,,the ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,pearl ,illustration3 ,,the ,,czarina ,,of ,,russia ,illustration ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,pearl ,,the ,,history1 ,,art1 ,,science1 ,,and ,,industry ,,of ,,the ,,queen ,,of ,,gems ,,by ,,george ,,frederick ,,kunz1 ,a4,m41 ,ph4,d4 ,,and ,,charles ,,hugh ,,stevenson1 ,,ll4,m41 ,d4,c4,l4 ,orient pearls fit for a queen ,will ,i give thy love to win1 ,and a shell to keep them in4 --,the ,faithful ,shepherdess 7#afaa7 ,illustration ,,new ,,york ,,the ,,century ,,co4 #aijh ,copyright1 #aijh1 by ,,the ,,century ,,co4 ,published ,october1 #aijh ,,the ,,de ,,vinne ,,press ,,to ,,margaret1 ,,the ,,pearl ,,as ,a ,,slight ,,mark ,,of ,,appreciation ,,by ,,the ,,authors ,,of ,,her ,,father',s ,,generous ,,encouragement ,,of ,,science1 ,,art1 ,,engineering1 ,,technology1 ,,and ,,literature ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,,introduction xv ,i ,,pearls ,,among ,,the ,,ancients #c ,,ii ,,medieval ,,and ,,modern ,,history ,,of ,,pearls #ae ,,iii ,,origin ,,of ,,pearls #ce ,,iv ,,structure ,,and ,,forms ,,of ,,pearls #ea ,v ,,sources ,,of ,,pearls #fe ,,vi ,,the ,,pearl ,,fisheries ,,of ,,the ,,persian ,,gulf #he ,,vii ,,east ,,african ,,pearl ,,fisheries #aec ,,viii ,,pearl ,,fisheries ,,of ,,the ,,british ,,isles #aei ,,ix ,,pearl ,,fisheries ,,of ,,the ,,south ,,sea ,,islands #ahi ,x ,,pearl ,,fisheries ,,of ,,venezuela #bbe ,,xi ,,pearl-,,culture ,,and ,,pearl-,,farming #bhe ,,xii ,,mystical ,,and ,,medicinal ,,properties ,,of ,,pearls #cja ,,xiii ,,values ,,and ,,commerce ,,of ,,pearls #cai ,,xiv ,,treatment ,,and ,,care ,,of ,,pearls #cge ,,xv ,,pearls ,,as ,,used ,,in ,,ornaments ,,and ,,decoration #djc ,,xvi ,,famous ,,pearls ,,and ,,collections #ddi ,,xvii ,,the ,,aboriginal ,,use ,,of ,,pearls1 ,,and ,,their ,,discovery ,,in #dhe ,,mounds ,,and ,,graves ,,bibliography #eag ,,index #eda ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,the ,czarina of ,russia ,frontispiece ,,facing ,,page ,ancient ,chinese crown with pearls4 ,ancient ,chinese pearl rosary4 ,chinese priests keeping guard over the tombs of the kings1 in ,mukden1 where the crowns are preserved #d ,grecian pearl and gold necklace #h ,front cover of ,ashburnham manuscript of the ,four ,gospels #af ,francis ,i1 ,king of ,france1 #adid-aedg4 ,isabelle de ,valois #ai 7,from photographs by ,a4 ,giraudon7 ,maria ,theresa 7#agag-aghj71 ,queen of ,hungary #bd ,facsimile of title-page of decrees of ,venetian ,senate regulating the wearing of pearls #bg ,lady ,abinger4 ,mrs4 ,adair4 ,baroness de ,forest4 ,hon4 ,mrs4 ,renard ,grville4 ,marchioness of ,lansdowne4 ,lady ,londonderry4 ,lady ,wimborne #cj 7,from photographs1 copyright by ,lafayette1 ,ltd41 ,london7 ,venezuela shell4 ,panama shell #cf ,shells from ,venezuela with attached pearls4 ,exterior view of same4 ,x-ray photograph of shell1 printed through exterior of shell and showing encysted pearls #ci ,mexican pearl-oyster with adherent pearl4 ,group of encysted pearls in shell of ,australian pearl-oyster4 ,mexican pearl-oyster with encysted fish4 ,group of encysted pearls 7oriental74 ,reverse of same group1 showing outline of the individual pearls #db ,cross section of an irregular pearl1 magnified #hj diameters4 ,cross sections of pearls1 magnified #cj diameters4 ,thin section of mother-of-pearl1 magnified1 showing sponge borings which traversed the pearl shell4 ,structure of conch pearl produced by fracturing1 magnified #hj diameters #ec ,pearls from common clam of eastern coast of ,america4 ,pearl 8nuggets0 from the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,wing pearls from the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,dog-tooth pearls from the ,mississippi ,valley #ee ,actual sizes of pearls from grain to #afj grains #eg ,brooches made of petal1 dog-tooth1 and wing pearls #eh ,gray pearls in the possession of an ,american lady and brooch from ,tiffany ,co4's exhibit1 ,paris ,exposition1 #aijj #fj ,shell of pearl-oyster with attached pearl #fh ,pinna or wing shell4 ,pearl-oyster of ,ceylon #gb ,shell and pearls of the common conch #gf ,cargo boat in pearl fishery of the ,persian ,gulf4 ,huts of mats and palm leaves1 the homes of the pearl fishermen at ,menamah1 ,bahrein ,islands1 ,persian ,gulf #hg ,agha ,mohammed 7#afff-agbe74 ,shah ,sulaiman 7#afdg-afid7 #hh ,arab pearl-divers at work in the ,persian ,gulf #ij ,his ,imperial ,majesty1 ,mohammed ,ali1 ,shah of ,persia #id ,the 8,prince of ,pearls02 the late ,rana of ,dholpur in his pearl regalia #aja ,the late ,maharajah of ,patiala #ajh ,facsimiles of notices of pearl-fishing at ,marichchikadde1 in ,english and ,cingalese #aaj-aaa ,unloading oysters from the vessels into the kottus at ,marichchikadde1 ,ceylon4 ,the pearling fleet on the shore at ,marichchikadde1 ,ceylon4 ,hindu workmen preparing to drill pearls1 ,marichchikadde1 ,ceylon #aae ,indian pearl merchants ready for business4 ,children of ,persian pearl dealers #abj ,street scene in ,marichchikadde1 the pearling camp of ,ceylon4 ,return of the fleet from the pearl reefs to ,marichchikadde1 ,ceylon #abf ,pearls presented by the ,imam of ,muscat to ,president ,van ,buren #aca ,necklace and earrings from the treasury of the ,emir of ,bohkara #acf ,carved 8,jerusalem ,shell0 from the ,red ,sea #adb ,cap of ,state1 from looting of summer palace1 ,pekin1 in #ahfj #ade ,fishing for the awabi 7abalone7 shells at ,wada-no-hara1 ,japan #adh 7,from 8,the ,burlington ,art ,magazine07 ,old print showing four methods of catching pearl-bearing mollusks #afj ,madame ,norischkine ne ,straudman4 ,duchesse ,elizabeth 7,constantin74 7,from a photograph by ,ch4 ,bergamasco1 ,st4 ,petersburg7 7,from a photograph by ,a4 ,pasetti1 ,st4 ,petersburg7 ,daughter of ,general ,sobelieff1 first ,countess ,beauharnais #afc ,scotch pearl rivers #afg ,great ,cameo ,pearl #agj ,dowager ,czarina of ,russia4 ,grand ,duchess ,vladimir4 7,from a photograph by ,ch4 ,bergamasco1 ,st4 ,petersburg7 ,grand ,duchess ,marie ,pavlovna #agd ,miter of ,patriarch ,nikon #agf ,panagia or ornament worn on the breast of a bishop in ,russia #ahj ,russian ,boyard ladies of the seventeenth century1 showing caps and other ornaments of pearls #ahd ,pearl-divers of the ,tuamotu ,archipelago4 ,settlement of pearl fishermen at ,hiqueru1 ,tuamotu ,archipelago #aig ,pearling boats at ,hiqueru1 ,tuamotu ,archipelago4 ,australian pearl-diver 7armored7 coming up from the depths #bjd ,opening pearl-oysters and searching for pearls1 off the coast of ,australia4 ,grading1 weighing1 and packing mother-of-pearl1 off the coast of ,australia #bac ,moro boats1 used among the pearl islands of the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,raft used for pearl-fishing in the ,malay ,archipelago #baf ,pearling village1 with youthful fishermen1 ,sulu ,islands4 ,japanese diver in ,dutch ,east ,indies1 come up to 8blow0 for a few minutes #bbj ,gray pearls from ,lower ,california1 and diamonds #bbh ,clara ,eugenia1 daughter of ,philip ,,ii #bcg ,the ,adams gold vase #bdh ,negro pearling camp1 on bank of an ,arkansas river4 ,group of ,arkansas pearl fishermen #bed ,brooch1 ,renaissance style1 set with baroque pearls1 from ,american streams #bei ,brooches and rings of fresh-water pearls from ,wisconsin and ,tennessee #bfb ,pearl-bearing unios #bff ,pearling scene on ,white ,river1 ,arkansas4 ,pearling camp on upper ,mississippi ,river #bgj ,the evolution of buttons1 made from ,mississippi shells #bge ,necklace of fresh-water pearls #bgf ,shell of pearl-bearing abalone #bhj ,shell of ,dipsas plicatus1 with attached metal figures of ,buddha coated with nacre4 ,shell of ,dipsas plicatus1 with attached porcelain beads coated with nacre #bhf ,artificial rearing-ponds for the development of pearl-oysters on the ,island of ,espirit ,santo1 ,gulf of ,california4 ,trays containing small pearl-oysters prepared for placing at the bottom of artificial rearing-ponds #bia ,japanese legend of the dragon and the pearl1 idealized in ,jade #cjb ,russian eikon of the ,madonna #cab ,pectoral cross of ,constantine ,,ix1 ,monomachus 7#ajjj-ajed ,a4,d47 #cba ,great pearl necklace of the ,french crown jewels #ccb ,the ,siamese ,prince in full regalia #ccf ,half-pearls3 lots of three different sizes4 ,brooch of half-pearls and onyx1 ,united ,states1 #ahfj #cdc ,pearl nose rings1 ,baroda1 ,india4 ,east ,indian earring of strings of pearls and table diamonds4 ,grape pendants4 ,oriental pearls #cde ,necklace containing #abf1jjj seed-pearls1 ,louis ,,xvi period #cdf ,seed-pearls and gold2 ,chinese ornaments of the nineteenth century4 ,complete set of seed-pearl jewelry in original case #ceg ,persian princess and ladies in waiting #cfd ,facsimiles of the title-page and last leaf of an enactment abolishing duty on pearls1 ,english ,parliament1 #agcb #cfh ,pearl drilling #cgf ,pearl stringing #chc ,necklace of seed-pearls1 ,united ,states1 ,civil ,war period #chi ,mother-of-pearl shell from ,tahiti #cij ,ladies' sewing case and scissors inlaid with half-pearls2 watches incrusted with half-pearls2 snuff-box1 ivory inlaid with fresh-water pearls2 miniature surrounded by half-pearls #cie ,evolution of a seed-pearl brooch4 ,seed-pearls1 ,indian strings4 ,white horsehair for stringing #cif ,facsimile of letter of ,m4 ,gaston ,mogeaud1 ,director of the ,louvre #cih ,madame ,thiers's pearl necklace1 bequeathed to the ,louvre ,museum1 ,paris #cih 7,from a photograph by ,a4 ,giraudon7 ,antique ornaments of pearls #djd ,tyszkiewizc bronze statuette of ,aphrodite #djg ,pearl earrings from ,herculaneum and ,pompeii #djh ,antique pearl ornaments #daj ,east ,indian necklace of pearls1 table diamonds1 glass beads1 gold and enamel #dac ,crown of ,reccesvinthus and other ,gothic crowns of the seventh century #daf 7,from a photograph by ,a4 ,giraudon7 ,her ,majesty1 ,queen ,alexandra of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 ,empress of ,india #dah 7,from a photograph by ,w4 ,d4 ,downey1 ,london7 ,crown of ,st4 ,edward #dbd 7,from 8,the ,english ,regalia10 published by ,kegan ,paul1 ,trench1 ,trbner ,company1 ,ltd41 ,london7 ,the ,empress ,dowager of ,china #dca ,pearl ornaments of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries #dcd ,margherita1 ,dowager ,queen of ,italy #dci ,collection of black pearls belonging to an ,american lady #ddj ,seora ,carmen ,romero ,rubio de ,diaz1 wife of ,president ,porfirio ,diaz of ,mexico #ddb 7,from a photograph by ,valleto ,co41 ,mexico7 ,jade jar inlaid with pearls set with fine gold4 ,japanese decoration set with pearls #ddd ,gaikwar of ,baroda1 #aijh #dej ,mary1 ,queen of ,scots #dec 7,from 8,portraits and ,jewels of ,mary ,stuart10 published by ,james ,mac,lehose and ,sons1 ,glasgow7 ,queen ,elizabeth of ,england4 ,elizabeth of ,france #def ,pearl carpet or shawl of the ,gaikwar of ,baroda #dfj ,the ,hope pearl4 ,weighs #ahjj grains #dfc ,her ,grace1 the ,duchess of ,marlborough #dfe 7,from a photograph by ,lafayette1 ,ltd41 ,london7 ,the ,madame ,nordica collection of colored pearls #dfh ,grand pearl diadem of the ,french crown jewels #dga ,the ,imperial ,austrian crown #dgb ,the ,great ,svign of the ,french crown jewels #dgd ,madame ,nordica #dgf ,mrs4 ,george ,j4 ,gould #dhj ,fresh-water pearls from ,hopewell group of mounds1 ,ross ,county1 ,ohio #dii ,fresh-water pearls from ,hopewell group of mounds1 ,ross ,county1 ,ohio #eaj ,,maps ,,page ,the pearling regions in ,ceylon and ,british ,india #abi ,persian ,gulf and the ,red ,sea1 the pearling center of the world #adj ,the pearling regions in ,oceania and ,malaysia #aia ,venezuela and ,panama1 the principal pearling regions of ,south ,america #bbg ,gulf of ,california and the pearling territory of western ,mexico #bdc ,,introduction ,the preparation of this book has been a joint labor during the spare moments of the two authors1 whose time has been occupied with subjects to which pearls are not wholly foreign--one as a gem expert1 and the other in the fisheries branch of the ,american government4 ,but for the views and expressions contained herein1 they alone are personally responsible1 and do not represent or speak for any interest whatever4 ,for many years the writers have collected data on the subject of pearls1 and have accumulated all the obtainable literature1 not only the easily procurable books1 but likewise manuscripts1 copies of rare volumes1 original edicts1 and legislative enactments1 thousands of newspaper clippings1 and interesting illustrations1 many of them unique1 making probably the largest single collection of data in existence on this particular subject4 ,it was deemed advisable to present the results of these studies and observations in one harmonious volume1 rather than in two different publications4 ,this publication is not a pioneer in an untrodden field4 ,as may be seen from the appended bibliography1 during the last two thousand years hundreds of persons have discussed pearls--mystically1 historically1 poetically1 and learnedly4 ,among the older writers who stand out with special prominence in their respective periods are the encyclopedist ,pliny1 in the first century ,a4,d42 ,oviedo and ,peter ,martyr of the sixteenth century2 the physician ,anselmus ,de ,boot1 and that observant traveler and prince of jewelers1 ,tavernier1 in the seventeenth century4 ,it would be difficult to do justice to the many writers of the nineteenth century and of the present time2 but probably most attention has been attracted by the writings of ,hessling and ,mbius of ,germany2 ,kelaart1 ,streeter1 ,herdman1 and ,hornell of ,great ,britain2 ,filippi of ,italy1 and ,seurat and ,dubois of ,france4 ,while the book is a joint work in the sense that each writer has contributed material to all of the chapters and has critically examined and approved the entire work1 the senior author has more closely applied himself to the latter half of the text1 covering antiquity values1 commerce1 wearing manipulation1 treatment1 famous collections1 aboriginal use1 and the illustrations1 while the junior author has attended to the earlier half of the book1 with reference to history1 origin1 sources1 fisheries1 culture1 mystical properties1 and the literature of the pearl4 ,the senior author has had exceptionally favorable opportunities to examine the precious objects contained in the various imperial and royal treasuries4 ,through the courtesy of the late ,count ,sipuigine1 ,court ,chamberlain1 and of the late ,general ,philamanoff1 custodian of the ,ourejena ,palata1 he was permitted to critically examine the ,russian crown jewels in the ,summer ,palace on the ,neva1 and in the ,palata in the ,kremlin1 at ,moscow1 he examined the crowns and jewels of all the early czars4 ,through the courtesy of ,baron von ,theile1 he was permitted to inspect carefully and in detail the wonderful jewels of the ,austrian crown1 which are beautifully ordered and arranged4 ,the ,english and ,saxon crown jewels were also seen under favorable conditions which permitted detailed examination1 and the jewel collections of almost all the principal museums of ,europe and ,america were carefully studied4 ,as regards the literature of the subject1 the senior author has gathered together the largest known existing collection of works treating of pearls and precious stones4 ,in covering so comprehensive a subject1 many obligations have been incurred from individuals and officials1 to whose courtesy and assistance is due much of the interest of this work4 ,to list all of these is impossible1 yet it would be ungrateful not to note the following3 her ,majesty ,queen ,margherita of ,italy2 his ,royal ,highness the ,gaikwar of ,baroda2 to ,h4 ,r4 ,h4 le ,prince ,ruprecht of ,bavaria1 of ,munich2 to the late ,prince ,sipuigine1 then chamberlain of the ,russian ,imperial ,appanages2 to ,sir ,edward ,robert ,pearce ,edgcumbe for data relative to fisheries of ,east ,africa2 ,dr4 ,h4 ,c4 ,bumpus1 director of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,new ,york1 for many courtesies in regard to materials and illustrations2 ,sir ,caspar ,purdon ,clarke1 director1 ,dr4 ,edward ,robinson1 assistant director1 ,j4 ,h4 ,buck1 curator of ,metal-work1 and ,a4 ,g4 ,st4 ,m4 ,d',hervilly1 assistant curator of ,paintings1 all of the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art1 for numerous courtesies2 ,archer ,m4 ,huntington1 founder of the ,hispanic ,society and ,museum in ,new ,york ,city2 ,dr4 ,bashford ,dean1 ,prof4 ,friedrich ,hirth1 ,chinese professor1 ,dr4 ,berthold ,laufer1 ,prof4 ,a4 ,v4 ,williams ,jackson1 professor of ,indo-,iranian languages1 and ,prof4 ,m4 ,h4 ,saville1 all of ,columbia ,university1 ,new ,york ,city2 ,j4 ,pierpont ,morgan1 for the right to publish the illustration of ,ashburnham missal2 ,dr4 ,w4 ,hayes ,ward1 ,assyriologist2 ,dr4 ,charles ,s4 ,braddock1 formerly ,chief of ,medical ,inspection for the ,king of ,siam2 ,robert ,hoe1 for the two plates of unique ,persian illustrations from his manuscripts2 ,edmund ,russell1 for ,east ,indian material2 ,f4 ,cunliffe-,owen1 the author of diplomatic subjects2 ,ten ,broeck ,morse2 ,walter ,joslyn2 ,stansbury ,hagar2 ,henri de ,morgan1 explorer2 ,dr4 ,nathaniel ,l4 ,britton1 director ,new ,york ,botanical ,garden1 ,j4 ,h4 ,lawles1 and ,ludwig ,stross1 for many courtesies2 ,miss ,m4 de ,barril and ,miss ,belle da ,costa ,greene1 all of ,new ,york2 ,dr4 ,stewart ,w4 ,culin1 of the ,brooklyn ,institute of ,arts and ,sciences2 the ,contessa ,casa ,cortez1 for ,peruvian information1 of ,brooklyn2 ,dr4 ,charles ,b4 ,davenport1 of the ,carnegie ,institution ,laboratory1 ,cold ,spring ,harbor2 ,arthur ,c4 ,parker1 archologist1 ,state ,museum1 ,albany1 ,n4 ,y42 ,a4 ,s4 ,clark1 antiquarian1 ,peekskill1 ,n4 ,y42 ,dr4 ,richard ,rathbun1 assistant secretary1 ,dr4 ,cyrus ,adler1 curator1 ,dr4 ,otis ,s4 ,mason1 curator of ,ethnology1 all of the ,smithsonian ,institution2 ,dr4 ,s4 ,w4 ,stratton1 chief of the ,bureau of ,standards2 ,miss ,e4 ,r4 ,scidmore2 ,gilbert ,h4 ,grosvenor1 editor1 ,national ,geographic ,magazine2 ,hon4 ,william ,eleroy ,curtis2 his ,excellency ,enrique ,c4 ,creel1 ,embajador de ,mexico1 and ,james ,t4 ,archbold1 war correspondent1 all of ,washington1 ,d4 ,c42 ,prof4 ,w4 ,p4 ,wilson1 director ,philadelphia ,commercial ,museum1 ,clarence ,b4 ,moore1 ,academy of ,natural ,sciences1 and ,t4 ,louis ,comparette1 curator ,numismatic ,collection1 ,u4 ,s4 ,mint1 all of ,philadelphia2 ,prof4 ,henry ,montgomery1 ,university of ,toronto1 ,toronto1 ,canada2 ,dr4 ,warren ,k4 ,moorehead1 archologist1 ,andover1 ,mass42 ,h4 ,d4 ,story1 and ,theo4 ,m4 ,davis1 curators of the ,boston ,museum of ,fine ,arts1 ,boston1 ,mass42 ,miss ,mathilde ,laigle of ,wellesley ,college2 ,prof4 ,f4 ,w4 ,putnam and ,alfred ,m4 ,tozzer1 ,peabody ,museum of ,archology1 ,cambridge1 ,mass42 ,prof4 ,edward ,s4 ,morse1 ,salem1 ,mass42 ,dr4 ,hiram ,bingham1 ,yale ,university2 ,w4 ,e4 ,frost1 ,providence1 ,r4 ,i42 ,dr4 ,edgar ,j4 ,banks1 ,university of ,chicago1 ,chicago1 ,ill42 ,hon4 ,f4 ,j4 ,v4 ,skiff1 director1 for several photographs of museum material1 and ,dr4 ,george ,a4 ,dorsey1 curator of ,anthropology of the ,field ,columbian ,museum2 ,dr4 ,a4 ,r4 ,crook1 curator of the ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,springfield1 ,ill42 ,richard ,hermann1 director ,hermann ,museum1 ,dubuque1 ,ia42 ,charles ,russell ,orcutt1 ,san ,diego1 ,cal42 ,david ,i4 ,bushnell1 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo42 ,dr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,stanton1 ,prairie du ,chien1 ,wis42 ,joe ,gassett1 ,clinton1 ,tenn42 ,prof4 ,wm4 ,c4 ,mills1 ,university of ,ohio1 ,columbus1 ,o41 for material covering the new ,ohio mound discoveries2 ,mrs4 ,marie ,robinson ,wright1 author and ,south ,american traveler1 ,new ,york ,city2 ,miss ,helen ,woolley of ,judson ,college1 ,alabama2 ,prof4 ,dr4 ,eugene ,hussak1 ,rio ,janeiro2 ,hon4 ,george ,e4 ,anderson1 ,consul ,general of the ,united ,states1 ,rio de ,janeiro1 ,brazil2 ,seor ,l4 ,e4 ,bonilla1 ,consul ,general of ,colombia2 ,madam ,zelia ,nuttall1 ,coyoacan1 ,mexico2 ,prof4 ,waldstein1 ,university of ,cambridge1 ,cambridge1 ,england2 ,dr4 ,o4 ,f4 ,bell1 assistant keeper ,ashmolean ,museum1 ,oxford2 ,dr4 ,stephen ,w4 ,bushell1 ,chinese authority2 ,lady ,christopher ,johnston1 ,dr4 ,william ,f4 ,petrie1 ,university ,college1 ,dr4 ,charles ,hercules ,read1 director of the department of ,archology1 ,british ,museum1 for illustrations and data2 ,cyril ,davenport1 antiquarian writer of the ,british ,museum1 for the illustration of the ,english crown1 and crown information2 to ,sir ,john ,evans1 late veteran archologist and writer2 ,thomas ,tyrer1 chemist1 ,w4 ,talbot ,ready1 ,a4 ,w4 ,feaveryear1 ,e4 ,alfred ,jones1 author on metal-work1 ,edwin ,w4 ,streeter1 all of ,london1 ,england2 ,prof4 ,h4 ,p4 ,blackmore1 curator ,blackmore ,museum1 ,salisbury1 ,england2 ,dr4 ,thos4 ,gann1 ,harrogate1 ,england2 ,prof4 ,arthur ,e4 ,shipley1 ,cambridge1 ,england2 ,dr4 ,wilfred ,grenfell1 ,labrador2 ,t4 ,w4 ,lyster1 librarian of the ,national ,library of ,ireland1 ,prof4 ,r4 ,f4 ,scharff1 director of the ,national ,museum of ,ireland1 ,dublin1 ,w4 ,forbes ,hourie1 all of ,ireland2 ,mr4 ,james ,hornell1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,a4 ,herdmann1 all on information concerning the ,ceylon fisheries2 ,prof4 ,james ,m4 ,milne1 ,belfast1 ,ireland2 ,david ,mac,gregor1 ,perth1 ,scotland2 ,joseph ,baer ,co41 ,frankfurt1 ,germany2 ,herrn ,c4 ,w4 ,kesseller1 ,idar1 ,germany2 ,prof4 ,dr4 ,carl ,sapper1 ,university of ,tbingen1 ,germany2 ,geheimrath ,prof4 ,dr4 ,max ,bauer1 ,university of ,marburg1 ,germany2 ,herrn ,prof4 ,dr4 ,hofer1 director ,biologische ,versuchsstation1 ,munich2 ,herrn ,ernst ,gideon ,bek1 ,pforzheim1 ,germany2 ,hon4 ,albert ,h4 ,michelsen1 ,american ,consul at ,turin2 ,sabbatino ,de ,angelis1 of ,naples1 ,italy2 ,mons4 ,alphonse ,falco1 of the ,chambre ,syndicale ,pierres ,prcieuses of ,paris2 ,prof4 ,a4 ,lacroix1 ,muse ,histoire ,naturale1 ,paris2 ,mons4 ,georges ,pellisier1 ,paris2 ,sr4 ,gaston ,j4 ,vives1 ,la ,paz1 ,mexico2 ,prof4 ,r4 ,dubois1 ,facult des ,sciences1 ,university of ,lyons1 ,france2 ,prof4 ,p4 ,candias1 director of the ,national ,museum1 ,athens1 ,greece2 ,prof4 ,g4 ,a4 ,f4 ,molengraaff1 ,university of ,delft1 ,holland2 the late ,prof4 ,dr4 ,furtwngler of ,munich2 ,dr4 ,otto ,leiner1 ,custus ,landes-,museum at ,constanz1 ,baden2 ,herrn ,dr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,meyer1 ,herrn ,carl ,marfels1 ,berlin2 ,prof4 ,dr4 ,h4 ,schumacher1 ,university of ,bonn2 ,geheimrath ,c4 ,f4 ,hintze1 ,breslau2 ,herrn ,r4 ,friedlaender ,sohn1 ,berlin2 ,herrn ,reg4-,rath ,dr4 ,w4 von ,seidlitz1 ,dresden2 ,dr4 ,r4 ,jacobi1 director ,knig ,zoologichen ,museum1 ,dresden1 ,germany2 his ,excellency ,dr4 ,szalaz1 director ,hungarian ,national ,museum2 ,dr4 ,s4 ,radischi1 director ,national ,industrial ,museum of ,budapest2 and to ,herrn ,a4 ,b4 ,bachrach1 ,budapest1 ,hungary2 ,frau ,melanie ,glazer1 of ,prague1 and ,herrn ,v4 ,fric1 ,prague1 ,bohemia2 ,herrn ,prof4 ,dr4 ,f4 ,heger1 ,custus ,imperial ,archological ,collection1 ,vienna2 ,herrn ,h4 von ,willer and ,herrn ,max ,zirner1 of ,vienna2 ,herrn ,leopold ,weininger1 the artisan goldsmith of ,austria1 for many courtesies2 ,prof4 ,w4 ,vernadskij1 ,university of ,moscow2 ,mons4 ,c4 ,faberje1 ,joaillier de la ,cour1 ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,russia2 his ,excellency ,baron ,p4 ,meyerdorff1 assistant director1 ,muse des ,antiques1 ,ermitage ,impriale1 ,st4 ,petersburg1 for important data and illustrations2 his ,excellency ,n4 ,j4 ,moore1 ,premier1 ,western ,australia2 ,dr4 ,k4 ,van ,dort1 engineer of ,bankok1 ,siam2 ,dr4 ,j4 ,henry ,burkill1 of the ,india ,museum1 ,calcutta1 ,india2 ,alphaeus ,e4 ,williams1 manager of the ,de ,beers ,mine1 ,kimberley2 ,capt4 ,e4 ,l4 ,steever1 ,district ,governor of ,jolo1 ,philippine ,islands2 ,dr4 ,t4 ,nishikawa1 ,zological ,institute2 ,k4 ,mikimoto1 both of ,tokio1 ,japan2 ,dr4 ,s4 ,m4 ,zwemer of ,bahrein1 ,persian ,gulf2 ,mr4 ,hugh ,millman of ,thursday ,island1 ,australia2 ,julius ,d4 ,dreher1 ,american ,consul at ,tahiti1 ,society ,islands2 and not least1 by any means1 the uniform promptness and completeness with which the officials of the ,british ,colonial ,service have responded to the many inquiries which the writers have addressed to them4 ,,the ,,authors4 ,september1 #aijh4 ,i ,,pearls ,,among ,,the ,,ancients ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,pearl ,i ,,pearls ,,among ,,the ,,ancients ,the richest merchandise of all1 and the most soveraigne commoditie throughout the whole world1 are these pearles4 ,,pliny1 ,historia naturalis4 ,lib4 ,,ix1 c4 #ce4 ,perfected by nature and requiring no art to enhance their beauty1 pearls were naturally the earliest gems known to prehistoric man4 ,probably the members of some fish-eating tribe--maybe of the coast of ,india or bordering an ,asiatic river--while opening mollusks for food1 were attracted by their luster4 ,and as man's estimation of beauty developed1 he found in them the means of satisfying that fondness for personal decoration so characteristic of half-naked savages1 which has its counterpart amid the wealth and fashion of the present day4 ,pearls seem to be peculiarly suggestive of oriental luxury and magnificence4 ,it is in the ,east that they have been especially loved1 enhancing the charms of ,asiatic beauty and adding splendor to barbaric courts celebrated for their display of costume4 ,from their possession of the rich pearl resources it is natural that the people of ,india and of ,persia should have early found beauty and value in these jewels1 and should have been among the first to collect them in large quantities4 ,and no oriental divinity1 no object of veneration has been without this ornament2 no poetical production has lacked this symbol of purity and chastity4 ,in a personal memorandum1 ,dr4 ,a4 ,v4 ,williams ,jackson1 professor of ,indo-,iranian languages in ,columbia ,university1 states that it is generally supposed that the ,vedas1 the oldest sacred books of the ,brahmans1 contain several allusions to pearl decorations a millennium or more before the ,christian era1 as the word krisana and its derivatives--which occur a half dozen times in the ,rigveda1 the oldest of the ,vedas--are generally translated as signifying 8pearl40 ,even if this interpretation of the term be called into question on the ground that the ,hindus of the ,panjab were not well acquainted with the sea1 there can be little or no doubt that the ,atharvaveda1 at least five hundred years before the ,christian era1 alludes to an amulet made of pearls and used as a sort of talisman in a hymn#a of magic formulas4 ,those two great epics of ancient ,india1 the ,ramayana and the ,mahabharata1 refer to pearls4 ,the ,ramayana speaks of a necklace of twenty-seven pearls1 and has pearl drillers to accompany a great military expedition4#b ,an old myth recounts the offerings made by the elements as gifts worthy of the deity3 the air offered the rainbow1 the fire a meteor1 the earth a ruby1 and the sea a pearl4 ,the rainbow formed a halo about the god1 the meteor served as a lamp1 the ruby decorated the forehead1 and the pearl was worn upon the heart4 ,the literature of ,hinduism frequently associates the pearl with ,krishna1 the eighth avatar or incarnation of ,vishnu1 the most popular god of ,hindu worship4 ,one legend credits its discovery to the adorable ,krishna1 who drew it from the depths of the sea to adorn his daughter ,pandaa on her nuptial day4 ,another version makes the pearl a trophy of the victory of ,krishna over the monster ,pankagna1 and it was used by the victor as a decoration for his bride4 ,in the classic period of ,sanskrit literature1 about the first century of the ,christian era1 there were abundant references to pearls1 generally called mukta 7literally 8the pure072 and there are dozens of words for pearl necklaces1 circlets1 strings1 and ornamental festoons1 particularly in the dramas of ,kalidasa--the ,hindu ,shakspere1 who lived about the third century ,a4,d4--and of his successors4 ,in the ,mahavansa and the ,dipavansa1 the ancient chronicle histories of ,ceylon in the ,pali language1 are several early ,cingalese records of pearl production and estimation4#c ,the ,mahavansa lists pearls among the native products sent from ,ceylon about #eej ,b4,c41 ,king ,wijayo sending his father-in-law gifts of pearls and chanks to the value of two lacs of rupees2 and notes that about #cjj ,b4,c41 several varieties of ,ceylon pearls were carried as presents by an embassy to ,india4 ,illustration3 ,ancient ,chinese crown with pearls ,illustration3 ,ancient ,chinese pearl rosary ,illustration3 ,chinese priests keeping guard over the tombs of the kings1 in ,mukden1 where the crowns are preserved ,in the ancient civilization of ,china1 pearls were likewise esteemed2 this is evidenced by the frequent mention of them in traditional history1 their employment in the veneration of idols1 and as tribute by foreign princes to the emperor4 ,one of the very earliest of books1 the ,shu ,king 7dating from about #bcej-fbe ,b4,c471 notes that1 in the twenty-third century ,b4,c41 ,y received as tribute oyster pearls from the river ,hwai1 and from the province of ,king ,kau he received 8strings of pearls that were not quite round40#d ,that ancient ,chinese dictionary1 the ,nh'ya1 originating thirty centuries ago1 speaks of them as precious jewels found in the province of ,shen-si on the western frontier4 ,many fantastic theories regarding pearls are to be found in ancient ,chinese literature4 ,some writers credited them as originating in the brain of the fabled dragon2 others noted that they were especially abundant during the reign of illustrious emperors1 and they were used as amulets and charms against fire and other disasters4 ,curious allusions were made to pearls so brilliant that they were visible at a distance of nearly a thousand yards1 or that rice could be cooked by the light from them4 ,and one found about the beginning of the ,christian era1 near ,yangchow-fu1 in the province of ,kiang-su1 was reported so lustrous as to be visible in the dark at a distance of three miles4 ,in ,persia1 the popularity of pearls seems to date from a very early period4 ,professor ,jackson states that if they are not mentioned in the extant fragments of the ancient ,zoroastrian literature1 the ,avesta and the ,pahlavi1 or by the ,middle ,persian books from the seventh century ,b4,c4 to the ninth century ,a4,d41 it is probably a mere accident1 due to the character of the work or to the fragmentary condition of the literature2 for pearls were well known during that entire period1 and seem to be indicated in extant sculptures4 ,the coin and the gem portraits of ,persian queens commonly show ear-pendants of these4 ,the remains of a magnificent necklace of pearls and other gems were recently found by ,j4 de ,morgan in the sarcophagus of an ,achmenid princess exhumed at ,susa or ,shushan1 the winter residence of the kings of ,persia4 ,this necklace1 perhaps the most ancient pearl ornament still in existence1 dates certainly from not later than the fourth century ,b4,c41 and is now preserved in the ,persian ,gallery of the ,louvre4#e ,even if we had no other evidence1 it would be natural to assume that the knowledge of pearls was as wide-spread among the ,iranians in antiquity as it was among the ,hindus1 since the ,persian ,gulf1 like the ,indian ,ocean1 has been famous for its fisheries from ancient times4 ,in the ruins of ,babylon no pearls have been found2 indeed1 it would be surprising if they could survive for so many ages in the relatively moist soil which contains much saltpeter4 ,inlays of mother-of-pearl and decorations of this material have been secured from the ruins of ,bismaya1 which ,dr4 ,edgar ,j4 ,banks refers to about #dejj ,b4,c4 ,there is likewise little evidence that pearls were extensively employed by the ancient ,assyrians1 notwithstanding that excavations at ,nineveh and ,nimrud have furnished much information regarding their ornaments2 and the collars1 bracelets1 sword-hilts1 etc41 wrought in gold and ornamented with gems1 show that the jewelers' art had made much progress4 ,this is not wholly trustworthy as determining the relative abundance2 for being of organic or non-mineral origin1 pearls would not have survived the burial for thousands of years so well as the crystal gems4 ,an inscription on the ,nineveh ,obelisk1 which states1 according to ,sir ,henry ,rawlinson1 that in the ninth year of his reign ,temenbar received1 as 8tribute of the kings of the ,chaldees1 gold1 silver1 gems1 and pearls10#f shows that the sea-born gems were highly valued there4 ,the mother-of-pearl shell was in use as an ornament in ancient ,egypt certainly as early as the sixth dynasty 7circa #cbjj ,b4,c471 the period of the ,tanis ,sphinx4 ,in a recent letter from ,luxor1 where he is studying the ruins of ancient ,thebes1 ,dr4 ,james ,t4 ,dennis states that he has found several of these shells bearing cartouches of that period2 and in the 8pan-bearing graves0 of the twelfth dynasty 7#bejj ,b4,c471 the shell occurred not only complete1 but cut in roughly circular or oblong angular blocks and strung on chains with beads of carnelian1 pottery1 etc4 ,so far as can be determined from the representations of ancient ,egyptian costumes1 pearls do not seem to have been employed to any great extent in their decoration4 ,the necklaces1 earrings1 and other jewels found in the tombs1 which are composed largely of gold set with crystal gems1 contain the remains of a few pearls1 but give no indication that they were numerous4 ,in fact1 no evidence exists that they were used extensively before the ,persian conquest in the fifth century ,b4,c42 and probably it was not until the time of the ,ptolemies that there began the lavish abundance which characterized the court of ,alexandria at the height of her power4 ,the authorities differ in regard to the mention of pearls in ancient ,hebrew literature2 although in the ,authorized ,version of the ,old ,testament1 this significance has been given to the word gabsh in ,job xxviii4 #ah1 where the value of wisdom is contrasted with that of gabsh4 ,some writers claim that this word refers to rock crystal4 ,other authorities are of the opinion that the word peninim in ,lam4 iv4 #g1 which has been translated as 8rubies10 actually signifies pearls4 ,in ,gen4 ii4 #ab1 ,prof4 ,paul ,haupt has proposed to render shoham stones by pearls1 since the ,hebrew word translated 8onyx10 if connected with the ,assyrian sndu1 might mean 8the gray gem40 ,it does not appear that they entered into the decorations of the ,tabernacle and the ,temple1 or were largely employed in the paraphernalia of the synagogue4 ,in the ,new ,testament1 however1 there are numerous references to the estimation in which pearls were held4 ,in his teachings1 ,christ repeatedly referred to them as typifying something most precious3 8,the kingdom of heaven is like unto a merchant man1 seeking goodly pearls3 who1 when he had found one pearl of great price1 went and sold all that he had1 and bought it0 7,matt4 xiii4 #de1 #df72 and in 8casting pearls before swine10 in that great ,sermon on the ,mount 7,matt4 vii4 #f74 ,in picturing the glories of the ,heavenly ,city1 ,st4 ,john made the twelve gates of pearls 7,rev4 xxi4 #ba72 and what could better serve as portals through the walls of precious stones8 ,in the ,talmud1 pearls are frequently mentioned1 and usually as signifying something beautiful or very costly1 as 8a pearl that is worth thousands of zuzim0 7,baba ,batra1 #adf;a72 a 8pearl that has no price0 7,yerushalmi1 ix4 #ab;d72 the coats which ,god made for ,adam and ,eve were 8as beautiful as pearls0 7,gen4 ,r4 xx4 #ab71 and the manna was 8as white as a pearl0 7,yoma1 #ge;a74 ,their purchase formed one of the exceptions to the law of ,ona'ah 7overcharge71 for the reason that two matched pearls greatly exceeded the value of each one separately 7,baba ,mezi'a1 iv4 #h74 ,the high value attached to pearls by the ancient ,hebrews is illustrated by a beautiful ,rabbinical story in which only one object in nature is ranked above them4 ,on approaching ,egypt1 ,abraham hid ,sarah in a chest1 that foreign eyes might not behold her beauty4 ,when he reached the place for paying custom dues1 the collectors said1 8,pay us the custom02 and he replied1 8,i will pay your custom40 ,they said to him1 8,thou carriest clothes02 and he stated1 8,i will pay for clothes40 ,then they said to him1 8,thou carriest gold02 and he answered1 8,i will pay for gold40 ,on this they said to him1 8,surely thou bearest the finest silk02 and he replied1 8,i will pay custom for the finest silk40 ,then said they1 8,truly it must be pearls that thou takest with thee02 and he answered1 8,i will pay for pearls40 ,seeing that they could name nothing of value for which the patriarch was not willing to pay custom1 they said1 8,it cannot be but that thou open the box and let us see what is within40 ,so the chest was opened1 and the land was illumined by the luster of ,sarah's beauty4#g ,the love which the early ,arabs bore to pearls is evidenced by the references to them in the ,koran1 and especially the figurative description given of ,paradise4 ,the stones are pearls and jacinths2 the fruits of the trees are pearls and emeralds2 and each person admitted to the delights of the celestial kingdom is provided with a tent of pearls1 jacinths and emeralds2 is crowned with pearls of incomparable luster1 and is attended by beautiful maidens resembling hidden pearls4#h ,the estimation of pearls among the art-loving ,greeks may be traced to the time of ,homer1 who appears to have alluded to them under the name 7triple drops or beads7 in his description of ,juno2 in the ,iliad1 ,,xiv1 #ahc3 ,in three bright drops1 ,her glittering gems suspended from her ears4 and in the ,odyssey1 ,,xviii1 #bih3 ,earrings bright ,with triple drops that cast a trembling light4 ,classical designs of ,juno usually show the three pear-shaped pearls pendent from her ears4 ,the ancient ,greeks probably obtained their pearls from the ,east through the medium of ,phenician traders1 and a survival of the word seems to exist in the ,welsh glain 7bead71 the name having been carried to ,britain by the same traders1 who exchanged textiles1 glass beads1 etc41 for tin and salt4 ,the ,persian wars in the fifth century ,b4,c41 doubtless extended the acquaintance which the ,greeks had with pearls1 as well as with other oriental products1 and increased their popularity4 ,one of the earliest of the ,greek writers to mention pearls specifically appears to have been ,theophrastus 7#cgb-bhg ,b4,c471 the disciple and successor of ,aristotle1 who referred to them under the name 7margarites71 probably derived from some oriental word like the ,sanskrit maracata or the ,persian mirwareed4 ,he stated that pearls were produced by shell-fish resembling the pinna1 only smaller1 and were used in making necklaces of great value4 ,in ,pliny's 8,historia naturalis10 that great storehouse of classical learning1 reference is made to many other writers--mostly ,greeks--who treated of gems2 but virtually all of these writings have disappeared1 except fragments from ,theophrastus1 ,chares of ,mytilene1 and ,isidorus of ,charace4 ,illustration3 ,,grecian ,,pearl ,,and ,,gold ,,necklace ,of about third century ,b4,c4 ,now in ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art1 ,new ,york ,from ,greece admiration for pearls quickly extended to ,rome1 where they were known under the ,greek word margarit4 ,however1 a more common name for this gem in ,rome was unio1 which ,pliny explained by saying that each pearl was unique and unlike any other one4 ,the conclusion of the historian ,ammianus ,marcellinus 7#ccj-cie ,a4,d471 that it was because each one was found singly in a shell1#i seems scarcely correct4 ,claude de ,saumaise1 the ,french classical scholar1 thought that the common name for an onion was transferred to the pearl1 owing to its laminated construction4#aj ,according to ,pliny1 the ,romans used the word unio to distinguish a large perfect pearl from the smaller and less attractive ones1 which were called margarit4#aa ,it was not until the ,mithridatic ,wars 7#hh-fc ,b4,c47 and the conquests by ,pompey that pearls were very abundant and popular in ,rome1 the great treasures of the ,east enriching the victorious army and through it the aristocracy of the republic4 ,in those greatest spectacular functions the world has ever known--the triumphal processions of the conquering ,romans--pearls had a prominent part4 ,pliny records that in great ,pompey's triumphal procession in #fa ,b4,c4 were borne thirty-three crowns of pearls and numerous pearl ornaments1 including a portrait of the victor1 and a shrine dedicated to the muses1 adorned with the same gems4#ab ,the luxuries of ,mithridates1 the treasures of ,alexandria1 the riches of the ,orient were poured into the lap of victory-fattened ,rome4 ,from that time the pearl reigned supreme1 not only in the enormous prices given for single specimens1 but also in the great abundance in possession of the degenerate descendants of the victorious ,romans4 ,the interior of the temple of ,venus was decorated with pearls4 ,the dress of the wealthy was so pearl-bedecked that ,pliny exclaimed in irony3 8,it is not sufficient for them to wear pearls1 but they must trample and walk over them02#ac and the women wore pearls even in the still hours of the night1 so that in their sleep they might be conscious of possessing the beautiful gems4#ad ,it is related that the voluptuous ,caligula 7#ab-da ,a4,d47--he who raised his favorite horse ,incitatus to the consulship--decorated that horse with a pearl necklace1 and that he himself wore slippers embroidered with pearls2 and the tyrannical ,nero 7#cg-fh ,a4,d471 not content with having his scepter and throne of pearls1 provided the actors in his theater with masks and scepters decorated with them4 ,thus wrote the observant ,philo1 the envoy of the ,jews to the ,emperor ,caligula3 8,the couches upon which the ,romans recline at their repasts shine with gold and pearls2 they are splendid with purple coverings interwoven with pearls and gold40 ,yet not all the men of ,rome were enthusiastic over the beautiful 8gems of the sea1 which resemble milk and snow10 as the poet ,manlius called them4 ,even then1 as now1 there were some faultfinders4 ,the immortal ,csar interdicted their use by women beneath a certain rank2 ,martial and ,tibullus inveighed against them2 the witty ,horace directed his stinging shafts of satire against the extravagance4 ,referring to a woman named ,gellia1 ,martial wrote3 8,by no gods or goddesses does she swear1 but by her pearls4 ,these she embraces and kisses4 ,these she calls her brothers and sisters4 ,she loves them more dearly than her two sons4 ,should she by some chance lose them1 the miserable woman would not survive an hour40#ae ,hear what stern old ,seneca had to say3 8,pearls offer themselves to my view4 ,simply one for each ear8 ,no6 ,the lobes of our ladies have attained a special capacity for supporting a great number4 ,two pearls alongside of each other1 with a third suspended above1 now form a single earring6 ,the crazy fools seem to think that their husbands are not sufficiently tormented unless they wear the value of an inheritance in each ear60#af ,the prices reported for some choice ones at that time seem fabulous4 ,it is recorded by ,suetonius1 that the ,roman general1 ,vitellius1 paid the expenses of a military campaign with the proceeds of one pearl from his mother's ears3 8,atque ex aure matris detractum unionem pigneraverit ad itineris impensas40 ,in his 8,historia naturalis10 ,pliny says that in the first century ,a4,d41 they ranked first in value among all precious things1#ag and reports sixty million sestertii#ah as the value of the two famous pearls--8the singular and only jewels of the world and even nature's wonder0--which ,cleopatra wore at the celebrated banquet to ,mark ,antony4 ,and ,suetonius#ai places at six million sestertii the value of the one presented by ,julius ,csar as a tribute of love to ,servilia1 the mother of ,brutus1 who thus wore ,the spoils of nations in an ear1 ,changed to the treasure of a shell4 ,or1 as ,st4 ,jerome expressed it in his 8,vita ,pauli ,eremit03 ,uno filo villarum insunt pretia4 ,we are told by lius ,lampridius that an ambassador once brought to ,alexander ,severus two remarkably large and heavy pearls for the empress4 ,the emperor offered them for sale1 and as no purchaser was found1 he had them hung in the ears of the statue of ,venus1 saying3 8,if the empress should have such pearls1 she would give a bad example to the other women1 by wearing an ornament of so much value that no one could pay for it40 ,the word 8margarita0 was used symbolically to designate the most cherished object2 for instance1 a favorite child4 ,in an inscription published by ,fabretti1 p4 #dd1 ,no4 #bec1 the word margaritio has the same significance4 7,sex4 ,bruttidio juveni margaritioni carissimo1 vixit annis ,,ii mensibus ,,vii1 diebus ,,xviii47#bj ,while the ancient writers were familiar with the pearl itself1 they knew little of the fisheries1 and related many curious stories which had come to ,athens and ,rome4 ,pliny and lianus quoted from ,megasthenes that the pearl-oysters lived in communities like swarms of bees1 and were governed by one remarkable for its size and great age1 and which was wonderfully expert in keeping its subjects out of danger1 and that the fishermen endeavored first to catch this one1 so that the others might easily be secured4 ,procopius1 one of the most entertaining of the old ,byzantine chroniclers1 wrote of social relations between the pearl-oysters and the sharks1 and of methods of inducing the growth of pearls4 ,the principal fisheries of antiquity were in the ,persian ,gulf1 on the coasts of ,ceylon and ,india1 and in the ,red ,sea4 ,the pearls referred to in ancient ,chinese literature appear to have been taken from the rivers and ponds of that country1 while those in ,cochin ,china and ,japan seem to have come from the adjoining seas4 ,the pearls were distributed among the nations in control of the fisheries1 and from them1 other people received collections1 either as presents1 in conquest1 or by way of trade4 ,history makes no mention of pearls having been obtained elsewhere than in the ,orient up to the time of ,julius ,csar1 when small quantities of inexpensive ones were collected in ,britain by the invading ,romans4 ,and in the first century ,a4,d41 ,pliny states that small reddish pearls were found about ,italy and in the ,bosphorus ,straits near ,constantinople4 ,a number of specimens of pearls of the artistic ,greeks and of the luxurious ,romans are yet in existence1 and some of these are in a fairly good state of preservation4 ,a notable and interesting example is a superb ,greek necklace of pearls and gold1 referred to the third century ,b4,c41 and now in the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art in ,new ,york4 ,several earrings now in that museum1 in the ,hermitage at ,st4 ,petersburg1 the ,british ,museum1 the ,louvre in ,paris1 and in the ,boston ,museum of ,fine ,arts1 are shown in this book4 ,some of these may have decorated ears that listened to the comedies of ,aristophanes1 the tragedies of ,euripides1 the philosophies of ,plato1 or the oratory of ,demosthenes4 ,a number of classic statues have the ears pierced for earrings1 notably the ,venus de ,medici now in the ,tribuna of the ,uffizi1 ,florence2 and a magnificent pair of half-pearls is said to have decorated the ,venus of the ,pantheon in ,rome4#ba ,pearl grape earrings are shown on the artistic intaglio by ,aspasios1 representing the bust of the ,athene ,parthenos of ,phidias1 which has been in the ,gemmen ,mnzen ,cabinet at ,vienna since #affi4 ,the beautiful ,tyszkiewicz bronze statuette of ,aphrodite was acquired in #aijj by the ,boston ,museum of ,fine ,arts1 and has even yet a pearl in a fairly good state of preservation suspended from each ear by a spiral thread of gold which passes quite through the gem and also through the lobe of the ear4 ,this statuette has been described as 8the most beautiful bronze ,venus known40#bb ,professor ,froehner considers that it belongs nearer to the period of ,phidias 7circa #ejj-dcj ,b4,c47 than to that of ,praxiteles 7circa #djj-ccf ,b4,c472 but ,dr4 ,edward ,robinson does not concur in this opinion1 and refers it to the ,hellenic period 7circa #ccj-adf ,b4,c474 ,however1 considering the very large accumulations1 relatively few pearls of antiquity now remain1 and none of these is of great ornamental value4 ,those in archological collections and art museums are more or less decayed through the ravages of time and accident to which they have been subjected4 ,while coins1 gold jewelry1 crystal gems1 etc41 of ancient civilizations are relatively numerous1 the less durable pearls have not survived the many centuries of pillage1 waste1 and burial in the earth4 ,a well-known instance of this decay is found in the ,stilicho pearls1 which owe their prominence to the incident of their long burial4 ,the daughters of this famous ,roman general1 who were successively betrothed to the ,emperor ,honorius1 died in #djg ,a4,d41 and were buried with their pearls and ornaments4 ,in #aebf1 or more than eleven centuries afterward1 in excavating for an extension of ,st4 ,peter's1 the tomb was opened1 and the ornaments were found in fair condition1 except the pearls1 which were as lusterless and dead as a wreath of last year's flowers4 ,,ii ,,medieval ,,and ,,modern ,,history ,,ii ,,medieval ,,and ,,modern ,,history ,,of ,,pearls ,i'll set thee in a shower of gold1 and hail ,rich pearls upon thee4 ,antony and ,cleopatra1 ,act ,,ii1 sc4 #e4 ,the popularity of pearls in ,rome has its counterpart in the ,empire of the ,east at ,byzantium or ,constantinople on its development in wealth and luxury after becoming the capital of that empire in #ccj ,a4,d4 ,owing to its control of the trade between ,asia and ,europe1 and the influence of oriental taste and fashion1 enormous collections were made2 and for centuries after ,rome had been pillaged1 this capital was the focus of all the arts1 and pearls were the favorite ornaments4 ,the famous mosaic in the sanctuary of ,san ,vitale at ,ravenna1 shows ,justinian 7#dhc-efe7 with his head covered with a jeweled cap1 and the ,empress ,theodora wearing a tiara encircled by three rows of pearls1 and strings of pearls depend therefrom almost to the waist4 ,in many instances the decorations of the emperors excelled even those of the most profligate of ,roman rulers4 ,an examination of the coins1 from those of ,arcadius in #cie to the last dribble of a long line of obscure rulers when the city was captured and pillaged by ,venetian and ,latin adventurers in #abjd1 shows in the form of diadems1 collars1 necklaces1 etc41 the great quantity of pearls worn by them4 ,the oldest existing crown in use at the present time1 the ,hungarian crown of ,st4 ,stephen1 which is radiant with pearls1 is of ,byzantine workmanship4 ,outside of ,constantinople1 the demand and fashion for pearls did not cease with the downfall of the ,roman ,empire and the spoliation of ,rome in the fifth century4 ,the treasures accumulated there1 and the gems and jewels1 were carried away by the conquering ,goths and scattered among the great territorial lords of western and northern ,europe4 ,in the ancient cities of ,gaul1 in ,toulouse and ,narbonne1 the ,ostrogoth and the ,visigoth kings collected enormous treasures4 ,the citadel of ,carcassonne held magnificent spoils brought from the sacking of ,rome in #daj by ,alaric1 king of the ,ostrogoths1 consisting in part of jewels from the ,temple1 these having been carried to ,rome after the spoliation of ,jerusalem in #gj ,a4,d4 ,several beautiful objects of this and somewhat later periods are yet in existence1 notably the ,visigothic crowns and crosses1 in the ,muse de l',htel de ,cluny1 ,paris1 the most beautiful of which are probably the crown and the cross of ,reccesvinthus4#bc ,even as the treasures of ,rome were despoiled by the ,ostrogoths and the ,visigoths1 so1 later1 their collections were depleted by the military operations of the ,franks1 when ,narbonne was pillaged2 when ,toulouse was sacked by ,clovis1 or ,chlodowig1 in #ejg2 when the churches of ,barcelona and ,toledo were despoiled by ,childebert in #eca and #edb2 and by various expeditions in succeeding years4 ,the military triumphs of the ,franks placed them in the highest rank among the peoples of ,europe1 in the sixth and seventh centuries1 in the possession of treasures of jewels which enriched their palaces and great churches4 ,and the taste which the triumphs of war had developed was maintained by the trade carried on by the ,jewish and ,syrian merchants4 ,the inhabitants of ,gaul were extremely fond of objects of art1 of rich costumes1 and of personal decorations2 and the courts of some of the early kings rivaled in magnificence those of oriental monarchs4 ,especially was this true during the reign of ,king ,dagobert 7#fbh-fch71 who competed in splendor with the rulers of ,persia and ,india4 ,his skilful jeweler1 ,eligius 7#ehh-fei71 was raised to the bishopric of ,noyon1 and eventually--under the name of ,st4 ,eloi--became one of the most popular saints in ,gaul4 ,under direction of this artistic bishop1 the ancient churches received shrines1 vestments1 and reliquaries superbly decorated with pearls and other gems4 ,indeed1 for several centuries following the time of ,eligius1 the greatest treasures of jewels seem to have been collected in the churches4 ,the use of gems in enriching regalia1 vestments1 and reliquaries in ,europe1 advanced greatly during the reign of ,charlemagne 7#gfh-had72 and princes and bishops competed with each other in the magnificence of their gifts to the churches1 sacrificing their laical jewels for the sacred treasures4 ,few of the great ornaments of ,charlemagne's time are now in existence in the original form4 ,doubtless the most remarkable pieces are the sacred regalia of the great emperor1 preserved among the imperial treasures in ,vienna4 ,illustration3 ,,front ,,cover ,,of ,,ashburnham ,,manuscript ,,of ,,the ,,four ,,gospels ,from the ninth century4 ,one quarter of the actual dimensions4 ,owned by ,j4 ,pierpont ,morgan1 ,esq4 ,an artistic use for pearls at that time was in the rich and elegant bindings of the splendidly written missals and chronicles1 finished in the highest degree of excellence and at vast expense4 ,an artist might devote his whole life to completing a single manuscript1 so great was the detail and so exquisite the finish4 ,vasari states that ,julio ,clovio devoted nine years to painting twenty-six miniatures in the ,breviary of the ,virgin now in the royal library at ,naples4 ,the library at ,rouen has a large missal on which a monk of ,st4 ,andoen is said to have labored for thirty years4 ,these books were among the most valued possessions of the churches1 and their bindings were enriched with gold and pearls and colored stones4 ,the wealthy churches had many such volumes2 ,gregory of ,tours states that from ,barcelona in #eca ,a4,d4 ,childebert brought twenty 8evangeliorum capsas0 of pure gold set with gems4 ,several of these superbly bound volumes are yet in existence1 in the ,basilica of ,st4 ,mark in ,venice2 in the treasury of the cathedral at ,milan2 among the imperial ,russian collections in the ,ourejenaya ,palata at ,moscow1 etc42 and they furnish probably the most reliable examples of artistic jewel work of the ,dark ,ages4 ,the most remarkable specimen of these books in ,america is doubtless the ,ashburnham manuscript of the ,four ,gospels1 now owned by ,j4 ,pierpont ,morgan1 ,esq41 which affords an interesting example of the jeweler's art4 ,for many centuries it belonged to the ,abbey of the ,noble ,canonesses1 founded1 in #hcd1 at ,lindau1 on ,lake ,constance4 ,after an extended examination1 ,mr4 ,alexander ,nesbit concluded that the rich cover of the manuscript was probably made between #hif and #hii by order of ,emperor ,arnulf of the ,carolingian dynasty4 ,most of the ninety-eight pearls appear to be from fresh water1 and probably all of them were obtained from the rivers of ,europe4 ,this is one of the few remaining pieces of the magnificent ecclesiastical jeweling of that period4 ,after the death of ,charlemagne1 internal dissensions1 separations and the division of the ,empire into the nations of ,europe1 annihilated commerce1 oppressed the people1 and impoverished the arts4 ,in the ninth century1 the ,normans pillaged many of the palaces and churches in ,angoulme1 ,tours1 ,orlans1 ,rouen1 and ,paris1 and destroyed or carried away large treasures4 ,the tenth and the eleventh centuries were indeed the ,dark ,ages in respect to the cultivation of the arts2 yet even during that period the churches of western ,europe received many gems from penitent and fear-stricken subjects4 ,the heart of man1 filled with the love of ,god1 laid its earthly treasure upon the altar in exchange for heavenly consolation4 ,pious faith dedicated pearls to the glorification of the ritual2 altars1 statues1 and images of the saints1 priestly vestments1 and sacred vessels1 were surcharged with them4 ,the great museums and the imperial collections contain some beautiful and highly venerated objects of this nature4 ,in the meantime pearls of small size and of fair luster had been collected in the rivers of ,scotland1 ,ireland1 and ,france1 the headwaters of the ,danube1 and in the countries north thereof4 ,in ,england1 as noted in the preceding chapter1 they were obtained by ,csar's invading legions1 who carried many to ,rome4 ,ancient coins indicate that pearls formed the principal ornament of the simple crowns worn by the early kings of ,britain previous to ,alfred the ,great4 ,the river pearls were not so beautiful as oriental ones2 but1 owing to the ease with which they were obtained1 they were employed more extensively and especially in ecclesiastical decorations1 the principal use for pearls from the eighth to the eleventh century4 ,apparently authentic specimens of fresh-water pearls of an early period are the four now in the coronation spoon of the ,english regalia1 which is attributed to the twelfth century4 ,from the most ancient times until the overthrow of the ,roman ,empire1 practically the only use for pearls was ornamental2 but after the eighth century there developed a new employment for these as well as for other gems4 ,natural history was little studied in ,europe from the ninth to the fourteenth century1 except for the effect which its subjects had in medicine and magic1 which were closely allied4 ,largely through ,arabic influence1 the practice of medicine had developed into administering most whimsical remedies1 among which gems1 and especially pearls1 played a prominent part1 and belief in the influence of these was as strong as in that of the heavenly bodies4 ,for this application1 large demands had arisen for pearls1 which seem to have been prescribed for nearly every ill to which the flesh was heir4 ,on account of their cheapness1 the small ones--seed-pearls--were used principally2 though larger ones were preferred by persons who could afford them4 ,while many of these so-called medicinal pearls were obtained from the ,orient1 most of them were secured from the home streams in the north of ,europe and in the ,british ,isles4 ,after the decadence of ,roman power in the ,east1 the rulers of ,india and ,persia1 through their control of the fisheries1 again accumulated enormous quantities of pearls4 ,all of the early travelers to those countries were astonished at the lavish display of these gems in decorative costume4 ,the manuscript of ,renaudot's two ,mohammedans1 who visited ,india and ,china in the ninth century1 notes that the kings of the ,indies were rich in ornaments1 8yet pearls are what they most esteem1 and their value surpasses that of all other jewels2 they hoard them up in their treasures with their most precious things4 ,the grandees of the court1 the great officers and captains1 wear the like jewels in their collars40#bd ,illustration3 ,,francis ,i1 ,,king ,,of ,,france1 #adid-aedg ,louvre1 ,paris ,illustration3 ,,isabelle ,,de ,,valois ,by ,pantoia de la ,cruz1 ,prado ,museum1 ,madrid ,inventories of some of the oriental collections of later times seem to be extravagant fiction rather than veritable history4 ,in that interesting book dictated in a ,genoese prison to ,rusticiano da ,pisa1 accounts are given by ,marco ,polo of great treasures seen by the first ,europeans to penetrate into ,china4 ,he describes the king of ,malabar as wearing suspended about his neck a string of #ajd large pearls and rubies of great value1 which he used as a rosary4 ,likewise on his legs were anklets and on his toes were rings1 all thickly set with costly pearls1 the whole 8worth more than a city's ransom4 ,and 'tis no wonder he hath great store of such gear2 for they are found in his kingdom4 ,no one is permitted to remove therefrom a pearl weighing more than half a saggio4 ,the king desires to reserve all such to himself1 and so the quantity he has is almost incredible40#be ,later travelers give wonderful descriptions of this excessive passion for pearls4 ,literature is full of this appreciation1 and of the part which these gems played in the affairs of the ,orientals4 ,who has not dwelt with delight upon those imperishable legends such as are embodied in the ,arabian ,nights1 of the pearl voyages by ,sindbad the ,sailor1 of the wonderful treasure chests1 and of the superb necklaces adorning the beautiful black-eyed women6 ,the returning ,crusaders in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries1 and the development of the knightly orders1 had much to do with spreading through ,europe a fondness for pearls in personal decoration4 ,those who1 like ,chaucer's knight1 had been with ,peter1 ,king of ,cyprus1 at the capture and plunder when 8,alexandria was won10 returned to their homes with riches of pearls and gold and precious stones4 ,and learning much relative to decorative art from ,moorish craftsmen1 the jewelers of western ,europe set these in designs not always crude and ineffective4 ,although they were well known and valued1 pearls do not seem to have been much used in ,england before the twelfth century1 as the ,anglo-,saxons were not an especially art-loving people4 ,the word itself is of foreign derivation and occurs in a similar form in all modern languages1 both ,romance and ,teutonic2 perle1 ,french and ,german2 perla1 ,italian1 ,portuguese1 ,provenal1 ,spanish1 and ,swedish2 paarl1 ,danish and ,dutch4 ,its origin is doubtful4 ,some philologists consider it ,teutonic and the diminutive of beere1 a berry2 ,claude de ,saumaise derives it from pirula1 the diminutive of pirum1 a sphere2 while ,diez and many others refer it to pira or to the medieval ,latin pirula1 in allusion to the pear shape frequently assumed by the pearl4#bf ,the word pearl seems to have come into general use in the ,english language about the fourteenth century4 ,in ,wyclif's translation of the ,scriptures 7about #acfj71 he commonly used the word margarite or margaritis1 whereas ,tyndale's translation 7#aebf7 in similar places used the word perle4 ,tyndale translated ,matt4 xiii4 #df3 8,when he had founde one precious pearle02 ,wyclif used 8oo preciouse margarite40 ,also in ,matt4 vii4 #f1 ,tyndale wrote1 8,nether caste ye youre pearles before swyne02 yet ,wyclif used 8margaritis10 although twenty years later he expressed it 8putten precious perlis to hoggis40 ,langland's ,piers ,plowman 7#acfb71 ,,xi1 #i1 wrote this3 8,noli mittere ,margeri perles ,among hogges40 ,the oldest ,english version of ,mandeville's ,travels1 written about #adjj1 contained the expression3 8,the fyn ,perl congeles and wexes gret of the dew of hevene02 but in #addg1 ,bokenham's 8,seyntys0 stated3 8,a margerye perle aftyr the phylosophyr ,growyth on a shelle of lytyl pryhs02 and ,knight de la ,tour 7about #adej7 stated3 8,the sowle is the precious marguarite unto ,god40 ,the word is given 8perle0 in the earliest manuscripts of those old epic poems of the fourteenth century1 8,pearl0 and 8,cleanness10 which have caused so much learned theological discussion and which testify to the great love and esteem in which the gem was held4 ,the first stanza of 8,pearl0 we quote from ,gollancz's rendition3 ,pearl6 fair enow for princes' pleasance1 so deftly set in gold so pure1-- from orient lands ,i durst avouch1 ne'er saw ,i a gem its peer1-- so round1 so comely-shaped withal1 so small1 with sides so smooth1-- where'er ,i judged of radiant gems1 ,i placed my pearl supreme4#bg ,the fourteenth-century manuscript in the ,british ,museum gives this as follows3 ,perle plesaunte to prynces paye1 ,to clanly clos in gold so clere1 ,oute of oryent ,i hardyly saye1 ,ne proved ,i never her precios pere1-- ,so rounde1 so reken in uche a raye1 ,so smal1 so smothe her sydez were1-- ,queresoever ,i jugged gemmez gaye1 ,i sette hyr sengeley in synglere4 ,and from a modern rendering of 8,cleanness0 we quote3 ,the pearl is praised wherever gems are seen1 though it be not the dearest by way of merchandise4 ,why is the pearl so prized1 save for its purity1 that wins praise for it above all white stones8 ,it shineth so bright2 it is so round of shape2 without fault or stain2 if it be truly a pearl4 ,in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries throughout ,europe pearls were very fashionable as personal ornaments1 and were worn in enormous quantities2 the dresses of men as well as of women were decorated and embroidered with them1 and they were noted in nearly every account of a festive occasion1 whether it were a marriage1 a brilliant tourney1 the consecration of a bishop1 or the celebration of a victory in battle4 ,the faceting of crystal gems was not known at that time1 and those dependent on artifice for their beauty were not much sought after4 ,although the diamond had been known from the eighth century1 it was not generally treasured as an ornament1 and not until long after the invention of cutting in regular facets--about #adej--;did it attain its great popularity4 ,in the ,dark ,ages1 it was customary for princes and great nobles to carry their valuables about with them even on the battle-fields2 first1 in order to have them always in possession1 and second1 on account of the mysterious power they attributed to precious stones4 ,since jewels constituted a large portion of their portable wealth1 nobles and knights went into battle superbly arrayed4 ,in this manner the treasures were easily lost and destroyed2 consequently1 relatively few of the personal ornaments of that period are preserved to the present time4 ,among the greatest lovers of pearls in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were the members of the ducal house of ,burgundy1 and especially ,philip the ,bold 7#acdb-adjd71 ,philip the ,good 7#acif-adfg71 and ,charles the ,bold 7#adcc-gg71 and some of the gems which they owned are even now treasured in ,austria1 ,spain1 and ,italy4 ,when ,duke ,charles the ,bold1 in the year #adgc1 attended the ,diet of ,treves1 accompanied by his five thousand splendidly equipped horsemen1 he was attired in cloth of gold garnished with pearls1 which were valued at #bjj1jjj golden florins4#bh ,we are told that 8almost a sea of pearls0 was on view at the marriage of ,george the ,rich with ,hedwig1 the daughter of ,casimir ,,iii of ,poland1 at ,landshut1 in #adge4 ,among the many ornaments was a pearl chaplet valued at #ej1jjj florins which ,duke ,george wore on his hat1 and also a clasp worth #fjjj florins4#bi ,members of the related houses of ,anjou and ,valois also held great collections4 ,nor in this account should we omit some of the ,english sovereigns1 including especially ,richard ,,ii 7#acff-adjj71 one of the greatest dandies of his day4 ,during the fifteenth century1 enormous quantities of pearls were worn by persons of rank and fashion4 ,a remarkable #adhc portrait of ,margaret1 wife of ,james ,,iii of ,scotland1 which is now preserved at ,hampton ,court1 shows her wearing such wonderful pearl ornaments that she might well be called ,margaret from her decorations4 ,as this queen was praised for her beauty1 we fear the artist has scarcely done justice to her appearance2 or possibly since that period tastes have changed as to what on a throne passes for beauty4 ,her head-dress is undoubtedly the most remarkable pearl decoration which we have seen of that century4 ,the uxorious and sumptuous ,henry ,,viii of ,england 7#adia-aedg7 spent much of the great wealth accumulated by his penurious father1 ,henry ,,vii1 in enriching the appearance of his semi-barbaric court4 ,in this reign1 the spoliation of the ,catholic cathedrals and churches contributed many pearls to the royal treasury2 and onward from that time1 they were prominently displayed among the ornaments of the women of rank in ,england4 ,most of the portraits of ,henry's wives show great quantities of these gems2 many of them with settings doubtless designed by artistic ,hans ,holbein the ,younger 7#adig-aedc72 and during the succeeding reigns the women near the throne were commonly depicted with elaborate pearl decorations4 ,the cold1 unflattering portraits by ,holbein of the court celebrities of that period1 not only of the gracious women and of the dandified men1 but of the clergy as well1 show the prominence of pearls4 ,note his portrait of ,jane ,seymour1 of ,anne of ,cleves1 of ,christina of ,denmark1 and the pearl-incrusted miter of ,archbishop ,warham of ,canterbury4 ,an interesting story is told of ,sir ,thomas ,more1 the learned chancellor of ,henry ,,viii1 showing his view of the great display of jewels which distinguished the period in which he lived3 ,his sonne ,john's wife often had requested her father-in-law1 ,sir ,thomas1 to buy her a billiment sett with pearles4 ,he had often put her off with many pretty slights2 but at last1 for her importunity1 he provided her one4 ,instead of pearles1 he caused white peaze to be sett1 so that at his next coming home1 his daughter-in-law demanded her jewel4 8,ay1 marry1 daughter1 ,i have not forgotten thee60 ,so out of his studie he sent for a box1 and solemnlie delivered it to her4 ,when she1 with great joy1 lookt for her billiment1 she found1 far from her expectation1 a billiment of peaze2 and so she almost wept for verie griefe4#cj ,meanwhile1 in the yet unknown ,america1 pearls were highly prized1 and their magic charm had taken an irresistible hold on aborigines and on the more highly civilized inhabitants of ,mexico and ,peru4 ,in ,mexico the palaces of ,montezuma were studded with pearls and emeralds1 and the ,aztec kings possessed pearls of inestimable value4 ,that they had been collected elsewhere for a long time is evidenced by the large quantities in the recently opened mounds of the ,ohio ,valley1 which rank among the ancient works of man in ,america4 ,as in the ,old ,world1 so in the ,new1 they had been used as decoration for the gods and for the temples1 as well as for men and women4 ,the principal immediate effect of ,columbus's discovery and of the commercial intercourse with the ,new ,world1 was the great wealth of pearls which enriched the ,spanish traders4 ,the natives were found in possession of rich fisheries on the coast of ,venezuela1 and somewhat later on the ,pacific coast of ,panama and ,mexico1 whence ,eldorado adventurers returned to ,spain with such large collections that--using an old chronicler's expression--8they were to every man like chaff40 ,for many years ,america was best known in ,seville1 ,cadiz1 and some other ports of ,europe1 as the land whence the pearls came4 ,until the development of the mines in ,mexico and ,peru1 the value of the pearls exceeded that of all other exports combined4 ,humboldt states that till #aecj these averaged in value more than #hjj1jjj piastres yearly4#ca ,and throughout the sixteenth century the ,american fisheries--prosecuted by the ,spaniards with the help of native labor--furnished ,europe with large quantities1 the records for one year showing imports of 8#fig pounds' weight0 into ,seville alone4 ,for two centuries following the discovery of ,america1 extravagance in personal decoration was almost unlimited at the ,european courts1 and the pearls exceeded in quantity that of all other gems4 ,enormous numbers were worn by persons of rank and fortune4 ,this is apparent1 not only from the antiquarian records and the historical accounts1 but also in the paintings and engravings of that time2 portraits of the ,hapsburgs1 the ,valois1 the ,medicis1 the ,borgias1 the ,tudors1 and the ,stuarts show great quantities of pearls1 and relatively few other gems4 ,probably the largest treasures were in possession of the ,hapsburg family1 which furnished so many sovereigns to the ,holy ,roman ,empire1 to ,austria1 and to ,spain1 and which1 by descent through ,maria ,theresa1 continued to rule the ,holy ,roman ,empire until its abolition in #ahjf1 and has since ruled ,austria and ,hungary4 ,a number of superb pieces of jewelry owned centuries ago by members of this illustrious family are yet in existence2 notably the buckle of ,charles ,v1 and especially the imperial crown of ,austria1 made in #afjb by order of ,rudolph ,,ii4#cb ,two great women of that period are noted for their passion for pearls1 ,catharine de' ,medici 7#aeai-hi71 and ,elizabeth of ,england 7#aecc-afjc74 ,it requires but a glance at almost any of their portraits1 wherein they are represented wearing elaborate pearl ornaments1 to see to what an extent they carried this fondness4 ,and many other women were not far behind them1 among whom were ,mary ,stuart1 ,marie de' ,medici1 and ,henrietta ,maria4 ,and not only by the women1 but by the men also1 pearls were worn to what now seems an extravagant extent4 ,nearly all the portraits of ,francis ,i 7#adid-aedg71 ,henry ,,ii 7#aeai-ei71 ,charles ,,ix 7#aeej-gd71 and ,henry ,,iii 7#aeea-hi7 of ,france2 of ,james ,i 7#aeff-afbe71 and of ,charles ,i 7#afjj-di7 of ,england1 and likewise of other celebrities1 show a great pear-shaped pearl in one ear4 ,many portraits also show pearls on the hats1 cloaks1 gloves1 etc4 ,when the ,duke of ,buckingham went to ,paris in #afbe1 to bring over ,henrietta ,maria to be queen to ,charles ,i1 he had1 according to an account in the 8,antiquarian ,repertory10 in addition to twenty-six other suits1 8a rich suit of purple satin1 embroidered all over with rich orient pearls1 the cloak made after the ,spanish mode1 with all things suitable1 the value whereof will be twenty thousand pounds1 and this1 it is thought1 shall be for the wedding day at ,paris40 ,in the rich and prosperous cities of southern ,europe1 pearls were no less popular4 ,from its share of the spoils of the ,byzantine ,empire1 after its partition in #abjd1 pearls and other riches were plentiful in ,venice1 and they were increased by the rapidly developing trade with the ,orient4 ,in the rival maritime cities1 ,genoa and ,pisa1 the gem was equally popular2 and likewise in ,florence 8the ,beautiful40 ,when ,hercule d',este sought ,lucrezia ,borgia 7#adhj-aeai7 in marriage for his son1 her father1 ,pope ,alexander ,,vi1 plunging both hands in a box filled with pearls1 said3 8,all these are for her6 ,i desire that in all ,italy she shall be the princess with the most beautiful pearls and with the greatest number40#cc ,separated by three centuries of time and by the intervening simplicities of puritanism and democracy1 it is difficult for us to appreciate the passion for pearls in ,europe at that period1 which may well be called the ,pearl ,age4 ,illustration3 ,,maria ,,theresa 7#agag-aghj71 ,,queen ,,of ,,hungary ,by ,martin de ,mytens1 #agdb ,the sumptuary laws which prevailed at different times in ,france1 ,england1 ,germany1 and other countries1 did not overlook this extravagance2 and an entire volume might be devoted to the efforts to curb the excessive use4 ,in ,france they were probably most stringent during the reign of ,philip ,,iv 7#abhe-acad71 of ,louis ,,xi 7#adfa-hc71 of ,charles ,,ix 7#aefj-gd71 of ,henry ,,iii 7#aegd-hi71 and of ,louis ,,xiii 7#afaj-dc74 ,in ,germany almost every city had its special restrictions4 ,a sumptuary law of ,ulm1 in #acde1 provided that no married woman or maiden1 either among the patricians or the artisans1 should wear pearls on her dresses2 and another1 in #adaa1 restricted them to 8one pearl chaplet10 and this should not exceed twelve loth 7half ounce7 in weight4 ,a ,frankish sumptuary law of #adgi provided that ordinary nobles serving a knight at a tourney should not wear any pearl ornaments1 embroidered or otherwise1 excepting one string around the cap or hat4 ,the regulations decreed by the ,diet of ,worms1 in #adie1 set forth that the citizens who were not of noble birth1 and nobles who were not knights1 must withhold from the use of gold and pearls4 ,a similar provision was enacted by the ,diet of ,freiburg in #adih1 and likewise by the ,diet of ,augsburg in #aecj1 which permitted the wives of nobles four silk dresses1 but without pearls4 ,in the sumptuary law of ,duke ,john ,george of ,saxony1 ,april #bc1 #afab1 we read3 8the nobility are not allowed to wear any dresses of gold or silver1 or garnished with pearls2 neither shall the professors and doctors of the universities1 nor their wives1 wear any gold1 silver or pearls for fringes1 or any chains of pearls1 or caps1 neck ornaments1 shoes1 slippers1 shawls1 pins1 etc41 with gold or silver or with pearls40 ,beadles1 burgomasters1 and those connected with the law-courts were forbidden to wear chains of pearls and ornaments of precious stones on their dresses1 caps1 etc41 or slippers or chaplets with pearls4 ,probably in no place were these laws more stringent than in the art-loving republic of ,venice from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century4 ,this seems remarkable in view of the fact that this city was largely dependent for its wealth and prominence on commerce with the ,east1 of which pearls constituted a prominent item4 ,the earliest ,venetian restriction that we have found regarding pearls was made in #abii2 when1 in a decree determining the maximum number of guests at a marriage ceremony and the extent of the bridal trousseau1 the grand council of the republic provided that no one but the bride should wear pearl decorations1 and she should be permitted only one girdle of them on her wedding dress4 ,this enactment was modified in #acjf1 but numerous other restrictions were substituted1 notably in #accd1 #acdj1 #acfj1 #adig1 and #aefb4 ,these differed in many particulars3 some forbade ornaments or trimmings of pearls1 gold1 or silver on the dresses of any women except a member of the ,doge's family2 and other enactments required that1 after a definite period of married life1 no woman should be permitted to wear pearls of any kind4 ,but an examination of the documents and of the paintings of that period shows that these decrees had little effect1 and the luxury of the 8,queen of the ,adriatic0 in the use of pearls at the most brilliant epoch in her history is aptly reproduced in the portraits by ,giovanni ,bellini1 ,lorenzo ,lotto1 the great ,titian1 ,tintoretto1 ,paul ,veronese1 and other artists of the highest rank4 ,in the engraving by ,hendrik ,goltzius of a marriage at ,venice in #aehd1 not one of the many women present seems to be without her necklace and earrings of pearls1 and some of them have several necklaces4#cd ,and the same appears true of the principal female figures in ,jost ,amman's noted engraving1 8,the ,espousal of the ,sea10 executed in #aefe4ce ,as preservation of the republic became more difficult with declining resources and with the continued growth of dazzling splendor1 a resolution in the ,senate1 dated ,july #h1 #aeii1 set forth that 8the use and price of pearls has become so excessive and increases to such an extent from day to day1 that if some remedy is not provided1 it will cause injury1 disorders1 and notable inconvenience to public and private well-being1 as each one of this council in his wisdom can very easily appreciate40 ,and then it was enacted3 8,that1 without repealing the other regulations which absolutely prohibit the wearing of pearls1 it shall be expressly enjoined that any woman1 whether of noble birth or a simple citizen1 or of any other condition1 who shall reside in this our city for one year 7except her ,serenity the ,dogaressa and her daughters and her daughters-in-law who live in the palace71 after the expiration of fifteen years from the day of her first marriage1 shall lay aside the string of pearls around her neck and shall not wear or use1 either upon her neck or upon any other part of her person1 this string or any other kind of pearls or anything which imitates pearls1 neither in this city nor in any other city or place within our dominion1 under the irremissible penalty of two hundred ducats40 ,and yet ten years later1 on ,may #e1 #afji1 another law enacted in the ,senate stated3 ,although in the year #aeii this council decided with great wisdom that married women should be permitted to wear pearls for only fifteen years after their first marriage1 nevertheless it is very evident that the desired end has not been attained1 and the extravagance has continued up to the present time and still continues with the gravest injury to private persons4 ,therefore1 as it is necessary to remedy1 by a new provision1 not only this considerable incommodity1 but also to prevent in the future the introduction into the city of a greater quantity of pearls than are found here at present1 it is enacted1 that married women as well as those who shall marry in the future 7except the ,serene ,dogaressa and her daughters and her daughters-in-law living in the palace7 of whatever grade and condition they may be1 who have resided in this city for one year1 cannot wear pearls of any kind except for ten years immediately following the day of their first marriage2 and after that period they must lay aside these pearls which they are forbidden to wear on any part of their persons1 at home or abroad1 and as well in this as in the other cities1 lands1 and other places of our dominion1 under the penalty of two hundred ducats4 ,and if the husband of the offending wife is a noble1 he shall be proclaimed in the greater council and declared a debtor to the office of the governors of the revenue in the sum of twenty-five ducats for each fine2 and if he is a citizen or of any other condition1 besides the penalty of two hundred ducats and the fine of twenty-five ducats above mentioned1 he shall be banished for three years from ,venice and the ,duchy1 and the same for each offence4 ,and pearls or anything which imitates pearls1 shall be forbidden to all other women1 men and boys or girls of every age and condition at all times and in all places1 under the same penalty of two hundred ducats4 ,in the future no one shall in any manner bring pearls to this city as merchandise1 under the penalty of their seizure and forfeiture4 ,and the merchant shall be imprisoned for five consecutive years2 and if he flees1 he shall be banished from the city and district of ,venice and from all other cities1 lands1 and places of our dominion for eight consecutive years4444 ,and all who at present have pearls to sell are required to deposit a list of them with the sumptuary office1 so as to avoid all fraud which could be practiced in this matter4 ,illustration3 ,,parti ,,prese ,,nell ,,eccellentiss ,conseglio di ,pregadi4 #aeii4 ,adi #h4 ,luglio1 #afji4 #e4 ,maggio4 ,in materia di ,perle4 ,stampata per ,antonio ,pinelli1 ,stampator ,ducale4 ,a ,s4 ,maria ,formosa1 in ,cale del ,mondo ,novo4 ,a copy of the title-page of this enactment is presented above4 ,the decrees and edicts were not confined to ,venice1 or to ,italy1 ,france1 or ,germany2 they made their appearance quite generally throughout western and northern ,europe and the interdictions of the civil authorities were strengthened by the voice of the bishops and other clergy1 especially in the imperial cities of southern ,germany4 ,yet the united authority of church and state was ineffectual in stemming the tide of fashion and personal fancy1 and whether or not pearls should be worn became one of the much discussed questions of that period4 ,to the question1 8,whether the statute and regulation of ,bishop ,tudertinus1 who had excommunicated all women who wore pearls1 was binding10 ,joannes ,guidius replied that many denied that this was so1 and made the subtle defense that 8the women had not accepted it and all had worn pearls1 and it was considered that such a law was binding only when it was accepted by those for whom it was intended40#cf ,and as to the validity of the statutes requiring that women should not wear more than a definite number of pearls1 he decided that 8such a statute is valid and in itself good4 ,and if the question is put whether every woman who infringes incurs the penalty1 an answer may be gathered from the sayings of the doctors1 who distinguish between married and unmarried women4 ,they consider that an unmarried woman is obliged to obey the statute and regulation or to incur the penalty4 ,but as to a married woman1 if her husband approves1 she should obey the statute2 if1 however1 the husband objects1 then the wife ought to wish to obey the statute1 but in effect she should rather obey her husband1 for she is most immediately and strongly bound to do this40#cg ,aided by such ingenious opinions as these1 the women continued to follow their own inclinations notwithstanding the opposition of church and state4 ,other fine distinctions were drawn by the lawyers of that day regarding ownership of gems under certain conditions4 ,for instance1 it was decided that pearls given by a father to his unmarried daughter remained her property after marriage because 8they are given for a reason1 namely to induce a marriage02 yet 8pearls handed to a wife by her husband are not considered as her property1 but must be given to his heirs1 since it is supposed that they were given only for her adornment4 ,the same holds good as respects pearls handed to a daughter-in-law by her father-in-law40#ch ,however1 the greed of fashion1 which law-makers and bishops could not arrest1 was gradually satiated2 and1 influenced probably by the horrors of the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 more simple taste prevailed in the latter part of the seventeenth century4 ,in the meantime1 improvements in cutting and polishing had greatly increased the beauty and popularity of diamonds and other crystal gems1 and this adversely affected the demand for pearls4 ,furthermore1 cleverly fashioned imitations manufactured at a low cost also served to decrease the relative rank and fashion of the sea-born gems4 ,in the eighteenth century1 pearls were relatively scarce2 the resources of the ,american seas were largely exhausted1 likewise the ,ceylon and ,red ,sea fisheries were not to be depended on1 and practically the entire supply came from the ,persian ,gulf1 with a few from ,european rivers and the waters of ,china4 ,as a result1 although they continued to be prized by connoisseurs1 pearls were not so extensively sought after by the rank and file of jewel purchasers4 ,it should be noted1 however1 that from the most ancient times1 the princes of ,india and of ,persia have had their pick and choice of the output from ,ceylon and the ,persian ,gulf2 and the largest single collections of the ,western world have never equaled the possessions of some of those rulers4 ,some ,indian princes have loaded themselves with thousands of pearls1 and individual ornaments have been valued not only by oriental1 but by ,european experts1 at several millions of dollars4 ,the great diamond resources of ,brazil were discovered in #agbg1 and after a few years these came on the market at the rate of #adj1jjj carats annually4 ,at that time ladies of rank did not esteem diamonds so highly as pearls4 ,this distinction was accentuated by ,lord ,hervey in his account of the coronation1 in #agbg1 of ,george ,,ii and his consort ,caroline1 who wore not only the great pearl necklace inherited from ,queen ,anne1 but 8had on her head and shoulders all the pearls she could borrow of the ladies of quality at one end of the town1 and on her petticoat all the diamonds she could hire of the ,jews and jewelers at the other2 so that the appearance and the truth of her finery was a mixture of magnificence and meanness not unlike the clat of royalty in many other particulars1 when it comes to be nicely considered and its source traced to what money hires or flattery lends40#ci ,in a portrait of ,charlotte 7#agdd-ahah71 wife of ,george ,,iii1 the pearls and diamonds appear equally popular4 ,on the entry of the ,british into possession of ,ceylon in #agif1 the fisheries of that country were resumed with great success after thirty years of idleness1 resulting in very large outputs for several seasons4 ,but owing to exhaustion of the areas1 they were soon reduced1 and the yield became small and uncertain4 ,about #ahde1 pearls came on the market from the ,tuamotu ,archipelago and other ,south ,sea islands1 and the industry was revived on the ,mexican coast4 ,the pearls from these localities are noted for their range of coloration1 and particularly for the very dark shades1 black or greenish black being especially prominent4 ,but the fashion1 and thus1 necessarily1 the demand1 had always been for white and yellow pearls2 consequently1 these black ones were of little value in the markets until about ten years later1 when they became fashionable in ,europe largely through their popularity with ,empress ,eugnie of ,france1 then at the height of her power4 ,to this queen1 pearls owe much of their high rank in fashion in the nineteenth century2 and on her head they were royal gems royally worn1 as appears from ,winterhalter's portrait of her1 showing her magnificent necklace4 ,the discovery of the resources on the ,australian coast about #ahfe1 and the development of the fishery there for mother-of-pearl1 resulted in many large white pearls coming from that coast4 ,the search was confined to the relatively shoal waters1 until the introduction of diving-suits about #ahhj4 ,the use of these facilitated a considerable extension of the fisheries not only on the ,australian coast1 but also in ,mexico1 the ,malay ,archipelago1 several of the ,south ,sea islands1 and some minor localities4 ,in ,america1 few jewels were worn previous to the ,civil ,war1 owing to the absence of great wealth and to the simplicity of taste in personal decorations4 ,the rapid increase in wealth and luxury1 on the termination of that war1 resulted in a great demand for gems1 and the most brilliant and showy ones were selected1 especially diamonds4 ,this demand was the more readily supplied by the discovery of the ,south ,african mines1 with their great yield from #ahgj to the present time4 ,so popular did that gem become that many a young man invested his first earnings in a 8brilliant10 and an enormous diamond in the shirt-front became the caricatured emblem of a prosperous hotel clerk4 ,but in the last quarter of the nineteenth century1 in ,europe1 as well as in ,america and elsewhere where gems are worn1 luxury found in pearls a refinement1 associated with richness and beauty1 exceeding that of diamonds and other crystal gems1 and in the last few years they have taken the highest rank among jewels4 ,this change in fashion and the increase in wealth among the people developed vastly greater demands and consequently very much higher prices4 ,these have resulted in greatly extending the field of search1 and during the last two or three decades many new territories have been brought into production4 ,by far the most important of these new regions is the ,mississippi ,valley in ,america1 the pearl resources of which were made known about a score of years ago4 ,as the exploitation developed1 the gems from these streams added very largely to the supply1 especially of the baroque or irregular pearls1 which have increased greatly in fashion in the last ten years4 ,illustration ,,lady ,,abinger ,,mrs4 ,,adair ,,lady ,,wimborne ,,hon4 ,,mrs4 ,,renard ,,gr,,ville ,,marchioness ,,of ,,lansdowne ,,lady ,,londonderry ,,baroness ,,de ,,forest ,notwithstanding the popular idea that pearls are scarce owing to depletion of the fisheries1 they are doubtless produced in greater quantities at present than ever before in the history of the world4 ,true1 they were more plentiful in ,rome after the ,persian conquest1 and in ,spain immediately following the exploitation of tropical ,america2 but it is highly probable that in no equal period have the entire fisheries of the world yielded greater quantities than in the five years from #aijc to #aijg inclusive4 ,certain individual fisheries are now less productive than at the height of their prosperity2 those in the ,red ,sea do not compare favorably with their condition in ancient times1 the ,european resources are nearly exhausted1 the supplies from the ,venezuelan coast do not equal those obtained early in the sixteenth century1 the yield from ,mexico is not so extensive as twenty-five years ago1 and the same is true of some other regions4 ,on the other hand1 the great fisheries of ,persia and ,ceylon are yet very prosperous1 the ,ceylon fishery of #aije surpassing all records1 and the number of minor pearling regions has largely increased4 ,the present value of pearls--which has advanced enormously since #ahic--;is due to the extended markets and the increased wealth and fashion in ,western countries1 rather than to diminished fisheries4 ,the oriental demand still consumes the bulk of the ,persian and ,indian output1 and the vast increase in wealth among the middle classes in ,america1 ,europe1 and elsewhere1 has increased the demand tenfold over that of a century ago4 ,while women no longer appear ornamented from head to foot as in the sixteenth century1 pearls are in the highest fashion1 and the woman of rank and wealth usually prizes first among her jewels her necklace of pearls4 ,,iii ,,origin ,,of ,,pearls ,,iii ,,origin ,,of ,,pearls ,heaven-born and cradled in the deep blue sea1 it is the purest of gems and the most precious4 ,s4 ,m4 ,,zwemer4 ,the origin of pearls has been a fruitful subject of speculation and discussion among naturalists of all ages1 and has provoked many curious explanations4 ,most of the early views--universally accepted during those centuries when tradition had more influence than observation and experiment--have no standing among naturalists at the present time4 ,and although much information has been gained as to the conditions accompanying their growth1 and many theories are entertained1 each with some basis in observed fact1 science does not yet speak with conclusive and unquestioned authority as to the precise manner of their origin and development4 ,owing to the chaste and subdued beauty of pearls1 it is not strange that poets of many countries have founded their origin in tears--tears of angels1 of water-nymphs1 of the lovely and devoted4 ,sir ,walter ,scott in 8,the ,bridal of ,triermain0 refers to-- ,the pearls that long have slept1 ,these were tears by ,naiads wept4 ,in one of his most lovely and consoling thoughts1 ,shakspere says3 ,the liquid drops of tears that you have shed1 ,shall come again1 transform'd to orient pearl1 ,advantaging their loan with interest ,of ten times double gain of happiness4 ,and we quote from ,rckert's 8,edelstein und ,perlen03 ,i was the ,angel1 who of old bowed down ,from ,heaven to earth and shed that tear1 ,o ,pearl1 ,from which thou wert first-fashioned in thy shell4 ,to thee ,i gave that longing in thy shell1 ,which guided thee and caused thee to escape1 ,o ,pearl1 from the bewitching sirens' song4 ,in luster they so closely resemble the limpid1 sparkling dewdrop as it first receives the sun's rays1 that the ancients very naturally conceived that pearls are formed from drops of dew or rain4 ,the usual legend is1 that at certain seasons of the year1 the pearl-oysters rise to the surface of the water in the morning1 and there open their shells and imbibe the dewdrops2 these1 aided by the breath of the air and the warmth of the sunlight1 are1 in the course of time1 transformed into lustrous pearls2 but if the air and the sunlight are not received in sufficient quantities1 the pearls do not attain perfection and are faulty in form1 color1 and luster4 ,however remarkable and even absurd this may seem at present1 it appears to have been universally accepted for centuries by the most learned men of ,europe as well as by primitive people who delight in the mystical and fantastic4 ,this opinion was recorded in the ,sanskrit books of the ,brahmans and in other oriental literature4 ,the classical and medieval writings of ,europe contain numerous references to it2 and it is found even yet in the traditions and folk-lore of some peoples4 ,in the first century ,a4,d41 ,pliny wrote in his 8,historia naturalis10 according to ,dr4 ,philemon ,holland's quaint translation3 ,the fruit of these shell fishes are the ,pearles1 better or worse1 great or small1 according to the qualitie and quantitie of the dew which they received4 ,for if the dew were pure and cleare which went into them1 then are the ,pearles white1 faire1 and ,orient2 but if grosse and troubled1 the ,pearles likewise are dimme1 foule1 and duskish2 pale they are1 if the weather were close1 darke and threatening raine in the time of their conception4 ,whereby 7no doubt7 it is apparent and plaine1 that they participate more of the aire and sky1 than of the water and the sea2 for according as the morning is faire1 so are they cleere3 but otherwise1 if it were misty and cloudy1 they also will be thicke and muddy in colour4 ,if they may have their full time and season to feed1 the ,pearles likewise will thrive and grow bigge3 but if in the time it chance to lighten1 then they close their shells together1 and for want of nourishment are kept hungrie and fasting1 and so the pearles keepe at a stay and prosper not accordingly4 ,but if it thunder withall1 then suddenly they shut hard at once1 and breed only those excrescences which be called ,physemata1 like unto bladders puft up and hooved with wind1 no corporal substance at all3 and these are the abortive untimely fruits of these shell fishes4#dj ,illustration3 ,,panama ,,shell 7,margaritifera margaritifera mazatlanica7 ,with pearls attached ,illustration3 ,,venezuela ,,shell 7,margaritifera radiata7 ,showing growth of pearls ,pliny's views were probably derived from the ancient authorities of his time1 particularly from ,megasthenes1 ,chares of ,mytilene1 and ,isidorus of ,charace2 and these curious fictions were incorporated by subsequent writers and influenced popular opinion for many centuries4 ,with scarcely a single exception1 every recorded theory from the first century ,b4,c4 to the fifteenth century evidences a belief in dew-formed pearls4 ,this theory is referred to by ,thomas ,moore in his well-known lines3 ,and precious the tear as that rain from the sky1 ,which turns into pearls as it falls in the sea4 ,the ,spanish-,hebrew traveler ,benjamin of ,tudela1 in his 8,masaoth0 in ,persia 7from #aafj to #aagc71 wrote3 8,in these places pearls are found1 made by the wonderful artifice of nature3 for on the four and twentieth day of the month ,nisan1 a certain dew falleth into the waters1 which being sucked in by the oysters1 they immediately sink to the bottom of the sea2 afterwards1 about the middle of the month ,tisri1 men descend to the bottom of the sea1 and1 by the help of cords1 these men bringing up the oysters in great quantities from thence1 open and take out of them the pearls40#da ,from the 8,bustan10 one of the most popular works of ,sadi1 the ,persian poet 7#aaij-abia ,a4,d471 ,davie quotes3 ,from the cloud there descended a droplet of rain2 ',twas ashamed when it saw the expanse of the main1 ,saying3 8,who may ,i be1 where the sea has its run8 ,if the sea has existence1 ,i1 truly1 have none60 ,since in its own eyes the drop humble appeared1 ,in its bosom1 a shell with its life the drop reared2 ,the sky brought the work with success to a close1 ,and a famed royal pearl from the rain-drop arose4 ,because it was humble it excellence gained2 ,patiently waiting till success was attained4 ,even the usually well-informed ,william ,camden 7#aeea-afbc71 in whose honor the ,camden ,historical ,society of ,england was named1 accepted the theory of dew-formed pearls4 ,he stated that the river ,conway in ,wales 8breeds a kind of shells1 which being pregnated with dew1 produce pearl40#db ,also1 speaking of the ,irt in county ,cumberland1 ,england1 he said3 8,in this brook1 the shell-fish1 eagerly sucking in the dew1 conceive and bring forth pearls1 or 7to use the poet's word7 shell berries 7,baccas concheas740#dc ,a recent letter from the ,american consul at ,aden indicates that this view is held even yet by the ,arabs of that region4 ,in giving their explanation for the present scarcity in the ,red ,sea1 he states3 8,there is a belief among them that a pearl is formed from a drop of rain caught in the mouth of the pearl-oyster1 which by some chemical process after a time turns into a pearl2 and as there has been very little rain in that region for several years past1 there are few pearls40 ,so firmly established throughout ,europe was the belief in dew-formed pearls1 that its non-acceptance by the native ,indians of ,america excited the commiseration of the ,italian historian ,peter ,martyr1 in his 8,de ,orbe ,novo10 one of the very first books on ,america1 published in #aeag4 ,he states3 8,but that they pearls of ,margarita ,island on the present coast of ,venezuela become white by the clearnesse of the morning dewe1 or waxe yelowe in troubled weather1 or otherwise that they seeme to rejoice in fayre weather and dear ayre1 or contrary-wise1 to be as it were astonished and dymme in thunder and tempests1 with such other1 the perfect knowledge hereof is not to be looked for at the hands of these unlearned men1 which handle the matter but grossly and enquire no further than occasion serveth40#dd ,peter ,martyr was distinguished for his learning1 was an instructor at the court of ,spain at the height of its power1 and came in contact with the most enlightened men of ,europe1 consequently it may be assumed that he reflected the best opinions of his time4 ,it was not long before the aborigines of ,america were not alone in discrediting the views which had prevailed in ,europe for more than fifteen hundred years4 ,that practical old sailor ,sir ,richard ,hawkins concluded that this must be 8some old philosopher's conceit1 for it can not be made probable how the dew should come into the oyster40#de ,a similar view is expressed by ,urbain ,chauveton in his edition of ,girolamo ,benzoni's 8,historia del ,mondo ,nuovo10 published at ,geneva in #aegh4 ,from his reference to pearl-oysters on the ,venezuelan coast1 we translate3 ,illustration3 ,shells from ,venezuela 7,margaritifera radiata7 with attached pearls ,illustration3 ,exterior view of same ,illustration3 ,x-ray photograph of shell1 printed through exterior of shell and showing encysted pearls ,around the island of ,cubagua and elsewhere on the eastern coast1 are sandy places where the pearl-oysters grow4 ,they produce their eggs in very large quantities and likewise pearls at the same time4 ,but it is necessary to have patience to let them grow and mature to perfection4 ,they are soft at the beginning like the roe of fish2 and as the mollusk gradually grows1 they grow also and slowly harden4 ,sometimes many are found in one shell1 which are hard and small1 like gravel4 ,persons who have seen them while fishing say that they are soft as long as they are in the sea1 and that the hardness comes to them only when they are out of the water4 ,pliny says as much1 speaking of the ,orientals in ,book ,,ix1 of his ,natural ,history1 ch4 #ce4 ,but as to that author and ,albert the ,great and other writers upon the generation of pearls1 who have said that the oysters conceive them by means of the dew which they suck in1 and that according as the dew is clear or cloudy the pearls also are translucent or dark1 etc41 etc41--all this is a little difficult to believe2 for daily observation shows that all the pearls found in the same shell are not of the same excellence1 nor of the same form1 the same perfection of color1 nor the same size1 as they would or must be if they were conceived by the dew all at one time4 ,besides this1 in many of the islands the ,indians go fishing for them in ten or twelve fathoms depth1 and in some cases they are so firmly attached to the rocks in the sea that they can be wrenched off only by main strength4 ,would it not be difficult for them to inhale the quintessence of the air there8 ,it seems then that it is the germ and the most noble part of the eggs of the oyster which are converted into pearls rather than any other thing2 and the diversities of size1 color1 and other qualities1 proceed from the fact that some are more advanced than others1 as we see eggs in the body of the hen4#df ,the old theory of dew-formed pearls was illustrated even as late as #afhd on a medal struck in honor of ,elena ,piscopia of the ,corraro family of ,venice4 ,this bore an oyster-shell open and receiving drops of dew1 and underneath was engraved the motto 8,rore divino0 7,by divine dew74 ,even yet one hears occasionally from out-of-the-way places--as in the instance reported by the ,american consul at ,aden--of pearls formed from rain or dew1 notwithstanding that there seems to exist absolutely no justification for it in scientific zology4 ,probably the most popular theory entertained from the fifteenth to the seventeenth century was that pearls were formed from the eggs of the oyster4 ,this was intimated by ,chauveton in the quotation above given1 and it was also referred to by many naturalists4 ,in an interesting letter1 dated ,dec4 #a1 #afgc1 and giving as his authority the testimony of an eye-witness1 8,henricus ,arnoldi1 an ingenious and veracious ,dane10 ,christopher ,sandius wrote3 8,pearl shells in ,norway do breed in sweet waters2 their shells are like mussels1 but larger2 the fish is like an oyster1 it produces clusters of eggs2 these1 when ripe1 are cast out and become like those that cast them2 but sometimes it appears that one or two of these eggs stick fast to the side of the matrix1 and are not voided with the rest4 ,these are fed by the oyster against her will and they do grow1 according to the length of time1 into pearls of different bigness40#dg ,this possibly hit the mark with greater accuracy than the observations of the 8ingenious and veracious ,dane0 warranted1 for he seems to have had quite a different idea as to the manner in which the pearls are 8fed by the oyster against her will0 from those generally entertained by naturalists at the present time4 ,however1 ,oliver ,goldsmith settled the matter by declaring briefly3 8,whether pearls be a disease or an accident in the animal is scarce worth enquiry40#dh ,thus it seems that notwithstanding all that had been written and the extended attention given to the subject1 theory prevailed to the almost complete exclusion of practical investigation1 with little intelligent advance over ,topsy's 8'spect they just growed40 ,owing1 doubtless1 to the scarcity of pearl-bearing mollusks in their vicinities1 naturalists of ,europe were somewhat slow in giving attention to the origin of pearls4 ,this is further accounted for by the fact that the gems occur more frequently in old and diseased shells than in the choice specimens which have naturally attracted the notice of conchologists4 ,one of the first of the original observations made on this subject was that by ,rondelet1 who1 in #aeed1 advanced the idea that pearls are diseased concretions occurring in the mollusca1 similar to the morbid calculi in the mammalia4#di ,the first writer to intimate the similarity in structural material or substance between pearls and the interior of the shell in which they are formed1 appears to have been ,anselmus de ,boot 7circa #afjj71 who wrote that the pearls 8are generated in the body of the creature of the same humour of which the shell is formed2 444 for whenever the little creature is ill and hath not strength enough to belch up or expel this humour which sticketh in the body1 it becometh the rudiments of the pearl2 to which new humour1 being added and assimilated into the same nature1 begets a new skin1 the continued addition of which generates a pearl40#ej ,the ,portuguese traveler1 ,pedro ,teixeira 7#afjh71 stated3 8,i hold it for certain that pearls are born of and formed of the very matter of the shell and of nothing else4 ,this is supported by the great resemblance of the pearl and the oyster-shell in substance and color4 ,further1 whatever oyster contains pearls has the flesh unsound and almost rotten in the parts where the pearls are produced1 and those oysters that have no pearls are sound and clean fleshed40#ea ,somewhat more than one hundred years later1 this theory was confirmed by investigations made by the famous physicist ,raumur 7#afhc-ageg74 ,microscopic examination of cross sections of pearls show that they are built up of concentric lamin similar1 except in curvature1 to those forming the nacreous portion of the shell4 ,in a paper published by the ,french ,academy of ,science in #agag1eb ,raumur noted this condition1 and suggested that pearls are misplaced pieces of organized shell1 and are formed from a secretion which overflows from the shell-forming organ or from a ruptured vessel connected therewith1 and that the rupture or overflow is ordinarily produced by the intrusion of some foreign or irritating substance4 ,sir ,edwin ,arnold calls attention to this theory in his beautiful lines3 ,know you1 perchance1 how that poor formless wretch-- ,the ,oyster--gems his shallow moonlit chalice8 ,where the shell irks him1 or the sea-sand frets1 ,he sheds this lovely lustre on his grief4 ,in pursuance of this idea1 we find1 in #agfa1 the ,swedish naturalist ,linnus1 8the father of natural history10 experimenting in the artificial production of pearls by the introduction of foreign bodies in the shell1 and meeting with some degree of success4 ,his discovery was rated so highly that it has been announced by some writers as the reason why the great naturalist received the patent of nobility1 which is generally supposed to have been the reward for his services to science4 ,it seems that ,linnus's discovery but verified the old saying that there is nothing new under the sun1 for later it was announced#ec that in ,china--where so many inventions have originated--this idea had been put to practical account for centuries preceding1 and the crafty ,chinaman had succeeded in producing not only small pearly objects1 but even images of ,buddha1 with which to awe the disciples of that deified teacher4 ,the method consisted in slightly opening or boring through the shell of the living mollusk and introducing against the soft body a small piece of nacre1 molded metal1 or other foreign matter4 ,the irritation causes the formation of pearly layers about the foreign body1 resulting1 in the course of months or of years1 in a pearl-like growth4 ,while these have some value as objects of curiosity or of slight beauty1 they are not choice pearls1 nor for that matter were those produced by ,linnus4 ,it will be observed that the theory of ,raumur1 and also that of ,linnus1 required the intrusion of some hard substance1 such as a grain of sand1 a particle of shell1 etc41 to constitute a nucleus of the pearl2 and this is the accepted explanation at the present time as to the origin of many of the baroque or irregular pearls1 and likewise the pearly 8blisters0 and excrescences attached to the shell4 ,but not so as to the choice or gem pearls1 those beautiful symmetrical objects of great luster which are usually referred to in speaking of pearls4 ,examinations of many of these have failed1 except in rare instances1 to reveal a foreign nucleus of sand or similar inorganic substance4 ,in searching many fresh-water mussels1 ,sir ,everard ,home frequently met with small pearls in the ovarium1 and he further noticed that these1 as well as oriental pearls1 when split into halves1 often showed a brilliant cell in the center1 about equal in size to the ova of the same mollusk4 ,from these observations1 in #ahbf he deduced his 8abortive ova0 theory1 and announced3 ,a pearl is formed upon the external surface of an ovum1 which1 having been blighted1 does not pass with the others into the oviduct1 but remains attached to its pedicle in the ovarium1 and in the following season receives a coat of nacre at the same time that the internal surface of the shell receives its annual supply4 ,this conclusion is verified by some pearls being spherical1 others having a pyramidal form1 from the pedicle having received a coat of nacre as well as the ovum4#ed ,naturalists generally accepted these conclusions1 that pearls originate in pathological secretions formed1 either as the result of the intrusion of hard substances1 or by the encysting or covering of ova or other objects of internal origin2 and there was no important cleavage of opinion until the development of the parasitic theory1 as a result of the researches of the ,italian naturalist ,filippi1 and those following his line of investigations4 ,this theory is not severely in conflict with those of ,raumur1 ,linnus1 ,home1 etc41 but relates principally to the identity of the irritating or stimulating substance which forms the nucleus of the pearl4 ,in examining a species of fresh-water mussel1 the ,anodonta cygnea1 occurring in ponds near ,turin1 and especially the many small pearly formations therein1 ,filippi observed that these were associated with the presence of a trematode or parasitic worm1 which he named ,distomum duplicatum1 and which appears to be closely allied to the parasite which causes the fatal 8rot0 or distemper in sheep4 ,under the microscope1 the smallest and presumably the youngest of these pearls showed organic nuclei which appeared undoubtedly to be the remnants of the trematode4 ,in ,anodonta from other regions1 which were not infested with the distoma1 pearls were very rarely found by ,filippi4 ,in a paper1#ee published in #aheb1 containing a summary of his observations1 he concluded that a leading1 if not the principal1 cause of pearl-formation in those mussels was the parasite above noted2 and in later papers#ef he included such other forms as ,atax ypsilophorus within the list of parasitic agencies which might excite the pearl-forming secretions1 comparing their action to that of the formation of plant-galls4 ,illustration3 ,mexican pearl-oyster 7,margaritifera margaritifera mazatlanica7 with adherent pearl ,illustration3 ,group of encysted pearls in shell of ,australian pearl-oyster 7,margaritifera maxima7 ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history ,illustration3 ,mexican pearl-oyster 7,margaritifera margaritifera mazatlanica7 with encysted fish ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history ,illustration3 ,group of encysted pearls 7,oriental7 ,illustration3 ,reverse of same group1 showing outline of the individual pearls ,the discovery of the parasitic origin of pearls was extended to the pearl-oysters and to other parasites by ,kchenmeister#eg in #ahef1 by ,mbius#eh in #aheg1 and by several other investigators4 ,prominent among these were ,e4 ,f4 ,kelaart and his assistant ,humbert1 who1 in #aheiei disclosed the important relation which the presence of vermean parasites bears to the origin of pearls in the ,ceylon oysters4 ,these naturalists found 8in addition to the ,filaria and ,cercaria1 three other parasitical worms infesting the viscera and other parts of the pearl-oyster4 ,we both agree that these worms play an important part in the formation of pearls40 ,dr4 ,kelaart likewise found eggs from the ovarium of the oyster coated with nacre and forming pearls1 and also suggested that the silicious internal skeletons of microscopic diatoms might possibly permeate the mantle and become the nuclei of pearls4 ,unfortunately1 ,dr4 ,kelaart's investigations were terminated by his death a few months thereafter4 ,in #ahga1 ,garner ascribed the occurrence of pearls in the common ,english mussel 7,mytilus edulis7 to the presence of distomid larv4#fj ,giard1#fa and other ,french zologists1 made similar discoveries in the case of ,donax and some other bivalves4 ,in #aija1 ,raphael ,dubois confirmed the observations of ,garner1 associating the production of pearls in the edible mussels on the ,french coasts with the presence of larv of a parasite1 to which he gave the name of ,distomum margaritarum1 and boldly announced3 8,la plus belle perle n'est donc1 en dfinitive1 que le brillant sarcophage d'un ver40#fb ,prof4 ,h4 ,l4 ,jameson1 in #aijb1 disclosed the relation which exists between pearls in ,english mussels 7,mytilus7 and the larv of ,distomum somateri4#fc ,the life history of this trematode1 as revealed by ,dr4 ,jameson1 is especially interesting from a biological standpoint1 since it is entertained by three hosts at different times3 the first host is a member of the duck family2 the second is the ,tapes clam 7,tapes decussatus71 or perhaps the common cockle 7,cardium edule71 which incloses the first larval stage1 and the third is the edible mussel1 in which the second larval stage of the parasite stimulates the formation of pearls4 ,at the ,brighton ,aquarium and the ,fish ,hatchery at ,kiel1 ,dr4 ,jameson claims to have succeeded in artificially inoculating perfectly healthy mussels with these parasites by associating them with infested mollusks1 and thereby producing small pearls4 ,from ,dr4 ,jameson's interesting paper we abridge the following account of the manner in which the pearls are developed4 ,the trematode enters ,mytilus edulis as a tailless cercaria1 and at first may often be found between the mantle and the shell4 ,the larv1 after a while1 enter the connective tissue of the mantle1 where they come to rest1 assuming a spherical form1 visible to the naked eye as little yellowish spots about one half millimeter in diameter4 ,at first the worm occupies only a space lined by connective-tissue fibrils1 but soon the tissues of the host give rise to an epithelial layer1 which lines the space and ultimately becomes the pearl-sac4 ,if the trematode larva completes its maximum possible term of life1 it dies1 and the tissues of the body break down to form a structureless mass which retains the form of the parasite1 owing to the rigid cuticle4 ,in this mass arise one or more centers of calcification1 and the precipitation of carbonate of lime goes on until the whole larva is converted into a nodule with calcospheritic structure4 ,the granular matter surrounding the worm1 if present1 also undergoes calcification4 ,the epithelium of the sac then begins to shed a cuticle of conchiolin1 and from this point the growth of the pearl probably takes place on the same lines and at the same rate as the thickening of the shell4#fd ,fully as remarkable as the observations of ,dr4 ,jameson are the results claimed by ,professor ,dubois in experimenting with a species of pearl-oyster 7,m4 vulgaris7 from the ,gulf of ,gabes on the coast of ,tunis1 where they are almost devoid of pearls1 a thousand or more shells yielding on an average only one pearl4 ,conveying these to the coast of ,france in #aijc1 he there associated them with a species of trematode-infested mussel 7,mytilus gallo-provincialis71 and after a short period they became so infested that every three oysters yielded an average of two pearls4#fe ,this claim has not been without criticism2 but who ever knew scientists to agree8 ,in the pearl-oyster of the ,gambier ,islands 7,m4 margaritifera cumingi71 ,dr4 ,l4 ,g4 ,seurat found that the origin of pearls was due to irritation caused by the embryo of a worm of the genus ,tylocephalum1 the life of which is completed in the eagle-ray1 a fish which feeds on the pearl-oyster4#ff ,in #aijc1 ,prof4 ,w4 ,a4 ,herdman1 who1 at the instance of the colonial government1 and with the assistance of ,mr4 ,james ,hornell1 examined the pearl-oyster resources of ,ceylon1 announced3 8,we have found1 as ,kelaart did1 that in the ,ceylon pearl-oyster there are several different kinds of worms commonly occurring as parasites1 and we shall1 ,i think1 be able to show that ,cestodes1 ,trematodes1 and ,nematodes may all be concerned in pearl formation4 ,unlike the case of the ,european mussels1 however1 we find that in ,ceylon the most important cause is a larval ,cestode of the ,tetrarhynchus form40#fg ,in his investigation of the ,placuna oyster in #aije1 ,mr4 ,james ,hornell found that the origin of pearls was due to minute larva of the same stage and species as that which causes the pearls in the ,gulf of ,manar oyster4#fh ,the spherical larv of this tapeworm sometimes occur in great abundance1 and there is evidence of forty having been found in a single pearl-oyster4 ,mr4 ,hornell states that the living worm does not induce pearl formation1 this occurring only when death overtakes it while in certain parts of the oyster4 ,as a consequence1 pearls are more numerous in oysters which have been long infected1 where the worms are older and more liable to die4 ,this parasitic worm has been traced from the pearl-oyster to the trigger-fishes1 which eat the pearl-oysters1 and thence into certain large fish-eating rays1 where it becomes sexually mature and produces embryos which enter the pearl-oyster and begin a new cycle of life-phases4 ,it seems1 therefore1 that the latest conclusions of science appear entirely favorable to the parasitic theory as explaining at least one1 and probably the most important1 of the causes for the formation of pearls2 and that some truth exists in the statement that the most beautiful pearl is only the brilliant sarcophagus of a worm4 ,this morphological change is not peculiar to mollusks1 for in most animal bodies a cyst is formed about in-wandering larv4 ,fortunately for lovers of the beautiful1 in the pearl-oysters the character of the cyst-wall follows that of the interior lining of the shell1 and not only simulates1 but far surpasses it in luster4 ,while the theory that pearls are caused by the intrusion of some unusual substance has the evidence of actual demonstration in many instances1 and is unquestionably true to a large extent1 yet microscopic examination of some pearls suggests the theory that a foreign substance is not always essential to their formation1 and that they may originate in calcareous concretions of minute size1 termed 8calcospherules40 ,as regards their origin1 ,professor ,herdman classifies pearls into three sorts3 7#a7 8,ampullar pearls10 which are not formed within closed sacs of the shell-secreting epithelium like the others1 but lie in pockets or ampull of the epidermis4 ,the nuclei may be sand-grains or any other foreign particles introduced through breaking or perforation of the shell4 7#b7 8,muscle pearls10 which are analogous to gallstones1 formed around calcospherules at or near the insertion of the muscles4 ,and 7#c7 8,cyst pearls10 in which concentric layers of nacre are deposited on cysts containing parasitic worms in the connective tissue of the mantle and within the soft tissues of the body4#fi ,even a particle of earth1 clay1 or mud may form the nucleus of a pearl4 ,this was illustrated a few years ago in a fine button-shaped pearl1 which was accidentally broken under normal usage and was found to consist of a hard lump of white clay surrounded by a relatively thin coating of nacre4 ,more remarkable yet are the cases in which a minute fish1 a crayfish1 or the frustule of a diatom has formed the nucleus4 ,several instances have been described by ,woodward1 ,gunther1 ,putnam1 ,stearns1 and others1 where small fish have penetrated between the mantle and the shell of the mollusk1 and the latter has resented the intrusion by covering the intruder with a pearly coating4 ,in two or three instances the secretion occurred in so short a time that the fish suffered no appreciable decomposition1 and its species is readily identified by observation through the nacreous layer4 ,among the remarkable specimens of this nature which have come under our observation are two very curious shells received in ,march1 #aijg1 from the ,mexican fisheries4 ,one of these specimens shows an encysted fish1 so quickly covered and so perfectly preserved that even the scales and small bones are in evidence2 indeed1 one can almost detect the gloss on the scales of the fish2 and in the other--with a remarkable comet-like appearance--a piece of ribbed seaweed is apparently the object covered4 ,from the foregoing1 it appears that the pearl is not a product of health associated with undisturbed conditions1 but results from a derangement in the normal state of the mollusk4 ,unable to resist1 to rid itself of the opposing evil1 it exercises the powers given to it by a beneficent ,creator and converts the pain into perfection1 the grief into glory4 ,nature has many instances of the humble and lowly raised to high degree1 but none more strikingly beautiful than this4 ,one of the lowest of earth's creatures1 suffering a misfortune1 furnishes a wonderful lesson upon the uses of pain and adversity by converting its affliction into a precious gem symbolical of all that is pure and beautiful4 ,as written by a forgotten poet3 8,forasmuch as the pearl is a product of life1 which from an inward trouble and from a fault produces purity and perfection1 it is preferred2 for in nothing does ,god so much delight as in tenderness and lustre born of trouble and repentance40 ,as the great ,persian poet ,hafiz says3 ,learn from yon orient shell to love thy foe1 ,and store with pearls the wound that brings thee woe4 ,,iv ,,structure ,,and ,,forms ,,iv ,,structure ,,and ,,forms ,,of ,,pearls 8,this maskellez perle that boght is dere1 ,the joueler gef fore alle hys gold1 ,is lyke the reme of hevenes clere02 ,so sayde the fader of folde and flode1 8,for hit is wermlez1 clene and clere1 ,and endelez rounde and blythe of mode1 ,and commune to all that ryghtwys were40 ,,fourteenth-,,century ,,mss4 ,,of 8,,pearl10 ,,in ,,the ,,british ,,museum4 ,as ,kadir ,munshi says1 8pearls have no pedigree02 their beauty is not to be traced to their origin1 but exists wholly in the excellence of the surroundings in which they develop4 ,the pearl-bearing mollusks are luxurious creatures1 and for the purpose of protecting their delicate bodies they cover the interior of their shells with a smooth lustrous material1 dyed with rainbow hues1 and possessing a beautiful but subdued opalescence4 ,no matter how foul1 how coral covered1 or overgrown with sponges or seaweeds the exterior may be1 all is clean and beautiful within4 ,this material is nacre or mother-of-pearl4 ,it consists ordinarily of an accumulation of extremely thin semi-transparent films or lamin of a granular organic substance called conchiolin1 with the interstices filled with calcareous matter4 ,the nacre decreases in thickness from the hinge toward the lip of the shell1 and terminates a short distance from the extreme edge4 ,next to the nacre is the middle layer or the shell proper4 ,in species of ,margaritifera1 this stratum is commonly formed of layers of calcareous prisms arranged vertically to the shell surface4 ,external to this middle or prismatic layer is the epidermis or periostracum1 the rough outer coating of varying shades1 usually yellow or brown4 ,where the waves are rough1 and the bottom hard and rocky1 this covering is thick and heavy1 to afford greater protection2 but where the waters are smooth and gentle1 and the bottom free from rocks1 ,nature--never working in vain--furnishes only thin sides and slight defense4 ,as is the case with the nacre1 the prismatic layer and the periostracum decrease in thickness from the hinge to the edge1 and the inside lip of the shell shows the gradual union of the three superimposed layers4 ,the two outer layers are formed by the thick edge of the mantle1 the remaining portion--or nearly the entire surface--of this organ secretes the nacral layer4 ,not only is the interior of the shell made lustrous and beautiful1 but this tendency is exerted toward all objects that come in contact with the soft body of the mollusk1 either by intrusion simply within the shell1 or deeply within the organs and tissues of the animal itself4 ,all foreign bodies--such as small parasites1 diatoms1 minute pebbles1 etc41--irritate the tender tissues of the mollusk1 and stimulate the pearly formation which in course of time covers them4 ,at first the nacreous covering is very thin2 but with added layer after layer the thickness is enhanced1 and the size of the object increases as long as it remains undisturbed and the mollusk is in healthful growth4 ,chemically considered1 aside from the nucleus1 the structure of pearls is identical in composition with that of the nacre of the shell in which they are formed4 ,analyses have shown that those from the fresh-water mussels of ,england and ,scotland1 and from the pearl-oysters of ,australia and of ,ceylon1 have nearly identical composition in the proportion of about #e4id per cent4 of organic matter1 #b4cd of water1 and #ia4gb per cent4 of carbonate of lime4#gj ,the specific gravity ranges from nearly #b to about #b4ge1 increasing with the deposit of the nacreous coatings4 ,the following summary by ,von ,hessling#ga shows the results of certain determinations of specific gravity3 ,authority ,specific ,note ,gravity ,muschenbroet #b4gej at moderate temperature ,brisson #b4fhd at #ad ,raumur ,mbius #b4fhf #d fine pearls1 weighing #b4cif gms4 ,mbius #b4fej #bd pearls1 weighing #f4bba gms4 ,mbius #b4ccf #fc brown pearls from ,mazatlan1 weighing #d4hdi gms4 ,voit #b4gbb ,bavarian pearls1 #c-caf carats1 medium quality ,voit #b4faf ,bavarian pearls1 #c carats1 finer quality ,voit #b4gbd ,bavarian pearls1 #a carats1 very fine ,voit #b4egh ,bavarian pearls1 gray1 with some luster ,voit #b4gfe ,bavarian pearls1 brown1 ranking between good black ,voit #b4bch ,bavarian pearls1 poor black pearls1 impure ,illustration3 ,cross section of an irregular pearl1 magnified #hj diameters ,illustration3 ,cross sections of pearls1 magnified #cj diameters ,illustration3 ,thin section of mother-of-pearl1 magnified1 showing sponge borings which traversed the pearl shell ,illustration3 ,structure of conch pearl produced by fracturing1 magnified #hj diameters ,the distinctive characteristic1 the great beauty of a true pearl1 is its luster or orient1 which is a subdued iridescence1 rather than the glittering brilliance of the diamond2 and unless the shelly growth be lustrous it does not rank as a gem pearl1 no matter how perfect its form or beautiful its color4 ,this luster is due to the structural arrangement of the surface as well as to the quality of the material4 ,the nacreous material forming true pearls1 and likewise mother-of-pearl1 is commonly deposited in irregular tenuous layers1 very thin and very small in area compared with the surface of the pearl4 ,these lamin overlap one another1 the surfaces are microscopically crumpled and corrugated1 and the edges form serrated outlines4 ,the greater the angle which the lamin form with the surface1 the closer will be these serrated outlines1 and where the plane of the exterior lamina is parallel with the plane of the surface the lines are not present4 ,this arrangement causes the waves of light to be reflected from different levels on the surface1 just as in a soap bubble1 and the minute prisms split the rays up into their colored constituents1 producing the chromatic or iridescent effect4 ,the cause is wholly mechanical1 and an impression of the surface made in very fine wax shows a similar iridescence4 ,also1 if a piece of mother-of-pearl be immersed in acid until the surface lime or shelly matter is dissolved1 the pellucid membrane shows the iridescence until it is so compressed that the corrugations are reduced4 ,about two score years ago an ,englishman invented steel buttons with similar minute corrugations producing pearly effect1 but the manufacture was unprofitable1 owing1 principally1 to their liability to tarnish4 ,in the shells of some mollusks--as the edible oysters 7,ostrea7 or the giant clam 7,tridacna71--there is almost a total absence of the crumpled corrugated lamin1 and1 consequently1 there is little luster4 ,in others the nacre is of better quality1 resulting in superior orient1 and it probably reaches its highest degree of perfection in the pearl-oyster 7,margaritifera74 ,as the curvature of the surface of pearls is greater1 and the minute stri are more numerous1 than in ordinary mother-of-pearl1 it follows that the iridescence is likewise greater4 ,superior nacre is more or less translucent1 depending on its quality2 and to the iridescence of the outer lamin is added that of many interior ones1 so that the luster is vastly increased4 ,the position of the pearl within the shell may greatly affect the quality of the material and1 consequently1 the orient4 ,the choicest are commonly found within the soft parts of the animal1 and those of poorer quality are at the edges of the mantle1 or within the fibers of the adductor muscle of bivalves4 ,the structure of pearls may be studied by examining thin cross sections under the microscope1 or by transmitted polarized light4 ,it appears that ordinarily a pearl is made up of many independent lamin superimposed one upon another 8like the layers of an onion10 or1 rather1 resembling the leaves near the upper part of a well formed cabbage4 ,when subjected to sufficient heat1 the lamin separate from each other1 as do shells of edible oysters and similar mollusks under like conditions4 ,when broken by a hammer1 a pearl may exhibit this laminated formation4 ,if not split directly through the center1 the central section may retain the spherical form2 and as this commonly remains attached to one of the parts1 its concave impression appears in the other portion of the broken pearl4 ,the outer lamin of many pearls may be removed with a fair prospect of finding a good subjacent surface1 and this may be continued until the size is greatly reduced4 ,these lamin are not always similar in color or luster4 ,however1 not all pearls are laminated in this manner4 ,instead of superimposed layers1 some of them exhibit a crystalline form1 composed of beautiful prismatic crystals radiating from the center to the circumference4 ,in at least one oriental pearl examined1 these crystals were in well defined arcs1 and were further separated into concentric rings of different degrees of thickness1 depth of color1 and distance apart4 ,another specimen--a ,scotch pearl--combined in separate layers both the laminated form and the crystalline structure4 ,dr4 ,harley points out that some crystalline pearls apparently originate in mere coalescences of mineral particles1 rather than in well defined nuclei4#gb ,microscopic sections of crystalline pearls convey the idea that the prisms branch and interlace with one another1 and also that in some instances they are of fusiform shape4 ,however1 these appearances seem to be due simply to the cross sections having cut the prisms at different angles4 ,pearls showing these types were exhibited at a meeting of the ,royal ,society of ,london1 ,june #h1 #ahhg4 ,that exhibit also contained a section of a west ,australian pearl of curiously complex crystalline formation2 instead of one central starting-point1 it had more than a dozen scattered about1 from which the crystalline prisms radiated in all directions4 ,since the three superimposed layers of the shell are secreted by separate parts of the mantle1 viz41 the nacre by the general surface1 the prismatic layer by the inner edge1 and the epidermis by the outer edge1 it follows that if a pearl in course of formation is moved from one of these distinctive portions of the palial organ to another1 the nature of its lamin changes4 ,thus1 if a pearl formed on the broad surface of the mantle is moved in some way to the inner edge of that organ1 it may be covered with a prismatic layer2 if then moved to the outer edge it may receive a lamina of epidermis1 and then by changing again to the broad surface of the mantle it receives further coats of nacre4 ,illustration3 ,pearls from common clam 7,venus mercenaria7 of eastern coast of ,america ,illustration3 ,pearl 8nuggets0 from the ,mississippi ,valley ,illustration3 ,wing pearls from the ,mississippi ,valley ,illustration3 ,dog-tooth pearls from the ,mississippi ,valley ,the structure of pearls from univalve mollusks1 such as the conch1 the abalone1 etc41 as well as those from some bivalves1 as the ,pinna1 for instance1 differs from that of the true pearls formed in species of ,margaritifera4 ,instead of the alternate layers of conchiolin and of carbonate of lime1 many of these have an alveolar structure4 ,when greatly magnified1 the surface of a ,pinna pearl appears to be formed of very small polygones1 which1 as decalcification shows1 are the bases of small pyramids radiating from the nucleus4 ,the walls of these pyramids are formed of conchiolin1 and they are filled with carbonate of lime of a prismatic crystalline structure4 ,this is simply a modification of the parallel lamin in the ,margaritifera pearls1 for1 as ,dubois points out1 in some sections we can see portions where the alveolar formation has proceeded for a time coincidentally with the lamellar form4 ,pearls are affected by acids and fetid gases1 and may be calcined on exposure to heat4 ,their solubility in vinegar was referred to by the ,roman architect ,vitruvius 78,de ,architectura10 ,l4 viii4 c4 #c7 and also by ,pausanias1 a ,greek geographer in the second century 78,hellados ,periegesis10 ,l4 viii1 c4 #ah72 but it seems that there could be little foundation for ,pliny's well-known anecdote in which ,cleopatra is credited with dissolving a magnificent pearl in vinegar and drinking it--8the ransom of a kingdom at a draught0--to the health of her lover ,antony4#gc ,it is no more easy to dissolve a pearl in vinegar than it is to dissolve a pearl-button--for the composition is similar1 and one may easily experiment for himself as to the difficulty in doing this4 ,not only does it take many days to dissolve in cold vinegar the mineral elements of a pearl of fair size1 but even with boiling vinegar it requires several hours to extract the mineral matter from one four or five grains in weight1 the acid penetrating to the interior very slowly4 ,and in neither case can the pearl be made to disappear1 for even after the carbonate of lime has dissolved1 the organic matrix of animal matter--which is insoluble in vinegar--retains almost the identical shape1 size1 and appearance as before4 ,if the pearl is first pulverized1 it becomes readily soluble in vinegar1 and might be thus drunk as a lover's potion1 but it would scarcely prove a bonne bouche4 ,pearls assume an almost infinite variety of forms1 due largely to the shapes of the nuclei1 and also to their positions within the mollusk4 ,the most usual--and1 fortunately1 also the most valuable--is the spherical1 resulting from a very minute or a round body as a nucleus and the uniform addition of nacre on all sides4 ,of course1 spherical pearls can result only where they are quite free from other hard substances2 consequently they originate only in the soft parts of the mollusk and not by the fixation of some nucleus to the interior surface of the shell4 ,the perfectly spherical pearls range in weight from a small fraction of a grain to three hundred grains or more1 but it is very1 very rare that one of choice luster weighs more than one hundred grains4 ,the largest of which we have any specific information was that among the ,french crown jewels as early as the time of ,napoleon1 an egg-shaped pearl1 weighing #ccg grains4 ,the largest pearl known to ,pliny in the first century ,a4,d4 weighed 8half a ,roman ounce and one scruple over10 or #bcd grains ,troy4 ,these very large ones1 weighing in excess of one hundred grains1 are called 8paragons40 ,the small pearls--weighing less than half a grain each--are known as 8seed-pearls40 ,the very small ones1 weighing less than #abe of a grain1 are called 8dust-pearls40 ,these are too small to be of economic value as ornaments4 ,slight departures from the perfect sphere1 result in egg shapes1 pear shapes1 drop shapes1 pendeloque1 button shapes1 etc4 ,some of these are valued quite as highly at the present time as the spherical pearls1 and many of the most highly prized pearls in the world are of other than spherical form4 ,indeed1 pearls of this kind are found of larger size than the perfectly round pearls4 ,the egg-shaped pearl1#gd called 8la ,rgente10--one of the ,french crown jewels sold in ,may1 #ahhg--weighed1 as stated above1 #ccg grains4 ,the great pear pearl described by ,tavernier--8the largest ever discovered0--weighed about #ejj grains4 ,a button pearl received from ,panama in #aijf weighed #baf grains4 ,wider departures from the spherical form result in cylindrical1 conical1 top-shaped1 etc4 ,some pearls present the appearance of having been turned in a lathe with intricate tooling4 ,remarkable examples of these 8turned pearls0 have been found1 competing in their circular perfection with the best work of a jeweler's lathe4 ,many standard varieties of non-spherical1 but normally shaped pearls1 are recognized by the fishermen and the jewelers4 ,for instance1 in the nomenclature of the ,american fishermen1 bouton1 or button pearls are divided into 8haystacks0 and 8turtle-backs10 according to the height of the projection4 ,also1 certain imperfections result in distinguishing names3 8bird's-eye0 refers to a pearl having a little imperfection on the best surface2 8ring-arounds0 have a dark or discolored ring about them2 and 8strawberries0 have numerous minute projections on the surface4 ,during its growth1 a spherical pearl may come in contact with a foreign body1 such as grit or a vegetable film1 and the additional nacral layers envelop the adjacent matter until it is entirely concealed within the pearl1 its position being recognized only by the excrescence on one side1 and1 with continued increase in size1 even this may be almost overcome4 ,illustration3 ,,actual ,,sizes ,,of ,,pearls ,,from ,,grain ,,to #afj ,,grains ,sometimes double1 triple1 or multiple pearls are formed2 each of these may have a separate nucleus and grow independently for a time until they adjoin each other2 continuing to grow1 they become so united as to form a connected mass4 ,the 8,southern ,cross0 is a remarkable example of this4 ,it appears to consist of seven nearly spherical pearls attached to one another in a straight line1 and one projecting from each side of the second in the row1 thus forming a ,roman cross4#ge ,a few years ago1 near ,sharks ,bay1 on the coast of western ,australia1 a cluster was found containing about #aej pearls closely compacted4 ,this cluster measured about one and a half inches in length1 three quarters of an inch in breadth1 and half an inch in thickness4 ,when a growing pearl is very near to the nacreous lining of the shell1 the pressure between the two hard substances results in a rupture of the pearl-forming sac and the epithelial layer of the shell1 and the pearl comes in actual contact with the nacre4 ,the pearl gradually becomes attached to the shell1 and the under portion is prevented from growing further2 the upper or exposed surface receives other layers1 resulting in the formation of a bouton4 ,as the shell around the pearl continues to grow1 it gradually closes about1 and almost wholly conceals the pearl4 ,since it is constantly wasting away on the exterior surface as it grows on the interior1 it follows that in time the shell passes the pearl quite through to the outside1 where it rapidly decays4 ,thus the oyster virtually forces the annoying intruder directly through the wall of its house instead of by way of the open door1 and magically closes the breach with its marvelous masonry4 ,these embedded pearls are generally faulty and of diminished luster1 but in the aggregate1 large quantities of imperfect ones1 and especially half and quarter pearls1 are secured in this manner4 ,sometimes--particularly in the ,australian fisheries--large pearls are thus found1 weighing twenty1 forty1 sixty1 and even eighty grains2 and when the faulty outside layers of nacre are removed1 a subjacent surface of fine luster may possibly be revealed4 ,in bivalves1 these adherent pearls are commonly in the deep or lower valve1 except in those unusual cases where the mollusks have been lying in a reverse position4 ,at the fisheries1 the surfaces of the shells are carefully inspected for evidence of pearly nodules1 and these are broken open in search for encysted objects4 ,cutters of mother-of-pearl occasionally find embedded pearls of this kind which have escaped the vigilant eyes of the fishermen4 ,we read of an instance in an important paper treating of the jeweling trade of ,birmingham3 8,a few years since the paper was written in #ahff a small lot of shells was brought to ,birmingham1 which either from ignorance or mistake had not been cleared of the pearls at the fishery4 ,a considerable number were found and sold1 and one especially was sold by the man who had bought the shell for working into buttons1 for #dj4 ,the purchaser1 we believe1 resold the same for a profit of #afj2 and we have heard that it was afterward held in ,paris for sale at #hjj40 ,a choice gem which was found in ,new ,york1 in ,october1 #aije1 in an ,australian shell1 sold finally for #abjj4 ,the intrusion and continued presence of grains of sand or similar material between the mantle and the shell causes the formation of nacre over the foreign body1 resulting in a chicot 7blister pearl71 or possibly a quarter or a half-pearl4 ,the growth of a chicot sometimes results from the mollusk covering a choice pearl which has become loosened from the soft tissues and adheres to the shell1 as above cited4 ,hence1 it is sometimes desirable to break a chicot to secure its more valuable inclosure4 ,in the account of his interesting pearling experiences on the ,australian coast1 ,henry ,taunton states3 8,during the first season's shelling at ,roebuck ,bay1 we came across an old worm-eaten shell containing a large blister1 which was removed in the usual manner by punching a ring of minute holes around its base2 a slight tap was then sufficient to detach it4 ,for many weeks it was untouched1 no one caring to risk opening it1 for if filled with black ooze1 which is frequently the case1 it would be of little value4 ,at last1 baffled in his attempt to solve the problem1 and emboldened by an overdose of #8square face1' the skipper gave it a smart blow with a hammer1 which cracked it open1 and out rolled a huge pearl1 nearly perfect1 and weighing eighty grains4 ,a few specks and discolorations were removed by a skilful #8pearl-faker1' and it was sold in ,london for #aejj40gf ,blister pearls are also caused by the defensive or protective action of the mollusk in resisting the intrusion of some animal1 as a boring sponge or a burrowing worm1 which has begun to penetrate the outer layers of the shell4 ,this stimulation causes the mollusk to pile nacreous material upon the spot1 thus making a substantial mound closely resembling a segment of a large pearl4 ,this walling-out of intruders is not the result of intelligent forethought or of instinct1 analogous to the repairing of a damaged web by a spider1 or the retunneling of a collapsed gallery by ants2 it is a pathological rather than an intelligent action4 ,illustration3 ,,brooches ,,made ,,of ,,petal1 ,,dog-,,tooth1 ,,and ,,wing ,,pearls ,from the ,upper ,mississippi ,valley ,when the nucleus of a pearl is large and very irregular1 it necessarily follows that the deposited nacre roughly assumes the irregular outline of the inclosed object4 ,this is strikingly shown in pearls covering a minute fish1 a crayfish1 or a small crab4 ,several specimens have been found in which the species could be identified by examination through the nacreous coating4 ,in the ,american ,unios there is a strong tendency to produce elongated pearls near the hinge of the shell1 which are consequently known as 8hinge pearls40 ,the occurrence and form of these suggest that their origin may not be due to nuclei1 but that they result from an excess of carbonate of lime in the water1 and that the animal stores a surplus of nacre in this convenient form4 ,there are several standard forms of these hinge pearls4 ,many are elongated or dog-toothed1 some are hammer-shaped1 others resemble the wings of birds1 the petals of flowers1 the bodies of fish1 and various other objects4 ,a large percentage of the pearls found in ,unios of the ,mississippi ,valley are of these types4 ,some irregular pearls or baroques are very large1 weighing an ounce or more4 ,a well-known example is the ,hope pearl1 described on page #dfc1 which weighs three ounces4 ,these monster pearls sometimes assume odd shapes1 such as clasped hands1 the body of a man1 lion1 or other animal1 etc4 ,although baroques may have a pearly luster1 they are not highly prized unless unusually attractive1 and they have little permanent value1 apart from their estimation in the eyes of admirers of the curious and unique4 ,they are used largely in l'art nouveau1 and in forming odd and fanciful objects of jewelry1 the designer taking advantage of the resemblance which they bear to common objects of every-day life1 and by additions of gold and other ornaments completing the form which nature had merely suggested4 ,some remarkable examples of baroque mountings have been produced1 and a few are to be found in most of the large pearl collections4 ,in a single case in the ,imperial ,treasury at ,vienna are baroques forming the principal parts or figures of a horse1 stag1 lamb1 tortoise1 lizard1 cock1 dragon1 butterfly1 gondola1 hippopotamus1 female bust1 and three mermaids4 ,other well-known collections are those of the royal family of ,saxony in the ,grne ,gewlbe at ,dresden2 those in the ,palace of ,rosenberg at ,copenhagen2 in the ,waddesden 7,rothschild7 collection of the ,british ,museum2 among the jewels in the ,louvre in ,paris2 with the treasures of the ,basilica of ,st4 ,mark in ,venice2 and in the museum of the ,university of ,moscow4 ,a remarkable pearl-like ornament more common in ,asia than in the ,occident1 is the coque de perle1 which is an oval section of the globose whorl of the ,indian nautilus4 ,the exterior or convex surface is highly lustrous1 but the material is very thin4 ,it is commonly provided with a suitable filling or backing of putty or cement to impart solidity1 and is used like a blister pearl4 ,sometimes two perfectly matched coques de perle are filled and cemented together1 giving the appearance of an abnormally large oblong or nearly spherical pearl4 ,the color of pearls has no connection with the luster4 ,in general it is the same as that of the shell in which they are formed4 ,black pearls are found in the black shells of ,mexico1 and pink pearls in the pink-hued ,strombus of the ,bahamas4 ,ceylon pearls are seldom of any other color than white1 and ,sharks ,bays are almost invariably quite yellow or straw-colored1 while those of ,venezuela are commonly yellowish tinged4 ,but from other localities1 pearls simulate every tint of the rainbow1 as well as white and black4 ,the most common1 as well as the most desirable ordinarily1 is white1 or rather1 silvery or moonlight glint1--8la gran ,margherita10 as ,dante calls it2 but yellow1 pink1 and black are numerous4 ,they may also be piebald--a portion white and the rest pink or brown or black4 ,some years ago there was on the market a large bean-shaped pearl of great luster1 one half of which was white and the other quite black1 the dividing-line being sharply defined in the plane of the greatest circumference4 ,the pearls from ,mexico1 the ,south ,sea islands1 and the ,american rivers are especially noted for their great variety of coloration1 covering every known tint and shade1 and requiring such a master as ,thophile ,gautier to do justice to them4 ,many theories have been advanced to explain the coloration of pearls4 ,when the old idea of dew formation prevailed1 it was considered that white pearls were formed in fair weather1 and the dark ones when the weather was cloudy4 ,it was further considered that the color was influenced by the depth of the water in which they grew3 that in deep water they were white1 but where it was so shallow that the sunlight easily penetrated1 the pearls were more likely to be dark in color4 ,tavernier curiously explained that the black pearls of ,panama and ,mexico owed their color to the black mud in which the pearl-oysters of those localities lived1 and that ,persian ,gulf pearls were more inclined to yellow than those of ,ceylon1 owing to the greater putrefaction of the flesh before they were removed therefrom4#gg ,two centuries ago the color of a pearl was attributed to that of the central nucleus1 and it was concluded that if the nucleus was dark1 the pearl would be of a similar hue4#gh ,this theory has also been upset1 for pearls are found white on the exterior and quite dark within1 and also with these conditions reversed4 ,illustration3 ,,gray ,,pearls ,,in ,,the ,,possession ,,of ,,an ,,american ,,lady ,,and ,,brooch ,,from ,,tiffany ,,co4',s ,,exhibit1 ,,paris ,,exposition1 #aijj ,the color of a pearl is determined by that of the conchiolin1 as appears from its remaining unchanged after decalcification4 ,while generally it is the same as that of the mother-of-pearl at the corresponding point of the shell in which it is formed1 there are many exceptions to this1 and the reasons for the varying tints and colors are probably to be found in the changes in position of the pearl1 the ingredients of the water1 the health of the mollusk1 accidents of various kinds1 etc4 ,these factors will be referred to later in discussing the pearls from different mollusks and regions2 but in general it is no more easy to explain the colors of pearls than it is to say why one rose is white and another is yellow4 ,medieval writers had much to say regarding unripe or immature pearls1 likening them to eggs in the body of a hen1 which follow a uniform rate of growth2 and this idea is not entirely absent even in contemporaneous writings4 ,however1 it is an interesting fact that the humble mollusks1 like the five wise virgins with prepared lamps1 keep their gems perfect in beauty and luster at all times4 ,it matters not whether the pearl be removed when it is only the size of a pinhead or not until it reaches that of a marble1 it is at all times a complete1 a ripe1 a perfect pearl1 and the largest surpasses the smallest only in the characteristics and properties which are incidental to size4 ,imparting perfection and completion every day1 every moment1 the mollusk utilizes the added time simply in enlarging its beautiful work4 ,although art has made wonderful progress in that direction1 the pearl1 like truth1 is not easily imitated4 ,there is as much difference between the ubiquitous imitations and the perfect gem as there is between a chromolithograph and a silvery ,corot1 or between the effects of cosmetics and the freshness of youth4 ,while to the unskilled1 or under superficial inspection1 the false has some of the properties of the genuine1 it is only necessary to place them side by side to make the difference apparent4 ,however clever the imitation may be in color1 in form1 and in density1 it always lacks in richness1 in sweetness1 and in blended iridescence4 ,v ,,sources ,,of ,,pearls ,v ,,sources ,,of ,,pearls ,rich honesty dwells like a miser1 sir1 in a poor house1 as your pearl in your foul oyster4 ,as ,you ,like ,it1 ,act ,v1 sc4 #d4 ,in geographic range1 the sources of pearls are widely distributed1 each one of the six continents yielding its quota2 but the places where profitable fisheries are prosecuted are restricted in area4 ,first in point of value1 and possibly of antiquity also1 are the fisheries of the ,persian ,gulf1 giving employment ordinarily to thirty thousand or more divers4 ,the yield in the likewise ancient fisheries of the ,gulf of ,manaar is uncertain1 but sometimes remarkably large4 ,the ,red ,sea resources are now of slight importance compared with their extent in the time of the ,ptolemies4 ,other ,asiatic fisheries are in the ,gulf of ,aden1 about ,mergui ,archipelago1 on the coast of ,china1 ,japan1 ,korea1 and ,siam1 and also in the rivers of ,china1 ,manchuria1 and ,siberia4 ,aside from those produced in the ,red ,sea and the ,gulf of ,aden1 the pearl fisheries of ,africa are of small extent4 ,some reefs exist on the lower coast of the ,german ,east ,african territory and also in ,portuguese ,east ,africa1 but they have not been thoroughly exploited4 ,in most of the inshore waters of ,australasia pearls may be secured2 the fisheries are most extensive on the northern coast of ,australia1 in the ,sulu ,archipelago1 and about the ,dutch ,east ,indies4 ,tuamotu ,archipelago1 ,gambier1 ,fiji1 and ,penrhyn are prominent in the ,south ,pacific ,ocean4 ,in the seas of ,europe few pearls have been found1 but the rivers have yielded many2 and although the resources have been greatly impaired1 many beautiful gems are yet found there4 ,south ,america contributes the important reefs on the coast of ,venezuela--the land of unrest and revolutions1 whose fisheries were first exploited by ,columbus4 ,other ,south ,american countries in which pearls are collected are ,panama1 ,ecuador1 ,peru1 etc4 ,in ,north ,america1 pearls are found in the pearl-oyster of the ,gulf of ,california1 the abalone of the ,pacific coast1 the queen conch of the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and in the ,unios of most of the rivers1 especially those of the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,since pearly concretions partake of the characteristics of the shell within which they are formed1 it follows that practically all species of mollusks whose shells have a well-developed nacreous lining yield pearls to a greater or less extent4 ,but the number of these species is relatively small4 ,they belong chiefly to the ,margaritifer1 or pearl-oyster family of the sea1 and to the ,unionid1 or family of fresh-water mussels4 ,pearls occur also in some univalves1 but not so abundantly as in bivalves of the families mentioned4 ,broadly stated1 we may hope to find pearls within any mollusk whose shell possesses a nacreous surface2 and it is useless to search for them in shells whose interior is dull and opaque1 such as the edible oyster for instance4 ,the great bulk of the pearls on the market1 and likewise those of the highest quality1 are from the ,margaritifer1 which are widely distributed about tropical waters4 ,although these mollusks are spoken of as pearl-oysters1 they are not related in any way to the edible oysters 7,ostrea7 of ,america and ,europe4#gi ,the flesh is fat and glutinous1 and so rank in flavor as to be almost unfit for food1 although eaten at times by the poorer fishermen in lieu of better fare4 ,the origin of the name is doubtless due to the fact that in the somewhat circular form of the shell they resemble oysters rather than the elongated mussels of ,europe1 to which they are more nearly related in anatomy4 ,also in that--like their namesakes--they are monomyarian1 having only one adductor muscle4 ,the two valves or sides of the pearl-oyster shell are nearly similar in shape and almost equal in size2 whereas in the edible oysters one valve is thin and somewhat flat1 while the other is thicker1 larger1 and highly convex4 ,in the latter1 also1 the hinge1 or umbo1 is an angular beak2 but in the pearl-oysters the umbo is prolonged by so-called ears or wings into a straight line the length of which is nearly equal to the breadth of the shell4 ,the byssus1 or bunch of fibers1 by which pearl-oysters attach themselves to the bottom indicates their relationship to the mussels4 ,the possession of a small foot and somewhat extended migratory powers--at least in the first years of growth--also distinguish them from the sedentary edible oysters4 ,but from an economic point of view1 the principal difference is the possession of a thick1 nacreous1 interior lining in the shells of pearl-oysters1 which is wholly lacking in the edible species4 ,like their namesakes1 the pearl-oysters are exceedingly fertile1 a single specimen numbering its annual increase by millions4 ,commercially considered1 the pearl-oysters are roughly divisible into two groups1 7#a7 those fished exclusively for the pearls which they contain1 and 7#b7 those whose shells are so thick as to give them sufficient value to warrant their capture independently of the yield of pearls4 ,the best examples of the first group are the pearl-oysters of ,ceylon and of ,venezuela1 and to a less extent those of the ,persian ,gulf1 the coast of ,japan1 and of ,sharks ,bay1 on the ,australian coast4 ,of the second group1 the pearl-oysters of ,torres ,straits and of the ,malay ,archipelago are the most prominent members4 ,between these two groups are the many species and varieties whose shells and pearls are more evenly divided with respect to value1 including those of ,mexico1 ,panama1 the ,red ,sea1 the ,south ,sea islands1 etc4 ,some conchologists recognize a large number of species of ,margaritifer1 while other authorities consider many of these as local variations of the same species4 ,there is much difference in the size1 color1 and markings of the shells in different localities1 owing to varying geographical and physical conditions4 ,the distinction of species and the nomenclature herein adopted are those of ,dr4 ,h4 ,l4 ,jameson1 who has recently revised and rearranged the collection of shells belonging to this family in the ,british ,museum of ,natural ,history1#hj and to whom we are indebted for descriptive notes relative to several of the species4 ,the greatest pearl-producer in the family of pearl-oysters is the ,margaritifera vulgaris of the ,gulf of ,manaar and the ,persian ,gulf1 and to a much less extent of the ,red ,sea4 ,it occurs in various other inshore waters of the ,indian ,ocean1 and about the ,malay ,archipelago and the coast of ,australia and ,new ,guinea1 although it is not the principal pearl-oyster of those waters4 ,an interesting account of its immigration into the ,mediterranean ,sea through the ,suez ,canal was given by ,vassel in #ahif4ha ,this species is quite small1 averaging two and a half inches in diameter in ,ceylon waters1 and somewhat more in the ,persian ,gulf1 whence large quantities of the shell are exported under the name of 8,lingah shell40 ,the ,ceylon variety has the nacreous lining almost uniformly white over the entire surface1 only the lip having a slightly pinkish ground color4 ,the exterior is marked by seven or eight reddish brown radial bands on a pale yellow ground4 ,in addition to its greater size1 the ,persian variety is darker1 and the lip of the shell has a reddish tinge4 ,for centuries the ,margaritifera vulgaris has sustained the great pearl fisheries of ,ceylon1 ,india1 and ,persia1 and at present yields the bulk of pearls on the market1 especially the seed-pearls and also those of medium size4 ,it produces relatively few large ones1 rarely exceeding twelve grains in weight4 ,these pearls are commonly silvery white1 and for their size command the highest prices1 because of their beautiful form and superior luster4 ,excepting the ,venezuelan species1 this is the only pearl-oyster which at present supports extensive fisheries exclusively for pearls2 in the fisheries for all other species the value of the shells furnishes considerable revenue1 and in some localities this represents several times as much as the income from the pearls4 ,ranking next to ,margaritifera vulgaris in extent of pearl production is the ,margaritifera margaritifera1 which is widely distributed about the tropical inshore waters of the ,pacific and ,indian oceans4 ,it is very much larger than the ,lingah oyster1 good specimens measuring seven or eight inches in diameter1 and the nacreous interior is usually of a darker color4 ,in addition to its yield of pearls1 the shell of this species is of value in the mother-of-pearl trade1 and contributes largely to the economic results of the fisheries4 ,indeed1 in several regions the shell is of more value than the pearls1 which represent only an incidental yield4 ,as ,jameson notes1 the color and markings of the shell1 though extremely variable1 generally suffice to distinguish this species4 ,the ground color of the exterior ranges through various shades from yellowish brown to very dark brown4 ,its characteristic markings consist of from ten to eighteen radial rows of white and yellow spots1 running from the umbo1 or hinge1 to the margin4 ,several varieties of ,margaritifera margaritifera are recognized4 ,the type species occurs along the north coast of ,australia1 from ,brisbane on the east to ,sharks ,bay on the west2 on the ,new ,guinea coast2 at ,formosa2 and about many of the islands of the ,pacific4 ,the well-known 8black lip shell0 of ,australian waters is of this species2 it shows a greenish black on the margin of the nacre4 ,the yield of this is very small compared with that of the large pearl-oyster of ,australia4 ,illustration3 ,,shell ,,of ,,pearl-,,oyster ,,with ,,attached ,,pearl 7,margaritifera margaritifera mazatlanica7 ,from ,costa ,rica ,the ,margaritifera margaritifera occurs on the eastern coast of ,arabia in two varieties1 which differ somewhat from the type species4 ,these have been designated by ,jameson as ,m4 margaritifera persica and ,m4 margaritifera erythrensis4 ,these are much larger than the ,lingah shell of the ,persian ,gulf1 but are smaller than the ,australian species4 ,the percentage of pearls in them is less than in the ,lingah species1 but from a commercial point of view this is to some extent offset by the greater value of the shell4 ,the ,m4 m4 persica is more numerous in the gulf than the ,m4 m4 erythrensis1 and large quantities of the shell are marketed in ,europe4 ,formerly the shipments were made principally by way of ,bombay1 hence the shell is known in the mother-of-pearl trade as 8,bombay shell40 ,the exterior is of a light grayish or greenish brown color1 with yellowish white radial bands4 ,the nacre has a slightly roseate tint1 and the margin is greenish yellow4 ,the pearls found herein are more yellowish in color and attain a larger size than those from the ,lingah oyster4 ,the ,m4 m4 erythrensis occurs also in the ,red ,sea and along the shores of the ,arabian ,sea4 ,among mother-of-pearl dealers it is known as 8,egyptian shell0 or 8,alexandria shell10 owing to the fact that prior to the opening of the ,suez ,canal shipments were commonly made by way of ,alexandria4 ,the color of the nacre is darker than that of its related variety in the ,persian ,gulf4 ,in the trade1 three grades of this shell are recognized1 classed according to the shade of color4 ,the lightest comes from ,massowah and near the southern end of the ,red ,sea1 and the darkest from farther north1 in the vicinity of ,jiddah and ,suakim4 ,the islands of the southern ,pacific1 and of eastern ,polynesia especially1 yield another variety of ,m4 margaritifera1 to which the name ,m4 m4 cumingi has been given4 ,the nacre is of a dark metallic green1 and in the mother-of-pearl trade the shell is designated as 8black-edged40 ,it attains a large size1 only slightly smaller than the large ,australian species2 many individual specimens measure ten inches in diameter1 and weigh six or seven pounds for the two valves4 ,belonging to this variety are those oysters whose shells are known in the markets of ,europe and ,america as 8,tahiti10 8,gambier10 and 8,auckland0 shells1 the name designating the port of shipment4 ,yet another subspecies1 the ,m4 m4 mazatlanica1 occurs on the coasts of ,panama and ,mexico1 and especially in the ,gulf of ,california4 ,this is likewise green-edged1 and the exterior color is yellow or light brown4 ,this shell has been marketed in quantities since #ahej1 and is known in the mother-of-pearl trade as 8,panama shell40 ,it is smaller than the ,australian species1 specimens rarely exceeding eight inches in diameter4 ,it yields a large percentage of the black pearls that have been so fashionable in the last fifty years4 ,since #ahgj1 the largest pearls have been found mainly in a very large species of pearl-oyster1 ,margaritifera maxima1 obtained off the north and west coasts of ,australia1 among the ,sulu ,islands1 and elsewhere in the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,in the fisheries for this species1 the mother-of-pearl is the principal object sought1 and the pearls are obtained incidentally4 ,it is the largest of all the members of this family1 reaching in exceptional cases twelve or thirteen inches in diameter1 and weighing upward of twelve pounds2 while the ,ceylon oyster rarely exceeds four ounces in weight4 ,so marked is this difference1 that the ,australian species is often designated the 8mother-of-pearl oyster10 and the ,ceylon species the 8pearl-oyster40 ,jameson notes that it differs from the ,margaritifera margaritifera1 its nearest competitor in size1 in its much longer hinge1 its shape1 its lesser convexity1 and in its color and markings4 ,as described by him1 the color ranges from pale yellowish brown to deep brown1 with traces of radial markings of dark brown1 green1 or red in the umbonal area4 ,in its marginal region1 the shell is marked by a series of circumferential lines about one third of a millimeter apart4 ,several geographical varieties of this species are recognized in the mother-of-pearl trade1 differing principally in the coloring of the interior surface4 ,the chief commercial varieties are 8,sydney0 or 8,queensland10 8,port ,darwin10 8,west ,australian10 8,new ,guinea10 8,manila10 8,macassar10 and 8,mergui40 ,the nacre of those from the ,australian coast is almost uniformly silvery white4 ,that of the 8,manila shell0 is characterized by a broad golden border surrounding the silvery white nacre4 ,the 8,macassar shell0 lacks the golden border of the 8,manila shell10 and is similar in its uniform whiteness to the 8,sydney shell10 but its iridescence is much greater4 ,the ,margaritifera carcharium1 from ,sharks ,bay1 on the coast of ,australia1 yields yellow pearls and small quantities of mother-of-pearl4 ,this species is small--three or four inches in diameter4 ,the color is grayish or greenish yellow1 with several somewhat indistinct radial bands of brownish green4 ,the nacre has a yellowish green tint1 with a margin of pale yellow1 with brown markings4 ,in the ,west ,indies and on the ,atlantic coast of tropical ,america1 especially the coast of ,venezuela1 occurs the ,margaritifera radiata4 ,this species is quite small1 and seems to be closely allied to the ,ceylon oyster4 ,like the latter1 the nacreous interior is rich and brilliant1 but owing to its small size1 the shell is wholly valueless as mother-of-pearl4 ,the principal and almost the only fishery for this species is on the ,venezuelan coast1 in the vicinity of ,margarita ,island1 the islands of ,cubagua1 and ,coche4 ,the coast of ,japan yields the ,margaritifera martensi1 which occurs among the numerous islands in the southern part of the empire1 but does not extend beyond #dj north latitude4 ,this species is likewise small1 and closely resembles the pearl-oyster of ,ceylon1 from which it differs principally in coloration4 ,as noted by ,jameson1 brown and white predominate in the exterior coloring1 and the interior of the lip is marbled with yellow ocher and chocolate brown1 instead of pink1 as in the ,ceylon shell4 ,there are numerous other species of pearl-oysters1 but they are of slight economic importance1 and do not support fisheries of value4 ,as only a small percentage of the individual mollusks contain pearls1 it follows that vast quantities are destroyed without any return whatever1 and handling them merely adds to the expense of the industry1 as well as reduces the resources of the reefs4 ,this could be obviated if it were possible1 without opening them1 to determine the individual mollusks containing pearls4 ,among the several methods proposed for this purpose1 especially interesting is the use of ,x-rays1 which was suggested by ,raphael ,dubois of ,lyons1 ,france1 in #aija4hb ,the shells of some pearl-oysters--those of ,ceylon and of ,venezuela for instance--are relatively thin1 and it was thought that by the means of the rays the presence of pearls could be ascertained1 and non-pearl-bearers could be saved from opening1 and be returned to the reefs without injury4 ,although the calcareous shell partly interrupts the radiations1 it is not difficult to recognize the presence of large pearls4 ,the theory has never been found practical in application1 owing largely to the rough and irregular exterior of the shell and the small size of the pearls4 ,the presence of the larger pearls may be ascertained by this method2 but it is exceedingly probable that a very large percentage of the small ones1 and especially the seed-pearls1 would be overlooked4 ,furthermore1 if in their sixth year oysters contain no pearls1 the probability of appearance therein later is very small1 and little benefit would result from their return to the water4 ,as to saving the trouble of opening the non-pearl-bearing mollusks1 labor in the pearling regions is usually inexpensive1 and this cost is far more than offset by the reasonable certainty of securing practically all the small as well as the large pearls by the present method of operation4 ,owing to the greater thickness and the economic value of the large pearl-oysters--as those of ,australia or of ,mexico1 for instance--the application of ,x-rays to them is obviously impractical4 ,however1 when pearl-oyster culture becomes a highly developed industry1 with personal ownership in those mollusks returned to the water1 some method such as this might be of great value4 ,pearls are yielded by various species of ,unionid or ,naiades occurring in the rivers of ,america1 ,scotland1 ,saxony1 ,bavaria1 ,norway1 ,sweden1 ,russia1 ,france1 ,china1 etc4 ,these mollusks exist exclusively in the fresh-water streams1 lakes1 and ponds1 and quickly die when submerged in salt water4 ,the ,unionid are of particular interest in ,america1 as it is here that this group is most abundant1 and nearly every stream east of the ,rocky ,mountains contains more or less of them4 ,the ,mississippi basin abounds in ,unios1 or 8clams10 as they are known to the fishermen of that region1 and furnishes about #djj of the #ajjj recognized species of this important family4 ,the ,unios are most abundant in clear1 running water1 where the bottom is gravelly or sandy4 ,the interiors of the shells are iridescent1 and vary greatly in tint1 exhibiting many delicate shades of color from silvery white to straw color1 pink1 purple1 brown1 etc4 ,about five hundred species of ,american fresh-water mussels have been recognized by conchologists4 ,many of these differ from one another so very slightly that they are scarcely distinguishable from an examination of the shells themselves1 or even from the descriptions1 and a detailed index to the complete list is of little economic importance4 ,the professional fishermen and the shell-buyers take the trouble to name only the species with which they deal1 which includes only about twenty-five species1 all of which are margaritiferous1 though some to a greater extent than others4 ,in the pearling regions a popular nomenclature exists1 the names given by the fishermen having reference to the shape1 color1 etc4 ,the niggerhead 7,quadrula ebena7 is the most numerous in the ,mississippi1 and it is extensively used in button manufacture4 ,the thick shell of this species is almost round1 with a black outer surface and a pearly white interior4 ,at maturity it averages about four inches in diameter and four ounces in weight4 ,owing to its uniform whiteness and the flatness of its surface1 it is well adapted to button manufacture1 and for this purpose more than twenty thousand tons are taken in the ,mississippi ,valley every year4 ,when the fishery originated1 the niggerhead was very abundant in some places1 and especially between ,la ,crosse and ,burlington4 ,from a single bed near ,new ,boston1 ,illinois1 measuring about #bjj acres in area1 #gejj tons1 or about #gj1jjj1jjj individual shells1 were removed in three years4 ,in #ahig1 a bed of #cbj acres near ,muscatine furnished #ejj tons1 or about #d1gej1jjj shells4 ,this species occasionally yields valuable pearls4 ,two species of ,unios1 ,quadrula undulata and ,q4 plicata1 are known among the fishermen as 8three-ridges40 ,the former is also known as the 8blue-point0 from the fact that the sharp edge is usually tinged faint blue on the inside4 ,although not the best for button manufacture1 the shells yield the greatest number of pearls4 ,illustration3 ,,pinna ,,or ,,wing ,,shell 7,pinna seminuda7 ,one third natural size ,illustration3 ,,pearl-,,oyster ,,of ,,ceylon 7,margaritifera vulgaris7 ,natural size ,a species somewhat similar to the niggerhead is the bullhead 7,pleurobema sopus74 ,this shell is thick and opaque1 the nacre is not so iridescent as that of the niggerhead1 nor does it yield pearls of such good quality4 ,these two species are not evenly distributed over the bottom of the streams1 but occur in great patches or beds1 sometimes several feet in thickness and covering many hundreds of acres4 ,some of the beds are several miles in length1 and they may be separated by twenty or thirty miles in which the mollusks are so scarce that profitable fishing can not be made2 but usually the reefs are smaller and more closely situated4 ,the sand shells 7,lampsilis7--of which there are several species--do not occur in large beds1 but are scattered over the sandy beaches and sloping mud-banks4 ,in shape they are narrow and long1 adults measuring five or six inches in length4 ,owing to the small waste in cutting1 due to uniformity in thickness1 these shells are sold to button manufacturers for more than the niggerhead1 which in turn is more valuable than the bullhead4 ,the buckhorn 7,tritigonia verrucosa7 is very long and narrow2 on the dark brown exterior it is rough1 as is the horn from which it takes its name1 while the interior shows a beautiful display of colors4 ,this is not found in beds1 but lies scattered among other species4 ,it sells at a relatively high price--usually in excess of #bj per ton--for button manufacture4 ,another species is the butterfly 7,plagiola securis71 which is very prettily marked on the outside with faintly colored dotted stripes of varying length4 ,over a background of dark yellow run black stripes to the outer edge of the shell1 with dark dots between the stripes4 ,the shell is small and thick1 and like the sand shell and the buckhorn1 is found in small quantities4 ,owing to the beauty and permanency of its luster1 this shell is in demand for button manufacture1 and its pearls are often very beautiful4 ,other well-known species are the pancake 7,lampsilis alatus71 the maple-leaf 7,quadrula wardi71 and hackle-back 7,symphynota complanata74 ,on the ,atlantic seaboard1 the principal species in which pearls have been found are ,unio complanata2 the ,alasmodon arcuata1 which has hinge teeth1 and a species of ,anodon4 ,pearls from the ,unio complanata are usually smaller but more lustrous than those from either of the other species4 ,among the many fresh-water mussels are found some remarkable conditions of animal life4 ,probably the most curious is the parasitic stage of certain species4 ,when hatched from the egg1 each one of these is provided with hooks or spines1 by means of which it attaches itself to the gills or fins of a swimming fish and becomes embedded therein4 ,after confinement in this cyst for a period of two months or more1 the small mollusk works its way out and falls to the bottom of the river or pond1 where its development continues along lines more conventional to molluscan life4 ,in most of the species of ,unios the sexes are separate2 but it has been determined that in some the individuals are provided with both sets of sexual organs4 ,it is claimed by some naturalists that certain species may change from one sex to another2 yet this does not seem to have been positively established4 ,not the least interesting of the habits of the ,unios is the manner in which they 8walk10 bushels of them changing their habitation in a few hours4 ,the shell opens slightly and the muscular tongue-like 8foot0 is thrust out1 and by pressure of this on the bottom1 the mollusk is propelled in a jerky1 jumpy movement with more speed than one would suppose possible for the apparently inert creature4 ,the number of eggs produced by an individual in one season ranges from a few hundred in some species to many millions in others1 as in the ,quadrula heros1 for instance4 ,most of the fresh-water mollusks are of slow growth1 reaching maturity in six or eight years1 and it is believed that if undisturbed they live to be from fifteen to fifty years old2 indeed1 some writers credit them with attaining an age of one hundred years4 ,while outwardly there is no positive indication of the existence of pearls1 they are relatively scarce in young mollusks1 and likewise in those having a normal1 healthy appearance1 with smooth exterior free from blemishes1 and they are found generally in the older1 irregular1 and deformed shells1 which bear excrescences and the marks of having parasites4 ,however1 some of the choicest pearls have come from shells relatively young and apparently in perfect condition4 ,it has been pointed out that with the fresh-water ,unios there are three indications on which the fishermen to some extent rely for determining the presence of pearls from the outward aspects of the shell4 ,there are1 first1 the thread or elevated ridge extending from the vertex to the edge2 second1 the kidney-shape of the shell1 and third1 the contortion of both valves toward the middle plane of the mollusk4 ,a single mollusk may contain several small pearls1--more than one hundred have been found1--but in such cases usually none has commercial value4 ,ordinarily only one is found in the examination of very many shells4 ,of these objects it may be truthfully said that 8many are found1 but few are chosen10 few that are of first quality or are worthy of a fine necklace4 ,in many instances1 several pounds of cheap pearls would be gladly exchanged for a choice gem weighing an equal number of grains4 ,on the ,atlantic seaboard of ,america1 the ,anodontas1 or 8mussels10 as they are known locally1 are more numerous than the ,unios4 ,they prefer the still waters of the ponds and lakes1 rather than the swift currents of the streams4 ,the shell is much thinner than that of the ,unios1 and it is usually not so brilliant in color and iridescence2 consequently the pearly concretions obtained from them are less lustrous4 ,the rivers of ,europe1 and of ,asia also1 contain numbers of pearl-bearing mussels4 ,in many localities the yield of pearls has at times attracted attention and produced much profit1 though probably never equaling the present extent of the ,mississippi ,river finds4 ,the principal pearl-bearer of ,europe is the ,unio margaritifera1 the shell of which has been of some local importance in the manufacture of pearl buttons4 ,in ,great ,britain it is known as the pearl-mussel2 in ,france as the moule or hutre perlire2 in ,germany as perlenmuschel2 in ,belgium as paarl mossel de rivieren2 in ,denmark as perle-skiael2 in ,sweden as perlmussla2 in ,russia as schemtschuschuaja rakavina1 and in ,finland as simpsuckan cuosi4 ,the ,unio margaritifera likewise exists in ,siberia1 and possibly elsewhere in ,asia4 ,other species of ,unio exist there and in ,mongolia1 ,manchuria1 etc41 as1 for instance1 ,u4 mongolicus1 ,u4 dahuricus1 etc4 ,a leading species in eastern ,china1 the ,dipsas plicatus1 has long been extensively employed in the artificial production of pearly objects or culture pearls4#hc ,unio pearls show less uniformity of tints than those derived from the pearl-oysters4 ,they present an extended series of shades1 corresponding to those on the interior of the shells1 from almost perfect white through various tints of cream1 pink1 yellow1 bright red1 blue1 green1 russet1 and brown4 ,the metallic shades are numerous1 especially the steels and the coppers4 ,most of the members of the ,mytilid family1 which includes the marine mussels1 are of slight luster2 and the pearly concretions found in them are of the grade known as 8druggists' pearls10 so-called because1 formerly1 they were used in a powdered form in astringent and other medicines4 ,however1 some of these mussels on the ,european coast yield pearls that are fairly lustrous4 ,the white and the pink are most numerous1 but purple1 red1 bronze1 and yellow are by no means uncommon4 ,a few pearls are also obtained from the sea-wings or wing-shells 7,pinna71 the silkworms of the sea1 found in the ,red ,sea1 the ,mediterranean ,sea1 the ,indian ,ocean1 the southern coast of ,america1 and elsewhere4 ,these shells are narrow at the umbo1 or hinge1 long1 and fan-shaped2 they are generally brittle1 and present a horn-like appearance4 ,the interior is commonly of a silvery reddish or orange-colored hue1 and this tint is imparted to the pearls4 ,the most characteristic feature of the ,pinna is the thick rope of silky fibers1 from four to ten1 and sometimes twenty or more inches in length1 constituting the byssus1 a remarkable provision by means of which it anchors itself to the bottom and thus outrides the storm4 ,formerly the byssus was gathered in ,sicily1 washed in soap and water1 dried1 corded1 and fabricated into gloves and similar articles of a fine texture4 ,the finished garments were of a beautiful golden brown color1 resembling the burnished gold on the backs of some splendid flies or beetles4 ,the yield of ,pinna pearls is very small4 ,a few are obtained from the ,mediterranean1 especially on the ,adriatic coast4 ,these are usually rose-tinted or reddish in color1 but of diminished orient1 and inferior in size4 ,pinna pearls are also reported from the ,isle of ,pines and from ,new ,caledonia1 where they are commonly very dark1 almost black in color4 ,the window-glass shell 7,placuna placenta71 the vitre chinoise of some writers1 yields a few small1 irregularly shaped pearls of a dull leaden color4 ,it occurs in the inshore waters of the ,indian and the southwestern ,pacific oceans2 fisheries are prosecuted in ,tablegram ,lake1 near ,trincomali1 on the northeast coast of ,ceylon2 on the coast of ,borneo1 especially at ,pados ,bay1 and to a less extent in some other localities4 ,this mollusk is quite distinct from the true pearl-oyster1 and in adult life is devoid of the byssus1 living on the muddy bottom of the shallow waters4 ,the shell is almost circular1 the right valve is quite flat1 and the left only slightly convex4 ,it is remarkable for its transparency1 especially in the first year of growth1 when the beating of the heart of the mollusk is visible through it4 ,reaching maturity in about two years1 the shell becomes white and translucent1 resembling pressed isinglass somewhat in its texture4 ,it then measures about six or seven inches in length1 and nearly the same in width4 ,the outside is rough2 the interior is glazed over and has a subdued pearly luster4 ,it is so thin and transparent that with a strong light very coarse print can be read through it4 ,it is commonly used in the ,east ,indies as a substitute for glass in windows1 admitting a soft mellow light into the room4 ,for this purpose it is usually cut into small rectangular or diamond-shaped pieces1 about five or six square inches in area1 and these are inserted into sash frames4 ,it forms a good economical substitute for glass1 not only in windows of native residences1 but also in lanterns and the like4 ,illustration3 ,,shell ,,and ,,pearls ,,of ,,the ,,common ,,conch 7,strombus gigas7 ,of ,florida and the ,west ,indies ,the giant clam 7,tridacna gigas7 of tropical waters yields a few large opal-white symmetrical pearls1 with faint luster and of little value4 ,the transversely oval shell of the ,tridacna1 with its great squamous ribs1 is probably the largest and heaviest in existence1 single pairs weighing upward of #ejj pounds4 ,it is found in tropical seas1 and especially in the ,indian ,ocean4 ,it is much used for ornament1 particularly for fountain-basins1 and for bnitiers1 or holy-water fonts4 ,a beautiful pair used as bnitiers in the ,church of ,st4 ,sulpice in ,paris is said to have been a gift of the ,republic of ,venice to ,francis ,i4 ,there seems to be no established fishery for this mollusk1 and the pearls very rarely come on the market4 ,about four years ago in ,new ,york ,city an effort was made to market one weighing about #bjj grains4 ,the owner represented that it was a 8cocoanut pearl10 and offered to sell it for #bjjj2 whereas its actual value was probably not over #aj or #bj1 and that only for a museum collection4 ,pearls of slight luster also occur in the quahog1 or hard clam 7,venus mercenaria71 of the ,atlantic coast of the ,united ,states4 ,although these are rare1 they are generally of good form1 and some weigh upward of eighty grains each4 ,they are commonly of dark color1 purplish1 ordinarily1 but they may be white1 pale lilac1 brown1 and even purplish black1 or black4 ,the white ones--which so nearly resemble ivory buttons as readily to pass for them at a casual glance--are of little value2 but fine dark ones have retailed at from #aj to #ajj each4 ,there is little demand for them1 for unless the color is very good1 they possess slight beauty1 lacking the orient peculiar to choice pearls4 ,pearls have also been reported from the edible clam of the ,pacific coast of ,america4 ,shelly concretions are found in the edible oyster of ,america 7,ostrea virginica71 as well as in that of ,europe 7,o4 edulis72 but these are commonly objects of personal interest or of local curiosity1 rather than of artistic or commercial value1 as they are lacking in luster and iridescence4 ,most of them are dull or opal-white1 some are purple1 and a few are white on one side and purple on the other4 ,as many as fifty of these formations have been found in a single oyster4 ,sometimes they are of odd appearance1 suggesting the human eye or face1 and recently one was found which bore a striking resemblance to a human skull4 ,notwithstanding many news items to the contrary1 it is doubtful whether the choicest pearl from an edible oyster would sell for as high as #bj on its own merits2 professional shuckers have opened thousands of bushels of oysters without finding one which would sell for ten cents4 ,among univalves1 the most prominent pearl-producer is probably the common conch or great conch 7,strombus gigas7 of the ,west ,indies and the ,florida coast1 which secretes beautiful pink pearls of considerable value4 ,this is one of the largest of the univalve shells1 some individuals measuring twelve inches in length1 and weighing five or six pounds4 ,the graceful curves and the delicate tints of lovely pink color make it exceedingly attractive4 ,the conch abounds in the waters of the ,west ,indies1 especially in the ,bahamas1 where many thousands are annually taken for the shell1 which forms quite an article of commerce4 ,the flesh is esteemed as food and is also used for bait2 and it is particularly in preparing for these purposes that the pearls are found1 as no established fisheries exist for the pearls alone4 ,the ear-shells or abalones 7,haliotid7 found on the coasts of ,california1 ,japan1 ,new ,zealand1 and other localities in the ,pacific1 secrete pearly concretions1 sometimes with fine luster1 but usually of small value4 ,these shells resemble in general outline the form of the human ear4 ,distinguishing characteristics are the flatly-spiral bowl-like shape1 and the regular series of holes in the back near the distal margin1 for the admission of water to the respiratory organs4 ,the holes are on the left side and parallel with the columellar lip1 and those nearest the apex close up as the shell increases in size4 ,the shells are rough externally1 but beautifully nacreous within4 ,in variety and intensity of coloring1 the nacre is superior to that of the pearl-oysters1 but it is not so harmonious1 and it does not form so thick and flat a layer4 ,abalone pearls are especially interesting on account of their brilliant and unusual colors4 ,green predominates1 but blue and yellow also occur4 ,although commonly very small1 some of the well formed ones exceed seventy-five grains in weight1 and those of irregular shape may be very much larger4 ,the ear-shells also produce many irregular pearly masses4 ,although these are without an established commercial value1 their beautiful greenish or bluish tints adapt them for artistic jeweled objects1 such as the body of a fly or of a beetle4 ,similar concretions are found in species of turbos and turbinella1 especially the ,indian chank 7,turbinella rapa71 which yields pink and pale red pearls4 ,the pearly nautilus 7,nautilus pompilius7 yields a few yellowish pearls1 especially those taken in ,australian waters2 but from the paper nautilus--8the sea-born sailor of his shell canoe0--no pearls are obtained1 owing to the non-lustrous nature of the shell4 ,in bygone days1 especially in ,asia1 and also to some extent in ,europe1 pearls were credited as coming from many non-molluscan sources4 ,the ,rabbis had the idea that they came also from fish1 as noted in the story of a tailor who was rewarded by finding a pearl in one which he bought 7,gen4 ,r4 xi4 #e74 ,the ,raganighantu of ,narahari1 a ,kashmir physician of about #abdj ,a4,d41 reported them as coming from bamboos1 cocoanuts1 heads of elephants1 bears1 serpents1 whales1 fish1 etc42#hd although it conceded that these were deficient in luster1 which is recognized as the characteristic feature of pearls4 ,we understand1 therefore1 that this use of the word signifies only hard concretions of a spherical form4 ,in the apology for his book1 prison-bound ,bunyan wrote3 ,a pearl may in a toad's head dwell1 ,and may be found in an oyster shell4 ,the crystal gems--the diamonds1 rubies1 etc4--are practically unlimited in their longevity1 existing thousands of years unchanged in condition4 ,except those which have been discovered by man1 the earth contains about as many as it ever did1 and it is not unreasonable to suppose that in course of time a considerable percentage of the total will be discovered4 ,but in the seas as well as in the rivers1 the longevity of pearls is greatly restricted1 and ,full many a gem of purest ray serene ,the dark1 unfathomed caves of ocean bear#he to run their course of existence and decay unseen and unknown4 ,perishable while in the seas1 almost as cereals and fruits on land1 the harvest must be gathered with promptness or it is wasted4 ,and it seems probable that only a small percentage of the beautiful gems produced in the waters have gladdened the sight of man4 ,with considerable hesitancy we have attempted to estimate the number of persons employed in the pearl fisheries of the world1 and the aggregate local value of their catch4 ,for two or three regions1 this is not a matter of great difficulty4 ,for instance1 the divers employed in the ,ceylon fishery are numbered each season1 and the auction sales of their catch furnish a reasonably satisfactory basis for determining the value of the output4 ,likewise in ,australia1 ,venezuela1 and some minor localities1 the fishermen are numbered2 but the reports are less satisfactory as to the value of the pearls4 ,in the ,persian ,gulf1 the ,red ,sea1 the ,gulf of ,california1 and the islands of the ,pacific1 where pearl-diving is a profession and a regular source of livelihood1 the number of employees is fairly constant4 ,but in the rivers and ponds of ,america1 as well as of ,europe and of ,asia1 where neither experience nor costly equipment is required for the industry1 and pearls to the value of very many thousands of dollars are obtained by men1 women1 and even children1 on pleasure bent1 as well as in the widely fluctuating professional fisheries1 the problem is far more difficult4 ,contending with these many difficulties1 we venture to present the following estimate of the number of persons employed in the pearl fisheries of the world1 and the value of the output in #aijf4 ,localities4 ,pearls ,shells ,fishermen ,local ,local ,no4 ,values4 ,values4 ,asia3 ,persian ,gulf #ce1jjj #d1jjj1jjj #aaj1jjj ,ceylon#hf #ah1ejj #a1bjj1jjj #dj1jjj ,india #a1bej #ajj1jjj #ie1jjj ,red ,sea1 ,gulf of ,aden1 etc4#hg #c1jjj #bjj1jjj #aej1jjj ,china1 ,japan1 ,siberia1 etc4 #bj1jjj #djj1jjj #ej1jjj -------------- -------------------- -------------------- ,total #gg1gej #e1ijj1jjj #dde1jjj ,europe3 ,british ,isles #bjj #ae1jjj ,continent of ,europe #a1jjj #ajj1jjj #c1jjj -------------- -------------------- -------------------- ,total #a1bjj #aae1jjj #c1jjj ,islands of the ,pacific3 ,south ,sea islands #d1ejj #abe1jjj #ejj1jjj ,australian coast#hh #f1bej #dej1jjj #a1bjj1jjj ,malay ,archipelago #e1jjj #cjj1jjj #hjj1jjj -------------- -------------------- -------------------- ,total #ae1gej #hge1jjj #b1ejj1jjj ,america3 ,united ,states rivers #h1ejj #fej1jjj #cej1jjj ,venezuela #a1ijj #bge1jjj #aj1jjj ,mexico #a1bej #baj1jjj #bjj1jjj ,panama #djj #dj1jjj #ge1jjj ,miscellaneous #a1jjj #ge1jjj #be1jjj -------------- -------------------- -------------------- ,total #ac1jej #a1bej1jjj #ffj1jjj ,grand total #ajg1gej #h1adj1jjj #c1fjh1jjj ,our returns do not represent the annual output of pearls in the values best known to gem buyers4 ,the difference in price between pearls in the fisherman's hands in the ,persian ,gulf or at the ,pacific islands1 and that for which they are exchanged over the counters in ,new ,york or ,paris1 is nearly as great as the difference in value of wool on the sheep's back and of the same material woven into fashionable fabrics4 ,for each dollar received by the fisherman1 the retail buyer probably pays three2 and it is not unreasonable to suppose that the pearls herein represented probably sold ultimately for an aggregate of #bd1dbj1jjj4 ,this summary falls far short in giving a correct idea of the importance of the pearl fisheries in furnishing a livelihood to humanity2 for it takes no consideration of that great body of men who contribute incidentally to the prosecution of the fisheries1 such as shell-openers1 pearl-washers1 watchmen1 cooks1 laborers1 etc4 ,in the ,ceylon pearl fishery of #aijf1 for instance1 our estimate shows #ah1ejj fishermen2 but there were #dj1jjj persons engaged at the pearl camp alone1 and many others were given employment in boat-building1 supplying provisions1 selling the pearls1 etc41 and this does not include the wives and children depending on the industry for sustenance4 ,indeed1 it seems not unreasonable to estimate that instead of only the #ah1ejj fishermen1 #he1jjj persons were in a large measure dependent for their livelihood on the ,ceylon fishery in #aijf4 ,estimated on the same basis1 we have a total of #ejj1jjj persons depending largely on the pearl fisheries of the world for their support4 ,thus we see that pearl buyers and pearl wearers not only gratify a commendable admiration for the beautiful1 but contribute largely to the economic balance whereby one class of humanity either sustains or is dependent upon another1 even though these classes be so widely separated as the crown of ,russia from the half-starved diver of the tropical seas4 ,how strange is the providence of ,god1 who1 by granting the pearl to the poor ,arab1 the ,tamil of ,india1 the ,south ,sea ,islander1 and the forgotten ,selang of ,mergui1 makes the greatest and wealthiest in the world contribute to their support4 ,,vi ,,pearls ,,from ,,asia ,,the ,,persian ,,gulf1 ,,fisheries ,,of ,,india1 ,,ceylon ,,pearl ,,fisheries1 ,,red ,,sea ,,and ,,arabian ,,sea1 ,,china1 ,,japan1 ,,siberia1 ,,etc4 ,,vi ,,the ,,pearl ,,fisheries ,,of ,,the ,,persian ,,gulf ,dear as the wet diver to the eyes ,of his pale wife1 who waits and weeps on shore1 ,by sands of ,bahrein in the ,persian ,gulf2 ,plunging all day in the blue waves2 at night1 ,having made up his toll of precious pearls1 ,rejoins her in their hut upon the shore4 ,,sir ,,edwin ,,arnold4 ,the pearl fisheries of the ,persian ,gulf are the most famous and valuable in the world1 and have been prosecuted for more than two thousand years4 ,a translation by that eminent ,assyriologist1 ,jules ,oppert1 of a cuneiform inscription on a broken obelisk1 erected presumably by a king of ,nineveh1 seems to indicate a very early origin for these fisheries4#hi ,professor ,oppert's translation is3 ,in the sea of the changeable winds 7i4e41 the ,persian ,gulf71 his merchants fished for pearls2 ,in the sea where the ,north ,star culminates1 they fished for yellow amber4 ,the earliest writing of ,europeans on the ,east refer to these fisheries4 ,an account of them was given by the ,greek writer ,megasthenes1 who accompanied ,seleucus ,nicator1 the ,macedonian general1 in his ,asiatic conquests1 about #cjg ,b4,c4 ,shortly afterward they were noted by the ,greek historian1 ,isidorus of ,charace1 in his account of the ,parthian ,empire4 ,extracts from ,nearchus preserved by ,arrian also mention them4 ,ptolemy speaks of the pearl fisheries which existed from time immemorial at ,tylos1 the ,roman name for the present ,island of ,bahrein4 ,these resources were well known in the days of ,pliny4 ,in his 8,historia ,naturalis10 ,book ,,ix1 ch4 #ce1 he says3 8,but the most perfect and exquisite pearls of all others be they that are gotten about ,arabia1 within the ,persian ,gulf40#ij ,pliny states also 7,book ,,vi1 ch4 #be7 that ,catifa 7,el ,katiff71 on the ,arabian coast opposite ,bahrein1 was the center of an important fishery4 ,in the ninth century these fisheries were noted by ,massoudi1 one of the earliest ,arabian geographers4#ia ,in the latter part of the twelfth century they were visited and described by the ,spanish-,hebrew traveler1 ,rabbi ,benjamin of ,tudela4#ib ,the ,arabian traveler1 ,ibn ,batuta1 wrote of them about #accf4ic ,in #aejh they were noted in the account of ,lodovico ,barthema's expedition to the ,island of ,ormus4 ,according to him3 ,at three days' journey from this island they fished the largest pearls which are found in the world2 and whoever wishes to know about it1 behold6 ,there are certain fishermen who go there in small boats and cast into the water two large stones attached to ropes1 one at the bow1 the other at the stern of each boat to stay it in place4 ,then one of the fishermen hangs a sack from his neck1 attaches a large stone to his feet1 and descends to the bottom--about fifteen paces under water1 where he remains as long as he can1 searching for oysters which bear pearls1 and puts as many as he finds into his sack4 ,when he can remain no longer1 he casts off the stone attached to his feet1 and ascends by one of the ropes fastened to the boat4 ,there are so many connected with the business that you will often see #cjj of these little boats which come from many countries4#id ,shortly following the visit of ,barthema1 the ,portuguese under ,albuquerque took possession of the principal ports of the ,persian ,gulf1 and they imposed heavy taxes on the pearl fishery throughout the century of their retention4 ,while under their jurisdiction1 the fisheries were visited and described by ,j4 ,h4 van ,linschoten in #aeif1 who wrote3 ,the principall and the best that are found in all the ,orientall ,countries1 and the right ,orientall pearles1 are between ,ormus and ,bassora in the straights1 or ,sinus ,persicus1 in the places called ,bareyn1 ,catiffa1 ,julfar1 ,camaron1 and other places in the said ,sinus ,persicus1 from whence they are brought into ,ormus4 ,the king of ,portingale hath also his factor in ,bareyn1 that stayeth there onlie for the fishing of pearles4 ,there is great trafficke used with them1 as well in ,ormus as in ,goa4#ie ,illustration3 ,cargo boat in pearl fishery of the ,persian ,gulf ,illustration3 ,huts of mats and palm leaves1 the homes of the pearl fishermen at ,menamah1 ,bahrein ,islands1 ,persian ,gulf ,this was the ,ormus where the treasures of the ,orient were gathered in abundance1 the half-way house between the ,east and the ,west1 making it one of the greatest emporia of the world4 ,so renowned was its wealth and commerce that it was a saying among the ,portuguese1 were the whole world a golden ring1 ,ormus would be the jeweled signet4 ,it was built on an island1 supported a population of #dj1jjj persons1 and was particularly well situated as a distributing point for the pearls1 which enriched the argosies of ,portugal1 and contributed so largely to the wealth of ,ormus and of ,ind1 ,or where the gorgeous ,east with richest hand ,show'rs on her kings barbaric pearl and gold1 which ,milton celebrates in 8,paradise ,lost40 ,this wonderful ,ormus1 in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries one of the wealthiest places in the world1 is now only a fishing village of less than a hundred huts4 ,it was at ,ormus1 nearly a century later1 in #afgj1 that the shrewd old jewel merchant1 ,tavernier1 whose acquaintance with gems doubtless equaled that of any man of his time1 saw what he called 8the most beautiful pearl in the world02 not so much for its size1 for it weighed only #dh grains1 nor for its regularity in form1 but because of its most wonderful luster4#if ,in describing the fisheries1 which had been retaken by the ,persians in #afbb1 ,tavernier wrote in #afgj1 according to ,ball's translation3 ,there is a pearl fishery round the island of ,bahren1 in the ,persian ,gulf4 ,it belongs to the ,king of ,persia1 and there is a good fortress there1 where a garrison of #cjj men is kept4444 ,when the ,portuguese held ,hormuz ,ormus and ,muscat1 each boat which went to fish was obliged to take out a license from them1 which cost fifteen abassis #e4de1 and many brigantines were maintained there1 to sink those who were unwilling to take out licenses4 ,but since the ,arabs have retaken ,muscat1 and the ,portuguese are no longer supreme in the ,gulf1 every man who fishes pays to the ,king of ,persia only five abassis1 whether his fishing is successful or not4 ,the merchant also pays the king something small for every #a1jjj oysters4 ,the second pearl fishery is opposite ,bahren1 on the coast of ,arabia ,felix1 close to the town of ,el ,katif1 which1 with all the neighboring country1 belongs to an ,arab prince4#ig ,during the century following ,tavernier's time1 the fisheries were vigorously prosecuted1 owing to the impoverished condition of the reefs in ,india and ,america1 and to the large demand for pearls1 not only by the ,oriental courts1 but by the wealth and fashion of ,europe4 ,except for the last four years1 when the ,ceylon fishery was very productive1 throughout the eighteenth century the ,persian ,gulf was almost the only important source of supply for pearls4 ,for several years following the reopening of the ,ceylon fishery in #agif1 that region diverted some of the attention which the ,persian waters had been receiving1 but it was not long before these regained their ascendancy4 ,in #ahch1 ,lieutenant ,j4 ,r4 ,wellsted1 an officer in the ,british ,india service1 reported that the fisheries of the gulf employed #dcjj boats1 manned by somewhat more than #cj1jjj men4#ih ,of these boats1 #cejj were from the ,island of ,bahrein1 #ajj from the ,persian coast1 and the remaining #gjj from the ,pirate ,coast situated between ,bahrein and the entrance to the ,gulf of ,oman4 ,lieutenant ,wellsted estimated the value of the pearls secured annually as approximately #djj1jjj1 which is somewhat less than the average value of the output in recent years4 ,twenty-seven years later1 according to ,sir ,lewis ,pelly1#ii who was in the ,indian service from #ahea to #ahgg1 there were #aejj boats at ,bahrein1 and the annual return from the whole fishery was #djj1jjj1 the same as previously reported by ,wellsted4 ,in #ahgi1 the value of the output was estimated at #fjj1jjj by the ,british ,resident1 ,colonel ,ross1 and at #hjj1jjj by ,captain ,l4 ,e4 ,durand1 of the ,british ,protectorate of the ,persian ,gulf4 ,owing to the increased market value1 the average output in the last five years has amounted to approximately four million dollars annually4 ,this refers to the local value only1 which is greatly increased by the time the pearls leave the markets in ,bombay and ,bagdad4 ,the ,persian ,gulf is nearly #fjj miles long1 with an average width of somewhat more than #ajj miles4 ,the ,strait of ,ormus--thirty to sixty miles wide--connects it with the ,gulf of ,oman1 which opens directly into the ,arabian ,sea4 ,the depth of water rarely exceeds thirty fathoms4 ,oyster reefs are well distributed throughout the gulf1 and are in greatest abundance on the ,arab side between the #bdth and #bgth degrees of north latitude and the #ejth and #edth degrees of east longitude1 at a distance of from a few hundred yards to sixty miles from the shore1 and especially in the vicinity of the ,bahrein ,islands4 ,the oysters are scattered over level areas of coral rock and sand1 with depths ranging from two to eighteen fathoms4#ajj ,the divers rarely descend in deeper water than twelve fathoms1 notwithstanding that valuable pearls are apparently obtainable at greater depths4 ,although the ,british ,protectorate extends over the ,persian ,gulf1 insuring the peaceful prosecution of the fisheries and the settlement of intertribal contentions by the government resident1 the fisheries are under the regulations of the maritime ,arab sheiks4 ,the restrictions imposed by these1 however1 are principally with a view to collecting a revenue from each boat employed4 ,the total amount realized thereby is unknown1 but there is good reason for supposing that it is considerable4 ,illustration3 ,,agha ,,mohammed 7#afff-agbe7 ,founder of the present ,persian dynasty ,from a ,persian manuscript in the library of ,robert ,hoe1 ,esq4 ,illustration3 ,,shah ,,sulaiman 7#afdg-afid7 ,from a ,persian manuscript in the library of ,robert ,hoe1 ,esq4 ,the fisheries are carried on during the greater part of every year1 presenting a strong contrast to the ,ceylon fishery1 which is prosecuted usually less than forty days1 and in only about one year in three on an average4 ,this is especially remarkable when it is considered that no particular care is taken of the ,persian reefs and1 except for certain tribal restrictions1 the fishermen may work whenever and wherever they choose4 ,owing to the extended area over which the fishing is prosecuted and the existence of undisturbed breeding-oysters in the deeper waters1 the reefs are not readily exhausted1 notwithstanding the tens of millions of mollusks annually removed therefrom4 ,the fisheries are at their height from ,june to ,september1 when nearly every person on the coast is interested in some capacity1 if not in fishing1 at least in furnishing supplies1 cleaning shells1 buying pearls1 etc4 ,in ,april and ,may the water on the deep banks is so cold that the fishermen confine their efforts to the more shallow areas4 ,during the winter months1 the cold weather and the northwesterly gales interfere with the work1 except such as is prosecuted in the smaller bays and inlets4 ,the pearling operations are financed mostly by ,indian bunnias1 or traders1 principally from ,bombay1 who furnish capital for equipment1 supplies of food1 etc41 and who purchase the pearls in gross lots4 ,these men bear very hard on the fishermen1 furnishing the supplies and buying the pearls almost at their own prices2 and the poor divers who explore the depths and secure the pearls derive from their exertions little more than the crudest necessaries of life1 and are usually in debt to the traders4 ,the actual fishing operations are carried on mainly by the maritime tribes of ,hasa and ,oman1 including those on the ,pirate ,coast4 ,the inhabitants of the ,bahrein ,islands and the adjacent shores have been devoted to pearling from time immemorial2 but the ,wahabis of the ,pirate ,coast--the ,ichthyophagi of ,ptolemy's time--have more recently1 under the persuasive influence of ,british gunboats and magazine-rifles1 substituted pearling for their two-century inherited life of fanatical piracy4 ,referring to these people in his quaint sketches of ,persia eighty years ago1 ,sir ,john ,malcolm wrote3 8,their occupation is piracy1 and their delight murder1 and to make it worse they give you the most pious reasons for every villainy they commit4 ,they abide by the letter of the sacred volume1 rejecting all commentaries and traditions4 ,if you are their captive and offer all to save your life1 they say1 8,no6 ,it is written in the ,koran that it is not lawful to plunder the living2 but we are not prohibited from stripping the dead4 ,so saying they knock you on the head40#aja ,most of the ,wahabi pearlers congregate in the mat-hut settlements of ,dobai1 ,abu ,thubi1 and ,ras-el-,kheima1 located at the mouths of creeks which form fairly good harbors for the small boats4 ,the ,batina coast also furnishes some pearl fishermen1 these coming principally from ,fujaira1 ,shenas1 ,sohar1 ,suaik1 and ,sib4 ,the headquarters for the pearling fleet are at ,bahrein ,island1 the largest of the insular group bearing the same name1 the islets of ,moharrek1 ,sitrah1 and ,nissan completing the group4 ,this is the early home of ,chaldean civilization1 and one of the traditional sources of the ,phenicians1 and whence came that fish-god who--according to the ,babylonian myth--bore the ark over the deluge4 ,this island1 the center of the greatest pearl fishery in the world1 is half way down on the southern side of the ,persian ,gulf1 and twenty miles from the mainland of 8,araby the blest40 ,it is about twenty-eight miles in length1 and ten in width at the widest part4 ,the population approximates #fj1jjj1 all ,moslems1 except about #ajj ,banyan traders from ,sindh1 ,india4 ,the northern half of the island is described as of great beauty1 being a garden of pomegranate1 lemon1 citron1 and quince-trees1 and especially the magnificent date-palms1 with numerous springs furnishing an abundance of excellent fresh water4 ,the principal settlement1 ,manama1 with about #aj1jjj inhabitants1 is poorly built1 the houses consisting mostly of huts of mats and palm leaves2 yet it presents a better appearance than any other settlement along this coast4 ,the one great industry1 and the center of all interest throughout this region1 is the pearl fishery4 ,the present conditions are precisely as ,palgrave wrote in #ahfc3 8,it is from the sea1 not from the land1 that the natives subsist2 and it is also mainly on the sea that they dwell1 passing amid its waters the one half of the year in search of pearls1 the other half in fishery or trade4 ,hence their real homes are the countless boats which stud the placid pool1 or stand drawn up in long black lines on the shore1 while little care is taken to ornament their land houses1 the abodes of their wives and children at most1 and the unsightly strong boxes of their treasures4 #8,we are all1 from the highest to the lowest1 slaves of one master--,pearl1' said ,mohammed bin ,thanee to me one evening2 nor was the expression out of place4 ,all thought1 all conversation1 all employment1 turns on that one subject2 everything else is merely by-game1 and below even secondary consideration40#ajb ,illustration3 ,,arab ,,pearl-,,divers ,,at ,,work ,,in ,,the ,,persian ,,gulf ,according to recent returns1 the ,persian ,gulf fisheries employ about #cejj boats1#ajc large and small1 of which #abjj of the best are owned at ,bahrein1 #gjj on the coast of ,el ,hassa from ,el ,katar to ,kuweit1 and the remaining #afjj are from various parts of the gulf1 and especially from the ,pirate ,coast east of ,el ,katar4 ,they measure from one to fifty tons4 ,the smaller ones1 with three to fifteen men each1 work near the shores2 the larger1 carrying fifteen to thirty men1 fish over the whole gulf1 remaining out for weeks at a time4 ,these craft are very picturesque with their artistic rigs and spoon-shaped sails1 and when the fishery is at its height the scene is one of rare interest4 ,the boats from ,bahrein are of excellent construction made by native workmen using local materials1 with home-woven sailcloth and rigging of twisted date-fiber4 ,each of the larger ones usually evidences a lingering trace of ,semitic influence in its kubait1 or figurehead1 covered with skin of the sheep or goat sacrificed in the launching ceremonies4#ajd ,the boats from ,el ,hassa and the ,pirate ,coast are usually smaller and less substantial than those from ,bahrein1 the fishermen from the latter place far surpassing those of the mainland in civilization and industrial wealth4 ,the fleet is manned by approximately #ce1jjj fishermen4 ,in addition to the nakhoda1 or captain1 who is often the owner of the boat1 the crew consists of ghoas or divers1 who are mainly ,arabs and ,sedees1 and sebs1 or rope-tenders1 who are usually ,bedouins or ,persians and attend the divers and perform other duties4 ,many ,hindus from ,india1 and flat-nosed1 sable-hued ,negroes from the east coast of ,africa find employment here4 ,on each of the larger boats is a general utility man1 known as el musully1 literally the 8prayer-man10 who1 in addition to various other duties1 relieves those sebs who stop to pray4 ,among the fishermen are all types and classes to be met with in this part of the world1 with the usual contingent of the lame1 the halt1 and the blind4 ,there are a number of fishermen who have been maimed and mutilated by shark bites4 ,a surprisingly large number of men who have become totally blind engage in diving1 and they usually do fairly well where the oysters are abundant on the reefs4 ,and one or two unfortunate divers are reported who continue the work even though handicapped by the loss both of a leg and of eyesight1 this interfering less with their diving than with their movements on land4 ,the fishery in this region owes absolutely nothing to modern civilization in the method of securing the pearls from the depth of the sea2 it is carried on to-day practically as it was six hundred years ago1 and probably has been without important variation for two thousand years4 ,aside from a loin-cloth1 the diver is devoid of clothing except that rarely1 early in the season when polypi abound1 he is enveloped in a cotton overall as a protection4 ,over each finger and thumb he wears a shield or stall 7khubaat1 or finger-hat71 about two inches long1 made of flexible leather1 to protect the fingers from the sharp shells and coral-growths4 ,as each fisherman usually wears out at least two sets of these shields each season1 it will be seen that a very large quantity of them is required to supply the entire fleet4 ,the divers use stones on which they descend feet foremost4 ,although this is less spectacular than the method of diving practised by the natives of the ,south ,sea islands1 it enables the fisherman to reach the bottom more speedily and with far less effort4 ,the diving-stones range in weight from thirty to fifty pounds each1 depending largely on the depth of water and the weight of the fisherman4 ,they are somewhat oval in shape1 and have one end perforated to admit a rope4 ,immediately above the attachment is formed a loop1 resembling a stirrup1 to receive the diver's foot4 ,when prepared for the day's work1 each stone is suspended by a stout rope over outriggers projecting from the side of the boat1 and by a slip-knot is temporarily held four and a half or five feet below the surface of the water4 ,a very stout diver may have a stone affixed to his waist to overcome his greater buoyancy4 ,usually two divers use one stone together and descend alternately4 ,each one has an attendant in the boat who assists him in ascending1 and looks after the ropes1 baskets of shells1 etc4 ,in preparing for descent1 the fisherman takes hold of the rope from which the diving stone is suspended1 puts one foot in the loop just above the stone and places the other foot in the rim of a net basket1 eighteen inches wide1 made of coir rope4 ,when ready1 he signals his attendant1 inhales several good breaths1 closes his nostrils with a fitaam or nostril-clasp of flexible horn attached to a cord around his neck1 raises his body somewhat above the surface to give force to the descent1 releases the slip-knot retaining the stone1 and sinks rapidly to the bottom4 ,immediately disengaging his foot from the stone1 he throws himself in a stooping position on the ground and collects as many oysters as possible during the fifty seconds or more in which he is able to remain under water4 ,when near his limit of endurance1 he hastily gives a signal jerk to the rope attached to the basket1 and the watchful attendant hauls him up as speedily as possible1 the diver frequently quickening the ascent by hand over hand movement up the rope4 ,when near the surface1 he lets go of the rope and with his arms close to his body pops above the surface puffing and blowing4 ,the contents of the net bag are emptied into a large basket by the attendant1 and the dead shells and other refuse are separated from the live oysters and thrown back into the sea1 the diver having worked too rapidly at the bottom to discriminate closely as to what he gathered4 ,in the meantime1 the stone has been drawn up and suspended by the slip-knot in its customary position and the diving partner is resting at the surface preparatory to descending4 ,thus1 diving alternately at intervals of five or six minutes1 each fisherman descends thirty or forty times in an ordinary day's work4 ,the number of oysters gathered at each descent depends on such conditions as their abundance1 the depth and clearness of the water1 etc4 ,it ranges from none to fifty or more1 but ordinarily ten or twelve is a good average4 ,as the men commonly work on shares1 the shells brought up by each diver or by each pair of divers are kept separate4 ,the best type of ,arab divers are very careful of themselves1 drying the body thoroughly with towels on coming out of the water1 taking intervals of rest during the day's work2 and even while in the water between dives they may enjoy the luxury of a cheroot or pipe1 or possibly a cigarette may pass from mouth to mouth of several men4 ,when pursuing their work1 the divers are abstemious4 ,after devotions at sunrise and a light breakfast of perhaps dates or rice and coffee1 they begin fishing4 ,about noon they knock off for coffee1 prayers1 and an hour's siesta1 and then resume work for several hours4 ,when the day's work is over and they have faced ,meccaward with the customary prayers1 they rest and eat a substantial meal1 commonly of dates and fish roasted over a charcoal fire4 ,in equal depths the ,arab fishermen remain under water longer than those of ,india who resort to the ,ceylon fishery1 but this is partly counterbalanced by the latter descending somewhat more frequently4 ,when preparing for a lengthy dive1 the fisherman imbibes large quantities of air1 opening his mouth and inhaling large volumes4 ,the length of time a diver remains submerged in the average depth of seven or eight fathoms rarely exceeds sixty seconds1 although some may remain seventy1 eighty1 and even ninety seconds on special occasion4 ,a fully substantiated instance is reported from ,manaar of an ,arab diver having remained #aji seconds in seven fathoms of water4 ,this occurred ,april #ac1 #ahhg1 and was witnessed and reported#aje by ,captain ,james ,donnan1 the inspector of the fishery4 ,wellsted reports#ajf a diving contest in the ,persian ,gulf in which only one man1 of the hundreds who competed1 remained down #aaj seconds2 the depth1 however1 is not noted4 ,there are numerous reports of much longer stays than these2 indeed1 a study of the published evidence bearing upon the subject furnishes surprising results4 ,ribeiro wrote1 in #afhe1 that a diver could remain below while two credos were repeated3 8,il s'y tient l'espace de deux credo40#ajg ,in his interesting account of the ,ceylon fishery1 ,percival stated that the usual length of time for divers to remain under water 8does not much exceed two minutes1 yet there are instances known of divers who could remain four or even five minutes1 which was the case with a ,caffre boy the last year ,i visited the fishery4 ,the longest instance ever known was of a diver who came from ,anjango in #agig1 and who absolutely remained under water full six minutes40#ajh ,le ,beck says1 that in #agig1 he saw a diver from ,karikal remain down for the space of seven minutes4#aji ,the merchant traveler1 ,jean ,chardin1 reported in #agaa that the divers remain up to seven and a half minutes under water3 8,les plongeurs qui pchent les perles sont quelquefois jusqu' demi-quart-d'heure sous l'eau40#aaj ,in #affg1 the ,royal ,society of ,london addressed an inquiry on this subject to ,sir ,philiberto ,vernatti1 the ,british ,resident at ,batavia in the ,east ,indies4 ,vernatti's reply gave certain details regarding the ,ceylon fishery1 but did not touch upon the length of diving because1 as he stated1 he could not 8meet with any one that can satisfy me1 and being unsatisfied myself1 ,i cannot nor will obtrude anything upon you which may hereafter prove fabulous2 but shall still serve you with truth40#aaa ,two years later1 and presumably after investigation1 ,vernatti reported3 8,the greatest length of time that pearl-divers in these parts can continue under water is about a quarter of an hour2 and that by no other means than custom2 for pearl-diving lasts not above six weeks1 and the divers stay a great while longer at the end of the season than at the beginning40#aab ,illustration3 ,photograph1 ,underwood ,underwood1 ,n4 ,y4 ,,his ,,imperial ,,majesty1 ,,mohammed ,,ali1 ,,shah ,,of ,,persia ,wearing the ,kajar crown ,the anatomist ,diemerbroeck relates#aac the case of a pearl diver who1 under his own observation1 remained half an hour at a time under water while pursuing his work2 and this was seriously adopted without comment by ,john ,mason ,goode in his 8,study of ,medicine40#aad ,ibn ,batuta1 8the ,doctor of ,tangier10 wrote about #accf that 8some remain down an hour1 others two hours1 others less40#aae ,a still earlier writer1 ,jouchanan ibn ,masouiah1#aaf in his book on stones1 states that 8the diver1 when he dives1 places upon his nose a masfsa lest water should enter into him1 and breathes through the fissure1 and remains under water for half an hour40 ,according to ,sebaldus ,rau#aag this masfsa was an article resembling a hood or cap1 which the diver placed over his nose4 ,it was made of some impervious material and had a projection so long that it reached to the surface of the water4 ,the same writer believes that this object was alluded to by ,aristotle 78,de part4 animal410 ,lib4 ,,ii1 c4 #af71 where he likens the trunk of the elephant to the instrument used by certain divers for aiding their respiration1 so that they could remain longer in the water and draw in air from above the surface4#aah ,and here we cease pursuit of further records1 lest our faith in recorded testimony be too severely tested4#aai ,a superficial inspection of the above evidence1 from the one or two hours noted by ,ibn ,batuta about the year #accf1 to the half an hour of ,diemerbroeck in #afgb1 the quarter of an hour of ,vernatti in #affi1 the seven and one half minutes of ,chardin in #agaa1 the six minutes of ,percival in #ahjc1 to the #aaj seconds of the present time1 seems to indicate very clearly a gradual but somewhat remarkable decrease in the ability of the ,asiatic divers1 and that the pearl fishermen of the present day are very different creatures from their ancestors4 ,and especially is this so when it is considered that the above records are not isolated reports selected for the particular purpose of showing a decrease in the length of diving2 on the contrary they are authoritative and representative publications of their respective periods4 ,we do not recall having seen in any report issued previous to #afge1 an intimation that the limit of time was less than ten minutes4 ,however1 a careful consideration of the subject leads to the belief that there has been no serious decrease in the length of time that the ,arab and ,indian divers remain under water1 and that either the writers were misinformed or that the individual cases reported were extremely exceptional4 ,ibn ,batuta's instance of one to two hours could easily be caused by a mistake in copying ,arabic manuscript1 or in the translation4 ,the case related by ,diemerbroeck in which a pearl diver remained submerged half an hour1 is more perplexing1 especially as the physician reports that this was done under his own observation4 ,the numerous reports of five or six minutes may have been based on a very exceptional case4 ,these statements are viewed as highly incredible by men who have spent scores of years at the fisheries4 ,a man may remain submerged for several minutes1 but the conditions are vastly different from the activities of pearl-gathering at a depth of ten fathoms1 where the pressure of the water is nearly thirty pounds to the square inch1 and the slightest exercise is fatiguing4 ,unless the time is taken by a watch1 it is easy to overestimate the stay2 the seconds pass very slowly when one is waiting momentarily for the appearance of the diver's head above the water1 and certainly to the nearly exhausted fisherman with straining chest and palpitating heart1 the last few seconds must seem extremely long indeed4 ,an instance is noted in which an ,arab diver remained submerged seventy-one seconds1 and on his reappearance1 navely inquired if he had not been down ten minutes4 ,it seems doubtful whether the #aaj seconds herein noted has been greatly exceeded1 in recent years at least1 by ,arab or ,indian divers1 who do not appear to equal the semi-amphibious natives of the ,south ,sea islands in their exploits4 ,one of the most curious features of the pearling industry is the manner in which the fishermen secure supplies of drinking water4 ,in the vicinity of ,bahrein1 numerous fresh-water springs exist at the bottom of the gulf in depths of two or three fathoms1 and the fishermen dive into the depth of the salt water down to where the fresh water is springing forth and there fill a skin or other suitable receptacle which they bring to the surface4 ,by running a pipe down near the bottom in the vicinity of one of these springs1 an abundance of fresh water may be pumped into the boat4 ,three species--or at least three varieties--of pearl-bearing oysters are obtained in the ,persian ,gulf4 ,these are known locally as mahar1 sudaifee1 and zinni4 ,of these1 the mahar or ,lingah oyster1 which corresponds to the ,ceylon pearl-oyster1 yields the greatest quantity of pearls1 and those of the finest quality4 ,it measures three or three and a half inches in diameter1 and is found in deeper water than the others4 ,the sudaifee and the zinni1 which are larger1 yield pearls in much smaller quantities than the mahar4 ,on large boats1 which remain out for two or three weeks at a time1 the oysters are left on deck overnight1 and the following morning they are opened by means of a curved knife 7miflaket71 four or five inches in length4 ,the smaller boats working near shore convey the catch to the land for the opening and searching for pearls4 ,the ,persian ,gulf pearls are commonly not so white as those from ,ceylon1 but they are found of larger size1 and it is believed in ,asia that they retain their luster for a greater length of time4 ,many of the ,persian ,gulf pearls1 especially those from sudaifee and zinni shells1 have a distinctly yellow color4 ,tavernier made a curious explanation of this4 ,he stated3 ,as for the pearls tending to yellow1 the color is due to the fact that the fishermen sell the oysters in heaps1 and the merchants awaiting sometimes up to #ad or #ae days till the shells open of themselves1 in order to extract the pearls1 some of these oysters lose their water during this time1 decay1 and become putrid1 and the pearls become yellow by contact4 ,this is so true that in all oysters which have retained their water1 the pearls are always white4 ,they are allowed to open of themselves1 because if they are opened by force1 as we open our oysters in the shell1 the pearls may be damaged and broken4 ,the oysters of the ,manar ,strait open of themselves1 #e or #f days sooner than those of the ,gulf of ,persia1 because the heat is much greater at ,manar1 which is at the tenth degree of ,north latitude1 while the island of ,bahrein is at about the twenty-seventh4 ,and consequently among the pearls which come from ,manar there are few yellow ones found4#abj ,tavernier was more familiar with the pearls themselves than with the methods of the fishery4 ,the yellow color is not due to contact with the putrefactive flesh1 and is independent of the manner of opening4 ,in fact1 if putrefaction caused the yellow color1 this shade would be far more prevalent in the ,manaar or ,ceylon pearls than in those from ,bahrein1 for practically all of the ,ceylon oysters are permitted to putrefy1 whereas only a portion of those in the ,persian ,gulf are opened in this manner4 ,furthermore1 notwithstanding that it is nearer the equator1 the heat at ,manaar during the pearling season is not to be compared with that at ,bahrein when the season is at its height1 for the ,persian ,gulf during ,july and ,august is notorious as one of the hottest places on the globe4 ,while the great bulk of the pearls are either white or yellowish1 these fisheries yield a few pink1 bluish1 gray1 and occasionally even black pearls4 ,these unusual colors are not especially prized4 ,a curious and remarkably detailed story has gone the rounds in which the qualities of ,persian and ,ceylon pearls are compared1 to the disparagement of the latter1 and during the last hundred years few accounts have been published of this fishery without recording it4 ,we notice it first in ,morier's 8,journey through ,persia in #ahjh and #ahji10aba but possibly it antedated that report4 ,the statement is that the pearls of ,ceylon peel off1 while those of ,persia are as 8firm as the rock on which they grow02 and though they lose in color and luster one per cent4 annually for fifty years1 they still lose less than those of ,ceylon1 and at the expiration of the fifty years they cease to diminish in appearance4 ,the pearl output in the ,persian ,gulf at the present time appears from the official returns to exceed four million dollars annually at local valuation4 ,the exports in #aijc were reported at #hbg1ddg1 and in #aijd1 #a1jgg1bda4 ,it is generally understood that all of the pearls are not entered in the official figures1 and the valuations in the markets of ,asia and ,europe are greatly in excess of these amounts4 ,the profits of the fishery are divided among a great number of persons4 ,a large percentage goes to the shrewd bunnias from ,india1 who finance the fishery operations1 and who1 by all sorts of tricks connected with advances of supplies1 valuation of the catch1 etc41 manage to make a very good thing out of the business4 ,it is nothing unusual for the valuation of a lot of pearls to double and even treble after leaving the hands of the fishermen4 ,while many of the gulf pearls--and especially of the small seed-pearls--go to ,bagdad1 the great bulk of them are sold to representatives of ,hindu and ,arab merchants of ,bombay for shipment to that city1 which to the ,bahrein fisherman is the heart of the outside world4 ,few of the pearls go directly into ,arabia or ,persia1 as the certain sale in the larger ,bombay market is preferable to a sometimes higher but less regular price in other markets4 ,indeed1 pearls may usually be purchased at a less cost in ,india than a stranger would be obliged to pay at ,bahrein4 ,the ,bombay merchants 8sow the earth with ,orient pearl10 dealing direct with ,london1 ,paris and ,berlin1 and with the oriental jewelers4 ,most of the yellow pearls find oriental purchasers1 with whose dark complexions they harmonize better than the silvery white ones4 ,they are also more popular because of a belief existing throughout the ,east that they are less likely to lose their luster with the lapse of years4 ,the shell of the pearl-oysters is not used locally1 but large quantities are exported to ,europe for manufacture4 ,although it is the smallest and cheapest produced in the gulf1 yet1 owing to the enormous quantity taken for their pearls1 the shell of the mahar 7,margaritifera vulgaris7 constitutes the bulk of the exports4 ,formerly most of the shipments were made from the harbor of ,lingah1 hence it is known in the markets of ,europe as 8,lingah shell40 ,but in the last three or four years1 much of it has been transported to ,europe via ,bander ,abbas and ,bushire4 ,a ,german firm at ,bahrein is extensively employed in exporting this shell1 and several ,indian merchants are also engaged in the trade4 ,the total exports in #aijf amounted to #cbfb tons1 valued at #bf1djh according to the port returns1 but worth about #ace1jjj in ,europe4 ,very large quantities are received in ,london1 and over #bejj tons have been offered at auction in a single year4 ,this shell is very small1 averaging about three inches in diameter and about one and a half ounces in weight4 ,it is the cheapest of all mother-of-pearl4 ,the best quality sells in ,london for ten to twenty shillings per hundredweight1 but the ordinary grade is worth usually less than nine shillings1 and sometimes as low as three shillings per hundredweight4 ,america formerly imported it1 but few lots have been received since the exploitation of the ,mississippi shell about fifteen years ago4 ,the shell of the larger species of pearl-oysters in the ,persian ,gulf is worth considerably more than the 8,lingah shell10 selling in ,europe for #ab to #fj per ton1 yet manufacturers consider it as furnishing only poor qualities of mother-of-pearl4 ,several hundred tons are exported annually4 ,it measures six or seven inches in diameter and is used principally in making cheap grades of buttons4 ,,the ,,pearl ,,fisheries ,,of ,,ceylon ,errors1 like straws1 upon the surface flow2 ,he who would search for pearls must dive below4 ,,dryden1 ,all for ,love1 ,prologue4 ,second in extent to those of ,persia only1 are the intermittent and uncertain pearl fisheries of the ,gulf of ,manaar4 ,this is an arm of the ,indian ,ocean1 from #fe to #aej miles in width1 separating the island of ,ceylon from the southernmost part of ,india4 ,the pearl-oyster banks--known locally as paars--are situated off the northwest coast of ,ceylon and also in the vicinity of ,tuticorin on the ,madras coast of the mainland4 ,the ,ceylon fisheries are under the control of the colonial government of the ,british ,empire1 and those of the mainland are monopolized by the ,madras government4 ,notwithstanding the fact that they are outside of the three-mile limit established as the bound of national jurisdiction1 exclusive privileges are exercised over these fisheries by the respective governments1#abb and poaching vessels are liable to seizure and punishment4 ,though possibly not so ancient as those of ,persia1 the ,ceylon pearl fisheries are of great antiquity4 ,references to them occur in ,cingalese records dating from #eej ,b4,c4 ,pliny1 ,ptolemy1 ,strabo1 and other ancient writers speak of their importance4 ,the 8,periplus of the ,erythran0--written about the end of the second century ,a4,d4--refers to these fisheries1 and states that1 owing to the dangers involved1 it was customary to employ convicts therein4 ,in the days of the 8,arabian ,nights10 under the name 8,serendib10 this was the scene of the pearling adventures of ,sindbad the ,sailor1 and the reputation of the valuable pearl resources is reflected in those wonderful tales4 ,the first extensive description we have of the ,gulf of ,manaar fisheries was given by the ,venetian traveler1 ,marco ,polo1 who visited the region about #abid4 ,he wrote3 ,the pearl fishers take their vessels1 great and small1 and proceed into the gulf where they stop from the beginning of ,april till the middle of ,may4 ,they go first to a place called ,bettelar1 and then go #fj miles into the ,gulf4 ,here they cast anchor and shift from their large vessels into small boats4 ,you must know that the many merchants who go divide into various companies1 and each of these must engage a number of men on wages1 hiring them for ,april and half of ,may4 ,of all the produce they have first to pay the king1 as his royalty1 the tenth part4 ,and they must also pay those men who charm the great fishes to prevent them from injuring the divers whilst engaged in seeking pearls under water1 one-twentieth of all that they take4 ,these fish-charmers are termined ,abraiaman2 and their charm holds good for that day only1 for at night they dissolve the charm so that the fishes can work mischief at their will4 ,these ,abraiaman know also how to charm beasts and birds and every living thing4 ,when the men have got into the small boats they jump into the water and dive to the bottom1 which may be at a depth of from #d to #ab fathoms1 and there they remain as long as they are able4 ,and there they find the shells that contain the pearls1 and those they put into a net bag tied round the waist1 and mount up to the surface with them1 and then dive anew4 ,when they can't hold their breath any longer they come up again1 and after a little down they go once more1 and so they go on all day4 ,these shells are in fashion like oysters or sea-hoods4 ,and in these shells are found pearls1 great and small1 of every kind1 sticking in the flesh of the shell-fish4 ,in this manner pearls are fished in great quantities1 for thence in fact come the pearls which are spread all over the world4 ,and ,i can tell you the ,king of that ,state hath a very great receipt and treasure from his dues upon those pearls4#abc ,that quaint old missionary bishop1 ,friar ,jordanus1 in his 8,mirabilia ,descripta1 or the ,wonders of the ,east0 7circa #accj71 reports that 8more than #hjjj boats0 were sometimes employed for three months continually in these fisheries1 which were then prosecuted under the jurisdiction of the ,cingalese kings of ,kandy1 and that the quantity of pearls taken was 8astounding and almost incredible40#abd ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,prince ,,of ,,pearls03 ,,the ,,late ,,rana ,,of ,,dholpur ,,in ,,his ,,pearl ,,regalia ,this number of boats seems entirely too large1 especially in view of the fact that ,jordanus secured his information at second hand2 but it leaves the impression that the fisheries of that period were of great importance4 ,when the ,portuguese1 attracted by the wealth of its resources1 obtained control of this region about #aeaj1 they exacted from the local rulers an annual tribute in pearls and spices4 ,later they conducted the fisheries on their own account1 permitting the native fishermen to retain one fourth of the catch as compensation for their work1 and dividing the remainder into three equal portions1 for the king1 the church1 and the soldiers1 respectively4 ,linschoten1 who visited ,india about #aeij1 leaves this interesting account of the fishery at that time3 8,there are also other fishings for pearle1 as between the ,iland of ,seylon1 and the ,cape de ,comoriin1 where great numbers are yearlie found1 for that the ,king of ,portingale hath a captaine there with soldiers that looketh unto it2 they have yearlie at the least above #c or #d thousand duckers divers1 yt live onlie by fishing for pearles1 and so maintaine themselves40 ,he describes the methods of fishing1 which appear to be similar to those of the present time1 and adds3 8,when they have made an end of the day's fishing1 all the fishers with the captaine1 soldiers1 laborers and watchmen for the king1 goe together1 and taking all the pearls pearl-oysters that are caught that day they divide them into certaine heaps1 that is1 one part for the king1 another part for the captaine and soldiers1 the third part for the ,jesuits1 because they have their ,cloyster in that place1 and brought the countrie first into the ,christian faith1 and the last part for the ,fishers1 which is done with ,justice and ,equalitie4 ,this fishing is done in the ,summer tyme1 and there passeth not any yeare but that divers ,fishers are drowned by the ,cape de ,comoriin 7which is called the ,king's fishing7 and manie devoured by fishes1 so that when the fishing is done there is great and pitiful noyse and cry of women and children heard4 ,yet the next yeare they must do the same work againe1 for that they have no other means to live1 as also for that they are partlie compelled thereunto by the ,portingales1 but most part because of the gaine40#abe ,the best description we have seen of the ,ceylon fisheries at the time of the ,portuguese occupation1 is that of ,caesar ,frederick1 a ,venetian trader1 who referred to the period from #aefc to #aeha4 ,frederick reported1 according to ,hickocke's translation in the ,hakluyt edition3 ,the sea that lieth between the coast which descendeth from ,cao ,comori1 to the lowe land of ,chilao1 and from ,island ,zeilan1 they call the fishing of ,pearles1 which fishing they make every yeare1 beginning in ,march or ,april1 and it lasteth fiftie dayes1 but they doe not fishe every yeere in one place1 but one yeere in one place1 and another yeere in another place of the same sea4 ,when the time of this fishing draweth neere1 they send very good ,divers1 that goe to discover where the greatest heapes of ,oisters bee under water1 and right agaynst that place where greatest store of ,oisters bee1 there they make or plant a village with houses and a ,bazaro1 which standeth as long as the fishing time lasteth1 and it is furnished with all things necessarie1 and nowe and then it is neere unto places that are inhabited1 and other times farre off1 according to the place where they fishe4 ,the fishermen are all ,christians of the countrey1 and who so will may goe to fishing1 paying a certain dutie to the king of ,portugall1 and to the ,churches of the ,friers of ,saint ,paule1 which are in that coast4 ,all the while that they are fishing1 there are three or foure ,fustes armed to defend the ,fishermen from ,rovers4 ,it was my chance to bee there one time in my passage1 and ,i saw the order that they used in fishing1 which is this4 ,there are three or foure ,barkes that make consort together1 which are like to our litle ,pilot boates1 and a little lesse1 there goe seven or eight men in a boate3 and ,i have seene in a morning a great number of them goe out1 and anker in fifteene or eighteene fadome of water1 which is the ordinarie depth of all that coast4 ,when they are at anker1 they cast a rope into the sea1 and at the end of the rope1 they make fast a great stone1 and then there is readie a man that hath his nose and his eares well stopped1 and annointed with oyle1 and a basket about his necke1 or under his left arme1 then he goeth downe by the rope to the bottome of the ,sea1 and as fast as he can hee filleth the basket1 and when it is full1 he shaketh the rope1 and his fellows that are in the ,barke hale him up with the basket3 and in such wise they go one by one untill they have laden their barke with oysters1 and at evening they come to the village1 and then every company maketh their mountaine or heape of oysters one distant from another1 in such wise that you shall see a great long rowe of mountaines or heapes of oysters1 and they are not touched until such time as the fishing bee ended1 and at the ende of the fishing every companie sitteth round about their mountaine or heape of oysters1 and fall to opening of them1 which they may easilie doe because they bee dead1 drie and brittle3 and if every oyster had pearles in them1 it would be a very good purchase1 but there are very many that have no pearles in them3 when the fishing is ended1 then they see whether it bee a good gathering or a badde3 there are certaine expert in the pearles whom they call ,chitini1 which set and make the price of pearles according to their carracts carats or weight1 beautie1 and goodnesse1 making foure sorts of them4 ,the first sort bee the round pearles1 and they bee called ,aia of ,portugale1 because the ,portugales doe buy them4 ,the second sorte which are not round1 are called ,aia of ,bengala4 ,the third sort which are not so good as the second1 they call ,aia of ,canara1 that is to say1 the kingdome of ,bezeneger4 ,the fourth and last sort1 which are the least and worst sort1 are called ,aia of ,cambaia4 ,thus the price being set1 there are merchants of every countrey which are readie with their money in their handes1 so that in a fewe dayes all is brought up at the prises set according to the goodnesse and caracts of the pearles4#abf ,a remarkable instance of the immutability of custom in the ,orient is found in the fact that1 except in a few minor particulars1 ,frederick's account1 written more than three centuries ago1 could serve as a description of the methods of the fisheries in recent years4 ,the industry was then very extensive1 as appears from an account shortly afterward 7about #afjh7 by ,pedro ,teixeira1 who reported#abg that from #djj to #ejj boats were employed1 and from #ej1jjj to #fj1jjj persons resorted to the fishery4 ,in #afeh1 possession of ,ceylon and ,india passed from the ,portuguese to the ,dutch1 who for a time continued the pearl fisheries after the manner practised by their predecessors2 but owing to contentions as to the details of management1 they soon resorted to leasing them each year to the highest bidder1 or to several bidders1 for a definite money payment4 ,the successful bidders prosecuted the industry in the same manner as the government had previously done1 employing the same native fishermen and compensating them with one fourth of the oysters secured4 ,under the ,dutch rule the fisheries were very unprofitable1 and particularly so during the last seventy years of their authority4 ,there was practically no fishing from #agcb to #agdf1 and there was also a suspension--but not entirely from lack of oysters or of pearls--from #agfh until the territory passed into the control of the ,british in #agif4 ,the colonial government of the ,british ,empire continued the ,dutch policy of leasing1 only restricting the limits of territory and season for fishing4 ,many objections were found to this method4 ,it was difficult to regulate the business properly1 and there were no reliable means of determining its proceeds and conditions4 ,at length in #ahce1 the government began to operate the fishery on its own account1 as the ,portuguese had done two hundred years before1 allowing the fishermen one fourth of the oysters taken by them and selling the remaining three fourths for the benefit of the treasury4 ,in this way the full value of the resources was realized without mystery1 deception1 or concealment1 and the plan worked satisfactorily for all concerned4 ,owing1 presumably1 to the long period in which they had lain undisturbed1 the ,ceylon oyster reefs were in excellent condition at the beginning of ,british rule4 ,in #agif the government derived a revenue of ,rs4#a1ajj1jjj therefrom1 and in #agig the revenue was ,rs4#a1djj1jjj2 these two years were by far the most productive during the first century of ,british occupation4 ,several very interesting reports on the industry were prepared about that time4 ,especially to be noted among these were the accounts by ,henry ,j4 ,le,beck in #agih2abh by ,robert ,percival in #ahjc2abi and by ,james ,cordiner in #ahjg1acj to which reference is made for detailed accounts of the fisheries of that period4 ,the ,ceylon fishery was prosecuted about every other year from #agii to #ahji1 and the annual returns ranged from #ae1jbb in #ahja to #hd1beg in #ahjh4 ,from #ahaj to #ahac1 inclusive1 there was a blank so far as receipts were concerned4 ,in #ahad the fishery was very good1 bringing in a revenue of #aje1ahg4 ,with the exception of very slight returns in #ahae1 #ahaf1 and #ahbj1 no oysters were then obtained until #ahbh4 ,excepting #ahcb and #ahcd1 the industry was prosecuted each year from #ahbh to #ahcg1 the revenue to the government averaging about #cj1jjj annually4 ,then came a long blank of seventeen years1 for there was no fishing from #ahch to #ahed1 and likewise from #ahfd to #ahgc4 ,indeed1 so depleted had the beds throughout the ,gulf of ,manaar become in #ahff1 that serious consideration was given to the possibilities of securing seed oysters from the ,persian ,gulf for restocking the reefs2 but fortunately this was rendered unnecessary by the discovery soon afterward of a few oysters on several reefs on both the ,ceylon and the ,malabar coasts4 ,from #ahee to #ahfc1 and also from #ahgd to #ahha1 the returns were only ordinary1 the highest being #ea1jag in #ahfc1 and #ei1hfh in #ahha1--the best year since #ahad2 and during these two periods fishing was entirely omitted in nearly one half the seasons4 ,there were five lean years from #ahhb to #ahhf1 and the #ahhg fishery was only fair1 with a yield of #ci1fji4 ,but the returns for #ahhh were large1 amounting to #hj1dbd2 and those for #ahia were even greater1 being #if1cgj1 representing a yield of #dd1caa1dda oysters4 ,no oysters were caught from #ahib to #aijb1 inclusive4 ,in #aijc1 the fishery was profitable1 yielding #da1ahj1acg oysters1 and the share of the government amounted to #ee1cjc2 and in #aijd the yield was almost the same1 being #da1jci1jhe oysters and a revenue of #ga1jej to the government4 ,in #aije occurred the greatest fishery in the modern history of ,ceylon4 ,the season extended from ,february #bj until ,april #ba1 giving forty-seven working days1 exclusive of ,sundays and five days of bad weather1 the longest period in over half a century4#aca ,the boats employed numbered #cah1 with #diia divers and #dhid attendant manduks4 ,the yield of oysters exceeded all records1 amounting to #ha1ehj1gaf in number1 or nearly twice as many as in any previous year within the period of ,british occupation4 ,the prices at which these sold ranged from ,rs4#bd to ,rs4#abd per thousand1 with an average of ,rs4#dh4hi for the entire season4 ,the government received ,rs4#b1eaj1gbg as its share of the revenue1 which was twice as much as in any previous year since the ,british have been in control1 and doubtless the largest received by any government in the history of the industry4 ,the oysters falling to the share of the divers must have sold for at least ,rs4#a1bee1cfc 7since #ahha the divers have received one third of the catch as their compensation1 instead of one fourth74 ,the profits of the merchants1 who purchased and opened the government oysters as well as those of the divers1 doubtless amounted to fully as much1 making a total of ,rs4#e1jba1dec1 or nearly #b1jjj1jjj as a low estimate of the local value of the pearls secured at ,ceylon in #aije4 ,owing to the great success in #aije1 an enormous number of persons flocked to the camp at the beginning of the season in #aijf4 ,employment was given to #dgc boats1 the largest number on record1 and over #hfjj divers were engaged1 with an equal number of attendants4 ,owing to unfavorable weather and the great quantity of oysters removed in #aije1 the catch in #aijf was less than in that record year1 amounting to #fg1aej1fda in number1 from the sale of which ,rs4#a1cgf1gdf was realized4 ,the prices covered a wide range4 ,for the large ,cheval oysters1 even ,rs4#bgf1 ,rs4#bia1 and ,rs4#cji per #ajjj were received4 ,the inferior1 stunted oysters from the ,muttuvaratu paar ranged from ,rs4#bj to ,rs4#da per #ajjj1 and even at these prices many buyers sustained losses4 ,on the other hand considerable money was made by the buyers of those from ,cheval1 in which some very large and beautiful pearls were found4 ,the results of the #aijg fishery were surprisingly good1 excellent prices being obtained4 ,the proceeds from the sale of two thirds of the #ba1jjj1jjj oysters amounted to ,rs4#a1jdj1jjj1 or just under #cej1jjj4 ,the fishery lasted thirty-six working days4 ,only #agc boats were used1 as it was considered that a fleet of this size is fully as large as can be employed advantageously to the greatest satisfaction of all interested4 ,according to the compilations of the colonial secretary's office1 the gross revenue to the government from #agif to #aijg1 inclusive1 amounted to #b1jih1hcj4 ,if to this be added the fishermen's share and the merchants' compensation1 we have a total of about #d1bjj1jjj or #ba1jjj1jjj as the local value of the pearls produced in ,ceylon during the period of ,british occupation4 ,the value of these in the markets of ,asia and ,europe was undoubtedly very much greater4 ,in many respects the ,ceylon pearl fisheries are the most interesting in the world4 ,owing to their ready accessibility and thorough organization1 they are far better known than any others4 ,reliable data exist as to the number of oysters taken during each season since #ahed1 and it is possible to estimate roughly the pearls obtained therefrom4 ,throughout the #aab years of ,british occupation1 and previously to some extent under the successive rule of the ,cingalese kings1 of the ,portuguese1 and of the ,dutch1 for centuries1 the reefs were annually examined by official inspectors1 and fishing was permitted only in those years when they appeared in satisfactory condition4 ,a noticeable feature of these fisheries is their uncertainty1 a prosperous season being followed by an absence of fishing sometimes extending over ten years or more4 ,this is not of recent development4 ,over eight hundred years ago a total cessation of yield for a considerable period was recorded#acb by ,albyrouni1 who served under ,mahmud of ,ghazni4 ,he stated that1 in the eleventh century1 the oysters which formerly existed in the ,gulf of ,serendib 7,ceylon7 disappeared simultaneously with the appearance of a fishery at ,sofala in the country of the ,zends1 where previously the existence of pearls had been unknown2 hence it was conjectured that the pearl-oysters of ,serendib had migrated to ,sofala4 ,in the #bdi years since ,ceylon passed from the dominion of the ,portuguese in #afeh1 there have been only sixty-nine years in which the pearl fisheries were prosecuted4 ,during the last century there were only thirty-six regularly authorized fisheries4 ,enormous quantities of oysters have appeared on the reefs1 giving rise to hopes of great results1 only to end in disappointment1 owing to their complete disappearance4 ,in the fall of #ahhg1 for instance1 examination of one of the reefs revealed an enormous quantity of oysters1 covering an area five miles in length by one and a half miles in width1 with 8#fjj to #gjj oysters to the square yard0 in places4 ,it was estimated by the inspection officials that there were #afd1jjj1jjj oysters1 which exceeded the total number taken in the preceding sixty years1 and which should have yielded several million dollars' worth of pearls in the following season1 according to the usual returns4 ,but some months later not an oyster was to be found on this large reef1 the great host presumably having been destroyed by action of the sea4 ,numerous reasons are assigned for the failure of promising reefs4 ,those most frequently heard are that the currents sweep the oysters away1 that they are devoured by predaceous enemies1 that they are covered by the shifting bottom1 or that they voluntarily move to new grounds4 ,the oysters are found in well-known and permanently located banks or paars in the upper end of the ,gulf of ,manaar1 in the wide shallow plateau off the northwest end of the island and directly south of ,adams ,bridge4 ,the hard calcrete bottom is formed mostly of sand combined with organic remains in a compact mass and with more or less coral and shell deposits4 ,the density of the water1 as determined by ,professor ,herdman 7to whose important and valuable report#acc we are indebted for much information71 is fairly constant at #a4jbc1 and the temperature has a normal range of from #hb to #hf ,f4 during the greater part of the year4 ,the charts and records refer to about twenty paars1 but most of these have never yielded extensively1 either to the ,english or to the ,dutch4 ,in the aggregate1 they cover an area fifty miles in length and twenty miles in width4 ,most of them are from five to twenty miles from the shore1 and at a depth of five to ten fathoms4 ,the principal paars are ,cheval1 ,madaragam1 ,periya1 ,muttuvaratu1 ,karativu1 ,vankalai1 ,chilaw1 and ,condatchy4 ,only three have afforded profitable fisheries in recent years1 i4 e43 ,cheval1 ,madaragam and ,muttuvaratu4 ,the other paars are of practically no economic value at the present time4 ,they become populated with tens of millions of oysters1 which mysteriously disappear before they are old enough for gathering4 ,especially is this true of the ,periya paar1 which is about fifteen miles from the shore1 and runs eleven miles north and south1 varying from one to two miles in width4 ,frequently this is found covered with young oysters1 which almost invariably disappear before the next inspection1 owing1 probably1 to their being covered by the shifting bottom caused by the southwest monsoon4 ,the natives call this the 8,mother paar10 under the impression that these oysters migrate to the other paars4 ,the ,ceylon government has given very careful attention to all matters affecting the prosperity of the pearl resources4 ,it has maintained a 8,pearl ,fishery ,establishment10 consisting of a superintendent1 an inspector and numerous divers1 attendants1 and sailors4 ,the inspector examines the paars1 determines when and to what extent they should be fished1 and directs the operations4 ,the superintendent conducts the work on shore1 divides and sells the oysters1 etc4 ,the expense of this establishment has approximated #dj1jjj per annum when there has been a fishery1 and about #bb1ejj without fishery expenses4 ,it has been decided by naturalists that ,ceylon oysters less than four years old produce very few marketable pearls2 in the fifth1 and again in the sixth year the value of the yield doubles1 and in the seventh it is supposed to increase fourfold4 ,beyond that age there appears to be little increase1 and there is the risk of the oysters dying1 and of the pearls deteriorating or becoming lost4 ,eight years seems to be the natural limit of life4 ,while experience has shown that the most profitable period for taking the pearl-oysters is when they are from five to seven years old1 the mollusks are liable to disappear1 especially after the fifth year1 and the danger of waiting too long is as great as that of beginning too early4 ,the fishing on any particular bank is determined by various circumstances and conditions1 and is permitted only after careful examination4 ,the different beds are inspected from time to time1 and no fishing is permitted until the condition of the pearl-oysters on the particular reef thrown open seems to warrant the most valuable returns4 ,in the examination of a bed apparently in suitable condition1 several thousand oysters--usually eight or ten thousand--are taken up and the pearls found therein are examined and valued4 ,if they average ,rs4#be or ,rs4#cj per thousand oysters1 profitable results may be expected1 provided there is a sufficient quantity of oysters on the bed4 ,this method of determining the fishery is very ancient4 ,tavernier wrote1 about #afej1 8before they fish1 they try whether it will turn to any account by sending seven or eight boats to bring #ajjj oysters each1 which they open1 and if the oysters per #ajjj yield five fanos or above1 they then know the fishing will turn to account40#acd ,and much the same method was described by ,ribeiro in #afhe4 ,when it has been decided to hold a fishery1 public notice is given by advertisement1 stating which of the many paars or reefs will be open1 and the estimated quantity of oysters to be removed1 the number of boats that will be given employment1 and the date for beginning the season and the length of time it will probably last4 ,this notice is usually given in ,december preceding the fishery1 and it is the signal for preparation by tens of thousands of persons in this part of ,asia1 and especially on the ,madras and the ,malabar coasts of ,india1 and on the coast of ,arabia4 ,the fishermen1 the merchants1 and the multitude of artisans1 mechanics1 and laborers who contribute to the industry1 set their homes and business in order so that they may attend4 ,we give the notice issued in #aijg1 both in ,cingalese and in ,english4#ace ,illustration3 ,,the ,,late ,,maharajah ,,of ,,patiala ,early in ,february the area to be gleaned is again examined1 the limits of the oysters are charted and buoyed off1 the number that may be obtained is estimated as accurately as possible1 and valuation samples are collected4 ,several thousand oysters are taken up1 the pearls are removed1 examined1 and valued by uninterested experts1 and the results are published1 so that prospective buyers may have a reliable idea as to their value4 ,otherwise this would not be possible until the merchants had washed some of their own purchases1 which ordinarily would not be for a week or ten days after the opening of the season4 ,the fishery usually begins late in ,february or early in ,march1 as the sea is then relatively calm1 the currents least perceptible1 and there is less danger of storms4 ,it is prosecuted from a temporary settlement or camp on the sandy shore at a place conveniently near the reefs4 ,the important fisheries of the five years ending in #aijg1 were centered at the improvised settlement known as ,marichchikadde4 ,although prosecuted from the coast of ,ceylon1 relatively few ,cingalese attend compared with the large numbers who assemble from ,india1 ,arabia1 and elsewhere4 ,a week or two before the opening of the season1 the boats begin to arrive1 sometimes fifty or more in a single day1 laden with men1 women and children1 and in many cases with the materials for their huts4 ,in a short time the erstwhile desolate beach becomes populated with thousands of persons from all over the ,indian littoral1 and there is the noisy traffic of congregated humanity1 and a confusion of tongues where before only the sound of the ocean waves was heard4 ,beside the eight or ten thousand fishermen1 most of whom are ,moormen1 ,tamils1 and ,arabs1 there are pearl merchants--mainly ,chetties and ,moormen1 boat repairers and other mechanics1 provision dealers1 priests1 pawnbrokers1 government officials1 koddu-counters1 clerks1 boat guards1 a police force of #bjj officials1 coolies1 domestic servants1 with numbers of women and children4 ,and for the entertainment of these1 and to obtain a share of the wealth from the sea1 there are jugglers1 fakirs1 gamblers1 beggars1 female dancers1 loose characters1 with every allurement that appeals to the sons of ,brahma1 ,buddha or ,mohammed4 ,natives from the seaport towns of ,india are there in thousands2 the slender-limbed and delicate-featured ,cingalese with their scant attire and unique head-dress2 energetic ,arabs from the ,persian ,gulf2 burly ,moormen1 sturdy ,kandyans1 outcast ,veddahs1 ,chinese1 ,jews1 ,portuguese1 ,dutch1 half-castes1 the scum of the ,east and the riffraff of the ,asiatic littoral1 the whole making up a temporary city of forty thousand or more inhabitants4#acf ,,the ,ceylon ,company of ,pearl ,fishers1 ,,limited4 ,,notice ,is hereby given that a ,pearl ,fishery will take place at ,marichchukkaddi1 in the ,island of ,ceylon1 on or about ,february #bj1 #aijg4 ,the ,banks to be fished are-- ,the ,karativu1 ,dutch ,moderagam and ,alanturai ,pars1 estimated to contain #ba1jjj1jjj oysters1 sufficient to employ #ajj boats for twenty-one days with average loads of #aj1jjj each per day4 ,the ,northwest and ,mid-,west ,cheval1 estimated to contain #b1jjj1jjj oysters1 sufficient to employ #ajj boats for two days with average loads of #aj1jjj oysters4 ,the ,muttuvaratu ,par1 estimated to contain #h1jjj1jjj oysters1 sufficient to employ #ajj boats for eight days with average loads as before stated3 each boat being fully manned with divers4 #b4 ,it is notified that fishing will begin on the first favourable day after ,february #ai4 ,conditions governing the employment of divers will be issued separately4 #c4 ,marichchukkaddi is on the mainland1 eight miles by sea south of ,sillavaturai1 and supplies of good water and provisions can be obtained there4 #d4 ,the ,fishery will be conducted on account of the ,ceylon ,company of ,pearl ,fishers1 ,ltd41 and the oysters put up to sale in such lots as may be deemed expedient4 ,illustration ,a populous town springs up with well-planned and lighted streets and vast numbers of temporary abodes of all sorts1 according to the means and the caste of the occupants1 some of them just large enough for two or three persons to creep into4 ,although made mostly of poles1 mats1 cajans or plaited fronds of the cocoanut tree1 they furnish ample shelter for the locality and season1 the uncertainty of the fishery from year to year being sufficient argument against expensive and substantial buildings4 ,numerous wells and cisterns yield water for the use of all4 ,sanitary measures are strictly enforced1 with a liberal use of disinfectants4 ,at a considerable distance southward from the settlement are constructed the private toddis1 or inclosures1 for decomposing the oysters and washing the pearls therefrom4 ,nearer the camp or settlement itself are the police court1 the jail1 the bank1 the post and telegraph offices1 the auction room1 the hospital and the cemetery--all to endure through a strenuous six weeks of toil and labor1 of money-getting and gambling1 and then the inhabitants 8fold their tents like the ,arabs1 and silently steal away10 leaving the debris to the shore-birds and the jackals4 ,the fishing fleet consists of several hundred boats#acg of various rigs and sizes4 ,these are interesting on account of their picturesque appearance and also their remarkable diversity of types in hull and rigging3 there is the broad and roomy ,jaffna dhoney1 commonly painted black2 the lugger-like ,paumben boat2 the very narrow and speedy canoes1--not unlike the single masted bugeyes of the ,chesapeake region--from ,kilakarai and neighboring villages1 most noticeable owing to their great number and their bright colors--red1 green1 or yellow2 the clumsy looking1 single masted ,tuticorin lighters1 sharp sterned and copper bottomed1 the largest boats in the fleet1 ranging in capacity from twenty to forty tons each2 and1 most singular of all1 the three masted great canoes from ,adirampatnam and ,muttupat on the ,tanjore coast1 pale blue in color and with curved prow4 ,in addition to these standard types1 added novelty is imparted by a few boats of design so odd and fantastic as would be conceived only by the mind of an oriental builder4 ,reaching the camp at the beginning of the season1 these boats are examined by the officials as to condition and equipment and1 if found satisfactory1 are registered and numbered4 ,when the quantity of oysters to be removed is small1 many more boats may arrive than is necessary or than can find profitable employment4 ,formerly when this occurred a lottery was held to determine those to be employed4 ,more recently the officials have endeavored to engage all boats passing the inspection1 although to do so might necessitate arranging the fleet into two divisions1 each fishing on alternate days4 ,in #ahgd1 the boats were arranged in three divisions1 the red1 blue and green1 with fifty boats in each2 in #ahgi1 and again in #ahha1 there were two divisions1 the red and the blue2 and likewise in #ahhj1 in #aijc and in #aijf there were two1 the red and the white divisions4 ,of the #cah boats employed in the #aije fishery1 #adc were from ,kilakarai1 seventy-four from ,jaffna1 thirty-five from ,tuticorin1 thirty-four from ,paumben1 nine from ,manaar1 six from ,negapatam1 five from ,colombo1 four each from ,tondi and ,kayalpatam1 and one each from ,devipatam1 ,adrapatam1 ,ammopatam1 and ,koddaipatam4 ,the number of persons on each boat ranges from about twelve to sixty-five1 with an average for the entire fleet of about thirty-five men per boat4 ,this includes the sammatti1 or master1 who represents the owner2 the tindal1 or pilot2 the todai1 or water-bailer1 who is very necessary on these leaky craft1 and who also takes charge of the food and drinking water2 at times a government inspector or 8boat guard02 and from five to thirty divers1 with an equal number of manducks1 or attendants4#ach ,the sammattis1 tindals1 and todais are nearly all from the coast of southern ,india4 ,the 8boat guards0 or inspectors are natives of ,ceylon1 and are employed by the government to prevent the fishermen from opening the oysters4 ,most of the manducks are from the ,indian coast4 ,of the #diia divers employed in #aije1 #bfdi were ,moormen or ,lubbais from ,kilakarai1 ,tondi1 etc41 on the ,madura coast2 #ibc were ,arabs2 #dbd were ,erukkalampiddi ,moormen from ,ceylon1 and the remaining #iie were ,tamils from ,tuticorin1 ,rameswaram and elsewhere on the ,madras coast1 ,malayalans from the ,malabar coast1 with small numbers from other localities on the ,asiatic coasts4 ,among the #hfjj divers in #aijf1 were #djij ,arabs1 the largest number of those people employed in recent years4 ,in #aije there were only #ibc ,arab divers1 in #aijd only #bch1 and previously the number was much less4 ,some have worked on the ,ceylon coast since #ahhg1 but most of them are newly arrived from ,bahrein and ,kuweit1 where they received their training as pearl-divers4 ,they are very energetic and skilful fishermen1 far surpassing the ,tamils1 coming early in the season and staying late1 and working on many days when rough seas deter the ,indian divers from venturing out4 ,the ,erukkalampiddi divers of ,ceylon are by no means so energetic or steady in work as the ,arabs1 and commonly desert the fishery before the close4 ,the ,tamil divers belong to the ,parawa and ,kadeiyar castes4 ,the season in the ,ceylon fishery is very short1 only about six or eight weeks at the most2 and the holidays and storms usually reduce the number of actual working days to less than thirty4 ,in no other pearl fishery of importance is the season less than four months in length1 and in most of them it extends through more than half of the year4 ,owing to this restricted time1 there is greater activity in the ,ceylon fishery compared with the value of the output than in any other pearl fishery in the world4 ,although the season is short1 it is strenuous4 ,arising shortly after midnight1 the thousands of fishermen breakfast1 perform their devotions and prepare to get under way so as to reach the reefs about sunrise4 ,there each boat takes its position on the ground allotted for the day's work1 and which has been marked in advance by buoys topped with flags2 and shortly afterward1 on a signal from the guard vessel1 the diving commences4 ,this is carried on in the same manner as already described for the ,persian ,gulf1 except that the ,indian divers do not use nose-clips1 only compressing the nostrils with the fingers during the descent4 ,rarely do they descend to a greater depth than ten fathoms4 ,the divers work in pairs1 each pair using a single diving stone in common1 and descending alternately1 precisely as in the ,persian ,gulf4 ,it is remarkable what few changes have occurred in the methods of the fishery in the last six centuries2 the description#aci of ,marco ,polo1 who visited the region about #abid1 and of writers somewhat more recent1 indicating that1 in the main features1 it was then conducted in the same manner as at the present time4 ,an exception to the usual mode of diving is practised by the ,malayalam fishermen1 who1 in some seasons--as in #aijc1 for instance--attend in large numbers from ,travancore and northward on the ,malabar coast4 ,these men are rather low in skill and physical endurance4#adj ,they dive head foremost from a spring-board1 and even with this assistance1--or possibly we should say1 handicapped by this method1--they find the average depth of eight fathoms too great for them to work in with much comfort1 rarely remaining under water longer than forty-five seconds4 ,the number of oysters secured on each visit to the bottom ranges from nothing to seventy-five or more1 averaging between fifteen and fifty4 ,this depends not only on the ability of the fishermen1 but also on the abundance of oysters and the ease with which they may be collected4 ,sometimes they are held together in loose bunches of five to ten in each1 and a diver can easily gather one hundred in the short length of time he remains submerged4 ,in other localities they may be somewhat firmly attached individually to the bottom1 so that some force is necessary to release them1 thus reducing the possible quantity4 ,ordinarily one dive clears a space of several square yards4 ,illustration3 ,unloading oysters from the vessels into the kottus1 at ,marichchikadde1 ,ceylon ,illustration3 ,the pearling fleet on the shore at ,marichchikadde1 ,ceylon ,illustration3 ,hindu workmen preparing to drill pearls1 ,marichchikadde1 ,ceylon ,since #aijd1 a steamer has been employed each season by the government for dredging oysters in connection with experiments in oyster-culture4 ,the officer in charge of this work concludes that 8dredging is economically a more sound method of fishing than is diving40#ada ,this view is disputed by the superintendent of the fishery1 who points out that the average catch by the steamer when dredging mature oysters only slightly exceeds that of an ordinary diving boat1 and the cost of maintenance and operation is vastly greater4#adb ,a remarkable tribute to the skill of the nude divers1 brought out by this discussion1 is that1 during some days when they were at work1 the sea was too rough for dredging by the steamer1 notwithstanding that she was a typical ,grimsby or ,north ,sea trawler of #aej tons measurement1 built in #ahif4adc ,a rough comparison of the ,ceylon method of catching pearl-oysters with that practised by the ,american oyster-growers may not be uninteresting4 ,on a basis of #djj to the bushel1 the total ,ceylon catch of #ha1ehj1gaf pearl-oysters in #aije represents a trifle more than #bjj1jjj bushels1 or about the quantity annually produced by each of the half dozen leading oyster-growers of this country4 ,each one of these growers requires only about three steamers1 at a total cost1 maybe1 of #be1jjj1 and manned by twenty-five men2 instead of one steamer at a cost of #be1jjj and #cah diving boats manned by #aj1jjj men1 which was the equipment in ,ceylon4 ,to be sure1 the conditions under which the work is prosecuted are different--however1 not so entirely unlike as might be supposed--and the ,american season is about six months long instead of the two months in ,ceylon2 but the comparison is presented simply as a suggestion of the possibilities of dredging on the ,ceylon reefs4 ,until #ahhe1 one of the most novel features of the fishery was the employment of shark-charmers or 8binders of sharks0 7kadal-kotti in the ,tamil language1 hai-banda in ,hindustani71 whose presence was rendered necessary by the superstition of the ,indian divers4 ,the fishermen placed implicit reliance upon the alleged supernatural powers of these impostors1 resembling in some respects that reposed in the 8medicine men0 by the ,american ,indians1 and would not dive without their supervision4 ,it is unknown at what period the influence of these semi-priests developed1 but at the time of ,marco ,polo's visit about #abid1 they were in the full bloom of their authority1 receiving one twentieth of the total catch of oysters1#add which amounted to a very considerable sum4 ,it is probable that the number of shark-charmers was then quite large1 some writers more recently referring to one for each boat4 ,during the ,portuguese occupation the number was reduced to twelve1 and at the beginning of the ,british influence1 it was further reduced to two4 ,interesting descriptions have been given of the methods by which these men exercised their alleged powers4 ,in #ahjg1 ,cordiner stated3 ,one goes out regularly in the head pilot's boat4 ,the other performs certain ceremonies on shore4 ,he is stripped naked1 and shut up in a room1 where no person sees him from the period of the sailing of the boats until their return4 ,he has before him a brass basin full of water1 containing one male and one female fish made of silver4 ,if any accident should happen from a shark at sea1 it is believed that one of these fishes is seen to bite the other4 ,the divers likewise believe that1 if the conjurer should be dissatisfied1 he has the power of making the sharks attack them1 on which account he is sure of receiving liberal presents from all quarters4#ade ,amusing stories are told of the shrewdness displayed by these fellows in inventing explanations to redeem their credit when a fisherman became a victim of the sharks4 ,these accounts are by men who evidently bore no good-will toward the shark-charmers1 and it would be of interest to hear from the other side2 but we have been unable to find any one who has appeared in print in their defense4 ,the ,british government1 in its policy of noninterference with the superstitions or semi-religious customs of the natives1 tolerated these seeming impostors1 owing1 probably1 in a measure1 to the fact that the superstitious belief in their necessity was favorable to the preservation of the resources1 since it restricted poaching on the reefs4 ,however1 the government endeavored to prevent an extravagant misuse of the influence1 and restricted the compensation of the shark-charmers to one oyster per day from each diver4 ,later1 they were remunerated by the government1 and were not allowed1 under any pretense whatever1 to demand1 exact1 or receive oysters or any other compensation from the boatmen1 divers1 or any other persons4 ,and1 finally1 in #ahhe1 the shark-charmers were done away with entirely1 after having exacted their toll for upward of six centuries at least4 ,the dangers to which the ,ceylon divers are exposed have been greatly exaggerated1 and especially the risks from sharks4 ,poets tell how 8the ,ceylon pearler went all naked to the hungry shark10 and the struggle of the diver has been a favorite theme with sensational writers4 ,as a matter of fact1 the trouble from this source is very slight1 and the occupation is less dangerous than that of most of the deep-water fisheries1 not to be compared1 for instance1 with that of the winter haddock-fishery off the ,new ,england coast4 ,even in #aije1 when #diia divers and an equal number of assistants were employed in pearling1 not a single fatal accident was reported1 and although much rough weather prevailed1 not a fishing boat was lost4 ,in the important fishery of #aijd1 with #cjdi divers1 only one fatal accident occurred1 this was an elderly ,moorman1 whose death at the bottom was apparently due either to apoplexy or to exhaustion from remaining under water too long4 ,the superintendent of the fishery reported that not a single shark was seen during the #aijd season4#adf ,according to the statement of ,sir ,william ,twynam1 whose ,ceylon pearl fishing experience and observation equal those of any ,european1 he has never known of a diver being carried off by a shark1 and has heard of only one case--8which was a very doubtful one40#adg ,prof4 ,james ,hornell1 the inspector of pearl banks1 reported in #aijd3 8,during all the months ,i have spent upon the pearl banks during the last two years and a half ,i have never had a glimpse of a shark dangerous to man4 ,several times the boatmen have caught basking sharks of considerable size1 but all were of a species that lives almost entirely upon small crustaceans40#adh ,the late ,mr4 ,a4 ,m4 ,ferguson wrote in #ahhg3 8,i think it is pretty certain that in the whole course of the ,ceylon fisheries only two human beings have fallen victims to these fierce fishes40#adi ,the diving continues until a signal is given from the guard vessel about twelve or one o'clock1 this time depending largely on the beginning of the sea breeze which roughens the water and interferes with the work1 and likewise serves to speed the passage of the sail vessels to the shore4 ,occasionally the breeze is unfavorable1 and the boatmen are obliged to row for miles1 delaying their return in some instances until nightfall4 ,then the shore is lighted up to guide them to the landings1 and extra precautions are maintained to prevent them from getting away with some of the oysters in the darkness4 ,it is claimed--and doubtless with much truth--that it is not unusual for the boatmen to take advantage of the time spent in reaching the shore to surreptitiously open many of the oysters and extract the pearls therefrom1 throwing the refuse back into the sea4 ,it would appear from some authorities that this is a general practice4 ,one official--and probably the one in the best position to know--reported in #aije that more than #ae1jjj1jjj oysters1 or nearly one fifth of the enormous catch during that season1 were illicitly opened4#aej ,however1 this statement is strongly disputed by the superintendent of the fishery1 who states3 ,as a matter of fact the opening of oysters that goes on in the boats is of a much more casual description than this4 ,the divers occasionally pick out some of the best looking oysters that happen to be conspicuous1 or some that open1 and look inside them4 ,it is quite possible that a valuable pearl might be found in this way1 but the chances are against it4 ,it is hardly likely that the divers would throw into the sea an enormous quantity of perfunctorily examined oysters in which they have a share and which contain pearls1 while they were aware that immediately on landing they could get good prices for their shares4#aea ,the government officials have endeavored to put a stop to whatever looting may exist1 searching boats and occupants at the shore1 revoking the license of any boat showing evidence of oysters having been opened or carrying knives or other appliances for that purpose4 ,the fishermen are alleged to resort to all sorts of devices to secrete their illicit find of pearls1 concealing them in the nose1 ears1 eyes1 and other parts of the body1 and even hiding them in parcels in the furled sails or attached to the embedded anchor4 ,in some seasons--as in #aijd and #aije--the government employed a guard for each boat4 ,but serious criticism has been made of the integrity of these guards1 who1 with compensation of only one rupee per diem1 could scarcely be expected to resist the action of thirty or forty fishermen and report their doings1 when by silence they would have much to gain1 and 8the guards simply add to the number of thieves on board0 was reported by one superintendent4 ,doubtless the most interesting sight in the ,ceylon fishery is afforded by the return1 about mid-afternoon1 of the hundreds of novel1 sail-spreading boats running before the wind and crowded with turbaned fishermen dressed in their few brilliant rags1 and each anxious to be the first at the wave-washed beach1 where they are welcomed by an equal if not greater number of officials1 merchants1 laborers1 and camp followers1 gathered on the shore to learn the result of the fishery4 ,the fantastic appearance of the boats1 the diversified costumes of the people1 the general scene of animation1 afford a view which for novelty is rarely equaled even in the picturesque ,orient4 ,the average number of oysters brought in daily by each boat is about #aj1jjj4 ,some days when the weather is unfavorable many of the boats return empty2 on other days they may have #be1jjj or more4 ,in #aije the maximum catch in one day for one boat was #bi1iij1 while in #aijd a single boat brought in #cg1fge oysters4 ,the catch by the entire fleet one day in #aije was #d1igh1fhf oysters1 or an average of #af1dhe for each of the #cjb boats out on that occasion4 ,each person taking part in the fishery receives as his compensation a definite portion of the oysters4 ,by government regulations1 published in #ahee and yet operative1 each sammatti1 tindal1 and todai receives daily one dive of oysters from each diver in the boat to which they are respectively attached4 ,in some instances the hire of the boat is paid for in cash--about ,rs4#a4ej per day from each diver1--but in most cases either one fifth or one sixth of each diver's portion is devoted to this purpose4 ,after these provisions have been made1 each diver gives one third of his remaining portion to his manduck1 retaining the balance for himself4 ,the ,moormen divers from ,kilakarai commonly contribute one dive daily to the mosque of their native town1#aeb in addition to the portions given to the sammatti1 tindal1 and todai4 ,previous to #ahee1 the ,hindu temples of the ,madras ,presidency were allowed to operate a certain number of boats on their own account1 but this led to so many abuses that it was abolished4 ,after the boats are run up on the firm1 hard beach1 all the oysters are removed by the crews of the boats into the government koddu or palisade1 a large wattle-walled and palm-thatched inclosure with square pens1 each bearing a number corresponding to that of each boat4 ,this is done under close supervision to prevent a diversion of the oysters from the regular channels1 which otherwise would be relatively easy among the animation and excitement caused by the thousands of persons about the landing-place4 ,within the government inclosure1 the oysters taken by each boat are divided by the fishermen themselves into three portions as nearly equal as possible4 ,this applies not only to the oysters falling to the share of the divers and manducks1 but also to those set apart for the sammatti1 tindals1 and todais1 for hire of the boat and even for the ,kilakarai mosque4 ,an official indicates one of these as the share of the fishermen1 who at once remove their portion from the inclosure through a narrow gate on the landward side4 ,by this arrangement a satisfactory division of the oysters is secured and all cause for complaint or unfairness is removed4 ,previous to #ahha1 the fishermen received only one fourth of the catch as compensation for their work2 but in that year their portion was increased to one third1 at which it has since remained4 ,as soon as the fishermen pass out of the government koddu with their quota1 they are met by a crowd of natives eager to buy the oysters in small lots1 and frequently at so many per rupee--ranging from eight to twelve ordinarily4 ,this 8outside market0 is one of the many interesting features of the camp1 for there are few persons on the shore who do not risk small sums in testing their fortunes in this lottery4 ,and a wonderful lottery it is too1 in which a man may risk a few coppers and win a prize worth hundreds of dollars4 ,a poor ,tamil once bought five oysters for half a rupee1 and in one of them he found the largest pearl of the season4 ,any not sold among this eager1 animated throng are at once marketed with a native buyer4 ,the diver then hastens to immerse himself in one of the bathing tanks provided for the purpose4 ,it is claimed that if this bath is omitted after immersion all the morning in the salt water of the gulf1 the diver is liable to fall ill2 and a sufficient supply of fresh water for this purpose is an important factor in the arrangement of the camp4 ,owing to their sale in much smaller lots1 or as we may say1 at retail1 the fishermen succeed in getting relatively high prices for their oysters1 and their earnings exceed one half of the government's share4 ,in #aije this amounted to probably #hf1jjj1 or an average of about #acej for each of the #cah boats4 ,however1 some crews made very much more than this1 with a corresponding decrease for the others4 ,although #aije was a record year for large returns1 even in an ordinary season pearl fishing is relatively profitable1 as a skilled diver earns five or six times as much as a common laborer in ,ceylon4 ,the regulations particularly forbid the employment of divers for a monetary consideration instead of for a share of the oysters according to the established custom4 ,the remaining two thirds of the oysters in the koddu are the property of the government4 ,these are combined and counted4 ,at nine o'clock each evening they are sold at auction1 and by noon of the following day all have been removed1 and the inclosure is ready for the incoming catch4 ,at the auction the number of oysters to be sold that evening is announced1 and bids are invited4 ,some one starts the bidding at1 maybe1 ,rs4#bj or #be1 and this is advanced by successive bids until the limit appears to be reached1 which may possibly be ,rs4#ej or #fj4 ,the successful bidder is permitted to take as many oysters in multiples of #ajjj as he chooses2 and after he is supplied1 other merchants desiring them at that particular price are accommodated4 ,if there is no further demand for them at that price1 the bidding on the remaining oysters is begun precisely as at first1 and when the maximum bid is reached1 all merchants willing to give that amount are furnished with as many as they wish in multiples of #ajjj as before4 ,if this does not exhaust the oysters1 the bidding on the remainder is started up again1 and so on until all are sold4#aec ,no one knows at the time whether he is buying a fortune in gems or only worthless shells4 ,illustration3 ,indian pearl merchants ready for business ,illustration3 ,children of ,persian pearl dealers ,the prices at which the oysters are sold at auction may differ greatly from the estimated valuation of the samples secured in the ,february examination4 ,for instance1 in #aije the valuation of the ,south ,madaragam oysters was ,rs4#ag4hf per #ajjj1 yet the auction sales on the first day began at ,rs4#ec and went up to ,rs4#fa per #ajjj1 or three times the valuation2 and about the same general proportion of increase prevailed for the oysters from the remaining banks1 a result of great advances in the market for pearls4 ,the auction prices for the different lots and from day to day are fairly constant4 ,but the shrewd ,indian merchants know their business well and keep in close touch with the yield1 so that there are many variations in the selling price that are puzzling to the uninitiated4 ,a somewhat higher estimation is placed on the oysters from certain banks1 and also on those from rocky portions of a particular reef1 owing to their reputation for yielding a larger percentage of pearls4 ,the estimation of particular oysters varies to some extent according to the amount of adhering rock and coral growth4 ,as already shown1 the prices in #aijf covered the remarkable range of from ,rs4#bj to #cji per #ajjj4 ,superstitious belief in luck also has its influence1 and a buyer may consider a certain day as unfavorable for him and abstain from bidding on that occasion2 or considering a particular day as lucky1 he may bid very high to secure a considerable portion of the sales4 ,the prices in different seasons vary greatly4 ,in #ahfj1 the average was ,rs4#acd4bc per #ajjj1 which was unprecedentedly large2 the nearest to this was ,rs4#gi4jg in #ahgd and ,rs4#di in #aije4 ,in #ahhj1 the average price per #ajjj was only ,rs4#aa1 which was the lowest ever recorded4 ,the records for individual days greatly exceed these limits4 ,the highest figures at which oysters have sold on any one day was ,rs4#cji per #ajjj in #aijf1 the equivalent for each oyster of #aj cents in ,american money4 ,in #ahgd1 the price reached ,rs4#baj per #ajjj1 and in #aije1 the maximum price was ,rs4#abd1 or about #d cents for each oyster4 ,the oyster-buyers are principally wealthy ,chetties from ,madura1 ,ramnad1 ,trichinopoli1 ,parambakudi1 ,tevakoddai1 ,paumben1 ,kumbhakonam1 and other towns of southern ,india4 ,these are quite different from the scantily clothed ,naddukoddai ,chetties so common in ,ceylon4 ,many of them are fashionably dressed in semi-,european costume1 with walking-stick1 patent leather boots1 and other evidences of contact with ,europe4 ,smaller quantities of oysters are purchased by ,moormen of ,kilakarai1 ,ramnad1 ,bombay1 ,adrampatam1 ,tondi1 etc4 ,a few oysters are also purchased by the ,nadans or ,chnr caste people of ,perunali1 ,kamuti1 and ,karakal4 ,over #ii per cent4 of the #ej1cdf1fja oysters sold by the government in #aije were secured by ,indian buyers1 and less than one per cent4 by ,cingalese4 ,a few of the oysters--from two to five per cent4--are sent to ,indian and ,ceylon ports1 but most of them are opened at the fishing camp4 ,the purchaser of only a small number of oysters may open them at once by means of a knife1 and with his fingers and eyes search for the pearls4 ,by this method very small pearls may be easily overlooked1 and it is scarcely practicable in handling large quantities of oysters4 ,these are removed to private inclosures known as toddis or tottis1 situated some distance from the inhabited portions of the camp2 where1 exposed to the solar heat1 they are permitted to putrefy1 and the fleshy parts to be eaten by the swarms of big red-eyed bluebottle flies1 and the residue is then repeatedly washed4 ,shakspere may have had in view some such scene as this when he spoke of the 8pearl in your foul oyster40 ,the lady who cherishes and adorns herself with a necklace of ,ceylon pearls would be horrified were she to see and especially to smell the putrid mass from which her lustrous gems are evolved4 ,the great quantity of repulsive bluebottle flies are so essential to success in releasing the pearls from the flesh1 that a scarcity of them is looked upon as a misfortune to the merchants4 ,however1 except it may be at the beginning of a fishery1 there is rarely ever a cause for complaint on this score1 for commonly they are so numerous as to be a great plague to persons unaccustomed to them1 covering everything1 and rendering eating and drinking a difficult and unpleasant necessity1 until darkness puts a stop to their activities4 ,but the intolerable stench1 impossible of description1 the quintessence of millions of rotting oysters1 fills the place1 and makes existence a burden to those who have not acquired odor-proof nostrils4 ,this animal decomposition seems almost harmless to health2 indeed1 the natives evidently thrive on it1 and eat and sleep without apparent notice of the nauseous conditions4 ,and yet vegetable decomposition in this region is usually followed by fatal results4 ,notwithstanding sanitary precautions and the usual quarantine camp and hospitals1 cholera occasionally becomes epidemic and puts a stop to the fishery1 as was the case in #ahhi2 but this probably was due more to the violation of ordinary sanitary laws than to the decaying oysters4 ,in a large toddi the oysters are placed in a ballam1 or a dug-out tank or trough1 fifteen or twenty feet long and two or three feet deep1 smooth on the inside so that pearls may not lodge in the crevices4 ,this tank is covered with matting1 and the toddi is closed up1 sealed1 and guarded for a week or ten days1 when the fly maggots will have consumed practically all of the flesh tissues1 leaving little else than the shells and pearls4 ,the tank is then filled with sea water to float out the myriads of maggots4 ,several nude coolies squat along the sides to wash and remove the shells4 ,the valves of each shell are separated1 the outsides rubbed together to remove all lodgments for pearls1 and the interior examined for attached or encysted pearls4 ,the washers are kept under constant supervision by inspectors to prevent concealment of pearls2 they are not permitted to remove their hands from the water except to take out the shells1 and under no circumstances are they allowed to carry the hands to the mouth or to any other place in which pearls could be concealed4 ,after the shells have been removed1 fresh supplies of water are added to wash the debris1 which is turned over and over repeatedly1 the dirty water being bailed out through sieves to prevent the loss of pearls4 ,after thorough washings1 every particle of the sarraku1 or material at the bottom of the ballam1 consisting of sand1 broken pieces of shell1 pearls1 etc41 is gathered up in a cotton cloth4 ,later the sarraku is spread out on cloths in the sun to dry1 and the most conspicuous pearls are removed4 ,when dry1 the material is critically examined over and over again1 and winnowed and rewinnowed1 and after it seems that everything of value has been secured1 the refuse is turned over to women and children1 whose keen eyes and deft fingers pick out many masi-tul or dust-pearls2 and even after the skill of these has been exhausted1 the apparently worthless refuse has a market value among persons whose patience and skill meets with some reward4 ,it is due largely to the extreme care in the search that so many seed-pearls are found in ,ceylon4 ,and this leads to a discussion of what is commonly known in ,ceylon as the 8,dixon washing machine40 ,this is an invention of ,mr4 ,g4 ,g4 ,dixon who constructed it at ,marichchikadde in #aijd and #aije1 at a total cost to the government of about ,rs4#afb1jjj1aed including all expenses incidental to the experiment4 ,the machine involves two separate processes2 the first consists in separating the shells from the soft portion of the oysters1 and the second in recovering the pearls from the resultant sarraku after it has been dried4 ,in #aije1 about #e1jjj1jjj oysters were put through this machine1#aee but with what result has not been announced4 ,the shells having pearls attached to the interior surface are turned over to skilled natives1 who remove the valuable objects by breaking the shell with hammers1 and then with files and other implements remove the irregular pieces of attached shell and otherwise improve the appearance4 ,in no fishery in the world is the average size of the pearls secured smaller1 nor is the relative number greater than in that of ,ceylon4 ,it is rare that one is found weighing over ten grains1 and the number weighing less than two grains is remarkable4 ,for roundness and orient they are unsurpassed by those of any region4 ,however1 ,ceylon pearls worth locally ,rs4#ajjj 7#djj7 are by no means abundant4 ,the most valuable one found in the important fishery of #aijd1 is said to have been sold in the camp for ,rs4#bejj4 ,the fishery of #aije yielded one weighing #gf chevu1 and valued at ,rs4#ab1jjj4 ,the quantity of seed-pearls obtained in the ,ceylon fishery exceeds that of any other--probably all other parts of the world4 ,the very smallest--the masi-tul1--for which there is no use whatever in ,europe1 have an established value in ,india1 being powdered for making chunam for chewing with betel4 ,those slightly larger1--tul pearls--for which also there is no market in ,europe1 are placed in the mouth of deceased ,hindus of wealth1 instead of the rice which is used by poorer people4 ,the great bulk of the ,ceylon pearls are silvery white in color1 but occasionally yellowish1 pinkish1 and even 8black0 pearls are found1 although the so-called 8black0 pearls are really brown or slate-colored4 ,in some seasons these are relatively numerous1 as in #ahhg1 for instance4 ,notwithstanding the large product at the fishery camp1 it is difficult to purchase single pearls or small quantities there at a reasonable price1 the merchants objecting to breaking a mudichchu1 or the lot resulting from washing a definite number of oysters4 ,the shells obtained in the ,ceylon fisheries do not possess sufficient thickness of lustrous nacre for use as mother-of-pearl1 and are mostly used for camp-filling4 ,a few are burned and converted into chunam1 i4e43 prepared lime for building purposes1 or to be used by natives for chewing with the betel-nut4 ,forty or fifty years ago1 before the large receipts of mother-of-pearl from ,australia and the southern ,pacific1 there was a good market for the shell for button manufacture and the like1 but since #ahge only the choicest have been used for this purpose1 and these are worth only about #be per ton delivered in ,europe4 ,it will be observed that up to the close of the season of #aijf1 the ,ceylon fisheries were operated by the colonial government as a state monopoly4 ,in #aijd1 proposals were made to the ,british colonial office by a ,london syndicate with a view to leasing the fisheries for a term of years4 ,the original suggestion was that they should be leased for thirty years in consideration of an annual rental of #ac1jjj or ,rs4#aie1jjj1 together with a share of the net profits after payment of a reasonable rate of interest on the investment2 and later it was suggested that the rental be ,rs4#ajj1jjj a year and twenty per cent4 of the profits after seven per cent4 on capital had been paid to the shareholders4 ,but the government preferred a definite money payment without any rights to share in the profits realized2 and after lengthy negotiations this was fixed at ,rs4#caj1jjj annually1 with certain preliminary payments4 ,accordingly1 on ,november #cj1 #aije1 a preliminary agreement was executed between the crown agents for the colonies1 acting on behalf of the government of ,ceylon1 and representatives of the ,ceylon ,company of ,pearl ,fishers1 ,limited4 ,on ,february #bg1 #aijf1 this agreement was confirmed and made effective by special ordinance#aef of the governor and legislative council of ,ceylon1 and the crown agents were authorized to execute the lease as of ,january #a1 #aijf4 ,the principal financial terms of this lease required the company to purchase the expensive ,dixon pearl-washing machine at a cost of ,rs4#abj1jjj1 which was ,rs4#db1jjj less than it cost the government during the preceding two years2 to purchase at a cost of ,rs4#fb1eja the steamship ,violet1 which the government had used in its experimental oyster-culture2 to reimburse the government each year the amount spent in policing1 sanitation and hospital services at the fishery camp1 which had in some individual seasons amounted to more than ,rs4#bjj1jjj2 to expend each year from ,rs4#ej1jjj to ,rs4#aej1jjj in the development of pearl-oyster culture2 and to pay an annual rental of ,rs4#cae1jjj1 a rate based roughly on the average return of the preceding twenty years1 including the record year of #aije4 ,the company was authorized to take up the pearl-oysters by means of divers1 or by steam dredges1 or by such other mechanical means as might appear most advantageous1 and to carry on such experiments with the immature oysters as appeared most conducive to the profitable working of the fisheries1 provided they do nothing to make the resources less valuable at the expiration of the lease4 ,one of the most interesting features of the lease is that relating to the power of the colonial government to grant an exclusive right of fishing on the banks outside the three-mile limit4 ,the question of this exclusive right arose in #ahij1 but was not conclusively determined4 ,fearing lest this authority did not exist1 the terms in which the right of fishing was conveyed were carefully chosen by the attorney general to protect the government from liability 8should any international question arise02#aeg and the government leased to the company 8all the right or privilege which the lessors have hereto exercised and enjoyed of fishing for and taking pearl-oysters on the coasts of ,ceylon between ,talaimannar and ,dutch ,bay ,point1 to the intent that the company so far as the lessors can secure the same may have the exclusive right1 liberty and authority to fish for1 take and carry away pearl-oysters within the said limits4444 ,but nothing in this lease shall be taken to make the lessors answerable in damages if owing to any cause beyond the control of the lessors the company is prevented from fully exercising and enjoying such exclusive right and privilege40#aeh ,in the meantime1 while the negotiations were in progress1 there occurred the very profitable fishery of #aije1 from which the colonial government derived a revenue of ,rs4#b1eaj1gbg1 or approximately eight times the proposed annual rental2 and before the lease was finally concluded occurred the fishery of #aijf1 with its revenue of ,rs4#a1cgf1gdf4 ,while it is true that a succession of barren seasons prevailed from #ahib to #aijb1 yet1 as the revenue in #aijc was ,rs4#hbi1edh1 and in #aijd it was ,rs4#a1jfe1gea1 there was1 in the four years ending in #aijf1 a revenue to the government of ,rs4#e1ghb1ggb1 or nearly as much as the total amount to be derived from the lease during the twenty years it was to run4 ,these figures seemed to furnish strong reasons for retaining such a valuable source of revenue1 with its possibilities of still greater expansion under the supervision and direction of specialists in the employ of the government4 ,many of the inhabitants of ,ceylon saw in this a decided objection to the lease1 and there was a general feeling of indignation in the colony1 with public meetings in protest1 and the like4 ,in reply to a memorial prepared at one of these meetings held in ,colombo1 ,lord ,elgin1 the ,british secretary of state for the colonies1 wrote under date of ,may #i1 #aijf3 ,the memorialists have protested against the lease on the double ground that a lease on any terms is contrary to the best interests of ,ceylon1 and that the rent agreed upon is 8under existing circumstances wholly inadequate40 ,there must always be in cases of this kind a difference of opinion as to whether a fixed annual sum1 with immunity from all expense and sundry other advantages1 is or is not preferable to continuing to face all the risks for the sake of all the profits4 ,in the present instance the lease appears to me to have been drafted with a sincere desire to safeguard to the utmost the property and interests of the ,colony4 ,illustration3 ,street scene in ,marichchikadde1 the pearling camp of ,ceylon ,illustration3 ,return of the fleet from the pearl reefs to ,marichchikadde1 ,ceylon ,it may be true that the development of the fishery upon a scientific system affords good prospect of a greater return in the future than has been obtained in the past1 and affords at least the hope that the barren cycles which have been so common in the past will not recur to the same extent4 ,but the operations necessary to that end are of a highly technical and experimental character1 and ,i am very doubtful whether any machinery which could be set in motion by the ,government would be suited to develop processes at once so doubtful and so delicate4 ,in twenty years' time the ,colonial ,government will receive back the fishery1 not only intact1 but in the most perfect state to which commercial enterprise and scientific methods can raise it1 and1 in the meanwhile1 a regular and substantial payment is assured4 ,twenty years are no doubt a considerable period in the lifetime of individuals2 but if within that time all the resources that science can contribute toward systematic development of the fisheries have been applied and thoroughly tested1 the period will not1 ,i think1 be regarded as excessive or unfortunate in the history of a fishery which has lasted for more than two thousand years4#aei ,the ,ceylon ,company of ,pearl ,fishers1 ,limited1 with a paid up capital of #afe1jjj1 has just entered into possession of its lease1 and it is uncertain what changes will be made in the methods of the fishery or what measure of success will follow the attempts at pearl-oyster culture and the growth of pearls4 ,the attention of the pearling interests of the world is now directed to the work of this company in the development of its magnificent leasehold1 and it seems not unlikely that greater changes will be made in the methods of the industry during the ensuing decade than have occurred in the whole of the last ten centuries4#afj ,a curious fishery1 with the ,placuna placenta for its object1 exists in ,tablegram ,lake1 a small bay in northeastern ,ceylon adjacent to the magnificent harbor of ,trincomali1 which ,nelson declared to be 8the finest in the world40 ,at intervals during the nineteenth century1 the ,ceylon government leased the ,tablegram ,lake fishery to native bidders for a period of three consecutive years4 ,in #aheg1 ,dr4 ,kelaart visited the place and calculated that in the three years preceding1 eighteen million oysters had been removed4#afa ,owing to scarcity of the mollusk1 no fisheries have existed since #ahij1 but from #ahhb to #ahij they were regularly leased at an average of ,rs4#ejjj for each term of three years4 ,prof4 ,james ,hornell1 who made a careful examination in #aije1 reported that if the business were carried on providently and systematically1 8it should become the source of a fairly regular annual revenue to ,government of from ,rs4#aj1jjj to ,rs4#ab1jjj1 possibly even more40#afb ,the ,placuna oysters are caught by ,moormen divers1 who are scarcely equal physically to the pearl fishery in the sea4 ,they rarely descend more than four fathoms1 and most of the work in ,tablegram ,bay is in less than two fathoms4 ,each diver returns with from one to five or more oysters1 depending on their abundance1 and receives one half of the catch as his share of the proceeds4 ,unlike the method in the pearl-oyster fishery of ,ceylon1 the ,placuna oysters are opened while fresh1 this work being performed by coolies1 who are compensated at the rate of about ,rs4#c per #ajjj4 ,,the ,,pearl ,,fisheries ,,of ,,india ,there are two moments in a diver's life3 ,one1 when a beggar1 he prepares to plunge2 ,then1 when a prince1 he rises with his prize4 ,,robert ,,browning4 ,notwithstanding the great fame of the pearl fisheries of ,india1 those prosecuted within the limits of ,british ,india proper are of small extent4 ,the only pearl resources within the empire are the rarely productive reefs on the ,madras coast in the vicinity of ,tuticorin1 the relatively modern fisheries of ,mergui ,archipelago1 and some small reefs of only local importance on the ,malabar coast and in the ,bombay presidency4 ,the celebrity of ,india in connection with the pearl fisheries has never rested on the extent of those within the territorial limits or under the control of this government4 ,it originated in the fact that it is largely ,indian capital which finances the fisheries of ,ceylon and of the ,persian ,gulf2 nearly all of the divers and others employed in ,ceylon are from the coast of this empire1 and most of the pearls are purchased by merchants of ,bombay1 ,madura1 ,trichinopoli1 and other large towns4 ,thus1 from an economic and industrial point of view1 the pearl fisheries of ,ceylon1 and to a less extent those of the ,persian ,gulf1 have contributed to the fame and to the wealth of the ,empire of ,india4 ,the pearl fisheries off ,tuticorin in the ,madras presidency have been referred to incidentally in the account of the fisheries of ,ceylon4 ,they are separated by only a few miles of water1 and are prosecuted by the same fishermen and in precisely the same manner4 ,consequently1 it is difficult to discuss them separately1 especially in their early history and during the time that this part of the world was under the rule of the ,portuguese and later of the ,dutch4 ,illustration3 ,the pearling regions in ,ceylon and ,british ,india ,the fisheries of the ,madras coast compete in antiquity with those of ,ceylon4 ,indeed1 from the time of ,ptolemy to the seventeenth century1 the industry seems to have been prosecuted largely from the ,madras side of the gulf1 centering at ,chayl or ,coil on the sandy promontory of ,ramnad4 ,this place appears to be the of ,ptolemy1 the ,ramana ,koil of the natives1 as well as the ,cael of the travelers of the ,middle ,ages4 ,but during the last three hundred years1 the ,ceylon side has been the scene of the greatest pearling operations2 and from the ,madras coast1 the fisheries have not been prosecuted except at long intervals1 averaging once in fifteen or twenty years4 ,owing to the scarcity of oysters and to other causes1 the fishery was prosecuted on the ,madras coast in only eight years of the whole period from #agfh to #aijg4 ,these years of productivity were #ahbb1 #ahcj1 #ahfj1 #ahfa1 #ahhb1 #ahhi1 #ahij1 and #aijj2 and even then the yield was relatively small4 ,the largest was #ae1hgd1ejj oysters in #ahfj1 from which the ,madras government derived a revenue of ,rs4#bej1bgf2 and about half as many oysters were obtained in #ahfa with a revenue of ,rs4#abi1jjc4 ,numerous and prolonged experiments in conserving the reefs and in cultivating the oysters have been made without success4 ,the reason usually given for the greater wealth of oysters on the ,ceylon side is1 that it is more sheltered from the strong currents which sweep down the ,bay of ,bengal into the ,gulf of ,manaar and impinge directly on the coast of the mainland4 ,the headquarters of the fishery are at ,tuticorin1 near to ,madura1 the ,benares of the south1 the holy 8,city of ,sweetness0 which the gods have delighted to honor from time immemorial4 ,but the camp is commonly erected of palmyra and bamboo on the barren shore several miles distant from ,tuticorin4 ,the #ahij fishery was at ,salpatturai1 and that of #aijj at a place which received the mouth-filling name of ,veerapandianpatanam4 ,the preparations for pearling at ,tuticorin are similar to those on the ,ceylon coast4 ,in the autumn the reefs are examined by government inspectors1 and if the conditions seem to warrant a fishery in the following spring1 arrangements are made therefor and the proper notification issued4 ,the announcement follows the general plan of that in ,ceylon4 ,the following1 from the ,fort ,st4 ,george 8,gazette10 ,madras1 ,january #af1 #aijj1 is a copy of the notification preceding the last fishery which has occurred3 ,notice is hereby given that a pearl fishery will take place at ,veerapandianpatanam on or about the #abth ,march1 #aijj4 #a4 ,the bank to be fished is the ,theradipulipudithapar1 estimated to employ #ajj boats for twenty days with average loads of #g1jjj oysters per day4 #b4 ,it is therefore recommended that such boat owners and divers as may wish to be employed shall be at ,tuticorin on or before the #ast of ,march next and anchor their boats abreast of the government flagstaff2 the first day's fishing will take place on the #abth of ,march1 weather permitting4 #c4 ,the fishery will be conducted on account of ,government1 and the oysters put up for sale in such lots as may be deemed expedient4 #d4 ,the arrangements of the fishery will be the same as have been usual on similar occasions4 ,illustration3 ,,pearls ,,presented ,,by ,,the ,,imam ,,of ,,muscat ,,to ,,president ,,van ,,buren ,now in the ,united ,states ,national ,museum1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 #e4 ,payments to be made in ready money in rupees or in ,government of ,india notes4 ,checks on the ,bank of ,madras or ,bank ,agencies will be received on letters of credit being produced to warrant the drawing of such checks4 #f4 ,all particulars can be obtained on application to the ,superintendent of ,pearl ,fisheries1 ,tuticorin4 ,sd_/--,j4 ,p4 ,,bedford1 ,collector4 ,tinnevelly ,collector's ,office1 #afth ,november #ahii4 ,on the long sweep of desolate shore at a place convenient to the reefs1 a temporary camp is erected1 just as is done on the ,ceylon coast4 ,however1 this camp is not nearly so large1 only about one fourth or one fifth the size of that on the eastern side of the gulf4 ,it resembles the larger one in the quarters for divers and merchants1 the bazaars1 the bungalows for the officials1 the hospital1 the sale and washing inclosures1 etc42 in addition to these is the temporary ,roman ,catholic chapel4 ,the divers are mainly of the ,parawa caste from ,tuticorin1 ,pinnacoil1 ,pamban1 etc4 on the ,madras coast4 ,although influenced by many ,hindu superstitions1 they are nominally ,roman ,catholics1 as evidenced by the scapulars suspended from the neck1 their ancestors having been converted and baptized through the zealous work of that prince of missionaries1 ,st4 ,francis ,xavier1 in the sixteenth century4 ,even yet a chapel at ,pinnacoil is held in special reverence by these people as a place where the saintly father preached4 ,professor ,hornell writes that the present hereditary head of this caste is ,don ,gabriel de ,croos ,lazarus ,motha ,vaz1 known officially as the ,jati ,talaiva ,more1 or ,jati ,talaivan4 ,he resides at ,tuticorin1 and is largely the intermediary between the government and the ,parawa fishermen4 ,in the details of its prosecution1 the ,madras fishery differs in no important particular from that of ,ceylon4 ,the boats are manned and operated in precisely the same way2 they fish in the morning only1 taking advantage of the prevailing favorable winds2 the divers carry the oysters into the government inclosure1 and divide them into three equal lots1 of which they receive one2 the share of the government is auctioned daily1 the divers disposing of theirs as they choose2 and the oysters are rotted and washed in the same manner as in ,ceylon4 ,in addition to the fishery for pearl-oysters at ,tuticorin1 two other species of pearl-producing mollusks are collected in the ,madras presidency2 one of these is a species of mussel 7,mytilus smaragdinus1 according to ,dr4 ,edgar ,thurston of the ,madras ,museum71 which is collected from the estuary of the ,sonnapore ,river near ,berhampore2 and the other is the ,placuna placenta1 found in many places in this presidency1 and especially in ,pulicat ,lake and in the vicinity of ,tuticorin4 ,the ,sonnapore mussels1 which are small and bright green in color1 are found adhering to the masses of edible oysters in depths of ten or twelve feet of water4 ,they are caught in a novel manner1 as described in a letter from the acting collector of customs at ,ganjam4 ,thrusting a long bamboo pole deep into the bottom of the reef1 the fisherman dives down1 and holding on to this bamboo1 breaks off as large a mass of the oysters as he can bring to the surface in one hand1 helping himself up the bamboo pole with the other4 ,removing the mussels from the mass1 he opens them with a suitable knife and by running his thumbs and fingers over the flesh tissues1 detects the pearls therein4 ,these pearls are of very inferior quality and of little ornamental value4 ,they are sold mostly for chunm and for placing in the mouth of deceased ,hindus4 ,along the west coast of ,india1 in the ,bombay presidency1 a few pearls are found at various places1 but the output is of slight value4 ,the most important of these is off the coast of ,nawanagar1 on the south side of the ,gulf of ,cutch1 where the true pearl-oyster is found4 ,according to the 8,jamnagar ,diwan10 the yearly value of the ,nawanagar fisheries is about ,rs4#djjj4 ,this is smaller than formerly1 as the reefs are in a depleted state2 to give them a chance to recuperate1 a close season was established in #aije4 ,the oysters are found along a coast-line eighty miles in length extending from ,mangra1 near ,jodya ,bunder1 to ,pindera in the ,gulf of ,cutch1 and also about the islands of ,ajad1 ,chauk1 ,kalumbar1 and ,nora1 which are also situated in the ,cutch ,gulf4 ,they are not procured by diving1 but are gathered off the rocks when the tide is out4 ,during the monsoon1 the collection is limited to eight days in the month2 i4e41 from the twelfth to the fifteenth of each half according to the ,hindu calendar4 ,the fisheries are by law restricted exclusively to the waghers of ten villages1 which are ,varinar1 ,sashana1 ,sika1 ,balachedi1 ,jhakher1 ,sarmat1 ,bharana1 ,salaya1 ,chudesar1 and ,bedi4 ,the collection of the pearls is left entirely to these men1 who at ,divala--the ,hindu new year--bring all the pearls gathered by them to the durbar4 ,there an estimate is made of their value1 one fourth of which is paid to the waghers1 and the pearls are turned over to the representatives of the state treasury for sale4 ,this method of conducting the industry has been long established4 ,in recent years the government experimented in farming out the revenue1 but the old custom has been resumed in order to placate the native fishermen4 ,a few pearl-oysters are also found on the ,ratnagiri coast below ,bombay1 and likewise at ,kananur in the ,malabar district4 ,in #aija-aijb1 there was some local excitement about pearls found at ,belapur and quantities were reported as collected2 but since then little has been heard of the industry in that region4 ,elsewhere on the west coast of ,india1 pearls are obtained from the so-called 8window-glass0 shell1 of the genus ,placuna4 ,the individual shells are flat1 thin1 and transparent1 and are still used in ,goa and vicinity as a substitute for glass in windows4 ,this mollusk is abundant from ,karachi1 near the ,baluchistan border1 to the ,kanara district south of ,bombay2 and wherever it occurs in any abundance it is collected for the sake of the small pearls found therein4 ,of the fishery at ,karachi1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,h4 ,aitken writes3 8,it is farmed out by ,government for a good sum4 ,in #aija1 the amount realized was ,rs4#cfej for a period of three years2 but the lessee lost heavily1 and in #aijd the highest offer for a similar period of three years was ,rs4#ahea4 ,pearls may be found in as many as ten to twenty per cent4 of the mature mollusks40 ,pearls are far more numerous in the ,placuna than in the pearl-oysters1 but few of them are of sufficient size or luster to be used as ornaments1 ranking with the so-called medicinal pearls of ,europe4 ,they are much softer in texture than the pearls of the ,margaritifer4 ,the largest are commonly of irregular form1 with the surface slightly botryoidal or like the 8strawberry0 pearls of the ,mississippi4 ,while not often used as ornaments1 they are highly valued by the ,hindus in calcined or powdered form for medicinal purposes1 and especially to be chewed with the betel-nut1 and are also used in the original form in funeral rites1 a small quantity being placed in the mouth of a deceased person4 ,in the ,mergui ,archipelago1 which is within the territory of lower ,burma and under the jurisdiction of the government of ,british ,india1 patches of pearl-oyster reefs are scattered over an area roughly computed at #aa1jjj square miles1 taking #ig #dj as the western boundary4 ,they occur principally in the strong tidal passages among the islands4 ,the bottom is formed largely of porphyritic granite interspersed with sand and thinly covered with corals1 coral cups1 the long whip-like black coral 7,antipathes arborea71 and other submarine animal and vegetable growths4#afc ,these constitute a home most favorable to the growth and development of molluscan life4 ,of the several species of pearl-bearing mollusks occurring in the ,mergui ,archipelago1 by far the most important is the 8mok10 or large ,australian pearl-oyster 7,margaritifera maxima74 ,the shell attains a maximum size of about thirteen inches in diameter1 and the nacre is of a milky or silvery color4 ,this species occurs in its two varieties of 8golden lip0 and 8silver edge10 the former being in greater abundance4 ,the 8silver edge0 shell is the more valuable owing to its uniformity of coloring1 and the pearls found therein are of superior luster and orient4 ,the 8pate goung10 or ,lingah pearl-oyster 7,margaritifera vulgaris71 is similar to that of the ,gulf of ,manaar4 ,it is circular in shape and measures about two and one half inches in diameter4 ,the nacre is silvery1 with slight yellowish tinge4 ,many of the pearls from this species are of a silvery color1 but most of them are yellowish or golden4 ,the fishery for this mollusk is of little importance compared with that for the larger pearl-oyster1 which is the species referred to in ,mergui when not otherwise mentioned4 ,the pearl fisheries of ,mergui originated with the ,selangs or ,salangs1 a nomadic race of maritime gipsies1 the last remnants of whom live among the three thousand islands of this group4 ,they are supposed to be of ,malay descent2 but their early history is unknown1 and they are rapidly passing away in the conflict of existence with the neighboring peoples4 ,probably in no part of the world are the pearl fisheries prosecuted by a more primitive class of men4 ,with their women and children1 they live mainly in roomy dug-out boats2 but during the southwest monsoon they erect temporary shelters on the shore1 these consisting of a few frail sticks1 supporting coverings of braided mats1 and floors of bamboo strips4 ,they have few wants and derive a livelihood principally from gathering and bartering shells1 pearls1 cured thadecon1 and nests of the sea-swallow 7,collocalia74 ,within depths of six or eight fathoms they are fairly good divers1 both the men and the women1 but their physical endurance is slight4 ,their trade is mostly with ,chinese merchants who visit them in small vessels4 ,no information exists as to when the ,selangs first found profit in searching for pearls2 but it was probably many centuries ago1 and for a long time they made contributions of them to the ,buddhist rulers of ,burma4 ,shortly after the acquisition of ,mergui ,archipelago in #ahbf1 representatives of the ,british government brought experienced divers from southern ,india to examine more fully the resources which the ,selangs had made known2 but as only seed-pearls were secured1 the government concluded that they would yield an insignificant revenue1 and the attempt to develop these resources was given up4#afd ,however1 the ,selangs continued to fish in their primitive fashion2 and as the market for the shell developed1 the profits increased4 ,but their wants were easily appeased1 and the increased profits were counterbalanced by decreased activities4 ,old traders among the islands tell of the opportunities of those days when choice pearls could be obtained for a pinch of opium or for a few ounces of tobacco4 ,far from the highways of the world1 the ,selangs remained undisturbed in their beautiful seas until nearly twenty years ago4 ,meanwhile1 #hjj miles distant1 ,singapore had arisen from a desert shore to the rank of a great seaport1 and the headquarters for the pearl fishery of the ,malay ,archipelago and of the northwestern coast of ,australia4 ,in this fishery the vessels were well equipped and depended on the use of diving apparatus rather than on nude divers4 ,beginning about #ahhh1 some of these vessels made occasional visits to the ,mergui pearl-oyster reefs1 and usually with very profitable results4 ,this was the first instance in which diving apparatus was successfully introduced on any part of the ,asiatic coast from the ,red ,sea to ,malacca ,strait4 ,so great was the profit that nearly every one on the lower coast of ,burma with sufficient capital or credit hastened to obtain a boat and diving equipment4 ,the success of some of these early ventures was remarkable1 single pearls worth #cjjj1 #ejjj1 and even #aj1jjj each being secured4 ,the reefs in the shoal waters were rapidly depleted1 to the great disadvantage of the nude ,selangs1 who can do little in deep water4 ,with a view to deriving a revenue from these well-equipped vessels1 the government of ,burma in #ahih divided the #aa1jjj square miles of pearling territory into five definite areas known as 8blocks40 ,the area within each of these blocks was surveyed1 marked1 and charted2 and the financial commissioner from time to time determined as to each block whether licenses for pearl fishing should be issued1 or whether the exclusive right therein should be leased4 ,these leases were disposed of either by inviting tenders and granting the lease to any of the persons who might tender1 or by public auction1 as the financial commissioner might direct4 ,by the terms of the lease1 the lessee was obliged to register at the office of the deputy commissioner of finance the number of boats and pumps employed by him2 to declare by letter1 at the end of each month1 the number1 weight1 and estimated value of all mother-of-pearl shell and pearls collected during the month1 and to refrain from taking any mother-of-pearl measuring less than six inches from lip to hinge4 ,outside the limits of blocks in which the exclusive pearl fishing was leased1 licenses to use diving implements were granted in such number and on payment of such fees1 not exceeding ,rs4#ajjj per apparatus1 as might from time to time be fixed1 every such license expiring on ,june #cj next following the date on which it was granted1 and no license was transferable4 ,the five blocks in which the ,mergui pearling rights were leased are of large area1 averaging somewhat over #bjjj square miles each4 ,the lessees customarily granted permits to subsidiary fishermen to operate in their respective blocks1 on payment of a royalty1 this ranging in amount from #ab to #be per cent4 of the mother-of-pearl secured1 and the pearls found were the absolute property of the fishermen4 ,until #aijj the pearling rights were leased by blocks as above noted4 ,rights to catch trochus1 green snail shells1 and sea-slugs1 were included in the lease4 ,it was noticed that ,european pearlers always sublet the trochus and green snail rights1 and it was decided to auction these separately2 while as regards pearling proper the auction system was abolished in that year in favor of a system of licensing individual vessels for a fee of ,rs4#djj each4 ,the right to collect pearls by nude diving was thought for some time to have been left free2 but subsequently it was auctioned along with the rights to collect green snails1 trochus and sea-slugs4 ,the following summary1 compiled from data furnished by ,mr4 ,i4 ,h4 ,burkill of the ,indian ,civil ,service1 shows the extent of the pearl and shell fisheries of ,mergui for a series of years4 ,year4 ,no4 of ,revenue from ,revenue from ,reported ,value of ,pumps4 ,pumps4 ,auction ,rights4 ,yield4 ,rs4 ,rs4 ,rs4 #aijd #gj #bh1jjj #bb1ejj #adi1bci #aije #gg #cj1hjj #ad1bjj #aca1iba #aijf #hj #cb1jjj #ae1cjj #abd1gih #aijg #gf #cj1djj #ai1gjj ,the local headquarters of the industry are at ,mergui1 but most of the supplies are drawn from ,maulmain and ,rangoon1 or from the more distant ,singapore1 where the industry is financed4 ,the season extends from ,october to ,april or ,may1 when the southwest monsoon begins and puts a stop to the fishery on this exposed coast4 ,the boats used are mostly of ,burmese build4 ,they measure from #be to #ce feet in length1 and #g or #h feet in width1 and have #ah to #bd inches of draft1 with curved or half-moon shaped keels1 and with high square sterns4 ,owing to the very light draft and the amount of free-board1 they are deficient in weatherly qualities2 but are fast sailors before the wind and are easily rowed from place to place4 ,for this reason they are especially suited to the industry in ,mergui1 because during the pearling season calms and light winds prevail and oars form the principal motive power1 especially in the channels and passageways between the islands where the tides are frequently very swift4 ,if a number of boats are of the same ownership1 a schooner of thirty to one hundred tons' capacity is commonly provided as a floating station and base of supplies for them2 the gathering of such a fleet presents an interesting sight1 like a great white hen among her brood of chickens4 ,illustration3 ,,from ,,the ,,treasury ,,of ,,the ,,emir ,,of ,,bokhara ,necklace and earrings4 ,property of an ,american lady ,most of the boats are from ,mergui1 and are chartered at a monthly rate of from ,rs4#aje to ,rs4#abj each1 including a crew of four or five ,burmans with their subsistence1 consisting principally of rice and salted fish2 the charterer is further required to pay each member of the crew four annas1 or one rupee1 for each day actually employed in operating the diving pump4 ,in addition to these men1 each boat carries one diver and an attendant1 commonly known as 8tender40 ,the boat is sailed or rowed by the crew1 as directed by the diver2 and while the latter is submerged1 the boat and crew are under the supervision of the attendant4 ,the divers are the most important men in the fleet1 for on their ability and efficiency depends the success of the enterprise4 ,a very considerable portion of them are natives of the ,philippine ,islands1 although many ,japanese have been employed recently1 and the number is increasing4 ,the compensation is at the rate of #b to #d per month1 and #bj for each ton of mother-of-pearl secured4 ,the attendants are likewise mostly ,manilamen1 but many ,malayans and ,burmans are employed2 the wages range from ,rs4#ej to ,rs4#hj per month1 including provisions4 ,the peculiar duties of the attendant are to help the diver into his dress1 place the shoulder leads into position1 screw on the helmet1 and especially to receive and respond to signals and to direct the movements of the vessel in accordance therewith4 ,the scaphander1 or diving dress1 is composed of solid sheet rubber1 covered on both sides with canvas4 ,the head-piece is made of tinned copper1 and is fitted with three glasses1 one at the front and one on each side1 so as to afford the diver as wide a view as is consistent with strength of construction4 ,it has a valve by which he can regulate the pressure of the atmosphere4 ,the dress has a double collar1 the inner portion coming up around the neck1 and the other hermetically fastened to the breastplate4 ,the breastplate is likewise made of copper4 ,the suit is connected with the air-pump by means of a stout rubber tube which enters the helmet1 and through which air is supplied to the diver incased therein4 ,this air-tube consists of three or four lengths--each of fifty feet--of light hose1 commonly called 8pipe40 ,this is buoyant so that it may be easily pulled along1 and may not readily foul among the rocks4 ,however1 when working on very rough bottom with sharp-edged stones1 the lower length is of stouter material in order to resist the chafing on the bottom4 ,before descending1 the air-line is loosely coiled around the diver's arm to prevent a sudden strain on it when it is tightened1 and a signal-line is attached to his waist to enable him to communicate with the men above4 ,in fishing1 if the current is slight1 the boat is permitted to drift therewith1 and if there is little or no current1 it is propelled by oars as may be required4 ,the diver--fully dressed in the rubber suit with helmet1 etc41--goes overboard easily by means of a ,jacob's ladder of five or six rungs on the port side of the boat1 and is lowered by an attendant1 who gives close attention to the lines1 the crew having manned the pump in the meantime4 ,on reaching bottom1 the diver walks along1 following the course of the moving boat and swinging his shoulders from side to side to take in a wide vision in his search for oysters4 ,in clear water he can discover them at a distance of twenty-five or thirty feet1 even when fifteen fathoms below the surface2 but sometimes the water is so clouded that it may be necessary for him to go almost on hands and knees to see them1 and when the seaweeds are thick and high1 he may locate them almost as much by feeling as by sight4 ,owing to this difficulty in seeing the oysters1 the work is suspended in rough weather and for many days following4 ,the catch is placed in a sack or basket of quarter inch rope1 which is raised when filled1 emptied1 and returned to the bottom by means of a rope4 ,finding the shell is by no means an easy matter1 and much natural hunter-craft is necessary4 ,of a neutral color1 it is not at all conspicuous as it lies on a gray coral bed1 itself covered with coral or sponge or hidden in dense masses of gorgeous seaweeds4 ,still less visible is the shell on a muddy bottom1 for there it embeds itself and exposes only half an inch or so of the 8lip40 ,as the boat is impelled by the tide1 the diver may have to walk rapidly in a swinging gait2 and if he should stumble or fall while stooping to pick up the shell1 recovery of balance may be difficult4 ,he must be constantly on the alert and has many dangers to avoid4 ,sharks are numerous in these clear tropical waters2 but although disaster sometimes results1 they are timid1 a stream of air bubbles from the sleeve of the dress sending them away in fright4 ,more fruitful sources of danger are fouled air-pipes1 broken pumps1 falling into holes1 and especially paralysis from recklessly deep diving4 ,when the diver wishes to come up1 he closes the escape valve in his helmet2 his dress fills and distends with air1 causing a speedy return to the surface1 and the tender hauls him alongside by means of the life-line4 ,after 8blowing0 for a few minutes with the helmet removed1 and usually enjoying the indispensable cigarette1 he returns to the bottom4 ,when the ,mergui reefs were first exploited by diving apparatus1 the bulk of the shells were secured from depths of ten to twelve fathoms4 ,these shallow reefs have been exhausted1 temporarily1 at least1 and the divers now work in deeper water1 fifteen1 twenty1 and even twenty-five fathoms1 if the bottom is very uneven and rocky4 ,many shells are found in the depressions between the large boulders1 which may be twenty or thirty feet deeper than the surrounding areas4 ,the oysters are opened by means of the long-bladed working-knife of the country1 known as dah-she4 ,the flesh is thrown into a large basket or washtub1 where it is searched by the proprietor of the boat1 who takes each piece between the hands and squeezes and feels through every part of it4 ,after the flesh has been carefully examined1 the sediment at the bottom of the tub is washed and panned to obtain those pearls which have fallen through the flesh tissues4 ,the ,mergui pearls are commonly of good color and luster1 and compare favorably with those from the ,sulu ,archipelago or the ,dutch ,east ,indies4 ,the sea-green shell of the snail 7,turbo marmoratus7 is gathered in large quantities by the nude diving ,selangs1 who barter it to ,chinese traders at the equivalent of ,rs4#h or #aj per #ajj in number4 ,the flesh is also dried and disposed of to these traders under the name of thadecon1 at about ,rs4#c per viss of #c4cc pounds4 ,this mollusk yields a few greenish yellow pearls4 ,in #ahie1 three pearl reefs were discovered off the ,bassein coast in the district of ,irawadi4#afe ,these proved fairly remunerative for one season and a portion of another1 when they were abandoned4 ,,the ,,pearl ,,fisheries ,,of ,,the ,,red ,,sea1 ,,gulf ,,of ,,aden1 ,,etc4 ,under the ,ptolemies1 and even long after--under the ,califs--these were islands whose merchants were princes2 but their bustle and glory have since departed from them1 and they are now thinly inhabited by a race of miserable fishermen4 ,,james ,,bruce 7#agij74 ,the ,red ,sea was one of the most ancient sources of pearls1 furnishing these gems for centuries before the ,christian era1 and particularly during the reign of the ,ptolemies4 ,these pearls were alluded to by ,strabo1 lianus1 and other classical writers4 ,although the prominence of the fisheries has suffered by comparison with those of ,persia and ,ceylon1 the yield has been more or less extensive from the days of ,solomon up to the present time4 ,of the several pearl-yielding mollusks in the ,red ,sea and on the southeast coast of ,arabia1 the largest and best known is that called 8sadof0 by the ,arabs1 and which has been identified by ,jameson as ,margaritifera m4 erythrensis4 ,this is closely related to the large species in the ,persian ,gulf4 ,it is commonly four or five inches in diameter1 and in exceptional instances attains a diameter of eight inches and a weight of three pounds or more4 ,in addition to its size1 it is distinguished by a dark green coloring about the edges1 and a more or less greenish tint over the nacreous interior surface2 this color is darker in the vicinity of ,jiddah and ,suakin than at the southern end of the sea1 or in the ,gulf of ,aden4 ,this species occurs singly rather than congregated in beds or reefs4 ,although it is found in depths of fifteen fathoms or more1 most of the fishing is in less than five fathoms of water4 ,illustration3 ,persian ,gulf and the ,red ,sea1 the pearling center of the world ,the 8sadof0 yields pearls only rarely1 and is sought principally for the shells1 which afford good qualities of mother-of-pearl1 the pearls furnishing an additional but always looked-for profit to the regular source of income4 ,as in other regions1 there is no constant relation between the value of the pearls and the quantity of mollusks taken4 ,the oysters of some reefs are comparatively rich in certain years2 while in other seasons or on other reefs the mollusks may be numerous but yield very few pearls4 ,the second species of importance in the ,red ,sea is similar to the ,lingah oyster and is known to the ,arabs as 8bulbul40 ,this is much smaller than the 8sadof10 averaging less than three inches in diameter4 ,it is collected for the pearls exclusively1 the shells being too small for industrial use2 but only #c or #d per cent4 of the individuals yield pearls4 ,it is claimed by writers of authority that it is the red ,pinna pearl from this sea that is referred to in the ,scriptures under the name peninim as the most precious product1 and which has been translated as rubies4#aff ,the shell is extremely fragile1 and the nacreous interior is white tinged with a beautiful red4 ,it is of little importance in the commercial fisheries of the ,red ,sea at the present time4 ,the 8sadof0 is more scattered and less numerous than the 8bulbul02 and in order to save much useless diving1 it is customary to inspect the bottom before descending4 ,therefore1 operations are largely restricted to calm weather1 when the water is sufficiently clear to enable the divers to sight the individual oysters on the bottom4 ,in recent years1 water-telescopes have been used to assist in locating them4 ,the most popular form consists of a tin can with a sheet of glass inserted in the bottom4 ,the glazed end of the tin is submerged several inches below the surface1 affording a far-reaching and much clearer vision4 ,in this fishery the divers work from small canoes 7uri71 each manned by two men1 one of whom rows while the other leans over the bow and searches for the oysters4 ,when one is sighted1 he dives into the water for it1 and then returns to the boat to resume the search4 ,the pearling season begins commonly in ,march or ,april1 and continues until about the end of ,may2 it is renewed in the autumn1 continuing through ,september and ,october4#afg ,the vessels employed are of two varieties3 dhows carrying from twenty to eighty men each1 and the much smaller sambuks or sail-boats without decks1 each with from six to twenty-five men1 most of whom are ,negro slaves4 ,many of the large vessels are from the ,persian ,gulf4 ,the sambuks are owned principally by ,zobeid ,bedouins inhabiting the coast between ,jiddah and ,yambo1 and also the islands near the southern end of the sea1 which are very hot-beds of pearls1 shells1 religious frenzy and half famished ,arabs and ,negro slaves4 ,the 8bulbul0 oysters are taken in nearly the same manner as in the ,persian ,gulf4 ,when the vessel is located over the reef1 each diver descends1 commonly with a short stick of iron or hard wood1 with which he releases the oysters within reach2 placing them in a sack1 he is pulled up by an attendant when his breath is nearly exhausted4 ,the fisheries are prosecuted along both sides of the ,red ,sea and in the channels among the islands1 from the ,gulf of ,akabah to ,bab-el-,mandeb4 ,they are especially extensive among the ,dahlak ,islands on the coast of the ,italian colony ,eritrea1 where the population is largely supported by them4 ,this was the center of the industry during the time of the ,ptolemies and in the early ,christian era4 ,the fisheries are also important in the vicinity of ,jiddah1 the port of entrance for ,mecca and ,medina1 holiest places of ,islam4 ,they likewise exist near ,kosseir at the northern end of the sea1 and at ,suakin1 ,massawa1 the ,farsan ,islands1 and ,loheia1 near the lower end4 ,they are carried on by ,arabs1 who succeed in evading efforts at control on the part of the local governments4 ,even on the ,african side1 the ,arab fishermen predominate1 for the native ,egyptian has never evinced much fondness for venturing on the sea4 ,on the southeast coast of ,arabia1 pearl fishermen are to be found at the various harbors from ,aden to ,muscat4 ,their fantastic dhows are met with in the harbor of ,makalla1 and also in that of ,shehr4 ,on the ,oman coast1 the ports of ,sur and of sun-scorched ,muscat do a considerable pearling business1 not only locally but to the ,sokotra ,islands1 and even on the coast of ,east ,africa and ,zanzibar1 the trading baggalas adding pearling and illicit slave-trading to their many sources of income4 ,a number of these traders1 each with an instinct for pearls equal to that of a trained hound for game1 visit the fishing centers at intervals1 and exchange needful commodities for pearls and shells4 ,the ,arab pearl-divers of the ,red ,sea have been noted for the depths to which they can descend4 ,lieutenant ,j4 ,r4 ,wellsted1 of the ,indian ,navy1 who had unusual facilities for acquaintance with their exploits1 reported that in the ,persian ,gulf the fishermen rarely descended beyond eleven or twelve fathoms1 and even then they exhibited signs of exhaustion2 but that in the ,red ,sea they go down twice that depth4 ,among the most noted of these divers of the last century was old ,serr1 who attracted the notice of many travelers4 ,lieutenant ,wellsted states that he saw him descend repeatedly to twenty-five fathoms without the slightest evidence of distress2 that he frequently dived in thirty fathoms1 and is reported to have brought up mud from the bottom at a depth of thirty-five fathoms1 which is about the record1 the pressure of the water being nearly #ij pounds to the square inch4 ,his sons were also remarkably expert2 one of them when scarcely thirteen years of age would descend to a depth of twenty-five fathoms4#afh ,illustration3 ,,carved 8,,jerusalem ,,shell0 ,,from ,,the ,,red ,,sea ,in the collection of ,dr4 ,bashford ,dean ,an interesting story of an ,arab's diving ability is told by ,lieutenant ,wellsted3 8,in #ahbg1 we were cruising in the sloop ,ternate on the pearl banks4 ,whilst becalmed and drifting slowly along with the current1 several of the officers and men were looking over the side at our ,arab pilot1 who had been amusing himself in diving for oysters4 ,after several attempts1 his search proved unsuccessful4 #8,since ,i cannot get oysters ,i will now1' said he1 #8dive for and catch fish4' ,all ridiculed the idea4 ,he went down again1 and great was our astonishment to see him1 after a short time1 rise to the surface with a small rock-fish in each hand4 ,his own explanation of the feat was1 that as he seated himself at the bottom1 the fish came around and nibbled at his skin4 ,watching his opportunity1 he seized and secured his prey by thrusting his thumb and forefinger into their expanded gills40#afi ,owing to the character of the fishery and the lack of government supervision1 it is extremely difficult to determine accurately the extent of this industry in the ,red ,sea and the ,arabian ,gulf4 ,all over this coast extends the influence of the ,hindu traders1 who finance the fisheries and purchase most of the catch4 ,the pearls are sent mostly to ,bombay1 and are not reported in the official returns of the ,red ,sea ports4 ,the fishermen are suspicious of outside inquiries1 and are far from anxious to impart reliable information4 ,probably the best estimates of the catch are to be obtained from ,bombay merchants1 from whom ,a4 ,perazzoli learned in #ahih that pearls to the value of #b1jjj1jjj lire 7#djj1jjj7 were carried from the ,red ,sea to ,bombay each year4#agj ,in the last four or five years the output has been smaller than usual1 owing to disturbed political conditions4 ,the annual product of 8,egyptian0 and 8,bombay0 shells in these fisheries is usually upward of #ajjj tons1 worth from #ajj to #fjj per ton1 according to quality4 ,most of these go to ,austria and ,france1 only about #bjj tons reaching ,london each year4 ,owing to the dark color and the lack of thickness in the nacreous layer1 they are scarcely suitable for anything else than button manufacture4 ,many of them are sent to ,bethlehem and ,jerusalem1 where they are cut into various shapes for crosses1 crucifixes1 wafer-boxes1 beads1 and nearly every conceivable article in which mother-of-pearl is manufactured4 ,many of the choicest shells are incised with scriptural or allegorical designs for sale to tourists as well as for export4 ,the best of the engraved shells sell for #aj to #ej1 and the cheaper ones for less than #a each4 ,this industry is of great importance in ,bethlehem1 giving employment to a considerable percentage of the eight thousand inhabitants of the village4 ,doubtless in no pearl fishery in the world are greater hardships endured than in the ,red ,sea and along the coast of the ,arabian ,gulf4 ,in practically every other region1 the industry is carried on under government supervision1 and there is little opportunity for ill-treatment of the humbler fishermen4 ,but the fanatics who control the fishery on the ,arabian coast--untrammeled by authorities and responsible to none--show little consideration for the poor divers1 and particularly for the unfortunate black slaves brought from the coast of ,africa4 ,these pearl fishermen lead a very eventful life1 the divers especially4 ,they see some wonderful sights down below the surface-plant life and creeping things and enemies innumerable4 ,dropping from the sun-scorched surface down into the deep cool waters1 everything shows 8a sea change1 into something rich and strange10 just as the eyes of the drowned man in ,ariel's song are turned into pearls and his bones into coral4 ,and there are enemies innumerable4 ,the terrible sharks1 prowling about near the bottom1 prove a source of perpetual uneasiness1 and in the aggregate many fishermen are eaten by these bloodthirsty tigers of the sea4 ,there are horrible conflicts with devil-fish equaling that in ,hugo's 8,toilers of the ,sea40 ,the saw-fish is also a source of danger1 particularly in the ,arabian ,gulf1 and instances are reported in which divers have been cut in two by these animals1 which sometimes attain a length of twelve or fifteen feet1 and possess a saw five feet long and three inches broad1 armed on each edge with teeth two inches in length4 ,another menacing peril is the giant clam 7,tridacna gigas71 a monster bivalve1 whose shell measures two or three feet in diameter1 and is firmly anchored to the bottom4 ,this mollusk occurs on many of the ,asiatic pearling grounds4 ,lying with the scalloped edges a foot or more apart1 a foot or a hand of the diver may be accidentally inserted4 ,when such a fate befalls a fisherman1 the only escape is for him to amputate the member immediately4 ,once in a while on the pearling shores a native may be found who has been maimed in this manner1 but usually the unfortunate man does not escape with his life4 ,illustration3 ,,cap ,,of ,,state1 ,,from ,,looting ,,of ,,summer ,,palace1 ,,pekin1 ,,in #ahfj ,now in ,south ,kensington ,museum ,,the ,,pearl ,,fisheries ,,of ,,china1 ,,japan1 ,,siberia1 ,,etc4 ,do churls ,know the worth of ,orient pearls8 ,give the gem which dims the moon ,to the noblest or to none4 ,,emerson1 ,friendship4 ,it appears from ancient ,chinese literature1 noted in the first chapter of this book1 that pearl fisheries have existed in the rivers of ,china for several thousand years4 ,the ,chinese also derived pearls from the sea1 and especially from the coast of the province of ,che-kiang4 ,little is known of the early fisheries1 but the fragmentary literature contains so many allusions to pearls as to lead us to believe that they were of considerable extent and importance4 ,it is related that about #bjj ,b4,c41 a pearl dealer at ,shao-hing1 an ancient city between ,hang-chau and ,ning-po1 on the shore of ,hang-chau ,bay1 furnished to the empress a pearl one inch in diameter1 for which he received five hundred pieces of silver2 and to an envious princess the same dealer sold a 8four-inch pearl40 ,a hundred years later1 the reigning emperor sent an agent to the coast to purchase 8moon pearls10 the largest of which were two thirds of an inch in diameter4 ,in the tenth century ,a4,d41 ,mingti1 one of the most extravagant of the early monarchs1 used so many pearls--not only in his personal decoration but on his equipage and retinue1--that after a formal procession the way would be rich in the jewels which dropped from the gorgeous cortge4 ,about #ajjj ,a4,d41 an embassy to the emperor brought as tribute an ornament composed of strings of pearls1 and also #aje liang 7#h lbs47 of the same gems unmounted4 ,an interesting story is told of 8pearl-scattering0 by an embassy to the ,chinese court from a ,malayan state about #ajfj4 ,following the customs of their country1 the ambassadors knelt at the threshold of the audience chamber1 and then advanced toward the throne1 bearing a golden goblet filled with choice pearls and water-lilies wrought of gold4 ,these they scattered upon the floor at the feet of the emperor2 and the courtiers1 hastening to pick them up1 secured ten hang 7#ae oz47 of pearls4#aga ,the ,keh ,chi ,king ,yuen1 a ,chinese encyclopedia1 describes a pearl fishery in the southern part of ,kwang-tung province1 in the department of ,lien-chau and near the city of ,hhp4 ,fishing began in the spring1 and was preceded by conciliating the gods through certain sacrifices1 in order that the weather might be propitious and that no disaster might be suffered through sharks and other agencies4 ,the five sacrificial animals1--horses1 cattle1 sheep1 swine1 and fowls1--were presented2 but ordinarily paper images of these were economically substituted1 as equally acceptable to the ,chinese rulers of destiny4 ,in the details of the diving1 the fishery resembled somewhat that prosecuted about the same period in the ,gulf of ,manaar4 ,the diver was let down by a rope1 and after collecting the mollusks and placing them in a basket1 he was drawn up at a given signal4 ,much complaint was made that the divers would open the mollusks1 extract the pearls and conceal them in the mouth before returning to the surface4 ,the business became so perilous and the loss so great1 that about the beginning of the sixteenth century1 according to the same encyclopedia1 dredges were adopted4 ,these at first were simple rakes2 later large dredges were trailed along between two boats1 by means of which great quantities of shells were gathered4 ,so important was the industry that an officer was designated by the viceroy of ,canton to collect a revenue therefrom4 ,it does not appear that pearls have been collected in considerable numbers on this part of the ,chinese coast for very many years1 probably not since the advent of ,europeans4 ,pearls are yet found in the river mussels in all parts of eastern ,asia1 from ,siberia to the ,indian ,ocean1 and from the ,himalayas to the ,pacific4 ,it is represented that they are not from the ,unio margaritifera1 the common river-mussel of ,europe1 but from other species1 such as ,unio mongolicus1 ,u4 dahuricus1 ,dipsas plicatus1 etc4 ,it is quite impossible to obtain a reliable estimate of the total number of persons employed1 or the output of pearls in ,china1 but these items are certainly very much larger than the average ,occidental believes4 ,in the vicinity of ,canton the ,dipsas plicatus has been used for centuries by the ,chinese in the production of artificial pearls1 this industry giving employment to thousands of persons4#agb ,the pearl-mussel fishery is of importance in ,manchuria1 where it has been carried on for hundreds of years1 not only by the citizens1 but by the military department on account of the government1 and especially in the streams which flow into the ,songari1 a tributary of the ,amur4 ,jacinth relates that in case of a deficit1 the officers and subalterns were punished by a deduction from their pay1 and also by corporal chastisement4#agc ,witsen speaks of the pearls from the ,river ,gan1 a tributary of the ,amur1 and also from the islands of the ,amur1 the boundary river of ,manchuria4 ,pearl fisheries were established at these places by the ,russians nearly two centuries ago4#agd ,pearls become finer and more plentiful the further we penetrate into ,manchuria2 and they are numerous in the lake of ,heikow or ,hing-chou-men1 8,black ,lake0 or 8,gate of ,precious ,gems10 where they have long been exploited for the account of the emperor of ,china4 ,the occurrence of pearls in many parts of ,asiatic ,russia was noted by ,von ,hessling4 ,in northern ,siberia1 according to ,witsen1 writing in #agje1age pearls were found in the waters about the town of ,mangasea on the ,turuchan2 and ,von ,middendorf notes that they were found in the ,tunguska ,river1 which flows into the ,yenisei4 ,whether1 however1 they come from the ,unio margaritifera is considered doubtful by ,von ,middendorf4 ,witsen referred to their occurrence in the rivers and streams of ,irkutsk and ,onon1 and this is confirmed by several writers of more recent times4 ,pallas says that the mussels found there are quite large1 and speaks of the ,ilim1 which flows into the ,angara1 as another river where they occur4 ,ancient books relating to ,japan repeatedly allude to the occurrence of pearls on the coasts of that country4 ,they are mentioned in the ,nihonki1 of the eighth century1 the oldest ,japanese history4 ,tavernier wrote about #afgj3 8,it is possible that of those who have written before me concerning pearls1 none have recorded that some years back a fishery was discovered in a certain part of the coasts of ,japan1 and ,i have seen some of the pearls which the ,dutch brought from thence4 ,they were of very beautiful water1 and some of them of large size1 but all baroques4 ,the ,japanese do not esteem pearls4 ,if they cared about them it is possible that by their means some banks might be discovered where finer ones would be obtained40#agf ,in #agbg1 ,kaempfer wrote that pearls1 called by the ,japanese kainotamma or shell jewels1 were found in oysters and other mollusks almost everywhere about ,saikokf4 ,every person was at liberty to fish for them4 ,formerly the natives had little or no value for them1 till they learned of their estimation by the ,chinese1 who were ready to pay good prices for them1 their women being very proud of wearing necklaces and other ornaments of pearls4 8,the largest and finest pearls are found in the small sort of oysters1 called akoja1 which is not unlike the ,persian pearl-oyster4 ,these are found only in the seas about ,satzuma and in the ,gulf of ,omura 7,kiusiu74 ,some of the pearls weigh from four to five candareens#agg and these are sold for a hundred kobans each4#agh ,the inhabitants of the ,loochoo ,islands buy most of those about ,satzuma1 since they trade to that province4 ,those found on the ,gulf of ,omura are sold chiefly to the ,chinese and ,tunquinese1 and it is computed that they buy for about #cjjj taels#agi a year4 ,this great profit occasioned the strict orders1 which were made not long ago by the princes both of ,satzuma and ,omura1 that for the future there should be no more of these oysters sold in the market with other oysters1 as had been done formerly40#ahj ,kaempfer also noted that the ,japanese obtained pearls from the yellow snail shell and from the taira gai 7,placuna7 in the ,gulf of ,arima1 and especially from the awabi or abalone 7,haliotis74 ,this mollusk was much sought after for food1 being taken in large quantities by the fishermen's wives1 8they being the best divers of the country40#aha ,of the several species of pearl-oysters which occur in the coastal waters of ,japan1 the only one of importance at present is the ,margaritifera martensi4 ,while this occurs in very many localities1 it is most numerous among the southern islands1 where some fine pearls have been secured4 ,the fishery for this species was quite extensive thirty or forty years ago1 and the reefs were largely depleted4 ,for nearly a score of years it has been used in growing culture pearls1 an account of which is given on pages #bib1 #bic4 ,a few pearls are obtained from several other bivalve mollusks in ,japan4 ,among the collections of the present writers are pearls from ,margaritifera martensi1 collected at ,bay ,agu2 from ,m4 panasis1 about the ,liu-kiu ,islands2 from ,pecten yezocusis1 in ,sokhaido2 from ,mytilus crasitesta1 in the ,inland ,sea1 and from ,north ,japan1 and from a species of ,dipsas found in ,lake ,biwa4 ,while the pearl fisheries of ,japan are not of great importance in any single locality1 the distribution of the reefs is so extensive that the aggregate yield is considerable4 ,the awabi or ear-shell 7,haliotis gigantea71 found on the coast of ,japan1 ,korea1 etc41 yields many pearly forms4 ,this species is much smaller than the ,california abalones4 ,it has a fairly smooth1 nacreous surface1 but its value is depreciated by the great size of the marginal perforations1 which render useless for commercial purposes all of the shell external to the line of perforations4 ,while its opalescent tints make it desirable for manufacturing into certain styles of buttons and buckles1 its principal use is for inlaying work or marquetry1 for which it is especially adapted1 owing to its fineness of texture and beauty of coloring even when reduced to thin sheets4 ,illustration3 ,,fishing ,,for ,,the ,,awabi 7,,abalone7 ,,shells ,,at ,,wada-,,no-,,hara1 ,,japan ,probably the most interesting of the abalone fisheries is that on the shores of ,quelpaerd ,island1 about sixty miles south of the ,korean coast1 which is prosecuted largely by the women4 ,dressed only in a scanty garment1 these women swim out to the fishing grounds1 distant several hundred yards in some cases1 carrying with them a stout knife and a small sack suspended from a gourd4 ,on reaching the reefs1 they dive to the bottom--sometimes to a depth of six or eight fathoms--and by means of the knife1 remove the abalones from the bottom and place them in the sack4 ,they may remain out an hour1 diving repeatedly until the sack is filled1 when they swim back to the shore4 ,pearls are found only rarely2 in one lot of one hundred shells1 only five were found bearing pearls2 two with three pearls each1 two with two pearls each1 and one with a single pearl4 ,the flesh of this mollusk after it has been cleaned and dried1 is quite popular as an article of diet4 ,although white when fresh1 the color changes to a dark red4 ,the pieces of dried flesh1 in the form of flat reddish disks four or five inches in diameter1 are fastened on slender sticks--about ten to each stick--and displayed in the grocery shops in ,seul and other cities4 ,in the ,gulf of ,siam on the ,asiatic coast1 pearls are obtained from a small oyster with a thin shell1 presumably a variety of the ,lingah oyster4 ,the beds have not yet been thoroughly exploited1 as the ,siamese do not especially value pearls1 attributing some superstitious sentiments of ill luck to them4 ,however1 from time to time ,chinese traders have bought them from the ,malay divers and sold them at great profit in the ,singapore market4 ,the known beds occur chiefly in the northern part of the gulf1 on the west coast1 and extend in a narrow belt for a distance of about one hundred miles4 ,the fishing is prosecuted by nude divers in shallow water4 ,a recent letter from ,dr4 ,k4 ,van ,dort1 a mining engineer of ,bangkok1 ,siam1 states that in #aijf in six weeks1 with the aid of half a dozen divers he was able to collect #gbj grains' weight of pearls1 mostly small ones1 but including one of #bj grains1 one of #ad grains1 two of #ab grains each1 and seven over #i grains in weight4 ,he reports that the total value of the large ones in ,bangkok was #aejj1 but the small ones could not be sold to any advantage1 as they are little prized by the ,siamese4 ,the shells are of no commercial value1 as they are too thin for industrial use other than for inlaid work4 ,some fine old specimens of marquetry in which these shells were used exist in the ,buddhist temples at ,bangkok4 ,this art of inlaying is almost lost among the ,siamese1 and there is said to be only one man in the king's palace who can lay any claims to proficiency in working mother-of-pearl shell4 ,,vii ,,pearls ,,from ,,the ,,african ,,coasts ,,vii ,,east ,,african ,,pearl ,,fisheries ,the ,islanders with fleecy curls1 ,whose homes are compass'd by the ,arabian waves2 ,by whom those shells which breed the orient pearls ,are dived and fish'd for in their green sea caves4 ,,tasso1 ,jerusalem ,delivered4 ,the principal pearl fisheries of the coasts of ,africa are those prosecuted in the ,red ,sea1 between this continent and ,asia4 ,these have already been described in the preceding chapter1 among the ,asiatic fisheries2 for1 although situated between the two continents1 they are prosecuted largely by ,arabs rather than by natives of the western shores of the sea4 ,other than those in the ,red ,sea1 the only pearl resources in ,africa which have received attention are on the eastern coast1 south of the ,gulf of ,aden4 ,little information exists as to the origin of these fisheries4 ,in a paper published by the ,lisbon ,geographical ,society1 ,january1 #aijc1 ,seor ,ivens ,ferranz states that1 according to tradition1 in remote times the ,ibo ,archipelago1 on the northeast coast of ,portuguese ,east ,africa1 was inhabited by a ,semitic colony1 which located there to fish for pearls1 and these were carried through the ,red ,sea to ,king ,solomon4 ,he adds that there is little doubt that1 after the great emigration which started from the ,persian ,gulf in #ihb and founded ,zanzibar1 ,kilwa1 and ,sofala on this coast1 some ,arabs engaged in fishing for pearls about the islands near ,sofala4 ,in #afji ,joao dos ,santos wrote that on the sandy sea bottom about the ,bazaruto ,islands1 which are about #aej miles south of ,sofala1 there were many large oysters which bore pearls1 and the natives fished for them by diving in practically the same manner as in the ,persian ,gulf4#ahb ,in a personal memorandum1 ,sir ,robert ,edgcumbe states that in the very early times of ,portuguese exploitation on the eastern coast of ,africa1 pearl fishing was carried on in these waters4 ,for a long period the tenure of power exerted by the ,portuguese was of a feeble character2 they practically occupied no position of importance on the mainland1 but seized upon stations on the islands which offered decent harbors4 ,thus their chief settlements1 such as ,mozambique and ,ibo1 were on islands lying off the coast1 and until recent years they made no serious attempt to occupy the mainland4 ,arabs and ,banyans carried on the commercial traffic of the country1 as they still do1 and they were more truly the masters of this coast than were the ,portuguese1 who were little more than nominal rulers4 ,trading to and from ,india in their small dhows1 the ,arabs and ,banyans had full knowledge of the value of pearls1 and undoubtedly secured all that were obtainable4 ,but they observed no restrictions1 and without doubt--for a time1 at any rate--greatly impaired the productive power of the fisheries4 ,the principal pearl reefs of ,east ,africa1 so far as known at present1 extend along the coast of the ,german ,east ,african territory from the ,province of ,uzaramo to the ,rovuma ,river1 the southern limit of that territory1 and also into ,portuguese ,east ,africa as far south as ,pemba ,bay1 a total distance of about #cjj miles4 ,along much of this coast1 there are islands lying from one to two miles off shore1 and between these islands are barriers of reefs1 which create a series of lagoons4 ,in these lagoons1 protected by the islands and the reefs from the influence of the surf formed by the ,indian monsoons1 there are large patches of coral rock and groups of living coral1 which form excellent attachments for the pearl-oysters4 ,it is only recently that serious attention has been paid to these pearl resources1 although year by year a considerable number of pearls have been collected by the natives and sold to ,arabs and ,banyans1 who have sent them chiefly to ,india by way of ,zanzibar4 ,the natives of these parts are not very expert in diving1 and they collect the oysters principally by wading out as far as they can at low tide4 ,they do not wait for the mollusks to attain a proper age1 and as a result they find few pearls of large size4 ,many parcels of pearls fished in this very elementary way pass through the custom-house1 where they are subject to a small duty for export1 and others are smuggled out of the country4 ,quantities of seed-pearls are sent to ,india1 where they are used principally as a medicine and in cosmetics2 and occasionally there are rumors that some choice pearls have been discovered4 ,in the ,german territory a concession of the fisheries was granted a few years ago to ,dr4 ,aurel ,schulz2 and1 although we are not in position to say what success he has met with1 it is reported that he has secured a considerable number of pearls under four grains in weight1 of fair shape and quality and of good marketable value4 ,a concession of the pearl fishery on the ,portuguese coast north of ,ibo has been granted to the ,east ,african ,pearl ,company4 ,for this company an examination of the resources is now being made by ,mr4 ,james ,j4 ,simpson1 acting under direction of ,prof4 ,w4 ,a4 ,herdman1 of the ,liverpool ,university1 the technical advisor of the ,ceylon ,company of ,pearl ,fishers4 ,at least four species of pearl-bearing mollusks exist here2 these are ,margaritifera vulgaris1 ,m4 margaritifera1 ,pinna nobilis1 and a species of ,perna1 named in the order of their importance4 ,a preliminary report of ,mr4 ,simpson 7supplied through the courtesy of ,sir ,robert ,edgcumbe71 states that among the ,ibo ,islands about one half of the bottom is sandy and the other half is covered with detached pieces of coral rock1 groups of living corals1 masses of nullipore1 and expanses of fixed seaweed4 ,on all of these in the shoal waters1 there is such an abundance of pearl-oysters 7,m4 vulgaris7 that a single diver1 by simply descending and bringing up a few in his hands each time1 can secure about #bjj in fifteen minutes4 ,oysters also occur singly on the sandy bottom1 but not so abundantly4 ,within the three-year-old oysters there are many seed-pearls4 ,it is evident that there has been an extensive removal of large oysters in recent years and that large pearls were then found2 but the depredations of the natives now prevent the mollusks from attaining an age and size which render them useful as pearl-bearers4 ,said ,mr4 ,simpson in his report3 8,the women here play great havoc on the reefs by going out daily and collecting the pearl-oysters at low tide4 ,all along the coast from ,muliga ,point to ,arimba the shores are covered with shells4 ,at one place we came across a heap of freshly-opened oysters which consisted of thirty or forty thousand at the lowest estimate2 while an older heap contained between forty to sixty millions4 ,four women who were fishing on the reefs while we were there had over two thousand oysters in their baskets4 ,thus it is evident that immense quantities are annually destroyed4 ,and the worst feature is that out of those destroyed1 not one per cent4 were over two years old40 ,it is the intention of the ,east ,african ,pearl ,company1 as soon as the investigation of the resources is completed1 to police the fishing grounds so as to put an end to the removal of immature oysters1 which yield only seed-pearls1 and to permit them to attain maturity4 ,in addition to this1 it is their purpose to utilize the extensive beds of oysters lying in comparatively deep water1 which are now inaccessible to the natives owing to their lack of diving skill4 ,sir ,robert ,edgcumbe writes that it is impossible to say more at present than that these fisheries at one time bore a high repute1 and that the oysters have continued to exist in multitudes though fished by the natives in the immature state2 and there is every indication that if properly policed and worked in a scientific way these fisheries should once again become of much importance4 ,the fact that the pearl-bearing oysters are found there in large quantities1 notwithstanding that they have been poached without restriction by the natives1 indicates that only proper management and policing are necessary to make them valuable and productive4 ,on the lower coast of ,portuguese ,east ,africa1 pearl fishing has been of some local importance4 ,the reefs are most extensive about the ,bazaruto ,islands1 previously referred to as about #aej miles south of ,sofala4 ,in #ahhh1 when famine prevailed on this coast1 the inhabitants of this archipelago1 of both sexes and of all ages1 fished for the large pearl-oysters 7known locally as mapalo71 selling their catch at ,chiloane to ,asiatic traders1 who gave them a handful of rice for a large basket of the mollusks4 ,it was estimated that during two months of that year1 pearls to the value of eighty contos 7#hc1ejj7 were taken4#ahc ,in #ahhi three ,british subjects attempted to renew the fishery by using dredges1 but without success1 owing1 it is said1 to the great weight of the implements4 ,the ,kafirs of ,bazaruto continue to fish irregularly1 but their catch is not of importance4 ,these pearls are carried by traders to ,zanzibar1 ,muscat1 and ,bombay4 ,the ,american consul writes that some years ago the ,portuguese government granted a concession to a company of ,american fishermen to exploit the ,bazaruto reefs1 but the attempt to work the concession failed through 8bad management1 lack of funds1 heavy expenses1 and political difficulties10 a combination apparently sufficient to wreck a similar attempt in the most favorable locality4 ,the ,american consul at ,tamatave states that in #aijg the government of ,madagascar awarded two grants for pearl fisheries1 covering the entire western coast1 a distance of one thousand miles1 excepting two hundred miles1 for which two grants were given in #aijf4 ,apparently no effort was made to develop the earlier grants2 the later ones may be operated1 perhaps jointly4 ,these concessions are personal1 and may not be sold or transferred without the governor-general's consent4 ,the use of divers1 machinery1 dredges1 and other apparatus1 and the building of necessary stations are allowed1 if there be no interference with navigation1 fishing1 or coast travel4 ,an annual tax is to be paid1 with a stated increase each year1 and revised according to the success of the enterprise4 ,a report must be sent yearly to the governor-general4 ,the grants may be revoked if work is not begun within a stated period2 if the work is needlessly abandoned during one year1 or if the tax is not paid4 ,whenever the interests of the colony or of the public service require it1 the privilege may be withdrawn without indemnity4 ,,viii ,,european ,,pearl ,,fisheries ,,the ,,british ,,isles1 ,,the ,,continent ,,of ,,europe ,,viii ,,pearl ,,fisheries ,,of ,,the ,,british ,,isles ,and ,britain's ancient shores great pearls produce4 ,,marbodus 7circa #ajgj74 ,the occurrence of pearls in the ,british ,isles was known two thousand years ago1 and frequent references to them were made in ,roman writings of the first and second centuries of the ,christian era4 ,in his 8,lives of the ,csars10 the biographer ,suetonius1 after speaking of the admiration which ,julius ,csar had for pearls1 states that their occurrence in ,britain was an important factor in inducing the first ,roman invasion of that country in #ee ,b4,c4#ahd ,if this be true1 the ,english-speaking people owe a vast debt of gratitude to these pearls in bringing their ,briton ancestors in contact with ,roman civilization2 and the influence which they have thus exercised on the world's history has been greater than that of the pearls from all other regions or1 we might add1 than all other jewels4 ,the naturalist ,pliny 7#bc-gi7 stated3 8,in ,brittaine it is certain that some do grow2 but they bee small1 dim of colour1 and nothing orient4 ,for ,julius ,csar 7late ,emperor of famous memorie7 doth not dissimble1 that the cuirace or breastplate which he dedicated to ,venus mother within her temple was made of ,english pearles40#ahe ,this decoration of pearls was a very proper offering to the goddess who arose from the sea4 ,the historian ,tacitus noted in 8,vita ,agricol0 that the pearls from ,britain were dusky or brownish 7subfusca ac liventia74#ahf ,in his commentaries on the ,gospel of ,matthew1 ,origen 7#ahe-bec71 one of the ,greek fathers of the church1 described the ,british pearls as next in value to the ,indian4 ,their surface1 he stated1 was of a golden color1 but they were cloudy and less transparent than those from ,india4 ,we have no certain information whether the pearls secured by the ,romans were from the edible mussel 7,mytilus edulis7 of the sea-coast or from the ,unios of the fresh-water streams4 ,tacitus's statement that they were collected 8as the sea throws them up10 seems to locate them on the sea-coast2 but conditions in modern times make it appear more probable that they were from the fresh waters4 ,some of the very early coins of the country indicate that pearls were used to ornament the imperial diadem of the sovereigns of ancient ,britain4 ,in 8,historia ecclesiastica gentis ,anglorum10 the celebrated ,english monk1 ,bede 7#fgc-gce7 surnamed 8,the ,venerable10 enumerated among other things for which ,britain was famous in his day1 8many sorts of shell-fish1 among which are mussels1 in which are often found excellent pearls of all colours2 red1 purple1 violet and green1 but mostly white40#ahg ,and ,marbodus1 ,bishop of ,rennes1 in his lapidarium1 written about #ajgj1 refers to the ,british pearls as equaling those of ,persia and ,india4 ,about #ajid a present of an ,irish pearl was made to ,anselm1 ,archbishop of ,canterbury1 by ,gilbert1 ,bishop of ,limerick4#ahh ,in the twelfth century there was a market for ,scotch pearls in ,europe1 but they were less valued than those from the ,orient4#ahi ,an ordinance of ,john ,,ii1 ,king of ,france1 in ,august1 #acee1 which confirmed the old statutes and privileges of goldsmiths and jewelers1 expressly forbade mounting ,scotch and oriental pearls together in the same article1 except in ecclesiastical jewelry 7,orfvre ne peut mettre en uvre d'or ne argent parles d',ecosse avec parles d'orient se ce n'est en grands joyaulx d'glise74#aij ,writing in the sixteenth century1 the historian ,william ,camden 7#aeea-afbc7 stated in his 8,britannia03 ,illustration3 ,,old ,,print ,,showing ,,four ,,methods ,,of ,,catching ,,pearl-,,bearing ,,mollusks ,reproduced from 8,margaritologia1 sive ,dissertatio de ,margaritis10 by ,malachias ,geiger1 ,monachii1 #afcg ,the ,british and ,irish ,pearls are found in a large black ,muscle4444 ,they are peculiar to rapid and stony rivers2 and are common in ,wales1 and in the ,north of ,england1 and in ,scotland1 and some parts of ,ireland4 ,in this country they are called by the vulgar ,kregin ,diliw1 i4e4 ,deluge shells2 as if ,nature had not intended the shells for the rivers2 but being brought thither by the ,universal ,deluge1 they had continued there1 and so propagated their kind ever since4 ,those who fish here for ,pearls1 know partly by the outside of these ,muscles1 whether they contain any2 for generally such as have them are a little contracted or distorted from their usual shape4 ,a curious and accomplished ,gentleman1 lately of these parts1 showed me a valuable ,collection of the ,pearls of the ,conway ,river in ,wales2 amongst which ,i noted a stool-pearl button-pearl1 weighing seventeen grains1 and distinguished on the convex side with a fair round spot of a ,cornelian colour1 exactly in the center4#aia ,in #aefj 8large handsome pearls0 were sent from ,scotland to ,antwerp4#aib ,in #afbj a great pearl was found in the ,kellie ,burn1 in ,aberdeenshire4 ,this was carried to ,king ,james by the provost1 who was rewarded with 8twelve to fourdeen chalder of victuals about ,dunfermline1 and the ,customs of ,merchants' goods in ,aberdeen during his life40 ,no record appears of the reward paid to the finder2 possibly it was not worth recording4 ,in #afba the ,privy ,council of ,scotland issued a proclamation that pearls found within the realm belonged to the ,crown2 and conservators of the pearl fisheries were appointed in several of the counties1 including ,aberdeen1 ,ross1 and ,sutherland4 ,it was the duty of the conservators1 among other things1 to nominate experts to fish for pearls during ,july and ,august1 8when they are at chief perfection40 ,the conservators and fishermen were compensated by selling those pearls of ordinary quality1 but 8the best for bignesse and colour0 were to be remitted to the king4 ,it was reported to the ,privy ,council that the conservator in ,aberdeenshire did very well in the first year4 8,he hath not only taken divers pearls of good value1 but hath found some in waters where none were expected40 ,the first parliament of ,charles ,i abolished these privileges4 ,robert ,sibbald1 physician to ,charles ,,ii1 wrote that he had seen a necklace of ,scotch pearls which was valued at two thousand crowns2 they were 8larger than peas1 perfectly round1 and of a brilliant whiteness40#aic ,it is said that ,sir ,richard ,wynne of ,gwydir presented to ,catherine of ,braganza1 queen of ,charles ,,ii of ,england1 a pearl from the ,conway in ,wales1 which is said to be even yet retained in the royal crown4 ,in his 8,faerie ,queene0 7#aeij71 ,spenser speaks of the ,conway1 which out of his streame doth send ,plenty of pearles to deck his dames withal4 ,the ,white ,cart ,river in ,scotland1 on which the city of ,paisley is situated1 was distinguished1 according to ,camden1 8for the largeness and the fineness of the ,pearls that are frequently found hereabouts and three miles above40#aid ,and the pearls from ,irton in ,cumberland1 ,england1 were so noted at that time that 8fair as ,irton pearls0 became a byword in the north country4 ,in their history of ,westmoreland and ,cumberland1#aie ,nicolson and ,burn state that 8,mr4 ,thomas ,patrickson1 late of ,how of this county 7,cumberland71 having employed divers poor inhabitants to gather these pearls1 obtained such a quantity as he sold to the jewellers in ,london for above #hjj40 ,but in #agid ,hutchinson#aif stated that none had been seen for many years past4 ,pearl fishing in ,ireland was of some consequence in the seventeenth century4 ,speaking of the ,slaney ,river1 ,solomon ,richards1 in a description of ,wexford about the year #afef1 said3 8,it ought to precede all the rivers in ,ireland for its pearle fishing1 which though not abundant are yet excellent1 for muscles are daily taken out of it about fowre1 five and six inches long1 in which are often found pearles1 for lustre1 magnitude and rotundity not inferior to oriental or any other in the world40#aig ,in #afic ,sir ,robert ,redding wrote that there were four rivers in the county of ,tyrone in northern ,ireland which abounded in pearl-mussels1 all four emptying into ,lough ,foyle and thence into the sea4 ,they were also to be found in several rivers in the adjacent ,donegal ,county4 ,redding gave an interesting description of the fishery3 ,in the warm months before harvest is ripe1 whilst the rivers are low and clear1 the poor people go into the water and take them up1 some with their toes1 some with wooden tongs1 and some by putting a sharpened stick into the opening of the shell2 and although by common estimate not above one shell in a hundred may have a pearl1 and of these pearls not above one in a hundred be tolerably clear1 yet a vast number of fair merchantable pearls1 and too good for the apothecary1 are offered to sale by those people every summer assize4 ,some gentlemen of the country make good advantage thereof1 and ,i myself1 whilst there1 saw a pearl bought for #b1 #ajs4 that weighed #cf carats1 and was valued at #dj1 and had it been as clear as some others produced therewith it would certainly have been very valuable4 ,everybody abounds with stories of the good pennyworths of the country1 but ,i will add but one more4 ,a miller took a pearl1 which he sold for #d1 #ajs4 to a man that sold it for #aj to another1 who sold it to the late ,lady ,glenanly for #cj1 with whom ,i saw it in a necklace2 she refused #hj for it from the late ,duchess of ,ormond4 ,the young muscles never have any pearl in them4 ,the shells that have the best pearls are wrinkled1 twisted1 or bunched1 and not smooth and equal1 as those that have none4 ,and the crafty fellows will guess so well by the shell1 that though you watch them never so carefully1 they will open such shells under the water1 and put the pearls in their mouths1 or otherwise conceal them4 ,yet sometimes when they have been taking up shells1 and believing by such signs as ,i have mentioned1 that they were sure of good purchase1 and refused good sums for their shares1 they found no pearl at all in them4 ,upon discourse with an old man that had been long at this trade1 he advised me to seek not only when the waters were low1 but on a dusky1 gloomy day also1 lest1 said he1 the fish see you1 for then he will shed his pearl in the sand2 of which ,i believe no more than that some muscles have voided their pearls1 and such are often found in the sands4#aih ,illustration ,,madame ,,norischkine ,,duchesse ,,elizabeth ,,daughter ,,of ,,general ,,sobelieff ,n,e ,,straudman 7,,constantin7 ,,first ,,countess ,,beauharnais ,for several years following #agfj1 the ,scotch pearl fisheries were of considerable local value4 ,the zologist1 ,thomas ,pennant1 wrote of them several times in his 8,tour of ,scotland40 ,referring to the ,tay and ,isla rivers1 then as now the center of the ,scotch pearling1 he states3 8,there has been in these parts a very great fishery of pearl1 got out of the fresh-water muscles4 ,from the year #agfa to #agfd1 #aj1jjj worth were sent to ,london1 and sold from #ajs4 to #a #fs4 per ounce4 ,i was told that a pearl had been taken there that weighed #cc grains4 ,but this fishery is at present exhausted1 from the avarice of the undertakers4 ,it once extended as far as ,loch ,tay40#aii ,and he adds later that1 some years preceding1 a pearl fishery was prosecuted in ,loch ,dochart with great success and the pearls were esteemed the fairest and largest of any4 ,from #aggj to #ahfj the pearl resources of ,scotland remained almost dormant1 and ,scotch pearls were rarely met with in the markets4 ,in #ahfa a ,german merchant1 who was acquainted with the beauty of these gems1 traveled through the districts of ,tay1 ,doon and ,don1 obtaining a great number which the poor people kept for their own pleasure1 not esteeming them of any market value1 and interested the fishermen in searching for the mussels4 ,the seemingly high prices which he paid and the abundance of the pearls sent hundreds of persons to the rivers and small brooks4 ,those who were otherwise employed during the day devoted hours of the long summer nights to diligent search after the coveted shells2 while boys and old persons1 who were without regular avocations1 waded day after day where there was a probability of reward4 ,in the course of a short time pearls1 good1 bad and indifferent1 reached the originator of the movement at ,edinburgh1 from ,ayrshire1 from ,perthshire1 and from the ,highland regions far beyond the ,grampians4 ,he was soon the possessor of a collection which1 for richness and variety1 had seldom been surpassed4 ,a trade in these gems was developed1 the patronage of royalty was obtained1 and once more ,scotch pearls became fashionable1 and their vogue was enhanced by the fondness which ,queen ,victoria entertained for them4 ,in addition to the rivers named1 pearls were found in the ,forth1 the ,teith1 the ,ythan1 and the ,spey in eastern ,scotland4 ,the summer of #ahfb was most favorable for pearling1 owing to the dryness of the season and the low water1 and unusually large quantities of pearls were found1 the prices ranging ordinarily from #ajs4 to #b #fs4 ,queen ,victoria is said to have purchased one for forty guineas2 others were bought by ,empress ,eugnie and by the ,duchess of ,hamilton4 ,a necklace of them was sold for #cej in #ahfc4bjj ,the value of the entire catch in ,scotland in #ahfd was estimated at #ab1jjj to the fishermen1 the yield being unusually large in that season owing to the unprecedented drought which permitted access to the deep beds of the rivers4 ,in some of the streams the resources were quickly depleted1 but in others the fisheries yielded profitable returns for many years4 ,while most of the pearls were small1 some of them were choice and of considerable individual value1 ranging from #e to #aej1 and #ejj is said to have been paid for one fine specimen4 ,the pearl-mussel of the ,british ,isles 7,unio margaritifera7 has a thick1 coarse and unsightly shell1 from #c to #g inches in width and #a to #b inches in length from the umbo to the lip4 ,the rough exterior is dark brown1 and it is sometimes twisted1 distorted and barnacled4 ,it generally lies scattered and detached over the pebbly bottoms1 but it also exists in reefs or beds which are sometimes of considerable extent4 ,these occur usually where a stretch of water is still and deep1 and oftentimes where the depth places the mussels beyond the reach of the fishermen4 ,apart from the pearls it contains1 the mussel is of no economic value except that in some localities the mollusk is used for bait in cod-fishing4 ,in recent years the pearl-mussel has been numerous in several of the rivers of ,scotland1 such as the ,tay1 ,earn1 and ,teith in ,perthshire2 the ,dee1 the ,don1 and the ,ythan in ,aberdeenshire2 the ,spey and ,findhorn in ,inverness-shire1 and also the classic ,doon of ,burns1 the ,nith1 the ,annan and others in southern ,scotland2 however1 it is rare in the ,clyde and the ,tweed4 ,the ,teith has long been famed for pearl-bearing1 though like other rivers it has become nearly fished out4 ,the ,tay produces many pearls1 yet as a rule they are not of the best class4 ,some of its tributaries1 as the ,tummel and the ,isla1 also bear pearls2 those in the ,isla are usually fine and rank higher than those from the ,tay4 ,the ,earn is also famous for the fine quality of its pearls1 but the whole river was robbed of its wealth some years ago by a body of professional fishermen1 and it has not yet recovered from the raid2 few pearls now exist there save in the deeper pools1 where doubtless may still be hid 8full many a gem of purest ray serene40 ,in ,ireland pearls have been found principally in the rivers of counties ,kerry1 ,donegal1 ,tyrone1 ,antrum1 etc4 ,in an article in 8,the ,field10 ,december #aj1 #ahfd1 ,mr4 ,f4 ,t4 ,buckland stated that they abound near ,oughterard1 and that a man called 8,jemmy the ,pearl-catcher10 who lived there1 told him that he knew when a mussel had a pearl in it even without opening the shell1 because 8she the mussel sits upright with her mouth in the mud1 and her back is crooked10 that is1 corrugated like a ram's horn4 ,pearls are yet found in several localities in the ,emerald ,isle1 notably in the river ,bann in the northeastern part and in the beautiful ,connemara district in western ,ireland4 ,in #ahib the ,bann yielded one of the choicest pearls that ever came from ,ireland4 ,within the last twelve months ,lady ,dudley1 wife of the ,viceroy of ,ireland1 presented to ,queen ,alexandra a number of pearls from the ,connemara4 ,these were mounted in a green enameled brooch1 and excited so much admiration that an active demand for similar gems quickly developed in ,county ,galway4 ,mr4 ,d4 ,mac,gregor1 a well-known jeweler of ,perth1 to whom we are indebted for much information relative to pearls in ,scotland1 states that no attention whatever is given to conserving the mussel2 on the contrary1 the waters are unscrupulously despoiled by the greedy pearl fisherman who destroys all that he finds1 since1 by chance1 they may yield the coveted gem4 ,immense numbers are thus wantonly destroyed1 which if allowed to grow and propagate would be more likely to contribute to the pearl yield1 as it is well known that it is the aged mussels in which a pearl is most likely to be found4 ,there is no close time1 and so extensive have been the raids upon the mussels in recent years that they have been rapidly exterminated in places accessible to the fishermen2 and should the spoliation continue and extend to the deep waters1 the pearl-mussel may soon become extinct4 ,pearl fishing is not prosecuted throughout the year1 as it can be carried on only in the dry season when the waters are low4 ,there are a number of professional fishermen who search in their favorite streams1 and sometimes very profitably1 as much as #bjj having been gained in a single season by one fisherman4 ,one of the most noted of these was 8,pearl ,johnnie10 who a few years ago hailed from ,compar-,angus1 in ,perthshire1 and who styled himself 8,pearl ,fisher to the ,prince of ,wales10 by reason of some dealings he once had with his ,royal ,highness4 ,he was very successful in his experience of more than thirty years4 ,there is little mystery in the search2 skill does not always avail1 and men1 women and children are rewarded or disappointed indiscriminately4 ,the bed of the stream is searched until the patches of mussels are discovered1 and this is usually the most tedious part of the work4 ,these may be in very shoal water1 where a small boy has only to wade with water above his knees and pick up the mussels by stooping2 but more frequently the water covers a man's hips1 and at times he is immersed almost to the shoulders4 ,the equipment of a pearl fisherman is simple4 ,if he wades1 he commonly wears long boots with tops reaching to his breast4 ,provided with a pole five or six feet long having a cleft at the lower end1 and with a tube several inches in diameter with the lower end closed by a glass1 he invades the home of the pearl-mussel4 ,thrusting the tube or water glass beneath the surface1 he scans the bed of the stream1 and when a mussel is sighted1 the cleft pole is brought into use and it is picked up by means of these primitive tongs4 ,owing to the close resemblance which the pearl-mussel bears to the stones in the riverbed1 good eyesight is required to avoid overlooking it4 ,a bag by the fisher's side receives the catch2 and when this is well filled1 he goes to the bank of the stream and opens his lottery1 in the great majority of cases to find that he has drawn a blank4 ,a boat is seldom used1 simply because it is not available1 but in the tidal waters it is indispensable4 ,the 8box0 is a risky device for fishing in the deeper waters4 ,it is a small contrivance1 somewhat like the ancient ,british coracle1 in which the fisherman sits or lies over on his chest2 venturing out in the deeper parts which can not be waded1 he carefully peers through the tube and draws up his find with the long cleft stick4 ,this is a tiresome method1 but some places can not be readily fished in any other manner4 ,in ,aberdeenshire1 ,perthshire1 etc41 there are a few men who regularly spend the season 8at the pearls40 ,the knowing ones dispose of their best finds to wealthy residents or to strangers and tourists who frequent the vicinity4 ,in addition to these experienced fishermen1 many of the idlers and unemployed about the riverside towns1 and also the farm servants in the country1 search the waters in their neighborhood in the hope of picking up some gems4 ,but very often it is severe and disappointing labor1 for the pearl-seeker may travel far and endure privation and hardships for days1 and yet1 after destroying hundreds and even thousands of mussels1 he may be rewarded with only a little almost worthless dross2 but again and again he returns to the elusive game1 inspired by the 8hope which springs eternal in the human breast40 ,illustration3 ,the ,valley of the ,tay ,illustration3 ,the ,river ,earn ,photographs by ,the ,raeburn ,portrait ,studio1 ,perth1 ,scotland ,,scotch ,,pearl ,,rivers ,the ,british pearls are in great variety of colors1 but most of them are practically valueless on account of the absence of orient or luster2 for one possessing the white pearly luster1 fifty may be found of a dull color and devoid of value4 ,many of these opaque pearls are dark1 lusterless brown1 and handfuls of them sell for only a few shillings4 ,a large percentage are of a grayish or milky color1 or of a bluish white tinge2 these seldom attain much value unless aided by excellence of shape and purity of skin4 ,a few are of a dark1 fiery tint and of great luster4 ,sometimes the pearl is of a beautiful pink tint1 sometimes of a light violet1 or other exquisite shade4 ,the fine pink ones are very rare and are highly prized4 ,the best are those having the sweet1 pure white light which constitutes the inimitable loveliness of a pearl2 but few of them are found even in the most favorable seasons1 and usually these are from the streams in the northeastern counties and some of the streams in the southwest4 ,very few combine the qualities of perfection in shape and luster2 and the product of many seasons might be examined in vain to furnish enough pearls to make a well-matched necklace of gems weighing from five to ten grains each4 ,but occasionally beautiful specimens are discovered1 weighing fifteen or twenty grains or more4 ,one found in ,aberdeenshire a few years ago1 perfect in shape and luster1 weighed twenty-five grains1 and sold at first hand for #ej4 ,another one1 found at the confluence of the ,almond and the ,tay in #ahfe1 weighed thirty grains4 ,while most of these pearls are sold to jewelers in ,edinburgh1 ,aberdeen1 ,inverness1 ,perth1 and other towns1 many of the finest specimens have gone into the possession of prominent ,scotch and ,english families1 who have a fancy for collecting them4 ,queen ,victoria possessed a fine collection of ,scotch pearls1 choice specimens of many years' search1 obtained almost exclusively from the ,aberdeenshire waters which murmur round her beautiful ,highland home4 ,in #aijg1 a ,scotch pearl was sold in ,perth for the sum of #hj2 this was of a good luster with a bluish tint1 it was spherical1 measured seven sixteenths of an inch in diameter1 and weighed twenty-one grains4 ,the falling off in the yield of pearls in some streams is credited to a certain extent to the building of bridges and the consequent abandonment of fords4 ,this is based on the theory that injury to the mollusk has something to do with the production of pearls1 and that they are to be found more plentiful about fords and places where cattle drink4 ,the theory is beautifully stated by the lamented ,hugh ,miller3 8,i found occasion to conclude that the ,unio of our river-fords secretes pearls so much more frequently than the ,unionidae and ,anadonta of our still pools and lakes1 not from any specific peculiarity in the constitution of the creature1 but from the effects of the habitat which it chooses4 ,it receives in the fords and shallows of a rapid river many a rough blow from the sticks and pebbles carried down in time of flood1 and occasionally from the feet of men and animals that cross the stream during droughts1 and the blows induce the morbid secretions1 of which pearls are the result4 ,there seems to exist no inherent cause why ,anadon cygnea1 with its beautiful silvery nacre--as bright often1 and always more delicate1 than that of ,unio margaritiferus--should not be equally productive of pearls2 but secure from violence in its still pools and lakes1 and unexposed to the circumstances that provoke abnormal secretions1 it does not produce a single pearl for every hundred that are ripened into value and beauty by the exposed1 current-tossed ,unionidae of our rapid mountain rivers4 ,would that hardship and suffering bore always in a creature of a greatly higher family similar results1 and that the hard buffets dealt him by fortune in the rough stream of life could be transmitted1 by some blessed internal pre-disposition of his nature1 into pearls of great price40#bja ,the small blue mussel 7,mytilus edulis7 of the ,british seas yields opaque pearls of a deep blue color1 but most of them are more or less white in some part4 ,sometimes a shell is found in which a blue pearl will be adhering to the blue lip of the shell while a dull white one adheres to the white portion of the shell4 ,these pearls are commonly flattened on one side1 doubtless where they have been adjacent to the shell4 ,none of them is of more than very slight value4 ,probably the principal fishery for the salt-water mussel pearls is that in the estuary of the ,conway in ,wales4 ,these are mostly quite small and well answer the designation of seed-pearls1 although a few are of fair size4 ,in color most of them range from dirty white to the dusky or brownish tint noted by ,tacitus eighteen centuries ago1 but a few are of a pure silvery tint4 ,in some seasons ,london dealers have agents at ,conway for purchasing these pearls4 ,the price is usually from eight to thirty shillings per ounce4 ,,the ,,continent ,,of ,,europe ,aprs l'esprit de discernement1 ce qu'il y a au monde de plus rare1 ce sont les diamants et les perles4 ,,la ,,bruy,,re1 ,les caractres4 ,pearls occur in species of mussels found in the streams and lakes of ,europe1 in some of which the fisheries have been of considerable local interest4 ,it appears that these resources were exploited by the ,romans1 then by the ,goths and the ,lombards1 and later the natives continued to draw forth the treasures which lay hidden about their homes4 ,these pearls have attracted attention up to the present time2 and while they do not compare with those of the seas1 either in quality or in aggregate value1 yet they are prized on account of their intrinsic worth as well as because they are a product of the fatherland4 ,in the densely populated valleys1 the rivers are so polluted by refuse and sewage that the mollusks have been greatly depleted2 but in the streams of clear1 cool water1 draining the mountain regions of ,france1 ,germany1 ,austria1 and also in the rivers of ,norway1 ,sweden1 ,russia1 etc41 the fisheries are not unimportant4 ,the most celebrated of the pearl fisheries in ,france are those of the ,vologne1 a small river in the extreme eastern part of the country1 in the department of ,vosges4 ,its sources are in ,lake ,longmere in the ,vosges mountains on the ,alsace frontier1 and it flows into the ,moselle at ,jarmenil1 between ,remiremont and pinal4 ,while the pearl-mussel occurs to some extent in nearly the whole length of this river1 and1 indeed1 is to be met with in the wild brooks and forest streams of nearly all the mountainous parts of ,france1 it is most abundant in the vicinity of ,bruyres1 where the ,vologne receives the waters of the ,neur4 ,these resources were described in #ahde by ,ernest ,puton1#bjb and in #ahfi by ,d4 ,a4 ,godron2#bjc to whom--and especially to ,godron--we are indebted for much of our information4 ,the fisheries of the ,vologne have been celebrated for nearly four centuries4 ,writing in #aecj1 ,volcyr stated3 8,in the river ,vologne between ,arche and ,bruyres1 near the ancient castle of ,perle1 beautiful pearls are found4 ,in the opinion of jewelers and artists they closely resemble the oriental40#bjd ,a few years later ,francis ,reues wrote3 8,there is near the ,vosges mountains in ,lorraine a river fertile in pearls1 yet they are not very brilliant4 ,the strange thing is that the quality which they lack by nature is supplied by the aid of pigeons1 which swallow them and restore them purer than before40#bje ,in a publication of #afji1 this little river is represented in the frontispiece by the figure of a nymph bearing many pearls1 while beneath is the emblem3 ,vologna margaritifera suas margaritas ostentat4#bjf ,in his paper above noted1 ,godron recites several orders issued from #afaf to #afai by the ,duke of ,lorraine1 who then had jurisdiction over the present department of ,vosges1 showing that a high value was attached to these pearls and that the resources were well looked after4 ,writing in #afii1 ,dr4 ,martin ,lister alluded to the many pearls taken from the rivers about ,lorraine and ,sedan4 ,a ,paris merchant showed him a fresh-water pearl of #bc grains1 valued at #djj1 and assured him that he had seen some weighing #fj grains each4#bjg ,in #aggi ,durival gave an extensive account#bjh of the ,vologne fishery4 ,he records that for sixty years pearls had been abundant1 but at the time he wrote they were very scarce4 ,puton states that1 in #ahjf1 when taking the baths at ,plombires in the ,vosges1 ,empress ,josephine formed a great liking for the ,vologne pearls1 and at her request some of the mussels were sent to stock the ponds at ,malmaison4 ,it does not appear that any favorable result followed this transplanting4 ,owing to the extensive fisheries1 the mussels became so scarce that in #ahbf1 when the ,duchesse d',angoulme was visiting in the ,vosges1 it was impossible to secure enough pearls to form a bracelet for her4 ,this scarcity has continued up to the present time2 and yet in the aggregate many pearls have been secured1 so that there are few prominent families in the neighborhood who do not possess some of them4 ,they are especially prized as bridal presents to ,vosges maidens4 ,while the ,vologne pearls are of good form and of much beauty1 they do not equal oriental pearls in luster4 ,the color is commonly milky white1 but some of them have a pink1 yellow1 red1 or greenish tint4 ,in size they rarely exceed #d grains4 ,the ,nancy museum of natural history possesses one which weighs #e grains and measures #f mm4 in diameter4 ,in western ,france1 according to ,bonnemere1#bji the pearl-mussel is widely diffused1 and in the aggregate many pearls are secured therefrom4 ,they are somewhat numerous in the river ,ille near its union with the ,vilaine at ,rennes2 though small1 these are commonly of good color and luster4 ,in the department of ,morbihan and that of ,finistre1 many pearls have been secured1 especially in the ,steir1 the ,odet1 and in the ,stang-,alla near ,quimper4 ,small pearls1 frequently of some value1 are found in the ,menech near the town of ,lesneven1 a few miles northeast of ,brest1 the great naval port of ,france4 ,illustration3 ,,great ,,cameo ,,pearl1 ,,actual ,,size #bb ,,inches ,sold at auction in ,amsterdam in #aggf for #ahj1jjj florins4 ,note great baroque pearl forming body of the swan at the base1 diameter #a4cg inches ,the ,unio sinuatus 7pictorum71 the mulette of the artists1 which has a shorter and smaller shell than the pearl-mussel1 has also yielded many small pearls of good quality1 as well as shells for manufacturing purposes4 ,this species has been regularly exploited in the ,adour1 in the ,charente1 in the ,gironde and its tributaries--the ,garonne and the ,dordogne and their affluents1 and in some other streams in western ,france4 ,there is a pearl fishery in the ,charente ,river near the western coast of ,france1 and likewise in the ,seugne1 a small tributary entering it from the south4 ,the mussel is known locally under the name of palourde4 ,in an account of this fishery1#baj ,daniel ,bellet states that in the ,seugne1 where the water is shallow and clear1 the mussel is secured by entering the pointed end of a wooden staff or stick between the valves of the open shell as the mollusk lies feeding on the bottom2 as the shell is immediately closed tightly upon the intruding stick1 it is easily removed from the water4 ,in the deeper waters of the ,charente1 the fishery is prosecuted on a larger scale4 ,until recently1 the palourdes were caught by means of a dredge towed by a small boat1 which was raised from time to time and the catch removed4 ,ten or fifteen years ago the scaphander or diving apparatus was introduced1 requiring seven men for its operation1 and by its use large catches have been made4 ,the mussels are taken to the bank and there boiled for a time to cause the shells to open1 so that the contents may be easily removed4 ,the shells are examined one by one to find any pearls that may adhere thereto1 and then the flesh of the mollusk is crushed between the fingers to locate pearls contained in the mass2 this is done largely by children1 working under competent supervision4 ,many pearls of fairly good size and luster are obtained4 ,the flesh of this mollusk is edible and well-liked in southwestern ,france2 and the shells are also of value in the manufacture of buttons and similar objects4 ,in ,germany the pearl fisheries are most important in streams of the southern districts1 in ,bavaria1 ,saxony1 and ,silesia4 ,the pearl-mussel in these waters is not so abundant as formerly2 yet1 owing to the care which has been given to these resources1 it is probably as numerous here as in any other part of the continent4 ,the mussel rarely occurs singly1 generally in small beds or banks contiguous to each other1 and in some favorable regions these are extensive4 ,the pearl fisheries of ,bavaria have been prominent since the sixteenth century4 ,they exist principally in the districts of ,upper ,franconia 7,oberfranken7 and ,upper ,palatinate 7,oberpfalz71 the several tributaries of the ,danube between ,ratisbon and ,passau1 and in those tributaries of the ,main and the ,saale which rise in the ,bavarian mountains1 such as the ,oelsnitz1 the ,lamnitz1 ,schwesnitz1 ,grnebach1 ,vils1 and the ,perlbach2 also in the district of ,lower ,bavaria1 where in nine districts alone there are one hundred pearl-bearing streams and lakes1 of which the most important are the ,regen1 the ,isar1 and the ,ilz4#baa ,early in the sixteenth century1 the river ,ilz had the reputation of yielding the choicest pearls in ,lower ,bavaria4 ,the right to them was reserved to the bishop of ,passau1 and a decree was made in #aegi that persons convicted of poaching on these reserves should be hanged4#bab ,since that time there have been few decades in which the gems have not been found in the woodland brooks and mountain streams that flow through the ravines and past quaint1 interesting castles of the wonderful ,bavarian highlands4 ,most of the prominent families in this beautiful region have collections of native pearls1 and there is still some trade in them in picturesque ,passau1 at the junction of the ,danube1 the ,ilz and the ,inn4 ,tavernier wrote about #afgj3 8,as for the pearls of ,scotland1 and those which are found in the rivers of ,bavaria1 although necklaces are made of them which are worth up to #ajjj cus 7#bbe7 and beyond1 they cannot enter into comparison with those of the ,east and ,west ,indies40#bac ,the official returns for the ,bavarian fisheries1 dating from the latter part of the sixteenth century1 were examined by ,von ,hessling in #aheh4 ,he noted many gaps in the statements of the yearly returns1 partly on account of the loss of the records and partly because the pearls were delivered directly into the hands of the princes4 ,the results of the first fisheries are recorded in the district of ,hals for the years #aeha-ii1 in ,viechtach for #aeha-hc and #aeij-ic1 and in ,weissenstadt and ,zwiesel for #aehc4 ,the range of the fisheries was enlarged through the discovery of new areas during the first half of the seventeenth century2 but this was offset by the bad seasons and by disturbed conditions during the ,thirty ,years' ,war4 ,from #afej to #aghc the pearls in the forest lands of the ,palatinate were exploited regularly and uninterruptedly1 with the exception of the district of ,wetterfeld and that of ,neunburg vor dem ,wald1 where they were prosecuted for a few years only4 ,from #aghc to #ahad1 they were almost entirely neglected1 and the take was confined to a few streams in ,upper ,palatinate and in the ,bavarian forests4 ,in the former episcopal principality of ,passau1 where1 according to general accounts1 the waters were rich in pearls1 the records were scanty previous to #aghf2 this was probably owing to the fact that the head gamekeeper was obliged to transmit the catch of pearls directly to the prince-bishop4 ,the records for the fisheries in the districts of ,rehau and ,kulmbach began with the year #agcc4 ,from these fragmentary returns--making no estimate for the years for which there were no figures available--,von ,hessling found that from #afjj to #aheg there were taken #ae1cbf pearls of the first class1 which were clear white in color and of good luster2 #bg1ffb pearls of the second class1 which were somewhat deficient in luster1 and #bea1ggh pearls of the third or poorest class1 or 8,sandperlen10 which1 though of poor quality1 had sufficient whiteness and luster to be used as ornaments4 ,had the records been complete1 these figures would probably have been at least fifty per cent4 greater1 or a total of about #dde1jjj pearls in the #beg years4 ,in the last forty-three years of this period1 for which the records are fairly complete1 the annual average was #bjh pearls of the first1 #cie of the second1 and #cjia of the third class1 a total each year of #cfid pearls of all grades4 ,this was divided among the districts as follows3 ,,annual ,,average ,district ,first class ,second class ,third class ,total ,upper ,franconia #ac #cd #eb #ii ,upper ,palatinate #ch #gg #bjg #cbb ,lower ,bavaria #aeg #bhd #bhcb #cbgc ------ ------ -------- -------- ,total #bjh #cie #cjia #cfid ,probably the most interesting of the pearl fisheries in ,germany are those prosecuted in the extreme southwestern part of the kingdom of ,saxony1 in the picturesque region known as ,vogtland4 ,this is not on account of their extent1 for the output rarely exceeds #bjjj in value in any season2 but because for nearly three hundred years they have been conducted with the utmost care and regard for the preservation of the resources4 ,indeed1 a record exists of practically every pearl obtained for nearly two centuries4 ,the waters in which the ,saxon ,vogtland fisheries are prosecuted are the ,elster ,river1 from the health resort of that name to a short distance below ,elsterberg2 its tributaries1 the ,mlhaser1 ,freiberger1 and ,marieneyer brooks2 the ,hartmannsgrner and the ,triebel brooks1 the ,trieb1 the ,meschelsgrner1 the ,teil1 and ,loch brooks1 and twenty-five or more small ponds4 ,for most of the data relative to these fisheries1 we are indebted to ,j4 ,g4 ,jahn's 8,die ,perlenfischerei im ,voigtlande10 ,oelsnitz1 #ahed2 to ,hinrich ,nitsche's 8,ssswasserperlen1 ,internationale ,fischerei-,ausstellung zu ,berlin10 #ahhj1 and to ,o4 ,wohlberedt's 8,nachtrag zur ,molluskenfauna des ,knigreiches ,sachsen10 8,nachrichtsblatt der deutschen ,malakozoologischen ,gesellschaft10 ,frankfurt-am-,main1 #ahii1 pp4 #ig-ajd4 ,in the year #afba1 the electoral prince1 ,johann ,georg ,i1 reserved the pearl fishery of the ,vogtland in ,saxony as a royal privilege1 and appointed ,moritz ,schmerler as superintendent and fisherman4 ,from that time until the present1 this fishery has remained a royal prerogative2 and1 remarkable to state1 except at the close of the seventeenth century when the father-in-law of a ,schmerler enjoyed the privilege1 all the superintendents of the fishery--twenty-four persons in number--have been direct descendants of the second pearler1 ,abraham ,schmerler1 who1 in #afdc1 succeeded his brother ,moritz4 ,the present superintendent ,julius ,schmerler has been in charge since #ahhi4 ,this fishery is conducted in accordance with regulations of the chief inspector of forests for the district of ,auerbach4 ,the present regulations date from ,june #ae1 #ahbg4 ,in compliance therewith an inspection is made of the waters each spring to remove all obstructions and debris that would injure the resources2 and1 if necessary1 entire beds of mussels are removed from one locality to another which appears more favorable4 ,no mussels are opened at that time1 for the real search for pearls does not begin until the season is far advanced and the fishermen can wade up to the waist in the water without discomfort4 ,dr4 ,nitsche states that the whole pearling district is not searched over every year1 but is divided into #cac sections1 each one constituting a day's work for three fishermen1 and rarely are more than twenty or thirty of these fished in any one year4 ,thus each section or district is permitted to rest and recuperate for ten or fifteen years before it is again invaded4 ,every mussel is opened carefully by hand1 with the aid of a peculiarly constructed iron instrument4 ,by inserting the edge of this between the nibs of the shell and turning it at right angles1 the valves are opened sufficiently to determine whether a pearl is contained therein4 ,if none is observed1 the instrument is released and the mussel returned uninjured to the water2 but if a pearl is found within1 the shell is forced open and the find removed4 ,in case small pearls are observed which give promise of growing larger in time1 they are not removed1 but the year is marked upon the shell with the opening implement and the mussel returned to the water4 ,it often happens that good pearls are later removed from shells marked in this manner4 ,complete records exist of the yield of this fishery during each year since #agai1 when the ,vogtland passed to the electorate of ,saxony4 ,the following is a summary of these records arranged in series of twenty years each4 ,illustration ,,dowager ,,czarina ,,of ,,grand ,,duchess ,,vladimir ,,grand ,,duchess ,,marie ,,russia ,,pavlovna ,years ,half ,clear clear ,sand ,damaged ,average pearls pearls pearls pearls ,total per year ,no4 ,no4 ,no4 ,no4 ,no4 ,no4 #agbj-agci #a1hji #gbg #a1bja #eeb #d1bhi #bad #agdj-agei #a1dab #egh #dhd #bha #b1gee #ach #agfj-aggi #a1jdb #bgb #dbg #bai #a1ifj #ih #aghj-agii #a1bfa #bdc #ceg #agi #b1jdj #ajb #ahjj-ahai #a1fjc #bfa #cbe #bjc #b1cib #abj #ahbj-ahci #a1fei #cdj #cbf #cbf #b1fea #acc #ahdj-ahei #a1hhd #faj #chg #eje #c1chf #afi #ahfj-ahgi #a1fah #fhb #dej #ead #c1bfd #afc #ahhj-ahii #dga #cid #hf #cgc #a1cbd #ff #aijj-aije #gi #afa #bb #hf #cdh #eh ------------ ---------- ---------- ---------- ------------ ------ ,total in #ahf years #ab1hch #d1bfh #d1jfe #c1bch #bd1dji ,average per year #fi #bc #bb #ag #aca ,in recent years the development of manufacturing industries in ,saxony and the resultant pollution of the water has greatly reduced the abundance of the mollusks and consequently the output has been much restricted4 ,the average annual yield in the twenty years ending in #ahgi was #afc pearls2 in the twenty years ending in #ahii it was #ff pearls1 and in the six years ending in #aije the annual average was #eh pearls4 ,owing to high water1 there was no fishing in #ahhh2 and with a view to permitting the resources to recuperate1 the fishery was suspended from #ahif to #ahii1 inclusive4 ,omitting these five years1 the average yield during each season in the two decades ending #ahii was #hh pearls4 ,at the end of each season1 the pearls secured are turned over to the director of forestry for the district of ,auerbach2 by him they were formerly sent to the royal cabinet of natural history1 or to the royal collection at ,dresden1 but since #ahcj they have been sent to the royal minister of finance1 by whom they are sold each year4 ,the total proceeds from these sales now amount to about #ee1jjj marks4 ,in former times1 according to ,dr4 ,nitsche1 it was customary to use these pearls in making royal ornaments4 ,this was the origin of the famous ,elster necklace1 consisting of #agg pearls1 now in the art collection in the ,grne ,gewlbe in the palace at ,dresden4 ,another assortment in that collection consists of nine choice1 well-matched pearls1 weighing #adj grains4 ,for a necklace of ,saxon pearls1 the property of a duchess of ,sachsen-,zeitz1 the sum of #dj1jjj thalers 7#bh1djj7 is said to have been refused4 ,in ,prussian ,silesia the pearl-mussel is found in the upper tributaries of the ,oder1 especially in ,bober ,river from ,lwenberg to the sources among the foot-hills of the beautiful ,riesengebirge1 in the ,lusatian ,neisse to ,grlitz1 the ,queiss above ,marklissa1 and in the ,juppel as far as ,weidenau4 ,the ,queiss has been famous for its pearls since the sixteenth century1 and even yet specimens of great beauty are obtained therefrom4 ,as long ago as #afij1 ,ledel complained of the diminution of the number of mollusks owing to their wilful destruction by children2 and in #agbi the government issued a rescript in ,upper ,lusatia 7,oberlausitz7 recommending the care of the young mollusks4#bad ,pearls are also found in the ,white ,main a short distance from its source1 in the head waters of the ,saale1 and in numerous other mountain-draining streams of middle ,germany4 ,indeed1 references could be made to the discovery of pearls in nearly every stream of ,germany at some time during the last three or four centuries4 ,the records of pearl fisheries in the province of ,hanover were traced by ,von ,hessling as far back as the sixteenth century1 when they were prosecuted in the ,aller1 ,ovia or ,om1 ,lua or ,low1 and in the ,seva in the district of ,lneburg4 ,during the reign of ,christian ,ludwig 7#afda-fe7 and in that of ,george ,william 7#afff-agje71 pearl fishing was carried on by the state1 and old records of the former district of ,bodenteich note the customs and practices of that period and of earlier times1 and the implements employed4 ,in #agjf1 for instance1 #bfe clear and #bib imperfect pearls were taken by three official fishermen from the ,gerdauerbach4 ,gradually1 however1 owing to indifferent management1 the brooks yielded less and less2 the government seems to have entirely abandoned supervision of them1 so that1 according to ,taube's 8,communication10#bae slight results were obtained in #agff2 indeed1 only a few pearls could be shown as curiosities4#baf ,regarding the condition of the ,hanoverian pearl-brooks1 especially of those in the vicinity of ,uelzen1 ,mbius wrote3 8,uelzen lies at the confluence of eleven small rivulets1 three of which1 the ,wipperau1 the ,gerdau and the ,barnbeck1 contain pearl-mussels4 ,fishing has been pursued here for centuries1 and there exists an old regulation of the sixteenth century in regard to the pearl fisheries in the ,ilmenau4 ,even at the present day1 hundreds of pearls are found here which command a good price when they are bright and of good form4 ,these either have a silvery sheen or they are of a reddish color4 ,the season for fishing is during the months of ,july and ,august4 ,the pearls are usually found in deformed shells4 ,their shape varies greatly2 most of them are flat on one side4 ,naturally those which are spherical are the best1 but the pear shapes are highly prized40 ,mbius frequently failed to find one pearl in a hundred shells1 but at other times he came across six or eight in this quantity4 ,most of the mussels are found in the deepest places1 especially near the banks of the streams4 ,one end of the shell usually projects out of the sand4 ,the fisherman is represented as feeling about the bottom with his feet1 and when he finds a shell1 he seizes it between his toes1 picks it out1 and then places it in the basket suspended from his neck4#bag ,illustration3 ,,miter ,,of ,,patriarch ,,nikon ,presented by the ,czar ,alexis ,mikhailovitch and the ,czarina ,marie ,illiinichna4 ,decorated largely with ,european fresh-water pearls4 ,now in the treasury of the ,patriarchs1 ,moscow4 ,in ,baden and in ,hesse are small pearl fisheries4 ,in #agfj1 ,elector ,maximilian ,,iii sent to ,mannheim1 then in the ,palatinate1 eight hundred living pearl-mussels from the ,bavarian forests1 and again in #agfi1 he sent four hundred mussels from ,deggendorf on the ,danube1 so that they might be established in the ,palatinate4 ,the mussels were placed in the ,steinbach not far from ,heidelberg1 where they thrived so well that fishing was instituted in #aghc4 ,soon1 however1 most of the mussels became buried in the sand1 and the remainder were transplanted into a quieter portion of the ,steinbach1 between ,kreutzsteinach and ,schnau1 about five miles northeast of ,heidelberg4 ,here they seem to have been forgotten1 and were left undisturbed until1 about #ahbj1 a fine pearl valued at two louis d'or was found near ,schnau4 ,this discovery soon led to such reckless exploitation that the government reserved the fishery as a state monopoly4 ,the mussels were examined and sorted1 and a portion of the brook was specially prepared for their reception4 ,however1 the cost of supervision was greater than the proceeds of the fishery1 and the business was rented to private parties for a very small amount4 ,this was paid as late as #ahdj by the ,natural ,history ,society of ,mannheim1 the annual rate then being ten florins4 ,an effort was made nearly two hundred years ago to develop the pearl fisheries in ,hesse4 ,in #agag1 ,landgrave ,prince ,william requested his cousin1 ,duke ,moritz of ,saxony1 to send a pearl fisherman 8to examine some streams in his territory where mussels have been found and to determine whether they are fitted for pearl fishing and whether fisheries can be established40#bah ,in the following year1 a member of the famous ,schmerler family from the ,saxon fisheries was sent to ,cassel1 but with what result is unknown4 ,when the pearling excitement developed at ,schnau about #ahbj1 ,landrath ,welker1 of ,hirschhorn on the ,neckar1 requested the grand duke of ,hesse to place him in charge of the fishery1 and when the proposition was declined1 he formed a small company for pearl-culture4 ,in #ahbh his company had #eeh mussels1 #hh of which showed pearl formations2 in #ahcc1 out of #fea1 #ih contained such objects1 and in #ahea1 #aag mussels were found with pearl formations out of #hfg examined4#bai ,owing to the policy of the company in selling the pearls only among the members thereof1 the profits were altogether insufficient to cover the expenses1 and gradually the fishery dwindled down until it was prosecuted only as a pastime4 ,pearls are found in the province of ,schleswig-,holstein1 which formerly belonged to ,denmark1 but since #ahff has been a part of the kingdom of ,prussia4 ,mbius relates that the ,bavarian soldiers in #ahfd collected large quantities of pearls from the streams of this province and sold many of them to jewelers in ,hamburg4#bbj ,most of them were of good form and luster2 milky white was the prevailing tint1 but some were pink and others were rose-tinted4 ,in ,austria1 pearl fisheries are most important in the province of ,bohemia1 where they are prosecuted in the headwaters of the ,moldau from ,krumau1 a few miles above ,budweis1 to below ,turenberg1 and to a much less extent in its tributary1 the ,wottawa1 on the northeastern slopes of the ,bhmer ,wald or ,bohemian ,forest mountains4 ,from very early times the right of fishery belonged to those domains and estates through which the streams flow1 as for example1 the cloister of ,hohenfurth1 the domain of ,rosenberg1 of ,krumau1 etc4 ,the ,schwarzenberg family formerly drew a considerable revenue therefrom4 ,over a hundred years ago the fishery was actively prosecuted by ,count ,adolph ,schwarzenberg1 who exhibited at the ,bohemian ,exposition1 held in ,prague in #agia1 an interesting collection of shells1 apparatus employed in the fishery1 and many beautiful pearls obtained from his domains4 ,the fisheries of the ,wottawa were noted in #aefj by the ,swiss naturalist ,konrad von ,gesner1#bba and again in #aehb by the district treasurer1 ,wolf ,huber von ,purgstall4 ,in #afgi1 ,balbinus referred to the excellent qualities of the pearls1 estimating the value of many of them at twenty1 thirty1 and even one hundred golden florins each4 ,he described the methods by which they were taken1 and also complained of the destruction of the reefs by depredations of poachers4#bbb ,the ,wottawa or ,otawa ,river has long had linked with its name the epithet 8the gold- and pearl-bearing brook40 ,formerly1 along its shores gold washing was more or less carried on1 as well as the fresh-water pearl-mussel industry4 ,at the present time1 every third or fourth year1 these mussels are gathered1 by means of small1 fine-woven nets1 from the bed of the river1 and a goodly number of pearls are collected4 ,the reefs in the ,moldau from ,hohenfurth to ,krumau were almost entirely ruined in #afbj by the troops who were cantoned there when the ,bohemian ,protestants were overthrown near the beginning of the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 and they never regained the reputation they formerly enjoyed4 ,according to the ,vienna 8,handels- und ,brsenzeitung10 the output of the pearls fifty years ago in the upper ,moldau1 in the ,wottawa1 and in the ,chrudimka--a tributary of the ,elbe--reached in some years the sum of one million florins in value1 and as much as eighty and sometimes even one hundred and twenty florins were paid for an individual specimen4#bbc ,these pearls closely resemble those from ,passau in ,bavaria1 and some approach the oriental gems in luster4 ,in the archduchy of ,austria1 pearls occur in several of the tributaries of the 8beautiful blue ,danube40 ,they are especially important in streams within the former district of ,schrding1 such as the ,ludhammerbach1 the ,ranzenbergerbach1 the ,glatzbachenbach1 the ,brambach1 the ,schwarzbergerbach1 the ,mosenbach1 and the ,hollenbach2 those in the former district of ,waizkirchen1 including the ,pirningerbach1 the ,kesselbach1 and many of their tributary brooks1 and the ,michel1 the ,taglinsbach1 the ,fixelbach1 and the ,haarbach1 in the domain of ,marbach4#bbd ,fishing in the ,pirningerbach and the ,kesselbach was prosperous about #agfe1 and ,empress ,maria ,theresa received a beautiful necklace and bracelets of the pearls therefrom4 ,in the district of ,marbach1 the fishing was prosecuted as long ago as #afhe for the account of the archbishop of ,passau4 ,in ,hungary from time immemorial1 the native pearls have been popular with the ,magyar women1 and very many yet exist in the old ,hungarian jewelry worn with the national costume4 ,a century ago there was scarcely a family of local prominence which did not possess a necklace of pearls1 although these were frequently not of choice quality or of considerable size4 ,with a falling off in the output of the native streams there has been a great increase in the quantity of choice oriental pearls purchased by the wealthy families1 and some of the most costly necklaces in ,europe are now owned here4 ,in the kingdom of ,denmark no pearl fisheries are now prosecuted1 but three centuries ago the gems were taken in the ,kolding ,fjord in the province of ,veile1 ,jutland4 ,the great ,holberg1 who ranks first in ,danish literature1 wrote that the governor of the castle at ,kolding employed as a pearl fisherman a ,greenlander who had come to ,denmark in #afje or #afjf1 and who 8had given the governor to understand that in his native land he was accustomed to fish for pearls40 ,being required to work continuously1 both winter and summer1 he fell ill and died1 and as no one else wished to pursue the occupation1 the fishery ceased4#bbe ,in many of the ,norwegian brooks1 pearl fishing has been carried on for two or three centuries1 and often with satisfactory results4 ,it appears from ordinances dated ,november #aj1 #afia1 ,may #ad1 #agjg1 and ,may #bh1 #agah1 that the fisheries were under special supervision as a royal prerogative of the queen of ,denmark4#bbf ,jahn notes that in #agai and in #agbb1 ,saxon pearl fishermen were sent for4 ,in #agcd ,charles ,,vi of ,denmark requested the elector of ,saxony to send one of the pearl fishermen of ,vogtland to examine the brooks of ,norway in reference to the pearl resources1 and to determine the practicability of establishing fisheries there4 ,in response to this request1 ,c4 ,h4 ,schmerler was sent to ,copenhagen and thence to ,christiania1 where he began an investigation of the ,norwegian waters1 the governor himself attending at the beginning of the work4 ,so great was the estimation of its importance1 that ,schmerler was soon afterward received in audience by the king and queen of united ,denmark and ,norway at ,frederiksborg palace near ,copenhagen1 and was awarded a gift of one hundred ducats and a life-pension4#bbg ,in #agea1 according to ,pontoppidan1 ,bishop of ,bergen1 the ,norwegian pearl fisheries were placed under the jurisdiction of the diocese of ,christiansand4 ,among the principal pearling regions at that time were the ,gon1 ,nrim and ,quasim rivers in the ,stavanger district or amt2 the ,undol1 ,rosseland and other brooks in the ,lister and ,mandal province2 and several streams in the district of ,nadens4#bbh ,the returns from the ,norwegian fisheries gradually decreased4 ,after #agfh the rights were leased1 and the revenue therefrom was paid into the royal treasury4 ,owing to small returns1 this source of revenue received less and less attention1 and about a century ago it was altogether neglected1 although from time to time choice finds were made4 ,due to unusually low water in #ahda1 a number of valuable pearls were found near ,jedderen in the province of ,christiansand1 some selling as high as #cjj each2 several of these were shown at the ,london ,industrial ,exhibition by the diocese of ,christiania4 ,illustration3 ,,panagia ,,or ,,ornament ,,worn ,,on ,,the ,,breast ,,of ,a ,,bishop ,,in ,,russia ,the pearl fisheries of ,sweden were noted1 nearly four centuries ago1 by ,olaus ,magnus1 ,archbishop of ,upsala4#bbi ,the gems were sought for by expert fishermen in the interior districts1 and were brought in large quantities to the coasts for sale1 the women and girls of all classes1 rich and poor1 using them extensively in personal decoration4 ,the celebrated ,linnus left a detailed account of the method by which mussels were caught in ,sweden nearly two centuries ago4 ,he wrote3 8,in the summer season1 if the water is shallow1 the fishermen wade in the stream and gather the mussels with their hands4 ,should the water be deeper1 they dive for the mussels and place such as they find in a vessel made of birch bark1 which they carry with them4 ,sunny days are selected1 because then they can see deeper into the water4 ,but1 should this not suffice1 they traverse the river on rafts which are painted white beneath so that the bed of the stream may be illumined by the reflected light4 ,the men lie prone on the rafts and look down into the depths so that they may immediately seize with wooden tongs the mussels which they discover4 ,or else1 hanging by their hands to the rafts1 they seize them in the water with their toes4 ,if the water is too deep even for this1 they dive and feel around on the bottom with their hands until it becomes necessary to rise again to the surface in order to breathe4 ,however1 out of a hundred mussels1 scarcely one contains a good pearl2 but sometimes as many as twenty pearls of the size of a grain of sand are found in one shell4 ,many of the larger pearls are reddish or dark1 but occasionally a beautiful white pearl is hidden under such a covering2 although1 naturally1 it is rare that this is altogether perfect4 ,it has been noted that mussels seven years old contain pearls2 and in each of two mussels eighteen years old1 a pearl was found attached to the shell40#bcj ,the list of streams in ,sweden from which pearls were taken1 as noted by ,olaf ,maimer1 ,j4 ,fischerstein1 and ,gissler#bca a century and a half ago1 seems to cover nearly all the rivers and brooks which flow from the mountains of this beautiful country4 ,in ,russia the love for the pearl has been almost as great as in ,persia and ,india4 ,during the ,middle ,ages1 pearls were worn upon the clothes of nearly all well-to-do ,russians4 ,the great head-dresses of the women were ornamented with them2 and they were used in decorating the stoles1 vestments1 crosses1 and the priceless relics in the churches4 ,the pearl-mussel is found in very many of the ,russian streams4 ,it occurs throughout ,archangel1 in most of the rivers which flow into the ,white ,sea1 into ,lake ,ladoga1 ,lake ,onega1 and the ,baltic ,sea2 and likewise in the ,volga watershed4 ,von ,hessling states that east of the ,volga its southern boundary extends to ,lat4 #ef1 while on the west it extends further southward1 so that in the region of the ,dnieper it reaches ,lat4 #ea4 ,the extreme southern limit is near the mouth of the ,don1 about #dg north latitude4#bcb ,in northern ,russia pearls are secured in the provinces of ,livonia4 ,esthonia1 and ,olonetz1 and in the grand duchy of ,finland1 where they have been sought after for three centuries or more4 ,most of them are bluish gray in color and they attain a maximum weight of about twelve grains4 ,although not equaling the oriental gems1 these pearls are of good quality and are highly esteemed1 not only by the peasants but by the nobility and by the royal family of ,russia4 ,for reference to most of the historical data relative to the fishery in ,livonia1 we are indebted to an account written by ,h4 ,kawall4#bcc ,so long ago as #afab1 ,dionysius ,fabricius compared the pearls of ,livonia with those of ,india4 ,said he3 8,nor should ,i omit to mention that there are rivers in ,livonia wherein large pearls are produced in shells2 and ,i myself have seen some as large as the oriental1 especially when they are well grown4 ,but because the peasants of this region are too ignorant to determine with certainty when they mature1 they are unable to collect them properly1 and therefore the pearls have become rarer40#bcd ,according to ,mylius1#bce in the seventeenth century1 when ,livonia belonged to ,sweden1 the pearl resources received attention from the government4 ,charles ,,ix of ,sweden decreed ,october #bb1 #afid1 that the pearls therefrom should not be exported but should be sold to officers of the crown at a definite price4 ,in #agjj1 an inspector of the fishery in ,livonia1 whose name was ,krey1 reported that the peasants collected pearls secretly from the small rivers and brooks1 and forwarded them to ,moscow for sale4 ,as the peasants objected to selling them to the king's commissioners at the prices fixed1 the fishery soon dwindled in extent4 ,however1 on the annexation of ,livonia to ,russia in #agab1 and the removal of these restrictions1 it revived and became of local importance during the last years of the reign of ,peter the ,great4 ,in #agdb the ,livonian fishery was reorganized at the suggestion of a ,swede named ,hedenberg4 ,furnished by the government with funds and an escort1 he began an exploration of the pearl-bearing waters1 commencing with ,lake ,kolk1 where he secured many pearls of value1 some of which were presented to ,empress ,elizabeth4#bcf ,the fishery then came into great favor4 ,to the nobility of ,livonia1 in whose domains the brooks were situated1 the crown accorded sixty rubles for each half ounce of choice pearls secured1 and for every half ounce of the second class1 thirty rubles2 but the nobles were obliged to renounce their rights to the fisheries and to permit the lakes and brooks to be guarded by imperial soldiers4 ,owing to the very great destruction of mussels which yielded no pearls1 a reward was offered to any one who would discover a method of determining from external characteristics those individual shells which contain gems of value4 ,in #agdf1 when the ,empress ,elizabeth passed the summer in ,livonia1 large quantities of pearls from the neighboring brooks were presented to her4 ,but1 owing to the cost of supervision1 the expenditures soon exceeded the revenues and the government abandoned the guard and dismissed the fishermen4 ,little by little the search decreased1 and by #aggd relatively few pearls were found4#bcg ,according to ,hupel1 the ,schwarzbach ,river1 near ,werro1 was celebrated for its pearls1 which were noted for their size and beauty2 one of the tributaries of this river is named ,perlenbach 7,pearl ,brook74 ,the ,ammat and ,tirse streams1 and forty other brooks and lakes also yielded them4 ,pearls of slight value were likewise produced in the ,palze and the ,rause1 near ,palzmar2 the ,paddez1 a tributary of the ,evest which empties into the ,dna1 and the ,voidau and the ,petribach1 each of which flows into the ,schwarzbach4 ,near the ,tirse was a very old road house1 patronized by the peasants1 which from time immemorial had borne the name ,pehrlu-kroghs 7,pearl ,tavern74 ,formerly some of the brooks of ,esthonia on the ,gulf of ,finland1 and principally those near ,kolk and the adjacent lakes1 furnished beautiful pearls4 ,from these waters came the beautiful necklace which is yet an heirloom in the ,kolk family4 ,the choicest of these weighed from five to ten grains1 and the color was grayish blue4 ,the ,emperor ,alexander ,i is said to have received a present of pearls collected in the vicinity of ,tammerfors1 in the government of ,tavastehus1 in the grand duchy of ,finland4 ,the development of manufacturing in that region1 however1 has destroyed most of the mussels4 ,von ,hessling notes that in the province of ,olonetz1 pearls are found in the ,poventshanka1 in the ,ostjor1 and in the ,kums1 where they are secured by the neighboring peasants who sometimes make valuable finds4#bch ,when the brooks dry up1 the mussels are easily secured2 old inhabitants note that on one occasion of this kind many superb pearls were found in the ,poventshanka1 and a necklace of them was presented to the ,empress ,catherine ,alexievna4 ,these pearls rarely leave the province in which they are collected1 as the inhabitants are fond of using them for personal decoration4 ,young girls attend to the fishing1 and workmen pierce them for about two copecks each4 ,choice ones sell for thirty to one hundred rubles apiece4 ,in the government of ,archangel pearls have been collected for centuries from the streams flowing into the ,white ,sea and the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,an extended account of the fisheries of this region was given by ,von ,middendorff4#bci ,he states that the ,unio margaritifera inhabits all the rivers in which the descent is not too rapid1 and especially in the ,tjura1 the ,tuloma1 the ,kovda1 ,kereda1 the ,kanda1 etc4 ,the fisheries have been conducted exclusively by the shore ,laplanders2 but they have been neglected in recent years owing to the small returns4 ,von ,hessling notes that the pearls are dull in color2 in the opinion of the fishermen this is caused by the mysterious influence of the copper money which they carry with them4 ,the ,tuloma was formerly a productive river2 its pearls were sold in ,kola1 whence they were carried to ,archangel1 #cce miles distant1 where they were pierced by expert workmen4 ,the ,tjura also yielded many pearls2 but since a ,laplander was drowned while fishing for them1 a legend has spread that the spirit of the river guards the pearls1 and the natives hesitate about seeking them4 ,probably the occurrence of so many in the home streams had much to do with developing in ,russia that great love for the pearl which has made it the national ornament1 all classes finding pleasure in its possession4 ,while the superb gems treasured by the nobility are mostly from oriental seas1 a considerable percentage of those worn by the peasantry are from the native waters4 ,an interesting account of this fondness among a certain class of ,russian women--the ,jewesses of ,little ,russia--was given sixty years ago by the ,german traveler ,kohl4 ,illustration3 ,,russian ,,boyard ,,ladies ,,of ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century1 ,,showing ,,caps ,,and ,,other ,,ornaments ,,of ,,pearls ,in ,alexandria1 a small city in the government of ,kherson in ,south ,russia1 a ,jew kept a caf1 and his charming daughter served us with coffee4 ,we paid her compliments on her beautiful eyes and teeth4 ,but she seemed to be much less vain of these natural ornaments than of the acquired ones in the magnificent glittering pearl-cap which she wore upon her head4 ,for all the women through ,south and ,little ,russia even as far as ,galicia wear a certain stiff1 baggy cap which is very disfiguring1 and is covered all over with a great number of pearls1 upon a foundation of black velvet4 ,it is called a 8mushka40 ,this cap1 with very unimportant modifications1 has almost always the same form2 the only difference is that1 in the case of the wealthy1 the pearls are larger1 and sometimes a number of small pearls and precious stones are suspended here and there1 set in the same way as the earrings of our ladies4 ,it is common for them to wear half their fortune on their heads in this way4 ,for these caps generally cost from five hundred to one thousand roubles1 and many are worth five or six thousand and even more2 they wear them every day1 holidays as well as ordinary days1 and strut around the kitchens and cellars with their 8mushka40 ,they spend their last penny in order to secure such a pearl-cap1 and even when they are clad in rags their head is covered with pearls4 ,in order to furnish the requisite material for this wide-spread fashion1 the commerce in pearls of ,odessa1 ,taganrog and some other places in southern ,russia is not unimportant4 ,there may live in the region where the pearl-caps of which ,i speak are worn at least #b1jjj1jjj ,jewesses4 ,let us estimate that among them there are but #cjj1jjj adults1 and that only half of these1 #aej1jjj1 wear pearl-caps 7only the most indigent and the most aristocratic do not wear the 8mushka072 let us then estimate the average value of such a cap at only five hundred roubles--these are the lowest minima and fall far short of the real figures--and we have a total capital of #gf1jjj1jjj roubles1 which the ,jewesses of this region wear upon their heads4 ,naturally the annual diminution of this capital is small1 since these pearls are transmitted from the mothers to their daughters and granddaughters4 ,still1 if we estimate that they last for a century1 the necessary yearly contribution amounts to nearly one million4 ,it is1 however1 probable that a much larger capital is employed in the commerce of pearls4 ,they are1 for the most part1 oriental and come by way of ,turkey and ,odessa or else by way of ,armenia and ,tiflis4 ,we inquired of our beautiful ,jewess whether she was not in perpetual dread on account of her pearl-cap1 and how she protected it from thieves4 ,she answered that she wore it on her head all day and at night placed it in a casket which rested under her pillow4 ,so that the whole short life of these ,jewesses of the steppes revolves around their pearl-cap as the earth does around the sun4#bdj ,several species of marine mollusks on the coasts of ,europe yield pearly formations1 but none of much ornamental or commercial value4 ,probably the most interesting of these are from the ,pinna on the ,mediterranean coasts1 and especially on the coast of ,sardinia and the shores of the ,adriatic4 ,an interesting collection of these ,pinna pearls was furnished to the writers by ,alexandro ,castellani of ,rome4 ,,ix ,,islands ,,of ,,the ,,pacific ,,south ,,sea ,,islands1 ,,australian ,,coasts1 ,,malay ,,archipelago ,,ix ,,pearl ,,fisheries ,,of ,,the ,,south ,,sea ,,islands ,sea-girt isles1 ,that1 like to rich and various gems1 inlay ,the unadorned bosom of the deep4 ,,milton4 ,gathering pearl shells and pearls is the principal industry of the semi-amphibious natives of the hundreds of palm-crowned and foam-girdled islands of the southern ,pacific1 commonly known as the ,south ,sea ,islands4 ,among these the most prominent for pearl fishing are the ,tuamotu ,islands or ,low ,archipelago1 the ,society ,islands1 the ,marquesas1 the ,fiji ,islands1 ,penrhyn or ,tongareva1 and ,new ,caledonia4 ,these are under the protection of the ,french government1 except ,fiji and ,penrhyn1 which belong to ,great ,britain4 ,almost ever since the ,south ,sea ,islands have been known to civilization they have contributed pearls2 and the fishery has been one of the principal industries1 not only for the natives1 but also for the not inconsiderable number of sailors who1 preferring the lotus on shore to the salt pork and monotony of ship life1 have yielded to the insular attractions and formed domestic ties4 ,the industry has been especially extensive during the last seventy years1 when there has been a profitable market for the shells4 ,most of the natives--men1 women1 and children--follow it for a living4 ,domestic duties rest very lightly upon the women1 and many of these1 and even young girls1 find employment in diving1 in which at moderate depths these dusky mermaids are nearly1 if not quite as expert as the men and boys4 ,tahiti1 the largest of the eleven ,society ,islands1 is the center of the pearling industry of ,french ,oceanica4 ,it is situated in about ,lat4 #ag ,s4 and ,long4 #aej ,w41 and has an area of approximately #daj square miles and a population of #aa1jjj1 nearly one half of whom live in ,papeiti1 the principal town4 ,this is one of the most agreeable of the 8,summer ,isles of ,eden10 ,nature furnishing food in abundance1 and climate and social customs requiring little in the way of dress and habitation4 ,notwithstanding its importance as the headquarters of the pearling industry1 few pearl-oysters are caught at ,tahiti1 most of them coming from the archipelagoes of ,tuamotu1 ,gambier1 and occasionally ,tubai4 ,the ,tuamotu ,archipelago is the scene of the principal pearl fisheries of the ,south ,seas2 and from the local importance of this industry the group is sometimes called the ,pearl ,islands4 ,these coral-formed islands are strung out for a distance of #ijj miles in a northwest and southeast direction1 and extend from ,lat4 #ad to #bc ,s4 and from ,long4 #acf to #adi ,w4 ,they number about seventy-eight1 many of them made up of small atolls only a few feet above the surface of the ocean1 and with an aggregate area of about #cfj square miles4 ,the total population is approximately #fjjj1 with many visitors from ,tahiti and other neighboring islands during the pearling season4 ,the principal products are pearl shell and pearls1 copra1 and cocoanut oil2 and nearly one half of the islands yield nothing but shell and pearls4 ,the chief port is ,fakarava on an island of the same name1 and the trade is almost entirely with ,tahiti4 ,as the ,tuamotus are of coral formation1 they produce little vegetable growth1 and the people seem often on the brink of starvation1 forming a striking contrast with those of the neighboring ,society ,islands4 ,drawing their subsistence entirely from the sea1 except for the native cocoanuts and breadfruit1 these people have1 at times1 been in great straits for food1 and it was doubtless severe hunger that drove them to the acts of cannibalism with which they have been charged4 ,and the sea which supplies them with food has also visited them with great destruction4 ,as recently as ,january1 #aijc1 a great storm swept over this group1 drowning over #ejj of the inhabitants1 and destroying a very considerable portion of the pearling fleet and other property4 ,the pearl-oyster reefs of the ,tuamotu ,archipelago are very extensive1 only eight or ten of the islands failing to contribute to the supply4 ,they occur in the protected lagoons of the atolls1 where the bottom is well covered with coral growth1 with numerous elevations and depressions of various sizes2 and it is about the bases and in the recesses of these coral growths that the best shells are usually found4 ,most of them are of the black-edged variety of ,margaritifera margaritifera1 which here attains a great size1 reaching a diameter of twelve inches in extreme cases4 ,while pearl-oysters are found about nearly all of the ,tuamotu ,islands1 the reefs are richest at ,hikueru or ,melville ,island4 ,when that lagoon is open it is the scene of the greatest operations1 and it is credited with nearly one half of the total product of the archipelago4 ,at the opening of the season1 this is the resort of fishermen from all over the group1 even from a distance of five hundred miles1 and thousands of natives camp in temporary leaf-thatched huts among the cocoanut-palms on the beach1 those from the different islands congregating in isolated settlements4 ,as many as five thousand persons are sometimes brought together in this way4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,pearling ,,regions ,,in ,,oceania ,,and ,,malaysia ,the volcanic-formed ,gambier ,islands1 with high peaks reaching1 in one instance1 an altitude of over #abjj feet1 present a striking contrast to the ,tuamotu atolls4 ,this group consists of five large and several small islands1 surrounded by a coral reef of an irregular triangular figure4 ,the #aajj inhabitants of the ,gambier ,islands derive a large percentage of their support from the pearl fishery4 ,the patches of pearl-oysters are located between the islands and the barrier reefs4 ,they are numerous about the island of ,mangareva1 which is well surrounded by them on the north1 east1 and southeast4 ,oysters from the reef of ,tearae1 which extends from the eastern point of ,mangareva to the small island of ,aukena1 a distance of two miles1 are especially rich in pearls4 ,on this reef1 where the water is from one to four fathoms in depth1 the mollusks are small1 rarely exceeding five or six inches at maturity1 but the shell is very thick and coral covered2 these yield many pearls4 ,in greater depths1 the oysters attain a larger size1 but they yield few pearls4 ,the first white man to attempt the exploitation of the pearl resources of the ,tuamotus appears to have been ,mrenhout4 ,in a voyage to the ,oceanic ,islands in #ahbg1 he learned of the great wealth of pearl shell1 and applied to ,queen ,pomar at ,tahiti for permission to employ the natives in the fishery4 ,with an eye to business1 she required a fee of #ejjj for herself before granting the desired authority4#bda ,considering this excessive1 ,mrenhout attempted to deal with the natives without permission of the dusky queen1 but under these adverse conditions he found the trade unsatisfactory and soon abandoned it4 ,in #ahcj1 and the years immediately succeeding1 desultory pearling voyages were made from ,valparaiso1 ,chile1 and these were followed by expeditions from ,america and elsewhere4 ,an interesting account of the trade at that time is contained in ,lucatt's 8,rovings in the ,pacific from #ahcg to #ahdi10 published in ,london in #ahea4 ,the ,mormon influx in #ahdf resulted in a further development of the pearl fishery2 and ,grouard1 the local leader of that denomination1 is credited with making a fortune in the business4 ,from the beginning of the industry up to #ahhj1 when control of the islands passed to the ,french government1 it is estimated that about #ae1jjj tons of pearl-oysters were secured4 ,the extent of the fishery during the few years preceding #ahhj made such drains upon the productiveness of the reefs that many of them gave signs of exhaustion4 ,with a view to adopting methods for conserving the industry1 so essential to the welfare of the natives1 the ,french ,ministry of ,marine and ,colonies in #ahhc inaugurated an investigation of its condition1 and of the possibilities for improvement4 ,this was made under the immediate direction of ,g4 ,bouchon-,brandely1 whose interesting report#bdb contains much data on this subject4 ,as a result of these investigations and recommendations1 a restricted season for fishing was adopted1 and only a portion of the reefs was thrown open each year1 a decree of the governor1 published in the 8,journal ,officiel0 of the colony1 determining the islands in which the fishery might be prosecuted4 ,this interdiction1 known locally as rahui1 is for the purpose of permitting the oysters to develop1 and thus prevent the exhaustion of the reefs4 ,by decree of ,january #bd1 #ahhe1 a restriction was made against taking shells measuring less than #ag centimeters in diameter on the interior nacre1 or weighing less than #bjj grams per valve4 ,but this was repealed in #ahij1 and since then there has been no restriction on the size of the oysters that may be fished4 ,the pearl fishery and the isolated leper station are the principal claims which attract the attention of the outside world to the island of ,penrhyn or ,tongareva1 one of the ,manahiki group1 in ,lat4 #i ,s41 and ,long4 #aeh ,w4 ,this desolate atoll island consists of a ring of land a few hundred yards in width1 inclosing a lagoon nine miles long and five miles wide1 and it produces little else than pearls and pearl shell4 ,the white gravelly shore yields little vegetation except cocoanuts1 which share with fish in furnishing sustenance to the semi-amphibious natives4 ,at ,penrhyn the pearl fishery is carried on in the clear1 limpid waters of the atoll where the oysters are undisturbed by storms4 ,the shells belong mostly to the golden-edged variety1 and are of good quality1 the value in ,london ranging from #ajj to #bej per ton4 ,relatively few pearls are found1 amounting in aggregate value to only about one fourth of the value of the shells4 ,these are the principal objects of the fishery2 the finding of pearls is incidental1 but careful search is always made for them1 and some choice specimens have been secured4 ,on the coast of ,new ,caledonia1 pearling is of recent origin1 dating as an industrial enterprise from #ahig1 although previous to that time some shells and pearls had been secured by native beach-combers4 ,this island is #bbj miles in length and #cj in width1 situated #hej miles southeast of ,australia1 and about the same distance from ,new ,zealand4 ,it is a ,french colony1 and has been used by that government as a penal settlement since #ahfd4 ,in #ahig1 rich beds of pearl-oysters were discovered off the west coast of this island4 ,they are most numerous between the shore and the barrier reefs on the west coast from ,pouembout ,river to ,gomen ,bay1 and especially about the small island of ,konienne at the mouth of the ,pouembout ,river4 ,they are also abundant among the ,loyalty ,islands off the eastern coast of ,new ,caledonia1 and especially at the island of ,lifu4#bdc ,the shell is similar to that from ,torres ,straits1 and the yield of pearls is very large4 ,several concessions have been obtained to exploit these beds1 one of them covering #acj miles in length4 ,the industry is carried on by means of scaphanders1 in a manner similar to that of ,torres ,straits4 ,virtually all of the catch is sent to ,france4 ,the natives of the ,south ,sea ,islands1 and particularly of ,penrhyn and the ,tuamotu group1 are doubtless the most expert divers in the world4 ,this can be readily appreciated by those who have read of ,hua ,manu in ,c4 ,w4 ,stoddard's thrilling narrative1 or have heard the story of the brown woman who swam for forty hours in a storm with a helpless husband on her back4 ,accustomed to the water from infancy1 these human otters swim all day long as readily as they would walk1 go miles from shore without a boat in search of fish which they take by means of baited hook and line1 and boldly attack a shark single-handed4 ,seemingly fabulous stories are told of their descending1 unaided1 #aej feet or more beneath the surface1 and remaining at lesser depths for nearly three minutes1 far surpassing any modern records of the divers of ,india4 ,the water in the ,south ,seas is wonderfully clear1 enabling the fishermen to detect small objects at considerable depths1 and especially so when using the water-telescope1 similar to that employed in the ,red ,sea fisheries4 ,by immersing this to a depth of several inches and cutting off the light from the upper end as he gazes through it down into the waters1 the fisherman can readily inspect the bottom at a depth of fifteen fathoms1 and thus locate the shells before he descends4 ,the diving is quite unlike that in ,ceylon and ,arabia4 ,the men do not descend on stones1 but swim to the bottom4 ,the diver is stripped to his paru or breech-clout1 his right hand is protected by a cotton mitten or by only a wrapping of cotton cloth1 and in his left hand he carries a pearl shell to assist in directing his movements and in detaching the oysters at the bottom4 ,in preparing for a deep descent1 he sits for several minutes in characteristic attitude with hands hanging over knees1 and repeatedly inflates his lungs to the fullest capacity1 exhaling the air slowly through his mouth4 ,after five or six minutes of 8taking the wind10 the diver inhales a good breath1 drops over the gunwale into the water to give him a start1 and descends feet foremost4 ,at a distance of twelve or fifteen feet below the surface1 gracefully as an otter or a seal1 he bends forward and turns head downward and1 with limbs showing dimly in frog-like motion1 he swims vertically the remaining distance to the bottom4 ,there he assumes a horizontal position and swims slowly just above the ground1 searching critically for suitable oysters1 in this way traversing a distance possibly of fifty feet or more4 ,when he has secured an oyster1 or his breath is approaching exhaustion1 he springs from the ground in an erect position and rapidly swims upward1 the buoyancy of his body hastening his ascent so that he pops head and shoulders above the surface1 and falls back with laboring pulse and panting breath4 ,in case the dive has been unusually extended1 a few drops of blood may trickle from the nose and mouth4 ,his find--consisting frequently of nothing and rarely of more than one oyster--is carried in a cocoanut fiber sack suspended from the neck1 or is held in the left hand1 or may be hugged beneath the left arm4 ,ordinarily in actual fishing operations1 the fishermen do not descend to greater depths than fifteen fathoms1 and remain from sixty to ninety seconds4 ,writing in #ahea1 a trader who had spent several years in collecting pearls and pearl shells among the ,tuamotus stated3 8,i timed several by the watch1 and the longest period ,i knew any of them to keep beneath the water was a minute and a quarter1 and there were only two who accomplished this feat4 ,rather less than a minute was the usual duration4 ,it is unusual for them to attempt deep diving2 and let the shells be ever so abundant1 they will come up and swear there are none40#bdd ,however1 in mutual contests or in special exhibitions1 reports of twenty1 twenty-three1 and even twenty-five fathoms are numerous1 and they have repeatedly been timed two and a half to three minutes4 ,bouchon-,brandely speaks of a woman at ,anaa1 one of the ,tuamotus1 who would go down twenty-five fathoms and remain three minutes under water4#bde ,this seems very unusual1 but there are numerous reports of two and a half minutes at about seventeen or eighteen fathoms4 ,in ,october1 #ahii1 at ,hikueru ,island1 another of the ,tuamotu group1 a young native made an exhibition dive for the officers of the ,united ,states ,fish ,commission steamship ,albatross4 ,he reached bottom at a depth of #ajb feet under the boat's keel1 and remained submerged two minutes and forty seconds4 ,the water was so transparent that he was clearly seen from the surface4 ,after he touched bottom at that great depth1 he calmly picked over the coral and shells to select a piece to bring up4#bdf ,the diver was ready to go down again only a few minutes after he came up4 ,in his work on ,french ,oceanica1 ,chartier states3 8,there are three women well known in the archipelago of ,tuamotu who have no equals elsewhere2 they explore the depth at twenty-five fathoms and remain not less than three minutes before reappearing at the surface40#bdg ,however1 these unusual depths and extensions of time are dangerous1 and care must be taken or serious results follow4 ,most of the catch is obtained in about ten fathoms of water4 ,at the request of the writer1 ,mr4 ,julius ,d4 ,dreher1 ,american ,consul at ,tahiti1 made inquiries among the ,south ,sea ,islands in regard to the record of the best divers1 and wrote as follows3 ,mr4 ,j4 ,l4 ,young1 who has lived in these islands for thirty years1 informs me that he has never seen a diver remain under water longer than #hj seconds1 and that at a depth of twelve to fifteen fathoms4 ,at one time he tested a man who claimed to be able to stay under for three minutes1 yet this man could hold his breath on land less than #hj seconds by the watch4 ,elder ,joseph ,f4 ,burton1 who has spent many years as a missionary in these islands1 states that once in ,hikueru1 of the ,tuamotu group1 he went out in a boat with the divers to time them4 ,the best record made was #ajg seconds1 but he was informed that there were better divers on the island than those he tested4 ,he thinks the water was ten to twelve fathoms in depth4 ,a native of ,takaroa1 named ,metuaro1 told ,mr4 ,burton that he could stay under water three minutes or longer4 ,when these divers come up they take a breath and immediately put their head under water to prevent headache4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,lamb ,doty1 formerly ,consul and now ,vice-,consul at ,tahiti1 who has spent eighteen years here1 is willing to be quoted as affirming that he once timed a diver who remained under water #b minutes #ce seconds4 ,mr4 ,henry ,b4 ,merwin1 a leading trader with the ,tuamotu ,islands1 is willing to be quoted as saying that he saw a diver remain under water #d minutes #de seconds by the watch4 ,this is generally regarded1 so far as my inquiries go1 as improbable2 but most persons interviewed believe that men do remain under water #b to #c minutes4 ,a native of ,takaroa1 named ,tai1 assured me in the presence of others that there were twenty men in that island who could remain under water #b to #c minutes at a depth of twenty fathoms4 ,he claimed to be able to stay #c minutes at that depth4 ,illustration3 ,pearl-divers of the ,tuamotu ,archipelago2 men1 women and children dive in these waters ,illustration3 ,settlement of pearl fishermen at ,hiqueru1 ,tuamotu ,archipelago ,diving-suits1 or scaphanders1 have been used at most of the ,south ,sea ,islands1 but in a very irregular manner4 ,in #ahij the use of scaphanders was restricted in the ,tuamotu group1 and by decree of ,december #bh1 #ahib1 it was interdicted altogether with a view to preserving the industry to the natives1 as it represents their principal means of livelihood4 ,the suit commonly employed at ,penrhyn consists of a helmet and a jumper1 neither boots nor trousers being worn4 ,owing to the absence of weights on the feet1 it rarely but nevertheless sometimes happens that a diver turns upside down1 and the unwieldy helmet keeps him head downward while the air rushes out under the bottom cord of the jumper and he is suffocated4 ,also1 when a good patch of shells has been located1 the temptation to remain down too long is great1 and paralysis often results4 ,on the whole1 these diving-suits have proven very dangerous to the light1 graceful swimmers of these southern seas1 to whom they are about as much of an impediment as was ,saul's armor to the shepherd lad who slew the giant with the simple pebble from a sling4 ,and there are dangers also in nude diving1 even to those who have spent a lifetime about the water4 ,sharks and sting-rays and devil-fish there are in abundance1 and many of them know the taste of diver's flesh2 on the other hand many a daring ,south ,sea ,islander could tell of a fierce combat more thrilling than even those pictured by ,victor ,hugo4 ,one of the chief advantages of the diving-suit is that in case a shark comes along1 the diver can bide his time until the fish is ready to leave1 or he can frighten it away by ejecting air bubbles from the sleeve of his suit or by other demonstrations2 whereas a nude diver is obliged to seek the air without delay1 and in the retreat is seized by the fish who1 human like1 has his appetite increased by the visible retreat of the object of his desire4 ,not ,schiller nor ,edgar ,allan ,poe ever conjured up a picture more ghastly than that of a ,penrhyn diver caught like a rat in a trap by some huge1 man-eating shark or fierce kara mauua1 crouching in a cleft of the overhanging coral1 under the dark green gloom of a hundred feet of water1 with bursting lungs and cracking eyeballs1 while the threatening bulk of his terrible enemy looms dark and steady1 full in the road to life and air4 ,a minute or more has been spent in the downward journey2 another minute has passed in the agonized wait under the rock4444 ,has he been seen8444 ,will the creature move away now1 while there is still time to return8 ,the diver knows to a second how much time has passed2 the third minute is on its way2 but one goes up quicker than one comes down1 and there is still hope4444 ,two minutes and a half2 it is barely possible now1 but--the sentinel of death glides forward2 his cruel eyes1 phosphorescent in the gloom1 look right into the cleft where the wretched creature is crouching1 with almost twenty seconds of life still left1 but now not a shred of hope4 ,a few more beats of the laboring pulse1 a gasp from the tortured lungs1 a sudden rush of silvery air bubbles1 and the brown limbs collapse down out of the cleft like wreaths of seaweed4 ,the shark has his own4 7,beatrice ,grimshaw in the 8,graphic407 ,at the end of the day's work1 the catch is opened by means of a large knife1 and carefully searched for the much prized pearls4 ,usually the fisherman finds none2 occasionally he discovers a small round one or a large baroque1 and at long intervals--possibly once in two or three years--his search is rewarded with a fine pearl for which he may receive #ej or #fj1 and there is always the chance that the very next oyster will disclose a gem which will make him independent for the remainder of his life2 and if no pearls whatever are found1 there are the shells1 the sale of which furnishes sufficient to purchase tobacco1 knives1 fish-hooks1 the gaudy cotton cloths1 the flour and other simple articles of food1 and especially rum1 that fatal gift of civilization which has been the curse of so many primitive peoples4 ,some of the individual pearls secured have been remarkably large1 weighing #ajj grains and over4 ,returning visitors from ,tahiti1 with views magnified doubtless in proportion to the distance of the objects of their description1 credited ,queen ,pomar with the possession of some sufficiently large to be used for billiard-balls4 ,sixty years ago superb pearls could be obtained from the natives for a few gallons of rum or a small number of pieces of cheap calico1 and several shrewd traders made great profits in the business4 ,but as trade at the islands was open to vessels of all nationalities1 the competition increased1 with the result that the natives gradually learned the high estimation in which pearls are held1 and in recent years it has not been unusual for one of medium grade to sell higher in ,oceanica than it would in ,europe4 ,it is difficult to form a reliable estimate of the value of the pearling industry of the ,south ,sea ,islands4 ,the ,tuamotu group1 with #djjj fishermen1 yields1 in an average season1 about #dej tons of mother-of-pearl1 worth about #fe1jjj in ,london1 where most of it is marketed4 ,the yield at the remaining ,french islands is less than that of the ,tuamotus4 ,probably the total yield of mother-of-pearl in all the ,south ,sea ,islands is not far from #ijj tons1 worth about #gjj1jjj4 ,no statistics whatever are available regarding the yield of pearls1 and the estimates sent from the islands are small compared with those made by ,london and ,paris firms who import the pearls4 ,a large number of persons living in ,papeiti and many traders visiting the islands depend very largely on pearl-dealing for a livelihood4 ,from the yield of pearl shell and estimates made by dealers1 we are inclined to put the value of the pearls secured in an average season from all the ,south ,sea ,islands at about #abe1jjj1 only a small portion of which goes to the fishermen themselves1 the greater part representing profits of the traders4 ,,pearl ,,fisheries ,,of ,,australia ,ocean's gem1 the purest ,of nature's works6 ,what days of weary journeyings1 ,what sleepless nights1 what toils on land and sea1 ,are borne by men to gain thee6 ,,unknown4 ,as regards area of distribution the most extensive pearl-oyster grounds of the world are situated on the northern and western coasts of ,australia4 ,these are located within the jurisdictions of ,queensland1 ,western ,australia1 and ,south ,australia2 and extend in irregular patches from near ,cooktown on the northeast almost to ,fremantle at the southwest1 a distance of nearly #cjjj miles4 ,those in ,queensland are commonly known as the ,torres ,straits fisheries1 as they are especially important there2 but they extend a considerable distance beyond each end of the strait1 and pearling expeditions are made from the limits of the ,great ,barrier coral reef northward to the vicinity of ,new ,guinea4#bdh ,those of ,western ,australia are commonly spoken of as the ,northwest fisheries4 ,the fisheries of ,queensland and of ,western ,australia are approximately equal in extent1 as regards number of vessels1 boats1 and men employed1 and the quantity and value of the catch1 with the advantage slightly in favor of the ,northwest fishery in the last four or five years4 ,in #aije1 according to the official figures1 the ,queensland fishery gave employment to #cdh vessels and #bhej men1 and yielded shell and pearls worth #ace1jjj1 which was the smallest output since #ahij4 ,the ,western ,australia fishery1 exclusive of ,sharks ,bay1 employed #cfe vessels in #aije1 and about the same number of men as in ,queensland1 and yielded #aif1jjj worth of shell and pearls4 ,the fishery of ,south ,australia employed about #fj vessels and #cge men1 and yielded about #be1jjj worth of shell and pearls4 ,this makes for the whole of ,australia1 except ,sharks ,bay hereinafter noted1 a total of #ggc vessels1 #fjge men1 and an output worth #cef1jjj4 ,it should be understood that the ,south ,australia fishery is not prosecuted on the southern coast of the continent1 but on the northern coast1 in what is known as the ,northern ,territory of ,south ,australia4 ,three species of pearl-oysters are found in ,australian waters4 ,the largest species1 ,margaritifera maxima1 which is by far the most important and widely distributed1 occurs to a greater or less extent throughout the whole of this region4 ,this yields the standard motherof-pearl of commerce4 ,although the pearls which it yields are among the largest and finest in the world1 this mollusk is sought more particularly for the shell1 the value of which from season to season averages three or four times as much as that of the pearls4 ,ordinarily this shell is uniformly white over the entire inner surface1 and is commonly known locally as 8silver lip02 but some 8golden-edged0 shell occurs on the muddy grounds in narrow passages between the islands on the northwest coast4 ,while this species is gregarious1 it is not located in densely covered beds1 but is scattered in patches over the reefs4 ,some of these are miles in length and contain scores of tons1 but visually they are very much smaller4 ,the oysters occur principally on rocky bottom1 and also on clay and sand when well covered with seaweeds1 but are rarely found on muddy ground4 ,they are most numerous in the channels where the current is strong4 ,the small oysters are generally loosely attached by the byssus to rock1 gravel or other shells2 while the mature ones lie loosely on the bottom or slightly turned in the sand4 ,the second species of the ,australian pearl-oysters1 ,margaritifera margaritifera1 is smaller1 rarely exceeding eight inches in diameter and a weight of two pounds4 ,the distinguishing characteristic is the black edge bordering the inner surface of the shell1 whence it acquired the local designation 8black lip40 ,this variety is not rare in ,queensland1 and in ,western ,australia its range extends as far as ,champion ,bay in ,lat4 #bi ,s4 ,however1 the catch is small compared with that of the ,margaritifera maxima1 amounting to only two or three per cent4 in ,queensland4 ,in #aije1 the export of 8silver lip0 and 8golden-edged0 from ,thursday ,island was #ebg tons1 and of 8black lip0 only #aa tons2 in #aijd1 these figures were #ggh and #g respectively4 ,in ,western ,australia the percentage of yield is much larger than this4 ,the third species1 ,margaritifera carcharium1 is confined almost entirely to the limits of ,sharks ,bay1 on the extreme western coast of ,australia4 ,at maturity it is the smallest of the three1 averaging three or four inches in diameter1 and about equals in size the ,lingah pearl-oyster of the ,persian ,gulf4 ,the percentage of pearls therefrom is relatively greater than from the larger variety2 but1 owing to its small size and lack of thickness1 the shell is of little commercial value4 ,the value of the output in recent years has approximated two or three thousand pounds sterling1 which is very much less than formerly1 the value of the shell having greatly decreased since the introduction of the ,mississippi shell in button manufacture4 ,the pearl fishery on the coast of ,australia originated about #ahfa4 ,it appears that an ,american sailor named ,tays was the pioneer in the business2 and on his death by drowning1 the business was conducted by his partner named ,seubert4#bdi ,this was on the northwest coast1 and the output reached the market by way of ,singapore4 ,at first the oysters were so abundant in shallow water that they could be picked up at low tide1 and beach-combing was profitable1 especially when carried on with cheap native labor4 ,as the beach-beds became exhausted1 the natives were encouraged to wade out to greater depths1 and soon they became accustomed to 8bob under0 for those oysters visible from the surface4 ,the ,australian blacks were thus taught to dive1 and in #ahfg diving from boats in two or three fathoms was attempted with such success that in the following year the practice was generally adopted1 the depth in which they worked gradually extending to six or eight fathoms4 ,in diving from a boat1 the men imitated 8bobbing under0 which they had practised in shoaler water2 they slipped off the gunwale feet foremost1 and when six or eight feet below the surface1 turned and swam downward4 ,owing to the close labor relations existing between the natives and the sheep-raisers of northwestern ,australia1 the latter were brought into the business1 and for a number of years pearling and sheep-raising were closely associated4 ,the blacks were employed in various duties in connection with raising and shearing sheep1 and it was important to find some occupation for them when ranch-work was slack1 not only for their own subsistence but for the protection of the herdsmen and their property4 ,fortunately1 this opportunity was furnished by the pearl fishery1 for which these men were well qualified4 ,the profits of the business soon attracted many outside capitalists1 and it became difficult to procure divers4 ,not only did the pearlers--and particularly new-comers--resort to impressing the blacks into service1 but skilled fishermen were brought over from the ,malay ,archipelago1 and in some cases the methods used in securing them were by no means regular4 ,in #ahga the ,northwest pearl fishery gave employment to #ab vessels of #ae to #ej tons each1 and yielded about #ahj tons of mother-of-pearl4 ,during the same year1 in ,torres ,straits1 where the industry had extended about #ahfh1 there were #aj vessels--mostly from the port of ,sydney--and the catch of mother-of-pearl approximated #bjj tons1 valued at #fj1jjj in ,london4#bej ,each vessel was commonly manned by two or three white men and from ten to fifty divers1 who worked from dinghys1 in gangs of six or eight each with an overseer in charge4 ,as the fishery increased rapidly in extent1 the problem of securing nude divers became a serious one1 and 8nigger hunting0 became rather common1 the ,australian black man representing the cheapest form of labor1 working for his food1 tobacco1 and the simplest articles of clothing4 ,there was no complaint that the men thus impressed were treated with inhumanity2 on the contrary they were well fed and cared for2 yet1 with a view to protecting them and preventing even a suspicion of wrong-doing1 the ,australian government enacted regulations restricting pearling contracts with the natives4 ,nearly every year these regulations became more stringent1 affecting the hours for diving1 and limiting the work to depths of six and a half fathoms1 so that the employment of ,australian aborigines in the fishery became extremely troublesome and annoying4 ,the government of the ,netherlands also placed severe restrictions on the employment of natives of the ,dutch ,indies1 requiring security of #bj per head for the repatriation of each man2 and the local chiefs or rajahs also expected a rake-off before permitting their men to ship4 ,these ,malays--from the islands of ,solor1 ,allor1 ,adonare1 etc41--also expected much better pay and better provisions than the ,australian blacks4 ,the following interesting account by ,henry ,taunton gives a graphic description of the fishery as carried on at that time3 ,the work was far from easy4 ,it was exhausting and perilous for the divers1 and full of privation1 exposure1 and danger for the white men4 ,only the hope of a prosperous season reconciled one to the life4 ,when shells were plentiful and the weather fine1 the work was exciting and interesting enough2 but during rough weather1 when one had to be constantly straining at the oar to keep the dinghy from drifting too rapidly1 or when hour after hour might pass without the men bringing up a single shell1 the discouragement was great4 ,the rays of the vertical sun beating down on one's shoulders at such times seemed as if it would never reach the western horizon1 which was the signal for returning on board4 ,as may well be imagined1 when three or four white men had to control and compel some thirty or forty natives to carry on work which they detested1 a very strict discipline had to be maintained4 ,it was the rule that no talking was allowed amongst the divers when in the dinghy1 nor were they even permitted to address the white man1 unless1 maybe1 to answer a question as to the nature of the bottom1 whether nanoo 7sand7 or bannin 7shelly bottom71 etc41 or unless some urgent necessity arose4 ,sometimes1 indeed1 ,i have pushed off from the vessel's side of a morning and have not heard a word spoken until we returned on board at night1 unless chance might take me within hail of some other dinghy1 when felicitations or condolences would be exchanged1 as good or bad luck might happen4 ,at times1 when the 8patch0 was small1 the dinghys of the whole fleet might be congregated on a very small area1 in which case the scene was animated enough4 ,on all sides you could see divers slipping into the water and others just coming to the surface1 puffing1 blowing1 and coughing to clear their eyes1 ears1 and mouth from the salt water--some with1 others without shells4 ,others would be swimming to regain their dinghy or squatting in their places for the few minutes' rest permitted1 and1 if the wind were at all fresh1 shivering with cold2 for although the weather might be extremely hot1 the constant plunging in and out for many hours at a time tended to reduce the bodily temperature considerably4 ,the white men would be seen standing up in each dinghy4 ,they were lightly clad1 with shirt sleeves and trousers rolled up1 in all varieties and colours of costume1 from the regulation shirt1 trousers1 and felt hat1 with leather belt sustaining sheath-knife and pouch1 to the more comfortable pyjama suit1 or even the ,malay sarong4 ,some would be straining hard at the end of the scull-oar1 forcing the boat against wind and tide in the endeavor to keep it as long as possible on the 8patch10 which was marked by the discoverer's buoy1 which also might be observed nodding on the surface1 and canted over by the swiftly rushing tide4 ,others1 their men all being below1 just kept the dinghy's head to wind until1 by judicious use of the oar and well-calculated drifting1 all the divers reappear on the surface within a short distance from their own boat4 ,this is the secret of saving the divers from wasting their powers and time uselessly4444 ,as may be supposed1 where the tide sweeps the divers along the bottom at the rate of three or four or even six miles an hour1 they have to be very smart in seeking and grabbing any shell within reach4 ,i have never tested them with a time-keeper2 but by counting seconds on many occasions1 from the moment a diver's head sank below until it again came above the surface1 ,i estimated the average time under water was fifty-seven seconds4 ,part of this is of course expended in swimming to the bottom1 where they can remain only a very few seconds1 as time must be allowed for reaching the surface before letting go their breath4 ,practice in ever-varying depths enables them to gauge this limit of time to a nicety4 ,but sometimes they cut things too fine1 and then a catastrophe was inevitable1 unless much watchfulness was exercised by the white man1 who has to keep his eyes turned in all directions once his men are down4 ,so long as a diver can hold his breath the pressure forces him to the surface at a speed which seldom requires accelerating by strokes with the hands or feet2 but the moment he lets go his breath--if under water--his upward course is arrested and his body commences to sink4 ,now1 when the white man sees this1 either he must plunge in to the rescue himself1 or direct such divers who may be on the top to do the needful4 ,on a calm day1 when one can see far into the blue clear depths below1 ,i have often seen one of my men shooting rapidly upwards until within perhaps a foot or two from the surface1 when a sudden gush of bubbles from the man's mouth would tell its own tale4 ,instantly he would begin to sink gently downwards1 and only quick action could save this diver who had miscalculated his time4 ,however1 as it was not infrequent for divers to go down and never come up at all1 one may conclude that1 where the time to be allowed is comprised in so few seconds1 even the most experienced make fatal errors4#bea ,the difficulties in securing labor at length resulted in experiments with the scaphander or diving dress1 and gradually its adoption by most of the pearling fleet4 ,the labor problem and the exhaustion of the oysters in medium depths developed more quickly in ,torres ,straits than on the northwest coast1 and diving outfits were introduced there about #ahgi1 while this was delayed about five years longer on the northwest coast4 ,the outfit did not immediately supplant nude diving in either locality4 ,in #ahhc1 only #hj of the #bjf ,queensland vessels were supplied with scaphanders1 the others continuing to use nude diving1 and even yet nearly one third of the vessels depend on that form of fishery4 ,of the #cec vessels fishing in #aijd1 #ajh depended on nude divers and #bde were supplied with armored equipment4 ,in #ahha the ,queensland government took cognizance of the rapidly developing industry1 and enacted a license system and other regulations4 ,for every boat under two tons an annual license fee of #a 7in #ahhf this was reduced to ten shillings7 was enacted1 and for every vessel of ten tons or under1 the sum of #c1 with an additional amount for vessels in excess of that measurement2 but not exceeding #bj in any case4#beb ,in #ahhf it was required by the ,queensland government that every person employed 8as a diver1 and using a diving apparatus10 must be licensed annually1 for which a fee of #a is exacted4#bec ,and in #ahia it was required that 8every diving dress and air-pump and all air-tubes and gear used in the fishery in connection with diving must be submitted to an inspector for examination once at least in every period of six months40#bed ,the license system was adopted in ,western ,australia in #ahhf1 a fee of #a per annum being exacted for each vessel engaged in the fishery4#bee ,in #ahia1 ,south ,australia adopted the license system1 requiring that every boat of two tons or under should pay ten shillings1 and that each boat over that measurement should pay twenty shillings4 ,with a view to protecting the reefs1 the government of ,queensland in #ahia enacted a law forbidding the sale or removal--except for cultivation purposes--of any pearl shell 8of the kind scientifically known as ,meleagrina margaritifera1 and of either of the varieties commonly known as #8golden-edged' and #8silver lip1' of which the nacre or mother-of-pearl measures less than six inches from the butt or hinge to the opposite edge or lip1 but this does not apply to the variety commonly called #8dwarf-shell4'0#bef ,owing to the difficulty in enforcing this regulation1 the size restriction was reduced in #ahig to five inches from the hinge to the opposite lip1 or six and one half inches exteriorly1 shells of this size weighing approximately one pound4 ,it is claimed that many oysters less than five inches in length are raised1 opened for pearls1 and then cast back into the water4#beg ,in #ahii the governor of ,south ,australia interdicted the capture in the waters of that territory of any shell of 8,meleagrina margaritifera measuring less than four inches from the butt or hinge to the opposite edge or lip40 ,competent evidence exists that a good-sized pearl has been found in an oyster measuring one inch in diameter4 ,illustration3 ,pearling boats at ,hiqueru1 ,tuamotu ,archipelago ,illustration3 ,australian pearl-diver 7armored7 coming up from the depths ,the fishermen of ,western ,australia rendezvous at ,broome1 about one thousand miles by water north of ,perth1 the nearest railway station4 ,with only a thousand or so inhabitants1 under normal conditions1 this is a scene of great activity1 and bears a reputation of being no ,sunday-school when the fishermen are in1 with tons of shell and many a pickle bottle more or less full of pearls4 ,cossack and ,onslow are also important stations4 ,in #aije1 #cdj luggers and #be schooners were employed in the pearl fisheries of ,western ,australia1 exclusive of ,sharks ,bay4 ,of this number about #he per cent4 hailed from ,broome4 ,the schooners ranged in size from #ac to #acc tons1 and the luggers were mostly about #ab tons1 with a minimum of #c and a maximum of #ad tons4 ,the total number of fishermen approximated #bijj1 a medley of races1 ,japanese1 ,malays1 ,chinese1 ,arabs1 native aboriginals and ,south ,sea ,islanders working together more or less harmoniously4 ,the yield consisted of #acid tons of mother-of-pearl1 with a declared value of #adf1bbe1 and about #ej1jjj worth of pearls1 a total of #aif1bee for the year1 which was an increase of #cb1bhf over #aijd4beh ,the headquarters for the fishery of the ,northern ,territory of ,south ,australia are at ,port ,darwin4 ,in #aije this fishery employed forty-nine sail vessels and two canoes manned by ,europeans1 and two proas and twelve canoes manned by ,malays4 ,the crews1 numbering about #cge1 consisted mainly of ,malays1 ,japanese and ,filipinos4 ,in #aije1 #db per cent4 were ,malays1 #bd per cent4 were ,japanese1 and #bj per cent4 were ,filipinos4 ,owing to the low price of pearl shell1 the fishery was not prosecuted actively1 and many of the ,asiatics left for the pearling reefs at the ,aru ,islands4 ,the total value of pearl shells reported among the exports for that year was #ah1ebf2 during the preceding year it was #bh1cia4 ,no record is available for the value of the pearls4 ,the ,queensland pearling fleet has its rendezvous at ,port ,kennedy1 ,thursday ,island1 which was originally maintained by the ,british1 the ,queensland1 and the ,new ,south ,wales governments as a harbor of refuge for mariners4 ,politically this port is important as the strategic key to the northeast of ,australia1 but its prosperity is almost wholly dependent on the pearl-oyster fishery4 ,the population approximates #afjj1 consisting largely of ,japanese1 ,malays1 ,cingalese1 ,pacific islanders1 and ,australian aborigines1 with specimens from nearly every ,asiatic and ,european nationality1 and some from ,america and ,africa4 ,the ,japanese predominate1 their influx dating from #ahia2 and at present the industry is largely dependent on these ,scotchmen of the ,orient for its most skilful workmen4 ,the heterogeneous nationalities1 and the abundance of sand-flies1 mosquitos1 etc41 make this island rather less desirable as a place of residence than it is interesting from a political and ethnological point of view4 ,the ,queensland fishery in #aije employed #cdh vessels1 and yielded #edc tons of shell1 according to the government returns4 ,in #aijd1 #cec vessels were engaged1 and the catch was #gih tons of shell4 ,during the last fifteen years there has been a very steady decrease in the average catch of pearl-oysters per boat in the ,australian fishery4 ,the average catch in the ,queensland fleet in #ahij approximated #g tons per boat2 from #ahih to #aijc it was about #c tons annually2 in #aijd it was only #b tons1 and in #aije a trifle more than #a tons4 ,the yearly increasing number of boats would naturally lower the average1 but the decrease is generally ascribed to the denudation of the reefs1 due to close working for thirty-five years without giving them a chance to recuperate4 ,the small yield in ,queensland in #aijd and #aije was due largely ta the extended rough weather and the accompanying thick or muddy water1 which presented an obstacle to the prosecution of the work4 ,mr4 ,hugh ,milman1 the government resident at ,thursday ,island1 states that each year the beds in the more sheltered spots have been extensively fished1 rendering it necessary for the fleet to go farther afield in places where the depth of water is greater1 and where the vessels are more exposed to the full force of the southeast winds which prevail for about seven months of the year1 and which were unusually severe in #aije4bei ,the general denudation of the beds is not the principal cause of the decreased take4 ,an additional cause for the falling off in #aije was the deflection of a large percentage of the fleet to new fields of operation1 #aaj vessels leaving for the ,aru ,islands in the ,arafura ,sea1 when the season was about half finished4 ,for vessels using diving apparatus1 the season continues throughout the year1 but it is frequently interrupted by storms1 which may cause the boats to lie in harbor for ten days1 or even two weeks at a time4 ,the nude divers suspend work from ,december to ,march1 and also during the season of gales4 ,each vessel is manned by a diver1 his attendant1 and a crew of four men1 who in pairs take alternate shifts at the manual pump for supplying air to the diver4 ,the entire force of men take part in managing the vessel and in caring for the catch4 ,the vessel is provided with full equipment and supplies of food1 water1 etc41 to last two or three weeks1 depending on the distance of the fishing grounds from the shore station1 or the frequency of trips made by a supply vessel4 ,except a number of owners and their representatives1 there are now very few white persons engaged in pearling in ,australian waters4 ,even the persons in charge of the vessels are largely natives of the ,pacific ,islands4 ,owing to the hardships encountered and the small remuneration1 it is difficult to secure white labor2 and aliens from ,japan1 the ,philippines1 ,java1 ,singapore1 ,india and ,new ,guinea1 are employed4 ,the divers are of many nationalities1 principally ,japanese and ,malays1 and the former are said to be the most efficient4 ,previous to #ahij1 they were mostly whites1 and were paid at the rate of #dj per ton of shells2 but increased competition and the influx of cheaper labor caused a considerable decrease in the rate of compensation1 driving most of the white men out of the employment4 ,at present the ,japanese almost monopolize the business4 ,of the #cfg divers licensed at ,thursday ,island in #aije1 #bia were ,japanese1 #cb were ,filipinos1 #ba were from ,rotuma ,island1 #af were ,malays1 and #g were of other nationalities2 this shows how completely the white man has been driven out of this skilled branch of labor4 ,the oysters are so scattered that considerable walking is necessary to find them4 ,they usually lie with the shells partly open1 and in grasping them the fisherman must be careful not to insert a finger within the open shell1 or a very bad pinch will result4 ,the progress of the vessel must be adapted to that of the diver1 and when a good clump of oysters is found it may even be desirable to anchor4 ,if the current and wind are just right1 the vessel may repeatedly drift over a bed1 the diver ascending and remaining on board while the vessel is retracing its course to the windward side of the reef4 ,on new grounds1 the nature of the bottom is determined by casting the lead properly tipped with soap or tallow1 and the prospects for oysters thus determined without descending4 ,during good weather and in eight or ten fathoms of water1 a diver can work almost continually1 and need not return to the surface for two hours or more2 but as the depth increases1 the length of time he may remain at the bottom in safety decreases almost in geometric ratio1 and he comes to the surface frequently for a 8blow0 with helmet removed4 ,evidence secured by a departmental commission of the ,queensland government in #ahig1 showed that in good weather at a depth of eight or ten fathoms1 a diver works from sunrise to sunset1 coming to the surface only a few times4 ,in a depth of over fifteen fathoms the attendant usually has instructions not to let him remain longer than fifteen minutes at a time2 yet a diver's eagerness in working where good shell is plentiful sometimes impels him to order the attendant to disregard this rule4 ,the very great pressure of the water--amounting to thirty-nine pounds or more to the square inch--is liable to cause paralysis1 and death occasionally results4 ,in working at a depth of twenty to twenty-five fathoms1 a diver is rarely under water longer than half an hour altogether during the day4 ,the greatest depth from which shell is brought appears from the same evidence to be 8#cj fathoms and a little over02 but at that depth--where the pressure is seventy-eight pounds to the square inch--the fisherman remains down only a few minutes at a stretch1 and should be exceedingly careful4 ,the work is injurious1 and even under the best conditions the diver not infrequently becomes semi-paralyzed and disqualified in a few years4 ,notwithstanding that the work is performed by men in vigorous health1 nearly every year there are from ten to twenty-five deaths in the ,queensland fleet alone2#bfj three fourths of these are due to paralysis1 and most of the remaining result from suffocation1 owing largely to inexperience in use of gear4 ,from five to ten years is the usual length of a man's diving career1 although in the fleet may be found men who have been diving for twenty-five years or more4 ,on the vessels manned by ,japanese1 commonly several members of the crew are competent divers and take a turn at the work1 although only one license is secured4 ,such a vessel carries only one head-piece1 but two otherwise complete suits1 the helmet fitting either1 so that as soon as one exhausted diver comes up to rest1 a successor is ready to have the helmet screwed to his body-dress and descend without delay1 thus saving about half an hour in the changing4 ,the nude divers in the ,australian pearl fisheries are mostly ,malays and ,australian aborigines4 ,they work from dinghys operated from a vessel1 each dinghy carrying six or eight divers1 usually with a white man as overseer4 ,the man in charge sculls against the tide to keep the boat stationary over the ground1 and all the fishermen of a particular dinghy descend together for greater safety from sharks1 and to cover the ground systematically4 ,on rising1 each diver swims to the boat1 throws his catch over the gunwale1 and climbs in to rest for a few minutes4 ,sometimes two or possibly even three oysters may be brought up at a single descent1 but a diver is doing well if he brings up one oyster in ten descents4 ,the average daily catch of each man is probably two or three oysters1 but a fisherman has been known to bring up fifty in one day4 ,on some vessels1 those who fall behind in the catch are punished by extra duty aboard ship4 ,the pearling industry has had a marked effect on the industrial and social condition of the natives of the ,australian coast and the adjacent islands4 ,many of these natives now have boats of their own1 and others seek employment on other vessels4 ,law and order and decent respect for property have arisen1 with schools and churches4 ,the result is all the more remarkable when it is considered that scarcely more than a generation has passed since labor among the men was unknown1 the women doing all the work necessary to meet their scanty requirements4 ,as now carried on in ,australia1 pearling is a hard life1 the men working for two thirds of the season in a dead calm and oppressive heat1 while in the remaining months they are rolling day and night4 ,the members of the crew are not allowed ashore without a written permission from the captain of the boat1 and men and luggage are searched on leaving the vessel4 ,in addition to these objections1 life on board is not unusually made intensely disagreeable by the myriads of inch-long cockroaches1 which are attracted by and multiply rapidly on the shreds of muscle left on the pearl shell stored in the hold4 ,storms are frequent on the coast4 ,in ,february1 #ahii1 three schooners and eighty smaller vessels were wrecked1 and eleven white and four hundred colored men were drowned4 ,at the end of each day's fishing1 the oysters are cleaned of submarine growths4 ,sometimes this is by no means an easy task1 as many of the shells are so covered with weeds1 coral1 and sponge as to bear little resemblance to oysters4 ,after they have been scrubbed and the edges have been chipped1 they are washed and stored on deck4 ,early the following morning they are opened and examined for pearls4 ,this opening is done carefully to avoid injury to any pearl that may be within4 ,the hinge of the shell is placed on the deck and a broad knife forced down so as to sever the adductor muscle1 causing the shells to spring open and permitting the removal of the soft parts4 ,the flesh is carefully examined1 both by sight and by feeling1 to locate all pearls1 which are picked out by hand and placed in a suitable receptacle4 ,within the adductor muscle are found seed-pearls and small baroques2 the large pearls are found embedded in the mantle1 where their presence may be detected as soon as the shell is opened1 the pearly gleam contrasting with the light blue of the mantle4 ,sometimes1 though rarely1 large pearls are found loose within the shell1 whence they roll out when the shell is opened4 ,valuable pearls are occasionally removed from blisters on the surface of the shell1 or from within the body of the nacre itself4 ,even when empty1 these blisters are valuable1 and are especially adapted for brooches and other ornaments requiring a broad and relatively flat surface4 ,after the flesh has been carefully examined throughout1 it is discarded1 as it is not considered suitable for food1 and the shell is dried for half a day or so to make the hinge brittle in order that it may be broken without injury to the mother-of-pearl4 ,after the shell has been roughly cleaned1 it is placed in the hold1 if the vessel is operating from a shore station1 as is commonly the case in ,torres ,straits4 ,since long exposure to the sun affects the quality of the mother-of-pearl1 it is important that it be kept under cover4 ,on returning to the station1 it is thoroughly cleaned1 assorted1 dried1 the dark edges clipped off1 and the cleaned shell is packed in shipping cases1 each containing from #bej to #cbe pounds4 ,on the west coast1 where the vessels at times operate #bjj or #cjj miles from port1 the shell is cleaned1 assorted and crated on the vessels2 whence it may be delivered direct to the steamers4 ,the ,northwest shell is somewhat smaller than the mature shell of ,torres ,straits1 averaging about #aajj to the ton1 whereas that of ,thursday ,island runs about #gbe to the ton4 ,it is very difficult to prevent the theft of pearls by the fishermen as they are liable to treat them as perquisites if not carefully watched4 ,indeed1 on the ,torres ,straits vessels it has come about that pearls do not constitute a recognized source of income to the proprietors4 ,there the fishery is now conducted almost exclusively for the shells1 as the wage-earners secrete probably as many valuable pearls as they turn over to the rightful owners4 ,the hot sun causes many of the oysters to open1 and deft fingers quickly pick out such pearls as may be visible4 ,an oyster may be induced to open its shell by being held near the galley fire on the lugger1 and the insertion of a piece of cork holds it open while a pearl is shaken out or hooked out by means of a piece of wire4 ,then the cork is removed and the oyster closes again with no evidence of robbery4 ,the proprietors of boats who themselves open the oysters almost invariably secure larger yields of fine pearls than those who depend on paid employees1 who rarely have the luck to find choice pearls1 judging from what they turn in4 ,the government of ,queensland has endeavored to put a stop to pearl stealing1 and by enactment#bfa of #ahia1 it restricted all selling or buying of pearls within the fishing region except through regularly licensed dealers1 whose transactions are open to examination4 ,but the fishermen seem to have little difficulty in evading the laws1 and throughout the fleet the men have become so adept that they regard the pearls as their contraband perquisites4 ,and the ease with which these may be secreted is surpassed only by the facility with which they may be sold1 notwithstanding legislation to the contrary4 ,indeed1 some employers make no claim to the pearls found1 thus enabling them to secure fishermen at lower rates of wages4 ,as previously noted1 the pearls constitute only an incidental catch in the fisheries on the ,australian coast1 but in the aggregate the yield is very large4 ,the yield in the northwest ,australian fishery in #aijf is estimated at #ej1jjj1 local valuation2 in the ,queensland fishery #cc1jjj2 in that of ,south ,australia #ejjj1 a total of #hh1jjj or #ddj1jjj4bfb ,relatively few seed-pearls are obtained1 and some of the pearls are of great size4 ,some beautiful specimens have been found1 but usually they have less luster and are more irregular in form than the ,persian or the ,indian output4 ,among the remedies suggested for improving the condition of the ,australian pearl reefs may be mentioned the establishment of six inches as the minimum size of the shell that may be taken 7five inches is now permitted in ,queensland1 and there is no restriction in ,western ,australia71 the closure of certain areas for stated periods from time to time1 and a limit on the number of vessels employed4 ,the government resident at ,thursday ,island1 ,mr4 ,hugh ,milman1 who has had long acquaintance with the industry1 strongly recommends the adoption of a system of artificial culture2 and in the meantime1 to foster the industry1 8licenses should be granted to a reduced number of boats and certain sheltered areas should be closed altogether for a few years to give the beds time to recover4 ,this latter procedure1 however1 the pearlers themselves are not in favor of1 as they are of the opinion that the weather conditions against which they have to contend are sufficient protection to prevent the denudation of the principal grounds40 ,a few years ago certain areas in ,torres ,straits were proclaimed closed for a period against the removal of pearl shell2 but1 owing to the want of effective patrol1 the shell was poached to a very large extent1 and consequently the good that should have resulted from the experiment was not apparent4 ,owing to the impracticability of continuous patrol1 and the want of proper legislation to bring die offenders to book1 it was decided to remove the restrictions4 ,the ,sharks ,bay fishery1 to which we have previously referred1#bfc is prosecuted by means of small sail-boats using light dredges1 except in the case of the very shallow or 8pick-up banks10 where the oysters are commonly removed by hand4 ,some years ago this fishery was of much local importance2 but the developing scarcity of the oysters1 and the present low value of this grade of shell in ,europe1 due to the competition with ,mississippi shell1 have resulted in a great reduction4 ,in #aije1 the industry gave employment to #ag small boats and #db men1 of whom #ah were ,europeans1 #ac ,asiatics1 and #aa aboriginal natives4 ,the yield of pearls1 according to official report of the government of ,western ,australia1 approximated #bjjj in value1 and of pearl shell there was #hh tons1 with a declared value of #fjg4 ,in #ahif the government of ,western ,australia surveyed the ,sharks ,bay reefs1 and opened them to premption in small areas for cultivating this species of pearl-oyster4 ,at present they are mostly held under exclusive licenses for a period of fourteen years4 ,the business is under an elaborate system of regulations2 but as appears from the above figures the results have not been important4 ,pearls are more numerous in this pearl-oyster than in the two other ,australian species4 ,in removing them from the flesh1 a modification of the ,ceylon process is adopted4 ,the mollusks are opened by means of a knife1 and the contents of the shells are placed in vats or tubs--known locally as 8poogie tubs02 and1 exposed to the hot sun1 are allowed to putrefy4 ,sea water is added1 and the putrid mass stirred2 after several days the water and the thoroughly disintegrated flesh tissues are decanted1 leaving the pearls at the bottom4 ,the odor from a number of these 8poogie tubs0 is said to almost rival that of the 8washing toddies0 at ,marichchikadde4 ,the ,sharks ,bay pearls are commonly yellowish or straw-colored1 and sometimes have a beautiful golden tinge4 ,although obtained from small shells1 they are sometimes of considerable size--twenty grains or more in weight1 and fine specimens sell for several hundred dollars each4 ,china and ,india furnish better markets for them than ,europe or ,america4 ,,pearl ,,fisheries ,,of ,,the ,,malay ,,archipelago ,my thoughts arise and fade in solitude2 ,the verse that would invest them melts away ,like moonlight in the heaven of spreading day4 ,how beautiful they were1 how firm they stood1 ,flecking the starry sky like woven pearl4 ,,shelley1 ,my ,thoughts4 ,illustration3 ,opening pearl-oysters and searching for pearls1 off the coast of ,australia ,illustration3 ,grading1 weighing1 and packing mother-of-pearl1 off the coast of ,australia ,for nearly four hundred years1 pearls and pearl shells have been the most beautiful objects which have reached the outside world from the many islands of the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,on his visit to this part of the world in #aebj1 ,pigopitta1 a companion of ,magalhes1 reported pearls among the prized possessions of the natives4 ,the fisheries have never been of great importance1 although the reefs are widely scattered throughout the archipelago1 and the possibilities seem favorable for very great development4 ,thomas de ,comyn stated a century ago1 that pearl fisheries had been undertaken 8from time to time about ,mindanao1 ,zebu1 and some of the smaller islands1 but with little success and less regularity1 not because of a scarcity of fine pearls1 but on account of a lack of skill of the divers and their well-established dread of sharks40#bfd ,giacinto ,gemmi1#bfe writing of ,philippine pearls1 repeats a strange tale from the 8,storia de ,mindanao0 by the ,jesuit father1 ,combes1 to the effect that in a certain spot1 under many fathoms of water1 there was a pearl of inestimable value1 as large as an egg2 but1 although the king's ministers had made every effort to have it secured1 they had always been unsuccessful4 ,during the last thirty years1 pearls and pearl shells have been secured from most of the inshore waters of ,malaysia1 but the output has not been so regular or so extensive as the conditions seem to warrant4 ,our observation leads to the conviction that this is not due so much to lack of skill on the part of the divers1 or to their dread of sharks1 mentioned by ,comyn2 but to the fact that foreign capital1 attracted to this part of the world1 has found more security and profit in developing plantations1 and the natives have not had sufficient enterprise to systematize and develop the fishery resources4 ,throughout ,malaysia1 including the ,philippine ,islands1 the pearl is known as mutya1 mootara1 or a similar name1 closely resembling the ,sanskrit mukta or the ,cingalese mootoo1 indicating the source of the influence originating the fishery and trade4 ,the most widely-known pearl fisheries of ,malaysia are in the ,sulu ,archipelago1 a group of islands comprising about #ajjj square miles in area1 and containing a population of #ajj1jjj4 ,the beautiful yellow pearls shared with the many acts of piracy in attracting attention to this group previous to #ahgh1 when the islands were brought under the influence of ,spanish rule2 and since the ,spanish-,american ,war1 pearl fishing has been the leading industry1 though it has received less attention from outside sources1 perhaps1 than has the existence of slavery and harems as part of the social system4 ,writing in #ahbj1 ,john ,crawfurd stated that the annual export of pearls from ,sulu ,islands to ,china approximated #be1jjj ,spanish dollars in value1 and the mother-of-pearl similarly exported was worth #gj1jjj dollars4 8,considering the turbulent and piratical habits of the natives of the ,sulu group1 it is certain that a greater share of skill and industry than can at present be applied to the fisheries1 would greatly enhance the value and amount of their produce40#bff ,in the ,sulu ,archipelago1 the pearl-oyster reefs exist from ,sibtu ,pass to ,basilan ,strait1 and roughly cover an estimated area of #ae1jjj square miles2 that is1 in the most favorable localities throughout this area1 pearl-oysters occur to a greater or less extent4 ,the fisheries are prosecuted by ,malays and ,chinese1 and are largely centered at ,sulu4 ,pearl-oysters occur about many other islands4 ,they exist at ,maimbun and ,parong2 and also off the island of ,tapul and its neighbor ,lagos1 both southwest of ,maimbun4 ,in the channels among these islands1 on the rocky gravelly bottom where there is a good current1 oysters are commonly found4 ,they also occur off ,laminusa1 northeast of ,tawi-,tawi1 at ,cuyo ,island1 and in the waters about ,malampaya and ,bacuit4 ,the large mother-of-pearl oyster 7,margaritifera maxima7 known locally as concha de nacr1 is by far the most abundant4 ,when full-grown in this region it is ordinarily between ten and thirteen inches in diameter4 ,the young oyster attaches itself to the bottom by means of the green byssus2 but after attaining a weight of one pound1 it is too heavy to be easily moved by the tide1 and the ligature gradually disappears4 ,the ,australian 8black lip0 7,margaritifera margaritifera71 known here as concha de nagra1 is also found4 ,in these waters it attains a diameter of about eight inches1 but most specimens are considerably smaller4 ,there is another pearly shell in the ,philippines1 a spiral gasteropod known locally as caracoles1 which is ordinarily five or six inches in diameter1 and has a beautiful pearly surface4 ,this yields very few pearls2 it is sought for pearl-button manufacture1 selling for about the same as the concha de nagra4 ,streeter states that it is declared by the natives of the ,sulu ,archipelago that pearls of a yellowish hue have been found in the pearly nautilus 7,nautilus pompilius71 one of the group of cephalopodous mollusks4 ,as1 however1 there is a superstition that they bring ill luck1 the natives say that they throw them away1 believing that any one who should fight while wearing one of these pearls in a ring1 would certainly be killed4 ,if we consider the habits and organism of this remarkable animal1 and the splendid nacreous coating of its shell1 the assertion that pearls are found in it seems quite natural4 ,indeed1 the occurrence of pearls in the pearly nautilus is generally recognized4 ,for many years the successive sultans of ,sulu exercised authority over the fisheries and--in addition to exacting certain percentages and presents from the fishermen--claimed as their perquisites all pearls exceeding a designated weight4 ,the fisheries were prosecuted by nude divers1 of whom there were a large number4 ,a ,chinese company had been particularly fortunate in its relations with the ,sulus1 and had an extensive equipment in the fishery1 consisting of a number of small vessels1 each carrying a crew of seven men1 who used diving-suits4 ,in addition to these1 some of the native ,moros owned boats from which diving-suits were employed4 ,following the ,spanish-,american ,war and the transfer of the ,philippine ,islands to ,america1 several vessels proceeded to engage in the fisheries without previously consulting the representatives of the ,sultan of ,sulu4 ,this called forth from that official an appeal to the ,american authorities for protection in his claims4 ,he gave an account of the pearl fishery in this interesting document1 which we quote at length--through the courtesy of the ,american ,bureau of ,insular ,affairs--because of the light it throws1 not only on the industry1 but also on the characteristics of these people with whom the ,american government is now dealing4 ,,statement ,,made ,,by ,,the ,,sultan ,,of ,,sulu ,,relative ,,to ,,the ,,pearl ,,fisheries 7,forwarded by the ,governor of ,moro ,province47 ,translation4 7,,seal of the ,,sultan47 ,no date4 ,i beg to inform my father1 the civil governor1 ,major ,scott1 as you want to know about the mother-of-pearl shell1 why it is the right of all ,sulu people1 above all my own right1 this is the reason3 ,the forefathers of the ,sulu people used to take the mother-of-pearl shell from the downs because the mother-of-pearl shell belonged to the downs1 and they took them to eat the oyster with other food2 of the shell they made plates and saucers to put the food on1 and the pearls they used to make a hole through and put them on a string as necklaces for their children4 ,this was at a time when no other nation had come to ,sulu to buy the mother-of-pearl shell4 ,later1 a big boat1 called the ,sampang1 wandered from ,china to ,sulu2 there were on board many people1 all ,chinese2 it was loaded with merchandise4 ,the people came ashore and saw the mother-of-pearl shell which the ,sulu people were carrying4 ,the captain of the boat said3 8,have you many more of these things80 and the people answered1 8,plenty2 this is what we take from the downs to eat with other food40 ,the ,captain said4 8,gather me plenty4 ,i will buy them from you40 ,the people went and gathered them and bartered them for plates and saucers4 ,when all the shells from the downs were finished they looked into the deep1 and that is how they found the pearling grounds1 and the people noted them1 and remembered them4 ,this is what they agreed upon2 whoever finds pearling grounds they belong to him from generation to generation4 ,that is what they agreed upon4 ,that is the reason why the ,sulu people have the right1 and that they came to make the dredge 7badja7 to get the mother-of-pearl shell from the deep1 because they can not see them4 ,later ,salips came from ,mecca of the ,arab nation2 they came to ,sulu to convert the people into ,mohammedans1 as they had no religion4 ,and when the ,sulu people1 including the islanders1 adopted the faith1 then they agreed to have a sultan and they elected ,saripul ,hassim to be sultan4 ,saripul ,hassim said3 8,i don't want you to make me your sultan if ,i do not know what the rights of the sultan are1 and who ,i have to govern over1 because this is not my country1 this is your country40 ,and this is how everybody agreed to accept him as sultan over ,sulu and all the islands2 this is how he became ,sultan and governed over all1 and this is how ,saripul ,hassim accepted to be the sultan of ,sulu1 to have full power over land and sea1 and the people's rights1 where they got their living from on land and sea1 were left to them1 because they were the means of their getting their livelihood4 ,but a law was made1 if they found valuables in the sea1 such as pearls1 tortoise shell1 ambal or anything extraordinary1 they have to show it to the sultan1 and if the pearls weigh six chuchuk or over they become the share of the sultan2 if they do not have that weight1 the people can do with them as they please and sell them4 ,if the sultan wants them1 he will buy them according to custom4 ,as to tortoise shell1 if they weigh two ketties1 they go to the sultan1 and as to the ambal1 whether it is much or little1 it falls to the sultan4 ,whoever finds it must take it to the sultan4 ,whoever of his subjects violates this law as agreed upon1 the sultan can punish him as he pleases4 ,they accepted this law as agreed upon1 to be carried out by them 7sultan and people71 and their descendants1 and not to be changed2 but they asked of the sultan not to let any other nation take a share in this industry2 it is enough for them2 and the sultan agreed to this because they did not know how to earn their living otherwise4 ,this is what the sultan and his subjects agreed to because the ,sulu had no other treasures on land beyond the cultivation2 the treasures came from the sea only1 therefore other people are forbidden because this is the property of all my subjects1 and especially my own4 ,recently1 in my time and in the ,spanish time1 there came to me ,captain ,tiana2 he wanted to dive for pearl shells4 ,i said 8,i cannot give you my consent at once because since our forefathers 7sultan and people7 we have an agreement1 ,i will confer with my people40 ,i sent for the chiefs and the dattos and ,i told them about it1 that ,captain ,tiana came to me and asked to dive for pearl shells4 ,they said it cannot be done1 because there is an agreement between our forefathers that other nations cannot join in this industry of the ,sulu seas1 because there is no other means of earning a living for your subjects4 ,illustration3 ,moro boats1 used among the pearl islands of the ,malay ,archipelago ,illustration3 ,raft used for pearl fishing in the ,malay ,archipelago ,i informed ,captain ,tiana of it4 ,he said3 8,allow me to dive for pearl shells1 ,i will give toll to you as sultan and ,i will also give toll to the owners of the pearl grounds according to what we agree upon40 ,so ,i informed all the owners of the pearling ground1 and they said1 8,if he is really in earnest to give toll to us owners of the ground according to what we agree upon1 if we don't agree1 we will not allow him to fish40 ,thereupon ,captain ,tiana and ,i went to the ,spanish governor to bear witness4 ,the governor said3 8,all right2 anything you agree upon2 ,i cannot change the law of the ,moro people1 and ,i will not interfere40 ,that is how ,i allowed ,captain ,tiana to fish1 and ,i gave him a letter of the truth according to agreement4 ,therefore if any person of other nation wants to fish for mother-of-pearl shell1 he will have to do as ,captain ,tiana did1 and ask me for a letter of truth1 and if he has no letter and does not pay toll to the owners of the ground1 and especially to me1 he cannot dive1 and if he violates this and if anything befalls him1 ,i am not responsible and do not want to be held responsible1 because the mother-of-pearl shells are like the property in our boxes given to us by ,god4 ,they do not go away from the places where they are put1 they are not like fish that go about4 ,therefore1 we forbid it4 ,it is our heritage from our forefathers4 7,signed7 ,,hadji ,,mohamad ,,jamaul ,,kiram1 ,sultan of ,sulu4 ,,seal ,,of ,,the ,,sultan4 ,following these representations1 the legislative council of the ,moro province1 by authority of the ,philippine ,commission1 interdicted all fishing for pearl-oysters within three marine leagues of any land within the territorial limits of the ,moro province1 without license first obtained from the treasurer of the district within which the vessel carries on the major part of its operations4#bfg ,no license was to be issued to any vessel not owned in the ,philippine ,islands or in the ,united ,states1 and not wholly owned by citizens of the ,united ,states1 by natives of the ,philippine ,islands1 or by persons who have acquired the political rights of natives1#bfh except that foreign vessels which for one year immediately preceding had actually engaged in pearl fishing might secure license to continue therein for a period of five years thereafter4 ,licenses were of two kinds1 according to the nature of the fishery4 ,to engage in fishing with the aid of diving-suits1 the fee was five hundred pesos annually1 for each of the greatest number of divers beneath the surface of the water at any one time4 ,for fishing without submarine armor1 the fee was five pesos annually1 for each of the greatest number of nude divers to be employed by the vessel during any voyage1 and the same sum for each of the greatest number of dredges or rakes to be employed beneath the surface at any one time2 but this did not apply to vessels under #ae tons1 owned and operated wholly by native ,moros1 until ,january #a1 #aijf4 ,it was also made unlawful to catch or to have in one's possession within the ,moro province 8any pearl shell or any bivalvular or lateral plate1 or any pearl shell of less than #d inches in diameter1 measured with a flat1 rigid measuring rod along the line of the ligament which joins one binocular or lateral plate to the other at the hinge1 unless the lateral plate of such shell be more than #g inches in diameter measured with a flat1 rigid measuring rod from the outer edge of the horny lips to the center of the hinge1 the rod being so placed as to form a right angle with the line of the hinge40#bfi ,according to a report furnished by the ,mining ,bureau at ,manila1 there were seven vessels fishing with diving-suits in the ,sulu ,archipelago in #aije1 each representing an investment of about #fjjj pesos4 ,in #aijf there were ten vessels engaged in this industry1 and the collection on licenses for that fiscal year amounted to #ccge pesos4 ,these vessels are mostly small ,moro craft which cannot venture upon distant cruises in the archipelago for prospecting purposes1 and their operations are confined for the most part to the immediate vicinity of ,jolo4 ,each vessel carries one diver1 a tender1 a cook1 and four sailors4 ,in addition to food supplies1 the sailors and the cook each receive twelve to fifteen pesos per month1 the tender thirty to forty pesos per month1 and the diver the same amount and in addition thereto a bonus of twenty cents for each shell secured4 ,near ,jolo the vessels work throughout the year1 but farther north very little fishing is done from ,december to ,april1 when monsoons prevail4 ,the man in charge of each vessel is obliged by law to keep an accurate record of the number and weight of shells found1 and his figures are checked up by a customs official at either ,jolo or ,zamboanga1 the ports of discharge4 ,to enable them to secure pearl-oysters at depths of from twenty to forty fathoms1 the ,sulus have long made use of a dredge 7badja7 peculiarly constructed of native materials1 and admirably adapted to the purpose4 ,this consists of five or more long wooden teeth slightly curved and spreading outward1 with an expanse at the ends of twenty inches or more4 ,the dredge is properly balanced by two stones1 and a bridle rope is so attached to it that1 when thrown overboard and towed behind a canoe drifting with the current or the wind1 the implement rests on the curve of the teeth1 which are in almost a horizontal position4 ,as the teeth enter the gaping shell of an oyster lying on the bottom1 the animal instantly closes tightly on the intruder and effects its own capture4 ,the principle is similar to that of the 8crowfoot0 dredge of the ,mississippi ,river1 although the design of the implement is radically different4 ,a second rope is attached so as to raise and lower the implement and to detach it from corals1 rocks1 and other objects against which it may catch in its course on the bottom4 ,this dredge is designed for very deep areas1 where the bottom is relatively smooth4 ,the ,moros employ yet another method of fishing1 using a magtung-tung or three-pronged catcher1 which is let down by a rattan rope and by means of which individual shells sighted from the surface are obtained4 ,when the water is perfectly clear this implement can be operated where the depth is fifteen or eighteen fathoms1 but its use is impractical where the water is clouded or there is even a slight ripple on the surface4 ,however1 the bulk of the catch is made by the nude divers1 of which there are hundreds at ,maimbun1 ,tapul1 ,lugus and elsewhere4 ,in their small boats these ,moro fishermen visit the reefs1 where the boats are anchored4 ,provided only with a short1 heavy knife1 with which to release the shells from the bottom or1 perchance1 as a weapon of defense against sharks and other fish1 they enter the water feet first1 but soon turn and descend head downward1 precisely as on the ,australian coast1 swimming toward the bottom with bold strokes4 ,the ,sulu pearl-divers--and especially those at ,parang1 ,patian and ,sicubun--are among the most expert in the world4 ,they easily penetrate to twelve fathoms and1 if necessary1 to eighteen or twenty fathoms4 ,but they are not very industrious1 and seldom descend more than twelve or fifteen times a day1 preferring rather to go with their wants half satisfied than to satiate them by more active exertions4 ,many descents may be necessary to locate and obtain a single oyster1 but when this is secured the shell alone may ordinarily be traded for sufficient to supply the fisherman's needs for several days1 and there is always the chance of a pearl4 ,after a short day of labor1 the fishermen return1 and the oysters which they have secured are opened and examined for pearls4 ,after the flesh has been carefully searched it is placed in the sun to dry and1 later1 to be used for food1 and the shells are carefully cleaned and placed under cover until they may be bartered or sold4 ,the ,sulu shell is characterized by a peculiar yellowish tint around the rim1 by means of which it is readily distinguished4 ,its size and beautiful iridescence make it very attractive1 and for choice individual specimens high prices are received4 ,it is the largest of the mother-of-pearl shells1 single half-shells of 8bold0 size average one and one half pounds in weight1 while some attain a weight of six pounds4 ,the body of the shell furnishes the most beautiful of all mother-of-pearl1 yet the necessity for discarding the yellow rim1 or1 rather1 for using it separate from the rest1 makes it unpopular with manufacturers4 ,the annual product is estimated at #bjj tons1 valued in ,london and ,new ,york at #bjj1jjj1 and of pearls about #cj1jjj worth4 ,the ,sulu pearls are frequently large and of choice quality1 but they are far more inclined to a yellowish tint than those from ,australian waters1 #acjj miles southward4 ,the sultans accumulated the finest collection of them1 and some of these found their way into the markets from time to time as the condition of the exchequer ran low or royal emergency required1 as in #ahhb1 for instance1 when it was necessary to defray the expense of ,sultan ,buderoodin's pilgrimage to ,mecca4 ,during the last six or seven years1 much has been heard of the present sultan's collection1 which he largely inherited1 and some fairly good specimens have been presented to prominent ,americans4 ,pearl-oysters are among the important resources of the inshore waters of the ,dutch ,east ,indies1 including the surrounding seas of ,sumatra1 ,java1 ,borneo1 ,celebes1 the ,aru ,islands1 the ,moluccas or ,spice ,islands1 and ,papua or ,new ,guinea4 ,for very many years the natives have gathered pearl shell and pearls from these waters1 and especially on the coast of the ,aru ,islands1 at ,gilolo or ,halmahera1 and the islands thereabout1 on the east coast of ,celebes1 and about the ,sunda group4 ,the collections were made in the shallow waters by beach-combing and by nude diving1 and were bartered with the ,chinese and ,arab traders sailing from ,singapore1 ,macassar1 and other ports4 ,occasionally a pearling vessel from ,singapore or from ,torres ,straits would try its luck in these waters2 but1 except for the work of the natives1 the reefs were practically untouched previous to #ahhc4 ,as the ,australian fleet increased in size and the oysters became scarce in ,torres ,straits and on the northwest coast1 some of the vessels occasionally visited the ,aru ,islands1 the coast of ,papua1 etc4 ,these met with considerable success and the number of trips increased1 especially in #ahic1 when oysters were unusually scarce in ,australia4 ,the following year1 #ahid1 the government restricted the fishery to inhabitants of the ,netherlands and of ,netherlands ,india1 or to companies established in those countries and operating under the ,dutch flag4 ,owing to the activity of ,dutch capital in coffee1 tobacco and other plantation enterprises1 the pearl resources received very little attention from them4 ,the success of the ,australian fishery encouraged the formation in #ahif of an ,amsterdam company to exploit the ,aru grounds2 but apparently without financial success1 for it liquidated in #ahih4 ,illustration3 ,pearling village1 with youthful fishermen4 ,sulu ,islands ,illustration3 ,japanese diver in ,dutch ,east ,indies1 come up to 8blow0 for a few minutes ,in the meantime1 residents of these islands paid more and more attention to the pearl fishery2 also ,europeans1 ,chinamen and ,arabs arranged with the native chiefs for fishing in their territorial waters1 paying therefor a fixed sum in cash or a percentage of the catch1 which was permitted on approval by the governor-general of ,dutch ,india4 ,the fleet continued to increase from year to year1 and in #aije there was a very large influx of vessels from the ,australian fisheries1 #aaj luggers and #g tenders coming from ,thursday ,island alone4 ,the species are the same as occur on the northern coast of ,australia1 the 8silver edge0 or 8golden lip0 7,margaritifera maxima7 occurring in greatest abundance1 and the 8black lip0 7,m4 margaritifera7 to a less extent4 ,the shells are the principal object of the search1 and the pearls found incidentally form an additional source of revenue4 ,these shells divide with those of ,australia the reputation of being the most valuable in the world4 ,they are commonly known in the trade by the name of the port from which they are originally shipped1 as ,manila1 ,macassar1 ,banda1 ,ceram1 ,penang1 ,mergui1 etc4 ,before the exploitation of the ,australian grounds1 they sold at very high prices1 and #bjjj or more per ton was sometimes realized for those of the best quality4 ,singapore is the headquarters for supplies for the industry in all this region1 and it is from that port that the shells and pearls are mostly distributed4 ,the pearls obtained in ,netherlands ,india are of choice quality and of relatively large size1 a considerable percentage of them weighing over eight grains1 and fairly good pearls of fifty grains or more are occasionally reported4 ,colored pearls are rarely met with1 nearly all of them being clear white1 like the beautiful ,macassar shell4 ,at ,pados ,bay1 island of ,borneo1 one hundred or more persons find employment fishing the ,placuna oysters1 selling the shells for about #b per picul 7#aci pounds to the picul71 the dried meats at #d to #f a picul1 and the seed-pearls 7seleesip7 at about #b per mayam4 ,many of these pearls are sold in the village of ,batu ,batu4 ,when a fisherman buys his few necessaries at the ,chinese shops1 he pulls out his little package of seed-pearls and pays in that currency1 the ,chinaman making a good profit by the transaction4 ,x ,,american ,,pearls ,,venezuela1 ,,panama1 ,,mexico1 ,,american ,,fresh ,,waters1 ,,miscellaneous ,x ,,pearl ,,fisheries ,,of ,,venezuela ,when ,i discovered the ,indies1 ,i said that they composed the richest country in the world4 ,i spake of gold and pearls and precious stones1 and the traffic that might be carried on in them4 ,extract from ,columbus's ,fourth ,letter4 ,the ,caribbean ,sea furnishes one of the most interesting chapters in the history of the pearl fisheries4 ,in no region of the world have these resources caused more rapid exploitation or affected the inhabitants to a greater extent than on the shores of ,venezuela4 ,before the discovery of ,america1 the natives of this region collected pearls from the mollusks which they opened for food in times of necessity1 and also sought them for ornamental purposes4 ,and although they had large collections which they used for personal ornamentation and for decorating their temples1 it does not appear that they prized them extravagantly1 readily bartering them for small returns4 ,in ,columbus's account of his third and fourth voyages to ,america1 he repeatedly refers to pearls4 ,on the third voyage1 in #adih1 after passing the mouth of the ,orinoco ,river1 he entered the ,gulf of ,paria1 where the natives 8came to the ship in their canoes in countless numbers1 many of them wearing pieces of gold on their breasts1 and some with bracelets of pearls on their arms2 seeing this ,i was much delighted and made many inquiries with the view of learning where they found them4 ,they replied that they were to be procured in their own neighborhood and also at a spot to the northward of that place4 ,i would have remained here1 but the provisions of corn1 and wine1 and meats1 which ,i had brought out with so much care for the people whom ,i had left behind1 were nearly wasted1 so that all my anxiety was to get them into a place of safety1 and not to stop for anything4 ,i wished1 however1 to get some of the pearls that ,i had seen1 and with that view sent the boats on shore4 ,i inquired there also where the pearls were obtained4 ,and they likewise directed me to the westward and also to the north behind the country they occupied4 ,i did not put this information to the test1 on account of the provisions and the weakness of my eyes and because the ship was not calculated for such an undertaking40 ,in his letter to one of the queen's attendants1 written in #aejj1 ,columbus says1 in justification of his conduct toward his miserable detractors3 8,i believed that the voyage to ,paria would in some degree pacify them because of the pearls and the discovery of gold in the island of ,espaola4 ,i left orders for the people to fish for pearls1 and called them together and made an agreement that ,i should return for them1 and ,i was given to understand that the supply would be abundant40 ,and again in the same letter1 after speaking of a quantity of gold which mysteriously disappeared when ,governor ,bobadilla sent him and his brothers loaded with chains to ,spain1 he says3 8,i have been yet more concerned respecting the affair of the pearls1 that ,i have not brought them to their ,majesties4444 ,already the road is opened to gold and pearls1 and it may surely be hoped that precious stones1 spices1 and a thousand other things will also be found40 ,a more detailed account of ,columbus's pearling adventures1 and of the subsequent discoveries and explorations on the ,caribbean coast is given by ,francisco ,lopez de ,gomara in his 8,historia general de las ,indias10 published in #aeed1 of which the following is a literal translation slightly abridged3 ,since there are pearls on more than four hundred leagues of this coast between ,cape ,vela and the ,gulf of ,paria1 before we proceed farther it is proper to say who discovered them4 ,in the third voyage made by ,christopher ,columbus to the ,indies1 in #adih1 having reached the island of ,cubagua1 which he called 8,isle of ,pearls10 he sent a boat with certain sailors to seize a boat of fishermen1 to learn what people they were and for what they were fishing4 ,the sailors reached the shore where the ,indians had landed and were watching4 ,a sailor broke a dish of ,malaga ware and went to trade with them and to look at their catch1 because he saw a woman with a string of rough pearls 7aljofar7 on her neck4 ,he made an exchange of the plate for some strings of rough pearls1 white and large1 with which the sailors returned highly delighted to the ships4 ,to assure himself better1 ,columbus ordered others to go with buttons1 needles1 scissors1 and fragments of the same ,valencian earthenware1 since they seemed to prize it4 ,these sailors went and brought back more than six marcs 7forty-eight ounces7 of rough pearls1 large and small1 with many good pearls among them4 ,said ,columbus then to the ,spaniards3 8,we are in the richest country of the world4 ,let us give thanks to the ,lord40 ,they wondered at seeing all those rough pearls so large1 for they had never seen so many1 and could not contain their delight4 ,they understood that the ,indians did not care much for the small ones1 either because they had plenty of large ones1 or because they did not know how to pierce them4 ,columbus left the island and approached the land1 where many people had collected along the shore1 to see if they also had pearls4 ,the shore was covered with men1 women1 and children1 who came to look at the ships1 a strange thing for them4 ,many ,indians presently visited the ships1 went on board and stood amazed at the dress1 swords1 and beards of the ,spaniards1 and the cannon1 tackle1 and arms of the ship4 ,our people crossed themselves1 and were delighted to see that all those ,indians wore pearls on their necks and wrists4 ,columbus asked by signs where they fished them1 and they pointed to the coast and island4 ,illustration3 ,venezuela and ,panama2 the principal pearling regions of ,south ,america ,columbus then sent to the shore two boats with many ,spaniards1 for greater certainty of those new riches1 and because they importuned him4 ,the chief took them to a place where there was a circular building that resembled a temple1 where presently much bread and fruits of different kinds were brought4 ,at the end of the feast he gave them pearls for sweetmeats1 and took them afterward to the palace to see the women and the arrangement of the house4 ,of the numerous women there1 not one was without rings of gold and necklaces of pearls4 ,the ,spaniards returned to the ships1 wandering at such pearls and gold1 and requested ,columbus to leave them there4 ,but he did not wish to do so1 saying they were too few to settle4 ,he hoisted sail and ran along the coast as far as ,cape ,vela1 and from there came to ,santo ,domingo1 with the intention of returning to ,cubagua after regulating the affairs of the government4 ,he suppressed the joy he felt at having found such treasures1 and did not write to the king regarding the discovery of pearls1 or at all events did not write it until it was already known in ,castile4 ,this was largely the cause for the anger of the king1 and the order to bring ,columbus a prisoner to ,spain4 ,they say that he did not so much intend to conceal this discovery from the king1 who has many eyes1 as that he thought by a new agreement to get this rich island for himself4 ,of the sailors who went with ,christopher ,columbus when he found the pearls1 the greater number were from ,palos4 ,as soon as these came to ,spain1 they told about the country of pearls1 displayed many1 and carried them to ,seville to sell1 whence they went to the court and into the palace4 ,excited by this report1 some persons there hurriedly prepared a ship and made ,pedro ,alonso ,nio its captain4 ,he had from the ,catholic king license to go in search of pearls and land1 provided he should not go within fifty leagues of any discovered by ,columbus4 ,nio embarked in ,august1 #adii1 with thirty-three companions1 some of whom had been with ,columbus4 ,he sailed as far as ,paria1 visited the coast of ,cumana1 ,maracapan1 ,port ,plechado1 and ,curiana1 which lies united to ,venezuela4 ,there he landed1 and a chief1 who came to the coast with fifty ,indians1 conducted him amicably to a large town to take water1 refreshments1 and the barter he was in search of4 ,he bartered for and secured fifteen ounces of pearls in exchange for pins1 rings of horn and tin1 glass beads1 small bells1 and similar trifles4 ,the ,spaniards stayed in the town twenty days1 trading for pearls4 ,the natives gave a pigeon for a needle1 a turtledove for one glass bead1 a pheasant for two1 and a turkey for four4 ,for that price they also gave rabbits and quarters of deer4 ,the ,indians asked to be shown the use of needles1 since they went naked and could not sew1 and were told to extract the thorns with them1 for they went barefooted3 ,nio brought to ,galicia ninety-six pounds of rough pearls1 among which were many fine1 round1 lustrous ones of five and six carats1 and some of more4 ,but they were not well pierced1 which was a great fault4 ,on the route a quarrel arose over the division1 and certain sailors accused ,nio before the governor in ,galicia1 saying that he had stolen many pearls and cheated the king in his fifth1 and traded in ,cumana and other places where ,columbus had been4 ,the governor seized ,nio1 but did not keep him in prison very long1 where he consumed pearls enough4#bgj ,illustration3 ,,gray ,,pearls ,,from ,,lower ,,california1 ,,and ,,diamonds ,pan-,american ,exposition1 #aija ,this expedition of ,pedro ,alonso ,nio was the first financially profitable voyage to ,america4 ,after his return1 the ,cubagua pearl fishery became the object of numerous speculations1 and many other ,spaniards fitted out voyages1 most of them sailing from ,hispaniola or ,haiti1 nine hundred miles distant4 ,owing to the ill-treatment of the ,indians and excessive cruelties toward them1 much difficulty was experienced in securing divers4 ,this was relieved in #aejh by transporting large numbers of ,indians from the ,lucayan or ,bahama ,islands and impressing them into the service4 ,these were so expert in the work that individuals sold for upward of #aej ducats each4#bga ,with their aid the fishery prospered so greatly that in #aeae a settlement1 called ,new ,cadiz1 was established on ,cubagua ,island by the governor of ,hispaniola1 ,diego ,columbus1 son of the discoverer4 ,this small island was dry and desolate1 without water or wood1 which were brought from the mainland twenty miles distant1 or from ,margarita ,island about three miles to the northward4 ,an interesting description of the manner of securing the pearls by these early adventurers was given by ,gonzalo ,fernandez de ,oviedo y ,valdes 7#adgh-aeeg7 in his 8,historia natural y general de las ,indias10 written less than thirty years after the discovery of the mainland of ,america4 ,a translation of this book was published in #aeee by ,richard ,eden in his 8,decades of the ,new ,world02 from which we extract the following account1 the retention of ,eden's quaint phraseology seeming permissible owing to this being one of the very earliest books on ,america4 ,of the maner of fyshynge for perles ,the ,indians exercise this kynde of fyschynge for the moste parte in the coastes of the ,north in ,cubagua and ,cumana4 ,and manye of theym which dwell in the houses of certeyne particular lordes in the ,ilandes of ,san ,dominico and ,sancti ,iohannis1 resort to the ,ilande of ,cubagua for this purpose4 ,theyr custome is to go fyve1 syxe1 or seven1 or more in one of theyr ,canoas or barkes erly in the mornynge to sume place in the sea there about where it appeareth unto them that there shulde bee greate plentie of those shell fyshes 7which sume caule muscles and sume oysters7 wherein perles are engendered4 ,and there they plonge them selves under the water1 even unto the bottome1 savynge one that remaynethe in the ,canoa or boate which he keepeth styll in one place as neare as he can1 lookynge for theyr returne owte of the water4 ,and when one of them hath byn a good whyle under the water1 he ryseth up and commeth swymmynge to the boate1 enterynge into the same1 and leavynge there all the oysters whiche he hath taken and brought with hym4 ,for in these1 are the perles founde4 ,and when he hathe there rested hym selfe a whyle1 and eaten parte of the oysters1 he returneth ageyne to the water1 where he remaynethe as longe as he can endure1 and then ryseth ageyne1 and swimmeth to the boate with his pray1 where he resteth hym as before1 and thus continueth course by course1 as doo all the other in lyke maner1 being all moste experte swymmers and dyvers4 ,and when the nyght draweth neare1 they returne to the ,ilande to theyr houses1 and presente all the oysters to the master or stewarde of the house of theyr lorde who hath charge of the sayde ,indians4 ,and when he hath gyven them sumwhat to eate1 he layeth up the oysters in safe custodie untyll he have a great quantitie thereof4 ,then hee causeth the same fyssher men to open them4 ,and they fynde in every of them pearles other great or smaul1 two or three or foure1 and sumtymes five and syxe1 and many smaule graines accordyng to the lyberalitie of nature4 ,they save the pearles bothe smaule and great whiche they have founde3 ,and eyther eate the oysters if they wyl1 or caste them away1 havynge so great quantitie thereof that they in maner abhorre them4 ,those oysters are of hard fleshe1 and not so pleasant in eatyng as are owres of ,spayne4 ,this ,ilande of ,cubagua where this manner of fysching is exercised1 is in the ,northe coaste1 and is no bygger then the ,iland of ,zelande4 ,oftentymes the sea encreaseth greatly1 and muche more then the fyshers for pearles wold1 bycause where as the place is very depe1 a man can not naturally rest at the bottome by reason of the aboundaunce of aery substannce whiche is in hym1 as ,i have oftentymes proved4 ,for althoughe he may by vyolence and force descende to the bottome1 yet are his feete lyfted up ageyne so that he can continue no tyme there4 ,and therefore where the sea is verye deepe1 these ,indian fyshers use to tye two great stoones aboute them with a corde1 on every side one1 by the weyght whereof they descend to the bottome and remayne there untyl them lysteth to ryse ageine3 ,at which tyme they unlose the stones1 and ryse uppe at their pleasure4 ,but this their aptenesse and agilitie in swimming1 is not the thynge that causeth men moste to marvaile3 ,but rather to consyder how many of them can stande in the bottome of the water for the space of one hole houre and summe more or lesse1 accordynge as one is more apte hereunto then an other4 ,an other thynge there is whiche seemeth to me very straunge4 ,and this is1 that where as ,i have oftentymes demaunded of summe of these lordes of the ,indians1 if the place where they accustomed to fysche for pearles beynge but lyttle and narrowe wyll not in shorte tyme bee utterly without oysters if they consume them so faste1 they al answered me1 that although they be consumed in one parte1 yet if they go a fyschynge in an other parte or on another coaste of the ,ilande1 or at an other contrary wynd1 and continue fysshing there also untyll the oysters be lykewyse consumed1 and then returne ageyne to the fyrste place1 or any other place where they fysshed before and emptied the same in lyke maner1 they find them ageine as ful of oysters as though they had never bin fysshed4 ,wherby we may judge that these oysters eyther remove from one place to an other as do other fysshes1 or elles that they are engendered and encrease in certeyne ordinaire places4 ,this ,iland of ,cumana and ,cubagua where they fyshe for these perles1 is in the twelfe degree of the part of the said coaste which inclineth toward the ,north4 ,the cupidity of the proprietors of the fishery led to most cruel treatment of the divers and1 if the accounts of the time are to be relied upon1 a large percentage of them died under the harsh regime4 ,about #aeae the unfortunate natives obtained an earnest and influential advocate in ,bartolom de las ,casas1 who1 in #aeaf1 prevailed upon the youthful ,charles ,v to decree that the fishery should be prosecuted only in summer1 that the divers should not be required to work more than four hours a day where the depth exceeded six fathoms1 that they should receive good nourishment and half a quart of wine daily1 should have hammocks or beds in which to sleep1 and should be provided with clothes to put on as soon as they left the water4#bgb ,and by later ordinances it was stipulated that death should be inflicted on any one forcing a free ,indian to dive for pearls4 ,in #aebh the resources of ,coche ,island were exploited with so much success that within six months 8#aejj marcs 7#ab1jjj ounces7 of pearls0 were secured4 ,pearl banks were successively found at ,porlamar1 ,maracapana1 ,curiano1 and at various places on the coast from the ,gulf of ,paria to the ,gulf of ,coro1 a distance of over five hundred miles1 which became designated the 8,pearl ,coast40 ,for a number of years previous to #aecj1 the output exceeded in value #hjj1jjj piastres annually1 approximating one half the produce of the ,american mines at that time4#bgc ,it was largely these pearls that enriched the cargoes of many of those famous caravels that crossed the ,atlantic to ,spain4 ,indeed1 for several decades1 ,america was best known in continental ,europe as the land whence the pearls came4 ,an interesting account of an early effort to use dredges in the ,cubagua pearl fishery was given by ,girolamo ,benzoni1 who had lived in ,america from #aedb to #aeee1 and was familiar with the conditions4 ,he states3 8,at the time the pearl fishery flourished on this island there came here one ,louis de ,lampugnan with an imperial license authorizing him to fish such quantities of pearls as he pleased within all the limits and bounds of ,cubagua4 ,this man set out from ,spain with four caravels loaded with all the necessary provisions and munitions for such an enterprise1 which some ,spanish merchants furnished him4 ,he had made a kind of rake1 the fashion of which was such that in whatever part of the sea it was used1 not an oyster would escape4 ,at the same time he would have raked and drawn out all that bore pearls if he had not been disappointed4 ,but the ,spaniards in ,cubagua all banded against him in the execution of his privilege4 ,they said the emperor was too liberal with other people's goods1 and if he wished to give he might give his own as he wished4 ,as for themselves they had conquered and kept that country with great labor and at the peril of their lives1 and there were far better reasons why they should enjoy it than a stranger4 ,poor ,lampugnan1 seeing that his patents did not avail him the value of a straw1 and at the same time not daring to return to ,spain1 partly through fear of being ridiculed and partly on account of the money he owed1 was ruined4 ,in fact1 the business and its anxieties drove him crazy and he was exposed to the mockery of all the world as a lunatic4 ,in the end1 after dragging out five years in this miserable condition1 he died in this isle of ,cubagua40#bgd ,the average size of these pearls derived from the ,venezuelan fisheries was small1 specimens rarely exceeding twenty grains4 ,in #aegg1 ,urbain ,chauveton wrote3 8,the pearls of ,cubagua are mostly #b1 #c1 #d1 and #e carats4 ,but the quantity of them is so great that the fifth part which is paid to the king of ,spain yields every year the value of more than #ae1jjj ducats2 this besides the frauds committed and the pearls which stick to the fingers of those who manage the business1 and who pilfer the most beautiful in great numbers1 sending them here and there for sale4 ,they place themselves in great danger if the facts become known1 but they do it all the same40#bge ,the enormous demands made by the ,spaniards soon had its effect on the resources1 for ,chauveton adds3 8,it is apparent they decrease and not so many are found as in the beginning4 ,the reason for this is that the ,spaniards are so eager to gather large quantities of them quickly that they are not content to use their divers to search for them in the depths of the sea1 but they have conceived and invented ,i know not how many machines of rakes and drags to scrape up everything4 ,in fact they have at times collected them all so that another could not be found1 and have had to abandon their fishing for a considerable time to give the oysters a chance to lay their eggs and grow their pearls40#bgf ,the decrease noted by ,chauveton was probably not very serious1 for the ,spanish historian1 ,jose de ,acosta1 reports that in #aeha he saw 8the note of what came from the ,indies for the king2 there were #ah marcs of pearles1 besides #c caskets2 and for private persons there were #abfe marcs1 and besides them1 #g caskets not pierced1 which heretofore we would have esteemed and helde for a lie40#bgg ,also the records show that in #aeig ,spain received from the ,venezuelan fisheries 8#cej pounds' weight of pearls40 ,it is to be regretted that the ,spaniards so frequently reported the yield of pearls by pounds' weight1 for--owing to the great variation in quality--this is about as unsatisfactory as to report the wealth of an individual by the pounds' weight of his title-deeds or of his stock certificates4 ,the value of 8#cej pounds of pearls0 might have been anywhere from twenty thousand dollars to as many millions4 ,assuming that all were two grains each in weight and of good quality1 the total value would approximate #fjj1jjj according to the valuation of that period2 and on a basis of eight grains each1 it would be #i1fjj1jjj1 or sixteen times as much4 ,but as original parcels of pearls from the fisheries1 these figures should be divided by three4 ,following #aeig1 the productiveness of the ,cubagua beds rapidly decreased4 ,by acts of cruelty and oppression the ,spaniards had converted the surviving ,indians into deadly foes1 ready to take advantage of any opportunity to avenge themselves on their oppressors1 and thus terrifying the settlers into abandoning the enterprise4 ,early in the seventeenth century the development of mining resources in ,mexico1 ,peru1 etc41 attracted the adventurous ,spaniards4 ,a considerable decrease in the value of pearls1 brought about by the skilful manufacture of imitations at ,venice1 and elsewhere in southern ,europe1 also affected the prosperity of the fisheries4 ,as a result of these combined influences1 the output in ,venezuela was greatly reduced1 and it ceased long before the close of the following century4 ,thus ended an enterprise which1 for a number of years1 represented the greatest single industry of the ,european people on the ,american continent4 ,according to ,general ,manuel ,laudecta ,rosales1 the ,venezuela archives contain no reference to any renewal of the fishery until early in the nineteenth century4 ,at the time of ,humboldt's visit in #agii1 the fishery was entirely neglected around the islands of ,margarita1 ,cubagua1 and ,coche1 and the only evidence of pearls was a few very insignificant ones picked up about ,cumana and sold among the natives at a piaster per dozen4#bgh ,after the overthrow of ,spanish authority on this coast1 ,messrs4 ,rundell1 ,bridge and ,rundell1 a firm of well-known goldsmiths of ,london1 obtained1 in #ahbc1 from the government of ,colombia1 a ten-year monopoly of the fishery at several places on the coast of the new republic1 in consideration of one fifth of the pearls secured4#bgi ,after the independence of ,venezuela in #ahbi1 the taxes imposed were so heavy that the industry languished1 and about #ahcc it was practically abandoned4 ,owing to the improved physical condition of the reefs1 the fishery developed largely in #ahde2 and for several years an average of #afjj ounces of pearls were secured1 an ounce of good quality selling for #aej to #ejj bolivars 7one bolivar #ai cents71 and the inferior quality at #hj to #ajj bolivars4#bhj ,at that time there was a tax of sixteen bolivars per boat monthly4 ,in #ahec this was increased to forty-eight bolivars per boat1 and the use of dredges 7arrastras7 was interdicted1 soon reducing the fishery to a very low stage4 ,subjected to frequent changes in regulations1 and burdened by heavy taxes1 the industry remained in poor condition until about #ahie4 ,since then the enhanced value of pearls1 and the increased industrial activity on the coast1 has resulted in a very large development of the fishery4 ,in recent years the government of ,venezuela has granted concessions to individuals and to companies for the exploitation of defined areas for a limited period1 exacting #aj per cent4 royalty on the proceeds of the enterprise4 ,in granting these concessions1 the government usually reserves the right to examine the books1 and to intervene when necessary in any phase of the enterprise4 ,for protecting its revenue1 the government requires that shipments of the pearls must be signed by its agent1 and bills of sale must be countersigned by the ,venezuelan consul in the place where the sales are consummated4 ,the ,venezuelan pearl fishery now gives employment to about #cej boats1 manned by five or six men each1 sailing from the ports of ,juan ,griego1 ,cumana1 and ,carupano4 ,these are sail craft1 measuring from two to fifteen tons each1 and are licensed by the ,venezuelan authorities at a charge of #ae bolivars 7#b4ib7 each4 ,most of the boats use dredges1 but some of them resort to nude diving1 after the manner of the sixteenth century4 ,attempts have been made to use the scaphander1 or diving armor1 but without success1 owing largely to the difficulty in obtaining experienced workmen1 and also to local prejudice against this form of fishery4 ,it is claimed that in using the scaphander1 all oysters are removed from the reefs1 whereas the arrastra or dredge spreads the oysters and thereby enlarges the reefs4 ,this is the principal and1 except those at ,sharks ,bay and the ,sulu ,islands1 the only important pearl fishery in which the oysters are secured by means of dredges4 ,these are made of iron and are similar to those implements used in the scallop fisheries of ,new ,york and ,rhode ,island4 ,they are dragged over the beds1 and when filled are lifted and their contents emptied into the boat1 the fishermen culling out the desirable oysters from the mass and throwing the refuse material overboard4 ,the pearl-oyster 7,margaritifera radiata7 secured on the coast of ,venezuela is closely related to the ,ceylon species4 ,it averages slightly larger in size1 and there is a much greater range in coloration4 ,the pearls are of good quality4 ,in color they range from white to bronze1 and occasionally a so-called black one is found4 ,the total output is valued locally at about #a1gej1jjj francs 7#cej1jjj7 per year4 ,most of them are sold in ,paris4 ,owing to their small size and lack of thickness1 the shells of the ,venezuela pearl-oyster are of little or no value in the mother-of-pearl trade4 ,thousands of tons of them1 the accumulations of scores of fisheries1 lie in heaps and ridges along the coast1 as though in years long past vast armies of oysters1 engaged in deadly combat1 had left their innumerable myriads of slain comrades to bleach on the shores4 ,,the ,,panama ,,pearl ,,fisheries ,the bordring ,ilands1 seated here in ken1 ,whose ,shores are sprinkled with rich ,orient ,pearle1 ,more bright of hew than were the ,margarets ,that ,caesar found in wealthy ,albion4 ,,robert ,,greene1 ,orlando ,furioso 7#aeid74 ,from the point of view of the ,spaniards of his day1 the greatest result of ,balboa's immortal journey in #aeac across the ,isthmus of ,panama to the broad waters of the ,pacific1 was the discovery of the pearl resources of the ,gulf of ,st4 ,michael1 now known as the ,gulf of ,panama4 ,probably the best description of this is given by ,lopez de ,gomara in his 8,historia general de las ,indias10 published in #aeed1 from which we translate the following account4 ,after ,balboa had reached the ,pacific in #aeac1 he proceeded a short distance along the coast until he met with an ,indian chief by the name of ,tomaco4 ,being questioned about the gold and pearls which some of his people wore1 ,tomaco sent for some gold and #bdj large pearls and a great number of small ones--a rich present1 which filled the ,spaniards with pleasure4 ,seeing the ,spaniards so delighted1 ,tomaco ordered some of his men to go and fish for pearls4 ,these went and in a few days obtained #fd ounces1 which also he gave them4 ,the ,spaniards were surprised to see such pearls1 and that their owners did not value them2 they not only gave them away1 but their paddles were decorated therewith1 for the principal income and wealth of these chiefs was the pearl fishery4 ,tomaco told ,balboa that these riches were nothing in comparison with those of ,tararequi1 which had pearls larger than a man's eye1 taken from oysters the size of sombreros4 ,the ,spaniards wished to go there at once1 but fearing another tempest1 left it for their return4 ,they dismissed ,tomaco and rested in the country of ,chiape1 who1 at the request of ,balboa1 sent thirty of his men to fish4 ,these did it in the presence of seven ,spaniards1 who looked on and saw them take six loads of small shells4 ,as it was not the season for that fishery1 they did not go into very deep water where the shells were4 ,not only did they not fish in ,september and the following months1 but they did not even travel by water1 on account of the stormy weather which then prevails in that sea4 ,the pearls which they extracted from those shells were like peas1 but very fine and white4 ,of those received from ,tomaco1 some were black1 others green1 blue1 and yellow4 ,on the return of ,balboa's expedition to ,darien in #aead1 the sight of the pearls and the wonderful reports made by the men1 caused his successor1 ,pedrarias1 to fit out another expedition1 an account of which we likewise translate from ,gomara4 ,by command of ,pedrarias1 ,gaspar de ,morales went in the year #aeae to the ,gulf of ,st4 ,michael1 with #eej ,spaniards1 in quest of the island of ,tararequi1 which was said by ,balboa's men to be so abundant in pearls and so near the coast4 ,the chief of that island sallied forth with many people to prevent his entrance1 and clamored and fought three times with our people on equal terms1 but the fourth time he was defeated4 ,he then made friends1 carried the chief of the ,spaniards to his house1 which was a large and good one1 gave him food to eat1 and a basket of pearls which weighed #aaj marcs #hhj ounces4 ,the chief received for them some looking-glasses1 stringed beads1 bells1 scissors1 axes1 and small wares of barter1 which he valued more than he had the pearls4 ,he promised to give as tribute to the emperor1 in whose guardianship he placed himself1 #ajj marcs of pearls every year4 ,with these the ,spaniards returned to the ,gulf of ,st4 ,michael and from thence to ,darien4 ,tararequi is within five degrees of the equator4 ,it possessed a great fishery for pearls1 which are the largest and best of the new world4 ,many of the pearls which the cacique gave were like filberts1 others like nutmegs1 and there was one of #bf and another of #ca carats1 pear-shaped1 very lustrous1 and most perfect1 which ,peter of the ,port1 a shop-keeper1 bought of ,gaspar de ,morales for #ab1jjj castilians4 ,the purchaser could not sleep that night for thinking on the fact that he had given so much money for one stone1 and so he sold it the very next day to ,pedrarias de ,avila1 for his wife ,donna ,isabel de ,bovadilla1 at the same price1 and afterwards the ,bovadilla sold it to ,donna ,isabella the ,empress4 ,pedrarias1 who delighted in such fishery1 requested the cacique to make his men fish for pearls in the presence of the ,spaniards4 ,the fishermen were great swimmers and divers1 and seemed to have spent all their lives in that employment4 ,they went in small boats when the sea was calm1 and not in any other manner4 ,they cast a stone for an anchor from each canoe1 tied by strong1 flexible withes like boughs of the hazel4 ,they plunged to search for oysters each with a sack or bag at the neck1 and returned loaded with them4 ,they entered four1 six1 and even ten fathoms of water1 for the shell is larger the deeper they go1 and if at times the larger ones come in shallow water it is through storms1 or because they go from one place to another in search for food1 and having found their pasture they stay there until they have finished it4 ,they perceive those who search for them1 and stick so close to the rocks or ground1 or one to another1 that much strength is needed to detach them1 and many times the fishermen cannot raise them and leave them1 thinking they are stones4 ,in this fishery many persons are drowned1 either by remaining too long at the bottom1 or because they become entwined or entangled in the cord1 or such carnivorous fish as the shark devour them4 ,this is the manner of fishing pearls in all the ,indies1 and many fishermen die from the dangers aforesaid1 and from the excessive and constant labor1 the little food1 and the maltreatment they have4 ,the emperor was led to enact a law among those whom ,blasco ,nunez ,vela brought1 which imposed the penalty of death upon him who should forcibly compel any free ,indian to fish for pearls4 ,he thought more of the lives of the men than of his interest in pearls1 though they were of great value4 ,the law was worthy of such a prince and of perpetual memory4#bha ,illustration3 ,,clara ,,eugenia1 ,,daughter ,,of ,,philip ,,ii ,painting by ,gonzales1 in the ,galeria del ,prado1 ,madrid ,most of these pearls were doubtless from the early ,american fisheries ,gonzalo de ,oviedo referred to the pearl resources of ,panama in his 8,historia natural de las ,indias10 ,toledo1 #aebf1 mentioned in the chapter on pearl fisheries of ,venezuela4 ,after describing the resources of ,cubagua and ,cumana on the ,venezuelan coast1 he states1 according to ,eden's quaint translation3 ,lykewise pearles are founde and gathered in the ,south sea cauled mare del sur4 ,and the pearles of this sea the ,caribbean coast are verye bygge4 ,yet not so bigge as they of the ,ilande of pearles cauled de las perlas1 or ,margaritea1 whiche the ,indians caule ,terarequi1 lying in the gulfe of saincte ,michael1 where greater pearles are founde and of greater price then in any other coaste of the ,northe sea1 in ,cumana1 or any other porte4 ,i speake this as a trewe testimonie of syght1 havyng byn longe in that ,south sea1 and makynge curious inquisition to bee certenly informed of all that perteyneth to the fysshvnge of perles4 ,from this ,ilande of ,tararequi1 there was brought a pearle of the fasshyon of a peare1 wayinge xxxi carattes1 which ,petrus ,arias had amonge a thousande and soo many poundes weight of other pearles which hee had when capitayne ,gaspar ,morales 7before ,petrus ,arias7 passed to the saide ,ilande in the yeare #aeae1 which pearle was of great prise4 ,from the saide ,ilande also1 came a great and verye rounde pearle1 whiche ,i brought owte of the sea4 ,this was as bygge as a smaule pellet of a stone bowe1 and of the weight of xxvi carattes4 ,i boughte it in the citie of ,panama in the sea of ,sur3 and paide for it syxe hundredth and fyftie tymes the weyght therof of good gold1#bhb and had it thre yeares in my custodie3 and after my returne into ,spaine1 soulde it to the erle of ,nansao1 ,marquisse of ,zenete1 great chamberleyne to youre maiestie1 who gave it to the ,marquesse his wyfe1 the ladye ,mentia of ,mendozza4 ,i thyncke verely that this pearle was the greatest1 fayrest1 and roundest that hath byn seene in those partes4 ,for youre maiestie owght to understande that in the coaste of the sea of ,sur1 there are founde a hundredth great pearles rounde after the fasshyon of peare1 to one that is perfectly rounde and greate4 ,this ,iland of ,terarequi which the ,christians caule the ,ilande of pearles1 and other caule it the ,ilande of floures1 is founde in the eyght degree on the southe syde of the firme lande in the provynce of golden ,castyle or ,beragua4 7,arber1 8,the ,first ,three ,english ,books on ,america10 ,birmingham1 #ahhe47 ,in addition to the gems noted by ,oviedo1 these waters furnished many other beautiful pearls in the sixteenth century1 and added largely to the collections of the ,spanish court and of the cathedrals of ,seville1 ,toledo1 etc4 ,the ,italian traveler1 ,gemelli-,careri1 who visited the ,panama fisheries in #afig1 reported that they yielded pearls equal to those of ,ceylon4 ,he mentioned one weighing #fj grains1 for which the owner--a ,jesuit priest--refused #gj1jjj pesos4#bhc ,in #agce1 the ,spanish admiral1 ,antonio de ,ulloa visited the ,panama pearl fisheries and wrote an extended description of them4#bhd ,according to his account the pearls were then found in such plenty that there were few slaveholders in the vicinity who did not employ at least a portion of their ,negroes in the fishery4 ,these were selected for their dexterity in diving1 and were sent to the islands in gangs of from eight to twenty men each1 under the command of an overseer4 ,they lived in temporary huts on the shore1 and visited the pearl reefs in small boats4 ,anchoring in eight or ten fathoms of water1 the ,negroes would1 dive in succession to the bottom1 returning with as many oysters as possible4 ,it was laborious work1 attended with danger owing to the numerous sharks4 ,every one of these ,negro divers is obliged daily to deliver to his master a fixed number of pearls2 so that when they have got the requisite number of oysters in their bag1 they begin to open them1 and deliver the pearls to the officer1 till they have made up the number due to their master2 and if the pearl be but formed1 it is sufficient1 without any regard to its being small or faulty4 ,the remainder1 however large or beautiful1 are the ,negro's own property1 nor has the master the least claim to them1 the slaves being allowed to sell them to whom they please1 though the master generally purchases them at a very small price4444 ,some of these pearls1 though indeed but few1 are sent to ,europe1 the greater part being carried to ,lima1 where the demand for them is very great1 being not only universally worn there by all persons of rank1 but also sent from thence to the inland portions of ,peru4#bhe ,during the hundred years following1 the pearl reefs of ,panama were not very productive1 and relatively little attention was paid to them4 ,the development of a market for the shells in the mother-of-pearl trade1 about #ahdj1 enhanced the profits of the few natives engaged in pearling in a desultory manner1 and led to an increase in the number of fishermen4 ,during some years when industrial and market conditions were favorable1 large quantities of shells were exported4 ,in #ahee1 for instance1 #fej tons of these shells were shipped to ,england alone1 and in #ahei the reported quantity was #ieg tons4 ,those from the ,island of ,san ,jos1 one of the ,pearl ,archipelago1 were said to be the largest and choicest in the bay4 ,many of them were used in decorating the twin towers of the stately old cathedral at ,panama4 ,since then the industry has fluctuated greatly1 depending on the market for the shell4 ,many outsiders have experimented in the fishery1 but most of these attempts have resulted in financial loss1 through mismanagement1 storms1 sickness1 or other causes4 ,a story is told locally of a party of thirty men1 principally from ,scotland1 who arrived at ,panama equipped with a diving-bell and such necessary machinery as air-pumps1 windlasses1 etc4 ,much was expected of their operations1 but soon yellow fever broke out among them1 and within six weeks two thirds of the members of the party had died4 ,the remaining members1 becoming disheartened1 and in fear of the dread disease1 lost no time in leaving the country4 ,the diving-bell and machinery remained for several years as a curiosity at ,panama1 for no one returned to claim them1 nor has the use of similar apparatus been attempted since then4 ,the scattered pearl reefs extend from the east side of the ,bay of ,panama nearly to the ,costa ,rica boundary4 ,however1 this gives an exaggerated idea of their area1 as much of this territory yields no pearl-oysters whatever4 ,the principal reefs and the headquarters of the fishery are at ,archipelago de las ,perlas or ,pearl ,islands1 which are from thirty to sixty miles southeast of the ,pacific terminus of the projected ,panama ,canal4 ,this archipelago contains sixteen small islands1 on which are about twice that number of small settlements of ,negro and ,indian descendants1 with a total population of perhaps one thousand4 ,about half of these live on ,isla del ,rey1 the largest island1 about fifteen miles long and half that in width4 ,the chief village1 ,san ,miguel1 is the center of the pearling industry1 and consists mostly of palm-thatched huts and a handsome stone church1 more costly than all the remaining buildings of the town combined4 ,while the soil is fertile and some vegetables are raised1 the inhabitants depend almost wholly on the fisheries4 ,in #aija1 the ,republic of ,colombia invited bids for the right to operate the pearl and coral fisheries for a term of fifteen years1 but nothing seems to have come of it1 and the establishment of the ,panama ,republic in #aijc terminated the authority of ,colombia in these resources4 ,the ,panama fisheries differ widely in their character from those of ,venezuela4 ,the mollusk is much larger1 averaging about six inches in diameter when fully grown1 thus furnishing a valuable quality of mother-of-pearl4 ,the shell constitutes the principal object of the fishery2 the pearls themselves are of incidental importance1 but are always looked for and anxiously expected4 ,the season extends from ,may to ,november1 with a rest during the remaining five months of the year4 ,the fishery is open to natives and to foreigners alike4 ,while the leading fishermen employ diving-suits1 which were introduced here about #ahij1 nude diving is yet practised to a considerable extent1 the men descending in eight or ten1 and some even in twelve fathoms of water4 ,there is no restriction whatever on the nude fishermen1 but for each machine diver an annual license fee of #abe ,united ,states currency is exacted4 ,owing to the low market price for ,panama shell during recent years1 the fishery has not been vigorously prosecuted1 and it has even dwindled to low proportions4 ,a letter from one of the leading pearling companies in ,panama states that the machine divers number about twenty1 while there are about four hundred nude fishermen2 and another firm likewise prominent1 estimates these fishermen at twenty and three hundred respectively4 ,yet a third pearling company writes that there are fifteen machine divers and two hundred head divers2 and adds that the small demand for this quality of mother-of-pearl has made the condition of the industry about as bad as it could be2 many who have capital invested are getting out of the business1 and unless the market improves1 the industry may be abandoned4 ,probably with the introduction of new capital and methods in the infant republic1 the pearl resources may receive greater attention and a large development ensue4 ,the ,panama pearls are of good quality and frequently of large size4 ,in color they range from white to green and lead-gray1 and frequently greenish black4 ,valuable pearls are not common1 but occasionally the fisherman is amply rewarded4 ,a letter from the ,american consul at ,panama states that in #ahii a native boy1 fifteen years old1 fishing in shallow water1 as much for sport as for profit1 found a pearl which he sold to a local speculator for #djjj silver dollars 7#agfj72 this speculator delivered the same pearl to a dealer in ,panama for #aj1jjj silver dollars 7#ddjj71 and an offer of #cj1jjj francs was refused for it later in ,paris4 ,a pearl worth #bdjj was reported as found within half a mile of the steamship anchorage at ,panama4 ,a pearl from a giant oyster resembling ,tridacna1 was an absolute egg-shape1 pure cocoanut white1 and weighed #afi grains2 it was #ba mm4 at the longest and #af4e mm4 at the narrowest part4 ,the surface showed very distinctly a wavy structure1 occasionally with a tiny1 brighter central point2 the surface under the glass resembling a honeycomb network4 ,at the smallest point there was a radiated center with quite a brilliant field4 ,it was worth only #ajj4 ,not always1 however1 does the poor1 ignorant fisherman receive the full value of his find2 and many a story is told of some thoughtless improvident native1 who1 for less than a mess of pottage1 8like the base ,indian1 threw a pearl away1 richer than half his tribe40 ,most of the ,panama pearls are sold in ,paris1 relatively few of them coming to ,america direct4 ,this is not because of any greater estimation of them in ,paris or higher prices obtained2 but the trade relation has been long continued and the credits are well established4 ,from ,paris many of these pearls reach the ,american market4 ,,the ,,pearl ,,fisheries ,,of ,,mexico ,then1 too1 the pearl from out its shell1 ,unsightly in the sunless sea1 7,as 'twere a spirit1 forced to dwell ,in form unlovely7 was set free1 ,and round the neck of woman threw ,a light it lent and borrowed too4 ,,thomas ,,moore1 ,the ,loves of the ,angels4 ,pearl-bearing oysters are found at various places on the ,pacific coast of ,mexico1 and especially along the coast of ,lower ,california1 where extensive fisheries are prosecuted4 ,the pearls are noted for the great variety of colors which they display4 ,a large percentage are black1 others are white1 brown1 peacock green1 etc4 ,generally they are small and of irregular form1 yet sometimes very large ones are secured1 weighing #ajj1 #bjj1 and even #cjj grains4 ,european knowledge of the pearl resources of ,mexico dates from the conquest of that country by ,hernando ,corts about #aebb4 ,the diary of his lieutenant1 ,fortuno ,ximines1 tells of finding native chiefs living in primitive huts along the sea-shore1 with quantities of beautiful pearls lying carelessly around4 ,from a tribe near the present site of ,hermosillo1 in the ,state of ,sonora1 ,corts secured great quantities of the gems4 ,it appeared that the fishery had been in existence for centuries4 ,the location of the pearl reefs was prominently noted on ,corts' map of this coast1 made in #aece1 a copy of which was procured by the ,rev4 ,edward ,e4 ,hale when in ,spain in #ahhc4 ,following ,corts' explorations of the ,pacific coast of ,mexico 7#aecc-aech71 a number of expeditions were fitted out for securing pearls by trading with the natives1 by forcing them to fish1 and by even more questionable means4 ,several of these expeditions found record in history either by reason of their unusual success or through the extreme cruelty with which they were conducted4 ,the contact of the ,spaniards with the ,indians resulted in very bitter feelings on the part of the latter1 so that it became risky for small traders to venture among them4 ,from time to time1 successful expeditions were made1 especially the one of #bjj men sent in #aeif by the viceroy of ,mexico to 8the rich ,isles of ,california10 mentioned by ,teixeira4#bhf ,antonio de ,castillo1 a ,spanish colonist1 with headquarters south of ,mazatlan1 was one of the most successful of the early adventurers1 and ,iturbide ,ortega and ,jos ,carborel were also among the fortunate ones of that period4#bhg ,ortega marketed his pearls in the city of ,mexico1 and the reported sale of one for #dejj dollars had considerable effect in stimulating the industry4 ,the advent of the ,jesuits to western ,mexico in #afdb1 developed amicable relations with the ,indians2 and although the missionaries were agriculturists rather than fishermen1 the restoration of harmony resulted in a more favorable prosecution of the fisheries4 ,the colonists of ,sinaloa and ,nueva ,galicia1 who had formerly1 in small vessels and with great danger1 made occasional visits to the pearl beds1 built larger vessels and made more frequent visits without apprehension4 ,the skilful ,yaqui and ,mayo ,indians were employed or impressed as divers1 just as natives of the ,bahamas had served in the fisheries of ,venezuela4 ,great profits resulted from the operations4 ,venegas wrote that 8it was certain that the fifth of every vessel was yearly farmed for #ab1jjj dollars40#bhh ,so profitable was the fishery that the ,spanish soldiers and sailors stationed in the ,gulf of ,cortes--as the ,gulf of ,california was then called--were frequently charged with devoting more attention to pearling than to their official duties4 ,in order to put a stop to this evil1 in #agjd1 ,father ,silva-,tierra1 who was in authority in that part of the country1 ordered that no soldier or sailor should engage in the fishery4 ,with a view to removing the demoralizing influences of promiscuous adventurers among the ,indians1 the industry was later restricted to persons specially authorized4 ,probably the most successful of the early pearlers was ,manuel ,osio1 who is credited with having marketed 8#abg pounds' weight of pearls in #agdc10 and 8#bge pounds' weight0 in #agdd4bhi ,he operated in the vicinity of ,mulege and northward1 employing the ,yaqui ,indians2 and through his pearling interests is said to have become the richest man in ,lower ,california4 ,illustration3 ,gulf of ,california and the pearling territory of western ,mexico ,the revenue from the royal fifth1 somewhat later1 was reported by ,alvarado#bij at #ab1jjj dollars per year2 but this was disputed by ,jacob ,baegert1 a ,jesuit priest4 ,baegert spent seventeen years in ,mexico and1 returning to ,europe on the expulsion of his order from that country in #agfg1 published a report in #aggb1 containing rather an unfavorable view of the fishery4 ,he stated that each summer eight1 ten1 or twelve poor ,spaniards from ,sonora1 ,sinaloa1 and elsewhere on the mainland1 crossed the gulf in small boats to the ,california shore for the purpose of obtaining pearls4 ,they carried supplies of ,indian corn and dried beef1 and also a number of ,indians who served as divers1 the ,spaniards themselves showing little inclination to engage in the work when native fishermen could be employed so cheaply4 ,provided with a sack for receiving the oysters which they removed from the bottom1 the fishermen dived head first into the sea1 and when they could no longer hold their breath they ascended with the gathered treasure4 ,the oysters were counted before opening2 and1 when the law was complied with1 every fifth one was put aside for the king's revenue4 ,most of the oysters yielded no pearls2 some contained black pearls1 others white ones1 the latter usually small and ill-shaped4 ,if1 after six or eight weeks of hard labor and deducting all expenses1 a ,spaniard gained a hundred ,american pesos1 he thought he had made a little fortune1 but this he could not do every season4 8,god knows10 said ,baegert1 8whether a fifth of the pearls secured in the ,california sea yields to the ,catholic king an average of #aej or #bjj pesos in a year1 even without frauds in the transaction4 ,i heard of only two persons--with whom also ,i was personally acquainted--who had accumulated some wealth1 after spending #bj or more years in the business4 ,the others remained poor notwithstanding their pearl fishing40#bia ,father ,baegert's statement of the returns seems to be substantiated by the reports of the royal fifth a few years later4 ,for the period from #agib to #agif this was placed at 8#b lbs4 #b ozs40 by some writers2 and according to others1 from #aghh to #agig it amounted to only 8#c lbs4 #i ozs410 which is the quantity assigned by some accounts to #agig alone4#bib ,these returns apparently indicate that a great decrease had occurred since the days of ,osio2 but it seems very doubtful whether1 under the conditions existing in ,mexico at that time1 the royal treasury received its due share of the proceeds4 ,shortly following the independence of ,mexico in #ahba1 and after a period of little activity1 several attempts were made to exploit the pearl resources4 ,the great prosperity in ,england1 ensuing upon the termination of the ,napoleonic ,wars1 resulted in much speculation and the promotion of stock subscriptions in many visionary schemes4 ,among these was 8,the ,general ,pearl and ,coral-,fishing ,association of ,london10 which in #ahbe equipped and sent out to ,mexico1 by way of ,cape ,horn1 two vessels prepared to exploit the pearl resources by the use of diving-bells similar to those formerly employed in submarine construction4 ,this expedition was under the direction of ,lieutenant ,r4 ,w4 ,h4 ,hardy1 whose report thereon presents an interesting exhibit of the condition of the pearl fishery at that time4 ,hardy found the fishery at a very low ebb1 owing1 largely1 to the scarcity of oysters and the uncertainty of depending on the native divers4 ,he adds with peculiar navet3 8,i had almost forgotten to mention a very curious circumstance with respect to the pearl-oyster1 namely that on the coast of ,sonora there are none at all1 except at ,guaymas40 ,he states also that to the northward of #bh #cj not the trace of a shell could be discovered on either side of the gulf4 ,the center of the industry was then at ,loreto1 a village of #bej inhabitants2 but another small station existed at ,la ,paz4 ,at ,loreto six or eight vessels of twenty-five tons each were employed1 each having three or four sailors and fifteen or twenty ,yaqui ,indians who served as divers4 ,head-diving was in vogue1 the work proceeding from #aa ,a4,m4 to #b ,p4,m41 and the depth ranging from three to twelve fathoms4 ,the annual catch of pearls was 8#d or #e pounds' weight1 worth from #hjjj to #aj1jjj40bic ,after the government's claim of one fifth had been set apart1 the owner and captain of the vessel received one half and the divers the other half4 ,it was found impossible to use diving-bells when the sea was at all rough1 and even during calm weather they were impracticable on account of the unevenness of the ground and the strong undercurrents4 ,an effort was made to employ native divers1 but owing to the disorganized state of affairs only four could be secured4 ,in the ,gulf of ,mulege a large number of oysters were collected1 but when these were opened 8six very small pearls0 were all that could be found4 ,after spending about three years on the coast1 ,hardy returned to ,england1 and the company abandoned the enterprise4 ,in the early history of the ,mexican pearl fishery1 the shells were of no market value2 but about #ahcj a ,french trader named ,combier made experimental shipments to ,france1 securing cheap freight rates by using the waste shells largely as ballast for the vessels4#bid ,the best quality sold for about #fjj francs per ton1 and the market was found sufficient for regular shipments4 ,the value gradually increased1 and in #ahed it approximated #bjjj francs per ton in ,france1 placing the industry upon a very remunerative basis4 ,this resulted in much activity in the fishery1 and an increase in the number of boats and divers4 ,in #ahee1 the fishery gave employment to #cfh divers1 and yielded #bc1hjj worth of pearls1 and #cej tons of shells worth #ac1ejj4bie ,it was estimated by ,lassepas that from #aehj to #aheg1 inclusive1 #ie1jjj tons of oysters were removed from the ,gulf of ,california1 yielding #bggj pounds of pearls1 worth #e1edj1jjj4bif ,for protection of the reefs1 the ,mexican government in #aheg divided the ,gulf of ,california into four pearling districts1 and provided that only one of them should be worked each year1 and then only in areas leased for the season to the highest bidders1 thereby permitting the reefs successively to remain undisturbed for three years4 ,the yield of pearls in #ahfh approximated #ee1jjj1 and that of shells #aj1fjj in value2 while in #ahfi these items were given as #fb1jjj and #be1jjj1 respectively4#big ,the local prices ranged from #ae per ounce for seed-pearls to #aejj for a choice gem4 ,at that period the fishery was carried on from shore camps or from large vessels1 each carrying twenty to fifty divers1 who were mostly ,yaqui ,indians from the eastern shore of the gulf4 ,the camp or vessel was located in the vicinity of the reefs or beds1 and the fishing was prosecuted from small boats1 each carrying three or four nude divers4 ,fastened to the waist or suspended from the neck was a net for the reception of oysters1 and each diver carried a short spud or stick with which to detach them from the bottom1 and to some extent for use as a weapon of defense against sharks and similar enemies4 ,the diving progressed mostly in the morning1 when the sea was unruffled by the breeze which usually begins shortly after noon4 ,the season lasted from ,may to late in ,september1 when the water became too cold for further operations4 ,the divers were paid a definite share of the catch1 and kept in debt-bondage by means of advances and supplies4 ,little clothing was necessary1 and the provisions consisted principally of corn1 beans1 and sun-dried beef4 ,luxuries were added in the form of tobacco1 and of mescal distilled from the maguey plant1 indulgence in these constituting the chief remuneration for the season's labor4 ,the finding of an unusually choice pearl brought to the lucky fisherman a gratuity of a few dollars1 and shore leave for several days in which to spend it4 ,dressing in his best calico garments1 he hastened to the nearest town to indulge in release from restraint1 in drunkenness and debauchery--the highest dreams of happiness of a ,yaqui ,indian--thoughts of which served to bring him to the fishery each year from his home across the gulf4 ,from the ,spanish conquest until #ahgd1 the ,mexican pearl fishery was conducted exclusively by nude divers4 ,the experiments with the diving-bell in #ahbe had been without favorable result1 and also an attempt by an ,american in #ahed to use a diving-suit with air-pump1 etc41 this failure being credited to imperfection of apparatus4 ,in #ahgd1 through the influence of ,european pearl merchants1 two schooners1 each of about #bjj tons' measurement1 one from ,australia and the other from ,england1 visited the ,mexican grounds1 with a dozen boats fully equipped with scaphanders or diving armor1 including helmets1 rubber suits1 pumps1 etc4 ,owing to their working in deeper water than the nude divers were able to exploit1 their success was remarkable1 and they secured upward of a hundred thousand dollars' worth of pearls and shells during the first season4 ,the hitherto somnolent inhabitants of ,lower ,california were amazed at seeing their resources thus easily removed1 and were awakened to the opportunities afforded them to acquire the wealth which nature had scattered at their very doors4 ,with this object-lesson before them1 companies were formed for raising sufficient capital for the business1 and the leading operators equipped their men with scaphanders1 to the great annoyance of the would-be independent fishermen1 who had not sufficient means to purchase the costly equipment4 ,many of these continued to employ nude divers1 but after #ahhj this method of fishery was subordinate to the use of diving apparatus4 ,the change was accompanied by many accidents1 and rarely did a month pass without the loss of a man1 due in most cases to faulty apparatus or to inexperienced management4 ,in #ahhd ,president ,gonzalez inaugurated the policy of granting exclusive concessions to the pearl reefs4 ,on ,february #bh of that year1 five concessions were granted to as many persons1 giving them and their associates and assigns the exclusive right to all shell fisheries in their respective zones of large area1 for a period of sixteen years1 in consideration of a royalty and export duty1 amounting altogether to about #aj per ton of shells exported in the first three years1 and #ae per ton for the remaining thirteen years of the term4 ,immediately these five grants were consolidated1 forming the ,lower ,california ,pearl ,fishing ,company 78,compaia ,perlfera de la ,baja ,california071 incorporated under the laws of ,california with an invested capital of #ajj1jjj4 ,other concessions were given covering the ocean shore of ,lower ,california1 the eastern side of the gulf within the ,states of ,sonora and ,sinaloa1 and the ocean shore of ,mexico southward from ,sinaloa4 ,in addition to these1 certain territorial rights of fishing are claimed through grants dating back very early in the history of the country4 ,so eagerly have these concessions been sought in recent years1 that there is now little pearling ground on the coast which is not under corporate or private claim4 ,and1 owing to speculation in these concessions and in the formation of companies to develop them1 it is somewhat difficult to obtain wholly reliable data relative to the condition and extent of the industry4 ,two species of pearl-bearing mollusks occur on the ,mexican coast4 ,the principal one is the ,m4 margaritifera mazatlanica1 known locally as the concha de perla fina4 ,this species is closely related to the 8black lip shell0 of the ,australian coast4 ,it is considerably larger than the ,venezuelan oyster1 averaging four or five inches in diameter and attaining an extreme diameter of seven or possibly eight inches4 ,it occurs to some extent all along the ,pacific coast of ,mexico1 in detached beds intercalated in places4 ,the principal reefs1 which have been exploited for nearly four centuries1 are in the shallow waters of the ,gulf of ,california and especially within the #cjj miles between ,cape ,san ,lucas and ,mulege ,bay4 ,the fisheries have centered about the islands of ,cerralvo1 ,espiritu ,santo1 ,carmen1 and ,san ,jos1 and in the bays of ,mulege1 ,ventana1 and ,san ,lorenzo4 ,the depth of water on the reefs ranges from two to twenty-five fathoms1 with an average of probably six or eight fathoms4 ,the species is generally isolated1 and firmly attached by the byssus to the bottom rocks or the stone corals1 from which it may remove in case of necessity1 though it probably does not do so frequently4 ,the second species is known locally under the name concha nacar1 and has been named ,margaritifera 7,avicula7 vinesi 7,rochebonne74#bih ,it occurs only in the northern part of the gulf near the mouth of the ,colorado ,river4 ,formerly it was abundant in that region1 occurring in large areas1 but it has become much reduced and is now little sought after4 ,it is claimed that this species is far more productive of pearls than the ,m4 margaritifera1 and that it yielded the large quantities obtained by ,osio in the eighteenth century4 ,although iridescent1 the shell is so thin and convex that it is without commercial value4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,adams ,,gold ,,vase ,ornamented with ,american gems and fresh-water pearls1 rock crystal1 gold quartz and agatized wood ,top of vase and side view ,now in the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art ,the headquarters of the ,mexican pearl fishery are at ,la ,paz1 the capital of ,lower ,california1 #bdj miles northwest of ,mazatlan and #aej miles north of ,cape ,san ,lucas4 ,this 8,mantle of ,peace0--the literal translation of ,la ,paz--contains about #ejjj inhabitants1 nearly all of whom are more or less dependent on the pearl fishery4 ,it presents an attractive picture1 with the cocoanut-palms extending down almost to the water's edge1 and the high mountains forming a background4 ,the low1 stone houses1 the tile roofs1 the plaza with tropical trees1 and the beautiful flower beds under perennial sunny skies1 give it a quaint appearance4 ,the most conspicuous objects from the harbor are the large old warehouses1 with thick walls and iron-barred windows1 for the storage of the pearls and the shells4 ,during the season1 from ,april to ,november1 the arrival and departure of the pearling vessels presents a scene of great animation4 ,the present methods of the fishery on the ,mexican coast are quite different from those of thirty years ago when nude diving was the only method in vogue4 ,instead of the haphazard work1 largely in shallow water1 the industry is conducted systematically1 and the limit of depth is increased1 much of the diving being in depths of ten to fifteen fathoms4 ,the fishermen operate either from a large vessel making a cruise two or three months in length1 or from a camp on the shore near the reefs4 ,a vessel visits them frequently to furnish supplies and to transport the catch to ,la ,paz4 ,the fishing boats are undecked craft1 each equipped with an air-pump and a crew of six men3 a diver1 a cabo de vida or life-line man1 who is usually the captain1 two bomberos at the air-pump1 and two rowers4 ,the greatest depth at which armored diving is attempted in ,mexico rarely exceeds twenty fathoms2 twenty-five fathoms is fully as deep as it is practicable to go1 and it is not advisable to remain at that depth more than a very few minutes4 ,at fifteen fathoms a diver may remain half an hour or more1 and at six or eight fathoms he may work uninterruptedly for several hours4 ,when the water is very cold1 the diver comes up frequently to restore his numbed circulation by vigorous rubbing4 ,the occupation is especially conducive to rheumatism1 and paralysis is more or less general1 due1 not only to the compressed atmosphere1 but to the abrupt changes of temperature4 ,the work is very debilitating1 with particular effect on the nerves1 and partial deafness is common4 ,it is important that the diver be careful about overeating before descending1 as heavy foods1 and meats especially1 make respiration difficult2 therefore1 breakfast consists of little more than bread and coffee4 ,the risks and dangers from sharks1 devil-fish1 etc41 have greatly diminished since the introduction of scaphanders2 for a stout diver in his waterproof dress1 with leads on the breast1 shoulders1 and shoes1 and on his head a massive helmet containing great gaping windows for eyes1 is enough to cause even a hungry shark to hesitate and to seek a more digestible meal4 ,there are yet many nude divers in ,mexico1 who operate in shallow waters1 their cheap labor making them successful competitors of the armored divers4 ,in arranging with these1 the pearling company commonly grub-stakes a crew1 pays a stipulated sum per hundredweight for the shells1 and bargains for the pearls4 ,if the fishermen are not satisfied with the price offered for these1 they are at liberty to sell to other buyers under certain restrictions4 ,nude diving is confined to the warm months1 beginning about the middle of ,may and continuing until ,october4 ,owing to the cloudy or muddy condition of the water in the gulf1 the nude diver can not inspect the bottom from the surface and select the best oysters before descending1 nor can he work satisfactorily at depths greater than seven or eight fathoms4 ,while the work is hard1 it is more remunerative than the average branch of labor in this region4 ,each day the boats deliver their catch of oysters at the fishing-camps or on board the receiving vessels4 ,after they have been freed from marine growths and refuse1 the mollusks are opened and searched for pearls4 ,this operation is performed by trusted employees1 usually elderly men who have become physically disqualified for diving1 and who1 seated together at a low table1 work under the watchful eyes of overseers4 ,a knife is introduced between the valves of the oyster1 the adductor muscle is severed1 and the valves are separated by breaking the hinge4 ,the animal is removed from the shell and carefully examined with the eyes and the fingers1 and then squeezed in the hands to locate any pearl which may be concealed in the organs or tissues4 ,the debris is passed to other persons1 who submit it to further examinations4 ,a man may work all day long and find only a few seed-pearls1 but occasionally there is the excitement of discovering a beautiful gem4 ,in some localities the flesh of the pearl-oyster is a source of profit through its sale to ,chinamen1 who dry and otherwise prepare it for sale among their countrymen in ,mexico and ,america1 as well as in the ,orient4 ,frequently the large adductor muscle is dried for food1 making excellent soup-stock1 and1 indeed1 it is quite palatable when stewed4 ,it is difficult to approximate the output of the ,mexican pearl fisheries1 other than the pearl shell1 because the dealers place a merely nominal value on the pearls in their invoices when sending them to ,europe1 an invoice of #ejj sometimes representing gems valued in ,paris at several thousand dollars4 ,furthermore1 it is difficult to obtain satisfactory information from the pearling companies1 owing1 presumably1 to the fear of developing greater competition4 ,according to the estimates at ,la ,paz1 the local value of the pearl yield now approximates #bej1jjj annually1 and the value of the same over the counters in ,europe and ,america probably exceeds one million dollars4 ,some remarkably large pearls have been secured in the ,mexican fisheries1 especially considering the small size of the oysters4 ,in #ahga a pearl of #if grains1 pear-shaped and without a flaw1 sold at ,la ,paz for #cjjj pesos4 ,in ,march1 #aijg1 a beautiful pinkish white one1 found near the lower end of the peninsula1 sold for #bh1jjj pesos or #ad1jjj4 ,one of the best years for choice finds was #ahha1 when the scaphanders were first employed to their greatest efficiency4 ,a black pearl was then secured which weighed #aab grains1 and which brought #dj1jjj francs in ,paris4 ,in #ahhb two1 weighing #abd and #ahj grains respectively1 sold for #aa1jjj pesos4 ,in the following year a light brown pearl1 flecked with dark brown1 and weighing #bfj grains1 sold for #gejj pesos4 ,these are the prices which the ,la ,paz merchants received for these pearls1 and not the much greater amounts for which they were finally sold by the jewelers4 ,one of the finest pearls was found in #ahhd near ,mulege4 ,this weighed #cgb grains4 ,the ,indian fisherman is said to have sold it for #ij2 the purchaser declined an offer of #ajjj pesos1 and also a second offer of #ejjj1 and soon sold it to a ,la ,paz dealer for #aj1jjj pesos4 ,its value in ,paris was estimated at #he1jjj francs4 ,probably the most famous of all pearls obtained from these grounds was 8the #djj-;grain pearl0 found near ,loreto1 and 8which is now among the royal jewels of ,spain40 ,it is said that this was offered by the lucky fisherman to the ,mission of ,loreto1 and by the ,director of ,missions in ,lower ,california was presented to the ,queen of ,spain4#bii ,as in every other fishery1 one hears in ,mexico of fishermen who have grasped a prize only to lose it through inexperience or improvidence4 ,the account given above of the sale of the #cgb-;grain pearl found near ,mulege furnishes an instance of this4 ,it is related in ,la ,paz that in #ahhc an ,indian sold for ten pesos a gem weighing #abh grains1 for which the purchaser received #bg1ejj francs in ,paris4 ,on another occasion a ,mexican sold two pearls1 easily worth #djjj1 for #af worth of groceries4 ,in the eighteenth century1 the ,notre ,dame de ,loreto possessed a remarkable collection of ,mexican pearls1 which had been presented from time to time by the fishermen4 ,during the rgime of the ,jesuits1 it was customary to devote the proceeds of the last day of the fishery to the decoration of the altar of that mission4 ,after the expulsion of this religious order in #agfg1 the mission was pillaged and the collection dissipated4 ,from the old aristocracy of ,mexico1 family heirlooms of many choice pearls were placed on the ,european market during the civil wars in ,mexico to contribute to the support of the contending armies4 ,one lady in ,sonora is said to have disposed of her collection for #eej1jjj francs4 ,a fine collection of these pearls1 accumulated from #agfj to #ahej1 and showing them in a great variety of colors1 shapes1 and sizes1 was in ,chihuahua until recently4 ,,american ,,fresh ,,waters ,and my pearls are pure as thy own fair neck1 ,with whose radiant light they vie4 ,,whittier1 ,the ,vaudois ,teacher4 ,the most recently developed pearl fisheries are within the limits of the ,united ,states1 in the rivers and fresh-water lakes1 and especially those in the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,as an important industrial enterprise1 these fisheries are less than two decades old1 yet they are very productive1 yielding annually above half a million dollars' worth of pearls1 many of which compare favorably in quality with those from oriental seas4 ,the prehistoric mounds in the ,mississippi ,valley present evidence of the estimation in which pearls were held by a race of men who passed away ages before ,america was first visited by ,europeans4 ,in some of these mounds1 erected by a long-forgotten race1 pearls have been found not only in hundreds and in thousands1 but by gallons and even by bushels4 ,some of these equal three quarters of an inch in diameter1 and in quantity exceed the richest individual collections of the present day4 ,damaged and partly decomposed by heat and through centuries of burial1 they have lost their beauty1 and are of value only to the archologist and to indicate the quantity of pearly treasures possessed by these early people4 ,owing to the great wealth of pearls which had been uncovered on the ,spanish ,main1 at ,panama1 and in the ,gulf of ,california1 ,eldorado explorers1 in the sixteenth century1 were particularly eager in searching for them within the present limits of the ,united ,states2 in the reports of their wanderings1 much space is given to these gems1 and these reports aided largely in inducing and encouraging other expeditions4 ,some of these accounts read like the marvelous stories of ,sindbad the ,sailor1 quantities of pearls--hundreds of pounds in some instances--being secured by the exchange of trinkets and by more questionable means4 ,it would be easy to bring together numerous accounts of apparently reliable authorities to show that in the sixteenth century pearls were obtained here in far greater quantities than were ever known in any other part of the world2 but this conclusion seems not wholly correct4 ,the unfortunate wanderings of ,hernando de ,soto from #aeci to #aedb gave rise to most of the reports of rich pearl finds within the limits of this country4 ,of this voyage there are three principal accounts4 ,the first was by ,luis ,hernandez de ,biedma1 who had accompanied ,de ,soto as factor for ,charles ,v of ,spain4 ,his brief report was presented to the king in #aedd1 although it was not published until #ahda1 nearly three centuries later1 when it appeared in a ,french translation4#cjj ,the second1 and in our opinion the most reliable account1#cja published at ,evora in #aegg1 was by an unnamed ,portuguese 7in ,english editions1 commonly spoken of as the ,gentleman of ,elvas71 who was a member of the expedition4 ,the third account1#cjb by far the longest and most widely known1 but which was not written until #aeia1 was by ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 who represented that his information was from a ,spanish cavalier who had accompanied ,de ,soto4 ,the only reference made to pearls in ,biedma's report seems to be his allusion to the large quantity secured at the village of ,cofaciqui1 on the east bank of the ,savannah ,river4 ,he states3 8,when we arrived there1 the queen 444 presented the governor with a necklace of pearls of five or six rows1 procured for us canoes to pass the river1 and assigned the half of the village for our quarters4 ,after having been in our company three or four days1 she escaped into the forest2 the governor caused search to be made after her1 but without success2 he then gave orders to break open a temple erected in this village1 wherein the chiefs of the country were interred4 ,we took out of it a vast quantity of pearls1 which might amount to six or seven arrobas1#cjc but they were spoiled by having been underground40#cjd ,the ,portuguese narrative alludes to the pearls at ,cofaciqui1 stating that the queen 8took from her own neck a great cordon of pearls1 and cast it about the neck of the governor4444 ,and the lady1 perceiving that the ,christians esteemed the pearls1 advised the governor to search certain graves in the town1 where he would find many2 and that if he would send to the abandoned towns1 he might load all his horses4 ,he sought the graves of that town and there found fourteen rows of pearls1 and little babies and birds made of them40#cje ,this account makes no further mention of pearls1 except to state that at the battle of ,mavilla this great collection was burned1 and that when the ,queen of ,cofaciqui escaped from the ,portuguese she carried with her a little chest full of unbored pearls1 which some of the ,spaniards thought were of great value2#cjf and further1 that on one or two other occasions a few pearls were received from the ,indians as presents4 ,the account of ,de ,soto's wanderings1 given by ,garcilasso1 the ,peruvian historian1 contains many references to pearls1 which read more like romance than reality4 ,with his knowledge of the jewels1 temples1 etc41 in ,mexico and ,peru1 and recognizing some similarities in the manners of the people of those countries and the ones with whom ,de ,soto came in contact1 ,garcilasso was easily led to statements which1 though possibly true in the one case1 seem fictitious in the other4 ,he gives the story of the ,queen of ,cofaciqui1 with some additional particulars4 ,the string of pearls which she presented to the governor made three circuits of her neck and descended to her waist4 ,in his account1 the graves in ,cofaciqui became a temple containing1 among other riches1 more than a thousand measures of pearls1 of which they took only two4 ,near ,cofaciqui was the temple of ,talomeco1 over a hundred steps long by forty broad1 with the walls high in proportion4 ,upon the roof of the temple were shells of different sizes1 placed with the inside out1 to give more brilliancy1 and with the intervals 8filled with many strings of pearls of divers sizes1 in the form of festoons1 from one shell to the other1 and extending from the top of the roof to the bottom40 ,within the temple1 festoons of pearls hung from the ceiling and from all other parts of the building4 ,in the middle were three rows of chests of graded sizes1 arranged in pyramids of five or six chests each1 according to their sizes4 8,all these chests were filled with pearls1 in such a manner that the largest contain the largest pearls1 and thus1 in succession1 to the smallest1 which were full of seed-pearls only4 ,the quantity of pearls was such1 that the ,spaniards avowed1 that even if there had been more than nine hundred men and three hundred horses1 they all together could not have carried off at one time all the pearls of this temple4 ,we ought not to be too much astonished at this1 if we consider that the ,indians of the province conveyed into these chests1 during many ages1 all the pearls which they found1 without retaining a single one of them40#cjg ,in the armory attached to this temple were long pikes1 maces1 clubs1 and other weapons mounted with links and tassels of pearls4 ,garcilasso has an interesting story of an incident said to have occurred a few days after leaving ,cofaciqui1 when the troops were passing through the wilderness4 ,illustration3 ,negro pearling camp on bank of an ,arkansas river ,illustration3 ,group of ,arkansas pearl fishermen2 photographed shortly after the woman in the center of the group had found a pearl for which she received #hjj ,juan ,terron1 one of the stoutest soldiers of the army1 toward noon1 drew from his saddle-bags about six pounds of pearls1 and pressed a cavalier1 one of his friends1 to take them4 ,the cavalier thanked him and told him that he ought to keep them1 or rather1 since the report was current that the general would send to ,havana1 send them there to buy horses and go no longer afoot4 ,offended at this answer1 ,terron replied that 8these pearls then shall not go any farther10 and thereupon scattered them here and there upon the grass and through the bushes4 ,they were surprised at this folly1 for the pearls were as large as hazel-nuts1 and of very fine water1 and because they were not pierced they were worth more than six thousand ducats4 ,they collected about thirty of these pearls1 which were so beautiful that it made them regret the loss of the others1 and say1 in raillery1 these words1 which passed into a proverb with them1 8,there are no pearls for ,juan ,terron40#cjh ,at the capital of ,iciaha1 ,de ,soto received from the cacique or chief1 a string1 five feet in length1 of beautiful and well-matched pearls as large as filberts4 ,upon ,de ,soto's expressing a desire to learn how the gems were extracted from the shells1 the chief immediately ordered four boats to fish all night and return in the morning4 ,in the meantime they burnt a great deal of wood upon the shore1 in order to make there a great bed of live coals1 that at the return of the boats they might put thereon the shells1 which would open with the heat4 ,they found1 at the opening of the first shells1 ten or twelve pearls of the size of a pea1 which they took to the cacique1 and to the general who was present1 and who found them very beautiful1 except that the fire had deprived them of a part of their lustre4 ,when the general had seen what he wished1 he returned to dine2 and immediately after1 a soldier entered1 who instantly said to him that1 in eating oysters which the ,indians had caught1 his teeth had encountered a very beautiful pearl of a very lively color1 and that he begged him to receive it to send to the governess of ,cuba4 ,soto politely refused this pearl1 and assured the soldier that he was as obliged to him as if he had accepted it2 and that some day he would try to acknowledge his kindness1 and the honor which he did his wife2 and that he should preserve it to purchase horses at ,havana4 ,the ,spaniards valued it at four hundred ducats2 and as they had not made use of fire to extract it1 it had not lost any of its lustre4#cji ,notwithstanding the strong indorsement given to ,garcilasso's narrative by ,theodore ,irving and some other writers1 his tendency to exaggerate depreciates greatly the historical value of his account1 and it seems wholly unreliable as an authority relative to early resources in ,america4 ,we may reasonably doubt whether ,de ,soto's expedition came in contact with more pearls than those mentioned by ,biedma and the ,portuguese writer4 ,the account of the first voyage along the coast of the ,united ,states1 that of the ,italian1 ,juan ,verrazano1 in #aebd1 contains no reference to pearls1 although he penetrated into the interior a score or two of miles1 and was frequently in contact with the natives1 who lived largely by fishing1 and who prized many ornaments of different colored stones1 copper rings1 etc4 ,the first expedition which went far into the interior was the ill-fated one under command of ,pnfilo de ,narvaez in #aebh4 ,a thrilling account#caj of this journey was written by ,cabeza de ,vaca1 who was one of the four survivors1 after eight years' wandering through ,america to ,mexico4 ,cabeza had been controller and royal treasurer of the expedition1 and in that position it was his particular duty to acquaint himself with all the pearls1 gold1 and similar riches found by the party4 ,notwithstanding his tradings with the ,indians and their efforts to gain his friendship by means of presents1 his account makes no mention of pearls1 except to refer to a statement made by some ,indians that on the coast of the ,south ,sea there were pearls and great riches4 ,hernando ,d',escalante ,fontaneda1 who was shipwrecked on the ,florida coast about #aeej1 and was detained there a prisoner for seventeen years1 wrote3 8,between ,abolachi ,appalachicola and ,olagale is a river which the ,indians call ,guasaca-,esqui1 which means ,reed ,river4 ,it is on the sea-coast1 and at the mouth of this river the pearls are found in oysters and other shells2 from thence they are carried into all the provinces and villages of ,florida40#caa ,the ,european narrators also reported great stores of pearls along the ,atlantic seaboard4 ,among the first of these may be mentioned ,david ,ingram1 who is represented as traveling by land from the ,gulf of ,mexico to the vicinity of ,cape ,breton in the years #aefh and #aefi4 ,as it appeared in the first edition of ,hakluyt's ,voyages1 this relation states3 8,there is in some of those ,countreys great abundance of ,pearle1 for in every ,cottage he founde ,pearle1 in some howse a quarte1 in some a pottel half a gallon1 in some a pecke1 more or less1 where he did see some as great as an ,acorn2 and ,richard ,browne1 one of his ,companyons1 found one of these great ,pearls in one of their ,canoes1 or ,boates1 wch ,pearls he gave to ,mouns ,campaine1 whoe toke them aboarde his shippe40#cab ,estimation of ,ingram's wonderful relation is decreased by ,purchas's comment3 ,as for ,david ,ingram's perambulations to the north parts1 ,master ,hakluyt1 in his first edition printed the same2 but it seemeth some incredibilities of his reports caused him to leave him out in the next impression2 the reward of lying being1 not to be believed in truths4#cac ,even the members of ,raleigh's ,roanoke ,colony of #aehe reported pearls4 ,hariot stated3 ,sometimes in feeding on ,muscles we found some ,pearle3 but it was our happe to meet with ragges1 or of a pide colour3 not having yet discovered those places where we heard of better and more plenty4 ,one of our company1 a man of skill in such matters1 had gathered from among the ,savage people about five thousand3 of which number he chooses so many as made a faire chaine1 which for their likenesse and uniformity in roundenesse1 orientnesse1 and piednesse of many excellent colours1 with equality in greatnesse1 were very faire and rare3 and had therefore been presented to her ,majesty1 had we not by casualty1 and through extremity of a storme lost them1 with many things els in coming away from the countrey4#cad ,so far as we can learn1 there is no evidence to show that1 during the sixteenth or the seventeenth century1 any pearls of value were received in ,europe from within the present limits of the ,united ,states1 as was the case with the resources of ,venezuela1 ,panama and ,mexico4 ,many of the accounts quoted above seem wholly fictitious1 some of them possibly drawn up for the purpose of promoting exploring expeditions4 ,it is also probable that knowledge of the enormous collections at ,venezuela and ,panama misled some of the narrators into recognizing as pearls the spherical pieces of shell or even the cylindrical wampum which the ,indians made in large quantities and used as money4 ,however1 it is unquestionable that pearls of value were in the possession of some of the wealthier tribes4 ,biedma's account of the #aej pounds or more of damaged pearls in the graves at ,cofaciqui seems wholly reliable1 and likewise many other statements2 and it is an interesting problem to determine the source from which the ,indians obtained them4 ,most of the narratives refer to the pearls as coming from the coast of the ,south ,sea or ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,the evidence of ,fontaneda1 who had spent seventeen years in the country1 throws some light on this4 ,he states that pearls were obtained at the mouth of ,reed ,river near ,appalachicola1 whence they were distributed throughout ,florida4 ,this seems to indicate that on the west coast of ,florida there might have been extensive reefs of pearl-bearing mollusks1 which have since become extinct1 although existing shell-heaps do not confirm this4 ,while it is possible and even probable that many of these pearls in the possession of the ,indians came from the ,gulf of ,mexico or even from the ,caribbean ,sea1 it seems much more likely that they came largely from the ,unios of the inland lakes and rivers4 ,the voyages of ,narvaez1 ,ayllon1 ,de ,soto1 ,ribault1 etc41 had been so unfortunate that for a century little exploration was made in the territory of the southern part of the ,united ,states4 ,when this territory was again invaded1 little was seen in the way of pearls4 ,iberville1 who established the ,french settlement near the mouth of the ,mississippi in #afii1 was specially directed to look for them4 ,his instructions state3 8,although the pearls presented to his ,majesty are not fine either in water or shape1 they must nevertheless be carefully sought1 as better may be found1 and his ,majesty desires ,m4 d',iberville to bring all he can2 ascertain where the fishery is carried on1 and see it in operation40#cae ,pearls were found in the territory of the ,pascagoulas1 but they were not worth the trouble of securing them4 ,it appears that from these the ,pearl ,river in ,mississippi derived its name4 ,the only reference to pearls in the seventy-one volumes of ,travels and ,explorations of the ,jesuit ,missionaries in ,new ,france1 from #afaj to #agia1 is a note by ,father ,gravier stating that he saw no choice pearls3 8,it is true the chief's wife has some small pearls2 but they are neither round nor well pierced1 with the exception of seven or eight1 which are as large as small peas1 and have been bought for more than they are worth40#caf ,daniel ,coxe's description1 in #agbb1 of pearl resources in ,america1 is of special interest because of the extended experience of his father as a trader in the country4 ,he states3 ,pearls are found to be in great abundance in this country2 the ,indians put some value upon them1 but not so much as on the colored beads we bring them4 ,on the whole coast of this province1 for two hundred leagues1 there are many vast beds of oysters which breed pearls1 as has been found in divers places4 ,but1 which is very remarkable1 far from the sea1 in fresh water rivers and lakes1 there is a sort of shell-fish between a mussel and a 1 wherein are found abundance of pearls1 and many of an unusual magnitude4 ,the ,indians1 when they take the oysters1 broil them over the fire till they are fit to eat1 keeping the large pearls they find in them1 which by the heat are tarnished and lose their native lustre2 but1 when we have taught them the right method1 doubtless it would be a very profitable trade4 ,there are two places we already know within land1 in each of which there is a great pearl fishery4 ,one about ,illustration3 ,,brooch1 ,,renaissance ,,style1 ,,set ,,with ,,baroque ,,pearls1 ,,from ,,american ,,streams ,pan-,american ,exposition1 #aija one hundred and twenty leagues up the ,river ,meschacebe ,mississippi1 on the west side1 in a lake made by the river of the ,naches1 about forty miles from its mouth1 where they are found in great plenty and many very large4 ,the other on the ,river ,chiaha1 which runs into the ,coza or ,cussaw ,river 7as our ,english call it71 and which comes from the northeast1 and1 after a course of some hundred miles1 disembogues into the ,gulf of ,florida1 about one hundred miles to the east of the ,meschacebe4#cag ,it is interesting to note that the first place mentioned by ,coxe as the location of a great pearl fishery is not far from one of the most productive pearling regions of the last fifteen years1 viz41 the eastern part of ,arkansas4 ,the second place noted by him appears to be identical with the ,iciaha1 where1 nearly two centuries before1 the ,indians exhibited the methods of their fishing to ,de ,soto and his companions4 ,excepting ,coxe's notice1 for #bej years following #afjj1 little was heard of the occurrence of pearls within this country4 ,this does not indicate necessarily that the gems were absent from the waters2 but1 not using the ,unios for food as did the aborigines1 the residents had little occasion to open them and in this way learn of their contents4 ,and even where pearls were occasionally found in mollusks opened for fish-bait1 the people were in few instances informed as to their market value1 and did not attempt to sell them1 although the most attractive ones may have been treasured as ornaments or as keepsakes4 ,this was paralleled in the diamond fields of ,south ,africa1 where gems worth thousands of dollars were used as playthings by the farmers' children4 ,a jewel1 like a prophet1 is frequently without honor in its own country until the residents of that country learn of the great esteem in which it is held elsewhere4 ,and yet1 in some localities a few pearls were collected from time to time4 ,the ,moravians--familiar with the pearls of their native streams in ,europe--gathered many from the ,lehigh ,river near ,bethlehem1 ,pennsylvania1 over a century ago2#cah and from ,rhode ,island and elsewhere a few were obtained4 ,the first awakening to a realization of the value of fresh-water pearls in ,america occurred fifty years ago1 when several beautiful gems were marketed from the northern part of ,new ,jersey4 ,the story of this find has been frequently told4 ,a shoemaker named ,david ,howell1 who lived on the outskirts of ,paterson1 occasionally relieved the monotony of his trade by a fishing excursion to some neighboring stream1 where he would usually collect a 8mess0 of mussels4 ,returning from one of these visits to ,notch ,brook in the spring of #aheg1 the mussels were fried with the usual abundance of grease and heat4 ,after this preparation1 one of them was found to contain a large1 round pearl weighing 8nearly #djj grains10 which possibly might have proven the finest of modern times1 had not its luster and beauty been destroyed by the heat and grease4#cai ,had the pearl been discovered in time1 its value might have exceeded #be1jjj1 thus making poor ,howell's fried mussels one of the most expensive of suppers4 ,hoping to duplicate his wonderful find1 ,howell collected and searched other mussels1 and his example was followed by several of his neighbors4 ,within a few days a magnificent pink pearl was found by a ,paterson carpenter named ,jacob ,quackenbush4 ,this weighed ninety-three grains1 and was bought by the late ,charles ,l4 ,tiffany for ,messrs4 ,tiffany ,co41 ,new ,york ,city1 for #aejj4 ,mr4 ,tiffany later described with much interest the feelings he experienced after making the purchase4 ,said he3 8,here this man finds a pearl within seventeen miles of our place of business6 ,what if thousands should be found1 and many perhaps finer than this one6 ,however1 we risked buying the pearl1 and as no one in ,new ,york seemed interested in it1 we sent it to our ,paris house for sale1 and a ,french gem dealer offered for it a very large advance on the original price1 paying #ab1ejj francs40 ,from this dealer it passed into the possession of the young and beautiful ,empress ,eugnie1 from whom and from its great luster it derived the name 8,queen ,pearl40 ,its present market value would doubtless amount to #aj1jjj or more4 ,when news of the very large price received for ,quackenbush's find became public1 great excitement developed in the vicinity of ,notch ,brook4 ,persons came from all directions to search in the shallow streams for valuable pearls4 ,farmers of the neighborhood tried their luck1 and also mechanics and other residents of the adjacent villages and towns1 and even some from ,newark1 ,jersey ,city1 and ,new ,york4 ,an old resident1 who was an eye-witness1 describes the scene as one of great animation1 the crowds of people and the horses and wagons along the shore giving 8an appearance of camp-meeting time40 ,at least one schoolmaster in the vicinity is said to have closed his school to give his pupils an opportunity to engage in the hunt4 ,with trousers rolled up1 the people waded into the shallow water and sought for the mussels in the mud and sand on the bottom4 ,many pearls were secured1 but none approached in size or value the two above noted4#cbj ,during #aheg1 the ,new ,york ,city market received about #ae1jjj worth of pearls from these waters1 and in addition many were sold locally or retained as souvenirs of the hunt4 ,at the low price of pearls existing then1 this figure would mean possibly ten times as much at present1 or #aej1jjj4 ,the active search soon depleted the resources of the little stream1 so that in the following year the reported value of the yield was only a few thousand dollars4 ,the decrease continued until in a few years practically every mussel was removed1 and at present scarcely a single ,unio is to be found in these waters4 ,the interest in pearling extended far from the place of the original find2 and in ,pennsylvania1 ,ohio1 and even as far away as ,texas1 search was made in the streams4 ,in the ,colorado and its tributaries1 about #bj1jjj were found in a short while4 ,most of these were small and unattractive1 but a considerable number were reported 8as large as pepper-corns0 and a few 8the size of a small rifle ball10 the number decreasing with the increase in size4 ,a correspondent in the 8,neue ,zeit0 wrote3 ,sometimes they are round1 sometimes cylindrical1 elliptical1 hemispherical1 or of an altogether irregular shape4 ,the finest have a milk-white1 silvery sheen2 many1 however1 are reddish yellow1 bluish brown1 or quite black2 the last naturally have no value whatever4 ,as to their value1 there is considerable uncertainty1 and it can easily be understood that those who have a great number of them in their possession greatly overestimate them4 ,so far they are found principally in the ,llano and the ,san ,saba4#cba ,after the resources in northern ,new ,jersey were depleted and the excitement had died out1 little was heard of pearling in this country until #ahgh1 when many were found in ,little ,miami ,river in southwestern ,ohio4 ,the fishing was carried on at low water1 and principally by boys1 who would wade out in the water and feel for the mollusks with their feet1 and then bob under and pick them up with their hands4 ,the senior author spent a day in this fishery with a party of six boys with some success4 ,during #ahgh about #be1jjj worth of pearls were collected in the vicinity of ,waynesville on that stream4 ,mr4 ,israel ,h4 ,harris1 a banker of ,waynesville1 then began collecting these pearls2 and by purchasing during several years nearly every interesting specimen found in the vicinity1 he made his collection one of the largest and best known in the country4 ,when sold in #ahhh1 it contained several thousand pearls1 mostly of small size1 averaging in weight little more than one grain each4 ,a large portion of this collection was exhibited in the ,american section of the ,paris ,exposition of #ahhi1 and was awarded a gold medal4 ,included in this exhibit was a series of ornaments in which the gems were arranged according to color1 so that in one the pearls were green1 in another purplish brown1 in another pink1 in another waxy white1 and in one a cream-white4 ,it also contained a button-shaped pearl weighing thirty-eight grains and several pink ones almost translucent4 ,a pink pearl of eight grains was admired by all who saw it2 by reflected light this had the color and translucency of a drop of molten silver4 ,many of the pink pearls found in the ,little ,miami and its tributaries were of the most beautiful rose-petal pink2 pearls of this peculiar color have never been found in any other waters4 ,from ,ohio the industry gradually extended westward and southward1 and new fields were developed1 pearls to the value of about #aj1jjj annually coming on the market from such widely separated ,states as ,vermont1 ,kentucky1 ,tennessee1 ,florida1 ,texas1 ,washington1 etc4 ,however1 little general interest was taken in fresh-water pearls1 and few choice ones were found until the magnificent resources of the upper ,mississippi ,valley were discovered4 ,owing to the ease with which the mollusks may be collected by wading1 it was in the relatively shallow tributaries that the fishery first developed1 rather than in the deep channels of the main stream and of the large affluents4 ,the first region in the ,mississippi ,valley to attract attention was southwestern ,wisconsin4 ,early in the summer of #ahhi1 many beautiful pearls were found in ,pecatonica ,river1 a tributary of ,rock ,river1 which in turn empties into the ,mississippi4 ,within three months1 #aj1jjj worth of gems were sent from this region to ,new ,york ,city alone1 including one worth #ejj1 which was a very considerable sum for a fresh-water pearl at that time4 ,the interest quickly spread to neighboring waters1 and within a short time pearls were found also in ,sugar ,river1 in ,apple ,river1 in ,rock ,river1 in ,wisconsin ,river1 and in the ,mississippi in the vicinity of ,prairie du ,chien4 ,the fact that little experience and no capital was required for the business drew large numbers of persons to the newly-found ,klondike2 and the finds were so numerous and of such high quality that about #cjj1jjj worth of pearls were collected before the end of #ahia1 greatly exceeding all records for fresh waters4 ,the ,wisconsin pearls are remarkable for their beauty1 luster1 and diversified coloring1 and some lovely shades of pink1 purple1 and especially metallic green have been found4 ,several of them have weighed in excess of fifty grains each1 and some individual values ran well into four figures4 ,one shipment made from ,sugar ,river to ,london in ,september1 #ahij1 contained ninety-three pearls1 weighing from four to twenty-eight grains each1 for which #aa1gjj was received in payment4 ,in the limits of one county in the following year1 pearls to the value of nearly #ajj1jjj were secured4 ,illustration3 ,,brooches ,,and ,,rings ,,of ,,fresh-,,water ,,pearls ,,from ,,wisconsin ,,and ,,tennessee ,paris ,exposition1 #aijj ,shortly following the outbreak of pearling in ,wisconsin came the development of interest in certain parts of ,tennessee4 ,for many years pearls had been secured from the ,cumberland and ,tennessee rivers and their tributaries1 especially ,caney ,fork1 ,duck1 ,calf ,killer1 and ,elk rivers1 the headquarters of the fishery and the local markets being ,carthage1 ,smithville1 ,columbia1 and ,arlington4 ,the search had been conducted in a moderate way by pleasure parties in the summer1 and by farmers after the crops had been laid aside4 ,in #aija pearling excitement developed in the mountain regions of eastern ,tennessee1 especially in ,clinch ,river4 ,these newly-discovered resources proved so valuable that the local interest became very great4 ,vivid and picturesque accounts published in the local papers reported hundreds of persons as camping at various points along the streams1 some in tents and some in rough shanties1 and others going from shoal to shoal in newly-built house-boats4 ,they were described as easygoing1 pleasure-loving people1 the men1 women1 and children working hard all day1 subsisting largely on fish caught in the same stream1 and dancing at night to the music of a banjo around the camp-fires4 ,the center of the new industry was ,clinton1 the county seat of ,anderson ,county1 whither the successful hunters betook themselves each ,saturday1 the preferred time for selling the catch4 ,the next outbreak of pearling excitement was in ,arkansas1 in the region referred to by ,daniel ,coxe two centuries ago as the location of great pearl resources4#cbb ,although in recent times little had been heard of pearls in ,arkansas previous to #ahie1 they were not unknown in that ,state4 ,for years they had been picked up by the fishermen1 and used as lucky stones or given to the children for playthings4 ,some had come into the possession of persons acquainted with their value4 ,about #ahge1 a few pearls were collected by a party of men engaged in cutting cedar poles on ,white ,river2 in #ahhh1 a brilliant pear-shaped pink pearl of twenty-seven grains was secured from the same river1 and sold to a prominent resident4 ,little had been said about these finds1 and in general the people of ,arkansas had slight idea of the occurrence or the value of pearls in those waters4 ,in #ahie1 a surveying party on ,white ,river found pearls in the ,unios of that stream1 and collected them to the value of about #ejjj4 ,news of this discovery attracted attention to the resource1 and other persons sought for the gems in the ,white ,river and its tributaries1 in the ,st4 ,francis and the ,arkansas rivers4 ,the unusually low water in #ahif facilitated the fishery1 and resulted in the discovery of many large and valuable gems4 ,the interest developed rapidly1 and within twelve months nearly every stream of water in ,arkansas yielded pearls1 with the finds most extensive and valuable in ,white ,river and its tributary the ,black ,river1 which has proved to be the richest pearling region in ,america4 ,the industry centered at ,black ,rock1 more than a thousand persons fishing within twenty miles of that place4 ,it is estimated that within three years following the development of this fishery1 this ,state yielded pearls to the value of more than #ejj1jjj4 ,when the ,arkansas fishery was at its height1 it was reported that ten thousand persons were employed therein4 ,the fishermen were from nearly every class and condition in the ,state4 ,women were not absent2 even children participated in the industry1 and some proved more fortunate than the older hunters4 ,it was not uncommon to see several hundred persons congregated at one bar or in one stretch of the river1 all intent on making a fortune1 and all occupied in fishing or in opening the shells4 ,so complete was the absorption of the people in this pursuit1 and so many of the farm-hands were occupied in the eager search for anticipated fortunes1 that the local papers reported much apprehension and difficulty in harvesting the cotton and other crops4 ,within the main channel of the ,mississippi1 the relative scarcity of pearls in the ,unios1 and the greater preparation required for collecting the mollusks in the deep waters1 retarded the fishery until the establishment of button manufacture afforded a market for the shells1 this originating in #ahia4 ,the industry developed rapidly1 and for several years has consumed about #ce1jjj tons of shells annually1 obtained principally in the ,mississippi between ,quincy and ,la ,crosse1 and to a much less extent in other streams in this valley4 ,this is more than twice the total product of mother-of-pearl shell in all parts of the world4 ,however1 the value per ton is very much less than that of the best grade of mother-of-pearl2 that from ,australia1 for instance1 commonly selling for #abjj per ton1 whereas the ,mississippi shell usually sells for less than #bj1 although the very choicest may bring upward of #ej per ton4 ,the gathering of shells for manufacture has extended to many of the large tributaries of the ,mississippi1 especially the ,arkansas1 the ,white1 the ,st4 ,francis1 the ,ohio and the ,illinois rivers1 and this industry has added largely to the pearl yield in these waters4 ,in the last three years1 the scenes of greatest activity have been the ,wabash ,river and its tributaries1 where shell-collecting developed in #aijc1 and the ,illinois ,river1 where the industry was of little importance previous to #aijf4 ,on the ,wabash1 camps were established at almost every town1 from the mouth up to ,st4 ,francis1 ,illinois1 and about one thousand persons found employment4 ,some of the most beautiful ,american gems have come from this river4 ,they are usually silvery white in color and of the sweetest luster4 ,a single pearl weighing only ten grains has been sold at the river for #ajjj2 but it is frequently the case that a fine gem will sell for more at the place where found than in the great markets4 ,during the spring of #aijg1 three pearls were found in the ,wabash near ,vincennes1 which weighed forty-one1 fifty-one1 and fifty-three grains respectively4 ,one of these was white1 one faint pink1 and the third was yellow4 ,the finest pearls have been reported from the vicinity of ,mount ,carmel near the lower end of the river4 ,very large quantities of baroques or slugs are found in the ,wabash and the ,illinois2 #cj1jjj ounces were reported from those rivers and their tributaries in #aijg1 for which the fishermen received a total of #ej1jjj4 ,a large symmetrical pearl found during #aijg weighed a trifle under #aej grains1 and a slug was found which weighed fully one ounce1 or #fjf grains4 ,the pearl-hunting excitement has been felt even on the ,atlantic seaboard1 as a result of the publication of the discoveries in the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,in ,maine many pearls have been reported1 especially in the vicinity of ,moosehead ,lake4 ,in #aija over one hundred were found in that vicinity2 most of them were of little value1 but more than a dozen were worth #aj or #ae each4 ,three found by ,kineo guides were sold for an aggregate of #cjj4 ,the choicest one reported in that year weighed twelve and one half grains and sold for #aej2 had it been perfect in form and luster its value would have been several times that amount4 ,most of these pearls were found by ,moosehead guides1 who found purchasers among the visiting fishermen and hunters4 ,since #aija many farm-boys as well as guides have devoted much attention to the business1 some of them deriving as large a revenue therefrom as from the use of the rifle4 ,good finds have been made1 during the last year or two especially4 ,in #aijf1 one choice pearl sold for #gjj1 and many have sold for #aj to #ge each4 ,the search has proven so alluring that returning visitors have complained that some of the guides care to do little more than search every rill1 brook1 and creek they come across looking for the mollusks4 ,just at present the principal attention seems to be directed to the streams in the western part of ,maine1 where the river-beds are more sandy and the shell-fish more abundant than in the northern and eastern part of the ,state4 ,in ,massachusetts pearls have been collected from many of the ponds and brooks4 ,in ,nonesuch ,pond in ,weston1 the ,unio complanata has yielded many small ones of attractive appearance1 but not of sufficient size or luster to sell for more than #aj each4 ,ponds in the town of ,greenwich and also in ,pelham in ,hampshire ,county are among the best in ,massachusetts for pearls4 ,the ,sudbury ,river above ,concord also yields many4 ,relatively few of the ,unios contain pearls1 and the gem-bearing individuals seem to be grouped in special localities4 ,outside of these places1 thousands of mussels may be opened without revealing a single gem4 ,a collection of small ,massachusetts pearls was brought together a few years ago by ,mr4 ,sherman ,f4 ,denton of ,wellesley ,farms1 who has devoted much time to exploring the inland waters of ,massachusetts4 ,connecticut also has had a slight touch of the pearl fever4 ,in #ahig1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,s4 ,carwell of ,ledyard1 explored the headwaters of ,mystic ,river1 and in a few weeks collected a number of pearls1 one of which he is reported as having sold for #ejj1 and two others were estimated at #djj each4 ,and from the other end of the ,state1 along the ,shepaug ,river1 is reported a similar account of the success of ,mr4 ,arlo ,kinney of ,steep ,rock4 ,attracted by these reports1 crowds of seekers have proceeded in the usual reckless manner to make wholesale destruction of the mollusks4 ,the finds have been especially large and valuable in the lakes and streams of ,litchfield ,county1 particularly in ,bantam ,lake4 ,in ,new ,york ,state1 pearls have been found in the swift shallow streams in the ,adirondack region1 and in several of those entering the ,st4 ,lawrence1 particularly the ,grass ,river in ,st4 ,lawrence ,county4 ,pearls were first reported from this region in #ahid4 ,in #ahif the ,grass yielded one pearl weighing fifty-eight grains1 worth #fjj locally2 and in #ahig one weighing sixty-eight grains was found1 the fisherman selling it for #hjj4 ,a resident of ,russell township devoted most of his time to pearling in ,grass ,river during #ahif and #ahig1 from which he is said to have realized #bjjj4 ,in this region the mussels are found by wading in the shallow water and scanning the bottom through a water-telescope4 ,most of the pearls are of slight value1 but many individuals are reported as worth from #cj to #fj each4 ,pearl ,river in ,rockland ,county1 ,new ,york1 has furnished a number of brown pearls4 ,these are commonly small1 weighing from one eighth to one half grain each1 although some weigh seven or eight grains each4 ,most of these are not lustrous1 but occasionally a bright brown or a bright copper-brown specimen of from one to four grains is met with4 ,at the ,paris ,exposition1 in #aijj1 were exhibited one hundred of these pearls1 with an aggregate weight of #bha grains2 these now form part of the ,morgan-,tiffany ,collection1 in the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history4 ,even in the rich coal regions of ,pennsylvania pearls are found4 ,possibly the most productive section in that ,state has been the headwaters of the ,schuylkill ,river in the vicinity of ,tamaqua1 ,quakake1 and ,mahony ,city4 ,of the tributaries of the ,schuylkill1 those contributing largely to the yield have been ,lewiston1 ,nipert1 ,still1 ,locust1 and ,hecla4 ,these rise in the mountains and are rivulets of fair size by the time they reach their common outlet4 ,illustration3 ,,pearl-,,bearing ,,unios ,from the ,mississippi ,valley ,the upper pictures show the two valves of the same shell1 and the pearl is detachable ,the original pearl finds in the ,schuylkill date from half a century ago1 when they were secured by farmers who used the mussel shells in removing hair from the hides of slaughtered pigs4 ,during the ,mississippi pearling excitement in #ahig1 several persons from ,new ,york1 who were summering in ,schuylkill ,county1 searched the small streams for pearl-bearing mussels with such success that within a short while many farmers became enthusiastic hunters during their spare time4 ,half a dozen or more men did very well1 their catch amounting to thousands of dollars' worth4 ,mr4 ,frank ,m4 ,ebert1 of ,quakake1 has put most of his spare time in the business in the last ten years1 and has secured many good pearls4 ,it is estimated that the total catch in ,schuylkill ,county alone approximates #bj1jjj at local values4 ,so actively has the search been conducted that at present few adult mussels of the pearl-bearing species remain1 and a day's work may result in finding less than a dozen4 ,the best price reported as received by a local fisherman was #bjj for a twenty-grain pearl in the year #aijd4 ,many individual specimens have been sold at prices ranging from #ajj to #age4 ,it is claimed that a pearl sold by a fisherman in ,schuylkill for fifty cents was later marketed in ,philadelphia for #abe1 and with slight mounting was ultimately sold for #afjj4 ,the most attractive weigh from ten to twenty grains each2 larger ones have been found1 weighing up to thirty-eight grains1 but as a rule the luster is not so good as that possessed by pearls of medium size4 ,the common colors are dark blue1 pink1 lavender1 and white4 ,a few are black and some are brown4 ,the brown pearls are seldom of value1 owing to deficiency in luster4 ,in ,maryland pearls have been collected from the brooks near the head of ,chesapeake ,bay1 and especially in ,kent and ,cecil counties4 ,these are of almost every conceivable color1 ranging from a clear white to a dainty pink1 and to very dark colors1 especially bronze and copper4 ,most of them are too small for commercial value1 and only a few reach sufficient size to command more than #e or #aj each1 but single specimens have sold as high as #ej4 ,georgia has yielded some pearls1 chiefly in the vicinity of ,rome1 at the junction of the ,etowah and ,oostanaula rivers4 ,this is believed to be the site of the ,indian town ,cofaciqui1 where1 in his memorable expedition of #aedj-aeda1 ,de ,soto found the natives in possession of so many pearls4 ,the general news of finds in the ,mississippi ,valley stirred up local interest in this region in #ahig1 and when the streams were low and clear in the autumn many persons engaged in hunting the mussels4 ,an ex-sheriff of ,rome is reported as having secured about fifty pearls1 lustrous but irregular4 ,a few miles above ,rome1 a farmer made a trial on ,johns ,creek1 a tributary of the ,oostanaula2 and from a basketful of ,unios he reports finding several marketable pearls for which he received #ahj from a ,baltimore jeweler4 ,others followed1 and many fine specimens were secured4 ,unios are especially abundant in the ,flint1 ,ocmulgee1 and ,oconee rivers1 and it seems probable that many pearls might be found in these streams4 ,florida has not yet been actively exploited1 but it may prove a productive region ere long4 ,the reports of ,de ,soto's expedition make special reference to the size and beauty of the pearls found at a point where he crossed the ,ocklocknee ,river about thirty miles above its mouth1 near the present site of ,langston1 ,wakulla ,county4 ,and there seems little doubt that pearls may be found in the ,ocklocknee and also in its affluent1 the ,sopchoppy ,river4 ,the banks of these streams are full of shells1 and pearls of choice color have been sent from there4 ,it is unnecessary to refer in detail to the origin of pearling in each of the ,states4 ,the general interest in this industry from #ahhi to the present time has resulted in the examination of most of the rivers and creeks1 and in few has the search been entirely unrewarded1 although the finds have been relatively much greater in some waters than in others4 ,as a rule1 pearl-bearing ,unios are most numerous in clear1 swift streams1 with sandy or gravelly bottoms and which flow through calcareous rocks4 ,with pearlers as with miners1 there is a stampede to the places where a good find is reported1 since the rivers are free for all2 consequently1 there is much variation from year to year in the amount of attention which the individual streams and localities receive4 ,while many of the pearlers operating in the ,mississippi ,river are professional fishermen or rivermen1 most of those in the smaller streams have had no previous experience in similar work4 ,frequently whole families come twenty or thirty miles1 and even greater distances1 and camp on the river bank4 ,in many instances farm-hands are there who have abandoned their crops1 mechanics who have left steady jobs1 railway men who have taken a lay-off1 teachers1 merchants1 all eager and expecting to find a fortune4 ,in some localities1 pearl fishing has been used as an attraction in big picnic advertisements1 and has drawn larger crowds than a public orator4 ,the mollusks are removed from the river bottoms in various ways and by many forms of apparatus4 ,in the shallow streams the fishermen simply wade out in the water and pick up the shells by hand4 ,if not readily visible from the surface1 the shells may be located with the bare feet or by the use of a water-telescope4 ,where the water is too deep for wading1 the fishermen work from small boats1 and use garden rakes or other convenient inplements4 ,where pearling has developed into more of an industry1 special forms of rakes and drags are employed4 ,a shoulder rake1 with a handle twelve to twenty feet in length1 is used extensively under the ice in frozen rivers1 and in lakes and other places where the water is still and from eight to fifteen feet in depth4 ,this is simply an overgrown or enlarged garden rake1 armed with twelve or fifteen iron teeth about five inches in length4 ,a wire scoop or basket is attached to receive the catch as it is pulled from the bottom by the teeth1 and when this scoop is well filled it is lifted and the contents dumped on the ice or into the skiff4 ,this method is laborious1 and is employed only where the water is shallow and the mollusks are abundant4 ,scissor tongs--similar to those used by oystermen on the ,atlantic coast--are also employed in some localities1 especially in ,arkansas1 where it is estimated that #agjj pairs were manufactured and sold in #ahii and #aijj1 at about #g each4 ,in the large streams of the ,mississippi ,valley1 with their slow and steady currents1 and where the ,unios are taken largely for their shells to be used in button manufacture1 the most popular form of apparatus since #ahif has been the crowfoot drag4 ,this ingenious contrivance consists of a cross-bar of hollow iron tubing or common gas-pipe1 six or eight feet long1 to which are attached1 at intervals of five or six inches1 stout twine or chain snoods or stagings1 each about eighteen inches in length4 ,to each of these are attached three or four prongs or 8hooks10 about six inches apart4 ,these 8hooks0 are four-pronged1 and are made of two pieces of stout wire bent at right angles to each other4 ,according to the depth of the water1 from twenty-five to seventy-five feet of three quarter inch rope is attached to the drag for the purpose of towing it behind the boat1 which is permitted to drift down the stream with the current4 ,this contrivance costs about #c1 and each fisherman generally has at least two of them1 as well as a wide flat-bottom boat costing #e or #aj4 ,sometimes1 when the current is light1 the fisherman prepares a 8mule0 to assist the boat in towing the resisting drag4 ,this 8mule0 consists of a wooden frame1 hinged in ,v-shape1 and is fastened several feet in advance of the boat with the ,v end pointed down the stream4 ,it sinks low in the water1 and the current pressing against the angle carries it along1 and thus tows the skiff and the resisting drag at a uniform rate of speed4 ,when there is not sufficient current even for this contrivance1 as in the wide reaches and in the lakes1 oars1 sails1 and even power engines may be used for propelling the boat4 ,as the crowfoot drag is slowly drawn along the bottom1 it comes in contact with the mollusks feeding with open shells4 ,when a hook or other part of the drag enters an open shell1 the mollusk immediately closes firmly upon the intruding object and clings thereto long enough to be drawn up into the boat4 ,in this way1 where the ,unios are thick1 nearly every hook becomes freighted1 and some may have two or three shells clinging thereto4 ,it is easy to collect fifty mollusks in passing over a length of two hundred feet4 ,two drags are carried by each fisherman1 and the second one is put overboard as soon as the first one is ready to be raised4 ,this is suspended with the bar across two upright forks on either side of the boat with the prongs swinging freely1 and the mussels are removed therefrom4 ,when this operation is completed1 the drag is put overboard and the other one is ready for lifting4 ,this apparatus is very effective1 and as much as a ton of shells has been taken by one man in twelve hours1 but the average is very much less1 probably not over four or five hundred pounds4 ,objection is made to this manner of fishing1 since many mollusks not brought to the surface are so injured that they die4 ,a cruder implement of similar type has long been employed on many logging streams4 ,the weighted branch of a tree is dragged on the bottom behind a raft of logs1 and the mussels attach themselves to the twigs in the same manner as on the crowfoot hooks4 ,during the pearling excitement in ,arkansas1 a considerable portion of the choice pearls were found1 not in the mussels1 but lying loosely in the mud of the shores1 indicating that under some circumstances1 as agitation by freshets or floods1 the loose pearls are shaken out from the ,unios4 ,in some instances1 indeed1 the pearls were found upon or in the soil at some distance from streams or lakes4 ,it is reported that in ,october1 #ahig1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,mc,intosh1 of the northern part of ,lonoke ,county1 while digging post-holes in the old bed of ,cypress ,bayou1 found a number of pearls1 some 8as large as a #dd-;caliber ,winchester ball10 lying within the shells at a depth of a foot and a half below the surface4 ,this peculiar occurrence is partly explained by the wide extension of the waters in flood times over the low region1 and by the shifting of streams and the isolation of cut-offs4 ,stray pearls have been found in many other odd places1 as in the viscera of chickens and ducks1 in the stomachs of fish1 and even within a pig's mouth4 ,it is not an uncommon scene in the pearling region to see men raking over the muck in hog-pens along the river banks1 hoping there to find a stray pearl lost from the mussels with which the animals had been fed by persons who had indeed 8cast pearls before swine40 ,it is related that a ,negro near ,marley1 ,illinois1 in this way secured a pearl weighing #aah grains1 for which he received #bjjj from a ,st4 ,louis buyer1 and which was ultimately sold to a ,new ,york dealer for #ejjj4 ,illustration3 ,pearling scene on ,white ,river1 ,arkansas ,the fishermen are using scissor tongs from flat-bottom skiffs ,illustration3 ,pearling camp on upper ,mississippi ,river ,crowfoot drags are shown on the flat-bottom skiffs at the river bank ,during the height of the ,arkansas pearling excitement in #ahig1 the speculative spirit was so rife that many persons--unwilling to engage in the labor of fishing--purchased unopened mussels from the fishermen in the venture for aleatory profits4 ,the price for these ranged from twenty-five cents to #b per hundred1 and fluctuated rapidly1 according to the immediate results1 increasing several hundred per cent4 in a few minutes under the influence of a valuable find4 ,one fisherman sold mussels to the value of #bh in one day1 and thought he had made an excellent bargain until over #ajjj worth of pearls were revealed when the shells were opened4 ,while some pearlers work in southern streams throughout the year1 generally the season is coincident with warm weather1 when the water is low and the work may be conducted with comfort4 ,in the vicinity of ,muscatine and ,rock ,island about twelve years ago1 large quantities of ,unios were taken during the winter when the river was frozen over1 the men working with long rakes from the surface of the ice4 ,when only a few mollusks are taken1 they are readily opened with a knife to permit a search for the pearls4 ,but where there are many1 as in the ,mississippi ,river1 the opening is facilitated by heating4 ,after a sufficient catch has been obtained1 they are subjected to the action of steam in a box1 or they are heated in an ordinary kettle2 a few minutes of steaming or cooking are sufficient to cause the shells to spring open4 ,the fleshy parts are removed and thoroughly searched1 the interior surfaces of the shells are likewise examined for attached pearls1 and the liquid at the bottom of the vessel is strained so that nothing of value may escape4 ,this cooking is a convenient method of opening the shells1 but unquestionably it injures the quality of many pearls4 ,in some instances when the shells open1 the pearls fall out and descend to the heated iron bottom1 where they are quickly injured4 ,the surface of one exposed too long to the heat shows numerous minute cracks1 which increase in number and size when subjected to changes of temperature4 ,some choice gems have in this manner been rendered almost valueless4 ,if a jacket boiler1 or one with a double bottom1 were used1 there would be less danger of injuring the pearls2 or a similar result could be accomplished by placing a wire screen a few inches above the bottom4 ,several fishermen have endeavored to devise mechanical methods for removing the pearls and thus avoid the painstaking search among the flesh tissues now necessary2 but these contrivances have not proved satisfactory1 and have not been employed except experimentally4 ,in the ,mississippi and its tributaries1 where the fishery is very extensive1 after the pearls have been secured1 the shells are sold to button manufacturers and to exporters at prices ranging from #d to #dj per ton1 according to species1 quality1 and market conditions4 ,this provides a fairly remunerative income to the fishermen even if no pearls whatever are found4 ,but in the small tributaries and where the mollusks are less numerous1 the shells are of little value owing to the expense of bringing them together and conveying them to market4 ,not every mollusk contains a pearl1 and the village belle1 intent on her evening toilet1 need not buy a bushel of clams with the pleasant anticipation of finding a sufficient number of gems for a necklace4 ,small and irregular pearls are not at all uncommon1 but choice ones are decidedly scarce1 and each one represents the destruction of tens of thousands of mollusks4 ,quantities of irregular and imperfect nodules known as slugs are collected1 which sell for only a few dollars per ounce4 ,in some sections of the ,mississippi1 the slugs are so very numerous that their aggregate value exceeds that of the choice pearls4 ,in the ,mississippi1 the percentage of pearls found in a definite quantity of mollusks is less than in the tributary streams1 yet the much greater quantity of shells collected raises the total yield to a very considerable amount4 ,pearling is subordinate and incidental to gathering the shells for manufacture4 ,in that length of the river from ,st4 ,paul to ,st4 ,louis1 a fair average yield to the fishermen is about fourteen dollars' worth of pearls and slugs to each ton of shells4 ,of course1 this is not the individual experience1 for a single ,unio may contain a gem worth #ejjj1 and on the other hand several tons of shells may yield only a few cents' worth of baroques4 ,the market for the shells places the ,mississippi fishing upon an industrial basis1 and guarantees a substantial income to every fisherman even when no pearls whatever are found4 ,unios from the upper part of the ,mississippi yield a much greater percentage than those from below ,davenport4 ,in #aijd1 for instance1 from the #dcca tons of shells taken in ,wisconsin the fishermen secured pearls which they sold for #ia1cde1 an average of #ba per ton2 from the #hbb tons in ,minnesota the average was #af per ton2 in ,iowa the average was #ab for each of the #ghdf tons2 in ,illinois1 #e per ton for the #bcfd tons1 and in ,missouri less than #a worth of pearls was secured by the fishermen for each ton of shells which they took in the year named4 ,a large number of choice pearls weighing over thirty grains each were found in the vicinity of ,prairie du ,chien and ,mc,gregor4 ,within a river length of one hundred miles in that region1 the fishermen in #aijd gathered pearls which ultimately sold for #cjj1jjj4 ,it is therefore apparent that the returns vary greatly in the different regions2 nevertheless1 even in the less productive localities fine pearls are sometimes found1 which contribute to make the industry a profitable one4 ,success in pearling is like that in mining4 ,in the ,white ,river in ,arkansas1 for instance1 one man found #dbjj worth in one month4 ,another discovered a #ej pearl in the first shell he opened4 ,a ,negro found an #he pearl the first day he worked1 while another fisherman worked seven months and secured less than #aj worth4 ,it is a question of finding or not finding2 the finding brings riches sometimes1 and though the failures reduce the average profits as low as in other local ventures1 the big prizes affect the mind1 and the average is lost to sight4 ,taking the country as a whole1 it is probable that the total find has been sufficient to pay the average fisherman little if any more than #a for each day's work4 ,the fresh-water pearls range in size from that of the smallest seed to that of a pearl weighing several hundred grains4 ,there is relatively only a small quantity of seed-pearls1 especially when compared with the output in the fisheries of ,ceylon and ,persia4 ,possibly this is due largely to a scarcity of the parasites which seem to perform so important a function in the regions noted4 ,a further reason may be found in the manner in which the mollusks are opened and searched4 ,were the ,ceylon method of opening employed here--which1 however1 is not at all practicable--it seems probable that the quantity of seed-pearls found in this country would be greatly increased4 ,the pearls from the tributaries of the ,mississippi are noted for their great range of coloration4 ,from a dead white1 the color is gradually enhanced to faint shades of pink1 yellow1 or salmon tints1 then to a more decided form of these4 ,from the light shades1 the range extends to purple and to bright copper red1 closely resembling a drop of molten copper4 ,some are very light green2 others rose1 steel blue1 or russet brown1 while purplish and very dark brown are not uncommon4 ,white pearls are probably the most numerous2 but pink1 bronze1 and lavender are by no means rare4 ,a large percentage of the ,mississippi ,river pearls are very irregular in form1 many of them resembling dogs' teeth1 birds' wings1 the heads or bodies of different animals1 etc4 ,as a rule the fresh-water pearls do not rank so high in value as those from oriental seas1 since ordinarily they are not so lustrous4 ,however1 some of them have sold at very high figures4 ,a round pearl weighing #ajc grains1 found in ,black ,river1 ,arkansas1 in #aijd1 was eventually sold for #be1jjj2 and one of #fh grains1 found1 in #aijg1 on the ,wisconsin side of the ,mississippi ,river1 was recently marketed at #ae1jjj4 ,one of the largest ,american pearl necklaces1 brought together in #aijd1 consisted of thirty-eight pearls weighing #agaj grains in the aggregate1 an average of #de grains for each pearl4 ,the central gem weighed #ih grains and those on the left of it respectively #he1 #gi1 #fe1 #ei1 #di1 #df1 #de1 #dc1 #da1 #dj1 #dj1 #ce1 #cg1 #cj1 #be1 #bb1 #bj1 and #ai grains4 ,the pearls on the right were graduated as follows3 #he1 #gf1 #fd1 #ei1 #dg1 #df1 #de1 #dd1 #db1 #da1 #ch1 #cg1 #cf1 #ce1 #cd1 #bi1 #be1 #ba1 and #bj1 grains4 ,this necklace was exhibited at the ,st4 ,louis ,world's ,fair4 ,it was sold to a ,london merchant1 who in turn sold it to a ,parisian dealer1 and it was finally purchased by a ,spanish nobleman at a price said to be about #ejj1jjj francs4 ,another necklace shown at the ,st4 ,louis ,world's ,fair1 was of ,american fresh-water pearls from the rivers of ,arkansas4 ,the total weight of these pearls1 sixteen in number1 was #hfa grains1 an average of #fa grains for each pearl4 ,of these one drop pearl weighed #gg grains1 and two others each #fe grains4 ,a round pearl of #gj grains completed the adornment of the pendant4 ,the circlet consisted of ten round pearls alternating with precious stones4 ,the central pearl weighed #ih grains and on each side were two of #fa grains1 then two of #ef grains1 two of #ed1 and two of #dh grains1 one of #de grains being at the back of the necklace4 ,in the early days of pearl hunting in ,american streams1 the fishermen had little idea of their value1 and sold choice gems for insignificant sums4 ,in #ahhg1 a fisherman on ,rock ,river1 ,illinois1 found a #dj-;grain pearl which he carried in his pocket for several months4 ,showing it one day in ,davenport1 he was offered #bj for it4 ,he quickly accepted the offer1 and on his return home told his friends about 8the sucker who gave #bj for the shell slug40 ,at present this 8shell slug0 is worth more than one hundred times that amount4 ,numerous instances of a similar nature occurred until the average fisherman lost all confidence in his judgment as to the values1 and extravagant ideas prevailed regarding even almost worthless nacreous concretions4 ,thus1 when a choice pearl is found1 an exorbitant price is set upon it and the seller feels for the market value by repeated dickerings with several buyers4 ,and unless one is an expert1 he is quite likely to pay two or three times as much for a pearl at the river bank as in a metropolitan market4 ,some of the fishermen collect everything in the shape of nacreous concretions1 and very often pearl buyers in ,new ,york and elsewhere receive packages which are not worth the postage2 in many other packages nine tenths of the lot is worthless2 and the practical joker and the swindler have solicited bids on bright marbles1 rounded pieces of pearl shell1 and even sugar-coated pills4 ,while many pearls of fine luster and beautiful and regular form have been derived from these fisheries1 it occasionally happens1 in the case of pearls consigned to the city pearl dealer1 that cracks1 breaks or marks1 which might detract from their value1 are closed or removed1 either by means of water or oil1 the pearls having been kept in one or the other until a few moments before they were shown to the merchant4 ,pearls worth hundreds of dollars have sometimes shown breaks1 and in one instance a pearl valued at #gjjj showed these cracks even a very short time after the sale4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,buttons1 ,,made ,,from ,,mississippi ,,shells ,in many of the pearling regions of the ,mississippi ,valley1 inquiry of almost any fisherman will result in his bringing forth from an inside pocket a small box padded with raw cotton and containing an assortment of pearls and slugs4 ,most of the slugs he will sell at prices ranging from fifty cents to #e per ounce1 for several of the small pearls he will likely ask from #b to #bj each1 and one or two of the largest he may value at #ej or more4 ,at very rare intervals1 a choice pearl will be found1 for which he may expect anywhere from #bjj to #ejjj4 ,while the highest prices are not received by the fishermen1 there are many who have been so fortunate as to obtain #ajjj or more for a single pearl1 and several have received double that amount4 ,probably the highest figure obtained by the original finder was #chjj1 notwithstanding exaggerated stories of enormous five-figure prices4 ,recently the press credited a lad sixteen years of age with securing #bj1jjj for a pearl he had found4 ,a particularly striking yarn relative to a so-called 8,queen ,mary0 pearl went the rounds of the press some time ago4 ,according to the newspaper report1 this pearl was found by the wife of a fisherman who was a cripple or something equally pathetic1 and1 fortunately1 when the family resources were at the lowest4 ,with tears of joy1 the fisherman embraced his wife and told her it was her very own and she should wear it4 ,however1 by means of a check for #ag1ejj1 he was induced to part with it1 but only on condition that it be named ,queen ,mary in honor of the hard-working wife4 ,the report continues that the original buyer sold it for #be1jjj1 and at last accounts it was held by a ,chicago dealer who had 8refused #dj1jjj and probably would not accept #ej1jjj for it40 ,the facts seem to be that this pearl1 which was found near ,prairie du ,chien in #aija and weighed #ajc grains1 was originally sold for #bej1 and the local buyer sold it in ,chicago for #eej1 where for many months it was offered at #ajjj4 ,all sorts of stories of valuable finds are told in the pearling regions3 stories of mortgages that have been released1 of homes bought1 of college educations secured from the proceeds of a single gem2 but these tales are offset by the untold stories of the undermining of fine1 strong character in awaiting the turn of fortune which never comes4 ,the public is quickly apprised of the valuable finds1 but it does not hear of the time and labor lost by the hundreds who are unsuccessful4 ,pearling excitement has many of the features of a mining craze4 ,while a few are benefited1 hundreds are made poorer1 and in many instances reduced to absolute want4 ,persons have given up their established business to devote their time to pearling1 staking all on the aleatory profits1 and have squandered days and months in the hope that one great1 immense1 all-rewarding find will be made4 ,the monotony of continued disappointment is occasionally brightened by the news that some one--possibly a near neighbor--has made a lucky find1 and then the work is continued with renewed enthusiasm4 ,a spirit akin to that which dominates the gambler takes possession of the fisherman1 and the days go on and the seasons go by while the gem that is to bring the fortune still eludes him4 ,in many localities the pursuit yields far less profit than pleasure1 and many a man who spends a summer in pearling is in a fair way to spend the winter at the expense of some one else4 ,the pearls are collected for the trade by a score or more of buyers1 who visit the fisheries at intervals and purchase of the individual fishermen by personal dickering and bargaining4 ,the buyers endeavor to keep informed of all choice pearls discovered1 and when an especially valuable find is reported each one endeavors to have the first chance to secure it4 ,the principal local centers of the pearling industry and marketing are ,prairie du ,chien1 ,wisconsin2 ,mc,gregor1 ,clinton1 and ,muscatine1 ,iowa2 ,newport1 ,black ,rock1 and ,bald ,knob1 ,arkansas2 ,clinton1 ,carthage1 and ,smithville1 ,tennessee2 ,st4 ,francisville1 ,illinois2 and ,vincennes and ,leavenworth1 ,indiana4 ,however1 a large number of the pearls from ,american rivers are consigned by the finders to well-known gem dealers1 the owners depending for fair treatment on the integrity and high standing of these experts4 ,an interesting story is told of the pearl and the accompanying shell in which it was found1 which was sent to a ,new ,york dealer by a poor woman4 ,the price she received pleased her immensely2 and in writing her appreciation1 she added that she was especially gratified at receiving so good a price because it enabled her to send her boy to school4 ,the dealer sent another check as a gift1 and a few days before the next ,thanksgiving ,day a thirty-five-pound turkey was received by the four-score-year-old jeweler as an evidence of the mother's gratitude4 ,illustration3 ,,necklace ,,of ,,fresh-,,water ,,pearls ,paris ,exposition1 #aijj ,the outbreak of pearl hunting in various parts of the country is frequently chronicled by the newspapers4 ,these despatches are much alike1 usually telling how some fisherman discovered a beautiful pearl which he sold to some responsible jeweler for an amount varying from #ajj to #bjjj4 ,the despatches generally state further that the effect of the find has been remarkable2 the whole region is seized with the fever1 and into the rivers and creeks swarm the hunters of both sexes1 of all ages1 and from all classes of the community4 ,factory-men leave their mills1 farmers their crops1 and merchants their stores1 and with the members of their families join in searching for the gems4 ,the mussels are secured by whatever means is most convenient4 ,if valuable finds continue1 thousands and thousands of mollusks are destroyed in the search1 and when the efforts begin to prove futile the excitement subsides almost as quickly as it began4 ,in very many localities the industry has run the whole gamut of the feverish excitement of its beginning1 the humor and romance of its existence1 and the pathos of its ending4 ,if disturbed labor conditions at the height of the excitement were the only disagreeable attendant1 these pearling furors could be viewed more favorably4 ,but1 unfortunately1 in many localities1 especially in shoal waters of restricted area1 the fishery has been prosecuted so vigorously that it appears probable the resources will be very materially impoverished if not ruined in a few years1 unless prompt and decisive protective measures are adopted4 ,in some waters the crowds engaged in the search have removed practically every mussel without regard not only to protecting the immature mussels1 but even to the necessity for preserving breeding mollusks4 ,many ponds and small river basins have been so denuded that not for many years1 if ever1 can they recover their former wealth of pearl-bearers4 ,this state of affairs has not come about without opposition on the part of those interested in the industry and the general welfare of the localities4 ,intelligent and well-directed efforts have been made to provide a system of regulations for protecting the mussels so that the maximum yield of pearls may be secured4 ,but this is a very difficult problem to deal with4 ,it involves not only the methods of fishery1 but the question of sewage disposal by the cities and the large factories1 through which great quantities of mussels have been destroyed4 ,undoubtedly it will be difficult to devise regulations that will be satisfactory alike to the fishermen1 the button manufacturers and the farmers4 ,the great desideratum in the pearl fisheries--of the seas as well as in the fresh-water streams--is a restriction of the gathering to such mollusks and to such seasons and periods of years as produce the largest results with the least injury to the permanency of the resources4 ,it is generally agreed that the young or immature mollusks should be protected2 but it is not easy to determine what is an immature ,unio1 as some species never grow large4 ,likewise1 the beds should not be disturbed when the mollusks are loaded with young1 but it is difficult to select particular months which would be better for close season than any others4 ,the propositions which seem to be most actively advocated impose restrictions on the number and size of the mussels to be taken1 a cessation of fishing from ,january #a to ,may #ca1 closing certain areas when partly depleted1 and prohibiting the use of especially injurious forms of apparatus4 ,but whatever is done should be done without delay1 before the pearl hunters and the button manufacturers kill the goose which for some years has been laying the golden eggs4#cbc ,,miscellaneous ,,pearl ,,fisheries ,,of ,,america ,the deep's wealth1 coral1 and pearl1 and sand ,like spangling gold1 and purple shells engraven ,with mystic legends by no mortal hand4 ,,shelley1 ,the ,revolt of ,islam4 ,the beautiful pearls of the conch 7,strombus gigas7 are sought for in the ,west ,indies and on the neighboring continental coasts4 ,they are found most abundantly about the ,bahamas1 a group of more than four hundred islands off the ,florida coast1 where many of the fishermen devote a considerable portion of their time to collecting them4 ,it is from this industry that the beach-combers of this group of islands1 as well as those of the ,florida reefs1 have received the designation 8,conchs40 ,near the shores1 where they formerly abounded1 a few conchs are yet picked up by wading fishermen4 ,in waters of medium depth they are secured either by diving or by means of a long pole with a hook at the end4 ,in great depths1 the mollusks are located by means of a waterglass similar to the type employed in the ,red ,sea or among the ,south ,sea ,islands4 ,the animal is readily removed from the shell after crushing the tip end of the spire where the large muscle is attached4 ,the flesh forms an important article of food to the fishermen and to the residents of the outlying islands4 ,it is said that a 8,conch0 can make a visit to ,nassau of a week or ten days1 and subsist almost entirely on this dried meat1 with which he fills his pockets on starting4 ,a large demand exists for the beautiful shells for ornamenting flower-beds1 garden-walks1 etc4 ,many of them are burned into lime for building purposes4 ,formerly several hundred thousand shells were exported annually to ,england for use in porcelain manufacture4 ,the pearls are generally found embedded in the flesh of the mollusk2 quite often they are in a sac or cyst with an external opening1 from which they are sometimes dislodged by the muscular movement of the animal4 ,the yield is small1 a thousand shells in many cases yielding only a very small number of seed-pearls or perhaps none at all4 ,most of them are oval1 commonly somewhat elongated4 ,the usual size is about one grain in weight1 but some of them weigh over twenty1 and a very few exceed fifty grains each4 ,these pearls are generally of a deep pink color1 shading toward whitish pink at each end4 ,while this is the usual color1 yellow1 white1 red1 and even brown conch pearls are occasionally obtained2 these are not so highly prized as the pink ones4 ,conch pearls present a peculiar wavy appearance and a sheen somewhat like watered silk1 a result of the reflections produced by the fibrous stellated structure4 ,while many are beautifully lustrous1 they are commonly deficient in orient1 and the color is somewhat evanescent4 ,most of the ,bahama conch fishermen sell their catch of pearls at ,nassau4 ,according to the late ,mr4 ,frederick ,e4 ,stearns1 there are in ,nassau four dealers who have an arrangement with ,paris and ,london houses1 to whom they can ship pearls in any number and draw against them with a bill of lading4 ,in addition to these1 there are a dozen dealers in ,nassau who buy what pearls they can secure and offer them for sale4 ,the value of conch pearls is as variable as their form1 color1 and size1 and they are sold by the fishermen at prices ranging from twenty-five cents to one dollar or more each4 ,those weighing from three to ten grains1 and of good color and luster1 but not quite regular in form1 sell for about #aj per grain2 those of exceptional perfection in color and form1 and of about the same weights1 sell for from #ae to #cj per grain4 ,in other and exceptional cases1 where the size is very large1 the form perfect1 and the color and luster choice1 the value is enhanced to several hundred and even several thousand dollars each4 ,a perfect conch pearl is among the most rare and most valuable of gems4 ,an unusually choice one has sold in ,new ,york ,city for more than #ejjj4 ,the yield fluctuates considerably1 but perhaps averages about #he1jjj in value annually4 ,one of the finest conch pearls ever found is shown on the plate with the conch shell4 ,there are two important materials that have occasionally been sold and mistaken for the conch pearl4 ,first1 the pale ,italian1 ,japanese1 or ,west ,indian coral1 with a color very closely approaching that of the pearl4 ,by means of a lens it can readily be seen that the coral is in layers1 and does not possess the concentric structure of the pearl1 or the peculiar interwoven structure1 with its characteristic sheen1 so frequent in conch pearls4 ,secondly1 the pink conch shell in which the pearl itself is found2 this is frequently cut to imitate the pearl and sold as such in the ,west ,indies and elsewhere4 ,this can also be detected by the fact that the layers are almost horizontal and the structure is not concentric or interwoven1 as it is in the conch pearl1 while the luster is more like that of the shell than that of the pearly nacre4 ,streeter relates that many years ago an ingenious ,american turned out some bits of conch shell into the shape of pearls and placed them in the conch shells4 ,a slight secretion formed over them1 but it was not the true pearly secretion1 and the layer was very thin1 so that the deception was easily detected4 ,not the least interesting of the ,american pearl fisheries is that which has the abalones 7,haliotis7 for its object4 ,these occur in many inshore tropical and semi-tropical waters1 and particularly in the marginal waters of the ,pacific4 ,they attach themselves to the rocks by means of their large muscular disk-shaped foot1 which acts like a sucker or an exhaust-cup4 ,on the ,california coast the abalones are gathered in large quantities for the pearls1 for the shells1 and especially for the flesh1 which is dried and used for food4 ,the principal fishing grounds are at ,point ,lobos in ,monterey ,county1 and along the shores of ,catalina and ,santa ,rosa islands in ,santa ,barbara ,county1 with smaller quantities from ,halfmoon ,bay and from the rocks along the shores of ,mendocino ,county4 ,at low tide the fishermen wade out in shallow water1 and1 by means of a knife1 separate the mollusk from its resting-place4 ,unless this is done quickly and before the mollusk has time to prepare itself for the attack1 it closes down on the rock by means of its sucker-like foot1 from which it cannot be removed without breaking the shell4 ,a story is told at ,santa ,barbara of a ,chinese fisherman having been drowned off one of the outer islands by having his hand caught underneath the shell of an abalone4 ,a few years ago1 ,japanese fishermen introduced the use of diving-suits in taking these mollusks in three fathoms of water2 but in ,march1 #aijg1 the ,california legislature interdicted this form of fishery4 ,that legislature also interdicted the capture of black abalones measuring 8less than twelve inches around the outer edge of the shell1 or any other abalone1 the shell of which shall measure less than fifteen inches around the outer edge40 ,the animal is removed from the shell by thrusting a thin blade of soft steel between the flesh and the shell1 and thus loosening the great muscle4 ,the flesh is salted and boiled1 and then strung on long rods to dry in the open air4 ,when properly cured1 the pieces are almost as hard and stiff as sole leather4 ,most of it is packed in sacks and exported to ,china1 but large quantities are sold on the ,pacific coast at from five to ten cents per pound4 ,the catch is much less than it was forty years ago4 ,illustration3 ,,shell ,,of ,,pearl-,,bearing ,,abalone ,from the coast of ,california ,many pearly masses are obtained from the abalones1 and a few of these are of considerable beauty4 ,some are very large1 measuring two inches in length and half an inch or more in width2 but they are rarely of good form1 and their value is commonly far less than that of choice ,oriental pearls4 ,owing to their irregularity in form1 they are scarcely suitable for necklaces4 ,one of the best necklaces of these pearls ever brought together sold a few years ago for #bjjj2 but individual specimens have exceeded #ajjj in market value4 ,while abalone pearls are not on the market in any great quantities1 one resident of ,santa ,barbara has a collection of more than a thousand specimens1 ranging in value from several hundred dollars to less than one dollar each4 ,most of the objects sold in curio and jewelry stores on the ,pacific coast as abalone pearls are simply irregular knots or protuberances cut from the surface of the shell4 ,the ,california fishermen are credited with having received #cjjj for the abalone pearls in #aijd2 but it is safe to say that this represents only a small fraction of their final sale value4 ,in the river mussels of ,canada1 and especially in those from the ,province of ,quebec1 and the ,ungava ,region1 pearls are occasionally found4 ,these are usually white and of good luster4 ,they are not the object of systematic search1 but in the aggregate many are secured by ,indians and ,eskimos1 and some by the trappers and fishermen who operate from ,quebec and ,montreal4 ,a number1 weighing from one to sixty-five grains each1 were shown at the ,colonial ,exhibition in ,london in #ahhf1 and received favorable notice4 ,recently1 two beautifully matched pink pearls1 weighing about fourteen grains each1 were obtained from one mussel4 ,a single pearl found in ,canada has sold for #ajjj1 but as a general rule they are of relatively little value4 ,the ,hudson ,bay traders are represented as having secured a fair share of these pearls4 ,during the last few years1 many pearls have been found in the streams of ,prince ,edward ,island and of ,new ,brunswick ,province1 and also in those of ,nova ,scotia4 ,most of them are well formed1 but their color is generally inferior and their luster deficient4 ,many of them are buff or brown in color1 some are bright and fairly good1 a few are rose-tinted1 and others are slate-colored and even almost black4 ,toronto jewelers report that many ,canadian pearls are in the possession of farmers and others in the lower provinces1 held by them for higher prices than the jewelers are willing to pay4 ,the ,nova ,scotia pearls are from a bivalve which has been identified as ,alasmodon margaritifera4 ,they are especially abundant in ,annapolis and ,king counties4 ,even in the streams of northern ,labrador and of the ,caniapuscaw watershed1 pearls are obtained by the natives1 and by the hunters and fishermen who resort to that desolate country4 ,these closely resemble the pearls of ,scotland in color1 size1 and luster4 ,a story is told of a fisherman who by chance found in one shell two well-matched pearls1 which he later sold for #aej2 so pleased was he with his success that he spent a fortnight in diligent search1 but secured only half a dozen small ones1 worth perhaps #c for the lot4 ,most of these pearls are silvery white1 but beautiful pink ones are not rare4 ,an unusually choice #bj-;grain pearl from this region sold in #aije for #ajjj4 ,on the coast of ,ecuador1 pearl fisheries of minor importance have been prosecuted from time to time4 ,dr4 ,h4 ,m4 ,saville1 of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 states that in his explorations in that country he frequently came across evidence of pearls and the information that fisheries had existed on the coast centuries ago4 ,an interesting letter from that world-wide traveler and interesting writer1 ,william ,e4 ,curtis1 states that formerly there was a pearl fishery on the coast of ,ecuador at the little town known as ,manta1 in the ,province of ,manabi2 but it had to be abandoned on account of a particularly voracious species of fish called el manti1 which abounds in that locality and gives the place its name4 ,pearls are said to be even more abundant at ,manta than in ,panama ,bay4 ,it is reported that this is the place where the ,incas obtained those splendid gems which the ,spaniards found in the palaces and temples of ,peru4 ,in the waters of ,costa ,rica1 pearl-oysters are found1 and at times the fishery has been of considerable local importance4 ,owing to fear of injury to the reefs1 the use of diving machinery was interdicted there a few years ago2 but in #aijf its employment was authorized under certain restrictions4 ,licenses good for six months were authorized for a maximum of thirty machines1 which may work at a minimum depth of thirty-seven feet4 ,on the coast of ,colombia1 ,south ,america1 scattered reefs of pearl-oysters occur4 ,a lease of the pearl fisheries and those for corals and sponges was granted ,july #b1 #aijf1 but it is unknown what results have followed4 ,this lease lasts five years1 beginning ,august #a1 #aijf4 ,there is almost an absolute paucity of information in regard to the occurrence of fresh-water pearls in other parts of ,south ,america4 ,the only data we have obtained are from ,prof4 ,eugene ,hussak of the ,mining ,school of ,sao ,paulo1 ,brazil1 who writes us that some pearls have been obtained from one of the ,bahia rivers4 ,possibly1 when the resources of the interior of that continent are better known1 many pearls may be found4 ,,xi ,,pearl-,,culture ,,and ,,pearl-,,farming ,,xi ,,pearl-,,culture ,,and ,,pearl-,,farming ,some asked how pearls did grow1 and where4 ,then spoke ,i to my girl1 ,to part her lips1 and show them there ,the quarelets of pearl4 ,,herrick1 ,the ,quarrie of ,pearls4 ,the great profit that would accrue from an increased output of pearls has long directed attention to the problem of bringing this about by artificial means4 ,in his life of ,apollonius of ,tyana1 ,philostratus1 a ,greek writer of the third century1 repeats a story afloat at the time1 which credited the ,arabs of the ,red ,sea with possessing some method of growing pearls artificially4 ,the story as it reached ,greece was that they first poured oil upon the sea for the purpose of calming the waves1 and then dived down and caused the oysters to open their shells4 ,having effected this1 they pricked the flesh with a sharp instrument and received the liquor which flowed from the wounds into suitable molds1 and this liquor there hardened into the shape1 color1 and consistence of the natural gems4#cbd ,while the description given by ,philostratus is charged with many improbable details1 and could scarcely develop belief1 even in the most credulous1 as to the exact method of procedure1 it seems that the story may not have been wholly without foundation1 and that attempts were made at that remote date to stimulate the growth of pearls4 ,in more modern times1 the possibility of aiding or starting pearly formations in mollusks seems first to have been conceived by the ,chinese about the fourteenth century4 ,in #agcf there appeared in that storehouse of ,oriental information1 8,lettres difiantes et curieuses crites des missions trangres10#cbe a communication from ,f4 ,x4 de ,entrecolles1 dated ,pekin1 #dth ,november1 #agcd1 which set forth that there were people in ,china who busied themselves with growing pearls1 and the product was not only vastly superior to the imitations manufactured in ,europe1 but were scarcely to be distinguished from the genuine4 ,from ,father ,entrecolles's very detailed quotation of his unnamed ,chinese authority1 we condense this account4 ,in a basin one half full of fresh water1 place the largest mussels obtainable1 set this basin in a secluded place where the dew may fall thereon1 but where no female approaches1 and neither the barking of dogs nor the crowing of chickens is to be heard4 ,pulverize some seed-pearls 7,yo tchu71 such as are commonly used in medicine1 moisten this powder with juice expressed from leaves of a species of holly 7,che ta-kong lao71 and then roll the moistened powder into perfectly round pellets the size of a pea4 ,these are permitted to dry under a moderate sunlight1 and then are carefully inserted within the open shells of the mollusks4 ,each day for one hundred days the mussels are nourished with equal parts of powdered ginseng1 china root1 peki1 which is a root more glutinous than isinglass1 and of pecho1 another medicinal root1 all combined with honey and molded in the form of rice grains4 ,although extremely detailed in some particulars1 the ,chinese account omits much to be desired as to the method in which the shells were opened to receive the pellets and the nourishment1 and as to the importance of seclusion from females and loud noises4 ,admitting that it is 8inaccurate and misleading10 this letter seems to indicate very clearly that the ,chinese had some method of assisting nature in growing pearls in river mussels4 ,the first person in ,europe whose suggestion of the possibility of pearl-culture attracted general attention was ,linnus1 the ,swedish naturalist 7#agjg-aggh74 ,in a letter to ,von ,haller1 the ,swiss anatomist1 dated #acth ,september1 #agdh1 he wrote3 8,at length ,i have ascertained the manner in which pearls originate and grow in shells2 and in the course of five or six years ,i am able to produce1 in any mother-of-pearl shell the size of one's hand1 a pearl as large as the seed of the common vetch40#cbf ,there was much secrecy about ,linnus's discovery1 and even yet there is uncertainty as to the details of the method4 ,illustration3 ,shell of ,dipsas plicatus1 with attached metal figures of ,buddha coated with nacre ,illustration3 ,shell of ,dipsas plicatus1 with attached porcelain beads coated with nacre ,the ,linnean ,society of ,london apparently possesses some of the very pearls grown by ,linnus1 as well as several manuscripts which throw much light on this subject4 ,it appears from the latter that1 under date of #fth ,february1 #agfa1 ,linnus wrote that he 8possessed the art0 of impregnating mussels for pearl production1 and offered for a suitable reward from the state to publish the 8secret0 for the public use and benefit4 ,a select committee of the state council of ,sweden was appointed to confer with him1 and on #bgth ,july1 #agfa1 the naturalist appeared and verbally explained his discovery4 ,after various meetings1 the select committee approved the 8art0 and recommended a compensation of #ab1jjj dalars 7about #dhjj74 ,it does not appear that the award was paid1 and the following year the secret was purchased by ,peter ,bagge1 a ,gothenberg merchant1 for the sum of #fjjj dalars4 ,on #gth ,september1 #agfb1 ,king ,adolph ,frederick issued a grant to this merchant 8to practice the art without interference or competition40#cbg ,peter ,bagge was unable to exercise the rights which he had acquired1 nor was he able to dispose of them to advantage4 ,on his death the memorandum of the secret became lost1 and it was not found until about #ahba1 when it was discovered by a grandson1 ,j4 ,p4 ,bagge4 ,under the date of #bgth ,february1 #ahbb1 the ,king of ,sweden confirmed to this grandson the privileges which his ancestor had purchased in #agfb4 ,fruitless efforts were again made to dispose profitably of the rights either to individuals or to the ,swedish government4 ,the details of ,linnus's 8secret0 have never been published authoritatively4 ,in his 8,history of ,inventions10 ,beckmann states that before the naturalist thought of the profits that might accrue from his discovery1 he intimated the process in the sixth edition of his 8,systema natur10 wherein he states3 8,margarita test excrescentia latere interiore1 dum exterius latus perforatur40#cbh 8,i once told him10 says ,beckmann1 8that ,i had discovered his secret in his own writings2 he seemed to be displeased1 made no inquiry as to the passage1 and changed the discourse40#cbi ,in the second volume of his edition of 8,linnus's ,correspondence10#ccj ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,smith remarks3 8,specimens of pearls so produced by art in the ,mya margaritifera are in the ,linnean cabinet4 ,the shell appears to have been pierced by flexible wires1 the ends of which perhaps remain therein40 ,referring to this remark1 ,j4 ,p4 ,bagge comments3 8,this is the nearest ,i have seen any one come to truth1 but still it will be remarked by reading the #8secret' that more information is required to enable persons to practice the art40 ,after a thorough examination of the manuscripts and other material1 ,professor ,herdman concludes that the essential points of ,linnus's process are to make a very small hole in the shell and insert a round pellet of limestone fixed at the end of a fine silver wire1 the hole being near the end of the shell so as to interfere only slightly with the mollusk1 and the nucleus being kept free from the interior of the shell so that the resulting pearl may not become adherent to it by a deposit of nacre4#cca ,shortly after ,linnus communicated with the ,swedish government and before his death1 it was learned in ,europe that the art of producing 8culture pearls0 by a somewhat similar process had been practised by the ,chinese for centuries4#ccb ,they used several forms of matrices or nuclei1 but principally spheres of nacre and bits of flat metal or molded lead1 which were not infrequently in conventional outline of ,buddha4 ,in the spring or early summer1 these were introduced under the mantle of the living mollusk after the shell had been carefully opened a fraction of an inch1 and the animal was then returned to the pond1 or lake4 ,the mollusk did its work in a leisurely way1 like some people who have little to do1 and many months elapsed before it was ready for opening and the removal of the pearly objects4 ,the most satisfactory description we have seen of this process appears to be that communicated nearly a century later to the ,london ,society of ,arts by ,dr4 ,d4 ,t4 ,macgowan1#ccc through ,h4 ,b4 ,m4 plenipotentiary in ,china1 from which this account is abridged and modified4 ,the industry is prosecuted in two villages near the city of ,titsin1 in the northern part of the province of ,che-kiang1 a silk-producing region4 ,in ,may or ,june large specimens of the fresh-water mussels1 ,dipsas plicatus1 are brought in baskets from ,lake ,tai-hu1 about thirty miles distant4 ,for recuperation from the journey1 they are immersed in fresh water for a few days in bamboo cages1 and are then ready to receive the matrices4 ,these nuclei are of various forms and materials1 the most common being spherical beads of nacre1 pellets of mud moistened with juice of camphor seeds1 and especially thin leaden images1 generally of ,buddha in the usual sitting posture4 ,in introducing these objects1 the shell is gently opened with a spatula of bamboo or of pearl shell1 and the mantle of the mollusk is carefully separated from one surface of the shell with a metal probe4 ,the foreign bodies are then successively introduced at the point of a bifurcated bamboo stick1 and placed1 commonly in two parallel rows1 upon the inner surface of the shell2 a sufficient number having been placed on one valve1 the operation is repeated on the other4 ,as soon as released1 the animal closes its shell1 thus keeping the matrices in place4 ,the mussels are then deposited one by one in canals or streams1 or in ponds connected therewith1 five or six inches apart1 and where the depth is from two to five feet under water4 ,if taken up within a few days and examined1 the nuclei will be found attached to the shell by a membranous secretion2 later this appears to be impregnated with calcareous matter1 and finally layers of nacre are deposited around each nucleus1 the process being analagous to the formation of calculary concretions in animals of higher development4 ,a ridge generally extends from one pearly tumor to another1 connecting them all together4 ,each month several tubs of night soil are thrown into the reservoir for the nourishment of the animals4 ,great care is taken to keep goat excretia from the water1 as it is highly detrimental to the mussels1 preventing the secretion of good nacre or even killing them if the quantity be sufficient4 ,persons inexperienced in the management lose ten or fifteen per cent4 by deaths2 others lose virtually none in a whole season4 ,in ,november1 the mussels are removed from the water and opened1 and the pearly masses are detached by means of a knife4 ,if the matrix be of nacre1 this is not removed2 but the earthen and the metallic matrices are cut away1 melted resin or white sealing-wax poured into the cavity1 and the orifice covered with a piece of shell4 ,these pearly formations have some of the luster and beauty of true pearls1 and are furnished at a rate so cheap as to be procurable by almost any one4 ,most of them are purchased by jewelers1 who set them in various personal ornaments1 and especially in decorations for the hair4 ,those formed in the image of ,buddha are used largely for amulets as well as for ornaments4 ,they are about half an inch long1 and while in the shell have a bluish tint1 which disappears with removal of the matrix4 ,quantities of them are sold as talismans to pilgrims at the ,buddhist shrines about ,pooto and ,hang-chau4 ,in some shells the culture pearls are permitted to remain by the ,chinese growers1 for sale as curios or souvenirs2 specimens of these have found their way into many public and private collections of ,europe and ,america4 ,these shells are generally about seven inches long and four or five inches broad1 and contain a double or triple row of pearls or images1 as many as twenty-five of the former and sixteen of the latter to each valve4 ,that the animal should survive the introduction of so many irritating bodies1 and in such a brief period secrete a covering of nacre over them all1 is certainly a striking physiological fact4 ,indeed1 some naturalists have expressed strong doubts as to its possibility1 supposing the forms were made to adhere to the shell by some composition2 but the examination of living specimens in different stages of growth1 with both valves studded with them1 has fully demonstrated its truth4 ,it is represented that in the northern part of the ,che-kiang province about five thousand families are employed in this work in connection with rice-growing and silk-culture4 ,to some of them it is the chief source of income1 single families realizing as much as #cjj silver dollars annually therefrom4 ,in the village of ,chung-kwan-o1 the headquarters for culture pearls in ,china1 a temple has been erected to the memory of the originator of this industry1 ,yu ,shun ,yang1 who lived late in the thirteenth century1 and was an ancestor of many persons now employed thereby4 ,the method in vogue in ,china for so many centuries has been the starting-point for similar attempts in various other countries4 ,during the ,new ,jersey pearling excitement in #aheg1 there were found several spherical pieces of nacre which had been introduced into ,unios apparently for experimental pearl-culture2 and in the collection of shells bequeathed to the ,united ,states ,national ,museum by the late ,dr4 ,isaac ,lea1 is a hemispherical piece of candle grease partly coated with pinkish nacre4 ,kelaart applied the ,chinese method to the ,ceylon pearl-oysters with much success in #aheh4 ,at the ,berlin ,fisheries ,exhibition1 in #ahhj1 appeared the results of experiments in growing culture pearls in the river mussels in ,saxony4 ,small foreign bodies had been introduced in the mantle1 and others had been inserted between the mantle and the shell4 ,these nuclei consisted of shell beads1 unsightly pearls from other mussels1 etc42 but unfortunately the shape of these was such that the mantle could not fit closely around them1 consequently the result was so irregular as to be of no value except to show that ,german ,unios as well as those of ,china could be made to cover foreign objects with pearly material4 ,professor ,herdman notes that1 between #agea and #aged1 an inspector named ,frederick ,hedenberg received an annual salary 8to inoculate the pearl-mussels of ,lulea 7in the northern part of ,sweden7 with #8pearl-seeds' which he manufactured1 and then to replant the mussels4 ,certain pearls were produced by the inspector1 which it is recorded were sold for some #cjj silver dollars40#ccd ,as noted by ,broussonnet1 in ,finland artificial pearls were produced by inserting a round piece of nacre between the inner face of the shell and the mantle4 ,the owner of the pearl fisheries at ,vilshofen has succeeded in producing pearly figures by introducing into the mollusk flat figures of pewter1 most of them representing fish in form4 ,in #ahhd1 ,bouchon-,brandely made experiments in pearl production at ,tahiti4 ,gimlet holes about half an inch in diameter were drilled through different places in the shells of pearl-oysters1 and through each of these holes a pellet of nacre or of glass was inserted and held by brass wire passing through a stopper of cork or burao wood1 by means of which each opening was hermetically closed1 so that the pellet was the only foreign substance protruding on the inside of the shell4#cce ,the oysters were returned to the sea without further injury1 and after the lapse of a month the pellets were found covered with thin layers of nacre4 ,illustration3 ,artificial rearing-ponds for the development of pearl-oysters on the ,island of ,espirit ,santo1 ,gulf of ,california ,illustration3 ,trays containing small pearl-oysters prepared for placing at the bottom of artificial rearing-ponds at ,espirit ,santo ,island1 ,gulf of ,california ,experiments in growing pearls in the abalone or ,haliotis were made in #ahig by ,louis ,bouton1 an account of which was given at the meeting of the ,paris ,acadmie des ,sciences in #ahih4ccf ,the tenacity of life in this mollusk makes it especially desirable for experiments of this nature4 ,through small holes bored into the shell1 pellets of mother-of-pearl were inserted and placed within the mantle1 the small holes being afterward closed up4 ,other nacreous pellets were introduced directly into the bronchial cavity4 ,the objects were soon covered with thin1 pearly layers1 resulting in a few months in spheres of much beauty1 resembling somewhat the pearls naturally produced by this mollusk4 ,in six months1 according to ,m4 ,bouton1 the layers became of sufficient thickness to be attractive4 ,within limitations1 the size of the pearl produced is in proportion to the length of time it is allowed to remain within the mollusk4 ,the results of the experiments seem to encourage further efforts in this line1 and possibly in course of time there may be a profitable business in growing pearls in abalones on the ,pacific coast of the ,united ,states4 ,indeed1 the experiments in transplanting and cultivating the pearl-oyster in ,australia leads one to fancy that the culture of that species in the warm coastal waters of ,america is by no means an impossibility4 ,many other experiments along similar lines have been made more recently4 ,an interesting feature of attempts made by ,mr4 ,vane ,simmonds of ,cedar ,rapids1 ,iowa1 in #ahif-ahih1 is that in order to avoid straining the adductor muscles by forcibly opening the shell while the mollusk resisted the intrusion1 each selected ,unio was exposed in the open air and sunshine until the valves opened2 then a wooden wedge was carefully inserted in the opening1 and the mollusk immediately immersed in water to revive it or to sustain life4 ,after a few moments of immersion1 the operator carefully raised the mantle from the shell1 inserted the pellet of wax or other small article to be covered with nacre1 drew the mantle to its normal position1 removed the wedge1 and returned the mollusk to a selected place in the stream at sufficient depth to avoid danger of freezing in winter4 ,probably it would be more satisfactory to stupefy the mollusks by means of some chemical in order to insert the pellets4 ,marine mollusks have been successfully stupefied by slowly adding magnesium sulphate crystals to the sea water until the animals no longer respond to contact4 ,if treatment is not too prolonged1 they may be returned to normal sea water with good prospects of recovery4 ,to stupefy fresh-water mollusks1 either chloral hydrate or chlorosone may be employed1 although the latter is expensive to use in great quantity4 ,dr4 ,charles ,b4 ,davenport1 of the ,carnegie ,institution1 suggests that it might be well to experiment with pouring ether or chloroform over them4 ,in ,japan the production of these pearly formations in ,margaritifera martensi1 which is closely related to the ,ceylon oyster1 has developed into some prominence since #ahij1 and the results have been well advertised4 ,the industry is located in ,ago ,bay1 near the celebrated temple of ,ise in the province of ,shima1 and gives employment to about one hundred persons4 ,it is stated that the proprietor1 ,kokichi ,mikimoto1 has leased about one thousand acres of sea bottom1 on which are a million oysters of this species1 which yield from #cj1jjj to #ej1jjj culture pearls annually4 ,as described by ,dr4 ,k4 ,mitsukuri1 the shoal portions of this area are used for breeding the oysters and raising them to maturity1 and in the deeper parts--covered by several fathoms of water--the oysters are specially treated for producing the culture pearls4 ,in the former1 the spat is collected on small stones1 weighing six or eight pounds each1 placed during ,may or ,june4 ,the following ,november these stones1 with the attached spat or young1 are removed1 for protection from cold1 to depths greater than five or six feet1 where they remain for about three years4 ,at the end of that period1 the growing oysters are taken from the water1 the shells opened slightly1 and rounded bits of pearl shell or nacre are introduced under the mantle without injury to the mollusks4 ,about #cjj1jjj are thus treated annually1 and placed in the deeper water at the rate of about one to each square foot of bottom area4 ,after the lapse of about four years more1 the oysters are removed from the water and opened1 when a large percentage of the pellets are found covered on the upper or exposed surface with nacre of good luster4 ,most of these culture pearls are button-shaped and weigh two or three grains each4 ,although somewhat attractive and superior to the culture pearls of ,china and other fresh waters1 they by no means compare favorably with choice pearls4 ,they are rarely1 if ever1 spherical1 and only the upper surface is lustrous2 consequently they serve only the purpose of half-pearls4 ,a cross section shows the nacreous growth in a thin concentric layer1 forming a fragile hemispherical cap1 the concave wall of which is covered with a brownish granular secretion which prevents perfect adhesion4 ,compared with choice pearls1 they are not only deficient in luster1 but are fragile1 and are beautiful only on the upper surface1 and not available for necklaces4 ,good specimens sell for several dollars each1 and some individuals reach #ej or more4 ,specimens exhibited at the ,paris ,exposition in #aijj were awarded a silver medal2 at the ,st4 ,petersburg ,exhibition in #aijb they were awarded a gold medal2 at the ,tokio ,exhibition a grand prize1 and a medal at the ,st4 ,louis ,exposition in #aijd4 ,the awards were given in the fisheries1 and not the gem divisions4 ,the work of ,mikimoto is not the only attempt now being made in ,japan to produce pearls4 ,a letter from ,dr4 ,t4 ,nishikawa1 of the ,tokio ,imperial ,university1 states3 8,it is a great pleasure for me to tell you that ,i am studying pearl formation and pearl-oyster culture in the university laboratory1 and recently ,i have got my pearl laboratory at ,fukura1 on the ,island of ,awaji1 where ,i began the pearl-culture work this summer 7#aijg74 ,fortunately1 ,i found the cause of ,japanese pearl formation1 i4e41 the reason why and how the pearl is produced in the tissue of an oyster4 ,i made practical application of this theory with great prospects for producing the natural and true pearls at will40 ,among the most interesting of the pearl-culture enterprises are those of the ,compaia ,criadora de ,concha y ,perla1 under the direction of ,sr4 ,gaston ,j4 ,vives1 in the ,gulf of ,california4 ,this company has an extensive station at ,san ,gabriel1 near ,la ,paz1 where breeding oysters are placed in prepared chests or cages for collecting the spat on trays4 ,after remaining there for several weeks or months1 the young mollusks are removed to prepared places 7viveros7 for further growth4 ,experiments are now made in depositing them between a series of parallel dams alternately touching each shore of a lagoon1 thus developing a current of water over the oysters for conveying food to them1 and thus hastening their growth4 ,in efforts to increase the output of pearls1 attention has been given to the possibilities for extending the area and production of the reefs1 and for stocking new areas and replenishing exhausted ones1 thus bringing the pearl-bearing mollusks to maturity in greater abundance4 ,although theoretically it does not seem a very difficult undertaking to cultivate the pearl-oysters by methods somewhat similar to the cultivation of edible oysters and clams1 in no part of the world has this been successfully done on an extensive scale4 ,while in certain minor cases1 the areas of some species of pearl mollusks have been extended indirectly through man's agency--as the range of the ,red ,sea pearl-oyster into the ,mediterranean since the ,suez ,canal was opened--there is no well-known instance in which new areas have been abundantly populated through direct efforts4 ,in the chapter on the pearl fisheries of ,asia are noted the hitherto unsuccessful efforts made in ,ceylon and ,india to preserve the young and immature oysters on the storm-swept reefs by removing them to less exposed areas4 ,this has received close attention from the ,ceylon authorities during the last two years4 ,other practical measures which are recommended for that region include 8cultching10 or the deposit of suitable solid material1 such as shells or broken stone1 to which the young oysters can attach themselves2 thinning out overcrowded reefs1 and cleaning the beds by means of a dredge1 thereby removing starfish and other injurious animals4 ,the attempts made by individuals and associations to extend the range of the reefs on the coast of ,australia1 among the ,tuamotu ,islands1 in the ,gulf of ,california1 and some other localities1 are noted in the appropriate chapters4 ,but it may be stated that in most instances lack of adequate police protection has been not the least of the difficulties with which these experiments have had to contend4 ,nor has much greater success followed upon efforts to prevent the exhaustion of the reefs and productive grounds through overfishing1 except in those instances in which the government exercises a proprietory interest and determines the season1 the area to be fished1 and the quantity of mollusks to be removed4 ,the most prominent instance of this is in ,ceylon1 where the fishery has been restricted to such seasons and periods as appeared to insure the maximum yield of pearls4 ,without restriction upon the fishery1 the pearl-oyster in that populous region would doubtless become almost extinct in a few years4 ,another instance of proprietory interest on the part of the government is in some of the ,german ,states1 where pearl fishing has been regulated and restricted for centuries4 ,but there the sewage from cities and factories has accomplished almost as effectively1 if less rapidly1 what unrestricted fishing would have done4 ,much attention has been given to the subject of pearl-culture in ,bavaria1 where the government has granted a small subsidy to encourage this industry1 and a model pearl-mussel bank has been established in one of the brooks for the rational culture of the mussels4 ,on the ,australian coast1 the only theoretical protection of consequence is the restriction on taking small or immature oysters2 but1 owing to the great area over which the fisheries are prosecuted there1 it has not been possible to enforce the regulations4 ,at some of the ,pacific islands and elsewhere1 interdictions exist as to use of certain apparatus of capture1 but this is intended for the purpose of reserving the industry to dependent natives rather than for protecting the reefs4 ,several efforts have been made to insure adequate protection for the ,unios in our ,american rivers1 but nothing in this direction has yet been accomplished by legislative enactment1 except in ,illinois4 ,reference has already been made to the parasitic stage of ,unios4#ccg ,the attachment of the newly-hatched mollusks to the gills or fins of a fish is entirely a matter of chance1 and unless this takes place they die within a few days4 ,under natural conditions the fish thus infected will rarely be found carrying as many of the parasitic ,unios as they can without serious injury4 ,if the fish are placed in a tank or a pond containing large numbers of newly-hatched ,unios1 it is possible to bring about the attachment of hundreds of them for every one that would be found there by chance of nature4 ,a fish six inches in length may thus be made to carry several hundred parasitic ,unios1 and thus a thousand fish artificially infected may do the work of several hundred thousand in a state of nature4 ,experiments with small numbers of fish under observation in the laboratory indicate that their infection on a large scale is entirely possible1 and the experiment by ,messrs4 ,lefevre and ,curtis now in progress at ,la ,crosse1 ,wisconsin1 in which over #be1jjj young fish have been infected1 gives every indication that such work may be begun even with the scanty knowledge now possessed4 ,since it has already been shown that the production of pearls is an abnormal condition1 it does not follow that an increase in the quantity of mollusks would necessarily result in a corresponding increase in the yield of pearls4 ,indeed1 it might even be that the artificial conditions bringing about an enhanced prosperity and abundance of the mollusks would result in a corresponding decrease in the product of gems1 the improved surroundings impairing if not destroying the conditions to which the pearls owe their origin4 ,this has resulted in directing efforts toward abnormally increasing the abundance of pearls in a definite number of mollusks4 ,the development of the parasitic theory of pearl formation has naturally invited attention to the possibilities of increasing the yield of pearls by inoculating healthy mollusks with distomid parasites4 ,it does not appear that this has yet advanced beyond the experimental stage1 and virtually all that has been accomplished has been set forth in the chapter on the origin of pearls4 ,it seems that there are great possibilities in the artificial production along these lines2 and that under skilful management it could be made a profitable industry1 especially if carried on concurrently with the systematic cultivation of mother-of-pearl shells4 ,although there is scientific basis for the belief that it may be possible in time to bring about pearl growth in this manner1 the public should not be too hasty in financing companies soliciting capital for establishing so-called 8pearl farms40 ,every once in a while announcement is made in the public press of wonderful success which has been attained by some investigator1 who surrounds his discovery with as much mystery as enveloped the ,keeley motor1 and who is as anxious to sell stock as was the owner of that mythical invention4 ,a prospectus of one of these 8pearl syndicates10 which is now before us1 claims to 8increase and hasten pearl production by forcing the oyster1 through doctoring the water in which it is immersed and also by irritating the mollusk itself40 ,so far as the writers are aware1 aside from the inexpensive but somewhat attractive culture pearls1 no commercial success has yet followed the many attempts at artificial production4 ,this chapter should not close without reference to the so-called 8breeding pearls10 probably the most curious of all theories of pearl growth1 regarding which many inquiries have been made4 ,throughout the ,malay ,archipelago there exists a generally accepted belief that if several selected pearls of good size are sealed in a box with a few grains of rice for nourishment they will increase in number as well as in size4 ,if examined at the expiration of one year1 small pearls may be found strewn about the bottom of the box1 according to the theory2 and in some instances the original pearls themselves will be found to have increased in size4 ,if again inclosed for a further period of a year or more1 the adherents of the theory say1 the seed-pearls will further increase in size1 and additional seed-pearls will form4 ,furthermore1 the grains of rice will present the appearance of having been nibbled or as though a rodent had taken a bite in the end of each4 ,it is claimed that the breeding pearls are obtained from several species of mollusks1 mostly from the ,margaritifera1 but also from the ,tridacna 7giant clam7 and the ,placuna 7window shell74 ,while cotton is the usual medium in which the pearls and rice are retained1 some collectors substitute fresh water and yet others prefer salt water4 ,it seems that rice is considered essential to success4 ,the earliest account we have seen of this extraordinary belief was given by ,dr4 ,engelbert ,kmpfer1#cch who was connected with the ,dutch embassy to ,japan from #afij to #afif1 and since that time it has been referred to by many travelers in the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,a correspondent in the time-honored 8,notes and ,queries10 #bjth ,september1 #ahfb1 writes3 ,nearly five years ago1 while staying with friends in ,pulo ,penang 7,straits of ,malacca71 ,i was shown by the wife of a prominent merchant five small pearls1 which had increased and multiplied in her possession4 ,she had set them aside for about #ab months in a small wooden box1 packed in soft cotton and with half a dozen grains of common rice4 ,on opening the box at the expiration of that time1 she found four additional pearls1 about the size of a small pinhead and of much beauty1 which ,i saw and examined not long after the lady made the discovery4 ,while my story may be received with laughter1 ,i can most solemnly assure you of the truth of my having seen these pearls1 and ,i have not the slightest doubt of the perfect truthfulness of the lady who possessed them4 ,i questioned an eminent ,malay merchant of ,penang on this subject1 and he assured me that one of his daughters had once possessed a similar growth of pearls4#cci ,notwithstanding the apparent absurdity of this pearl-breeding theory1 belief in it appears to be not only sincere but wide-spread1 as can be attested by any one familiar with affairs in the archipelago4 ,a critical examination into the matter was made in #ahgg by ,dr4 ,n4 ,b4 ,dennys1 curator of the ,raffles ,museum at ,singapore1 the result of which was communicated to the ,straits branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 #bhth ,february1 #ahgh4cdj ,from his numerous quotations of persons who gave the results of their experiences we extract two instances4 ,one gentleman had #abj small pearls in addition to the five breeding ones with which the experiment had started twenty years before1 and during the entire period the box had not been molested except that it was opened occasionally for inspection by interested persons4 ,another experimentor inclosed three breeding pearls with a few grains of rice on #agth ,july1 #ahgd2 on opening the box on #adth ,july1 #ahge1 nine additional pearls were discovered1 and the three original ones appeared larger4 ,the belief has many curious variations4 ,it is stated that in ,borneo and the adjacent islands1 many of the fishermen reserve every ninth pearl regardless of its size1 and put the collection in a small bottle which is kept corked with a dead man's finger4 ,according to ,professor ,kimmerly1 nearly every burial-place along the ,borneo coast has been desecrated in searching for 8corks0 for these bottles1 and almost every hut has its dead-finger bottle1 with from ten to fifty 8breeding pearls0 and twice that number of rice grains4#cda ,a correspondent at ,sandakan1 ,north ,borneo1 writes that at the time of his death at ,hongkong in #aija1 ,dr4 ,dennys had in his possession a small box containing 8breeding pearls02 but these disappeared after his death1 and his brother1 the crown solicitor1 was unable to find them4 ,this correspondent also states that the ,ranee of ,sarawak1 a ,british protectorate in western ,borneo1 has a collection of 8breeding pearls0 numbering about two hundred1 and that this is the only large collection known at present4 ,as contrasted with abundant and unquestionably sincere testimony that pearls do 8breed10 it may be stated that absolutely no result has followed one or two native experiments made under supervision4 ,while it must be admitted that negative evidence is always weaker than positive1 and twenty failures would be outweighed by one successful experiment1 yet the scientific objections to the possibility of pearls 8breeding0 cannot be overcome4 ,the phenomenon is doubtless one of those curiosities of natural history in which some important factor has been overlooked4 ,another curious theory is that peculiar pearls continue to grow after removal from the mollusk in which they originate4 ,quite recently it was reported from ,new ,durham1 ,north ,carolina1 that a pearl found there in #ahif had been growing continually since it was found and removed from the water4 ,unfortunately1 it was weighed only when the last observation was made1 and its increased size doubtless existed only in the imagination of its possessor4 ,,xii ,,mystical ,,and ,,medicinal ,,properties ,,of ,,pearls ,,xii ,,mystical ,,and ,,medicinal ,,properties ,,of ,,pearls ,divers are the virtues of gems2 some give favor in the sight of lords2 some protect against fire2 others make people beloved2 others give wisdom2 some render men invisible2 others repel lightning2 some baffle poisons2 some protect and augment treasures1 and others cause that husbands should love their wives4 ,arabic version of ,solomon's writings4 ,while no special gems are mentioned in the tribute which the ,arabs credit to ,solomon1 it seems that pearls must certainly have been included1 for in nearly all countries where these gems have been prized and from the earliest period1 they have been credited with mystic properties and healing virtues4 ,in the first chapter of this book1 reference was made to the ,atharvaveda1 dating from at least #bdjj years ago1 and its allusion to the use of an amulet of pearl shell and of pearls among the ,hindus in bestowing long life and prosperity upon young ,brahmanical disciples4 ,as this amulet is fastened upon the youth1 the following hymn is recited1 according to this ancient ,veda of the ,atharvans3 ,born of the wind1 the atmosphere1 the lightning1 and the light1 may this pearl shell1 born of gold1 protect us from straits6 ,with the shell which was born in the sea1 at the head of bright substances1 we slay the ,rakshas and conquer the ,atrins devouring demons4 ,with the shell we conquer disease and poverty2 with the shell1 too1 the ,sadanvas4 ,the shell is our universal remedy2 the pearl shall protect us from straits6 ,born in the heavens1 born in the sea1 brought on from the river ,sindhu1 this shell1 born of gold1 is our life-prolonging amulet4 ,the amulet1 born from the sea1 a sun1 born from ,vritra the cloud1 shall on all sides protect us from the missiles of the gods and the ,asuras6 ,thou art one of the golden substances1 thou art born from ,soma the moon4 ,thou art sightly on the chariot1 thou art brilliant on the quiver4 7,may it prolong our lives67 ,the bone of the gods turned into pearl2 that1 animated1 dwells in the waters4 ,that do ,i fasten upon thee unto life1 luster1 strength1 longevity1 unto a life lasting a hundred autumns4 ,may the amulet of pearl protect thee6#cdb ,the mystical ,taoists1 in their pursuit of immortality1 made much of pearls as an important ingredient in formul for perpetuating youth4 ,according to an old ,taoist authority1 in preparing one of these elixirs1 an extra long pearl which has been worn for many years is steeped in some infusion of malt1 or a preparation of serpents' gall1 honeycomb1 and pumice-stone4 ,when the pearl becomes plastic1 it is drawn out to the length of two or three feet1 cut into suitable lengths1 and formed into pills1 the taking of which renders food thenceforth unnecessary4#cdc ,the myth of the dragon and the pearl has been a far-reaching theme of the artists in ,japan and ,china1 whether in color1 metal1 or stone4 ,there has been much written as to how the myth became so fixed in the minds of the ,orientals1 and ,prince ,rupprecht of ,bavaria1 who has made an exhaustive study of the myth of the dragon in all its phases1 has very courteously communicated to us the following facts4 ,personally he had never been able to learn of a true or clear description of the origin of the myth other than the well-recorded legend given by ,legge in the 8,sacred ,books of the ,east0 7,vol4 ,,xl1 p4 #baa71 in which there is a quotation from ,shuangtze1 a writer of the fourth century before ,christ1 who says3 8,near the ,ho river there was a poor man1 who supported his family by weaving rushes4 ,his son1 when diving in a deep pool1 found a pearl worth a thousand ounces of silver4 ,the father said3 #8,bring a stone and beat it in pieces4 ,a pearl of this value must have been in a pool nine khung deep and under the chin of the black dragon4 ,that you were able to get it must have been owing to your having found him asleep4 ,let him awake1 and the consequences will not be small4'0 ,prince ,rupprecht says3 ,this legend has nothing to do with the illustration to which you refer2 it belongs to a cycle of myths concerning a stone in the head of a serpent1 or the crown of the king of the serpents or dragons2 myths which also exist in ,germany since the days of old4 ,i should rather be inclined to think that the commonly accepted pearl between the two dragons is not a pearl at all4 ,at least this pearl is always surrounded by ornaments in the shape of flames or claws1 and ,professor ,hirth discovered on such a representation in woodcut1 an explanation of the flames by the sign for ,yangsui1 a very ancient kind of metallic mirrors1 of concave form1 that were used to produce the heavenly fire4 ,illustration3 ,,japanese ,,legend ,,of ,,the ,,dragon ,,and ,,the ,,pearl1 ,,idealized ,,in ,,jade ,heber ,r4 ,bishop ,collection1 ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art ,this explanation is probably erroneous and due to a misunderstanding of the signs for flames4 ,in my opinion1 another explanation1 that the pearl is not really a pearl but a spider1 is nearer to the truth4 ,as an argument in favor of this theory the following sentence may be quoted from an encyclopedia of the eleventh century 78,pieu-tzi-lei10 chap4 #bbc73 8,the pearl of a fish is its eye1 the pearl of a tortoise is its foot1 the pearl of the spider is its belly40 ,pearl1 as well as spider1 are both called in ,chinese by the same word but are written in a different way4 ,i1 for my part1 believe that the pearl is the belly not indeed of a spider1 but of ,garuda1 the eagle of ,vishnu1 known in the old ,hindu mythology as the foe of the ,vagas1 beings with human bodies and the tails of serpents4 ,at least1 ,i found on an old ,chinese gateway1 dating back to the times of the ,mongol emperors1 a sculpture showing the contest between ,garuda and the ,vagas4 ,on another sculpture of the late ,king epoch the ,vagas are already changed into dragons1 and the wings1 the limbs and the head of ,garuda have become quite insignificant1 while his belly is prominent like a ball4 ,a beautiful metaphor occurs in ancient ,chinese writings1 in the ,book of the ,later ,han1#cdd for instance1 which regards this gem as the hidden soul of the oyster4 ,there is no end of legends and myths regarding the pearl in oriental literature4 ,one fable credits it with a peculiar magical power3 by speaking the right word1 a spirit can be called therefrom which makes the owner a possessor of all the happiness of the earth4 ,browning notes this in two exquisite stanzas1 8,a ,pearl1 a ,girl10 published on the day of his death in #ahhi1 in which he compares this characteristic with a woman's love called forth by the mystic word4 ,a simple ring with a single stone4 ,to the vulgar eye no stone of price2 ,whisper the right word1 that alone-- ,forth starts a sprite1 like fire from ice1 ,and lo1 you are lord 7says an ,eastern scroll7 ,of heaven and earth1 lord whole and sole1 ,through the power in a pearl4 ,a woman 7'tis ,i this time that say7 ,with little the world counts worthy praise2 ,utter the true word--out and away ,escapes her soul3 ,i am wrapt in blaze1 ,creation's lord1 of heaven and earth1 ,lord whole and sole--by a minute's birth-- ,through the love in a girl4 ,in the folk-song of ,servia is a pretty little poem which testifies to the love they bear to pearls3 ,a youth unmated prays to ,god1 ,to turn him to pearls in the sea1 ,where the maidens come to fill their urns2 ,that so they might gather him into their laps1 ,and string him on a fine green thread1 ,and wear him pendant from the neck2 ,that he might hear what each one said1 ,and whether his loved one spoke of him4 ,his prayer was granted and he lay ,turned to pearls in the dark blue sea1 ,where the maidens come to fill their urns2 ,then quickly they gather him into their laps1 ,and string him on a green silk thread1 ,and wear him pendant from the neck2 ,so he hears what each one says of her own ,and what his loved one says of him4#cde ,in the days when romance and chivalry held sway in ,europe1 pearls and other favors were presented by ladies for the brave knights to wear at tournaments4 ,and we are told in the ,arthurian legends how ,elaine1 8the lily maid of ,astolat10 gave to ,sir ,lancelot 8a red sleeve of scarlet1 embroidered with great pearls10 for him to wear on his helmet3 and 8then to her tower she climbed and took the shield1 there kept it and so lived in fantasy02 while he fought and won at the tilt1 8wearing her scarlet sleeve1 tho' carved and cut1 and half the pearls away40#cdf ,the sweet sentiment of purity associated with the pearl ennobles it above all other gems4 ,rabanus ,maurus1 archbishop of ,mainz1 wrote1 about #hej1 that 8mystically1 the pearl signifies the hope of the ,kingdom of ,heaven1 or charity and the sweetness of celestial life40#cdg ,true1 it was not among the twelve gems which adorned the breastplate of the high priest of the ,temple1 symbolical of the twelve apostles4 ,a ,father of the ,church--,st4 ,augustine1 we believe--explains this by saying that it was reserved for a more sacred office1 that of representing ,christ himself4 ,pearl signifies purity1 innocence1 humility1 and a retiring spirit4 ,all stones of the gray color of the pearl have the significances which are given to this beautiful gem4#cdh ,unlike other gems1 the pearl comes to us perfect and beautiful1 direct from the hand of nature4 ,other precious stones receive careful treatment from the lapidary1 and owe much to his art4 ,the pearl1 however1 owes nothing to man4 ,perhaps this has much to do with the sentiments we cherish for it4 ,it touches us with the same sense of simplicity and sweetness as the mountain daisy or the wild rose4 ,it is absolutely a gift of nature1 on which man cannot improve4 ,we turn from the brilliant1 dazzling ornament of diamonds or emeralds to a necklace of pearls with a sense of relief1 and the eye rests upon it with quiet1 satisfied repose and is delighted with its modest splendor1 its soft gleam1 borrowed from its home in the depths of the sea4 ,it seems truly to typify steady and abiding affection1 which needs no accessory or adornment to make it more attractive4 ,and there is a purity and sweetness about it which makes it especially suitable for the maiden4 ,the idea of pearly purity is inseparably linked with the name ,margaret1 derived from the ,persian ,murwari 7pearl1 or child of light7 through the ,greek 4 ,this name--beautiful in sound as well as in origin--is popular in all ,european countries1 and likewise are its abbreviations and diminutives3 in ,italian1 ,margherita and ,rita2 in ,french1 ,marguerite1 ,margot1 and ,groten2 in ,german1 ,margarethe1 ,gretchen1 and ,grethel2 and in ,english1 ,margaret1 ,marjorie1 ,madge1 ,maggie1 ,peggy1 etc4 ,the use of the word as a proper name among the early ,christians was doubtless suggested by the sweet simplicity and loveliness of the pearl1 and by the beautiful symbolical references to this gem in the ,scriptures2 and the meaning of the name has been strengthened by the pure lives and the good deeds of the many beautiful ,margarets in all lands1 including the virgin martyr1 ,st4 ,margaret of ,antioch1 8the mild maid of ,god0 referred to in the ,liturgy1 who1 before the fifth century1 was the embodiment of feminine innocence and faith overcoming evil1 and who is often represented wearing a string of pearls2 also ,st4 ,margaret theling of the eleventh century1 who endeared the name in ,scotland1 was canonized in #abae1 and was adopted as the patron saint of ,scotland in #afgc2 and ,margaret1 8,pearl of ,bohemia10 so beloved by the ,danes4 ,especially among the ,germans has the name a tender significance2 with them it is symbolical of maidenly sweetness and purity associated with richness of womanhood1 such as was typified by ,goethe in the heroine of his 8,faust40 ,this idea may have impelled ,wordsworth in the selection of a name for the lovely1 girlish character in his 8,excursion02 and ,tennyson for his 8,sweet pale ,margaret10 and likewise ,scott for 8,ladye ,margaret1 the flower of ,teviot40 ,with the memory of these lives and characters before her1 many a loving mother has crystallized the hope entertained for a baby daughter by enriching her with this beautiful name4 ,poets seem never to tire of using the pearl as a symbol of perfection in form1 in purity1 in luster1 and in sweetness4 ,but probably none has made a more lovely comparison than ,owen ,meredith3 ,as pure as a pearl1 ,and as perfect3 a noble and innocent girl4#cdi ,the ,oriental poets unite with those of the ,west in their love for this gem1 and those gifted writers are lavish in its use4 ,let us but add the lament of ,shabl ,abdullah on the death of ,nozami3 ,nozami's gone1 our fairest pearl is lost4 ,from purest dew1 kind ,heaven had given her birth1 ,and then had fashioned her the pearl supreme4 ,she softly shone1 but hidden from mankind1 ,so ,god has now restored her to her shell4 ,far more crude1 but possibly equally pathetic1 is that old epitaph from ,yorkshire1 ,england3 ,in shells and gold pearls are not kept alone1 ,a ,margaret here lies beneath a stone4 ,in the seventeenth century1 ,pierre de ,rosnel wrote in a burst of enthusiasm3 ,the pearl is a jewel so perfect that its excellent beauty demands the love and esteem of the whole universe4 ,suidas expresses himself in regard to it thus3 8,the possession of the pearl is one of love's greatest delights2 the delight of possessing it suffices to feed love40 ,in a painting1 ,philostratus1 who had the same ideas1 has represented cupids with bows enriched with pearls2 and the ancients were all agreed to dedicate the pearl to ,venus4 ,now1 to my thinking1 the reason for their so doing was1 that inasmuch as this goddess of love1 the fairest of all divinities1 is descended from heaven and is formed of the sea1 so in like manner the pearl--the loveliest of all gems--is formed in the sea and is the offspring of the dew of heaven4 ,but he that would learn more of the excellence of the pearl1 let him inquire of the ladies1 who will relate much more in its praise than ,i can write1 and who will doubtless confess that nothing else so well adorns them4#cej ,emblematic as the pearl is of maidenly purity and sweetness1 it is deemed especially appropriate as a wedding gift4 ,this use dates from the earliest dawn of ,hindu civilization1 when the beloved ,krishna drew it from the sea to decorate his beautiful daughter on her nuptial day4 ,and among the ,hindus not uncommonly the presentation of a virgin pearl and its piercing forms part of the marriage ceremony4 ,in most of the ,european royal weddings in recent years1 pearls have been prominent among the bridal gifts2 nor have they been overlooked among the presents to ,american brides1 including one much in the public print about #aijf1 for whom a necklace of them was selected by a neighboring republic as an appropriate present4 ,the dedication of the pearl to love and marriage appears to have been recognized by the artistic ,greeks4 ,one of the choicest engravings preserved from classic times is a magnificent sardonyx showing the marriage of ,cupid and ,psyche1 in which the lovers are united by what some authorities consider a string of pearls--emblematic of conjugal bonds--by means of which the god ,hymen leads them to the nuptial couch4#cea ,this engraved gem now forms one of the choicest objects in the ,boston ,museum of ,fine ,arts1 having been purchased at the sale of the ,marlborough gems1 ,london1 #ahih1 at a cost of about #aj1jjj4 ,and yet in ,western countries the ill omen of pearls as bridal ornaments has been widely recognized1 these determining the tears that will be shed in the married life4 ,as ,milton says1 referring to the ,marchioness of ,winchester3 ,and those pearls of dew she wears1 ,prove to be presaging tears4 ,it was told that when the ,empress ,eugnie of ,france was finishing her toilet preparatory to her wedding in ,notre ,dame in #ahec1 a personal attendant reminded her of the omen1 and begged that she refrain from wearing her pearl necklace on that occasion4 ,eugenie paid no heed to the warning and wore the beautiful jewels just the same2 and1 as all the world knows1 her life has been one long tragedy4 ,since that necklace was a lengthy one1 containing very many pearls1 the bride who wears only a few on her wedding day need not dread the adage so much1 for1 unfortunately1 no woman's life is wholly free from grief2 and most brides would doubtless risk a few tears rather than refuse to wear a wedding gift of pearls4 ,it was a very old idea that to dream of pearls betokens tears4 ,a suggestion of this occurs in ,john ,webster's 8,duchess of ,malfi0 7#afbc71 ,act ,,iii1 sc4 #e3 ,duchess3 ,i had a very strange dream to-night2 ,methought ,i wore my coronet of state1 ,and on a sudaine all the diamonds ,were chang'd to pearles4 ,antonio3 ,my interpretation ,is1 you'll weepe shortly2 ,for to me the pearles ,doe signifie your teares4 ,and we quote also from 8,the ,parson's ,wedding0 7#affc71 ,act ,,ii1 sc4 #e1 where ,jolly exclaims3 8,what6 in thy dumps1 brother8 ,the captain sad6 ',tis prophetic4 ,i'd as lieve have dreamt of pearl1 or the loss of my teeth40 ,tradition relates that ,queen ,margaret ,tudor1 wife of ,james ,,iv of ,scotland1 just before the battle of ,flodden ,field 7#aeac71 had many fears as to the disastrous issue of that conflict1 owing to having dreamed on three nights in succession that all her jewels were suddenly turned into pearls4 ,this was interpreted as a sign of coming widowhood and sorrow1 which was soon verified2 and a similar story is told of ,marie de' ,medici shortly before the murder of ,henry ,,iv of ,france in #afaj4 ,the employment of pearls medicinally dates from an ancient period4 ,this use is mentioned in the oldest existing ,sanskrit medical work1 the 8,charaka-,samhita10#ceb composed early in the ,christian era2 and likewise in the somewhat more modern 8,susruta10#cec which probably originated before the eighth century4 ,it is particularly in ,oriental countries that therapeutic properties have been credited to pearls4 ,the powder of these gems has been rated very highly there1 and is still used to some extent4 ,it was considered beneficial in cases of ague1 indigestion1 and hemorrhages1 and was regarded as possessing stimulative qualities4 ,medical literature of the ,orient contains many accounts of the uses of pearls and of the methods of forming them into pills1 ointments1 etc4 ,according to a treatise written by ,narahari1 a physician of ,kashmir1 about #abdj ,a4,d41 the pearl cures diseases of the eyes1 is an antidote to poisons1 cures consumption and morbid disturbances1 and increases strength and general health4#ced ,in ,china1 as well as in other ,asiatic countries1 a distinction was made in the therapeutic effects of so-called 8virgin0 pearls and of those pierced or bored for stringing4 ,the ,chinese natural history of ,li ,shi ,chin1 completed about #aeif1 states that bored pearls will not serve for medicine1 for which unpierced ones should be used4 ,it further adds that the taste is saltish1 sweetish1 and cold2 and that they benefit the liver1 clear the eyes1 and cure deafness4 ,dr4 ,t4 ,nishikawa informs us that at the present time many ,mytilus seed-pearls are exported from ,japan to ,china for medicinal purposes4 ,quoting principally from ,ahmed ,teifashi1 ,whitelow ,ainslie wrote in #ahbe that ,arabian physicians suppose the powder of the pearl to have virtues in weak eyes2 and they credit it with efficacy in palpitations1 nervous tremors1 melancholia1 and hemorrhage4 ,also they have this strange notion1 that when applied externally and while in the shell1 it cures leprosy4#cee ,statements of the curative properties of pearls come also from ,japan at a somewhat recent date4 ,the catalogue of the ,national ,exhibition at ,yedo in #ahgg1 ,part ,v1 page #gh1 notes that they soothe the heart1 lessen phlegm1 are an antidote to poison1 and cure fever1 smallpox1 and blear-eyedness4 ,the popular modern idea in ,india as to the therapeutic value was thus expressed by a native prince1 ,sourindro ,mohun ,tagore1 ,mus4 ,doc41 the ,maharajah of ,tagore1 in #ahha3 ,the use of pearls conduces to contentment of mind and to strength of body and soul4 ,the burnt powder of this gem1 if taken with water as sherbet1 cures vomiting of blood of all kinds4 ,it prevents evil spirits working mischief in the minds of men1 takes off bad smell from the mouth1 cures lunacy of all descriptions and all mental diseases1 jaundice and all diseases of the heart1 intestines and stomach4 ,burnt pearl mixed with water and taken into the nostrils1 as a powder1 takes away headsickness1 cures cataract1 lachryma and swelling of the eyes1 the painful sensation such as is caused by the entry of sand into them1 and ulcers4 ,used as a dentifrice1 it strengthens the gums and cleanses the teeth4 ,rubbed on the body with other medicines1 it cures all skin diseases4 ,it stops bleeding from cuts and ultimately heals them up4 ,whether taken internally or externally1 it is a sure antidote to poison4 ,it drives away all imaginary fears and removes all bodily pain4 ,to prevent its tendency to affect the brain1 it should always be used with the burnt powder of basud1 and in its absence with that of white mother-of-pearl4 ,the dose of pearl-powder should not exceed #b mashas #ai4fh grs44#cef ,the ,hindus credited specific virtues to pearls of different colors3 the yellow brought wealth1 the honey shade fostered understanding1 the white attracted fame1 and the blue1 good luck4 ,defective pearls caused leprosy1 loss of fortune1 disgrace1 insanity1 and death1 according to the degree of defect4 ,the 8,mani-ml10 previously quoted1 states that 8pearls possessed of every valuable quality shield their master from every evil1 and suffer nothing harmful to come near him4 ,the house which contains a perfect pearl the ever-restless ,lakshmi 7goddess of wealth7 chooses to make her dwelling for ever and a day40#ceg ,a similar idea is expressed in an old ,hindu treatise on gems by ,buddhabhatta1 where we read3 8,the pearl from the shell ought always to be worn as an amulet by those who desire prosperity40#ceh ,pearls still find a place in the pharmacopia of ,india4 ,one of the latest standard works1 that of ,r4 ,n4 ,khory and ,n4 ,n4 ,katrak1#cei credits the powder as a stimulant1 tonic1 and aphrodisiac4 ,it is one of the ingredients in numerous ,indian prescriptions used in curing impotence1 heart-disease1 consumption1 etc4 ,according to these authorities1 the dose is from one fourth to one half grain of the powdered pearl4 ,owing to the high cost of sea pearls1 even those of the smallest size1 a substitute for medicinal and similar purposes is found in the ,placuna pearls of ,ceylon1 ,borneo1 etc4 ,these are of such slight luster that only the choicest are of ornamental value1 consequently they are sold at relatively small prices4 ,a considerable demand exists for them to be placed in the mouths of deceased ,hindus of the middle class1 instead of the sea pearls which are used by the wealthy1 or the rice which is employed in a similar manner by persons of poorer rank4 ,this custom seems to be analogous to that of the ancient ,britons1 and also to that of the ,american ,indians1 in depositing food and other requisites for a journey in burial graves4 ,the practice is an old one in ,india and was noted by ,marco ,polo more than six hundred years ago4 ,most of the ,placuna pearls are calcined and are used with areca-nuts and betel-pepper leaves in a very popular masticatory1 one of the 8seven sisters of sleep10 which is to the ,hindu what opium is to the ,chinaman1 or tobacco to the ,american or ,european4 ,the hard white areca-nut 7,areca ,catechu7 is about the size and shape of a hen's egg4 ,three or four thousand tons of the small1 tender nuts are annually shipped from ,ceylon to ,india for this masticatory1 which is chewed by a hundred million persons4 ,after boiling in water1 pellets of them are placed in a leaf of the betel-pepper 7,piper betle7 with a small quantity of lime made from pearls or shells1 according to the desired quality and value of product4 ,it is credited with hardening the gums1 sweetening the breath1 aiding digestion1 and stimulating the nervous system like coffee or tobacco2 its most visible effect is tingeing the saliva and blackening the teeth1 which is far from attractive1 especially in an otherwise beautiful woman4 ,a more recent use for these ,placuna pearls is as an ingredient in a proprietary face powder and enamel1 which is marketed in ,europe4 ,it is not alone the ,orientals that have found medicinal virtues in pearls4 ,even in ,europe they have occupied a prominent place in materia medica1 especially during the ,middle ,ages when a knowledge of the occult properties of gems was an important branch of learning4 ,indeed1 they could scarcely have been overlooked by people who at one time or another swallowed pretty much everything1 from dried snake's eyes to the filings of a murderer's irons1 in their quest for the unusual and costly with which to relieve and comfort themselves4 ,during the ,middle ,ages in ,europe1 writers who gave attention to pearls1 as well as to other gems1 treated almost exclusively of their reputed efficacy in magic and in medicine2 and most of the accounts from the ninth to the fourteenth century seem wholly without scientific value1 and at times reach the climax of extravagance and absurdity in their claims for the wonderful potency of the gem4 ,albertus ,magnus1 the ,dominican scholar born in ,germany in the twelfth century1 wrote that pearls were used in mental diseases1 in affections of the heart1 in hemorrhages1 and dysentery4#cfj ,the 8,lapidario0 of ,alfonso ,x of ,castile 7#abba-abhd71 called 8,the ,wise10 the father of the ,spanish language1 states3 ,the pearl is most excellent in the medicinal art1 for it is of great help in palpitation of the heart1 and for those who are sad or timid1 and in every sickness which is caused by melancholia1 because it purifies the blood1 clears it and removes all its impurities4 ,therefore1 the physicians put them in their medicine and lectuaries1 with which they cure these infirmities1 and give them to be swallowed4 ,they also make powders of them1 which are applied to the eyes2 because they clear the sight wonderfully1 strengthen the nerves and dry up the moisture which enters the eyes4#cfa ,anselmus de ,boot1 physician to ,emperor ,rudolph ,,ii1 and one of the great authorities at the beginning of the seventeenth century1 gave the following directions for making 8aqua perlata1 which is most excellent for restoring the strength and almost for resuscitating the dead4 ,dissolve the pearls in strong vinegar1 or better in lemon juice1 or in spirits of vitriol or sulphur1 until they become liquified2 fresh juice is then added and the first decanted4 ,then1 to the milky and turbid solution1 add enough sugar to sweeten it4 ,if there be four ounces of this solution1 add an ounce each of rose-water1 of tincture of strawberries1 of borage flowers and of balm and two ounces of cinnamon water4 ,when you wish to give the medicine1 shake the mixture so that the sediment may be swallowed at the same time4 ,from one ounce to an ounce and a half may be taken1 and nothing more excellent can be had4 ,in pernicious and pestilential fevers1 the ordinary aqua perlata cannot be compared to this4 ,care must be taken to cover the glass carefully while the pearls are dissolving1 lest the essence should escape40#cfb ,a curious book on the medicinal use of pearls was written in #afcg by ,malachias ,geiger1#cfc in which he especially praises the efficacy of ,bavarian pearls4 ,it was true that their material value was less than that of oriental pearls1 but this was compensated by their therapeutic qualities4 ,he had accomplished many cures of a very serious disease and had used these pearls successfully in cases of epilepsy1 insanity1 and melancholia4 ,quotations might be given from a hundred medieval writers as to the therapeutics of pearls4 ,the diseases for which they were recommended1 as noted by ,robert ,lovell's 8,panmineralogicon1 or ,summe of all ,authors10 published at ,oxford in #affa1 seems to have included a large portion of the entire list known at that period4 ,this summary states3 ,pearls strengthen and confirme the heart2 they cherish the spirits and principall parts of the body2 being put into collyries1 they cleanse weafts of the eyes1 and dry up the water thereof1 help their filth1 and strengthen the nerves by which moisture floweth into them2 they are very good against melancholick griefes2 they helpe those that are subject to cardiack passions2 they defend against pestilent diseases1 and are mixed with cordiall remedies2 they are good against the lienterie1 that is1 the flux of the belly1 proceeding from the sliperiness of the intestines1 insomuch that they cannot retaine the meat1 but let it passe undigested2 they are good against swounings2 they help the trembling of the heart and giddinesse of the head2 they are mixed with the ,manus ,christi against fainting 7called ,manus ,christi perlata in the ,london ,pharmacopaea72 they are put into antidotes or corroborating powders2 they help the flux of bloud2 they stop the terms1 and cleanse the teeth2 they are put into antidotes for the bowels1 and increase their vertue1 make the bloud more thin1 and clarify that which is more thick and feculent2 they help feavers4 ,the oile of ,pearles or unions helpeth the resolution of the nerves1 convulsion1 decay of old age1 phrensie1 keepeth the body sound1 and recovereth it when out of order1 it rectifieth womens milk1 and increaseth it1 corrects the vices of the natural parts and seed4 ,it cureth absesses1 eating ulcers1 the cancer and hemorrhoides4444 ,the best are an excellent cordial1 by which the oppressed balsame of life and decayed strength are recreated and strengthened1 therefore they resist poyson1 the plague1 and putrefaction1 and exhilarate1 and therefore they are used as the last remedie in sick persons4#cfd ,illustration3 ,,russian ,,eikon ,,of ,,the ,,madonna ,ornamented with pearls ,so powerful and mysterious were their alleged virtues1 that in some instances it was necessary only that the pearls be worn to make effective their prophylaxis against disease4 ,this belief was by no means confined to the ignorant and inexperienced1 for we are told that even ,pope ,adrian was never without his amulet made of the extraordinary combination of oriental pearls1 a dried toad1 etc4#cfe ,leonardo1 in the fifteenth century1 wrote that pearls render true and virtuous all who wear them4#cff ,although we wonder at what we call the superstitions of the ,middle ,ages1 perchance future generations will smile at many of our mistaken follies4 ,a prominent historical instance of administering pearls medicinally was in the treatment of ,charles ,,vi of ,france 7#acfh-adbb71 to whom pearl powder mixed with distilled water was given for the cure of insanity4 ,a far more illustrious patient was ,lorenzo de' ,medici1 8,the ,magnificent0 7#addh-adib71 the celebrated ruler of ,florence4 ,when this plebeian prince lay dying of a fever at ,careggi1 just after that famous interview with ,savonarola1 his friends called in ,lazaro da ,ticino1 a physician of reputation1 who administered pulverized pearls4 ,politian1 who was present1 is credited with the statement that when the medicine was administered1 to the inquiry as to how it tasted1 ,lorenzo replied3 8,as pleasant as anything can be to a dying man40#cfg ,even the ,english philosopher1 ,francis ,bacon 7#aefa-afbf71 mentioned pearls among medicines for the prolongation of life4 ,he adds3 8,pearls are taken1 either in a fine powder or in a kind of paste or solution made by the juice of very sour and fresh lemons4 ,sometimes they are given in aromatic confections1 sometimes in a fluid form4 ,pearls no doubt have some affinity with the shells wherein they grow2 perhaps may have nearly the same qualities as the shells of crawfish40#cfh ,powdered pearl or mother-of-pearl mixed with lemon juice was used as a wash for the face1 and was considered 8the best in the world40#cfi ,the pearl powder and lemon juice were permitted to stand for a day or two and the combination was then filtered before using4 ,another method of preparing this was3 ,dissolve two or three ounces of fine seed-pearl in distilled vinegar1 and when it is perfectly dissolved1 pour the vinegar into a clean basin2 then drop some oil of tartar upon it1 and it will cast down the pearl into fine powder2 then pour the vinegar clean off softly2 put to the pearl clear conduit or spring water2 pour that off1 and do so often until the taste of the vinegar and tartar be clean gone2 then dry the powder of pearl upon warm embers1 and keep it for your use4#cgj ,through their composition of carbonate of lime1 pearls possibly possess some slight therapeutic value1 which1 however1 can easily be supplied by other materials--as the shell1 for instance--and is entirely out of proportion to their market value as ornaments4 ,although pearls have lost their therapeutic prestige and no longer have a recognized place in materia medica1 their healing qualities are not to be denied1 for there are few ills to which women are subject that cannot be bettered or at least endured with greater patience when the sufferer receives a gift of pearls2 the truth of which any doubting ,thomas may easily verify in his own household to the limit of his purse-strings4 ,owing to their beauty and great value1 pearls have been deemed particularly appropriate as a sacrifice in enriching a drink for a toast or tribute4 ,shakspere alludes to this in the words of ,king ,claudius1 the pearl being frequently designated union in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries3 ,the king shall drink to ,hamlet's better breath2 ,and in the cup an union shall he throw1 ,richer than that which four successive kings ,in ,denmark's crown have worn4#cga ,it is stated that a pearl worth #ae1jjj was reduced to powder and drunk by ,sir ,thomas ,gresham1 the ,english merchant1 in the presence of the ,spanish ambassador1 as a tribute to ,queen ,elizabeth1 by whom he had been knighted4#cgb ,the most celebrated instance of enriching a drink with a pearl was doubtless ,cleopatra's tribute to ,antony1 ,pliny's account of which we give in the words of old ,philemon ,holland3 ,this princesse1 when ,m4 ,antonius had strained himselfe to doe her all the pleasure he possibly could1 and had feasted her day by day most sumptuously1 and spared for no cost3 in the hight of her pride and wanton braverie 7as being a noble courtezan1 and a queene withall7 began to debase the expense and provision of ,antonie1 and made no reckoning of all his costly fare4 ,when he thereat demanded againe how it was possible to goe beyond this magnificence of his1 she answered againe1 that she would spend upon him at one supper ten million ,sestertij4 ,antonie laid a great wager with her about it1 and shee bound it againe1 and made it good4 ,the morrow after1 ,cleopatra made ,antonie a supper which was sumptuous and roiall ynough3 howbeit1 there was no extraordinarie service seene upon the board3 whereat ,antonius laughed her to scorne1 and by way of mockerie required to see a bill with the account of the particulars4 ,she again said1 that whatsoever had been served up alreadie was but the overplus above the rate and proportion in question1 affirming still that she would yet in that supper make up the full summe that she was seazed at3 yea1 herselfe alone would eat above that reckoning1 and her owne supper should cost #fj million ,sestertij3 and with that commanded the second service to be brought in4 ,the servitors set before her one only crewet of sharpe vineger1 the strength whereof is able to resolve pearles4 ,now she had at her eares hanging these two most precious pearles1 the singular and only jewels of the world1 and even ,natures wonder4 ,as ,antonie looked wistly upon her1 shee tooke one of them from her eare1 steeped it in the vineger1 and so soon as it was liquified1 dranke it off4 ,and as she was about to doe the like by the other1 ,l4 ,plancius the judge of that wager1 laid fast hold upon it with his hand1 and pronounced withal1 that ,antonie had lost the wager4#cgc ,elsewhere has been set forth the impracticability of dissolving a pearl in a glass of vinegar without first pulverizing it4#cgd ,it seems probable that if ,pliny's interesting story has any foundation1 ,cleopatra might have swallowed a solid pearl in a glass of wine--certainly a more pleasing draught as well as a more graphic sacrifice2 and we should accept its reported value with a grain of salt1 for it would scarcely have been safe for the court gossip to belittle the value of this tribute of love4 ,pliny1 and other ,roman writers1 mention another instance1 that of ,clodius 8the sonne of ,aesope the ,tragedian ,poet10 who took two pearls of great price 8in a braverie1 and to know what tast pearles had1 mortified them in venegre1 and drunke them up4 ,and finding them to content his palat wondrous well1 because he would not have all the pleasure by himselfe1 and know the goodnesse thereof alone1 he gave to every guest at his table one pearle apeece to drinke in like manner40#cge ,the chronicler fails to tell what the guests thought of the flavor of pearls1 or whether some would not have preferred them for a more appropriate use4 ,,xiii ,,values ,,and ,,commerce ,,of ,,pearls ,,xiii ,,values ,,and ,,commerce ,,of ,,pearls ,a pearl1 ,whose price hath launch'd above a thousand ships1 ,and turn'd crown'd kings to merchants4 ,troilus and ,cressida1 ,act ,,ii1 sc4 #b4 ,to trace the markets of the pearl is to trace the routes of commerce from early times4 ,the first routes from the ,far ,east seem to have been two3 one by the ,persian ,gulf and the ,euphrates to ,babylonia and ,assyria1 and thence by caravan through ,damascus to ,tyre and ,sidon2 the other by the ,red ,sea and ,suez to ,egypt4 ,as regards the former route1 ,sir ,george ,birdwood furnishes positive evidence that the ,phenicians visited ,india as early as #bbjj ,b4,c4 ,it seems highly probable that pearls were introduced by this route at an early period1 although it is difficult to find material proof of the fact4 ,by means of this commerce1 the great ancient civilizations of ,phenicia1 ,mesapotamia and the ,nile valley doubtless became familiar with the gem treasures of eastern ,asia4 ,then came the opening of the ,mediterranean with first 8the great ,sidon10 and later ,tyre1 as the starting-points of commerce1 exploration1 and colonial settlement among the islands and on the shores of what1 to the ,asiatic peoples1 was the great western sea4 ,however1 as the ,greek islands and their colonies developed1 the ,phenicians were more strictly confined to the coasts of ,africa and ,spain4 ,gades1 ,tartessus1 and ,carthage were their great colonies and trading-ports1 and their adventurous sailors passed on through the ,straits of ,gibraltar and directed their course northward to the ,british ,isles1 where they very probably obtained the pearls of the ,scotch rivers4 ,meanwhile1 the campaigns of ,alexander had carried ,greek influence and authority over all western ,asia1 reaching even to ,india itself1 and had led to a widely increased intercourse4 ,although he died at the age of thirty-two1 ,alexander the ,great did more than any single individual in the world's history to bring the nations of the ,eastern and the ,western worlds into contact with each other1 and it is certainly due to this circumstance that we find much greater evidences of the use of pearls in the western countries after his time4 ,besides this1 the founding of ,alexandria provided a mart1 in whose bazaars the traders of ,india1 ,persia1 and ,arabia bartered their treasured gems1 just as their descendants do in the same place at the present day4 ,it was not1 however1 until the establishment of the ,roman empire that this commercial intercourse reached its highest development4 ,the ,romans1 with their marvelous capacity for organization1 were the first to build a great system of permanent and well-kept roads to facilitate land travel and land traffic4 ,these great roads1 starting from the ,forum1 reached out in every direction1 even to the limits of the empire2 and1 as a result of increased commercial activity1 more gems were engraved1 mounted1 and set during the five hundred years of ,rome's commercial supremacy than during any other early epoch of the world's history4 ,in ,rome1 the trade in pearls was so important that there was a corporation of 8margaritarii40 ,the officin margaritariorum were installed in the ,forum1 in the neighborhood of the tabernae argentari2 some were also on the ,via ,sacra4#cgf ,however1 the name margaritarius did not only apply to the jewelers1 merchants1 and setters of pearls1 but also to those who fished for them and to the guardians of the gems and jewels wherein pearls were used4 ,with the fall of the ,western empire1 the ,dark ,ages settled down like a cloud over ,europe for five hundred years4 ,only among the ,saracens and at ,byzantium did the culture of the old civilization survive1 and eventually the light of knowledge and of progress was rekindled from these sources4 ,the ,crusades were the chief factors in this new development2 they gave a mighty stimulus1 by means of which ,europe was aroused from her lethargy and once more brought into contact with the ,orient4 ,venice and ,genoa now became the great carriers1 and from this time1 and to this source1 may be traced many of the oriental gems in ,europe4 ,the ,venetian fleet of three hundred merchant ships brought the products of the ,east and distributed them over ,europe1 by way of the ,german cities of ,augsburg and ,nuremberg1 where the great jewelers and silversmiths made world-famed ornaments4 ,illustration3 ,,pectoral ,,cross ,,of ,,constantine ,,ix4 ,,monomachus 7#ajjj-ajed ,a4,d47 ,containing some wood attributed to the true cross4 ,when ,constantinople fell into the hands of the ,turks1 the treasures of the ,eastern empire were scattered throughout ,europe2 but1 at the same time1 the establishment of the ,turkish empire served to close the way to ,india and the far ,east for the merchants and travelers of ,europe1 and1 hence1 new means of access had to be sought by sea4 ,this1 as is well known1 was the cause of the voyages of ,de ,gama and ,columbus4 ,the unexpected result of these voyages--the discovery of a new continent--ushered in the wonderful period of ,spanish and ,portuguese development and their colonization of both the ,east and the ,west ,indies2 and to this epoch belongs the introduction of ,american pearls to the markets of ,europe4 ,the gradual decline of the power of ,spain and ,portugal--largely owing to bigotry and to the reckless exploitation of the regions under their control--brings us to the beginning of the present phase of commercial intercourse in which all the nations of the civilized world are engaged in varying proportion1 according to their power and aptitude4 ,never before have the different regions of the earth been more closely in touch with each other1 and we may safely say that nothing is likely to occur which can permanently interrupt the progressive development of the world's commerce4 ,with the various means of transportation and locomotion that have existed in the past twenty-three or twenty-four centuries1 there is no doubt that the commerce of pearls has varied more or less1 but there has ever been1 in some part of the world1 a great potentate1 a great collector or dealer who has influenced the finest gems to gravitate his way4 ,never has there been a time when some person was not prepared to encourage--and to richly encourage--the sale of fine jewels to him4 ,the history of the commerce of precious stones is a history of travel and exploration1 of hardship1 pleasure1 reward1 and sometimes of serious disappointment4 ,the lesson we derive from these decorative objects of natural beauty and softness--treasured alike by savage1 barbarian1 ancient warrior1 statesman1 king1 emperor1 peasant1 bourgeois1 magyar1 lady1 and queen--always carries with it the moral that the gifts of creation are ever prized by some one in every age or place4 ,the necessary qualifications affecting the value of a pearl are3 first1 that it should be perfectly round1 pear-shaped1 drop-shaped1 egg-shaped1 or button-shaped1 and as even in form as though it were turned on a lathe4 ,it must have a perfectly clear skin1 and a decided color or tint1 whether white1 pink1 creamy1 gray1 brown or black4 ,if white1 it must not have a cloud or a blur or haze1 nor should the skin have the slightest appearance of being opaque or dead4 ,it must be absolutely free from all cracks1 scratches1 spots1 flaws1 indentations1 shadowy reflections or blemishes of any kind4 ,it must possess the peculiar luster or orient characteristic of the gem4 ,the skin must be unbroken1 and not show any evidence of having been polished4 ,diamonds and the more valuable precious stones generally are bought and sold by the weight called a carat4 ,this carat1 whatever its precise value1 is always considered as divisible into four diamond or pearl grains1 but the subdivisions of the carat are usually expressed by the vulgar fractions1 one fourth1 one eighth1 one twelfth1 one sixteenth1 one twenty-fourth1 one thirty-second1 and one sixty-fourth4 ,the origin of the carat is to be sought in certain small1 hard1 leguminous seeds1 which1 when dried1 remain constant in weight4 ,the brilliant1 glossy1 scarlet-and-black seed of ,abrus precatorius constitutes the ,indian rati1 about three grains2 the ,adenanthera pavonina seed weighs about four grains4 ,the seed of the locust-tree1 ,ceratonia siliqua1 weighs on the average three and one sixth grains1 and constitutes1 no doubt1 the true origin of the carat4 ,another#cgg of the more notable of these weight-units used for precious stones and precious metals is the candarin1 condorine1 or cantarai1 also termed by the ,chinese fun or fan1 and by the south ,indians a fanam1 and used all over the ,indo-,chinese archipelago4 ,this is by origin a large lentil or pea of a pinkish color dotted with black1 about double the size of the gonj1 and possessing the same quality of very slight variability of weight when dried4 ,it is probably a variety of the same botanic genus or species as the ,abrus precatorius4 ,the value when reduced to absolute standard became a subsidiary part or submultiple of the weight of some local coin1 rupee1 or pagoda1 or a decimal fraction of some local tchen1 as in ,china and ,japan4 ,the following derivation of the word carat is given by ,grimm3 8,carat4 ,italian3 carato2 ,french3 carat2 ,spanish and ,portuguese3 quilate2 ,old ,portuguese3 quirate1 from ,arabic qirat1 and this from the ,greek1 40#cgh ,the carat is not absolutely of the same value in all countries4 ,its weight1 as used for weighing the diamond1 pearl1 and other gemstones in different parts of the world1 is given in decimals of a gram1 by the majority of the authorities1 as follows3 ,grams ,in ,grains ,troy ,indian 7,madras7 4#bjgcecc #c4aiiidh ,austrian 7,vienna7 4#bjfac #c4ahajg ,german 7,frankfort7 4#bjegg #c4ageead ,brazil and ,portugal 4#bjege #c4agebjf ,france 4#bjee #c4agacdg ,england 4#bjedji #c4afiidc ,spain 4#bjecic #c4afifif ,holland 4#bjejdd #c4afdca ,pearl ,grains in ,grams ,in ,grains ,troy ,indian 7,madras7 4#jeahchc 4#giiihg ,austrian 7,vienna7 4#jeaec 4#giebf ,german 7,frankfort7 4#jeadd 4#gichgh ,brazil and ,portugal 4#jeadc 4#gichja ,france 4#jeacge 4#gibhcf ,england 4#jeaceb 4#gibdhe ,spain 4#jeacdh 4#gibdbd ,holland 4#jeabfa 4#giajgg ,assuming that the gram corresponds to #ae4dcbce ,english grains1 an ,english diamond carat will nearly equal #c4ag grains4 ,it is1 however1 spoken of as being equal to four grains1 the grains meant being 8diamond0 or 8pearl0 grains1 and not ordinary troy or avoirdupois grains4 ,thus a diamond or pearl grain is but 4#gibe of a true grain4 ,in an ,english troy ounce of #dhj grains there are #aea carats2 and so it will be seen that a carat is not indeed quite #c4ag grains1 but something like #c4afhcafh grains1 or less exactly1 #c4afh grains4 ,further1 if we accept the equivalent in grains of one gram to be1 as stated above1 #ae4dcbce1 and if there be #aea carats in a troy ounce of #dhj grains1 it will follow that an ,english diamond carat is 4#bjecjd of a gram1 not 4#bjedji1 as commonly affirmed4 ,the following exact equivalents1 in metric grams and grains troy1 of the diamond carat as used in different parts of the world in #ahhb1 are given by ,mr4 ,lowis d',a4 ,jackson3 ,,diamond ,,carats ,grams ,grains ,troy ,turin 4#bace #c4bidhj ,persia 4#bjie #c4bccjg ,venice 4#bjga #c4aifjc ,austro-,hungary 4#bjfa #c4ahjfj ,france 7old7 4#bjei #c4aggeb ,france 7later7 4#bjee #c4agace ,france 7modern7 4#bjej #c4afcfc ,portugal 4#bjeh #c4ageig ,frankfort and ,hamburg 4#bjeh #c4ageig ,germany 4#bjee #c4agace ,east ,indies 4#bjee #c4agace ,england and ,british ,india 4#bjec #c4afhbf ,belgium 7,antwerp7 4#bjec #c4afhbf ,russia 4#bjea #c4afeag ,holland 4#bjea #c4afeag ,turkey 4#bjje #c4jidah ,spain 4#aiii #c4jhdib ,java and ,borneo 4#aifi #c4jchfb ,florence 4#aife #c4jcbde ,arabia 4#aidd #c4jjjjd ,brazil 4#aibb #b4iffaj ,egypt 4#aiag #b4iehch ,bologna 4#ahhf #b4iajed ,international carat 4#bjej #c4afcfc ,proposed new international carat 4#bjjj #c4jhfdg ,recalculating the above figures into pearl grains we have3 ,,pearl ,,grains ,grams ,grains ,troy ,turin 4#jeccge 4#hbcgjj ,persia 4#jebcge 4#hjhbfg ,venice 4#jeagge 4#giijjg ,austro-,hungary 4#jeaebe 4#gieaej ,france 7old7 4#jeadge 4#gidchj ,france 7later7 4#jeacge 4#gibhcg ,france 7modern7 4#jeabej 4#gijijg ,portugal 4#jeadej 4#gicijb ,frankfort and ,hamburg 4#jeadej 4#giciib ,germany 4#jeacge 4#gibhcg ,east ,indies 4#jeacge 4#gibhcg ,england and ,british ,india 4#jeacbe 4#gibjfe ,belgium 7,antwerp7 4#jeacbe 4#gibjfe ,russia 4#jeabge 4#giabib ,holland 4#jeabge 4#giabib ,turkey 4#jejabe 4#ggcede ,spain 4#jdiige 4#ggabcj ,java and ,borneo 4#jdibbe 4#geifee ,florence 4#jdiabe 4#gehaab ,arabia 4#jdhfjj 4#gejjaj ,brazil 4#jdhjej 4#gdaebb ,egypt 4#jdgibe 4#gcieie ,bologna 4#jdgaej 4#gbgfce ,international 4#jeabej 4#gijijg ,proposed ,international 4#jejjjj 4#ggafag ,with the present system of diamond carats and pearl grains it is necessary to keep two entirely different sets of weights or to resort to troublesome calculations4 ,the stock-book of a jeweler1 at the present time1 will contain the following fractions1 expressing the weight of a single pearl3 1 1 1 #aaf1 #acb1 #afd1 when the weight could be much better stated as #fcfd of a carat4 ,it requires but a glance to see how much easier this would be4 ,certain dealers have therefore proposed the use of sets of fractions arranged in a similar way4 ,in this manner a stock-book can be kept much more easily and with greater precision4 ,others1 again1 have adopted a decimal notation of the fractions of a carat1 which is even more simple and feasible1 since the common fractions 1 1 1 etc4 can be expressed as 4#e1 4#be1 4#abe1 etc41 of a carat1 this being either a carat of 4#bjec of a gram or the ,english carat of 4#bjecd of a gram4 ,on the other hand1 an agreement was arrived at1 as the result of a conference between the diamond merchants of ,london1 ,paris1 and ,amsterdam1 by which the uniform weight of a diamond carat was fixed at 4#bje of a gram1 making the pearl grain 4#jeabe of a gram4 ,this standard1 which was suggested in #ahga1 by a syndicate of ,parisian jewelers1 goldsmiths1 and others dealing in precious stones1 was subsequently 7#ahgg7 confirmed4 ,but there is still a lack of uniformity in the standard by which diamonds and pearls are bought and sold1 and very serious discrepancies exist in the sets of carat weights turned out by different makers1 although the international carat is almost universally used4 ,at the ,international ,congress of ,weights and ,measures held at the ,world's ,fair at ,chicago in #ahic1 the writer suggested that the carat should consist of #bjj milligrams1 so that of a carat would be #ajj milligrams and of a grain would be #ab4e milligrams4 ,this would mean #e carats or #bj grains to a ,french gram1 and #ejjj carats or #bj1jjj pearl grains to a ,french kilogram4 ,this would depreciate the present diamond carat or pearl grain only about one per cent41 and it would do away with the needless series of carats and grains of the many nationalities4 ,it could be simply explained to any private individual in any country1 especially as there are only two countries which do not use the metric system4 ,this carat has been earnestly indorsed1 its introduction advocated1 and its merits clearly shown1 by ,m4 ,guilliame1 of the ,french ,bureau des ,arts et ,metiers1 whose energetic work has found a reasonable cooperation1 in this country as well as in ,europe1 in introducing what will be a scientific1 logical1 comprehensive1 and possibly the final and international carat2 and any ancient1 obsolete1 or foreign carat can be readily reduced to this carat once the metric value of the former is computed4 ,the ,association of ,diamond ,merchants of ,amsterdam has already1 to avoid confusion1 fixed the value of the carat 7#agth ,october1 #ahij7 at #a kilogram #dhge carats1 or #a carat #c4afefa grains troy #bje4abh mg4 ,one pearl grain 4#giad grains troy #ea4bhb mg42 but the association has decided that1 in case of litigation1 these values shall be determined by appointed bureaus1 which would express them in grams and milligrams1 a most important and valuable decision1 as the gram and the milligram will always be known as weights of constant value4 ,in view of the difficulty of inducing the abolition of the carat in different countries1 the ,german ,federation of ,jewelers decided to petition the imperial government for authority to use the carat1 in order that it might be legally recognized4 ,such a proposition not being in accord with the ,german laws in force on the subject of the metric system1 it was proposed to substitute for the carats then in use one carat only1 weighing two hundred milligrams4 ,this proposal was very favorably received in trade circles and may be taken into consideration by the ,international ,committee of ,weights and ,measures4 ,the ,commission des ,instruments et ,travaux1 to which this proposition was referred1 recommended its adoption to the committee in the following terms3 8,the ,commission recognizes that it would be very desirable that the unit of weight of precious stones 7the carat7 which varies in different countries1 should be made uniform1 and should be reduced to the nearest metric equivalent4 ,the weight of #bjj mg41 which is very close to the carat most in use 7#bje4e mg471 would seem to be the best for this purpose4 ,the ,commission believes that there can be no objection to this standard of #bjj mg4 being called #8the metric carat' in order to facilitate the abolition of the old carat40 ,this proposition1 adopted at the meeting of the ,international ,committee on the #acth of ,april1 was communicated to the more important associations4 ,the ,chambre ,syndicale de la ,bijouterie1 ,joaillerie et ,orfvrerie de ,paris1 and the ,chambre ,syndicale des ,ngotiants en ,diamants1 ,perles1 ,pierres ,prcieuses et des ,lapidaires de ,paris assured the committee of their support of this measure4 ,the following is the text of the resolution which was passed by both the above associations in ,january1 #aijf3 8,the ,council1 recognizing the advantages which would result to the international trade in precious stones from the use of a unit based on the metric system1 desires that the metric carat of #bjj mg4 be universally adopted40 ,the ,german ,federation of ,jewelers passed the following resolution in ,august1 #aijf3 8,the ,german ,federation considers that it is both necessary and advantageous to replace the old carat by the metric carat of #bjj mg42 it authorizes its president to approach the imperial government and the ,international ,bureau of ,weights and ,measures1 and the foreign associations in order that the metric carat may be introduced as soon as possible in all countries40 ,the ,chamber of ,commerce of ,antwerp promised1 in a letter dated the #gth of ,december1 #aijf1 to rescind a decision of #bith of ,april1 #ahie1 approving the adoption of a carat of #bje4c mg41 when the metric carat of #bjj mg4 should come into universal use in the markets4 ,the ,association of ,jewelers and ,goldsmiths of ,prague formally authorized the ,german ,federation to act in its name1 in order that the reform should come about as soon as possible by international agreement1 and the ,association of ,goldsmiths of ,copenhagen has declared its willingness to support the reform4 ,the ,committee of ,weights and ,measures in ,belgium prepared a law for the adoption of the metric carat in ,december1 #aijf4 ,mr4 ,larking1 president of the ,chamber of ,commerce of ,melbourne1 ,australia1 has transmitted by letter of ,september #af1 #aijg1 the following resolution of the ,association of ,manufacturing ,jewelers of the ,colony of ,victoria3 8,it is desirable that the carat weight should be the same in all countries1 and our association approves a metric carat of #bjj milligrams40 ,on ,october #af1 #aijg1 the ,association of ,societies for the ,protection of ,commerce in the ,united ,kingdom passed the following resolution3 8,the ,committee of the ,association approves the attempt to urge the adoption in all countries of an international carat of #bjj milligrams1 and hopes that1 in the interest of the unification of weights1 it will prove successful40 ,the fourth ,general ,conference of ,weights and ,measures1 held in ,paris in ,october1 #aijg1 passed this resolution3 8,the ,conference approves the proposition of the ,international ,committee and declares that it sees no infringement of the integrity of the metric system in the adoption of the appellation #8metric carat' to designate a weight of #bjj milligrams for the commerce in diamonds1 pearls1 and precious stones40#cgi ,the following resolution was passed by ,the ,birmingham ,jewelers' and ,silversmiths' ,association1 ,january #bc1 #aijh3 8,that the best thanks of this ,committee be conveyed to the ,decimal ,association for the good work they are doing1 and this ,committee expresses the hope that all countries will adopt an ,international ,carat of #bjj milligrams in weight40 ,finally1 on ,march #aa1 #aijh1 the metric carat of #bjj milligrams was adopted in ,spain as the official carat for diamonds1 pearls1 and precious stones4 ,pearls have become of so much importance to so many dealers that a special form of weight has been proposed for them4 ,this would have a diamond form and not a square form1 and it would be stamped 8,grain0 instead of 8,carat40 ,another set would be stamped in milligrams1 the regular milligram weight with the pearl fraction above it1 and they could even be made round so as better to designate the pearl4 ,the great value of pearls has suggested the making of a gage1 called the ,kunz gage1 by means of which round pearls can be very accurately measured4 ,pearls of a given weight and perfectly spherical form have been weighed and then measured by this gage1 and the theoretical diameters as computed from the measurement of a single pearl are in the majority of instances in exact accord with these actual measurements1 the occasional variations in the smaller pearls barely exceeding the thousandth part of an inch4 ,these discrepancies may be due to imperceptible divergencies in sphericity or1 possibly1 to trifling differences in specific gravity4 ,the following table gives the diameters of round pearls by measurement1 from #aaf to #ejj grains1 in millimeters and inches3 ,weight ,grains ,diameter ,millimeters ,inches #aaf #a4c 4#jeab #a4ff 4#jfec #b4ji 4#jhbc #b4fe 4#ajdc #b4ii 4#aahg #a #c4cb 4#acjg #a #c4fj 4#adag #a #c4hj 4#adif #a #c4ih 4#aefg #b #d4ah 4#afde #b #d4cb 4#agja #b #d4dg 4#agei #b #d4fc 4#ahbc #c #d4hj 4#ahhi #c #d4hh 4#aiba #c #e4ja 4#aigb #c #e4ag 4#bjce #d #e4bc 4#bjeh #d #e4dd 4#bada #e #e4fe 4#bbbd #e #e4hf 4#bbhc #f #f4jc 4#bcgd #f #f4bj 4#bddb #g #f4cf 4#bejd #h #f4fd 4#bfad #i #f4ij 4#bgaf #aj #g4ae 4#bhae #aa #g4ch 4#bije #ab #g4fj 4#biib #ac #g4ha 4#cjgd #ad #h4jj 4#cadi #ae #h4ah 4#cbbj #af #h4cf 4#cbia #ag #h4ec 4#cceh #ah #h4gj 4#cdbe #ai #h4hf 4#cdhh #bj #i4ja 4#cedg #be #i4ga 4#chbc #cj #aj4ca 4#djei #ce #aj4hf 4#dbge #dj #aa4ce 4#ddfh #de #aa4hb 4#dfec #ej #ab4bc 4#dhae #fj #ac4jj 4#eaah #gj #ac4ch 4#echf #hj #ad4cj 4#efcj #ij #ad4hi 4#ehfb #ajj #ae4db 4#fjga #abe #af4fj 4#fece #aej #ag4fc 4#fida #bjj #ai4da 4#gfda #cjj #bb4bb 4#hgdh #djj #bd4df 4#ifcj #ejj #bf4ce #a4jcgd ,the new and finer analytical balances weigh to the tenth part of a milligram1 the two thousandth part of a carat1 the five hundredth part of a grain2 but this is not necessary4 ,if the #bjj-milligram carat were used1 the two hundredth part of a carat could readily be ascertained1 and then a short-beam1 rapid-weighing balance would answer every purpose and save much time for the dealer who must make many weighings in the course of a day4 ,in an office where thousands of weighings were made in a month1 the task was accomplished with such minute accuracy that the margin of error did not exceed one carat during that time4 ,the mina1 the sixtieth part of the lesser ,alexandrian talent of silver1 was divided by the ,romans1 when they occupied ,egypt1 into twelve ounces 7unciae71 and1 weighing as it did #edfj grains1 it became the predecessor of the ,european pounds of which the troy pound is a type4 ,if we may believe a ,syrian authority1 ,anania of ,shiraz1 who wrote in the sixth century1 the carat or diamond weight was originally formed from one of these ounces by taking the #aadd part4#chj ,we find in ,murray#cha that the ,greek was originally identical with the ,latin siliqua1 and was called the siliqua ,graeca4 ,as a measure of weight and fineness the carat represents the ,roman siliqua as #abd of the golden solidus of ,constantine1 which was of an ounce1 hence the various values into which #abd and #aadd enter1 or originally entered4 ,as a measure of weight for diamonds and precious stones1 it was originally #aadd of an ounce or #c grains4 ,it is stated in ,hakluyt 7,voy4 ,,ii1 pp4 #a1 #bbe1 #aeih73 8,those pearls are praised according to the caracts which they weigh2 every caract is four graines40 ,there have been at all times men who possessed a delicate touch or a fine sense of feeling1 but probably few men are living to-day who would be able to accomplish the feat attributed to ,julius ,csar1 namely1 that of estimating the weight of a pearl by simply holding it in his hand4 ,there are very few who can tell the weight of a pearl in this way1 and while the story may be historically interesting1 it is rather dubious4 ,to attempt to formulate a list of prices1 comparative or otherwise1 of pearls1 is almost an impossibility1 as probably no two authors of the past three centuries have ever seen the same lot of pearls1 nor have their estimates always been the same as to quality1 rarity and value4 ,as interesting statistics from an historical point of view1 there will be presented here a list of the values of pearls dating back some ten centuries4 ,that there always has existed a higher valuation for the larger pearls1 which are the rarest1 will readily be apparent1 but that the correct value of a pearl of one1 ten1 twenty or fifty grains be definitely given for the years #afjb1 #agjb1 #ahjb1 or #aijb is an impossibility4 ,however1 we believe this to be the first attempt to present so large a body of carefully selected quotations1 and they are given to the reader1 whether he be layman or professional1 for what they are worth4 ,in regard to the smaller pearls1 as is the case with the smaller diamonds1 prices have been dependent upon the changes of fashion2 that is1 whether the prevailing style of jewelry was such that the smaller pearl or diamond was in demand4 ,in other words1 if they were used as a decoration forming a border1 a flower1 a scroll ornament1 or a pave requiring many small gems1 the demand naturally increased and the prices were higher or lower as the occasion required4 ,it is not the project of this book to fix the prices of pearls at the present time1 for any such attempt would prove misleading1 owing to the fact that pearls vary in the estimation of the different dealers1 and a figure given here for the highest standard1 if applied to an inferior grade1 would necessarily mislead the buyer to his positive injury4 ,this much1 however1 can be said3 during the year #aijg pearls from five grains upward have been sold according to their quality1 at a base of five1 eight1 ten1 fifteen1 or even twenty dollars in very exceptional cases2 that is to say1 twenty1 thirty-two1 forty1 sixty1 or eighty shillings1 or twenty-five1 forty1 fifty1 seventy-five or one hundred francs4 ,nevertheless1 it would be impossible1 without considerable experience1 for a layman to apply these valuations to objects that require much practice in determining their quality and perfection4 ,with diamonds1 rubies1 and emeralds there may be a stated price per carat for stones of a certain size1 but a gem of unusual perfection or brilliancy1 or of exceptionally fine color1 will often command a price far beyond that generally quoted4 ,it is the same with the pearl4 ,sums which may seem exorbitant in comparison with those that are paid for ordinary pearls1 are often given for specimens remarkable for their beauty1 size1 or luster4 ,pearls of one hundred grains are even more rare at the present time than are diamonds of one hundred carats4 ,until the middle of the nineteenth century1 the diamonds of the world weighing one hundred carats or over could be counted on the fingers1 but since the opening of the ,african mines in #ahgj1 the number of large diamonds has increased at a much greater ratio than have the pearls of one quarter of their weight4 ,it would thus seem that pearls of great size are worth four times as much as diamonds of equal weight4 ,for instance1 a #ajj-;carat diamond of the finest quality would be worth at least from #ajjj to #aejj a carat1 making a total value of #ajj1jjj to #aej1jjj2 and a pearl of #ajj grains at a base of #aj would be worth #ajj1jjj4 ,but no such high price has ever been paid4 ,the usual method of estimating the value of pearls is by establishing a base value for those weighing one grain and then multiplying this amount by the square of the number of grains that the pearl weighs4 ,for instance1 if the base value of a one-grain pearl should be fixed at #a1 a pearl weighing two grains would be worth #d 7#b #b #d71 or #b per grain2 one weighing five grains would be worth #be1 or #e per grain1 etc4 ,naturally1 these values increase in proportion to the increase in the value of the base4 ,a base of #c would give a value of #ge for a five-grain pearl1 or #ae per grain1 while a #aj base would make the value #ej per grain1 or #bej4 ,this method of estimating pearls by squaring their weights has been credited by many authors to ,david ,jeffries1 who published an interesting treatise on diamonds and pearls in #agej-agec4 ,it has also been credited to ,tavernier1 the oriental traveler of the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,we have1 however1 traced this method back to ,anselmus de ,boot1 in his treatise on precious stones1 dated #afji4 ,before this date we have not been able to find any mention of the computation of the value of diamonds and pearls by squaring their weight and multiplying the product by a base of a franc1 guilder1 crown1 dollar1 or of many dollars1 as would be necessary at present4 ,it is probable1 however1 that this system is of oriental origin and it may have come to ,europe through some of the oriental traders1 with the precious stones1 as did the use of the carat4 ,de ,boot makes the carat 7four grains7 his unit of comparison1 increasing his base value by one third for pearls weighing eleven carats 7forty-four grains7 or over4 ,in ,pio ,naldi's treatise1 published in ,bologna in #agia1 the unit is the grain1 the base being the fourth part of the value of four pearls weighing together one carat4 ,naldi1 also1 increases his base value making it #a lire 74#cj7 for pearls weighing less than ten grains1 and #b lire 74#ej7 for those weighing twenty grains and upward4 ,a curious method of valuing pearls by their weight is shown in a treatise by ,buteo1 published in #aeed4chb ,the writer states that a pearl weighing two carats was valued at #e gold crowns2 one of four carats at #be crowns2 and so on1 the price increasing fivefold when the weight was doubled4 ,the intermediate figures were obtained by computing the proportional mean of any two known weights and values4 ,for example3 #h #d #cb1 the square root of which is #e4fef4 ,now1 the value of a four-carat pearl is #be and that of an eight-carat pearl #abe crowns1 and #abe #be #cabe1 the square root being #ee4i2 hence a pearl weighing #e4fef carats was worth #ee4i crowns4 ,the base value of a necklace can be determined in the following way4 ,should the center pearl weigh #be grains1 multiply #be by #be2 the result is #fbe2 then1 take the next two1 three1 or four pearls1 as many as are of approximately the same weight1 add their weights together1 multiply the resulting figure by itself and divide the product by the number of pearls in the group4 ,proceed in exactly the same way with the remainder of the necklace1 always grouping the pearls so that there shall not be a considerable difference in weight between the smallest and the largest pearl1 and then add together the figures obtained for the center pearl and for the various groups and divide the price of the necklace by this total2 the quotient will represent the multiple or base4 ,as may be seen by comparison of the first with the second and third of the accompanying tables1 the result arrived at in this way will1 if there is any difference in the weight of the pearls in the various groups1 vary slightly from that obtained by calculating the weight of each pearl separately1 but it represents a satisfactory approximation4 ,,necklace ,,of #da ,,graduated ,,pearls ,,on ,a #aj ,,base #a pearl1 weighing #be grs4 #be #be #fbe4jjj #b pearls1 each of #bb grs4 #dd #dd #aicf #b #ifh4jjj #b pearls1 each of #bj grs4 #dj #dj #afjj #b #hjj4jjj #b pearls1 each of #ai grs4 #ch #ch #addd #b #gbb4jjj #b pearls1 each of #ah grs4 #cf #cf #abif #b #fdh4jjj #b pearls1 each of #ag grs4 #ce #ce #abbe #b #fab4ejj #b pearls1 each of #ag grs4 #cd #cd #aaef #b #egh4jjj #b pearls1 each of #af grs4 #cc #cc #ajhi #b #edd4ejj #b pearls1 each of #af grs4 #cb #cb #ajbd #b #eab4jjj #b pearls1 each of #ae grs4 #ca #ca #ifa #b #dhj4ejj #b pearls1 each of #ae grs4 #cj #cj #ijj #b #dej4jjj #b pearls1 each of #ad grs4 #bi #bi #hda #b #dbj4ejj #b pearls1 each of #ad grs4 #bh #bh #ghd #b #cib4jjj #b pearls1 each of #ac grs4 #bg #bg #gbi #b #cfd4ejj #b pearls1 each of #ac grs4 #bf #bf #fgf #b #cch4jjj #b pearls1 each of #ab grs4 #be #be #fbe #b #cab4ejj #b pearls1 each of #ab grs4 #bd #bd #egf #b #bhh4jjj #b pearls1 each of #aa grs4 #bc #bc #ebi #b #bfd4ejj #b pearls1 each of #aa grs4 #bb #bb #dhd #b #bdb4jjj #b pearls1 each of #aj grs4 #ba #ba #dfb #b #bca4abe #b pearls1 each of #aj grs4 #bj #bj #dbj #b #baj4abe ---- ------ -------------------- #da #fbd #aj1jjc4gej #aj #aj1jjc4ge #ajj1jcg4ej ,,the ,,same ,,necklace ,,figured ,,in ,,groups #a pearl1 weighing #be grs4 #be #be #fbe4jj #b pearls1 total weight #dd grs4 #dd #dd #aicf #b #ifh4jj #d pearls1 total weight #gh grs4 #gh #gh #fjhd #d #aeba4jj #d pearls1 total weight #ga grs4 #ga #ga #ejda #d #abfj4be #f pearls1 total weight #ii grs4 #ii #ii #ihja #f #afcc4ej #f pearls1 total weight #ij grs4 #ij #ij #hajj #f #acej4jj #f pearls1 total weight #ha grs4 #ha #ha #fefa #f #ajic4ej #f pearls1 total weight #gb grs4 #gb #gb #eahd #f #hfd4jj #f pearls1 total weight #fd grs4 #fd #fd #djif #f #fhb4fg ------ -------------- #fbd #iiig4ib #aj #iiig4ib #ii1igi4bj ,illustration3 ,,great ,,pearl ,,necklace ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,crown ,,jewels ,composed of #cfb pearls1 weighing #eh4h grains4 ,actual size4 ,worn by ,empress ,eugenia ,on a #e base this necklace would be worth #ej1jah4ge according to the first reckoning1 and #di1ihi4fj according to the second2 on a base of #b4ej the figures would be #be1jji4cg and #bd1iid4hj respectively4 ,,the ,,same ,,necklace ,,figured ,,in ,,other ,,groups #a pearl1 weighing #be grs4 #be #be #fbe4jj #d pearls1 total weight #hd grs4 #hd #hd #gjef #d #agfd4jj #f pearls1 total weight #aji grs4 #aji #aji #aahha #f #aihj4af #f pearls1 total weight #ii grs4 #ii #ii #ihja #f #afcc4ej #f pearls1 total weight #ij grs4 #ij #ij #hajj #f #acej4jj #h pearls1 total weight #ajf grs4 #ajf #ajf #aabcf #h #adjd4ej #aj pearls1 total weight #aaa grs4 #aaa #aaa #abcba #aj #abcb4aj ------ -------------- #fbd #iihi4bf #aj #iihi4bf #ii1hib4fj ,on a #e base this would represent a value of #di1idf4cj and one of #bd1igc4ae on a base of #b4ej4 ,the different grouping of the pearls accounts for the slight reduction in value4 ,a system of estimating the value of pearls which has recently been introduced into ,germany1 is an adaptation of the ordinary method of squaring the number of grains and then multiplying the result by a certain base figure4 ,the pearls are first grouped according to quality and size1 and a figure is agreed upon as the multiplicator of each class4 ,in ,germany the carat is employed as the weight unit for pearls as well as for diamonds1 and in this new system the total weight of a given number of pearls of the same class is first reduced to grains2 the number of grains is then multiplied by four and the quotient is multiplied by the figure agreed upon4 ,the resulting sum1 after being divided by the number of pearls1 gives the carat value of such pearls4 ,for example1 if the base figure agreed upon is #e1 and we wish to find the carat worth of #d pearls of similar size1 weighing together #c-adfd carats1 the sum would be as follows3 #bjf #d #d #e ------------------------------ #fd4cg #fd #d ,at this rate per carat1 reckoning in marks1 the value of the #c-adfd carats would be #bjg4bj marks4 ,this result is identical with that obtained by the ordinary method1 but the calculation is perhaps a trifle simplified4#chc ,a curious ,hindu treatise on gems has been preserved for us in the ,brhatsamhit of ,varhamihira 7#eje-ehg ,a4,d474 ,it is the earliest work of this kind that we have in ,sanskrit1 and ,m4 ,louis ,finot1#chd who has published it1 together with several other similar treatises1 believes that it was based upon an original composed at a much earlier period4 ,in his introduction ,m4 ,finot says3 8,it would be an error to regard the ratnaastra treatise on gems as a simple manual for the use of jewelers4 ,without doubt this subject formed one of the principal branches of commercial instruction1 444 but it was also taught to princes and it is for their use that the ratnaastras we publish seem to have been composed40 ,this treatise only describes four gems1 although a larger number are enumerated4 ,these gems are the diamond1 the pearl1 the ruby1 and the emerald4 ,one of the most interesting portions is that treating of the valuation of pearls4 ,the system described is peculiar1 and1 unfortunately1 there is some difficulty in finding an absolutely correct equivalent for the values expressed4 ,a price is first placed upon a pearl weighing #d msakas 7about #de grains74 ,this is estimated at #ecjj krspanas 7about #afjj74 ,as the weight diminishes the valuation decreases as follows3 #d msakas #ecjj krspanas #c msakas #cbjj krspanas #c msakas #bjjj krspanas #b msakas #acjj krspanas #b msakas #hjj krspanas #a msakas #cec krspanas #a msakas #ace krspanas #d gujas#che #ij krspanas #c gujas #ej krspanas #b gujas #ce krspanas ,smaller pearls were grouped together in dharanas 7one dharana about #gb grains74 ,if there were thirteen fine pearls in a dharana1 they were valued at #cbe rpakas 7about #ajj72 the other values were as follows3 #af pearls in a dharana were worth #bjj rpakas #bj pearls in a dharana were worth #agj rpakas #be pearls in a dharana were worth #acj rpakas #cj pearls in a dharana were worth #gj rpakas #dj pearls in a dharana were worth #ej rpakas #ee-fj pearls in a dharana were worth #dj rpakas #hj pearls in a dharana were worth #cj rpakas #ajj pearls in a dharana were worth #be rpakas #bjj pearls in a dharana were worth #ab rpakas #cjj pearls in a dharana were worth #f rpakas #djj pearls in a dharana were worth #e rpakas #ejj pearls in a dharana were worth #c rpakas ,it would be extremely interesting if we could find at this early date 7sixth century ,a4,d47 an indication of the use of the system of computing the value of pearls by the square of their weight as expressed in some weight unit1 and it is singular that the three valuations given for the weight in gujas are graduated in accordance with this system4 ,a pearl weighing #b gujas and valued at #ce krapas would have a base value of #e4f krpaas4 ,estimated at this ratio we would have the following figures3 #c gujas #ej4d krpaas #d gujas #hi4f krpaas ,now1 the values actually given are #ej and #ij krpaas1 respectively1 and these figures are easily obtained by rejecting the fraction that is less than one half and counting the fraction that is in excess of one half as a unit4 ,after this1 however1 the progression becomes irregular4 ,a pearl weighing #a maka 7#e gujas7 is valued at #ace krpaas1 while the equivalent according to the system would be #adj4 ,however1 it is possible that the writer may have changed this figure intentionally so as to add exactly one half to the preceding valuation 7#ij #de #ace74 ,the succeeding values bear no relation to the system and appear to be entirely arbitrary4 ,still1 it can scarcely be due to hazard that the first three figures are practically in exact accord with the system and the fourth in close approximation4 ,as the change seems to come when the weight is expressed in makas instead of gujas1 we are tempted to think that the system may have been used for single pearls weighing less than twelve grains 7#a maka #aa grains71 while the value of those over that weight was estimated in a different way4 ,in a much later ,hindu treatise1 by ,buddhabhatta1 after certain values have been given for pearls of the best quality1 a pearl of this class is described as follows3 ,white1 round1 heavy1 smooth1 luminous1 spotless1 the pearl gifted with these qualities is called qualified 7guavat74 ,if it be yellow1 it is worth half this price2 if it be not round1 a third2 if flat or triangular1 a sixth4#chf ,one of the earliest records we have of a system of prices for pearls is the treatise on precious stones written in the year #abfe1 by ,ahmed ibn ,yusuf al ,teifashi1 who was probably a native jeweler of ,egypt4 ,in his time pearls were sold in ,bagdad in bunches of ten strings1 each string comprising thirty-six pearls4 ,if one of these strings weighed one sixth of a miskal 7four carats or sixteen grains71 the ten strings were valued at four dinars 7about ten dollars74 ,the values increased progressively as follows3#chg ,average weight #aj strings of #cf pearls1 ,value of each pearl weight of each string ,grains ,carats ,grains ,dinars ,u4 ,s4 money #d #af #d #aj4jj #f #bd #e #ab4ej #a #ab #dh #f #ae4jj #b #ah #gb #aj #be4jj #c #cj #abj #ae #cg4ej #d #cf #add #bj #ej4jj #d #db #afh #be #fb4ej #e #dh #aib #ce #hg4ej #f #ed #baf #dj #ajj4jj #g #ff #bfd #gj #age4jj #h #gb #bhh #hj #bjj4jj #i #hd #ccf #aaj #bge4jj #aj #ij #cfj #aej #cge4jj #aj #if #chd #bjj #ejj4jj #ab #ajh #dcb #djj #ajjj4jj #ab #aad #def #eej #acge4jj #ac #abj #dhj #fej #afbe4jj #ad #abf #ejd #gej #ahge4jj #ad #acb #ebh #hjj #bjjj4jj #af #add #egf #ajjj #bejj4jj #ah #afh #fgb #aejj #cgej4jj ,al ,teifashi then proceeds to describe a pearl of the first quality2 it must be 8perfectly round in all its parts1 colorless and gifted with a fine water4 ,when a pearl possesses these requisites and weighs one miskal #bd carats or #if grains it is worth #cjj dinars #gej4 ,if1 however1 a match is found for this pearl and each one weighs one miskal and has the same form1 the two pearls together cost #gjj dinars #agej40 ,this writer also mentions that in the shops of the ,arab jewelers1 the pearl which exceeded the weight of a drachma 7#ab carats or #dh grains7 even by one grain1 was called dorra1 while the name johar was used for that which did not reach the above weight4 ,in #ahch1 ,feuchtwanger gave the price of a one-carat pearl as five dollars1 and used this amount as the multiplier of the square of the weight2 therefore1 a four-carat pearl would cost four times four multiplied by five dollars1 the value of the first carat2 that is to say1 a sixteen-grain 7four-carat7 pearl would have been worth eighty dollars in #ahch1 according to this computation4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,siamese ,,prince ,,in ,,full ,,regalia ,in #aheh1 ,barbot#chh gave the value of pearls under ordinary conditions1 but very indefinitely1 as follows3 ,grains ,carats ,francs per carat ,u4 ,s4 currency #a #d #j4hj #b #aj #b4jj #c #be #e4jj #d #a #ej #aj4jj ,above four grains they sold by the piece1 and below1 by the ounce4 ,baroque pearls sold for #cjj to #ajjj francs per ounce4 ,seed-pearls1 if quite round1 were worth about #abj francs per ounce4 ,emanuel#chi gave the following table of prices for the pearl1 reduced to ,united ,states currency3 ,grains #ahfe #ahfg #c #b4hh-- #c4hd #d4cb-- #d4hj #d #e4bh-- #f4gb #f4gb-- #h4dj #e #h4dj-- #aj4hj #i4fj-- #ab4jj #f #ac4bj-- #ae4fj #af4hj-- #ai4bj #h #ba4fj-- #bf4dj #bd4jj-- #bh4hj #aj #ch4dj-- #dc4bj #dh4jj-- #eb4hj #ab #eg4fj-- #gb4jj #fg4bj-- #gf4hj #ad #gb4jj-- #hf4dj #hf4dj-- #if4jj #af #if4jj--add4jj #if4jj--add4jj #ah #add4jj--aib4jj #add4jj--aib4jj #bj #aib4jj--bdj4jj #aib4jj--bdj4jj #bd #bhh4jj--cde4fj #bhh4jj--cde4fj #cj #chd4jj--dhj4jj #chd4jj--dhj4jj ,the following values appear in the 8,encyclopedia ,hispano-,americana10 ,barcelona1 #ahid1 ,vol4 ,,xv1 p4 #ahj 7,louis ,dieulafait73 ,grains ,value1 #ahfe ,value1 #ahfg ,pesetas ,u4 ,s4 currency ,pesetas ,u4 ,s4 currency #c #ag-- #ah #c4dj-- #c4fj #ba-- #bc #d4bj-- #d4fj #d #be-- #cb #e4jj-- #f4dj #cb-- #dj #f4dj-- #h4jj #e #da-- #eb #h4bj-- #aj4dj #df-- #eh #i4bj-- #aa4fj #f #fd-- #ge #ab4hj-- #ae4jj #ha-- #ic #af4bj-- #ah4fj #h #ajd-- #abh #bj4hj-- #be4fj #aaf-- #aci #bc4bj-- #bg4hj #aj #bjb-- #bbg #dj4dj-- #de4dj #beb-- #bgg #ej4dj-- #ee4dj #ab #cjb-- #cgh #fj4dj-- #ge4fj #ceb-- #djc #gj4dj-- #hj4fj #ad #cgh-- #dec #ge4fj-- #ij4fj #dee-- #ejd #ia4jj--ajj4hj #af #ejd-- #gef #ajj4hj--aea4bj #ejd-- #gef #ajj4hj--aea4bj #ah #gef--ajje #aea4bj--bja4jj #gef--ajje #aea4bj--bja4jj #bj #ajje--abfj #bja4jj--beb4jj #ajje--abfj #bja4jj--beb4jj #bd #aeab--ahae #cjb4dj--cfc4jj #aeab--ahae #cjb4dj--cfc4jj #cj #baag--beba #dbc4dj--ejd4bj #baag--beba #dbc4dj--ejd4bj ,,comparative ,,statement ,,showing ,,the ,,values ,,of ,,pearls ,,at ,,stated ,,times ,weight #afjicij #afgbcia #afgecib #ageacic #aggdcid #agiacie ,grains ,thal4 ,kreutz4 ,livres s s s ,lire #a #j #ac #j #j #a #j #a #b #j #eb #b #j #b #j #d #j #b #f #c #a #dg #e #j #f #j #i #j #g #ac #d #c #j #aj #j #ab #j #af #j #ah #bd #e #d #dh #ah #a #e #a #e #a #aj #cg #f #f #eb #bh #b #aj #a #af #b #e #ed #g #i #ac #ch #d #aj #b #i #c #a #gc #h #ab #j #ee #f #j #c #d #d #aj #if #i #ae #bc #ge #h #j #d #a #f #j #aba #aj #ah #eb #ajj #aj #j #e #j #h #e #aej #aa #bb #dh #acj #ab #j #f #a #i #ae #bdb #ab #bg #age #ad #j #g #d #bhh #ac #ca #dh #af #j #h #i #ac #ae #cch #ad #cf #eb #bgj #ah #j #i #af #cib #ae #db #ac #ba #aj #aa #e #ba #j #dej #af #dh #chj #be #j #ab #af #eab #ag #ed #ac #cj #j #ad #i #bg #aj #egh #ah #fj #eb #ejj #ce #j #af #d #fdh #ai #fg #dh #cg #aj #ah #a #gbb #bj #ge #fej #dj #j #bj #j #cg #aj #hjj #bb #ij #eb #ej #j #bd #d #eb #aj #abaj #bd #ajh #fj #j #bh #af #hb #aj #addj #bf #abf #eb #cc #af #ii #j #afij #bh #adg #ci #ad #aej #j #aifj #cb #aib #ea #d #bbe #j #befj #cf #bdc #fd #af #bfb #aj #cbdj #dj #cjj #hj #j #cjj #j #djjj #de #ejf #ag #aja #e #ejfb #ej #fbe #abe #j #fbej #fj #ijj #ahj #j #ijjj #gj #abbe #bde #j #abbej #hj #afjj #cbj #j #afjjj #ij #bjbe #dje #j #bjbej #ajj #bejj #ejj #j #bejjj ,,comparative ,,statement ,,showing ,,the ,,values ,,of ,,pearls ,,at ,,stated ,,times1 ,,reduced ,,to ,,united ,,states ,,currency ,weight ,grains #afji #afgb #afge #agea #aggd #agia #a #j4bj #j4ab #j4bd #j4ji #j4cj #b #j4ha #j4hj #j4dh #j4if #j4ej #a4bj #c #a4hb #a4ij #a4dd #b4af #a4hg #b4gj #d #c4bd #c4hj #b4hh #c4hd #d4ej #d4hj #e #e4jf #f4hd #f4jj #f4jj #g4ej #g4ej #f #g4bh #aj4fd #ab4jj #h4fd #aa4be #aj4hj #g #aj4ib #ad4dd #ba4fj #aa4gf #ae4be #ad4gj #h #ab4if #bj4ij #bh4hj #ae4cf #bb4ej #ai4bj #i #af4dj #bh4ej #ch4dj #ai4dd #cj4jj #bd4cj #aj #bj4be #ch4jj #dh4jj #bd4jj #da4be #cj4jj #aa #bd4ej #di4dj #eg4fj #bi4jd #dh4ge #dh4dj #ab #bi4af #ff4ej #fg4bj #cd4ef #eg4fj #ac #cd4bb #gf4hj #dj4ef #fh4ge #fg4fj #ad #ci4fi #ajb4fj #hf4dj #dg4jd #gh4dj #ae #de4ef #ajc4bj #ed4jj #aje4jj #ij4jj #af #ea4hd #add4dj #abj4jj #fa4dd #ajb4dj #ag #eh4eb #add4jj #fj4cf #acg4ej #aae4fj #ah #fe4fa #aij4jj #afh4jj #gg4gf #abi4fj #ai #gc4aj #ahj4jj #hf4fd #add4dj #bj #ha4jj #bdg4jj #aib4jj #if4jj #ahg4ej #afj4jj #bb #ih4ja #bdj4jj #aaf4af #bfb4ej #bdb4jj #bd #aaf4fd #bhh4jj #ach4bd #dab4ej #bhh4jj #bf #acf4hi #afb4bd #die4jj #cch4jj #bh #aeh4gf #ahh4af #gej4jj #cib4jj #cb #bjg4cf #bde4gf #aabe4jj #eab4jj #cf #bfb4dd #caa4jd #acab4ej #fdh4jj #dj #cbd4jj #chd4jj #aejj4jj #hjj4jj #de #edf4ge #dhf4jj #ajab4ej #ej #fge4jj #fjj4jj #abej4jj #fj #igb4jj #hfd4jj #ahjj4jj #gj #acbc4jj #aagf4jj #bdej4jj #hj #agbh4jj #aecf4jj #cbjj4jj #ij #bahg4jj #aidd4jj #djej4jj #ajj #bgjj4jj #bdjj4jj #ejjj4jj ,giving the pearl values in #ahfg1 ,emanuel#cif says3 8,it would be almost useless to give any value for drop pearls1 as when of large size and fine quality they are of so rare occurrence as to command fancy prices2 still1 as a slight guide1 it may be mentioned that perfect white drop pearls1 of #hj to #ajj grains1 may be estimated at from #g to #aa #ce-ee per grain2 those of #ej to #hj grains at from #d to #g #bj-ce per grain1 and those of #cj to #ej grains at from #c-e #ae-be per grain2 smaller sizes bring from #bjs4 to #fjs4 #e-ae per grain40 ,emanuel also states that misshapen pieces called 8baroque pearls0 7perles baroques71 are sold by the ounce1 the price varying from #aj to #bjj 7#ej-ajjj7 per ounce1 depending on quality1 color1 and size4 ,,prices ,,in ,,new ,,york ,,city ,,in #ahgh ,grains ,value per grain ,total value #a #a4jj #a4jj #b #a4hc #c4ff #c #b4ge #h4be #d #c4fj #ad4dj #e #d4jc #bj4ae #f #d4fi #bh4ad #g #f4cb #dd4bd #h #f4hg #ed4if #i #g4db #ff4gh #aj #h4be #hb4ej #aa #i4fb #aje4hb #ab #aj4de #abe4dj #ac #aa4fh #aea4hd #ad #ab4ee #age4gj #ae #ad4bj #bac4jj #bj #ai4gj #cid4jj #bd #bd4ge #eid4jj ,,half-,,pearls ,i ,,quality4 ,,per ,,hundred ,diameter ,size ,no4 ,millimeters ,inches #ahgc #ahgf #ahgh #ahhe #aijh #d #a4aj #j4he #j4ej #a4ee #e #a4bj 4#jdg #a4ce #j4gj #a4jj 4#fj #a4ie #f #a4bb 4#jdh #a4hj 4#ij #a4ce 4#gj #b4ij #g #a4bd 4#jdi #b4be #a4aj #a4gj #a4ab #c4hh #h #a4bf 4#jdi #b4gj #a4ce #b4jj #a4hj #e4bg #i #a4bh 4#jej #c4ce #a4hj #b4ej #b4jj #f4fe #aj #a4hj 4#jga #d4ej #b4be #c4dj #c4jj #i4ae #aa #a4hc 4#jgb #e4fj #b4gj #d4bj #d4jj #aa4cf #ab #a4hf 4#jgc #h4jj #c4ce #e4ij #e4jj #ac4hf #ac #a4ij 4#jge #i4jj #d4ej #f4ge #e4ge #ae4ea #ad #b4jj 4#jgh #aa4jj #e4fj #h4dj #f4ge #ag4ej #ae #b4aj 4#jhb #ad4jj #h4jj #aj4jj #h4be #bj4hj #af #b4be 4#jhh #ag4jj #i4jj #ab4ej #aj4ej #be4jj #ag #b4dj 4#jid #ai4jj #aa4jj #ad4jj #ab4jj #cj4ej #ah #b4fj 4#ajb #bc4jj #ad4jj #ag4jj #ad4ej #cg4dj #ai #b4ge 4#ajh #bh4jj #ag4jj #ba4jj #af4be #dh4ej #bj #b4ij 4#aad #cc4jj #ai4jj #bd4jj #ah4be #fa4jj #bb #c4je 4#abj #db4jj #bh4jj #ca4jj #cc4jj #bd #c4ae 4#abd #ec4jj #ch4jj #ci4jj #dh4jj #bf #c4cj 4#acj #fg4jj #de4jj #ej4jj #fi4jj #bh #c4ee 4#adj #aja4jj #ef4jj #ge4jj #ih4jj #cj #c4ij 4#aec #abd4jj #gi4jj #ib4jj #aej4jj ,,half ,,pearls ,,ii ,,quality4 ,,per ,,hundred ,size ,no4 #ahgc #ahgf #ahgh #ahhe #aijh #d #j4ee #j4de #j4cj #j4hd #e 4#gj #j4ce 4#ej 4#ce #a4bb #f 4#ij 4#de 4#gj 4#ej #a4hg #g #a4aj 4#ee 4#he 4#hj #c4je #h #a4ce 4#gj #a4jj #a4je #d4dc #i #a4hj 4#ij #a4ce #a4de #e4hb #aj #b4be #a4aj #a4gj #a4hj #h4cb #aa #c4ce #a4ce #b4ej #b4fj #aj4ec #ab #d4jj #a4hj #c4jj #c4jj #ab4ge #ac #d4ej #b4be #c4dj #c4ge #ad4da #ad #e4fj #c4ce #d4bj #d4be #ae4ea #ae #f4ge #d4jj #e4jj #d4ge #ah4jj #af #i4jj #d4ej #f4ge #e4be #bj4hj #ag #aj4jj #e4fj #g4ej #f4jj #bf4ce #ah #aa4jj #f4ge #h4dj #g4jj #ca4ij #ai #ad4jj #i4jj #aj4jj #g4ge #da4fj #bj #ag4jj #aj4jj #ab4ej #h4ge #eb4gj #bb #bj4jj #ad4jj #ae4jj #bd #bg4jj #ai4jj #bj4jj #bf #cd4jj #bc4jj #be4jj #bh #ea4jj #bh4jj #ch4jj #cj #fb4jj #dj4jj #df4jj ,,half ,,pearls ,,iii ,,quality4 ,,per ,,hundred ,size ,no4 #ahgf #aijg ,size ,no4 #ahgf #aijh #d #j4dg #ae #b4gj #h4ic #e #j4be 4#gj #af #c4ce #aa4bj #f 4#ce #a4aa #ag #d4jj #ac4ij #g 4#dj #a4id #ah #d4ej #ah4jj #h 4#de #b4gg #ai #e4fj #bb4bj #i 4#gj #c4hf #bj #f4ge #bg4ge #aj 4#hj #d4ii #bb #i4jj #dj4jj #aa 4#ij #e4hb #bd #ad4jj #ge4jj #ab #a4aj #f4fe #bf #ag4jj #he4jj #ac #a4fj #g4dh #bh #ai4jj #ajj4jj #ad #b4be #h4cb #cj #bh4jj #bjj4jj ,,value ,,of ,,irregular ,,pearls ,,in #aggdcig ,pearls to the ,value in ,english money ,equivalent in ,average for ounce ,u4 ,s4 currency each pearl s4 #ejj #c #j #ae4jj #j4jc #cjj #f #j #cj4jj 4#aj #aej #aa #b #ee4ej 4#cg #ajj #ah #j #ij4jj 4#ij #fj #cc #ae #afh4ge #b4ha #cj #ge #j #cge4jj #ab4ej ,the following values for the smaller oriental pearls are given in the 8,museum ,brittanicum0 of ,john and ,andrew van ,rymsdyck1 #aggh1 p4 #i4 ,no4 to the ounce ,rix dollars ,equivalent in ,u4 ,average for each ,s4 currency pearl #bjj #gj #ge4fj #j4cgh #cjj #ej #ed4jj 4#ah #ijj #aj #aj4hj 4#jab #bjjj #c #d4bd 4#jjbab #djjj #b #b4gj 4#jjfgee #hjjj #b #b4af 4#jjjbg #aj1jjj 4#jjjbaf ,pio ,naldi's treatise of #agia gives the following rule for estimating the value of small1 round pearls1 weighing less than one carat or four grains4 ,as the carat value of four such pearls is given as five lire and #egf one-grain pearls were counted as one ounce1 these two numbers were used to determine the value of an ounce of small pearls4 ,the product of #egf multiplied by #e is #bhhj1 and this number was then divided by #bjjj1 #ajjj1 #ejj1 or whatever might be the number of pearls in a given ounce4 ,if there were #bjjj pearls1 the carat value would be #a4dd lire or 4#bi2 if there were #ajjj1 the carat would be worth #b4hh lire or 4#eg2 if #ejj1 #e4gf lire or #a4ae1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,half-,,pearls3 ,,lots ,,of ,,three ,,different ,,sizes4 ,,brooch ,,of ,,half-,,pearls ,,and ,,onyx4 ,,united ,,states1 #ahfj ,the same author#cih gives tables expressing the values of pearls not perfectly spherical in form1 which he designates as 8perle dolce40 ,these pearls he considers to be worth half the price of good round pearls2 that is to say1 #b lire 7about 4#ej7 per carat for four weighing together one carat4 ,where there are as many as three thousand of these 8perle dolce0 in an ounce1 the #b lire base is multiplied by #egf1 the number of grains given to the ounce2 this makes the value of an ounce of one-grain pearls #bhh4 ,this amount is then divided by #cjjj1 and the quotient1 4#jif1 represents the value of one carat of these small pearls4 ,multiplying this by #add we obtain1 as the value of an ounce of such pearls1 #ac4hb4 ,an ounce consisting of two thousand would be worth #bj4gc1 while if there were but one hundred to the ounce it would be valued at #dad4gb1 or #d4ae for each pearl and 4#gb per grain of weight4 ,in this latter case the pearls would average #e grains4 ,another class of pearls denominated by this author as 8scaramazzi10 pearls of an irregular form and with protuberances1 are estimated in a similar way1 but at exactly half of the above values4 ,the baroque pearls were not considered to be worth even half as much as the 8scaramazzi40 ,scotch pearls 7fresh-water7 are mentioned by ,de ,boot 7#afji1 p4 #hh sq47 among the other western pearls--,bohemian1 etc4 ,he remarks that they were valued much less than the oriental pearls1 but if they were of especially pure color their value was greater1 although they lacked the silvery hue characteristic of the eastern pearl4 ,fine pearls of this sort were valued on a carat base of one fourth of a thaler 74#bg71 so that a forty-grain pearl was worth #bg1 and one of eighty grains1 #ajh4 ,the author of the ,bologna treatise1 8,delle ,gemme10 #agia1 attributes the lack of luster in the ,scotch pearls to the presence of a dark mass in the interior which interfered with the passage of light4 ,he estimates ,scotch pearls to be worth one half the value of oriental pearls of mediocre quality1 provided the former are fairly good4 ,a ,scotch writer of the seventeenth century is more enthusiastic in regard to these pearls2 he mentions having paid one hundred rix dollars for an exceptionally fine one1 but he does not specify its weight4 ,this is the value given by ,de ,boot for a pearl of this class weighing eighty grains1 as we have just mentioned4 ,the ,scotch writer asserts that he could never sell a necklace of fine ,scotch pearls in ,scotland itself1 as every one wanted oriental pearls2 he continues3 8,at this very day ,i can show some of our own ,scots ,pearls as fine1 more hard and transparent than any ,oriental4 ,it is true that the ,oriental can be easier matched1 because they are all of a yellow water1 yet foreigners covet ,scots ,pearls40 ,in ,ceylon#cii and ,india1 pearl-grading and valuing has received close attention1 and an elaborate system has been evolved by the pearl merchants4 ,this system has been in use for generations and possibly for centuries4 ,although apparently very complicated1 it is in reality quite simple1 if we only remember that the value of inferior pearls is determined by their weight1 whereas the value of superior pearls is computed from the square of their weight4 ,the pearls are first grouped according to the size1 of which ten grades are made4 ,this is done by passing them successively through ten brass saucer-like sieves or baskets 7peddi71 each about three and a half inches in diameter and one inch deep4 ,the holes in the bottom of each sieve are of uniform size1 but they are graduated in size for the different baskets4 ,the pearls are sifted in the basket with the largest holes1 and those which will not pass through are of the first size4 ,the pearls which pass through are then sifted in the second basket1 and those retained are of the second size2 and so on through the entire series of ten sieves or baskets4 ,those which pass through the tenth sieve are known as masi-tl1 or powder pearls2 they are of little value owing to their very small size1 and are not subject to further classification4 ,of course1 the attached pearls or very irregular baroques--the oddumuttu--are not subject to the sifting process1 and are valued independently of this4 ,sometimes in ,india1 as well as in western countries1 false measures are used1 and an oriental pearl merchant may have one set of sieves for use in buying and another for selling4 ,the rule for determining the proper size of the holes in the first sieve is that they may pass pearls weighing #bj to the kalanch1 whence this sieve is commonly known as the 8#bj peddi40 ,the second sieve is the 8#cj peddi10 since it passes pearls weighing #cj to the kalanch4 ,in the proper order the other sieves respectively pass pearls requiring #ej1 #hj1 #ajj1 #bjj1 #djj1 #fjj1 #hjj1 and #ajjj to the kalanch4 ,this use of sieves for grading the ,ceylon pearls was mentioned by ,cleandro ,arnobio1 a writer of the latter part of the sixteenth century1 in his 8,tesoro delle ,gioie10 and he took his description from an older writer1 ,garzia dell' ,horto4 ,after the sifting1 each of the ten graded lots of pearls are placed on pieces of cloth for classification as to quality1 shape1 and luster4 ,this classification requires much skill and judgment on the part of the valuer4 ,not only will two persons commonly fail to class a large lot of pearls exactly alike1 but one person is not likely to class the same lot twice in precisely the same manner4 ,illustration3 ,a4 ,b4 ,pearl nose rings4 ,baroda1 ,india4 ,c4 ,east ,indian earring of strings of pearls and table diamonds4 ,collection of ,edmund ,russell1 ,esq4 ,d4 ,e4 ,grape pendants4 ,oriental pearls4 ,from long established custom1 recognition is made of twelve classes into which the ten grades or sizes of pearls are divided with respect to shape and luster1 the local names of these classes giving a fair indication of their respective characteristics4 ,these names are3 #a ,ani1 8best03 perfect in sphericity and luster1 the true orient pearl4 #b ,anatri1 8follower03 failing slightly in sphericity and luster4 #c ,masanku or ,masaku3 badly colored pearls1 usually gray1 symmetrical1 and with luster4 #d ,kaiyral1 8the clasp of a necklace03 a dark-colored treble pearl1 not quite round4 #e ,machchakai4 #f ,vadivu1 8beauty10 also 8decreasing03 that which is strained or sifted2 found in the #ajj1 #bjj1 and #djj sieves4 ,these small pearls1 regular in shape1 and of good luster1 are especially favored in the ,east4 #g ,madanku1 8folded10 or 8bent03 all pearls of vadivu size that are imperfect in form or color4 #h ,krval1 8short03 deformed and double pearls2 they may1 however1 be of excellent luster4 ,ani ,krval3 where two ni are fused together1 but so formed that if separate they would be perfectly spherical4 ,psal ,krval3 where several pearls of good luster and color are fused partially and irregularly together4 ,pampara ,krval3 a pearl grooved regularly1 like a top4 #i ,kalippu1 8abundance10 or 8rejected03 inferior to ,anatri2 a good pearl1 may be lens-shaped or elongated2 usually flattened4 #aj ,psal1 8torn03 a deformed pearl or cluster of small misshapen pearls2 of poor color and of little value4 #aa ,kurl3 very misshapen and small4 #ab ,tl1 8powder03 the seed-pearls1 those retained by the #fjj1 #hjj1 and #ajjj sieves4 ,in addition to the above designations1 the following are also used3 ,samadiam3 a pearl of a reddish hue2 pear-shaped but of dull color4 ,nimelai3 a nose-pearl1 perfect skinned1 and pear- or egg-shaped4 ,sirippu3 a pearl grooved with irregular wrinkle-like furrows4 ,kodai1 8brown03 like a nut1 with no nacreous luster2 formed of prismatic shell2 may be large1 is usually spherical1 and includes pearls of various colors4 ,this name is also used for white pearls with black or brown marks4 ,van ,kodai3 a kodai pearl with one side nacreous4 ,karunk ,kodai3 a black or blue-black slag-like pearl4 ,masi-tl1 8ink-dust10 or 8chalk-powder03 smaller than the #ajjj sieve4 ,generally used for medicinal purposes1 or burnt and eaten with areca-nut and betel by the natives4 ,oddu--or ,ottumuttu1 8shell-pearl03 an attached pearl or nacreous excrescence on the outside of the shell4 ,of the twelve classes named above1 the first four are known as the chevv1 or superior classes2 the next three as the vadivu1 or beautiful classes2 and the last five as the kalanch1 or inferior classes4 ,the chevv pearls are found only in the first four sieves or baskets2 and for this reason these are known as the chevv peddi or 8chevv baskets10 although they may also retain inferior pearls4 ,a name used to indicate the class of pearls found in the first four sieves is mel or melmuttu1 8upper0 or 8superior pearl10 while vadivu designates those retained by the next three and tl those of the last three4 ,after the pearls have been graded according to size and classified according to quality1 they are weighed4 ,the unit of weight is the manchdi1 the seed of ,abrus precatorius1 a small1 red berry of practically uniform weight when ripe4 ,h4 ,w4 ,gillman of the ,ceylon ,civil ,service reports the weight of the manchdi to be #c4ce grains troy4 ,fractional parts of a unit are obtained by using a berry called kundumani1 grains of rice1 etc41 whose weights have been determined beforehand4 ,a brass weight--the kalanch--is also employed2 it equals #fg grains or #bj manchdi4 ,however1 choice pearls--those of the superior classes--are not valued in this manner1 but at so much per chevv of their weight1 which is three fourths of the square of the weight in manchdi4 ,thus1 to find the value of an anatri pearl in the second sieve1 if the weight be found to be three manchdi1 three fourths of the square of three1 or #f1 is multiplied by the base value of the anatri class4 ,the actual process of the calculation of value is as follows3 owing to the small size of the pearls1 many fractions enter into the computations2 to preserve uniformity it is customary to increase all fractions so that each may have #cbj as a denominator1 this being a common multiple of those that ordinarily arise in chevv calculations4 ,the weight in manchdi of the pearls is increased to a fractional figure having #cbj as a denominator4 ,three fourths of the square of the numerator of this fraction is divided by the number of pearls1 and this quotient is divided twice consecutively by #cbj1 giving the chevv of the weight4 ,the market value then follows from the quoted price of the pearls per chevv at the time4 ,in actual practice1 these computations are not made2 but each merchant provides himself with sets of tables showing the calculations for different weights1 analogous to the use of interest tables by bankers1 or of tables of logarithms by surveyors4 ,some of the merchants commit these tables to memory1 and at times may be heard reciting them quietly to themselves to refresh the memory4 ,if a pearl of a particular grade and class is of exceptional merit1 the merchant adds somewhat to the money value computed by the above process4 ,this applies especially to double pearls of the krval class1 which sometimes consist of two fine bouton pearls suitable for setting1 but not for stringing4 ,pearls of one of the inferior or kalanch classes are valued by simple weight1 at so much per kalanch1 the market price1 of course1 differing for pearls of the various classes4 ,the weight having been ascertained1 each in its class as before noted1 the value is determined by multiplying that weight by the current market price per unit of such pearls1 at so many rupees per kalanch4 ,illustration3 ,,necklace ,,containing #abf1jjj ,,seed-,,pearls4 ,,louis ,,xvi ,,period ,property of an ,american lady ,the star pagoda is used in calculating the values4 ,this small gold coin was current in south ,india in the early part of the last century4 ,in the computations it is considered to be worth three and a half rupees1 although its intrinsic value as a gold coin is about six rupees4 ,it is considered probable that the ,london syndicate1#djj which has lately leased the ,ceylon pearl fisheries for a period of twenty years1 will do away with the complicated calculations employed for so many generations1 surviving all changes of administration1 ,portuguese1 ,dutch1 and ,british4 ,this is only one of the many instances showing the tendency of the ,british ,government to abolish time-honored usages in ,india1 without regard to the wishes of its population2 and1 unimportant as many of these changes may seem to us1 they all serve to foster a spirit of discontent that may lead to serious trouble4 ,this conduct on the part of ,great ,britain is all the stranger in view of the stubborn opposition of that country to the adoption of the scientific and logical metric system4 ,in ,bombay1 the weight of pearls in tanks is made the basis of their valuation2 the tank equals #bd ratti or about #gb grains troy4 ,the square of the number of tanks is multiplied by #ccj and the quotient divided by the number of pearls2 this gives the number of chevvs1 or chows1 as they are sometimes called1 and the market price of the chevvs for a given class of pearls shows their value4 ,if1 for instance1 we have #ef pearls of a certain quality1 weighing #e tanks1 and the chevvs of these pearls is worth #ad rupees1 the sum would be as follows3 #e #e #ccj #ad -------------------------------- #bjfb4e rupees1 or about #hbe4 #ef ,in this case1 as in the other system of weighing which we have mentioned1 the chevvs is only a nominal weight2 but there is in ,india a real weight unit which bears this name4#dja ,the high esteem in which the pearl was held by the ,hindus is well illustrated by the following statement from an old treatise on gems3 8,a pearl weighing two kalanjas 7about #ahj grains7 should not be worn even by kings4 ,it is for the gods1 it is without equal40#djb ,an interesting account of a great savant's experience1 in the early part of the sixteenth century1 regarding the value of pearls1 is given by ,guillaume ,bud#djc 7#adfg-aedj71 the celebrated ,french ,hellenist who lived during the reign of ,francis ,i and who is regarded as the founder of the ,college de ,france4 ,in his work entitled 8,de ,asse10 he states that he once inquired of a gem dealer in ,paris whether the latter could recall the weight of some remarkable pearl which had passed through his hands4 ,the dealer replied that he had seen one weighing #cj carats 7#abj grains71 whereupon another gem dealer1 who was present1 remarked that he had in his possession one of #dj carats 7#afj grains74 ,this pearl was sold a few days later for #cjjj gold crowns 7#fgej74 ,on another occasion ,bud was told that a pearl of exquisite beauty weighing #cj carats1 had been sold to the ,duchesse de ,bourbon1 daughter of ,louis ,,xi of ,france1 for the sum of #djjj gold crowns 7#ijjj74 ,in regard to the manner of computing the value of pearls ,bud writes3 8,i think the ratio of these prices can be calculated4 ,when ,i asked a gem dealer what was the value of a pearl of four carats sixteen grains1 according to the formula1 he replied3 #8,i have seen such a pearl sell for thirty gold crowns #fg4ej4' ,whereupon ,i asked3 #8,how much would you estimate one weighing eight carats thirty-two grains8' #8,at least two hundred gold crowns #dej1' he answered2 and as ,i continued to ply him with questions1 gradually increasing the weight1 he responded in such a way that ,i could understand that the increase of the price bore not a numerical1 but a proportional relation to the weight2 so that the above mentioned eight-carat pearl1 having double the weight of a four-carat pearl1 was valued at seven times as much4 ,the same was true of a pearl weighing twelve carats1 twenty carats1 and so on2 the price augmenting by a greater and greater increment as the weight increased40 ,in the 8,coronae ,gemma ,noblissima0 of ,wilhelmus ,eo 7#afba1 pp4 #cb1 #cc71 an instance is given of the rapid changes that are possible in the worth of a pearl4 ,a large and beautiful pearl was brought to ,nuremberg by a merchant who had paid #ejj florins for it2 he soon found a purchaser among the merchants there1 who was willing to pay him #hjj florins4 ,this latter merchant in his turn disposed of his gem for #ajjj florins1 and shortly after it again changed hands twice1 the first time at an advance of #bjj florins and the second at an advance of #cjj florins4 ,all this happened within a few days4 ,the writer tells us that the last purchaser1 who paid #aejj florins for the pearl1 took it with him to ,venice 8where the wealthy dames wear a great treasure of beautiful pearls as necklaces upon their bare skin1 and he will not have lost anything on his pearl there40 ,in #ahhd1 ,mr4 ,edwin ,streeter was asked by a member of a ,london syndicate to proceed to the ,east1 to value a large quantity of jewels1 as a heavy sum of money was about to be advanced to a certain ,power1 to provide the sinews of war4 ,on his way he was requested to stop at one of the principal towns in ,germany to purchase some jewels which had been valued for probate but were not easy of sale in that market4 ,the valuation paper was shown to him1 and after examining the ornaments1 he agreed to take them at the prices named4 ,among them was an old gold brooch of ,russian manufacture1 valued at #d2 in the center of this brooch was what appeared to be a piece of hematite1 but was in reality a fine1 round1 black pearl1 weighing #gg grains4 ,the color had faded from exposure to the sun4 ,this pearl was brought to ,london1 and the outer layer was taken off1 when a perfect black pearl of #fg grains was uncovered4 ,this was sold to a manufacturing jeweler in ,london for #djj2 but1 having heard that in ,paris there was a pearl that would exactly match it1 ,mr4 ,streeter bought it back again for #fjj1 and then sold it at a large profit to one of the ,paris crown jewelers1 who1 in his turn1 sold the pair to a rich iron merchant for #ej1jjj francs 7#bjjj or #aj1jjj74 ,since then the sum of #ajj1jjj francs 7#djjj or #bj1jjj7 has been refused for this pair of matchless black pearls4 ,at present values they may be worth double this sum4 ,at different times the values assigned to the different forms and colors of pearls have varied4 ,for instance1 in the ,french ,encyclopdie of #aggd 7,vol4 ,,xii1 p4 #che71 it is stated that pear-shaped pearls1 although they might be equally perfect and of the same weight as round pearls1 were valued much less than these4 ,even in the case of well-matched pairs1 their price was a third less than that of round pearls4 ,as early as the sixteenth century it was not uncommon that jewelers who had in their possession a fine pear-shaped pearl would have a replica of it molded in lead1 and then send the casts to the large cities of ,europe and the ,east4 ,if a mate was found for it1 the respective owners soon came to terms1 for such pearls command a much higher price together than they do separately4 ,an interesting story is told of no less a collector than the ,duke of ,brunswick1 who was so generous to the city of ,geneva4 ,for many years every pear-shaped pearl from every land had been submitted to him for examination4 ,he always claimed the privilege of examining it alone for a moment or two and in every instance he returned it4 ,at last a new pear-shaped pearl of marvelous size and beauty was heard of in a distant country4 ,it was sent to ,germany1 where the duke was visiting at that time1 to a local dealer who acted as agent for the owner4 ,the price demanded for it seemed excessive1 but the duke took the pearl1 stepped aside for a moment1 and said1 quick as a flash1 8,the pearl is mine40 ,the next day he showed it with a mate he had owned for many years and that was a most faultless match4 ,through all the years of his search he had never informed any one of his intention to match the pearl he already owned4 ,in #ahgi1 at the time of the death of the father of ,sultan ,buderuddin of the ,sulu ,islands1 a box of large and fine pearls was among the treasures he left behind him4 ,many of these disappeared1 but some of them came into the hands of ,sultan ,buderuddin and his mother4 ,the former sold those which he had inherited1 in order to defray the expenses of a pilgrimage to ,mecca1 in #ahhb4 ,his mother1 who exerted a great influence over the conduct of affairs1 retained a number of the pearls1 and it was always difficult to induce her to part with any of them4 ,when1 as very rarely happened1 she was persuaded to do so1 she invariably got a higher price for them than they would have commanded in ,london1 because she was never anxious to sell1 and always said3 8,why should ,i sell my pearls8 ,if the ,spaniards come to attack us1 ,i can put them in a handkerchief and go into the hills2 but if ,i had dollars ,i should need a number of men to carry them40 ,we do not yet know what became of the stolen pearls4 ,many times has a dealer put nearly all that he possessed into a fine pearl or necklace1 frequently without a reward2 often gradually buying more and more1 hoping for some great patron to relieve him4 ,when the client appears1 there is happiness1 but when he does not1 there is woe4 ,this instance is well illustrated when ,philip ,,iv of ,spain asked of the merchant ,gogibus3 8,how have you ventured to put all your fortune into such a small object80 8,because ,i knew there was a king of ,spain to buy it of me10 was the quick reply4 ,and ,philip rewarded the faith of the jeweler by purchasing the pearl4 ,caire and ,dufie#djd state3 ,we need have no fear that either the price or the use of pearls will diminish when we consider the great demand for them both on account of luxury and superstition4 ,there is no ,hindu who does not regard it as a matter of religion that he should pierce at least one pearl on the occasion of his marriage4 ,this must be a new pearl which has never been perforated4 ,whatever may be the mysterious signification1 this very ancient usage is1 at least1 very useful for the commerce of pearls4 ,in #ahih1 one of the writers had a long talk with his late chief1 who had1 at that time1 devoted sixty years of his life to the jewelry profession4 ,in the course of the conversation the latter remarked3 8,it seems to me that pearls are too dear02 to which the writer rejoined3 8,have pearls ever gone down in price during your entire connection with the jewelry profession80 ,the answer was3 8,no1 they have always advanced40 ,whereupon the writer said3 8,i can give you statistics for two hundred years preceding your earliest experience1 which prove that pearls constantly advanced in value during that period40 ,the following are the names given to the different kinds of pearls1 according to their origin4 ,the term 8oriental0 designates those pearls that are found in the true pearl-oyster1 and have a marine or salt-water origin1 being found either in the ocean or one of its adjacent tributaries1 and belonging to one of the numerous species of the ,margaritifer4 ,the term 8fresh-water0 is given to those pearls that are found in the fresh-water brooks1 rivulets1 rivers1 or fresh-water lakes1 and not in salt water1 and which belong to the ,unionid4 ,the term 8conch0 is applied to that variety of pearl which is usually pink1 or yellow1 in color1 and that is either found in the univalve shell1 known as the common conch 7,strombus gigas71 or in the yellow shell 7,cassis madagascarensis74 ,the word 8clam pearl0 is used to designate those pearls that are found in the common clam of the ,atlantic coast1 and are either black1 dark purple1 purple1 or mixed with white1 more especially if they are boiled4 8,placuna pearl0 designates those pearls that are found in the ,placuna1 or window-glass shell1 in the ,east4 ,they have a micaceous luster1 are rarely of much value1 and are sold entirely in the ,orient1 almost exclusively for medicinal purposes4 8,oyster pearl0 signifies those concretions that are found in the common edible oyster 7,ostrea74 ,they are generally black1 purple1 or with a mixture of black and white1 or purple and white4 ,they are devoid of nacreous luster and possess neither beauty nor value4 8,coque de perle0 designates the globuse walls of the nautilus and possibly other shells that have a pearly nacre2 they are almost hemispherical and are either round or long1 having a pearly effect4 8,abalone03 a name applied to those pearls that are found in the univalve 8ear-shell0 or awabi1 as it is called in ,japan4 ,they are generally green1 blue-green1 or fawn-yellow1 and have an intense red1 flame-like iridescence4 ,they are rarely round1 generally flat1 or irregular1 and are occasionally worth several hundreds of dollars each4 8,pinna pearls03 those pearls that are found in the ,pinna1 or wing-shells of the ,mediterranean and adjacent seas4 ,these possess no orient1 but are more highly crystalline than any other pearls4 ,they are almost translucent and have a peculiar red or yellow color1 and are of little value except locally4 8,cocoanut pearl03 this name is given to those pearls that are found in the giant oyster or clam of the vicinity of ,singapore2 they are erroneously called cocoanut pearls because they have the appearance of the meat of the cocoanut4 ,they are often of great size1 but have no commercial value4 ,the following are special designations of the different varieties of pearls according to their forms and appearance3 ,paragon3 this term was formerly used to designate large and exceptionally perfect or beautiful pearls1 usually weighing over one hundred grains4 ,round3 when the pearl is absolutely spherical1 as if turned on a lathe1 without any flattening or any indentations on the sides4 ,button or ,bouton3 if the pearl is domed on top and has either a flat or slightly convex back4 ,pear-shaped3 when the pearl is formed like a pear1 terminating in a point1 and is either flat at the lower end or rounded4 ,drop-shaped3 when the pearl is elongated like a pear1 but is larger at the lower end than a pear-shaped pearl4 ,egg-shaped3 when ovate in form1 rounded more or less at each end1 or formed like an egg4 ,cone-shaped3 applied to pearls that are elongated and rounded with one flat end1 and have the form of a cone4 ,top-shaped3 a name given to those pearls that are broad1 flattened at the top and rounded on the sides1 terminating in a point1 like a top4 ,seed-pearls is a name given to pearls that are round or irregular1 and weigh one fourth grain or even less4 ,they are frequently so small that #ah1jjj are contained in a single ounce1 and they are often sent from the ,east in bunches of about a dozen or so of strings4 ,dust-pearls4 ,when seed-pearls are very small they are known as 8dust-pearls02 they are really as fine as dust and have very little value2 still1 their form is in many cases wonderfully perfect4 ,petal pearls are those which are somewhat flat1 frequently more pointed at one end than at the other1 and have the appearance of a petal or leaf4 ,hinge pearls are those pearls that are long1 generally pointed at either or both ends1 and are found near the hinge part of the shell4 ,they are divided into two distinct forms1 namely dog-tooth1 and wing-shaped4 ,wing pearls3 those that are elongated or irregular1 resembling a wing or part of a wing4 ,dog-tooth3 applied to pearls with pointed ears1 elongated1 and which are narrower than the wing pearls4 ,slugs3 a name used for the very irregular1 distorted pearls1 frequently made up of masses or groups of small pearls2 usually without luster or form1 and of little value except for medicinal purposes4 ,nuggets3 when the pearls are somewhat round1 but are indented or slightly irregular4 ,haystacks3 when the pearls are either round or oval1 with the top considerably elevated4 ,turtlebacks3 when the pearls are a trifle longer than they are wide1 with a domed surface not much elevated4 ,this form is quite prevalent among ,american pearls4 ,strawberry pearls3 those that are round or elongated and entirely covered with prickly points1 somewhat resembling a strawberry or pickle4 ,it is believed that these irregular marks are frequently produced by minute pearls4 8,blister0 and 8,chicot0 are names applied to those pearls that are found embedded within a nacreous coating1 often containing mud1 water1 or imperfect mother-of-pearl4 ,after these 8blisters10 as they are termed1 are broken1 and layer after layer has been removed from the contents1 very fine pearls have frequently been found4 ,peelers3 a term applied to pearls having imperfect surfaces or skins that may have some inner layers which are perfect4 ,pearls having opaque bands or rings are rarely peeled with much success as this opaque layer frequently extends to some depth4 ,cylindrical pearls3 for pearls that have the form of a cylinder1 being elongated and flattened at each end4 ,hammer pearls3 when pearls are long and somewhat rounded and assume the shape of a hammer or barrel4 ,these are rounded or domed at the side and flattened at the ends4 ,baroque 7,wart pearls in ,german73 when pearls are not of any perfect form such as round1 pear1 ovate1 or any regular form1 they are termed baroque1 and this term covers a large class of varieties1 such as all that follow 7except seed- and half-pearls74 ,double1 triple1 or twin pearls are those that are made up of two or more pearls united together in a single nacreous coating1 showing1 however1 that they are still separate pearls4 ,monster pearls3 this name was formerly applied to very large1 irregular1 pearly masses which either resembled some animal or were adapted to form the head1 trunk1 or other part of an animal3 these are also occasionally called 8,paragons40 ,bird's-eye3 a name used for a pearl that has dull spots1 giving it the appearance of a bird's-eye4 8,ring-a-round0 is a term applied to such pearls as are black1 brown1 pink1 or white1 and have a circle running around the pearl itself of some distinctive contrasting color1 as white on black1 pink on brown or black on white4 ,embedded pearls are those that are partly or entirely surrounded by mother-of-pearl1 having been enveloped and passed outward from the interior of the shell by the mollusk so that in time the pearl would have been lost on the outside of the shell4 ,these embedded pearls are occasionally found in the manufacture of mother-of-pearl articles4 ,when the mother-of-pearl is split1 the pearl will fall out from between the layers4 ,half-pearls is the name given to such pearls as are round and spherically domed1 and are either somewhat flat or almost the shape of one half of a whole pearl of the same diameter4 ,they are usually made by cutting off the best part of a hemispherical bright spot from a large irregular pearl2 frequently two to four cuttings are made from the bright spots of a single pearl1 each of the cuttings having the appearance of half a pearl4 ,the so-called ,indian pearls have a faint rosy tint with much orient4 ,these are generally pearls from the ,ceylonese fisheries that are sold from the ,bombay side4 ,the term 8,madras white0 describes the whiter varieties1 there being a preference for these in ,madras1 while the rosy1 yellow1 and darker shades are favored in ,bombay4 ,australian pearls are generally a pure waxy white and lustrous1 often with a silver-white sheen1 extremely brilliant and beautiful4 ,nearly all the ,venezuela and ,panama pearls have a faint golden-yellow tint1 very often extremely lustrous1 and are especially desired by the darker skinned people and brunettes4 ,the preference at various times has varied with different peoples3 in ,china and ,india1 golden-yellow and satin-yellow pearls are preferred2 from ,panama we have the very white2 in ,bombay the yellow pearls from the ,persian ,gulf are highly appreciated4 ,yellow pearls from other shells than the pearl-oyster are frequently offered for sale in the ,east1 where they are greatly appreciated1 although they find little favor in ,england4 ,some of these pearls are attributed to the pearly nautilus 7,nautilus pompilius74 ,this may be the case with those that have a pearly luster1 but those that have the appearance of porcelain1 and are as bright as polished china1 are certainly not from this shell1 but evidently from the large ,melo or other shells of that character4 ,some may come from the large conch 7,cassis madagascarensis74 ,a yellow pearl1 very perfect in form and color1 and weighing more than one hundred grains1 was shown at the ,paris ,exposition of #ahhi and was valued at #ej1jjj francs4 ,wonderful golden-yellow pearls with a saffron tint are unusually lustrous and beautiful4 ,one of the most remarkable pearls of this character is of a brilliant golden-yellow color which belongs to an ,american lady1 and weighs #cj grains4 ,these pearls are from ,shark's ,bay1 ,west ,australia1 and only a limited number of them are found annually4 ,black pearls do not seem to have been regarded with any favor by the ancients1 and we find no mention of them by medieval writers4 ,only fifty years ago a perfectly round1 black pearl1 weighing #h grains1 was sold for #d 7#bj72 to-day this pearl would easily bring #ajj 7#ejj74 ,empress ,eugenie1 the wife of ,napoleon ,,iii1 may be said to have brought them into favor2 she owned a splendid necklace of black pearls which was sold at ,christie's1 after the fall of ,napoleon1 for the sum of #djjj 7#bj1jjj74 ,some time later1 the ,marquis of ,bath bought1 at ,christie's1 the pearl which formed the clasp of the necklace1 paying #ajjj 7#ejjj7 for it2 he destined it for the center of a bracelet4 ,greenish-black pearls are perhaps valued higher than any other colored pearls1 if they have the proper orient2 this is probably partly owing to their rarity4 ,a bluish-black pearl possessing a fine orient commands almost the same price as a pure black pearl4 ,those which are found in the ,placuna placenta are often of a dull gray hue1 while those produced by the ,pinna squamosa are generally brown in color4 ,baroque pearls were formerly much worn and appreciated in ,spain and ,poland4 ,their price varies greatly1 according to their size1 their beauty1 and also to their scarcity in any particular place4 ,the pieces of pearl detached from the shells--often half-pearl and half mother-of-pearl1 and called 8de fantaisie0--are always very irregular in form1 and sometimes offer a certain resemblance to a part of the human or animal form4#dje ,how is it that such quantities of jewels are continually brought from the ,east1 and such a wealth of them continues to exist there1 when there are now no very extensive mines that maintain a constant supply8 ,the reason is that from time immemorial1 precious stones have been the form in which wealth1 in those lands1 has been hoarded and preserved4 ,until very recently1 in the ,orient1 interest-bearing securities have been unknown2 and hence jewels have been sought and kept as an investment1 and sold only when money was needed for special purposes1 as in times of war1 famine1 or other emergency4 ,their small bulk made them easy to conceal and to transport1 and hence they were well adapted for such use4 ,how long this condition will last1 is perhaps dependent only upon the introduction of interest-paying investments1 and of the new forms of ,western civilization that involve greater expenses and require means of income in excess of the older and simpler conditions4 ,the wealth of jewels possessed by ,oriental monarchs1 notables1 and dealers1 has been the theme of story and tradition1 time out of mind4 ,we of the ,west have been disposed to regard these tales as largely exaggerated1 and to some extent they may be2 yet any one who has witnessed an important social function or state occasion where ,east ,indian rajahs and nabobs are present1 knows that the profusion of jewels which they wear is simply astounding to our ,western eyes4 ,these objects represent1 moreover1 the gatherings of generations and centuries2 they are heirlooms and ancestral treasures1 priceless to their owners as the pride of their houses2 handed down from fathers to sons in long succession2 and they have also the investment feature already noted1 in that whenever necessity arises they can be turned into available funds4 ,the manner of keeping and of selling such objects is also different from ours4 ,if it be a question of buying gems from an ,eastern owner1 the best are never shown first1 but on the contrary1 the most inferior4 ,the purchaser must either be content with these1 or else must prove clearly that he is a substantial buyer or evince a knowledge and appreciation that mark him as a judge of such objects4 ,the order in which they are produced is1 first the poorest1 then successively1 poor1 medium1 fair1 good1 fine1 and at last the rare and wonderful prizes4 ,in visiting an ,oriental dignitary1 his jewel-treasures are not all shown at once1 as at an ,american reception or an ,indian durbar1 or even as a collector or connoisseur among us exhibits his cabinet1 arranged for choice display4 ,the method is far different4 ,the visitor may be shown a few objects in the first day or hour2 perhaps a few more later in the day2 some on the next day or the one following1 and so on2 and he may remain a guest for weeks1 and never see all1 or the finest of the jewels belonging to his host4 ,when they are produced1 moreover1 they are not in iron caskets or in gold or silver jewel-cases1 covered or lined with fine leather or with silk or satin4 ,on the contrary1 they are often in old ginger jars1 shabby boxes1 tin cans1 and all sorts of unsightly or unpromising receptacles1 which1 when placed between the owner and his guest1 may well cause the latter to wonder4 ,nor is his surprise lessened as the wrappings are unfolded1 one after another1 perhaps a dozen old cloths1 until the piece of jewelry or the splendid pearl is at last brought to view1 after having been hidden from sight in its manifold wrappings for months or perhaps for years4 ,but this method of keeping such treasures is not in reality so strange as it appears4 ,there are none of the provisions that we have for the responsible safe-guarding of investments or valuable objects1--no fire-proof safes1 no banks1 no deposit-vaults4 ,security is best attained by concealment in unattractive and improbable receptacles1 and by dividing and distributing the treasured objects4 ,the owner1 too1 must learn to know his visitor quite well before he exhibits to him all1 or the best1 that he possesses4 ,hence the oriental method1 though so peculiar to us1 has been the best adapted to the conditions among those peoples4 ,illustration3 ,seed-pearls and gold2 ,chinese ornaments of the nineteenth century ,illustration3 ,complete set of seed-pearl jewelry in original case ,new ,york1 #ahfj ,as an illustration of the interest taken by ,oriental potentates in the collection of jewels1 we quote an instance from ,marco ,polo1 who1 centuries ago1 wrote the following3#djf 8,several times every year the ,king of ,maabar sends his proclamation through the realm that if any one who possesses a pearl or stone of great value will bring it to him1 he will pay for it twice as much as it cost4 ,everybody is glad to do this1 and thus the ,king gets all into his own hands1 giving every man his price40 ,great quantities of pearls1 the result of centuries of accumulation1 and exceeding in splendor the collections of the present day1 must have been garnered up in many cities of the ,orient during the period of their prosperity4 ,but these cities have disappeared1 wrecked and ruined by fire and sword1 and no vestige of their former wealth remains with them4 ,their treasures have been looted1 hoarded1 buried1 or scattered to the four ends of the ,orient1 frequently finding their way in former times to ,europe1 but now more often to ,america1 where fine gems always find a generous buyer4 ,in ,syria1 and some of the ,oriental countries1 until recently1 and perhaps at the present time1 it has been the custom1 when a native wished to embark in the pearl business1 for him to allow himself to drift gradually into a state of vagrancy1 becoming a veritable tramp for fully a year4 ,then1 with the money that he had himself or that which was supplied by his backer1 he would visit the pearl fisheries and shrewdly acquire the gems to the best advantage1 returning again as a vagrant2 for if it were known at any point along the route that he carried with him sums of money his life would be in jeopardy1 and he would probably never reach the fisheries2 or1 if he did1 the chances are that he would never return4 ,this may remind us of ,marco ,polo's old coat1 in which he had concealed some valuable gems1 the gift of the ,grand ,khan4 ,his wife heedlessly gave the coat to a beggar and it was only regained by a clever stratagem4 ,the product of the pearl fisheries1 either that of entire fisheries where they are managed by a company1 or the gatherings of merchants1 or even the single gems which may be acquired by the smaller merchants1 all these usually find their way to the great markets1 although occasionally they change hands at once4 ,in the ,east they are sent either to ,bombay1 ,calcutta1 ,madras or ,colombo2 frequently they are intended for a higher market4 ,many of them remain in the ,east1 for in the ,east to-day a fine pearl is as much prized as ever1 and there are those who love pearls as much as did the ,king of ,maabar in the time of ,marco ,polo4 ,however1 the world over1 there is a feeling that if things are sent to the greatest market there will be an opportunity for disposing of them at the greatest price4 ,therefore1 the larger number of parcels of exceptionally fine pearls are sent to the ,london market1 a few of them going to ,paris1 the cable1 often within a few days after their arrival1 informing the sender of the acceptance or rejection of a parcel1 or of a new offer which is often accepted4 ,in this market they are acquired by the dealers1 who frequently exhibit many times before the lot is purchased4 ,pearls from a fishery are in many cases of mixed quality2 that is to say1 they are of different sizes and varying grades of perfection as regards skin1 color1 and orient4 ,these parcels are often sold directly on offers to dealers1 but generally they are sold by brokers who show the various parcels to the dealers1 each of the latter in turn making his offer on that portion of the parcel which is of most value to him4 ,thus a single dealer may want one pearl1 a dozen1 or even twenty or more1 to complete a great necklace1 or else to add to1 or improve the necklace1 by better graduation or by increasing the evenness of the color4 ,when the broker receives enough offers to give him the desired price for the entire parcel1 the sale is consummated1 and each one who has made an offer and who has sealed his particular parcel until his offer is accepted or rejected1 receives his portion4 ,pearls do not grow in the form of necklaces1 although they are frequently seen in this form only1 and to create a large necklace means not only the use of the pearls of one fishery alone1 but it often requires a selection from pearls of various sizes1 the product of many fisheries4 ,it is needless to say that even the shrewdest dealers do not always succeed in their purchases of lots which are to be broken up when the proper number of bids are obtained4 ,when the pearl revival came in #ahih there was a sudden and rapid upward tendency in the prices1 because at that time1 in ,england1 money could be borrowed upon a very low rate of interest--as low as #c per cent41--and it was a temptation to a number of young men to enter as dealers into the pearl trade4 ,the result was that a number of new stocks were created1 not for a regular1 but for a speculative demand1 and this tended to advance the price spasmodically1 rather than gradually1 as it would have risen by regular consumption4 ,however1 when the foreign market became higher1 the demand for pearls was not as great as had been anticipated1 and there was a sudden adjustment of prices and a readjustment of the pearl stocks1 resulting in the elimination of a certain number of speculative dealers2 and1 notwithstanding the state of the fisheries1 pearls have not advanced so rapidly in the past two years as they did from #ahih to #aije4 ,more than go per cent4 of the pearls of commerce1 whether they are round1 perfect1 half- or seed-pearls1 are of oriental origin2 that is1 pearls from the true pearl-oyster4 ,about #h per cent4 are probably from the fresh-water mussels1 three fourths of which are from the ,united ,states4 ,american fresh-water pearls have had many prejudices to overcome1 often because of the natural indifference in regard to anything that is found at home or is easily obtainable4 ,it has been said that1 in comparison with foreign pearls1 they had less specific gravity2 that they were not so hard1 and that their luster was not as good4 ,it is certain1 however1 that the skin is generally smooth1 and although they may not have so peculiar an orient1 their brilliancy equals that of any known pearls4 ,sometimes they are translucent and either pink or of a faintly bluish tint1 like molten silver4 ,more frequently their hue is white1 rose1 pale yellow1 or pale copper1 deepening to copper red until they resemble the most intense and highly polished copper button4 ,according to the estimates of the value of ,european fresh-water pearls given by seventeenth and eighteenth century writers1 their worth was considered to be one half that of oriental pearls of approximately the same quality4 ,few ,european pearls1 we feel sure1 were ever found that possessed the wonderful beauty and brilliancy of the pearls found either in the ,miami or the ,mississippi and its many tributaries4 ,so great a quantity of the poorer quality of pearls have been found1 principally in the ,mississippi ,valley1 that a foreign dealer has bought #cj1jjj ounces of baroque pearls at #a an ounce1 and of the slightly better grades fully #ajj1jjj dollars' worth were obtained in the year #aijf4 ,the exportation was strictly limited to the poorer qualities4 ,when pearls are worth from #a to #f a grain and upward1 they are rarely sent abroad1 as the regular pearls of this quality are much appreciated by ,americans1 and find a ready sale in the ,united ,states4 ,the poor pearls above mentioned were principally sent to ,new ,york1 either from the local fishermen1 or else through the dealers in sweet-water shells1 in lots of a fraction of an ounce1 or in bags weighing a number of pounds4 ,thirty thousand ounces would equal #ah1ahj1jjj grains4 ,after all the fine pearls have been selected--buttons1 baroques1 turtle-backs1 haystacks1 wings1 petals and other pearls that can be used in any way as a jewel on this side of the water--the balance of the material is sold by the ounce1 varying in price from #a to #e4 ,these are shipped to ,germany1 ,france1 and ,austria1 where they are again selected for cheaper forms of jewelry than are made in the ,united ,states4 ,of these pearls the baroques and slugs go mainly to ,germany1 while the somewhat finer ones are sent to ,france1 where they are used in artistic but inexpensive work1 such as flowers and other imitative forms1 and in art nouveau jewelry4 ,some1 again1 are shipped to ,algiers1 ,morocco1 and ,egypt1 for the decoration of saddles1 garments1 etc41 and quantities go to ,india to be used for medicinal purposes4 ,in this way all the material is utilized and even the poorest is not wasted4 ,no better proof can be required of the wide-spread appreciation of the pearl among all the races of mankind4 ,so extensive has become the finding of ,american pearls that great quantities have been gathered together of all varieties4 ,at the time of this writing there are many large single lots of these pearls1 slightly irregular1 and not of fine quality1 but yet of sufficient regularity of size to be termed baroques4 ,at one time such quantities were gotten together that single papers of pearls1 weighing one fourth1 one half1 one1 two or three grains each1 contained more than #aj1jjj grains1 and quantities of the wing and dog-tooth varieties weighing as much as #bj1jjj grains were inclosed in a single paper4 ,so prolific has been the yield of these common ,american pearls that the markets of ,europe and ,asia have almost been flooded with them4 ,in #aijf1 a single shipment of #cejj ounces1 troy 7equaling over #b1ajj1jjj grains71 were sent abroad1 at prices varying from #a to #ae per ounce1 according to the quality4 ,this alone would represent a worth of #cj1jjj at one time4 ,the turtleback is a form quite prevalent among ,american pearls1 and they are often matched in pairs slightly resembling each other and weighing from #aj to #ajj or more grains for each pair4 ,some of them are lustrous and many are of very good color and regular in form4 ,although differing but little in shape1 they naturally are much less expensive than a finer formed pearl1 and many of them have been sold for link buttons1 and more especially for earscrews4 ,although they formerly sold for #ej cents a grain1 they are now held at from #a to #h per grain4 ,in regard to the prices of some of the finer ,american pearls1 one of #ae grains1 of wonderful brilliancy1 luster1 and perfection1 was sold for more than #bejj-aff a grain1 or a base value of over #aa a grain4 ,two extraordinarily well-matched button pearls1 weighing a trifle over #cj grains1 were held at about #cejj1 or #aae a grain1 a base value of about #h a grain4 ,at the time of this writing there are for sale in the ,united ,states a pair of button earrings1 almost round1 not of absolutely perfect color1 weighing about #adj grains1 the price being #fjjj2 a round1 slightly ovate pearl1 not of the finest color1 weighing #he grains1 held at #cejj2 and a wonderful pearl with a rich1 faintly pink luster1 round1 but slightly button on each side1 weighing about #dd grains1 and beautiful as are ,american pearls1 is held at a fanciful valuation of over #fjjj4 ,the cupidity of many of the ,american pearl finders and pearl dealers cannot be exceeded even by that of the foreign pearl finder in any other land1 and this is shown by the variety of materials that from time to time are sold to the unsuspecting public1 or that are sent to pearl dealers in the large cities4 ,this is surprising and suggests either that the sender believes the pearl dealers are not familiar with these deceptions1 or else that he himself has been imposed upon1 and is innocent in his commercial deceit4 ,among the notable examples are1 first1 spheres made out of the various shells1 either from a good part of the material or from hinge-material1 or else from the spot where the mussel is attached1 these pieces of the shell being rounded and polished2 such spheres vary in color from white to pink or yellow1 just as the shell itself may have been colored4 ,second1 the pupils of fish-eyes4 ,third1 imitation pearls4 ,fourth1 yellow or brown translucent or transparent masses of hinge-binding material having no greater hardness than horn1 and about the same appearance4 ,the most interesting1 however1 are the absolutely beautiful1 smooth spheres of anthracite coal1 which admits of a rich polish and has a peculiar luster2 these they attempt to pass off as black pearls4 ,it is interesting to note that in ,arkansas a negro sold a very valuable pearl for a few dollars1 under the persuasion of a white man1 who1 it is said1 resold the pearl for nearly a hundred times more than what he paid for it4 ,the local authorities investigated the matter2 the case was brought to court1 and the negro received a large advance on the price that had originally been paid him4 ,if a list were kept of the thousand and one different methods of wrapping ,american pearls for shipment to the larger cities1 it would show how much ingenuity is displayed in environments that frequently differ very much from each other4 ,a box that has contained the pills that relieved him of fever1 ague1 and other ills due to swamps and damp climates1 serves a secondary purpose for the fortunate finder of a pearl in forming a receptacle in which he can ship it to the greater market4 ,sometimes they are sewed in leather cut from gloves and shoes1 or in strips of cloth1 generally of the humbler varieties1 such as calico or blue jean2 in other cases they are wrapped in tissue-paper and newspaper2 and occasionally they are packed in boxes made by hollowing out a bit of wood1 a cover being nailed over the opening4 ,in almost every instance they have been treated with a certain degree of care4 ,the majority of conch pearls which are carried by individuals to ,new ,york1 ,london1 or ,paris1 are generally brought in small papers or bits of cloth1 each pearl being wrapped separately4 ,usually1 there are a few white ones1 a few yellow1 a few pale pink1 occasionally a few of a very beautiful rich pink1 and once in a great while a fine1 large pearl appears4 ,many of these pearls1 commonly the inferior ones1 are sold in the ,west ,indies directly to the tourists who wish to purchase something in the country through which they are traveling1 with the result that better prices are generally obtained than would have been secured if the pearls had been sent to the great markets4 ,the tariff on pearls at present operative in the ,united ,states is so indefinite as to have led to much serious misinterpretation and misunderstanding1 as well as to an endless chain of lawsuits1 often resulting in serious loss to the dealer or client who imports4 ,as a consequence of the enforced outlay of large sums for unexpected and additional duties1 the importer1 who was both ready and willing to pay what seemed to him a just duty1 often found that1 where he had quoted a price to a customer1 he was a loser by the transaction2 and if1 to escape this loss1 he endeavors to dispute the payment of the duty1 he becomes involved in an expensive and occasionally unsuccessful lawsuit4 ,on the other hand1 a private buyer who has paid all that he feels he can afford at the time for a necklace1 expecting to pay a duty of #aj per cent4 and interpreting the law to mean a duty of #aj per cent41 may be called upon to pay a duty of #fj per cent41 or have the notoriety of a public lawsuit1 because the pearls have been strung1 or because it is held that they had recently or at some former time been assembled as a necklace4 ,in other words1 if the pearls constituting such a necklace are bought at various times from various people1 either here or in ,europe1 and not as a necklace1 the duty is held to be #aj per cent41 but if they are sent in one shipment1 a duty of #fj per cent4 is levied4 ,as it is held that pearls assembled in the form of a necklace have a greater value than before they were so assembled1 the purchaser might naturally expect to pay the #aj per cent4 duty on this higher value1 but instead of this a #fj per cent4 duty is demanded on the higher assembled value4 ,the ambiguity of this clause of the tariff is such that a logical ruling should be made by some superior official such as the ,secretary of the ,treasury4 ,as the law is now interpreted1 a pearl worth #bj1jjj can be brought in with a duty of #aj per cent42 the addition of a simple gold wire makes it a piece of jewelry1 with a duty of #fj per cent4 ,it would seem that an amendment might be made to the tariff by which an importer1 whether a private buyer or dealer1 could be called upon to pay a #fj per cent4 duty on a high valuation of the setting of the ring1 brooch1 or jewel1 such as #bj1 #be or #ej2 while the contents of the ring or ornament1 whether a pearl1 diamond1 emerald1 or a collection of stones1 should pay a duty of only #aj per cent4 ,this duty would sufficiently protect the jewelry industry1 and would at the same time prevent the levying of an unjust and unexpected impost upon a fine pearl or gem of any kind4 ,it is eminently desirable that those residing in the ,united ,states who purchase pearls in foreign countries1 should1 if possible1 consult with the ,united ,states consul in the city where they make their purchase1 in case they wish to bring the pearls into the ,united ,states4 ,in this way a proper declaration can be made1 they will be correctly instructed as to the duties upon the pearls1 whether unstrung1 strung1 or set1 and they will thus avoid all complications when they reach the ,united ,states4 ,of course1 this may not be necessary should the firm with which they are dealing be able to attend to the matter for them4 ,it must not be forgotten that the duty of #be per cent4 on precious stones1 which was imposed during ,cleveland's administration1 was enacted for the purpose of obtaining an increased revenue for the government1 and there is no doubt but that the time was one of great financial stress4 ,yet even with the duty two and a half times as high as in the previous years1 only a small fraction was added to the income of the ,government4 ,but one adequate explanation can be given of this remarkable decrease in the recorded imports1 more especially when we consider that legitimate dealers could1 at that time1 buy precious stones in ,new ,york ,city for less than it cost them to purchase them abroad and pay the duty4 ,it seems1 therefore1 that a #aj per cent4 rate is calculated to produce the best and most satisfactory results in every way4 ,as examples of the difficulties encountered in the attempt to arrive at a proper classification of pearls we cite the following cases which have been the subjects of recent litigation3 ,in #aija1 two very valuable collections of pearls were brought to this country4 ,one of these consisted of #de drilled pearls weighing in all #fgb grains and entered at #fj1gcd2 the other1 of #ci pearls1 having an aggregate weight of #fgh grains and entered at #fc1jgj4 ,at first a duty of #bj per cent4 ad valorem was imposed upon these pearls under ,section #f of the ,tariff ,act1 treating them as 8unenumerated articles partly manufactured10 according to the rule that had been followed since the enactment of the present tariff4 ,this was protested1 and the case was brought before the ,board of ,appraisers4#djg ,subsequent to the protest1 however1 the collector reliquidated the entry of the #de pearls and imposed upon them a duty of #fj per cent4 ad valorem1 as pearls set or strung4 ,this was done in view of ,judge ,lacombe's decision in another notable case which had been taken shortly before to the ,circuit ,court of ,appeals4#djh ,this decision was to the effect that pearls in any form not especially covered by paragraphs #dcd or #dcf of the ,tariff ,act should be referred to one or the other of those paragraphs1 by similitude1 according to the provisions of ,section #g of the ,act4 ,the testimony taken before the ,board of ,appraisers revealed the fact that each of the collections of pearls had been inclosed in a handsome silk-lined morocco case1 with a groove running through the center2 in this groove the pearls were laid1 the largest one in the middle and the others disposed on either side1 graduated according to their size2 the row or series having the effect of a necklace1 although the pearls were unstrung4 ,the importer testified that this arrangement was only made in order to enable him to judge of the size and quality of the pearls1 and evidence was given showing that it was necessary to rebore some of them and to ream out the holes before any use could be made of the pearls in jewelry4 ,nevertheless1 the appraisers adhered to their opinion that these gems had been selected especially to form a necklace1 and that the time and labor requisite for the assembling of a carefully matched and graduated series of pearls suitable for a necklace constituted the main factor in its production1 since the cost of stringing it was trifling2 they1 therefore1 considered that such a series of pearls was dutiable1 by similitude1 under paragraph #dcd of the ,tariff ,act as jewelry4 ,an application was made to the ,circuit ,court of the ,southern ,district of ,new ,york for a review of the appraisers' ruling1#dji the judge decided against the petitioner1#daj and an appeal was then taken from his decision4 ,on ,december #ab1 #aijd1 the ,circuit ,court of ,appeals decided that the pearls were dutiable1 by similitude1 at #aj per cent4 ad valorem1 under ,section #g1 paragraph #dcf1 and the excess of duty collected was refunded4 ,another case has to do with a collection of #cg pearls1 entered at #bbj1jjj1 brought to ,new ,york in ,january1 #aijf4 ,duty to the amount of #bb1jjj 7#aj per cent4 ad valorem7 was paid by the importer1 but the entry was liquidated at #fj per cent4 and #aaj1jjj additional duty demanded4 ,this was paid and a protest was made to the ,board of ,general ,appraisers1 who decided in favor of the petitioner4 ,the ,government appealed and the case#daa was tried in the ,united ,states ,circuit ,court on ,february #bd of this year 7#aijh74 ,it was shown that the pearls had been worn several times in ,paris as a necklace1 but the defense held that1 as they were loose when imported and were not worth more collectively than separately1 this was not material4 ,the judge decided for the ,government and an appeal has been taken in ,june1 #aijh4 ,illustration3 ,,persian ,,princess ,,and ,,ladies ,,in ,,waiting ,from a ,persian illuminated manuscript of the eighteenth century1 in the library of ,robert ,hoe1 ,esq4 ,the proper classification of half-pearls has also been a matter of controversy4 ,this question was brought before the ,board of ,general ,appraisers in ,new ,york on a protest#dab entered in #ahig against the imposition of a duty of #bj per cent4 on several lots of so-called half-pearls imported during that year4 ,this duty was imposed under ,section #f of the ,tariff ,act1 providing for a duty of #bj per cent4 on 8unenumerated partly manufactured articles40 ,the petitioner claimed that half-pearls were dutiable at #aj per cent4 ad valorem1 8either directly or by similitude or component of chief value1 under paragraph #dcf1 or as precious stones1 under paragraph #dce of the ,tariff ,act40 ,after hearing the testimony of a number of competent and reliable experts connected with some of the leading houses dealing in precious stones and pearls1 the appraisers decided that the evidence showed that pearls1 being the product of animal secretion1 could not properly be denominated stones1 and that they were not in fact so designated commercially4 ,at the same time1 half-pearls could not be looked upon as 8pearls in their natural state10 since time and labor had been expended in their production2 it was1 therefore1 evident that paragraph #dcf did not apply to them4 ,for this reason the original ruling was reaffirmed4 ,in #aijb a duty of #fj per cent4 was levied on an assorted lot of half-pearls under a new ruling which brought them by similitude under the provisions of paragraph #dcd of the ,tariff ,act1 providing a duty of #fj per cent4 on 8jewelry 444 including 444 pearls set or strung40 ,a protest was entered against this ruling also4#dac ,in the meanwhile ,judge ,lacombe had given the opinion to which we have alluded above1 and the ,board of ,appraisers upheld the duty of #fj per cent41 basing their decision upon the fact that the material of half-pearls was similar to that of pearls in their natural state or of pearls set or strung1 thus satisfying the requirements as to similitude of ,section #g of the ,tariff ,act4 ,the same section provides that1 in case two or more rates of duty shall be applicable to any imported article1 it shall pay duty at the highest rate1 and therefore the #fj-per cent4 rate applying to pearls set or strung was imposed1 instead of the #aj-per cent4 rate on pearls in their natural state4 ,in both of these cases an application for a review was made to the ,united ,states ,circuit ,court4#dad ,,duties ,,on ,,pearls ,,in ,,various ,,countries1 ,,march1 #aijh ,amount in money of the ,u4 ,s4 ,basis4 country4 currency4 ,great ,britain ,free ,british ,india ,free ,australia ,free ,new ,zealand ,free ,canada1 precious stones 7pearls71 polished but not set1 pierced1 or otherwise manufactured ad val4 #aj ,austro-,hungary1 unset #ajj kilogr4 #fj kr4 #bd4jj ,belgium1 unenumerated4 ,bulgaria1 precious stones 7pearls7 in the natural state1 polished1 cut1 or #ge lev engraved1 but not mounted kilogr4 7francs7 #ad4be ,denmark1 unenumerated4 ,france ,free ,germany1 wrought 7smoothed1 polished1 #ajj perforated71 unset kilogr4 #fj marks #ad4dj ,unset1 but strung on textile threads or tape for the purpose of packing #ajj and transportation kilogr4 #ajj marks #bd4jj ,greece ,free ,holland1 unenumerated4 ,italy1 precious stones 7pearls7 wrought hectogr4 #ad lire #b4ff ,montenegro1 precious stones 7pearls7 min4 #aj ad val4 max4 #ae ,norway1 precious stones 7pearls7 min4 #bej kilogr4 krone 4#ff max4 #c 4#hj ,portugal1 unenumerated4 ,portuguese ,s4 ,e4 ,africa 7,quilimane1 ,chinde and ,zambesia7 ,export ,duty ad val4 #f ,portuguese ,india1 real pearls or seed-pearls ad val4 ,rumania kilogr4 #bj lei #c4hj ,russia1 loose or threaded funt #aj rubles #e4jj ,finland ,free ,servia1 threaded for facilitating their preservation or sale kilogr4 #ej dinars #i4ej ,threaded for special uses kilogr4 #gj dinars #ae4cj ,spain1 loose or mounted hectogr4 #be pesetas #d4ge ,sweden1 not set ,free ,switzerland1 not mounted #ajj kilogr4 #ej francs #i4ge ,turkey1 unset #c piasters gramme 7gold7 ,egypt 7on all imports7 ad val4 #h ,china 7on all unenumerated imports7 ad val4 #e ,japan ad val4 #fj ,persia1 ,export ,duty ad val4 #e ,import ,duty1 precious stones1 rough or cut1 including fine pearls ad val4 #be ,morocco 7on all imports7 ad val4 #b ,guatemala1 unenumerated4 ,salvador1 precious stones 7pearls7 #aj pesos1 unmounted kilogr4 nom4 val4 #i4fj ,nicaragua1 precious stones 7pearls7 #ajj pesos1 kilogr4 #if4jj ,honduras #e pesos1 kilogr4 #d4hj ,costa ,rica1 unset #ajj colones1 kilogr4 #if4jj ,panama ad val4 #ae ,mexico1 unset #ajj pesos1 kilogr4 #if4jj ,united ,states1 not strung1 not set ad val4 #aj ,strung1 set1 or not1 and split pearls sorted as to either size1 quality1 or shape ad val4 #fj ,philippine1 unset ad val4 #ae ,argentine ,republic1 precious stones 7pearls7 ad val4 #e ,bolivia appraisal #c ,brazil 7natural7 ad val4 #b ,chili ad val4 #e ,colombia1 precious stones 7pearls7 set in jewelry ad val4 #aj ,ecuador1 precious stones 7pearls71 set #ej sucres1 or not set kilogr4 nom4 val4 #dh4jj ,paraguay1 unset ad val4 #b ,peru1 unset appraisal #c ,uruguay #ac on eval gramme of #a peso 4#ab ,venezuela kilogr4 #aj bolivars #a4ij ,cuba1 not set hectogr4 #g4ej surtax of #be ,dominican ,republic #f pesos1 ounce nom4 val4 #e4gf ,the only changes from the customs lists as they existed in the tariffs of #ahif are as follows3 #ahif #aijh ,portugal #c ad val4 unenumerated ,mexico #ej pesos per carat #ajj pesos per kilogram ,nicaragua #e pesos per libra #ajj pesos per kilogram ,haiti #bj ad val4 unenumerated ,san ,domingo #c4fj pesos per ounce #f pesos per ounce ,argentina #cf pesos per gram precious stones #e ad val4 ,austro-,hungary #bd florins per #ajj kilogr4 #fj kroner per #ajj kilogr4 ,in the ,parliament of #agbg-agcb1 the duty on pearls and precious stones was abolished in ,england4 ,we give facsimiles of the title-page and last leaf of the report of this enactment4 ,illustration3 ,anno ,regni ,,georgii ,,ii4 ,,regis ,magn1 ,britanni1 ,franci1 ,hiberni1 ,,sexto4 ,at the ,parliament ,begun and ,holden at ,westminster1 the ,twenty third ,day of ,january1 ,anno ,dom4 #agbg4 ,in the ,first ,year of the ,reign of our ,sovereign ,lord ,,george the ,second1 by the ,grace of ,god1 of ,great ,britain1 ,france1 and ,ireland1 ,king1 ,defender of the ,faith1 c4 ,and from thence continued by several ,prorogations to the ,sixteenth ,day of ,january1 #agcb1 being the ,sixth ,session of this present ,parliament4 ,,london1 ,printed by ,john ,baskett1 ,printer to the ,king's most ,excellent ,majesty4 #agcb4 #ajh ,anno ,regni ,sexto ,georgii ,,ii4 ,regis4 ,sidenote3 ,after #aj ,april1 #agcc1 ,diamonds and all other precious ,stones may be imported or exported free from ,duty4 ,diamonds1 precious ,stones1 ,jewels1 and ,pearls of all ,sorts1 shall pass outwards1 without ,warrant or ,fee1 may it therefore please your most ,excellent ,majesty that it may be enacted1 and be enacted by the ,king's most ,excellent ,majesty1 by and with the ,advice and ,consent of the ,lords ,spiritual and ,temporal1 and ,commons1 in this present ,parliament assembled1 and by the ,authority of the ,same1 ,that from and after the ,tenth ,day of ,april1 which shall be in the ,year of our ,lord ,one thousand seven hundred and ,thirty three1 all ,diamonds1 ,pearls1 ,rubies1 ,emeralds1 and all other precious ,stones and ,jewels1 shall pass inwards without ,warrant or ,fee1 in the ,manner as they now pass outwards1 and free from the ,payment of any ,duty granted to his ,majesty1 his ,heirs1 or ,successors2 and it shall and may be lawful for any ,person or ,persons to import or export the same1 in the ,ship or ,vessel whatsoever2 and ,law1 ,custom1 or ,usage to the contrary in any wise notwithstanding1 subject nevertheless to the ,proviso herein after contained4 ,sidenote3 ,proviso as to the ,east ,india ,company4 ,provided always1 ,that nothing herein contained shall extend to annul or make void the ,duty granted to his ,majesty for the ,use of the united ,company of ,merchants of ,england trading to the ,east ,indies1 by an act passed in the ,ninth and ,tenth ,years of the ,reign of his late ,majesty ,king ,william the ,third1 for such ,pearls1 ,diamonds1 and other precious ,stones or ,jewels1 as shall be imported into this kingdom from any ,place within the ,limits of the ,charter granted to the said ,company1 or to take away or alter any ,privileges1 ,profits1 or ,advantages1 granted to or now held or enjoyed by the said ,company4 ,,finis4 ,the total value of diamonds and precious stones imported into the ,united ,states during the period from #ahfg to #aijf inclusive1 was as follows3 ,glaziers' 7except #ahgc-hc7 #b1bae1igb ,dust #f1djg1eii ,rough or uncut 7included with diamonds and other stones1 #ahia-if7 #gd1jde1bia ,set 7not specified before #ahig7 #cf1agj ,unset 7not specified before #ahig7 #abd1fae1ffb ,diamonds and other stones1 not set #bjg1ach1fbi ,set in gold or other metal #ag1gii ,pearls 7from #aijc7 #g1hji1bfa ------------------------ ,total #dbb1bhf1chc ,,classified ,,statement ,,of ,,the ,,imports ,,of ,,pearls ,,into ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,from #ahia ,,to #aijg ,,inclusive ,pearls ,pearls1 ,pearls in ,pearls split including pearls natural state1 etc4 strung but not not strung or set set ,year #aj #aj #aj #bj #ahia #aa1gaa #ahib #cb1jbc #ahic #f1ibf #ahid #ab1igh #ahie #bhc1jah #ahif #ehc1bad #ahig #cib1hfg #ahih #dia1jfj #bje1iih #ahii #a1dab1ieb #chi1hii #aijj #a1afc1chb #dcb1ebh #aija #ibi1bdg #a1agc1cci #aijb #a1hif1cbb #a1cad1cfh #aijc #b1hce1icf #g1bbj #aijd #a1fhj1fae #b1ijh #aije #a1fbf1dgf #aijf #b1jgb1efa #bah #aijg #a1eic1dih -------------- -------------------- ---------------------- -------------------- #fc1fch #a1bei1jii #ae1gjb1jdi #c1ebf1dgh ,,note4 ,previous to #ahia pearls were classified with 8jewelry and precious stones10 and it was not until #ahie that most of them were reported separately4 ,there are several things that are essential in pearl buying1 and one of the most important of these is that the light in which the pearls are selected shall be absolutely pure daylight1 with no reflections from the side or from above that can enhance or detract from the color of the pearl4 ,this must be carefully considered1 as it is not uncommon--more especially in certain parts of ,europe--that jewelers have for their selling-offices rooms sumptuously fitted up with hangings of different colors1 and sometimes with ground glass windows1 provided with heavy silk hangings1 so that artificial light becomes a necessity to make the article sold plainly visible4 ,in absolutely pure daylight1 more especially with an unclouded sky--on such days as are probably more frequent in the ,united ,states than in some of the ,european countries--it is possible to see the exact tint or color of the pearls2 that is1 whether it is really a pure white with a tinge of pink or an orient tending to cream-white1 or whether it is more or less tinted with what is considered a crude or red color in a pearl4 ,besides this1 in a pure light it is possible to see whether the pearl is brilliant1 and to estimate the exact degree of its brilliancy2 whether there are any cracks1 scratches1 or mars on the surface2 and1 lastly1 whether the form is entirely regular4 ,if one should select two necklaces1 one absolutely perfect and the other having slight blemishes as to color or brilliancy1 or with breaks1 marks1 or irregularities1 these two necklaces would be scarcely distinguishable from each other in artificial light1 or in daylight which had been partly confused with artificial light2 although the differences between the two would signify that the former was worth two or three times as much as the latter4 ,at great receptions1 large1 and apparently magnificent pearls are frequently seen1 which are really of inferior quality1 and yet1 owing to the absence of pure daylight1 they can easily be mistaken for perfect specimens by any one not especially familiar with pearls4 ,indeed1 if the royalties of ,europe should wear all the pearls belonging to the crown jewels at the same time1 in a palace or hall lighted with candles1 gas1 or even with some types of electric light1 they would frequently seem to have a quality which many of them do not and never did possess4 ,it is1 therefore1 essential for the buyer to use every precaution in reference to the light in which he examines his purchase4 ,and we may add that it is just as essential that he should know the dealer from whom he buys2 for1 sometimes1 after a few weeks or months1 cracks or blemishes develop that were not apparent at first1 more especially when the pearls have been 8improved0 for a prospective purchaser4 ,a test to ascertain the quality of pearls is quaintly expressed in a work published in #aggh1 as follows3 ,how to know good pearls4 ,to discover the hidden ,defects and ,faults of a ,pearl and to know whether she is speckled or broken or has any other imperfections1 the best way is to make trial of it by the ,reverberation of the ,sun-beams2 for by this means your eye will penetrate into the very ,centre of the ,pearl and discover the least defect it has2 you will then see whether it be pure1 or has any spots or not1 and consequently you may the better guess its value4#dae ,if you can cause a ray of sunlight or of electric light to fall on a pearl1 the light will penetrate it and show any specks1 inclosed blemishes or impurities4 ,this can probably best be done by wrapping about the pearl a dark cloth of velvet or other material and having the ray fall slantingly1 whereby the defects are much more clearly shown than if the ray be allowed to fall directly upon the gem4 ,a pearl necklace valued at #bjj1jjj1 shown at one of our recent great expositions1 was to all appearances a remarkably beautiful collection1 and it was only when the intending purchaser took them from their velvet bed and held them in his hands that he realized that there was not a perfect pearl in the entire collection4 ,it must have taken more than a week of study for the clever dealer to arrange them so that the best part1 sometimes the only good part of each pearl1 should be where the eye would fall upon it4 ,after they had been turned in the hands a few seconds1 not one perfect specimen was visible4 ,the demand for pearls has been so great1 and the enhancement of value so rapid1 that the greatest ingenuity has been employed in presenting the best part of the gems to view1 as well as in many other ways4 ,the result is that when pearls are to be used as borders or as a gallery on a comb or brooch1 they are pierced in such a way that only the best side shall be outward1 so that the general effect produced is that of a perfect row of pearls2 but a careful examination may show that two thirds or three fourths of them are irregular1 and bear abrasion marks1 indentations1 or other imperfections4 ,following the analogy of the well-known precious stones--the diamond1 the ruby1 the sapphire1 the emerald and those of less importance--the pearl is equally potent in creating great and permanent values for itself in catering to the human love of adornment2 and though these large values may be greatly in excess of the original price that it commanded in the native oriental market1 yet the increased valuation gives profitable livelihood to hundreds of thousands of persons4 ,these embrace the dealers who sell the original pearls in lots1 those who clean and treat them1 others who drill and string them1 and others again who handle them in setting jewelry of all kinds1 and also the large number of dealers throughout the entire world who sell either the jewelry or the unmounted pearls4 ,directly connected with the industry in localities where the fisheries are pursued are a sufficient number of persons to populate a city the size of ,boston1 and to these we may safely add an equal number as herein noted1 aggregating about #a1jjj1jjj people whose livelihood is directly dependent upon the production and traffic of the pearl industry1 and who for lack of it would be forced to seek some other employment4 ,brought thus to a concrete form1 one may readily grasp the important bearing which the pearl has in a comprehensive estimate of the complexity of the world's civilization as we know it to-day4 ,,xiv ,,treatment ,,and ,,care ,,of ,,pearls ,,xiv ,,treatment ,,and ,,care ,,of ,,pearls ,the pearl is at the height of its perfection when taken from the shell2 from that moment it never improves4 ,when it is drawn from the depths of the ocean by the hand of man and given to the charmed gaze of the world1 it is as complete and perfect in its way as the most beautiful work of art1 and1 whether as tiny as the point of a pin or as large as a marble1 it is always a perfect1 fully formed individual2 it is always in its maturity4 ,who found the first pearl8 ,when did he discover it1 and what were his emotions8 ,was it found by primitive man8 ,very likely it was discovered by chance in a mother-of-pearl shell cast up by the sea1 or perhaps in a mussel in a brook4 ,if this happened in an oriental country1 the native must have already seen many equally remarkable objects1 endowed with life1 while the pearl could charm him only by its luster and purity4 ,but1 besides the impression produced by its beauty1 it must have aroused in the soul of the discoverer the sensation of wonder which every new and lovely object excites when seen for the first time4 ,that primitive man appreciated the pearl is evidenced by the fact that it is found in the mounds and graves of the ,american continent1 from the ,state of ,ohio to ,peru in ,south ,america4 ,almost all pearls are in perfect condition for setting when they are found2 all that needs to be done is to rub them with a damp or moist cloth or with a powder of finely pulverized small or broken pearls1 and they are then ready for the succeeding processes4 ,if there are any blemishes1 these can be removed by peeling or 8faking10 although few fine pearls require any such treatment2 and then the gems may be drilled1 strung1 and set1 and all that is necessary for their preservation is due care and attention4 ,pearls are frequently injured in opening the shells or in removal of the outer layers around the true pearly nacre4 ,both the ,chinese and the ,sulu fishermen are very clever in the art of pearl peeling and pearl improving4 ,this method is called 8faking10 although it is a perfectly legitimate operation4 ,all it requires is a very sharp knife1 a set of files1 and a powder obtained by grinding pearls or pearl shells4 ,this powder is placed upon a buffer of leather or cloth to polish such parts of a layer as may not have been entirely removed4 ,the ,chinese are unusual adepts in pearl peeling and have been frequently known to sell as true pearls scales that they have removed1 after filling these scales or peelings with wax or shellac1 and strengthening them by cementing them on a piece of mother-of-pearl4 ,they are then set with the convex side up and the edges carefully covered so as to conceal the deception4 ,the ,chinese are also very expert in removing layers of mother-of-pearl from an encysted or buried pearl1 taking off layer after layer with the greatest care1 and with a delicacy of touch that enables them to realize the moment when the pearl itself has been reached1 rarely injuring the latter1 although the coating is almost as hard as the inclosed pearl4 ,peeling is employed to remove a protuberance or acid stain1 to smooth a surface broken by abrasion1 or to take off a dead spot produced by careless wearing of the pearls and allowing them to rub against one another4 ,there are many instances where1 by careful peeling1 a perfect layer and skin have been brought to light1 and where irregular or broken pearls1 or those with a blemish1 have been rendered much more valuable by a good peeler4 ,but in many other cases the pearl has not only been reduced in value1 but even rendered altogether worthless1 when it had a dead center or was pitted with clay or other impurities4 ,if a pearl has been injured by coming in contact with the acids frequently used in medicine1 the surface may become roughened2 or it may be scratched by being rubbed against a stone in case of a fall or other accident4 ,if the surface only is injured1 it can be restored to its original beauty with only a slight loss of weight by carefully peeling off the outer layers4 ,in skinning or peeling a pearl1 a magnifying glass1 or preferably a fixed lens1 such as is used by engravers1 is of great assistance1 and a sharp knife1 or1 better still1 the sharpened edge of a steel file1 is a very essential instrument4 ,gloves are often worn by the peeler so that no perspiration shall reach the pearl and cause it to slip in the hand while it is being manipulated1 and thus have a layer or more injured by the knife4 ,illustration3 ,drilling a pearl by means of the bow-drill ,illustration3 ,thin layers of pearl removed by peeling 7faking7 ,illustration3 ,examples of properly and poorly drilled pearls ,illustration3 ,side view of same pearls ,,pearl ,,drilling ,streeter mentions a very interesting incident in regard to a genuine black pearl4 ,this pearl1 set with diamonds1 was shown in a jeweler's window2 but after exposure in this way for some time to the sun's rays1 the brilliant black luster disappeared and gave place to a dull1 grayish hue4 ,when the pearl was removed from its setting1 it was seen that the part which had not been exposed to the light was of as good color as when first removed from the shell4 ,it was finally determined to skin off the outer layer1 an operation which was performed with so much success that the original brilliant black hue was fully restored1 proving that the action of the sunlight had only changed the color of the surface4 ,we may add that the pearl1 although it was shown in the sun1 may never have had a good 8skin0 or layer exposed2 or the layer which was not perfect may have been affected by an exudation of the wearer produced by illness or medicine4 ,when pearls are of a poor yellow or dull brown tint1 unscrupulous dealers sometimes intrust them to an operator who drills them almost entirely through1 cracks the skin slightly and impregnates them with a solution of nitrate of silver2 this affects the outer layers of the pearls1 and1 after its decomposition1 the metallic silver is deposited1 and they become absolutely black4 ,the effect is sometimes hastened by exposing them to the fumes of nitrate of silver4 ,these pearls are then rubbed up or slightly polished and may retain a good appearance for a number of years4 ,the upper layers1 however1 which have been injured by the chemicals used in the coloring1 often scale off1 and the poor and unattractive color beneath appears4 ,this is sometimes not detected until years after and when the dealer from whom they were purchased has been forgotten4 ,the breaks or cracks which have been made can readily be detected by means of a pocket lens1 if the observer is at all experienced4 ,in many cases the outer layer of the pearl has been colored a good black1 although scarcely any crack is visible4 ,frequently1 when a small knob or protuberance appears in the pearl1 or when it has adhered to another pearl or to the shell itself1 this protuberance is polished off1 and the pearl is drilled at this point4 ,this portion of the surface1 however carefully polished1 will never have the true orient1 but it is placed in the necklace in such a way that it is completely hidden4 ,often pearls become scratched through rough usage1 or by the knife used in opening the shells4 ,these are occasionally polished by means of pearl-powder1 or else the entire outer layer is removed1 the new skin beneath appearing absolutely bright and perfect4 ,it sometimes happens that a pearl will have a good luster1 but a slightly roughened skin4 ,this is at times polished down2 but an experienced eye easily detects that it has been tampered with4 ,yellowish pearls are sometimes bleached by means of strong bleaching substances such as chlorine or other powerful reagents1 which1 although they may whiten the pearl1 cause it to become very friable1 as the animal substance becomes more brittle4 ,pearls treated in this way frequently wear off1 layer by layer1 until fully one half of the pearl is worn out of the setting4 ,when pearls are stained yellowish from the exudations of the skin1 grease1 or other impurities1 they can be cleaned by putting them in moist caustic magnesia and allowing it to dry on them4 ,when this is removed1 the pearls will often be found much purer in color than before4 ,in various parts of the world certain dubious methods have been used for restoring the beauty of pearls which have grown dim4 ,in ,india they are rubbed in boiled rice4 ,some persons have even fed them to a chicken fastened in a coop2 after the lapse of an hour or two the chicken is killed1 and the pearls rescued from their temporary lodging-place1 where they have been somewhat restored by the digestive juices of the fowl4 ,some curious tests applied to pearls are given us in a ,hindu treatise on gems by ,buddhabhatta4 ,for instance1 we read3 8,if the purchaser conceives a doubt as to the genuineness of a pearl1 let him place it during one night in a mixture of water and oil with salt1 and heat it4 ,or let him wrap it in a dry cloth and rub it with grains of rice2 if it do not become discolored1 it should be regarded as genuine40#daf ,it is needless to state that these tests would be either useless or injurious4 ,if the reader is the owner of a pearl or of a pearl necklace and feels that the pearls need treatment1 any attempt to follow the directions given by many ancient writers would infallibly result in their injury or destruction4 ,pearl drilling is a most delicate operation4 ,it is necessary that the drill points should have the proper shape1--that is1 should not be too tapering1 but slightly blunt at the end1 and turning somewhat in a ,v-shape1--it is also important that the drill should be revolved with perfect regularity1 so as not to jar or jolt the pearl1 as this is likely to lead to the cracking of the pearl or to the breaking of the drill4 ,this latter happens not infrequently1 and is due either to the structure of the pearl1 the clogging of the drill1 or to encountering a hard grain of sand inclosed in the pearl4 ,should the drill break in the pearl1 it can best be removed by drilling from a point directly opposite1 and slowly forcing the broken drill outward4 ,this process requires great care in the regulation of the speed1 and great exactness of direction in order to meet the broken drill accurately4 ,pearl drilling was formerly a laborious process1 and it was scarcely possible for a driller to perforate more than from forty to fifty pearls per day by means of the bow-drill operated by hand4 ,now1 by the use of a modern machine1 #aejj pearls of average size can be drilled without any difficulty in the same time4 ,some of the most successful drilling of fine pearls is done by means of the bow- or fiddle-drill4 ,the arm of this is made either of steel or of wood1 with a strong cord stretched across it in the style of an archer's bow4 ,the drill is inserted in the end of a brass circular disk with a ,v-shaped groove on its edge1 to admit of the string being passed entirely around it like a pulley1 so that when the drill is placed on anything and held at the other side1 and the bow is moved up and down1 the wheel with the drill-end rotates rapidly4 ,if the pearl is not properly secured1 if the drill point is too irregular1 if it is not properly centered1 or if it is too rapidly rotated at the start1 one or more layers of the pearl are likely to be broken1 giving an irregular1 ragged appearance4 ,if1 again1 the drill is rotated too rapidly as it is leaving the other side of the pearl1 one or more layers are occasionally forced off1 and this in turn will produce a break on the pearl4 ,it happens not infrequently that pearls are broken away on the surfaces at both drill holes if the workman is careless4 ,as pearls have become more valuable1 only the most efficient workmen are employed in drilling them4 ,whereas formerly a drill hole would be half a millimeter in diameter1 at present it is much smaller1 and such drilling requires the greatest skill in manipulation4 ,the use of these very fine drill holes is due principally to the fact that pearls have become so valuable that the slightest loss1 even the fraction of a grain1 would amount to a considerable sum in a necklace of large pearls4 ,when a pearl has been perforated with a very fine drill hole1 the hole may be enlarged somewhat by using a slender copper wire1 the fineness of the drill hole itself1 charged with either diamond-dust1 emery1 or sand4 ,when the wire thus charged is drawn in and out1 the drill hole can be enlarged to any desired size4 ,a large pearl is held in the hand or secured in a wooden block1 or else it is held in a small pair of forceps with a rounded1 cup-shaped receptacle at the end1 which is usually lined with chamois leather and is pierced with a hole through the center4 ,this hole serves as a guide for the drill1 directing it while the pearl is being perforated4 ,adjustable cups or forceps with cup-like ends of every size are necessary1 according to the size of the pearl2 and in order that it may be properly seen1 it is requisite that the pearl should always be larger than the cup in which it is placed4 ,the poorest part or spot is selected to form the beginning of the drill hole4 ,the pearl is placed in a pair of calipers with a circular disk1 one end of the caliper being placed on the spot to be pierced1 the other end naturally touching exactly opposite1 the pearl absolutely centering it4 ,as these caliper ends have been rubbed with either rouge1 lampblack1 or some colored substance that will readily rub off1 these two spots of color remain on the pearl and serve as a guide for the driller4 ,the drill end is then placed on the pearl1 and the bow moved up and down2 and so rapid is this work that five pearls weighing fifteen grains each can be drilled with the greatest care in less than one hour's time4 ,of small pearls1 weighing about one grain1 as many as fifty have been drilled in less than one hour by the hand-drill method4 ,many of the thinnest and best drills are made out of thin steel needles4 ,these are ground flat by means of a small carborundum wheel1 so as to have two flat sides4 ,they are then thin pointed1 and with a ,v-shaped edge4 ,these prevent the drill from clogging up1 allowing the fine dust to pass upward and outward readily1 and the hard steel almost invariably penetrates the central core of the pearl1 no matter how hard or tough this may be4 ,the needle-drill is then secured in a small chuck attached to the brass revolving wheel4 ,some recommend lubricating a drill with milk when it is employed for piercing a pearl1 but a well-made drill1 that allows the dust to escape as it is formed1 does not require this treatment4 ,the drill should always be made to revolve quite slowly so that no unnecessary heat may be generated by friction to injure the color of the pearl and also to avoid the possibility of the drill becoming clogged by the pearl-dust4 ,by means of centering calipers or markers1 the driller1 especially in the drilling of a large pearl1 will generally drill first from one end1 and then reverse the pearl and drill from the other end1 meeting absolutely in the center4 ,this prevents the breaking of the outer layer of the pearl4 ,a skilful workman can1 by turning the pearl1 so operate the calipers that the true center can be obtained1 even if the pearl is not absolutely round1 and the drill holes so centered that the irregularity of the pearl is less apparent4 ,when the pearl has been half drilled through from one side1 considerable caution is necessary in drilling from the other1 that when the two drill holes are about meeting the drill be not revolved too rapidly1 as the clogging is likely to crack the pearl or break the drill4 ,if the pearl is only to be drilled one fourth or one half through1 the depth can always be gaged by watching the drill-end1 first1 by measuring the drill-end itself1 and1 secondly1 by noting to what part of it pearl-powder adheres4 ,pearls are more easily manipulated than any other gems4 ,they are also more easily damaged4 ,still1 when properly treated by the workman1 there is no material that offers him more satisfactory results than the pearl1 if good judgment be used4 ,drillers occasionally find that when the drill reaches the center of the pearl1 there is a sharp click1 the pearl often breaking at this point4 ,this is evidently due to the fact that a harder kernel may exist in the center1 such as a tiny grain of sand1 which can turn the drill point2 or else the resistance may cause the tiny drill to break4 ,when a pearl is cracked by a blow or by some accident1 it is customary to drill it at the end of the largest crack2 this method prevents the crack from extending in that direction4 ,these fissures are sometimes partly filled by means of a solution1 and may not be visible at the time when the pearl is bought1 but they are liable to appear later4 ,to illustrate the difference in the care used in drilling1 we have selected eight pearls from a paper of poor ones1 and reproduce two views of them1 one to show the irregularity of the pearls1 and the other to show the varying size of the drill holes4 ,those on the left were drilled by an artist1 while those on the right show the work of an inexperienced driller4 ,at present pendant pearls are never drilled entirely through1 and rarely more than half way4 ,but in the ,orient1 and even in ,europe from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century1 they were often entirely pierced2 even pear-shaped pearls were entirely drilled through1 with a metal edge projected below for safety4 ,frequently old pearls1 and more especially oriental pearls1 have been entirely drilled through1 as are often large oriental rubies1 diamonds1 and sapphires4 ,when these are set1 the holes are either plugged with pearl shell and polished smooth1 or a tiny ruby or diamond is set in a metal rim fitting entirely into the drill hole or only slightly projecting4 ,this is well instanced in the portrait of ,marguerite of ,france 7#aeec-afae71 in which the artist ,delpech shows all the pear-shaped pearls worn by the ,french queen entirely pierced4 ,frequently1 where pearls have been drilled by oriental workmen1 the drill holes are exceedingly large1 five or six times the width of the silk string2 in fact often from one to two millimeters in diameter4 ,in the search to supply the great demand1 many oriental pearls have been secured which formerly were strung to an oriental jewel by means of a thick wire2 it is necessary to close this aperture1 as the pearl would lie unevenly on the string4 ,this is done by introducing a mother-of-pearl plug1 through which a new drill hole is made4 ,unless the pearls are unstrung1 this is rarely visible2 but not infrequently the plug drops out4 ,in other cases the pearl has been drilled not only from end to end1 but also from the side1 and this third hole is filled with a plug of mother-of-pearl and polished over so as to hide the blemish from the buyer4 ,it is also no uncommon thing for a purchaser to find1 after a year1 that cracks begin to develop where none apparently existed at the time of his purchase1 or they were so minute as to be considered of no consequence4 ,one of the earliest references to drilling pearls was made by ,rugerus1 a monk who lived in the eleventh century4 ,he says3 ,pearls are found in the sea-shell and shells of other waters2 these are perforated with a fine steeled instrument which is fixed in wood1 having a small wheel of lead1 also another wood in which it may be turned1 to which a strap must be placed by which it may be revolved4 ,but should it be necessary that the aperture of any pearl be made larger1 a wire may be placed in the opening with a little fine sand1 one end of which may be held in the teeth1 the other in the left hand1 and by the right the pearl is conducted upwards and downwards1 and in the meantime sand is applied1 that the apertures may become wider4 ,sea-shells are also cut into pieces and are filed as pearls1 sufficiently useful upon gold1 and they are polished as above4#dag ,in 8,the ,toy ,cart10 a ,hindu drama by ,sudrake1 who lived about the beginning of the ,christian era1 there is a description of a jeweler's workshop attached to the house of a courtezan4 ,he says3 8,some set rubies in gold1 some string gold beads on colored thread1 some string pearls1 some grind lapis lazuli1 some cut shells and some grind and pierce coral40#dah ,the ,chinese and ,korean method of drilling pearls differs materially from that of the ,occident4 ,a pear-shaped pearl is frequently drilled horizontally and secured by wire or silk1 and not drilled perpendicularly1 as with us1 to have a metal wire or peg fastened into it4 ,if the orientals drill a pearl perpendicularly1 the hole is generally carried entirely through it1 and a gold knot1 which is used as a bead1 is placed at the lower end1 and sometimes a tiny gem is set in this peg1 or else the pearl is secured either by some projection below1 or by means of a bit of enamel1 or some other object may be attached to the gold or wire below it4 ,button pearls1 especially those of the abalone1 are drilled horizontally through the base and secured to the ornament1 or to the silk or other material on which they are sewed1 by means of a thread or wire2 or else they may be drilled from below by means of two sloping holes forming a ,v1 the thread or wire being passed upward until it strikes the angle1 and then passed outward again through the other branch of the hole4 ,many fine1 round1 and pear-shaped pearls of oriental origin may be seen with this end closed either with a speck of pearl1 a diamond1 or a ruby4 ,a most interesting and careful description of the methods of drilling pearls was given by ,james ,cordiner in his valuable volume1 8,a ,description of ,ceylon10 published in ,london in #ahjg1 pages #fd-ff4 ,illustration3 ,scraping ends of silk threads for stringing pearl necklace ,illustration3 ,stringing a pearl collar in sections2 cleaning and reaming out a pearl ,illustration3 ,sliding a pearl along the string in pearl stringing ,illustration3 ,tying a knot between pearls in pearl stringing ,,pearl ,,stringing ,the next operation which claims attention is the drilling of the pearls4 ,i neglected to inspect this part of the business2 but have been informed that much admiration is excited1 both by the dexterity of the artist1 and the rude simplicity of the machinery which he employs4 ,a block of wood1 of the form of an inverted cone1 is raised upon three feet about twelve inches from the ground4 ,small holes or pits of various sizes are cut in the upper flat surface1 for the reception of the pearls4 ,the driller sits on his haunches close to this machine1 which is called a vadeagrum4 ,the pearls are driven steady into their sockets by a piece of iron with flat sides1 about one inch and a half in length4 ,a well tempered needle is fixed in a reed five inches long1 with an iron point at the other end1 formed to play in the socket of a cocoanut shell1 which presses on the forehead of the driller4 ,a bow is formed of a piece of bamboo and a string4 ,the workman brings his right knee in a line with the vadeagrum1 and places on it a small cup1 formed of part of a cocoanut shell1 which is filled with water to moderate the heat of friction4 ,he bends his head over the machine1 and applying the point of the needle to a pearl sunk in one of the pits1 drills with great facility1 every now and then dexterously dipping the little finger of his right hand in the water1 and applying it to the needle1 without impeding the operation4 ,in this manner he bores a pearl in the space of two or three minutes2 and in the course of a day perforates three hundred small or six hundred large pearls4 ,the needle is frequently sharpened with oil on a stone slab1 and sometimes1 before the operation is performed1 is heated in the flame of a lamp4 ,the large pearls are generally drilled first1 in order to bring the hand in to work with more ease on those of a smaller size2 and pearls less than a grain of mustard-seed are pierced with little difficulty4 ,after the pearls have been drilled1 they must be immediately washed in salt and water1 to prevent the stains which would otherwise be occasioned by the perforating instrument4 ,a quaint description of pearl drilling was given by ,anselmus de ,boot in #afji4dai ,since all are not aware of the manner in which pearls are perforated1 ,i wish here to give an account of the method4 ,the handle4 ,a1 is held with the left hand1 and then the handle1 ,b1 of the bow is pushed back and forth with the right hand1 so that there is a reciprocal movement of the lance ,,ac4 ,the extreme end1 ,c1 has a needle1 not so sharp as to come to a point1 but slightly blunted4 ,the needle is placed on the pearl which is to be perforated4 ,if the pearls are too small to be held1 they are fastened in the case1 ,d1 with a small hammer of soft wood1 lest they should slip4 ,the board is inclosed on every side by strips of wood so that the water which comes from the pearls shall not flow off4 ,the bow being moved1 the needle penetrates and pierces the pearl and it is not corroded by the water4 ,a mythical story1 but a pleasant one1 is told of a great pearl collector who had owned a wonderful pear-shaped pearl for many years and had absolutely failed to find any match for it4 ,after years of fruitless search he was at last rewarded by finding an absolutely perfect mate4 ,he took this to his favorite jeweler in one of the great capitals of ,europe1 and ordered the new gem to be pierced to match the other so that both could be set4 ,the jeweler called a small ,german boy from an adjoining workshop1 simply saying1 8,jakey1 drill this pearl to match the other40 ,the collector was dumfounded that no caution should be given to the boy when so important a piece of work was intrusted to his care4 ,scarcely had the boy left the room when the collector inquired of the jeweler1 almost in consternation1 8,how can you trust so valuable a pearl to so small a boy without a word of caution80 ,to this the dealer replied3 8,jakey is the most careful pearl driller ,i have ever known4 ,i know that there will be no failure in the drilling4 ,i have never cautioned him about such work4 ,he never has drilled a pearl wrong4 ,had ,i warned him of the value of the gem or told him how important a piece of work he was doing1 he probably would have become nervous and1 as a result1 your pearl would have been cracked40 ,the conversation had scarcely been completed before ,jakey returned with the pearl as beautifully drilled as the original one which it matched4 ,in the ,orient and elsewhere1 when it is considered desirable to mount a pearl so that it shall not turn1 especially when only one part of the pearl is perfect and that is to remain outside1 the drill hole is sometimes made square1 that is to say1 drilled round and then reamed out with a small saw until it becomes square1 when a square wire is inserted2 or else the pearl is first drilled with a tiny round hole and this is then reamed out until it is triangular1 when a triangular wire is introduced4 ,this method is sometimes used for studs or ring-settings4 ,in setting pearls with points or claws on the wire or band of a ring1 the pearls are drilled only half way through4 ,a gold pin is then inserted1 and sometimes a thread is cut into the pearl itself2 it is secured by means of gum mastic or some other strong gum4 ,occasionally1 to add greater strength1 a side pin is put in1 so that the pearl is drilled with two bits of metal1 which penetrate the one side in a perfectly straight line and the other at an angle of about twenty-five or thirty degrees 7this is called side-pegging74 ,this gives more strength and firmness to the pearl itself1 and prevents it from twisting or twining and becoming loose4 ,sometimes the pearl hole is drilled so that the opening is that of a screw-thread1 in order to hold it to the earring1 the stud1 or the ring4 ,the gold pin which is inserted to attach the pearl to the ring or stud has a screw-thread also1 and the peg or pin is screwed on as well as secured4 ,an ingenious method1 termed 8keying10 for securing the peg in pearls to be set on rings or studs1 consists in drilling a hole half through the pearl and then two smaller holes or grooves on each side of the first4 ,cutting tools of a ,t-shape are now introduced into the aperture and worked about until the pearl is undercut all around1 so that when a peg with a cross-piece is inserted1 the latter can be turned within the pearl until it sets at right angles with the widest part of the aperture4 ,in this way the peg is permanently secured and cannot slip out4 ,the fact that in recent years more pearls have appeared in necklaces that are irregularly bored1 that the bore holes are so large that they are plugged with mother-of-pearl1 or that one meets with pearls in which a plug has been placed in the side immediately in the center between the two drill holes1 is due to the fact that the great demand has resulted in the destruction of many oriental ornaments in which the pearls were drilled in various ways1 as well as in the destruction of the different ,magyar and other semi-official jewels of eastern ,europe4 ,the most primitive known drills were the flint drills1 made by the ,north ,american ,indians by chipping chert or flint-like minerals to a fine point4 ,with these rude instruments a large1 irregular hole was made1 which generally measured several times the diameter of the fine drill hole made by a modern pearl driller with an improved drill4 ,the ,indians are also said to have used hot copper drills for boring holes4 ,the earliest1 and still a very general and perhaps the best way of drilling pearls1 is by means of the bow- or fiddle-drill4 ,this method has been used in a more or less perfected form by all the aboriginal peoples of the ,new ,world from ,iceland to ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,but as none of these peoples were familiar with fine1 hard steel1 they scarcely ever succeeded in making drill holes as fine as those that can be produced by the use of tempered steel4 ,by the latter means1 pearls half an inch in diameter are often drilled entirely through with an aperture no larger than a thin bit of straw4 ,the largest and finest pearls are frequently drilled with the smallest holes1 as the slightest loss in weight means a diminution in value4 ,then1 too1 a pearl with a small drill hole is not so liable to shift on the string1 and thus is less likely to cut the silk thread which holds the pearls together4 ,it would be difficult to enumerate all the tricks to which some jewelers now resort in order to utilize every fragment of a pearl they can lay their hands on4 ,some of them are wonderfully clever at reconstruction1 but to the woman who loves pearls1 nothing can take the place of the soft1 beautiful1 round gem1 with its natural surface4 ,in sorting pearls for the smaller necklaces1 it is customary to open up a number of dozen bunches of the ,east ,indian pearls as they are sent from the ,east1 strung1 the ends fastened together in bunches1 and then sealed4 ,these pearls are placed on a table and are first arranged according to color and luster on the sorting board4 ,they are then grouped according to size and graduation1 the greatest care being exercised in the selection for color1 luster1 and form4 ,in this way ten necklaces may be re-strung into ten others1 the necklaces probably being improved as regards selection1 or else better arranged for the uses to which the jeweler wishes to put them4 ,in the case of the larger necklaces1 it frequently requires many years of selection and arrangement before one becomes perfect enough to pass the criticism or suit the fancy of the jeweler4 ,we have no record as to when the first pearl necklace was strung1 nor have we a definite record of the first use of silk for stringing a necklace4 ,the earliest illustration that we have been able to obtain of the use of pearls in the form of a necklace is the one from ,susa1 in which the pearls were secured with gold4 ,a ,syrian necklace1 dating about one or two centuries before ,christ1 was strung by means of a bronze wire4 ,we will endeavor to give a few facts on the interesting process of preparing pearls for wearing4 ,pearl stringing is an art1 easy as the process may seem1 and it is interesting to note the precision1 care1 and delicacy with which the pearl stringer performs his task4 ,the first step is to grade the pearls according to their size and color1 so that they may produce the best possible effect4 ,the largest and finest pearl is placed in the center2 alongside of this1 on each side1 are laid the two pearls next in size which are the most nearly alike in form and hue2 and so on to the end of the necklace4 ,this grouping requires both experience and judgment1 and is of great importance1 since the value of the pearls is often considerably enhanced by a proper arrangement4 ,a skilful stringer is able to grade them so cleverly that only a trifling difference will be found in the weight of the two halves of a necklace4 ,the stringing process consists in securing the end pearl by a knot to the diamond1 pearl1 or other clasp which may be used4 ,when a necklace is being strung1 the thread is passed through the metal eye1 or pearl1 or other object that serves as a clasp4 ,it is then tied with one knot1 passed through the next pearl1 and knotted between that and the second pearl1 and sometimes between the second and the third1 thus making the joint doubly secure4 ,the other pearls are then strung in their order1 a knot being placed after each fifth1 fourth1 third1 or second pearl1 or1 should there not be enough to give a proper length to the necklace1 between each single pearl4 ,the deftness with which the knot is tied so as not to hold the pearl too tightly1 and risk the breaking of the thread1 and the precision with which forty1 fifty1 and even sometimes several hundred knots are made on a single string1 is a pleasing operation to witness1 and requires the greatest care and nicety of touch4 ,if knots are made frequently between the pearls1 there is less danger of losing them should the thread break1 as only one or two can fall off2 sometimes1 indeed1 when the drill holes are very small1 the silk thread1 waxed or unwaxed1 fits so closely that the pearl does not become detached even when the thread breaks4 ,the thread used is invariably of silk of the highest standard of purity1 strength1 and texture1 undyed1 and not containing any chemicals4 ,two or three of these threads are held together1 then with a knife the edges are very carefully scraped till the combined material of the three threads is less than the thickness of one4 ,some use a needle to scrape or fray to a sharp point4 ,then this point is stiffened by means of 8white glue10 the best material of this kind being pure gum arabic dissolved in water4 ,a little of this is rubbed on the pointed threads4 ,it stiffens in a moment1 then the pearls are passed on1 one after the other4 ,if the pearls to be strung are already on a necklace1 this process is simplified by the unknotting of the end of the necklace to be re-strung2 two or three of the pearls are slid on to the new string1 the ends or points of the new necklace thread are twisted together with the old ends and the pearls are simply transferred4 ,frequently the holes have been drilled so as to leave the rims rather sharp2 in this way the thread may be frayed out or even cut4 ,this sharp edge can easily be removed by careful reaming4 ,silk of pure quality is the best material known for stringing pearls4 ,a series of experiments were made with every available fiber of sufficient durability from every quarter of the globe1 but silk alone was found to possess the strength1 the flexibility1 and the smoothness necessary to permit a very fine set of threads to pass through an opening as small as the drill hole of a pearl4 ,in the case of a long chain or sautoire1 more than three hundred pearls will be strung on a single row1 one of over eighty inches in length containing over three hundred pearls1 and it requires a degree of neatness and patience that few possess to do this in exactly the right way1 so that the thread may not be cut1 that the pearls may not be too tightly strung1 and that the ends shall be carefully attached at the clasp1 so that the necklace may hang well and there may be no danger of the ends breaking loose4 ,according to the frequency with which it is worn1 a necklace should be re-strung every three1 six1 or twelve months4 ,the proper time for re-stringing can generally be determined by the stretching of the thread so that it can be seen either between the pearls or at either end1 giving the impression that one or more pearls are missing4 ,a newly strung necklace is taut4 ,where a collar is from thirteen to fourteen inches in length1 there are frequently twenty-three rows of pearls1 kept straight by four jeweled bars1 and sometimes from ten to twenty-five pearls in a section between a bar4 ,this would mean that there are more than two thousand pearls in a collar of small pearls4 ,when one considers that at each bar and at the catch and clasp of the collar it is necessary to make a knotting1 it is not surprising that it requires from three to four days' time of a very expert pearl stringer to string or re-string such a pearl collar4 ,a splendid example of such a twenty-three-row collar is that belonging to ,seora ,diaz1 wife of the ,president of the ,republic of ,mexico4#dbj ,frequent stringing may sometimes serve as a protection for pearls1 as1 if wax is used1 the drill hole is likely to become coated with wax from the thread1 and this prevents the absorption by the pearl of perspiration or moisture of any kind through the thread4 ,indeed1 the thread itself1 when waxed1 does not readily absorb moisture1 and as the interior of the pearl also becomes waxed1 this serves to protect it from the absorption of humidity of any kind4 ,in making pearl necklets or muff-chains1 a piece of gold wire of the proper strength and pliability is taken4 ,this wire is passed through the hole of the pearl and then cleverly bent into a loop on each side and firmly soldered4 ,it is important that the wire should be very slightly smaller than the dimension of the hole in the pearl so that it may fit closely4 ,sometimes1 instead of this method1 a ring is soldered to one end of the wire before this is passed through the pearl1 the other end being then secured in the manner described above4 ,still another method is occasionally employed2 in this a piece of the wire is bent into a ring1 but not quite closed1 the aperture being just large enough to admit the wire that has traversed the pearl2 in this way the wire can be introduced into the opening in the ring1 which grips it tightly1 and is then soldered to it4 ,in many cases two small rings are strung on the wire on each side of the pearl before the loops are made1 so that they interpose between the latter and the pearl itself4 ,this serves to protect the sides of the pearl1 as there is otherwise some danger that the hole may become chipped or ragged2 the same result can be obtained if small caps1 closely fitting the pearl1 are used instead of the rings4 ,this is1 however1 only possible when the pearl is quite round1 and in this case the effect produced is often very attractive4 ,illustration3 ,,necklace ,,of ,,seed-,,pearls4 ,,united ,,states4 ,,civil ,,war ,,period4 ,many of the pearls set as rings and studs are no longer set in points1 but are set upon a peg1 or are 8pegged10 as it is termed4 ,setting a pearl in claws generally hides more than one half of the entire sphere4 ,but if the pearl is not properly secured upon the peg1 it will occasionally fall off4 ,however1 this can be obviated to a great extent by attaching the pearl to a double peg which keeps it from turning and also prevents its falling off4 ,pearls have occasionally been damaged with the shellac used1 or when the gold peg on which the pearl is placed was too hot4 ,in mounting very small pearls as link chains so as to form a continuous pearly rope without any break in the way of gold links1 occasionally ,v-shaped cavities are drilled into each end of the pearl1 and the setting itself is hidden in this ,v-shaped cavity4 ,this is only done where the pearls are small and not of great value4 ,the jeweler1 in setting pearls1 must use the greatest possible care1 first1 in cutting away the settings1 as they are fastened to the pearl1 not to scratch or mar it2 and then1 when he files the settings1 not to allow the file to touch the pearl1 as both the steel tool and the file would injure it4 ,he must particularly avoid placing the pearl too close to a diamond1 ruby1 or other precious stone2 for1 even if the pearl only slightly touches the gem against which it is set1 a knock of the hand may mar the pearl's surface4 ,more especially1 as pearls are set at present1 8pegged0 and without points1 it is of the greatest importance that they be worn in such a way that they may not touch the unexposed edges of any precious stones1 as this also would injure the pearls4 ,for lack of this precaution fine pearls have frequently been harmed4 ,a large jewelry firm has under consideration the following pearl order3 ,any workman who in any way mutilates a pearl by filing1 imperfect drilling or shaping1 or in any way affects the shape of a pearl1 without the authority of the foreman1 will be called upon to pay for the same4 ,as pearls are natural objects1 any change of the same to fit the setting1 or for attachment to any gold object1 mutilates the gem and greatly affects its value4 ,if belonging to a customer1 this frequently means its replacement1 often at a great cost to the jeweler4 ,pearl 8blisters0 frequently have the appearance of being empty2 they are generally filled with a fluid1 either water or the product of animal and vegetable decomposition4 ,these contents usually emit a peculiar and unpleasant odor4 ,as the exterior of the inclosure gradually wears away and disappears1 the contents of the blister are slowly absorbed by the shell itself1 and any organic or insoluble substances are deposited on its inner surface4 ,thus1 when a shell shows any protuberance on this surface1 the peeler will cut or scrape away a portion of the decaying shell behind the spot4 ,should he discover the hole of a borer1 he lays the shell aside2 but if he finds it to be perfect at this spot1 it is evident that the inclusion came from within1 and frequently it turns out to be an included pearl4 ,this is removed by breaking the shell1 or by cutting around the protuberance very near to its edge1 and then breaking away the shell4 ,the pearl is often visible1 and layer after layer of the covering mass is removed with the greatest care by the peeler1 who is rewarded by bringing to light pearls of various qualities1 and frequently those of great value4 ,an instance in which1 by opening a pearl blister1 the speculator received a good reward is given by ,streeter1 who says3 8,the ,harriet had the good luck to find1 in #ahhb1 a pearl #ajc grains in weight1 which was inclosed in a huge blister4 ,it was a fine bouton1 of splendid color in the upper portion1 but a trifle chalky below4 ,this was attributed to the admission of salt water into the shell through a hole made by a borer which happened to pierce the shell just where the pearl lay1 and had penetrated the latter for almost a quarter of an inch40 ,sometimes pearl masses are hollow4 ,barbot#dba mentions that a ,french merchant residing in ,mexico1 having bought one of these pieces from a fisherman at a low price1 resolved to satisfy his curiosity by finding out what was inside4 ,he split it in two parts and was agreeably surprised to find a pearl weighing #ad carats 7#eg grains71 so round1 of such good water1 and such fine orient1 that he sold it in ,paris for nearly #ejjj francs 7#ajjj7 in #ahej4 ,seed-pearl work was introduced into the ,united ,states1 about seventy years ago1 by ,henry ,dubosq1 who had studied the methods employed in ,europe and has been succeeded in this industry by his son1 ,augustus ,dubosq4 ,the father bought a large quantity of ,english seed-pearl jewelry1 brought it to this country1 and hired a number of girls to take it apart carefully and re-string it with white horsehair1 to learn how it was made4 ,with no more teaching1 he established an industry that has already lasted for three score and ten years4 ,seed-pearl jewelry was most in vogue from the year #ahdj to #ahfj4 ,it was generally sold in sets1 in a case consisting of a collar1 two bracelets1 two earrings1 a small brooch1 and a large spray or corsage ornament4 ,if the object was almost round1 occasionally there was a larger central pearl1 weighing from one to five grains1 usually a button pearl2 or1 if the ornament was elongated1 there were generally three larger pearls4 ,these sometimes possessed a fairly good luster4 ,seed-pearl jewelry was at one time so popular1 and the values were so small in this country1 that a #ajjj seed-pearl set formed a principal feature of the ,tiffany exhibit at the ,international ,exposition held at the ,crystal ,palace1 ,new ,york1 in #ahee4 ,illustration3 ,,mother-,,of-,,pearl ,,shell ,,from ,,tahiti ,illustration of a mother-of-pearl shell1 showing where a blister has been cut out4 ,in this instance a large pear-shaped pearly blister appeared almost in the center of the shell4 ,a dealer removed this by means of a saw1 and was surprised to find that the mother-of-pearl1 instead of remaining intact1 parted in two pieces4 ,between these two pieces was a mass of green and white calcareous matter4 ,the two upper figures show the pearly side and the outside of the shell whence the blister was cut4 ,the figures below show the inside and outside of each half of the blister and the earthy matter inclosed4 ,a is the pearl sawn from the shell4 ,b is the piece of pearl that parted from the back of this pearly mass4 ,c and ,f are two views of the included calcareous matter4 ,d is the reverse of ,a1 showing the cavity4 ,e is the reverse of ,b2 originally ,a rested on ,b4 ,there was no indication of any hollow space1 or that the mass was not perfect4 ,seed-pearl tiaras sell for from #ge to #bjj or #cjj each4 ,the work is almost entirely done by girls1 either ,german or of ,german origin4 ,as labor is higher and pearls have advanced in price1 none of the old work could now be duplicated for the amount it cost twenty or thirty years ago4 ,the stringing of the pearls on the ,english scroll means probably twelve hours of continuous work4 ,an efficient pearl worker receives #c4ej a day1 which consists of not more than eight hours1 as1 owing to the very trying character of the work1 clear daylight is necessary to see the holes in the small pearls and in the mother-of-pearl shell4 ,the foundation of all seed-pearl work is mother-of-pearl4 ,the shell is brought in thin plates1 measuring from one and one half to two and one half inches square4 ,one of the most popular and attractive patterns is the ,english scroll4 ,if a design is to be repeated1 a brass figure is made4 ,for the fabrication of a brooch1 for instance1 a design is first made by drawing on a paper or cardboard2 then a brass plate or pattern is cut out1 leaving spaces wherever there are to be no pearls4 ,after this a slab of stock mother-of-pearl1 nearest the size of the brass plate1 is selected1 and is sawn out1 using the brass plate as a guide for the outlines4 ,the mother-of-pearl is then pierced wherever a pearl is to be secured1 and the pearls for its embellishment are chosen1 and are strung onto the mother-of-pearl outlines with a special horsehair thread4 ,all the work that remains for the jeweler is the addition of a pin or catch on the back4 ,a representation is given of the designs1 the brass plate1 the mother-of-pearl1 the horsehair1 the pearls1 and the completed brooch made by this model4 ,fine horsehair is used for stringing seed-pearls1 because the holes drilled in them are usually too small to admit of the use of silk1 and it is very important that what is known as pulled hair1 taken from a living horse1 should be used1 as otherwise the hair is too brittle4 ,this hair1 in bunches of from eight to fourteen inches in length1 is sold at an average price of #a4ej a pound1 and frequently only one ounce is selected for use from the entire pound4 ,all the pearls used by the seed-pearl workers are purchased in strings and bunches2 the finest are those known as the ,chinese seed-pearls2 they are drilled and strung in bunches1 weighing three ounces1 and are worth #dj an ounce4 ,they are drilled with so fine an aperture that silk will not pass through the pearl1 and only horsehair can be used4 ,the ,indian ,madras pearls1 however1 have a larger drill hole and can be strung with silk2 they are at present worth from eight to fifteen cents a grain1 that is1 #dh to #ij per ounce4 ,immense quantities of these very minute pearls are also used in bunches or strings1 sometimes as many as twenty or thirty strings being grouped together and either bound straight or else twisted into veritable ropes of pearls4 ,seed-pearls are sold by the ounce1 a single ounce frequently containing as many as #ijjj1--that is1 fifteen pearls to the pearl grain or sixty to the carat1--selling for from #dh to #fj an ounce4 ,naturally1 some of these pearls are even smaller than this1 but the average is maintained by those that are a little larger4 ,pearls as small as #ajj to a diamond carat are drilled and used in seed-pearl work4 ,diamonds1 rubies1 and even sapphires1 however1 are cut in brilliant form when they are as small as #bej to #cjj to the carat1 or #de1jjj to the ounce4 ,the price of these small pearls1 however1 is only from eight to fifteen cents per carat1 whereas diamonds of this size are worth from #bjj to #cjj1 their value being three times that of those weighing one sixteenth to one eighth carat each4 ,this is due to the fact that the labor expended in cutting the smaller diamonds is much greater than that bestowed upon the pearls1 which simply require drilling and not cutting4 8,half-pearl10 as we have mentioned1 is the name given to such pearls as are round and spherically domed and are either somewhat flat or almost the shape of one half of a whole pearl of the same diameter4 ,they are produced in two ways3 some are cut away as hemispheres from the inner surface of the shell of the pearl-mussel1 but more usually they are the better portions of defective whole pearls which are sawn or split by hand into two 8halves0 with a minute saw1 the defective part being rejected altogether or classified as inferior half-pearl1 while the better half is classified as a ,i or ,,ii quality half-pearl4 ,frequently a fine specimen is obtained from an elongated pearl1 and sometimes two1 three1 or even four half-pearls are secured from the various bright parts of a round pearl4 ,in splitting half-pearls1 the pearl to be operated upon is held by hand in a kind of grooved vice or pincers and sawn through with a very fine saw2 this process is at once simple1 rapid1 and of insignificant cost4 ,only pearls which cannot be cut are filed4 ,in this process the poorer side of the pearl in question is laid upon the file1 and the operator takes a piece of ordinary hard wood1 so formed that he can grasp it firmly in his hand1 presses it down upon the pearl1 and rubs the latter on the file1 removing all but the good side4 ,in this way a half-pearl is produced4 ,the smaller half-pearls are from 4#e to 4#ge millimeters in diameter1 and an ordinary ounce of half-pearl material will number #ah1jjj4 ,of the manufactured half-pearls there are1 on an average1 #bj1ebh to an ounce4 ,the half-pearl industry is largely carried on in ,idar1 on the ,nahe ,river1 and in ,oberstein1 in the ,duchy of ,oldenburg1 ,germany4 ,the pearls are usually purchased from ,london or ,paris houses in lots valued up to #ab1jjj or more1 although some of the firms buy directly from ,india4 ,in ,idar about one hundred people are employed in this industry4 ,frequently it is pursued m the home of the manufacturer1 who may employ from one to a dozen or more workers4 ,these generally include a sorter or arranger1 and a marker to indicate the part of the pearl which should be sawn off4 ,there is also a trimmer or one who finally adjusts the pearls4 ,an unusually clever bit of deception was practised by an ,american pearl fisher who had found two pearl blisters of almost identical size4 ,both of these blisters were hollow1 and were alike in form4 ,the pearl dealer very cleverly polished down both sides1 rounded off the edges1 cemented the two backs together1 and except for a tiny edge they had all the appearance of a drop pearl that was fairly perfect on both sides4 ,it required but a little heating to separate the parts and show the deception4 ,in setting half-pearls1 they are generally selected from large lots with great care as to their being of uniform size4 ,a circular place for the setting is often drilled with a steel drill1 either for several or for a single one4 ,the half-pearl is frequently placed on one or more tiny disks of paper1 to give it the exact height in the setting1 and the edge of gold is rubbed up against the pearl1 which is thus secured in its place2 or else tiny edges of gold are left projecting between each pearl4 ,these are pressed down after the pearl is in place4 ,this process requires great delicacy and skill and is frequently employed in the decoration of pearl lockets and watches4 ,in some of the cheaper work1 the half-pearls are cemented into the shallow disks that were drilled for them1 but frequently they are secured by metal points skilfully raised out of the disks in which the pearls are set1 and then pressed down to hold the latter in place4 ,although apparently frailly set1 it is surprising that half-pearl ornaments have been owned for more than a century1 scarcely a pearl dropping out2 and even if one or two pearls should be lost from the piece of jewelry1 the expense of replacing them is not very great4 ,they are often not as safely set when they are mounted with diamonds1 rubies1 or other stones1 more especially in rounded rings or bracelets4 ,in drilling gold for the setting of half-pearls1 where the hole must not be carried right through the metal1 a so-called 8pearl drill0 is used4 ,this is designed to cut a hole with a flat base in comparatively thin layers of metal without disfiguring the opposite side1 a task that can easily be accomplished if care be taken not to drill deeper than is strictly necessary for the safe adjustment of the pearl4 ,for the construction of this drill a piece of round steel wire of suitable size is chosen2 this is hammered flat at one end and then filed away at each side1 leaving a small spike standing in the center1 which projects a little beyond the cutting edges and acts as a pivot on which the drill revolves4 ,the steel on both sides of this spike is filed down to a fine edge1 care being taken to preserve the horizontal line1 so that when the spike is embedded in the metal both cutting edges come into play simultaneously4 ,if the drill is in good condition1 it does its work very rapidly1 since it is used in an upright drill-stock1 whose weight gives a uniform and constant pressure4 ,a good range of sizes of this drill should be kept ready for use1 so that one may be found to suit the dimensions of any given pearl4 ,this is essential in order to make an opening just large enough to hold the gem1 so that it may fit tightly1 without the necessity of reaming out the hole4 ,half-pearls were frequently used with the most pleasing effect in the decoration of antique watches4 ,a number of remarkable examples of this type are among the collection of antique watches of ,henry ,walters of ,baltimore4 ,this collection had been acquired by ,tiffany ,co4 after the sale of the ,san ,donato ,palace1 the watches having been withdrawn from the prince's collection by his sister sometime before the sale4 ,in mounting pearls on gold1 a white paste is sometimes employed in half-pearl mounting1 which is called by the ,french jewelers gouache4 ,this substance contains white lead1 and its use is liable to be injurious to the workmen1 cases of lead colic having been recently recognized as thus produced4 ,this subject has lately 7#aijg7 been brought forward at the ,socit ,mdicale des ,hpitaux in ,paris4 ,the cases were at first mistaken for appendicitis1 but proved to be well-marked cases of lead poisoning4 ,they had not been reported previously1 and are evidently not frequent1 those noted being confined to instances in which the employees had carelessly been in the habit of removing an excess of the paste with the tongue4 ,pearls that are constantly worn with judicious care do not seem to deteriorate in any way4 ,by judicious care we mean that pearls should not be dropped or thrown down violently or placed on any substance which is likely to act injuriously on the surface of the pearl itself4 ,strings of pearls should never be dipped into water or solutions of any kind1 because the string which passes through them is likely to absorb and to draw the liquid into the pearl1 and as the pearl is made up of many concentric layers1 it is quite possible that1 through capillary action1 some liquid1 either pure1 or stained with a foreign substance1 might be brought into the pearl1 which would in this way eventually become discolored4 ,rings and brooches containing half-pearls frequently change color from this cause2 but contact with the skin1 or with lace1 or with fabrics which are not stained with certain chemical solutions1 seems to have no injurious effect upon pearls4 ,illustration3 ,ladies' sewing case and scissors inlaid with half-pearls ,eighteenth ,century ,illustration3 ,watch incrusted with half-pearls ,paris ,exposition1 #aijj ,illustration3 ,snuff-box1 ivory inlaid with fresh-water pearls ,eighteenth ,century4 ,collection1 ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art ,illustration3 ,watch incrusted with half-pearls ,paris ,exposition1 #aijj ,illustration3 ,miniature of ,catherine ,emilie ,peake1 by ,richard ,cosway4 ,gold frame1 surrounded by half-pearls4 ,eighteenth ,century ,illustration3 ,watch incrusted with half-pearls ,paris ,exposition1 #aijj ,it is quite possible that in some instances where pearls which have been inherited are thought to have changed and lost their beauty1 this belief has been owing to an exaggerated opinion of their quality on the part of those who expected to inherit them and who never had the opportunity to examine them carefully4 ,in other words1 in many cases where pearls are believed to have lost their luster1 to have died1 or partly died1 there seems1 from the personal observation of the writer1 to be little doubt that they never were really fine pearls1 and that no change had actually taken place in them4 ,that pearls change but slightly is evidenced by the fact that a splendid necklace belonging to the ,empress ,eugenie1 which was purchased about the year #ahfj1 is in as good condition to-day as when it first passed into the hands of the unfortunate empress of the ,second ,empire4 ,many of the pearls in the royal treasury in ,vienna that belonged to ,maria ,theresa1 and those that were disposed of at the sale of the ,french crown jewels in #ahhf1 as well as the pearls that are in the imperial collection at ,st4 ,petersburg1 do not seem to show any appreciable evidence of age4 ,the pearl is of a lower hardness than any of the precious or semiprecious stones1 and almost as soft as malachite1 though not so friable or liable to break as is that mineral2 nevertheless1 it is in many ways one of the most indestructible of natural objects of the low hardness4 ,still1 pearls1 and especially fine pearls1 require some care2 but1 if the same attention is accorded them as would be given to a fine piece of lace1 velvet1 or other fabric1 or to a fine jewel1 they will last for a number of generations4 ,if1 however1 pearls are worn at all times without removal1 if they are worn in the bath1 if they are thrown on a dressing-table1 dropped on the floor1 or otherwise ill-treated1 if they are worn on dusty automobile rides1 in bicycle riding1 or during other gymnastic or violent exercise1 it is inevitable that their sides will rub together and wear one another away4 ,if they are worn in the bath or in swimming1 the silk string which holds them1 should it become soaked1 may draw some of the water1 accompanied perhaps with dust and perspiration1 through the drill hole into the center of the pearl1 and this is likely to be absorbed in turn by the various layers of the pearl1 in some instances undoubtedly affecting the color1 changing it to a yellow or a gray4 ,it would be well not to wear pearls under the exceptional conditions above mentioned2 and1 if they are carefully wiped at times1 so as to remove any perspiration or dust1 their color is not likely to be affected for a long period of time4 ,dr4 ,george ,harley writes in the 8,proceedings of the ,royal ,society10 ,march #a1 #ahhh1 p4 #dfc3 ,on one occasion being desirous to crush into powder a split-pea sized pearl1 we folded it between two plies of note-paper1 turned up the corner of the carpet1 and placing it on the hard1 bare floor1 stood upon it with all our weight4 ,yet1 notwithstanding that we weigh over twelve stone1 we failed to make any impression whatever upon the pearl1 and even stamping upon it with the heel of our boot did not suffice so much as to fracture it4 ,it was accordingly given to the servant to break with a hammer1 and on his return he informed us that on attempting to break it with the hammer against the pantry table1 all he succeeded in doing was to make the pearl pierce through the paper and sink into the wooden table1 just as if it had been the top part of an iron nail1 and that it was not until he had given it a hard blow with the hammer against the bottom of a flat-iron that he succeeded in breaking it4 ,as the foregoing and other notes had appeared on this subject1 the author was led to observe that pearls are possessed of greater durability than is generally supposed4 ,in order to demonstrate this satisfactorily1 he took a number of ,american pearls and placed them upon different kinds of woods1 such as white and yellow pine1 white oak1 teak1 ash1 cherry1 chestnut1 and rosewood4 ,he then stood upon them1 thus bringing a weight of more than two hundred pounds to bear upon them by means of his heel4 ,the pearls were driven into the different woods1 with the single exception of the rosewood1 which offered greater resistance so that the pearl only entered partly4 ,in but one instance did a pearl suffer by a slight scaling off4 ,this shows the strength of the many concentric layers1 both mineral and vegetable4 ,this does not signify that pearls should be stepped upon1 trodden upon1 or thrown about1 as it is not unlikely that a pearl would crack if it should fall from some height upon a hardwood or stone floor4 ,it is believed by many that wrapping pearls in dyed velvets or in fatty woolen materials1 and locking them up in safe-deposit vaults1 may slightly change them4 ,on the other hand1 there is no doubt that sunlight will bleach a pearl1 and hence it is that wearing them in the light and air cannot injuriously affect them4 ,for cleaning pearls1 first rub them with a cloth dipped in alcohol diluted with warm 7not hot7 water1 or in a weak solution of soap and water1 then dip another cloth in clean water and rub the pearls until they are dry4 ,be careful not to leave them wet4 ,either salt1 rice1 pearl-powder1 or some exceedingly soft substance may aid in cleaning them1 but no abrasive such as ground pumice1 electro-silicon1 or any powder that is sold as a polishing powder1 should be used4 ,illustration3 ,,evolution ,,of ,a ,,seed-,,pearl ,,brooch ,mother-of-pearl plate ,brass model ,pearl brooch completed ,design of brooch ,mother-of-pearl sawn out ,illustration3 ,seed-pearls1 ,indian strings ,white horsehair for stringing ,there are many things that will cause injury to pearls4 ,occasionally they are affected by the wearer having exudations from the skin induced by some disease or else by acids which pass out through the pores with the perspiration4 ,a smoky atmosphere in which a sulphuric acid is present owing to sulphur in the coal1 violent usage such as knocking severely1 or dropping--all of these will in time cause more or less injury to a pearl1 more especially to one of the whiter varieties2 but it is believed that those of a yellowish cast are not so susceptible4 ,diderot mentioned this as early as #agfe4 ,the 8life0 of a pearl is said to be fifty1 one hundred1 and perhaps even one hundred and fifty years2 they certainly last for several generations4 ,it has been asserted1 without any particular authority1 that pearls from the ,pacific ,ocean and those from ,mexico do not last as long as those from the ,orient1 but this statement is questionable4 ,if there be any foundation for the belief that it is not well to lock pearls in a safe-deposit box1 this is probably owing to the fact that the absolute exclusion from the air may cause the drying out of the organic constituent of the pearl4 ,this may be obviated by putting the pearls in a piece of linen absolutely free from any chemical1 at the same time placing with them a bit of blotting-paper or fiber-paper saturated with water2 the whole should then be wrapped up in paraffin paper1 which will prevent the evaporation of the moisture4 ,many sentimental recitals have appeared in the press during the last ten years in regard to the dying of pearls4 ,in connection with this there is a beautiful though mythical story to the effect that ,carlotta1 wife of the ill-fated ,maximilian1 ,emperor of ,mexico1 was the possessor of a large collection of pearls which had died1 and that these pearls had been placed in a casket and sunk in the depths of the ,adriatic1 opposite the beautiful but unhappy palace home1 ,miramar1 in the hope that the salt water would revive and restore their original luster4 ,when1 however1 the time came to bring up the pearls from the sea1 it was found that the casket had1 in some way1 broken loose from the chains1 and all trace of it was lost4 ,it is needless to state that there was absolutely no foundation for this romantic tale2 indeed1 these very pearls were afterward sold4 ,furthermore1 pearls have never lived1 and hence they can never die4 ,they do1 however1 decay1 if exposed to influences which destroy either the calcareous or the animal layer of the pearl itself4 ,this is due to many causes3 first1 overheating1 sometimes through the inexperience of a pearl driller2 secondly1 undue exposure to heat in the washing of a pearl necklace2 thirdly1 exposure to acids or acid fumes4 ,apparently there seems to be some foundation for the belief that if they are confined in safe-deposit boxes1 probably in contact with wool or with the colored velvets of jewel-cases1 the skin of the pearl may be more or less affected4 ,there is no question that in the oriental fisheries so-called dead pearls have been found in the shell itself1 probably owing to some disease of the pearl-oyster2 and they have also appeared in the fresh-water pearl fisheries of the ,united ,states1 where the pearls have been too long boiled in the opening of the shell1 or where they have been swallowed and have passed through the body of some ruminant1 such as a hog1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,facsimile letter of ,m4 ,gaston ,mogeaud1 ,director of the ,louvre1 ,paris1 stating that the ,madame ,thiers' pearls are in perfect condition1 and have never been in better health4 ,illustration3 ,,madame ,,thiers',s ,,pearl ,,necklace1 ,,bequeathed ,,to ,,the ,,louvre ,,museum1 ,,paris ,probably about no necklace has more been printed than about the famous necklace of ,madame ,thiers1 now in the ,louvre ,museum of ,paris4 ,article after article has gone over the face of the earth1 stating that the pearls in this necklace were dying1 and that a record was being kept of the slow death that was overtaking them4 ,through the courtesy of the director of the museum1 ,m4 ,gaston ,mogeaud1 we are permitted to reproduce the following statement from a letter1 showing very clearly that there is absolutely no truth in the assertion1 and that this necklace has in no way suffered1 or is likely to suffer1 for many years to come4 8,the necklace of ,madame ,thiers has caused much ink to flow1 to such an extent that1 a few months ago1 the minister ordered an examination to be made by three expert jewelers1 who have found that the pearls are in perfect condition1 and have never been in better health40 ,for assuring the safety of jewels there are the primitive methods such as are used in the ,east ,indies1 of hiding pearls in out-of-the-way places1 where they often escape detection2 or else they may be protected by means of an armored room1 like the gem-room that contained the wonderful collection of the ,duke of ,brunswick when he resided in ,paris4 ,decoy necklaces have even been made to represent the original1 and so placed that they were taken away by the highwayman or stolen by the burglar under the belief that he was stealing the jewels2 while in other cases the pearls have been carried in receptacles that would not be taken for jewel-caskets1 a device resorted to by some travelers4 ,a word in regard to the former system of strong boxes or small safes for the home4 ,these protect from fire and from the ordinary thief1 but they have sometimes not proved so invulnerable to the expert cracksman4 ,quite recently a jewel chest has been devised which can be placed in a trunk and carried from city to city by the owner4 ,it is provided with an exceedingly sensitive electrical apparatus1 by means of which a loud burglar alarm is set off should the chest be lifted even one thirty-second of an inch or jarred ever so slightly4 ,this alarm is set automatically when the owner turns the key1 and if once started1 it will ring for a couple of hours1 stopping only when the box is unlocked1 thus preventing the carrying away of what is otherwise a portable box4 ,lastly1 there are the more advanced methods1 in use during the past two centuries1 such as taking the jewels to a banker and allowing him to place them in his vault1 where they are guarded as well as are his own belongings1 but not always with the security of the modern safe-deposit vaults1 where the gems are absolutely under the control of the owner1 and can frequently be obtained at any hour of the day2 or as safely kept as they are when deposited in the safe deposit of the jeweler1 in whose establishment they can be cleaned1 repaired1 added to1 or changed without risking their removal to another building4 ,,xv ,,pearls ,,as ,,used ,,in ,,ornaments ,,and ,,decoration ,,xv ,,pearls ,,as ,,used ,,in ,,ornaments ,,and ,,decoration ,and the necklace1 ,an ,india in itself1 yet dazzling not4 ,,byron1 ,marino ,faliero4 ,the brilliant diamond and the love of its possession has captivated many to such a degree that it has often been the cause of intrigue and bloodshed2 and national history has been influenced by its acquisition or retention4 ,the pearl1 however1 though the most quiet of gems1 has1 in its own way1 found favor in the sight of emperors and empresses1 kings and queens1 generals1 nobles1 and priests2 and even savages have admired its quiet1 stately dignity4 ,the following pages are devoted to a description of the various ornamental uses of the pearl in different times and countries4 ,naturally1 many of the famous pearls in the following chapter1 if considered purely as ornaments1 might have found a place here4 ,the ,egyptians of olden times do not appear to have used fine pearls1 although they probably knew of them on account of the proximity of the ,red ,sea4 ,m4 ,j4 de ,morgan1 the explorer1 says3 8,in the tombs of ,dashour ,i have never seen any2 the only ones that ,i know of in ,egyptian jewelry belong to the ,ptolemaic period and are mounted in ,greek style40#dbb ,this statement is confirmed by ,dr4 ,william ,f4 ,petrie1 the well-known ,egyptologist1 who writes under date of ,july #bf1 #aijg3 8,the pearl was often used in ,roman jewelry in ,egypt1 but ,i do not know of any instance of it in pure ,egyptian work4 ,the ,romans pierced it and hung it by gold wire on earrings4 ,they also made glass1 pearl-like beads1 called luli by the modern natives4 ,these beads are made by silvering glass beads and then flashing over them another coat of glass40 ,among specimens of the late ,egyptian work we may note here some objects in the ,louvre3 ,a pleasing decoration on gold wire is a necklace in the collection of the ,egyptian ,gallery4 ,in this very small pearls are used as a connective decoration for the points of leaves1 and to hold the leaves and ornaments is a gold wire which is secured by bending4 ,this piece comprises #ajd pearls1 a greater number than is contained in any other object of antiquity found in ,egypt4 ,an ,egyptian pendant of unknown origin is also shown in this collection4 ,at the lower end is a bull's head1 caparisoned1 and the tip of each horn is fitted with a ball like the embolados toros of the ,spanish bull-fights4 ,the rein is double1 and above this there are two rondelles of an unidentified material2 then comes a rondelle of lapis lazuli1 and after this a rondelle of gold4 ,the whole is strung with twisted gold wire4 ,the center stone is an hexagonal amethyst1 evidently a crystal1 the two faces of which had been polished and incised4 ,one of these faces represents a priest with a staff of office1 and the other a priest holding an incense-burner with the hieroglyph of the altar4 ,with one hand he is offering the two sacrifices1 the mineral and the vegetable2 in the other he holds a garland of flowers or leaves4 ,above this is an ,oriental pearl somewhat worn and abraded4 ,all these are secured by a twisted gold wire1 to which four tiny gold beads of graduated size are affixed at the top of the pendant4 ,there are six other pendants and earrings in the ,egyptian ,gallery1 all of which contain pearls1 and in most instances these pearls have been drilled and suspended by metal wires1 unless they are used as an ornament facing outward4 ,in four instances they are secured by a peg of gold4 ,the ,assyrian and ,persian bas-reliefs show that the sovereigns and great personages of those countries adorned themselves profusely with pearls4 ,they wore them not only in their jewelry1 but also on their garments and even in their beards6#dbc ,the coins of the ,persian kings also bear testimony to the use of the gem in ancient ,persia1 since the sovereigns are represented wearing tiaras ornamented with triple rows of pearls4#dbd ,the same may be said of the imperial ,roman diadem from the time of ,caracalla 7#ahh-bag ,a4,d474 ,one of the most interesting of all ancient pearl necklaces1#dbe containing more pearls than any other that has been found1 and in a better state of preservation1 is the ,susa necklace now in the ,persian ,gallery of the ,louvre ,museum4 ,it consists of three rows1 each containing #gb pearls1 so that there are #baf in all4 ,ten gold bars1 formed of three small disks1 each about five millimeters in diameter1 divide the necklace into nine equal sections2 at each end there is a disk1 ten millimeters in diameter1 to which the three strands are secured4 ,if there was any other setting1 it has evidently disappeared1 although it is quite possible that there may only have been a string at each end1 as in the ,east ,indian necklaces4 ,illustration3 ,,antique ,,ornaments ,,of ,,pearls ,no4 #a4 ,gold pin from ,paphos1 ,island of ,cyprus1 mounted with large marine and small fresh-water pearl1 now in ,british ,museum4 ,nos4 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h4 ,gold earrings and pins set with pearls1 now in the ,egyptian ,gallery of the ,louvre1 ,paris4 ,no4 #i4 ,pearl and gold necklace found at ,susa1 ,persia1 now in the ,louvre1 ,paris4 ,this ornament was found on the site of the ancient ,susa or ,shushan by ,m4 ,j4 de ,morgan1 ,february #aj1 #aija1 in a bronze sarcophagus1 which contained the skeleton of a woman1 adorned with a great number of gold ornaments set and incrusted with precious stones4 ,m4 de ,morgan gives circa #cej ,b4,c4 as the probable date of these objects4 ,the pearls were much deteriorated4 ,about #bch were found1 but many of them crumbled away when they were touched4 ,m4 de ,morgan considers that the necklace was of the type of the 8dog-collar0 of to-day1 and he believes that it originally comprised from #djj to #ejj pearls4 ,according to a personal communication from ,m4 ,p4 ,cavvadias1 of the ,socit ,archologique d',athnes1 there are no pearls on the ancient ornaments preserved in the ,national ,museum at ,athens4 ,this is hardly surprising in view of the fact that the greater part of these ornaments belong to the archaic period of ,greek art2 that is to say1 to a time when the pearl was evidently unknown to the ,greeks4 ,the fact that we do not find more evidence of the use of pearls in ,greece at a later period need cause no surprise1 when we consider how many of the treasures of ,greek art have disappeared in the course of more than twenty centuries4 ,there can be no question that they were known and used as ornaments at an early time1 as we can infer from the description of them by ,theophrastus and later ,greek authors4 ,dr4 ,edward ,robinson of the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art1 and other authorities on ,greek art and archology1 maintain that the ,arethusa necklace1 and other ornaments of that time1 depicted on coins1 etc41 were meant to represent gold ornaments1 as it is believed by many that pearls were unknown in ,greece at that period4 ,one of the most interesting specimens showing the use of a pearl in ancient times is a very beautiful pearl pin from ,paphos1 on the ,island of ,cyprus1 which is mounted with a large marine pearl1 probably the largest antique pearl ever found1 measuring fourteen millimeters in diameter1 and weighing about #gj grains4 ,this1 unfortunately1 has been very much abraded and worn away1 although more than half of the pearl is still present4 ,it is surmounted by a small fresh-water pearl1 four millimeters in diameter1 weighing about two grains and in a much better state of preservation4 ,this unusually interesting example of prehistoric pearl is in the ,greek and ,roman department of the ,british ,museum1 and we are able to show it by the courtesy of the keeper of that department1 ,dr4 ,charles ,hercules ,read4 ,in excavations made last spring 7#aijg71 in the ,hauran district in ,syria1 ,azeez ,khayat found a number of loose pearls which had formed a necklace4 ,the tomb in which they were discovered was cut in the rock1 and appeared to be of ,roman origin4 ,the pearls were still attached to the old bronze wire with which they had been strung4 ,mr4 ,khayat also mentions the finding of a pearl pin1 and a single earring bearing a pearl1 in a rock-tomb at ,csarea1 in ,syria4 ,rock-cut tombs from ten to twelve feet in depth are frequently discovered1 and they probably date from the beginning of the ,christian era4 ,the habit was so common of using pearls as a base to throw up the brilliance of other gems1 that we may1 perhaps1 believe even in ,caligula's slippers of pearls1 with rubies and emeralds set upon them like flowers4 ,the ,roman ladies had a special favor for pearls as earrings1 and it was one of their consuming ambitions to possess exceptionally fine specimens for this purpose4 ,they preferred pear-shaped pearls1 and often wore two or three of them strung together4 ,they jingled gently as they moved about--a fitting accompaniment1 it may be said1 to their graceful movements--and from this jingling the name crotalia1 or 8rattles10 was applied to them4 ,the description given by ,pliny of the pearl ornaments of ,lollia ,paulina is the principal claim which the wife of ,caligula has on our interest4 ,i myselfe have seen ,lollia ,paulina when she was dressed 444 so beset and bedeckt all over with hemeraulds and pearles1 disposed in rewes1 ranks1 and courses one by another2 round about the attire of her head1 her cawle1 her borders1 her perruke of hair1 her bongrace and chaplet2 at her ears pendant1 about her neck in a carcanet1 upon her wrest in bracelets1 on her fingers in rings2 that she glittered and shone againe like the sun as she went4 ,the value of these ornaments she esteemed and rated at forty million ,sestertij#dbf and offered openly to prove it out of hand by her bookes of accounts and reckonings4 ,yet were not these jewels the gifts and presents of the prodigall prince her husband1 but the goods and ornaments from her owne house1 fallen to her by way of inheritance from her grandfather1 which he had gotten together even by the robbing and spoiling of whole provinces4 ,see what the issue and end was of those extortions and outrageous exactions of his3 this was it4 ,that ,m4 ,lollius1 slandered and defamed for receiving bribes and presents of the kings in the ,east2 and being out of favor with ,c4 ,csar1 sonne of ,augustus1 and having lost his amitie1 dranke a cup of poison1 and prevented his judiciall triall3 that forsooth his neece ,lollia1 all to be hanged with jewels of #djj hundred thousand ,sestertij1 should be seene glittering1 and looked at of every man by candle-light all a supper time4#dbg ,illustration3 ,,tyszkiewicz ,,bronze ,,statuette ,,of ,,aphrodite1 ,,showing ,,earrings ,,of ,,pearl ,,and ,,gold ,,of ,,early ,,greek ,,period ,now in ,museum of ,fine ,arts1 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,and the taste of the ,roman ladies for pearls has perpetuated itself in ,italy1 though other of the luxurious habits which in their case accompanied it1 have long since died out4 ,the women of ,florence even now are not content if they do not possess a necklet of pearls1 and this generally forms the marriage portion of the middle-class women4 ,it is thought1 just as it was in ancient ,rome1 that this gives an air of respectability1 and forms a sure protection from insult in the street or elsewhere4 ,one of the earliest illustrations showing a pearl earring is the one in the ear of ,julia1 the daughter of ,titus1 incised on a splendid aquamarine in the ,bibliothque ,nationale4 ,this gem was formerly in the ,treasury of ,st4 ,denis1 and is considered to belong to the ,carlovingian period4#dbh ,so large and heavy were the earrings worn in ,rome that there were women known as auricul ornatrices1 special doctresses whose sole occupation was the healing of ear tumors and of injured or infected ears4 ,in a similar way1 at the present day1 we have the ear piercer1 whose vocation1 however1 is rapidly becoming useless because of the ingenious modern devices for holding the pearls to unpierced ears2 and we must consider this eminently desirable when we think of the ear-piercing outfits of the former jeweler1 who never disinfected his apparatus1 and when we recall the fact that it was always expected that the ear would swell1 first1 from the crude awl that was used1 and1 secondly1 from the unsterilized instruments4 ,that the ,romans believed in decorating the statues of their goddesses with pearls and dedicating them as offerings1 is evidenced by the gift of ,cleopatra's pearl1 which was cut in halves to make earrings for the ,venus of the ,pantheon2 and by the buckler of ,british pearls for the statue of ,venus ,genetrix1 given by ,julius ,csar4 ,quite a number of statues and busts of the ,roman period1 and some of an earlier time1 have the ears pierced for the reception of earrings1 and it is highly probable that pearls were used for this decoration4 ,among these are the busts of ,pallas and ,juno ,lanuvina in the ,vatican2 that of ,eirene1 a marble copy of a work of ,cephisdotus1 in the ,glyptothek1 ,munich1 and the ,venus de ,medici in the ,uffizi1 ,florence4 ,pottier#dbi mentions several other ,greek statues which show that earrings were used for their adornment2 as1 for example1 the winged ,victory of ,archernos1 in ,delos2 the head of one of the caryatids found at ,delphi1 a cast of which is in the ,louvre2 the archaic ,aphrodite of the ,villa ,ludovisi2 the ,athena from the frieze of the temple at gina2 the ,venus of ,milo1 etc4 ,in other instances the ornament was simply painted on the ear as is shown in the ,aphrodite in white marble which has been found in ,marseilles4 ,this may also have been the case in the frieze at ,olympia4 ,the earrings used in these statues were usually metal disks entirely covering the lobe of the ear4 ,we have1 however1 many representations of pearl earrings in the paintings at ,pompeii1 and on cameos and coins4 ,these show us several of the types mentioned by ,pliny and other authors2 still1 they are smaller and more unpretentious than we might expect in view of the well-known luxury of the ,roman ladies in this respect4 ,the greater part of the earrings represented show a pearl suspended from a single wire2 there are some1 however1 with three pearls1 one above the other1#dcj and a few bearing several pearls loosely hung together1 answering to the description of the crotalia4 ,others1 again1 bear pear-shaped pearls or elenchi4#dca ,it is a singular fact that scarcely any of the busts of ,roman women are ornamented with earrings1 but it is quite possible that the cause for this must be sought in the desire of the artist to dispense with unimportant details which might detract from the general effect he wished to produce4 ,we may note1 however1 four female figures in the ,gallerie des ,empereurs in the ,louvre ,museum1 with the ears pierced for the reception of earrings 7,nos4 #aaie1 #abjb1 #abcj1 and #abfi74 ,illustration3 ,pearl earrings from ,herculaneum and ,pompeii ,many numismatists1 among them ,dr4 ,f4 ,louis ,comparette1#dcb believe that the necklaces and earrings represented on ,greek coins from the fifth century ,b4,c4 are intended to represent pearl ornaments1 since the personages depicted are in all cases female divinities1 goddesses1 or nymphs1 held in great veneration in the city where the coins were minted1 and it is almost certain that the artist intended to portray the choicest and most beautiful of gems as an adornment for the beautiful head of the city's patron4 ,the ,syracusan coins1 by ,euvenetus1 minted in the early part of the fifth century ,b4,c41 and bearing the head of ,arethusa1 seem to be the earliest coins showing a neck and ear ornament4 ,this was later imitated on the ,greek and ,greco-,roman coins4 ,a coin of ,sulla shows a double necklace1 one strand consisting of round beads and the other of pendants4 ,the later coins almost always represent the goddesses with neck and ear ornaments4 ,some of the latter1 however1 resembling amphor1 are neither round nor pear-shaped4 ,in view of the great fondness of the ,romans for pearls1 it is not surprising that many of these gems have been found in the excavations at ,pompeii1 ,herculaneum1 and ,capodimonte4 ,the collection of earrings preserved in the ,naples ,museum is especially noteworthy4 ,here we can see earrings consisting of a simple golden hoop1 from which hangs a wire bearing a single pearl2 others in which a cross-bar is attached to the hoop1 and at each end of this bar is a loosely hung wire with a pearl at its extremity1 this earring suggesting the crotalia mentioned by ,pliny 7see ,fig4 ,a72 and still others wherein the pearls are strung directly on the hoop4 ,the cross-bars are of various designs1 sometimes entirely smooth1 and again shaped like a cornice or a pediment2 in other cases we have an earring with two pearls on a wire1 then a pierced transparent stone1 and beneath that1 two pearls terminating the large drop4 ,a few of the earrings are more elaborate1 as1 for example1 one represented in ,fig4 ,b which was found in ,pompeii1 ,march #h1 #ahgj4 ,here there is an emerald in the center1 surrounded by gold rays1 between which were set eight pearls1 two of which are now missing2 above is a small pearl4 ,the single earring shown in ,fig4 ,d came from ,herculaneum1 and bears a circlet of thirteen pearls1 alternating with rubies and other stones2 beneath there is a link from which depends a pearl about seven and a fifth millimeters in diameter1 and weighing nearly twelve grains4 ,the fact that we know the latest date to which these pearls can be assigned1 namely1 #gi ,a4,d41 renders them peculiarly interesting and valuable from a historical point of view4 ,naturally1 many of them are calcined or otherwise damaged1 but others are fairly well preserved as to form1 although the luster has departed from them4 ,there are twenty-seven earrings in the collection1 and the pearls number about one hundred4 ,no great pearls were found4 ,in the ,roman excavations1 and in those of other early remains1 many objects are found in which there may be a sapphire1 an emerald1 or several other stones1 pierced1 and pendant on a gold wire1 with a blank space between1 showing that something was there originally4 ,this object has apparently decomposed and fallen away4 ,we may reasonably suppose that it was either a pearl or a glass bead1 and it is unlikely that glass would be used in connection with the more precious materials4 ,this pearl or glass may have been affected by the organic acids or the acids resulting from the decomposition of the body with which the ornament was buried for a score of centuries4 ,among the ancient jewels containing pearls which are preserved in the ,hermitage at ,st4 ,petersburg1 we may mention a broken gold ring with a roughly cut turquoise and two pendants1 each set with two pearls separated by a garnet4 ,this object was found in southern ,siberia during the reign of ,peter the ,great1 and may belong to the second century before ,christ4 ,also may be noted a pair of gold earrings1 with an engraved six-rayed star1 in the center of which a pearl is set1 while below hang three pendant sticks1 two of which have a pearl at the extremity4 ,these earrings were found in #ahib in a tomb situated close to the site of the ancient town of ,chersonesus1 in the ,crimea4 ,as a coin of the ,emperor ,gordianus ,,iii 7#bbd-bdd ,a4,d47 was discovered in the same tomb1 we may assign the earrings to the first half of the third century ,a4,d4 ,beside another pair of earrings1 one of which is set with a pearl1 and two pearl-headed pins1 all from the neighborhood of ,tiflis1 in the ,crimea1 we may especially refer to an earring made of a plain1 thick1 golden wire1 on which seven pearls are threaded2 one of these occupies the center and the others are grouped around it4 ,this earring was purchased in #aijc by the ,russian ,imperial ,archological ,commission from a collector residing at ,odessa2 it is said to have been found on the site of the ancient ,greek colony of ,olbia1 but we have no definite external or internal evidence to sustain this view4 ,we may also note the gold necklace and earrings#dcc containing pearls found near the site of ,olbia during the reign of ,napoleon ,,iii1 and now in the collection of the ,roman1 ,campana4 ,these objects are especially interesting owing to the fact that the pearls are drilled and a gold cap is set on each side4 ,a pair of pearl earrings were found in a tomb on ,mount ,mithridates1 near ,kertch1 in the ,crimea4 ,these earrings probably belong to the third or fourth century of our era4 ,of the four pearls which originally adorned the cross-bars1 only one has been preserved4 ,another pair of earrings was discovered in the same place4 ,it is probable that they were ornamented with pearls in a similar way1 but the latter have entirely disappeared4 ,illustration3 ,,antique ,,pearl ,,ornaments ,no4 #a4 ,gold earring with turquoise top4 ,two pearls1 two garnets1 and two pearls4 ,found in southern ,siberia in #agbf2 believed to be of the second century1 ,a4,d4 ,no4 #b4 ,brass earring with one pearl and glass beads4 ,fourth century1 ,a4,d4 ,no4 #c4 ,brass dress pin4 ,sphere of amber1 surmounted by a pearl4 ,found near village of ,mzchet ,caucasus4 ,fourth century1 ,a4,d4 ,no4 #d4 ,carnelian dress pins with pearl tops4 ,early ,christian4 ,no4 #e4 ,gold earring1 hook and eye type4 ,from ,olbia1 the site of an ancient ,greek colony4 ,fourth century1 ,a4,d4 ,nos4 #a to #e are from the collection of the ,imperial ,hermitage in ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,nos4 #f-h-i4 ,pearl and gold earrings1 ,greek1 from the ,island of ,cyprus4 ,second century1 ,a4,d4 ,no4 #g4 ,roman brooch 7pearls and gold71 found in the river ,thames1 ,england4 ,ninth century1 ,a4,d4 ,gabriele ,bremond states in his 8,viaggi di ,egitto10 ,lib4 ,i1 c4 #cj1 that it was a ,mohammedan custom to embroider baldachins and carpets of precious metals with pearls4 ,this use is especially typified in a baldachin of gold embroidered with pearls which is over the sepulcher of ,mohammed at ,mecca4#dcd ,when the ,mohammedans captured the ,persian city ,ctesiphon1 in #fcg1 they collected an immense booty4 ,each of the #fj1jjj soldiers received the value of #ab1jjj dirhems 7#aefj71 a total of #ic1fjj1jjj4 ,among the treasures sent to ,caliph ,omar 7#eha-fdd71 in ,medina1 was a crown1 perhaps that of ,khusrau ,i 7#dii-egi71 which ,tabari says was studded with #ajjj pearls each as large as a bird's egg4#dce ,there was also a wonderful carpet #dej feet long and #ij broad1 with a border of emeralds1 rubies1 sapphires1 and pearls1 representing luxuriant foliage and beautiful flowers4 ,tabari states that it was called the 8,winter ,carpet10 because 8the ,persian kings used it in winter when there was no longer verdure or flowers1 for whoever was seated on this carpet thought he looked out upon a garden or a green field40#dcf ,on the occasion of the marriage of the ,caliph ,al-,mamun 7#ghf-hcc7 with the daughter of ,hassan ,sahal1 all the grandees of ,al-,mamun received slaves of both sexes as presents from the bride's father4 ,the preliminary negotiations were held at ,fomal ,saleh1 and the road traversed by the bride and bridegroom to reach ,bagdad1 a distance of one hundred miles1 was covered with mats of cloth of gold and silver4 ,we are told that the bride wore on her head-dress a thousand pearls1 each of which is said to have been of enormous value4#dcg ,describing the birthday festival of ,kublai ,khan 7circa #abge ,a4,d471 ,marco ,polo says3 8,the ,great ,kaan dresses in the best of his robes1 all wrought with beaten gold2 and full #ab1jjj ,barons and ,knights on that day came forth dressed in robes of the same colour1 and precisely like those of the ,great ,kaan1 except that they are not so costly2 but still they are all of the same colour as his1 and are also of silk and gold4 ,every man so clothed has a girdle of gold2 and this as well as the dress is given him by the ,sovereign4 ,and ,i will aver that there are some of these suits decked with so many pearls and precious stones that a single suit shall be worth full #aj1jjj golden bezants about #be1jjj40dch ,in the ,kan period1 in ,china1 the dead bodies of the emperors were embalmed and wrapped in a garment ornamented with pearls4 ,they were then inclosed in a case of jade4#dci ,speaking of the jewels of the ,king of ,maabar1 or what is now known as the ,coromandel ,coast1 ,marco ,polo tells us3 8,it is a fact that the king goes as bare as the rest1 only round his loins he has a piece of fine cloth and round his neck he has a necklace entirely of precious stones1--rubies1 sapphires1 emeralds1 and the like1 insomuch that this collar is of great value4 ,he wears also hanging in front of his chest from the neck downwards1 a fine silk thread strung with #ajd large pearls and rubies of great price4 ,the reason why he wears this cord with the #ajd great pearls is 7according to what they tell7 that every day1 morning and evening1 he has to say #ajd prayers to his idols4 ,such is their religion and custom2 and thus did all the kings his ancestors before him1 and they bequeathed the string of pearls to him that he should do the like40#ddj ,a favorite ,east ,indian amulet is known as the 8,nao-ratna0 or 8,nao-ratan10 and consists of 8nine gems03 in former times the pearl1 ruby1 topaz1 diamond1 emerald1 lapis lazuli1 coral1 sapphire1 and a stone1 not identified1 called the gomeda4 ,at the present time these stones are generally the coral1 topaz1 sapphire1 ruby1 flat diamond1 cut diamond1 emerald1 hyacinth1 and carbuncle4 ,this talisman may suggest the ,urim and ,thummin or sacred oracle of the ,jews1 which was said to have been taken from ,jerusalem in #fae ,a4,d4 by ,khusrau ,,ii1 the ,sassanian ,persian king4 ,the ,east ,indian custom for persons of quality was to wear a pearl between two colored stones in each ear1 that is1 either between two rubies or two emeralds2 and ,tavernier noted1 about #afgj1 that there was no person of any consideration in those regions who did not wear1 in each ear1 a pearl set between two colored stones4 ,another favorite ornament for women in ,india is a girdle elegantly embroidered1 bearing a large pendant pearl in front1 where it is fastened4#dda ,a necklace of twenty-seven pearls bears in ,india the name of nakshatra ml1 nakshatras 7originally 8stars07 being the name of the twenty-seven divisions of the ,hindu zodiac4#ddb ,in the ,indian jewels often a small spot of enamel is fastened or melted on to a gold wire1 and then one or several pearls are hung upon it2 or beads of some gems1 as sapphire1 ruby1 emerald1 or even glass1 may be added or alternated with pearls4 ,then the enamel stop-piece is turned down and the other end of the gold wire is twisted on to the setting1 loosely1 in such a manner as to swing freely4 ,it is the effect of these dozens or even hundreds of swinging drops that add such grace and elegance to ,east ,indian jewelry4 ,illustration3 ,,east ,,indian ,,necklace ,,of ,,pearls1 ,,table ,,diamonds1 ,,glass ,,beads1 ,,gold ,,and ,,enamel ,property of an ,american lady ,in ,china1 such precious stones as the ruby1 sapphire--both blue and yellow--the emerald1 and the pink tourmaline1 are not facetted1 as with us1 but are generally polished in conformity to the shape of the bead or other ornament1 and never have a lathe-turned or cut appearance2 they are either set in cabochon or as beads1 rounded1 oval1 or elongated4 ,all these forms1 and the colors used by the ,chinese1 lend themselves well to combinations with pearls2 and hence pearls are often found in ,chinese jewelry1 especially in those ornaments which are flexible and graceful1 in which the pearls and gems are strung on wire and allowed to swing freely with a gentle tinkle when the wearer moves4 ,this is not unlike the setting of such gems in ancient ,roman times4 ,an admirable example is shown and described in ,bushell's 8,chinese ,art0 7,vol4 ,,ii1 plate #ajh1 page #ij74 ,in this head-dress of a ,manchu lady1 there are combined with the pearls1 jadeite1 amethyst1 amber1 and coral1 on a gilt silver openwork1 with blue kingfisher feathers4 ,this great cap of state is an admirable example of pure ,chinese design and workmanship4 ,the pendant strings of pearls are occasionally relieved by a bit of carved jade1 carnelian or coral1 especially the latter4 ,another example1 the 8cap of state0 has silver-gilt openwork and immortelles 7,taoist symbols71 and is much enhanced in beauty by a decoration or inlay of plates of the beautiful blue feathers of the kingfisher1 which are used so extensively and effectively in ,chinese jewelry4 ,the pearls are scattered at intervals over the cap1 and ten strings of them hang from the sides of it4 ,this is believed to be of ,manchu origin by ,dr4 ,stephen ,w4 ,bushell1 the great ,chinese scholar1 to whom we are indebted for the use of the illustration4 ,we are also told that young ladies in ,china wear a sort of crown constructed of pasteboard1 covered with silk4 ,this is adorned with pearls1 diamonds1 and other jewels4#ddc ,the pearls on many ,chinese ornaments were generally strung upon silk1 often with half a dozen or a dozen seed-pearls above and below the large pearl1 to hold the latter in place1 and also to add a softness to the whole jewel4 ,the end pendant pearl1 even if pear-shaped1 was usually pierced entirely through1 and a wire that was worked through it was flattened out1 and this gold head was again ornamented in some way4 ,a ,chinese pendant from the ,china-,japan war-loot offers an excellent illustration of this kind of pearl-setting4 ,this was preserved in a double box of finely carved gold4 ,the rosaries containing #ajd pearls1 which are used to-day1 were mentioned centuries ago by ,marco ,polo1 and an excellent pearl string of this kind has been in the ,russian ,treasury at ,moscow for over two hundred years4 ,dr4 ,stewart ,culin1 the archologist1 who has paid much attention to ,chinese customs1 informs us that the black and white counters made for use in games by the ,chinese are called black and white pearls4 ,dr4 ,t4 ,nishikawa writes us in #aijh that pearls were used in ,japan for ornamental purposes more than a thousand years ago4 ,large abalone pearls are found in images of ,buddha made in #cjj ,a4,d4 ,fresh-water pearls1 usually from ,dipsas and ,unio1 were also used4 ,a beautiful color-print was made by ,hoku'ai of the first pearl1 called 8tide-jewel0 by the ,japanese4 ,most interesting pearls are those in a brooch in the ,british ,museum1 which was discovered in #ahci while excavating a sewer opposite ,ludgate ,hill in ,thames ,street1 at the depth of about nine feet1 in a dark-colored artificial stratum of earth1 unaccompanied by any remains that could aid in throwing light upon its history4 ,it is four inches and a half in circumference1 and is composed of a circular compartment an inch and a quarter in diameter1 set with variegated enamel1 representing a full-faced head and bust1 with a crown on the head1 and the drapery of a mantle1 formed of threads of gold effectively arranged so as to mark the features of the face and the folds of the drapery2 this is inclosed in a border of rich gold filigree work1 set at equal distances with four pearls4#ddd ,dr4 ,charles ,roach ,smith attributes this brooch to the time of ,king ,alfred1 and supposes it to have been executed in ,england by a foreign artist4 ,he only ventures a conjecture that the head might be that of ,king ,alfred4 ,crowns1 both ancient and modern1 are richly ornamented with pearls4 ,we shall treat of the crown of the ,holy ,roman ,empire and of the imperial ,austrian crown in the following chapter4 ,one of the most interesting and ancient is the famous crown of ,khusrau ,,ii 7reigned #eij-fch71 made in the latter part of the sixth century1 which was brought to light by ,shah ,abbas after a thousand years of concealment in an obscure fortress among the mountains of ,lauristan4 ,it does not contain diamonds among its ornaments1 but is incrusted with pearls and rubies4#dde ,from the representation given on the cup of ,khusrau1 the throne of the ,sassanian ,persian kings appears to have been as large as a couch2 it was supported by four winged animals1 whose model had been borrowed by the ,sassanians from their ancestors1 and it was covered with an embroidered stuff thrown over mattresses and cushions4 ,if we may believe ,tabari 78,chronicles10 trans4 by ,zotenberg1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cjd71 this throne was of gold1 enriched with precious stones1 and surmounted by a crown of gold and pearls1 so heavy that the sovereign could not wear it1 and therefore had it suspended above his head4#ddf ,one of the crowns in the ,hermitage at ,st4 ,petersburg was discovered in #ahfd in a tumulus near ,novo-,tcherkask1 with many other valuable objects1 all of which had apparently been buried with some important personage4 ,this crown resembles somewhat that of ,reccesvinthus in the treasure of ,guerrazar1 although some portions of it seem to belong to the period of the ,roman empire4 ,the conjecture has been made that the crown may have been worn by a queen since it is decorated with a finely executed bust of a woman in amethyst4 ,the crown itself is of pure gold1 and was bordered with two rows of pearls1 which have disappeared1 leaving only the small disks to which they were attached2 besides these1 it was ornamented with a number of uncut precious stones4 ,the date of this object cannot be exactly determined1 although the consensus of opinion is that it belongs to about the third century after ,christ4 ,possibly the bust and some other portions1 which appear to be of ,greco-,roman workmanship1 are of this period1 while the rest of the crown was executed one or two centuries later2 it is about seven inches in diameter and two in height4#ddg ,toward the end of the year #aheh a ,french officer who lived in ,spain1 while making some excavations on a property he owned there1 discovered fourteen small gold crowns4 ,they were taken to the ,spanish mint and are said to have been melted for bullion4 ,new excavations on the same spot brought to light eight other crowns of considerable weight1 of the finest workmanship1 and incrusted with precious stones1 pearls1 etc4 ,there is no doubt that these crowns were buried in the early years of the eighth century1 when the ,arabs1 led by ,tarik1 invaded ,spain and forced the ,gothic dynasty to take refuge in the north of ,europe4 ,the importance of this discovery is very great1 since it gives us positive evidence of the development of the goldsmith's art in ,spain at that early period4 ,an inscription proves that one of the crowns was dedicated in the second half of the seventh century1 and it is one of the few authentic memorials we possess of that epoch4 ,in ,february1 #ahei1 the eight crowns were purchased by the ,french government and placed in the ,muse de ,cluny4 ,two other crowns found in the same place were added in #ahfj1 and complete the collection4 ,the largest of these crowns is that of the ,gothic king1 ,reccesvinthus1 who was ,king of ,spain from #fdi to #fgb4 ,it is composed of a wide band of solid gold1 ten centimeters wide and twenty-one centimeters in diameter 7about four and eight inches respectively74 ,this band1 which opens by means of a hinge1 is surrounded by two borders of gold set with the red stones of ,caria1 called 8gemmae alabandenses10 and the band itself is studded with thirty large oriental sapphires of the greatest beauty4 ,thirty fine pearls of appropriate size alternate with the sapphires on a ground incrusted with the red stones above mentioned4 ,from twenty-three small gold chains depend large letters in cloisonn1 and also incrusted1 forming the sentence3 ,,reccesvinthus ,,rex ,,offeret4 ,each letter has a gold pendant with a pearl from which hangs a pear-shaped sapphire4 ,the crown is suspended from four chains1 converging to a double floral ornament of solid gold1 adorned with twelve sapphire pendants4 ,this ornament1 the leaves of which are open1 is surmounted by a capital of rock crystal1 then comes a ball of the same material1 and the whole is terminated by the gold center to which the four chains are attached4 ,the cross1 which is suspended underneath the crown by a gold chain1 is remarkable for its elegance and its richness4 ,it is of solid gold and is inlaid with six very fine sapphires and eight large pearls1 each of which is mounted in relief with claws4 ,at the back1 the cross still bears the wire by which it was attached to the royal mantle4 ,the inside of the crown is quite smooth2 the outside is composed of elegant fleurettes in openwork1 the leaves being filled with the same species of red carnelian mentioned above4 ,there are thirty sapphires1 all of the finest water1 and a few of them show the natural facetted crystallization2 the two principal ones1 placed in the center of the band1 are thirty millimeters in diameter4 ,the pearls are of an exceptional size1 and only a few of them have been injured by time4 ,the total number on the crown1 cross1 and top ornament1 is seventy1 thirty of which are unusually large4 ,the chains are each composed of five openwork ornaments with an enamel paste inlaid in the gold edge4 ,a close examination of the crown shows that it had been worn before the king presented it to some church4 ,the royal ,hungarian crown given to ,st4 ,stephen by the pope in the year #ajjj ,a4,d41 when ,hungary became an empire1 is one of the most ancient crowns in existence4 ,it contains #cbj pearls and was procured in ,byzantium4 ,it was pledged to the emperor1 ,frederick ,,iv1 by ,queen ,elizabeth of ,hungary1 probably about #addj4 ,illustration3 ,,crown ,,of ,,reccesvinthus ,,and ,,other ,,gothic ,,crowns ,,of ,,the ,,seventh ,,century ,from the treasure of ,guarrazar1 near ,toledo ,muse de ,cluny1 ,paris ,in the cathedral of ,prague 7the metropolitan church of ,st4 ,vitus7 there may be seen the crown which was made by the order of ,charles ,,iv 7#acgh7 out of four pounds1 ten and a quarter ounces of gold4 ,it is adorned with twenty-nine pearls1 forty-seven rubies1 twenty sapphires1 and twenty-five emeralds4 ,the value of the gold and gems was estimated at #aj1jjj in #ahih1 which is probably less than it would be worth to-day4 ,the sacred crown worn by ,st4 ,wenceslaus was inserted within the crown of ,charles ,,iv at the instance of ,queen ,blanca4 ,the golden scepter and the golden orb are of very beautiful workmanship4 ,the scepter has six rubies1 eight sapphires1 and thirty-one pearls4 ,there may also be seen in the treasury a gilded monstrance1 in the style of the ,renaissance1 studded with pearls and precious stones1 a gift of the princely family of ,schwarzenberg4 ,within the same cathedral1 in the tabernacle of the chapel of ,st4 ,ludmilla1 wife of the first ,duke of ,bohemia1 is the head of that saint1 bearing a crown studded with #ahjj pearls4#ddh ,the crown of ,vladimir1 with its singular and thoroughly ,russian form1 is preserved in the treasury of the ,kremlin at ,moscow1 and has been used at the coronation of all the ,russian emperors4 ,it has borne the name of the crown or cap of ,monomachus from the reign of ,ivan ,,iv4 ,although1 to judge from this designation1 the crown was probably executed in the twelfth or thirteenth century1 there is a legend to the effect that it was sent1 in #ihh1 from ,byzantium by the ruler as a gift to ,st4 ,vladimir4 ,it is executed in filigree work1 and is surmounted by a plain cross with four pearls at the extremities2 between these pearls are set a topaz1 a sapphire1 and a ruby4 ,the crown itself is ornamented with four emeralds1 four rubies1 and twenty-five pearls from ,ormus1 set in gold4 ,the cap has a bordering of sable fur1 and is lined with red satin4 7,see ,maskell1 8,russian ,art10 ,london1 #ahhd1 p4 #abe47 ,the imperial state crown of her ,majesty ,queen ,victoria1 was made in the year #ahch by ,messrs4 ,rondell and ,bridge1 with jewels taken from old crowns1 and others furnished by command of her ,majesty4 ,it consisted of diamonds1 pearls1 rubies1 sapphires1 and emeralds1 set in silver and gold4 ,it had a crimson velvet cap with ermine border1 and was lined with white silk4 ,its gross weight was thirty-nine ounces five pennyweights troy4 ,the lower part of the band above the ermine border consisted of a row of #abi pearls1 and the upper part of a row of #aab pearls2 between these rows1 in the front of the crown1 was a large sapphire 7partly drilled7 purchased for the crown by his ,majesty ,george ,,iv4 ,in the front of the crown1 and in the center of a diamond ,maltese cross1 was the famous ruby said to have been given to ,edward1 ,prince of ,wales 7the ,black ,prince71 by ,don ,pedro1 ,king of ,castile1 after the battle of ,njera1 near ,vittoria1 #acfg ,a4,d4 ,this ruby was worn in the helmet of ,henry ,v at the battle of ,agincourt1 #adae ,a4,d4 ,it was pierced quite through1 after the eastern custom1 the upper part of the piercing being filled up by a small ruby4 ,from the ,maltese cross issued four imperial arches composed of oak leaves and acorns1 thirty-two pearls forming the acorns4 ,from the upper part of the arches were suspended four large pendant1 pear-shaped pearls with rose diamond cups4#ddi ,writing in #ahej1 ,barbot1 the ,french jeweler1 placed the value of this crown at #fjj1jjj4 ,the crown of ,st4 ,edward1 the official crown of ,england1 is used at each coronation4#dej ,the original crown of this name was destroyed by the republicans in #afdi1 but at the time of the coronation of ,charles ,,ii1 another crown was made to take its place1 under the direction of ,sir ,robert ,viner4 ,as far as can be known1 this crown was an exact copy of the older one1 which was worn by ,edward the ,confessor1 and perhaps even by ,king ,alfred4 ,the crown in use at present is of gold1 richly studded with pearls and precious stones of various kinds3 diamonds1 rubies1 emeralds1 and sapphires4 ,there is a mound of gold on top1 and on this a cross of gold ornamented with very large oval pearls1 one attached to the top and the two others pendant from the ends of the cross4 ,the present arrangement of the jewels cannot date back earlier than #afhi1 as the crown was found to be despoiled of them at the time of the accession of ,william and ,mary4 ,those now in the crown are acknowledged to be inferior to the former ones4 ,the orb or mound which is placed in the king's hand immediately after his coronation1 is a ball of gold1 six inches in diameter1 surrounded by a band of the same metal ornamented with roses of diamonds set around other precious stones1 and bordered with pearls4 ,it is surmounted by a cross1 embellished with four larger pearls at the angles near its center1 and three others at the ends4 ,the orb1 including the cross1 is eleven inches high1 and it is figured on the coins of many of the ,english kings1 who are represented holding it in their left hands4 ,the regalia of ,scotland1#dea consisting of the crown1 scepter1 and sword of state1 are preserved in the castle of ,edinburgh4 ,it is not certainly known at what time this crown was executed4 ,at the coronation of ,robert ,bruce 7#abgd-acbi7 a simple circlet of gold was used2 this fell into the hands of the ,english after the battle of ,methven in #acjf4 ,in #acjg ,edward ,i issued a pardon at the request of his 8beloved ,queen ,margarate10 to a certain ,galfredus de ,coigniers1 who was said to have concealed and kept 8a certain coronet of gold with which ,robert the ,bruce1 enemy and rebel of the ,king1 had caused himself to be crowned in our own ,kingdom of ,scotland40 ,illustration3 ,photograph by ,w4 ,d4 ,downey1 ,london ,,her ,,majesty1 ,,queen ,,alexandra ,,of ,,great ,,britain ,,and ,,ireland1 ,,empress ,,of ,,india ,sir ,walter ,scott1 in his account of the regalia1 gives it as his opinion that the present crown was probably made for ,robert ,bruce at a later date1 and that it was used at the coronation of his son1 ,david ,,ii 7#acbd-acgf74 ,the style of workmanship indicates a fourteenth-century origin4 ,the crown was originally open and was arched over by ,james ,v 7#aeab-aedb74 ,as ,scott notes1 this was done to many royal crowns in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 in order to assimilate them to the type of the old imperial crowns4 ,the following description is slightly abridged from that given by ,sir ,walter ,scott3 ,the lower part consists of two circles1 the undermost much broader than that which rises over it2 both are of the purest gold and the uppermost is surmounted by a range of fleur-de-lis interchanged with crosses fleures1 and with knobs or pinnacles of gold topped with large pearls2 this produces a very rich effect4 ,the under and broader circle is adorned with twenty-two precious stones1 betwixt each of which is interposed an oriental pearl4 ,the stones are topazes1 amethysts1 emeralds1 rubies and jacinths2 they are not polished by the lapidary1 or cut into facets in the more modern fashion1 but are set plain1 in the ancient style of jewellers' work4 ,the smaller circle is adorned with small diamonds and sapphires alternately4 ,these two circles1 thus ornamented1 seem to have formed the original ,diadem or ,crown of ,scotland1 until the reign of ,james ,v1 who added two imperial arches rising from the circle1 and crossing each other1 closing at the top in a mound of gold1 which again is surmounted by a large cross pate ornamented with pearls and bearing the characters ,j4,r4,v4 ,these additional arches are attached to the original crown by tacks of gold1 and there is some inferiority in the quality of the metal4 ,the bonnet or tiara worn under the crown was anciently of purple1 but is now of crimson velvet1 turned up with ermine--a change first adopted in the year #afie4 ,the tiara is adorned with four superb pearls set in gold1 and fastened in the velvet which appears between the arches4 ,the crown measures about nine inches in diameter1 twenty-seven in circumference1 and about six and a half in height from the bottom of the lower circle to the top of the cross4 ,the scepter1 made by order of ,james ,v at the time he added the arches to the crown1 is a slender silver rod about thirty-nine inches long4 ,an antique capital of embossed leaves supports three small figures representing the ,virgin ,mary1 ,st4 ,andrew1 and ,st4 ,james1 above which is a crystal ball1 surmounted by an oriental pearl4 ,the regalia have passed through many vicissitudes4 ,after the execution of ,charles ,i1 his son ,charles ,,ii was crowned ,king of ,scotland at ,scone on ,january #a1 #afea4 ,on the advance of the parliamentary army into ,scotland1 the regalia were placed in the care of the ,earl ,mareschal who preserved them in his castle of ,dunrottar1 and here they were kept until the castle was besieged and on the point of falling into the hands of the ,english4 ,in this extremity1 they were rescued by ,christian ,fletcher1 wife of the ,rev4 ,james ,granger1 minister of ,kinneff4 ,she obtained permission from the ,english general to pay a visit to the ,lady ,mareschal and succeeded in carrying off the regalia4 ,her husband buried them in the church of ,kinneff1 just in front of the pulpit4 ,when they were brought to light again after the ,restoration1 an ,act of ,parliament was passed which1 after reciting ,christian ,fletcher's services in the matter1 stated3 8,therefore1 the ,king's ,majestie1 with advice of his estates in ,parliament1 doe appoint ,two ,thousand ,merks ,scots to be forthwith paid unto her by his ,majestie's thresaurer1 out of the readiest of his ,majestie's rents1 as a testimony of their sense of her service40 ,in #agjg1 after the union of ,england and ,scotland1 it was considered wiser to remove the regalia from public view1 since they were calculated to arouse memories of the old ,scotch monarchy4 ,these precious objects were therefore inclosed in a chest1 which was their usual receptacle1 and locked up in the crown-room1 a strong vaulted apartment in ,edinburgh ,castle4 ,there the regalia remained until #ahag1 when1 as doubts had been expressed as to their existence1 a commission of investigation was appointed1 one of the members being ,sir ,walter ,scott4 ,the chest--which had probably been the jewel-safe of the ,stuarts--was forced open1 and the regalia were found within1 just as they had been deposited in #agjg4 ,an imperial ,german crown does not exist2 a design has been made and accepted1 but at the present date1 #aijg1 it has not yet been executed4 ,on festive occasions1 when the imperial insignia are necessary1 the ,prussian insignia are used1 especially the ,prussian royal crown4 ,this consists of a circlet of gold set with thirteen diamonds4 ,on this are five leaves1 each composed of three larger diamonds and a smaller one1 and four prongs1 each bearing a diamond and above it a large pearl4 ,from the five leaves start the same number of semicircular arches1 tapering toward the central point1 where they unite4 ,each of these is set with ten diamonds of decreasing size4 ,on the center rests an imperial globe4 ,it consists of a large ,indian-cut sapphire1--the counterpart of the one on the ,austrian imperial crown1 evidently dating from the time of the ,crusades1--and above it rises a chaplet ornamented with diamonds4 ,the crown has a lining of purple velvet reaching to the arches4 ,between the arches are eight pearl pendants of an average weight of #hj grains2 they are #be millimeters in length1 and have a fine1 brilliant white color1 although they are not perfectly regular in form4 ,in addition there belongs to the regalia a pearl necklace of three rows2 the first consists of thirty-seven pearls averaging #bh grains each2 the second of thirty-nine pearls averaging #cd grains1 and the third of forty-five pearls averaging #ci grains4 ,there is also a guard chain of #aad pearls1 averaging #bj grains1 making a total of #bbhj grains for the chain4 ,these pearls are also of irregular form4#deb ,the crown jewels of the ,sultan ,abdul-,aziz 7#ahcj-ahgf7 were of immense richness and value4 ,at the exhibition in ,vienna1 #ahgc1 many of these were exhibited in a building created specially for the purposes of display and protection4 ,they were in five compartments1 in what might be termed five impregnable fire-proof safes of a peculiar construction4 ,among other interesting objects was the armor of ,sultan ,murad ,i 7#acai-achi71 the founder of the ,ottoman empire in ,europe4 ,this armor is of the most delicate oriental workmanship4 ,diamonds1 pearls1 and rubies are worked broadcast over it with exquisite taste4#dec ,in ,germany and ,austro-,hungary there are many valuable ecclesiastical ornaments1 some of which possess great interest for the history of early ,german art4 ,they also serve to show the appreciation of the pearl even in the ,dark ,ages and the ,early ,renaissance period4 ,one of the most curious productions of early ,german art is a reliquary in the form of a sack1 which is from ,enger near ,herford1 and is exhibited in the ,kunstgewerbe ,museum in ,berlin4 ,it is set with cameos and pearls2 several of the latter have dropped out2 a few1 however1 remain in their setting4 ,according to a very probable tradition1 this reliquary was given by ,charlemagne to the ,saxon duke1 ,wittekind1 on the occasion of his baptism in #ghe4 ,it is of very rude and primitive workmanship and1 if we accept the tradition1 it is not unlikely that it was executed at ,aix-la-,chapelle4#ded ,an interesting example of ,german art1 from the time of ,archbishop ,egbert of ,treves 7#igg-iic71 is a frame now in the ,beuth-,schinkel ,museum1 at ,charlottenburg4 ,this was probably the framework of a portable altar4 ,it is decorated with a simple geometrical design in the three primary colors1 and has four polished stones and four pearls on the outer border of gold filigree4 ,another example of the art of ,treves at the time of ,archbishop ,egbert is the ,echternacher ,codex4 ,the gold-plated cover is a worthy product of the school3 ivory1 enamel1 and mosaic are combined in its decoration with rows of pearls4 ,among the representations of many saints1 appears the figure of the ,empress ,theophanu1 daughter of the ,greek emperor1 ,romanos ,,ii1 with the inscription 8,theophaniu imp40 ,opposite is a youthful figure1 probably that of her son1 ,otho ,,iii4 ,it seems likely that the work was executed1 at the command of the empress1 between #ihc and #iia4dee ,in the cathedral of ,treves is the portable altar known as the altar of ,st4 ,andrew4 ,this was primarily a reliquary and secondarily an altar4 ,in memory of the relic of the sandal of ,st4 ,andrew1 which was greatly prized by ,archbishop ,egbert1 this altar bears the representation of a foot executed in wood and covered with plates of gold4 ,the front of the case is divided into three fields2 that in the middle containing a ,byzantine lion in gold relief1 and the others the symbols of the four evangelists in enamel work4 ,the border is formed of rectangular pieces of enamel and smaller ones of gold1 and it is set with round stones alternating with half-pearls2 the ends are covered with filigree and enamel work wherein are embedded strings of pearls4 ,a coin of ,justinian ,,ii is set in the middle of the back of the case and is surrounded by a wreath of larger pearls4#def ,a gold cross1 the work of ,rogkerus ,theophilus1 is in the ,kunstgewerbe ,museum in ,berlin1 and comes from ,herford4 ,the frame1 which is of wood1 is covered with plates of gold2 at the extremities and in the center are groups of precious stones surrounded by pearls2 at the base is a fine ,augustan cameo with a wreath of pearls2 the entire cross is covered with filigree work and decorated with pearls in groups of threes4 ,the arrangement of the precious stones1 and the enhancement of their beauty by means of the circles of pearls1 are highly artistic4 ,as a work of ,rogkerus1 this cross must have been executed at the very end of the eleventh century and it may be regarded as one of the finest examples of the art of this period4#deg ,a very rich collection of ecclesiastical ornaments is contained in the treasury of the cathedral of ,gran in ,hungary4#deh ,one of the most interesting objects is a reliquary in the form of a ,latin cross1 which is of great historical and artistic value4 ,an inventory made after #aebh describes it briefly3 8crux aurea continens lignum vitae0 7a gold cross containing the wood of life74 ,although this reliquary probably belongs to the end of the twelfth century1 the inventory of #afei describes it as a gift of ,king ,stephen1 and proceeds to say that the kings of ,hungary took their coronation oath upon it4 ,this custom has been preserved to the present day1 and ,emperor ,francis ,joseph1 on the occasion of his coronation as ,king of ,hungary1 ,june #h1 #ahfg1 swore1 upon this cross1 to uphold the constitution and the laws of the land4 ,the cross is decorated with plates of gold in filigree design1 and has four en cabochon cut sapphires and eighteen oriental pearls4 ,the greatest treasure of the collection is known as the cross of ,corvinus1 ,king of ,hungary1 and is decorated with a great number of pearls4#dei ,it is a remarkable example of early ,italian ,renaissance art4 ,the entire structure is about twenty-eight inches high2 the pedestal is triangular and ornamented with pearls and precious stones2 three sphinxes bearing shields with the arms of ,corvinus support a disk from which springs a triangular support sloping outward2 on the three sides are mythological figures4 ,upon this base rests the chapel1 a light ,gothic structure with the figure of the ,saviour bound to a pillar in the center1 and the busts of three prophets in the niches outside4 ,above all is the crucifix1 on each side of which are figures of the ,blessed ,virgin and of ,st4 ,john4 ,around the base and about each division of this elaborate design is a row of pearls2 the ,gothic chapel is surmounted by a close-set row1 and each of its six pinnacles terminates in an oval pearl4 ,the cross itself has fifteen large pearls disposed in twos and threes1 and many smaller ones4 ,there are at least two hundred pearls on the whole structure4 ,another cross1 with the arms of the primate1 ,george ,szolepchnyi1 and bearing the date #affg1 is of pure design and richly decorated with pearls and precious stones4#dfj ,it is quite possible that this cross1 which seems to belong to a better period1 was bought by the archbishop1 who afterward added his arms4 ,there are thirteen oriental pearls1 three at the top1 three at the end of each of the arms1 and four at the intersection4 ,this cross was used as an 8instrumentum pacis10 for the kiss of peace1 on solemn occasions such as coronations4 ,we may also note the pendant with the image of the ,virgin ,mary as patroness of ,hungary1 which is of gold enamel and has two pendant pearls and a sapphire1 and likewise the pectoral cross of the primate1 ,emerich ,losy2 this is of gold1 decorated with green1 blue1 and black enamel1 and has three pendant pear-shaped pearls1 one quite large1 as well as thirty-four smaller round pearls4 ,among the many valuable and interesting objects in the treasury of the house and chapel of ,maria ,loretto am ,hradschin1#dfa at ,prague1 there is a monstrance of silver-gilt1 thirty-seven and a half inches high and fifteen and three quarter inches wide4 ,it dates from the beginning of the eighteenth century1 and is not a harmonious whole1 but only a combination of different ornaments of precious stones1 corals1 and several hundred pearls of various sizes4 ,all these are the devotional offerings of now unknown givers1 and many of the pieces are of artistic workmanship4 ,this monstrance owes its origin to ,josef von ,bilin1 who was a monk of the ,capuchin order and a sacristan of ,maria ,loretto4 ,on account of the many pearls which adorn it1 it is known by the name of the 8,pearl ,monstrance40 ,another monstrance of ,arabic gold1 of the year #afhj1 is twenty inches high and is studded with fifty-one pearls1 of which twenty-nine surround the disk1 while the remainder are on the plate and the base4 ,there are also two crowns of silver-gilt for the statues of the ,virgin and of the ,infant ,jesus4 ,the larger of these crowns has eighteen diamonds1 a ruby1 and #ajb pearls set in two rows2 while the smaller has nineteen diamonds and a great number of pearls2 both crowns are made up of the offerings of the faithful4 ,in a historic description of the pearls in the treasury of the ,kremlin1 ,margeret1 a ,burgundian captain 78,estat de l'empire de ,russie10 #afdi71 says that the treasury was 8full of all kinds of jewels1 principally pearls1 for they are worn in ,russia more than in the rest of ,europe4 ,i have seen fifty changes of raiment for the emperors around each of which there were jewels for a bordering1 and the robes were entirely bordered with pearls1 some with a border of pearls measuring a foot1 half a foot1 or four inches in width4 ,i have seen dozens of bed-coverings embroidered with pearls40#dfb ,in the treasury of the celebrated ,troiza ,monastery near ,moscow1 there is an immense collection of ornamental objects for ecclesiastical use1 the value of which has been estimated at many millions of rubles4 ,here may be seen miters and bishops' crooks--many of them of solid gold and set with precious stones--,bibles and missals in golden bindings1 priestly vestments1 altar-cloths1 etc41 all literally covered with pearls4 ,there is also a dish filled with large pearls of enormous value4#dfc ,the use of fresh-water pearls in one of the most interesting ecclesiastical objects of antiquity is shown in the 8,shrine of ,st4 ,patrick's ,gospels10 which is in the ,dublin ,museum4 ,it was purchased by the ,irish ,royal ,academy in #ahde for #cjj 7#aejj74 ,this shrine1 known as the 8domnach airgid10 is of ,irish manufacture and was perhaps made in the eleventh or twelfth century4 ,it was found in the neighborhood of ,clones1 in ,county ,monaghan1 and is ornamented with three bosses which contained uncut crystals1 and are decorated with figures of grotesque animals and traceries enameled in blue paste2 between these may be seen representations of four horsemen4 ,on each of the four corners there was a fresh-water pearl1 one of which still remains in its setting4 ,according to ,george ,petrie1 ,,ll4,d41 in his 8,christian ,inscriptions in the ,irish ,language10 the shrine bears an inscription to the effect that it was made by ,john ,o',barrdan at the instance of ,john ,o',carbry1 ,abbot of ,clones1 who died in #acec4 ,illustration3 ,,crown ,,of ,,st4 ,,edward ,the official crown of ,england ,dr4 ,r4 ,f4 ,scharff informs us that there is also in the ,dublin ,museum a modern ,celtic gold brooch1 presented to ,queen ,victoria on the occasion of her visit to ,ireland in #ahdi1 and containing a pearl of beautiful luster1 discovered in ,lough ,esk1 which is in the western part of ,ireland4 ,dr4 ,scharff says that this pearl is undoubtedly from the ,margaritifera margaritifera4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,forbes ,howie of ,dublin writes that the shrine of ,o',donnel1 made in #ajhd1 originally contained pearls4 ,it still retains some pieces of amber and coral4 ,mr4 ,howie believes that fresh-water pearls were freely used in the decoration of ancient ,irish shrines4 ,the inventories of jewels and ornaments belonging to the kings and queens of ,france1 to the nobility1 and to the treasures of the ,sainte-,chapelle1 in ,paris1 and of the abbey and church of ,st4 ,denis1 all mention a large number of objects decorated with pearls4#dfd ,the more important of these are given below4 ,the following ornaments decorated with pearls are mentioned in the inventory of ,louis1 ,duke of ,anjou1 which was made circa #acfj3dfe ,a large silver-gilt foot for a vase or chalice1 resting upon six lions couchant1 and set with groups of four pearls with a garnet in the middle4 ,a half girdle of gold with a hinge bearing two ornaments1 one a balas set between two eagles4 ,between the ornaments is a gold bar set with eight pearls in two rows4 ,in front is a clasp with a large sapphire in the middle1 surrounded by two balases and two sapphires alternating with pearls4 ,a gold brooch having a balas-ruby in the middle1 and at each side four sapphires and four clusters each of five quite large pearls4 ,a gold brooch of a very pretty design1 with five balas-rubies1 two sapphires1 and eight very round pearls weighing about four carats each4 ,at each end of the brooch is a flat pearl weighing about five carats4 ,there is in the ,bibliothque ,nationale#dff in ,paris1 the original record of the execution of the testament of the ,comte de ,montpensier1 son of the ,duc de ,berri4 ,this document was written in #acih1 and it mentions that the sale of the jewels and plate of the count produced the sum of 8#bcij livres tournois #aa sols #c deniers about #hbfe40 ,in the record we have a description of 8a large gold cup1 weighing #e marcs1 #g ounces1 #a gros nearly #c lbs41 whereon there is a crown of precious stones40 ,the decoration of the cup comprised thirty large pearls1 six balas-rubies1 and four sapphires1 and we are told that the ,duc de ,berri retained it for his own use4 ,an early mention of the use of pearls in rings occurs in the inventory of the ,duc de ,berri1#dfg to whom we have just referred4 ,this inventory1 which was made in #adaf1 notes a gold ring with black enamel1 set with a pearl called 8the great pearl of ,berri40 ,the inventory of the personal property of ,marguerite1 ,countess of ,flanders1 the mother of the ,duke of ,burgundy1 was made in #adje4dfh ,in this inventory we have a list of an immense number of ornamental objects of every sort and kind1 and everything1 from the ducal crown to the smallest trinket1 is garnished with pearls4 ,in most cases the number of pearls is given1 and we find that no less than #ddid are enumerated4 ,evidently the duchess was ever ready to honor the precious gem to which she owed her name1 and fully recognized its poetical significance4 ,the following are a few of the more noteworthy ornaments in the inventory3 ,the circlet of the great crown1 composed of eight sections2 four of which each comprise sixteen pearls1 four diamonds1 and four balas-rubies1 with a sapphire in the center2 the four others contain sixteen pearls1 four diamonds1 and four sapphires1 with a balas-ruby in the center2 beside this there are two pearls in each section4 ,also1 eight large fleurons of the great crown1 four of which bear each twenty-three pearls1 five diamonds1 three balas-rubies and a sapphire1 and the other four each twenty-three pearls1 five diamonds1 four sapphires1 and a balas-ruby2 and eight small fleurons of the said crown garnished each with a pearl1 a sapphire1 and a balas-ruby4 ,the whole is valued at #hgbd florins 7#bb1fhb74 ,a gold cap with ten large ornaments fashioned like brooches1 five of which are each of six pearls and a balas-ruby1 and the other five each of five pearls and two balas-rubies1 and between each ornament there is a balas-ruby4 ,this is appraised at #baei florins 7#efac74 ,a head-dress garnished with balas-rubies and sapphires and tassels of large pearls1 each of six pearls1 and with a row of larger balas-rubies1 larger sapphires and larger pearls4 ,this was estimated at #bjcj florins 7#ebgh74 ,a gold necklace1 enameled white and green1 garnished with nine rubies1 thirteen diamonds and thirteen pearls1 with a clasp of three small rubies1 and three large pearls with one large diamond in the center4 ,the worth of this necklace is given as #aibc florins 7#ejjj74 ,the jewels and ornamental objects in this inventory are appraised at the sum of #ef1abi florins1--about #ade1jjj1--;equivalent to a much larger sum to-day in consideration of the greater purchasing power of money in the fifteenth century4 ,in #adhj1 during the reign of ,louis ,,xi1 an inventory was made of the objects preserved in the treasury of the ,sainte-,chapelle in ,paris4#dfi ,we select the following items from this inventory3 ,a very beautiful cross1 covered with gold1 bearing on one side a crystal reliquary which contained a piece of the ,true ,cross4 ,on supports attached to the cross were images of the ,virgin ,mary and of ,st4 ,john1 each holding a reliquary4 ,the cross itself rested on a square silver-gilt base bearing the images of the four evangelists4 ,the ornamentation consisted of fifty large ,scotch pearls and #adb small ones1 intermixed with garnets and emeralds2 there were also many balas-rubies and sapphires of different sizes4 ,the inventory says3 8,the goldsmith ,nicholas ,roet declares that the stones are genuine and that the pearls are from ,scotland40 ,another gold cross1 resting on a silver-gilt base which bore the arms of ,france and ,burgundy1 was decorated with fourteen sapphires1 twenty balas-rubies1 and twenty-four ,scotch pearls4 ,on the base were the figures of ,st4 ,louis and of the queen1 kneeling in prayer4 ,still another cross1 covered with gold and of ,venetian workmanship1 bore thirty-nine pearls1 twenty-seven balas-rubies1 and four sapphires4 ,a clasp attached to this cross was set with four large perforated pearls surrounded by small emeralds and sapphires4 ,a silver-gilt ornament1 consisting of a golden image of ,st4 ,louis seated on a silver throne and holding in his hand a reliquary decorated with twelve pearls1 six emeralds1 and six ,alexandrian rubies4 ,the crown of the image was set with four large oriental pearls1 three balas-rubies1 etc4 ,an ivory image of the ,virgin ,mary1 supported by a silver-gilt base with the arms of ,france4 ,this base was borne by four lions4 ,on the head of the ,virgin was a crown of gold adorned with eight large1 round1 oriental pearls and four small ones1 as well as four emeralds and four balas-rubies4 ,on the breast of the image was a very large1 square emerald4 ,a splendid miter studded with good-sized pearls and decorated with emeralds1 rubies1 sapphires1 and balas-rubies4 ,the pendants were covered with seed-pearls and precious stones4 ,a fine chasuble of ,indian satin lined with crimson taffeta and covered with lilies1 birds1 unicorns1 etc41 embroidered in gold and pearls4 ,it was also adorned with small clusters of pearls and with two shields bearing the arms of ,france and ,navarre1 quartered4 ,a beautiful copy of the gospels with covers of gold1 ornamented with fourteen large sapphires1 thirteen balas-rubies1 two cameos1 and eighty-nine good-sized pearls4 ,the following items are taken from the inventory of the treasury of the abbey of ,st4 ,denis1 made in #aecd1 during the reign of ,francis ,i4 ,this record is in the ,bibliothque ,nationale1 in ,paris3#dgj ,a crown of gold1 with four fleurons1 garnished with several balas-rubies1 emeralds1 sapphires1 and pearls2 valued at #ei1ihj crowns 7about #ace1jjj74 ,a golden cross and within it a piece of the ,true ,cross which belonged to 8,jeanne d',evreux1 royne de ,france et de ,navarre10 valued1 with the pearls that decorate it1 at #cde crowns 7#ggf74 ,a wooden chest containing eleven cases in which were many precious stones and large and small pearls1 both oriental and ,scotch2 valued at #aheh crowns 7#dahj74 ,a number of priestly vestments embroidered with seed-pearls are inventoried at #abjj crowns 7#bgjj74 ,a blue satin chasuble bordered with pearls is valued at #cej crowns 7#ghg74 ,an altar-table1 set in the 8grand altar10 is described as elaborately decorated with 8arches and pillars and images of gold0 in low relief1 and garnished with precious stones and pearls4 ,the value is given as #abjc crowns 7#bgjj74 ,another altar-table similarly ornamented is valued at #bfde crowns 7#ehej74 ,above this table was a great cross of gold with a silver border1 called the 8cross of ,st4 ,eloysius0 7the patron saint of goldsmiths72 this was valued at #bbia crowns 7#eaed74 ,over the sarcophagus containing the body of ,st4 ,denis1 there was 8a large tabernacle of wood-work resembling a church1 with a lofty nave and low arches40 ,in this nave and in the transepts there were three representations of sarcophagi2 the whole was covered with gold1 precious stones1 and pearls1 and was valued at #gbge crowns 7#af1cfh74 ,the head of ,st4 ,denis1 incased in gold1 was borne by two silver-gilt angels1 while a third held a small shrine containing a portion of the jaw-bone of the saint4 ,all these objects were studded with precious stones and pearls1 and were valued at #efbb crowns 7#ab1fej74 ,there were also in the treasury several miters covered with 8ounce-pearls0 and decorated with gold and silver bands2 on this field several larger pearls were set4 ,one of these miters is valued at #ifd crowns 7#bafi7 and another at #eji crowns 7#aace74 ,the total value of the articles inventoried is #ahe1ejj crowns 7at least #dag1cge74 ,inventories of the property of the dukes of ,lorraine1 dated #aedd1 #aeeb1 and #afad1 mention a number of pearl ornaments4 ,in the inventory of #aedd1 made about the time of the accession of ,francis ,i of ,lorraine1 we read of 8a very fine case of silver-gilt around which are thirteen personages in gold1 and on the lock three balases and five pearls40 ,the inventory of #aeeb1 made while ,charles ,,ii was duke1 mentions 8a cap of crimson velvet whereon there are large pearls10 and another cap 8entirely covered with pearls40 ,it is1 however1 in the inventory of #afad1 made a few years after the accession of ,henry ,,ii of ,lorraine1 that we find the greatest number of items relating to pearls4 ,an estimate of the value of the rings and jewels was 8faicte du commandement de son ,altze par jouailliers et ,lapidaires et ,espertz dudit ars40 ,all these jewels were to remain forever the property of the ,duchy of ,lorraine4 ,among the items relating to pearls1 the following are worthy of note3 ,a gold collar with seven settings1 each containing one large diamond and two large pearls4 ,the diamond in the center was believed to weigh fifteen carats1 and the collar was valued at #ce1jjj crowns 7about #gj1jjj74 ,another collar contained seven diamonds and sixteen pearls set in pairs1 and was considered to be worth #ai1gej crowns 7about #dj1jjj74 ,a collection of one hundred large pearls1 some weighing twenty grains1 some twenty-four1 some twenty-eight1 and a few thirty-two grains1 were estimated at #ab1jjj crowns 7#bd1jjj74 ,a large pearl1 very nearly pear-shaped and almost as large as a pigeon's egg1 was set down at #bjjj crowns 7#djjj74 ,a very fine pear-shaped pearl weighing forty-eight grains was valued at #hjj crowns 7#afjj74 ,another pear-shaped pearl weighing about thirty-two grains was placed at #ejj crowns 7#ajjj74 ,four other pear-shaped pearls1 nearly as large as the one above mentioned1 were estimated at #cjj crowns 7#fjj71 while a round 8pearl of ,seville0 was valued at only fifty crowns 7#ajj74 ,six clusters of pearls1 each containing two of fourteen grains1 and four of eight grains1 were thought to be worth #gjj crowns 7#adjj74 ,a large chalice was decorated with seven large oriental emeralds and eight clusters1 each composed of fourteen fine1 round pearls1 six of twelve grains and eight of eight grains2 the whole valued at #bdjj crowns 7#dhjj74 ,a hat ornament composed of eleven fine rubies and ten large1 round pearls1 each weighing twelve grains1 was estimated at #hjj crowns 7#afjj74 ,a similar ornament1 composed of thirteen rubies and fourteen pearls1 partly flat and partly round1 was placed at #bjjj crowns 7#djjj74 ,a collar set with seven fine rubies and the same number of round pearls1 each weighing twelve grains1 and with seven other pendant pearls1 was valued at #eej crowns 7#aajj74 ,there was also a bed called the 8bed of pearls10 which was elaborately decorated with ornamentation in gold and richly studded with pearls4 ,the inventory made in #afcd of the ornaments1 etc41 contained in the abbey of ,st4 ,denis1 offers some new material and a fuller description of a few of the objects mentioned in the inventory of #aecd4 ,the most noteworthy entries are given below3 ,a golden scepter upon a staff of wood4 ,the scepter bears the figure of ,charlemagne seated upon a throne2 at the corners are two lions and two eagles 7one of the latter was lacking in #afcd74 ,the figure holds a scepter in its right hand1 and a globe surmounted by a cross in its left2 on its head is a crown with a large1 round1 oriental pearl valued at #bjj livres 7#ace74 ,the throne rested on a fleur-de-lys1 beneath which was a ball of gold ornamented with eight oriental pearls4 ,around the throne was the inscription3 8,sanctus ,carolus ,magnus ,italia ,roma ,gallia ,germania10 and three clusters of three pearls each4 ,the value of this scepter was given at #ccjj livres1 or about #bbjj4 ,the reliquary of the hand of ,st4 ,thomas4 ,two angels1 resting on a silver-gilt base1 bore the crystal receptacle containing the relic4 ,the ornamentation consisted of eight clusters of four large pearls each1 with a small diamond in the center4 ,on the hand was a gold band bearing the inscription3 8,hic est manus beati ,thomae apti4 quam misit in latus domini nostri ,jesu ,christi40 ,on the hand was a pontifical ring set with a large sapphire4 ,the reliquary also bore the images of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1 of ,st4 ,thomas1 and of the ,virgin ,mary4 ,it was valued at #eeij livres1 or about #cgjj4 ,a vessel made of a porphyry resembling jasper and embellished with forty-six pearls2 estimated at #aejj livres 7#ajjj74 ,a cope given by ,anne of ,bretagne1 ,queen of ,france1 and bearing six scenes from the life of the ,virgin ,mary embroidered in gold and pearls2 the whole bordered with pearls and gold of ,cyprus4 ,on the cope were the letters ,a and ,s1 and the words 8plutost mourir40 ,there were two ounces of pearls4 ,valued at #bjjj livres 7#acej74 ,a vase of rock crystal1 of antique workmanship1 with a cover and base of silver-gilt2 the top decorated with a band of amethysts1 garnets1 and sapphires1 alternating with ,scotch and oriental pearls4 ,on the base are various precious stones and twenty-three ,scotch and oriental pearls1 and the inscription 8,hoc vas sponsa dedit ,anor4 regi ,ludovico40 ,this vase was given by ,eleanor of ,aquitaine to her husband1 ,louis ,,vii of ,france 7#aacg-aahj71 by whom it was bestowed upon ,suger1 ,abbot of ,st4 ,denis 7#ajhb-aaeb74 ,the goldsmith work and decoration belong to the time of ,suger4 ,the vase is now in the ,louvre4 ,a chalice of agate1 with two handles1 and engraved with the figures of men1 animals1 and birds4 ,it stood on a foot of gold adorned with sixteen sapphires1 forty-four pearls1 and twenty-two clusters of fourteen pearls each4 ,this chalice rested upon a paten of porphyry decorated with seven fishes inlaid in gold1 and with a bordering of pearls and precious stones disposed around the edge4 ,both together valued at #be1jjj livres 7about #af1jjj74 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,empress ,,dowager ,,of ,,china ,from a portrait painted by ,miss ,katharine ,a4 ,carl ,a vase of agate with a foot of silver-gilt1 and furnished with a cover and a spout in the form of a serpent1 both of silver-gilt4 ,around the base an inscription3 8,dum libare deo gemmis debemus et auro1 ,hoc ego ,sugerus offero vas domino0 7,since we should pour libations to ,god out of gems and gold1 ,i1 ,suger1 offer this vessel to the ,lord74 ,this vase1 which is now in the ,louvre and is of sardonyx1 was enriched with many precious stones and with nineteen ,scotch and oriental pearls4 ,the value given was #aejj livres 7about #ajjj74 ,a book beginning3 8,kyrie ,eleison10 with covers of wood1 one overlaid with gold and the other with silver4 ,on the golden cover was an ivory crucifix1 and images1 in ivory1 of the ,virgin ,mary and of ,st4 ,john4 ,the cross was bordered with seed-pearls1 as were the diadems of the images4 ,the cover was also decorated with an engraved crysolite1 an engraved peridot1 and with sapphires1 emeralds1 and garnets4#dga ,a curious item regarding the use of pearls in embroidery is contained in one of the inventories of the dukes of ,burgundy1 made in #adad2 this reads as follows3 ,the sum of #bgf livres #g sols #f deniers tournois 7about #ifj71 the price of #ifj pearls destined to ornament a dress2 along the sleeves are embroidered the words of the song 8,madame1 je suis joyeulx10 and the notes are also marked along the sleeves4 ,on each sleeve are #bfd pearls which help in forming the notes of the said song1 numbering #adb2 that is to say1 a square made of four pearls for each note4#dgb ,mention is made in two old ,french documents of the use of pearls from ,compiegne in ornamentation4 ,in the 8,inventaire de la royne ,clmence10 in #acbh1 we read of 8a cock covered with precious stones and bearing a pearl of ,compigne02 and in the 8,comptes ,royaux10 under date of #acec1 appears this item3 8,for four pearls1 oriental1 ,scotch and of ,compigne1 for the said arm-chair1 #dh crowns40 ,as these pearls could not have been found in ,compigne1 we may suppose that there was a market for their sale in that place1 which gave rise to the designation4#dgc ,the ,english authority and writer on early ,english silver1 ,f4 ,alfred ,jones1 communicated1 under date of ,september1 #aijg1 that pearls were rarely used in old ,english plate2 in fact1 any such embellishments were of exceedingly infrequent occurrence4 ,they are1 however1 frequently mentioned in the inventory of the marvelous collection of gold plate dispersed by ,charles ,i of ,england1 which may have dated from the time of the looting of the churches and monasteries by ,henry ,,viii4 ,the following items are from the inventories of ,philip ,,ii of ,spain and of ,margarita1 wife of ,philip ,,iii4 ,the original documents are in the ,austrian archives4 ,a golden cup which came from ,england4 ,around the foot was a wreath of fifteen fleurons1 each containing pearls1 and also four ,st4 ,andrew's crosses comprising eighteen pearls each4 ,the interior of the cup showed scenes from the life of ,st4 ,george and was studded with pearls1 while thirty-one pearl pendants hung from the edge4 #aa1hig reals 7about #agjj74dgd ,some curious jewels1 belonging to ,queen ,margarita1 wife of ,philip ,,iii of ,spain1 were entered in an inventory made in #afaa4 ,an imperial eagle1 full of diamonds1 that came from ,england1 with two pendants of two pearls1 which could be unhooked from the said eagle and were worn by her ,majesty at two masks as earrings4 ,valued at #gg1jjj reals 7about #aa1jjj74 ,gold earrings1 enameled in various colors1 with seven diamonds in each one and three pendant pearls1 two small ones of equal size and the other shaped like a pear4 ,valued at #acbj reals 7#ahh74dge ,in the older ,spanish jewelry pearls were frequently entirely pierced through1 as if they had been worn in necklaces2 and if hung as drops of one to three or more1 they were strung on a wire1 the upper end usually forming an ornament1 and they were kept from falling off below by flattening the lower end of the wire1 this flattening acting as a stop4 ,these styles have a marked resemblance to the oriental methods elsewhere described1 and suggest the derivation of the early ,spanish pearl mounting from the ,moorish occupation of the country4 ,if they were set singly on any part of the jewel1 they were put on a wire peg fastened to it1 and then the end of the wire which projected was hammered flat to keep the pearl in place4 ,excellent examples of these styles are the ,spanish earrings in the collection of the ,hispano-,american ,museum of ,new ,york4 ,the same method was used in ,transylvania in the seventeenth century with remarkably artistic effect4 ,the pearls of the ,virgin of the ,rosary in the church of ,st4 ,domingo1 ,lima1 were famous4 ,it is believed that they were sold in the war of independence4 ,those of the monstrance in the sanctuary of the cathedral of ,lima were sold during the last war with ,chile4 ,the monstrance of the cathedral of ,cuzco still shows pearls and emeralds1 but they are of small size4 ,a lady who left a great fortune in pearls to the church of ,nazareno and the ,house of the ,poor of the church of ,st4 ,peter1 ,lima1 was ,doa ,maria ,fernandez de ,crdoba1 from the family of ,borda1 grandmother to the minister of ,peru in ,washington4 ,she was a descendant of ,hernan ,corts and of ,pizarro by her ancestor ,carmen ,corts4 ,the pearls of ,lima figure prominently in the history of the ,peruvian families4 ,the war of independence1 which ended in #ahbb1 was followed by the suppression of the entailed estates2 this forced a division of the family fortunes1 and it became necessary to sell the family jewels in ,europe4 ,thither went all the famous pearls of the ,peruvian aristocracy1 whose luxury is proven by the fact that in #aghj there were in ,lima no less than two thousand private carriages4 ,one of the most remarkable uses of ,bohemian pearls was that of a large triptych owned by ,count ,moritz of ,lobkowitz and ,duke of ,raudnitz4 ,it measured six or more feet in height4 ,the entire borders were ornamented with pearls4 ,the center of the triptych represented the ascension of ,christ on a chariot drawn by lambs4 ,in the panel to the right was the ,angel ,gabriel1 and to the left the ,virgin ,mary praying4 ,the borders and lettering were magnificently embroidered and decorated in ,bohemian pearls4 ,this object probably dated from the sixteenth or early part of the seventeenth century4 ,it was estimated by one of the authors to contain at least one hundred thousand pearls4 ,madame ,zelie ,nuttal1 the great ,maya scholar1 personally writes that pearls are not mentioned either as articles of tribute or of decoration in ancient ,mexican codices2 possibly a lack of fine1 hard instruments with which to drill holes in pearls may have caused them to be comparatively little used in personal adornment4 ,neither do they appear to have been found incrusted in prehistoric objects1 and we have no written evidence of their having been used in this way4 ,we do not know of any instances of the wearing of pearls by the ,indian women1 but the women of the higher classes used to wear them profusely1 more especially drop-earrings and pendants4 ,madame ,nuttal also communicates as follows3 ,bernadino de ,sahagun states3 8,there are also pearls in ,new ,spain1 and they are familiar to everybody4 ,they are named epyollotti1#dgf which means the heart of the shell1 because they are formed in the shell of the oyster40 ,in ,molina's dictionary 8seed-pearls0 are named 8piciltic epyollotti10 which means 8water-stars10 a poetical name1 composed of the word a att water1 and cittallin star4 ,the latter name leads us to infer the possibility that the 8star-skirt1 or skirt of1 or with stars10 the 8cittallin icue0 of the living image of the goddess 8,tlamateculitti0 was decorated with pearls1 although it is only described 7,book ,,ii1 chap4 #cf7 as being 8of leather1 cut into strips at the bottom 7forming a fringe71 at the end of each of which hung a small shell named #8cueclitti' which reproduced a sound when she walked40 ,as it is stated that this 8star-skirt0 was worn over 8a white one0 it seems as though it must have been of the kind1 represented in codices and sculptures1 made of openwork and netlike1 and studded with round objects--possibly pearls--at the crossings or in the centers of the open spaces4 ,oil-paintings of the madonnas represent them with robes richly embroidered with pearls1 and wearing 8ropes of pearls40 ,the ,virgin of the ,rosario1 in the church at ,santo ,domingo1 ,mexico1 was noted for her pearls1 and there is a small oil-painting of this virgin1 in which she is depicted with a wealth of pearls4 ,in the ,bohemian ,national ,exposition1 held at ,prague in #ahia1 ,count ,schwarzenberg exhibited four embroideries1 each fourteen by eight inches4 ,they were embroidered with ,bohemian pearls found on his domains a century or more previous1 and contained many thousands of pearls4 ,in ,hungary pearls have always been the favorite jewels1 especially among the aristocracy1 and they have served to adorn the national costume of both men and women4 ,a century ago nearly every family of distinction owned a necklace1 but most of the pearls were small and of indifferent quality4 ,since that time fine pearls have become more usual1 and many wealthy ,hungarian families have acquired beautiful pearls of good size and excellent quality1 and many splendid necklaces can now be seen in ,hungary4 ,the following are some of the finest3 ,a necklace of three large rows1 owned by the ,archduke ,joseph and valued at one million francs4 ,a still larger necklace in the possession of ,prince ,nicholas ,esterhazy2 this1 however1 is an entailed heirloom1 and may not be parted with without the king's permission4 ,a very fine necklace of five rows1 also an entailed heirloom1 owned by ,count ,maurice ,esterhazy4 ,a large necklace1 possessed by ,countess ,alois ,karoly1 wife of the late ambassador in ,london4 ,this is another entailed heirloom2 its value is at least a million and a half francs4 ,an unusually large necklace of four rows1 such as one rarely sees1 owned by the ,countess ,wenkheim4 ,the pearls are white1 and have a good shape1 but not much brilliancy4 ,the average size of these pearls is approximately twenty-four grains4 ,an equally large necklace consisting of a single row1 averaging twenty-six grains1 in the possession of ,countess ,louis ,batthyani4 ,there are a great many other necklaces of fine quality1 worth from #cjj1jjj francs down to #ajj1jjj francs1 belonging to families such as those of ,count ,joseph ,hunyadi1 ,countess ,festetics-,hamilton1 ,count ,landor ,nako1 ,peer ,leo ,lanczi1 ,count ,albert ,apponyi1 ,mr4 ,eugene ,dreher1 ,madame ,emma de ,bachrach1 etc41 etc4 ,indeed1 almost every wealthy family of the better class owns a necklace worth up to #ajj1jjj francs and over4 ,illustration3 ,,pearl ,,ornaments ,,of ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,and ,,eighteenth ,,centuries ,hungarian ,aigret ,earring1 ,hungary ,earrings1 ,nijni-,novgorod ,spanish earring ,the portraits of the fifteenth1 sixteenth1 and seventeenth centuries afford us many interesting evidences regarding the various forms of jewelry in which pearls were used4 ,indeed1 had we no other records1 these pictures alone would prove the great popularity of the gem as an ornament4 ,in the finely executed portrait of the ,duchess ,anne de ,france1 she wears a coronet with three pearls at each point4 ,it seems to be made up of three large pearls1 set on a row of pearls circling the entire top of her head1 beneath which is a row of great emeralds1 and then another row of pearls4 ,flaring downward and entirely covering the side of her head near the ear1 are two rows of pearls with a row of fine emeralds between them1 the rows of pearls deflecting slightly downward until the chin line is reached1 and then turning back and slightly upward1 meeting at the back4 ,as in the crown cap1 the same severe decoration in pearls is the main feature1 and is repeated on each side of the robe1 the front of which is of ermine4 ,beginning on a line with the shoulder is a broad band of pearls and emeralds set in gold which extends below her waist4 ,at the top of this are six pearls set in a straight line4 ,then from the end of this line1 dropping straight down1 is a row on each side4 ,between the two rows is a gem1 then two great pearls and another gem1 then two more pearls1 this being repeated to below the waist4 ,the ermine is held at her waist by a trefoil reversed2 that is1 two pearls above and one below a great gem1 and then a trefoil reversed below this4 ,this portrait is dated #adih and is on a triptych in the cathedral of ,moulins4 ,quite unique is the pearl decoration in a picture of ,st4 ,barbara1 painted by an artist of the ,french school1 and dated #aebj1 which is in the ,national ,museum of ,budapest4 ,this artist uses pearls with the utmost severity of taste and richness4 ,beginning a trifle above the center of her forehead is an emerald ornament1 and on each side there extend to the back of her head three rows of pearls1 not placed exactly one row above the other1 but the rows intertwined with each other4 ,the whole is enriched by a great string of pearls about her neck4 ,the effect produced is extremely artistic and beautiful4 ,catharine de' ,medici wore two rows of pearls on her bonnet1 and a quaint necklace in sections of two rows of four pearls1 with a large pearl between2 a pear-shaped pendant on a ,renaissance jewel2 a row of pearls around her low-cut bodice1 and a girdle of jewels alternating with pearls1 which extended to the lower end of her gown4 ,in addition to all this1 she wore a bracelet of jewels with a pearl set between each ornament4 ,this artistic combination is best shown in her portrait in the ,uffizi1 ,florence 7,no4 #gbf71 painted by an unknown artist4 ,one of the most unique1 rich1 and chic collections of pearls1 and one worn with unusual grace1 is that of the ,infanta ,isabella ,clara ,eugenia1 shown in the fine portrait of her by ,coello ,sanchez4 ,in this portrait her hat shows the plumes embroidered with slanting rows of three1 four1 and five pearls4 ,in the center of the hat is an ornament shaped like a flower1 with seven large pearl petals surrounding a great pearl center4 ,the hat is tilted to one side showing her hair on the left1 while a little to the right of the center of her forehead1 and touching it1 there hangs from her hair a great pear-shaped pearl1 which adds a wonderful amount of character to the jeweling of her head4 ,around her neck is a high fluted ruff2 below which is a collar of large gems relieved by an ornament of two pearls placed between each gem4 ,the same interesting motive is carried out in a girdle of gems which comes down very low to her waist1 terminating in a large jeweled heart ornament4 ,the painting shows sixteen remarkable pearls in the collar1 and thirty-six pearls in the jeweled girdle4 ,a very interesting collection of portraits was exhibited last spring 7#aijg7 at the ,bibliothque ,nationale in ,paris4 ,the pictures are contained1 in some instances1 in old illuminated manuscripts1 while in others they are contemporary crayon sketches4 ,many pearl decorations are represented1 and we give a few of the most important4 ,the portrait of ,anne de ,bretagne 7#adgf-aead71 wife of ,louis ,,xii1 from the 8,heures d',anne de ,bretagne10 illuminated by ,jean ,bourdichon1 represents the queen kneeling2 she wears a collar ornamented with groups of four pearls alternating with precious stones4 ,a crayon sketch of ,franoise de ,foix1 ,comtesse de ,chteaubriant 7#adij-aecg71 who became the mistress of ,francis ,i1 shows her wearing a hood or coif ornamented with forty oval pearls4 ,she also wears a necklace of sixty fine round pearls4 ,diane de ,poitiers 7#adii-aeff71 granddaughter of ,charles ,,vii and ,agnes ,sorel1 is represented with a head-dress similar to that worn by the ,comtesse de ,chteaubriant 4 ,it has a border of sixty round pearls4 ,this crayon is of the time of ,jean ,clouet4 ,a portrait of ,philip ,strozzi 7#aeda-aehb7 who1 although an ,italian1 had the rank of colonel-gnral in the ,french army1 is interesting as an illustration of the wearing of earrings by the men of this period4 ,the fine round pearl which hangs from his ear strikes us now as a curious ornament for a warrior4 ,a crayon sketch of ,gabrielle d',estres 7d4 #aeii71 mistress of ,henri ,,iv1 is attributed to the hand of ,daniel ,dumonstier4 ,here may be seen a splendid pearl necklace1 which apparently consists of six sections1 each comprising three rows of eight round pearls1 the sections being connected with each other by a large oval pearl4 ,the necklace1 which hangs down over the bosom1 is fastened by a clasp in the form of a four-leaved clover1 from which depend two other sections similar to those described above1 and terminating in an oval pearl pendant4 ,the portrait of the ,duchesse de ,montpensier 7#afbg-afic71 the 8,grande ,mademoiselle0 of ,mme4 de ,svign's letters1 is from the 8,maximes de nostre salut10 dedicated to the duchess by the author1 ,m4 de la ,serre1 and is attributed to ,nicolas ,jarry4 ,it represents the duchess wearing a beautiful necklace of round pearls and a large pear-shaped pearl earring1 while another pear-shaped pearl depends from a clasp which serves to loop up her fichu on the shoulder4 ,a fine example of the ,renaissance style existing in the sixteenth century is that of a gold and enamel necklace of ,italian workmanship1 embellished with pearls4 ,this necklace was presented to the ,louvre ,museum by ,don ,a4 de ,rotschildt4 ,the two-pearl motive is carried out exquisitely1 two pearls appearing in a small connecting ornament between two larger enameled and engraved gold plaques1 which represent scenes from the life of our ,saviour4 ,at the exposition of #aijj there was shown in the ,russian ,pavilion1 a most interesting collection of jewelry of decidedly oriental character1 dating from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century4 ,these jewels were said to have belonged to the ,emir of ,bokhara4 ,they differed slightly from the ,east ,indian in character1 and generally consisted of combinations of pearls1 rubies1 and emeralds1 the three colors of these gems predominating4 ,one of the most interesting of the necklaces1 acquired by ,j4 ,gelatley1 ,esq41 shows an arrangement of the pearls which is peculiarly attractive and decorative4 ,the heraldic significance of pearls has at times been very important4 ,while in the eighteenth century the crowns of the ,french nobles were surmounted with silver points1 it appears that in the sixteenth century they were provided with pearl points4 ,according to ,rudolphus1#dgg the dukes wore a leaf crown of eight leaves1 with or without as many commingled pearl points2 the marquises a crown of four leaves with twelve pearl points1 or with four groups of three pearls set one over the other2 and the counts1 a pearl crown which sometimes had four pearls in each corner1 one above the other4 ,the viscounts wore a gold ring set with four pearls1 and the barons a gold ring entwined with pearls4 ,the same is true of the ,english coronets4 ,instead of the pearls which they bore at an earlier period1 silver balls are now used on those of the ,english barons1 viscounts1 earls1 and marquises4 ,this change probably owed its origin to the desire on the part of the sovereigns to confine the official use of pearls and other precious stones to themselves4 ,the rules at the coronation of ,edward ,,vii forbade the use of pearls except as a special royal privilege4 ,the earl's coronet has eight balls raised on points1 with gold strawberry leaves between the points4 ,the marquis wears one with four gold strawberry leaves and four silver balls alternating1 the latter raised above the rim4#dgh ,a pearl and gold ring1 formerly belonging to ,washington1 is now in the possession of ,vice-,chancellor ,e4 ,b4 ,learning1 of ,camden1 ,n4 ,j4 ,it bears in the center a lock of ,washington's hair under a conical glass1 around which is a setting of blue and white enamel with a square of red at each corner4 ,the whole is surrounded by a circle of thirteen pearls4 ,this ring was presented by ,washington to ,lieutenant ,richard ,somers prior to the latter's departure on the expedition against the ,algerine pirates in ,tripoli1 in the course of which he lost his life4 ,before his departure he left the ring with his sister1 ,sarah ,keen4 ,vice-,chancellor ,leaming's paternal grandmother inherited it as heir to ,somers's estate1 and from her it descended successively to her son and grandson4 ,the lock of ,washington's hair is admitted to be one of only three now existing1 of the other two1 one is at ,washington's headquarters at ,newburg and the other in the museum at ,boston4 ,the ring was exhibited at the ,centennial ,exposition in #ahgf4 ,and what a wealth of pearls was seen at the marriage of the late ,emperor ,frederick ,,iii of ,germany with ,princess ,victoria1 in #aheh6 ,the wedding gift of the bridegroom consisted of a necklace of thirty-six enormous pearls1 three superb ones in the middle1 and graduated in size toward the ends4 ,from her mother1 ,queen ,victoria1 the bride received a diamond necklace and three massive brooches set with unusually large pearls2 and from ,prince ,albert1 a magnificent hair-net of pearls1 diamonds1 and emeralds4 ,the king and queen of ,prussia presented a diadem of brilliants surrounded with a splendid circlet of pearls4 ,on the day of her entry into ,berlin1 the queen bestowed on the bride a costly brooch of pearls and diamonds1 representing a bouquet1 the leaves of which consisted of diamonds1 while the flowers themselves were of pear-shaped pearls of large size1 one weighing #afj grains1 and fourteen of them weighing #fjj grains together4 ,one of the most splendid and best known collection of pearls1 and one worn with as much grace as any in ,europe1 consists of those owned by the dowager ,queen ,margherita of ,italy1 whose name signifies pearl1 and who has always been fond of the ocean jewel4 ,her husband1 ,king ,humbert1 made her many presents of this regal gem4 ,a photograph1 signed by the queen and sent to us for this volume by her gracious courtesy1 shows her wearing her magnificent twelve strings of pearls1 a pearl bracelet1 and a pearl tiara with pear-shaped pearl tips4 ,illustration3 ,,margherita1 ,,dowager ,,queen ,,of ,,italy ,at the coronation of ,edward ,,vii and ,queen ,alexandra1 beside her coronation crown1 the latter wore many of her richest and most beautiful jewels4 ,these consisted of seven immense rows of pearls1 each twenty-four to thirty inches in length1 hanging below five large neck circlets of diamonds and a great corsage ornament which covered her entire bodice2 and beneath part of this was a splendid ornament of diamonds with large1 pear-shaped pearls4 ,a careful study of the decorations conferred by potentates and governments shows that the pearl is rarely used in the ornamentation of these marks of distinction4 ,a notable exception is that given by the ,siamese government4 ,this decoration is known as the nine-jewel ,siamese decoration1 and bears a large center pearl4 ,it is only conferred on nine members of the royal ,siamese family1 including his ,majesty the ,king of ,siam4 ,the central pearl represents the king and the eight other jewels surrounding it the members of his family4 ,it is strange that ,siam should find so much significance in white1 as is illustrated by the white elephant1 and also by the use of the white pearl for this order4 ,the ,order of ,christ1 the chief ,portuguese order1 has a long cross enameled in bright red surcharged with a white cross and bordered with fine pearls4 ,the effect is both striking and beautiful4 ,the order of the crown of ,india is a jeweled badge with a device composed of the imperial cipher1 ,e4 ,r4 and ,i41 in diamonds1 pearls1 and turquoises1 set within a border of pearls and surmounted by the imperial crown4#dgi ,a remarkable pearl necklace was recently the subject of litigation in ,england4 ,it was the property of the late ,duchess of ,sermonata1 an ,englishwoman who married an ,italian4 ,she was a daughter of the late ,lord ,howard de ,walden1 one of the wealthiest of the ,english nobility4 ,the duchess was in the habit of investing all her spare cash in pearls1 and it seems that she chose a very good form of investment1 since pearls have increased in value to a greater extent even than diamonds during the same period4 ,of the ten rows of which this necklace consisted1 six were deposited for safekeeping in a ,london bank and the other four were in ,florence at the time of the death of the duchess4 ,she had bequeathed the gems at the bank to her niece1 ,miss ,henrietta ,ellis1 and had left directions that1 if her pearl necklace was in ,london when she died1 it should be sent to her ,italian executors4 ,all the jewels are now claimed by these executors1 while ,miss ,ellis contends that it was the intention of the duchess to leave to her the pearls in the hands of the ,london bankers4 ,the necklace consisted at one time of ten rows2 the first1 thirteen and a half inches long1 comprised forty-one pearls2 the second1 fourteen inches in length1 thirty-nine pearls2 the third1 fourteen and a half inches1 forty-three pearls2 the fourth1 seventeen inches1 forty-seven pearls2 the fifth1 seventeen and a half inches1 forty-nine pearls2 the sixth1 nineteen and a half inches1 fifty-five pearls2 the seventh1 twenty-one inches1 sixty-six pearls2 the eighth1 twenty-three and a half inches1 seventy pearls2 the ninth1 twenty-six inches1 eighty-two pearls2 the tenth1 twenty-nine and a half inches1 ninety-one pearls4 ,the total number of pearls is #ehc1 and the necklace is valued at #aej1jjj4 ,a widely advertised necklace of large size was shown in the ,english section of the ,paris ,exposition of #aijj4 ,this necklace consisted of forty-six pearls weighing #aeif grains1 and was valued at #dej1jjj4 ,it was loaned by an ,english gentleman now dead1 and was returned to him at the close of the exposition and later dispersed4 ,in regard to the possession of pearls by families in the ,united ,states1 we may safely say that there is not a letter in the alphabet under which we cannot find the names of from one to a dozen families1 owning single strings or collections from the value of #aj1jjj to #bjj1jjj1 or even more4 ,if one is a wearer of jewels1 pearls are an absolute necessity2 indeed1 they are as essential and indispensable for the wealthy as are houses1 horses1 and automobiles4 ,at no period in the world's history have pearls been more widely distributed2 and some of those of to-day are finer in quality and orient1 and also more carefully matched1 than those in the great collections of the past4 ,of course there are exceptions1 where royal personages have been careful observers and have used good taste1 but it is a question whether there have ever been more critical or better buyers1 as far as selection is concerned1 than are many ,american men and women who have purchased this gem4 ,one of the largest pearl necklaces in the ,united ,states is in the possession of an ,american lady4 ,there are perhaps thirty pearls in the necklace1 weighing in all about #adjj grains2 the largest pearl weighs nearly #abj grains4 ,there is also one of #ge grains and one of #gj grains1 the others graduating down to #bj grains4 ,illustration3 ,,collection ,,of ,,black ,,pearls ,,belonging ,,to ,,an ,,american ,,lady ,with increasing wealth1 and a demand for rich rather than gaudy or showy jewelry1 there is nothing that commends itself so highly as the pearl1 which acts as a foil to the diamond1 emerald1 ruby1 and sapphire1 and at the same time harmonizes with them and in fact with all the colored stones4 ,the true pearl1 as it increases in size and beauty1 becomes proportionately more rare and costly2 and yet it differs from other jewels in the fact that they are mined in the depths of the earth1 and their existing quantity is speculative1 while the home of the pearl is much more accessible1 and it is possible to make an estimate of the number of pearls in course of growth4 ,pearls1 however1 are forming all the time1 while other gems are perhaps to-day as they were ages before the advent of man4 ,nevertheless1 even if pearls were cultivated as they should be1 and people cared for the mollusks as the oyster-gatherer does for his crop--by planting it1 guarding it and gathering it systematically--still1 the ever-increasing demand would more than balance the greater supply4 ,as we have said1 at no time since pearls were worn have they enjoyed such favor2 and while they have always increased in value1 this increase has never been so rapid as in the past ten years4 ,they are jewels which can be worn by young or old1 and which adapt themselves to every fabric that man or woman can use for attire2 whether they are white1 gray1 or black1 they are never obtrusive1 but always have a refining effect4 ,round as the globe upon which we live1 they will probably be worn and appreciated as long as life exists upon this sphere4 ,it is interesting to note the change of taste and the difference of opinion1 at various epochs1 in regard to the respective merits of pear-shaped and round pearls4 ,in the ,roman period the pear-shaped pearls were more highly valued2 in the eighteenth century round pearls were esteemed the more valuable1 while at the present day they are both on about the same basis4 ,with the progressive twentieth century taste for independence in fashion1 our modern ladies take from every epoch what they think will best suit their superrefined beauty4 ,therefore we are not surprised to find in their jewel-cases the long earrings and large brooches adorned with seed-pearls1 similar to those worn by their grandmothers of the early ,victorian period4 ,although these jewels cannot be considered very beautiful according to the artistic standard of to-day1 they1 nevertheless1 lend to their wearers a certain quaint dignity and piquancy which is very attractive4 ,as an instance of modern pearl-wearing by a lady of the present century1 we may note a portrait in which there is a simple necklace of large pearls2 over this a collar of twenty-three rows of pearls with a diamond centerpiece1 and to relieve the severity1 a sautoir1 which is made up of alternate pearls and diamonds1 and pearl earrings4 ,no better illustration can be given than the portrait of ,seora ,carmen ,romero ,rubio de ,diaz1 wife of ,president ,porfirio ,diaz of ,mexico1 which1 by her courtesy1 we are able to figure4 ,the gathering of a great necklace is not the work of a day2 it often requires many years4 ,such necklaces are frequently held for a long time by dealers or by a number of people who are interested in their sale1 and whenever one or more pearls can be purchased which form a better graduation or which are of better color or more perfect1 they are usually purchased to improve the necklace if the price is a proper one4 ,in the early sixties1 when most ,american women aspired to owning a pair of diamond earrings1 it was not uncommon for ladies to start with a hundred1 two hundred1 five hundred1 or a thousand-dollar pair1 and1 for a dozen years to come1 to add an annual sum of one hundred1 two hundred or five hundred dollars to increasing the size of these by exchanging them with the dealer at the cost price and paying the difference between the value of the pair that had been purchased and that of the new pair4 ,in this way ladies who never would have thought of spending five thousand dollars for a pair of earrings1 virtually made a savings-bank of the jewels4 ,this is frequently done with pearls4 ,a small necklace or a few pearls will be purchased2 these are added to annually or at such times as the owner may have spare savings or gifts to invest4 ,it is not uncommon for a family to buy a pearl for a daughter on her first birthday1 and each succeeding year add one pearl to this1 so that she may first wear one pearl1 then two1 then three1 and by the time the young lady makes her dbut in society1 a good start has been made toward a pearl necklace4 ,it was the custom of ,king ,humbert of ,italy to present his queen1 ,margherita1 with one fine pearl every year1 and with this succession of annual gifts she possessed one of the finest collections in ,europe4 ,in the portraits of the four daughters of the present ,czarina of ,russia1 the ,grand ,duchesses ,tatiana1 ,olga1 ,maria1 and ,anastasia1 we can see that their pearl necklaces were built up gradually1 as that of the eldest daughter is notably longer than those of her younger sisters4 ,these pearls were annual gifts from the ,czar and ,czarina and from others of the imperial family4 ,there are few ornaments worn by man or woman that have not at one time or another been bepearled1 either with large or small pearls1 with one pearl or many pearls1 with pearls of high or low degree1 and no object is ever made the less rich by the addition of the peerless gem of the ocean depths4 ,as the prices of pearls have increased1 naturally the single objects containing them have also become more costly4 ,it is not unusual to see rings with pearls each costing from #ejjj to #aj1jjj1 #bj1jjj1 and even #cj1jjj and over1 the pearls not infrequently being in button form4 ,rings are occasionally made up of one white and one black oriental pearl1 and if a pink one is combined with these1 it is either a fresh-water or a conch pearl4 ,such rings sell for #ejjj1 #hjjj1 #aj1jjj and #ae1jjj each4 ,pendant pearls1 either round1 ovate1 drop1 or pear-shaped1 sell from #ejjj to #aj1jjj1 #bj1jjj1 #ej1jjj1 and even #ajj1jjj4 ,the prices for one or two choice pearls worn for the adornment of a man's shirt-front are #bjjj1 #cjjj1 #ejjj1 and even #aj1jjj4 ,illustration3 ,,senora ,,carmen ,,romero ,,rubio ,,de ,,diaz1 ,,wife ,,of ,,president ,,porfirio ,,diaz ,,of ,,mexico ,in link buttons1 slightly ovate1 button or round pearls are used1 the link being made up of one white and one black pearl1 costing #bjjj1 #cjjj1 #ejjj1 and even #bj1jjj a set4 ,it is not unusual for a man to wear a scarf-pin set with a round1 ovate1 or pear-shaped pearl costing #bjjj1 #ejjj1 #aj1jjj1 #ae1jjj1 and even #cj1jjj4 ,for men's scarf-pins1 a variety of colors are frequently selected1 such as a white oriental1 a pink ,american1 a pink conch1 or a gray and black oriental pearl4 ,single pearl necklaces sell for #ajjj1 #bjjj1 #ejjj1 #hjjj1 #aj1jjj1 #ae1jjj1 #bj1jjj1 #ej1jjj1 #ajj1jjj1 #bej1jjj1 and #ejj1jjj necklaces are not unknown4 ,tiaras sell for #aj1jjj1 #bj1jjj1 #ej1jjj1 and #ajj1jjj4 ,waistcoat buttons1 sometimes made up of baroque pearls1 cost from #bjj to #ejj2 sometimes1 however1 when fine pearls are used1 the price paid for a set of five or six buttons is as high as #aj1jjj4 ,it is scarcely possible to mention all the various forms in which the pearl has been worn3 whether as a spray of many small pearls or a few large ones1 either round1 ovate1 or pear-shaped for aigrets2 in points on crowns1 used either for ornamental or heraldic purposes2 for the decoration of the orbs1 scepters1 and crowns of kings and emperors2 for forming an edging on bonnets1 caps1 fillets1 or diadems2 in pendant form1 usually consisting of one1 although sometimes of three or four pendants in rows and lines to ornament the side of the face2 or one1 two1 three1 or a bunch together to adorn the ear2 as a single pearl on a wire or a group of them1 as worn in the nose of the ,east ,indian beauty2 as a single1 two1 three1 or many-rowed necklace to grace the lady1 the queen1 and the empress2 or else in six1 ten1 to twenty or more rows with a tiny gold jeweled bar1 or a large diamond center1 in the form of collars2 as a long chain from four to ten feet long to hang from the neck to the waist1 or else to be worn once1 twice1 or thrice around the neck1 hanging down and then encircling the waist in the form of a sautoir2 either as a single drop1 consisting of an ovate or pear-shaped pearl or a number of them together in the form of a pendant combined with diamonds2 as a single pearl surrounded with pearls or diamonds for buttons to adorn my lady's crown2 in rows1 or combined with jewels and enamel1 in the form of a bow-knot with long bunches of pearls1 for shoulder bars2 either as one pearl alone or alternating with gold wire1 with jewels1 or with many pearls1 in endless forms1 as bracelets2 either as a single row1 two rows or alternate rows in infinite variety on bodices1 as worn in the past more than at the present2 in a single row on ornamenting metal1 enamel1 or jewelwork in the form of girdles2 in five hundred forms for rings2 as an embroidery or in rows pendant on slippers2 and1 finally1 as a stole4 ,these are only a few of the uses to which a lady can put pearls4 ,by men1 pearls are worn to adorn the shirt1 to wear in the scarf1 as link buttons1 as waistcoat buttons1 or as a fob4 ,the pearls used in this way are sometimes quite as expensive as any of those worn by the ladies4 ,ecclesiastics1 for more than two thousand years1 have appreciated the richness of bepearling4 ,in ,russia we find pearls decorating crosses1 missal covers1 vestments1 bindings on books1 chalices and crook-tops2 they are employed as borders to ikon frames1 or for the decoration about the ,madonna and ,child4 ,in ,persia we find pearl-embroidered rugs1 pillows1 and bolsters4 ,half-pearls are used in quaint decorations for watches1 snuff-boxes1 miniatures1 and portrait frames4 ,even saddles and horse-trappings in the ,east do not escape the charm and beauty of the pearl4 ,even the ,english coronation spoon is known for the pearls which ornament it4 ,of the many forms of earrings that have come down to us1 none is simpler or daintier than a single pearl worn as an ear-screw1 or partly or entirely strung on a thin gold wire4 ,another dainty style is three pearls1 worn one below the other as in ancient ,rome1 known as a triclum2 or the round pearl with a pear-shaped pendant or bunches of pearls known as crotalia1 also worn in ancient times4 ,a pearl necklace is usually clasped either by a round or ovate pearl1 drilled so that the catch and snap are contained within the pearl itself1 or else by a pearl surrounded by diamonds1 rubies1 or other gems4 ,such a clasp frequently serves to bind from two to fifteen rows of pearls1 the first or smaller row encircling the neck1 and each row in turn being larger until the fifteenth row reaches to the bosom or even to the waist4 ,pearl collars are usually made up of four1 six1 ten1 twenty1 and even twenty-five rows2 often of very small pearls1 generally fitting closely to the neck4 ,the pearls are held in position either by four gold1 diamond1 or jeweled bars1 or frequently the entire front of the collar is occupied by a large diamond ornament4 ,in ancient times1 pearls were a favorite decoration of crosses2 frequently an entire cross was made up of pearls1 either of a single or a double row4 ,many portraits dating from the fifteenth to the seventeenth century show the cross used in connection with a necklace1 this either starting from the top of the cross or from each side at the end of each arm4 ,sometimes from below the arms and the lower part of the cross there hung pendant either round or pear-shaped pearls4 ,we have other instances where at the top1 the cross was attached to a pearl necklace1 while below each of the two arms there hung a pearl1 and from the lower part of the cross a double necklace again reached to the back of the neck4 ,frequently a festoon collar will be made up of five rows of pearls1 each of a graduated length1 and pendant on each a diamond4 ,recently pearls have been drilled and invisibly joined by fine platinum links1 so as to form a continuous ribbon or even a collar two inches wide2 occasionally1 a ,greek border or some other design1 of larger pearls or of diamonds1 rubies1 sapphires or other gems1 is interwoven4 ,this constitutes a veritable1 smooth pearl cloth1 or pearl mesh1 very beautiful and also comfortable to wear4 ,indeed1 a purse1 measuring five by six inches1 has been made of this cloth of pearls4 ,illustration3 ,jade jar inlaid with pearls set with fine gold ,heber ,r4 ,bishop ,collection1 ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art ,illustration3 ,japanese decoration set with pearls ,order of the crown of the ,first ,class4 ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art ,dust-pearls1 too minute to drill1 and numbering over #ajj1jjj to the ounce1 were used1 in the latter part of the eighteenth and the early part of the nineteenth centuries1 for the embellishment of the hair-work then so much in favor and which was placed under glass4 ,where foliage was represented the leaves were made of the most minute seed-pearls1 graduated in size and set on an outline of enamel or white paint1 the pearls being cemented to the outline4 ,this added a softness to the hair-work and other decoration4 ,as long as the pearl has been known1 there has been a desire to obtain possession of one in some of its degrees of perfection1 and for this reason many attempts have been made to prepare something that might pass for a pearl or even suggest a pearl4 ,sometimes the mother-of-pearl shell has1 naturally1 a protuberance1 either round or pear-shaped1 which1 if cut off and highly polished may resemble an imperfect pearl2 and this operation is often so cleverly performed that1 at the first glance1 this object may pass for a true pearl4 ,in ,russia1 and especially in ,bohemia1 they have gone farther than this4 ,they have cut out a bit of mother-of-pearl shell1 leaving a piece of the natural shell for the top1 or the part that will be visible1 and rounding off the rest of the surface so as to give it a pearly effect4 ,these objects are of trifling value and are used in necklaces and earrings1 and in the ornamentation of icons and miniature frames and even as beads4 ,glass with either an exterior or interior coating of a nacreous substance is sometimes made absolutely round1 while at other times it is made with many imperfections so as to resemble either a marine baroque or a fresh-water irregular pearl4 ,the ,north ,american ,indian1 as described elsewhere1 has coated little balls of clay with a powder made from a pearl-bearing fresh-water mussel and then baked them4 ,,xvi ,,famous ,,pearls ,,and ,,collections ,,xvi ,,famous ,,pearls ,,and ,,collections ,the kingdom of heaven is like unto a merchant man1 seeking goodly pearls3 who1 when he had found one pearl of great price1 went and sold all that he had and bought it4 ,st4 ,matthew1 ,,xiii1 #de1 #df4 ,in the course of twenty centuries many pearls and pearl collections have become famous1 either because of their intrinsic value or else through historic associations4 ,an attempt is made here to list briefly the more important of these4 ,while we have purposely omitted any mention of the pearl collections in private hands at the present time1 some of which are more valuable than many of those noted in the following pages1 we have1 nevertheless1 given the principal sales of pearls at auction during the past twenty years4 ,many specimens of remarkable size and beauty have changed hands in this way1 more especially in ,england4 ,,cleopatra ,,pearls4 ,next to that 8pearl of great price10 mentioned by ,christ1 probably the most famous of all pearls were the two which ,pliny records as having been worn in the ears of ,cleopatra1 8the singular and onely jewels of the world and even ,nature's wonder40 ,this writer does not note their size1 but estimates their value at sixty million sestertii4 ,we have already quoted the passage in which ,pliny relates how one of these pearls was dissolved and swallowed by ,cleopatra in order to win a wager she had made with ,antony4 ,after the death of that queen the other pearl 8was cut in twaine1 that in memoriall of that one halfe supper of theirs1 it should remaine unto posterite1 hanging at both the eares of ,venus at ,rome in the temple of ,pantheon40#dhj ,bud estimated the value of the pearl dedicated to ,venus at #bej1jjj escus of gold4#dha ,another famous pearl mentioned by ,pliny was the one which ,julius ,csar presented to ,servilia1 mother of ,brutus1 the value of which he notes as six million sestertii4#dhb ,,peroz ,,pearl4 ,the historian ,procopius1#dhc of the sixth century1 tells of a magnificent pearl which belonged to ,peroz1 or ,firuz 7#dei-dhd71 one of the ,sassanian kings of ,persia4 ,in the course of his disastrous battle with the ,white ,huns1 in which both he and his sons perished1 ,peroz1 having a presentiment of the misfortune about to befall him1 took the pearl from his right ear and cast it away1 lest any one should wear it after him4 ,this pearl is described as being 8such as no king had ever worn up to that time40 ,procopius1 however1 thinks it more probable that the ear of ,peroz was cut off in the combat1 and he states that the emperor 7,zeno1 #dbf-dia7 was very anxious to buy the gem from the ,huns1 but that all search for it was in vain4 ,nevertheless1 a rumor was current that it was recovered later1 but that another pearl was substituted for it and sold to ,kobad1 a successor of ,peroz4 ,a different version is given by ,panciroli1#dhd who quotes ,zonaras1 a ,byzantine historian of the twelfth century1 as his authority4 ,according to this version ,justinian the ,great1 who succeeded to the throne forty-three years after the death of ,peroz1 offered one hundred pounds of gold 7about #be1jjj7 for the pearl1 but the barbarians refused to part with it1 preferring to keep it as a memorial of ,persian folly4 ,on the coins of ,peroz he is represented wearing an earring with three pendants1 one of which may have been this wonderful pearl4 ,,charles ,,the ,,bold4 ,one of the greatest jewels of the fifteenth century was that belonging to ,charles the ,bold1 ,duke of ,burgundy 7#adcc-adgg74 ,according to notes and drawings#dhe made in #aeee by ,j4 ,j4 ,fugger of ,nuremberg1 who was the banker jeweler of his generation1 this consisted of a large pyramid diamond five eighths of an inch square at the base1 with the apex cut as a four-rayed star in relief2 surrounding this were three rectangular pyramid-shaped rubies and three magnificent pear-shaped pearls1 and a large ovate pearl was suspended from the lowest ruby4 ,the pear pearls are described as measuring half an inch in diameter and must have weighed about sixty grains each4 ,this magnificent jewel was probably the most celebrated in ,europe during the fifteenth century4 ,according to ,comines1 on the defeat of the ,grand ,duke and the plundering of his baggage by the ,swiss at ,granson in #adgf1 the ornament was found by a careless soldier who tossed it away1 but retained the gold box containing it4 ,on second thought1 he searched for and recovered the jewel and sold it to a priest for one florin1 and the ecclesiastic sold it to a ,bernese government official for the sum of three florins4 ,some years later this jewel1 together with the ducal cap of ,charles the ,bold1 which was covered with pearls1 and bore a plume case1 set with diamonds 7points71 alternating with pearls and balas-rubies1 was sold by the ,bernese government to ,jacob ,fugger1 as related by ,j4 ,j4 ,fugger in the manuscript above noted1 8for no more than #dg1jjj florins40 ,in the vain hope that it would be purchased by ,emperor ,charles ,v1 grandson of ,charles the ,bold1 ,fugger held the jewel for many years1 but he broke up the cap and reset the stones in it for ,maximilian ,,ii4 ,the brooch was finally sold to ,henry ,,viii of ,england just before his death1 and it passed to his daughter and successor1 ,bloody ,mary1 who presented it to her ,spanish bridegroom1 ,philip4 ,thus1 after seventy-six years1 the jewel was restored to a descendant of the original owner4 ,this history has been given at some length owing to its illustration of the manner in which great pearls were easily lost on battle-fields and were passed about from one country to another4 ,illustration3 ,,gaikwar ,,of ,,baroda1 #aijh ,,tararequi ,,pearls4 ,the early ,american fisheries yielded several magnificent pearls1 many of which eventually became part of the imperial ,spanish jewels4 ,prominent among these was the ,huerfana or ,sola4 ,according to ,gomara1 this was secured in #aeae from the ,indians at ,tararequi1 in the ,gulf of ,panama1 in a large collection which weighed #hhj ounces4 ,it was pear-shaped and weighed thirty-one carats4 ,gomara states that this pearl was purchased from ,gaspar de ,morales1 leader of the ,spanish expedition1 by a merchant1 for the sum of #ab1jjj castilians4 8,the purchaser could not sleep that night for thinking on the fact that he had given so much money for one stone1 and sold it the very next day to ,pedrarias de ,avila1 for his wife ,donna ,isabel de ,bovadilla02 and afterward it passed to ,isabella1 wife of ,emperor ,charles ,v 7#aejj-aeeh74 ,it was remarkable for its luster1 color1 and clearness1 as well as for its size4 ,another large pearl in this collection weighed twenty-six carats4 ,,oviedo ,,pearl4 ,as already noted on page #bcg1 in his 8,historia natural y general de las ,indias10 published at ,toledo in #aebf1 ,gonzalo de ,oviedo wrote of having purchased at ,panama a pearl weighing twenty-six carats for which he paid #fej times its weight in fine gold1 and which he claimed was the 8greatest1 fairest and roundest0 that had ever been seen at ,panama4 ,probably this was the twenty-six-carat pearl obtained at ,tararequi by ,gaspar de ,morales in #aeae4 ,at #fej times its weight in gold the value of this pearl would be #bbid4ed2 representing a base of 4#babd per grain2 but at a base of #e per grain the same pearl would be worth #ed1jhj1 equaling #ae1cbj times its weight in gold4 ,,temple ,,of ,,talomeco4 ,among great collections of pearls1 some writers would place that described by ,garcilasso de la ,vega as having been found by ,de ,soto and his followers in #aedj in the ,temple of ,talomeco near the ,savannah ,river in ,america4#dhf ,according to ,garcilasso1 the quantity of pearls there was so great that #cjj horses and #ijj men would not have sufficed for its transportation1 vastly excelling every other if not all other collections in the history of the world4 ,unfortunately the accuracy of this account has not been unquestioned4 ,,la ,,peregrina4 ,most celebrated among the early ,american pearls was ,la ,peregrina 7the incomparable71 or the ,philip ,,ii pearl1 which weighed #acd grains4 ,according to ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 who says that he saw it at ,seville in #aeig1dhg this was found at ,panama in #aefj by a negro who was rewarded with his liberty1 and his owner with the office of alcalde of ,panama4 ,other authorities note that it came from the ,venezuelan fisheries in #aegd4 ,it was carried to ,spain by ,don ,diego de ,temes1 who presented it to ,philip ,,ii 7#aebg-aeih74 ,jacques de ,treco1 court jeweler to the king1 is credited with saying that it might be worth #cj1jjj1 #ej1jjj or #ajj1jjj ducats1 as one might choose to estimate1 for in fact it was so remarkable as to be beyond any standard valuation4 ,if we can credit ,garcilasso1 at one time this pearl decorated the crown of the ,blessed ,virgin in the church of ,guadeloupe1 which was resplendent with gems4#dhh ,a contemporaneous account#dhi notes that it was worn at ,madrid by ,queen ,margarita1 wife of ,philip ,,iii1 at the ftes given in celebration of the treaty of peace between that country and ,england in #afje4 ,,charles ,,ii ,,pearl4 ,somewhat similar to the foregoing was the pearl of ,charles ,,ii of ,spain 7#affa-agjj71 which was presented to that monarch by ,don ,pedro de ,aponte1 ,conde del ,palmer1 a native of the ,canaries4 ,this gem was found in #afia1 or more than a century after ,la ,peregrina4 ,these two pearls were nearly equal in size1 and for many years they were worn as earrings by the successive queens of ,spain4 ,it is reported that they were destroyed in #agcd1 when a large portion of the old palace at ,madrid was burned4#dij ,illustration3 ,,mary1 ,,queen ,,of ,,scots ,the property of the ,earl of ,leven and ,melville4 ,about #aeei-aefj ,the jewels of the ,spanish crown have passed through so many vicissitudes that it is not surprising that but few of them remain in the ,spanish treasury4 ,after the overthrow of the ,spanish monarchy by the ,french in #ahjh1 ,ferdinand ,,vii1 during the time of his exile1 disposed of many of these jewels4 ,it is asserted that1 after the deposition of ,queen ,isabella1 in #ahfh1 the crown jewels were divided between herself and her sister1 the pious ,duchesse de ,montpensier1 and a considerable portion was eventually distributed among the numerous descendants of the latter4 ,it is also stated that there is no mention of the ,spanish crown jewels during the reign of ,king ,amadeus1 the first sovereign of the restored monarchy4 ,there are1 however1 great quantities of pearls and other gems belonging to the various madonnas in the ,spanish churches1 as1 for example1 ,nuestra ,seora de ,atocha1 ,cavadonga and others4 ,,pearls ,,of ,,mary ,,stuart4 ,the pearls owned by the unfortunate ,mary ,queen of ,scots 7#aedb-aehg7 were among the most beautiful in ,europe4 ,inventories of these#dia show great bordures de tour of large pear pearls with entredeux of round pearls1 long ropes of pearls strung like beads on a rosary1 carcans or broad belts set with pearls1 and a large number of loose pearls4 ,many of these appear in the portraits of this popular queen2 but probably the most remarkable exhibition of them is in the portrait now owned by the ,earl of ,leven and ,melville1#dib which appears to agree fairly well with the inventories of her jewels1 although this portrait is not wholly free from impeachment as to its accuracy and contemporaneousness4 ,after the downfall of the queen1 most of her jewels were sold1 pawned1 or lost by theft4 ,a number of them passed into the possession of ,queen ,elizabeth in #aefh1 in a manner not wholly satisfactory to lovers of justice4 ,some of these were described in a letter dated ,may #h1 #aefh1 and addressed to ,catharine de' ,medici by ,bodutel de la ,forest1 the ,french ambassador at the ,english court1 as 8six cordons of large pearls1 strung as paternosters2 but there are about twenty-five separate from the others much larger and more beautiful than those which are strung4 ,they were first shown to three or four jewelers and lapidaries of this city1 who estimated them at three thousand pounds sterling1 and who offered to give that sum2 certain ,italian merchants who viewed them afterwards valued them at #ab1jjj escus1 which is the price1 as ,i am told1 this queen ,elizabeth will take them at4 ,there is a ,genevese who saw them after the others and estimated them as worth #af1jjj escus #bd1jjj40dic ,catharine de' ,medici1 who was a mother-in-law of ,mary ,stuart1 was very anxious to obtain these pearls2 but the ambassador wrote on ,may #ae1 #aefh1 that he had found it impossible to purchase them2 for1 as he had told her from the first1 they were intended for the gratification of the ,queen of ,england1 who had purchased them at her own price1 and was even then in possession of them4#did ,,queen ,,elizabeth',s ,,pearls4 ,although in her youth she is said to have had a distaste for personal decorations1 in her later years ,queen ,elizabeth entertained an extravagant fondness for pearls4 ,in speaking of her portraits1 ,horace ,walpole says3 8,a pale ,roman nose1 a head of hair loaded with crowns and powdered with diamonds1 a vast ruff1 a vaster fardingale1 and a bushel of pearls1 are features by which everybody knows at once the pictures of ,queen ,elizabeth40#die ,and to the end1 her love for them was unabated1 for in the last tragi-comic scene of her life1 to meet the ,angel of ,death himself1 she was dressed up in her most splendid jewels with great pearl necklaces and earrings and pendants1 as ,paul ,delaroche so successfully pictured in his remarkable painting in the ,louvre4 ,the faded waxwork effigy of her1 long preserved in ,westminster ,abbey in that curious collection of effigies#dif--the 8,ragged ,regiment10 as ,walpole called them--has a coronet of large spherical pearls in wax1 long necklaces of them1 a great pearl-ornamented stomacher1 pearl earrings with large pear-shaped pendants1 and even broad1 pearl medallions on the shoe-bows4 ,in accordance with that singular custom which prevailed from the time of ,henry ,v 7#adbb71 to that of ,queen ,anne 7#agad71dig this effigy lay on her coffin at the funeral and caused1 says ,stow in his ,chronicle1 8such a general sighing1 groning1 and weeping1 as the like hath not beene seene or knowne in the memory of man40 ,a contemporaneous poet wrote that when the corpse with the effigy passed down the ,thames to lie in state at ,whitehall1 ,fish wept their eyes of pearl quite out1 ,and swam blind after4 ,,gresham ,,pearl4 ,during the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth1 ,sir ,thomas ,gresham1 the merchant prince1 was credited with possessing a pearl valued at #ae1jjj1 which he reduced to powder and drank in a glass of wine to the health of the queen1 in order to astonish the ,spanish ambassador1 with whom he had laid a wager that he would give a more costly dinner than could the ,spaniards4#dih ,no other information regarding this pearl seems available4 ,the valuation certainly appears excessive when compared with that of some other pearls of that period4 ,we quote an item from ,burgon1#dii taken from the manuscript journal kept by ,edward ,,vi3 #be ,april1 #aeea4 ,a bargaine made with the ,fulcare for about #fj1jjj l4 that in ,may and ,august should be paid1 for the deferring of it4 ,first1 that the ,foulcare should put it off for ten in the hundred4 ,secondly1 that ,i should buy #ab1jjj marks weight at #f shilinges the ounce to be delivered at ,antwerpe1 and so conveyed over4 ,thirdly1 ,i should pay #ajj1jjj crowns for a very faire juel of his1 four rubies marvelous big1 one orient and great diamount1 and one great pearle4 ,,rudolph ,,ii ,,pearls4 ,the scientific1 art-loving1 but eccentric ,rudolph ,,ii 7#aeeb-afab71 ,emperor of the ,holy ,roman ,empire1 gathered about him at ,prague a great collection of jewels and wealth of all sorts4 ,the values of his pearls and precious stones1 of the gold and silver articles1 was estimated by the archologist1 ,jules ,csar ,boulenger1 at seventeen millions of gold florins1 which was a very considerable sum at that time1 as appears when we consider that one hundred gold florins annually was deemed a good salary for an official at the emperor's court4 ,de ,boot mentions a pearl belonging to ,rudolph ,,ii which weighed 8thirty carats and cost as many thousands of gold pieces40 ,it is quite likely that this was the one noted by ,gomara as coming from the ,gulf of ,panama1#ejj and which ,rudolph probably inherited from his grandfather1 ,emperor ,charles ,v4 ,the pearl bought by ,oviedo in ,panama1 prior to #aebf1 may be one of the principal decorations of the imperial crown of ,austria4 ,we read in that curious and interesting book1 8,the ,generall ,historie of the ,turkes10 by ,richard ,knolles1#eja that ,abbas the ,great1 ,shah of ,persia 7#aeeg-afbh71 after having defeated the ,turks in many battles1 desired to form an alliance with ,emperor ,rudolph ,,ii1 and to induce him to break his engagements with the ,turks4 ,to this end ,shah ,abbas1 in #afaj sent an embassy to ,prague1 with many valuable gifts for the emperor1 among which were 8three orientall pearles exceeding big40 ,it has been conjectured1 and it is also claimed1 that these may be three of the eight pear-shaped pearls which are now to be seen in the crown of ,rudolph ,,ii4 ,one of the largest pearls in the ,austrian crown1 as we have stated1 is most probably the ,oviedo pearl4 ,,charles ,i ,,pearl4 ,admirers of ,vandyke's pictures of ,charles ,i 7#afjj-afdi7 readily recall the pearl pendant from his right ear1 which appears in nearly all of his portraits by that artist4 ,janin wrote3 8,this pearl in the ear of his majesty was greatly coveted1 and as soon as his head had fallen1 the witnesses of the dreadful scene rushed forward1 ready to imbue their hands in his blood in order to secure the royal jewel40 ,it seems more probable that the martyr king would have left this gem in the hands of a trusty friend for his family than to the risk of injury by the ax and to be torn from his mutilated head by a scrambling mob4 ,,owing to their control of the great fisheries1 the most valuable collections of pearls have been held by eastern monarchs1 and particularly by those of ,india and ,persia4 ,it has been estimated that one third of the portable wealth of these countries is in jewels4 ,most ,orientals are as suspicious of interest in their jewels as they are of inquiry regarding their harems1 imagining1 doubtless1 that the interest conceals a sentiment of cupidity1 hence it is not practicable to give a minute description of them4 ,however1 several travelers have recorded glowing accounts of collections which they have examined1 which read much like a description of ,aladdin's palace in the ,arabian ,nights4 ,among these1 some of the greatest are the ,,pearls ,,described ,,by ,,tavernier4 ,for accounts of remarkable pearls in eastern countries in the seventeenth century1 we are indebted to that well-informed old ,french jeweler1 ,tavernier1 one of the most remarkable gem dealers the world has ever known4 ,he made numerous journeys to ,persia1 ,turkey1 ,central ,asia1 and the ,east ,indies1 gaining the confidence of the highest officials and trading in gems of the greatest value4 ,after amassing a large fortune and purchasing a barony near ,lake ,geneva1 he died at ,moscow in #afhi while on a mercantile trip to the ,orient1 at the age of eighty-four years4 ,his 8,voyages10 published in #afgf-afgi1 reveal a critical knowledge of gems1 a remarkable insight into human nature1 and the absence of any intention to impart misleading information4 ,in the first ,english edition of his travels1 published in #afgh1 ,tavernier gave sketches of five of the principal pearls which came under his careful observation4 ,figure #a of ,tavernier's diagram shows what he considered 8the largest and most perfect pearl ever discovered1 and without the least defect40 ,the weight of this pear-shaped gem does not appear to have been noted1 but from the sketch it may be estimated at about #ejj grains4 ,tavernier states that the bloodthirsty ,shah ,sofi1 ,king of ,persia1 purchased it in #afcc from an ,arab who had just received it from the fisheries at ,el ,katif4 8,it cost him #cb1jjj tomans1 or #a1djj1jjj livres of our money1 at the rate of #df livres and #f deniers per toman 7#eeb1jjj740ejb ,illustration3 ,,queen ,,elizabeth ,,of ,,england ,illustration3 ,,elizabeth ,,of ,,france ,very much smaller but more beautiful than this great pearl1 was the one which ,tavernier saw in #afgj at ,ormus in the possession of the ,imam of ,muscat1 who had recently recovered the ,muscat peninsula from the ,portuguese4 ,the jeweler stated that although this weighed only twelve and one sixteenth carats 7forty-eight and a quarter grains71#ejc and was not perfectly round1 it surpassed in beauty all others in the world at that time4 ,it was so clear and lustrous as to appear translucent4 ,at the conclusion of a grand entertainment given by the ,khan of ,ormus1 at which ,tavernier was present1 the ,prince of ,muscat drew this gem from a small purse suspended about his neck1 and exhibited it to the company4 ,the ,khan of ,ormus offered #bjjj tomans 7about #cd1ejj7 for it1 but the owner would not part with his treasure4 ,tavernier states that later the prince refused an offer of #dj1jjj escus 7#de1jjj7 from ,aurangzeb1 the ,great ,mogul of ,india4#ejd ,figure #c in the diagram represents a pear-shaped pearl of fifty-five carats 7#bbj grains7 which ,tavernier sold to ,shaista ,khan1 uncle of the ,grand ,mogul4 ,although of large size and good shape1 this was deficient in luster4 ,according to the jeweler1 this pearl was from the ,island of ,margarita on the ,venezuelan coast1 and was the largest ever carried from ,occident to ,orient4 ,tavernier listed among the ,great ,mogul's jewels a large olive-shaped pearl1 perfect in form and luster4 ,the weight was not noted1 but from the sketch which he gave 7see ,fig4 #d7 it may be estimated at about #abe grains4 ,it formed the central ornament of a chain of emeralds and rubies1 which the ,mogul sometimes wore about his neck4 ,he also listed a round pearl of perfect form 7see ,fig4 #e74 ,the weight of this also is not noted1 but from the sketch it may be estimated at #aaj grains4 ,this was the largest perfectly spherical pearl known to ,tavernier4 ,its equal had never been found1 and for that reason it was kept with the unmounted jewels4 ,among the other pearl treasures of the ,great ,mogul1 ,tavernier noted the following3 7a7 ,two grand1 pear-shaped pearls1 one weighing about seventy ratis1#eje a little flattened on both sides1 and of beautiful water and good form4 7b7 ,a button-shaped pearl1 weighing from fifty-five to sixty ratis1 of good form and good water4 7c7 ,a round pearl of great perfection1 a little flat on one side and weighing fifty-six ratis2 this had been presented to the ,great ,mogul by ,shah ,abbas ,,ii1 ,king of ,persia4 7d7 ,three round yellowish pearls weighing from twenty-five to twenty-eight ratis each4 7e7 ,a perfectly round pearl1 thirty-five and a half ratis1 white and perfect in all respects4 ,this was the only jewel purchased by the ,great ,mogul himself1 the others being inherited or coming to him as presents4 7f7 ,two pearls perfectly shaped and equal1 each weighing twenty-five and a quarter ratis4 7g7 ,also two chains1 one of pearls and rubies of different shapes pierced like the pearls2 the other of pearls and emeralds1 round and bored4 ,all of these pearls were round and ranged in weight from ten to twelve ratis each4#ejf ,,peacock ,,throne4 ,the famous ,takht-i-,t's1 or 8,peacock ,throne10 at ,delhi doubtless contained the greatest accumulation of gems in the seventeenth century4 ,it was completed1 in the eighth year of his reign 7#ajdd ,a4,h41 #afcd ,a4,d47 by ,shah ,jehan1 greatest of ,mogul sovereigns1 who likewise built the ,taj ,mahal at ,agra1 one of the most beautiful edifices ever designed by man4 ,abd-al-,hamid1 of ,lahore1 in his ,pd-shh-nmah1 8,book of the ,king10 composed prior to #afed1 writes as follows3#ejg ,in the course of years many valuable gems had come into the imperial jewel house1 each one of which might serve as an ear-drop for ,venus or as an adornment for the girdle of the ,sun4 ,upon the accession of the emperor1 it occurred to him that1 in the opinion of far-seeing men the acquisition of such rare jewels and the keeping of such wonderful brilliants could render but one service1 that of adorning the throne of the empire4 ,they ought1 therefore1 to be put to such a use that beholders might benefit by their splendour and that majesty might shine with increased brilliancy4 ,as described by ,tavernier in #afgf1 great quantities of pearls were used in the ornamentation of this throne1 the arched roof1 the supporting pillars1 the adjacent sun-umbrellas1 being well covered with these gems1 many of them of great value4 ,the choicest one was pear-shaped1 yellowish in color1 and weighed about fifty carats 7#bjj grains72#ejh this was suspended from a great ruby which ornamented the breast of the peacock4 8,but that which in my opinion is the most costly thing about this magnificent throne is that the twelve columns supporting the canopy are surrounded with beautiful rows of pearls1 which are round and of fine water1 and weigh from #f to #aj carats each #bd to #dj grains40#eji ,the total value of the jewels entering into the ornamentation was estimated at #afj1ejj1jjj livres or #fj1ahg1ejj2 and the present value of the throne as it stands in the shah's palace at ,teheran1 whither it was carried by ,nadir ,shah from the sack of ,delhi in #agci1 even though divested of many of its most valuable gems1 is estimated at #ac1jjj1jjj4eaj ,the designer of the ,peacock ,throne was ,austin de ,bordeaux1 who also planned the magnificent ,taj ,mahal4 ,he was named by ,shah ,jehan1 8,jewel-,handed10 and received a salary of two thousand rupees a month4 ,,shah',s 8,,tippet40 ,sir ,harford ,jones ,brydges' description of the jewels of the ,shah of ,persia at ,teheran is of particular value1 since he had formerly dealt in jewels and was an expert in such matters4 ,he says3 ,i was particularly struck with the king's tippet1 a covering for part of his back1 his shoulders and his arms1 which is only used on the very highest occasions4 ,it is a piece of pearl work of the most beautiful pattern2 the pearls are worked on velvet1 but they stand so close together that little1 if any1 of the velvet is visible4 ,it took me a good hour to examine this single article1 which ,i have no fear of saying can not be matched in the world4 ,there was not a single pearl employed in forming this most gorgeous trapping less in size than the largest marrow-fat pea ,i ever saw raised in ,england1 and many--,i should suppose from #aej to #bjj--the size of a wild plum1 and throughout the whole of these pearls1 it would puzzle the best jeweler who should examine them most critically to discover in more than #d or #e a serious fault4 ,the tassel is formed of pearls of the most uncommon size and beauty2 and the emerald which forms the top of the tassel is perhaps the largest perfect one in the world4444 ,for some days after ,i had seen these jewels1 ,i attempted to make an estimate of their value1 but ,i got so confused in the recollection of their weight and the allowance to be made in some of them for their perfection in water and color1 that ,i gave it up as impossible4 ,i cannot1 however1 think ,i shall much mislead if ,i say that on a moderate1 perhaps a low calculation1 their value cannot be less than fifteen millions sterling8 of our money4#eaa ,,shah',s ,,pearls ,,in #ahbj4 ,nearly a century ago the elaborate state costume of the ,shah of ,persia was described by the ,english artist1 ,sir ,robert ,ker ,porter4 ,in this description he mentioned particularly the pearls in the tiara1 the pear-shaped pearls of immense size with which the plumes were tipped1 the two strings of pearls--8probably the largest in the world0--which crossed the king's shoulders1 and the large cushion incased in a network of beautiful pearls against which he reclined4#eab ,,pearls ,,of ,,the ,,gaikwar ,,of ,,baroda4 ,among the greatest jeweled treasures of ,india are those of the present ,mahratta ,gaikwar of ,baroda1 who has precedence over all the rulers in ,india at all functions1 and is one of the most prominent and enlightened of the ,indian princes4 ,he governs a province of about #hbbe square miles and #b1dae1cif inhabitants in the northwestern part of ,india1 #bdh miles north of ,bombay4 ,most of these treasures1 whose value is estimated at a dozen million dollars1 were collected by his predecessor1 ,mahratta ,khandarao1 who lived in barbaric splendor1 and they are rarely worn by the present gaikwar4 ,these treasures include a sash of one hundred rows of pearls1 terminating in a great tassel of pearls and emeralds2 seven rows of superb pearls whose value is estimated at half a million dollars2 a litter set with seed-pearls1 quantities of unstrung pearls1 and more remarkable yet1 a shawl or carpet of pearls1 which closely resembles the 8tippet0 at ,teheran described by ,brydge4 ,this carpet is said to be ten and one half feet long by six feet wide1 and to be made up of strings of pearls1 except that a border1 eleven inches wide1 and also center ornaments1 are worked out in diamonds4 ,some writers assert that this costly ornament was originally intended by the late ,mahratta ,khandarao as a covering for the tomb of ,mohammed4 ,others state that it was designed as a present for a woman of whom he was enamoured1 but that the ,british resident interfered1 claiming that the wealth of ,baroda was not sufficient to warrant such an expensive gift on the part of the ruler4 ,this ornament is now retained among the regalia at ,baroda1 and is probably the most costly pearl ornament in the world1 its value being estimated at several million dollars4 ,,summer ,,palace ,,in #ahfj4 ,many superb pearls were among the precious objects in the ,yuen-,min-,yuen or ,summer ,palace in ,pekin at the time of its capture by the ,european forces in #ahfj4 ,numbers of these were lost in the confusion of the sacking and plunder1 when the soldiers' pockets were filled and the floors were strewn with jewels1 beautiful objects of gold and silver1 rich silks and furs1 carved jade1 lapis lazuli1 etc4 ,some of the pearls found their way to ,europe1 and especially to ,france and ,england4 ,they were of good size and luster and were mostly yellowish in color4 ,unfortunately1 many were crudely drilled with large holes1 and had been strung on gold wires by which they were attached to the idols they decorated at the time they were stolen4 ,more than one hundred1 each over thirty grains in weight1 were received in ,england1 and sold at an average of nearly one thousand dollars4 ,illustration3 ,,pearl ,,carpet ,,or ,,shawl ,,of ,,the ,,gaikwar ,,of ,,baroda ,a similar booty came from the spoliation during the war between ,china and ,japan in #ahid1 and during the ,boxer outbreaks of #aija1 and quantities of pearls1 often large and of fine color1 but a little the worse for wear1 were brought to the ,united ,states and ,europe by the soldiers and officials1 and also by traders and travelers who obtained them in ,china4 ,the pendant figured is one of these objects4 ,,the ,,gogibus ,,pearl4 ,this famous pearl1 said to have been the largest in ,europe1 weighed no less than #abf carats 7#ejd grains74 ,it was pear-shaped and of fine orient1 and was brought from the ,west ,indies1 in #afbj1 by ,franois ,gogibus1 a native of ,calais1 who sold it to ,philip ,,iv of ,spain4 ,as no match could be found for this magnificent gem1 it was mounted as a button in the royal cap4#eac ,,la ,,reine ,,des ,,perles4 ,the large round pearl of the ,french crown jewels which is listed in the inventory of #agia at #bjj1jjj francs1 was purchased in #affiead for the sum of #dj1jjj livres1 from a gem dealer named ,bazu1 who had traveled in the ,east at about the time of ,tavernier's voyage4 ,in the inventory of #afia1 it is described as 8a virgin pearl1 perfect1 round1 and of fine water10 weighing #bg carats and valued at #ij1jjj livres4 ,when the greater part of the jewels were stolen from the ,garde-,meuble in #agib1 we are told that the thieves took a pearl inclosed in a gold box on which was written3 8,the queen of pearls40 ,this was most probably the one we have described and there is reason to believe that this same pearl came later into the possession of the ,zozima brothers1 and was called ,la ,pellegrina4 ,,la ,r,,gente4 ,this name was bestowed upon a big1 ovate pearl which was in the collection of the ,french crown jewels4 ,this pearl1 which weighs #ccg grains1 was furnished in ,november1 #ahaa1 by the court jewelers1 ,messrs4 ,noitat1 for a tiara1 worn by ,marie ,louise1 ,empress of ,france4 ,by order of the emperor1 ,napoleon ,,iii1 the pearl was taken out of the tiara and mounted1 in ,august1 #ahec1 by the ,paris jeweler ,lemounier into a brooch4 ,this great brooch1 with 8,la ,rgente0 as the central gem1 was bought by ,faberge ,company of ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,russia1 for the ,princess ,youssoupoff at the 8,vente des ,diamants de la ,couronne0 in #ahhg4 ,,la ,,pellegrina4 ,for nearly a century there has been in ,russia one of the most lovely pearls in the world2 this is ,la ,pellegrina1 formerly owned by the ,zozima brothers of ,moscow1 who were antiquarians of note in ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,in #ahah a small book of forty-eight pages was written about this beautiful gem by ,g4 ,fischer de ,waldheim1 vice-president of the ,imperial ,medico-,chirurgical ,academy1 probably the only book ever devoted to a single pearl4 ,according to this writer1 ,la ,pellegrina was purchased at ,leghorn by one of the ,zozima brothers from an ,english admiral who had just returned from ,india4 ,it combines all the requisites of perfection3 it is absolutely spherical and has never been pierced2 its luster1 its silvery sheen1 make it appear almost transparent1 and for a pearl of this high grade1 it is of remarkable size1 weighing #aaa grains4 ,the ,zozima brothers retained it in a sea-urchin shell mounted in gold and with a convex lens as cover2 this was contained in a silver box1 and this in turn in another box studded with gems4 ,although the lens enlarged the appearance of the pearl1 it detracted from its beautiful form1 giving it an oval shape4 ,but when removed from the triple inclosure1 it rolled about like a globule of quicksilver1 and surpassed that metal in whiteness and brilliancy4 ,everything that is beautiful and perfect takes such possession of the beholder that words become insufficient to express his feelings2 and that is what happened to me in the case of ,la ,pellegrina of ,zozima4 ,one must have seen an object of this kind in order to appreciate the impression it makes4 ,as an evidence of this1 ,i shall note the last visit which ,i made to the owner in company with several distinguished persons4 ,after having examined many curious medals and coins1 and also some pearls which exceeded in size the one of which ,i treat1 and after they had received their due meed of admiration1 ,la ,pellegrina appeared1 rolled upon a sheet of paper by the owner's little finger4 ,attention and admiration was depicted on every face2 a perfect silence reigned4 ,it was only when the pearl had been removed very carefully lest it should slip away1 and was again triply enclosed1 that we recovered the power of speech and could unanimously express our admiration4#eae ,as it had been stated that this pearl was in the possession of the ,princess ,youssoupoff1 ,mr4 ,henry ,w4 ,hiller of ,new ,york1 who was in ,st4 ,petersburg1 courteously made inquiries and was successful in obtaining a view of the two splendid pear-shaped pearls4 ,these are almost exactly alike1 but neither of them can well be ,la ,pellegrina1 since this is a round pearl2 possibly the one on the right may be ,la ,peregrina4#eaf ,illustration3 ,,the ,,hope ,,pearl4 ,,weighs #ahjj ,,grains ,actual size ,the owner of ,la ,pellegrina in #ahah1 ,z4 ,p4 ,zozima1 died in ,moscow at a great age1 in #ahbg4 ,he was a ,greek dealer in curiosities and gems1 who had resided in ,moscow for a long time1 and had many clients among the nobility of ,russia4 ,it is stated that a few months before his death the best pieces of his collection1 including ,la ,pellegrina1 were stolen from him by a compatriot4 ,,moscow ,,pearl1 #ahdj4 ,the ,german traveler1 ,johann ,georg ,kohl 7#ahjh-ahgh71 in the account of his travels in ,russia1 relates an interesting incident connected with a beautiful pearl in the ,imperial ,treasury4 ,shortly previous to #ahdj1 a rich ,moscow merchant died in a convent1 whither he had retreated after the manner of the wealthy pious ones of his nation4 ,feeling the approach of age1 he had given up the toils of business to his sons4 ,his wife was dead1 and the only beloved object which even in the cloister was not separated from him was a large1 beautiful1 oriental pearl4 ,this precious object had been purchased for him by some ,persian or ,arabian friend at a high price1 and1 enchanted by its water1 magnificent size1 and color1 its perfect shape and luster1 he would never part with it1 however enormous the sum offered4 ,he himself inhabited an ordinary cell in the convent2 but this object of his love reposed on silk in a golden casket4 ,it was shown to few persons1 and favorable circumstances and strong recommendations were necessary to obtain such a favor4 ,a ,moscow resident reported the style and manner of the ceremony4 ,on the appointed day he went with his friends to the convent1 and found the old gentleman awaiting his guests in his holiday clothes4 ,their reception had something of solemnity about it4 ,the old man went into his cell and brought out the casket in its rich covering4 ,he spread white satin on the table1 and1 unlocking the casket1 let the precious pearl roll out before the enchanted eyes of the spectators4 ,no one ventured to touch it1 but all burst into acclamations1 and the old man's eyes gleamed like his pearl4 ,after a short time it was returned to the casket4 ,during his last illness1 the old gentleman never let the pearl out of his hand1 and after his death it was with difficulty taken from his stiffened fingers4 ,there seems to be a great similarity between the description of this pearl and that of ,la ,pellegrina1 although we have been unable to verify our surmise as to their identity4 ,,the ,,hope ,,pearl4 ,in the first half of the last century1 ,henry ,philip ,hope1 a ,london banker1 brought together a great collection of gems1 among which were many pearls4 ,the most famous of these was the often-described ,hope pearl1 one of the largest known2 the value of which1 however1 is not in proportion to its size1 owing to its irregular formation4 ,as described in the catalogue of the ,hope collection1 published in #ahci1 this oriental pearl is of an irregular pear-shape1 weighs #ahjj grains1 or three ounces1 measures two inches in length1 and in circumference four and one half inches at the broadest and three and one fourth inches at the narrowest end4 ,the color at the larger end is of a bronze or a dark green copper tint1 this gradually clearing into a fine white luster for within one and one half inches of the smaller end4 ,this baroque pearl was firmly attached to the shell1 and it yet shows the point of attachment1 which has been polished so as to correspond to the remaining portion4 ,it is attractively mounted1 the smaller end being capped with an arched crown of red enameled gold set with diamonds1 rubies1 and emeralds4#eag ,after remaining in the ,hope jewel collection at the ,south ,kensington ,museum for many years1 it was sold at auction1 at ,christie's1 in #ahhf1 when that collection was placed on the market4 ,this pearl is now held by ,messrs4 ,garrard ,company of ,london1 at the price of #ijjj4 ,the ,hope collection also contained about #adh pearls of good form4 ,notable among these were the following3 7a7 a conical pearl weighing #aea grains1 cream-white in color1 from ,polynesia2 7b7 a bouton pearl of #abd grains1 bluish-white at the top and encircled by a dark bronze color2 7c7 an oval cream-colored pearl1 weighing ninety-four grains1 from the ,south ,seas2 7d7 an eighty-nine-grain1 roughly spherical pearl1 one side bluish and the other of a light bronze2 7e7 an eighty-five-grain1 acorn-shaped1 bluish-white pearl1 with a band of opaque white near the base2 7f7 an oval conch pearl1 pink in general color and somewhat whitish at the ends1 weighing eighty-two and one fourth grains2 7g7 another conch pearl1 seventy-seven and one half grains1 button-shaped1 yellowish white with a slight shade of pink2 7h7 a seventy-six-and-one-half-grain drop-shaped pearl of a chatoyant aspect1 of white color shaded with red1 purple1 and green2 and 7i7 a pear-shaped ,scottish pearl of thirty-four and three fourths grains1 of a milky bluish caste1 slightly tinged with pink4 ,,van ,,buren ,,pearls4 ,among the collections of the ,united ,states ,national ,museum are two pendant pearls each weighing about thirty grains1 and a necklace containing #adh pearls with an aggregate weight of #gjj grains4 ,these were presented in #ahdj to ,president ,van ,buren by the ,imam of ,muscat4 ,they were deposited in the vaults of the ,treasury ,department1 where they remained until a few years ago1 when1 by the order of the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 they were transferred to the custody of the ,national ,museum where they now are4 ,illustration3 ,,her ,,grace1 ,,the ,,duchess ,,of ,,marlborough ,,thiers ,,necklace4 ,in the galleries of the ,louvre at ,paris may be seen a pearl necklace formerly owned by the wife of ,president ,thiers 7#agig-ahhg71 consisting of #ade pearls in three rows4 ,the weights of the three largest individual pearls are fifty-one1 thirty-nine1 and thirty-six grains1 respectively4 ,the aggregate weight is #bjgi grains1 and the value at the time of their deposit was estimated at #cjj1jjj francs4 ,this is on a base of #b4jb2 at a higher valuation the figures would be3 #adh1idg #ga4fd per grain2 base1 #e #bch1cae #aad4fc per grain2 base1 #h the last being very probably nearer to the correct value of the necklace at the present time4 ,,tiffany ,,queen ,,pearl4 ,doubtless the most famous pearl ever found within the limits of the ,united ,states1 and likewise one of the choicest1 is the well-known 8,queen ,pearl10 found in ,notch ,brook near ,paterson1 ,new ,jersey1 in #aheg4eah ,in form it is a perfect sphere1 and weighs ninety-three grains4 ,the history of the discovery and of the sale of this beautiful gem is set forth on page #bfj4 ,,the ,,bapst ,,pearls4 ,very practical is the account given by ,streeter of a pair of magnificent spherical pearls exhibited at the ,paris ,exhibition in #ahgh by ,messrs4 ,bapst of ,paris4 ,one of these pearls--then weighing #aaf grains--was purchased by ,mr4 ,streeter in #ahgg1 and by him sold to a leading merchant of ,london1 who skilfully removed a blemish on it1 reducing it to #aac grains in weight4 ,after holding it for some months1 it occurred to him that it would match a pearl sold by ,hunt and ,roskell to ,dhuleep ,singh about fifteen years previously4 ,on comparison1 the two were found to match perfectly1 one weighing #aac and the other #aac grains4 ,the two were eventually sold early in #ahgh 8for #dhjj1 which was even then much below their value1 and to-day they would be worth #aj1jjj4 ,they were exhibited in the great ,paris ,exposition in #ahgh1 where they attracted universal attention1 and were pronounced by connoisseurs to be the most extraordinary pair of pearls ever seen in ,europe4 ,they were sold from the exhibition to an individual for a very large sum40#eai ,,the 8,,southern ,,cross40 ,the 8,southern ,cross0 is an unusual pearl or rather cluster of pearls which attracted much attention twenty years ago4 ,it consists of nine attached pearls forming a ,roman cross about one and one half inches in length1 seven pearls constituting the shaft or standard1 while the arms are formed by one pearl on each side of the second one from the upper end4 ,the luster is good1 but the individual pearls are not perfect spheres1 being mutually compressed at the point of juncture and considerably flattened at the back4 ,if separated1 the aggregate value of the individual pearls would be small1 and the celebrity of the ornament is due almost exclusively to its form4 ,this striking formation was exhibited at the ,colonial and ,indian ,exhibition at ,london in #ahhf1 and later at the ,paris ,exhibition in #ahhi1 where it was the center of interest1 and obtained a gold medal for the exhibitors4 ,it is reported that an effort was made to bring about its sale at #aj1jjj1 the owners suggesting that it was especially appropriate for presentation to ,leo ,,xiii1 on the occasion of his jubilee in #ahif4 ,the writers have been unable to obtain information as to its present location4 ,much information relative to the 8,southern ,cross0 was volunteered by ,henry ,taunton in the very interesting account of his wanderings in ,australia4 ,he presents apparently reliable statements showing that it was found on ,march #bf1 #ahhc1 off ,baldwin ,creek in ,lat4 #ag ,s4 and ,long4 #abb ,e41 by a boy named ,clark1 in the employ of ,james ,w4 ,s4 ,kelly1 a master pearler4 ,when delivered to ,kelly1 it was in three distinct pieces1 but the boy reported that it was in one piece when he found it a few hours before4 ,kelly sold it in the three pieces in which he received it for #aj to a fellow pearler named ,roy2 ,roy sold it for #dj to a man named ,craig1 and he sold it to an ,australian syndicate4 ,however1 according to ,taunton's positive statement1 there were only eight pearls in the cluster when it was sold by ,kelly in #ahhc1 and to make it resemble a well-proportioned cross--the right arm being absent--another pearl of suitable size and shape was subsequently secured at ,cossack and attached in the proper place to the others1 which1 in the meantime1 had been refastened together by diamond cement1 thus making three artificial joints in the present cluster4 8,as if to assist in the deception1 nature had fashioned a hollow in the side of the central pearl just where the added pearl would have to be fitted2 and--the whole pearling fleet with their pearls and shells coming into ,cossack about this time--it was no difficult matter to select a pearl of the right size and with the convexity required4 ,the holder paid some ten or twelve pounds for the option of selecting a pearl within given limits2 and then once more1 with the aid of diamond cement and that of a skilful #8faker1' this celebrated gem was transformed into a perfect cross40#ebj ,,morgan-,,tiffany ,,collection4 ,probably the most interesting assortment of ,american pearls is the ,morgan-,tiffany ,collection in the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,new ,york4 ,the excellence of this collection lies1 not in the high cost of any individual pearl1 but in its illustrating in a comprehensive manner the great variety1 colors1 and forms of ,american pearls4 ,not only are the many varieties of fresh-water pearls represented1 but likewise abalone pearls from the ,pacific coast1 conch pearls from the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and a good assortment of pearly concretions from edible oysters and clams of the ,atlantic coast4 ,this collection contains #eeg species of white and colored ,unio pearls1 four multicolored1 five mallet-shapes1 #aff baroques1 thirty-nine hinge pearls1 twenty pearlaceous masses1 thirty-four clam 7,venus7 pearls1 fifteen abalone pearls1 eleven conch pearls1 and twelve oyster 7,ostrea7 pearls4 ,the collection was exhibited in two parts1 the first at the ,paris ,exposition of #ahhi1 and the second at the ,paris ,exposition of #aijj4 ,on each occasion a gold medal was awarded4 ,,count ,,batthyani',s ,,pearl4 ,a curious history is connected with a beautiful black pearl#eba which was at one time in the possession of ,count ,louis ,batthyani1 the premier of the revolutionary government of ,hungary4 ,the count was shot in #ahdi1 by the orders of a court-martial1 and on the eve of his execution he gave the pearl1 which he had worn mounted on a scarf-pin1 to his trusty and faithful valet4 ,the latter left it to his son1 who1 when in straightened circumstances1 sought to raise money upon the pearl4 ,the pawnbroker of the small town was distrustful of its value and took it to ,budapest for appraisal4 ,there the suspicions of the authorities were aroused1 an investigation was ordered1 and it was finally discovered that the pearl had been stolen one hundred and fifty years before from the ,english crown4 ,the ,english government redeemed it for the sum of #bejj 7#ab1ejj74 ,how it came into the possession of ,count ,batthyani is a mystery2 probably he purchased it from some antiquarian4 ,in #aijj there was shown in ,paris one of the most important black pearls of any time1 a pear-shaped pearl of forty-nine grains1 of a most wonderful black color with a green sheen1 as perfectly formed as though it had been turned out of a lathe2 it did not terminate in a point at the small end1 but was slightly flattened4 ,it was so beautiful an object that it almost seemed it should never be drilled for mounting4 ,this pearl ultimately sold for more than #cj1jjj1 and it is probably the finest black pearl that has ever reached the ,european markets4 ,according to a personal communication from ,e4 ,z4 ,steever1 governor of the ,district of ,sulu1 the largest pearl that he has seen in the islands belongs to the sultan1 and is now in the possession of ,hadji ,butu1 former prime minister4 ,it is an oblate spheroid1 there being a trifling difference between the two diameters4 ,the upper hemisphere is very beautiful2 the lower one has a few minute1 black specks which are superficial and could be easily removed1 the pearl not having been treated since it was taken from the oyster4 ,this pearl measures five eighths of an inch at its greatest diameter and is said to weigh twelve carats 7forty-eight grains74 ,hadji ,butu informed ,governor ,steever that the sultan had refused #be1jjj for the pearl in ,singapore4 ,the ,nordica pearl is the finest abalone of which we have any record4 ,it weighs #age grains1 is a drop pearl of a greenish hue1 with brilliant red fire-like flashes1 and serves as a pendant to the famous collection of colored pearls belonging to the beloved and admired ,american prima donna1 ,madam ,nordica4 ,at the ,international ,exposition in ,paris in #ahhi1 ,mr4 ,alphonse ,falco1 president of the ,chambre ,syndicale1 exhibited a round pearl1 white and lustrous1 weighing seventy grains1 and valued at #ej1jjj francs4 ,augusto ,castellani1 the well-known ,italian jeweler of ,rome1 in the year #ahfh1 during the ,papal regime1 executed a crown for ,king ,victor ,emmanuel ,,ii4 ,this crown was destined for the ,church of the ,holy ,sepulchre1 in ,jerusalem1 and on it is a pearl which1 although slightly irregular1 is as large as the famous ,gogibus pearl4 ,a remarkable golden-yellow pearl from ,shark's ,bay1 ,west ,australia1 is in the possession of a ,new ,york lady2 it weighs thirty and one half grains1 is perfectly round1 and is without a flaw or blemish4 ,,crown ,,jewels ,,of ,,france4 ,the collection of gems known as the ,crown ,jewels of ,france owed its origin to ,francis ,i 7#adid-aedg74 ,while in ,bordeaux1 on his way to meet his bride1 ,eleanor of ,austria1 sister of ,emperor ,charles ,v1 ,francis created by letter patent the ,treasure of the ,crown ,jewels1 giving to the state a number of his most valued diamonds1 under the condition that at each change of sovereign a careful inventory should be made4 ,the original collection consisted of six pieces of jewelry valued at #bgb1bdb 8cus soleil10 or about #gjj1jjj4 ,the crown jewels have passed through many vicissitudes in the course of time4 ,a number of the gems were at various times pledged as security for loans made in ,france and ,italy1 and it is said that in #aehh1 during the reign of ,henry ,,iii1 all the jewels disappeared from the royal treasury4 ,henry ,,iv strove to regather the scattered ornaments1 but it was only in the reign of ,louis ,,xiv that the collection became really important4 ,at the time of the ,french ,revolution1 in #agia1 an inventory was made by the order of the ,national ,assembly4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,madam ,,nordica ,,collection ,,of ,,colored ,,pearls ,the ,nordica drop pearl weighs #age grains ,the jewels were then deposited in the ,garde-,meuble1 where they were exposed to public view4 ,either they were very carelessly guarded1 or the guardians were in collusion with a band of thieves1 for the room wherein they were kept was entered on five successive nights1 and when the theft was finally discovered only about #ejj1jjj francs' 7#ajj1jjj7 worth of the gems remained4 ,many of the most valuable objects were1 however1 traced and recovered4 ,napoleon ,i1 when he became emperor1 made every effort to enrich the treasure1 and purchased gems to the value of #f1jjj1jjj francs 7#a1bjj1jjj71 and subsequent rulers added to the collection on various occasions4 ,at the time of the official inventory in #agia the entire collection of pearls was estimated at about #a1jjj1jjj francs 7#bjj1jjj74 ,the finest specimen in the collection was a splendid round pearl weighing #aji grains#ebb and estimated at #bjj1jjj francs 7#dj1jjj71 or #cff per grain1 on a base of #c4ce4 ,then came two pear-shaped pearls of a fine orient and well-matched1 weighing respectively #aag and #aac grains1 and valued at #cjj1jjj francs 7#fj1jjj7 or #bfj per grain1 on a base of #b4be4 ,in addition to the above there were twenty-five separate round pearls which had constituted the necklace of the queen2 they ranged in weight from #cf to #afe grains1 and were valued at about #ij1jjj francs 7#ah1jjj74 ,beside the pear-shaped pearls to which we have alluded1 there were two other pairs1 each valued at #cb1jjj francs 7#fdjj7 for the two pearls2 they averaged about #ajj grains in weight4 ,in addition to these there were two weighing respectively #age and #bje grains1 each valued at #bj1jjj francs 7#djjj71 and seven others ranging in weight from #ib to #afg grains and valued at from #aj1jjj to #ae1jjj francs 7#bjjj to #cjjj74 ,the best oval pearl was one weighing seventy-six and one half grains and estimated at #bj1jjj francs 7#djjj72 there were two others1 one of ninety-three grains1 valued at #ab1jjj francs 7#bdjj71 and one of #aba grains1 valued at #aj1jjj francs 7#bjjj74 ,we may also mention an egg-shaped pearl weighing #ade grains1 estimated as worth #aj1jjj francs 7#bjjj71 and a button pearl of #aih grains entered at #ae1jjj francs 7#cjjj74 ,beside these separate pearls there were eleven strings comprising #caj pearls1 weighing in all #fggh grains and valued at but #bi1djj francs 7about #fjjj74 ,the average per pearl was #ie francs 7#ai71 less than one dollar a grain4 ,these pearls1 according to their beauty1 would now be worth from four to six times the valuation here given1 so that the two large pear-shaped pearls of the ,french crown may be worth to-day #bjj1jjj and the great round pearl from #ajj1jjj to #bej1jjj4 ,many of these pearls were a century old4 ,they were collected at a time when not as much attention was paid to their absolute perfection and beauty as at the present time1 for there probably never has been a period when rare and perfect pearls1 diamonds1 or rubies have been appreciated so much more highly than those of mediocre quality4 ,,recapitulation ,weight in grains ,value ,no4 ,average ,total ,francs ,u4 ,s4 currency ,round ,pearls #a #aji #bjj1jjj #dj1jjj #c #gi #bch #bi1jjj #e1hjj #aa #gg #hjd #cg1cjj #g1dfj #g #fd #dej #ai1djj #c1hhj #ad #ec #gec #bc1ajj #d1fbj #dc #cd #adhh #af1ajj #c1bbj ,pear-shaped #b #aae #bcj #cjj1jjj #fj1jjj #d #ii #cig #fd1jjj #ab1hjj #f #afc #igh #ib1jjj #ah1djj #h #aad #iad #ee1jjj #aa1jjj #dg #db #aihi #bd1fjj #d1ibj ,oval #c #bg #bij #db1jjj #h1djj #i #gb #fed #bj1ajj #d1jbj #aa #dc #dgc #e1jjj #a1jjj ,egg-shaped #a #ade #aj1jjj #b1jjj ,irregular #ab #ci #dge #g1cjj #a1dfj ,button #a #aih #ae1jjj #c1jjj #f #ff #cih #d1ijj #ihj ,baroque #d #cg #aej #a1ejj #cjj ,strings #caj #ba #fggh #bi1djj #e1hhj ----- ------ -------------- -------------- ---------------- #ejc #ce #ag1iai #iie1gjj #aii1adj ,illustration3 ,,grand ,,pearl ,,diadem ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,crown ,,jewels ,containing #bab pearls weighing #bdeb grains1 and #aiij diamonds weighing #gd #bg-cb carats4 ,worn by the ,empress ,eugnie ,after the downfall of ,napoleon ,,iii and the proclamation of the ,french ,republic1 the jewels were inventoried1 and1 by a law passed ,december #aj1 #ahhf1 it was decreed that a large part of the treasure should be sold at public auction4 ,the sale was held in the ,pavilion de ,flore1 a part of the ,palace of the ,tuileries1 on ,may #ab1 #ahhg1 and1 very naturally1 all the principal gem dealers and collectors were represented4 ,a number of remarkable pearl ornaments were among the objects offered at this sale1 one of the most beautiful being a diadem of an exceptionally artistic openwork design1 adorned with large1 round pearls and surmounted by a row of magnificent pear-shaped pearls4 ,the total number of pearls in this diadem was #bab1 and their weight #bdeb grains4 ,it was sold for the sum of #gh1jjj francs 7#ae1fjj74 ,the coronet which accompanied the diadem comprised #bgd pearls1 weighing #ihd grains2 the design was similar to that of the diadem1 but the points consisted of a round and a pear-shaped pearl in alternation4 ,this ornament realized the sum of #cj1jjj francs 7#fjjj74 ,a large brooch of very elaborate and beautiful design1 beside a number of smaller pearls1 comprised four fine1 pear-shaped pendants1 weighing #ajj grains each1 and two choice bouton pearls1 and had in the center the famous pearl known as 8,la ,rgente10 which was purchased in #ahaa for #dj1jjj francs 7#hjjj74 ,this splendid ornament brought the sum of #agf1jjj francs 7#ce1bjj74 ,four other brooches each contained seven pearls and many brilliants1 the twenty-eight pearls having a total weight of #adif grains1 an average of more than fifty-three grains4 ,each brooch had two pearls surrounded with brilliants1 and five large1 pear-shaped pearls set as pendants4 ,they were sold to different purchasers at prices ranging from #ah1ejj francs 7#cgjj7 to #dc1jjj francs 7#hfjj71 the four together realizing #aac1ejj francs 7#bb1gjj74 ,six pearl necklaces were also offered4 ,one of forty-seven pearls weighing #fih grains was sold for #cd1fjj francs 7#fibj71 and two others1 each consisting of fifty-eight pearls1 with a total weight of #ebd and #djj grains respectively1 brought the sum of #bb1cjj francs 7#ddfj7 and #ae1jjj francs 7#cjjj74 ,another necklace composed of thirty-eight round pearls and nine pear-shaped pendants1 the total weight being #afab grains1 sold for #gd1cjj francs 7#ad1hfj74 ,the two finest necklaces were broken up into a number of separate lots4 ,one of them1 consisting of #cfb pearls and weighing in all #ehjh grains1--an average of a trifle over sixteen grains1--was offered in four lots which together brought #bie1hjj francs 7#ei1afj74 ,the other necklace comprised #edb pearls weighing #fgeb grains1 and was disposed of in eight lots1 realizing in all #cca1hjj francs 7#ff1cfj74 ,two bracelets adorned with #bjb pearls and a number of small brilliants were purchased for the sum of #ij1bjj francs 7#ah1jdj74 ,the total amount realized for the pearl ornaments was #a1bfa1ejj francs 7#beb1cjj74 ,there are several ,american ladies who own single strings of pearls which are of more value than the whole pearl parure of the ,empress ,eugnie4 ,pearl parure of the crown jewels of ,france1 worn by the ,empress ,eugnie1 and sold at the ,tuileries1 ,may #ab1 #ahhg4 ,a diadem containing #bab pearls1 weighing #bdeb grains4 ,a coronet with #bgd pearls1 weighing #ihd grains4 ,four brooches1 each containing four large pearls1 two round1 two pear-shaped1 and three smaller ones1 weighing in all #adif grains4 ,a larger brooch comprising four large pear-shaped pearls1 each weighing #ajj grains4 ,in the center is the pearl called 8,la ,rgente40 ,two necklaces each consisting of forty-seven pearls1 with an aggregate weight of #fih and #afab grains1 respectively4 ,two bracelets with #bjb pearls1 weighing #bjjj grains4 ,five buttons1 three with nine and two with ten pearls4 ,a necklace of #edb pearls1 weighing #fgeb grains4 ,another necklace of #cfb pearls1 weighing #ehjh grains4 ,two other necklaces1 each containing fifty-eight pearls1 the total weight being #djj and #ebd grains1 respectively4 ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,pearl ,,ornaments ,,forming ,,the ,,pearl ,,parure ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,crown ,,jewels ,,sold ,,at ,,palace ,,of ,,the ,,tuileries ,,in ,,may1 #ahhg ,designation ,no4 of pearls ,aggregate weight ,amount rec'd grains francs #a necklace #cfb #e1hjh #bie1hjj #a necklace #edb #f1geb #cca1hjj #a necklace #dg #fih #cd1fjj #a necklace #eh #ebd #bb1cjj #a necklace #eh #djj #ae1jjj #a necklace #dg #a1fab #gd1cjj #b bracelets #bjb #b1jjj #ij1bjj #a large diadem #bab #b1deb #gh1jjj #a coronet #bgd #ihd #cj1jjj #a brooch #de #a1bjj #agf1jjj #d brooches #bh #a1dif #aac1ejj -------- ------------ ---------------- ,total #ahge #bc1ibf #a1bfa1ejj ,,imperial ,,austrian ,,schatzkammer4 ,the weights and values of the great gathering of pearls of the imperial ,austrian ,schatzkammer were carefully estimated by one of the authors and by his friends1 and it is the first attempted inventory ever published4#ebc ,the imperial crown of the ,holy ,roman ,empire1 preserved in the treasury of the imperial ,burg at ,vienna1 and known as the crown of ,charlemagne1 has in front seventeen pearls weighing #dbd grains1 of which two weigh fifty-six grains each4 ,the remaining fifteen pearls average #bj4h grains4 ,the values of these pearls are as follows3 ,base #b4ej #e4jj #g4ej #ae pearls1 #bj4h grains #af1bbd #cb1ddh #dh1fgb #b #ef-;grain pearls #ae1fhj #ca1cfj #dg1jdj -------------- -------------- -------------- ,total #ca1ijd #fc1hjh #ie1gab ,illustration3 ,,the ,,imperial ,,austrian ,,crown ,made by order of ,emperor ,rudolph ,,ii1 in #afjd ,at the back of the crown there are eighteen pearls1 weighing #ahj grains4 ,one of these has a weight of twenty-six grains2 the remaining seventeen average #i4jeh grains4 ,the values estimated are as follows3 ,base #b4ej #e4jj #g4ej #ag pearls1 #i4jeh grains #c1dhg4ee #f1ige4aj #aj1dfb4fe #a pearl of #bf grains #a1fij4jj #c1chj4jj #e1jgj4jj -------------- -------------- -------------- ,total #e1agg4ee #aj1cee4aj #ae1ecb4fe ,the pearls in the cross surmounting the crown have a weight of thirty-six grains4 ,the imperial cross is profusely ornamented with pearls in front1 while the back consists simply of silver-gilt4 ,there are three strings of pearls in the front running in each direction4 ,the total weight of the pearls is #djib grains2 one weighing sixty-four grains1 and the smallest two grains4 ,the crucifix of the ,golden ,fleece is ornamented only in front with pearls2 these have a weight of but #acf grains4 ,the imperial ,austrian regalia1 dating from the time of ,emperor ,rudolph ,,ii1 are also in the imperial ,burg2 some of the emperor's jewels were sold at auction in ,prague in #agbh4 ,the crown is adorned with two rows of pearls1 weighing respectively #ifj and #hdj grains2 between these rows are pearls having a total weight of #ddj grains1 while the ornaments and eight large drops weigh #bjeb grains4 ,the largest pearl on this crown weighs #ajd grains4 ,it is drop-shaped and belonged to ,rudolph ,,ii2 it is slightly uneven and the color1 although white1 is not that of a new pearl1 but this pearl has a positive history of three hundred and six years1 and at the present time is probably the oldest known unchanged pearl with a direct and authentic record4 ,the imperial orb is studded with pearls weighing in all #aefj grains4 ,four of these weigh forty grains each1 the others are of lesser size1 the smallest weighing ten grains4 ,the scepter is adorned with pearls to the weight of #cjj grains4 ,in addition to these insignia and regalia there are in the treasury two magnificent pearl necklaces1 deposited by ,empress ,maria ,theresa in #agfe4 ,the first consists of a single string of #aad large-sized pearls with the 8,baden ,solitaire10 a diamond of #cj carats1 as a clasp4 ,three of these pearls weigh from #ib to #ajj grains each1 and the whole string has a total weight of #cdjj grains4 ,this would give us the following values1 the pearls averaging #bi4hb grains4 ,base #b4ej #bec1dcb4ab #e4jj #ejf1hfd4bd ,the other necklace contains #aba pearls of a total weight of #cghh grains1 arranged in three rows2 these pearls average #ca4c grains1 the largest weighing forty grains and the smallest ten grains4 ,the necklace has a diamond clasp of #ad-acb carats4 ,the pearls are worth3 ,base #b4ej #bif1dej #e4jj #eib1ijj #g4ej #hhi1cej ,two bracelets with brilliant clasps1 belonging to the same set1 and consisting of #bdj medium-sized pearls weighing #bhjj grains and averaging #aa grains1 have the following values3 ,base #b4ej #ha1feh4hj #e4jj #afc1cag4fj #g4ej #bdd1igf4dj ,there is also a pendant of six pearls1 weighing #cjj grains and averaging fifty grains2 these pearls are worth3 ,base #b4ej #cg1ejj #e4jj #ge1jjj #g4ej #aab1ejj ,another necklace1 bequeathed to the treasury by the late ,empress ,caroline ,augusta1 consists of eighty-six pearls disposed in two rows1 the largest pearl weighing seventy-two grains and the smallest eight grains4 ,the total weight is #bfjj grains and the average1 #cj4b4 ,this necklace is worth3 ,base #b4ej #aif1jhh4fj #e4jj #cib1agg4bj #g4ej #ehh1bfe4hj ,still another necklace is composed altogether of black pearls1 of which there are thirty1 the largest weighing forty-eight grains and the smallest ten4 ,the total weight of this necklace is #ajdj grains1 an average of #cd4ff grains for each pearl4 ,on a base of #e this necklace is worth #ahj1aej4 ,the diamond crown of the empress bears pearls to the total weight of #bjjj grains2 among them are four weighing #ajj grains each4 ,these pearls alone1 on a #e base1 would be worth #bjj1jjj4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,great ,s,,vign ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,crown ,,jewels ,containing 8,the ,regent ,pearl10 weighing #ccg grains1 and four pear-shaped pearls of #ajj grains each2 also #ajj carats of diamonds ,the total weight of the pearls in all these ornaments is #ce1haf grains1 equal to four and a half pounds1 avoirdupois1 and they are worth from #b1jjj1jjj to #d1jjj1jjj4 ,the so-called crown of ,charlemagne bears the inscription3 8,chuonradus ,rex ,dei gratia ,romanorum ,imperator ,aug40 ,it is believed to be a work of the twelfth century and originally the royal crown of ,conrad ,,iii1 king of the ,germans 7#ajic-aaeb71 the first ,hohenstaufen4#ebd ,the arch is said to have been added to adapt this royal crown for use in the expected coronation of ,conrad as emperor4 ,he died1 however1 while making preparations for his journey to ,rome4 ,the imperial vestments used in the coronation ceremonies of the ,holy ,roman ,empire1 were produced in the celebrated ,htel de ,tirz1 at ,palermo4 ,roger ,,ii1 ,king of ,sicily 7#ajif-aaed71 after a victorious campaign in ,greece1 brought back with him to ,sicily a number of skilled silk-weavers and embroiderers1 whom he established at ,palermo4 ,the imperial mantle is of a brilliant purple and bears an inscription1 embroidered in gold and pearls1 stating that the garment was made in the royal manufactory in the year #aacc4 ,two pearl-embroidered representations of a lion1 who has stricken down a camel and is about to tear it to pieces1 also appear on this mantle4 ,this symbol of royal power was used frequently by the ,saracens1 and it is said that ,richard ,cur de ,lion had this design embroidered on his saddlecloths4#ebe ,a fine collection of large baroque pearls is preserved in the ,grne ,gewlbe 7,green ,vaults7 in the palace at ,dresden1 which contains the treasures of the royal family of ,saxony4 ,most of these were mounted during the eighteenth century by ,j4 ,m4 ,dinglinger 7#affe-agca71 the famous goldsmith to the ,saxon ,elector1 ,king ,augustus ,,ii of ,poland1 and who is sometimes called the ,german ,cellini4 ,a splendid specimen of his work is a vase of ,egyptian jasper in the shape of a shell1 bearing a representation of ,hercules fighting with the ,neman lion2 this bears reference to the immense personal strength and power of ,augustus ,,ii1 whose portrait is painted in enamel on a mirror at the back4 ,the pedestal is adorned with a great many precious stones1 pearls1 and enamel paintings in the shape of cameos representing the twelve labors of ,hercules4 ,a dragon is studded with emeralds and its back is formed of pearls1 with a large sardonyx in the middle4 ,hercules and the lion are in enamel4 ,in the same collection may be seen the figure of a dwarf made by ,ferbecq1 who was one of the goldsmiths of ,king ,augustus4 ,the body of the dwarf is formed of a baroque pearl1 which is studded with small diamonds4 ,his sleeves and trousers are in black and green enamel2 his hat is also of green enamel and on it is a string of diamonds4 ,in his right hand the dwarf holds a spit and in his left a roast4 ,on his left shoulder he bears a goose1 the upper part of whose body is formed of a pearl2 at his right side hangs a bottle also formed of a pearl4 ,the gilded pedestal is ornamented with white enamel work on a pink ground4 ,above and below1 it is set with white and yellow diamonds4 ,another figure1 similarly formed of a large baroque pearl ornamented with gold and diamonds1 shows a drunken vintager and his dog2 and an exceedingly grotesque1 ornamented baroque is said to bear a striking resemblance to ,seor ,pepe1 the court dwarf of ,charles ,,ii of ,spain4 ,exhibited at the ,palace of ,rosenberg at ,copenhagen1 are similar designs in which large baroques form the principal part of fish1 birds1 dragons1 mermaids1 etc4 ,prominent among them is the figure of a skater1 executed by the jeweler1 ,diederichsen2 it is said that this was made for ,frederick ,,vii1 who died before it was accepted1 and in #ahie it was presented to the museum4 ,a beautiful and costly figure of this nature was completed a year or two ago by the court jeweler1 ,alfred ,dragsen1 of ,copenhagen4 ,this is nearly four inches in height1 and represents a female snake-charmer4 ,a very long baroque pearl forms the body from the shoulders to the knees1 and the head1 arms1 and the legs below the knees are of gold4 ,the figure is ornamented with a diamond-studded garland1 ruby necklace and earrings1 and garters set with similar gems1 a red enameled girdle ornamented with pearls1 and golden anklets with black pearls4 ,with a flute she charms a serpent twined about her body and grasped with the other hand4 ,what is said to be the finest collection of black pearls in all ,europe is that belonging to the ,duchess of ,anhalt ,dessau1 ,germany4 ,it consists of three large caskets of black pearls that have taken a century to collect4 ,it is traditional in the family that these pearls are never to be sold except as their last possession1 since they know they will always find a purchaser4 ,a collection of pearls had been kept for many years in the ,monte de ,piedad of ,mexico ,city1 which it was claimed had been pawned by a friend of the ,empress ,carlotta1 in order to provide her with money at the time of the assassination of ,emperor ,maximilian4 ,these pearls were contained in a necklace and a pearl and diamond tiara1 which were sewn upon cardboard covered with black velvet1 and had the appearance of not having been disturbed for many years4 ,the necklace consisted of old pearls1 both of the so-called ,madras and ,panama varieties2 in the center was a large diamond medallion from which pear-shaped pearls were suspended4 ,it is believed that these pearls were part of ,empress ,carlotta's marriage portion1 and that they came from the ,austrian crown jewel collection4 ,none of them possessed much quality with the exception of one1 a large pear-shaped pearl which was set at the base of the necklace and weighed eighty-four grains4 ,the drilling of this pearl was of a very old style1 being of that type in which a tube is inserted in the drill hole1 through which a gold wire passes to hold the pearl2 a diamond is then set at the base of the tube to disguise the drill mark4 ,it is1 however1 possible that the pearl came from the ,east ,indies1 where large drill holes are usual4 ,illustration3 ,,madam ,,nordica ,the pearls were sent in bond to the ,united ,states as a collection1 and then to ,europe1 where they were sold separately1 the pear-shaped pearl appearing again in the ,new ,york market in #aijf4 ,there has been some doubt as to these really being ,carlotta's pearls1 but the ,mexican account is fairly consistent1 and it satisfactorily disposes of the newspaper romance in which it was claimed that ,carlotta had taken these pearls with her to ,europe and that they had been buried in a casket in the ,adriatic ,sea4 ,,recent ,,auction ,,sales4 ,in ,england and in ,france1 more than in the ,united ,states1 great auction sales of jewels are common4 ,they are held in ,london1 principally at ,christie's1 originally a coffee house1 established in #ahhj2 and in ,paris1 at the ,htel ,drouot4 ,good prices are generally realized1 as the buyers of the entire continent attend these great sales4 ,the purchases are usually made by dealers who frequently do not neglect each other's interests if private buyers are present4 ,no matter how great may be the amount involved1 no matter whether the collections consist of paintings1 furniture1 or jewels1 there are always buyers1 to a much greater extent than in the ,united ,states4 ,the price for fine jewels may naturally vary a trifle in the different markets1 according to the conditions of payment4 ,it must evidently make an appreciable difference whether almost the entire amount is paid in cash or whether a credit of thirty days is extended1 or one for a much longer period1 in some countries for as long as one1 two1 or even three years4 ,while in the ,united ,states such sales of valuable jewels are very unusual1 it has been a custom in ,england and in ,france for many years1 in the settlement of estates1 to sell not only the furniture1 bric--brac1 etc41 but also the jewels4 ,sales of this kind are naturally calculated to attract not only the dealers1 but also many rich collectors and connoisseurs1 and as they are frequently widely advertised1 and ,london and ,paris are1 at the most1 but one to two days' journey from all parts of ,europe1 many people attend1 most of the private buyers being represented by their agents4 ,by means of these sales many heirlooms1 which have been handed down from generation to generation1 often pass into the possession of strangers4 ,in the matter of jewels1 it has been frequently noticed that dealers are in the majority of cases the ultimate buyers1 and it has also been inferred that when an outsider participates in the bidding1 the prices are advanced to such an extent that it does not often appear profitable for him to buy in the face of such competition4 ,all manner of people have had their estates disposed of in this way1 and the list of these sales during the past twenty years is a striking one3 royalty1 nobility1 merchants1 and people in many other conditions of life find a place in it4 ,it is not an infrequent custom in ,london for solicitors to advance money on jewels1 and when the payments are not forthcoming these jewels are sold4 ,hence1 many sales appear at the larger auction rooms in which no name is given1 the owners frequently being people of high degree4 ,on ,july #ai1 #ahib1 a necklace containing eighty-five graduated pearls of unusual size and quality1 the property of the late ,h4 ,w4 ,f4 ,bolchow1 ,m4,p41 was sold in ,london for the sum of #bejj 7#ab1ejj74 ,another necklace of #adf fine graduated pearls disposed in two rows1 brought #bdjj 7#ab1jjj72 a single-row necklace of eighty-five pearls realized #afjj 7#hjjj71 and one of #aah pearls in two rows #affj 7#hcjj74 ,an exceptionally fine pearl necklace which belonged to her ,grace the late ,caroline1 ,duchess of ,montrose1 mother of the present ,duke of ,montrose1 was sold at ,christie's on ,april #cj1 #ahie4 ,the necklace comprised #cfb graduated pearls1 arranged in seven rows of forty-four1 forty-seven1 forty-eight1 forty-nine1 fifty-two1 fifty-eight1 and sixty-four pearls1 respectively4 ,the amount realized for this ornament was #aa1ejj 7#eg1ejj74 ,on ,july #i1 #aija1 a pearl necklace1 advertised as the property of 8a ,french lady of rank10 and several other valuable pearl ornaments1 were offered at ,christie's4 ,it is supposed by many that these jewels belonged to ,madame ,humbert4 ,the necklace was composed of six rows of graduated pearls consisting of fifty-five1 sixty-one1 sixty-seven1 seventy-three1 seventy-nine1 and eighty-nine pearls1 respectively1 a total of #dbd1 all of good color and luster4 ,a ,london dealer considers that they owed their value mainly to skilful matching and fineness of color2 they are perhaps a century old4 ,as may be supposed1 there were many bidders who competed eagerly for possession of this fine ornament1 and it was at last adjudged for the sum of #bj1jjj 7#ajj1jjj74 ,while this was1 up to that date1 a record price in an auction room1 it was by no means an exceptional figure for private sales2 indeed1 at about the time this necklace was sold1 a ,london dealer disposed of another for #cd1jjj 7#agj1jjj74 ,a necklace1 the property of the late ,lady ,matheson of the ,lews1 was sold at ,christie's1 ,march #e1 #aijb4 ,well-matched and graduated round pearls1 to the number of #bcc1 were disposed in four rows1 and strung with seed-pearls between4 ,this necklace1 which had been presented to ,lady ,matheson at the time of her marriage in #ahdc by ,sir ,jamsetjee ,jejeebhoy1 ,bart41 brought the sum of #fhjj 7#cd1jjj74 ,a pearl necklace1 containing fifty-three fine and graduated pearls1 was sold in ,london1 ,june #i1 #aijb1 for the sum of #bbej 7#aa1bej74 ,another necklace of sixty-eight fine round pearls1 one of which formed the clasp1 brought #aehj 7#gijj74 ,a beautiful pearl and brilliant pendant of open scroll design1 with a large1 round white pearl in the center1 and a large1 pear-shaped black pearl as drop1 realized #hjj 7#djjj71 and a pearl collar of ten rows of round pearls brought #hbj 7#dajj74 ,a noteworthy offering at this sale was a rope of #ace pearls1 an heirloom sold under the will of ,lady ,marianna ,augusta ,hamilton4 ,these pearls had been given to ,lady ,augusta ,anne ,cockburn in #agfi on the occasion of her marriage to ,sir ,james ,cockburn1 ,bart41 by her godmother1 ,augusta1 ,duchess of ,brunswick1 sister to ,george ,,iii4 ,the rope was sold for #ijj 7#dejj74 ,the pearls of ,lady ,dudley were sold at ,christie's on ,july #d1 #aijb4 ,among them was a magnificent necklace of forty-seven slightly graduated round pearls1 of large size and unusually brilliant orient2 their gross weight was #ajij grains4 ,this necklace brought the sum of #bb1bjj 7#aaa1jjj74 ,a single pear-shaped pearl of the finest orient mounted with a diamond cap1 as a pendant1 and weighing #bji grains1 was sold for #ac1ejj 7#fg1ejj74 ,a rope of #bbb graduated round pearls of the highest quality1 weighing #bcbj grains was purchased for #af1gjj 7#hc1ejj71 and a pearl and brilliant tiara brought #aj1cjj 7#ea1ejj74 ,the entire casket of thirty-one lots realized #hi1ebf 7#ddg1fcj74 ,at the sale of the jewels of ,mlle4 ,wanda de ,boncza1 at the ,htel ,drouot1 ,paris1 ,december #f1 #aijb1 a fine necklace was disposed of for the sum of #aej1jjj francs 7#cj1jjj71 and a rope of #ajj small pearls realized #ch1ajj francs 7#gfbj72 the proceeds of the entire sale of these jewels were #a1bdi1egh francs 7#bdi1iae74 ,among the ,aqualia jewels1 sold in ,london in #aijc1 was a pearl necklace that brought #ddhj 7#bb1djj74 ,the jewels of the late ,marquis of ,anglesey1 an enthusiastic jewel and art collector1 were disposed of at ,christie's on ,may #d and #e1 #aijd4 ,at the time of his death1 the marquis was supposed to be a bankrupt1 but the value of the gems which he had purchased had increased so rapidly that the sale realized the sum of #bb1ihh #ajs4 7#aad1idb71 more than enough to cover all the obligations of the estate4 ,of this amount a magnificent drop pearl1 mounted as a scarf-pin1 brought #djjj 7#bj1jjj72 another drop pearl of the finest orient1 weighing #aje grains1 but slightly cracked1 was sold for #cgjj 7#ah1ejj74 ,four other drop-shaped pearls1 mounted as scarf-pins1 were sold for #ebbj 7#bf1ajj71 one of them bringing #agbj 7#hfjj74 ,a single bouton pearl1 used as a coat fastener1 realized #ihj 7#dijj71 and a pearl trefoil was purchased for #ehj 7#bijj74 ,one fine large bouton pearl1 set as a stud1 was disposed of for #cjjj 7#ae1jjj71 and another somewhat smaller bouton1 also set as a stud1 brought #afjj 7#hjjj74 ,a splendid necklace comprising forty-nine well-matched and graduated pearls of fine quality1 weighing #efc grains1 was sold in ,london on ,june #bi1 #aije1 for the sum of #dgjj 7#bc1ejj74 ,at the same sale a necklace of thirty-two graduated pearls1 weighing about #hij grains1 brought #bfjj 7#ac1jjj74 ,on ,july #bj1 #aije1 a pearl necklace comprising forty-five graduated pearls of fine orient1 with a cabochon ruby clasp1 the gross weight being #hcb grains1 was sold in ,london for #caej 7#ae1gej74 ,a fine pearl and brilliant pendant was disposed of at the sale in ,london1 ,february #ba1 #aijf1 of the stock of ,mr4 ,e4 ,m4 ,marcoso4 ,this pendant was composed of one large white brilliant1 weighing #ah-acb carats1 and a drop-shaped pearl weighing #ge grains4 ,the ornament brought the sum of #bjej 7#aj1bej74 ,a pearl necklace composed of #bhe well-matched and graduated pearls disposed in five rows was sold in ,london on ,june #ac1 #aijf1 for the sum of #aj1jjj 7#ej1jjj74 ,at the same sale a three-row necklace1 with #bac graduated and matched pearls of fine orient1 brought #cbjj 7#af1jjj71 and a rope of #bcg fine pearls realized #bhjj 7#ad1jjj74 ,among the jewels disposed of at a sale in ,london on ,july #aa1 #aijf1 may be mentioned a five-row pearl necklace of #dde graduated oriental pearls which was sold for #bejj 7#ab1ejj74 ,three other necklaces were offered at the same sale2 one of fifty-five matched and graduated pearls of fine quality bringing #cdjj 7#ag1jjj72 one of fifty-seven pearls1 #bgjj 7#ac1ejj71 and the other of #bai well-matched and graduated pearls realizing #bcej 7#aa1gej74 ,still another necklace of #dag matched and graduated pearls arranged in five rows was sold for #dhjj 7#bd1jjj74 ,a splendid pearl drop1 of the finest orient1 brought #afej 7#hbej71 and a pearl rope of #aia oriental pearls1 arranged so as to form three single-row necklaces1 realized the sum of #cgjj 7#ah1ejj71 three fine black pearls1 mounted as studs1 were sold for #ajjj 7#ejjj74 ,the most important necklace was reserved for the end of the sale2 this was composed of forty-seven large oriental pearls1 and was purchased for the sum of #aj1jjj 7#ej1jjj74 ,at the sale of the ,massey-,mainwaring collection at ,christie's on ,march #ah1 #aijg1 a five-row pearl necklace consisting of #dga graduated pearls1 with a bouton pearl in the center1 was sold for #dfjj 7#bc1jjj74 ,another collection1 sold at ,christie's1 ,april #ae1 #aijg1 was the property of the late ,mrs4 ,lewis-,hill1 and the proceeds of the first day's sale reached the heretofore unapproached total of #id1hje 7#dgd1jbe71 thus exceeding by #bf1cie the amount obtained in one day by the sale of ,lady ,dudley's jewels4 ,among the valuable pearls in this collection1 we may mention a pair of large bouton pearl earrings1 with small diamond tops1 which brought #aahj 7#eijj74 ,the enthusiasm and interest of the assembly were aroused by a necklace of forty-five large1 graduated pearls of fine orient1 with a bouton pearl and brilliant cluster snap2 after spirited bidding this was bought for #fajj 7#cj1ejj74 ,the greatest event of the day1 however1 was the appearance of a splendid rope of #bbi pearls of very good form1 well-matched and graduated4 ,the opening bid was #aj1jjj 7#ej1jjj7 and after a warm contest the pearls were finally acquired for the sum of #af1gjj 7#hc1ejj74 ,a necklace consisting of fifteen graduated drops1 each formed of one bouton pearl1 one brilliant1 and one pear-shaped pearl drop1 depending from a narrow band of small diamonds1 drew forth a bid of #ejjj 7#be1jjj7 and was finally awarded for the sum of #ab1bjj 7#fa1jjj74 ,a pearl rope of #ahc graduated and well-matched pearls realized #gbjj 7#cf1jjj71 and a fine pair of pearls set as earrings brought #cdjj 7#ag1jjj74 ,the crowded auction room1 the keen competition among the bidders1 and the amount obtained for these jewels are good indications of the firmness of the market at the present time4 ,illustration3 ,copyright1 #aijg1 by ,theo4 ,c4 ,marceau1 ,n4 ,y4 ,,mrs4 ,,george ,j4 ,,gould ,at the sale of the jewels of ,lady ,henry ,gordon-,lennox1 held at ,christie's on ,may #ab1 #aijg1 a splendid necklace was offered4 ,it comprised #bhg graduated pearls of the finest orient1 disposed in five rows1 with a large circular pearl4 ,this magnificent ornament was sold for #be1ejj 7#abg1ejj74 ,on ,july #aa1 #aijg1 a splendid necklace of forty-nine graduated pearls1 of fine luster and carefully matched1 was sold at auction by ,debenham and ,storr of ,london1 for the sum of #efjj 7#bh1jjj74 ,at the same sale a single-row necklace of forty-five pearls brought #ecjj 7#bf1ejj71 and a rope of oriental pearls realized #dejj 7#bb1ejj74 ,at the auction sale of the collection of the late ,bishop ,bubics of ,hungary1 among other objects1 a very handsome saber pouch was offered1 of the style worn by the ,hungarian hussars4 ,it was of green silk and richly embroidered with hundreds of pearls of varying sizes4 ,after a spirited competition this pouch was sold to ,prince ,esterhazy for #ac1ejj crowns 7#bgjj74 ,some time after the sale a letter from the late bishop was found1 containing the statement that he had borrowed the ornament from the jewel-room of the ,princess ,esterhazy4 ,naturally1 ,prince ,esterhazy was not called upon to pay the amount of his bid4 ,it is a gratification to know that at least one of the remarkable ,magyar jeweled ornaments has escaped the cupidity of enterprising jewelers who have broken up so many of these ornaments for the gems which they contained4 ,a ,,brief ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,great ,,pearls ,,of ,,history ,weight ,charles the ,bold's ,pearls4 ,three1 each about #fj grains ,gomara ,pearl1 #ca carats #abd grains ,oviedo ,pearl1 #bf carats 7probably the ,morales or ,pizarro ,pearl7 #ajd grains ,la ,peregrina #acd grains ,charles ,,ii's ,pearl1 7nearly equal to ,la ,peregrina7 ,morales and ,pizarro ,pearl1 #bf carats #ajd grains ,rudolph ,,ii's ,pearl1 #cj carats #abj grains ,tavernier's ,pearls3 ,shah ,sofi's ,pearl 7estimated7 #ejj grains ,imam of ,muscat's ,pearl1 #ab-aaf carats #dh grains ,shaista ,khan ,pearl1 #ee carats #bbj grains ,great ,mogul's ,pearls3 ,peacock ,throne ,pearl #bjj grains ,two pear-shaped1 one about #gj ratis #ahf4b grains ,olive-shaped pearl 7estimated7 #abe grains ,one button-shaped1 #ee-fj ratis #adf4c-aei4f grains ,one round pearl1 #ef ratis 7gift of the ,shah ,abbas ,,ii7 #adh4i grains ,round pearl 7estimated7#ebf #aaj grains ,three yellowish pearls1 #be-bh ratis #ff4e-gd4e grains ,one perfectly round pearl1 #ce ratis #id grains ,two perfectly shaped and equal1 each #be ratis #fg4a grains ,la ,reine des ,perles #aji grains ,pearls of ,maria ,theresa's ,necklace 7three7 #ib-ajj grains ,la ,rgente 7now owned by ,princess ,yousoupoff7 #ccg grains ,la ,pellegrina #aaa grains ,the ,ynaffit1 pear-shaped #adc grains ,hope ,pearl1 drop-shaped baroque #ahjj grains ,also in the ,hope ,collection3 ,conical pearl #aea grains ,bouton pearl #abd grains ,oval pearl #id grains ,roughly spherical pearl #hi grains ,acorn-shaped pearl #he grains ,oval conch pearl #hb grains ,button-shaped conch pearl #gg grains ,drop-shaped pearl #gf grains ,pear-shaped ,scotch pearl #cd grains ,van ,buren ,pearls3 ,two1 each about #cj grains ,also necklace #adh pearls #gjj grains ,tiffany ,queen ,pearl1 ,american #ic grains ,black bouton earring-pearl #hh grains ,white bouton earring-pearl #ic grains ,bapst ,pearls1 two #aac and #aac grains ,round pearl of ,paris ,exposition of #ahhi #gj grains ,mme4 ,nordica's ,pearl 7abalone7 #age grains ,great ,bahama ,conch ,pearl #ach grains ,the ,queen ,conch ,pearl #ij grains ,w4 ,h4 ,moore's ,pearl 7,arkansas pearl1 brown7 #abb grains ,shark's ,bay ,pearl1 golden yellow #cj grains ,rudolph ,,ii ,crown ,pearl1 #bf carats #ajd grains ,carlotta's ,pearl1 pear-shaped #hd grains ,marquis of ,anglesey's ,pearl1 drop-shaped #aje grains ,black pear-shaped pearl 7,lower ,california7 #di grains ,,xvii ,,the ,,aboriginal ,,use ,,of ,,pearls1 ,,and ,,their ,,discovery ,,in ,,mounds ,,and ,,graves ,,xvii ,,the ,,aboriginal ,,use ,,of ,,pearls1 ,,and ,,their ,,discovery ,,in ,,mounds ,,and ,,graves ,the use of pearls by the aborigines of the territory now comprised in the ,united ,states is proven by their appearance in the mounds and certain graves of pre-,columbian date4 ,this is of great interest in view of the unique system of burial and the great variety of objects buried with the pearls4 ,it is evident from the quantities discovered in some of the mounds that a very great number of pearls1 many of large size1 must have been owned by these aborigines1 and they were evidently quite expert in the art of drilling them4 ,pearls must have been freely used for ornamental purposes1 and it is clear that many rivers in this region must have produced them in great numbers1 when we consider that in all probability the mussels were taken only as they were required for food or for bait in fishing1 and had probably reached their full growth4 ,it is not unlikely that pearls were used on this continent for a long period1 and they may have been in use centuries before any employment was made of them in ,europe4 ,in the age of the mound-builders there were as many pearls in the possession of a single tribe of ,indians as existed in any ,european court4 ,we have no means of ascertaining the precise date of any of these burials1 and there are no historical records relating to this region1 such as were kept in ,mexico as well as in ,europe and ,asia4 ,no trace has been found of the employment of pearls1 either for decoration or ornament1 by the aborigines of ,europe or ,asia2 either they did not use them or else the pearls have entirely passed away in the course of twenty or more centuries4 ,we do know1 however1 that neither pearls nor ,unio shells were used by any of the lake-dwellers of ,switzerland or the adjacent countries4 ,many eminent archologists have investigated the finding and history of the pearls of the mound-builders of ,ohio and ,alabama1 especially ,squier and ,davis1 ,f4 ,w4 ,putnam1 ,warren ,k4 ,moorehead1 ,c4 ,c4 ,jones1 ,w4 ,c4 ,mills1 and ,clarence ,b4 ,moore4 ,the discoveries made up to #ahij were fully treated by one of the writers in several pamphlets 7one of them1 8,gems and ,precious ,stones of ,north ,america074 ,it is not unlikely that the ,indians of the ,atlantic coast may have known of pearls from the common clam as well as from the edible oyster4 ,the former may have often contained pearls weighing from fifty to one hundred grains each1 as at that period the mollusks were permitted to attain their full growth1 and perhaps were not eaten except when they were as small as little-neck clams2 the larger ones were sought for the purple spot which held the muscle1 and was used for wampum4 ,we have no record of the finding of pearls in any graves north of ,virginia1 as the many graves opened in the past century have failed to reveal them1 nor has the use of pearls been mentioned by any of the early writers4 ,they may have been worn1 but if so they have passed away or may have been mistaken for ashes if they had decrepitated4 ,the first ,english settlers found the ,indians of the tidewater region of what now constitutes the ,middle ,states using pearls quite freely and esteeming them among their favorite treasures and ornaments4 ,captain ,john ,smith1 and all the early chroniclers of the ,virginia colony1 have given many accounts of this aboriginal use of pearls4 ,in view of the general interest awakened by the tercentenary of the founding of ,jamestown1 and the exposition in commemoration thereof1 the 8,american ,anthropologist0 devoted its first number for #aijg principally to topics relating to the ,virginia ,indians4#ebg ,among these articles is one of much interest by ,mr4 ,charles ,c4 ,willoughby1 of the ,peabody ,museum at ,cambridge1 ,massachusetts1 dealing with the tribes occupying tidewater ,virginia at the time of the first colonization1 their habits and customs1 their distribution1 and their subsequent history of diminution and almost of extinction4 ,these were a branch of the ,algonquian stock1 and extended as far south as the ,neuse ,river in ,north ,carolina4 ,to the south and west they were hemmed in by tribes of ,iroquoian and ,siouan race1 and on the north they were separated from other hostile ,indians by the ,potomac ,river and ,chesapeake ,bay4 ,the powerful confederacy under ,powhatan comprised some thirty tribes or 8provinces10 covering most of the tidewater region of ,virginia proper4 ,to the greater chiefs1 ,john ,smith states that tribute was paid1 consisting of 8skinnes1 beads1 copper1 pearle1 deere1 turkies1 wild beasts and corne40#ebh ,many other references in this article confirm and illustrate this general statement1 especially regarding pearls1 both as to their use by the living and their deposit with the remains of the dead4 ,in the account given of the native clothing1 the outer mantles are described1 made usually of deerskin with the hair removed1 and bordered with a fringe4 ,these were often 8couloured with some pretty work1 444 beasts1 fowle1 tortayses1 or such like imagery10#ebi or adorned with shells1 white beads1 copper ornaments1 pearls1 or the teeth of animals4#ecj ,strachey describes a wonderful cloak made of feather-work1 belonging to an ,indian princess1 the wife of a deposed chief1 ,pipisco2 with it she wore 8pendants of great but imperfect couloured and worse drilled pearles1 which she put into her eares10 besides a long necklace made of copper links4#eca ,with regard to such ornaments1 ,mr4 ,willoughby says 7p4 #ga7 that 8the ears of both sexes were pierced with great holes1 the women commonly having three in each ear1 in which were hung strings of bones1 shell1 and copper beads1 copper pendants1 and other ornaments4 ,captain ,amidas met the wife of a chief who wore in her ears strings of pearl beads as large as #8great pease' which hung down to her middle4#ecb ,the husband of this woman wore five or six copper pendants in each ear4 ,it was a common custom for the men to wear a claw of a hawk1 eagle1 turkey1 or bear1 or even a live snake as an ear ornament40 8,bracelets and neck ornaments of various kinds of beads were common4 ,beads of copper seem to have been most highly valued in the early colonial period4 ,these were made of #8shreeds of copper1 beaten thinne and bright1 and wound up hollowe1' and were sometimes strung alternately with pearls which were occasionally stained to render them more attractive4#ecc ,beads of polished bone or shell were strung into necklaces either alone or with perforated pearls or copper beads4 ,some of these chains were long enough to pass several times around the neck4 ,necklaces of such construction as to be easily identified were worn by messengers as a proof of good faith4 ,powhatan gave ,sir ,thomas ,dale a pearl necklace1 and requested that any messenger sent by ,dale to him should wear it as a guaranty that the message was authentic40#ecd 8,pearls of various shapes and sizes were comparatively common1 but symmetrical pearls of uniform size were more rare4 ,strachey writes of having seen #8manie chaynes and braceletts 7of pearls7 worne by the people1 and wee have found plentie of them in the sepulchers of their kings1 though discoloured by burning the oysters in the fier1 and deformed by grosse boring4' ,one of ,hariot's companions obtained from the ,indians about five thousand pearls1 from which a sufficient number of good quality and of uniform size were obtained to make a #8fayre chaine1 which for their likenesse and uniformitie in roundnesse1 orientness and pidenesse of many excellent colours1 with equalitie in greatnesse1 were verie fayre and rare4'#ece 8,those who have examined the thousands of pearls from the ,ohio mounds1 to be mentioned later1 can readily understand these conditions4 ,the pearl beads from the mounds vary in diameter from about an eighth of an inch to nearly an inch1 the great majority being small and irregular1 although there are many among them of good form and value4 ,it is probable that most of the ,virginia pearls were obtained from the fresh-water mussel 7,unio702 not unlikely from the common marine clam 7,venus mercenaria71 or the common oyster 7,ostrea virginica74 ,as regards the burial of pearls with the dead and their use in religious rites1 curious and quite full accounts are given by ,strachey1 ,smith1 ,hariot1 and ,beverley4#ecf ,there was a 8temple10 also occupied as a residence by one or more priests1 in the territory of every chief4 ,this building was usually some eighteen or twenty feet wide1 and varied in length from thirty to one hundred feet1 with an entrance at the eastern end1 and the western portion partitioned off with mats to form a sort of sanctuary or 8chancel40 ,within this were kept the dried bodies of deceased chiefs1 and an image of the god1 called ,okee1 made in the shape of a man1 8all black1 dressed with chaynes of perle40 ,full descriptions of these idols and their manufacture are given by ,hariot and ,beverley1 also of the process of preserving the remains of the chiefs4#ecg ,after the body had been disemboweled1 the skin was laid back and the flesh was cut away from the bones4 ,when this operation was completed1 the skeleton1 held together by its ligaments1 was again inclosed in the skin1 and stuffed with white sand1 or with 8pearle1 copper1 beads1 and such trash sowed in a skynne40#ech ,it was then dressed in fine skins and adorned with all sorts of valuables1 including strings of pearls and beads4 ,the same kinds of treasures were also deposited in a basket at the feet of the mummy4 ,captain ,smith describes the temple of ,powhatan1 at ,uttamussack1 which was in charge of seven priests1 and was held in great awe by 8the salvages40 ,at a place called ,orapaks1 was also his treasure-house1 fifty or sixty yards long1 frequented only by priests1 where he kept a great amount of skins1 beads1 pearls1 and copper1 stored up against the time of his death and burial4 ,a vivid account is given of the four grotesque images that stood guard at the corners of this building1 all made 8evill favouredly according to their best workmanship40#eci ,the use of pearls as ornaments1 and their deposit with the remains of chiefs and persons of distinction1 have already been described as familiar among the ,indian tribes of tidewater ,virginia1 in the notes above cited from early explorers and colonists4 ,it is a curious circumstance1 however1 that this habit does not appear to have extended in that part of the country much beyond the dominions of ,powhatan1 as no pearls have been noted in the ,indian graves in ,maryland4 ,this statement1 in reply to a letter of special inquiry1 is made by ,dr4 ,p4 ,r4 ,uhler1 of the ,peabody ,institute of ,baltimore1 who has been making very careful studies of all aboriginal remains in that region1 for the ,maryland ,academy of ,sciences4 ,it would seem from this and other evidence1 that the use and appreciation of pearls must have been in some way a tribal matter1 familiar to some and not to others1 of the ,indian peoples4 ,in the ,mississippi ,valley1 the ancient population known as the mound-builders1 by some regarded as a distinct and earlier race1 and by others as of true ,indian stock1 although much more advanced in arts and culture1 have left in their mounds most remarkable quantities of pearls4 ,but here again1 the same feature appears1 that these treasures are not found wherever there are mounds1 but only in certain regions4 ,of these1 by far the most celebrated is that of the ,scioto and ,miami valleys1 in ,ohio4 ,outside of these1 no large amounts have been found1 and only at a few localities are they met with at all4 ,the valleys of the ,miami and ,scioto rivers and their tributaries contain many remarkable mounds and 8earthworks10 which have attracted much attention1 and have been more or less explored at different times1 with increasing care and thoroughness as archological science has advanced4 ,it may be well to give a brief1 general account of these investigations and some leading features of the mounds as a whole1 before going into particulars as to the occurrence of pearls4 ,the first important and scientific study of these remarkable structures was that conducted in the early forties by ,dr4 ,edwin ,h4 ,davis and ,mr4 ,e4 ,george ,squier1 and published in their celebrated and standard work entitled 8,ancient ,monuments of the ,mississippi ,valley10 issued by the ,smithsonian ,institution in #ahdh4 ,this book and the 8,correspondence0 in regard to the mounds by the same writers1 published in #ahdg1 were the first works issued by the ,smithsonian ,institution4 ,according to ,squier and ,davis1#edj two quarts of pearls were originally deposited in one of these mounds4 ,the writers consider that the pearls were probably derived from the fisheries in the southern waters1 and they regard their presence in the ,ohio mounds as a proof of 8an extensive communication with southern and tropical regions and a migration from that direction40 ,a number of pearls or pearl beads from the ,ohio mounds and which formerly belonged to the ,squier and ,davis collection1 are now in the ,blackmore ,museum at ,salisbury1 ,england4 ,according to a communication from ,dr4 ,h4 ,p4 ,blackmore1 director of the museum1 these pearls1 which originally formed five necklaces1 have been much injured by the action of fire at the time the bodies of those interred in the mounds were burned4 ,mr4 ,blackmore considers that the greater part of the pearl beads are of mother-of-pearl cut from some large shell1 made into a round shape and perforated1 but1 after very careful examination1 he is of the opinion that about ten may be classed as natural pearls4 ,their present color is a dull1 leaden gray1 rather lighter than the 8black pearl0 of commerce4 ,the size of these pearls or beads varies from four millimeters to twenty millimeters in diameter4 ,one of the necklaces consists of thirty-three beads well graduated1 but of a dead white color from the action of the earth4 ,a quarter of a century later1 when the ,centennial ,exposition was in preparation1 the ,smithsonian ,institution undertook the formation of a public exhibit illustrating ,american archology1 and engaged ,prof4 ,f4 ,w4 ,putnam1 of ,cambridge1 ,massachusetts1 to open and examine some of the most remarkable of the mounds described by ,squier and ,davis4 ,these explorations were continued for some years1 partly for the government and partly for the ,peabody ,museum of ,archology at ,cambridge1 and their results were exhibited at the ,columbian ,exposition in #ahic4 ,the mounds explored were chiefly in the valley of the ,little ,miami1 and particularly those known as the ,turner group4 ,a very important series of explorations was also carried on by ,mr4 ,warren ,k4 ,moorehead1 covering the years from #ahhg to #ahic1 largely in preparation for the ,columbian ,exposition4 ,these investigations were mainly in the ,scioto valley1 in the counties of ,ross1 ,franklin1 and ,pickaway1 ,ohio4 ,among the most important results then obtained were those from the mounds of the 8,porter0 and 8,hopewell0 groups1 in ,ross ,county4 ,since that time1 much valuable work has been done by ,mr4 ,moorehead and others1 and particularly under the auspices of the ,ohio ,state ,archological and ,historical ,society4 ,the latest and most complete investigation was made for this society in #aijc1 by its curator1 ,prof4 ,william ,c4 ,mills1 in the ,harness mound1 seven miles north of ,chillicothe1 ,ohio1 near the ,scioto ,river1 in ,ross ,county4 ,this locality had been previously explored in part1 by ,professor ,putnam in #ahhe1 and ,mr4 ,moorehead in #ahif2 it was now systematically examined down to the original surface at every point4 ,squier and ,davis divided these ancient monuments into four classes3 7#a7 ,altar mounds1 which contain what appear to be altars1 and are also called hearths1 of stone or hardened clay2 7#b7 ,burial mounds1 containing human bones2 7#c7 ,temple mounds1 with neither altars nor bones1 but seeming to have had some special religious significance2 and 7#d7 ,anomalous mounds1 including 8mounds of observation0 and others of mixed or uncertain character4 ,the burials are found to be of two kinds1 simple interment and cremation2 and these are sometimes met with in the same mound4 ,this classification has been generally followed in describing these ancient structures1 although the whole subject is obscure and difficult1 from our ignorance of the purposes and conditions of their formation4 ,in many of the mounds of the first two classes especially1 not only have pearls been found1 but quantities of interesting and remarkable objects1 many of which have been brought from distant points1 and prove clearly the existence of an extensive intertribal commerce at a remote period4 ,galena from ,illinois and ,wisconsin1 mica from ,north ,carolina1 obsidian from beyond the ,rocky ,mountains1 and sea-shells from the ,gulf coast1 are among these objects1 and particularly native copper from ,lake ,superior1 from which many articles were fashioned by hammering4 ,pearls are extremely abundant1 and were at first supposed to have been brought from the coast1 and may have been the pearls of the common clam and the common oyster1 the pearls being found in opening the mollusks for food2 but the recent development of pearl hunting in the western rivers1 where the fresh-water mussels 7,unios7 are so abundant and produce such beautiful pearls1 shows that these treasures were undoubtedly gathered1 partly1 if not wholly1 in the region where the mounds exist4 ,the enormous numbers found are1 indeed1 no source of surprise1 as such quantities of pearls have been obtained1 for over twenty years past1 from the same regions4 ,the mollusks are still abundant in all the streams of the ,mississippi ,valley1 except where they have been reduced or exterminated by the reckless methods of pearl hunting employed where the 8pearl fever0 has prevailed4 ,it is quite possible that the fresh-water ,unios were not sought for their pearls alone1 but were also used as food1 and perhaps as bait for fishing4 ,they were evidently gathered in great quantities1 as is shown by the old heaps of shells found along the banks of streams at many points2 and doubtless there are multitudes of such heaps that have never been observed4 ,they are known as far north as ,idaho1 as communicated by ,dr4 ,robert ,n4 ,bell1 ,state mineralogist1 and they extend still farther north1 as noted by ,dr4 ,harlan ,i4 ,smith1 in his 8,preliminary ,notes on the ,archology of the ,yakima ,valley40#eda ,he says3 8,small heaps of fresh-water clam-shells were examined1 but these being only about five feet in diameter and as many inches in depth1 are hardly to be compared to the immense shell-heaps of the coast40 ,these ,unio shell-heaps are frequent in the ,south1 and some of the ,spanish chroniclers of ,de ,soto's expedition in #aedj-aeda1 describe the gathering and cooking of the mussels1 and the finding of occasional pearls therein4 ,the same writers also give glowing accounts of the pearls possessed by the natives4 ,some of these accounts may be exaggerated1 but they cannot be wholly so4 ,it would seem that some of the pearls may have come from marine shells1 and others from those of the rivers and streams2 but there are few pearl-producing shells on our own coasts1 and it is not very likely that there was any trade or intercourse with the ,west ,indian ,islands1 where marine pearls occur freely4 ,albert ,h4 ,pickett1 in his 8,history of ,alabama10 refers to the accounts of ,de ,soto's historian1 ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 and holds that the pearls which he noted were evidently from the ,unios of ,alabama4 8,heaps of mussel shells10 he says1 8are now to be seen on our river banks wherever ,indians used to live4 ,they were much used by the ancient ,indians for some purpose1 and old warriors have informed me that their ancestors once used the shells to temper the clay with which they made their vessels4 ,but as thousands of the shells lie banked up1 some deep in the ground1 we may also suppose that the ,indians in ,de ,soto's time1 everywhere in ,alabama1 obtained pearls from them4 ,there can be no doubt about the quantity of pearls found in this ,state and ,georgia in #aedj1 but they were of a coarser and more valueless kind than the ,spaniards supposed4 ,the ,indians used to perforate them and string them around their necks and arms like beads40#edb ,the use of fragments of these shells in tempering the clay for pottery1 alluded to in the preceding paragraph1 is well known4 ,prof4 ,daniel ,s4 ,martin describes an old village site in ,south ,carolina1 near the ,congaree ,river1 a few miles south of the city of ,columbia1 where the ground had been plowed1 and along the furrows the soil was gleaming with brilliant pearly fragments of ,unio shells1 intermingled with bits of pottery4 ,mr4 ,clarence ,b4 ,moore discovered pearls pierced for stringing in several of the mounds at ,moundville1 ,alabama4 ,he also found a sheet-copper pendant1 elongated oval in outline1 with an excised repouss decoration1 embracing a swastika within a circle1 and a triangle4 ,this pendant1 which lay near the skull of burial ,no4 #acb1 bears a perforated pearl nearly seven millimeters in diameter and weighing about nine grains2 it is fastened to the pendant by a piece of vegetable fiber that passes through the pearl4 ,with another burial 7,no4 #afb71 the skeleton of an adult1 was an elliptical gorget of sheet-copper decorated with a pearl4#edc ,in a personal communication ,mr4 ,moore states that all the pearls found by him in the mounds were very much disintegrated by the lapse of time2 he also writes that he has never found any shells immediately with the pearls1 although masses of ,unio shells were often met with in the mounds4 ,he believes the shell-fish had been used for food4 ,unio shell-heaps exist likewise on the shores of the inland lakes of ,florida1 and in middle ,georgia and ,alabama2 and several of them on the banks of the ,savannah ,river1 above ,augusta1 are fully described by ,colonel ,charles ,c4 ,jones4#edd ,he says3 8,in these relic-beds no two parts of the same shell are1 as a general rule1 found in juxtaposition4 ,the hinge is broken1 and the valves of the shell1 after having been artificially torn asunder1 seem to have been carelessly cast aside and allowed to accumulate40 ,thus1 in addition to the historical evidence1 physical proof is abundant of the pearl fisheries of the aboriginal tribes of the ,south4 ,in order to ascertain the precise varieties of shells from which the southern ,indians obtained their pearls1 ,colonel ,jones invited an expression of opinion from a number of scientists whose studies rendered them familiar with the conchology of the ,united ,states4 ,their responses throw considerable light upon this inquiry1 though with some curious variation4 ,prof4 ,william ,s4 ,jones1 of the ,university of ,georgia1 says that he has seen small pearls in many of the ,unios found in that ,state4 ,prof4 ,jeffries ,wyman1 on the other hand1 after a careful and extensive series of excavations in the shell-heaps of ,florida1 failed to find a single pearl4 8,it is hardly probable10 he remarks1 8that the ,spaniards could have been mistaken as to the fact of the ornaments of the ,indians being pearls1 but in view of their frequent exaggerations1 ,i am almost compelled to the belief that there was some mistake2 and possibly they may not have distinguished between the pearls and the shell beads1 some of which would correspond with the size and shape of the pearls mentioned by the ,spaniards40 ,prof4 ,joseph ,jones1 whose investigations throw much valuable light upon the contents of the ancient tumuli of ,tennessee1 says3 8,i do not remember finding a genuine pearl in the many mounds which ,i have opened in the valleys of the ,tennessee1 the ,cumberland1 the ,harpeth1 and elsewhere4 ,many of the pearls described by the ,spaniards were probably little else than polished beads cut out of large sea-shells and from the thicker portions of fresh-water mussels1 and prepared so as to resemble pearls4 ,i have examined thousands of these1 and they all present a laminated structure1 as if carved out of thick shells and sea conchs40 ,this point will be referred to again4 ,dr4 ,charles ,rau#ede writes3 8,i learned from ,dr4 ,samuel ,g4 ,bristow1 who was a surgeon in the ,army of the ,cumberland during the ,civil ,war1 that mussels of the ,tennessee ,river were occasionally eaten #8as a change' by the soldiers of that corps1 and pronounced no bad article of diet4 ,shells of the ,unio are sometimes found in ,indian graves1 where they had been deposited with the dead1 to serve as food during the journey to the land of spirits40 ,dr4 ,brinton saw on the ,tennessee ,river and its tributaries numerous shell-heaps consisting almost exclusively of the ,unio virginianus 7,lamarck74 ,in every instance he found shell-heaps close to the water-courses1 on the rich alluvial bottom-land4 ,he says3 8,the mollusks had evidently been opened by placing them on a fire4 ,the ,tennessee mussel is margaritiferous1 and there is no doubt but that it was from this species that the early tribes obtained the hoards of pearls which the historian of ,de ,soto's exploration estimated by bushels1 and which were so much prized as ornaments40#edf ,a source has recently been pointed out whence small pearls1 and perhaps some fine specimens1 could have been obtained by the ,indians of ,florida1 and in considerable quantities4 ,in the ,unios of some of the fresh-water lakes of that ,state1 there were found not less than #cjjj pearls1 most of them small1 but many large enough to be perforated and worn as beads4 ,from one ,unio there were taken eighty-four seed-pearls2 from another1 fifty2 from a third1 twenty1 and from several1 ten or twelve each4 ,the examinations were chiefly confined to ,lake ,griffin and its vicinity4 ,it is said that upon one of the isles in ,lake ,okeechobee are the remains of an old pearl fishery1 and it is proposed to open the shells of this lake1 which are large1 in hopes of finding pearls of superior size and quality4 ,the use of the pearl as an ornament by the southern ,indians1 and the quantities of shells opened by them in various localities1 make it seem strange that it is not more frequently met with in the relic-beds and sepulchral tumuli of that region2 but1 after exploring many shell- and earth-mounds1 ,colonel ,charles ,c4 ,jones failed1 except in a few instances1 to find pearls4#edg ,a few were obtained in an extensive relic-bed on the ,savannah ,river1 above ,augusta1 the largest being four tenths of an inch in diameter1 but all of them blackened by fire4 ,many of the smaller mounds on the coast of ,georgia do not contain pearls1 because at the period of their construction the custom of burning the dead appears to have prevailed very generally2 hence1 it may be that the pearls were either immediately consumed or so seriously injured as to crumble out of sight4 ,this absence of pearls tends somewhat to confirm the opinion that beads made from the thicker portions of shells that were carved1 perforated1 and brilliant with nacre1 were regarded by the imaginative ,spaniards as pearls4 ,more minute investigation1 however1 will doubtless reveal the existence of pearls in localities where the pearl-bearing shells were collected4 ,perforated pearls have been found in an ancient burying-ground located near the bank of the ,ogeechee ,river1 in ,bryan ,county1 ,georgia2 and many years ago1 after a heavy freshet on the ,oconee ,river1 which laid bare many ,indian graves in the neighborhood of the large mounds on ,poullain's plantation1 fully a hundred pearls of considerable size were gathered4 ,it seems quite clear that many of the pearls reported by the early ,spanish voyagers were really such1 although it is well known also that shell beads have been found in mounds in connection with pearls2 but the numbers found in ,ohio1 by ,professor ,putnam1 ,mr4 ,moorehead1 and others1 leave no room for doubt in this matter4 ,that the ,indians of the ,south also had these pearls1 both drilled and undrilled1 is beyond question4 ,the same fact comes to view1 however1 in these various accounts1 that has been alluded to already1 viz41 that the use of pearls among the aborigines appears to have been local1 and probably tribal4 ,all the fresh waters of ,north ,america contain ,unios1 especially in the ,mississippi basin and in the ,south1 and all the ,unios are more or less pearl-bearing2 but it is only at certain points that pearls are found deposited in ancient graves1 sometimes1 however1 in extraordinary quantities4 ,father ,louis ,hennepin relates that the ,indians along the ,mississippi wore bracelets and earrings of fine pearls1 which they spoilt1 having nothing to bore them with but fire4 ,he adds3 8,they gave us to understand that they received them in exchange for their calumets from nations inhabiting the coast of the great lake to the southward1 which ,i take to be the ,gulph of ,florida40#edh ,the statement here made1 that the ,indians perforated their pearls only 8with fire10 evidently refers to the use of a heated copper wire1 or point1 as mentioned by ,pickett and others of the early explorers4 ,this point is of importance1 as apparently indicating a marked difference between the ,indians met with by the first ,european visitors1 and the mound-building people of an earlier time1 among whom the perforation was made with small stone drills4 ,on this point1 a recent letter from ,prof4 ,wm4 ,c4 ,mills1 who has conducted the very full exploration of the ,harness mound in ,ohio1 is of interest4 ,he describes the small and carefully-wrought flint drills1 which he found1 and believes to have been made and used for this purpose4 ,in size and form they answer all requirements2 they are delicate little implements1 somewhat ,t-shaped or gimlet-shaped1 an inch and a quarter long2 the narrow boring part is about an inch in length and tapers from one eighth of an inch to quite a fine point2 the wider upper end is abruptly expanded into the transverse handle1 which is about a quarter of an inch thick1 i4e41 lengthwise of the instrument1 and half an inch in span1 i4e41 across1 so as to give a good hold for the fingers to rotate the drill1 just as in an ordinary gimlet4 ,passing now to the actual discoveries of pearls in the mounds of the ,mississippi ,valley1 these will be reviewed in the order of the successive explorations in which they were made known4 ,as already stated1 the only region where any large amounts have been encountered1 is that of the ,scioto and ,miami valleys in ,ohio4 ,even here1 pearls are found only at certain points1 and though the numbers are great1 the graves which contain them are few4 ,they were apparently buried only with the remains of individuals of especial distinction1 probably either chiefs or eminent medicine men4 ,the accounts of recent explorations in these mounds bring to mind very forcibly the statement before cited from ,captain ,john ,smith1 as to ,powhatan's treasure-house1 where all his most valued articles1 including pearls1 were collected and kept1 in preparation for his death and burial4 ,pearls appear also to have been used only by the more cultured tribes1 and were kept in the larger and more prosperous communities exclusively4 ,they are confined to the great 8mound groups10 and are not found in isolated mounds4 ,the tumuli of northern ,ohio1 the hill mounds1 and the village sites along the smaller streams1 have yielded practically none4 ,according to the manner of burial1 the pearls vary greatly in their present condition4 ,where they have been placed with cremated bodies1 they are1 of course1 much damaged1 being blackened and largely decomposed4 ,otherwise1 although injured in color and luster1 the mere fact of burial in the ground has not entirely ruined them4 ,they are generally perforated1 so as to be strung or attached to garments1 and traces of both these methods of use are sometimes clearly shown4 ,the term 8pearl beads10 often employed by writers1 is uncertain in meaning2 as it may refer either to actual pearls1 bored so as to be strung1 or to imitations thereof made from pearly shell4 ,with regard to this point1 although such quantities have been obtained1 there seems to have been very little close examination as to their structure1 which would at once indicate the facts1 according as the minute layers of the pearly material are concentric or not4 ,the only distinct testimony is that we have cited above from ,prof4 ,joseph ,jones1#edi who states that he has examined large numbers1 and found them to be apparently cut from shells4 ,he makes the suggestion that they may have been carved from the thicker portions of the fresh-water ,unios4 ,this is not only probable1 but would go far to solve the mystery of the enormous numbers found1 as compared with anything known of the yield of genuine pearls by these mollusks1 even with all the pearl hunting of recent years4 ,an interesting fact bearing directly on this question is the discovery in the ,taylor mound1 at ,oregonia1 ,warren ,county1 ,ohio1 of several ,unio shells in which had been made a circular hole1 two thirds of an inch in diameter1 either for some ornamental use of the shell or to extract pieces to be shaped into beads4 ,these may have been made in either of two ways4 ,firstly1 by breaking pieces of the shell from one of the valves1 as a lapidary 8roughs out0 a piece of gem material before he begins to grind it into shape2 or1 secondly1 by cutting out a circular disk of shell by means of a hollow copper drill or a hollow reed1 just as they perforated hard pieces of quartz or granite for pipes1 or as they trephined circular disks from the skulls4 ,decorated disks of ,unio shell were also found in the same mound4 ,if the ancient people made beads in this manner1 there is little difficulty in accounting for the quantities described1 especially in connection with the evident gathering of ,unios on a large scale1 as shown by the widely distributed shell-heaps already described4 ,they certainly did make beads from various marine shells1 and these are found with the pearl beads in many of the mounds1 as particularly noted by ,professor ,jones1 cited above1 and by others4 ,in the recent exploration of the ,harness mound1 by ,professor ,mills1 a very curious discovery was made of imitation pearls of a kind never before met with2 these were made of clay1 modeled apparently after the larger natural pearls associated with them1 and after being baked hard1 had been 8covered with a flexible mica10 so as to resemble pearls4#eej ,the mica was a silvery mica that may have been burned and would pulverize into a gray powder with a pearly luster1 as almost all micas are too resilient to be attached in any other way4 ,taking up now the history of pearl discovery in the mounds1 the first definite record goes back to about #ahdd1 when perforated pearls were found by ,dr4 ,edwin ,h4 ,davis#eea on the hearths of five distinct groups of mounds in ,ohio1 and sometimes in such abundance that they could be gathered by the hundred4 ,they were generally of irregular form1 mostly pear-shaped1 though perfectly round ones were also found among them4 ,the smaller specimens measured about one fourth of an inch in diameter1 but the largest had a diameter of three quarters of an inch4 ,the next great discovery of these ,unio pearls was in the ,porter group of mounds1 in the ,little ,miami ,valley1 explored by ,prof4 ,frederick ,w4 ,putnam1 and ,dr4 ,charles ,l4 ,metz1 who procured over #fj1jjj pearls1 nearly two bushels1 drilled and undrilled1 undoubtedly of ,unio origin2 all of them1 however1 decayed or much altered1 and of no commercial value4 ,in #ahhd these scientists examined the ,marriott mound1 where they found nearly one hundred ,unio shells1 and among other objects of special interest six canine teeth of bears1 that were perforated by a lateral hole near the edge at the point of greatest curvature of the root1 so that by passing a cord through this1 the tooth could be fastened to any object or worn as an ornament4 ,two of these teeth had a hole bored through near the end of the root on the side opposite the lateral perforation1 and the hole countersunk in order to receive a large spherical pearl1 about three eighths of an inch in diameter4 ,when the teeth were found1 the pearls were in place1 although chalky from decay4 ,upward of #bej pearl beads were found here1 concerning which they say3 8,the pearl beads found in the several positions mentioned are natural pearls1 probably obtained from the several species of ,unios in the ,ohio rivers4 ,in size they vary from one tenth of an inch to over half an inch in diameter1 and many are spherical4 ,they are neatly drilled1 and the larger from opposite sides4 ,these pearls are now chalky1 and crumble on handling1 but when fresh they would have formed brilliant necklaces and pendants40#eeb ,illustration3 ,necklace of fresh-water pearls and cut shell beads1 from ,mound ,no4 #be ,illustration3 ,bear-tooth inlaid with fresh-water pearl from the neck of skeleton ,no4 #bji1 ,mound #bc ,illustration3 ,perforation in charred1 cut fresh-water pearl2 weight1 #eefi grams ,illustration3 ,perforated fresh-water pearl2 weight1 #bb1iee grams ,,fresh-,,water ,,pearls ,,from ,,hopewell ,,group ,,of ,,mounds1 ,,ross ,,county1 ,,ohio ,it is easy to see1 even at a glance1 that most of those in this great deposit of #fj1jjj are true pearls4 ,many are very irregular in form1 and quite a number are the elongated1 somewhat feather-shaped1 8hinge pearls10 that are found in the region of the hinge teeth of ,unios4 ,a large and interesting exhibit of these is shown in the ,field ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,chicago4 ,but thousands of spherical pearls were also obtained1 from the 8altars0 or 8hearths0 of mounds belonging to the first division of ,squier and ,davis's classification1 above noted4 ,from the ,turner group1 in ,clermont ,county1 in the ,little ,miami ,valley1 ,professor ,putnam obtained for the ,peabody ,museum as much as half a bushel of pearls of this character4 ,as these had been exposed to fire1 nearly all were blackened1 some cracked1 and all greatly impaired4#eec ,the next great series of explorations were those conducted by ,mr4 ,w4 ,k4 ,moorehead in the ,scioto ,valley1 in the counties of ,ross1 ,franklin and ,pickaway1 ,ohio4 ,he opened and examined a number of mounds1 and found pearls or pearl beads in ten or twelve of them1 but the larger deposits were confined to certain limited districts1 which seem to have been occupied by tribes more advanced in culture and in traffic than the rest4 ,in these1 the pearls and also objects of other kinds brought from a distance1 are principally found4 ,the scattered mounds1 not associated with any village or community sites1 have few of these valuable objects4 ,but even where they are found freely1 pearls were apparently used or possessed by only a few individuals4 ,mr4 ,moorehead investigated in all #aag burial mounds1 containing about #adjj skeletons4 ,pearls were met with in only seven of these mounds1 and in connection with but twenty-two skeletons4 ,these1 however1 yielded a total of #bfjj pearls1 apparently from ,unios1 the numbers found with single skeletons varying from #ah to #fjb1 an average of #aah4 ,it thus appears that in ,mr4 ,moorehead's researches1 pearls were found in about one mound out of seventeen1 and in these1 with about one skeleton out of eight4 ,from 8altar mounds10 pearls have been in some cases taken in vast numbers4 ,professor ,putnam's discoveries are mentioned above2 and ,mr4 ,moorehead obtained tens of thousands from two altars or hearths in the ,hopewell group1 which will be described hereafter4 ,when found in the burial mounds with skeletons1 pearls are generally seen to have been placed at the wrists or ankles1 or about the neck1 or in the mouth4 ,sometimes they are found on copper plates1 and occasionally they show evidence of having been sewn or attached to a garment4 ,particulars on these points will be given further on4 ,mr4 ,moorehead has also found bears' teeth1 set with pearls1 as ,putnam and ,metz did in the ,marriott mound1 lying with or near skeletons4 ,in the case of the altar mounds1 there seems to have been a different procedure1 not a burial1 but a great funeral sacrifice in honor of some very distinguished person1 in which treasures of every kind1 including great stores of pearls1 were consumed1 or meant to be4 ,of this1 ,mr4 ,moorehead says1 in a letter to the author3 8,in the case of all altar offerings1 a fire had been kindled 444 and all these things were heaped upon it4 ,they were utterly ruined1 save a few2 444 those at the top were not so much affected as those at the bottom40 ,mr4 ,moorehead's investigations already mentioned were in the years #ahhh to #ahia inclusive2 he next took up especially the remarkable ,hopewell groups of mounds1 in #ahia-ahib1 and explored these extensively for the archological exhibit at the ,world's ,columbian ,exposition of #ahic1 at ,chicago4#eed ,this was his most important and elaborate investigation1 and will be described in some detail4 ,in #ahif1 he made a partial exploration of the ,harness mound near ,chillicothe1 which has been fully completed more recently by ,prof4 ,william ,c4 ,mills1 and will also be described further on4 ,the investigations made in the ,hopewell group of mounds were recorded by ,mr4 ,moorehead in a series of articles in the 8,antiquarian40#eee ,he gives a general account of the remarkable region of ancient remains in ,ross ,county1 ,ohio4 ,the ,state archological map shows the 8mound belt10 as a strip of country some fifteen miles wide and one hundred miles long1 extending through the ,scioto ,valley1 from about ,columbus to ,portsmouth4 ,the ancient works noted on this map1 though not all that exist there1 yet number over #ijj mounds1 #bd village sites1 #cf circles of earth and stone1 #hg other inclosures and works of similar character1 and #ca sites of gravel or kame burials4 ,five groups of mounds in particular exist in ,ross ,county1 all of them showing a 8high culture0 state4 8,all of the lower ,scioto ,valley10 says ,mr4 ,moorehead1 8was occupied by a mound-building tribe ranking higher in intelligence and numerically stronger than that of any other section of the whole ,ohio region40 ,among the many remarkable ancient works in that part of the country1 the five groups in ,ross ,county are the most important1 and among these1 the ,hopewell group is preminent4 ,the first published notice of them1 which appeared in #ahbj1 was by ,mr4 ,caleb ,atwater4#eef ,squier and ,davis examined and described them in the years #ahdd-ahdf1 and obtained large and notable collections from them which are now in ,england1 in the ,blackmore ,museum at ,salisbury1 as not enough interest in such matters then existed in ,america to induce the purchase and retention of these valuable treasures4 ,from that time until #ahia1 when ,mr4 ,moorehead began his explorations there1 no one had paid much attention to these mounds1 all published accounts being derived from those of ,squier and ,davis4 ,they described them under the name of ,clark's works1 from the owner of the farm within which they lie2 but the property has since passed into the possession of ,mr4 ,m4 ,c4 ,hopewell4 ,from this fact1 yet more from his kind and intelligent interest in the work of exploration1 his name has been given to the group4 ,the ,hopewell works are situated on the north fork of ,paint ,creek1 about one third of a mile from the stream4 ,the intervening space is low bottom-land1 and the works stand upon a terrace about twenty feet high1 from which again there is a rather steep rise of thirty or forty feet more1 to the general level of the country4 ,they consist of a nearly quadrangular inclosure1 about half a mile in length 7strictly #bhjj feet71 and half as much in width1 occupying the entire breadth of the terrace4 ,at its eastern end1 this large inclosure opens into a second and smaller one1 an exact square of #hej feet4 ,within the main inclosure are one or more village sites1 a number of separate mounds1 and especially a group of several connected elevations1 together known as the ,effigy mound1 these being much the highest and most conspicuous1 and themselves surrounded by a semicircular inclosure4 ,the whole suggests a defensive work1 or 8walled town02 but the wall1 although strongly and carefully built1 partly of stones and partly of hard clay1 is so low--only from four to six feet in height--that it could not have been a very formidable obstacle to a vigorous assault2 and1 moreover1 the whole is overlooked and 8commanded0 from the bluff above it4 ,the mounds1 as ,squier and ,davis examined them1 were pronounced to be mainly of the sacrificial or 8altar0 type4 ,since their very full and accurate account was published1 time and the hand of man have reduced and almost obliterated portions of the wall and some of the smaller mounds1 while the creek has slightly shifted its course4 ,when they wrote their description1 it was a little nearer than it is now2 and they then expressed the belief that it had formerly washed the base of the terrace where the works are located4 ,mr4 ,moorehead's exploring party1 aided by ,dr4 ,h4 ,t4 ,cresson1 began operations at this notable group of mounds in ,august1 #ahia1 and continued them through about seven months1 without interruption1 much of the time in severe winter weather4 ,the work was carried on under authority of the ,anthropological ,department of the ,columbian ,exposition of #ahic1 at ,chicago4 ,all the most interesting and important of the very extensive body of relics obtained was displayed there2 and the whole remains as a permanent exhibit in the ,field 7,columbian7 ,museum of ,natural ,history4 ,the ,hopewell group comprises in all some twenty larger and smaller mounds within the general inclosure1 besides a few unimportant ones outside of it1 and the main connected group in the special inclosure near the center4 ,these latter form together what is known as the ,effigy mound1 a name based upon its general resemblance to a reclining human figure2 but it is not constructed on a human or animal design1 as are the effigy mounds properly so called4 ,after working for a time upon some of the others1 and finding much interesting material1 ,mr4 ,moorehead set his men to work upon the ,effigy mound1 and spent most of his time and effort upon that remarkable structure1 of which he made a very thorough and systematic exploration4 ,the ,effigy mound is about #ejj feet long and #bbj feet wide1 and rises #bc feet above the general surface at its highest point4 ,it proves to belong to the fourth class of ,squier and ,davis1 those of mixed character1 with both altars and burials1 as it contained three large altars and as many as #age skeletons1 nearly all of adults4 ,reviewing now the entire exploration of the ,hopewell group1 the first mound opened1 known as ,no4 #ag1 was of considerable size1 nearly ninety feet in diameter1 and was notable for a layer of mica--some #cjjj sheets--that extended almost entirely through it4 ,it contained a rude altar1 with ashes and bones1 some copper implements1 bone needles1 sharks' teeth1 and nearly #bjj pounds of bright galena4 ,the next examined1 ,no4 #ah1 contained several decayed skeletons1 and a good example of an 8altar10 together with ornaments cut from human skulls4 ,the next1 ,no4 #ai1 had an altar of earth1 partially hardened by heat1 which was taken out entire and boxed4 ,it was roughly cubical1 about three feet each way4 ,in the 8bowl10 or concavity1 on the top of it1 were various minor implements1 with some galena and mica1 etc4 ,the next attacked was a large mound1 ,no4 #b1 which had been partly opened by ,squier and ,davis1 nearly fifty years before4 ,it is remarkable for its immense store of roughly chipped flint disks1 over #hjjj in number1 of which #fjj were taken out by ,squier and ,davis1 and most of the remainder by ,mr4 ,moorehead4 ,it would seem to have been a place of storage for partly worked material of this kind1 to preserve it from the hardening effect of long exposure to the air4 ,several other mounds yielded little of importance1 save that from the soil on the site of ,no4 #a1 which had been obliterated1 were taken a number of fragments of bone1 curiously ornamented with finely carved patterns4 ,two others1 ,nos4 #d and #e1 had peculiarly constructed altars1 of which an extended account is given4 ,the first discovery of pearls by ,squier and ,davis was made in their mound ,no4 #i1 now obliterated by a railroad4 ,with the pearls1 they report as found on the top of a small altar1 broken instruments of obsidian1 cut patterns of mica1 vestiges of cloth1 etc4 ,mr4 ,moorehead's first discovery of pearls was in a small but interesting mound1 ,no4 #bj1 about forty feet in diameter4 ,it had been reduced by plowing to only some two feet in height2 and its contents would ere long have been broken into and scattered by the same process4 ,this was strictly a burial mound1 and soon yielded five skeletons1 one of them being that of a child1 nine or ten years of age4 ,with these bones were numerous objects3 two large shells made into cups for drinking1 several copper articles and ornaments1 among them a broad copper bracelet encircling the right wrist1 and several hundred pearl and shell beads and small shells4 ,the same mound yielded later some other children's remains1 but with no important objects4 ,a finely polished pipe and two bear's teeth coated with copper were also found4 ,mr4 ,moorehead points out the evidences of a long occupation of this site by a cultured tribe1 who had commerce with the ,south and ,west more than with the ,north or ,east4 ,work was then begun1 in the latter part of ,september1 on a large and important mound known as the ,oblong 7,no4 #bc71 #aee feet long by #ajj feet wide1 with an elevation at present of #ad feet1 and originally of perhaps #bj feet4 ,this mound yielded thirty-nine skeletons1 lying at depths varying from eight and three fourths to eleven feet below the present surface1 nearly on the base-line of the mound4 ,some of these were surrounded by boulders1 others were much charred1 and a good deal of variety exists in their condition1 all of which ,mr4 ,moorehead describes particularly4 ,all manner of relics and objects were obtained1 including pearl beads and a splendid copper ax of seventeen pounds' weight1 of course entirely too large for any practical use1 and hence plainly a ceremonial object or badge of some high distinction4 ,among the most remarkable of the many interesting objects discovered here were the large canine teeth of bears1#eeg which had not only been drilled through near the base of the root for suspension1 like many others1 but had also been partly drilled at the middle of one side1 and a large pearl inserted into the cavity4 ,these singular ornaments were found at the neck of a skeleton1 and had evidently been worn as pendants4 ,it will be remembered that almost identical specimens were found by ,professor ,putnam in the ,marriott mound in the ,miami ,valley4#eeh ,the one here figured is now in the ,field ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,chicago1 with most of the other ,hopewell material4 ,another somewhat similar example of the taste and art of the same people1 also preserved in the ,field ,museum1 came from the mound known as ,no4 #be4 ,this consisted of a large figure of a bird1 in hammered copper1 fifteen and seven eighths inches long1 with a pearl inserted to form the eye4 ,the head is quite expressive1 and the tail-feathers well represented1 although the wings and the general proportions are rude4 ,this is shown about one third of the actual length4 ,the ,effigy mound was next examined4 ,the first trial shafts proved it to be evidently of human construction1 and not of glacial origin1 as some had supposed4 ,one or two open cuts were then begun1 using teams with a large shovel until indications of burials were found1 when the further work would be carried on by hand1 with extreme care4 ,after about two weeks1 in which time several skeletons were unearthed1 with some shells1 beads1 and copper ornaments1 a burial of extraordinary character was reached on ,november #ad4 ,here was lying a skeleton which the newspapers soon reported as 8,the ,king of the ,mound-,builders40 ,it was much decayed1 but was covered and surrounded with a wealth of relics4 ,the skull was surmounted by a tall cap or helmet of copper1 from which extended a wonderful pair of antlers1 exactly imitating those of a deer1 but made of wood and covered with copper4 ,the whole skeleton1 to quote the words of ,mr4 ,moorehead1 8glittered with mica1 pearl1 shell1 and copper40 ,plates of the latter were above1 beneath1 and around it1 with bears' and panthers' teeth1 etc41 and over #ajjj beads1 many of them of pearl4 ,the succeeding month1 during which the last cut was finished down to the base-line1 and a third one much advanced1 revealed numerous skeletons1 with abundant objects of the same general kind1 including a remarkable separate deposit of copper articles of curious workmanship1 ornaments of cut mica1 and one of cannel coal1 fragments of meteoric iron and celts made therefrom1 and 8many thousand pearl and shell beads40 ,the latest trophy here unearthed was another enormous ax of copper1 nearly two feet in length1 unparalleled in the world4 ,the first altar was next reached2 it was about four by five feet1 and some six inches deep1 and had an immense variety of objects upon it and around it1 nearly all entirely ruined by the fire4 ,among them were pearl beads4 ,the largest altar had been not only heaped with all sorts of valuables1 but they had been piled around it so as to form a sloping mass of twelve feet or more in diameter at the base4 ,among these was a layer of mica plates of extraordinary size1 eighteen or twenty inches in diameter4 ,it is not easy even now to obtain sheets of mica of such dimensions1 in any quantity4 ,carvings and effigies in bone and slate1 rock crystal arrow-heads1 obsidian knives1 etc41 etc41 damaged and broken by heat1 were cemented together by half-melted copper4 ,the pearl and shell beads taken out amid the ashes are estimated at not less than #ajj1jjj4 ,the ,effigy mound1 8a place for ceremony1 for sacrifice1 for burial10 as ,mr4 ,moorehead calls it1 thus combining the character of the first three classes distinguished by ,squier and ,davis1 is seen not to have been constructed at one time1 but to have developed gradually through perhaps a long period4 ,the several altars1 the more important burials1 the store of copper objects1 each was surmounted by a small and separate mound4 8,these may have been built on the level dance or ceremonial floors1 from time to time4 ,when the entire floor was covered1 the people brought large quantities of earth and gravel1 heaped it on top of the irregular contour of the small mounds1 and this formed the present ,effigy40 ,the population that occupied the main inclosure was apparently not very large1 as compared with some other of the important earthworks1 such as ,fort ,ancient1 or ,madisonville4 ,from the distribution of village-site debris1 ,mr4 ,moorehead estimates that there could have been only from two hundred to three hundred lodges1 even if these were all occupied at the same time4 ,but the indications of traffic and of art show that it must have been a community advanced in culture beyond most of its neighbors4 ,mr4 ,moorehead believes it to have been a sort of capital among a body of allied or affiliated tribes who made and occupied the similar earthwork towns of the 8mound belt10--a center of production and distribution of art objects1 and a place for the holding of great religious ceremonials4 ,it may be noted1 however1 that the art was developed in certain directions and not in others wherein it might be expected4 ,in hammered copper-work and in drilling1 it was most remarkable1 in the latter extending even to the perforation of quartz crystals1 but of pottery there is little1 and that not very choice--a striking contrast to the abundant and elaborately ornamental potter's art of the tribes in the ,southwest4 ,tonti1 the historian of ,la ,salle's expedition1 in the eighteenth century1 states that ,la ,salle actually saw mound-dwellers among southern tribes of ,indians1 living very much as the ,ohio mound-builders must have done1 and quite untouched as yet by any contact with the whites4 ,tonti describes the dwellings1 made of sun-dried mud and with dome-shaped roofs of cane2 two of them were larger and better constructed than the rest1 one the chief's house and the other a temple1 both about forty feet square4 ,the latter held the bones of deceased chieftains1 and was surmounted by three rude1 wooden eagles4 ,in the center was apparently 8a kind of altar10 where was maintained a perpetual fire of logs1 watched by two aged men4 ,a recess1 to which strangers were not admitted1 contained the treasures of the tribe1 especially pearls from the ,gulf1 as he was told4 ,the chief returned the visit of ,la ,salle1 coming in great state1 with attendants1 one of whom bore a disk of copper1 supposed to represent the sun1 the chief's great ancestor4#eei ,the wooden eagles recall the large copper bird taken from mound ,no4 #be at ,hopewell2 and the copper disk carried before the chief suggests a similar use for some of the large objects of the same metal4 ,the whole account is extremely interesting in its resemblance to the ,ohio remains4 ,the most complete study of these ancient structures is that of the ,harness mound1 not far distant from the ,hopewell1 conducted under the direction of the ,ohio ,state ,archological and ,historical ,society1 in #aije1 by their curator and librarian1 ,prof4 ,william ,c4 ,mills4#efj ,the ,harness group contains within and about it fourteen mounds2 the works as a whole were described by ,squier and ,davis1 on page #ef of their great report 78,ancient ,monuments of the ,mississippi ,valley10 #ahdh71 and have been frequently mentioned and pictured for their striking form1--a large and perfect circle1 opening at one side into a smaller circle and also into an exact square4 ,they are located1 like the ,hopewell1 in ,ross ,county1 and stand on a terrace of the ,scioto ,river1 nearly a mile from its eastern bank1 and about eight miles south of ,chillicothe4 ,the square inclosure measures #ajhj feet on each side1 and the diameters of the two circles are about #afjj feet for the larger and #fej feet for the smaller4 ,in general character1 this group closely resembles the ,hopewell3 there is the same low wall or embankment1 some four feet high1 though without any ditch as at ,hopewell1 and the same problem as to its object4 ,a number of small mounds are placed here and there1 and one large and important one recalls the ,effigy1 though it is somewhat less in size and much more regular in form4 ,in #ahdf1 when ,squier and ,davis examined it1 unfortunately most of the ground was covered with woods2 but these are gone1 and the works have since been much reduced by tillage and partly obliterated by railroad and other constructions4 ,the one large mound is named for the recent owner of the property1 ,mr4 ,edwin ,harness2 the present owner1 his son1 ,mr4 ,john ,m4 ,harness1 aided and facilitated the explorations in every way4 ,this fact1 as also in the case of ,mr4 ,hopewell1 stands in pleasing and honorable contrast to the narrow policy of some land-owners1 who refuse permission for any such work1 even when the structures are upon unused and valueless ground4 ,the large mound is an almost perfect oval in form1 #afj feet long and some #hj feet across at its widest point1 which is about one third of the way from the northern end2 in height it is nearly #bj feet1 or was before its recent removal4 ,it was partly explored by ,squier and ,davis in #ahdf1 and quite extensively by ,professor ,putnam in #ahhe1 and1 unlike the ,effigy mound1 had been repeatedly opened and examined in a small way by both official and unofficial explorers4 ,in #ahif1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,k4 ,moorehead took up the work where ,professor ,putnam had stopped1 and carried it considerably further1 under the auspices of the ,ohio ,archological and ,historical ,society2 and the same body1 in #aije1 commissioned ,mr4 ,mills to resume and complete the examination1 removing the entire structure down to its base4 ,the ,harness mound1 unlike the ,effigy1 was for burial purposes only4 ,there must have been nearly two hundred4 ,squier and ,davis found one of these1 and possibly another which they mistook for an 8altar02 and they state their belief that the mound probably contained other burials which their two pits had not revealed4 ,professor ,putnam encountered #ab burials1 ,mr4 ,moorehead #bg1 and the final exploration #acc1 making a total of #agd4 ,besides these1 an unknown number have been disturbed and removed by occasional explorers4 ,of the #agd recorded1 only ten had been buried without being burned2 the rest were all cremated1 some where they were laid1 but most of them elsewhere1 and the ashes brought and placed in the grave4 ,this was in all cases carefully prepared1 within a small inclosure of logs1 the decayed and charred remains of which are clearly traceable4 ,the entire mound itself had been outlined with posts set in the ground4 the holes and impressions remaining as evidence of the fact4 ,mr4 ,mills outlines the history of this mound1 in a way that recalls ,mr4 ,moorehead's views as to the gradual growth of the ,effigy4 ,it began as a place for the holding of funeral rites and the deposit of the dead1 marked out by lines of posts1 which show that it was from time to time enlarged4 ,finally1 when the place was substantially filled1 earth and gravel were deposited over the whole1 and slabs of stone 7particularly noted by ,squier and ,davis7 were laid around it1 upon the lower part of the slope4 ,much description is given of the separate graves or burial chambers1 which are of several types1 and of the various details of the cremated and uncremated interments4 ,the mound is rich in relics1 although none of the profuse sacrificial accumulations of the 8altars0 were encountered1 this being a mound of burial only4 ,the relics are of the same kind1 in general1 as those found in the ,hopewell group1 and to specify them in detail would be only repetition4 ,from the #acc graves opened in ,mr4 ,mills's final investigation1 no less than #abjj specimens were obtained for the museum of the ,archological ,society at ,columbus4 ,among these were artefacts of ,lake ,superior copper 7and some pieces of native silver71 large shells from the ,gulf1 galena1 obsidian1 and much mica1 both in 8blocks0 and cut into ornaments1 all showing the same range of aboriginal commerce as already described at ,hopewell4 ,in reference to pearls1 the following are the principal observations3 ,beads made from ,unio pearls were very abundant everywhere in the ,harness mound1 as also beads of shell4 ,they are found in such position as to show that they were strung and worn around the neck or wrists4 ,one burial 7,no4 #ajj7 had some #bajj pearl beads1 all rather small1 and some of them perfectly round4 ,several hundred were obtained1 however1 that ranged from one quarter to one half an inch in diameter4 ,a number of these are shown of natural size4 ,the larger pearls1 instead of being bored through for beads1 are frequently somewhat flattened by grinding1 and then pierced with two holes so as to attach them to a fabric4 ,very large ones were sometimes set in copper1--a style of work never observed before4 ,mr4 ,mills says of this3 8,large and select pearls were flattened upon one side by grinding1 and then placed upon a circular disk of copper a little larger than the pearl4 ,the edges were then turned 7up7 around the pearl1 holding it in place4 ,not only were pearls set in this way1 but various pieces of shell cut in a circular form40 ,fine examples of this unique style of jewelry1 of natural size1 and another copper setting of like character1 from which the pearl has been lost1 are shown in plates facing pages #dii and #eaj4 ,more curious still is the discovery of imitation pearls1 made of clay1 and apparently modeled from real ones as they reproduce all the irregularities of form of the true pearls4 ,they could easily have been made more nearly spherical1 as the beads cut from shell are so regular as to look as though made by machinery4 ,these somewhat irregular clay imitations1 found with the genuine pearls1 were first coated with a pulverent mica and then burned so as to preserve a pearly appearance4 ,other forms of art work were abundantly represented in the ,harness mound1 such as carvings and decorations in stone and bone2 a variety of textile fabrics1 of which remnants are preserved when they were in contact with plates of copper1 the salts of the metal having penetrated the fabric and prevented its entire decay2 very skilful work in copper1 and to some extent in native silver and meteoric iron2 and numerous fragments of pottery1 more or less ornamental with simple impressed patterns4 ,the 8culture10 as a whole1 appears to have been equal1 and very similar1 to that of the ,hopewell community1 and these are regarded as having been the most advanced among the ,ohio mound-builders2 while the term 8,fort ,ancient culture0 is applied to a somewhat lower grade in the matter of arts1 which has its chief illustration among the builders and occupants of that celebrated work4 ,by such researches1 thus minutely and systematically conducted1 there is now beginning to be possible something like a classification of these ancient unknown tribes1 which will doubtless be developed more fully1 as investigation shall be extended and its results combined and compared4 ,as to pearls in the mounds of ,illinois1 we are informed by the veteran archologist1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,f4 ,snyder1 that in #ahhi he found the skeletons of three adult ,indians at the base of a small mound on the bluffs of the ,sangomon ,river in ,cass ,county4 ,these skeletons were in a squatting posture2 artefacts--such as greenstone celts1 a bicave stone and a heavy pipe--had only been deposited with one of them4 ,around each wrist and ankle of this skeleton were perforated beads made from ,marginella shells1 and resting on the sternum was a solitary pearl which had evidently formed the center of a necklace of the same small marine shells4 ,although much decayed1 it still retained something of its original luster4 ,it was spherical1 measured approximately seven eighths of an inch in diameter1 and was perforated through the middle4 ,dr4 ,snyder also states that at the base of one of the large mounds he opened in #ahie1 in ,brown ,county1 on the west side of the ,illinois ,river1 he discovered a number of the large canine teeth of the bear1 perforated at the roots1 so as to be used for necklaces4 ,on the convex side of each tooth were from two to four pits about one third of an inch in diameter1 and the same in depth1 in which gems had been inserted4 ,two small pearls were still in place4 ,near by were the remains of another necklace composed of alternate pearls and bone beads2 the latter were oblong and perforated lengthwise4 ,eight of the pearls were recovered1 ranging in diameter from one half to one third of an inch1 and pierced through the center1 but all were very badly injured by the action of fire4 ,mr4 ,david ,i4 ,bushnell1 who has excavated the ,mc,evers mound in ,montezuma1 ,pike ,county1 ,illinois1 for the ,missouri ,historical ,society1 found in this mound a cyst containing a skeleton six feet in height and also a skull reposing on a bundle of bones near which lay forty-five pearls1 one of them weighing fifty-two grains and still showing a beautiful luster4 ,almost all the objects discovered in the mound will be presented to the ,missouri ,historical ,society4 ,the large pearl would be worth from #ab1jjj to #ae1jjj if it were in perfect condition4 ,we learn from ,mr4 ,richard ,herrmann1 founder of the ,herrmann ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,dubuque1 ,iowa1 that on the top of the high cliff from ,eagle's ,point to its end at ,mc,knight's ,spring1 there were formerly a great many mounds which were long ago examined by government experts4 ,many ancient ornaments were found in these mounds1 among them a string of pearls1 greatly damaged from having been buried for a long period4#efa ,mr4 ,herrmann believes that these pearls were taken from the ,mississippi ,river by the mound-builders4 ,enough has been said1 in this general sketch1 to give some idea of the extent to which pearls1 largely those from the fresh-water ,unios1 were gathered and used by the native tribes of ,north ,america1 from the ancient mound-builders of the ,ohio ,valley to the ,indians encountered by the explorers and colonists of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries4 ,the love of pearls shown by the ,indians was as noteworthy as was their devotion to their dead and the superstitious mystery which enshrouds their funeral rites2 for1 when the human sacrifice was consummated1 the act was performed in as earnest a spirit of devotion as was shown by ,abraham in his readiness to sacrifice ,isaac1 and the ,indians evidenced an almost pathetic sentiment either of reverence1 duty1 or supernatural dread4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,walter ,fewkes writes that in none of his excavations has he ever noted pearls4 ,haliotis shells1 conch shells1 and fragments of the same have been found in the great ruins at ,casa ,grande1 ,arizona4 ,dr4 ,charles ,hercules ,read1 director of the ,department of ,archology of the ,british ,museum1 states that the ,mexican mosaic masks in the ,christy collection1 which are pre-,columbian in origin1 and probably date hundreds of years in advance of the conquest1 prove of special interest from the fact that five of them contain an inlay of mother-of-pearl shell4 ,the first of these is a plain mask in which the eyes are of mother-of-pearl2 the second is a dagger having the details of feather-work in mother-of-pearl2 the third1 a circular shield center having the eyes1 teeth1 fingers1 and toes of the figures in mother-of-pearl2 the fourth1 a helmet with small pieces of pearl-shell representing collars around the necks of rattlesnakes2 and the fifth is a jaguar in the side of which are similar inlays4 ,these masks are described by ,dr4 ,read in 8,archologia10 ,society of ,antiquaries1 ,london1 ,vol4 ,,liv1 p4 #chc2 in this volume the objects are shown in color4 ,dr4 ,read communicates that the pearl jaguar seems to be of more recent execution1 but he believes the first four to be original4 ,he is not entirely sure that these objects contain the true mother-of-pearl1 the substance having changed so much as to make a decision doubtful even if it were extracted4 ,he states1 however1 that it is a pearly1 nacreous shell1 resembling that of the ordinary pearl-oyster4 ,in these masks are also other shells1 among them a red shell1 probably a spondylus1 almost as red as coral4 ,the mother-of-pearl is of special interest as it is quite possible that the shell itself was known1 and it may be that pearls also formed part of a commerce that existed between the coast and the interior4 ,illustration3 ,group of charred1 cut fresh-water pearls2 more than #ajj1jjj found in mounds ,illustration3 ,finger-shaped piece of lignite inlaid with fresh-water pearl ,illustration3 ,copper bird1 #ae inches long with eye of fresh-water pearl ,,fresh-,,water ,,pearls ,,from ,,hopewell ,,group ,,of ,,mounds1 ,,ross ,,county1 ,,ohio ,we are informed by ,mr4 ,e4 ,p4 ,dieseldorf1 of ,coban1 ,republic of ,guatemala1 that he has never observed pearls in the pre-,columbian graves in ,guatemala2 he had1 however1 frequently found marine shells1 whole1 and elaborated in connection with jadeite beads4 ,in a personal communication1 ,mr4 ,thomas ,gann1 of ,yucatan1 states that1 in excavating a mound at ,san ,antonio1 near the mouth of the ,rio ,hondo1 in ,yucatan1 he uncovered a small stone cyst or chamber1 containing two perforated1 pear-like ornaments of considerable size1 together with portions of a human skeleton1 painted pottery1 etc4 ,he also states that ornaments such as beads1 gorgets1 and ear-pendants1 made from the pearly shell of both the oyster and the conch1 are of common occurrence in many sepulchral mounds in ,british ,honduras and in ,yucatan1 and he notes the fact that pink conch pearls are found in considerable numbers at the present day along the coast of ,british ,honduras4 ,there is no especial fishing for pearls1 and they are found only incidentally in conchs which have been gathered for food4 ,these pearls are sold by fishermen in ,balize at prices varying from two or three dollars to twenty or thirty apiece4 ,in size they range from that of a large pin's head to that of a small pea4 ,mrs4 ,marie ,robinson ,wright informs us that she has never found pearls in the ,bolivian graves1 although they are quite plentiful in ,bolivia to-day1 and hundreds of them are offered in the markets4 ,the pretty girls wear them as earrings and in their topos4 ,there is no doubt that pearls existed long before the advent of man1 both in the fresh-water and in the marine form4 ,this is more clearly evidenced by ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 who calls attention to the fact that the fresh-water mussel 7,unio littoralis ,gray71 formerly found in abundance at ,grays ,thurrock1 ,essex1 no longer exists in ,england1 but occurs in ,france1 showing that not only had this mollusk been unseen by any ,englishman1 but that the form had become extinct in an entire country4 ,thus1 both the pearl shell of the ocean and the pearl-mussel of the river1 for many centuries produced pearls1 which passed away with the shell itself4 ,a great number of fossil ,unios were collected by ,barnum ,brown from the ,laramie clays1 #acj miles northwest of ,miles ,city1 ,montana4 ,the shells were found in a bed situated about #ahj feet above the ,fort ,pierre shales and1 therefore1 well above the recognized cretaceous strata4 ,these shells were in fairly good condition and retained the nacreous coloring to a considerable extent4 ,as some of them resemble the modern species1 it seems that the same designations might be applied to them4 ,prof4 ,r4 ,p4 ,whitfield1 one of our greatest palontologists1 who has carefully examined these fossil shells1 suggests that they are probably the progenitors of the species of ,unios and fresh-water mussels that now inhabit the ,mississippi and ,wisconsin rivers and their tributaries1 and he proposes the following names for some of them1 indicating at the same time the living species with which he compares them3 ,unio bisopoides1 ,unio sopoides and ,unio sopiformis1 all resembling ,u4 sopus ,green2 ,unio letsoni ,u4 cornutus ,barnes2 ,unio cylindricoides ,u4 cylindricus ,say2 ,unio gibbosoides ,u4 gibbosus ,barnes2 ,unio pyramidatoides ,u4 pyramidatus ,lea2 ,unio retusoides ,u4 retusus ,lam42 ,unio verucosiformis ,u4 verrucosus ,barnes4 ,although it is almost certain that these ancient ,unios were pearl-bearing1 ,professor ,whitfield informs us that1 in a period of fifty years of palontological research1 he has never found a fossil pearl4 ,we are informed by ,sophus ,mller1 ,director of the ,royal ,danish ,museum of ,antiquities at ,copenhagen1 that no ,danish ornaments containing pearls have been found dating from an earlier period than #ajjj ,b4,c42 he also states that no fresh-water pearls have ever been discovered in the ,danish graves4 ,dr4 ,h4 ,ulmann1 director of the great ,swiss ,landesmuseum at ,zurich1 and ,dr4 ,otto ,leiner1 director of the ,rosengarten ,museum at ,constance1 personally communicated to us that no pearls exist in either of the collections of these great museums1 nor to their knowledge have any been discovered in the lake-dwellings or the prehistoric graves of either ,switzerland or ,baden4 ,this may either be due to conditions favorable to the dissolution of the pearl by the action of the ooze on the lake bottom1 or else to the entire absence of knowledge of them on the part of a people who were familiar with many materials1 since the museum collections even show jade implements of a number of types4 ,dr4 ,leiner1 whose father was curator of the ,rosengarten ,museum before him1 informs us that at ,bodman on ,lake ,constance there were found a large number of bored cylinders1 from one fourth of an inch to one inch in length1 made out of limestone4 ,they were used for necklaces1 somewhat in the style of our ,indian wampum1 and were either worn alone or in connection with bored cylinders made of the tuff-rock and also of encrinite stems4 ,dr4 ,leiner also asserts that he has never seen ,unio margaritifera in ,lake ,constance2 nor was there any evidence of shells1 broken or otherwise1 observed by him in the excavations in the lake-dwellings4 ,the curator of the ,rhodesia ,museum1 ,bulawayo1 ,south ,africa1 states that in ,rhodesia1 in the vicinity of ,bulawayo1 beads made out of the shell of the common ,unio or fresh-water mussel 7,unio verreauxi7 have been observed in the graves1 although pearls themselves have never been found with them in any burials4 ,,addenda ,one of the authors used every endeavor in #ahic and #ahid to have a bill passed by ,congress for the regulation of pearl-fishing in the ,united ,states4 ,these efforts were frustrated by the influence of the local pearl fishers4 ,an attempt has now been made to preserve the industry in ,illinois1 where the legislature has this spring passed a bill for its regulation4 ,the first section of the bill provides3 ,it shall be unlawful for any person or persons to take or catch1 by any means whatever1 in any of the navigable waters within the jurisdiction of this ,state1 any mussel1 fresh-water clam or shell-fish from the first day of ,october to the first day of ,april 7both dates inclusive7 of each succeeding year4 ,the bill imposes upon any one who violates these provisions a fine of not less than #be1 nor more than #ajj1 or imprisonment in the county jail for a term not exceeding one year1 or else both fine and imprisonment at the discretion of the court4 ,another section provides that any one not a resident of ,illinois1 who takes clams1 shell-fish1 or mussels1 without procuring a license1 shall be subject to a fine of not less than #ej1 nor more than #ajj1 or to imprisonment for one year1 or to both penalties4 ,the licenses may be procured on application and payment of #ej for each vessel to be employed1 and they expire on the first day of ,october following their issuance4 ,the amount received for these licenses is to be turned over to the ,state ,treasurer at the end of each month and placed to the credit of the ,state ,fish ,protective ,fund4 ,no boat having more than two bars1 each not exceeding sixteen feet in length1 shall be used for this fishery1 and the space separating the hooks on these bars is not to be less than eight inches4 ,miss ,carl1 the artist who painted the portraits of the ,empress and that of the ,dowager ,empress of ,china1 states that she wears a diamond ring4 ,when she shows this she apologizes for wearing it1 stating that it had been given to her by the ,viceroy1 ,li ,hung ,chang1 saying that she1 herself1 sees no beauty in the sparkle of the diamond2 for her there is more beauty in the soft1 quiet tones of the pearl than in the brilliancy of the diamond4 ,during the ,boxer ,war in ,china1 the looting was carried on to so great an extent1 that a ,french hotel-keeper is said to have obtained a basket of pearls1 which he bought for a trifle1 and which are said to have netted him very nearly #a1jjj1jjj4 ,,bibliography ,,bibliography#efb ,,albertus ,,magnus1 ,bishop of ,ratisbon ,le libro de le pietre preciose e de le loro u7ir7tude 7,old ,italian version of the ,de lapidibus74 #adth century ,,ms41 vellum1 #dd;ff4 #dto4 ,in the library of ,george ,f4 ,kunz4 ,the ,secrets of ,albertus ,magnus of the ,vertues of ,hearbs1 ,stones and ,certaine ,beasts4 ,london1 #afag4 #abmo4 ,,anglerius 7,,petrus ,,martyr7 ,de orbe nove decades 7#h74 ,compluti1 #aecj4 ,fol4 ,the ,historie of the ,west ,indies4 ,hakluyt's ,voyages4 ,vol4 v4 ,london1 #ahji4 #dto4 ,the ,decades of the ,new ,worlde4 ,translated by ,richard ,eden4 ,edited by ,edward ,arber4 ,birmingham1 #ahhe4 #dto4 ,,anson 7,,george71 ,baron ,a ,voyage ,round the ,world1 in the ,years ,,mdccxl1 ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iii1 ,,iv4 ,london1 #agdh4 #dto4 ,,athen,,us1 ,naucratita ,deipnosophistarum libri quindecim4 ,gr4 and ,lat4 #ad vols4 ,argentorati1 #ahja-jg4 #hvo4 ,the ,deipnosophists1 or ,banquet of the ,learned1 of ,athenus4 #c vols4 ,london1 #ahed4 #hvo4 ,,bacci 7,,andrea7 ,de gemmis et lapidibus pretiosis4 ,francofurti1 #aedc4 #hvo4 ,,balfour 7,,edward7 ,article 8,pearls40 ,the ,cyclopdia of ,india4 ,third edition4 ,london1 #ahhe4 #hvo4 ,,barbosa 7,,duarte7 ,a ,description of the ,coasts of ,east ,africa and ,malabar in the ,beginning of the #afth ,century4 ,london1 ,hakluyt ,society1 #ahff4 #hvo4 ,,barrera 7,a4 ,,de71 ,madame ,gems and ,jewels3 ,their ,history1 ,geography1 ,chemistry1 and ,ana4 ,london1 #ahfj4 #hvo4 ,,barthema 7,,lodovico ,,di7 ,the ,travels of ,lodovico di ,varthema in ,egypt1 ,syria1 ,arabia ,deserta and ,arabia ,felix1 in ,persia1 ,india1 and ,ethiopia1 ,a4,d4 #aejc to #aejh4 ,london1 ,hakluyt ,society1 #ahfc4 #hvo4 ,,bauer 7,,max7 ,precious ,stones2 a ,popular ,account of ,their ,characteristics and ,applications1 ,with an ,appendix on ,pearls and ,coral4 ,translated from the ,german with additions by ,l4 ,j4 ,spencer4 ,london1 #aijd4 #hvo4 ,,baugniet 7,,henri ,,de7 ,description historique et scientifique de la ,collection de ,pierres prcieuses4 ,bruxelles1 #ahdg4 #abmo4 ,,beckmann 7,,johann7 ,beytrge zur ,geschichte der ,erfindungen4 #b vols4 ,leipzig1 #aghb-ahje4 #hvo4 ,,belleau 7,,remi7 ,les amours et nouveaux schanges des pierres prcieuses3 vertus et proprietez d'icelles4 ,discours de la vanit1 pris de l',ecclsiaste de ,salomon4 ,paris1 #aegf4 #dto4 ,,benjamin 7,,ben ,,jonah7 of ,tudela ,the ,itinerary of ,rabbi ,benjamin of ,tudela2 ,translated and ,edited by ,a4 ,asher4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahdj-da4 #abmo4 ,,bent 7,,theodore ,,and ,,mrs4 ,,theodore7 ,southern ,arabia4 ,london1 #aijj4 #hvo4 ,,benzoni 7,,girolamo7 ,nov novi orbis histori2 id est rerum ab ,hispanis in ,india occidentali hactenus gestarum 444 libri tres1 ,u4 ,calvetonis opera ex ,italicis ,hieronymi ,benzonis4 ,geneva1 #aegh4 #hvo4 ,history of the ,new ,world2 ,showing his ,travels in ,america1 from ,a4,d4 #aeda to #aeef4 ,london1 ,hakluyt ,society1 #aheg4 #hvo4 ,,berquen 7,,robert ,,de7 ,les ,merveilles des ,indes ,orientales et ,occidentals1 ou nouveau4 ,trait des ,pierres prcieuses1 et des ,perles4 ,paris1 #affa4 #hvo4 ,,berthelot 7,m47 ,traitement des perles4 ,collection des anciens ,alchimistes ,grecs1 pp4 #ceb-cef4 ,paris1 #ahhh4 ,,beumenberger 7,,johann ,,gottlieb7 ,der ,vollkommene ,juwelier4 ,weimar1 #ahbh4 #hvo4 ,,biedermann 7,,wilhelm7 ,untersuchungen ber ,bau und ,entstehung der ,molluskenschalen1 ,jenaische ,zeitschrift fr ,naturwissenschaften1 ,,vol4 ,,xxxvi1 pp4 #a-afd4 ,jena1 #aija4 ,,bion 7,,jean ,,marie7 ,inventaire des ,diamans de la ,couronne1 ,perles1 ,pierreries1 ,tableaux1 444 existans au ,garde-,meuble 444 fait 444 par ses commissaires ,,mm4 ,bion1 ,christin et ,delattre4 ,paris1 #agia4 #hvo4 ,,biron 7,c4 ,c47 ,curiositez de la ,nature et de l',art1 aportes dans deux ,voyages des ,indes4 ,paris1 #agjc4 #abmo4 ,,blackstone 7,a4 ,g47 ,british ,pearls4 8,belgravia ,magazine10 ,vol4 ix1 pp4 #cdc-cej4 ,london1 ,september1 #ahfi4 ,also in 8,eclectic ,magazine10 ,,vol4 ,x1 pp4 #fjd-fjh4 ,,london1 ,november1 #ahfi4 ,,blake 7,,henry ,a471 ,sir ,leasing of the ,pearl ,fisheries of ,ceylon4 ,sessional ,papers1 pp4 #cbg-ccf4 ,colombo1 #aijf4 ,fol4 ,,blanco 7,,guzman71 ,president ,apuntes ,estadsticos del ,estado ,nueva ,esparta4 ,caracas1 #ahgf4 #hvo4 ,,bochart 7,,samuel7 ,hierozoicon1 sive ,bipartitum opus de animalibus ,sacr ,scriptur4 ,londini1 #affc4 ,fol4 ,,bo,,thius 7,,anselmus7 ,gemmarum et lapidum historia4 ,hanovi1 #afji4 #dto4 ,recensuit et commentariis illustravit ,adrianus ,tollius4 ,leyden1 #afcf4 #dto4 ,tollius' #crd edition 7#afdg7 appends the ,greek text of ,theophrastus and a short work1 8,de ,gemmis et ,lapidibus10 by ,johannis de ,laet of ,antwerp4 ,,bohadsch 7,,joannes ,,baptista7 ,de quibusdam animalibus marinis4 ,dresd1 #agfa4 #dto4 ,,bohlen 7,,peter ,,von7 ,das alte ,indien1 mit besonderer ,rcksicht auf ,aegypten4 #b vols4 ,knigsberg1 #ahcj4 #hvo4 ,,bonnemere 7,,lionel7 ,les ,perles fines de l',ouest de la ,france4 ,revue des ,sciences ,naturelles de l',ouest4 ,,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #ig-ii4 ,nantes1 #ahic4 ,les ,mollusques des eaux douces de ,france et leurs perles4 ,institut ,international de ,bibliographie ,scientifique4 ,paris1 #aija4 #hvo4 ,,bouchon-,,brandeley 7,g47 ,la ,pche et la ,culture des ,hutres ,perlires ,tahiti2 ,pcheries de l',archipel ,tuamotu4 ,journal ,officiel1 ,june #bc1 #be1 #bf1 and #bg4 ,paris1 #ahhe4 ,translated in ,report ,u4 ,s4 ,fish ,commission1 #ahhe1 pp4 #cec-cgg4 ,,boutan 7,,louis7 ,production artificielle des perles chez les ,haliotis4 ,comptes ,rendus de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 ,,vol4 ,,cxxvii1 pp4 #hbh-hcj4 ,paris1 #ahih4 ,l',origine relle des perles fines4 ,comptes ,rendus de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 ,,vol4 ,,cxxxvii1 pp4 #ajgc-ajge4 ,paris1 #aijc4 ,,bowerbank 7,,james ,,scott7 ,on the ,structure of the ,shells of ,molluscous and ,conchiferous ,animals4 ,transactions of the ,microscopic ,society1 ,,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #abc-aed4 ,london1 #ahdd4 ,also in ,froriep1 ,notizen aus dem ,gebiete der ,natur und ,heilkunde1 ,,vol4 ,,xxv1 #ahdc4 ,,brewster 7,,david71 ,sir ,on the ,new ,properties of ,light1 ,exhibited in the ,optical ,phenomena of ,mother-of-,pearl4 ,philosophical ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,london1 #ahad1 ,,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cig-dah4 ,also in ,journal de ,physique1 ,,vol4 ,,lxxxi1 pp4 #aha-ahh1 #dga-dgc1 #ahae4 ,a ,treatise on ,optics4 ,london1 #ahca4 #hvo4 ,,brodie 7,,james7 ,the ,pearls of the ,ythan1 ,aberdeenshire4 ,proceedings of the ,royal ,physical ,society1 ,,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #cid-cif4 ,edinburgh1 #ahfg4 ,,bruce 7,,james7 ,select ,specimens of ,natural ,history1 ,collected in ,travels to ,discover the ,source of the ,nile1 in ,egypt1 ,arabia1 ,abyssinia1 and ,nubia4 ,dublin1 #agij4 #hvo4 ,,brydges 7,,harford ,,jones71 ,sir ,mission to the ,court of ,persia1 in the years #ahjg-aa4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahcd4 #hvo4 ,,buckland 7,francis ,trevelyan7 ,log-book of a ,fisherman and ,zoologist4 ,london1 #ahge4 #hvo4 ,,buffum 7,e4 ,,gould7 ,pearl ,diving ,gulf of ,california4 8,the ,pioneer1 or ,california ,monthly ,magazine10 ,,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ce-ci4 ,san ,francisco1 ,january1 #ahed4 ,,burnham 7,s4 ,m47 ,precious ,stones in ,nature1 ,art and ,literature4 ,boston1 #ahhf4 #hvo4 ,c4 7,d47 ,some ,account of the ,british ,pearl ,fishery now ,existing on the ,conway4 8,loudon's ,magazine of ,natural ,history10 ,,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #acb-acd4 ,london1 #ahcj4 ,,caire 7,a47 ,la ,science des pierres prcieuses1 applique aux arts4 ,paris1 #ahbf4 #hvo4 ,,calvert 7,,albert ,,frederick7 ,pearls3 their ,origin and ,formation4 ,london1 #ahib4 #hvo4 ,,camden 7,,william7 ,britannia2 or ,a ,chorographical ,description of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 ,together ,with the ,adjacent ,islands4 #b vols4 ,london1 #agbb4 ,fol4 ,,carpenter 7,,william ,b47 ,on the ,microscopic ,structure of ,shells4 ,report of the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 ,september1 #ahdd1 pp4 #a-bh4 ,london1 #ahde4 ,the ,microscope and its ,revelations4 ,sixth edition4 ,london1 #ahha4 #hvo4 ,,catalogue ,diamants1 ,perles et ,pierreries provenant de la collection dite des ,joyaux de la ,couronne4 ,paris1 ,imprimerie ,national1 #ahhg4 ,fol4 ,,cattelle 7,w4 ,r47 ,precious ,stones3 a ,book of ,reference for ,jewelers4 ,philadelphia1 #aijc4 #hvo4 ,the ,pearl4 ,philadelphia1 #aijg4 #hvo4 ,,chambers',s ,,journal ,pearls and ,pearl ,fisheries in the ,persian ,gulf4 8,chambers's ,journal10 ,,vol4 ,,xix1 pp4 #aeg-afj4 ,edinburgh1 ,march #e1 #ahec4 ,fishing for ,pearls4 8,chambers's ,journal10 ,,vol4 ,,lv1 pp4 #hg-ij1 ,february #i1 #ahgh4 ,,chappuzeau 7,,le ,,sieur7 ,histoire des ,joyaux1 et des principales ,richesses de l',orient et de l',occident4 ,genve1 #affe4 #abmo4 ,the ,history of ,jewels and of the ,principal ,riches of the ,east and ,west4 ,,london1 #afga4 #abmo4 ,,chardin 7,,jean7 ,voyages en ,perse1 et autres lieux de l',orient4 #aj vols4 ,amsterdam1 #agaa4 #abmo4 ,,chartier 7,h4 ,,le7 ,tahiti et les ,colonies ,franaises de la ,polynsie4 ,paris1 #ahhg4 #hvo4 ,,church 7,,arthur ,,herbert7 ,precious ,stones ,considered in ,their ,scientific and ,artistic ,relations4 ,south ,kensington ,museum ,handbook4 ,london1 #ahhc4 #hvo4 ,,clave 7,,tienne ,,de7 ,paradoxes1 ou traittz ,philosophiques des pierres et pierreries1 contre l'opinion vulgaire4 ,paris1 #afce4 #hvo4 ,,clavio 7,d4 ,,servatio7 ,piscatura margaritarum4 ,miscellanea ,curiosa sive ,ephemeridum ,medico-,physicarum ,germanicarum ,academi1 pp4 #dag-dai4 ,norimberg1 #afhe4 ,,cloquet 7,j47 ,,and ,,moquin-,,tandon 7,m47 ,observations sur les perles des bivalves d'eau douce4 ,bulletin de la ,societe d',acclimatation1 ,,vol4 ,v1 pp4 #deb-dfa4 ,paris1 #aheh4 ,,coate 7,h4 ,e4 ,,acraman7 ,pearl ,fishing ,ceylon1 8,time ,magazine10 ,,vol4 ,,xxi1 pp4 #fdf-fec4 ,london1 ,december1 #ahhi4 ,,collett 7,,oliver7 ,pearl-oysters and ,pearl ,fisheries4 ,journal of the ,ceylon ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,,vol4 ,,xvi1 pp4 #afe-aig4 ,colombo1 #aija4 #hvo4 ,,comba 7,b47 ,la ,madreperla4 ,torino1 #ahih4 #hvo4 ,,comber 7,e47 ,economic ,uses of ,shells4 ,journal of the ,bombay ,natural ,history ,society1 ,,vol4 ,,xvi1 pp4 #dfb-dgb4 ,bombay1 #aije4 ,,comyn 7,,tom,s ,,de7 ,state of the ,philippine ,islands4 ,london1 #ahbj4 #hvo4 ,,cordiner 7,,james7 ,a ,description of ,ceylon1 ,containing an ,account of the ,country1 ,inhabitants and ,natural ,productions4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahjg4 #dto4 ,,cornhill ,,magazine ,the ,pearl ,harvest4 8,cornhill ,magazine10 ,,vol4 ,,xiv1 pp4 #afa-agc4 ,london1 ,august1 #ahff4 ,,coutance 7,a47 ,la ,perle4 ,diamant et ,pierres ,prcieuses2 444 au point de vue de leur histoire et de leur travail 444 ,par ,e4 ,jannettaz1 444 ,a4 ,coutance4 ,paris1 #ahha4 #hvo4 ,,coxe 7,,daniel7 ,a ,description of the ,english ,province of ,carolana1 by the ,spaniards call'd ,florida1 and by the ,french ,la ,louisiana1 as also of the great and famous river ,meschacebe or ,missisipi4 ,london1 #agbb4 #hvo4 ,,curzon 7,,george ,,nathaniel71 ,baron ,persia and the ,persian ,question4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahib4 #hvo4 ,d4 7,m4 ,l4 ,m4 ,d4 ,s47 ,le dnombrement1 facultz et origine des pierres prcieuses4 ,paris1 #affg4 #hvo4 ,,dall 7,w4 ,h47 ,pearls and ,pearl ,fisheries4 8,american ,naturalist10 ,,vol4 ,,xvii1 pp4 #egi-ehf and #gca-gde4 ,philadelphia1 ,june1 #ahhc1 and ,july1 #ahhc4 ,,dallas 7,w4 ,s47 ,on the ,natural ,history of the ,cingalese ,pearl-oyster and on the ,production of ,pearls4 ,annals and ,magazine of ,natural ,history1 ,ser4 #c1 ,,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ha-ij4 ,london1 ,february1 #aheh4 ,,dampier 7,,william7 ,a ,new ,voyage ,round the ,world4 #b vols4 ,london1 #afii-agjc4 #hvo4 ,,darboux 7,g47 ,l',industrie des ,pches aux ,colonies4 ,les ,produits de la ,pche4 ,marseille1 #aijf4 #dto4 ,,dastre 7,a47 ,les ,perles fines2 ,production naturelle et production artificielle4 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 ,,vol4 ,,cli1 pp4 #fga-fij4 ,paris1 #ahii4 ,,davenport 7,,cyril ,,james7 ,the ,english ,regalia4 ,london1 #ahig4 #dto4 ,,delondre 7,,augustin7 ,nacroculture et ostriculture perlire aux les ,pomotu 7,ocanie74 ,bulletin de la ,socit ,national d',acclimatation1 ,,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #chi-cij4 ,paris1 #ahgf4 ,,dennys 7,n4 ,b47 ,breeding ,pearls4 ,journal of the ,straits ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ca-cg4 ,singapore1 ,july1 #ahgh4 ,,dickens 7,,charles71 ,editor ,pearl ,fishery ,ceylon1 #ahcf4 8,household ,words10 ,,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #ge-hj4 ,london1 ,april #ab1 #ahea4 ,pearls of ,price4 8,all the ,year ,round10 ,,vol4 ,,xvii1 pp4 #ecd-ecg4 ,london1 ,june #a1 #ahfg4 ,scotch pearls4 8,all the ,year ,round10 ,,vol4 ,,xxi1 pp4 #abe-abg1 ,january #i1 #ahfi4 ,also in 8,every ,saturday10 ,,vol4 ,,vii1 pp4 #aeg-aeh4 ,boston1 ,january #cj1 #ahfi4 ,,dieulafait 7,,louis7 ,diamonds and ,precious ,stones2 a ,popular ,account of ,gems4 ,translated from the ,french 444 by ,f4 ,sanford4 ,cambridge1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a41 #ahgd4 #hvo4 ,,diguet 7,l,,on7 ,pche de l'hutre perlire dans le ,golfe de ,californie4 ,bulletin de la ,socit ,centrale d',aquiculture4 ,,vol4 ,,vii1 pp4 #a-ah4 ,paris1 #ahie4 ,sur la formation de la perle fine chez la ,meleagrina margaritifera4 ,comptes ,rendus de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 ,,vol4 ,,cxxviii1 pp4 #aehi-ia4 ,paris1 #ahii4 ,exploitation de l'hutre perlire dans le ,golfe de ,californie4 ,bulletin de la ,socit ,centrale d',aquiculture1 ,,vol4 ,,ix1 pp4 #bba-bce4 ,paris1 #ahii4 ,,dobrzensky 7,,jacobus ,,joannes ,,wenceslaus7 ,perlarum maturationis historia4 ,miscellanea ,curiosa ,medico-physica1 obs4 #ahc1 pp4 #bha-bhb4 ,jen1 #afga4 ,,donnan 7,,james7 ,report on the ,inspection of ,pearl ,banks1 #ahge4 ,sessional ,papers4 ,colombo1 #ahge4 ,fol4 ,report on the ,inspection of the ,pearl ,oyster ,banks1 #ahgf4 ,sessional ,papers4 ,colombo1 #ahgf4 ,fol4 ,report on the ,inspection of the ,pearl ,oyster ,banks1 #ahgh4 ,sessional ,papers4 ,colombo1 #ahgh4 ,fol4 ,report on a ,recent ,inspection of the ,pearl ,banks4 ,sessional ,papers4 ,colombo1 #ahhj4 ,fol4 ,report on the ,pearl ,fishery off ,chilaw4 ,sessional ,papers4 ,colombo1 #ahhd4 ,fol4 ,report of an ,experimental ,cultivation of ,pearl-,oysters4 ,sessional ,papers4 ,colombo1 #ahhe4 ,fol4 ,report on a ,recent ,inspection of the ,pearl ,banks4 ,sessional ,papers4 ,colombo1 #ahhe4 ,fol4 ,report of a ,recent ,inspection of the ,pearl ,banks4 ,sessional ,papers4 ,colombo1 #ahhf4 ,fol4 ,report of an ,inspection of the ,pearl ,banks1 #ahhg4 ,sessional ,papers4 ,colombo1 #ahhh4 ,fol4 ,report on the ,failure of ,oysters on the ,cheval ,paar1 #ahhg4 ,sessional ,papers4 ,colombo1 #ahhh4 ,fol4 ,,donnan 7,,james7 ,,and ,,twynam 7,w4 ,c47 ,reports by the ,superintendent of the ,fishery and the ,inspector of the ,pearl ,banks4 ,sessional ,papers4 ,colombo1 #ahhg4 ,fol4 ,,doumert 7,a47 ,nos ,parures4 ,le ,jais et les ,perles ,fausses4 ,paris1 #ahij4 #abmo4 ,,dubois 7,,rapha,l7 ,sur le mcanisme de la formation des perles fines dans le ,mytilus edulis4 ,comptes ,rendus de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 ,,vol4 ,,cxxxiii1 pp4 #fjc-fje4 ,paris1 #aija4 ,sur la nature et la formation des perles fines naturelles4 ,mmoires et ,comptes ,rendus des ,sances du ,congrs ,international d',aquiculture et de ,pche4 ,paris1 #aijc4 #hvo4 ,sur l'acclimatation et la culture des ,pintadines1 ou hutres perlires vraies1 sur les ctes de ,france1 et sur la production force des perles fines4 ,comptes ,rendus de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 ,,vol4 ,,cxxxvii1 pp4 #faa-fac4 ,paris1 #aijc4 ,application des rayons ,x la recherche des perles fines4 ,comptes ,rendus de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 ,,vol4 ,,cxxxviii1 pp4 #cja-cjb4 ,paris1 #aijd4 ,sur les perles de nacre4 ,comptes ,rendus de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 ,,vol4 ,,cxxxviii1 pp4 #ehc-ehd4 ,paris1 #aijd4 ,sur le mcanisme scrtoire producteur des perles4 ,comptes ,rendus de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 ,,vol4 ,,cxxxviii1 pp4 #gaj-gab4 ,paris1 #aijd4 ,,dutens 7,,louis7 ,des pierres prcieuses et des perles fines1 avec les moyens de les connotre et de les valuer4 ,londres1 #aggf4 #abmo4 ,,eberhard 7,,johann ,,peter7 ,abhandlung von dem ,ursprung der ,perle1 worin deren ,zeugung1 ,wachsthum und ,beschaffenheit erklrt1 und eine ,nachricht von verschiedenen ,perlenfischereien gegeben wird4 ,halle1 #agea4 #hvo4 ,,edouard-,,petit 7,,alix7 ,aux les des perles4 ,journal le ,correspondent1 pp4 #igg-iif4 ,paris1 ,march #aj1 #aijf4 ,,elgin1 ,earl of ,leasing of the ,pearl ,fisheries of ,ceylon4 ,sessional ,papers1 pp4 #fej-fea4 ,colombo1 #aijf4 ,,emanuel 7,,harry7 ,diamonds and precious stones4 ,london1 #ahfe4 #hvo4 ,,entrecolles 7,f4 ,x4 ,d'7 ,manire de faire des perles artificielles4 ,lettre ,pekin1 #d ,nov4 #agcd4 ,lettres difiantes et curieuses crites des ,missions trangres1 ,,vol4 ,,xxii1 pp4 #dbe-dcg4 ,paris1 #agcf4 ,,esteva 7,,jos ,,maria7 ,memoria sobre la pesca de la perla en la ,baja ,california4 ,boletin de la ,sociedad ,mexicana de ,geografa y ,estadstica1 ,,vol4 ,x1 pp4 #fgc-fig4 ,mexico1 #ahfe4 ,,farrington 7,,oliver ,,cummings7 ,gems and ,gem ,minerals4 ,chicago1 #aijc4 #hvo4 ,,ferguson 7,,alastair ,,makenzie ,,and ,,john7 ,all about ,gold1 ,gems1 and ,pearls in ,ceylon and ,southern ,india4444 ,second edition4 ,colombo1 #ahhh4 #hvo4 ,,fernandes ,,de ,,queiros 7,,pedro7 ,the ,voyages of ,pedro ,fernandez de ,quiros1 #aeie-afjf4 ,translated and edited by ,sir ,clements ,markham4 #b vols4 ,london1 ,hakluyt ,society1 #aijd4 #hvo4 ,,feuchtwanger 7,,lewis7 ,a ,popular ,treatise on ,gems1 in ,reference to ,their ,scientific ,value4 ,new ,york1 #ahei4 #hvo4 ,,fichtner 7,,conrad ,,heinrich7 ,einige ,nachrichten von dem ,rehauischen ,perlen ,bach4 ,frankische ,sammlungen von ,anmerkungen aus der ,naturlehre ,arzneigelehrtheit4 ,nurnberg1 #agfh4 #hvo4 ,,fields 7,j4 ,t47 ,underbrush4 ,boston1 #ahha4 #hvo4 ,,filippi 7,,filippo ,,de7 ,sull' origine delle perle4 ,il ,cimento revista di ,scienza1 ,lettere1 ed ,arti1 ,,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #dbi-dci4 ,torino1 #aheb4 ,translated into ,german by ,dr4 ,kchenmeister in ,mllers' ,archiv fr ,anatomie1 ,physiologie1 und wissenschaftliche ,medicin1 #ahef1 pp4 #bea-bfi4 ,berlin1 #ahef4 ,mmoire pour servir l'histoire gntique des ,trmatodes4 ,memorie della ,reale ,accademia delle ,scienze di ,torino1 ,,vol4 ,,xv1 pp4 #cca-ceh1 #ahee2 ,,vol4 ,,xvi1 pp4 #dai-ddb4 ,torino1 #aheg4 ,also in ,annales des ,sciences ,naturelles1 ,,vol4 ,,ii 7,zool471 pp4 #bed-bhd4 ,paris1 #ahed4 ,nouvelles observations sur le dveloppement des ,trmatodes4 ,annales des ,sciences ,naturelles1 ,,iii 7,zool471 pp4 #aaa-aac4 ,paris1 #ahee4 ,encore un mot sur la formation des perles4 ,mllers' ,archiv fr ,anatomie1 ,physiologie1 und wissenschaftliche ,medicin1 #ahef1 pp4 #dij-dic4 ,berlin1 #ahef4 ,troisime mmoire pour servir l'histoire gntique des ,trmatodes4 ,memorie della ,reale ,accademia delle ,scienze di ,torino4 ,,vol4 ,,xviii1 pp4 #bja-bcb4 ,torino1 #ahei4 ,,fischer 7,,gotthelf7 ,essai sur la ,pellegrina1 ou la ,perle incomparable des ,frres ,zozima4 ,moscou4 #ahah4 #hvo4 ,,fischer 7,p47 ,production artificielle des perles4 ,journal de ,conchyliologie1 ,,vol4 ,,xiii1 pp4 #fd-fe4 ,paris1 #ahfe4 ,,frank ,,leslie',s ,,magazine ,pearl-mussel ,fishery of ,new ,jersey4 8,frank ,leslie's ,magazine10 ,,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #chd-chf4 ,new ,york1 ,may #bc1 #aheg4 ,,fr,d 7,,pierre7 ,la ,pche aux ,perles4 ,paris1 #ahhg4 #hvo4 ,la ,pche aux ,perles en ,perse et ,ceylon4 ,paris1 #ahij4 #hvo4 ,,frederick 7,c,,sar7 ,the ,fishing for ,pearls in ,ceylon1 #aefc-ha4 ,translated out of ,italian by ,thomas ,hickoke4 ,hakluyt's ,voyages1 ,,vol4 ,v4 ,glasgow1 #aijd4 #hvo4 ,,friedlaender 7,s47 ,perlen der ,juwelierausstellung4 ,internationale ,fischerei-,austellung zu ,berlin1 #ahhj1 pp4 #ge-hc4 ,berlin1 #ahha4 #hvo4 ,,friswell 7,j4 ,h47 ,pearls and ,oysters4 8,once a ,week10 ,,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #gh-ha4 ,london1 ,july #ad1 #ahfj4 ,,fryer 7,,john7 ,a new ,account of ,east-,india and ,persia4 ,london1 #afih4 ,fol4 ,,ganong 7,w4 ,f47 ,bibliography of the ,fresh-water ,pearl ,fishery in ,new ,brunswick4 ,bulletin of the ,natural ,history ,society of ,new ,brunswick1 ,,no4 ,,xvii1 pp4 #acd-acf41 ,st4 ,john1 ,n4 ,b41 #ahii4 ,,garner 7,,robert7 ,on the ,pearls of the ,conway ,river1 ,north ,wales4 ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 ,report for #ahef1 ,,part ,,ii1 pp4 #ib-ic4 ,london1 #aheg4 ,notes on ,anatomy and ,pearls of ,alasmodon margaritifera4 ,proceedings of the ,zoological ,society of ,london1 ,,vol4 ,,xi1 pp4 #dbf-dbh1 #ahgb4 ,on the ,formation of ,british ,pearls and ,their ,possible ,improvement4 ,journal of the ,linnean ,society 7,zool471 ,,vol4 ,,xi1 pp4 #dbf-dbh4 ,london1 #ahgc4 ,,garran 7,,andrew7 ,australasia ,illustrated4 #c vols4 ,sydney1 #ahib4 #dto4 ,,geiger 7,,malachias7 ,margaritologia1 sive dissertatio de ,margaritis1 in qua1 post varia ad ,margaritas pertinentia1 demonstratur1 ,margaritas bavaricas1 in usu medicinali1 viribus et effectibus quivalere orientalibus et occidentalibus4 ,monachii1 #afcg4 #abmo4 ,,gemelli-,,careri 7,,giovanni ,,francesco7 ,giro del mondo4 ,nuova edizione1 accresciuta1 ricorretta1 e divisa in nove volumi4 ,venezia1 #agai4 #hvo4 ,,giard 7,,alfred7 ,l'pithlium scrteur des perles4 ,comptes ,rendus de la ,socit de ,biologie1 sance du #bi decembre1 #aijc1 ,,vol4 ,,lv1 pp4 #abbb-abbe4 ,paris1 #aijc4 ,,gibbins 7,,herbert ,,james7 ,curiosities of ,pearls4 8,gentleman's ,magazine10 ,,vol4 ,,cclxxvii1 pp4 #cjf-cae4 ,london1 ,september1 #ahid4 ,,gill 7,,william ,,wyatt7 ,life in the ,southern ,isles2 or ,scenes and ,incidents in the ,south ,pacific and ,new ,guinea4 ,london1 #ahgf4 #hvo4 ,,gillman 7,,herbert ,w47 ,valuation of ,pearls in ,ceylon4 ,journal of the ,ceylon ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 #ahhg1 ,,vol4 ,x1 pp4 #cb-dj4 ,colombo1 #ahhh4 ,,gimma 7,,giacinto7 ,della storia naturale delle gemme1 delle pietre1 e di tutti i minerali1 ovvero della fisica sotterranea4 #b vols4 ,napoli1 #agcj4 #dto4 ,,godron 7,d4-,a47 ,les perles de la ,vologne1 et le ,chteau-sur-perle4 ,mmoires de l',acadmie de ,stanislas1 #ahfi1 pp4 #aj-cj4 ,nancy1 #ahgj4 ,,grand 7,s47 ,mthode de culture de l'hutre perlire dans les lagons de ,tahiti4 ,revue ,maritime et ,coloniale1 ,,vol4 ,,cxxv1 pp4 #ege-eij4 ,paris1 ,may1 #ahie4 ,,gray 7,,john ,,edward7 ,on the ,structure of ,pearls1 and on the ,chinese mode of producing them of a large size and regular form4 ,thomson's ,annals of ,philosophy1 ,new ,series1 ,,vol4 ,,ix1 pp4 #bg-bi4 ,london1 ,january1 #ahbe2 ,,vol4 ,x1 pp4 #chi-cij1 ,november1 #ahbe4 ,,griffin 7,g4 ,w47 ,the ,pearl-shell ,fisheries of ,queensland4 ,u4 ,s4 ,consular ,reports1 ,,no4 ,,lv4 ,washington1 ,august1 #ahhe4 ,also published in ,bulletin ,u4 ,s4 ,fish ,commission1 ,,vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #dcc-dce4 ,washington1 #ahhg4 ,,grill 7,,johan ,,abraham7 ,bericht wie die ,chinesen chte ,perlen nachmachen4 ,abhandlungen der ,kniglichen ,schwedischen ,akademie der ,wissenschaften for #aggb1 ,,vol4 ,,xxxiv1 pp4 #hh-ij4 ,leipzig1 #aggf4 ,,grimm 7,,hermanni ,,nicolai7 ,de piscatura margaritarum apud ,insulam ,manaar1 non procul ,ceylon sitam4 ,miscellanea ,curiosa ,medico-physicarum1 obs4 #cf1 pp4 #ii-ajg4 ,norimberg1 #afhe4 ,,gross 7,j4 ,g47 ,de ,margaritis1 earumque ,virtute ,medica4 ,wirceburgi1 #agdd4 #dto4 ,,grylls 7,,james ,,willyams7 ,the ,pearl ,fishery4 8,the ,new ,monthly ,magazine10 ,,vol4 ,,lxxxii1 pp4 #gj-gi4 ,london1 ,january1 #ahdh4 ,the ,out-station2 or ,jaunts in the ,jungle4 ,london1 #ahdh4 #afmo4 ,,guido 7,,joannis7 ,de ,mineralibus tractatus absolutissimus4 ,francofurti1 #afbg4 #hvo4 ,,guillemand 7,,francis ,,henry ,,hill7 ,malaysia and the ,pacific ,archipelago4 ,london1 #ahid4 #hvo4 ,g,,nther 7,,albert7 ,a ,small ,fish of the ,genus ,fierasfer ,imbedded in the ,shell of ,margarita margaritifera4 ,proceedings of the ,zological ,society of ,london1 #ahhf1 pp4 #cah-cbj4 ,,hague 7,w4 ,f47 ,on the ,natural and ,artificial ,production of ,pearls in ,china4 ,journal of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 ,,vol4 ,,xvi1 pp4 #bhj-bhd1 #ahef4 ,,hale 7,,sarah ,j47 ,history of ,pearls1 ,natural and ,artificial4 8,godey's ,magazine10 ,,vol4 ,,xlviii1 pp4 #ecc-ecg4 ,philadelphia1 #ahed4 ,,hall 7,,anna ,,maria7 ,pearls and ,pearl ,divers of the ,gulf of ,california4 8,st4 ,james's ,magazine10 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bhi-bie4 ,london1 ,october1 #ahfa4 ,,hall 7,,francis7 ,colombia3 its present state4 ,philadelphia1 #ahbe4 #abmo4 ,,hamilton 7,,alexander71 ,captain ,a ,new ,account of the ,east ,indies4 #b vols4 ,edinburgh1 #agbg4 #hvo4 ,,hamonville 7,l4 ,d'7 ,les moules perlires de ,billiers 7,mytilus edulis74 ,bulletin de la ,socit ,zoologique de ,france1 ,,vol4 ,,xix1 pp4 #adj-adb4 ,paris1 #ahid4 ,,hardy 7,,robert ,,william ,,hall71 ,lieut4 ,travels in the ,interior of ,mexico1 in #ahbe1 #ahbf1 #ahbg1 and #ahbh4 ,london1 #ahbi4 #hvo4 ,,harley 7,,george7 ,microscopic ,examination of ,pearls4 8,the ,cheltenham ,ladies' ,college ,magazine10 ,,no4 ,,xvii1 pp4 #cg-db4 ,london1 #ahhh4 ,,harley 7,,george ,,and ,,harold ,s47 ,the ,chemical ,composition of ,pearls4 ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society of ,london1 ,,vol4 ,,xliii1 pp4 #dfa-dfe1 #ahhh4 ,the ,structural ,arrangement of the ,mineral ,matters in ,sedimentary and ,crystalline ,pearls4 ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society of ,london1 ,,vol4 ,,xlv1 pp4 #fab-fad1 #ahhi4 ,,harper',s ,,magazine ,pearls and ,gems4 8,harper's ,new ,monthly ,magazine10 ,,vol4 ,,xxi1 pp4 #gfd-ghj4 ,new ,york1 ,november1 #ahfj4 ,treasures of the ,deep4 8,harper's ,new ,monthly ,magazine10 ,,vol4 ,,lviii1 pp4 #cba-ccf4 ,new ,york1 ,february1 #ahgi4 ,,harting 7,,pieter7 ,sur la production artificielle de quelques-unes des principales formations calcaires organiques4 ,comptes ,rendus de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 ,,vol4 ,,lxxiii1 pp4 #cfa-cfb4 ,paris1 #ahga4 ,also in ,quarterly ,journal ,microscopic ,science1 ,,vol4 ,,xii1 pp4 #aah-abc4 ,london1 #ahgb4 ,,hartmann 7,,philipp ,,jacob7 ,exercitatio de generatione mineralium1 vegetabilum1 et animalium in aere4 ,konigsberg7871 #afhi4 #dto4 ,,hasan ,,ibn ,,yaz,d 7,,ab ,,zaid7 ,al-,srf ,ancient ,accounts of ,india and ,china1 by two ,mohammedan travellers who went to those parts in the #ith ,century4 ,london1 #agcc4 #hvo4 ,,hawkins 7,,richard71 ,sir ,the ,observations of ,sir ,richard ,hawkins in his ,voyage into the ,south ,sea1 in the ,year #aeic4 ,reprinted from the edition of #afbb4 ,london1 ,hakluyt ,society1 #ahdg4 #hvo4 ,,heeren 7,,arnold ,,hermann ,,ludwig7 ,historical ,researches into the ,politics1 ,intercourse and ,trade of the ,principal ,nations of ,antiquity4 #c vols4 ,oxford1 #ahcc4 #hvo4 ,,herdman 7,,william ,,abbott7 ,the ,pearl ,fisheries of ,ceylon4 ,abstract of a discourse delivered at the ,royal ,institution on ,march #bg1 #aijc4 8,popular ,science ,monthly10 ,,vol4 ,,lxiii1 pp4 #bbi-bch1 ,july1 #aijc4 ,also in ,smithsonian ,report for #aijd1 pp4 #dhe-dic4 ,presidential ,address1 #aije4 ,proceedings of the ,linnean ,society of ,london1 #aagth ,session1 pp4 #bj-cj1 ,october1 #aije4 ,report to the ,government of ,ceylon on the ,pearl-,oyster ,fisheries of the ,gulf of ,manar4 #e vols4 ,london1 ,the ,royal ,society1 #aijc-aijf4 #dto4 ,the ,pearl ,fisheries of ,ceylon4 ,proceedings of the ,royal ,institution of ,great ,britain1 ,,vol4 ,,xvii1 pp4 #bgi-bhg4 ,london1 ,march1 #aije4 ,,hertz 7,,bram7 ,a ,catalogue of the ,collection of ,pearls and ,precious ,stones formed by ,h4 ,p4 ,hope1 ,esq4 ,london1 #ahci4 ,fol4 ,,hesse 7,p47 ,die ,perlfishcherei im ,roten ,meere4 ,zoologischer ,garten1 ,,vol4 ,,xxxix1 pp4 #chb-che4 ,frankfurt-a4-,m41 ,december1 #ahih4 ,,hessling 7,,theodor ,,von7 ,ueber ,perlen und ihre ,entstehung4 ,westermann's ,illustrirten ,monatsheften1 #aheg4 ,ueber die ,ursachen der ,perlbildung bei ,unio margaritifer4 ,siebold und ,klliker1 ,zeitschrift fr ,wissenschaftliche ,zoologie1 ,,vol4 ,,ix1 pp4 #edc-edf4 ,leipzig1 #aheh4 ,die ,perlmuscheln und ihre ,perlen4 ,leipzig1 #ahei4 #hvo4 ,die ,verbreitung der ,seeperlenmuschel und der ,perlfischerei4 ,zeitschrift fr die ,gesammten ,naturwissenschaften1 ,,vol4 ,,xiv1 pp4 #ag-cb4 ,halle1 #ahei4 ,ueber die ,befruchtung der ,flussperlenmuschel4 ,siebold und ,klliker1 ,zeitschrift fr ,wissenschaftliche ,zoologie1 ,,vol4 ,x1 pp4 #ceh-cfc4 ,leipzig1 #ahfj4 ,,hill 7,,john7 ,theophrastus's ,history of ,stones1 with the ,greek ,text and an ,english ,version1 and ,notes ,critical and ,philosophical1 ,including the ,modern ,history of ,gems ,described by that ,author4 ,london1 #agdf4 #hvo4 ,,holdsworth 7,,edmund ,,william ,,hunt7 ,report on the ,conditions and ,prospects of the ,pearl ,oyster ,banks1 #ahfh4 ,colombo1 #ahfh4 ,fol4 ,,home 7,,everard71 ,sir1 ,bart4 ,on the ,production and ,formation of ,pearls4 ,philosophical ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,london1 ,,vol4 ,,cxvi1 pp4 #cch-cda4 ,london1 #ahbf4 ,,hornell 7,,james7 ,biological ,results of the ,ceylon ,pearl ,fishery of #aijd1 with ,notes on ,divers and ,their ,occupation4 ,colombo1 #aije4 #dto4 ,report on the ,placuna placenta ,pearl ,fishery of ,lake ,tampalakamam4 ,ceylon ,marine ,biological ,reports1 ,,part ,,ii1 ,,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #da-ed4 ,colombo1 #aijf4 ,report on the ,operations on the ,pearl ,banks ,during the ,fishery of #aije4 ,ceylon ,marine ,biological ,reports1 ,,part ,,ii1 ,,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ee-gi4 ,colombo1 #aijf4 ,,humboldt 7,,friedrich ,,heinrich ,,alexander ,,von71 ,baron ,personal ,narrative of ,travels to the ,equinoctial ,regions of the ,new ,continent ,during the ,years #agii-ahjd4 #g vols4 ,london1 #ahad-bi4 #hvo4 ,,ibn ,,batuta ,the ,travels of ,ibn ,batuta4 ,translated from the original ,arabic manuscript copies 444 by ,samuel ,lee4 ,london1 #ahbi4 #dto4 ,,irving 7,,theodore7 ,the ,conquest of ,florida1 under ,hernando de ,soto4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahce4 #abmo4 ,,issel 7,,arturo7 ,i ,molluschi ,commestibili1 le ,applicazioni delle ,conchiglie1 le ,perle e i ,coralli4 ,annali dell' ,industria e del ,commercio1 #ahhj1 num4 #bh4 ,roma1 #ahha4 #hvo4 ,,jahn 7,j4 ,g47 ,die ,perlenfischerei im ,voigtlande4 ,oelsnitz1 #ahed4 #hvo4 ,,jameson 7,h4 ,,lyster7 ,on the ,identity and ,distribution of the ,mother-of-pearl ,oysters4 ,proceedings of the ,zoological ,society of ,london for #aija1 ,,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #cgb-cid4 ,on the ,origin of ,pearls4 ,proceedings of the ,zoological ,society of ,london for #aijb1 ,,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #adj-aff4 ,the ,formation of ,pearls4 8,nature10 ,,vol4 ,,lxvii1 pp4 #bhj-bhb4 ,london1 ,january #bb1 #aijc4 ,,jardine 7,,frank ,l47 ,report ,relating to the ,mergui ,pearl and ,pearl ,shell ,fisheries4 ,rangoon1 #ahid4 ,fol4 ,,jeffreys 7,,john ,,gwyn7 ,british ,conchology1 or an ,account of the ,mollusca ,which now ,inhabit the ,british ,isles and the ,surrounding ,seas4 #e vols4 ,london1 #ahfb-fi4 #abmo4 ,,jeffries 7,,david7 ,treatise on ,diamonds and ,pearls and the ,true ,method of ,manufacturing ,diamonds4 ,london1 #agej4 #hvo4 ,a ,treatise on ,diamonds and ,pearls4 ,fourth edition1 corrected to the present time4 ,london1 #ahga4 #abmo4 ,,jones 7,,charles ,,colcock7 ,antiquities of the ,southern ,indians1 ,particularly of the ,georgia ,tribes4 ,new ,york1 #ahgc4 #hvo4 ,,jones 7,,william7 ,history and ,mystery of ,precious ,stones4 ,london1 #ahhj4 #hvo4 ,,jopp 7,,alexander ,h47 ,days with ,industries3 ,adventures and ,experiences ,among ,curious ,industries4 ,london1 #ahhi4 #hvo4 ,,jordanus 7,,catalani71 ,bishop ,mirabilia ,descripta4 ,the ,wonders of the ,east1 by ,friar ,jordanus 7circa #accj74 ,translated by ,col4 ,sir ,henry ,yule4 ,london1 ,hakluyt ,society1 #ahfc4 #hvo4 ,k,,mpfer 7,,engelbert7 ,the ,history of ,japan4 #b vols4 ,london1 #agbg4 ,fol4 ,,kawall 7,j4 ,h47 ,la pche des perles en ,livonie4 ,annales de la ,socit ,malacologique de ,belgique1 ,,vol4 ,,vii1 pp4 #ch-df4 ,brussels1 #ahgb4 ,,kelaart 7,,edward ,,frederick7 ,introductory ,report on the ,natural ,history of the ,pearl-oyster of ,ceylon4 ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh1 ,,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #cii-dje1 #aheg4 ,also in ,madras ,journal of ,literature and ,science1 ,,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #hi-ajd1 #aheh4 ,report on the ,tablegam ,pearl-oyster ,fishery4 ,madras ,journal of ,literature and ,science1 ,,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #aje-aaj1 #aheh4 ,introductory ,report on the ,natural ,history of the ,pearl-oyster of ,ceylon1 #aheh-ei4 ,trincomalee1 #ahei4 ,filaria in ,oysters ,ceylon4 ,proceedings of the ,royal ,physical ,society1 ,,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #aja-ajb4 ,edinburgh1 #ahfc4 ,,kelaart 7,,edward ,,frederick7 ,,and ,m,,bius 7,,karl7 ,on the ,natural ,history of the ,cingalese ,pearl-oyster and on the ,production of ,pearls4 ,annals of ,natural ,history1 #crd series1 ,,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ha-ajj4 ,london1 #aheh4 ,,kelly 7,h4 ,m47 ,a ,statistical ,study of the ,parasites of the ,unionid4 ,illinois ,state ,laboratory of ,natural ,history1 ,,vol4 ,v1 pp4 #cii-dah4 ,springfield1 ,ill41 #ahii4 ,,kent 7,,william ,,saville7 ,report on the ,pearl and ,pearl ,shell ,fisheries of ,north ,queensland4 ,brisbane1 #ahij4 ,fol4 ,on the ,experimental ,cultivation of the ,mother-of-pearl ,shell in ,queensland4 ,report ,australian ,association1 ,,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #eda-edh4 ,sydney1 #ahia4 ,the ,great ,barrier ,reef of ,australia2 ,its ,products and ,potentialities4 ,london1 #ahic4 ,fol4 ,,king 7,,charles ,,william7 ,the ,natural ,history of ,precious ,stones and of the ,precious ,metals4 ,london1 #ahgj4 #hvo4 ,,kingsmill 7,,walter7 ,the ,pearling ,industry of ,western ,australia4 ,illustrated ,handbook of ,western ,australia4 ,paris ,international ,exhibition1 #aijj4 ,perth1 ,w4 ,a41 #aijj4 #hvo4 ,,klein 7,,jacob ,,theodor7 ,tentamen ,methodi ,ostracologic sive ,dispositio ,naturalis ,cochlidum et ,concharum4 ,lugduni ,batavorum1 #agec4 #dto4 ,,klein 7,,johann7 ,de ,jure circa ,margaritas vulgo von dem ,perlen-recht4 ,rostochii1 #agjj4 #hvo4 ,,knauthe 7,,karl7 ,perle in ,unio rostratus4 ,zoologischer ,garten1 p4 #aee4 ,berlin1 #ahif4 ,,kogel 7,j47 ,tripang- und ,perlenfischerei in niederlndischen ,australien4 ,ausland1 #aheg4 #hvo4 ,k,,chenmeister 7,,friedrich7 ,uebersetzung der ,arbeit3 8,sull' origine delle ,perle1 del ,dottore ,f4 de ,filippi40 ,nebst auf ,untersuchungen gegrndeten ,anmerkungen4 ,mller's ,archiv fr ,anatomie1 ,physiologie1 und wissenschaftliche ,medicin1 pp4 #bea-bfh4 ,berlin1 #ahef4 ,ueber eine der hufigsten ,ursachen der ,elsterperlen und das ,verfahren1 welches zur knstlichen ,vermehrung der ,perlen dem ,knigl4-,schsischen ,ministerium der ,finanzen vorgeschlagen wurde4 ,mller's ,archiv fr ,anatomie1 ,physiologie1 und wissenschaftliche ,medicin1 pp4 #bfi-bha4 ,berlin1 #ahef4 ,,kunz 7,,george ,,frederick7 ,american ,pearls4 ,proceedings of the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 #ccrd meeting1 pp4 #ffe-fgd4 ,salem1 #ahhe4 ,precious ,stones in the ,united ,states4 8,harper's ,magazine10 ,,vol4 ,,lxxvi1 pp4 #ig-ajf4 ,new ,york1 ,december1 #ahhg4 ,gems and ,precious ,stones of ,north ,america4 ,a ,popular ,description of ,their ,occurrence1 ,value1 ,history1 ,archology1 and of the ,collections in which they ,exist1 also a ,chapter on ,pearls and on ,remarkable ,foreign ,gems ,owned in the ,united ,states4 ,new ,york1 #ahij4 #dto4 ,on the ,occurrence of ,pearls in the ,united ,states4 ,transactions of the ,american ,fishery ,society1 pp4 #af-cb4 ,new ,york1 #ahic4 ,a ,brief ,history of the ,gathering of ,fresh-water ,pearls in the ,united ,states4 ,bulletin ,u4 ,s4 ,fish ,commission1 ,,vol4 ,,xiii1 pp4 #cba-ccj4 ,washington1 #ahid4 ,on ,pearls and the ,application and ,utilization of the ,shells1 etc41 as ,shown at the ,world's ,columbian ,exposition4 ,bulletin ,u4 ,s4 ,fish ,commission1 ,,vol4 ,,xiii1 pp4 #dci-deg4 ,washington1 #ahid4 ,the ,fresh-water ,pearls and ,pearl ,fisheries of the ,united ,states4 ,bulletin ,u4 ,s4 ,fish ,commission1 ,,vol4 ,,xvii1 pp4 #cgc-dbf4 ,washington1 #ahih4 ,fresh-water ,pearls of ,america4 8,nature10 ,,vol4 ,,lx1 pp4 #aej-aeb4 ,new ,york1 ,june #ae1 #ahii4 ,precious ,stones of ,california4 ,sacramento1 #aije4 #hvo4 ,,kusnetzow 7,i4 ,d47 ,fischerei und ,thiererbeutung in den ,gewssern ,russlands4 ,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahih4 #hvo4 ,,laferri,,re 7,j47 ,de ,paris ,guatmala4 ,notes de ,voyages au ,centre-,amrique1 #ahff-ahge4 ,paris1 #ahgg4 #hvo4 ,,landaeta ,,rosales 7,,manuel7 ,gran ,recopilacion geografica1 estadistica e historica de ,venezuela4 #b vols4 ,carcas1 #ahhi4 ,fol4 ,,langerus 7,,johannes7 ,de dulcissimo margaritas nomine de ,margarit4 ,scriptorum ,publice propositorum a ,gubernatoribus4 ,viteberg4 #aeee4 ,fol4 ,,lasteyrie 7,,ferdinand ,,de7 ,description du ,trsor de ,guarrazar4 ,paris1 #ahfj4 #dto4 ,,leach 7,,william ,,elford7 ,the ,zoologists ,miscellany2 being descriptions of new or interesting animals4 #c vols4 ,london1 #ahad-ag4 #hvo4 ,,le ,,beck 7,,henry ,j47 ,an ,account of the ,pearl ,fishery in the ,gulph of ,manar in ,march and ,april1 #agig4 ,asiatic ,researches1 ,,vol4 ,v1 pp4 #cic et seq4 ,london1 #agih4 ,,le ,,comte 7,,louis7 ,memoirs and ,remarks 444 ,made in ,above ,ten ,years' ,travel ,through the ,empire of ,china3 ,particularly ,upon ,their ,pottery1 ,varnishing1 ,silk1 and ,pearl-fishing4 ,london1 #agcg4 #hvo4 ,,ledelius 7,,samuel7 ,de perlis ,lusato-silesiacis4 ,miscellanea ,curiosa1 observatio #aej1 pp4 #cbg-cbh4 ,norimberg1 #afij4 ,,leonardus 7,,camillus7 ,speculum lapidum4 ,venice1 #aejb4 #dto4 ,,leuwenhoeck 7,m47 ,microscopical ,observations on the ,salts of ,pearls1 ,oyster-shells1 etc4 ,philosophical ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,london for #agjg1 ,no4 #caa1 pp4 #bdaf-bd4 ,,lewis 7,,james7 ,on the ,coloring ,matter of ,pearl-shells4 ,proceedings of the ,academy of ,natural ,sciences of ,philadelphia for #ahfj1 pp4 #hh-hi4 ,,lewis 7,j4 ,p47 ,,and ,,hornell 7,,james7 ,reports on the ,pearl ,fishery of #aijd4 ,sessional ,papers4 ,colombo1 #aijd4 ,fol4 ,reports on the ,pearl ,fishery of #aije4 ,sessional ,papers4 ,colombo1 #aije4 ,fol4 ,,linschoten 7,,john ,,huyghen ,,van7 ,the ,voyage of ,john ,huyghen van ,linschoten to the ,east ,indies4 #b vols4 ,london1 ,hakluyt ,society1 #ahhd4 #hvo4 ,,lister 7,,martin7 ,a ,journey to ,paris in the ,year #afih4 ,london1 #afii4 #hvo4 ,,london ,,magazine ,pearls4 8,london ,magazine10 ,,vol4 ,,xi1 pp4 #gae-gbb4 ,london1 ,january1 #aijd4 ,,lopes ,,de ,,castanheda 7,,fernham7 ,the ,first ,booke of the ,historie of the ,discoverie and ,conquest of the ,east ,indies1 ,enterprised by the ,portingales4 ,london1 #aehb4 #dto4 ,,lopez ,,de ,,gomara 7,,francisco7 ,historia general de las ,indias con todo el descubrimiento y cosas notables que han acaecido desde que se ganaron hasta el ao de #aeea4 aragoa1 #aeeb4 ,fol4 ,,lovell 7,,robert7 ,panmineralogicon1 or an ,universal ,history of ,minerals1 containing the summe of all ,authors4 ,oxford1 #affa4 #hvo4 ,,lovetzky ,notice sur les perles du gouvernement de ,viatka4 ,bulletin de la ,socit des ,naturalistes4 ,moscou1 #ahcj4 ,,low 7,,franz7 ,die ,flussperlenmuscheln-fischerei in der ,moldau in ,bhmen4 ,verhandlungen der ,zoologisch-,botanische ,gesellschaft1 pp4 #ccc-ccf4 ,wien1 #ahei4 ,,lucatt ,rovings in the ,pacific from #ahcg to #ahdi4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahea4 #hvo4 ,m4 ,l',histoire ,naturelle claircie dans deux de ses parties principales1 ,la ,lithologie et la ,conchyliogie dont l'une traite des pierres et l'autre des ,coquillages 444 par ,m444 de la ,socit ,royale des ,sciences de ,montpellier4 ,paris1 #agdb4 #dto4 ,,mcculloch 7,,john ,,ramsay7 ,article 8,pearls40 ,dictionary of ,commerce4 ,london1 #ahhb4 #hvo4 ,,macdonald 7,,alexander ,c47 ,in ,search of ,el ,dorado3 a ,wanderer's ,experiences4 ,london1 #aije4 #hvo4 ,,macgowan 7,d4 ,t47 ,pearls and ,pearl-making in ,china4 ,journal of the ,society of ,arts1 ,,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #gb-ge4 ,london1 ,dec4 #af1 #ahec4 ,,mcintosh 7,,william ,,carmichael7 ,the ,story of a ,pearl4 8,the ,zoologist10 ,no4 #geb1 ,,vol4 ,,lxii1 pp4 #da-ef4 ,london1 ,february1 #aijd4 ,,malcolm 7,,john71 ,sir ,sketches of ,persia1 from the ,journals of a ,traveller in the ,east4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahbg4 #hvo4 ,,mandeville 7,,john71 ,sir ,le ,grand ,lapidaire1 o sont dclarez les noms de ,pierres orientales1 avec les ,vertues et ,proprits d'icelles1 aussi les isles et pays o elles croissent4 ,paris1 #aefa4 #abmo4 ,,marbodus1 ,bishop of ,rennes ,marbodei1 ,galli poetae vetustissimi de lapidibus pretiosis encheridion cum scholiis ,pictorii ,villingensis4 ,paris1 #aeca4 #hvo4 ,liber ,lapidum seu de ,gemmis varietate lectionis et perpetua annotatione illustratus a ,johanne ,beckmanno4 ,gotting1 #agii4 #hvo4 ,,mariot ,la reproduction des hutres perlires aux les ,tuamotu4 ,bulletin de la ,socit d',acclimatation1 ,,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #cda-cdb4 ,paris1 #ahgd4 ,,markham 7,,clements ,,roberts7 ,tinnevelly ,pearl ,banks4 8,intelligent ,observer10 ,,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #dah-dbf4 ,london1 ,january1 #ahfd4 ,also in 8,electric ,magazine10 ,,vol4 ,,cxi1 pp4 #dif-eja4 ,london1 ,april1 #ahfd4 ,the ,tinnevelly ,pearl ,fishery4 ,journal of the ,society of ,arts1 ,,vol4 ,,xv1 pp4 #bef-bfb4 ,london1 ,march #a1 #ahfg4 ,,martens 7,,georg ,,von7 ,purpur und ,perlen4 ,berlin1 #ahgd4 #hvo4 ,,maunder 7,,samuel7 ,the ,treasury of ,natural ,history4 ,london1 #ahgh4 #abmo4 ,,meckel ,,von ,,hemsbach 7,,johann ,,heinrich7 ,mikrogeologie4 ,ueber die ,concremente im thierischen ,organismus4 ,nach des ,verfassers ,tode herausgegeben und bevorwortet von ,t4 ,billroth4 ,berlin1 #ahef4 #hvo4 ,m,,ry 7,m47 ,remarques faites sur la ,moule des ,estangs4 ,histoires de l',acadmie ,royale des ,sciences1 ,november #bb1 #agaj1 pp4 #djh-dbf4 ,paris1 #agcb4 #dto4 ,,mexia 7,,pedro7 ,,and ,,sansovino 7,m4 ,,francesco7 ,treasurie of ,auncient and ,moderne ,times4 #b vols4 ,london1 #afai4 ,fol4 ,,middendorf 7,,alexander ,,von7 ,reise in den ussersten ,norden und ,osten ,siberiens whrend der ,jahre #ahdc und #ahdd1 ,,vol4 ,,ii1 ,zoologie4 ,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahea4 #dto4 ,,milburn 7,,william7 ,oriental ,commerce2 ,containing a ,geographical ,description of the ,principal ,places in the ,east ,indies1 ,china and ,japan1 with ,their ,produce4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahac4 #dto4 ,,mitsukuri 7,k47 ,the ,cultivation of ,marine and ,fresh-water ,animals in ,japan4 ,bulletin of the ,bureau of ,fisheries for #ahhd1 ,,vol4 ,,xxiv1 pp4 #beg-bhi4 ,washington1 #aije4 ,m,,bius 7,,karl7 ,die echten ,perlen4 ,ein ,beitrag zur ,luxus-1 ,handels- und ,naturgeschichte derselben4 ,hamburg1 #aheh4 #dto4 ,,monardes 7,,nicolas7 ,delle cose che vengono portate dall' ,indie ,occidentali1 pertinenti all' uso della medicina4 ,venetia1 #aege4 #abmo4 ,,moquin-,,tandon 7,m47 ,,and ,,cloquet 7,j4 ,s47 ,sur la production artificielle des perles1 rapport fait la ,socit d',acclimatation1 #aheh4 ,journal de ,conchyliologie1 ,,vol4 ,x1 pp4 #hg-hh4 ,paris1 #aheh4 ,,moresby 7,,john7 ,new ,guinea and ,polynesia4 ,discoveries and ,surveys in ,new ,guinea and the ,d',entrecasteaux ,islands3 a ,cruise in ,polynesia and ,visits to the ,pearl-shelling ,stations in ,torres ,straits1 of ,h4 ,m4 ,s4 ,basilisk4 ,london1 #ahgf4 #hvo4 ,,morier 7,,james ,p47 ,a ,journey ,through ,persia1 ,armenia1 and ,asia ,minor1 to ,constantinople1 in the ,years #ahjh and #ahji4 ,london1 #ahab4 #hvo4 ,,moynier ,,de ,,villepoix 7,r47 ,recherches sur la formation et l'accroissement de la coquille des mollusques4 ,journal de l',anatomie et de la ,physiologie1 ,,vol4 ,,xxviii1 pp4 #dfa-eah4 ,paris1 #ahib4 ,m,,ller 7,,felix7 ber die ,schalenbildung bei ,lamellibranchiaten4 ,schneider's ,zoologische ,beitrge1 ,,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bjf-bdf4 ,breslau1 #ahhe4 ,,naldi 7,,pio7 ,delle ,gemme1 e delle regole per valutarle4 #b vols4 ,bologna1 #agia4 #hvo4 ,,nathusius-,k,,nigsborn 7,w4 ,,von7 ber die ,gestaltungsursachen der ,haare1 der ,eischalen1 der ,molluskenschalen und der ,harting'schen ,krperchen4 ,archiv fr ,entwickelungsmechanik der ,organismen1 ,,vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #cfe-cic4 ,leipzig1 #ahih4 ,,nichols 7,,thomas7 ,a ,lapidary2 or1 the ,history of ,pretious ,stones2 with ,cautions for the ,undeceiving of all those that deal with ,pretious ,stones4 ,cambridge1 ,england1 #afeb4 #dto4 ,,niebuhr 7,,carsten7 ,beschreibung von ,arabien4 ,kopenhagen1 #aggb4 #dto4 ,,nilsson 7,,sven7 ,historia molluscorum ,sveciae terrestrium et fluviatilium breviter delineata4 ,lund1 #ahbb4 #hvo4 ,,nisbet 7,,john7 ,burma under ,english ,rule and ,before4 #b vols4 ,westminster1 #aija4 #hvo4 ,,nitsche 7,,hinrich7 ,see- und ,ssswasser-,perlen4 ,internationale ,fischerei-,ausstellung zu ,berlin1 #ahhj1 pp4 #hc-ie4 ,berlin1 #ahha4 #hvo4 ,die ,ssswasserperlen auf der internationalen ,fischerei-,ausstellung zu ,berlin1 #ahhj4 ,nachrichtsblatt der ,deutschen ,malakozoologischen ,gesellschaft1 pp4 #di-fd4 ,frankfurt1 #ahhb4 ,,no 7,,louis ,,pantal,,on ,,jude ,,am,d,e ,,de71 ,count ,mmoires relatifs l'expedition anglaise partie du ,bengale en #ahjj pour aller combattre en gypte l'arme d',orient4 ,paris1 #ahbf4 #hvo4 ,,nu,,ez ,,cabeca ,,de ,,vaca 7,,alvar7 ,la relacion que dio ,alvar ,nunez ,cabeca de ,vaca de lo acaescido enlas ,indias enla armada donde yua por gouernador ,paphilo de ,narbaez4 ,valladolid1 #aedb4 #dto4 ,see ,,smith 7,,buckingham74 ,,olaus 7,,magnus7 ,historia de ,gentium ,septentrionalium variis conditionibus4 ,basile1 #aefg4 ,fol4 ,,osborn 7,,henry ,,leslie7 ,observations on the ,parasitism of ,anodonta plana1 etc4 ,zoological ,bulletin1 pp4 #cja-caj4 ,new ,york1 #ahih4 ,,ott 7,e4 ,c47 ,the ,oriental ,pearl4 8,macmillan's ,magazine10 ,,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #bbi-bcg4 ,london1 ,july1 #ahfa4 ,,ouseley 7,,william71 ,sir ,travels in ,various ,countries of the ,east2 ,more ,particularly ,persia1 etc4 #c vols4 ,london1 #ahai-bc4 #dto4 ,,oviedo ,y ,,valdes 7,,gonzalo ,,fernandez ,,de7 ,historia natural y general de las ,indias4 ,toledo1 #aebf4 ,fol4 ,,pagenstecher 7,,hermann ,,alexander7 ,trematodenlarven und ,trematoden4 ,helminthologischer ,beitrag4 ,heidelberg1 #aheg4 ,fol4 ,ueber ,perlenbildung4 ,siebold und ,klliker ,zeitschrift fr wissenschaftliche ,zoologie1 ,,vol4 ,,ix1 pp4 #dif-eje4 ,leipzig1 #aheh4 ,also in ,verhandlungen des ,naturhistorisch-medicinischen ,vereins1 pp4 #aeg-aeh4 ,heidelberg1 #ahei4 ,,palgrave 7,,william ,,gifford7 ,narrative of a ,year's ,journey ,through ,central and ,eastern ,arabia 7#ahfb-fc74 ,london1 #ahfe4 #hvo4 ,,panciroli 7,,guido7 ,rerum memorabilium jam olim deperditarum4 ,amberg1 #aeii4 #hvo4 ,,parazzoli 7,a47 ,la ,pesca nel ,mar ,rosso4 ,bollettino della ,societ di ,esplorazioni commerciali di ,africa1 pp4 #agg-aij4 ,milano1 ,june1 #ahih4 ,,penfield 7,,frederic ,,courtland7 ,the ,lure of the ,pearl4 8,the ,century ,magazine10 ,,vol4 ,,lxxiii1 pp4 #fa-gg4 ,new ,york1 ,november1 #aijf4 ,,pennant 7,,thomas7 ,british ,zoology4 #d vols4 ,london1 #agfh-gj4 #hvo4 ,a ,tour in ,scotland in #agfi4 ,chester1 #agga4 #hvo4 ,,percival 7,,robert7 ,an ,account of the ,island of ,ceylon4 ,london1 #ahjc4 #dto4 ,,perez ,y ,,hernandez 7,,jos ,,maria7 ,estadistica de la ,republica ,mejicana4 ,guadalajara1 #ahfb4 #dto4 ,,perle ,,et ,,algiofar ,tesoro delle ,gioie ,tratto ,curioso1 444 come ,perle1 ,gemme1 ,auori1 ,unicorni1 ,bezzari1 ,cocco1 ,malacca1 ,balsami1 ,contraherba1 ,muschio1 ,ambra1 ,zelieto4 ,padoua1 #afcj4 #abmo4 ,,perrier 7,,edmond7 ,,and ,,falco 7,,alphonse7 ,rapports du ,jury ,international4 ,classe #ec4--;,engins1 instruments et produits de la pche4--,aquiculture4 ,paris1 ,imprimerie ,nationale1 #aija4 ,fol4 ,,petau ,observations sur les moules d'tang dans lesquelles on a trouv des ,perles4 ,mmoire de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 pp4 #bc-bd4 ,paris1 #agfi4 ,,pfeiffer 7,,ida ,,laura7 ,eine ,frauenfahrt um die ,welt4 #c vols4 ,wien1 #ahej4 #hvo4 ,,pfizmaier 7,,august7 ,beitrge zur ,geschichte der ,perlen4 ,sitzungsberichte der philosophisch-historischen ,klasse der kaiserlichen ,akademie der ,wissenschaften1 ,,vol4 ,,lvii1 pp4 #fag-fed4 ,wien1 #ahfh4 ,,philostratus ,philostratorum qu supersunt omnia 444 accessere ,apollonii ,tyanensis ,epistol1 ,eusebii liber adversus ,hieroclem1 ,callistrati descript4 ,lipsi1 #agji4 ,fol4 ,,plat 7,,hugh71 ,sir ,the ,jewel ,house of ,art and ,nature4444 ,whereunto is added a rare and excellent ,discourse of ,minerals1 ,stones1 ,gums1 and ,resins4 ,london1 #afec4 #dto4 ,,plinius ,,secundus 7,,caius7 ,c4 ,plinii ,naturalis ,historia4 ,d4 ,detlefsen recensuit4 #f vols4 ,berolini1 #ahff-hb4 #hvo4 ,the ,historie of the ,world1 ,commonly called the ,naturall ,historie of ,c4 ,plinius ,secundus4 ,translated into ,english by ,philemon ,holland1 ,doctor of ,physick4 #b vols4 ,london1 #afja4 ,fol4 ,,polo 7,,marco7 ,la ,description gographique des provinces et villes plus fameuses de l',inde ,orientale4 ,paris1 #aeef4 #dto4 ,the ,book of ,ser ,marco ,polo1 the ,venetian1 concerning the kingdoms and marvels of the ,east4 ,newly translated and edited1 with notes1 by ,h4 ,yule4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahga4 #hvo4 ,,porter 7,,robert ,,ker71 ,sir ,travels in ,georgia1 ,persia1 ,armenia1 ,ancient ,babylonia1 444 during the ,years #ahag1 #ahah1 #ahai and #ahbj4 ,london1 #ahba-bb4 #dto4 ,,pouget 7,,jean ,,henri ,,prosper7 ,trait des ,pierres prcieuses1 et de la manire de les employer en parure4 #b vols4 ,paris1 #agfb4 #dto4 ,,pratt 7,,charles ,,stuart7 ,pearls and ,mother-of-pearl4 8,popular ,science ,monthly10 ,,vol4 ,,xlix1 pp4 #cij-cih4 ,new ,york1 ,july1 #ahif4 ,,pridham 7,,charles7 ,an ,historical1 ,political and ,statistical ,account of ,ceylon and its ,dependencies4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahdi4 #hvo4 ,,procopius 7,,of ,c,,sarea7 ,the ,history of the ,warres of the ,emperor ,justinian 444 ,written in ,greek by ,procopius 444 and ,englished by ,h4 ,holcroft1 ,knight4 ,london1 #afec4 ,fol4 ,,pujol 7,t4 ,f47 ,estudio ,biolgico sobre la ostra ,avicula margaritiferus4 ,boletin de la ,sociedad ,mexicana de ,geografa y ,estadstica1 ,,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #aci-aej4 ,mexico1 #ahei4 ,,pulteney 7,,richard7 ,a ,general ,view of the ,writings of ,linnus4 ,second edition4 ,london1 #ahje4 #dto4 ,,putnam 7,f4 ,w47 ,notes on ,fierasfer dubius from ,panama ,pearl-oysters4 ,proceedings of the ,boston ,society of ,natural ,history1 ,,vol4 ,,xvi1 pp4 #cdc-cdf4 ,boston1 #ahgd4 ,,puton 7,,ernest7 ,mollusques terrestres et fluviales des ,vosges3 ,le ,dpartement des ,vosges1 statistique1 historique1 et administrative1 par ,henri ,lepaye et ,ch4 ,charton4 #b vols4 ,nancy1 #ahde4 #hvo4 ,,queensland ,,report ,departmental ,commission on ,pearl-shell and ,bche-de-mer ,fisheries4 ,report1 ,together ,with the ,minutes of ,evidence and ,proceedings of the ,commission ,appointed to ,inquire into the ,general ,working of the ,laws ,regulating the ,pearl-shell and ,bche-de-mer ,fisheries of the ,colony4 ,brisbane1 #ahig4 ,fol4 ,,qui,,vreux 7,h471 ,consul de ,france ,la pche des perles au ,venezuela4 ,revue ,maritime1 ,,vol4 ,,cxlvi1 pp4 #ddd-ddh4 ,paris1 ,august1 #aijj4 ,,raineri 7,,antonio7 ,fior di pensieri sulle ,pietre ,preziose di ,ahmad ,teifascite4 ,firenze1 #ahah4 #hvo4 ,,rau 7,,sebold ,,fulco ,,jan7 ,specimen ,arabicum1 continens descriptionem et excerpta libri ,achmedis ,teifaschii 8,de ,gemmis et ,lapidibus ,pretiosis40 ,trajecti ad ,rhenum1 #aghd4 #dto4 ,r,,aumur 7,,ren ,,antoine ,,ferchault ,,de7 ,sur la ,matire qui colore les ,perles fausses1 et sur quelques autres ,matires animales d'une semblable couleur2 l'occasion de quoi on essaye d'expliquer la formation des ,ecailles des ,poissons4 ,histoire de l',acadmie ,royale des ,sciences1 #agaf1 pp4 #bbi-bdd4 ,paris1 #agaf4 ,observations sur le coquillage appell ,pinne marine ou ,nacre de perle1 l'occasion dequel on explique la formation des perles4 ,mmoires de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 pp4 #agg-aid4 ,paris1 #agag4 ,betrachtungen von der ,seemuschel 7,pinna marina71 oder ,perlmutter genannt4 ,knigliche ,akademie der ,wissenschaften in ,paris4 ,breslau1 #agec4 #hvo4 ,,redding 7,,robert71 ,sir ,structure1 ,color1 etc41 of ,irish pearls4 ,philosophical ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,london1 ,,vol4 ,,xviii1 p4 #fei1 ,october #ac1 #afhh4 ,a ,letter ,concerning ,pearl-fishing in the ,north of ,ireland4 ,philosophical ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,london1 ,,vol4 ,,xviii1 pp4 #fei-ffc4 ,london1 #afic4 ,,reinaud 7,,joseph ,,touissaint7 ,fragments ,arabes et ,persans indits relatifs l',inde antrieurment au xie sicle de l're chrtienne4 ,paris1 #ahde4 #hvo4 ,mmoire gographique1 historique et scientifique sur l',inde antrieurement au milieu du xie sicle de l're chrtienne d'aprs les crivains arabes1 persans et chinois4 ,paris1 #ahdi4 #dto4 ,,renaudot1 ,abb ,ancient ,accounts of ,india and ,china by two ,mohammedan ,travellers4 ,london1 #agcc4 #hvo4 ,,ribeiro 7,,jo,o71 ,capitano ,histoire de l',isle de ,ceylon 444 traduite du ,portugais par ,monsr4 l',abb ,le ,grand4 ,amsterdam1 #agja4 #abmo4 ,history of ,ceylon4 ,ceylon1 #ahdg4 #hvo4 ,,rondeletius 7,,gulielmus7 ,univers ,aquitilium ,histori ,pars ,altera4 ,lugduni1 #aeed4 ,fol4 ,,rosenberg 7,h4 ,,von7 ,perlenfischerei auf den ,aru-,inseln4 ,nachrichtsblatt der ,deutschen ,malakozoologischen ,gesellschaft1 pp4 #bi-dj4 ,frankfurt1 #ahhd4 ,,rosnel 7,,pierre ,,de7 ,le ,mercure ,indien1 ou le ,trsor des ,indes 444 ,seconde partie1 dans laquelle est traitt des pierres prciouses et des perles1 444 avec un traitt sommaire des autres pierres moins prcieuses4 ,paris1 #afgb4 #dto4 ,,rothschild 7,m4 ,d47 ,a ,hand-book of ,precious ,stones4 ,new ,york and ,london1 #ahij4 #abmo4 ,,rougemont 7,,louis ,,de7 ,the ,adventures of ,louis de ,rougemont1 as ,told by ,himself4 ,philadelphia1 #aijj4 #hvo4 ,,rueus 7,,franciscus7 ,de ,gemmis aliquot1 iis praesertim quarum divus ,joannes ,apostolus in sua ,apocalypsi meminit4 ,parisiis1 #aedg4 #hvo4 ,,rumph 7,,georg ,,everhard7 ,thesaurus imaginum piscium1 testaceorum1 ut et cochlearum1 accedunt conchylia1 conch univalvi et bivalvi denique mineralia4 ,lugduni ,batavarum1 #agaa4 ,fol4 ,,ruschenberger 7,,william ,s4 ,w47 ,a ,voyage ,round the ,world2 ,including an ,embassy to ,muscat and ,siam4 ,philadelphia1 #ahch4 #hvo4 ,,rzaczynski 7,,gabriel7 ,historia naturalis regni ,poloni1 ,magni ,ducatus ,lituani1 annexarumque provinciarum4 ,sandomiri1 #agba4 #dto4 ,,saint ,,laurent 7,,joannon ,,de7 ,description abrge du fameux ,cabinet de ,m4 le ,chevalier de ,baillou1 pour servir l'histoire naturelle des pierres prcieuses1 mtaux1 minraux1 et autres fossiles4 ,luques1 #agdf4 #dto4 ,,sandius 7,,christopher7 ,on the ,origin of ,pearls4 ,philosophical ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,london1 #afgd4 ,no4 #aja1 p4 #aa4 ,london1 #afgd4 ,,sanger 7,j4 ,p471 ,general ,census of the ,philippine ,islands1 ,taken ,under the ,direction of the ,philippine ,commission in #aijc1 ,,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #ecc-ecf4 ,washington1 #aije4 ,,schmid 7,,joachimus7 ,de ,margaritis4 ,witteberg1 #affg4 #hvo4 ,,scholtz 7,h47 ,schlesien's ,land- und ,ssswasser-,mollusken systematisch geordnet und beschrieben4 ,breslau1 #ahdc4 #hvo4 ,,seeman 7,,barthold7 ,narrative of the ,voyage of ,h4 ,m4 ,s4 ,herald1 ,during the ,years #ahde-ea1 ,under the ,command of ,capt4 ,henry ,kellet4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahec4 #hvo4 ,,septala 7,,ludovico7 ,ludovici ,septalii de ,margaritis nuper ad nos allatis1 judicium1 etc4 ,mediolani1 #afah4 #dto4 ,,servantus 7,,clavius7 ,de piscatura margaritarum4 ,miscellanea ,curiosa ,medico-physica1 p4 #dag4 ,francofurti1 #afhd4 ,,seurat 7,l4 ,g47 ,l',hutre ,perlire3 ,nacre et ,perles4 ,paris 7#aijj74 #abmo4 ,observations sur l'volution de l',hutre perlire des ,tuamotu et des ,gambier4 ,rikitea1 #aijd4 #hvo4 ,the ,pearl-forming ,properties of the ,parasite ,tylocephalum margaritifer4 ,comptes ,rendus de l',acadmie des ,sciences4 ,paris1 ,march #bf1 #aijf4 ,le ,nacre et la ,perle en ,ocanie4 ,pche1 origine et mode de formation des ,perles4 ,bulletin du ,muse ,ocangraphique de ,monaco1 ,,no4 ,,lxxv1 ,may #bj1 #aijf4 ,monaco1 #aijf4 #hvo4 ,,shipley 7,,arthur ,e47 ,pearls and ,parasites4 8,the ,quarterly ,review10 ,,vol4 ,,ccii1 pp4 #dhe-dif4 ,london1 #aije4 ,,shipley 7,,arthur ,e47 ,,and ,,hornell 7,,james7 ,the ,parasites of the ,pearl-oyster4 ,supplementary ,report1 ,herdman's ,pearl ,oyster ,fisheries of the ,gulf of ,manaar1 ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,london1 #aijd4 ,further ,report on ,parasites ,found in ,connection with the ,pearl-oyster ,fishery at ,ceylon4 ,herdman's ,report on the ,pearl ,oyster ,fisheries of the ,gulf of ,manaar1 ,,part ,,iii1 pp4 #di-ef4 ,london1 #aije4 #dto4 ,,shipp 7,,barnard7 ,history of ,hernando de ,soto and ,florida4 ,philadelphia1 #ahha4 #hvo4 ,,siebold 7,,carl ,,theodor ,,ernst ,,von7 ,ueber die ,perlenbildung chinesischer ,ssswasser-muscheln1 als ,zusatz zu dem vorhergehenden ,aufsatze4 ,siebold und ,klliker1 ,zeitschrift fr wissenschaftliche ,zoologie1 ,,vol4 ,,viii1 pp4 #dde-ded4 ,leipzig1 #aheg4 ,die ,ssswasserfische von ,mitteleuropa4 ,zeitschrift fr die gesammten ,naturwissenschaften1 ,,vol4 ,,xxii1 pp4 #dfh-dgg4 ,halle1 #ahfc4 ,,simmonds 7,,peter ,,lund7 ,on the ,pearl1 ,coral1 and ,amber ,fisheries4 ,journal of the ,society of ,arts1 ,,vol4 ,,xviii1 pp4 #agc-bjj4 ,london1 #ahgj4 ,the ,commercial ,products of the ,sea2 or1 ,marine ,contributions to ,food1 ,industry and ,art4 ,london1 #ahgi4 #hvo4 ,,simmonds 7,,vane7 ,fresh-water ,pearls4 ,charles ,city1 ,iowa1 #ahii4 #hvo4 ,,simpson 7,,charles ,,torrey7 ,the ,classification and ,geographical ,distribution of the ,pearly ,fresh-water ,mussels4 ,proceedings of the ,u4 ,s4 ,national ,museum1 ,,vol4 ,,xviii1 pp4 #bie-cdc4 ,washington1 #ahif4 ,the ,pearly ,fresh-water ,mussels of the ,united ,states2 ,their ,habits1 ,enemies1 and ,diseases1 with ,suggestions for ,their ,protection4 ,bulletin ,u4 ,s4 ,fish ,commission1 ,,vol4 ,,xviii1 pp4 #bgi-bhh4 ,washington1 #ahii4 ,synopsis of the ,naiades1 or ,pearly ,fresh-water ,mussels4 ,proceedings of the ,u4 ,s4 ,national ,museum1 ,,vol4 ,,xxii1 pp4 #eja-ajdd4 ,washington1 #aijj4 ,,smith 7,,buckingham7 ,narratives of the ,career of ,hernando de ,soto in the ,conquest of ,florida1 as ,told by a ,knight of ,elvas and in ,relation by ,luys ,hernandez de ,biedma1 ,factor of the ,expedition4 ,translated by ,buckingham ,smith4 ,new ,york1 ,bradford ,club1 #ahff4 #hvo4 ,,smith 7,,hugh ,,mccormick7 ,the ,mussel ,fishery and ,pearl-button ,industry of the ,mississippi ,river4 ,bulletin ,u4 ,s4 ,fish ,commission1 ,,vol4 ,,xviii1 pp4 #bhi-cad4 ,washington1 #ahii4 ,,smith 7,,sidney7 ,large ,pearl in ,unio margaritiferus4 8,the ,naturalist10 p4 #acc4 ,london1 #ahff4 ,,somerset 7,,somers7 ,the ,pearl ,fishery of ,ceylon4 8,the ,nineteenth ,century10 ,,vol4 ,,ccclxiii1 pp4 #hdc-hea4 ,london1 ,may1 #aijg4 ,,soto 7,,ferdinando ,,de7 ,the ,discovery and ,conquest of ,terra ,florida by ,don4 ,ferdinando de ,soto and ,six ,hundred ,spaniards his ,followers4 ,written by a ,gentleman of ,elvas4 ,london1 ,hakluyt ,society1 #ahea4 #hvo4 ,,soubeyran 7,j4 ,l,,on7 ,,and ,,delondre 7,,aug47 ,de la pcherie d',hutres perlires de ,tinnevelly et de la culture artificielle des ,hutres perlires de la mme localit4 ,bulletin de la ,socit d',acclimatation1 ,,vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #cih-dae4 ,paris1 #ahfg4 ,,sour,,ndro ,,mohun ,,tagore ,mani-ml1 or a ,treatise on ,gems4 #b vols4 ,calcutta1 #ahha4 #hvo4 ,,sprat 7,,thomas7 ,the ,history of the ,royal ,society of ,london for the ,improvement of ,natural ,knowledge4 ,london1 #affg4 #dto4 ,,squier 7,,ephraim ,,george7 ,observations on the ,aboriginal ,monuments of the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,transactions of the ,american ,ethnological ,association1 ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,new ,york1 #ahdg4 ,nicaragua3 its people1 scenery1 monuments1 etc4 #b vols4 ,new ,york1 #aheb4 #hvo4 ,,squier 7,e4 ,g47 ,,and ,,davis 7,e4 ,h47 ,ancient ,monuments of the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,smithsonian ,contributions to ,knowledge1 ,,vol4 ,i4 ,washington1 #ahdh4 #dto4 ,,stearns 7,,robert ,,edward ,,carter7 ,on ,certain ,parasites1 ,commensals1 and ,domiciliares in the ,pearl-oysters1 ,meleagrin4 ,report of the ,smithsonian ,institution for #ahhf1 pp4 #cci-cdd4 ,washington1 #ahhg4 ,,steuart 7,,james7 ,an ,account of the ,pearl ,fisheries of ,ceylon1 with an ,appendix4 ,ceylon1 #ahdc4 #dto4 ,notes on ,ceylon4444 ,to ,which are ,added ,some ,observations 444 on the ,pearl ,fishery4 ,london1 #ahfb4 #hvo4 ,,streeter 7,,edwin ,,william7 ,precious ,stones and ,gems1 ,their ,history and ,distinguishing ,characteristics4 ,london1 #ahgg4 #hvo4 ,pearls and ,pearling ,life4 ,london1 #ahff1 #hvo1 pp4 xvi1 #cbi4 ,,sweet 7,,frank ,h47 ,pearl ,seeking4 8,lippincott's ,magazine10 ,,vol4 ,,lxi1 pp4 #cge-cgh4 ,philadelphia1 ,march1 #ahih4 ,t4 7,w47 ,experiments on the ,growth of ,pearls1 with observations on their structure and color4 ,edinburgh ,philosophical ,journal1 ,,vol4 ,,xi1 pp4 #ci-de1 ,july1 #ahbd4 ,,tassin 7,,wirt7 ,descriptive ,catalogue of the ,collections of ,gems in the ,united ,states ,national ,museum4 ,report of the ,u4 ,s4 ,national ,museum for #aijj1 pp4 #dgc-fgj4 ,washington1 #aijb4 ,,taunton 7,,henry7 ,australind3 ,wanderings in ,western ,australia and the ,malay ,east4 ,london1 #aijc4 #hvo4 ,,tavernier 7,,jean ,,baptiste7 ,les ,six ,voyages de ,j4 ,b4 ,tavernier en ,turquie1 en ,perse et aux ,indes4 ,paris1 #afgf4 #dto4 ,travels in ,india1 #afdj-affg4444 ,translated from the original ,french edition of #afgf1 with a biographical sketch 444 by ,v4 ,ball4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahhi4 #hvo4 ,,taylor 7,w4 ,h47 ,taylor's ,submarine ,pearl ,fishing ,company4 ,new ,york1 #ahdh4 #hvo4 ,,teixeira 7,,pedro7 ,the ,travels of ,pedro ,teixeira2 with his 8,kings of ,hormuz0 7#afjh7 and ,extracts from his 8,kings of ,persia40 ,london1 ,hakluyt ,society1 #aijb4 #hvo4 ,,tenebre 7,,jehan7 ,la pche des perles4 ,a ,travers le ,monde1 pp4 #bcb-bcd4 ,paris1 #aije4 ,,tennent 7,,james ,,emerson71 ,sir ,ceylon3 an ,account of the ,island4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahei4 #hvo4 ,,theophrastus ,theophrastus's ,history of ,stones1 ,with the ,greek ,text and an ,english ,version1 and ,notes ,critical and ,philosophical1 ,including the ,modern ,history of ,gems1 ,described by that ,author1 by ,john ,hill4 ,london1 #agdf4 #hvo4 ,theophrastus von den ,steinen1 aus dem ,griechischen4 7,by ,a4 ,h4 ,baumgrtner47 ,nurnberg1 #aggj4 #hvo4 ,,thomas 7,,henry ,,sullivan7 ,a ,report on ,pearl ,fisheries and ,chank ,fisheries of ,tuticorin1 #ahhd4 ,madras1 #ahhd4 ,fol4 ,the ,pearl-oyster of the ,gulf of ,manaar4 ,madras ,journal of ,literature and ,science1 pp4 #hi-aae4 ,madras1 #ahhg4 ,,thompson 7,,lindsay ,g47 ,history of the ,fisheries of ,new ,south ,wales2 with a ,sketch of the ,laws by ,which ,they ,have ,been ,regulated4 ,sydney1 #ahic4 #hvo4 ,,thurm 7,,everard ,,im7 ,sketch of the ,ceylon ,pearl ,fishery of #aijc4 ,spolia ,zeylonica1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ef-fe4 ,colombo1 #aijd4 ,,thurston 7,,edgar7 ,notes on the ,pearl and ,chank ,fisheries and ,marine ,fauna of the ,gulf of ,manaar4 ,madras1 #ahij4 #hvo4 ,pearl and ,chank ,fisheries of the ,gulf of ,manaar4 ,madras ,government ,museum1 ,bulletin ,,no4 ,i1 ,madras1 #ahid4 #hvo4 ,,tiffany ,,co4 ,collection of ,pearls and the ,shells in ,which ,they ,are ,found in the ,brooks1 ,rivers1 ,lakes and on the ,coasts of the ,united ,states4 ,u4 ,s4 ,section ,palais des forts1 chasse et pche4 ,expositione ,universelle1 ,paris1 #aijj4 ,new ,york1 #aijj4 #hvo4 ,,tollius 7,,adrianus7 ,gemmarium et ,lapidum ,historia4 ,recensuit 444 ,adrianus ,tollius4 ,lugduni ,batavorum1 #afcf4 #hvo4 ,,tollius 7,,jacobus7 ,epistol itinerari1 ex auctoris schedis postumis recensit1 supplet et digest2 annotationibus et figuris adornat1 cura et studio4 ,amsteldami1 #agjj4 #dto4 ,,townsend 7,,charles ,,haskins7 ,report ,upon the ,pearl ,fishery of the ,gulf of ,california4 ,bulletin ,u4 ,s4 ,fish ,commission1 ,,vol4 ,,ix1 pp4 #ia-id4 ,washington1 #ahia4 ,,tullberg 7,,tycho7 ,studien ber den ,bau und das ,wachsthum des ,hummerpanzers und der ,molluskenschalen4 ,kongliga ,svenska ,vetenskaps-,akademiens ,handlingar1 ,,vol4 ,,xix1 ,no4 #c1 pp4 #a-eg4 ,stockholm1 #ahhb4 ,,twynam 7,,william ,c47 ,report on the ,pearl ,fishery of #ahgg4 ,sessional ,papers4 ,colombo1 #ahgg4 ,fol4 ,report on the ,pearl ,fishery of #ahgi4 ,sessional ,papers4 ,colombo1 #ahgi4 ,fol4 ,report on the ,pearl ,fishery of #ahhj4 ,sessional ,papers4 ,colombo1 #ahhj4 ,fol4 ,report on the ,pearl ,fishery of #ahha4 ,sessional ,papers4 ,colombo1 #ahha4 ,fol4 ,report on the ,pearl ,fishery held at ,marichchikkaddi during #ahij4 ,sessional ,papers4 ,colombo1 #ahij4 ,fol4 ,report on the ,pearl ,fishery of #ahia4 ,sessional ,papers4 ,colombo1 #ahia4 ,fol4 ,report on the ,ceylon ,pearl ,fisheries4 ,sessional ,papers4 ,ceylon1 #ahii4 ,fol4 ,report on the ,ceylon ,pearl ,fisheries4 ,sessional ,papers4 ,colombo1 #aijj4 ,fol4 ,,twynam 7,,william ,c47 ,,and ,,donnan 7,,james7 ,reports by the ,superintendent of the ,fishery and the ,inspector of the ,pearl ,banks1 #ahhg4 ,sessional ,papers4 ,colombo1 #ahhg4 ,fol4 ,,ulloa 7,,antonio ,,de71 ,admiral ,relacin histrica del viage la ,amrica meridional4 #e vols4 ,madrid1 #agdh4 #dto4 ,,ungewitter 7,,friedrich ,h47 ,geschichte des ,handels1 der ,industrie und ,schifffahrt von den ltesten ,zeiten an bis auf die ,gegenwart4 ,leipzig und ,meissen 7#ahdd74 #hvo4 ,,vane 7,,george7 ,ceylon ,pearl ,fisheries4 ,report to ,governor ,sir ,henry ,ward1 ,february #bh1 #ahfc4 ,ceylon1 #ahfc4 ,the ,pearl ,fisheries of ,ceylon4 ,journal of the ,ceylon ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,,vol4 ,x1 ,no4 #cd1 pp4 #ad-cb4 ,colombo1 #ahhh4 ,,vasco ,,da ,,gama ,the ,three ,voyages of ,vasco da ,gama4 ,london1 ,hakluyt ,society1 #ahfi4 #hvo4 ,,vaughan 7,,rice7 ,a ,discourse of ,coin and ,coinage 444 as also ,tables of the ,value of ,all ,sorts of ,pearls1 ,diamonds1 ,gold1 ,silver1 and ,other ,metals4 ,london1 #afge4 #abmo4 ,,vega 7,,garcilasso ,,de ,,la7 ,historia de la ,florida4 #d vols4 ,madrid1 #ahjc4 #bdmo4 ,,venegas 7,,miguel7 ,a ,natural and ,civil ,history of ,california ,containing an ,accurate ,description of ,that ,country4 #b vols4 ,london1 #agei4 #hvo4 ,,venette 7,,nicholas7 ,trait des ,pierres qui s'engendrent dans les terres et dans les animaux1 o l'on parle des causes qui les forment dans les hommes4 ,amsterdam1 #agja4 #abmo4 ,,vere 7,,schele ,,de7 ,jewels of the ,deep3 ,pearls4 8,putnam's ,magazine10 ,,vol4 ,,xi1 pp4 #bgh-bhh4 ,new ,york1 ,march1 #ahfh4 ,,vernatti 7,,philiberto71 ,sir ,pearl-divers in the ,east ,indies1 ,their ,time ,under ,water4 ,philosophical ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,london1 for #affi1 ,no4 #dc1 p4 #hfc4 ,,villa 7,,antonio7 ,sull' origine delle perle e sulla possibilita di produrle artificialmente4 ,atti del ,ateneo ,milano1 ,,vol4 ,,xv1 #ahei-fj4 pp4 #afe-agc4 ,il ,politecnico1 ,,vol4 ,,viii1 pp4 #efh-ehd4 ,milano1 #ahfj4 ,des ,perles2 de leur origine et de leur production artificielle4 ,traduit de l',italien par ,timothe ,coutet4 ,paris1 #ahfc4 #abmo4 ,,vincent 7,,william7 ,the ,commerce and ,navigation of the ,ancients in the ,indian ,ocean4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahjg4 #dto4 ,w4 7,s47 ,recollections of ,ceylon3 its ,forests and its ,pearl ,fishery4 8,fraser's ,magazine10 ,,vol4 ,,lxii1 pp4 #gec-gfg4 ,london1 ,december1 #ahfj4 ,,washburn 7,,howard ,e47 ,american ,pearls4 ,ann ,arbor1 ,mich41 #hvo1 #dh pages1 paper1 #e plates4 ,,watkins 7,m4 ,g47 ,scotch ,pearls and ,pearl ,hunting4 8,gentleman's ,magazine10 ,,vol4 ,,cclxxx1 pp4 #fbf-fbi4 ,london1 ,june1 #ahif4 ,,watts 7,,mrs4 ,,philip7 ,a ,visit to the ,ceylon ,pearl ,fisheries4 8,the ,graphic10 ,,vol4 ,,lxxi1 pp4 #ehc-eig4 ,london1 ,may #bj1 #aije4 ,,weber 7,m47 ,om ,perler og ,perlefiskerierne4 ,norske ,fiskeritidende1 pp4 #beb-bfc4 ,bergen1 ,october1 #ahhf4 #hvo4 ,a translation in ,english by ,herman ,jacobson is given in ,bulletin ,u4 ,s4 ,fish ,commission1 ,,vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #cba-cbh4 ,washington1 #ahhf4 ,,wellsted 7,,james ,,raymond7 ,travels in ,arabia4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahch4 #hvo4 ,travels to the ,city of the ,caliphs ,along the ,shores of the ,persian ,gulf and the ,mediterranean4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahdj4 #hvo4 ,,westerlund 7,,carl ,,agardh7 ,fauna ,molluscorum terrestrium et fluriatilium ,sveci1 ,norvegi et ,dani4 #b vols4 ,stockholm1 #ahga-gc4 #hvo4 ,,westropp 7,,hodder ,m47 ,a ,manual of ,precious ,stones and ,antique ,gems4 ,london1 #ahgd4 #hvo4 ,,whigham 7,h4 ,j47 ,the ,persian ,problem4 ,london1 #aijc4 #hvo4 ,,whitmarsh 7,,hubert ,,phelps7 ,fishing for ,pearls in ,australia4 8,the ,century ,magazine10 ,,vol4 ,,xxi1 pp4 #ije-iaa4 ,new ,york1 ,april1 #ahib4 ,pearl-diving and ,its ,perils4 8,the ,cosmopolitan10 ,,vol4 ,,xviii1 pp4 #efd-egb4 ,new ,york1 ,march1 #ahie4 ,the ,world's ,rough ,hand3 ,toil and ,adventure at the ,antipodes4 ,new ,york1 #ahii4 #abmo4 ,working ,under ,water3 the ,story of an ,amateur ,pearl ,fisher4 8,the ,outlook10 ,,vol4 ,,lxi1 pp4 #abd-abi4 ,new ,york1 ,january #ad1 #ahii4 ,,williams 7,,charles7 ,silvershell2 or the ,adventures of an ,oyster4 ,london1 #ahef4 #hvo4 ,,wilson 7,d471 ,colonel ,pearl ,fisheries in the ,persian ,gulf4 ,journal of the ,royal ,geographic ,society of ,london1 ,,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #bhc-bhf4 ,london1 #ahcd4 ,,wohlberedt 7,o47 ,nachtrag zur ,molluskenfauna des ,knigreiches ,sachsen4 ,nachrichtsblatt der deutschen ,malakozoologischen ,gesellschaft1 pp4 #ig-ajd4 ,frankfurt1 #ahii4 ,,wolf 7,,johann ,,christoph7 ,reise nach ,zeilan4 ,nebst einem ,berichte von der hollndischen ,regierung zu ,jaffanapatnam4 #b vols4 ,berlin und ,stettin1 #aghb-hd4 #hvo4 ,,woodward 7,,henry7 ,parasitical ,animals in ,meleagrina margaritifera of ,australia4 ,proceedings of the ,zoological ,society of ,london1 #ahhf1 pp4 #agf-agg4 ,,zimmern 7,,helen7 ,stories in ,precious ,stones4 ,london1 #ahgc4 #hvo4 ,,zwemer 7,s4 ,m47 ,arabia3 the ,cradle of ,islam4 ,new ,york1 #aijj4 #hvo4 ,,index ,,index ,abalone pearls1 #ee1 #gh1 #adh1 #bhj1 #bia1 #cea1 #dad ,abbas the ,great1 #dee ,abdul-,aziz1 #dba ,aberdeenshire1 ,scotland1 #afd1 #aff ,aboriginal use of pearls1 #dhe-eac ,abortive ova theory1 #db ,abraham and ,sarah1 #g ,accidents to divers1 #aag1 #ach1 #add1 #aig1 #bjc1 #bjh1 #bdg1 #bdi ,acid stains1 #cgf ,acosta1 ,jos de1 #bcb ,aden1 ,arabia1 #cg1 #adb ,aden1 ,gulf of1 #hj1 #adj ,adirondack1 ,new ,york1 #bff ,adour ,river1 ,france1 #aga ,adrian1 ,pope1 #cac ,africa1 #fe1 #adj1 #aec-aef ,age of mollusks1 #gd1 #ajh1 #aga ,ago ,bay1 ,japan1 #bib ,aitken1 ,e4 ,h41 #acc ,alabama1 #dib1 #dic ,alasmodon arcuata1 #gc margaritifera1 #bha ,albertus ,magnus1 #caa ,alexander the ,great1 #cai ,alexander ,,vi1 #bd ,alexander ,severus1 #aj ,alexandra1 ,queen1 #afe1 #dah 7plate71 #dch ,alexandria1 #cbj ,alexandria shell1 #fi ,alfonso ,x1 #caa ,alfred the ,great1 #dad ,algonquin ,indians1 #dhf ,america1 #bbe-bhb1 #bid ,america1 ,prehistoric1 #bc1 #dhe-eab ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 #bff1 #dfg ,amsterdam1 ,diamond ,merchants of1 #cbe ,anania of ,shiraz1 #cbi ,ancients1 ,pearls among the1 #c-ab ,anglesey1 ,marquis of1 #dgi ,angoulme1 ,duchess of1 #agj ,anhalt ,dessau1 ,duchess of1 #dgf ,anjou1 ,duke of1 #dbe ,annan ,river1 ,scotland1 #afd ,anne de ,bretagne1 #dcf ,anne de ,france1 ,duchess1 #dce ,anodonta cygnea1 #db1 #afh ,antwerp1 ,chamber of ,commerce of1 #cbg ,apparatus of capture1 #aff1 #aha1 #bfh-bgj4 ,see ,dredges1 ,scaphanders4 ,apple ,river1 ,wisconsin1 #bfb ,aqualia jewels1 #dgi ,aqua perlata1 #caa ,archangel1 ,russia1 #aha1 #ahd ,areca-nut1 #caj ,arethusa necklace1 #dje ,aristotle1 #ie ,arizona1 #eaj ,arkansas1 #bei1 #bfc1 #bfd1 #bgj1 #bgf1 #cfa ,arkansas ,river1 #bfc1 #bfd ,arlington1 ,tenn41 #bfc ,arnobio1 ,cleandro1 #cdd ,arnold1 ,sir ,edwin1 #da1 #he ,arthurian legends1 #cjd ,artificial pearls1 #da1 #bhe-bic ,aru ,islands1 #bjf1 #bbj ,ashburnham missal1 #ag ,assyria1 ,pearls in1 #f1 #djd ,atax ypsilophorus1 #dc ,atharvaveda1 #d1 #cja ,athens ,national ,museum1 #dje ,atwater1 ,caleb1 #ejj ,auction of oysters1 #abj ,auction of pearls1 #dgj-dgb1 #dgg-dha ,augsburg1 ,germany1 #cbj ,australia1 #cj1 #eh1 #fe1 #fh1 #aii-bab1 #bia1 #bid1 #dff ,austria1 ,fisheries of1 #agh-agi ,austrian ,schatzkammer1 #dgb-dgd ,awabi4 ,see ,abalone4 ,aztecs1 ,pearls among the1 #bc ,bacon1 ,francis1 #cac ,baden1 ,germany1 #agg ,baegert1 ,jacob1 #bdd ,bagdad1 #hh1 #ih1 #cce1 #daa ,bagge1 ,j4 ,p41 #bhg ,bahama ,islands1 #bgh ,bahrein ,islands1 #he1 #hh-ij ,balapur1 ,india1 #acc ,baldknob1 ,arkansas1 #bgf ,banda1 #bba ,banks1 ,edgar ,j41 #e ,bann ,river1 ,ireland1 #afe ,bantam ,lake1 ,conn41 #bff ,bapst pearls1 #dfe ,barbot1 ,charles1 #ccg1 #cij ,baroda1 ,gaikwar of1 #dfj ,baroque pearls1 #cj1 #ca1 #ei1 #bfe1 #bgb1 #cec1 #cei1 #dfd1 #dge1 #dgf ,baroque pearls1 ,values of1 #ccg1 #cdj1 #cdc1 #cee ,barthema1 ,lodovico1 #hf ,base value for pearls1 #ccj-ccc ,basilica of ,st4 ,mark1 #ag1 #ei ,bassein ,coast1 ,india1 #aci ,bath1 ,marquis of1 #cee ,batthyani1 ,count ,louis1 #dfg ---- ,countess ,louis1 #dcd ,bavaria1 #aga-agc1 #bid ,bazaruto ,islands1 #aec1 #aef ,beads1 #djc1 #dig1 #dih1 #ejh ,beckmann1 ,johann1 #bhg ,bede1 #afj ,bell1 ,robert ,n41 #dib ,benjamin of ,tudela1 #cg1 #hf ,benzoni1 ,girolamo1 #bca ,berri1 ,duc de1 #dbf ,beuth-,schinkel ,museum1 ,charlottenburg1 #dba ,bibliothque ,nationale1 ,paris1 #djg1 #dbe1 #dbh1 #dcf ,biedma1 ,louis ,hernandez de1 #bec1 #beg ,bird's-eye pearls1 #ef1 #cec ,birdwood1 ,sir ,george1 #cai ,birmingham1 ,jewelers' and ,goldsmiths' ,association of1 #cbg ,blackmore1 ,h4 ,p41 #dij ,blackmore ,museum1 #dij1 #ejj ,black pearls1 #bi1 #fj1 #bda1 #cdi1 #cee1 #cgf1 #dfg1 #dgf ,black ,river1 ,arkansas1 #bfd1 #bgc ,black ,rock1 ,arkansas1 #bfd1 #bgf ,bleaching pearls1 #cgg1 #cif ,blister pearls1 #eh1 #cec ,blue-point shell1 #gb ,boats1 #ia1 #aab1 #acf1 #ada1 #aff1 #bje1 #bah1 #bcd ,bober ,river1 ,germany1 #age ,bohemia1 ,austria1 #agh ,bohemian pearls1 #dcc1 #dcd ,bolchow1 ,h4 ,w4 ,f41 #dgh ,bolivia1 #eaa ,bologna treatise of1 #agia1 #cca1 #cch1 #cdb1 #cdc ,bombay1 #hh1 #hi1 #ih1 #aef1 #cdg1 #ced1 #ceg ,bombay ,presidency1 #acb ,bombay shell1 #fi1 #adc ,boncza1 ,mlle4 ,wanda de1 #dgi ,boot1 ,anselmus de1 #dj1 #caa1 #cca1 #cch1 #cdc1 #chb1 #dee ,bordeaux1 ,austin de1 #dei ,borneo1 #bba1 #big ,boston ,museum of ,fine ,arts1 #aa1 #ab1 #cjg ,bouchon-,brandely1 ,g41 #aic1 #aie1 #bij ,bourbon1 ,duchess of1 #cdh ,bouton1 ,louis1 #bia ,bouton pearls1 #ef1 #eg1 #ceb4 ,see ,button pearls ,bracelets1 #dgd ,brazil1 #bhb ,breeding pearls1 #bif-bih ,bremond1 ,gabriele1 #daa ,brhatsamhita of ,varhamihira1 #ccd ,bridal presents1 ,pearls as1 #agj ,brinton1 ,d4 ,g41 #did ,bristow1 ,samuel ,g41 #did ,british ,honduras1 #eaa ,british ,isles1 #aa1 #aei-afh ,british ,museum1 #aa1 #bj1 #fg1 #dje1 #dad1 #eaj ,brooch1 #dga ,broome1 ,australia1 #bje ,brown1 ,barnum1 #eaa ,browning1 ,robert1 #cjc ,bruce1 ,robert1 #dah ,brunswick1 ,duke of1 #cdi1 #cii ,brydges1 ,sir ,harford ,jones1 #dei ,bubics1 ,bishop1 #dha ,buckhorn shell1 #gc ,buckingham1 ,duke of1 #bd ,buckland1 ,f4 ,t41 #afe ,budapest ,national ,museum1 #dce ,buddha images1 #bhh-bhi ,buddhabhaa1 #caj1 #cce1 #cgh ,bud1 ,guillaume1 #cdh ,bulawayo1 ,south 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,venezuela1 #bcd ,cassis madagascarensis1 #cea1 #ced ,castellani1 ,alexandro1 #ahe ,castellani1 ,augusto1 #dfh ,catharine de' ,medici1 #bd1 #dce1 #dec ,catharine of ,russia1 #ahd ,cavvadias1 ,m4 ,p41 #dje ,ceram1 #bba ,ceylon1 #d1 #bi1 #ca1 #de1 #fj1 #ha1 #hg1 #ii-abh1 #bic1 #cdc-cdg1 #chc ,ceylon ,company of ,pearl ,fishers1 #aaj1 #abe1 #abg ,chank1 #gh ,chardin1 ,jean1 #id ,charente ,river1 ,france1 #aga ,charlemagne1 #af1 #dgb1 #dge ,charles ,i of ,england1 #dca1 #def ,charles ,,ii of ,spain1 #deb ,charles ,,iv1 ,crown of1 #daf ,charles ,v1 ,buckle of1 #bd ,charles ,,vi of ,france1 #cac ,charles the ,bold1 #ba ,charles the ,bold's jewel1 #dej ,charlotte1 ,queen1 #bi ,chauveton1 ,urbain1 #ch1 #bcb ,che-kiang1 ,china1 #bhh ,chesapeake ,bay1 #bfg ,chicago1 ,ill41 #bge1 #dii1 #ejj ,chicot1 #eh1 #cec ,chillicothe1 ,ohio1 #dia1 #ejj1 #ejf ,china1 #d1 #e1 #ai1 #ade-adf1 #bhe1 #bhh1 #cjb1 #dac ,chinese pearl ornaments1 #dac ,christ1 #g1 #cjd ,christie's ,auction ,house1 #dgg-dha 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,pedro1 #dj1 #ajc1 #bdb ,temple of ,talomeco1 #bed1 #deb ,tennessee1 #bfb1 #bfc1 #bgf1 #did ,tennessee ,river1 #bfc1 #did ,tennyson1 ,alfred1 #cje ,terron1 ,juan1 #bee ,texas1 #bfa1 #bfb ,theft of pearls1 #aah1 #abc1 #baj1 #bcb ,theodora1 ,mosaic of1 #ae ,theophrastus1 #h1 #dje ,thiers necklace1 #cih1 #dfe ,three-ridge shells1 #gb ,thursday ,island1 #bje1 #bjg ,thurston1 ,edgar1 #aca ,tiana1 ,captain1 #baf ,tiaras1 #ddc ,tiffany ,co41 #cid ,tiffany1 ,charles ,l41 #bfj1 #bgf1 #cej ,tiffany ,queen ,pearl1 #bfj1 #dfe ,tomaco1 #bce ,tonti1 #eje ,top-shaped pearls1 #ceb ,torres ,straits1 #aii1 #bja1 #baj1 #baa ,transylvania1 #dcb ,treves1 ,cathedral of1 #dbb ,tridacna gigas1 #ec1 #gf1 #add1 #bif ,triptych1 #dcc ,tritigonia verrucosa1 #gc ,troiza ,monastery1 ,moscow1 #dbd ,tuamotu ,islands1 #bi1 #ahi1 #aij1 #aif1 #aih1 #bid ,turbinella rapa1 #gh ,turbo marmoratus1 #aci ,turner group of mounds1 #dij1 #dii ,turtleback pearls1 #ef1 #cec1 #cfj ,tuticorin1 ,india1 #abh1 #acj ,twynam1 ,sir ,william1 #aag ,tyszkiewicz statuette1 #ab ,uelzen1 ,germany1 #agf ,uffizi1 ,florence1 #ab1 #djg1 #dcf ,uhler1 ,p4 ,r41 #dhi ,ulloa1 ,antonio de1 #bch ,ulmann1 ,h41 #eab ,ungava1 ,canada1 #bha ,unio complanata1 #gc1 #bfe dahuricus1 #ge1 #adf littoralis1 #eaa margaritifera1 #eac mongolicus1 #ge1 #adf sinuatus1 #agj verreauxi1 #eac virginianus1 #did ,unionid1 #gb1 #cea ,unios1 #ei1 #gb-gd1 #bei1 #bfa1 #bfh1 #bgb1 #bij1 #bia1 #bid ,united ,states1 #beb-bgh1 #bia ,united ,states ,national ,museum1 #bij1 #did ,university of ,moscow1 #ei ,unripe pearls1 #fa ,urim and ,thummim1 #dab ,uzaramo1 ,africa1 #aed ,vaca1 ,cabeza de1 #bef ,values of pearls1 #bgc1 #bgd1 #bge1 #bgi1 #bha1 #bhb1 #cbi-cdi1 #cej1 #cfa1 #dgj1 #dgd method of computing1 #cca-cce1 #cdf-cdh ,van ,buren pearls1 #dfd ,van ,dort1 ,k41 #adi ,vatican1 #djg ,vaughan1 ,rice1 #cch ,vedas1 #c1 #d1 #cja ,veerapandianpatanam1 #acj ,vega1 ,garcilasso de la1 #bec1 #bed1 #deb ,venezuela1 #bc1 #ca1 #ch1 #gj1 #bbe-bce1 #ced1 #deg ,venice1 #bd1 #be-bg1 #cbj1 #cdh ,venus1 #cjf1 #dfg ,venus de ,medici1 #djg ,venus de ,milo1 #djh ,venus ,genetrix1 #aei1 #djg ,venus mercenaria1 #gg1 #dhh ,venus of the ,pantheon1 #djg1 #ddi ,venus1 ,statues of1 #aj1 #aa ,venus1 ,temple of1 #i ,vermont1 #bfb ,vernatti1 ,sir ,philiberto1 #id ,verrazano1 ,juan1 #bef ,victor ,emanuel ,,ii1 #dfh ,victoria1 ,association of ,manufacturing ,jewelers of the ,colony of1 #cbg ,victoria crown1 #dag ,victoria1 ,princess1 #dch ,victoria1 ,queen1 #afc1 #afg1 #dbe ,vienna1 #cie1 #dgb ,vilshofen1 ,finland1 #bij ,vils ,river1 ,bavaria1 #aga ,vincennes1 ,indiana1 #bgf ,vinegar1 #cae ,virgin pearls1 #cjh ,virginia1 #dhf1 #dhh1 #dhi ,vitellius1 #aj ,vladimir crown1 #dag ,vogtland1 ,saxony1 #agc ,volga ,river1 ,russia1 #aha ,vologne ,river1 ,france1 #afi1 #agj ,von ,middendorf1 #ahd ,vosges mountains1 #afi ,wabash ,river1 #bfd1 #bfe ,waddesden collection1 #ei ,wahibis of ,pirate ,coast1 #hi ,waistcoat buttons1 #ddc ,waizkirchen1 #agi ,waldheim1 ,g4 ,fischer de1 #dfa ,walk1 ,how ,unios1 #gd ,walpole1 ,horace1 #ded ,walters1 ,henry1 #cid ,washington1 ,george1 #dch ,washington1 ,state of1 #bfb ,water-telescopes1 #ada1 #aid1 #bfh1 #bgh ,waynesville1 ,ohio1 #bfa ,webster1 ,john1 #cjg ,wedding gifts of pearls1 #dgf ,weighing pearls1 #cba-cbi1 #cdf ,weights of pearls1 #ef1 #bea1 #cbg1 #ccj1 #dha1 #dhb ,welker1 ,landreth1 #agg ,wellsted1 ,j4 ,r41 #hh1 #ic1 #adb ,wenkheim1 ,countess1 #dcd ,west ,indies1 #bgh ,westminster ,abbey1 #ded ,white ,cart ,river1 ,scotland1 #afa ,white ,main ,river1 ,germany1 #agf ,white ,river1 ,arkansas1 #bfc1 #bfd ,whitfield1 ,r4 ,p41 #eab ,whittier1 ,j4 ,g41 #beb ,wijayo1 ,king1 #d ,willoughby1 ,charles ,c41 #dhf1 #dhh ,window-glass shell1 #gf4 ,see ,placuna4 ,wing pearls1 #ceb1 #cei ,wire threads for pearls1 #chh ,wisconsin1 #bfb1 #bgf ,wohlberedt1 ,o41 #agc ,women as fishermen1 #adi1 #aee1 #ahi1 #bfd ,wordsworth1 ,wm41 #cje ,world's ,columbian ,exposition1 #dij1 #ejj1 #eja ,worms1 ,parasitical1 #dc-de ,wottawa ,river1 ,austria1 #agh1 #agi ,wright1 ,marie ,robinson1 #eaa ,wyman1 ,jeffries1 #dic ,wynne1 ,sir ,richard1 #afa ,xavier1 ,st4 ,francis1 #aca ,x-ray examination1 #ga ,yaqui ,indians1 ,mexico1 #bdb1 #bdc1 #bdf ,yellow pearls1 #ig1 #ih1 #bab1 #cea1 #ced1 #cgg1 #dfh ,youssoupoff1 ,princess1 #dfa1 #dfb ,ythan ,river1 ,scotland1 #afd ,yucatan1 #eaa ,yu ,shun ,yang1 #bij ,zanzibar1 #aef ,zonaras1 #dej ,zozima pearl1 #dfa1 #dfb ,zwemer1 ,s4 ,m41 #ce ----- ,footnote #a3 ,see pp4 #cja1 #cjb4 ,footnote #b3 ,see ,jacobi1 8,das ,ramayana10 ,bonn1 #ahic4 ,footnote #c3 ,geiger1 8,dipavansa und ,mahavansa1 die beiden ,chroniken der ,insel ,ceylon10 ,erlangen1 #aija4 ,footnote #d3 ,legge1 8,the ,shu ,king10 ,oxford1 #ahgi1 pp4 #fg1 #fi4 ,footnote #e3 ,see p4 #djd4 ,footnote #f3 ,rawlinson1 8,cuneiform ,inscriptions of ,babylonia and ,assyria10 ,london1 #ahej1 p4 #ch4 ,footnote #g3 ,gen4 ,r4 xl4 #f4 ,this story also exists somewhat altered in ,arabic literature2 see ,weill's 8,biblical ,legends of the ,mussulmans10 ,new ,york1 #ahdf4 ,footnote #h3 ,sale1 8,preliminary ,discourse to the ,quran10 ,london1 #ahhb1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #aec-aei4 ,footnote #i3 ,lib4 ,,xxiii1 c4 #f4 ,footnote #aj3 8,plinian ,exercitationes in ,solinum10 #afbi1 pp4 #hbb-d4 ,footnote #aa3 8,historia naturalis10 ,lib4 ,,ix1 c4 #ei4 ,footnote #ab3 ,ibid41 ,lib4 ,,xxxvii1 c4 #b4 ,footnote #ac3 ,ibid41 ,lib4 ,,ix1 c4 #ec4 ,footnote #ad3 ,ibid41 ,lib4 ,,xxxiii1 c4 #c4 ,also ,bttiger1 8,sabina oder ,morgenscenen10 ,leipzig1 #ahjc1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aeh4 ,footnote #ae3 ,martial1 8,epigrammata10 ,,viii1 #ha4 ,footnote #af3 ,seneca1 8,de beneficiis10 ,lib4 ,,vii1 c4 #i4 ,footnote #ag3 ,pliny1 8,historia naturalis10 ,lib4 ,,ix1 c4 #ce4 ,footnote #ah3 ,equivalent to #a1hge1jjj ounces of silver1 worth about #a1cjj1jjj at the present time1 but of far greater value in ,roman days4 ,footnote #ai3 8,divus ,julius ,csar10 c4 #ej4 ,footnote #bj3 8,dictionnaire des ,antiquits ,grecques et ,romaines10 ,paris1 #aijd1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #aeie-f4 ,footnote #ba3 ,see p4 #ddi4 ,footnote #bb3 ,froehner1 8,la ,collection ,tyszkiewicz10 ,munich1 #ahib4 ,footnote #bc3 ,see p4 #dae4 ,footnote #bd3 ,renaudot1 8,ancient ,accounts of ,india and ,china by ,two ,mohammedan ,travelers10 ,london1 #agcc1 p4 #ih4 ,footnote #be3 8,the ,book of ,ser ,marco ,polo10 ,london1 #ahga1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bge4 ,footnote #bf3 ,analogous to the uniform ,european word for this gem1 is the extension of the ,sanskrit form1 mukta1 from ,persia to the ,sulu ,islands4 ,in ,tamil1 the word for pearl is mootthoo2 in ,hindustani1 it is mootie2 in ,cingalese1 mootoo2 and in ,malay1 mutya or mootara4 7,ainslie1 8,materia ,indica10 ,london1 #ahbf1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bib-big47 ,footnote #bg3 ,gollancz1 8,pearl1 an ,english ,poem of the ,fourteenth ,century10 ,london1 #ahia4 ,footnote #bh3 ,sachs1 8,kaiserchronik10 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #bfa4 ,footnote #bi3 ,staudenraus1 8,chronik der ,stadt ,landshut10 #ahcb1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #agb4 ,footnote #cj3 ,jones1 8,history and ,mystery of ,precious ,stones10 ,london1 #ahhj1 p4 #ace4 ,footnote #ca3 ,humboldt1 8,personal ,narrative of ,travels to the ,new ,continent10 ,london1 #ahbb1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bgc4 ,footnote #cb3 ,see p4 #dgc4 ,footnote #cc3 ,yriarte1 8,autour des ,borgia10 ,paris1 #ahia1 pp4 #acf1 #acg4 ,footnote #cd3 ,see ,yriarte1 8,venice10 ,paris1 #ahgh1 p4 #bcf4 ,footnote #ce3 ,ibid41 pp4 #beb1 #bec4 ,footnote #cf3 ,guidius1 8,de ,mineralibus10 ,frankfort1 #afbg1 p4 #gd4 ,footnote #cg3 ,ibid41 p4 #gc4 ,footnote #ch3 ,ibid41 pp4 #ge-gg4 ,footnote #ci3 ,croker1 8,lord ,hervey's ,memoirs10 ,london1 #ahdh1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #hh1 #hi4 ,footnote #dj3 8,the ,naturall ,historie of ,c4 ,plinius ,secundus10 ,london1 #afja1 ,book ,,ix1 ch4 #ce4 ,footnote #da3 8,travels of ,rabbi ,benjamin of ,tudela10 ,gerrans's edition1 ,london1 #aghc1 p4 #bc4 ,footnote #db3 8,camden ,britannia10 #b;d edition1 ,london1 #agbb1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #hja4 ,footnote #dc3 ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ajjc4 ,footnote #dd3 ,richard ,eden edition1 ,london1 #aegg1 #ajth ch4 of #crd ,decade1 fol4 #adh;a4 ,footnote #de3 ,hawkins1 8,voyage to the ,south ,sea in #aeic10 ,london1 #ahdg1 p4 #acc4 ,footnote #df3 ,benzoni1 8,nov ,novi ,orbis ,histori10 ,geneva1 #aegh1 pp4 #afa-afc4 ,footnote #dg3 8,philosophical ,transactions10 #afgd1 ,no4 #aja1 p4 #aa4 ,footnote #dh3 ,goldsmith1 8,history of the ,earth and ,animated ,nature10 #aggd1 ,vol4 ,,vi1 p4 #ed4 ,footnote #di3 ,rondelet1 8,univers ,aquitilium ,histori ,pars ,altera10 ,lugduni1 #aeed4 ,footnote #ej3 8,gemmarum et ,lapidum ,historia10 ,hanovi1 #afji4 ,footnote #ea3 8,the ,travels of ,pedro ,teixeira10 ,hakluyt ,society1 p4 #ahj4 ,footnote #eb3 8,memoires de l',acadmie des ,sciences10 #agag1 pp4 #agg-aid4 ,footnote #ec3 ,grill1 in 8,abhandlungen der ,kniglichen ,schwed4 ,akademie der ,wissenschaften10 ,vol4 ,,xxxiv1 p4 #hh1 #aggb4 ,footnote #ed3 8,philosophical ,transactions10 #ahbf1 ,pt4 ,,iii1 pp4 #cch-cda4 ,footnote #ee3 8,sull'origine delle ,perle4 ,,ii ,cimento1 revista di ,scienze10 ,torino1 #aheb1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #dbi-dci4 ,footnote #ef3 8,memorie della ,reale ,academia delle ,scienze di ,torino10 #ahee1 ,vol4 ,,xv1 pp4 #cca-ceh2 #aheg1 ,vol4 ,,xvi1 pp4 #dai-ddb1 and #ahei1 ,vol4 ,,xviii1 pp4 #bja-bcb4 ,footnote #eg3 ,mller's 8,archiv fr ,anatomie10 #ahef1 pp4 #bfi-bha4 ,footnote #eh3 8,die echten ,perlen10 ,hamburg1 #aheh4 ,dr4 ,mbius died in ,berlin1 on ,april #bf1 #aijh4 ,he was born at ,eilenburg1 in ,saxony1 in #ahbe4 ,footnote #ei3 8,report on the ,natural ,history of the ,pearl ,oyster of ,ceylon10 ,trincomali1 #ahei4 ,footnote #fj3 8,journal of the ,linnean ,society10 ,vol4 ,,xi1 pp4 #dbf-dbh4 ,footnote #fa3 8,socit de ,biologie1 ,sance du #bi dcembre1 #aijc40 ,footnote #fb3 8,comptes ,rendus de l',acadmie des ,sciences10 ,vol4 #acc1 pp4 #fjc-fje1 ,oct4 #ad1 #aija4 ,footnote #fc3 8,proceedings of the ,zological ,society of ,london10 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #adj-aff4 ,footnote #fd3 8,proceedings of the ,zological ,society of ,london10 #aijb1 pp4 #adh-aej4 ,footnote #fe3 8,comptes ,rendus de l',acadmie des ,sciences10 ,paris1 #aijc1 ,vol4 ,,cxxxvii1 pp4 #faa-fac4 ,footnote #ff3 ,seurat1 8,observation sur l'volution de l',huitre perlire des ,tuamotu et des ,gambier10 #aijd4 ,footnote #fg3 8,pearl ,oyster ,fisheries of the ,gulf of ,manaar10 ,london1 #aijc1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aa4 ,footnote #fh3 ,hornell1 8,report on the ,placuna placenta ,pearl ,fishery of ,lake ,tampalakamam10 ,colombo1 #aijf4 ,footnote #fi3 8,pearl ,oyster ,fisheries of the ,gulf of ,manaar10 ,london1 #aijc1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aj4 ,footnote #gj3 ,harley1 8,proceedings of the ,royal ,society10 ,vol4 ,,xliii1 p4 #dfa4 ,footnote #ga3 8,die ,perlenmuscheln10 ,leipzig1 #ahei1 pp4 #bid1 #bie4 ,footnote #gb3 ,harley1 8,proceedings of the ,royal ,society of ,london10 ,vol4 ,,xlv1 p4 #fab4 ,footnote #gc3 8,historia ,naturalis10 ,lib4 ,,ix1 c4 #ce4 ,this is also referred to by ,macrobius in ,saturnaliorum conviviorum ,lib4 ,,ii1 c4 #ac4 ,footnote #gd3 ,now in the ,french crown brooch in the possession of the ,princess ,youssoupoff of ,russia4 ,footnote #ge3 ,see p4 #dfe4 ,footnote #gf3 ,taunton1 8,australind10 ,london1 #aijc1 p4 #bbd4 ,footnote #gg3 8,tavernier's ,travels10 ,london1 #ahhi1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #aae4 ,see p4 #ig4 ,footnote #gh3 ,see 8,report of the ,royal ,society10 ,oct4 #ac1 #afhh4 ,footnote #gi3 ,neither is there any special significance in the popular terms 8clams10 8mussels10 etc41 as applied to the pearl-bearing species of the rivers4 ,the 8clams10 or ,unios of the ,mississippi ,valley1 resemble neither the long clams 7,mya7 nor the round clams 7,venus7 of the ,atlantic coast2 the mussels of the fresh-water lakes are quite distinct from the edible ones of brackish waters1 and the ,pinna oyster and the giant clam 7,tridacna7 have little resemblance to the mollusks with which these terminal names are commonly associated4 ,footnote #hj3 ,jameson1 8,on the identity and distribution of the mother-of-pearl oysters2 with a revision of the subgenus ,margaritifera40 ,proceedings of the ,zological ,society of ,london1 ,vol4 ,l1 #aija1 pp4 #cgb-cid4 ,footnote #ha3 ,vassel1 8,sur la ,pintadine du ,golfe de ,gabes1 ,comptes ,rendus ,assoc4 ,fran410 #ahif1 pp4 #deh-dff4 ,footnote #hb3 ,see 8,comptes ,rendus de l',acadmie des ,sciences10 ,paris1 #aijd1 ,vol4 ,,cxxxviii1 pp4 #cja1 #cjb4 ,footnote #hc3 ,see p4 #bhh4 ,footnote #hd3 ,garbe1 8,die ,indischen ,mineralien10 ,leipzig1 #ahhb4 ,footnote #he3 ,gray's ,elegy4 ,footnote #hf3 ,in #aije1 the ,ceylon pearl yield approximated #b1jjj1jjj in value4 ,footnote #hg3 ,including ,african coast4 ,footnote #hh3 ,including ,sharks ,bay4 ,footnote #hi3 ,oppert1 8,l',ambre jaune chez les ,assyriens40 ,footnote #ij3 ,holland's edition of #afja1 p4 #bed4 ,footnote #ia3 ,reinaud1 8,mmoire sur l',inde10 ,paris4 #ahdi ,footnote #ib3 8,travels of ,rabbi ,benjamin of ,tudela10 ,london1 #aghc4 ,footnote #ic3 ,lee1 8,ibn ,batuta10 #ahbi1 p4 #fe4 ,footnote #id3 8,the ,travels of ,lodovico di ,barthema1 #aejc to #aejh10 ,london1 #ahfc1 p4 #ie4 ,footnote #ie3 8,discours of ,voyages into ye ,easte and ,west ,indies10 ,london1 #aeih1 folio1 ch4 #hd4 ,footnote #if3 ,see p4 #deg1 for ,tavernier's description of this gem4 ,footnote #ig3 ,tavernier1 8,travels in ,india10 ,london1 #ahhi1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ajh4 ,footnote #ih3 ,wellsted1 8,travels in ,arabia10 ,london1 #ahch1 ,vol4 ,i1 ch4 #ag1 pp4 #bfd1 #bfe4 ,footnote #ii3 ,in report to the ,government of ,bombay1 dated ,december #ae1 #ahfe4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,schlagintweit1 8,nachrichtsblatt der deutschen ,gesellschaft10 ,frankfurt-am-,main1 #ahhc1 pp4 #aec-aef4 ,footnote #aja3 ,malcolm1 8,sketches of ,persia10 ,london1 #ahbg1 p4 #bg4 ,footnote #ajb3 8,personal ,narrative of ,journey through ,arabia10 ,london1 #ahfe1 p4 #ajj4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,lord ,curzon reports #dejj boats1 and some other authorities state #ejjj1 but this probably includes a number of tenders4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,for this and some other data on the pearling fleet of ,bahrein we are indebted to the kindness of ,dr4 ,s4 ,m4 ,zwemer1 who has spent many years at the ,bahrein ,islands as a missionary4 ,footnote #aje3 8,reports by the ,superintendent of the ,fishery and the ,inspector of the ,pearl ,banks10 ,colombo1 #ahhg4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,wellsted1 8,travels in ,arabia10 ,london1 #ahch1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bff4 ,footnote #ajg3 8,histoire de l',isle de ,ceylon10 ,amsterdam1 #agja1 ch4 #bb1 p4 #afi4 ,footnote #ajh3 8,an ,account of the ,island of ,ceylon10 ,london1 #ahjc1 ch4 #c1 p4 #ia4 ,footnote #aji3 8,asiatic ,researches10 ,london1 #agih1 ,vol4 ,v1 p4 #djb4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,chardin1 8,voyages en ,perse10 ,paris1 #ahaa1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #cfc4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,sprat1 8,history of the ,royal ,society10 ,london1 #affg1 p4 #afi4 ,footnote #aab3 ,philosophical ,transactions for #affi1 ,no4 #dc1 p4 #hfc4 ,footnote #aac3 ,diemerbroeck1 8,anatome ,corporis ,humani10 ,ultrajecti1 #afgb4 ,footnote #aad3 ,sixth ,american ,edition1 ,new ,york1 #ahce1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bci4 ,footnote #aae3 ,reinaud1 8,fragments ,arabes10 ,paris1 #ahde1 p4 #abf4 ,lee1 8,ibn ,batuta10 ,london1 #ahbi1 p4 #fe4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,a ,christian physician who lived in the time of the ,khalif ,wathek ,billa1 about #hdb ,a4,d4 ,footnote #aag3 8,specimen ,arabicum10 ,traiecti ad ,rhenum1 #aghd1 p4 #fd4 ,footnote #aah3 ,ibid41 p4 #fe4 ,footnote #aai3 ,writers describing the early pearl fisheries on the ,american coast1 and especially at ,cubagua on the present coast of ,venezuela1 also reported very lengthy stays4 ,in #aebf1 ,gonzalo ,fernandez de ,oviedo y ,valds wrote3 8,the thing that causeth men most to marvel is to consider how many of them can remain at the bottom for the space of one whole hour1 and some more or less1 according to expertness40 78,natural ,historia de las ,indias10 ,toledo1 #aebf47 ,about #aehh1 the ,jesuit priest ,jos de ,acosta wrote3 8,i did see them make their fishing1 the which is done with great charge and labor of the poor slaves1 which dive #f1 #g1 yea #ab fathoms into the sea4442 but yet the labor and toil is greatest in holding their breath1 sometimes a quarter1 yea1 half an hour together under water40 7,acosta1 8,natural and ,moral ,history of the ,indies10 ,hakluyt ,society1 #ahhj1 p4 #bbg47 ,footnote #abj3 ,tavernier1 8,travels in ,india10 ,ball edition1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #aad1 #aae4 ,footnote #aba3 ,london1 #ahab1 p4 #ee4 ,footnote #abb3 ,see infra41 p4 #abe4 ,footnote #abc3 8,the ,book of ,ser ,marco ,polo10 ,london1 #ahga1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bfg1 #bfh4 ,footnote #abd3 ,jordanus1 8,mirabilia ,descripta10 ,hakluyt ,society1 #ahfc1 p4 #bh4 ,footnote #abe3 8,the ,voyage of ,john ,huyghen van ,linschoten to the ,east ,indies10 ,hakluyt ,society1 #ahhd1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #acc-ace4 ,footnote #abf3 8,hakluyt's ,voyages10 ,vol4 ,v1 ,glasgow1 #aijd1 pp4 #cie-cig4 ,benjamin ,franklin states that the ,mediterranean divers1 finding the light below obscured by the surface waves1 used to let a little oil out of their mouths at intervals1 which1 rising to the surface1 smoothed the waters4 ,this might be a suggestion to modern marine and fresh-water pearl fishers4 ,footnote #abg3 8,the ,travels of ,pedro ,teixeira10 ,hakluyt ,society1 #aijb1 pp4 #agd-aha4 ,footnote #abh3 8,asiatic ,researches10 ,london1 #agih1 pp4 #cic1 et seq4 ,footnote #abi3 8,the ,island of ,ceylon10 #ahjc1 ch4 #c4 ,footnote #acj3 8,description of ,ceylon10 #ahjg1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cf-gh4 ,footnote #aca3 ,in #ahha1 the number of days was the same--#dg1 the season extending from ,march #d to ,april #bg4 ,in #ahia there were #dj working days1 in #aijd there were #cc1 in #aijc there were #cf1 and in #aijf there were #cf days of actual fishing4 ,footnote #acb3 ,see ,reinaud's 8,fragments ,arabes10 ,paris1 #ahde1 p4 #abe4 ,footnote #acc3 8,pearl ,oyster ,fisheries of the ,gulf of ,manaar10 #e vols41 ,london1 #aijc-aijf4 ,footnote #acd3 ,tavernier1 8,travels in ,india10 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ch4 #ba4 ,footnote #ace3 ,see pp4 #aaj1 #aaa4 ,footnote #acf3 ,the report of the ,chief of ,police at the #aije fishery states3 8,in the camp there were #dj1jjj to #ej1jjj persons1 of whom it may be said that not less than a tenth were gamblers1 vagrants1 and rogues1 who1 without occupation in their own country1 made their way to ,marichchukkadi with the hope of making money to gamble in oysters40 78,reports on the ,pearl ,fisheries for #aije10 ,colombo1 p4 #ag47 ,footnote #acg3 ,in #aijf there were #dgc boats employed2 in #aije1 #cah2 in #aheg1 #aheh1 #ahei1 and #ahfc1 over #djj boats reported for employment4 ,footnote #ach3 ,some years ago1 notably in the early sixties1 each and every boat was required to have ten divers1 thus making a total of #bc persons in each boat4 7,see ,vane's 8,report on ,ceylon ,pearl ,fisheries10 #ahfc47 ,footnote #aci3 ,supra41 p4 #ajj4 ,footnote #adj3 ,hornell1 8,reports on the ,pearl ,fisheries of #aijd10 ,colombo1 p4 #ca4 ,footnote #ada3 8,reports on the ,pearl ,fishery for #aijd10 p4 #g4 ,footnote #adb3 8,reports on the ,pearl ,fishery for #aije10 p4 #bc4 ,footnote #adc3 ,ibid41 p4 #bb4 ,footnote #add3 8,the ,book of ,ser ,marco ,polo10 ,london1 #ahga1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bfg4 ,footnote #ade3 ,cordiner1 8,description of ,ceylon10 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #eb4 ,footnote #adf3 8,reports on the ,pearl ,fisheries of #aijd10 p4 #ag4 ,footnote #adg3 ,ibid41 p4 #ag4 ,footnote #adh3 ,ibid41 p4 #cd4 ,footnote #adi3 8,royal ,asiatic ,society ,proceedings10 #ahhg-ahhh1 p4 #ajj4 ,footnote #aej3 8,reports on the ,pearl ,fisheries of #aije10 p4 #dj4 ,footnote #aea3 ,ibid41 p4 #bd4 ,footnote #aeb3 8,reports on the ,pearl ,fishery for #aijd10 ,colombo1 p4 #f4 ,footnote #aec3 8,colonial ,sessional ,papers10 #aijd1 ,colombo1 p4 #fec4 ,footnote #aed3 8,colonial ,sessional ,papers10 #aijf1 ,colombo1 p4 #ccj4 ,footnote #aee3 8,reports on the ,pearl ,fisheries for #aije10 ,colombo1 p4 #be4 ,footnote #aef3 ,ordinance ,no4 #h of #aijf4 ,footnote #aeg3 8,ceylon ,sessional ,papers10 #aijf1 p4 #cbh4 ,footnote #aeh3 ,ibid41 pp4 #ccc1 #cce4 ,footnote #aei3 8,ceylon ,sessional ,papers10 #aijf1 p4 #fej4 ,footnote #afj3 ,the ,government ,commission has interdicted the fishing for this year 7#aijh71 as experts have reported the pearl-oysters were not plentiful enough and were also immature1 being only five years old4 ,the next fishery will be in #aiji4 ,footnote #afa3 ,kelaart1 8,report on the ,tablegram ,pearl-,oysters10 ,trincomali1 #aheg1 #f pp4 ,footnote #afb3 ,hornell1 8,report on the ,placuna placenta ,pearl ,fishery of ,lake ,tampalakamam10 ,colombo1 #aijf4 ,footnote #afc3 ,jardine1 8,report ,relating to the ,mergui ,pearl ,fisheries10 ,rangoon1 #ahid1 p4 #f4 ,footnote #afd3 ,nisbet1 8,burma ,under ,british ,rule and ,before10 ,westminster1 #aija1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #cfb4 ,footnote #afe3 ,nisbet1 8,burma ,under ,british ,rule and ,before10 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #cfc4 ,footnote #aff3 ,see ,proverbs xxxi1 #a4 ,footnote #afg3 ,hesse1 8,der ,zoologische ,garten10 ,dec4 #a1 #ahih4 ,footnote #afh3 ,wellsted1 8,travels in ,arabia10 ,london1 #ahch1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bch4 ,footnote #afi3 ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bfh1 #bfi4 ,footnote #agj3 8,bolletino della ,societ d'esplorazione commerciale in ,africa10 ,milan1 ,june1 #ahih4 ,footnote #aga3 ,von ,hessling1 8,die ,perlenmuscheln10 ,leipzig1 #ahei1 p4 #f4 ,footnote #agb3 ,see p4 #bhh for an account of the methods4 ,footnote #agc3 ,statist4 8,beschreibung des chines4 ,reiches10 #ahdb1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #aa4 ,footnote #agd3 ,ranft1 8,vollstndige ,beschreibung des russischen ,reiches10 ,leipzig1 #agfg1 p4 #dae4 ,footnote #age3 ,witsen1 8,nord en ,oost ,tartarye10 #agje4 p4 #gfb4 ,footnote #agf3 ,tavernier1 8,travels in ,india10 ,ball edition1 ,london1 #ahhi1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #aac1 #aad4 ,footnote #agg3 ,one candareen equals #e4gb grains4 ,footnote #agh3 ,one koban equals #ff cents4 ,footnote #agi3 #dbjj4 ,footnote #ahj3 ,kaempfer1 8,history of ,japan10 #agbh1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #aaj1 #aaa4 ,footnote #aha3 ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aci4 ,footnote #ahb3 ,joao dos ,santos1 8,ethopia ,oriental10 ,lisbon1 #afji1 ,vol4 i1 c4 #bg4 ,footnote #ahc3 ,lisbon ,geographical ,society ,report1 ,january1 #aijc4 ,footnote #ahd3 8,britanniam petiisse spe margaritarum1 quarum amplitudinem conferentem1 interdum sua manu exegisse pondus40 8,divus ,julius ,caesar10 c4 #dg4 ,footnote #ahe3 8,naturall ,historie10 ,holland edition1 ,london1 #afja1 ,lib4 ,,ix1 c4 #ce4 ,footnote #ahf3 8,vita ,agricol10 c4 #ab4 ,footnote #ahg3 ,giles's edition1 ,london1 #ahdj1 p4 #f4 ,footnote #ahh3 ,joyce4 8,social ,history of ,ancient ,ireland40 ,new ,york4 #aijc4 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bbg4 ,footnote #ahi3 ,nicolai1 8,anglia ,sacra10 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bcf4 ,also 8,alberti ,magni ,opera ,omnia10 ed4 ,augusti ,borgnet1 ,paris4 #ahij1 ,vol4 ,v41 p4 #da4 ,footnote #aij3 8,histoire de l',orfvrerie-,joaillerie40 ,paris1 #ahej1 p4 #df4 ,de ,laborde1 8,emaux10 ,paris1 #aheb1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #dcg4 ,footnote #aia3 ,camden4 8,britannia40 #bnd edition1 ,london1 #agbb1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #hjb4 ,footnote #aib3 ,macpherson1 8,annals of ,commerce10 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #aca4 ,footnote #aic3 ,sibbald1 8,hist4 ,nat4 ,scotiae10 #afhd1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bg4 ,footnote #aid3 ,camden1 8,britannia10 ,london1 #afie1 p4 #ibd4 ,footnote #aie3 ,london1 #aggg1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #bd4 ,footnote #aif3 8,history of ,cumberland10 ,london1 #agid1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #egc4 ,footnote #aig3 ,joyce4 8,social ,history of ,ancient ,ireland10 ,new ,york1 #aijc1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bbg4 ,footnote #aih3 8,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,london1 for #afic10 ,vol4 ,,xviii1 ,no4 #aih1 pp4 #fei-ffc4 ,footnote #aii3 ,pennant1 8,tour in ,scotland10 ,chester1 #agga4 ,footnote #bjj3 ,london 8,times10 ,december #bd1 #ahfc4 ,footnote #bja3 ,hugh ,miller1 8,my ,schools and ,schoolmasters10 #aheb1 p4 #bja4 ,footnote #bjb3 ,puton1 8,mollusques terrestres et fluviales des ,vosges3 ,le ,dpartement des ,vosges1 statistique1 historique1 et administrative1 par ,henri ,lepaye et ,ch4 ,charton10 ,nancy1 #ahde1 #hvo1 #b vols41 ,vol4 ,i4 ,footnote #bjc3 ,godron1 8,les perles de la ,vologne1 et le ,chteau-sur-,perle40 8,mmoires de l',acadmie de ,stanislas1 #ahfi10 ,nancy1 #ahgj1 pp4 #aj-cj4 ,footnote #bjd3 ,volcyr1 8,cronicque abrge par petits vers huytains des ,empereurs1 ,roys1 et ,ducz d',austraisie10 etc41 ,paris1 #aecj4 ,footnote #bje3 ,reues1 8,de ,gemmis aliquot10 etc41 ,tiguri1 #aeff1 p4 #dg4 ,footnote #bjf3 ,claude de la ,ruelle1 8,les pourtraicts des ceremonies1 444 et pompe funbres faitez au corps de feu ,charles ,,iii1 ,duc de ,lorraine10 etc4 ,nancy1 #afji4 ,footnote #bjg3 ,lister1 8,journey to ,paris in the year #afih10 ,london1 p4 #adc4 ,footnote #bjh3 ,durival1 8,description de la ,lorraine et du ,barrois10 ,nancy1 #aggi1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bhj4 ,footnote #bji3 ,bonnemere1 8,les perles fines de l',ouest de la ,france10 8,revue des sciences naturelles de l',ouest10 #ahii1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #ig-ii4 ,footnote #baj3 8,la ,nature10 #ahii1 pp4 #cdg1 #cdh4 ,footnote #baa3 ,von ,hessling1 8,ueber die ,erzeugung knstlicher ,perlen10 8,gelehrte ,anzeigen der ,mnchener ,akademie10 #ahef1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #aei4 ,footnote #bab3 ,weinmann1 8,bresslauer ,naturgeschichten10 #agbe4 ,footnote #bac3 ,tavernier1 8,travels in ,india10 #ahhi1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #aac4 ,footnote #bad3 ,von ,hessling1 8,die ,perlenmuscheln10 ,leipzig1 #ahei1 p4 #agi4 ,footnote #bae3 8,beitrge zur ,naturkunde des ,herzogthums ,celle10 ,halle1 #agff1 ,pt4 ,i1 p4 #gj4 ,footnote #baf3 ,von ,hessling1 8,die ,perlenmuscheln10 p4 #ahj4 ,footnote #bag3 ,mbius1 8,die echten ,perlen10 ,hamburg1 #aheh41 p4 #dg4 ,footnote #bah3 ,jahn1 8,voigtlndische ,perlenfischerei10 p4 #afe2 ,von ,hessling1 8,die ,perlenmuscheln10 p4 #ahb4 ,footnote #bai3 ,von ,hessling1 8,die ,perlenmuscheln10 p4 #ahb4 ,footnote #bbj3 8,die echten ,perlen10 p4 #dh4 ,footnote #bba3 ,gesner1 8,de aquatilibus10 ,tiguri1 #aefj4 ,footnote #bbb3 ,bohuslai ,balbini1 8,miscellanea historica regni ,bohemi10 ,prague1 #afgi1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #gc4 ,footnote #bbc3 8,allg4 ,zeitung10 ,nov4 #a1 #aheh1 ,no4 #cje4 ,footnote #bbd3 ,von ,hessling1 8,die ,perlenmuscheln10 ,leipzig1 p4 #agh4 ,footnote #bbe3 ,holberg1 8,danmarks ,riges ,historie10 ,reicharot edition1 #agdc1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #fcb4 ,footnote #bbf3 ,thaaruys1 8,versuch einer ,statistik der dnischen ,monarchie10 ,copenhagen1 #agie1 ,pt4 ,i1 p4 #daf4 ,footnote #bbg3 ,jahn1 8,voigtlndische ,perlenfischerei10 p4 #age2 and ,von ,hessling1 8,die ,perlenmuscheln10 p4 #ahi4 ,footnote #bbh3 ,pontoppidan1 8,versuch einer natrlichen ,historie von ,norwegen10 ,copenhagen1 #aged1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cji4 ,footnote #bbi3 ,olaus ,magnus1 8,historia de gentibus septentrionalibus10 ,antwerp1 #aefb1 c4 #f1 p4 #aib4 ,footnote #bcj3 ,linnus1 8,lach4 ,lapponica10 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ajd-ajg4 ,footnote #bca3 ,see 8,abhandlungen der ,schwedischen ,akademie10 #agdb1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #bdj2 #agei1 ,vol4 ,,xxi1 p4 #acf1 and #agfb1 ,vol4 ,,xxiv1 p4 #fd4 ,footnote #bcb3 8,die ,perlenmuscheln10 ,leipzig1 #ahei1 p4 #aid4 ,footnote #bcc3 ,kawall1 8,la pche des perles en ,livonie10 8,annales de la ,socit ,malacologique de ,belgique10 #ahgb1 ,vol4 ,,vii1 pp4 #ch-df4 ,footnote #bcd3 ,dionysius ,fabricius1 8,scriptor rerum ,livonicarum10 #afab1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ddj4 ,footnote #bce3 ,g4 ,f4 ,mylius1 8,memorabilium ,saxoniae subterraneae10 ,leipzig1 #agji-agah1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bj4 ,footnote #bcf3 ,charles ,zeze1 8,considerations sur les livres blancs en ,livonie10 #agdi1 p4 #eb4 ,footnote #bcg3 ,a4 ,h4 ,hupel1 8,nouvelles topographiques de ,livonie et d',esthionie10 #aggd1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #acd4 ,footnote #bch3 8,die ,perlenmuscheln10 ,leipzig1 p4 #aif4 ,footnote #bci3 ,baer and ,helmersen1 8,beitrge zur ,kenntniss des russischen ,reiches10 ,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahde1 ,vol4 ,,xi1 pp4 #adc1 #add4 ,footnote #bdj3 ,kohl1 8,reisen in ,sdrussland10 #bnd edition1 ,leipzig1 #ahdf1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ae4 ,footnote #bda3 8,voyage aux ,iles du ,grand ,ocan10 ,paris1 #ahch2 also 8,le ,correspondant10 ,march #aj1 #aijf4 ,footnote #bdb3 8,la ,peche et la ,culture des ,huitres ,perlires ,tahiti2 ,pcheries de l',archipel ,tuamotu10 ,paris1 #ahhe4 ,footnote #bdc3 ,seurat1 8,l'huitre perlire10 ,paris1 #aijj1 p4 #acc4 ,footnote #bdd3 ,lucatt1 8,rovings in the ,pacific from #ahcg to #ahdi10 ,london1 #ahea1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bde4 ,footnote #bde3 8,bulletin ,united ,states ,fish ,commission10 ,vol4 ,v1 p4 #bic4 ,footnote #bdf3 ,alexander1 8,report ,united ,states ,fish ,commission10 ,vol4 ,,xxvii1 p4 #gfd4 ,footnote #bdg3 8,tahiti et les ,colonies ,franaises de la ,polynsie10 ,paris1 #ahhg1 p4 #agc4 ,footnote #bdh3 8,report on ,pearl ,fisheries of ,north ,queensland10 ,brisbane1 #ahij4 ,footnote #bdi3 ,garran1 8,australasia ,illustrated10 ,sydney1 #ahib1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #hhf4 ,footnote #bej3 ,gill1 8,life in the ,southern ,isles10 ,london1 #ahgf1 p4 #bid4 ,footnote #bea3 8,australind10 ,london1 #aijj1 pp4 #bcc-bci4 ,footnote #beb3 #de ,victori1 ,no4 #b4 ,footnote #bec3 #ej ,victori1 ,no4 #b4 ,footnote #bed3 #ee ,victori1 ,no4 #bi4 ,footnote #bee3 #ej ,victori1 ,no4 #g4 ,footnote #bef3 #ee ,victori1 ,no4 #bi4 ,footnote #beg3 8,departmental ,commission on ,pearl ,shell and ,bche-de-,mer ,fisheries10 ,brisbane1 #ahig4 ,footnote #beh3 8,report on the ,fishing ,industry for the ,year #aije10 ,perth1 #aijf1 pp4 #d-g4 ,footnote #bei3 ,during the month of ,june1 #aijh1 a severe storm destroyed a pearling fleet1 with a loss of #dj vessels and #bgj lives4 ,footnote #bfj3 8,report of ,departmental ,commission on ,pearl ,shell and ,bche-de-,mer ,fisheries10 ,brisbane1 #ahig4 ,footnote #bfa3 #ee ,victori1 ,no4 #bi4 ,footnote #bfb3 ,to this should be added the output of ,sharks ,bay1 amounting to #bjjj in #aijf1 making a total of #dej1jjj4 ,footnote #bfc3 ,see pp4 #gj and #bjj4 ,footnote #bfd3 ,comyn1 8,state of the ,philippine ,islands10 ,london1 #ahbj1 pp4 #ch1 #ci4 ,footnote #bfe3 8,storia ,naturale delle ,gemme10 ,naples1 #agcj4 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #dfa4 ,footnote #bff3 ,crawfurd1 8,history of the ,indian ,archipelago10 ,edinburgh1 #ahbj1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #dde4 ,footnote #bfg3 ,act ,no4 #ea1 ,june #g1 #aijd4 ,footnote #bfh3 ,a letter from the ,bureau of ,insular ,affairs1 dated ,november #bj1 #aijf1 states3 8,it is proposed by the officials of the ,moro province to amend the regulations so that1 under certain restrictions1 vessels of foreign build may engage in pearl fisheries40 ,footnote #bfi3 ,act ,no4 #dc1 amended ,june #g1 #aijd4 ,footnote #bgj3 8,historia general de las ,indias10 by ,francisco ,lopez de ,gomara1 #abmo1 #aeed1 pp4 #ajd-ajf b4 ,footnote #bga3 ,herrera1 8,historia general de los hechos de los ,castellanos en las islas y ,tierra ,firme del ,mar ,oceano10 ,dec4 iii1 ,book ,,vii1 ch4 #c4 ,footnote #bgb3 ,herrera1 8,descripcion de las ,indias ,occidentales10 ,dec4 iv1 ,book ,,vi1 ch4 #ab4 ,footnote #bgc3 ,humboldt's 8,personal ,narrative10 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bgc4 ,footnote #bgd3 ,translated from 8,historia del ,mondo ,nuovo10 ,geneva1 #aegh4 ,footnote #bge3 ,translation of ,chauveton's ,notes to ,benzoni's 8,historia del ,mondo ,nuovo10 ,geneva1 #aegh1 fol4 #agj4 ,footnote #bgf3 ,ibid41 fol4 #afh4 ,footnote #bgg3 8,natural and ,moral ,history of the ,indies10 ,hakluyt ,society1 ,london1 #ahhj1 p4 #bbh4 ,footnote #bgh3 ,humboldt1 8,personal ,narrative of ,travels to the ,equinoctial ,regions of the ,new ,continent1 #agii-ahjd40 ,footnote #bgi3 ,findlay1 8,directory for the ,navigation of the ,pacific ,ocean10 ,london1 #ahea1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bag4 ,footnote #bhj3 ,rosales1 8,gran ,recopilacin de ,venezuela10 ,caracas1 #ahhi4 ,footnote #bha3 ,gomara1 8,historia general de las ,indias10 #aeed1 pp4 #bfh1 #bfi b4 ,footnote #bhb3 #aaa ounces of gold2 present value about #bcjj4 ,footnote #bhc3 ,gemelli-,careri1 8,giro del ,mondo10 ,venezia1 #agai1 p4 #bdj4 ,footnote #bhd3 ,ulloa1 8,relacin historica del viage la ,amrica meridional10 ,madrid1 #agdh4 ,footnote #bhe3 8,ulloa's ,voyage to ,south ,america10 translated by ,j4 ,adams1 ,london1 #ageh4 ,footnote #bhf3 ,hakluyt's 8,voyages10 ,glasgow1 #aijd1 ,vol4 ,,ix1 pp4 #cah1 #cai4 ,footnote #bhg3 ,clavigero1 8,storia della ,california10 ,venezia1 #aghi1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #afa4 ,footnote #bhh3 ,venegas1 8,noticia de las ,californias10 ,madrid1 #ageg1 p4 #ded4 ,footnote #bhi3 ,clavigero1 8,historia de la ,baja antigua ,california40 ,esteva1 8,boletin de la ,sociedad ,mexicana de ,geographia y ,estadistica10 ,vol4 ,x1 pp4 #fgc-fig4 ,footnote #bij3 ,pedro ,alvarado1 8,historia ,california10 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aj4 ,footnote #bia3 ,baegert1 8,nachrichten von der ,amerikanischen ,halbinsel ,californien10 ,mannheim1 #aggb4 ,footnote #bib3 ,arch4 ,cal4 ,prov4 ,st4 ,pap4 xvi4 ,ben4 ,mil4 xvi1 xvii1 xviii4 ,footnote #bic3 ,hardy1 8,travels in ,mexico10 ,london1 #ahbi1 pp4 #bca-bch4 ,footnote #bid3 ,diguet1 8,bulletin de la ,socit ,centrale d',aquiculture10 ,paris1 #ahie1 ,vol4 ,,vii1 pp4 #a-ah4 ,footnote #bie3 ,esteva1 8,memoria sobre la ,pesca de la ,perla10 8,boletin de la ,sociedad ,mexicana de ,geographa10 ,vol4 ,x1 pp4 #fha-fhh4 ,footnote #bif3 ,lassepas1 8,historia de la ,baja ,california10 ,mexico1 #ahei1 p4 #fe4 ,footnote #big3 ,pujol1 8,estudio ,biolgico sobre la ostra ,avicula margaritiferus10 8,boletin de la ,sociedad de ,geographa10 ,epoc4 #b1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #aci et seq4 ,footnote #bih3 ,diguet1 8,bulletin de la ,socit ,centrale d',aquiculture10 #ahie1 ,vol4 ,,vii4 ,footnote #bii3 ,lassepas1 8,historia de la ,colonizacinde la ,baja ,california10 ,mexico1 #ahei4 ,footnote #cjj3 8,recueil des pices sur la ,floride10 ,paris1 #ahda4 ,footnote #cja3 8,relaam verdadeira dos ,trabalhos q ho gouernador d ,ferndo de ,souto e certos fidalgos portugueses passarom no descobrimto da provincia da ,frolida4 ,agora nouamente feita per h fidalgo ,deluas40 ,footnote #cjb3 8,la ,florida del ,ynca10 ,lisbon1 #afje4 ,footnote #cjc3 ,one arroba twenty-five pounds' weight4 ,footnote #cjd3 8,discovery of ,florida10 ,hakluyt ,society1 #ahea1 ,vol4 ,,ix1 p4 #aha4 ,footnote #cje3 ,ibid41 p4 #ej4 ,footnote #cjf3 8,discovery of ,florida10 ,hakluyt ,society1 #ahea1 ,vol4 ,,ix1 p4 #fj4 ,footnote #cjg3 ,bernard ,shipp1 8,the ,history of ,hernando de ,soto and ,florida from #aeab to #aefh10 ,philadelphia1 #ahha1 #hvo1 p4 #cfd4 ,footnote #cjh3 ,bernard ,shipp1 8,the ,history of ,hernando de ,soto and ,florida from #aeab to #aefh10 ,philadelphia1 #ahha1 #hvo1 p4 #cfi4 ,footnote #cji3 ,ibid41 p4 #cgb4 ,footnote #caj3 8,relation of ,alvar ,nunez ,cabea de ,vaca10 translated by ,buckingham ,smith1 ,new ,york1 #ahga4 ,footnote #caa3 ,bernard ,shipp1 8,history of ,hernando de ,soto and ,florida10 ,philadelphia1 #ahha1 p4 #ehf4 ,footnote #cab3 ,hakluyt1 8,the ,principall ,navigations1 ,voiages1 and ,discoveries of the ,english ,nation10 ,london1 #aehi4 ,footnote #cac3 8,purchas's ,pilgrims10 ,london1 #afbe1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #agi4 ,footnote #cad3 ,hakluyt's 8,voyages10 ,glasgow1 ,vol4 ,,viii1 p4 #ceg4 ,footnote #cae3 ,p4 ,f4 ,x4 de ,charlevoix1 8,history of ,new ,france10 ,new ,york1 #aijj1 p4 #abi4 ,footnote #caf3 8,voyage of ,father ,gravier in #agjj ,from the ,country of ,illinois to the ,mouth of the ,mississippi10 ,cleveland1 #aijj1 p4 #ada4 ,footnote #cag3 ,coxe1 8,a ,description of the ,english ,province of ,carolana1 by the ,spaniards call'd ,florida1 and by the ,french ,la ,louisiane1 as also of the ,great and ,famous ,river ,meschacebe or ,missisipi10 ,london1 #agbb1 pp4 #hb1 #hc4 ,footnote #cah3 8,allgemeine ,handelszeitung10 ,leipzig1 ,april1 #aghi1 p4 #bah4 ,footnote #cai3 8,frank ,leslie's ,magazine10 ,new ,york1 ,may #bc1 #aheg1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #chd-chf4 ,footnote #cbj3 8,gems and ,precious ,stones of ,north ,america10 by ,george ,f4 ,kunz1 ,new ,york1 #ahhi-ahib1 pp4 #baa-beg4 8,the ,fresh-,water ,pearls of the ,united ,states10 ,washington1 #ahih1 #ej pages and plates4 ,footnote #cba3 8,neue ,zeit10 in ,ausland1 #aheh1 ,no4 #h1 p4 #aib4 ,footnote #cbb3 ,see p4 #beh4 ,footnote #cbc3 ,illinois ,state has passed a bill to regulate pearl fishing4 ,see ,addendum on p4 #eac4 ,footnote #cbd3 ,philostratus1 8,vita ,apollonii10 ,lib4 ,,iii1 c4 #eg1 edit4 ,olearii1 p4 #aci4 ,also see ,konrad von ,gessner1 8,histori natura10 ,lib4 ,,iv1 p4 #fcd4 ,footnote #cbe3 ,vol4 ,,xxii1 pp4 #dbe-dcg4 ,footnote #cbf3 ,pulteney1 8,general ,view of the ,writings of ,linnus10 ,london1 #ahje4 ,footnote #cbg3 8,proceedings of the ,linnean ,society of ,london10 ,october1 #aije4 p4 #bf4 ,footnote #cbh3 ,pearl3 an excrescence on the inside of a shell when the outside has been perforated4 ,footnote #cbi3 ,beckmann1 8,history of ,inventions10 ,london1 #ahdf1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bfc4 ,footnote #ccj3 ,london1 #ahba1 p4 #dh4 ,footnote #cca3 8,proceedings of the ,linnean ,society of ,london10 ,october1 #aije1 p4 #bi4 ,footnote #ccb3 ,see ,grill1 8,abhandlungen der kniglichen ,schwedischen ,akademie der ,wissenschaften auf das ,jahr #aggb10 ,leipzig1 ,vol4 ,,xxxiv1 pp4 #hh-ij4 ,footnote #ccc3 8,journal of the ,society of ,arts10 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #gb-ge4 ,footnote #ccd3 8,proceedings of the ,linnean ,society of ,london10 ,october1 #aije1 p4 #bh4 ,footnote #cce3 8,la ,pche et la ,culture des ,huitres ,perlires ,tahiti10 ,paris1 #ahhe4 ,footnote #ccf3 8,comptes ,rendus de l',acadmie des ,sciences10 ,vol4 ,,cxxvii1 pp4 #hbh-hcj4 ,footnote #ccg3 ,see p4 #gc4 ,footnote #cch3 ,kmpfer1 8,history of ,japan10 ,london1 #agbh1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #aaj-aab4 ,footnote #cci3 8,notes and ,queries10 #crd ,series1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bbh4 ,footnote #cdj3 8,journal of the ,straits ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society10 ,singapore1 #ahgh1 ,vol4 ,i41 pp4 #ca-cg4 ,footnote #cda3 8,jewelers' ,review10 ,may #aj1 #ahib4 ,footnote #cdb3 ,bloomfield1 8,hymns of the ,atharvaveda10 ,oxford1 #ahig1 p4 #fb4 ,footnote #cdc3 ,macgowan1 8,journal of the ,society of ,arts10 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #gc4 ,footnote #cdd3 ,pfirzmaier1 8,kaiserliche ,akademie der ,wissenschaften10 ,wien1 #ahfh1 ,vol4 ,,lvii1 p4 #fbc4 ,footnote #cde3 ,translated from ,klenn1 8,culturgeschichte10 ,leipzig1 #aheb1 ,vol4 ,x1 p4 #cah4 ,footnote #cdf3 ,tennyson1 8,idylls of the ,king40 ,footnote #cdg3 8,opera omnia10 ,paris1 #ahfd1 ,vol4 ,v1 p4 #dgc4 ,footnote #cdh3 ,w4 ,g4 ,audsley1 8,handbook of ,christian ,symbolism10 ,london1 #ahfe1 p4 #adj4 ,footnote #cdi3 8,lucile10 ,pt4 ,,ii1 c4 #f1 st4 #af4 ,footnote #cej3 8,le ,mercure ,indien1 ou le ,trsor des ,indes10 ,paris1 #afgb1 p4 #afj4 ,footnote #cea3 ,many ,greek scholars maintain that this is a knotted cord or fillet2 but this view is contested by others4 ,footnote #ceb3 ,edited by ,jibananda ,vidyasagara1 ,calcutta1 #ahgg4 ,footnote #cec3 ,edited by ,vidyasagara1 #ahgc4 ,footnote #ced3 ,garbe1 8,die ,indischen ,mineralien40 ,narahari's 8,raganighantu10 ,varga ,,xiii1 ,leipzig1 #ahhb1 p4 #gd4 ,footnote #cee3 ,ainslie1 8,materia ,indica10 ,london1 #ahbf1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bib4 ,footnote #cef3 8,mai-ml10 ,calcutta1 #ahha1 p4 #hga4 ,footnote #ceg3 8,mai-ml10 ,calcutta1 #ahgi1 p4 #cae4 ,footnote #ceh3 ,finot1 8,les ,lapidaires ,indiens10 ,paris1 #ahif1 p4 #ae4 ,footnote #cei3 8,materia medica of ,india and their ,therapeutics10 ,bombay1 #aijc1 p4 #ih4 ,footnote #cfj3 8,alberti ,magni ,opera omnia10 ed4 ,augusti ,borgnet1 ,paris1 #ahij1 ,vol4 ,v1 p4 #da4 ,footnote #cfa3 8,lapidario del ,rey ,d4 ,alfonso ,x10 ,codice original1 ,madrid1 #ahha1 p4 #d4 ,footnote #cfb3 ,de ,boot1 8,gemmarum et ,lapidum ,historia10 ,hanover1 #afji1 ,lib4 ,,ii1 c4 #ch1 p4 #hg4 ,footnote #cfc3 ,margaritologia1 ,monachii1 #afcg4 ,footnote #cfd3 ,lovell1 8,panmineralogicon10 ,oxford1 #affa1 pp4 #gg1 #gh4 ,footnote #cfe3 ,jones1 8,credulities ,past and ,present10 ,london1 #ahhj1 p4 #aff4 ,footnote #cff3 8,speculum lapidum10 ,venice1 #aejb1 p4 #cg4 ,footnote #cfg3 ,yriarte1 8,florence10 ,paris1 #ahha1 p4 #ci4 ,footnote #cfh3 ,bacon1 8,historia ,vit et ,mortis10 ,londini1 #afbc1 p4 #ajj4 ,footnote #cfi3 ,grew1 ,nehemiah1 8,musum ,regalis ,societatis10 ,london1 #afha1 p4 #ade4 ,footnote #cgj3 8,a ,queen's ,delight10 ,london1 #afga1 pp4 #ge1 #gf4 ,footnote #cga3 8,hamlet10 ,act ,v1 sc4 #b4 ,footnote #cgb3 ,w4 ,j4 ,lawson1 8,history of ,banking10 ,london1 #ahej1 pp4 #bd1 #be4 ,footnote #cgc3 8,the ,naturall ,historie of ,c4 ,plinius ,secundus10 ,lib4 ,,ix1 c4 #ce4 ,this anecdote is mentioned also by ,macrobius 7,circa #djj ,a4,d47 in 8,saturnaliorum conviviorum libri septem10 ,lib4 ,,ii1 c4 #ac4 ,footnote #cgd3 ,see p4 #ee4 ,footnote #cge3 8,the ,naturall ,historie of ,c4 ,plinius ,secundus10 ,lib4 ,,ix1 c4 #ce4 ,footnote #cgf3 ,see the epitaph of ,tutichylus 8qui fuit margaritarius10 ,orelli1 #djgf4 ,footnote #cgg3 ,lowis d',a4 ,jackson1 8,modern ,metrology10 ,london1 #ahha1 p4 #cgj4 ,footnote #cgh3 ,grimm1 8,deutsches ,wrterbuch10 ,leipzig1 #ahgc1 ,vol4 ,v1 p4 #bje4 ,footnote #cgi3 ,guillaume1 8,les rcents progrs du systme mtrique10 ,paris1 #aijg1 pp4 #fb-ff1 8,la rforme du carat40 ,footnote #chj3 ,william ,hallock and ,herbert ,t4 ,wade4 8,outlines of the ,evolution of ,weights and ,measures and the ,metric ,system10 ,new ,york1 #aijf1 p4 #be4 ,footnote #cha3 8,a ,new ,english ,dictionary10 ,oxford and ,new ,york1 #ahic1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,pt4 ,i1 p4 #aje4 ,footnote #chb3 ,buteonis1 8,opera ,geometrica10 ,lugduni1 #aeed1 pp4 #hh-if4 ,footnote #chc3 ,see 8,edelsteinkunde10 ,wilhelm ,rau1 ,leipzig1 #aijg1 p4 #acg4 ,footnote #chd3 8,les ,lapidaires ,indiens10 ,paris1 #ahif4 ,footnote #che3 ,the guja was one fifth of a msaka and equaled about #b grains4 ,footnote #chf3 ,finot1 8,les ,lapidaires ,indiens10 ,paris1 #ahif1 p4 #bb4 ,footnote #chg3 8,fior di ,pensieri sulle ,pietre ,preziose di ,ahmed al ,teifascite10 text and translation by ,antonio ,raineri1 ,florence1 #ahah1 pp4 #h1 #i4 ,footnote #chh3 ,charles ,barbot1 8,traite ,complte des ,pierres ,prcieuses10 ,paris1 #aheh1 p4 #dfg4 ,footnote #chi3 ,emanuel1 8,diamonds and ,precious ,stones10 #bnd edition1 ,london1 #ahfg1 p4 #f4 ,footnote #cij3 ,anselmi de ,boot1 8,gemmarum et ,lapidum ,historia10 ,hanoviae1 #afji1 pp4 #hh-ij4 ,footnote #cia3 ,de ,rosnel1 8,le ,mercure ,indien10 ,paris1 #afgb1 ,pt4 ,,iii1 pp4 #ag1 #ah4 ,footnote #cib3 ,rice ,vaughan1 8,a ,discourse of ,coin and ,coinage10 ,london1 #afge1 p4 #bda4 ,footnote #cic3 ,david ,jeffries1 8,a ,treatise on ,diamonds and ,pearls10 ,london1 #agea1 pp4 #abh-ada4 ,footnote #cid3 8,encyclopdie de ,diderot et d',alembert10 ,neuchtel and ,paris1 #aggd1 ,vol4 ,,xii1 p4 #che4 ,footnote #cie3 ,pio ,naldi1 8,delle ,gemme e delle ,regole per ,valutarle10 ,bologna1 #agia1 p4 #bjg4 ,footnote #cif3 ,emanuel1 8,diamonds and ,precious ,stones10 ,london1 #ahfg1 p4 #aig4 ,footnote #cig3 8,l',encyclopdie ou ,dictionnaire ,raisonn des ,sciences10 ,neuchtel and ,paris1 #aggd1 ,vol4 ,,xii1 p4 #che4 ,footnote #cih3 8,delle ,gemme10 etc41 #agia4 ,footnote #cii3 ,see 8,report to the ,government of ,ceylon on the ,pearl ,oyster ,fisheries of the ,gulf of ,manaar10 by ,w4 ,a4 ,herdman1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,pt4 ,v1 ,london1 #aijf1 pp4 #cd-cf4 ,footnote #djj3 ,see pp4 #abd-abg4 ,footnote #dja3 ,see 8,modern ,metrology10 ,lowis d',a4 ,jackson1 ,london1 #ahhb1 p4 #cfi4 ,footnote #djb3 ,from 8,navaratnapariska10 in ,finot1 8,les ,lapidaires ,indiens10 p4 #aeh4 ,footnote #djc3 ,guillielmi ,budaei1 8,de ,asse10 ,venice1 #aebb1 ,lib4 ,v1 pp4 #fg1 #fh4 ,footnote #djd3 ,caire and ,dufie1 8,la ,science des ,pierres ,prcieuses applique aux ,arts10 ,paris1 #ahcc4 ,footnote #dje3 ,charles ,barbot1 8,trait ,complte des ,pierres ,prcieuses10 ,paris1 #aheh1 pp4 #dfd1 #dfe4 ,footnote #djf3 8,the ,book of ,ser ,marco ,polo1 the ,venetian40 ,trans4 and ed4 by ,col4 ,henry ,yule1 ,london1 #ahga1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bge4 ,footnote #djg3 ,general ,appraisers #eadf 7,treasury ,department #bcgdh74 ,footnote #djh3 ,december #f1 #aija2 #aab ,fed4 ,rep4 #fgb4 ,footnote #dji3 ,suit ,no4 #ccbh4 ,footnote #daj3 ,dec4 #bi1 #aijc4 ,footnote #daa3 ,suit ,no4 #digd4 ,footnote #dab3 ,general ,appraisers #daff4 ,footnote #dac3 ,general ,appraisers #eadh4 ,footnote #dad3 ,suits ,nos4 #bgha and #ccbd4 ,footnote #dae3 ,john and ,andrew van ,rymsdyk1 8,museum ,brittanicum10 ,london1 #aggh1 p4 #h1 note4 ,footnote #daf3 ,finot1 8,les ,lapidaires ,indiens10 ,paris1 #ahif1 p4 #bd4 ,footnote #dag3 8,an ,essay upon ,various ,arts1 in ,three ,books by ,theophilus1 called also ,rugerus1 ,priest and ,monk1 ,forming an ,encyclopedia of ,christian ,art of the ,eleventh ,century40 ,translated1 with notes1 by ,robert ,hendrie4 ,london1 #ahdg4 ,footnote #dah3 8,indian ,art10 by ,sir ,george ,c4 ,m4 ,birdwood 7,south ,kensington ,museum ,art ,books71 ,pt4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ahh1 #bdh4 ,footnote #dai3 ,anselmi de ,boodt1 8,gemmarum et ,lapidum ,historia10 ,hanover1 #afji4 ,lib4 ,,ii1 c4 #dj1 8,quomodo margaritae perforuntur10 p4 #ia4 ,footnote #dbj3 ,see portrait facing page #ddb4 ,footnote #dba3 ,charles ,barbot1 8,trait ,complte des ,pierres ,prcieuses10 ,paris1 #aheh1 pp4 #dfd1 #dfe4 ,footnote #dbb3 8,dlgation en ,perse10 ,paris1 #aije1 ,vol4 ,,viii1 p4 #eb4 ,footnote #dbc3 ,de ,morgan1 8,dlgation en ,perse10 ,paris1 #aije1 ,vol4 ,,viii1 p4 #eb4 ,footnote #dbd3 ,imhoof-,blumer1 8,portrtkpfe auf antiken ,mnzen10 pl4 #g1 figs4 #ab sqq4 ,footnote #dbe3 ,see 8,dlgation en ,perse10 ,vol4 ,,viii4 8,recherches ,archologiques40 ,paris1 #aije1 third series1 pp4 #ea-b1 pl4 #e4 ,footnote #dbf3 ,equivalent to about #a1bej1jjj ounces of silver2 ,hardouin says #g1fjj1jjj francs4 ,footnote #dbg3 8,naturall ,historie10 ,london1 #afja1 ,lib4 ,,ix1 c4 #ce4 ,footnote #dbh3 ,,ms4 ,bibliothque ,nationale1 ,paris1 #bjhi1 ,,xlvii1 ,no4 #ab4 ,footnote #dbi3 8,dictionnaire des ,antiquites ,grecques et ,romaines10 ed4 by ,deremberg and ,saglio3 ,art4 8,inaures0 by ,pottier1 ,paris1 #ahii1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #ddj-ddg4 ,footnote #dcj3 ,babelon1 8,cab4 des ,antiq410 pl4 #cc1 fig4 #c4 ,footnote #dca3 ,duruy1 8,hist4 des ,romains10 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #eaa4 ,footnote #dcb3 ,custodian of the coin collection of the ,philadelphia ,mint4 ,footnote #dcc3 ,imperial ,museum of ,archology1 ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,russia4 ,footnote #dcd3 8,della ,storia ,naturale delle ,gemme delle ,pietre e di tutti i ,minerali10 ,giacinto ,gimma1 ,naples1 #agcj4 ,footnote #dce3 ,tabari1 8,chronique10 translated by ,zotenberg1 ,paris1 #ahfi1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cjd4 ,footnote #dcf3 ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #dag4 ,footnote #dcg3 ,alexander1 8,the ,history of ,women10 ,london1 #aghb1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #acf4 ,footnote #dch3 8,the ,book of ,ser ,marco ,polo1 the ,venetian10 trans4 and ed4 by ,col4 ,henry ,yule1 ,london1 #ahga1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #cdc4 ,footnote #dci3 ,de ,mly1 8,les ,lapidaires ,chinois10 ,paris1 #ahif1 p4 #agh4 ,footnote #ddj3 8,the ,book of ,ser ,marco ,polo1 the ,venetian10 trans4 and ed4 by ,col4 ,henry ,yule1 ,london1 #ahga1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bge4 ,footnote #dda3 ,alexander1 8,the ,history of ,women10 ,london1 #aghb1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #agb4 ,footnote #ddb3 ,max ,mller1 8,rig-,veda ,samhita10 #ahfb1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #fd4 ,footnote #ddc3 ,alexander1 8,the ,history of ,women10 ,london1 #aghb1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #aga4 ,footnote #ddd3 ,from a letter of ,charles ,roach ,smith1 ,esq41 ,f4 ,s4 ,a41 to ,john ,gage ,rokewode1 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 8,archologia10 ,vol4 ,,xxix1 p4 #gj4 ,footnote #dde3 ,augustus ,c4 ,hamlin1 8,leisure ,hours ,among the ,gems10 ,boston1 #ahhd1 p4 #bb4 ,footnote #ddf3 ,dieulafoy1 8,l'art antique de la ,perse10 ,paris1 #ahhd4 ,pt4 ,v1 p4 #acg4 ,footnote #ddg3 ,see ,maskell1 8,russian ,art0 7,south ,kensington ,museum ,handbooks71 ,london1 #ahhd1 pp4 #hc1 #hd2 also 8,la ,russie ,mridionale10 by ,reinach-,kondakoff-,tolstoy1 pp4 #dhi1 #dij4 ,footnote #ddh3 8,die ,domkirche bei ,st4 ,veit in ,prag10 ,prague1 #ahij1 pp4 #ac1 #ai1 #ba4 ,footnote #ddi3 ,abridged from a description by ,professor ,tennant4 ,footnote #dej3 ,davenport ,debrett1 8,dictionary of the ,coronation10 ,london1 p4 #eb4 ,footnote #dea3 ,sir ,walter ,scott1 8,description of the ,regalia of ,scotland10 ,edinburgh1 #ahfi4 ,footnote #deb3 ,communicated by ,prof4 ,h4 ,schumacher of ,bonn and ,johann ,wagner ,sohn1 ,jewelers of the ,german ,court4 ,footnote #dec3 ,w4 ,jones1 8,crowns and ,coronations10 ,london1 #ahhc1 p4 #dbe4 ,footnote #ded3 ,otto von ,falke and ,heinrich ,frauberger1 8,deutsche ,schmelzarbeiten des ,mittelalters10 ,frankfort-on-the-,main1 #aijd1 p4 #b4 ,footnote #dee3 ,otto von ,falke and ,heinrich ,frauberger1 8,deutsche ,schmelzarbeiten des ,mittelalters10 ,frankfort-on-the-,main1 #aijd1 pp4 #f1 #g4 ,footnote #def3 ,ibid41 p4 #i4 ,footnote #deg3 ,ibid41 p4 #af4 ,footnote #deh3 ,josef ,dank1 8,aus dem ,graner ,domschatz10 ,gran1 #ahhj1 pp4 #fd-ff4 ,footnote #dei3 ,josef ,dank1 8,aus dem ,graner ,domschatz10 ,gran1 #ahhj1 pp4 #fg-gj4 ,footnote #dfj3 ,ibid41 pp4 #gd1 #ge4 ,footnote #dfa3 8,katalog der ,schatzkammer von ,maria ,loretto am ,hradschin zu ,prag10 ,prague1 #ahia1 pp4 #cd1 #dj4 ,footnote #dfb3 ,maskell1 8,russian ,art0 7,south ,kensington ,museum ,handbooks71 ,london1 #ahhd1 pp4 #aai1 #abj4 ,footnote #dfc3 ,baedeker1 8,russland10 ,leipzig1 #ahhh1 p4 #cag4 ,footnote #dfd3 ,one of the authors has in his possession twenty manuscript volumes of these inventories4 ,they are careful copies from the originals1 most of which are in the ,bibliothque ,nationale in ,paris4 ,these copies were executed for ,m4 ,e4 ,molinier1 a conservator of the ,louvre ,museum1 and were disposed of after his death in #aijf4 ,the values in the money of the times are usually given1 and we have endeavored where possible to indicate the equivalent in ,united ,states currency1 taking account of the progressive changes in the ,french monetary standard4 ,footnote #dfe3 8,inventaire des ,joyaux de ,louis ,duc d',anjou10 ,in ,de ,laborde's 8,emaux10 ,paris1 #ahec1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,footnote #dff3 ,bibliothque ,nationale4 ,,ms4 fr4 #fedb 7suppt4 #dfbb7 parchemin original1 #ac pp4 in folio4 ,footnote #dfg3 ,de ,laborde1 8,emaux10 ,paris1 #ahec1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #dcg4 ,footnote #dfh3 8,inventaire des ,biens de ,marguerite de ,flandre10 ,bibliothque ,nationale coll41 ,moreau1 #agbe 7,mouchet #e74 ,footnote #dfi3 ,bibl4 ,nat4 ,,ms4 ,latin4 #iida 7suppt4 #afef71 folio1 parchment1 #dj leaves4 ,footnote #dgj3 ,bibliothque ,nationale ,,ms4 fr4 #ahgff 7,s4 ,germain fr4 #iaj7 #dj ff4 ,bound in green velvet4 ,footnote #dga3 ,bibl4 ,natl4 ,,ms4 franais1 #dfaa1 folio1 pp4 #dcc in parchment4 ,footnote #dgb3 8,inventaires des ,ducs de ,bourgogne10 ,de ,laborde1 8,emaux10 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #dch4 ,footnote #dgc3 ,see ,de ,laborde4 8,emaux10 ,paris1 #ahec1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #dcg4 ,footnote #dgd3 8,jahrbuch der kunsthistorischen ,sammlungen des allerhchsten ,kaiserhauses10 ,vienna1 #ahie1 ,vol4 ,,xiv1 ,pt4 ,,ii1 p4 #eb4 8,inventories of ,philip ,,ii0 7#aeih-afjg74 ,footnote #dge3 ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,,xix1 ,pt4 ,,ii1 p4 #agj4 ,footnote #dgf3 ,from eptli--shell1 and yollott--heart1 i4e41 life4 ,footnote #dgg3 8,heraldic4 ,curios410 ,pars ,,iii1 c4 #h1 p4 #ab4 ,footnote #dgh3 ,debrett1 8,dictionary of the ,coronation10 p4 #abg4 ,footnote #dgi3 8,illustrated ,london ,news10 ,april #ac1 #ahgh1 p4 #cdg4 ,footnote #dhj3 ,pliny1 8,naturall ,historie10 ,london1 #afja1 ,lib4 ,,ix1 c4 #ce4 ,footnote #dha3 ,bud1 8,de ,asse10 ,paris1 #aead4 ,footnote #dhb3 ,pliny1 8,historia ,naturalis10 ,lib4 ,,ix1 c4 #ce4 ,footnote #dhc3 8,historia10 ,lib4 ,i1 c4 #d1 ed4 ,niebuhr1 ,bonnae1 #ahcc4 ,footnote #dhd3 ,panciroli1 8,rerum ,memorabilium1 libri duo10 ,frankfort4 #affj1 ,pt4 ,i1 p4 #dd4 ,we have been unable to find this statement in the ,annals of ,zonaras2 it was possibly derived from some gloss or annotation4 ,footnote #dhe3 ,published by ,lambeccius in 8,bibliotheca ,csarea10 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #eaf4 ,footnote #dhf3 ,see p4 #bed for ,garcilasso's description4 ,footnote #dhg3 ,garcilasso1 8,historie des ,incas1 ,rois du ,prou10 ,amsterdam1 #agjd1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ceb4 ,footnote #dhh3 ,ibid41 p4 #cea4 ,footnote #dhi3 ,miscel4 ,academ4 ,nat4 ,curios1 ,dec4 #a1 ,ann4 ,,ii1 obs4 #bhh4 ,footnote #dij3 8,hawkins' ,voyages10 ,hakluyt ,society1 #ahgh1 p4 #cae note4 ,footnote #dia3 ,see ,robertson1 8,inventaires de la ,royne d',ecosse10 ,bannatyne ,club1 #ahfc4 ,footnote #dib3 ,see ,lang1 8,portraits and ,jewels of ,mary ,stuart10 ,edinburgh1 #aijf4 ,footnote #dic3 ,teulet1 8,relations politiques de la ,france et de l',espagne avec l',ecosse10 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ceb4 ,footnote #did3 ,teulet1 8,relations10 etc41 p4 #cfd4 ,footnote #die3 ,walpole1 8,anecdotes of ,painting in ,england10 ,london1 #ahdi1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aea4 ,footnote #dif3 ,an interesting account of this collection was given in a little book1 now quite rare1 published in ,london in #agic by ,john ,roberts1 entitled 8,a ,view of the ,waxen ,figures in ,henry ,,vii's ,chapel40 ,footnote #dig3 ,bolton1 8,curious ,relics of ,english ,funerals10 ,boston1 #ahid1 p4 #bcc4 ,footnote #dih3 ,lawson1 8,history of ,banking10 ,london1 #agej1 pp4 #bd1 #be4 ,footnote #dii3 ,burgon1 8,the ,life and ,times of ,sir ,thomas ,gresham10 ,london1 #ahci1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #fi4 ,footnote #ejj3 ,see p4 #dea4 ,footnote #eja3 ,london1 #afca1 p4 #abig4 ,footnote #ejb3 ,tavernier1 8,travels in ,india10 ,london1 #ahhi1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #acj4 ,footnote #ejc3 ,tavernier used the ,florentine carat1 which equaled #c4jd grains troy4 ,footnote #ejd3 ,tavernier1 8,travels in ,india10 ,london1 #ahhi1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #aaj4 ,footnote #eje3 ,one rati equaled seven eighths of the ,florentine carat1 or #b4ff grains troy4 ,footnote #ejf3 ,tavernier1 8,travels in ,india10 ,london1 #ahhi1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #cig-cii4 ,footnote #ejg3 ,sir ,henry ,miers ,elliot1 8,the ,mohammedan ,period as described by ,its ,own ,historians10 ,vol4 ,v4 of 8,the ,history of ,india10 ed4 by ,a4 ,v4 ,w4 ,jackson1 ,new ,york1 #aijg1 p4 #cbd4 ,footnote #ejh3 ,see ,fig4 #b of ,tavernier's diagram4 ,footnote #eji3 ,tavernier1 8,travels in ,india10 trans4 by ,v4 ,ball1 ,london1 #ahhi1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #chd4 ,footnote #eaj3 ,benjamin1 8,persia10 p4 #gc4 ,footnote #eaa3 ,brydges1 8,an ,account of the ,transactions of ,his ,majesty's ,mission to the ,court of ,persia1 in the ,years #ahjg-ahaa10 ,london1 #ahcd1 p4 #chc4 ,footnote #eab3 ,porter1 8,travels in ,georgia1 ,armenia1 ,ancient ,babylon10 etc41 ,london1 #ahba1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #cbe4 ,footnote #eac3 ,robert de ,berquen1 8,les ,merveilles des ,indes ,orientales et ,occidentales10 ,paris1 #affa1 p4 #gh b4 ,footnote #ead3 ,bibl4 ,nat4 ,,ms4 8,mlanges de ,colbert10 ,tome #bah1 p4 #ad4 ,footnote #eae3 ,de ,waldheim1 8,essai sur la ,pellegrina10 p4 #dh4 ,footnote #eaf3 ,see p4 #deb4 ,footnote #eag3 ,hertz1 8,catalogue of the ,collection of ,pearls and ,precious ,stones ,formed by ,henry ,philip ,hope1 ,esq410 ,london1 #ahci4 ,footnote #eah3 8,gems and ,precious ,stones of ,north ,america10 ,new ,york1 #ahib1 ,pl4 ,,viii1 p4 #bbi4 ,footnote #eai3 ,streeter1 8,pearls and ,pearling ,life10 ,london1 #ahhf1 pp4 #bie1 #bif4 ,footnote #ebj3 ,taunton1 8,australind10 ,london1 #aijj1 p4 #bca4 ,footnote #eba3 ,austrian ,court ,journal1 #ahii4 ,footnote #ebb3 ,see p4 #dfa4 ,footnote #ebc3 ,the senior author was permitted to handle these treasures in #ahii4 ,footnote #ebd3 ,winckler1 8,die ,reichskleinodien10 ,berlin1 #ahgb1 p4 #ag4 ,footnote #ebe3 ,ibid41 p4 #i4 ,footnote #ebf3 ,as this pearl was brought from the ,east later on1 it may be the same as the ,reine des ,perles1 stolen from the ,french crown jewels in #agia4 ,it is evidently the same as the ,la ,pellegrina of the ,zozima brothers 7#ahad7 and later stolen from them1 reappearing as the pearl described by ,kohl1 in #ahdj1 first in the possession of a ,russian merchant and then later in the ,russian ,treasury4 ,footnote #ebg3 8,american ,anthropologist10 ,lancaster1 ,pa41 ,vol4 ,,ix1 ,no4 #a1 ,jan4-,march1 #aijg1 pp4 #eg-hf4 ,footnote #ebh3 8,true ,travels10 ,richmond edition1 #ahai1 p4 #add4 ,footnote #ebi3 ,strachey1 8,historie of ,travaile into ,virginia ,britannia10 ,hakluyt ,society1 ,london1 #ahdi1 p4 #fe4 ,footnote #ecj3 ,smith1 op4 cit41 p4 #acj4 ,footnote #eca3 ,strachey1 op4 cit41 p4 #eg4 ,footnote #ecb3 ,smith1 op4 cit41 p4 #hc4 ,footnote #ecc3 ,strachey1 op4 cit41 p4 #fg4 8,the #8blue' or #8violet-colored' pearls shown in ,white's original drawings are probably stained pearls40 ,these were most probably the dark purple pearls of the round clam or quohog of the coast1 although it is possible that they were only glass beads4 ,footnote #ecd3 ,smith1 op4 cit41 ,pt4 ,,ii1 p4 #ai4 ,footnote #ece3 ,thomas ,hariot1 8,a ,brief and ,true ,report of the ,new ,found ,land of ,virginia10 ,holbein edition1 p4 #aa4 ,footnote #ecf3 ,willoughby1 8,american ,anthropologist10 ,lancaster1 ,pa41 ,vol4 ,,ix1 ,no4 #a1 ,january1 #aijg1 pp4 #fa1 #fb4 ,footnote #ecg3 ,beverley1 8,history of ,virginia10 #agbb1 pp4 #afg1 #ahf4 ,footnote #ech3 ,strachey1 op4 cit41 p4 #hi4 ,footnote #eci3 ,smith1 op4 cit41 p4 #adc4 ,footnote #edj3 ,squier and ,davis1 ,smithsonian 8,contributions to ,knowledge10 ,vol4 ,i1 #ahdh1 p4 #bhc4 ,footnote #eda3 8,science10 ,april #f1 #aijf1 ,vol4 ,,xxiii1 ,no4 #ehh4 ,footnote #edb3 8,history of ,alabama10 ,charlestown1 #ahea1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ab4 ,footnote #edc3 8,moundville ,revisited10 ,reprint from the ,journal of the ,academy of ,natural ,sciences of ,philadelphia1 ,philadelphia1 #aijg1 ,vol4 ,,xiii1 pp4 #cih-djc4 ,footnote #edd3 8,antiquities of the ,southern ,indians10 ,new ,york1 #ahgc1 p4 #dhc2 also1 8,monumental ,remains of ,georgia10 ,savannah1 #ahfa1 p4 #ad4 ,footnote #ede3 8,ancient ,aboriginal ,trade in ,north ,america10 ,report of the ,smithsonian ,institution for #ahgb1 p4 #ch of the author's reprint4 ,footnote #edf3 ,see 8,artificial ,shell ,deposits in the ,united ,states10 in the ,report of the ,smithsonian ,institution for #ahff1 p4 #ceg4 ,footnote #edg3 8,antiquities of ,southern ,indians10 p4 #dij4 ,footnote #edh3 ,transactions of the ,philosophic ,society for #afic4 ,footnote #edi3 ,see p4 #did4 ,footnote #eej3 8,exploration of the ,edwin ,harness ,mound10 ,columbus1 ,o41 press of ,f4 ,j4 ,heer1 #aijg1 p4 #gf4 ,footnote #eea3 8,ancient ,monuments of the ,mississippi ,valley10 ,squier ,davis1 ,washington1 #ahdh1 p4 #bcb4 ,footnote #eeb3 8,explorations in ,ohio10 from the ,eighteenth ,report of the ,peabody ,museum1 ,cambridge1 #ahhf1 p4 #dfb4 ,footnote #eec3 ,collection of ,peabody ,museum of ,archology1 ,cambridge1 ,mass4 ,footnote #eed3 ,now in the ,field ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,footnote #eee3 8,american ,archologist10 ,may1 #ahig1 to ,may1 #ahih4 ,footnote #eef3 8,archologia ,americana10 #ahbj1 p4 #ahb4 ,footnote #eeg3 ,see p4 #dii4 ,footnote #eeh3 ,see p4 #dih4 ,footnote #eei3 8,la ,salle and the ,discovery of the ,great ,west10 ,parkman1 p4 #bha4 ,footnote #efj3 ,william ,c4 ,mills1 8,explorations of the ,edwin ,harness ,mound1 ,columbus1 ,o402 press of ,fred4 ,j4 ,heer1 #aijg4 8,ohio ,archological and ,historical ,quarterly10 ,vol4 ,,xvi1 ,no4 #b4 ,footnote #efa3 ,herrmann1 8,mound-builders of the ,mississippi ,valley10 pp4 #ib1 #ic4 ,footnote #efb3 ,a large number of these works are in the library of ,george ,f4 ,kunz4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,transcriber',s ,,notes #a4 ,p4 #aec1 changed 8o1 ,jerusalem ,delivered0 to 8,tasso1 ,jerusalem ,delivered04 #b4 ,p4 #bce1 changed 8a snort distance0 to 8a short distance04 #c4 ,silently corrected typographical errors and variations in spelling4 #d4 ,archaic1 non-standard1 and uncertain spellings retained as printed4 #e4 ,footnotes were re-indexed using numbers and collected together at the end of the last chapter4 #f4 ,enclosed italics font in underscores4 #g4 ,superscripts are denoted by a caret before a single superscript character or a series of superscripted characters enclosed in curly braces1 e4g4 ,mr4 or ,mister4