,,the ,,visual ,,instruction ,,committee ,,of ,,the ,,colonial ,,office4 ------- ,,eight ,,lectures ,,on ,,india4 ------- ,,prepared ,,for ,,the ,,committee ,,by ,h4 ,j4 ,,mackinder1 ,lately ,director of the ,london ,school of ,economics and ,political ,science3 ,author of 8,britain and the ,british ,seas40 ------- ,with ,lantern ,illustrations4 ------- ,,one ,,shilling ,,net4 ,,waterlow ,,sons ,,limited1 ,,printers1 ,,london ,,wall4 --- #aiaj4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #dhj ,slides1 #fj for each ,lecture1 have been prepared in connection with this book1 and are sold on behalf of the ,committee by ,messrs4 ,newton ,co41 #c1 ,fleet ,street1 ,london1 ,e4,c41 from whom the books of lectures can also be obtained4 ,the complete set of #dhj ,slides1 in eight padded boxes1 may be had for #ej1 or the ,slides to accompany the several ,lectures will be sold for ,six ,guineas each ,lecture4 ,single ,slides will not be sold4 ,the series consists for the most part of views taken by ,mr4 ,a4 ,hugh ,fisher1 the artist who went to ,india for the purpose on behalf of the ,committee4 ,some of them are photographs coloured by hand from sketches in colour prepared by ,mr4 ,fisher1 and some are colour photographs by the ,sanger ,shepherd process reproducing ,mr4 ,fisher's own sketches4 ,there are also many maps in colour prepared by the ,diagram ,company4 -------------- ,the slides of this series are copyright4 ------------------------------------ ,,entered ,,at ,,stationers ,,hall4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,the ,,visual ,,instruction ,,committee4 ,,appointed ,,by ,,the ,,secretary ,,of ,,state ,,for ,,the ,,colonies4 ---------------------------- ,,the ,,right ,,honourable ,,the ,,earl ,,of ,,meath1 ,k4,p41 ,chairman4 ,,the ,,right ,,honourable ,,sir ,,cecil ,,clementi ,,smith1 ,g4,c4,m4,g4 ,,sir ,,john ,,struthers1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,,ll4,d41 ,secretary to the ,scotch ,education ,department4 ,,sir ,,philip ,,hutchins1 ,k4,c4,s4,i41 late ,member of the ,council of the ,secretary of ,state for ,india4 ,,sir ,,charles ,,lucas1 ,k4,c4,m4,g41 ,c4,b41 of the ,colonial ,office4 ,,sir ,,charles ,,holroyd1 ,director of the ,national ,gallery4 ,h4 ,f4 ,,heath1 ,ph4,d41 ,director of ,special ,inquiries and ,reports1 ,board of ,education4 ,h4 ,j4 ,,mackinder1 ,m4,p41 late ,director of the ,london ,school of ,economics and ,political ,science4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,mercer1 ,c4,m4,g41 ,crown ,agent for the ,colonies4 ,r4 ,d4 ,,roberts1 ,d4,sc41 ,secretary of the ,gilchrist ,educational ,trust4 ,,professor ,,michael ,e4 ,,sadler1 ,,ll4,d41 ,professor of ,education in the ,university of ,manchester4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,the ,,visual ,,instruction ,,committee ,,of ,,the ,,colonial ,,office4 ------- ,the component parts of the ,british ,empire are so remote and so different from one another1 that it is evident the ,empire can only be held together by sympathy and understanding1 based on widely diffused knowledge of its geography1 history1 resources1 climates1 and races4 ,it is obvious that if this knowledge is to be effective it must be imparted to the coming generation4 ,in other words it must be taught in the ,schools of the ,empire4 ,in the ,autumn of #aijb1 a ,committee was appointed by the ,secretary of ,state for the ,colonies to consider on what system such teaching might best be developed4 ,the ,committee came to the conclusion that children in any part of the ,empire would never understand what the other parts were like unless by some adequate means of visual instruction2 and1 further1 that as far as possible the teaching should be on the same lines in all parts of the ,empire4 ,it was decided to make a beginning by an experiment on a small scale1 and for this purpose to invite the three ,eastern ,colonies of ,ceylon1 the ,straits ,settlements1 and ,hong ,kong to bear the expense of a small book of ,lantern ,lectures on the ,united ,kingdom for use in the ,schools in those ,colonies4 ,other parts of the ,empire were afterwards invited to have editions which would be suited to their own special requirements prepared at their own expense1 and up to the present date editions have been issued for the ,eastern ,colonies1 for the ,west ,indies1 for ,west ,africa1 for ,mauritius1 and for ,india4 ,editions are now in preparation for ,canada and for ,south ,africa4 ,the ,committee1 however1 have always had in mind the preparation of illustrated lectures on the ,colonies and ,india as well as on the ,united ,kingdom4 ,their experience convinced them that if this part of the work were to be done as well as it could be done1 it was advisable to have the illustrations prepared on a uniform system by a highly skilled artist or artists specially commissioned for the purpose4 ,they were so fortunate as to interest in their work ,her ,majesty the ,queen 7then ,her ,royal ,highness the ,princess of ,wales71 and through her powerful and gracious support1 and that of ,lady ,dudley and a ,committee of ladies who were good enough to collect a sum of nearly #d1jjj for the purpose1 they have been able to make a beginning of a work which will take some years to complete4 ,the ,committee desire to record their warm gratitude to ,her ,majesty1 to ,lady ,dudley1 and to the ,committee of ladies for making this part of the undertaking possible4 ,the lectures contained in the present little volume are the first instalment of the work undertaken in connection with the ,queen's ,fund4 ,the ,committee's artist1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,hugh ,fisher1 has travelled through ,india collecting material for the illustrative lantern slides4 ,his sketches and photographs have been reproduced partly by the ordinary process in black and white1 and partly by the ,sanger ,shepherd method in colour photography4 ,some of the slides have been coloured by hand after ,mr4 ,fisher's instructions4 ,a series of maps has also been included1 in order that the lessons of the lectures may be driven home4 ,the text of the lectures has been prepared at the request of the ,committee by ,mr4 ,h4 ,j4 ,mackinder1 who has based his work on information placed at his disposal from many sources4 ,the ,committee believe that he has succeeded in presenting in their relative importance and proportion all the chief facts essential to the popular understanding of ,his ,majesty's ,indian ,dominions4 ,it is1 of course1 obvious that no account confined within the narrow limits of the present lectures1 of so wide and varied an ,empire as that of ,india1 can give a completely accurate picture of all the many important facts and questions that are referred to2 but in order to reduce to a minimum the chance of giving misleading impressions1 ,mr4 ,mackinder has had the advantage of suggestions from several eminent authorities on the subject1 and in this connection the ,committee desire especially to thank ,sir ,walter ,lawrence1 ,sir ,william ,lee-,warner1 ,sir ,theodore ,morison1 ,sir ,thomas ,holdich1 ,sir ,william ,bisset1 ,sir ,philip ,hutchins1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,w4 ,forrest1 ,c4,i4,e41 and others4 ,,meath1 ,chairman of the ,visual ,instruction ,committee ,,london1 ,august1 #aiaj4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,publications of the ,visual ,instruction ,committee1 issued on behalf of the ,committee by ,messrs4 ,waterlow ,sons ,ltd4 ,a4 ,seven ,lectures on the ,united ,kingdom1 ,by ,mr4 ,h4 ,j4 ,,mackinder4 ,in the following ,editions3-- #a4 ,eastern ,colonies ,edition1 ,sept41 #aije4 ,in use in ,ceylon1 the ,straits ,settlements1 and ,hong ,kong4 #b4 ,mauritius ,edition1 ,june1 #aijf4 ,in use in ,mauritius4 #c4 ,west ,african ,edition1 ,sept41 #aijf4 ,in use in ,sierra ,leone1 the ,gold ,coast1 and ,southern ,nigeria4 #d4 ,west ,india ,edition1 ,sept41 #aijf4 ,in use in ,trinidad1 ,british ,guiana1 and ,jamaica4 #e4 ,indian ,edition1 ,march1 #aijg4 ,in use in the following ,provinces3--,madras1 ,bombay1 ,bengal1 the ,united ,provinces1 the ,punjab1 ,burma1 ,eastern ,bengal and ,assam1 the ,central ,provinces1 the ,north ,west ,frontier ,province1 and ,british ,baluchistan4 #f4 ,indian ,edition for use in the ,united ,kingdom1 ,jan41 #aiji4 ,price ,one ,shilling net4 ,canadian and ,south ,african ,editions are being prepared by direction of the ,governments of the ,dominion of ,canada and of ,south ,africa4 ,b4--,eight ,lectures on ,india4 ,august1 #aiaj4 ,by ,mr4 ,h4 ,j4 ,,mackinder4 ,price ,one ,shilling net4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,contents4 --- ,,page4 ,,lecture ,i4 --,madras--the ,hindu ,religion #a ,,lecture ,,ii4 --,burma--the ,buddhist ,religion #ai ,,lecture ,,iii4 --,bengal--the ,monsoons #ce ,,lecture ,,iv4 --,the ,united ,provinces--the #ea ,mutiny ,,lecture ,v4 --,bombay--the ,marathas #ff ,,lecture ,,vi4 --,rajputana--the ,feudatory #hb ,states ,,lecture ,,vii4 --,delhi-the ,muhammadan ,religion #ie ,,lecture --,the ,northwest ,frontier--the #aad ,,viii4 ,sikhs ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,note4--,it is considered undesirable to overload this book with footnotes1 and1 therefore1 this general acknowledgment is made of the indebtedness of the writer to various standard authors of whose works use has been made and quotations from which have in some cases been given4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,lecture ,i4 --- ,,madras4 --- ,,the ,,hindu ,,religion4 ,india is an empire within an empire4 ,there are four hundred million people in the ,british ,empire1 and of these three hundred million are in ,india4 ,though it is known by a single short name1 ,india must not be compared with countries such as ,france and ,germany4 ,as regards both area and population it is the equal of half ,europe1 that half which includes all the countries except ,russia4 ,it is a land of many languages1 some of them spoken by as many people as speak ,german or ,french4 ,it is a land of several religions1 differing more deeply than the sects of ,europe ,it is1 in short1 a world in itself1 of ancient civilisation1 yet as the result of a wonderful modern history there is to-day peace from end to end of it1 for though the systems of government are very different in different parts1 yet everywhere the rulers1 whether ,british officials or native princes1 acknowledge the sovereignty or the suzerainty of ,his ,imperial ,majesty ,king ,george the ,fifth4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,map of ,journey1 ,london to ,colombo4 ,india lies one quarter way round the globe1 or ninety degrees eastward from ,britain4 ,it is placed wholly in warmer latitudes than ,europe1 for the northernmost point of ,india is almost precisely in the latitude of the southernmost point of ,europe4 ,it occupies the same latitudes as the great western wing of ,africa4 ,if lifted bodily northward and placed upon the map of ,europe1 it would extend from ,gibraltar1 past ,spain1 ,france1 and ,britain to a point beyond the ,shetland ,isles4 ,the ,british ,empire in ,india was won1 organised1 and defended in the days before steam4 ,access to it was possible only by sailing ship round the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 by an ocean path1 that is to say1 more than ten thousand miles long4 ,the voyage took several months4 ,to-day the ,british official1 and soldier1 and merchant go from ,london to ,bombay1 and the ,indian student comes from ,bombay to ,london in a fortnight4 ,as we see on the map1 the route is by rail to ,dover1 across the ,straits of ,dover1 and by rail again through ,france to ,marseilles4 ,there the traveller joins the steamer which has carried a cargo1 probably of cottons and machinery1 through the ,bay of ,biscay4 ,from ,marseilles the track is through the two ,straits of ,bonifacio and ,messina to the entry of the ,suez ,canal at ,port ,said4 ,here the mails are put on board1 which have come through the ,italian peninsula to ,brindisi1 and thence by rapid steamer4 ,thus it is only from ,port ,said through the ,canal and the ,red ,sea to ,aden that the vessel carries her complete burden--mails and passengers1 and cargo4 ,the redistribution commences at ,aden4 ,our steamer happens to be bound1 not for ,bombay1 but for ,colombo and ,australia1 and the ,indian mails and passengers are transferred at ,aden to a local steamer1 which crosses to ,bombay4 ,from ,london to ,colombo and ,bombay is the naval high street of the ,british ,empire4 ,at ,gibraltar1 ,malta1 and ,aden1 where the waterways narrow and enemies might obstruct1 are ,british garrisons and naval stations4 ,even the ,suez ,canal is partly owned by the ,british ,government4 ,a generation ago shares in that great undertaking were purchased by the ,united ,kingdom for four million pounds sterling4 ,to-day the ,british shares in the ,canal are valued at more than thirty millions sterling1 and each year a profit of more than a million pounds is paid into the ,british ,exchequer4 ,there is a garrison of ,british troops also in ,egypt4 ,colombo is one of the chief centres of communication in the world4 ,some day1 when the ,dominions beyond the seas have grown to be as rich and as populous as ,britain herself1 the way through the ,mediterranean1 to-day all important1 will be reckoned as one of several equal threads of imperial power4 ,other great streams of traffic1 ,india-bound1 will then converge upon ,colombo from the ,cape in the southwest1 from ,australia in the southeast1 and by way of ,singapore from ,canada in the east4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,map of the ,indian ,seas4 ,colombo is1 however1 not in the technical sense ,indian4 ,it is the chief city of the beautiful island of ,ceylon1 which is about as large as ,ireland4 ,the ,governor of ,ceylon writes his despatches home not to the ,secretary of ,state for ,india but to the ,secretary of ,state for the ,colonies1 for ,ceylon is a ,crown ,colony1 not a ,province of the ,indian ,empire4 ,we will1 therefore1 leave ,ceylon to be studied at some other opportunity1 and will take the steamer which in a night crosses the ,gulf of ,manar to ,tuticorin1 on the ,indian coast opposite4 ,as we lie in our bunks that night1 while the ship ploughs the water in the dark1 let us realize to what point on the vast surface of the globe we have travelled4 ,a hundred miles away to east of us are the mountains of ,ceylon1 rising some eight thousand feet above the level of the ocean4 ,a hundred miles to west is ,cape ,comorin1 the southernmost point of ,india1 lying eight degrees north of the ,equator4 ,let us not be deceived by the apparent smallness of space on the maps which we use--those eight degrees are nearly equivalent to the length of ,great ,britain4 ,from ,cape ,comorin two coasts diverge1 the one known as the ,malabar ,coast northwestward for a thousand miles1 the other known as the ,coromandel ,coast northward and then northeastward for a like distance4 ,the surf of the ,arabian ,sea beats on the ,malabar ,coast1 that of the ,bay of ,bengal on the ,coromandel ,coast4 ,both the ,arabian ,sea and the ,bay of ,bengal open broadly southward to the ,indian ,ocean1 for the great ,indian ,peninsula narrows between them to a sharp point at ,cape ,comorin4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,map of ,southern ,india4 ,the interior of the ,indian ,peninsula is for the most part a low plateau1 known as the ,deccan1 whose western margin forms a steep brink overlooking the ,malabar ,coast4 ,from the top of this brink1 called the ,western ,ghats1 the surface of the plateau falls gently eastward to a second lower brink1 which bears the name of ,eastern ,ghats4 ,between the ,eastern ,ghats1 however1 and the ,coromandel ,coast there is a broad belt of low-lying plain1 the ,carnatic4 ,thus ,india presents a lofty front to the ship approaching from the west1 but a featureless plain along the ,bay of ,bengal1 where the trees of the coastline appear to rise out of a water-horizon when seen from a short distance seaward4 ,sidenote3 #d4 ,approaching ,tuticorin4 ,we wake at the dawn of the equatorial day which comes almost suddenly at six in the morning4 ,there is bustle on board1 for the launch is alongside which is to carry us ashore4 ,the ship is riding in a yellow1 turbid sea1 and the land is distant some miles to the west1 a low dark line along the horizon4 ,at one point are white buildings1 which gleam in the increasing light4 ,we cross the broad shoal1 and gradually the detail of the coast separates into a rich vegetation of trees1 and a city whose most prominent object is a cotton factory with tall chimneys--strange reminder at the very threshold of our journey that we are entering a land which is in process of economic change4 ,the ,united ,kingdom underwent such a change a century ago1 when spinning and weaving were removed from the cottage to the steam-driven factory4 ,sidenote3 #e4 ,nearer approach to ,tuticorin4 ,india is a land of cotton4 ,the very name calico is derived from ,calicut1 a town on the ,malabar ,coast1 which was a centre of trade when ,europeans first came over the ocean4 ,lancashire now sends cotton fabrics to ,india1 and the ,lancashire power-looms compete seriously with the finer work of the hand looms of ,india4 ,but ,india manufactures great quantities of her own coarser cottons1 and such a mill as this at ,tuticorin is doing more than ,lancashire to change the occupations of the ,indian people4 ,the beautiful silks1 however1 worn by the better-to-do women of ,india are still manufactured by hand loom4 ,sidenote3 #f4 ,landing at ,tuticorin4 ,sidenote3 #g4 ,the ,bazaar1 ,tuticorin4 ,sidenote3 #h4 ,spinning ,mill at ,tuticorin4 ,sidenote3 #i4 ,ducks at ,tuticorin4 ,we land4 ,dark gesticulating figures surround us1 scantily clad in white cotton4 ,the morning sun casts long shadows1 but there is a throng of people1 for the work of ,india is done in the cool of the morning4 ,the express train to ,madras is waiting1 but we have a short time for that first stroll1 which leaves so deep an impression on the traveller setting foot in a new land4 ,tuticorin is a remote provincial city1 a ,dover or a ,calais1 on the passage from ,ceylon4 ,here is a picture of its little bazaar with dark people in flowing white robes2 there is a country cart in the street--ox-drawn4 ,next we have a nearer view of the spinning mill with a half-naked workman in the foreground4 ,under the shade of these leafy trees is a flock of ducks for sale4 ,at every turn we see something characteristic1 and must ask questions4 ,sidenote3 ,repeat ,map ,no4 #c4 ,we leave ,tuticorin and travel for a hundred miles across the plain4 ,it is a barren-looking country and dry1 though at certain seasons there is plentiful rain1 and crops enough are produced to maintain a fairly dense population4 ,far down on the western horizon1 as we journey northward1 are the mountains of the ,malabar ,coast1 for in this extremity of ,india the ,western and ,eastern ,ghats have come together and there is no plateau between them4 ,the mountains rise from the western sea and from the eastern plain into a ridge along the west coast whose summits are about as high as the summits of ,ceylon1 that is to say some #h1jjj feet4 ,a group of small hills1 isolated on the plain1 marks the position of ,madura1 a hundred miles from ,tuticorin4 ,madura is the seat of one of the finest temples in the land4 ,sidenote3 #aj4 ,plan of a ,south ,indian ,temple4 ,a ,hindu temple in ,southern ,india usually consists of a square building rising through several stories which grow gradually smaller4 ,it is thus pyramidal in form1 and is adorned with tiers of thronged sculpture4 ,within is a cell containing the image4 ,the temple itself is surrounded by square and walled enclosures1 one without the other2 the great gateways through the successive walls are the chief glories of southern architecture4 ,though often larger than the central shrine1 they are not unlike it in general appearance1 but rectangular in plan1 not square4 ,they rise story above story to a summit ridge and are rich with thousands of sculptured figures4 ,these great gateways are known as gopuras4 ,in the courtyards enclosed between the successive walls are the homes of the priests1 and usually a large water tank and a hall of a thousand columns4 ,some of these temples are very wealthy foundations4 ,sidenote3 #aa4 ,the ,tank of the ,golden ,lilies1 ,the ,temple1 ,madura4 ,sidenote3 #ab4 ,the ,temple1 ,madura4 ,sidenote3 #ac4 ,a ,gopura at ,madura4 ,here we have the tank of the ,golden ,lilies in the ,temple of ,madura1 surrounded by a colonnade1 with gopuras rising from beyond2 and here another view in the same temple1 and here a gopura photographed from near4 ,hinduism is in its essence a spiritual religion4 ,western thought instinctively takes for granted the reality of outward things4 ,eastern thought instinctively takes for granted the reality of the 8soul0 or inward life4 ,in the cosmology of the ,west there are two worlds1 the natural and the supernatural2 in the ,east the soul is the only real existence4 ,the world-soul1 or soul of ,universal ,nature1 is ,god1 and this ,divine ,soul is the supreme and fundamental reality2 by comparison with it all outward things are shadows4 ,eternity is a vital aspect of reality4 ,the present existence of the soul is not more certain than its pre-existence and its future existence4 ,the present life is always brief and fleeting1 but the past began and the future will end in eternity4 ,issuing from the ,universal ,soul and passing through ons of what may be called prenatal existence1 the soul at last becomes individualised and enters on a career of conscious activity4 ,far from being dependent on the body1 the soul takes to itself the outward form which it needs and deserves1 and the body dies when it is deprived of the vitalising presence that animated it4 ,the destiny of the soul is determined by its origin4 ,it issued from the ,universal ,soul1 and into the ,universal ,soul1 its source1 it must eventually be re-absorbed1 though it may pass through innumerable lives on its way to the goal of spiritual maturity4 8,as it nears the goal the chains of individuality relax their hold upon it2 and at last1 with the final extinction of egoism1 with the final triumph of selflessness1 with the expansion of consciousness till it has become all-embracing--the sense of separateness entirely ceases1 and the soul finds its true self1 or1 in other words1 becomes fully and clearly conscious of its oneness with the living whole40 ,such1 in a few words1 is the inner faith of the ,east4 ,the religious books of ,india are written in ,sanskrit1 the tongue of ,aryan conquerors who came into ,india across the northwestern mountains nearly two thousand years before ,christ4 ,the ,aryans brought with them the worship of the powers of nature1 the 8devas10 or bright ones4 ,from the ,rig-,veda1 or collection of hymns to various gods1 which were composed for the worship of the ,aryans during the earliest centuries of their dwelling in ,india1 we learn something about these deities4 ,some were simply forces of nature1 such as ,father ,heaven1 ,mother ,earth1 the ,dawn ,goddess1 the ,sun ,god1 and the ,wind ,god4 ,with other deities new trains of ideas became connected that tended to obscure their original character4 ,the ,fire ,god1 for instance1 personified the fire of sacrifice and domestic use1 the atmospheric fire of lightning1 and sometimes even the sun4 ,thus he became the priest1 mediating between man and the gods4 ,similarly ,varuna1 who at first apparently typified the open sky1 whose eye is the sun1 subsequently grew into a mighty guardian of the laws of nature and morality4 ,this earliest age of ,hinduism1 the age to which the ,rig-,veda belongs1 is known as the ,vedic ,age1 and the gods of this age were worshipped with sacrifice4 ,in the ,vedic period ,aryan society probably divided itself into the soldier-yeoman and the priest4 ,the soldier and yeoman1 desirous of winning the goodwill and active assistance of the gods of the sky and earth1 would hire the priest1 who thus came to be regarded as the master of the rites which cajole or constrain the invisible powers4 ,as the ,aryans extended their sway over ,india1 the influence of the ,brahmans or priests increased1 and in their hands religion underwent a profound change4 ,personal worship gave way to ecclesiastical ritualism4 ,the idea of sacrifice as a means of compelling the gods grew to an enormous degree1 and the welfare of the world was imagined to depend upon ritual1 the key to which was in the hands of the ,brahmans4 ,there was1 however1 another side to this religious development4 ,even in the ,vedic ,age1 while the popular mind was imagining a deity in every startling natural phenomenon1 there were thinkers who discovered behind all the 8devas10 or gods1 the one ,supreme ,power1 the ,creator1 ,ruler1 and ,preserver of all things1 the ,divine ,soul of which we spoke just now4 ,this ,supreme ,power1 who became known as ,brahma1 is not only the real self of the whole ,universe1 but also1 as we have seen1 the real self of each individual soul4 ,the one ,supreme ,power could1 however1 only be discovered after a severe moral and intellectual discipline1 and those who had not yet discovered it were allowed to worship lower gods4 ,in one of the ,hindu ,scriptures the ,supreme ,lord is represented as saying3 8,even those who worship idols worship me40 ,no one can have any conception of ,hinduism unless he realises that throughout it there runs a wide distinction between the popular faith and the philosophical faith which underlies it4 ,this distinction continues to this day4 ,countless gods are still worshipped in ,india1 but the few still hold and always have held that all gods to whom worship is offered are but names or masks of the ,supreme ,lord of the ,universe4 ,the two principal gods of ,modern ,hinduism are ,vishnu1 the ,preserver1 and ,siva1 the ,destroyer and ,recreator2 but they are worshipped under many different attributes4 ,these two gods came into prominence after the ,vedic ,age1 and their cults have passed through many phases2 but a large number of ,hindus still belong to sects which are called by their names4 ,the sect to which a ,hindu belongs is indicated by a coloured mark1 erroneously described as a caste mark1 made on the forehead4 ,brahma1 ,vishnu1 and ,siva are sometimes regarded as three persons of a ,trinity4 ,animals are still sacrificed in certain parts of ,india1 and in honour of certain gods1 but the doctrine of the transmigration of souls1 and the teaching of various religious reformers1 of whom ,buddha is best known1 has tended in the direction of humanity to all creatures2 and the great majority of ,hindus are unwilling to take life1 and abstain from animal food4 ,the cow is to all ,hindus an object of veneration4 ,an elaborate mythology is connected with the ,hindu religion1 and the incidents of this mythology form the basis of ,hindu sacred art1 especially of the rich sculpture of the temples4 ,siva rides ,nandi the ,bull1 and ,vishnu rides ,garuda the ,eagle4 ,vishnu in some of his avatars1 or incarnations1 takes the form of a fish or of a man-lion1 or for vast numbers of his followers he becomes ,rama1 the hero of the epic poem the ,ramayana1 or he is ,krishna--another hero-,god4 ,siva has a wife ,kali1 who is terrible1 though at other times she is ,parvati1 the goddess of beauty2 and ,siva has sons1 of whom one is ,ganesh1 with a fat human body and an elephant's head4 ,sidenote3 #ad4 ,a ,marriage ,procession1 ,trichinopoly4 ,sidenote3 #ae4 ,a ,group of ,brahmans4 ,religion goes deep into the life of the ,indian4 ,it governs all his social relations4 ,here is a street at ,trichinopoly1 a hundred miles north of ,madura4 ,there happens to be the spire of a ,christian church in the background4 ,in the foreground is a temple elephant1 heading a marriage procession4 ,in white paint on the elephant's head is the sect mark of the contracting parties4 ,the ,hindu community is divided not only in sects but also into castes1 which are sternly separated1 so that a man may not marry into another caste1 or even eat with those of a lower caste4 ,the tradition is that originally there were four castes2 first the ,brahmans1 or priestly stock2 then the ,kshattriyas1 or soldiers1 the royal stock2 third1 the ,vaishiyas1 or merchants2 and fourth1 the ,sudras1 or artisans1 labourers and agriculturists4 ,but all these castes became sub-divided1 and there are now more castes than callings4 ,sidenote3 #af4 ,processional ,car1 ,trichinopoly4 ,a curious characteristic of ,hinduism is the mixture of the squalid and crude with the grandeur of an architecture which in some respects is unsurpassed in the world4 ,not merely are the maimed and the beggars importunate in the temple passages1 as in the church entries of ,roman ,catholic countries1 but in every vacant corner of the outer courts of the temples are established little tradesmen4 ,the properties of religious ceremony are often decrepit and tawdry4 ,here1 for instance1 we have a wooden processional car1 rough roofed1 awaiting the annual ceremony amid the live-stock of the yard4 ,these warm-natured ,southern people have the child's power of making believe1 and can worship the doll even when battered out of all recognition4 ,they easily let loose the imagination and give devotion to the spirit embodied in a shapeless stone as sincerely as to that in the most finished allegorical sculpture4 ,sidenote3 #ag4 ,arch of ,welcome to ,prince of ,wales1 ,trichinopoly4 ,it is this sense of the spiritual and the allegorical in all things that makes the ,indian so ready for loyal devotion to the person of the ruler4 ,here at ,trichinopoly we have a triumphal gateway erected in honour of the visit to ,india of the ,prince and ,princess of ,wales1 which still bears the words 8,glorious ,welcome to our ,future ,emperor40 ,the ,prince and ,princess are now the ,emperor and ,empress4 ,with us the gateway would have been demolished when it had served its immediate purpose4 ,here it remains1 as does the memory of the visit4 ,ceremony rises in ,india to the rank of an historical event4 ,sidenote3 #ah4 ,the ,main ,bazaar ,street1 ,trichinopoly4 ,sidenote3 #ai4 ,the ,tank and the ,rock1 ,trichinopoly4 ,sidenote3 #bj4 ,the ,same--another view4 ,sidenote3 #ba4 ,the ,rock temple1 ,trichinopoly4 ,in the distance through the archway is the ,rock of ,trichinopoly which we approach nearer by the main bazaar of the town1 and then1 nearer still1 we come to the tank which lies beneath the ,rock4 ,amid the water is a pagoda or shrine4 ,in the foot of the ,rock itself there is excavated a temple4 ,such rock temples are frequent in ,india1 perhaps because rock is less costly to carve where it lies undisturbed than it is to quarry and to remove and to build and to carve4 ,sidenote3 #bb4 ,trichinopoly1 looking east from the top of the ,rock4 ,sidenote3 #bc4 ,trichinopoly1 looking south from the top of the ,rock4 ,sidenote3 #bd4 ,the ,bull ,nandi1 ,tanjore4 ,sidenote3 #be4 ,the ,fort1 ,tanjore4 ,sidenote3 #bf4 ,the ,temple1 ,tanjore4 ,sidenote3 #bg4 ,police drilling on the ,maidan1 ,tanjore4 ,here we have views from the summit of the ,trichinopoly ,rock1 looking eastward over the city1 and then southward over the roof of the great temple to the tank and the ,christian ,church4 ,bishop ,heber died at ,trichinopoly4 ,in each aspect we see the unbroken plain which surrounds the ,city4 ,do you notice the ,bull ,nandi as an ornament along the edge of the roof of the temple8 ,here we have him again carved from a great block of granite at ,tanjore1 a place not far from ,trichinopoly4 ,other scenes at ,tanjore follow4 ,one shows us the wall of the ,fort with the moat outside1 and the gopura of the ,great ,temple4 ,another is a vista within the temple walls1 and gives some idea of the great spaces which the larger temples occupy4 ,then suddenly we become conscious of one of the sharp contrasts which characterise the ,india of to-day4 ,these are ,police drilling on the ,maidan1 or public place of ,tanjore1 and away on the horizon are the semaphores of the railway4 ,in the plain of the ,carnatic1 which surrounds ,madura1 ,trichinopoly1 and ,tanjore1 we are not merely in the midst of the ,hindu religion and caste system1 but we are also near scenes rendered memorable by the struggle for ,india1 a hundred and fifty years ago1 between the ,french and the ,english4 ,two trading companies1 the one seated in ,london and the other in ,paris1 obtained leave from the local princes to establish trading posts on the ,coromandel ,coast4 ,they presently fortified these posts and became ambitious rivals4 ,sidenote3 ,repeat ,map ,no4 #c4 ,at this time there was a disputed succession in the ,carnatic ,state1 and the ,english supported one aspirant for the throne of the ,nawab1 the ,french another4 ,the ,nawab of the ,english party was besieged in the ,fort of ,trichinopoly by the ,french and their ,nawab4 ,to effect a diversion1 a young ,captain1 ,robert ,clive1 in the ,british company's service1 seized the ,fort of ,arcot1 a hundred miles to the north1 and by a prolonged heroic resistance to the siege which gathered round him1 succeeded in relieving the pressure on ,trichinopoly4 ,that ,captain ,clive became ,lord ,clive1 ,baron of ,plassey1 the founder of the ,british ,empire in ,india4 ,he went out as a writer or clerk in the service of the ,east ,india ,company1 and rose to be ,governor of ,bengal4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that in the time of ,clive1 no less than to-day1 the number of the ,british in ,india was surprisingly small4 ,as we saw just now1 the ,police1 a great force1 are not ,british but ,indian1 and the ,indian army1 though with ,british officers1 is twice as numerous as the ,british garrison4 ,the ,british have organised the peace and unity of ,india1 rather than conquered it in the ordinary sense4 ,the life of the white man in ,india is governed by the seasons4 ,here in the south the temperature is at all times high1 though the heat is never so great as in the hot season of northern ,india4 ,on the other hand there is no cool season comparable with that of the north4 ,in most parts of ,india1 however1 there are five cool months1 ,october1 ,november1 ,december1 ,january1 and ,february4 ,march1 ,april1 and ,may are the hot season4 ,the remaining four months constitute the rainy season1 when the temperature is moderated by the presence of cloud1 but the moisture is trying to the ,european constitution4 ,sidenote3 #bh4 ,the ,nilgiris1 near ,ootacamund4 ,in all parts of ,india the white population seeks periodical relief by a visit to the hills4 ,here in the south the favourite hill station is ,ootacamund1 in the ,nilgiri ,hills4 ,it is scattered over a wide space1 with the bungalows in separate compounds or enclosures4 ,sidenote3 #bi4 ,ootacamund1 ,the ,bazaar4 ,sidenote3 #cj4 ,ootacamund1 ,general ,view4 ,sidenote3 #ca4 ,ootacamund4 ,sidenote3 ,repeat ,map ,no4 #c4 8,ooty10 as it is familiarly called1 stands some seven thousand feet above the sea in the midst of a country of rolling downs rising yet another thousand feet4 ,this lofty district forms the southern point of the ,deccan plateau where the ,eastern and ,western ,ghats draw together4 ,a deep passage1 twenty miles broad1 known as the gap of ,coimbatore or of ,palghat1 lies through the ,ghats1 immediately south of the ,nilgiri ,hills1 from the eastern plain to the ,malabar ,coast4 ,other hills1 equally high1 lie southward of the gap and extend to ,cape ,comorin4 ,we saw these last hills to our left hand as we travelled northward from ,tuticorin to ,madura4 ,sidenote3 #cb4 ,on the ,railway to ,ootacamund4 ,sidenote3 #cc4 ,the ,same4 ,sidenote3 #cd4 ,the ,same4 ,sidenote3 #ce4 ,the ,same4 ,the railway from the east coast goes through the ,gap of ,coimbatore to the ,malabar cities of ,cochin and ,calicut1 and from this railway a mountain line has been constructed up into the ,nilgiri heights4 ,we have here a succession of striking views on this mountain line4 ,it is a rack and pinion railway1 up which the train is worked on the central rail4 ,sidenote3 #cf4 ,the ,drug in the ,nilgiri ,hills4 ,there are magnificent landscapes at the edge of the ,nilgiris1 where the mountains descend abruptly to the plains4 ,this view was taken from a point called ,lady ,canning's seat4 ,it shows the ,drug1 from the top of which prisoners of war used to be thrown1 in the days of the tyranny of ,hyder ,ali and ,tippu ,sultan1 the ,mohammedan sovereigns of ,mysore1 of whom we shall hear more presently4 ,sidenote3 #cg4 ,tea ,plantation1 ,nilgiri ,hills4 ,sidenote3 #ch4 ,the ,same4 ,sidenote3 #ci4 ,hill ,tribe1 ,nilgiri ,hills4 ,sidenote3 #dj4 ,toda ,people1 near ,ootacamund4 ,the vegetation of the heights is naturally different from that of the lowlands1 and the cultivation of the ,nilgiris is chiefly tea and cinchona1 from the latter of which crops quinine is prepared4 ,amid the great forests of the slopes large game is numerous1 such as sambur1 or ,indian elk1 and tiger4 ,here also tribes of savage peoples have survived through all the centuries of history practically untouched by the civilization of the plains4 ,one of these tribes1 the smallest but the most interesting1 are the ,todas1 who number less than a thousand1 but have their own strange1 unwritten language4 ,sidenote3 ,repeat ,map ,no4 #c4 ,sidenote3 #da4 ,madras from the ,sea4 ,sidenote3 #db4 ,the ,high ,court1 ,madras4 ,sidenote3 #dc4 ,st4 ,mary's ,church1 ,madras4 ,sidenote3 #dd4 ,the ,law ,college1 ,madras4 ,sidenote3 #de4 ,y4,m4,c4,a4 ,building1 ,madras4 ,northward of the group of temple cities1 and eastward of the ,nilgiris and of the plateau country of ,mysore1 on the low coastal plain is the great city of ,madras1 four hundred miles from our landing place at ,tuticorin4 ,like the other seaports of modern ,india1 ,madras has grown from the smallest beginning within the ,european period4 ,its nucleus was ,fort ,st4 ,george1 built to shelter the office and warehouse of the ,east ,india ,company1 in the time when ,charles ,i4 was king of ,england4 ,to-day ,madras has half a million people1 and magnificent buildings in the ,european style4 ,we have here a view looking northeastward over a corner of ,fort ,st4 ,george1 and across the public grounds1 to the ,high ,court of ,justice1 whose lofty tower serves the purpose of a lighthouse for ships approaching the port4 ,to the right of the ,high ,court in the distance are the buildings round the harbour4 ,next we have ,st4 ,mary's ,church1 standing within ,fort ,st4 ,george1 the oldest ,british church in ,india1 though the present structure was erected to replace an earlier church4 ,and here we have the ,law ,college1 which stands beside the ,high ,court1 and close to it the building of the ,young ,men's ,christian ,association4 ,there are many ,christians in southern ,india among the natives1 indeed more than in any other part of the ,indian ,empire1 although even here they are but a small minority4 ,one ,christian community on the ,malabar coast is of the ,nestorian sect1 who came to ,india many centuries before the sea route was opened round the ,cape4 ,sidenote3 #df4 ,madras ,bank4 ,sidenote3 #dg4 ,the ,people's ,park1 ,madras4 ,sidenote3 #dh4 ,banyan ,tree4 ,sidenote3 #di4 ,the ,same4 ,madras has a ,corporation much after the ,european plan1 and is a clean1 well drained city with many public amenities4 ,here1 for instance1 is the electric tramway in front of the ,madras ,bank4 ,here we have a view in the ,people's ,park1 with a group of sambur within an enclosure4 ,one of the most remarkable and typical of ornamental trees in ,india is the banyan1 with drooping branches1 whose suckers take root when reach the ground1 giving the effect of a grove1 though in fact but a single tree4 ,sidenote3 #ej4 ,banyan ,avenue4 ,here is a banyan tree seen from without and from within1 and here a banyan avenue at ,madras4 ,sidenote3 #ea4 ,grain ,sellers1 ,madras4 ,sidenote3 #eb4 ,men ploughing1 ,madras4 ,sidenote3 #ec4 ,covered ,bullock ,cart1 ,madras4 ,before leaving ,madras1 let us look at three scenes of native life4 ,here are grain sellers1 and here1 outside the city1 are men ploughing4 ,here we see the typical covered bullock cart4 ,sidenote3 #ed4 ,map of ,india1 distinguishing ,madras1 ,mysore1 ,cochin1 and ,travancore4 ,sidenote3 #ee4 ,coffee ,planters1 ,coorg4 ,lastly1 let us consider the map1 and learn what part of ,india is ruled from ,madras and ,ootacamund4 ,we have in the first place1 coloured red1 the territory of the ,presidency of ,madras1 which is ruled directly by the ,governor and his ,council4 ,in purple are shown the important native state of ,mysore1 separated from both coasts by ,british territory1 and the two little native states of ,travancore and ,cochin along the ,malabar ,coast southward to ,cape ,comorin4 ,mysore is directly under the general supervision of the ,government of ,india1 but ,travancore and ,cochin are under that of the ,government of ,madras4 ,beside ,mysore is the diminutive territory of ,coorg1 no larger than the ,county of ,essex1 in ,england4 ,but ,coorg has a certain importance for the growth of coffee4 ,here we have a group of native coffee planters4 ,sidenote3 ,repeat ,map ,no4 #c4 ,then we look again at the map in which the lowlands were shown green and the uplands brown4 ,we see the plain from ,tuticorin to ,madras city4 ,we see the southern end of the ,deccan plateau1 with the state of ,mysore upon it1 and the ,nilgiri hills at its extremity4 ,we have the lowland passage of ,coimbatore1 to which we referred in describing ,ootacamund1 and south of this afresh the hills extending to ,cape ,comorin4 ,the native states of ,cochin and ,travancore are on the westward descent from these southernmost hills4 ,note again how the railways take advantage of the lowland passages1 especially the line from ,madras leading westward to the ,malabar ,coast4 ,the ,cauvery flowing eastward over the plateau is the most considerable river of ,southern ,india4 ,as it descends the ,eastern ,ghats it makes great falls1 and these have been harnessed1 as the phrase is1 and made to supply power which is carried electrically for nearly a hundred miles to the ,kolar goldfield1 within the ,mysore boundary4 ,the engineer who superintended the construction of this work was a ,french ,canadian officer of the ,royal ,engineers--interesting evidence of the increasing solidarity of the ,british ,empire4 ,bangalore is the chief military station of southern ,india4 ,it is connected by rail with ,madras1 but is situated on the plateau within ,mysore4 ,from ,bangalore the line runs on to ,seringapatam on the ,cauvery1 and to ,mysore city beyond4 ,these were the seats of the ,muhammadan ,sultans1 ,hyder ,ali and ,tippu1 father and son1 who1 a generation later than the time when ,clive fought at ,arcot1 held ,madras in terror from their highland fastness4 ,the threat to the ,british position in ,india was a real one4 ,hyder ,ali leagued himself with the ,french1 with whom we were then at war1 but he was defeated under the great ,governor-,general1 ,warren ,hastings4 ,tippu1 ,hyder's son1 was also an ally of the ,french4 ,he lived into the time of ,napoleon1 and made his chief attack on ,british power when the ,french were in ,egypt1 but he was defeated and killed4 ,colonel ,wellesley1 afterwards ,duke of ,wellington1 first rose to notice in this campaign4 ,he was appointed to command 8the troops above the ,ghats40 ,after the death of ,tippu1 the civil administration of ,mysore was also assigned to ,wellesley1 and splendid work he did as civil administrator4 ,sidenote3 #ef4 ,southern ,india1 showing rainfall of ,s4,w4 ,monsoon4 ,sidenote3 #eg4 ,pykara ,falls1 ,nilgiri ,hills4 ,sidenote3 #eh4 ,gairsoppa ,falls4 ,a third map shows you the rainfall which is brought by the west winds of the summer time to the ,malabar ,coast4 ,these winds strike the ,western ,ghats and the ,nilgiri hills and drench them with superabundant moisture1 so that they are thickly forested4 ,at this season magnificent waterfalls leap down the westward ravines and feed torrents which rush in short valleys to the ocean4 ,one of the grandest falls in the world is at ,gairsoppa1 in the northwestern corner of the state of ,mysore4 ,sidenote3 #ei4 ,southern ,india1 showing rainfall of ,n4,e4 ,monsoon4 ,sidenote3 #fj4 ,southern ,india1 showing density of ,population4 ,a fourth map indicates the rainfall on the east coast brought by the ,northeast ,monsoon of the winter season4 ,finally1 a fifth map shows that the population is densest down on the lowlands precisely in those regions1 on the east coast and on the west1 which are best supplied with moisture4 ,throughout ,india the supply of water for agricultural purposes is the key to the prosperity of the country1 for everywhere there is heat enough for luxuriant vegetation4 ,it is only drought which is in places the cause of sterility4 ,with all its vast population there are none the less great spaces in ,india very sparsely peopled4 ,once more let us remember that ,india is rather a continent than merely a country4 -------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,lecture ,,ii4 --- ,,burma4 --- ,,the ,,buddhist ,,religion4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,map of ,india1 distinguishing ,burma4 ,in the last lecture we visited ,madras1 the southernmost and oldest province of the ,indian ,empire4 ,in this lecture we will cross the ,bay of ,bengal from ,madras to ,burma1 the easternmost and newest of the provinces1 if we except a recent sub-division of an older unit4 ,politically1 ,burma is a part of ,india1 for it is ruled by the ,viceroy1 and commercially it is coming every day into closer relation with the remainder of ,india4 ,in most other respects1 however1 ,burma is rather the first land of the ,far ,east than the last of ,india1 the ,middle ,east4 ,in race and language probably1 in religion and social customs certainly1 it is nearer to ,china than to ,india4 ,geographically1 however1 though placed in the ,indo-,chinese peninsula beyond the ,bay of ,bengal1 ,burma is in relation with the ,indian world1 for it has a great navigable river which drains into the ,indian ,ocean1 and not into the ,pacific as do the rivers of ,siam and ,annam1 the remaining countries of the southeastward promontory of ,asia4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,the ,shore1 ,madras4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,in ,madras ,harbour4 ,we embark from ,madras on the steamer which is to carry us to ,rangoon4 ,formerly it was necessary to go out to the vessel through the surf in specially constructed boats1 for all the ,coromandel ,coast is shoal1 and there is not a single natural harbour4 ,often the surf is very rough4 ,now1 however1 a harbour has been made at ,madras4 ,two piers have been built out into the sea at right angles to the shore4 ,they may be seen in the distance in this view4 ,at their extremities they bend inward towards one another1 so as to enclose a quadrangular space within which the steamers lie4 ,none the less there are times when the mighty waves sweep through the open mouth1 rendering the harbour unsafe1 so that the shipping must stand out to sea4 ,there have been many terrible disasters in the cyclones which from time to time strike the east coast of ,india4 ,when the ,madras harbour was half completed the works were overwhelmed by a storm and the undertaking had to be recommenced4 ,sidenote3 #d4 ,coolies on ,steamer4 ,our vessel carries nearly two thousand coolies1 natives of ,madras1 going to ,burma to work in the rice mills or on the wharves1 for ,burma is a thinly peopled land4 ,it has great natural resources1 which are being rapidly developed by ,british capital4 ,the coolies take passage as deck passengers for a few rupees1 and each on landing at ,rangoon has to undergo a searching medical examination1 because the ,plague is often carried from ,madras to ,burma4 ,the disease manifests itself first by swollen glands1 especially under the arms4 ,the contagion1 caused by a minute organism1 is conveyed by rats4 ,this terrible sickness is one of the worst scourges of modern ,india4 ,it first broke out in ,bombay in ,august1 #ahif4 ,since that date there have been three years in each of which a million deaths were due to it4 ,as time goes on the mortality will probably decrease1 for the first onslaught of a new disease is generally deadly4 ,we must beware1 however1 of exaggerating its significance4 ,there are three hundred million people in the ,indian ,empire1 and the death rate by plague1 even at its maximum1 is therefore not very high4 ,it is1 indeed1 low as compared with the death rate by malarial fever4 ,sidenote3 #e4 ,chinese ,junk in the ,rangoon ,river4 ,after a probably rough passage1 we approach the low-lying shore of the great delta of the ,irawaddy river1 and enter that branch of it which is known as the ,rangoon river4 ,a stray ,chinese junk reminds us of the fact that we are entering ,indo-,china1 and of the trade relations of ,burma with ,singapore and the regions of the ,far ,east4 ,burmese rice is sent to ,china1 the ,malay ,states1 ,india1 ,east ,africa1 and ,europe4 ,rangoon depends for her commerce mainly on the rice harvest4 ,in recent years1 famines in ,india have been mitigated by rice exported from ,rangoon4 ,sidenote3 #f4 ,map of ,burma4 ,as we steam up the river for some miles inland1 let us consider1 with the help of a map1 the main features of the geography of the land which we are about to visit4 ,in this map is shown nearly the whole of the great southeastward peninsula of ,asia4 ,the areas which are coloured green are lowland1 those which are yellow are upland1 and the brown signifies highland and mountain4 ,a ridge of highland1 broken only at two or three points1 runs southward through the centre of the map1 separating ,burma and the river basins of the ,indian ,ocean from ,siam and the river basins of the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,this great divide of the drainage is continued beyond the southern edge of the map through the ,malay ,peninsula for some distance4 ,it ends near ,singapore in the southernmost point of ,asia1 only one degree north of the ,equator4 ,in ,burma1 parallel with the dividing range1 are three other ridges1 striking southward side by side4 ,these separate three valleys1 through which flow severally the ,salween1 ,sittang1 and ,irawaddy rivers4 ,the valley of the ,salween1 as the yellow and brown colours upon the map indicate1 is less deeply trenched between its bounding ranges than are the other two valleys4 ,as we should therefore expect1 the ,salween river has a steeply descending course broken by rapids1 and is of small value for navigation4 ,at its mouth is the port of ,moulmein4 ,the valley of the ,sittang1 which is a short river1 prolongs the upper valley of the ,irawaddy1 which latter river makes a great westward bend at ,mandalay1 and passes by a transverse passage right through one of the parallel mountain ridges4 ,beyond this passage it bends southward again1 accepting the direction of its tributary1 the ,chindwin river4 ,the great port of ,rangoon is placed on a tidal channel at the eastern edge of the ,irawaddy delta4 ,the railway from ,rangoon to ,mandalay runs through the ,sittang valley and does not follow the ,irawaddy4 ,there is navigation1 however1 by the ,irawaddy past ,pagan and ,mandalay northward to ,bhamo1 which is close to the ,chinese frontier4 ,the coastal plain of ,burma is known as ,arakan where it runs northward from the ,irawaddy delta1 and as ,tenasserim where it runs southward from that delta along a coast beset with an archipelago of beautiful islands4 ,the delta itself bears the name of ,pegu1 or ,lower ,burma2 while the region round ,mandalay is ,upper ,burma4 ,sidenote3 #g4 ,plan of ,rangoon4 ,we are in the ,rangoon river4 ,a tall1 pointed pagoda appears on a hill to the right1 and presently1 as the channel bends to the west1 we approach the busy commercial front of ,rangoon city1 surmounted by the golden spire of the great ,shwe ,dagon ,pagoda4 ,sidenote3 #h4 ,shwe ,dagon ,pagoda1 from across the ,royal ,lakes4 ,sidenote3 #i4 ,the ,shwe ,dagon ,pagoda1 ,rangoon4 ,sidenote3 #aj4 ,images of the ,sitting ,buddha4 ,sidenote3 #aa4 ,earning ,merit at the ,shwe ,dagon ,pagoda4 ,rangoon1 apart from its chief ,pagoda1 is a modern city4 ,fifty years ago it was a village4 ,to-day it has a quarter of a million people4 ,a wharf-fronted road1 the ,strand1 follows the shore of the main river for several miles4 ,up the ,pegu tributary to the east for several other miles are many rice mills with tall chimneys throwing out black smoke4 ,the harbour is busy with shipping4 ,there are great timber yards1 and there are oil mills1 for the products of ,burma are1 first and foremost1 rice1 and then timber1 especially great logs of teak--harder than oak1 and then petroleum4 ,back from the ,strand is a well kept town1 with broad streets at right angles1 though as yet there are few really impressive buildings to compare with the public buildings of ,madras4 ,there is a beautiful group of lakes1 the ,royal ,lakes1 set in wooded public grounds1 and across these is the finest view of the ,shwe ,dagon ,pagoda1 like a great hand-bell placed on a low hill4 ,this pagoda is said to be the most frequented in the ,buddhist world1 for it has as relics eight hairs of ,gautama1 the founder of the ,buddhist religion4 ,it began some two thousand years ago as a small village fane4 ,in successive ages the original structure has been encased afresh and afresh1 until as the result of work done in the days of ,queen ,elizabeth1 the great pagoda was completed which is now the glory of ,rangoon4 ,it rises to a height of nearly #djj feet1 and is solid1 there being no chamber within4 ,the brickwork of which it is built makes a series of steps or ledges1 so that it would be possible to climb for some distance up the spire4 ,the whole is plated with gold-leaf1 and the gilding is constantly renewed by pious devotees1 who thus earn merit4 ,the word 8,shwe0 in the name of this pagoda signifies golden4 ,on the summit is a 8hti10 or umbrella1 of exquisite workmanship and material4 ,it is said to have cost sixty thousand pounds4 ,in the vane are #e1jjj gems--diamonds1 rubies1 and emeralds4 ,the base of the pagoda is surrounded first by shrines of varying sizes1 and then by a flagged courtyard1 which again is fringed with canopies and halls opening towards the pagoda1 with many carved screens and arches1 and innumerable shrines and altars1 and images of ,gautama4 ,flights of steps roofed over with teak descend from the courtyard1 and one of the lower entries is guarded by great grotesque figures1 partly lion and partly griffin1 made of plastered bricks4 ,we see one of them in this view4 ,then we have two very interesting pictures3 the one represents three images of the ,sitting ,buddha from one of the shrines on the flagged courtyard at the foot of the ,shwe ,dagon ,pagoda1 and the other shows a pilgrim 8earning merit0 by putting gold leaf on to the pagoda itself4 ,sidenote3 #ab4 ,the ,sule ,pagoda1 ,rangoon4 ,there is another considerable pagoda in the city1 the ,sule ,pagoda4 ,we have it here1 with a corner of a building adjacent of ,european architecture1 the ,municipal ,offices4 ,observe the watering of the streets by hand labour4 ,sidenote3 #ac4 ,a ,typical ,burman4 ,sidenote3 #ad4 ,burmese ,gambling1 ,rangoon4 ,the ,burmese are a short1 sturdy people1 merry and happy1 and akin rather to the ,japanese in temperament than to the people of the ,indian ,peninsula4 ,the features of their faces are obviously ,mongolian4 ,they have the oblique eyes of the ,chinaman4 ,here is a typical ,burman with a rose coloured wrap round his head4 ,the ,burmese women1 whose praises have been sung through the world1 are dainty and1 according to a more or less ,chinese standard1 not infrequently beautiful4 ,they love to clothe themselves in silks of brilliant and delicate hue4 ,excessive industry is certainly not a failing of the race1 yet there are no poor4 ,we have here a group of ,burmese gamblers at ,rangoon4 ,the theatres play all night and the spectators go home by daylight4 ,the 8pwe10 or show1 consists invariably of three parts--a prince1 a princess1 and a clown2 it may be compared with our traditional harlequinade4 ,both ,indians and ,chinese are migrating to ,burma in great numbers1 but agricultural work is still chiefly in native hands4 ,sidenote3 #ae4 ,elephants lifting ,teak4 ,sidenote3 #af4 ,elephants ,pushing ,teak4 ,sidenote3 #ag4 ,tusker ,elephant4 ,sidenote3 #ah4 ,tusker ,elephant lifting ,teak4 ,sidenote3 #ai4 ,the ,same4 ,one of the most curious and typical sights of ,rangoon is that of elephants manipulating the great logs of teak wood in the timber yards4 ,the logs are cut in the forests of the north of ,burma1 and are floated for hundreds of miles down the ,irawaddy in large rafts1 until they are stranded at a creek near ,rangoon1 called ,pazundaung4 ,elephants are then employed for the purpose of moving and piling up the logs4 ,the male elephant is very powerful and has strong tusks1 on which he carries the logs1 preventing them from falling with his trunk1 but the female elephants are not so strong1 and do not as a rule lift the logs off the ground1 but merely drag them1 or push them with the head4 ,we have here two cow elephants1 the one forty years old and the other seventy4 ,we have them here again1 one of them at the command of her rider pushing the logs forward with her head4 ,in the next scene is a male elephant with tusks4 ,he is fifty years old1 and we realise his power in the next two views1 where we see him poising on his tusks a great tree trunk4 ,these huge animals are fed entirely on a grass which grows along the banks of the ,irawaddy not far from ,rangoon4 ,machinery is now taking the place of elephants in the timber yards1 and ,rangoon is1 therefore1 likely to lose one of its most interesting sights4 ,sidenote3 #bj4 ,a ,rice ,mill1 ,rangoon4 ,sidenote3 #ba4 ,the ,same4 ,while we are on the river front let us glance also at a rice mill1 where a process equivalent to thrashing is carried out1 the grain being separated from the husk4 ,the black smoke is from the paddy husks used to supply the motive power of the mill4 ,paddy1 or unthrashed rice1 is mostly brought to ,rangoon by water1 though more than a million and a half tons now come annually by rail4 ,after the milling process is complete1 the rice is packed into bags for shipment all over the world4 ,sidenote3 #bb4 ,a ,burmese ,railway ,train4 ,we will take train and run by the ,burmese ,sittang ,railway over the broad levels of the delta1 passing through fields from which the paddy has recently been cut4 ,only the ears are lopped off1 and the straw is burnt as it stands4 ,the ,burmans are mostly yeomen1 each owning his cattle and doing his own work in the field4 ,beyond ,pegu we follow the ,sittang ,river1 with hill ranges low on the eastern and western horizons1 until we come to ,mandalay1 once capital of the independent kingdom of ,upper ,burma4 ,this kingdom was annexed to ,india in #ahhe at the conclusion of the third ,burmese war4 ,mandalay is the last of three capitals a few miles apart1 which at different times in the past century have been the seat of the ,burmese kings4 ,amarapura1 a few miles to the south1 was the earliest1 and ,ava1 a few miles to the west1 was the capital from #ahbb to #ahcg4 ,sidenote3 #bc4 ,the #dej ,pagodas from ,mandalay ,hill4 ,at ,mandalay we are again on the banks of the ,irawaddy4 ,there is a hill in the northern suburbs several hundred feet in height1 from which we may look over the city4 ,the houses are so buried in foliage that1 seen from the height1 the place appears almost like a wood of green trees4 ,the square ,dufferin ,fort1 with walled and moated boundary1 and sides more than a mile in length1 is distinguishable in the centre1 but for the rest there is none of the ordinary panorama of a ,european city4 ,one striking feature1 however1 lies at our feet1 a little to one side4 ,it is a square group of #dej white pagodas1 with a more considerable gilded pagoda in the centre4 ,beside each of these pagodas there stands a large stone1 and on these stones are inscribed quotations from the sacred books of the ,buddhists4 ,in the distance to the southeast are the hills inhabited by the ,shan tribes4 ,sidenote3 #bd4 ,the ,moat1 ,fort ,dufferin4 ,sidenote3 #be4 ,king ,thebaw's ,palace4 ,sidenote3 #bf4 ,the ,aindaw ,temple1 ,mandalay4 ,sidenote3 #bg4 ,maker of ,temple ,htis1 ,mandalay4 ,the ,dufferin ,fort was built around the ,palace of ,king ,thebaw1 the last of the ,burmese dynasty4 ,it is enclosed by a square of red walls pierced by three gates on each side1 each gate bearing a pointed pagoda-like super-structure4 ,without there is a broad moat1 a hundred yards wide1 with lotus plants1 floating in it like water lilies4 ,this moat is crossed by five wooden bridges4 ,inside the walls is the ,king's ,palace1 of which we have here the spire1 surmounted by a 8hti0 finial4 ,this spire is called by the ,burmese the 8,centre of the ,universe10 since it is in the centre of ,mandalay1 which they claim as in the centre of the world4 ,a 8hti0 we may observe again at the summit of the great ,aindaw ,temple in the south of ,mandalay1 and here we have one before it has left the home of its maker4 ,sidenote3 #bh4 ,the ,queen's ,palace4 ,sidenote3 #bi4 ,the ,verandah of ,king ,thebaw's ,palace4 ,sidenote3 #cj4 ,entrance to the ,arakan temple1 ,mandalay4 ,we return to the ,fort1 and to the palaces within it4 ,this is the ,queen's ,palace1 a very beautiful building of gilded teak1 exquisitely carved1 and here is the verandah where ,king ,thebaw in #ahhe surrendered to the ,british generals4 ,he was taken away to ,india1 and there he still lives under surveillance on the ,malabar ,coast4 ,here we have the entrance to the ,arakan ,temple1 specially venerated by ,buddhists1 for it contains a great image of ,gautama1 over twelve feet high1 made of brass4 ,pilgrims gain merit by placing gold leaf upon this figure4 ,this is the building which ,kipling spoke of as the ,moulmein ,pagoda2 it is not1 however1 a pagoda1 which is a solid spire1 but a temple4 ,sidenote3 #ca4 ,sappers and ,miners1 ,fort ,dufferin4 ,sidenote3 #cb4 ,crossing the ,moat1 ,fort ,dufferin4 ,sidenote3 #cc4 ,a ,garrison ,family4 ,burma has been gradually annexed to ,india as the result of three successive wars4 ,the first ended in #ahbf1 and then the low-lying coastal strips known by the names of ,tenasserim and ,arakan were taken1 and also the great valley of the ,brahmaputra1 known as ,assam4 ,in #aheb the country of ,pegu1 or ,lower ,burma1 comprising the delta of the ,irawaddy1 was annexed1 but ,upper ,burma round ,mandalay remained independent4 ,the last king of ,mandalay was ,thebaw1 a notorious tyrant1 guilty of the most horrible atrocities4 ,being anxious to maintain his independence1 he intrigued with the ,french in the lands of ,tonkin and ,annam to the east of ,burma1 and as a result brought upon himself the conquest of his country in the time when ,lord ,dufferin was ,viceroy of ,india4 ,it took fully ten years to reduce ,burma to order1 for the land was infested with dacoits or robbers1 as it is still in some of the remoter districts4 ,every village in those days was defended by a palisade4 ,here we have two views of a party of troops in ,fort ,dufferin1 with the ,king's ,palace in the background1 and then a family scene in the married quarters of the garrison4 ,the ,burman does not make a good soldier1 for he has very little sense of discipline4 ,even the police of the province are for the most part ,gurkhas1 ,sikhs1 and ,punjabi ,musulmans4 ,sidenote3 #cd4 ,the ,bazaar1 ,mandalay4 ,sidenote3 #ce4 ,the ,flower and ,seed ,market1 ,mandalay ,bazaar4 ,the ,bazaar or market of ,mandalay1 as in every other ,indian city1 is the centre of public life4 ,externally it is of little interest1 having been constructed since the conquest1 but internally it is an epitome of the varied peoples who have thronged of late into the growing centres of ,burmese trade4 ,here is a scene in the fruit market2 but it is the silk market which delights the ,burmese lady1 who will be seen there accompanied by her maid1 making purchases and enjoying the touch of more than she buys1 as in similar places in ,europe4 ,the most striking contrast which is presented by ,burma to one accustomed to ,indian life is the freedom of the women1 who move about unveiled4 ,in ,burma1 under the ,buddhist religion1 we have neither seclusion of women nor the distinctions of caste4 ,the city of ,mandalay has a population of about #aij1jjj1 so that it is now smaller than the upstart ,rangoon4 ,sidenote3 #cf4 ,ferryshaw ,siding1 near ,mandalay4 ,sidenote3 #cg4 ,mora4 ,sidenote3 #ch4 ,katha4 ,let us make a voyage up the ,irawaddy to the border of the ,chinese ,empire4 ,this is a river scene a short way above ,mandalay1 with a group of white pagodas conspicuous on the bank1 and here is a village scene4 ,there follows a view at ,katha1 a large straggling village on the ,irawaddy1 remarkable for its many pagodas1 most of them ruined4 ,the majority of the ,burmese pagodas are thus dilapidated for the reason that there is considered to be no merit in merely restoring an existing ,buddhist shrine4 ,the wealthy devotee prefers therefore to erect a new pagoda4 ,the ,shwe ,dagon is an exception1 for it contains sacred relics4 ,sidenote3 #ci4 ,raft on the ,irawaddy4 ,sidenote3 #dj4 ,on the ,irawaddy4 ,sidenote3 #da4 ,in the defile between ,katha and ,bhamo4 ,sidenote3 #db4 ,the ,same4 ,sidenote3 #dc4 ,burmese ,children4 ,sidenote3 #dd4 ,cart with solid ,wheels4 ,sidenote3 #de4 ,lacquer ,workers4 ,here we have a raft of bamboos and teak logs floating down the river1 and then a typical river craft with a great oar for a rudder4 ,our steamer must progress with care1 measuring the depths with bamboo poles at either bow4 ,none the less1 navigation extends for more than nine hundred miles from the sea4 ,from ,mandalay to ,katha the bank of the river is in most places low and sandy1 but between ,katha and ,bhamo there are striking defiles1 where the ground rises with wooded fronts from the water's edge4 ,there is population along the banks the whole way1 as is evidenced by the pagodas amid the vegetation4 ,here are three little ,burmese villagers1 and then a rustic cart with solid wheels1 and here a picture showing the process of the famous lacquer work of ,burma4 ,a 8shell0 is first made of very thin and finely plaited bamboo1 and this is covered with a pigment which1 when dry1 is softened on a primitive lathe4 ,then red lacquer is put on by hand1 and the bowl is dried in the sun4 ,when dry it is buried for some days in order that it may harden4 ,finally it is engraved1 and often inlaid with gold4 ,sidenote3 #df4 ,bhamo from the ,irawaddy4 ,sidenote3 #dg4 ,china ,street1 ,bhamo4 ,sidenote3 #dh4 ,kachin ,women1 ,bhamo4 ,sidenote3 #di4 ,houses at ,bhamo4 ,we approach ,bhamo1 at the head of the ,irawaddy navigation1 lying low along the bank of the river1 twenty miles from the ,chinese frontier4 ,there are naturally many ,chinese at ,bhamo4 ,this is ,china ,street4 ,here1 on the other hand1 is a group of ,kachin women1 heavy-faced1 in picturesque costume4 ,the ,kachins are the hill tribes of the northern frontier of ,burma1 as the ,shans are of the eastern frontier and the ,chins of the western4 ,until quite recently the ,kachins often raided the caravans passing from ,bhamo to ,china4 ,they are now becoming civilised under ,british rule4 ,the ,burmese people proper1 of ancient civilisation1 are a relatively small population confined to the valley and the delta4 ,here we see a row of houses at ,bhamo1 raised high upon piles4 ,the change which has come over ,burma since the ,british occupation may be appreciated from the fact that twenty years ago it was no uncommon sight on the voyage up from ,katha to ,bhamo to see along the river banks1 and on rafts floating down the river1 the dead bodies of ,kachins who had been tortured to death under the terrible rule of the kings of ,mandalay4 ,sidenote3 #ej4 ,the ,gokteik ,gorge and ,bridge4 ,sidenote3 #ea4 ,native ,house1 ,hsipaw4 ,sidenote3 #eb4 ,the ,bazaar1 ,hsipaw4 ,from ,mandalay a railway runs eastward into the ,shan country4 ,at one point this line crosses a gorge by a steel bridge1 nearly half a mile long and over #hjj feet above the water of the stream4 ,the bridge is so light in design that its great size and real solidity are difficult to grasp4 ,beyond this bridge we come to the chief place of the ,shans1 ,hsipaw4 ,here are a couple of scenes in ,hsipaw1 the one of a ,shan house1 the other of a ,shan market4 ,sidenote3 #ec4 ,pagan4 ,sidenote3 #ed4 ,the ,ananda ,temple1 ,pagan4 ,sidenote3 #ee4 ,the ,ananda ,temple1 nearer view of the west side4 ,sidenote3 #ef4 ,buddha ,image at ,pagan4 ,to realise the antiquity and the splendour of early ,burmese civilisation1 we must descend the ,irawaddy below ,mandalay to a place called ,pagan4 ,there1 for some ten miles beside the river1 and for three miles back from its bank1 are the ruins of a great capital which flourished about the time of the ,norman ,conquest of ,england4 ,from the centre of the ruined city it is impossible to point in any direction in which a pagoda or a temple is not visible4 ,we have here a general view of the remains1 and then the ,ananda ,temple1 seen in the midst of a bank of vegetation1 from which at various points rise other smaller red and white ruins4 ,the ,ananda ,temple was built more than eight hundred years ago by the ,thatons1 the original inhabitants of the country1 who were overcome by the invading ,burmans4 ,some thirty thousand of these ,thatons were brought to ,pagan as slaves1 and set to build the pagodas and temples1 just as during the captivity in ,egypt the ,israelites were employed in building the pyramids4 ,here is the ,ananda ,temple close at hand1 white and glittering in the sunshine1 as though built of sugar4 ,if we enter the great portal--there are three other portals similar1 for the plan of the building is that of a cross--we find facing us a huge image of the ,buddha1 over ten yards in height4 ,buddhism was developed from ,hinduism4 ,it originated as a revolt from the excessive ritualism of the ,brahmans4 ,we have seen that ,hinduism became an all-embracing system of religious ritual and social organisation1 but that alongside1 as it were1 of this process there was evolved a philosophical system based upon two theories3 the belief in a ,universal ,soul as the centre of reality1 and the belief in the ultimate identity of the ,individual and the ,universal ,soul4 ,in the sixth century before ,christ ,india was seething and fermenting with spiritual thought4 ,a great teacher was called for1 and such a one was given to the world in ,gautama1 the ,buddha1 that is to say1 the ,enlightened or ,awakened ,one4 ,gautama was born on the frontiers of ,nepal at the foot of the great ,himalaya range about the year #eeg before ,christ4 ,he was the only son of a chief or king4 ,at the age of eighteen he was married to the daughter of the chief of a neighbouring clan1 and a son was born to him4 ,but the yearnings of a reformer were stirring within ,gautama1 and he could not rest4 ,so one night in secret he left his wife and infant and went out into the world a wanderer in search of 8that inward illumination on #8great matters1' which was the cherished dream of every thinker in that memorable era40 ,he followed to no purpose the paths of metaphysical speculation1 of mental discipline1 and of ascetic rigour1 and at last on one eventful night1 as he sat under the ,bodhi ,tree at ,gaya1 in ,behar1 8he reaped the fruit of his long spiritual effort1 the truth of things being of a sudden so clearly revealed to him that from henceforth he never swerved for a moment from devotion to his creed and to the mission that it imposed upon him40 ,the truth which ,buddha discovered and preached to humanity was that the salvation of man lay not in sacrifices and ceremonial1 nor in penances1 but in spiritual effort and a holy life1 in charity1 forgiveness1 and love4 ,the sages of ,hinduism had taught as a doctrine for the few that the ,universal ,soul is the only reality1 and is therefore the real self of every man4 ,buddha gave to the world a system by which the truth of this doctrine could be realised in the life of an ordinary man4 ,the four-fold truth on which ,buddha's whole scheme hinges may be expressed as follows3--,life on earth is full of suffering2 suffering is generated by desire2 the extinction of desire involves the extinction of suffering2 the extinction of desire1 and therefore of suffering1 is the outcome of a righteous life4 ,but how is desire with the suffering which it generates to be extinguished8 ,the answer of ,buddhism is that the eightfold path which leads to the extinction of suffering is by 8,right ,belief1 ,right ,thought1 ,right ,speech1 ,right ,action1 ,right ,effort1 ,right ,means of ,livelihood1 ,right ,remembrance and ,self-discipline1 ,right ,concentration of ,thought40 ,in ,buddha's system1 as he himself gave it to the world1 doctrines and beliefs are of secondary importance4 ,fully alive to the truth that 8what we do1 besides being the outward and visible sign of our inward and spiritual state1 reacts naturally and necessarily on what we are1 and so moulds our character and controls our destiny10 he formulated for his followers a simple system of moral rules1 obedience to which would set them on the path which leads to salvation4 ,on this path there are successive stages1 and each of these stages is marked by the breaking of some of the fetters which bind man to earth and to self1 and when all the fetters are at last broken then the ,holy ,one1 as he is now called1 has reached his goal4 ,in other words1 he has attained to that state which ,buddhists call ,nirvana1 a state of 8perfect knowledge1 perfect love1 perfect peace1 and therefore of perfect bliss40 ,the ,buddhist system emphasises the importance of education and discipline4 ,all over ,burma there are schools conducted by ,buddhist monastic orders at which instruction is gratuitously given to boys in the vernacular of the country1 and one rarely finds a native of ,burma who cannot read and write his own language4 ,it is also part of the religious discipline of every ,burman boy that he should become a novice in a monastic order and live for a time the life of a monk4 ,the aim of this training is to teach obedience and self-control1 and thus in these days of change1 when strange and disintegrating influences are at work in the ,east1 the ,burman retains1 to a certain extent at all events1 his simplicity and his kindly faith4 ,to appreciate the influence of ,buddhism in ,burma let us remember that a ,buddhist priest is supported entirely by gifts in kind1 and never touches a coin4 ,for some centuries ,buddhism made great progress in ,india1 the land of its birth2 but in the end ,hinduism re-asserted itself1 and to-day there are very few ,buddhists in ,india proper1 though in ,burma nearly all the people are of that faith4 ,this is the chief cause of the difference in almost every respect between ,burma and ,india4 ,in the ,ananda ,temple1 as we have seen1 there are four images of ,buddha1 for it is the tradition of the religion that before ,gautama there were in former ages of the world three other teachers who reached enlightenment and were therefore called ,buddha4 ,sidenote3 #eg4 ,the ,wilderness of ,bricks1 ,pagan4 ,sidenote3 #eh4 ,gadawpalin ,temple1 ,pagan4 ,sidenote3 #ei4 ,vultures on a ruined ,temple at ,pagan4 ,sidenote3 #fj4 ,cactus at ,pagan4 ,sidenote3 ,repeat ,map ,no4 #f4 ,here1 still at ,pagan1 is the so-called ,wilderness of ,bricks1 with the ,ananda ,temple in the distance to the right4 ,then we have the entry to one of the other temples1 and then yet another ,pagan ruin with vultures on the summit4 ,finally we have a scene of tall cactus growth1 also at ,pagan1 for this city stands in what is known as the ,dry ,belt of ,burma4 ,the map shows us that two ranges of mountains extend northward1 respectively to east and west of the ,irawaddy valley4 ,the winds of summer and autumn blow from the southwest1 from the sea1 bringing moisture which falls in heavy rains on the west sides of the mountains and over the delta4 ,at ,rangoon there is an annual rainfall of over one hundred inches1 or more than three times the rainfall of ,london4 ,to the east of the western range1 however1 as we leave the delta on our journey up the river1 there is a low-lying district near ,pagan1 which is screened from the sea winds by the continuous mountain ridge1 and here the rainfall is small1 as little as twenty inches in the year1 but the climate is hot and evaporation is rapid4 ,in this district1 therefore1 cactus is the typical vegetation1 but elsewhere in ,burma are rich crops or the most luxuriant forests of leafy trees4 ,these forests supply the teak wood1 which is floated down the river4 ,they are full of game1 and the haunt of poisonous snakes4 ,wild peacocks come from the woods to feed on the rice when it is ripe1 and tigers are not unknown in the villages4 ,only a few years ago a tiger was shot on one of the ledges of the ,shwe ,dagon ,pagoda in the midst of ,rangoon4 ,notwithstanding the age of some of its temples and pagodas1 ,burma is in the main a new country1 in which ,nature is still masterful4 ,it is the largest of the provinces under the ,government of ,india1 but all told it contains but ten million people--,burmese1 ,chinese1 ,hindus1 and the ,hill ,tribes4 -------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,lecture ,,iii4 --- ,,bengal4 --- ,,the ,,monsoons4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,map of ,bengal4 ,from ,burma we take steamer again and cross the sea to ,bengal1 the ,metropolitan ,province of ,india4 ,the heart of ,bengal is one of the largest deltas in the world1 a great plain of moist silt brought down by the rivers ,ganges and ,brahmaputra from the ,himalaya mountains4 ,but along the borders of the ,province1 and especially to the west1 much hill country is included4 ,the map shows to the north the high tableland of ,tibet1 edged by the ,himalaya range1 whose southern slopes descend steeply1 but with many foot hills1 to the level1 low-lying plains of the two great river valleys4 ,eastward of ,bengal there is a ridge1 rising to heights of more than six thousand feet1 densely forested1 which separates the ,irawaddy valley of ,burma from the plains of ,india4 ,this ridge throws out a spur westward1 which near its end rises a little into the ,garo hills4 ,the deeply trenched narrow valley of the ,brahmaputra1 known as the ,assam ,valley1 lies between the ,garo hills and the ,himalayas4 ,away in the west of ,bengal is another hill spur1 bearing the name of ,rajmahal1 which forms the northeastern point of the plateau of ,southern ,india4 ,the ,ganges flows through the plain bounded southward by this plateau and northward by the ,himalayas4 ,a broad lowland gateway is left between the ,garo and the ,rajmahal hills1 and through this1 on either hand1 the ,brahmaputra and ,ganges rivers turn southward and converge gradually until they join to form the vast ,megna estuary4 ,the country which lies west of the ,megna is the ,ganges delta1 traversed by many minor channels which branch from the right bank of the river before it enters the ,megna4 ,east of the ,megna is another deltaic land whose silt is derived in the main from the ,garo hills4 ,it is said that the highest rainfall in the world occurs in these hills1 when the monsoon sweeps northward from the ,bay of ,bengal and blows against their southern face4 ,the rainfall on a single day in the rainy season is often as great as the whole annual rainfall of ,london4 ,little wonder that there is abundance of silt for the formation of the fertile plains below4 ,the approach to the coast1 as may be concluded from this geographical description1 presents little of interest4 ,as you enter the ,hooghly river1 the westernmost of the deltaic channels1 you see broad grey mud banks1 with here and there a palm tree4 ,from time to time1 as the ship passes some more solid ground1 there are villages of thatched huts surrounded by banana plantations with tall broad green leaves4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,approaching ,calcutta4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,coolie ,emigrant ,ship on the ,hooghly4 ,sidenote3 #d4 ,the ,hooghly at ,calcutta1 showing the ,high ,court4 ,sidenote3 #e4 ,the ,same4 ,calcutta1 the chief port and capital of ,india1 is placed no less than eighty miles up the ,hooghly1 on the eastern bank4 ,as we approach it we pass mills and factories with tall chimneys throwing out black smoke4 ,a steamer crosses us1 outward bound1 carrying1 as we are told1 coolies going to work in ,south ,africa2 for the basin of the ,ganges1 unlike ,burma1 is one of the most densely peopled lands in the world1 and sends forth annually some thousand emigrants4 ,at last we find ourselves amid a throng of shipping1 and our steamer ties up to a buoy in the turbid river1 with the great city of ,calcutta on the eastern bank1 and the large industrial town of ,howrah on the western bank1 and not a hill in sight round all the horizon1 only the great dome of the ,post ,office rising white in the sunshine4 ,sidenote3 #f4 ,plan of ,calcutta4 ,sidenote3 #g4 ,palm ,avenue1 ,calcutta ,botanical ,gardens4 ,let us examine the plan of this mighty city with more than a million inhabitants1 second in the ,empire in population1 and one of the twelve largest towns in the world4 ,the ,hooghly flows southward4 ,on its eastern bank stands ,fort ,william1 a fortress which with its outworks occupies a space of nearly a thousand acres4 ,around1 to the north1 the east1 and the south of the fort1 is a wide green plain1 the ,maidan1 separating the fort from the city4 ,from north to south the ,maidan extends for some two miles1 and it is about a mile broad from east to west4 ,in its southern end is the racecourse1 where are held at ,christmas time the races1 the principal social event of ,calcutta life4 ,to the east of the ,maidan is the ,european quarter1 with its hotels1 and clubs1 and private houses4 ,to the north1 in a garden1 is ,government ,house1 the residence of the ,viceroy of ,india4 ,beside ,government ,house1 and also facing the ,maidan1 are the ,high ,court of ,justice and the ,town ,hall4 ,behind ,government ,house is ,dalhousie ,square1 occupied by a green1 in the centre of which is a large tank4 ,facing this square is the ,bengal ,government ,secretariat1 between which and the river are the ,post ,office and the ,customs ,house4 ,away to the north is the great native city4 ,one bridge only connects ,calcutta with the industrial town of ,howrah1 where are jute mills and great engineering works4 ,in ,howrah also is the terminus of the ,east ,indian ,railway4 ,a hundred years ago ,howrah was but a small village2 to-day it contains some #afj1jjj people4 ,finally to the south of ,howrah on the west bank of the river are the celebrated ,botanical ,gardens1 containing many great palms1 and most notable of all a banyan tree whose circumference measures nearly a thousand feet4 ,north of ,calcutta1 and on the east bank of the ,hooghly1 is ,barrackpur1 with the country house of the ,viceroy of ,india4 ,there is a military cantonment at ,barrackpur1 and also a garrison in ,fort ,william4 ,sidenote3 #h4 ,the ,howrah ,bridge1 ,calcutta4 ,sidenote3 #i4 ,scene from the ,howrah ,bridge4 ,nothing impresses the stranger in ,calcutta more than the density of life in this populous city1 the focus of a great and fertile province4 ,at no spot is it more evident than on the ,howrah ,bridge1 where from morning to night a close throng crosses and re-crosses4 ,from the approach to the bridge we look down on a crowd bathing in the muddy but sacred water4 ,cheek by jowl with the busy commercial traffic of the bridge1 we have here the religion of the ,east4 ,purified by the bath1 and clothed again1 the bather sits in the crowd while for a few pies1 or say a farthing1 his sect mark is painted afresh on his forehead4 ,sidenote3 #aj4 ,calcutta from ,howrah across the ,hooghly4 ,the buildings of ,calcutta are worthy of the capital rank of the city1 but they are of ,european design1 for ,calcutta is a modern city4 ,fort ,william was so named from ,king ,william ,,iii41 in whose reign1 little more than two centuries ago1 ,job ,charnock1 a factor or commercial representative of the ,east ,india ,company1 bought the little village ,kalikata1 probably so named from a local shrine of the goddess ,kali4 ,there he built1 on the site of the present ,customs ,house1 the first ,fort ,william4 ,within ten years the population had grown to some ten thousand1 and it has never ceased growing to this day1 although at one time1 in the middle of the eighteenth century1 there was an episode in the history of the place which for a time somewhat checked its advance4 ,suraj-ud-,daulah1 the ,nawab of ,bengal1 quarrelled with the ,english at ,fort ,william1 and finally attacked them4 ,most of them escaped down the river1 but a hundred and forty-six were taken prisoners when ,fort ,william fell1 and were confined for a night in a small cell measuring #bb feet by #ad feet1 and some #ah feet high4 ,it was at the end of the hot season1 and only twenty-three of the prisoners came out alive the next morning4 ,this tragedy is known in history as the ,black ,hole of ,calcutta4 ,soon afterwards ,colonel ,clive1 the same ,clive who as a ,captain defended ,arcot in the south of ,india1 arrived with reinforcements and recaptured ,calcutta4 ,fort ,william was rebuilt on a larger scale1 and in a position a little south of the original site4 ,suraj-ud-,daulah quarrelled with the ,east ,india ,company again1 and ,clive led an army against him into the north of ,bengal1 and defeated him and his ,french allies in the famous battle of ,plassey4 ,the ,british force amounted to only three thousand men1 of whom but two hundred were ,english1 whereas the ,nawab had an army of nearly forty thousand4 ,in #agfe the whole of ,bengal was annexed by the ,east ,india ,company1 and from #aggb was ruled from ,calcutta4 ,suraj-ud-,daulah's capital had been at a place called ,murshidabad1 a hundred miles to the north of ,calcutta4 ,sidenote3 #aa4 ,black ,hole ,monument1 ,calcutta4 ,sidenote3 #ab4 ,the ,marble ,pavement1 ,black ,hole1 ,calcutta4 ,here1 at the corner of ,dalhousie ,square1 is the ,black ,hole ,monument1 erected by ,lord ,curzon when ,viceroy of ,india1 in the year #aijb1 upon the site of the original monument which was set up by one of the twenty-three survivors2 and here is a marble pavement marking the exact position of the ,black ,hole4 ,sidenote3 #ac4 ,bengal ,government ,office1 ,calcutta4 ,sidenote3 #ad4 ,the ,high ,court1 ,calcutta4 ,sidenote3 #ae4 ,eastern ,gateway1 ,government ,house1 ,calcutta4 ,sidenote3 #af4 ,government ,house1 ,calcutta4 ,sidenote3 #ag4 ,the ,same4 ,sidenote3 #ah4 ,imperial ,museum1 ,calcutta4 ,we have next the great red brick building in ,dalhousie ,square known as the ,bengal ,secretariat4 ,not far away are the public offices of the ,government of ,india1 but most of the staff are removed to ,simla in the hills during the hot and rainy seasons4 ,here1 facing the ,maidan1 is the frontage of the ,supreme ,court of ,justice1 with a fine tower nearly two hundred feet high1 which we saw just now from the ,hooghly4 ,next is the eastern gateway to the grounds of ,government ,house1 and here is ,government ,house itself1 with the ,union ,jack flying above it1 and ,indian sentries on guard4 ,it was built a little more than a hundred years ago1 and contains the throne of ,tippu ,sultan1 the tyrant of ,mysore1 of whom we heard in the first lecture4 ,opposite ,government ,house1 on the ,maidan1 is the ,jubilee ,statue of ,victoria1 the ,queen-,empress of ,india1 which was unveiled in the year #aijb4 ,here we have a more distant view of ,government ,house1 as seen from the ,maidan1 with a statue of one of the ,viceroys in the foreground4 ,next1 in ,chowringhee road1 is the ,imperial ,museum1 a fine building with a valuable ,gallery of ,antiquities4 ,sidenote3 #ai4 ,musulmans at ,prayer in the ,maidan4 ,sidenote3 #bj4 ,ochterlony ,monument1 ,calcutta4 ,sidenote3 #ba4 ,calcutta from the ,ochterlony ,monument4 ,sidenote3 #bb4 ,race ,course1 ,calcutta4 ,sidenote3 #bc4 ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral1 ,calcutta4 ,sidenote3 #bd4 ,tiretta ,bazaar ,street1 ,calcutta4 ,let us walk round the ,maidan1 and note the curiously mingled life upon it4 ,here1 for instance1 are ,musulmans at prayer1 an impressive sight that may be witnessed every evening4 ,here we are at the foot of the ,ochterlony monument1 a column erected in honour of ,sir ,david ,ochterlony1 a successful general in the wars with ,nepal4 ,from the top of it we have a fine view over the city4 ,notice ,government ,house and the ,high ,court4 ,at the other end of the ,maidan is the racecourse and polo ground1 to which we have already referred1 and here amid the trees in the southeastern corner1 beside the tank1 is the spire of the ,english ,cathedral4 ,here1 in contrast1 is a view in the native city4 ,the streets are with a few exceptions very narrow1 as in most southern cities where the sunshine is dreaded and where shade is essential to comfort4 ,sidenote3 #be4 ,jute ,mills1 ,howrah4 ,sidenote3 #bf4 ,a ,workshop in ,iron ,foundry at ,howrah4 ,sidenote3 #bg4 ,the same1 ,plate ,girders4 ,sidenote3 #bh4 ,workpeople bathing at ,howrah4 ,now we cross to ,howrah1 to the great jute mills1 where the jute fibre grown up country is spun and woven in competition with the jute manufacture of ,dundee4 ,in these mills you will find that the machinery bears the names of ,dundee and ,leeds makers1 for the industry is relatively new in ,india1 and has not yet reached the stage of manufacturing its own machinery4 ,next we pass into the engineering works of ,messrs4 ,burn and ,co41 where some five thousand natives and some sixty ,europeans are employed in the steel industry4 ,here are plate girders made in these works for railway bridge building1 and here in this same industrial town of ,howrah are people bathing after work in the jute mills4 ,let us recount the essence of what we have seen--the ,hooghly channel from the ocean1 bearing inward the ,european ships2 the ,shrine of the ,goddess ,kali2 the ,fort which protected the factory of the ,east ,india ,company2 the ,monument of the ,black ,hole2 ,government ,house and the ,secretariat1 whence the vast empire is ruled2 the ,cathedral and the ,racecourse of the white rulers2 the ,courts of ,justice1 which1 more than any military power1 betoken the essence of ,british rule in ,india2 the ,native ,city with its narrow ways and crowded life drawn from the surrounding agricultural plain2 the ,howrah ,bridge with the steel and jute mills beyond1 which imply a vast incoming change in the economic life of this eastern land2 and the ,botanic ,gardens with their wealth of vegetation typifying the ultimate resources of ,india--the tropical sunshine and the torrential rains4 ,sidenote3 ,repeat ,map ,no4 #a4 ,now let us run northward by the ,east ,bengal ,railway for some three hundred miles to ,darjeeling1 the hill station of ,calcutta1 as ,ootacamund is the hill station of ,madras4 ,we traverse the dead level of the plain with its thickly set villages and tropical vegetation4 ,there are some seven hundred and fifty thousand villages in ,india1 and these village communities are the real ,india1 for only about ten per cent4 of the total population is contained in the cities4 ,yet ,bengal in its present limits1 which exclude ,eastern ,bengal1 has a population of more than fifty millions1 on an area slightly smaller than that of the ,united ,kingdom4 ,now the total population of the ,united ,kingdom is only some forty-four millions1 and of these forty-four millions fully one-third inhabit some forty large cities4 ,britain is therefore mainly industrial1 whereas ,india is mainly agricultural1 nine-tenths of all the people in ,india being supported by occupations connected with agriculture4 ,from such statistics some idea may be gained of the density of the agricultural population of ,bengal1 a ,province with one great city only1 as greatness of cities is measured in our ,british ,islands4 ,the rule of these village-dotted plains is the main daily business of the ,indian ,government4 ,a great ,province like ,bengal is divided into ,districts1 each of them about as large as the ,english county of ,lincolnshire or a little larger4 ,on the average each of them contains from half a million to a million and a half of population4 ,there are some #bej of such ,districts in ,british ,india1 that is to say in that greater part of ,india which is administered directly by ,british officials4 ,in each ,district there is a chief executive officer1 styled the ,collector or ,deputy ,commissioner4 ,he is the head of the ,district administration1 and he is also the principal ,magistrate in the ,district4 ,under the ,collector there is a staff of ,executive ,officers1 ,british and ,indian1 of whom the chief are the ,assistant ,collector1 the ,deputy ,collector1 the ,superintendent of ,police1 the ,engineer1 and the ,civil ,surgeon4 ,the ,collector is so called because in the days of the old ,east ,india ,company his main function was to collect revenue4 ,in his other capacity of ,magistrate1 he is the head of the ,magisterial ,courts of the ,district4 ,the laws which he and his assistants administer are made by the ,viceroy in ,council1 and in a subordinate way by the ,lieutenant-,governors and their ,councils in the various ,provinces4 ,the ,collector does not decide civil suits4 ,these1 as well as all serious criminal cases1 come before ,civil ,judges of different grades1 who are independent of the ,collector4 ,therefore we find in ,india that essential division of the ,legislature1 ,judicature1 and ,executive which is the chief security of freedom in all ,british communities4 ,subject to the law and to the instructions of the superior ,provincial ,officers1 the ,district ,collector is1 however1 supreme1 except in the ,civil ,courts of his ,district4 ,he it is who alone for the vast majority of the ,indian population represents the ,raj or ,rule of the ,king-,emperor4 ,between the ,collectors and the ,lieutenant-,governors are intermediate controlling officers known as ,commissioners1 who superintend ,divisions or groups of several ,districts4 ,the ,higher ,civil ,service of ,india1 recruited by competitive examination in ,england1 consists of some twelve hundred officials--the ,commissioners1 the ,collectors of the ,districts1 and some of the ,assistant ,collectors4 ,the seniors of the ,civil ,service man the ,provincial and ,supreme ,governments of ,india4 ,only the ,governor-,general and the ,governors of ,madras and ,bombay are selected from outside the ,indian ,civil ,service and sent out from ,britain4 ,the ,collector is constantly touring his ,district1 in order that he may know it from personal investigation4 ,a good ,collector may become very popular1 and may do much to make his ,district prosperous4 ,it is a great position which may thus be held by young ,englishmen of1 say1 thirty years of age4 ,they are rulers of a million people at an age when their brothers of the professional classes at home are struggling to establish themselves as young barristers or doctors or clergymen4 ,it must not be thought1 however1 that the ,government of ,india1 either in its ,legislative1 ,judicial1 or ,executive capacities1 is wholly ,british1 and alien from the subject population4 ,the ,legislative ,councils of the ,governor-,general and also of the ,lieutenant-,governors in the ,provinces contain elected ,indian representatives1 both ,hindu and ,musulman4 ,the provincial ,councils have1 in fact1 non-official majorities4 ,only in the ,council of the ,governor-,general is there an official majority4 ,many of the ,judges even of the ,high ,courts are ,indian1 either ,hindu or ,musulman4 ,in the ,executive some of the ,collectors of ,districts are ,indian1 and also the great majority of the assistant officials1 who in the aggregate are an immense number4 ,sidenote3 #bi4 ,darjeeling ,railway1 ,chinbatti ,loop4 ,sidenote3 #cj4 ,darjeeling ,railway1 ,loop ,no4 #d4 ,sidenote3 #ca4 ,darjeeling4 ,as we think over these things we are continuing our journey northward4 ,we must change from train to steamer as we cross the ,ganges4 ,the passage of the river occupies about twenty minutes from one low-lying bank to the other4 ,then1 as we traverse the endless rice fields with their clumps of graceful bamboo1 the hills become visible across the northern horizon4 ,we run into a belt of jungle1 and change to the mountain railway1 which carries us up the steep hill front with many a turn and twist4 ,there is tall forest on the lower slopes1 of teak and other great trees1 hung thickly with creepers4 ,presently the wood becomes smaller1 and we enter the tea plantations with their trim rows of green bushes4 ,far below us1 at the foot of the steep forest1 spreads to the southern horizon the vast cultivated plain4 ,trees of the fir tribe now take the place of leafy trees1 and we rise to the ridge top on which is placed ,darjeeling1 a settlement of detached villas in compounds or enclosures1 hanging on the steep hill slopes4 ,darjeeling is about seven thousand feet above sea level1 on a ridge overlooking northward the gorge of the ,rungeet ,river4 ,sidenote3 #cb4 ,kinchinjunga1 from ,darjeeling4 ,sidenote3 #cc4 ,the ,himalaya4 ,sidenote3 #cd4 ,mount ,everest4 ,in the early morning1 if we are fortunate in the weather and rise before the sun1 we may see from ,darjeeling1 over the valley to north of the hill ridge on which we stand1 and over successive ridge tops beyond1 the mighty snow range of the ,himalayas1 fifty miles away1 with the peak of ,kinchinjunga1 more than five miles high1 dominating the landscape4 ,behind it1 a little to the west1 and visible from ,tiger ,hill near ,darjeeling1 though not from ,darjeeling itself1 is ,mount ,everest1 the highest mountain in the world1 five and half miles high4 ,the glittering wall of white mountains1 visible across the vast chasm and bare granite summits in the foreground1 seems to hang in the sky as though belonging to another world4 ,the broad distance1 and the sudden leap to supreme height1 give to this scene a mysterious and almost visionary grandeur4 ,it is1 however1 only occasionally that the culminating peaks can be seen1 for they are often veiled in cloud4 ,sidenote3 #ce4 ,tibetan ,woman4 ,sidenote3 #cf4 ,nepali ,ladies4 ,the people of ,sikkim in the hills beyond ,darjeeling are ,highlanders of ,mongolian stock and not ,indian4 ,they are of ,buddhist religion like the ,burmans1 and not ,hindu or ,musulman like the inhabitants of ,india4 ,they are small1 sturdy folk1 with oblique cut eyes1 and a ,chinese expression1 and they have the easy-going humorous character of the ,burmans1 though not the delicacy and civilization of those inhabitants of the sunny lowland4 ,they and the kindred and neighbour ,tibetans rarely wash1 and the women anoint their faces with a mixture of pigs' blood1 which gives them a dark and mottled appearance4 ,here we have in colour a portrait of a ,tibetan woman1 and then a group of ,nepali ladies1 with various head ornaments4 ,sidenote3 #cg4 ,political ,map of ,india1 distinguishing ,bengal1 ,eastern ,bengal and ,assam1 ,nepal1 and ,bhutan4 ,it is an interesting fact that these hill people should belong to the race which spreads over the vast ,chinese ,empire4 ,that race here advances to the last hill brinks which overlook the ,indian lowland4 ,the political map of this portion of ,india illustrates a parallel fact4 ,while the plains are administered directly by ,british officials1 the mountain slopes descending to them are ruled by native princes whose territories form a strip along the northern boundary of ,india4 ,north of ,assam and ,bengal we have in succession from east to west1 in the belt of hill country1 the lands of ,bhutan1 ,sikkim1 and ,nepal4 ,from ,nepal are recruited the ,gurkha ,regiments of the ,indian army1 the ,gurkhas being a race of these same hill men1 of small stature and sturdy agility1 of ,hindu religion1 but of more or less ,mongolian stock1 and therefore intermediate between the ,tibetans and the ,hindus4 ,sidenote3 #ch4 ,the ,bazaar1 ,darjeeling4 ,sidenote3 #ci4 ,the same--,nepali ,vegetable ,sellers4 ,sidenote3 #dj4 ,man carrying ,fodder1 ,darjeeling4 ,sidenote3 #da4 ,sikkim ,peasants4 ,sidenote3 #db4 ,native ,loom1 ,darjeeling4 ,sidenote3 #dc4 ,village in ,sikkim4 ,sidenote3 #dd4 ,the same4 ,here we have a typical market scene in ,darjeeling4 ,notice the women doing coolie work4 ,next are vegetable sellers in the ,darjeeling ,bazaar1 and here is a man carrying fodder4 ,the man with his back turned is a ,lepcha of ,sikkim4 ,then we have a group of ,sikkim peasants drinking the native beer1 made from marwa1 a kind of millet4 ,they draw it up through straws from cups made of bamboo4 ,next we see a native working a hand loom1 and then a village in ,sikkim4 ,here in the same village we see a woman carrying baggage4 ,sidenote3 #de4 ,lama ,monastery1 near ,darjeeling4 ,sidenote3 #df4 ,the same--,devil ,dancers4 ,sidenote3 #dg4 ,the same--interior4 ,sidenote3 #dh4 ,the ,amban ,dance1 ,darjeeling4 ,sidenote3 #di4 ,the same--another view4 ,near ,darjeeling there is a small ,buddhist monastery1 a two-storey building of which we have here a view4 ,notice the semi-circle of tall poles1 with linen flags1 on which prayers are inscribed4 ,by the entrance are a number of prayer-wheels fastened to the wall4 ,outside the monastery are men wearing the costumes of devil dancers1 such as are used in ,buddhist religious ceremonies of these parts4 ,there are long trumpets placed against the door post4 ,let us glance for a moment within this monastery1 and see the hideous wooden masks1 and the silk dresses of the priestly dancers4 ,two scenes follow1 from ,darjeeling itself1 of an elaborate dance by ,tibetan peasants called the ,amban dance4 ,the lions and dragons are each made of two men1 whose bodies are hung with white yak hair and tails4 ,they have grotesque heads1 with enormous eyes and gaping mouths1 from which hang large scarlet tongues4 ,so we obtain some idea of the stage of barbarism in which the hill tribes remain4 ,sidenote3 #ej4 ,north ,bengal ,mounted ,rifles1 ,lebong4 ,sidenote3 #ea4 ,the same--,sword ,pegging4 ,sidenote3 #eb4 ,coolies at ,darjeeling4 ,in contrast with these scenes are now two slides illustrating the volunteer service of the white tea planters4 ,of these the second shows tent-pegging on the ,lebong parade ground1 above the ,rungeet river4 ,this form of tent-pegging is with a sword1 and not with the more usual lance4 ,here is a scene showing ,darjeeling coolies returned from work in the tea gardens4 ,sidenote3 #ec4 ,the ,rungeet ,gorge4 ,sidenote3 #ed4 ,the same4 ,sidenote3 #ee4 ,the ,rungeet ,bridge1 ,sikkim4 ,sidenote3 #ef4 ,a ,himalayan ,glacier4 ,sidenote3 #eg4 ,glacier-fed ,torrent in the ,himalaya4 ,sidenote3 #eh4 ,cane ,bridge in the ,himalaya4 ,finally we have two views in the gorge of the ,rungeet river1 between ,darjeeling and ,sikkim1 with precipitous sides1 and then a glimpse of the ,rungeet bridge4 ,the ,rungeet drains from the hills of ,darjeeling1 and from the snow mountains beyond1 into a tributary of the ,ganges4 ,several hundred such torrents burst in long succession through deep portals in the ,himalayan foot hills and feed the great rivers of the plain1 the ,brahmaputra and the ,ganges4 ,they are perennial rivers1 for they originate in the melting of the glaciers1 and the ,himalayan glaciers cover a vast area1 being fed by the monsoon snows4 ,nearly all the agricultural wealth of ,northern ,india owes its origin to the summer monsoon4 ,sidenote3 #ei4 ,map of the ,himalayan ,river ,system4 ,to understand the fundamental conditions governing the ,indian climate let us examine the two concluding maps of this lecture4 ,on the first of them all the country with an elevation of more than fifteen hundred feet is coloured with a dark brown1 and that with a lower elevation is coloured a light brown4 ,a great angle of the ,indian lowland is seen to project northward into the ,asiatic upland4 ,for fifteen hundred miles the ,himalaya limits the lowland with a gracefully curving mountain edge1 and from this edge there flow the series of tributaries which gather to the rivers ,indus1 ,ganges1 and ,brahmaputra4 ,beyond1 to the south1 are seen in dark brown the higher portions of the ,deccan plateau4 ,sidenote3 #fj4 ,map of ,south-,west ,monsoon4 ,now compare with this the succeeding map1 which shows the winds of the summer time and the average rainfall4 ,the winds sweep in from the southwest1 but as they cross ,bengal they bend so as to blow from the south and then from the southeast4 ,the dark arrow with the broken shaft striking northwestward through the heart of ,india represents the usual track of the storms which prevail in the ,central ,provinces during the summer season1 producing the havoc along the ,madras coast and northward1 of which we spoke in the second lecture4 ,the maximum rainfall1 it will be seen1 occurs in three regions--first on the west face of the ,western ,ghats1 and on the west face of the mountains of ,ceylon2 secondly in the east of the ,indian ,peninsula near the track of the storm centres2 and thirdly along the south face of the ,garo hills and of the ,himalayas north of ,bengal1 and on the west face of the various mountain ranges of ,burma4 ,in other words1 in the first and third cases the rain is due to the winds striking the mountain ranges1 and is great only on the windward faces of those ranges4 ,in the second case the rainfall is mainly the result of the storms4 ,on the other hand1 there is drought at this season under the lee of the mountains of ,ceylon and of the ,western ,ghats1 and again in a comparatively small belt1 near ,pagan1 along the ,irawaddy river1 between the western and the eastern ridges of ,burma4 ,tibet1 which is under the lee of the ,himalayas1 and northwestern ,india1 which is out of the track of the southwest winds1 are wide deserts4 ,this map explains the exceptional fertility and density of population of the ,province of ,bengal4 ,sidenote3 ,repeat ,map ,no4 #a4 ,india is so vast a country1 and so varied1 that no traveller can hope to visit all parts of it4 ,on our journey from ,calcutta to ,darjeeling1 we have left the province of ,assam away to the east of us4 ,assam is a through road nowhither1 for high and difficult mountains close the eastern end of its great valley4 ,moreover1 though it has vast natural resources1 ,assam is a country which throughout history has lain for the most part outside ,indian civilisation1 and1 even to-day1 has but a sparse population and a relatively small commercial development4 ,let us1 then1 just remember in passing that this remote province of ,india has a geography which1 though simple1 is built on a very grand scale4 ,the ,san-po river rises high on the plateau of ,tibet northward of ,lucknow4 ,for more than #gjj miles it flows eastward over the plateau in rear of the ,himalayan peaks2 then it turns sharply southward and descends steeply through a deep gorge little known1 for it is tenanted by hostile tribes4 ,where it emerges from the mountains the river has a level not a thousand feet above the sea1 and here1 turning westward1 it forms the ,brahmaputra--that is to say1 the ,son of ,brahma1 the ,creator4 ,the ,brahmaputra flows for #dej miles westward through the valley of ,assam1 deeply trenched between the snowy wall of the ,himalayas on the one hand and the forested mountains of the ,burmese border and the ,khasia and ,garo hills on the other hand4 ,the river 8rolls down the valley in a vast sheet of water10 depositing banks of silt at the smallest obstruction1 8so that islands form and re-form in constant succession4 ,broad channels break away and rejoin the main river after wide divergences1 which are subjected to no control4 ,the swamps on either hand are flooded in the rainy season1 till the lower reaches of the valley are one vast shining sea1 from which the hills slope up on either side40 ,the traffic on the river is maintained chiefly by exports of tea and timber1 with imports of rice for the labourers on the tea estates4 ,some day1 when great sums of money are available for capital expenditure1 the ,brahmaputra will be controlled1 and ,assam will become the seat of teeming production and a dense population4 ,the ,indian ,empire contains some #cjj million people2 but1 as we learn1 it also contains some of the chief virgin resources of the world4 -------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,lecture ,,iv4 --- ,,the ,,united ,,provinces4 --- ,,the ,,mutiny4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,map of ,india1 distinguishing the ,united ,provinces4 ,northwestward from ,bengal1 over the great plain of the ,ganges1 we enter the next region of ,india4 ,the ,united ,provinces of ,agra and ,oudh have an area almost equal to that of ,great ,britain1 and a population as dense4 ,when we go from ,bengal to the ,united ,provinces1 it is as though we were crossing from one to another of the great continental ,states of ,europe1 say from ,germany into ,france4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,map of the ,united ,provinces4 ,the ,himalayan mountains lie to the north2 the hills of ,central ,india to the south4 ,the plain between them1 raised only a little above the sea1 is two hundred miles across1 measured from the foot hills of the ,himalayas to the first rise of the ,central ,indian hills4 ,two great rivers1 the ,ganges and the ,jumna1 emerge from ,himalayan valleys1 and traverse the plain southward1 and presently southeastward1 leaving between them a tongue of land1 known in ,hindustani as the ,doab1 or two waters4 ,mesopotamia1 between the rivers ,euphrates and ,tigris in the ,nearer ,east1 signifies the same in the ,greek language4 ,the ,jumna joins the ,ganges near the southern limit of the plain1 and in the angle of the confluence is the large city of ,allahabad1 the capital and seat of the ,lieutenant-,governor of the ,united ,provinces4 ,other great tributaries flow to the ,ganges from more eastern parts of the ,himalayas1 and bending southeastward join the main river one after another4 ,five considerable cities focus the great population of the ,united ,provinces--,allahabad1 already mentioned1 ,cawnpore1 ,lucknow1 ,agra1 and ,benares4 ,a hundred miles above ,allahabad1 on the right or south bank of the ,ganges1 is the city of ,cawnpore1 and on the opposite or northern bank extends the old ,kingdom of ,oudh1 with ,lucknow for its capital1 situated some forty miles northeast of ,cawnpore4 ,agra1 which gives its name to all that part of the ,united ,provinces which did not formerly belong to ,oudh1 is situated on the right or south bank of the ,jumna1 a hundred and fifty miles west of ,lucknow4 ,eighty miles below ,allahabad1 on the north bank of the ,ganges1 is ,benares1 the most sacred city of the ,hindus4 ,all these distances between the cities of ,agra1 ,cawnpore1 ,lucknow1 ,allahabad1 and ,benares1 lie over the dead level of the plain1 dusty1 and like a desert in the dry season1 but green and fertile after the rains4 ,scattered over the plain are innumerable villages1 in which dwell nineteen out of twenty of the inhabitants of the joint ,provinces4 ,lucknow is the largest of the cities1 yet it has only a quarter of a million inhabitants4 ,the ,united ,provinces are the heart of ,india1 the typical ,indian land1 safe from invasion from the north by reason of the ,himalayan barrier and the desert plateau of ,tibet2 relatively inaccessible from the ocean1 and not conquered by ,britain until long after ,bengal had become a ,province of the ,east ,india ,company2 relatively safe also from northwestern invasion4 ,its people remain dominantly ,hindu in their religion and customs1 whereas the great province of the ,punjab further northwestward has a majority of ,musulmans4 ,southward is the plateau of ,central ,india1 comparatively thinly peopled4 ,the language of the ,united ,provinces1 and of considerable districts to west1 south1 and east of them1 is ,hindi1 the most direct derivative of the ancient ,sanskrit tongue1 whose use was contemporary with that of ,latin and ,greek4 ,all three of these ancient tongues1 as well as ,old ,persian1 belong to the family of the ,indo-,european languages4 ,sanskrit was brought into ,india by a conquering people from the northwest4 ,hindi is now spoken by a hundred million people in all the northern centre of ,india4 ,it is the language not only of the ,united ,provinces but also of the western part of ,bengal which is known as ,behar1 of that part of the ,punjab which surrounds ,delhi1 and of a wide district in ,central ,india ruled by the great ,maratha chiefs1 ,sindhia and ,holkar4 ,other tongues of similar origin are spoken in the regions around--,bengali in ,bengal1 ,marathi and ,gujrati in the lands which lie east and north of ,bombay1 and ,punjabi in the ,punjab4 ,we must think of these various ,indian languages as differing from one another much as ,french and ,spanish and ,italian differ1 which are all derived from a common ,latin source4 ,the ,hindi language was picked up by the ,musulman conquerors of ,india1 and by adding to it words of their own ,persian speech they formed ,urdu1 the language of the camp4 ,this is the language of educated ,musulmans all over ,india to this day4 ,under the name of ,hindustani it has become a sort of lingua franca throughout ,india1 and is used by ,europeans when talking to their servants4 ,away to the south1 beyond the limit of the ,sanskrit tongues1 in the province of ,madras and neighbouring areas1 are talked languages wholly alien from ,sanskrit1 and differing from ,hindi1 ,bengali1 ,marathi1 ,gujrati1 and ,punjabi1 much as the ,turkish and ,hungarian languages differ from the group of allied ,indo-,european tongues spoken in ,western ,europe4 ,these southern ,indian tongues are known as ,dravidian4 ,the most important of them are ,telugu1 spoken by twenty millions1 and ,tamil1 spoken by some fifteen millions4 ,the ,hindu religion1 however1 is held by the great majority both of the ,dravidian south and of the ,indo-,european north and centre4 ,if there be one part of ,india which we may think of as the shrine of shrines in a land where religion rules all life1 it is to be found in a triangle of cities just contained within the map before us4 ,there on the ,ganges we see ,benares and ,patna1 and some fifty miles south of ,patna the smaller town of ,gaya4 ,benares from prehistoric times has been the focus of ,hinduism4 ,patna was the capital of the chief ,gangetic kingdom more than two thousand years ago1 when the ,greek ambassador ,megasthenes1 first of the ,westerns1 travelled thus far into the ,east4 ,gaya was the spot where ,buddha1 seeking to reform ,hinduism some six hundred years before ,christ1 obtained enlightenment1 and then migrated to teach at ,benares1 or rather at ,sarnath1 now in ruin1 some three or four miles north of the present ,benares4 ,the peoples of all the vast ,indian and ,chinese world1 from ,karachi to ,pekin and ,tokyo1 look to this little group of cities as the centre of holiness1 whether they be followers of ,brahma or of ,buddha4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,buddhist ,tope at ,sarnath4 ,sidenote3 #d4 ,sculptures at ,sarnath4 ,sidenote3 #e4 ,lion-capital at ,sarnath4 ,old ,benares1 whose ruins are now known as ,sarnath1 was a few miles north of the existing city4 ,we have here one of the ,buddhist topes of ,sarnath1 which was the spot to which ,buddha removed after he had received enlightenment at ,gaya4 ,here he and his disciples began to teach4 ,we have another view at ,sarnath1 showing some of the ancient sculptures1 and a gigantic lion-capital recently excavated4 ,its size can be appreciated by noticing the man behind4 ,sidenote3 #f4 ,plan of ,benares4 ,sidenote3 #g4 ,view across the ,ganges to the ,southern ,shore4 ,sidenote3 #h4 ,panchganga ,ghat1 ,benares4 ,sidenote3 #i4 ,the ,same--another view4 ,sidenote3 #aj4 ,palace of the ,raja of ,bhinga1 ,benares4 ,sidenote3 #aa4 ,the ,same--another view4 ,benares extends for four miles along the northern bank of the ,ganges4 ,this bank is here higher than the southern1 and descends to the river edge with a steep brink4 ,down this brink are many flights of steps1 known as 8ghats10 which we may translate by the word 8approaches40 ,we have already heard the word 8ghat0 applied to the steep mountain-high brinks of the southern plateau of ,india1 where the upper ground breaks away to the shore of the ,arabian ,sea on the one hand1 and to the low-lying plain of the ,carnatic on the other4 ,the city of ,benares is situated on the plateau top above the ghats1 and for four miles the river front is crowned with palaces and temples1 built of a yellow sandstone4 ,the opposite1 the southern1 shore lies low and without buildings4 ,here is a view looking southward across the river from the brink edge2 it shows the low and non-sacred southern shore4 ,here are two views of the brink itself1 faced and crowned with buildings of yellow sandstone4 ,there follow two views of the palace of the ,raja of ,bhinga1 and in both we see the ghat steps descending to the water's edge4 ,sidenote3 #ab4 ,dasashwamedh ,ghat1 ,benares4 ,sidenote3 #ac4 ,manikarnika ,ghat1 ,benares4 ,the population of ,benares numbers some two hundred thousand1 of whom the great majority are of the ,hindu faith1 and no fewer than thirty thousand are ,brahmans1 the priestly caste4 ,it is said that more than a million pilgrims visit the city every year4 ,in the early morning they descend the ghats to bathe in the river and to drink the sacred water4 ,here we have the scene at one of these ghats1 with the conical towers of a temple1 and the great sun umbrellas4 ,another scene of a similar character follows at another ghat1 the most sacred in ,benares4 ,sidenote3 #ad4 ,burning ,ghat1 ,benares4 ,sidenote3 #ae4 ,another ,burning ,ghat1 ,benares4 ,some of the ghats are used for the burning of dead bodies4 ,wrapped in a white shroud1 the corpse is dipped into the river1 then laid on a pile of faggots1 and other faggots are built around1 and a light is set to the pile4 ,the ashes are thrown into the river4 ,these rites are performed by the nearest relatives4 ,we have here the body of a woman of the poorer classes nearly consumed1 and the few relatives looking on4 ,here preparations are in progress for another cremation4 ,the corpse may be seen1 with its feet in the water1 resting aslant at the foot of the ghat4 ,the bodies of the higher castes are burnt at the ,raja ,ghat on costly fires of sandal-wood4 ,at night1 from the water1 the city1 with its thousands of lights and the tall flames at the ,burning ,ghats1 is deeply impressive4 ,sidenote3 #af4 ,the ,observatory1 ,benares4 ,sidenote3 #ag4 ,the ,samrat ,yantra in the ,observatory4 ,sidenote3 #ah4 ,eclipse ,festival1 ,benares4 ,perhaps the most interesting of all the buildings at ,benares is the ,observatory1 a lofty structure placed on the river brink and commanding a wide view4 ,within are instruments of stone on a great scale for the observation of the movements of the heavenly bodies4 ,this is the ,samrat ,yantra1 used for observing the declination and right ascension of the stars4 ,astronomy plays no inconsiderable part in the rites of ,benares4 ,the pilgrimages are thronged at the time of eclipse of the sun1 and there are certain ghats of special resort during the occurrence of eclipses4 ,sidenote3 #ai4 ,roof of ,golden ,temple1 ,benares4 ,sidenote3 #bj ,vishnagi ,temple1 ,benares4 ,sidenote3 #ba4 ,aurangzeb's ,mosque1 ,benares4 ,sidenote3 #bb4 ,the ,same--another view4 ,set a little back from the river front in a small square is the chief temple of the ,hindus4 ,europeans are not permitted to go within1 but only to peep through a hole in the wall1 and also from an upper balcony of a neighbouring house to look down upon the gilded roof4 ,beside this temple there is another1 half of which is in ruin1 and the remainder has been converted to the purpose of a ,musulman mosque4 ,the old part is of yellow-grey sandstone1 tawny with age1 but the mosque has been white-washed and shines brightly in the sunlight4 ,we have here a view of this temple-mosque1 and then there follow two views1 showing the tall minarets of ,aurangzeb's ,mosque1 built on the site of another ,hindu temple which he destroyed4 ,for two centuries until the advent of ,british power the rulers of this ,hindu land were of the ,musulman faith1 conquerors from the northwest4 ,the ,musulmans destroyed many of the ancient ,hindu temples of ,benares1 so that most of the buildings of the city are comparatively modern4 ,sidenote3 #bc4 ,a ,fakir1 ,benares4 ,sidenote3 #bd4 ,snake ,charmers1 ,benares4 ,as in a ,christian country1 such a resort of pilgrims brings together men from far distant and different lands1 and we have at ,benares an epitome of all ,hindu ,india4 ,in the narrow deep-shaded streets1 and the sordid and tawdry purlieus of the temples may be seen many a typical scene of ,eastern life4 ,here1 for instance1 close to ,aurangzeb's ,mosque1 is a ,fakir or religious enthusiast1 to whom the alms of the faithful are due4 ,he rests on this bed of spikes day and night4 ,such ,fakirs get much alms1 which they are supposed by the envious to bury underground4 ,we have another characteristic scene here1 two snake charmers on one of the ghats1 with a fine assortment of reptiles--cobra1 python1 and other snakes1 as well as scorpions4 ,there is always a ready crowd for them1 as for jugglers of curious skill4 ,sidenote3 #be4 ,bullock ,cart1 ,benares4 ,sidenote3 #bf4 ,a ,camel1 ,benares4 ,sidenote3 #bg4 ,a ,bridegroom1 ,benares4 ,the traffic in the streets is of the most various kind4 ,here is an ox waggon1 with cumbrous wooden wheels1 laden with rough stone for road making1 and here a tall camel bringing in tobacco from some outlying village4 ,this is a bridegroom of the highest1 the ,brahman caste1 mounted on a white horse1 and clothed in a golden dress shot with pink4 ,he is probably on his way to pay a ceremonial call4 ,sidenote3 #bh4 ,prince of ,wales ,hospital1 ,benares4 ,sidenote3 #bi4 ,queen's ,college1 ,benares4 ,sidenote3 #cj4 ,central ,hindu ,college1 ,benares4 ,further inland1 near the railway station1 is grouped the ,european quarter1 with a ,christian church1 the post office1 the regimental barracks of the cantonment1 missionary colleges1 villas of officials1 and a few fine public buildings of recent date4 ,here for instance1 with a bullock cart passing it1 and another vehicle behind with a sun-hood1 is the ,prince of ,wales ,hospital4 ,here is ,queen's ,college1 where a modern education is given to some five hundred students1 and here finally is the ,central ,hindu ,college1 opened in #ahii1 8for the education of ,hindu youth in their ancestral faith and in true loyalty and patriotism40 ,this college contains about two hundred and fifty students4 ,sidenote3 #ca4 ,army ,factory1 ,cawnpore--,native ,cutters at work4 ,we now leave ,benares1 noticing the great railway bridge over the ,ganges1 and travel by rail over the grey monotony of the plains1 varied by patches of cultivation1 herds of long-eared goats1 long-legged pigs1 large black vultures1 and here and there a string of camels4 ,so we come to ,cawnpore1 the ,manchester of ,india4 ,cawnpore is the chief inland manufacturing city of ,india1 a great contrast in all its ways with ,benares4 ,western capital1 ,western ideas1 and ,western organisation are at work on a large scale4 ,there are mills and factories for the spinning and weaving of wool1 mostly ,indian wool1 but some ,australian brought by way of ,calcutta4 ,one of these mills seen by our artist had on hand at the time of his visit an order for eleven thousand coats1 and had just finished thirty-three thousand for the police of the great native state of ,hyderabad4 ,this is the mill in question4 ,the cutters are shearing coats from a great piece of khaki1 on which the patterns to be cut have been chalked4 ,both the spinning of the yarn and the weaving of khaki cloth have been accomplished by native labour and ,british machinery at ,cawnpore4 ,khaki signifies the colour of khak1 or dust4 ,sidenote3 #cb4 ,the ,same--the ,raw ,hide ,shed4 ,sidenote3 #cc4 ,the ,same--unloading ,bark4 ,sidenote3 #cd4 ,the ,same--the ,boot ,shop4 ,sidenote3 #ce4 ,well in ,messrs4 ,cooper ,allen's ,model ,village1 ,cawnpore4 ,sidenote3 #cf4 ,native ,potters4 ,sidenote3 #cg4 ,the ,same4 ,here is a leather factory for making ,government boots and army equipment4 ,this view shows the raw hides1 mostly buffalo1 gathered by rail from all parts of ,india4 ,the hides on the weighing machine have been dried4 ,this is bark being unloaded from the train for use in the tannery4 ,then we see the boot shop itself1 thronged with workmen4 ,these workmen are mostly ,musulmans4 ,as will be seen1 the boots are hand-sewn4 ,one large firm1 employing daily some three thousand five hundred hands1 has built a model village1 of which we have here the well1 the central feature of every ,indian village1 whether of the new and garden type1 or of the old and traditional4 ,what a contrast must all this be to the inhabitants of the country districts1 where village tradesmen still follow their traditional crafts6 ,here1 for example1 are two views in a pottery near ,benares4 ,the potters turn the wheel with their feet4 ,most ,hindu workmen use their feet a good deal1 and of course the typical squatting attitude makes it easier for them to do so4 ,consider the revolution in all the social life of ,india1 which is involved in the steady displacement of these village-made wares by the cheaper machine-made products of ,cawnpore and other factory centres4 ,there is a change beginning throughout the length and breadth of this vast land1 not wholly unlike that which took place in ,britain under the name of the ,industrial ,revolution a century and a half ago4 ,as higher and more skilled industries are introduced1 it seems likely ultimately to result in a migration of workers from the villages to the cities1 in the growth of the size of the cities1 and in the greater monotony of life in the rustic villages4 ,no doubt there will be some inevitable suffering1 especially on the part of those workers who cannot adapt themselves to the new conditions4 ,in the main1 however1 the factory operatives have thus far been peasant proprietors who forsake their villages only for a time4 ,sidenote3 #ch4 ,the ,rumi ,gate1 ,lucknow4 ,sidenote3 #ci4 ,the ,same--from within4 ,sidenote3 #dj4 ,the ,imambara1 ,lucknow4 ,sidenote3 #da4 ,the ,same--the ,great ,hall4 ,lucknow is a city of modern temples and palaces1 many of them stucco buildings of debased architecture1 which appear beautiful only by moonlight and when artificially illuminated4 ,we have here the ,rumi ,gateway1 and here the same gateway from within4 ,then we have the ,imambara1 built under ,asaf-ud-daulah1 who also built the ,residency1 as a relief work in a great famine in #aghd4 ,the most striking feature is the successful construction of an enormous roof of coarse concrete without ribs1 beams1 pillars1 or visible support of any kind1 except that from the four surrounding walls4 ,here is the great hall1 beneath this roof4 ,it is about a hundred and sixty feet long1 fifty feet wide1 and some fifty feet high4 ,on the floor is the tomb of ,asaf-ud-daulah1 a slab of plain masonry surrounded by silver1 and covered with a canopy4 ,the tomb is not in line with the sides of the hall1 but is a little askew in order that it be oriented in accordance with the direction of ,mecca4 ,near by can be seen a huge tazia1 which is carried through the streets on the ,musulman anniversary of the ,moharam4 ,sidenote3 #db4 ,in the ,chauk ,bazaar1 ,lucknow4 ,sidenote3 #dc4 ,the ,same4 ,sidenote3 #dd4 ,a ,musulman ,woman in a ,burka4 ,sidenote3 #de4 ,the ,jama ,masjid1 ,lucknow4 ,sidenote3 #df4 ,the ,husainabad ,imambara1 ,lucknow4 ,sidenote3 #dg4 ,karbala of ,diana-ud-daula1 ,lucknow4 ,sidenote3 #dh4 ,the ,kasmain1 ,lucknow4 ,next we have two views in the ,bazaar of ,lucknow1 which forms one of the six wards of the city4 ,in the bazaar are to be found jewellers and silversmiths1 together with brassworkers and woodcarvers4 ,then we come to a very characteristic ,indian scene1 a ,musulman woman wearing a burka1 that is to say1 a veil with eye-slits4 ,all ,musulman women of a higher class are veiled when they leave the privacy of their houses1 in accordance with the general feeling of ,islam1 alike in ,europe1 ,africa1 and ,asia4 ,here we see the ,jama ,masjid1 a three-domed mosque1 with decorations painted in blue and purple upon its walls4 ,within it is a curious ledge used by the ,shiahs1 one of the two great sects of the ,musulmans1 for resting their foreheads at prayer time4 ,from the platform of this mosque1 we have a view of one of the largest ,muhammadan buildings of the city1 the ,husainabad ,imambara1 built in #ahcg1 by ,muhammad ,ali ,shah1 as a burial place for himself and his mother4 ,it is almost entirely of painted stucco4 ,beyond its tallest minaret can be seen in the distance the red brick ,clock-,tower of the city4 ,here we see the ,karbala or burying place of ,diana-ud-daula1 of red sandstone1 with a gilded cupola1 and close by is the ,kasmain1 whose architecture is copied from that of a sacred place in ,bagdad4 ,sidenote3 #di4 ,the ,chhattar ,manzil1 ,lucknow4 ,sidenote3 #ej4 ,women planting ,tobacco ,plants1 ,lucknow4 ,next we see the ,chhattar ,manzil1 once the ,palace of the ,kings of ,oudh1 now transformed into the ,united ,service ,club4 ,finally1 in contrast1 is a scene near the ,residency1 showing women planting out young tobacco plants1 with an irrigation well in the background4 ,notice the oxen pulling at the rope with a skin attached1 which draws up the water4 ,already the busy hive of industry at ,cawnpore plays no mean part in the economy of the ,indian ,empire1 but for ,british ears ,cawnpore and ,lucknow have a historical and deeper interest4 ,these two cities were the focus of those events in the tragic year #aheg1 which we speak of as the ,indian ,mutiny4 ,at that time ,british ,india was still ruled by the ,east ,india ,company1 an ,association founded at the close of ,queen ,elizabeth's reign4 ,the ,british ,east ,india ,company had at first purely mercantile aims1 but1 as we have already heard in these lectures1 was soon involved in native intrigues and wars owing to the rivalry of the competing ,french ,company4 ,robert ,clive went out to ,india as a writer or clerk in the employ of 8,john ,company10 as it was called1 but he exchanged the pen for the sword1 and by his defence of ,arcot brought about the defeat of the ,french party in the ,carnatic1 and the supremacy of the ,british ,company in that state4 ,so he established the ,madras ,province around ,fort ,saint ,george on the southeastern coast4 ,the great ,colonel ,clive1 who recaptured ,calcutta and won the ,province of ,bengal by the decisive victory at ,plassey1 was the same soldier grown a little older in the service of the same great ,company4 ,by successive stages in the next two or three generations the ,east ,india ,company was deprived of its trading monopolies4 ,at the time of the ,mutiny it was in fact merely the ,government of ,india1 and was controlled even in this function by the ,british ,government4 ,the ,company maintained a large army of sepoys or native soldiers1 officered by ,europeans1 and also a small force that was wholly ,british4 ,in the years immediately preceding the ,mutiny1 great changes had been made in ,india4 ,in one way or another several native governments had been overthrown1 and among these was the ,kingdom of ,oudh1 whose capital was at ,lucknow1 which was annexed because of its misrule4 ,there was hence much unrest among some of the ,indian peoples1 and the spirit of discontent spread to the native army of ,bengal1 mostly recruited from ,oudh4 ,then an unfortunate incident occurred4 ,a new form of cartridge was supplied to the troops1 the end of which had to be bitten off before the old fashioned gun of those times could be loaded4 ,rumour got about that beef grease or pigs' fat had been employed in the manufacture of these cartridges4 ,now the ,hindus regard oxen as sacred1 and the ,musulmans look on the pig as unclean4 ,the ,hindus use oxen as draught animals for their ploughs and their carts1 but to kill them or to eat their flesh is sinful4 ,so it was that the agitators were able to play on the superstitions and prejudices of the ignorant soldiers4 ,the mutinous troops murdered many of their white officers1 and gradually gathered into three armies1 which attacked the small loyal native forces and the white men and women who had collected at ,delhi1 ,cawnpore1 and ,lucknow4 ,of the fall of ,delhi and its re-capture by the ,british we will speak later when we come to describe in the seventh lecture the northern part of ,india4 ,assistance came to that place1 not from ,calcutta and the sea1 but from the great newly acquired ,province of the ,punjab1 which remained loyal4 ,cawnpore and ,lucknow lay1 however1 far to the southeast of ,delhi1 and were inaccessible from that direction4 ,sir ,henry ,lawrence was in command at ,lucknow1 and ,general ,wheeler at ,cawnpore4 ,in each case the native city was abandoned1 and the small loyal native force and white refugees were gathered into an area more possible of defence4 ,general ,havelock led the first army of relief from ,calcutta and ,allahabad towards ,cawnpore1 but before he arrived1 the little garrison1 trusting to treacherous promises1 had surrendered4 ,they marched down to the river to take boat for ,allahabad1 and there most of them were slain--men1 women1 and children4 ,a few were imprisoned at ,cawnpore and were massacred a fortnight later4 ,sidenote3 #ea4 ,massacre ,ghat1 ,cawnpore4 ,sidenote3 #eb4 ,the ,same--another ,view4 ,we have here the ghat1 now known as ,massacre ,ghat1 by which the ,english went down to the fatal shore1 and here another and wider view of the same scene4 ,the road that leads down to the ghat is shaded by some fine trees1 behind which were hidden on the #bgth ,june1 #aheg1 the mutineers who carried out the massacre4 ,in the distance can be seen the red brick piers of the ,oudh and ,rohilkund ,railway bridge1 built of course since the ,mutiny4 ,retribution soon came to the mutineers4 ,general ,havelock marched from ,allahabad with some two thousand men1 and in a fierce battle defeated the rebels under ,nana ,sahib1 and entered ,cawnpore4 ,he then tried to carry relief across the forty miles of plain northeastward to ,lucknow4 ,twice he failed1 and was forced back1 but at last he effected his entry to that city1 with a force so weak1 however1 that it was impossible to keep open his communications1 and the reinforced garrison at ,lucknow was subjected to a renewal of the siege4 ,at last ,sir ,colin ,campbell1 afterwards ,lord ,clyde1 arrived with an army sent out from ,britain4 ,we must remember that in those days there was no ,suez ,canal1 and communication with ,india was round the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,fortunately an expedition was on its way to ,china when the ,mutiny broke out1 and this force was diverted to ,calcutta1 and supplied the first relief1 which was led1 as we have seen1 by ,general ,havelock4 ,sidenote3 #ec4 ,the ,residency1 ,lucknow4 ,sidenote3 #ed4 ,the ,tower of the ,residency4 ,sidenote3 #ee4 ,the ,baillie ,gate1 ,lucknow4 ,sidenote3 #ef4 ,the ,ammunition ,mosque in the ,residency4 ,sidenote3 #eg4 ,the ,monument outside the ,residency4 ,the defence at ,lucknow centered in the ,residency1 the official home that is to say of the ,british ,resident at the court of the recently dethroned ,king of ,oudh4 ,the ,residency is now in ruins1 as we see in the three slides which follow4 ,here is a view taken from the direction of the ,baillie ,gate1 and here is the ,tower4 ,here is the ,baillie ,gate itself1 the scene of the most furious attacks on the ,british position4 ,the old man whom we note with his hat off and a medal on his breast is the guardian of the place1 a veteran of the ,mutiny1 who as a boy took part in the defence of ,lucknow4 ,these ,mutiny veterans have now become but a very small band4 ,here in the ,residency is another ruin1 the mosque in which the ammunition was kept during the siege1 and here is the ,monument to the loyal native soldiers4 ,it bears the following inscription3--8,to the memory of the native officers and sepoys who died near this spot nobly performing their duty40 ,this monument was erected in #ahge by ,lord ,northbrook1 ,viceroy and ,governor-,general of ,india1 and serves to remind us that the ,indians who fell in defence of our flag outnumbered the ,british4 ,the ,tower of the ,residency can be seen in the background4 ,sidenote3 #eh4 ,all ,souls ,memorial ,church1 ,cawnpore4 ,sidenote3 #ei4 ,the ,well ,memorial1 ,cawnpore4 ,at ,cawnpore1 also1 there are sad memorials of massacre and defeat1 not of ultimate victory as at ,lucknow4 ,we have here ,all ,souls ,memorial church1 containing monuments to those who fell near by4 ,the low evergreen hedge seen in the picture marks the line of ,general ,wheeler's unfortunately chosen entrenchments4 ,here1 at the east end of the city1 in the beautiful ,memorial ,gardens1 over the well into which the dead bodies were cast after the second massacre1 is a figure of the ,angel of the ,resurrection1 sculptured by ,marochetti in white marble4 ,in each hand is a palm1 the emblem of peace4 ,around the circle of the well is the following inscription3-- 8,sacred to the perpetual memory of the great company of ,christian people1 chiefly women and children1 who near this spot were cruelly murdered by the followers of the rebel ,nana ,dhundu ,pant of ,bithur1 and cast1 the dying with the dead1 into the well below1 on the #aeth day of ,july1 #aheg40 ,sidenote3 #fj4 ,the ,queen's ,statue1 ,cawnpore4 ,finally1 we look at the bronze monument of the ,queen-,empress ,victoria1 whose direct government displaced that of the ,east ,india ,company after the quelling of the ,mutiny in #aheh4 ,hindu gardeners are at work in the foreground4 ,no ,briton can visit ,lucknow and ,cawnpore without being moved4 ,we may well be proud of the heroic deeds of those of our race who in #aheg suffered and fought and died to save the ,british ,raj in ,india4 -------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,lecture ,v4 --- ,,bombay4 --- ,,the ,,marathas4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,map of ,indian ,railway ,system4 ,two new facts have of recent years altered all the relations of ,india with the outer world1 and have vitally changed the conditions of internal government as compared with those prevailing at the time of the ,mutiny4 ,the first of these facts was the opening of the ,suez ,canal1 and the second was the construction1 and as regards main lines the virtual completion of the ,indian ,railway ,system4 ,formerly shipping came round the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and it was as easy to steer a course for ,calcutta as for ,bombay4 ,to-day only bulky cargo is taken from ,suez and ,aden round the southern point of ,india through the ,bay of ,bengal to ,calcutta4 ,the fast mail boats run to ,bombay1 and thence the railways diverge northward1 northeastward1 and southeastward to all the frontiers of the ,empire4 ,only the ,burmese railways remain for the present a detached system4 ,but in regard to tonnage of traffic ,calcutta is still the first port of ,india1 for the country which lies in rear of it in ,bengal and the ,united ,provinces contains a very large population4 ,from ,bombay inland runs the ,great ,indian ,peninsula ,railway1 or as it is known everywhere in ,india1 the ,g4,i4,p4 ,this line branches a short distance from the coast1 striking on the one hand southeastward in the direction of ,madras1 and on the other hand northeastward in the direction of ,allahabad4 ,a second great railway system1 the ,east ,indian1 begins at ,howrah on the shore of the ,hooghly opposite to ,calcutta1 and thence crossing the low ,rajmahal spur of the central hills descends to the bank of the ,ganges at ,patna1 from which point it follows the river to ,allahabad1 and there branches1 one line continuing northwestward to ,delhi and beyond1 the other striking southwestward through the hills to ,jubbulpore1 where it meets the northeastward branch of the ,g4,i4,p4 ,each week1 four hours after the arrival of the mail steamer at ,bombay1 three express trains leave the ,victoria ,station of that city4 ,one of them is bound southeastward for ,madras4 ,the second runs northeastward over the ,g4,i4,p4 and ,east ,indian lines1 by way of ,jubbulpore and ,allahabad1 to the ,howrah ,station at ,calcutta4 ,the third also runs northeastward by the ,g4,i4,p4 line1 but diverges northward from the ,calcutta route to ,agra and ,delhi4 ,when the ,government of ,india is at ,simla1 the last mentioned train continues northward beyond ,delhi to the foot of the mountains4 ,the time taken to ,madras is #bf hours1 to ,calcutta #cf hours1 and to ,delhi #bg hours4 ,access to the great plains at the foot of the ,himalayas was formerly by the navigation of the ,ganges and of its tributaries4 ,then the ,grand ,trunk road was constructed from ,calcutta northwestward through the ,gangetic plain to the northwest of ,india4 ,it was by this road that relief was brought during the ,mutiny to the besieged garrisons of ,cawnpore and ,lucknow4 ,finally1 the ,east ,indian ,railway was built from ,bengal to the ,punjab through the whole length of the densely peopled belt which is enriched by the monsoon rains of the ,himalayas4 ,recently a more direct line from ,bombay to ,calcutta1 which does not pass through ,allahabad1 has been constructed through ,nagpur1 the capital of the ,central ,provinces of ,india4 ,this runs1 however1 through a hilly country1 much forested and relatively thinly peopled4 ,there are now two daily mails between ,calcutta and ,bombay1 the one running via ,nagpur and the other vi ,allahabad4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,indian ,railway ,station4 ,we have here an ,indian train standing at a platform4 ,note the screens constructed to give shade in the heat of the day4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,bhor ,ghat ,reversing ,station4 ,sidenote3 #d4 ,the ,same4 ,the two branches of the ,great ,indian ,peninsula ,railway approach one another at an angle from ,allahabad and the northeast and from ,madras and the southeast4 ,they descend the steep mountain face which edges the ,deccan plateau by two passes1 the ,bhor ,ghat and the ,thal ,ghat4 ,the lines are constructed downward1 with remarkable skill of engineering1 by loops1 and in places by blind ends on which the trains are reversed4 ,here are two views of the ,bhor ,ghat ,reversing ,station1 the first taken from below1 and the second from above4 ,the ,junction of the two lines is in the narrow coastal plain at the foot of the descent4 ,thence the rails are carried by a bridge over a sea strait into ,sashti ,island1 and by a second bridge over a second strait into ,bombay ,island1 and so to the great ,victoria ,terminus in the midst of the city4 ,sidenote3 #e4 ,map of ,bombay ,district4 ,the island of ,bombay is about twelve miles long from north to south4 ,the harbour1 set with hilly islets1 lies between ,bombay and the mainland1 the entry being from the south round the long ,colaba ,point4 ,westward of ,colaba is ,back ,bay1 formed by the ,malabar ,point1 on whose end1 extended as it were to meet ,europe1 is the residence of the ,governor of the great ,province of ,bombay4 ,sidenote3 #f4 ,plan of ,bombay ,city4 ,sidenote3 #g4 ,bombay1 from top of ,rajabaie ,tower1 looking ,south4 ,sidenote3 #h4 ,the ,same1 looking ,southeast4 ,sidenote3 #i4 ,the ,same1 looking ,northeast4 ,sidenote3 #aj4 ,the ,same1 looking ,northwest4 ,sidenote3 ,repeat ,map ,no4 #a4 ,the most conspicuous feature of the now magnificent city is a range of public buildings1 running north and south about mid-way between the harbour and ,back ,bay4 ,east of these buildings is the oldest quarter of the city1 known as the ,fort4 ,westward1 on the shore of ,back ,bay1 is a broad expanse of garden4 ,the native town lies to the north1 and beyond it is ,byculla1 where are the mills and factories1 and to the east of ,byculla on the harbour front is the dockyard of the ,peninsular and ,oriental ,steam ,navigation ,company4 ,how fine a city is ,bombay may be realised from the top of the great tower of the ,university1 some two hundred and fifty feet high1 the most conspicuous building in the place4 ,it is the central feature of the range of public buildings just referred to4 ,we have here in succession from south and southeast to northeast and northwest1 four views from the top of this tower4 ,the first is to the south1 and shows the ,union ,jack flying from the ,secretariat of the ,government of ,bombay1 and the entry to the harbour beyond4 ,the edge of the garden belt towards ,back ,bay is seen along the right hand edge of the view4 ,in the southeastward view we have the shipping and the islands of the harbour1 and the ,government ,dockyard with its long jetty4 ,notice the island fort guarding the channel4 ,in the northeastward view we look towards the native city1 and see the factories smoking in the distance4 ,it will be seen that there are practically no chimneys on the nearer buildings1 and no smoke in the air4 ,finally from our tower top we turn northwestward1 and look across the head of ,back ,bay towards ,malabar ,point4 ,the building on the shore of the ,bay is the office of the ,bombay and ,baroda ,railway1 which runs northward along the coast into a densely peopled lowland round the head of the ,gulf of ,cambay4 ,away in the distance on that ,malabar ,promontory1 but not visible in this view1 are the ,towers of ,silence1 where the ,parsis dispose of their dead4 ,sidenote3 #aa4 ,group of ,parsis4 ,sidenote3 #ab4 ,parsi ,tower of ,silence4 ,the ,parsis 7i4e4 ,persians7 are a community1 chiefly of merchants1 who came to ,bombay in the ,middle ,ages1 flying from ,persia when the ,musulmans conquered that land4 ,they hold the ancient faith of ,persia1 and are commonly described as ,fire ,worshippers4 ,they regard the elements fire1 water1 and earth as sacred1 and therefore refuse to pollute them with the decay of dead bodies4 ,they build round towers1 known as ,towers of ,silence1 and these they place in large grounds equivalent to our cemeteries4 ,each tower is hollow and exposed to the sky within4 ,there on stone ledges the dead bodies are laid1 and the vultures pick the flesh from the bones4 ,the ash of the bones is washed by the rain into a central pit at the bottom of the hollow tower1 where it slowly accumulates1 so that1 in accordance with one of the tenets of their faith1 the ,parsis1 rich and poor1 meet in death4 ,the ,parsis of ,bombay are a wealthy and enterprising community1 who do no small part of the commerce of the city4 ,one of their number recently sat in the ,house of ,commons at ,westminster as the representative of a ,london constituency4 ,they have no caste prejudices like the ,hindus1 and no seclusion of women like the ,musulmans1 so that their ways of life are nearer to those of ,europeans4 ,sidenote3 #ac4 ,the ,rajabaie ,tower1 ,bombay ,university4 ,sidenote3 #ad4 ,the ,same1 more distant view4 ,sidenote3 #ae4 ,p4 ,o4 ,offices1 ,bombay4 ,sidenote3 #af4 ,carmac ,bund1 ,bombay4 ,sidenote3 #ag4 ,victoria ,terminus1 ,g4,i4,p41 ,bombay4 ,sidenote3 #ah4 ,the ,same3 another view4 ,sidenote3 #ai4 ,municipal ,buildings1 ,bombay4 ,sidenote3 #bj4 ,esplanade ,road1 ,bombay4 ,sidenote3 #ba4 ,fountain in ,esplanade ,road1 ,bombay4 ,sidenote3 #bb4 ,statue of ,queen ,victoria4 ,now let us walk through the city1 and realise its grandeur4 ,here we are down by the western faade of the ,university4 ,the great tower rises above us from which we just now obtained our views4 ,that tower is called the ,rajabaie ,tower1 in memory of the mother of the founder of the building4 ,this is a rather more distant picture of the same building4 ,we have next the offices of the ,p4 and ,o4 ,company1 and then a wharfside with steamers about to start for ,goa1 the old ,portuguese capital midway along the west coast of ,india southward of ,bombay4 ,here we have the great ,victoria ,terminus of the ,g4,i4,p4 ,railway1 with a central dome and an elaborately carved faade4 ,bombay claims that it is the finest railway station in the world4 ,this is another view of the same building1 with bullocks passing in front of it4 ,here are the ,municipal ,buildings with another fine dome4 ,they are a combination of gothic with oriental architecture1 and were opened about fifteen years ago4 ,notice the electric tramway wires above4 ,then we see another fine street1 the ,esplanade ,road4 ,the ,national ,bank is to the left1 and further along is the ,bombay ,club4 ,here is a fountain in the ,esplanade ,road1 with a bullock passing in front of it1 and here is the ,statue of the ,queen-,empress ,victoria1 unveiled in #ahgb4 ,on the canopy are the rose of ,england and the lotus of ,india4 ,bombay has a population only a little smaller than that of ,calcutta1 and1 like ,calcutta and ,madras1 it is a new city1 as time goes in the ,immemorial ,east4 ,the island on which it stands was presented to ,king ,charles ,,ii4 as part of the dower of his ,portuguese ,queen1 and in order to enable the ,british the better to co-operate with the ,portuguese in resisting the aggressions and encroachments of the ,dutch4 ,when handed over by the ,portuguese1 there was but a small settlement on the island4 ,in #affh1 however1 ,bombay was ceded to the ,east ,india ,company1 and the ,company transferred thither the centre of its trade on the west coast of ,india1 which had up to that time been at ,surat1 a hundred miles north of ,bombay4 ,gradually the commerce of the port increased1 although for a long time it was far outdistanced by ,calcutta1 whose great riverway extends1 as we have seen1 through densely peopled plains for a thousand miles inland4 ,eastward of ,bombay1 on the other hand1 is the mountain face of the ,western ,ghats1 barring easy access to the interior4 ,the greatness of ,bombay came only with the opening of the ,suez ,canal and of the railway lines up the ,bhor and ,thal ,ghats1 northeastward and southeastward into ,india4 ,sidenote3 #bc4 ,exterior of ,caves of ,elephanta4 ,sidenote3 #bd4 ,caves of ,elephanta4 ,sidenote3 #be4 ,the ,same1 showing the ,trimurti4 ,sidenote3 #bf4 ,villagers of ,elephanta4 ,in ,bombay ,harbour there is a small island1 about six miles from the city1 which is called ,elephanta4 ,it contains carved rock temples whose antiquity contrasts strangely with the modern city close by4 ,we have here the entry to these temple caves1 and here a view within4 ,this is another picture1 showing a three-faced image4 ,the carving is some twenty feet high1 and represents ,brahma the ,creator1 ,siva the ,destroyer1 and ,vishnu the ,preserver4 ,the nature of these gods was described in the first of these lectures4 ,here we have a little group of the villagers of ,elephanta4 ,the village has some seven hundred inhabitants4 ,it is known as ,elephanta because there was formerly conspicuous among the rock carvings of the temple a great elephant1 which1 however1 decayed and fell some fifty years ago4 ,the native name of the island means 8the town of excavations40 ,sidenote3 #bg4 ,map of ,bombay ,presidency1 ,nizam's ,territory1 and ,maratha ,country4 ,sidenote3 #bh4 ,the ,satara ,hills1 ,maratha ,country4 ,sidenote3 #bi4 ,native ,plough1 ,maratha ,country4 ,now let us journey inland1 up the ,ghats1 through their thick forests1 and if it be the rainy season1 past rushing waterfalls1 until surmounting the brink top we come out on to the plain of the tableland1 and into the relative drought of the upper climate4 ,this is the ,maratha country1 and here we have a typical view of the open landscape which it presents4 ,the hills in the distance are the ,satara hills1 extending west and east through the heart of ,india4 ,here is another view in this same ,maratha ,country4 ,it shows a native plough at work1 and in the background one of the table-topped mountains1 which are studded over the surface of the generally level plateau1 not unlike the kopjes of ,south ,africa4 ,these steep-sided isolated mountain blocks have often served as strongholds in warfare1 and many of them are noted in connection with the ,maratha wars1 waged in this part of ,india a little more than a century ago under the lead of ,sir ,arthur ,wellesley1 afterwards the great ,duke of ,wellington4 ,at the foot of the mountain may just be seen one of the ,towers of ,silence of the ,parsis4 ,sidenote3 #cj4 ,maratha ,soldier4 ,sidenote3 #ca4 ,map of the ,maratha ,dominions at their greatest extent4 ,the ,marathas are a people of ,hindu religion and ,marathi language1 which is akin1 as we learned in the last lecture1 to the ,hindi of the ,united ,provinces4 ,some four generations ago they raided most of ,india from their home on this high plateau of the ,western ,deccan1 and the troops of the ,east ,india ,company had to wage three successive wars with them4 ,had it not been for the ,british victory1 there can be little doubt that the ,marathas would have established an ,empire in ,india4 ,their homeland round the city of ,poona now forms the main portion of the ,province of ,bombay1 but ,maratha princes still rule large conquered countries as feudatories of the ,king-,emperor4 ,this map shows us the dominion of the ,marathas at its greatest extent1 near the end of the eighteenth century1 when they were the dominant warlike race of ,india4 ,their original home was not far from ,poona4 ,as they spread1 five principal officers of court and state took the place of the dynasty of the ,rajas1 which became decrepit4 ,these were the ,peshwa1 the ,gaikwar1 ,sindhia1 ,holkar1 and the ,bhonsla4 ,these five great chiefs conquered far and wide through all the heart of ,india4 ,sindhia's dominions extended northward to ,delhi1 and ,bhonsla's eastward to ,orissa on the east coast4 ,the ,peshwa was on the plateau round ,poona4 ,holkar was seated at ,indore between the ,peshwa and ,sindhia1 and the ,gaikwar at ,baroda1 in the fertile lowland round the head of the gulf of ,cambay4 ,at times there was rivalry and war between them1 but with the exception of the ,peshwa they were united by ,french intrigue in the time of ,napoleon1 with the result that we had to fight between the years #ahjc and #ahje the most widespread war which we have ever fought in ,india4 ,our generals were ,lake and ,wellesley4 ,the most brilliant victory was that of ,assaye1 in the plateau country just north of ,poona4 ,there1 with three thousand troops1 ,wellesley defeated ,sindhia's army of twenty thousand men1 organised by ,french officers1 and captured an artillery of a hundred guns4 ,peace was made with the conquered ,marathas about the time when ,trafalgar was fought1 and it was stipulated that they were for the future to allow no ,european influence in their ,states except the ,british4 ,there was a subsequent ,maratha war1 but the great war just referred to was the most serious crisis through which the ,british rule in ,india has had to pass1 perhaps not even excepting the ,mutiny of #aheg4 ,the ,marathas are of ,hindu religion1 but the caste system is not with them carried to the extreme that prevails among other ,hindus4 ,they present1 in fact1 the nearest approach to a national caste4 ,as we shall learn presently1 ,sindhia1 ,holkar1 and the ,gaikwar still rule great territories as ,feudatory ,princes1 but ,nagpur1 the ,bhonsla's capital1 is now the chief town of the ,central ,provinces of ,british ,india1 and ,poona1 the capital of the ,peshwa1 is the seat of the ,bombay ,government during part of the year4 ,sidenote3 #cb4 ,political ,map of ,bombay ,province and ,central ,india4 ,in contrast with the last map1 showing the extent of the former ,maratha ,dominions1 we have here a map of the central parts of ,india as they are to-day1 with the ,province of ,bombay ruled directly by the ,british ,government marked in red1 and also the ,central ,provinces under direct ,british rule from ,nagpur1 but in addition it will be seen that in blue colour there are two patches of territory northeastward of ,bombay1 which bear the inscription ,central ,india1 a term to be carefully distinguished from the ,central ,provinces4 ,sidenote3 #cc4 ,scene near ,hyderabad4 ,sidenote3 #cd4 ,street ,scene1 in ,hyderabad4 ,sidenote3 #ce4 ,the ,nizam's ,palace1 ,hyderabad4 ,central ,india consists of ,native ,feudatory ,states1 which acknowledge the ,british suzerainty1 but are immediately ruled by their own ,maharajas1 of whom the two most important are the ,maratha princes ,holkar at ,indore1 and ,sindhia at ,gwalior4 ,there is another larger patch of blue1 southeastward of ,bombay4 ,this is the ,state of ,hyderabad1 ruled under ,british suzerainty by the ,nizam4 ,this great prince is however no ,maratha1 but a ,musulman4 ,his people for the most part speak the ,dravidian language ,telugu1 and are ,hindu by religion4 ,thus we see that none of these large states1 each as important as one of the smaller ,european kingdoms1 has for its ruler a man of the same race as the people4 ,sindhia and ,holkar are ,marathas ruling ,hindi populations2 the ,nizam is a ,musulman ruling ,telugu-speaking ,hindus4 ,the ,gaikwar of ,baroda1 it may be added1 who governs a small but very rich and populous territory1 is a ,maratha ruling a ,gujrati population4 ,we have here a typical landscape in the ,nizam's territory1 and see that it is not very different from the ,maratha landscapes4 ,it is on the same open ,deccan plateau4 ,this is a scene in ,hyderabad itself1 showing a procession of elephants1 and then we see the ,nizam's ,palace4 ,sidenote3 #cf4 ,golkonda ,fort4 ,next we have a view of ,golkonda ,fort1 placed on one of the usual flat-topped hills1 and defended on one side by a large sheet of water4 ,golkonda is in the neighbourhood of ,hyderabad1 the capital of the ,nizam's dominions4 ,its name has become proverbial as indicative of immense wealth4 ,formerly it was the great ,indian centre of diamond cutting and polishing1 or in other words the ,amsterdam of ,india4 ,the diamonds were not found in the immediate neighbourhood1 but in the extreme southeastern corner of the ,nizam's territory4 ,sidenote3 #cg4 ,the ,same1 nearer view4 ,sidenote3 #ch4 ,a ,bastion at the top of ,golkonda ,fort4 ,sidenote3 #ci4 ,view from ,golkonda ,fort1 looking ,northeast4 ,sidenote3 #dj4 ,hindu ,temple1 ,golkonda ,fort4 ,sidenote3 #da4 ,musulman ,mosque1 ,golkonda ,fort4 ,here is a nearer view of ,golkonda ,fort1 and here a view over the plain1 from the bastion at the top of the ,fort1 from which can be seen the ,tombs of the ,kings about half a mile away4 ,these kings belonged to a great ,musulman dynasty which ruled here during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 until it was overthrown by ,aurangzeb4 ,next we have1 near the summit of the ,fort1 the ruins of a ,hindu temple1 and close by1 shown in the following slide1 the remains of a ,muhammadan mosque4 ,the ,fort1 therefore1 in its ruins1 records the essential history of the country1 first the ,hindu civilization1 and then two successive ,musulman conquests4 ,sidenote3 #db4 ,mahbub ,college1 ,secunderabad4 ,sidenote3 #dc4 ,ploughing at ,agricultural ,school at ,aurangabad4 ,sidenote3 #dd4 ,a ,queen's ,boy at the same ,school4 ,some of these ,feudatory ,native ,states do not lag far behind the territories directly ruled by ,british officials4 ,western civilization is permeating all ,india under the ,british suzerainty4 ,at ,secunderabad and ,aurangabad1 places in the ,nizam's ,dominions1 are1 for instance1 ,agricultural and ,industrial ,schools4 ,here is a group of students at the ,mahbub ,college1 ,secunderabad1 and here a view taken at the ,agricultural ,school at ,aurangabad1 which shows some of the students ploughing4 ,one of the gentlemen in the foreground is the ,director of ,public ,instruction in the ,nizam's ,state1 and by his side is the ,superintendent of the ,school4 ,then we see an orphan student1 a 8,queen's boy40 ,he will probably settle down in a year or two's time1 very likely marrying one of the 8,queen's girls40 ,with a portion of his scholarship saved up for him1 he will purchase the necessary bullocks and plough4 ,he came to the college from the ,victoria ,memorial ,orphanage1 where each child is trained in his own religion4 ,sidenote3 #de4 ,kinkob ,loom1 ,secunderabad4 ,sidenote3 #df4 ,carpenters at ,aurangabad4 ,in the midst1 however1 of this rapid advance we still find the older methods4 ,here at ,secunderabad is a ,kinkob loom of the old pattern4 ,kinkob work is made of gold and silver thread4 ,the boy sitting above is controlling the threads1 and helps to make the pattern by raising or lowering them in the warp4 ,the boy sitting below in the well is working the shuttles4 ,this is a street scene in ,aurangabad showing natives of the carpenter caste sawing timber4 ,sidenote3 #dg4 ,the ,tomb of the ,saint1 ,roza4 ,sidenote3 #dh4 ,roza ,fair4 ,sidenote3 #di4 ,the ,same4 ,sidenote3 #ej4 ,daulatabad1 from the ,road to ,roza4 ,another aspect of life in the ,deccan of ,india is shown in the next slide1 where round the tomb of a saint at a place called ,roza is gathered the camp of a fair4 ,a saint of great renown among the ,musulmans was buried here in the fourteenth century1 and deposited within the shrine are some hairs alleged to be from ,muhammad's beard4 ,there follow two slides showing the usual amusements of the fair1 in the latter of which we see a merry-go-round not at all unlike those typical of the country fairs of ,england4 ,next we have a view taken on the road from ,roza1 and in the distance can be seen the hill fort of ,daulatabad1 built in the thirteenth century on a great isolated mass of granite about five hundred feet high4 ,in this fort was imprisoned and died the last ,king of ,golkonda1 and it became the favourite summer resort of his ,mogul conqueror1 ,aurangzeb4 ,sidenote3 ,repeat ,map ,no4 #bg4 ,the upland which fills most of the centre of ,india and bears in its midst the ,nizam's ,dominions is in most parts of no great fertility4 ,over large areas it is fitted rather for the pasture of horses and cattle than for the plough4 ,agriculture is naturally best in the river valleys1 but there is one large district lying on the plateau top east of ,bombay1 and on the hill tops about the ,narbada valley east of ,baroda1 which is of a most singular fertility4 ,the usually granitic and schistose rocks of the plateau have here been overlaid by great sheets of basaltic lava4 ,detached portions of these lava beds form the table tops of the hills in the country rendered famous by ,wellesley's ,maratha campaigns4 ,the lava disintegrates into a tenacious black soil1 which does not fall into dust during the dry season1 but cracks into great blocks1 which remain moist4 ,as the dry season advances these blocks shrink1 and the cracks grow broader1 so that finally it is dangerous for a horse to gallop over the plain lest its hoof should be caught in one of these openings of the ground4 ,this remarkable earth is known as the ,black ,cotton ,soil4 ,the cotton seeds are sown after the rains1 and as the young plant grows a clod of earth forms round its roots1 which is separated from the next similar clod by cracks4 ,wheat is grown on this soil in the same manner1 being sown after the rainy season and reaped in the beginning of the hot season1 so that from beginning to end the crop is produced without exposure to rain1 being drawn up by the brilliant sunshine and fed at the root by the moisture preserved in the heavy soil4 ,thus in the part of ,india which lies immediately east1 northeast1 and north of ,bombay the lowlands and the uplands are alike fertile--the lowlands round ,ahmadabad and ,baroda and in the valleys of the ,narbada and ,tapti ,rivers because of their alluvial soil1 and the uplands round ,poona and ,indore because they are clothed with the volcanic cotton soil4 ,just within the northwestern corner of the ,nizam's territory are the famous rock temples of ,ellora1 perhaps the most magnificent of their kind in the world4 ,the sculpture is of ,brahman1 ,buddhist1 and ,jain dates1 the monuments of various religions being thus as it were imposed upon one another4 ,sidenote3 #ea4 ,entry to ,jain ,caves1 ,ellora4 ,sidenote3 #eb4 ,jain ,caves1 ,ellora4 ,sidenote3 #ec4 ,the ,juggernath ,temple1 ,jain ,caves1 ,ellora4 ,sidenote3 #ed4 ,the ,same4 ,sidenote3 #ee4 ,the ,kailas ,caves1 ,ellora4 ,sidenote3 #ef4 ,the ,same4 ,sidenote3 #eg4 ,buddhist ,temple1 ,ellora ,caves4 ,sidenote3 #eh4 ,the ,carpenter ,cave1 ,ellora4 ,this is the entry to the ,jain part of the ,ellora caves1 and this is the interior of one of the ,jain caves1 story above story4 ,the niches are full of statues1 many of them in perfect condition4 ,here we have two views of the magnificent ,juggernath ,temple4 ,next1 in the dim light1 we realize something of the internal structure of the ,brahman section of the caves4 ,notice the two men whose height enables you to judge of the scale4 ,these are among the finest of all the monuments of antiquity in ,india4 ,here is a view taken on the floor of the ,buddhist ,temple1 with large figures of ,buddha seated on a throne1 and there follows a view in another cave showing the beautifully carved roof4 ,it will be seen then that in these ,ellora caves several religions have contributed1 the ,jain no less than the ,buddhist and the ,hindu4 ,the ,jains rose in the time of ,buddha1 five hundred years before ,christ4 ,that was a time of religious stir in ,india1 which resulted in various revolts against the ,brahmanical system4 ,the ,jain tenets are not unlike those of the ,buddhists4 ,they believe in the universal soul1 and in the transmigration of souls1 so that a man's soul may pass into an animal4 ,their regard for animal life1 for this reason so general in ,india1 is carried to an extreme4 ,the ,jains were strongest in ,western ,india1 and they are still present there1 although now in a very small minority4 ,they probably total to-day not more than a million and a half1 and are perhaps most numerous at ,ahmadabad4 ,of their great temples at ,mount ,abu we shall hear presently4 ,sidenote3 #ei4 ,the ,mecca ,gate1 ,aurangabad4 ,sidenote3 #fj4 ,the ,mausoleum of ,rubia-ud-,daurani4 ,in order to complete the range of the architectures of ,india1 there follow two specimens of the ,muhammadan buildings of the state of ,hyderabad4 ,first we see the ,mecca ,gate at ,aurangabad1 with the ,mecca ,bridge underneath it1 and then we have the ,mausoleum of ,rubia-ud-,daurani1 the wife of ,aurangzeb4 ,the door of the gateway is of brass and all the domes are of marble4 ,the building has recently been restored by the ,government of the ,nizam1 and is now probably second only to the ,taj ,mahal at ,agra among the ,muhammadan buildings of ,india4 ,sidenote3 ,repeat ,map ,no4 #cb4 ,finally1 we must note that a portion of the ,bombay ,presidency lies far away to the northwest1 detached from the remainder4 ,this is the province of ,sind1 for the most part a desert area1 but containing the delta of the river ,indus1 which is a second ,egypt in fertility1 for there the alluvium brought down by the great river from the distant ,himalaya mountains is deposited1 and water is available by irrigation from the same distant source4 ,curiously1 ,sind resembles ,egypt in its human settlements4 ,at the head of the delta where the distributaries divide1 and therefore at the lowest convenient crossing place of the river1 is situated the city of ,hyderabad1 corresponding to ,cairo1 and on the sea front westward of the deltaic mouths is ,karachi1 corresponding to ,alexandria4 ,sidenote3 ,repeat ,map ,no4 #bg4 ,sind was conquered by ,sir ,charles ,napier in #ahdc4 ,the ,sindi population is for the most part ,musulman1 and engaged in agriculture1 but the significance of ,sind has altered since it was first added to the directly ruled ,british territories4 ,at first communication with the ,punjab was relatively difficult1 for the ,indus is not navigated with the same ease as is the ,ganges4 ,in the days before railways it was therefore natural that the new province should be administered from ,bombay by means of sea communications4 ,to-day1 however1 with the construction of the ,north ,western ,railway from ,karachi up the river ,indus1 the commercial relations of ,sind have come to be with the ,punjab1 of which ,karachi is now the great port1 although it is still subordinate to ,bombay for purposes of government4 ,it is interesting and significant to observe that the coastline of all ,india is now under direct ,british rule1 except for the little ,states of ,cochin and ,travancore1 in the far south1 near ,cape ,comorin1 and the peninsula of ,kathiawar and the island of ,cutch1 which are divided among a multitude of petty chieftains subordinate to the ,government of ,bombay4 ,thus the larger ,native ,states1 being isolated from the sea1 there is little fear of foreign intrigue in ,india such as we had to contend with during the ,french wars4 ,there are a few diminutive scraps of territory belonging to the ,french and ,portuguese ,governments1 but these are too insignificant to break the general rule1 and moreover they are engirt landward by directly ruled ,british territory4 ,the largest of them is at ,goa1 on the west coast1 south of ,bombay1 the last remnant of the great ,portuguese dominion in the ,indies4 -------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,lecture ,,vi4 --- ,,rajputana4 --- ,,the ,,feudatory ,,states4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,map of ,india1 ,distinguishing ,rajputana4 ,in the centre of northwestern ,india is a group of large native ,states known as ,rajputana1 of the greatest historical interest4 ,these ,states are inhabited by ancient ,hindu ,aryan tribes1 collectively known as ,rajputs1 which literally means 8of princely descent40 ,they represent the purest and most ancient ,indian stock1 and here1 almost alone of the larger native ,states1 the ,chiefs belong to the same race as their people4 ,rajputana suffered much from the ,musulmans1 but was never completely conquered by them1 a fact in part due to the physical character of the country4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,map of ,northwestern ,india4 ,through the centre of ,rajputana1 diagonally from the southwest northeastward1 there runs the range of the ,aravalli hills for a distance of fully three hundred miles1 its northern extremity being the ,ridge at ,delhi on the ,jumna ,river4 ,at the southern end of the ,aravallis1 but separated from the main range by a hollow1 is the isolated ,mount ,abu1 the highest point in ,rajputana1 standing up conspicuously above the surrounding plains to a height of some five thousand feet4 ,the top is a rugged plateau measuring fourteen miles by four4 ,on this little upland1 are the signs both of the antiquity and modernity of ,rajputana--on the one hand1 the world-famed ruins of ,jain temples1 and on the other1 round the beautiful ,gem ,lake1 the residences of the ,agent of the ,governor-,general and his staff1 who maintain the suzerainty of the ,king-,emperor in ,rajputana4 ,east of the ,aravalli hills1 in the basin of the ,chambal tributary of the ,jumna-,ganges1 is the more fertile part of ,rajputana1 with the cities of ,jaipur1 ,ajmer1 ,udaipur1 and the old fortress of ,chitor4 ,beyond the ,chambal ,river itself1 but within its basin1 may be seen on the map the positions of ,indore and ,gwalior1 the seats of the ,maratha princes ,holkar and ,sindhia4 ,indore and ,gwalior1 however1 belong to the ,central ,indian ,agency and not to ,rajputana4 ,west of the ,aravalli hills is the great ,indian ,desert1 prolonged seaward by the salt and partly tidal marsh known as the ,rann of ,cutch4 ,in oases of this desert are some of the smaller ,rajput capitals1 notably ,bikaner4 ,beyond the desert flows the great ,indus river1 through a dry although not wholly desert land1 in the midst of which1 from ,hyderabad to the sea1 is the delta of ,sind1 as was said in the last lecture1 a second ,egypt1 fertile and thickly peopled4 ,south of ,mount ,abu1 where the rivers descend from the end of the ,aravalli hills to the ,gulf of ,cambay is another fertile lowland1 with the beautiful city of ,ahmadabad in the centre of it1 but this city is in ,british territory1 being in the ,province of ,bombay1 and therefore outside the ,tributary ,states of ,rajputana4 ,ajmer1 beside the ,aravalli hills1 is in an island of directly ruled ,british territory completely surrounded by ,feudatory ,rajputana4 ,it would be difficult to exaggerate the importance to ,india of the existence of the great ,indian ,desert of ,rajputana4 ,the ocean to the southeast and the southwest of the ,peninsula was an ample protection against overseas invasion until the ,europeans rounded the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,the vast length of the ,himalaya1 backed by the desert plateau of ,tibet1 was an equal defence on a third side4 ,only to the northwest does ,india lie relatively open to the incursions of the warlike peoples of ,western and ,central ,asia4 ,it is precisely in that direction1 as a great barrier extending northeastward from the ,rann of ,cutch1 that we find the ,indian ,desert1 and in rear of the ,desert the minor bulwark constituted by the ,aravalli range4 ,only between the northeastern extremity of the desert and the foot of the ,himalayas below ,simla is there an easy gateway into ,india4 ,no river traverses this gateway1 which is on the divide between the systems of the ,indus and the ,jumna-,ganges4 ,delhi stands on the west bank of the ,jumna at the northern extremity of the ,aravallis1 just where the invading forces from the northwest came through to the navigable waters of the ,jumna1 which flow southeastward through ,hindustan to ,bengal4 ,aided by such powerful natural conditions1 the ,rajputs have ever been the defenders of ,india4 ,unable to prevent the entry of invaders by the direct way to ,delhi1 they have maintained themselves on the southern flank of the advance1 and to-day their princely families proudly trace their lineage back in unbroken descent from ancestors before the ,christian era4 ,in the gateway itself1 between the desert and the ,himalayas1 beyond the limits of ,rajputana1 dwell another people of warlike disposition1 the famous ,sikhs4 ,here are still preserved as ,feudatory ,states the ,sikh ,principalities of ,patiala1 ,nabha1 and ,jhind4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,jama ,masjid1 ,ahmadabad4 ,sidenote3 #d4 ,rani ,sipri's ,tomb1 ,ahmadabad4 ,sidenote3 #e4 ,mohafiz ,khan's ,mosque1 ,ahmadabad4 ,sidenote3 #f4 ,hathi ,singh's ,temple1 ,ahmadabad4 ,let us first visit ,ahmadabad1 in the midst of the fertile lowland at the head of the ,gulf of ,cambay4 ,the territories of this part of the ,bombay ,presidency are much mixed with those of the ,gaikwar of ,baroda1 so that the map of the plains round the two cities of ,ahmadabad and ,baroda almost resembles that part of ,scotland which is labelled ,ross and ,cromarty4 ,ahmadabad was once the most important ,mohammedan city of ,western ,india1 and contains many fine architectural monuments1 surpassed only by those of the great ,mogul capitals1 ,delhi and ,agra4 ,it is reached from ,bombay by the ,bombay and ,baroda ,railway along the coast northward4 ,we have here the ,jama ,masjid or ,great ,mosque of the city1 still one of the most beautiful in ,india1 though it was damaged by an earthquake about a century ago4 ,then we have another fine building1 ,rani ,sipri's ,tomb4 ,there follows a view of ,mohafiz ,khan's ,mosque1 whose fine minarets remind one of the ,citadel at ,cairo4 ,finally1 just outside ,ahmadabad1 is the comparatively modern ,temple of ,hathi ,singh1 built of white marble in the ,jain style1 with many domes4 ,sidenote3 #g4 ,the ,lake1 ,mount ,abu4 ,from ,ahmadabad the ,baroda ,railway is continued northward and westward across the southern end of the ,rajput ,desert to ,hyderabad1 in ,sind1 but we will go on our journey by the narrow gauge railway through ,rajputana to ,mount ,abu1 which rises like an island of granite from amid the sandy desert4 ,here is the ,gem ,lake on the summit of the mountain1 a most beautiful sheet of water1 set with rocky islets and overhung with great masses of rock1 with the ,residency or house of the representative of the ,british ,government on its shore1 for ,mount ,abu is the centre from which ,rajputana is controlled1 as far as is necessary1 by the advice of the ,viceroy4 ,it is1 as we have already said1 about #e1jjj feet or a mile above the sea level1 and the climate is therefore suitable for a hill station4 ,it is used as a sanatorium for ,british troops and as a hot season resort4 ,sidenote3 #h4 ,the ,dilwarra ,temples1 ,mount ,abu4 ,sidenote3 #i4 ,the ,same1 nearer view4 ,sidenote3 #aj4 ,door of the ,adinat1 ,mount ,abu4 ,sidenote3 #aa4 ,sava ,munda1 ,mount ,abu4 ,sidenote3 #ab4 ,the ,same1 another view4 ,sidenote3 #ac4 ,paras ,wanath ,temple1 ,mount ,abu4 ,mount ,abu is famous for its ,dilwarra temples1 probably the most ancient of the ,jain temples of ,india4 ,we heard of the ,jains at the close of the last lecture4 ,this is a distant view of the ,dilwarra temples among the palm trees4 ,we see that the surface of the plateau is very rugged4 ,here is a nearer view of the temples1 and here a doorway of the most ancient of them1 built probably about the time of the ,norman ,conquest of ,england4 ,next we have two views of another temple1 erected some two hundred years later4 ,the carving of the small domes and vaults is most delicate1 and stands almost unrivalled even in ,india1 a land essentially of painstaking labour in small details4 ,finally1 we have a view of yet another temple1 said to have been built by the workmen in their spare time during the erection of the greater temples we have just seen4 ,in spite of the dilapidation of many centuries1 and of unskilled restoration in places1 these ruins are still extremely beautiful amid the rugged scenery of the ,mount4 ,the ,british ,station on ,mount ,abu was attacked during the ,mutiny1 but the attack was beaten off4 ,sidenote3 #ad4 ,sir ,pratab ,singh4 ,sidenote3 #ae4 ,dolat ,singh4 ,sidenote3 #af4 ,himat ,singh4 ,one of the most progressive of the ,rajput ,states1 and the oldest1 is ,jodhpur1 whose ,prime ,minister was1 until lately1 the distinguished officer ,sir ,pratab ,singh1 now ,maharaja of his own little ,state of ,idar1 in the plain at the foot of ,mount ,abu4 ,we have his portrait here1 and those of his son and grandson4 ,sidenote3 #ag4 ,h4,h4 ,the ,maharana of ,udaipur4 ,sidenote3 #ah4 ,the ,palace1 ,udaipur4 ,sidenote3 #ai4 ,the ,same4 ,sidenote3 #bj4 ,udaipur1 from the ,jag ,mandar4 ,sidenote3 #ba4 ,jag ,mandar1 ,udaipur4 ,sidenote3 #bb4 ,jag ,newas1 ,udaipur4 ,udaipur is the capital of another of the greater ,rajput ,states1 ,mewar1 which was founded in the ,roman times of ,european chronology4 ,this is a portrait of the ,maharana of ,udaipur1 who is the highest in esteem of all the ,rajput princes4 ,udaipur is one of the most beautiful cities in ,india1 with its palaces and ghats reflected in the clear waters of a lake4 ,here are two views of the palace of the ,maharana1 built of granite and marble1 rising to a hundred feet above the surface of the lake4 ,here we have the city seen across the lake1 and then there follow two views showing the temples and terraces by the water's edge4 ,sidenote3 #bc4 ,the ,ganesh ,gate1 ,chitor4 ,sidenote3 #bd4 ,the ,tower of ,victory1 ,chitor4 ,east of ,udaipur city1 but in the same ,state1 is the rock fortress of ,chitor1 anciently the capital1 a most conspicuous object1 standing high and isolated above the surrounding country4 ,the slopes of the hill are covered with a thick jungle1 and the summit is crowned with ruins of palaces and temples4 ,the road which leads up to the top is about a mile in length1 and on it at intervals are seven gateways4 ,we have here a view of one of them1 the ,ganesh ,gate4 ,this roadway was the scene of a terrible struggle in the middle of the #afth century1 when the invading ,musulmans under ,akbar attacked the ,rajput stronghold4 ,the citadel was at length taken1 but the ,rajputs sold their freedom dearly1 nearly ten thousand of them falling in the battle4 ,the old city of ,chitor is now decayed and reduced to a mere village1 but it still contains interesting ruins1 notably the two ,jain ,towers of ,victory and ,fame4 ,the ,tower of ,fame is the older1 built in the time of our ,king ,alfred4 ,this is a view of the ,tower of ,victory1 built in the early #aeth century4 ,it has nine stories4 ,a stairway in the centre leads to the top4 ,the dome has recently been restored1 having been wrecked by lightning4 ,sidenote3 #be4 ,the ,durga1 ,ajmer4 ,sidenote3 #bf4 ,the ,same1 ,the ,tomb of ,chisti4 ,sidenote3 #bg4 ,the ,arhai-,din-,ka-,jhompra1 ,ajmer4 ,sidenote3 #bh4 ,the ,lake1 ,ajmer4 ,sidenote3 #bi4 ,the ,durga ,bazaar1 ,ajmer4 ,sidenote3 #cj4 ,mayo ,college1 ,ajmer4 ,ajmer1 now under direct ,british rule1 is another ancient and beautiful spot1 set in a hollow among low hills1 and surrounded by a wall4 ,it was the scene of many struggles between the ,musulmans and the ,rajputs1 and was finally taken by ,akbar in the middle of the #afth century4 ,one of the principal buildings is the ,durga1 venerated both by ,hindus and by ,musulmans4 ,we have here a view of the courtyard of the ,durga4 ,notice to the right hand the huge metal cauldron set in stone4 ,it is used for the cooking of rice given in charity1 which is divided between poor pilgrims and the attendants at the shrine4 ,here is the ,tomb of ,chisti in the ,durga4 ,next is a ,muhammadan ,mosque1 called the ,arhai-,din-,ka-,jhompra1 which1 tradition says1 was built with divine assistance in two and a half days4 ,then we have a view of the lake at ,ajmer4 ,on the bank are a number of marble pavilions4 ,this is one of them4 ,close by1 on a small hill overlooking the lake1 is the house of the ,chief ,commissioner of ,ajmer1 and ,agent to the ,governor-,general for ,rajputana4 ,here we have a street in ,ajmer4 ,and here is the ,mayo ,college1 for the education of the sons of the ,rajput chiefs1 an institution of the greatest importance1 as it were the loyal ,eton of ,india1 for the ,rajput ,maharajas have the deepest instinct of personal loyalty to the ,suzerain ,lord1 a result at once of their feudal pride1 their religion1 and their intelligence as rulers4 ,the ,college was opened in #ahge1 and contains about a hundred students4 ,the main building1 seen in this view1 is of white marble4 ,sidenote3 #ca4 ,chand ,pol ,gate1 ,jaipur4 ,sidenote3 #cb4 ,a ,street in ,jaipur4 ,sidenote3 #cc4 ,chand ,pol ,bazaar1 ,jaipur4 ,sidenote3 #cd4 ,a ,wool ,cart1 ,jaipur4 ,next we visit ,jaipur1 a walled city surrounded by rocky hills crowned with forts1 the capital and residence of the ,maharaja of ,jaipur ,state1 the best governed of all the ,rajput ,states4 ,this is one of the entrance gates1 and through the archway may be seen the crenellated wall of the city1 with thatched huts built against it4 ,here is a street within the city1 with a fort-crowned rock visible at the end of it1 and here is the ,bazaar4 ,jaipur has a modern aspect1 for it is a busy and prosperous commercial centre4 ,here is a wool cart in the city4 ,the streets are broad--perhaps the broadest in the world--and cross one another at right angles1 and at night are well lighted with gas4 ,sidenote3 #ce4 ,the ,samrat ,yantra1 ,jaipur ,observatory4 ,one of the most interesting of the old ,indian observatories1 with great stone instruments1 even larger than those of ,benares1 is in this city4 ,it was constructed at the beginning of the #ahth century1 and has recently been restored by the progressive ,maharaja4 ,this is the great ,samrat ,yantra1 or sundial1 the largest in the world4 ,the gnomon is #ge feet in height4 ,notice how small in comparison is the keeper of the observatory1 who may be seen standing just outside the line of the shadow on the circumference of the dial4 ,in the distance1 above some dwelling houses1 is visible the clock-tower of the ,maharaja's palace1 the time of which is regulated by this sundial4 ,sidenote3 #cf4 ,the ,palace ,gardens1 ,jaipur--,crocodiles4 ,sidenote3 #cg4 ,the ,same1 ,tomb of a pet dog4 ,sidenote3 #ch4 ,flamingoes at ,jaipur4 ,sidenote3 #ci4 ,sita ,ranji ,temple1 ,jaipur4 ,the palace stands amid beautiful gardens4 ,we have here a tank in these gardens showing the ,maharaja's crocodiles1 and here is the tomb among the trees of one of the late ,maharaja's pet dogs4 ,outside the city walls are fine public gardens1 covering some forty acres1 containing an aviary and menagerie4 ,here is a group of flamingoes1 caught in the neighbourhood4 ,finally1 we have one of the temples in the city1 built of red sandstone and finely carved4 ,sidenote3 #dj4 ,the ,lake and ,palace1 ,amber4 ,sidenote3 #da4 ,shish ,mahal1 ,amber4 ,sidenote3 #db4 ,the ,palace1 ,alwar4 ,sidenote3 #dc4 ,the ,same from above4 ,a few miles from ,jaipur is ,amber1 the ancient capital of ,jaipur ,state1 but now abandoned and in ruins4 ,here we have a view of the old ,palace and the ,lake1 and here one of the many fine buildings1 the ,shish ,mahal4 ,next we see the ,palace at ,alwar1 a comparatively modern city1 the present capital of the ,state of ,alwar1 and then we have a view over the palace looking down from the hill above4 ,sidenote3 #dd4 ,city ,gate1 ,bikaner4 ,sidenote3 #de4 ,jain ,temple1 ,bhandashar1 ,bikaner4 ,sidenote3 #df4 ,bikaner from the ,jain ,temple4 ,sidenote3 #dg4 ,street in ,bikaner4 ,sidenote3 #dh4 ,grain ,sellers1 ,bikaner4 ,sidenote3 #di4 ,bikaner ,fort4 ,now we visit ,bikaner1 in an oasis of the northwestern desert4 ,this is the city gate1 with a level railway crossing in front4 ,notice the camel waiting for the passing of the train1 and the water-carriers4 ,here of course water is a valuable commodity4 ,the district of which ,bikaner is the centre suffers frequently from famine owing to drought4 ,then we have a ,jain temple crowning a rocky mound1 and from the terrace of this temple we obtain a view over the city1 with its flat roofs and desert spaces4 ,there follows a view in one of the narrow streets1 showing the carved front of a house belonging to one of the richer ,jains of the city4 ,finally we have a typical group of grain sellers in front of the ,customs ,house1 and a view of the ,fort4 ,sidenote3 #ej4 ,h4,h4 ,the ,raja of ,nabha and his ministers4 ,sidenote3 #ea4 ,h4,h4 ,the ,raja of ,nabha4 ,sidenote3 #eb4 ,the ,palace of the ,crown ,prince of ,nabha4 ,sidenote3 #ec4 ,sirdar ,fateh ,singh4 ,sidenote3 #ed4 ,sikhs at ,nabha4 ,sidenote3 #ee4 ,an ,akali at ,nabha4 ,sidenote3 #ef4 ,the ,chief ,justice of ,nabha4 ,sidenote3 #eg4 ,sirdar ,bisham ,singh4 ,on our way northeastward we will next visit the city of ,nabha1 though it is the centre of a ,sikh and not of a ,rajput ,state4 ,here is the ,raja of ,nabha surrounded by his ,council of ,ministers1 and here his portrait4 ,then we have in the distance the palace of the ,crown ,prince of ,nabha1 seen from the roof of ,elgin ,house1 the home of the ,british ,resident4 ,next there follow a series of portraits4 ,the first is of a young princeling4 ,the second is of a group of ,sikhs2 in front is a priest1 and to the right1 in black1 an ,akali1 or warrior-monk4 ,there follows another slide showing one of these ,akalis in ancient fighting costume4 ,then we have1 by way of contrast1 the very up to date ,chief ,justice of ,nabha1 but notice in the background sentry duty economically performed by a pasteboard soldier6 ,here is a typical ,sikh face1 that of the ,vakil to the ,political ,agent at the ,british ,residency4 ,sidenote3 ,repeat ,map ,no4 #b4 ,finally1 we will cross the ,chambal river and1 leaving ,rajputana1 will enter ,central ,india1 and visit the two cities of ,gwalior and ,indore1 the capitals of the ,maratha ,princes ,sindhia and ,holkar4 ,gwalior lies a little south of ,delhi and ,agra4 ,the city is dominated by an isolated rock fort1 flat-topped and steep-sided1 more than three hundred feet in height4 ,there is but a single road up1 and along this road are six successive gates1 arranged as at the fort of ,chitor in ,rajputana4 ,sindhia captured ,gwalior rather more than a hundred years ago4 ,when the ,indian ,mutiny broke out his people1 being of ,hindi race1 of the same kin therefore as the people of ,agra and ,oudh1 revolted and joined the mutineers1 but ,sindhia and his ,maratha officers remained loyal and escaped to ,british protection4 ,sidenote3 #eh4 ,the ,fort1 ,gwalior4 ,gwalior was the scene of the last episodes in the ,indian ,mutiny4 ,driven from ,delhi and from around ,cawnpore and ,lucknow1 the mutineers marched in #aheh against ,sindhia1 who met them in battle1 but was defeated4 ,then ,general ,sir ,hugh ,rose followed them up in what is known as the ,central ,indian campaign1 and defeated them at ,gwalior4 ,the fort of ,gwalior itself was taken by a remarkable feat of daring4 ,two ,british subalterns with a blacksmith and an outpost force picked the locks of the first five gateways up the road entry before they were discovered4 ,they stormed the last gate1 one of them being killed4 ,so ,gwalior ,fort was taken1 and for a generation was garrisoned by ,british troops1 but about twenty years ago it was restored to the ,maharaja ,sindhia4 ,sidenote3 #ei4 ,holkar's ,palace1 ,indore4 ,indore lies in the land of ,malwa1 a considerable distance south of ,gwalior and on high ground about the sources of the ,chambal river4 ,the ,governor-,general's ,agent for ,central ,india has his residence here by treaty1 and close at hand is now the army cantonment of ,mhow4 ,at the time of the ,mutiny some of ,holkar's infantry attacked the ,residency1 and as the ,resident1 ,sir ,henry ,durand1 had only twenty men to defend it1 he was compelled to retreat with some women and children4 ,but it was soon recovered and nothing very serious ensued in this part of ,india4 ,the ,rajputana ,agency is as large as the whole ,british ,isles1 but it contains only about ten million people1 since a great part of it is desert4 ,the ,central ,indian ,agency is about as large as ,england and ,scotland without ,wales4 ,it has a population only a little smaller than that of ,rajputana4 ,we may measure the significance of the more important chiefs in these two ,agencies by the fact that ,sindhia rules a country little less1 either in area or population1 than the ,kingdom of ,scotland4 ,the ,native ,states of ,india1 of which we have seen a series of examples1 occupy about a third of the area of the whole country1 and contain about one-fifth of the population4 ,they represent in their present secure position a new phase of ,anglo-,indian policy4 ,the ,indian ,mutiny closed a period characterised by successive great annexations to the territory directly ruled by ,britain4 ,since the ,mutiny there has been no acquisition of directly ruled provinces1 except in ,burma4 ,therein the policy of the ,empire differs markedly from that of the old ,east ,india ,company4 ,the ,king-,emperor now guarantees the privileges and separate modes of rule in the ,feudatory ,states4 ,as a result1 there are no more loyal supporters of the ,british ,raj than these great native chiefs1 who in recent years have raised an army of ,imperial ,service ,troops1 to reinforce the ,indian and ,british armies for the defence of the ,empire and the maintenance of internal order4 ,sidenote3 #fj4 ,political ,map of ,india4 ,let us cast our eye over the map and enumerate the principal divisions of ,india4 ,under direct ,british rule are in the south ,madras and in the east ,burma4 ,then in succession through the plain at the foot of the ,himalayas are ,eastern ,bengal and ,assam2 ,bengal2 the ,united ,provinces of ,agra and ,oudh2 and the ,punjab4 ,in the east centre round ,nagpur are the ,central ,provinces1 and in the west is the ,presidency of ,bombay1 with the detached territory of ,sind on the lower ,indus4 ,on the ,northwestern ,frontier are ,british ,baluchistan and the ,northwest ,frontier ,province1 while in the midst of ,rajputana is the little district of ,ajmer1 and away in the south amid the forests of the ,western ,ghats the little district of ,coorg4 ,ceylon1 as was said in the first lecture1 though ,british1 is not a part of ,india1 but a separate ,crown ,colony4 ,all these ,provinces are directly administered by the ,british ,civil ,service4 ,now consider the ,feudatory ,states4 ,in the far south1 from ,cape ,comorin along the west coast1 we have the two little countries of ,travancore and ,cochin1 ruled by ,hindu ,maharajas4 ,they are far removed from all the greater problems of ,indian ,government1 remote homes of the caste system in its most stringent form1 and also1 curiously1 of a most ancient form of ,christianity introduced long centuries ago from ,nestorian sources in ,western ,asia4 ,then1 north of the ,nilgiri hills and the hill station of ,ootacamund1 is the ,state of ,mysore1 high on the plateau1 completely surrounded by ,british territory of the ,provinces of ,madras1 ,bombay1 and ,coorg4 ,the ,maharaja here is a ,hindu in religion1 and the people are chiefly ,hindu4 ,northward again1 and still on the ,deccan plateau1 is the largest and most important native ,state of ,india1 ruled from ,hyderabad by the ,nizam1 a ,musulman1 who administers a country largely of ,hindu religion4 ,then we have the two great groups of ,states1 whose relations with the ,empire are conducted by the ,agencies of ,central ,india and ,rajputana4 ,the most important of the ,central ,indian chiefs are ,holkar and ,sindhia1 ,marathas in a ,hindi-speaking country1 though in faith ,hindus like their subjects4 ,in ,rajputana are the ,rajput ,states of which we have spoken in this lecture4 ,it will be observed that1 with the small exceptions of ,travancore and ,cochin1 all the ,states thus far enumerated lie inland and are surrounded by ,british territory directly administered4 ,the remaining native states form a fringe along the northern and northwestern borders4 ,to the northeast amid the foot hills of the ,himalayas are in succession1 from east to west1 ,bhutan1 ,sikkim1 and ,nepal4 ,of these1 ,nepal stands outside the ,indian ,protectorate in a special relation of independent alliance with the ,british ,government4 ,in the far north is the state of ,kashmir1 whose centre is a beautiful valley1 with a lake in its midst1 deeply sunk amid the ,himalayan ranges proper4 ,a part of the foot hills on the one hand and a length of the ,tibetan ,indus on the other hand are also included within the territory ruled by the ,maharaja of ,kashmir4 ,to the northwest are the ,pathan and ,baluchi hill tribes in relation with the ,north ,west ,frontier ,province and ,british ,baluchistan4 ,such a survey as that which we have thus rapidly made gives perhaps the best idea of the complexity and vastness of the ,indian ,political ,system4 ,the ,indian ,empire is in fact not a country but1 as the inhabitants of the ,united ,states say of their own land1 a sub-continent1 and as regards everything but mere area the expression is far more true of ,india than of the ,united ,states1 for in the ,united ,states a single race and a single religion are dominant1 but in ,india a long history lives to this day in the most striking social contrasts1 presenting all manner of problems which it will take generations to solve4 -------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,lecture ,,vii4 --- ,,delhi4 --- ,,the ,,muhammadan ,,religion4 ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,mogul ,,emperors ,,from ,,humayun ,,to ,,aurangzeb4 ,,humayun #aecj-aedj #aeee-aeef ,,akbar #aeef-afje ,,jehangir #afje-afbg ,,shah ,,jahan #afbg-afeh ,,aurangzeb #afeh-agjg ---------------------------- ,sidenote3 #a4 ,map of ,northern ,india4 ,once more we look at the map of ,northern ,india4 ,we realise the great mountain wall of the ,himalayas1 four and five miles high1 curving through fifteen hundred miles along the northeast frontier of the ,indian lowland4 ,behind the ,himalayas is the ,tibetan plateau1 three miles in average elevation4 ,northwestward of ,india there is another plateau1 but a lower one than ,tibet1 and the mountain ranges which divide it from the ,indian plain are lower than the ,himalayas4 ,observe the great series of streams which emerge from the ,himalayas1 and gather on the one hand into the ,indus ,river1 flowing southwestward1 and on the other hand into the ,ganges1 flowing southeastward4 ,see the position of the ,indian desert and the ,aravalli ,hills1 and note the exact spot where stands the city of ,delhi4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,map of the neighborhood of ,delhi4 ,we turn now to a map on a larger scale of the region round ,delhi4 ,we see the ,himalaya mountains1 the ,aravalli hills1 and the ,indian ,desert4 ,we see the streams of the ,indus and ,ganges systems turning away from one another1 and we see ,simla1 the summer capital of ,india1 high on a spur of the ,himalayas1 above the divide between the ,indus and the ,ganges tributaries4 ,just north of ,simla is the valley of the ,sutlej1 tributary to the ,indus1 and where the ,sutlej issues from the mountains we note the off-take of a great system of irrigation canals4 ,it is true that the lowland northwestward of ,delhi is not quite desert4 ,nevertheless it has but a sparse rainfall1 and the result of the construction of the irrigation canals derived from the ,himalayan waters is that great colonies have been established in this region1 and wheat is grown on thousands of square miles that were formerly waste4 ,india has a great population1 but with modern methods of water supply1 and more advanced methods of cultivation1 there is still ample room for settlement within its boundaries4 ,we see on the map that there are other irrigation canals derived from the ,ganges where it emerges from the mountains at ,hardwar1 and from the ,jumna4 ,delhi is the ,musulman capital of ,india4 ,what ,benares and ,patna and ,gaya were and are to the ,brahman and ,buddhist civilisations native to ,india1 what ,calcutta and ,madras and ,bombay and ,karachi are to the ,english from over the seas1 that are ,delhi and ,agra to the ,musulmans entering ,india from the northwest4 ,the ,musulmans were not the first to come this way into ,india4 ,the oldest of the sacred books of the ,hindus tell of a people who came from the northwest and apparently founded the ,hindu religion1 accepting no doubt some of the religious beliefs of the earlier1 the ,dravidian1 population4 ,from these ,aryan invaders1 speaking ,sanskrit1 have been derived the languages of the peoples of ,northern ,india4 ,southeastward1 southward1 and southwestward from ,delhi as far as the centre of ,india1 there spread the ,hindi1 ,bengali1 and ,marathi languages1 as evidence of the effective conquest made by those remote invaders entering through the ,delhi passage between the desert and the mountains4 ,so far1 however1 as their language was concerned1 they failed to establish themselves in the ,dravidian south4 ,long afterwards1 but still some three hundred years before the ,christian era1 the ,greeks under ,alexander the ,great traversed ,persia and ,turkestan and came over the ,hindu ,kush1 the mountain backbone of what is now ,afghanistan1 down into the plains of the ,punjab4 ,alexander advanced across the rivers of the ,punjab1 tributary to the ,indus1 apparently as far as the ,sutlej1 and then turned southward and followed the ,indus to its mouth4 ,part of his troops returned through the ,persian ,gulf on board the fleet1 and part he led back with great loss along the barren northern shore of the ,arabian ,sea4 ,alexander and the ,greeks came therefore to the very threshold of ,india1 and then turned aside towards the sea1 leaving the desert of ,rajputana between them and the great prize of the conqueror4 ,in the seventh century of the ,christian era there arose in ,arabia the prophet ,muhammad1 who in his youth had been influenced both by ,christian and ,hebrew teaching4 ,he preached to the ,arabs that there was but one ,god1 and that ,muhammad was his prophet4 ,muhammad1 8,the ,praised10 was born in ,mecca1 about the year #egj4 ,he belonged to one of the ruling families of the tribe of ,arabs who held ,mecca and the surrounding country1 but his father died before he was born1 and his mother when he was only six months old4 ,from his earliest youth ,muhammad was addicted to solitude and musing4 ,in his wanderings he visited ,syria1 and in a ,nestorian convent there learned many of the ,hebrew and ,christian ideas which he subsequently incorporated into his teaching4 ,in his twenty-fifth year he married ,khadija1 a widow of noble birth and considerable wealth4 ,this marriage placed him in a position of independence1 for he had previously been very poor4 ,when ,muhammad was forty years old there came to him a ,divine ,call1 bidding him teach his people to abandon their idols1 to worship ,god1 and to accept him as ,god's ,prophet4 ,at first ,muhammad met with the most bitter opposition1 and in the year #fbb ,a4,d4 he had to flee from ,mecca to a city called ,yathreb1 which received him and made him its chief magistrate4 ,ever since that event this city has been called ,medinat-un-,nabi1 the ,city of the ,prophet2 or1 shortly1 ,medina4 ,the flight of ,muhammad from ,mecca is called the ,hegira1 and it is from this event that the ,muhammadan calendar dates4 ,in the year #fcj ,a4,d4 ,mecca was conquered1 and shortly after this all ,arabia submitted to the claims of the prophet4 ,after ,muhammad's death the ,arabs set forth to conquer the world and to convert it to ,islam4 ,they subdued ,egypt and ,syria and the plain of the ,euphrates4 ,they marched to the gates of ,constantinople1 and through ,northern ,africa to the ,strait of ,gibraltar1 and beyond ,gibraltar through ,spain into ,france1 there to suffer a great defeat at the hands of the ,christian ,franks1 which saved the remainder of ,christendom4 ,all this was accomplished in little more than a hundred years from the ,hegira4 ,but the ,musulmans did not wage war only against ,christendom4 ,their armies advanced from the ,euphrates up on to the ,persian plateau and down into the lowlands of ,turkestan in the heart of ,asia1 and over the ,hindu ,kush into ,afghanistan1 and then down into the plain of the ,river ,indus4 ,already in the seventh century there had been ,musulman incursions into ,india overseas1 by way of ,sind4 ,in the eleventh century after ,christ the ,musulmans entered ,gangetic ,india1 and took ,delhi4 ,they founded there a ,muhammadan realm1 which presently extended through most of ,northern ,india4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,the ,mogul ,empire at its greatest extent4 ,five hundred years later a second ,musulman invasion1 more effective than the first1 came into ,india by way of ,delhi4 ,the ,moguls or ,mongols of ,central ,asia had been converted to ,islam1 and in the time of our ,king ,henry the ,eighth they refounded the ,musulman power at ,delhi4 ,for a hundred and fifty years1 from the time of our ,queen ,elizabeth to that of our ,queen ,anne1 the series of ,mogul ,emperors1 from ,humayun to ,aurangzeb1 ruled in splendid state practically the whole of ,india4 ,this map shows the greatest spread of the ,mogul ,empire4 ,agra1 a hundred miles down the ,jumna from ,delhi1 became a subsidiary capital to ,delhi1 and in these two cities we have to-day the supreme examples of ,muhammadan architectural art4 ,the ,musulman1 it must be remembered1 came as an alien to ,india4 ,he is no polytheist or pantheist1 but a believer in the one ,god1 and that a spiritual ,god1 so that he holds it wrong to make any graven image1 whether of man or of animal4 ,islam is the name which the followers of the prophet gave to their religion3 it means primarily submission1 and so peace1 greeting1 safety1 and salvation1 and in its ethical sense it signifies striving after righteousness4 ,islam is in its essence pure ,theism coupled with some definite rules of conduct4 ,belief in a future life and accountability for human action in another existence are two of the principal doctrines of the ,islamic creed4 ,every ,musulman is his own priest1 and1 in theory at any rate1 no divisions of race or colour are recognised among the followers of the ,prophet4 ,musulmans are forbidden to take alcohol4 ,the gospel of ,islam is the ,koran--,the ,book--in which are embodied the teachings and precepts of the ,arabian ,prophet4 ,the ,koran incorporates1 as we have already seen1 much that was drawn both from ,hebrew and ,christian teaching4 ,more than sixty millions of the ,indian population hold the faith of ,islam4 ,they are scattered all over the land1 usually in a minority1 although that minority1 as we have already learned1 is frequently powerful1 for it gives ruling chiefs to many districts which are dominantly ,hindu4 ,in two parts only of ,india are the ,musulmans in a majority1 namely1 in the far east1 beyond the mouths of the ,ganges in the newly formed ,province of ,eastern ,bengal and ,assam1 and in the ,indus ,basin from the neighbourhood of ,delhi through the ,punjab into ,sind4 ,for this reason1 and also because of its physical character--lying low beneath the uplands of ,afghanistan1 and separated from the greater part of ,india by the breadth of the desert--we may think of the ,indus ,valley as being an ante-chamber to ,india proper4 ,in this ante-chamber1 and in the ,delhi passage1 between the desert and the mountains1 for more than nine hundred years the ,musulmans have predominated4 ,when the decay of the ,mogul ,empire began in the time of our ,queen ,anne1 the chief local representatives of the ,imperial ,rule1 such as the ,nizam of ,hyderabad1 and the ,nawabs of ,bengal and ,oudh1 assumed an independent position4 ,it was with these new dynasties that the ,east ,india ,company came into conflict in the days of ,general ,clive1 and thus we may regard the ,british ,empire in ,india as having been built up from the fragments into which the ,mogul ,empire broke4 ,in one region1 however1 the ,western ,deccan1 the ,hindus re-asserted themselves1 and there was a rival bid for ,empire1 as we have already learned1 on the part of the ,marathas4 ,it was the work of ,general ,wellesley1 afterwards ,duke of ,wellington1 to defeat the ,marathas4 ,in the north also1 in the ,punjab1 there was a recrudescence of the ,hindu race1 due to the new sect of the ,sikhs1 who set up a power with which at a later time the ,british ,raj came into conflict4 ,but this was not until after ,delhi1 the very seat of the ,mogul throne1 had been taken4 ,sidenote3 ,repeat ,map ,no4 #b4 ,sidenote3 #d4 ,simla1 ,viceregal ,lodge--distant view4 ,sidenote3 #e4 ,simla1 ,bazaar and ,town ,hall4 ,we are now prepared for the fact shown in this map1 that the tract northwestward of ,delhi1 in the gateway between the desert and the mountains1 is sown over with battle fields--ancient battlefields near ,delhi1 where the incoming ,musulmans overthrew the ,indian resistance1 and modern battlefields near the ,sutlej1 where advancing ,british power inflicted defeat upon the ,sikhs after severe contests4 ,it is by no accident that ,simla1 the residence during more than half the year of the ,british ,viceroy1 is placed on the ,himalayan heights above this natural seat of ,empire and of struggle for ,empire4 ,in the ,mutiny of #aheg the ,sikhs of the ,punjab1 and of the still continuing ,tributary ,states of ,nabha and ,patiala1 mentioned in the last lecture1 remained loyal to the ,british rule1 although they had been conquered in the terrible battles on the ,sutlej less than ten years before4 ,in no small measure this was due to the extraordinary influence wielded over them by ,sir ,john ,lawrence1 afterwards ,lord ,lawrence1 the brother of that ,sir ,henry ,lawrence who defended the ,residency of ,lucknow4 ,as a result of the ,sikh loyalty some of the ,british forces in the ,punjab were free to march to the re-capture of ,delhi4 ,thus the ,indian ,mutiny was overcome from two bases1 on the one hand at ,lucknow and ,cawnpore by an army from the sea and ,calcutta1 and on the other hand at ,delhi by an army advancing from the ,punjab over the track beaten by so many conquerors in previous ages4 ,let us visit ,delhi and see its defences1 its mosques1 the palaces of its ,emperors1 and the memorials of the ,mutiny4 ,then we will go to ,agra to see other splendid monuments of the ,musulman dynasty4 ,after that we will turn to ,hardwar1 at the point where the sacred ,ganges bursts from its ,himalayan valley on to the plain4 ,hardwar is a pilgrimage centre of the ,hindus1 second in sanctity only to ,benares itself4 ,sidenote3 #f4 ,the ,kashmir ,gate1 ,delhi4 ,east of ,delhi1 running almost due southward1 is the river ,jumna1 crossed by the great bridge of the ,east ,indian ,railway1 which carries the main line from ,delhi through the ,united ,provinces and ,bengal to ,calcutta4 ,west of the city is the last spur of the ,aravalli hills1 the famous ,ridge of ,delhi1 striking northeastward4 ,the city lies between the ,ridge and the ,jumna4 ,it may be divided into three parts4 ,to the north is the ,european quarter4 ,in the centre is ,shahjahanabad1 or modern ,delhi1 entered from the north by the ,kashmir ,gate4 ,between ,shahjahanabad and the river is the ,fort4 ,the ,jama ,masjid 7,great ,mosque7 stands in the centre of ,shahjahanabad1 and the ,kalan ,masjid 7,black ,mosque7 is about half a mile further south4 ,passing out of the modern city southward by the ,delhi ,gate we enter ,firozabad1 or ancient ,delhi1 the capital of the earlier ,mogul rulers4 ,further still to the south are even more ancient ruins4 ,sidenote3 #g4 ,jama ,masjid1 ,delhi4 ,sidenote3 #h4 ,view from halfway up a ,minaret1 ,jama ,masjid4 ,sidenote3 #i4 ,view from top of ,minaret1 looking south4 ,sidenote3 #aj4 ,the ,same1 looking northeast4 ,sidenote3 #aa4 ,kalan ,masjid1 ,delhi4 ,let us begin our sight-seeing in the centre of the modern city1 at the ,jama ,masjid1 a great building of marble and sandstone4 ,its principal treasures are a hair of ,muhammad1 and some of his handwriting4 ,here is a view of the mosque from the balcony of a neighbouring house4 ,let us go up one of the minarets and look over the city4 ,this is a view taken from a little gallery half way up4 ,to the left is seen part of the large central dome of the mosque1 and to the right the top of one of the columns which rise on either side of the main archway4 ,beyond1 far below1 can be seen part of the city4 ,next we have a view1 due southward1 from the top of the minaret4 ,the ,kalan ,masjid is just visible in the foreground1 but a smoke haze obscures the more distant part of the town4 ,we turn round and look northeastward over the ,fort4 ,notice on the ground the shadow of the other minaret of the mosque4 ,in the distance can be seen the ,jumna1 and crossing it the great bridge of the ,east ,indian ,railway4 ,here we have a closer view of the ,kalan ,masjid1 or ,black ,mosque1 built in the original style of the mosques of ,arabia with many small solid domes1 unadorned by carving4 ,it has a sombre appearance4 ,we see in front one of these domes1 and behind it the tops of two others4 ,sidenote3 #ab4 ,the ,lahore ,gate1 ,delhi ,fort4 ,sidenote3 #ac4 ,the ,delhi ,gate1 ,delhi ,fort4 ,sidenote3 #ad4 ,the ,pearl ,mosque1 ,delhi ,fort4 ,sidenote3 #ae4 ,the ,hall of ,public ,audience1 ,delhi ,fort4 ,sidenote3 #af4 ,the ,orpheus ,panel4 ,the chief glory of ,delhi is1 however1 the ,fort1 and the group of palace buildings within its precincts4 ,it is approached through the ,lahore ,gate1 of which we have here a view4 ,this gate is in the middle of the west side of the ,fort4 ,along the east side flows the ,river ,jumna4 ,in the southern face there is another great gateway1 the ,delhi ,gate1 with a grey stone elephant on either side of the entry4 ,within the ,fort1 is the ,moti ,masjid1 or ,pearl ,mosque1 built by ,aurangzeb1 of white and grey marble4 ,the finest of the buildings of the ,fort is1 however1 the great ,hall of ,public ,audience1 the ,diwan-i-,am4 ,there is a raised recess1 in the wall of this hall1 where formerly stood the famous ,peacock ,throne of ,aurangzeb1 made of solid gold inlaid with diamonds1 rubies1 and emeralds1 and backed by two peacocks set thick with gems4 ,this throne was carried off when the ,persians under ,nadir ,shah sacked the city in #agci1 and massacred most of its inhabitants4 ,above the entry to the recess of the ,peacock ,throne are a number of panels about nine inches high and six inches broad1 made of inlaid stones4 ,here is a photograph of one of them4 ,some of these panels were injured1 but1 thanks to ,lord ,curzon1 an expert artist from ,florence has recently restored them and made new ones in the spirit of the earlier to fill the vacant spaces4 ,sidenote3 #ag4 ,the ,hall of ,private ,audience1 ,delhi ,fort4 ,we pass next to the innermost court of the ,fort-palace1 the ,hall of ,private ,audience1 the ,diwan-i-,khas1 ninety feet long and seventy feet broad1 built of white marble with many inlaid flowers of jewels4 ,beneath the cornice runs the famous inscription3 8,if there is a ,paradise upon earth it is this1 it is this40 ,here we see one of the graceful arches1 and beyond in the distance the towers of the ,pearl ,mosque1 already described4 ,sidenote3 #ah4 ,mausoleum of ,humayun1 ,delhi4 ,to see old ,delhi we must drive from the modern city either by the ,delhi ,gate in the south wall of the ,fort or by the ,ajmer ,gate in the southeast corner of the city wall1 past great dome-topped temples1 most of them in ruins1 until a few miles out1 not far from the trunk road leading from ,delhi to ,agra1 we come to the ,mausoleum of ,humayun1 of which we have here a view4 ,the design1 as will be realised presently1 is very similar to that of the ,taj ,mahal at ,agra1 but the ,mausoleum is the older building4 ,notice the terraced platform on which it stands4 ,it is built of red sandstone and marble4 ,beneath the platform1 and approached by a long dark passage1 is the vault where ,humayun is buried4 ,around the ,mausoleum are a number of old ruins1 and the debris and cactus remind one of ,pagan in ,burma1 which we saw in the second lecture4 ,sidenote3 #ai4 ,the ,kutab ,minar and ,iron ,pillar1 ,delhi4 ,we resume our drive1 past ruined tombs and walls1 and at last1 about eleven miles south of ,delhi1 we come to the buildings of the ,kutab ,minar1 where are some of the few remains of the ,hindu period now visible in the neighbourhood1 though the mass of the work is of ,muhammadan date4 ,the ,kutab was begun at the end of the #abth century1 on the site of an ancient ,hindu temple destroyed by the ,musulmans4 ,the famous ,iron ,pillar stands in front of the mosque4 ,it is one of the most remarkable of all the antiquities of ,india1 for it consists of a solid mass of wrought iron1 weighing probably more than six tons1 and measuring some #bd feet in height1 with an average diameter of a little over a foot4 ,at the base is an inscription in ,sanskrit1 from which it appears that its probable date is the fourth century1 ,a4,d4 ,this inscription runs thus3 8,as long as ,i stand so long shall the ,hindu kingdom endure40 ,the ,kutab mosque is the ,moslem reply to this4 ,the wrought iron of the ,pillar has an almost bluish colour when seen against the warm sunlit red sandstone of the great ,kutab ,tower4 ,in this photograph a man has climbed to the top of the ,pillar1 and stands there as though a statue1 giving us the scale of the monument4 ,sidenote3 #bj4 ,the ,lat of ,asoka1 the ,ridge1 ,delhi4 ,now let us visit the district to north of the modern city1 of deep interest in connection with the ,mutiny4 ,on the ,ridge top1 between the ,flagstaff ,tower towards its northeastern end and the ,mutiny ,memorial further south1 is another curious pillar1 this one of stone1 called the ,lat of ,asoka4 ,at its base is the following modern inscription3 8,this pillar was originally erected at ,meerut in the third century ,b4,c4 by ,king ,asoka4 ,it was removed thence1 and set up in the ,koshuk ,shikar ,palace by the ,emperor ,firuz ,shah in ,a4,d4 #acef1 but was thrown down and broken into five pieces by the explosion of a powder magazine ,a4,d4 #agac-agai4 ,it was restored and set up in this place by the ,british ,government ,a4,d4 #ahfg40 ,sidenote3 #ba4 ,the ,flagstaff ,tower1 the ,ridge1 ,delhi4 ,we will walk past the various memorials of the ,mutiny struggle4 ,here is the ,flagstaff ,tower1 in which were gathered at the outbreak of danger the women and children of the ,british garrison anxiously looking for relief from ,meerut4 ,but the relief did not come1 and ,delhi was stormed and captured by the mutineers4 ,the refugees in the ,flagstaff ,tower were compelled to fly for their lives to ,karnal1 on the road to the ,punjab1 where gradually ,british troops and loyal natives were assembled4 ,the ,british returned to the ,ridge1 and for two months the siege of the city was pressed1 but unsuccessfully4 ,a brigade and a siege train then arrived from the ,punjab1 commanded by ,general ,nicholson4 ,the struggle continued for yet another month4 ,our troops were not in sufficient force to surround and starve the city1 and it was therefore necessary to bombard and storm the defences4 ,slowly the ,british won their way into the town1 though with terrible loss4 ,general ,nicholson was himself wounded in one of the assaults1 and died a week later4 ,at last1 on the #bjth ,september1 the ,fort was taken1 and next day the rebel ,king of ,delhi was captured at ,humayun's ,tomb1 and was exiled to ,rangoon4 ,two of his sons were shot in front of the ,delhi ,gate4 ,the terrible nature of this siege may be realised from the fact that of the ten thousand ,british and loyal native troops who took part in it nearly four thousand were killed and wounded4 ,here is the statue of ,general ,nicholson in the park named after him1 just south of the cemetery1 outside the ,kashmir ,gate1 where he is buried4 ,on the ,ridge itself is the ,mutiny ,memorial1 unfortunately not a very beautiful building4 ,sidenote3 #bb4 ,general ,nicholson's ,statue1 ,delhi4 ,sidenote3 #bc4 ,the ,mutiny ,memorial1 the ,ridge1 ,delhi4 ,sidenote3 #bd4 ,horse ,fair1 ,delhi4 ,sidenote3 #be4 ,dariba ,street1 ,delhi4 ,finally1 we have two scenes of native life at ,delhi4 ,the first is a horse fair outside the ,kashmir ,gate1 and the second a street view4 ,let us travel to ,agra1 which stands on the right bank of the ,jumna1 about a hundred miles southeast of ,delhi4 ,the ,jumna flows from north to south until beside ,agra ,fort1 and then turns sharply eastward4 ,about a mile and a half further on1 on the same right bank1 now the south side of the river1 there stands the ,taj ,mahal1 the most celebrated of all ,muhammadan tombs4 ,the building of ,agra ,fort was commenced by the ,emperor ,akbar in the middle of the #afth century1 and was completed by ,shah ,jahan1 the father of ,aurangzeb1 in the #agth century4 ,it was this ,shah ,jahan who built the ,palace within the ,fort and also the ,taj4 ,sidenote3 #bf4 ,the ,pearl ,mosque1 ,agra ,fort4 ,the ,fort and the buildings which it contains rise by the side of the river and dominate the plain beyond it4 ,here within the ,fort we have a view of the marble interior of the ,moti ,masjid1 or ,pearl ,mosque1 built by ,shah ,jahan in the middle of the #agth century4 ,the floor is divided by inlaid lines of black and yellow marble into some six hundred separate divisions1 called ,masalas1 used by the ,musulmans for prayer4 ,in the centre is a large marble tank4 ,the effect produced on entering this mosque is profound4 ,outside1 the city may be quivering in a haze of heat1 but here the cool and soft light1 and an entire absence of any discordant features in the architecture1 combine to give a sense of rest and peace4 ,many ,europeans have remarked that this mosque is a rendering in stone of the text 8,my house shall be called the house of prayer40 ,sidenote3 #bg4 ,jehangir's ,throne1 ,agra ,fort4 ,sidenote3 #bh4 ,the ,jessamine ,tower1 ,agra ,fort4 ,sidenote3 #bi4 ,the ,seat of the ,jester1 ,agra ,fort4 ,let us go out on to the open space by the wall1 and look over the moat which divides the main buildings of the ,fort from the outer rampart by the river4 ,across the water the ,taj ,mahal can just be seen beyond the bend of the river4 ,in front of us is ,jehangir's throne1 set up in the time of ,akbar4 ,it consists of a single great slab of black marble4 ,close by1 is the ,jessamine ,tower4 ,here we have another view in which we see the ,throne from the back and a corner of the ,jessamine ,tower4 ,notice the lower slab opposite1 which is called the ,seat of the ,jester4 ,the effect of its presence is by contrast to enhance the beauty of ,jehangir's ,throne itself4 ,between the wall in the foreground and the outer ramparts by the river there is a drop of some sixty feet1 and in this ditch fights between lions and elephants used to be held in the days of the ,mogul ,emperors4 ,sidenote3 #cj4 ,jama ,masjid1 ,agra4 ,just outside the ,fort1 facing the west or ,delhi ,gate1 is the ,jama ,masjid1 of which we have here a view4 ,we see the courtyard and one of the entries4 ,the peculiarity of this mosque lies in the structure of the three great domes4 ,they are without necks4 ,we can just see the tops of two of them4 ,they are built of red sandstone1 and the encircling bands are of white marble4 ,sidenote3 #ca4 ,taj ,mahal1 ,agra4 ,sidenote3 #cb4 ,the ,taj ,gardens4 ,sidenote3 #cc4 ,the ,same1 by moonlight4 ,we will now visit the ,taj ,mahal4 ,it was built1 chiefly of marble inlaid with precious stones1 by ,shah ,jahan as a tomb for his queen4 ,here we have a view of the ,taj taken from without the entrance gateway4 ,then we pass through the gateway and enter the ,taj ,gardens4 ,the watercourse in the centre is of marble1 and along each side is a row of cypresses4 ,the original cypresses had grown to such a height that the view of the ,taj was becoming obstructed4 ,they were therefore removed1 and those which we see in the picture were planted by ,lord ,curzon1 when he was ,viceroy4 ,the ,taj is perhaps most beautiful in the light of the setting sun1 or by moonlight4 ,we have here a photograph made from a painting of the ,taj by moonlight4 ,sidenote3 #cd4 ,the ,bazaar1 ,agra4 ,sidenote3 #ce4 ,agra ,college4 ,sidenote3 #cf4 ,agra ,jail--,wool spinning4 ,sidenote3 #cg4 ,agra ,jail--,carpet making4 ,we will drive back through the native city4 ,this is a typical scene in the ,bazaar4 ,notice the ,kotwal1 or ,chief of the ,police1 in the centre of the crowd4 ,he is an ,afghan1 standing well over six feet in height and finely proportioned4 ,on the awning over one of the shops an advertisement obtrudes1 showing that even the native quarters of the cities of ,india are being permeated with ,european methods4 ,here is ,agra ,college1 endowed about a century ago by the then ,maharaja of ,gwalior4 ,there are about a thousand students4 ,close by is the ,jail4 ,in this picture we see some of the prisoners spinning wool1 and in the next they are making carpets4 ,the next series of pictures relates to the great ,muhammadan anniversary of the ,moharam1 and in order to understand them it is necessary to say a few words regarding the history of ,islam and the contending sects which have emerged from that history4 ,muhammad died in the year #fcb4 ,he left no son2 but one of his daughters1 ,fatima1 was married to a cousin whose name was ,ali4 ,abu ,bakr1 who had been a great friend and supporter of ,muhammad1 was elected ,caliph or ,vice-,regent of the ,prophet4 ,abu ,bakr died in #fcd1 and was succeeded by ,omar1 who conquered ,persia and ,syria4 ,to him ,jerusalem capitulated4 ,omar was murdered in the same year1 and was succeeded by ,osman1 who was killed in #fef4 ,then ,ali1 the cousin and son-in-law of ,muhammad1 was elected to the ,caliphate4 ,ali was murdered in #ffa1 and ,hasan1 his son1 was elected ,caliph in his place1 but was induced to resign in favour of a ,caliph of another family4 ,husain1 the second son of ,ali1 never acknowledged the title of the ,caliph who had superseded his brother ,hasan1 and when the ,musulmans of ,mesopotamia invited him to overthrow the usurping ,caliph he felt it his duty to respond to their appeal4 ,accompanied by his family and a few retainers he left for ,mesopotamia4 ,on the way1 at a place called ,karbala1 on the west bank of the ,euphrates1 they were overtaken by the ,caliph's army1 and after a heroic struggle lasting several days were all slaughtered1 save the women and a sickly child called ,ali1 who died soon afterwards4 ,thus ended the ,republic of ,islam4 ,up to this time the office of ,caliph had been elective and the government essentially democratic4 ,the seat of government was now moved from ,medina to ,damascus4 ,in the middle of the eighth century of the ,christian era a great revolution took place in ,western ,asia4 ,the revolt was headed by a descendant of ,abbas1 an uncle of the ,prophet1 and the outcome of it was that the ,abbassides1 or members of the family of ,abbas1 established themselves as ,caliphs1 and ruled at ,bagdad from the year #gef to the year #abeh4 ,when ,bagdad was destroyed by the ,mongols a member of the ,abbassides family escaped to ,cairo1 where he was recognised as ,caliph by the ,sultan of ,egypt4 ,the eighth ,caliph in succession from this man renounced the ,caliphate in favour of ,sultan ,salim1 the great ,ottoman conqueror1 and it is on this renunciation that the title of the ,sultan of ,turkey to the spiritual headship of ,islam is based4 ,it will be seen from this short statement of the history that a great change took place in ,islam when ,husain1 the descendant of the ,caliph ,ali and of ,fatima1 the ,prophet's daughter1 was slain at ,karbala1 on the ,euphrates4 ,from that tragedy dates the chief division of ,islam4 ,the ,shiah sect traces its foundation to the ,caliph ,ali and the immediate descendants of the ,prophet1 who are regarded as the rightful exponents of his teaching4 ,some twenty millions of the ,indian ,musulmans are ,shiahs1 and ,shiahism is also the ,state religion of ,persia4 ,there are a large number of ,shiahs also in other parts of the ,muhammadan world1 but nowhere1 except in ,persia1 a majority4 ,the ,shiahs are advocates of ,apostolic descent and lineal succession to the ,caliphate4 ,the other of the two great divisions of the ,musulmans are the ,sunnis1 who advocate the principle of election to the ,caliphate4 ,almost all the ,sunnis acknowledge the spiritual headship of the ,sultan of ,turkey1 who is1 of course1 repudiated by the ,shiahs4 ,at the present time nearly #ej millions of the ,musulmans of ,india are ,sunnis1 and there are ,sunni ,musulmans in ,china1 ,tartary1 ,afghanistan1 ,asiatic and ,european ,turkey1 ,arabia1 ,egypt1 ,northern and ,central ,africa1 ,bosnia1 ,herzegovina1 ,russia1 ,ceylon1 and the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,sidenote3 #ch4 ,moharam ,time at ,agra4 ,sidenote3 #ci4 ,the ,same4 ,sidenote3 #dj4 ,the ,same4 ,sidenote3 #da4 ,the ,same4 ,sidenote3 #db4 ,the ,same4 ,sidenote3 #dc4 ,shiahs burying ,tazias4 ,we are now in a position to understand the significance of the anniversary of the ,karbala4 ,annually there is held in the ,muhammadan month ,moharam a festival in memory of the death of ,husain4 ,the scenes of the battle are reproduced1 and the tazia or tomb of ,husain is carried in procession amidst cries of 8,hasan1 ,husain60 ,properly1 this is a ,shiah festival only1 but in ,india both the ,sunnis and ,shiahs take part in it4 ,here are photographs representing the festival4 ,the tazias are pagoda-like structures1 made of a variety of materials4 ,they are carried in long procession through the town1 and finally the little biers--representative of the biers of ,hasan and ,husain--contained inside the tazias are buried at the ,karbala1 outside the city4 ,we have first a street view in ,agra showing the crowd at ,moharam time4 ,in the distance is ,agra ,fort4 ,next we have three views of the procession of the tazias1 and then a view of the ,karbala beyond the city1 where the biers from the tazias are buried4 ,the ,shiahs1 however1 do not bury their tazias in the ,karbala1 but on the banks of the ,jumna4 ,here we see them in the early morning conducting the ceremony with most solemn ritual4 ,sidenote3 #dd4 ,fields of ,wheat and ,barley4 ,sidenote3 #de4 ,the ,public ,audience ,hall1 ,fatehpur ,sikri4 ,sidenote3 #df4 ,the ,great ,capital1 ,fatehpur ,sikri4 ,sidenote3 #dg4 ,gate of ,victory1 ,fatehpur ,sikri4 ,let us drive out from ,agra southwestward on the road to ,fatehpur ,sikri1 the city erected by the ,emperor ,akbar1 but abandoned by his successors in favour of ,agra4 ,on the way1 we note fields of wheat and barley1 separated by an irrigation channel4 ,we pass villages amid mango trees1 and occasional ruins1 and arrive at ,fatehpur ,sikri4 ,there we enter the great quadrangle and the ,public ,audience ,hall of the ,palace1 built of red sandstone4 ,it was in this hall that ,akbar used to sit on certain days to see personally anyone who had grievances to lay before him4 ,notice in the quadrangle the stone pierced with a hole which is fixed in the ground4 ,criminals were put to death by being trampled upon by an elephant1 and to that ring the elephant was tied4 ,we pass on to the ,private ,audience ,hall of ,akbar1 the ,diwan-i-,khas4 ,note the huge capital of the column in the centre4 ,tradition says that ,akbar used to sit on the top of this capital4 ,finally1 here is the magnificent ,gate of ,victory4 ,sidenote3 #dh4 ,mausoleum of ,akbar1 ,sikandra4 ,sidenote3 #di4 ,the ,same--a ,marble ,inscription4 ,sidenote3 #ej4 ,the ,same--the ,cloisters4 ,we leave ,fatehpur ,sikri1 and drive back1 past many other tombs1 in the direction of the ,cantonment at ,agra until we come to the burial place of ,akbar at ,sikandra4 ,this is the gateway of the great ,mausoleum4 ,notice the cut marble inscriptions down the sides of the arch4 ,they are quotations from the ,koran4 ,here is a clearer photograph of a part of these inscriptions1 and here we have the marble court above the tomb of ,akbar4 ,round the ,cloisters are verses celebrating his greatness4 8,think not that the sky will be so kind as ,akbar was10 is the tenor of one of them4 ,sidenote3 #ea4 ,hariki ,piri1 ,hardwar4 ,sidenote3 #eb4 ,sarwan ,nath ,temple1 ,hardwar4 ,sidenote3 #ec4 ,the ,same1 from above4 ,sidenote3 #ed4 ,camels at ,hardwar4 ,finally we will travel away to ,hardwar1 some two hundred miles due north of ,agra4 ,it is on the ,ganges1 at the point where the river leaves the last foot hills of the ,himalayas and enters the plain4 ,hardwar is a great centre of ,hindu pilgrimage for the purpose of ablution in the sacred waters4 ,at the annual fair are gathered hundreds of thousands of worshippers4 ,so great has been the crush of people endeavouring to bathe that on occasion many have been trampled upon and drowned4 ,the great day at ,hardwar is towards the end of ,march1 when the ,hindu year begins1 and when1 according to tradition1 the ,ganges river first appeared from its source in the mountains4 ,there was a town of ,hardwar more than a thousand years ago1 but its ancient buildings have disappeared4 ,here we have a view of the famous ,bathing ,ghat1 a comparatively small flight of steps1 where the river is considered to be specially sacred4 ,the water is purer than at ,benares in the plain4 ,it flows swiftly and is as clear as crystal4 ,near by we have a temple1 the ,sarwan ,nath1 with great stone elephants1 and here is a second view of the same temple seen from a neighbouring roof4 ,notice the ,trisul1 or bronze trident1 the typical weapon of ,siva1 the ,destroyer4 ,sidenote3 #ee4 ,sacred ,cow at ,hardwar4 ,here is a string of camels at ,hardwar1 and then a sacred cow--especially sacred because deformed1 for a freak of nature is miraculous4 ,sidenote3 #ef4 ,the ,road to ,mussoorie4 ,sidenote3 #eg4 ,the ,same1 ,coolies carrying ,baggage4 ,sidenote3 #eh4 ,the ,same1 a ,tree across the ,road4 ,sidenote3 #ei4 ,mussoorie4 ,sidenote3 #fj4 ,the ,himalayas from ,mussoorie4 ,not far northward of ,hardwar1 among the foot hills of the ,himalayas1 is ,mussoorie1 a hill station supplementary to ,simla4 ,mussoorie is about a mile above sea level4 ,we have two views taken on the steep mountain road up to it2 the second shows coolies carrying baggage4 ,in the next view we realise something of the difficulties of travel in these hill districts of much rainfall1 for the road is blocked by the fall of a great tree4 ,here we have a view of ,mussoorie itself1 and then the landscape from ,mussoorie looking towards the ,himalayan ranges to the north4 ,close by1 but lower down1 is ,dehra ,dun1 the headquarters of the ,gurkha ,rifles1 enlisted from ,nepal1 and also of the ,imperial ,cadet ,corps1 a small training force consisting wholly of the sons of ruling chiefs4 ,we shall hear of the ,gurkhas again in connection with the defences of ,india1 which will be the subject of the next and concluding lecture of this ,course4 -------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,lecture ,,viii4 --- ,,the ,,northwest ,,frontier4 --- ,,the ,,sikhs4 ,in the ,british ,empire there is but one land frontier on which warlike preparation must ever be ready4 ,it is the ,northwest ,frontier of ,india4 ,true that there is another boundary1 even longer1 drawn across the ,american ,continent1 but there1 fortunately1 only customs houses are necessary and an occasional police guard4 ,the ,northwest ,frontier of ,india1 on the other hand1 lies through a region whose inhabitants have been recruited throughout the ages by invading warlike races4 ,except for the ,gurkha mountaineers of ,nepal1 the best soldiers of the ,indian ,army are derived from the northwest1 from the ,rajputs1 the ,sikhs1 the ,punjabi ,musulmans1 the ,dogra mountaineers north of the ,punjab1 and the ,pathan mountaineers west of the ,punjab4 ,the provinces along the frontier1 and the ,afghan land immediately beyond it1 are the one region in all ,india from which1 under some ambitious lead1 the attempt might be made to establish a fresh imperial rule by the overthrow of the ,british ,raj4 ,it would not be the freedom of ,india which would ensue1 but an oriental despotism and race domination from the northwest4 ,such is the teaching of history1 and such the obvious fate of the less warlike peoples of ,india1 should the power of ,britain be broken either by warfare on the spot1 or by the defeat of our navy4 ,beyond the northwest frontier1 moreover1 at a greater or less distance are the continental ,powers of ,europe4 ,sidenote3 #a4 ,political ,map of ,northwest ,india4 ,the ,indian army and the ,indian strategical railways are therefore organized with special reference to the belt of territory1 extending from northeast to southwest1 which lies beyond the ,indian desert and is traversed from end to end by the ,indus ,river4 ,this frontier belt divides naturally into two parts4 ,inland we have the ,punjab1 where the rivers1 emerging from their mountain valleys1 gradually close together through the plain to form the single stream of the lower ,indus2 seaward we have ,sind1 where the ,indus divides into distributaries forming a delta4 ,sind1 as already stated1 is a part of the ,bombay ,province1 with which it is connected by sea from the ,port of ,karachi4 ,of late a railway has been constructed from ,ahmadabad in the main territory of ,bombay1 across the southern end of the ,desert1 to ,hyderabad at the head of the ,indus delta4 ,the ,punjab is a separate ,province with its own ,lieutenant-,governor resident at ,lahore4 ,it was conquered from the ,sikhs by a ,british army based on ,delhi1 and therefore ultimately on ,calcutta4 ,sidenote3 #b4 ,map of ,lower ,asia4 ,to understand the significance of the ,northwest ,frontier of ,india we must look far beyond the immediate boundaries of the ,empire4 ,we have here a map of ,lower ,asia4 ,upon it we see a broad tract of upland which1 commencing in ,asia ,minor1 extends through ,armenia and ,persia to include ,baluchistan and ,afghanistan4 ,there is thus one continuous belt of plateau stretching from ,europe to the boundary of ,india4 ,the eastern end of this belt1 that is to say1 ,persia1 ,afghanistan1 and ,baluchistan1 is known as ,iran4 ,on all sides save the northwest and the northeast1 the ,iranian plateau descends abruptly to lowlands or to the sea4 ,southward and southwestward lie the ,arabian ,sea and the ,persian ,gulf1 and the long lowland which is traversed by the rivers ,euphrates and ,tigris4 ,northward1 to the east of the ,caspian ,sea1 is the broad lowland of ,turkestan1 traversed by the ,rivers ,oxus and ,jaxartes1 draining into the ,sea of ,aral4 ,eastward is the plain of the ,indus4 ,the defence of ,india from invasion depends in the first place on the maintenance of ,british sea power in the ,persian ,gulf and along the south coast of ,baluchistan1 and in the second place on our refusal to allow the establishment of alien bases of power on the ,iranian plateau1 especially on those parts of it which lie towards the south and east4 ,sidenote3 #c4 ,map of the ,northwest ,frontier4 ,in the next map we have on a larger scale the detail of that part of ,iran which lies nearest to ,india4 ,here we see1 west of the ,punjab1 a great triangular mass of mountain ridges which splay out westward and southward from the northeast4 ,these ridges and the intervening valleys constitute ,afghanistan4 ,flowing from the ,afghan valleys we have on the one hand the ,kabul river1 which descends eastward to the ,indus1 and1 on the other hand1 the greater river ,helmund1 which flows southwestward into the depressed basin of ,seistan1 where it divides into many channels1 forming as it were an inland delta from which the waters are evaporated by the hot air1 for there is no opening to the sea4 ,the valley of the ,kabul river on the one hand1 and the oasis of ,seistan on the other1 might in the hands of an enemy become bases wherein to prepare the invasion of ,india4 ,therefore1 without annexing this intricate and difficult upland1 we have declared it to be the policy of ,britain to exclude from ,afghanistan and from ,seistan all foreign power4 ,further examination of the map will show that there are two lines1 and only two1 along which an invasion of ,india might be conducted4 ,on the one hand1 the mountains become very narrow just north of the head of the ,kabul ,river4 ,there in fact a single though lofty ridge1 the ,hindu ,kush1 is all that separates the basin of the ,oxus from that of the ,indus4 ,as we see from the map1 low ground is very near on the two sides of the ,hindu ,kush4 ,the way into ,india over the passes of the ,hindu ,kush is known as the ,khyber route1 from the name of the last defile by which the track descends into the ,indian ,plain4 ,if we now look some five hundred miles to the southwest of ,kabul1 we see that the ,afghan mountains come suddenly to an end1 and that a pathway leads round their fringe from ,herat to the ,indus ,basin1 passing along the border of ,seistan4 ,from ,herat to beyond ,kandahar1 this way lies over an upland plain and is easy1 but the last part of the journey is through a mountainous district down to the lowland of the ,indus4 ,this is the ,bolan route1 so called from the last gorge towards ,india4 ,it will be noticed that the ,bolan route debouches upon the ,indus opposite to the great ,indian ,desert4 ,therefore it is that the ,khyber route has been the more frequented4 ,it leads directly between the desert and the mountain foot1 upon the inner gateway of ,india at ,delhi4 ,we conquered the ,punjab from the ,sikhs1 but for many centuries it had been ruled by the ,musulmans4 ,in the break up of the ,mogul ,empire invaders had come1 during the eighteenth century1 from ,persia and from ,afghanistan1 who carried devastation even as far as ,delhi4 ,thus it was that with relative ease the ,sikhs as contemporaries of the ,marathas established a dominion in the helpless ,punjab4 ,they extended their rule also into the mountains of ,kashmir1 north of ,lahore4 ,let us commence our survey of the northwest at ,dehra ,dun1 which is placed in a mountain valley among the foot hills of the ,himalayas1 not far from the hill station of ,mussoorie1 of which we heard in the last lecture4 ,then from ,dehra ,dun we will travel two hundred miles northwestward1 crossing the ,beas1 one of the five rivers of the ,punjab1 to ,amritsar1 the holy city of the ,sikhs4 ,fifty miles west of ,amritsar1 on the ,ravi1 another of the ,indus tributaries1 is ,lahore1 the traditional capital of the ,punjab4 ,from ,lahore onward we traverse irrigated strips of fertile ground1 with sandy plains intervening1 with a scanty herbage for a few camels4 ,then follows a broken and more desolate country in the north of the ,punjab4 ,so we come to the ,indus itself1 and beyond this1 nearly three hundred miles from ,lahore1 to the military station of ,peshawar1 the last ,indian city on the great track leading northwestward from ,calcutta1 through ,allahabad and ,delhi4 ,not far from ,peshawar is the ,khyber ,pass4 ,the ,khyber is protected by its own hill tribes4 ,we have enlisted them on the side of law and order by enrolling them into military forces1 just as the ,scottish ,highlanders were enrolled in the ,british army in the #ahth century4 ,then leaving ,peshawar we will visit ,quetta1 some five hundred miles southwestward1 and see there the second great centre of ,british force on the ,frontier4 ,it has been established to command the ,bolan route to ,kandahar and ,herat4 ,the whole army in ,india is organised with reference to these two points1 ,peshawar and ,quetta1 or in other words1 the ,khyber and the ,bolan4 ,there are many other passes in the frontier mountains1 but they offer merely loopways from the two main routes4 ,sidenote3 #d4 #abth ,bengal ,infantry4 ,sidenote3 #e4 ,bombay ,mountain ,battery4 ,sidenote3 #f4 ,heavy ,battery in ,elephant ,draught4 ,the ,indian forces are now grouped into a ,northern and a ,southern army4 ,the ,northern army is distributed southeastward from ,peshawar past ,delhi and ,allahabad to ,calcutta1 so that all the forces along that long line may be regarded as supporting the brigades on the ,khyber front4 ,the ,southern army is similarly posted for the reinforcement of ,quetta4 ,it is distributed in the ,bombay ,presidency and immediately around4 ,the conditions of the defence of ,india have of course been vitally changed by the construction of the ,northwestern ,railway from the port of ,karachi through the ,indus basin1 with its two branches towards the ,bolan and the ,khyber4 ,to-day that defence could be conducted over the seas directly from ,britain through ,karachi1 so that the desert of ,rajputana would lie between the defending forces and the main community of ,india within4 ,sidenote3 #g4 #ahth ,p4 ,w4 ,tiwana ,horse4 ,sidenote3 #h4 ,gurkha ,rifles3 ,physical ,drill4 ,sidenote3 #i4 ,the ,same--,bayonet ,practice4 ,sidenote3 #aj4 #cbnd ,mountain ,battery1 ,advancing ,down ,hill4 ,sidenote3 #aa4 ,the ,same--,retiring ,up ,hill4 ,sidenote3 #ab4 ,battery in ,action4 ,as we start for ,dehra ,dun let us stop for a moment on the ridge at ,delhi to see a squadron of the #ahth ,prince of ,wales's ,tiwana ,horse1 recruited partly from among the ,sikhs and partly from the ,musulmans4 ,then at ,dehra ,dun we have the ,gurkha ,rifles4 ,we see them at physical drill and then at bayonet practice4 ,at the same place we visit a battery of ,mountain ,artillery1 for ,dehra ,dun is in the ,terai1 at the foot of the ,himalayas4 ,mountain batteries are much utilised in operations over the broken and hilly country towards the ,northwest ,frontier4 ,the men are ,punjabis2 and it will be noticed that the guns are carried by mules4 ,here we see the battery advancing down hill1 and here we see it retiring up hill4 ,then we have a mountain gun in action4 ,from ,dehra ,dun we proceed to ,amritsar1 the chief centre of the ,sikh religion1 which resulted from a reformation of ,hinduism in the middle of the fifteenth century4 ,it is therefore modern indeed as compared with the parent religion itself4 ,the ,sikhs abandoned idolatry1 and also distinctions of caste4 ,the word ,sikh means 8disciple40 ,in their origin a religious sect1 the ,sikhs developed into a powerful military commonwealth1 which rose to great position in the ,punjab and surrounding lands as the ,mogul strength decayed at ,delhi4 ,the ,sikhs only succumbed to the ,british after two wars1 fought in #ahdf and #ahdi1 which were among the severest in the whole history of ,british ,india4 ,yet they remained loyal during the ,mutiny4 ,sidenote3 #ac4 ,the ,causeway and the ,golden ,temple1 ,amritsar4 ,sidenote3 #ad4 ,the ,golden ,temple1 ,amritsar4 ,sidenote3 #ae4 ,the ,akal ,bungah1 ,amritsar4 ,the ,emperor ,akbar granted to the ,sikhs a site for their capital by the shore of a sacred tank1 and this capital1 ,amritsar1 has now grown to be a city of over #aej1jjj inhabitants1 the third most wealthy and populous of the ,punjab4 ,it is surpassed only by ,delhi and ,lahore1 and ,delhi has been included in the ,punjab only in recent times1 and for convenience of administration4 ,in this view we see the famous ,golden ,temple1 built in the centre of the sacred tank4 ,the bridge across the water leading to the entry is of marble4 ,the doors of the gateway are of silver without1 and on the inner side of wood inlaid with ivory4 ,the lower part of the walls of the temple itself are of white marble inlaid with jaspar and mother-of-pearl1 but the upper part is plated with gilded copper4 ,in the middle of the temple1 under a canopy1 is the ,grant ,sahib1 the sacred book of the ,sikhs1 covered with a cloth of gold4 ,here we have another view of the ,golden ,temple seen across the tank1 and behind it is the ,clock ,tower4 ,opposite the chief entry to the temple is a square surrounded by public buildings1 of which the most important is the ,akal ,bungah1 wherein are performed the ceremonies of initiation and investiture of the ,sikhs4 ,sidenote3 #af4 ,school of ,sikh and ,hindu ,children4 ,sidenote3 #ag4 ,street ,scene1 ,amritsar4 ,sidenote3 #ah4 ,street ,conjurer1 ,amritsar4 ,a few scenes follow showing phases of life at ,amritsar4 ,here we see a part of the tesselated pavement which surrounds the sacred tank1 and a school of ,hindu and ,sikh children4 ,next is a street scene showing the gateway leading to another sacred tank1 and here is a conjurer with a cobra entwined about his neck4 ,amritsar has to-day become an important manufacturing city4 ,from raw materials brought by the ,khyber route1 from the central ,asian markets1 are here manufactured shawls of the famous ,kashmir design1 and also fine silks1 embroideries1 carpets1 carvings1 and metal work of various kinds4 ,sidenote3 #ai4 ,lahore1 from roof of ,shish ,mahal4 ,sidenote3 #bj4 ,west ,gate1 ,jama ,masjid1 ,lahore4 ,let us now go on to ,lahore1 the ancient and the modern capital of the ,punjab4 ,here is a view taken from the roof of the ,shish ,mahal1 or ,palace of ,mirrors1 in the ,fort of ,lahore1 looking towards the southwest1 over the ,jama ,masjid1 towards the ,river ,ravi1 on whose left bank the city stands4 ,next is seen the fine west gate of the ,jama ,masjid1 a mosque built by the ,emperor ,aurangzeb1 which contains relics of ,muhammad4 ,sidenote3 #ba4 ,zamzamah1 ,lahore4 ,sidenote3 #bb4 ,sarai1 ,lahore4 ,sidenote3 #bc4 ,the ,same1 showing ,wazir ,khan's ,house4 ,sidenote3 #bd4 ,old ,houses1 ,lahore4 ,do you remember 8,kim0 in ,rudyard ,kipling's book8 ,we have in this view the ,zamzamah1 the old gun under the tree on which ,kim sat in the first chapter4 ,astride on its muzzle is an urchin1 just like what ,kim must have been4 ,here is the ,sarai1 a quadrangle about sixty yards square1 with round arched verandahs on all sides4 ,note the well in the centre4 ,next is the actual house where ,wazir ,khan1 ,kipling's ,mahbub ,ali1 used to sleep4 ,beyond may be seen horses brought for sale4 ,the ,sarai belongs to-day to the ,maharaja of ,kashmir1 who obtains a revenue from the fees paid by the horsedealers using it4 ,near by we have a busy street scene1 showing old houses belonging to ,hindu merchants4 ,sidenote3 #be4 ,the ,court of ,justice1 ,lahore4 ,sidenote3 #bf4 ,mayo ,school of ,art1 ,lahore4 ,sidenote3 #bg4 ,the same--,wood-working4 ,sidenote3 #bh4 ,the ,same--,metal-working4 ,sidenote3 #bi4 ,statuette of ,buddha4 ,at ,lahore there are a number of really handsome modern buildings4 ,we have in this view the ,court of ,justice1 situated in the chief street1 the ,mall4 ,next is the fine building of the ,lahore ,school of ,art1 showing students sketching out of doors1 and then a number of ,punjabis in the wood-working room of the school4 ,here is the metal-working department4 ,at the back of the room some senior students are finishing a large lamp in hammered brass-work1 which was afterwards exhibited in ,london4 ,the ,lahore ,museum1 a corner of which we saw just now in the view of the 8,kim0 gun1 is another fine building1 containing among other curiosities a statuette of ,buddha after his forty-nine days' fast1 excavated at ,sikri near ,peshawar4 ,this statuette1 some three feet high and two feet broad1 is one of the finest examples of ancient sculpture found in ,india4 ,it is carved with extreme delicacy and refinement1 and is supposed to date back to about the first century of the ,christian era4 ,sidenote3 #cj4 ,bridge of ,boats over the ,ravi1 near ,lahore4 ,sidenote3 #ca4 ,jehangir's tomb4 ,we will drive out from ,lahore to the west of the city on the high road to ,peshawar4 ,we pass the ,musulman cemetery and the ,hindu burning ground1 and then reach the banks of the ,ravi4 ,a bridge of boats crosses the river a little below the railway bridge4 ,here we turn aside from the ,peshawar road and reach ,shahdara1 where is the tomb of the ,emperor ,jehangir4 ,in this picture we have a close view of part of it1 showing the inlaid marble4 ,near by is the ruined tomb of ,jehangir's wife1 ,nur ,jehan4 ,it was probably never finished1 and has been neglected4 ,sidenote3 #cb4 ,edwardes ,gate1 ,peshawar4 ,sidenote3 #cc4 ,kissa ,kahani1 ,peshawar4 ,sidenote3 #cd4 ,police ,station1 ,peshawar4 ,sidenote3 #ce4 ,silk ,market1 ,peshawar4 ,sidenote3 #cf4 ,in the ,silk ,market1 ,peshawar4 ,from ,lahore we travel by the ,northwestern ,railway to ,peshawar1 a distance of nearly three hundred miles4 ,peshawar1 as we have already learned1 is the most important garrison city on the ,northwest ,frontier1 and the capital of the recently created ,northwest ,frontier ,province4 ,it has about a hundred thousand inhabitants1 chiefly ,musulmans4 ,here we see the ,edwardes ,gate1 with its fine pointed arch1 and passing through it we enter the ,kissa ,kahani1 the ,lombard ,street of ,peshawar4 ,the ,edwardes ,gate may be seen from within at the end of the street4 ,here is the ,kotwali1 or ,police ,station1 and just within the gateway of the ,kotwali is the ,silk ,market4 ,peshawar is a most important commercial centre on the great road from ,samarkand and ,bokhara in ,central ,asia1 through ,kabul and the ,khyber1 to ,lahore and ,delhi4 ,in the bazaar we find representatives of many ,asiatic races4 ,here we see skeins of ,chinese silk1 red and white and yellow1 hung out in the sun to dry after being dyed4 ,near by are the stalls of bankers and money-changers1 which are sometimes raided by the wild tribesmen visiting ,peshawar from the neighbourhood of the ,khyber ,pass4 ,sidenote3 #cg4 ,ghor ,khatri1 ,peshawar4 ,sidenote3 #ch4 ,peshawar from the ,ghor ,khatri1 looking north4 ,sidenote3 #ci4 ,the ,same1 looking west4 ,in the northeastern corner of ,peshawar is the famous ,ghor ,khatri1 which stands on a piece of rising ground commanding a fine view over the whole city4 ,here is a part of the building1 with a bullock cart in front4 ,the ,ghor ,khatri was successively a ,buddhist ,monastery and a ,hindu temple1 and is now used as municipal offices and as the official residence of the agents of the ,ameer of ,afghanistan when they visit ,peshawar4 ,we climb to the roof and look upon the city beneath4 ,a second view is in the direction of ,jamrud and the ,khyber4 ,sidenote3 #dj4 ,gymnastic ,class1 ,government ,high ,school1 ,peshawar4 ,sidenote3 #da4 ,lowest ,class1 same ,school4 ,here in ,peshawar1 on the very border of ,british rule1 it is interesting to see the progress of western education4 ,this is the ,government ,high ,school4 ,a class is in the playground under gymnastic instruction4 ,the boys are mostly ,musulmans1 though a few ,hindus may be distinguished by their caps in the place of turbans4 ,this is the lowest class of the school1 and is being taught reading and writing by a native master4 ,notice that the boys' shoes have been taken off4 ,sidenote3 #db4 ,jamrud4 ,sidenote3 #dc4 ,khyber ,rifles drilling4 ,sidenote3 #dd4 ,khyber ,rifles marching4 ,sidenote3 #de4 ,zakka ,khel ,afridis4 ,sidenote3 #df4 ,the ,sarai1 ,jamrud4 ,sidenote3 #dg4 ,caravan1 near ,jamrud4 ,sidenote3 #dh4 ,ali ,masjid4 ,sidenote3 #di4 ,ali ,masjid1 nearer view4 ,sidenote3 #ej4 ,a ,subadar1 #eith ,sind ,rifles4 ,jamrud1 at the immediate entrance to the ,khyber1 lies some nine miles west of ,peshawar4 ,here is a distant view of it from the ,peshawar road4 ,to the right can just be seen the ,fort1 and to the left ,jamrud ,village4 ,next we see a company of the ,khyber ,rifles1 photographed at ,jamrud1 and here the same company marching4 ,by way of striking contrast1 are a group of the ,zakka ,khel ,afridis in their native dress4 ,they are the raw material from which the ,khyber ,riflemen are made4 ,typical wild tribesmen of the hills1 they have been enlisted in the ,british ,army to keep them out of mischief1 and also to assist in repelling raids by their fellow-tribesmen1 who continue to dwell amid the hill fastnesses of the region4 ,the ,afridis1 of whom the ,zakka ,khel is a clan1 seem perfectly well content1 provided that there is fighting1 which they love for its own sake4 ,here we see the ,sarai at ,jamrud1 where all caravans going into ,india or returning to ,central ,asia halt for the night4 ,the men in this picture are mostly ,kabulis1 with long-haired ,bactrian camels from ,central ,asia1 stronger and finer than the ,indian species4 ,these camels are laden with tea1 sugar1 and general supplies4 ,outside ,jamrud we see a caravan of ,indian camels taking stores back to ,peshawar after operations in the ,khyber against the hill tribes4 ,beyond ,jamrud the road enters the ,khyber1 with the sweeping curve seen in this view4 ,the ,fort of ,ali ,masjid1 nearly three thousand feet above sea level1 crowns a steeply sloping hill on the crest of the path between ,jamrud and ,landi ,kotal1 where begins the descent into ,afghanistan4 ,here is a nearer view1 with the tents of an expeditionary force at the foot of the ,fort4 ,it shows the continuation of the way in the direction of ,landi ,kotal4 ,notice how steep are the cliffs and how narrow the ,pass at this point4 ,beneath the ,fort1 in the face of the hill1 are seen caves in which dwell during the winter months the wild clan known as the ,kuchi ,khel4 ,finally1 we have a portrait1 painted in the camp at ,ali ,masjid1 of ,nasar ,khan1 a ,subadar1 or native officer1 of the #eith ,sind ,rifles4 ,we now leave the ,khyber region and1 following the ,indus for some six hundred miles1 we travel southward through a land which was not very long ago a desert4 ,to-day1 as the result of a great investment of ,british capital1 irrigation works have changed the whole aspect of the country4 ,the provinces of the ,punjab and ,sind have hitherto been regarded as significant chiefly in relation to the defence of the ,northwest ,frontier of ,india4 ,they have now no less importance when considered in their economic development4 ,the plain of the ,indus has become one of the chief wheatfields of the ,british ,empire1 for wheat is the principal crop in the ,punjab1 in parts of ,sind1 and outside the basin of the ,indus itself1 in the districts of the ,united ,provinces which lie about ,agra4 ,the wheat production of ,india on an average of years is five times as great as that of the ,united ,kingdom1 and about half as great as that of the ,united ,states4 ,in one recent year at least1 the export of wheat from ,india to the ,united ,kingdom has exceeded that from the ,united ,states to the ,united ,kingdom4 ,the brown waste of the plains of the ,punjab becomes after the winter rains a waving sea of green wheat extending over thousands of square miles4 ,cultivation now spreads far beyond the area within which the rainfall alone suffices4 ,the lower ,punjab and the central strip of ,sind have been converted into a second ,egypt4 ,though the navigation of the ,indus is naturally inferior to that of the ,ganges1 yet communication has been maintained by boat from the ,punjab to the sea from ,greek times downward4 ,the ,indus flotilla of steamboats has1 however1 suffered fatally from the competition of the ,northwestern ,railway1 and the wheat exported from ,karachi is now almost wholly rail-borne4 ,sidenote3 #ea4 ,the ,lansdowne ,bridge4 ,sidenote3 #eb4 ,the ,same4 ,sidenote3 #ec4 ,khwaja ,khizir ,island4 ,running southward through the fertile strip1 not very far from the left or western bank of the river1 the railway leaves the ,punjab and enters ,sind4 ,at ,rohri1 one of the hottest places in all ,india in the summer time1 a line branches northwestward to ,quetta and ,chaman1 on the frontier of ,afghanistan4 ,sukkur stands opposite to ,rohri on the right bank of the river1 and the ,lansdowne ,railway ,bridge between these two towns is perhaps the most remarkable bridge in ,india4 ,it was built between #ahhg and #ahhi1 and about three thousand tons of steel and iron were employed in its construction4 ,it is eight hundred and forty feet in length1 with two magnificent spans4 ,we see in this slide a view of the ,rohri end of it1 taken from ,suttian1 an old nunnery founded for women who preferred seclusion rather than the funeral pyre4 ,the ,hindu custom was to burn the wife or wives with the husband's body1 until the ,british ,government intervened to prevent the practice4 ,one end of the town of ,rohri1 with its tall grey wattle and daub buildings1 can be seen under the bridge4 ,a train is upon the bridge1 and in front are some ,pala fishers1 sailing on metal chatties into which they put the fish as they catch them4 ,this is another view of the bridge seen from ,rohri itself4 ,we are here in the very heart of the rainless region4 ,during twelve years there have only been six showers at ,rohri6 ,a great engineering scheme is now under consideration for damming the ,indus near this point so as to raise the level of the water in the upper reaches of the river4 ,in this manner the irrigation canals would be fed not only in time of flood1 as at present1 but in the dry season as well4 ,near ,rohri1 in the middle of the ,indus channel1 is ,khwaja ,khizir ,island1 on which stands an ancient ,hindu temple4 ,in the foreground of the picture near the water's edge are ,sindi boatmen mending their sails4 ,from ,sukkur1 passing through ,shikarpur and ,jacobabad1 the railway traverses the desert to the foot of the hills1 and then ascends to ,quetta either by the ,mashkaf--the actual line of the ,bolan having been abandoned--or by a longer loop line1 the ,harnai1 which runs to the ,peshin valley4 ,the latter is the usual way4 ,by the ,mashkaf route the line is carried over a boulder-strewn plain about half a mile broad in the bottom of a gorge with steeply rising heights on either side4 ,here and there the strip of lower ground is trenched and split by deep canyons4 ,at first the line follows the ,mashkaf river1 and the gradients are not very severe1 but once ,hirok1 at the source of the ,bolan river is passed1 a gradient of one in twenty-five begins1 and two powerful engines are required to drag the train up4 ,the steep bounding ridges now close in on either side with cliffs rising almost perpendicularly to several hundred feet4 ,occasional block-houses high up amid the crags defend the ,pass4 ,sidenote3 #ed4 ,the ,chappar ,rift4 ,sidenote3 #ee4 ,the ,same4 ,the gradients of the ,harnai route are not quite so steep as those of the ,mashkaf4 ,should either way be blocked or carried away by landslips or floods the other would be available4 ,the ,harnai line passes through the ,chappar ,rift1 a precipitous gorge in a great mass of limestone4 ,in this view we are approaching the ,rift from ,mangi1 and then we have a view looking back from the middle of the ,rift4 ,as will be seen1 the railway runs across high bridges and through tunnels in the mountain masses4 ,sidenote3 #ef4 ,native ,bazaar1 ,quetta4 ,quetta occupies a very important strategical position1 about a mile above sea level1 in the midst of a small plain surrounded by great mountain ridges rising to a height of two miles and more4 ,irrigation works have been constructed in the ,quetta plain1 which is now an oasis among desert mountains1 and has a population of some thirty thousand1 including many ,afghans4 ,the ,agent ,general for ,british ,baluchistan resides there4 ,the town1 with its outposts1 is of course very strongly fortified1 commanding as it does the railways leading southeastward to the ,indus1 and the ,khojak ,pass leading northwestward to ,chaman and ,kandahar4 ,here we have a scene in the native bazaar1 with ,hindus performing a festival dance4 ,sidenote3 #eg4 ,street in ,chaman4 ,from ,quetta the railway is carried northwestward1 through the ,khojak tunnel1 for another hundred and twenty miles to ,chaman on the frontier1 where is a ,british outpost4 ,here is a street in ,chaman1 with two old ,pathans4 ,chaman is at present the terminus of the railway4 ,the material is1 however1 kept ready for its continuation1 in case of need1 to ,kandahar1 in ,afghanistan1 seventy miles further4 ,from ,kandahar through ,herat to the rail-head of the ,russian ,trans-,caspian ,railway is some four hundred miles4 ,by this route1 did circumstances allow1 a connection might be made1 giving through railway communication between ,europe and ,india4 ,sidenote3 #eh4 ,the ,proclamation of the ,queen-,empress at the ,delhi ,durbar1 #ast ,jan41 #ahgg4 ,at this last outpost of ,british ,power we complete our journey through the great ,indian ,empire4 ,it was with no intention of ,empire that a few ,london merchants formed themselves into an ,east ,india ,company in the days of ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,it was with no great force of white soldiers that the conquest was in after centuries effected1 but by the organisation of ,indian strength in a time of disorder1 due to the downfall of the ,mogul ,empire at ,delhi4 ,province was added to province under the ,british ,raj of no set design and ambition1 but for defensive reasons under the threat of ,french or ,maratha or ,sikh rivalry4 ,in the great ,mutiny the system of power and administration1 thus upbuilt almost casually1 was tested1 and it survived the test1 but with a fundamental change4 ,the ,east ,india ,company was dissolved1 and the ,british ,government made itself directly responsible for peace and order in the ,indian ,continent4 ,the proclamation by which ,queen ,victoria assumed the rule of ,india solemnly promised that in the administration of the country due regard should be paid to the ancient rights1 usages1 and customs of ,india4 ,the change which was made in #aheh1 after the ,mutiny1 was completed in #ahgg1 when at a great durbar of the princes of ,india1 held at ,delhi1 ,queen ,victoria was proclaimed ,empress of ,india4 ,sidenote3 #ei4 ,the ,same4 ,the ,british ,raj in ,india is an organisation unparalleled in history1 for the ,roman ,empire consisted of provinces grouped round the ,imperial ,city1 but ,britain is a quarter of the globe removed from ,india4 ,our power ultimately rests on our command of the seas and on the justice of our administration4 ,when either of these fail1 the ,british position in ,india will crumble4 ,within our duty of justice is included the generous but firmly-directed readjustment of the methods of ,indian government1 so as to adapt them to the now changing conditions of oriental society4 ,sidenote3 #fj4 ,the ,same4 ,the responsibility for ,india is1 indeed1 a great one4 ,it is idle to ask whether our forefathers should have assumed it4 ,we could not withdraw now without throwing ,india into disorder1 and causing untold suffering among three hundred million of our fellow human beings4 ,yet the administration of such an ,empire calls for virtues in our race certainly not less than those needed for our own self-government4 ,above all1 we require knowledge of ,india1 and sympathy with the points of view begotten of oriental history4 --------------------- ,,list ,,of ,,viceroys ,,of ,,india ,,since ,,the ,,transfer ,,of ,,the ,,administration ,,from ,,the ,,east ,,india ,,company ,,to ,,the ,,crown ,,in #aheh4 ,,viscount ,,canning1 to #ahfb ,march1 ,,earl ,,of ,,elgin1 #ahfb-c ,,sir ,,john ,,lawrence1 #ahfd-i ,,earl ,,of ,,mayo1 #ahfi-gb ,,lord ,,northbrook1 #ahgb-f ,,lord ,,lytton1 #ahgf-hj ,,marquess ,,of ,,ripon1 #ahhj-hd ,,earl ,,of ,,dufferin1 #ahhd-hh ,,marquess ,,of ,,lansdowne1 #ahhh-id ,,earl ,,of ,,elgin1 #ahid-ii ,,lord ,,curzon ,,of ,,kedleston1 #ahii-aije ,,earl ,,of ,,minto1 #aije-aiaj ,,lord ,,hardinge1 #aiaj --------------------- ,,note 7,i74--,many of the artistic and other objects mentioned in the preceding pages can be better appreciated after a visit to the ,indian ,museum at ,south ,kensington4 ,,note 7,,ii74--,the thanks of the ,committee are due for a few of the slides to ,colonel ,frederick ,firebrace1 ,r4,e41 ,managing ,director of the ,great ,indian ,peninsula ,railway ,company1 and to ,mr4 ,a4 ,l4 ,hetherington1 of the ,board of ,education4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,additional line spacing has been added before paragraphs with side notes to make more room for the them4 ,missing or obscured punctuation was silently corrected4 ,typographical errors were silently corrected4 ,inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only when a predominant form was found in this book4 ,text that was in italics is enclosed by underscores 7italics72 text that was bold by 8equal0 signs 7bold74