than a hundred and fifty yards away4 ,had my slide been continued a few seconds more ,i should have been in exceedingly unwelcome company4 ,i was unarmed1 and entirely unprepared for a fight with two of the most savage animals found in this country4 ,the bears had long yellowish-brown hair1 and were of the size and character of the grizzly1 with which they are thought by hunters1 if not by naturalists1 to be specifically identical4 ,they were not at all disturbed by my presence1 and in spite of my shouts1 which ,i thought would make them travel off1 one of them came leisurely toward me4 ,his strides over the snow revealed a strength and activity commanding admiration despite the decidedly uncomfortable feeling awakened by his proximity and evident curiosity4 ,later in the season ,i measured the tracks of an animal of the same species1 made while walking over a soft1 level surface1 and found each impression to measure #i by #ag inches1 and the stride to reach #fd inches4 ,so far as ,i have been able to learn1 this is the largest bear track that has been reported4 ,realizing my danger1 ,i continued my snow slide1 but in a different direction and with accelerated speed4 ,the upper limit of the dense thicket clothing the slope of the mountain was soon reached1 and my unwelcome companions were lost to sight4 ,following the bed of a torrent fed by the snow-fields above1 ,i soon came to the creek chosen for my route back to camp2 the waters1 brown and turbid with sediment1 welled out of a cavern at the foot of an ice precipice #bjj feet high1 and formed a roaring stream too deep and too swift for fording4 ,the roaring of the brown waters and the startling noises made by stones rattling down the ice-cliff1 together with the dark shadows of the deep gorge1 walled in by a steep mountain slope on one side and a glacier on the other1 made the route seem uncanny4 ,on the sands filling the spaces between the bowlders there were many fresh bear tracks1 which at least suggested that the belated traveler should be careful in his movements4 ,this locality was afterward occupied as a camping place1 and is shown in the picture forming plate #aj4 ,the dark-colored ice1 #ie mixed with stones and earth1 might easily be mistaken for stratified rock2 but the dirt discoloring the ice is almost entirely superficial4 ,the crest of the cliff is formed of dbris1 and is the edge of the sheet of stones and earth covering the general surface of the glacier4 ,owing to the constant melting1 stones and bowlders are continually loosened to rattle down the steep slope and plunge into the water beneath4 ,i followed down the bank of the stream1 by springing from bowlder to bowlder1 for about a mile1 and then came to a steep bluff1 the western side of which was swept by the roaring flood4 ,the banks above were clothed with spruce trees and dense underbrush2 but1 there being no alternative1 ,i entered the forest and slowly worked my way in the direction of camp4 ,to traverse the unbroken forests of southern ,alaska is always difficult1 even when one is fresh2 and1 weary as ,i was with many hours of laborious climbing1 my progress was slow indeed4 ,one of the principal obstacles encountered in threading these ,arctic jungles is the plant known as the ,devil's club 7,panax horridum71 which grows to a height of ten or fifteen feet1 and has broad1 palmate leaves that are especially conspicuous in autumn1 owing to their bright yellow color4 ,the stems of this plant run on the earth for several feet and then curve upward4 ,every portion of its surface1 even to the ribs of the leaves1 is thickly set with spines1 which inflict painful wounds1 and1 breaking off in the flesh1 cause festering sores4 ,in forcing a way through the brush one frequently treads on the prostrate portion of these thorny plants1 and not infrequently is made aware of the fact by a blow on the head or in the face from the over-arching stems4 ,i struggled on through the tangled vegetation until the sun went down and the woods became dark and somber4 ,thick moss1 into which the foot sank as in a bed of sponge1 covered the ground everywhere to the depth of two or three feet2 each fallen trunk was a rounded mound of green and brown1 decked with graceful equiseta and ferns1 or brilliant with flowers1 but most treacherous and annoying to the belated traveler4 ,in the gloom of the dim-lit woods1 the trees1 bearded with moss1 assumed strange1 fantastic shapes1 which every unfamiliar sound seemed to start into life2 while the numerous trails made by the bears in forcing their way through the thick tangle were positive evidence that not all the inhabitants of the forest were creatures of the imagination4 ,my faithful companions1 ,bud and #if ,tweed showed signs of weariness1 and offered no objection when ,i started a fire and expressed my intention of spending the night beneath the wide-spreading branches of a moss-covered evergreen4 ,having a few pieces of bread in my pocket1 ,i shared them with the dogs1 and stretching myself on a luxuriant bank of lichens tried to sleep1 only to find the mosquitoes so energetic that there was no hope of passing the night in comfort4 ,after resting ,i felt refreshed1 and concluded to press on through the gathering darkness1 and after another hour of hard work ,i came out of the forest and upon a field of torrent-swept bowlders1 deposited by the stream which ,i had left farther up4 ,i was surprised to find that the twilight was not so far spent as ,i had fancied4 ,the way ahead being free of vegetation1 ,i hastened on1 and after traveling about two miles was rejoiced by the sight of a camp-fire blazing in the distance4 ,the warm fire and a hearty supper soon made me forget the fatigues of the day4 ,this1 my first day's exploration1 must stand as an example of many similar days spent on the hills and in the forests northwest of ,yakutat bay1 of which it is not necessary to give detailed descriptions4 ,,canoe ,,trip ,,in ,,disenchantment ,,bay4 ,on ,july #c1 ,i continued my examination of the region about the head of ,yakutat bay by making a canoe trip up ,disenchantment bay to ,haenke island4 ,with the assistance of ,christie and ,crumback1 our canoe was launched through the surf without difficulty1 and we slowly worked our way through the fields of floating ice which covered all the upper portion of the inlet4 ,the men plied the oars with which the canoe was fortunately provided1 while ,i directed its course with a paddle4 ,a heavy swell rolling in from the ocean rendered the task of choosing a route through the grinding ice-pack somewhat difficult4 ,after four or five hours of hard work1 during which time several vain attempts were made to traverse leads in the ice which had only one opening1 we succeeded in reaching the southern end of the island4 ,the shores of ,haenke island are steep and rocky1 and1 so far as ,i am aware1 afford only one cove in which a boat can take refuge4 ,this is at the extreme southern point1 and is not visible until its entrance is reached4 ,a break or fissure in the rocks there admits of the accumulation of stone and sand1 and this #ig has been extended by the action of the waves and tides until a beach a hundred feet in length has been deposited4 ,the dashing of the bowlders and sand against the cliffs at the head of the cove by the incoming waves has increased its extension in that direction so as to form a well-sheltered refuge4 ,the absence of beaches on other portions of the island is due to the fact that its bordering precipices descend abruptly into deep water1 and do not admit of the accumulation of dbris about their bases4 ,without stones and sand with which the waves can work1 the excavation of terraces is an exceedingly slow operation4 ,the precipitous nature of the borders of the island is due1 to some extent at least1 to the abrasion of the rocks by the glacial ice which once encircled it4 ,pulling our canoe far up on the beach1 we began the ascent of the cliffs4 ,hundreds of sea birds1 startled from their nests by our intrusion1 circled fearlessly about our heads and filled the air with their wild cries4 ,the more exposed portions of the slopes were bare of vegetation1 but in the shelter of every depression dense thickets obstructed the way4 ,many of the little basins between the rounded knolls hold tarns of fresh water1 and were occupied at the time of our visit by flocks of gray geese4 ,it is evident that the island was intensely glaciated at no distant day4 ,the surfaces of its rounded domes are so smoothly polished that they glitter like mirrors in the sunlight4 ,on the polished surfaces there are deep grooves and fine1 hair-like lines1 made by the stones set in the bottom of the glacier which once flowed over the island and removed all of the rocks that were not firm and hard4 ,on many of the domes of sandstone there rest bowlders of a different character1 which have evidently been brought from the mountains toward the northeast4 ,the summit of the island is about #hjj feet above the level of the sea1 and1 like its sides1 is polished and striated4 ,the terraces on the mountains of the mainland show that the glacier which formerly flowed out from ,disenchantment bay must have been fully #b1jjj feet deep4 ,the bed it occupied toward the south is now flooded by the waters of ,yakutat bay4 ,at the time of ,malaspina's visit1 #ajj years ago1 the glaciers from the north reached ,haenke island1 and surrounded it on three sides4#bg ,at the rate of retreat indicated by comparing #ih ,malaspina's records with the present condition1 the glaciers must have reached ,point ,esperanza1 at the mouth of ,disenchantment bay1 about #bjj years ago2 and an allowance of between #ejj and #a1jjj years would seem ample for the retreat of the glaciers since they were at their flood4 ,footnote #bg3 ,the map accompanying ,malaspina's report and indicating these conditions has already been mentioned1 and is reproduced on plate #g1 page #fg4 ,reaching the topmost dome of ,haenke island1 a wonderful panorama of snow-covered mountains1 glaciers1 and icebergs lay before us4 ,the island occupies the position of the stage in a vast amphitheatre2 the spectators are hoary mountain peaks1 each a monarch robed in ermine and bidding defiance to the ceaseless war of the elements4 ,how insignificant the wanderer who confronts such an audience1 and how weak his efforts to describe such a scene6 ,from a wild cliff-enclosed valley toward the north1 guarded by towering pinnacles and massive cliffs1 flows a great glacier1 the fountains of which are far back in the heart of the mountains beyond the reach of vision4 ,having vainly sought an ,indian name for this ice-stream1 ,i concluded to christen it the ,dalton glacier1 in honor of ,john ,dalton1 a miner and frontiersman now living at ,yakutat1 who is justly considered the pioneer explorer of the region4 ,the glacier is greatly shattered and pinnacled in descending its steep channel1 and on reaching the sea it expands into a broad ice-foot4 ,the last steep descent is made just before gaining the water1 and is marked by crevasses and pinnacles of magnificent proportion and beautiful color4 ,this is one of the few glaciers in the ,st4 ,elias region that has well-defined medial and lateral moraines4 ,at the bases of the cliffs on the western side there is a broad1 lateral moraine1 and in the center1 looking like a winding road leading up the glacier1 runs a triple-banded ribbon of dbris1 forming a typical medial moraine4 ,the morainal material carried by the glacier is at last deposited at its foot1 or floated away by icebergs1 and scattered far and wide over the bottom of ,yakutat bay4 ,the glacier expands on entering the water1 as is the habit of all glaciers when unconfined1 and ends in magnificent ice-cliffs some two miles in length4 ,the water dashing against the bases of the cliffs dissolves them away1 and the tides tend to raise and lower the expanded ice-foot4 ,the result is that huge masses1 sometimes reaching from summit to base of the cliffs1 are undermined1 and topple over into the sea with a tremendous crash4 ,owing to the distance of the glacier from ,haenke island1 we could #ii see the fall long before the roar reached our ears2 the cliffs separated1 and huge masses seemed to sink without a sound2 the spray thrown up as the blue pinnacles disappeared ascended like gleaming rockets1 sometimes as high as the tops of the cliffs1 and then fell back in silent cataracts of foam4 ,then a noise as of a cannonade came rolling across the waters and echoing from cliff to cliff4 ,the roar of the glacier continues all day when the air is warm and the sun bright1 and is most active when the summer days are finest4 ,sometimes1 roar succeeded roar1 like artillery fire1 and the salutes were answered1 gun for gun1 by the great ,hubbard glacier1 which pours its flood of ice into the fjord a few miles further northeastward4 ,this ice-stream1 most magnificent of the tide-water glaciers of ,alaska yet discovered1 and a towering mountain peak from which the glacier receives a large part of its drainage1 were named in honor of ,gardiner ,g4 ,hubbard1 president of the ,national ,geographic ,society4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #i4 ,,hubbard ,,glacier4 ,looking across the waters of the bay1 whitened by thousands of floating bergs1 we could see three miles of the ice-cliffs formed where the ,hubbard glacier enters the sea4 ,a dark headland on the shore of the mainland to the right shut off the full view of the glacier but formed a strongly drawn foreground1 which enhanced the picturesque effect of the scenery4 ,the ,hubbard glacier flows majestically through a deep valley leading back into the mountains1 and has two main branches1 with a smaller and steeper tributary between4 ,these branches unite to form a single ice-foot extending into the bay4 ,the western branch has a dark medial moraine down its center1 which makes a bold1 sweeping curve before joining the main stream4 ,there is also a broad lateral dbris-belt along the bases of the cliffs forming its right bank4 ,the whole surface of the united glacier1 and all of the white tongues running back into the mountains beyond the reach of vision1 are broken and shattered1 owing to the steepness and roughness of the bed over which they flow4 ,the surface1 where not concealed by morainal material1 is snow-white2 but in the multitude of crevasses the blue ice is exposed1 and gives a greenish-blue tint to the entire stream4 ,where the subglacial slopes are steep1 the ice is broken into pinnacles and towers of the grandest description4 ,on the steep mountain sides sloping toward the ,hubbard glacier there are more than a dozen secondary ice-streams which are tributary to it4 ,the amphitheatres in which the glacier has #ajj its beginnings have never been seen2 but our general knowledge of the fountains from which glaciers flow assures us that not only scores but hundreds of other secondary and tertiary glaciers far back into the mountains contribute their floods to the same great stream4 ,after being received on board the ,corwin1 late in ,september1 we had an opportunity to view the great sea-cliffs of the ,hubbard glacier near at hand4 ,captain ,hooper1 attracted by the magnificent scenery1 took his vessel up ,disenchantment bay to a point beyond ,haenke island1 whence a view could be had of the eastern extension of the inlet4 ,so far as is known1 the ,corwin was the first vessel to navigate those waters4 ,soundings made between the island and the ice-foot gave forty to sixty fathoms4 ,at the elbow1 where the southeastern shore of the bay turns abruptly eastward1 there is a low islet not represented on any map previous to the one made by the recent expedition1 which commands even a wider prospect than can be obtained from ,haenke island4 ,future visitors to this remote coast should endeavor to reach this islet1 after having beheld the grand panorama obtainable from the summit of ,haenke island4 ,the portion of ,disenchantment bay stretching eastward from the foot of ,hubbard glacier is enclosed on all sides by bold mountains1 the lower slopes of which have the subdued and flowing outlines characteristic of glaciated regions4 ,several glaciers occur in the high-grade lateral valleys opening from the bay2 but these have recently retreated1 and none of them have sufficient volume at present to reach the water4 ,the general recession1 in which all the glaciers of ,alaska are participating1 is manifested here by the broad dbris fields1 which cover all the lower ice-streams not ending in the sea4 ,the absence of vegetation on the smooth rocks recently abandoned by the ice also tells of recent climatic changes4 ,a dbris-covered glacier1 so completely concealed by continuous sheets of stones and earth that its true character can scarcely be recognized1 descends from the mountains just east of ,hubbard glacier4 ,it is formed by the union of two principal tributaries1 and1 on reaching comparatively level ground1 expands into a broad ice-foot1 but does not have sufficient volume to reach the sea4 ,another glacier1 of smaller size but of the same general character1 lies between the ,hubbard and ,dalton glaciers4 ,in a rugged defile in the mountains just west of ,haenke island there is another small dirt-covered glacier1 which creeps down from the precipices above and reaches within a mile of the water4 #aja ,at its end there is a cliff of black1 dirty ice1 scarcely to be distinguished from rock at a little distance1 from the base of which flows a turbid stream4 ,this glacier is covered so completely with earth and stones that not a vestige of the ice can be seen unless we actually traverse its surface4 ,its appearance suggests the name of ,black glacier1 by which it is designated on the accompanying map4 ,the visitor to ,haenke island has examples of at least two well-marked types of glaciers in view3 ,the small dbris-covered ice-streams1 too small to reach the water1 are typical of a large class of glaciers in southern ,alaska1 which are slowly wasting away and have become buried beneath dbris concentrated at the surface by reason of their own melting4 ,the ,galiano glacier is a good example of this class4 ,the ,hubbard and ,dalton glaciers are fine examples of another class of ice-streams which flow into the sea and end in ice-cliffs1 and which for convenience we call tide-water glaciers4 ,nowhere can finer or more beautiful examples of this type be found than those in view from ,haenke island4 ,the formation of icebergs from the undermining and breaking down of the ice-cliffs of the tide-water glaciers has already been mentioned4 ,but there is another method by which bergs are formed--a process even more remarkable than the avalanches that occur when portions of the ice-cliffs topple over into the sea4 ,the ice-cliffs at the foot of the tide-water glaciers are really sea-cliffs formed by the waves cutting back a terrace in the ice4 ,the submerged terrace is composed of ice1 and may extend out a thousand feet or more in front of the visible part of the ice-cliffs4 ,these conditions are represented in the accompanying diagram 7figure #a71 which exhibits a longitudinal section of the lower end of a tide-water glacier where it pushes out into the sea4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #a--;,diagram illustrating the ,formation of ,icebergs4 ,as the sea-cliff of ice recedes and the submerged terrace increases in breadth there comes a time when the buoyancy of the #ajb ice at the bottom exceeds its strength1 and pieces break off and rise to the surface4 ,the water about the ends of the glaciers is so intensely muddy that the submerged ice-foot is hidden from view1 and its presence would not be suspected were it not for the fragments occasionally rising from it4 ,the sudden appearance of these masses of bottom ice at the surface is always startling4 ,while watching the ice-cliffs and admiring the play of colors in the deep crevasses which penetrate them in every direction1 or tracing in fancy the strange history of the silent river and wondering in what age the snows fell on the mountains1 which are now returning to their parent1 the sea1 one is frequently awakened by a commotion in the waters below1 perhaps several hundred feet in front of the ice-cliffs4 ,at first it seems as if some huge sea-monster had risen from the deep and was lashing the waters into foam2 but soon the waters part1 and a blue island rises to the surface1 carrying hundreds of tons of water1 which flows down its sides in cataracts of foam4 ,some of the bergs turn completely over on emerging1 and thus add to the tumult and confusion that attends their birth4 ,the waves roll away in widening circles1 to break in surf on the adjacent shores1 and an island of ice of the most lovely blue floats serenely away to join the thousands of similar islands that have preceded it4 ,the fragments of the glacier rising from the bottom in this manner are usually larger than those broken from the faces of the ice-cliffs1 sometimes measuring #bjj or #cjj feet in diameter4 ,their size and the suddenness with which they rise would insure certain destruction of a vessel venturing too near the treacherous ice-walls4 ,at the time of our visit to ,haenke island1 the entire surface of ,disenchantment bay and all of ,yakutat bay as far southward as we could see formed one vast field of floating ice4 ,most of the bergs were small1 but here and there rose masses which measured #aej by #bjj feet on their sides and stood #dj or #ej feet out of the water4 ,the bergs are divided1 in reference to color1 into three classes--the white1 the blue1 and the black4 ,the white ones are those that have fallen from the face of the ice-walls or those that have been sufficiently exposed to the atmosphere to become melted at the surface and filled with air cavities4 ,the blue bergs are of many shades and tints1 finding their nearest match in color in ,antwerp blue4 ,these are the ones that have recently risen from the submerged ice-foot1 or have turned over owing to a change of position in the center of gravity4 ,rapid as is the #ajc melting of the ice when exposed to the air1 it seems to liquefy even more quickly when submerged4 ,the changes thus produced finally cause the bergs to reverse their positions in the water4 ,this is done without the slightest warning1 and is one of the greatest dangers to be guarded against while canoeing among them4 ,the white color presented by the majority of the bergs is changed to blue when they become stranded1 and the surf breaks over them and dissolves away their porous surfaces4 ,a few of the bergs are black in color1 owing to the dirt and stones that they carry on their surfaces or frozen in their mass4 ,quantities of dbris are thus floated away from the tide-water glaciers and strewn over the bottoms of the adjacent inlets4 ,this digression may be wearisome1 but one cannot stand on ,haenke island without wishing to know all the secrets of the great ice-streams that flow silently before him4 ,returning from our commanding station at the summit of the island to where we left our canoe1 we were surprised and not a little startled to find that the tide had run out and left the strand between our canoe and the water completely blocked with huge fragments of ice4 ,there was no way left for us to launch our canoe except by cutting away and leveling off the ice with our axe1 so as to form a trail over which we could drag it to the water4 ,this we did1 and then1 poising the canoe on a low flat berg1 half of which extended beneath the water1 ,i took my place in it with paddle in hand1 while ,christie and ,crumback1 waiting for the moment when a large wave rolled in1 launched the canoe far out in the surf4 ,by the vigorous use of my paddle ,i succeeded in reaching smooth water and brought the canoe close under the cliff forming the southern side of the cove1 where the men were able to drop in as a wave rolled under us4 ,we slowly worked our way down the bay through blue lanes in the ice-pack1 against an incoming tide1 and reached our tents near sunset4 ,thus ended one of the most enjoyable and most instructive days at ,yakutat bay4 ,,from ,,yakutat ,,bay ,,to ,,blossom ,,island4 ,our camp on the shore of ,yakutat bay was held for several days after returning from ,haenke island1 but in the meantime an advance-camp was established on the side of the ,lucia glacier1 from which ,mr4 ,kerr and myself made explorations ahead4 #ajd ,before leaving the base-camp ,i visited ,black glacier for the purpose of taking photographs and studying the appearance of an old glacier far spent and fast passing away4 ,this1 like the ,galiano glacier1 is a good example of a great number of ice-streams in the same region which are covered from side to side with dbris4 ,the caon walls on either side rise precipitously1 and their lower slopes1 for the height of #bjj or #cjj feet1 are bare of vegetation4 ,the surface of the glacier has evidently sunken to this extent within a period too short to allow of the accumulation of soil and the rooting of plants on the slopes4 ,the banks referred to are in part below the upper limit of timber growth1 and the adjacent surfaces are covered with bushes1 grasses1 and flowers4 ,under the climatic conditions there prevailing1 it is evident that the formation of soil and the spreading of plants over areas abandoned by ice is a matter of comparatively few years4 ,it is for this reason that a very recent retreat of ,black glacier is inferred4 ,many of the glaciers in southern ,alaska give similar evidence of recent contraction1 and it is evident that a climatic change is in progress which is either decreasing the winter's snow or increasing the summer's heat4 ,the most sensitive indicators of these changes1 responding even more quickly than does the vegetation1 are the glaciers4 ,the fourth of ,july was spent by us in cutting a trail up the steep mountain slope to the amphitheatre visited during my first tramp4 ,no one can appreciate the density and luxuriance of the vegetation on the lower mountain in that region until he has cut a passage through it4 ,seven men1 working continuously for six or seven hours with axes and knives1 were able to open a comparatively good trail about a mile in length4 ,the remainder of the way was along stream courses and up bowlder-washes1 which were free from vegetation4 ,in the afternoon1 having finished our task1 a half-holiday was spent in an exciting search for two huge brown bears discovered by one of the party1 but they vanished before the guns could be brought out4 ,the next day an advance-camp was made in the amphitheatre above timber line1 and there ,mr4 ,kerr and myself passed the night1 molested only by swarms of mosquitoes1 and the day following occupied an outstanding butte as a topographical station4 ,in the afternoon of the same day the advance-camp was moved to the border of the ,atrevida glacier at a point already described1 where a muddy stream gushes out from under the ice4 #aje ,our next advance-camp1 established a few days later1 was at ,terrace point1 as we called the extreme end of the mountain spur separating the ,lucia and ,atrevida glaciers4 ,these ice-streams were formerly much higher than now1 and when at their flood formed terraces along the mountain side1 which remain distinctly visible to the present day4 ,the space between the two glaciers at the southern end of the mountain spur became filled with bowlders and stones carried down on the side of the ice-streams1 and1 as the glaciers contracted1 added a tapering point to the mountain4 ,between the present surface of the ice and the highest terrace left at some former time there are many ridges1 sloping down stream1 which record minor changes in the fluctuation of the ice4 ,a portion of one of these terraces is seen to the left in plate #aj4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #aj4 ,,wall ,,of ,,ice ,,on ,,eastern ,,side ,,of ,,the ,,atrevida ,,glacier4 ,terrace point1 like all the lower portions of the mountain spurs extending southward from the main range1 is densely clothed with vegetation1 and during the short summers is a paradise of flowers4 ,our tent was pitched on a low terrace just beyond the border of the ice4 ,the steep bluff rising to an elevation of some #bjj feet on the east of our camp was formed by glacial ice buried beneath an absolutely barren covering of stones and dirt4 ,on the west the ascent was still more precipitous1 but the slope from base to summit was one mass of gorgeous flowers4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #aa4 ,,view ,,on ,,the ,,atrevida ,,glacier4 ,kerr and myself made several excursions from the camp at ,terrace point1 and explored the country ahead to the next mountain spur for the purpose of selecting a site for another advance-camp4 ,in the meantime the men were busy in bringing up supplies4 ,our reconnoissance westward took us across the ,lucia glacier to the mouth of a deep1 transverse gorge in the next mountain spur4 ,the congeries of low peaks and knobs south of this pass we named the ,floral hills1 on account of the luxuriance of the vegetation covering them2 and the saddle separating them from the mountains to the north was called ,floral pass4 ,in crossing the ,lucia glacier we experienced the usual difficulties met with on the dbris-covered ice-field of ,alaska4 ,the way was exceedingly rough1 on account of the ridges and valleys on the ice1 and on account of the angular condition of the dbris resting upon it4 ,many of the ridges could not conveniently be climbed1 owing to the uncertain footing afforded by the angular #ajf stones resting on the slippery slope beneath4 ,fortunately1 the crevasses were mostly filled with stones fallen from the sides1 so that the danger from open fissures1 which has usually to be guarded against in glacial excursions1 was obviated2 yet1 as is usually the case when crevasses become filled with dbris1 the melting of the adjacent surfaces had caused them to stand in relief and form ridges of loose stones1 which were exceedingly troublesome to the traveler4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ab4 ,,entrance ,,to ,,an ,,ice ,,tunnel2 ,,formerly ,,the ,,outlet ,,of ,a ,,glacial ,,lake4 ,near the western side of the ,lucia glacier1 between ,terrace point and ,floral pass1 there is a huge rounded dome of sandstone rising boldly out of the ice4 ,this corresponds to the nunataks of the ,greenland ice-fields1 and was covered by ice when the glaciation was more intense than at present4 ,on the northern side of the island the ice is forced high up on its flanks1 and is deeply covered with moraines2 but on the southwestern side its base is low and skirted by a sand plain deposited in a valley formerly occupied by a lake4 ,the melting of the glacier has1 in fact1 progressed so far that the dome of rock is free from ice on its southern side1 and is connected with the border of the valley toward the west by the sand plain4 ,this plain is composed of gravel and sand deposited by streams which at times became dammed lower down and expanded into a lake4 ,sunken areas and holes over portions of the lake bottom show that it rests1 in part at least1 upon a bed of ice4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ac4 ,,deltas ,,in ,,an ,,abandoned ,,lake ,,bed4 ,the most novel and interesting feature in the ,lucia glacier is a glacial river which bursts from beneath a high archway of ice just at the eastern base of the nunatak mentioned above1 and flows for about a mile and a half through a channel excavated in the ice1 to then enter the mouth of another tunnel and become lost to view4 ,an illustration of this strange river and of the mouth of the tunnel in the dbris-covered ice into which it rolls1 reproduced from a photograph by a mechanical process1 is given on plate #ad1 and another view of the mouth of the same tunnel is presented in the succeeding plate4 ,this is the finest example of a glacial river that it has ever been my good fortune to examine4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ad4 ,a ,,river ,,on ,,the ,,lucia ,,glacier4 ,the stream is swift1 and its waters are brown and heavy with sediment4 ,its breadth is about #aej feet4 ,for the greater part of its way1 where open to sunlight1 it flows between banks of ice and over an icy floor4 ,fragments of its banks1 and portions of #ajg the sides and roof of the tunnel from which it emerges1 are swept along by the swift current1 or stranded here and there in midstream4 ,the sand plain already mentioned borders the river for a portion of its course1 and is flooded when the lower tunnel is obstructed4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ae4 ,,entrance ,,to ,a ,,glacial ,,tunnel4 ,the archway under which the stream disappears is about fifty feet high1 and the tunnel retains its dimensions as far as one can see by looking in at its mouth4 ,where the stream emerges is unknown2 but the emergence could no doubt be discovered by examining the border of the glacier some miles southward4 ,no explorer has yet been bold enough to enter the tunnel and drift through with the stream1 although this could possibly be done without great danger4 ,the greatest risk in such an undertaking would be from falling blocks of ice4 ,while ,i stood near the mouth of the tunnel there came a roar from the dark cavern within1 reverberating like the explosion of a heavy blast in the chambers of a mine1 that undoubtedly marked the fall of an ice mass from the arched roof4 ,the course of the stream below the mouth of the tunnel may be traced for some distance by scarps in the ice above1 formed by the settling of the roof4 ,some of these may be traced in the illustrations4 ,when the roof of the tunnel collapses so completely as to obstruct the passage1 a lake is formed above the tunnel1 and when the obstruction is removed the streams draining the glacier are flooded4 ,at the mouth of the tunnel there are always confused noises and rhythmic vibrations to be heard in the dark recesses within4 ,the air is filled with pulsations like deep organ notes4 ,it takes but little imagination to transform these strange sounds into the voices and songs of the mythical inhabitants of the nether regions4 ,toward the right of the tunnel1 as shown on plate #ad1 there appears a portion of the former river bed1 now abandoned1 owing to the cutting across of a bend in the stream4 ,the floor of this old channel is mostly of clear1 white ice1 and has a peculiar1 hummocky appearance1 which indicates the direction of the current that once flowed over it4 ,a portion of the bed is covered with sand and gravel1 and along its border are gravel terraces resting on ice4 ,these occurrences illustrate the fact that rivers flowing through channels of ice are governed by the same general laws as the more familiar surface streams4 ,after examining this glacial river1 during our first excursion on the ,lucia glacier1 we reached its western banks by crossing #ajh above the upper archway4 ,traversing the sand plain to the westward1 we came to another stream of nearly equal interest1 flowing along the western margin of the glacier1 past the end of the deep gorge called ,floral pass4 ,a small creek1 flowing down the pass1 joins the stream and skirts the glacier just below the mouth of a wild gorge on the side of the main valley4 ,this stream once flowed along the border of the ,lucia glacier when it was much higher than now1 and began the excavation of a channel in the rock1 which was retained after the surface of the glacier was lowered by melting4 ,it still flows in a rock-cut channel for about a mile before descending to the border of the glacier as it exists at present4 ,the geologist will see at once that this is a peculiar example of superimposed drainage4 ,the gorge cut by the stream is a deep narrow trench with rough angular cliffs on either side1 and is a good example of a water-cut caon4 ,when the ,lucia glacier melts away and leaves the broad-bottomed valley clear of ice1 the deep narrow gorge on its western side1 running parallel with its longer axes1 but a thousand feet or more above its bottom1 will remain as one of the evidences of a former ice invasion4 ,during our reconnoissance we turned back at the margin of the second river1 but a day or two later reached the same point with the camp hands and camping outfit1 and1 placing a rope from bank to bank1 effected a crossing4 ,our next camp was in ,floral pass4 ,from there we occupied a topographical station on the summit of the ,floral hills1 and made another reconnoissance ahead1 across the ,hayden glacier1#bh to the next mountain spur4 ,footnote #bh3 ,named in honor of the late ,dr4 ,ferdinand ,v4 ,hayden1 founder of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey of the ,territories4 ,floral pass1 like so many of the topographical features examined during the recent expedition1 has a peculiar history4 ,it is a comparatively low-grade gorge leading directly across the end of an angular mountain range forming one of the spurs of ,mount ,cook4 ,the position of the pass was determined by an east-and-west fault and by the erosion of soft shales turned up on edge along the line of displacement4 ,at its head it is shut in by the ,hayden glacier1 which flows past it and forms a wall of ice about two hundred feet high4 ,the water flowing out from beneath the side of the glacier forms a muddy creek1 which finds its way over a bowlder-covered bed in the bottom of the gorge to the border of ,lucia glacier4 ,along the sides of the gorge there are #aji many terraces1 which record a complicated history4 ,evenly stratified clays near its lower end1 adjacent to the ,lucia glacier1 show that it was at one time occupied in part by a lake4 ,above the lacustral beds there are water-worn deposits1 indicating that at a later date the gorge was filled from side to side by moraines and coarse stream deposits several hundred feet thick4 ,these were excavated1 and portions were left clinging to the hill-sides1 forming the terraces of to-day4 ,diverse slopes in the terraces suggest that the drainage may at times have been reversed1 according as the ,lucia or the ,hayden glacier was the higher4 ,the routes between our various camps1 scattered along between ,yakutat bay and ,blossom island1 were traversed several times by every member of the party4 ,to traverse the same trail several times with heavy loads1 and perhaps in rain and mist1 is disheartening work which ,i will spare the reader the effort of following even in fancy4 ,from our camp in ,floral pass another reconnoissance ahead was made by ,mr4 ,kerr and myself1 as already mentioned4 ,these advances1 each one of which told us something new1 were the most interesting portions of our journey4 ,the little adventures and experiences of each advance were reported and talked over when we rejoined our companions around the camp-fire at night1 and were received with gratifying interest by the men4 ,a view of the ,hayden glacier from the ,floral hills showed us that it differed from any of the glaciers previously traversed4 ,its surface1 where we planned to cross it1 was free of dbris except along the margins and also near the center1 where we could distinguish a light medial moraine4 ,farther southward1 near the terminus of the glacier1 its surface from side to side was buried beneath a sheet of stones and dirt4 ,as in many other instances1 the dbris on the lower portion of the glacier has been concentrated at the surface1 owing to the melting of the ice1 so as to form a continuous sheet4 ,early one morning1 while traveling over the torrent-swept bowlders in the stream-bed on our way up ,floral pass1 we were a little startled at seeing the head of a bear just visible through the flowers fringing the bank4 ,before a shot could be fired1 he vanished1 and remained perfectly quiet among the bushes for several minutes4 ,but a trembling of the branches at length betrayed his presence1 and a few minutes later he came out in full view1 his yellow-brown coat giving him the appearance of a huge #aaj dog4 ,standing on a rounded mound he looked inquiringly down the valley1 with his shaggy side in full view4 ,i fired--but missed my aim4 ,the unsuccessful hunter always has an excuse for his failure2 ,i had never before used the rifle ,i carried1 and the hair-trigger with which it was provided deceived me4 ,fortunately for the bear1 and probably still more fortunately for me1 the bullet went far above the mark4 ,the huge beast vanished again1 although the vegetation was not dense1 and left us wondering how such a large animal could disappear so quickly and so completely in such an open region4 ,on searching for his tracks1 we found that he had traversed for a few rods the plant-covered terrace on which he was first discovered1 and then escaped up a lateral gorge to a broader terrace above4 ,reaching the head of the ,floral pass and climbing the hill of dbris bordering the ,hayden glacier1 we came out upon the clear1 white ice of the central portion of the ice-stream4 ,the ice was greatly crevassed1 but nearly all the gaps in its surface could be crossed by jumping or else by ice-bridges4 ,the most interesting feature presented by the glacier was the way in which it yields itself to the inequality of the rocks over which it flows4 ,starting on the eastern side1 below the entrance to ,floral pass1 and extending northwestward diagonally across the stream1 there is a line of steep descent in the rocks beneath1 which causes the ice to be greatly broken4 ,this is not properly an ice-fall1 except near the confining walls of the caon2 but it might be called an ice-rapid4 ,the ice bends down over the subglacial scarp with many long breaks1 but does not form pinnacles1 as in many similar instances where the descent is greater1 and true ice cascades occur4 ,the most practicable way for crossing the glacier was to ascend the stream above the line of rapids for some distance1 and then follow diagonally down its center1 finally veering westward to the opposite bank4 ,by following this course1 and making a double curve like the letter ,s1 we could cross the steep descent in the center1 where it was least crevassed4 ,the marginal moraines on the ,hayden glacier are formed of fragments of brown and gray sandstone and black shale of all sizes and shapes4 ,it is clear that this dbris was gathered by the cliffs bordering the glacier on either side4 ,the medial moraine which first appears at the surface just above the rapids is of a different character1 and tells that the higher peaks of ,mount ,cook are composed1 in part at least1 of a different material from #aaa the spurs projecting from it4 ,the medial moraine looks black from a distance1 but1 on traversing it1 it was found to be composed mainly of dark-green gabbro and serpentine4 ,the dbris is scattered over the surface in a belt several rods wide2 but it is not deep1 as the ice can almost everywhere be seen between the stones4 ,where the fragments of rock are most widely separated1 there are fine illustrations of the manner in which small1 dark stones absorb the heat of the sun and melt the ice beneath more rapidly than the surrounding surface1 sinking into the ice so as to form little wells1 several inches deep1 filled with clear water4 ,larger stones1 which are not warmed through during a day's sunshine1 protect the ice beneath while the adjacent surface is melted1 and consequently become elevated on pillars or pedestals of ice4 ,the stones thus elevated are frequently large1 and form tables which are nearly always inclined southward4 ,in other instances the ice over large areas1 especially along the center of the medial moraine1 was covered with cones of fine1 angular fragments from a few inches to three or four feet in height4 ,these were not really piles of gravel1 as they seemed1 but consisted of cones of ice1 sheeted over with thin layers of small stones4 ,the secret of their formation1 long since discovered on the glaciers of ,switzerland1 is that the gravel is first concentrated in a hole in the ice and1 as the general surface melts away1 acts like a large stone and protects the ice beneath4 ,it is raised on a pedestal1 but the gravel at the borders continually rolls down the sides and a conical form is the result4 ,where we crossed the ,hayden glacier it is only about a mile broad in a direct line2 but to traverse it by the circuitous route rendered necessary by the character of its surface required about three hours of hard tramping1 even when unincumbered with packs4 ,from the center of the glacier a magnificent view may be obtained of the snow-covered domes of ,mount ,cook1 from which rugged mountain ridges stretch southward like great arms and enclose the white snow-field from which the glacier flows4 ,at an elevation of #b1ejj feet the icy portion disappears beneath the nv on which not a trace of dbris is visible4 ,all the higher portions of the mountains are white as snow can make them1 except where the pinnacles and precipices are too steep to retain a covering4 ,on reaching the western side of the glacier we found a bare space on the bordering cliffs1 about a hundred feet high1 which #aab has been abandoned by the ice so recently that it is not yet grassed over4 ,above this came the luxuriant and beautiful vegetation covering all the lower mountain slopes4 ,the mountain spur just west of the glacier1 like several of the ridges stretching southward from the higher mountains1 ends in a group of hills somewhat separate from the main ridge4 ,the hills are covered with a rank vegetation1 and in places support a dense growth of spruce trees4 ,reaching the grassy summit1 we had a fine1 far-reaching view of the unexplored region toward the west1 and of the vast plateau of ice stretching southward beyond the reach of the vision4 ,west of our station1 another great ice-stream1 named the ,marvine glacier1 in honor of the late ,a4 ,r4 ,marvine1 flows southward with a breadth exceeding that of any of the icy streams yet crossed4 ,beyond the ,marvine glacier1 and forming its western border1 there is an exceedingly rugged mountain range trending northeast and southwest4 ,although this is1 topographically1 a portion of the mountain mass forming ,mount ,cook1 its prominence and its peculiar geological structure render it important that it should have an independent name4 ,in acknowledgment of the services to science rendered by the first state geologist of ,massachusetts1 it is designated the ,hitchcock range on our maps4 ,rising above the angular crest line of this mountain mass towers the pyramidal summit of ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 seemingly as distant as when we first beheld it from near ,yakutat bay4 ,about a mile west of the hill on which we stood1 and beyond the bed of a lake now drained of its waters by a tunnel leading southward through the ice1 rose a steep1 rocky island out of the glaciers1 its summit overgrown with vegetation and dark with spruce trees4 ,this oasis in a sea of ice1 subsequently named ,blossom island1 we chose as the most favorable site for our next advance-camp4 ,we then returned to our camp in ,floral pass1 and a day or two later ,kerr and ,christie started on a side trip up the ,hayden glacier1 to be absent five days4 ,during this trip the weather was stormy1 and only allowed half an hour for topographical work when a somewhat favorable station was reached4 ,this was of great service1 however1 in mapping the country1 as it gave a station of considerable elevation on the side of ,mount ,cook4 ,the trip was nearly all above the snow-line1 and was relieved by many novel experiences4 #aac ,while ,kerr and ,christie were away1 ,i assisted the camp hands in advancing to ,blossom island4 ,our first day's work consisted in packing loads across the ,hayden glacier to the wooded hills on its western border1 reached during the reconnoissance described above4 ,the weather was stormy1 and a dense fog rolled in from the ocean1 obscuring the mountains1 and compelling us to find our way across the glacier as best we could without landmarks4 ,patiently threading our way among crevasses1 we at length came in sight of the forests on the extremity of the mountain spur toward the west1 and concluded to camp there until the weather was more favorable4 ,we climbed the bare slope bordering the glacier1 and forced our way through the dripping vegetation to an open space beside a little stream and near some aged spruce trees that would furnish good fuel for a camp-fire4 ,we were glad of a refuge1 but did not fully appreciate the fact that our tents were in a paradise of flowers until the next morning1 when the sun shone clear and bright for a few hours4 ,we hailed with delight the world of summer beauty with which we were surrounded4 ,our camp was in a little valley amid irregular hills of dbris left by the former ice invasion1 each of which was a rounded dome of flowers4 ,the desolate ice-fields were completely shut out from view by the rank vegetation4 ,on the slope above us1 dark spruce trees loaded with streamers of moss1 and seemingly many centuries old1 formed a background for the floral decoration with which the ground was everywhere covered4 ,flowering plants and ferns were massed in such dense luxuriance that the streams were lost in gorgeous banks of bloom4 ,reluctantly we returned to ,floral pass for another load of camp supplies1 and late in the afternoon pressed on to ,blossom island1 where we again pitched our tents in rain and mist1 and again1 when the storm cleared away1 found ourselves in an untrodden paradise4 ,kerr and ,christie rejoined us at ,blossom island on ,july #ca1 and we were once more ready for an advance4 ,,blossom ,,island4 ,our camp on ,blossom island was near a small pond of water and close beside a thick grove of spruce trees on the western side of the land-mass4 ,the tents were so placed as to secure an unobstructed view to the westward2 and they were visible1 in turn1 to parties descending from the mountains toward the northwest1 whither our work soon led us4 #aad ,the sides of ,blossom island are rough and precipitous4 ,the glaciers flowing past it cut away the rocks and1 as the surface of the ice-fields was lowered1 left them in many places in rugged cliffs bare of vegetation4 ,the top of the island was also formerly glaciated and in part covered with dbris2 but the ice retreated so long ago that the once desolate surface has become clothed in verdure4 ,everywhere there are dense growths of flowers1 ferns and berry bushes4 ,on the rocky spurs1 thrifty spruce trees1 festooned with drooping streamers1 shelter luxuriant banks of mosses1 lichens and ferns4 ,there was no evidence that human hand had ever plucked a flower in that luxuriant garden2 not a trace could be found of man's previous invasion4 ,the only trails were those left by the bears in forcing their way through the dense vegetation in quest of succulent roots4 ,later in the season1 when the berries ripened1 there was a feast spread invitingly for all who chose to partake4 ,on the warm summer days the air was filled with the perfume of the flowers1 birds flitted in and out of the shady grove1 and insects hummed in the glad sunlight2 the freshness and beauty on every hand made this island seem a little ,eden1 preserved with all its freshness and fragrance from the destroying hand of man4 ,this oasis in a desert of ice is so beautiful and displays so many instructive and attractive features that ,i wish the reader to come with me up the flowery slopes and study the interesting pictures to be seen from its summit4 ,the narrow ravine back of our camp is festooned and overhung with tall ferns1 shooting out from the thickets on either hand like bending plumes4 ,you will notice at a glance1 if perchance your youthful excursions happened to be in the northeastern states1 as were mine1 that many of the plants about us are old friends1 or at least former acquaintances4 ,the tall fern nodding so gracefully as we pass is an ,asplenium1 but of ranker growth than in most southern regions4 ,these tall white flowers with aspiring1 flat-topped umbels1 looking like rank caraway plants1 but larger and more showy1 belong to the genus ,archangelica1 and are at home in the ,cascade range and the ,rocky ,mountains as well as here4 ,the lily-like plant growing so profusely1 especially in the moist dells1 with tall1 slim spikes of greenish flowers and long parallel veined leaves1 is ,veratrum viride4 ,these brilliant yellow monkey-flowers1 bending so gracefully over the banks of the pond1 are closely related to the little #aae ,mimulus which nods to its own golden reflection in many of the brooks of ,new ,england4 ,that purple ,epilobrum1 with now and then a pure white variety1 so common everywhere on these hills1 is the same wanderer that we have seen over many square miles beneath the burnt woods of ,maine4 ,these bushes with obscure white flowers1 looking like little waxen bells1 we recognize at once as huckleberries2 in a short time they will be loaded with luscious fruit4 ,inviting couches of moss beneath the spruce trees are festooned and decorated with fairy shapes of brown and green1 that recall many a long ramble among the ,adirondack hills and in the ,canadian woods4 ,the licapods1 equiseta and ferns are many of them identical with the tracery on mossy mounds covering fallen hemlocks in the ,otsego woods in ,new ,york1 but display greater luxuriance and fresher and more brilliant colors4 ,that graceful little beach-fern1 here and there faded to a rich brown1 foretelling of future changes1 is identical with the little fairy form we used to gather long ago along the borders of the ,great ,lakes4 ,asters and gentians1 delicate orchids and purple lupines1 besides many less familiar plants1 crowd the hillsides and deck the unkept meadows with a brilliant mass of varied light4 ,in the full sunshine1 the hill-slopes appear as if the fields of petals clothing them had the prism's power1 and were spreading a web of rainbow tints over the lush leaves and grasses below4 99 99 99 99 99 ,on our return to ,blossom island1 late in ,september1 we found many of the flowers faded1 but in their places there was a profusion of berries nearly as brilliant in color as the petals that heralded their coming4 ,many of the thickets1 inconspicuous before1 had then a deep1 rich yellow tint1 due to an abundance of luscious salmon berries1 larger than our largest blackberries4 ,the huckleberries were also ripe1 and in wonderful profusion4 ,these additions to our table were especially appreciated after living for more than a month in the snow4 ,the ash trees were holding aloft great bunches of scarlet berries1 even deeper and richer in color than the ripe leaves on the same brilliant branches4 ,the deep woods were brilliant with the broad yellow leaves of the ,devil's club1 above which rose spikes of crimson berries4 ,the dense thickets of currant bushes1 so luxuriant that it was difficult to force one's way through them1 had received a dusky1 smoke-like tint1 due to abundant blue-black strings of fruit suspended all along the under sides of the branches4 99 99 99 99 99 #aaf ,let us not look too far ahead1 however4 ,wandering on over the sunny slopes1 where the gardener has forgotten to separate the colors or to divide the flower banks1 we gain the top of the island2 but so dense are the plants about us1 and so eager is each painted cup to expand freely in the sunlight at the expense of its neighbors1 that we have to beat them down with our alpenstocks--much as we dislike to mar the beauty of the place--before we can recline on the thick turf beneath and study the strange landscape before us4 ,the foreground of every view is a bank of flowers nodding and swaying in the wind1 but all beyond is a frozen desert4 ,the ice-fields before us1 with their dark bands of dbris1 are a picture of desolation4 ,the creative breath has touched only the garden which we1 the first of wanderers1 have invaded4 ,the land before us is entirely without human associations4 ,no battles have there been fought1 no kings have ruled1 no poets have sung of its ruggedness1 and no philosopher has explained its secrets4 ,yet it has its history1 its poetry1 and its philosophy6 ,the mountains toward the north are too near at hand to reveal their grandeur2 only the borders of the vast snow-fields covering all of these upper slopes are in view4 ,in the deep caon with perpendicular walls1 just north of our station1 but curving westward so that its upper course is concealed from view1 there flows a secondary glacier which forces its terminal moraine high up on the northern slope of ,blossom island1 but does not now join the ice-field on the south4 ,streams of turbid water flow from this glacier on each side of the oasis on which we stand and unite at the mouth of a dark tunnel in the ice toward the south4 ,the barren gravel plain just east of our station1 and at the foot of the glacier from the north1 is the bed of a glacial lake which has been drained through the tunnel in the ice4 ,on our way to ,blossom island we crossed this area and found that it had but recently lost its waters4 ,miniature terraces on the gravel banks forming the sides of the basin marked the height to which the waters last rose1 and all the slopes formerly submerged were covered with a thin layer of sediment4 ,on the sides of the basin where this fresh lining rests on steep slopes there are beautiful frettings made by rills in the soft sediment4 ,the stream from the glacier now meanders across this sand plain1 dividing as it goes into many branches1 which unite on #aag approaching the dark archway below4 ,the lake is extremely irregular in its behavior1 and may be filled and emptied several times in a season4 ,the waters are either restrained or flow freely1 according as the tunnel through which they discharge is obstructed or open4 ,the lake is typical of a class4 ,similar basins may be found about many of the spurs projecting into the ,malaspina glacier4 ,a little west of the glacier to which ,i have directed your attention there is a narrow mountain gorge occupied by another glacier1 of small size but having all the principal characteristics of even the largest ,alpine glaciers of the region4 ,it is less than half a mile in length1 has a high grade1 and is fed by several lateral branches4 ,its surface is divided into an ice region below and a nv region above4 ,it has lateral and medial moraines1 ice pinnacles1 crevasses1 and many other details peculiar to glaciers4 ,from its extremity1 which is dark with dirt and stones1 there flows a stream of turbid water4 ,it is1 in fact1 a miniature similitude of the ice-streams on the neighboring mountain1 some of which are forty or fifty miles in length and many times wider in their narrowest part than the little glacier before us is long4 ,the more thoroughly we become acquainted with the mountains of southern ,alaska the more interesting and more numerous do the ,alpine glaciers of the third order become4 ,already1 thousands could be enumerated4 ,i will not detain my imaginary companion longer with local details1 but turn at once to the objects which will ever be the center of attraction to visitors who may chance to reach this remote island in the ice4 ,looking far up the ,marvine glacier1 beyond the tapering pinnacles and rugged peaks about its head1 you will see spires and cathedral-like forms of the purest white projected against the northern sky4 ,they recall at once the ecclesiastic architecture of the ,old ,world2 but instead of being dim and faded by time they seem built of immaculate marble4 ,they have a grandeur and repose seen only in mountains of the first magnitude4 ,the cathedral to the right1 with the long roof-like crest and a tapering spire at its eastern terminus1 is ,mount ,augusta2 its elevation is over #ac1jjj feet4 ,a little to the west1 and equally beautiful but slightly less in elevation1 is ,mount ,malaspina--a worthy monument to the unfortunate navigator whose name it bears4 ,these peaks are on the main ,st4 ,elias range1 but from our present point of view they form only the #aah background of a magnificent picture4 ,later in the season our tents were pitched at their very bases1 and they then revealed their full grandeur and fulfilled every promise given by distant views4 ,the rugged ,hitchcock range bordering the distant margin of the ,marvine glacier1 like the mountains near at hand and the rocky island on which we stand1 is composed of sandstone and shale1 but presents one interesting feature1 to which ,i shall direct your attention4 ,the trend of the range is northeast and southwest1 but the strata of which it is composed run east and west and are inclined northward4 ,as the range is some eight miles long1 these conditions would seem to indicate a thickness of many thousands of feet for the rocks of which it is composed2 yet the beds were deposited in horizontal sheets of sand and mud of very late date1 as will be shown farther on4 ,but the great apparent thickness of the strata is deceptive3 a nearer examination would reveal the fact that the rocks have been so greatly crushed that even a hand specimen can scarcely be broken off with fresh surfaces4 ,more than this1 the black shale1 exhibiting the greatest amount of crushing1 is usually in wedge-shaped masses1 which1 in some cases at least1 are bordered by what are known as thrust planes1 nearly coinciding with the bedding planes of the strata4 ,the rocks have been fractured and crushed together in such a way as to pile fragments of the same layer on top of each other1 and thus to increase greatly their apparent thickness4 ,in the elevations before us the thrust planes are tipped northeastwardly1 and it would seem that the force that produced them acted from that direction4 ,the apparent thickness of the beds has thus been increased many times4 ,what their original thickness was1 it is not now possible to say4 ,similar indications of a lateral crushing in the rocks may be found in several of the mountain spurs between the ,hitchcock range and ,yakutat bay2 but space will not permit me to follow this subject further4 ,turning from the mountains1 we direct our eyes seaward2 but it is a sea of ice that meets our view and not the blue ,pacific4 ,far as the eye can reach toward the west1 toward the south1 and toward the southeast there is nothing in view but a vast plateau of ice or barren dbris fields resting on ice and concealing it from view4 ,this is the ,malaspina glacier4 ,on the border of the ice1 just below the cliffs on which we #aai stand1 there is a belt of dbris perhaps five miles in breadth1 which almost completely conceals the ice beneath4 ,portions of this moraine are covered by vegetation1 and in places it is brilliant with flowers4 ,the vegetation is most abundant on the nearer border and fades away toward the center of the glacier4 ,its distant border1 adjacent to the white ice-field beyond1 is #abj absolutely bare and desolate4 ,an attempt has been made to reproduce this scene in the picture forming plate #af4 ,the drawing is from a photograph and shows the barren dbris field stretching away towards the southwest4 ,the extreme southern end of the ,hitchcock range appears at the right4 ,in the distance is the white ice of the central part of the ,malaspina glacier4 ,far beyond1 faintly outlined against the sky1 are the snow-covered hills west of ,icy bay4 ,the flowers in the foreground are growing on the crest of the steep bluff bordering ,blossom island on the south4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #af3 ,,malaspina ,,glacier1 ,,from ,,blossom ,,island4 ,on the moraine-covered portion1 especially where plants have taken root1 there are hundreds1 perhaps thousands1 of lakelets occupying kettle-shaped depressions4 ,a view of one of these interesting reservoirs in the ice is given in figure #b4 ,if we should go down to the glacier and examine such a lakelet near at hand1 we should find that the cliffs of ice surrounding them are usually unsymmetrical1 being especially steep and rugged on one side and low or perhaps wanting entirely on the other4 ,but there is no regularity in this respect2 the steep slopes may face in any direction4 ,on bright days the encircling walls are always dripping with water produced by the melting of the ice2 little rills are constantly flowing down their sides and plunging in miniature cataracts into the lake below2 the stones at the top of the ice-cliffs1 belonging to the general sheet of dbris covering the glacier1 are continually being undermined and precipitated into the water4 ,a curious fact in reference to the walls of the lakelets is that the melting of the ice below the surface is more rapid than above1 where it is exposed to the direct rays of the sun4 ,as a result the depressions have the form of an hour-glass1 as indicated in the accompanying section4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #b--,view of a glacial ,lakelet 7drawn from a ,photograph74 ,illustration3 ,,figure #c--,section of a glacial lakelet4 ,beyond the bordering moraines at our feet1 we can look far out over the ice-plateau and view hundreds of square miles of its #aba frozen surface4 ,at the same time we obtain glimpses of other vast ice-fields toward the west1 beyond ,icy bay2 but their limits in that direction are unknown4 99 99 99 99 99 ,later in the season ,i made an excursion far out on the ,malaspina glacier from the extreme southern end of the ,hitchcock range1 and became acquainted with many of its peculiarities4 ,its surface1 instead of being a smooth snow-field1 as it appears from a distance1 is roughened by thousands of crevasses1 many of which are filled with clear1 blue water4 ,over hundreds of square miles the surface appears as if a giant plow had passed over it1 leaving the ice furrowed with crevasses4 ,the crevasses are not broad2 usually one can cross them at a bound4 ,they appear to be the scars left by rents in the tributary ice-streams4 ,the stillness far out on the great ice-field is immediately noticed by one who has recently traversed the sloping surfaces of the tributary glaciers4 ,it is always silent on that vast frozen plateau4 ,there are no surface streams and no lakes2 not a rill murmurs along its channel of ice2 no cascades are formed by streams plunging into moulins and crevasses4 ,the water produced by the melting of the ice finds its way down into the glacier and perhaps to its bottom1 and must there form rivers of large size2 but no indications of their existence can be obtained at the surface4 ,the icy surface is undulating1 and resembles in some respects the great rolling prairies of the west2 it is a prairie of ice4 ,in the central portion not a shoot of vegetation casts its shadow1 and scarcely a fragment of rock can be found4 ,the boundaries of the vast plateau have never been surveyed1 but its area cannot be less than five hundred square miles4 ,the clear ice of the center greatly exceeds the extent of the moraine-covered borders4 ,it has a general elevation of fifteen or sixteen hundred feet1 being highest near the end of the ,hitchcock range1 where the ,seward glacier comes in1 and decreasing from there in all directions4 ,from the summit of ,blossom island and other commanding stations it is evident that the dark moraine belts about its borders are compound and record a varied history4 ,far away toward the southeast the individual elements may be distinguished4 ,the dark bands of dbris sweep around in great curves and concentric1 swirl-like figures1 which indicate that there are complicated currents in the seemingly motionless plateau4 ,the ,malaspina glacier belongs to a class of ice bodies not #abb previously recognized1 which are formed at the bases of mountains by the union of several glaciers from above4 ,their position suggests the name of ,piedmont glaciers for the type4 ,they differ from continental glaciers in the fact that they are formed by the union of ice-streams and are not the sources from which ice-streams flow4 ,the supply from the tributary glacier is counterbalanced by melting and evaporation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if the reader has become interested in the vast ice-fields about ,blossom island1 he may wish to continue our acquaintance and go with me into the great snow-fields on the higher mountains1 where the ice-rivers feeding the ,malaspina glacier have their sources4 ,,life ,,above ,,the ,,snow-,,line4 ,early on the morning of ,august #b1 all necessary preparations having been made the day previous1 we started in the direction of the great snow peak to be seen at the head of the ,marvine glacier1 where we hoped to find a pass leading through the mountains which would enable us to reach the foot of ,mount ,st4 ,elias or to discover a practicable way across the main range into the unknown country toward the north4 ,all of the camp hands were with us at the start1 except ,stamy and ,white1 who had been despatched to ,port ,mulgrave to purchase shoes4 ,all but ,crumback and ,lindsley were to return to ,blossom island1 however1 after leaving their loads at a rendezvous as far from ,blossom island as could be reached in a day and allow sufficient time to return to the base-camp4 ,kerr and myself1 with the two camp hands mentioned1 were to press on to the snow-fields above4 ,we took with us a tent1 blankets1 rations1 an oil-stove1 and a supply of coal oil1 and felt equal to any emergency that might arise4 ,the morning of our departure was thick and foggy1 with occasional showers1 and the weather grew worse instead of better as we advanced4 ,all the mountains were soon shut out from view by the vast vapor banks that settled down from above1 and we had little except the general character of the glacier to guide us4 ,our way at first led up the eastern border of the ,marvine glacier1 over seemingly interminable fields of angular dbris4 ,traveling on the rugged moraine1 some idea of which may be obtained from plate #ag1 was not only tiresome in the extreme1 but ruinous to boots and shoes4 ,on passing the mouth of the #abc first lateral gorge 7about a mile from ,blossom island71 from which flows a secondary glacier1 we could look up the bed of the steep ravine to the white precipices beyond1 which seemed to descend out of the clouds1 and were scarred by avalanches2 but all of the higher peaks were shrouded from view4 ,at noon we passed the mouth of a second and larger gorge1 which discharges an important tributary4 ,we then left the border of the glacier and traveled up its center1 the crevasses at the embouchures of the tributary stream being too numerous and too wide to be crossed without great difficulty4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ag4 ,,moraines ,,on ,,the ,,marvine ,,glacier4 ,in the center of the ,marvine glacier there is a dark medial moraine1 composed mainly of dbris of gabbro and serpentine1 of the same character as the medial moraine on the ,hayden glacier1 already briefly mentioned4 ,here1 too1 we found broad areas covered with sand cones and glacial tables4 ,there are also rushing streams1 flowing in channels of ice1 which finally plunge into crevasses or in well-like moulins and send back a deep roar from the caverns beneath4 ,the murmurs of running waters1 heard on every hand1 seem to indicate that the whole glacier is doomed to melt away in a single season4 ,early in the afternoon we reached the junction of the two main branches of the ,marvine glacier1 and chose the most westerly4 ,we were still traveling over hard blue ice in which the blue and white vein-structure characteristic of glaciers could be plainly distinguished4 ,the borders of the ice-streams were dark with lateral moraines2 but after passing the last great tributary coming in from the northeast we reached the upper limit of the glacier proper and came to the lower border of the nv fields1 above which there is little surface dbris4 ,the glacier there flows over a rugged descent1 and is greatly broken by its fall4 ,at first we endeavored to find a passage up the center of the crevassed and pinnacled ice1 but soon came to an impassable gulf4 ,turning toward the right1 we traversed a ridge of ice between profound gorges and reached the base of the mountain slope bordering the glacier on the east4 ,our party was now divided2 ,christie and his companion were left searching for a convenient place to leave the cans of rations they carried1 while we1 who were to explore the regions above1 were endeavoring to find a way up the ice-fall4 ,a shout from our companions below called our attention to the fact that they were unable to reach the border of the glacier1 where they had been directed to leave their packs1 and that they #abd had left them on the open ice4 ,they waved us good-bye and started back toward ,blossom island1 leaving our little band of four to make the advance4 ,descending into a deep black gorge at the border of the ice1 formed by its melting back from the bordering cliffs1 we clambered upward beneath overhanging ice-walls1 from which stones and fragments of ice were occasionally dropping1 and finally reached a great snow-bank on the border of the glacier4 ,as the storm still continued1 and was even increasing in force1 we concluded to find a camping ground soon as possible and make ourselves comfortable as the circumstances would permit4 ,,first ,,camp ,,in ,,the ,,snow4 ,we had now reached the lower limit of perpetual snow4 ,there were no more moraines on the surface of the glacier1 and no bare rock surfaces large enough to hold a tent4 ,the entire region was snow-mantled as far as the eye could see1 except where pinnacles and cliffs too steep and rugged for the snow to accumulate rose above the general surface4 ,a little to one side of the mouth of a steep lateral gorge we found a spot in which a mass of partly disintegrated shale had fallen down from the cliff4 ,we scraped the fragments aside1 smoothed the snow beneath1 and built a wall of rock along the lower margin4 ,the space above was filled in with fragments of shale1 so as to form a shelf on which to pitch our tent4 ,soon our blankets were spread1 with our water-proof coats for a substratum1 and supper was prepared over the oil-stove4 ,darkness settled down over the mountains1 and the storm increased as the night came on4 ,what is unusual in ,alaska1 the rain fell in torrents1 as in the tropics4 ,our little tent of light cotton cloth afforded great protection1 but the rain-drops beat on it with such force that the spray was driven through and made a fine rain within4 ,weary with many hours of hard traveling over moraines and across crevassed ice1 and in an atmosphere saturated with moisture1 we rolled ourselves in our blankets1 determined to rest in spite of the storm that raged about4 ,as the rain became heavier1 the avalanches1 already alarmingly numerous1 became more and more frequent3 ,a crash like thunder1 followed by the clatter of falling stones1 told that many tons of ice and rocks on the mountains to the westward had slid #abe down upon the borders of the glacier2 another roar near at hand1 caused by an avalanche on our own side of the glacier1 was followed by another1 another1 and still another out in the darkness1 no one could tell where4 ,the wilder the storm1 the louder and more frequent became the thunder of the avalanches4 ,it seemed as if pandemonium reigned on the mountains4 ,one might fancy that the evil spirits of the hills had prepared for us a reception of their own liking--but decidedly not to the taste of their visitors4 ,soon there was a clatter and whiz of stones at our door4 ,looking out ,i saw rocks as large as one's head bounding past within a few feet of our tent4 ,the stones on the mountain side above had been loosened by the rain1 and it was evident that our perch was no longer tenable4 ,before we could remove our frail shelter to a place of greater safety1 a falling rock struck the alpenstock to which the ridge-rope of our tent was fastened and carried it away4 ,our tent went by the board1 as a sailor would say1 and we were left exposed to the pouring rain4 ,before we could gather up our blankets they were not only soaked1 but a bushel or more of mud and stones from the bank above1 previously held back by the tent1 flowed in upon them4 ,rolling up our blankets and caching the rations1 instruments1 etc41 under a rubber cloth held down by rocks1 we hastily dragged our tent-cloth down to the border of the glacier1 at the extremity of a tapering ridge1 along which it seemed impossible for stones from above to travel4 ,we there pitched our tent on the hard snow1 without the luxury of even a few handfuls of shale beneath our blankets4 ,wet and cold1 we sought to wear the night away as best we could1 sleep being impossible4 ,crumback1 who had been especially energetic in removing the tent1 regardless of his own exposure1 was wet and became cold and silent4 ,the oil-stove and a few rations were brought from the cache at the abandoned camp1 and soon a dish of coffee was steaming and filling the tent with its delicious odor4 ,our shelter became comfortably warm and the hot coffee1 acting as a stimulant1 restored our sluggish circulation4 ,we passed an uncomfortable night and watched anxiously for the dawn4 ,toward morning a cold wind swept down the glacier and the rain ceased4 ,with the dawn there came indications that the storm had passed1 although we were still enveloped in dense clouds and could not decide whether or not a favorable change in the weather had occurred4 ,we were still cold and wet and the desire to return to ,blossom #abf island1 where all was sunshine and summer1 was great4 ,uncertain as to what would be the wisest course1 we packed our blankets and started slowly down the mountain1 looking anxiously for signs that the storm had really passed4 ,an hour after sunrise a rift in the mist above us revealed the wonderful blue of the heavens1 and allowed a flood of sunlight to pour down upon the white fields beneath4 ,never was the ,august sun more welcome4 ,the mists vanished before its magic touch1 leaving here and there fleecy vapor-wreaths festooned along the mountain side2 as the clouds disappeared1 peak after peak came into view1 and snow-domes and glaciers1 never seen before1 one by one revealed themselves to our astonished eyes4 ,when the curtain was lifted we found ourselves in a new world1 more wild and rugged than any we had yet beheld4 ,there was not a tree in sight1 and nothing to suggest green fields or flowery hill-sides1 except on a few of the lower mountain spurs1 where brilliant ,alpine blossoms added a touch of color to the pale landscape4 ,all else was stern1 silent1 motionless winter4 ,the glacier1 clear and white1 without a rock on its broken surface1 looked from a little distance like a vast snow-covered meadow4 ,we were about a mile above the lower limit of the snow-fields1 where the blue ice of the glacier comes out from beneath the nv4 ,the blue ice was deeply buried1 and could only be seen in the deepest crevasses4 ,across the glacier rose the angular cliffs and tapering spires of the ,hitchcock range4 ,every ravine and gulch in its rugged sides was occupied by glaciers1 many of which were so broken and crevassed that they looked like frozen cataracts4 ,cheered by the bright skies and sun-warmed air1 we pushed on up the glacier1 taking the center of the stream in order to avoid the crevasses1 which were most numerous along its borders4 ,two or three miles above our first camp we found a place where a thin layer of broken shale covered the snow1 at a sufficient distance from the steep slopes above to be out of the reach of avalanches4 ,we there established our second camp after leaving ,blossom island1 dried our blankets1 and spent the remainder of the day basking in the sunlight and gathering energy for coming emergencies4 ,we found the nv of the ,marvine glacier differing greatly from the lower or icy portion previously traversed4 ,instead of ice with blue and white bands1 as is common lower down1 the #abg entire surface1 and as far down in the crevasses as the eye could distinguish1 was composed of compact snow1 or snow changed to icy particles resembling hail and having in reality but few of the properties of ordinary snow3 it might properly be called nv ice4 ,usually the thickness of the layers varied from ten to fifteen feet4 ,separating them were dark lines formed by dust blown over the surface of the glacier and buried by subsequent snow-storms1 or by thin blue lines formed by the edges of sheets of ice and showing that the snow surface had been melted during bright sunny days and frozen again at night4 ,the horizontal stratification so plainly marked in all the crevasses in the nv was almost entirely wanting1 or at least was not conspicuous1 in the lower portion of the glacier1 where1 instead1 we found those narrow blue and white bands already mentioned1 the origin of which has been so well described and explained by ,tyndall4 ,the center of the ,marvine glacier1 as in most similar ice-streams1 is higher and less broken by crevasses than its borders4 ,the crevasses at the side trend up stream1 as is the case with marginal crevasses generally4 ,in the present instance the courses of these rents could be plainly distinguished on each border of the glacier1 when looking down upon it from neighboring slopes4 ,the crevasses occur at quite regular intervals of approximately fifty feet1 and diverge from the bank at angles of about #dj4 ,in the banks of snow bordering the glacier similar crevasses diverge from the margin of the flowing glacier and trend down along its banks4 ,the marginal crevasses and the crevasses in the bordering snow-fields1 to which no special name has been given1 fall nearly in line2 but between the two there is a series of irregular cracks and broken snow1 sharply defining the border of the moving nv4 ,the origin of the marginal crevasses trending up stream was explained during the study of the glaciers of ,switzerland4 ,the following diagram and explanation illustrating their development are copied from ,tyndall3 ,let ,a ,c be one side of the glacier and ,b ,d the other2 and let the direction of motion be that indicated by the arrow4 ,let ,s ,t be a transverse slice of the glacier1 taken straight across it1 say to-day4 ,a few days or weeks hence the slice will have been carried down1 and because the center moves more quickly than the sides it will not remain straight1 but will bend into the form ,s' ,t'4 ,supposing ,t i to be a small square of the original slice near the side of the glacier2 in the new position the square will be distorted to the lozenge-shaped figure ,t' i'4 ,fix your attention upon the #abh diagonal ,t i of the square2 in the lower position this diagonal1 if the ice could stretch1 would be lengthened to ,t' i'4 ,but the ice does not stretch2 it breaks1 and we have a crevasse formed at right angles to ,t' i'4 ,the mere inspection of the diagram will assure you that the crevasse will point obliquely upward4#bi ,illustration3 ,,figure #d--;,diagram illustrating the ,formation of marginal ,crevasses4 ,footnote #bi3 ,the ,forms of ,water3 ,international ,scientific ,series1 ,new ,york1 #ahge1 pp4 #ajg-ajh4 ,the explanation given above applies especially to the lower or icy portion of a glacier2 above the snow-line other facts appear4 ,when a glacier flows through fields of snow on a level with its surface1 crevasses are formed in the adjacent banks4 ,these trend down stream for the same reason that the crevasses in the glacier proper trend up stream--that is1 the friction of the moving stream against its banks tends to carry them along1 while the portions at a distance are stationary4 ,fissures are thus opened which trend in the direction in which the glacier moves4 ,the angle made by these crevasses with the axis of the glacier is about the same as those of the marginal crevasses1 but in an opposite direction4 ,they are widest near the margin of the glacier and taper to a sharp end towards the stationary snow-banks above4 ,the crevasses in the two series thus fall nearly in line1 but are separated by a narrow band of irregularly broken snow1 marking the actual border of the glacier4#cj ,footnote #cj3 ,crevasses in snow-fields through which ice-streams flow will be mentioned again in describing the ,seward glacier4 ,after leaving ,blossom island the party was divided1 and we began a new series of numbers for our camp above the snow-line1 although in this narrative and on the accompanying map a single series of numbers for all the camps will be used4 ,while in the field the camps in the snow were usually termed1 facetiously1 sardine camps1 in allusion to the uncomfortable manner in which we were packed in our tent at night4 #abi ,,across ,,pinnacle ,,pass4 ,the morning after reaching ,camp #ab dawned gloriously bright4 ,the night had been cold1 and a heavy frost had silenced every rill from the snow-slopes above4 ,the clear1 bracing air gave us renewed energy and a firmer desire to press on4 ,mr4 ,kerr and myself made an excursion ahead1 while ,lindsley and ,crumback brought up a load of supplies from the cache left on the glacier below ,camp #aa4 ,on gaining the center of the ,marvine glacier we had a magnificent view down the broad ice-stream1 bordered on either hand by towering1 snow-laden precipices1 and changing1 as the eye followed the downward slope1 from pure white to brown and black in the distance4 ,far below we could barely discern the wooded summit of ,blossom island1 beyond which stretched the seemingly limitless ice-fields of the ,malaspina glacier4 ,all about us the white slope reflected the sunlight with painful brilliancy1 while the black moraines and forests below and the mists over the distant ocean1 made it seem as if one was looking down into a lower and darker world4 ,as we advanced toward the head of the glacier we found1 as on several subsequent occasions1 that the nearer we approached the sources of an ice-stream the easier our progress became4 ,following up the center of the glacier1 we learned that it curved toward the east2 and after an hour or two of weary tramping we reached the great amphitheatre in which it has its source4 ,all about us were rugged mountain slopes1 heavily loaded with snow1 and forming clear white cliffs from which avalanches had descended4 ,to the westward the wall of the amphitheatre was broken1 and it was apparent that we could cross its rim in that direction4 ,pressing onward up the gently ascending slope1 we came at length to a gap in the mountains bordered on the north by a towering cliff fully a thousand feet high1 and were rejoiced to find that the snow surface on the opposite side of the divide inclined westward with a grade as gentle as the one we had ascended4 ,looking far down the western snow-slope1 we could see where it joined a large glacier flowing southward past the end of the great cliffs which extended westward from the divide4 ,the glacier we saw in the valley below is designated on our map as the ,seward glacier1 in honor of ,william ,h4 ,seward1 the former ,secretary of ,state1 who negotiated the purchase of ,alaska for the ,united ,states4 #acj ,the pass we named ,pinnacle pass1 on account of the many towering pinnacles overshadowing it4 ,its elevation is about four thousand feet1 and at the summit it has a breadth of only two or three hundred feet4 ,the snow on the divide is greatly crevassed1 but a convenient snow-bridge enabled us to cross without difficulty4 ,the crevasses increased in breadth with the advance of the season1 and on returning from our mountain trip in ,september we had to climb up on the bordering cliff in order to pass the main crevasse at the summit4 ,some idea of the crevasses of this region may be obtained from the following figure1 drawn from a photograph taken on the western side of ,pinnacle pass1 not far from the summit4 ,illustration3 ,figure #e--;,crevasses on ,pinnacle ,pass2 from a ,photograph4 ,the cliff on the north of ,pinnacle pass is really a huge fault-scarp of recent date1 intersecting stratified shale1 limestone1 and conglomerate1 with a few thin coal-seams4 ,the strata dip toward the north at a high angle1 and present their broken edges in the great cliff rising above the pass4 ,the cliffs extend westward from the pass1 and retain a nearly horizontal crest line1 but increase in height and grandeur1 owing to the downward grade of the glacier along their base4 ,a mile to the westward their elevation is fully two thousand feet4 ,the cliffs throughout are #aca almost everywhere bare of snow and too steep and rugged to be scaled4 ,they form a strongly drawn boundary line in the geology of the region1 and furnish the key to the structure and geological character of an extended area4 ,all the rocks to the southward are sandstone and shale belonging to a well-defined series1 and differ materially from the rocks in the fault-scarp4 ,i have called the rocks toward the south1 the ,yakutat system1 and those exposed in the faces of the fault-scarp the ,pinnacle system4 ,directly north of ,pinnacle pass1 and at the base of ,mount ,owen1 the rocks of the ,yakutat system are exposed1 and from their position and association it is evident that they are younger than the ,pinnacle system and belong above it4 ,if these conclusions are sustained by future investigation1 they will carry with them certain deductions which are among the most remarkable in geological history4 ,on the crest of the ,pinnacle pass cliffs ,i afterwards found strata containing fossil shells and leaves belonging to species still living4 ,these records of animal and plant life show that not only were the rocks of the ,pinnacle system deposited since living species of mollusks and plants came into existence1 but that the ,yakutat system is still more recent4 ,more than this1 the upheaval of the mountains1 the formation of numerous fault-scarps1 and the origin of the glaciers1 have all occurred since ,pliocene times4 ,the discovery of ,pinnacle pass left no question as to the route to be traversed in order to reach the mountains to the westward4 ,we returned to ,camp #ab1 and the following day1 with ,crumback and ,lindsley to assist us1 advanced our camp across ,pinnacle pass and far down the western snow-slope4 ,the day we crossed the pass was bright and clear in the morning1 but clouds gathered around all the higher peaks about midday1 vanishing again at nightfall4 ,as it was desirable to occupy1 for topographic and other purposes1 a station on the top of the cliffs overlooking ,pinnacle pass1 we made an effort to reach the crest of the ridge by climbing up the steep scarp just at the divide1 where the cliffs are lowest4 ,while ,crumback returned to ,camp #ab for an additional load and ,lindsley went ahead to discover a new camping place1 ,kerr and myself1 taking the necessary instruments1 began the ascent2 but we found it exceedingly difficult4 ,the outcrops of shale in the lower portion of the cliff furnished but poor foothold1 and crumbled and broke away at every step4 ,once my companion1 losing his support1 slid slowly #acb down the slope in spite of vigorous efforts to hold on1 and a rapid descent in the yawning chasm below seemed inevitable1 when1 coming to a slightly rougher surface1 he was able to control his movements and to regain what had been lost4 ,climbing on1 we came to the base of a vertical wall of shale several hundred feet high1 and made a detour to the left where a cascade plunged down a narrow channel4 ,we ascended the bed of the stream1 which was sometimes so steep that the spray dashed over us1 and reached the base of an overhanging cliff of conglomerate composed of well-worn pebbles4 ,above this rose a cliff of snow fifty feet or more in height1 which threatened to crash down in avalanches at any moment4 ,one small avalanche did occur during the ascent1 and scattered its spray in our faces4 ,had a heavy avalanche formed1 our position would have been exceedingly dangerous2 but by taking advantage of every overhanging ledge1 and watching for the least sign of movement in the snow above1 we reached without accident a sheltered perch underneath an overhanging cliff near the base of the snow4 ,we then discovered that clouds were forming on all the high mountains1 and shreds of vapor blown over the crest of the cliff above told us that further efforts would be useless4 ,seeking a perch protected from avalanches by an overhanging cliff1 we had a splendid view far out over the sloping snow-plain toward the west and of the mountains bordering ,pinnacle pass on the south4 ,my notes written in this commanding station read as follows3 ,looking down from my perch ,i can plainly distinguish the undulations and crevasses in the broad snow-fields stretching westward from ,pinnacle pass4 ,each inequality in the rock beneath the glacier is reproduced in flowing and subdued outlines in the white surface above4 ,the positions of bosses and cliffs in the rock beneath are indicated by rounded domes and steep descents in the snow surface4 ,about the lower sides of these inequalities there are in some cases concentric blue lines and in others radiating fissures1 marking where the snow has broken in making the descent4 ,the side light shining from the eastward down the long westerly slope reveals by its delicate shading the presence of broad1 terrace-like1 transverse steps into which the stream is divided4 ,were the snow removed and the rock beneath exposed1 we should find broad terraces separated by scarps sweeping across the bed of the glacier from side to side4 ,similar terraces occur in glaciated caons in the ,rocky ,mountains and #acc the ,sierra ,nevada1 but their origin has never been explained4 ,the glacier is here at work sculpturing similar forms2 but still it is impossible to understand how the process is initiated4 ,right in front of us1 and only a mile or two away1 rise the cliffs1 spires1 and pinnacles of the ,hitchcock range4 ,every ravine and amphitheatre in the great mountain mass is deeply filled with snow1 and the sharp angular crests look as if they had been thrust up through the general covering of white4 ,the northern end of the range is clearly defined by the east-and-west fault to which ,pinnacle pass owes its origin4 ,the trend of the mighty cliffs on the southern face1 on which we have found a perch1 is at right angles to the longer axis of the ,hitchcock range1 and marks its northern terminus both topographically and geologically4 ,there is not even a suggestion of vegetation in sight4 ,the eye fails to detect a single dash of green or the glow of a single ,alpine flower anywhere on the rugged slopes4 ,a small avalanche from the snow-cliffs above1 cascading over the cliff which shelters me and only a few yards away1 tells why the precipices are so bare and desolate3 they have been swept clean by avalanches4 ,far down the western snow-slope ,i can distinguish crevasses and dirt bands in the ,seward glacier1 which flows southward past the range on which we sit4 ,the marginal crevasses along the border of the glacier can clearly be distinguished4 ,as usual1 they trend up-stream and1 meeting medial crevasses1 break the surface of the glacier into thousands of pinnacles and tables4 ,along the center of the stream there are ,v-shaped dirt bands1 separated by crevasses1 which point down-stream and give the appearance of a rapid flow to the central portion of the glacier4 ,from this distance its center has the appearance of 'watered' ribbon4 ,a little toward the south of where the medial crevasses are most numerous1 and at a locality where two opposite mountain spurs force the ice-stream through the comparatively narrow gorge1 there is evidently an ice-fall1 as the whole glacier from side to side disappears from view4 ,the appearance of ,niagara when seen from the banks of the river above the ,horseshoe falls is suggested4 ,beyond this silent cataract1 the eye ranges far out over the broad1 level surface of the ,malaspina glacier1 and traces the dark morainal ribbons streaming away for miles from the mountain spurs among which they originate4 ,from the extreme #acd southern cape of the ,samovar hills there is a highly compound moraine-belt stretching away toward the south1 and then dividing and curving both east and west4 ,the central band of dbris must be a mile broad4 ,along its eastern margin ,i can count five lesser bands separated by narrow intervals of ice1 and on the farther side similar secondary bands are suggested1 but the height of the central range almost completely conceals them from view4 ,in the distant tattered ends1 however1 their various divisions can be clearly traced4 ,great swirls in the ice are there indicated by concentric curves of dbris on its surface4 ,still farther westward there are hills rising to the height of impressive mountains1 in which northward dipping rocks1 apparently of sandstone and shale1 similar to those forming the ,hitchcock range1 are plainly distinguishable4 ,all the northern slopes of these hills are deeply buried beneath a universal covering of snow evidently hundreds of feet thick1 which is molded upon them so as to reveal every swelling dome and ravine in their rugged sides4 ,farther westward still1 beyond a dark headland apparently washed by the sea1 there are other broad ice-fields of the same general character as the ,malaspina glacier1 which stretch away for miles and miles and blend in the dim distance with the haze of the horizon4 ,just west of the ,seward glacier1 and in part forming its western shore1 there are dark1 rocky crests projecting through the universal ice mantle1 suggesting the lost mountains of ,utah and ,nevada which have become deeply buried by the dusts of the desert4 ,the character of the sharp crests beyond the ,seward glacier indicate that they are the upturned edges of fault-blocks similar to the one on which we are seated4 ,interesting geological records are there waiting an interpreter4 ,the vastness of the mountains and the snow-fields to be seen at a single glance from this point of view can scarcely be realized4 ,there are no familiar objects in sight with which to make eye-measurements2 the picture is on so grand a scale that it defies imagination's grasp4 ,searching the snow-sheet below with a field-glass1 ,i discover a minute spot on the white surface4 ,its movement1 slow but unmistakable1 assures me that it is ,lindsley returning from the site chosen for our camp to-night4 ,although apparently near at hand1 he forms but an inconspicuous speck on the vast snow-field4 #ace ,having learned all that ,i could of the geology of the cliff1 and the gathering clouds rendering it unnecessary to climb the summits above1 we descended with even more difficulty than we had encountered on our way up1 and met ,lindsley as he reached the pass4 ,resuming our packs1 we started on1 knowing that ,crumback would follow our trail2 and after two hours' hard tramping over a snow surface rendered somewhat soft by the heat of the day1 but fortunately little crevassed1 we reached the place chosen for our camp4 ,crumback soon joined us1 and we pitched our tent for the night4 ,the place chosen was on a little island of dbris1 the farthest out we could discover from the base of the great cliff on the north4 ,we judged that we should there be safe from avalanches1 although the screech and hiss of stones falling from the cliff were heard many times during the night4 ,lindsley and ,crumback1 on revisiting the site of our camp two days later1 found that a tremendous avalanche of snow and rocks had in the mean time fallen from the cliffs and ploughed its way out upon the glacier to within fifteen or twenty feet of where we had passed the night4 ,they remarked that if the avalanche had occurred while we were in camp1 our tent would not have been reached1 but that we should probably have been scared to death by the roar4 ,,first ,,full ,,view ,,of ,,st4 ,,elias4 ,leaving ,crumback and ,lindsley to make our camp as comfortable as possible1 ,kerr and ,i pressed on with the object of seeing all we could of the country ahead before the afternoon sunlight faded into twilight4 ,mount ,st4 ,elias had been shut out from view1 either by clouds or by intervening mountains1 for several days2 but it was evident that on approaching the end of the ,pinnacle pass fault-scarp we should behold it again1 and comparatively near at hand4 ,continuing down the even snow-slope1 in which there were but few crevasses1 the view became broader and broader as we advanced1 and at length the great pyramid forming the culminating summit of all the region burst into full view4 ,what a glorious sight6 ,the great mountain seemed higher and grander and more regularly proportioned than any peak ,i had ever beheld before4 ,the white plain formed by the ,seward glacier gave an even foreground1 broken by crevasses which1 lessening in perspective1 gave distance to the foot-hills forming the western #acf margin of the glacier4 ,far above the angular crest of the ,samovar hills in the middle distance towered ,st4 ,elias1 sharp and clear against the evening sky4 ,midway up the final slope a thin1 horizontal bar of gray clouds was delicately penciled4 ,through the meshes of the fairy scarf shone the yellow sunset sky4 ,the strong outlines of the rugged mountain1 which had withstood centuries of storms and earthquakes1 were softened and glorified by the breath of the summer winds1 chilled as they kissed its crystal slopes4 ,could ,i give to the reader a tithe of the impressions that such a view suggests1 they would declare that painters had never shown them mountains1 but only hills4 ,so majestic was ,st4 ,elias1 with the halo of the sunset about his brow1 that other magnificent peaks now seen for the first time or more fully revealed than ever before1 although worthy the respect and homage of the most experienced mountain-climber1 scarcely received a second glance4 ,returning to camp1 we passed the night1 and the following day1 ,august #f1 advanced our camp to the eastern border of the ,seward glacier at the extreme western end of the upturned crest forming the northern wall of ,pinnacle pass4 ,the western end of the ,pinnacle pass cliff is turned abruptly northward1 and the rocks dip eastward at a high angle1 showing1 together with other conditions1 that the end of the ridge is determined by a cross-fault running northeast and southwest4 ,west of the ,seward glacier there is a continuation of the ,pinnacle-pass cliff1 but it is greatly out of line4 ,the position of the ,seward glacier1 in this portion of its course1 was determined by the fault which broke the alignment of the main displacement4 ,many facts of similar nature show that the glaciers of the ,st4 ,elias region have had their courses determined1 to a large extent1 by the faults which have given the region its characteristic structure3 the ice drainage is consequent to the structure of the underlying rocks2 the glaciers not only did not originate the channels in which they flow1 but have failed to greatly modify them4 ,camp #ad was on a sharp crest of limestone1 conglomerate1 and shale belonging to the ,pinnacle system1 which was not over ten feet broad where our tent was pitched4 ,east of our tent there was a broad1 upward sloping snow-plain banked against the precipitous base of a hill about a thousand feet high4 ,at the edge of the snow1 within three feet of our tent1 there was a pond #acg of clear water1 seemingly placed there for our special use4 ,the western edge of our tent was at the margin of a cliff about a hundred feet high1 overlooking the ,seward glacier4 ,we held this camp for several days and reccupied it on our return from ,st4 ,elias4 ,,summit ,,of ,,pinnacle ,,pass ,,cliffs4 ,from ,camp #ad ,crumback returned to ,blossom island1 and ,stamy took his place4 ,word from ,christie assured me that supplies would be advanced to ,blossom island1 and that our cache on the ,marvine glacier would be renewed4 ,stamy's arrival was especially welcome for the reason that he brought letters from dear ones far away1 which had been forwarded from ,sitka by a trading schooner that chanced to visit ,yakutat bay4 ,while the camp hands were busy in bringing up fresh supplies1 ,kerr and ,i occupied two stations on the summit of the ,pinnacle pass cliffs4 ,one of these was on a butte at the western end of the ridge and just above our camp2 the other was on the crest of the main line of cliffs almost directly above ,pinnacle pass1 at an elevation of #e1jjj feet4 ,each of the stations embraced magnificent views1 extending from the outer margin of the ,malaspina glacier to the crest of the ,st4 ,elias range4 ,the station on the butte near camp was occupied several times1 and proved to be a most convenient and commanding point for study of the geography1 geology1 and distribution of glacier over a wide area4 ,on account of the splendid view obtained from the top we named it ,point ,glorious4 ,its elevation is #c1ejj feet4 ,one of the days on which we occupied ,point ,glorious was especially remarkable on account of the clearness and freshness of the air and the sharpness with which each peak and snow-crest stood out against the deep-blue heavens4 ,we left our camp early in the morning1 and spent several hours on the summit4 ,on our way up we found several large patches of ,alpine flowers and1 under a tussock of moss1 a soft1 warm nest just abandoned by a mother ptarmigan with her brood of little ones4 ,one hundred feet higher we came to the borders of the snow-field which covered all of the upper slopes except a narrow crest of sandstone at the top4 ,the ,seward glacier1 sweeping down from the northeast1 curves about the base of ,point ,glorious and flows on southward4 ,its surface has the appearance of a wide frozen river4 ,toward the #ach east of our station there was a broad1 level-floored amphitheatre1 bounded on the south by the cliffs of ,pinnacle pass and on the east by long snow-slopes which stretch up the gorges in the side of ,mount ,cook4 ,the amphitheatre opens toward the northwest1 and discharges its accumulated snows into the ,seward glacier4 ,beyond this1 on the north1 stood the great curtain-wall named the ,corwin cliffs1 west of which rose ,mount ,eaton1 ,mount ,augusta1 ,mount ,malaspina1 and other giant summits of the main ,st4 ,elias range4 ,toward the west the view culminated in ,st4 ,elias itself1 ruggedly outlined against the sky4 ,as the reader will become more and more familiar with the magnificent scenery of the ,st4 ,elias region as we advance1 it need not be described in detail at this time4 ,all day the skies were clear and bright1 giving abundant opportunity for making a detailed survey of the principal features in view1 and for reading the history written in cliffs and glaciers4 ,when the long summer day drew to a close1 we returned to our tent and watched the great peaks become dim and generalized in outline as the twilight deepened4 ,the fading light caused the mountains to recede farther and farther1 until at last they seemed ghostly giants1 too far away to be definitely recognized4 ,with the twilight came soft1 gray1 uncertain clouds drawn slowly and silently about the rugged precipices by the summer winds from the sea4 ,st4 ,elias became enveloped in luminous clouds1 with the exception of a few hundred feet of the shining summit2 and a glory in the sky1 to the left of the veiled ,saint1 marked the place where the sun went down4 ,the shadows crept across the snow-fields and changed them from dazzling white to a soft gray-blue4 ,night came on silently1 and with but little change4 ,there was no folding of wings2 no twittering of birds in leafy branches2 no sighing of winds among rustling leaves4 ,all was stern and wild and still2 there was not a touch of life to relieve the desolation4 ,a midwinter night in inhabited lands was never more solemn4 ,man had never rested there before4 ,the air grew chill when the shadows crossed our tent1 and delicate ice crystals began to shoot on the still surface of our little pond4 ,we bade good night to the stern peaks1 about which there were signs of a coming storm1 and sought the shelter of our tent4 ,small and comfortless as was that shelter1 it shut out the wintry scene and afforded a welcome retreat4 ,sound1 refreshing sleep1 with dreams of loved ones far away1 renewed our strength for another advance4 #aci ,the next day1 ,august #h1 a topographic station was occupied on the summit of the ,pinnacle pass cliffs4 ,we were astir before sunrise1 and had breakfast over before four o'clock4 ,the morning was cold1 and a cutting wind swept down the ,seward glacier from the northeast4 ,all of the mountains were lost to view in dense clouds4 ,a few rays of sunshine breaking through the vapor banks above ,point ,glorious gave promise of better weather during the day4 ,lindsley and ,stamy had not yet returned from the lower camp1 where they were to obtain additional rations2 and ,kerr and ,i concluded to try to reach the crest of the ,pinnacle pass cliffs and take the chances of the weather being favorable for our work4 ,leaving camp in the early morning light1 we chose to climb over the summit of ,point ,glorious rather than thread the crevasses at its northern base4 ,reaching the top of the point1 we were still beneath the low canopy of clouds1 and could see far up the great amphitheatre to the base of ,mount ,owen4#ca ,descending the eastern slope1 we soon reached the floor of the amphitheatre1 and found the snow smooth and hard and not greatly crevassed4 ,cheered by faint promise of blue skies1 we pressed on rapidly1 the snow creaking beneath our tread as on a winter morning4 ,two or three hours of rapid walking brought us to the southern wall of the amphitheatre1 nearly beneath the point we wished to occupy4 ,as we ascended the slope the way became more difficult1 owing not only to its steepness but also to the fact that the snow was softening1 and also because great crevasses crossed our path4 ,looking back over the snow we had crossed1 two well-characterized features on its surface could be distinguished3 these were large areas with a gray tint1 caused by a covering of dust4 ,this dust comes from the southern faces of the ,pinnacle pass cliffs1 and is blown over the crest of the ridge and scattered far and wide over the snow-fields toward the north4 ,should the dust-covered areas become buried beneath fresh snow1 it is evident that the strata of snow would be separated by thin layers of darker color4 ,this is what has happened many times1 as we could see by looking down into the crevasses4 ,in one deep gulf ,i counted five distinct strata of clear white snow1 separated by narrow dust-bands4 ,in other instances there are twenty or more such strata visible4 ,each layer is evidently the record of a snow-storm1 while the dust-bands indicate intervals of fine weather4 #adj ,the strata of snow exposed to view in the crevasses1 after being greatly compressed1 are usually from ten to fifteen feet thick1 but in one instance exceeded fifty feet4 ,if we assume that each layer represents a winter's snow1 and that compression has reduced each stratum to a third of its original thickness 7and probably the compression has been greater than this71 it is evident that the fresh snows must sometimes reach the depth of from #ej to #aej feet4 ,footnote #ca3 ,named for ,david ,dale ,owen1 ,united ,states geologist4 ,toiling on up the snow-slope1 we had to wind in and out among deep crevasses1 sometimes crossing them by narrow snow-bridges1 and again jumping them and plunging our alpenstocks deep in the snow when we reached the farther side4 ,after many windings we reached the summit of the ,pinnacle-pass cliffs4 ,the crest-line is formed of an outcrop of conglomerate composed of sand and pebbles1 in one layer of which ,i found large quantities of mussel shells standing in the position in which the creatures lived4 ,the present elevation of this ancient sea-bottom is #e1jjj feet4 ,the strata incline northward at angles of #cj to #dj4 ,all of the northern slope of the ridge is deeply covered with snow1 and the rock only appears along the immediate crest4 ,there are1 in fact1 two crests1 as is common with many mountain ridges in this region1 one of rock and the second of snow2 the snow crest1 which is usually the higher1 is parallel to the rock crest and a few rods north of it4 ,in the valley between the two ridges we found secure footing1 and ascended with ease to the highest point on the cliffs4 ,looking over the southern or rocky crest1 we found a sheer descent of about #a1ejj feet to the snow-fields below4 ,the clouds diminished in density and gradually broke away1 so that the entire extent of the ,st4 ,elias range was in view1 with the exception of the crowning peak of all1 which was still veiled from base to summit4 ,a spur of ,st4 ,elias1 extending southward from the main peak1 and named ,the ,chariot1 gleamed brightly in the sunlight4 ,it was the first point on which we made observations4 ,stretching eastward from ,st4 ,elias is the sharp crest of the main range1 on which stand ,mounts ,newton1 ,jeannette1 ,malaspina1 ,augusta1 ,logan1 and several other splendid peaks not yet named4 ,just to the right of ,mount ,augusta1 on the immediate border of the ,seward glacier1 rise the ,corwin cliffs1 marking an immense fault-scarp of the same general character as the one on which we stood4 #ada ,mr4 ,kerr endeavored at first to occupy a station on the crest of the rocky ridge1 but as the steepness of the slope and the shattered condition of the rock rendered the station hazardous1 the snow-ridge1 which was covered with dust and sand and nearly as firm as rock1 was occupied instead4 ,the clouds parting toward the northeast revealed several giant peaks not before seen1 some of which seem to rival in height ,st4 ,elias itself4 ,one stranger1 rising in three white domes far above the clouds1 was especially magnificent4 ,as this was probably the first time its summit was ever seen1 we took the liberty of giving it a name4 ,it will appear on our maps as ,mount ,logan1 in honor of ,sir ,william ,e4 ,logan1 founder and long director of the ,geological ,survey of ,canada4 ,the clouds grew denser in the east1 and shut off all hope of extending the map-work in that direction4 ,while ,kerr was making topographic sketches ,i tried to decipher some of the geological history of the region around me and make myself more familiar with its glaciers and snow-fields4 ,even more remarkable than the mighty peaks toward the north1 beheld that day for the first time1 was the vast plateau of ice stretching seaward from the foot of the mountains4 ,from my station what seemed to be the ocean's shore near ,icy bay could just be distinguished4 ,beyond the bay there is a group of hills which come boldly down to the sea1 and apparently form a sea-cliff at the water's edge4 ,beyond this headland there is another vast glacier extending westward to the limits of vision4 ,the view from this point is essentially the same as that obtained from the cliffs at ,pinnacle pass a few days earlier1 except that it is far more extended4 ,it need not be described in detail4 ,the clouds becoming thicker and settling in dark masses about the mountains1 we gave up all hope of further work and started for our camp4 ,on the way down the ridge between the crest of snow and the crest of rock we found a stratum of sandstone filled with fossil leaves1 and near at hand another layer charged with very recent sea-shells4 ,collecting all of these that we could carry1 we trudged on1 finding the snow soft and some of the bridges which we had easily crossed in the morning now weak1 trembling1 and insecure4 ,we crossed them safely1 however1 and1 reaching the level floor of the amphitheatre1 marched wearily on toward ,point ,glorious4 ,this time we passed along the northern base of the butte at an elevation of two or three hundred feet #adb above the glacier1 and1 taking a convenient slide down the snow-slope1 reached our tent4 ,soon a delicious cup of coffee was prepared1 bacon was fried1 and these were put in a warm place while some griddle cakes were being baked4 ,a warm supper1 followed by a restful pipe1 ended the day4 ,kerr and ,i were our own cooks and our own housekeepers during much of the time we lived above the snow-line4 ,we cleared away the remains of the supper1 and prepared our blankets for the night4 ,one of the huge ice pinnacles on the glacier fell with a great crash just as we were turning in4 ,rain began to fall1 and the night was cold and disagreeable2 how it passed ,i do not know1 as ,i slept soundly4 ,scarcely anything less serious than the blowing away of our tent could have awakened me4 ,,across ,,seward ,,glacier ,,to ,,dome ,,pass4 ,stormy weather and the necessity of bringing additional supplies from ,blossom island detained us at ,camp #ad until ,august #ac4 ,we rose at three o'clock on the morning of that day1 and1 after a hasty breakfast1 prepared to cross the ,seward glacier4 ,the morning was cold but clear1 and the air was bracing4 ,each peak and mountain crest in the rugged landscape stood out boldly in the early light1 although the sun had not risen4 ,soon the summit of ,st4 ,elias became tipped with gold1 and then peak after peak1 in order of their rank1 caught the radiance1 and in a short time the vast snow-fields were of dazzling splendor4 ,the frost of the night before had hardened the snow1 which made walking a pleasure4 ,we crossed a rocky spur projecting northward from ,point ,glorious into the ,seward glacier1 and had to lower our packs down the side of the precipice with the aid of ropes4 ,our course led at first up the border of the great glacier to a point above the head of the rapids already referred to1 then curved to the westward1 and for a mile or two coincided with the general trend of the crevasses4 ,we made good progress1 but at length we came to where the ,augusta glacier pours its flood of ice into the main stream and1 owing to its high grade1 is greatly broken4 ,skirting this difficult area1 we passed a number of small blue lakelets and reached the western border of the ,seward glacier4 ,we found a gently rising snow-slope leading westward through a gap that could be seen in hills a few miles in advance4 ,but little difficulty was now experienced1 except that the snow #adc had become soft under the summer's sun1 and walking over it with heavy loads was wearisome in the extreme4 ,we could see1 however1 that the way ahead was clear1 and that encouraged us to push on4 ,toward night we found a camping place on a steep ridge of shale and sandstone projecting eastward from a spur of ,mount ,malaspina4 ,this ridge rises about five hundred feet above the surrounding glacier1 and has steep roof-like slopes4 ,the summer sun had melted nearly all the snow from its southern face1 but the northern slope was still heavily loaded4 ,the snow on the northern side stood some thirty or forty feet higher than the rocky crest of the ridge itself1 and between the rock crest and the snow crest there was a little valley which afforded ample shelter for our tent and was quite safe from avalanches4 ,the melting of the snow-bank during the warm days supplied us with water4 ,the formation of crests of snow standing high above the rocky ridges on which they rest is a peculiar and interesting feature of the mountains of the ,st4 ,elias region4 ,a north-and-south section through the ridge on which ,camp #ae was situated1 exhibiting the double crests1 one of rock and the other of snow1 is shown at a in figure #f4 b is a section through a similar ridge with a still higher snow crest4 ,the remaining figures in the illustration are sketches of mountain peaks1 as seen from the south1 which have been increased in height by a heavy accumulation of snow on their northern slopes4 ,these sketches are of peaks among the foothills of ,mount ,malaspina1 and show snow pinnacles from fifty to more than a hundred feet high4 ,in some instances1 domes and crests of snow were seen along the western sides of the ridges and peaks1 but as a rule these snow-tips on the mountains are confined to their northern slopes4 ,the edges and summits of the snow-ridges are sharply defined and clearly cut4 ,the southern slope exposed above the crest of rock is often concave1 while the northern slopes are usually convex4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #f--,snow ,crests on ,ridges and ,peaks2 from ,field ,sketches4 ,in climbing steep ridges the double crests are frequently of great assistance4 ,safe footing may frequently be found in the channels between the crests of rock and snow1 by the aid of which #add very precipitous peaks may be climbed with ease4 ,in case the ascent between the two crests is not practicable1 the even snow-slope itself affords a sure footing for one used to mountain climbing4 ,after establishing ,camp #ae1 ,lindsley and ,stamy returned to one of the lower camps for additional supplies1 while ,kerr and ,i explored a way for farther advance4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ah4 ,,hitchcock ,,range1 ,,from ,,near ,,dome ,,pass4 ,our camp occupied a commanding situation4 ,from the end of the ridge on which it was located there was a splendid view of glaciers and mountains to the eastward4 ,the illustration forming plate #ah is from a photograph taken from that station4 ,toward the north1 and only a few miles away1 rose the bare1 rugged slope of ,mount ,malaspina4 ,in a wild1 high-grade gorge on its western side1 a glacier1 all pinnacles and crevasses1 tumbles down into the broad white plain below4 ,on account of its splendid ice-fall this was named the ,cascade glacier4 ,beyond the white plain1 stretching eastward for fifteen or twenty miles1 there rise the foothills of ,mount ,cook4 ,farther south1 the rugged1 angular summits of the ,hitchcock range are in full view1 and toward the north stands ,mount ,irving1#cb which rivals even ,mount ,cook in the symmetrical proportions of its snow-covered slopes4 ,footnote #cb3 ,named in honor of ,professor ,roland ,duer ,irving1 ,u4 ,s4 geologist4 ,the surface of the vast snow-plain near at hand is gashed by many gaping fissures1 but the distance is so great that these minor details disappear in a general view4 ,looking down over the snow1 one may see the crevasses as in a diagram4 ,they look as if the white surface had been gashed with a sharp knife1 and then stretched in such a way as to open the cuts4 ,that the snow of the nvs may be stretched1 at least to a limited extent1 is shown by the character of these fissures4 ,the crevasses are widest in the center and come to a point at their curving extremities4 ,two crevasses frequently overlap at their ends and leave a sliver of ice stretching across diagonally between them4 ,it is by means of these diagonal bridges that one is enabled to thread his way through the crevasses4 ,on returning to camp in the evening1 weary with a hard day's climb1 a never-failing source of delight was found in the matchless winter landscape to the eastward4 ,the evenings following days of uninterrupted sunshine were especially delightful4 ,the blue shadows of the western peaks creeping across the shining surface were nearly as sharp in outline as the peaks that cast #ade them4 ,when the chill of evening made itself felt1 and the dropping water and the indefinite murmurs from the glacier below were stilled1 the silence became oppressive4 ,the stillness was so profound that it seemed as though the footsteps of the advancing shadows should be audible4 ,on warm sunny days1 however1 there are noises enough amid the mountains4 ,the snow1 partially melted and softened by the heat1 falls from the cliffs in avalanches that make the mountains tremble and1 with a roar like thunder1 awaken the echoes far and near4 ,during our stay at ,camp #ae the avalanches were sometimes so frequent on the steep mountain faces toward the north that the roar of one falling mass of snow and rocks was scarcely hushed before it was succeeded by another4 ,on the southward-facing cliffs of ,mount ,augusta1 composed of schist which disintegrates rapidly1 there are frequent rock avalanches4 ,a rock or a mass of comminuted schist sometimes breaks away even in midday1 although these avalanches occur most frequently when the moisture in the rocks freezes4 ,the midday avalanches1 ,i fancy1 may be started by the expansion of the rocks owing to the sun's heat4 ,a few stones dislodged high up on the cliffs fall1 and1 loosening others in their descent1 soon set in motion a train of dirt and stones1 which flows down the steep ravines with a long rumbling roar1 at the same time sending clouds of dust into the air4 ,if the wind is blowing up the cliffs1 as frequently happens on warm days1 the dust is carried far above the mountains1 and hangs in the air like clouds of smoke4 ,it has been frequently stated that ,st4 ,elias is a volcano1 and sea captains sailing on the ,pacific have seen what they supposed to be smoke issuing from its summit4 ,as its southern face is composed of the same kind of rocks and is of the same precipitous nature as the southern slope of ,mount ,augusta1 it appears probable that what was supposed to be volcanic smoke was in reality avalanche dust blown upward by ascending air currents4 ,the disintegration of the mountain summits all through the ,st4 ,elias region is so great that one constantly wonders that anything is left2 yet1 except late in the fall1 the snow surfaces at the bases of even the steepest cliffs are mostly bare of dbris4 ,the absence of earth and stones on the surfaces of the nv fields is mainly due1 of course1 to the fact that these are regions of accumulation where the winter's snow exceeds the summer's melting4 #adf ,thus each year the surface is renewed and made fresh and clean1 and any dbris that may have previously accumulated is concealed4 ,there is another reason1 however1 why but little dbris is found at the bases of the steep precipices4 ,the snows of winter are banked high against these walls1 but when the rocks are warmed by the return of the summer's sun the snow near their dark surfaces is melted1 and leaves a deep gulf between the upward-sloping banks of snow and the sides of the cliffs4 ,these black chasms are frequently #aej or #bjj feet deep1 and receive all the dbris that falls from above4 ,in this way very large quantities of earth and stones are injected1 as it were1 into the glacier1 and only come to light again far down toward the ends of the ice-streams1 where the summer's melting exceeds the winter's supply4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ai4 ,,mt4 ,,st4 ,,elias1 ,,from ,,dome ,,pass4 ,on ,august #ad1 ,kerr and ,i made an excursion ahead to the border of the ,agassiz glacier4 ,the snow-slope south of our camp led westward up a gentle grade to a gap in the hills between two bold1 snow-covered domes4 ,the gap through which the snow extended1 uniting with a broad snow-field sloping westward1 was only a few hundred feet wide1 and formed a typical mountain pass1 designated on our map as ,dome pass4 ,its elevation is #d1cjj feet4 ,when near the summit of the pass a few steps carried us past the divide of snow1 and revealed to our eager eyes the wonderland beyond4 ,st4 ,elias rose majestically before us1 unobstructed by intervening hills1 and bare of clouds from base to summit4 ,we were greatly encouraged by the prospect ahead1 as there were evidently no obstacles between us and the actual base of the mountain4 ,a photograph of the magnificent peak was taken1 from which the illustration forming plate #ai has been drawn4 ,to the right of the main mountain mass1 as shown in the illustration1 rises ,mount ,newton1#cc one of the many separate mountain peaks crowning the crest of the ,st4 ,elias range4 ,our way led down the snow-slope in the foreground to the border of the ,agassiz glacier1 which comes in view between the foot-hills in the middle distance and the sculptured base on which the crowning pyramid of ,st4 ,elias stands4 ,after reaching the ,agassiz glacier we turned to the right1 and made our way to the #adg amphitheatre lying between ,mount ,st4 ,elias and ,mount ,newton4 ,on the day we discovered ,dome pass1 we pressed on down the western snow-slope and reached the side of the ,agassiz glacier1 which we found greatly crevassed2 selecting a camping place on a rocky spur1 we returned to ,camp #ae1 and two days later established camp at the place chosen4 ,footnote #cc3 ,named for ,henry ,newton1 formerly of the ,school of ,mines of ,columbia college and author of a report on the geology of the ,black hills of ,dakota4 ,camp #af was similar in many ways to ,camp #ad4 ,it had about the same altitude2 it was at the western end of a rugged mountain spur1 and on the immediate border of a large southward-flowing glacier4 ,on the lower portions of the cliffs1 near at hand1 there were velvety patches of brilliant ,alpine flowers mingled with thick bunches of wiry grass and clumps of delicate ferns4 ,most conspicuous of all the showy plants1 so bright and lovely in the vast wilderness of snow1 were the purple lupines4 ,already the flowers on the lower portions of their spikes had matured1 and pods covered with a thick coating of wooly hairs were beginning to be conspicuous4 ,there are no bees and butterflies in these isolated gardens1 but brown flies with long-pointed wings were abundant4 ,a gray bird1 a little larger than a sparrow1 was seen flitting in and out of crevasses near the border of the ice1 apparently in quest of insects4 ,once1 while stretched at full length on the flowery carpet enjoying the warm sunlight1 a humming bird flashed past me4 ,occasionally the hoarse cries of ravens were heard among the cliffs1 but they seldom ventured near enough to be seen4 ,these few suggestions were all there was to remind us of the summer fields and shady forests in far-away lands4 ,,up ,,the ,,agassiz ,,glacier4 ,from ,camp #af ,kerr and ,i made an excursion across the ,agassiz glacier1 while ,stamy and ,lindsley returned to a lower camp for additional supplies4 ,we found the glacier greatly crevassed and the way across more difficult than on any of the ice-fields we had previously traversed2 but by dint of perseverance1 and after many changes in our course1 we succeeded at last in reaching the western bank1 and saw that by climbing a precipice bordering an ice-cascade we could gain a plateau above1 which we knew from previous observations to be comparatively little broken4 ,we returned to camp1 and on ,august #ah began the ascent of the glacier in earnest4 ,we were favored in the task by brilliant weather4 #adh ,after reaching the western bank of the glacier1 we made our way to the base of the precipice up which we had previously wished to climb4 ,in order to reach it1 however1 we had to throw our packs across a crevasse over which there was no bridge1 and followed them by jumping4 ,the side of the crevasse from which we sprang was higher than its opposite lip1 and left us very uncertain as to how we were to return2 but that was a matter for the future2 our aim at the time was to ascend the glacier1 and the return was of no immediate concern4 ,reaching the base of the cliff at the side of the glacier1 we ascended it without great difficulty1 and came out upon the broad plateau of snow above4 ,thinking that the way onward would be easier along the steep snow-slope bordering the glacier1 we made an effort to ascend in that direction1 and spent two or three precious hours in trying to find a practicable route4 ,although the crevasses were fewer than on the glacier proper1 yet they were of larger size and had but few bridges4 ,at last we came to a wide gulf on the opposite side of which there was a perpendicular wall of snow a hundred feet high1 and all further advance in that direction was stopped4 ,although obliged to turn back1 our elevated position commanded a good view of the glacier below and enabled us to choose a way through the maze of crevasses crossing it4 ,descending1 we plodded wearily on in an irregular zigzag course2 but the crevasses became broader and deeper as we advanced1 and at length we found ourselves traversing flat table-like blocks of snow1 bounded on all sides by crevasses so deep that their bottoms were lost to view4 ,we made our way from one snow-table to another by jumping the crevasses where they were narrowest1 or by frail snow-bridges spanning the profound gulfs4 ,night came on while we were yet in this wild1 broken region1 and no choice was left us but to pitch our tent in the snow and wait until morning4 ,the night was clear and cold1 and a firm crust formed on the snow before morning4 ,although the temperature was uncomfortable1 we were cheered by the prospects of a firm snow surface on the morrow4 ,we continued our march at sunrise and found the walking easy2 but the sun soon came out with unusual brilliancy and softened the snow so much that even the slowest movements were fatiguing4 ,we endeavored to force our way up the center of the glacier through the crevasses and pinnacles of a second ice-fall2 but after several hours of exhausting experience we were #adi obliged to change our plan1 and endeavored to reach a mountain spur projecting from the western border of the glacier4 ,the sunlight reflected from the snow was extremely brilliant1 and the glare from every surface about us was painful to our eyes1 already weakened by many days' travel over the white snow4 ,each member of the party was provided with colored glasses1 but in traversing snow-bridges and jumping crevasses these had to be dispensed with4 ,the result was that all of us were suffering more or less from snow-blindness4 ,about noon we reached the base of the mountain spur toward which our course was bent4 ,it projects into the western border of ,agassiz glacier4 ,it is the extension of this cliff underneath the glacier that caused the ice-fall which blocked our way4 ,to go round the end of the cliff with our packs was impracticable1 but there seemed a way up the face of the cliff itself1 which one could scale by taking advantage of the joints in the rocks4 ,i ascended the snow-slope to the base of the precipice1 but found the way upward more difficult than anticipated2 and1 as the light was very painful to my eyes when not protected by colored glasses1 ,i decided to postpone making the climb until ,i was in better condition1 and in the meantime to see if some other route could not be found4 ,we decided to camp on a small patch of dbris near the base of the cliff1 and there left our loads4 ,kerr and ,lindsley1 taking a rope and alpenstocks1 went around the end of the rocky spur and worked their way upward with great difficulty to the top of the cliff immediately above where ,i had essayed to climb it4 ,a rope was made fast at the top1 and our way onward was secured4 ,this place was afterward called ,rope cliff4 ,the remainder of the afternoon ,i rested in the tent1 with my eyes bound up with tea-leaves1 and when evening came found the pain in my head much relieved4 ,our tent that night was so near the brink of a crevasse that in order to stay the tent one end of the ridge-rope was made fast to a large stone1 which was lowered into the gulf to serve as a stake4 ,above us rose a precipice nearly a thousand feet high1 from which stones were constantly falling2 but a deep black gulf intervened between the position we had chosen and the base of the cliffs1 and into this the stones were precipitated4 ,not one of the falling fragments reached the edge of the snow slope on which we were camped1 but many times during the night we heard the whiz and hum of the rocks as they shot down from the cliffs4 #aej ,the noise made by each fragment in its passage through the air increased rapidly in pitch1 thus indicating that they were approaching us2 but they always fell short of our camp4 ,the bombardment from above was most active just after the shadows fell on the cliffs1 showing that the stones were loosened by the freezing of the water in the interstices of the rock4 ,the next day1 ,august #bj1 ,stamy and ,lindsley went back to ,camp #af for more rations1 while ,kerr and ,i remained at ,camp #ah nursing our eyes and resting4 ,the day passed without anything worthy of note1 except the almost constant thunder of avalanches on the mountains4 ,about sunset a dense fog spread over the wintry landscape and threatened to delay the return of the men4 ,when the sun went down1 however1 the temperature fell several degrees1 the mist vanished1 and a few stars came out clear and bright4 ,just as we were about to despair of seeing the men that night we heard a distant shout announcing their return4 ,we had a cup of hot coffee for them when they reached the tent1 which they drank with eagerness2 but they were too tired to partake of food4 ,rolling themselves in their blankets1 they were asleep in a few minutes4 ,,camp ,,on ,,the ,,newton ,,glacier4 ,on ,august #ba we climbed the cliff above ,camp #ah by means of the rope already placed there1 and found the snow above greatly crevassed4 ,we traveled upward along the steep slope bordering the glacier1 but soon came to a deep crevasse which forbade further progress in that direction4 ,returning to a lower level1 we undertook to smooth off an extremely narrow snow-bridge so as to make it wide enough to cross1 but found the undertaking so hazardous that we abandoned it4 ,by this time it was midday1 and we prepared a cup of hot coffee before renewing our attack on the cliffs4 ,after luncheon and a short rest1 feeling very much refreshed1 we began to cut a series of steps in a bluff of snow about fifty feet high1 and made rapid progress in the undertaking4 ,after an hour's hard work one of us reached the top and1 planting an alpenstock deep in the snow1 lowered a rope to those below4 ,the packs were drawn up one at a time and we were soon ready to advance again4 ,we found ourselves in a vast amphitheatre bounded on all sides excepting that from which we had come with rugged1 #aea snow-covered precipices4 ,the plain was crossed by huge crevasses1 some of which were fully a mile in length2 but by traveling around their ends or crossing snow-bridges we slowly worked our way onward toward ,st4 ,elias4 ,threading our way through the labyrinth of yawning gulfs1 we at last1 after the sun had gone down behind the great pyramid toward the west1 found a convenient place on the snow1 near a blue pond of water1 on which to pass the night4 ,everything was snow-covered in the vast landscape except the most precipitous cliffs1 and these were dangerous to approach1 owing to the avalanches that frequently fell from them4 ,the weather continued fine4 ,the night was clear and the stars were unusually brilliant4 ,everything seemed favorable for pushing on4 ,the way ahead presented such even snow-slopes and seemed so free from crevasses that we decided to leave our tent and blankets in the morning and1 taking with us as little as possible of impedimenta1 endeavor to reach the summit of ,st4 ,elias4 ,,highest ,,point ,,reached4 ,rising at three o'clock on the morning of ,august #bb1 we started for the summit of ,st4 ,elias1 taking with us only our water-proof coats1 some food1 and the necessary instruments4 ,the higher mountain summits were no longer clearly defined1 but in the early light it was impossible to tell whether or not the day was to be fair4 ,from the highest and sharpest peaks1 cloud banners were streaming off towards the southeast1 showing that the higher air currents were in rapid movement4 ,vapor banks in the east were flushed with long streamers of light as the sun rose1 but soon faded to a dull ashen gray1 while the cloud banners between us and the sun became brilliant like the halo seen around the moon when the sky is covered with fleecy clouds4 ,this was the first time in my experience that ,i had seen colored banners waving from the mountain tops4 ,we found the snow-surface hard1 and made rapid headway up the glacier4 ,our only difficulty was the uncertainty of the early light1 which rendered it impossible to tell the slope of the uneven snow-surfaces4 ,the light was so evenly diffused that there were no shadows4 ,the rare beauty of that silent1 wintry landscape1 so delicate in its pearly half tones and so softly lighted1 was unreal and fairy-like4 ,the winds were still2 but #aeb strange forebodings of coming changes filled the air4 ,long1 waving threads of vapor were woven in lace-work across the sky2 the white-robed mountains were partially concealed by cloud-masses drifting like spirits along their mighty battlements2 and far1 far above1 from the topmost pinnacles1 irised banners were signaling the coming of a storm4 ,we made rapid progress1 but early in the day came to the base of a heavy cloud bank which enshrouded all the upper part of ,st4 ,elias4 ,then snow began to fall1 and it was evident that to proceed farther would be rash and without promise of success4 ,after twenty days of fatigue and hardship since leaving ,blossom island1 with our goal almost reached1 we were obliged to turn back4 ,hoping to be able to renew the attempt after the storm had passed1 ,mr4 ,kerr left his instruments on the snow between two huge crevasses and we returned to our tent1 where we passed the remainder of the day and the night following4 ,the snow continued to fall throughout the day1 and the storm increased in force as night came on4 ,when we awoke in the morning the tempest was still raging4 ,we were in the midst of the storm-cloud2 the dense vapor and the fine drifting snow-crystals swept along by the wind obscured everything from view2 the white snow surface could not be distinguished from the vapor-filled air2 there was no earth and no sky2 we seemed to be suspended in a white1 translucent medium which surrounded us like a shroud4 ,the snow was already more than three feet deep about our tent1 and to remain longer with the short supply of provisions on hand was exceedingly hazardous1 as there seemed no limit to the duration of the storm4 ,a can of rations had been left at ,rope cliff1 and we decided to return to that place if possible4 ,resuming our packs1 we roped ourselves together and began to descend through the blinding mist and snow which rendered the atmosphere so dense that a man could not be distinguished at a distance of a hundred feet4 ,with only an occasional glimpse of the white cliff around to guide us1 we worked our way downward over snow-bridges and between the crevasses4 ,our ascent through this dangerous region had been slow and difficult1 but our descent was still more tedious4 ,all day long we continued to creep slowly along through the blinding storm1 and as night approached believed ourselves near the steps cut in a snow-cliff during the ascent1 but darkness came before we reached them4 ,shoveling the snow away as best we could with our hands and #aec basins1 we cleared a place down to the old snow large enough for our tent and went into camp4 ,in the morning1 ,august #bd1 the storm had spent its force and left the mountains with an immaculate covering1 but still partially veiled by shreds of storm-clouds4 ,we found ourselves on one of the many tables of snow1 bounded on all sides by crevasses of great depth1 but not far from the snow-cliff where we had cut steps4 ,the steps were obliterated by the new snow1 but by means of a rope and alpenstocks we made the descent without much difficulty4 ,the last man to go down1 not having the help of the rope1 used two alpenstocks1 and descended by first planting one firmly in the snow and lowering himself as far as he could1 still retaining a firm hold1 and then planting the other in the snow at a lower level and removing the higher one4 ,by slowly and carefully repeating this operation he descended the cliff safely and rejoined his companions4 ,passing on beneath the cliffs1 dangerous on account of avalanches1 we reached in safety the precipice where we had left our rope4 ,a heavy avalanche had swept down from the heights above during our absence and sent its spray over the precipice we had to descend4 ,the cliff of ice towering above the place where our rope was fastened had become greatly melted and honey-combed1 and threatened every moment to crash down and destroy any one who chanced to be beneath4 ,to stand above the precipice in the shadow of the treacherous snow-cliffs while the men were descending the rope was exceedingly trying to one's nerves2 but the avalanches did not come1 and the previous camping place below ,rope cliff was reached with safety4 ,the following day1 ,august #be1 after some consultation1 it was decided to once more attempt to reach the top of ,mount ,st4 ,elias4 ,lindsley and ,stamy1 who had shared without complaint our privations in the snow1 volunteered to descend to a lower camp for additional rations1 while ,kerr and myself returned to the higher camp in the hope that we might be able to ascend the peak before the men returned1 and1 if not1 to have sufficient rations when they did rejoin us to continue the attack4 ,the men departed on their difficult errand1 while ,kerr and ,i1 with blankets1 tents1 oil-stoves1 and what rations remained1 once more scaled the cliff where we had placed a rope1 and returned on the trail made the day previously4 ,about noon we reached the excavation in the snow where we had bivouacked in the storm1 #aed and there prepared a lunch4 ,it was then discovered that we had been mistaken as to the quantity of oil in our cans2 we found scarcely enough to cook a single meal4 ,to attempt to remain several days in the snow with this small supply of fuel seemed hazardous1 and ,mr4 ,kerr volunteered to descend and overtake the men at the lower camp1 procure some oil1 and return the following day4 ,we then separated1 ,mr4 ,kerr starting down the mountain1 leaving me with a double load1 weighing between sixty and seventy pounds1 to carry through the deep snow to the high camp previously occupied4 ,,alone ,,in ,,the ,,highest ,,camp4 ,trudging wearily on1 ,i reached the high camp at sunset1 and pitched my tent in the excavation previously occupied4 ,an alpenstock was used for one tent-pole1 and snow saturated with water1 piled up in a column1 for the other2 the snow froze in a few minutes1 and held the tent securely4 ,the ends of the ridge-rope were then stamped into the snow1 and water was poured over them2 the edges of the tent were treated in a similar manner1 and my shelter was ready for occupation4 ,after cooking some supper over the oil-stove1 ,i rolled myself in a blanket and slept the sleep of the weary4 ,i was awakened in the morning by snow drifting into my tent1 and on looking out discovered that ,i was again caught in a blinding storm or mist of snow4 ,the storm raged all day and all night1 and continued without interruption until the evening of the second day4 ,the coal oil becoming exhausted1 a can was filled with bacon grease1 in which a cotton rag was placed for a wick2 and over this witch lamp ,i did my cooking during the remainder of my stay4 ,the snow1 falling steadily1 soon buried my tent1 already surrounded on three sides by an icy wall higher than my head1 and it was only by almost constant exertion that it was kept from being crushed in4 ,with a pint basin for a shovel ,i cleared the tent as best ,i could1 and several times during the day re-excavated the hole leading down to the pond1 which had long since disappeared beneath the level plain of white4 ,the excavation of a tunnel in the snow was also begun in the expectation that the tent would become uninhabitable4 ,the following night it became impossible to keep the tent clear in spite of energetic efforts1 and early in the morning it was crushed in by a great weight of snow1 #aee leaving me no alternative but to finish my snow-house and move in4 ,a tunnel some four or five feet in length was excavated in the snow1 and a chamber about six feet long by four feet wide and three feet high was made at right angles to the tunnel4 ,in this chamber ,i placed my blankets and other belongings1 and1 hanging a rubber coat on an alpenstock at the entrance1 found myself well sheltered from the tempest4 ,there ,i passed the day and the night following4 ,at night the darkness and silence in my narrow tomb-like cell was oppressive2 not a sound broke the stillness except the distant1 muffled roar of an occasional avalanche4 ,i slept soundly1 however1 and in the morning was awakened by the croaking of a raven on the snow immediately above my head4 ,the grotto was filled with a soft blue light1 but a pink radiance at the entrance told that the day had dawned bright and clear4 ,what a glorious sight awaited me6 ,the heavens were without a cloud1 and the sun shone with dazzling splendor on the white peaks around4 ,the broad unbroken snow-plain seemed to burn with light reflected from millions of shining crystals4 ,the great mountain peaks were draped from base to summit in the purest white1 as yet unscarred by avalanches4 ,on the steep cliffs the snow hung in folds like drapery1 tier above tier1 while the angular peaks above stood out like crystals against the sky4 ,st4 ,elias was one vast pyramid of alabaster4 ,the winds were still2 not a sound broke the solitude2 not an object moved4 ,even the raven had gone1 leaving me alone with the mountains4 ,as the sun rose higher and higher and made its warmth felt1 the snow was loosened on the steep slopes and here and there broke away4 ,gathering force as it fell1 it rushed down in avalanches that made the mountains tremble and awakened thunderous echoes4 ,from a small beginning high up on the steep slopes1 the new snow would slip downward1 silently at first1 and cascade over precipices hundreds of feet high1 looking like a fall of foaming water2 then came the roar1 increasing in volume as the flowing snow involved new fields in its path of destruction1 until the great mass became irresistible and ploughed its way downward through clouds of snow-spray1 which hung in the air long after the snow had ceased to move and the roar of the avalanche had ceased4 ,all day long1 until the shadow of evening fell on the steep slopes1 this mountain thunder continued4 ,the echoes of one avalanche scarcely died away before they were #aef awakened by another roar4 ,to witness such a scene under the most favorable conditions was worth all the privations and anxiety it cost4 ,besides the streams of new snow1 there were occasional avalanches of a different character1 caused by the breaking away of portions of the cliffs of old snow1 accumulated1 perhaps1 during several winters4 ,these start from the summits of precipices1 and are caused by the slow downward creep of the snow-fields above4 ,the snow-cliffs are always crevassed and broken in much the same manner as are the ends of glaciers which enter the sea1 and occasionally large masses1 containing thousands of cubic yards1 break away and are precipitated down the slopes with a suddenness that is always startling4 ,usually the first announcement of these avalanches is a report like that of a cannon1 followed by a rumbling roar as the descending mass ploughs its way along4 ,the avalanches formed by old snow are quite different from those caused by the descent of the new surface snow1 but are frequently accompanied by surface streams in case there has been a recent storm4 ,the paths ploughed out by the avalanches are frequently sheathed with glassy ice1 formed by the freezing of water produced by the melting of snow on account of the heat produced by the friction of the moving mass4 ,a third variety of avalanches1 due to falling stones1 has already been noticed4 ,the floor of my snow-chamber was the surface of the old snow on which we had pitched our tents at the time we first reached that camping place4 ,on this hard surface1 and forming the walls of the cell1 there were thirty inches of clear white snow1 the upper limit of which was marked by a blue layer of ice about a quarter of an inch thick4 ,this indicated the thickness of snow that fell during the first storm4 ,its surface had been melted and softened during the days of sunshine that followed its fall1 and had frozen into clear ice4 ,above the blue band which encircled the upper portion of my chamber was the soft1 pure white snow of the second storm4 ,the stratification of snow which ,i had seen fall rendered it evident that my interpretation of the stratification observed in the sides of crevasses was correct4 ,the snow when it fell was soft and white1 and composed of very fine crystals2 but under the influence of the air and sunshine it changed its texture and became icy and granular1 and then resembled the nv snow so common in high mountains4 #aeg ,the day following the storm was bright and beautiful2 the sunlight was warm and pleasant1 but the temperature in the shadows was always below freezing4 ,the surface of the snow did not melt sufficiently during the day to freeze and form a crust during the night4 ,it thus became more and more apparent that the season was too far advanced to allow the snow to harden sufficiently for us to be able to climb the mountain4 ,the snow settled somewhat and changed its character1 but even at midday the crystals on the surface glittered as brilliantly in the sunlight as they did in the early morning4 ,although the snow did not melt1 its surface was lowered slightly by evaporation4 ,the tracks of the raven1 at first sunken a quarter of an inch in the soft surface1 after the first day of sunshine stood slightly in relief1 but were still clearly defined4 99 99 99 99 99 ,on the sixth day after separating from my companions1 judging that they must have returned at least to the camping place where we had separated1 ,i packed my blankets and what food remained1 abandoned the tent and oil-stove1 and started to descend the mountain4 ,the snow had settled somewhat1 but was still soft and yielding and over six feet deep4 ,tramping wearily on through the chaff-like substance1 ,i slowly worked my way downward1 and again threaded the maze of crevasses1 now partially concealed by the layer of new snow1 with which we had struggled several times before4 ,midway to the next camping place ,i met my companions coming up to search for me4 ,instead of meeting three men1 as ,i expected1 ,i saw five tramping along in single file through the deep snow4 ,the sight of human beings in that vast solitude was so strange that ,i watched them for some time before shouting4 ,glad as ,i was to meet my companions once more1 ,i could not help noticing their rough and picturesque appearance4 ,each man wore colored glasses and carried a long alpenstock1 and two or three had packs strapped on their backs4 ,several weeks of hard tramping over moraines and snow-fields had made many rents in their clothes1 which had been mended with cloth of any color that chanced to be available4 ,not a few rags were visible fluttering in the wind4 ,to a stranger they would have appeared like a dangerous band of brigands4 ,the reason for the presence of five men instead of three was this3 ,lindsley and ,stamy1 when they left us at ,rope cliff to #aeh return for additional rations1 were obliged to go back to ,camp #ab in order to get a tent and an oil-stove4 ,on reaching that place the temptation to return to ,blossom island was so great that ,lindsley could not resist it and went back to the base-camp1 where he reported that ,kerr and ,i were storm-bound in the mountains and in need of assistance4 ,three men1 ,partridge1 ,doney1 and ,white1 started at once1 and found ,stamy1 who had waited for their arrival at ,camp #ab4 ,a day was thus lost1 which increased ,mr4 ,kerr's hardship and might have proved disastrous4 ,the party then returned to ,rope cliff and joined ,kerr on the evening of ,august #bi4 ,on this occasion1 as on several others1 ,i found myself indebted to ,stamy for willing assistance when others hesitated4 ,during my imprisonment at the highest camp1 ,mr4 ,kerr was detained under similar circumstances at the camp below ,rope cliff4 ,on endeavoring to rejoin me with the supply of coal oil1 so very valuable under the circumstances1 he was caught in the storm and was unable to reach the rendezvous appointed4 ,he reached ,rope cliff late in the afternoon of the first day of the storm1 climbed the precipice1 and found his way through the gathering darkness1 along the nearly obliterated trail beneath the avalanche cliffs1 and up the steps cut in the snow-cliff1 to the site of our bivouac camp4 ,finding nothing there1 and being unable to proceed farther through the blinding storm1 he abandoned the attempt and returned to the camp below ,rope cliff4 ,in descending the rope1 he found that its lower end had become fast in the snow4 ,the taut line1 sheathed with ice1 was an uncertain help in the darkness4 ,midway in the descent his hands slipped and he slid to the bottom2 but the cushion of new snow broke the fall and prevented serious injury4 ,alone1 without fire1 without blankets1 having only a canvas cover and a rubber cloth for shelter1 and with but little food1 he passed three anxious days and nights before the arrival of the camp hands4 ,,the ,,return4 ,deciding that the ascent of ,mount ,st4 ,elias could not be accomplished through the new snow1 which refused to harden1 it was decided to abandon the attempt and return to ,blossom island4 ,our retreat was none too soon4 ,storm succeeded storm throughout ,september4 ,each time the clouds lifted1 the mantle #aei of new snow was seen to have descended lower and lower4 ,our last view showed the wintry covering nearly down to timber-line4 ,on the night of ,august #ca we slept at the camp beneath ,rope cliff1 but had a most uncomfortable night4 ,six men sleeping in a tent measuring seven by seven feet1 with but little protection from the ice beneath1 certainly does not seem inviting to one surrounded by the comforts of civilization4 ,a large part of the night was occupied by ,doney in preparing breakfast over our oil-stove4 ,an early start was welcome to all2 we were disappointed at not being able to reach the top of ,st4 ,elias1 and were anxious to return to more comfortable quarters4 ,kerr concluded to return at once to ,blossom island to recuperate1 while ,i made an excursion up the ,seward glacier1 with the hope of gaining the upper ice-fall and seeing the amphitheatre beyond4 ,we left ,rope cliff about six in the morning1 and found the snow hard and traveling easy for several hours4 ,after descending the lower ice-fall1 however1 the snow became soft1 and a change in the atmosphere indicated the approach of another storm4 ,kerr and ,doney pressed on and were soon lost to sight1 while the rest of the party were delayed1 owing to ,partridge having become snow-blind and almost helpless4 ,as the crevasses were exceedingly numerous and the snow-bridges soft and uncertain1 the task of conducting a blind man to a place of safety was by no means light4 ,partridge bore up bravely under his affliction1 however1 and did not hesitate in crawling across the treacherous snow-bridges with a rope fastened about his body and a man before and behind to assist his movements4 ,late in the day we reached our camping place at the eastern border of the ,agassiz glacier1 while ,kerr and ,doney crossed ,dome pass and spent the night in a tent that had been left standing at the first camping east of the pass4 ,we pitched a tent on our old camping place at ,camp #af1 and had the luxury of a rocky bed to sleep on that night4 ,as ,partridge's blindness still continued1 ,white was sent ahead to tell ,kerr and ,doney to wait for us in the morning1 so that ,partridge could accompany them to ,blossom island4 ,rain continued all that night and all the next day4 ,as ,partridge's eyes were still unserviceable in the morning1 ,i concluded to wait a day before allowing him to start for ,blossom island4 ,toward evening on ,september #b we moved our camp across #afj ,dome pass1 and pitched our tent on the high ridge beside the one occupied by ,kerr and ,doney4 ,in the morning1 although the storm still continued1 our party divided1 ,kerr1 ,doney1 and ,partridge starting early for ,blossom island1 while ,stamy1 ,white1 and myself1 after following their tracks for a few miles1 turned to the left and worked our way northeastward among the crevasses of the ,seward glacier4 ,toward evening we reached the northwestern spur of ,mount ,owen1 but found the cliffs rising abruptly from the glacier and too favorable for avalanches to admit of our camping near them4 ,again we were forced to go into camp on the open glacier1 and were less comfortable than previously on similar occasions1 owing to the fact that we had been exposed to the rains for three successive days and our blankets and clothes were wet4 ,rain continued all night and all the next day1 and on the following night changed to snow4 ,on the morning of ,september #d we awoke to find the skies clear1 but the mountains all about us were white with snow4 ,before the sun rose1 ,white and ,i started for the top of the high ridge above us1 determined to have at least a distant view of the amphitheatre which we wished to explore4 ,the snow about our camp was only six or eight inches deep1 but as we ascended the mountain it grew more and more troublesome1 and at a height of a thousand feet above camp was thirty inches deep4 ,on gaining the summit of the ridge a magnificent view was obtained of the upper portion of the ,seward glacier and of ,mount ,irving and ,mount ,logan1 and many bold1 tapering mountains farther northeastward4 ,the whole landscape was snow-covered1 and as the sun rose clear in the east became of the most dazzling brilliancy4 ,an icy wind swept down from the northeast and rendered it exceedingly difficult to take photographs or to make measurements4 ,on endeavoring to use my prismatic compass1 ,i found that1 having been soaked with moisture during the previous days of storm1 it froze solid and refused to move1 on being exposed to the air4 ,making what observations ,i could1 we started back to camp with the intention of abandoning all further attempts to work in the high mountains4 ,on the steep slope now exposed to the full sunshine several avalanches had gone down1 and there was great danger of others4 ,selecting a point where an avalanche had already swept away the new snow1 we worked our way downward in a zigzag course and reached the bottom safely1 although an avalanche starting #afa near at hand swept by within a few yards4 ,when nearly at the bottom my attention was attracted by a noise above1 and on looking up ,i saw two rocks bounding down the slope and coming straight for me4 ,to dodge them on the steep slippery slope was difficult and dangerous4 ,allowing one to pass over my right shoulder1 ,i instantly moved in that direction and allowed the other to pass over my left shoulder4 ,they shot by me like fragments of shells1 but did no injury4 ,reaching camp1 we found that ,stamy had dried our blankets and clothes4 ,resuming our packs1 we slowly threaded our way downward to ,camp #ad1 at the western end of the ,pinnacle pass cliffs4 ,we there found cans of rations left several days before and1 pitching our tent1 passed the night4 ,we knew by the signs found there that ,kerr and his companions1 after taking lunch1 had renewed their journey toward ,blossom island4 ,our camp was just at the lower limit of the new snow4 ,to the northward all was of the purest white1 but southward1 down the glacier1 the snow-fields were yellow and much discolored4 ,many changes had taken place in the ,seward glacier since we first saw it2 the pinnacles1 snow-tables1 and crevasses in the rapids were less striking than formerly1 and had evidently suffered greatly from the summer's heat4 ,about the bases of the cliffs there were dark1 irregular patches of dbris1 where a month previously all was white4 ,as nearly as could be judged1 the surface of the glacier had been lowered by melting and settling during our absence about fifty feet4 ,the following morning1 ,september #e1 we started for ,blossom island1 the weather still continuing thick and stormy4 ,on crossing ,pinnacle pass we found over a foot of new snow which had fallen since our companions passed that way4 ,toward nightfall the lower limit of snow on the ,marvine glacier was reached1 and at night we camped on the first moraines which appeared below the nv4 ,the day following1 ,september #f1 we reached ,blossom island about noon1 and found that ,kerr and his party had arrived there safely1 and that ,partridge had recovered from his snow-blindness4 99 99 99 99 99 ,our stay above the snow-line had lasted thirty-five days1 and we were extremely glad to see the light of a camp-fire and have the trees and flowers about us once more4 ,the vegetation indicated that the season was already far advanced4 ,most of the flowers had faded1 and autumn tints gave brilliancy to the #afb lower mountain slopes2 salmon berries and huckleberries were in profusion1 and furnished an exceedingly agreeable change in our diet4 ,after a bath in one of the small lakelets on the island and a good night's rest on a luxuriant bed of spruce boughs1 we felt fully restored and ready for another campaign4 ,as ,kerr was anxious to get back to ,port ,mulgrave1 it was arranged that ,lindsley and ,partridge should go with him1 and that the rest of the men should remain4 ,kerr took his departure on the morning of ,september #g1 and on the following day ,christie1 ,doney1 and myself crossed the ,marvine glacier to the southern end of the ,hitchcock range1 and the following day made an excursion out upon the ,malaspina glacier4 ,the day of our excursion was bright and beautiful1 and the mountains to the northward revealed their full magnificence4 ,the level plateau of ice formed a horizontal plain1 from which the mountain rose precipitously and appeared grander and more majestic than from any other point of view4 ,st4 ,elias rose clear and sharp1 without a cloud to obscure its dizzy height1 and appeared to be one sheer precipice4 ,it is doubtful if a more impressive mountain face exists anywhere else in the world4 ,after learning all we could concerning the ,malaspina glacier we returned to our camp at the end of the ,hitchcock range1 and the following day tramped across the extremely rough moraine-covered surface back to ,blossom island4 ,the following morning1 ,september #ab1 we started on our return trip to ,yakutat bay4 ,two small tents and many articles for which we had no further use were abandoned1 so as to make our packs light as possible4 ,we crossed the ,hayden glacier1 and at night camped at the foot of ,floral pass4 ,after making two intermediate camps1 traveling each day in the rain1 we reached the shore of ,yakutat bay on ,september #ae4 ,doney and ,i halted at ,dalton's cabin for the purpose of seeing what we could of the openings there made for coal1 while the rest of the party pressed on to our old camping place on the shore4 ,there they found ,kerr and his party still encamped1 but ready to leave for ,port ,mulgrave early the next morning4 ,september #ah was occupied by us in catching salmon and trout4 ,we were abundantly successful1 as every man returned to camp with all that he could carry4 ,these were spread out on a rack over our camp-fire and smoked for further use1 as we did not know how long our stay would be extended4 ,on the next day ,stamy and ,lindsley returned from ,port ,mulgrave1 where they #afc had left ,kerr1 quite recovered from his exposure on the mountain4 ,stormy weather continued1 and a gale from the northeast piled the ice high on the beach and threatened to sweep away our tents1 as has already been briefly described in earlier pages4 ,on ,september #bj1 our tents having been beaten in by a violent storm and our camping place overflowed by the waters from a lake above us1 we removed our goods to a place of safety and went to ,dalton's cabin1 where we awaited better weather4 ,the morning of ,september #bc dawned clear and bright1 and after drying our clothes around a blazing camp-fire1 we started back to our camping place on the shore4 ,before reaching there1 however1 we were rejoiced to see the ,corwin coming up the bay4 ,it took us but a short time to get on board1 where ,captain ,c4 ,l4 ,hooper1 her commander1 did everything in his power to make us welcome and comfortable4 ,to him we are indebted for a delightful voyage back to civilization4 ,after steaming up ,disenchantment bay nearly to the ice-cliffs of the ,hubbard glacier1 and obtaining a fine view of the glaciers about ,disenchantment bay1 the ,corwin returned to ,port ,mulgrave and1 on ,september #be1 put to sea4 ,after a splendid ocean passage1 we arrived at ,port ,townsend on ,october #b4 99 99 99 99 99 ,during our stay in ,alaska not a man was seriously sick and not an accident happened4 ,the work planned at the start was carried out almost to the letter1 with the exception that snow-storms and the lateness of the season did not permit us to reach the summit of ,mount ,st4 ,elias4 ,,suggestions4 ,should another attempt be made to climb ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 the shortest and most practicable route from the coast would be to land at ,icy bay and ascend the ,agassiz glacier4 ,the course taken by us in #ahij could be intersected just north of where the tributary glacier from ,dome pass joins the main ice-stream2 and from there the route followed last summer would be the most practicable4 ,a camp should be established on the divide between ,mount ,st4 ,elias and ,mount ,newton1 from which excursions to either of these peaks could be made in a single day4 ,in the preceding narrative many details have been omitted4 ,one of these is that tents1 together with blankets1 rations1 etc41 were left at two convenient points between ,blossom island and #afd the ,agassiz glacier1 and were used by the men in bringing up supplies4 ,in attempting to ascend ,mount ,st4 ,elias from ,icy bay by the route suggested1 at least three such relay stations should be established between the ,chaix hills1 where wood for camp-fires can be obtained 7as is known from the reports of the ,new ,york ,times and ,topham expeditions71 and the high camp on the divide4 ,the relay camps suggested should be one day's march apart1 and would serve not only for stopping places while carrying rations during the advance1 but would furnish a line of retreat4 ,a party making this journey should be provided with snow-shoes1 which unfortunately we did not take with us4 ,all rations intended for use above the snow-line should be packed in tin cans1 each of sufficient size to hold between fifty and sixty pounds1 and each should be securely soldered4 ,all articles packed in this way should be thoroughly dry and should be packed in a dry1 warm room4 ,when secured in this manner they are about as easy to carry as if packed in bags1 and can be cached anywhere out of the reach of floods and avalanches1 with the certainty of being serviceable when wanted4 ,the more perishable articles to be used where camp-fires are possible should also be secured in tin cans4 ,sacks of flour1 corn-meal1 etc41 should be protected by an outer covering of strong canvas4 ,the experience of last summer showed that the cans of rations intended for use above the snow-line should each contain about the following ration1 which may be varied to suit individual taste3 ,bacon1 smoked 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aj lbs4 ,corned beef1 in can 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #f ,flour and corn-meal1 with necessary quantity of baking powder 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ae ,coffee 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #b ,rolled oats 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #e ,sugar 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #e ,chocolate1 sweet 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #b ,salt 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,extract of beef 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,tobacco 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,condensed milk 7small cans7 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #b ,matches 7wax7 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #a box4 ,our experience with oil-stoves showed that they are serviceable4 ,while on the march they can be carried as hand packs in #afe gunny-sacks4 ,rectangular cans holding about a gallon each1 with small screw-tops1 were found convenient for carrying coal oil4 ,the experience of ,arctic explorers indicates that alcohol would perhaps be better than coal oil to use in snow-camps4 ,among the most important articles to be provided are strong shoes or boots2 of these each man should have at least two pairs4 ,strong hip-boots1 with lacings over the instep1 are exceedingly serviceable4 ,when sleeping on the ice the boot-legs may be spread beneath one's blankets and the feet used as a pillow4 ,the long legs are serviceable alike in the thick brush on the shore and in the deep snow on the high mountains4 ,with their protection1 many streams can be waded without getting wet4 ,leather1 waxed ends1 awls1 etc41 for repairing boots1 and tallow mixed with bees-wax for greasing them1 should be taken and distributed in part through the cans of rations4 ,heavy woolen socks are indispensable1 and an effort should be made to have a dry pair always at hand4 ,this may be arranged1 even under the most unfavorable conditions1 by drying a pair as thoroughly as is convenient and carrying them in the bosom of one's shirt4 ,long alpenstocks are always necessary4 ,my own choice is a stiff one of hickory1 about six feet long and an inch and a quarter in diameter1 provided with a spike and hook at one end and a chisel about two inches broad at the other4 ,ice axes are desirable while climbing in the high mountains1 but even more serviceable are light axes of the usual pattern1 but with handles about fourteen inches long2 these supplement the alpenstock1 and when not actually in use are carried in the packs4 ,each man should be provided with a water-tight match-box1 and should have1 besides1 a bundle of wax matches wrapped in oil-cloth and sewed in the collar of his shirt1 to be held as a last reserve4 ,each man should also have a small water-tight bag in which to carry salt enough to last a week or ten days1 in case he has to live by hunting or fishing4 ,a heavy hunting knife is very convenient1 and can be used not only in cutting trails through thick brush1 but in cases of necessity is serviceable in making steps in ice4 ,heavy woolen clothing is preferable to furs4 ,sleeping bags were not used during our expedition1 but are highly recommended by others4 ,for protection at night1 a thick woolen blanket with a light canvas cover and a sheet of light rubber cloth to protect it are all that is necessary4 ,our tents were of cotton drilling1 seven feet square and about six feet high1 and #aff provided with ridge-ropes4 ,alpenstocks were used for tent poles4 ,sou'westers and strong water-proof coats are indispensable in a climate like that of ,alaska1 and at night may be used as a substratum on which to sleep4 ,while traveling over the snow-line we used colored glasses to protect the eyes1 and also found that a strip of dark mosquito netting tied across the face below the eyes afforded great protection4 ,some of the party found relief from the glare of the snow by blacking their faces with grease and burnt cork1 but one experiment with that method is usually enough4 ,while camping below timber-line during the months of ,june to ,september fine mosquito netting is indispensable4 ,in carrying packs1 hemp cod-line of the largest size was found to answer every requirement1 and is preferred by expert packers to pack-straps4 ,it has been suggested that experienced ,swiss guides are necessary to ensure success in climbing ,mount ,st4 ,elias4 ,having never followed a guide in the mountains1 ,i am not able to judge of their efficiency1 but it must be remembered that no one can guide in a region that has never been traversed4 ,the guide as understood in ,europe is unknown in ,america4 ,in the exploration of this country by engineers1 geologists1 etc41 the camp hands have followed their leaders and have not shown them the way4 ,in every frontier town there are hunters1 trappers1 miners1 prospectors1 cow-boys1 voyageurs1 etc4--men who have passed their lives on the plains or among the hills and are enured to hardship and danger4 ,this is the best material in the world from which to recruit an exploring party4 ,a foreigner engaging the services of such men must take into account the independent spirit that animates them and is the secret of their usefulness4 ,they are not servants1 but retainers2 that too in regions far beyond the reach of civil law4 ,they will follow their leader anywhere1 support him in all dangers1 and do their work faithfully so long as their rights as men are respected4 ,by taking proper precautions while traveling across crevassed snow and ice1 and guarding against avalanches and snow-blindness1 an excursion can be made above the snow-line with as little danger as in better known and more frequented regions4 #afg ,,part ,,iii4 ,,sketch ,,of ,,the ,,geology ,,of ,,the ,,st4 ,,elias ,,region4 ,,general ,,features4 ,in the preceding narrative1 many references have been made to the character of the rocks and to the geological structure of the region explored4 ,it was not practicable during the journey to carry on detailed geological studies1 but such facts as were noted are of interest1 for this reason1 if for no other3 they relate to a country previously unknown4 ,my reconnoissance enabled me to determine that there are three well-defined formations in the ,st4 ,elias region4 ,these are-- #a4 ,the sandstones and shales about ,yakutat bay and westward along the foot of the mountain to ,icy bay1 named the ,yakutat system4 #b4 ,a system of probably later date1 composed of shale1 conglomerate1 limestone1 sandstone1 etc41 best exposed in the cliffs of ,pinnacle pass and along the northern and western borders of the ,samovar hills1 and named the ,pinnacle system4 #c4 ,the metamorphic rocks of the main ,st4 ,elias range1 called the ,st4 ,elias schist4 ,,yakutat ,,system4 ,the rocks of this system are of gray and brown sandstones and nearly black shales4 ,they are uniform in lithological character over a large area1 and are usually greatly crushed and seamed4 ,so great has been the crushing to which they have been subjected that it is difficult to work out a hand specimen with fresh surfaces4 ,fragments broken out with a hammer are almost invariably bounded by plains of previous crushing1 and are usually somewhat weathered4 ,these rocks form the bold shores of ,yakutat and ,disenchantment bays1 and were the only rocks seen along our route from ,yakutat bay to ,pinnacle pass4 ,the whole of the ,hitchcock range is composed of rocks of this series1 as are also the ,chaix #afh hills and the hills west of ,icy bay and the southern portion of the ,samovar hills4 ,north of ,pinnacle pass there are rocks undistinguishable lithogically from those about ,yakutat bay4 ,these are exposed in ,mount ,owen and on each side of ,dome pass2 they also form the bold spurs about the immediate bases of ,mount ,augusta1 ,mount ,malaspina1 and ,mount ,st4 ,elias4 ,in the three instances last named these rocks dip beneath the schist forming the crest of the ,st4 ,elias range1 and it is probable that a great overthrust there took place before the formation of the faults to which the present relief of the mountains is due4 ,all the mountain spurs of ,mount ,cook1 so far as is known1 are composed of sandstones and shales of the ,yakutat series1 with the exception of the ,pinnacle pass cliffs4 ,nearly all the dbris on the glaciers from ,disenchantment bay to the ,seward glacier1 and probably beyond1 is derived from the rocks of this system4 ,the distribution of the rocks from which the dbris was derived may be ascertained in a general way by tracing out the sources of the glaciers4 ,medial moraines on the ,hayden and ,marvine glaciers1 however1 have their sources on the northern slope of ,mount ,cook1 and are composed of gabbro and serpentine4 ,these rocks were not seen in place1 and their relation to the ,yakutat series can only be conjectured4 ,although the rocks of this system are stratified1 it is impossible to determine their thickness1 for the reason that they have been greatly crushed and overthrust4 ,this is well illustrated in the ,hitchcock range1 which1 as already explained1 trends about northeast and southwest1 and is composed of strata of shale and sandstone1 having a nearly east-and-west strike and a uniform dip toward the northeast4 ,were the rocks in normal position their thickness would be incredible4 ,in addition to this negative evidence1 there is the crushed condition of the strata to show that movement has taken place all through their mass2 and in a few instances thrust faults were distinguished1 dipping northeastward at about the same angle as the lines of bedding4 ,in the crushing to which the rocks have been subjected the shales have suffered more than the sandstones1 and have been drawn out into wedge-shaped masses1 the sharp edges of which usually point toward the northeast1 which is presumably the direction from which the crushing force acted4 ,the hypothesis that the rocks in the ,st4 ,elias region have been crushed and overthrust explains many otherwise #afi inharmonious facts1 and accounts for the superposition of the ,st4 ,elias schist upon rocks of the ,yakutat system4 ,coal has been discovered in the rocks of the ,yakutat system about two miles west of the southern end of ,disenchantment bay1 and is reported to be of workable thickness4 ,i saw thin lignite seams at the surface at this locality1 but as the shafts were filled with water ,i was unable to examine the coal in the openings1 and cannot vouch for its thickness4 ,samples obtained from the mine show it to be a black lignite which would apparently be of value for fuel4 ,fossil leaves are reported to occur in connection with the lignite1 but these have never been seen by any one who could identify them4 ,the rocks of the ,yakutat system1 wherever seen1 dip northeastward1 except when greatly disturbed near fault-lines4 ,east of ,disenchantment bay the inclination of the beds is from #ae to #bj2 farther westward the dip increases gradually all the way to the ,hitchcock range1 where the prevailing inclination is from #cj to #dj1 and frequently still greater4 ,beneath ,mount ,malaspina and ,mount ,st4 ,elias the ,yakutat sandstones dip northeastward at an angle of about #ae1 and in the hills west of ,icy bay the dip is about the same4 ,exceptions to the prevailing dips occur along the immediate shore of ,yakutat bay1 northwest of ,knight island1 and at the southern extremity of each of the mountain spurs between ,yakutat bay and ,blossom island4 ,at these localities the rocks are frequently vertical or nearly so1 owing their high dip to the proximity of lines of displacement4 ,the faults indicated by these unusual dips also mark the boundary between the mountains and the seaward-stretching plateau of alluvium and ice4 ,the crushing1 overthrusting and faulting that has affected the rocks of this system render it doubtful whether the coal seams which occur in it1 even if of requisite thickness1 can be worked to advantage4 ,some of the samples of coal obtained at the openings made near ,yakutat bay were slickensided1 showing that movements in the coal seam had there taken place4 ,as already stated1 the rocks of the ,yakutat series are remarkably uniform in character throughout the extent now known1 and offer but little variety4 ,the sandstones are intersected in every direction by thin quartz seams1 which stand in relief on the weathered surfaces1 giving the rocks a peculiar and #agj characteristic appearance4 ,the first important change in the geology along the route traversed by us was met on reaching ,pinnacle pass4 ,,pinnacle ,,system4 ,the rocks of this system1 as already stated1 are best exposed in the great fault-scarp forming the northern wall of ,pinnacle pass4 ,they are more varied in composition and have preserved a better record of the conditions under which they were deposited than the sandstones and shales of the ,yakutat system4 ,only an approximate section of the rocks exposed in the ,pinnacle-pass cliff was obtained4 ,sandstone and conglomerate weathering into spires 4 4 4 #ejj feet4 ,evenly bedded1 sandy shale in thin layers 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #fjj ,coarse conglomerate2 bowlders of crystalline rock 4 4 4 #ej ,thinly bedded1 dark-colored sandstone and shale 4 4 4 4 #ejj ,reddish conglomerate 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aj ,light-gray sandstone1 with thin1 irregular coal seams 4 #dj ----- ,total 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #a1hjj ,there is also a compact1 crystalline1 gray limestone near the upper portion of the series1 which escaped notice in the cliffs4 ,at the end of the ,pinnacle-pass cliffs1 however1 where the rocks are turned northward by the great fault which decides the course of the ,seward glacier1 and dip eastward at a high angle1 the limestone is well exposed1 and has a thickness of about #ej feet4 ,in many places the surfaces of the layers are covered with fragments of large ,pecten shells4 ,associated with the limestone there are reddish shales1 much crushed and broken1 and a peculiar conglomerate4 ,the pebbles in the conglomerate are of many varieties1 and were observed at places along the ,pinnacle pass cliffs4 ,their most marked peculiarity lies in the fact that they have been sheared by a movement in the rocks and sometimes broken into several fragments which have been reunited1 probably by pressure4 ,these faulted pebbles are characteristic of the strata from which they were derived4 ,similar pebbles were afterward obtained in the ,marvine glacier near its junction with the ,malaspina glacier1 thus indicating that there are other outcrops of the conglomerate about ,mount ,cook1 near where the ,marvine glacier #aga has its source4 ,two quartz pebbles from the conglomerate of ,pinnacle pass are shown in the accompanying illustrations4 ,the larger pebble 7shown in figure #g7 is of bluish-gray quartz1 and the smaller one 7depicted in figure #h7 is of white quartz4 ,the fragments into which they have been broken are now firmly united4 ,the engravings are photo-mechanical 7,moss process7 reproductions from the objects4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #g--;,faulted ,pebble from ,pinnacle ,pass4 ,illustration3 ,,figure #h--;,faulted ,pebble from ,pinnacle ,pass4 ,in the northern and western part of the ,samovar hills the rocks of the ,pinnacle system again appear1 forming a bold angular ridge1 curving southward and reaching the border of the ,agassiz glacier4 ,the southern face of this range is precipitous and1 like the ,pinnacle pass cliffs1 exhibits the edges of northward-dipping strata4 ,its northern and western slopes are heavily snow-bound4 ,it is in reality a continuation of the ,pinnacle pass fault1 but thrown out of line by the cross-fault which marked out the course of the ,seward glacier4 ,the ,yakutat and ,pinnacle systems are so easily recognized that their distribution can be distinguished at a glance1 when the outcrops are not concealed beneath the nearly universal covering of snow4 ,the rocks of the ,yakutat series are heavily bedded sandstones and shales1 and have in general a light-brown tint2 while the rocks of the ,pinnacle series are thinly bedded and dark in color1 appearing black at a distance4 ,the presence of a ,pecten 7,p4 caurinus 787 ,gld47 in the limestone of the ,pinnacle series has already been mentioned4 ,other fossils were obtained from sandstones and shales at the crest of the cliffs above ,pinnacle pass at an elevation of #e1jjj feet4 ,these #agb were submitted to ,dr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,dall1 who kindly identified them as follows3 ,mya arenaria1 ,l42 ,mytilus edulis1 ,l42 ,leda fossa1 ,baird1 or ,l4 minuta1 ,fabr42 ,macoma inconspicua1 ,b4 and ,s42 ,cardium islandicum1 ,l42 ,litorina atkana1 ,dall4 ,all of these species are stated by ,dall to be still living in the oceanic waters of ,alaska4 ,the very recent age of the rocks in which they occur is thus established4 ,in strata closely connected with the layers in which these shells were found there occur many fine leaf impressions1 a few of which were brought away4 ,these have been examined by ,professor ,l4 ,f4 ,ward1 who has identified them with four species of ,salix1 closely resembling living species4 ,the report on these interesting fossils forms ,appendix ,d4 ,the age indicated by both invertebrates and plants is late ,tertiary 7,pliocene7 or early ,pleistocene4 ,this determination is of great significance when taken in connection with the structure of the region1 and shows that the mountains in the ,st4 ,elias region are young4 ,not only was a part1 at least1 of the ,pinnacle system deposited during the life of living species of mollusks1 but also the whole of the ,yakutat series1 the stratigraphic position of which is1 if my determination is correct1 above the ,pinnacle system4 ,after the sediments composing the rocks of these two series were #agc deposited in the sea as strata of sand1 mud1 etc41 they were consolidated1 overthrust1 faulted1 and upheaved into one of the grandest mountain ridges on the continent4 ,then1 after the mountains had reached a considerable height1 if not their full growth1 the snows of winter fell upon them1 and glaciers were born2 the glaciers increased to a maximum1 and their surfaces reached from a thousand to two thousand feet higher than now on the more southern mountain spurs1 and afterward slowly wasted away to their present dimensions4 ,all of this interesting and varied history has been enacted during the life of existing species of plants and animals4 ,the relative age of the ,yakutat and ,pinnacle series is the weakest point in the history sketched above4 ,the facts on which it rests are as follows3 ,at ,pinnacle pass the sandstones and shales forming the southern wall belong to the ,yakutat system and are much disturbed1 while the northern wall1 or the heaved side of the fault1 is composed of the rocks of the ,pinnacle system1 inclined northward at an angle of #cj or #dj4 ,north of this fault-scarp1 in the foothills of ,mount ,owen1 sandstones and shales1 seemingly identical with those of the ,yakutat system1 again occur1 although their direct connection with the rocks south of ,pinnacle pass was not observed1 owing to the snow that obscured the outcrops4 ,again at ,dome pass a similar relation seems evident1 but cannot be directly established4 ,the immediate foothills of ,mounts ,augusta1 ,malaspina1 and ,st4 ,elias are also of sandstone1 lithologically the same as the ,yakutat series4 ,the conclusion that the ,yakutat system is younger than the ,pinnacle-pass rocks was reached in the field after many other hypotheses had been tried and found wanting1 and to my mind it explains all the observations made4 ,even should the supposed relations of the two series under discussion be reversed1 it would still be true that a very large part of the rocks of the ,st4 ,elias region were deposited since the appearance of living species of mollusks and plants1 and that the prevailing structure of the region was imposed at a still later date4 ,this will appear more clearly after examining the structure of the region4 ,,st4 ,,elias ,,schist4 ,the rock forming several thousand feet of the upper portion of the ,st4 ,elias range is a schist in which the planes of bedding #agd are preserved4 ,the dip of the strata is northeastward1 and has exerted a decided influence on the weathering of the mountain crests4 ,as the opportunities for examining this formation were unsatisfactory1 a detailed account of it will not now be attempted4 ,,geological ,,structure4 ,the abnormal thickness of the ,yakutat series1 due to crushing and overthrust1 has been referred to1 as has also the superposition of the ,st4 ,elias schist upon rock supposed to belong to the ,yakutat system4 ,the plane of contact between the sandstone and the overlying schist of the ,st4 ,elias range dips northeastward at an angle of about #ae1 corresponding1 as nearly as can be determined1 with the dip of the strata in the sandstone itself4 ,all of the observations made in this connection indicate that the schist has been overthrust upon the sandstones4 ,after this took place the great faults to which the range owes its present relief were formed4 ,about ,mount ,cook1 however1 and in the elevated plateau east of ,yakutat bay1 the conditions are different from those observed along the base of the ,st4 ,elias range4 ,the only displacements known in the ,yakutat system south and east of ,pinnacle pass is the great fault which presumably exists where the rocks of the foothills disappear beneath the gravel and glaciers of the ,piedmont region1 the faults referred to belonging to the same series as those which determine the southern and southwestern borders of the ,st4 ,elias range and many of the foothills south of the main escarpment4 ,besides the great faults which trend from ,st4 ,elias toward the northeast and northwest1 there are several cross-faults1 one of which determines the position of the ,seward glacier through a portion of its course1 while another marks out the path of the ,agassiz glacier2 and two others may be recognized just east of the summit of ,st4 ,elias1 which have dropped portions of the eastern end of the orographic block forming the crowning peak of the range4 ,the southern face of ,mount ,st4 ,elias is a fault-scarp4 ,the mountain itself is formed by the upturned edge of a faulted block in which the stratification is inclined northeastward4 ,as has just been mentioned1 the mountain stands at the intersection of two lines of displacement1 one trending in a northeasterly and the other in a northwesterly direction4 ,the one trending #age northwestward extends beyond the end of the northeast fault4 ,the point of union is at the pass between ,mount ,st4 ,elias and ,mount ,newton4 ,the upturned block1 bounded on the southwest by a great fault1 projects beyond the junction with the northeasterly fault4 ,it is this projecting end of a roof-like block that forms ,mount ,st4 ,elias4 ,that this is the case may be clearly seen when viewing the mountain from the glacier near the base of ,mount ,owen4 ,such a view is shown on plate #bj4 ,the crest-line of ,st4 ,elias extends with a decreasing grade northwestward from the culminating peak1 and the northern slope of the ridge is the surface of the tilted block4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bj4 ,,mt4 ,,st4 ,,elias1 ,,from ,,the ,,seward ,,glacier4 ,from what has been stated already1 it will be seen that the ,st4 ,elias range is young4 ,its upheaval1 as indicated by our present knowledge1 was since the close of the ,tertiary4 ,the breaking of the rocks and their upheaval is an event of such recent date that erosion has scarcely modified the forms which the mountains had at their birth4 ,the formation of glaciers followed the elevation of the region so quickly1 that there was no opportunity for streams to act4 ,the ice drainage is consequent upon the geological structure1 and has made but slight changes in the topography due to that structure4 ,about ,mount ,cook1 and in the elevated plateau east of ,yakutat bay1 there has been deeper erosion than about ,mount ,st4 ,elias4 ,the glaciers in this region occupy deep valleys radiating from the higher peaks2 but whether these are really valleys of erosion is not definitely known4 ,in some instances1 changes of dip on opposite sides of the valleys indicate that they may in part be due to faulting2 but1 owing principally to the fact that every basin has its glacier1 it has not been practicable1 up to the present time1 to determine how they were formed4 ,the crests of the mountains are always sharp and angular1 by reason of the rapid weathering of their exposed summits1 but while disintegration is rapid1 no evidences of pronounced decay are noticeable4 ,the peaks on the summits of the ,st4 ,elias range are either pyramids or roof-like crests with triangular gables4 ,these forms have resulted from the weathering of schist in which the planes of bedding are crossed by lines of jointing4 #agf ,,part ,,iv4 ,,glaciers ,,of ,,the ,,st4 ,,elias ,,region4 ,,natural ,,divisions ,,of ,,glaciers4 ,the glaciers of the ,st4 ,elias region form two groups4 ,the ice-streams from the mountain are of the type found in ,switzerland1 and hence termed ,alpine glaciers4 ,the great plateau of ice along the ocean formed by the union and expansion of ,alpine glaciers from the mountains belongs to a class not previously described1 but which in this paper have been called ,piedmont glaciers4 ,the representative of the latter type between ,yakutat bay and ,icy bay is the ,malaspina glacier4 ,both types are to be distinguished from ,continental glaciers4 ,,alpine ,,glaciers4 ,the glaciers in the mountains are all of one type1 but present great diversity in their secondary features1 and might be separated into three or four subordinate divisions4 ,the great trunk glaciers have many tributaries1 and drain the snows from the mountains through broad channels1 which are of low grade throughout all the lower portions of their courses4 ,besides the trunk glaciers and the secondary glaciers which flow into them1 there are many smaller glaciers which do not join the main streams1 but terminate in the gorges or on the exposed mountain sides in which they originate4 ,these have nearly all the features of the larger streams1 but are not of sufficient volume to become rivers of ice4 ,a minor division of ,alpine glaciers for which it is convenient to have a special name includes those that end in the sea and1 breaking off1 form icebergs4 ,these may be designated as tide-water glaciers4 ,typical examples of this class are furnished by the ,dalton and ,hubbard glaciers1 but other ice-streams having the same characteristics occur in ,glacier bay1 in ,taku inlet1 and at the heads of several of the deep fjords along the coast of southeastern ,alaska4 #agg ,a noticeable feature of the ,alpine glaciers of ,alaska is that they expand on passing beyond the valleys through which they flow and form delta-like accumulations of ice on the plains below4 ,this expansion takes place irrespective of the direction in which the glaciers flow1 and1 so far as may be judged from the many examples examined1 is independent of the dbris that covers them4 ,it should be remembered1 however1 that none of the ,alaskan glaciers thus far studied show marked inequalities in the distribution of the moraines upon their surfaces4 ,should one side of a glacier1 on leaving a caon1 be heavily loaded with marginal moraines1 while the opposite border was unprotected1 it is to be presumed that a deflection of the ice would take place similar to the change in direction recorded by the moraines about ,mono lake1 ,california4#cd ,the normal tendency of ice1 when not confined1 to expand in all directions and form a plateau is illustrated on a grand scale by the ,malaspina glacier4 ,footnote #cd3 ,eighth ,ann4 ,rept4 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,surv41 #ahhi1 part ,i1 pp4 #cfj-cff4 ,the most important ice-streams about ,mount ,st4 ,elias and ,mount ,cook are indicated on the map forming plate #h4 ,the ,tindall1 ,guyot1 and ,libbey glaciers and the lower part of the ,agassiz glacier there represented are taken from a map published by ,h4 ,w4 ,topham4#ce ,all of the other glaciers indicated on the map were hastily surveyed during the present expedition and are described to some extent in the accompanying narrative4 ,by far the most important of these is the one named the ,seward ,glacier4 ,footnote #ce3 ,alpine ,journal1 ,london1 vol4 ,,xiv1 #ahhg1 pl4 op4 p4 #cei4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,seward ,glacier is of the ,alpine type1 and is the largest tributary of the ,malaspina glacier4 ,its length is approximately #dj miles1 and its width in the narrowest part1 opposite ,camp fourteen1 is about #c miles4 ,the main amphitheatre from which its drainage is derived is north of ,mount ,owen and between ,mount ,irving and ,mount ,logan4 ,the general surface of the broad level floor of this nv field has an elevation of approximately #e1jjj feet4 ,the snow from the northern and western sides of ,mount ,irving1 from the northern slope of ,mount ,owen1 and from numerous valleys and caons in the vast semicircle of towering peaks joining these two mountains1 unite to form the great glacier4 ,there is another amphitheatre between ,mount ,owen and the ,pinnacle pass cliffs supplied principally by snows #agh from the northwestern slope of ,mount ,cook1 which sends a vast flood of ice and snow into the main drainage channel4 ,other tributary glaciers descend the steep slopes of ,mount ,augusta and ,mount ,malaspina1 and a lesser tributary flows eastward from ,dome pass4 ,all of these ice-drainage lines converge toward the narrow outlet of ,camp #ad 7plate #h7 and discharge southward down a moderately steep descent several miles in length4 ,below ,camp #ad there are other nv fields bordering the glacier1 which contribute no insignificant amount of ice and snow to its mass4 ,between the extremity of the ,hitchcock range and the ,samovar hills the path of the glacier is again contracted and greatly broken as it descends to the plateau below4 ,the ,seward glacier1 like all ice rivers of its class1 has its nv region above1 and its ice region below4 ,the limit between the two is the lower margin of the summer snow1 and occurs just above the ice-fall between the southern extremity of the ,hitchcock range and the ,samovar hills4 ,all the nv region is pure white and without moraines1 except at the immediate bases of the most precipitous cliffs4 ,at the bases of the ,corwin cliffs1 which rise fully #b1jjj feet above its border1 no dbris can be distinguished even in midsummer4 ,an absence of moraines along the base of ,pinnacle pass cliffs was also noticed during our first visit1 but when we returned over the same route in ,september the melting of the snow had revealed many large patches of dirt and disintegrated rock4 ,in several places near the bases of steep cliffs1 strata of dirty ice1 containing many stones1 were observed in deep crevasses4 ,it was evident that vast quantities of dbris were sealed up in the ice along the borders of the glacier1 only to appear at the surface far down the stream where summer melting exceeds the winter accumulation4 ,the surface of the glacier below the lower fall is composed of solid ice with blue and white bands1 and has broad moraines along its borders4 ,the course of the glacier1 after entering the great plateau of ice to which it is tributary1 may be traced for many miles by the bands of dbris along its sides4 ,these moraines belong to the ,malaspina glacier1 and have already been referred to4 ,at the outlet of the upper amphitheatre1 about #f miles above ,mount ,owen1 there is an ice-fall which extends completely across the glacier4 ,below the pinnacles and crevasses formed by this fall the ice is recemented and flows on with a broad1 gently #agi descending surface1 gashed1 however1 by thousands of crevasses1 as shown in plate #bj1 to the end of the ,pinnacle pass cliffs4 ,it there finds a more rapid descent1 and becomes crevassed in an interesting way4 ,the slope is not sufficient to be termed a fall1 but causes a rapid in the ice-stream4 ,the change of grade in the bed of the glacier is first felt about a mile above ,camp #ad4 ,a series of crevasses there begins1 which extends four or five miles down-stream4 ,at first the cracks are narrow1 and trend upstream in the manner usual with marginal crevasses4 ,soon the cracks from the opposite sides meet in the center and form a single crevasse1 bending upstream in the middle4 ,a little lower down1 the crevasse becomes straight1 showing that the ice in the center of the current flows more rapidly than at the sides4 ,the more rapid movement of the center is indicated by the form of the crevasses all the way down the rapid4 ,after becoming straight they bow in the center and form semi-lunar gashes1 widest in the center and curving up-stream at each extremity4 ,still farther down they become more and more bent in the center and at the same time greatly increased in breadth4 ,still lower the curve becomes an angle and the crevasses are ,v-shaped1 the arrow-like point directed down-stream4 ,these parallel ,v-shaped gashes set in order1 one in front of the other1 are what gives the glacier the appearance of watered ribbon when seen from a distance4 ,with the change in direction and curvature of the crevasses1 there is an accompanying change in color4 ,the cracks in the upper part of the rapid are in a white surface and run down into ice that looks dark and blue by contrast4 ,lower down1 as the cracks increase in width1 broad white tables are left between them4 ,cross-fractures are formed1 and the sides of the table begin to crumble in and fill up the gaps between4 ,as the surface melts the tables lose their pure whiteness and become dust-covered and yellow2 but the blocks falling into the crevasses expose fresh surfaces1 and fill the gulfs with pure white ice4 ,in this way the color of the sides of the crevasses changes from deep blue to white1 while the general surface loses its purity and becomes dust-covered4 ,far down the rapid where the ,v-shaped crevasses are most pointed1 the tables have crumbled away and filled up the gulfs between1 so that the watered-ribbon pattern is distinguished by color alone4 ,the scars of the crevasses formed above are shown by white bands on a dark dust-covered #ahj surface4 ,before the lower fall is reached nearly all traces of the thousands of fissures formed in the rapids above have disappeared4 ,on looking down on the rapids from any commanding point1 the definite arrangement of the crevasses along the center of the ice-stream at once attracts attention1 and their order suggests a rapid central current in the stream4 ,below ,camp #ad1 for at least two or three miles1 as well as at many places above that point1 the ,seward glacier flows between banks of snow4 ,along its border there are marginal crevasses trending up-stream1 and in the adjacent banks there are similar breaks trending down-stream4 ,where the two systems meet there is a line of irregular crevasses1 exceedingly difficult to cross1 which mark the actual border of the flowing ice4 ,a similar arrangement of marginal crevasses and of shore crevasses has been referred to in connection with the ,marvine glacier1 and was observed in many other instances4 ,while occupying ,camp #ad we could hear the murmur of waters far down in the glacier below our tent1 but there were no surface streams visible4 ,crashing and rumbling noises made by the slowly moving ice frequently attracted our attention1 and sometimes at night we would be awakened by a dull thud1 accompanied by a trembling of the rocks beneath us1 as if a slight earthquake had occurred4 ,occasionally a pinnacle of ice would fall and be engulfed in the crevasses at its base4 ,these evidences of change indicated that movements in the ,seward glacier were constantly in progress4 ,a short base-line was measured and sights taken to well-marked points in the ,seward glacier for the purpose of measuring its motion4 ,the angles between the base-line and lines of sight to the chosen points were read on several successive days1 but when these observations were compared they gave discrepant results4 ,the measurements which seemed most reliable indicate that the central part of the ice-stream has a movement of about twenty feet a day4 ,this is to be taken only as an approximation1 which needs to be verified before much weight can be attached to it4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,alpine ,,glaciers ,,above ,,the ,,snow-,,line4 ,the surface of the nv is white1 except near its lower limit in late summer1 where it frequently becomes covered with dust #aha blown from neighboring cliffs4 ,it is almost entirely free from moraines1 but at the bases of steep slopes small areas of dbris sometimes appear at the surface when the yearly melting has reached its maximum4 ,the absence of moraines is accompanied by an absence of glacial tables1 sand-cones and other details of glacial surfaces due to differential melting4 ,streams seldom appear at the surface1 for the reason that usually the water produced by surface melting is quickly absorbed by the porous strata beneath2 yet the crevasses are frequently filled with water1 and sometimes shallow lakes of deep blue occur at the bottoms of the amphitheatres and form a marked contrast to the even white of the general surface4 ,crevasses are present or absent according to the slope of the surface on which the nv rests4 ,in the crevasses the edges of horizontal layers of granular ice are exhibited1 showing that the nv down to a depth of at least one or two hundred feet is horizontally stratified4 ,in the ,st4 ,elias region the strata are most frequently from ten to fifteen feet thick1 but in a few instances layers without partings over fifty feet thick were seen4 ,the surface is always of white1 granular ice1 but in the crevasses the layers near the bottom appear more compact and bluer in color than those near the surface4 ,some of the most striking features of the nv are due to the crevasses that break their surfaces4 ,the orderly arrangement of marginal crevasses and of the interior crevasses at the rapids in the ,seward glacier have already been referred to2 but there are still other crevasses1 especially in the broad1 gently sloping portions of the snow-fields where the motion is slight1 which1 although less regular in their arrangement1 are fully as interesting4 ,the crevasses on such slopes generally run at right angles to the direction in which the snow is moving4 ,on looking down on such a surface1 the breaks look like long clear-cut gashes which have stretched open in the center1 but taper to a sharp point at each end4 ,the ability of the nv ice to stretch to a limited extent is thus clearly shown4 ,the initiation of the crevasses seems to be due to the movement of the nv ice over a surface in which there are inequalities of such magnitude that the ice cannot stretch sufficiently to allow it to accommodate itself to them1 so that strains are produced which result in fractures at right angles to the line of general movement4 ,crevasses found where the grade is gentle vary from a fraction of an inch to #aj or #ae feet in width1 and are sometimes two or three #ahb thousand feet long4 ,broader gulfs are seldom formed unless the slope has an inclination of #ae or #bj4 ,the grandest crevasses are in the higher portions of the nv1 and occur especially on the borders of the great amphitheatres4 ,in such situations the crevasses are usually fewer in number but are of greater size than in equal areas lower down4 ,a length of three or four thousand feet and a breadth of fifty feet or more is not uncommon4 ,the finest and most characteristic glacial scenery is found among these great caon-like breaks4 ,standing on the border of one of the gulfs1 as near the brink as one cares to venture1 their full depth cannot usually be seen4 ,in some instances they are partially filled with water of the deepest blue1 in which the ice-walls are reflected with such wonderful distinctness that it is impossible to tell where the ice ends and its counterfeit begins4 ,the walls of the crevasses are most frequently sheer cliffs of stratified ice1 with occasional ornamentations1 formed of ice-crystals or a pendent icicle4 ,after a storm they are frequently decorated in the most beautiful manner with fretwork and cornice of snow4 ,the bridges spanning the crevasses are usually diagonal slivers of ice left where the clefts overlap2 but at times1 especially in the case of the larger crevasses1 there are true arches resembling the ,natural ,bridge of ,virginia1 but on a larger scale1 spanning the blue caons and adding greatly to their strange1 fairy-like beauty4 ,the most striking feature of these cracks is their wonderful color4 ,all tints1 from the pure white of their crystal lips down to the deepest blue of their innermost recesses1 are revealed in each gash and rent in the hardened snow4 ,above the snow-line all of the mountain tops that are not precipitous are heavily loaded with snow4 ,where the snow breaks off at the verge of a precipice and descends in avalanches a depth of more than a hundred feet is frequently revealed1 but in the valleys and amphitheatres the snow has far greater thickness4 ,pinnacles and crests of rock1 rising through the icy covering1 indicate that the thickness of the nv must be many hundreds of feet4 ,there are no evidences of former glaciation on the mountain crests which project above the nv fields4 ,there are no polished and striated rock surfaces or glaciated domes to indicate that the mountains were ever covered by a general capping of ice1 as has been postulated for similar mountains elsewhere4 ,when the #ahc glaciers had their greatest expansion the higher mountains were in about their present condition4 ,the increase in the volume of the glaciers was felt almost entirely in their lower courses4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,alpine ,,glaciers ,,below ,,the ,,snow-,,line4 ,the first feature that attracts attention on descending from the nv region to the more icy portion of the glaciers is the rapid melting everywhere taking place4 ,every day during the summer the murmur and roar of rills1 brooks and rivers are to be heard in all of the ice-fields4 ,the surface streams are usually short1 on account of the crevasses which intercept them4 ,they plunge into the gulfs1 which are many times widened out by the flowing waters so as to form wells1 or moulins1 and join the general drainage beneath4 ,the streams then flow either through caverns in the glaciers or in tunnels at the bottoms4 ,while traversing the glacier one may frequently hear the subdued roar of rivers coursing along in the dark chambers beneath when no other indication of their existence appears at the surface4 ,when these subglacial streams emerge1 usually near the margin of the ice1 they issue from archways forming the ends of tunnels1 and perhaps flow for a mile or two in the sunlight before plunging into another tunnel to continue their way as before4 ,the best example of a glacial river seen during our exploration was near the western border of the ,lucia glacier4 ,it is shown in the illustration forming plate #ab1 which is reproduced mechanically from a photograph4 ,this ,styx of the ice-world has been described on an earlier page4 ,the lakes formed at the southern end of nearly every mountain spur projecting into the ,malaspina glacier discharge through tunnels in the ice1 which are similar in every way to those formed by the stream already mentioned4 ,in the beds of the glacial streams there are deposits of sand and gravel1 and when the streams expand into lakes these deposits are spread over their bottoms in more or less regular sheets4 ,when streams from the mountains empty into the lakes1 deltas are formed4 ,while these deltas have the same characteristics as those built in more stable water bodies1 many changes in detail occur1 owing to the fluctuation of the water level4 #ahd ,one of the tunnels leading to a dry lake-bed at the end of the ,hitchcock range was explored for several rods and found to be a high1 arching cavern following a tortuous course1 and large enough to allow one to drive a coach and four through it without danger of collision4 ,its floor was formed of gravel and bowlders1 and its arching roof was clear ice4 ,here and there the courses of crevasses could be traced by the stones and finer dbris that had fallen in from above1 giving the appearance of veins in a mine4 ,the deposit on the floor of the tunnel rested upon ice1 and would certainly be greatly disturbed and broken up before reaching a final resting place in case the glacier should melt4 ,in the lake basins1 also1 the sand and gravel forming their bottoms frequently rested upon substrata of ice1 and are greatly disturbed when the ice melts4 ,at the ends of the glaciers the subglacial and intraglacial drainage issues from tunnels and forms muddy streams4 ,these usually flow out from the foot of a precipice of ice1 down which rills are continually trickling4 ,the streams flowing away from the glaciers are usually rapid1 owing to the high grade of their built-up channels1 and sweep away large quantities of dbris which is deposited along their courses4 ,the streams widen and bifurcate as they flow seaward1 and spread vast quantities of bowlders1 sand1 and gravel over the country to the right and left1 not infrequently invading the forests and burying the still upright trees4 ,the deposits formed by the streams are of the nature of alluvial fans1 over which the waters meander in a thousand channels4 ,where this action has taken place long enough the alluvial fans end in deltas2 but should there be a current in the sea1 the dbris is carried away and formed into beaches and bars along adjacent shores4 ,should these glaciers disappear1 it is evident that these great bowlder washes would form peculiar topographic features1 unsupported at the apexes1 and it might be perplexing to determine from whence came the waters that deposited them4 ,i am not aware that similar washes have been recognized along the southern border of the ,laurentide glaciers1 but they should certainly be expected to occur there4 ,another very striking difference in the appearance of the glaciers above and below the snow-line is due to the prevalence of dbris on the lower portion4 ,the melting that takes place #ahe below the snow-line removes the ice and leaves the rocks4 ,in this manner the stones previously concealed in the nv are concentrated at the surface1 and finally form sheets of dbris many miles in extent4 ,so far as my observations go1 there is nothing to indicate that stones are brought to the surface by any other means than the one here suggested4 ,upward currents in the ice that would bring stones to the surface have been postulated by certain writers1 but nothing sustaining such an hypothesis has been found in ,alaska4 ,the moraines on the lower extremities of the ,alpine glaciers may frequently be separated into individual ridges1 which in many instances would furnish instructive studies2 but in no case has the history of these accumulations been worked out in detail4 ,with the appearance of moraines at the surface come a great variety of phenomena due to unequal melting4 ,ridges of ice sheathed with dbris1 glacial tables1 sand cones1 etc41 everywhere attract the attention2 but these features are very similar on all glaciers where the summer's waste exceeds the winter's increase1 and have been many times described4 ,the general distribution of the moraines of the lower portion of the ,alpine glaciers of the ,st4 ,elias region merits attention4 ,the moraines themselves exhibit features not yet observed in other regions4 ,from ,disenchantment bay westward to the ,seward glacier the lower portions of the ice-streams are covered and concealed by sheets of dbris4 ,about their margins the dbris fields support luxuriant vegetation1 and not infrequently are so densely clothed with flowers that a tint is given to their rugged surfaces4 ,on the extreme outer margins of the moraines there are sometimes thickets and forests so dense as to be almost impenetrable4 ,the best example of forest-covered moraines resting on living glaciers1 however1 is found along the borders of the ,malaspina ice-field4 ,,piedmont ,,glaciers4 ,this type is represented in the region explored by the ,malaspina glacier4 ,this is a plateau of ice having an area of between #ejj and #fjj square miles1 and a surface elevation in the central part of between #a1ejj and #a1fjj feet4 ,it is fed by the ,agassiz1 ,seward1 ,marvine1 and ,hayden glaciers1 and is of such volume that #ahf it has apparently displaced the sea and holds it back by a wall of dbris deposited about its margin4 ,all of its central portion is of clear white ice1 and around all its margins1 excepting where the ,agassiz and ,seward glaciers come in1 it is bounded by a fringe of dbris and by moraines resting on the ice4 ,along the seaward border the belt of fringing moraines is about five miles broad4 ,the inner margin of the moraine belt is composed of rocks and dirt1 without vegetation1 and separated more or less completely into belts by strips of clear ice4 ,on going from the clear ice toward the margin of the glacier one finds shrubs and flowers scattered here and there over the surface4 ,farther seaward the vegetation becomes more dense and the flowers cover the whole surface1 giving it the appearance of a luxuriant meadow4 ,still farther toward the margin dense clumps of alder1 with scattered spruce trees1 become conspicuous1 while on the outer margin spruce trees of larger size form a veritable forest4 ,that this vegetation actually grows on the moraines above a living glacier is proved beyond all question by holes and crevasses which reveal the ice beneath4 ,the curious lakes scattered abundantly over the moraine-covered areas1 and occupying hour-glass-shaped depressions in the ice1 have already been described4 ,from the southern end of the ,samovar hills1 where the ,seward and ,agassiz glaciers unite1 there is a compound moraine stretching southward1 which divides at its distal extremity and forms great curves and swirl-like figures indicating currents in the glacier4 ,all the central part of the plateau is1 as already stated1 of clear white ice1 free from moraines2 at a distance it has the appearance of a broad snow surface4 ,this is due to the fact that the ice is melted and honey-combed during the warm summer and the surface becomes vesicular and loses its banded structure4 ,a rough1 coral-like crust1 due to the freezing of the portions melted during the day1 frequently covers large areas and resembles a thick hoar-frost4 ,crevasses are numerous1 but seldom more than a few feet deep4 ,they appear to be the lower portions of deep crevasses in the tributary streams which have partially closed1 or else not completely removed by the melting and evaporation of the surface4 ,many of the crevasses are filled with water1 but there are no surface streams and no lakes4 ,melting is rapid during the warm #ahg summer days1 but the water finds its way down into the glacier and joins the general subglacial drainage4 ,it is evident that the streams beneath the surface must be of large size1 as they furnish the only means of escape for the waters flowing beneath the ,agassiz1 ,seward and ,marvine glaciers1 as well as for the waters formed by the melting of the great ,malaspina glacier4 ,the outer borders of the ,malaspina glacier are practically stationary1 but there are currents in its central part4 ,like the expanded ends of some of the ,alpine glaciers1 as the ,galiano and ,lucia glaciers1 for example1 this glacier is of the nature of a delta of ice1 analogous in many of its features to river deltas4 ,as a stream in meandering over its delta builds up one portion after another1 so the currents in an expanded ice-foot may now follow one direction and deposit loads of dbris1 and then slowly change so as to occupy other positions4 ,this action tends to destroy the individuality of morainal belts and to form general sheets of dbris4 ,the presence of such currents as here suggested has not been proved by measurements1 but the great swirls in the ,malaspina glacier and the tongues of clear ice in the upper portions of the dbris fields on the smaller glaciers strongly suggest their existence4 ,the ,malaspina glacier is evidently not eroding its bed2 any records that it is making must be by deposition4 ,should the glacier melt away completely1 it is evident that a surface formed of glacial dbris1 and very similar to that now existing in the forested plateau east of ,yakutat bay1 would be revealed4 ,the former extent of the ,malaspina glacier cannot be determined1 but it is probable that during its greatest expansion it extended seaward until deep water was reached1 and broke off in bergs in the same manner as do the ,greenland glaciers at the present day4 ,soundings in the adjacent waters might possibly determine approximately the former position of the ice-front1 and it is possible that submarine moraines might be discovered in this way4 ,the ,pimpluna reefs1 reported by ,russian navigators and indicated on many maps1 may possibly be a remnant of the moraine left by the ,piedmont glacier from the adjacent coast4 ,the glaciers west of ,icy bay were seen from the top of ,pinnacle pass cliffs1 and are evidently of the same character as the ,malaspina glacier and fully as extensive4 ,a study of these #ahh ,piedmont glaciers will certainly throw much light on the interpretations of the glacial records over northeastern ,north ,america4 ,their value in this connection is enhanced by the fact that they are now retreating and making deposits rather than removing previous geological records4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the expedition of last summer was a hasty reconnoissance1 during which but little detail work could be undertaken4 ,the actual study of the ice-fields of the ,st4 ,elias region remains for those who come later4 #ahi ,,part ,v4 ,,height ,,and ,,position ,,of ,,mount ,,st4 ,,elias4 ,the height and position of ,mount ,st4 ,elias have been measured several times during the past century with varying results4 ,the measurements made prior to the expedition of #ahij have been summarized and discussed by ,w4 ,h4 ,dall1 of the ,united ,states ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey1 and little more can be done at present than give an abstract of his report4 ,the various determinations are shown in the table below4 ,the data from which these results were obtained have not been published1 with the exception of the surveys made by the ,united ,states ,coast ,survey in #ahgd1 printed in report of the superintendent for #ahge4 ,height and ,position of ,mount ,st4 ,elias4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,date4 ,authority4 ,height4 ,latitude4 ,longitude ,w4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #aghf ,la ,prouse #ab1fgb feet #fj #ae' #jj #adj #aj' #jj #agia ,malaspina #ag1hea #fj #ag #ce #adj #eb #ag #agid ,vancouver ----------- #fj #bb #cj #adj #ci #jj #ahdg ,russian ,hydrogra- phic ,chart #acgh #ag1hed #fj #ba #jj #ada #jj #jj #ahdg ,tebenkof 7,notes7 #af1ich #fj #bb #cf #adj #ed #jj #ahdi ,tebenkof 7,chart ,,vii7 #af1ich #fj #ba #cj #adj #ed #jj ,buch4 ,can4 ,inseln #af1geh #fj #ag #cj #adj #ea #jj #ahgb ,english ,admiralty ,chart #bagb #ad1igj #fj #ba #jj #ada #jj #jj #ahgd ,u4 ,s4 ,coast ,survey #ai1ejj #djj #fj #bj #de #ada #jj #ab ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,all of the figures given in the table have been copied from ,dall's report1 with the exception of the position determined by ,malaspina2 this is from a report of astronomical observations made during ,malaspina's voyage1 which places the mountain in latitude #fj #ag' #ce and longitude #acd #cc' #aj west of ,cadiz4#cf ,taking the longitude of ,cadiz as #f #ai' #jg west of ,greenwich1 the figures tabulated above are obtained4 ,footnote #cf3 ,ante1 p4 #fe4 #aij ,it was intended that ,mr4 ,kerr's report1 forming ,appendix ,b1 should contain a detailed record of the triangulation executed last summer1 but a careful revision of his work by a committee of the ,national ,geographic ,society led to the conclusion that the results were not of sufficient accuracy to set at rest the questions raised by the discrepancies in earlier measurements of the height of ,mount ,st4 ,elias2 and as the work will probably be revised and extended during the summer of #ahia1 only the map forming plate #h will be published at this time4 ,some preliminary publications of elevations have been made1 but these must be taken as approximations merely4#cg ,footnote #cg3 ,the shore-line of the map1 plate #h1 and the positions of the initial points or base-line of the triangulation are from the work of the ,united ,states ,coast ,survey4 ,the extreme western portion is from maps published by the ,new ,york ,times and ,topham expeditions4 ,all the topographic data are by ,mr4 ,kerr1 and all credit for the work and all responsibility for its accuracy rest with him4 ,the nomenclature is principally my own1 and has been approved by a committee of the ,national ,geographic ,society4 ,by consulting the map forming plate #h it will be seen that ,mounts ,cook1 ,vancouver1 ,irving1 ,owen1 etc41 are not in the ,st4 ,elias range4 ,neither do they form a distinct range either topographically or geologically4 ,each of these mountains is an independent uplift1 although they may have some structural connection1 and are of about the same geological age4 ,mount ,cook and the peaks most intimately associated with it are composed mainly of sandstone and shale belonging to the ,yakutat system4 ,mounts ,vancouver and ,irving are probably of the same character1 but definite proof that this is the case has not been obtained4 ,the ,st4 ,elias uplift is distinct and well marked1 both geologically and topographically1 and deserves to be considered as a mountain range4 ,the limits of the range have not been determined1 but1 so far as known1 its maximum elevation is at ,mount ,st4 ,elias4 ,the range stretches away from this culminating point both northeastward and northwestward1 and has a well-marked ,v-shape4 ,the angle formed by the two branches of the range where they unite at ,mount ,st4 ,elias is1 by estimate1 about #adj4 ,each arm of the ,v is determined by a fault1 or perhaps more accurately by a series of faults having the same general course1 along which the orographic blocks forming the range have been upheaved4 ,the structure of the range is monoclinal1 and #aia resembles the type of mountain structure characteristic of the great basin4 ,the dip of the tilted blocks is northward4 ,the crest of the ,st4 ,elias range1 as already stated1 is composed of schists which rest on sandstone1 supposed to belong to the ,yakutat system4 ,the geological age of the uplift is1 therefore1 very recent4 ,the secondary topographic forms on the crest of the range have resulted from the weathering of the upturned edges of orographic blocks in which the bedding planes are crossed by joints4 ,the resulting forms are mainly pyramids and roof-like ridges with triangular gables4 ,extreme ruggedness and angularity characterize the range throughout4 ,there are no rounded domes or smoothed and polished surfaces to suggest that the higher summits have ever been subjected to general glacial action2 neither is there any evidence of marked rock decay4 ,disintegration of all the higher peaks and crests is rapid1 owing principally to great changes of temperature and the freezing of water in the interstices of the rock2 but the dbris resulting from this action is rapidly carried away by avalanches and glaciers1 so that the crests as well as the subordinate features in the sculpture of the cliffs and pyramids are all angular4 ,the subdued and rounded contour1 due to the accumulation of the products of disintegration and decay1 the indications of the advancing age of mountains1 are nowhere to be seen4 ,the ,st4 ,elias range is young2 probably the very youngest of the important mountain ranges on this continent4 ,no evidences of erosion previous to the formation of the ice-sheets that now clothe it have been observed4 ,glaciers apparently took immediate possession of the lines of depression as the mountain range grew in height1 and furnish a living example from which to determine the part that ice streams play in mountain sculpture4 #aib ,,appendix ,a4 ,,official ,,instructions ,,governing ,,the ,,expedition4 ,in order to make the records of the ,st4 ,elias expedition complete1 copies of the instructions under which the work was carried out are appended3 ,,department ,,of ,,the ,,interior1 ,,united ,,states ,,geological ,,survey1 ,,geologic ,,branch1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,may #bh1 #ahij4 ,mr4 ,i4 ,c4 ,,russell1 ,geologist4 ,,sir3 ,you are hereby detailed to visit the ,st4 ,elias range of ,alaska for work of exploration1 under the joint auspices of the ,national ,geographic ,society and the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey4 ,the ,geological ,survey furnishes instruments and contributes the sum of #a1jjj towards the expenses of the expedition4 ,the money devoted to this purpose is taken from the appropriation for the fiscal year ending ,june #cj1 #ahij1 and the manner of its expenditure must conform to that fact4 ,the ,survey expects that you will give special attention to glaciers1 to their distribution1 to the associated topographic types1 to indications of the former extent of glaciation1 and to types of subarial sculpture under special conditions of erosion1 and that you will also bring back information with reference to the age of the formations seen and the type of structure of the range4 ,with the aid of ,mr4 ,kerr1 it is expected that you will secure definite geographic information as to the belt of country traversed by you4 ,very respectfully1 ,g4 ,k4 ,,gilbert1 ,chief ,geologist4 ,approved1 ,j4 ,w4 ,,powell1 ,director4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,department ,,of ,,the ,,interior1 ,,united ,,states ,,geological ,,survey1 ,,geologic ,,branch1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,may #bh1 #ahij4 ,mr4 ,i4 ,c4 ,,russell1 ,geologist4 ,,sir3 ,you will proceed at the earliest practicable date to ,tacoma1 ,washington ,territory1 and thence by water to ,sitka1 ,alaska1 at which point you will make special arrangements to visit the ,st4 ,elias range of mountains and make geological examinations as per instructions otherwise communicated4 ,mr4 ,mark ,b4 ,kerr1 ,disbursing ,agent1 will report to you at ,victoria1 ,b4 ,c41 and accompany you on the expedition1 assisting you in the capacities of ,disbursing ,agent and ,topographer4 ,on the completion of #aic your work you will return to ,washington1 the route being left to your discretion1 to be determined by considerations which cannot now be foreseen4 ,very respectfully1 ,g4 ,k4 ,,gilbert1 ,chief ,geologist4 ,approved1 ,j4 ,w4 ,,powell1 ,director4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,department ,,of ,,the ,,interior1 ,,united ,,states ,,geological ,,survey1 ,,geologic ,,branch1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,may #bh1 #ahij4 ,mr4 ,,mark ,b4 ,,kerr1 ,disbursing ,agent4 ,,sir3 ,you are hereby detailed to assist ,mr4 ,i4 ,c4 ,russell1 ,geologist1 who starts at once on an expedition to ,alaska1 under the joint auspices of the ,national ,geographic ,society and the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey4 ,it is expected that you will immediately aid him in disbursement1 and that you will act during the exploratory part of the expedition as topographer4 ,your duties will1 however1 not be limited to these special functions1 but you will be expected to perform any other duties he may assign to you1 and to labor in every way for the success of the expedition4 ,it is expected that you will be reappointed to the grade of topographer on the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey on the #ast of ,july1 #ahij1 and you will please take the required oath of office before your departure4 ,the money remaining in your possession as ,disbursing ,agent includes that needed to meet ,mr4 ,russell's salary and your own1 and also the sum of #a1jjj1 allotted from the funds of the ,geographic ,branch for expenses of the expedition prior to ,june #cj4 ,this amount you will expend as directed by ,mr4 ,russell1 and his authority and certificate will need to accompany your vouchers in rendering account of the same4 ,very respectfully1 ,g4 ,k4 ,,gilbert1 ,chief ,geologist4 ,approved1 ,j4 ,w4 ,,powell1 ,director4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,department ,,of ,,the ,,interior1 ,,united ,,states ,,geological ,,survey1 ,,geologic ,,branch1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,may #bh1 #ahij4 ,mr4 ,,mark ,b4 ,,kerr1 ,disbursing ,agent4 ,,sir3 ,you will proceed at once to ,san ,francisco1 ,california1 and thence by steamer or by rail and steamer to ,sitka1 ,alaska4 ,it is expected that you will join ,mr4 ,i4 ,c4 ,russell1 ,geologist1 at ,victoria1 ,b4 ,c41 or at ,sitka2 and you will report to him for further orders4 ,very respectfully1 ,g4 ,k4 ,,gilbert1 ,chief ,geologist4 ,approved1 ,j4 ,w4 ,,powell1 ,director4 99 99 99 99 99 #aid ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,may #bi1 #ahij4 ,mr4 ,,mark ,b4 ,,kerr1 ,topographer4 ,,sir3 ,you are hereby assigned to field-work in the vicinity of ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 ,alaska1 in the party under charge of ,mr4 ,i4 ,c4 ,russell4 ,upon the receipt of these instructions you will please proceed without delay to the field1 and map upon a scale of four miles to an inch such territory in the vicinity of ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 including that mountain1 as the field season will permit4 ,the work should1 if practicable1 be controlled by triangulation4 ,special attention in the course of your work should be given to measuring the altitude of ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 and it should be determined by triangulation and also1 if practicable1 by barometer in such manner as to be conclusive4 ,the topographic work should be controlled by triangulation4 ,as many positions on this coast are approximately known1 including a number of the prominent peaks1 astronomical determinations of position will not be necessary unless needed to supplement the triangulation4 ,the details of your outfitting and the management of the work will be left to your own judgment4 ,very respectfully1 ,,henry ,,gannett1 ,chief ,topographer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,national ,,geographic ,,society4 ,memorandum of ,instructions to the ,party sent out under the ,direction of ,mr4 ,i4 ,c4 ,russell1 assisted by ,mr4 ,mark ,b4 ,kerr1 to explore the ,mount ,st4 ,elias ,region1 ,alaska1 #ahij4 ,the general object of the expedition is to make a geographic reconnoissance of as large an area as practicable in the ,st4 ,elias range1 ,alaska1 including a study of its glacial phenomena1 the preparation of a map of the region explored1 and the measurement of the height of ,mount ,st4 ,elias and other neighboring mountains4 ,observations should also be made and information collected on other subjects of general scientific interest as far as practicable4 ,the purpose of these instructions is mainly to suggest the lines of investigation that give promise of valuable results1 but it is not intended that they shall limit the director of the expedition in the exercise of his own discretion4 ,,gardiner ,g4 ,,hubbard1 ,chairman1 ,,marcus ,,baker1 ,,willard ,d4 ,,johnson1 ,committee4 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,may #bi1 #ahij4 #aie ,,appendix ,b4 ,,report ,,on ,,topographic ,,work4 ,,by ,,mark ,b4 ,,kerr4 ,in addition to the ascent of ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 it was part of the original plan of the expedition to make an accurate topographic map of the region explored4 ,it was not1 however1 for this purpose proposed to divide the party or to deviate much from the most direct route to ,mount ,st4 ,elias from ,yakutat bay4 ,triangulation of fair precision was provided for4 ,details were to be filled in by approximate methods4 ,field-work began ,june #bj by the careful measurement of a base-line1 #c1hej feet in length1 near the point of landing1 on the northern shore of ,yakutat bay4 ,expansion was readily carried to the foot-hills1 and several horizontal angles were taken to an astronomical station of the ,united ,states ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey at ,port ,mulgrave4 ,in the region of these initial triangles1 work was done from a central camp2 and topographic details were fixed with considerable precision by intersection and vertical angles4 ,after the departure of the expedition from the ,base ,line camp1 an accident to the transit made resort to an inferior instrument necessary1 and1 furthermore1 as the region traversed proved to be ill-adapted to1 and the line of travel too direct for1 the proper development of a narrow belt of triangles1 the anticipation of a degree of precision in the triangulation which would give high value to the determinations of position and altitude of the several peaks was not realized2 but topographic map work1 showing the general features1 altitudes and location of the mountain ranges1 valleys and glaciers1 was extended over about #fjj square miles4 ,within the approximate geometric control1 stations were interpolated by the three-point method1 and minor locations were multiplied by intersection and connected by sketch4 ,the best meander possible under the circumstances was carried forward on the line of travel by compass directions and estimates of distance from time intervals4 ,the work ceased ,august #bb with the abandonment of the instruments in a snow-storm of four days' duration on the eastern slope of ,mount ,st4 ,elias4 ,the accompanying map 7a reduction of which forms plate #h1 page #ge7 shows the ice-streams and peculiar mountain topography of a region heretofore unvisited1 and constitutes a considerable addition to the geography of ,alaska4 #aif ,,appendix ,c4 ,,report ,,on ,,auriferous ,,sands ,,from ,,yakutat ,,bay4 ,,by ,j4 ,,stanley-,,brown4 ,among the specimens obtained by ,mr4 ,i4 ,c4 ,russell during the course of his explorations on and about ,mount ,st4 ,elias is a bottle of sand procured from the beach on the extreme southern end of ,khantaak island1 ,yakutat bay1 and characteristic of the shore material over a large area4 ,this sand was turned over to me for examination1 and additional interest was given to its study by the fact that it is from a comparatively uninvestigated region and possesses1 perhaps1 economic value2 for the sample is gold-bearing1 and it is said that a color can readily be obtained by panning at many points on the bay shore4 ,macroscopically1 the sand has the appearance of ordinary finely comminuted beach material2 but it differs in the uniformity of the size of its particles from beach sand from ,fort ,monroe and ,sullivan island1 ,south ,carolina1 with which it was compared4 ,its mineralogic constituents greatly surpass in variety those of the sands referred to1 but are markedly similar to those of gold-bearing sand from ,new ,zealand4 ,at least twelve minerals are present1 with an unusual predominance of one1 as will be noted later4 ,through the mixture of white1 green1 and black grains1 a dull greenish-black color is given to the mass4 ,the roundness of fragments is such as usually results from water action1 but it is less than that which results from transportation by wind4 ,when put into a heavy liquid 7,thoulet solution of a density of #c4a7 in order to determine the specific gravity of the constituents1 it was found that the sand is made up largely of the heavier materials1 for the amount that floated was trifling compared with that which quickly sank4 ,even the abundant quartz was largely carried down by the weightier ingredients bound up within it1 and only a few water-clear fragments were left behind4 ,this would seem to suggest that the lighter minerals are lacking in the neighboring rocks1 or else have been carried to greater distances by the sorting power of the water4 ,among the minerals recognized1 gold is the most important1 though relatively not abundant4 ,it occurs in flakes or flattened grains from a quarter to a half of a millimeter in size4 ,the particles are sufficiently numerous to be readily selected from their associates by the aid of panning and a hand lens of good magnifying power1 and if distributed throughout the beach as plentifully as in the sample would1 under favorable conditions1 pay for working4 ,the flakes in their rounded character show the effect of the agency which separated them from their matrix2 a separation so complete that no rock is found adhering to the grains4 #aig ,magnetite is present in great abundance and in a finely divided state1 the largest grains not exceeding a millimeter in length4 ,it forms by weight alone #ae or #bj per cent4 of the entire mass1 and when the latter is sifted through a sieve of a hundred meshes to the inch it constitutes #dd per cent4 of this fine material4 ,crystallographic faces are rare1 and though often marred1 still octahedrons 7#aaa1 #a7 of considerable perfection are found4 ,garnet occurs in such profusion that a pink tint is given to a mass of selected grains of uniform size1 and its predominance may be considered the chief physical characteristic of the sand4 ,two species were noted3 one is a brilliant wine-red variety1 which1 though not nearly so numerous as its duller relative1 occurs more frequently in crystals--the trapezohedral faces 7#baa1 #b-b7 predominating4 ,the other garnet is readily distinguished by its lighter amethystine tint and its greater abundance4 ,crystallographic faces are somewhat rare and invariably dodecahedral 7#aaj1 i74 ,in the absence of chemical analyses1 any statements as to the exact species to which these garnets should be referred would be largely conjectural4 ,attention is quickly drawn to the perfection of these minute garnets in their crystallographic faces and outlines1 and to their association with rounded fragments of their own kind as well as of other minerals4 ,have these crystals survived by reason of their hardness or by favoring conditions1 or does their preservation suggest the impotency of wave-action in the destruction of minute bodies8 ,among the black1 heavy grains occur individuals which1 except in shape and non-magnetic character1 resemble magnetite4 ,on crushing between glass slides1 thin slivers are obtained which in transmitted light are green1 and which1 from their cleavage1 pleochroism1 high index of refraction1 small extinction angle1 and insolubility in acid1 are readily recognized as hornblende4 ,two groups of grains were noted which are distinguishable by slight variation in color4 ,both are clear-yellowish green1 but one is somewhat darker than the other4 ,the optical properties of both indicate pyroxene and possibly olivine4 ,fortunately a fragment was obtained in the orthodiagonal zone nearly normal to an optic axis which gave an axial figure of sufficient definiteness to indicate its optically positive character4 ,a number of grains were selected from minerals of both colors and subjected to prolonged heating in hydrochloric acid without decomposition1 indicating that both minerals are pyroxene4 ,a few zircons1 a fraction of a millimeter in size but perfect in form1 were found associated with others rounded on their solid angles and edges4 ,the crystals are of the common short form and bear the usual faces in a greater or less degree of development4 ,pyramids of the first and second order alternate in magnitude2 pinacoid encroaches upon prism1 and vice versa4 ,quartz constitutes by far the largest proportion of the minerals1 both in bulk and in weight4 ,it is always fragmental2 sometimes water-clear1 but chiefly occurs in opaque grains of different colors4 ,it is seldom free from material of a higher specific gravity1 and is often so tinted as to be almost indistinguishable from magnetite1 but readily bleaches in acid4 #aih ,feldspar is sparingly present1 and includes both monoclinic and triclinic forms1 whose crystallographic boundaries are invariably lacking4 ,treatment of the sand with dilute acid produces effervescence1 which is not due to incrustations of sodium carbonate4 ,by persistent search among particles separated in a heavy solution1 a few grains were discovered which1 from their complete solubility with effervescence in very dilute acid1 as well as their optical properties1 left no doubt as to their being calcite4 ,the mica group has only one representative1 biotite1 and this occurs most sparingly4 ,though much of the sand was examined1 but few fragments were found4 ,its foliated character renders it easily transported by water and explains its absence from among the heavy minerals4 ,shaly1 slaty and schistose material forms the major part of the coarser grains4 ,thin sections from the largest pieces plainly indicated hornblende schist4 ,a region of glaciers would seem to be favorable not only to the collection of meteoric material1 but also to the destruction of the country rocks1 the setting free of their mineralogic constituents in a comparatively fresh state1 and their transportation to the sea4 ,it was hoped that this sand would yield some of the rarer varieties of minerals1 but tests for native iron1 platinum1 chromite1 gneiss1 and the titaniferous minerals proved ineffectual4 ,titanium is present1 but in such small quantities that it could only be detected by means of hydrogen peroxide4 ,the use of acid supersulphate and the borotungstate of calcium test of ,lasaulx failed to reveal the presence of native iron4 ,it will be seen from the foregoing enumeration that the sand is made up of grains of gold1 magnetite1 garnet1 hornblende1 pyroxene1 zircon1 quartz1 feldspar1 calcite and mica1 associated with fragments of a shaly1 slaty and schistose character4 ,while the information at hand is hardly sufficient to warrant much speculation concerning the rock masses of the interior1 still there is no doubt that the sand is derived from the destruction of metamorphic rocks4 #aii ,,appendix ,d4 ,,report ,,on ,,fossil ,,plants4 ,,by ,,lester ,f4 ,,ward4 ,,department ,,of ,,the ,,interior1 ,,united ,,states ,,geological ,,survey1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,march #ab1 #ahia4 ,mr4 ,i4 ,c4 ,,russell1 ,united ,states ,geological ,survey4 ,,my ,,dear ,,sir3 ,the following report upon the small collection of fossil plants made by you at ,pinnacle pass1 near ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 ,alaska1 and sent to this division for identification has been prepared by ,professor ,f4 ,h4 ,knowlton1 who gave the collection a careful study during my absence in ,florida4 ,previous to going away ,i had somewhat hastily examined the specimens and seen that they consisted chiefly of the genus ,salix1 some of them reminding me strongly of living species4 ,i have no doubt that ,professor ,knowlton's more thorough comparisons can be relied upon with as much confidence as the nature of the collection will permit1 and ,i also agree with his conclusions4 ,the collection consists of seven small hand specimens1 upon which are impressed no less than seventeen more or less completely preserved dicotyledonous leaves4 ,these specimens at first sight seem to represent six or eight species1 but after a careful study ,i think ,i am safe in reducing the number to four1 as several of the impressions have been nearly obliterated by prolonged exposure and cannot be studied with much satisfaction4 ,the four determinable species belong1 without much doubt1 to the genus ,salix4 ,number #a1 of which there is but a single specimen1 ,i have identified with ,salix californica1 ,lesquereux1 from the auriferous gravel deposits of the ,sierra ,nevada in ,california4#ch ,the finer nervation of the specimens from the auriferous gravels is not clearly shown in ,lesquereux's figures1 nor is it well preserved in the ,mount ,st4 ,elias specimens2 but the size1 outline1 and primary nervation are identical4 ,number #b1 of which there are six or eight specimens1 may be compared with ,salix raeana1 ,heer1#ci a species that was first described from ,greenland and was later detected by ,lesquereux in a collection from ,cooks inlet1 ,alaska4#dj ,the ,mount ,st4 ,elias specimens are not very much like the original figures of ,heer1 but are very similar1 in outline at least1 to this species as figured by ,lesquereux4#da ,they are also very similar to #bjj some forms of the living ,s4 rostrata1 ,richardson1 with entire leaves4 ,it is clearly a willow1 but closer identification must remain for more complete material4 ,number #c1 represented by four or five specimens1 is broadly elliptical in outline1 and is also clearly a ,salix4 ,it is unlike any fossil form with which ,i am familiar1 but is very similar to the living ,s4 nigricans1 ,for41 var4 rotundifolia1 and to certain forms of ,s4 silesiaca1 ,willd4 ,the nervation is very distinctly preserved1 and has all the characters of a willow leaf4 ,number #d1 represented by three or four very fine specimens1 is a very large leaf1 measuring #ac cm4 in length and #c cm4 in width at the broadest point4 ,it may be compared with ,salix macrophylla1 ,heer1#db but it cannot be this species4 ,it is also like some of the living forms of ,s4 nigra1 ,marsh41 from which it differs in having perfectly entire margins4 ,while it is manifestly impossible1 on the basis of the above identifications1 to speak with confidence as to the age or formation containing these leaves1 it can hardly be older than the ,miocene1 and from its strong resemblance to the present existing flora of ,alaska it is likely to be much younger4 ,f4 ,h4 ,knowlton4 ,very sincerely yours1 ,,lester ,f4 ,,ward4 ,footnote #ch3 ,mem4 ,mus4 ,comp4 ,zool41 vol4 ,,vi1 no4 #b1 #ahgh1 p4 #aj1 pl4 i1 figs4 #ah-ba4 ,footnote #ci3 ,flor4 foss4 ,arct41 vol4 ,i1 #ahfh1 p4 #ajb1 pl4 iv1 figs4 #aa-ac2 pl4 xlvii1 fig4 #aa4 ,footnote #dj3 ,proc4 ,nat4 ,mus41 vol4 ,v1 #ahhb1 p4 #ddg4 ,footnote #da3 loc4 cit41 pl4 viii1 fig4 #f4 ,footnote #db3 ,tert4 ,fl4 ,helv41 vol4 ,,ii1 #ahef1 p4 #bi1 pl4 lxvii1 fig4 #d4 #bja ,,index4 ,admiralty bay1 #ef ,agassiz glacier1 ,ascent of1 #adg -- -- named1 #gc ,age of ,st4 ,elias range1 #age ,alpenstocks1 ,necessity for1 #afe ,alpine glaciers1 #agf1 #ahj ,alton1 ,edmund1 ,contributions to exploration fund by1 #ge ,archangelica1 ,mention of1 #hi1 #aad ,atrevida 7,the71 ,mention of1 #fc ,arevida glacier1 #ib1 #aje ,auriferous sands1 #aif1 #aig1 #aih ,avalanches1 #ade1 #aee ,baie de ,monti1 #ef -- named by ,la ,prouse1 #fj ,baker1 ,marcus1 ,explorations by1 #gj1 #gb -- reference to bibliography by1 #eh ,base ,line1 ,measurement of1 #hf ,bear1 ,meeting with1 #id1 #aji ,belcher1 ,sir ,edward1 ,explorations by1 #fh1 #fi ,bell1 ,a4 ,graham1 ,contribution to exploration fund by1 #ge ,bell1 ,charles ,j41 ,contribution to exploration fund by1 #ge ,bering bay1 ,mention of1 #ef ,bering1 ,vitus1 ,explorations by1 #eh ,bien1 ,morris1 ,contribution to exploration fund by1 #ge ,birnie1 ,jr41 ,rogers1 ,contribution to exploration fund by1 #ge ,black glacier1 ,brief account of1 #aja1 #ajd ,blossom island1 ,description of1 #aac1 #abb ,boursin1 ,henry1 ,mention of1 #gi ,broka1 ,george1 ,explorations by1 #gc1 #gd ,camp hands1 #aff ,carpenter1 ,z4 ,t41 ,contribution to exploration fund by1 #ge ,carroll1 ,captain ,james1 #gh ,cascade glacier named1 #add ,chaix hills named1 #gc ,chariot1 ,the1 ,mention of1 #adj ,chatham1 ,mention of1 #ff ,cherikof1 ,alexei1 ,explorations of1 #eh ,christie1 ,j4 ,h41 ,member of expedition1 #gf -- ,work of1 #hb1 #hc1 #hd1 #if1 #ajc1 #aab1 #aac1 #abc1 #afb ,clover1 ,richardson1 ,contribution to exploration fund by1 #ge ,cook1 ,captain ,james1 ,explorations of1 #eh ,corwin 7,the7 in ,disenchantment bay1 #ajj -- ,return of1 #afc ,crevasses1 #aha1 #ahb -- at ,pinnacle pass1 #acj ,cross sound1 visited by ,vancouver's expedition1 #fg ,crumback1 ,j4 ,h41 ,member of expedition1 #gf -- ,work of1 #if1 #ajc1 #abb1 #abe1 #abi1 #aca1 #ace1 #acg ,dagelet1 ,m41 ,mention of1 #fj ,dall1 ,w4 ,h41 ,explorations by1 #gj1 #gb -- reference to bibliography by1 #eh ,dalton1 ,john1 glacier named for1 #ih -- mention of1 #gc ,definition of formations in ,st4 ,elias region1 #afg ,desengao bay1 named by ,malaspina1 #fc ,digges' sound1 named by ,vancouver1 #fh ,diller1 ,j4 ,s41 ,contribution to exploration fund by1 #ge ,dip at ,pinnacle pass1 #adj ,discovery 7,the71 ,mention of1 #ff ,disenchantment bay1 ,canoe trip in1 #if1 #ajc -- -- last view of1 #afc -- -- mention of1 #ef -- -- visited by ,malaspina1 #fc1 #fd ,dixon1 ,captain ,george1 ,explorations of1 #fj1 #fb ,de ,monti bay1 ,arrival at1 #gi ,descubierta 7,the71 ,mention of1 #fc ,devil's club 7,panax horridum71 ,mention of1 #ie1 #aae ,dobbins1 ,j4 ,w41 ,contribution to exploration fund by1 #ge ,dome pass1 named1 #adf ,doney1 ,l4 ,s41 ,member of expedition1 #gf -- ,work of1 #he1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afj1 #afb ,douglass1 ,captain1 ,explorations of1 #fb ,dry bay1 ,mention of1 #ee ,farenholt1 ,lieutenant ,commander ,o4 ,f41 ,commander of ,u4 ,s4 ,s4 ,pinta1 #gi ,faulted pebble from ,pinnacle pass1 #aga ,faults1 #hc1 #acf -- ,thrust1 in ,hitchcock range1 #aah ,floral hills1 brief account of1 #aje1 #ajh -- pass1 brief account of1 #aje1 #ajh1 #aaj ,formations of the ,st4 ,elias region1 #afg ,fossils at ,pinnacle pass1 #adj -- description of ,yakutat system1 #agb ,fossil plants1 ,report on1 by ,lester ,f4 ,ward1 #aii1 #bjj ,gabbro on the ,marvine glacier1 #abc ,galiano1 ,don ,dionisio ,alcala1 ,mention of1 #fc ,galiano glacier1 ,visit to1 #hi1 #ij ,gannett1 ,henry1 ,contribution to exploration fund by1 #ge -- ,instructions from1 #aid ,geology of the ,st4 ,elias region1 #afg1 #aij1 #aia1 #agd ,geological ,survey1 ,instructions from1 #aib1 #aic1 #aid ,gilbert1 ,g4 ,k41 ,instructions from1 #aib1 #aic ,glacial currents1 #ahg -- river1 best example of1 #ahc -- streams1 #ahc1 #ahd ,glacier bay1 mention of1 #fg ,glaciers in ,disenchantment bay in #agib1 #fd1 #fe1 #ig -- -- -- -- observed by ,malaspina1 #fd1 #fe -- -- -- -- -- -- ,puget1 #fg1 #fh -- of the ,st4 ,elias region1 #agf -- west of ,icy bay1 #ahg ,greely1 ,a4 ,w41 ,contribution to exploration fund by1 #ge ,guides1 use of in ascending ,st4 ,elias1 #aff ,guyot glacier named1 #gc ,haenke1 ,d4 ,tadeo1 ,haenke island named for1 #fe -- island1 ,condition of1 when seen by ,malaspina1 #fc1 #fd1 #fe1 #ig -- -- visit to1 #if1 #ajc ,hayden1 ,dr4 ,f4 ,v41 glacier named for1 #ajh ,hayden1 ,everett1 ,contributions to exploration fund by1 #ge ,hayden glacier1 ,brief account of1 #ajh1 #aaj1 #aaa ,hays1 ,j4 ,w41 ,contribution to exploration fund by1 #ge ,height and position of ,st4 ,elias1 #ahi1 #aij ,hendriksen1 ,reverend ,carl ,j41 mention of1 #hj1 #hc ,hitchcock1 ,professor ,edward1 range named for1 #aab -- range1 brief account of1 #aab -- -- from ,pinnacle pass1 #acc -- -- structure of1 #aah ,hooper1 ,captain ,c4 ,l41 ,navigation of ,disenchantment bay1 #ef1 #ajj ,hosmer1 ,e4 ,s41 ,contribution to exploration fund by1 #ge -- return of1 #hc --1 volunteer assistant1 #gf ,hubbard1 ,gardiner ,g41 ,contribution to exploration fund by1 #ge --1 glacier named for1 #ii ,hubbard glacier1 brief description of1 #ii ,icebergs1 ,formation of1 #ih1 #ii1 #aja1 #ajb -- in ,yakutat bay1 description of1 #hg ,ice tunnels1 #ahd ,instructions from ,geological ,survey1 #aib1 #aic1 #aid -- -- ,national ,geographic ,society1 #aid ,irving1 ,professor ,r4 ,d41 ,mountain named for1 #add ,johnson1 ,willard ,d41 ,contribution to exploration fund by1 #ge -- exploration planned by1 #ge ,judd1 ,j4 ,g41 ,contribution to exploration fund by1 #ge ,jungen1 ,ensign ,c4 ,w41 ,mention of1 #ha ,kerr1 ,mark ,b41 assigned as an assistant1 #ge -- report on topographic work1 #aic ,khantaak island1 village on1 #gi1 #hj ,king1 ,harry1 ,contribution to exploration fund by1 #ge ,knapp1 ,hon4 ,lyman ,e41 ,mention of1 #gi ,knight island1 scenery near1 #hc -- -- named by ,puget1 #fh ,knowlton1 ,f4 ,h41 ,report on fossil plants1 #aii1 #bjj ,l',astrolabe1 ,mention of1 #eh ,la ,boussole1 ,mention of1 #eh ,lake ,castani1 ,named1 #gc ,lakelets on the glaciers1 #aai1 #abj ,lakes1 ,abandoned beds of1 near ,blossom island1 #aaf ,la ,prouse1 ,j4 ,f4 ,s41 ,explorations of1 #eh1 #fj ,leach1 ,boynton1 ,contribution to exploration fund by1 #ge ,libbey1 ,professor ,william1 explorations by1 #gb1 #gc ,lindsley1 ,w4 ,l41 ,member of expedition1 #gf -- ,work of1 #abb1 #aca1 #acd1 #ace1 #aci1 #add1 #adi1 #aej1 #aec1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #afd ,lituya bay1 mention of1 #ee ,logan1 ,sir ,w4 ,e41 ,mountain named for1 #ada ,lucia glacier1 brief account of1 #aib -- -- crossing of1 #aje1 #ajf1 #ajh1 #aji ,lynn canal1 mention of1 #gh ,malaspina1 ,alejandro1 ,explorations of1 #fb1 #ff ,malaspina glacier1 character of1 #ahg -- --1 described and named1 #ga1 #gb -- --1 excursion on1 #abj1 #aba1 #afb -- --1 from ,blossom island1 #aah1 #aai -- --1 mention of1 #ef ,maldonado1 reference to1 #fb1 #fc ,marvine1 ,a4 ,r41 ,glacier named for1 #aab ,marvine glacier1 ,account of1 #aab1 #abb1 #abd ,mc,carteney1 ,c4 ,m41 ,contribution to exploration fund by1 #ge ,mirage in ,yakutat bay1 #hg ,moraines1 #aie -- medial1 on the ,marvine glacier1 #abc -- on the ,malaspina glacier1 #acd -- near ,yakutat bay1 #aia ,mount ,augusta1 avalanches on the sides of1 #ade -- elevation of1 #aag ,mount ,bering1 ,height and condition of1 #fe ,mount ,cook1 ,appearance of1 #ib -- named1 #gb -- rocks composing1 #ib ,mount ,fairweather1 height of1 #fi ,mount ,logan1 named1 #ada ,mount ,malaspina1 ,elevation of1 #aag -- named1 #gb ,mount ,newton1 named1 #adf ,mount ,st4 ,elias 7see ,st4 ,elias1 ,mount7 ,mount ,vancouver1 named1 #gb ,muir glacier1 ,visit to1 #gh1 #gi ,mulgrave1 ,lord1 ,port ,mulgrave named for1 #fj ,national ,geographic ,society1 ,instructions from1 #aid ,nv fields1 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahb ,newton glacier1 ,ascent of1 #aej ,newton1 ,henry1 ,mountain named for1 #adf ,new ,york ,times1 ,expedition of1 #gb1 #gc ,nordhoff1 ,charles1 ,contribution to exploration fund by1 #ge ,norris glacier1 ,mention of1 #gh ,nunatak in the ,lucia glacier1 #ajf ,oil stoves1 ,use of1 #afd ,orel1 ,mention of the1 #gj ,otkrytie1 ,mention of the1 #fi ,outfit necessary for ,alaskan expeditions1 #afe ,panax horridum1 #ie1 #aae ,partridge1 ,william1 ,member of expedition1 #gf -- ,work of1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afb ,piedmont glaciers1 characteristics of1 #abb1 #agf1 #ahe1 #ahf -- -- example of1 #abj1 #aba -- type of glaciers1 mention of1 #eg ,pimpluna rocks1 mention of1 #gj1 #ahg ,pinnacle pass cliffs1 account of1 #acb1 #acg -- -- --1 height of1 #acg -- -- --1 view from1 #acb -- --1 description of1 #acj1 #acb -- -- named1 #acj -- system1 description of rocks of1 #afg1 #agj -- -- named1 #aca ,pinta1 mention of the1 #gi1 #ha ,phipps1 ,c4 ,j41 ,port ,mulgrave named for1 #fj ,plants on ,blossom island1 #aad ,point ,esperanza1 ,camp at1 #hb1 #hd1 #he -- ,glorious1 named1 #acg -- ,riou1 ,mention of1 #fi ,port ,mulgrave1 #ef -- -- named by ,dixon1 #fj ,powell1 ,j4 ,w41 ,contribution to exploration fund by1 #ge ,powell1 ,william ,b41 ,contribution to exploration fund by1 #ge ,puerto del ,desengao1 ,mention of1 #ef ,puget1 ,peter1 ,explorations of1 #ff1 #fh ,pyramid harbor1 ,mention of1 #gh ,queen ,charlotte1 ,mention of the1 #fj --1 voyage on the1 #gh1 #gi ,rations1 #afd ,report on sands from ,yakutat bay by ,j4 ,stanley-,brown1 #aif1 #aig1 #aih ,rivers1 ,glacial1 #ahc ,rope cliff1 named1 #adi ,route 7new71 suggested1 #afc1 #afd ,russell1 ,israel ,c41 ,contribution to exploration fund by1 #ge ,salmon 7and trout7 fishing1 #afb ,sands1 ,auriferous from ,yakutat bay1 #aif1 #aig1 #aih ,schwatka1 ,lieutenant ,frederick1 explorations by1 #gb1 #gc ,serpentine on the ,marvine glacier1 #abc ,seton-,karr1 ,h4 ,w41 explorations of1 #gb1 #gc ,seward glacier1 crevasses on1 #acc1 #agi1 #ahj -- -- crossing of1 #adb -- -- description of1 #agg1 #agh1 #agi ,seward1 ,hon4 ,w4 ,h41 ,glacier named for1 #abi ,sitka1 arrival at1 #gi ,snow crests1 figures of1 #adc -- line1 description of ,alpine glaciers above1 #ahj -- -- -- -- -- -- below1 #ahc ,snow line1 elevation of1 #ib1 #aaa -- on mountain crests1 #ahb ,soundings in ,disenchantment bay1 #ef ,stamy1 ,thomas1 ,member of expedition1 #gf -- ,work of1 #acg1 #aci1 #add1 #aej1 #aec1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #afj ,stanley-,brown1 ,j41 ,report on sands from ,yakutat bay1 #aif1 #aig1 #aih ,st4 ,elias described by ,la ,prouse1 #ei1 #fj --1 discovery of1 by ,bering1 #eh --1 first full view of1 #ace --1 view of1 #ia1 #ib --1 height and position of1 #ahi1 #aij -- -- -- -- --1 by ,tebenkof1 #fi -- -- -- of1 determined by ,la ,prouse1 #fj -- -- -- -- -- ,malaspina1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff -- range1 age of1 #age -- --1 character of peaks of1 #age -- region1 glaciers of1 #agf -- schist1 description of rocks of1 #afg1 #agc --1 suggested new route to1 #afc1 #afd -- uplift1 #aij ,stein1 ,robert1 translations by1 #ei1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff ,strait of ,annan1 #ef ,structure1 #agd ,swiss guides in ,alaskan exploration1 #aff ,sulphur1 ,mention of the1 #fi ,taku glacier1 ,mention of1 #gh -- inlet1 ,visit to1 #gh ,tebenkof1 ,captain1 ,notes on ,alaska by1 #fi1 #gj ,terrace on northern shore of ,yakutat bay1 #hb1 #he -- point1 ,brief account of1 #ajf ,thompson1 ,gilbert1 ,contribution to exploration fund by1 #ge ,tide-water glaciers defined1 #aja ,topographic work1 ,report on1 #aie ,topham1 ,edwin1 ,explorations by1 #gc1 #gd ,topham1 ,w4 ,h41 explorations by1 #gc1 #gd -- reference to map by1 #agg ,triangulation1 ,commencement of1 #hf ,tunnels in the ice1 #ahd ,tyndall glacier1 ,named1 #gc ,tyndall1 ,j41 cited on marginal crevasses1 #abg ,united ,states ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey1 explorations of1 #gj1 #gb ,vancouver1 ,captain ,george1 ,explorations by1 #ff1 #fh ,veratrum viride1 ,mention of1 #aad ,ward1 ,lester ,f41 ,report on fossil plants1 #aii1 #bjj ,white1 ,thomas1 ,member of expedition1 #gf --1 ,work of1 #aeh1 #afj ,willis1 ,baily1 contribution to exploration fund by1 #ge ,williams1 ,c4 ,a41 contribution to exploration fund by1 #ge ,williams1 ,william1 explorations by1 #gc1 #gd ,yakutat bay1 ,arrival at1 #gi -- --1 ,base camp on ,western shore of1 #hf1 #hi -- --1 ,shores of described1 #eg -- --1 ,synonomy of1 #ef -- ,indians1 described by ,dixon1 #fa -- system1 ,description of rocks of1 #afg -- -- named1 #aca