,,the ,,dabist,n1 ,,or ,,school ,,of ,,manners4 ,,madame ,,veuve ,,dondey-,,dupr1 ,printer to the ,asiatic ,societies of ,london1 ,paris1 and ,calcutta1 #df1 rue ,st-,louis1 ,paris4 ,,the ,,dabist,n1 ,,or ,,school ,,of ,,manners1 ,,translated ,,from ,,the ,,original ,,persian1 ,,with ,,notes ,,and ,,illustrations1 ,,by ,,david ,,shea1 ,,of ,,the ,,oriental ,,department ,,in ,,the ,,honorable ,,east ,,india ,,company',s ,,college2 ,,and ,,anthony ,,troyer1 ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,asiatic ,,societies ,,of ,,great ,,britain ,,and ,,ireland1 ,,of ,,calcutta ,,and ,,paris1 ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,ethnological ,,society ,,of ,,paris2 ,,edited1 ,,with ,a ,,preliminary ,,discourse1 ,,by ,,the ,,latter4 ,,volume ,i4 ,,paris3 ,,printed ,,for ,,the ,,oriental ,,translation ,,fund ,,of ,,great ,,britain ,,and ,,ireland4 ,,sold ,,by ,,benjamin ,,duprat1 ,,bookseller ,,to ,,the ,,biblioth,,que ,,royale1 #g1 ,,rue ,,du ,,cloitre ,,saint-,,benoit4 ,,and ,,allen ,,and ,,co41 ,,leadenhald-,,street1 ,,london4 #ahdc4 ,,to ,the ,memory ,,of ,,the ,,right ,,honorable ,,the ,,earl ,,of ,,munster1 ,etc41 etc41 etc4 ,,contents ,of the ,preliminary ,discourse4 ,page ,,part ,i4 ,introduction4 ,section ,i4,how the ,dabistn first became knownits authorthe sources of his information iii ,,ii4,discussion on the ,destir xix ,,part ,,ii4 ,synopsis of the dynasties1 religions1 sects1 and philosophic opinions treated of in the ,dabistn4 ,section ,i4,the first religionthe dynasties of ,mahabad1 ,abad ,azar1 ,shai ,abad1 ,shai ,giliv1 ,shai ,mahbad1 and ,yasan lxvi ,,ii4,the ,peshdadian1 ,kayanian1 ,ashkanian1 and ,sassanian dynastiestheir religious and political institutions lxxvii ,,iii4,the religion of ,zardusht1 or ,zoroaster lxxxiii ,,iv4,the religion of the ,hindus cv ,v4,retrospect of the ,persian and ,indian religions cxx ,,vi4,the religion of the ,tabitian 7,tibetans7 cxxv ,,vii4,the religion of the ,jews ibid4 ,,viii4,the religion of the ,christians cxxvi ,,ix4,the religion of the ,muselmans cxxviii ,x4,the religion of the ,sadakiahs cxli ,,xi4,the religion of the ,roshenians cxlv ,,xii4,the religion of the ,ilahiahs cxlvii ,,xiii4,the religion of the ,philosophers cliii ,,xiv4,the religion of the ,sfis clxix ,,xv4,recapitulation of the ,contents of the ,dabistn ibid4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,conclusion4 ,section ,i4,general appreciation of the ,dabistn and its author clxxix ,,ii4,notice concerning the printed edition1 some manuscripts1 and the translations of the ,dabistn clxxxviii ,,contents ,of the ,dabistn 7vol4 ,i47 ,page ,introduction of the ,author #a ,,chapter ,i4 ,of the religion of the ,parsian #d ,section ,i4,tenets and ceremonies observed by the ,sipasian and ,parsian #e ,description of the worship rendered to the seven planets1 according to the ,sipasian faith #ce ,,ii4,description of the ,sipasian sect #hg ,,iii4,the laws of the ,paiman-i-,farhang and the ,hirbed ,sr #adg ,descriptions of the gradations of ,paradise #aej ,description of the infernal regions #aeb ,,iv4,an account of the ,jamshapian sect #aic ,v4,the ,samradian sect #aie ,,vi4,the tenets of the ,khodaiyan #bja ,,vii4,the system of the ,rdin ibid4 ,,viii4,the ,shidrangin creed #bjc ,,ix4,the ,pikrian creed ibid4 ,x4,the ,milnin system #bjd ,,xi4,the system of the followers of ,alr #bjf ,,xii4,the ,shidanian faith #bjg ,,xiii4,the system of the ,akhshiyn sect ibid4 ,,xiv4,the followers of ,zardusht #baa ,account of the precepts given by ,zardusht to the king and all mankind #bfj ,the ,sad-der1 or 8the hundred gates0 of ,zardusht #caj ,enumeration of some advantages which arise from the enigmatical forms of the precepts of ,zardusht's followers #cea ,summary of the contents of the ,mah-zend #cec ,,xv4,an account of the tenets held by the followers of ,mazdak #cgb ,,preliminary ,,discourse4 ,,part ,i4 ,,introduction4 ,i4,,how ,,the ,,dabistan ,,first ,,became ,,known,,its ,,author,,the ,,sources ,,of ,,his ,,information4 ,it is generally known that sir ,william ,jones was the first who drew the attention of ,orientalists to the ,dabistn4 ,this happened five years after the beginning of a new era in ,oriental literature1 the foundation of the ,asiatic ,society of ,calcutta by that illustrious man4 ,it may not appear inopportune here to revive the grateful remembrance of one who acquired the uncontested merit of not only exciting in ,asia and ,europe a new ardor for ,oriental studies1 but also of directing them to their great objects,,man and ,,nature2 and of endeavoring1 by word and deed1 to render the attainment of languages conducive to the required knowledge equally easy and attractive4 ,having1 very early in life1 gained an ,european reputation as a scholar and elegant writer1 sir ,william ,jones embarked#a for the ,indian shores with vast projects1 embracing1 with the extension of science1 the general improvement of mankind4#b ,four months after his arrival in ,calcutta1#c he addressed as the first president of the ,asiatic ,society1 a small but select assembly1 in which he found minds responsive to his own noble sentiments4 ,a rapid sketch of the first labors of their incomparable leader1 may not be irrelevant to our immediate subject4 ,in his second anniversary discourse1#d he proposed a general plan for investigating ,asiatic learning1 history1 and institutions4 ,in his third discourse1 he traced the line of investigation1 which he faithfully followed1 as long as he lived in ,india1 in his annual public speeches3 he determined to exhibit the prominent features of the five principal nations of ,asiathe ,indians1 ,arabs1 ,tartars1 ,persians1 and ,chinese4 ,after having treated in the two following years of the ,arabs and ,tartars1 he considered in his sixth discourse#e the ,persians1 and declared that he had been induced by his earliest investigations to believe1 and by his latest to conclude1 that three primitive races of men must have migrated originally from a central country1 and that this country was ,iran1 commonly called ,persia4 ,examining with particular care the traces of the most ancient languages and religions which had prevailed in this country1 he rejoiced at 8a fortunate discovery1 for which10 he said1 8he was first indebted to ,mir ,muhammed ,hussain1 one of the most intelligent ,muselmans in ,india1 and which has at once dissipated the cloud1 and cast a gleam of light on the primeval history of ,iran and of the human race1 of which he had long despaired1 and which could hardly have dawned from any other quarter20 this was1 he declared1 8the rare and interesting tract on twelve different religions1 entitled the ,,dabistan40#f ,sir ,william ,jones read the ,dabistn for the first time in #aghg4 ,i cannot refrain from subjoining here the opinion upon this work1 which he communicated in a private letter1 dated ,june1 #aghg1 to ,j4 ,shore1 esq4 7afterwards lord ,teignmouth72 he says3 8,the greatest part of it would be very interesting to a curious reader1 but some of it cannot be translated4 ,it contains more recondite learning1 more entertaining history1 more beautiful specimens of poetry1 more ingenuity and wit1 more indecency and blasphemy1 than ,i ever saw collected in a single volume2#g the two last are not of the author's1 but are introduced in the chapters on the heretics and infidels of ,india4#h ,on the whole1 it is the most amusing and instructive book ,i ever read in ,persian40#i ,we may suppose it was upon the recommendation of sir ,william ,jones1 that ,francis ,gladwin1 one of the most distinguished members of the new ,society1 translated the first chapter of ,the ,dabistn1 or 8,school of ,manners10 which title has been preserved from due regard to the meritorious ,orientalist1 who first published the translation of a part of this work4 ,the whole of it was printed in the year #ahji1 in ,calcutta1 and translations of some parts of it were published in ,the ,asiatic ,researches4#aj ,it is only at present1 more than half a century after the first public notice of it by sir ,w4 ,jones1 that the version of the whole work appears1 under the auspices and at the expense of the ,oriental ,translation ,committee of ,great ,britain and ,ireland4 ,who was the author of the ,dabistn8,sir ,william ,jones thought it was composed by a ,muhammedan traveller1 a native of ,kachmir1 named ,mohsan1 but distinguished by the assumed surname of ,fn1 8the ,perishable40 ,gladwin#aa calls him ,shaikh ,muhammed ,mohsin1 and says that1 besides the ,dabistn1 he has left behind him a collection of poems1 among which there is a moral essay1 entitled ,masdur ul asas1 8the source of signs20 he was of the philosophic sect of ,sfis1 and patronised by the imperial prince ,dara ,shikoh1 whom he survived2 among his disciples in philosophy is reckoned ,muhammed ,tahir1 surnamed ,ghawri1 whose poems are much admired in ,hindostan4 ,mohsan's death is placed in the year of the ,hejira #ajha 7,a4 ,d4 #afgj74 ,william ,erskine1#ab in search of the true author of the ,dabistn1 discovered no other account of ,mohsan ,fn than that contained in the ,gul-i-,rana1 8charming rose10 of ,lachmi ,narayn1 who flourished in ,hyderabad about the end of the #ahth or the beginning of the #aith century4 ,this author informs us1 under the article of ,mohsan ,fn1 that 8,mohsn1 a native of ,kachmir1 was a learned man and a respectable poet2 a scholar of ,mulla ,yakub1 ,sfi of ,kachmir2 and that1 after completing his studies1 he repaired to ,delhi1 to the court of the emperor ,shah ,jehan1 by whom1 in consequence of his great reputation and high acquirements1 he was appointed ,sadder1 #8chief judge1' of ,allahabad2 that there he became a disciple of ,shaikh ,mohib ulla1 an eminent doctor of that city1 who wrote the treatise entitled ,teswich1 #8the golden ,mean4' ,mohsan ,fn enjoyed this honorable office till ,shah ,jehn subdued ,balkh2 at which time ,nazer ,muhammed ,khan1 the ,wali1 #8prince1' of ,balkh1 having effected his escape1 all his property was plundered4 ,it happened that in his library there was found a copy of ,mohsan's ,diwn1 or #8poetical ,collection1' which contained an ode in praise of the 7fugitive7 ,wli4 ,this gave such offence to the emperor1 that the ,sadder was disgraced and lost his office1 but was generously allowed a pension4 ,he retired 7as ,lachmi informs us7 to his native country1 where he passed the rest of his days without any public employment1 happy and respected4 ,his house was frequented by the most distinguished men of ,kachmir1 and among the rest by the governors of the province4 ,he had lectures at his house1 being accustomed to read to his audience the writings of certain authors of eminence1 on which he delivered moral and philosophical comments4 ,several scholars of note1 among whom were ,taher ,ghawri 7before mentioned7 and ,haji ,aslem ,salem1 issued from his school40 ,he died on the before mentioned date4 8,it is to be observed that ,lachmi does not mention the ,dabistn as a production of ,mohsan ,fn1 though1 had he written it1 it must have been his most remarkable work40 ,erskine goes on to recapitulate some particulars mentioned in the ,dabistn of the author's life1 and concludes that it seems very improbable that ,mohsan ,fn and the author of the ,dabistn were the same person4 ,in this conclusion1 and upon the same grounds1 he coincides with the learned ,vans ,kennedy4#ac ,erskine further quotes1#ad from a manuscript copy of the ,dabistn which he saw in the possession of ,mulla ,firuz1 in ,bombay1 the following marginal note annexed to the close of chapter ,,xiv43 8,in the city of ,daurse1 a king of the ,parsis1 of the race of the imperial ,anushirvn1 the ,shet ,dawer ,huryr1 conversed with ,amr ,zulfikar ,ali-al-,husaini 7on whom be the grace of ,god671 whose poetical name was ,mobed ,shah40 ,this ,zulfikar ,ali1 whoever he was1 the ,mulla supposes to be the author of the ,dabistn4 ,erskine judiciously subjoins3 8,on so slight an authority1 ,i would not willingly set up an unknown author as the compiler of that work2 but it is to be remarked that many verses of ,mobed's are quoted in the ,dabistn1 and there is certainly reason to suspect that the poetical ,mobed1 whoever he may be1 was the author of that compilation40 8,to this let it be added1 that the author of the ,dabistn2 in his account of ,mobed ,serosh1 says#ae that one ,muhammed ,mohsan1 a man of learning1 told him that he had heard ,mobed ,serosh give three hundred and sixty proofs of the existence of ,god4 ,this at least makes ,muhammed ,mohsan1 whoever he may be1 a different person from the author of the ,dabistn40 ,i cannot omit adding the following notice annexed to the note quoted above3 8,between the printed copy and ,mulla ,firuz's manuscript before alluded to1 a difference occurs in the very beginning of the work4 ,after the poetical address to the ,deity and the praise of the prophet1 with which the ,dabistn1 like most other ,muselman works1 commences1 the manuscript reads3 #8,mohsan ,fani says1' and two moral couplets succeed4 ,in the printed copy1 the words #8,mohsan ,fani says1'which should occur between the last word of the first page and the first word of the secondare omitted4 ,as no account of the author is given in the beginning of the book1 as is usual with ,muselman writers1 ,mulla ,firuz conjectures that a careless or ignorant reader may have considered the words #8,mohsan ,fni says' as forming the commencement of the volume1 and as containing the name of the author of the whole book2 whereas they merely indicate the author of the couplets that follow1 and would rather show that ,mohsan ,fani was not the writer of the ,dabistn4 ,this conjecture1 ,i confess1 appears to me at once extremely ingenious and very probable4 ,a comparison of different manuscripts might throw more light on the question40 ,concerning the opinion last stated1 ,i can but remark1 that in a manuscript copy of the ,dabistn1 which ,i procured from the library of the king of ,oude1 and caused to be transcribed for me1 the very same words3 8,mohsan ,fani says10 occur 7as ,i have observed in vol4 ,i4 p4 #f1 note #c71 preceding a raba1 or quatrain1 which begins3 8,the world is a book full of knowledge and of justice10 etc4 etc4 ,these lines seem well chosen as an introduction to the text itself1 which begins by a summary of the whole work1 exhibiting the titles of the twelve chapters of which it is composed4 ,as the two copies mentioned 7the one found in ,bombay1 the other in ,lucknow7 contain the same words1 they can hardly be taken for an accidental addition of a copyist4 ,i found no remark upon this point in ,mr4 ,shea's translation1 who had two manuscript copies to refer to4 ,whatever it be1 it must still remain undecided1 whether ,mohsan ,fani was there named only as the author of the next quatrain or of the whole book1 although either hypothesis may not appear destitute of probability2 nor can it be considered strange to admit that the name of ,mohsan ,fani was borne by more than one individual4 ,i shall be permitted to continue calling the author of the ,dabistn by the presumed name of ,mohsan ,fani4 ,dropping this point1 we shall now search for information upon his person1 character1 and knowledge in the work itself4 ,is he really a native of ,kachmir1 as here before stated8 ,although in the course of his book he makes frequent mention of ,kachmir1 he never owns himself a native of that country4 ,in one part of his narrative1 he expressly alludes to another home4 ,he begins the second chapter upon the religion of the ,hindus 7vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #b7 by these words3 8,as inconstant fortune had torn away the author from the shores of ,persia1 and made him the associate of the believers in transmigration and those who addressed their prayers to idols and images1 and worshipped demons 99 99 99 9940 ,now we know that ,kachmir is considered as a very ancient seat1 nay as the very cradle1 of the doctrine of transmigration1 and of ,hinduism in general1 with all its tenets1 rites1 and customs2 and that from the remotest times to the present it was inhabited by numerous adherents of this faith2 how could the author1 if a native of ,kachmir1 accuse inconstant fortune for having made him elsewhere an associate of these very religionists with whom1 from his birth1 he must have been accustomed to live8 ,the passage just quoted leaves scarce a doubt that the shores of ,persia1 from which he bewails having been torn1 were really his native country4 ,when was he born8 ,he no where adduces the date of his birth2 the earliest period of his life which he mentions1 is the year of the ,hejira #ajbh 7,a4 ,d4 #afah73af in this year the ,mobed ,hushar brought the author to ,balik ,ntha1 a great adept in the ,yoga1 or ascetic devotion1 to receive the blessing of that holy man1 who pronounced these words over him3 8,this boy shall acquire the knowledge of ,god40 ,it is not stated in what place this happened4 ,the next earliest date is five years later1 #ajcc of the ,hejira 7,a4 ,d4 #afbc74ag ,he says that1 in his infancy1 he came with his friends and relations from ,patna to the capital ,akbar-abad1 and was carried in the arms of the ,mobed ,hushar to ,chatur ,vapah1 a famous ascetic of those days4 ,the pious man rejoiced at it1 and bestowed his blessing on the future writer of the ,dabistn2 he taught him the mantra1 8prayer10 of the sun1 and appointed one of his disciples to remain with the boy until the age of manhood4 ,we have here a positive statement3 in the year #afbc ,a4 ,d41 he was 8in his infancy10 and carried 8in the arms of his protector40 ,giving the widest extension to these expressions1 we can hardly think him to have been either much older or younger than seven or eight years3 not much older1 for being in some way carried in the arms of the ,mobed2 nor much younger1 having been taught a hymn to the sun1 and he might have been a boy of three years when he received the first-mentioned blessing from ,balik ,natha4 ,we may therefore suppose him to have been born about the year #afae of our era1 in the tenth year of the reign of the emperor ,jehangir4 ,we collect in his work fifty-three dates relative to himself between the year #afah and #afec4 ,from #afbg to #afdc1 we see him mostly in ,kachmir and ,lahore1 travelling between these two places2 in #afdc1 he was at the holy sepulchre1 probably at ,meshhad1 which appears to be the furthermost town to the ,west which he reached2 from #afcd to #afdi1 he dwelt in several towns of the ,panjab and ,guzerat2 the next year he proceeded to ,sikakul1 the remotest town in the ,east which he says he has visited2 there he fell sick1 and sojourned during #afec1 at which epoch1 if the year of his birth be correctly inferred1 he had attained his thirty-eighth year4 ,we have no other date of his death than that before stated3 if he died in #afgj1 it was in the eleventh year of the reign of ,aurengzb1 or ,alemgir4 ,mohsan ,fani would therefore have passed his infancy1 youth1 and manhood mostly in ,india1 under the reigns of the three emperors1 ,jehangr1 ,shah ,jehan1 and ,aurengzeb4#ah ,it was the state of religion1 prevailing in those days in ,hindostan that he describes4 ,from his earliest age he appears to have led an active life1 frequently changing his residence4 ,such a mode of life belongs to a travelling merchant or philosopher1 and in our author both qualities might have been united1 as is often the case in ,asia4 ,mohsan ,fani1 during his travels1 collected the diversified and curious materials for the ,dabistn2 he observed with his own eyes the manners and customs of different nations and sects4 ,he says himself at the conclusion of his work3 8,after having much frequented the meetings of the followers of the five before-said religions10 ,magians1 ,hindus1 ,jews1 ,nazareans1 and ,muselmans1 8the author wished and undertook to write this book2 and whatever in this work1 treating of the religions of different countries1 is stated concerning the creed of different sects1 has been taken from their books1 and for the account of the persons belonging to any particular sect1 the author's information was imparted to him by their adherents and sincere friends1 and recorded literally1 so that no trace of partiality nor aversion might be perceived3 in short1 the writer of these pages performed no more than the task of a translator40 ,this declaration1 even to a severe critic1 may appear satisfactory4 ,sir ,william ,jones called him#ai a learned and accurate1 a candid and ingenious author4 ,a further appreciation of ,mohsan ,fani's character is reserved for subsequent pages4 ,we can1 however1 here state1 that he sought the best means of information1 and gives us what he had acquired not only from personal experience1 which is always more or less confined2 not only from oral instruction1 which is too often imperfectly given and received2 but also from an attentive perusal of the best works which he could procure upon the subject of his investigation4 ,of the latter authorities which the author produces1 some are known in ,europe1 and we may judge of the degree of accuracy and intelligence with which he has made use of them4 ,of others1 nothing at all1 or merely the name1 is known4 ,this is generally the case with works relative to the old ,persian religion1 which is the subject of the first chapter1 divided into fifteen sections4 ,the authorities which he adduces for this chapter are as follow3 #a4 ,the ,amighistan 7vol4 ,i4 pp4 #ae4 #bf4 #db71 without the name of its author4 #b4 ,the ,destir 7vol4 ,i4 pp4 #bj4 #ba4 #dd4 #fe71 an heaven-bestowed book4 #c4 ,the ,darai ,sekander 7vol4 ,i4 pp4 #cd4 #cfj71 composed by ,dwir ,hryar4 #d4 ,the ,akhteristan1 8region of the stars0 7vol4 ,i4 pp4 #ce4 #db74 #e4 ,the ,jashen ,sadah1 8the festival of ,sadah0 7the #afth night of ,january7 7vol4 ,i4 pp4 #gb4 #aab74 #f4 ,the ,srud-i-mastan1 8song of the intoxicated0 7vol4 ,i4 p4 #gf4 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #acf73 this and the preceding work composed by ,mobed ,hushar4 #g4 ,the ,jam-i-,kai ,khusro1 8the cup of ,kai ,khusro10 a commentary upon the poems of ,azar ,kaivan1 composed by ,mobed ,khod ,jai 7vol4 ,i4 pp4 #gf4 #hd4 #aai47 #h4 ,the ,sharistan-i-,danish wa ,gulistan-i-binish1 8the pavilion of knowledge and rose-garden of vision0 7vol4 ,i4 p4 #gg4 #hi4 #aji71 composed by ,farzanah ,bahram4 #i4 ,the ,zerdusht ,afshar 7vol4 ,i4 p4 #gg71 work of the ,mobed ,serosh1 who composed also3 #aj4 ,nosh ,daru1 8sweet medicine0 7vol4 ,i4 p4 #aad72 and #aa4 ,the ,sagangubin1 8dog's honey0 7vol4 ,i4 p4 #aad74 #ab4 ,the ,bazm-gah-i-durvishan1 8the banquetting-room of the durvishes0 7vol4 ,i4 pp4 #ajd4 #ajh71 without the name of the author4 #ac4 ,the ,arzhang ,mani1 8the gallery of ,mani0 7vol4 ,i4 p4 #aca74 #ad4 ,the ,tabrah-i-,mobedi1 8the sacerdotal kettle-drum0 7vol4 ,i4 p4 #abc71 by ,mobed ,paristar4 #ae4 ,the ,dadistan ,aursah 7vol4 ,i4 p4 #aca74 #af4 ,the ,amzesh-i-farhang 7vol4 ,i4 p4 #ade71 containing the institutes of the ,abadiah durvishes4 #ag4 ,the ,mhn farush 7vol4 ,i4 p4 #bdd74 #ah4 ,the ,testament of ,jamshid to ,abtin 7vol4 ,i4 p4 #aie71 compiled by ,farhang ,dostr4 #ai4 ,razabad1 composed by ,shdab4 #bj4 ,the ,snyl1 a book of the ,sipasians 7vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #acf71 containing an account of a particular sort of devotion4 #ba4 ,the ,rama zastan of ,zardusht 7vol4 ,i4 p4 #cfi and vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #acf74 #bb4 ,huz al ,hayat 7vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #acg71 composed by ,ambaret ,kant4 #bc4 ,the ,samrad ,nameh1 by ,kamkar 7vol4 ,i4 p4 #bja74 ,besides other writings of ,zertusht1 in great number1 which the author has seen4 ,these works are most probably of a mystical nature1 and belong to a particular sect1 but may contain1 however1 some interesting traditions or facts of ancient history4 ,of the twenty-three books just enumerated1 a part of the third only is known to us1 namely1 that of the ,destir4 #a ,in ,april1 #aghc4 #b ,he landed at ,calcutta in ,september1 #aghc4 #c ,in ,january1 #aghd4 #d ,delivered in ,february1 #aghe4 #e ,in ,february1 #aghi4 #f ,the works of sir ,william ,jones1 with the life of the author1 by lord ,teignmouth1 in #ac vols4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #aaj4 #ahjg4 #g ,i shall hereafter give some explanations upon this subject4 #h ,there appears in the printed edition no positive ground for the opinion above expressed2 we find1 however1 frequent repetitions of the same subject1 such as are not likely to belong to the same author2 we know1 besides1 that additions and interpolations are but too common in all ,oriental manuscripts4 #i ,the ,persian text1 with the translation of the first chapter1 appeared in the two first numbers of the ,new ,asiatic ,miscellany4 ,calcutta1 #aghi4 ,this ,english version was rendered into ,german by ,dalberg1 #ahji4 #aj ,these translations are mentioned in the notes of the present version4 #aa ,new ,asiatic ,misc41 p4 #hg4 #ab ,transactions of the ,literary ,society of ,bombay1 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #cgd4 #ac ,transactions of the ,literary ,society of ,bombay1 vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #bdc-bdd4 #ad ,ibid41 pp4 #cge-cgf4 #ae ,see the present ,transl41 vol4 ,i4 pp4 #aac-aad4 ,a mistake is here to be pointed out3 at p4 #aad1 l4 #aa1 the name of ,kaivan has been substituted for that of ,mobed ,serosh4 #af ,see vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #acg4 #ag ,see vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #ade4 #ah ,jehangr reigned from #afje to #afbh4 ,shah ,jehan #afbh #afei4 ,aurengzeb #afei #agjg4 #ai ,the ,works of sir ,w4 ,jones1 vol4 ,,iv4 pp4 #af and #aje4 ,,ii4,,discussion ,,on ,,the ,,desatir4 ,this word was considered to be the ,arabic plural of the original ,persian word dostr1 signifying 8a note-book1 pillar1 canon1 model1 learned man20 but1 according to the ,persian grammar1 its plural would be dosturn1 or dostrha1 and not destir4 ,from this ,arabic form of the word an inference was drawn against the originality and antiquity of the ,destir2 but this of itself is not sufficient1 as will be shown4 ,other readings of the title are ,dastnir1 in one passage1#bj and ,wastir#ba in two other places of ,gladwin's ,persian text1 and the last also in a passage of the printed edition4#bb ,the first is not easily accounted for1 and is probably erroneous2 but the second is found in the index of the printed edition1#bc under the letter 1 vau1 and explained3 8the name of the book of ,mahabad20 it cannot therefore be taken for a typographical error1 and is the correct title of the book1 as ,i now think1 although ,i formerly#bd preferred reading ,destir4 ,it is derivable from the ,sansrcit root ws1 8to sound1 to call10 and therefore in the form of wastis or wastir 7the r and s being frequently substituted for the visarga7 it signifies 8speech1 oracle1 precept1 command40 ,it is also in connection with the old ,persian word wakshur1 8a prophet40 ,considering the frequent substitution in kindred languages of ba for va1 and ba for bha1 it may also be referred to the root bhasha1 8to speak10#be which1 with the prepositions pari and sam1 signifies 8to explain1 expound1 discourse40 ,hence we read in the ,commentary of the ,destir the ancient ,persian word bastir#bf 7not to be found in modern ,persian vocabularies71 which is there interpreted by 8speculations10 in the following passage3 8the speculations 7bastir7 which ,i have written on the destir40 ,i shall nevertheless keep1 in the ensuing ,dissertation1 the title ,destir1 because it is generally adopted4 ,besides1 in the ,mahabdian text1 the vau1 1 frequently occurs for the ,persian dl1 1 thus we find 1 wden1 for 1 dden1 8to give20 and wrem1 1 for drem1 1 8,i have20 but ,i am aware that the two letters1 so similar in their form1 may be easily confounded with each other by the copyist or printer4 ,the extract from the ,destir contained in the ,dabistn was thought worthy of the greatest attention by sir ,william ,jones1 as before mentioned2 nay1 appeared to him 8an unexceptionable authority10 before a part of the ,destir itself was published in ,bombay1 in the year #ahah1 that is1 twenty-four years after the death of that eminent man4 ,the author of the ,dabistn mentions the ,destir as a work well known among the ,sipasians1 that is1 the adherents of the most ancient religion of ,persia4 ,according to his statement1 the emperor ,akbar conversed frequently with the fire-adorers of ,guzerat2 he also called from ,persia a follower of ,zerdusht1 named ,ardeshir1 and invited fire-worshippers from ,kirman to his court1 and received their religious books from that country2 we may suppose the ,destir was among them4 ,so much is positive1 that it is quoted in the ,sharistan chehar chemen1 a work composed by a celebrated doctor who lived under the reigns of the emperors ,akbar and ,jehangr1 and died ,a4 ,d4 #afbd4 ,the compiler of the ,burhani ,kati1 a ,persian ,dictionary1 to be compared to the ,arabic ,kamus1 or 8sea of language10 quotes and explains a great number of obsolete words and philosophic terms upon the authority of the ,destir3 this evidently proves the great esteem in which this work was held4 ,let it be considered that a dictionary is not destined for the use of a sect merely1 but of the whole nation that speaks the language1 and this is the ,persian1 considered1 even by the ,arabs1 as the second language in the world and in paradise4#bg ,it is to be regretted that ,mohsan ,fani did not relate where and how he himself became acquainted with the ,destir4 ,i see no sufficient ground for the supposition of ,silvestre de ,sacy#bh and an anonymous critic1#bi that the author of the ,dabistn never saw the ,destir4 ,so much is certain1 that the account which he gives of the ,mahabdian religion coincides in every material point with that which is contained in that part of the sacred book which was edited in ,bombay by ,mulla ,firuz ,bin-i-,kaus4#cj ,this editor says in his preface 7p4 vi73 8,the ,destir is known to have existed for many years1 and has frequently been referred to by ,persian writers1 though1 as it was regarded as the sacred volume of a particular sect1 it seems to have been guarded with that jealous care and that incommunicative spirit1 that have particularly distinguished the religious sects of the ,east4 ,we can only fairly expect1 therefore1 that the contents should be known to the followers of the sect40 ,mulla ,firuz employs here evidently the term sect with respect to the dominant religion of the ,muhammedan conquerors1 whose violent and powerful intolerance reduced the still faithful followers of the ancient national religion to undergo the fate of a persecuted sect4 ,but we shall see that the doctrine of the ,destir is justly entitled to a much higher pretension than to be that of an obscure sect4 ,whatever it be1 ,mulla ,firuz possessed the only manuscript of the work then known in ,bombay4 ,it was purchased at ,isfahan by his father ,kaus1 about the year #aggh1 from a bookseller1 who sold it under the title of a ,gueber book4 ,brought to ,bombay1 it attracted the particular attention of ,mr4 ,duncan1 then governor of ,bombay1 to such a degree1 that he began an ,english translation of the work1 which was interrupted by his return to ,england4 ,the final completion of the version was owing to the great encouragement which sir ,john ,malcolm gave ,mulla ,firuz in consequence of the high opinion which sir ,william ,jones had publicly expressed of the ,dabistn1 the author of which drew his account of the ancient ,persian dynasties and religions chiefly from the ,destir4 ,there is an interval of one hundred and thirty-three years#ca between the composition of the ,dabistn and the fortuitous purchase of the manuscript copy of the ,destir1 by ,kaus in ,isfahan2 as it would be assuming to much to suppose that the latter is the same from which ,mohsan ,fani drew his information1 we can but admit that the agreement of both1 in the most material points1 affords a confirmation of each respective text4 ,the great ,orientalist ,silvestre de ,sacy1 on reviewing the ,destir1#cb says3 8,we are in a manner frightened by the multitude and gravity of the questions which we shall have to solve1 or at least to discuss2 for every thing is here a problem3 ,what is the age of the book8 ,who is its author8 ,is it the work of several persons2 or the divers parts of which it is composed1 are they written by one and the same author1 although attributed to different individuals1 who succeeded each other at long intervals8 ,the language in which it was written1 was it1 at any epoch1 that of the inhabitants of ,persia1 or of any of the countries comprised in the empire of ,iran8 ,or is it nothing but a factitious language1 invented to support an imposture8 ,at what epoch were made the ,persian translation accompanying the original text1 and the commentary joined to this translation8 ,who is the author of the one and the other8 ,are not this translation and this commentary themselves pseudonymous and apocryphal books2 or may not the whole be the work of an impostor of the latter centuries8 ,all these questions present themselves in a crowd to my mind2 and if some of them appear to be easily answered1 others offer more than common difficulties40 ,well may a person1 even with far greater pretensions than mine can be1 hesitate to attempt the discussion of a subject which frightened the illustrious ,silvestre de ,sacy2 but as the ,destir is one of the principal sources from which the author of the ,dabistn drew his account of the ,persian religion and its divers sectsa considerable part of his work,i cannot dispense with presenting the subject in the state in which the discussions hitherto published1 by very respectable critics1 have left it4 ,if ,i venture to offer a few remarks of my own upon it1 it is only in the hope of provoking further elucidations by philologers who shall examine the ,mahabadian text itself1 and by arguments drawn from its fundamentals decide the important questionwhether we shall have one language more or less to count among the relics of antiquity8 ,instead of following the order in which the questions are stated above1 ,i will begin by that which appears to me the most important1 namely3 8the language in which the ,destir is written1 is it nothing but a factitious language invented to support an imposture80 ,the forgery of a language1 so bold an imposture1 renders any other fraud probable2 through a false medium no truth can be expected1 nor even sought4 ,but1 in order to guard against the preconception of a forgery having taken place1 a preconception the existence of which may1 with too good a foundation1 be apprehended1 ,i shall first examine1 as a general thesis1 whether the invention of a language1 by one individual or by a few individuals1 is in itself probable and credible4 ,i shall only adduce those principles which have received the sanction of great philologers1 among whom it may be sufficient to name baron ,william ,humboldt1 and claim the reader's indulgence1 if1 in endeavoring to be clear1 ,i should not have sufficiently avoided trite observations4 ,tracing languages up to their first origin1 it has been found that they are derived from sounds expressive of feelings2 these are preserved in the roots1 from which1 in the progressive development of the faculty of speech1 verbs1 nouns1 and the whole language1 are formed4 ,in every speech1 even in the most simple one1 the individual feeling has a connection with the common nature of mankind2 speech is not a work of reflection3 it is an instinctive creation4 ,the infallible presence of the word required on every occasion is certainly not a mere act of memory2 no human memory would be capable of furnishing it1 if man did not possess in himself instinctively the key1 not only for the formation of words1 but also for a continued process of association3 upon this the whole system of human language is founded4 ,by entering into the very substance of existing languages1 it appears evident that they are intellectual creations1 which do not at all pass from one individual to others1 but can only emerge from the coexisting self-activity of all4 8 ,that one the names of things contrived1 ,and that from him their knowledge all derived1 #8,tis fond to think40#cc ,as long as the language lives in the mouth of a nation1 the words are a progressive production and reproduction of the faculty to form words4 ,in this manner only can we explain1 without having recourse to a supernatural cause1 how millions of men can agree to use the same words for every object1 the same locution for every feeling4 ,language in general is the sensible exterior vestment of thought2 it is the product of the intelligence1 and the expression of the character of mankind2 in particular it may be considered as the exterior manifestation of the genius of nations3 their language is their genius1 and their genius is their language4 ,we see of what use the investigation of idioms may be in tracing the affinities of nations4 ,history and geography must be taken as guides in the researches upon tongues2 but these researches would be futile1 if languages were the irregular product of hazard4 ,no3 profound feeling and immediate clearness of vivid intuition act with wonderful regularity1 and follow an unerring analogy4 ,the genesis of languages may be assimilated to that of works of genius,i mean1 of that creative faculty which gives rules to an art4 ,thus is it the language which dictates the grammar4 ,moreover1 the utmost perfection of which an idiom is susceptible is a line like that of beauty1 which1 once attained1 can never be surpassed4 ,this was the case with some ancient tongues4 ,since that time1 mankind appear to have lost a faculty or a talent1 inasmuch as they are no more actuated by that urgency of keen feeling which was the very principle of the high perfection of those languages4 ,comparative philology1 a new science1 sprung up within the last thirty years1 but already grown to an unforeseen perfection1 has fixed the principles by which the affinities of languages may be known1 even among the apparently irregular disparities which various circumstances and revolutions of the different nations have created4 ,this would have been impossible1 if there did not exist a fundamental philosophy of language1 however concealed1 and a certain consistency1 even in the seemingly most irregular modification of dialect1 for instance1 in that of pronunciation4 ,but1 even the permutation of letters in different and the most rude dialects1 has its rules1 and follows1 within its own compass1 a spontaneous analogy1 such as is indispensable for the easy and common practice of a society more or less numerous4 ,thus sounds1 grammatical forms1 and even graphical signs of language have been subjected to analysis and comparison2 the significant radical letters have been distinguished from the merely accidental letters1 and a distinction has been established between what is fundamental1 and what is merely historical and accidental4 ,from these considerations ,i conclude3 ,first,that the forgery of a language is in itself highly improbable2 ,secondly,that1 if it had been attempted1 comparative philology is perfectly capable of detecting it4 ,taking a large historical view of this subject1 we cannot suppress the following reflection3 ,the formation of mighty and civilized states being admitted1 even by our strictest chronologers1 to have taken place at least twenty-five centuries before our era1 it can but appear extraordinary1 even after taking in account violent revolutions1 that of so multitudinous and great existences1 only such scanty documents should have come down to us4 ,but1 strange to say1 whenever a testimony has escaped the destruction of time1 instead of being greeted with a benevolent although discerning curiosity1 the unexpected stranger is approached with mistrustful scrutiny1 his voice is stifled with severe rebukes1 his credentials discarded with scorn1 and by a predetermined and stubborn condemnation1 resuscitating antiquity is repelled into the tomb of oblivion4 ,i am aware that all dialectical arguments which have been or may be alleged against the probability of forging a language1 would be of no avail against well-proved facts1 that languages have been forged1 and that works1 written in them1 exist4 ,we may remember the example adduced by ,richardson#cd of a language1 as he said1 8sufficiently original1 copious1 and regular to impose upon persons of very extensive learning10 forged by ,psalmanazar4 ,this was the assumed name of a an individual1 whom the eminent ,orientalist calls a ,jew1 but who1 born in #afgi1 in ,languedoc or in ,provence1 of ,christian parents1 received a ,christian1 nay theological education1 as good as his first instructors1 ,franciscans1 ,jesuits1 and ,dominicans could bestow4 ,this extraordinary person threw himself at a very early age into a career of adventures1 in the course of which1 at the age of seventeen years1 he fell upon the wild project of passing for a native of the island of ,formosa1 first as one who had been converted to ,christianity1 then1 as still a pagan1 he let himself be baptized by a ,scotch minister1 by whom he was recommended to an ,english bishop2 the latter1 in his pious illusion1 promoted at once the interests of the convertor1 and the fraud of the neophyte4#ce ,this adventurer who was bold enough1 while on the continent1 to set about inventing a new character and language1 a grammar1 and a division of the year into twenty months1 published in ,london1 although not twenty years old1 a translation of the catechism into his forged language of ,formosa1 and a history of the island with his own alphabetical writing1 which read from right to lefta gross fiction the temporary success of which evinces the then prevailing ignorance in history1 geography1 and philology4 ,but pious zeal and fanaticism had changed a scientific discussion into a religious quarrel1 and for too long a time rendered vain the objections of a few truly learned and clear-sighted men2 until the impostor1 either incapable of supporting longer his pretensions or urged by his conscience1 avowed the deception1 and at last became a truly learned good and estimable man4#cf ,we see this example badly supports the cause of forged languages4 ,in #ahje1 ,m4 ,rousseau1 since consul-general of ,france at ,aleppo1 found in a private library at ,baghdad a dictionary of a language which is designated by the name of ,balibalan1 interpreted 8he who vivifies10 and written in ,arabic characters called ,neshki2 it was explained in ,arabic1 ,persian1 and ,turkish4 ,the unknown author of the dictionary composed it for the intelligence of mysterious and occult sciences1 written in that language4 ,the highly learned ,silvestre de ,sacy had scarce been informed of this discovery1 when he sought and found in the ,royal ,library1 at ,paris1 the same dictionary1 and with his usual diligence and sagacity published a short but lucid ,notice of it4#cg ,what he said therein was sufficient for giving an idea of the manner in which this language participates in the grammatical forms of ,arabic1 ,persian1 and ,turkish4 ,silvestre de ,sacy1 as well as ,m4 ,rousseau1 have left it uncertain whether the language be dead or living2 by whom and at what period it was formed1 and what authors have made use of it4 ,the former adds1 that some works written in ,balibalan are likely to be found in the hands of the ,sfis of ,persia4 ,this language deserves perhaps a further examination4 ,all that is positive in the just-adduced statement of the two great ,orientalists may be said of any other language1 which is not original but composed1 as for instance the ,english or the ,dutch1 of more than one idiom4 ,we can but admit that1 at all times an association of men for a particular purpose1 a school of art1 science1 and profession may have1 has1 and even must have1 a particular phraseology4 ,any modification of ancient1 or production of new1 ideas1 will create a modified or a new language2 any powerful influence of particular circumstances will produce a similar effect2 this is a spontaneous reproduction1 and not the intentional forgery of a language4 ,such a forgery1 even if it could remain undetected1 which it cannot in our times1 would but furnish a curious proof of human ingenuity1 to which no bounds can be assigned2 but the true and sole object of a language could never be attained by it2 because1 never would a great number of independent men be disposed1 nor could they be forced1 to adopt the vocabulary1 grammar1 and locutions of a single man1 and appropriate them to themselves for the perpetual expression of their inmost mind1 and for the exchange of their mutual feelings and ideas4#ch ,to effect this1 is a miracle ascribed to the ,divinity1 and with justice2 being the evident result of the ,heaven-bestowed faculty of speech1 one of the perpetual miracles of the world4 ,of this a prophet must avail himself who announces to the world the important intelligence of a heavenly revelation4 ,the great purpose of his sacred mission implies the widest possible proclamation of his doctrine in a language generally intelligible1 which a forged language never can be4 ,if1 as was surmised1#ci the ,destir be set up as a rival to the ,koran1 it must have been written in a national language for a nation2 the ,persians owned as theirs the ,mahabadian religion1 the identical one which history1 although not under the same name1 attributes to them in remote ages1 as will result from an examination of the doctrine itself4 ,considering the knowledge required1 and the difficulties to be overcome in forging a language in such a manner as to impose1 even for a time1 upon the credulity of others1 we shall conclude that nothing less than direct proof is requisite for establishing such a forgery as a real fact4 ,now1 what arguments have been set forth for declaring the language of the ,destir to be nothing else than 8an artificial idiom invented to support an imposture80 ,silvestre de ,sacy says3#dj 8,it is difficult indeed1 not to perceive that the multiplied relations which exist between the ,asmni1 #8heavenly1' and ,persian languages are the result of a systematic operation1 and not the effect of hazard1 nor that of time1 which proceeds with less regularity in the alterations to which language is subjected40 ,i must apologise for here interrupting this celebrated author1 for the purpose of referring to what nobody better than himself has established as a peremptory condition of existence for any language1 and what he certainly never meant to deny1 but may perhaps here be supposed to forgetnamely1 that a language is not 8the effect of hazard10 and although 8not the result of systematic combination10 yet1 as an instinctive creation1 shows surprising regularity1 and that an evident rule predominates in the alterations which time produces in languages4 ,silvestre de ,sacy proceeds3 8,the grammar of the ,mahabadian language is evidently1 for the whole etymological part1 and even 7which is singularly striking7 in what concerns the anomalous verbs1 traced from 7calque sur7 the ,persian grammar1 and as to the radical words1 if there be many of them the origin of which is unknown1 there is also a great number of them in which the ,persian root1 more or less altered1 may be recognised without any effort40 ,erskine examined1 without the least communication with the ,french critic1 the ,mahabadian language1 and says3#da 8,in its grammar it approaches very nearly to the modern ,persian1 as well in the inflection of the nouns and verbs1 as in its syntax40 ,norris#db takes the very same view of it4 ,these highly respectable critics published their judgment upon the ,mahabadian language before the comparison of several languages with the ,sanscrit and between each other had been made by able philologers1 creators of the new science of comparative philology4 ,according to the latter1 the proofs of the real affinity of language1 that is1 the proofs that two languages belong to the same family1 are to be principally and can be properly deduced1 from their grammatical system4 ,thus1 for instance1 the forms of the ,greek and ,latin languages are in several parts nearly identical with the ,sanscrit1 the first bearing a greater resemblance in one respect1 the latter in another2 the ,greek verbs in mi1 the ,latin declension of some nouns appear1 to use the expression of the illustrious author1 8traced from each other 7calqus l'un sur l'autre740 ,these two languages seem to have divided between them the whole system of the ancient grammar1 which is most perfectly preserved in the ,sanscrit4 ,this language itself is probably1 with the two mentioned1 derived from a more ancient language2 we meet in them three sisters recognised by their striking likeness4 ,this1 although more or less weakened and even obliterated in some features1 remains upon the whole still perceptible in a long series of their relations3 ,i mean in all those languages which are distinguished by the name of ,indo-germanic1 to which the ,persian belongs4 ,but1 in deciding upon the affinity of languages1 not only the grammatical forms are to be examined1 but also the system of sounds is to be studied1 and the words must be considered in their roots and derivations4 ,the three critics mentioned agree that the language of the ,destir is very similar to the ,persian or ,deri1 not only in grammar1 but also in etymology2 a great number of the verbal and nominal roots are the same in both4 ,this similarity would1 according to comparative philology1 lead to the conclusion that either the one is derived from the other1 or that both proceed from a common parent2 but nothing hitherto here alleged can justify the supposition of invention1 forgery1 or fabrication of the so-called ,mahabadian language4 ,we continue to quote the strictures of ,silvestre de ,sacy3 8,there is however a yet stronger proof of the systematic operation which produced the factitious idiom4 ,this proof ,i derive from the perfect and constant identity which prevails between the ,persian phraseology and that of the ,mahabadian idiom4 ,the one and the other are1 whenever the translation does not degenerate into paraphrase or commentary1 which frequently happens1 traced from each other 7calqus l'un sur l'autre7 in such a manner that each phrase1 in both1 has always the same number of words1 and these words are always arranged in the same order4 ,for producing such a result1 we must admit two idioms1 the grammar of which should be perfectly alike1 as weil with respect to the etymological part as to the syntax1 and their respective dictionaries offering precisely the same number of words1 whether nouns1 verbs1 or particles3 which would suppose two nations1 having precisely the same number of ideas1 whether absolute or relative1 and conceiving but the same kind and the same number of relations40 ,if what we have already stated be not unfounded1 the last quoted paragraph1 which the author calls 8a yet stronger proof of the systematic operations which produced the factitious idiom0 must be acknowledged not to have the weight which he would attribute to it4 ,if the ,mahabadian and ,persian be languages related to each other1 8a perfect and constant identity of phraseology between them both10 if even so great as it is said to be1 is not only possible1 but may be fairly expected in the avowed translation of the ,destir into ,persian4 ,such identity is most religiously aimed at in versions of a sacred text4 ,need ,i adduce modern examples of translations which1 in point of phraseological conformity with their original1 may vie with the ,persian version of the ,mahabadian text8 ,the supposition that two nations have the same number of ideas1 absolute or relative1 is far from being absurd3 it is really the fact with all nations who are upon the same level of civilisation2 but the present question is of the writings of the same nation1 which1 possessing at all times a sort of government and religion fundamentally the same1 might easily count an obsolete language of its own among the monuments of its antiquity4 ,on that account1 we cannot see what the former arguments of the critic gain in strength by the addition3 8that the perfect identity of conception falls in a very great part upon abstract and metaphysical ideas1 in which such a coincidence is infinitely more difficult than when the question is only of objects and relations perceptible to the senses40,a great similarity is remarked in all forms of thinking4 ,little chance of being contradicted can be incurred in saying1 that the fundamental ideas of metaphysics are common to all mankind1 and inherent in human reason4 ,the encyclopedian contents of the ,dabistn1 concerning the opinions of so many nations1 would furnish a new proof of it1 were this generally acknowledged fact in need of any further support4 ,silvestre de ,sacy acknowledges that the ,asmni language contains a great number of radical words1 the origin of which is not known4 ,erskine says3#dc 8,it is certainly singular that the language in which the ,destir is written1 like that in which the ,zend-,avesta is composed1 is no where else to be met with4 ,it is not derived from the ,zend1 the ,pehlevi1 the ,sanscrit1 ,arabic1 ,turkish1 ,persian1 or any other known language40 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,the basis of the language1 and the great majority of words in it1 belong to no known tongue4 ,it is a mixture of ,persian and ,indian words4 ,a few ,arabic words occur40 ,norris#dd also found that a great part of the language appears to have little resemblance to any other that was ever spoken4 ,a judgment1 so expressed1 might induce an impartial mind to ascribe originality to at least a part of the ,asmni language2 which would naturally render the other part less liable to suspicion1 inasmuch as it would have been not less difficult to execute1 but less easy to conceal1 a partial than a total forgery4 ,nevertheless it so happens that the dissimilarity from any other1 as well as the similarity to one particular idiom1 are both equally turned against the genuineness of the language in question3 where dissimilarity exists1 there is absolute forgerywhere similarity1 an awkward disguise6 ,erskine continues3 8,the ,persian system it is unnecessary to particularise2 but it is worthy of attention that1 among the words of ,indian origin1 not only are many ,sanscrit1 which might happen in a work of a remote age1 but several belong to the colloquial language of ,hindustn3 this is suspicious1 and seems to mark a much more recent origin4 ,many words indeed occur in the ,destir that are common to the ,sanscrit and to the vulgar ,indian languages 7the author quotes thirty-four of them72 many others might be pointed out4 ,but the most remarkable class of words is that which belongs to the pure ,hindi2 such ,i imagine are the word shet1 #8respectable1' prefixed to the names of prophets and others 7twenty-four are adduced74 ,whatever may be thought of the words of ,persian descent1 it is not probable that those from the ,hindustan are of a very remote age2 they may perhaps be regarded as considerably posterior to the settlement of the ,muselmans in ,india40 ,strongly supported by the opinion of respectable philologers1 ,i do not hesitate to draw a quite contrary conclusion from the facts stated by ,erskine4 ,it should be remembered that1 in the popular or vulgar dialects are often found remains of ancient tongues1 namely1 roots of words1 locutions1 nay rules of grammar which have become obsolete1 or disappeared in the cultivated idioms derived from the same original language4 ,it was not without reason that the illustrious ,william ,humboldt recommended to the ,royal ,asiatic ,society of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1#de to examine1 on behalf of general ,oriental philology1 the different provincial dialects of ,india4 ,even the gibberish of gypsies is not to be neglected for that purpose4#df ,thus1 if we are not greatly mistaken1 the very arguments alleged to show that the ,mahabadian language is an invention or forgery1 lead rather to a contrary conclusion4 ,duly sensible of the great weight of authority which opposes the result of my inquiry1 ,i sought an explanation of the severe judgment passed upon the ,destir1 and venture to surmise that it was occasioned by the certainly extravagant claim to a heavenly origin and incredible antiquity which has been attached to this work4 ,such pretensions1 taken in too serious a light1 can but hurt a fixed1 if not religious1 belief4 ,every nation acknowledges but one heavenly book1 and rejects every other4 ,hence arises a very natural1 and even respectable pre-conception against all that appears without the limits traced by religion1 or mere early habit and adopted system4 ,thus a severe censure is provoked4 ,to annihilate at once the impertinent pretension to a divine origin1 all that ingenuity can suggest is brought forward to prove the book to be a fraudulent forgery2 to strip it of the awful dignity of antiquity1 it must by any means be represented as the work of yesterday4 ,but error is not fraud1 and may be as ancient as mankind itself2 because credulous1 a man is not the forger of a document4 ,if the ,mahabadian language is not that primitive idiom from which the ,sanscrit1 the ,zend1 and other languages are derived1 it does not follow that it is 8a mere jargon1 fabricated with no great address to support a religious or philosophical imposture20#dg if it was not spoken in ,iran long before the establishment of the ,pshdadian monarchy1 it does not follow 8that it has at no time belonged to any tribe or nation on the face of the earth40 ,however ,i may appear inclined in favor of the ,destir1 ,i shall avoid incurring the blame of unfair concealment by adding to the names of the great critics above quoted1 adverse to this work1 the great one of ,william von ,schlegel4 ,i must avow it2 the celebrated author declares the ,destir1#dh intimately connected with the ,dabistn1 to be 8a forgery still more refined 7than that of the ,brahman who deceived ,wilford71#di and written in a pretended ancient language1 but fabricated at pleasure40 ,as he1 however1 presents no arguments of his own1 but only appeals in a note to the articles written by ,silvestre de ,sacy and ,erskine1 there is no occasion here for a further observation concerning this question4 ,as to von ,schlegel's opinion upon the ,dabistn1 ,i reserve some remarks upon it for another place4 ,general arguments1 opposed to general objections1 may produce persuasion1 but are not sufficient for establishing the positive truth concerning a subject in question4 ,it is necessary to dive into the ,mahabadian language itself for adequate proofs of its genuineness4 ,i might have justly hesitated to undertake this task1 but found it already most ably achieved by baron von ,hammer1#ej in whom we do not know which we ought to admire most1 his vast store of ,oriental erudition1 or the indefatigable activity1 with which he diffuses1 in an unceasing series of useful works1 the various information derived not only from the study of the dead letter in books1 but also from converse with the living spirit of the actual ,eastern world4 ,this sagacious reviewer of the ,destir1 examining its language1 finds proofs of its authenticity in the nature of its structure and the syllables of its formation1 which1 when compared to the modern pure ,persian or ,der1 have the same relation to it as the ,gothic to the ,english2 the old ,persian and the old ,germanic idioms exhibit in the progress of improvement such a wonderful concordance and analogy as can by no means be the result of an ingenious combination1 nor that of a lucky accidental coincidence4 ,thus1 the language of the ,destir has syllables of declension affixed to pronouns1 which coincide with those of the ,gothic and ,low ,german1 but are not recognisable in the modern form of the ,persian pronouns4 ,this is also the case with some forms of numerical and other words4 ,the ,mahabadian language contains also a good number of ,germanic radicals which cannot be attributed to the well-known affinity of the ,german and the modern ,persian1 because they are no more to be found in the latter1 but solely in the ,destir4 ,this has besides many ,english1 ,greek1 and ,latin words1 a series of which baron von ,hammer exhibits1 andwhich ought to be duly noticeda considerable number of ,mahabadian words1 belonging also to the languages enumerated1 are sought in vain in any ,persian dictionary of our days6 ,surely1 an accidental coincidence of an invented factitious language1 with ,greek1 ,latin1 and ,germanic forms would be by far a greater and more inexplicable miracle1 than the great regularity of this ancient sacred idiom of ,persia1 and its conformity with the modern ,deri4 ,it is nevertheless from the latter that the forgery is chiefly inferred4 ,moreover1 the acute philologer1 analysing the ,mahabadian language by itself1 points out its essential elements and component parts1 that is1 syllables of derivation1 formation1 and inflexion4 ,thus he adduces as syllables of derivation certain vowels1 or consonants preceded by certain vowels2 he shows certain recurring terminations to be syllables of formation for substantives1 adjectives1 and verbs2 he sets forth particular forms of verbs1 and remarkable expressions4 ,all this he supports by numerous examples taken from the text of the ,destir4 ,such a process enabled him to rectify in some places the ,persian translation of the ,mahabadian text4 ,i can but repeat that my only object here is to present the question in the same state that ,i found it2 and am far from contesting1 nay1 readily admit1 the possibility of arguments which may lead to a contrary conclusion4 ,until such are produced1 although not presuming to decide1 ,i may be permitted to believe that the language of the ,destir is no forgery2 ,i may range myself on the side of the celebrated ,orientalist mentioned1 who1 ten years after the date of his review of the ,destir 7ten years which1 with him1 are a luminous path of ever-increasing knowledge71 had not changed his opinion upon the language of the ,destir1 and assigns to it#ea a place among the ,asiatic dialects2 according to him1 as it is more nearly related to the new ,persian than to the ,zand and the ,pehlevi1 it may be considered as a new intermediate ring in the hermetic chain which connects the ,germanic idioms with the old ,asiatic languages2 it is perhaps the most ancient dialect of the ,deri1#eb spoken1 if not in ,fars1 yet in the north-eastern countries of the ,persian empire1 to wit1 in ,sogd and ,bamian4 ,when it ceased to be spoken1 like several other languages of by-gone ages1 the ,mahabdian was preserved perhaps in a single book1 or fragment of a book1 similar in its solitude to the ,hebrew ,bible1 or the ,persian ,zend-,avesta4 ,at what epoch was the ,destir written8 ,the epoch assigned to it1 according to different views1 is the sixth#ec or the seventh#ed century of our era1 even the later time of the ,seljucides1 who reigned from ,a4 ,d4 #ajcg to #aaic4 ,the latter epoch is adopted as the earliest assignable1 by ,silvestre de ,sacy1 who alleges two reasons for his opinion3 the one is his belief that the new ,persian language1 in which the ,destir was translated and commented by the fabricator of the original or ,mahabadian text did not exist earlier2 the second reason refers to some parts of the contents of the ,destir4 ,i shall touch upon both these questions4 ,it is useless to discuss what can never be ascertained1 who the author of the ,destir was4 ,but this work would be unintelligible without the ,persian translation and commentary4 ,silvestre de ,sacy asks3 8,are not this translation and this commentary1 themselves pseudonymous and apocryphal books1 and is not the whole1 perhaps1 the work of an impostor of the last century80 ,in answering this1 ,i shall be guided by the baron von ,hammer1 who wrote his review of the ,destir before he had seen that of the ,journal des ,savans1 but1 after having perused the latter1 declared that he had nothing to change in his opinion4 ,although the commentator1 to whom the honor of being the inventor of the ,mahabadian language is ascribed1 follows in the main the ancient text word for word1 and substitutes commonly a new for the obsolete form of the term1 yet frequent instances occur 7some of which baron von ,hammer adduces7 which prove that the interpreter did not clearly understand the old text1 but in place of the true meaning gave his own arbitrary interpretation4 ,the proper names even are not always the same4 ,besidesand this is most importantthe doctrines contained in the ,destir and in the ,commentary differ from each other4 ,in the books of the first ,mahabadian kings we find the fundamental ideas of the ,oriental philosophy1 such as it was before its migration from ,asia to ,europe2 but in the commentary we perceive the development of the ,aristotelian scholastic1 such as it formed itself among the ,asiatics1 when they had1 by means of translations1 become acquainted with the ,stagirite4 ,we shall revert to this subject hereafter4 ,whatever it bethe discrepancies between the original text and the interpretation1 as they would certainly have been avoided by the author of both1 prove that they are the works of two different persons1 probably with the interval of a few centuries between them4 ,the ,persian translator and commentator is said to be the fifth ,sassan1 who lived in the time of the ,persian king ,khusro-,parviz1 a contemporary of the ,roman emperor ,heraclius1 and died only nine years before the destruction of the ancient ,persian monarchy1 or in the year #fdc of our era4 ,it must be presumed that the five ,sassans1 the first of whom was a contemporary of ,alexander1 #cbc years before ,christ1 were not held to be immediate successors to each other1 but only in the same line of descent2 otherwise an interval of #idf years1 from ,alexander to ,parviz1 comprehending the reign of thirty-one ,arsacides and twenty-two ,sassanian princes1 would be given to no more than five individuals1 which absurdity ought not to be attributed to the commentary of the ,destir4 ,in general1 so common is it with ,asiatics to deal with names of celebrity as if they were generic names1 that it is very frequently impossible to be positive about the true author of a work4 ,there appears in the present case nothing to prevent us from placing the translator and commentator of the ,destir 7whether a ,sassan or not7 in the seventh century of our era4 ,the translation and commentary of the ,destir are written in what the best judges consider as very pure ,persian1 though ancient1 without any mixture whatever of words of ,arabic or ,chaldean origin1 and conformable to the grammatical system of modern ,persian4 ,but when was the latter formed8,as the opinion upon this epoch involves that upon the age of the composition itself1 ,i shall be permitted to take a rather extensive historical view of this part of the question4 ,setting aside the ,mahabadian kings mentioned in the ,destir and ,dabistn1 we know that ,gilshah1 ,hoshang1 ,jamshid 7true ,persian names7 are proclaimed by all ,orientalists as founders of the ,persian empire and builders of renowned cities in very remote times4 ,this empire comprised in its vast extent different nations1 speaking three principal languages1 the ,zand1 ,pehlevi1 and ,parsi4 ,among these nations were the ,pers1 8,persians10 properly and distinctively so called4 ,we are informed by ,herodotus#ee that there were different races of ,pers1 of whom he enumerates eleven4 ,those who inhabited originally ,fars1 ,farsistan1 ,persis1#ef a country double the extent of ,england1 and gave their name to the whole empire1 certainly spoke their own idiom1 the ,parsi or ,farsi4 ,a national language may vary in its forms1 but never can be destroyed as long as any part of the nation exits2 can we doubt that the ,persians who1 once the masters of ,asia1 although afterwards shorn of their power1 never ceased to be independent and formidable1 preserved their language to our days8 ,we may consider as remains of the oldest ,persian language1 the proper and other names of persons1 places and things mentioned by the most ancient historians2 now1 a number of such words1 which occur in the ,hebrew ,bible1#eg in ,herodotus1 and other ,greek authors1 are much better explained from modern ,persian than from ,zand and ,pehlevi4 ,in the ,armenian language exist words common to the ,persian1 none common to the ,pehlevi2#eh therefore1 in very remote times ,persian and not ,pehlevi was the dominant idiom of the ,iranian nations with whom the ,armenians were in relation4 ,more positive information is reserved for posterity1 when the cuneiform inscriptions upon the monumental rocks and ruins1 to be found in all directions within the greatest part of ,asia1 shall be deciphered by future philologers1 not perhaps possessing greater talent1 but better means of information from all-revealing time than those of our days1 who have already successfully begun the great work,grotefend1 ,rask1 ,st4 ,martin1 ,burnouf1 ,lassen1 etc4 ,let us now take a hasty review of a few principal epochs of the ,persian empire1 with respect to language1 beginning only from that nearest the time1 in which ,persia was seen and described by ,herodotus1 ,ctesias1 and ,xenophon1 not without reference to the then existing national historical records4 ,khosru 7,cyrus7 the ,persian ,king1 placed by the ,occidentals in the seventh century before our era1#ei having wrested the sceptre from the hands of the ,medes1 who spoke ,pehlevi1 naturally produced the ascendancy of his national idiom4 ,this did not sink under his immediate successors1 ,lohrasp and ,gushtasp4 ,although under the reign of the latter1 who received ,zardusht at his court in the sixth century ,b4 ,c41#fj the ,zand might have had great currency1 yet it certainly declined after ,gushtasp1 as his grandson ,bahman1 the son of ,isfendiar1 favored the cultivation of the ,parsi4#fa ,this language was perfected in ,baktria 7the original name of which country is ,bkhter1 8,east10 an old ,persian word7 and in the neighboring ,transoxiana2 there the towns ,bamian1 the ,thebes of the ,east1 and ,balkh1 built by ,lohrasp and sanctified by ,gushtasp's famous ,pyrum1 besides ,merv and ,bokhra1 were great seats of ,persian arts and sciences4 ,the ,parsi1 thus refined1 was dominant in all the royal residences1 which changed according to seasons and circumstances2 it was spoken at the court of the ,second ,dara 7,darius ,codomanus71 and sounds in his own name and that of his daughters ,sitra 7,statira71 8star10 and ,roshana 7,roxana71 8splendor10 whom the unfortunate king resigned with his empire to ,alexander4#fb ,this conqueror1 intoxicated with power1 endeavored to exterminate the ,mobeds1 the guardians of the national religion and science2 he slew many1 but dispersed only the majority4 ,from the death of ,alexander 7#cbc ,b4 ,c47 to the reign of ,ardeshir ,babegan 7,artaxerxes71 the founder of the ,sassanian dynasty 7#bjj ,a4 ,d471 a period of more than five centuries is almost a blank in the ,persian history2 but when the last-mentioned king1 the regenerator of the ancient ,iranian monarchy1 wishing to restore its laws and literature1 convoked the ,mobeds1 he found forty thousand of them before the gate of the fire-temple of ,barpa4#fc ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 in the fourth century of our era attests1 that the title of king was in ,deri1 8court-language10 yet the ,pehlevi was spoken concurrently with it during the reigns of the first twelve ,sassanian princes1 until it was proscribed by a formal edict of the thirteenth of them1 ,bahram gor1 in our fifth century4 ,nushirvan and ,parviz1 in the sixth century1 were both celebrated for the protection which they granted to arts and sciences4 ,we have on record a school of physic1 poetry1 rhetoric1 dialectics1 and abstract sciences1 flourishing at ,gandi sapor1 a town in ,khorasan3 the ,persian must have then been highly cultivated4 ,we are now in the times of ,muhammed2 were they not ,persian1 those ,tales1 the charm of which1 whether in the original or in the translation1 was such1 that the ,arabian legislator1 to counteract it1 summoned up the power of his high-sounding heaven-inspired eloquence1 and wrote a part of the ,koran against them8 ,if he himself had not named the ,deri as the purest dialect of the ,persian1 what other language could we believe he admired for its extreme softness so much as to say1 that the ,almighty used it when he wished to address the angels in a tone of mildness and beneficence1 whilst he reserved the ,arabic for command8#fd ,such a fact1 or such a tradition1 presupposes a refined1 and therefore long-spoken language4 ,after ,muhammed's death1 his fanatic successors attempted to bury under the ruins of the ,persian empire even the memory of its ancient religion and languagebut they did not succeed3 the sacred fire was saved and preserved beyond the ,oxus2 it was rekindled in ,baktria1 that ancient hearth of ,persian splendor2 there poetry and eloquence revived1 but could not raise their voices until princes of ,persian origin became lieutenants of the ,mohammedan khalifs4 ,it was under ,nasr1 son of ,ahmed the ,samanian1 in the beginning of our tenth century1 that ,,rudigi rose1 the first celebrated new ,persian poet1 but he found1 he did not create the language1 more than ,homer created ,greek1 ,dante ,italian1 or ,spenser ,english4 ,a great author1 in whom the genius of his nation is concentrated1 does no more than aptly collect into a whole the idiom which exists every where in parts1 and elicit its pre-existing resources4 ,thus under his pen the language can appear to spring up with all its beautiesas ,minerva1 equipped in armour1 sprung forth from the head of ,jupiter4 ,such being the historical indications relative to the ,persian language1 we cannot participate in the doubts of ,silvestre de ,sacy1 nor find ,erskine#fe just in disdaining even to make a comment upon the credibility of the hypothesis 8that the ,persian language was completely formed in the age of the latter ,sassanians40 ,it would be rather a matter of wonder that the ,parsi1 related to the most ancient and most cultivated language in the world1 should not have been much sooner fitted for the harmonious lays of ,ferdusi6a matter of wonder indeed1 that the ,persians1 who taught the ,arabs so much of their religionheaven and hell1 should have remained behind them in the refinement of their idiom6that they1 who could scoff at the ,tazis as eaters of lizards1 should not have possessed1 in the seventh century1 a language to contend with that people1 who themselves possessed celebrated poets long before ,muhammed6#ff ,it is for ever regrettable that overpowering ,muhammedism should have spoiled the original admirable simplicity of one of the softest languages in the world1 by the intrusion of the sonorous but harsher words of ,arabic1 and imposed upon us the heavy tax of learning two languages for understanding one2 but1 as the translation of the ,destir is free from words of an ,arabic or ,chaldean origin1 should we not fairly conclude1 that it was executed before the ,muhammedan conquest of ,persia8 ,so did ,norris1 and so ,erskine,i can but thinkwould have done1 if his judgment and penetration1 usually so right and acute1 had not been prepossessed by the idea of an imposture1 which he had assumed as proved or self-evident1 whilst this was the very point of contestation4 ,thus1 8the very freedom from words of foreign growth1 which the learned natives consider as a mark of authenticity1 appeared to him the proof of an artificial and fabricated style40 ,if even there are some ,arabic words to be found in the text and the translation of the ,destir1 this affords no fair inference that these works had not been composed before the ,arabs conquered ,persia1 because those words might have come from ,pehlevi1 in which there is a mixture of ,arabic1 and there are also ,persian words in the ,koran2 most naturally1 as there subsisted from times immemorial relations between ,persia and ,arabia4 ,what ,i have said will1 if ,i am not mistaken1 sufficiently justify the conclusion1 that the ,persian idiom could in the seventh century have attained the regularity and form of the present ,persian1 such at least1 as it appears in the ,commentary of the ,destir1 not without a very perceptible tincture of obsoleteness4 ,i need scarce remark that the title asmni1 8heavenly10 belongs exclusively to the superstitious admiration with which the ,destir is viewed4 ,nor are its fifteen books to be taken for sacred works of so many prophets who succeeded each other after such long intervals of time2 yet nothing prevents us1 as ,i hope to show1 from believing some parts of them very ancient4 ,neither are these of the same antiquity4 ,thus1 prophecies which are certainly interpolations made after the events1 occur in them1 not otherwise than in the ,indian ,purnas1 the fundamental parts of which are nevertheless now admitted to be as ancient as the ,vedas themselves4 ,we find in the two last books of the ,destir are mentioned3 the contest between the ,abbasides and the descendants of ,ali2 the adoption of ,muhammedism by almost the totality of ,iran2 inimical sects1 and the power of the ,turcomans superseding that of the ,arabs2 the latter parts must certainly have been composed after the taking of ,bagdd by ,hulogu in #abeh of our era4 ,the fifteenth book of the ,destir is probably apocryphal4 ,as to the doctrine of the ,destir1 ,erskine says3#fg 8,i consider that the whole of the peculiar doctrines1 ascribed to ,mahabad and ,hoshang1 is borrowed from the mystical doctrines of the ,persian ,sfis1 and from the ascetic tenets and practices of the ,yogis and ,sanyasis1 of ,india who drew many of their opinions from the ,vedanta-school40 ,but this involves the great historical question1 concerning the origin of ,sfism and the whole ,indian philosophy1 which is by some 7not without foundation7 believed to have been spread throughout a great part of ,asia4 ,it is quite gratuitous1 ,i may say1 to regard them 8as having had no existence before the time of ,azar ,kaivan#fh and his disciples in the reigns of ,akbar and ,jehanguir1 and as having been devised and reduced into form between #bjj and #cjj years ago in the school of ,sipasi-philosophers40 ,nor can ,i admit as better founded the following insinuations of the same ingenious critic3 8,nor shall ,i inquire whether many of the acute metaphysical remarks that abound in the commentary and the general style of argument which it employs have not rather proceeded from the schoolmen of the ,west1 than directly from the ,oriental or ,aristotelian philosophy40 ,to this may be answered3 ,it is highly problematic1 whether the translator of the ,destir ever knew any schoolman of the ,west1 but it is certain that he1 as an ,asiatic and a ,persian1 knew the ,oriental philosophy1 the fundamentals of which were preserved in the first books of the ,destir1 as we have already said2 but the commentator could but participate in the modification1 which the ancient doctrine had undergone in his age1 after its return from the ,west to the ,east1 in translations of ,greek philosophical works into ,asiatic languages4 ,thus1 in the ,destir and its commentary,i borrow the words of baron von ,hammer38,we see already germinating the double seed of reason and light1 from which sprung up the double tree of rational and ideal philosophy10#fi which spread its ramifications over the whole world1 and lives and flourishes even in our times4 ,the commentator was no ordinary man3 living1 as we may believe1 in the first half of the seventh century1 he possessed the sciences of his learned age2 flourishing under the reign of king ,khosru ,parviz1 who professed the ancient ,persian religion in his letter to a ,roman emperor of the ,east1#gj and tore to pieces ,muhammed's written invitation to adopt ,islam#ga2 in this yet unshaken state of national independence1 the fifth ,sassan preserved pure his creed and style from the influence of the ,arabian prophet4 ,the translator and commentator of the ,destir says of himself3#gb 8,i too have written a celebrated book under the name of ,do giti1 #8the two worlds'1 full of admirable wisdom1 which ,i have derived from the most exalted intelligence1 and in the eminent book of the famous prophet1 the ,king of ,kings1 ,jemshid1 there is a great deal1 concerning the unity which only distinguished ,asceties 7,hertasp7 can comprehend1 and on the subject of this transcendant knowledge ,i have also composed a great volume ,pert estn1 #8the mansion of light1' which ,i have adorned by evidence deduced from reason1 and by texts from the ,destir and ,avesta1 so that the soul of every man may derive pleasure from it4 ,and it is one of the books of the secrets of the great ,god40 ,this is a most important declaration4 ,the commentator considered the ,destir and the ,avesta as sources of delight ,,to ,,all ,,men4 ,and he was right4 ,the doctrine of the former work now under consideration is found every where1 not denied either by the ancients or moderns2 it is the property of mankind4 ,as such1 8it does not belong to any particular tribe or nation30 in which point1 although in quite another sense1 we agree with ,erskine1 but we may dissent from the learned author1 when he taxes it to be 8a religious or philosophical imposture1 which needed the support of a fabricated language40 ,after careful examination1 ,i must conscientiously declare1 ,i discover no imposture aimed at by any artifice2 there was no secret to be concealed2 nothing to be disguised2 the ,mahabadian religion is as open as its temple1 the vault of heaven1 and as clear as the lights1 flaming in their ethereal attitudes2 its book is a sort of catechism of ,asiatic religion2 its prayer a litany of ,oriental devotion1 in which any man may join his voice4 ,thus have ,i endeavored1 to the best of my power1 to exhibit faithfully what has hitherto been alleged for and against the authenticity of the book1 which is one of the principal authorities of the ,dabistn4 ,if the author of this latter work was1 as the often-quoted ingenuous author supposes1 8in strict intimacy with the sects of enthusiasts by whom the ,destir was venerated1 and whose rule it was10 we may so much the more rely upon the truth of his account concerning such a religious association4 ,if he professed the new religion1 which the emperor ,akbar had endeavored to found1 as this was a revival of the ancient ,persian religion1 we may reasonably presume1 that he would have searched1 and brought to light writings concerning it which were concealed1 neglected1 or little known2 he would have cautiously scrutinized the authenticity of the documents1 and conscientiously respected the sacred sources of that faith1 which1 after a careful examination of all others1 deserved his preference2 nothing justifies the supposition1 that he would forge any thing himself1 or countenance1 or not be able to detect1 the forgery of others4 ,however this be1 ,mohsan ,fani's character will be best known by the perusal of his work2 after a rapid synopsis of its contents1 to which ,i will now proceed1 ,i shall be permitted to point out1 as briefly as possible1 some of the merits and defects conspicuous in his composition4 #bj ,see note1 vol4 ,i4 p4 #bj4 #ba ,ibid41 p4 #dd4 #bb ,calcutta edition1 p4 #cj1 line #f4 #bc ,see vol4 ,i4 p4 #ecd4 #bd ,ibid41 p4 #fe4 #be ,m4 ,eugne ,burnouf1 to whose most valuable judgment ,i had the pleasure to submit the question1 prefers the derivation from bhsh1 because this word in ,zend would be wsh1 as the ,zend w represents exactly the ,sanscrit bh1 which aspiration did not exist in the ancient idiom of ,bactrian ,asia4 ,this sagacious philologer hinted at a comparison with the ,persian usta1 or awesta1 upon which in a subsequent note4 #bf ,see the ,persian text of the ,dastir1 p4 #cgg4 #bg ,tableau de l',empire ottoman1 by ,m4 d',ohson1 t4 ,,ii4 p4 #gj4 #bh ,journal des ,savans1 fvrier #ahba1 p4 #gd4 ,the ,persian passage which de ,sacy quotes1 and in which there is ,destnir for ,dastir1 is taken from the text published by ,gladwin1 and not from the printed ,calcutta edition4 #bi ,see ,asiatic ,journal and ,monthly ,register for ,british ,india and its ,dependencies1 vol4 ,,viii41 from ,july to ,dec4 #ahai1 p4 #ceg4 #cj ,the ,destir1 or sacred writings of the ancient ,persian prophets in the original tongue2 with the ancient ,persian version1 and commentary of the fifth ,sasan2 published by ,mulla ,firuz ,bin-i-,kaus4 ,bombay1 #ahah4 ,mulla ,firuz is supposed to possess the only copy of the ,destir extant4 ,he allowed sir ,john ,malcolm to take a copy of it1 which1 by some accident1 was lost by ,doctor ,leyden7,see ,transact4 of the ,lit4 ,soc4 of ,bombay1 pp4 #cdb and #cdi74 #ca ,mohsan ,fani marks the time of his composing the ,dabistan 7vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #ej7 to be the year of the ,hejira #ajee 7,a4 ,d4 #afde74 #cb ,see ,journal des ,savans1 ,no4 for ,january1 #ahba1 p4 #af4 #cc ,lucretius1 book ,v41 ,transl4 of ,dr4 ,creech3 8 putare aliquem tum nomina distribuisse ,rebus1 et inde homines didicisse vocabula prima ,desipere est40 #cd ,richardson's ,dictionary1 preface1 lxvii4 #ce ,this man1 who never told his true name1 was from the age of fifteen to seventeen a private teacherthen passed for an ,irishmanwent to ,rome as a pilgrim with a habit stolen from before an altar where it was lying as a votive offering of another pilgrimwandered about in ,germany1 ,brabant1 ,flandersindolent1 abject1 shameless1 covered with vermin and soresentered the military service of ,holland1 which he left to become waiter in a coffee-house in ,aix-la-,chapelleenlisted in the troops of the elector of ,cologne4 ,he acted all these parts1 with those above-mentioned1 before he was baptised under the name of ,george1 by a ,scotch clergyman1 and1 having learned ,english1 passed over to ,england to be protected by ,compton1 the lord-bishop of ,london4 ,at the expense of the latter1 he studied at ,oxfordbecame a preceptorchaplain of a regimentfell back into indolence1 and lived upon alms47,see ,a ,new and ,general ,dictionary1 ,london1 #agih1 vol4 ,,xii2 and ,vie de plusieurs ,personnages clbres des ,temps anciens et modernes1 par ,c4 ,a4 ,walckenaer1 membre de l',institut1 tome ,,ii4 #ahcj47 #cf ,this change took place in his thirty-second yearhe learned ,hebrew and became an honest man1 esteemed by ,samuel ,johnson2 he wrote eleven articles in a well-known work1 the ,universal ,history1 and his own ,life at the age of seventy-three years2 the latter work was published after his death1 which happened in his eighty-fourth year1 in #agfc4 #cg ,see ,notices et ,extraits des ,manuscrits1 vol4 ,,ix4 pp4 #cfe-cif4 #ch ,i am here applying to the forger of a language what ,lucretius1 in continuation of his above quoted verses 7p4 xxx71 urges against the belief that a single individual could ever have been the inventor of human speech4 #ci ,by ,norris1 ,asiatic ,journal1 vol4 ,,ix41 ,november1 #ahbj1 p4 #dcj4 #dj ,journal des ,savans1 ,february1 #ahba1 pp4 #fi-gj4 #da ,see ,transact4 of the ,lit4 ,soc4 of ,bombay1 vol4 ,,ii43 8,on the ,authenticity of the ,destir1 with remarks on the ,account of the ,mahabadi ,religion contained in the ,dabistan10 by ,william ,erskine1 esq41 p4 #cfj4 #db ,the ,asiatic ,journal and ,monthly ,register for ,british ,india and its ,dependencies1 ,novemb4 #ahbj1 p4 #dba et seq4 #dc ,the work quoted1 p4 #cfj4 #dd ,the ,asiatic ,journal1 ,november1 #ahbj1 p4 #dba et seq4 #de ,an ,essay on the best means of ascertaining the affinities of ,oriental languages1 by baron ,w4 ,humboldt1 in the ,transactions of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 vol4 ,,ii4 part ,i4 p4 #bac4 #df ,colonel ,harriot on the ,oriental ,origin of the ,gypsies4 ,ibid41 #eah4 #dg ,erskine1 loco cit41 p4 #cgb4 #dh ,see ,rflexions sur l'tude des ,langues asiatiques1 adresses sir ,james ,mackintosh4 ,bonn1 #ahcb1 pp4 #ea-eb4 #di ,see ,asiatic ,researches1 vol4 ,,viii4 ,lond4 ed4 #h4 p4 #bed4 #ej ,see ,heidelberger ,jahrbcher der ,literatar ,vom ,jnner te ,juni #ahbc1 ,n #f4 #ab4 #ac4 #ah4 #bj4 #ea ,see ,journal asiatique1 tome ,,xii4 juillet #ahcc1 pp4 #bd-bf4 #eb ,ibidem1 pp4 #bj-ba4 ,deri was spoken on the other side of the ,oxus1 and at the foot of the ,paropamisus in ,balkh1 ,meru1 in the ,badakhshan1 in ,bokhara and ,bamian4 ,the ,pehlevi was used in ,media proper1 in the towns of ,rai1 ,hamadan1 ,ispahan1 ,nehawend1 and ,tabriz1 the capital of ,azar bjn4,beside the ,deri and ,pehlevi1 ,persian dictionaries reckon five other dialects1 altogether twelve dialects1 of ancient and modern ,persian4 #ec ,tholuck4 ,sufismus1 sive ,theosophia ,pantheistica1 p4 #aaa4 #ed ,norris1 ,asiatic ,journal1 ,november1 #ahbj1 p4 #dcj4 #ee ,clio1 lib4 ,i4 #ef ,in the ,bible it is called ,paras1 or ,faras1 and reckoned as extensive as ,great and ,little ,armenia1 or as ,hungary1 ,transylvania1 ,slavonia1 ,croatia1 and ,dalmatia together47,see ,gatterer's ,weltgeschichte ,,iiter ,theil1 ,seite #i47 #eg ,in the books of ,ezra1 ,nehemiah1 and ,esther4 #eh ,see ,observations sur les ,monumens historiques de l'ancienne ,perse1 par tienne ,quatremre4 ,journal des ,savans1 juin et juillet #ahdj1 pp4 #cdg-cdh4 #ei ,the ,orientals place him in the tenth century ,b4 ,c4 #fj ,according to ,richardson 7see the preface of his ,dict41 p4 vi71 the ,farsi was peculiarly cultivated by the great and learned1 above #abjj years before the ,muhammedan era1 i4 e4 above #fjj years ,b4 ,c41 which epoch is commonly assigned to ,gushtasp's reign4 #fa ,see ,hammer's ,schne ,redeknste ,persiens1 ,seite #c et seq4 #fb ,strabo1 who flourished in the beginning of the ,christian era1 and drew his information mostly from the historians of ,alexander1 refers probably to the time of the ,macedonian conquest1 when he says 7xv4 #b1 #h1 fol4 #gbd1 edit4 ,cas473 that the ,medians1 ,persians1 ,arians1 ,baktrians1 and ,sogdians spoke almost the same language4 ,this probably was that of the then leading nation1 the ,persian4 #fc ,hammer1 loc4 cit41 p4 #g4 #fd ,works of sir ,w4 ,jones1 vol4 ,v4 p4 #dbf1 ,transactions of the ,literary ,society of ,bombay1 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #big4 #fe ,loco cit41 p4 #cfc4 #ff ,see the preface to the most valuable work ,le ,divan d',amro'lkais1 par le baron ,mac ,guckin de ,slane1 ,paris1 #ahcg1 pp4 viii and ix4 ,the learned author confirms that celebrated ,arabian poems existed before the introduction of the ,muhammedan religion1 which1 for a certain time1 averted the ,arabs from the cultivation of poetry and history4 ,we shall here add 7which would have been more appropriately placed in the note upon ,amro'l,kais1 in vol4 ,,iii p4 #fe1 and will correct the same7 that this poet 7see loc4 cit41 p4 xvi et seq47 flourished at an epoch anterior to ,muhammed1 and died probably before the birth of that extraordinary man4 #fg ,loco citato1 p4 #cgb4 #fh ,see vol4 ,i4 pp4 #hg et seq4 #fi ,heidelberger ,jahrbcher1 loc4 cit4 ,seite #cac4 #gj ,the ,dabistn 7see ,pers4 text1 ,calcutta edit41 p4 #fi1 and ,english transl41 vol4 ,i4 p4 #ade7 quotes verses containing this profession1 addressed by ,khosru ,parviz to a ,roman emperor1 whose name1 however1 is not mentioned4 ,during the reign of this ,persian king1 two emperors ruled in the ,east1 namely1 ,mauritius1 whose daughter ,parviz married1 and ,heraclius1 by whom he was defeated towards the end of his life4 ,i found it probable1 but had no authority to assert 7see vol4 ,i4 p4 #ade1 note #b71 that the above-stated profession was made to ,mauritius2 but those verses by themselves deserve attention1 as they establish the adherence of ,parviz to the religion of ,hoshang1 in contradiction to several historians1 according to whom he adopted ,christianity3 this assertion seems founded upon his great attachment to the celebrated ,mary1 or ,chirn1 his ,christian wife1 and daughter of a ,christian emperor1 the said ,mauritius4 #ga ,muhammed1 when informed of the ignominious reception which the ,persian king gave to his letter and ambassador1 said3 8,god will tear his empire1 as he tore my letter1 to pieces407,herbelot47 #gb ,the ,destir1 p4 #ii4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,synopsis ,,of ,,the ,,dynasties1 ,,religions1 ,,sects1 ,,and ,,philosophic ,,opinions1 ,,treated ,,of ,,in ,,the ,,dabistan4 ,i4,,the ,,first ,,religion,,the ,,dynasties ,,of ,,mahabad1 ,,abad ,,azar1 ,,shai ,,abad1 ,,shai ,,giliv1 ,,shai ,,mahbul1 ,,and ,,yasan4 ,mohsan ,fani exhibits the remarkable notions1 dogmas1 customs1 and ceremonies of twelve religions1 and their various sects1 without giving more of their origin and genesis than the names of their founders4 ,the very first principle of all religion is referred1 by some1 to a primitive ,divine revelation2 by others1 to a natural propensity of the human mind to superstition4 ,however this may be1 history confirms the suggestions of psychology1 that admiration was one of the principal sources of religious feelings2 how should man not be struck with the glories of the sky8 ,therefore1 the adoration of stars was one of the most ancient religions4 ,it needed no prophet3 it is 8the poetry of heaven10 imprinted in eternal characters of fire upon the ethereal expanse4 ,prometheus1 enumerating the benefits which he bestowed upon untutored barbarians1 says3#gc 8 ,at random all their works ,till ,i instructed them to mark the stars1 ,their rising1 and1 a harder science yet1 ,their setting40#gd ,according to all traditions1 astronomy was one of the first sciences cultivated by men4#ge ,the stars not only occasioned the institution1 but also served to announce the regular return1 of religious feasts2 thus they became1 as called by ,plato1 8the instruments of time10 men were at once induced and taught by religion to count months and years4 ,astronomy1 in her feast-calendars1 consecrated upon an altar the first fruits of her labors4 ,upon the star-paved path of heaven man was conducted to the sanctuary of the supreme ,being4 ,in general1 the first feeling of 8the ,divine 7 710 seizing the human mind with its own supernatural power1 elevated it at once above the material concerns of the nether world2 thus1 sublime ideas of the ,deity1 the universe1 and the immortality of the soul preceded the invention of many arts and sciences relative to the comforts of social life4 ,this is confirmed by the account1 contained in the ,dabistn1 of the most ancient religion of the ,persians1 which is founded upon transcendental ideas of the ,divinity3 8,except ,god himself1 who can comprehend his origin8 ,entity1 unity1 identity are inseparable properties of this original essence1 and are not adventitious to ,him40 ,so the ,destir1 with which the ,dabistn generally so fully agrees1 that we can scarce doubt that the author of the latter had the former before his eyes4 ,no sooner has man acquired the consciousness of mental freedom1 than he endeavors to expand beyond himself the first vague feeling of the ,divine2 not satisfied to admire all exterior marvel1 he desires to understand and to name its interior moving cause3 this is something immaterial2 it is a soul1 such as acts in himself4 ,among the ancient ,iranians1 the 8first creation of the existence-bestowing bounty0 was the intellectual principle1 called ,azad ,bahman1 8the first intelligence20 he is also the first angel2 from him other spirits or angels proceed4 ,every star1 every heavenly sphere has its particular intelligence and spirit or angel4 ,in the lower region1 each of the four elements owns its particular guardian2 vegetables1 minerals1 animals have their protecting angels2 the conservative angel of mankind is ,farun ,faro ,vakshur4 ,it is not without reason1 that this religion was called 8the religion of light40 ,as the supreme ,being 8,sow'd with stars the heav'n thick as the field40#gf ,so also he peopled the vast extent with the 8sons of light1 the empyreal host of angels10 who not only moved and governed the celestial orbs1 but also descended into the elemental regions to direct1 promote1 and protect his creation4 ,not a drop of dew fell without an angel4 ,the ,hindus and ,greeks animated universal nature2 the ,persians imparadized the whole creation by making it the abode of angels4 ,hence demonology in all its extent4 ,but1 8among the most resplendent1 powerful1 and glorious of the servants who are free from inferior bodies and matter1 there is none ,god's enemy or rival1 or disobedient1 or cast down1 or annihilated40 ,this important passage of the ,destir#gg ,i shall have occasion to refer to hereafter4 ,human souls are eternal and infinite2 they come from above1 and are spirits of the upper spheres4 ,if distinguished for knowledge and sanctity1 while on earth1 they return above1 are united with the sun1 and become empyreal sovereigns2 but if the proportion of their good works bore a closer affinity to any other star1 they become lords of the place assigned to that star2 their stations are in conformity with the degrees of their virtue2 perfect men attain the beatific vision of the light of lights1 and the cherubine hosts of the supreme ,lord4 ,vice and depravity1 on the contrary1 separate souls from the primitive source of light1 and chain them to the abode of the elements3 they become evil spirits4 ,the imperfectly good migrate from one body to another1 until1 by the efficacy of good words and actions1 they are finally emancipated from matter1 and gain a higher rank4 ,the thoroughly-depraved descend from the human form to animal bodies1 to vegetable1 and even to mineral substances4 ,so far we see the well-known dogma of transmigration ingeniously combined with the ,sidereal religion4 ,here is exhibited a singular system of heavenly dominion1 maintained by every star1 whether fixed or planetary1 during periods of many thousand years4 ,a fixed star begins the revolution1 and reigns alone1 the king of the cycle1 during a millenium1 after which1 each of the fixed and planetary stars becomes its partner or prime-minister for a thousand years2 the last of all is the moon1 for a millenium4 ,then the sovereignty of the first king devolves to the star which was its first associate4 ,this second king goes through the same course as the first1 until this becomes for a thousand years his partner1 and then his period is also past4 ,the same is the course of all other stars4 ,when the moon shall have been king1 and all stars associated with it and its reign too past1 then one great period shall be accomplished4 ,the state of the revolving world recommences1 the human beings1 animals1 vegetables1 and minerals1 which existed during the first cycle1 are restored to their former language1 acts1 dispositions1 species1 and appearances2 the world is renovated1 that is to say1 forms1 similar to those which passed away1 reappear4 ,this system1 copied from the ,destir1#gh expresses nothing else but the general vague idea of long heavenly revolutions1 and periodical renovations of the same order of things in the nether world4 ,the ,dabistn#gi adds a mode of computing as peculiar to the followers of the ancient faith3 they call one revolution of the regent ,saturn a day2 thirty such days one month2 twelve such months one year2 a million of such years one fard2 a million fard one vard2 a million vard one mard2 a million vard one jad2 three thousand jads one vad2 and two thousand vd one zd4 ,to these ,i must subjoin salam1 shamar1 aspar1 radah1 aradah1 raz1 araz1 biaraz1 that is1 eight members of a geometric progression1 the first of which is #ajj1jjj1 and the coefficient #ajj4 ,but these years are revolutions1 called farsals1 of thirty common years each4 ,there are besides farsals of ,mars1 ,venus1 ,mercury1 and the moon1 a day of each being the time of their respective revolution4 ,i thought it necessary to repeat these extravagant numbers1 because it is by them that the reigns of the first ancient dynasties are measured4#hj ,the first earthly ruler of the present cycle1 who with his wife survived the great period to become the first ancestor of a new innumerable population1 was ,mahabada4 ,this name seems of ,sanscrit derivation4#ha ,in his reign we find traced the first ground-lines of all human societies2 agriculture and the arts of life are invented2 villages and cities organised2 four classes of society establishedpriests1 warriors1 agriculturists1 and tradesmen4 ,the names of these classes are in the ,dabistn much like those of the four ,hindu castes1 but the ,destir and the ,shahnamah have other denominations1 belonging to an ancient ,persian dialect1#hb for these divisions1 which originated in the indispensable wants of a rising society4 ,this institution connects itself with the principles of social morality3 men are bound to each other by the laws of justice and mutual kindness1 which is extended even to all innoxious creatures4 ,to ,mahabad the ,destir was sent1 a celestial code1 and his faith was maintained through the whole series of his fourteen successors2 the number of whom reminds us of the fourteen ,indian ,manus2 they are said to have reigned six hundred and six trillions of years4 ,to the ,mahabadians succeeded ,abad ,azar1 who soon withdrew from government1 and devoted himself to solitude and piety4 ,after him1 the hitherto fortunate state of society changed into war1 confusion1 and anarchy4 ,his son1 ,jai ,afram1 was called to the throne1 and restored peace and order in the world1 giving his name to a new dynasty4 ,after this1 four other princely families are named1 that of ,shai ,abad1 ,shai ,giliv1 ,shai ,mahbul1 and ,yasan4#hc ,i shall not count the many millions of years during which they ruled2 all that is said of their reigns appears nothing but a repetition of the first2 a period of peace1 order1 and happiness is followed by war1 disorder1 and misery1 until a revolution renews the state of things4 ,such traditions of a progress and regress in virtue and happiness1 and of repeated changes from one condition to another1 are not destitute of general truth4 ,the moral is not1 more than the physical world1 exempt from revolutions4 ,these1 although their date cannot be determined1 have left behind them undeniable traces1 and without a reference to them1 we could not explain so much of the strangeness1 incoherence1 and heterogeneity in the history of men and nature4 ,thus ,i have slightly sketched the principal features of the religion which prevailed among the first ,persian dynasties2 these1 not mentioned in other historical books1 are we know peculiar to the ,destir and ,dabistn1 which appeared to sir ,w4 ,jones an unexceptionable authority for believing the ,iranian monarchy 8the oldest in the world40 ,upon this1 ,w4 ,erskine remarked3#hd 8,shall ,i be forgiven for saying1 that the history of letters seems to me scarcely to afford an instance of a more perverted judgment on historical evidence80 ,silvestre de ,sacy#he too 8banishes among the most absurd fables the dynasties of the ,mahabadians1 and of their successors1 which sir ,william ,jones1 and after him some other ,orientalists1 have too hastily adopted1 and of which they would to-day blush1 since their titles have been produced40 ,more recently1 ,william von ,schlegel#hf said3 8,it would be useless to conceal to the public that that learned man1 endowed with talents so rare1 was totally deficient in historical criticism30 ,this was inferred1 because he had admitted1 and used in some of his considerations1 as genuine1 a forgery of ,wilford's ,pandit4 ,besides1 8he received without diffidence1 and even welcomed with enthusiasm1 the traditions contained in the ,dabistn1 a modern ,persian book1 written with the intention to claim for ,persia the pre-eminence over ,india with respect to the antiquity of religious revelations40 ,as to 8the intention0 mentioned1 ,i hope to be able to justify ,mohsan ,fani4 ,with respect to the ,mahabadian dynastiesthe light recently acquired upon the ancient history of ,persia1 reflect rather favorably upon that part of sir ,william ,jones's opinion1 that this country1 in its wide extent1 was once the original seat of many nations now settled in distant regions4 ,so much1 at least1 may be considered as established3 #a4 that the limits of history are to be removed further back than those before fixed2 #b4 that in the earliest times primitive nations1 related by language to each other1 had their origin in the common elevated country of central ,asia1 and that the ,iranians and ,indians were once united before their migration into ,iran and ,india4#hg ,this great fact presents itself1 as it were1 upon the border of a vast abyss of unknown times4 ,for these a measure was sought4 ,hence we meet with extravagant1 but perpetually recurring chronological statements4 ,the ,mahabadian ages are neither better nor worse1 as to accuracy1 than the ,indian yugs1 the ,chaldean1#hh or other periods4 ,in order to reduce them to their true value1 we must consider them as nothing else than expressions of the ideas which the ancients entertained of the antiquity of the world and human society1 in which they cannot be easily refuted1 and at least are not absurd4 ,such ideas originated1 when man1 curious after his past1 had long ceased to be a listless barbarian2 but the earliest civilisation is a late product of slow-working time1 the memory of which could have been preserved only by monuments4 ,the most ancient of these however are but recent in our historical knowledge1 the limits of which are far from being those of antiquity4 ,the duration of ante-historical empires1 in printless but extensive spaces of times1 escapes research and computation4 ,as men1 however1 bear with impatience vague and loose ideas1 the ,persians1 as well as other nations1 determined the past by numbers formed from the multiplication of some astronomical periods known in early times1 as has been observed3#hi this appears to me at once the whole truth and falsehood of those statements4 ,in the utter impossibility to reconcile the discordant data of different nations1 we must content ourselves to take up the general ideas and facts in which they all agree1 whilst in the particulars they all differ4 ,thus1 in laying down maps of countries little known1 we are satisfied with tracing the general direction of some rivers and mountains1 and abstain from topographical details4 #gc 1 1 1 4 7v4 #deg-dei74 #gd ,transl4 by ,dr4 ,potter4 #ge ,hyde1 who did not know the ,dabistn1 says 7p4 #ahh73 that a year1 or calendar1 of ,median invention was introduced in ,persia1 before ,jamshid1 that is1 according to ,ferdusi's not irrational chronology1 earlier than #cdbi before our era4 #gf ,milton's ,paradise ,lost1 b4 ,,vii4 v4 #ceh4 #gg ,the book of ,shet ,shai ,kiliv1 v4 #ei4 p4 #ef4 #gh ,bombay edit4 ,engl4 transl41 pp4 #ai4 #bj4 #gi ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #ad4 ,the ,bombay ,destir does not mention the revolution of ,saturn1 and states differently the value of fard1 mard1 etc41 etc4 #hj ,it is known that in ,india1 and perhaps all over ,asia1 the number of ciphers not followed by a significative number1 is indifferent1 and indicates nothing else but magnitude4 ,thus the ,hindus1 to determine positively hundreds1 thousands1 etc41 affix the required figure at the end3 for instance1 to determine #ajj rupees to be given1 they write #aja4 #ha ,the word is perhaps a form of the ,sanscrit ,mahbodhi1 8a great deified teacher40 ,in the ,burhani ,kati we find six significations attributed to the word ,abad2 these are3 #a4 cultivated2 #b4 praise and prayer2 #c4 exclamation of praise2 #d4 the name of the ,kaba2 #e4 the name of the first ,persian prophet2 #f4 good and beauteous4 #hb ,see vol4 ,i4 pp4 #ai-bj4 #hc ,i have 7see vol4 ,i4 p4 #bf1 note #a7 derived this name from the ,sanscrit yas1 8glory1 honor40 ,in ,burhan ,katii it is interpreted by 8what is convenient40 #hd ,loco cit41 p4 #cdb4 #he ,journ4 des ,savans1 fvrier #ahba1 p4 #fi4 #hf ,see ,rflexions sur l'tude des ,langues orientales1 loc4 cit41 p4 #ea4 #hg ,see the development of these ideas in ,erdkunde von ,carl ,ritter1 ,,viiiter ,theil2 ,,iiiter ,buch1 ,west-asien ,seiten #aje-aji1 with reference to ,e4 ,burnouf ,comment4 sur le ,yacna1 pp4 #dfa1 #efc4 #hh ,we may be here permitted to call to mind the eras of the ,chaldeans1 who1 according to ,berosus1 ,epigenes1 ,diodorus of ,sicily1 ,abydenus counted #dij1jjj1 #gbj1jjj1 #dgc1jjj1 #dfc1gfc years4 ,they are said to have exhibited1 before ,alexander's conquest in ,asia1 historical annals for #aej1jjj years4 #hi ,see p4 lxvii4 ,,ii4,,the ,,peshdadian1 ,,kayanian1 ,,ashkanian1 ,,and ,,sassanian ,,dynasties,,their ,,religious ,,and ,,political ,,institutions4 ,after the four dynasties mentioned follows the ,gilshanian1 monarchy1 founded by ,gilshah1 or ,kayomers1 8the king or form of earth40#ij ,we are now upon well-known ground1 and hear familiar names of four races3 the ,pshdadian1 ,kayanian1 ,ashkaniun1 and ,sassanian1 to which1 altogether1 the ,dabistn attributes a period of #fjbd years1 differing considerably from that of other ,asiatic chronologers4#ia ,sir ,william ,jones was right when he declared1#ib that 8the annals of the ,pshdadi 7or ,assyrian7 race must be obscure and fabulous2 those of the ,kayn family1 or the ,medes and ,persians1 heroic and poetic30 annals gathered from oral traditions can be but such as the great ,orientalist characterises those of the mentioned dynasties4 ,but it was in his younger years1 before he had enlarged his views upon the history of mankind1 that he fixed the origin of the ,persian monarchy so late as #hij years before our era2#ic afterwards1 in ,india1 he refuted his former notions1 and ranged more freely in the expanded fields of antiquity4 ,i shall add that ,ferdusi places the beginning of ,gilshah's reign #cebi years before ,christ1 an epoch which receives synchronical confirmation from our daily-increasing knowledge of the antiquity of ,china1 ,india1 ,assyria1 ,egypt1 and other states4 ,the fundamental religion remains the same3 a celestial volume called ,payman-i-farhang1 in perfect accord with the ,mahabadian code1 is transmitted to ,kayomers4 ,so the ,dabistn3 but1 in the ,destir1 the four books ascribed to the first four ,mahabadian prophet-kings contain the purest deism1 and although the foundation of astrolatry and demonolatry may be perceived in the cosmology of the first book1 yet these did not form a positive worship1 which develops itself in the seven planetary books of the seven subsequent ,persian kings1 to wit3 ,kayomers1 ,siamok1 ,hushang1 ,tahmras1 ,jamshid1 ,feridun1 and ,menocheher4 ,under these monarchs1 a particular worship was rendered to the seven planets1 as to mediators between ,god and men2 the description of the forms under which they have been adored1 is not1 to my knowledge1 found in any other book but the ,dabistn4 ,superstition is certainly as ancient as human nature itself2 it is impossible to fix the epoch at which particular opinions and practices originated1 such as the eighty-four sitting-postures at prayer2 the suppression of the breath for the abstraction of thought2 the mystical and fantastical notions upon vision and revelation2 and particularly the belief that a man may attain the faculty to quit and to reassume his body1 or to consider it as a loose garment1 which he may put off at pleasure for ascending to the world of light1 and on his return be reunited with the material elements4 ,all these matters are considered as very ancient4 ,we find in the ,dabistn a curious account of ,persian sects under different names1 such as ,abadians1 ,azur-,hshangians1 ,jamshaspians1 ,samradians1 ,khodaiyans1 ,radians1 ,shidrangians1 ,paikarians1 ,milanians1 ,alarians1 ,shidabians1 ,akshiyans4 ,the founders of these sects are placed so far back as the reigns of ,jamshid and ,zohak4 ,individuals professing the particular creed of each of these sects were living in the time of the author of the ,dabistn1 who was personally acquainted with several of them1 and imparts the information which he had himself received from their lips4 ,he gives with particular care an account of the before-mentioned ,azar ,kaivan1#id the chief of the later ,abadans and ,azar-,hushangians4 ,the doctrine of these sectaries contained peculiar notions about ,god's nature and attributes1 and the world2 the latter was to some an illusion2 ,god himself but an idea4 ,to others1 ,god was every thing1 to be served alone without a mediator between him and mankind2 the heavens and the stars were his companions4 ,god was the sunfireairwaterearth2 he was the essence of the elements3 from every one of these divine principles the heavens1 stars1 and the whole world proceeded4 ,these were some of the fundamental principles of their metaphysical religion4 ,their morality appears to have consisted in the acknowledgment of all natural virtues2 piety1 justice1 charity1 sobriety2 wine and strong drinks were forbidden2 above all a tenderness towards all living creatures was recommended2 and the severity against those who slew innoxious animals was carried to such an excess1 than even sons punished their fathers with death1 and fathers their sons1 for the slaughter of a sheep or an elk4#ie ,their political constitution appears from the earliest time to have been that of an absolute monarchy3 this is the curse attached to ,asiatics4 ,the king was to be of a noble descent1 and bound to acknowledge the ,farhang-,abad1 8code of ,abad40 ,all dignities1 military and civil1 were hereditary from father to son4 ,the royal court and inner apartments appear to have been regulated in much the same manner as they are still in ,asia2 his cup-bearers and familiar servants1 as well as those of his sons1 and other nobles1 were always females4 ,the interior administration of cities and villages is sufficiently detailed in the ,dabistn4 ,an active police was established1 with numerous spies and secret reporters1 for the security of government4 ,we are glad to find in such early times hospitals for the relief of the suffering1 and caravansaras for the convenience of travellers4 ,moreover1 post-stations of horses and messengers were distributed for the rapid communication of news1 from all sides of the vast empire1 to the monarch4#if ,not a little care was bestowed upon the discipline and continual exercise of numerous armies4 ,the military chiefs were distinguished by the magnificent decorations of their persons1 horses1 and arms1 in which they prided themselves4 ,they were bound to treat their soldiers kindly1 nay1 obliged to produce certificates1 from their subordinates1 of having behaved well towards them4 ,an order of battle was prescribed1 in which they were to encounter the enemy2 no plunder after victory was permitted2 they never slew1 nor treated with violence1 a man who had thrown down his arms and asked for quarter4 ,history may well be referred to religion1 which is an ancient intellectual monument1 living in the human soul from generation to generation4 ,i have hitherto marked two religious periods3 the first1 that of the ,destir1 through the ,mahabadian dynasty2 the second1 that of ,paiman--,farhang1 prevailing during the ,psh-dadi-race until the middle of the ,kayanian reign2 ,i now come to the third4 #ij ,the first word is pure ,persian2 the other may be derived from the ,sanscrit kaya1 8body1 form10 and mrita1 8earth40 #ia ,see vol4 ,i4 p4 #ca1 note #a4 #ib ,his ,works1 vol4 ,,iii4 the sixth ,anniversary ,discourse1 p4 #ajh4 #ic ,ibid41 vol4 ,,xii4 p4 #cii4 #id ,see page #fc4 #ie ,see vol4 ,i4 pp4 #aha4 #ahd4 #if ,parasang1 ,farsang1 even in our days a ,persian word1 is found and determined as a lineal measure of distances in ,herodotus1 lib4 ,,ii4 ,v4 and ,,vi4 ,,iii4,,the ,,religion ,,of ,,zardusht1 ,,or ,,zoroaster4 ,all religions are said to have deviated from their primitive simplicity and purity1 as men advanced in knowledge and civilisation4 ,this is true but in a restricted and distinctive sense1 and may be explained1 even without yielding to our habit of considering that which is more remote and less known as holier than that which is nearer and better examined4 ,thus1 we may admit that the impressions made upon men in the first stage of expanding reason are stronger and more vivid1 the less they are distracted by simultaneous and correlative associations2 one great idea is enough to fill their whole mind1 and admits of no rival1 of no commixture with any thing else2 curiosity1 versatility1 luxuriancy of intellect are not yet known2 constancy is a necessity in a small compass of ideas4 ,we have already touched#ig upon the powerful effect which the early perception of the ,divine produced upon man3 but he soon circumscribed what was too vast or his comprehension in a perceptible objectheaven1 sun1 fire1 to which he offered his adoration2 he wanted a visible type or image of the invisible ,divinity2 but1 his means of formation being at first very confined1 he contented himself with the most simple representation3 he had a symbol1 an idol in a grove or cavern1 but not yet a ,pantheon4 ,simplicity may be a mere restriction to one object or to few objects2 purity1 nothing else but homogeneity in good or bad1 true or false2 we shall not confound them with rationality1 which may subsist with multiplicity and mixture4 ,thus1 the adoration of one deified man1 one great serpent1 one huge stone1 is by no means more rational than the worship of numerous generations of gods1 the ingenious personification sof multiform nature1 ever acknowledged as the genuine offspring of the happy marriage between intellect and imagination4 ,in the absence of arts and riches1 worship is rude and destitute of showy accessories4 ,afterwards1 the development of the understanding widens the field of reasoning1 the fertility of which may be attested more by the shoot of weeds than by the growth of fruits3 error prevails over truth2 the increase of manifold resources facilitates and prompts superfetation of exterior religion4 ,besides1 the impressions1 by which the first legislator attached his followers to his doctrine1 are effaced by time2 the first traditions1 obscured1 confused1 and altered2 faith is weakened1 and an opening made for change in belief1 practice1 and morals4 ,a change1 merely as such1 is considered as a corruption by the adherents of the old creed4 ,finally1 revolutions1 interior and exterior1 deteriorate or destroy religion and civilisation4 ,these reflexions1 with the explanation previously given as to the various notions of which the religions in ,asia were composed1 will clearly show that1 in the course of ages1 a reform of astrolatry1 pyrolatry1 and idolatry1 the branches of ,sabism and ,mezdaism1 became desirable2 and ,zardusht1 or ,zoroaster1 appeared4 ,in the notes placed at the bottom of the pages containing ,mohsan ,fani's account of ,zoroaster1#ih will be found some of the principal results of the investigations which have been made in ,europe respecting this legislator4 ,the name of ,zoroaster was applied by some to the founder of ,magism1 or ,sabism2 we know also1 that he has been identified with many other prophets under different names1 among whom is ,abraham1 called 8the great ,zardusht10 and ,hom1 of so extensive a celebrity1 that his name is mentioned by ,strabo as predecessor of ,zoroaster4 ,no wonder that the name of the latter occurs in more or less remote times4 ,according to the ,dabistn1 he was born in ,rai1 a town in the province of ,jebal1 or ,irak ,ajem1 the country of the ancient ,parthians1 and appeared as a reformer of religion1 under the reign of ,gushtasp1 the fifth king of the ,kayanian dynasty1 by the ,occidental historians generally identified with ,darius ,hystaspes4 ,although variously stated1 this period is less subject to chronological difficulties than are many others2 for1 as ,eastern and ,western historians agree in the epoch of ,alexander's death 7#cba ,b4 ,c471 we may from this1 as from a fixed point1 remount upwards to ,gushtasp2 we find1 according to some ,orientals1 five reigns in #bbh years1#ii and therefore that of the said king1 beginning #edi years before our era1 whilst1 according to the ,occidentals1 there are ten reigns within #bjj years1 from ,alexander's conquest of ,persia to ,darius ,hystaspes1 whose reign commences in #eba ,a4 ,d4 ,the discrepancy of twenty-eight years is far from being unexampled1 even in more known periods1 and may in this case be most easily and plausibly adjusted4#ajj ,according to a wide-spread tradition1 to which ,i shall have occasion to return1 ,gushtasp was instructed by ,brahmans2 pursuant to the ,dabistn1 his brother ,jamasp was the pupil of the ,indian ,jangran-ghachah 7,sankara acharya7#aja4 ,this sage1 as soon as he heard of ,gushtasp's listening to ,zoroaster1 wrote an epistle to dissuade the king from the adoption of the new creed2 an interview took place at ,balkh between the ,persian and ,indian sages1 and the latter abandoned his religion upon hearing a nosk1 or chapter of the ,zand-,avesta4#ajb ,this is the name of the work attributed to ,zoroaster himself1 a part of which was brought to ,europe1 in the year #agfa1 by ,anquetil du ,perron4 ,the author of the ,dabistn mentions the ,zand-,avesta1 and declares the ,mah-,zand to be a portion of the ,destir1 and the ,zand books in general conformable to the ,mahabadian code4 ,the fifth ,sassan1 the translator and commentator of the ,destir1 in a passage above-quoted1#ajc joins this work to the ,avesta1 and is said in the ,dabistn to have made a translation of the code of ,zardusht4 ,great was the sensation caused among the learned of ,europe at the first appearance of the works attributed to ,zoroaster1 published in ,french by ,anquetil du ,perron1 in #agga4 ,in a note of this volume#ajd will be found the names of the principal authors who declared themselves for or against the authenticity of the ,zoroastrian books4 ,among those who combated it1 sir ,william ,jones was most conspicuous4 ,seventy years have since elapsed1 and a learned controversy may now be considered as settled1 nay1 entirely forgotten1 in the course of a most eventful historical period4 ,nevertheless1 the ,destir is so closely connected with the ,zand-,avesta1 that so much having been said of the one1 the other should not be lightly discarded4 ,the value and importance of the ,dabistn rest chiefly upon the support of the two documents mentioned2 on that account ,i may hope to be pardoned if ,i here venture to repeat whatever facts and arguments appear to me to have some bearing upon this work4 ,but it was sir ,william ,jones who then roused the whole learned public into lively attention1 and1 ,i dare presume1 that the subject may by itself at all times excite considerable interest4 ,i shall quote the very words of lord ,teignmouth concerning the ,french author before mentioned3#aje 8,anquetil had published in three quarto volumes an account of his travels in ,india1 the life of ,zoroaster1 and some supposed works of that philosopher4 ,to this publication he prefixed a ,discourse1 in which he treated the university of ,oxford1 and some of its learned members and friends of ,mr4 ,jones1 with ridicule and disrespect4 ,from the perusal of his works1 ,mr4 ,jones was little disposed to agree with ,monsieur du ,perron in the boasted importance of his communication2 he was disgusted with his vanity and petulance1 and particularly offended by his illiberal attack upon the university1 which he respected1 and upon the persons whom he esteemed and admired4 ,the letter which he addressed to ,m4 du ,perron was anonymous2 it was written with great force1 and expresses his indignation and contempt with a degree of asperity which the judgment of maturer years would have disapproved40#ajf ,the letter alluded to contains most severe remarks1 not only upon the ,zand-,avesta1 but also upon ,oriental studies in general3 these are blows so much more sensible to ,orientalists1 as they come from a friendly and most revered hand4 ,such was the ardor of a susceptible mind under the impression of having to vindicate the honor of his friends1 that he forgot for a moment the wreath which he had already won in the career of ,oriental literature2 he had already composed his commentary upon ,asiatic poetry1 and translated from the original ,persian the ,life of ,nadir-shah2 he had then no presentiment of the glory which he was destined to acquire by collecting1 under the ,indian heaven1 the lore of antique ,asia4 ,as his ,french letter1 written in a very spirited and brilliant style1 can never be read without causing a great impression1 ,i shall be permitted to borrow from the writings of this celebrated author himself some reflexions1 which ,i think necessary for placing in a right point of view ,oriental studies in general1 and in particular the contents of the ,dabistn1 inasmuch as these are in some parts founded upon the ,zand-,avesta1 and in other points of a nature similar to that so much ridiculed in that ingenious satire4 ,if it were true1 that ,anquetil was wrong 8to affront death for procuring us useless lightsif the writings of ,zoroaster are a collection of galimatiaif enlightened ,europe had no need of his ,zand-,avesta1 which he has translated to no purpose1 and upon which he uselessly spent eighteen years1 a time which ought to have been precious to him0#ajg then any similar attempts which have been or shall be made to procure1 in ,asia1 and to publish ancient historical documents1 are equally ridiculous and blamable4 ,it is certainly not the founder of a new era in ,oriental literature whom we hear in these words4 ,nobody knew better than he that1 in ,asia1 the cradle of mankind1 we must search for the most ancient documents to restore the lost history of mankind2 and if all endeavors were to prove vain and useless1 still the merit of having attempted the attainment of a most laudable purpose would remain4 ,it is not unimportant to fix the limits which researches can reach1 and beyond which nothing is to be gained2 men are benefitted and enriched at once by the saving of time and trouble which preceding attempts teach2 and by all the acquisitions which better directions render possible in a new and more profitable career4 ,should the bold navigators who strive to arrive at the pole never attain their aim1 still would their endeavors be worthy of praise2 the smallest fragment of a rock1 the slightest shoot of a plant1 plucked off in the desert of eternal ice1 in latitude eighty-eight1 would at home be regarded with lively interest1 and navigation have not a little gained in aid of other more fortunate undertakings4 ,but1 who can like to read 8puerile details1 disgusting descriptions1 barbarous words,zoroaster could not have written such nonsenseeither he had no common sense1 or he wrote not the book which ,anquetil attributed to him40#ajh ,as much has been and may be said of the books attributed to other ,asiatic legislators1 who were nevertheless revered as sacred during many ages by numerous nations4 ,until we properly understand the ignorance and habitual ideas of ,asiatics1 we shall always remain ignorant of what is proverbially called the wisdom of the ,east4 ,to appreciate the just value of the ancient codes of laws1 we ought to represent to ourselves the primitive children of the earth1 as ,prometheus describes them3 8,they saw1 indeed1 they heard2 but what avail'd ,or sight1 or sense of hearing1 all things rolling1 ,like the unreal imagery of dreams1 ,in wild confusion mix'd6 ,the lightsome wall ,of finer masonry1 the rafter'd roof ,they knew not2 but1 like ants still buried1 delved ,deep in the earth1 and scoop'd their sunless caves4 ,unmark'd the seasons chang'd1 the biting winter1 ,the flow'r-perfumed spring1 the ripening summer1 ,fertile of fruits40#aji ,it will then be felt how important it was to break the savage under the yoke of seemingly puerile practices and customs4 ,in a state which was not unaptly called 8the infancy of man10 it was by no means absurd to ensure health by dietetical prescriptions1 cleanliness by obligatory ablutions1 and decency with convenience by a regulated dress2 the koshti1 8the girdle10 of ,zoroaster was then not so unmeaning as it now appears to us4 ,it was necessary to educate the moral sense by appropriate images1 and to occupy conveniently1 by fables1 symbols1 and mythical accounts1 the first active faculty of the soul1 imagination4 ,although those men who1 as legislators1 were elevated above their barbarous age1 could in many points but partake in the general imbecility and ignorance of an infant state of society1 they have nevertheless1 among seemingly childish and absurd precepts1 promulgated most luminous truths1 better than which none have hitherto been known1 even at the most advanced degree of civilisation4 ,any information above the common understanding of the age is justly called 8a revelation10 and every nation has received some from their prophets1 by which we have all benefited4#aaj ,we1 the youngest sons of science1 ought to keep a grateful and reverential remembrance of our elder brothers4 ,let it be a subject of regret that1 by the maintenance of ancient institutions much longer than was required for their intended purpose1 the intellectual growth of many ,asiatic nations was stopped2 thus they now appear made for their laws1 whilst their laws were once made for them4 ,after these and similar reflexions1 we shall view ,zoroaster's hundred gates1 and the remains of his twenty-one nosks1 as venerable monuments of an antique civilisation1 which ought never to be profaned by derision4 ,upon the ,zand language1 in which ,zoroaster's laws were written1 ,i refer to the great philologers of our days1 who have examined it,rask1#aaa ,bopp1 ,burnouf1 ,lassen1 and others3 it is one of the most important conquests made in archology and philology1 and this we owe to ,anquetil4 ,when ,jones#aab treated with such severity the publication of this ,french author1 he could not foresee that he should one day call forth to notoriety the ,dabistn1 which rests in great part upon the authority of the ,destir1 and these very books to which he refused all authenticity4 ,mohsan ,fani1 one hundred and twenty years before ,anquetil1 derived his information probably from other copies of ,zoroaster's works1 and knew nothing of ,western authors1 yet his statements agree with what the latter1 before and after our era related1 and most particularly with what the ,french discoverer published of that ancient philosopher4 ,can it be supposed that all these men of different nations1 whose statements have thus coincided during the lapse of more than two thousand years1 have 8imposed upon themselves1 or been imposed upon by others concerning the pretended laws of a pretended legislator80 ,anquetil deserved a better name than that of 8a ,french adventurer1 who translated the books ascribed to ,zoroaster1 from the translation of a certain gypsy at ,surat1 and his boldness in sending them abroad as genuine0#aac was not unsupported by judgment4 ,if there was some folly and foppery to deride in a young man1 who spoke of his lilly-rosy cheeks and elegant figure1 there was no 8imposture0 to detect1 and too much acerbity shewn in retorting thoughtless indiscretions1 exaggerated into 8invectives40 ,sir ,william ,jones1 when he published the strictures which his antagonist1 from pride or moderation1 never answered1 was but in his twenty-fourth year and under the influence of youthful ardor4 ,eighteen years after1 in a discourse1 addressed to the ,asiatic ,society of ,calcutta1 in #aghi1 he spoke with more moderation of ,anquetil as 8having had the merit of undertaking a voyage to ,india in his earliest youth with no other view than to recover the writings of ,zoroaster40 ,the illustrious president of that ,society was not in the position to appreciate ,anquetil's whole character1 and died too soon to become acquainted with the brilliant reputation which the youthful voyager acquired in his maturer years as a learned member of the ,french ,academy of ,letters1 both in his own country and abroad4#aad ,the ,dabistn informs us1 that the ,zand-books are of two kinds3 the one1 perspicuous and without enigmatical forms of speech1 is called the ,mah-,zand1 8great ,zand20 the second1 abounding in enigmatic or figurative language1 is entitled ,kah-,zand1 8little ,zand40 ,the first1 in most points speculative and practical1 agrees with the ,destir2 the second is intended to prevent philosophy falling into the hands of the ignorant1 to whom an enigmatical veil is offered1 whilst the sages know the true purport of the pure doctrine4 ,to king ,gushtasp1 his brother ,jamasp1 his son ,isfendiar1 and to ,bahman1 the son of the latter1 were attributed the interpretations of ,zoroaster's religious system1 and many ingenious parables which1 for their moral sense1 may be reckoned among the best specimens of this kind of popular instruction4 ,this true statement1 contained in the ,dabistan1#aae corrects the assertion of sir ,william ,jones1#aaf that ,mohsan ,fani affirms 8the work of ,zartusht to 8have been lost40 ,the learned ,orientalist evidently confounds the ,mah-zand1 which is said to be a portion of the ,destir1 with the work of ,zartusht4 ,the writer of the ,dabistn enumerates#aag the twenty-one nosks or books1 of which the ,zand was composed2 he says3#aag 8,at present there are fourteen complete nosks1 possessed by the ,dosturs of ,karman2 the other seven being incomplete1 as1 through the wars and dissensions which prevailed in ,iran some of the nosks have disappeared1 so that1 notwithstanding the greatest researches1 the nosks have come into their hands in a defective state40 ,we find it expressly declared in the ,dabistn1 on the authority#aah of the ,dostur who wrote the volume of the ,sad dur1 8the hundred gates10 that 8the excellent faith has been received from the prophet ,zartusht40 ,in a particular section1 intitled ,enumeration of some advantages which arise from the enigmatical forms of the precepts of ,zartusht's followers1 ,mohsan not only adduces examples of ,zartushtian allegories1 but subjoins his own interpretations of them2 yet he never affirms1 nor even insinuates 8the place of ,zoroaster's lost works to have been supplied by a recent compilation40 ,nor can we assent to the view1 which sir ,w4 ,jones takes of the modern literature of the ,mobeds1 8for whom10 he says1#aai 8as they continued to profess among themselves the religion of their forefathers1 it became expedient to supply the last or mutilated works of their legislator by new compositions1 partly from their imperfect recollection1 and partly from such moral and religious knowledge as they gleaned1 most probably among the ,christians with whom they had an intercourse40 ,to settle our judgment upon this subject1 we ought to recollect1 that languages and precepts may be transmitted from generation to generation by oral instruction1 which indeed was once the only possible mode during a long period of time4 ,it was then that memory was so much stronger1 as1 destitute of all artificial assistance1 it depended solely upon itself4 ,we bought the advantage of writing by resigning somewhat of memorial energy2 this was the evil1 which1 according to ,plato1 ,thamus1 the ,egyptian king1 predicted to ,theut1 the inventor of writing4 ,however this may be1 it will appear founded upon reason and history1 that religious creeds1 which had once been the property of nations1 are not easily eradicated by any force1 or forgotten under any circumstances2 they become living streams of ideas and sentiments1 which run uninterruptedly through the ever-renewed races of man1 even when these separate from a parent stock4 ,hence we find1 in countries and among nations the most remote from each other1 so many notions and customs1 the origin of which is lost in the night of time4 ,shall ,i mention the ,jews1 who1 throughout the whole world1 repeat to-day the same words which they learned more than thirty-three centuries ago8 ,with regard to the ,guebressir ,w4 ,jones might have safely granted a little more confidence to his friend ,bahman1 his ,persian reader1 who always named with reverence ,zartusht1 whose religion he professed1 in common with many so called ,guebres4 ,for these it was not necessary 8to preserve ,zoroastrian books1 in sheets of lead or copper1 at the bottom of wells near ,yezd30#abj this fact1 which ,bahman used to assert1 shows the particular care which had once been taken to guard these sacred documents1 the veneration for which most naturally prevented any falsification of their known contents4 ,we are confirmed1 by the author of the ,dabistn1 that ,zoroaster did not change the fundamentals of the ancient religion2 only the dualism of the principles1 good and bad1 not existing1 as ,i have remarked#aba in the ,mahabadian religion1 was either then first introduced1 or only further developed2 besides1 we see the cycle of #ab1jjj years fixed1 and divided into four periods of #cjjj years each2 we hear the promise of a ,saviour to restore the empire of ,god promulgated1 and the destruction of the world by fire announced3 this is at the same time the epoch of the general resurrection1 which is one of the most remarkable dogmas of the ,zoroastrian religion4 ,although this be not destitute of religious observances1 yet we find scarce any painful austerity recommended4 ,the twenty-fifth gate of ,zoroaster contains the remarkable precept3 8,know that in thy faith there is no fasting except that of avoiding sin3 in which sense thou must fast the whole year40#abb ,the ancient ,mahabadian religion1 although adulterated before1 during1 and after ,zoroaster's life1 seems to have never lost its grave character and solemnity4 ,in the ,zand-books known to us1 no trace of temples1 altars1 or religious symbols exist4 ,herodotus knew of none2 the fire-places were upon a desert place1 or upon mountains2 the fire upon the ground4 ,upon the ,persian monuments which time has spared1 upon the walls of the thousand-pillared palace of ,isfahan1 and upon those of the ,royal tombs we see no idols1 but priests and kings1 performing the sacrifice of fire before their fervers1 8ideals of virtue and sanctity10 and other actions rather of a political than religious character4 ,the pyra1 round and concave1 represented the vault of heaven4 ,nevertheles other accounts permit us to believe1 that1 by association with other nations2 most likely by the introduction of sculpture1 architecture1 and painting2 and1 as the ,dabistn expressly says1 by the use of symbolical language3 a superstitious worship of sacred places and symbolic images gained a great ascendancy4 ,this religion prevailed during the times of the ,kayanian kings from ,gushtasp to ,dara the ,second1 during more than two centuries4 ,after the conquest of ,persia by ,alexander1 a political and religious revolution took place in this country1 and extended to ,greece1 where1 according to the commentary of the ,destir1 the creed of the ,gushaspians was introduced4 ,this is declared to be a medium between the ,illuminated and the ,rationalists1 perhaps the same which the ,dabistn calls the faith of the ,beh-dinians1 8professors of the better religion40 ,so much is avowed by ,philo1 ,plinius1 and othersand we have reason to lay stress upon this avowalthat at one time the so called barbarians were reckoned to be more wise and virtuous than the ,greeks4 ,during the ,ashkanian dynasty 7from the third century ,b4 ,c4 to the end of the second after our era71 the people conformed to the ,kah-zand1 that is1 yielded to the superstition1 which the figurative language was apt to suggest4 ,ardeshir1 the first ,sassanian1 in the beginning of the third century ,a4 ,d42 endeavored to re-establish the ancient religion2 but1 after his reign of forty years1 the ,kah-zand took and kept the ascendancy1 until the ,persian empire fell before the overwhelming power of the ,muhammedans4 ,the ,mah-zand was lost during the domination of the intolerant invaders1 ,greeks1 ,arabs1 and ,turks2 the ,kah-zand still remains in some of its parts1 whilst many others were lost in the successive disorders of the state4 ,the fifteenth and last section of the first chapter treats of ,mazdak1 who lived in the fifth century of our era4 ,we are informed of the existence of a book1 called ,desnak1 which the author of the ,dabistn saw1 and which contains the doctrine of this reformer4 ,this was nothing else than the ,zoroastrian system about the two principles1 ,yezed1 8,god0 or 8light10 and ,ahriman1 8agent of evil0 or 8darkness10 with a few peculiarities which did not destroy the fundamental principles of the original religion4 ,but1 it was the ethical part of his doctrine which at first caused a great revolution1 and at last the destruction of the teacher and his numerous disciples1 ,mazdak bade all men to be partners in riches and women1 just as they are of fire1 water1 and grass2 private property was not to exist2 each man to enjoy or to endure1 in his turn1 the good and bad lots of this world4 ,to this strange doctrine may be perhaps applied the saying of a great bishop 7,bossuet73 that 8every error is but an abuse of some truth40 ,to prevent an excessive inequality of fortunes in society was the object towards which celebrated ancient legislators tended1 and for which frequently wishes were expressed1 reforms projected1 and politico-philosophical romances#abc composed by well-meaning and respectable persons4 ,it is therefore to a natural1 but dangerous propensity of the human mind1 that we ought to refer ,mazdak's bold and for some time too successful attempt1 as well as all the doctrines of the same tendency1 which before and after him were and will henceforth be proposed4 ,i have now terminated the general review of what the first chapter of the ,dabistn1 and the first volume of the ,english translation contain1 concerning the most ancient dynasties1 religions1 and political institutions of ,persia4 #ig ,see page #gj4 #ih ,see vol4 ,i4 p4 #baa et seq4 #ii ,see sir ,john ,malcolm's ,history of ,persia4 ,ferdusi counts #cjd years from ,alexander's death to the beginning of ,gushtasp's reign2 but he assigns to the latter #abj1 and #aab to that of his successor ,bahman ,arjer1 or ,ardishir diraz 7,artaxerxes longimanus74 ,these two reigns might have comprised those of several others not mentioned by ,ferdusi4 #ajj ,the duration of the whole ,kayanian dynasty is stated by the ,orientals 7see vol4 ,i4 p4 #ca1 note #a of this work7 to be #gjd years in #aj reigns2 according to ,occidental historians1 it is only #chj years in #ah reigns4 ,the first statement is evidently erroneous as to the small number of kings1 but it is not decided that it is equally so as to the duration of the whole dynasty4 ,the error is more likely to be in the list of the kings than in the whole period of their reigns4 ,may ,i be permitted to refer to my discussion upon the chronology of the ,rajatarangini 7vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #chg78 #aja ,sir ,william ,jones says 7,works1 vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #abh73 8,it was he 7,zoroaster7not as ,ammianus asserts1 his protector1 ,gushtaspwho travelled in ,india1 that he might receive information from the ,brahmans in theology and ethics40 ,this is not to be found in the edition of ,calcutta1 nor in the manuscript of the ,dabistn which ,d4 ,shea and myself have seen4 #ajb ,mr4 ,eugne ,burnouf1 when he communicated to me his opinion upon the derivation of the word ,wastir 7see p4 xxii71 adverted incidentally to that of the term ,zand-,avesta1 interpreted sometimes 8the ,zand and the ,usta10 and said1 that these words are found in perhaps a single passage of the books of ,zoroaster1 to wit1 huzanth vacha vaidhya cha4 ,these two words are applied to mantras 7prayers71 and seem to signify 8which will give life10 or 8which are salutary to towns and nations10 and 8which are learned40 ,we recognise the ,sanscrit sujantu and vidya4 #ajc ,see page #ff4 #ajd ,see vol4 ,i4 p4 #bbc4 #aje ,see ,memoirs of the life1 writings1 and correspondence of sir ,w4 ,jones1 in his ,works1 vol4 ,i4 p4 #aij1 #hvo41 ed41 #ahjg4 #ajf ,see works of sir ,w4 ,j4 vol4 ,x4 p4 #djc et seq4 #ajg ,see ,works of ,sir ,w4 ,j41 vol4 ,x4 p4 #djc et seq4 #ajh ,see works of sir ,w4 ,j4 pp4 #dac4 #dcb4 #dcg4 #aji ,de ,potter's ,transl4 of schylus1 ,prometheus chained4 ,in the ,greek origin4 v4 #ddg-def4 #aaj ,voltaire1 whose genius sir ,w4 ,jones knew how to appreciate1 said3 8,glorifions-nous de ce que les vrits les plus importantes sont devenues des lieux communs pour les ,europens1 mais ne nous en moquons pas1 et sachons avoir quelque reconnaissance pour les anciens legislateurs qui nous les ont1 les premiers1 appris40 #aaa ,see ,transact4 of the ,r4 ,a4 ,s4 of ,great ,brit4 and ,irel41 vol4 ,,iii4 part ,i4 p4 #ebd et seq4 ,remarks on the ,zand language and the ,zand-,avesta4 ,this able tract is chiefly a comment upon ,erskine's ,memoir ,on the sacred book and religion of the ,parsis1 in the ,transact4 of the ,lit4 ,soc4 of ,bombay1 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #bie4 #aab ,sir ,w4 ,j4 says 7see his ,works1 vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #aaf7 that1 according to his conviction1 the dialect of the ,guebrs1 which they pretend to be that of ,zertusht1 of which ,bahman1 a ,guebr and his ,persian reader1 gave him a variety of written specimens1 is a late invention of their priests4 ,what language does he mean8 certainly not that of the ,zand-,avesta1 of which he speaks in particular1 and states 7ibid41 p4 #aah7 8the language of the ,zand was at least a dialect of the ,sanscrit1 approaching1 perhaps1 as nearly to it as the ,prcrit1 or other popular idioms1 which we know to have been spoken in ,india two thousand years ago40 #aac ,sir ,w4 ,j4's ,works1 vol4 ,v4 pp4 #dad-dae4 #aad ,anquetil composed a number of ,memoirs1 read to the ,french ,institut and preserved in their printed records4 ,he published1 in #agga1 three quarto volumes upon his voyages to1 in1 and from ,india1 and the ,works of ,zoroaster2 in #agih1 ,l',inde en rapport avec l',europe2 in #agii1 ,la ,legislation orientale1 ou le despotisme considr dans la ,turquie1 la ,perse et l',indostane4 ,an epistle which he placed before his ,latin translation of ,dara ,shuko's ,persian ,upanishad1 and addressed to the ,brahmans of ,india1 contained1 as it were1 his religious and political testament4 ,he declares his nourishment to have been reduced1 like that of an abstemious ascetic1 living1 even in winter1 without fire2 and sleeping in a bed without feathers or sheets4 ,his juvenile boast of 8personal beauty0 was expiated by total neglect of his body1 left 8with linen unchanged and unwashed20 his aspirations to 8a vast extent of learning0 had subsided into patient and most persevering studies4 ,but1 disdaining to accept gifts and pensions1 even from government1 he preserved his absolute liberty1 and blessed his poverty1 8as the salvation of his soul and body1 the rampart of morality and of religion2 a friend of all men2 victorious over the allurements of the world0 he tended towards the ,supreme ,being4 ,well may virtues so rare efface other human failings of ,anquetil du ,perron4 ,he died1 in his seventy-fourth year1 in #ahje47,see ,histoire et ,mmoires de l',institut royal de ,france4 ,classe d',histoire et de ,littrature anciennes1 tome ,,iii4 #ahah47 #aae ,see ,transl41 vol4 ,i4 pp4 #cea-cec4 #aaf ,works1 vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #aae4 #aag ,transl4 vol4 ,i4 p4 #bge4 #aah ,ibid41 p4 #caj4 #aai ,loco cit41 p4 #aag4 #abj ,yezd1 in central ,persia1 is the ancient ,isatich of ,ptolemy4 ,it is celebrated on account of the fire-worship of ,yezdan 7or ,ormuzd1 as light71 there practised1 and as the last asylum of the adherents to ,zoroaster's religion1 who fled before the ,muhammedans4 ,from thence thefire-worshippers sought a refuge in ,india1 and settled in ,diu1 ,bombay1 and in the higher valleys of the ,indus and the ,ganges4 #aba ,see vol4 ,i4 p4 #ga4 #abb ,see vol4 ,i4 p4 #cba4 #abc ,for instance1 the ,utopia of ,thomas ,moore1 the ,oceana of ,harrington1 the ,leviathan of ,hobbes1 etc41 etc4 ,,iv4,,the ,,religion ,,of ,,the ,,hindus4 ,the theatre upon which the author of the ,dabistn begins history from the remotest times1 is ,persia1 without limitation of its extent1 probably including ,chalda4 ,from thence he passes to ,india1 he says little of any other country2 nothing at all of ,egypt4 ,the delta of this most fertile land1 as an alluvial formation of the great river ,nile1 was necessarily posterior to the existence of inland regions2 still its claims to antiquity are very high and not unsupported1 to a certain extent1 by the best written testimonies and architectural monuments4 ,if ,i here refer in a cursory manner to its eras1#abd it is to strengthen what was above remarked concerning the general belief of the great age of the world4 ,the ancient religion of ,egypt1 although connected and conformable in many points with other ,asiatic religions1 is never alluded to by the author of the ,dabistn1 probably because in his time the ,egyptians had lost even the memory of their ancient history1 which very little attracted the curiosity of their masters1 the ,muhammedans1 except perhaps by the medium of the ,bible of the ,jews1 often quoted in their ,koran4#abe ,i cannot here omit briefly noticing the various opinions of several learned men concerning the comparative antiquity of the ,magi1 the ,egyptian priests1 and the ,hindu philosophers4 ,aristotle#abf believed the ,magi more ancient than the ,egyptians2 ,diodorus of ,sicily#abg believed the ,hindus to have never sent nor received colonies1 and invented every art and science2 ,lucian1 ,philostratus#abh1 and ,eusebius#abi granted anteriority in philosophy to the ,hindus over the ,egyptians4 ,in our times the learned abb ,mignot established in three ,memoirs#acj1 that the ,hindus owed nothing to the ,egyptians1 and traced the true communications of the former with several nations of ,asia and ,europe4 ,but sir ,w4 ,jones declared in #agheaca1 as not ill-grounded1 the opinion that ,ethiopia and ,hindostan were peopled or colonized by the same extraordinary race1 or that the ,ethiopians of ,meroe were the same people as the ,hindus4 ,his opinion was reproduced under different forms by ,hennel1 ,wilford1 ,forbes1 ,carwithen1 among the ,english1 and adopted by ,l4 ,langles among the ,french4 ,i need not dwell upon this opinion1 as the grounds upon which it rested are now considered as entirely destroyed4 ,sir ,w4 ,jones himself seems to have abandoned it in #aghi1acb as the ,dabistn appeared to him to furnish an unexceptionable evidence1 that the ,iranian monarchy must have been the oldest in the world1 although1 he added1 it will remain dubious to which of the three stocks1 ,hindu1 ,arabian1 or ,tartar1 the first kings of ,iran belonged2 or whether they sprang from a fourth race1 distinct from any of the others2 ,he further states1 that no country but ,persia seems likely to have sent forth colonies to all the kingdoms of ,asia1 and that the three races 7,indians1 ,arabs1 ,tartars7 migrated from ,iran as from their common country1 8the true centre of population1 of knowledge1 of languages1 and of arts2 which1 instead of travelling westward only1 as it has been fancifully supposed1 or eastward1 as might with equal reason have been asserted1 were expanded in all directions to all the regions of the world1 in which the ,hindu race had settled under various denominations40 ,the second chapter of the ,dabistn describes1 in twelve sections1 the religious systems and customs of the ,hindus4 ,it is a detailed account1 given by a ,persian who1 as traveller and resident in ,india during about thirty years1 had the best opportunities to collect right information2 he shows himself acquainted with the canonical books of this nation2 he quotes their ,purnas1 and other works less known4#acc ,the ,hindus are1 among all nations1 most particularly distinguished by a decided turn for metaphysics1 which even tinctured the radicals of their language2 they have labored more than others to solve1 exhaust1 comprehend1 what is insolvible1 inexhaustible1 incomprehensible4 ,to give a general notion of their metaphysical theology1 ,i do not say to render it intelligible1 would require an extensive treatise4 ,we will now give a few characteristic and leading features of their systems as indicated in the ,dabistn4 ,some of their theological philosophers made incredible efforts to steer clear of anthropomorphism in their conceptions of the ,divinity3 their ,brahm1 in the neuter gender1 has no symbol1 nor image1 nor temple2 they generally profess the great principle of emanation of all existences from a common but unknown source4 ,god is the producer of the beginning and end1 exhibiting himself in the mirror of pure space4 ,creation is held to have proceeded from pure space and time4 ,other ,hindu philosophers establish3 #a4 a primary1 subtile1 universal substance1 undergoing modification through its own energy4 ,this they call ,mula ,prakritti1 8rudimental nature10 no production but the root of all1 involving1 #b4 seven principles1 which are productions and productive 7that is1 intellect1 egotism1 and five subtile elements72 from these seven proceed3 #c4 sixteen productions 7to wit1 eleven organs and five gross elements72 to these just mentioned twenty-four 7namely1 ,nature1 seven principles and sixteen productions72 add1 #d4 the soul1 which is neither a production1 nor productive1 and you have the twenty-five physical and metaphysical categories of the ,sankhya philosophy4#acd ,this strikes us as a very specious methodical arrangement of an abstruse matter1 which is not thereby in any degree rendered more intelligible4 ,we seem to understand something more when1 as in the ,vedenta philosophy1 it is said of the truly-existing ,being 7,god73#ace 8that he has exhibited the 8world and the heavens in the field of existence1 but has nothing like an odor of being1 nor taken a color of reality2 and this manifestation is called ,mya that is1 #8the ,magic of ,god1' because the universe is his playful deceit1 and he is the bestower of imitative existence1 himself the unity of reality4 ,with this pure substance1 like an imitative actor1 he passes every moment into another form4 ,he1 manifesting his being and unity in three persons1 separate from each other1 formed the universe4 ,the connexion of the spirits with the holy ,being is like the connexion of the billows with the ocean1 or that of sparks with fire40 ,this is pure idealism2 but man will spontaneously break through the shadowy illusion1 and grasp at some reality2 the trinity of the ,hindus became creation1 preservation1 and destruction 7or renovation71 the history of nature before their eyes4 ,i shall here remark1 without attempting to explain1 the striking contrast in the religion of the same nation between the most subtile metaphysic theology and the grossest idolatry4 ,in the latter1 the symbolical representation prevails2 it is known1 that in its immoderate use they have entirely abandoned the normal proportions of the human form1 and by the multiplication of members banished all fitness and beauty4 ,their plastic and graphic typification of an all-mighty1 all-bestowing1 and all-resuming ,god1 with its three1 four1 five heads1 so many and more arms1 is repulsive2 in their poetry he frightens us with innumerable mouths1 eyes1 breasts1 arms1 and legs1 grinding between his teeth the generations of men1 who precipitate themselves into his mouth like rivers into the ocean1 or flies into fire4#acf ,the psychology of the ,hindus is not less abstruse than the rest of their metaphysics4 ,we have already mentioned the soul among the twenty-five categories as neither a production nor productive4 ,the ,indian philosophers distinguish spirit and soul1 that is1 a rational soul and a mere sensitive principle4 ,the first is supposed enveloped with a subtile1 shadowy form of the most delicate material ether4 ,some hold the soul to be incased in three sheaths1 the intellectual1 the mental1 and the organic or vital sheath4#acg ,according to different views the vital spirit is ,mya herself1 or an emanation of ,my1 in any case the illusive manifestation of the universe4 ,this ingenuous conception seems to have taken deep and complete possession of the ,hindus2 it dominates in their most subtile abstractions1 and embodies itself in a thousand forms to their vivid and luxuriant imagination4 ,the ,saktians1 a sect wedded to sensual materialism1 represent ,my as a ,sakt or energy of ,siva2 she is 8the mother of the universe20 8non-entity finds no access to this creator1 the garment of perishableness does not sit right upon the body of this fascinating empress2 the dust of nothingness does not move round the circle of her dominion2 the real beings and the accidental creatures of the nether world are equally enamoured and intoxicated with desire before her40 ,above the six circles1 into which the ,hindus divide the human body1 is 8the window of life1 and the passage of the soul1 which is the top and middle of the head1 and in that place is the flower of the back of one thousand leaves3 this is the residence of the glorious divinity1 that is1 of the world-deceiving queen1 and in this beautiful site reposes her origin4 ,with the splendor of one hundred thousand world-illuminating suns1 she wears1 at the time of rising1 manifold odoriferous herbs and various flowers upon her head1 and around her neck3 her resplendent body is penetrated with perfumes of divers precious ingredients1 such as musk1 safran1 sandal1 and amber1 and bedecked with magnificent garments2 in this manner1 she is to be represented40#ach ,thus we see the poetical imagination of the ,hindus1 playing1 as it were1 with abstruseness1 materializing what is spiritual1 and spiritualizing what is material4 ,characteristic of and peculiar to the ,hindus1 are their conceptions relative to the states of the embodied soul1 which are chiefly three3 8waking1 dreaming1 and profound sleep40#ach ,in these three conditions the soul is imprisoned1 but it may1 by virtue and sanctity1 break the net of illusion1 that is1 acquire the consciousness of the illusion which captivates it1 and know that1 even when awake1 man is dreaming3 this is the triumph of his perfection4 ,such1 and other notions1 in their development and application1 form a system of metaphysics1 in which excess and abuse of refined speculations lose themselves in obscurity1 contradiction1 and absurdity4 ,among the ,indian sectaries appear the ,charvak1 who1 rejecting the popular religion1 follow their own system of philosophic opinions4 ,of ,buddha and the ,buddhists1 we are disappointed to find so little in the ,dabistn1 except the important information that ,vichnu1 in order to destroy the demons and evil genii1 the agents of night1 assumed the avatr of ,buddha when ten years only of the ,dwaparyug remained1 that is1 #caab years before ,christ4 ,in the section on the tenets held by the followers of ,buddha1 these religionists are called ,jatis or ,yatis1 a great number of whom are corn-traders and get their livelihood as servants2 they are divided in several classes1 and do not believe the incarnations of the deity2 as to the rest1 they have tenets and customs in common with other ,indian sects1 only distinguishing themselves by a great aversion to ,brahmans1 and an extreme care of not hurting animal life4 ,in the whole account1 which the ,dabistn gives of the various sects and doctrines of the ,hindus1 we can but remark a frequent confusion of ,indian with ,muhammedan notions and stories4 ,indeed1 this work having been written in ,india at a time when1 after a sojourn of more than seven centuries1 about twenty millions of ,muselmans appeared1 as it were1 lost in the midst of one hundred millions of ,hindus1 we cannot wonder that a mutual assimilation in opinions and customs took place among individuals of both religions4 ,a remarkable instance of it presents itself in the person of ,kabir1 renowned in his time for sanctity4 ,after his death1 both the ,hindus and ,muhammedans claimed his corpse for funeral honors2 monuments erected to him by each party exist in our days1 with the proverbial precept which originated from this event3 8,live so as to be claimed after death to be burnt by ,hindus1 and to be buried by ,muslims40 ,the ,indian ,yogis1 ,sanysis1 and ,vairagis are perpetually confounded with ,muhammedan ,durvishes1 and ,sufis1 of whom hereafter4 ,we do not fail to meet with many traces of the ancient ,persian astrolatry and pyrolatry among the ,indians4 ,mohsan mentions the ,surya-makhan 7,sauras71 8worshippers of the sun10 and periphrases1 as addressed to that luminary1 a ,sanscrit prayer1 which seems to be one of those called gaytri1 the holiest verses of the ,vedas1 kept as mysterious by the ,brahmans1 and pronounced with the deepest sense of concentrated devotion4 ,in our days1 more than one gaytri has been made known4#aci ,we cannot doubt that 7according to the poet7#adj 8,that vast source of liquid light1 the ethereal sun1 which perpetually laves heaven with ever-renewed brightness10 was1 from the remotest times1 the object of adoration in ,india4 ,the ,dabistn mentions also the ,chandra-bakhtra1 8worshippers of the moon40 ,even in our days we find the veneration for the sun1 the planets1 and fire1 openly practised by the ,hindus4 ,the worshippers of the latter elements called ,sagnkas1 are very numerous at ,benares2#ada they keep many agni-hotras1 8burnt-offerings10 continually blazing2 they kindle1 with two pieces of sacred wood1 called smi1 a fire1 never extinguished during their lives1 for the performance of solemn sacrifices1 their nuptial ceremonies1 the obsequies of departed ancestors1 and their own funeral pile4 ,there are besides particular worshippers of the wind1 water1 earth1 and the three kingdoms of nature4 ,the latter are called ,tripujas1 8trinitarians40 ,we find also ,manushya-bhakta1 8worshippers of mankind10 who recognise the being of ,god in man1 and believe nothing to be more perfect than mankind2 like ,channing1 a famous ,american preacher of our days4 ,in short1 the worship of personified nature1 in its utmost extent1 is most evident in what we know of the ,vedas1 and never ceased to be the general religion of the ,hindus4 ,not without interest will be read in the ,dabistn the account of ,nanak1#adb the founder of the ,sikh religion and domination4 ,he is there represented as having been1 in a former age1 ,janaka1 sovereign of ,mithila1 and father of ,sit1 the wife of ,rama4 ,the revolution effected by ,nanak1 in the middle of the sixteenth century1 proves that the ,hindus are not quite so unchangeable in religion and customs as is generally believed4 ,it is however to be remarked1 that the ,panj-ab1 the country of the ,sikhs1 was always considered by the ,brahmans as the seat of heterodoxy 7probably ,buddhism71 and blamed for irregularity of manners4 ,mohsan's account will be found to add confirmation and a few particulars to that given of ,nanak1 from the best sourcesthe generals sir ,john ,malcolm1 and ,john ,briggs4 ,what will appear most valuable in this work is the description of various usages1 some of which have never been described elsewhere4 ,the most ancient customs are brought to recollection4 ,thus1 we find stated1 on the authority of ,maha bharat1 that widows could formerly take other husbandsmarried women1 with the consent of their husbands1 maintain intercourse with other menseveral individuals1 of the same race and religion1 espouse one wife among them2in ancient times there existed no such practice as appropriation of husband and wife2 every woman being allowed to cohabit with whomsoever she liked2 conjugal fidelity was only in later times made a duty4 ,much of what he describes may be seen1 even in our days1 in ,india1 where all the degrees of civilisation which the ,hindus ever attained1 from the lowest to the highest1 occur here and there within a small compass of country4 ,so constant are they in good and bad6 ,the whole of antiquity is still living in ,india1 and ,herodotus stands confirmed in what appeared most incredible in his narrative by the testimonies of ,mohsan ,fni1 the reverend abbe ,dubois1#adc ,ward1 and others4 ,the ,persian author intersperses his account with anecdotes which characterise in the most lively manner individuals1 sects1 and tribes4 ,if now and then we must avert our eyes from disgusting scenes of human degradation1 more frequently we admire man1 even in his errors1 for the power and command of the mental over the physical part of his nature4 ,the naked ,yogi1 who inflicts the most cruel tortures upon himself1 wants but a better motive for being justly extolled as a hero of fortitude2 death appears to him an habitual companion1 into whose arms he sinks without fear2 overpowered by malady1 he buries himself alive4 ,we may be astonished at the number of unbelievers among the ,hindus of whom we read1 and at the licentiousness of their opinions1 expressed with a strength which we should think carried to excess4#add ,we perceive also that1 in contradiction to common belief1 in the midst of the seventeenth century1 when the ,dabistn was composed 7#afde ,a4 ,d47 a numerous class of ,indians assumed the name of ,muselmans1 but it must be remarked1 that the ,hindus neither endeavor to make1 nor easily admit1 proselytes3 because their religion depends much less upon creed1 in which they are latitudinarians1 than upon the fixed customs of their castes1 the character of which1 being derived from birth1 cannot be transferred to strangers4#ade ,we shall see hereafter in what manner ,hindus and ,muhammedans may be confounded with each other4 ,so much of ,india being known in our days1 we have the facility of trying the veracity and correctness of the ,dabistn concerning this country4 ,its account will be found1 ,i dare say1 rather incomplete in the small compass in which so extensive a subject was inclosed1 but not inaccurate in the greatest part of its various statements4 ,sir ,w4 ,jones#adf bears ,mohsan ,fani the testimony1 8that his information concerning the ,hindus is wonderfully correct40 ,let us compare the account given by him with all that has been published about ,india by the best instructed ,europeans before the foundation of the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 and we shall regret that the ,dabistn was brought into notice so late4 ,whatever it be1 the particular views of a ,persian1 through a medium of education1 religion1 and custom1 so different from that through which we consider ,india1 can but interest us by their novelty1 and by themselves add something to our information about the character of ,asiatics4 #abd ,according to ,manetho1 a high-priest of ,heliopolis1 the ,egyptians counted #ec1ebe years2 they saw twice the sun set where he now risesthey saw 7as well as the ,chaldeans7 the ecliptic perpendicular upon the equator before #ci1gaj years4 ,herodotus 7lib4 ,,ii7 attributes to them1 more moderately1 #ae1hhb historical years4 #abe ,the history of ,joseph1 ,pharaoh1 ,moses in ,egypt1 is often referred to by ,muhammed and his followers2 they state that the ,egyptian king professed a religion unlike that mentioned by ,greek authors1 with whom the ,bible also disagrees4 ,in general1 monotheism is adverse to the examination of polytheistical systems1 and seldom accurate in the representation of their tenets4 #abf ,quoted by ,diogenes ,laertius1 ,prm41 p4 #f4 #abg ,lib4 ,,ii4 p4 #aac4 edit4 ,wossel4 #abh ,vita ,apol4 c4 #f4 #abi ,chron4 lib4 post41 n4 #djj4 #acj ,mmoires de ,littrature de l',acadmie royale des ,inscriptions et ,belles-,lettres1 tome ,,xxxi4 #aca ,works1 vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #da4 #acb ,ibid41 pp4 #aaa4 #acd4 #acc ,such is the ,jog-,vasishta1 mentioned 7vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #bh and #bef7 as a very ancient book4 ,sir ,w4 ,jones calls it one of the finest compositions on the philosophy of the ,vedanta school2 it contains the instructions of the great ,vasishta to his pupil ,rama4 ,lord ,teignmouth says1 that several ,persian versions of this work exist1 and quotes some passages of them1 which1 compared with the original ,sanscrit1 were found substantially accurate4 #acd ,see the detailed table of it1 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #abb4 #ace ,vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #ia-ib4 #acf ,see ,bhagavad-gita1 vv4 #af4 #bc4 #bh4 #bi4 ,schlegel's ed4 #acg vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #bd4 #ach ,see vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #aej-aea4 #aci ,that which sir ,w4 ,jones quotes 7see ,works1 vol4 ,,xiii4 p4 #cfg7 is1 perhaps1 most to be depended upon4 #adj ,lucretius1 ,v4 v4 #bhb3 ,largus item liquidi fons luminis1 thereus sol1 ,irrigat assidu clum candore recenti4 #ada ,sir ,w4 ,j41 ,works1 vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #abg4 #adb ,vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #bdf-bhh4 #adc ,see ,murs1 ,institutions et ,crmonies des ,peuples de l',inde2 par ,m4 l'abb ,j4 ,a4 ,dubois1 ci-devant missionnaire dans le ,meissour4 ,paris1 #ahbe4 ,this work was first published in the ,english language1 ,london1 #ahaf4 ,it had been translated from the author's ,french manuscript1 which lord ,william ,bentinck1 governor of ,madras1 purchased on the account of the ,east ,india ,company1 in #ahjg4 ,this composition received the approbation of major ,wilks1 resident of ,maissour1 sir ,james ,mackintosh1 and ,william ,erskine1 ,esq42 to which ,i am happy to add the most decisive judgment of the honorably-known ,brahman1 ,ram ,mohun ,roy1 whom ,i often heard say3 8,the ,european who best knew the ,hindus1 and gave the most faithful account of them1 was the abb ,dubois40 #add ,see vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #bja4 #ade ,the celebrated ,ram ,mohun ,roy had abandoned all the tenets1 but remained as much as possible attached to the customs1 of his ,brahminical caste4 #adf ,his ,works1 vol4 ,,iv4 p4 #af4 ,v4,,retrospect ,,of ,,the ,,persian ,,and ,,indian ,,religions4 ,i have endeavored to trace the most remarkable features of ,persian and ,indian religions from among those which are contained in the ,dabistn4 ,in them we recognise resemblances1 and1 in more than one point1 even coincidences1 which appear not merely taken from each other in the course of time1 but rather originally inwoven in the respective institutions4 ,this may be explained1 partly by the general probability that nations1 passing through the same stages of civilisation1 might agree in several parts of religion1 politics1 and philosophy1 and chiefly by the fact1 now generally admitted among the learned1#adg that in very remote times1 a union of all the ,arian nations1 among whom the ,persians and ,indians are counted1 existed in the common regions of central ,asia4 ,sir ,w4 ,jones#adh goes so far as to say3 8,we cannot doubt that the book of ,mahabad1 or ,manu1 written in a celestial dialect1 means the ,veda40 ,william von ,schlegel most ingeniously surmises1#adi 8that the name of ,zand may be but a corruption of the ,sanscrit word chhandas1 one of the most usual names of the ,vedas40 ,the fourteen ,mahabadians are to him3 8,nothing else but the fourteen ,manus1 past and future1 of the ,brahmanical mythology40#aej ,thus we should have to thank ,mohsan ,fani for a confirmation of the above-stated historical fact2 the ,mahabadians were nothing else but ,mahabodhis1 in good ,sanscrit1 8great deified teachers20 he would have placed them1 as did lately ,burnouf1 ,lassen1 and ,charles ,ritter1 somewhere on the highlands of ,iran1 and he invented nothing4 ,from the ante-historical dynasties descending to later times1 let us consider that1 according to respectable traditions1#aea there existed friendly and hostile relations between ,iran and ,persia in the time of the ,iranian king ,feridun1 #agbi years before our era3 he reconducted with an army a fugitive ,indian prince1 and rendered ,india tributary4 ,two other invasions took place under the ,persian monarch ,manucheher1#aeb after which the ,indians recovered their liberty4 ,under ,kai ,kobad#aec flourished ,rustum1 who ruled1 beside other countries1 ,sejistan and ,kabul1 conquered the ,panj-b1 and carried war into the bosom of ,arya varta4 ,this country was also attacked by ,afrasiab1 a ,turan prince1#aed then possessor of ,persia4 ,ferdusi's ,shah-namah indicates expeditions of ,feramurs1 a son of ,rustum1 to ,india1 under the reign of ,kai ,khosr4 ,we arrive at the epoch of ,gushtasp1 who ordered the ,indus to be explored1 and although he had not1 as ,herodotus asserts1#aee conquered the ,indians1 he entertained religious relations with that nation4 ,after ,alexander's conquest of ,persia1 ,sassan1 the son of ,dara1 retired to ,hind1 where1 devoted to the service of ,god1 he died4#aef ,after a very obscure period of ,persian history1 ,ardeshir1 directed by a dream1 brought an offspring of ,sassan from ,kabulistan to ,istakhar4 ,we cannot doubt that at all times a communication was open between ,iran and ,india1 where ,bahram ,gor married an ,indian princess1 and whence ,nushirvan received a celebrated book and the game of chess4 ,in our seventh century1 the ,muhammedan ,arabians1 driven by the spirit of conquest1 turned their arms towards ,india1 but stopped on the borders of the ,indus4 ,it was reserved to ,muhammedan ,moghuls1 mixed with ,persians1 to establish in the midst of ,india an empire which1 after eight hundred years1 disjoined by various disorders1 fell into the hands of the ,english4 ,this rapid sketch is perhaps sufficient to explain any mixture1 fusion1 and resemblance of ,persian and ,indian doctrines and institutions1 if even we were not disposed to seek their fountain-head in the sacred gloom of the remotest antiquity4 ,whatever it be1 in any case1 it will no more be said1 that the ,dabistn was written 8with the intention to claim for ,persia the pre-eminence over ,india1 concerning the antiquity of religious revelations40#aeg ,in fact1 ,mohsan ,fani never explicitly alludes to a comparative antiquity between the ,persians and ,indians1 and implicitly acknowledges the anteriority of the ,indian religion over the ,zoroastrian1 in a part of ,persia at least1 by relating that ,gushtasp was converted from the former to the latter by ,zardusht1 by whom also the ,indian sage1 ,sankhara atcharya1 was vanquished4 ,after a more accurate examination1 the resemblance between the said religions will be found to exist certainly in particular principles and tenets1 but not at all in the general character or the spirit of these religious systems4 ,nothing can be more dissimilar than the austerity of ,mezdaism and the luxuriancy of ,hinduism in the development of their respective dogmas1 and particularly in their worship1 as was already observed4#aeh ,we cannot however deny1 that not a little of the similarity in the account of different religions belongs to the author of the ,dabistn1 who most naturally confounded the ideas of his own with those of more ancient times1 and used expressions proper to his particular creed when speaking of that of others4 ,thus he employs very often the term angels for that of divinities1 and carries the mania of allegorising1 so peculiar to the later ,muhammedan ,sfis1 into his description of the ,indian mythology4 ,this sort of substitution1 or these anachronisms of expression1 are to be remarked in the narrative of other authors1 praised for general correctness and veracity2 ,i can here so much the more readily call to mind similar inaccuracies in the accounts which ,greek historians1 and in particular the philosophic ,xenophon1 gave of ,persia1 as ,i may add1 that in many points they agree with our ,mohsan ,fani4 #adg ,see above1 p4 #gf4 #adh ,his ,works1 vol4 ,,iv4 p4 #aje4 #adi ,loco cit41 p4 #fi4 #aej ,ibid41 p4 #ea4 ,among the ,persians is even found ,behesht-i-,gang1 and ,gang-diz1 8the ,paradise10 and 8the castle of ,ganga0 7,hyde1 p4 #agj74,mr4 ,julius ,mohl says 7,journal asiatique1 mars #ahda1 p4 #bha73 8,zohac is the representative of a ,semitical dynasty1 which in ,persia took place of the ,indian dynasty1 and overthrew the entirely ,brahmanical institutions of ,jamshid40 ,we see the opinion that ,hinduism once resided in ,iran daily gaining ground4 #aea ,the ,history of ,hindostan1 etc41 by ,alex4 ,dow1 #agfh1 t4 ,i4 p4 #ab et seq4 ,the same1 by ,j4 ,briggs1 #ahbi4 ,introd41 ch4 p4 xiv4 et seq4 #aeb ,the ,mandauces of ,ctesias and of ,moses of ,chorene4 ,he reigned1 according to ,ferdusi1 ,b4 ,c41 from #abbi-aaji2 according to our chronogers1 from #gcj-gae4 #aec ,the ,arphaxad of the ,hebrews2 the ,dejoces of ,herodotus2 the ,arsus of ,ctesias2 he is placed ,b4 ,c4 #ajge by the ,orientals2 #fif years by the ,occidentals4 #aed ,all kings of ,turan were called ,afrasib4 #aee ,lib4 ,,iv4 #aef ,see ,the ,destir1 ,engl4 trans41 p4 #ahe4 #aeg ,see before1 p4 #ge4 #aeh ,see page #ajb4 ,,vi4,,the ,,religion ,,of ,,the ,,tabitian 7,,tibetans74 ,the third chapter of the ,dabistn treats of the religion of the ,kera ,tabitn 7,tibitans74 ,the author says that he received his information from a learned man of this sect by means of an interpreter1 who did not always satisfy his inquiries2 the little he says appears to belong to a class of ,buddhistic ,hinduism1 and not to be destitute of truth4 ,,vii4,,the ,,religion ,,of ,,the ,,jews4 ,then follows1 in the fourth chapter1 a short account of the religion of the ,yahuds or ,jews4 ,the author derived his notion from a ,rabbin converted to ,muhammedism1 and states nothing which was not really professed by one of the ,jewish sects1 which1 in his summary narration1 he does not distinguish4 ,he gives a ,persian translation of the first five chapters1 and a part of the sixth chapter of the ,genesis from the ,hebrew original2 a comparison of it with several other translations known in ,europe1 proves its general accuracy2 ,i thought it not altother unimportant to point out the few variations which occur4 ,,viii4,,the ,,religion ,,of ,,the ,,christians4 ,it is not without great interest that an ,european ,christian will peruse the fifth chapter1 in which a ,persian treats of the religion of the ,tarsas1 that is1 8,christians40 ,mohsan ,fani declares1 that he saw several learned ,christians1 such as the ,padre ,francis1#aei highly esteemed by the ,portuguese in ,goa and in ,surat4 ,we can scarce doubt1 that it was from that father1 or some other ,roman ,catholic missionary1 that he received his information2 as he portrays particularly the ,roman ,catholic doctrine1 of which1 in my opinion1 he exhibits a more faithful idea than that which a great number of ,protestants entertain1 and are wont to express4 ,every ,christian may be satisfied with the picture of his religion1 which1 although contracted in a small compass1 is nevertheless faithfully drawn by a foreign but impartial hand4 ,mohsan ,fani1 in seventeen pages of our translation1 states only a few circumstances of the life of ,jesus ,christ1 and a few dogmas relative to him as son of ,god1 and the second person of the holy ,trinity4 ,in the account of seven sacraments1 the eucharist is characterised in a manner which will not fail to attract attention4#afj ,scarce any rites or ceremonies are mentioned2 the greatest part of the statement relates to the moral precepts of ,christianity1 which presents an advantageous contrast with the many absurd and superstitious duties1 with which other religions are encumbered4 ,thus1 we find confirmed in the ,dabistn that the ,pentateuch of the ,jews and the ,gospel of the ,christians were both sufficiently familiar to ,muhammedans who had any pretension to learning4 #aei ,probably a ,portuguese4 ,from him ,mohsan ,fani might have received the information 7see vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #cjg7 that an image of ,st4 ,veronica is preserved in a town of ,spain1 probably within the year #afda1 before it was known in ,india that ,portugal had freed itself from the domination of ,spain1 which event took place on the #ast ,december1 #afdj4 ,on that account1 the father spoke of the peninsular sovereign as still possessor of both kingdoms1 and1 instead of calling him king of ,spain1 styled him king of ,portugal1 from fond partiality for his native country4 ,this remark was suggested to me by the learned viscount of ,santarem47,see vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #cjg4 #cjh1 note #a47 #afj ,see vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #cae4 8,the holiest of all the sacraments1 as it presents the ,lord ,jesus under the form of bread1 that it may become the power of the soul40 ,this definition was most likely not that which ,mohsan ,fani heard from father ,francis1 but the intelligent ,persian might have understood that a strong and lively representation of an object is equivalent to its real presence1 which latter words must have been those used1 as orthodox1 by a ,roman ,catholic priest4 ,,ix4,,the ,,religion ,,of ,,the ,,muselmans4 ,the author of the ,dabistn1 after having treated of the most ancient religions1 passes to the comparatively modern religious system of ,arabia4 ,the ,arabians1 although frequently attacked1 were never conquered by the ,assyrians1 ,medians1 ,persians1 or ,romans2 they maintained their political independance1 but could not avoid nor resist the religious influence of nations with whom they were1 during ages1 in various relations4 ,the ancient history of ,arabia is lost1 like that of many other nations2 so much is known of their oldest religion1 that it resembled that of the ,persians and ,hindus3 it was the ,magism or ,sabism2 the stars were worshipped as idols from the remotest times2 we read of antediluvian idols4 ,at the time1 which we now consider1 that is the seventh century of our era1 all the then existing religions seemed to be far remote from their original simplicity and purity2#afa idolatry was dominant1 and ,monotheism preserved and positively professed only in ,judaism and ,christianity1 although likewise corrupted by various kinds of superstition4 ,followers of both these religions were settled in ,arabia1 to which region the ,jews fled from the cruel destruction of their country by the ,romans2 and the ,christians1 on account of the persecutions and disorders which had arisen in the ,eastern church4 ,we see by what facts1 circumstances1 and notions ,muhammed was acted upon1 whilst nourishing his religious enthusiasm by solitary contemplation in the cavern of mount ,hara1 to which he was wont to retire for one month in every year4 ,in his fortieth year1 at the same age at which ,zoroaster began to teach #fjj years before ,christ 7according to some chronologers71 ,muhammed1 as many years after the ,messiah1 assumed the prophetic mission to reform the ,arabians4 ,he felt the necessity of seizing some safe and essential dogmas in the chaos of ,magian1 ,zoroastrian1 ,jewish1 and ,christian notions2 broke all the figures of planets in the temple of ,mecca1 and declared the most violent war against all plastic1 graven1 and painted idols2 he left undisturbed only the black stone1 ,saturn's emblem before1 and at the time when the ,jewish traditions claimed it for ,abraham1 and even transported it to heaven4 ,muhammed preferred the latter to the more ancient superstition2 as to the rest1 he abhorred the prevailing idolatry of the ,sabaians2 and blamed the corruption of monotheism in the ,jews and ,christians4 ,he felt in himself the powerful spirit1 and undertook to re-establish the ,touhid1 8the unity and spiritualism of ,god20 he preached with enthusiastic zeal the ,islam1 8devotedness und resignation to ,god40 ,but1 in order to found and to expand the great and necessary truths1 he knew no other means1 but to attach the believers to his own person1 and to accustom them to blind obedience to his dictates2 he proclaimed3 8,there is no ,god but ,god1 and ,muhammed is his prophet20 he gave them the ,koran1 the only holy book1 in which his precepts were as many commands proclaimed under the penalty of eternal damnation4 ,in the ,muhammedan all spontaneity is stifled2 all desire1 all attempt to be self-convinced is interdicted2 every thing becomes exterior1 the religious and civil ,code but one4 ,muhammed seemed not to know that religion cannot be the gift1 as it is not the property1 of any single man2 it belongs to mankind4 ,any particular creed lives only by its inherent force1 independently of the founder1 who retires and leaves nothing behind him but his name as a mere distinction from that of another religion4 ,every individual action is of little avail1 if it does not proceed from the free and pure impulse of the spirit1 which must revive in all succeeding generations4 ,this is acknowledged in the ,dabistn#afb by giving a very philosophic explanation of the expression prophetic seal1 or 8the last of prophets30 8,that which is reared up by superior wisdom1 renders the prophet's knowledge vain1 and takes his color2 that is to say3 if one hundred thousand prophets like himself realise in themselves the person of superior wisdom1 they are possessors of the seal1 the last prophets1 because it is superior wisdom which is the seal1 and they know themselves to be effaced1 and superior wisdom existing40 ,muhammed1 although wise enough to connect himself with other prophets1 his predecessors1 pretended however to close the series1 and to be the last of prophets1 or 8the seal of prophetism40 ,vain project6 immediately after him violent contests arose1 8,and discord1 with a thousand various mouths40 ,thirty years after his death his family was dispossessed of the ,khalifat4 ,this passed to the ,moaviyahs1 who1 residing in ,damascus1 kept it during #ij years1 and then ceded it to the ,abbasides1 who established their seat at ,baghdad4 ,the impulse and development of the ,islam was overwhelming during the one hundred and twenty years after the prophet's death2 the mighty spirit of conquest had arisen and was,i shall not say irresistiblebut certainly badly resisted by the nations assailed4 ,the ,romans and ,persians were then hard pressed themselves2 on the ,west by the ,goths1 on the ,east by the ,huns3whilst the ,greeks had sunk into general luxury and degeneracy2 all feebly sustained the attack of hardy and active men1 whose native habit of rapine and devastation was then exalted and sanctified by the name of religion1 and continually invigorated by rich1 splendid1 and easy conquests4 ,thus1 the khalifs1 who were divided into two great lines1 the before-mentioned ,abbasides and the ,fatimites1 extended their empire within #fjj years after ,muhammed1 not only over the greatest part of ,asia1 but also along the western shore of ,africa1 ,egypt1 ,spain1 and ,sicily2 threatening the rest of ,europe4 ,after the first labors1 came rest1 during which the genius of the ,arabs turned to persevering study1 deep speculation1 and noble ambition3 this was the scientific age of the ,arabs1 which began in the middle of our eighth century1 and was most conspicuous in the old seats of learning1 ,babylonia1 ,syria1 ,egypt1 ,persia1 and ,india4 ,but in the numerous schools rose violent schisms and bloody contests between philosophy and religion4 ,in the mean time the khalifs1 by becoming worldly sovereigns1 had lost their sacred character1 and were in contradiction with the principle of their origin4 ,the crusades of the ,christians1 by reviving their martial energy1 maintained for some time the vacillating power of the ,khalifs1 but their vast and divided empire1 assailed by ,pagan nations1 first in the ,west in #abaa1 and forty-seven years afterwards in the ,east1 fell in #abeh of our era4 ,muhammedism however revived in the barbarous and energetic conquerors1 ,turks1 ,seljuks1 ,albanese1 ,kurds1 ,africans1 who were drawn into its circle2 and science was again cultivated in ,tunis1 ,bulgaria1 and ,india4 ,i thought necessary to draw this rapid historical sketch1 because within its outlines is contained the account of the ,muhammedan sects as given in the text of the ,dabistn4 ,mohsan ,fani himself lived in the age of general decline of ,muhammedism4 ,he exhibits in the sixth chapter the religion of his own nation3 we may expect that he will be true and accurate4 ,he divides the chapter into two sections3 the first treats of the creed of the ,sonnites2 the second1 of that of the ,shihs4 ,these are the two principal sects of the ,muhammedans1 but divided into a number of others1 exceeding that of seventy-three1 which ,muhammed himself has announced1 and consigned1 all except one1 to eternal damnation4 ,this one was that of the sonnah 8the traditional law10 or ,jamat1 8the assembly40 ,the ,dabistn explains this religion in a manner which1 to ,muhammedans1 might appear sufficiently clear1 in spite of digressions and want of order in the arrangement of the matter2 but an ,european reader will desire more light than is afforded in the text1 and feel himself perplexed to understand the meaning of frequent technical terms1 and to connect the various notions disseminated in an unequal narrativenow too diffuse1 now too contracted4 ,the following are the principal features of the long account of ,muhammedism contained in the ,dabistn4 ,immediately after the promulgation of the ,koran1 which followed ,muhammed's death1 it became necessary to fix the meaning and to determine the bearing of its text4 ,there was one theme in which all agreed3 the grandeur1 majesty1 and beneficence of one supreme ,being1 the ,creator1 ruler1 and preserver of the world1 which is the effulgence of his power4 ,this is expressed in the ,koran in such a strain of sublimity as may unite men of all religions in one feeling of admiration4 ,this excellence is an inheritance of the most ancient ,asiatic religion4 ,god can but be always the object of boundless adoration1 but never that of human reasoning4 ,hence the ,muhammedan sects disagreed about the attributes of ,god4 ,the residence assigned1 although inconsistently with pure spiritualism1 to the supreme ,being was the ninth heaven2 an eighth sphere formed the intermediate story between the uppermost heaven and seven other spheres1 distributed among so many prophets1 in the same manner as1 in the ,destir1 the seven prophet kings of the ,pshdadian dynasty were joined to the seven planets which they1 each one in particular1 venerated4 ,numberless angels1 among whom four principal chiefs1 fill the universe1 and serve1 in a thousand different ways1 the supreme ,lord of creation4 ,we recognisee the notions of the ancient ,persian religion in this1 and in the whole system of divine government4 ,another subject of violent and interminable dispute was ,god's action upon the nether world1 principally upon mankind1 or ,god's universal and eternal judgment1 commonly called predestination4 ,this subject was greatly agitated by the ,matezalas1 ,kadarians1 ,jabarians1 and others2 they disputed 8,of providence1 foreknowledge4 will1 and fate1 ,fix'd fate1 free will1 foreknowledge absolute1 ,and found no end1 in wand'ring mazes lost40 ,although this subject appears to be connected with the ,zoroastrian doctrine of the two principles1 8good and bad10 yet it has never been agitated with so much violence in so many particular ways by any religionists as by the ,muhammedans4 ,it has already been observed that1 according to tradition1 the ancient ,persian philosophy was carried in the reign of ,alexander to ,greece1 and from thence1 after having been recast in the mould of ,greek genius1 returned in translations to its original country4 ,we find it expressly stated in the ,dabistn1 that ,plato and ,aristotle were acknowledge as the founders of two principal schools of ,muhammedan philosophers1 to wit1 those of the ,hukma ashrkn1 8,platonists10 and the ,hukma mashyn1 8,aristotelian1 or ,peripatetics40 ,to these add the ,sf's matsherin1 8orthodox ,sufis10 who took care not to maintain any thing contrary to revelation1 and exerted all their sagacity to reconcile passages of the ,koran with sound philosophy4 ,this was the particular profession of the ,matkalmin1 8scholastics40 ,these cede to no other philosophers the palm of mastering subtilties and acute distinctions4 ,they had originally no other object but that of defending their creed against the heterodox philosophers4 ,but they went further1 and attacked the ,peripatetics themselves with the intention to substitute another philosophy for theirs4 ,it may be here sufficient to call to mind the works of three most celebrated men1 ,alfarabi1 ,ibn ,sina 7,avisenna71 and ,ghazali1 whose works are reckoned to be the best specimens of ,arabian and ,muhammedan philosophy4#afc ,they contain three essential parts of orthodox dogmatism3 #a4 ontology1 physiology1 and psychology2 these together are called 8the science of possible things20 #b4 theology1 that is1 the discussion upon the existence1 essence1 and the attributes of ,god2 as well as his relations with the world and man in particular2 #c4 the science of prophetism1 or 8revealed theology40 ,all these subjects are touched upon in the ,dabistn1 but in a very desultory manner4 ,i shall add1 that the author puts in evidence a sect called ,akhbrn1 or 8dogmatic traditionists10 who participate greatly in the doctrine of the ,matkalmin1 and in his opinion are the most approvable of all religious philosophers4 ,the contest for the khalifat between the family of ,ali1 ,muhammed's son-in-law1 and the three first khalifs1 as well as the families of ,moaviah and ,abbas1 a contest which began in the seventh century1 and appears not yet terminated in our daysthis contest1 so much more violent as it was at once religious and political1 occasioned the rise of a great number of sects4 ,much is found about ,ali in the ,dabistn1 and even an article of the ,koran1#afd published no where else relative to this great ,muselman1 which his adversaries are said to have suppressed4 ,the adherents of ,ali are called ,shihs4 ,the ,persians1 after being conquered by the ,arabs1 were compelled to adopt the ,muhammedan religion1 but they preserved a secret adherence to ,magism1 their ancient national creed1 they were therefore easily disposed to join any sect1 which was more or less contrary to the standard creed of their conquerors1 and bore some slight conformity1 or had the least connection with1 their former religion4 ,they became ,shihs4 ,among these sectaries originated the particular office of ,imm1 whose power partook of something of a mysterious nature3 the visible presence of an ,imm was not required2 he could1 although concealed1 be acknowledged1 direct and command his believers2 his name was ,mahdi1 8the director40 ,this opinion originated and was spread after the sudden disappearance of the seventh ,imm1 called ,ismil4 ,his followers1 the ,ismilahs1 maintained that he was not dead2 that he lived concealed1 and directed the faithful by messages1 sent by him1 and brought by his deputies2 that he would one day reappear1 give the victory to his adherents over all other sects1 and unite the world in one religion4 ,more than one ,mahdi was subsequently proclaimed in different parts of ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,europealways expected1 never appearingso that it became a proverbial expression among the ,arabs to denote tardiness3 8as slow as a ,mahdi40 ,we recognize in this an ancient idea of ,zoroaster3 he too was to reappear in his sons at the end of #ab1jjj years2 rather late1but mankind never tire of hope and expectation4 ,a creed1 like that of the ,ismilahs1 because founded upon something mysterious1 vague1 and spiritual1 was likely to branch out in most extraordinary conceptions and practices4 ,the ,dabistn abounds with curious details about them4 ,their doctrine bore the character of duplicity3 one part was manifest1 the other concealed4 ,their manner of making proselytes was not open2 they acted in the dark4 ,they first induced the neophyte to doubt1 then to despise his own creed1 and at last to exchange it for apparently more sublime truths1 until1 after having sufficiently emboldened his reasoning faculty1 they enabled him to throw off every restraint of authority in religious matters4 ,we see in the ,dabistn1#afe the degrees through which an ,ismilah was to pass until he believed in no religion at all4 ,a most remarkable sect of the ,ismilahs was that of the ,almutians1 so called from ,alamut1 a hill-fort in the ,persian province of ,ghilan4 ,this fort was the seat of ,hassan1 a self-created ,imm1 and became the capital of an empire1 perhaps unique in the history of the world4#aff ,an ,imm1 called by ,europeans 8the old man of the mountain10 without armies1 or treasures1 commanded the country around1 and terrified a great part of ,asia by a band of devoted adherents1 whom he sent about to propagate his religion1 and to execute his commands1 which were frequently the murder of his enemies4 ,the executioners were unknown save at the fatal moment of action2 mighty khalifs and sultans met with their murderers among their most intimate servants1 or the guardians of their doors1 in the midst of crowded public places or in the solitude of their secret bed-chambers4 ,the ,fedayis1 so were they called1 devoted themselves not only to the sacred service of their ,imm1 but hired their arm also for profane service to foreign chiefs1 such as the ,christian crusaders4 ,among ,europeans1 these ,ismilahs were known under the name of ,assassins1 which well answered their infamous profession1 but is better derived from ,hashishah#afg1 a sort of hemp1 from which they extracted an intoxicating beverage for their frequent use4 ,during one hundred and sixty years the ,ismilahs were the terror of the weak and the mighty1 until they fell in one promiscuous slaughter1 with the khalif of ,islmism1 under the swords of the ferocious invaders who1 issuing from the vast steppes of ,tartary1 fell upon the disordered empire of the ,muhammedans4 ,the ,ismilahs1 and other sects connected with them1 professed a great attachment to an ,imm1 whose lineage was always traced up to ,ali through a series of intermediate descendants2 but it belonged to the ,ali-,ilahians to deify ,ali himself1 or to believe his having been an incarnation of ,god4 ,another sect1 the ,ulviahs1 also devoted to ,ali1 maintain that he was united with the sun1 that he is now the sun1 and having also been the sun before1 he was for some days only united to an elemental body4 ,both these sects reject the ,koran4 ,here terminates the review of the second volume of the ,english ,dabistn4 #afa ,see1 in what sense1 pp4 #hc-hd4 #afb ,see vol4 ,,iii4 pp4 #bjb-bjc4 ,see also ibid41 p4 #bbi and note #b4 #afc ,see upon this subject a recent very ingenious work3 ,essai sur les coles philosophiques chez les ,arabes1 et notamment sur la doctrine d',algazzal1 par ,auguste ,schmlders1 docteur en philosophie1 ,paris1 #ahdb4 ,dedicated to ,m4 ,reinaud1 member of the ,institute of ,france1 and professor of ,arabic4 #afd ,see vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #cfh4 #afe ,vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #djd-djg4 #aff ,see vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #dcc et seq4 #afg ,see ,mmoires gographiques et historiques sur l'gypte et sur quelques contres voisines1 par tienne ,quatremre1 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #ejd4 #ahaa4 ,x4,,the ,,religion ,,of ,,the ,,sadikiahs4 ,the third volume of this work begins with the seventh chapter1 upon the religion of the ,sadikiahs4 ,it is generally known that1 during the life of ,muhammed1 another prophet1 called ,musaylima1 arose in the country of ,yamma1 and dared offer to himself in a letter to the former as a partner of his sacred mission1 but was treated as a liar4 ,he had however gained a great number of followers1 at the head of whom he was defeated and himself slain in a bloody battle against ,khaled1 a general of the first ,khalif1 the very same year as ,muhammed's death4 ,we find in the ,dabistn1 what appears less generally known1 that ,musaylima's sect1 far from being entirely crushed after his fall1 existed under the name of ,sadikias in the seventeenth century of our era1 and conformed to a second ,faruk1 or ,koran1 to which they attributed a divine origin1 and a greater authority than to the first4#afh ,another account1 not frequently met with1 is contained in the eighth chapter of the ,dabistn1 concerning ,vahed ,mahmud1 who appeared in the beginning of our thirteenth century1 and is by his adherents placed above ,muhammed and ,ali4 ,among his tenets and opinions is to be remarked that of an ascending refinement or perfection of elemental matter1 from the brute or mineral to that of a vegetable form2 from this to that of an animal body2 and thence progressing to that of ,mahmud4#afi ,further1 the particular mode of transmigration of souls by means of food into which men1 after their death1 are changed2 such food1 in which intelligence and action may reside1 becomes continually the aliment and substance of new successive human beings4 ,we were not a little astonished to find these singular opinions agreeing with the information1 which ,milton's archangel ,raphael imparts to ,adam1 the father of mankind4#agj 8,o ,adam1 one ,almighty is1 from whom ,all things proceed1 and up to him return1 ,if not depraved from good1 created all ,such to perfection1 one first matter all1 ,indued with various forms1 various degrees ,of substance1 and in things that live1 of life2 ,but more refin'd1 more spirituous1 and pure1 ,as nearer to him plac'd or nearer tending1 ,each in their several active spheres assign'd1 ,till body up to spirit work1 in bounds ,proportioned to each kind4 ,so from the root ,springs lighter the green stalk1 from thence the leaves ,more aery1 last the bright consummate flower ,spirits odorous breathes3 flow'rs and their fruit1 ,man's nourishment1 by gradual scale sublim'd1 ,to vital spirits aspire1 to animal1 ,to intellectual2 give both life and sense1 ,fancy and understanding2 whence the soul ,reason receives1 and reason is her being1 ,discursive1 or intuitive 40 ,this sort of hylozoism is more expanded in a particular system of cosmogony of the same ,vahed1#aga according to which the materials of the world existed from the very beginning1 which signifies from the first appearance of afrad1 8rudimental units40 ,we can never think meanly of this opinion1 when we find it coinciding with that of ,leibnitz in our seventeenth century1 contemporary of ,mohsan ,fani4 ,according to the celebrated ,german philosopher1#agb there exists already an entirely organical preformation in the seeds of the bodies which are born1 and all souls had always pre-existed in some sort of organized body1 and shall after death remain united with an organic whole2 because in the order of nature souls are not likely to exist entirely separated from any kind of body4 ,in the eighteenth century ,bonnet1 a great physiologist1 maintained1#agc that all was preformed from the beginning1 nothing engendered2 all organized bodies were pre-existing in a very small compass in the germs1 in which souls may also pre-exist1 these indestructible germs may sojourn in such or such a body until the moment of its decomposition1 then pass1 without the least alteration1 into another body1 from this into a third1 and so on2 each of the germs incloses another imperishable germ1 which will be developed but in a future state of our planet1 which is destined to experience a new revolution4 ,we see here the very same ideas1 without any mutual communication1 entertained in the ,east and the ,west1 in ancient and modern times4 ,vahed ,mahmud combines his cosmogony with periods of #hjjj years1 eight of which form a great cycle of #fd1jjj years1 at the completion of which the world is renovated4 ,this sect is said to have been widely spread in the world2 in ,persia the persecution of ,shah ,abbas forced them to lie concealed4 #afh ,vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #a-aa4 #afi ,the ,druids1 among the ancient ,britons1 believed the progressive ascent of the soul1 beginning with the meanest insect1 and arriving through various orders of existence at its human stage4 ,the soul1 according to its choice during terrestrial life1 progressed1 even after death1 in good and happiness1 or evil and misery2 the virtuous could return to earth and become prophets among mankind3 in which belief the ancient ,britons agreed with the ,indian ,buddhists4 #agj ,paradise ,lost1 ,v4 v4 #dgj-dhh4 #aga ,the ,dabistn1 vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #ag4 #agb ,see his ,thodice1 dit4 ,amsterd4 prface1 pp4 xxviii et seq4 #agc ,see ,la ,palingnsie philosophique1 ou ,ides sur l'tat pass et sur l'tat futur des tres vivans1 par ,c4 ,bonnet1 de diverses ,acadmies1 ,amsterd4 #agfi1 vol4 ,i4 pp4 #agj4 #aih4 #bja4 #bjd1 etc41 etc4 ,,xi4,,the ,,religion ,,of ,,the ,,roshenians4 ,the ninth chapter of the ,dabistn introduces to us ,mian ,byezid1 who1 born in the ,panjb1 flourished in the middle of the sixteenth century under the reign of ,humayn1 the ,emperor of ,india4 ,at first a strict observer of ,muhammedism1 he abandoned afterwards the exterior practices of this religion1 and1 devoting his mind to contemplation1 assumed with the character of a saint the title of a 8master of light20 his followers were called ,roshenians1 or 8enlightened40 ,his sayings1 several of which are quoted in the ,dabistn1 express sound reason1 pure morality1 and fervent piety4 ,in the spirit of his nation and time1 and for self-defence1 he took up arms against the ,moghuls4 ,his history and that of his sons is carried to the middle of the seventeenth century1 the time of ,mohsan ,fani4 ,muhammed was the permanent type of a prophet1 in whom the religious and political character were united4 ,the first ,khalifs were all military chiefs and religious men2 the ,koran furnished the rules of foreign and internal policy1 the final decision of every tribunal1 the inciting exclamation to combat and carnage1 and a prayer for every occasion4 ,the founders of sects were frequently warriors1 or1 what in ,asia is generally the same1 highwaymen and plunderers of caravans2 such was the just mentioned ,miyan ,bayezid1 and many others4 ,as possessors of empires1 they preserved the austere habits of ascetics3 they carried a sabre and a rosary1 counted their beads and gave order for battle2 emaciated by fasts1 covered with a woollen mantle1 sitting upon the bare ground1 they disposed of empires and received the homage of millions of men4 ,the ,mohammedans preserved their religion1 as long as they were militant3 because all states of mental excitement are apt to support each other4 ,but1 in solitary retirement1 and in the precincts of schools1 the doctrine of ,muhammed was put to the test of reason3 now began the struggle between religion and philosophy4 ,fearful to part at once with early impressions and national feelings1 attempts to reconcile faith and reason were made2 religious philosophers had recourse to allegory1 in order to rationalize strange and absurd dogmas and practices2 for the literal they substituted a mystical sense2 under arbitrary acceptations and interpretations1 the foundation of the doctrine itself disappeared1 or was confounded with some old dogma renewed1 if not one entirely invented3 in short1 the ,muhammedan religion appeared to have survived itself2 its presumed period of one thousand years was believed to be completed under the reign of ,akbar4 ,,xii4,,the ,,religion ,,of ,,the ,,ilahiahs4 ,akbar was the greatest among the ,moghul emperors of ,india4 ,he began in his fourteenth year a reign environed by war and rebellion4 ,after having vanquished all his enemies and established peace and security around him1 he turned his attention to religion4 ,he soon found it right to grant unlimited toleration to all religions in his empire4 ,called the 8shade of ,god10 he took the resolution to realise in himself the otherwise vain title bestowed by slavish flattery upon all sovereigns of ,asia1 and to imitate1 according to his faculties1 him who bestows the blessings of his merciful providence on all creatures without distinction4 ,this he declared to his fanatic son ,jehangir1 who did not conceal his discontent about the building of an ,hindu temple in ,benares3 8,are not10 said ,akbar1 8five-sixths of all mankind either ,hindus or unbelievers8 ,if ,i were actuated by motives similar to those which thou ownest1 what would remain to me but to destroy them all80 ,the inquisitive emperor was acquainted with the religious history of the ,persian empire2 he surrounded himself with men of all religions,muhammedans of all sects1 ,hindus1 ,jews1 and ,christians1 as well as with philosophers free from superstition2 he liked to question them all1 and to encourage public polemical discussions in his presence4 ,the ,sonnites and ,shihs reviled reciprocally the chief personages of their adherence1 the three first khalifs and ,ali2 ,muhammed himself was not more spared than his companions and successors4 ,the errors of their doctrine1 the vices of their character1 and the irregularities of their conduct were freely exposed1 severely blamed1 and wittily ridiculed4 ,if ,muhammedism was treated in such a manner1 other religions could not claim more indulgence4 ,the dramatic form1 which ,mohsan ,fani gives to the religious controversies1 is certainly curious2 we can scarce suppose his having known the dialogues of ,lucian1 nor is it in the least probable that a late ,french author ever saw the ,dabistn and took from this book the idea of the twenty-first chapter of his celebrated work1 entitled 8,problem of religious 8contradictions40#agd ,the object aimed at by these three authors was the same2 but their compositions differ from each other as much as the genius and character of the ,greeks1 ,french1 and ,persians1 in whose language each of them respectively wrote4 ,in whatsoever point ,mohsan ,fani may yield to the ,greco-,syrian1 or to the ,french author1 he1 certainly1 ,i will venture to say1 equals them in force1 boldness1 and sincerity2 and perhaps surpasses either in pointed application of truth4 ,his objections are not vague attempts of witticism with the intention to ridicule3 they are special and serious1 directed to real and patent falsehood or prejudice2 he does not fence with imaginary shadowy adversaries1 but he strikes a present and tangible foe2 his style1 never tainted by affectation1 is plain and blunt1 such as becomes a reformer combating popular superstition4 ,the controversies1 the scene of which is placed before the throne1 or rather tribunal1 of ,akbar1 obtain the imperial sanction3 ,muhammedism is condemned4 ,indeed1 the emperor abrogated several practices of that religion to which he had been devoted in his first years2 he confined the cultivation of science1 as taken from the ,arabs1 to astronomy1 geography1 medicine1 and philosophy1 and wished to prevent the waste of life in futile and useless studies4 ,at last1 in the month of ,december1 ,a4 ,d4 #aegi1 twenty-six years before his death1 he substituted for the common profession of the ,muhammedans the new3 8,there is no ,god but ,god1 and ,akbar his khalif 7or deputy740 ,he received from a great number of ,amirs and distinguished persons the voluntary agreement and consent to four conditions1 namely1 the sacrifice of property1 life1 reputation1 and religion1 by entering into the new religious pact1 called ,ilahi1 8divine40 ,moreover1 he introduced in lieu of the former1 a new era1 to begin from the death of his father ,huinayn1 that is from the year of the ,hejira #ifc1 7,a4 ,d4 #aeee73 it was to be called ,ilahi2 the months were regulated according to the mode of ,irn1 and fourteen festivals established in concordance with those of ,zoroaster's religion4 ,it was to this ancient ,persian creed1 that he gave the preference1 having been instructed in its sacred tenets and practices by a learned fire-worshipper who had joined him2 and from books which were sent to him from ,persia and ,kirmn4 ,he received the sacred fire1 and committed it to the faithful hands of ,abu'l fazil1 his confidential minister3 the holy flames of ,zardusht blazed again upon the altars of ,aria1 and1 after a separation of many centuries1 ,persians and ,indians were reunited in a common worship4 ,as a proof of ,akbar's expansive mind1 directed to all subjects which may interest mankind1 ,i shall mention his having sequestered a number of children1 before they could speak1 from all communition with the rest of society1 in order to know whether they would form a language4 ,after fourteen years of seclusion1 it was found that they were dumb3 8which made it evident10 says ,mohsan ,fani1 8that language and letters are not natural to manthat language is of a long date and the world very ancient40#age ,in the third section of the tenth chapter1 the author treats of the influences of the stars upon the nether world1 a very ancient superstition1 common to most nations4 ,every master of fame is said to have worshipped particularly one of the stars2 ,akbar also received divine commands with regard to them4 ,we find1 in a digression of this section1 curious historical details respecting the person of ,jangis khan1 his adoration of the celestial bodies1 epilepsy1 and singular superstition of combs4 ,the great conqueror addressed to his sons the most earnest admonitions to remain faithful to the religion of the stars1 to which their fortune was attached2 but fifty-three years after his death one of his successors and a great part of his nation embraced ,muhammedism4 ,the fourth section of the tenth chapter contains important information upon the administration of ,india4 ,akbar was the first of the ,moghul emperors who considered ,india as his native country1 and directed his best efforts to the amelioration of its condition4 ,exalted to the highest rank1 not only by his birth1 but also by his personal acquirements2 assisted1 besides1 by a train of devoted and enlightened servants1 he could promise himself duration of the new religion1 which he had fondly labored to found4 ,in vain3 it disappeared with him4 ,private persons1 camel-drivers1 and robbers1 emerging from obscurity1 such as ,muhammed1 and others before and after that ,arabian leader1 effected more than an emperor1 with every possible advantage united in and around his person6 ,human intellect was perhaps then satiated with religion2 its measure was full3 it could not receive any more4 ,in fact1 after ,muhammed a number of sects1 but no new religion1 arose3 in this sense he may1 with some appearance of truth1 be called the last of prophets1 or the ,khtim1 8the seal of prophetism40 ,akbar died in #afje ,a4 ,d41 eight or ten years before the birth of the author of the ,dabistn4 ,the latter passed his youth and manhood in ,india1 under the reigns of that emperor's son1 ,jehangir1 and grand-son1 ,shah ,jehan1 and great-grandson ,aurengzeb2 and was in personal connection with the latter's brother1 the religious ,darashukoh4 ,mohsan ,fani had therefore good opportunities to be informed of the events of their days4 ,the religion of the ,ilahiahs is properly the last of which he treats2 for what relates to the religions of the philosophers and ,sfis1 the subjects of the two last chapters1 are rather selections of all creeds and opinions1 than particular religions4 ,it will be remembered that sir ,w4 ,jones supposed these two last chapters not to have been written by the author of the rest of the ,dabistn1 which ,i dare neither affirm nor deny4#agf #agd ,les ,ruines1 ou ,mditations sur les ,rvolutions des ,empires1 par ,m4 ,volney1 dput l',assemble nationale de #aghi1 ,paris1 #agia4 #age ,thus1 our author coincides with lord ,monboddo1 who showed that language is the slow product of necessity among men linked in society4 ,see his work ,of the ,origin and ,progress of ,language1 with the motto of ,horace3 8,mutum ac turpe pecus ,donec ,verba quibus voces sensusque notarent ,nominaque invenere40 #agf ,see note1 p4 #f1 n4 #b4 ,,xiii4,,the ,,religion ,,of ,,the ,,philosophers4 ,in the eleventh chapter1 entitled 8,of the religion of the ,wise10 we find it repeated that ,philosophers were divided into two great classes3 8the ,eastern and the ,western40 ,the first are the ,hushangians1 teachers of the ,greeks until the time of ,plato and ,aristotle2 it is believed that their philosophy1 modified and refined1 returned from ,greece to ,asia1 and was received by the ,muhammedan scholars to be adapted to their own creed4 ,then took place a singular mixture and confusion of ,siderism1 ,judaism1 ,christianity1 ,muhammedism1 and all sorts of philosophic opinions4 ,the cosmology of the ,hushangians was preserved4 ,seven special prophets1 ,ismil1 ,jesus1 ,joseph1 ,enoch1 ,aaron1 ,moses1 and ,abraham1 inhabit the seven heavens1#agg to begin from that of the ,moon1 which is the lowest1 and rising upwards4 ,if1 in general1 ten spheres are assumed1#agh they are made the dwellings of so many intelligences4 ,these ideas1 so ancient1 as we have seen1 were not disowned by eminent men in much later times4 ,the great ,kepler1 and after him ,reaumur1 believed that intelligences or souls directed the movements of celestial bodies4 ,philosophers1 struck with the marvellous order of nature1 were adverse to admitting any mechanismthe very name of which frightened them2 they therefore called all occult powers souls or spirits4 ,the same idea is adopted in morality3 whatever is praiseworthy is angelic1 whatever blamable1 satanic4 ,from goodness arises an angel2 from badness1 a ,satan3 so said the prophet4 ,such simple and truth-like ideas were either originally disguised under the vest of fiction2 or existing traditions of various origin were afterwards more or less ingeniously interpreted as allegories4 ,thus1 the ordinary names1 expressions1 tenets1 traditions1 and practices of the ,arabian prophet received symbolic1 allegoric1 mystic interpretations4 ,the ,kabah 7the square temple of ,mecca71 the holy centre of a living1 circumambulating world1 becomes an emblem of the sun2 its famous black stone1 hollowed by the kisses of the pious1 represents ,venus1 the bright star on the borders of heaven2 paradise1 its milk1 honey1 wine1 ,tuba 7tree of beatitude71 ,hur and ,kasur 7nymphs and palaces7 allude to intellectual delights2 hell1 its ,zakum 7tree of nature71 and torments1 are explained as unavoidable consequences of depravity4 ,such interpretations of the ,muhammedans seem often to be like their bridge ,sirat1 which connects heaven and hell1 sharp as a razor and thin as a hair4 ,transmigration1 or rather reproduction1 is admitted1 although not easily reconciled with the resurrection of the same body4 ,the blasts of the trumpet1 and the whole scene of the resurrection lose their materialism in a sort of rational allegory4 ,the other world is the destruction and renovation of nature at the completion and renewal of great periods of time1 one of which comprised #cfj1jjj solar years4 ,resurrection is 8the wakening from the sleep of heedlessness20 whenever an intellect attained that degree of perfection1 it has returned to its origin2 it is restored to life2 this indubitably happens when nothing material exists3 for1 8where there is no body1 there is no death40 ,after having treated in this way the great dogmas of religion1 the ,muhammedan philosophers found it not more difficult to rationalise every circumstance respecting their prophet1 he who obeyed the voice of an invisible speaker4 ,did ,muhammed really split the moon8 ,not in the leastsplitting is penetrating from the exterior into the interior2 the fissure of the moon typifies nothing else but the renunciation of the external for the internal1 which is 8the superior wisdom20 who possessed it more than the prophet 7the peace of ,god be with him67 he1 the master of the lunar sphere8 ,this1 with the ,orientals1 is the seat of human intelligence and perfection4#agi ,one of their greatest scholars1 or as they say 8the learned of the world10 known to us under the name of ,avisenna1 undertook to give a reasonable account of ,muhammed's ascent to heaven1 and framed a wonderful romance of mystic spiritualism4 ,he terminates by explaining how the prophet1 after his return from such a journey1 could find his bed-clothes still warm3 8,he had travelled with his mind1 and when he had completed his mental task1 returned back to himself1 and in less than an eye's twinkling recovered his former state2 whoever knows1 understands why he went2 and whoever knows not1 looks in vain for an explanation40 ,we may1 not without interest1 observe the natural process of the human mind in reviewing and reforming conceptions1 the original form of which is not seldom entirely obliterated4 ,the author of the ,dabistn does more than satiate the most inquisitive reader with allegoric1 now and then very fanciful1 interpretations1 which he continues1 not without repetitions of the same subjects1 through the subsequent chapter1 upon which ,i am about to touch4 ,mohsan ,fani1 here as elsewhere1 fails not to adduce several philosophers of more ancient as well as of his own times4 ,among the latter is ,hakim ,kamran1 whose free and sound opinions1 about the origin of societies and the prophets regulating them1 will be read with some interest2 as will also the account of the books which ,kamran read and explained1 whence the state of literature of those times may be inferred4 #agg ,see 7vol4 ,i4 p4 #bic1 note #a7 the seven heavens under particular names1 as given in the ,viraf-namah1 and the explanation of them4 ,the seven prophets above-named are somewhat differently distributed by other authorities4 ,see the notes to ,avisenna's explanation of ,muhammed's ascent to heaven 7vol4 ,,iii4 pp4 #ahf4 #ahi74 ,i shall subjoin the distribution of the seven prophet-kings1 according to the ,destir1 and that of seven ,jewish and ,christian prophets1 according to the notes just referred to3 ,,planets3 ,,according ,,to ,,according ,,to ,,the ,,desatir4 ,,muhammedan ,,authorities4 ,saturn1 ,inhabited by ,gilshaw4 ,inhabited by ,abraham4 ,jupiter1 ,siamok4 ,moses4 ,mars1 ,hushang4 ,aaron4 ,the ,sun1 ,tahmuras4 ,idris4 ,venus1 ,jemshid4 ,joseph4 ,mercury1 ,feridun4 ,jesus1 ,st4 ,john4 ,the ,moon1 ,minocheher4 ,adam4 #agh ,see the ,cosmology of the ,destir1 compared with that of the modern ,orientals1 vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #adc1 note4 #agi ,according to the ,occidental fabulists 7see ,ariosto's ,orlando ,furioso1 canto ,,xxxiv71 the moon holds1 in a strait valley between two mountains1 all that mortals lose here below3 fame1 tears and sighs of lovers1 lost time1 futile designs1 vain desires1 ancient crowns1 all instruments of deceit1 treaties1 and conspiracies1 works of false coiners and knaves1 the good sense of every body1 is there bottled2 all is there except folly1 which remains below1 and never quits the earth3 ,sol la ,pazzia non v' poca1 n assai1 ,ch st quaggi1 n se ne parte mai4 ,,xiv4,,the ,,religion ,,of ,,the ,,sufis4 ,we arrive at the last chapter1 8,upon the ,sufis20 the most abstruse of the twelve1 but to which we are well enough prepared by the contents of the former4 ,sfism1 according to the ,dabistn1 belongs to all religions2 its adherents are known1 under different names among the ,hindus1 ,persians1 and ,arabians2 it appears to be nothing else but the rationalism of any sort of doctrine4 ,it could never be the religion of a whole nation2 it remained confined to the precincts of schools and societies4 ,in the work before us we find it stated1 that the belief of the pure ,sfis was the same as that of the ,ashrakians 7,platonists73 we know what the ,muhammedans have made of it4 ,according to the ,imm ,koshairi1 quoted by ,jmi1#ahj the ,muselmans1 after ,muhammed's death1 distinguished the eminent men among them by no other title but that of 8the companions of ,god's apostle40 ,these were1 in the second generation1 called ,tbyn1 8followers40 ,afterwards the ,islamites were divided into divers classes2 those among them who particularly devoted themselves to the practice of religion1 were named 8servants of ,god10 which name was1 after the rise of numerous sects1 claimed by some from among all the different sectaries4 ,it was then that the followers of the orthodox doctrine1 in order to preserve the purity of their faith and the strength of their piety1 assumed the name of ,sfis1 which name became celebrated before the end of the second century of the ,hejira1 that is1 before the year #hae of our era4 ,we may believe one of the greatest scholars of ,muhammedism1 ,ghazli1 who ranged himself among the ,sfis of his time towards the end of our eleventh century1 when he declares that in their society he found rest in believing one ,god1 the prophet1 and the last judgment3 this is the faith of the orthodox ,sfis4 ,the assumption of any particular name carries men1 who so distinguish and separate themselves from their fellows1 much further than they themselves at first intended1 particularly when the distinction and separation are founded upon vague and indeterminate notions of metaphysics4 ,under the impression1 that there are secrets upon which their salvation depends1 they will stretch reason and imagination to penetrate them4 ,the ,sfis are divided1 according to their own phraseology1#aha into three classes3 8the attracted1 the travellers10 and 8the attracted travellers20 the last of whom combine the qualities of the two former4 ,i will class them here1 with respect to their doctrine and manners1 into five orders4 #a4 ,the religious ,sfis1 in general1 are occupied with something beyond the limits of our natural consciousness2 they exercise to the utmost their inward organ or inner sense1 and acquire a philosophic imagination 8,the vision and the faculty divine40#ahb ,such was the prophetic gift of ,muhammed1 and as long as they adhere to his sayings1 they are the orthodox ,sfis1 whom ,i have already mentioned4 #b4 ,another order endeavor to comprehend1 to fix1 and to explain the attributes of ,god2 the holy object sanctifies their efforts2 unattainable1 it exalts their souls above themselves2 incomprehensibility yields to the sacred power of self-intuition2 mysterious darkness to celestial light2 their intellect1 no more terrestrial1 8knows its own sun and its own stars20#ahc by continual mental excitement they produce in themselves 7according to their own phraseology7 a state of intoxication2 in the full enjoyment of their liberty1 they approach the ,supreme ,being1 and finally fancy an intimate union with their ,creator4 ,these are the mystic ,sufis4 ,man1 to express his most fervent adoration of the ,divinity1 uses the expressions by which he is wont to address the object of his most tender affections2 he has but the fire of earth to kindle in sacrifice to heaven2 and to elevate his soul to the ,supreme ,being1 he makes wings of the most lively sentiments which he ever experienced1 and can excite in himself4 ,the intensity of inward feeling breaks loose in outward demonstrations1 gesture1 song1 and dance 8,mystical dance1 which yonder starry sphere ,of planets1 and of fix'd1 in all her wheels ,resembles nearest1 mazes intricate1 ,eccentric1 intervolv'd1 yet regular1 ,then most1 when most irregular they seem40#ahd ,such in the poet's eye is the dance of angels1 but less refined must be that of mortals1 and really one sort of it strangely contrasts with the usually grave deportment of bearded ample-robed ,muselmans1 from ,muhammed1 who gave the example1 down to the ,durvishes of our days1 who1 with frantic howls and vehement whirling motions1 by ludicrous and unseemly exhibition1 destroy the whole gravity of inward intention4 ,mohsan ,fani adduces some instances of dancing1 and quotes throughout his work verses of mystical poetry upon ,divine love1 in glowing expressions belonging to profane passion4 ,it is known how equivocal in their meaning they appear in the works of ,jelal eddin ,rumi1 ,sdi1 ,hafiz1 and others4#ahe #c4 ,it was not always vehement enthusiasm which was nourished in the contemplation of one ,supreme ,being2 mysticism1 in ,sfis of a milder character1 became quietism3 he to whom all things are one1 who draweth all things to one1 and seeth all things in one1 may enjoy peace and rest of spirit4 ,i have quoted the words of an ,english bishop1 ,jeremy ,taylor1 and might borrow similar passages from a more ancient ,christian bishop1 ,synesius1#ahf for expressing a sort of purely spiritual pantheism4 ,but there is another1 which seems not to exclude materialism3 the great cause from which the infinite series of all material and spiritual existences originates1 is enveloped1 as it were1 with the vest of the universe2 never known as to its essence1 but always felt in its manifestations2 it is 8,all in all1 and all in every part40#ahg ,in short1 ,god is all1 and all is ,god4 ,this appeared not more incomprehensible1 but less complicated than any other system to the pantheistical ,sfis4 #d4 ,after excessive efforts to transcend the limits of his nature1 the philosophic inquirer re-enters into himself1 and coerces his futile attempts by the precept3 8,know thyself40 ,having1 as it were1 recovered himself1 and feeling that every thing proceeds from the depth of his mind1 he sees himself in every thing2 heaven and earth are his own2 8he demands from himself whatever he wishes20 for he is every thing2 he finds the ,god whom he sought in himself1 in his own heart1 and says1 8,who knows himself1 knows ,god40 ,this is religious psychology1 the creed of the egotist class of ,sfis4 ,it is a fact which appears incredible1 but is too well attested for the admission of a doubt1 that ,sfis believed themselves to be gods1 and adhered to their belief1 amid torments1 until death4#ahh ,this psychological fact may be explained by considering that1 according to ,sfism1 ,god is nothing else but an idea of the highest perfection2 he1 says our author1 from whose sight both worlds vanished1 who in the steps of right faith arrived at the rank of perfect purity1 from truth to truth1 became ,god2 that is1 he became one with his own idea of perfection1 which cannot be disputed to him2 his divinity is an illusion1 but nothing else to him is the world2 it is all and nothing1 dependent upon his own creation and annihilation4 ,v4 ,transacting as it were directly with the ,divine ,being1 the ,sfis throw off the shackles of the positive religion2 pious rebels1 they neither fast nor make pilgrimages to the temple of ,mecca1 nay1 they forget their prayers2 for with ,god there is no other but the soundless language of the heart4 ,from excess of religion they have no religion at all4 ,thus is confirmed the trite saying that 8extremes meet40 8,the perfection of a man's state10 says ,jami1 8and the utmost degree to which saints may attain1 is to be without an attribute1 and without a mark40 ,the most fervent zeal sinks into the coldest indifference about religion4 ,the author of the ,dabistn declares positively1#ahi that 8whoever says that the ,muselmans are above the ,christians1 does not know the true ,being40 ,but the whole creed of an emancipated 7this is the name ,i give to one belonging to the fifth order of ,sfis7 uniting in himself the egotist1 pantheistic1 and mystical ,sfi will be found in the following verses of ,jelal-eddin ,rmi1 before mentioned3 #aij8,o ,moslims6 what is to be done8 ,i do not know myself2 ,i am neither ,jew1 nor ,christian1 nor ,gueber1 nor ,moslim2 ,i am not from the ,east nor from the ,west2 nor from land nor sea2 neither from the region of nature nor from that of heaven2 not from ,hind nor ,china2 not from ,bulgaria nor ,irak1 nor from the towns of ,khorassan4 ,i am neither water nor dust1 wind nor fire2 not from the highest nor deepest1 neither self-existent nor created2 ,i am not from the two worlds1 no son of ,adam1 not from hell nor from heaven1 nor paradise4 ,he is the first1 the last1 the interior1 the exterior2 ,i know but him1 ,yahu6 ,yahu6 ,menhu6 ,i looked up1 and saw both worlds to be one2 ,i see but one,i seek but one,i know but one4 ,my station is without space1 my mark without impression2 it is not soul nor body2 ,i am the soul of souls4 ,if ,i had passed one single day without thee1 ,i would repent to have lived one single hour4 ,when one day the friend stretches out his hand to me in solitude1 ,i tread the worlds under my feet1 and open my hands4 ,o ,shams ,tabrizi1#aia ,i am so intoxicated here that1 except intoxication1 no other remedy remains to me40 ,we know1 by the preceding1 what the ,sfi is not2 we shall now learn what he is4 8,o ,moslims6 ,i am intoxicated by love in the world4 ,i am a believeran unbelievera drunken monk2 ,i am the ,shaikhs ,bayazid1 ,shubli1 ,juneid1 ,abu ,hanifa1 ,shafei1 ,hanbeli2 ,i the throne and tent of heaven1 from the dust up to the ,pleyads2 ,i am whatever thou seest in separation and enjoyment2 ,i am the distance of two bows-length#aic around the throne2 ,i am the ,gospel1 the ,psalter1 the ,koran2 ,i am ,usa and ,lat1#aid the cross1 the ,bl and ,dagon1#aie the ,kbah1 and the place of sacrifice4 ,the world is divided into seventy-and-two sects1 but there is but one ,god2 the believer in him am ,i2 ,i am the lie1 the truth1 the good1 the evil1 the hard and the soft1 science1 solitude1 virtue1 faith1 the deepest pit of hell1 the greatest torment of flames1 the highest paradise1 ,huri1 ,risvan1#aif am ,i4 ,what is the intent of this speech8 ,say it1 ,o ,shams ,tabrizi6 ,the intended meaning is3 ,i am the soul of the world40 ,after having sounded human nature in its depth1 and viewed it in its various forms1 the ,muhammedan philosophers conceived a high idea of man in general1 and call him insan kamil1 8the perfect man40 ,he is the reunion of all the worlds1 divine and naturaf1 universal and partial2 he the book1 the pure1 sublime1 and venerable pages of which are not to be touched1 nor can be comprehended1 but by those who have thrown off the dark veils of ignorance4 ,his soul is to his body what the universal soul is to the great world1 which bears the name of 8the great man40 ,sir ,william ,jones refers1#aig for a particular detail of ,sfi metaphysics and theology1 to the ,dabistn4 ,these are given with a particular phraseology1 for which it is not easy to find corresponding expressions in any ,european language2 and which ,i have endeavored1 to the best of my power1 to explain in my notes4 ,a particular signification is attached even to the most common terms1 such as state1 station1 time1 duration1 existence1 non-existence1 possibility1 presence1 absence1 testimony1 sanctity1 annihilation1 etc41 etc4 ,besides1 we find particular divisions and classifications3 different attributions and names of the ,deity1 the unity of which is to be preserved in all2 the division of spirits1 prophetism1 true and false miracles1 revelation1 inspiration2 four sorts of mankind1 as many of life and death2 seven degrees of contemplative life1 in each of which degrees the ,sfi sees a different color2 four lights of ,god2 four sorts of manifestations1 the sign of which is annihilation1 called 8the science10 or 8positive knowledge40 ,further we meet with a metempsychosis for the imperfect soul1 and an appearance for the perfect2 even with a geography of the invisible1 the land of shades in the towns of ,jabilkha1 ,jabilsa1 and ,barzah1 etc41 etc42 and1 in addition1 manifo ,i pinions of ,asiatic philosophy4 ,here should be pointed out how ,muhammedan or other ,sfis may be confounded with the ,hindu ,yogis or ,sanysis1 although in reality distinguishable from each other4 ,the ,yajur veda1 and other sacred books of the latter inculcate the precept that a man ought to acquire perfect indifference concerning the whole exterior world1 and in all places to lay aside the notion of diversity4 ,this is what a ,yogi or ,sanyasi endeavors to attain3 he quits every thing1 house1 wife1 children1 even his caste2 the world has no more right upon him than he upon the world4 ,in this he agrees with the ,sfi2 but the latter generally aspires to the divine gift of inspiration1 prophetism1 mystical enthusiasm1 whilst the common state of a ,yogi is that of complete impassiveness or torpor4 ,it is only towards the end of the ,dabistn that ,mohsan ,fani mentions particularly the ,sabeans1 whose religion was1 from the very beginning of the work1 treated of under different names of the ancient ,persian religions1 such as ,yezdanians1 ,jamsaspians1 etc41 etc4 #ahj ,see ,journal des ,savans1 dcembre #ahba1 pp4 #gba1 #gbb1 art4 de ,silvestre de ,sacy4 #aha ,the ,slik1 ,mejezub1 and ,mejezub ,salik4 7,see ,a ,treatise on ,sufism1 or ,muhammedan ,mysticism1 by lieutenant ,j4 ,william ,graham4 ,in the ,transact4 of the ,lit4 ,soc4 of ,bombay1 vol4 ,i4 p4 #ii1 #ahaa4 #ahb ,wordsworth4 #ahc 8 ,solemque suum1 sua sidera norunt40 neis1 c4 ,,vi4 v4 #fda4 #ahd ,milton's ,paradise ,lost1 ,v41 v4 #fbj-fbd4 #ahe ,the two first give their name to the mystic and moral age2 from #abjc to #acjj2 the third to that of the highest splendor of ,persian lyrical poetry and rhetoric1 from #acjj to #acig of our era47,see ,schne ,redeknste ,persiens ,von ,joseph ,von ,hammer1 ,wien1 #ahah47 #ahf ,he was born in ,cyrene1 in ,africa1 towards the end of our fourth century1 and died1 about #dcj1 bishop of ,ptolemais4 #ahg ,cowley4 #ahh ,see vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #bia n4 #a4 #ahi ,see vol4 ,,iii4 pp4 #abc n4 #d2 #bic n4 #aij ,i follow the ,german translation of ,baron von ,hammer1 loco cit41 p4 #ahi4 #aia ,shams-eddin ,tabrisi1 whom ,jelal-eddin names at the end of nearly all his lyric poems1 is said to have been the son of ,khuand ,ala-eddin1 chief of the ,assassins 7,ismilahs74 ,he gained a great celebrity as a ,sfi and a saint4 ,from ,tabriz1 from which town he took his surname1 he came to ,konia2 there ,jelal-eddin chose him for his spiritual guide1 and remained attached to him all his life1 which terminated ,a4 ,d4 #abfb4 ,shams-eddin survived him4 ,the tombs of the master and disciple1 near each other in ,konia1 are even in our days objects of veneration to pious ,muselmans4 #aib ,ibid41 p4 #aia1 #aic ,the distance to which ,muhammed approached ,god in heaven4 #aid ,two ,arabian idols1 the ,dusares and ,allitta of ,herodotus4 #aie ,syrian deities4 #aif ,the guardian of paradise4 #aig ,in his ,treatise on the mystical poetry of the ,persians and ,hindus3 vol4 ,,iv4 of his ,works1 p4 #bcb4 ,,xv4,,recapitulation ,,of ,,the ,,contents ,,of ,,the ,,dabistan4 ,thus ,i have indicated the principal contents of the ,dabistn4 ,considering the philosophic opinions touched upon1 we may remark that truth1 although in different times and places variously colored1 veiled1 sometimes mutilated1 often running into falsehood1 is nevertheless widely diffused1 inasmuch as it reappears in the concurring declarations of the greatest thinkers of all times4 ,thus1 among the notions of the ,asiatics1 we find implied the sense of the 7entelechia7 of ,aristotle1 this untranslatable word1#aih which however can but signify 8some continued and perennial motion1#aii activity1 moving force1 perfection1 principle of things0#bjjwe find time and space1 the necessary substrata of all our notions1 as taught by the ,kantiansthe want of substantial reality in the objects of senses1 maintained by the sceptics in generalthe prototypes and ideas of the ,pythagoreans and ,platoniststhe necessary connections of all things of the ,stoicsthe atomic doctrine of ,moschus1 ,leucippus1 ,democritus1 ,empedocles1 etc4the universality of sensation and life of the ,hermetitesthe preformation and pre-existence of the soul1 alleged by ,synesius1 ,leibnitz1 and othersthe successive transformation1 transmigration1 gradual perfection of beings2 the periodical renovation of the world professed by many ,greek schoolsthe palingenesis of ,bonnetthe one and the all of ,parmenides1 ,plotinus1 ,synesius1 ,spinoza1 not to omit the refined ,egoismus of ,fichte1 etc41 etc4 ,i shall not proceed further in the enumeration of opinions ascribed in the ,dabistn to different sects1 and reproduced in the doctrine of celebrated ancient and modern philosophers of ,europe4 ,who will realize that criterion of true philosophy indicated by the great ,leibnitz1 namely1 that which would at once collect and explain the fragments of truth scattered through all1 and apparently the most incongruous1 systems8 ,this is perhaps the prize to be gained1 not by one mortal1 but by a series of generations1 in a laborious task1 so often interrupted and recommenced1 but never abandoned4 ,the struggle of the human mind is without term1 but not without aim4 ,we see two principal movers of human intellect,,philosophy and ,,religion4 ,the one employs reason as a sufficient power for the solution of a solvable problem1 which comprehends knowledge1 morality1 and civilisation4 ,the other distrusts reason1 and relies upon a supernatural power for the revelation of a secret1 or for the word of an enigma1 which relates to a destination beyond the bounds of this world4 ,the philosopher1 self-confident1 is liable to error for various reasons2 but always capable of correction and improvement1 in the only possible way1 that of self-activity1 the virtuous exertions of his faculties towards attainable perfection in his whole condition4 ,the religionist is exposed to deception by his gratuitous faith in superhuman guidance1 and1 if mistaken1 is precluded from regress and improvement by his essential virtue1 fidelity2 that is1 the pious surrender of his soul to a spiritual and mystical sovereignty4 ,the ,dabistn shows us more religionists than philosophers2 it is the school of sects1 or rather that of inveterate superstition1 with which1 in spite of the correctives which human nature affords to its errors1 the general character of the ,asiatics remains stamped1 from time immemorial to the present day4 ,although the twelve chapters of the ,dabistn bear the titles of as many religions1 the author says himself1 at the end of his work1 that there are only five great religionsthose of the ,hindus1 ,persians1 ,jews1 ,nazareans1 and ,muselmans4 ,he no where mentions the ,egyptians nor the ,chinese1 apparently because1 in his times and long before1 no trace of the ,egyptian religion existed1 although it certainly had once occupied a great circle of influence1 and because the ,chinese creed was known to be ,buddhism4 ,the five religions mentioned constitute indeed so many bases1 upon which the whole creed of mankind has been1 and remains founded4 ,they comprise1 in general1 polytheism and monotheism4 ,in all times and places1 the religion of the 8,enlightened0 was distinguished from that of the 8,vulgar20 the first as interior1 being the product of universal reason1 was every where nearly uniform2 the second1 as exterior1 being composed of particular and arbitrary rites and ceremonies1 varied according to the influence of the climate1 and the character1 history1 and civilisation of a people4 ,but1 in the course of time1 no religion remained entirely the same1 either in principle or form4 ,polytheism1 by mere simplification1 tended to monotheism2 this itself1 in its awful incomprehensibility1 was modified according as it originated1 or assumed its notions1 from anthropomorphism1 hylozoism1 spiritualism1 or pantheism4 ,nor did any religion remain simple and pure1 as proceeding from only one principle2 all religious ideas1 elemental1 sidereal1 allegorical1 symbolical1 mystical1 philosophical1 and others were mixed1 as well as all sorts of worship interwoven4 ,it is now impossible to range in chronological order their rise and transition into different forms4 ,still the one or the other of these kinds predominated3 thus physiolatry1 or 8the adoration of personified nature10 in ,india2 astrolatry1 or 8the worship of stars10 in ,arabia and ,iran2 none of the religions entirely disclaimed monotheism1 which was positively and exclusively professed in ,judaism1 ,christianity1 and ,muhammedanism4 ,magism and the three last-named religions were founded or modified by holy personages1 or prophets1 that is1 by individuals whose historical existence in more or less remote times is positively fixed2 ,hinduism alone acknowledges ,manu as an ideal or mythological person1 whose laws are however derived from ,brahma himself4 ,this may perhaps be assumed as a proof of its remotest antiquity2 and ,india1 having been less disturbed by invasions1 and conquered in much later times by foreign nations1 preserved its institutes complete in their originality4 ,there is scarcely a tenet to be found in any other creed which does not1 at least in its germ1 exist in the ,hindu religion4 ,it is most remarkable that1 although men revered as divine messengers of religion have existed1 still the works containing the heaven-sent doctrine are1 either not at all or not incontestably1 ascribed to them2 and in any case devolved upon posterity in a more or less corrupted and mutilated state2 so as to entail for ever an inexhaustible subject of dispute1 a heavy task for belief1 and severe trial of faith4 ,if the ,vedas are the best preserved1 it is to no general purpose1 inasmuch as they are the least known and most obscure4 ,these facts the author of the ,dabistn has set in full light1 and says1#bja as it were to tranquillise mankind with regard to the multifarious inheritance of their prophets3 8,the varieties and multitudes of the rules of prophets proceed only from the plurality of names2 and as in names there is no mutual opposition or contradiction1 the superiority in rank among them is only the predominance of a name4 ,to this ,i subjoin another passage1 although it occurs in connection with another subject3#bjb 8,the time of a prophet is a universal one1 having neither priority nor posteriorityneither morning nor evening30 that is1 if ,i understand these words3 ,as the same sun ever shines upon us1 so shines the same wisdom of all times1 incorruptible in its divine source4 ,if we take a rapid comparative view of the principal features of the five religions mentioned1 we find emanation of all beings1 intellectual and material1 from one great source1 to be the fundamental and characteristic dogma of ,hinduism1 established and developed in the most explicit and positive manner4 ,the division of supernatural beings in good and bad is adopted in the five religions1 but in ,magism it is of a somewhat different origin3 for ,ahriman and his host are not rebellious or fallen good genii2 they are an original creation4 ,a primitive innocence and posterior corruption is generally believed2 but by the ,hindus as coming from riches and abundance1 by the other nations as caused by seduction of the bad spirits4 ,the destruction of mankind by a deluge is no part of the ,persian creed2 it occurs in the ,indian as one of the past periodical renovations of the world1 which are to be followed by others1 and is also admitted by the ,persians1 whilst the ,jews1 ,christians1 and ,muhammedans believe a deluge not very ancient1 as a punishment of human depravity4 ,incarnations of the ,deity for the benefit of mankind1 are believed only by ,hindus and ,christians2 to the latter belongs exclusively the dogma of a propitiatory sacrifice4 ,human souls1 immaterial1 have pre-existence according to the ,vedas and the ,zand-,avesta2 in the first1 as parts of the ,divinity2 in the latter1 as created in their fervers1 or 8pre-established ideals0 at the beginning of the world4 ,transmigration is taught in the sacred books of the ,hindus and ,persians4 ,the immortality of the soul1 reserved to future beatitude or damnation1 is maintained generally1 less positively1 by the ancient ,jews2 the righteous are cheered by the prospect of the same heaven1 the wicked threatened by the same punishments1 which are held to be eternal by ,christians and ,muhammedans2 the ,hindus and ,persians place the future life in a long series of purifications or purgatories1 leading1 howsoever late1 finally to heaven1 to which1 according to the first1 the most perfect only are admitted immediately after their terrestrial life1 and are not to be born again1 except by their own choice4 ,the resurrection with the same body1 and the last judgment1 are among the most essential tenets of the ,magi1 ,christians1 and ,muhammedans2 the other world is vaguely represented among the ancient ,hebrews4 ,it is just to attribute to the ,persians exclusively one of the most beautiful personifications that was ever imagined3#bjc the soul of the deceased meets at the bridge of eternity an apparition either of an attractive or repulsive form2 8,who art thou80 asks the uncertain spirit1 and hears the answer3 8,i am thy life40 ,although the variety and multitude of human conceptions may appear boundless1 yet they may perhaps be reduced to a few fundamental principles4 ,in general1 there is one object common to all sorts of religion3 this is to detach man from gross sensual matters1 and to accustom him to hold converse with holy supernatural beings1 guides to salvation1 omnipresent witnesses of all his actions1 remunerators of good1 punishers of bad deeds2 the belief in such beings1 one or more1 is in fact the most essential support of morality1 which1 being fixed in each individual1 insures the peace and happiness of all4 ,in short1 the most important object of all religion is to ennoble1 refine1 and sanctify man's inmost thoughts and feelings1 as well as his exterior actions4 ,no wonder1 that the same virtues are recommended by all religions4 ,but1 if these virtues be the same as to names1 there is a great difference as to their practical application4 ,thus1 the ,hindus1 tending excessively to the extinction of sensual propensities1 and a contemplative life1 destroy spontaneity1 and produce apathy4 ,the ,persians recommend more practical virtues4 ,both nations1 however1 as well as the ,jews and ,muhammedans1 are subject to a great number of dietetical and ritual observances1 which divert them from useful activity1 confine their practical sense1 and render inert the innate perfectibility1 the most precious prerogative of mankind4 ,among all the ,asiatic nations1 considered in this work1 theocracy1 that is1 the junction of the religious and civil laws1 doubles the power of despotism1 and commands equally the spiritual and material1 the present and the future world4 ,the ,western ,christians were in the course of time fortunate enough to modify the ,asiatic morals1 to enlarge the circle of civilization1 and to open to themselves a boundless prospect of progressive knowledge1 morality1 and happiness4 ,finally1 there is one idea common as an adjunct to the five religions of mankind4 ,common are their failings1 common their sufferings1 common is also their consolationhope4 ,always regretting a purity1 simplicity1 and independence1 supposed to have been lost in the past1 because not to be found any where in the present1 and never exempt from oppression1 men look to the future1 and listen gladly to the promise of universal reform and restoration to one rule1 which each religionist says1 will be his own1 to be effected among the ,hindus by ,kalki1 an incarnation of ,brahma#bjd1 among the other nations by the reappearance of their respective prophet1 ,messiah1 ,mahdi4 8,and then shall come1 ,when the world's dissolution shall be ripe1 ,with glory and pow'r to judge both quick and dead1 ,to judge th' unfaithful dead1 but to reward ,his faithful1 and receive them into bliss1 ,whether in ,heav'n or ,earth1 for then the ,earth ,shall all be ,paradise40#bje #aih ,hermelaus ,barbaro relates that1 finding the interpretation of that word so difficult1 he one night invoked the devil for assistance4 ,the old scoffer did not fail to appear1 but told him a word still more unintelligible than the ,greek4 ,hermolaus at last brought forth the strange term perfectihabia1 which1 ,i think1 nobody adopted4 #aii ,cicero circumscribes the word3 ,quasi quandam continuatam motionem et perennem 7,tusc4 ,qust41 ,i4 #aj74 ,budus translates it efficacia47,on this subject see ,thesaurus ,grc lingu ab ,henr4 ,stephano constructus1 new edit41 ,paris1 #ahch47 #bjj ,leibnitz 7,op4 t4 ,,ii4 p4 ,,ii4 p4 #ec2 t4 ,,iii4 p4 #cba71 after having said1 that to the material mass must be added some superior principle1 which may be called formal1 concludes3 8,this principle of things1 whether we call it entelechia1 or #8force1' is of no matter1 provided we recollect that it can only be explained by the notion of force40 #bja ,vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #bgf4 #bjb ,ibid41 p4 #bhi4 #bjc ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #bhf4 #bjd ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #bd1 and ,vishnu-purana1 transl4 of ,wilson1 p4 #dhd4 #bje ,milton's ,paradise ,lost1 ,,xii4 v4 #deh-dfd4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,conclusion4 ,,general ,,appreciation ,,of ,,the ,,dabistan ,,and ,,its ,,author4 ,mohsan ,fni collected in the ,dabistn1 as ,i hope to have shown by a rapid review of its principal contents1 various important information concerning religions of different times and countries4 ,his accounts are generally clear1 explicit1 and deserving confidence2 they agree in the most material points with those of other accredited authors4 ,thus1 to quote one more instance1 the accuracy of his topographic information relative to the marvellous fountain in ,kachmir is in the main confirmed by that published by ,bernier who had visited the country4 ,our author enlivens his text by interesting quotations from the works of famous poets and philosophers1 and by frequent references to books which deserve to be known4 ,i beg to mention the ,tabsaret al vam1 8,rendering quick-sighted the ,vulgar10 which he regrets not to have before his eyes4 ,his whole work is interspersed with anecdotes and sayings1 characteristic of individuals and sects which existed in his times4 ,to what he relates from personal observation or other sources1 he frequently adds reflections of his own1 which evince a sagacious and enlightened mind4 ,thus1 he exhibits in himself an interesting example of ,asiatic erudition and philosophy4 ,the ,dabistn adds1 if ,i am not mistaken1 not only a few ideas to our historical knowledge1 but also some features to the picture which we hitherto possessed of the ,asiatics4 ,may ,i be permitted to quote a remarkable instance relative to the latter8 ,we are wont to speak of the inherent apathy and stationary condition of the ,muhammedans1 as an effect of their legislation4 ,although this general idea of their character and state be not unfounded1 yet it is carried to such an exaggerated degree1 that we think them incapable of progress4 ,we may therefore be astonished to find in the work before us#bjf a maxim such as this3 8,he who does not proceed1 retrogrades10 and beside a declaration attributed to ,muhammed himself3 8,he whose days are alike is deceived40 ,our author1 it is true1 interprets it in the particular point of view of an orthodox ,sfi1 who thinks that there is a degree of mental perfection1 beyond which it is impossible to rise3 this was1 he says1 the state of ,muhammed1 the prophet1 always the same1 from which no ascent nor descent was possible1 the perfection of unity with ,god1 higher than whom nothing can be3 the blackness beyond which no color can go4 ,with the exception of these fits of mysticism1 now and then occurring1 it is just to say that ,mohsan ,fani most commonly leans to the side of progressive reform4 ,for the just appreciation of his work1 ,i think it necessary to point out another opinion1 which1 very generally entertained1 requires to be considerably modified3 ,i mean that which attributes to the ,muhammedans an unrestrained intolerance in religious matters4 ,on that account1 ,i beg to refer directly to the book1 which to them always was the sacred source of all rules and precepts of conductthe ,koran4 ,in this astonishing farrago of truth and falsehood1 we find here and there a great extent of toleration4 ,in fact1 ,muhammedism was eclectic in all the religious ideas of its time1 ,magian1 ,jewish1 and ,christian4 ,muhammed avowed himself to be 8a man like every body20#bjg he did not pretend1 that 8the treasures of ,god were in his power10 nor did he say 8that he knew the secrets of ,god1 neither that he was an angel2 no2 he thought only to follow what was revealed to him10#bjh so much every body else may say and think1 ,he professed his good-will to ,christians1 8as inclinable to entertain friendship for the true believers2#bji he exhorted his followers not to dispute1 but in the mildest manner1#baj against those who have received the ,scripture1 and wished to come to a just determination between both parties1 that they all worshipped not any but ,god40#baa8;,abraham10 said he1 8was neither a ,jew nor a ,christian1 but one resigned unto ,god 7,moslim72 excellence is in the hand of ,god2 he gives it unto whom he pleaseth40#bab,still more2 the prophet seems to give a general license to the professors of every religion to observe certain rites about which he prohibits all disputes2#bac nay1 he declares3 8,if the ,lord had pleased1 verily1 all who are in the earth would have believed in general4 ,wilt thou therefore forcibly compel men to be true believers8 ,no soul can believe but by the permission of ,god40#bad ,although the ,arabian prophet and his followers too often gave by their conduct a strong denial to these principles1 still the existence of them in the ,koran was a sanction to all those who were disposed to profess them in words and actions4 ,such sentiments of religious toleration are in accordance with similar ones expressed in many ,christian moral treatises1 but in none of the latter do ,i remember to have read3 8that the diversities of religions distributed among nations1 according to the exigency of each1 are manifestations of the divine light and power1 and that these various forms1 by which ,god's inscrutable essence may be viewed by glimpses1 are means of possessing eternal beatitude1 whilst here below the acquisition of knowledge is sufficient to insure to mankind the enjoyment of concord1 friendship1 and agreeable intercourse40#bae ,these appear to be the maxims adopted by the ,sfis1 and particularly by those among them who1 under ,akbar1 professed to be ,ilahians4 ,the creed of this class exists in our days1 although the name has not survived4 ,to these we may suppose1 if to any1 ,mohsan ,fni belonged4 ,if we could agree with ,erskine that 8he was in strict intimacy with the sect of enthusiasts by whom the ,destir was venerated10 we should still be obliged to avow1 that his enthusiasm had not in the least influenced his free judgment upon religious matters4 ,his imagination although justly exalted by sublime notions of the ,divinity1 certainly appears now and then bewildered by the mysterious action of unknown causes2 but on other occasions pointing out1 in a satirical vein1 so many follies1 absurdities1 and extravagances prevailing among mankind1 he seems to laugh at all enthusiasm whatsoever1 his own not excepted4 ,in general1 there breathes in his words a spirit of independence1 which would command attention even among us in the accustomed circle of long-established liberty4 ,his boldness in religious controversy startled even sir ,w4 ,jones so much that1 in characterising it by the harsh term of blasphemy1 the ,english judge appears for a moment ready to plead for the abettors of popular superstition1 who stood confounded before the tribunal of the philosophic ,akbar4 ,i shall however not conceal1 that ,mohsan ,fani sometimes paid tribute to the prevailing ignorance and inveterate prejudices of his time1 and above all1 to the sovereign power of early impressions2 nor that1 although in many respects he offers in himself an honorable exception to the general character of his countrymen1 he now and then confounds himself with them4 ,thus1 he was far from being above all popular superstition4 ,the ,asiatic1 from the dawn of his reason1 is nourished with the marvellous1 trained to credulity1 and prepared for mysticism1 the bane of practical life2 in short1 he imbibes from his infancy a superstition from which he never frees himself1 always prone to interpret every unusual phenomenon as a miracle4 ,no sort of study enables him to correct his first impressions1 or to enlighten his ignorance2 natural history and experimental philosophy are not cultivated in ,asia4 ,if not an agriculturist1 mechanic1 tradesman1 or soldier1 he devotes himself to the intricacies of metaphysics1 and very commonly to a contemplative life2 he becomes an ascetic4 ,thus he knows no social life embellished by the refinement of mutual sympathy1 nor the noble vocations of a citizen who liveswith more than one life in himself1 in others1 and in the whole community4 ,such being the general state of ,asia1 let us not wonder that ,mohsan ,fani believed some strange stories of miracles1 and viewed with astonishment tricks of jugglers1 which he relates with serious credulity1 strangely contrasting with his usual good sense1 sagacity1 and judgment4 ,thus1 he presents to us a man standing on his head with his heels in the air during a whole night2 others restraining their breath many hours1 and remaining immoveable during two or three days2 he speaks of the miraculous effects of austerity1 such as being in different places at the same time2 resuscitating the dead2 understanding the language of animals1 vegetables1 and minerals2 walking on the surface of water1 and through fire and air2 commanding the elements2 leaving and reassuming the body2 and the like4 ,but let us not forget that such stories were told elsewhere1 and in ,europe1 even so late as the time in which the ,dabistn was written4 ,further1 although generally moral and judicious in his sentences1 grave and austere in his views1 fervent and exalted in devout contemplation1 our author now and then happens to use the language of ribaldry and indecency1 which deserves serious reprobation4 ,we shall however remark that taste1 or the sense of propriety in words and expressions among ,asiatics differs1 as much as their general civilisation1 from ours4 ,from religious austerity they banished the elegant arts1 as objects of sensuality2 but1 as they could not stifle this essential part of human nature1 they only prevented its useful refinement2 they clipt the delicate flower1 but left the brute part of it3 hence the grossness of their jokes1 expressions1 and images4 8,to sacrifice to the graces0 is1 among them1 not understood at all1 or thought an abomination4 ,but they cannot be said to violate laws which they do not know2 the offence which they give from want of taste and decency1 is purely unintentional1 and cannot with them have that evil effect which1 among us1 it would be likely to produce4 ,as to the general style of the ,dabistnit is only in the original text itself1 that it can be justly appreciated4 ,it will perhaps sufficiently appear from our translation that it distinguishes itself favorably among other ,oriental works with which it may be compared4 ,the diction is generally free from their usual bombast2 it is commonly clear1 and when obscure to an ,european reader1 it is so on account of the strangeness and abstruseness of the matter treated4 ,as to formif judged according to the rules of ,western criticism1 the work of ,mohsan ,fani may be found deficient in the distribution and arrangement of matter2 there are useless repetitions1 incoherences1 disorder1 abrupt digressions1 and excess1 sonetimes of prolixity1 at others of concision4 ,although we have reason to praise him for generally naming the source from which he drew his information1 still we can but regret1 now and then1 his not sufficiently authenticating nor explaining the particulars which he relates4 ,thus we could wish him to have been more explicit concerning the ,destir4 ,upon the whole1 we cannot accuse him of not having performed what1 in his time and circumstances1 was hardly possible1 and what hitherto no ,asiatic author has achieved4 ,we ought to keep in mind how much1 with respect to the perfection of literary publications1 we owe solely to the art of printing1 the practice of which1 by its own nature1 necessitates and facilitates a manifold revision and correction of the text1 which otherwise could hardly take place4 ,this alone sufficiently accounts for the frequent defects even of the best manuscript works4 ,striking an equitable balance between faults and excellencies1 and with particular regard to the abundance of curious1 useful1 and important information1 ,i shall not hesitate to express my sincere persuasion1 that the ,dabistn was worthy of the eulogy bestowed by the great ,orientalist who first brought it into public notice4 #bjf ,vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #bhg4 #bjg ,the ,koran1 ch4 ,,xviii4 v4 #ajj4 #bjh ,ibid41 ch4 ,,vi4 v4 #di4 #bji ,ibid41 ch4 ,v4 vv4 #hf4 #hh4 #baj ,ibid41 ch4 ,,xxix4 v4 #de4 #baa ,ibid41 ch4 ,,iii4 v4 #eg4 #bab ,ibid41 vv4 #fa4 #ff4 #fg4 #bac ,ibid41 ch4 ,,xx4 v4 #ff4 #bad ,ibid41 ch4 ,x4 vv4 #ii4 #ajj4 #bae ,see ,epilogue4 ,,ii4,,notice ,,concerning ,,the ,,printed ,,edition1 ,,some ,,manuscripts1 ,,and ,,the ,,translations ,,of ,,the ,,dabistan4 ,it is well known1 that the only printed edition of the ,dabistn which exists is due to the press of ,calcutta4 ,at the end of the work will be found the ,epilogue of the editor1 ,moulavi ,nazer ,ushruf1 a learned ,muhammedan gentleman of the district of ,juanpur1 who was for many years employed in judicial offices in the district of ,burdwan1 and in the court of ,sudder ,diwani ,adawlet1 in ,calcutta4 ,these particulars were communicated to me by the favor of the honorable gentleman whose name the said editor mentions in his ,epilogue with encomium1 the sincerity of which can certainly not be questioned3 it was ,william ,butterworth ,bayley1 at present director and chairman of the ,honorable ,east ,india ,company4 ,it was he1 a distinguished ,persian scholar1 who directed and superintended the edition of the ,dabistn4 ,upon the strength of his authority ,i am enabled to add1 that the printed copy was the result of a careful collation of several manuscript copies of this work4 ,one was obtained from ,delhi 7as mentioned in the epilogue71 and another from ,bombay2 two or three were in the possession of natives in ,calcutta4 ,although these1 as it is more or less the case with all manuscripts1 procurable in ,india1 were defective1 yet we may believe the assurance given by the editor1 that 8the doubts and faults have been as much as possible discarded1 and the edition carried to a manifest accuracy40 ,this is confirmed by the fact1 that only a few discrepancies from the printed edition were found in two other manuscripts1 which were in ,england at the disposition of the late ,david ,shea for the translation of the first part of the ,dabistn4 ,nor did ,i find frequent deviations from the printed text in the copy which was transcribed for me in ,calcutta from a manuscript1 procured from the library of the king of ,oude4 ,mutilated in many places1 and imperfect as is this latter1 it afforded me nevertheless a few acceptable readings4 ,i was obliged to content myself with the assistance of this only manuscript for the translation1 as several circumstances1 among which was the lamented death of the earl of ,munster1 prevented me from obtaining the use of other manuscript copies4 ,all circumtances considered1 ,i do not hesitate to say1 that the printed edition of the ,dabistn is more correct than any of the manuscript copies which can be found2 we have only to regret that its typography1 owing to the then imperfect state of the ,oriental press in ,calcutta1 is so irregular1 as to be scarce entitled to any preference over the common sort of ,persian manuscripts4 ,the ,english translation of the ,dabistn was begun some time before the year #ahce1 by ,david ,shea1 one of the professors of ,oriental languages at ,hayleybury4 ,he was in his early years distinguished in the university of ,dublin for his classical attainments1 and remained devoted to literature in all the various circumstances of his life4 ,it was not for1 nor in1 ,indiathe great object and school of ,english studentsbut in ,malta1 from peculiar inducement1 that1 by uncommon application1 he acquired the ,arabic and ,persian languages4 ,after his return to ,england1 having been attached to the ,hayleybury college,i should not fail to add to his eulogy by saying1 that he had before won the kind interest and recommendation of sir ,graves ,haughtonand having become a member of the committee of the ,oriental ,translation ,fund1 he earned the applause of ,orientalists in ,england1 and on the continent of ,europe1 by his faithful and spirited translation of ,mirkhond's history of the early kings of ,persia4 ,undertaking the translation of the ,dabistn1 he was undoubtedly preparing to himself a new success1 the full realisation of which he was not permitted to enjoy2 the last date in his manuscript copy1 in which he was wont to mark the progress of his labor1 was ,april #bb1 #ahce4 ,from this day he appears to have withdrawn his hand from the ,dabistn1 and too soon after,i shall be permitted to use the very words of the author whom he was translating3#baf 8,he sought the stores of holy liberty1 ,a resting place on high1 and soar'd from hence ,beyond the bounds of heaven1 earth1 and time40 ,it was in the beginning of the year #ahcg that ,i was honored by the earl of ,munster1 the vice president of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 with the proposal of completing and editing the ,english ,dabistn4 ,having already several years before been occupied with the same work whilst pursuing my ,indian studies1 ,i was so much the more prompted to accept the proffered honor4 ,engaged however as ,i then was in publishing my ,french translation of the first six books of the ,rajatarangini from the ,sanscrit1 ,i could not begin the new work before #ahda4 ,this delay was the cause of my being deprived of the desired honor and satisfaction of presenting my translation to the earl of ,munster1 who while in the full enjoyment of life1 welcomed with a benevolent interest every contribution1 however small1 to the general diffusion of ,oriental history and literature2 he had accepted in ,paris my ,dedication a short time before his death2 it remains to me to consecrate1 with a profound feeling of regret and veneration for departed worth1 the ,english ,dabistn to his memory4 ,i took charge of the manuscript copy of ,david ,shea's version1 which had been carried to page #bja of the printed ,calcutta edition4#bag ,in this there were only a few omissions to be supplied1 and no other rectifications to be made but those which a second review would have suggested to my learned predecessor himself2 his notes1 and those which ,i thought necessary to add1 are marked each with the initials of our respective names4 ,if ,i found little to change1 ,i had much to imitate in ,david ,shea's translationhis faithfulness and clearness4 ,by faithfulness ,i understand not only expressing truly the sense1 but also keeping unaltered the words1 figures1 images1 and phrases of the original1 as it is in them that the author's national and individual peculiarity is manifested4 ,this sort of faithfulness may roughen or hamper the phrase1 destroy the elegance of style1 and even offend good taste1 but by it alone we shall not only know1 as ,i have just observed1 the genius of the foreign writer1 but also satisfy the exigencies of philology1 which is one of the main purposes of translations not undertaken as mere exercises of improvable eloquence4 ,an author will not employ more or other words than those he thinks necessary for being understood by readers of his own nation1 religion1 school2 he writes1 for instance1 as a ,muhammedan for ,muhammedans1 a ,sfi for ,sfis4 ,but a translator must do his best for uniting faithfulness with clearness1 the indispensable condition of any speech or writing2 he must add what is required for illustrating the original text1 and thus submit to a charge1 now and then heavier than he can bear4 ,under the necessity of expounding the translation by notes1 ,i was not actuated by the ambition of being new1 but only by that of being as useful as my means permitted1 that is1 by endeavoring to spare the reader time and trouble to look for dates and biographical notices of the persons1 the situation of the places1 and the explanation of the technical terms which occur in the text4 ,orientalists know the difficulty of rendering in a ,european language the phraseology of the ,asiatic theology and philosophy4 ,the ,dabistn presents1 besides the ,sanscrit1 a confusion of ,arabic and ,persian technical expressions2 some of them have a very comprehensive signification1 and for the sake of clearness must be rendered by different terms in different places2 other expressions have at times a particular sense1 and are at other times to be taken in the common acceptation2 the same terms must be translated by different words1 and different terms by the same2 finally1 the matter treated of is frequently so abstruse in its nature that professed philosophers have not yet been able to agree upon some of the most important questions4 ,i can therefore but apprehend that ,i may not have thoroughly understood1 and must confess that ,i have not translated1 to my own satisfaction1 more than one passage relative to ,indian doctrines1 and to the ,muhammedan scholastic philosophy4 ,the ,sanscrit names and terms of ,indian mythology1 theology1 and philosophy are much corrupted by the ,persian spelling2 ,i have endeavored to restore them to their original forms4 ,i thought it right to adduce in most cases the ,sanscrit1 ,arabic1 or ,persian word at the same time in ,roman as well as ,devanagari1 or ,arabic characters1 with its interpretation4 ,i followed the rule proposed by sir ,william ,jones for writing oriental words in ,roman characters1 as often as ,i took these words from a ,sanscrit1 ,persian1 or ,arabic text2 but from works written in a ,european language1 ,i was generally obliged to copy the spelling of ,oriental names3 on which account1 in my notes1 a regretable inequality of orthography could not be avoided4 ,the ,dabistn not only touches upon most difficult points of science and erudition1 but also comprises in its allusions and references nearly the whole history of ,asia4 ,in observing this1 ,i am necessarily at the same time pointing to the many deficiencies which will be found in my attempts to comment and illustrate so comprehensive and diversified a text4 ,the best advantage which a man obtains at the termination of an arduous work1 is to have enabled himself to make it better1 if he could begin again2 but he can but humbly submit to the decrees of an all-ruling power1 which bestows upon each mortal only a certain measure of faculties and of time4 ,desirous to fulfil my task to the best of my abilities1 ,i did not neglect to consult every translation of any part of the ,dabistn which had been published4 ,i have already mentioned1 in this preface1#bah that ,gladwin edited the ,persian text of a part of the first chapter with an ,english version which was worthy of his reputation as an excellent ,orientalist4 ,every thing that came from the pen of the late doctor ,leyden deserved attention4 ,i had before my eyes his translation of chapter ,,ix41 on the religion of the ,roshenian4#bai ,i did not neglect the abridged interpretation of the religious controversies held before ,akbar1 given in form of a dialogue by the learned and ingenious ,vans ,kennedy4#bbj ,i perused with due regard the explanations which the illustrious ,silvestre de ,sacy furnished of some passages of the ,dabistn#bba since this work became known to him in #ahba1 as well as the remarks cursorily made upon it by some ,orientalists4 ,i did not fail also to profit by the advantages which my residence in ,paris1 and my connections with distinguished cultivators of ,oriental literature1 could afford me on behalf of my translation4 ,it is my duty to acknowledge the services which ,i received from the kindness of ,m4 ,garcin de ,tassy1 professor of ,hindostanee1 whose intimate acquaintance with ,arabic and ,persian literature in general1 and with ,muhammedan theology in particular1 is attested by several esteemed works which he has published4 ,the many ,arabic passages1 disseminated in the ,dabistn1 have mostly been revised1 interpreted1 and referred to the ,koran1 by him4 ,m4 ,eugne ,burnouf1 professor of ,sanscrit1 is never in vain consulted concerning that part of ancient philology in which he has acquired a most particular and eminent distinction4 ,i also constantly experienced the most friendly readiness to tender me information1 when required1 in ,m4 ,julius ,mohl and baron ,mac ,guckin de ,slane1 as well as in ,m4 ,reinaud1 professor of ,arabic1 attached to the ,royal ,library1 a most distinguished conservator and most complaisant communicator of the valuable manuscripts under his special charge4 ,i beg these honorable gentlemen to receive my sincerest acknowledgments4 #baf ,see vol4 ,i4 p4 #aca4 #bag ,in the ,english transl4 to vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #he4 #bah ,p4 vi4 #bai ,see ,as4 ,res41 vol4 ,,xi4 pp4 #djf-dbj2 ,calcutta quarto edit42 and vol4 ,,iii4 pp4 #bf-db of this work4 #bbj ,see ,transact4 of the ,bombay ,lit4 ,soc41 vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #bdb-bgj1 and vol4 ,,iii4 of this work1 p4 #ej et seq4 #bba ,see ,journal des ,savans1 fvrier #ahba1 ,review of the ,destir2 and ,december1 #ahba1 and ,january1 #ahbb1 ,review of ,thulok's work upon ,sfism4 ,,the ,,dabist,n1 ,,or ,,school ,,of ,,manners4 ,,the ,,dabist,n1 ,,or1 ,,school ,,of ,,manners4 #bbb;,in the name of the bountiful and merciful ,god4 ,verse4#bbc 8,o ,thou1 whose name is the beginning of the book of the children of the school1 ,thy remembrance is to the adult amongst the ,sages the torch of their nightly retirement2 ,without thy name the tongue fails the palate of the barbarians1 ,although they know the language of ,arabia2#bbd ,having the heart in the body full of thy remembrance1 the novice1 as well as the adept1 in contemplation ,becomes a supreme king of beatitude1 and the throne of the kingdom of gladness4 ,whatever road ,i took1 it joined the street which leads to ,thee2 ,the desire to know thy being is also the life of the meditators2 ,he who found that there is nothing but ,thee1 has found the final knowledge2 ,the mbed is the teacher of thy truth1 and the world a school40 ,blessing without limit to the mighty ,being1 the ,lord of existence1 the rider upon the sun of the celestial sphere which is the eye-witness of his glory2 to ,him whose servant is ,saturn1 ,baharam 7,mars7 the messenger1 ,jupiter the star1 the herald of good fortune1 ,venus the slave2 to ,him who is the ornament of the throne of the empire of the faith1 and the crown of divinity of the kingdom of truth40 ,masnavi4#bbe 8,the being to whom the holy ,god said3 ,if not thee1 ,i would not have created the worlds2#bbf ,that primitive wisdom and that soul of the world2 ,that man of spirit1 and that spirit of man4 ,blessing be also to the ,khalifs of the faithful1 and to the ,lords of the ,imns of the faith40#bbg ,rabai 7quatrain74 8,the world is a book full of knowledge and of justice1 ,the binder of which book is destiny1 and the binding the beginning and the end2 ,the suture of it is the law1 and the leaves are the religious persuasions2 ,the whole nation is formed of its disciples1 and the apostle is the teacher40 ,in this book1 called 8,the ,dabistan10 is contained something of the knowledge and faith of past nations1 of the speeches and actions of modern people1 as it has been reported by those who know what is manifest1 and see what is concealed2 as well as by those who are attached to exterior forms1 and by those who discern the inward meaning1 without omission1 and diminution1 without hatred1 envy and scorn1 and without taking a part for the one1 or against the other side of the question4 ,this work is composed of several chapters4 ,,chapt4 ,i4 treats of the religion of the ,prsin4 ,,chapt4 ,,ii4 of the religion of the ,hindus4 ,,chapt4 ,,iii4 of the religion of the ,tabitan4 ,,chapt4 ,,iv4 of the religion of the ,yahud 7,jews74 ,,chapt4 ,v4 of the religion of the ,tarass 7,christians74 ,,chapt4 ,,vi4 of the religion of the ,muselmns4 ,,chapt4 ,,vii4 of the religion of the ,sdakah4 ,,chapt4 ,,viii4 of the religion of the ,vhadih 7,unitarians74 ,,chapt4 ,,ix4 of the religion of the ,rshenn4 ,,chapt4 ,x4 of the religion of the ,ilahah4 ,,chapt4 ,,xi4 of the religion of the ,wise 7,philosophers74 ,,chapt4 ,,xii4 of the religion of the ,sfiah4 #bbb ,the words in italic are not in the ,persian text4 #bbc ,the five distichs are in the metre called 1 8hazaj10 composed of the following feet3 4 ,see ,m4 ,garcin de ,tassy1 author of the 8,mmoire sur le systme mtrique des ,arabes1 adapt la langue ,hindoustani40 #ahcb4 #bbd ,this distich contains the same idea as the following of ,nizmi3 8,it is better not to speak than to speak of another but thee2 it is better to leave in oblivion what does not remind of thee40 ,quoted in the 8,rudimens de la langue ,hindoustani10 by the author just mentioned 7p4 #af and #be74 #bbe ,the two distichs are in a metre1 which is a variety of the hazaj1 before mentioned1 and is composed as follows3 4 #bbf ,this verse expresses the same idea as the following hemistich of the ,arabic poem1 called ,borda1 and composed by ,sharf-eddin-al ,bsri3 8,without him the world would never have come forth from nothingness40 ,this is one of the celebrated traditions respecting ,muhammed1 contained in the following words3 8,if it had not been for thee 7,muhammed71 the worlds would never have been created40 ,this encomiastic expression has been reproduced in several other poems1 ,arabic1 ,persian1 and ,hindostani4 ,see upon this subject1 8,les aventures de ,kamrup10 p4 #adf-adg1 and 8,les ,o,euvres de ,wali10 p4 #ea-eb1 traduites de l',hindoustani1 par ,m4 ,garcin de ,tassy4 #bbg ,the manuscript of ,oude has here3 1 8,mohsen ,fni says30 which would leave no doubt upon the name of the author of this book1 if these words were not a mere addition of the copyist4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,of ,,the ,,religion ,,of ,,the ,,parsi,n4 ,this chapter is divided into fifteen sections4 ,,sect4 ,i4 of the religious tenets and ceremonies of the ,sipsn4 ,,sect4 ,,ii4 of the distinguished men amongst the ,sipsn4 ,,sect4 ,,iii4 of the ordinances contained in the book revealed to ,abd4 ,,sect4 ,,iv4 of the ,jemshspin4 ,,sect4 ,v4 of the ,samrdn4 ,,sect4 ,,vi4 of the religion of the ,khodnn4 ,,sect4 ,,vii4 of the tenets of the ,rdan4 ,,sect4 ,,viii4 of the religion of the ,shdrangn4 ,,sect4 ,,ix4 of the belief of the ,pykern4 ,,sect4 ,x4 of the tenets of the ,milnn4 ,,sect4 ,,xi4 of the doctrines of the ,alrn4 ,,sect4 ,,xii4 of the religious opinions of the ,shdbn4 ,,sect4 ,,xiii4 of the religion of the ,akhshn4 ,,sect4 ,,xiv4 of the belief of the ,zerdushtin4 ,,sect4 ,,xv4 of the doctrine of the ,mazdakn4 ,,section ,i4 #bbh;,here commences the history of the tenets and ceremonies observed by the ,sipsn and ,prsn4 ,among the ,parsn1 called also the ,irann1 is a sect styled the ,yazadn or ,yazdnn1 ,abdn1 ,sipsn1 ,hushin1 ,anushkn1 ,azarhshangn1 and ,azarn4 ,they believe it impossible for man1 by the force of intellect1 or the energy of spirit1 to comprehend the exalted essence of the ,almighty and ,holy ,lord4 ,entity1 unity1 identity1 or all his divine attributes of knowledge and life1 constitute the fountain of his holy essence4 ,he is1 in the most comprehensive sense1 the paramount1 omnipotent ,lord over all things1 whether considered collectively1 or in the changes incident to their component parts4 ,all his works and operations are in conformity to his exalted will3 if he wills1 he acts2 if he wills not1 he acts not2 but works worthy of adoration are as inseparable from his honored essence1 as his other glorious attributes of perfection4,urf of ,shrz thus expresses himself3 8,thy essence is able to call into being all that is impossible1 ,except to create one like thyself40 ,the first creation of his existence-bestowing bounty was the precious jewel of the intellectual principle1 called ,azad ,bahman2 the solar ray which constitutes the excellence of his august existence is from the essence of the light of lights4 ,from the effulgence of ,bahman1 or the 8,first ,intelligence10 proceeded another1 along with the spirit and body of the ,pure ,ether or ,crystalline ,sphere4 ,in like manner from this second ,sersh#bbi or 8angel0 there emanated three similar rays2 so that every star in the universe1 whether in motion or at rest1 that is1 every planet and fixed star1 and also every one of the heavens1 has its peculiar intellect and spirit4 ,they also believe that the heavens exceed the compass of numbers1 and that the spheres are as many in number as the stars3 also that every star has its own firmament1 but that the movements of their spheres are in accordance with those of the zodiacal firmament4 ,in like manner1 each of the four elements has its separate guardian1 from the ,nuristan 7region of light71 or the world of ,intellects3 which angel is styled ,parvardigar or ,parvardigar-i-,gunah2 ,dara or ,dara-i-,gunah2 and in ,arabic1 8,rab-un-naw0 or 8,lord of the species20 in the same manner1 all their relations1 or every species1 has its peculiar regent from the ,nuristan or #8region of light4',they regard the subsisting spirit of man1 or the reasonable human soul1 as eternal and infinite4 ,sid says thus3 8,no sign of man or world appeared on the tablet of existence ,when the soul breathed forth pursuant to thy will in the school of love40 ,it is related in some of the esteemed records of this sect1 that by eternal souls are meant1 the spirits of the spheres3 and that human souls are a creation1 but eternal3 also1 that some human temperaments are so constituted1 that souls from the upper world are conferred on them3 whilst others are adapted for having attached to them souls abstracted from matter2 that such appropriation is regulated by influence of the spheres1 and is concealed from the sight of the most profound thinkers4 ,they also say1 when this immortal spirit attains to eminence in praise-worthy knowledge and belief1 that is1 pure faith and good works1 that on leaving this lower body1 it succeeds in uniting itself to the sublime uncompounded spirits3 but should it not attain to this high1 emancipation-bestowing degree1 it is united to that sphere1 in relation to which its acts were upright4 ,if the habitual language were praise-worthy and the works performed meritorious1 but it should not have attained to the rank of union with a sphere1 it being then divested of corporeal elements1 remains in the lower world with the similitude of a bodily form1 and in consequence of its praise-worthy qualities1 it enjoys in appearance the view of the nymphs1 palaces1 and bright rose-bowers of paradise1 and becomes a ,zamn-,serush1 or #8,terrestrial ,angel4' ,but if its words have been reprehensible1#bcj and also accompanied with evil deeds1 on deserting this material body1 it obtains not another similarly constituted and is unable to reach the ,shdastan or #8the region of ,light4' ,being thus separated from the primitive source1 it remains in the abode of ,elements1 in the ,hell of concupiscence and passion and the flames of remorse3 ultimately it becomes the prey of malady1 but does not obtain a higher mansion3 the soul of such a description finally becomes an ,ahriman1 or #8,evil ,demon4' ,if in a spirit destitute of praiseworthy conversation1 the good actions preponderate1#bca but in consequence of the attachment of the heart to matter1 or through ignorance1 such a spirit attains not to the dignity of liberation1 it removes from one body to another1 until by the efficacy of good words and deeds1 it is finally emancipated from body and gains a high rank4 ,sarb thus says3 8,the truly free1 as soon as possible1 disengages himself from body3 ,if he cannot extricate himself from skin1 let him resign his doublet40 ,but if the spirit be prone to error1 it descends successively from the human frame to the animal body3 such are the doctrines of their distinguished men4 ,some however of this sect1 in whose language all is metaphorical and figurative1 assert1 that sometimes the spirit1 through excessive wickedness1 becomes by insensible degrees connected with plants and vegetables2 and frequently1 by progressive gradations1 becomes joined to mineral or metallic substances4 ,according to this class of believers1 there is an uncompounded soul in each of the three kingdoms of nature3 and they acknowledge that every thing possesses a ray of existence emanating from ,shd ,shdan1 or #8,effulgence of ,light4' ,one of the eminent men1 agreeably to this view1 has said3 8,the soul is the marrow of certainty1 the body its envelope3 ,in the robes of spirit contemplate the form of a friend 7the ,creator74 ,whatever object bears the impress of existence1 ,regard it as the reflexion of light1 or his very self40 ,they also hold that the world bears the same affinity to the ,creator1 as the solar light doth to the body of the sun2 that it has existed from all eternity and will continue to all infinity4 ,they maintain that1 whatever exists in this world1 or that of formation and evanescence1 depends on the influence of the stars2 also that astronomers and astrologers have found out some few effects of the influence of the seven planets1 but are ignorant of the natures and influences of the slow-moving or fixed stars4 ,the possessors of ,fardt and ,fartb1 or those who are directed by inspiration and revelation1 have laid down that every star1 whether fixed or planetary1 is regent during certain periods of several thousand years3 one thousand years being assigned to each star1 without the association of any other3 on the termination of which1 in the subsequent millennia1 both the fixed and planetary stars are successively associated with itthat is1 in commencing the series with a fixed star1 we call the fixed star which is ,lord of the ,cycle1 the ,first ,king2 on the termination of the millennium appropriated to him1 another fixed star becomes partner with the ,first ,king1 which partner we style ,first ,minister3 but the supremacy and dominion of the period belong exclusively to the ,first ,king3 on the termination of the second millennium1the period of office assigned to the ,first ,minister expires1 and another star is associated with the ,first ,king2 and so on1 until the fixed stars are all gone through3 on which ,saturn becomes associated with the ,first ,king1 and continues so during a thousand years1 and so with the other planets1 until the period of association with the moon arrives3 then terminates the supremacy of the fixed star1 named the ,first ,king1 and his authority expires4 ,after the ,first ,king1 the star associated with him in the second millennium1 and which was called the ,first ,minister1 now attains the supremacy and becomes ,lord of the ,cycle1 during which cycle of sovereignty we style him the ,second ,king1 with a thousand years appropriated to his special rule as before stated4 ,in the following millennium another fixed star becomes his associate1 as above mentioned1 and goes through a similar course4 ,when the period of the moon's association arrives1 the moon remains joined with the ,second ,king during a millennium1 on the completion of which1 that fixed star1 the term of whose sovereignty has passed away1 and who commenced the cycle1 under the style of ,first ,king1 is associated with the ,lord of the ,cycle1 styled the ,second ,king2 after which1 the empire of the ,second ,king's star also terminates and becomes transferred to another3 thus all the fixed stars in succession become kings1 until they are all gone through1 on which the principality and supremacy come to ,shat ,kaivan1 or #8the ,lord ,saturn1' with whom in like manner the fixed stars and planets are associated for their respective millennia1when the dominion comes to the ,shat ,mh1 or #8,lunar ,lord1' his period is ended as before stated1 the cycle completed1 and one great circle or revolution has been described4,on the expiration of this great period1 the sovereignty reverts to the ,first ,king2 the state of the revolving world recommences2 this world of formation and evanescence is renovated2 the human beings1 animals1 vegetable and mineral productions which existed during the first cycle1 are restored to their former language1 acts1 dispositions1 species and appearance1 with the same designations and distinctions2 the successive regenerations continually proceeding on in the same manner4 ,the prince of physicians1 ,abu ,al 7whose spirit may ,god sanctify67 expresses himself to this purport3 8,every form and image1 which seems at present effaced1 ,is securely stored up in the treasury of time ,when the same position of the heavens again recurs1 ,the ,almighty reproduces each from behind the mysterious veil40 ,it is here necessary to remark1 that their meaning is not1 that the identical spirits of ,abad1 ,kaiomors1 ,siymak and ,hshang shall be imparted to the identical material bodies long since abandoned1 or that the scattered members of the body shall be reassembled and reunited3 such sentiments1 according to them1 are absurd and extravagant3 their real belief is this1 that forms similar to those which have passed away1 and bodies resembling the primitive ones1 their counterpart in figure1 property and shape1 shall appear1 speaking and acting exactly in the same manner4 ,how could the exalted spirits of the perfect1 which are united with angels1 return back8 ,they also maintain that men do not arise from their own species1 without father or mother3 but they affirm that1 as a man and woman were left at the commencement of the past cycle1 so there shall two remain in the present cycle1 for the continuance of the human race4 ,for although the heavens are the sires of the three natural kingdoms or productive principles1 and the elements their mother1 yet this much only has been imparted to us1 that man is born of man1 and is not produced after any other fashion4 ,the followers of the ancient faith call one revolution of the regent ,saturn1 a day2 thirty such days1 one month2 twelve such months1 one year2 a million of such years1 one fard2#bcb a million fard1 one vard2 a million vard1 one mard2 a million mard1 one jd2 three thousand jd1 one vd2 and two thousand vd1 one zd4#bcb;,according to this mode of computation1 the happiness and splendor of the ,mhbdian dynasty lasted one hundred zd of years4 ,they believe it impossible to ascertain the commencement of human existence2 and that it is not to be comprehended by human science3 because there is no epoch of identical persons1 so that it is absolutely impossible to form any definite ideas on the subject1 which resembles an arithmetical infinite series4 ,such a belief also agrees with the philosophy and opinions of the ,grecian sages4 ,from the authority of esteemed works1 they account ,mhbd the first of the present cycle2 as in reality he and his wife were the survivors of the great period1 and the bounteous ,lord had bestowed on them so immense a progeny1 that from their numbers1 the very clefts of the mountains were filled4 ,the author of the ,amghistan relates1 that they were acquainted only to a trifling degree with the viands1 drinks and clothing which through the bounty of ,god are now met with3 besides1 in that cycle there existed no organization of cities1 systems of policy1 conditions of supremacy1 rules of authority and power1 principles of ,nushd or law1 nor instruction in science and philosophy1 until through the aid of celestial grace1 joined to the manifold favors and bounties of ,god1 the uncontrolled authority of ,mhbd pervaded alike the cultivated region and the wild waste2 the wide expanse of land and sea4 ,through divine illumination1 in conjunction with his spiritual nature1 the assistance of his guiding angel and the eyes of discernment2 and also what he had seen and heard in the past cycle1 he meditated on the creation of the world3 he then clearly perceived that the nine superior divisions1 and the four lower elements1 the subjects of existence1 are blended and associated with distinct essences and accidents1 so as to combine together opposing movements with contrary dispositions and natures3 and that the aggregate of this whole indispensably requires a supreme bestower of connection1 a blender and creator3 also that whatever this bestower of relation wills1 and this all perfect in wisdom does1 cannot be destitute of utility and wisdom3 ,mhbd therefore dispatched persons to all quarters and regions of the world1 to select from land and water all productions and medicinal plants held in esteem for their various properties2 these he planted in a proper site1 so that by the aid of the terrene and aqueous particles1 the influence of atmospheric temperature1 in conjunction with the sidereal energies1 their powers of vegetation1 nutritious qualities1 and properties might be ascertained4 ,at the time of promulgating this excellent purpose1 the sovereign of the starry host entered in glory the mansion of ,aries2 and the rapidly-sketching painter of destiny drew forth the faces of the brides of the gardens 7blossoms and flowers73 then1 through the efficacy of command1 experiment1 and examination1 ,mhbd extracted from the various flowers1 fruits1 leaves and fibres1 the different alimentary substances1 medicinal compounds1 viands and beverages4 ,he next commanded all sorts of ores to be fetched from the mines and liquified in the furnace1 so that the different metals concealed in them became visible4 ,out of iron1 which combines hardness and sharpness1 he formed warlike weapons for the brave2 jewels1 gold1 silver1 rubies1 sapphires1 diamonds1 and chrysolithes1 in which he observed smoothness and capability of polish1 he assigned as decorations for kings1 military chieftains1 and matrons4 ,he also ordered persons to descend into the deep waters and bring forth the shells1 pearls1 corals1 etc4 ,people were commanded to shear the fleece of sheep and other animals3 by him also were invented the arts of spinning1 weaving1 cutting up1 sewing and clothing4 ,he next organized cities1 villages1 and streets2 erected palaces and colonnades2 introduced trade and commerce2 and divided mankind into four classes4 ,the first was composed of ,hrbeds1 ,mobeds1#bcc ascetics1 and learned men1 selected for maintaining the faith and enforcing the sentence of the laws3 these are also called ,birman and ,birmun2#bcd that is1 they resemble the ,barnan or supreme beings1 the exalted angels3 they also style them ,hristr4#bce ,the second class consists of kings and intrepid warriors1 who devote themselves to the cares of government and authority1 to the promotion of equity and the curbing of oppression2 those they call ,chatramn1 ,chatraman1 and ,chatr3#bcf this word ,chatr means a standard or distinction2 as people of high rank have a ,chatra1#bcg or umbrella1 to protect them with its shade1 which they call ,sayah dar and ,sayah ban2 the people repose under the shade of the individuals of this class1 who are also called ,nristr4#bch ,the third class is composed of husbandmen1 cultivators1 artisans1 skilful men1 and mechanics2 these are called ,bs1#bci which is synonymous with ,bisyr or numerous2 as this class should far exceed in number all the others4 ,bs also means cultivation and improvement1 results which altogether depend on this orderthey are also styled ,suristr4#bdj ,the fourth class are destined for every kind of employment and service2 they are called ,sdn1 ,sd1 and ,sd3#bda from them profit1 indulgence1 and ease accrue to society3 they are also called ,rzistar4#bdb ,he instituted these four classes1#bdc the four elements of society1 and the sources of organization were completed2 independence and want appeared2 there were produced the gradations of ruler and subject2 of lord and servant2 discipline and authority2 justice and knowledge2 kindness and severity2 protection of the ,zindbar or kind treatment of innoxious creatures2 destruction of the ,tundbar or noxious animals2 the knowledge of ,god and the ceremonies of his worship4 ,god also sent ,abd a code called the ,dastir1#bdd in which are formed all languages and sciences4 ,this work consisted of several volumes1 containing a certain number for each dialect4 ,in it was also the language called ,asmn1 or the ,celestial1 not a trace of which has remained in any of the languages spoken by the inhabitants of this lower world4 ,abd also assigned a language to every nation1 and settled each in a suitable place3 and thus were produced the ,parsi1 ,hindi1 ,greek and such like4 ,according to this sect1 authentic revelation is only obtained by the world of ecstacy or similitude1 called ,mnistn2 but from the time of ,mhbd1 all the prophets who were sent were in accordance with his faith2 not one of them being opposed to his law4 ,after ,mhbd1 appeared thirteen apostles who1 with him1 were styled the fourteen ,mhbds3 they were called by the common name of ,abd1 and acted on every occasion in conformity to their ancestor and his ,celestial ,code3 and whatever revelation was made to them tended to corroborate the faith of ,mhbd4#bde ,after them1 their sons in due succession obtained sovereign power1 after their fathers1 and devoted themselves to justice4 ,the followers of this sect also believe that all the prophets and kings were selected from the heads of the most distinguished families4 ,next to this dynasty1 known as the ,mahabadian1 comes ,abd ,azd1 who withdrew from temporal power and walked in the path of devotion and seclusion4 ,it is recorded1 that in their time1 the realm was highly cultivated2 treasures were abundant2 lofty palaces1 ornamented with paintings and exciting admiration2 colonnades attracting the heart2 the ,mobeds celebrated1 profoundly learned1 worshippers of ,god1 undefiled1 equally eminent in good words and deeds2 soldiers1 well-appointed and disciplined1 with corresponding trains of attendants and officers2 mountain-resembling elephants2 chargers like fragments of ,alburz1#bdf rapid in their course2 swift-paced animals for riding2 numerous camels and dromedaries2 well-trained cavalry and infantry1 and leaders who had experience in the world2 precious stuffs2 vases of gold and silver2 thrones and crowns of great price2 heart-delighting tapestries and gardens with other such objects1 the like of which exists not at present1 and were not recorded as being in existence in the treasures or reigns of the ,gilshn monarchs4 ,however1 on the mere abandonment of the crown by ,abd ,azd1 every thing went to ruin2 so much blood was shed that the mills were turned by streams of gore2 all that had been accomplished by the inventions and discoveries of this fortunate race was forgotten2 men became like savage and ferocious beasts1 and as in former times resumed their abodes in the mountain-clefts and gloomy caverns2 those superior in strength overpowered and oppressed the weaker4 ,at last some of the sages eminent for praise-worthy language and deeds1 and who possessed the volume of ,mhbd1 assembled and went into the presence of ,jai ,afrm1 the son of ,abd1 who1 next his sire was the most undefiled and intelligent of men1 and became one of the great ,apostles3 he passed his time in a mountain cave1 far removed from intercourse with the world1 and was styled ,jai on account of his purity1 as in the ,abd or ,azr language1 a holy person is called ,jai3#bdg the assembled sages with one voice implored his justice1 saying3 8,we know of no remedy for preserving the world from ruin1 excepting the intercourse of thy noble nature with mankind40 ,they afterwards recited to him the counsels1 testamentary precepts1 traditions and memorials of the ,abdn princes on the great merit of this undertaking4 ,he did not however assent1 until a divine command had reached him1 when through the influence of revelation and the presence of the decree-bearing angel1 ,gabriel1 he arose and assumed the high dignity1 ,the realm once more flourished1 and the institutes of ,abd resumed their former vigor4 ,the last of the fortunate monarchs of the ,ja dynasty was ,ja ,ald1 who also retired from mankind2 when the dominion had remained in this family during one aspr of years4 ,it is written in books of high authority that ,ja ,afrm was called the son of ,abd ,azd1 because next to his noble ancestor no individual possessed such great perfections3 but in reality many generations intervened between them3 besides1 ,ja ,afrm was descended from the sons of ,abd ,azd1 so that there is a wide interval between ,sh ,gilv and ,ja ,abd3 in like manner between ,sh ,mahbl and ,ysn1 and between ,ysn and ,gilshh there must have elapsed multiplied and numerous generations4 ,those who would understand the doctrines of this faith must know1 the process of numeration among this profoundly-thinking sect is as follows2 by tens1 hundreds and thousands3 one salm equal to one hundred thousand2 one hundred salm1 one shamr2 one hundred shmar1 one aspr2 one hundred aspr1 one rdah2 one hundred rdah1 one ardah2 a hundred ardah1 one rz2 a hundred rz1 one arz2 and a hundred arz1 one braz4 ,now that their system of computation has been explained1 ,i shall proceed with their history4 ,they say that when his attendants found not the auspicious monarch ,ja ,ald1 neither amongst his courtiers1 nor in the royal apartments1 or harem1 nor in the house of praise1 or place of prayer1 the affairs of the human race fell once more into disorder3 at length the sages and holy men went and represented the state of affairs to the praise-worthy apostle ,sh ,gilv1 son of ,j ,ald1 who was then engaged in the worship of the ,almighty4 ,this prince1 from his great devotion and unceasing adoration rendered to ,god1 was called ,sh and ,shy1 that is a god and a ,god-worshipper3 his sons were therefore styled ,shyin4 ,when the sages had stated the case1 the first ,shyn prince1 ,sh ,gilv1 having reflected on the cruelty practised towards the animal creation1 arose1 through the influence of a celestial revelation and ,divine light1 and sat in his illustrious father's throne4 ,after this happy dynasty came ,sh ,mahbl1 when the ,shyn empire had lasted one shamr of years4 ,after these came the ,ysnin1 so called from ,ysn1 the son of ,sh ,mahbl3 this prince was exceeding wise1 intelligent1 holy and celebrated2 the apostle of the age3 and being in every respect worthy of supreme power1 was therefore called ,ysn1 or the meritorious and justly exalted4#bdh ,his mighty sire having withdrawn from mankind1 retired into seclusion1 and there giving himself entirely up to the worship of ,god1 the affairs of the human race again relapsed into disorder4 ,tradition informs us1 that when these auspicious prophets and their successors beheld evil to prevail amongst mankind1 they invariably withdrew from among themas they could not endure to behold or hear wickedness2 and sin had no admission to their breasts4 ,when the chain of worldly repose had been rent asunder1 ,yasn1 in obedience to a ,divine revelation1 seated himself on the throne of sovereignty1 and overthrew evil4 ,of this happy dynasty the last was ,ysn ,ajm1 when this admirable family had graced the throne during ninety and nine salm of years4 ,the author of the ,amghistn says3 8,the years which ,i have mentioned are farsls of ,saturn3 one revolution of the regent ,saturn1 which is allowed to be thirty years1 they call one day2 thirty such days1 one month2 and twelve such months1 one year40 ,this is the rule observed by the ,yezdnin1 who write down the various years of the seven planets after this manner3 such is the amount of the saturnian farsl4 ,this same system of computation is applied to the farsls of ,mars1 ,venus1 ,mercury and the moon1 a day of each being the time of their respective revolutions3 they at the same time retain the use of the ordinary lunar and solar months4 ,it is also to be observed that1 according to them1 the year is of two kinds2 one the farsl1 which is after this manner3 when the planet has traversed the twelve mansions of the zodiac1 they call it one day2 thirty such days1 one month2 and twelve such months1 one year2 as we have before explained under ,saturn4 ,similar years constitute the farsls of the other planets1 which they thus enumerate2 the farsls of ,saturn1 ,jupiter1 ,mars1 the sun1 ,venus1 ,mercury1 and the moon3 the months of the farsl they call farmh2 the days of the farmh1 farrz4 ,the second kind of years is1 when ,saturn in the period of thirty years traverses the twelve mansions1 which they call a saturnian karsl2 the karmh is his remaining two years and a half in each mansion1,jupiter describes his period in twelve common years2 this time they call the hormuz karsl2 and the hormuz karmh is his remaining one year in each mansion3 and so with regard to the others4 ,however1 when we speak of years or months in the accounts given of the ,gilshyn princes1 solar and lunar years and months are always meant2 day implies the acknowledged day2 and by month is meant the residence of the ,great ,light in one of the zodiacal mansions2 and by year1 his passing through the zodiac2 a lunar month is its complete revolution1 and traversing all the signs1 which year and month are also called ,tmr4#bdi ,when ,ysn ,asm had abandoned this elementary body and passed away from this abode of wickedness1 the state of mankind fell into utter ruin1 as his son ,gilshh1 who was enlightened in spirit1 intelligent in nature1 adorned by good deeds1 feeling no wish for sovereign power1 had given himself so entirely up to the service of ,god1 that no one knew the retreat of this holy personage4,men therefore1 shutting up the eyes of social intercourse1 extended the arm of oppression against each other2 at once the lofty battlements and noble edifices were levelled to the ground2 the deep fosses filled up2 mankind being left destitute of a head1 the bonds of society were broken2 slaughter was carried to such excess1 that numerous rivers flowed with currents of blood1 streaming from the bodies of the slain3 in a short time not a trace was left of the countless treasures and the boundless stores1 the amount of which defied the computations of imagination4 ,matters even came to such an extremity1 that men threw off the institutes of humanity1 and were no longer capable of distinguishing the relative values of precious stones1 wares and commodities3 they left not a vestige remaining of palaces and cities2 but like ferocious and savage beasts1 took up their dwelling in the mountain caverns4,besides this1 they fought against each other1 so that the multitudes of the human race were reduced to a scanty remnant4 ,on this1 ,gilshh#bej of exalted nature1 in obedience to a revelation from heaven1 and to the command of the ruler of the universe1 became the sovereign of mankind3 he restored the institutes of justice1 and reassembled the members of his family1 who1 during his seclusion1 had totally dispersed3 on this account he was styled ,ab-l-,bashr1 or 8the ,father of the human race10 because with the exception of his family1 the great majority of the others having fallen in their mutual contests1 the survivors had adopted the pursuits and habitudes of demons and of wild beasts3 ,kaiomors1 or ,gilshh1 with his sons1 then proceeded to give battle to the vile race1 and disabled their hands from inflicting cruelty on the harmless animals3 all that we find in ,histories of ,kaiomors1 and his sons fighting against demons1 refers to this circumstance1 and the systems of faith which sanction the slaughter of animals were all invented by this demon-like race4 ,in short1 the only true ,ruler of the world transmitted a celestial volume to ,kaiomors1 and also selected for the prophetic office among his illustrious descendants1 ,siymak1 ,hshng1 ,tahmras1 ,jemshd1 ,fardn1 ,minucheher1 ,kai ,khsr1 ,zaratsht1 ,azr ,ssn the first1 and ,azr ,ssn the fifth1 enjoining them to walk in conformity with the doctrines of ,mhbd and ,kaiomors2 so that the celestial volumes which he bestowed on those happy princes1 all their writings and records were in perfect accord with the code of ,mhbd3 with the exception of ,zaratsht1 not one of this race uttered a single word against the book of ,abad3 and even ,zaratsht's words were1 by the glosses of the ,yezdnins1 made to conform to the ,mhbdian codethey therefore style ,zaratsht1 8,wakhshur-i-,simbari10 or the parable-speaking prophet4 ,the ,gilshan monarchs constitute four races2 namely1 the ,peshddan1 ,kainin1 ,ashknin1 and ,ssnn3 the last of these kings is ,yezdejird1 the son of ,sheriar3 the empire of these auspicious sovereigns lasted six thousand and twenty-four years and five months4#bea ,during their existence1 the world was arrayed in beauty3 ,kaiomors1#beb ,siyamak1#bec ,hshang1#bed named the ,pshddin1 ,tahmras1#bee surnamed the ,enslaver of ,demons1 and ,jemshid1#bef through celestial revelations1 ,divine assistance1 the instruction of ,almighty ,god1 unerring prudence1 and just views1 having followed in all things what we have recorded concerning ,mhbd and his illustrious children1 introduced the rules of ,divine worship1 the knowledge of ,god1 virtuous deeds1 purity of conduct1 modes of diet1 clothing1 the rites of marriage1 the observance of continence1 with all kinds of science1 letters1 books1 professions1 solemn festivals1 banquets1 wind and stringed musical instruments1 cities1 gardens1 palaces1 ornaments1 arms1 gradations of office1 the distinctions of the two sexes with respect to exposure and privacy1 the diffusion of equity1 justice1 and all that was praiseworthy4 ,after these1 the ,gilshiyn ruled1 through divine inspiration and the communication of the ,almighty added to their intelligence1 so that the greater part of the splendor1 pomp1 and beauty we now behold in the world is to be attributed to this happy race3 many however of the excellent institutions of this happy dynasty have fallen into disuse and a few only remain4 ,the following is the sum of the ,sipsin creed3 from the commencement of ,mhbd's empire to the end of ,yezdejird's reign1 the great majority1 nay all the individuals of this chosen race1 with the exception of ,zokah1#beg were models of equity1 characterized by justice and piety1 perfect in words and deeds4 ,in this holy family1 some were prophets1 all were saints1 righteous and ,god-fearing persons1 with realms and armies maintained in the highest order4 ,they also acknowledge the apostles and princes prior to ,gilshh1 from ,mhbd to ,ysn ,ajm1 as so eminently pious1 that in no degree whatever did wickedness enter into their conversation or actions3 nor did they at any time deviate from the ,paymn-i-,farhang1 or 8,excellent ,covenant10 which is the code of ,mhbd1 nor omit the performance of any duty2 they also held that the stars are exceedingly exalted1 and constitute the ,kiblah#beh of the inhabitants of this lower world4 ,in the time of ,dwir ,hryr 7the author of ,dara ,sekander71 who was of the ,kanian race and a follower of the ,yezdanian faith1 some one said3 8,the prophets and faith are higher in dignity than the sun40 ,dawir replied3 8,where are now the forms and bodies of that description of men80 ,on which that person having stated the names of the cities and burial places of the prophets1 ,dawir rejoined3 8,during their whole lifetime1 the form of no prophet or saint ever emitted light1 even the distance of one day's journey1 and since they have been committed to the earth1 not a single ray has been shed from their graves3 and they are now so blended with the dust that not a trace of them is left60 ,the person then said3 8the spirits of the prophets and saints are exceedingly resplendent40 ,dawir retorted3 8,behold what amount of light is diffused by the solar globe6 whereas the bodies of your saints are destitute of splendor2 therefore rest assured that his spirit is more resplendent than theirs4,know besides1 that the sun is the heart of the heavens3 if he existed not1 this world of formation and dissolution could not continue3 he brings forth the seasons and the productive energies of nature2 moreover1 the prophets were not in the beginning1 nor are they in existence now3 but the world endures1 the seasons rejoice1 and the people are gladdened3 this much however may be conceded1 that the prophets and saints are more exalted than the remainder of the human race40,on hearing this1 that person was silenced4 ,lastly1 it is stated in the ,akhtaristn1 that the ,sipsn tenets were1 that the stars and the heavens are the shadows of the incorporeal effulgences2 on this account they erected the temples of the seven planets1 and had talismans formed of metal or stone1 suitable to each star3 all which talismans were placed in their proper abode1 under a suitable aspect3 they also set apart a portion of time for their worship and handed down the mode of serving them4 ,when they performed the rites to these holy statues1 they burned before them the suitable incense at the appointed season1 and held their power in high veneration4 ,their temples were called ,paikaristan1 or 8image-temples10 and ,shidistn1 or 8the abodes of the forms of the luminous bodies40 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,worship ,,rendered ,,to ,,the ,,seven ,,planets ,,according ,,to ,,the ,,sipasian ,,faith4,it is stated in the ,akhtaristn1 that the image of the regent ,saturn was cut out of black stone1 in a human shape1 with an ape-like head2 his body like a man's1 with a hog's tail1 and a crown on his head2 in the right hand a sieve2 in the left a serpent4 ,his temple was also of black stone1 and his officiating ministers were negroes1 ,abyssinians and persons of black complexions3 they wore blue garments1 and on their fingers rings of iron3 they offered up storax and such like perfumes1 and generally dressed and offered up pungent viands2 they administered myrobalam1 also similar gums and drugs4 ,villagers and husbandmen who had left their abodes1 nobles1 doctors1 anchorites1 mathematicians1 enchanters1 soothsayers and persons of that description lived in the vicinity of this temple1 where these sciences were taught1 and their maintenance allowed them3 they first paid adoration in the temple and afterwards waited on the king4 ,all persons ranked among the servants of the regent ,saturn were presented to the king through the medium of the chiefs and officers of this temple1 who were always selected from the greatest families in ,iran4 ,the words ,shat and ,tmsar are appellations of honor1 signifying dignity1 just as ,sri in ,hindi1 and ,hazrat in ,arabic4 ,the image of the regent ,hormuzd 7,jupiter7 was of an earthy color1 in the shape of a man1 with a vulture's#bei face3 on his head a crown1 on which were the faces of a cock and a dragon2 in the right hand a turban2 in the left a crystal ewer4 ,the ministers of this temple were of a terrene hue1 dressed in yellow and white2 they wore rings of silver and signets of cornelian2 the incense consisted of laurel-berries and such like2 the viands prepared by them were sweet4 ,learned men1 judges1 imans1 eminent vizirs1 distinguished men1 nobles1 magistrates and scribes dwelt in the street attached to this temple1 where they devoted themselves to their peculiar pursuits1 but principally giving themselves up to the science of theology4 ,the temple of the regent ,bahram#bfj 7,mars7 and his image were of red stone3 he was represented in a human form1 wearing on his head a red crown3 his right hand was of the same color and hanging down2 his left1 yellow and raised up3 in the right was a blood-stained sword1 and an iron verge in the left4 ,the ministers of this temple were dressed in red garments2 his attendants were ,turks with rings of copper on their hands2 the fumigations made before him consisted of sandaracha and such like2 the viands used here were bitter4 ,princes1 champions1 soldiers1 military men1 and ,turks dwelt in his street4 ,persons of this description1 through the agency of the directors of the temple1 were admitted to the king's presence4 ,the bestowers of charity dwelt in the vicinity of this temple2 capital punishments were here inflicted1 and the prison for criminals was also in that street4 ,the image of the world-enlightening solar regent was the largest of the idols2 his dome was built of gold-plated bricks3 the interior inlaid with rubies1 diamonds1 cornelian and such like4 ,the image of the ,great ,light was formed of burnished gold1 in the likeness of a man with two heads1 on each of which was a precious crown set with rubies2 and in each diadem were seven srn or peaks4 ,he was seated on a powerful steed2 his face resembling that of a man1 but he had a dragon's tail2 in the right hand a rod of gold1 a collar of diamonds around his neck4 ,the ministers of this temple were dressed in yellow robes of gold tissue1 and a girdle set with rubies1 diamonds1 and other solar stones3 the fumigations consisted of sandal wood and such like3 they generally served up acid viands4 ,in his quarter were the families of kings and emperors1 chiefs1 men of might1 nobles1 chieftains1 governors1 rulers of countries1 and men of science3 visitors of this description were introduced to the king by the chiefs of the temple4 ,the exterior of ,nahid's#bfa 7,venus7 temple was of white marble and the interior of crystal3 the form of the idol was that of a red man1 wearing a seven-peaked crown on the head3 in the right hand a flask of oil1 and in the left a comb3 before him was burnt saffron and such like2 his ministers were clad in white1 fine robes1 and wore pearl-studded crowns1 and diamond rings on their fingers4 ,men were not permitted to enter this temple at night4 ,matrons and their daughters performed the necessary offices and service1 except on the night of the king's going there1 as then no females approached1 but men only had access to it4 ,here the ministering attendants served up rich viands4 ,ladies of the highest rank1 practising austerities1 worshippers of ,god1 belonging to the place or who came from a distance1 goldsmiths1 painters and musicians dwelt around this temple1 through the chiefs and directors of which they were presented to the king3 but the women and ladies of rank were introduced to the queen by the female directresses of the temple4 ,the dome and image of the regent ,tir#bfb 7,mercury7 was of blue stone2 his body that of a fish1 with a boar's face3 one arm black1 the other white2 on his head a crown3 he had a tail like that of a fish2 in his right hand a pen1 and in the left an inkhorn4 ,the substances burnt in this temple were gum mastic and the like4 ,his ministers were clad in blue1 wearing on their fingers rings of gold4 ,at their feasts they served up acidulous viands4 ,vizirs1 philosophers1 astrologers1 physicians1 farriers1 accountants1 revenue-collectors1 ministers1 secretaries1 merchants1 architects1 tailors1 fine writers and such like1 were stationed there1 and through the agency of the directors of the temple1 had access to the king3 the knowledge requisite for such sciences and pursuits was also communicated there4 ,the temple of the regent ,mah 7the moon7 was of a green stone2 his image that of a man seated on a white ox3 on his head a diadem in the front of which were three peaks3 on the hands were bracelets1 and a collar around the neck4 ,in his right hand an amulet of rubies1 and in the left a branch of sweet basil3 his ministers were clad in green and white1 and wore rings of silver4 ,the substances burnt before this image were gum arabic and such like drugs4 ,his attendants served up salted viands4 ,spies1 ambassadors1 couriers1 news-reporters1 voyagers1 and the generality of travellers1 and such like persons resided in his street1 and were presented to the king through the directors of the temple4 ,besides the peculiar ministers and attendants1 there were attached to each temple several royal commissioners and officers1 engaged in the execution of the king's orders2 and in such matters as were connected with the image in that temple4 ,in the ,khuristar or 8refectory of each temple10 the board was spread the whole day with various kinds of viands and beverages always ready4 ,no one was repulsed1 so that whoever chose partook of them4 ,in like manner1 in the quarter adjacent to each temple1 was an hospital1 where the sick under the idol's protection were attended by the physician of that hospital4 ,thus there were also places provided for travellers1 who on their arrival in the city repaired to the quarter appropriated to the temple to which they belonged4#bfc ,it is to be observed1 that although the planets are simple bodies of a spherical form1 yet the reason why the above-mentioned images have been thus formed1 is that the planetary spirits have appeared in the world of imagination to certain prophets1 saints1 and holy sages under such forms2 and under which they are also connected with certain influences2 and as they have appeared under forms different from these to other persons1 their images have also been made after that fashion4 ,when the great king1 his nobles1 retinue and the other ,yezdanian went to the temple of ,saturn1 they were arrayed in robes of blue and black hues2 expressed themselves with humility1 moving with a slow pace1 their hands folded on the breast4 ,in the temple of ,hormuzd 7,jupiter71 they were dressed in his colors1 as learned men and judges4 ,in that of ,bahram 7,mars7 they were clad in the robes peculiar to him1 and expressed themselves in an arrogant mannerbut in the temple of the ,sun1 in language suitable to kings and holy persons2 in that of ,venus1 they appeared cheerful and smiling2 in the temple of ,mercury they spoke after the manner of sages and orators2 and in the moon's1 like young children and inferior officers4 ,in every private house there were besides images of the stars1 a minute description of which is given in the ,akhtaristan4 ,they had also1 in every temple1 the spherical or true forms of the several planets4 ,there was a city called the royal abode or sar1 facing which were seven temples4 ,on each day of the week1 in the dress appropriated to each planet1 the king exhibited himself from an elevated tabsar or window1 fronting the temple of the planet1 whilst the people1 in due order and arrangement1 offered up their prayers4 ,for example1 on ,sunday or ,yakshambah1 he shewed himself clad in a yellow kab or tunic of gold tissue1 wearing a crown of the same metal1 set with rubies and diamonds1 covered with many ornaments of gold from the tabsar1 the circumference of which was embossed with similar stones3 under this window1 the several ranks of the military were drawn out in due gradation1 until the last line took post in the kashdzr or ample area1 in which were posted soldiers of the lowest order4 ,when the king issued forth1 like the sun1 from the orient of the tabsar1 all the people prostrated themselves in adoration1 and the monarch devoted himself to the concerns of mankind4 ,the ,tbsr is a place of observation in a lofty pavilion1 which the princes of ,hindustan call a jahrokah or lattice window3 on the other days1 the king appeared with similar brilliancy from the other ,tbsrs4 ,in like manner the king1 on their great festivals1 went in choice garments to the temples of the several images3 and on his return seated himself in the ,tbsr1 facing the image of the planet1 or1 having gone to the ,rzistn or ,ddistn1 devoted himself to the affairs of state4 ,this ,rozistan was a place which had no tbsr1 where the king seated himself on the throne1 his ministers standing around in due gradation4,the ,ddistn was the hall of justice1 where1 when the king was seated1 no one was prevented from having access to him3 so that the king first came to the ,tbsr1 then to the rzistn1 and lastly to the ,ddistn4 ,also on whatever day a planet moved out of one celestial house to another1 and on all great festival days1 the king went to the temple appropriate to the occasion4 ,each of the planetary forms had also its peculiar ,tbsr1 in the same manner as we have before stated concerning the royal ,tbsr2 and on a happy day1 or festival1 they brought the image to its ,tbsr1 ,the king went first and offered up prayer1 standing in the ,tbsr of the image1 the nobles placed around according to their gradations1 whilst the people were assembled in great multitudes in the ,kashdzr1 offering up prayers to the planet4 ,according to what is stated in the ,tmsr ,dastir1#bfd that is1 in the 8,venerable ,destir10 the ,almighty ,creator has so formed the celestial bodies1 that from their motions there result certain effects in this lower world1 and1 without doubt1 all events here depend on the movements of these elevated bodies2 so that every star has relation to some event1 and every mansion possesses its peculiar nature3 nay1 every degree of each sign is endued with a distinct influence3 therefore the prophets of the ,lord1 in conformity to his orders1 and by great experience1 have ascertained the properties inherent in the degrees of each celestial mansion1 and the influences of the stars4 ,it is certain that whenever the agent does not agree with the passive1 the result of the affair will not be fortunate2 consequently1 when the prophets and sages desired that the agency of the planet should be manifested advantageously in the world1 they carefully noted the moment of the star's entering the degree most suitable to the desired event3 and also to have at a distance from that point1 whatever stars were unfavorable to the issue4 ,when all had been thus arranged1 whatever was connected with the productive cause was then completed3 they then bring together whatever is connected with causation in the lower world3 thus all the viands1 perfumes1 colors1 forms1 and all things relating to the star1 being associated1 they enter on the undertaking with firm faith and sure reliance3 and whereas the spirits possess complete influence over the events which occur in the lower world1 when therefore the celestial1 terrestrial1 corporeal and spiritual causes are all united1 the business is then accomplished4 ,but whosoever desires to be master of these powers1 must be well skilled in metaphysics2 in the secrets of nature2 and having his mind well stored with the knowledge of the planetary influences1 and rendered intelligent by much experience4 ,as the union of such qualifications is rarely or never found1 the truth of this science is consequently hidden from men4 ,the ,abadin moreover say1 that the prophets of the early faith1 or the kings of ,farsistn and the ,yezdnin1 held the stars to be the ,kiblah of prayer1 and always paid them adoration1 especially when a star was in its own house or in its ascendant1 free from evil aspects2 they then collected whatever bore relation to that planet1 and engaged in worship1 seating themselves in a suitable place1 and suffering no one to come near them3 they practised austerities2 and on the completion of their undertaking1 exhibited kindness to the animal creation4 ,in the year #ajfa of the ,hegira 7,a4 ,d4 #afea7 the author1 then in ,sikakul of ,kalang1#bfe was attacked by a disease which no application could alleviate4 ,an astrologer pronounced1 that 8the cause of this malady arises from the overpowering force of the regent ,mars20 on which1 several distinguished ,brahmins assembled on the fourth of ,zkdah 7the #ith ,october7 the same year1 and having set out the image of ,bahrm and collected the suitable perfumes1 with all other things fit for the operation1 employed themselves in reading prayers and reciting names2 at last1 their chief1 taking up with great reverence the image of ,mars1 thus entreated3 8,o illustrious angel and celestial leader6 moderate thy heat1 and be not wrathful3 but be merciful to such a one0 7pointing to me74 ,he then plunged the image into perfumed water2 immediately on the immersion of the image1 the pain was removed4 ,in front of each temple was a large fire-temple1 so that there were seven in all3 namely1 the ,kaiwan-zar1 ,hormuz-zar1 ,bahrm-zar1 ,hr-zar1 ,nahd-zar1 ,tr-zar1 and ,mh-zar1 so that each fire-temple was dedicated to one of the seven planets1 and in these they burnt the proper perfumes4 ,they assert that1 during the flourishing empire of the early monarchs1 several sacred structures1 such as those of the ,kbah and the holy temple of ,mecca2#bff ,jerusalem2 the burial-place of ,muhammed2 the asylum of prophecy1 in ,medina2 the place of repose of ,al1#bfg the prince of the faithful in ,najf2 the sepulchre of ,imam ,husain in ,kerbela2#bfh the tomb of ,imam ,musa#bfi in ,baghdad2#bgj the mausoleum of ,imam ,reza#bga in ,sanbd of ,ts2 and the sanctuary of ,al in ,balkh1#bgb were all in former times idol and fire-temples4 ,they say that ,mahabad after having built a fire temple1 called ,haftsr or seven ramparts1 in ,istakhar of ,persia1#bgc erected a house to which he gave the name of ,abd1 and which is at present called the ,kbah3 and which the inhabitants of that country were commanded to hold in reverence3 among the images of the ,kbah was one of the moon1 exceedingly beautiful1 wherefore the temple was called ,mhgh 7,moon's place7 which the ,arabs generally changed into ,mekka4 ,they also say that among the images and statues left in the ,kbah by ,mahabad and his renowned successors1 one is the black stone1#bgd the emblem of ,saturn4 ,they also say that the prophet of ,arabia worshipped the seven planets1 and he therefore left undisturbed the black stone or ,saturn's emblem1 which had remained since the time of the ,abadian dynasty2 but that he broke or carried away the other figures introduced by the ,koreish1 and which were not formed according to the images of the stars4 ,in most of the ancient temples of ,persia they had formed the symbol of ,venus in the figure of a ,mihrab1 or arch1 like the altar of the mosques3 consequently the present ,mihrab1 or altar1 is that identical symbol3 which assertion is also proved by the respect paid to ,friday or the day of ,venus4 ,ibrahim 7,abraham71 the friend of ,god1 pursued the same conduct2 that is1 he rejected the idols which were not of the planetary forms3 and the reverence paid by him to the black stone1 according to ancient tradition1 seems to prove that point4 ,isfendiar1 the son of king ,gushtasp#bge conformed also to this practice2 nay ,socrates the ,sage1 in like manner1 forbad the people to worship any other forms except those of the planets1 and commanded the statues of the kings to be removed4 ,moreover1 the holy temple of ,jerusalem1 or ,kundzh-hhkt#bgf was erected by ,zohak1 and ,faridun#bgg kindled in it the holy fire4 ,but long before ,zohak's time1 there were several idol and fire temples in that place4 ,in the same manner1 they say1 that when ,faridoon turned his attention to the overthrow of ,zohak1 during his journey his brethren having hurled a rock at him1 this revered prince1 who was skilled and mighty in all the extraordinary sciences1 manifested a wonderous deed3 he prayed to the ,almighty that it might remain suspended in the air1 so that the stone even to this day is known as ,kds ,khall4 ,they also say that in ,medina1#bgh the burial place of the prophet1 there was formerly an image of the moon3 the temple in which it was1 they called ,mahdnah1 or the 8,moon of ,religion10 as religion is the moon of truth1 from which the ,arabs formed ,medinah4 ,they in like manner relate1 that in the most noble ,najf1 where now is the shrine of ,al1 the prince of the faithful1 there was formerly a fire-temple called ,fargh pri 7the decoration of splendor71 and also 8,nakaf10 or ,na akaft 7no injury71 which is at present denominated ,najf4 ,also at ,karbal1 the place where the ,imam ,husain reposes1 there was formerly a fire-temple called ,mahyrsur ilm#bgi and ,kar bala 7sublime agency71 at present called ,karbela4 ,also in ,baghdad1 where the ,imam ,musa reposes1 was a fire-temple called ,shet ,piryi 7decoration73 and in the place where rest the remains of the great ,imam ,abu ,hanifah1 of ,kufah1 was a temple called ,hryar 7sun's friend73 also in ,kufah1 on the site of the mosque1 was a fire-temple called ,roz-,azar 7the day of fire73 and in the region of ,ts1 on the site of ,imam ,resa's shrine1 was a fire-temple called ,azar ,khirad 7the fire of intellect7it was also known by many other appellations1 and owes its erection to ,faridn4,also when ,ts1 the son of ,nzar1#bhj came to visit ,azar-i-,khirad1 he laid near it the foundation of a city which was called after his name4#bha;,in ,balkh1 where is now the sanctuary of the ,imam1 formerly stood a temple called ,mahin ,azar 7great fire71 now known under the name of ,nbahr4 ,in ,ardebil1#bhb the ancient ,dizh-i-,bahman#bhc 7,bahman's fort71 ,kai ,khosr1 on reducing the citadel1 constructed there a fire-temple called ,azari-,kus1#bhd which now serves as the burial place of the shaikh ,sufi ,ud-,din1 the ancestor of the ,safavean princes3#bhe they also assert that there were fire-temples in several parts of ,india3 as in ,dwaraka1#bhf was the temple of ,saturn1 called ,dizh-i-,kaivan 7,saturn's fort71 which the ,hindoos turned into ,dwaraka3 and in ,gya also was an idol temple1 called ,gah-i-,kaivan1 or 8,saturn's residence10 which was turned into ,gya4#bhg;,in ,mahtra also was an idol temple of ,saturn1 the name of which was ,mahetar1 that is the chiefs or mahetar resorted thither2 which word by degrees became ,mahtra4#bhh;,in like manner several places among the ,christians and other nations bore names which show them to have been idol-temples4 ,when the ,abadian come to such places1 they visit them with the accustomed reverence1 as1 according to them holy places are never liable to abomination or pollution1 as they still remain places of worship and adoration3 both friends and foes regarding them as a ,kiblah1 and sinners1 notwithstanding all their perverseness1 pray in those sacred edifices4 ,rai ,gp ,nath#bhi thus expresses himself3 ,o ,shaikh6 behold the dignity of my idol-house2 ,even when destroyed1 it remains the house of ,god6 ,there is not on record a single word repugnant to reason from the time of ,mahabad to that of ,yasan ,ajam2 and if they have recourse to allegory1 they then express its figurative nature4 ,from these princes to the ,gilshaiyan there are many figurative expressions1 all of which they interpret4 ,for example1 they say that the tradition of ,siamak being slain by the hand of a demon implies1 that in successive battles1 through ignorance of himself and ,god1 he unwittingly destroyed this elementary body2 thus1 wherever1 in the language of this sect1 mention is made of a demon1 they always understand a man of that description1 as has been explained in the ,paiman-i-ferhang1 or 8,excellent ,code40 ,they also maintain that1 in some passages1 the rendering the demons obedient1 and slaying them1 is a figurative mode of expressing a victory gained over the pleasures of sense1 and the extirpation of evil propensities3 in like manner1 whatever is related about the appearance of angels to virtuous and holy persons1 is the revelation and vision of good spirits1 whilst in a state of sleep1 transport1 recovery from excess1 or abstraction from the body2 which states are truly explained in this work4 ,they say that ,zohak's two serpents1 do-mar1 and ten fires 7vices7 or deh ak1 imply irascibility and sensuality3 the devil1 his carnal soul1 and in some places his dispositionthe two pieces of flesh which broke out on ,zohak's shoulders in consequence of his evil deeds1 appeared to the human race like serpents1 the pain caused by which could only be alleviated by the application of human brains4 ,they also say that the celebrated ,simrgh#bij 7griffin7 was a sage1 who had retired from the world and taken up his peaceful abode in the mountains3 he was therefore called by this name1 and was the instructor of ,dastan1 the son of ,sm2 so that ,zl1 through his instruction1 attained the knowledge of the occult sciences4 ,as to the current tradition about ,kai-,kus attempting to ascend to ,heaven1 and his downfall1 this occurred1 according to them1 during his sleep1 and not when he was awake4 ,kai ,nishn1 his brother1 who had retired from all intercourse with mankind1 thus interprets the adventure of ,kus3 8,the four eagles are the four elements2 the throne1 the predominating passions2 the lance1 their energy and impetuosity in the desire of sensual gratifications2 the thighs of flesh1 their various pursuits of anger1 passion1 lust1 and envy2 their ascent implies that they may be subdued by religious austerities1 and by the aid of their energy be made the means of ascending to the world on high and the supreme ,heaven2 their fall1 instead of reaching ,heaven's eternal mansions1 intimates that if1 even for a short period1 we become careless about repressing evil propensities1 and desist from the practice of mortification1 the passions will return back to their nature1 or wander from the eternal paradise1 the natural abode of souls30 the hemistich1 8during one moment ,i was heedless1 and he was removed from me a journey of a hundred years10 is applicable to such a state4 ,rustam's#bia bringing back ,kai ,kus to his throne from the forest into which he had fallen1 means1 his bringing back intelligence into the king's soul1 and turning him back from the desert 7lit4 meadow71 of natural infirmity3 ,kai ,kaus therefore1 by direction of ,kai ,nishin1 his younger brother1 but his elder in purity of faith and good works1 remained forty days in retirement1 until in the state of sleep1 through the awakening of his heart1 he beheld this heavenly vision4 ,they also assert1 whatever modern writers have declared1 relative to ,khizr#bib and ,iskander1 having penetrated into the regions of darkness1 where the former discovered the fountain of life immortal1 means1 that the ,iskander1 or the intellectual soul1 through the energy of the ,khizr1 or reason1 discovered1 whilst in the state of human darkness1 the water of life1 or the knowledge of the rational sciences1 or the science which forms the proper object of intellectas to what they say about ,iskander's returning back empty-handed1 by that is meant1 that to expect eternal duration in this evanescent abode being altogether absurd1 he consequently could not attain that object1 and therefore departed to the next world4 ,what they record about ,khizr's drinking of that water1 means1 that the perfection of intellect exists not through the medium of body1 and that reason has no need of body1 or any thing corporeal1 either as essence or attribute4 ,in some passages they interpret the tradition after this manner2 by ,khizr is meant the intellectual soul1 or rational faculty1 and by ,iskander the animal soul1 or natural instinct2 the ,khizr of the intellectual soul1 associated with the ,iskander of the animal soul1 and the host 7of perceptions7 arrived at the fountain-head of understanding1 and obtained immortality1 whilst the ,iskander of the animal soul returned back empty-handed4#bic ,it must be remarked1 that this sect explain after this manner1 whatever transgresses the rules of probability1 or cannot be weighed in the balance of comprehension2 in short1 all that is contrary to reason4 ,they also say purification is of two kinds2 the amighi or true1 and the ashkari or apparent3 the first consists in not defiling the heart with any thing2 in not attaching it to the concerns of this treacherous world1 emancipating it from all ties and prejudice1 maintaining no connection with any object whatever1 and washing away all bias from the soul4 ,the ,ashkari1 or apparent1 consists in removing to a distance whatever appears unclean2 consequently this purification is effected with water which has undergone no change of color1 smell1 or taste3 that is1 which is free from bad color1 smell1 or taste2 if otherwise1 rose-water and such like are more to be commended4 ,ablution requires a kur1 or a measure of lustral water2 that is1 according to them1 the measure for a man1 is that quantity into which he can immerge his head2 for an elephant1 a quantity proportioned to his bulk2 and for a gnat1 a single drop of water4 ,they reckon it meritorious to recite the prayers and texts of the ,shat ,dastr1 relative to the unity of the self-existent ,creator1 the great dignity of intelligence and souls1 with the pains of the superior and inferior bodies2 after which they repeat the benedictions of the seven planets1 particularly on their days1 and offer up the appropriate incense4 ,the worshipper after this recites the praises of the guardian of the month1 and those of the days of the month2 for example1 if it be the month of ,farvardin1#bid the believer repeats benedictions on that angel1 and then on each of the regents of the days of that month3 particularly the regent of that day called by the same name as the month3 which day is also regarded as a festival4#bie ,for instance1 in the month of ,farvardin1 he utters benedictions on the angel ,farvardin1 who is one of the cherubim on whom that month is dependent2 if it be the first day of the month1 called the day of ,hormuz 7the angel who superintends the first day of the month71 the believers address their benedictions to ,hormuz2 and act in a similar manner on the other months and their respective days4 ,according to them1 the names of the months are called after the names of their lords2 and the appellations of the days are according to the names of their respective regents3 consequently1 as we have said1 the believer adores the lord of the month1 and on festivals1 pays adoration to the angel who is the lord of the month and the day4#bif ,according to the ,abadian1 although in a month1 the name of the month and of the day be the same1 this coincidence makes not that day dependant on the month1 but on the regent who bears the same name with him1 consequently it is necessary to celebrate a festival4 ,in the same manner1 on the other days of every month1 salutations are paid every morning to the regent of the day3 also during the ,sudbar1 or the intercalary days1 they offer up praises to their angels4 ,they also regard the angels of the days as the ministers to the angels of the months1 all of whom are subject to the majesty of the ,great ,lightin like manner the other stars 7planets7 have also angels dependent on them3 they also believe that the angels dependent on each star 7planet7 are beyond all number3 and finally1 that the angelic host belonging to the solar majesty are reckoned the highest order4 ,besides1 on the period at which any of the seven planets passes from one zodiacal mansion to another1 they make an entertainment on the first day1 which they regard as a festival1 and call it ,shadbar1#big or 8replete with joy40 ,every month also1 on the completion of the lunar revolution1 on ascertaining its reappearance from astronomical calculation1 they make great rejoicings on the first day3 there is in like manner a great festival when any star has completed its revolution1 which day they call ,ddram1#bih or 8banquet decking40 ,thus1 although there is a festival every day of the week in some idol-temple or other1 as has been before stated1 relative to the day of ,nahid1 or ,friday1 in the temple of this idol3 yet on the day of the ,sun1 or ,yakshambah 7the first day of the week71 there was a solemn festival at which all the people assembled4 ,in like manner they made a feast whenever a star returned to its mansion or was in its zenith4 ,they believe it wrong to hold any faith or religious system in abhorrence1 as according to them1 we may draw near to ,god in every faith3 also that no faith has been abolished by divine authoritythey hold that1 on this account1 there have been so many prophets1 in order to shew the various ways which lead to ,god4 ,those who carefully investigate well know1 that the ways which lead to heaven are many2 nay more than come within the compass of numbers4 ,it is well understood1 that access to a great sovereign is more easily attained through the aid of his numerous ministers2 although one of the prince's commanders be on bad terms with his confidential advisers1 or even should all the chiefs not co-operate with each other2 yet they can promote the interest of their inferiors3 therefore it is not proper to say that we can get to the ,god of all existence by one road only4 ,but the insurmountable barrier in the road of approaching ,god is the slaughter of the ,zindbar1 that is1 those animals which inflict no injury on any person1 and slay not other living creatures1 such as the cow1 the sheep1 the camel1 and the horse3 there is assuredly no salvation to the author of cruelty towards such1 nor can he obtain final deliverance by austerities or devotions of any description4 ,should we even behold many miraculous works performed by the slayer of harmless animals1 we are not even then to regard him as one redeemed2 the works witnessed in him are only the reward of his devotions1 and the result of his perseverance in the practice of religious austerities in this world3 and as he commits evil1 he cannot be perfect in his devout exercises1 so that nothing but suffering can await him in another generation 7when born again73 such an instance of an ascetic endued with miraculous powers is likened in the ,shat ,dasatir#bii to a vase externally covered with choice perfumes1 but filled internally with impurities4 ,they also maintain that in no system of faith is cruelty to innoxious animals sanctioned3 and all human sanction for such acts proceeds from their attending to the apparent import of words1 without having recourse to profound or earnest considerationfor example1 by putting a horse or cow to death is meant1 the removal or banishing from one's self animal propensities1 and not the slaughtering or devouring of innoxious creatures4 ,they state the later historians to have recorded without due discrimination that ,rustam1 the son of ,dastan 7who was one of the perfect saints71 used to slay such animals3 whereas tradition informs us1 that the mighty champion pursued in the chase noxious animals only3 what they write about his hunting the wild ass1 implies that the elephant-bodied hero called the lion a wild ass2 or 8that a lion is no more than a wild ass when compared to my force40 ,in the several passages where he is recorded to have slaughtered harmless wild asses and oppressed innoxious creatures1 and where similar actions are ascribed to some of the ,gilshyn princes1 there is only implied the banishment of animal propensities and passions3 thus the illustrious ,shaikh ,farideddin tr declares1 8,in the heart of each are found a hundred swine2 ,you must slay the hog or hind on the ,zanar40#cjj ,they hold that1 from the commencement to the very end1 the chiefs of the ,persian ,sipsn1 far from slaughtering these harmless creatures1 regarded as an incumbent duty to avoid and shun1 by every precaution1 the practice of oppression or destruction towards them3 nay1 they inflicted punishment on the perpetrators of such deeds4 ,although they esteem the ,gilshyn prophets1 pontiffs1 and princes1 exceedingly holy personages1 yet in their opinion1 they come not up in perfect wisdom and works to the preceding apostles and sovereigns1 who appeared from the ,yassnin to the end of the ,mhbdn race4 ,they assert that some innoxious animals suffer oppression in this generation by way of retribution3 for instance1 an ox or a horse1 which in times long past had1 through heedlessness1 wantonness1 or without necessity1 destroyed a man3 as these creatures understand nothing but how to eat and drink1 consequently when they obtain a new birth1 they carry burdens1 which is by no means to be regarded as an act of oppression1 but as a retribution or retaliation for their previous misconduct4 ,they are not put to death1 as they are not naturally destructive and sanguinary3 their harmless nature proves that they cannot be reckoned among the destroyers of animal life3 so that putting them to death is the same as destroying an ignorant harmless man3 therefore their slayer1 though he may not receive in this world the merited punishment from the actual ruler or governor1 appears in the next generation under the form of a ferocious beast1 and meets his deserts4 ,a great man says on this subject3 8,in every evil deed committed by thee1 think not that it ,is passed over in ,heaven or neglected in the resolutions of time2 ,thy evil deeds are a debt1 ever in the presence of fortune1 ,which must be repaid1 in whatever age she makes the demand40 ,they also hold the eternal paradise to be the ,heavens2 and regard the solar majesty as lord of the empyrean2 and the other stars1 fixed or planetary1 as his ministers3 thus a person who1 through religious mortifications and purity of life1 attains righteousness in words and deeds1 is united with the sun and becomes an empyreal sovereign3 but if the proportion of his good works bear a closer affinity to any other star1 he becomes lord of the place assigned to that star3 whilst others are joined to the firmament on high3 the perfect man passes on still farther1 arriving at the thereal sphere1 or the region of pure spirits2 such men attain the beatific vision of the light of lights and the cherubinic hosts of the ,supreme ,lord4 ,should he be a prince during whose reign no harmless animals were slaughtered in his realms2 and who1 if any were guilty of these acts1 inflicted punishment on the perpetrators of the crimes1 so that no such characters departed this world without due retribution2 he is esteemed a wise1 beneficent1 and virtuous king3 and immediately on being separated from the elements of body1 he is united with the sun3 his spirit is identified with that of the majesty of the great light and he becomes an thereal sovereign4 ,prince ,siamak1 the son of ,kaiomors declares3 8,i beheld from first to last all the ,abdn1 ,jynn1 ,shyn1 and ,yassnn monarchs3 some were cherubim in the presence of the ,supreme ,lord2 others absorbed in the contemplation of the ,light of ,lights3 but ,i found none lower than the sphere of the sun1 the vicegerent of ,god40 ,on my asking them concerning the means of attaining these high degrees1 they said3 8,the great means of acquiring this dignity consist in the protection of harmless animals1 and inflicting punishment on evil doers40 ,according to this sect1 labouring under insanity1 suffering distress on account of one's children1 being assailed by diseases1 the visitations of providence1 these calamities are the retribution of actions in a former state of existence4 ,if a person should fall down or stumble when running1 even this is regarded as the retribution of past deeds3 as are also the maladies of new-born babes4 ,but whatever happens to a just man1 which is evidently unmerited1 this is not to be looked on as retribution1 but as proceeding from the oppression of the temporal ruler1 from whom1 in a future generation1 the ,supreme ,ruler will demand an account4 ,according to their tenets1 the drinking of wine or strong liquors to excess1 or partaking of things which impair the understanding1 is by no means to be tolerated3 which may be proved by this reflexion1 that the perfection of man is understanding1 and that intoxicating beverages reduce human nature1 whilst in that state1 to a level with the brute creation4 ,if a person drink strong liquors to excess1 he is brought before the judge to receive due castigation2 and should he1 during that state1 do injury to another1 he is held accountable for it1 and is punished also as a malefactor4 ,among this sect it is permitted to kill those animals which oppress others1 such as lions1 fowls1 and hawks1 which prey on living creatures3 but whatever animals1 whether noxious or innoxious1 suffer violence from the noxious1 duly receive it by way of retribution3 when they slay the former1 or noxious animals1 that is regarded as a retribution1 because in a former existence they were oppressive and sanguinary creatures3 and in this generation the ,almighty has given them over to other more sanguinary animals1 that they might shed the blood of the sanguinary bloodshedder3 so that when noxious creatures are slain1 it is by way of retribution for having shed blood3 the very act of shedding their blood proves them to have been formerly shedders of blood3 it is not however allowed to put them to death until they become hurtful3 for example1 a young sparrow cannot1 whilst in that state1 commit an injury2 but1 when able to fly1 it injures the insects of the earth2 and1 although this happens to the insects by way of retributive justice1 yet their slayers become also deserving of being slain1 as in a former generation they have been shedders of blood4 ,for instance1 a person has unwittingly slain another1 for which crime he has been thrown into prison2 on which they summons one of the other prisoners to behead the murderer3 after which the judge commands one of his officers to put the executioner to death1 as1 previous to this act1 he had before shed blood unjustly4 ,but if a man slay a noxious animal1 he is not to be put to death1 because that person taking into consideration the noxious animal's oppression1 has inflicted retribution on it3 but if a brave champion or any other be slain in fighting with a noxious creature2 this was his merited retribution2 and it is the same if an innoxious animal be slain in fighting with a noxious creature3 for example1 in a past generation the ox was a man endued with many brutal propensities1 who with violence and insolence forced people into his service and imposed heavy burdens on them1 until he deprived some of them of life3 therefore in this generation1 on account of his ruling propensities1 he comes in the form of an ox1 that he may receive the retribution due to his former deeds1 and in return for his having shed blood1 should be himself slain by a lion or some such creature4 ,but mankind are not permitted to kill the harmless animals1 and these are not shedders of blood3 and if such an act should be inadvertently perpetrated by any individuals1 destructive animals are then appointed to retaliate on them1 as we have explained under the head of the ox4 ,the best mode to be adopted by merciful men for putting to death destructive creatures1 such as fowls1 sparrows1 and the like1 is the following3 let them open a vein1 so that it may die from the effusion of blood3 there are many precepts of this kind recorded in the ,jashen ,sudah of the ,mbed ,hoshyr3 but philosophers1 eminent doctors1 and durveshes who abandon the world1 never commit such acts3 it is however indispensably necessary that a king1 in the course of government1 should inflict on the evildoer the retaliation due to his conduct4 ,the ,mbed ,hoshyr relates1 in the ,sarud-i-,mastn1 that in the time of ,kaomors and ,siamak1 no animal of any kind was slain1 as they were all obedient to the commands of these princes4 ,so that one of the ,farjd1 or miraculous powers possessed by the ,yezdanian chiefs of ,iran1 from ,kaomors to ,jemshd1 was their appointing a certain class of officers to watch over the animal creation1 so that they should not attack each other4 ,for instance1 a lion was not permitted to destroy any animal1 and if he killed one in the chase1 he met with due punishment2 consequently no creature was slain or destroyed1 and carnage fell into such disuse among noxious animals1 that they were all reckoned among the innoxious4 ,however1 the skins of animals which had died a natural death were taken off1 and in the beginning used as clothing by ,kaomors and his subjects3 but they were latterly satisfied with the leaves of trees4 ,those who embrace the tenets of this holy race attribute this result to the miraculous powers of these monarchs1 and some profound thinkers regard it as effected by a talisman2 whilst many skilled in interpretation hold it to be an enigmatical mode of expression3 thus1 the animal creation submitting to government implies1 the justice of the sovereigns2 their vigilance in extirpating corruption and evil1 and producing good4 ,in short1 when in the course of succession the ,gilshyn crown came to ,hshang1 he enjoined the people to eat the superabundant eggs of ducks1 domestic fowls1 and such like1 but not to such a degree that1 through their partaking of such food1 the race of these creatures should become extinct4 ,when the throne of sovereignty was adorned by the presence of ,tahmras1 he said1 8,it is lawful for carnivorous and noxious creatures to eat dead bodies30 that is1 if a lion find a lifeless stag1 or a sparrow a dead worm1 they may partake of them4 ,in the same manner1 when ,jemshid assumed the crown1 he enacted3 8,if men of low caste eat the flesh of animals which die a natural death1 they commit no sin40 ,the reason why people do not at present eat of animals which died in the course of nature1 is1 that their flesh engenders disease1 as the animal died of some distemper3 otherwise there is no sin attached to the eating of it4 ,when ,jemshid departed to the mansions of eternity1 ,deh ,ak1#cja the ,arab1 slew and partook of all animals indifferently1 whether destructive or harmless1 so that the detestable practice became general4 ,when ,faridn had purged the earth from the pollution of ,zohk's tyranny1 he saw that some creatures1 hawks1 lions1 wolves1 and others of the destructive kind1 gave themselves up to the chase in violation of the original covenant3 he therefore enjoined the slaughter of these classes4 ,after this1 ,jraj permitted men of low caste1 that is the mass of the people1 to partake of destructive creatures1 such as domestic fowls 7which prey upon worms71 also sparrows and such like1 in killing which no sin is incurred3 but the holy ,yezdanians never polluted their mouths with flesh1 or killed savage animals for themselves1 although they slew them for others of the same class4 ,for example1 the hawk1 lion1 and other rapacious animals of prey were kept in the houses of the great1 for the purpose of inflicting punishment on other destructive animals1 and not that men should partake of them3 for eating flesh is not an innate quality in men1 as whenever they slay animals for food1 ferocity settles in their nature1 and that aliment introduces habits of rapacity3 whereas the true meaning of putting destructive animals to death1 is the extirpation of wickedness4 ,the ,yezdanians also have certain viands1 which people at present confound with animals and flesh3 for instance1 they give the name of barah1 8lamb10 to a dish composed of the zing1 or egg-mushroom2 gaur1 or 8onager0 is a dish made out of cheese3 with many others of the same kind4 ,although they kill destructive animals in the chase1 they never eat of them2 and if in their houses they kill one destructive animal for the food of another1 such as a sparrow for a hawk1 it is done by a man styled ,dazhkm1 or executioner1 who is lower than a ,milar1 called in ,hindi1 ,juharah or 8sweeper10 and in modern language ,halll ,khr1 or one to whom all food is lawful4 ,but the dynasty preceding ,gilshah1 from whom the ,yezdanians derive their tenets1 afforded no protection whatever to destructive animals1 as they esteemed the protection of the oppressor most reprehensible4 ,in the time of the ,gilshyn princes1 they nourished hawks and such like1 for the purpose of retaliating on destructive animals2 for example1 they let loose the hawk on the sparrow1 which is the emblem of ,ahriman2 and when the hawk grew old1 they cut off his head and killed him for his former evil deeds4 ,the first race never kept any destructive creatures1 as they esteemed it criminal to afford them protection2 and even their destruction never took place in the abodes of righteous and holy persons4 ,among the ,sipasyan sect were many exemplary and pious personages1 the performers of praiseworthy discipline3 with them1 however1 voluntary austerity implies 8religious practices0 or ,saluk1 and consists not in extreme suffering1 which they hold to be an evil1 and a retribution inflicted for previous wicked deeds4 ,according to this sect1 the modes of walking in the paths of ,god are manifold3 such as seeking ,god2 the society of the wise2 retirement and seclusion from the world2 purity of conduct2 universal kindness2 benevolence2 reliance on ,god2 patience2 endurance2 contentedness2 resignation2 and many such like qualitiesas thus recorded in the ,sard-i-,mustn of the ,mbed ,hushyar4 ,the ,mbed ,khod ,j1 in the 8,cup of ,ki ,khusr10 a commentary on the text of the poem of the venerable ,azar ,kaivan1 thus relates3 8,he who devotes himself to walking in the path of ,god1 must be well-skilled in the medical sciences1 so that he may rectify whatever predominates or exceeds in the bodily humours3 in the next place1 he must banish from his mind all articles of faith1 systems1 opinions1 ceremonials1 and be at peace with all3 he is to seat himself in a small and dark cell1 and gradually diminish the quantity of his food40 ,the rules for the diminution of food are thus laid down in the ,sharistan of the holy doctor ,ferzanah ,bahram1 the son of ,farhd3 8,from his usual food1 the pious recluse is every day to subtract three direms1 until he reduces it to ten direms weight3 he is to sit in perfect solitude1 and give himself up to meditation40 ,many of this sect have brought themselves to one direm weight of food3 their principal devotional practice turning on these five points3 namely1 fasting1 silence1 waking1 solitude1 and meditation on ,god4 ,their modes of invoking ,god are manifold1 but the one most generally adopted by them is that of the ,mk ,zhp3 now in the ,azanan or ,pehlevi1 ,mk signifies 8four10 and ,zhp 8a blow20 this state of meditation is also called ,char ,sang1 8the four weights10 and ,char ,kb1 8the four blows40 ,the next in importance is the siy zhp1 8the three weights0 or 8three blows40 ,the sitting postures among these devotees are numerous2 but the more approved and choice are limited to eighty-four2 out of these they have selected fourteen2 from the fourteen they have taken five2 and out of the five two are chosen by way of eminence3 with respect to these positions1 many have been described by the ,mbud ,sarsh in the ,zerdsht ,afshr3 of these two1 the choice position is the following3 ,the devotee sits on his hams1 cross-legged1 passing the outside of the right foot over the left thigh1 and that of the left foot over the right thigh2 he then passes his hands behind his back1 and holds in his left hand the great toe of the right foot1 and in the right hand the great toe of the left foot1 fixing his eyes intently on the point of the nose3 this position they call ,farnishin1 8the splendid seat10 but by the ,hindi ,jogies it is named the ,padma san1#cjb or 8,lotus seat40 ,if he then repeat the ,zekr-i-,mukzhub1 he either lays hold of the great toes with his hands1 or if he prefer1 removes his feet off the thighs1 seating himself in the ordinary position1 which is quite sufficientthen1 with closed eyes1 the hands placed on the thighs1 the armpits open1 the back erect1 the head thrown forward1 and fetching up from the navel with all his force the word ,nist1 he raises his head up3 next1 in reciting the word ,hsti1 he inclines the head towards the right breast2 on reciting the word ,magar1 he holds the head erect2 after which he utters ,yezdan1 bowing the head to the left breast1 the seat of the heart4 ,the devotee makes no pause between the words thus recited2 nay1 if possible1 he utters several formularies in one breath1 gradually increasing their number4 ,the words of the formulary 7,nist hesti magar yezdan1 8there is no existence save ,god07 are thus set forth3 8,nothing exists but ,god20 or1 8,there is no ,god1 but ,god20 or1 8,there is no adoration except for what is adorable20 or this1 8,he to whom worship is due is pure and necessarily existent20 or1 8,he who is without equal1 form1 color1 or model40 ,it is permitted to use this formulary publicly1 but the inward meditation is most generally adopted by priests and holy persons2 as the senses become disturbed by exclamations and clamors1 and the object of retirement is to keep them collected4 ,in the inward meditation1 the worshipper regards three objects as present3 8,god1 the heart1 and the spirit of his ,teacher20 whilst he revolves in his heart the purport of this formulary3 8,there is nothing in existence but ,god40 ,but if he proceeds to the suppression of breath1 which is called the 8knowledge of ,dam and ,smrad10 or the science of breath and imagination1 he closes not the eyes1 but directs them to the tip of the nose1 as we have before explained under the first mode of sitting3 this institute has also been recorded in the ,surud-i-,mastan1 but the present does not include all the minute details4#cjc ,it is thus recorded in the ,zerdsht ,afshr2 the worshipper having closed the right nostril1 enumerates the names of ,god from once to sixteen times1 and whilst counting draws his breath upwards2 after which he repeats it twenty-two times1 and lets the breath escape out of the right nostril1 and whilst counting propels the breath aloft2 thus passing from the six ,khns or stages to the seventh2 until from the intensity of imagination he arrives to a state in which he thinks that his soul and breath bound like the jet of a fountain to the crown of the head3 they enumerate the seven stages1 or the seven degrees1 in this order3 #ast1 the position of sitting2 #b;d1 the hips2 #c;d1 the navel2 #dth1 the pine-heart2 #eth1 the windpipe2 #fth1 the space between the eyebrows2 and #gth1 the crown of the head4 ,as causing the breath to mount to the crown of the head is a power peculiar to the most eminent persons2 so1 whoever can convey his breath and soul together to that part1 becomes the viceregent of ,god4 ,according to another institute1 the worshipper withdraws from all senseless pursuits1 sits down in retirement1 giving up his heart to his original world on high1 and without moving the tongue1 repeats in his heart ,yezdan6 ,yezdan6 or ,god6 ,god6 which address to the ,lord may be made in any language1 as ,hindi1 ,arabic1 etc4 ,another rule is1 the idea of the ,instructor3 the worshipper imagines him to be present and is never separated from that thought1 until he attains to such a degree1 that the image of his spiritual guide is never absent from the mind's eye1 and he then turns to contemplate his heart3 or he has a mirror before his sight1 and beholds his own form1 until1 from long practice1 it is never more separated from the heart1 to which he then directs himself3 or he sits down to contemplate his heart1 and reflects on it as being in continual movement4 ,in all these cases he regards the practices of the suppression of the breath as profitable for the abstraction of thought3 an object which may also be effected without having recourse to it4 ,another rule is1 what they call zd w1 or the 8free voice20 in ,hindi nahid2 and in ,arabic ,sut ,mutluk1 or 8the absolute sound40 ,some of the followers of ,mohammed relate1 that it is recorded in the traditions1 that a revelation came to the venerable prophet of ,arabia resembling 8the tones of a bell10 which means the 8,sut ,mutluk30 which ,hafiz of ,shiraz expresses thus3 8,no person knows where my beloved dwells3 ,this much only is known1 that the sound of the bell approaches40 ,the mode of hearing it is after this manner3 the devotees direct the hearing and understanding to the brain1 and whether in the gloom of night1 in the house1 or in the desert1 hear this voice1 which they esteem as their ,zikker1 or 8address to ,god40 ,azizi#cjd thus expresses himself3 8,i recognise that playful sportiveness1 ,and well know that amount of blandishment3 ,the sound of footsteps comes to my ear at night2 ,it was thyself2 ,i recognise the hallowed voice60 ,then having opened the eyes and looking between the eyebrows1 a form appears4 ,some of those who walk in the path of religious poverty among the followers of ,mohammed 7on whom be benedictions67 assert that the expression ,kab ,kausain1 8,i was near two bows' length10 alludes to this vision4 ,finally1 if they prefer it1 having closed the eyes for some time1 they reflect on the form which appeared to them on looking between the eyebrows2 after which they meditate on the heart2 or without contemplating the form1 they commence by looking into the heart2 and closing both eyes and ears1 give themselves up entirely to meditation on the heart1 abandoning the external for the internal3 whoever can thus contemplate obtains all that he wants2 but 8,the anguish of my friend strikes at the portal of the heart2 ,command them1 ,o1 ,shni6 to purify the dwelling of the heart40 ,finally the searcher after the ,being who is without equal or form1 without color or pattern1 whom they know and comprehend in the ,parsi under the name of 8,izad10 in ,arabic by the blessed name of 8,allah10 and in ,hindi as 8,para ,brahma ,nryaran a10#cje contemplates him without the intervention of ,arabic1 ,persian1 ,hindi1 or any other language1 keeping the heart in his presence1 until he1 being rescued from the shadows of doubt1 is identified with ,god4 ,the venerable ,maulav ,jami says on this head3 8,thou art but an atom1 ,he1 the great whole2 but if for a few days ,thou meditate with care on the whole1 thou becomest one with it40 ,they hold that reunion with the first principle1 which the ,sufees interpret by evanescence and permanence1 means not1 according to the distinguished ,ishrakian#cjf or ,platonists of ,persia1 that the beings of accident or creation are blended with him whose existence is necessary1 or that created beings cease to exist2 but that when the sun of the first cause manifests himself1 then apparently all created beings1 like the stars in the sun's light1 are absorbed in his divine effulgence2 and if the searcher after ,god should continue in this state1 he will comprehend how they become shrouded through the sun's overpowering splendor1 or like the ecstatic ,sufees he will regard them as annihilated3 but the number of ,sufs who attain to this state is exceedingly small1 and the individuals themselves are but little known to fame4 ,this volume would not be sufficient to enumerate the amount of those lights 7precepts7 which direct the pilgrim on his course1 but the venerable ,azur ,kaivn has treated at large on this head in the ,jm-i-,kai ,khusr4 ,it is1 however1 necessary to mention that there are four states of vision2 the first1 ,nnar1#cjg or that which is seen during sleep3 by sleep is meant that state when the subtile fumes arising from the food taken into the stomach mounting up to the brain1 overpower external perceptions at the time of repose3 whatever is then beheld is called in ,farsi ,tnb1 in ,arabic ,ry1 and in ,hindi ,svapna4#cjh ,the state beyond this dignity is ,susvapna1#cji in ,arabic ,ghaib or 8mysterious10 and in the popular language of the ,hindoos ,sukhsvda#caj or ,samdhi#caa 7suspending the connexion between soul and body71 which is as follows3 when divine grace is communicated from the worlds on high1 and the transport arising from that grace locks up external perceptions1 whatever is beheld during that state is called ,binab or 8revelation30 but that state into which the senses enter1 or ,hshwzhen1 8a trance10 which is expressed in ,arabic by ,sah or 8recovering from ebriety10 and in ,hindi by ,jagrat1#cab 8awaking10 and ,pratyaya 8evidence10#cac means that state in which divine grace being communicated1 without the senses being overpowered1 it transports the person for the time being to the world of reality3 whatever he beholds in this state is called ,bnb or ,mainah 8reality40 ,the state higher than this is the power of the soul to quit the body and to return to it1 which is called in ,farsi ,nvah-i-chaminah1 in ,arabic ,melkt ,khal-baden1 and in ,hindu prapura paroksha4#cad ,they affirm that the bodies occupied by some souls resemble a loose garment1 which may be put off at pleasure2 so that they can ascend to the world of light1 and on their return become reunited with the material elements4 ,the difference between ,sah and ,khal is this3 ,sah means1 being absorbed in meditation on the communication of divine grace1 so that1 without a relaxation of the senses1 the person may1 for the time being1 actually abide in the invisible world3 whereas ,khal means1 that the individual1 whenever he pleases1 separates himself from the body and returns to it when he thinks fitting4 ,the spiritual ,maulavi thus says3 8,shout aloud1 my friends6 for one person has separated himself from the body2 ,out of a hundred thousand bodies1 one person has become identified with ,god40 ,according to this sect there are seven worlds3 the first is absolute existence and pure being1 which they call ,arang#cae or 8divinity20 the second is the world of intelligences1 which they call ,birang or 8the empyreal20 the third is that of souls1 called ,alrang or the angelic2 the fourth that of the superior bodies1 or ,nirang2 the fifth1 the elementary or ,rang2 the sixth the compounds of the four elements1 or ,rang-a-,rang3 but according to the ,sufs all bodies1 whether superior or inferior1 are named ,mlk or region2 the seventh is ,sarang1 which is that of man or of human beings3 but in some ,parsi treatises they term these seven regions the seven true realities3 however1 if the author were to describe minutely the articles and ceremonies of this sect1 their details would require so many volumes1 that contenting himself with what has been stated1 he now proceeds to describe some of their most distinguished followers of later times4 #bbh ,here begins the translation of ,david ,shea4 #bbi ,sersh or ,sersh1 is derived from the ,zend1 and signifies properly s-roz1 that is 8thirty days1 a month40 ,to the adorers of the stars1 ,sersh is the name of an angel who presides over the #agth day of the month2 according to their religion1 he is moreover the most active of the celestial spirits2 as king of the earth1 he passes every day and every night three times through his empire2 his throne is the summit of the world2 all light1 all intelligence1 he purifies and fertilizes the earth1 blesses and protects mankind1 strikes the evil spirits2 in short1 he is adored equal to the supreme being4 7,see ,zend ,avesta1 par ,anquetil du ,perron1 ,i4 #b4 ,p4 pp4 #hj1 #aef1 #bbh1 #djd1 #dae2 ,,ii4 #cbj1 #ccj1 #bbc1 #bce1 #bcg74;,a4 ,t4 #bcj ,the text given by ,gladwin 7see the ,new ,asiatic ,miscellany1 vol4 ,i4 p4 #ic71 and the manuscript of ,oude1 have no negative before 2 the sense would therefore be3 8if his words had been plausible1 but the deeds bad40 ,the edit4 of ,calcutta gives the sense as above4,a4 ,t4 #bca ,gladwin translates this passage as follows 7ibid41 p4 #id73 8,if a deserving soul produces good words and deeds10 which is in accordance with the text he followed1 and with that of the edit4 of ,calcutta2 but ,shea's translation is justified by the manuscript of ,oude1 which has3 4,a4 ,t4 #bcb ,according to ,gladwin1 after once followed in a series by the same word is to be always understoodthus is not a thousand fard1 but one million fard4 ,this word is not in the ,burhan3,i have therefore followed ,gladwin's authority4 ,but in the ,destir1 or 8,sacred ,writings of the ancient ,persian ,prophets in the original tongue10 published at ,bombay in #ahah1 the following passage occurs in the commentary of the ,vth ,sasan 7,english transl4 p4 #cf73 8,they call a thousand times a thousand years a ferd2 and a thousand ferds1 a werd2 and a thousand werds1 a merd2 and a thousand werds1 a jd2 and three thousand jds1 a wd2 and two thousand wads1 a zd20 etc4,d4 ,s4 #bcc 8,hirbed0 7see ,thomas ,hyde1 ,veterum ,persarum et ,parthorum et ,medorum ,religionis ,historia1 ,oxon ii4 #agfj1 p4 #cfi-cgb7 was called a priest of the fire-worship2 according to oriental authors1 a priest of the ancient ,persians was in general1 called formerly 1 #8magh1' or #8mogh1' that is 8excellent10 hence ,magus1 a ,magian4 ,the ,magi are mentioned by ,herodotus1 and1 according to ,aristotle1 were more ancient than the ,egyptian priests4 ,clitarchus and ,strabo1 contemporaries1 the one of ,alexander1 the other of ,augustus1 speak of the ,magi4 ,the latter says 7lib4 ,,xv473 1 8,in ,kappadocia is a great multitude of ,magi1 called also ,pyrethi40 7,see ,selden1 ,de ,dis ,syris syntagma1 ,lipsi1 #affb1 p4 #cag1 #cah74 ,an order superior to this class of priests was the 1 #8mgh bed1' or 1 #8mobed1' a #8prefect1 or judge of the ,magi1' of the learned priests1 or of the worshippers of the sun1 in a general sense1 a wise man1 adorer of the sun4 ,a third order of ,persian priests was called 1 #8dastur1' or #8superintendant4' 7,see also ,zend-,avesta1 translated by ,anquetil du ,perron1 t4 ,,ii1 pp4 #eaf1 #eag1 #eec1 #eee47;,a4 ,t4 #bcd 8,brahman40 #bce ,gladwin 8,mahuristar40 ,we read in the ,commentary upon article #ade of the ,desatir1 ,english translation1 p4 #bg3 8,in ,pehlevi the ,huristars are called ,athurnns,they are the ,mobeds and ,hirbuds whose duty is to guard the faith1 to confirm the knowledge and precepts of religion1 and to establish justice40,a4 ,t4 #bcf 1 1 1 #8kshatra1 kshatriya1 kshatri1' a man of the military class1 from to divide1 or eat1 rather from 1 kshtram1 #8field1' which they are to protect4 ,this last from 1 kshi1 #8to dwell4' #bcg 1 #8chhatra1' a parasol1 an umbrella1 from #8chhada1' to cover4,a4 ,t4 #bch 8,the ,nristrs in ,pehlevi are named ,rehtishtran1 and are the princes and warriors who are called to grandeur and superiority1 and command1 and worldly sway40 ,comment4 upon art4 #ade of the ,desatir1 p4 #bg4;,a4 ,t4 #bci 1 1 #8vi1 vaiya1 #8a man of the mercantile tribe1' from 1 #8vi1' to enter4,a4 ,t4 #bdj 8,the ,suristars in ,pehlevi are denominated ,washteryshn1 and are devoted to every kind of business and employment40 ,comment4 upon the ,desatir1 p4 #bg4 #bda 1 udra1 a man of the fourth or servile class1 from 1 such1 to purify4,a4 ,t4 #bdb 8,the ,ruzistars are in ,pehlevi styled ,hotukhshan1 and are artisans and husbandmen40,comm4 upon the ,des4 #bdc ,the names ,huristar1 ,nuristar1 ,suristar1 and ,ruzistar1 of the four classes of the people1 are to be found in the ,desatir 7artic4 #ade1 ,english translation1 p4 #bg71 from which work the author of the ,dabistan is likely to have taken them1 as various other information4 ,as this division of a nation is undoubtedly suggested by the natural state of things1 it has been attributed to more than one ancient king1 and by ,ferdsi1 in his ,shah-namah1 to ,jemshid1 under four denominations belonging to the ancient ,persian language4 ,these are as follows3 #a 1 ,amuzian2 #b 1 ,nisarian2 #c 1 ,nasudi2 #d 1 ,ahnu khushi1 corresponding to the learned1 the warriors1 the husbandmen1 and the mechanics4 ,the first of these names1 ,amuzian1 is easily recognised in the ,persian 1 amokhten 7,imp4 amuz71 8to teach1 to learn20 the second nisarian is the same with 1 nisari1 the common ,persian word for a warrior2 the third1 nasudi1 is a ,pehlevi noun 7see ,hyde1 p4 #dcg72 the fourth1 ,ahnkhsh1 appears composed of 1 ahnu1 8provisions1 meat0 7to be traced to 1 ahnika1 8daily work1 food071 and of 1 khushi1 8good1 content10 or from khstan1 8to ask40 ,upon the four classes of the people see also ,history of the early kings of ,persia1 translated from the ,persian of ,mirkhond1 entitled the ,rauza-us-safa0 by ,david ,shea1 p4 #ajh-aac4;,a4 ,t4 #bdd ,the text of ,gladwin has 1 destnir1 the edition of ,calcutta and the manuscript of ,oude have ,dastir4 ,the single volume published under that name at ,bombay 7see note page #ad71 if genuine at all1 can be considered but as a very small part of the great work1 said to comprehend all languages and sciences4,a4 ,t4 #bde ,this faith is also called ,fersendj1 and the great bd himself ,ferzbd1 and ,bzgbad1 7,dast41 ,engl4 ,transl41 p4 #bg1 #eh1 #ahg74;,a4 ,t4 #bdf ,burz1 with the ,arabic article ,al-burz1 is a mountain in ,jebal or ,irak ,ajemi1 not far distant from1 and to the north of1 the town ,yezd in the province of ,fars1 where1 from very remote times to our days1 a great number of fire-temples existed4 ,alburz belongs to a fabulous region2 this name is given to several mountains1 among which the great ,caucasus is distinguished from the tirah1 or 8little10 ,alburz4,a4 ,t4 #bdg ,this word reminds of 1 jina1 or 1 jaina1 from 1 ji1 #8to conquer' or #8excel1' a generic name of distinguished persons1 belonging to the ,jaina sect of ,hindus4,a4 ,t4 #bdh ,this is evidently the ,sanskrit word 1 yaas1 8fame1 glory1 celebrity1 splendor10 and 1 yaasvan1 8famous1 celebrated40,a4 ,t4 #bdi ,gladwin has 1 nimur2 the edition of ,calcutta and the manuscript of ,oude have timur4,a4 ,t4 #bej ,gil-shah1 8,earth-,king10 also 8the ,king formed of clay40 ,according to the ,mojmil-al-,tavarikh 7see ,extracts from this work by ,julius ,mohl1 ,esq41 ,journ4 ,asiat41 ,february #ahda1 p4 #adf71 he was so called1 because he governed the then not inhabited earth4 ,gil-shah is one of the names given to the first man or ,king2 in the ,destir 7pp4 #gj1 #aca7 he is called ,giomert1 ,gilshadeng2 by others ,kaiomars 7see also ,rauzat-us-,safa of ,mirkhond1 translated by ,d4 ,shea1 p4 #ej74;,a4 ,t4 #bea ,this number differs considerably from the chronology of other ,asiatics4 ,here follow the periods enumerated in the ,epitome of the ancient ,history of ,persia1 extracted and translated from the ,jehan ,ara1 by ,sir ,wil4 ,ouseley 7p4 #ga-gd74 ,the ,peshdian ruled 7the mean of #d different data7 #beca years4 ,kainin 7 #d 7 #gjd ,ashknin 7 #aa 7 #ceb ,ssnian 7 #g 7 #ejj ,,total #djhg years4 ,as ,yezdejird's reign terminated #fea or #fec years of our era1 the beginning of the ,peshddn1 according to the ,dabistan1 is placed #fjbd-feaecgc years before ,j4 ,c4,a4 ,t4 #beb ,adopting the just computed period of #djhg years between ,yezdegird and the #ast of the ,pshdadn1 ,kaiomars would have begun to reign #cdcf years before ,christ2 according to the ,shahnamah1 it was #cebi years before our era2 ,sir ,w4 ,jones places him #hij years ,b4 ,c4 7see his ,works1 vol4 ,,xii1 #hvo edit4 p4 #cii74 #bec ,syamak the son of ,gilshah or ,kaiomors1 was killed in a battle against the ,divs4 ,,according ,,according ,,to ,,ferdusi3 ,,to ,,sir ,w4 ,,jones3 #bed ,hshang began to reign #cdii years ,b4 ,c42 #hfe years ,b4 ,c4 #bee ,tehmras #cdfi 2 #hce #bef ,jemshd #cdbi 2 #hjj ,jemshd1 also called ,jermshr in the ,destir 7pp4 #hh1 #hi71 according to ,ferdusi the son of ,tehmras1 according to the ,zend-,avesta the son of ,viverghm1 brother or son of ,tahmras4 ,he1 or rather his dynasty1 ruled #gjj years the ,persian empire4 ,he is believed to have been the first who amongst the ,persians regulated the solar year1 the commencement of which he fixed at the vernal equinox1 about the #eth of ,april 7see ,zend-,avesta1 by ,anquetil du ,perron1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #hb74 ,he is also distinguished by the epithet ,sad-wakhshur1 which signifies 8hundred prophets20 to him is ascribed the book ,javedan ,khirad1 8eternal intelligence10 which is said to have been translated into ,greek1 with other books1 by order of ,alexander 7see ,destir1 ,english transl4 pp4 #gi1 #aec1 #afc74;,a4 ,t4 #beg ,zohak1 the son of a sister of ,jemshd1 usurped the throne of his uncle and sovereign1 according to ,ferdusi1 #bgbi years ,b4 ,c42 according to ,helvicus1 #bbdh2 according to ,jackson1 #aifd2 but only #ghj years ,b4 ,c41 according to ,sir ,w4 ,jones who1 in general1 fixes the ancient ,persian reigns much lower than other chronologers4 ,zohak is also called ,pivar-asp1 or ,bivar-asp1 from the circumstance of his always keeping ten thousand ,arabian horses in his stables1 for ,bivar1 says ,ferdusi1 from the ,pehlevi1 in counting means in the ,dr tongue1 ten thousand 7see ,rauzat-us-saf1 ,translat41 p4 #abc2 and also ,mojmel-al-,tavarikh74 ,the empire which ,zokah founded is identified by some historians with the ,assyrian monarchy of ,semiramis1 or with a ,semitic domination in general4 ,it lasted1 according to the ,orientals1 #ajjj years2 according to ,ctesias1 ,diodorus ,siculus1 ,justin and ,syncellus #ac or #adjj1 according to ,herodotus only #ebj years4,a4 ,t4 #beh ,kiblah signifies that part to which people direct their face in prayer1 the temple of ,mecca to the devout ,muhammedans2 in a general sense1 it means the object of our views or wishes4,a4 ,t4 #bei ,the text has 1 ,kerges1 a bird1 feeding on carcasses1 and living one hundred years4,a4 ,t4 #bfj ,bahram is also called ,manishram 7,destir1 ,engl4 transl4 p4 #gi74 #bfa ,nahid appears also under the name of ,ferehengram 7ibid41 p4 #ij74 #bfb ,tir1 also ,temirm 7ibid41 p4 #ajb74;,a4 ,t4 #bfc ,it was from time immemorial to our days the practice of the ,asiatics to refer the common affairs of life to the stars1 to which they attribute a constant and powerful influence over the nether world4 ,thus ,hmaiun the son of ,baber1 emperor of ,india 7see the ,history of ,ferishta1 translated by general ,john ,briggs1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ga7 8caused seven halls of audience to be built1 in which he received persons according to their rank4 ,the first1 called the palace of the ,moon1 was set apart for ambassadors1 messengers and travellers4 ,in the second1 called the palace of ,utarid 7,venus71 civil officers1 and persons of that description1 were received2 and there were five other palaces for the remaining five planets4 ,in each of these buildings he gave public audience1 according to the planet of the day4 ,the furniture and paintings of each1 as also the dresses of the household attendants1 bore some symbol emblematical of the planet4 ,in each of these palaces he transacted business one day in the week40,a4 ,t4 #bfd ,gladwin has timar ,vastir1 the manuscript of ,oude tmr dasytir1 the edition of ,calcutta 1 tmsr dasatir1 which is the right reading1 as the word 8timsar0 is explained in the index of obsolete or little known terms by these words3 8a word expressing respect40,a4 ,t4 #bfe ,cicacole1 a town in the northern districts of the ,coromandel coast1 anciently named ,kalinga1 the ancient capital of an extensive district of the same name1 lat4 #ah #ba ,n41 long4 #hc #eg ,e4,a4 ,t4 #bff ,the ,muhammedans distinguish particularly two temples1 or mosques3 the first1 the principal object of their veneration1 is the ,masjed al ,haram1 or 8the ,sacred mosque10 that is to say1 the temple of ,mecca1 where is also the ,kbah1 or 8the ,square-edifice10 built1 as they say1 by ,abraham and his son ,ismael4 ,the second of the temples is the ,masjed al ,nab1 8the mosque of the ,prophet10 who preached and is buried in it47,herbelot47,a4 ,t4 #bfg ,ali1 the son of ,abu ,taleb1 the cousin and son in law of ,muhammed4 ,ali was assassinated in the mosque of ,kufa1 and buried near this town1 in the province of ,irak1 the ,babylonian1 on the right bank of the ,euphrates4,a4 ,t4 #bfh ,kerbela is a district of ,irak1 the ,babylonian1 or of ,chalda1 not far from ,kufa1 and west of the town called ,kaser ,ben ,hbeirah4 ,it is famous on account of the death and sepulchre of ,hssin1 the son of ,ali1 who was killed there1 fighting against the troops of ,yezid1 son of ,moavia1 who disputed the khalifat with him4,a4 ,t4 #bfi ,msa was the seventh of the twelve ,imams whom the ,shiites revere4 ,he was born in the year of the ,hegira #abh 7#gde ,a4 ,d471 and died in #ahc 7#gii ,a4 ,d474,a4 ,t4 #bgj ,baghdad1 a town in the province ,irak ,arab4 #bga ,the ,imam ,reza was the eighth ,imam of the race of ,al2 he was called ,al ,ben ,mssa al ,kadhem1 before he received the title ,reza or ,redha 7one in whom ,god is pleased7 from the ,khalif ,almamm1 when the latter appointed him his successor1 but survived the ,imam1 who died ,a4 ,d4 #hah4;,a4 ,t4 #bgb ,balkh1 a town in ,khorasan1 situated towards the head of the river ,oxus1 in lat4 ,n4 #cf #bh2 long4 #fe #af4 #bgc ,persepolis1 in ,persia proper4 #bgd ,for the black stone1 consult ,dart's ,antiquities of ,westminster1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ab2 ,matthew of ,westminster1 p4 #dcj4;,d4 ,s4 ,stones1 especially when distinguished by some particular form or colour1 were in the most ancient times venerated as the only then possible monuments1 consecrated to some respected person1 or to some ,divinity4 ,thus the ancient ,arabians venerated a square stone as sacred 7see ,selden de ,dis ,syris1 p4 #bia1 #bib74 ,it is known that the ,muhammedans bestow a particular veneration upon a black stone1 which is attached to the gate of their mosque at ,mecca 7,herbelot1 ,bibl4 orient4 sub voce74 ,it is evident that the followers of ,muhammed1 who is the prophet of a comparatively recent religion1 appropriated to themselves more than one object and place of the most ancient veneration by merely changing its name1 and attaching to it a legend in accordance to their own belief4,a4 ,t4 #bge ,according to ,ferdusi in his ,shah-namah1 ,gushtasp 7,darius1 son of ,hystaspes1 #eai ,b4 ,c47 was induced by ,zerdusht to adopt a reformed doctrine which prescribed the adoration of fire1 and was probably a purer sort of ,sabism1 as practised by the most enlightened magi of very ancient times4 ,isfendiar1 ,gushtasp's son1 a zealous promoter of this religion1 erected fire-temples in all parts of his empire 7see also ,rauzat-us-safa1 ,shea's transl41 p4 #bhe74;,a4 ,t4 #bgf ,the ,persian text of ,gladwin reads3 8,gangdezh40 #bgg ,faridun1 the son of ,abtin1 restored the power of the ,pshddan according to ,ferdusi1 #agbi years ,b4 ,c42 according to ,sir ,w4 ,jones and other chronologers1 #gej years before our era4 ,faridun1 or rather his dynasty1 reigned #ejj years2 according to the ,boundehesh and the ,mujmel-ul-tavrikh during the #ejj years of ,feridun1 twelve generations intervened between ,faridun1 and ,manutcheher1 his grandson4,a4 ,t4 #bgh ,medina signifies a town in general1 but in particular that of ,jatreb1 in ,arabia1 in the province of ,hajiaz1 to which town ,muhammed fled when obliged to abandon ,mecca1 on the #afth ,july1 #fbb of our era1 which is the first year of the ,hejira1 8flight40,a4 ,t4 #bgi ,the text of ,gladwin reads4 8,mahtrsz ilm40 #bhj ,nzar is the eighth king of the ,pshdadn1 placed by ,ferdusi #aaji years ,b4 ,c42 by the modern chronologers #gae-gjh ,b4 ,c4 ,he had two sons1 ,ts and ,gustaham4 #bha ,the foundation of the town ,tus1 in ,khorasan1 is also attributed to ,jemshd4 #bhb ,ardebil1 a town in the province called ,azerbijan1 which is a part of the ancient ,media4 #bhc ,bahman1 son of ,isfendiar4 #bhd ,kus1 the second king of the ,kaan dynasty1 whose reign began1 according to ,ferdusi1 #iee years ,b4 ,c42 he is supposed by western historians1 to be ,darius1 the ,mede1 of the ,greeks1 and placed by them #fjj1 #fcd-eid years ,b4 ,c4,a4 ,t4 #bhe ,the ,safavean dynasty began in #adii ,a4 ,d4 by ,shah-,ismail1 who derives his origin from ,musa1 already mentioned as the seventh imam of the ,muselmans4 ,all his ancestors were considered as pious men and some as saints4 ,the first of this family who gained a great reputation was ,shaik ,sufi ,ud-din1 from whom this dynasty takes the name of ,sufaviah4 ,his son was ,sudder ,ud-din4 ,the monarchs of that time used to visit his cell4 ,timur asked him what favour he could bestow on him4 ,the saint answered3 8,set free all the prisoners whom thou hast brought from ,turkey40 ,the conqueror granted this request1 and the grateful tribes declared themselves the disciples of the man to whom they owed their liberty4 ,their children preserved the sacred obligation of their ancestors1 and placed the son of the pious ,eremite upon the throne of ,persia4 7,malcolm's ,hist4 of ,persia47,a4 ,t4 #bhf ,dwaraka1 an ancient town1 built by ,krichna1 destroyed by a revolution of nature2 actually exists a town and celebrated temple of that name1 in the province of ,guzrat1 situated at the ,s4 ,w4 extremity of the peninsula1 lat4 #bb #ba ,n42 long4 #fi #ae ,e4 #bhg 8,the true name is ,gy1 a town in the province of ,bahar1 #ee miles south from ,patna1 lat4 #bd #di ,n42 long4 #he #e ,e4 ,it is one of the holy places of the ,hindus1 to which pilgrimages are performed4 ,it was made holy by the benediction of ,vichnu1 who granted its sanctity to the piety of ,gy the ,rjarchi2 or according to another legend1 to ,gy1 the ,asura1 who was overwhelmed here by the deities1 with rocks4 ,this place is also considered by some ,hindus either as the birthplace or as the residence of ,buddha1 from which circumstance it is usually termed ,buddha-,gy 7,hamilt4 ,e4 ,i4 ,gazetteer4 ,wilson's ,dict4 sub voce74,a4 ,t4 #bhh ,mathura1 a town in the province of ,agra1 situated on the east side of the ,jumna1 #cj miles ,n4 ,e4 by ,n4 from the city of ,agra1 lat4 #bg #cb2 long4 #gg #cg ,e4 ,this place is much celebrated and venerated by the ,hindus1 as the scene of the birth and early adventures of ,krichna 7,hamilt4 ,gazet474,a4 ,t4 #bhi ,this is an entirely ,indian name3 ,gpnath1 8the lord of the cowherds' wives10 a name of ,krichna4,a4 ,t4 #bij ,according to oriental ,romance1 the ,si-murgh1 or ,enka1 is endowed with reason4 ,he acts a considerable part in the ,shah-namah1 as tutor to ,zl1 the father of ,rustam4 ,in the ,kahermn ,nmah1 this bird in a conversation with ,kaherman1 the hero1 states that it has existed during many revolutions of ages and beings prior to the creation of ,adam4 ,it is called ,si-murgh1 as being equal in magnitude to thirty birds4,a4 ,t4 #bia ,rustam appears to be a personification of the heroic times of the ,persians1 the ,medes and the ,scythes4 ,he was born under the reign of ,manucheher1 after the year #abii ,b4 ,c41 and died under that of ,gstasp1 after the year #fbe before our era2 his existence comprises therefore #fjd years4 ,he was the lord of ,sejestan1 and extended his domination over ,zabulistan and ,kabul2 but the circle of his actions comprehends a great part of ,asia between the ,indus1 the ,indian and the ,caspian seas4 #bib ,khizar is confounded by many with the prophet ,elias1 who is supposed to dwell in the ,terrestrial ,paradise1 in the enjoyment of immortality4 ,according to ,eastern traditions1 ,khizr was the companion1 vizir or general of the ancient monarch1 named ,zu-al-,kurnain1 or 8the ,two-horned20 a title which was also assumed by ,alexander the ,great4 ,according to the ,trikh ,muntakhab1 this prophet was ,abraham's nephew1 and served as guide to ,moses and the children of ,israel1 in their passage of the ,red sea and the desert4 ,the same author tells us1 that ,khizr lived in the time of ,kai ,kobad1 at which time he discovered the fountain of life4 7,herbelot74,a4 ,t4 #bic ,ferdusi in his ,shah-namah narrates that3 ,secander was in search of the water of life1 accompanied by ,khizr4 ,the prophet attained his purpose1 but the king lost his way in the dark4 ,the troops of the latter followed a mare running after her foal1 until they found themselves in a place full of pebbles sounding beneath their feet1 and heard a voice from heaven1 saying3 8,take1 or leave1 the stones2 sorrow of the heart 8awaits you in any case40 ,and so it happened4 ,at day-break1 the stones picked up were found to be precious rubies2 all were grieved3 the one for not having taken more1 the others for not having taken any1 of them4,a4 ,t4 #bid ,farvardin presides over the #aith day of the month1 and over the first month of the year 7,zend-,avesta1 by ,anquetil du ,perron1 ,,ii1 p4 #cbj-ccg74 ,hyde 7p4 #bci7 says3 the first month1 ,march1 in the ,jelli-year 7or the new ,persian era of ,jelaluddin7 which first month was ,july in the old year1 is called ,farvardin1 and he endeavours to derive this word from the modern ,persian4 ,anquetil du ,perron 7,i1 #are part4 p4 #dic7 rejects ,hyde's etymology1 and says that ,farvardin signifies in ,zend 8the ,fervers 7the souls7 of the law40 ,hyde himself seems to enter into this sense1 in saying 7p4 #bdj73 8,iste ,angelus 7,farvardin7 creditur presse ,animabus qu in ,paradiso0 7this angel is believed to preside over the souls who are in ,paradise74,a4 ,t4 #bie ,the ,calcutta manuscript1 translated by ,gladwin1 differs in this passage from the printed copy of ,calcutta1 #abbd of the ,hejirah1 ,a4 ,d4 #ahji1 and also from two excellent manuscripts3 the ,calcutta copy has been followed4,d4 ,s4 #bif ,the most ancient year of the ,persians 7,hyde1 p4 #ahh1 #ahi7 appears to have been vague or erratic1 its commencement varying through all the different seasons1 or at least soon gave room to the vague ,persian-,median civil year1 to which was joined afterwards the fixed ecclesiastic year of ,jemshed4 ,both these years lasted to the time of ,yezdejerd1 who made some considerable changes in the ,persian calendar4 ,this king being killed1 after an interval of time1 the fixed solar year1 beginning in the middle of 8pisces10 was introduced into ,persia4 ,the names of the ancient months and days appear to have come from the ,medes1 with their denomination1 to the ,persians2 and even those invented by ,yezdejerd were of ,median origin4 ,here follows the order of months called ,jelali 7,hyde1 p4 #ahj74 ,i4 ,farvardin ,march4 ,,ii4 ,ardbehist ,april4 ,,iii4 ,khordd ,may4 ,,iv4 ,tir ,june4 ,v4 ,mardd 7,amardad4 ,anquetil du ,perron7 ,july4 ,,vi4 ,shahrvar ,august4 ,,vii4 ,miher ,september4 ,,viii4 ,abn ,october4 ,,ix4 ,azar ,november4 ,x4 ,di ,december4 ,,xi4 ,bahman ,january4 ,,xii4 ,isfandrmend ,february4 ,the old ,persian month was not divided into weeks1 but every day had its particular name from the angel who presided over that day4 ,here follows the order of their names1 according to ,olugh ,beigh 7,hyde1 p4 #aij73 ,i4 ,hormuzd4 ,,ii4 ,bahman4 ,,iii4 ,ardbehist4 ,,iv4 ,shahrvar4 ,v4 ,isfandrmend4 ,,vi4 ,khurdd4 ,,vii4 ,murdd4 ,,viii4 ,dbder4 ,,ix4 ,azur4 ,x4 ,abn4 ,,xi4 ,khur4 ,,xii4 ,mh4 ,,xiii4 ,tr4 ,,xiv4 ,jsh or ,gsh4 ,,xv4 ,dbamiher4 ,,xvi4 ,miher4 ,,xvii4 ,sursh4 ,,xviii4 ,resh4 ,,xix4 ,farvardin4 ,,xx4 ,bahrm4 ,,xxi4 ,rm4 ,,xxii4 ,bd4 ,,xxiii4 ,dbadn4 ,,xxiv4 ,din4 ,,xxv4 ,ird1 or ,ard4 ,,xxvi4 ,ashtd4 ,,xxvii4 ,asamn4 ,,xxviii4 ,zmd4 ,,xxix4 ,mrsfand4 ,,xxx4 ,anrn4 ,the names of the five additional days were as follows3 ,i4 ,ahnud-jah4 ,,ii4 ,ashnud-jah4 ,,iii4 ,isfandamaz-jah4 ,,iv4 ,akhshater-jah4 ,v4 ,vahashtusht-jah4 ,room is wanted for entering into further developments of this extensive subject4,a4 ,t4 #big ,the text of ,gladwin has which has the same meaning4,a4 ,t4 #bih ,the text of ,gladwin has ,orm4 ,the name is properly ,urman1 a peculiar manner of chanting or reading ,pahlavi poetry1 which derives its name from a village in the dependencies of ,kushgun1 where its inventor lived4,d4 ,s4 #bii ,gladwin and ,shea read ,wasatir1 but ,i cannot forbear from thinking1 the right reading is dastir2 the and the being easily confounded with each other4 ,the simile above quoted is not to be found in the ,bombay edition of the ,destr1 although the same precepts are stated therein 7pp4 #ab1 #ac1 #ad74 ,here follows the passage 7,english transl4 ,comment4 p4 #de7 about the ,destr itself3 8,there are two books of ,yezdn4 ,the name of the first is ,dgt1 #8two worlds1' and this they call the #8,great ,book1' or in the language of ,heaven ,ferz-,desatir1 or the #8,great ,destir1' which is the great volume of ,yezdn4 ,and the other book is called ,destir1 the doctrines of which ,mhbd1 and the other prophets from ,mhbd down to me1 have revealed4 99 99 99 99 ,and in the heavenly tongue this is called ,derick ,desatir1 #8the ,little ,destir1' as being the ,little ,book of ,god40,a4 ,t4 #cjj ,zanar is called in ,india the brahminical1 or in general1 a religious thread2 here is meant the mark of any unbeliever4,a4 ,t4 #cja ,zohak4 #cjb #cjc ,these practices are evidently the same as those used among the ,hindu devotees4 ,the chapter upon the ,hindus1 which follows1 will set forth the great conformity1 nay1 identity of ,indian religions with the tenets and customs here ascribed to ,persian sects4 ,in the ,destir 7,english transl4 ,comment4 pp4 #ff1 #fg7 is a curious account of the postures to be taken standing1 or lying1 or sitting1 on the ground before any thing that burns1 and reciting the ,ferz-zemiar1 8great prayer10 to ,yezdn1 or another to ,shesh-kkh1 that is to say1 to the stars and to the fire which yield light40,a4 ,t4 #cjd ,azizi is supposed1 by ,mr4 ,tholuck 7,sufismus1 sive ,theosophia ,persarum ,pantheistica7 to be the name of the so long unknown author of ,gulshen-raz1 8the rose-bower of mystery40 ,silvestre de ,sacy 7see ,journal des ,savants1 dcembre #ahba1 p4 #gai1 #gbj71 without absolutely rejecting this supposition1 explains the word ,azizi by 8homme vertueux0 in the verse upon which ,mr4 ,tholuck founded his opinion4 ,the true author of ,gulshen-raz is now known to be ,mahmud ,shabister4 ,see the ,persian text with a ,german metrical translation of this poem1 published in #ahch by the baron ,hammer-,purgstall4,a4 ,t4 #cje #cjf ,for ,ishrakian1 see pages #ca and #hf ad refutationem ,alcorani4,d4 ,s4 #cjg ,in ,gladwin's ,persian text1 it is ,tutiar2 in the manuscripts consulted by ,shea1 in the edition of ,calcutta1 and in the manuscript of ,oude nuniar4 #cjh 4 #cji 1 8good sleep40 #caj 1 sukhsvda1 8enjoyment40 #caa 1 samdhi1 8deep and devout meditation40 #cab 1 jagrat1 8watching1 being awake40,a4 ,t4 #cac 1 pratyaya1 8certainty40,a4 ,t4 #cad 1 prapura-parksha1 8absent from the former body40,a4 ,t4 #cae ,the text of ,gladwin has 8zreng20 the edition of ,calcutta and the manuscript of ,oude ,arang2 in the ,desatir we find ,lareng for the name of a divinity4,a4 ,t4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,s,p,,si,n ,,sect4 ,among the moderns1 the chief of the ,abadian and ,azrhshangn sects was ,azar ,kaivn1 whose lineage is as follows3 ,azar ,kavan1 the son of ,azar ,zerdusht1 the son of ,azar ,barzn1 the son of ,azar ,khurn1 the son of ,azar ,ayin1 the son of ,azar ,bahram1 the son of ,azar ,nosh1 the son of ,azar ,mihtar1 the younger son of ,azar ,ssn1 styled the fifth ,ssn1 the elder son of ,azar ,ssn1 the fourth of that name1 the younger son of ,azar ,ssn1 the third of that name1 the eldest son of ,azar ,ssn1 or the second ,ssn1 the mighty son of ,azar ,ssn1 or the first ,ssn1 the son of ,darab the less1 the son of ,darab the great1 the son of ,bahmn1 the son of ,isfendiar1 the son of ,gushtasp1 the son of ,lohrasp1 the son of ,arvand1 the son of ,kai ,nishin1 the son of ,kai ,kobad1 the son of ,zab1 the son of ,nauder1 the son of ,minuchehr1 the son of ,iraj1 who was of the lineage of ,feridun1 the son of ,abtin1 who was of the lineage of ,jamshid1 the son of ,tahmras1 the son of ,hsheng1 the son of ,siamak1 the son of ,kaiomors1 the son of ,ysn ,ajam1 of the lineage of ,ysn1 the son of ,shai ,mohbul1 of the lineage ,shai ,giliv1 the son of ,ja ,alad1 of the lineage of ,jai ,afram1 the son of ,abd ,azd1 of the lineage of ,mah ,abd1 who appeared with splendor in the beginning of the great cycle4 ,the mother of ,kaivn was named ,shirn1 a fortunate and illustrious dame descended from the lineage of the just monarch ,nushirvan4 ,through eternal aid and almighty grace ,azar ,kaivn1 from his fifth year1 devoted himself to great abstinence in food1 and watching by night4 ,salm thus expresses himself3 8,innate essence has no need of instruction2 ,how could an artist produce the image in the mirror80 ,in the progress of his admirable voluntary mortification1 the quantity of his daily food was reduced to one direm weight4 ,on this point1 the divine sage ,suni observes3 8,if thou eat to excess1 thou becomest an unwieldy elephant2 ,but if with moderation1 thou becomest another ,gabriel2 ,if any person should give way to excess in eating1 ,rest assured that he is also vile to excess40 ,he abode in ,khum during twenty-eight years1 but removed in his latter days from the land of ,iran into ,india3 he remained some time in ,patna1 where1 in the year of the ,hegira #ajbg 7,a4 ,d4 #afgc71 he took his flight from this lower elementary abode to the sphere of the mansions on high4 ,azz observes3 8,whoever is wise1 esteems this mortal coil the obstacle to union with ,god3 ,this life is the death of ,durvishes3 look on 7the world of7 reality as a friend40 ,he continued eighty-five years united to the elements of body1 during which time he never desisted from the practice of austerities4 ,on this subject ,hafiz of ,shiraz observes3 8,o6 my heart1 if thou once become acquainted with the lustre of austerity1 ,like those who strike the smiling taper1 thou canst give up thy head ,but thou longest after thy beloved and sparkling wine-bowl3 ,abstain from such desire1 for thou canst accomplish better things40 ,farznah ,bahrm relates in the ,sharistan1 that from the very commencement of his religious career1 ,azar ,kaivn1 having resolved on learning thoroughly the science and systems of the eminent sages of antiquity1 on this1 the distinguished philosophers of ,hindustan1 ,greece1 and ,persia1 having appeared to him in a vision1 communicated all kinds of knowledge4 ,he went one day to a college1 where he answered every question that was proposed1 and gave the solution of every difficulty3 he was therefore entitled ,zu-l-ulum1 or 8the ,master of ,sciences40 ,ali ,sani ,amir ,saiyid ,ali of ,hamadan observes3 8,if thou advance even one step from this abode of vain desire1 ,thou mayest repose in the sanctuary of omnipotence2 ,and if thou perform ablution with the water of religious austerity1 ,thou canst convert all the uncleanness of thy heart into purity2 ,this path however is only traversed by the active pilgrim1 ,how canst thou1 the world's idol1 perform such a task80 ,it is reported that ,saiyid ,hasan of ,shiraz1 who was styled 8the sage1 the embellishment of pure faith and works10 one day said thus3 8,on a certain day1 two followers of the ,sufs came into the presence of ,azar ,kaivn1 and pursuing the path of opposition to the ,master of ,sciences1 treated him not as one possessed of perfection4 ,their teacher1 a man equally eminent in theoretical and practical science1 who by dominion over the external world had established the relation of spiritual intercourse with the holy prophet1 fell one night into a state of ecstasy1 and beheld in his trance the effulgent perfection of the prophet1 who said to him3 #8,my son6 tell thy disciples that through the assistance of the ,only ,wise and the ,omnipotent1 who is independent of all1 ,ali ,kaivn is a completely perfect man1 who has attained to the different degrees of spiritual dominion1 by the practice of the seven cordial ejaculations1 and varied mysterious illuminations1 visions1 revelations1 spiritual realities in his acts and attributes3 moreover his evanescent existence1 through grace predestined from eternity1 has received the boon of divine nature2 equally versed in special and general providence2 unique in the true knowledge of things from inspection1 not contented with the illumination of tradition2 the most perfect master of the seekers after truth in matters of worship1 seclusion1 social intercourse1 and whatever is meet and suitable to their state in all kinds of institutes and religious austerities4 ,he is the true philosopher2 the physician of the human race2 the discipline of religion2 the institute of the devout2 the interpreter of events2 the instructor of worship2 the director of those who seek ,god1 labouring diligently in the purification of souls2 co-operating in the cleansing of hearts2 the spiritual champion of the law2 fighting the good fight of faith2 the principle of truth2 confirmed in the knowledge1 source1 and evidence of certainty2 supported by divine aid in the fundamental points and collateral inductions4 ,let not thy disciples calumniate him1 but esteem him a holy personage1 and regard attendance on him as pregnant with happiness3 do thou also approach his presence1 and use every effort to conciliate his affection4' ,the teacher having during his ecstacy repeated this panegyric several times1 ,i committed the words to writing1 and on the holy man's arising from his ecstatic trance1 he summoned me and said3 #8,who in this city is ,azar ,kaivn8 ,the prophet hath praised him exceedingly1 and ordered me to go into his presence4' ,i answered3 #8,he has lately come hither from the direction of ,istakhar3' on which he replied3 #8,conduct me near him4' ,i therefore accompanied him1 but was ignorant of ,kaivn's residence4 ,when we had proceeded some time1 one of ,kaivn's disciples1 by name ,farhad1 came near him and said3 #8,the master 7that is ,kaivn7 invites you1 and has sent me to be your guide4' ,when we came into his presence1 my teacher had determined in his mind to salute him first1 but was unable to obtain the priority1 as ,azar ,kaivn had much sooner anticipated him in salutations in the ,persian language1 and afterwards addressed him in ,arabic4 ,we were struck with astonishment4 ,my teacher then repeated what he had communicated to me concerning the vision1 on which ,kaivn commanded him #8not to remove the veil of this mystery4'0 ,the teacher1 on his return1 having called before him his two misguided disciples1 recounted the perfections of ,kaivn1 and enjoined them to abstain from censuring the holy man4 ,for as ,sadi says3 8,respecting the thicket1 imagine it not unoccupied1 ,a tiger may probably be couched there40 ,azar ,kaivn mixed little with the people of the world2 he shunned with horror all public admirers2 and seldom gave audience to any but his disciples and the searchers after truth2 never exposing himself to the public gaze4 ,according to ,shaikh ,baha ,uddin ,muhammad of ,amil1 8,if thou have not guards in front and rear to keep off the crowd1 ,aversion to mixing with crowds will be a sufficient safeguard to thee40 ,farzanah ,bahrm relates in the ,sharistan1 that ,kaivn expressed himself after this manner3 8,the connexion of my spirit with this body1 formed of the elements1 resembles the relation of the body to a loose robe2 whenever ,i wish ,i can separate myself from it1 and resume it at my desire40 ,the same author also thus relates of him1 in the text of the ,jam-i-,kai ,khusr1 wherein are recounted some of his revelations and spiritual communications3 8,when ,i passed in rapid flight from material bodies1 ,i drew near a pure and happy spirit2 ,with the eye of spirit ,i beheld spirits3 ,my spirit was moving amidst kindred spirits3 ,in every sphere and star ,i beheld a spirit2 ,each sphere and star possessed its peculiar spirit2 ,thus in the three kingdoms of nature ,i beheld a common spirit1 ,as their spirit was mutually communicated to each other4 ,i attained the knowledge of all existences4 ,and was associated with the great ,sersh ,ramah4 #caf;,but when ,i reached a great elevation1 ,splendor from the ,almighty gave me light2 ,as the radiance increased this individuality departed2 #cag;,even the angelic nature and the principle of evil disappeared3 ,god only existed1 there was no sign of me 7or of my individual existence73 #cah;,i no longer retained intellect or recollection of spirit3 #cai;,i discovered all my secrets to be but shadows2 ,i then returned to the angelic intelligences1 ,and from these intelligences ,i came back to the spirit2 ,and thus at last to bodies also summoning me4 ,in this manner ,i became powerful1 wise1 and sublime1 ,until ,i descended from that high degree ,upon the road by which ,i had gone up1 ,i returned to my body ,with a hundred divine favours#cbj deriving splendor from that assemblage2 ,the dignity of the ,supreme ,lord is too exalted ,for intercourse with his servants to be worthy of him4 ,by his effulgence intellect becomes 7illumined7 like the earth or sun2 ,he is elevated too high for his servants to hold intercourse with him3 ,if the spirit receives illumination from him1 ,it becomes beside itself1 and its speech is #8,i am without intellect' ,the world is a drop which proceeds from the ocean of his existence2#cba ,what is the dropping dew8 it is ,himself 7,god72 ,thou art not the dropping dew1 but only a drop among the drops of it4 ,i know not what to say1 as the result of all is deficiency3 ,through love he confers bounties on his servants2 ,as it is proper to raise up the down-fallen ,his love renders the mendicant a man of power4 ,the world is but a ray emanating from the sun of his face3 ,the just ,creator addressed me in kind words1 ,and conferred on me the splendor of an ,ized2 ,none but ,he can duly praise ,himself1 ,as ,he cannot become the object of speech or hearing40 ,kaivan was master of noble demonstrations and subtile distinctions3 one of the ,moslem lawyers having asked him3 8,why dost thou forbid thy followers from eating flesh1 slaying animals1 and injuring living creatures80 ,he thus replied3 8,the seekers of ,god are named the peculiar people of the heart2 and the heart itself1 the true ,kabah3 therefore1 what is an abomination in the sanctuary formed of water and clay cannot a fortiori be suitable to the true ,kabah3 that is1 the eating of animals and the slaughter of living creatures4 ,a great man says3 8,i have heard that a sheep once thus addressed the butcher1 ,at the moment he prepared to cut off her head with his sword3 #8,i now behold the retribution of every bush and bramble of which ,i tasted2 ,what then shall that person not experience who eats my fatted loin8'0 ,kaivan also said3 8,if you think proper1 keep your tenets secret wherever you happen to be1 concealing them even from your brethren in the faith2 as they1 for the confirmation of their system1 will make you publicly known40 ,azizi also says3 8,as long as thou canst1 communicate not thy secret to thy friend2 ,for that friend has another2 beware therefore of thy friend's friend80 ,some one asked him3 8,in the schism of ,abad ,ansari1 which faith shall ,i adopt1 and whose arguments must ,i regard as true80 ,azar ,kaivn replied3 8,remain in the same faith that1 until the present time1 ,god doeth as seemeth good to him2 and for the time to come he will do whatever he thinks proper40 ,urfi of ,shiraz says1#cbb 8,thy essence is able to call into being all that is impossible1 ,except to create one like thyself60 ,he once said to a holy man3 8,the knowledge of evanescent objects is not properly knowledge1 but bears the same relation to reality as the mirage of the desert to water3 the searcher after which obtains nothing but an increase of thirst40 ,shah ,subhan says3 8,men favoured by fortune drink the wine of true knowledge2 ,they do not1 like fools1 quaff the dregs of infidelity2 ,the science acquired in colleges and by human capacity ,is like water drawn out of the well by a sieve40 ,they once observed to ,kaivan3 8,notwithstanding the great exertions made by his highness the sincere and faithful ,akbar1 and the grand justiciary1 the caliph ,omar1 and the possessor of the two lights1 ,osman1 in the way of the faith proved by miracles1 and their mighty labors in diffusing its institutes1 the ,shee-ites are opposed to these great personages80 ,he replied3 8,the mass of mankind are acted upon by time and place1 in opposition to the seekers after truth4 ,it is also to be observed that the people of ,iran have adopted the ,shee-ite faith2 and as the above-mentioned great personages destroyed the fire-temples of that nation1 and overturned their ancient religion1 therefore rebellion and envy have remained in their hearts40 ,two learned men having a dispute concerning the superiority of the chosen ,al1 8the ,elect0 7whose face may ,god honor71 over the two ,shaikhs and the ,lord of the two lights 7,osmar71 7upon all of whom be the mercy of the ,almighty7 having referred the dispute to ,kaivan1 he observed3 8,all four are the four perfections of the prophetic edifice2 ,all four are the four elements of the prophets' souls40 8,the distinction between the two exalted parties is difficult1 as two of them claim supremacy on the celebrity 7drum7 of being fathers-in-law to the ,arab founder of religion2 and the other two are fitted for dignity1 by being sons-in-law to the apostle of the ,arabs4 ,but whereas all things are objects of the ,almighty's regard1 the excellent ,al1 #8the ,lion of ,god1' was esteemed so pre-eminent an object of divine favor among the ,moslems1 that want of faith and ignorance induced many to worship him as the true ,god1 until this great personage openly disclaimed such a pretension4 ,also during the pontificate and caliphat of ,sadik1 #8the faithful witness1' the powerful ,abubeker1 #8the separator1' the grand ,omar1 and that of ,zu-l-,narain1 #8the ,lord of the two ,lights1' error misled many to such a degree1 that they denied their authority1 until these legitimate directors asserted their claims to that dignity40#cbc ,he returned an answer of a similar description in a dispute between a ,jew1 a ,christian1 and a ,muselman1 who were arguing about the superiority of their respective prophets2 some acknowledging ,jesus as ,god1 the others as the ,son of ,god4 ,one day as a ,christian and ,muselman were disputing with each other1 the former allowing the death of ,jesus1 and the latter believing him to be alive1 ,azar ,kaivan said3 8,if a person who knew not the direction of a road which formed his destination1 should in the course of his journey come to a dead body lying down1 and a living person seated1 from which of the two ought he to inquire his way80 ,as the disputants both replied1 8from the living person20 he then said to the ,muselman3 8,adopt thou the faith of ,jesus1 as according to thy belief he is living40 ,he then added3 8,by life is meant the life of the rational soul3 in this ,mohammed and ,jesus are on an equality2 call your prophets the #8eternal living3' for life means not the perpetuity of this body fashioned out of the elements1 which cannot accompany us beyond a hundred or a hundred and twenty natural stages 7years740 ,azizi says3 8,if the domestic fowl should fly along with the fowls of the air1 ,it could not proceed in flight beyond the summit of the wall40 ,a hermit once came into ,zu-l-,ulum's#cbd presence2 he pronounced a panegyric on the opposition to sensual passions exhibited by pious ,moslem believers3 and then added3 8,there is no limit to the opposition to these passions3 even the unbeliever through the practice of austerities finally becomes a ,moslem40 ,he also added3 8,an exemplary unbeliever had become able to work miracles3 a ,shaikh went to him one day and asked3 #8,by what route hast thou attained to this dignity8' ,he replied1 #8,by opposing the suggestions of the passions4' ,on which the ,shaikh answered3 #8,now turn to ,islamism1 as thy soul has admitted infidelity4' ,on hearing which the unbeliever became a follower of ,islamism40 ,kaivan observed3 8,the ,shaikh must have been an infidel1 as his soul was still seeking after ,islamism1 or the true religion40 ,urfi says3 8,lay aside the recollection of 7these words7 belief and unbelief1 as they excite great disputes2 ,for according to our 7supposed7 bad doctrines1 all persons think aright40 ,a person once came to ,zu-l-,ulum1 and said3 8,i propose embracing the profession of a durvesh1 and breaking asunder the chains which bind me to the world40 ,kaivan replied1 8,it is well40 ,some days after1 he returned to ,kaivan1 and said3 8,i am at present engaged in procuring the patched tunic1 cap1 wallet1 and other things necessary for my profession40 ,zu-l-,ulum observed3 8,the profession of a durvesh consists in resigning every thing and abandoning all manner of preparations1 and not in accumulation of any kind40 ,a merchant through penury having assumed the dress of hypocrisy1 appeared in a ,shaikh's garb1 and many persons devoutly regarded him as a holy man4 ,he one day came before ,kaivan and said3 8,often have wretches plundered me on the road3 it was however for a good purpose1 in order that by embracing the life of a durvesh ,i might attain the great object of salvation40 ,azar ,kaivan replied3 8,be not grieved1 as thou art now plundering mankind by way of retaliation40 8,the society of ,urfi pleases not the superior of our monastery2 ,because the superior is a foe to the intelligent and ,urfi to the stupid40 ,at present some of ,kaivan's disciples1 as far as the author's acquaintance extends1 are about to be enumerated4 ,farzanah ,kharrd1 of the family of ,mahbud1 who had been the khan salar 7royal table-decker or taster7 to the equitable monarch ,nushirvan1#cbe and put to death through the sorcery of a ,jew and the calumnies of a chamberlain1 as recorded in the ,shah ,namah of the king of poets1 ,ferdsi1 and in other histories3 ,kharrad joined himself to ,kaivan in the bazar of ,shiraz1 and practised religious austerities for many years4 ,farzanah ,khushi has often mentioned in conversation1 and has also frequently repeated in the ,bazm-gah-i-,durvshn1 8the ,durvesh's banquetting-room10 the following circumstance3 8,i one day beheld ,kharrad and ,ardeshir 7a descendant of ,ardeshir ,babegan1#cbf and one of ,kaivan's disciples71 standing face to face and mutually opposing each other3 whenever ,ardeshir wished to smite ,kharrd with a sword1 he appeared like a stone1 so that when the sword came into contact with his body1 it was instantly broken to pieces40,in the year #ajbi of the ,hejirah 7#afbj ,a4 ,d47 he became reunited to the pure uncompounded spirit4 ,buzurgi says3 8,what is the soul8 the seminal principle from the loins of destiny3 ,this world is the womb3 the body its enveloping membrane3 ,the bitterness of dissolution1 dame ,fortune's pangs of childbirth4 ,what is death8 to be born again an angel of eternity40 ,farzanah ,farshid wird was one of the ,parsi village chieftains3 his pedigree ascended to ,farzanah ,shedosh1 who was one of the fifth ,sassan's#cbg disciples4 ,he also became attached to ,azar ,kaivan in the same place as ,kharrad1 and devoted himself to the service of the ,almighty4 ,khushi relates as follows3 8,farshid wird and ,bahman used to stand facing each other2 every arrow which ,bahman discharged against ,farshid wird1 he used to cut in two with his sword3 and whenever the latter let fly an arrow1 ,bahman with activity and address threw himself to one side and avoided it4 ,but this is still more wonderful3 whenever ,bahman shot off a musket1 ,farshid let fly one at the same instant1 and ball met ball1 so that they both remained unhurt3 sometimes also when ,farshid ,wird shot off his musket1 ,bahman used to move rapidly on one side40 ,in the year #ajbi of the ,hejirah 7,a4 ,d4 #afai7 he hurried away from this abode of the elements to the skies4 ,the ,khajah ,hafiz speaking on this subject1 says3 8,he never dies whose heart is quickened with love divine2 ,but remains for ever stamped on the records of our eternal world40 ,farzanah ,khradmand was descended from ,sm1 the son of ,narimn3 he joined ,zu-l-,ulum and gave himself up to religious austerities4 ,khushi thus relates3 8,i once beheld ,khiradmand while standing face to face to ,rustam 7who was descended from ,bahram ,gur1#cbh and was one of ,kaivan's distinguished disciples71 assume the form of a dragon1 and shower out fire from his mouth1 to such a degree that a strong palm was consumed by its violence40 ,in three months after ,bahman's death1 ,khiradmand was restored to his original place4 ,buzurgi says3 ,the skilful and intelligent artist ,should have in this world two successive lives3 ,so that in one he might acquire experience1 ,which he could carry into effect by another experiment4 ,of these illustrious personages they have recorded many miraculous and mysterious deeds2 such as1 in the upper world1 hiding the sun's disk2 causing him to appear at night2 making the stars visible in the day-time3 and in this lower world1 walking on the surface of water2 making trees productive out of season2 restoring verdure to dried-up wood2 causing trees to bow down their heads2 also showing themselves between heaven and earth in the form of lightning2 and such like3 and1 in the animated world1 metamorphosing animals2 rendering themselves invisible to men2 appearing under various shapes and forms3 some of which wonders have been recorded in the ,bazmgah-i-,durveshi ,khush4 ,they relate that these great personages were to such a degree enabled to divest themselves of corporeal elements1 that they quitted the body at pleasure3 also that they had acquired from the court of ,heaven the knowledge of all sciences whether known or occult1 and consequently had the power of exhibiting such wonderful works2 having rendered1 by the efficacy of their austerities1 elementary matter subject to themselves4 ,the author of these pages beheld these four holy personages1 ,kharrad1 ,farshid wird1 ,bahman1 and ,khiradmand1 in ,patna1 on which occasion they bestowed their benedictions1 and imparted to him the glad tidings of the means of obtaining the great object1 or final salvation4 ,shaikh ,saadi says3 8,it becomes the truly wise to pass every day in the exercise of holy zeal1 ,and to offer up prayers for the prosperity of durveshes40 ,farzanah ,bahram1 the son of ,farhad1 was descended from ,gudarz1 the son of ,hashwd4 ,when ,azar ,kaivan had proceeded to ,patna1 in this sage's latter days1 ,farzanah ,bahram came from ,shiraz and devoted himself to the practice of religious austerities4 ,he was a man who had attained the highest degree of knowledge in logic1 natural philosophy1 the abstract sciences1 and theology1 which he had most attentively studied as far as set forth and expounded by sound reasoning in the ,parsi1 ,pehlevi1 and ,arabic3 in practical and theoretical science he was unequalled2 being profoundly skilled and a perfect philosopher in all the objects of science and morality3 among the ,moslem doctors1 he had established the relations of external tuition with ,khajah ,juml-,uddin ,mahmd1 one of the disciples of the ,mulla ,jall ,dawani4 ,farznah ,bahrm is the polished author and compiler of the book entitled ,sharstn--,dnish1 wa ,gulstn--,binish1 8the pavilion of knowledge and the rose-garden of vision40 ,in the ,sharistan1 he thus tells us3 8,through the aid of ,azar ,kaivan1 ,i reached the invisible1 the angelic1 the empyrean worlds1 and the seat of the ,divinity1 and attained to union with him through revelations of the fourfold kindimpressive1 operative1 attributive1 and essential40 ,the ,mobed ,hoshyar relates3 8,i have heard ,farznah ,bahrm relate as follows3 ,i was one day standing in the presence of ,azar ,kaivan1 and conceived in my heart the wish that he should tell me what occupied my secret thoughts4 ,the venerable personage unfolded the secret thoughts of my heart1 and afterwards said3 #8,o1 ,farzanah6 it is an easy matter for me to know the secrets of the soul2 but then what purpose does thy tongue answer8 in order that thy tongue may not be useless1 ,i shall for the future suffer thee to speak4'0 ,he assumed the dress of a merchant1 but people imagined it was for the purpose of concealment1 and that he gave himself up to alchymy4 ,in the year of the ,hejirah #ajcd 7,a4 ,d4 #afbd71 he ascended from this lower abode of darkness to the pavilions of light4 ,the sage ,suni says3 8,wherever intellect and divine knowledge are found1 ,the death of body is the birth of soul40 ,the ,mobed ,hoshyar is the author of the ,sard-i-,mastn1 8the songs of the intoxicated40 ,he was born at the port of ,surat2 he traced his pedigree to the invincible champion ,rustam1 the son of ,zl1 and was a man of exceeding bravery1 heroism1 and experience2 perfect in generosity1 sagacity1 the termination of disputes1 right reason1 and sound experience4 ,if his history were detailed at full length1 it would become necessary to write another ,shah ,namah concerning his victory at ,girdun1 his defeat of ,al ,yakah1 and such like4#cbi ,in short he entered the service of the great philosopher ,azar ,kaivan and his eminent disciples1 being associated with them in the doctrine of self-knowledge2 from the commencement of night to the rise of the world-illuminating sun1 he slept in the attitude of ,murdah ,khasp4 ,now the terms ,murah ,khab1 ,murdap ,khasp1 and ,sns1 are terms applied by the ,sipsan to the following mode of sleeping3 the devotee rests 7having thrown his legs beneath him7 on his knees1 pressing to the ground both heels as far as the great toe3 and applying the extremities of the knees to the earth1 he keeps his seat on the same2 he is then to lie on his back1 keeping the points of his fingers on his head2 after this1 he is to look intently between the eye-brows1 and carry into practice the ,habs-i-dam1 or imprisonment of the breath4 ,the ,durvesh ,subahani1 one of the great ,sufees1 used to say3 8,such was the sleep of the prophets40 ,they also say3 8,the prophets of old used to sleep on their backs1 with their faces directed towards the ,heavens30 which is the same as the position before described4 ,hoshyar had attained to the power of suppressing the breath for one watch 7three hours74 ,shaikh ,saadi says3 8,they who restrain the soul from sensual pleasures ,surpass in heroism both ,rustam and ,zl40 ,hoshyar was not scrupulous about what he ate2 never turning away his face from whatever was set before him3 he however most diligently shunned the practice of cruelty to living creatures1 and avoided superfluities and excess of every description4 ,hafiz of ,shiraz on this head says3 8,addict not thyself to cruel pursuits1 and do whatever else thou pleasest2 ,as in our law there is no sin except that of cruelty40 ,in the year of the ,hejirah #ajej 7,a4 ,d4 #afdj7 he was delivered from the bondage of body in the capital named ,akbar ,abad4#ccj ,the ,mobed says3 8,truly the body is a narrow sepulchre which entombs every spirit1 ,when that tomb is entombed1 thou beholdest a wall1 that really is no wall2 ,when the tomb is entombed1 the living spirit is freed from its prison4 ,alas6 ,o ,mobed1 the sovereign of the body knows of no restriction40 ,the ,mobed ,hoshyar1 who was conversant with the visible and invisible worlds1 master of the esoteric and exoteric doctrines1 was the interpreter of the ,jashn-i-,sadah 7the festival of ,sadah71#cca from which work his superior talents are evident3 he derived his descent from the sage ,jamasp4#ccb ,in the year of the ,hejirah #ajcf 7,a4 ,d4 #afbf7 the author of this work met him in the delightful region of ,kashnim4 ,he used to support himself on the extremities of his fingers1 so that his body came not into contact with the ground1 in which position he continued from midnight until dawn4 ,on the subject of penance ,hafiz says3 8,o1 my heart6 couldst thou but acquire a knowledge of religious austerity1 ,thou wouldst be able to abandon women like smiling torches40 ,the ,mobed ,sarsh1 the son of ,kaivn1 the son of ,kamkar1 who was styled ,namdr1 or 8the illustrious10 on account of the celebrity of his knowledge4 ,the ,mobed carried his lineage on the father's side to the venerable prophet ,zardsht1 and on his mother's1 to ,jamsp the ,sage4 ,he was equally conversant with the theoretical and practical sciences2 and was master of the languages of ,arabia1 ,persia1 and ,hindustan2 he had travelled over most of the habitable world2 his nights were passed in prayer2 his conduct was always pure4 ,on coming into attendance on ,kaivn1 he was illuminated by the sun of his knowledge1 and during his attendance on ,farzanah ,bahrm1 the son of ,farhd1 he acquired the ,arabic language4 ,his age reached to sixty years2 in short he was a saint elect1 who in the course of his life never looked on a woman2 his mouth was never polluted with animal food of any description2 he sought seclusion from the world1 and limited himself to a small quantity of food4 8,if thou didst but know the pleasure of abandoning pleasure1 ,thou wouldst never more talk about the pleasures of sense40 ,he is the author of many admired literary works and compilations2 such as the ,nosh ,dr1 8sweet medicine20 the ,sagangubn1 8dog's honey10 and the ,zerdsht ,afshar1 8the companion of ,zerdsht10 and such like4 ,it was heard from an eminent doctor1 named ,muhammed ,mahsan1 who said thus3 8,i heard from him 7,kaivn7 three hundred and sixty proofs confirmatory of the existence of the ,deity3 but when ,i wished to commit them to writing1 it was no longer in my power40 ,people relate all manner of miraculous stories about him2 such as his creating what was not previously in existence2 revealing secret matters1 and concealing what was evident2 the acceptance or fulfilment of his prayers2 his performing a long journey in a short space of time2 his knowledge of things hidden from the senses2 and his giving a description of the same2 his appearing at the same time in places far distant from each other2 bringing the dead to life1 and depriving the living of vitality2 his being enabled to hear and understand the language of animals1 vegetables1 minerals1 etc42 to produce food and wine without any visible means2 to walk on the surface of water1 also through fire and air2 and such like4 ,the author met him in ,kashmir in the year of the ,hejirah #ajcf 7,a4 ,d4 #afbg74 ,firrah ,kr1 the attendant on the venerable ,shdsh 7an account of whom shall be soon given7 was a person1 whose essence was adorned with science and decorated by purity2 the possessor of extraordinary probity and sound understanding1 said thus3 8,i once received some injury from the peasantry of ,achn1 a district bordering on the public and sacred place of ,kashmr3 speaking of this to ,yazdn ,sili1 a disciple attached to the ,mbed ,sarsh1 ,i said #8the people of ,achn have grievously afflicted me1' and stated to him the criminal conduct of this wicked set of men4 ,he answered3 #8,do you wish that the ,almighty should overwhelm with floods the cultivated grounds of these wretches8' ,i replied #8,certainly4' ,it then began to rain so exceedingly1 the loftiest and strongest-built houses were overthrown2 from the overwhelming deluge ruin fell on their buildings and tilled grounds2 and the fields of these men themselves were nearly destroyed by the waters at the very commencement40 ,the ,maulavi ,mnevi says3 8,as long as the heart of the righteous comes not to affliction1 ,god never brings calamity on any people40 ,the rains still continued1 which ,sarsh having observed1 he was exceedingly wroth with his disciple and reproved him2 and that same day the rain ceased4 ,firrah-,kri used to say1 8,mobed ,sarsh was acquainted with the desires of my heart1 and possessed power over men's minds40 ,he also related the following story concerning him3 8,at the time of arriving in the caravanserai of ,blik1 in the city of ,tarkhan1 the men of that place wished to act wickedly towards us1 and practise oppression4 ,i explained the nature of their conduct to the ,mobed1 on which he retired into a corner4 ,that same night there appeared in the air men whose heads reached to the heavens1 whilst their feet touched the earth4 ,the people of the city were seized with consternation and desisted from oppressing us1 and the merchants at the same time bestowed freedom on those who had been captives for many years40 ,the ,mobed ,hshyr relates3 8,being in want of a few direms1 ,i went to ,yazdn ,siti1 the disciple of the ,mobed ,sarsh2 on this he stretched forth his hand1 and taking up some broken pottery1 formed twenty heaps of it3 having breathed on these a few times1 they all became gold ,mohurs3 these he put into my hands1 and ,i disbursed them in the course of my ordinary expenses40 ,he also relates3 8,yazdn ,siti constructed a house of such a kind that1 when any one entered1 he beheld the sun2 and when the holy man sat with his friends1 he appeared as a crocodile coming to the river-bank1 which was about to snatch away all present4 ,he sometimes threw into the fire towels on which the flames had no effect3 he frequently repeated something1 stirring his lips1 and so rendered himself invisible2 he used sometimes to appear in the air1 and used to say3 #8,i am actually at rest1 although ,i appear otherwise4'0 ,shidosh1 the son of ,anosh1 said3 8,we were once seated near him when he placed a taper in a basin of water2 there immediately appeared some peacocks turning towards the water1 plunging their heads into it1 and displaying all their beauty1 whilst we remained in utter astonishment40 ,shidosh also says3 8,i once beheld him disporting in the midst of a blazing fire40 ,nay1 the writer of these pages has seen him swallow fire4 ,the ,mobed ,hshyr says3 8,he once exhibited a sight1 so as to make a house appear filled with serpents and scorpions40 ,he used also to lay on the breast of a person plunged in sleep1 something of such a nature as to make him return an answer to every question proposed to him4 ,the ,mobed ,hshyr also relates3 8,i once beheld the ,hakim 7the ,sage7 ,kamran of ,shiraz1 in the feast of joy and hospitality made for the reception of an ,iraki friend1 light a match3 on this1 all the ,lulees#ccc then in the house stripped themselves naked and began to dance1 whilst we looked on at a distance4 ,the sage said3 #8,this we have learnt from ,yazdan ,siti3 as ,i give no invitation to ,lulees1 and no others can be prevailed on to commit such indecency1 ,i therefore tried the experiment on the party of them assembled in this place4'0 ,many other things of a similar nature are related concerning ,yazdan ,siti4 ,khoda ,ji was a native of ,herat1 who had passed many years in the service of exemplary and holy men2 he relates3 8,i once saw in a vision holy personages come around me and say3 #8,depart and seek a spiritual guide free from prejudice4' ,during many years' search ,i was unable to discover such a character2 but having once seen in a dream1 #8that ,azar ,kaivn of ,istakhar was one of that description3' ,i went near him in company with ,farzanah ,khushi40 ,khoda ,ji excelled in the knowledge of ,parsi and ,arabic2 he avoided altogether animal food of every description2 he could suppress his breath during four watches 7twelve hours71 and was in the habit of practising the ,hubs-i-dam2 he never slept at night1 nor ate more than fifty direms weight of food4 ,he never gave utterance to a lie1 and whatever he stated had reference to exalted objects and pursuits3 even these were uttered only at the solicitation of his friends4 ,he is the author of the volume entitled ,jm-i-,kai ,khusr1 8the cup of ,kai ,khusr10 an admirable commentary on the poetic compositions of ,azar ,kaivn1 and also containing his visions4 ,he arrived in the delightful regions of ,kashmir in the year of the ,hejirah #ajdj 7,a4 ,d4 #afca71 where the author met him3 in that same year this distinguished personage hastened from this abode of evanescence to the mansions of eternity4 ,hafiz of ,shiraz says3 8,o joyous day1 when ,i depart from this abode of desolation2 ,i then seek my soul's repose and follow the adored object3#ccd ,fluttering about like a solar mote in the atmosphere of that lip1 ,until ,i attain at last to the fountain-head of the radiant sun40 ,the ,mobed ,khushi is the author of the ,bazm-,gah 7or 8banqueting house071 in which treatise when describing the stations of ,azar ,kaivn's illustrious disciples and most eminent followers1 who are twelve in number2 he enumerates them in this order3 ,ardashr1 ,kharad1 ,shiroyah1 ,khiradmand1 ,farhad1 ,suhrab1 ,azdah1 ,bizhen1 ,isfendiar1 ,farshidwird1 ,bahman and ,rustam3 the daily food of each of these individuals was much below ten direms weight3 and they carried the austerities recommended by ,kaivn to the utmost limit1 so that no others of his disciples attained to the same rank as these twelve persons4 ,of ,farhd1 ,farshdwird1 and ,bahman1 some account has been given in the preceding part of this work4 ,in the ,bazm-gah1 ,khushi thus states respecting himself3 8,in the days of my youth1 it was my anxious desire to find a spiritual guide4 ,i therefore had recourse to the eminent doctors of ,iran1 ,turan1 ,room1 and ,hindustan2 that is1 to ,moslems1 ,hindoos1 ,guebers1 ,christians1 and ,jews4 ,they all said to me3 #8,quit thy present faith and pass over to us3' but my heart felt no inclination to change of religion1 to adopting another1 and abandoning opinions1 as they did not afford me sufficient light in the object of my pursuit4 8,whilst a person beholds not the water1 why pull off his slippers80 8,such is the language of the prejudiced2 although each of these doctors praised himself as being free from its influence3 ,i afterwards beheld1 in a vision1 a mighty river from which streams and canals issued forth1 all of which after many windings returned back into the same great river1 and were confined within its two banks4 ,i abandoned the great water1 and in order to allay my thirst1 directed my steps towards the rivulets in search of water3 but as the banks of their channels were difficult of access through slime and mud1 and carrying a bowl1#cce ,i could not reach the stream1 and remained in great perplexity4 ,at length my father came up and said3 #8,entreat ,god to conduct thee to the water4' ,a voice then reached my ear3 #8,this man has abandoned the river1 and directed his face towards the rivulets4' ,on my directing my steps towards the river1 a blessed ,angel said to me3 #8,the great river is ,azar ,kaivn2 the small rivulets are the doctors4' ,i then knew that the slime and mud of the banks1 the bowl1 and the rivulets refer to prejudice and envy3 therefore1 being accompanied by ,khoda ,ji1 ,i joined myself to ,azar ,kaivn1 and discovered the object of my inquiries40 ,hafiz of ,shiraz observes3 8,whither can we turn our face from the high-priest's threshold8 ,happiness dwells in his abode1 and salvation within that portal40 ,farzanah ,bahram1 the son of ,farhd1 was called ,bahram the ,less3 the ,arzhang ,mni 7the gallery of ,mni7 is the production of his genius3 he was in attendance on ,zu-al-,ulum1 but attained to communion with ,god and to perfection1 in the service of ,farzanah ,bahram1 the son of ,farhad4 ,in the year of the ,hejirah #ajdh 7,a4 ,d4 #afch7 the compiler of these pages met with ,bahram the ,less1 the son of ,farhad1 in the imperial city of ,lahore1 in perfect health1 but in the same year that sage bade adieu to this world4 ,he was a man who found repose in ,god1 and avoided all intercourse with society3 he was learned in all the theoretical and practical sciences1 and eminently conversant with the languages of ,arabia1 ,persia1 ,hindustan1 and ,europe3 by him were translated into ,persian1 that is1 into ,parsi mixed with ,arabic1 the works of the ,shaikh ,ishrk ,shuhb ud dn ,maktl1 which treated of the ,ishrakian tenets2 his time was employed in transcribing books1 from which source he was obliged to derive his scanty support4 ,he never slept at night2 in the year of the ,hejirah #ajdh 7,a4 ,d4 #afch7 the author beheld him with ,hshyr at ,lahore2 during the entire night1 the writer of these pages sat in his presence1 and from morn until evening ,hshyr remained before him2 whilst the above-mentioned ,farzanah1 seated on both knees1 with his face to the east1 never moved3 people have witnessed in him many things of this description4 ,they say that he used to remain seated two or three days after this fashion1 neither eating bread nor drinking water2 he never laid his back on the ground2 his food consisted of a small quantity of cow's milk2 his lips were never polluted with any other substance1 and even this he swallowed at intervals of two or three days4 8,be thou as a goblet1 free from the contamination of body1 ,be thou earth in the footsteps of the pure4 ,as from this earth thou mayst come to dust1 ,break through the dust1 and attain the human nature40 ,the ,mobed ,paristr1 the son of ,khurshd1 who was originally of ,isfashn1 assumed the elements of body in ,patna2 the ,mobed1 when a youth1 was accepted by divine favour1 and through the aid of the ,almighty became one of the ,yeknah ,bn1 or 8seers of unity40 ,having in his early years entered into the service of ,azar ,kaivn1 he obtained a perfect sanctity through the society of his holy master's disciples4 ,he however devoted himself chiefly to the ,mobed ,sarsh3 he was the author of the ,taprah-i-,mobedi1 or 8the ,sacerdotal ,kettledrum40 ,in the year of the ,hejirah #ajdi 7,a4 ,d4 #afdj7 he came to ,kashmir1 where the author of this work was admitted into his society4 ,from the nightfal until sunrise1 the ,mobed ,paristr gave himself up to the ,sarst1 which in the celestial language1 or the ,desatir1 they call ,far1 or 8downward30 this rite1 according to them1 consists in elevating the feet in the air1 and standing on the head2 which position is called in ,hindi ,kapal ,asan#ccf or 8head-seat40 ,he of a sudden quitted the body and entered the bowers of ,paradise4 ,a ,mobed has said3 8,if thou be a wanderer upon the path of spirituality1 ,fix not on the 7external7 robe1 the motion of thy heart1 ,for nothingness will be the dwelling of thy body3 ,although in reality thou continuest to move40 ,the ,mobed ,peshkr1 the son of ,khurshd1 was also born in ,patna1 and one year younger than ,perishtar 7his brother74 ,he became unrivalled during his age1 in the ,hindi chaunts and poems of that sect4 ,he was the servant of the leader ,azar ,kaivn and his disciples1 and whilst in the service of the ,mobed ,sarsh he attained the knowledge of ,god1 and of himself1 and he became eminently divested of prejudice and exempted from human infirmities3 being totally unfettered by the bonds or chains of any sect whatever1 and studiously shunning the polemic domains of prejudice3 in short1 the eulogium of one creed and the abhorrence of another1 entered not into his system4 ,he came to ,kashmir with his elder brother1 with the purpose of departing from thence to ,kathay3 he was noted for the imprisonment of the breath1 concerning which the ,mobed ,hshyr said3 8,he once suppressed his breath and plunged into the water1 where he remained immersed during two watches 7six hours71 after which interval he again raised his head above the surface40 ,,hemistich3 8,wherever he may be1 ,o ,god1 guard him in safety60 ,shdosh1 the son of ,anosh1 descended from the prophet ,zardusht by his father ,ansh1 who was styled ,farhosh1 8the splendor of intellect10 was one of the sincerely devoted disciples of ,azar ,kaivn3 ,zarbd was also descended from the same divine apostle ,zardsht1 and finally became a man of opulence1 although at the beginning of his career he only possessed the pangs of destitution4 ,they both came one day into the presence of ,azar ,kaivn1 and lamented the hardship of their forlorn state2 on this ,azar replied3 8,proceed with a small stock to the quarter of sunrise1 traverse the eastern borders1 and dispose of it with speed towards the descending sun1 as your condition1 through this depressed site of difficulty will be changed into the means of affluence40 ,nearly at the period of giving these instructions1 ,azar ,kaivn having withdrawn from this earthly tabernacle1 hastened to the resting-place of the spheres1 and these two ,jupiter-like stars1 the unrivalled splendor of the world1 set out as directed4 ,at length1 through the efficacy of ,kaivn's enlightened spirit1 the state of these pilgrims continued to obtain an ascendancy1 until they became possessed of great opulence4 ,hafiz says thus3 8,they who by a look convert clay into the philosopher's stone1 ,what great matter if they bestow a single glance on me40 ,after this1 ,zarbd sent to ,patna an ancient servant1 ,farrah ,kari by name1 to conduct his daughter to the musk-scented pavilion of ,shdsh1 the illustrious son of ,ansh4 ,after this event1 ,farrah ,kari and ,shdsh1 proceeded from ,patna on a commercial adventure1 and formed the plan of setting out from ,kashmir to ,kashgar3 they were however obliged to remain some time in ,kashmir3 but on the first moment of moving from ,patna1 there arose in the breast of ,shdsh an anxious wish for attaining the knowledge of himself1 the investigation of his ancient abode1 ascertaining his natural light1 and exploring the march of the invisible world3 as from the very first1 this bright ,jupiter1 through the entreaty of ,kaivan 7,saturn7 had directed his steps to the region of atoms and the abode of elements of the celestial and terrestrial parents3 consequently1 when ,kaivan had abandoned this bodily frame1 he sat down with his disciples1 8,choose thou companions who are better than thyself1 ,in order that thy understanding and faith may increase40 ,he consequently devoted himself to religious exercises1 listening in the first place to the voice called in ,persian zd v 8the independent voice10 in ,arabic1 saut-i-mutluk1 or 8the absolute sound20 and in ,hindi1 anhid4 ,when he had duly practised this rite1 he directed his eyes1 opened wide between the eyebrows1 which in ,hindi they call tertuk1 until the blessed form of ,kaivn was clearly manifested3 he next contemplated that form1 until it actually was never more separated from him2 he at last reached the region of intellect1 and having passed through the six worlds1 arrived in the seventh1 and in this state of entrancement obtained admittance to the ,almighty presence2 so that1 during this abstraction from self1 the annihilation 7of every thing human7 and the eternity 7of the spiritual7 was joined to his existence4 ,sdi says3 8,o youth6 enter thou this very day into the path of obedience1 ,for to-morrow the vigor of youth comes not from the aged man40 ,one morning at the dawn of day he said thus to the author of the ,dabistan3 8,yesterday in the gloom of night1 directed by the light of spirit1 ,i departed from this external body1 and arrived at the mysterious illumination ever replete with effulgence3 the chamberlain of truth removed from before me the curtains1 so that on quitting this mortal nature and leaving the visible world1 ,i traversed the angelic sphere4 ,the supreme independently-existing light of lights became revealed in all the impressive1 operative1 attributive1 and essential radiance of glory3 this state of imaginary being disappeared1 actual existence was clearly witnessed40 ,hafiz says3 8,the perfect beauty of my beloved is not concealed by an interposing veil2 ,o ,hafiz1 thou art the curtain of the road3 remove away40 ,shidsh1 though far removed from receiving pleasure by dainty food1 still appeared always in magnificent dresses3 his audience always diffused the fragrance of perfume2 he even clad in handsome dresses his head domestic servants1 and other dependents1 nay his very porter and doorkeeper4 ,he used to say3 8,my state proceeds from the splendor of ,azar ,kaivn's aid3 to feel contempt for such a capital would be highly improper2 and not to make use of it would be an abomination before my benefactor2 for otherwise1 ,i derive no pleasure from fine raiment40 ,as to his abstinence in point of food1 and his shunning of female society1 what has been mentioned is sufficient on these heads4 ,shidosh ,bihin was a youth of a finely proportioned person1 and beautiful countenance2 the following was the rule observed by him3 he never attached merit to any strange creed1 but endeavoured to divest himself altogether of prejudice1 and maintained very little intercourse with the generality of mankind3 when he formed an intimacy1 on the first day he testified only a small degree of warmth2 he exhibited greater attention on the second2 so that he daily made greater advances in the path of friendship2 progressively increasing his love and affection3 as to what has been stated relative to his displaying no great degree of warmth on the first interview1 the same proportion obtained when he shewed a decrease of warmth to some2 that same would be reckoned very great in any other4 ,he always asserted1 that in the society of friends1 their intercourse must not be separated from meditation on ,god1 as whatever is1 is but a radiancy emanating from the sun of his essence3 the visible and invisible of the world being only forms of that existence4 ,rafiah says3 8,if angels and demons be formed from one principle1 ,the husbandman1 the spring1 the seed1 and the field must be the same3 ,what has his unity to dread from the plurality of the human race8 ,although you tie the knot a hundred-fold1 there is only a single cord40 ,shidosh was seized with so severe an illness in ,kashmir1 that his case surpassed the art of the physician3 as ,urfi says3 8,what physician can there be1 if the ,messiah himself be taken ill80 ,all the people about ,shidosh were disconsolate1 but he remained cheerful of heart1 and in proportion as the symptoms became more aggravated1 his cheerfulness increased1 and he frequently recited these couplets from ,hafiz3 8,o joyous day1 when ,i depart from this abode of desolation1 ,seeking the repose of my soul1 and setting out in search of my beloved3 ,dancing like a solar mote around the atmosphere of her lips1 ,until ,i reach the fountain-head of the radiant sun40#ccg ,on the day of his departure from this temporary halting-place to the eternal mansion of repose and the exalted seat of happiness1 his disconsolate friends and affectionate domestics were deeply afflicted2 but ,shidosh retained his cheerfulness and thus addressed them with an expression of delight3 8,i am not grieved at this disease of body1 why then do you grieve8 nay ought you not to wish that ,i1 having quitted this gloomy abode of phantasy1 should hasten to one beyond the confines of space1 and the mansions of intellect may become united to the truly existent and independent 7first cause740 ,the ,maulavi ,mnavi says thus3 8,if death be a human being1 say to him1 #8draw near1' ,that ,i may closely fold him in a fond embrace4 ,from him ,i extort by force eternal life1 ,whilst he but snatches from me the ,durvish's party-colored dress40 ,he then lifted up his hands and directing his face to heaven1 the ,kiblah of prayer1 recited the following blessed couplets front the ,sahifah al ,auliya1 8volume of the ,saints10 written by the ,imam ,muhammed ,nur ,baksh4 8,whether we are directors or guides#cch ,still do we want to be guided1 on account of the infancy of our steps4 ,we are but solitary drops from the ocean of existence1 ,however much we possess of divine revelation and proof4 ,i am far from the great reservoir of drops1 ,convey me1 ,o ,god1 to the boundless ocean of light60 ,on reciting these lines he closed his eyes4 ,the ,shaikh ,ablfaiz ,faiyazi says on this subject3 8,the drop became a fountain1 and the fountain grew into a river1 ,which river became reunited to the ocean of eternity40 ,this event occurred in the year of the ,hejirah #ajdj 7,a4 ,d4 #afbi73 his affectionate friends expressed their grief in the following manner3 8,thy brilliant hues still exist in the parterre1 ,thy fragrance still survives in the jessamine2 ,the sight of thee is put off to the day of resurrection2 ,it is well3 but it forms the theme of many a tale40 ,the author also in his elegy on ,shdsh thus expresses his grief3 8,since ,shdsh departed from my sight ,that which was a receptacle of eyes became a receptacle of rivers2 ,had my eyes been a channel1 they would have become a river-bed3 ,the resting place of the bird was the paradisian sphere3 ,from this lowly nest he departed to the nest on high4 ,he was truly free and sought no stores except those of holy freedom4 ,he abandoned his body to corporeal matter1 and his spirit joined the spiritual region4 ,his soul was united to the sublime being1 the creator of souls1 ,soaring beyond the limits of heaven1 earth1 and time40 ,if the author attempted to describe the learned and pious ,abdyn who were seen in the ,dadistan ,aursah1#cci this treatise would never be brought to a conclusion2 he now therefore proceeds to mention some others1 who though professing a faith different from the ,yezdnin or ,abadyn1 yet walked according to the institutes of ,kaivn's disciples1 and attained their great object1 the knowledge of ,god3 and although this class is too numerous to be fully described1 a few of the eminent personages are now about to be mentioned4 ,mahummed ,al1 of ,shiraz was the fellow-student of ,shah ,futtah ,allah1 and he traced his family to ,azar ,kaivn3 he however attained perfection through the society of ,farzanah ,bahram1 the son of ,farhd1 and had also traversed the seven climes4 ,a thief came to his house one night1 on perceiving whom ,muhammed ,al pretended to fall asleep on his carpet1 so that the robber might not suppose him to be awake1 and continue his pursuits without apprehension4 ,the robber searched the house carefully1 but as all the effects were concealed in a secure place1 he was unable to get at them4 ,on this ,muhammed raising his head1 said to him3 8,i laid myself down to sleep1 that thou mightst accomplish thy desires1 whereas thou art in despair3 be no longer uneasy40 ,he then arose and pointed out the place where all the things were stored away3 in consequence of this generous proceeding1 the robber abandoned his infamous profession1 and became a virtuous character4 ,muhammed ,said of ,isfahan was a ,saiyid descended from ,husain1 who attained his great object through ,farzanah ,bahram1 the son of ,farhad4 ,he once said to the author3 8,the first time ,i obtained the honor of admittance to the audience of the distinguished ,farzanah1 he rose up on seeing me1 and showed the proper respect due to an honorable person1 directing me to be seated on the most distinguished couch4 ,some time after1 entered a naked ,fakir1 but ,farzanah ,bahram moved not from his place1 but pointed him to a seat in the slipper-repository4 ,i felt this scruple2 surely the highest distinction is due to the ,durvish4 ,farzanah then turning his face to the wall1 which was ornamented with paintings1 said3 #8,o1 lifeless figure1 thou art seated on high2 but external form confers not distinction2 but ,durvishes enjoy a rank1 when their bodies are under the control of their souls1#cdj and their souls united with the supreme object of love2 even in this assembly they are seated with me in my heart4' ,on hearing this1 ,i turned into the right road40 ,in the year of the ,hejirah #ajde 7,a4 ,d4 #afcd71 he abandoned this elemental frame in ,lahore4 ,ashur ,beg ,karamanlu is also one of those who obtained the gift of spiritual intelligence through ,farzanah ,bahram1 the son of ,farhad1 notwithstanding the total absence of regular studies3 by the exertion of his innate powers1 he1 like the other ,yekanah ,bin 8seers of one ,god10 attained communion with ,god4 ,in the year of the ,hejirah #ajdh 7,a4 ,d4 #afcf7 the author conversed with him in ,kashmir1 and inquired into the nature of his intercourse with ,bahram4 ,he answered3 8,i went by way of experiment to ,farzanah1 and he thus directed me3 #8,whether alone or in a crowd1 in retirement or in public1 every breathing which issues forth must proceed from the head2 and on this point there must be no inattention4' ,he also said3 #8,guard the internal breath as long as thou canst1 directing thy face to the pine-formed heart1 until the invocation be performed by the heart in the stomach2 also thy invocation should be thus3 #8,god6 ,god6' ,meditate also on this sentiment3 #8,o ,lord6 none but thou forms the object of my desire6' ,when ,i had duly practised this1 and found its impressive influence1 then from the bottom of my heart ,i sincerely sought ,god4 ,after some time he enjoined me to practise the ,tawajjah-i-,talkn1 #8turning to instruction3' that is3 #8keep thy soul in the presence of ,god1 divested of letters and sounds1 whether ,arabic or ,persian1 never removing thy mind from the #8pine-formed heart4' ,by conforming to these instructions1 ,i have come at last to such a state1 that the world and its inhabitants are but as a shadow before me2 and their very existence as the appearance of the vapor of the desert4'0 ,he was truly a man who had entirely withdrawn from all external employments and concerns2 never mixing with the people of the world4 ,if a person deposited food before him1 he took only the quantity he thought proper1 and gave away the remainder2 he never polluted his hand with money in gold1 silver1 or copper2 and he frequently passed two or three days altogether without food and never requested any thing4 ,mahmud ,beg ,timan1 so called from the ,timan tribe of ,arang in ,lahore1 joined himself also to ,farzanah ,bahram1 the son of ,farhad1 and as the precepts of that sage were entirely congenial to his mind1 he commenced his religious profession under him1 and became one of the ,yekanah ,bin1 8seer of one ,god10 and 8knowing ,god30 thus without the aid of books he attained to the knowledge of the ,lord1 and notwithstanding the absence of written volumes1 discovered the actual road4 ,in the year of the ,hejirah #ajdh 7,a4 ,d4 #afcg71 whilst in ,kashmir1 coming out of his cell one day1 he saw before him a wounded dog1 moaning piteously2 as the animal was unable to move1 he therefore sold the only two objects he possessed1 his carpet for prayer and his rosary1 with the proceeds of which he purchased remedies for the dog4 ,that same year1 he said to the author3 8,on the first day of turning my heart to the mental invocation of ,god1 ,i had scarcely performed it ten times1 when an evident influence was manifested3 at the moment of the first part1 called nafi1 of the sentence1 my human existence disappeared2 at the time of the second1 called asbat1 a determined sign of divine grace became visible3 my sentence was this3 #8,there is no ,god1 but ,god4'0#cda ,after this manner1 several of this sect1 by the diligent practice of faith1 attained to the knowledge of ,god4 ,musa and ,harun were two ,jews1 to whom ,farzanah ,bahram1 the son of ,farhad1 gave these names3 they were distinguished by a profound knowledge of their own faith1 and highly celebrated among the ,rabbins1 who are a particular sect of ,jewish teachers4 ,on their introduction into ,bahram's society1 they were fascinated by his manners1 and through his system of faith acquired the knowledge of themselves4 ,they applied themselves to commerce1 and neither in buying or selling did a falsehood proceed from their lips1 as is the custom of merchants4 ,they have thus recorded3 8,to whomsoever ,bahram1 the son of ,farhad1 uttered a single word about the path of religion1 he became immediately fascinated by his manner3 also whoever beheld him felt an attachment to him2 even the hardened infidel who approached him1 humbled himself1 and we have often witnessed such events3 for example1 the ,mulla ,muhammed ,sid of ,samarkand1 who was our intimate friend1 through excess of prejudice hurried once to revile him3 at that moment1 ,bahram had retired from ,lahore into a burying-ground3 when the ,mulla approached1 he found himself irresistibly impelled to run forward and laid his face on ,bahram's feet3 and on ,bahram's addressing a few words to him1 immediately embraced his faith4 ,i afterwards questioned the ,mulla about the exact nature of this conversion from infidelity1 and he replied3 #8,i no sooner beheld him than ,i fell at his feet2 and when he addressed a few words to me1 ,i became enraptured with him4' ,the ,mullah always styled ,bahram #8the plunderer of hearts4'0 ,one day the author asked ,musa1 8is ,kasun thy brother80 he replied1 8people say so40 ,i then asked1 8who is your father80 he answered1 8our mother knows that40 ,antun ,bushuyah ,wvaraj#cdb was a ,frank1 zealous in the ,christian faith1 and also possessed of great property2 through divine aid1 he conceived an attachment to the society of ,durvishes1 and for the purpose of acquiring knowledge held frequent conferences with them3 through his having discovered the path pointed out by the son of ,furhad1 he altogether resigned his worldly concerns1 assumed the profession of a ,kalander1#cdc and denied himself the use of clothes3 ,farzanah always called him 8,messiah40 ,he used to appear perfectly naked1 and never wore clothes either summer or winter3 he abstained altogether from animals of every description3 he never solicited any thing1 but if a person brought food or drink before him1 if it were not animal food1 he would eat part of it4 ,one day1 although an evil-disposed person smote him so that his limbs were wounded1 yet he never even looked at his oppressor2 when his persecutor had departed1 ,i1 the author1 came up as the people were speaking of the injury inflicted on him2 on my enquiring the particulars from himself1 he replied3 8,i am not distressed for my own bodily suffering1 but that person's hands and fists must have suffered so much40 ,the ,imam ,kali ,warastah1 8the humble10 says3 8,if the thorn break in my body1 how trifling the pain6 ,but how acutely ,i feel for the hapless broken thorn60 ,ram ,bht1 a ,hindu1 was a learned ,brahmin of ,benares2 on joining the son of ,farhad1 he desisted altogether from his former rites1 and began to follow the path pointed out by ,bahrm4 ,the ,mobed ,hoshyar says3 8,i have often heard wonderful stories concerning him2 a person named ,muhammed ,yakub was so ill1 that the physicians having given up all hopes of his cure1 his relations1 in their affliction1 had recourse to an ignorant woman who reckoned herself a skilful personage3 ,i went one day near ,ram ,bht1 and found him reposing his head on his knee1 on which this reflection passed across my mind3 #8if ,ram ,bht be one of the elect1 he can tell whether ,muhammed ,yakub is to remain or pass away4' ,he raised up his head1 and looking on me with a smile1 said3 #8,god only knows the hidden secrets2 however1 ,muhammed ,yakub is not to depart3 in another week he will be restored to health4' ,and truly the thing came to pass as he had declared40 ,through his guidance ,ram ,chand1 a ,kshatri1 one of the chiefs of the ,sahan ,sakal1 adopted the faith3 and through the instruction of these two individuals1 many of their tribe embraced the independent faith as promulgated by the son of ,farhad4 ,the word ,sah#cdd in ,hindi is applied to 8a possessor or powerful person10 and the ,sahkal#cde are a division of the ,kshatri1 an ,indian cast or tribe4 ,in reality1 if the writer attempted to enumerate the numbers of different nations who zealously adopted the doctrines and ritual of ,bahram1 this work would become exceedingly prolix2 he must therefore resist from such an undertaking4 ,the author of these pages has heard from ,farzanah ,bahram1 the son of ,farhad1 as stated on the authority of ,farzanah ,bahram1 the son of ,farhad1 that one day the ,shaikh ,bah-ud-din ,mohammed ,amali1 who was a ,mujtahad1 8a champion10 of the sectaries of ,al1 came near ,kaivn and obtained an interview3 having thus become acquainted with ,kaivn's perfection and wisdom1 he was exceedingly rejoiced and happy1 and recited this tetrastich3 8,in the kbah and the firetemple the perfect saint performed his rounds1 ,and found no trace of any existence 7save that of ,god72 ,as the splendor of the ,almighty sheds its rays in every place1 ,knock thou either at the door of the kbah or the portals of the temple40 ,after this interview1 he became the diligent follower of ,kaivn1 and resorted to the disciples of the ,master of all ,sciences4 ,mir ,abulkasim ,fandaraski also1 through his intercourse with ,kaivn's disciples1 became an adorer of the sun1 refraining from cruelty towards all living creatures4 ,it is well known that being once asked3 8,why dost not thou in obedience to the law go on the pilgrimage to ,mecca80 ,he replied3 8,i go not on this account1 as ,i must there slaughter a sheep with my own hand40 ,at present the author proceeds to describe with the pen of truth a summary of the institutes of the ,amzish1 8intercourse10 held by the ,abadian ,durveshes with society4 ,those who adopt this rule call it the ,amzish-i-,farhang1 or 8the intercourse of science10 and ,mzchar1 or 8,stranger's remedy40 ,when a stranger to their faith is introduced to one of their assemblies1 far from addressing harsh observations to him1 they pass eulogiums on his tenets1 approve whatever he says1 and do not omit to lavish on him every mark of attention and respect3 this conduct proceeds from the fundamental article of their creed1 as they are convinced that in every mode of belief1 its followers may come to ,god3 nay1 if those of a different faith should present them a request respecting some object about which they disagree1 that is1 solicit some act by which they may approach ,god1 they do not withhold their compliance4 ,they do not enjoin a person to abandon his actual profession of faith1 as they account it unnecessary to give him useless pain of mind4 ,moreover when any one is engaged in concerns with them1 they withhold not their aid from his society and support1 but practise towards him to the utmost extent of their ability1 whatever is most praiseworthy in this world and the next3 they are also on their guard against indulging in sentiments of prejudice1 hatred1 envy1 malice1 giving pre-eminence to one faith above another1 or adopting one creed in preference to another4 ,they also esteem the learned1 the ,durvishes1 the pure of life1 the worshippers of ,god in every religion1 as their trusty friends2 neither styling the generality of mankind wicked1 nor holding worldly-minded persons in abhorrence3 they observe1 8what business has he who desires not this world's goods to abhor the world80 for the sentiment of abhorrence can proceed from the envious alone4 ,they neither communicate their secrets to strangers1 nor reveal what another communicates to them4 ,a person named ,mihrb was among the disciples who followed the son of ,farhad1 in the year of the ,hejirah #ajdg 7,a4 ,d4 #afcg72 the author1 who was then in ,kashmir1 thus heard from ,muhammad ,fl ,hasr3 8,i once beheld ,mihrb standing in the high road1 at the moment when a ,khorasnian1 seizing on an old man by force1 obliged him to labor for him without recompense1 and placed a heavy burden on his head3 at this ,mihrb's heart so burned within him1 that he said to the ,khorasnian1 #8,withdraw thy hand from this old man1 that ,i may bear the burden whithersoever thou desirest4' ,the ,khorasnian was astonished1 but ,mihrb1 without paying any farther attention to this1 took the poor man's load on his head1 and went along with his unjust oppressor1 and on his return from that person's house showed no symptoms of fatigue4 ,on my observing to him1 #8,this oppressor has heaped affliction on a holy priest and judge like thee6' he replied1 #8,what could a helpless person do8 the load must be conveyed to his house1 and he was unable to place it on his shoulders1 as it was unbecoming for him2 nor was he able to give money 7which is difficult to be procured7 in payment of his labour3 he of course seized on some one to perform his work4 ,i applaud him for granting my request1 and feel grateful to the old man for complying with my wishes1 suffering me to take his place1 and transferring his employment to myself4'0 ,hafiz of ,shiraz thus expresses himself3 8,the heavens themselves cannot remove the weight confided to us2 ,the lot of labour fell to my hapless name40 ,mh ,ab1 the younger brother of the above ,mihrb1 was seen by the compiler of this work in attendance on the son of ,farhad1 and in the year of the ,hejirah #ajdh 7,a4 ,d4 #afch7 he thus heard from the ,mulla ,mahdi of ,lahre3 8,bahram having one day sent him on some errand to the bazar1 he happened to pass by the house of a person in the service of ,alim ,uddin of ,halsub1 styled ,wazir ,khan2 the soldier was then chastising his slave1 saying3 #8,thou hast fraudulently sold one of my captives4' ,mhb coming near the soldier1 said to him3 #8,withdraw thy hand from this slave1 and accept me in place of him who has run away4' ,nay1 this request was so importunately urged1 that the soldier finally accepted the offer and desisted from beating his slave4 ,however1 when the soldier had discovered ,mhb's spiritual gifts1 he permitted him to return home1 but ,mhb would not quit him4 ,a week after this event1 ,farhad said in my presence1 #8,i know not where ,mhb is2' on which1 resting his head on his knees1 he directed his heaven-contemplating attention to the subject1 and the instant after1 raising up his head1 said3 #8,mhb is in the service of a certain soldier1 and has voluntarily resigned his person to servitude4' ,he forthwith proceeded to the soldier's abode and brought back ,mhb40 ,many similar transactions are recorded of these sectaries4 ,muhammed ,shariz1 styled ,amir ul ,umra1#cdf a ,shirazi by descent1 thus says3 8,through auspicious love we make perfect peace in both worlds1 ,be thou an antagonist1 but experience nothing but love from us40 ,it is to be observed that ,halsub is a place in one of the districts of the ,parjab4 ,a short notice of the ,amzesh-i ,farhang1 or institute of the ,abadyah ,durveshes1 having been thus given1 we next proceed to describe with the pen of truth the chiefs and rulers of that religion4 ,but it is always to be borne in mind that the faith of the princes of ,persia1 whether of the ,abadian1 ,jaian1 ,shaian1 ,yesani-an1 nay of the ,peshdadian1 ,kaianian1 ,ashkanian1 and ,sassanian dynasties was such as has been described2 and although the system of ,zardusht obtained the pre-eminence1 yet they have by means of glosses reconciled his faith with that professed by ,abad1 ,kaiomars1 and the system of ,hshang1 called the ,farhang ,kesh or 8excellent faith20#cdg they regarded with horror whatever was contrary to the code of ,abd1 which they extolled by all means in their power1 as ,parviz the son of ,hormuz1#cdh in his answer to the ,roman emperor1 thus expresses himself3 8,we feel no shame in professing our ancient faith1 ,no other creed in this world can compete with that of ,hshang4 ,the whole object of this code consists in promoting justice and love3 ,and contemplating the numbers of the celestial spheres40 ,they give ,mhbd the names of ,azar ,hshang1 ,a ,hshang1 ,hshang1 and ,a ,hosh4 ,it is also recorded1 that the ,almighty bestowed on the princes of ,ajam#cdi prudence1 sagacity1 and perfection of intellect1 whereby their theories were connected with practical results1 and their words quite in harmony with their deeds1 so that their rule over this revolving world for so many thousand years was entirely owing to the efficacy of the above-mentioned principles and covenants4 #caf ,edit4 of ,calcutta3 ,in one manuscript3 4 ,in the manuscript of ,oude3 4 ,the first is best4 #cag ,edit4 of ,calcutta and the manuscript of ,oude have3 4 ,two other manuscripts3 4 ,the latter seems to be the better reading4 #cah ,edit4 of ,calcutta and the manuscript of ,oude3 2 two other manuscripts1 the better reading by far4 #cai ,two manuscripts have between and 2 the edit4 of ,calcutta and the manuscript of ,oude have 4 #cbj ,the text has3 ,izedi means any thing given for ,god's sake1 or as one's due2 here it seems to signify a divine gift4 1 1 ized1 also 1 yezdan1 is the name of ,god1 and may be derived from 1 sa1 8to possess power10 1 sha1 8to give10 1 isha1 to wish1 or according to ,hyde 7p4 #aei71 from 1 ishten1 8supplicare1 intercedere40 ,ized is also light1 purity2 it is the name of good spirits1 created for the good of the world1 and appointed to protect individuals4,a4 ,t4 #cba ,in the ,gulshen raz1 a poem quoted in our note p4 #hb1 this idea is expressed in several verses1 of which the following3 8,the world1 which is composed of intellect1 soul1 heavens1 and bodies1 ,know them to be as a drop from beginning to end40 ,room is wanted for quoting1 as a curious coincidence with this image1 four beautiful strophes of ,klopstock1 from his ode 8,die ,frhlingsfeyer10 the ,festivity of ,spring4,a4 ,t4 #cbb ,this verse has already been quoted1 page #f4 #cbc ,allusion is here made to the four immediate successors of ,mohammed2 these were ,abubeker1 ,omr1 ,osman1 and ,al4 ,the first who took the title of khalif1 that is 8lieutenant of the ,prophet10 was ,abdallah1 better known by the name of 1 ,abbeker1 8,father of the ,virgin10 so called because ,ash1 his daughter1 was the only one of ,mohammed's wives who had not been before married to another man4 ,he was also distinguished by the title of sadik1 or 8the faithful witness10 given to him because he1 the first ,muselman after ,mohammed's preaching1 attested the miracle of the ,prophet's ascension to heaven4 ,it was he who collected the verses of the ,koran1 which were written upon separate leaves1 into one volume1 called ,almoshaf1 8the book by excellence10 the original text of which was deposited in the hands of ,hafsat1 daughter of ,omar and widow of ,mohammed4 ,after a reign of two years and three months1 he died in the year #ac of the ,hejira1 #fcd ,a4 ,d41 not without having named his successor4 ,this was ,omar ,ben al-,khetab1 known under the title of 1 frk1 8the separator10 so called by ,mohammed1 because he had separated the head from the body of a ,muselman who1 not satisfied with the decision which the ,prophet had given in a law-suit1 came to submit the case to ,omar's revision4 ,under ,abubeker's khalifat1 ,omar acted as chief of justice1 or chancellor4 ,as khalif he was the first who took the title of 1 ,emir al-,mmenm1 8prince or commander of the faithful10 which title devolved to all his successors4 ,he conquered ,syria1 ,chalda1 ,mesopotamia1 ,persia1 and ,egypt1 and built the town of ,bassora at the mouth of the ,tigris1 in order to prevent the ,persians from taking the route to ,india by the gulph of ,persia4 ,after a reign of ten years he was killed by the hand of a ,persian slave1 who1 having complained of his master's cruelty to him1 did not receive the expected redress4 ,omar1 a judge cruel but just1 would not fix the right of succession upon his son1 but wishing to keep the khalifat elective1 named six persons1 called 1 ahel al-shurah1 8people of council10 who should choose a khalif among themselves4 ,among these were ,osman and ,ali4 ,after a hard contest between these two competitors1 the former1 supported by his four colleagues1 was proclaimed khalif at the end of the year #bc1 or the beginning of #bd of the ,hejira1 #fdc or #fdd ,a4 ,d4 ,osman ,ben ,affan was called by his partisans 1 zo ul narin1 8the possessor of two lights10 because he had married ,rakah and ,omm al ,kachm1 both daughters of ,mohammed1 whose prophecy was supposed to be the source of light diffused over his whole posterity4 ,osman published the ,koran such as it was in the original text1 deposited 7as was before said7 in the hands of ,hafsat1 one of ,mohammed's widows1 and he caused all copies1 differing from this one1 to be suppressed4 ,the domination of the ,mohammedans was established and extended1 to the east1 in ,khorassen and in ,upper ,asia2 to the west1 over the whole northern coast of ,africa and even a part of ,spain1 during this khalif's reign1 which1 after eleven years1 terminated by his violent death in an insurrection which took place against him in ,egypt4 ,the ,egyptians offered the government to ,ali4 ,as before mentioned1 he was one of the six persons named by ,omar as fit for the khalifat1 which ,ali claimed as his right1 being the cousin-german and son-in-law 7husband of ,fatima1 the eldest daughter7 of ,mohammed1 and thus the head of the family of the ,hashemites1 who were distinguished by the name of 8the house of the ,prophet40 ,after ,osman's death1 ,ali was by his party proclaimed the head of the ,muselmans4 ,his title was 1 assad allah al-ghaleb1 8the lion of ,god1 the victorious40 ,possessed of great learning1 he composed several celebrated works in prose and in verse1 although he had to sustain a continual struggle with the adverse party4 ,he was assassinated in ,kufa1 in the year #dj of the ,hejira1 #ffj ,a4 ,d4 ,after him1 his sons ,hassan and ,hossain 7see note #c1 pp4 #dg-dh7 fell victims to ,moavia1 a relation of ,osman1 and the mortal enemy of the whole race of ,ali4 ,the contest between these two parties was1 after the death of their chiefs1 carried on by their numerous adherents1 and1 connected as it is with some difference in their religious opinions and rites1 continues to our days4 ,ali is acknowledged the head of the 1 ,shits1 which word means in general 8a troop1 a party10 but is particularly applied to those who believe that the ,imamat1 or the supreme dignity over the ,muselmans1 belongs by right to ,al and his descendants1 who call themselves ,aladiliats1 or 8the party of the just40 ,opposed to them are the ,sonnites1 so called from the ,arabic word sonnat1 which signifies 8precept1 rule10 or the orthodox faith of ,muselmans1 comprehending the traditional laws relative to whatever has not been written by the great legislator 7see ,herbelot1 sub voc474,a4 ,t4 #cbd ,zu-l-,ulum1 8master of sciences10 was a title of ,kaivn4 #cbe ,nushirvan1 called by the ,arabs ,kesra1 by the ,persians ,khosru1 is reckoned by some authors the #aith 7by others the #bjth7 ,persian king of the ,sassnn dynasty1 which1 according to different opinions1 was composed of #ca1 #cj1 or #bi princes1 and lasted #ebg1 #ejj1 or #dca years4 ,nushirvan reigned from #eca to #egi after ,j4 ,c4 ,he was called 8the just30 from the outside of his palace to his room was drawn a chain1 by the motion of which he could have notice of any complainant who wanted redress4 ,he was victorious in the east and west of ,asia2 he destroyed the prophet ,mazdak 7of whom see hereafter1 section ,,xv72 he brought from ,india to ,persia the fables of ,pilpay1 called ,anvar ,sohli1 8the ,canopian lights10 and a game similar to chess4 ,during his reign ,mohammed was born4 ,nushirvan's favorite minister1 ,buzerg-,mihr1 called also ,buzer-,jmihr1 was famous for virtue and wisdom2 about both these personages a great number of marvellous and fabulous accounts forms the matter of favorite poems in the ,east4,a4 ,t4 #cbf ,ardeshir ,babegan was the first king1 and founder of the ,i,vth dynasty of ,persian kings1 called the ,sasssnns1 or the ,khosroes4 ,his father was ,sassan1 a descendant of another ,sassan1 the son of ,bahman ,isfendiar1 the #fth king of the ,i,id ,persian dynasty1 called the ,kaynian4 ,the latter ,sassan was reduced to a low station1 having become the shepherd of ,babek1 a wealthy man1 whose daughter he married2he had by her a son named ,ardeshir1 who took the name of his maternal grandfather 7which is to be noted as an ,indian custom73 hence he was called ,babegan4 ,he is identified with the ,artaxerxes of the ,greeks1 a contemporary of the ,roman emperor ,commodus 7,a4 ,d4 #ahj-aic74 ,the epoch of his reign is one of the most uncertain points of ,persian history4 ,it may be fixed from the year #bjj to #bdj of the ,christian era4,a4 ,t4 #cbg ,the #eth ,sassan1 above mentioned1 is said to be the last of fifteen ,persian prophets1 the first of whom was ,mahbad1 and the #acth ,zoroaster4 ,the fifth ,sassan lived in the time of ,khosru ,parviz1 who reigned1 the #bast or #bbnd king of the ,sassnns1 from #eia to #fbh of the ,christian era4 ,we read in the ,persian preface of the ,desatir1 that five years after the death of ,khosru ,parviz 7that is in the year #fcd71 the ,persian empire being shaken by the conquests of the ,arabs1 the fifth ,sassan translated the ,desatir4 ,the ,english preface of the same work states1 that 8he died only nine years before the destruction of the ancient ,persian monarchy10 or nine years before #feb1 which would be in the year #fdc of our era4 ,it appears from the ,desatir 7,english transl4 p4 #aib71 that the fifth ,sassan1 not less than his father1 the fourth ,sassan1 was attached to the king ,parviz1 of whom he says 7ibid4 p4 #bjb73 8,from the wickedness of mankind did it arise that such an angel-tempered king was taken from the ,hirtasis 7,persia740,a4 ,t4 #cbh ,bahrm ,gur 7,varanes ,v71 the son of ,yezdejird badkar 7the iniquitous71 was educated out of ,persia4 ,after the death of his father1 the throne having been given to ,kisra1 a stranger1 ,bahram came to dispute the crown1 which he proposed should be placed between two famished lions1 and belong to him who should seize it there4 ,kisra accepted the proposal1 but would not attempt the first to snatch what he already possessed4 ,bahram then1 after having killed the fierce animals1 took and kept the prize with universal applause4 ,he was the #acth 7or #adth7 king of the ,sssnans4 ,after having repulsed an invasion of the ,turks1 and secured his empire1 he left ,persia1 and travelled in disguise to ,india in search of adventures2 by a series of daring actions1 he gained a great reputation1 and the hand of an ,indian princess1 with whom1 after two years of absence1 he returned to ,persia4 ,fortunate in war against ,greeks and ,arabians1 he lost his life in a hunting party1 after a reign of #bc 7some say #ah7 years1 which is placed from #dbj to #dch of our era4,a4 ,t4 #cbi ,this passage is very obscurethe occurrences here mentioned must have been local4,d4 ,s4 #ccj ,akbar ,abad 7,akbar's town7 was ,agra4 #cca ,sadah is the name of the #afth night of the ,persian month ,bahman 7the #aath of the year1 ,january74 ,this night is solemnized by fires lighted in towns and in the fields 7,herbelot74,a4 ,t4 #ccb ,jamasp1 a great priest of the religion of ,zoroaster1 and supposed author of a ,persian work upon the great conjunctions of the planets1 and upon the events which they produce4 ,this work was translated into ,arabic by ,lal1 in the year #abhj of our era4 ,according to the ,shah-namah and to some historians1 ,jamasp was the brother of ,gustasp1 the ,vth ,persian king of the ,pshdadan dynasty 7,herbelot74 ,in the book ,mgjizat ,farsi 7see ,hyde1 ,prefatio71 ,jamasp is the ,v,ith of ten ,persian prophets1 who are enumerated as follows3 ,i4 ,feridun2 ,,ii4 ,alexander2 ,,iii4 ,anushirvan2 ,,iv4 ,baheramgor2 ,v4 ,rustam2 ,,vi4 ,jamasp2 ,,vii4 ,buzurgjmihr2 ,,viii4 ,barbud2 ,,ix4 an anonymous sculptor of the beautiful horse ,shabdiz1 which had belonged to king ,parviz2 ,x4 ,ferhad1 a celebrated architect1 enamoured of ,shrn1 the wife of ,parviz4,a4 ,t4 #ccc ,the ,lulees in ,persia and in other parts of ,asia are women of the same description as the dancing girls in ,india1 devoted to pleasure1 and exercising their art of pleasing at all festivals1 public and private4,a4 ,t4 #ccd ,these verses of ,hafiz1 p4 #ef1 edit4 of ,calcutta1 are again quoted1 p4 #f1 of the same edit42 but instead of 2 which occur in the first of these pages1 we find in the last 2 which last reading was adopted4,a4 ,t4 #cce chamchamah1 8a skull10 answers to kapla1 which signifies skull1 and a skull-like bowl1 in which beggars receive alms4,a4 ,t4 #ccf 4 #ccg ,these verses have been quoted before1 page #aai4 #cch ,mahd1 8guide10 in the original is perhaps an allusion to the name of the twelfth and last ,imam of the race of ,al4 ,the ,persians believe that he is still living1 and will appear with the prophet ,elias at the second coming of ,jesus ,christ1 and will be one of the two witnesses mentioned in the ,apocalypse 7,herbelot74,a4 ,t4 #cci ,the printed copy reads 1 and the manuscripts and 1 the ,,ms4 of ,oude has 4 #cdj ,the printed copy reads 1 the ,,mss41 with that of ,oude1 have 4 #cda ,this corresponds to the ,arabic3 la ila hah illilla2 the first part of which1 la ila hah1 8there is no ,god10 is called nafi1 8negation20 the other part1 illi la1 8but ,god10 is called asbt1 8confirmation40 ,to which is added3 ,mohammed resul ulla1 8,muhammed is his prophet40,a4 ,t4 #cdb ,the two ,,mss4 read ,antun pashutah dakardaj2 the ,,ms4 of ,oude1 ,anton pashuyah4 #cdc ,a ,kalander is a person of religious pretensions1 a sort of durvish not generally approved by the ,muhammedans7,herbelot74 #cdd ,perhaps sahas1 8strength1 power1 light40,a4 ,t4 #cde ,perhaps sakula1 8having a family40,a4 ,t4 #cdf ,amir signifies 8commander1 chief1 prince40 ,this title was once borne by sovereigns1 but in the course of time was changed for that of ,sultan1 it remained a title given only to princes1 their sons4 ,amir ul ,omra signifies 8the commander of commanders0 7,herbelot74,a4 ,t4 #cdg ,the ,persians pretend to have 7see my note1 p4 #cb1 and ,hyde1 ,prefatio7 a book more ancient than the writings of ,zoroaster1 called ,jvdn ,khirid1 8the eternal wisdom10 which treats of practical philosophy1 and the author of which is supposed to have been ,hshang4,a4 ,t4 #cdh ,khosro ,parviz was the grandson of ,nushirvan1 mentioned in our note1 page #aje1 as contemporary of the fifth ,sasan1 the translator and commentator of the ,desatir4 ,parviz1 soon after having taken possession of his father's throne1 was driven out of ,persia by a fortunate usurper1 called ,bahram ,jbn1 and took refuge in the court of the ,greek emperor ,mauritius1 from whom he obtained not only protection1 but also the hand of his daughter named ,mary by some1 and by others ,shrin1 and a powerful army to recover the kingdom of ,persia4 ,according to ,eben ,batrik 7see ,herbelot71 it was after having been restored to his sovereignty1 that he sued for marriage with the daughter of ,mauritius1 who answered that he could not grant his daughter1 unless the ,persian monarch adopted the ,christian faith4 ,the verses in the text seem to refer to this circumstance1 but express at the same time a strong attachment of ,parviz to the ancient religion of his country1 whilst1 according to the ,arabian author just quoted1 this prince apostatised1 in spite of his opposing grandees1 for the sake of the beautiful ,shirn1 for whom he had conceived an irresistible passion4 ,mauritius1 his father-in-law1 having been put to death1 with all his children except one son1 ,parviz endeavoured to replace this remaining son upon the throne of his father4 ,at first successful against ,phocas1 he was defeated by ,heraclius1 the successor of the ,greek emperor2 he lost all his conquests1 his reputation1 his liberty1 and at last his life1 by a parricide1 his son and successor1 ,shiruyah or ,sirocs4,a4 ,t4 #cdi ,ajem includes all ,asia except ,arabia4 ,the ,arabians1 as formerly the ,greeks1 call the inhabitants of all countries except their own1 ,barbarians2 but here1 and elsewhere1 the author takes ,ajem for ,persia4,a4 ,t4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,,the ,,third ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,dabistan explains the laws of the ,pamn-i-,farhang 7excellent covenant7 and the ,hirbed ,sr 7the pure ,highpriest74 ,the ,paiman-i-,farhang is the code of ,mhbd1 of which many translations have been made2 one of them is that made by ,faridun1 the son of ,abtin3 another2 that of ,buzurg-,mihr#cej for the use of ,nushirvan1 the son of ,kobad2 some extracts from these have been given in the present work4 ,the ,yazdanian1 8godly10 who are also called ,sahi ,kesh1 8flourishing faith10 and ,sips1 8adorers10 maintain that the most exalted of the prophets1 the mightiest of kings1 and the sire of the human race which exists in this cycle was ,mhbd1 whom they also call ,azar ,hushang1 8the fire of wisdom40 ,they also say that it is thus recorded in the code of this venerable personage1 which is the word of ,god2 and that moreover1 this mighty prince has himself expressly announced that the ,divine ,essence1 which has no equal1 is totally devoid and divested of all form and figure2 incapable of being the object of conception or similitude3 also that the tropes of the most eloquent orators1 the illustrations of the most enlightened and profound geniuses1 are utterly unable to convey a clear idea of the light1 which has neither perceptible color nor sign3 the sublime speculations of the learned and the discriminating understandings of the sage are too feeble to comprehend the substance of the pure essence of that light1 which is without equal1 quality1 color1 or model3 also that all existences have proceeded from the bounty and wisdom of the ,almighty1 and are consequently his creation3 that not a single atom in this world1 nor even the motion of a hair on the body of a living creature escapes his knowledge3 all which propositions are proved by evident demonstrations deduced from various premises1 and accompanied by excellent commentaries1 the enumeration of which this abridged treatise cannot admit4 ,also that the cognizance of the self-existent ,god extends alike to the most minute particles of matter and the entire universe4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,angels ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,order4,in the code of the great apostle ,mhbd it is thus stated2 the work of ,god is above the power of the tongue1 and infinitely exceeds the calculations to which the inhabitants of this lower elemental world have recourse3 the operations of the ,eternal are from eternity to eternity3 they assign the name of ,bahman#cea to the first ,angel whom the ,almighty invested with the mantle of existence1 and through the medium of whom it was communicated to others4 ,the planets1 fixed stars1 and heavens have each their peculiar conservative ,angel2 also the four elements below the lunar sphere have four conservative ,angels1 and in like manner all productions connected with them3 for example1 in minerals there are many precious stones1 such as rubies1 sapphires1 and emeralds of every kind1 which are under the dominion of their good1 munificent1 protecting ,angel3 and so on with respect to all species of vegetable and animal productions4 ,the name given to the conservative angel of mankind is ,farun ,faro ,vakhshr4#ceb ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,second ,,order ,,of ,,angels4,the code of ,mhbd states that the second rank is assigned to the ,angels connected with bodies3 that is1 every heaven and every star has a simple uncompounded spirit1 bare of matter1 as it is neither a body nor material3 also that all living beings in the world have an uncompounded soul4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,third ,,order ,,of ,,angels4,it is stated in the code of ,mhbd1 that angelic beings of the third rank are the same as the superior and inferior bodies4 ,the superior bodies are those of the sphere and the stars2 and the inferior the four 7guhar7 elements4 ,the most noble of all bodies are those of the sphere4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,gradations ,,of ,,paradise4,the code of ,mhbd states thus3 8,in the ,mn or #8azure heaven' there are many gradations1 we shall first enumerate the gradations of ,paradise in this lower world4 ,the first gradation consists of minerals1 such as rubies1 sapphires1 emeralds1 and the like2 the second of vegetation1 such as plane trees1 cypress1 gardens1 etc42 the third of animals1 such as the ,arab horse1 the camel1 and such like2 the fourth consisting of selected individuals amongst men1 such as princes and those connected with that class1 persons in the enjoyment of health1 the contented1 and such like2 all which gradations they call ,mn ,sr1 #8celestial abode1' and ,bst ,ld1#cec that is1 ,ferden fer1 #8the low foundation4'0 ,in these states there is a retrospect2 for example1 there is one man who in relation to his deeds gradually descends to the animal state2 whilst the terrene particles of virtuous men's bodies change either to the vegetable state or that of the choicest minerals1 however without the existence of an incorporeal soul in either of them4 ,on ascending from this state1 the change is called ,lim ,sar1 or 8dwelling on high20 the first is the lunar step2 for in the soul of the exalted moon are the forms of all those beings into which the elements enter4 ,a person on arriving there remains in it1 becoming the regent of all the lower world1 and in proportion to his knowledge and the habits resulting from his laudable qualities1 assumes a better form4 ,on arriving at a higher rank than this1 he finds augmented delight as far as the solar step2 for the sun is the ,pirah-i-,yazdan1 or 8the ornament of ,god10 that is1 the viceroy of the ,lord and sovereign of the stars1 whose gracious influence pervades both high and low4 ,on leaving this and passing through the various gradations to the empyreal heaven1 every step becomes more delightful and excellent4 ,on ascending beyond the great sphere1 he arrives at the curtain#ced of the great ,angels and contemplates the ,lord of the light of lights surrounded by angels3 no state can surpass the beatitude and glory of this gradation1 which is called the ,mnivn ,mn1 or 8heaven of heavens40 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,infernal ,,regions4,the code of ,mhbd states thus3 ,hell is situated under the sphere of the moon3#cee the first step consisting of minerals in mis-shapen masses1 or stones without worth2 of plants1 thorny and vile and poisonous herbage2 of living creatures1 such as ants1 serpents1 and scorpions2 and of men labouring under indigence1 sickness1 feebleness1 ignorance1 and disgrace3 in this step man is punished for whatever evil actions he has committed1 and escapes not without due retribution4 ,however1 the severest gradation of the infernal regions is that of mental anguish1 which is appropriated to the irreligious philosophers1 for when his elemental body is dissolved1 they do not assign him another2 so that he finds not his way to heaven1 but remains in the lower elemental world1 consumed by the flames of anguish3 besides1 in consequence of his detestable qualities1 his tormentors pounce upon him in the shape of serpents1 scorpions1 and other such plagues4 ,this state they denominate ,puchn-i-,pch1 or 8the hell of hells40 ,the code of ,mhbd also states1 that whatever occurs in this elemental world proceeds entirely from the planets2 so that their adoration1 next to that of the ,almighty1 becomes an indispensable duty3 for these luminaries approach near the palace of the ,almighty1 and the chiefs of the court of eternity4 ,in this world1 whoever draws near the seat of grandeur1 must have a friend to sound his praise1 which is a measure much to be commended4 ,the person who undertakes a journey cannot do without a guide1 and he who goes to a city where he has no friend1 meets with difficulty3 consequently1 the worship tendered to these dignities is much to be commended4 ,the stars are truly many in number1 but amidst these multitudes1 the influences of the seven planets are the most evident3 also of all the starry hosts the sun is the sovereign lord4 ,it is therefore necessary to form seven images1 and to raise that of the sun above the others2 the temples built by the ,abadn princes were open on all sides1 so that when the sun shone they were exceedingly bright in the interior2 not like the ,hindoo idol-temples1 in which they walk about with lamps1 even in the day time3 the roofs of the ,abadn temples were also rather elevated4 ,the emperors and princes are individuals of the most select description1 on which account the king should find repose in the fourth sphere1 which is one of the solar regions4 ,as it is evident that the stars are set by ,god for the due government of the world1 in like manner it is clear that it is not every individual indiscriminately who attains to the regal dignity1 but only a royal personage1 not opposed to the ,farhang-,abd1 or the law of ,azar ,hshang3 as otherwise he would be undeserving of the supreme power4 ,of the qualifications indispensably requisite in a monarch1 the first is conformity to the faith above described1 and firmness in adhering to it4 ,in the next place1 if on the side of both parents1 which means ,hasab va ,nasab1 8accomplishments and genealogy10 he were of royal descent1 it would be more advantageous3 the meaning of royal birth is to be the possessor of the kingdom of justice2 if every external qualification be united with the supreme power1 it is much more agreeable1 so that the king should not say1 8,i am more excellent than my father1 and he than his ancestors30 on the contrary1 he styles his father 8highly distinguished10 and his grandfather 8far superior40 ,moreover1 if any one should praise him on this account1 he should order that person to be chastised4 ,azizi1 8a distinguished man10#cef has said3 8,the following is what we mean by this principle2 that as one sire is superior to another1 if a son should imagine himself the greater1 then each child would reckon himself superior to his father1 and there would then be no acknowledged ruler40 ,a king must also be provided with a distinguished mathematician as prime minister1 to whom the calculators and astronomers should be subject2 in every city there should be an astronomer or surveyor2 and an ,arshiya1#ceg or accountant1 should act as vizir1 one well versed in the amount of rents paid by the ,rayas2 he must also have commissaries2 and as there are attached to every city many villages and hamlets1 the king's private property1 to which the local director attends1 that officer is called the ,vizhak4 ,also with every vizir1 whether absent or present1 there should be two ,ustuwars or supervisors1 and two ,shudahbands1 or recorders of occurrences2 the same rule is to be observed with all administrators1 and the ,samn ,slr1 or head steward1 the chief reporters and inspectors should also be each accompanied by two ,ustuwars and two ,shudahbands4 ,dustoor1 or prime minister1 means the person to whose department the public revenue is attached3 the copies of the registers of all the vizirs should be regularly kept at the seat of government1 as well as the papers of the ,shudahbands4 ,the king also requires military commanders1 in order that they may keep the soldiers in due discipline4 ,the first dignity consists of the chiefs of a hundred thousand cavalry2 the second1 of the commanders of thousands2 the third1 of the commanders of hundreds2 the fourth1 of the rulers over tens2 and the fifth1 of those accompanied by two1 three1 four1 or five persons4 ,thus in this assemblage every ten persons have an officer and every hundred a ,sipahdar1 called in the popular language of ,hindustan ,bakhshi1 8pay-master10 in that of ,iran1 ,lashkar ,navs1 or 8army-registrar10 and in ,arabic1 ,ariz1 or 8notary30 a similar arrangement must be observed in the infantry4 ,in like manner1 when the military in regular succession are in attendance on the king1 there is at court a ,brngr1 or 8registrar10 to set down those who are absent as well as those present2 in the popular language of ,india this officer is styled ,chauki ,navs1 or 8register keeper20 they are accompanied by a ,shudahband1 an ,ustuwar1 and sentinels1 so that they may not go to their homes nor give way to sleep until their period of duty is terminated3 there are also different sentinels for day and night4 ,it is also so arranged that there should be always four persons together on each watch1 two of whom may indulge in sleep whilst the other two remain awake4 ,in every city where the king is present there ought to be a ,shudahband1 to report to the king whatever occurs in the city3 the same rule should be observed in the other cities also3 this functionary they call1 in ,india1 ,wakia-,navis1 8news-writer40 ,there should also be a ,shahnah1 or 8intendant of police10 styled ,farhang-i-roz1 8registrar of the day10 who is to conduct all affairs with due prudence1 and not suffer people to inflict injury on each other4 ,he is to have two ,shudahbands and an ,ustuwar or 8confidential secretary40 ,in like manner1 among the troops of the great nobles there must be two ,shudahbands2 and in all provinces a ,shahrdar1 or governor2 and in every city a ,bud-andoz1 or collector-general1 a ,sipah-dar1 that is a ,bakhshi1 and an intendant of police1 or ,shahnah2 it is to be noted that among the ,yezdnan1 a ,kz and ,shuhnah were the same1 as the people practised no oppression towards each other4 ,the ,shudahband1 the ,nvand 7writer71 and the ,rvand 7courier71 or those who conveyed intelligence to the king1 had many spies set over them secretly by his majesty1 and all those officers wrote him an account of whatever occurred in the city4 ,if the ,sipahdars did not give the men their just dues1 these officers called them to account3 also if a superior noble acted in a similar manner towards his inferiors1 they instituted an inquiry into his conduct3 they also took note of the spies2 so that if any secret agent made himself known as such1 he was immediately dismissed4 ,if any one kept the due of the soldier or of the cultivator1 in the name of the king1 and did not account for it1 they inflicted chastisement on him4 ,the officers were obliged to delineate the features of every one employed in the cavalry or infantry1 and also to furnish a representation of his horse1 and to give the men their regular pay with punctuality4 ,previous to the ,gilshhian dynasty1 no one ever branded the king's horses1 as this was regarded as an act of cruelty towards the animal3 most of the soldiers also were furnished with horses by the king1 as the sovereigns of ,ajem had many studs4 ,on the death of a horse1 the testimony of the collectors and inspectors was requisite4 ,every soldier who received not a horse from the king1 brought his own with him3 they also took one out of twenty from the ,rayas4 ,however1 under the ,sassanian princes1 the ,rayas requested 8to take from them one out of ten30 and as this proposition was accepted1 it was therefore called ,baj-i-hamdastani1 or voluntary contribution1 as having been settled by the consent of the ,rayas4 ,the ,omras and the great of the kingdom1 near and far1 had not the power to put a guilty man to death2 but when the ,shadahband1 8recorder10 brought a case before the king1 his majesty acted according to the prescriptions of the ,ferhang-abad1 unless in the case of executing a dangerous rebel1 when1 from sparing him until receiving the king's will1 a great evil would arise to the country4 ,they laid down this royal ordinance3 that if the king sent even a single person1 he was to bring back the head of the commander of a hundred thousand2 nay1 that person never turned aside from the punishment4 ,for example1 when such a commander in the time of ,shah ,mhbl had put an innocent man to death1 the prince sent a person who was to behead the criminal on a day on which the nobles were all assembled3 and of this there are innumerable examples4 ,also in the time of ,shah ,faridn1 the son of ,abtin1 the son of ,farshad1 the son of ,sh- ,gilv1 a general named ,mhld was governor of ,khorosan3 and he having put to death one of the village chiefs1 the ,shudahbands reported to the king all the public and private details of the fact1 on receiving which the king thus wrote to ,mhld3 8,thou hast acted contrary to the ,farhang ,abad40 ,when ,mahld had perused the king's letter1 he assembled the chief men of the province1 and sending for the village chieftain's son1 put a sword in his hand that he might cut off his head3 the son replied3 8,i consent to pass over my father's blood40 ,mhld1 however1 would not agree to this1 and insisted so earnestly1 that the young man cut off his head1 which was sent to the court4 ,the king greatly commended this conduct1 and according to his usual practice conferred ,mhld's office on his son4 ,in the same manner1 the ,moghls submitted implicitly to the commands of the ,lord strengthened by the ,almighty1 that is1 to ,jenghiz ,khan2#ceh and the tribes of ,kazl-,bsh#cei were equally obedient to ,ismail ,safavi during his reign4 ,but the kings of ,ajem were averse to the infliction of capital punishments1 so that until a criminal had been declared deserving of death1 according to the ,abdan code1 the order for his execution was not issued4 ,the kings and chieftains of ,iran never addressed harsh language to any one2 but whenever a person deserved chastisement or death1 they summoned the ,farhangdar1 or 8judge10 and the ,dad-sitani1 or 8mufti20 on which1 whatever the code of ,farhang-abad enjoined in the case1 whether beating with rods or confinement1 was carried into effect3 but the beating and imprisonment were never executed by low persons4 ,whatever intelligence was communicated by spies was submitted to a careful examination1 in which they took great pains2 and that unless reports made by two or more spies coincided1 they carried nothing into execution4 ,the princes and young nobles1 like all others1 began by personal attendance on the king3 for example1 the routine of ,hash-o-bash1 or 8presence and absence0 at court1 was enjoined them in rotation1 that they might better understand the state of humbler individuals3 they even attended on foot1 that they might more easily conceive the toils of the foot-soldier4 ,bahzad the ,yasanian1 in one of his marches having proceeded a short distance1 alighted from his horse1#cfj on which a distinguished noble1 named ,naubar1 thus remarked3 8,on a march it is not proper to remain satisfied with so short a journey40 ,on this1 ,bahzad ,shah1 leaving the army in that place1 said to the commander ,naubar1 8,let us two make a short excursion40 ,he himself mounted on horseback1 and obliged the other to advance on foot4 ,they thus traversed mountain and plain1 until ,naubar became overpowered by fatigue1 on which ,bahzad said3 8,exert thyself1 for our halting place is near20 but he having replied1 8,i am no longer able to move10 the king rejoined2 8,o oppressor6 as thou art no longer able to proceed1 dost thou not perceive that those who are on foot experience similar distress from performing too long a march80 8,thou1 who feelest not for the distress of others1 ,meritest not to be called by the name of man40 ,the military1 in proportion to their respective ranks1 had assigned to them costly dresses1 vigorous steeds with trappings and saddles inlaid with precious stones1 equipments1 some of solid gold and silver1 and others plated with gold or silver1 and helmets4 ,the distinguished men were equally remote from parsimony and profuseness4 ,the nobles of ,ajem wore a crown worth a hundred thousand dinars of gold3 the regal diadem being appropriated to the king4 ,all the great ,amirs wore helmets and zones of gold2 they also had trappings and sandals of the same4 ,when the soldiers set out on an expedition1 they took with them arms of every description1 a flag and a poignard2#cfa they were habituated to privations1 and entered on long expeditions with scanty supplies3 they were never confined within the enclosure of tents and pavilions1 but braved alike the extremes of heat and cold4 ,in the day of battle1 as long as the king or his lieutenant stood at his post1 if any one turned his back on the foe1 no person would join him in eating or drinking1 or contract alliance with him1 except those who like himself had consigned their persons to infamy and degradation4 ,lunatics1 buffoons1 and depraved characters found no access to the king or chieftains4 ,on the death of a person who had been raised to dignity1 his post was conferred on his son1 or some one of his legitimate connections adequate to its duties2 thus no innocent person was ever deprived of office1 so that their noble families continued from the time of ,sh ,kilv to that of ,sh ,mahbul4 ,when king ,khusr1 the son of ,faridn1 the son of ,abtin1 the son of ,forzad1 the son of ,shi ,kiliv1 had sent ,gurgin#cfb the son of ,ls to a certain post1 that dignity remained in his family more than a thousand years2 and when1 in the reign of the resplendent sovereign1 king ,ardeshir1 ,madhur the descendant of ,gurgin had become a lunatic1 the king confined him to his house1 and promoted his son ,mbzd to the government2 and similar to this was the system of ,shah ,ismail ,safavi4 ,but if an ,amir's son were unfit for governing1 he was dismissed from office1 and had a suitable pension assigned him4 ,nay1 animals1 such as the cow1 ass1 and horse1 which were made to labor when young1 were maintained by their masters in a state of ease when they grew old2 the quantity of burden which each animal was to carry was defined1 and whoever exceeded that limit received due chastisement4 ,in like manner1 when any of the infantry or cavalry grew feeble1 infirm1 or old1 although he might not have performed effective service1 they appointed his son to succeed him2 and if the latter was not yet of mature age1 they settled on him a daily allowance from the royal treasury4 ,but if he had no son1 they assigned him during his life such an allowance as would keep him from distress1 which allowance was continued after his decease to his wife1 daughter1 or other survivors4 ,whatever constitutes the duty of a parent was all performed by the king2 if1 in the day of battle1 a soldier's horse fell1 they bestowed on him a better and finer one4 ,it has already been said that most of the cavalry horses were supplied by the king1 and the military were at no expense save that of forage4 ,if a soldier fell in battle1 they appointed the son with great distinction to his father's post1 and also conferred many favors on his surviving family2 they also greatly exerted themselves in teaching them the duties of their class1 and in guarding their domestic honor inviolate3 as1 in reality1 the king is the father1 and the kingdom the common mother4 ,in like manner1 when a soldier was wounded1 he received the greatest attentions4 ,similar notice was taken of workers in gold and of merchants who had failed and become impoverished1 their children being adopted by the government3 so that1 within the circuit of their dominions1 there was not found a single destitute person4 ,the ,sardr of each city took cognizance of every stranger who entered it3 in the same way1 all friendless travellers were received into the royal hospital1 where physicians gave themselves up to the curing of the sick3 in these there were also ,shudahbands to take care that none of those employed should be backward in their respective offices4 ,the blind1 the paralytic1 the feeble1 and destitute were admitted into the royal hospital1 where they passed their time free from anxiety4 ,now the royal ,bmrastn1 or hospital was a place in which they gave a daily allowance to the feeble and indigent3 thus there were no religious mendicants or beggars in their dominions2 whoever wished1 embraced a ,durvesh's life and practised religious austerities in a monastery1 a place adapted for every description of pious mortifications3 a slothful person1 or one of ill repute1 was not permitted to become a ,durvesh1 lest he might do it for the purpose of indulging in food and sleep3 to such a character they enjoined the religious exercises suitable to a ,durvesh1 which1 if he performed with zeal1 it was all well2 but1 otherwise1 he was obliged to follow his inclinations in some other place4 ,the king had also confidential courtiers1 well skilled in the histories of the righteous men of olden time1 which they recited to his majesty4 ,there was also an abundance of astrologers and physicians1 so that1 both in the capital and in the provinces1 one of each1 agreeably to the royal order1 should attend on every governor2 and their number was such in every city1 that men might consult them on the favorable and unfavorable moments for every undertaking4 ,in every city was a royal hospital1 in which were stationed physicians appointed by the king2 there were separate hospitals for women1 where they were attended by skilful female physicians1 so that the hospitals for men and women were quite distinct4 ,in addition to all this1 the king stands in need of wise ,farhangs1 8judges10 well versed in the decisions of law and the articles of faith1 so that1 aided by the royal influence and power1 they may restrain men from evil deeds1 and deliver the institutes of ,farhang1 8the true faith10 to them4#cfc ,the king also requires writers to be always in his presence4 ,a great ,mobed must be acquainted with all sciences2 a confidential courtier1 conversant with the narratives and histories of kings2 a physician1 profound in medical science2 an astrologer in his calculations of the stars2 an accountant1 accurate in his accounts2 and a ,farhang1 or lawyer1 well versed in points of law3 moreover1 the study of that portion of the code contained in the ,piman-i-,farhang1 or in the 8covenant of the ,farhang10 is incumbent on all1 both soldiers1 ,rayas1 and those who practise the mechanic arts1 and on other people4 ,in like manner1 persons of one rank were not wont to intermeddle with the pursuits of another3 for example1 that a soldier should engage in commerce1 or a merchant in the military profession3 on the contrary1 the two employments should not be confounded1 so that one should at the same time be a military man and a servant1 or in any employment2 and having become a commander1 should again take up the trade4 ,they also permitted in every city such a number of artificers1 conductors of amusements1 merchants1 and soldiers as was strictly necessary2 to the remainder1 or surplus1 they assigned agricultural occupations2 so that1 although many people may know these arts1 yet no more than is required may be occupied with them1 but apply themselves wholly to the cultivation of the soil4 ,if any officer made even a trifling addition to the import on any business which brought in a revenue to the king1 so far from its being acceptable1 they1 on the contrary1 ordered that ill-disposed person to be severely punished4 ,the king gave audience every day3 but on one day of the week in particular1 he acted as ,ddsitn1 or 8,mufti10 when every person who was wronged had access to the sovereign2 also1 once a year1 he gave a general audience1 when everyone who pleased came into his presence2 on this occasion1 the king sat down at table with the ,rys1 who represented to him1 without the intervention of another1 whatever they thought proper4 ,the sovereign had two places of audience2 one the ,rzistn1 or 8day-station10 in which he was seated on an elevated seat2 which place they also called the ,tbsr1 or 8place of splendor20 around which the nobles and champions stood in their respective ranks2 the other was the ,shabistn1 or 8night station10 which had also an elevation1 on which the king took his seat4 ,men of distinction stood on the outside2 those of royal dignity were at the door2 and next the king was a company standing with weapons of war in their hands4 ,every one1 indiscriminately1 had not the privilege of laying his hand on the royal feet2 some only kissed the slipper and walked around it2 others1 the sleeve of the royal mantle which fell on the throne3 that person must be in high favor at court who was permitted to kiss the king's feet1 or the throne1 or perform a circuit around it4 ,as a brief account has been given of the exterior place of reception1 and of the ,rzistn1 or 8day station10 we now proceed to write a few particulars concerning the interior place of reception1 or the secret night station1 or the ,harem1 which is also called the 8golden musk-perfumed pavilion40 ,in the code of ,azar ,hshang1 or ,mhbd1 it has been thus laid down3 whatever be the number of the king's women1 there must be one superior in dignity to all the rest3 her they style 8the ,great ,lady20 but she possessed not such absolute power that the right of loosing or binding1 inflicting the bastinado1 or putting to death within the night station should be conferred on her3 or that she could put to death whomsoever she pleased without the king's consent1 a power quite opposed to law4 ,the ,shudahbands also report to the royal presence all the transactions of the ,great ,princess and of the night station1 just as they transmit accounts of those persons who live out of its precincts4 ,if the king's mother be alive1 the supremacy is of course vested in her1 and not in the ,great ,princess4 ,salrbrs1 or 8ushers with silver maces10 ,jdrs1 or 8superintendants of police10 ,ghnums or ,shudahbands1 astrologers and such like professions1 were also met with in the interior residence4 ,of these women and princesses not one had the smallest degree of authority over the rest of their sex who lived outside of the precincts1 nor did they possess the power of issuing any order whatever2 nay they seldom made mention of them in the royal ,rozistan2 neither were they called by any fixed title2 nor1 without urgent necessity1 did they ride out in public4 ,the king also1 on visiting the interior apartment1 is not wont to remain long with the women2 nor do they ever entertain any wishes which have not reference to themselves2 such as the mode of speaking when enjoining an officer to perform some service1 or increasing the dignity of the great warriors4 ,the same system was followed by every ,amir in his own house2 but in the dwelling of every ,amir1 whether near or remote1 there was an aged matron or ,atuni1 deputed on the king's part1 with the office of ,shudahband1 to report the exact state of affairs to the ,great ,princess1 or to send from a distance a written report for being brought before the king4 ,to the king's ,harem1 or to that of an ,amir1 no males had access1 except boys not come to maturity1 or eunuchs2 but criminals only were qualified for the latter class1 who were never after admitted to any confidential intimacy2 and no individual in their empire was allowed from motives of gain to have recourse to that operation4#cfd ,every year1 on certain occasions1 on some great festivals1 the wives of the ,amirs waited on the ,great ,princess1 and the women of the city came to the general levee2 but the king never saw these women1 as on such days he did not enter the musk-perfumed pavilion1 but departed to some other place1 so that his eyes might not fall on a strange female4 ,the motives of the ladies' visit to the king was this3 that if any were oppressed by their husbands1 it might be reported to the king1 who after proper investigation was to enjoin the punishment awarded by the court of justice4 ,the great king partook not of reason-subduing strong drinks1 as he was a guardian1 and as such should not be in a state of helplessness2 on which account not one of those kings who were styled guardians ever polluted his lips with wine or other intoxicating beverage before the ,gilshaiyan dynasty4 ,the cup-bearers of the king's sons and other nobles were always females1 and these were called ,bdeks3#cfe no beardless males were admitted to the feast3 even eunuchs were excluded from the banquets of the ,gilshaiyan princes1 and they were waited on by beardless youths under ten years of age2 and at the time of taking wine even they were not allowed to be present4 ,the ancients1 or those previous to the ,gilshaiyan dynasty1 had appointed seasons for drinking wine1 which occurred when the physicians prescribed it for the removal of some infirmity1 on which occasions they conformed to the above-mentioned rules4 ,if any one1 and the king in particular1 labored under a malady the cure of which could only be effected by wine1 and the invalid should be altogether reluctant to the drinking of it1 in that case1 as the cure was confined to the use of wine1 the patient was obliged to comply with the prescription3 for things forbidden under other circumstances1 become lawful when taken for medicinal purposes3 but with this reservation1 that no injury should accrue to any innoxious animal4 ,along the roads frequented by travellers in this realm1 there were many caravansaries1 between every two of which were posted sentinels1 so that the voice of a person reached from one to the next4 ,in every halting-place was a ,shudahband1 a physician1 and a ,tmr2 and the inns were also constructed near each other4 ,now a ,tmr is one appointed by the king to protect the helpless1 such as persons of tender years and the infirm4 ,aged women brought out from the ,haram all the requisite supplies 7for these establishments71 which they transferred to aged men1 by whom they were conveyed to the attendants4 ,the soldiers' wives were not without employment1 such as spinning1 sewing1 and in various works1 the making of house-furniture1 riding1 and in the management of the bow they were as able as men2 they were all formed by discipline and inured to toil4 ,it is evident to all the world that1 notwithstanding the extent of their realms was so exceedingly great and spacious1 yet in consequence of these arrangements1 the kings were necessarily informed of every event which occurred3 in addition to what has been stated1 pursuant to decrees influential as those of ,heaven1 villages were erected at every stage and halting-place1 at each of which the king's horses were picketted1 and men appointed whom they called ,ravand1 or 8couriers40 ,when the ,shudahband day by day delivered the report of whatever had occurred into the hand of a courier1 the one near the city delivered it into the custody of another1 and so on1 from the couriers of the stage to those of the villages1 until the report reached the capital4 ,the king observed the same system in corresponding with the ,umras2 at one time appointing an individual who was with great caution to communicate the royal despatches without entrusting them into the hands of another2 a courier of this description mounted at every stage the king's post-horses which were picketted at the different halting-places until he completed his object3 this description of courier they call ,nuwand2 the ,umras also despatched ,nuwands to the king's court2 but the couriers belonging to royalty or the nobility were not empowered to seize any individual's horse1 or practise oppression1 as they would in that case meet with due retaliation3 there were besides1 at the different villages1 persons stationed as guards1 who were liable to be called to account if a traveller suffered oppressive treatment from any quarter4 ,shadahbands also were there4 ,azar ,hshng1 that is1 ,mhbd1 thus enjoined3 8,let there be no exactions practised towards the ,rayas3 let him afford what he well can1 and nothing more20 they therefore only took such an amount as maintained both soldiers and rayas in tranquillity4 ,all the king's devoted servants entertained this belief1 that the performance of whatever was agreeable to the king was attended with advantage in both worlds2 also that the royal command was the interpretation of the word of ,god1 and that it was highly praiseworthy to meet death in the path of obedience to the ,great ,king3 nay1 they accounted death1 with the prospect of royal approbation1 which is the bestower of paradise1 as far superior to life2 but he must be a king who acts in conformity with the ,paiman-i-,farhang1 or 8excellent code40 ,in short1 the system of inquiry was such1 that the inspectors used to question the soldiers1 whether they were satisfied or not with their chief4 ,with respect to keeping guard1 it was thus settled2 that out of the four persons acting in concert with each other1 two went to sleep and the other two stood up armed2 again1 when the sleepers arose the others went to rest2 and on the expiration of the night1 other troops came to keep watch3 the night sentinels1 however1 did not depart but by order of their officer4 ,these inspected the men three times during the night4 ,in that manner each person had1 every week1 one day's watch3 and when they retired from keeping guard1 proclamation was made to this purport by the king's command3 8,if any have cause of complaint against their inspector or chief1 let them not keep it concealed40 ,in like manner every month the inspectors1 whether near or remote1 looked into the state of the military2 if they found any individual1 without sufficient cause1 deficient in the requisites for service1 they ordered him to be punished1 unless he adduced a satisfactory excuse and testimony2 in which case they accepted his reasons3 and if they proceeded from overpowering necessity1 they had regard to it4 ,to whomsover they had assigned land1 ,jaghir or ,muks1 they gave daily or monthly pay with the greatest punctuality1 never permitting any deficiency to occur4 ,if any were deficient in the performance of duty1 for example1 being absent one watch without sufficient cause1 besides inflicting the due punishment1 they deducted the pay of that watch1 but not of the whole day4 ,when1 for some good reason1 he applied for a furlough1 he obtained it4 ,the prime minister was obliged to institute an inquiry into any affair of which he got the necessary information4 ,the ,rais sufid1 8chieftain10 must produce a ,khushnd namah1 or 8a certificate10 purporting that he had given the due to his people1 and that they were satisfied with him2 also that whatever revenue had been received was delivered over to the inspector1 in the presence of the ,anim and ,shudahband3 the inspectors also produced1 in the royal presence1 certificates stating that they had practised no oppression towards the military3 and although the spies made a report of all particulars every week1 still the king inquired besides of the soldiers1 as to the truth of this approbation4 ,the ,yazdanans never attempted a thing mentioned with abhorrence in the ,farhang code1 in which every fault had its fixed punishment4 ,when any one was convicted of a crime1 the king's near attendants never made intercession for him3 for example1 pursuant to this code1 and by the king's command1 the son inflicted punishment on the father1 and the father on his son1 so that even princes of the blood had not the power of breaking this law2 if they were guilty of injustice1 the kings themselves inflicted the allotted punishment3 for example1 ,jai ,ald had a son called ,hdah1 whom he himself beheaded for having put to death the son of a villager4 ,the king's devoted servants raised themselves to distinction by their excellence and exertions to obtain praise and titles3 whoever swore falsely by the royal family was expelled from all intercourse with them4 ,there were peculiar places assigned for the combat of elephants1 lions1 and other wild beasts1 the backs and sides of which places were so elevated1 that people might behold from every part1 without the possibility of sustaining injury from the elephants and other wild animals3 the king being all the while seated on a lofty throne4 ,they never created embarrassments in bazars or populous places with furious elephants or fierce lions1 but kept them in remote situations and secure places such as before-mentioned1 from whence they could easily remove them4 ,it is recorded that1 in the time of ,shrzd ,shah1 the ,yassnian1 an elephant having broken out of the place where he was tied up1 killed some one2 on which the king1 in retaliation for the deed1 put the elephant to death1 and also inflicted capital punishment on the elephant-keepers and the door-keepers of the elephant-stables1 who had left the door open4 ,the king never listened to tales of fiction1 but solely to true statements3 the military and the rayas also never averted their necks from executing the king's commands3 and if a traveller invoked the king's name and entered into any house1 the inmates not only washed his feet1 but even drank the water in which they performed the operation1 as a sovereign remedy1 and sedulously showed all due attentions to their guest4 ,on the day of battle1 the soldiers were drawn up in right1 centre1 and left columns1 an arrangement which they never violated in any engagement3 as when once dissolved1 the restoration of that combined order would be impossible3 when the troops had been arrayed in this manner1 they gave the enemy battle2 and in proportion to the necessity1 the bazar1 or 8market0 of assistance followed them3 even after victory they observed the same arrangement4 ,on the day of triumph1 when the enemy fled and the foe dispersed1 the entire army did not give themselves up to plunder2 but the king appointed for the service a certain detachment1 accompanied by ,shudahbands and ,binandahs1 or inspectors and supervisors1 whilst the rest of the army remained prepared for battle and ready to renew the engagement2 not one of them raising the dust of plunder or departing to their homes1 lest the enemy1 on discovering their dispersion in pursuit of plunder1 might return and gain the victory4 ,when they had made themselves masters of the spoil1 the king ordered them to set apart the choicest portion for the indigent and the erection of religious foundations3 he next distributed an ample share to the men proportioned to their exertions2 after which he gave each of his courtiers a portion2 and he lastly conferred a suitable portion on the great officers2 but no part of this division entered into the account of the allowances settled on the military class3 last of all1 the king drew the pen of approbation over whatever was worthy of the royal majesty4 ,some of the ancient kings and all the princes of the remote ages1 far from taking any part of the spoil to their own share1 even made good every injury which happened to the army in executing the royal orders1 as the loss of horses and such like4 ,after the victory1 they never oppressed the helpless1 the indigent1 merchants1 travellers1 or the generality of the inhabitants1 and the ,rayas4 ,those who were guilty of such acts were1 after conviction1 punished4 ,they divided among them whatever the enemy had in their flight left on the field of battle3 but whatever in the different realms belonged to the conquered prince and his near connexions1 they submitted to the royal pleasure4 ,they never slew or offered violence to the person who threw down his arms and asked for quarter4 ,this class of the obedient followers of the ,azar ,hushang code were styled ,farishtah1 8angelic20 ,sursh1 8seraphic20 ,farishtah manish1 8angel-hearted20 ,sursh manish1 8seraph-hearted20 ,sips1 8adorers20 ,sah dn1 8upright in faith20 and ,zandil1 8the benevolent20 opposed to whom are the ,ahriman1 the ,dvs1 and the ,tundil1 or 8fierce demons40 ,the ,divs are of two kinds2 the one class subject to the king of the angels1 who1 through fear of that prince1 have been compelled to desist from injuring animated beings2 the second kind consists of ,dvs in the realms of other kings1 who break through the covenants of the law1 and slay animals3 these in truth are no other than wolves1 tigers1 scorpions1 and serpents4 ,they record that in the time of ,ardeshr1 the son of ,azd1 the son of ,babegn1 the son of ,nushirvn1 there was a ,jaiyanian champion by name ,farhd1 the son of ,ald1 who were both ranked among the distinguished leaders3 ,ald1 when in a state of intoxication1 having slain a sheep with his sword1 his son ,farhd1 on ascertaining this1 made him pass under the sharp-edged scimitar2 the people held him in detestation1 and said3 8,thou shouldst have sent thy father to the king40 ,he replied1 8,my father had committed two criminal actions2 the first1 in taking so much wine as to lose his senses2 the second in destroying a sheep4 ,although it would have been proper to send him to the king1 ,i could not suffer any delay to intervene in punishing his crimes3 at present ,i confess myself guilty of transgressing the ,abadin code1 for not submitting the details of this affair to the king40 ,he then ordered himself to be put in chains1 and brought in that state before the king3 but his majesty drew the pen of forgiveness over his crime1 and elevated the apex of his dignity4 ,moreover it was necessary to drink wine in a secret place1 as they inflicted due punishment on whoever was found intoxicated in the public bazar4 ,in truth1 permission to drink wine was only given in cases of malady1 as from the time of the very ancient sovereigns of the ,mahabad dynasty1 until that of ,yssn ,ajam1 no person partook of wine or strong drinks1 except the invalids who were ordered by the physicians to have recourse to them2 and even they partook of them according to the established rules3 but among the ancient kings1 i4 e4 from ,kaiomars' to ,yezdagird1 they at first indulged secretly in wine for the purpose of sensual enjoyment1 under color of conforming to medical ordinances4 ,at last matters terminated in this1 that wine was openly produced at the banquets1 and the champions in attendance on the king partook of it2 but it was not permitted to be drunk openly in the bazars or streets4 ,the king gave audience every day1 being seated on an elevation1 that is a ,tbsr1 or elevated window3 in the same manner he took his seat in the ,roz-,gh1 which is a place where1 on his rising from the ,tbsr1 he seated himself on a throne3 on which occasion the nobles in attendance were drawn out in their proper gradations3 note1 that by giving audience is meant1 turning his attention to the concerns of mankind4 ,every decree issued by the king from the rozistn or shabistn of the interior or exterior1 was transcribed by the ,shudahband and again submitted to the royal presence1 and when its promulgation was ratified1 it was laid before his majesty a second time4 ,whenever a traveller entered a caravanserai or city1 the secretaries of the place1 in the presence of witnesses and notaries1 made out a statement of his wealth and effects1 which they gave him2 and the same at the time of sale2 so that if he should afterwards declare that his stock had been diminished or some part had been abstracted1 they could ascertain its value and quantity3 there was also a fixed price assigned to every commodity and article1 and also a certain rate of profit prescribed to each vendor4 ,the following was their mode of hunting3 the army being drawn out in array1 in right1 centre1 and left columns1 the nobles and eminent warriors took their several posts according to rank1 and during a period of forty or fifty days formed a circle around both mountains and plains4 ,if the country abounded in wood1 they formed the whole of it into well secured piles3 the king then directed his steps towards that quarter1 and his train by degrees drove in the game1 keeping up a strict watch that no beast of prey should escape out of the circle3 on this the king1 his sons1 and relations dispatched with arrows as many as they could2 after this the king1 surrounded by the most distinguished courtiers1 sat on a throne placed on an eminence1 formed of strong timbers so fastened together that no animal could get up there3 the generals1 and then the whole of the soldiery charged into the centre1 so that not a trace remained of ferocious animals1 that is1 of lions and such noxious creatures3 they next counted the numbers of the slain1 and having piled them in one place1 formed a hillock of their carcases4 ,if they discovered a harmless animal amongst the slain1 they ordered vengeance to be inflicted on its destroyer1 and cast his body among those of the ferocious animals4 ,they record that in the reign of ,yssn1 the son of ,shh ,mahbl1 an elk had been slain by some tyrannically-inclined person1 on beholding which the father of the insane criminal1 with the ruthless sword1 immediately dissevered his son's head from his shoulders4 ,also in the reign of ,nshirvan1 the fortunate descendant from the ,shyn dynasty1 at one time whilst in the pursuit of game1 an arrow shot intentionally from the bow of a noble champion named ,fartsh1 wounded a deer so that it fell dead3 his son1 ,ayn ,tsh1 was perfectly horror-struck1 and in retaliation with an arrow pinned his father's body to that of the slaughtered deer2 so that1 in future1 there should be no infringement of the ,farhang law4 ,as soon as a lofty mound had been formed of slaughtered noxious creatures1 which either walk1 fly1 or graze1 then by the king's command a ,mobid ascended the eminence and said3 8,such is the recompense of all who slay harmless creatures2 such the retribution which awaits the destroyers of animals free from crimes40 ,he then said to the harmless creatures3 8,the equitable king of kings1 in order to destroy the noxious animals which cause you so many calamities1 has come forward in his own precious person1 and taken vengeance for the misdeeds of these wicked creatures3 now depart in peace2 behold the vengeance inflicted on your sanguinary foes2 and commit no sin before the protector of your species40 ,they then left a road open for the innoxious animals to escape and hasten to their mountains and deserts4 ,this kind of hunting they called ,shikr-i-dd or ,dd-shikr2 i4 e43 8the hunt of equity10 or 8the equity-hunt40 ,the royal governors also in their respective provinces adopted a chase of the like description4 ,whenever the sovereign was of such a character as not to deviate from the ,farhang code1 if any person declined rendering allegiance to the prince chosen by him for his successor1 that person was immediately destroyed by the people4 ,in the reign of ,shh ,gilv1 a champion having beheld in a vision1 that the king had raised to the throne one of the princes who met not his approbation1 immediately on awaking put himself to death4 ,shh ,gilv1 on hearing this1 said to the son of the deceased3 8,when a person is awake1 rebellion is to be abhorred2 but not in a state of sleep1 as it is then involuntary40 ,also in the reign of ,bahman1 the son of ,isfendiar1 the son of ,ardashr1 the son of ,azad ,shai1#cff one of the generals1 ,bahram by name1 governor of ,khorasan1 having made arrangements for revolt and rebellion1 the soldiers on learning his designs put him to death1 and offering up his flesh after the manner of the ,moslem sacrifice1 divided it and ate of it1 saying1 8,he is a noxious animal40 ,in the same reign1 a champion1 by name ,gilshsp1 saw in a trance that he had rebelled against ,bahman3 on relating the dream to his soldiers1 they for answer drew forth their swords and shed his blood1 saying3 8,although there is no blame to be attached to the vision1 yet he is the genius of evil for publishing it abroad40 ,ayn ,shakb1 a ,mbed1 who saw in a vision that he was uttering imprecations against ,ardshr1 the son of ,babagn1 the son of ,azd the ,jaiynan1 immediately on awaking cut out his tongue3 such was their devotedness to their kings4 ,they moreover say1 in the case of every prince who was adorned with sound doctrine1 good works1 and noble descent2 who promoted the interests of the military and the happiness of the ,rys1 and who never deviated from the covenant of the law2 that when any one proved refractory to his commands1 that person's life and property were confiscated with justice4 ,the kings made trials of their sons' capacities1 and conferred the royal dignity on whichever was found the most deserving2 not making the one king whom they regarded with the greatest natural affection4 ,they also said3 8,sovereign power becomes not the monarch who transgresses this blessed law2 neither should any prince give way to the disposition to deviate in the slightest degree from any of its covenants1 lest from their esteeming one branch of the law as of no importance1 they might regard the whole as of trifling obligation40 ,the adorable and almighty ,god so gave his aid to these praise-worthy sovereigns that they decked the bride of dominion with the ornaments of equity1 benevolence1 and impartial justice4 ,merchants1 travellers1 and scholars moved about in perfect security2 during their reigns there existed no annoyance from the payment of tolls1 customs1 and other exactions2 and in the caravanserais was neither rent nor hire4 ,the kings had the covenants of the law transcribed1 which they always kept near them1 and had read over to them daily by some confidential courtier3 on great festivals they were communicated to the military and the rayas1 with strong injunctions to store them up in their recollection4 ,the ,umras also pursued the same system1 and recited the law to their dependants4 ,in like manner1 the princesses of the ,shabistn1 8night-apartment10 observed the same rule4 ,they moreover say that every prince who1 through the suggestions of his own mind or of his minister's1 adopted any measures except in conformity to this law1 bitterly repented of it4,jai ,alad has said3 8,whoever in the king's presence utters a word contrary to the covenants of the law1 or persuades him to do so2 the king may rest assured that the object of that person is to throw the kingdom into confusion40 ,when the ,yezdnn princes and rulers gave audience1 there lay before them a book1 a scourge1 and a sword2 the book contained the covenants of the law2 and every affair which was submitted to them being considered according to the view taken of it in the book1 they then gave a decision4 ,in the royal dynasty which preceded the ,gilshn kings1 there was no violation whatever of this code2 but under later princes some disorder crept into its observance4 ,they also say1 that whenever they violated the commands1 decrees1 maxims1 rules1 and decisions of this covenant1 they became associated with regret and repentance4 ,whenever a sovereign sustained any injury1 it arose principally from inattention to this standard2 and whenever a monarch lived in prosperity1 it proceeded from his scrupulous observance of the most minute details of this code4 ,the ancient sovereigns1 that is1 the ,abdn1 the ,jaiyn1 the ,shaiyn and the ,yassnan1 who are the most renowned of kings1 never lost sight of the ,farhang ,abd1 that is1 they did every thing according to its dictates3 this code they also called ,hirbud ,sr1 or 8sacerdotal purity40 ,during this period no enemy arose1 and no foe obtained the supremacy2 the military and the rayas enjoyed undisturbed repose4 ,amongst the ,gilshyn kings1 ,hushang1 ,tahmras1 ,faridun1 ,minuchahar1 ,kaikobd1 ,kaikhusr1 ,lohorasp1 ,bahman1 ,ardashir ,babgn1 and the others1 had this code transcribed in secret characters1 which they employed as mental amulets and spiritual charms4 ,nshirvn also1 having procured a transcript of this law1 kept it by him4 ,although all the sovereigns conformed to this rule1 yet none observed it in so high a degree as the ancient sovereigns of the ,abdn1 ,jaiyn1 ,shaiyn1 and ,yassnn dynasties3 as in the belief held by the ,yazdanians1 or 8theists10 their dignity so far transcends that of the ,gilshyns1 that we can institute no comparison between them4 ,the ,gilshyn princes also exerted themselves to prevent the slaughter of harmless animals2 although the people did not pay the same respect to their orders as to those of the ancient sovereigns1 yet1 as compared with their successors1 people were more exact in the performance of duty than in later periods4 ,they say that ,rustam1#cfg the son of ,zaul1 at the moment of abandoning the robes of mortality1 having heaved a deep sigh1 the king of ,kabl said to him3 8,o ,rustam6 art thou alarmed at death80 the hero replied3 8,god forbid6 for the death of the body is to the spirit the bestowing of life2 and the issuing forth under the sphere is the being born from the maternal womb2 when the cloud of the body is removed1 the sun of spirit shines more resplendently3 but my grief proceeded from this reflection1 that when ,kas commanded ,ts to put me to the ignominious death of the gibbet1#cfh ,i refused to submit to the punishment4 ,although ,kas1 in violation of the ,farhang code1 had passed a sentence opposed to the decisions of ,mahabd1 and even the interests of ,kas were ultimately advanced by my rebellious conduct1 ,i am at present afflicted on that account1 lest1 perhaps1 any thing opposed to the ,farhang code may have proceeded from me4 ,in like manner ,isfendiar was slain by my hand1#cfi and ,i refused to be put in chains2 although it became him not to exact compliance1 nor was it in accordance with the ,farhang code40 ,dastan 7,zaul7 also lived in regret1 saying3 8,why did ,i utter a word in opposition to ,kai ,khusran1 on the day when he chose ,lohorasp as his successor1 although my sentiments were expressed by way of counsel80#cgj ,when ,bahman1 the son of ,isfendiar1 made preparations for laying waste ,sistan1 notwithstanding the people urged ,dastan to give the invaders battle1 he approved not of it1 but said3 8,never more will ,i break through the ,farhang code40 ,he then came on foot into the presence of ,bahman1 by whose orders he was thrown into chains3 but he finally attained the king's unbounded esteem1 and was released2 whilst his son ,faramarz1 contrary to the ,farhang code1 gave the king battle1 and1 being taken prisoner1 suffered the ignominious death of the gibbet3#cga his son was also put to death on the same account4 ,the implicit obedience of the son ,minufarad to ,kobad1#cgb the father of ,nushirvan1 is also well known2 although that prince was not strictly entitled to obedience according to the ,farhang covenant1 yet the devotedness of his subjects is highly celebrated4 #cej ,buzurg-,mihr was the celebrated minister of ,nushirvan 7see note1 p4 #ajd74 #cea ,azad ,bahman is called by the ,sipasian 7see p4 #f7 the precious jewel of the intellectual principle4 ,in the ,zand-books and in the ,bun-,dehesh1 he is invoked as created by ,ormuzd1 and as one who is to conduct the heavens2 he presides over the eleventh month of the year and the second day of the month2 he is the king of the luminous world2 the other angels repose under his guard2 he is the principle of the intelligence of the ear1 given by ,ormuzd2 the father of the purity of the heart2 the ,ized of peace who watches over the people2 he aids in the distribution of the waters1 and in the production of herds and other riches2 it is he who receives the souls of the just at their entrance into heaven1 congratulates them on their happy arrival1 and clothes them with robes of gold4,zend-,avesta1 ,i1 pp4 #ha1 #acd1 #daf1 #dah2 ,,ii1 pp4 #ge1 #ajj1 #add1 #aeb1 #caf1 and elsewhere4 ,according to the ,destir 7,english transl4 p4 #fc7 ,bahman is the first of the numberless created angels4,a4 ,t4 #ceb ,vakhshr signifies 8prophet0 in the old ,persian language4 ,according to the ,destir 7edit4 of ,bombay1 ,english transl41 p4 #gi71 ,sadvakhshr is an epithet of ,hoshang1 signifying 8one hundred prophets40 by a mistake ascribed1 as well as the work ,javidan ,khirid1 to ,jemshid1 in my note1 pp4 #ca and #cb4;,a4 ,t4 #cec ,the manuscripts read 1 the manuscript of ,oude reads3 2 neither word is found in any dictionary4 #ced ,the manuscripts read 1 which appears the best reading2 the manuscript of ,oude has1 like the edit4 of ,calcutta1 4 #cee ,the manuscripts1 with that of ,oude1 read 1 the edition of ,calcutta1 4 #cef ,it is not decided whether 8,azizi0 here and elsewhere is a proper name1 or the attribute of a person4 #ceg 8,arshiya0the manuscripts read 8,arsmai20 the manuscript of ,oude has 4 #ceh ,jenghis ,khan1 8the king of kings10 was the name assumed by ,temuz ,khin1 a ,moghul1 when he had succeeded in uniting under his own and sole domination the various tribes of the ,turks4 ,he was born in the year #aafb and died in #abbh of our era4 ,his history is sufficiently known and belongs not to this place4,a4 ,t4 #cei ,kazl-bsh signifies in the ,turkish language 8red head10 a name given by the ,turks to the ,persians1 since they began to wear a cap of that colour enveloped by a turban with twelve folds in honour of the twelve ,imams4 ,this happened in the year #aeja1 under the reign of their king ,ismil ,sfi1 already mentioned1 note #f1 pp4 #eb1 #ec4;,a4 ,t4 #cfj ,intending to put an end to the march4 #cfa signify also a bodkin and a needle4 #cfb ,gurgin1 in the ,shahnamah1 is called the son of ,mlad1 and was one of the principal chieftains under the reign of ,khusro4 ,gurgin's character does not figure advantageously in the history of ,pzshen and ,munizsh1 one of the most interesting episodes of ,ferdusi's historical poem4,a4 ,t4 #cfc ,the manuscript translation of ,d4 ,shea reads in this place3 8,these officers are called ,smr1 or the ,char ,ayn ,farangi1 8the four institutes of law30 which words are not in the printed edition of ,calcutta1 but are probably in the two manuscripts which he had before his eyes4,a4 ,t4 #cfd ,it cannot be denied that the ,persians1 in very remote times1 practised castration1 and especially upon youths distinguished by their beauty 7,herod4 lib4 ,,vi74 ,they are even accused of having been the first among whom this infamous practice and the name of eunuchs originated 7,steph4 de urbibus4 ,donat4 in ,eunuchum1 act4 ,i1 scen4 #b74 ,ammian4 ,marcell4 7lib4 ,,xiv7 attributes it1 however1 to ,semiramis4 7,see upon this subject ,brissonius1 de ,regio ,persarum principatu1 p4 #bid1 #bie47 ,the passage in the text permits us to believe that this cruel operation was a dishonouring punishment1 generally abhorred1 and particularly restricted by severe laws among the ,persians4,a4 ,t4 #cfe ,it may be recollected that the interior service in the palace of an ,indian king was of old always performed by females4,a4 ,t4 #cff ,bahman1 son of ,isfendiar and successor of ,gustasp1 is also named ,ki ,ardashr1 diraz-dost and identified with the ,artaxerxes 7longimanus7 of the ,greeks4 ,he is placed #eje years before our era4 ,he reigned #aab years1 according to the ,shah-namah4,a4 ,t4 #cfg ,rustam1 who in the ,shah-namah1 during a period of six centuries1 appears rather a generic name1 or a representative of the ,medo-,persian heroism than a particular individual1 ,rustam is reckoned the fifth of the ten ,persian philosophers enumerated in our note1 page #aab4 ,hence ,rustam's philosophical reflexions4 ,in general1 we see frequently in the ,persian historical accounts the characters of kings1 heroes1 ascetics1 and philosophers confusedly blended in the same persons4,a4 ,t4 #cfh ,at the time that a great army of ,turanians commanded by ,sohrab overrun ,persia1 ,rustam1 the ruler of ,sistan1 was summoned by ,ks1 his liege1 to repulse the invaders4 ,rustam1 although willing to obey1 having spent some days in feasting1 appeared later than his sovereign expected1 who1 in a fit of rage1 after having severely rebuked him for his tardiness1 condemned him to an ignominious death4 ,gv1 one of the principal chiefs1 and friend of ,rustam1 was charged with the execution1 but1 refusing to do what he felt impossible1 he was sentenced to share the fate of the great hero1 and ,tus1 a chief mentioned in the text1 received the order to execute the mandate upon both4 ,a reconciliation however took place between the king and his powerful vassals1 whose united efforts were required against the ,turanians4 ,it was in the course of this war that ,rustam slew his son ,sohrab1 without knowing him1 and without supposing him at the head of the ,turanian army3 this is the subject of one of the most celebrated episodes of ,ferdusi's ,shah-namah4,a4 ,t4 #cfi ,isfendiar1 the son of ,gushtasp1 several times mentioned in the course of this work1 adopted1 like his father1 and zealously propagated1 ,zoroaster's religion1 which caused a new war between the ,persians and ,turanians4 ,arjasp1 the sovereign of ,tr1 having invaded ,persia1 ,isfendiar was called to the assistance of his father1 who promised the throne to him if he repulsed the invaders2 but1 delivered from danger by his son's successful exertions1 ,gushtasp1 unwilling to fulfil his promise1 readily listened to suggestions about the treacherous designs of ,isfendiar whom he emprisoned4 ,arjasp1 profiting by this event1 marched to ,balkh1 killed ,lohrasp1 the father of ,gushtasp1 carried off the two daughters of the latter1 whom he defeated in a battle and pent up in a fortress4 ,isfendiar1 called out from his prison1 routed the ,turanian army and released his father4 ,moreover1 he rescued his two sisters 7one of whom was his wife7 from captivity1 by taking the strong residence of ,arjasp1 whom he killed with his own hand4 ,he was not even then to enjoy the well-deserved reward1 but charged with the most perilous expedition to bring ,rustam in chains before the throne of his discontented liege4 ,in vain did the hero just mentioned proffer his willingness to submit to any terms of submission except that of being enchained2 nothing less than this was insisted upon3 a combat became necessary1 in which ,isfendiar reduced his great antagonist to have recourse to the miraculous aid of ,simurgh 7see note1 p4 #ee72 by this alone ,rustam was enabled to kill ,isfendiar in a renewed combat4,a4 ,t4 #cgj ,k ,khusr1 after a glorious reign of sixty years1 resolved to resign the crown4 ,he assembled in a plain all his chiefs and the people of ,iran4 ,after a magnificent festival of seven days1 he proclaimed his final determination2 divided the empire among several chiefs1 and appointed ,lohrasp the successor of his sovereignty4 ,this choice met with some opposition on the part of the aged ,zaul 7see ,rauzat-us-,safa1 ,shea's transl41 p4 #bfc71 and although this chief yielded to the sovereign will1 yet he never paid homage to the new king2 and a pernicious misunderstanding remained between the descendants of both parties4 ,it may be remarked that ,k ,khusr's abdication is quite ,indian4 ,according to ,ferdsi1 it was towards the mountains of ,india1 called ,amajal1 that ,k ,khusr bent his steps1 accompanied by a number of his chiefs1 the most ancient of whom he soon dismissed1 whilst others followed him further1 although warned by him of an impending storm of snow which was to bury them all4 ,he suddenly disappeared1 and they were never heard of4 ,this reminds of more than one similar event in ,indian history4,a4 ,t4 #cga ,this account agrees with the ,shah-namah1 according to which ,bahman1 in order to revenge the death of his father 7see note last but one71 invaded ,sistan and took ,zaul with all his treasures4 ,it was then that ,farmars1 the son of ,rustam1 encountered the ,persians in a battle3 he was defeated1 taken prisoner1 and hanged4 ,according to the ,rauzat-us-,safa 7see ,shea's transl41 p4 #cdj71 ,bahman1 on reaching ,zabulistan1 heard of ,rustam's death2 his son ,farmans fell1 and ,zaul was taken prisoner4,a4 ,t4 #cgb ,kobad1 the ,cabades or ,cavades of the ,greeks1 the eighteenth king of the ,sassanians1 ruled #dc years in ,persia from #dhh to #eca1 ,a4 ,d41 not ingloriously within and without his empire1 from which he was however driven on account of the support which he gave to the new and dangerous doctrine of the prophet ,mazdak1 about whom see section ,,xv of this chapter4 ,kobad recovered the throne by the assistance of the ,tartar prince ,hestial 7see ,ferdusi's ,shah-namah71 or 7see ,herbelot7 by that of the nations1 called ,haathelah1 who inhabit the countries of ,kandahar1 ,thibet1 and ,barantolah4,a4 ,t4 ,,the ,,fourth ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,dabistan contains an account of the ,jamshaspian sect4 ,the ,yekanah-binan1 8seers of unity10 also called the ,jamsha1 who form another great body of the ,parsees1 are the followers of ,jamshasp1 the son of ,jemshid1 the son of ,tahmras3 in their speech there is much that is enigmatical1 and endless subtilty4 ,jamshasp never invited any one to follow his tenets1 but he was of such exemplary life and so great a sage1 that the people bore him great affection1 and wrote down his sayings1 until by degrees great numbers voluntarily adopted them as articles of faith4 ,according to them1 the world has no external existence2 they hold that whatever exists is ,god1 and that naught exists besides him3 a holy man has said3 8,every eye which is directed to the primitive nature1 ,unless tinged with the collyrium of divine light1 ,whatever it beholds in the world1 except thy face1 ,is but the second image of distorted vision40 ,they hold that all the intelligences1 souls1 angels1 heavens1 stars1 elements1 the animal1 vegetable1 and mineral kingdoms exist within his knowledge1 and are not external to it3 which sentiment king ,jamshid explained to ,abtin1 saying3 8,know1 ,o ,abtin1 that the ,almighty conceived in idea the first intelligence2 in like manner the first intelligence conceived three objects1 namely1 the second intelligence1 the soul of the upper sphere1 and the body of the same heaven3 in like manner1 the second intelligence conceived three objects1 and so on in succession to the elements and their combinations3 and this is exactly as when we form an idea of a city1 with its palaces1 gardens1 and inhabitants1 which in reality have no existence external to our imagination2 so that1 consequently1 the existence of this world is of the same description40 ,the ,abadian regard these sayings as enigmatical1 although ,jamshid composed many philosophical works1 which the ,yekanah ,binan admit without any commentary3 many of the ,parsees adopt this creed1 and particularly the ascetics of that class4 ,the belief of these sectaries is illustrated by the following tetrastich from ,subahani3 8,the sophist1 who has no knowledge of intellect1 ,asserts that this world is altogether an optical illusion1 ,in truth1 the world is an illusion2 however1 ,certainty is for ever displaying her effulgence there40 ,on this subject they have composed various works1 the most celebrated of which is1 the 8,testament of ,jamshid addressed to ,abtin10 compiled by ,farhang ,dostoor4 ,shdah1 ,suhrb1 ,mzan1 and ,jamshsp1 who1 under the profession of mercantile pursuits1 travelled along with ,shdsh1 the son of ,ansh1 were of the ,yekanah ,binan sect4 ,,the ,,fifth ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,dabistan describes the ,samrdin sect4,in common language ,samrd means imagination and thought2 and the sects thus named are of many descriptions2 the first is that of the followers of ,fartsh1 who lived about the commencement of the ,serpent-shouldered ,zohak's reign3 ,fartsh followed mercantile pursuits1 and his faith was as follows3 this elemental world is merely idea2 the remainder1 the heavens1 the stars1 and the simple uncompounded beings actually exist4 ,the holders of this opinion are called the ,fartoshn4 ,the second are the ,farshdyah1 so called from ,farshd1 the son of ,fartsh3 he asserted that the heavens and the stars are also ideal1 and that the simple uncompounded beings only have actual existence4 ,the next are the ,farrajyah1 so called from ,farraj1 the son of ,farshid3 his opinion was that the simple uncompounded beings1 that is1 intelligences and souls1 also have no existence1 which is the attribute of the necessarily self-existent ,god alone1 and that all besides is ideal1 appearing only to exist in consequence of the essence of that sole existence4 ,the next are the ,faramandyah1 thus named from ,faramand1 the disciple of ,farraj3 he says1 if any person exists1 that person knows that the elements1 heavens1 stars1 intelligences1 and souls are the ,almighty2 and what people call the necessarily self-existent ,god has no being1 although we1 through imagination 7idea71 suppose him to exist2 which he certainly does not4 ,according to the testimony of the sage ,amr ,khaiam3 8,the ,creator in this aged world is as a vase1 ,which is internally water and externally ice2 ,resign to children this trifling about infidelity and faith2 ,remove from the place where ,god is only a letter40 ,they said to him3 8,how dost thou prove this idea80 he answered3 8,by means of the solar light we can see3 but where is the sun80 ,thus1 according to them1 the ,almighty is only an idea of the imagination3 the people of this sect are now mixed up with the ,moslems1 and go about in the garb of the faithful3 according to them a person named ,kmkr1 one of the ascetics of this sect1 who lived in the reign of sultan ,mahmud of ,ghiznah1#cgc composed a poetical treatise1 and compiled narratives1 proofs1 and revelations conformable to his tenets2 assigning to his faith a superiority over all other systems1 after this manner3 that1 whatever devout persons have recorded in their respective creeds concerning the existence of ,god1 the greatness of the empyreal sphere1 the extent of the angelic world1 or concerning paradise1 hell1 the bridge of judgment1 the resurrection of the dead1 the interrogatory and reply1#cgd the appearing before ,god1 the rejection of tradition1 eternity1 and the creation of the world1 is all correct in this creed2 as all becomes evident to the idea of their professor through the existence of idea2 with respect to which they thus express themselves3 8by means of idea1 they behold the ideal40 ,in proof of his system1 he farther says3 8,self cannot be ignorant of self40 ,but in truth they are ignorant of their own identity1 and understand not in what 8self0 consists3 some of them maintain1 that the being called man and endowed with voice and speech1 is an incorporeal essence joined to the body2 the relations of thought and action resulting merely from its entrance or descent into body3 notwithstanding this principle1 they differ greatly among themselves respecting the eternity and creation of their own souls4 ,in like manner1 some have also denied the simple uncompoundedness of the intellectual soul1 and have spoken largely against that doctrine2 consequently1 as they are unacquainted with their own identity1 what can they know about the heavens1 stars1 intelligences1 and ,god8 and it becomes not that one should know nothing about himself1 but that he exists not4 ,kmkr1 in his treatise1 has collected many amusing anecdotes respecting the ,samrdin sect1 of which the following is an instance3 a ,samradian once said to his steward3 8,the world and its inhabitants have no actual existence2 they merely have an ideal being40 ,the servant1 on hearing this1 took the first favorable opportunity to conceal his master's horse1 and when he was about to ride1 brought him an ass with the horse's saddle4 ,when the ,samrdin asked1 8,where is the horse80 the servant replied1 8,thou hast been thinking of an idea3 there was no horse in being40 ,the master answered1 8,it is true30 he then mounted the ass1 and having rode for some time1 he suddenly dismounted1 and taking the saddle off the ass's back1 placed it on the servant's1 drawing the girths on tightly2 and having forced the bridle into his mouth1 he mounted him and flogged him along vigorously4 ,the servant1 in piteous accents1 having exclaimed3 8,what is the meaning of this conduct80 the ,samrdin replied3 8,there is no such thing as a whip2 it is merely ideal2 thou art only thinking of some illusion30 after which the steward repented and restored the horse4 ,in another tale it is recorded that a ,samrdin1 having obtained in marriage the daughter of a wealthy lawyer1 she1 on finding out her husband's creed1 proposed to have some amusement at his expense4 ,one day the ,samradian brought in a bottle of pure wine1 which during his absence she emptied of its contents and filled it up with water2 when the time for taking wine came round1 she poured out water instead of wine into a gold cup which was her own property4 ,the ,samrdin having observed1 8,thou hast given me water instead of wine10 she answered1 8,it is only ideal2 there was no wine in existence40 ,the husband then said3 8,thou hast spoken well2 present me the cup1 that ,i may go to a neighbour's house and bring it back full of wine40 ,he therefore took out the gold cup1 which he sold1 and concealing the money1 instead of the gold vase brought back an earthen vessel full of wine4 ,the wife1 on seeing this1 said1 8,what hast thou done with the golden cup80 he replied1 8,thou art surely thinking about some ideal golden cup30 on which the woman greatly regretted her witticism4 ,as to those sectaries who assert that the world exists only in idea1 the author of this work saw several in ,lahore1 in the year of the ,hejirah #ajdh1 ,a4 ,d4 #afcg4 ,the first was ,km ,j1 who composed the following distichs on ,farraj3 8,thou knowest that every thing is ideal1 ,if the ,almighty has given thee illumination6 ,the mention even of ideality proceeds from idea2 ,the very idea itself is nothing more than ideal40 ,it is to be noted that ,samrd and ,samwd are applied to fancy or idea4 ,ismail ,sufi1 of ,ardistan#cge has poetically expressed himself to the same purport in what is styled the mixed ,persian3 8,i am about to mention something although remote from reason2 ,listen carefully3 but if not1 mercy still awaits thee3 ,this world is ideal2 and ideality itself is but idea3 ,this existence which ,i call ideal1 that likewise is idea40 ,the second person treated of in the ,samrad ,namah of ,kmkr was ,nk ,khoy2 the third was ,shd ,ksh2 and the fourth1 ,mhyr3 they were all engaged in commercial pursuits1 and styled ,moslem or true believers4 #cgc ,mahmud1 the son of ,sebekteghin1 was the first monarch of the dynasty of ,ghiznah1 the foundation of which had been laid by his father4 ,during a reign of #cc years 7from #iig to #ajcj1 ,a4 ,d47 he made twelve expeditions to ,india1 and established his domination in the western part of this country1 out of which he possessed a still greater empire1 which to the north-west extended over the whole of ,persia1 and was limited on the north-east by the river ,oxus4,a4 ,t4 #cgd ,see about it hereafter the sixth chapter1 which treats of the religion of the ,musulmans4 #cge ,upon ,ismail ,sofi1 see note p4 #eb1 #ec4 ,ardistan or ,ardastan is a town of the province called ,icbal1 or ,persian ,irak1 #cf leagues distant from ,ispahan4,a4 ,t4 ,,the ,,sixth ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,dabistan describes the tenets of the ,khodaiyan4,this sect are followers of ,khoddd1 a ,mobed1 who lived during the decline of ,jemshid's power and the usurpation of ,zohak4 ,khoddd held intelligences and souls to be simple uncompounded beings1 and the stars and heavens to be the companions of ,god2 each of which1 in proportion to its proximity to the ,almighty beyond other created beings1 is so much more elevated in dignity3 notwithstanding which we are not to account any being1 whether the simple uncompounded or material1 as a mediator or promoter between us and ,god2 neither is there any occasion for prophets1 because through the medium of reliance1 the seeking out of ,god is attained1 and we are to serve ,god alone4 ,among those who held these opinions in ,lahore1 in the year of the ,hejirah #ajdi 7,a4 ,d4 #afci7 were seen ,kamus and ,fartsh1 both merchants4 ,,the ,,seventh ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,dabistan describes the system of the ,rdn4,the chief of this sect was ,rd ,gnah1 one of the eminently brave1 a lion-like hero1 who1 to beneficent acts and abstinence from cruelty to animals1 joined the dignity of knowledge2 he enjoyed distinguished honor and rank about the end of ,jamshd's reign and the commencement of ,zohk's usurpation3 his opinion is1 that ,god is the same as the sun1 whose bounty extends to all beings2 and that the fourth heaven1 by reason of its constituting the true centre of the seven heavens1 is the seat of his glory and as his essence is pure good1 his place must also be regarded as a proof of his goodness3 besides this1 his grace extends alike to all bodies1 whether superior or inferior3 moreover1 as the heart1 which is the sovereign of the body1 is settled in the midst of the breast1 such is also the rule and custom observed by renowned princes to fix the seat of government in the centre of their realms1 so that their bounty as well as severity may be equally extended over the whole community2 and1 by such a measure1 the repose of the people and the due regulations of the ,rayas may be promoted4 ,he asserted that the spirit of the heavens1 the stars1 and the three kingdoms of nature proceed from the solar spirit1 and that their bodies return to the light of his body2 that is1 the virtuous return to him or some of the stars approximating to his glory1 whilst sinners remain in the elemental world4 ,he at first communicated these opinions secretly to his friends1 but promulgated them fearlessly during the reign of ,zohk4 ,in the year of the ,hejirah #ajeb 7,a4 ,d4 #afdb71 the author1 whilst journeying from ,panjab to ,kabul1 met at the station of ,rwal ,bund two persons of this creed1 and whose names were ,hormuzd and ,trah ,ksh1 who were skilled in all arts1 abstinent1 and remote from hurting any living being4 ,,the ,,eighth ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,dabistan treats of the ,shdrangn creed4,shdrang1 a champion of ,iran1 who in battle was regarded as the acknowledged chief of the marshallers of armies1 and joined profound knowledge in science to bravery in the field1 always turned away most studiously from doing injury to the creatures of ,god4 ,he appeared about the middle of ,zohk's reign1 and soothed the serpents between the usurper's shoulders4 ,shdrang unceasingly invited the people to adopt his faith1 and had many followers3 he maintained that ,khoy and ,manish1 8disposition and constitution0 or nature1 to be ,god2 according to his system1 the state of man and other animals resembles that of herbage1 which1 when scattered about or dissolved1 grows up again4 ,a merchant1 named ,pl zr1 who belonged to this sect1 was met by the author in ,kashmir in the year of the ,hejirah #ajdj 7,a4 ,d4 #afca74 ,,the ,,ninth ,,section explains the ,paikrin creed4,paikr was a virtuous sage from ,iran1 who appeared about the middle of ,zohk's reign4 ,he thus addressed his disciples3 8,the ,almighty is the same as fire1 from the effulgence of which stars have been formed1 and the heavens from its smoke2 as fire is both hot and dry1 from its heat proceeded the air1 which is hot and humid2 and from the humidity of the air came water1 which is cold and humid2 also from the coldness of water proceeded the earth1 which is cold and dry2 and from these conjointly came the compound productions1 both perfect and imperfect40 ,two individuals of this sect1 ,paikr ,pazhuh and ,jahan ,navard1 who were unequalled in drawing out astronomical tables1 painting1 and inlaying1 were met by the writer in the year #ajei 7,a4 ,d4 #afdi7 in ,gujart1 in the district of ,panjab4 ,,the ,,tenth ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,dabistan explains the ,mlnn system4,mln was one of the brave champions of ,iran and contemporary with ,paikr2 he exhorted many people to adopt his faith1 which was as follows3 8,the air is the truly self-existent ,god1 as it is both hot and humid2 from its heat proceeded fire1 and from its humidity1 water2 from the effulgence of fire came forth the stars2 from its smoke the heavens 7as before mentioned72 and from the frigidity of water proceeded the earth40#cgf ,one of this sect was ,rohm1 who passed under the designation of a draughtsman2 he was in truth a painter possessed of ,european skill2 the hand of ,bahzad#cgg and the finger of ,mani1#cgh who never remained long in one place4 ,in the year of the ,hejirah #ajdj 7,a4 ,d4 #afcj7 the author beheld him in ,kashmir1 in the house of ,shdosh4 #cgf ,vitruvius 7who lived shortly before ,j4 ,c47 says 7,i4 iv4 ,prf473 ,thales ,milesius omnium rerum principium ,aquam est professus1 ,heraclitus ,ignem1 ,magorum sacerdotes1 ,aquam et ,ignem4 ,as to the earth proceeding from the frigidity of water1 we read in ,macrobius 7,in ,somno ,scip4 ,i4 #a7 what follows3 8,terra est sicca et frigida3 aqua vero frigida et humecta est2 hc duo elementa1 licet sibi et per siccum humectumque contraria sint1 per frigidum tamen commune junguntur40,a4 ,t4 #cgg ,bahzad was a celebrated painter4 #cgh ,in the ,destr 7,english transl41 pp4 #ahh1 #ahhi7 it is stated that ,mani came into ,iran during the reign of ,ardeshir1 and made himself notorious by curious paintings and a new doctrine which he exhibited3 he permitted the killing of harmless animals1 and forbade all intercourse with women4 ,after a controversy upon these two points with the king ,shapur1 he was driven out of the court1 and then lapidated and torn to pieces by the people of the town4 ,according to ,sharistani1 ,mani was the son of ,ften or ,fater2 according to ,mohammed ,ben ,ishak1 his father was ,fettak ,ben ,ebi ,berdsm4 ,he was born about the year #bdj of our era1 but his birthplace is differently stated to have been in ,persia1 in ,babylonia1 in ,nishapr1 in ,khorossan4 ,he is reputed as a learned man1 as will be shewn in a subsequent note4 ,he appeared at the court of king ,shpur1 the son of ,ardeshir ,babegan1 but inhabited chiefly ,turkistan4 ,as a painter1 he exhibited a set of pictures1 called 1 artang2 or 1 arzhank2 or 1 archang ,mni1 which he said he had brought from heaven1 where he pretended to have dwelt1 whilst in reality he was concealed in a cavern during one year4 ,the baron ,hammer ,purgstal suggests that the artang might have been a banner or ensign1 upon which astronomical or cabalistical figures were represented1 and which the ,mongols and ,buddhists used to call ,mni 7see ,jahrb4 der ,lit41 for ,april1 ,may1 ,june1 #ahdj1 p4 #bh74 ,mni was besides a skilful musician1 and inventor of a musical instrument1 called d by the ,arabs1 chelys by the ,greeks4 ,he was put to death by order of king ,bahram1 the son of ,hormuz1 about the year #bgh2 by some authors his life and death are placed later4,see about ,mni1 ,hyde1 pp4 #bhb1 #bij1 and ,beausobre1 ,histoire critique de ,maniche4,a4 ,t4 ,,the ,,eleventh ,,section describes the system of the followers of lr4,alar was a native of ,iran1 celebrated for his extensive knowledge1 who lived in reputation and dignity about the end of ,zohk's reign1 under whose command he distinguished himself in the erection of forts and other architectural works4 ,his belief was1 that ,god is the same as water1 from the ebullition of which proceeded fire2 from the fire came forth the heavens and the stars 7as before stated72 from the humidity of water proceeded the air1 and from its frigidity1 the earth4 ,to this sect belonged ,andarmn1 who was well skilled in the management of the bow1 archery1 wielding the lance1 horsemanship1 and other military accomplishments2 he gave instructions in these sciences to the sons of great men1 in which occupation he passed his life4 ,in the year of the ,hejirah #ajdj 7,a4 ,d4 #afcj7 the author met him in ,kashmir at the house of ,shidosh4 ,to this sect also belonged ,mld1 who possessed consummate skill in writing1 and was held in great respect by men of high station3 he was in truth unequalled in the recitation of histories1 the narration of stories and romantic tales4 ,the author enjoyed his society also in ,kashmir4 ,,the ,,twelfth ,,section treats concerning the ,shidabian faith4,shdb who lived about the end of ,zohk's reign1 was an eminent physician of ,iran1 held in great estimation by nobles and princes4 ,he maintained that the self-existent lord is the same with the earth1 from the dry propensity of which was produced fire2 and from fire the heavens and stars1 as before mentioned2 from its frigidity proceeded water2 from the humidity of which was formed the air2 and when the four elements were mixed together1 the three kingdoms of nature were then manifested4 ,the physician ,mihrn was also of this sect4 ,in the year #ajah of the ,hejirah 7,a4 ,d4 #afch7 the author joined him1 and travelled in his society from ,lahore to ,kashmir4 ,among those who held these tenets was one named ,khk1 who followed the profession of a merchant and possessed great wealth3 him the author met in ,lahore4 ,in that same year and in the same place1 he became acquainted with a young man named ,shr1 who excelled in writing the ,nishki and ,taalik characters1 and was one of the chosen followers of ,shdb4 ,,the ,,thirteenth ,,section describes the system of the ,akhshyn sect4,the ,mobed ,akhsh was by origin a ,persian1 possessed of great knowledge1 and full of kindness towards the creatures of ,god2 he was contemporary with ,shdb1 and promulgated his sentiments openly1 inviting all men to embrace his faith3 he maintained ,god to be the essence of the elements2 so that when people say1 8,god is not visible10 this implies the elemental essence1 which presents no form to the sight2 when they assert the ubiquity of ,god1 they style that the essence1 as he is every where under his fourfold form2 their proposition of all things excepting ,god being perishable1 means that the elements admit of change1 but that their essence remains for ever in the same state4 ,they hold the sun to be the source of fire and of the other stars1 such as the falling and shooting stars1 comets with tails1 etc4 ,one of those sectaries was a person named ,shdb1 whom the author met in the costume of a merchant1 in ,kashmir in the year of the ,hejirah #ajdj 7,a4 ,d4 #afca71 and from whom he heard what has now been written1 and which was partly recited out of the book of ,aksh4 ,the same ,shdb1 called also ,shams-ud-dn1 or 8the sun of faith10 composed a treatise entitled ,rzbd in proof of his system1 which he demonstrated by texts of the ,koran and the traditions4 ,according to these sectaries1 which became known after the ,radiyn1 there is no resurrection nor return to life but after this manner3 the seminal principle being derived from food1 when the body of a living creature is dissolved1 it becomes grass and constitutes the food of some other animal3 as to future rewards and punishments1 they enter not into the faith or practice of this sect3 their paradise consists in having fine raiment1 in carousing1 riding1 sensual enjoyments1 and such like pleasures1 which alone they esteem the chief good2 torment1 according to them1 consists in being separated from such objects3 however1 the founders and followers of this faith carefully avoid all kind of cruelty towards living creatures4 ,according to them1 intercourse with daughters1 sisters1 mothers1 maternal aunts1 and their children is allowable2#cgi as there can exist no antipathy between the source and what is derived from it3 no degree of relationship in their opinion should be a bar to the intercourse of the sexes3 nay1 on the contrary1 it is highly to be commended1 as the nearer the degree of consanguinity1 the greater will be the friendship between the parties4#chj ,they however regard adultery as highly criminal1 unless the husband should willingly sacrifice his wife's honor4 ,they in fact maintain that marriage between any two parties1 however nearly related1 is perfectly allowable if the parties agree among themselves4 ,they also regard the ceremonial ablutions enjoined by the law as absurd and unnecessary4#cha ,they also say1 that men assume a particular nature by means of laws and institutions1 and on that account regard good as evil1 and evil as good4 ,when they desire to make a sacrificial offering1 they kill some harmless animal and count it not a foul crime4 ,nay1 some religionists who partake of swine's flesh1 scrupulously avoid that of cows1 and vice vers4 ,whoever shall appeal to the intelligence1 which is the gift of ,god1 will be convinced that our discourse is true2 that is1 all we have narrated from the fifth chapter to the present4 ,the professors of this belief are mixed up with the ,muhammedans1 and travel about under that mask1 assuming the name of true believers1 but having a distinct appellation for their peculiar creed2 they are scattered over ,iran and ,turan1 remote from and averse to the fire-worshippers4 #cgi ,according to ,philo and to ,diogenes ,laertius1 the ,persians used to marry their mothers and sisters4 ,alexander abolished these incestuous marriages 7see ,brisson1 p4 #bij74 ,we know from ,herodotus 7,i3 #aaa7 that ,cambyses married his sister ,atossa4 ,according to ,strabo1 the law permitted the ,magians union with their mothers4 ,plutarch1 in the life of ,artaxerxes1 relates that this king took to wife his two daughters ,atossa and ,amestris2 but his mother ,parysatis 7,pari-dokht1 8daughter of a fairy071 at the very time she was engaging him to marry the first of his daughters1 said that he must1 in doing so1 place himself above the laws of the country4 ,zoroaster1 in the ,zand books1 recommends but the marriages between the children of brothers and sisters as actions deserving heaven4 ,we observe that the author of the ,dabistan speaks here only of a particular sect1 the custom of which might have been attributed to the whole nation of the ,persians1 but without sufficient foundation4 ,this is confirmed by the ancient tradition mentioned by ,agathius 7l4 #aa71 who says1 that ,ninus killed his own mother ,semiramis1 because she had proposed to him an unnatural connection with her4 ,for this same reason1 according to the author just quoted1 ,artaxerxes is said to have discarded from him with great indignation his mother ,parysatis1 although he did not decline the marriage with his two daughters47,see ,hyde1 p4 #dba47;,a4 ,t4 #chj ,the translation of this passage of the original text is not1 and ought not to be1 literal1 as the author's expressions are here such as an ,european reader would hardly think suitable to common decency4,a4 ,t4 #cha ,the same observation is also applicable to this passage4,a4 ,t4 ,,the ,,fourteenth ,,section of this chapter of the ,dabistn treats of the followers of ,zardsht4#chb;,farzanah ,bahram1 the son of ,farhad1 the ,yazdanian1 thus relates in the ,sharistan3 ,the ,behdn sages relate1 that the ,almighty1 on creating the holy spirit of ,zardsht1 attached it to a tree1 when he commenced the creation of contingent beings in the highest starry heavens3 this signifies the primary intellect1 which is as a tree1 the leaves and fruits of which are all contingent existences2 and their assertion concerning the spirit of ,zardsht being attached to it1 means that his intellectual soul is a ray of the primary intellect1 the perfections of ,zardsht being also an effulgence proceeding from that same tree4 ,the ,mobed ,sarsh1 the ,yazdnin1 relates3 8,the teachers of the ,behdn faith have thus said3 ,the father of ,zardsht had a cow which went forth every morning to the pasture3 having one day come accidentally to some trees1 the fallen leaves of which had become dried up1 she partook of them1 and after that occurrence1 never fed on any other provender except the withered leaves of that grove4 ,zardsht's father partook of the milk supplied by this cow1 and the influence of it being communicated to his wife ,dughduyah1 she conceived ,zardsht40#chc ,the object of the above narrative is to show1 that by eating the green foliage1 the vegetable spirit is afflicted2 for which reason the cow fed only on dry leaves1 so that no injury could result to any spirit whatever3 although1 in fact1 the vegetable spirit is incapable of receiving either pleasure or pain1 it also shows1 that unless a cow be milked1 she feels great pain in the udder1 whilst1 at the time of milking1 no pain ensues from the operation2 also1 that the ,almighty formed his prophet's body out of milk1 which in its essence implies no injury to any living creature4 ,this much being premised1 ,zaratusht ,bahram1 a ,mobed of the religion of ,zardusht1#chd says3 ,when the world had been thrown into confusion by the wicked1 and was entirely at the mercy of the demon1 ,god willed to raise up a prophet of an exalted dignity1 which the family of ,faridun was alone worthy of filling4 ,in those days lived a man1 by name ,purshsp1 the son of ,patirsp1 descended from ,faridun2#che and his wife's name was ,doghduyah1 a virtuous matron1 who was also of the family of ,faridun4 ,these two persons were selected by the ,almighty as the shells for enclosing the pearl of ,zardusht4 ,when five months of ,doghduyah's pregnancy had elapsed1 she one night beheld in a dream her house enveloped in a dark cloud1 which concealed the splendor of the sun and moon2 and from this cloud were raining down the noxious and rapacious creatures of earth and air2 the boldest of these animals having rent open ,doghduyah's womb1 took out the infant1 which he held in his talons1 and the other wild beasts gathered around him4 ,doghduyah in her alarm wished to cry out1 but ,zardusht prevented her1 saying3 8the just ,god befriends me2 entertain no apprehensions40 ,she consequently held her peace4 ,that instant she beheld a shining mountain which descended from heaven and rent the black cloud asunder2 on which the noxious animals began to fly away4 ,when the mountain approached nearer1 there came forth from it a youth shining all over1 bearing in one hand a luminous branch1 and in the other the volume sent by the just ,god4 ,he next hurled that volume towards the beasts1 on which they all departed from the house1 excepting three2 a wolf1 a lion1 and a tiger3 the youth then smote these with the luminous branch1 so that they were consumed by fire2 after this1 taking ,zardusht1 he restored him to his mother's belly1 and said to her3 8,fear not6 grieve not6 for ,god himself is thy son's guardian3 this honored child shall be the prophet of the just ,god60 ,the youth then disappeared1 and ,doghduyah awaking1 rose up that gloomy night1 and hastening to a neighbouring seer who was skilled in the interpretation of dreams1 related her vision4#chf ,the interpreter answered3 8,through this sun-resembling child1 the world shall be filled with thy fame2 depart1 and bring hither the calculation of thy nativity for my inspection40 ,she performed his command2 and the interpreter on examining it said3 8,during three days keep this secret concealed from all2 return hither on the fourth day1 and receive the answer to thy demands40 ,she did so2 and on the fourth day came to the astrologer1 who smiled on beholding her1 and having carefully considered the sidereal influences1 turned to the interpretation of the dream1 saying3 8,the night on which thou beheldest that vision1 the unborn child had completed five months and twenty-three days2 on his issuing forth to the couch of existence1 his illustrious name shall be ,zardusht2 by him shall the enemies of the faith be destroyed2 but they will previously oppose him in battle1 and put in practice every hostile measure2 from the evil doers thou shalt feel much affliction1 such as thou didst witness from the wild beasts of the vision4 ,at last victorious and rejoiced in heart thou shalt become1 ,and through this unborn child feel all a mother's joy4 ,next thou beheldest a youth descending from the sixth heaven with the glittering branch of a tree2 that was ,farrah-i-,izad1 #8the splendor of ,god1' the warder of evils from thy son2 the written volume in his hand is the emblem of the prophetic office1 by which he is to obtain the victory over all foes2 the three wild beasts which remained behind are the type of a powerful evil-disposed enemy1 who by wiles will endeavour to destroy ,zardusht1 but who shall be finally discomfited2 and there shall be a prince to promulgate the faith3 through his might shall ,zardusht become sovereign of this world and the next4 ,o ,doghduyah6 paradise is the recompense of obedience to ,zardusht1 and hell is the reward of those who avert the face from him4 ,would to heaven that ,i could live in the days of his mission1 to exhibit my zeal for his eminent dignity40 ,doghduyah then said to the interpreter and astrologer3 8,how hast thou found out the circumstance of the exact period of my pregnancy80 ,to this he replied3 8,through the power of knowledge of the stars1 and the perusal of ancient records1 which give an account of his auspicious existence40 ,doghduyah1 on her return home1 told this event to ,purshasp1 that he might communicate it to ,patrasp2 on which both parents joined in praising the ,almighty4 ,zaradusht1 on issuing forth into the abode of existence1 laughed aloud at the moment of his birth1#chg so that the women of the neighbourhood who were there assembled heard the sound of his laugh1 and even his father1 ,purshasp1 8,said to himself1 he must surely be an emanation of ,god1 ,all1 with the exception of him1 weep on coming into the world40 ,he then gave him the name of ,zaratusht1#chh 8,thus the dream-interpreter's word was verified40 ,all the women became jealous at the laugh of ,zaradusht1 and this wonderful occurrence was spread abroad1 until it came to the hearing of ,darn ,sarn1 the king of that region1 who gloried in the practice of magic and the worship of ,ahriman4 ,he had information of the appearance of ,zaratusht1 and it was known from the historians and astronomers that he will reveal a better religion and destroy that of ,ahriman4 ,he therefore hastened to the pillow of ,zaradusht1 and commanding him to be taken out of the cradle1 and putting his hand to his sword1 prepared to cut off the child's head2 but that instant his hand was dried up1 so that he left the house in pain and affliction2 on which all the magicians and worshippers of ,ahriman 7the only worship which prevailed at that time7 became quite alarmed4 ,the magicians then formed a mountain of wood1 naphtha1 and sulphur1 and having set it on fire1 threw into the midst of it ,zaradusht1 whom they had by force taken from his father1 and hastened with this intelligence to their king3 but1 through the aid of ,god1 8,the devouring flame became as water1 ,in the midst of which slumbered the pearl of ,zardusht40 ,on learning this1 ,zaradusht's mother hurried to the desert1 and taking her honored son out of the embers1 bore him secretly home4 ,after many days1 when the account of his deliverance was published abroad1 the magicians1 evil spirits1 and demons again bore ,zardusht away1 and threw him into a narrow place1 a thoroughfare for the passage of oxen1 that he should be exposed to be bruised and trampled under foot4 ,through the goodness of ,god1 a powerful cow came in front1 and1 standing still1 took ,zardusht between her fore feet1 and drove off with her horns whatever cow came in that direction3 when the whole had passed1 she also went to join them2 and ,doghduyah1 after great search1 having discovered her honored son1 took him home3 when this intelligence came to ,dransarn1 he commanded them to expose ,zardusht in a far narrower defile through which horses were to pass2 but1 owing to divine aid1 a mare advanced before the others1 and standing at the child's head kept a strict watch over him1 and ,doghduyah1 after encountering great hardship1 bore her fortunate offspring home4 ,on learning this occurrence1 ,dransarn ordered persons to repair to the dens of the ravening wolves1 and having slaughtered their cubs1 then expose ,zardusht in the same place1 in order that the dams out of revenge might tear him to pieces4 ,at night1 when the troop of wolves returned to their lairs1 they beheld their cubs slaughtered and weltering in blood1 and at the same time finding an infant crying out1 they all hurried towards him2 the chief wolf and the boldest of them1 having rushed on to devour ,zardusht1 his mouth became as sewn up3 at this miracle the wolves were altogether alarmed1 and seated themselves like so many nurses around the infant's head2 at the same time there also came two sheep from the mountain region1 which applied their teats filled with milk to the lips of ,zardusht3 thus the sheep and the wolf lay down in one place4 ,with the morning dawn1 his mother1 after anxious seeking and searching1 came to that frightful place1 raised up the exalted prophet1 and having poured out her gratitude to ,god1 proceeded with exultation to her home4#chi ,the magicians1 on hearing this miracle1 became quite despondent2 they assembled to devise some remedy1 and formed a council for the purpose of deliberating1 when a celebrated magician named ,purtarsh and ,parantarsh#cij said to them3 8,zardusht is not to be destroyed by your plans1 for ,god befriends him1 and the angel ,far-i-,izad #8the splendor of ,god1' is ever with him4 ,bahman 7who is the same as ,jabril7 has borne ,zardusht to the presence of the ,almighty2 and ,god having imparted to him the knowledge of all the secrets of existence1 sends him forth as a prophet4 ,a just sovereign will co-operate with him in promulgating his faith1 and every vestige of enchanters and ,deeves shall be cut off from the earth40 ,the father of ,zardusht said one day to ,partarsh3 8,give me some account of ,zardusht's star and its rise2 tell me also why he laughed at the time of his birth04 ,partarsh replied3 8,thy son ,zardusht is to be a chief1 as all the happy spheres afford him aid2 this offspring of auspicious career will conduct the creatures of ,god in the true way2 promulgate the ,zandavasta2#cia destroy the demon and enchanters1 and finally king ,gushtasp shall embrace his faith40 ,this announcement gave great delight to ,purshasp4 ,at this time there lived an aged saint named ,barzinkaroos1 of profound experience and clear discernment2 this sage having come to the house of ,purshasp1 entreated that he might be allowed to bring up ,zardusht1 and acquire glory by his education4 ,purshasp consented to this proposal1 and entrusted the infant to the holy sage4 ,when ,zardusht had attained his seventh year1 ,purtarush1 the chief of the magicians1 came along with ,duransanun to the child's abode2 and made so great a display of enchantments1 terrific1 and fearful sights1 that all the people fled out of the house2 but ,zardusht1 through the aid of ,god1 felt no alarm and moved not1 so that the magicians went away filled with affright and disappointment4 ,after some time ,zardusht became ill1 at which news all the magicians were greatly delighted2 their chief ,partarsh came1 with enchantments and medicine mixed up with mina1#cib to ,zardusht's pillow and said3 8,the swallowing of this medicine will render thy body tranquil and deliver thee from pain40 ,the illuminated mind of ,zardusht saw through the machination1 and taking the medicine from him1 poured it on the ground1 and at the same time telling him about the mina mixed up with the portion1 said3 8,shouldst thou in a different guise conceal thy violence1 ,i can again recognise thee1 ,o thou full of deceit6 ,thy description is furnished to me by that ,god ,through whose command the world is preserved40 ,the magicians consequently again returned back mortified at the results of their wicked plot4 ,they say that in those times they accounted no system superior to that of magic1 and that the demon held public intercourse with persons of that class so that they obtained it from ,iblis without the intervention of enchantment4 8,mankind then praised the foul demon1 ,as they now do the ,god of purity40 ,nay1 ,purshsp1 the father of ,zardusht1 followed that path2 one day having invited ,durnsarn1 ,prntrsh1 and many more magicians to a feast1 he made the suitable arrangements1 and when the repast was ended1 he said to ,prntrsh1 the chief of the magicians3 8,through the excellence of enchantment1 whereby our hearts are gladdened and our necks exalted1 thy noble person at this period is the spiritual guide of all magicians40 ,zardusht1 being indignant at this speech1 said to his father3 8,abandon this erroneous way1 and turn to the faith of ,god3 hell must finally be the abode of magicians and enchanters40 ,these words greatly incensed ,purtarsh1 who replied3 8,of what consequence art thou before thy father6 ,the intelligent of the earth1 and the great men of the habitable world dare not address such insolence to me6 ,art thou not afraid of me8 ,dost thou not know me8 ,for this thy insolence ,i shall spread amongst mankind such calumnies and lies respecting thy creed1 that thou must remain in obscurity4 ,what is thy power that1 without courtesy1 thou darest slight my dignity6 8,may thy name be more degraded than that of all other men6 ,may no desire of thy heart be ever accomplished60 ,zardusht replied3 8,o son of earth6 the lie thou utterest respecting my creed will render thyself before ,god and man the butt of censure3 in retaliation ,i shall tell1 nothing but truth concerning thee1 and overpower thee by just arguments and proofs4 8,by order of the righteous ,god's messenger1 ,i shall turn thy empire upside down40 ,all who were present1 as well as the magicians1 remained in astonishment at such a stripling's great intellect1 so that ,prntrsh left the house and hastened home1 covered with confusion and disgrace3 that night he fell sick1 and his people also being attacked by illness at the same time1 were hurried along with him to the house of retribution4#cic ,when the honored age of ,zardusht had reached the fifteenth year1 he attached not his heart to this place of sojourn1 neither did he set any value on the world or its concerns3 but fleeing away from wrath and the pleasures of sense1 he with pious fear labored night and day in the service of ,god2 wherever he found any one hungry1 thirsty1 naked1 or helpless1 he bestowed on them food1 raiment1 and the needful supplies2 his piety and sincerity were consequently renowned amongst all people1 although he withdrew from the public gaze4 ,when he had reached the age of thirty1 he directed his face towards ,iran1 in company with several men and women and some of his own relations2 in the course of this journey1 they came to a large expanse of water1 on which there was not a boat to be found3#cid as it is not meet for women to expose their persons1 particularly before strangers1 he became anxious about the means of taking them over in the presence of their fellow travellers2 he therefore poured out his distress before the ,god of justice1 entreating from him a passage over that wide expanse of water2 after which1 by the order of the ,almighty1 he crossed over1 with his companions and relations1 in such guise that the soles of their feet only were moistened by the water2 finally1 in the end of ,isfandarmaz1#cie on the day of ,anrn1 which is the last day of every solar month1 he reached the confines of ,iran4 ,at that period the people of ,iran held a great festival at which were assembled both high and low1 and therefore ,zartusht took his course to that quarter4 ,at night1 whilst alone in some halting place1 through his enlightened spirit he beheld1 in a vision1 a mighty army#cif advancing from ,bactria1 or the ,west1 which from hostile motives blocked up his road on every side2 in the same place he beheld another army coming from ,nimroz1 or 8mid day10 and when both armies came to close quarters with the sword1 the ,bactrian or ,western troops were put to the rout4 ,the examiner of the vision thus interpreted it3 8,when ,zardusht1 having been taken into the presence of ,god1 should discover all the mysteries of creation1 that afterwards1 on his return from heaven1 to promulgate the ,dnbah1 or #8true faith1' the ,dvs and ,magicians1 having found out his intentions1 would with all expedition make war against him4 ,mizumah1#cig the angel who attends the servants of ,god1 on learning this will promote the better faith1 and in consequence the ,asta va zand will be read with a loud voice1 and through this the demons and magicians shall be dispersed and flee away40 ,on the interpretation of the dream1 he hastened to the festival1 inspired with great delight4 ,when he had returned from the banqueting-place1 he set out about the middle of ,ardbihist1#cih on the ,dmihr1 the fifteenth day of every solar month1 and came to a deep1 broad1 and extensive water1 named ,dbat1#cii in the ,astawasta2 there recommending himself to the ,lord1 he stepped into the water1 which at first rose up to the calf of his legs1 then to his knees1 waist1 and finally to his neck2 which event was thus interpreted2 8the division of the water into these four portions signifies1 that in nine thousand years the ,dnbah1 #8the true faith1' shall be four times renewed2 the first time by the agency of ,zardusht1 who was sent to promulgate the ,bahdn2 the second by ,hushdar2 the third by ,hushdarmh2 and the fourth by ,sarssh2 all four descendants from ,zardusht40 ,when the prophet had gained the opposite shore1 he washed his person as pure as his soul1 and putting on undefiled garments1 engaged in prayer4#djj ,that very day1 ,bahman1 the mightiest of the angels1 7whom the ,muhammedans call ,jabriel7 came robed in light to ,zardusht1 and having asked his name1 said3 8,what dost thou most desire in this world80 ,zardusht having answered1 8,i have no desire but that of pleasing ,god2 my heart seeks after nothing but righteousness2 and my belief is that thou wilt guide me to do what is good30 then ,bahram replied 8,arise6 that thou mayest appear before ,god2 entreat from his ,majesty whatever thou desirest1 from his bounty he will return thee a profitable answer40 ,zardusht then arose1 and according to ,bahram's order shut his eyes for an instant2 on opening them he found himself in the bright empyreal1 where he beheld an assemblage through whose effulgence his shadow became visible3 from that assemblage to the next1 was a distance of twenty-four paces2 and also another assemblage of beings formed of light waited on by virgins of paradise4 ,the angels gathered around ,zardusht and warmly greeted him1 pointing him out to each other1 until the honored son of ,espintaman#dja came before ,god1 to whom with joyous heart and trembling body he addressed the prayers of supplication4 ,it is necessary to observe here1 that the ,bhidnian1 8believers of the eternal doctrine10 unanimously maintain that ,bahman assumed the human figure1 and that ,zardusht ascended to the heavens in his elemental body2 but1 according to the creed of the intelligent ,abdin1 the matter is thus stated3 8,by the coming of ,bahman in the human form and his speaking like a mortal1 is meant that the true essence of man is uncompounded and simple1 not a body nor any thing material2 and that1 under such a quality1 that is1 uncompoundedness1 he manifested himself to ,zardusht2 and his saying #8close thy eyes1' is figurative1 and implies the eradication of the attachments and darkness of the elemental body2 when he thus became a simple uncompounded existence1 he arrived at the heavens styled the #8eternal empyrean2' the first company of angels signifies the souls on high1 and the second1 the existence of the celestial intelligences2 the interrogatories addressed to him by the angels imply1 that when the soul leaves the upper world1 it descends into this lower abode to encounter wanderings and calamity2 but when1 by the attractive influence of ,bahman and through the energy of intelligence1 it returns on high1 the angels feel delight on the occasion4 ,he next ascended to the world of simple uncompounded beings1 and came near ,god2 the delight experienced by ,zardusht signifies1 the freedom from alarm and fear enjoyed in that pure world2 and his bodily tremor is emblematic of the effulgence of the divine ,majesty40 ,he then asked of the ,god of justice3 8,which of thy servants on earth is superior to the rest80 ,god thus answered3 8,the righteous professor of righteousness2 secondly1 he who to righteousness joins generosity and liberality1 walking unceasingly in the way of righteousness and withdrawing from evil2 thirdly1 he who is friendly to fire and water1 to all living and animated beings2 for man1 by the knowledge and practice of this precept1 delivers himself from hell and attains to union with the eternal paradise4 ,o1 ,zardusht6 whichever of my servants in this transitory sojourn of existence practises oppression and cruelty towards my creatures1 and averts his head from obedience to my commands1 repeat thou to such this warning3 that unless he desist from rebellion1 he shall dwell in hell to all eternity40 ,zardusht again asked3 8,o most just ,god1 impart to me the names of the ,amshsfands1#djb that is1 of the angels the most acceptable in thy presence2 gladden me by their names and sight2 cause me to hear their discourse2 and graciously enable me to discern the impious ,ahriman1#djc who turns not to good through his evil nature2 give me power to behold the good and evil of this world1 and its termination2 the effect of the revolving sphere1 with the successive production of modes or the reappearance of things40 ,when he had thus laid before the ,almighty the secret wishes of his heart1 he received this answer3 8,i am the author of good2 the benevolent and the beneficent2 ,i neither do evil1 nor enjoin it to be committed4 ,i consent not to wickedness1 neither do ,i bring calamity on my creatures3 evil and wickedness belong exclusively to ,ahriman4 ,it is1 however1 incumbent on me to keep in hell to all eternity the troops of ,ahriman in reward for their deeds3 the ignorant only assert that ,i am the 8author of evil40#djd ,the ,almighty then made ,zardusht acquainted with the celestial revolutions and the motions of the stars1 and their good and evil influences2 he also showed him paradise filled with light1 angelic nymphs1 palaces1 and ,amshsfands2 communicating to him at the same time the knowledge of all mysteries1 and teaching him all sciences1 so that he knew every thing from the commencement of existence to the end of time2 he likewise showed him ,ahriman in the gloom of hell1 who1 on beholding ,zardusht cried aloud3 8,turn away from the faith of ,god1 that thou mayest obtain all thy desires in this world40#dje ,when the ,lord had thus instructed ,zardusht1 he beheld a mountain of flaming fire1 which at the command of ,god he traversed without any injury to his person2 they next poured molten brass on his guileless1 silver-like bosom1 and not a single hair of his body was touched2 they next opened his stomach1 and taking out all the intestines again replaced them1 on which the wound immediately closed without leaving a vestige of the incision behind4 ,the just ,god then said to ,zardusht3 8,thou hast passed over the mountain of fire1 and hadst thy stomach rent open2 therefore tell mankind whoever turns away from the ,dnbah1 #8pure faith1' and passes over to ,ahriman1 in the same manner shall the blood of his body be poured out2 he shall dwell in the fire1 and never attain to the joys of paradise4 ,again1 the molten brass1 which on contact with thy breast became congealed like ice1 causing thee no injury1 is a sign that the nation1 at the suggestion of ,ahriman1 will turn away from the faith2 and also that when the ,dnbah shall be promulgated in the world1 the high ,mobed shall gird his loins to give them battle4 8,the heart of mankind was harassed with doubt1 ,however thou knowest this brass was but a sign2 ,it is therefore meet that ,azarbd1 the son of ,mrasfand1 ,should impart to each individual counsel of every kind2 ,this molten brass he should pour on his breast1 ,from which no injury shall result to him4 8,so that1 on beholding this miracle1 all mankind with heart and soul will follow the right true road40 ,after this1 ,zardusht asked of the ,god of justice3 8,in what manner shall thy worshippers celebrate thy praise and what is to be their ,kiblah80 ,the ,lord answered3 8,tell all mankind that every bright and luminous object is the effulgence of my light2 at the time of worshipping me1 let them turn to that side1 in order that ,ahriman may flee from them2 in the world there is no existence superior to light1 out of which ,i have created paradise1 the angelic nymphs1 and all that is pleasant1 whilst hell was produced out of darkness4 8,wherever thou art1 and in whichever of the two abodes1 ,dost thou not perceive that either place is formed out of my light80 ,having thus taught ,zardusht the ,avesta and the ,zand1 he said to him3 8,recite this celebrated volume to king ,gushtasp1 that through it he may obtain wisdom2 tell him also to attain a perfect knowledge of me2 no one should ever call me the worker of injustice2 command the ,mobeds and all mankind to separate themselves from demons and magicians40 8,zardusht then enlarged on the praises of the ,almighty ,lord40 ,when the prophet's desires and purpose had been thus completely attained1 he was met on his return by the ,amshsfand ,bahman1 the protector and chief of the sheep1 who said to him3 8,to thee ,i deliver the sheep and all herds2 tell the ,mobeds1 sages1 and all men to guard them well2 prohibit them from putting to death calf1 lamb1 young sheep1 or any other quadruped1 as men derive great benefits from them3 8,we must never be guilty of excess in slaughter40 8,i received these flocks from the ,almighty1 and now accept them from me2 account not my words as unimportant1 but inculcate obedience to them on young and old30 on which ,zardusht accepted the trust4 ,the ,mobed ,sarush used to say3 8,the ,yezdanians maintain that1 when ,bahman forbade the killing of young quadrupeds1 he well knew it to be equally wrong to slay the old2 first1 because in their youth1 although they rendered many services1 they received no wages for their labor2 and secondly1 in old age they produce young animals2 consequently1 where ,zardusht in some passages holds it lawful to slay animals1 but without committing excess2 by the precept is meant1 the expulsion of animal qualities from our existence2 and by avoiding excess is meant1 that we should gradually banish all vile propensities from ourselves1 such as eating to excess1 which is an animal quality1 but which cannot be discontinued at once2 it therefore becomes necessary to lessen the quantity of food gradually1 as stated by us under the head of the ,sh ,keshn40 ,after ,bahman1 the ,amshsfand ,ardebihist#djf coming forward1 said to ,zardusht3 8,o accepted of ,god6 bear from me this message to king ,gushtasp1 and say to him3 #8,to thee have ,i delivered whatever relates to fire4 ,let there be suitable places of great splendor in every city for the general worship2 appoint stated times and ,hirbuds1 or #8ministers' for the purpose of adoration2 because that light is an emanation of the divine effulgence4 ,dost thou not perceive how every thing stands in need of fire1 which requires only wood from the human race8' 8,its body apprehends not death nor the decrepitude of age1 ,when thou layest wood within the influence of its sphere4 8,such is its property to indicate the truth1 that if thou burn perfumes it diffuses fragrance among the assembled people3 from unpleasant odors a correspondent effect ensues2 it also banishes the affliction of cold4 ,as fully as ,god hath delivered it to me1 do ,i now give it in charge to thee6 ,whoever turns away from my counsel and advice becomes the captive of hell1 and incurs the displeasure of ,god40 ,when ,zardusht had departed from ,bahman1 the ,amshsfand ,shahrivar came forward and said to him3 8,on thy arrival from the upper to the lower world1 tell men to furbish and polish up their arms1 and always to keep them in good order and readiness2 in the day of battle let them not quit their posts1 but display heroic exertion and not resign their post to any other40 ,asfandrmaz then coming forward1 after many benedictions said to ,zardusht3 8,this is the command of the ,almighty to mankind1 let them keep the earth pure1 and remove blood1 pollution1 and dead bodies to some uncultivated place4 8,among princes1 that sovereign is by far the best ,who exerts himself to improve the face of the earth40 ,when ,zardusht had departed thence1 ,khrdd advanced1 and with benedictions thus addressed him3 8,to thy charge ,i assign all waters of running streams1 rivers1 water-courses1 rivulets1 wells1 and all besides2 say thou to mankind3 8,through water is the body of every creature maintained in life2 ,through it the face of every tract and region is kept in bloom4 8,let them keep dead bodies far removed from it1 and let them not defile it with blood or any dead carcass1 as the food dressed with such water furnishes an unwholesome repast40 ,murdd next came forward and said to ,zardusht3 8,let not men heedlessly destroy the vegetable productions of the earth or pluck them from their place3 8,as these form the delight of both man and beast4 8,also1 ,o prophet of ,god6 send ,mobeds around the whole country1 and appoint a wise person in every city to communicate these tidings to all men3 let them understand the ,avesta1 and bind around their waist the zone1 which is a sign of the pure faith and constancy in it1 and let them endeavor to keep the four substances 7elements7 undefiled3 8,out of the four elements has the body of every animal ,been composed by the supreme and just ,lord3 ,it is therefore necessary to keep them undefiled1 ,accounting them among the choice blessings of ,god40 ,it is to be remembered that the conference of all these angels with ,zardusht was a revelation and message from ,god2 but there was a more transcendent dignity in this fact1 that the ,almighty himself addressed ,zardusht without the intervention of angels1 and imparted to him the mysteries of all that exists4#djg ,zardusht having thus obtained from ,god the accurate knowledge of all mysteries1 drew near this elemental world1 whilst the magicians and demons1 with a dreadful host1 blocked up his road2 after which the chief enchanter and the head of the demons and his host thus addressed ,zardusht3 8,keep the ,avesta and ,zand concealed2 thy incantation1 fraud1 and artifice make no impression on us3 if thou knowest us1 thou wilt turn away from such practices40 ,on hearing this1 ,zardusht recited aloud one chapter of the ,avesta and ,zand2 when these sounds reached the demons1 they hid themselves under ground1 and the magicians trembled2 a part of the enchanters died on the spot1 and the remainder implored for mercy4 ,the ,mobed ,sursh1 the ,yezdnian1 has been heard to say3 8,it is recorded in the treatise of ,mhn ,farsh that1 according to the doctors of the pure faith1 when ,zardusht had thus obtained the victory over the demons1 and was proceeding to an interview with the great king ,gushtasp1 there happened to be two oppressive and infidel kings in his road2 these ,zardusht invited to adopt the pure faith and turn away from their evil practices2 but they heeded not his words1 he therefore prayed to ,god1 and there began to blow a mighty wind1 which lifted up these two kings on high and kept them suspended in the air2 the people who came around were astonished on beholding this sight2 the birds also from every quarter of the sky flocked around the two kings1 and with beaks and talons tore off their flesh until their bones fell to the ground4#djh ,zaratusht1 the son of ,bahram1 says1 that when ,zardusht after his victory arrived at the court of the great king ,gushtasp1 he called on the name ,god1 and then sought access to the sovereign4#dji ,he beheld the first rank1 composed of the grandees and champions of ,iran and other regions1 standing around2 and above these two ranks of sages1 philosophers1 and learned men1 who took precedence of each other in proportion to their knowledge1 for this great king was exceedingly attached to men of science2 he next beheld the monarch of the world seated on a lofty throne1 and his brows encircled with a costly crown3 on which ,zardusht in eloquent language recited the praises of the king4 ,farznah ,bahram1 the son of ,farhad1 of the ,yazdanian sect1 relates thus in the ,shristn3 8,the doctors of the pure faith say1 that when ,zardusht entered into king ,gushtasp's assembly1 he held in his hand a blazing fire which caused him no injury2 he then transferred that fire to the king's hands1 which in like manner remained unhurt2 he afterwards gave it into the hands of others and still no trace of burning appeared2 he next lay down1 and ordered molten brass to be poured on his bosom four different times3 although the molten metal came on his breast1 no bodily injury resulted from it40#daj ,zaratusht1 the son of ,bahram1 adds3 ,the sovereign of ,iran having thus ascertained the dignity of the prophet of the human race1 addressed him with terms of earnest affection1 and ordering a chair to be brought1 placed him in front of the royal throne1 above the two ranks of the philosophers4 ,zardusht1 agreeably to the king's command1 having taken this seat1 manifested to all the assembly the precious diamonds of his intellectual stores4 ,the sages and eminent men of the exterior circles on his right and left entered on the path of controversy1 but were finally refuted1 one after another4 ,they say that on this day thirty of the sages seated on his right1 being unable to withstand the arguments of ,zardusht1 bore testimony to his knowledge and truth2 and in like manner thirty of the wise men on his left were overpowered and convinced4 ,when such sages1 who had not their equals in the seven climates1 had been thus confuted1 the illustrious prince called the prophet of the ,lord into his presence1 and for further conviction questioned him on various sciences and the traditions of old2 and having received conclusive answers on all these points he was struck with amazement4 ,the great king therefore assigned to the prophet of the just ,lord a dwelling adjacent to his own palace1 and the philosophers departed home with afflicted hearts4 ,during the whole night they read over books with each other1 and concerted with each other how they might1 the following morning1 conduct the argument and controversy with ,zardusht2 whilst the prophet of the ,lord on coming to his house1 according to his custom1 desisted not until morning from acts of worship and praise4 ,the following day1 when ,zardusht and the philosophers assembled around the king1 whatever the sages advanced which was not strictly conformable to truth1 ,zardusht produced a hundred arguments1 both theoretical and practical1 to invalidate the assertion2 and if they demanded a proof of whatever he himself advanced1 he adduced a hundred convincing demonstrations4 ,gushtasp accordingly increased the dignity of the ,lord's prophet1 and inquired his name1 lineage1 and native city2 to which questions ,zardusht returned the meet answer1 and said3 8,o great king1 to-morrow is the day of ,hormuz1 or the first of the month2 command the chiefs of the military to assemble and all the philosophers to appear1 that ,i may reduce all to silence1 as ,i have done this assembly1 and give answers which will dumbfound them2 after which ,i shall execute the commission with which ,i am entrusted40 ,gushtasp issued the requisite order1 and they all returned home with this agreement4 ,zardusht1 from inclination and habit1 continued in supplication to the ,lord2 and the wise men said to each other3 8,this stranger has twice degraded us wise men1 taken away our reputation1 and obtained favor with the king30 they therefore conferred with each other how they could most effectually oppose ,zardusht and refute his arguments4 8,with this understanding each retired to his own abode1 ,and through anxiety not one of them slept all that night40 ,on the third day1 the nobles1 doctors1 and wise men assembled around the king1 and ,zardusht also advanced into the company3 although the sages and learned men had mutually combined to confound him by argument1 they were all finally refuted4 ,when the philosophers were no longer able to utter a word1 the superior personages gave place to ,zardusht1 on which the prophet of the ,lord loosed his tongue and said to ,gushtasp3 8,i am the envoy of the ,lord the ,creator of the heavens1 earth1 and stars2 the disinterested bestower of daily food to his servant3 he who has brought thee from non-existence into being and made kings thy servants1 has sent me to thee40 ,then taking the ,avesta and ,zand out of a case1 he added3 8,this volume ,god has given to me1 and sent me forth to the human race with the commandments named ,astawazand1 which require implicit obedience2 if thou wilt conform to the commands of ,god1 in like manner as he has made thee sovereign of the world1 he will also make thee eternally happy in futurity and paradise2 but if thou avert the head from his command1 thou incurrest the displeasure of the just ,god2 the foundation of thy greatness shall be rent1 and thou shalt finally become a denizen of hell4 8,adopt no line of conduct through the suggestion of a ,div4 ,from this time forward listen to my commands40 ,the great king replied3 8,what proof dost thou adduce1 and what miracle dost thou perform8 exhibit them1 that ,i may instantly diffuse thy faith over all the world40 ,zardusht said3 8,one of my decisive proofs and miraculous works is this volume1 on once listening to which thou shalt never more behold demon or magician3 this volume contains the mysteries of both worlds1 and clearly expounds the revolutions of the stars3 there is no being in existence an account of which is not found in this book40 ,the king then commanded3 8,read me a section of this heavenly volume40 ,zardusht having read one chapter1 ,gushtasp not feeling a full conviction1 said to him3 8,thou hast urged a bold suit2 but precipitancy in such an affair is by no means proper2 ,i shall devote some days to exploring the nature of the ,zand-,avesta3 but in the mean time come thou hither as usual40 ,zardusht then 8,returned to the house assigned him by the king40 ,the enraged philosophers also came out and took counsel with each other about slaying ,zardusht4 ,the following morning1 when ,zardusht left the house to go to the king's palace1 he delivered the key of his apartment to the king's porter2 but the philosophers so deluded this man1 that he gave up the key secretly to them2 on which they opened the door of the prophet's apartment1 and having put into bags unclean things which they had collected1 such as blood1 hair1 a cat's head1 a dog's head1 dead men's bones and the like1 placed them under his pillow1 and having locked the door1 gave the key back to the porter1 previously obliging him to swear to keep the matter altogether secret2 after this they went to the palace1 where they beheld ,zardusht seated near the king1 who was engaged in reading the ,zand-,avesta1 8,lost in amazement at the characters and words40 ,the philosophers said3 8,the ,zand-,avesta is altogether magic1 and this man is a wizard1 who by force of spells has produced an impression on thy heart1 in order to bring evil and confusion all over the world2 but be not thou the wizard's ally40 ,on hearing this1 ,gushtasp ordered persons to repair to ,zardusht's house and make a careful examination2 they went and immediately brought before the king whatever they found in the house1 whether eatables1 carpets1 dresses1 clothes-bags1 etc41 all which they opened in the king's presence2 on this1 the talons1 hair1 and such like impurities1 which had been hidden there by the philosophers1 were exposed to view4 ,the king was greatly enraged1 and said to ,zardusht3 8,this is thy magic practice40 ,the prophet of the ,lord being quite astonished1 replied3 8,i have no knowledge of these things2 let his majesty inquire the particulars from the porter40 ,the porter on being summoned1 said3 8,zardusht closed his door1 and not even wind had access to it40 ,the king became quite indignant and said to ,zardusht3 8,they have not brought these sacks from heaven and hid them under the pillow40 ,in his rage he threw away the ,avesta-,zand1 and sent ,zardusht in chains to prison3 there was also a porter appointed to give him a fixed allowance and keep strict watch4 ,zardusht remained in chains both day and night1 the porter bringing him daily a loaf of bread and a pitcher of water2 and one whole week passed in that manner4 ,they relate that ,gushtasp had a royal steed called the 8,black ,charger10 which the great king mounted on the day of battle3 8,when1 mounted on this charger's back1 he advanced to the fight1 ,the result of the combat terminated in victory40 ,one morning at dawn1 the master of the horse beheld the ,black ,charger without fore or hind feet1 which he saw were drawn up into his belly2 in great haste he announced this event to the sovereign of the world4 ,gushtasp in great affliction hurried to the stable1 summoning thither the veterinary surgeons1 physicians1 and learned men1 all of whom exerted themselves in remedies and applications without any benefit resulting from their exertions4 ,through grief the king partook not of food that day1 and the military were sorely afflicted4 ,zardusht1 who in consequence of the general mourning had not received his allowance before evening1 became hungry2 when the evening had passed1 the porter came and brought the provisions1 stating at the same time what had befallen the ,black ,charger2 on this the prophet of the ,lord said to him3 8,to-morrow tell the king that ,i can set this affair to rights40 ,the next morning the porter conveyed the prophet's message to the king1 on which orders were given to bring ,zardusht into the royal presence4 ,this favorable intelligence having been communicated to ,zardusht1 the prophet entered into a warm bath1 and after ablution1 on appearing before the king1 he uttered benedictions on the sovereign of the world4 ,gushtasp then assigned him a place near himself1 and having explained the state of the horse1 added3 8,if thou be truly a prophet sent from the ,lord1 ,thou canst easily restore this horse to perfect health40 ,zardusht replied3 8,if thou wilt1 ,o king1 engage to perform four things1 thou shalt again behold the charger's fore and hind legs40 ,the king said3 8,i accept the conditions3 what is the first80 ,zardusht replied3 8,let us all repair to the ,black ,charger's bed40 ,on arriving there he said to the king3 8,make thy heart and tongue of one accord3 utter with thy tongue and repeat with thy heart1 that without doubt1 suspicion1 or equivocation1 ,i am a prophet and apostle sent from ,god40 ,the king having agreed to this1 the prophet of the ,lord addressed his petitions to the ,god of justice1 and then rubbing with his hand the horse's right forefoot1 it straightway came out1 on which the king and the soldiery loudly applauded the holy man4 ,after this1 he said to the king3 8,command the heroic ,isfendiar to enter into a covenant with me that he will gird up his loins to promulgate the faith of the ,lord40 ,the prince was not averse1 and entered into a solemn engagement2 on which the apostle prayed to the ,lord until the right hind leg came out4 ,he then said to the great king3 8,send an ,ustawar and an ,amin along with me to the great queen ,kitbn1 in order that she may enter into the true faith40 ,the king having assented1 ,zardusht on coming into the king's golden apartment thus addressed queen ,kitbn3 8,mighty princess6 the ,lord has expressly selected thee to share the couch of ,gushtasp and to be the mother of ,isfendiar4 ,i am the ,lord's prophet sent by him to the king3 therefore adopt the pure faith40 ,on this the great queen with heart and soul attached herself in sincerity to the prophet3 after which ,zardusht prayed1 so that the other hind leg came out4 ,he then said to the king3 8,now send for the porter2 it is proper to inquire of him who it was that conveyed this stuff of magical preparation to my house40 ,the king summoned the chamberlain and questioned him in a threatening tone1 saying3 8,if thou wilt confess the truth1 thou savest thy life2 but otherwise1 thou shalt have thy head under thy feet40 ,the treacherous chamberlain implored pardon1 and related all the particulars of the bribery and delusion practised by the philosophers' friends4 ,gushtasp was exceedingly indignant1 and ordered the four philosophers to be hanged4 ,zardusht then recited the prayers taught him by the ,almighty1 so that the other forefoot came out1 and the swift charger stood on his legs4 ,the sovereign of ,iran kissed the prophet's head and face1 and leading him to the throne1 seated him near himself2 he also requested pardon for his sin and gave back the prophet's goods4#daa ,the doctors of the pure faith also record1 that king ,lohrasp and ,zerir1 brother to ,gushtasp having fallen into so violent a malady1 that the physicians in despair desisted from all attendance on them1 but having been restored to health through the prayers of ,zardusht1 they adopted the pure faith4#dab ,zaratusht the son of ,bahram relates3 ,one day ,zardusht1 having come into the king's presence1 he thus addressed the prophet of the ,lord3 8,i desire to obtain four things from ,god2 it is therefore meet that the prophet should request them3 first1 that ,i should behold my own state in the next world2 secondly1 that in the time of conflict no blow should make any impression on me1 so that ,i may be able to diffuse the true faith2 thirdly1 that ,i may know thoroughly the mysteries of good and evil in this world2 fourthly1 that until the day of judgment my spirit may remain united to my body40 ,zardusht replied3 8,i will entreat the ,lord to grant these four wishes3 8,but it is necessary that out of these four wishes ,thou shouldst implore one only for thyself3 ,choose three wishes for three different persons3 ,that ,i may entreat them from the righteous ,creator2 ,he will not confer on any one person these four gifts1 ,because that person might say3 #8,i am the supreme ,creator4'0 ,the king having agreed to this1 ,zaratusht at the time of evening prayer went to his house1 repeated the praises of the ,almighty1 entreating from him the accomplishment of the king's desires1 and lay down in the act of adoration3 in this state ,god showed him in a vision that the king's petition was granted4 ,at dawn of day the king was seated on his throne2 ,zardusht appeared in the royal presence and came to his place2 in a moment after1 the king's chamberlain entering in great trepidation1 said3 8,there are four terror-striking1 awe-inspiring horsemen at the door3 8,never before have ,i beheld horsemen of such a kind40 ,the king asked of ,zardusht3 8,who are these persons80 but he had scarcely done speaking before all the four horsemen dressed in green1 completely armed1 of majestic port1 drew near the throne2 these four cavaliers were of the number of those angels who are nearest the just ,god1 and are of the great ,amshasfands1 namely1 ,bahman1#dac ,ardibahist1#dad ,azarkhurdad1#dae and ,azargushtsp1#daf who thus addressed the king3 8,we are angels and the envoys of ,god4 ,the ,dispenser of justice thus declares3 #8,zardusht is my prophet1 whom ,i have sent to all the inhabitants of the earth2 attend well to him2 if thou devote thyself to his way1 thou art delivered from hell4 ,never inflict pain on him2 and when thou obtainest thy desires1 avert not thy head from his commands4'0 ,king ,gushtasp1 although in magnanimity immovable as mount ,alburz1 yet through the majesty of the angels and their awful presence1 fell senseless from his throne3 on recovering himself he thus addressed the righteous ,lord3 8,i am the lowest of all thy servants1 ,and have girt up my loins to execute thy orders40 ,when the ,amshsfands heard this answer1 they departed2 and the military1 on learning this wonderful occurrence1 were all assembled3 the king also1 trembling all over1 apologized to ,zardusht3 8,thy command sits upon my soul2 ,my spirit is like the son of the ,lord2 ,my body1 soul1 and wealth are all to thee devoted1 ,by order of the just and glorious ,creator40 ,the prophet of the ,lord replied3 8,may good tidings ever attend thee6 ,i have entreated from the ,almighty the completion of thy desires1 and my prayer has been granted40 ,zardusht then ordered that for the purpose of the ,yashtan-i-darn1#dag that is1 8the recitation and breathing out of prayer10 they should make ready in an inner apartment wine1 sweet perfumes1 milk1 and a pomegranate2 and over these he performed ,yasht1 or 8the recitation of prayers10 in a low voice1 out of the ,avesta and ,zand2 after this ceremony they gave ,gushtasp some of the hallowed wine1 on the mere tasting of which he became insensible and rose not up for three days3 in that interval his spirit ascended to heaven1 and there beheld the celestial nymphs1 their palaces1 progeny1 and attendants2 the blessings of paradise2 the different gradations of rank among the virtuous1 and the grade reserved for himself4 ,the prophet next presented to ,bishutan#dah some of that hallowed milk1 on drinking of which he was delivered from the pangs of death and obtained eternal life4 ,some of the ,yezdnian doctors hold1 that by eternal life is implied the knowledge of one's own essence and soul1 which never admit of decay2 milk is also mentioned1 as it constitutes the food of children1 and science is the food of spirit2 on which account they have likened science to consecrated milk4 ,he next gave ,jamasp#dai some of the hallowed perfume1 through the efficacy of which universal science shed its lustre on his heart2 so that1 from that very day of his existence1 whatever was to come to pass until the day of judgment was clearly comprehended by him in all its details4 ,he then gave one grain of the hallowed pomegranate to ,isfendiar1 who on eating it instantly became brazen-bodied1 and his frame grew so hard that no blow could make an impression on it4 ,when the great king awoke from his vision1 he broke out into praise and adoration2 after which he called for ,zardusht1 to whom he related what he had witnessed1 and commanded all men to receive the pure faith2 then1 being seated on his throne1 he ordered the prophet of the ,lord to recite some sections of the ,zand in his presence4 ,on hearing the ,avesta1 the demons fled and concealed themselves under the earth4 ,the great king next commanded that in every city the ,mobeds should attend to the observance of fire1 erecting domes over it1 and keeping stated festivals and times4 ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,precepts ,,given ,,by ,,zardusht ,,to ,,the ,,king ,,and ,,to ,,all ,,mankind4,the prophet ,zardusht1 having read to the king some sections concerning the greatness and majesty of the ,almighty1 said to him3 8,as thou hast adopted the ways of ,god1 the joy of paradise is to be thy portion2 but he who abandons that way is hurried off to hell by ,ahriman1 who feels delighted1 and on making the capture says to his victim3 #8,because thou hast abandoned the ways of ,god1 therefore art thou fallen into hell4' ,but the just ,god is liberal to his servants1 and has sent me to them1 saying3 #8,communicate my covenant to all created beings1 that they may abandon their perverse ways4' ,i am his prophet1 sent to thee that thou mayst guide mankind to the right road2 as the final result of persevering in the way of ,god is the attainment of paradise2 and the retribution of devotedness to ,ahriman is hell4 ,he moreover commanded me3 #8,say thou to mankind1 if ye adopt the pure faith1 then shall paradise be your place2 but if ye receive it not1 you follow the institutes of ,ahriman1 and hell shall be your abode4' ,the several demonstrations of ,zardusht and his wondrous works are to you an abundant proof of the truth of his faith4 ,know also that at first he sought the world2 but finally regarded wife1 children1 and relations as strangers to himself2 he has moreover attained to such perfect faith1 that the king and the mendicant are the same in his sight4 ,he has enjoined me nothing more than this3 neither has he given me permission to be your intercessor or to entreat from him remission of your sins3 for protection extended to the evil doer is itself criminal1 and the chastisement of evil deeds is true religion3 he enjoined me also to entertain hope of his favor from my words and deeds40 8,look to your acts and words1 for they produce their sure effect1 ,the same seed that people sow1 such the harvest they shall reap40 ,it is also expressly stated in the glorious ,koran to the same purport3#dbj 8,on the very day when the spirit 7,gabriel7 and the angels shall be ranged in their order1 nobody shall speak except him to whom the ,merciful will permit it1 and who will say nothing but what is just40 ,in another place it is declared3#dba 8,truly thou canst not direct whomsoever thou lovest2 but ,god will direct whomsoever he pleases40 ,it is also recorded in the traditions1 that the asylum of prophecy 7on whom be blessings67 said to the beautiful ,fatima3 8,o ,fatima6 fear nothing1 for thou art the prophet's daughter2 perform good works6 again ,i say1 perform good works60 ,he also proposed this additional proof6 8,not one of the eminent1 eloquent1 learned1 or wise men of the world can produce a composition which in the least resembles the volume ,i have sent down2 if they are able let them declare it2 but as they are unable1 let them confess that this is the voice of ,god3 a similar statement has also been made in the divine words of the ,koran3 #8produce ye a chapter resembling it4' ,again of the many prophets who appeared on earth1 all were ignorant of future events except ,zardusht1 who1 in the ,zend-,avesta1 clearly expounded whatever was to come to pass until the day of judgment1 whether good or evil40 8,concerning kings inspired by truth1 religion1 and justice1 ,there are minute details if thou wilt call them to mind3 ,the names of all he has consigned to lasting fame1 ,their every act and deed1 whether just or unjust alike40 ,moreover no prophet1 save ,zardusht1 bestowed in the presence of ,god benedictions on the military class whose hearts were rightly affected towards him4 8,to the follower of his faith he said1 if to the true believers ,thou doest good1 then good shall result to thee40 ,but above all he has said3 8,god has commanded me3 #8,say thou to mankind they are not to abide in hell for ever2 when their sins are expiated1 they are delivered out of it4'0 ,it is generally reported that ,zardusht was of ,azarbadgn#dbb or ,tabruz2 but those who are not ,beh-dinians1 or 8true believers10 assert1 and the writer of this work has also heard from the ,mobed ,torru of ,buswri1 in ,gujurat1 that the birth-place and distinguished ancestors of the prophet belong to the city of ,rai4#dbc ,a ,mobed has transcribed as follows from the ,avesta and ,zand1#dbd when the ,amshsfand ,bhmn1 pursuant to ,god's command1 had borne the prophet ,zardusht to heaven1 he thus entreated of the ,almighty3 8,close the door of death against me3 let that be my miracle40 ,but the righteous ,lord replied3 8,if ,i close the gates of death against thee1 thou wilt not be satisfied2 nay1 thou wouldst entreat death from me40 ,he then gave ,zardusht something like honey1 on tasting of which he became insensible2 like one in a profound sleep has visions1 he became acquainted with the mysteries of existence1 clearly perceiving the good and evil of whatever is in being2 nay1 he knew the number of hairs on the sheep1 and the sum of the leaves on a tree4 ,when his senses were restored1 the ,almighty asked him3 8,what hast thou seen80 ,he answered3 ,o supreme ruler6 ,i beheld in hell1 along with ,ahriman1 many wealthy persons who had been ungrateful in this world2 and ,i found in the supreme paradise many persons1 rich in gold and silver1 who had worshipped the ,lord and been grateful to him4 ,i moreover saw in hell many who were eminent for wealth1 but who were childless2 and many an indigent ,durvesh1 the father of many children1 in the enjoyment of paradise4 ,i saw moreover a tree with seven branches1#dbe the shadow of which extended far and wide2 one branch of gold1 the second of silver1 the third of copper1 the fourth of brass1 the fifth of tin 7or lead71 the sixth of steel1 the seventh of mixed iron40 ,the ,lord then said to his prophet3 8,the tree with seven branches is the series of events in the world1 in which agitation arises from seven sources through the revolution of the spheres2 the first or golden branch typifies the way and attraction by which thou hast come to my presence and attained the prophet's office2 the second or silver branch signifies that the great sovereign of the age shall receive thy system of faith1 and that the demons shall hide themselves in dismay2 the third or copper branch is the period of the ,ashkanian kings4 8,he who is not a true believer ,holds in abhorrence the pure in faith4 ,the great stock of fortune shall at this time ,be torn piecemeal and scattered all over the world4 8,the fourth1 or the branch of brass1 typifies the reign of ,ardashir1 the son of ,sssn1 who shall adorn the universe with the true faith and reestablish the pure institutes2 the people will embrace the faith through the force of demonstration3 they will pour molten copper and brass on the breast of ,arzabad1 and his person shall receive no injury4 ,the fifth1 or leaden branch is the reign of ,bhrm ,gor1 during which mankind will enjoy repose4 8,when mankind are in the enjoyment of happiness1 ,ahriman is grieved beforehand at this prosperous state4 8,the sixth branch1 or that of steel1 is the reign of ,nushirwan1 through whose equity the aged world shall be restored to youth2 and although ,mazdak of corrupt heart shall pursue his designs1 yet will he be unable to do any injury to the pure faith4 ,the seventh branch1 or that of mixed iron1 is emblematic of the time when the period of a thousand years verges to its end1#dbf and the royal dignity falls to ,mazdakin1 and no respect remains to the pure faith2 then a people clothed in black1 oppressors of the poor1 without title1 reputation1 or merit1 friends to tumult and wickedness1 fraudulent1 hypocritical1 and deceitful1 bitter of heart like aloes1 with honied tongue1 traitors to bread and salt1 ungrateful1 speakers of falsehood1 alike building the most magnificent mansions and fond of ruined caravansarais1 seeking the ways of hell1 having conspired together will destroy the fire-temples1 and turn to themselves the spirit of the inhabitants of ,iran4 ,the sons and daughters of the nobles shall fall into their hands1 and the children of the virtuous and mighty become their attendants3 nay1 this race shall make a covenant-breaker king over them3 8,that person among them obtains both power and rank1 ,whose career is directed to the production of misery4 8,when this millennium comes to a termination1 the clouds shall mostly appear unattended by rain2 the rains not fall in their season2 heats predominate2 the water of rivers be lessened2 few cows or sheep be left remaining2 and men despicable in figure1 small of stature1 weak in form1 shall then be met with4 8,the speed of the horse and the rider shall suffer diminution1 ,and no productive energy remain in the bosom of the sown field40 8,men shall gird the sacred zone in secrecy1 and drag on a dishonored existence1 forgetting altogether the ,nroz and the festival of ,farvardin4#dbg 8,the mouth of ,safandrmuz shall be opened wide1 ,and the hidden treasures cast forth and exposed to view40 8,an evil-disposed rapacious host of ,turks shall come to ,iran1 and force away the crown and throne from its chieftains4 ,o1 ,zardusht6 communicate these tidings to the ,mobeds1 that they may impart them to the people40 ,zardusht replied3 8,how shall the professors of the true faith be able to perform their worship80 to which this answer was given3 8,when the second millennium commences1 mankind shall behold more calamity than was witnessed in the times of ,zohk and ,afrasib2 and when that period is terminated1 there will not be found any one of the least merit among the professors of the true faith4 8,from every quarter they shall prepare to assail ,iran1 ,with their chargers' hoofs they shall lay it waste40 ,zardusht said3 8,o righteous ,ormuzd6 after so much toil1 abridgment of life and long-protracted suffering shall not the professors of the true faith find some intercessor2 and how can discomfiture overtake those clothed in black vestments80 ,the ,almighty answered thus3 8,pain is not to last for ever2 when the black ensign is displayed1 a host arrayed in red vestments and helmets shall come forth from the formidable room2 and the land of ,khorasan be desolate by flood and vapor2 the earth shall tremble and the cultivated fields be laid waste2 ,turk1 ,rmite1 and ,arab encounter each other2 and the borders of ,turan be made a wilderness by ,turks1 ,persians1 and ,hindoos2 the sacred fire be borne to ,dushkhargar1 or #8the mountainous region2' and1 through invasions1 ,iran become one scene of desolation40 ,the prophet then said3 8,o1 ,lord6 however short the duration of this people may be1 they will surely destroy life2 how then shall these wicked be exterminated80 ,to which he received this answer3 8,the standard of an army arises out of ,khorasan1 and then ,hoshidar is separated from his mother2 when he arrives at the age of thirty1 he will follow the ancient mode of faith1 and become sovereign of ,hindustan and ,china2 he shall have a son of the ,kaianian race1 named ,bahram and entitled ,hamawand1 but whom his nation will call ,shapur3 on the birth of that illustrious child1 the stars shall drop down from heaven2 and his father pass away from this world in the month of ,aban and the day of ,baud4#dbh ,when this son has attained twenty-one years of age1 he shall march in every direction with a numerous host1 and proceeding with his troops to ,balkh and ,bokhara1 advance into ,iran with the armies of ,india and ,china4 ,a man professing the good faith in the mountain region will then exert himself1 and bringing up an army from ,khorasan and ,sistan1 come to the aid of ,iran3 8,from ,kisht ,duwl1 ,roome1 and ,firingstan1 ,from demons clothed in black1 like piebald wolves40 8,three mighty battles shall then ensue1 which will render ,persia the land of mourning2 after which will arise an exalted avenging prince who shall obtain the victory4 ,in those days a thousand women shall not be able to find one man2 and if they should perchance behold one1 they shall be filled with astonishment4 ,when those times are come to an end1 ,i shall send ,sersh towards ,jerusalem and summon ,bishutan1 who will issue forth with a company of one hundred and fifty virtuous men1 and duly perform ,yasht1 or #8prayer1' on which ,ahriman will engage in battle with them2 but1 on hearing the sound of the ,hadokht and the ,ashtawazand1 the partizans of ,ahriman shall flee out of ,iran4 ,a prince1 ,bhrm by name1 shall then ascend the throne1 bring back the sacred fire1 and restore the institutions of ancient times1 and the seed of the wicked shall then be exterminated3 finally1 when ,bishutan beholds every thing duly arranged1 he will return with royal pomp to his own palace40 ,the ,mobed ,azar ,khirad relates in his book that the ,zand contains twenty-one ,nosks1 or 8parts10 every ,nosk having a particular name in ,zand and ,parsi according to the following list3#dbi ,yath1 ,ita1 ,ahu1 ,wra1 ,alartsh1 ,nadar1 which they call in ,arabic ,bfastl1 and in ,parsi ,favamashan4 ,this ,nosk treats of the stars1 constellations1 order of the heavens1 the aspects1 the good and evil influences of the heavenly bodies1 and such like topics4 ,the other ,nosks are3 the ,ashd1 ,chd1 ,hash1 ,wankawsh1 ,wazda1 ,mankah1 ,stan1 ,nan1 ,ankahsh1 ,marzi1 ,khashar1 ,mach1 ,ahr1 ,aym1 ,darkb and ,astarm3 all the sciences are contained in the ,zand1 but some are mentioned enigmatically and by way of allusion4 ,at present there are fourteen complete ,nosks possessed by the ,dostrs of ,karman1 the other seven being incomplete1 as through the wars and dissensions which prevailed in ,iran some of the ,nosks have disappeared1 so that1 notwithstanding the greatest researches1 the ,nosks have come into their hands in a defective state4 ,zaratusht ,bhrm1 the son of ,pazhd1 relates that1 at the time of the promulgation of the pure faith in ,iran1 there lived in ,india a sage of profound learning1 named ,jangranghchah1#dcj whose pupil ,jamasp#dca had been during many years1 a circumstance which procured him great distinction4 ,on being informed of ,gushtasp's conversion1 he wrote an epistle to the great king1 to dissuade him from the profession of the pure faith4 ,by the king's command1 this sage came to ,iran to hold a disputation with ,zardusht1 who said to him3 8,listen to one ,nosk of this ,asta which ,i have received from ,god1 and attend to its interpretation40 ,upon this1 at the illustrious prophet's command1 one of his disciples read a ,nosk in which ,god said thus to ,zardusht3 8,on the promulgation of the pure faith1 there shall come from ,hindustan a wise man1 named ,jangranghchah1 who will ask thee questions1 after such and such guise1 the answers to which are after this manner1 thus answering all his questions3 8,by this same ,nosk his condition was improved1 ,and the answer to each question was correctly given40 ,when he heard the solutions of his questions he fell from his chair1 and on recovering his senses adopted the pure faith4 ,the prophet ,ssn the ,fifth1 in his select commentary on the ,dastir and the interpretation of the code of ,zardusht1 relates1 that when ,isfendiar had promulgated the pure faith1 the eminent sages of ,greece dispatched a learned man1 named ,niyts1#dcb to interrogate the prophet of the ,lord concerning the exact nature of his tenets4 ,gushtasp1 having assigned him an audience on a most auspicious day4 this distinguished ,greek1 on beholding the face of ,zardusht1 said3 8,from this face1 knowledge1 sagacity1 and science are manifest as the properties of a mind so formed2 and this is not the physiognomy of one who utters falsehoods40 ,he then asked him concerning the moment1 day1 month1 and year of his birth1 which being communicated by ,zardusht1 ,niyts observed3 8,under such a horoscope1 a person of weak intellects cannot be born40 ,he next questioned him concerning his food1 sleep1 and mode of life1 which being also explained1 ,niyts added3 8,from this rule of life he cannot be an impostor40 ,the prophet of the ,lord then said to him3 8,keep in thy heart whatever thou desirest to inquire about1 and utter it not with thy tongue2 as the ,almighty has acquainted me with it1 and for my sake has sent me his word in this chapter relative to these matters40 ,on this1 one of the prophet's disciples read to ,niyts1 out of a single chapter1 all that was laid up in the noble envoy's breast1 and whatever he was commissioned to enquire about1 at the desire of the eminent men of ,greece4 ,the ,fifth ,ssn1 in like manner1 relates that when the report of ,jangranghchah's having adopted the faith was published abroad1 a sage1 by name ,bys1#dcc came from ,india to ,iran2 and the sages of every country being assembled1 pursuant to the great king's command1 ,biysa thus addressed the prophet of the ,lord in the presence of all3 8,o1 ,zardusht6 in consequence of thy answers and unfolding of mysteries to the wise ,jangranghchah1 thou art accounted a true prophet4 ,i have besides heard of innumerable miracles performed by thee4 ,know that ,i also1 in my own country1 am reckoned as one who is unequalled both in the theoretical and practical sciences4 ,i now hope that thou wilt disclose the secrets which ,i have kept pent up in my bosom1 and have never in any manner transferred from the page of my heart to the lip3 some people tell us that the genii impart knowledge of this kind to the worshippers of ,ahriman3 however if thou canst unfold all these secrets1 ,i shall turn to thy faith40 ,the prophet of the ,lord said3 8,long before thy arrival1 the ,god of purity made all known to me40 ,he then recited a ,simnad1 8chapter10 which the ,lord had sent down on those subjects2 in which was specified whatever was in ,bysa's heart1 with the answer attached to it2 after which ,bysa listened to the word of ,god1 and having made profession of the pure faith1 returned to ,hindustan4 ,it is to be remarked that the two ,simnad which contain the answers to the eminent envoy of the ,greeks and the sage ,byasa do not form a part of the ,astawazand1 but constitute a portion of the ,destir1#dcd or of the celestial volume1 in the language of which a chapter is styled a ,simnad4 ,moreover1 ,zaratusht ,bhrm thus relates concerning the account of heaven and hell given by ,ardaivirf4#dce ,it is recorded that1 when the power of ,ardeshir ,babagan was firmly established1 he assembled around him forty thousand virtuous ,mobeds and ,dustars1 out of which number he selected four thousand2 of those thus selected he set apart four hundred1 who knew by heart the greater part of the ,asta2 of these four hundred he again chose out forty learned doctors2 and from these he selected seven unblemished sages1 equally free from mortal and venial sins1 whom he thus addressed3 8,let whichever of you is able divest himself of body1 and bring us intelligence concerning heaven and hell40 ,these righteous men made answer3 8,for such a purpose there is required a man who from the age of seven upwards has not committed sin40 ,after which these sages selected from amongst them one1 named ,ardai ,virf1#dcf whom they knew to be possessed of this excellence1 and1 accompanied by the great king1 they all repaired to ,azar ,khrdd1 which was a fire-temple2 having there prepared a golden throne for ,ardai ,virf1 the forty thousand professors of the faith performed ,yazash1 that is1 recited prayers according to the prescribed mode4 ,ardivirf1 having drunk a cup of hallowed wine which he received from the ,dustur1 lay down on his couch and did not arise before the expiration of a week2 his spirit1 through the efficacy of the divine word1 having been separated from the body1 those six ,dustrs all the while standing around his pillow4 ,on the eighth day ,ard1 arising from sleep1 ordered a scribe to be brought1 who should commit to writing all his words2 and he thus spoke3#dcg 8,when ,i fell asleep1 ,sirushi1 who is called also ,sursh ,ash1 or ,ash simply1 or #8the ,angel of paradise1' came near4 ,having made my salm1 ,i explained the motives of my coming to the other world4 ,he took my hand and said3 #8,ascend three steps4' ,i obeyed1 and arrived at the ,chanyud ,pul1 or #8the straight bridge of judgment' 7the sart of the ,muhammedans74 ,the accompanying ,angel pointed me out the road1 when ,i beheld a bridge finer than a hair and sharper than a razor1 and strong1 and its length was seven-and-thirty rasans1 or cords4#dch ,i beheld a spirit just parted from the body in a state of tranquillity2 on its arrival at the bridge of judgment1 a fragrant gale came from mid-day or the east1 out of which issued forth a beautiful nymph-like form1 the like of which ,i never before beheld4 ,the spirit asked her3 #8,who art thou of such surpassing beauty8' ,she replied3 #8,i am the personification of thy good deeds4' 8,i then saw ,mihr ,ized1#dci at whose side were standing ,rash ,rast#ddj and ,sarsh ,ized holding a balance in his hand1 and angels assembled around them4 ,now ,mihr ,ized is the angel whose province it is to number and estimate people in regard to rewards and punishments4 ,rash is his minister of justice and the lord of equity2 and ,sarsh is the lord of messages and the master of announcements4 ,to these ,i made my salam which they returned1 and ,i passed over the bridge4#dda ,several spirits then appeared who addressed me affectionately2 ,bhmn next appeared and said to me3 #8,come on1 that ,i may show thee the ,gah-i-zarin' 7or golden place1 which is the same as the celestial throne74 ,i proceeded with him to a beautiful throne1 where ,i beheld the spirit before mentioned1 whose deeds were personified by a beauteous form1 with the ,ashwan1 or #8pure spirits1' and the inhabitants of paradise around him1 with the spirits of his relations rejoicing as on the arrival of a long-absent traveller from his abode2 then ,bhmn took his hand and brought him to a place worthy of him4 ,when ,i had proceeded a little onwards1 ,i beheld a lofty portico1 where by order of ,sursh ,i addressed my prayers towards the place of ,god1 and my sight became darkened through the effulgence of light4 ,sursh again brought me back to the bridge of judgment1 around which ,i beheld a number of persons standing with folded hands4 ,i asked3 #8,who are those persons8' ,sursh answered3 #8,these are the weak in faith1 who remain in this state until the day of judgment3 if they possessed an additional particle of virtue1 equal in weight to one of the hairs of the eyelash1 they would be relieved from this calamity4' ,i then beheld another assemblage like unto shining stars4 ,surush said3 #8,this is the ,satra ,payah1#ddb 7or the sphere of the fixed stars72 in these are a people who with all their wealth observed not the ,gt ,khard#ddc 7the purchase of the other world7 and the ,na ,roz 7or the festival of the new year47' ,he next brought me to the ,mh ,pyah 7or lunar sphere71 where ,i beheld spirits resplendent as the moon4 ,the angel said3 #8this ,mh ,pyah is also one of the spheres of paradise1 in which are those who have performed every kind of meritorious act and deed1 except observing the ,na ,roz4' ,he then conducted me to the ,khrshd ,pyah 7or solar sphere7 where ,i beheld spirits exceedingly bright1 radiant as the sun4 ,the angel said3 #8,in the solar sphere are the persons who have observed the ,gt ,khard and the ,na ,roz4' ,at his command1 ,i then addressed my prayers to the ,warakt and ,khurah-i-,yazdan1 or #8light of the ,almighty3' perception and intellect1 through the effects of terror and overpowering awe1 began to flee from me2 a voice1 however1 from which ,i obtained renovated energy1 came to my hearing3 there was then some oil#ddd given me to drink out of a golden cup3 ,i partook of it and found it of an incomparable taste3 they told me that it was the food of the people of paradise4 ,i next beheld ,ardi ,behst1#dde to whom ,i made my salam4 ,he said to me3 #8,place on the sacred fire wood free from moisture4' ,surush then bore me off to ,kurutaman1 or #8paradise1'#ddf in the light of which ,i became bewildered in astonishment3 ,i knew none of the precious stones of which it was composed4 ,the angels1 by the command of the ,almighty1 took me round every part of it4 ,i next came to a place where ,i beheld an illustrious assemblage enveloped in ,khurah1 that is1 #8radiance and pomp4' ,sursh ,ashir said3 #8,these are the spirits of the munificent and noble-minded4' ,after this ,i saw a great multitude in all magnificence4 ,sursh explained to me3 #8,these are the spirits of all who have observed the ,na ,roz4' ,next them ,i beheld an assemblage in the enjoyment of all magnificence and happiness4 ,sursh observed3 #8,these are the spirits of just princes4' ,after this ,i beheld blessed spirits in boundless joy and power4 ,surush explained3 #8,these are the ,dustrs and ,mobeds3 my duty is to convey that class to this honor4' ,i next beheld a company of women rejoicing in the midst of great pomp4 ,sursh ,ash and ,ardibahst observed3 #8,these are the spirits of women who were obedient to their husbands4' ,i then beheld a multitude of majestic and beautiful persons1 seated along with angels4 ,sursh said3 #8this class consists of ,hrbuds and ,mobeds1 the attendants on fire-temples1 and the observers of the ,yasht and ,yazisht of the ,amshasfands4' ,after these ,i saw an armed assemblage in a state of the highest joy4 ,sursh informed me3 #8,these are the spirits of the champions who fought in the ways of ,god1 maintaining their country and the husbandmen in a state of prosperity and tranquillity4' ,i next beheld a great assemblage in the enjoyment of all delight and gladness4 ,sursh observed3 #8,these are the spirits of the slayers of the ,khurstr 7or noxious animals74'#ddg ,after this1 ,i witnessed a people given up to sporting and happiness4 ,surush observed3 #8,these are the spirits of the husbandmen1 over whom ,safndarmuz is set2 he consequently presides over this class1 as they have propitiated him by their acts4' ,i next beheld a great company surrounded by all the appliances of enjoyment4 ,sursh said3 #8,these are the spirits of shepherds4' ,after this1 ,i beheld great numbers in a state of repose and joy1 and the elemental principles of paradise standing before them4 ,sursh observed3 #8,these are the heads of families1 friends to building1 who have improved the world by gardens and water-courses1 and held the elements in reverence4' ,i next came to another class1 endowed with prophet-like radiance1 of whom ,sursh remarked3 #8,these are the spirits of ,jdngis4' ,by ,jdngis is meant one who solicits money from the wealthy to promote the way of the ,lord1 and who expends it on noble foundations and holy indigent persons4 8,what can ,i say concerning the black-eyed nymphsthe palaces1 offspring1 and attendantsthe drinks and viands8any thing like which ,i know not of in this elemental world4#ddh 8,after this ,sursh and ,ardibehst1 taking me out of paradise1 bore me off to behold the punishments inflicted on those in hell4 ,first of all1 ,i beheld a black and gloomy river of fetid water1 with weeping multitudes falling in and drowning4 ,sursh said3 #8,this water is collected from the tears shed by relatives on the death of a person2 and those who are drowning are they whose relatives1 after their death1 break out into mourning1 weeping1 and tears4' ,i next proceeded towards the bridge of judgment1 where ,i beheld a spirit rent from the body1 and mourning for its separation3 there arose a fetid gale1 out of which issued a gloomy figure1 with red eye-balls1 hooked nose1 hideous lips1 teeth like columns1 a head like the kettle of a minaret1#ddi long talons1 spear-like fangs1 snaky locks1 and vomiting out smoke4 ,the alarmed spirit having asked1 #8,who art thou8' he answered1 #8,i am the personification of thy acts and deeds4' ,on saying this1 he threw his hands around the spirit's neck1 so that his lamentations came to the bridge of judgment1 which is sharper than a razor3 on this the spirit having gone a little way with great difficulty1 at last fell into the infernal regions4 ,i then followed him1 accompanied by ,srush and ,ardibehest3 our road lay through snow1 ice1 storms1 intense cold1 mephitic exhalations1 and obscurity1 along a region full of pits3 into these ,i looked1 and there beheld countless myriads of spirits suffering tortures4 ,they all wailed bitterly1 and the darkness was so thick that one was unable to perceive the other1 or to distinguish his lamentation3 three days such punishment is equal to nine thousand years1 and the same calculation applies to the other pits1 in all of which were serpents1 scorpions1 stinging and noxious creatures3 whatever spirit falls into them 8,was stung by one and torn by another1 ,was bit by this1 and pierced by that40 8,sursh having taken me below1 ,i there beheld a spirit with a human head and serpent-like body1 surrounded by many demons who were applying the torture to his feet1 and smiting him in every direction with hatchets1 daggers1 and maces1 whilst noxious creatures were biting him on all sides4 ,sursh observed3 #8,this was a man of vile passions4' ,i next saw a woman who held in her hand a cup filled with blood and corrupted matter2 demons kept striking her with clubs and spears until she swallowed the nauseous draught1 on which they instantly replaced a similar bowl in her hands4 ,sursh remarked3 #8,this woman1 whilst laboring under periodical illness1 approached the elements1 of fire and water4' ,i then beheld a man wailing piteously1 whose head they were scalping with a poniard3 ,sursh said3 #8,this was a shedder of innocent blood4' ,i next saw a man who was forced to swallow blood and corrupted matter1 with which they were continually supplying him4 ,the demons in the mean time tortured him1 and placed a heavy mountain on his breast3 ,sursh stated this to be #8,the spirit of a dissolute man1 who seduced the wives of other men4' ,after this1 ,i beheld a spirit weeping through hunger and thirst2 so intense was his craving1 that he drank his own blood and devoured his own flesh4 ,sursh stated3 #8,this is the spirit of one who observed not the ,bj#dej when partaking of food1'0 7,bj is a rite practised by orthodox ,parsees before meat1 as has been explained under the head of banquet7 8#8and who on the day of ,aban#dea partook of water1 fruit1 and bread1 so that the angels ,khurdd and ,murdd were displeased with him4' ,i next beheld a woman suspended by her breasts and noxious creatures falling on her4 ,sursh said3 #8this is a woman who deserted her husband and went after another man4' ,i then saw a great multitude of spirits1 furiously assailed by rapacious animals and noxious creatures4 ,sursh stated thus3 #8,these are persons who adopted not the ,kashti#deb or sacred cincture as worn by professors of the excellent faith4' ,i next beheld a woman hung up1 with her tongue protruding from the hind part of the neck4 ,sursh observed3 #8,this is a woman who obeyed not her husband1 and replied to him with harsh answers and opposition4' ,i then saw a man eating with a ladle the most noxious things1 of which if he took too small a portion1 demons smote him with wooden clubs4 ,sursh observed3 #8this is the spirit of one who betrayed his trust4' ,i after this beheld a man hung up1 surrounded by seventy demons1 who were lashing him with serpents instead of scourges2 and meanwhile the serpents kept gnawing his flesh with their fangs4 ,sursh ,ash said3 #8,this is a king who extorted money from his subjects by torture4' ,i next beheld a man with wide-opened mouth and protruding tongue1 8,with serpents and scorpions covered all over1 ,the one lacerating with fangs1 the others lashing with their tails4 8,sursh said3 #8,this was a tale-bearer1 who by his lies caused dissension and strife among mankind4' ,after this ,i saw a man1 every ligature and joint of whose body they were tearing asunder4 ,sursh said3 #8,this person has slain many four-footed animals4' ,i next beheld a man exposed to body-rending torture1 concerning whom ,sursh said3 #8,this was a wealthy1 avaricious man1 who employed not his riches for the useful purposes of either world4' ,i then saw a person to whom were offered all sorts of noxious creatures1 whilst one foot was free from all kind of suffering4 ,sursh said concerning him3 #8,this is the spirit of a negligent person1 who did not in the least attend to the concerns of the world or the world to come4 ,as he once passed along the road1 he observed a goat tied up in such a manner that it was unable to get at its food3 with that foot he tossed the forage towards the animal1 in recompense of which good act that foot is exempt from suffering4' ,i next beheld a person whose tongue was laid on a stone1 and demons kept beating it with another4 ,concerning him ,sursh observed3 #8,this person was an habitual slanderer and liar1 through whose words people fell into mischief4' ,i then saw a woman whose breasts the demons were grinding under a millstone4 ,about her ,sursh observed3 #8,this woman produced abortion by means of drugs4' ,i next beheld a man in whose seven members worms had fixed themselves4 ,concerning him ,sursh said3 #8,this person gave false witness for money1 and derived his support from that resource4' ,after this ,i saw a man devouring the flesh of a corpse and drinking human gore4 ,sursh observed3 #8,this is the spirit of one who amassed wealth by unlawful means4' ,i afterwards beheld a great multitude with pallid faces1 fetid bodies1 and limbs covered with worms4 ,about these ,sursh ,ash observed3 #8,these are hypocrites of satanic qualities1 whose hearts were not in accordance with their words1 and who led astray the professors of the excellent faith1 divesting themselves of all respect for religion and morality4' ,i next saw a man the members of whose body hell-hounds were rending asunder4 ,concerning him ,sursh said3 #8,this man was in the habit of slaughtering water and land dogs4' ,i next beheld a woman hurled into snow and smitten by the guardians of fire4 ,about her ,sursh said3 #8,when this woman combed herself1 her hairs fell into the fire4' ,after this ,i beheld another woman tearing off with a poniard the flesh of her own body and devouring it4 ,surush said3 #8,this is an enchantress who used to fascinate men4' ,next her ,i saw a man whom the demons forced by blows to swallow blood1 corrupted matter1 and human flesh4 ,concerning him ,sursh said3 #8,this man was in the habit of casting dead bodies1 corrupted matter1 nails1 and hair into fire and water4' ,i afterwards beheld a person devouring the flesh and skin of a dead body4 ,sursh said3 #8,this person defrauded the labourers of their hire4' ,i next beheld a man with a mountain on his back1 whom with his load they forced through terror into the midst of snows and ice4 ,sursh observed3 #8,this was an adulterer1 who took the wife from her husband4' ,i afterwards saw a number of ill-fated persons up to their necks in ice and snow1 before each of whom was a cup filled with gore1 and hair1 and impurities1 which1 through terror of blows and clubs1 they were obliged to swallow4 ,sursh observed3 #8,these are persons who used warm bathing along with the ,batardeen 7or the enemies of the faith7 washing their bodies and heads in such unclean and polluted baths4' ,i then beheld a person groaning under the weight of a mountain4 ,concerning him ,sursh said3 #8,this man laid heavy taxes on the people1 established evil ordinances1 and oppressed mankind4' ,next him ,i beheld one digging up a mountain with his fingers and nails1 whilst the superintendent kept smiting him with a viper4 ,sursh said3 #8,this is a man who by violence seized on the lands of others3' 8,as long as this earth and place continue to exist1 ,so long1 by way of retribution1 shall this spirit be thus employed4 ,i afterwards saw a man the flesh of whose shoulders and body they were scraping off with a comb of iron4 ,concerning him ,sursh said3 #8,this man was an egregious violator of promises and breaker of engagements4' ,i then beheld a great multitude whose hands and feet they were smiting with bludgeons1 iron maces1 and such like4 ,concerning these ,sursh observed3 #8,this class is composed of promise-breakers and the violators of covenants1 who maintained friendship with ,darwands1#dec or those hostile to the faith4' ,sursh1 ,ash1 and ,ardibehest then led me from that abode of misery to ,girutuman1 #8the seat of supreme bliss1' or #8paradise on high1' which is called #8the heaven of heavens4' ,on beholding the light and splendor of the righteous ,lord1 ,i became entranced1 and this spirit-reviving voice reached my ears3 #8,through thy virtuous words and actions1 which have been conformable to the excellent faith1 joined to the co-operation and energy of intellect1 though hast resisted all the demons which infest the body1 and hast therefore attained to this rank4' ,sursh then taking me by the hand1 said3 #8,communicate to mankind all thou hast heard4' ,he next took me down to paradise1 where several spirits received me and said3 #8,reveal these mysteries to our relations1 that they may beware of sin4' ,i next came to the lunar mansion1 where they addressed me in the same manner4 ,i afterwards reached the starry mansion with the same two companions1 and here also the spirits advanced to receive me1 saying3 #8,counsel our relations to make ,yasht and ,yazisht 7to pray in a low murmuring tone at meal-time7 and to cleave firmly to the festival of the ,na ,roz1 and the girding of the cincture2 had we observed these rites1 we should not have remained in this mansion1 but gone on to ,paradise4' ,it appears to follow from what has been stated1 that the starry mansion or zodiacal sphere is below that of the moon2 the ,yezdanians however say1 that the starry mansion signifies the mansion of the spirits who below the lunar sphere are not exempted from sufferings1 but are attached to the bodies of the virtuous by means of the zodiacal signs4#ded 8,i next came to ,chnawad ,pul 7the bridge of judgment7 where many spirits thus addressed me3 #8,tell men to leave sons behind them in the world1 or otherwise they must1 like us1 remain here4' 8,we behold paradise in distant perspective1 ,but are far removed from its enjoyment4 8,another company of spirits said3 #8,let not men look at the wife or mate of another2 and let them hold up none to suspicion3 otherwise they must remain here like us1 until our injured enemy comes hither from the world3 if he be propitiated1 we may be delivered4' 8,sursh and ,ardibehest then brought me to the lower world and bade me adieu40#dee ,when the scribe had written down all the words of ,ardi ,viraf1 he read them over to the great king1 who thereupon duly promulgated the excellent faith1 and sent ,mobeds to all the borders of ,iran4 ,after 7the death of ,ardashir7 appeared the ,mobed ,azarbad1#def the son of ,marasfand 7whose lineage by the father ascended to the prophet ,zardusht1 and by his mother to king ,gushtasp71 from whom king ,shapur 7the son of ,ardeshir7 and the military having demanded a miracle in proof of the faith1 the forty thousand wise men were again assembled4#deg ,azarbad1 having performed his ablutions1 lay down before this great assemblage1 whereupon they poured nine mans of melted brass upon his bared breast1 but1 through the divine glory1 his person received no injury4 ,on beholding this1 all those who before had been unbelievers1 embraced the faith4 ,from the time of ,azarbd the ,dustrs of all succeeding kings were of his lineage4#deh ,the professors of the excellent faith and the ,moslem historians agree1 that in ,kashmir or ,kashmar1#dei a place celebrated for female beauty1 a dependency of ,naishapur1 there was formerly a cypress#dfj planted by ,zardusht for king ,gushtasp1 the like of which was never seen before or since1 for beauty1 height1 or straightness3 mention of this tree having been made at the court of ,mutawakkal#dfa when he was engaged in building the ,sarman ra1 or ,samarah#dfb palace in the ,jafriyah1#dfc the ,khalif felt a great desire to behold it3 and as it was not in his power to go to ,khorasan1 he wrote to ,abdallah ,thir ,zavalimin1 8possessor of happiness10 to have the tree cut down1 fastened on rollers1 and sent to ,baghdd4 ,when intelligence of this came to the people of the district and the inhabitants of ,khorasan1 they assembled at the foot of the tree1 imploring for mercy with tears and lamentations1 and exhibiting a scene of general desolation4 ,the professors of the excellent faith offered the governor fifty thousand dinars to spare the tree1 but the offer was refused4 ,when the cypress was felled1 it caused great detriment to the buildings and water-courses of the country2 the birds of different kinds which had built their nests on it issued forth in such countless myriads as to darken the air1 screaming out in agony with various tones of distress3 the very oxen1 sheep1 and other animals which reposed under its sheltering shade1 commenced such piteous moans of woe that it was impossible to listen to them4 ,the expense of conveying the trunk to ,baghdad was five hundred thousand dinars2 the very branches loaded one thousand and three hundred camels4 ,when the tree had reached one station from the ,jaafriyah quarter1 on that same night1 ,mutawakkal the ,abasside was cut in pieces by his own guards1#dfd so that he never beheld the tree4 ,some ,muhammedan writers state the circumference of the trunk at twenty-seven tziynah1 each a cubit and a quarter long1 and also that fourteen hundred and fifty years had elapsed from the time of its being planted to the year #bcb of the ,hejirah 7#hdf1 ,a4 ,d474#dfe ,the ,behdnians say that ,zardusht brought with him from paradise a branch which he planted at the gate of the fire temple of ,kashmir1 and which grew up into this tree3 but some sages maintain that1 according to the intelligent1 this tradition signifies3 #a4 that there is in vegetables a simple uncompounded soul2 and #b4 that paradise is the world of beings of that class4 ,some ,yezdanians say that ,zardusht prayed the superintending lord of cypress-trees1 whom they call ,azrawn1 to nourish carefully the offspring of this shoot4 ,they also relate1 on the authority of a holy ,hakim1 8doctor10#dff who said3 8,i saw the ,lord of the cypress1 and he declared3 #8,i have given orders to slay ,mutawakkal for the crime of cutting down this tree4'0 ,muhammed ,kuli ,salim also says3 8,no person wishes to see his own nursling enfeebled4 ,water and fire are ever at enmity with chips and leaves40 ,the ,behdnians maintain that ,ahriman is the production of ,time2 and that the angels1 heavens1 and stars 7always7 were1 and will 7for ever7 be3 but that the three kingdoms of nature are a creation4 ,also that the period of the present creation is twelve thousand years1 at the expiration of which comes the resurrection1 when ,god will raise up all mankind and render this elemental world a glorious paradise1 and annihilate ,ahriman1 his worshippers1 and hell itself4 ,the ,dustr ,shah ,zadh says1 in the volume of the ,sad ,der1 or 8the hundred gates10#dfg the excellent faith has been received from the prophet ,zardusht1 the son of ,purshasp1 the son of ,khajarasp1 the son of ,hujjs1 the son of ,asfantaman3 on him the ,almighty graciously bestowed the ,avesta and ,zand1 and through divine knowledge he comprehended all things from eternity to infinity4 ,this is the hundred-gated city constructed from the world of truth1 that is1 the celestial volume4 8,the mighty1 through means of the ,asta1 ,zand1 and ,pazand1 ,have constructed on its outside a hundred gates4 ,behold what a system of belief ,zardusht has introduced1 ,in which a hundred gates give admission to his city of ,faith40 ,,gate ,,the ,,first is the belief and acknowledgment of ,zardusht's prophetic character2 for when the spirit on the fourth night 7after quitting the body7 comes to the bridge of ,chinavad1 where ,mihr ,ized and ,rash ,ized take account of its actions1 in the ,kirfah1 or 8good deeds0 exceed the sins by one hair's point1 they bear the spirit off to paradise1 but always on the condition of having professed the faith of ,zardusht4 ,,gate ,,the ,,second4 ,it is necessary to be ever vigilant1 and always looking on a trifling sin as one of magnitude1 to flee far from it2 because1 if the virtuous deeds exceed the sinful acts by even the point of one of the hairs of the eye-lashes1 the spirit goes to paradise2 but should the contrary be the case1 it descends to hell4 ,,gate ,,the ,,third4 ,the pursuits of a man should be of a virtuous tendency2 because1 whilst thus engaged1 if he be overpowered by robbers or foes1 he shall receive fourfold in paradise2 but if he be slain in any vain pursuit1 it is the retribution due to his acts1 and hell is his abode4 ,,gate ,,the ,,fourth4 ,a man must not despair of ,god's mercy2 for ,zardusht says3 8,i beheld one whose body1 with the exception of one foot1 was entirely in hell2 but that foot was outside4 ,the ,lord said3 #8,this person1 who ruled over thirty-three cities1 never performed good deeds2 but having one day observed a sheep tied up at a distance from her food1 he with this foot pushed the grass near her4'0#dfh ,,gate ,,the ,,fifth4 ,let all men exert themselves to observe the rites of ,yasht1#dfi and the ,na ,roz1#dgj and if they cannot themselves perform these duties1 let them purchase the agency of another4 ,,gate ,,the ,,sixth4 ,let men know that the meritorious works are six in number3 #a4 the observance of the ,gahambara1 or 8six periods of creation20 #b4 that of the ,favardigan1 or 8five supplementary days of the year10 with that of ,yashtan1 8or praying in a low murmuring voice at meals20 #c4 propitiating the spirits of thy father1 mother1 and other relations2 #d4 offering up supplications to the sun three times every day2 #e4 offering up prayers to the moon three times every month1 that is1 the beginning1 middle1 and last day of the moon2 #f4 offering up supplications in due form every year4 ,,gate ,,the ,,seventh4 ,when sneezing comes on1 repeat the entire of the forms called ,ita ahu virio1#dga and the ,ashem ,vuhu4 ,,gate ,,the ,,eighth4 ,be obedient to the ,dustrs and give them one-tenth of thy wealth2 as that is a most meritorious work1 or ,kirfah4#dgb ,,gate ,,the ,,ninth4 ,a person should avoid all practices not sanctioned by the laws of nature1 and must look on them as accursed3 let all those found guilty of such deeds be put to death4 ,this description of criminals are equally guilty with the usurper ,zohak1 and ,alkus1#dgc and ,sarrak1#dgd and ,afrasiab1 and ,turbaraturas4#dge ,,gate ,,the ,,tenth4 ,it is incumbent on every man and woman to tie on the ,kashti4#dgf ,by ,kashti is meant a woollen cincture girded round the waist1 in which they make four knots3 the first to signify the unity of ,god2 the second1 the certainty of the faith2 the third1 that ,zardusht was the prophet of ,god2 the fourth to imply1 8that ,i will to the utmost of my power ever do what is good40 ,,gate ,,the ,,eleventh4 ,keep the fire burning1 and let it not consume any thing impure4 ,,gate ,,the ,,twelfth4 ,let not the shroud of the deceased be new1 but let it be clean and old4 ,,gate ,,the ,,thirteenth4 ,the good man gives joy to the spirits of his father and mother1 by celebrating the ,darun miezd#dgg and the ,afernign1#dgh or 8funereal 8repasts40 ,the ,darun is a prayer recited in praise of the ,almighty and of ,azar3 when they breathe out prayers in a murmuring tone over viands1 they are said to be ,yeshtah4 ,afrinigan also means one of the twenty ,nosks of the ,zand4 ,,gate ,,the ,,fourteenth4 ,let them repeat the ,ita ,ahu three times over the collected nail-parings1 and having each time drawn a circular line around them1 let earth be poured on them with the shears1 or let them be taken to some mountain4#dgi ,,gate ,,the ,,fifteenth4 ,whatever pleasing object meets the true believer's sight1 he repeats over it the name of ,god4 ,,gate ,,the ,,sixteenth4 ,in the house of a pregnant woman keep the fire in without ceasing2 and when the child is born1 let not the lamp be extinguished during three days and nights4 ,they say that1 on the birth of the prophet ,zardusht1 there came fifty demons with the design of slaying him2 but they were unable to do him any injury as there was a fire kept up in the house4 ,,gate ,,the ,,seventeenth4 ,on arising from sleep1 bind the ,kashti1 without doing which enter upon no pursuit whatever4 ,,gate ,,the ,,eighteenth4 ,let the tooth-pick1 after having been used1 be concealed in a wall4 ,,gate ,,the ,,nineteenth4 ,they give their son and daughter in marriage at an early period2 as the person who has no son cannot pass over the bridge of ,chinavad2 let whoever is in that state adopts some one2 if he should not find it feasible1 it will then be incumbent on his relations and the ,dustr to fix on a son for him4 ,,gate ,,the ,,twentieth4 ,they esteem husbandry the best of all professions1 and regard the husbandman with respect and honor4 ,,gate ,,the ,,twenty-,,first4 ,it is meet to give good viands to the professors of the pure faith4 ,,gate ,,the ,,twenty-,,second4 ,at the time of eating bread it is necessary to perform ,vj3#dhj and at the time of ,maizad and ,afrinign to keep the lips closed2 the true believer repeats the entire of the ,esha ad avizmidi three times1 and then eats bread2 and when he washes his mouth1 he repeats ,ashem ,vuhu four times1 and the ,ita ahu virio twice4 ,it is to be remarked1 that ,wj or ,vj is the ,barsom1#dha which consists of small twigs of the same length1 without knots1 taken from the pomegranate1 tamarisk1 or ,hum2 these they cut with a ,barsomchin1 or knife with an iron handle4 ,having first washed the knife carefully1 they recite the appointed prayers1 after which1 having cut off the ,barsom with the ,barsomchin1 they wash the ,barsomdan1 or ,barsom-holder1 into which they put these small twigs4 ,at the time of worship1 whilst reading the ,zand1 and during ablution or eating1 they hold in their hand a few of these twigs1 according to the number required in each of these actions4 ,,gate ,,the ,,twenty-,,third4 ,the wealthy man bestows alms on the indigent ,durvesh2 he also practises ,jadongoi1 which consists in this1 whatever donations the ,behdnians make to the fire-temples1 or to deserving objects1 are by that person caused to be expended in the manner desired4 ,,gate ,,the ,,twenty-,,fourth4 ,beware of sin1 particularly the day on which thou eatest flesh1 as flesh-meat is the nutriment of ,ahriman4 ,if1 after partaking of meat thou committest sin1 whatever sins the animal has committed in this world shall be imputed to thee3 for example1 the kick of the horse1 and the goring of the ox with his horns4 ,,gate ,,the ,,twenty-,,fifth4 ,know that in thy faith there is no fasting1 except that of avoiding sin3#dhc in which sense thou must fast the whole year1 and not remain hungry from morn until night1 and style that fasting4 ,thou must endeavor to keep thy members free from sin1 and there will be then no occasion to keep the lips closed against meat and drink2 but it is altogether necessary to keep them closed against uttering any evil speech4 ,,gate ,,the ,,twenty-,,sixth4 ,as soon as a child is born let them cause it to taste milk4 ,,gate ,,the ,,twenty-,,seventh4 ,when going to bed1 repeat the forms which commence with the ,ita2 that is1 repeat to the end the ,it ,ahu ,viryo1 the ,eshim ,vahu1 etc41 etc42 repenting of thy sins of sight and hearing1 known and unknown1 committed or meditated1 and imploring forgiveness2 also1 when thou turnest from one side to the other1 repeat the whole of the ,eshim4 ,,gate ,,the ,,twenty-,,eighth4 ,when thou enterest into a covenant either with one of the pure faith or an unbeliever 7,durwand71 break it not1 but maintain it inviolate4 ,,gate ,,the ,,twenty-,,ninth4 ,when the believer's son attains the age of fifteen1 the father appoints a ,dustr for his guidance1 without whose direction and counsel he does nothing2 for no good work is acceptable to ,god1 unless the ,dustr be satisfied2 he truly possesses such dignity in the sight of ,god1 that he can remit one-third of any person's sins4 ,note1 that the title of ,dustr is given to a spiritual director1 or one skilled in the faith of ,zaratusht4 ,,gate ,,the ,,thirtieth4 ,when any undertaking occurs1 and thou knowest not whether engaging in it be good or sinful1 desist1 and defer the enterprise until thou hast consulted the ,dustr4 ,,gate ,,the ,,thirty-,,first4 ,the believer undertakes nothing on his own experience merely1 without previously investigating its nature through his ,dustr1 his relation1 and the experience of the intelligent4 ,,gate ,,the ,,thirty-,,second4 ,whoever studies the ,avesta must learn to read it in the exact words3 he must also meditate on it continually2 for should it depart from his memory1 he is guilty of sin4 ,in ancient times1 whoever had learned the ,avesta and forgotten it1 was not permitted to join the congregation1 until he had again made himself master of it3 nay1 they threw bread before him as they would to dogs4 ,,gate ,,the ,,thirty-,,third4 ,it behoves a man to be liberal1 showing favor to the ,arzan1 or deserving objects1 for this only is profitable4 ,,gate ,,the ,,thirty-,,fourth4 ,the religious pour not out water at night1 particularly towards the ,wakhtar1 or 8east20 but should it be indispensable1 the believer1 at the time of throwing it out1 repeats the form of words commencing with the ,ita1 as far as enjoined4 ,neither does he draw water from the well at night2 but when there is an inevitable necessity for it1 he recites the formula of the ,ita1 as enjoined in their books4 ,they seldom drink water at night2 but if it be unavoidably necessary to drink1 they fetch water from the well3 moreover1 they never pour out much water4 ,,gate ,,the ,,thirty-,,fifth4 ,when they eat bread1 they lay by three morsels for the dogs1 and never ill use these animals4 ,,gate ,,the ,,thirty-,,sixth4 ,when a cock crows out of season1 they kill him not1 but bring another to his aid1 for the fowl having seen a ,darji 7demon7 or some approaching calamity1 gives notice of it4#dhd ,,gate ,,the ,,thirty-,,seventh4 ,if in any place a person who is destitute of fear should deposit a ,nisa1 or 8carcase0 under ground1 expose and bring it forth4 ,,gate ,,the ,,thirty-,,eighth4 ,it is by no means meet to slay animals in profusion1 as every hair of theirs will in the other world be as a sword to the destroyer's body3 but the slaughter of sheep is by far the most criminal2 for they are of the ,sardah1#dhe or 8primary genus40 ,this prohibition includes the goat1 the kid1 and the lamb2 the cow and the horse2 also the crowing cock1 which during that time is as a drum3 nay1 it is equally improper to slay the cock which crows not2 but should it be indispensably necessary to kill him1 it will be proper to tie his head 7that is1 to perform the rite of ,yashtan over his head74#dhf ,,gate ,,the ,,thirty-,,ninth4 ,when thou art about to wash the face1 join thy lips1 and recite once the formula of the ,ashim ,vuhu as far as is prescribed2 then wash thy face2 and when thou shavest1 recite the prayer of the ,kimna and ,mazda#dhg as far as the appointed place4 ,,gate ,,the ,,fortieth4 ,whoever performs ,barashnom#dhh must be good in word and deed1 for otherwise he is deserving of death4 ,whoever comes to the age of fifteen and performs not this rite1 renders whatever he lays his hand on impure like himself4 ,note1 that ,barashnom signifies the purification of one's self by prayer4 ,,gate ,,the ,,forty-,,first4 ,on the arrival of the ,farvardign1 the believer performs the ,darn ,yezd1 ,yazish1 and ,afrn during ten days4 ,the ,farvardign are five damsels which spin1 weave1 and sew celestial garments3 their names are ,ahnavad1 ,ashnavad1 ,isfintamad1 ,kukhashatar1 ,vahshshpsh4#dhi ,farvardigan#dij is the name of the five supplementary or intercalary days of the ,persian year4 ,when the spirit quits this world it is naked2 but whoever has duly performed the ,farvardign obtains from them royal robes and celestial ornaments4 ,according to the ,yezdnin1 these five damsels signify wisdom1 heroism1 continence1 justice1 and intellect2#dia and in other passages they call them the five senses4 ,,gate ,,the ,,forty-,,second4 ,the true believer must beware of associating with those of a different faith2 let him not drink out of the same cup with them4 ,if an unbeliever pollute a cup made of brass1 it must be washed three times3 but if it be of earth1 it cannot become pure4 ,,gate ,,the ,,forty-,,third4 ,keep up the fire in thy house1 and at night light it up4 ,,gate ,,the ,,forty-,,fourth4 ,shew honor to thy instructor1 father1 and mother2 as otherwise in this world distress shall be thy portion2 and in the next1 hell4 ,,gate ,,the ,,forty-,,fifth4 ,a woman1 in her periodical illness1 must not direct her eyes to the heaven or the stars2 to running water or a ,mindsh2 that is1 a pure or celestial man4 ,she is to drink water out of any vessel except one of earth4 ,when she eats bread1 her hand is to be folded in the sleeve of her dress1#dib and she is to wear a veil on her head4 ,,gate ,,the ,,forty-,,sixth4 ,refrain from ,hamiyl1 which means calumny1 treachery1 and adultery3 for if the woman's husband forgive not the adulterer1 he cannot1 whatever may be his good works1 behold the face of paradise4 ,,gate ,,the ,,forty-,,seventh4 ,the believer must slay the ,kharstr1 or 8noxious creatures40 ,of these it is most meritorious to destroy water-frogs1 serpents1 scorpions1 flies1 and ants4 ,according to the tenets professed by the true believers1 that is1 the ,yazdnn and ,abadin1 it is a meritorious work to destroy any creature which is injurious to animal life or oppressive to the animal creation3 but the destruction of any creature which is not injurious to animal life1 is not only improper1 but the unjust oppressor draws down retribution on himself4 ,the ,yezdnn maintain1 that whenever in ancient records the slaughter of a harmless animal is mentioned1 the expression is used in an enigmatical sense4 ,,gate ,,the ,,forty-,,eighth4 ,it is not proper to walk barefooted4 ,,gate ,,the ,,forty-,,ninth4 ,repent without ceasing3 for unless attention be paid to this1 thy sin accumulates every year1 and becomes more aggravated4 ,if1 which ,god forbid6 thou commit a sin1 go before the ,dustr2 and if thou find him not1 to the ,hrbud 7or minister attending on the sacred fire72 and if thou meet him not1 repair to some professor of the pure faith2 and if thou find not such a one1 declare thy repentance before the majesty of the great light4 ,in like manner1 at the moment of departing from this world1 let a man declare his contrition1 and if he be unable1 let his son1 relative1 or those present1 perform this rite of penance at that time4 ,,gate ,,the ,,fiftieth4 ,when a son or daughter attains the age of fifteen1 it becomes necessary to bind the sacred cincture about the waist1 as this forms the bond of duty4 ,,gate ,,the ,,fifty-,,first4 ,if a child should die1 from the first day of its decease during a space of seven years1 8without the expression of grief1 recite the ,darn of its angel40 ,on the fourth night after its decease1 it is necessary to recite with ,yasht1 the ,darn1 or prayer of the angel ,sursh4 ,note1 ,yasht is the name given to one of the twenty-one ,nosks of the ,zand1#dic which is recited for the souls of the deceased3 this they also repeat in the ,gahanbars3 ,nosk also signifies a part or section4 ,,gate ,,the ,,fifty-,,second4 ,when thou placest on the fire a cauldron for dressing food1 it must be of a large size1 and two thirds of it without water1 so that when it boils1 the water may not fall over on the fire4 ,,gate ,,the ,,fifty-,,third4#did ,when they remove fire from one place to another1 they lay it apart for a short time1 until its place becomes cool2 having taken care not to leave it heated1 they bear the fire to its destined place4 ,,gate ,,the ,,fifty-,,fourth4#die ,the true believers wash the face every morning with the ,ab--zr1 or 8water of power10 and afterwards with pure water4#dif ,after this they recite the formula of the ,kimna va ,mazda1#dig and then wash the hands2 this rite they call ,pavaj2 but if they wash not the hands in the ,ab--zr1 their recitation is not accepted4 ,,gate ,,the ,,fifty-,,fifth4 ,the faithful instruct their sons in the knowledge of religion1 and hold in high honor the ,kirbud who teaches them4 ,,gate ,,the ,,fifty-,,sixth4 ,on the return of the day of ,khurdd in the month of ,farvardn 7the #fth of ,march71 they collect in one place a portion of all the fruits they can find4 ,the true believers then continue to offer them up and to pray over them1 repeating the praises of the ,lord1 in order that their condition may be improved that year2 as on this day the angels give nutriment to mankind4 ,when any one has thus prayed1 the ,amshaspand ,khurdd makes intercession for him3 this prayer is synonymous with ,khusnuman4#dih ,,gate ,,the ,,fifty-,,seventh4 ,whenever any one sets out on a journey1 he must celebrate once the ,darn ,yesht4 ,in ancient times1 when they set out on an excursion of even twelve parasangs1 they performed the same ceremony4#dii ,,gate ,,the ,,fifty-,,eighth4 ,if any one have not a son1 let him adopt one2 and let the adopted son regard him as a father4 ,,gate ,,the ,,fifty-,,ninth4 ,whoever has performed the rites of ,yasht and ,na-,roz1 cannot immediately after celebrate the ,darn ,yesht3 he first prays mentally to ,ormuzd1 and eats bread2 and then performs the rites of mental prayer and the ,darun4 ,,gate ,,the ,,sixtieth4 ,it is improper1 whilst in an erect posture1 to make water2 it is therefore necessary to sit down 7stoop7 and force it to some distance1 repeating the ,avesta mentally4 ,the religious man is then to advance three paces1 and repeat once the formula of the ,yeth h viryo and the ,eshem ,vahu1 as far as prescribed4 ,on coming out1 he is to repeat the ,eshem once2 the formula of the ,homoctanne twice2 that of the ,hokhshthrtem three times1 and that of the ,yeth1 etc41 four times2 and to repeat to the end the formula of the ,etha aad iezmede4#ejj ,,gate ,,the ,,sixty-,,first4 ,slay not the ,hujjah or weasel1 for it is the destroyer of serpents4 ,,gate ,,the ,,sixty-,,second4 ,kill not the water-dog1 or otter1 but if thou perceive him far out of the water1 take him back to his river4#eja ,,gate ,,the ,,sixty-,,third4 ,the believer performs during his life the rites which ensure his salvation3 the propitiation of the ,ized ,sursh is a sacred duty2 it is therefore advisable that every person should perform it duly in his own life-time4#ejb ,,gate ,,the ,,sixty-,,fourth4 ,when any one departs from this world1 the survivors during three days propitiate ,sursh1 light a fire for the deceased1 and recite the ,avesta3 as the spirit of the deceased remains there three days1 it is therefore necessary to offer up three ,darns to ,sursh ,ized4 ,on the fourth night1 recite one of them to propitiate ,rash and ,astad 7the angels of the #ahth and #bfth days of every month72 another for that of the other heavenly beings2 along with the fourth ,darn produce complete dresses1 the best and most splendid in thy power4 ,these they style ,ashudd1 or heaven-bestowed4#ejc ,,gate ,,the ,,sixty-,,fifth4 ,women are not enjoined to perform any of these ,niyayish1 except that they should go three times into their husband's presence1 and inquire what his wishes may be4 ,they must never1 either by night or day1 avert the face from their husband's command3 which obedience on their part is serving ,god4#ejd ,,gate ,,the ,,sixty-,,sixth4 ,the pure faith springs from this belief1 that ,god has delivered us from affliction 7in the world to come73 and should circumstances occur to any believer which would necessarily lead him to apostatize from the true faith1 let all exert themselves to the utmost to aid him1 so that he may remain unshaken in the true religion4 ,,gate ,,the ,,sixty-,,seventh4 ,believers never utter a falsehood1 although through it they might attain to worldly eminence4 ,,gate ,,the ,,sixty-,,eighth4 ,they make truth their profession1 and remain free from the degradation of ,goyastah 7or ,gogestah74#eje ,,gate ,,the ,,sixty-,,ninth4 ,the believers beware of any intercourse with a courtesan or unchaste woman1 also of voluntary degradation 7connivance7 and adultery4 ,for when a libertine engages in improper correspondence with a woman1 she becomes an abomination to her husband2 and if1 after proof of her misconduct1 the husband resume his intimacy with such a wife1 he then becomes a ,rspi1 or utterly contemptible4 ,,gate ,,the ,,seventieth4 ,if any one steal property to the amount of one direm1 they take from the thief two direms1 cut off the lobes of his ears1 inflict on him ten blows of a stick1 and dismiss him after one hour's imprisonment4 ,should he a second time commit a similar act1 and steal to the amount of a direm1 they make him refund two1 cut off his ears1 inflict twenty blows1 and detain him in prison two hours3 should he after that steal three direms or two dangs1 they cut off his right hand2 and if he steal five hundred direms1 they put him to death4 ,,gate ,,the ,,seventy-,,first4 ,beware of open and secret sin3 abstain from bad sights and thoughts4 ,offer up thy grateful prayers to the ,lord1 the most just and pure ,ormuzd1 the supreme and adorable ,god1 who thus declared to his prophet ,zardusht3 8,hold it not meet to do unto others what thou wouldst not have done to thyself3 do that unto the people which1 when done to thyself1 proves not disagreeable to thyself40 ,,gate ,,the ,,seventy-,,second4 ,direct the ,hirbud to sanctify for thee an oblation or ,darn once every day3 if not he1 then thyself4 ,it is to be observed that ,yazish has the sense of ,yashtan2 also that ,darn 7the first letter with ,zemma7 means a prayer in praise of the ,lord and of fire1 which being recited by the professors of the pure faith1 they breathe over the viands2 whatever has been thus breathed over they call ,yashtah3 for ,yashtan signifies the reciting of a prayer4 ,,gate ,,the ,,seventy-,,third4 ,let women perform the rites of oblation in the month of ,aban 7the #hth month71 so that they may be purified from their illness and attain paradise4 ,,gate ,,the ,,seventy-,,fourth4 ,beware of committing adultery2 for when the wife of a stranger has been four times visited by a strange man1 she becomes accursed to her husband3 to put such a woman to death is more meritorious than slaying beasts of prey4 ,,gate ,,the ,,seventy-,,fifth4 ,a woman during her illness is not to look at the fire1 to sit in water1 behold the sun1 or hold conversation with a man4 ,two women1 during their illness1 are not to sleep in the same bed1 or look up to heaven4 ,women in this state are to drink out of leaden vessels1 and not to lay their 7bare7 hands on bread4 ,the drinking-vessel is to be half-filled with water1 and not filled up to the brim4 ,they are to fold their hand in the sleeve of their mantle and then lay hold of the vessel3 they must not sit in the sun4 ,on the birth of a child1 the infant is to undergo ablution along with the mother4 ,,gate ,,the ,,seventy-,,sixth4 ,a fire is not to be lighted in a situation exposed to the sun's rays3 also place not over the fire any thing through the interstices of which the sun may shine4 ,but before the time of ,mah ,abd it was held praiseworthy to light a fire in face of the great luminary for the purpose of making fumigations4 ,,gate ,,the ,,seventy-,,seventh4 ,they show the ,nisa or dead body to a dog1 at the moment the person gives up the soul3#ejf and again when they convey it to the burial-place4 ,when removing the body1 the bearers fasten their hands together with a cord1 so that it comes to all their hands and keeps them close to each other2 they bear the body along in perfect silence2 and if the deceased be a woman advanced in her pregnancy1 there are then four bearers instead of two4 ,according to the precepts of ,mah ,abd1 if the woman be pregnant1 they are to extract the ftus and bring it up3 the same holds good respecting all animals4 ,finally1 when the professors of the pure faith have conveyed the corpse to the ,dad ,gah1 or 8place for depositing the dead10 the bearers wash themselves and put on fresh garments4 ,,gate ,,the ,,seventy-,,eighth4 ,it is necessary to beware of 7contact with7 the wooden frame on which the dead body has been carried or washed2 also of that on which any one has been hung2 or one touched by a woman during her illness4 ,,gate ,,the ,,seventy-,,ninth4 ,if1 during a malady1 the physician prescribe the eating of any dead animal1 let the patient comply without repugnance and partake of it4 ,,gate ,,the ,,eightieth4 ,a dead body is not to be committed to water or fire4#ejg ,,gate ,,the ,,eighty-,,first4 ,if any one force a professor of the pure faith to partake of the flesh of a dead body1 or even throw it at him1 he must perform the ,barashnom and recite the ,patet ,iran4 ,note3 that is1 he must repent1 and implore pardon1 and exert himself in good works1 that he may escape going to hell4#ejh ,,gate ,,the ,,eighty-,,second4 ,if any animal partake of a dead body1 it continues unclean during a whole year4#eji ,,gate ,,the ,,eighty-,,third4 ,nothing should be given 7to the unworthy7 unless through dread of the oppressor3 that is1 if believers apprehend not danger from the sinner1 and do not entertain alarm at his power of doing them injury1 they are not to give him any thing4 ,,gate ,,the ,,eighty-,,fourth4 ,in the morning1 on arising from sleep1 rub thy hands with something1 then thrice wash thy face1 thy arms from the wrist to the elbow1 and thy foot as far as the leg2 reciting the ,avesta at the same time4 ,if the believer cannot find water1 he is then permitted to use dust4 ,,gate ,,the ,,eighty-,,fifth4 ,when the husbandman introduces water for the irrigation of his own fields1 he carefully observes that there be not a dead body in the stream4 ,,gate ,,the ,,eighty-,,sixth4 ,a woman after parturition must during forty days beware of using vessels of wood or earth1 and is not to cross the threshold of the house4 ,she is then to wash her head3 during all this time her husband is not to approach her4 ,,gate ,,the ,,eighty-,,seventh4 ,if a woman be delivered of a dead child previous to four months' gestation1 as it is without a soul1 it is not to be regarded as a dead body2 but should this occur after the term of four months1 it is then to be looked on as a dead body1 and to be conveyed to burial with the usual ceremonies4 ,,gate ,,the ,,eighty-,,eighth4 ,when a death occurs1 the people of the house and the relatives of the deceased are to abstain from meat during three days4 ,,gate ,,the ,,eighty-,,ninth4 ,it is incumbent on the professors of the true faith to be liberal1 generous1 and munificent2 for ,god hath declared3 8,paradise is the abode of the liberal40 ,,gate ,,the ,,ninetieth4 ,reciting the ,eshem ,vehu#eaj is attended with countless merits3 it is necessary to do this at the time of eating bread1 of going to sleep1 at midnight1 on turning from one side to the other1 and at the time of rising up in the morning4 ,,gate ,,the ,,ninety-,,first4 ,you must not put off the good work of to-day until the morrow1 for ,god declared thus to ,zardusht3 8,putting off the duties of this day until the following1 brings with it cause of regret4 ,o ,zardusht6 no one in the world is superior to thee in my sight4 ,for thy sake ,i have even created it2#eaa and princes earnestly desire to diffuse the true faith in thy life-time4 ,from the age of ,kaomars to thine1 three thousand years have elapsed2#eab and from thee to the resurrection is a period of three thousand years3 thus ,i have created thee in the middle1 as that point is most worthy of admiration4 ,moreover ,i have rendered obedient to thee king ,gushtasp1 the wisest and most prudent sovereign of the age2 whose eminence arises from science and perfect morals1 not merely from high birth and lineage4 ,i have also given thee a volume such as the ,avesta1 and in like manner a perspicuous commentary on it4 ,expect not that1 after thou hast passed away1 others will perform good works for thee4 ,know that ,gokhastah or ,ahriman has expressly appointed two demons1 named ,tardiness and ,procrastination1 for putting off the performance of good works to a remote and future period40 ,,gate ,,the ,,ninety-,,second4 ,whatever is polluted by a dead body must be purified by ,pvyb water according to this rule3 gold once2 silver twice2 tin and copper thrice2 steel four times2 stone six times2 earthen and wooden vessels must be thrown away4 ,pvyb signifies to wash with certain forms of prayer4#eac ,,gate ,,the ,,ninety-,,third4 ,shew vigilant attention to the fire of ,adar ,behrm1 and to his attendant 7genii72 light up the fire every night and cast perfumes into it4 ,note3 ,var 7,adar7 ,behrm#ead is the name of the angel1 the lord of victory1 and the bestower of triumph4#eae ,,gate ,,the ,,ninety-,,fourth4 ,the ,ghmbars1 which are six in number1 must be observed1 because the ,almighty created the world in six periods or times1 the commencement of each period having a particular name2 in order to celebrate each of which commencements1 they pass five days in festivity and rejoicing4 ,according to the statement in the ,zand1 the righteous ,hormuzd created the whole world in the space of one year4 ,the first ,ghmbar is called ,mdyzaram1 as on the day ,khr 7the #aath of the month7 ,ardibehisht1 ,god commenced the creation of the heavens1 which was terminated in forty-five days4 ,the second ,ghambr1 called ,midyshaham1 began on the day of ,khr1 in the old month of ,tir1 in sixty days from which ,god completed the creation of the waters4 ,the third ,ghambr1 ,pitishahm1 commences on the day of ,ashtd 7the #bfth7 of the old ,shahrivr1 in seventy-five days from which ,god terminated the creation of the earth4 ,the fourth ,ghambr1 called ,ayad sahrm1 begins on the ,ashtd of the old month of ,mihr1 in thirty days from which the creation of all plants and trees was completed4 ,the fifth ,gahambar1 named ,mdyrm1 begins on the ,miher of the old month ,ard 7,november72 ,god created from this day1 in eighty days1 all the animals4 ,the sixth ,gahambar1 ,hamshpata mihdim1#eaf beginning on the day of ,ahnavad1 the first of the five intercalary or surreptitious days1 reckoning from which the ,almighty terminated the creation of the human race in seventy-five days4 ,tradition thus ascribes to ,jemshid the origin of the festival of the ,ghambr4 ,in the ,sad-,dr we find it recorded1 that the demon one day came to ,jemshid's palace1 and the king1 as usual1 sent him to the kitchen to satisfy his hunger4 ,the demon having devoured all that was there1 and also swallowed up whatever they brought him beside1 was still unsatisfied4 ,on beholding this1 ,jemshid cried out to the ,lord1 and the most righteous ,god sent the angel ,behrm 7or ,jabrael7 to say thus to the king3 8,slaughter the red ox1 on which pour vinegar1 rue1 and garlic2 take it when boiled out of the cauldron1 and serve it up to the demon40 ,when they had done thus1 the demon having tasted one morsel of it1 fled and disappeared1 from which day they instituted the festival of the ,ghambr4 ,the ,abdiyn say1 with respect to the creation1 that the actions of ,god are not circumscribed by time4 ,it must however be acknowledged that ,jemshid first established this festival4 ,in the first ,ghambr1 ,jemshid1 by the command of the ,almighty1 began to depict on the ceiling of his palace the representation of the heavens1 which undertaking was finished in forty-five days4 ,secondly1 on the ,khr of ,tr he was commanded by the ,lord to introduce water into his palace1 gardens1 city1 and cultivated grounds1 which work was completed in the course of sixty days4 ,thirdly1 on the ,ashtd of ,shahrivr1 by order of the ,almighty 7whose name be glorified67 he cleared the surface of the grounds and palace1 and embellished them exceedingly2 he levelled the place of exercise in front of his palace1 built houses1 and laid out in due order the city and its streets2 all which was completed in seventy-five days4 ,fourthly1 on the ,ashtd of ,mihr1 he began to ascertain the properties of all vegetable productions1 and completed the embellishment of his garden1 and terminated the entire in thirty days4 ,he next1 on the day of ,mihr in the month of ,d1 collected all species of animals in his garden and assigned their suitable employments to each3 to the ox and the ass to carry burdens2 to the horse to serve for riding1 and so forth2 which arrangements were completed in seventy days4 ,lastly1 on the day of ,ahnavad1 he summoned mankind to appear in his presence1 and assigned them their respective occupations2 the details of which were finished in the course of seventy days4 ,he then proclaimed3 8,the ,lord has created all these things through me20 and commanded five days to be set apart for rejoicing at the beginning of each ,ghambr4 ,as to the tradition of the demon's appearing and eating up whatever he found1 it is thus explained3 by the demon is meant1 the depraved sensual appetite1 which loves to eat1 sleep1 shed blood1 and such like1 and is never satiated with such pursuits2 but when the spiritual ,jemshid prayed to the ,lord1 the ,jabriel of intellect came with this divine communication3 8,slay the sensual appetite 7which is typified by the ox71 that is1 indulge it not in the excesses it demands2 next apply to the cauldron of the body the vinegar of abstinence1 the garlic of reflection1 and the rue of silence2 then serve up a portion of this food to the ,satan-like propensities1 that the demon may flee away40 ,on doing this1 he was delivered from the presence of the evil one4 ,such was the enigma propounded to the people by ,zardusht respecting the ,ghambr1 and such the solution of it as given by the ,abdin professors1 who have interpreted in a similar manner the whole of ,zardusht's discourses1 which were couched under this enigmatical form4 ,,gate ,,the ,,ninety-,,fifth4 ,when any one does good to another1 the latter should not forget his benefactor's goodness4 ,,gate ,,the ,,ninety-,,sixth4 ,the believers make ,nyyish to the sun three times every day3 they also perform the same to the moon and to fire4 ,,gate ,,the ,,ninety-,,seventh4 ,they weep not after the deceased1 as the tears thus shed are collected and form a barrier before the bridge of ,chinavad1 or 8of judgment10 and prevent the deceased from passing3 but1 on reading the ,vasta and ,zend1 they can pass over4#eag ,,gate ,,the ,,ninety-,,eighth4 ,whoever comes into the presence of the ,dustrs1 ,mobeds1 or ,kirbuds1 listens to what they say1 and rejects it not although painful to him4 ,,gate ,,the ,,ninety-,,ninth4 ,the professor of the true religion ought to understand thoroughly the characters of the ,avesta and the ,zend4 ,,gate ,,the ,,hundredth4 ,the ,mobeds must not instruct a stranger in the ,pehlevi language2 for the ,lord commanded ,zardusht1 saying3 8,teach this science to thy children40 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,,enumeration ,,of ,,some ,,advantages ,,which ,,arise ,,from ,,the ,,enigmatical ,,forms ,,of ,,the ,,precepts ,,of ,,zardusht',s ,,followers4,the substance of the venerable ,zardusht's precepts is contained in enigmas and parables1 because with the mass of society1 fabulous narrations1 though revolting to reason1 excite stronger impressions4 ,in the next place1 if it were proposed to communicate to an ignorant person the idea of the existence of the necessarily existing ,god1 independent of cause1 he could not understand the proposition2 and if we speak to him concerning the uncompoundedness of intelligences1 the immateriality of souls1 the excellence of the sphere and stars1 he becomes overwhelmed in perplexity and amazement2 being utterly unable to comprehend spiritual delights or tortures1 or discover the exact truth2 whilst the precepts enforced by the figurative expressions of the law come within the understanding of high and low1 so that they are profited thereby1 and the explanation of the law is attended with a good reputation both in this world and the next4 ,the select few undoubtedly comprehend the nature of certainty1 religious abstraction1 and philosophy1 although the vulgar1 in general1 hold these in abhorrence3 it therefore becomes necessary to clothe the maxims of philosophy in the vestments of law1 in order that all classes of society may derive their appropriate advantages from that source3 these observations being premised1 it is to be remarked1 that some ,yazdanian professors express themselves after this manner3,the book of the ,zend is of two kinds2 the one perspicuous and without enigmatical forms of speech1 which they call the ,mah ,zand1 or 8,great ,zand20 the second1 abounding in enigmatical and figurative forms of speech1 is called the ,kah ,zand1 or 8,little ,zand40 ,the ,mah ,zand contained the precepts of the law promulgated by the venerable ,mhbd1 such as the volume of ,azar ,sassn1 and the ,mah ,zand was lost during the domination of strangers1 particularly the ,turks and ,greeks3 the ,kah ,zand still remained1 but much of it was also lost in other subsequent invasions4 ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,contents ,,of ,,the ,,mah ,,zend4,it entitles the supreme ,lord1 ,aharmuz1 and acknowledges the existence1 immateriality1 and uncompoundedness of his essence2 accounting ,bahmn the ,great1 the first-created being1 who is also called ,farvardn the ,great1 and looked upon and styled pure and uncompounded2 from him was derived ,ardibehesht the ,great1 along with the sublime soul and body of the empyrean heaven2 from ,ardibehesht the ,great proceeded ,khurdd the ,great2 from him ,tr the ,great2 from him ,murdd the ,great2 from him ,shahrvar the ,great2 from him ,mihr the ,great2 from him ,abn the ,great2 from him ,azar the ,great2 and from him ,dai the ,great2 these are the lords of the heavens1 and after ,farvardin the ,great1 are accounted as the months as well as the heavens collectively4 ,in all other points1 speculative and practical1 such as the protection of harmless creatures and the destruction of noxious animals1 it agrees with the ,dastir4 ,during the ,ashkanian dynasty1 the people conformed to the ,kah ,zend1 but as ,ardeshir was obedient to the second ,sasn1 he1 in compliance with the ,dastir and ,mah ,zend1 studiously avoided the destruction of harmless animals3 for the ,mah ,zand is a portion of the ,dastir4 ,after him1 others adopted the ,kah ,zand4 ,but ,nushirvan1 under the guidance of the contemporary ,azar ,sasn1 although conforming to the ,dastir and ,mah ,zand1 was during the whole of his life innocent of the crime of slaying harmless animals2 his successors however followed the precepts of the ,kah ,zend1 until the fifth ,sasn1#eah having uttered imprecations against the people of ,iran1 they became the victims of privation and wretchedness4 ,the professors of the ,abadn faith say that ,ahriman was produced by ,time3 they also say that the angels and the heavens have existed1 exist1 and will continue to exist4#eai ,moreover the belief of the ,azar ,hshengns or ,yazdanns is1 that although the faith of ,zardusht prevailed universally from the time of ,gushtasp to that of ,yezdejird1 yet that the different intervening princes glossed it over and made it agree with the ,azar ,hushengn or ,mahabadn system1 so as never to sanction the destruction of animal life2 and as they held the words of ,zardusht to be figurative1 they never put them in practice literally when they contradicted the ,azar ,hushengn faith1 but invariably glossed them over4 ,this statement proves that ,ardeshir ,babegan and the other ,sasnn princes showed great reverence to the ,azar ,sasnn family and paid them implicit obedience1 as being truly the ministers and worshippers of the ,lord2 they besides accounted them as the legitimate sovereigns1 regarding themselves merely as their lieutenants3 in short1 when the ,azar ,sasnns ceased to reign1 they exercised the government in their stead4 ,however the ,azar ,sasnns followed no faith except that of ,mhbd1 receiving no other without the requisite glosses1 and attaching no esteem whatever to the external import of ,zardusht's precepts3 that is1 regarding his words as true1 but holding their external import as figurative4 ,the ,behdinns also maintain that such was the system adopted by the kings of old1 particularly by ,dr1 ,drb1 ,bahmn1 ,isfendir1 and ,lohrsp4 ,the present seems the proper time for stating some of the enigmatical sayings ascribed to the ,magians or followers of ,zardusht1 as philosophy is guarded by such expressions from falling into the hands of the ignorant1 whilst the sages thereby attain their object4 ,it is well known that according to their system the world had two creators1 ,yazdan 7the ,lord71 and ,ahriman3 but the ,lord having entertained this evil thought1 8,perhaps an antagonist may rise up to oppose me10 ,ahriman was produced1 from that thought4#ebj ,in some places it is mentioned that ,god was alone1 and gloom having come over him1 he entertained an evil suspicion1 on which ,ahriman was produced4 ,they say that ,ahriman1 who was outside the world1 on looking through a small aperture1 and beholding the ,lord surrounded with glory and majesty1 bore him envy and raised up wickedness and corruption4 ,god then created the angels to be his host1 and with them fought against ,ahriman2 but being unable to destroy him1 they made peace with each other on this condition2 that ,ahriman should remain in the world during a definite period2 and on his departure it should become the abode of unalloyed good4#eba ,jamsp1 the venerable sage1 says thus3 8,it is to be remarked that #8world' is a metaphorical expression for body2 and #8,god1' for the aspiration of the spirit2 #8,ahriman1' for the physical temperament2 #8the evil thought1' the habitual bias of the soul to material objects2 by #8the wickedness and corruption of ,ahriman1 and his war1' are implied the domination of the sensual passions over spirit2 and what they said of #8the terrestrial world1' means the same2 by #8the creation of angels1' the existence of praiseworthy qualities and perseverance in pure morals1 with the subjugation of the senses by means of religious austerities1 for the senses constitute the gratuitous foes of the heart2 by #8peace1' is signified the impossibility of expelling by one effort the evil propensities which are the armies of ,iblis2 that is1 excess and extravagance are to be avoided1 and the path of moderation followed2 the circumstance of #8,ahriman's remaining in the world for a definite period1' means the ascendancy and supremacy of the bodily passions1 particularly in early years1 and before arriving at mature reflection1 and even during other periods of this mortal life1 in certain constitutions2 #8the departure of ,ahriman from the world' implies voluntary death1 or religious austerities1 or compulsory death1 which is the natural decease2 when the soul has by such means been emancipated1 it finds itself adorned with perfections and attains to its particular sphere or bliss without alloy40 ,they have said3 8,darkness besieged ,light and imprisoned it2 on which event the angels having come to the assistance of ,light1 ,darkness demanded help from ,ahriman1 its source2 but the angels having overcome the prince of ,darkness1 gave him a respite until the appointed hour and the predestined death40 ,as to ,darkness having arisen from the evil thought of ,light1 the venerable sage ,jamasp says3 8,the interpretation of this tradition is the same as that of the preceding2 as thus3 ,the soul is a precious substance1 formed from light2 its darkness1 the bodily passions2 its confinement and imprisonment1 the dominion of the passions over that luminous essence1 which drag down the souls of the wicked to the desolation of the lower world2 the assistance of angels1 is the obtaining of grace and power through elevation of mind1 proceeding from illumination from on high1 and the ascent of the spirit to the world of intellect2 delay or respite implies the continuance of the passions until the period of natural death2 and the corrupt thought the bias of the soul to material objects40 ,dwar ,haryr1 the author of the ,dr ,sekandur1 having once questioned the author concerning the enigmatical meanings attached to the words ,god and ,ahriman1 received this answer3 8,light is the same as existence1 and darkness signifies non-existence2 ,god is therefore light or existence1 and ,ahriman is darkness or non-existence4 ,when it is said that ,ahriman is opposed to ,god1 the meaning is1 that ,god is existence1 the opposite to which is non-existence40 ,they say that the creation and production of diseases1 serpents1 scorpions1 and such like is an abominable act1 originating with ,ahriman1 which ,jamsp thus explains3 8,it is evident that diseases1 such as ignorance1 folly1 pride1 negligence1 noxious creatures1 7such as7 anger1 lust1 strong passions1 concupiscence1 calumny1 envy1 malignity1 covetousness1 treachery1 fraud1 and the like1 arise not from spirit1 but from the elemental constitution40 ,they have also said3 8,an angel is the agent of good1 and ,ahriman the agent of evil2 and that ,god is exempt from both these acts2 which the celebrated sage ,jamsp thus explains3,by angel is implied spirit and the agent of good2 which1 if it overcome the senses1 engages man in virtuous words and acts1 which are styled #8good4' ,ahriman1 or ,satan1 in this place means the desires inherent in the constitution of the senses1 which1 on obtaining the victory over spirit1 attract it towards the pleasures of sense1 thus making it forget its original abode2 which is denominated #8evil3' and as the ,almighty has given his creatures free will1 neither are their good or evil deeds to be imputed to him40 ,this saying3 ,that the soul of him who has done evil1 having determined on flight through fear of divine wrath1 plunges downwards1 is thus explained by the sage ,jamasp3 8,by #8sinner' is understood one whose essence is defective2 by #8descent1' turning away from the superior to corporeal attachments2 by #8resolving on flight1' the strong desires of passion1 through the suggestion of body1 until the entire departure of divine grace40 ,thus far extend the illustrations of the sage ,jamsp4 ,but that the scope of ,zardusht is couched under allegories agrees with the declaration made by the great ,bahman1 the son of ,isfendir1 the son of king ,gushtsp1 who says3 8,zardusht once said to me3 #8,my father and mother delivered me to nurses1 who dwelt in a place far remote from the city of my birth2 with these ,i remained many a long year1 until ,i quite forgot my father1 mother1 and native town4 ,suddenly this thought came over my mind,who are my parents1 and where the place of my birth8,i struggled hard until ,i returned naked and bare the way by which ,i had come2 and having gained my house and beheld my father and mother1 ,i returned again to the place where my nurses dwelt4 ,as the dress worn by the people of this country was on my person1 ,i shall therefore remain here until this dress is worn out1 and then depart1 in order that it may not be said,he was unable to perform his office and has run away1 leaving our despised garments4'0 ,bahman1 the son of ,isfendir1 thus says3 8,all that ,zardusht uttered was enigmatical3 the #8city and native place' are the angelic world2 by #8father1' is meant the primary intelligence2 and by #8mother1' the universal soul2 #8the nurses1' this lower world and junction with body2 #8forgetting the original abode1' attachment to the elements of body2 #8recalling it to memory1' implies the struggle towards that direction2 #8the arriving there1' means religious austerities2 #8the state of nakedness1' the divesting one's self of bodily attachments2 #8the returning back to the nurses1' means resuming the body2 #8that it may not be said that he was alarmed at the performance of duty1 and ran off1 leaving his clothes behind2 ,i shall not therefore depart from hence1 until these clothes be worn out2the performance of duty1' signifies the amassing of the capital of knowledge1 true faith1 and good works2 by #8the clothes being worn out1' is implied the separation of the bodily members2 that is1 ,i will remain here as long as the body lasts1 and after its dissolution return to my native place40 ,prince ,isfendir1 the son of king ,gushtsp1 also tells us3 8,zardusht once said to me3 #8,a number of persons once left their native place for the purpose of acquiring wealth1 that on their return they might pass their time in pleasure and enjoyment4 ,on arriving at the city of their destination1 some of them amassed wealth2 some devoted themselves to wandering about the place and contemplating the beauties with which it abounded2 whilst others remained altogether inactive4 ,when the time of packing up came1 the king of that people said,depart from hence1 that another set may arrive1 and obtain their portion1 as you have done4,on which all these people went out1 some provided with stores for the journey2 some without any provision2 a few on horseback2 a multitude on foot2 a wide desert lay before1 and a toilsome road1 through rocks and prickly thorns1 devoid of cultivation1 destitute of water and shade4 ,those who were on horseback and furnished with provisions passed over1 and having reached their native city1 gave themselves up to joy and gladness2 those who were on foot1 and had provided stores for the journey1 after experiencing many ups and downs1 at last1 with extreme difficulty1 reached their halting place1 where they passed their time in a state of happiness proportioned to their gains1 although1 on instituting a comparison between themselves and those inhabitants and dignified persons who had acquired opulence by commercial pursuits1 they feel pangs of regret2 but those who came out of the city without any kind of conveyance or stores1 and thinking that without supplies they could reach their native place1 when they had gone some little distance1 became wearied and unable to proceed through weakness1 and fatigue from walking1 want of provisions1 the difficulties of the road1 distress1 the sun's overpowering heat1 and the gloom of night2 they were forced by necessity to turn back to the city1 where they had been2 but other merchants had in the meantime taken possession of the houses1 dwellings1 shops1 and apartments which they formerly occupied3 they were thus reduced to a state of destitution1 and had no resource left but that of working for hire or turning mendicants1 pursuits which they adopted4'0 ,isfendiar says3 8#8,the city from which they departed for the purposes of commerce' is the angelic world2 that to which they came with the design of accumulating wealth' is the lower world2 #8the houses1 shops1 etc41' signify the human body2 #8the people of the city' are the animals1 vegetables1 and minerals2 #8the king1' the elemental nature2 #8what the merchants have amassed' are their words and deeds2 #8what others have collected' is devotion without knowledge2 #8the inactive' are those whose only 8pursuits were sleep1 sensual gratification1 etc42 #8the exclamation of the king' is ,death1 who expels them from the mansions of body2 #8the deserts and mountains1' the extremes of heat and cold2 #8the equestrians' are those who unite the speculative and practical2 #8the pedestrians1 who were furnished with some provisions' are those who adore ,god1 but neither knew themselves nor the ,lord2 #8they who are without provisions or conveyance' are those destitute of knowledge and good works1 who being unable to reach the angelic world1 return in despair to the elemental world1 forfeiting the rank they once possessed40 ,the sage ,shah ,nasir ,khusran says on this head3 8,when any one travels this road for that important purpose1 ,he takes at least a loaf of bread under his arm3 ,how then canst thou1 who hast no store1 proceed up the mount1 ,from the centre of darkness to the zenith of ,saturn80 ,in some other parables of ,zardusht1 which are here noticed1 he speaks thus3 8,when the travellers1 in consequence of the want of stores and fatigue of walking1 return back to the king's city1 not finding their former beautiful mansions1 they settle themselves in caverns or lanes1 hiring themselves as labourers or subsisting on alms40 ,esfendiar says3 8,by this is understood1 that when they quit this mortal frame1 they cannot reach the world on high1 owing to their want of knowledge and good works2 being thus rejected1 on their return to the elemental world1 they cannot obtain human bodies1 but are invested with the forms of the brute creation40 ,as this parable nearly resembles what has been heretofore mentioned1 it is unnecessary to describe it more in detail4 8,when thou departest from the inn of the body1 there is no other storehouse2 ,why dost thou not therefore procure supplies for the road in this place of sojourn80 ,isfendiar also records3 8,zardusht once said3 #8,two persons of one house were partners1 and were both possessed of great capital2 they said3,we have gained a sufficient stock of wealth in the world1 and live and dress in a manner suitable to our great riches2 we now only want some beloved object1 that our existence may be more blissful3 therefore1 to attain our desire1 it will be necessary to undertake a journey4 ,they directed their course to a city1 the inhabitants of which were famed for beauty and gracefulness2 on arriving there with the caravan1 one of the partners gave himself up to traversing the gardens1 and was so absorbed in admiring the beauties of the city1 that he attended to no business whatever1 whilst the other partner obtained a mistress of exquisite beauty4 ,all of a sudden the garden-door was closed4'0 ,isfendiar says 8,zd and ,amru#ebb may serve as an example of the two friends2 #8the capital and stock1' the original world2 #8the city of beauteous persons1' this world2 #8the desirable beloved object1' good works2 #8the rapacious animals1 reptiles1 and beasts' are anger1 lust1 excessive desire1 hatred1 envy1 concupiscence1 malignity1 and avarice2 #8the herbage and gardens' are sloth and pride2 #8the garden-door1' the dakhmah 7or sepulchral vault72 #8the urn1' the grave1 or the place of burying the dead2 #8shutting the garden-door' the moment of death40 ,his reasons for enumerating the urn1 dakhmah1 and grave are1 that according to the faith of ,azur ,hshang1 or ,mhbd1 they sometimes put the body of the deceased into a jar of aqua-fortis1 as among them the body is deposited indifferently either in the dakhmah or the jar3 but the sepulchre is in use among the people of ,room1 and the funeral pile among those of ,hindustan4 ,king ,gushtsp also relates the following parable of ,zardusht3 8,a certain man delivered his son to a preceptor1 saying3 #8,within such a time teach this boy the accomplishments necessary for a courtier4' ,the boy1 however1 through a fondness for pleasure1 sport1 and amusements1 was unwilling to give himself any trouble1 and was slow in learning any thing2 he however every day secretly brought from home sweetmeats and agreeable objects1 as his tutor had a great inclination for such enjoyments4 ,when the preceptor's time had passed in this manner1 and his pupil had become habituated to revelling1 sensual pleasures1 and enjoyments1 the tutor at last fell dangerously indisposed through these excesses1 and laid himself down on the bed of death4 ,his pupil well knew he had no other place left1 and that he must return to his parents1 so that when his master fell sick1 he became sensible of his own state4 ,through dread of his father1 shame of his mother1 the disgrace of ignorance1 and a sense of contrition1 he went not near them1 but pined in melancholy and wandered about in obscurity40 ,this parable has been thus explained by ,gushtsp3 8#8,the preceptor' signifies the five senses2 #8the son1' the immortal spirit2 #8the father1' the universal intelligence2 #8the mother1' the universal soul2 #8the sweetmeats and mistresses1' worldly enjoyments2 #8the indispensable necessity of the immortal spirit1' that it should1 through the senses and the common reflection which is their instructor1 attain the objects of intellect and amass provisions for its return1 so that it may become the associate of the only true king4 ,if this purpose be not effected1 it of course feels terror at the death of the body4 ,when it has become thus biassed to sensual pleasures and devoid of all goodness1 on being separated from the body1 although still possessed of sufficient energy for mounting on high1 yet through shame and confusion1 it feels no desire of arriving there and beholding its parents1 soul and intellect40 ,the venerable ,hryr once said to the author3 8,i have seen the following narrative in the ,ramazastn of ,zardusht3 #8,the prime minister to the sovereign of the world had so many sons1 that their number surpassed all computation2 these he first sent to a place of education1 where1 along with the children of ,rayas 7cultivators71 they might attain knowledge4 ,if the minister's sons became intelligent1 the ,dustr summoned them to his presence1 and enrolled them among the king's confidential servants2 but if they remained without science1 they were not regarded as the ,vizir's sons1 but classed among the ,rayas2 were not permitted to come into his presence2 and were cut off from all share in their father's inheritance40 ,the author replied3 8,it occurs to me that1 by #8the king of the world1' is meant the supreme ,god without equal2 by #8vizir1' the primary intelligence2 and by #8the sons of the vizir1' the souls endowed with reason2 by #8school1' the elemental world1 and the bodies formed of the elements2 and by #8the children of the common people' the corporeal senses and passions40 ,when the immortal spirits have acquired knowledge in this place of education1 their father1 8,universal ,intelligence10 brings them near himself1 and advances them to the rank of holding intercourse with the ,lord of ,eternity3 but the souls which do not acquire knowledge in this school are not allowed access to the world of uncompounded beings1 the abode of the ,universal ,intelligence1 and remain banished from the presence of the ,creator of the world2 so that they make no advance from the material bodies of this abode of the elements1 which hold the rank of ,rayas1 but are excluded from all share in the inheritance of the primary intelligence or the acquisition of knowledge4 ,zardusht has also said3 8,in the upper regions there exists a mighty ocean1 from the vapors of which a great mirage appears in this lower world3 so that nothing save that illusion subsists here2 exactly as nothing besides that ocean exists in the world on high40 ,the revered ruler of ,hryr1 having asked the author the meaning of this parable1 received this answer3 8#8,the mighty ocean' means the absolute essence and pure existence of ,god2 #8the mirage' implies contingent existences1 which in truth exist not1 but appear to do so1 through the inherent property of ,god's absolute existence2 according to this view1 he has said3 #8,from the vapors of that ocean has arisen the mirage4'0 ,it is recorded in the books composed by ,zardusht's followers1 and also in the ancient histories of ,iran1 that at the period of ,arjsp's second invasion of ,balkh1 king ,gushtasp was partaking of the hospitality of ,zl1 in ,sistan1 and ,isfendiar was a prisoner in ,dazh ,gambadn2 and that ,lohorsp1 notwithstanding the religious austerities he performed through divine favor1 laid aside the robes of mortality in battle1 after which the ,turks took the city4 ,a ,turk named ,turbaratur1 or ,turbaraturhash1 having entered ,zardusht's oratory1 the prophet received martyrdom by his sword4 ,zardusht1 however1 having thrown at him the rosary 7,shumar ,afin1 or ,yd ,afrz7 which he held in his hand1 there proceeded from it such effulgent splendor1 that its fire fell on ,turburatur and consumed him4#ebc #chb ,if the claims to originality and antiquity of the language in which the ,destir is written were admitted1 we should have 7pp4 #adf1 #adg1 ,engl4 transl47 ,hertushd or ,hertrsh1 as the first and true name of the ,persian prophet who followed immediately ,ki ,khusro4 ,in ,zand1 upon which language we are now better informed1 the true name of this legislator of the ,persians is ,zerethoshtr1 or ,zarathustra1 which signifies 8star of gold20 of this was formed in the ,pehlevi language the name of ,zaratesht or ,zaratosht1 and in ,farsi that of ,zardsht or ,zaradusht4 ,the ,greeks have changed the original ,zand name1 either by removing the 8th0 in the middle of it1 and thus making it ,zereoshtr1 ,zoroastrs2 or by omitting the final syllable 8tro10 whence it became ,zaratos1 ,zabratos1 ,zaradas1 ,zarasds1 ,zathrausts2 we find1 moreover1 ,zoromasdrs1 ,azonaces1 and ,nazarats4 ,the most ancient mention of the name of ,zoroastrs1 in ,greek books1 is to be found in the works of ,plato1 and dates therefore from the fourth century before our era4 ,the original word has been translated by 1 8he who sacrifices to the stars20 by 8he who contemplates the stars20 and by 8living star40 ,these interpretations relate to the character of a priest and of an astronomer1 generally attributed to ,zoroaster1 who is also believed to have been the inventor of magic2 this word was originally taken in a sense very different from that which has been given to it in later times1 and can be referred to the name of ,magi1 or ,mobeds 7see note1 p4 #ag71 well known to ,herodotus in the fifth century ,b4 ,c4 ,these ,magi are represented as the teachers and priests of a most pure philosophy and religion1 the origin of which is placed by the ,destir and the ,dabistn in the most remote and ante-historical times of the ,mhbdins4 ,it may therefore appear less surprising to find in ,pliny's ,natural ,history 7,i4 xxx4 c4 #a4 #b47 ,zoroaster placed1 pursuant to the authority of ,aristotle and ,eudoxus1 #fjjj years before the death of ,plato1 and1 conformably to ,hermippus1 #ejjj years before the ,trojan war4 ,the last date is repeated by ,plutarch 7lib4 de ,is4 et ,osir474 ,diogenes ,laertius says3 8,hermodoros1 a ,platonic philosopher1 counts #ejjj years from the establishment of the ,magi to the destruction of ,troy40 ,according to ,suidas1 a ,zoroaster lived #ejj years before the ,trojan war2 if the number #ejj had been erroneously substituted for #ejjj1 which is admissible 7see ,m4 de ,fortia d',urban1 ,mathmaticiens illustres1 p4 #ced71 we should have the agreement of all these creditable authors just mentioned1 from the fourth century before1 to the twelfth century after1 our era1 in fixing the age of ,zoroaster and the establishment of the ,magi1 #fceb or #faid years ,b4 ,c4 ,the epocha of the ,magi 7putting aside that of the ,mhbdins7 has also been taken for that of ,tahmuras and ,jemshid1 that is1 #cdfj or #cdbi years ,b4 ,c4 ,according to other accounts 7collected in the ,hist4 ,diction4 of ,moreri1 ,bayle1 etc41 etc471 a ,zoroaster ruled the ,bactrian empire in the times of ,ninus1 the ,assyrian king1 #bbjj years ,b4 ,c42 vanquished by the latter1 he desired to be consumed by the fire of heaven1 and exhorted the ,assyrians to preserve his ashes as a palladium of their empire2 after he had been killed by lightning1 his last will was executed4 ,some historians 7see ,herbelot sub voce7 admit a ,zerdsht in the age of ,feridn1 #agbi years ,b4 ,c4 ,several other learned men concur in placing him much later1 few below the sixth century before our era4 ,in the utter impossibility to decide upon so many conflicting statements1 there is perhaps no better means of reconciling them all1 than concluding that ,zoroaster having1 in the course of ages1 become a generic or appellative name for sages1 prophets1 and kings professing and promoting a certain religion or philosophy1 this name could be applied to several individuals who appeared at different times1 and in different countries of ,asia4 ,hence we explain in the various accounts a plurality of ,zoroasters1 and an identity of several personages with one ,zoroaster2 he has indeed been supposed to be the same with ,japhet1 ,ham 7,heemo71 ,zohak1 ,nimrod1 ,buddha1 ,abraham1 ,moses1 ,ezekiel1 ,balam1 etc41 etc4 ,whatever it be1 the ,dabistn treats in this chapter of the ,zardsht1 who appeared under the reign of ,gushtasp1 king of ,persia1 upon whose epocha too our chronologers are not unanimous4 ,independently of the ,dastir1 written originally in a particular language1 the ,persians have ,zand books which they attribute to the last ,zoroaster himself4 ,except these works1 the age of which is a subject of dispute1 they have no written records of their great legislator prior to the ninth or tenth century of our era1 and these are the poems of ,dakiki and ,ferdusi4 ,the latter narrates1 in his ,shah-nameh1 the history of ,zerdsht under the reign of ,gushtasp4 ,we have besides a ,shah nameh naser1 or a ,shah-nameh in prose1 composed by some one of the ,magi 7,hyde1 p4 #cbd74 ,the ,zardusht-nameh1 and the ,changragatcha-nameh are ,persian poems1 the epocha of which1 according to ,anquetil du ,perron 7,zend-,avesta1 t4 ,i4 pp4 #f1 can scarcely be fixed farther back than the fifteenth century4,a4 ,t4 #chc ,this is also related in ,mirkhond's ,runzat-us-,safa 7,shea's transl41 p4 #bhf74;,a4 ,t4 #chd ,zaratsht-,bahram is the author of the ,zaratsht-namah before-mentioned 7see ,hyde1 p4 #ccb74 ,the epoch of this work is uncertain1 according to the opinion of the dostrs of ,india2 yet the author of it informs us1 in the #bnd chapter1 that he has translated it into ,persian from the ,pehlvi under the dictation of a ,mobed skilled in this language2 and in the last chapter in which he names himself he says that he composed the ,zaratusht-namah in the year #fdg of ,yezdegerd1 which answers to #abgf of our era 7see ,zend-,avesta1 t4 ,i4 #b4 ,p4 p4 #f74;,a4 ,t4 #che ,according to ,cedrenus1 an author of the eleventh century1 ,zoroaster descended from ,belus or ,nimrod3 this king is1 by some authors1 identified with ,zohk1 who married two daughters of ,djemchid1 from whom also ,faridun descended2 on account of this relationship1 ,zoroaster's origin may without contradiction be referred to ,belus and to ,faridun4 ,in the ,destir1 the name of his father is ,heresfetmd4 ,according to the authority of the book ,sad-der 7see ,hyde1 p4 #caf71 ,patirsp1 the grandfather of ,zoroaster1 descended from ,hitcherasp1 who sprung from ,tchechshnesh1 and this from ,espintaman1 or ,sad-yuman2 who is therefore the third ancestor of the prophet3 nevertheless this last is often called simply ,espintaman1 or also ,sapetman2 which word1 according to ,anquetil du ,perron 7t4 ,i4 #b4 p4 #i71 signifies 8excellent40,a4 ,t4 #chf ,the same dream is related in the ,zardusht-namah 7c4 #c and #d71 as well as in the work of ,henry ,lord 7p4 #dea71 quoted by ,anquetil du ,perron 7,zend-,avesta1 t4 ,i4 #b4 ,p4 p4 #aa74;,a4 ,t4 #chg ,the tradition of this appears to be widely spread1 not only in the ,east but also in the ,west1 as it is mentioned by ,pliny 7,h4 ,n4 ,i4 vii4 c4 #af71 with the addition of one wonderful particular1 namely1 that ,zartusht's brain palpitated so much as to repel the hand laid upon his head1 a presage of future science4 ,solinus 7c4 #a7 relates the same fact4 ,zoroaster is proverbially known as the first child who laughed on being born4,a4 ,t4 #chh ,see note1 p4 #baa4 ,this name has also been supposed a mere corruption of 1 azer dst1 that is1 8a friend of fire0 7see ,hyde1 who rejects it1 p4 #cad74;,a4 ,t4 #chi ,the same circumstances of the child's dangers and miraculous escapes are related in the ,zardusht-namah 7c4 #g-aa71 and in ,changrgatha-namah 7c4 #b74;,a4 ,t4 #cij ,in the ,zardusht-nameh1 the name of the magician is ,turberatorsh4,a4 ,t4 #cia ,the edition of ,calcutta reads generally 1 zhand2 we shall keep the more familiar name1 1 zand4 ,we find also ,avesta-zand1 and simply ,asta and zand4 ,herbelot has interpreted this name of ,zoroaster's writings by 8the book of life40 ,hyde thought 7p4 #ccf7 that ,zand ,avesta was properly ,zand va ,esta1 or ,zand u ,esta1 and ,zand1 an ,arabic word signifying 8igniarium1 focile1 pixis ignaria10 joined to the ,hebrew-,chaldaic word ,eshta1 or ,esta1 8ignis10 and explained the whole name by 8igniarium0 and 8ignis10 or 8tinder and fire40 ,according to ,anquetil du ,perron 7,zend-,avesta1 t4 ,,ii4 p4 #dbc71 zand signifies 8living10 and ,avesta1 8word20 therefore ,zand-,avesta1 8the living word20 which was anciently the law of the countries limited by the ,euphrates1 the ,oxus1 and the ,indian ocean 7ibid41 t4 ,i4 p4 xiv74 ,this law or religion is still professed by the descendants of the ,persians who1 conquered by the ,muhammedans1 have not submitted to the ,koran2 they partly inhabit ,kirman1 and partly the western coast of ,india1 to the north and south of ,surat4 ,it is besides now decided by the investigations of the above-named author1 and by those of ,kleuker1 ,rask1 as well as by those of ,messrs4 ,eugene ,burnouf1 ,bopp1 ,lassen1 and other philologers1 that ,zand was an ancient language derived from the same source as the ,sanskrit2 it was spoken before the ,christian era1 particularly in the countries situated to the west of the ,caspian sea1 namely in ,georgia1 ,iran proper1 and ,azerbijan 7the northern ,media74 ,moreover the ,pa-zand denotes a dialect derived from the ,zand1 or a mixed ,zand1 similar to the ,rabbinic language of the ,jews 7,z4-,av41 t4 ,,ii4 pp4 #fg1 #fh74 ,it is generally known that ,anquetil du ,perron brought1 in the year #agfb1 from ,surat in ,india1 and deposited in the ,royal library of ,paris1 several ,zand1 ,pehlvi1 and ,persian works1 which1 according to his opinion1 were partly the original works written by ,zoroaster himself1 partly translated1 or at least derived from original works of the ,persian prophet4 ,these writings1 namely ,the ,vendidad1 in ,zand and ,pehlvi1 were brought about the year #abgf1 by the ,dostur ,ardeshir1 from ,sistan to ,guzerat1 and there communicated to the ,parsees1 who made two copies of them2 from these come all the ,vendidads1 ,zand and ,pehlvi1 of ,guzerat4 ,these works1 parts of which only existed in ,england1 were then for the first time translated into an ,european language1 and published in ,french by ,anquetil4 ,examined as monuments of an ancient religion and literature of the ,persians1 they have been differently appreciated by learned men1 and their authenticity denied by some1 among whom the most conspicuous are sir ,william ,jones1 ,richardson1 and ,meiners1 and defended by others1 by none with more zeal than ,john ,frederic ,kleuker1 who not only translated ,anquetil's ,zand-,avesta into ,german1 in three volumes1 but in an appendix of two volumes 7all in quarto7 commented and discussed with great judgment1 sagacity1 and erudition1 all that relates to the ,zand-books attributed to ,zoroaster4 ,here follow1 as shortly as possible1 the principal results of his laborious investigations3testimonies of the existence of works attributed to ,zoroaster are found in ,greek authors who lived before our era4 ,it was in the sixth century ,b4 ,c4 that the ,persian religion and philosophy became known in ,europe by ,hostanes1 the ,archimagus who accompanied ,xerxes in his expedition against ,greece4 ,in the fourth century ,b4 ,c41 ,plato1 ,aristotle1 and ,theopompus show a knowledge of ,zoroaster's works4 ,in the third century ,b4 ,c41 ,hermippus treats expressly of them1 as containing not less than #abj1jjj distichs4 ,soon after the beginning of the ,christian era1 works attributed to ,zoroaster are mentioned under different names by ,nicolaus of ,damascus1 ,strabo1 ,pausanius1 ,pliny1 and ,dion ,chrysostomus4 ,st4 ,clement of ,alexandria1 in the third century1 was not unacquainted with them4 ,later1 the ,gnostics made a great use of the oriental cosmogony and psychology as derived from ,zoroaster4 ,the testimony of ,eusebius establishes that1 in the fourth century1 there existed a collection of sacred works respecting the theology and religion of the ,persians4 ,it was mostly the liturgical part of them that was spread about1 mixed with notions relative to the magical art4 ,the empress ,eudokia of the fifth1 and ,suidas of the twelfth1 century1 attribute to ,zoroaster several books1 four of which treat of nature1 one of precious stones1 and five of astrology and prognostics4 ,so much and more can be gathered from ,greek and ,latin works about the writings of the ,persian legislator4 ,the records of the ,muhammedans concerning them begin only in the ninth century1 by ,muhammed ,abu ,jafar ,ebn ,jerir el ,tabari 7,hyde1 #cag-cai71 according to whom ,zoroaster wrote his revelations upon #ab1jjj cow-skins 7or parchment folios74 ,abu ,muhammed ,mustapha1 in his life of ,gushtasp1 says3 8,zoroaster wrote the just-mentioned work in #ab tomes1 each of which formed a bullock's load40 ,both authors say that the ,persian king deposited these books1 magnificently ornamented1 in ,istakhar4 ,by several other authors1 from the ninth to the seventeenth century1 it is positively established that the books of the ,zand-,avesta existed in all the centuries in which the ,muhammedans had intercourse with the disciples of ,zartusht4 ,works composed by the latter are3 the ,bun-,dehesh1 the ,viraf-nameh1 the ,sad-der ,bun-,dehesh1 the ,ulemai-,islam1 the ,ravacts 7that is1 the correspondence between the ,dosturs of ,persia and ,india since the fifteenth century71 the ,zaratusht nameh1 the ,changragachah namah1 and the history of the flight of the ,parsees to ,india4 ,in all these works breathes the spirit of the strongest conviction that authentic works of ,zartusht have1 although not entirely1 yet partly1 been preserved to later days4 ,this conviction is common to a numerous nation1 who adhere to their sacred books as to the inappreciable inheritance of their forefathers4 ,the generality of this sentiment is attested by several respectable and intelligent ,european travellers in the ,east1 such as ,henry ,lord1 ,gabriel de ,chinon1 ,j4 ,b4 ,tavernier1 ,d4 ,sanson1 the chevalier ,chardin1 and others4 ,the name of ,zand-,avesta belongs1 among the books published by ,anquetil1 exclusively to those the original of which is truly ,zand2 these alone are canonical2 they are five in number1 all theological1 for the most part liturgical1 namely3 #a4 the ,izechn1 8elevation of the soul1 praise1 devotion20 called also the little ,avesta2 #b4 the ,vispered1 8the chiefs of the beings there named20 #c4 the ,vendidad1 which is considered as the foundation of the law 7these three are called together the ,vendidad ,sad1 8to combat ,ahriman07 #d4 the ,yeshts ,sades1 or 8a collection of compositions and of fragments1 more or less ancient20 #e4 the book ,siroz1 8thirty days10 containing praises addressed to the ,genius of each day3 it is a sort of liturgical calendar4 ,these are the ,zand-books existing in our days2 the originals of them are said by the learned ,foucher to have been composed under the reign of ,gushtasp1 whom he places before the time assigned to ,darius ,hystaspes1 whilst ,anquetil and other modern authors identify under these names a king of ,persia1 who lived about the middle of the sixth century before our era4 ,we may reasonably believe that the ,zand-books were written at a time when the ,zand was a living1 nay the dominant language1 in those countries where these books first appeared2 that is1 in ,georgia1 in ,iran1 and in ,azerbijan4 ,now1 if it be admitted that the ,zand was in these countries quite a dead language already1 under the ,ashkanian dynasty of ,persia 7the ,arsacides71 the first of whom1 ,aghush1 began to reign #caj years ,b4 ,c41 it will follow1 that the ,zand-books were written long before that time1 that is1 most likely at least1 so early so the sixth century before the ,christian era4 ,besides the original ,zand-books1 ,anquetil translated also from the modern ,persian the ,bun-,dehesh4 ,this is a collection of treatises upon several points1 ranged under #cd sectionsa sort of encyclopdia1 theological1 cosmological1 historical1 and political4 ,this work is written in ,pehlvi1 and believed to be the translation of a ,zand original no more to be found in ,india4 ,it is the most ancient of the modern works of the ,parsees1 and was written probably about the seventh century of our era4 ,what may confirm us in the opinion that these books1 still in the hands of the ,parsees1 are truly derived from much more ancient works is1 that their contents agree in a great number of principal points with the doctrine attributed to the ,magi and to ,zoroaster by ancient ,greek authors1 of whom the later ,parsees had certainly not the least knowledge1 whilst their ,zand-books contain the names of the first and most ancient kings of the ,medes and ,persians1 and no other but those1 of whom the ,greeks knew nothing4 ,no king and no private person1 after ,gushtasp and ,zoroaster1 are mentioned in the ,zand-books4 ,sixty years had elapsed since the publication of the ,zand-,avesta by ,anquetil1 when ,m4 ,eugne ,burnouf undertook a revision and commentary of that part of the ,zand-works which the first had translated and published1 under the ,pehlvi name of ,iseshn1 and which1 in ,zand1 is entitled ,yasna4 ,among the manuscripts which ,anquetil had brought from ,india was a ,sanskrit translation1 made towards the end of the fifteenth century by a ,dostur called ,neriosengh1 probably from a ,pehlvi version of a ,zand original4 ,m4 ,eugne ,burnouf1 to give a better interpretation of the ,zand text1 not only availed himself of the double translation1 executed by ,neriosengh and ,anquetil1 but also1 independently of both1 applied the principles of comparative philology to the analysis of many ,zand-words1 the true signification of which he fixed1 and by various judicious observations1 interspersed in his commentary1 threw light upon the geography1 history1 and religion of ancient ,persia4 ,he published in #ahcc the first volume of his work1 under the title 8,commentaire sur le ,yasna30 he had before 7#ahbi7 published the lithographed ,zand text of it in one folio volume4 ,in #ahcf appeared1 at ,bombay1 a lithographed edition of the same ,zand text40,a4 ,t4 #cib ,mina1 semen virile4 #cic ,the quarrel between ,zartusht and his father1 and the death of the head magician1 as well as what precededthese facts are related nearly in the same manner in the ,zerd4 ,nam41 ch4 #ab-ae4;,a4 ,t4 #cid ,anquetil du ,perron states that this expanse of water was the river ,araxes 7t4 #a4 #b4 ,p4 p4 #ai74 #cie ,the month of ,february1 the last month of the year4,a4 ,t4 #cif ,anquetil du ,perron1 quoting the ,zerd4 ,nam41 c4 #ah1 says1 an army of serpents1 perhaps tribes of ,ngas1 which came from the ,north4,a4 ,t4 #cig ,mediomah1 cousin to ,zardusht1 the first who embraced the law2 he meditated on it profoundly1 published and practised it3 he confers happiness on cities4,d4 ,s4 #cih ,april1 the second month of the year4,a4 ,t4 #cii ,dabati1 the name given1 in ,parsi works1 to the ,caspian sea4,d4 ,s4 ,anquetil du ,peron says 7t4 #a4 #b4 ,p4 p4 #ba7 that he passed the ,cyrus on his way to the ,caspian sea4,a4 ,t4 #djj ,anquetil du ,peron says here1 quoting ,h4 ,lord1 that ,zardusht retired to the mountains for consulting the ,supreme ,being1 and adds in a note that1 according to the ,vendidad1 it was upon the mount ,alborz that he consulted ,hormuzd 7t4 #a4 #b4 ,p4 p4 #bb74 ,the geographical situation of this mountain has been indicated in the note at p4 #bb2 but by the religion of the ,parsees it is placed in the supernatural world1 to which ,zoroaster was transported1 as related above4 ,the sacred ,alborz is the first of mountains2 it attained its first elevation in fifteen years1 and took eight hundred years to complete its growth2 it rose up from the middle of the earth to the region of the first light1 the delightful abode of ,mithra1 of whom hereafter2 the sun and the moon depart from and return to this mountain every day 7see ,zend-,av41 t4 ,,ii4 pp4 #bjf1 #bjg1 #bad1 #ceg1 #cfa1 #cfd1 and elsewhere74,a4 ,t4 #dja ,see note1 p4 #bae4 ,zardusht is called the son of ,espintaman4 ,the edition of ,calcutta reads ,askiman2 the manuscript of ,oude1 ,askatamn4,a4 ,t4 #djb ,the ,amshsfands are the six first celestial spirits after ,ormuzd4 ,their name is derived from the ,zand-words emeshe1 8immortal10 and sepente1 8excellent1 perfect40,a4 ,t4 #djc ,it is generally acknowledged that ,ahriman was the author of evil1 opposed to ,ormuzd1 the creator and promoter of every good2 but different opinions are entertained upon the origin of these two mighty beings4 ,according to the most ancient doctrine1 both were the productions of a primordial cause1 which is called ,zaruam akaren1 8the boundless time40 ,the ,zand-books1 as well as ,shahristani and the ,ulemi ,islam1 make ,ahriman anterior to ,ormuzd1 that is to say1 in plain language1 8the evil was before the good40 ,these two were1 however1 not distinguished from each other before ,ahriman had become jealous of ,ormuzd1 for which he was condemned by the great creator ,time to dwell in the abode of darkness for twelve thousand years4 ,it was then only that ,ormuzd saw with horror his deformed and frightful adversary1 and to oppose the effects of his existence created1 within three thousand years1 a celestial region and a celestial people4 ,ahriman1 long time ignorant of what was preparing against him1 had scarce perceived the light of ,ormuzd1 when he ran to destroy it1 but1 amazed at its beauty1 fled back to hell1 where he hastened to produce a host of evil beings4 ,in vain did ,ormuzd offer reconciliation to ,ahriman1 and even a partnership in the priesthood of the boundless time2 the fiend rejected all terms of peace1 and war began to rage between them 7see ,zend-,av41 t4 ,,ii4 pp4 #cde1 #cdg47 ,according to the books of the ,parsees and of the ,muhammedans who give an account of their doctrine1 ,ahriman is bad by nature3 nor do the more ancient ,zand-books say that he ever was good2 yet the explanation given about this mysterious being can but involve contradictions in more than one respect4 ,he alone is able to resist ,ormuzd1 of whom his existence is entirely independent2 he is the king of the beings which he has created1 and which ,ormuzd cannot annihilate2 nor can the latter prevent the effects of the power by which his enemy destroys the people of the just1 and banishes the moral good from the earth4 ,an account of ,ahriman's origin1 somewhat different from this1 will be seen hereafter in the ,dabistn4,a4 ,t4 #djd ,these sentiments agree singularly with the following passage of ,plato3 1 ' 1 ' 7,de ,republica74 8,the author of good is ,god alone2 but the author of evil any thing else rather than ,god40,a4 ,t4 #dje ,according to the ,zardusht-nameh quoted by ,anquetil 7t4 ,i4 #b4 ,p4 p4 #bd7 ,zardusht delivered from hell a person who had done good and evil4 ,this person1 believe some ,parsees1 was ,jamshid who1 towards the end of his life1 wished to be adored as a ,god4 ,others say it was ,gersh-asp1 a famous warrior1 who suffered in hell for having struck the sacred fire4,a4 ,t4 #djf ,ardibehest 7see pp4 #fa4 #fb47 presides over the second month of the year1 and the #c;d1 #hth1 #aeth1 and #bc;d day of the month2 he is pure1 beneficent1 endowed by ,ormuzd with great and holy eyes2 he grants health1 and eloquence to men1 productions to the earth1 and grandeur to the world2 he drives away the ,dvs and all evils 7,zend-,av41 ,,ii1 pp4 #fi4 #aec4 #aed4 #aei4 #caf4 and elsewhere74,a4 ,t4 #djg ,zoroaster1 according to the concurring account of several authors1 retired from the world and lived in a cavern of the mountain ,alborz1 or in the mountains of ,balkhan4 ,according to the ,rauzat us ,sufa 7,shea's transl41 p4 #bhf7 it was in the mountains near ,ardebil1 a city of ,azarbijan 7the ancient ,media74 ,this cavern is said to have been consecrated by him to ,mithra4 ,pliny states 7,h4 ,n4 l4 xi4 c4 #db71 the prophet lived #bj years in deserts1 upon cheese so tempered that he should not feel the effects of age4 ,this was probably before he appeared at the court of ,gushtasp4,a4 ,t4 #djh ,this miracle is not recorded in ,anquetil's life of ,zoroaster4,a4 ,t4 #dji ,not receiving immediate access to the king1 the prophet split the upper part of the apartment where ,gushtasp was1 and descended through the opening 7,anquet41 ,vie de ,zoroastre1 p4 #bi74 ,this was in the year #edi ,b4 ,c4 7ibidem71 after the #cjth year of ,gushtasp's reign 7,hyde1 p4 #cbc74;,a4 ,t4 #daj ,to these miracles add that related in the ,shah nameh naser1 quoted by ,hyde 7p4 #cbd73 ,zoroaster planted before the king's palace a cypress-tree1 which in a few days grew to the height and thickness of ten rasons 7measure undetermined71 and upon the top of it he built a summer-palace4,a4 ,t4 #daa ,all those particulars about ,zoroaster's imprisonment1 and about his release after the cure effected by him upon the king's charger are1 with little variation1 related in the ,shah-nameh naser 7see ,hyde1 #cbe1 #cbg71 and in the ,zerdusht nmah 7,anq4 du ,peron1 t4 ,i1 #b4 ,p4 p4 #cbe-cbg74;,a4 ,t4 #dab ,this cure of ,lohrasp is touched upon by ,anquetil in his life of ,zoroaster 7p4 #ec71 but not that of ,zerir2 ,hyde mentions neither2 but the conversion of king ,lohrasp and of his relations is generally admitted4,a4 ,t4 #dac ,see p4 #adi4 note4 #dad ,see pp4 #fa4 #fb4 #bda4 note4 #dae ,see pp4 #fa4 #fb4 ,khordad is the sixth ,amschspand2 he presides over the third month of the year and the sixth day of the month2 he is a chief of years1 months1 days1 and of time in general2 he grants and aids intelligence2 he causes pure water to run through the world if man lives holily2 he is taken for water itself2 he gives what is sweet to eat 7,zand-,avesta1 ,i4 #b4 ,p4 pp4 #ha4 #ajc4 ,,ii4 pp4 #fi4 #ig4 #aec4 #aeg4 and elsewhere74,a4 ,t4 #daf ,see pp4 #fa4 #fb4 ,the name of the angel is simply ,azar4 #dag ,yasht1 a ,zand word1 may be referred to the ,sanskrit ishtva1 the participle of yaj1 8to venerate40 ,the ,darun is an office celebrated particularly for the sake of a king1 or of the ,dostur of ,dosturs1 in honor of celestial beings of different names and classes 7,zend-,av41 t4 ,,ii4 p4 #gc74 ,darun is also a little cake in the shape of a crown piece1 which the priest offers to the ,ized-,dahman1 who blesses the creatures1 the just man1 and having received from the hands of the ,serosh the souls of the just1 conducts them to heaven 7ibid41 t4 ,i4 #b4 pp4 #hf4 #agb74;,a4 ,t4 #dah ,bishutan1 according to some authors was the brother1 according to the ,shah-nameh1 a confidential friend1 of ,isfendiar4,a4 ,t4 #dai ,jamasp1 the brother and minister of ,gushtasp4,a4 ,t4 #dbj ,chapt4 ,,lxxviii4 v4 #ch4 #dba ,chapt4 ,,xxviii4 v4 #ef4 #dbb ,according to ,abulfeda1 quoted by ,hyde 7p4 #cae71 ,zoroaster was born in or 1 in ,armi or ,armia1 the most western town of ,azarbijan 7the ,media of the ,greeks71 in the ,gordian mountains1 which accounts for the surname of ,median1 or ,persian1 or ,perso-,median1 which different authors have given to him4 ,other historians affirm that he came from ,palestina4,a4 ,t4 #dbc ,ra is the most northern town of the province ,jebal1 or ,irak ,ajem1 the country of the ancient ,parthians4,a4 ,t4 #dbd ,anquetil says 7,zend-,av41 #b ,p4 p4 xviii473 8,the ,bahman ,yesht ,pehlvi1 rather the epitome than the translation of the true ,bhmn ,zand1 may be called the ,apocalypse of the ,parsees4 ,it presents1 in the form of a prophecy1 an abridged history of the empire and of the religion of the ,persians1 from ,gushtasp to the end of the world40 ,that part of the ,dabistn which follows1 said to be transcribed from the ,zand ,avesta by a ,mobed1 may be presumed to be taken from the true ,bhmn ,yesht ,zand2 still these prophecies are undoubtedly compositions of later times interpolated in the original works4,a4 ,t4 #dbe ,it is mentioned in the ,situd gher 7the #bnd ,nosk of the ,zend-,avesta7 that ,zoroaster1 having demanded immortality1 ,ormuzd showed him a tree of four branches3 the first of gold1 this indicated the reign of ,gushtasp2 the second of silver1 that of ,ardeshir ,babegan2 the third of brass1 that of ,nushirvan1 and the troubles excited by ,mazdak2 the fourth of iron mixed with other metals1 the destruction of the ,persian empire4 ,according to the ,bhmn ,jesht ,zand1 ,ormuzd refusing a second demand of immortality made by ,zoroaster1 pours into his hands a few drops of water1 after the drinking of which he is during seven days and nights filled with divine intelligence1 and sees all that passes upon the seven kechvars1 or 8districts of the earth40 ,he sees a second tree1 having seven branches of metal1 which indicate seven epochas and the events belonging to them2 the first branch1 which is of gold1 designates the reign of ,gushtasp4 ,zoroaster then no more desires immortality4 ,ormuzd announces to him1 moreover1 the war which ,arjasp will make upon ,gushtasp47,zend-,av41 t4 ,i4 #b4 ,p4 note1 pp4 xviii4 xix7,a4 ,t4 #dbf ,the author of the ,bhmn ,yasht 7ibid41 ,notices1 p4 xix7 describes in copious details the woes which are to afflict the world1 during the influence of the iron branch31 he speaks of the march of armies1 of physical convulsions1 of the diminished productions of nature1 of the conquests made by ,arabs1 ,greeks1 ,turks1 ,chinese1 and ,christians4 ,all this misery is to end on the arrival of king ,bhrm ,varjavand1 who is to re-establish the ancient ,persian empire3 by the successive mission of the three sons of ,zoroaster1 who are to convert the world and confirm their divine mission by working miracles4 ,sosiosh is to restore purity to the world3 during this prophet's millennium the resurrection is to take place4,d4 ,s4 #dbg ,the ,nroz1 is the first day of the year1 a great festival1 the institution of which is ascribed to the earliest times4 ,it lasts six days1 beginning on the day of ,ormuzd of the month ,farvardin 7,march72 this is the little ,nroz1 and it ends on the day of ,khordad 7an ,amshasfand who presides over the sixth day of the month71 called the great ,nroz4 ,it was on this day1 they relate1 that ,ormuzd created the world and what it contains2 that ,kiomers triumphed over ,eshem1 the demon of envy1 wrath1 and violence1 the enemy of ,sersh1 and the most powerful of the ,dvs2 that ,mashia and ,mashin1 the first man and woman1 came forth from the earth1 and that several great events of the ancient history of the ,persians took place1 such as ,gushtasp's embracing ,zoroaster's faith3 it is finally on that day that the general resurrection is to follow 7,zend-,av41 t4 ,,ii4 p4 #egd47;,a4 ,t4 #dbh ,the month of ,aban is the month of ,october1 and the angel of that name1 who is the ,ized of the water1 presides over the tenth day of the month4 ,baud is the twenty-second day of the month4,a4 ,t4 #dbi ,this list is incorrect2 it should begin by stating that the ,nosks are twenty-one in number1 according to the number of words in the ,yatha ahu viriobut the ignorance of the transcriber has converted the three first words of a short prayer into the three first ,nosks of the ,zend-,avesta4,d4 ,s4 ,according to several ,parsee doctors1 seven of these ,nosks1 or rather nskas1 treated of the first principle1 of the origin of beings1 of the history of the human race1 etc42 seven treated of morals and of civil and religious duties2 and seven of medicine and astronomy4 ,the ,pehlvi books and some ,persian works mention three other ,nosks1 which are to complete the ,avesta at the end of this world 7,zand-,av41 t4 ,i4 #a4 ,p4 p4 #dgi74 ,here follows a list of the ,nosks according to a translation made by ,anquetil from the ,persian ,ravaet of ,kamah ,berch 7see ,mmoires de l',acad4 des ,inscript4 et des ,b4-,l41 t4 xxxviii4 p4 #bci-bed47 ,i have abridged the explanation of each ,nosk2 the contents of several of them are much alike1 and the miscellaneous matters in them all confusedly stated4 ,i4,the first ,nosk1 called ,setud-yesht1 8,nosk of prayer or praise10 has #cc chapters4 ,,ii4,the second1 named ,setud-gher1 8,nosk of prayer and praise10 has #bb chapters1 and treats of the purity of actions1 of collections for the poor1 of the concord which is to subsist between relations4 ,,iii4,vehest ,mantsre1 8heavenly word10 has #bb chapters4 ,it discourses on faith1 on the strict observation of the law1 and on the propensities of the heart4 ,mention is made of the qualities of ,zardusht1 and of the pure people and pure actions which have existed before him4 ,,iv4,bagh1 8happiness1 light1 or garden10 in #ba chapters1 states the substance and the true meaning of the law1 ,god's commands with respect to obedience1 fidelity1 justice1 purity of actions1 the means of guarding against ,satan1 and of going into the other world4 ,v4,dazdah ,hamast1 the twelve ,hamasts1 that is1 8means or things produced at the same time40 ,this book1 in #cb chapters1 speaks of the bad people of the upper and nether world1 of the nature of all beings1 of the whole creation of ,god1 of the resurrection1 of the bridge ,chinavad1 and of the fate after death4 ,,vi4,nader1 8the excellent1 the rare40 ,this book of #ce chapters is assigned to astronomy1 to the influences of the stars upon the actions of men2 it corresponds with the ,arabic work ,buftal 7,bufastl72 its ,persian name is ,favameshian 7,favamashan72 that is1 by means of this science future events are known4 ,,vii4,pajem means perhaps 8small animal1 or retribution40 ,this book1 in #bb chapters1 gives an account of quadrupeds2 of actions permitted or not2 what animals may be killed or eat1 what not2 what may be killed for the use of the ,gahanbars1 that is1 the six festivals in the year instituted in commemoration of the first creation of the world in #cfe days2 and about regulations relative to these festivals1 to meritorious acts and gifts4 ,,viii4,reteshtai1 8the ,nosk of warriors or of chiefs40 ,the subjects of this book form #ej chapters1 #ac of which only have survived the time of ,alexander2 they are3 the orders of the king1 the obedience of the subjects1 the conduct of the judges1 the foundation of towns1 and the various things and animals created by ,god4 ,,ix4,beresht1 8execution of orders1 or supremacy40 ,this book1 of #fj chapters1 #ab of which only remain after ,alexander1 treats of kings and judges2 of the reciprocal relations of the governors and the governed2 of the occupations prescribed to the different classes and professions of men2 of useful knowledge2 of the vices of men2 and such like things4 ,x4,kesesrob1 perhaps 8agreeable word40 ,this book1 at first of #fj chapters1 of #ae only after ,alexander's conquest1 discourses upon the soul1 science1 intellect1 natural and acquired2 upon morality1 and the consequences of its being observed or violated4 ,,xi4,veshtasp1 ,veshap1 once of #fj1 but after ,alexander of #aj chapters only1 contains an eulogy upon the government of ,veshtasp 7,gushtasp71 upon his having adopted1 observed1 and propagated ,zardusht's laws4 ,,xii4,khesht1 8brick1 or little lance1 or agriculture40 ,this book1 in #bb chapters1 discusses six subjects relative to religion1 policy1 morals1 cultivation1 political economy1 and administration of justice4 ,in the fifth part are stated the four venerable classes of men1 which are the kings and chiefs1 the warriors1 the cultivators1 and the tradesmen4 ,,xiii4,sefand1 8excellent10 inculcates in #fj chapters the observation of moral and religious duties1 and the faith in the miracles of ,zardusht4 ,,xiv4,jeresht1 8he does20 this book1 of #bb chapters1 treats of the birth and the destination of man4 ,,xv4,baghantast1 8the ,yesht of the fortunate10 contains in #ag chapters the praise of ,god1 of the angels1 and of the man who approaches ,god and is thankful for the benefits which he receives from above4 ,,xvi4,niaram means1 perhaps1 8,i do not seek my advantage40 ,this book1 of #ed chapters1 teaches the good employ of one's fortune1 and the advantages of a good behaviour towards ,god and men4 ,,xvii4,asparam1 may signify 8the ties1 the book by excellence1 the dawn1 the heaven1 perfect1 plant1 leaf40 ,it treats in #fd chapters of the ,nerengs1 that is of the powers1 faculties in different acceptations2 here of the powers of good actions1 and of liturgical ceremonies4 ,,xviii4,davaserujed1 8he who offers the extreme expedient1 or who speaks of it10 of #fe chapters1 shows the knowledge of men and animals2 how the latter are to be taken care of2 how travellers and captives are to be treated4 ,,xix4,askaram1 8,i discover1 explain1 make known1 teach publicly10 in #ec chapters1 explains the obligation1 the best establishment and limitation of laws and regulations4 ,,xx4,vendidad1 8given for the repulsion of the ,dvs10 of #bb chapters1 forbids all sorts of bad1 impure1 and violent actions4 ,,xxi4,hadokht1 8the powerful ,has10 that is1 8words of phrases of the ,avesta10 in #cj chapters1 exhibits the manner of always performing many miracles1 pure works1 and admirable things4 99 99 99 99 99 ,of all these ,nosks1 not one1 except the ,vendidad1 has been preserved complete1 and the names of three only1 namely1 the ,setud-yesht1 the ,vendidad1 and the ,hadokht1 are mentioned in the different ,zand-books still extant4 ,this shows that1 at different times1 changes in the forms of the written liturgy have taken place1 and that the names1 superscriptions1 and divisions of the writings have been arbitrarily treated by different ,dostrs1 without any change in the contents4 ,the names of the ,nosks given by ,hyde 7#cdc1 #cde71 partly from the dictionary ,farhang ,ichangiri1 partly from other sources not mentioned1 are not correct nor rightly explained4 ,three additional ,nosks are to be brought into the world by three posthumous sons of ,zoroaster4 ,see in a subsequent note their miraculous origin and actions4 ,the ,persian text of another ,notice upon the ,nosks1 somewhat more complete than that published by ,anquetil in ,roman letters1 has been edited by ,messrs4 ,julius ,mohl and ,olshausen1 of ,kiel 7see ,fragmens relatifs la ,religion de ,zoroastre1 extraits des manuscrits persans de la ,bibliothque du ,roi1 #ahbi74;,a4 ,t4 #dcj 8,sankara acharya10 upon whose age different opinions are entertained4 #dca ,according to another tradition ,gushtasp himself had travelled in ,india1 and had been instructed by the ,brahmans4 ,in the ,destir 7,english transl41 ,comment1 pp4 #ahe1 #ahf71 we read that1 when ,sekander conquered ,iran1 ,ssn1 the son of ,darab1 went to ,india1 where he practised the worship of ,yezdan in a cavern1 and where he died4 ,he left a son named ,jivnasp1 who is known as the second ,ssn1 equal to his father1 and who took his abode in ,kabulistan4 ,ardeshir 7the son of another ,ssn1 of the ,kayanin race1 a relative of the ,saint71 admonished by a dream1 went to ,kabulistan1 and by his entreaties prevailed upon the second ,ssn to follow him to ,istakhar1 where ,ardeshir erected1 for the habitation of the saint1 an immense monastery adorned with figures of the stars1 and having fire-temples on its different sides4 ,these and other traditions afford the inference that1 in early times1 a religious intercourse had taken place between ,india and ,persia4,a4 ,t4 #dcb ,in the ,destir 7,english translat41 p4 #abj7 the ,greek philosopher is called ,ttanush4 ,we are at a loss even to guess at the ,greek to whom these names may be applied4 ,we may however remember that ,st4 ,clement of ,alexandria places ,pythagoras about the #fbnd ,olympiad1 or about #ebh years ,b4 ,c41 and says that he was a zealous follower of ,zoroaster1 and had consulted the ,magi4 ,jamblicus1 in his life of ,pythagoras 7cap4 #d7 states1 that this philosopher was taken prisoner by ,cambyses and carried to ,babylon1 where1 in his intercourse with the ,magi1 he was instructed in their modes of worship1 perhaps by ,zoroaster himself1 if ,zabratus and ,nazaratus1 mentioned as his instructors by ,diogenes and ,alexander1 can be identified with the ,persian prophet4 ,now1 the long reign of ,lohrasp 7of #abj years7 is supposed by some chronologers to comprehend the reigns of ,cambyses and of ,smerdis4 ,upon this uncertain chronological ground1 ,pythagoras may be placed in the times of ,gushtasp1 to whom1 as was before said1 ,foucher with others assigns an epocha more remote than that of ,darius ,hystaspes of the ,greeks4 ,it is known that ,alexander1 by the conquest of ,persia1 accomplished1 to a certain degree and for a certain time1 his glorious project to connect the ,east with the ,west2 an open intercourse took place between the ,asiatics and the ,greeks1 whose language was widely spread in ,asia4 ,the ,macedonian conqueror is there generally believed to have been the son of ,darab 7,darius71 and the brother of ,bhmn ,isfendiar4 ,he received1 says the ,destir 7p4 #abc71 from the hands of his ,persian spouse ,pari-dokht ,roshenak 7,parysatis ,roxana71 8the bright daughter of the fairy10 a book of ,zardusht addressed to him1 and forming a part of the ,destir4 ,alexander ordered the ,persian books to be translated into ,greek1 called the ,nurakhi language1 in the ,desatir1 in which is also said 7p4 #abd73 8,hence the sect of ,internal ,illumination will arise among the ,nurakhis1 as well as that of ,reason40 ,to this passage the ,commentary subjoins3 8,the sect of ,gshtaspians of ,iran and ,yunn is a medium between the ,illuminated and the ,rationalist4 ,when ,sekander came to ,iran1 he found that the ,gshtaspians of ,iran were the better and wiser2 and he found that they had such power that1 when they pleased1 they left the body1 which they treated as a garment4 ,and besides them he saw another class of men in ,irn1 who1 by means of reason and meditation 7nurnd7 discovered the real nature of things as they actually exist2 and there was no such class of men in ,yunn4 ,having collected all their books1 he translated them into the ,yunni and ,rmi tongues4 ,he then gave his prime minister 7,dostur7 and teacher the title of the chief ,mobd and ,sage1 and made him the head of the ,nirndis4 ,from this time forward the sect of ,rationalists prevailed among the ,yunanis and ,rmis40 ,alexander's prime minister is supposed by the ,asiatics to have been ,aristotle2 we know that this philosopher had an accurate knowledge of ,zoroaster's doctrine4 ,although the history1 religion1 and science of the ,asiatics have certainly not been neglected by the inquisitive ,greeks1 ,alexander's companions1 among whom was ,callisthenes1 a relation of ,aristotle1 yet we find in the western histories no particular notice corroborating the account just quoted of the ,destir4 ,unfortunately we may be more positive about the destruction of ancient monumental works in ,persia by the son of ,philip2 it is for having burnt the ,nosks that he is said by the ,persians to be burning in hell 7see ,anquetil1 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #cch74;,a4 ,t4 #dcc 1 8,vyasa10 a sage of that name occurs in the chapter upon the ,hindus and elsewhere4 ,in the ,destir1 published at ,bombay1 there is 8the book of ,shet the prophet ,zirtsht0 7,engl4 transl41 pp4 #aaf-ade71 in which the interview between ,hertushd1 son of ,hereofetmad 7,zortsht71 the ,ynan philosopher and the ,indian sages is related4 ,here ends the principal part of the historical account which the ,dabistn gives of ,zoroaster's life4 ,i shall add1 according to ,anquetil 7,zend-,av41 t4 ,i4 #b4 ,p4 pp4 #fj-fb71 a summary account of its principal events in chronological order4 ,anquetil supposes ,zoroaster born #ehi years ,b4 ,c4 ,at the age of #cj years he goes to ,irn1 through which country he only passes4 ,he disappears then to the eyes of the ,persians during ten years4 ,his followers say that he was transported before the throne of ,god4 ,it was in this interval of time that he terminated several works which he had perhaps already begun upon mount ,alborz1 or in ,chalda4 ,the mountains afforded him retirement4 ,the twenty years which he is said to have passed in the deserts were1 probably1 from his twentieth to his fortieth year4 ,at this age he appeared before ,gushtasp1 in ,balkh1 and at this very time ,hystaspes1 father of ,darius1 may have reigned in ,bactria4 ,zoroaster performed miracles during ten years3 this is the period of his mission4 ,after his first miracles1 his reputation having spread afar1 ,changraghchah came to meet him4 ,this ,brahman treats him in his letter to ,gushtasp as a young man1 and well might an old man1 such as ,changraghchah was1 have so called a man of forty years4 ,it is also to this time that ,anquetil refers what is said about the cypress-tree which ,zoroaster planted before the ,atesh-gadah1 or the fire-temple1 of ,kichmar in ,khorassan4 ,isfendir was then very young1 because about twenty-eight years later his elder son was not yet married2 and ,darius1 #edj years ,b4 ,c41 might have been ten years old4 ,at the age of sixty-five years1 ,zoroaster delivered in ,babylon lessons of philosophy1 and counted ,pythagoras among his disciples2 ,cambyses1 according to the ,greeks1 filled then the throne of ,persia4 ,three years afterwards1 the legislator returned from ,chalda for establishing the worship of the cypress1 which lasted eight years4 ,persia had then acknowledged ,darius1 the son of ,hystaspes1 as king4 ,after these eight years1 ,zoroaster advised the war against ,turan4 ,he was very old4 ,the ,shahnamah calls him pr1 8old40 ,gushtasp1 victorious over the ,turanins1 heaps every honor upon him1 and he dies1 some time after1 at the age of seventy-seven years1 in the interval of time which elapsed between the expedition of ,gushtasp and the invasion of the ,turanins4 ,bhmn1 the eldest son of ,isfendiar1 was able to carry arms1 and ,darius1 #eab ,b4 ,c41 might have been thirty-eight years old4 ,as to the posterity of ,zoroasterhe had been successively married to three wives4 ,with the first he had one son and three daughters2 with the second two sons2 it is not certain whether he had any offspring with his third wife1 called ,h1 the niece of ,jamaspthe ,zand-books however say1 that she brought him three sons1 who are to appear about the end of the world4,a4 ,t4 ,according to ,zand and ,parsee writings1 the birth and actions of these sons will be equally miraculous4 ,zoroaster1 having visited ,h three times on her going to bathe1 the germs remained in the water4 ,the ,izeds 7or genii7 ,nerioseng and ,anahid were charged with their custody1 until the period when three virgins bathing in the same water1 should receive these germs in succession1 and bring into the world the three sons of ,zoroaster4 ,the first is named ,oshederbmi4 ,he is to appear at the commencement of the last millennium of the world1 and to arrest the sun's course during ten days and nights2 and as ,zoroaster converted one of the four portions of the human race1 he is to convert the second to the law1 and give them the #bbnd ,nosk4 ,the second posthumous son is ,oshedermh4 ,he is to appear four hundred years after ,oshederbmi1 and to arrest the sun's course during ten days and nights2 he is also to bring the #bcrd ,nosk of the law1 and to convert the third portion of the human race4 ,the third is named ,sosiosh4 ,he shall appear at the end of ages1 arrest the sun's course during thirty days and nights1 bring the #bdth ,nosk of the law1 and the whole world is to embrace the faith of ,zoroaster3 after this comes on the resurrection47,zend4-,av41 t4 ,i4 #b4 ,p4 pp4 #de1 #df74;,d4 ,s4 #dcd ,in the ,destir 7,english transl4 p4 #abf7 he is called ,biras4,a4 ,t4 #dce ,ardai ,virf or ,arda ,virf or ,virasp1 also simply called ,viraf or ,virasp1 was1 about the year #bjj of our era1 one of the most zealous followers and defenders of ,zoroaster's religion1 which1 under ,alexander the ,great and the other kings of ,persia1 had lost its first authority 7see ,hyde1 pp4 #bgh1 #bgi74 ,arda ,viraf is mentioned in one of the ,yeshts ,sades1 or prayers called ,dup ,nreng1 which are recited when perfumes are thrown into the fire 7,zend-,av41 t4 ,,ii1 p4 #ec74;,a4 ,t4 #dcf ,in the ,shah nameh ,naser it is stated1 in the life of ,ardashir ,babegan 7see ,hyde1 p4 #bhj7 that this king1 abolishing several regulations of ,alexander the ,great1 granted toleration to followers of the faith professed by ,gushtasp1 and wishing to re-establish ,zoroaster's religion1 demanded from its ,mobeds miracles1 which they performed4 ,the king1 satisfied by these proofs1 not only adopted their tenets himself1 but obliged all others to do the same4 ,in the life of ,shapur it is said1 in the book quoted1 that1 when ,ardashir was inaugurated in the government1 he demanded from the chiefs of the ,magi miracles1 after the performance of which ,ardai ,virf1 during a whole week1 supporting by arguments the truth of his religion1 brought also forward all that relates to hell and heaven4 ,some believed2 others doubted or denied3 the number of the last was #hj1jjj4;,a4 ,t4 #dcg ,the ,revelations of ,ardi ,viraf are said to have been originally written in ,zand4 ,there exists a ,viraf nameh in ,pehlvi1 probably of the fourth century of our era2 works of this name are found in modern ,persian in prose and in verse4 ,anquetil mentions a ,viraf nameh in verse1 composed ,a4 ,d4 #aecb1 by ,ks1 ,herbed of ,nusari1 and another by ,zardusht1 son of ,bhrm 7,zend-,av41 t4 ,i4 #b4 ,p4 not4 pp4 ix4 x4 xxx4 xxxii74 ,translations of this work have also been made into ,sanskrit and the ,hindu language of ,guzerat4 ,an ,english translation of the ,ardai-,viraf ,nameh1 by ,t4 ,a4 ,pope1 appeared in #ahaf4 ,the translator says in his preface 7p4 xiii73 that the ,revelations of ,ardai ,viraf appear to be the same work that is mentioned by ,richardson as the work of ,ardeshir ,babegan1 which having been improved by ,nushirvan the ,just1 in the sixth century1 was sent by him to all the governors of provinces1 as the invariable rule of their conduct4 ,pope examined for his work three versions in the modern ,persian3 the first in prose1 by ,nushirvan ,kermani2 the second in verse1 by ,zardusht ,biram 7,bhrm72 the third in prose1 by the same 7ibid41 p4 xiv74,a4 ,t4 #dch 1 rasan is a linear measure1 the exact value of which could not be ascertained4 ,according to common belief of the ,muhammedans1 this bridge appears of different shapes2 to the good1 a straight and pleasant road of thirty-seven fathoms in breadth2 but to the wicked it is like the edge of a sword1 on which they totter and fall into the abyss below4 ,according to the translation of ,pope 7p4 #aa71 when ,ardai ,virf found himself close to the bridge1 it appeared to him to be a broad and good road4,a4 ,t4 #dci ,mihr ,ized is the same as ,mithra4 ,he is the most active champion against ,ahriman and the host of evil genii2 he has one thousand ears and ten thousand eyes2 a club1 a bow1 arrows1 and a golden poniard in his hand2 he traverses the space between heaven and earth2 he gives light1 that is the sun1 to the earth2 he directs the course of water1 and blesses mankind with progeny and the fruits of the field3 the earth receives from him its warriors and virtuous kings2 he watches over the law1 and maintains the harmony of the world4 ,after death1 he not only grants protection against the attacks of the impure spirits1 but assigns heaven to the souls of the just4 ,it is there that he appears in the celestial assembly of holy ,fervers surrounding the throne of ,ormuzd 7see ,zend-,av41 t4 ,,ii4 pp4 #bjd4 #bje4 #bbb4 #bbc4 #bef4 and in other places74 ,mithra is by some authors identified with ,ormuzd himself1 and with the sun2 but it results from ,anquetil's investigations that1 in the religion of the ,persians1 he is distinct from both and subordinate to ,ormuzd4 ,he occupies a much higher rank in the religious system of the ,chaldans and the ,arabs1 who first venerated ,mithra4 ,it is now established beyond any doubt1 by a good number of authentic monuments1 that in later times the religion and worship of ,mithra has been greatly developed in dogmas1 symbols1 and a system of mysteries relating to cosmology1 astronomy1 and physiology3 in the first centuries of the ,christian era1 this religion appears to have been spread1 not only over ,asia1 but also over a great part of ,europe4 ,this subject has been very learnedly treated at great length in modern works of too great celebrity to require mentioning here4,a4 ,t4 #ddj ,rashn-rast1 an ,ized1 who presides over the #ahth day of the month2 he is the ,ized of righteousness1 which he bestows2 he sees every thing from afar1 destroys the thief and the violent1 and takes care of the earth2 it is he to whom ,ormuzd has given a thousand forces and ten thousand eyes1 and who weighs the actions of men upon the bridge which separates the earth from heaven47,zend-,av41 t4 ,i4 #b4 ,p4 pp4 #hb4 #aca42 ,,ii4 pp4 #bah4 #bai4 #bbc74;,a4 ,t4 #dda ,in ,pope's translation of the ,virf-nameh we find 7pp4 #ac-ae7 what follows3 8,when ,sersh ,ized laid hold of my arm1 we proceeded to the top of the bridge1 one side of which appeared in full splendor of light and the other in total darkness1 when ,i heard a strong and extraordinary noise which1 on looking forwards1 ,i perceived to come from a dog1 that was chained with a collar and chain of gold1 near the light side of the bridge4,i asked the angels3 #8,why is the dog here8'to which ,sersh ,izad replied3 #8,he makes this noise to frighten ,ahriman1 and keeps watch here to prevent his approach2 his name is ,zering ,goash 7,cerberus87 and the devils shake at his voice2 and any soul that has1 during its residence in the lower world1 hurt or ill used or destroyed any of these animals1 is prevented by ,zering ,goash from proceeding any further across the bridge2 and1 ,ardai ,viraf1 when you return again to the world1 as one of the first duties1 enjoin the taking care of these animals40 ,according to the ,vendidad ,sad 7,zend-,av41 t4 ,i4 #b4 ,p4 p4 #dah71 the souls1 strong and holy1 who have done good works1 shall1 at their passage over the bridge ,chanivad1 be protected by the dog of the herds4 ,on that account the ,persian kings had 7see ,brissonii de ,reg4 ,pers4 princip4 libri tres1 l4 ,i4 p4 #aeg7 at their table a particular meal prepared for the dog4 ,the ,parsees in our days have great regard for dogs4 ,immense numbers of these animals are fed by those people1 though not admitted into their houses4,a4 ,t4 #ddb ,printed copy reads 1 tir pyah4 #ddc ,the ,gt ,khard is called the gift of two rupees1 which a man is obliged to give once in his life to a ,mobed or a priest1 in order that he may perform1 during five or eight days1 a religious ceremony for the sake of the donor1 who is purified by it4 ,this purification is substituted for another more expensive rite1 called the ,nuzd1 which a ,parsee is bound to perform when fifteen years old1 and which1 on the part of the ,neophyte1 requires a considerable knowledge of religious doctrine1 prayers1 and ceremonies4 ,he who during his life has not made ,yesht1 nor the ,gt ,khard1 nor the present of a dress to the ,pure1 shall1 after the resurrection1 appear naked 7,zend-,av41 t4 ,,ii4 pp4 #cd4 #eec4 #eed74;,a4 ,t4 #ddd ,the ,parsees mention in their books a very agreeable oil1 called ,mediozerem1 which is the beverage of the blessed in heaven1 and it is1 they say1 from the name of this oil that one of the six yearly festivals sacred to the memory of the creation is called ,ghamber ,mediozerem 7,zend-,av41 t4 ,,ii4 p4 #cid4 note74,a4 ,t4 ,according to the ,ardai ,viraf ,nameh1 translated by ,pope1 ,lond41 #ahaf 7p4 #bb7 ,ardai received a lozenge to eat1 which buried in oblivion all that had passed in the other world1 and turned his thoughts to ,god alone4,d4 ,s4 #dde ,ardibehest1 see p4 #bda1 note4 #ddf ,in the manuscript1 ,garjishman2 in the ,ardai ,virf ,nameh1 ,geroosman4,d4 ,s4 #ddg ,we might almost imagine this tenet as the origin of accounting the ,grecian ,hercules a ,god1 from this ancient testimony of veneration for the destroyers of lions1 hydras1 etc4,d4 ,s4 #ddh ,the ,viraf-nameh1 a sort of ,persian 8,divina ,commedia10 contains1 in ,pope's translation1 a description much more detailed than here1 and even prolix1 of ,viraf's journey in the other world4 ,we there read of seven heavens1 namely3 the ,hamestan1 the ,sitar-payah1 the ,mah-payah1 the ,khordad-payah1 the ,gershman1 the ,azar ,rshn1 and the ,ana ,gurra ,roshn4 ,in the last 7pp4 #ch-ci71 in the centre of a building1 on a throne was seated ,zartusht1 and by his side were standing his three sons1 named ,assad ,avaster1 ,ozvar tr1 and ,khurshid chehr2 attending on the prophet were ,jemshid and other kings1 among whom was ,gushtasp and some sages1 not without ,changragcha1 the converted ,brahman4 ,these seven heavens have been very ingeniously referred by ,m4 ,felix ,lajard 7see ,mmoire sur les deux bas-reliefs mithriaques qui ont t dcouverts en ,transylvanie1 pp4 #di et seq47 to a passage which ,origenes has preserved to us1 from a treatise of ,celsus against the ,christians4 ,this philosopher1 speaking of certain mysteries among the ,persians1 mentions seven doors1 which are of lead1 tin1 brass1 iron1 mixed metal1 silver1 and gold1 corresponding in their order to the heavenly bodies1 ,saturn1 ,venus1 ,jupiter1 ,mercury1 ,mars1 the moon1 and the sun2 above the last is an eighth door1 most likely the heavenly ,alborz1 8the region of the primordial light 7see note1 p4 #bcb740 ,we learn from the ,boun-,dehesh1 the ,zardsht-nameh1 and other works1 that the ascension of the souls was effected through the five planets which1 in the mysterious ladder of ,celsus1 are placed before the moon and the sun1 who himself rests upon mount ,alborz4 ,m4 ,f4 ,lajard makes use with great sagacity of the passage of ,celsus1 in support of his explanation of the mithriacal monuments which are the subjects of his learned ,memoir4,a4 ,t4 #ddi ,in which food is given to the poor4,a4 ,t4 #dej ,bj1 or ,vj1 signifies in general religious silence1 or an inarticulate murmuring of prayers4 ,this is practised before eating1 and is to be followed by an inviolable silence during the repast4 ,see ,hyde1 p4 #ceb1 and ,anquetil du ,peron1 ,,ii4 p4 #eih4 #dea ,aban is the ,ized of water1 and presides over the tenth day of the month4 ,anq4 du ,per41 ,i4 #b4 ,p4 p4 #acb2 ,,ii4 #cah4 #cbh4;,a4 ,t4 #deb ,kashti is a girdle commonly of wool or of camel's hair1 consisting of seventy-two threads1 to go at least twice round the body1 say1 about ten feet in length4 ,the breadth depends upon the thickness of the threads4 ,it is tied about the sader1 which is a sort of white shirt1 worn immediately upon the skin1 with short sleeves1 open above and commonly not passing the hips4 ,this girdle was worn by the ,parsees from time immemorial4 ,they pretend that ,jemshid1 being instructed by ,hom1 the primitive legislator1 invented the ,kashti4 ,before the time of ,zoroaster1 it was worn indifferently as a scarf1 or wrapped round the head4 ,the monuments of ,persepolis exhibit persons wearing the ,kashti4 ,not to wear it in the fifteenth year is a great sin2 the day on which it is taken for the first time is a festival1 and daily prayers are prescribed before putting it on1 and frequent ceremonies are connected with it 7,zend-,av41 t4 ,,ii4 pp4 #ebi74 ,nothing can be right or good that is done without the ,kashti3 8ungirt1 unblessed0 7,hyde1 p4 #cgf74 ,we have here a striking example how a custom originally suggested by simple convenience1 to be girt1 or to be ready1 accingere se1 acquires by religious prescription an importance far beyond its intended use and purpose4,a4 ,t4 #dec ,darwands1 the production of ,ahriman3 this word means3 #a4 the ,darong1 or 8evil spirits1 who appear under the human form20 #b4 the worshippers of ,ahriman2 #c4 the spirits of the damned4 ,after the resurrection1 they shall be anew precipitated into hell1 to be punished there during three days and nights2 after which the great and small mountains of the earth shall be dissolved and flow over its surface in rivers of metal2 the ,durwands will be forced to pass through this molten ocean1 and being thus purified from all sin become eternally blessed4,d4 ,s4 #ded ,in this sentence ,d4 ,shea found the manuscripts and the printed copy to differ greatly1 but the manuscript of ,oude agrees with the latter1 which therefore the editor thinks himself justified in following1 although there must remain a doubt about the author's meaning having been perfectly expressed4,a4 ,t4 #dee ,the account of ,ardai ,viraf's vision of the other world can but remind us of what ,plato relates 7,respubl41 t4 x7 of ,hero1 the son of ,armenius1 a ,pamphilian by origin3 viz41 when this man had been killed in battle1 and when1 on the tenth day1 the dead bodies were in a state of decomposition1 he alone was preserved and carried home to be buried1 and on the twelfth day1 being placed upon the funeral pyre1 he gave signs of life1 and1 resuscitated1 he related what he had seen in the other world4 ,upon this we may reflect1 that the name of ,arda1 which occurs as a part of many ,persian names1 may be referred to the ,sanskrit rdha1 8elevated20 ,ardashir is perhaps rdhairas1 8elevated head20 rddara1 signifies 8a hero1 a champion2 from rja1 to be strong3 which would give nearly the sense of ,plato's 1 8of the strong man10 as he characterises ,hero4 ,this observation gains perhaps some relief1 by connecting it with a passage of ,st4 ,clement of ,alexandria 7,strom4 ,i4 ,v4 sect4 xiv471 in which he interprets by ,zoroaster the name of ,hero1 and quotes a passage from a work in which this supposed ,zoroaster relates of himself what ,plato states of ,hero4 ,the work mentioned by ,st4 ,clement1 much known in the first centuries of our era1 might have been composed by a ,neo-platonic who transposed the fable from ,hero to ,zoroaster4 ,hero1 certainly not ,zoroaster1 may with more probability be assimilated to one of his zealous followers1 ,ardai ,viraf1 who lived in the second century of our era4,a4 ,t4 #def ,according to the concurrent testimony of ,persian records1 ,azarbad1 the son of ,maresfand1 was the thirtieth descendant from ,zoroaster4 ,twenty-nine generations1 at four to a century1 make #gbe years2 to this add forty for the probable age of ,azarbad at the time of his assuming the prophetic mission3 if from the sum #gfe we subtract #bdj1 that is1 the epocha of king ,shapr1 under whom ,azarbad lived1 there will remain #ebe1 the time of ,zoroaster before ,christ4 ,four generations are here assigned to a century1 because1 according to ,zoroaster's law1 marriage is an act of religion1 and children are the steps or ladders for ascending to heaven3 the observance of this precept must have tended to multiply the generations in the legislator's family 7,rauzet-us ,safa1 ,shea's transl41 p4 #bhj74 ,the following quotation from the ,shah-nameh naser 7,hyde1 p4 #bhj7 may here find place1 in addition to my note1 p4 #bhd3 ,when king ,shapr heard of the great uncertainty still prevailing among a considerable number of men about the truth of ,zoroaster's religion1 he demanded a solution of the great question from the principal priests1 among whom ,azarbad rose and offered to satisfy him3 8,i will10 said he1 8further develop ,ardai ,viraf's account of hell and heaven1 and sit naked from head to foot1 whilst eighteen pounds of melted brass are poured upon my body2 if the least particle of it be hurt1 the prophet's words are false2 they are true1 if ,i receive not the least injury40 ,no harm ensued to him from the trial made upon his person1 and all believed4,a4 ,t4 #deg ,the reading of the manuscript and printed copy is exceedingly defective in this passage3 it has been restored according to historical notices3 ,pope's translation has 7p4 #ii7 8forty thousand souls have seceded from our holy faith10 instead of 8the forty thousand wise men were again assembled40,d4 ,s4 #deh ,the ,viraf nameh terminates by these words3 8,the ,masdian religion became more firmly established than ever1 and continued in all its purity until the ,mahomedan conquest dispersed its votaries1 and forced those who persevered in it to abandon the tombs of their ancestors1 and to fly for refuge to distant countries4 ,a small number fled to1 and were kindly received on1 the shores of western ,india1 and the present ,parsees of ,bombay and ,surat are their descendants40 ,that is to say1 it was a short time after ,yezdejerd's death that1 persecuted by the ,muhammedans1 a number of ,persians1 to preserve their ancient religion1 fled to ,kohistan1 from whence after a century they descended to ,ormuz on the ,persian gulf1 and after a stay there of fifteen years landed at ,diu on the ,indian coast4 ,nineteen years later they established themselves in the ,guzerat2 thence1 after the lapse of three hundred years1 they dispersed to the north and south of ,surat4 ,they had been five centuries in ,india when they fought with the ,indians against the ,muhammedans1 and were again obliged to fly before the enemies of their faith4 ,they maintained themselves1 however1 in different places of the province of ,aurungabad4 ,having gradually increased in numbers to about #aej1jjj families 7in #ahaf71 they live dispersed in villages from ,diu to ,bombay1 in which place about #bd1jjj of them reside 7,zend ,av41 t4 ,i4 #a4 ,p4 p4 cccxviii2 and ,pope's ,engl4 transl4 of the ,viraf-nameh1 p4 #aah74;,a4 ,t4 #dei ,kshmar1 ,kishmar is the name of a town in the country of ,tirshez1 in ,khorasan or in ,bactria 7,hyde1 p4 #ccb74 #dfj ,upon the cypress1 see notes pp4 #bcf1 #bhj4 ,according to the ,ferhang ,jehangiri and the ,burhani ,kati1 ,zardusht planted two cypress-trees2 one in the town just mentioned1 and the other in the town of ,farmad1 or ,feryad1 or ,ferdd1 which is in the country of ,tus4 ,the ,magi believe1 he planted these trees by means of two shoots brought by him from paradise4,a4 ,t4 #dfa ,he was the tenth ,khalif of the ,abbassides1 and began to reign in the year of the ,hejira #bcb1 ,a4 ,d4 #hdf4;,a4 ,t4 #dfb ,samarah is a town in ,chalda1 from which the ,samaritan ,jews have their name1 and which was for some time the seat of the ,muselman empire 7,herbelot74,a4 ,t4 #dfc ,jafriyah is a town in the ,arabian ,irak1 so called from its builder1 ,jfar1 the original name of the khalif who assumed the title of ,matavakhel al ,allah1 8he who confides in ,god40,a4 ,t4 #dfd ,he had then reigned fourteen years and two months4 ,the ,turks were excited to murder him by his own son ,montassar1 in the town of ,makhuriah1 on the very spot where ,khosru ,parviz had been put to death by his son ,shiruyah 7,siroes77,herbelot74,a4 ,t4 #dfe ,according to the above statement1 the tree would have been planted #fjd years before our era1 that is1 about the time of ,gushtasp1 king of ,persia1 if the years above stated be taken for solar years2 but if for lunar 7that is for only #adjh solar7 years1 the epoch of the plantation of the cypress would be #efb years ,b4 ,c41 and #edh1 if the computation be referred to the end of ,mutawakhal's life4,a4 ,t4 #dff ,hakim ,mirtas1 in the text1 may be a proper name4,a4 ,t4 #dfg ,the ,sad-der naser 7in prose7 is an abridgment of practical and ceremonial theology1 called ,sad-der1 or 8one hundred doors10 because the hundred chapters of which it is composed are like so many doors leading to heaven4 ,some ,parsees think that the original was written in ,pehlvi4 ,it is positively said in the beginning of this treatise that it has been drawn from the law3 which proves that it makes no part of the ,zend-,avesta 7,zend-,av41 t4 ,i4 #b4 ,p4 ,notices1 pp4 xxix4 xxx74 ,the ,sad-der nazem 7in verse7 was versified by a ,persian called ,shahmard1 the son of ,malek ,shah1 and terminated in the month of ,isfendermad 7,february7 of the year #hfd from the installation of ,yezdejerd1 #adie ,a4 ,d41 and brought from ,kirman to ,india by the ,dustr ,pashutan ,daji4 ,this work has been translated into ,latin by the learned ,hyde 7ibid41 p4 xxxiv74 ,the ,dabistan gives only a short abstract of it4,a4 ,t4 #dfh ,see p4 #bih1 where the same tale occurs4 #dfi ,yasht 7see note1 p4 #beh7 signifies with the ,parsees in general prayers accompanied by efficacious benedictions1 but is here used to imply the panegyrics of several celestial spirits1 in which are enumerated their principal attributes and their relation to ,ormuzd and his productions1 as distributors of the blessings which this secondary principle spreads over nature1 and as declared enemies of ,ahriman and his ministers4 ,according to the ,parsees1 each ,amshasfand and ,ized had a peculiar ,yasht2 but of all these compositions there only remain in the ,zand eighteen which are authentic1 and a small part of the ,yasht of ,bahman4,d4 ,s4 #dgj ,upon the ,na ,roz1 see note1 p4 #bfh4 #dga ,these are two short forms of prayer1 like our collects1 which are frequently repeated in the ,parsee litanies4 ,the ,ita ahu virio1 as translated by ,anq4 du ,peron1 runs thus3 8,it is the desire of ,ormuzd that the chief of the law should perform pure and holy works3 ,bahman bestows abundance on him who acts with holiness in this world4 ,o1 ,ormuzd6 thou establishest as king whoever consoles and nourishes the poor40 ,the ,ashem ,vuhu thus3 8,abundance and paradise are reserved for him who is just and pure3 he is truly pure who is holy and performs holy works40,d4 ,s4 #dgb ,kirfah means3 #a4 a good work2 #b4 a merit which absolves from sin4 ,the author of the ,dabistn has so abridged this ,der that it is deemed proper to give it at length according to ,hyde's translation3 8,it is manifest1 from the principles of religion1 that we must concede due authority to the ,dustr and must not deviate from his commands1 as he is the ornament and splendor of the faith4 ,although thy good works may be countless as the leaves of the trees1 the grains of sand1 the drops of rain1 or the stars in the heavens1 thou canst gain nothing by them1 unless they be acceptable in the sight of the ,dustr3 if he be not content with thee1 thou shalt have no praise in this world3 therefore1 my son1 thou shalt pay to the ,dustr who teaches thee the tithe of all thou possessest 7wealth and property of every kind1 gold and silver74 ,therefore thou1 who desirest to enjoy paradise to all eternity1 pay tithes to the ,dustr2 for if he be satisfied with thee1 know that paradise is thine2 but if he be not content with thee1 thou canst derive no portion of benefit from thy good works2 thy soul shalt not find its way to paradise2 thou shalt have no place along with angels2 thy soul can never be delivered from the fiends of hell1 which is to be thy eternal abode3 but pay the tithes1 and the ,dustrs will be pleased with thee1 and thy soul shall get to paradise without delay4 ,truly the ,dustrs know the religion of all men1 understand all things1 and deliver all 7faithful7 men40,d4 ,s4 #dgc ,hyde 7p4 #ded7 has 8,malkus1 whose enchantments brought on the deluge40 #dgd ,sarregh1 according to ,hyde 7ibid471 8by whom 7in the time of ,sm7 the world suffered oppression and injury40 #dge 8,tr-,brtur 7otherwise ,tri-,brtrush or tresh71 that villanous and obscene man1 who destroyed ,zardusht in that religion which he supported by his zeal407,hyde1 ibid474 ,this name is perhaps a variation of ,parntrush 7see p4 #bbh74;,a4 ,t4 #dgf ,see note1 p4 #big4 #dgg ,the terms ,miezd and ,darun require some farther illustration3 the following is from the ,zend-,avesta1 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #ecd4 ,the ,miezd1 that is1 meats previously blessed and then eaten1 either during or after the service2 flowers1 fruits1 especially pomegranates and dates2 rice1 fragrant seeds1 and perfumes2 milk2 the small cakes called ,darun2 the branches of the ,hom and its juice1 called ,perahom2 the roots of trees1 particularly the pomegranate tree4 ,the roots are cut1 the milk1 and in general all these offerings1 are prepared with ceremonies described at great length in the ,ravaets1 or 8ritual treatises40 ,these offerings1 and the sacred implements1 which are twenty-six in number1 constitute the thirty-three objects as specified by ,zoroaster in the latter part of the first ,ha of the ,izechn1 vol4 ,i4 ,p4 ,,ii4 p4 #hg3 8,i invoke and laud all the mighty1 the pure ,dustrs who have thirty-three objects around and near the ,havan 7the vase for holding the ,perahom73 they are pure1 according to the ordinance of ,zaradusht1 who was instructed by the ,supreme ,lord himself40 ,the ,daruns are small cakes of unleavened bread1 nearly the form and thickness of a crown piece3 there are two or four of these offered1 according to the nature of the service4 ,the ,darun on which they place a little dressed meat is called ,darun ,fusest1 or 8offered bread40,d4 ,s4 #dgh ,the ,afirgans1 or ,afernigns1 are the prayers and benedictions recited during the ,gahanbar or the last ten days of the year1 and on the anniversary of deceased parents or relations3 but the service on the third night after the decease is not to be neglected1 as in that case the soul of the deceased would remain without protection until the resurrection4 ,on the third night1 at the ,oshen ,gah1 or midnight1 there are four services2 one for each of the angels1 ,rashin ,rast1 ,ram ,izad1 and ,surush1 the fourth in honor of the ,ferouers of holy personages4 ,in this last service are recited nine ,kards1 or portions of the ,vispared1 and four dresses1 fruits1 and cheese are laid by for the officiating priest1 along with the ,darun4 ,the word ,vispered admits of two meanings3 #a4 8the knowledge of 8every thing10 ,visp ,khirad20 #b4 8all the chiefs10 ,visp ,rad4 ,the latter meaning seems more analogous to the ,vispered1 as it begins by invoking the chiefs of all beingssuch as the first of the heavens1 the first of the earth1 the first of aquatic creatures1 etc4 ,zoroaster is supposed to have repeated to the ,brahmin ,chinggratch this ,vispered1 which begins thus3 8,i invoke and laud the first of the heavens1 the first of the earth1 the first of aquatic beings1 the first of terrestrial beings1 the first of brilliant and intelligent beings1 the holy1 pure1 and great ,chinggrtchs20 and it ends with 8,i invoke and laud the bull exalted on high1 who makes the herbage to grow in abundance2 this bull1 the pure gift1 who has given 7being7 to the pure man40 ,the ,vispered is divided into twenty-seven ,kards1 or 8sections10 and probably formed part of the ,baghantst of the fifteenth ,nosk of the ,avesta4 ,it is recited by day1 as well as the ,izeshneh 7,yazishnah71 and with a ,barsom1 or 8bundle1 of thirty-five branches of trees4 ,izeshn 7,yazishnah7 means a prayer setting forth the greatness of the personage thus addressed4 ,it is composed of seventy-two ,h1 which the ,parsees divide into two parts3 the first part contains twenty-seven ,h1 addressed to ,ormuzd and his creation2 the second contains prayers addressed to the ,supreme ,being2 it speaks of man1 of his wants1 of the several genii charged to protect him1 etc4 ,the word ,h1 which signifies a portion of the ,izeshn1 is derived from the ,zend ,hetm1 or ,htarim1 portions4 ,from ,htaum is also formed 8,had10 which signifies 8measure1 limit40 ,the ,izeshn probably formed part of the ,setud-yesht1 the first ,nosk of the ,avesta1 or of the ,setud-gher1 the second ,nosk4 ,the ,izeshn is performed at the ,gah ,havan1 or 8sunrise20 when1 recited by itself without other prayers1 the ,izeshnh ,sadah is read with the same ceremonies as the ,vendidad ,sdeh1 excepting that the ,barsom1 or 8sacred bundle of twigs0 see hereafter1 p4 #cai1 consists then of only twenty-three branches4 ,the ,vendidad and ,vispered cannot be recited without the ,izeshn1 and the ,barsom for these two offices consists of thirty-five branches4 ,the term ,sde means 8pure10 or the text without a translation4 ,the two works1 the ,izeshn and ,vispered1 joined to the ,vendidad1 the twentieth ,nosk of the ,avesta1 form the ,vendidad ,sad1 which the ,mobeds are obliged to recite every day1 commencing at the ,gh ,oshen1 or 8midnight10 or before day-break1 so that it may be finished before sunrise4 ,purifications1 ordinances1 marriages1 in short all the ceremonies of the law1 depend on the due celebration of this office4,d4 ,s4 #dgi ,lest demons or wizards should take them away and use them in their enchantments4,d4 ,s4 #dhj ,upon ,vj1 see note1 p4 #bif4 ,in this translation1 the reading of the manuscript has been followed as being the most simple3 there seems however something omitted4 ,annexed is the form of prayer recited in ,vj1 which means mental recitation3 it is taken from ,anquetil du ,perron3 ,,the ,,prayers ,,recited ,,by ,,parsees ,,before ,,meat4 ,etha aad avirmede48,ormuzd is king3 now ,i make ,izeshn to ,ormuzd the giver of pure flocks1 the giver of pure waters1 of pure trees1 the giver of light1 of earth1 and of every kind of good40 ,this is to be recited once4 ,eshem ,trihu48,abundance and paradise are reserved for the just and undefiled person2 he who does heavenly and pure works40 ,to be recited three times4 ,,prayers ,,after ,,meat4 ,ethu ahu ,virio48,it is the desire of ,ormuzd that the chief 7of the law7 should perform pure and holy works4 ,bahman gives 7abundance7 to him who acts with holiness in the world4 ,o ,ormuzd6 thou establishest as king whoever comforts and nourishes the poor40 ,to be repeated twice4 ,eshem vuhu48,abundance and paradise1 etc40 ,to be repeated once4 ,ehmarestchi48,mayest thou remain always effulgent with light6 may thy body be always in good condition6 may thy body ever increase6 may thy body be ever victorious6 may thy desires1 when accomplished1 ever render thee happy6 mayest thou always have distinguished children6 mayest thou live for ever6 for length of time6 for length of years6 and mayest thou be received for ever into the celestial abodes of the holy1 all radiant with light and happiness6 enjoy a thousand healths1 ten thousand healths40 ,kereba mezada4,this form of prayer shall be quoted hereafter4 ,eshem ,vuhu48,abundance and paradise1 etc40 ,to be repeated once4 ,the commentator on this gate has evidently confounded ,vj or ,vz with the ,barsum2 this mistake is not to be attributed to the author of the ,dabistn4,d4 ,s4 #dha ,strabo1 observes ,anquetil 7,zand-,avesta1 p4 #ecb71 alludes to the ,barsom1 where he says of the ,magi3 8,they make their prayers a long time1 holding a bundle of slender twigs of tamarisk in their hands0 7,geog41 lib4 ,,xv4 p4 #gcc74;,d4 ,s4 #dhb ,see pp4 #bib-c4 #dhc ,anquetil du ,perron says 7,zend-,avesta1 t4 ,,ii4 p4 #fja73 8,of all the religions known1 that of the ,parss is perhaps the only one in which fasting be neither meritorious nor even permitted4 ,the ,pars1 on the contrary1 believes to honor ,ormuzd by nourishing himself well3 because the body1 fresh and vigorous1 renders the soul stronger against the bad genii2 because the man1 feeling less want1 reads the word with more attention1 and feels more courage for performing good works2 consequently several celestial spirits are especially charged with watching over the welfare of man3 ,rameshn1 ,kharom1 ,khordd1 and ,amerdd give abundance and pleasures to him1 and it is the last of the ,izeds mentioned who produces in the fruits the taste and flavor which lead men to apply them to that use for which ,ormuzd has created them40,a4 ,t4 #dhd ,the cock is an animal held in great esteem by the ,parsees1 who are enjoined to keep one in their houses2 ,bahrm 7,mars7 appears under this form 7,zend-,avesta1 t4 ,,ii4 pp4 #bij4 #fjb74 ,the cock is called a ,persian bird1 and1 according to ,athenus1 cocks came first from ,persia 7see ,hyde1 p4 #dab74;,a4 ,t4 #dhe ,in the fifth period of eighty days were created the #bhb ,sardah1 or genera of birds and animals1 viz43 #aaj of birds and #agb of animals 7,hyde1 ,rel4 ,vet4 ,pers41 p4 #afd74;,d4 ,s4 #dhf ,according to ,hyde's translation of the ,sad-der 7p4 #dga73 caput ejus expiare oportet1 8an expiation is to be performed over his head40,a4 ,t4 #dhg ,mezda or ,maz-dao1 in ,zand1 according to ,rask1 means 8,god20 ,bohlen and ,mr4 ,bopp believe that this word is of the same family as the ,sanskrit mahat1 8great20 ,m4 ,eugene ,burnouf1 in a learned discussion1 justifies the interpretation 8multiscius0 given of this word by ,neriosengh 7see ,commentaire sur le ,yacna1 pp4 #gj-gg74;,a4 ,t4 ,the form of prayer called ,kimna va ,mazda is probably the same as the ,kereba ,mazda 7,zend-,avesta1 t4 ,,ii4 p4 #f71 which is as follows3 8,grant1 ,o ,ormuzd1 that my good works may efface my sins2 grant joy and content to my purified soul6 give me a share in all the good works and holy words of the seven regions of the earth6 ,may the earth enlarge itself6 may the rivers extend their courses6 may the sun ever rise on high6 may such be the portion of the pure in life1 according to the wishes which ,i make40,d4 ,s4 #dhh ,for yarshanom1 which is in the manuscripts and in the edition of ,calcutta1 read ,barashnom4 ,this is the name of one of the four sorts of purifications prescribed to the ,parsees2 that called the ,barashnom of nine nights1 is believed the most efficacious4 ,it is performed in a garden or in a retired place1 where a piece of ground #ij feet in length and #af feet in breadth is chosen for it1 and1 after having been cleaned and surrounded by a narrow ditch and a hedge1 covered with sand4 ,therein1 after the celebration of ceremonies during one or three days1 a ,mobed traces a number of furrows or trenches1 called ,keishs1 and forms several heaps of stones according to prescribed rules2 he prepares a beverage of ox's urine and water mixed with other sacred liquids3 this the person to be purified drinks in sacred vases1 then enters into the ,keishs1 accompanied by ,mobeds and a dog2 there he strips1 and receives on his body wine poured over him1 and washes himself with that given him by the ,mobed4 ,during prayers recited by the purificator and himself1 he passes over several heaps of stones1 his right hand on his head and his left upon the dog1 and is then rubbed with dust2 in his progress over other heaps of stones1 he washes himself several times with water4 ,this done1 the purified person goes out of the trenches1 and performs other ablutions with water before he dresses and puts on the ,koshti1 or 8girdle40 ,the individual who takes the ,barashnom remains separated from other men during nine days1 and at the end of the third1 sixth1 and ninth night1 he washes himself with a prescribed quantity of wine and water1 and is subject to other ceremonies4 ,this is a very short abstract of the ceremonies practised in our days2 in the ,vendidad ,sad1 other very minute particulars and prayers are given for the performance of purification1 the usages of which have in the course of time undergone some changes4 ,see a completely detailed account of these rites of purification in ,anquetil's elaborate work1 ,zend-,avesta1 t4 ,i4 #b4 ,p4 pp4 #cec-cfg1 and t4 ,,ii4 pp4 #ede-edh1 with a plan of the place upon which the ,barashnom is performed4,a4 ,t4 #dhi ,according to ,olugh ,beigh 7,hyde1 p4 #aij71 the name of the five supplementary days of the ,persian year of #cfj days are as follows3 ,ahnavd1 ,ashnavd1 ,isfendamd or ,mz1 ,vahshat or ,vahst1 and ,hashnesh or ,hashtuvish 7see also p4 #fb4 n474,a4 ,t4 #dij ,according to ,anquetil 7,zend-,avesta1 ,,ii4 p4 #ege7 the name of the five supplementary days is ,farvardians1 that is1 8the days of the ,fervers of the law30 on these days1 as the ,persians believe1 the souls of the blessed and those of the damned come to visit their relations1 who receive them with the greatest magnificence in their houses1 purified and adorned for the occasion4 ,in the composition of the name ,farvardign1 appears to have entered the word ,ghs1 which denotes also the ,epagomenes1 and five female ,izeds1 or angels1 who have formed1 and preserve1 the bodies1 and are occupied in heaven to weave garments for the just 7,zand-,avesta1 ,i4 #b4 ,p4 p4 #bba74;,a4 ,t4 #dia ,it may be recollected that1 during the short period of the ,french ,republic1 the year was of twelve months1 each of thirty days1 with the addition of five supplementary days1 called by some ,sansculotides2 these were festivals1 consecrated1 the #ast1 to ,virtue2 the #bnd1 to ,genius2 the #crd1 to ,labour2 the #dth1 to ,opinion2 and the #eth1 to ,recompense2 every fourth or leap-year1 there was a #fth day1 devoted to the ,revolution4,a4 ,t4 #dib ,the manuscript reads3 8,let her eat bread at night1 having wrapped up the hand in her sleeve and over that a towel40,d4 ,s4 #dic ,yasht is not found among the names of the ,nosks enumerated in the note1 pp4 #bgb-bge4;,a4 ,t4 #did ,every city and village must have the tree called ,adern1 or ,adern ,shh1 or 8the chief of fires40 ,ader is the ,p-zend of ,ater1 which signifies fire2 which word1 in ,parsee writings1 means the several fires which showed themselves to mankind under different forms1 and also their presiding genii2 whilst ,atesh signifies the common fire4 ,when a kitchen fire has been used three times1 the ,parsees are bound to take it to the ,adern3 the other fires must be taken thither on the expiration of seven days1 on the day of ,ader and those of his co-operating genii4 ,the fire ,adern itself is taken once every year1 or at least every three years1 to the fire ,behram1 which is the result of one thousand and one fires1 taken from fifteen different kinds of fire4 ,in strictness there should be an ,ader ,behrm in every province1 and according to some ,dustrs1 in every city4 ,on the expiration of a certain period1 they take the ashes of the ,behrm1 ,adern1 and other fires into the fields1 and strew them over the cultivated grounds4 ,it requires a ceremonial of thirty days to prepare the ,behrm fire 7,zend-,avesta1 t4 ,,ii4 p4 #eca74;,d4 ,s4 #die ,the ,parsees use for their purifications seven things3 plain water2 ,padiav water2 water of power1 or ab--zr 7according to ,hyde1 golden water7 ,yesht water2 earth2 ,noreng gomez1 or ox's urine2 and ,noreng gomez yesht4 ,they must take care to have the plain water and the earth free from all kind of impurity4,d4 ,s4 #dif ,padiav means 8what renders or is rendered 7pure7 like water40 ,to impart this quality to water1 the officiating priest puts it in a large vase1 out of which he fills a smaller vessel2 he afterwards pours out some of the water three times from the smaller into the larger vessel1 accompanying each act with certain forms of prayer1 on which the water becomes ,padiav4,d4 ,s4 #dig ,see note1 p4 #cbe4 #dih ,according to ,anquetil ,du ,perron1 ,khushnuman signifies one who is pleased or favorable3 this name is given to a short prayer1 or collect1 which contains the principal attributes of the being to whom it is addressed3 there are two kinds of it1 the greater and the less3 in the former1 after every attribute they repeat3 8,i offer thee ,izechn10 or 8,i praise and magnify thee20 in the latter form this is only repeated after the enumeration of all the attributes4,d4 ,s4 #dii ,see note1 p4 #cae1 ,hyde translates ,darn yeshtn1 by 8expiatory banquet30 but according to ,anquetil 7,zend-,avesta1 t4 ,i4 #b4 ,p4 p4 #bcg7 the ,darn ,yesht is a ,parsi office1 which begins thus3 8,with the ,barsom raised over the ,zr1 ,i address in prayer the great ,ormuzd1 brilliant in light and glory2 also the ,amshaspands2 and thee1 ,o ,fire6 son of ,ormuzd6 ,i address in prayer the wood and the perfumes6 4 4 4 4 thee1 ,o ,fire1 son of ,ormuzd6 4 4 4 4 the pure1 the chiefs who walk in dignity in this world6 ,i make ,khushnuman2 ,i address my prayer to ,ormuzd1 to the ,amshaspands1 to the pure ,sursh1 to the ,fire of ,ormuzd1 the great1 the exalted1 the holy6 ,i pray to the holy1 pure1 and great ,vendidad given to ,zoroaster6 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,gahs4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,gahanbars1 or the six periods of creation4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,years and laud them40 ,darun yesht also signifies 8,festival ,darns10 or banquets preceded by the recitation of the ,izeshn1 the ,vendidad1 and the ,darun1 for which the officiating priest receives a new dress4 ,this bears out ,hyde's translation4,d4 ,s4 #ejj ,the forms ,jeth ah viryo1 ,eshem ,vehu1 and ,jetha d ,jezmd have been given under ,,gate #bb4,the ,homoctenaum is a short prayer3 8,to think with purity1 to act with purity1 to perform and execute it1 to teach others the same1 such is my undertaking4 ,i teach the same to men3 may it turn to my good60 ,the ,hockhshthrtem3 8,the king who is pure and elevated as ,i am1 ,i will give him his desires2 of him ,i1 ,ormuzd the holy and heavenly1 will take peculiar care40 ,the printed copy reads for ,jtha ad ,jezmd1 the words 4 ,but as one manuscript reads ,jtha d ,jezmd1 it has been retained4 ,the ,hemoctaum and ,hokhshthrtem are also conjectural1 as the two manuscripts and printed copy present different readings4 ,in the latter these are read ,homesham and ,hochastar4,d4 ,s4 #eja ,in the ,vendidad ,sad 7,zend-,avesta1 t4 ,i4 #b4 ,p4 p4 #chf7 we find3 8,the world is engendered from water2 and at present there are in the water two primeval aquatic dogs and thousands of their females which produce by copulation thousands of their species4 ,to smite these aquatic dogs causes all good things to be parched up2 from that city or place shall depart all that is sweet to the taste3 wholesome viands1 health1 longevity1 abundance1 rain1 the source of good1 the profusion of temporal blessings2 also whatever grows on the earth1 such as grain and pasturage40,d4 ,s4 #ejb ,in page #efd1 ,zend-,avesta1 t4 ,,ii4 we find3 8,the ,parsees who are desirous of leading happy lives1 and of having children who do them honor1 must employ four priests to repeat the ,izeshn during three consecutive days and nights3 this rite is called the ,zindeh ,ravan1 or #8verifier of the soul 7at the moment of death74'0 ,sursh1 or ,sursh ,ized1 performs a most important part in ,parsee mythology 7see note1 p4 #g74;,d4 ,s4 #ejc ,according to ,anquetil du ,perron1 the following are some of the ceremonies practised on such occasions4 ,on the approaching departure of the soul from the body1 they perform the ,sag-dd 7the dog-saw7 by presenting a dog before the dying person1 and that the animal may be induced to look at him1 they throw some bits of bread or meat near the person4 ,without doubt ,bardesanes1 in ,euseb4 prp4 ,evan4 lib41 p4 #bgg1 alludes to this custom where he says3 8,all the ,medes expose the dying1 whilst yet breathing1 to dogs which have been carefully trained for that purpose20 and in like manner 7,euseb4 prp4 ,evang41 l4 ,i4 p4 #aa-ab71 where he says3 8,among the ,hyrcanians and ,caspians1 some exposed persons whilst yet alive to birds of prey and dogs2 others only the deceased3 but the ,bactrians exposed old people whilst yet alive to dogs40 7,see hereafter the note to ,,gate #gg47 ,the ,parsees believe that1 immediately after death1 the soul1 like a feeble new-born infant1 flutters during the first day around the place where the person died2 on the second1 around the ,kesh1 or place in the ,dakhm where the body is deposited2 and on the third around the ,dakhm or ,parsi burying-place2 on the fourth1 near the bridge of ,chinavad1 where he is interrogated by ,mithra and ,rashn ,rast1 who also weigh his actions4 ,during the three first days1 they celebrate the ,sursh ,yasht1 the ,sursh ,darn1 the ,patet ,mokhtat 7of souls71 and the ,sursh ,afergan4 ,patet signifies a general confession of all sins a person may have committed4 ,afergns and ,afrins are prayers in the form of thanksgivings accompanied with supplications and benedictions4 ,on the third night1 at the ,gah ,oshen1 they celebrate four ,daruns3 the first in honor of ,rashn ,rast2 the second of ,raon ,ized2 the third of ,sursh1 with six ,darns1 three large and three small2 and the fourth in honor of the ,ferouers of the ,saints3 with this last they place four dresses1 along with fruits and cheese1 all of which are for the officiating priest4,d4 ,s4 #ejd ,the ,niyayish is an humble and submissive form of prayer1 of which there are five1 addressed to five ,izeds1 and containing their panegyrics3 the sun1 ,mithra1 the moon1 the female ,ardouisur1 and the fire ,behrm4 ,amongst the attributes of ,ardouisur are3 making females prolific1 pure1 giving them happy child-births1 supplying milk1 etc4 ,the great ,vorokesh makes every thing grow and exist in those places where it flows1 and whither it bears the element of water1 from the source ,ardouisur of a thousand channels and a thousand arms1 each of which extends to a journey of forty days as performed by a well-mounted horseman4,d4 ,s4 #eje ,according to ,hyde's version ,gojestah1 or ,gosakhtah1 became the devil1 because he lapsed from the truth and lessened it4 ,when he saw he had to contend against the truth1 he fell prostrate in astonishment during a thousand years1 and dared not venture to approach the world1 but remained groaning and trembling in his own place4 ,i cannot find this tradition in the ,zend-,avesta1 according to which1 ,bomasp is the demon of falsehood4 ,on the authority of ,,gate #ia1 ,i prefer reading ,gokhastah to ,kusastah1 or 8the broken40 ,hyde 7p4 #ahj7 mentions that the ,indo-,persians reckon ,gegjesta ,ghanminu the immediate minister of ,ahriman4,d4 ,s4 #ejf ,according to an ancient custom which is observed even in our days1 the mouth of a dying ,pars is applied to that of a dog1 who is to receive the man's last breath4 ,this custom may have occasioned the belief that the ,persians let dogs devour their sick and dying4 ,so says ,herodotus 7l4 ,,iii472 ,strabo 7l4 ,,xi47 names the ,bactrians and ,sogdians as feeding for this purpose certain dogs1 whom they call 8buriers of the dead20 ,cicero 7,tusc41 l4 ,,xlv7 mentions the same of the ,hyrcanians4 ,certainly1 different customs prevailed in different times among the numerous nations who inhabited the vast empire of ,persia3 hence may be explained the various and sometimes contradictory accounts of ancient authors whose affirmation1 denial1 and silence1 with respect to a particular fact1 may however1 in many instances1 with equal truth but with due restriction1 be applied to particular places and epochs4,a4 ,t4 #ejg ,the ,parsis1 from the most ancient to our times1 neither bury nor burn their dead1 but expose them to be devoured by birds and wild beasts4 ,they fear to pollute the earth and the fire1 which they hold sacred4 ,it is1 however1 well established that they built formerly very magnificent sepulchres for kings and eminent men1 to whom probably the privilege of such monumental graves was confined4,a4 ,t4 #ejh ,the readings in the manuscript and printed copy are both erroneous2 therefore ,yarshanom1 ,pituft ,irash1 and ,tipat ,barash have1 on the authority of ,anquetil ,du ,perron1 been changed into ,barashnom1 and ,patet ,iran4 #eji ,among the animals1 cows1 sheep1 and fowls are particularly specified4,d4 ,s4 #eaj ,for ,eshem ,vehu1 see ,,gate #bb4 #eaa ,the same is said of ,mohammed1 see note1 p4 #c4 #eab ,if the epoch of ,kaomars be adopted according to ,ferdusi1 #cebi ,b4 ,c41 that of ,zoroaster would be #ebi years before our era4 ,in the ,mojmel al ,tavarikh 7,i,vth chapter1 upon the chronology of the philosophers and some kings of ,rm7 it is stated that1 since ,zoroaster appeared1 #agjj years had elapsed to the time of the author1 who wrote in the year #aecj of the ,hejira1 or ,a4 ,d4 #aabf2 therefore ,zoroaster would have lived #egd years ,b4 ,c4 ,if the #agjj years be taken for lunar years1 the epoch would answer to #ebb before the ,christian era4,a4 ,t4 #eac ,for ,pvyb1 or according to ,anquetil du ,perron1 ,padiav water1 see ,,gate #ed4 ,this word may perhaps be derived from the ,sanskrit p1 8to purify20 pavitra1 8pure20 pavitram1 8water1 rain1 cleansing in general1 a sacrificial implement40,a4 ,t4 #ead ,for ,adar ,behrm1 or the fire of ,behram1 see note on ,,gate #ec4 ,instead of ,var ,behrm and ,vr ,behrm of the manuscript1 and ,varchram of the edit4 of ,calcutta1 ,adar ,behrm has been adopted on ,hyde's authority4,d4 ,s4 #eae ,bahrm is the most active of the ,izeds1 the king of all the beings2 with a celestial body1 receiving his glory and splendor from ,ormuzd1 he presides over the #bjth day of the month2 he bestows health and victory1 and combats the ,dvs4 ,he appears under the form of a young man of fifteen years1 and under those of different animals2 that of a cock has already been mentioned 7see note1 p4 #cbd72 he appears besides as a bull1 a horse1 a camel1 a ram1 a he-goat1 a lamb4 ,he is also identified with the planet ,mars1 and acts a great part in the ancient history of ,persia4 ,see ,zand-,avesta1 t4 ,i4 #b4 ,p4 pp4 #hc4 #hf4 #ia2 t4 ,,ii4 pp4 #ih4 #bhg4 #bhi4 #bij4 #bid4 #cba4 #cef4 and in other places4,a4 ,t4 #eaf ,the ,calcutta edition reads ,pmasdm2 the above agrees nearly with the name given by ,anquetil1 which is ,hamespethmdem4 ,the other names of the ,gahambars1 according to the spelling of that author1 are1 from the first to the fifth1 as follow3 ,medozerem1 ,medoshem1 ,peteschem1 ,eathrem1 and ,mdarem4 ,the statement relative to these six festivals1 as contained in the ,afrn of the ,gahambar ,zend-,avesta1 t4 ,,ii4 pp4 #hb-hg7 coincides with that of the ,dabistn4 ,ormuzd himself holds out remunerations to those who rightly celebrate each of these days1 and condign punishments to those who neglect the prescribed observances4,a4 ,t4 #eag ,in the ,ardi ,viraf nameh we read1 that the river of hell1 most black and frigid1 is made of the tears of those who mourn for the dead2 to the surviving friends silence and pious mussitation in remembering the merits of the dead are recommended4,a4 ,t4 #eah ,see note1 p4 #aje4 #eai ,nothing existed before the first principle began the work of creation2 this principle is called in the ,bun-,dehesh ,zaruam akaren1 8the boundless time20 that is1 8sine extremitatibus anterioribus et posterioribus40 ,distinct from it is 8the long time10 which is said to be created by ,god1 and not 8self-existing0 as the first4 ,among the productions of this first principle1 some are 8self-creating10 such as ,ormuzd and ,ahriman 7see note1 pp4 #bce-bcf72 others act only upon what exists already1 such as the three substancesthe primordial light1 the primordial water1 and the primordial fire4 ,this is the doctrine expressed in ,zand1 ,pehlvi1 and the most ancient ,persian books4 ,the above statement about the eternal existence of the heavens seems therefore not in accordance with it4 ,the ,abdians or the ,kaiomarsins acknowledged the good principle under the name of ,yezdan1 and the bad principle under that of ,ahriman2 but they believed that the first only was from eternity1 and not the last2 or in other terms1 that light only was eternal and darkness created4 ,the cosmogony of this sect was the same as that related in the ,bun-,dehesh1 or as that of ,zoroaster2 it is briefly as follows3 ,the primordial bull was the principle of all irrational creatures as well as of the human race4 ,according to the ,izeshn and the ,bun-,dehesh1 the primitive man came forth from the side of the bull2 he was called in ,zand gaya mereta1 and in ,pehlvi gayo mard2 a word compounded of gaya1 8bull or life10 and of mrta1 8mortal10 or 8man20 hence came ,gayomars1 or ,kaomars1 the name of a most ancient ,persian king 7see note1 p4 #bi74 ,from the seed of ,gayomard sprung a tree which was shaped like two men1 and the fruit of which comprised ten different species of men2 from these two bodies came the twins ,meshia and ,meshian1 man and woman1 the ancestors of mankind4 ,although created for happiness1 they were seduced by ,ahriman1 and averted from the adoration of ,ormuzd2 they wandered in the wilderness1 were addicted to hunting1 clad in skins of animals1 and their posterity peopled the earth4 ,but ,ormuzd did not forsake his creatures4 ,in order to emancipate them from the rule of ,ahriman1 he destined to them his word1 the law of ,zartusht1 who always existed1 but his feruer1 that is1 8the ideal of his perfection10 was to be produced by ,zardusht's fire4 ,he was to be preceded by ,hom1 the first apostle of the law1 whom ,jemshid followed4 ,this king and prophet erected but few fire-temples2 mankind venerated the elements and the stars1 not without a number of evil genii1 and a gross superstition began to prevail4 ,for opposing this and renewing the primitive law1 ,zardusht appeared4,a4 ,t4 #ebj ,it appears quite conformable with true psychology to derive the origin of the evil spirit from jealousy1 as was said in the note at p4 #bcf1 or from apprehension1 doubt1 suspicion1 or envy1 as above4,a4 ,t4 #eba ,according to the ,boun ,dehesh 7,zend-,avesta1 t4 ,,ii4 pp4 #cdg-cdh71 ,ormuzd will during three thousand years move alone2 during three other thousand years1 his operations will be blended with those of his adversary2 the subsequent three thousand years will belong to ,ahriman2 and in the last three1 completing the period of twelve thousand years1 the author of evil shall disappear2 and at the resurrection of the dead and the renewal of the bodiesprevious to which event are to appear the three posthumous sons of ,zoroaster 7see note1 pp4 #bha-bhb7the world shall be without evil during all ages4 ,the ultimate fate of ,ahriman is stated in the ,vendidad ,sad ,izeshn and ,vispered1 as follows 7,zend-,avesta1 t4 ,i4 #b4 ,p4 p4 #afi73 8,that unjust1 that impure being1 who is a ,div but in his thoughts2 that dark king of the ,darwands1 who understands nothing but evil2 he shall1 at the resurrection1 recite the ,avesta1 and not only himself practise the law of ,ormuzd1 but establish it even in the habitations of the ,darwands40 ,moreover it is said 7,zend-,avesta1 t4 ,,ii4 pp4 #dae-daf71 that ,ahriman1 that lying serpent1 shall at the end of ages be purified by fire1 as well as the earth be freed from the dark abode of hell2 ,ormuzd and ,ahriman1 accompanied by all the good and evil genii1 shall sing the praises of the author of all good40,a4 ,t4 #ebb ,zd and ,amru are two names which grammarians use in giving an example for any two individuals1 such as may be said ,a4 and ,b4,a4 ,t4 #ebc ,the author of the ,dabistn names no other famous teachers or sectaries of ,magism1 after the death of ,zoroaster1 besides ,ardai ,viraf1 ,azarbd1 and ,mazdak3 he treats of this last in particular in the subsequent section1 previously to which we cannot omit adverting to ,mani or ,manes1 whose name occurs in this book but once occasionally1 as that of a painter 7see note1 p4 #bje74 ,he is however much more reputed as the founder of a new doctrine1 called from him ,manichism1 which spread its ramifications widely through the ,christian world4 ,according to several authors1 ,mani was a ,christian priest1 and pretended to act the part of ,paraclet1 the announced successor to ,jesus ,christ2 according to ,khondemir1 he endeavored to substitute himself for ,mohammed1 to whom that prophecy respecting a ,paraclet was applied by the ,muselmans4 ,however it be1 ,mani's ,enghelion1 or ,gospel1 has not been preserved1 nor any other work written by himself2 the books of his followers too1 such as could be found1 were burnt4 ,his religion is stated to have been a mixture of ,magism1 ,brahmanism or ,buddhism1 ,judaism1 and ,christianism2 ,shahristani1 often quoted in this work1 and ,mohammed ,ibn el ,nedim el ,werrak1 author of the ,fehrist 7a history of literature71 agree in representing his doctrine as a branch of ,magism with some ,christianism ingrafted upon it4 ,the two points attributed to ,mani by the commentator of the ,destir1 namely1 the permission to kill harmless animals1 and the prohibition of sexual intercourse1 belong rather to the ethical or practical1 than to the theological1 part of his religion1 which distinguished itself by particular dogmas and opinions relative to the duality of principle1 good and bad1 light and darkness1 involving other metaphysical questions4 ,these1 we know1 were common to other religions in all times4 ,before ,manes1 ,christian sects combined the said principles with the dogmas of their religion3 so did the followers of ,basilides1 ,marcion1 ,bardesanes1 ,valentius1 and others4 ,these1 as well as after them the disciples of ,manes1 happen to be not seldom confounded with the ,gnostics1 which name was applied to different sectaries1 chiefly ,neo-platonics1 from the earliest to later times of ,christianism4 ,the ,manichans rejected the ,old ,testament entirely1 and partly the ,new1 which they interpreted according to their opinion4 ,they disputed about the nature of ,jesus1 and modified ,christian theology2 they believed a region inhabited by ,god and the pure spirits1 prior to the creation2 a world1 created of an eternal and self-existing matter2 ten heavens and eight earths2 two empires1 the one of light and the other of darkness2 the last1 ruled by the great ,lord1 called 8matter20 demons with material souls and bodies2 the soul no part of the divinty1 but united with the body to govern it2 two souls in every man2 the propagation of souls2 a transmigration of souls into animals2 the stars1 and every thing in nature1 even the stones1 animated2 the rotundity of heaven and of the earth2 antipodes2 and other theses too many to be all enumerated in this place4 ,they had besides particular rites of worship1 from which the veneration of the sun1 the moon1 and other stars1 was not excluded2 they were averse to matrimony1 and generally austere in their manners4 ,see about this extensive subject the ,mmoires of the learned ,abb ,foucher1 in the ,hist4 de l',acad4 ,royale des ,insc4 et ,belles-,lett41 t4 xxix1 and the work quoted1 ,hist4 crit4 de ,maniche1 by ,beausobre4,a4 ,t4 ,,the ,,fifteenth ,,section ,,gives ,,an ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,tenets ,,held ,,by ,,the ,,followers ,,of ,,mazdak4,mazdak was a holy and learned man1 contemporary with king ,kobad2 his religion was extensively diffused1 but he was at last put to death by the illustrious ,nushirvan2 his tenets were as follow3 from the commencement without beginning1 the world had two creators2 the agent of good1 ,yazdan1 8,god10 or 8light20 and the agent of evil1 ,ahriman1 or 8darkness40 ,the supreme ,god is the author of good1 and from him proceeds nothing but good2 consequently1 intelligences1 souls1 heavens1 and stars are his creation1 in all which ,ahriman has no share whatever2 the elements and their combinations are1 in like manner1 the productions of the ,lord2 the influence of fire imparts warmth to those stricken with cold2 the breathing of the winds gives coolness and ease to those consumed by heat2 the water satisfies those parched with thirst2 the earth is the place of ambulation4 ,in like manner1 their combinations1 such as gold and silver among minerals2 the fruit-bearing trees among vegetables2 the ox1 horse1 sheep1 and camel1 of animals2 the pious and beneficent among mankind1 are his creation3 but the consuming of animals by fire2 the destruction of living creatures by the sultry simoom 7wind72 the foundering of ships in floods2 the cutting bodies asunder by iron1 or their being pricked by thorns2 rapacious and noxious animals1 such as lions1 tigers1 scorpions1 serpents1 and the like1 are all the works of ,ahriman2 and as he has no share in the empyreal heaven1 they style it ,behisht2 but as he possesses a joint authority in the elemental world1 opposition has consequently arisen1 and no form subsisting in it is possessed of permanent duration4 ,for example3 the ,almighty bestows life1 and ,ahriman puts to death2 life is the creation of ,god1 death that of ,ahriman2 ,god produced health1 ,ahriman1 pain and disease2 the ,bestower of blessings created paradise1 ,ahriman1 hell2 the worship of the ,lord is therefore most meet1 as his kingdom is immense2 and ,ahriman has no power1 except in the elemental world2 in the next place1 the spirit of every one devoted to ,god ascends on high1 but that of ,ahriman's servants abides in hell4 ,wisdom therefore requires the man of intelligence to separate himself from the ,ahrimans2 for although the author of evil may afflict such a person1 yet on being delivered from the body1 his soul ascends to ,heaven1 whither ,ahriman has not the power of coming4 ,in some parts of the ,desnad1#ebd ,mazdak says3 8,existence arises from two principles or sources1 ,shd and ,tr10 i4 e43 #8light' and #8darkness1' which he afterwards interprets to mean ,god and ,ahriman4 ,he afterwards says3 8,the works of light result from choice1 but those of darkness from accident2 light is endued with knowledge and sensation1 darkness is ignorant2 the mixture of light and darkness is accidental1 and the disengagement of light from darkness is also accidental1 and not the result of choice2 whatever is good in this world is an advantage emanating from light1 whilst evil and corruption arise from darkness2 when the parts of light are separated from darkness1 the compound becomes dissolved1 which means resurrection40 ,again1 he says in the same volume3 8,there are three roots1 or principles3 water1 fire1 and earth2 when these are blended together1 the tendency to good or evil arising from their mixture is also accidental2 whatever results from their purest parts tends to good1 and whatever is derived from their grosser parts tends to evil40 ,he says in the same volume3 8,god is seated on a throne in the world1 the source of all things1 just as kings are on the throne of sovereignty in the lower world4 ,in his presence are the four energies1 namely1 ,bzkush1 or #8power of discrimination2' ,yddah1 or #8power of memory2' ,dn1 or #8faculty of comprehension2' and ,sur1 or #8gladness2' in like manner as the affairs of royalty turn on four persons3 8the ,supreme ,pontiff1 the principal ,hirbud1 the commander in chief of the forces1 and the master of the revels4 ,and these four persons conduct the affairs of the world through the agency of seven others1 inferior to them in rank1 namely1 chieftain1 administrator1 ,banr1#ebe ,dairvn 7head of a monastery71 agent1 ,dostr1 and slave2 which seven characters comprehend under them the twelve ,rawn1 or #8orbits' of spirits1 namely3 the speaker1 giver1 taker1 bearer1 eater1 runner1 grazer1 slayer1 smiter1 comer1 goer1 and abider4 ,whatever man unites in himself the four energies1 the seven agents1 and the twelve qualities1 becomes in this lower world like a creator or protector1 and is delivered from all kinds of embarrassment40 ,it is also stated in the same volume3 8,whatever is not according with the light and agrees with darkness1 becomes wrath1 destruction1 and discord4 ,and whereas almost all contentions among mankind have been caused by riches and women1 it is therefore necessary to emancipate the female sex and have wealth in common3 he therefore made all men partners in riches and women2 just as they are of fire1 water1 and grass10 ,in the same volume we find3 8,it is a great injustice that one man's wife should be altogether beautiful1 whilst another's is quite the contrary2 it therefore becomes imperative1 on the score of justice and true religion1 for a good man to resign his lovely wife for a short time to his neighbour1 who has one both evil and ugly2 and also take to himself for a short time his neighbour's deformed consort40 ,mazdak has also said3 8,it is altogether reprehensible and improper that one man should hold a distinguished rank1 and another remain poor and destitute of resources3 it is therefore incumbent on the believer to divide his wealth with his coreligionist2 and so taught the religion of ,zardusht1 that he should even send his wife to visit him1 that he may not be deprived of female society4 ,but if his coreligionist should prove unable to acquire wealth1 or show proofs of extravagance1 infatuation1 or insanity1 he is to be confined to the house1 and measures adopted to provide him with food1 clothing1 and all things requisite3 whoever assents not to these arrangements is consequently a follower of ,ahriman's1 and they get contributions from him by compulsion40 ,farhd1 ,shrb1 and ,ayin ,hoshpyr adopted this creed2 besides these1 ,muhammed ,kl the ,kurd1 ,ismail ,bg1 the ,georgian1 and ,ahmadai of ,tiran 7a village near ,ispahan7 possessed this faith4 ,from them it has been ascertained1 that the followers of ,mazdak do not at present assume the dress of ,gebers1 but practise their religion secretly among the ,muhammedans4 ,they also showed the author the volume of ,mazdak1 called the ,desnad1 written in old ,persian1 which ,ayin ,shakib1 the grandfather of ,ayin ,hosh1 translated into popular ,persian4 ,farhod was a man of great intelligence1 and assumed the name of ,muhammed ,said ,beg among the ,muhammedans3 ,shirab went under the name of ,shir ,muhammed1 and ,ayin ,hosh under that of ,muhammed ,akil2 and as they were eminent in their peculiar science1 they possessed the volume called the ,desnd4 ,such is the detailed account of the ,parsi systems1 agreeably to the promise made in the beginning of this work1 into which not a single one has been admitted which has not either been taken from their own books1 or heard from the followers of the respective creeds1 as their enemies have1 from hostile motives1 falsely ascribed to them various erroneous doctrines4#ebf #ebd ,desnad1 the volume which contains the doctrines of ,mazdak4,d4 ,s4 #ebe ,a word not in the dictionaries2 if derivable from bna1 8an arrow10 it may signify 8an archer1 head-archer20 if from bn1 8speech10 it may be 8a speaker1 an orator40,a4 ,t4 #ebf ,this first chapter of the ,dabistn1 here finished1 represents the ,sabismus1 or the worship of the heavenly bodies1 and the formation of society by a race of kings1 called the ,mhbdins1 who were succeeded by the ,pshddins1 and other known dynasties of the ,persian kings4 ,we see laid down the principal features of ,asiatic monarchies which have been preserved from times immemorial to our days4 ,the ,dabistn1 it is true1 blends the ideas of more recent epochs with those of the highest antiquity1 and introduces sects of later times1 the origin of which he traces back to the times of ,abd1 ,hshang1 and ,zohk4 ,it is however clear1 that a very ancient religion prevailed in ,asia1 consisting of two principal points3 the first was the adoration of the ,creator of all good1 whose unity was acknowledged very early by the enlightened class of men2 the second point was the detestation of the author of all physical and moral evil4 ,this religion inculcated purity of thoughts1 words1 and actions1 and a tender regard for animal life2 not without a great number of liturgical rites1 dietetical observances1 and other regulating customs in private and public4 ,we may comprise under the general name of 8,magismus0 the fourteen religions mentioned in this chapter1 the last but one of which1 namely1 that of ,zardusht1 appears to have been but a new systematic arrangement1 not without a partial reform1 of the old general religion of ,asia1 which has also been attributed to a more ancient ,zardusht4 ,the duality of principle 7good and bad7 seems to come home to the common feeling of mankind2 but it implies metaphysical questions about the creation1 anteriority1 posteriority1 derivation and duration of light and darkness1 about which the different sects are divided by their dogmas and opinions4 ,that of the ,zardushtins derived from ,god light and darkness1 and considered the last as a shadow inseparable from the body4 ,zardusht was a dualist1 inasmuch as he adopted light and darkness1 as two eternal principles opposed to each other1 and also inasmuch as he taught two immediate authors of good and evil1 who were independent of1 and absolutely contrary to1 each other3 but he was an unitarian1 inasmuch as he subordinated these authors to the eternal decrees of the ,supreme ,being1 who to him was the only principle of the universe1 with respect not only to its original creation1 but also to all its physical and moral accidents4 ,although subdivided into sects1 ,zardusht's religion appears to have been dominant1 until the forcible introduction of ,muhammedanism among the ,persians1 and zealously supported by the preaching of four wise men1 called ,ssn1 who lived from #bdj to #fdc of the ,christian era4 ,here follow the principal epochs of the ,zardushtin religion from the time of ,gushtasp to the end of the ancient ,persian monarchy3 ,,the ,,reigns ,,of ,,according ,,to ,,ferdusi4 ,i4 ,,gushtasp from #feb to #eje ,b4 ,c4 ,then lived ,zardusht4 ,,ii4 ,,alexander #ccg-cbc id4 ,the ,first ,ssan 7,destir1 pp4 #ahe4 #ahf74 ,,iii4 ,,ardeshir ,,babegan #bjj-bdj ,a4 ,d4 ,arda ,viraf4 ,,iv4 ,,shapur ,,ii #bdj-bga id4 ,arzabad1 the son of ,marasfand1 ,ssan ,,ii4 7,dest1 p4 #ahh47 ,v4 ,,bahram1 the son of ,mani4 ,hormuzd #bgb-bgf id4 ,,vi4 ,,kobad #dhh-eca id4 ,ssan ,,iii4 ,mazdak4 ,,vii4 ,,khosru ,,parvis #eia-fbh id4 ,the ,fourth and the ,,viii4 ,,yezdejerd #fcb-feb id4 ,fifth ,ssan4 ,a4 ,t4 ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,volume4 ,,errata4 ,p4 #ca 7note7 last line4 ,instead of 8,he10 read 8,hushang40 ,this part of the note1 to begin from 8,hushang10 ought to have been placed higher up1 at the beginning of the last paragraph1 before 8,jemshid10 also called 8,jemshar40 ,p4 #eg 7note7 l4 #e4 ,instead of 8assumed by10 read 8given to40 ,,paris3 ,printed by ,madame ,ve ,,dondey-,,dupr1 #df1 rue ,st-,louis1 au ,marais4 ,transcriber ,note3 ,this book was written in a period when many words had not become standardized in their spelling4 ,words and names have multiple spelling variations1 inconsistent hyphenation and inconsistent accent marks4 ,misspelled words in ,english1 ,greek1 ,persian and ,sanskrit were left unchanged4 ,accent marks for transliterations of ,persian and ,sandskrit were standardized with accents placed above vowels1 and letters d1 t1 and s2 a high comma precedes aspirated consonants1 such as h1 d1 t1 and s4 ,words in italics are surrounded by underscores1 like this4 ,superscripts are within braces1 preceded by a carat1 e4 g4 #a;er4 ,duplicate words were removed4 ,obvious printing errors1 such as upside down1 backwards1 or missing letters1 and letters in the wrong order1 were corrected4 ,spaces were added or removed between words1 as appropriate4 ,quotation marks and parentheses were adjusted to standard usage4 ,missing stops were added to abbreviations and ends of sentences4 ,missing commas were added between items in lists4 ,commas were changed to stops at ends of sentences4 ,footnotes were numbered sequentially and were moved to the end of the section in which they occurred4 ,anchors for ,footnotes #fi1 #he1 #aib1 #cfd1 #dgi1 #dhb1 #dhi are missing in the original2 for #fi1 #he1 #cfd1 #dhi1 anchors were added where they likely belonged4 ,location for anchors #aib and #dhb could not be determined4 ,there are two anchors to ,footnotes #aag1 #ach1 and #bcb4 ,noted1 not changed3 ,the word 8ibid0 occasionally is not in italics4 ,,iiiter ,buch1 should be des ,,iiiten ,buches1 footnote #hg4 ,for consistency1 paragraph number ,v41 should be #e41 on page clxiv4 ,the word 8sir0 is occasionally lower case as a title4 ,dots were used instead of ditto marks in footnote #dii4 ,page cite in footnote #aje should be #acd1 not #aij1 as printed4 ,in the errata at the end of the book1 ,p4 #ca 7note7 refers to footnote #bef1 and ,p4 #eg 7note7 refers to footnote #bib4 ,other changes3 ,removed extraneous comma between 8latter formed10 page lii4 ,changed semicolon to full stop after 8,east ,india ,company10 page clxxxix4 ,changed colon to semicolon after the word 8completed10 page #bj4 ,changed colon to semicolon in series of phrases in the quotation on page #aej4 ,changed stop to colon1 third paragraph1 page #aif4