,,united ,,states ,,department ,,of ,,the ,,interior ,,hubert ,,work1 ,,secretary ,,national ,,park ,,service ,,stephen ,t4 ,,mather1 ,,director ,,fossil ,,forests ,,of ,,the ,,yellowstone ,,national ,,park ,,united ,,states ,,government ,,printing ,,office ,,washington #aibh #hhgha--bh----b ,,the ,,national ,,parks ,,at ,a ,,glance4 ,number1 #ai2 total area1 #aa1hag square miles4 ,national parks ,location4 ,area in ,distinctive characteristics4 in order of square creation4 miles4 ,hot ,springs ,middle #a #df hot springs possessing #ahcb ,arkansas4 curative properties--,many hotels and boarding houses--#bj bath-houses under public control4 ,yellowstone ,northwestern #c1cdh ,more geysers than in all rest #ahgb ,wyoming4 of world together--,boiling springs--,mud volcanoes--,petrified forests--,grand ,canyon of the ,yellowstone1 remarkable for gorgeous coloring--,large lakes--,many large streams and waterfalls--,vast wilderness1 greatest wild bird and animal preserve in world--,exceptional trout fishing4 ,sequoia ,middle #fjd ,the ,big ,tree ,national #ahij eastern ,park--,scores of sequoia trees #bj ,california4 to #cj feet in diameter1 thousands over #aj feet in diameter--,towering mountain ranges--,mount ,whitney1 highest peak in continental ,united ,states--,startling precipices--,cave of considerable size4 ,yosemite ,middle #a1abe ,valley of world-famed #ahij eastern beauty--,lofty cliffs--,romantic ,california4 vistas--,many waterfalls of extraordinary height--#c groves of big trees--,high ,sierra--,waterwheel falls--,good trout fishing4 ,general ,grant ,middle #d ,created to preserve the #ahij eastern celebrated ,general ,grant ,tree1 ,california4 #ce feet in diameter--#f miles from ,sequoia ,national ,park4 ,mount ,rainier ,west central #cbe ,largest accessible single peak #ahij ,washington4 glacier system--#bh glaciers1 some of large size--#dh square miles of glacier1 #ej to #ejj feet thick--,wonderful sub-alpine wild-flower fields4 ,crater ,lake ,southwestern #bdi ,lake of extraordinary blue in #aijb ,oregon4 crater of extinct volcano--,sides #a1jjj feet high--,interesting lava formations--,fine fishing4 ,wind ,cave ,south ,dakota4 #ag ,cavern having many miles of #aijc galleries and numerous chambers containing peculiar formations4 ,platt ,southern #a ,many sulphur and other springs #aija ,oklahoma4 possessing medicinal value4 ,sullys ,hill ,north ,dakota4 #a ,small park with woods1 streams1 #aijd and a lake--,is an important wild-animal preserve4 ,mesa ,verde ,southwestern #gg ,most notable and best preserved #aijf ,colorado4 prehistoric cliff dwellings in ,united ,states1 if not in the world4 ,glacier ,northwestern #a1ecd ,rugged mountain region of #aiaj ,montana4 unsurpassed ,alpine character--#bej glacier-fed lakes of romantic beauty--#fj small glaciers--,precipices thousands of feet deep--,almost sensational scenery of marked individuality--,fine trout fishing4 ,rocky ,mountain ,north middle #cgh ,heart of the ,rockies--,snowy #aiae ,colorado4 range1 peaks #aa1jjj to #ad1bej feet altitude--,remarkable records of glacial period4 ,hawaii ,hawaii4 #bdb ,three separate areas--,kilauea #aiaf and ,mauna ,loa on ,hawaii1 ,haleakala on ,maui4 ,lassen ,volcanic ,northern #abd ,only active volcano in ,united #aiaf ,california4 ,states proper--,lassen ,peak1 #aj1dfe feet--,cinder ,cone1 #f1hgi feet--,hot springs--,mud geysers4 ,mount ,mc,kinley ,south #b1fde ,highest mountain in ,north #aiag central ,america--,rises higher above ,alaska4 surrounding country than any other mountain in the world4 ,grand ,canyon ,north #a1jji ,the greatest example of erosion #aiai central and the most sublime spectacle ,arizona4 in the world4 ,lafayette ,maine coast4 #ab ,the group of granite mountains #aiai upon ,mount ,desert ,island4 ,zion ,southwestern #abj ,magnificent gorge 7,zion #aiai ,utah4 ,canyon71 depth from #a1ejj to #b1ejj feet1 with precipitous walls--,of great beauty and scenic interest4 ,,the ,,fossil ,,forests ,,of ,,the ,,yellowstone ,,national ,,park4 ,by ,f4 ,h4 ,knowlton1 ,united ,states ,geological ,survey4 ,,introduction4 ,isolated pieces of fossil wood are of comparatively common and widespread occurrence1 especially in the more recent geological deposits of the ,west4 ,not infrequently scattered logs1 stumps1 and roots of petrified or lignitized trees are brought to light1 but only exceptionally are they so massed and aggregated as to be worthy of the designation of fossil forests4 ,examples of such are the celebrated fossil forests of relatively late geological age near ,cairo1 ,egypt1 the huge prostrate trunks in the ,napa ,valley near ,calistoga1 ,cal41 and the geologically much older and far more extensive forests now widely known as the ,petrified ,forest ,national ,monument in ,apache ,county1 ,ariz4 ,but in many respects the most remarkable fossil forests known are those now to be described in the ,yellowstone ,national ,park4 ,in the forests first mentioned the trunks and logs were all prostrated before fossilization1 and it is perhaps not quite correct to designate such aggregations as veritable fossil forests1 though they usually are so called4 ,in the fossil forests of ,arizona1 for example1 which are scattered over many square miles of what is now almost desert1 all the trunks show evidence of having been transported from a distance before they were turned to stone4 ,most of them are not even in the position in which they were originally entombed1 but have been eroded from slightly higher horizons and have rolled in the greatest profusion to lower levels4 ,as one views these ,arizona forests from a little distance1 with their hundreds1 even thousands1 of segments of logs1 it is difficult to realize that they are really turned to stone and are now exhumed from the earth4 ,the appearance they present 7see fig4 #a7 is not unlike a 8log drive0 that has been stranded by the receding waters and left until the bark had disappeared and many logs had fallen into partial decay4 ,trunks of many sizes and lengths are now mingled and scattered about in the wildest profusion1 and the surface of the ground is carpeted with fragments of wood that have been splintered and broken from them4 ,in the ,yellowstone ,national ,park1 however1 most of the trees were entombed in the upright position in which they grew1 by the outpouring of various volcanic materials1 and as the softer rock surrounding them is gradually worn away they are left standing erect on the steep hillsides1 just as they stood when they were living3 in fact1 it is difficult at a little distance to distinguish some of these fossil trunks from the lichen-covered stumps of kindred living species4 ,such an aggregation of fossil trunks is therefore well entitled to be called a true fossil forest4 ,it should not be supposed1 however1 that these trees still retain their limbs and smaller branches1 for the mass of volcanic material falling on them stripped them down to bare1 upright trunks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--;,fossil ,logs in ,petrified ,forest ,national ,monument1 ,apache ,county1 ,arizona4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--,upright fossil trunk in ,gallatin ,mountains1 ,montana4 ,courtesy of ,e4 ,c4 ,alderson4 ,the fossil forests of the ,yellowstone ,national ,park cover an extensive area in the northern portion of the park1 being especially abundant along the west side of ,lamar ,river for about #bj miles above its junction with the ,yellowstone4 ,here the land rises rather abruptly to a height of approximately #b1jjj feet above the valley floor4 ,it is known locally as ,specimen ,ridge1 and forms an approach to ,amethyst ,mountain4 ,there is also a small fossil forest containing a number of standing trunks near ,tower ,falls1 and near the eastern border of the park along ,lamar ,river in the vicinity of ,cache1 ,calfee1 and ,miller ,creeks1 there are many more or less isolated trunks and stumps of fossil trees1 but so far as known none of these are equal in interest to the fossil forest on the slopes of ,specimen ,ridge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--,upright trunk and 8hoodoo0 in ,gallatin ,mountains1 ,montana4 ,courtesy of ,e4 ,c4 ,alderson4 ,the fossil forests are reached over a road from the ,mammoth ,hot ,springs1 or from ,camp ,roosevelt near ,tower ,falls1 and they are in their way quite as wonderful and worthy of attention as many of the other features for which the ,yellowstone ,national ,park is so justly celebrated4 ,recently another extensive fossil forest has been found on the divide between the ,gallatin and ,yellowstone ,rivers in the ,gallatin ,range of mountains1 in ,park and ,gallatin ,counties1 ,mont4 ,this forest1 which lies just outside the boundary of the ,yellowstone ,national ,park1 is said to cover #ce1jjj acres and to contain some wonderfully well preserved upright trunks1 many of them very large1 equaling or perhaps even surpassing in size some of those within the limits of the park4 ,two of the best preserved of these trunks are shown in figures #b and #c1 which are here reproduced by the kindness of ,mr4 ,e4 ,c4 ,alderson1 of ,bozeman1 ,mont4 ,in the beds of the streams and gulches coming down into the ,lamar ,river from ,specimen ,ridge and the fossil forests one may observe numerous pieces of fossil wood1 which may be traced for a long distance down the ,lamar and ,yellowstone ,rivers4 ,the farther these pieces of wood have been transported downstream1 the more they have been worn and rounded1 until ultimately they become smooth1 rounded 8pebbles0 of the stream bed4 ,the pieces of wood become more numerous and fresher in appearance upstream toward the bluffs1 until at the foot of the cliffs in some places there are hundreds1 perhaps thousands of tons that have but recently fallen from the walls above4 ,one traversing the valley of the ,lamar ,river may see at many places numerous upright fossil trunks in the faces of nearly vertical walls4 ,these trunks are not all at a particular level but occur at irregular heights3 in fact a section cut down through these #b1jjj feet of beds would disclose a succession of fossil forests 7see fig4 #d74 ,that is to say1 after the first forest grew and was entombed1 there was a time without volcanic outburst--a period long enough to permit a second forest to grow above the first4 ,this in turn was covered by volcanic material and preserved1 to be followed again by a period of quiet1 and these more or less regular alternations of volcanism and forest growth continued throughout the time the beds were in process of formation4 ,,geologic ,,relations4 ,while these fossil forests were growing and being entombed1 much of the area now within the limits of the park1 as well as large adjacent areas1 was the scene of tremendous geologic activities4 ,after the ,cretaceous period 7see diagram p4 #bh71 there was a time of great volcanic activity1 which appears to have lasted until perhaps the beginning of the glacial epoch4 ,there were many active volcanoes just west1 north1 and west of the park1 and some in the park itself4 ,from these volcanoes vast quantities of material were poured out1 building up in places whole mountain ranges4 ,thus the major portion of the great ,absaroka ,range1 just east of the park1 as it appears to-day1 was built up of volcanic material4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--;,ideal section through #b1jjj feet of beds of ,specimen ,ridge1 showing succession of buried forest4 ,after ,holmes4 ,mr4 ,arnold ,hague gives the following graphic account of this and adjacent areas3 ,from one end to the other the ,absarokas present a high1 imposing plateau1 with elevations ranging from #aj1jjj to over #ab1jjj feet above sea level4 ,the entire mass is made up almost exclusively of ,tertiary igneous rocks4 99 99 99 ,degradation of the mass has taken place on a grand scale4 ,vast quantities of volcanic ejectmenta have been removed from the summit1 but no reliable data exist by which the amount can be estimated even approximately4 ,all the higher portions have been sculptured by glacial ice4 ,enormous amphitheaters have been carved out of the loose agglomerates1 and peaks1 pinnacles1 and relics of great table-lands testify in some measure to the forces of erosion4 ,the plateau is scored by a complete network of deep valleys and gorges1 which dissect it in every direction1 and lay bare the structure of the vast volcanic pile4#a ,within the park there is evidence of similar volcanic activity1 and it is clear that the basin between the encircling ranges was filled to its present elevation by volcanic flows1 which formed the present park plateau4 ,the area within which the fossil forests are now found was apparently in the beginning an irregular but relatively flat basin1 on the floor of which after a time there grew the first forest4 ,then there came from some of the volcanoes1 probably those to the north1 an outpouring of ashes1 mud flows1 and other material which entirely buried the forest1 but so gradually that the trees were simply submerged by the incoming material1 few of them being prostrated4 ,on the raised floor of the basin1 after a time1 the next forest came into existence1 only to be in turn engulfed as the first had been1 and so on through the period represented by the #b1jjj feet or more of similar beds4 ,the series of entombed forests affords a means of making at least a rough estimate of the time required for the upbuilding of what is now ,specimen ,ridge and its extensions4 7,see p4 #bg47 ,during the time this #b1jjj feet of material was being accumulated1 and since then to the present day1 there has been relatively little warping of the earth's crust at this point2 that is1 the beds were then1 and still are1 practically horizontal1 so that the fossil forests1 as they are being gradually uncovered1 still stand upright4 ,when the volcanic activities had finally ceased1 the ever-working disintegrating forces of nature began to tear and wear down this accumulated material1 eroding the beds on a grand scale4 ,deep canyons and gulches have been trenched1 and vast quantities of the softer materials have been carried away by the streams and again deposited on lower levels or transported to great and unknown distances4 ,as the material in which the fossil forests are now entombed consist of ashes1 mud flows1 breccia1 and the like1 not all the beds are of the same texture end hardness1 so that erosion has acted unevenly on them and has produced many peculiar rock forms4 ,the grotesque so-called 8hoodoos0 have been carved out in this manner4 ,the fossil trunks1 being usually harder than the surrounding matrix in which they are embedded1 have more firmly resisted erosion and now project to different heights above the general level4 ,in exposed beds that are nearly or quite horizontal1 disintegration has acted at nearly equal pace on the trunks and on the matrix1 so that the trunks are nearly or quite on a level with the surrounding surface4 ,on steep hillsides1 however1 from which all loose material is easily and quickly removed1 some of the fossil trunks stand up to a height of #bj or #cj feet4 ,if the beds had been tilted at a considerable angle1 these trunks could project from the surface for only a short distance before their weight would break them off1 showing again the remarkably stable conditions that have continued since the trunks were covered up4 ,,amethyst ,,mountain4 ,the fossil forest that was first brought to scientific attention is on the northern slope of ,amethyst ,mountain1 opposite the mouth of ,soda ,butte ,creek1 #ab miles southeast of ,camp ,roosevelt4 ,the following account1 by ,dr4 ,william ,h4 ,holmes1 the discoverer of these fossil forests1 shows the impression first made by them3 ,as we ride up the trail that meanders the smooth river bottom ,lamar ,river we have but to turn our attention to the cliffs on the right hand to discover a multitude of the bleached trunks of the ancient forests4 ,in the steeper middle portion of the mountain face1 rows of upright trunks stand out on the ledges like the columns of a ruined temple4 ,on the more gentle slopes farther down1 but where it is still too steep to support vegetation1 save a few pines1 the petrified trunks fairly cover the surface1 and were at first supposed by us to be shattered remains of a recent forest4#b ,these trunks may easily be seen from the road along the ,lamar ,river1 about a mile away4 ,they stand upright--as ,holmes has said1 like the pillars of some ruined temple--and a closer view shows that there is a succession of these forests1 one above another4 ,in the foothills and several hundred feet above the valley there is a perpendicular wall of volcanic breccia1 which in some places attains a height of nearly #ajj feet4 ,the fossil trunks may be seen in this wall in many places1 all of them standing upright1 in the position in which they grew4 ,some of these trunks1 which are #b to #d feet in diameter and #bj to #dj feet high1 are so far weathered out of the rock as to appear just ready to fall3 others are only slightly exposed3 niches mark the places from which others have already fallen3 and the foot of the cliff is piled high with fragments of various sizes4 ,above this cliff fossil trunks appear in great numbers and in regular succession4 ,as they are all perfectly silicified1 they are more resistant than the surrounding matrix and consequently stand above it4 ,most of them are only a few inches above the surface1 but occasionally one rises as high as #e or #f feet4 ,the largest trunk observed in the park is found in this locality4 ,it is a little over #aj feet in diameter1 a measurement that includes a part of the bark4 ,it is very much broken down1 especially in the interior1 probably having been so disintegrated before it was fossilized4 ,it projects about #f feet above the surface4 ,at many places about ,amethyst ,mountain there are numerous fragments of fossil wood and many hollow trunks4 ,the material in which they had been embedded has been eroded away1 and they lie around in somewhat the same attitudes that are shown by all the trunks in the ,arizona fossil forests1 but there is little doubt that they were originally erect and have simply fallen by their own weight because of the removal of the material around them4 ,many of the trunks here1 as well as elsewhere in the park1 had decayed in the center before they were fossilized1 and some of the hollow interiors are filled with clusters and rosettes of beautiful crystals of amethyst1 which doubtless suggested the name given to the adjacent mountain4 ,much of this finely preserved wood1 as well as the trunks containing the crystals of amethyst1 was broken up and carried away by collectors of minerals and curiosities before the ,government control in the park was made sufficiently rigid to insure proper protection4 ,,specimen ,,ridge4 ,in many respects the most remarkable of the fossil forests is on the northwest end of ,specimen ,ridge1 about a mile southeast of ,junction ,butte and about opposite the mouth of ,slough ,creek4 ,so far as known1 this forest was first brought to scientific attention by ,mr4 ,e4 ,c4 ,alderson1 of ,bozeman1 ,mont41 and the writer1 who discovered it in ,august1 #ahhg4 ,it is found on the higher part of the ridge1 and covers several acres4 ,the trees are exposed at various heights on the very steep hillsides1 and one remarkable feature of the forest is that most of them project well above the surface4 ,one of the largest and best preserved trees stands at the very summit of the slope 7see title page74 ,this trunk1 which is that of a giant redwood1 is #bf feet in circumference without the bark and about #ab feet in height4 ,the portion of this huge trunk preserved is the base1 and it exhibits to a considerable degree the swelling or buttressing so well known in the living redwood4 ,the roots1 which are as large as the trunks of ordinary trees1 are now embedded in solid rock4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--,upright trunks in ,specimen ,ridge fossil forest4 ,on the steep hillside a short distance below the big tree just mentioned are the two trunks shown in figure #e4 ,they are about #b feet in diameter and #be feet high1 and stand some #bj feet apart1 and we may imagine them to have formed the doorposts of the 8ancient temple0 of which ,holmes speaks4 ,both these trunks are without the bark4 ,on the left of the figure is one of the huge irregular masses of rock that has been carved out by erosion4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--,trunk of fossil pine showing bark4 ,specimen ,ridge fossil forest4 ,in figure #f is shown another trunk about #c feet in diameter and nearly #cj feet high4 ,in several places along the trunk the thick bark may be noted4 ,this tree is a pine1 as are the two last described1 and slightly below and behind it are two living pine trees1 which are about the size it must have been when living4 ,another trunk1 some #ab feet in height1 is shown in figure #g1 and in figure #h there may be noted a standing trunk and above it another that has recently fallen4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--,trunk showing bark4 ,specimen ,ridge fossil forest4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--,upright and prostrate trunks1 ,specimen ,ridge fossil forest4 ,the height attained by the trees of this fossil forest can not be ascertained with certainty1 since the tallest trunk now standing is only about #cj feet high1 but every one observed is obviously broken off1 and does not show even the presence of limbs4 ,perhaps the nearest approach to a measure of the height is afforded by a trunk 7shown in fig4 #aj7 that happened to have been prostrated before fossilization4 ,this trunk1 which is #d feet in diameter1 is exposed for a length of about #dj feet1 and as it shows no apparent diminution in size within this distance it is safe to assume that the tree could hardly have been less than #ajj feet high and very probably may have been higher4 ,this trunk is wonderfully preserved4 ,as may be seen from the illustration1 it has broken up by splitting along the grain of the wood into great numbers of little pieces1 which closely resemble pieces of 8kindling wood0 split from a clear-grained block4 ,in fact1 at a distance of a few yards it would be impossible to distinguish this fossil 8kindling wood0 from that split from a living tree4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--,prostrate trunk of fossil redwood1 ,specimen ,ridge fossil forest4 ,the large redwood trunk already mentioned 7title-page7 as being nearly #aj feet in diameter may be compared with its living relative of the ,pacific coast in order to calculate its probable height4 ,the living redwood is usually #aj to #ae feet in diameter and ranges in height from #bjj to #caj feet1 and as the two are so very closely related there is no reason to suppose that the fossil trunk was of less height1 but by a moderate estimate it may be accredited with a minimum height of #bjj feet4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,yellowstone ,,national ,,park ,norris ,o ,denotes ,ranger ,station ,direction of ,travel ,distances given are between main points by road ,,note ,,the ,,mile-,,post ,,signs ,,tower ,,falls4 ,the most accessible fossil forest1 marked ,petrified ,trees on the map1 is west of the ,tower ,falls ,ranger ,station and ,camp ,roosevelt on the road from the ,grand ,canyon to ,mammoth ,hot ,springs1 by way of ,mount ,washburn4 ,it is on the middle slope of a hill that rises about #a1jjj feet above the little valley and may be reached by a branch road from the main loop road4 ,as the traveler approaches the forest he will observe a number of trunks standing upright among the stumps and trunks of living trees1 and so much resembling them that a near view is necessary to convince him that they are really fossil trunks4 ,only two rise to a considerable height above the surface4 ,the larger one is about #ae feet high and #ac feet in circumference 7fig4 #aa73 the other is a little smaller4 ,as the roots are not exposed1 it is impossible to determine the position of the part in view or the original diameter of the trees1 as the bark is nowhere preserved4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4--;,fossil trunk near ,tower ,falls4 ,photograph by ,f4 ,j4 ,haynes4 ,above these standing trunks lie many others1 which the disintegrating forces of nature break up into small fragments and keep at about the same level as that of their surrounding matrix4 ,some of these trunks rise only a few inches from the surface3 others are nearly covered by shifting dbris4 ,their diameter ranges from #a to #ad feet1 and they are so perfectly preserved that the rings of growth can easily be counted4 ,the internal structure is also in most trunks nearly as perfect as when the trees were living4 ,,cache ,,creek4 ,the forest that is next in size to the one a mile southeast of ,junction ,butte is on ,cache ,creek1 about #g miles above its mouth4 ,it is on the south bank of the creek and covers several acres4 ,the trunks are scattered from bottom to top of the slopes through a height of probably #hjj feet4 ,most of the trunks are upright1 but only a few project more than #b or #c feet above the surface4 ,the largest one observed was #f feet in height and #d feet in diameter4 ,most of these trunks appear to the naked eye to be conifers1 but a number are obviously dicotyledons--that is1 they were deciduous-leaved trees4 ,the conifers1 however1 were the predominant element in this as in the other fossil forests4 ,the slopes of the ,thunderer1 the mountain so prominently in view from ,soda ,butte on the south1 also bear numerous fossil trunks4 ,most of them are upright1 but only a very few project more than #b feet above the surface4 ,no remarkably large trunks were observed at this locality1 the average diameter being perhaps less than #b feet4 ,,other ,,localities4 ,mount ,norris1 which is hardly to be separated from the ,thunderer1 also bears a small fossil forest4 ,the trees are of about the same size and character as those in the larger mountain4 ,fossil forests of greater or less extent1 composed mainly of upright trunks1 are exposed also on ,baronett ,peak1 ,bison ,peak1 ,abiathar ,peak1 ,crescent ,hill1 and ,miller ,creek4 ,in fact1 there is hardly a square mile of the area of the northeastern portion of the park that is without its fossil forest1 scattered trunks1 or erratic fragments4 ,the vast area east of the ,yellowstone ,lake and the region still farther east1 beyond the limits of the park1 have not been thoroughly explored1 but enough is known to make it certain that these areas contain more or less fossil wood4 ,the stream beds in these areas in many places contain fragments of fossil wood1 which indicates that trunks of trees must be near at hand4 ,,the ,,process ,,of ,,fossilization4 ,the manner in which these forests were fossilized may next be considered4 ,though the whole history of the process is not fully understood1 it was undoubtedly dependent on or at least greatly facilitated by the presence of volcanic and hydrothermal activity1 which was doubtless then1 as it is to some extent now1 a marked feature of the park region4 ,at least a hint of the probable process is afforded by the action now going on in the hot spring areas4 ,many of those areas are closely surrounded by forests1 and unless the action of the springs is very violent the trees may be growing only a short distance away4 ,occasionally a hot spring may break out near the edge of a forest1 the first effect being1 of course1 to kill the trees4 ,in a few years1 by the action of the ordinary processes of decay1 a tree so killed may have lost its bark and most of its smaller branches4 ,the hot water which constantly or intermittently surrounds the tree contains a considerable amount of silica in solution1 and as this hot silica-charged water is drawn up into the wood by capillarity the silica may be deposited in the cells of the wood after the water cools or evaporates4 ,the first result will be a more or less complete cast of the interior of the cells and vessels of the wood4 ,this much of the process has actually been observed1 but as decay is more rapid than silicification1 the wood crumbles to dust before petrifaction is complete4 ,if the trunk could be surrounded by ashes or mud and thus protected from atmospheric action1 it might in time be completely turned to stone4 ,the fossil forests are surrounded by a matrix that is known as an acidic lava--that is1 a siliceous lava--which contains abundant silica in solution4 ,the first part of the process of silicification may well have been that above described as taking place in the hot spring areas at the present day--that is1 the silica would be deposited in all the cells and vessels of the wood1 making an accurate cast of all open spaces4 ,then1 while the slow process of decay went on1 as each particle of organic matter was removed its place was taken by the silica1 until1 finally1 all the wood substance had disappeared and its place atom by atom had been taken by silica4 ,by this or a similar process the wood has been preserved or fossilized with remarkable fidelity3 in fact1 thin sections or slices of the fossil wood may be studied under the higher powers of the microscope with almost or quite as much completeness and satisfaction as if they were sections cut from a piece of living wood4 ,each cell and vessel1 with its characteristic pits and markings1 is preserved exactly as it grew4 ,some of the wood1 however1 was evidently more or less decayed before it was fossilized1 or else decay worked faster than replacement1 so that in some fragments the structure is not so clearly preserved4 ,many of the trunks were subjected to pressure before replacement was complete1 and this has crushed or distorted the cells4 ,on the whole1 however1 the wood is exceptionally well preserved1 as may be seen in figures #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 and #ae4 ,these are all magnified #ajj diameters and were photographed directly from the thin sections--that is1 they are photomicrographs--and have not been retouched in any manner4 ,figure #ab shows a transverse section of the wood of the large redwood trunk that has been so often mentioned 7see title page74 ,the section is cut through one of the growth rings1 which consists of #ab or #ae rows of very thick-walled cells4 ,the large1 regular thin-walled cells1 which begin abruptly above the growth ring1 belong to the spring wood--that is1 the wood first formed after growth starts in spring1 when the supply of nourishment is abundant4 ,if there is sufficient moisture and all conditions are favorable this vigorous growth of wood cells may continue without interruption until the approach of cold or dry weather1 but not infrequently there may be a brief shortage of moisture1 and this is reflected in the formation of a few rows of thicker-walled cells4 ,such a condition may be observed in the present specimen1 in which a slight1 partial ring may be seen at some distance above the main ring4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--,thin section of wood of fossil redwood 7,sequoia magnifica71 showing growth ring4 ,section transverse4 ,magnified #ajj diameters4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--,thin section of wood of fossil pine 7,pityoxylon amethystinum71 showing growth ring and resin tube4 ,section transverse4 ,magnified #ajj diameters4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4--,thin section of wood of fossil pine 7,pityoxylon aldersoni71 showing medullary rays and resin tube4 ,section tangential4 ,magnified #ajj diameters4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--,thin section of wood of fossil laurel 7,laurinoxylon pulchrum71 showing wood cells1 tubes1 and rays4 ,section longitudinal4 ,magnified #ajj diameters4 ,the very perfect preservation of the wood of one of the pines 7,pityoxylon amethystinum7 is shown in figure #ac1 a view of a section cut through a part of a growth ring and into the spring and summer wood1 the rings in this species being so broad that it is impossible to show a complete one4 ,the opening near the bottom of the figure shows one of the large resin ducts1 which1 in the living wood1 is filled with the 8pitch0 that so readily exudes when a branch is cut or broken4 ,a longitudinal section of the other species of pine 7,pityoxylon aldersoni7 is shown in figure #ad4 ,the many little rows of superimposed cells in the midst of the long wood cells are the cut-off ends of what are known as medullary rays--that is1 the little plates of cells that connect pith and bark4 ,one of the resin cells cut in the long direction is shown near the center of the figure2 the contents are much darker than that of the wood cells4 ,the very great difference between the sections of coniferous wood just described and the wood of a deciduous tree is brought out in figure #ae1 which is a longitudinal section of a laurel 7,laurinoxylon pulchrum74 ,in this the wood cells are relatively much smaller and shorter1 and the medullary rays are in several irregular rows4 ,the large dotted duct near the middle of the figure is a feature not present in coniferous trees4 ,,species ,,represented4 ,an enumeration of the kinds of trees that are represented by the woods in the fossil forests of the ,yellowstone ,national ,park will naturally be demanded4 ,a superficial or macroscopic examination of these trunks would not permit a close decision as to the kind of wood3 in fact1 it would hardly be possible to do more than separate them by this means into coniferous and dicotyledonous trees4 ,but by studying thin sections under the microscope it is possible to distinguish the different kinds with reasonable accuracy4 ,as the result of such study the following species have been detected3 ,magnificent redwood 7,sequoia magnifica74 ,alderson's pine 7,pityoxylon aldersoni74 ,amethyst pine 7,pityoxylon amethystinum74 ,laurel 7,laurinoxylon pulchrum74 ,aromatic bay 7,perseoxylon aromaticum71 ,hayden's sycamore 7,plantaninium haydeni74 ,knowlton's sycamore 7,plantaninium knowltoni74 ,felix's buckthorn 7,rhamnacinium radiatum74 ,lamar oak 7,quercinium lamarense74 ,knowlton's oak 7,quercinium knowltoni74 ,although only three kinds of coniferous trees have thus far been found in the fossil forests of the park1 fully #ie per cent of all the trunks belong to these three species4 ,the preponderance of conifers is probably due to the facts that they were presumably more abundant in the beginning1 and that1 in general1 coniferous wood decays less rapidly than that of most of deciduous-leaved trees4 ,but the conditions were so favorable for preserving any wood that it is perhaps strange that not more trunks of deciduous-leaved trees have been found there4 ,as it is1 however1 a greater number are known from the park than from any other region4 ,thus1 the ,arizona fossil forests embraced only two species of deciduous-leaved trees3 the ,calistoga 7,california7 wood only one species1 and the forest at ,cairo1 ,egypt1 only four species4 ,the #aj species of trees represented in the fossil forests of the park are by no means the only fossil plants that have been found4 ,the fine-grained ashes and volcanic mud in which the forests were entombed contain also great numbers of impressions of plants1 many of them very perfectly preserved4 ,most of these are impressions of foliage1 such as fronds and leaves1 but they include also roots1 stems1 branches1 fruiting organs1 and even what is believed to be the petals of a large magnolia flower4 ,about #aej different kinds of fossil plants have been found in the park1 #hj in the same beds with the forests1 and most of the others in slightly higher and younger beds4 ,the list embraces #aj ferns1 among them a fine chain fern 7,woodwardia71 several aspleniums1 and a beautiful little climbing fern 7,lygodium74 ,the horse-tails 7,equisetum7 are represented by #d species4 ,the conifers include no less than #f species of pines 7,pinus71 a yew 7,taxodium71 and #b sequoias4 ,these have been identified either from the foliage or the cones1 and it is more than likely that some of the specimens may represent organs that belonged to trees represented by the fossil trunks1 but as they have never been found connected they have been described separately4 ,the monocotyledons1 or plants with parallel-veined leaves1 are represented by only a few forms1 such as a single large grass 7,phragmites71 a few sedges 7,cyperacites71 a smilax1 and a curious broad-leaved banana-like plant 7,musophyllum74 ,the dicotyledons1 or deciduous-leaved plants1 make up the bulk of the flora and include walnuts 7,juglans71 hickory nuts 7,hicoria71 bay berries 7,myrica71 poplars 7,populus71 willows 7,salix71 birches 7,betula71 hazel nuts 7,corylus71 beech nuts 7,fagus71 chestnuts 7,castanea71 oaks 7,quercus71 elms 7,ulmus71 figs 7,ficus71 breadfruits 7,artocarpus71 magnolias 7,magnolia71 laurels 7,laurus71 bays 7,persea71 cinnamons 7,cinnamomum71 sycamores 7,plantanus71 acacias 7,acacia71 sumachs 7,rhus71 bittersweet 7,celastrus71 maples 7,acer71 soap berries 7,sapindus71 buckthorns 7,rhammus71 grapes 7,cissus71 basswood 7,tilia71 aralias 7,aralia71 dogwoods 7,cornus71 persimmons 7,diospyros71 ash 7,fraxinus71 and a number of others without vernacular names4 ,,comparison ,,with ,,living ,,forests4 ,a brief comparison of the fossil forests with the forests now living in the ,yellowstone ,national ,park may be of some interest4 ,the present forests are prevailingly coniferous1 the most abundant and widely distributed tree being the lodgepole pine 7,pinus murrayana71 which forms dense forests over much of the plateau region4 ,it is distinguished by having the leaves in clusters of two4 ,it is a tree with a slender trunk1 usually #gj or #hj feet high1 though in exceptionally favorable localities it may reach a height of #aej feet4 ,its diameter rarely exceeds #b or #c feet4 ,the areas ravaged by forest fires are usually reforested by this pine alone1 and the young trees come up so close together as to form thickets that can scarcely be penetrated4 ,there are two other pines in the park1 both white pines1 allied to the common white pine of the ,eastern ,states1 and like it both have the leaves in clusters of #e4 ,one1 known as the ,rocky ,mountain white pine 7,pinus flexilis7 is a small tree1 only #dj or #ej feet in height1 and usually grows singly or in small groves4 ,the other1 called the ,western white pine 7,pinus albicaulis71 is still smaller1 being usually #bj to #cj feet high1 and has a short trunk some #b to #d feet in diameter4 ,it grows on high slopes and exposed ridges4 ,perhaps next in abundance to the lodgepole pine is the white or ,engelmann spruce 7,picea engelmanni71 a tall1 handsome tree with disagreeable smelling foliage4 ,another rather abundant tree is the ,douglas spruce1 or red fir 7,pseudotsuga mucronata71 which1 where best developed on the ,pacific coast1 attains a height of #bjj feet1 though in the drier interior it is rarely over #hj or #ajj feet high4 ,there are also two species of fir1 the white fir 7,abies grandis7 and the ,balsam fir 7,abies lasiocarpa71 and a single juniper 7,juniperus communis siberica71 which is often scarcely more than a shrub4 ,the deciduous-leaved trees are almost a negligible element in the present park flora1 being confined to an occasional cottonwood 7,populus angustifolia7 at the lower elevations1 along the ,yellowstone ,river1 and small groves of the quaking aspen 7,populus tremuloides74 ,along the streams and in wet places there are many species of willow 7,salix7 and several alders 7,alnus71 and in mountain bogs and valleys there is a small birch 7,betula glandulosa74 ,there are1 of course1 many small shrubs1 such as gooseberries1 currants1 and roses4 ,,age ,,of ,,the ,,fossil ,,forests4 ,the question is often asked1 ,how old are the fossil forests8 ,it is1 of course1 impossible to fix their age exactly in years1 though it is easy enough to place them in the geologic time scale4 ,the stratified rocks that make up the crust of the earth1 from the oldest we know to the most recent1 have been divided by geologists into a number of major divisions or systems1 each--except perhaps the oldest--containing the remains of certain kinds of plants and animals4 ,the accompanying diagram 7fig4 #af71 shows these major time divisions1 arranged in their proper sequence from the lowest to the highest4 ,the star 7997 in this geologic time scale indicates the age of the rocks in which the fossil forests were entombed4 ,it shows that they were buried during the ,tertiary period4 ,this period is divided into four epochs1 the oldest called ,eocene1 having been succeeded in turn by the ,oligocene1 the ,miocene1 and the ,pliocene1 which just precedes the ,pleistocene or glacial epoch4 ,the forests of the ,yellowstone ,national ,park are found in the ,miocene series of the ,tertiary4 ,as compared with the eons of geologic time that preceded it the ,miocene is relatively very recent1 though1 if the various estimates of the age of the earth that have been made by geologists are anywhere near correct it may well have been a million years ago4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that this estimate involves more or less speculation based on a number of factors which may or may not have been correctly interpreted4 ,a study of the fossil trees themselves gives at least a rough approximation as to the length of time it may have taken to accumulate the beds in which they are now buried4 ,as already mentioned1 there is a succession of forests1 one above another1 through a thickness of #b1jjj feet of strata4 ,the unit of the measure of the time is the time taken by each forest to grow4 ,pine trees of the types represented in the fossil trunks require #bjj or #cjj years to reach maturity1 and redwoods may require from #ejj to #a1jjj years4 ,twelve or more of these forest levels have been found4 ,by multiplying this number by the minimum age of the trees 7#bjj years7 we shall have #b1djj years1 and by multiplying it by the maximum age of the redwood 7#a1jjj years7 we shall have #ab1jjj years as the possible time during which these forests flourished4 ,it is possible that the truth lies somewhere between these extremes4 ,fig4 #af4--;,geologic divisions4 ,era4 ,period4 ,epoch4 ,cenozoic4 ,quaternary4 ,recent4 ,pleistocene 7glacial74 99,tertiary4 ,pliocene4 99,miocene4 ,oligocene4 ,eocene4 ,mesozoic4 ,cretaceous4 ,jurassic4 ,triassic4 ,paleozoic4 ,carboniferous4 ,devonian4 ,silurian4 ,ordovician4 ,proterozoic4 ,cambrian4 ,algonkian4 ,archean4 ,,climate ,,during ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,fossil ,,trees4 ,a final word may be added regarding the probable climate of the region during the lifetime of these fossil forests4 ,it is obvious that the present flora of the ,yellowstone ,national ,park has comparatively little relation to the ,tertiary flora and can not be considered the descendant of it4 ,it is also clear that the climatic conditions must have greatly changed since ,tertiary time4 ,the ,tertiary flora appears to have come from the south1 but the present flora is evidently of more northern origin4 ,the climate during ,tertiary time1 as indicated by the vegetation1 was temperate or warm-temperate1 not unlike that of ,virginia or the ,carolinas at the present time1 and the presence of numerous species of figs1 a supposed bread-fruit tree1 cinnamons1 bays1 and other southern plants indicates that it may have been almost subtropical4 ,however1 the conditions that were favorable to this seemingly subtropical growth may have been different from the conditions now necessary for the growth of similar vegetation4 ,it may be that these supposed subtropical plants were at that time so constituted as to grow in a temperate land1 and that they may have become tropical in recent times4 ,following this general line of thought it may be said that although the ,tertiary vegetation of the ,yellowstone ,national ,park would now be regarded as indicating a temperate or even warmer climate1 the actual climate may not have been subtropical4 ,it is certain1 however1 that the conditions were very different from those now prevailing in the park4 ,,publications ,,on ,,yellowstone ,,national ,,park4 ,,distributed ,,free ,,by ,,the ,,national ,,park ,,service4 ,the following publication may be obtained free on written application to the ,director of the ,national ,park ,service3 ,circular of ,general ,information1 ,yellowstone ,national ,park 7issued yearly74 ,this pamphlet contains general information of interest to the tourist4 ,,sold ,,by ,,the ,,superintendent ,,of ,,documents4#c ,the following publications may be obtained from the ,superintendent of ,documents1 ,government ,printing ,office1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 at the prices given4 ,remittances should be made by money order or in cash3 ,national ,park ,portfolio1 by ,robert ,sterling ,yard4 #bgj pages1 including #caj illustrations4 ,bound securely in cloth1 #a4 ,contains nine chapters1 each descriptive of a national park and one larger chapter devoted to other national parks and monuments4 ,geological ,history of ,yellowstone ,national ,park1 by ,arnold ,hague1 #bb pages1 including #aj illustrations1 #aj cents4 ,this pamphlet contains a general rsum of the geologic forces that have been active in the ,yellowstone ,national ,park4 ,geysers of the ,yellowstone ,national ,park1 by ,walter ,harvey ,weed1 #cb pages1 including #bc illustrations1 #aj cents4 ,in this pamphlet is a description of the forces which have produced the geysers1 and the geysers of the ,yellowstone are compared with those in ,iceland and ,new ,zealand4 ,fossil ,forests of the ,yellowstone ,national ,park1 by ,f4 ,h4 ,knowlton1 #cj pages1 including #ae illustrations1 #aj cents4 7,this publication47 ,this pamphlet contains descriptions of the fossil forests of the ,yellowstone ,national ,park and an account of their origin4 ,fishes of the ,yellowstone ,national ,park1 by ,w4 ,c4 ,kendall 7,bureau of ,fisheries ,document #hah47 #bh pages1 including #ag illustrations1 #e cents4 ,contains descriptions of the species and lists of streams where found4 ,,map4#c ,a topographic map of the park may be purchased from the ,director of the ,geological ,survey1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 at the price given4 ,remittances should be made by cash or money order4 ,map of ,yellowstone ,national ,park4 size #bh by #cb inches2 scale1 #b miles to the inch4 ,price1 #be cents4 ,the roads1 trails1 and names are put in black1 the streams and lakes in blue1 and the relief is indicated by brown contour lines4 ,,footnotes #a;,hague1 ,arnold1 ,early ,tertiary ,volcanoes of the ,absaroka ,range3 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,wash41 ,presidential ,address1 #ahii1 p4 #d4 #b;,holmes1 ,w4 ,h41 ,twelfth ,ann4 ,rept4 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 and ,geogr4 ,surv4 ,terr41 #ahgh 7#ahhc7 p4 #dh4 #c,may be purchased by personal application at the information office in the park1 at ,mammoth ,hot ,springs1 but that office can not fill mail orders4 ,transcriber's ,notes --,silently corrected a few typos4 --,retained publication information from the printed edition3 this e,book is public-domain in the country of publication4 --,in the text versions only1 text in italics is delimited by underscores4