,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,! text is t ( ! fir/ edition1 ) ! errata incorporat$4 ,because !re are no page breaks1 footnotes are plac$ "u ! p>agraphs or quotations to :i* !y relate1 & r5umb]$ accord+ly4 ,page numb]s h be5 ins]t$ into ! text 9 braces4 ,,! ,,philosophical ,,!ory ,,( ,,! ,,/ate ,,by ,,b]n>d ,,bosanquet ,c'e/ le peuple qui compose le g5re huma92 ce qui n'e/ pas peuple e/ si peu de *ose que ce n'e/ pas la pe9e de le compt]4 7mile1 livre #d47 ,,london ,,macmillan ,,& ,,co41 ,,limit$ ,,new ,,york ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company #ahii ,all rights res]v$ ,,glasg[3 ,,pr9t$ ,,at ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,press ,,by ,,rob]t ,,maclehose ,,& ,,co4 ,to3 ,,*>les ,,/ew>t ,,lo* vii ,,preface4 ,! pres5t "w is an attempt to express :at ,i take to be ! fundam5tal ideas ( a true social philosophy4 ,i h criticis$ & int]pret$ ! doctr9es ( c]ta9 well-kn[n ?9k]s only ) ! view ( sett+ ^! ideas 9 ! cle>e/ light4 ,?is is ! :ole purpose ( ! book2 & ,i h int5tionally ab/a9$ f practical applications1 except by way ( illu/ration4 ,x is my conviction1 inde$1 t a bett] und]/&+ ( fundam5tal pr9ciples w\ld v greatly contribute to ! m rational h&l+ ( practical problems4 ,b ?is bett] und]/&+ is only to be atta9$1 z x seems to me1 by a ?or\gh exam9ation ( ideas1 ap>t f ! associations ( practical issues ab\t :i* a fi]ce p>ty _s has be5 ar\s$4 ,&1 moreov]1 x is my belief t ! influ5ce ( ! ideas "h ma9ta9$ ^u practical discussion1 w\ld be1 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 to deta* x f philosophical !ory4 ,! pr9ciples :i* ,i advocate w\ld de/roy s _m p>ty prejudices1 w\ld put ! m9d 9 possession ( s _m clues to fact1 t practical 8social0 issues w\ld 9 consequ5ce be consid]$ z problems ( life & m9d1 to be treat$ only ) intimate exp]i5ce1 & by me?ods adequate to _! subtlety4 ,! viii result w\ld be t su* discussions w\ld be reg>d$1 if "o may use ! expression1 m respectfully1 & w\ld acquire an indep5d5ce & complet5ess wor?y ( _! importance4 ,! "w ( ! social re=m] %\ld no m be reg>d$ z a m]e app5dix to social !ory ?an t ( ! doctor is reg>d$ z a m]e app5dix to physiology4 ,su* a division ( lab\r is1 ( c\rse1 no h9drance to ! int]*ange ( facts & ideas betwe5 !ory & practice4 ,on ! contr>y1 x t5ds to promote su* an int]*ange1 by increas+ ! supply on ei!r side1 & improv+ ! intellectual communication betwe5 !m4 ,x w occur to philosophical read]s t ! ess5ce ( ! !ory "h pres5t$ is to be f\nd n m]ely 9 ,plato & 9 ,ari/otle1 b 9 v _m mod]n writ]s1 m especially 9 ,hegel1 ,t4,h4 ,gre51 ,bradley1 #a & ,wallace4 #b ,& !y may be incl9$ to d\bt ! ju/ification = a fur!r "w on ! same l9es by "o :o c h>dly expect to improve ^u ! writ+s ( su* pr$ecessors4 #a ,see especially ! *apt] 9 ,e?ical ,/udies entitl$ 8,my ,/ation & its ,duties40 #b ,see ,lectures & ,essays by ! late ,pr(essor ,wallace1 especially p4 #bac1 8,our ,natural ,rights10 & p4 #dbg1 8,! ,relation ( ,fi*te & ,hegel to ,socialism40 ,on ?is po9t ,i %\ld l to make a brief explanation4 ,to beg9 )1 x is a truism t e g5]ation ne$s to be address$ 9 its own language2 & ,i might ev5 plead t ! greatness ( a tradition ju/ifies "s urg5cy 9 call+ att5tion to x4 ,b fur!r1 z reg>ds ,t4,h4 ,gre5 9 p>ticul>1 :om 9 _m po9ts ,i foll[ v closely1 ,i _h two special reasons = desir+ ix to express myself indep5d5tly4 ,"o ( ^! is to be f\nd 9 my attempt to apply ! conceptions ( rec5t psy*ology to ! !ory ( ,/ate co]cion & ( ! ,real or ,g5]al ,w1 & to expla9 ! relation ( ,social ,philosophy to ,sociological ,psy*ology4 ,= a %ort discussion ( ! ,imitation ,!ory1 :i* ! purpose ( ! pres5t "w w\ld n p]mit me to include 9 x1 ,i may ref] to a pap] :i* w %ortly appe> 9 ,m9d4 ,my o!r reason lay 9 ! conviction t ! "t has gone by = ! scrupul\s caution :i* ,gre5 display$ 9 e/imat+ ! value ( ! ,/ate to its memb]s4 ,i h ref]r$ to ?is subject 9 ! body ( my "w 7*4 x472 b ,i desire to emphasise my belief t our gr[+ exp]i5ce ( all social 8classes0 proves ! ess5tials ( happ9ess & "* to be ! same ?r\gh\t ! social :ole4 ,scepticism on ?is po9t is ! product1 ,i am conv9c$1 ( defective social exp]i5ce4 ,inde$1 x seems wor? :ile to obs]ve t ! att5tion :i* is n[ rightly paid to su* disadvantages1 affect+ ! poor] classes ( citiz5s1 z x may be possible to rem$y1 has giv5 rise to a s]i\s confusion4 ,! zeal ( ! advocate has l$ him to sl&] 8 cli5t4 ,9 prov+ t "u su* & su* conditions x w\ld be no wond] if 8! poor0 7 bad1 he =gets to obs]ve t 9 fact !y are g5]ally j z good z o!r p4 ,! all-important di/9ction betwe5 a poor home & a bad home is neglect$4 ,& yet x seems probable t1 omitt+ ! def9itely crim9al qu>t]s1 !re is no l>g] proportion ( bad homes among ! poor ?an among ! ri*4 ,su* t]ms z 8d50 & 8slum0 x are too freely us$1 ) an affectation ( intimacy1 = homes 9 :i* ?\s&s ( respectable citiz5s reside4 ,our democratic age w be rem>kable to po/]ity = hav+ dimm$ ! "t-hon\r$ belief 9 ! virtues ( ! poor4 ,!re 0 cant1 no d\bt1 9 ! old] doctr9e1 b x 0 n s f> f ! fact z ! opposite cant ( today1 & x is "t t ! tru? 9 x %\ld be reviv$4 ,i mu/ repeat t ^! rem>ks are n int5d$ to be controv]sial4 ,!re is no?+ 9 !m :i* s]i\s m5 ( all s*ools may n accept4 ,!y are meant to def5d my attitude 9 treat+ ! ,real ,w1 & ,fre$om 9 ! great] ,self1 z matt]s ( univ]sal conc]n1 & n m]ely z hopes & fancies *]i%$ by 8educat$0 p]sons4 ,inde$1 al?\gh x w\ld be *urli% = a /ud5t to disp>age lit]>y education1 x mu/ nev] be =gott5 t1 z ?+s are today1 ! citiz5s :o live by h&icraft possess a valuable elem5t ( bra9-culture1 :i* is on ! :ole d5i$ to ! lit]>y class4 ,:atev]1 !re=e1 may be want+ 9 ! foll[+ pages1 x is n1 ,i ?9k1 ! relation ( _! subject-matt] to ! g5]al life ( peoples4 ,! social /ud5t %\ld %un m]e optimism2 b he %\ld n be afraid to make ! mo/ ( t :i* he /udies4 ,x is an un=tunate result ( ! semi-practical aims :i* naturally influ5ce social philosoph]s1 t !y are apt ?r\gh\t to take up an indiff]5t1 if n a ho/ile1 attitude to _! giv5 object4 ,!y h>dly believe 9 actual society z a botani/ believes 9 plants1 or a biologi/ believes 9 vital processes4 ,& h5ce1 social !ory comes (f badly4 ,no /ud5t c really appreciate an object = :i* he is always apologis+4 ,!re is a xi t\* ( ?is attitude 9 all ! pr9cipal writ]s1 except ,hegel & ,bradley1 & !re=e1 z ,i v5ture to ?9k1 !y p>tly fail to seize ! greatness & ideality ( life 9 its commone/ actual phases4 ,x is 9 no _s ( obscurantism1 & ) no ?\ght ( resi/+ ! m>* ( a true social logic1 t "s take up a diff]5t position4 ,!y are conv9c$ t an actual liv+ society is an inf9itely high] creature ?an a /eam-eng9e1 a plant or an animal2 & t ! be/ ( _! ideas are n too good to be employ$ 9 analys+ x4 ,^? :o _c be en?usia/ic 9 ! /udy ( society z x is1 w\ld n be s 9 ! /udy ( a bett] society if !y _h x4 8,"h or n[h]e is y\r ,am]ica40 ,b]n>d ,bosanquet ,cat]ham1 ,m>*1 #ahii4 xiii ,,cont5ts4 ,,*apt] ,i ,,rise ,,& ,,conditions ,,( ,,! ,,philosophical ,,!ory ,,( ,,! ,,/ate #a-af #a4 ,mean+ ( 8,philosophical ,!ory0 #a #b4 ,philosophy & ! 8,/ate10 #c a4 ,! ,greek ,city-,/ate #d b4 ,type ( m9d impli$ 9 x #e c4 ,type ( political philosophy sugge/$ by x #e #c4 ,transition f ,city-,/ate to ,nation-,/ate4 ,law ( ,nature #i #d4 ,rise ( ,nation-,/ates & ( mod]n political philosophy4 ,r\sseau #aa ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,sociological ,,comp>$ ,,) ,,philosophical ,,!ory #ag-eb #a4 ,problems ( ,social ,physics & ( ,idealism #ag #b4 ,social ,!ory z influ5c$ by special sci5ces #ai 7i7 ,ma!matics #ai 7ii7 ,biology #ba 7iii7 ,economics #bg 7iv7 ,jurisprud5ce & ! !ory ( ,"r #cd 7a7 ,law z 8ideal fact0 #cd 7b7 ,sociological analysis ( ,law #cf 7v7 ,idea ( ! 8_s ( laws0 or m9d ( peoples2 ,an?ropology 9 wide/ s5se #ci 7vi7 ,psy*ology #db 7vii7 ,connection ( po9ts ( view & k9ds ( fact #dg #c4 ,comp>ison ( ,psy*ological ,sociology & ,social ,philosophy #dh ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,p>adox ,,( ,,political ,,obligation2 ,,self-,,gov]nm5t #ec-gh #a4 ,! conception ( self-gov]nm5t #ec #b4 ,law & ,lib]ty 9 ,b5?am #ef #c4 ,exam9ation ( ,mill's 8,lib]ty0 #fj 7i7 ,mill's idea ( ,individuality #fj 7ii7 ,8 view ( ! au?ority ( ,society ov] ! ,individual #fa 7iii7 ,8 applications ( 8 pr9ciple #ff #d4 ,views ( ,h]b]t ,sp5c] #fi 7i7 ,sp5c] & ,b5?am on ,natural ,"r #gj 7ii7 ,lib]ty & re/ra9t 9 ,sp5c] & ,huxley #ga #e4 ,mill's criticism ( ,self-,gov]nm5t #gc ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,problem ,,( ,,political ,,obligation ,,m ,,radically ,,treat$ #gi-ajb #a4 ,nature ( above !ories n express$ by t]m ,individualism4 8,!ories ( ! fir/ look0 #gi #b4 ,r\sseau's e>li] ,essays #hd #c4 ,problem ( ! ,contrat ,social #hg #d4 ,conflict ( ideas 9 ,r\sseau's /atem5t #hi #e4 ,nature ( 8 solution #ia #f4 ,reality ( ! 8,moral ,p]son0 & conception ( ,civil ,lib]ty #id ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,! ,,conception ,,( ,a 8,,real0 ,,w #ajc-abc #a4 ,! ,supreme ,w 9 ,hobbes & ,locke #ajc #b4 ,mean+ ( ! ,g5]al ,w = ,r\sseau #ajg #c- ,! ,g5]al ,w contra/$ ) ! ,w ( ,all #aaa #d- ,! ,g5]al ,w & ! "w ( ! ,legislator #aag ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,! ,,conception ,,( ,,lib]ty ,,z ,,illu/rat$ ,,by ,,! ,,=ego+ ,,sugge/ions #aah-aed #a4 ,lib]ty z ! condition ( our be+ ourselves #aah #b4 ,illu/rat$ by ! idea ( ,nature & ,natural #abh #c4 ,phases ( idea ( ,lib]ty #acc 7a7 ,juri/ic phase 8abs5ce ( re/ra9t0 #acd 7b7 ,political phase 8rights ( citiz5%ip0 #ace 7c7 ,positive connection ( 7a7 & 7b7 #acf 7d7 ,philosophical phase 8be+ oneself 9 fulle/ s5se0 #acg 7e7 ,dang] & ju/ification ( us+ same t]m = 7a7 & 7d7 #adb #d4 ,lib]ty z attribute ( ! w t wills itself #adf #e4 ,?is 8real0 w id5tifi$ ) ,/ate #adi 7a7 ,/ate 9 ?is s5se is social life z a :ole #aej 7b7 ,h[ ,/ate is =ce z ext5sion ( 8individual0 m9d #aeb ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,psy*ological ,,illu/ration ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,a ,,real ,,or ,,g5]al ,,w #aee-agi #a4 ,object ( ! ,*apt] #aee #b4 ,connection betwe5 social & m5tal gr\p+s #aef 7#a7 ,analogy betwe5 !m #aef 7i7 ,associations ( p]sons & ( ideas #aef 7ii7 ,organisation ( social gr\ps & ( ideas #aei 7#b7 ,id5tity ( social & m5tal gr\p+s #agj 7i7 ,social gr\ps z an aspect ( m5tal sy/ems #agj 7ii7 ,individual m9ds z /ructures ( app]cipi5t sy/ems #agc 7iii7 ,social :ole z a sy/em ( m5tal sy/ems #age ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,nature ,,( ,,! ,,end ,,( ,,! ,,/ate ,,& ,,consequ5t ,,limit ,,( ,,/ate ,,action #ahj-bcd #a4 ,di/9ction betwe5 ,individual & ,society irrelevant to "q ( ,social ,means & ,end #ahj #b4 ,true contra/3 ,automatism & ,consci\sness #aha #c4 ,end ( ,/ate1 & ,means at its disposal qua ,/ate #ahd #d4 ,/ate c only secure 8ext]nal0 actions #ahf #e4 ,pr9ciple ( ! h9drance ( h9drances #aij #f4 ,/ate action z ! ma9t5ance ( rights #bja 7a7 ,sy/em ( rights f /&po9t ( community #bjc 7b7 ,f /&po9t ( individuals4 8,position0 #bjd 7i7 ,z ,rights or recognis$ claims #bjf 7ii7 ,z ,obligations or recognis$ debts #bjf 7c7 ,rights z imply+ ,duties #bjh 7i7 ,:5 ,duty ,obligation #bjh 7ii7 ,:5 ,duty ,purpose1 :i* is s\rce ( ,"r #bji 7d7 ,rights1 :y recognis$ claims8 #baj 7i7 ,a 8,position0 involves recognition #baj 7ii7 ,no "r bas$ on individual caprice #bab #g4 ,/ate action z puni%m5t #baf 7i7 ,puni%m5t z re=matory #bba 7ii7 ,puni%m5t z retributory #bbc 7iii7 ,puni%m5t z det]r5t #bbh ,conclusion4 ,/ate ,action z ex]cise ( a ,g5]al ,w #bcb ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,r\sseau',s ,,!ory ,,z ,,appli$ ,,to ,,! ,,mod]n ,,/ate3 ,,kant1 ,,fi*te1 ,,hegel #bce-bee #a4 ,r\sseau's lit]>y influ5ce 9 ,g]many #bce #b4 ,fre$om & ,social ,contract 9 ,kant #bch #c4 ,fre$om & ,social ,contract 9 ,fi*te #bdd #d4 ,fre$om 9 ,hegel's ,philosophy ( ,"r #bdg 7a7 ,suppos$ reaction>y t5d5cy 9 ,hegel #bdh 7b7 ,relation ( analysis & idealisation #bij #e4 ,! ,philosophy ( ,"r z a *apt] 9 ! ,philosophy ( ,m9d #beb ,,*apt] ,x ,,! ,,analysis ,,( ,a ,,mod]n ,,/ate4 ,,hegel',s 8,,philosophy ,,( ,,"r0 #bef-bie #a4 ,logic ( ,society z an ideal fact #bef #b4 ,sph]e ( ,"r or ,law & its sub-divisions #beh #c4 ,! ,lett] ( ! ,law #bfj #d4 ,! ,morality ( ,consci5ce #bfb #e4 ,social ,e?ics #bff 7i7 ,social ,e?ics z an actual _w #bff 7ii7 ,social ,e?ics z ! nature ( self-consci\sness #bfg #f4 ,sub-divisions ( ,social ,e?ics4 ,! ,family #bfi 7a7 ,dep5ds on natural fact #bfi 7b7 ,is factor 9 ! ,/ate #bgj 7c7 ,e?ical & ,monogam\s ,h\sehold #bga 7d7 ,relation to ,prop]ty #bgb #g4 ,b\rgeois ,society4 ,ju/ice1 ,/ate ,regulation1 & ,trade ,societies #bgb #h4 ,! ,/ate prop]1 or ,political ,con/itution #bhj #i4 ,public discussion & public op9ion #bhe #aj4 ,criticism ( su* an analysis ( ! ,mod]n ,/ate #bhg ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,in/itutions ,,consid]$ ,,z ,,e?ical ,,ideas #bif-ccd #a4 ,! individual s\l & ! social m9d #bif #b4 ,in/itutions z common sub/ance ( m9ds #big #c4 ,! ,family & ,prop]ty z elem5ts ( m9d #bii #d4 ,! ,di/rict or ,neighb\rhood z an elem5t ( m9d #cjd #e4 ,class z an elem5t ( m9d4 8,! ,poor0 z an e?ical idea #caj #f4 ,! ,nation-,/ate z an elem5t ( m9d #cbj #g4 ,morality ( public & private action #cbb #h4 ,humanity z an elem5t ( m9d #cbh 7a7 ,humanity n pr$icable ( mank9d z a :ole #cbh 7b7 ,humanity does n mank9d z a true community #cbi 7c7 ,di*otom\s expressions = humanity & mank9d #ccj 7d7 ,! self beyond any actual society2 ,art1 ,philosophy1 ,religion #ccb ,,index #cce #a ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,rise ,,& ,,conditions ,,( ,,! ,,philosophical ,,!ory ,,( ,,! ,,/ate #a4 ,fir/1 x w be well to indicate1 9 a v few words1 :at is impli$ 9 a 8philosophical !ory10 z di/+ui%$ f !ories :i* make no claim to be philosophical4 ,! prim>y diff]5ce is1 t a philosophical treatm5t is ! /udy ( "s ?+ z a :ole & = its own sake4 ,9 a c]ta9 s5se x may be comp>$ to ! gaze ( a *ild or ( an arti/4 ,x deals1 t is1 ) ! total & unbrok5 effect ( its object4 ,x desires to asc]ta9 :at a ?+ is1 :at is its full *>act]i/ic & be+1 its a*ievem5t 9 ! g5]al act ( ! _w4 ,hi/ory1 explanation1 analysis into cause & conditions1 h value = x only 9 s f> z !y contribute to ! intellig5t e/imation ( ! fulle/ nature & capabilities ( ! real individual :ole :i* is "u inve/igation4 ,we all "k t a fl[] is "o ?+ = ! geometrician1 ano!r = ! *emi/1 ano!r = #b ! botani/1 & ano!r1 aga91 = ! arti/4 ,n[1 philosophy c ( c\rse make no pret5sion to cope ) any "o ( ! speciali/s on 8 own gr\nd4 ,b ! g5]al nature ( ! task impos$ ^u x is ?is3 aid+ itself1 s f> z possible1 by ! tra9$ vision ( all speciali/s1 to make "s attempt to see ! full significance ( ! fl[] z a ^w or lett] 9 ! great book ( ! _w4 ,& ?is we call /udy+ x1 z x is1 & = its own sake1 )\t res]vation or presupposition4 ,x is assum$1 !n1 = ! purpose ( a philosophical treatm5t1 t ev]y?+1 & m p>ticul>ly 9 ?is case ! political life ( man1 has a nature ( its own1 :i* is wor?y ( inve/igation on its own m]its & = its own sake4 ,h[ its phases come into be+1 or :at causes or conditions h play$ a "p 9 its gr[?1 are o!r que/ions well wor?y ( inve/igation4 ,b ! philosophical problem is r to see our object z x is & to le>n :at x is1 to e/imate1 s to speak1 its k9d & degree ( self-ma9t5ance 9 ! _w1 ?an to trace its hi/ory or to analyse its causation4 ,yet su* phrases z 8:at x is0 & 8= its own sake0 mu/ n mislead u4 ,!y d n mean t ! nature ( any reality :i* we exp]i5ce c be appreciat$ 9 isolation f ! g5]al _w ( life & k4 ,on ! contr>y1 !y imply t :5 fully & fairly consid]$ f ! mo/ ?or\ghly adequate po9t ( view1 our subject matt] w reveal its true position & relations ) ref]5ce to all else t man c d & c "k4 ,?is position & ^! relations con/itute its rank or significance 9 ! totality #c ( exp]i5ce1 & ?is value or significance--9 ! pres5t case1 :at ! =m ( life 9 "q enables man to d & to become--is j :at we mean by its nature 89 itself10 or its full & complete nature1 or its significance :5 ?or\ghly /udi$ 8= its own sake0 f an adequate po9t ( view4 ,fur!r illu/rations ( ! di/9ction betwe5 an adequate po9t ( view & p>tial or limit$ modes ( consid]ation1 & ( ! relations betwe5 ! =m] & ! latt]1 w be f\nd 9 ! foll[+ *apt]4 #b4 ,9 a c]ta9 s5se x w\ld be true to say t :]ev] m5 h liv$1 !re has always be5 a 8,/ate40 ,t is to say1 !re has be5 "s association or corporation1 l>g] ?an ! family1 & ackn[l$g+ no p[] sup]ior to itself4 ,b x is obvi\s t ! exp]i5ce ( a ,/ate 9 ?is g5]al s5se ( ! ^w is n co-ext5sive ) true political exp]i5ce1 & t some?+ mu* m def9ite ?an ?is is necess>y to awak5 curiosity z to ! nature & value ( ! community 9 :i* man f9ds himself to be a memb]4 ,su* curiosity has be5 awak5$ & su/a9$ pr9cipally if n exclusively by two k9dr$ types ( associat$ life--! ,city-/ate ( anci5t ,greece1 & ! ,nation-/ate ( ! mod]n _w4 ,x w ?r[ light on ! nature ( our subject if we glance rapidly at ! *>act]i/ics to :i* x is due t political philosophy began 9 connection ) ! =m]1 & reviv$ 9 connection ) ! latt]4 ,9 consid]+ ! ,greek city-/ates 9 connection ) ! bir? ( political philosophy1 !re are ?ree po9ts :i* press ^u our att5tion3#d a4 ! type ( exp]i5ce :i* !y pres5t$2 b4 ! type ( m9d :i* t exp]i5ce impli$2 & c4 ! type ( int]pretation :i* su* a m9d elicit$ f su* an exp]i5ce4 a4 ,a ,greek city-/ate pres5t$ a m>k$ contra/ to ! modes ( human association :i* prevail$ 9 ! non-,greek _w4 ,x diff]$ f !m above all ?+s by its di/9ct individuality4 ,no d\bt !re 0 a recognisable "* 9 ! life & conduct ( ,egypt or ( ,assyria1 ( ,pho5icia or ( ,israel4 ,b ! community :i* has a y\?1 a maturity1 & a decad5ce1 z di/9ct z ^? ( a s+le human be+1 & v ne>ly z self-consci\s2 :i* has a tone & _s z recognisable 9 ! words & be>+ ( its memb]s z ^? ( a "* 9 a play2 & :i* expresses its m9d 9 ! v>i\s regions ( human action & endurance mu* z an arti/ expresses 8 individuality 9 ! creations ( 8 g5ius--su* a community _h exi/$1 be=e ! beg9n+s ( ! mod]n _w1 9 ! ,greek city-/ate1 & 9 ! ,greek city-/ate alone4 ,a political consci\sness 9 ! /rict s5se 0 a necess>y factor 9 ! exp]i5ce ( su* a commonweal?4 ,! dem& = 8autonomy0--gov]nm5t by "o's own law1--& = 8isonomy0--gov]nm5t accord+ to equal law--?\gh f> f be+ always satisfi$1 0 inh]5t 9 ! ,greek nature2 & its /r5u\sness 0 ev9c$ by ! ?roes ( revolution & ! lab\rs ( legislation :i* 7 %ak+ ! _w ( ,greece at ! dawn ( hi/ory4 ,! v in/rum5t ( all political action 0 inv5t$1 s f> z we c see1 by ! ,greeks4 ,! simple device by :i* an ord]ly vote is #e tak51 & ! m9ority acquiesce 9 ! w ( ! majority z if x _h be5 _! own--an inv5tion no less def9ite ?an t ( ! lev] or ! :eel--is f\nd = ! fir/ "t z an ev]yday me?od ( decision 9 ,greek political life4 b4 ,su* a type ( exp]i5ce implies a correspond+ type ( m9d4 ,x is n surpris+ t sci5ce & philosophy %\ld owe _! bir? to ! g5ius f :i* politics sprang4 ,= politics is ! expression ( reason 9 ! relations t b9d man to man1 z sci5ce & philosophy are ! expression ( x 9 ! relations :i* l9k toge!r man's :ole exp]i5ce4 ,! m9d :i* c recognise itself practically 9 ! ord] ( ! commonweal?1 c recognise itself !oretically 9 ! ord] ( nature4 ,& ultimately1 ?\gh n at fir/ 7= curiosity is awak5$ by objects p]ceiv$ 9 space & "t1 be=e att5tion is turn$ to ! v h+e & c5tre ( man's own be+71 sci5ce passes into philosophy2 & m9d1 & conduct1 & ! political consci\sness1 are !mselves made objects ( speculation4 ,x has become a commonplace t ?is transf]5ce ( curiosity f ! out] to ! inn]--really1 t is1 f ! p>tial to ! total _w--took %ape 9 ! "w ( ,socrates1 :o inve/$ ) ! greatness ( 8 own intellig5ce & "* a movem5t :i* ! ne$s ( ! age _h r5d]$ inevitable4 ,& ?us !re arose ! e?ical & political philosophy ( ,plato & ,ari/otle1 ! successors ( ,socrates1 j at ! "t :5 ! di/9ctive political life ( ,greece 0 beg9n+ to decay4 c4 ,?is philosophy1 l all g5u9e philosophy1 #f 0 an int]pretation ( ! exp]i5ce pres5t$ to x2 & 9 ?is case ! int]pretation 0 due to m9ds :i* 7 !mselves a "p ( ! ph5om5a on :i* !y reflect$4 ,su* m9ds1 ho/ile z !y may feel !mselves to ! _s ( ! age1 & h[ev] passionately !y may cry out = re=m or = revolution1 are none ! less its repres5tatives2 & _! int]pretation1 ?\gh x may modify & ev5 mutilate ! ph5om5a1 w nev]!less be f\nd to ?r[ ! c5tral =ces & pr9ciples ( ! "t into ! cle>e/ light4 ,s ,plato's negative treatm5t ( ! family1 & ( o!r elem5ts :i* seem ess5tial to ,greek civilisation1 0 no b> to 8 grasp+1 & repres5t+ ) unequall$ =ce1 ! c5tral pr9ciple ( ! life ar\nd him4 ,! fundam5tal idea ( ,greek political philosophy1 z we f9d x 9 ,plato & ,ari/otle1 is t ! human m9d c only atta9 its full & prop] life 9 a community ( m9ds1 or m /rictly 9 a community p]vad$ by a s+le m9d1 utt]+ itself consi/5tly ?\gh diff]5tly 9 ! life & action ( e memb] ( ! community4 ,?is conception is o!rwise express$ by su* phrases z 8! ,/ate is natural10 i4e4 is a gr[? or evolution1 ap>t f :i* ! end impli$ 9 man's orig9 _c be atta9$2 8! ,/ate is prior to ! individual10 i4e4 !re is a pr9ciple or condition und]ly+ ! life ( ! human individual1 :i* w n admit ( t life becom+ :at x has 9 x to be1 unless ! full sph]e or ar5a :i* is con/itut$ by ! life ( ! ,/ate is realis$ 9 fact4 ,! :ole is summ$ up 9 ! fam\s expression ( ,ari/otle1 8,man is a creature =m$ = ! life ( ! ,city-/ate40 ,! #g work+ out ( ?is idea1 z we f9d x 9 ,plato's commonweal?1 is biz>re to our m9ds2 b its difficulty really lies 9 its simplicity & directness2 & !re is no s\nd political philosophy :i* is n an embodim5t ( ,plato's conception4 ,! c5tral idea is ?is3 t e class ( p]sons 9 ! community--! /atesman1 ! soldi]1 ! workman--has a c]ta9 di/9ctive type ( m9d :i* fits its memb]s = _! functions1 & t ! community ess5tially consi/s 9 ! work+ ( ^! types ( m9d 9 _! connection ) "o ano!r1 :i* connection con/itutes _! subord9ation to ! common good4 ,?is work+ or adju/m5t obvi\sly dep5ds 9 ! la/ resort on ! qualities pres5t 9 ! inn]mo/ s\ls ( ! memb]s ( ! community2 & ?us ! outw>d organisation ( society is really z x 7 a body :i* at e po9t & 9 e movem5t expresses ! *>act]i/ics ( a m9d4 ,we mu/ n pause "h to foll[ up ! consequ5ces ( su* a conception2 b x w be se5 at once1 by ^? :o reflect ^u x1 to imply t e individual m9d mu/ h its qualities drawn out 9 v>i\s ways to answ] to--9 fact1 to con/itute--! relations & functions :i* make up ! community2 & t 9 ?is s5se e m9d is a mirror or impression ( ! :ole community f its own peculi> po9t ( view4 ,! e?ical assumption or pr9ciple ( ,plato's conception is1 t a heal?y organisation ( ! commonweal? w involve1 by a necess>y connection1 a heal?y balance & adju/m5t ( qualities 9 ! individual s\l1 & vice v]sa4 ,an attempt w be made to illu/rate ?is pr9ciple fur!r 9 ! latt] portion #h ( ! pres5t "w4 ,! g5]al nature ( ,plato's conception--! *>act]i/ic conception ( ,greek political philosophy--is all t conc]ns u "h4 ,x is important to obs]ve t dur+ ! v g5esis ( ?is philosophical conception ( society1 an antagoni/ic view 0 p[]fully repres5t$4 ,! individual c\ld n freely f9d himself 9 ! community unless he 0 capable ( repudiat+ x2 ! possibility ( negation1 z a logician might express x1 is necess>y to a really significant affirmation4 ,?us we f9d 9 ! v age ( ,plato & ,ari/otle ! mo/ />tl+ anticipations ( ^? mod]n ideas :i* seem diametrically oppos$ to !irs4 ,we f9d ! idea ( nature id5tifi$ n ) ! mature fulness1 b ) ! empty />t+ po9t ( life2 we meet ) ! ph5om5a ( veget>ianism1 wat]-dr9k+1 ! r$uction ( dress to its m9imum1 9 %ort1 ! famili> symptoms ( ! long+ = ! 8return to nature10 ) all t x implies2 we f9d law & political unity treat$ z a tissue ( artifice & conv5tion1 & ! individual disda9+ to id5tify himself ) ! citiz5%ip ( a s+le /ate1 b claim+ to be a /rang] 9 ! city & a citiz5 ( ! _w4 ,to prove t ^! ideas 7 n )\t _! ju/ification1 x is en\gh to po9t out t 9 "s in/ances !y 7 accompani$ by a polemic aga9/ slav]y1 :i*1 z a =m ( solid>ity1 0 upheld 9 a qualifi$ s5se at lea/ by ,ari/otle4 ,! exi/5ce ( ?is negative criticism is en\gh to %[ h[ di/9ctly ! ,greek intellect set be=e itself ! fundam5tal problem ( ! relation betwe5 ! individual & society1 & ( h[ high a quality 0 ! bond ( union :i* #i ma9ta9$ ?is relation 9 su* intimacy among m9ds ( a temp] s analytic4 #c4 ,_m writ]s h told ! /ory ( ! *ange :i* came ov] ! m9d ( ,greece :5 ! indep5d5t sov]eignty ( its ,city-/ates became a ?+ ( ! pa/4 ,= our purpose x is en\gh to draw att5tion to ! fact t ) ?is *ange ! political or social philosophy ( ! great ,greek "t n only lo/ its supremacy1 b almo/ ceas$ to be und]/ood4 ,f ?is p]iod =w>d1 till ! rise ( ! mod]n ,nation-/ates1 m5's ?\ghts ab\t life & conduct 7 ca/ 9 ! m\ld ( moral !ory1 ( religi\s my/icism & !ology1 or ( jurisprud5ce4 ,! individual dem&$ 9 ! sph]e ( e?ics & religion to be %[n a life suffic+ to himself ap>t f any det]m9ate human society--a problem :i* ,plato & ,ari/otle _h assum$ to be insoluble4 ,/oicism & ,epicureanism1 ! e>lie/ non-national cre$s ( ! we/]n _w1 triumphantly develop$ ! ideas :i* at fir/1 z we saw1 7 little m ?an a rebellion aga9/ ! c5tral ,socratic philosophy4 ,cosmopolitanism1 ! conception ( humanity1 ! ideal ( a 8,society ( ,fri5ds0--! ,epicurean league--f :i* wom5 7 n exclud$1 & ! precept ( 8n expect+ f life m ?an x has to give10 take ! place ( ! highly individualis$ commonweal?1 ) its /r5u\s mascul9e life ( w> & politics1 & its passionate temp] :i* felt t no?+ _h be5 accompli%$ s long z any?+ rema9$ undone4 ,) ?is *ange ( temp] 9 ! civilis$ _w !re is br\ght into prom95ce a great deal ( #aj human nature :i* _h n f\nd expression ?r\gh ! imm$iate successors ( ,socrates4 ,9 ! p]iod betwe5 ,ari/otle & ,cic]o !re is m ?an a :isp] ( ! s\nd :i* meets u l a trumpet bla/ 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t1 8nei!r ,jew nor ,greek1 b>b>ian nor ,scy?ian1 bond nor free40 ,b ! unworldl9ess :i* took f9al %ape 9 ,*ri/ianity 0 de/9$ to und]go a long transmigration ?r\gh %apes ( o!r-worldl9ess be=e x %\ld return 9 mod]n ?\ght to ! unity f :i* x />t$2 & ! hi/ory ( e?ics & religion has little be>+ ^u true political !ory betwe5 ! dea? ( ,ari/otle & ! awak5+ ( ! mod]n consci\sness 9 ! ,re=mation4 ,9 s f> z ! political ideas ( antiquity 7 pres]v$ to mod]n times o!rwise ?an 9 ! manuscripts ( ,plato & ,ari/otle1 ! influ5ce :i* pres]v$ !m 0 t ( ,roman ,jurisprud5ce4 ,! ,roman rule1 ?\gh x /]eotyp$ ! /ate ( ?+s 9 :i* g5u9e political function & ! spur ( fre$om 7 unkn[n1 _h "o peculi> gift by :i* x h&$ to po/]ity ! g]ms ( a great conception ( human life4 ,?is is n ! place to describe at l5g? ! orig9 ( t va/ practical induction f ! work+ ( ! 8=eign]s' c\rt0 at ,rome :i* obta9$ = itself ! "n ( ! ,law ( ,nations1 & :i*1 z t+$ ) ideal !ory1 0 kn[n z ! ,law ( ,nature4 ,:atev] fallacies may be ne> at h& :5 8natural "r0 is nam$1 ! conception t !re is 9 man1 z su*1 some?+ :i* mu/ be respect$1 a law ( life :i* is 8 8nature10 be+ inde$ ano!r "n #aa = 8 reason1 & 9 "s s5se or o!r a 8fre$om0 & an 8equality0 :i* are 8 bir?right--?is conception 0 n m]ely a legacy f ,/oic ideas1 :i* _h almo/ a religi\s inspiration1 b 0 solidly f\nd$ on ! judicial exp]i5ce ( ! mo/ practical race t ! _w has ev] se54 #d4 ,9 ord] t ! =ces :i* lay hidd5 9 ! conception ( ,natural ,"r & ,fre$om1 l ! p[]s ( vegetation 9 a se$1 might unfold !mselves 9 ! mod]n _w1 x 0 necess>y t conditions %\ld recur analog\s to ^? :i* _h fir/ elicit$ !m4 ,& ^! e>li] conditions 7 ^? ( ! ,greek ,city-/ate2 = x 0 "h1 z we h se51 t ! conception ( man's nature _h fl\ri%$1 z ! idea ( a purposive evolution into a full & _m-sid$ social life1 :ile 9 ,/oic philosophy & ,roman juri/ic !ory x _h become m & m a %ibbole? & a =mula :i* lo/ 9 dep? ( mean+ :at x ga9$ 9 range ( application4 ,to re/ore _! anci5t significance1 exp&$ 9 con=mity ) a l>g] ord] ( ?+s1 to ! traditional =mulae1 dem&$ j ! type ( exp]i5ce :i* 0 furni%$ by ! mod]n ,nation-/ate4 ,! gr[? ( ,nation-/ates 9 mod]n ,europe 0 9 progress1 we are told1 f ! n9? to ! fifte5? c5tury4 ,& x is t[>ds & aft] ! close ( ?is p]iod1 & especially 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury :5 ! national consci\sness ( ! ,engli% p1 z ( o!rs1 _h become ?or\ghly awak5$1 t political speculation 9 ! /rict s5se beg9s aga91 #ab aft] an int]val ext5d+ back to ! ,politics ( ,ari/otle4 ,to let "o example s]ve = _m2 :5 we read ,john ( ,gaunt's praises ( ,engl& 9 ,%akespe>e's ,ri*>d ,,ii41 we feel ourselves at once 9 contact ) ! m9d ( a social unity1 su* z necess>ily to raise 9 any inquir+ intellig5ce all ^? problems :i* 7 rais$ = ,plato & ,ari/otle by ! individuality ( ,a!ns & ,sp>ta4 ,& s we see ! e>lie/ political speculation ( ! mod]n _w grop+1 z x 71 = ideas by help ( :i* to expla9 ! exp]i5ce ( an individual self-gov]n+ sov]eign society4 ,& = ! mo/ "p ! ideas t (f] !mselves are ^? ( ,roman ,jurisprud5ce1 b di/ort$ by political applications & by ! rhetoric ( ,prote/ant fanaticism4 ,z ,mr4 ,rit*ie #a po9ts out1 ! conception ( natural "r & a law ( nature makes a /range b effective coalition ) ! temp] ( ! ,wycliffite cry 8,:5 ,adam dalf1 & ,eve span1 ,:o 0 !n ! g5tleman80 ,! notions ( contract1 ( =ce1 ( repres5tation 9 a s+le legal 8p]son10 are n[ appli$ sep>ately or toge!r to ! ph5om5on ( ! self-gov]n+ individual community4 ,b ! solution rema9s imp]fect1 & ! fundam5tal fact ( self-gov]nm5t refuses to be con/ru$ ei!r z ! association ( individuals1 orig9ally free & equal1 = c]ta9 limit$ purposes1 or z ! absolute absorption ( _! wills 9 ! 8p]son0 ( a despotic sov]eign4 #a ,natural ,rights1 p4 #h4 ,! revival ( a true philosophical mean+ #ac )9 ! ab/ract t]ms ( juri/ic tradition 0 ! "w ( ! eighte5? c5tury z a :ole4 ,= ! sake ( cle>ness1 & ) z mu* hi/orical ju/ice z ev] atta*es to an attribution ( ! k9d1 we may connect x ) ! "n ( a s+le man--,jean ,jacques ,r\sseau4 ,= x is ,r\sseau :o /&s midway betwe5 ,hobbes & ,locke on ! "o h&1 & ,kant & ,hegel on ! o!r1 & 9 ^: writ+s ! actual revival ( ! full idea ( human nature may be wat*$ f p>agraph to p>agraph z x /ruggles to ?r[ (f ! husk ( an effete tradition4 ,betwe5 ,locke & ,r\sseau ! g5ius ( ,vico & ( ,montesquieu _h giv5 a new mean+ to ! dry =mulae ( law by %[+ ! sap ( society circulat+ )9 !m4 ,moreov] ! reviv$ exp]i5ce ( ! ,greeks came 9 ! nick ( "t4 ,x 0 influ5tial ) ,r\sseau himself1 & little z he grasp$ ! political possibilities ( a mod]n society1 9 matt]s ( %e] pr9ciple ?is influ5ce l$ him on ! :ole 9 ! "r direction4 ,8 insight 0 j1 :5 x %[$ him t e political :ole pres5t$ ! same problem :i* _h be5 pres5t$ by ! ,greek ,city-/ate1 & involv$ ! same pr9ciples4 ,& he bequea!d to 8 successors ! task ( sub/itut+ = ! m]e words & fictions ( contract1 nature1 & orig9al fre$om1 ! idea ( ! common life ( an ess5tially social be+1 express+ & su/a9+ ! human w at its be/4 ,accord+ to ! view "h indicat$1 ! resurrection ( true political philosophy out ( ! dead body ( juri/ic ab/ractions 0 inaugurat$ by #ad ,vico & ,montesquieu1 & decisively decl>$ itself 9 ,jean ,jacques ,r\sseau4 ,! idea :i* mo/ ( u h =m$ ( 8! new ,evangel ( a ,contrat ,social0 is n 9 h>mony ) ?is repres5tation ( ! matt]4 ,0 x1 we may be ask$1 a g5u9e political philosophy :i* inspir$ ! lead]s ( ! ,fr5* ,revolution8 ,& ! "q _c be evad$ by d5y+ all connection betwe5 ! !ory & ! practice ( t age4 ,! phraseology ( ! revolution>y decl>ations #a--:i* w /rike ! read] accu/om$ to n9ete5? c5tury socialism z exce$+ly mod]ate & ev5 cons]vative 9 tone--is und\bt$ly to a great ext5t borr[$ f ,r\sseau's writ+s4 #a ,see ! v int]e/+ collection ( docum5ts 9 ! ,app5dix to ,pr(essor ,rit*ie's ,natural ,rights4 ,p]haps ! tru? ( ! matt] may be approa*$ z foll[s4 ,! popul> r5d]+ ( a great man's views is s+ul>ly liable to run /raight into ! pit-falls aga9/ :i* he m p>ticul>ly w>n$ ! _w4 ,?is c\ld be prov$ true 9 an extraord9>y degree ( su* m5 z ,plato & ,sp9oza1 & /ill m a/oni%+ly1 p]haps1 ( ! f\nd] ( ! ,*ri/ian religion4 ,! reason is obvi\s4 ,a great man works ) ! ideas ( 8 age1 & reg5]ates !m4 ,b 9 z f> z he reg5]ates !m1 he gets beyond ! ord9>y m9d2 :ile 9 z f> z he op]ates ) !m1 he rema9s accessible to x4 ,& 8 own m9d has its ord9>y side2 ! reg5]ation ( ideas :i* he is able to effect is n complete1 & ! notions ( ! day n only limit 8 entire range ( a*ievem5t--:]e ! /ronge/ runn] w get to mu/ dep5d on :]e he />ts--b float ab\t unassimilat$ #ae )9 8 liv+ /ream ( ?\ght4 ,n[ all ?is ord9>y side ( 8 m9d w p>take ( ! /r5g? & spl5d\r ( 8 :ole nature4 ,& ?us he w seem to h prea*$ ! v sup]/itions :i* he combat$4 ,= 9 "p he has done s1 be+ himself infect$2 9 "p ! ov]:elm+ bias ( 8 int]pret]s has rev]s$ ! mean+ ( 8 v w>n+s1 by transf]r+ ! importance1 due to 8 c5tral ?\ght1 to "s detail or metaphor :i* belongs to ! l[] level ( 8 m9d4 ,x is an old /ory h[ ,sp9oza1 8! ,god-intoxicat$ man10 0 held to be an 8a!i/10 :5 9 tru? he 0 r an 8acosmi/02 & 9 ! same way1 on a l[] plane1 ! writ] :o /ruggl$ ?r\gh to ! idea t true sov]eignty lay 9 ! dom9ion ( a common social good z express$ ?r\gh law & in/itutions1 is held to h ascrib$ absolute supremacy to t *ance comb9ation ( individual voices 9 a majority1 :i* he expressly po9t$ out to h1 9 itself1 no au?ority at all4 ,b !re is some?+ m to be said ( cases1 l t "u discussion1 :]e a great man's ideas t\* ! practical _w4 ,if ! complete & positive idea becomes n>r[ & negative z x imp+es ^u e-day life1 ?is may be n only a consequ5ce ( its transmission ?r\gh e-day m9ds1 b a qualification = ! "w x has to d4 ,! n>r[] tru? may be1 s to speak1 ! cutt+ edge ( ! m complete1 z ! negation is ( ! affirmation4 ,& ! vulg> notion ( popul> sov]eignty & ( natural "r may h be5 necess>y to d a "w :i* a m organic social !ory w\ld h be5 too delicate to a*ieve4 #af ,l ! fai? 9 a spe$y second com+ ( ,*ri/ among ! e>ly ,*ri/ians1 ! gospel accord+ to ,jean ,jacques may h tak5 = ! m9ds ( ,revolution>y ,france a =m :i* 0 s]viceable z well z inevitable at ! mom5t4 ,if1 z we said above1 ! great man is always misund]/ood1 x seems to foll[ t :5 8 g]m9al ideas h be5 s[n !y mu/ ass]t !mselves fir/ 9 l[] phases if !y are ev] to be> fruit at all4 ,& !re=e1 :ile n d5y+ ! influ5ce ( ,r\sseau on ! ,revolution1 we %all attempt to %[ t he _h ano!r & a lat] influ5ce1 m adequate to ! true rea* ( 8 g5ius4 #ag ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,sociological ,,comp>$ ,,) ,,philosophical ,,!ory4 #a4 ,!re is no d\bt t ,sociology & ,social ,philosophy h />t$1 hi/orically speak+1 f diff]5t po9ts ( view4 ,! object ( ! pres5t *apt] is to asc]ta9 ! nature & e/imate ! importance & probable p]man5ce ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 !m4 ,i propose fir/ to expla9 ! diff]5ce 9 g5]al2 !n to review ! s\rces ( social exp]i5ce1 :i* 9 o!r words are facets or aspects ( social life1 by :i* social !ory has be5 influ5c$1 & ) :i* x has to deal2 &1 f9ally1 to =m "s idea ( ! di/9ctive s]vices :i* may be r5d]$ by sociology & social philosophy respectively 9 view ( ! range ( exp]i5ce :i* x is ! function ( social !ory to organize4 ,beg9n+ ) ,vico's #a ,new ,sci5ce1 !re has be5 m ?an "o attempt 9 mod]n ,europe to inaugurate ! ,sci5ce ( ,society z a new dep>ture4 ,b ! di/9ctive & mod]n _s ( :at is kn[n z ,sociology1 & "u t #ah "n has _h a cont9u\s gr[? ( half a c5tury at lea/1 fir/ f\nd unmi/akable expression 9 ,augu/e ,comte4 ,! conception :i* he impress$ ^u ! sci5ce to :i* he fir/ gave ! "n ( sociology or social physics1 0 a *>act]i/ically mod]n conception4 ,its ess5ce 0 ! inclusion ( human society among ! objects ( natural sci5ce2 its wat*words 7 law & cause 9 ! s5se 9 :i* alone ,positivism all[$ causes to be ?\ght (--& sci5tific pr$iction4 #b ,x is true t ! l>ge conception ( unity :i* ,comte embodi$ 9 8 philosophy _h v mu* 9 common ) ! pr9ciples insi/$ on by ! ,greek social philosoph]s4 ,! close int]dep5d5ce ( all social ph5om5a among ea* o!r1 ! unity ( man ) nature1 & ! consequ5t correlation ( moral & political !ory ) ! organis$ hi]>*y ( ma!matical & physical sci5ces1 are ideas :i* ,comte might h borr[$ directly f ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,nev]!less ! mod]n />t+-po9t is :olly diff]5t f t ( antiquity4 ,! mod]n enquir]--! sociologi/ z su*--0 to ask himself1 accord+ to ,comte1 9 ! language ( physical sci5ce1 :at are ! laws & causes op]ative among aggregations ( human be+s1 & :at are _! pr$ictable effects8 ,! anci5t philosoph]--! e?ical & metaphysical !ori/--_h be=e him prim>ily ! problem1 8:at is ! complete/ & mo/ real life ( ! human s\l80 ,! "w ( ! latt] has be5 reviv$ by mod]n ideali/ philosophy dat+ f ,r\sseau & ,hegel1 & f9d+ a second #ai home 9 ,great ,brita91 z t ( ! =m] has develop$ itself )9 ! peculi> limits & traditions ( sociological rese>*1 fl\ri%+ m especially ^u ,fr5* & ,am]ican soil4 ,! cont9uance ( ^! two /reams ( ?\ght 9 indep5d5t c\rses1 ?\gh n )\t signs ( conv]g5ce1 is a rem>kable ph5om5on ( n9ete5? c5tury culture2 & x w be "o ( ! problems :i* ! pres5t *apt]1 & 9 a l>g] s5se ! :ole ( ! pres5t "w1 mu/ deal )1 to consid] h[ f> x is necess>y or desirable t !y %\ld bl5d4 #a ,j4 ,d4 ,rog]s 9 ,palgrave's ,dict4 ( ,pol4 ,econ41 art4 8,social ,sci5ce40 #b ,see ,gidd+'s ,sociology1 p4 #f4 #b4 ,e sci5ce1 no d\bt1 is to "s ext5t1 ! playgr\nd ( analogies2 b ! complexity & ! unmat]iality ( human relations has =c$ ?is "* ^u social !ory 9 an extraord9>y degree4 ,x is impossible to acc\nt = ! t5d5cies ( sociological z well z ( philosophical ?\ght )\t mak+ "s attempt to pursue ! l9e ( inve/igation sugge/$ by ,mr4 ,bagehot 9 8 ,physics & ,politics4 ,pr$om9ant modes & types ( exp]i5ce necess>ily col\r ! :ole activity ( ! m9d1 &1 z indicat$ above1 ?is influ5ce m especially affects a prov9ce ( rese>* :i* is n prima facie accessible to direct exp]im5t or s5su\s obs]vation4 ,i mu/1 !re=e1 endeav\r to review1 9 a brief outl9e1 ! pr9cipal bran*es ( exp]i5ce :i* h furni%$ ideas = application to social !ory1 & to indicate ! lean+s 9 speculation ^u society1 :i* h be5 due to preoccupation ) "o or ano!r special analogy4 i4 ,! ,newtonian !ory ( gravitation is ! entrance gate to ! mod]n _w ( sci5ce4 #bj 8,:5 ! ,newton ( ?is subject %all be seat$ 9 8 place0 #a is ! aspiration ( ! mod]n inve/igator 9 e matt] capable ( be+ kn[n4 ,x is n surpris+1 !re=e1 t ! inclusion ( human society )9 ! range ( matt]s capable ( be+ def9itely und]/ood1 %\ld h be5 symboliz$ by dem&+ = social sci5ce a complet5ess ( explanation & a p[] ( pr$iction analog\s to ^? display$ by a/ronomy or by ma!matical physics4 ,repres5tative ( ?is conception is ! title1 ,social ,physics--= ,comte ! alt]native & equival5t to ! "n ,sociology4 ,x is easy to see bo? ! m]its & ! dang]s ( su* an ideal1 :i*1 z ! embodim5t ( p]fection 9 a natural sci5ce1 is presuppos$ by ! attitude ( sociology d[n to ! pres5t day4 ,is a sci5ce necess>ily a natural sci5ce1 & is a natural sci5ce necess>ily an exact sci5ce8--^! are ! fundam5tal que/ions involv$ 9 ! adoption ( a ma!matical ideal = ! /udy ( society4 ,no fault c be f\nd ) x on ! gr\nd ( its imply+ ! highe/ degree ( h>mony & precision2 ! only "q is :e!r an adequate type ( comp>ison is af=d$ =1 let u say1 ! gr[? ( an in/itution1 by ! law ( a curve4 ,! g5]al conception1 inde$1 ( a cont9uity betwe5 human relations & ! laws ( ! cosmic ord] is ?or\ghly 9 ! _s ( ,plato1 & betok5s a sci5tific en?usiasm wor?y to be ! p>5t ( great ?+s4 ,& especially 9 ! sph]e ( economic sci5ce1 :]e c]ta9 relatively simple hypo!ses h prov$ on ! :ole to be effective in/rum5ts #ba ( explanation1 an analysis ( intricate ph5om5a has be5 effect$1 :i* 9 "s degree ju/ifies ! aspiration aft] ! ideal ( an exact sci5ce4 #a ,de ,morgan1 ,budget ( ,p>adoxes1 p4 #cee4 ii4 ,b x has be5 recognis$ f ! e>lie/ days ( political speculation t1 )9 ! g5]al ideal ( a p]fect natural sci5ce1 ! m special analogy ( ! liv+ organism _h a peculi> be>+ ^u social ph5om5a4 ,beg9n+ 9 ! anci5t _w ) ! comp>ison betwe5 individuals z 8memb]s0 ( a social :ole1 & ! p>ts or organs ( a liv+ body1 or ev5 ! con/itu5t elem5ts ( a m9d1 ?is analogy has be5 ext5d$ & re9=c$ 9 mod]n times by :at am\nts to ! new creation ( ! biological & an?ropological sci5ces4 ,! s5se ( cont9uity ?us int5sifi$ & imply+ all t is und]/ood by ! mod]n t]m evolution1 has br\ght an imm5se mat]ial ( sugge/ions to sociological rese>*1 b has impos$ ^u x at ! same "t a *>act]i/ic bias f :i* x is j1 p]haps1 beg9n+ to %ake itself free4 ,?is *>act]i/ic may be r\ghly /at$ z ! explanation ( ! high]1 by :i* ,i mean ! m di/9ctly human ph5om5a1 by ! l[]1 or ^? m readily obs]v$1 or inf]r$1 among savage nations1 or 9 ! animal _w4 ,any "o famili> ) logic w be aw>e t !re is a subtle & natural prejudice :i* t5ds to /r5g!n su* a bias by claim+ a high] degree ( reality = t :i*1 z com+ e>li] 9 temporal succession1 ,i pres5ts itself 9 ! light ( :at is call$ a ,i 8cause40 ,s /rong has be5 ?is bias among sociologi/s1 t ! /ud5t1 prim>ily int]e/$ 9 ! features & a*ievem5ts ( civilis$ society1 is #bb tempt$ to say 9 8 ha/e t ! sociologi/ #a z su* seldom deals s]i\sly ) true social ph5om5a at all2 b devotes 8 ma9 att5tion to primitive man & to ! l[] animals1 occasionally illu/rat+ 8 /udies 9 ^! regions by allusions1 %[+ no great insight or ma/]y1 to ! facts ( civiliz$ society4 ,su* a compla9t becomes less & less ju/ifi$ z ! ye>s g by1 & sociology recov]s its balance z aga9/ ! ov]:elm+ influ5ce ( ! sci5ces ( l[] life4 ,h[ f> ! approa* f ?is 8l[]0 or m purely natural side w rema9 9 ! end *>act]i/ic ( sociological sci5ce1 is an integral "p ( ! ma9 problem conc]n+ its nature & de/9y ) :i* we h to deal 9 ! pres5t "w4 ,b x rema9s true to say & v important to obs]ve1 t no su* s]i\s successes h z yet be5 won 9 ! "n & by ! special me?ods ( sociology z h be5 a*iev$ by _m inve/igators approa*+ _! problems directly & ) an imm$iate int]e/2 :e!r 9 ! sph]e ( political economy prop]1 or 9 deal+ ) v>i\s que/ions ( social & e?ical importance1 su* z paup]ism1 *>ity1 sanitation1 education1 ! condition ( ! p1 ! comp>ative /udy ( politics1 or ! analysis ( mat]ial & geographical conditions 9 _! reaction ^u social & arti/ic developm5t4 #a ,by a 8sociologi/ z su*0 ,i mean a writ] :o is pr(ess$ly deal+ ) sociology z su*4 ,any indep5d5t rese>*es1 su* z ,mr4 & ,mrs4 ,webb's ,indu/rial ,democracy1 may ( c\rse be rank$ "u ! head+ 8,sociology40 ,b works ( ?is k9d d n1 z a rule1 atta* !mselves to ! peculi> me?od & language ( sociological writ]s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re is no d\bt t ! #bc epo* & influ5ce ( :i* we speak has bequea!d a legacy ( imp]i%able value to ! !ory ( society4 ,9 a ^w1 x has made u s5sitive to ! cont9uity ( ?+s1 & !re=e also to _! unity4 ,x has %[n u ! cr[n+ a*ievem5ts ( ! human race1 _! ,/ates1 _! ,religion1 _! ,f9e ,art1 & _! ,sci5ce1 z ! high-wat] m>k ( t5d5cies t h _! beg9n+s f> back 9 ! primitive organic _w1 & 9 _! orig9al s\rces h also a connection ) ea* o!r--z 9 ! practical aspects ( religion1--:i* too easily escapes notice 9 _! highe/ individual developm5t4 ,! 8return to nature0 & ! 8noble savage0 h be5 inve/$ ) a significance :i* c nev] be =gott51 & :i* criticism c nev] set aside4 ,?is is ! sum & sub/ance ( ! g5]al contribution :i* ! latt] half ( ! eighte5? c5tury & ! great] "p ( ! n9ete5? h made to sociology ?r\gh ! sci5ce ( life & ( man4 ,m p>ticul>ly1 x is necess>y to notice ! d\ble op]ation ( biological influ5ce on sociology1 accord+ to ! unit f :i* ! analogy is drawn4 a4 ,! idea :i* /ill bulks mo/ l>gely 9 ! popul> m9d1 z contribut$ by biology to social !ory1 is unque/ionably t ( ! /ruggle = life or ! survival ( ! fitte/4 ,x %\ld be notic$ t ! social application ( ?is analogy re/s entirely on ! comp>ison ( a human society1 n to ! individual animal organism1 & /ill less to ! individual m9d2 b to a :ole animal species or ev5 to ! aggregate ( all animal species1 s f> z !y or _! memb]s are 9 competition ) "o ano!r4 ,"o :ole side ( ! sociological #bd doctr9e1 :i* ,mr4 ,sp5c] has advocat$ ) unwe>i$ p]si/5ce1 is f\nd$ ^u ?is application ( ! biological analogy1 & ! p>adox :i* he has made 8 pr9ciple pr(esses to be borr[$ directly f ! deal+s ( nature ) ! individuals ( ! animal species4 ,?is p>adox1 t b5efits %\ld be assign$ inv]sely z s]vices 9 infancy b directly z s]vices among adults1 is 8 ultimate sociological basis2 ! modification ( :i*1 to suit human society1 by ! introduction ( b5evol5ce or altruism1 s to speak1 on ! top ( x1 only s]ves to display its inadequacy4 ,b we may take x t ! analogy ( ! /ruggle = life has made x cle> t1 9 any giv5 position1 life c be ma9ta9$ only 9 virtue ( def9ite qualities adapt$ to t position4 ,& =mal z ?is pr9ciple is :5 tak5 by itself1 its application 9 human society c nev] be unnecess>y4 b4 ,a m rec5t s*ool has insi/$ on ! complem5t>y analogy1 :i* might be tak5 z re/+ ^u ! comp>ison ( a society ) an individual organism4 ,"h1 x mu/ be rememb]$1 lay ! resemblance :i*1 9 ?is region ( ideas1 fir/ caught ! eye ( social philosoph]s 9 antiquity4 ,b x is alleg$ t ! aspect ( co-op]ation c be trac$ z betwe5 individual memb]s ( ! animal _w no less ?an betwe5 ! p>ts ( a s+le organism1 & x is affirm$ t ! view :i* sees no?+ b int]nec9e competition 9 ! animal k+dom has be5 too r\gh & too sup]ficial 9 its read+ ( ! facts4 ,& !re=e x is sugge/$ t ! ph5om5a ( social fell[%ip1 no less ?an ^? ( individual competition1 h _! s\rce #be & root 9 ! _w ( l[] nature2 & p]haps sociology is n[ n f> f ! recognition t competition & co-op]ation are simply ! negative & positive aspect ( ! same g5]al fact--! fact ( ! division ( lab\r1 ( ess5tiality ( function1 & ( uniqu5ess ( true individual s]vice4 ,if x is sugge/$ by ! "o organic analogy t life dep5ds ^u qualities adequate to ! position :i* is to be fill$1 x is made obvi\s by ! o!r t ! qualities :i* satisfy ! claims ( a c]ta9 position are ^?1 9 g5]al & 9 pr9ciple1 by :i* a function is dis*>g$ 9 ! s]vice ( ! :ole4 ,9 ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s doctr9e ! two sides above indicat$ h be5 br\ght into v m>k$ relation by a sugge/ive criticism1 #a :i* he has tak5 special pa9s to answ]4 ,if human society corresponds to an individual organism--z is1 9 _m ways1 ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s well-kn[n doctr9e--h[ is x t ! absolute c5tral control 9 :i* ! p]fection ( an organism consi/s is1 = ,mr4 ,sp5c]1 a note ( imp]fection :5 x appe>s 9 a human society8 ,& ! answ] is 9 effect t human society corresponds 9 _m ( its features r to a local v>iety ( a species ?an to an individual organism4 ,x is ess5tially discrete1 n individual1 & at ?is po9t1 !re=e1 ! analogy ( ! individual organism gives way to t ( ! gr\p or species4 #a ,sociology1 i4 #ehf4 ,b ,mr4 ,sp5c] does n really mean t a human society has no m intr9sic bond betwe5 its memb]s ?an ! local gr\p ( an animal species4 ,to indicate its true nature he #bf gives u a good ^w--b a ^w only--! ^w 8sup]-organic40 #a ,x is a significant t]m1 & br+s u p]haps to ! limit ( :at biological sociology is able to sugge/ ) reg>d to ! unity ( a human commonweal?1 & po9ts u to some?+ beyond4 ,x is rem>kable t :5 ! facts ( true human society are m ?or\ghly realis$ ?an by ,mr4 ,sp5c]1 b ! clue ( ! individual organism & ! co-op]ative side ( animal life is n foll[$ up1 !re is a t5d5cy to sev] ! l9ks :i* unite man to 8l[]0 nature1 & to repres5t ! e?ical & cosmic processes z absolutely oppos$4 ,we see ?is po9t ( view decid$ly adopt$ by ,mr4 ,huxley1 #b & its adoption p]haps indicates ! inception ( an epo* 9 :i* sociology w cut itself free f a good deal ( pseudo-sci5tific lumb]4 ,nev]!less1 a pati5t & c>eful /udy w cont9ue to recognise ! elem5ts bo? ( competition & ( co-op]ation z in]adicable & insep>able mom5ts 9 human society z 9 ! animal _w2 ! ess5tial mean+ ( competition 9 its high] =ms be+ ! rejection & suppression ( memb]s :o are unable to meet ! ev] advanc+ dem& = co-op]ative "* & capacity2 & ! /udy ( p>asitism #c & ( regressive selection w cont9ue to #bg be a w>n+ aga9/ ! attempt to emancipate mank9d f ! /]n] g5]al conditions ( ! cosmic ord]4 ,x w be recognis$ t !re is an adaptation to conditions :i* consi/s 9 degradation2 b ! failure w be und]/ood by comp>ison ) ! only true 8survival ( ! fitte/10 #d be+ t :i* reveals ! full unity & significance ( organism & environm5t4 ,x is important to obs]ve t1 at lea/ 9 ! two em95t biologi/s j allud$ to1 ! doctr9e ( ! individual self--( ! relation betwe5 self-ass]tion & self-re/ra9t--is altoge!r ( an uncivilis$ & anti-social type4 ,biological categories d n1 9 _! case at lea/1 appe> to h af=d$ any sugge/ion = ! treatm5t ( ! social self z m & great]1 9 a positive s5se1 ?an ! self :i* is less b\nd up ) social obligations4 ,z = ! d5y+ spirits 9 ,plato's ,republic1 s = bo? ,mr4 ,sp5c] & ,mr4 ,huxley1 8nature0 is ess5tially self-ass]tion1 & 8society0 self-re/ra9t4 #e ,"h aga9 we t\* ! same limitation :i* met u 9 ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s t]m 8sup]-organic10 & we feel t a diff]5t po9t ( view mu/ be br\ght to be>4 #a ,sociology1 vol4 ,i41 *4 i4 #b ,evolution & ,e?ics1 p4 #hb4 #c ,g$des1 9 ,encyclo4 ,brit41 vol4 xviii4 #bec;a3 8,fur!r details ( ! process ( retrograde metamorphosis & ( ! enorm\sly important ph5om5a ( deg5]ation _c "h be attempt$2 x mu/ suffice if ! g5]al dep5d5ce ( su* *anges ^u simplification ( environm5t--fre$om f dang]1 abundant alim5tation & complete repose1 etc4 79 %ort1 ! conditions commonly consid]$ ^? ( complete mat]ial well-be+7--has be5 r5d]$ cle>]40 #d ,cf4 ,su!rl&1 ,orig9 & ,gr[? ( ! ,moral ,in/9ct1 vol4 ,i41 pp4 #bh1 #bi4 #e ,huxley1 ,evolution & ,e?ics1 p4 #ca2 ,sp5c]1 ,man v4 ,/ate1 p4 #ih4 iii4 ,political ,economy exi/$ be=e mod]n ,sociology 0 born1 & is /ill ! only "p ( x :i* is obvi\sly & indisputably successful z a sci5ce ( explanation4 ,! triumphant developm5t ( ?is !ory react$ ev5 ^u ,hegel's political philosophy1 by sugge/+ to him ! di/9ction betwe5 8,b\rgeois ,society0 & 8,! #bh ,/ate40 ,a =tiori1 x c\ld n b h a s]i\s influ5ce on ! gr[+ sci5ce ( sociology itself1 ! ideal ( :i* might n unfairly be reg>d$ z ! ext5sion to society z a :ole ( t type ( inve/igation :i* _h prov$ s successful 9 economic matt]4 ,f ?is influ5ce has aris5 ! t5d5cy 9 sociological rese>* :i* has be5 call$ by ! "n ( ! economic or mat]iali/ view ( hi/ory & consequ5tly ( society4 ,prim>ily connect$ ) ! "n ( ,m>x1 x may also be illu/rat$ by _m cont5tions ( ,buckle & ,le ,play1 & has become1 inde$1 ! =mula ( a s*ool4 ,9 sum1 ! po9t ( view am\nts to ?is3 t ! fundam5tal /ructure ( civilisation1 ! type ( ! family1 = example1 & ! ord] relations & developm5t ( classes 9 society1 h be5 & mu/ be det]m9$ by ! prim>y necessities ( human exi/5ce1 & ! conditions ( climate & nutrition "u :i* ^! necessities are met4 ,economic facts alone1 x is sugge/$1 are real & causal2 ev]y?+ else is an appe>ance & an effect4 ,be=e say+ a ^w z to ! true importance ( ?is po9t ( view1 we may pr(itably correct ! commonplace idea ( its nature4 ,mat]ialism1 9 a /rict philosophical s5se1 means ! conviction t no?+ is real b t :i* is solid1 or1 p]haps1 :i* gravitates4 ,by a n v conv9c+ analogy f ?is idea1 all ^? passions & necessities :i* we speak ( 9 a q loose & popul> way z connect$ ) ! body1 may be & (t5 are reg>d$ z 8mat]ial0 9 opposition to en]gies :i* x seems pleasant] #bi to ascribe to incorporeal m9d4 ,b x %\ld be not$ t ?is second>y usage1 especially 9 a "t :5 no "o d5ies ! physical correlation ( all psy*ical activity1 has no important e?ical implication4 ,l ! 8fle%0 or ! 8body0 ( ,/4 ,paul's religi\s language1 ! 8bodily0 or 8mat]ial0 ne$s & appetites ( man are an elem5t ( m9d1 ! rank & value ( :i* mu/ be det]m9$ on o!r gr\nds ?an ! notion t !y are connect$ 9 "s peculi> degree ) 8physical0 conditions4 ,! economic view ( hi/ory has be5 call$ & has call$ itself mat]iali/ p>tly because ( ! commonplace usage1 :i* ,i h j describ$1 by :i* c]ta9 passions & necessities1 :i* x takes to be fundam5tal1 are apt to be call$ mat]ial z oppos$ to e?ical or ideal--a :olly unju/ifi$ opposition--& p>tly f ! notion1 :i* ,i ref]r$ to at ! beg9n+ ( ?is *apt]1 t ! success ( political economy 0 9 "s way analog\s to t ( ! ma!matical sci5ce ( ab/ract matt]4 ,/ripp+ (f1 !n1 ! unju/ifi$ sugge/ion ( philosophical mat]ialism1 #a :at we h 9 ! economic view ( hi/ory1 am\nts pretty mu* to :at is express$ 9 ! say+ t :ile /atesm5 are argu+1 love & hung] are gov]n+ mank9d4 ,climate & natural res\rces make a #cj diff]5ce to hi/ory2 occupations det]m9e ! type ( ! family2 an agricultural & an indu/rial society w nev] exhibit ! same relations betwe5 classes1 & v va/ comm]cial op]ations _c be c>ri$ on by ! same me?ods or by ! same m9ds :i* suffic$ = ! retail trade ( a petty %op4 ,b :5 x is cle>ly se5 t economic ne$s & devices are no deta*$1 nor1 s to speak1 absolutely antec$5t dep>tm5t ( human life #b--;a fact :i* ! epi!t 8mat]iali/0 has done some?+ to obscure1 =1 9 tru?1 9 economics !re is no "q ( g5u9e mat]ial causation--!n x becomes obvi\s t we h n "h any prior det]m9+ framework ( social exi/5ce1 b simply c]ta9 important aspects ( ! op]ations ( ! human m9d1 r n>r[ly reg>d$ 9 _! isolation f all o!rs4 ,if we s]i\sly consid] ! import ( su* an economic conception z ! 8/&>d ( life10 x becomes pla9 t ! contra/ too commonly accept$ #c betwe5 ! me*anical pressure ( economic facts & ! influ5ce ( ideas #d /&s 9 ne$ ( a completely fre% criticism & ( entire re/atem5t4 ,disc\nt+1 h[ev]1 ! exagg]ations :i* h aris5 f confus$ notions ( mat]ialism1 & f ! g5u9e a*ievem5ts ( economic sci5ce1 we h rema9+1 9 ! po9t ( view "u consid]ation1 a ?or\ghly j ass]tion ( man's cont9uity ) #ca ! _w ar\nd him4 ,und\bt$ly man lives ! life ( 8 planet1 8 climate1 & 8 locality1 & is ! utt]ance1 s to speak1 ( ! conditions "u :i* 8 race & 8 nation h evolv$4 ,! only difficulty arises if1 by "s arbitr>y l9e betwe5 man & 8 environm5t1 ! conditions :i* are ! v mat]ial ( 8 life come to be treat$ z ali5 influ5ces ^u x1 ) ! result ( repres5t+ him z be+ ! slave ( 8 surr\nd+s r ?an _! conc5trat$ idea & articulate expression4 ,d we ?9k t ,hom]1 ,dante1 & ,%akespe>e w\ld h be5 great] or m free 9 _! g5ius if "o _h n be5 ! voice ( ,greece1 ano!r t ( ,italy1 & ! ?ird t ( ,engl&8 ,! _w 9 :i* man lives is himself1 b is con/itut$1 ( c\rse1 by pres5tation to a m9d & n by /rictly physical causation2 & ev5 :]e /rictly physical causation plays a "p1 z 9 ! bodily effects ( a hot climate or ( a c]ta9 k9d ( nutrition1 /ill x _c det]m9e a type ( human life except by pass+ into ! _w :i* a human be+ pres5ts to himself4 #a ,q probably !re may be 9 ! ,m>xian view an e*o ( true mat]ialism--! idea t w & consci\sness are 8epiph5om5a0 i4e4 are effects :i* are n causes g5]at$ by molecul> movem5ts4 ,su* a view _c be criticis$ "h1 only x may be po9t$ out t1 on su* a basis1 ! 8bodily0 passions1 etc41 are 9 no way m 8mat]ial0 ?an1 e4g41 ! moral 8categorical imp]ative10 & !re=e no m causal4 #b ,see note #d4 #b ,cf4 e4g4 ,durkheim1 ,annee ,sociologique1 #ahig1 p4 #aei4 #d ,i4e4 z if economic conditions 7 a sort ( iron gird]s put up to beg9 ) & civilisation 0 ! embelli%m5t ( !m4 ,x is ! old /ory ( =gett+ t ! skeleton is lat] ?an ! body1 & is deposit$ & m\ld$ by x4 ,! exclusive importance :i* has be5 atta*$ to consid]ations ( ?is k9d 9 rec5t social !ory is p>tly due to an unf\nd$ op9ion ( _! novelty4 ,x is some:at /rik+1 ?\gh foll[+ naturally en\gh f ! sort ( s*ism 9 ! _w ( lett]s :i* mod]n sociology & anci5t social philosophy repres5t1 t ! firm & well balanc$ h&l+ ( ^! problems :i* we owe to ,plato & ,ari/otle is = ! mo/ "p ignor$ by mod]n sociologi/s4 #cb ,! entire social conception ( ^? writ]s is a cont9u$ application ( ! pr9ciple1 fundam5tal 9 _! :ole philosophy1 t 8=m0 is ! inh]5t organis+ life ( 8matt]10 s t ! bett] life ( a commonweal? c be no?+ b ! fl[] & cr[n ( ! possibilities inh]5t 9 its mat]ial conditions & indu/rial & economic organisation4 ,! law :i* is ultimately to reveal itself z ! spr+ ( all righte\sness 9 ! ,/ate1 has its mo/ obvi\s & ext]nal symbol--s ,plato tells u--9 ! economic ex*ange ( s]vices2 & e circum/ance ( site1 & indu/ry1 & trade1 & ! racial type ( ! citiz51 helps to con/itute1 bo? = him & = ,ari/otle1 ! liv+ organic possibility f :i*1 9 "s appropriate individual =m1 ! high] life is to spr+4 ,if we ask ourselves :at !n is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! anci5t view ( economic causation1 & t ( ! 8mat]iali/0 hi/orical s*ool1 we %all f9d ! answ] 9 ! abs5ce1 f ! =m]1 ( t unreal isolation ^u :i* we obs]v$ above4 ,! relation ( 8matt]0 or 8conditions0 to 8=m0 or 8purpose0 is n1 = ! ,greek ?9k]1 ! pressure ( an ali5 necessity1 ( a ho/ile environm5t1 b ! upspr++ ( a life1 cont9u\s 9 pr9ciple ?r\gh all its phases4 ,! ?\ght ( ! legislator fixes 9 ! %ape ( di/9ct consci\sness & w1 :at ! assemblage ( conditions embodies z a physical or in/9ctive t5d5cy1 z ! arti/1 to use an anci5t simile1 f9ds ! /atue 9 ! m>ble4 ,work+ ) ?is idea1 ! connection is f> m ?or\ghly1 because m sympa!tically1 trac$ ?an x c be :5 we ?9k t our sci5ce is b lay+ b>e ! fett]s ( humanity4 ,& foll[+ #cc 9 ! _s ( ! ,greek ?9k]s !mselves1 mod]n /ud5ts ( antiquity h devot$ !mselves to elicit+ ! positive connection ( conditions ) hi/ory1 up to a po9t ( success ( :i* ! common run ( mod]n sociologi/s appe> to h no conception4 ,:5 we reflect h[ typical &1 comp>atively speak+1 h[ readily isolat$ & exhau/$ is ! hi/ory ( ,anci5t ,greece 9 ! greate/ age1 x seems extraord9>y t ! consid]able & m9ute rese>*es :i* h be5 be/[$ ^u its geographical1 comm]cial1 & economic conditions %\ld n be commonly drawn into acc\nt ) a view to ! illu/ration ( ! relations betwe5 natural res\rces1 comm]cial & economic developm5t1 & hi/orical greatness4 #a #a ,i h nev]1 = example1 se5 ! great "w ( ,ern/ ,curtius1 on ! geography ( ! ,peloponnese 9 connection ) its hi/orical developm5t1 ref]r$ to 9 any sociological treatise2 nor1 aga91 ,dunck]1 nor ,b*s5s*tz1 nor ,mr4 ,newman's edition ( ,ari/otle's ,politics4 ,boeckh's ,treatise on ! ,public ,economy ( ,a!ns receives only a ^w ( contemptu\s notice 9 ,m',cullo*'s ,lit]ature ( ,political ,economy4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 "h at any rate1 9 ! analysis ( economic & quasi-economic conditions 9 _! be>+ ^u ! life ( peoples1 we get a real subject-matt] :i* is p]haps1 s f> z c yet be se51 ! t]ritory lea/ disputably belong+ to ! pure sociologi/4 ,x is n really a sph]e ( natural causation1 b x is a sph]e ( c]ta9 simple & g5]al conditions 9 psy*ical life1 correspond+ to ext]nal facts :i* admit ( m or less precise /atem5t1 &1 we may hope1 ( r$uction to fairly tru/wor?y uni=mities4 ,su* = in/ance are ,m4 ,durkheim's inve/igations on ! effect ( #cd d5sity ( population ^u ! division ( lab\r1 #a or ,pr(essor ,gidd+'s obs]vations ^u ! causes & limit+ conditions ( ! aggregation ( populations4 #b ,we n[ proce$ to a bran* ( exp]i5ce :i* s]i\sly /ra9s ! work+ conceptions ( ! sociologi/4 #a ,de la ,division du ,travail ,social1 ,alcan1 #ahic4 #b ,pr9ciples ( ,sociology1 bk4 ,,ii41 *4 i4 ,few ?+s are m int]e/+ 9 ?is respect ?an ,mr4 ,poore's obs]vations 9 ,rural ,hygi5e on ! me*anical conditions ( mod]n city life1 z reg>ds dra9age & wat] supply1 ) _! results 9 enc\rag+ an ov]cr[d$ & insanit>y mode ( liv+4 iv4 ,a completely new vi/a reveals itself to ! /ud5t ( social !ory :5 he turns f biological analogies & economic conditions to consid] ! weal? ( exp]i5ce & ( ideas :i* is furni%$ to him by ,jurisprud5ce & ! ,sci5ce ( ,"r4 ,he kn[s1 inde$1 by ?is "t1 t ! obvi\s aspect ( a prov9ce ( fact w n be ! only "o1 & t a unity w c]ta9ly be traceable betwe5 all ! facets ( social exi/5ce4 ,b none ! less1 he w be able to re/ra9 ! it* to expla9 ?+s away1 & he w fairly & c&idly give weight to ! significance & sugge/iv5ess ( ! mass ( hi/ory & ( reflection :i* is n[ br\ght be=e him4 a4 ,= "h1 z ! pla9e/ & mo/ unmi/akable data ( exp]i5ce1 we are confront$ ) ideal facts4 ,! va/ mass ( docum5ts :i* =m ! basis ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,"r--a m complete & compreh5sive set ( records1 p]haps1 ?an any o!r bran* ( social sci5ce c boa/--be>s witness 9 e case to "o social ph5om5on at lea/1 to a =mal act ( m9d & w1 aim$ at ma9ta9+ "s relative "r or #ce h9d]+ "s relative wrong1 & /amp$ ) :at 9 "s s5se & 9 "s degree am\nts to a social recognition4 ,!ori/s h said too ha/ily1 ?\gh ) a s\nd mean+1 t "r is indep5d5t ( fact4 ,x w\ld be z true to say t reason is indep5d5t ( civilisation1 or ! s\l indep5d5t ( culture4 ,"r is n exhau/$ 9 ! facts ( pa/ hi/ory2 b x is at e mom5t embodi$ 9 facts2 & to compreh5d t ! social ph5om5a :i* are among ! mo/ solid & unyield+ ( our exp]i5ces1 are nev]!less ideal 9 _! nature1 & consi/ ( consci\s recognitions1 by intellig5t be+s1 ( ! relations 9 :i* !y /&1 is to make a great /ep t[>ds grasp+ ! ess5tial task ( sci5ce 9 deal+ ) society4 ,f ! beg9n+ ( social !ory ! facts ( law h be5 set 9 opposition to ! idea ( a natural gr[?4 ,x has be5 obs]v$ t1 z a def9ite in/itution ma9ta9$ by =mal acts ( w1 society is artificial1 conv5tional1 contractual4 ,we all "k to-day t !re is mu* m ?an ?is to be said ab\t ! nature & pr9ciples ( social gr[?4 ,nev]!less1 x rema9s true t ! social :ole has an artificial aspect1 an aspect ( w & ( design1 ( ! agreem5t & mutual recognition ( free consci\s be+s4 ,& 9 s f> z ! hi/ory ( law has result$ 9 ! conception ( natural "r1 ?is 9 no way d]ogates f ! artificial or ideal "* ( society z above und]/ood4 ,= 8natural0 "r belongs to a 8nature0 :i* includes & does n exclude t action ( intellig5ce 9 virtue ( :i* society may be t]m$ artificial2 & is #cf m]ely ! revelation ( ! pr9ciple t[>ds :i* ! social w is work+1 & :i* 9 "s degree x has always embodi$4 ,!re=e ! facts ( ,jurisprud5ce & ! ,sci5ce ( ,"r1 or ( 8,natural ,"r10 z ! issue & outcome ( ,jurisprud5ce1 necess>ily c\nt]balance ! extreme ideas ( cont9u\s gr[? & natural causation :i* social sci5ce d]ives f o!r analogies4 ,we are rem9d$ t1 aft] all1 we are deal+ ) a self-consci\s purposive organism1 :i* is aw>e ( a bett] & a worse1 & has memb]s b\nd toge!r by consci\s intellig5ce1 ?\gh1 x may be1 n by consci\s intellig5ce alone4 ,at "o "t ! ideas ( ,jurisprud5ce1 su* z ,sov]eignty or ,contract1 7 consid]$ suffici5t by !mselves to equip a social !ory4 ,& if !y are n[ se5 to ne$ completion f bo? sides1--f ! side ( l[] nature1 & f ! side ( ! national _s & culture1--?is %\ld n make u neglectful ( ! important tru?s :i* ! facts ( law & recognis$ obligation1 m ?an any o!rs1 e/abli% on solid gr\nd4 b4 ,x is ( c\rse ! case t ,law has be5 treat$ f ! /&po9t ( economic hi/ory 9 ! same way z ! o!r ph5om5a ( civilis$ life4 ,x may be tak5 simply z ! =m into :i* sub/antive relations cry/allise1 "u ! influ5ce ( economic conditions or ( o!r elem5t>y social =ces4 ,& obvi\sly su* a view has its tru?4 ,! social w1 l ! w ( any "o ( u f day to day1 is =m$ n 9 vacuo1 b z ! focus ( all ! influ5ces :i* p5etrate our be+4 ,x is a fair object ( #cg rese>* to asc]ta9 ! economic or o!r social mean+ ( ! /atutes :i* we f9d on ! /atute book2 & x is because !y h s mu* mean+ t !y are excell5t object-lessons 9 ! play ( ! social consci\sness & s5se ( "r4 ,b ?is focuss+ ( social influ5ces makes ! laws n less acts ( social w1 b m4 ,to suppose ! contr>y w\ld be l suppos+ t no?+ is a true act ( w :i* embodies an individual's di/9ctive purposes 9 life4 ,i w expla9 by an illu/ration ! relative value ( sociological analysis 9 deal+ ) ! facts ( positive law4 ,i am indebt$ = x to ,m4 ,durkheim1 ^: writ+s appe> to me among ! mo/ orig9al & sugge/ive works ( mod]n sociology4 ,i regret t my imm$iate purpose does n ju/ify me 9 /at+ & appreciat+ ! :ole v int]e/+ !ory ( repressive & contractual law f :i* ! po9t 9 "q is select$4 ,an act is a crime1 #a we are told1 = ! pure sociologi/1 :5 x (f5ds ! /rong & def9ite collective s5tim5ts ( society4 ,?is is ! /rictly causal view ( ! matt]4 ,! act is a crime because x (f5ds2 x does n (f5d because x is a crime4 ,& ! coroll>ies are valuable4 ,x is idle to di/+ui%1 on su* a basis1 betwe5 ! re=matory1 ! retributive1 & ! det]r5t views ( ! reaction :i* is puni%m5t4 #b ,an (f5sive act is 9 itself at once an exhibition ( "*1 an injury1 & a m5ace4 ,if a man #ch assaults me 9 ! /reet1 & ,i knock him d[n2 h[ futile to ask if my action is meant to cure him ( 8 insol5ce1 to puni% him = hav+ hit me1 or to prev5t him f hitt+ me aga96 ,! real fact is t ,i am (f5d$1 & ,i react by way ( injury & negation aga9/ t :i* (f5ds me4 ,n[1 ?is view1 ,i ?9k1 illum9ates ! subject4 ,by go+ back to ! simple op]ative cause1 z x may be suppos$ to exi/ especially 9 ! m9d ( a tribe 9 an e>ly /age ( developm5t 7,m4 ,durkheim is *iefly ref]r+ to religi\s (f5ces71 we h got a pla9 type ( m5tal reaction1 easy to imag9e & to und]/&4 ,9 ?is type we see at once ! unity ( aspects :i* ! =ms ( law1 & legal or philosophical !ory1 t5d lat] to dissociate 9 a fictiti\s degree4 ,& moreov] we are rem9d$ t a law mu/ h some?+ beh9d x2 "s positive s5tim5t or conviction1 )\t :i* x w\ld be unacc\ntable & unmean+4 #a ,durkheim1 ,op4 cit41 livre ,i41 *4 ii4 #b ,see *4 viii4 bel[4 ,b :5 all ?is is said1 x mu/ n be suppos$ t p5al law has be5 r$uc$ to ! level ( a /rong & def9ite collective s5tim5t1 or a crime to ! level ( an annoyance4 ,! simple/ p5al law ( a self-exi/5t social gr\p is diff]5t f ! ang] ( a cr[d or mob4 ,!re is 9 x "s s5se ( p]man5ce1 & p]man5ce means responsibility & g5]ality--a di/9ction ( "r & wrong4 ,! fact ( =mally con/itut+ a crime1 i4e4 ( ann\nc+ a law1 implies t m]e di/a/e is no gr\nd ( puni%m5t4 ,! law means t !re is some?+ wor? ma9ta9+1 & t ?is is recognis$1 & t to violate ?is recognition is n m]ely to be unpopul>1 b to #ci s9 aga9/ ! common good1 & to break an obligation4 ,) less ?an ?is !re is no true crime4 ,?us1 if ,i am "r1 ! relation ( pure 8sociological0 causation to juri/ic facts is ! well-kn[n relation ( ! m ab/ract to ! m concrete sci5ces1 usually illu/rat$ 9 logic by ! relation ( ! physical & ! musical acc\nt ( musical s\nd4 ,= ! pure physici/1 a h>mony & a discord are only two diff]5t comb9ations ( %ak+s4 ,= ! musician !y are n only opposite effects1 b are causes ( div]g5t consequ5ces4 ,s ) ! relation betwe5 a /rong collective s5tim5t & a true law4 ,a /rong s5tim5t1 z su*1 is a m]e fact1 a m]e =ce2 & z su* ! sociologi/ reg>ds x4 ,a law involves ! pret5sion to w :at is j1 & is !re=e a s5tim5t & some?+ m1 viz41 ! po9t ( view ( social good4 ,x aims at a "r & implies a wrong1 & dem&s to be appreh5d$ & judg$ on ?is gr\nd4 ,a m]e =ce _c by its reaction con/itute a crime2 = t a law is necess>y4 ,! ideal aspect ( law z recognition ( "r is no less actual1 no less solid & v]ifiable1 ?an ! facts ( s5tim5t or necessity :i* may h sugge/$ & su/a9$ x4 ,9 ?is way ! relation ( sociological causation to ! facts ( ,jurisprud5ce is typical ( ! :ole relation ( ,sociology conceiv$ z a natural sci5ce1 to ! l>g] facts ) :i* social !ory has to deal4 v4 ,b ! ideas involv$ 9 m]e legality1 ?\gh !y be> emphatic te/imony to ! consci\s & artificial aspect ( ! social :ole1 h always #dj be5 reg>d$ ) "s ju/ice z ! type ( :at is empty & =mal4 ,to treat a law z a comm& ) a p5alty annex$1 or to enunciate ! t5d5cy ( social progress z be+ f /atus to contract1 may convey important mean+s1 b is obvi\sly v f> %ort ( ! :ole tru?4 ,&1 inde$1 g5]alisations ( ?is k9d1 ?\gh *>act]i/ic ( a c]ta9 class ( reflective ,jurisprud5ce1 d n at all repres5t ! highe/ level :i* has be5 rea*$ )9 ! sci5ce ( "r itself4 ,b yet1 z we pass beyond ^! ev]yday work+ conceptions1 we are beg9n+ to leave ! c5tral gr\nd ( ,jurisprud5ce1 & to move t[>ds a po9t ( view :i* deals m completely ) life & culture4 ,! ne$ & occasion = su* a po9t ( view may be measur$ by t revival ( national individuality :i* 0 ref]r$ to 9 ! la/ *apt] z con/itut+ ! true gr\nd & occasion = ! rebir? ( g5u9e political philosophy 9 mod]n times4 ,montesquieu's inve/igation into ! 8_s ( laws10 & 8 treatm5t ( a law z some?+ deep] ?an a comm&1 foll[+ ^u ! simil> endeav\rs ( ,vico1 0 9 fact a recognition ( ! fundam5tal unity ( a national civilisation1 :i*1 on its political side1 ev5 ,hobbes & ,locke _h already attempt$ to expla9 by help ( ! inadequate in/rum5ts furni%$ to !m by legal !ory4 ,montesquieu's & ,vico's conceptions 7 only ! =]unn]s ( ! _m-sid$ /udy ( civilisation :i* *>act]is$ ! latt] "p ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 foll[+ up ! problem :i* 0 enunciat$ 9 ,r\sseau's p>adox1 t 8law itself mu/ be creat$ by ! social _s :i* x aims at creat+40 ,to recognise ! social _s #da ( a p1 z ! c5tral unity beh9d its law & culture & politics1 0 ! pr9ciple ( ! v>i\s rese>*es deal+ ) =mative art1 poetry1 language1 religion1 & ! /ate1 :i* m>k$ ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury 7comp>e ,wolf's !ory ( ,hom] z ! utt]ance ( a racial m9d71 & laid ! f\ndation ( n9ete5? c5tury idealism4 ,! true ,greek r5aissance1 initiat$ 9 ! age ( ,w9ckelmann1 =c+ mod]n m9ds into contact ) ,hell5ic ideas 9 _! orig9al =m1 & no long] ?r\gh ,lat9 int]m$i>ies1 furni%$ a type & focus = ^! rese>*es by br++ be=e ! ?\ghts ( /ud5ts ! brilliant individuality ( ! anci5t city-/ate1 ! crude traditions ( :i* _h already ex]cis$ ! mo/ p[]ful influ5ce on ,r\sseau1 & ?r\gh him on ! ,revolution4 ,at ! same "t ! organic sci5ces 7 full ( activity4 ,! life-"w ( ,goe! m>ks ! p>allelism ( ! two movem5ts4 ,x is pla9 t ! doctr9es ( ,comte 7 no m ?an a v "o-sid$ attempt to =mulate ! significance ( ! f]m5tation ar\nd him1 & t deeply z he felt ! unity ( ! social be+1 8 expression ( x ignor$ half ! lesson ( ! times4 ,?us ! g5]alities ( ,jurisprud5ce are vitalis$ & complet$ by ! "w ( ! sci5ces ( culture2 & ! conception ( a national m9d & "* takes its unque/ion$ place 9 mod]n social !ory4 ,x may be well at ?is po9t also to call att5tion to ! rese>*es :i* lat] hi/orians h direct$ to :at may be call$ 8,comp>ative ,politics02 ! relations1 t is1 ( communities "u gov]nm5t ) respect to ! #db mode 9 :i* !y are gov]n$4 #a ,= ?is bran* ( inquiry once m1 ?\gh n>r[ & empty by itself1 yet does aid 9 br++ to light ! purposive & consci\s "* ( society1 & 9 correct+ ! t5d5cy to treat x altoge!r z a 8natural0 ph5om5on4 #a ,freeman's ,comp>ative ,politics1 & ,seeley's ,introduction to ,political ,sci5ce4 vi4 8,& s ! :irligig ( ,"t br+s ab\t 8 rev5ges40 ,fr5* ,sociology to-day is a psy*ological sci5ce1 ?\gh its f\nd] bani%$ psy*ology f 8 sociological me?od4 ,no?+ is m in/ructive ?an to wat* ! gradual pressure ( ! v>i\s po9ts ( view :i* are emphasis$ by ! v>i\s dep>tm5ts ( social exp]i5ce1 z !y reveal1 "u criticism1 _! t5d5cy to complete !mselves & "o ano!r by sugge/+ ! only category :i* is adequate to !m z a :ole4 ,z e s]i\s /ud5t ( social matt]s kn[s by 8 own exp]i5ce1 x is impossible to t\* a physical fact1 or a /ati/ical datum1 or a legal enactm5t1 9 ref]5ce to its social be>+1 )\t its at once1 s to speak1 com+ alive 9 8 h&s1 & atta*+ itself to an und]ly+ relation ( m9d z ! only unity :i* w make x intelligible1 & correlate x ) o!r exp]i5ces1 by !mselves no less fragm5t>y4 ,9 /ati/ics1 = example1 y t\* a mov+ creature1 z if ?r\gh ! holes 9 a wall1 at ?is po9t & ! o!r1 & write d[n :]e y h t\*$ him4 #a ,b to see ! creature z he is1 & comb9e y\r in=mation ( all k9ds 9 a j & complete idea1 y #dc mu/ get him into ! op54 ,& t1 :5 ! "q is ( a life1 y c only d by recon/ruct+ 8 m9d1 = ev5 to see a social unit ) y\r eyes gives y a fragm5t only1 & n a :ole4 ,on ,fridays1 we are told1 ! pass5g] traffic returns ( ,fr5* railways1 omnibuses1 & /eam]s %[ a decl9e4 #b ,:at dumb fact is ?is8 ,p d n l to travel on ,fridays1 or pref] to travel ^u o!r days4 ,:at is ?is pref]5ce8 ,! only unity t c really af=d an explanation1 t c correlate ?is irregul> fragm5t ( fact ) ! :ole to :i* x belongs1 is ! liv+ m9d & w ( ! society 9 :i* ! ph5om5on occurs4 ,explanation aims at ref]r+ ?+s to a :ole2 & !re is no true :ole b m9d4 ,necess>ily1 !re=e1 ) wid5+ exp]i5ce & deep5+ criticism1 m9d has become ! c5tre ( ! exp]i5ces focuss$ by sociology4 #a ,cf4 ,aspects ( ! ,social ,problem 7,macmillan1 #ahie71 ,c4,s4 ,lo* on 8,returns 9 ,social ,sci5ce10 p4 #bhg4 #b ,t>de1 ,les ,lois de l',imitation1 p4 #aae4 ,we may note "s significant po9ts 9 ?is developm5t1 al?\gh1 inde$1 ! :ole c\rse ( mod]n sociology is "o s+le illu/ration ( :at has j be5 said4 ,discussions ( ! problem 9 :at ! diff]5tia ( society consi/s1 no long] deal ) organic or economic conceptions1 b ) su* ideas z ! 8,consci\sness ( k9d10 #a ! 8,m9d ( a ,cr[d10 #b 8,imitation0 & 8,inv5tion10 #c simil>ities & diff]5ces 9 ! social consci\sness1 #d 8,social logic0 & society consid]$ z a syllogism1 #e & ! imitative & #dd inv5tive p]son4 #f ,! "w ( ,m4 ,t>de 9 p>ticul> is typical ( ! :ole movem5t1 & 8 phrases h l>gely be5 adopt$ :e!r 9 agreem5t or 9 controv]sy4 ,= him ! "o fact coext5sive ) ! social "* is 8,imitation0--! means by :i* ideas & practices spread ?r\gh\t gr\ps & masses ( intellig5t be+s4 ,= ! *>act]i/ic ( kn[able ph5om5a1 9 8 view1 is ,repetition1 & ,imitation is ! means & vehicle ( ,repetition 9 social matt]s4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 we h acc\nt$ only = g5]alisation1 & diff]5tiation ne$s a sep>ate orig94 ,?is w be suppli$ by ! idea ( 8,inv5tion20 ,inv5tion & ,imitation1 !re=e1 are ! g5]al =m ( all social process1 ! matt] on ! o!r h& be+ analysable z ,belief & ,desire4 ,e in/itution is a belief1 #g e activity is a want or desire4 ,9 ! ,logique ,sociale ^! conceptions ( ! g5]al m$ium & process ( social life are pu%$ home into ! actual =mative op]ation ( ! social m9d & w4 ,society1 we are told1 may be comp>$ n inde$ to an organism1 b r to a bra92 x is a coop]ative m9d1 a syllogism1 9 :i* ! pr9ciples held by "o "p are modifi$ & appli$ by ano!r4 ,m4 ,t>de's extreme illu/rative hypo!sis corresponds /rangely ) "o ?r[n out by ,mr4 ,sidgwick4 ,mr4 ,sidgwick #h has simplifi$ an e?ical "q by suppos+ only a s+le s5ti5t consci\s be+ 9 ! univ]se2 = ,m4 #de ,t>de !re is1 we might say1 no s+le be+ at all2 ! typical social man is a hypnotical creature1 a somnambuli/ act+ "u sugge/ions f o!rs1 ?\gh he does n "k x1 & is "u ! illusion t he is himself4 #i ,no?+ c\ld be ( high] int]e/ ?an to see ! necessities ( social sci5ce ?us work+ !mselves out1 on slipp]y & unfamili> gr\nd1 by ! %e] =ce ( facts & exp]i5ce4 ,t a sci5ce ( man mu/ be a sci5ce ( m9d seems no long] disputable4 #a ,gidd+s1 p4 #ag4 #b ,le ,bon1 ,psy*ologie des ,f\les4 #c ,t>de1 ,les ,lois de l',imitation4 #d ,durkheim1 ,la ,division du ,travail ,social4 #e ,t>de1 ,la ,logique ,sociale4 #f ,baldw91 ,social & ,e?ical ,int]pretations 9 ,m5tal ,developm5t4 #g ,p]haps ?is expression orig9ates ) ,fu/el de ,c\langes 9 ,la ,cit ,antique4 #h ,me?ods ( ,e?ics1 p4 #cgd4 #i ,les ,lois de l',imitation1 p4 #hc4 ,on ! sub/ance ( ?is developm5t !re is "o obs]vation :i* inevitably sugge/s itself to any critic :o approa*es ! problem f ! philosophical side4 ,necess>ily1 z ! relation ( ! individual to society is ! root ( e social problem1 psy*ological sociology consi/s to a great ext5t 9 ex]cises ^u ! !me ( id5tity & diff]5ce4 ,^! ex]cises h hi!rto be5 = ! mo/ "p unconsci\s & involunt>y4 ,& ! high degree ( sub/antial tru? :i* is atta9$ by inquir]s :o h n ?\ght ! logic ( id5tity wor?y ( a s+le glance1 is ! /ronge/ possible confirmation ( ! common exp]i5ce t x is saf] to neglect !ory ?an to be c>eless ( facts4 ,nev]!less1 x has n[ become app>5t1 t a po9t has be5 atta9$ at :i* logical criticism is absolutely ess5tial1 or if n logical criticism1 at lea/ "s ref]5ce to ! famili> & well-e/abli%$ results ( anci5t or mod]n social philosophy4 ,= x is a univ]sal *>act]i/ic ( ! #df sociological movem5t be=e u1 t id5tity & diff]5ce are ref]r$ to diff]5t sph]es1 & ! 8"o0 & ! 8o!r0 are reg>d$ z reciprocally exclusive atoms4 #a ,! difficulties & fallacies :i* ?us arise are innum]able4 ,?us we h ! contagi\s common feel+ ( a cr[d #b tak5 z ! true type ( a collective m9d1 obvi\sly because x is n und]/ood h[ an id5tical /ructure c include ! diff]5ces1 ! rational di/9ctions & relations1 :i* really con/itute ! work+ m9d ( any society4 ,s aga9 we h "o type ( law m>k$ (f z correspond+ to social similitude1 #c :ile a diff]5t type corresponds to ! social division ( lab\r2 simply because ! category ( resemblance has be5 sub/itut$ = t ( id5tity1 & is treat$ z exclusive ( diff]5tiation2 ) ! result ( a really t]rible di/ortion ( facts 9 ! attempt to sep>ate ! :ole sph]e ( p5al enactm5t f t :i* deals ) indu/rial organisation4 ,s ) ! entire set ( notions ( 8,imitation10 8,repetition0 & 8,inv5tion40 #d ,! sep>ation ( ,imitation & ,inv5tion is simply ! popul> exclusion ( ,diff]5ce f ,id5tity2 :ile ! treatm5t ( ,repetition z ! *>act]i/ic ( kn[able ph5om5a & ! mode ( utt]ance ( social ,imitation means ! re/riction ( rational ,id5tity to its b>e/ =m1 & ! exclusion f #dg social !ory ( absolutely e case ( true coop]ative /ructure4 ,= true coop]ative /ructure is nev] *>act]is$ by repetition1 b always by id5tity 9 diff]5ce2 x is ! relation n ( a screw to an exactly simil> screw1 b ( ! screw to ! nut into :i* x fa/5s4 #a ,m4 ,t>de's view j m5tion$ might seem to conflict ) ?is4 ,b note t he reg>ds ! man influ5c$ by o!rs z "u an illusion 9 ?9k+ t he is himself3 i4e41 ) ,sp5c] & ,huxley1 he reg>ds ! 8self0 & ! 8o!r0 z irreconcilable factors4 #b ,le ,bon1 ,op4 cit4 #c ,durkheim1 ,op4 cit4 #d ,t>de & ,baldw91 ,op4 cit4 ,9 ! discussions ( ,egoism & ,altruism ! difficulty comes to a head4 ,"s writ]s ?9k ,egoism prior to ,altruism2 o!rs--! m w>y & enlight5$--incl9e to treat ,altruism z a phase e>li] ?an ,egoism2 ,m4 ,durkheim1 ^: eye = a fact is v ke51 see+ ! absurdity ( bo? ^! suppositions1 is det]m9$ to include ! two *>act]s 9 "q f ! v beg9n+ 9 ! human consci\sness1 #a b1 ( c\rse1 z cont5ts belong+ to diff]5t sph]es & consi/+ ( contra/$ elem5ts4 ,! conception ( a :ole held toge!r by its diff]5ces1 its id5tity consi/+ 9 & be+ measur$ by _! v pr(\ndness & individuality1 is n at ! comm& ( any ( ^! writ]s1 al?\gh ! great] "p ( ,m4 ,durkheim's !ory seems imp]atively to dem& su* a conception4 #a ,division du ,travail1 #baf4 vii4 ,be=e consid]+1 9 conclusion1 ! relation ( ,sociology z influ5c$ by ! above-m5tion$ s\rces & po9ts ( view1 to social philosophy prop]1 x w be well to devote a few words to emphasis+ ! way 9 :i* ^! 8s\rces0 ought to be reg>d$4 ,e 8s\rce0 ( sociological sci5ce is at once a category1 or po9t ( view1 & also a c]ta9 gr\p ( actual social conditions4 ,?is relation is effectively illu/rat$ by ! /udy ( any social #dh unity :i* is su* z to invite a ?or\gh conspectus ( its life f top to bottom ( ! social gr[? & und]ly+ conditions4 ,i repeat t ! hi/ory & life ( anci5t ,greece1 a s+ul>ly complete work+ model ( society on a v small scale1 analys$ ) rem>kable ?or\ghness1 & individual ?r\gh\t1 is ! pr]ogative example ( su* a treatm5t2 b next to ?is1 or 9 addition to x1 a ?or\ghly c>eful /udy ( local hi/ory1 life1 & conditions1 9 a limit$ region1 #a ) :i* we are famili> f top to toe1 is an ess5tial propa$eutic to true social !ory4 ,to focus a numb] ( gr\ps ( fact1 & coord9ate ! po9ts ( view :i* !y sub/antiate1 into ! conception ( a liv+ be+1 ) its individual "* & spiritual utt]ance1 ne$s m ?an a m]ely lit]>y or /ati/ical /udy4 ,b by mak+ ?is ef=t we %all le>n1 z no economic *>ts or g5]al sci5tific works c tea* u1 :at a social life is1 & 9 :at s5se x is true t all p>tial facts & exp]i5ces )9 x dem& ultimate coord9ation 9 ! category ( m9d4 ,x is n meant t consci\sness c make ! wea!r hold up1 b x is meant t no fact has a true social be>+ except 9 z f> z1 soon] or lat]1 x comes to =m "p ( ! _w :i* a be+ capable ( sociality & !re=e intellig5t1 pres5ts to himself z 8 !atre ( action4 #a ,cf4 ,pr(essor ,g$des' idea ( a 8,regional ,survey10 ) :i* visitors to 8 delightful 8,summ] ,s*ool0 become acqua9t$4 #c4 ,?us x may seem t by m]e =ce ( facts a necess>y solution has be5 arriv$ at1 & t psy*ological sociology mu/ be "o & ! same sci5ce ) social philosophy4 #di ,b ?is is n q ! case4 ,up to ! pres5t "t ^! two sci5ces cont9ue to approa* _! object-matt]1 z x 71 f diff]5t ends1 & :e!r ! two views w ultimately amalgamate is p]haps ma9ly a problem ( ! p]sonal division ( lab\r4 ,b a "q ( pr9ciple1 ) ref]5ce to ! true nature ( psy*ology1 is indirectly involv$4 ,only !re seems no reason :y two k9ds ( psy*ology %\ld n exi/4 ,psy*ology1 z at pres5t conceiv$ by its be/ work+ repres5tatives1 is a positive1 ?\gh n a physical sci5ce4 8,= 7! psy*ologi/7 ! crude sup]/itions ( ,au/ralian aborig9es h z mu* int]e/ & value z ! develop$ & accurate k ( a ,newton or a ,f>aday40 #a ,its aim is 8! e/abli%m5t ( cont9uity among obs]v$ facts1 by int]polat+ among !m int]m$iate l9ks :i* elude obs]vation40 #b ,if n a 8physical0 sci5ce1 !n1 x is1 9 a common s5se ( ! t]m1 a 8natural0 sci5ce4 ,x has ! imp>tiality1 & uses ! wat*words--law1 process1 g5esis--:i* belong to a natural sci5ce4 ,& l e imp>tial sci5ce1 to :i* process & g5esis are wat*words1 x t5ds to expla9 ! high] by ! l[]4 ,?is spr+s f no malice a=e?\ght1 b f ! conditions ( ! case4 ,! l[] is simpl]1 & usually comes fir/ 9 "t4 ,x is naturally dwelt ^u1 z t into :i* x is hop$ to resolve ! m complex1 & ! explanation :i* is m adequate = ! simple1 is less adequate = ! complex4 ,no diff]5ce ( high] #ej & l[] is recognis$ by ! imp>tial sci5ce1 & its ideal1 z a sci5ce1 is inevitably ! expression ( ! complex 9 t]ms ( ! simple2 :ile1 z f> z g5esis 9 "t is insi/$ on1 ! bias t[>ds temporal causation is pretty sure to op]ate by atta*+ a quasi-causal significance to ! e>li] phases4 #a ,/\t1 ,analytic ,psy*ology1 ,introduction4 #b ,ib4 ,f a logical po9t ( view ?is idea ( explanation seems s]i\sly defective4 ,see ,bradley's ,pr9ciples ( ,logic1 p4 #dia4 ,9 all ^! *>act]i/ics psy*ology is at "o ) sociology4 ,&1 !re=e1 ?\gh x is a ga9 t o!r po9ts ( view %\ld be resolv$ into ! po9t ( view ( m9d1 yet ! positive bias ( sociology is n transc5d$ simply by ?is resolution4 ,philosophy />ts1 we h said1 z x 71 f ! o!r end4 ,x is critical ?r\gh\t2 x desires to e/abli% degrees ( value1 degrees ( reality1 degrees ( complet5ess & coh]5ce4 ,its purpose might be t]m$ 8,e?ical10 b = ! extreme n>r[ness ( ! mean+ ( t t]m4 ,society1 = x1 is an a*ievem5t or utt]ance ( human nature--( c\rse n divorc$ f nature 9 g5]al--hav+ a c]ta9 degree ( solidity1 s to speak2 t is to say1 be+ able1 up to a c]ta9 po9t1 to endure ! te/s & answ] ! que/ion+s :i* are sugge/$ by ! scrut9y ( human life f ! po9t ( view ( value & complet5ess4 ,is ! social life ! be/1 or ! only life = a human s\l8 ,9 :at way ?r\gh society1 & 9 :at *>act]i/ics ( society1 does ! s\l lay hold ^u its true/ self1 or become1 9 %ort1 ! mo/ t x has 9 x to be8 ,h[ does ! social life at its be/ comp>e ) ! life ( art1 ( k1 or ( religion1 & c ! same pr9ciple be %[n to be active 9 all ( !m8 ,& :at h #ea !y 9 common1 or peculi> to ea*1 :i* has an imp]ative claim on ! m9d ( man8 ,n[ x 0 h9t$ above t !re might be two k9ds ( psy*ology1 or two t5d5cies )9 x4 ,& if psy*ology 7 to be impell$1 z x has be5 m ?an once 9 ! pa/1 by ! recognition t :]e !re is m ( its object--( m9d--its int]e/ is great] & ! rank ( its object-matt] is high]1 !n !re w\ld n be mu* to *oose betwe5 ! temp] ( psy*ology & t ( philosophy4 ,& z sociology has f\nd itself driv5 =w>d into ! t]ritory ( social 8logic10 a "n :i* at once sugge/s a critical & philosophical sci5ce1 x may well be t sociological psy*ology w n rema9 :olly 8positive0 & imp>tial1 b w assume1 z 9 ! h&s ( ,pr(essor ,gidd+s1 = example1 x seems incl9$ to1 at lea/ a teleological attitude1 te/+ social ph5om5a by ! quantity & quality ( life :i* !y display4 ,b1 at any rate1 ! po9ts ( view ( sociology1 & ( social philosophy z above describ$1 w cont9ue to supplem5t ea* o!r4 ,philosophy gives a significance to sociology2 sociology vitalises philosophy4 ,! idea ( m9d is deep5$ & ext5d$ by ! unity & cont9uity :i* sociological analysis1 ?r\gh\t all its _m-sid$ s\rces1 v9dicates = ! pr9ciple ( gr[? & ord] d[n to ! roots & 9 all ! fibres ( ! _w4 ,e natural res\rce & condition mu/ be ?\ght ( z draw+ =? or con/itut+ "s new elem5t 9 ! m9d :i* is ! univ]sal focus2 j z e %ape & col\r ( ! trees 9 ! l&scape or e note ( a melody f9ds its #eb def9ite & individual response 9 ! contemplative consci\sness4 ,! error lies1 n 9 id5tify+ ! m9d & ! environm5t1 b 9 fir/ uncritically sep>at+ !m1 & !n sub/itut+ n m]ely ! "o = ! o!r1 b wret*$ fragm5ts ( ! "o = ! :ole 9 :i* alone ei!r c be complete4 ,philosophy1 on ! o!r h&1 9 treat+ ( society1 has to deal ) ! problems :i* arise out ( ! nature ( a :ole & its p>ts1 ! relation ( ! individual to ! univ]sal1 & ! trans=mation by :i* ! p>ticul> self is lo/1 to be f\nd aga9 9 a m individual1 & yet m univ]sal =m4 ,9 all ^! respects its view is :at might be call$ teleological2 t is to say1 x recognises a diff]5ce ( level or ( degree 9 ! complet5ess & reality ( life1 & endeav\rs to po9t out :5 & h[1 & h[ f> by social aid1 ! human s\l atta9s ! mo/ & be/ t x has 9 x to become4 ,z long z ^! two po9ts ( view are cle>ly recognis$1 x is a matt] ( ! m]e p]sonal division ( lab\r :e!r !y are br\ght to be> by ! same ?9k]s & )9 ! same treatises4 #ec ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,p>adox ,,( ,,political ,,obligation3 ,,self-,,gov]nm5t4 #a4 ,to e-day common s5se !re is some?+ p>adoxical 9 ! ph5om5a ( political obligation2 h[ev] x may acquiesce 9 :at1 al?\gh n satisfactorily explicable1 is pla9ly se5 to be necess>y4 ,:]e1 inde$1 we meet ) any =m ( absolutely despotic gov]nm5t1 we h n s mu* a p>adox z a defect2 =1 al?\gh gov]nm5t may exi/ 9 su* a %ape1 x is op5 to "q h[ f> true political obligation c be said to arise "u su* a sy/em4 ,9 z f> z x does s1 we %all f9d t ! fact is due to unackn[l$g$ conditions & relations1 :i* we %all m easily analyse z !y appe> 9 free or con/itutional /ates4 ,x w\ld !n be easy to %[1 if we 7 int]e/$ 9 do+ s1 t ! pr9ciples :i* w h be5 recognis$ z op]ative 9 ! free/ /ates kn[n to hi/ory1 are & h be51 9 v>i\s degrees1 at ! root ( ! common life ( e /ate or community :i* has held toge!r effectively en\gh to be treat$ z 9 any s5se a political :ole4 ,b ?is w\ld be a hi/orical inve/igation1 unnecess>y = ! purpose ( pure #ed social !ory4 ,9 ?is we may fairly />t f ! highe/ =m ( political exp]i5ce1 9 :i*1 z we %all see1 ! m]e defects ( political immaturity be+ outgr[n1 ! p>adox ( political obligation em]ges ) int5sifi$ emphasis4 ,let u take z our />t+ po9t1 !n1 ! conception ( 8self-gov]nm5t10 to :i*1 x w be admitt$ on all h&s1 ! ?\ght & feel+ ( mature communities has clung bo? 9 anci5t & mod]n times1 z 9 "s way conta9+ ! true root & gr\nd ( political obligation4 ,we %all f9d 9 x a /rik+ illu/ration ( ! /r5g? & weakness ( wide-spread popul> notions4 ,a univ]sal popul> notion _c b h a hold ( "s ess5tial tru?1 o!rwise x c\ld n survive & spread1 & =m a work+ !ory = an imm5se area ( exp]i5ce4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a popul> notion1 z su*1 _c be critical ( itself & aw>e ( its own f\ndations2 & s 9 def5d+ & apply+ itself x is pretty sure to plunge deep into fallacy4 8,self-gov]nm5t0 is an idea :i* w be f\nd1 z has be5 said1 to conta9 ! true gr\nd & nature ( political obligation4 ,b ! r\gh & ready application ( x :i*1 = example1 repres5ts ! individual z simply "o ) ! community1 & ! community !re=e z infallible 9 its action affect+ him1 is a pure example ( fallacy1 & may be ju/ly *>act]is$ z a confusion pret5d+ to be a syn!sis4 ,( ?is idea z ( s _m we mu/ say t ^? :o h pron\nc$ x to be self-contradictory h und]/ood x mu* bett] ?an mo/ ( ^? :o accept x z self-evid5t4 ,9 ! conception ( self-gov]nm5t !n we #ee h ! p>adox ( obligation 9 its pure/ =m4 ,z appli$ to ! individual himself1 x gives ! p>adox ( ,e?ical ,obligation4 ,z appli$ to ! individuals :o compose a society1 x gives ! p>adox ( ,political ,obligation4 ,?is mu/ be ! prelim9>y di/9ction by :i* we approa* ! subject2 b we %all f9d t ! two problems & ! two cases _c be ultimately sep>at$1 al?\gh !y are to be di/+ui%$ 9 a c]ta9 respect4 ,! p>adox ( ,e?ical ,obligation />ts f :at is accept$ z a 8self10 & asks h[ x c ex]cise au?ority or co]cion ov] itself2 h[1 9 %ort1 a metaphor drawn f ! relations ( "s p]sons to o!rs c f9d application )9 :at we take to be ! limits ( an individual m9d4 #a #a ,on ?is problem1 see bel[1 p4 #aci4 ,! p>adox ( ,political ,obligation />ts f :at is accept$ z au?ority or social co]cion1 & asks 9 :at way ! t]m 8self10 d]iv$ f ! 8individual0 m9d1 c be applicable at once to ! ag5t & pati5t 9 su* co]cion1 ex]cis$ prima facie by "s p]sons ov] o!rs4 ,bo? relations & _! connection h be5 po9t$ out by ,plato4 #a #a ,republic1 #dcj1 #dca4 ,our object 9 ! pres5t *apt] is to en=ce ! reality ( ! difficulties :i* atta* to ! idea ( political self-gov]nm5t1 s long z curr5t assumptions z to ! union ( individuals 9 society are ma9ta9$4 ,& = ?is purpose we are to exam9e ! views ( "s v di/+ui%$ philosoph]s to :om ! p>adox has appe>$ irreconcilable1 & law or gov]nm5t has seem$ #ef ess5tially antagoni/ic to ! self or true individuality ( man2 :ile ! t]m self1 if appli$ to ! collective gr\p by or )9 :i* gov]nm5t is und\bt$ly ex]cis$1 appe>s to !m an empty & mislead+ expression4 ,! curi\s & significant po9t1 to :i* we %all call att5tion1 is1 9 brief1 t :ile ma9ta9+ law & gov]nm5t to be 9 _! nature antagoni/ic to ! self ( man--:e!r z pa9 to pleasure or z fett]s to individuality--!y nev]!less admit ) "o voice t a c]ta9 m9imum ( ?is antagoni/ic elem5t is necess>y to ! developm5t ( ! s5ti5t or rational self4 ,we h "h a dualism :i* *all5ges exam9ation4 #b4 ,! attitude t[>ds law & gov]nm5t :i* ,b5?am adopt$ 7#agdh-ahcb7 0 9 a great degree t ( ! philan?ropic re=m]4 ,8 pr9ciple ( ! greate/ happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb] is said #a to h be5 d]iv$ f ,becc>ia1 ^: "w on 8,crimes & ,p5alties0 _h great influ5ce ?r\gh\t ,europe4 ,& ,h[>d1 8! philan?ropi/10 :o 0 j tw5ty-two ye>s ,b5?am's s5ior 7#agbf-agij71 repres5t$ a revolt aga9/ ! abuses ( ! treatm5t ( crim9als at t "t1 by :i* ,b5?am1 :o eulogis$ him z 8a m>tyr & apo/le10 0 /rongly affect$4 ,! movem5t :i* ,b5?am l$ 01 9 %ort1 m>k$ly ho/ile to ! exi/+ sy/em ( law1 & to ! reason+s ( its advocates4 ,& sub/antial z 8 k & con/ructive g5ius prov$ to be1 x nev] lo/ ! "* :i* ! direction ( 8 approa* to ! subject _h m>k$ ^u x1 a "* ( suspicion & antagonism1 :i* is #eg express$ 9 8 description ( law z a necess>y evil1 & gov]nm5t z a *oice ( evils4 #b #a ,pr(essor ,holl& 9 ,encycl4 ,brit41 art42 ,b5?am40 #b ,b5?am1 ,pr9ciples ( ,legislation1 p4 #dh4 ,pa9 be+ ! ultimate evil1 x is cle> :y1 on ,b5?am's pr9ciples1 e law is an evil4 ,= e law1 = him1 is contr>y to lib]ty2 & e infraction ( lib]ty is foll[$ by a natural s5tim5t ( pa94 #a ,aga9/ ^? :o w\ld d5y ! proposition t e law is contr>y to lib]ty he br+s a *>ge ( p]v]sion ( language1 9 t !y re/rict lib]ty to ! "r ( do+ :at is n injuri\s to o!rs4 ,!y give ! t]m1 t is to say1 a p>tly positive implication4 ,= him !n lib]ty has ! simple/ & app>5tly wide/ mean+1 #b :i* includes lib]ty to d evil1 & is def9$1 we mu/ suppose1 purely z ! abs5ce ( re/ra9t4 ,& he !re=e has no d\bt :atev] t ! citiz5 c acquire rights only by sacrific+ "p ( 8 lib]ty4 ,& 9 ?is !re is an appe>ance ( tru?1 if we =get t 9 say+ t a "p ( "o's lib]ty is sacrific$ x is impli$ t "o _h1 to beg9 )1 a c]ta9 area ( lib]ty1 ( :i* a portion is ab&on$ to save ! re/4 ,b ! idea ( any su* antec$5t lib]ty is j su* a fiction z ,b5?am himself delight$ to expose4 ,x is true1 h[ev]1 t "s degree ( re/ra9t on :at we c n[ easily imag9e ourselves free to d1 is involv$ 9 political society4 ,! po9t on :i* we h to fix our att5tion1 = ! purposes ( social !ory1 is ! rem>kable repres5tation ( ?is /ate ( ?+s "u ! figure1 z x 71 ( an am\nt ( g5]al lib]ty1 #eh :i* is increas$ by subtraction1 or :i* c only atta9 its maximum by ! conv]sion ( a c]ta9 edge or bord] ( x1 s to speak1 into con/ra9t4 ,?is bord] ( con/ra9t is impli$ to be capable ( a m9imum1 su* z to condition a maximum ( lib]ty1 or possible individual initiative2 a relation :i*1 be+ at fir/ sight contradictory1 dem&s fur!r analysis4 ,= x w\ld appe> t if ! sacrifice ( "s lib]ty is to be in/rum5tal to ! increase ( ! :ole am\nt1 t :ole c h>dly be a homog5e\s giv5 quantity1 l1 = in/ance1 a piece ( l&2 = su* a "o mu/ surely be dim9i%$ by ! subtraction ( any "p ( x4 ,x mu/1 "o w\ld inf]1 be some?+ :i* has a complex nature l t ( a liv+ plant1 su* t c]ta9 re/rictions or negations :i* are ess5tial to its prosp]ity are dictat$ by its individual *>act]i/ics 7:i* mu/ be positive71 & express ! same pr9ciple ) !m2 & !re=e are :olly relative to ! positive type & phase ( ! plant to be cultivat$4 ,only 9 "s su* s5se c x be intelligible h[ con/ra9t is in/rum5tal to effective self-ass]tion4 #a ,b5?am1 ,pr9ciples ( ,legislation1 p4 #id4 #b ,x is n really ! wide/1 z w appe> 9 ! sequel4 ,b if ?is is s1 ! re/rictive influ5ces ( law & gov]nm5t1 :i* are ! measure ( ! con/ra9t impos$1 _c be ali5 to ! human nature :i* !y re/rict1 & ought n to be set d[n z 9 _! own nature antagoni/ic to lib]ty or to ! mak+ ! mo/ ( ! human self4 ,! root ( ! difficulty obvi\sly lies 9 assum+ t ! pressure ( ! claims ( 8o!rs0 9 society is a m]e g5]al curtailm5t ( ! lib]ty ( ! 8"o10 :ile ackn[l$g+1 n #ei contr>y to fact1 b contr>y to ! hypo!sis ( t curtailm5t1 t ! "o1 s f> f surr5d]+ "s ( 8 capacity = life ?r\gh 8 fell[%ip ) o!rs1 acquires & ext5ds t capacity :olly 9 & ?r\gh su* fell[%ip4 ,on ! above assumption ! t]ms ( ! p>adox ( self-gov]nm5t become irreconcilable1 & gov]nm5t is made an evil ( :i* x is impossible to expla9 h[ x m9i/]s to ! self :i* /&s = ! good4 ,s long z to e individual1 tak5 z ! true self1 ! re/ra9t en=c$ by ! impact ( o!rs is ali5 & a dim9ution ( ! self1 ?is result is inevitable4 ,x is in/ructive1 !re=e1 to note ,b5?am's uncompromis+ ho/ility to all ! !ories ( philosophical juri/s4 ,! common po9t ( all _! !ories1 f ,hobbes & ,grotius to ,montesquieu & ,r\sseau1 n to m5tion ,kant & 8 successors1 has la9 9 ! fact t _! au?ors div9$ "u ! =ms ( p[] & comm&1 ex]cis$ by "s ov] o!rs1 a sub/antive & g5]al elem5t ( positive human nature1 :i* !y attempt$ to drag to light by "o analogy aft] ano!r4 ,b nei!r ,montesquieu's 8et]nal relations10 nor ! 8,social ,contract10 nor 8,g5]al ,w10 nor 8,natural ,rights0 ( o!r ?9k]s f9d fav\r 9 ,b5?am's eyes4 ,"o & all !y are to him fiction & fallacy4 ,he c und]/& no?+ 9 law b ! "* ( a comm&2 he c see no positive relation ( x to human nature beyond ! degree 9 :i* x disp5ses ) ! pa9 ( re/ra9t :ile increas+ ! pleasure ( lib]ty4 ,to describe ! magnific5t success :i* #fj att5d$ ! use ( ?is rule ( ?umb 9 ! practical "w ( re=m does n fall )9 our imm$iate subject4 ,our purpose 0 m]ely to illu/rate ! p>adox impli$ 9 ! conception ( self-gov]nm5t1 by po9t+ out h[ fundam5tally ho/ile to "o ano!r ,b5?am took its con/itu5t elem5ts to be4 #c4 ,! same po9t may be fur!r insi/$ on by exam9+ ! ma9 ideas ( ,mill's 8,lib]ty10 )\t by any means pr(ess+ to give a full acc\nt ( ,mill's op9ions on ! relation ( individuals to society4 ,:at inde$ is in/ructive 9 8 position1 = our imm$iate purpose1 is t1 hav+ s deep a s5se1 z he has1 ( social solid>ity1 he nev]!less treats ! c5tral life ( ! individual z some?+ to be c>efully f5c$ r\nd aga9/ ! impact ( social =ces4 i4 ,mill's idea ( ,individuality is pla9ly biass$ by ! ,b5?amite tradition t law is an evil4 ,x is to be rememb]$ t ,an>*ism ( a speculative k9d1 ! inevitable complem5t ( a hide-b\nd ,cons]vatism1 0 curr5t 9 ! beg9n+ ( ?is c5tury1 z 9 ,godw9 & ,%elley4 ,?us we f9d conc5trat$ 9 a few pages ( ! 8,lib]ty0 #a all ^? ideas on ! nature ( ,individuality1 ,orig9ality1 & ,ecc5tricity1 :i* are mo/ oppos$ to ! tea*+ d]iv$ by lat] g5]ations 9 ,engl& f ! revival ( philosophy & criticism4 ,x is wor? :ile1 aft] read+ ,mill's obs]vations ^u ! relation ( individuality to ! ,calv9i/ic !ory ( life1 #b to turn to ! e/imate express$ by ,m>k ,pattison #c ( ! =ce ( individual "* g5]at$ by #fa ! rule ( ,calv9 at ,g5eva4 ,t ! individuality1 or g5ius1 ! fulness ( life & complet5ess ( developm5t :i* ,mill s ju/ly appreciates1 is n n\ri%$ & evok$ by ! v>i$ play ( relations & obligations 9 society1 b lies 9 a sort ( inn] self1 to be *]i%$ by enclos+ x1 z x 71 9 an imp]vi\s globe1 is a notion :i* nei!r mod]n logic #d nor mod]n art criticism w admit4 ,9 ! same way1 ! connection ( orig9ality & ecc5tricity1 on :i* ,mill insi/s1 appe>s to u to-day to be a fallaci\s track ( ?\ght2 & 9 g5]al1 9 all ^! matt]s1 we t5d to accept ! pr9ciple t1 9 ord] to g beyond a po9t ( progress1 x is necess>y to h rea*$ x2 & 9 ord] to de/roy a law1 x is necess>y to h fulfill$ x4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 is ! he>t ( ! po9t on :i* we are insi/+4 ,if individuality & orig9ality mean or dep5d ^u ! abs5ce ( law & ( obligation2 if ecc5tricity is ! type ( ! fully develop$ self1 & if ! community1 p5etrat$ by a s5se ( univ]sal relations1 is !re=e a prey to monotony & uni=mity1 !n x ne$s no fur!r words to %[ t law is a curtailm5t ( human nature1 ! necessity ( :i* rema9s inexplicable1 s t self-gov]nm5t is a contradiction 9 t]ms4 #a pp4 #ce-i4 #b ,ib41 p4 #ce4 #c ,essays1 vol4 ,i41 8,calv940 #d ,see bel[1 p4 #gi4 ii4 ,h[ !n does ,mill br+ ! two t]ms into relation8 ,h[ does he repres5t ! ph5om5on t1 9 ! life ( e society1 ! factors ( self & ( gov]nm5t h to be reconcil$1 or at anyrate to coexi/8 ,to f9d ! answ] to ?is "q1 ! :ole #fb ( ! *apt]1 8,( ! limits ( ! au?ority ( society ov] ! individual10 #a %\ld be c>efully /udi$4 ,a few *>act]i/ic s5t5ces may be quot$ "h4 #a ,on ,lib]ty1 *4 iv4 8,:at1 !n1 is ! rightful limit to ! sov]eignty ( ! individual ov] himself8 ,:]e does ! au?ority ( society beg98 ,h[ mu* ( human life %\ld be assign$ to individuality1 & h[ mu* to society8 8,ea* w receives its prop] %>e1 if ea* has t :i* m p>ticul>ly conc]ns x4 ,to individuality %\ld belong ! "p ( life 9 :i* x is *iefly ! individual t is int]e/$2 to society1 ! "p :i* *iefly int]e/s society40 ,e "o :o lives 9 society1 he cont9ues 9 effect1 is b\nd n to int]f]e ) c]ta9 int]e/s ( o!rs 7explicitly or implicitly con/itut$ z 8rights071 & is b\nd to take 8 fair %>e ( ! sacrifices incurr$ = ! def5ce ( society & its memb]s4 ,^! conditions society may en=ce1 at all co/s to recalcitrants4 ,fur!r1 x may puni% by op9ion1 ?\gh n by law1 acts hurtful to o!rs1 b n go+ s f> z to violate _! rights4 ,b acts :i* affect only ! ag5t1 or ne$ n affect o!rs unless !y l1 may be puni%$1 we are giv5 to und]/&1 nei!r by law nor by op9ion4 ,mill expects 8 conclusions to be disput$1 & ! foll[+ is ! conclusion ( ! passage 9 :i* he expla9s & re-affirms x3 8444 :5 a p]son disables himself1 by conduct purely self-reg>d+1 f ! p]=mance ( "s def9ite duty incumb5t on him to ! public1 he is guilty ( a social #fc (f5ce4 ,no p]son ought to be puni%$ simply = be+ drunk2 b a soldi] or policeman %\ld be puni%$ = be+ drunk on duty4 ,:]ev]1 9 %ort1 !re is a def9ite damage1 or a def9ite risk ( damage ei!r to an individual or to ! public1 ! case is tak5 out ( ! prov9ce ( lib]ty1 & plac$ 9 t ( morality or law40 #a #a ,italics are m9e4 ,x w probably occur at once to ! read] t1 consid]$ z a practical rule1 ! view "h ma9ta9$ w\ld by no means curtail unduly ! prov9ce ( social int]f]5ce4 ,we %\ld r anticipate t x w\ld leave an easy op5+ = a transition f adm9i/rative nihilism to adm9i/rative absolutism2 & "s su* transition seems to h tak5 place 9 ,mill's lat] views4 ,?is t5d5cy to a complete b\lev]sem5t is ! *>act]i/ic ( all conceptions :i* proce$ by assign+ diff]5t areas to ! sev]al factors ( an insep>able :ole1 :i* !n reass]ts itself 9 its :ol5ess )9 ! area ( ei!r factor to :i* we may happ5 to att5d4 ,inde$1 ev5 9 ! passage be=e u1 ! def5ce ( individuality has already well-nigh turn$ r\nd into its annihilation4 ,e act t c>ries a def9ite damage to any o!r p]son belongs to ! sph]e ( law1 & e act t c be suppos$ likely to cause su* a damage1 to t ( morality2 & individuality has :at is left4 ,! extraord9>y dem>cation betwe5 ! sph]e ( morality & t ( lib]ty is to be acc\nt$ =1 no d\bt1 by ! ,b5?amite tradition :i* id5tifi$ ! moral & social sanctions2 s t 9 ?is usage ! sph]e ( morality means mu* ! same z :at1 #fd 9 ! fir/ passage ref]r$ to1 0 indicat$ z ! sph]e ( op9ion4 ,n[1 x is obvi\s t ! di/9ction :i* ,mill is attempt+ to describe & expla9 is "o practically recognis$ by e society4 ,! "q is :e!r x c be rightly describ$ & expla9$ by a dem>cation :i*1 if /rictly press$1 excludes individuality f e act ( life t has an important social be>+2 :ile1 ow+ to ! two-sid$ nature ( all action1 x becomes p]fectly arbitr>y 9 its practical work+ z a crit]ion4 ,= e act ( m9e affects bo? myself & o!rs2 & x is a matt] ( mood & mom5t>y urg5cy :i* aspect may be pron\nc$ *>act]i/ic & ess5tial4 ,x may safely be said t no dem>cation betwe5 self-reg>d+ & o!r-reg>d+ action c possibly hold good4 ,:at may hold good1 & :at ,mill's examples %[ to be pres5t to 8 m9d1 is a di/9ction betwe5 ! moral & ! 8ext]nal0 aspects ( action1 on ! gr\nd ( _! respective accessibility to ! means ( co]cion :i* are at ! disposal ( society4 ,! peculi> s5se 9 :i* ! t]m 8ext]nal0 is "h employ$ w expla9 itself bel[4 #a #a ,see *4 viii4 bel[4 ,= our pres5t purpose1 h[ev]1 :at we h to obs]ve is m]ely t ! dem>cation betwe5 individuality & society1 contriv$ 9 def5ce ( ! =m]1 has pretty ne>ly annihilat$ x4 ,& ?us we see once m h[ ov]:elm+ is ! prima facie appe>ance t1 9 ! idea ( self-gov]nm5t1 ! factors ( self & gov]nm5t are ali5 & oppos$2 & yet h[ hopeless x rema9s #fe to expla9 ! "p play$ by ^! factors 9 actual society1 s long z we aim at a dem>cation betwe5 !m z opposites1 r ?an at a relative di/9ction betwe5 !m z manife/ations ( ! same pr9ciple 9 diff]5t m$ia4 iii4 ,a few words may "h be said on ! applications by :i* ,mill illu/rates 8 doctr9e1 9 ord] to po9t out :at confusion results f rely+ on a dem>cation :i* _c /rictly be made4 ,x w be not$ 9 ! fir/ place t he objects altoge!r to ! attempt to prev5t by puni%m5t ei!r immorality or irreligion z su*4 #a ,?is objection a s\nd social !ory mu/ uphold4 ,b if we look at ,mill's reason = x1 we f9d x simply to be t su* an attempt infr+es lib]ty1 by int]f]+ ) action :i* is purely self-reg>d+4 ,)\t ent]+ fur!r ^u ! endless argum5t :e!r ?is or any action is inde$ purely self-reg>d+1 we may obs]ve t by tak+ su* gr\nd1 ,mill causes ! above objection1 :i* is sub/antially s\nd1 to appe> z on all f\rs ) o!rs :i* are at any rate v mu* m d\btful4 ,su* is ! objection on pr9ciple to all re/rictions impos$ ^u trade ) a di/9ct view to protect+ ! consum]1 n f fraud1 b f opportunities ( consumption injuri\s to himself4 ,! regulation or prohibition ( ! traffic 9 alcoholic liquors is ( c\rse ! ma9 "q "h at issue2 & x may be admitt$ t ,mill's discussion1 ) ! _m di/9ctions :i* he lays d[n1 is full ( %rewdness & sugge/iv5ess4 ,b ! ultimate gr\nd :i* he takes1 z above /at$1 is q diff]5t f ! g5u9e reasons :i* exi/ #ff aga9/ attempt+ to en=ce morality by law & p5alty1 & introduces confusion into ! :ole "q ( ,/ate int]f]5ce by rank+ ! two objections toge!r4 ,closely analog\s are 8 objections to ! /atutes respect+ unlawful games1 #b :i*1 :e!r wise or unwise1 are q a diff]5t ?+ f an attempt to puni% p]sonal immorality z su*4 ,& la/ly1 ! same pr9ciple is illu/rat$ by 8 :ole attitude to ! /rong feel+ & ! v>i\s legal obligations :i* det]m9e & support ! monogam\s family4 ,9 ma9ta9+ ! g5]al indissolubility ( m>riage1 & support+ ! p>5tal p[]1 ! ,/ate is int]f]+1 = him1 ) ! fre$om ( p>ties to a contract1 & conf]r+ p[] ov] individuals1 ! *ildr51 :o h a "r to be sep>ately consid]$4 ,su* int]f]5ce is = him ipso facto ( a suspect$ nature4 ,x is an int]f]5ce ho/ile to lib]ty2 & :e!r x is or is n an ext]nal condition ( good life1 :i* ! ,/ate is able effectively to ma9ta91 is a "q :i* he does n discuss4 ,?r\gh\t all ^! objections to au?oritative int]f]5ce we trace ! peculi> prejudice t ! crit]ion ( its ju/ifiability lies 9 ! b\nd>y l9e betwe5 self & o!rs1 r ?an 9 ! nature ( :at co]cive au?ority is & is n able to d t[>ds ! promotion ( good life4 ,on _m po9ts inde$1 :5 ! simple protection ( 8o!rs0 is conc]n$1 ,mill's doctr9e leads to s\nd conclusions4 ,su*1 = example1 is ! problem ( legislation aft] ! patt]n ( ! ,factory ,acts4 #a ,pp4 #dh & #ej4 #b ,p4 #ei4 ,b yet a /range nemesis atta*es to gr\nds #fg alleg$ ) insuffici5t discrim9ation4 ,j z1 by rank+ inn] morality & out] action alike "u ! "n ( fre$om1 ,mill is l$ to object to int]f]5ce :i* may be p]fectly ju/ifi$ & effectual2 s by ! same confusion he is l$ to advocate co]cive treatm5t 9 impossibly /r+5t =ms1 & 9 cases :]e x runs extreme risk ( ?w>t+ a true moral developm5t4 ,we are amaz$ :5 he /rongly implies1 9 respect to ! education ( *ildr5 & ! prospect ( support+ a family1 t moral obligations #a ought to be en=c$ by law4 ,! proposal ( univ]sal ,/ate-enact$ exam9ations by way ( en=c+ ! p>5tal duty ( educat+ *ildr51 to ! exclusion ( ! task ( provid+ education by public au?ority1 9 :i* ,mill sees dang] to individuality1 op5s a prospect ( a ,*9ese type ( society1 f :i*1 happily1 ! good s5se ( ,engli%m5 has recoil$4 ,& j ! rev]se ( 8 proposal has come to pass "u ! influ5ce ( ! logic ( exp]i5ce4 ,! ,/ate has tak5 c>e t ! ext]nal conditions ( an elem5t>y education are provid$1 &1 :ile do+ ?is1 has no d\bt ex]cis$ compulsion 9 ord] t ^! conditions may be a reality4 ,b ! individual inquisition by exam9ation is t5d+ to drop out ( ! sy/em2 & ! practical work+ ( ! public education is m & m com+ to be t ! ,/ate sees to x t c]ta9 conditions are ma9ta9$1 ( :i* ! p>5ts' int]e/ & public _s leads !m to take advantage4 ,%e] compulsion is n ! way to en=ce a moral obligation4 #a ,pp4 #fb & #fd4 #fh ,/ill m />tl+ is ! sugge/ion t x might be j to int]dict m>riage to ^? unable to %[ ! means ( support+ a family1 on ! gr\nd ( possible evil bo? to ! *ildr5 !mselves ?r\gh pov]ty1 & to o!rs ?r\gh ov]-population4 ,?is is a case 9 :i* au?oritative int]f]5ce 7except on acc\nt ( v def9ite physical or m5tal defects7 mu/ inevitably defeat its object4 ,no =esight ( o!rs c gauge ! lat5t p[]s to meet & deal ) a future indef9ite responsibility2 & ! result ( scrupul\s timidity1 9 view ( su* responsibilities1 is se5 9 ! t5d5cy to depopulation :i* affects t v c\ntry f :i* ,mill probably drew 8 argum5t4 ,to leave ! responsibility z fully z possible :]e x has be5 assum$ is ! be/ t law c d1 & appeals to a spr+ ( en]gy deep] ?an compulsion c rea*4 ,?us we h se5 t by discrim9at+ ! sph]es ( non-int]f]5ce & int]f]5ce1 accord+ to a suppos$ dem>cation betwe5 ! sph]e ( 8self0 & ( 8o!rs10 a hopelessly confus$ classification has be5 introduc$4 ,sometimes ! ma9t5ance ( ext]nal conditions ( good life1 well )9 ! p[] ( ! ,/ate1 is =bidd5 on ! same gr\nds z ! direct promotion ( morality1 :i* is impossible to x4 ,9 o!r cases ! en=cem5t ( moral obligations is tak5 to lie )9 ! functions ( ! ,/ate1 al?\gh n only is ! en=cem5t ( moral obligations p] se a contradiction 9 t]ms1 b almo/ always1 z 9 ! cases 9 "q1 ! attempt to effect x is sure to fru/rate itself1 by de/roy+ ! spr+s on :i* moral action dep5ds4 #fi ,x is wor? notic+1 9 conclusion1 t 9 two examples1 #a ! "o trivial1 ! o!r t ( slav]y1 bo? !oretically & practically v important1 ,mill recognises a pr9ciple :olly at v>iance ) 8 own4 ,"h he is aw>e t x may be "r1 accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( lib]ty1 to re/ra9 a man1 = reasons affect+ himself alone1 f do+ :at at ! mom5t he proposes to d4 ,= we are entitl$ to argue f ! ess5tial nature ( fre$om to :at fre$om really dem&s1 z oppos$ to :at ! man mom5t>ily seems to wi%4 8,x is n fre$om to be all[$ to ali5ate 8 fre$om10 z x is n fre$om to be all[$ to walk ov] a bridge :i* is c]ta9 to break d[n & cause 8 dea?4 ,"h we h 9 g]m ! doctr9e ( ! 8real0 w1 & a conception analog\s to t ( ,r\sseau :5 he speaks ( a man 8be+ =c$ to be free40 #a ,pp4 #eg & #fa4 #d4 ,be=e ref]r+ to ,mill's explicit utt]ances on ! problem ( self-gov]nm5t1 :i* are ( ! same g5]al "* z ^? ( ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 x w be well to note "s in/ructive po9ts 9 ! views ( ! latt] ?9k]4 ,! /udy ( ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s writ+s1 & m especially ( ^? :i* appe> mo/ directly oppos$ to ! popul> conceptions ( ! day1 _c be too /rongly urg$ ^u ! sociological /ud5t4 ,& ?is = two reasons4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 no o!r writ] has exhibit$ ) equal vividness ! fatal possibilities ( a collective gov]nm5tal /upidity4 ,t 9 practice ^! possibilities are cont9ually t5d+ to become facts1 j z 9 !ory !y are #gj repres5t$ by recurr5t fallacies1 #a is a pro( ( ! extreme ardu\sness ( ! dem&s made by ! task ( self-gov]nm5t ^u ! p :i* und]takes x4 ,& no !ori/ is fitt$ to discuss ! problem ( social unity :o has n realis$ ! ardu\sness ( ^! dem&s 9 all its int5sity4 ,&1 9 ! second place1 ! /ud5t w obs]ve an in/ructive meet+ ( extremes betwe5 elem5ts ( ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s ideas & popul> social !ories ( an opposite ca/4 ,! revival ( doctr9es ( ! natural rights ( man on a biological f\ndation #b is a case 9 po9t4 ,an uncriticis$ individualism is always 9 dang] ( trans=mation into an uncritical collectivism4 ,! basis ( ! two is 9 fact ! same4 #a ,z1 = example1 9 ,r\sseau's attempts to expla9 ! action ( a collective m9d1 9 :i* he con/antly falls into ! advocacy ( a s\lless rgime ( mass-meet+s4 #b ,man v4 ,/ate1 p4 #ie4 i4 ,a comp>ison ( ! conception ( 8"r0 z ent]ta9$ by ,b5?am & by ,h]b]t ,sp5c] =ms a /rik+ comm5t>y on ideas 9 :i* 8gov]nm5t0 is antagoni/ic to 8self40 ,b5?am1 see+ cle>ly t ! claims ( ! actual individual1 tak5 z he happ5s to be1 are casual & unregulat$1 fulm9ates aga9/ ! idea ( natural "r z repres5t+ ^? claims4 ,"r is = him a creation ( ! ,/ate1 & !re c be no "r :i* is n con/itut$ by law4 ,& ! tru? ( ! cont5tion seems obvi\s4 ,h[1 9 fact1 c\ld individual claims or wi%es con/itute a "r1 except z 9 "s way ratifi$ by a m g5]al recognition8 ,b to ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c] ! contr>y proposition is absolutely conv9c+1 &1 inde$1 on #ga _! common premises1 ) equal reason4 #a ,x is ridicul\s1 he po9ts out1 to ?9k ( a p z creat+ rights1 :i* x _h n be=e1 by ! process ( creat+ a gov]nm5t 9 ord] to create !m4 ,x is absurd to treat an individual z hav+ a %>e ( rights qua memb] ( ! p1 :ile 9 8 private capacity he has no rights at all4 #a ,ib41 p4 #hh4 ,we ne$ n lab\r ?is po9t fur!r4 ,x is obvi\s t ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c] is simply pref]r+ ! opposite extreme1 9 ! anti!sis ( 8self0 & 8gov]nm5t10 to t :i* comm5d$ itself to ,b5?am4 ,if x is a pla9 fact t 8a "r0 c only be recognis$ by a society1 x is no less pla9 t x c only be real 9 an individual4 ,if individual claims1 ap>t f social adju/m5t1 are arbitr>y1 yet social recognitions1 ap>t f individual qualities & relations1 are mean+less4 ,z long z ! self & ! law are ali5 & ho/ile1 x is hopeless to d m ?an *oose at r&om 9 :i* ( ! two we are to locate ! ess5ce ( "r4 ii4 ,& h[ ali5 & ho/ile ! self & ! law may seem we see ev5 m crudely enunciat$ 9 ,h]b]t ,sp5c] ?an 9 ,b5?am or ,mill1 z ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! tradition has work$ itself m def9itely to ! front4 8,! lib]ty #a :i* a citiz5 enjoys is to be #gb measur$1 n by ! nature ( ! gov]nm5tal ma*9]y he lives "u1 :e!r repres5tative or o!r1 b by ! relative paucity ( ! re/ra9ts x imposes on him40 ,& s we are a/\nd$ to f9d x ma9ta9$ t ! positive & active elem5t 9 ! "r to c>ry on self-su/a9+ activities is ( a non-social "*1 dep5d+ only on ! laws ( life1 #b & if ! matt] 7 pu%$ home1 w\ld h to be id5tifi$1 "o mu/ suppose1 ) ! m /rictly animal elem5t ( ! m9d2 :ile only ! negative elem5t arises f social aggregation1 & x is ?is negative elem5t alone :i* gives e?ical "* to ! "r to live4 ,?\gh ^! di/9ctions apply prim>ily to ! gr\nd ( ! "r to live1 yet x appe>s inevitable t !y repres5t ! po9t ( view f :i* ! active self or individuality mu/ be reg>d$ on ! pr9ciple we are pursu+4 ,! gr\nd ( ! "r to live1 z "h /at$1 is simply ! recognition t life is a good2 & if ! positive elem5t ( ?is good is non-social & only ! negative is ( social orig91 & ?is alone is e?ical1 x seems cle>ly to foll[ t ! mak+ ! mo/ ( life--its positive expansion & int5sification--is exclud$ f ! e?ical aspects ( individuality1 &1 inde$1 t individuality has no e?ical aspect at all4 ,"h is ! ultimate result ( accept+ z irr$ucible ! di/9ction betwe5 ! self & gov]nm5t1 or ! negative relation ( individuality & law4 ,lib]ty & self are divorc$ f ! moral end1 a t5d5cy :i* we not$ ev5 9 ,mill4 ,selves 9 society are reg>d$ z if !y #gc 7 bees build+ _! cells1 & _! e?ical "* becomes comp>able to ! abs5ce ( encroa*m5t by :i* ! work]s ma9ta9 ! hexagonal outl9e due to _! equal impact on ea* o!r z !y progress ev5ly f equidi/ant c5tres4 ,! self1 :i* has rank$ ?r\gh out ^! views z ! end1 to ^: lib]ty all is to be sacrific$1 turns out to be ! non-e?ical elem5t ( life4 #a ,man v4 ,/ate1 p4 #ae4 ,cf4 ,seeley1 ,introd4 to ,political ,sci5ce1 p4 #aai3 8,p]fect lib]ty is equival5t to total abs5ce ( gov]nm5t40 ,i h attempt$ to po9t out ! fallacy ( ?is 9 a way apply+ to its practical & ev]yday mean+ 9 my essay on 8,lib]ty & ,legislation10 9 ! volume ( essays call$ ,! ,civilisation ( ,*ri/5dom4 #b ,man v4 ,/ate1 p4 #ih4 ,?us1 :5 ,pr(essor ,huxley speaks ( 8self-re/ra9t z ! ess5ce ( ! e?ical process10 #a :ile 8natural lib]ty0 consi/s 9 8! free play ( self-ass]tion10 we see h[ ! :ole me?od ( approa*+ social & e?ical ph5om5a is turn$ upside d[n unless ! p>adox ( self-gov]nm5t is conqu]$ once = all4 ,! idea t ass]tion & maximisation ( ! self & ( ! individuality fir/ become possible & real 9 & ?r\gh society1 & t affirmation & n negation is its ma9 *>act]i/ic2 ^! fundam5tal conceptions ( g5u9e social philosophy #b c only be rea*$ ?r\gh a de/ructive criticism ( ! assumptions :i* erect t p>adox into an insoluble contradiction4 #a ,evolution & ,e?ics2 pp4 #bg & #ca4 #b ,= ! ,greek1 x is society :i* is natural1 positive1 & promotive ( man's individuality4 ,see *4 ii4 above4 #e4 ,we may n[ re/ate ! ess5ce ( ! problem ( self-gov]nm5t z x pres5ts itself to ! ?9k]s :om we h be5 review+4 ,on ! assumptions :i* !y accept1 ! annihilat+ criticism ( self-gov]nm5t 9 ! fir/ *apt] ( ,mill's ,lib]ty is inde$ irresi/ible4 ,he beg9s by po9t+ out t 9 times ( political immaturity1 #gd ! conception ( political lib]ty consi/$ 9 sett+ limits to ! p[] :i* ! rul]1 consid]$ z an indep5d5t =ce oppos$ 9 int]e/ #a to 8 subjects1 %\ld be suff]$ to ex]cise ov] ! community4 ,b z x 0 f\nd possible1 9 a great] & great] degree1 to make ! rul+ p[] emanate f ! p]iodical *oice ( ! rul$1 8"s p]sons began to ?9k t too mu* importance _h be5 atta*$ to ! limitation ( ! p[] itself4 ,t1 x might seem1 0 a res\rce aga9/ rul]s ^: int]e/s 7 habitually oppos$ to ^? ( ! p4 ,:at 0 n[ want$ 01 t ! rul]s %\ld be id5tifi$ ) ! p2 t _! int]e/ & w %\ld be ! int]e/ & w ( ! nation4 ,! nation did n ne$ to be protect$ aga9/ its own w4 ,!re 0 no fe> ( its tyrannis+ ov] itself40 ,r\sseau 9 "s moods is ! victim ( ?is fallacy1 & x is widely triumphant to-day4 #a ,s e>ly an analysis ( gov]nm5t z t made by ,plato 9 ! ,republic %[s inde$ t ?is 0 nev] ! sole !ory1 z x is n ! true/1 ( ! cohesive =ces ( any community :atev]4 ,b x has a c]ta9 validity1 proportion$ to ! degree ( political imp]fection4 ,b ) ! success ( ! democratic pr9ciple1 8elective & responsible gov]nm5t became subject to ! obs]vations & criticisms :i* wait ^u a great exi/+ fact4 ,x 0 n[ obs]v$ t su* phrases z #8self-gov]nm5t'1 & #8! p[] ( ! p ov] !mselves'1 d n express ! true /ate ( ! case4 ,! #8p' :o ex]cise ! p[] are n always ! same p ) ^? ov] :om x is ex]cis$2 & ! 'self-gov]nm5t' spok5 ( is n ! gov]nm5t ( ea* by himself1 b ( ea* by all ! re/4 ,! #ge w ( ! p1 moreov]1 practically means ! w ( ! mo/ num]\s or ! mo/ active "p ( ! p2 ! majority1 or ^? :o succe$ 9 mak+ !mselves accept$ z ! majority 444 & precautions are z mu* ne$$ aga9/ ?is z aga9/ any o!r abuse ( p[]4 ,! limitation1 !re=e1 ( ! p[] ( gov]nm5t loses none ( its importance :5 ! hold]s ( p[] are regul>ly acc\ntable to ! community1 t is1 to ! /ronge/ p>ty !re94 444 ,9 political speculations1 ! #8tyranny ( ! majority' is n[ g5]ally includ$ among ! evils aga9/ :i* society requires to be on its gu>d40 ,! p>adox ( self-gov]nm5t !n1 s f> f be+ !oretically solv$ by ! developm5t ( political in/itutions to _! highe/ kn[n maturity1 is simply int5sifi$ by ?is developm5t4 ,:5 ! arbitr>y & irrational p[]s ( classes or ( individuals h be5 swept away1 we are left face to face1 x w\ld seem1 ) ! co]cion ( "s by o!rs z a necessity 9 ! nature ( ?+s4 ,&1 inde$1 h[ev] p]fectly 8self-gov]nm5t0 has be5 sub/itut$ = despotism1 x is fly+ 9 ! face ( exp]i5ce to sugge/ t ! av]age individual self1 z he exi/s 9 y or me1 is ipso facto satisfi$1 & at home1 9 all ! acts ( ! public p[] :i* is suppos$ to repres5t him4 ,if he 7 s1 ! p>adox ( self-gov]nm5t w\ld be resolv$ by ! annihilation ( "o ( its factors4 ,! self w\ld rema91 b 8gov]nm5t0 w\ld be sup]flu\s2 or else 8gov]nm5t0 w\ld be ev]y?+1 & ! self annihilat$4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 we und]/& ! 8self0 9 8self-gov]nm5t0 to /& = ! :ole sov]eign gr\p or #gf community1 :i* is usually call$ a 8self-gov]n+10 z oppos$ to a subject1 /ate1 !n we h be=e u ! task ( %[+ t ?is self is a reality 9 any s5se :i* ju/ifies ! acceptance ( :at is done by ! public p[] z an act ( ! :ole community4 ,b on ! gr\nd :]e we /& 9 ! !ories review$ 9 ! pres5t *apt]1 no su* self c be %[n4 ,gov]nm5t1 9 fact & 9 pr9ciple1 reveals itself z co]cion ex]cis$ by 8! o!rs0 ov] 8! "o40 ,& s long z ?is is ! case1 & z ! gov]nm5t is ali5 to ! self1 n only d ! rights ( majorities rema9 )\t explanation1 b no less is x impossible to say on :at rational gr\nd an entire community c apply co]cion to a s+le recalcitrant memb]4 ,we h se5 t ,mill w\ld solve ! problem by a dem>cation1 accord+ to :i* ! aim & gr\nd ( gov]nm5t is to protect ! self f ! impact ( o!rs1 & leave x 9 its isolat$ purity4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 x may be not$1 #a has rec\rse to "o ( ^? hypo!ses ( tacit cons5t :i* w\ld r$uce a community to ! level ( a jo9t-/ock company1 #b m9us a writt5 in/rum5t ( association2 :i* 9 ! case ( ! ,/ate has to be replac$ by ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s e/imate ( purposes1 :i* w\ld probably be accept$ ) unanimity if ! "q 7 ask$6 ,b5?am alone1 f\nd+ #gg himself on ! actual nature ( social life1 g5ially ov]rides ! :ole "q ( individual "r1 & :ile ma9ta9+ law to be a necess>y evil1 & p\r+ scorn on all attempts to exhibit a positive unity ?r\gh\t ! selves :i* compose a society1 makes ! promotion ( a free & happy life ! sole crit]ion ( gov]nm5tal int]f]5ce4 #a ,man v4 ,/ate1 p4 #hc sq4 #b ,x is a rem>kable te/imony to ! inh]5t vitality ( associations ( human be+s t ev5 a jo9t-/ock company (t5 f9ds its "w & aims s develop+ on its h&s t x has to obta9 additional p[]s f ,p>liam5t4 ,x transc5ds1 !re=e1 ! limits ( ! %>ehold]s orig9al contract1 & ,h]b]t ,sp5c]'s l\d compla9ts ( ?is proc$ure %[ h[ little he recognises ! nature ( social necessity4 ,on ! basis ( e-day reflection1 !n1 we are br\ght to an absolute deadlock 9 ! !ory ( political obligation4 ,if1 z popul> in/9ct ma9ta9s1 & z common s5se seems someh[ to insi/1 !re is a !ory & a ju/ification ( social co]cion lat5t 9 ! t]m 8self-gov]nm5t10 we _c f9d a clue to x 9 ! reason+ ( our mo/ rec5t & popul> political ?9k]s4 ,nor %\ld we f9d a compreh5sive !ory1 ?\gh we might f9d sugge/ions t[>ds "o1 if we recurr$ to our m philosophical tea*]s1 su* z ,hobbes & ,locke1 :o are fur!r f popul> modes ( ?\ght4 ,if !re is any?+ satisfactory 9 ! conception ( self-gov]nm5t1 e int]pretation ( x is at once condemn$ :i* does n give ! fulle/ =ce to bo? t]ms ( ! p>adox1 at ! same "t t x exhibits _! reconciliation4 ,:at ?is fulle/ =ce is1 & ! antagonism :i* x involves1 we h se5 9 ! pres5t *apt]4 ,we mu/ />t f an actual self1 :i* is capable ( rebell+ aga9/ law & gov]nm5t2 & f an actual 8gov]nm5t10 :i* is capable ( tyrannis+ ov] ! individual self4 ,we mu/ n treat ! self z ipso facto annihilat$ by gov]nm5t2 nor mu/ we treat gov]nm5t z a pale reflection1 pliable to all ! vag>ies ( ! actual self4 ,nor1 aga91 mu/ we divide ! insep>able #gh cont5t ( life1 & endeav\r to assign "p to ! ass]tion ( ! individual z belong+ to self1 & "p to 8 impact on o!rs1 z belong+ to gov]nm5t4 ,we mu/ take ! two factors ( ! work+ idea ( self-gov]nm5t 9 _! full antagonism1 & exhibit1 ?r\gh & because ( ?is1 ! fundam5tal unity at _! root1 & ! necessity & conditions ( _! coh]5ce4 ,we mu/ %[1 9 %ort1 h[ man1 ! actual man ( fle% & blood1 dem&s to be gov]n$2 & h[ a gov]nm5t1 :i* puts real =ce ^u him1 is ess5tial1 z he is aw>e1 to 8 becom+ :at he has x 9 him to be4 ,& if we fail to de/roy ! assumptions :i* h9d] u f do+ ?is1 we %all h to admit t ! maturity ( democratic in/itutions has only lib]at$ u f arbitr>y despotism to subject u to necess>y tyranny2 & ?\gh1 9 spite ( su* a failure1 we might /ill acquiesce 9 8c\nt+ heads to save break+ !m10 we %\ld h to agree t ?is may inde$ be ! %rewde/ device ( political exp$i5cy1 b t ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two processes corresponds to no real capacity ( ! human individual = p>tak+1 by ! ex]cise ( w & intellig5ce1 9 a peacefully organis$ & yet effectually gov]n$ :ole4 ,we %all !n1 9 %ort1 be compell$ to agree ) ,b5?am & ,mill & ,sp5c] t 8self-gov]nm5t0 & 8! g5]al w0 are mean+less phantoms1 comb9ations ( ho/ile factors1 incapable ( be+ unit$ 9 a real exp]i5ce4 #gi ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,problem ,,( ,,political ,,obligation ,,m ,,radically ,,treat$4 #a4 ,! read] w no d\bt h obs]v$ t ! !ory dealt ) 9 ! la/ *apt] belongs to ! g5]al type ( :at is curr5tly kn[n z ,individualism4 ,= sev]al reasons ,i h pref]r$ n to make use ( ?is hackney$ ^w4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is v hackney$2 & ! employm5t ( su* t]ms takes all life & expressiv5ess out ( philosophy4 ,&1 9 ! next place1 ,individualism may mean _m ?+s1 & 9 its fulle/1 :i* is surely1 = ! /ud5t ( philosophy1 its true/ mean+1 x is f> too good = ! !ories "u discussion4 ,an 8,individual0 may be 8individual0 or indivisible because he has s little 9 him1 t y _c imag9e x possible to break him up into less] p>ts2 or because1 h[ev] full & great 8 nature1 x is s ?or\ghly "o1 s vital & s true to itself1 t1 l a "w ( art1 ! :ole ( 8 be+ _c be sep>at$ into p>ts )\t ceas+ to be :at x ess5tially is4 ,9 ! =m] case ! 8individual0 is an 8atom02 9 ! latt] he is 8a great individuality40 #a ,! s5se 9 :i* we %all make #hj use ( ! notion ( ! individual1 s f> z we use x at all1 w be ! latt] & n ! =m]4 ,&1 !re=e1 we %all z f> z possible disc>d ! hackney$ t]m 8,individualism10 :i* embodies ! =m] mean+ only4 #a ,see ,nettle%ip's ,rema9s1 i4 #afj4 ,if !n we are to co9 an expression :i* w indicate ! common features ( ! !ories outl9$ 9 ! previ\s *apt]1 we may v5ture ^u "s su* phrase z 8prima facie !ories10 or 8!ories ( ! fir/ look40 ,by ?is ,i d n mean t !y /& 9 ! same rank ) ! views ( ! ,greek ?9k]s1 :o1 undi/urb$ by previ\s speculation1 saw ! great facts ( social exp]i5ce ) a fre%ness & :ol5ess ( vision ) :i* !y c nev] be se5 aga94 ,! 8fir/ look0 ( our own day is ( a diff]5t k9d4 ,x is ! fir/ look ( ! man 9 ! /reet or ( ! travell]1 /ruggl+ at a railway /ation1 to :om ! compact self-conta9$ness & self-direction ( ! sw>m+ human be+s be=e him seems an obvi\s fact1 :ile ! social logic & spiritual hi/ory :i* lie beh9d ! sc5e fail to impress !mselves on 8 p]ceptive imag9ation4 ,we see !n t ^! !ories ( ! fir/ appe>ance are ma9ly guid$ by ?is impression ( ! natural sep>at5ess ( ! human unit4 ,= ?is reason1 z we not$1 ! exp]i5ce ( self-gov]nm5t is to !m an enigma1 ) :i* !y h to compromise 9 v>i\s ways4 ,& because _! explanations ( x are n true explanations b only compromises1 !y re/ on no pr9ciple1 & dictate no consi/5t attitude4 ,= ,b5?am all solid "r is actually 9 ! ,/ate1 #ha ?\gh conceiv$ by himself z a means to individual ends2 = ,mill1 x is divid$ betwe5 ! ,/ate & ! individual1 by a b\nd>y :i* _c be trac$ & !re=e _c be respect$2 = ,h]b]t ,sp5c] all "r is 9 ! individual1 & ! ,/ate has become little m ?an a record (fice ( 8 contracts & cons5ts4 ,! assumption common to ! !ories 9 "q is dictat$ by _! v nature4 ,x is n precisely1 z is (t5 suppos$ to be ! case1 t ! individual is ! end to :i* ,society is a means4 ,su* a def9ition fails to assign a "* :i* is di/9ctive = any social !ories :atev]4 ,= ,society1 be+1 at ! l[e/ rate1 a plurality ( individuals1 :atev] we say ( ! individual may be con/ru$ z true ( ,society & vice v]sa1 s long z all individuals are und]/ood 9 ! same s5se z "o4 ,?us ! 8means0 & ! 8ends0 are liable to *ange places1 z1 = practical purposes1 we saw t !y did 9 ,b5?am4 ,! e?ical t]m 8altruism0 illu/rates ?is pr9ciple4 ,x %[s t by tak+ 8! individual0 z ! 8end10 no?+ is det]m9$ z to ! relation betwe5 ea* individual & all1 & x rema9s a matt] ( *ance h[ f> x is requir$ ( 8ea*0 individual1 9 ! "n ( ! welf>e ( 8! individual10 to sacrifice himself to 8all40 ,! fact is t ! decisive issue is n :e!r we call ! 8individual0 or 8society0 ! 8end02 b :at we take to be ! nature at once ( individuals & ( society4 ,?is is ! "q ( pr9ciple2 & views :i* are at "o 9 ?is h no?+ :i* c 9 pr9ciple keep !m ap>t1 #hb al?\gh !y may div]ge to ! seem+ly opposite poles ( ! lib]ty ( ea* & ! welf>e ( all4 ,we h obs]v$ ?is slid+ f "o n>r[ness to its opposite1 z betwe5 ,b5?am1 ,mill1 & ,h]b]t ,sp5c]4 ,! root idea !n1 ( ! views :i* we h be5 discuss+1 is simply t ! individual or society--x makes no diff]5ce :i* we take--is :at x prima facie appe>s to be4 ,?is is :y we h call$ !m 8prima facie0 !ories1 or 8!ories ( ! fir/ look40 ,x w\ld be a long /ory to expla9 h[ a fir/ look c be possible 9 ! eighte5? or n9ete5? c5tury ,a4,d4 ,b 9 brief1 ! hi/ory ( ?\ght %[s c]ta9 leaps or breaks 9 culture2 :5 ! human m9d seems to op5 its eyes afre%1 or to em]ge on a new plat=m1 f :i* new po9t ( view all its adju/m5ts h to be re-made & its p]ceptions re-analys$4 ,9 ^! new /ages a great advance is involv$2 b ! advance is pot5tial1 & ! possible insight has to be paid = by an initial bl9dness4 ,su* an occasion x 0 on :i* ! legislator or economi/ or natural philosoph] ( ! mod]n _w turn$ 8 gaze ^u man 9 society4 ,he saw him z 8"o ( millions enjoy+ ! protection ( ! law10 #a & society z ! millions ( :i* he is "o4 ,su* an onlook] inevitably proce$s to treat ! social :ole z compos$ ( units ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 etc41 :o1 z !y /&1 & j z !y seem to u :5 we rub aga9/ !m 9 daily int]c\rse1 are tak5 to be ! organs & c5tres ( human life4 ,f ?is assumption all #hc ! re/ foll[s4 ,ea* ( u1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 & all ! o!rs1 seems to be1 & to a great ext5t 9 ! r\t9e ( life actually is1 self-complete1 self-satisfi$1 & self-will$4 ,to ea* ( u1 ,a1 ,b1 or ,c1 all ! re/ are 8o!rs40 ,!y are 8l0 him2 !y are 8repetitions0 ( him1 b !y are n himself4 ,he kn[s t !y are some?+ to himself2 b ?is 8some?+0 is /ill 8some?+ else10 & ev5 9 e?ical reflection he is apt to call 8 recognition ( x 8altruism0--an indef9ite claim & feel+1 t\*+ 8 be+ at its m>g9 ( contact ) neighb\r+ circles1 ! c5tres ( :i* are isolat$4 #a ,b4 ,j[ett1 9 conv]sation1 to au?or4 ,to ! individual & society ?us conceiv$--,a1 ,b1 ,c1 & ! re/--x is pla9 t gov]nm5t c be no?+ b self-protection4 ,x is1 9 fact1 a =m ( ! impact ( 8o!rs10 sci5tifically m9imis$1 & accept$ because x is m9imis$4 ,= ?is reason x is1 z we saw ?r\gh\t1 ali5 to ! self1 & incapable ( be+ recognis$ z spr++ f a common root ) ! spontane\s life :i* we pret5d to be aw>e ( only )9 our private magic circle4 ,!n ! =cible impact ( ,b & ,c ^u ! circle ( ,a is a necess>y evil1 a dim9ution1 pro tanto1 ( ,a4 ,& ! m altrui/ic ,a is1 ! m he w recognise ?is1 z affect+ n himself only1 b ,b & ,c also4 ,x is = ?is reason t1 on ! views 9 "q1 all law & gov]nm5t necess>ily rema9 =mal & negative z comp>$ ) ! sub/antive & positive ends ( ! self4 ,! ma9t5ance ( 8lib]ty10 ( ! circul> or hexagonal #a f5ces r\nd ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 & ! re/1 is #hd conceiv$ z involv+ no det]m9ate type ( life1 no relation to ! ends :i* ! units pursue )9 _! hexagons4 ,if 9 any way ! self w5t beyond itself1 & ,a recognis$ a positive end & nature :i* p]emptorily b\nd him to ,b & ! o!rs1 x w\ld be impossible to keep ?is nature & end f reflect+ !mselves 9 ! det]m9ate cont5t ( ! conditions ( association betwe5 !m4 ,! assumption w\ld be de/roy$ :i* keeps 8gov]nm5t0 ali5 to 8self10 & x w\ld be possible to consid] 9 :at s5se & = :at reason ! nature ( a spiritual animal turns aga9/ itself ) ! dualism :i* ! p>adox ( self-gov]nm5t embodies1 & t 9 pursuit ( its true unity4 #a ,see ,p4 #gc #b4 ,we w n[ discuss ,r\sseau's treatm5t ( ! p>adox ( 8self-gov]nm5t40 ,& we discuss x1 n because x is complete or self-consi/5t1 b r because1 :ile break+ ?r\gh to ! root ( ! :ole matt]1 x is z incomplete & z inconsi/5t z are ! ef=ts ( our own m9ds to lay hold ( any pr(\nd tru?4 ,x displays1 9 fact1 on ! great /age ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 precisely ! /ruggle :i* ea* ( u has to g ?r\gh if he tries to pi]ce ! surface ( commonplace fiction & tradition :i* p]si/5tly weaves itself ab\t social facts4 ,on almo/ e page !re is relapse & vacillation4 ,! fictions :i* are be+ ca/ aside cont9ually reass]t !mselves2 ! embodim5t ( ! pr9ciple :i* ! au?or's g5ius has disc]n$ is s\ght = 9 exp$i5ts ess5tially opposite to its nature1 :ile ! in/rum5ts :i* x has develop$ = itself are contemptu\sly reject$4 #he ,we are go+ to exam9e ! ma9 !sis ( ,r\sseau's ,contrat ,social4 ,! read] :o is surpris$ to f9d 9 our acc\nt little or no?+ ( ! 8return to nature10 8natural equality10 & ! 8natural rights ( ! individual10 may ref] = ^! to ,r\sseau's e>li] essays on !ses prop\nd$ by ! ,academy ( ,dijon4 ,! fir/ ( ! !ses 7#agej7 ran1 8,:e!r ! re-e/abli%m5t ( ! sci5ces & ! arts contribut$ to purify morals02 & ,r\sseau's disc\rse1 :i* won ! prize1 foll[+ ! lead ( ! !sis1 />t$ f ! lat] ,r5aissance1 & dealt 9 g5]al ) ! ph5om5a ( decad5ce--a v real problem4 ,! notable feature ( ?is brief essay is its con/ant vacillation betwe5 ! attack on sci5ce1 art1 & education z su*1 & ! criticism1 by no means an undisc]n+ criticism1 ( _! abuses4 ,r\sseau's head is full1 n ( primitive man1 b ( ,socrates & ,cato1 ( ,sp>ta & republican ,rome4 ,a writ] :o speaks ( ,newton & ,v]ulam z preceptors ( ! human race c h>dly be ho/ile to true intellectual a*ievem5t4 #a ,x is notewor?y t 8 zeal = educational re=m is already app>5t 9 ?is fir/ publi%$ "w4 #a ,! :ole piece brea!s a _s ( prize essay p>adox1 & ?\gh1 if sympa!tically read1 x is se5 to be mo/ *>act]i/ic ( ! au?or1 no s]i\s conclusion %\ld be drawn f x z to 8 ho/ility to civilisation4 ,a comic in/ance ( 8 vacillation is produc$ by ! necessity he felt himself "u1 ( except+1 f 8 g5]al dispraise ( mod]n lett]s1 su* ,academies z t ( ,dijon1 :i* 0 to judge 8 essay4 ,= an excell5t appreciation ( ^! e>li] works1 & ( ,r\sseau 9 g5]al1 see ! essay on 8,our ,natural ,rights10 9 ! ,lectures & ,essays ( ! late ,pr(essor ,w4 ,wallace1 ,cl>5don ,press1 #ahih4 ,! second essay 7#aged71 a mu* long] & #hf m s]i\s piece1 is on ! !sis1 8,:at is ! orig9 ( ,inequality among mank9d1 & is x ju/ifi$ by natural law80 ,x 0 d$icat$1 ) expressions ( extravagant laudation1 to ,r\sseau's native /ate1 ! ,republic ( ,g5eva4 ,8 en?usiasm = ?is community1 z = ! anci5t city-/ates1 is a f> tru] guide to 8 g5u9e social ideas ?an any ( 8 p>adoxes ab\t ! /ate ( nature & ! bondage ( social man4 ,8 g5ius1 9 fact1 is v mu* "u-rat$ by ^? :o suppose him at any "t to h believ$ ! primitive /ate ( nature1 or e>lie/ imag9able condition ( ! human race1 to be capable ( furni%+ an ideal ( life4 ,he is p]fectly aw>e t a /ate ( nature1 :i* is to furni% an ideal1 mu/ be select$ at lea/ f among ! high] phases ( man's evolution1 aft] morality & ! family h begun to =m !mselves1 & language & prop]ty h made "s advance4 ,"h1 aga91 8 vacillation is /rik+ly obs]vable1 & we c see t x arises f 8 pr(\nd insight4 ,! vices ( civilisation t5d to =ce ! desirable /ate ( man d[n ! scale ( evolution1 b ! value ( morality & respect = human nature t5d to =ce x up1 & ,r\sseau's argum5t embodies ! /ruggle4 ,= ,r\sseau is f> too critical & cle>-sight$ to ascribe true morality or /rictly human nature to a /ate ( animal innoc5ce1 & he kn[s t virtue involves pot5tial vice2 #a & !re=e x is ) hesitation & regret t he selects a middle /ate z #hg repres5t+ 8 ideal1 fully aw>e t x has =feit$ animal innoc5ce )\t hav+ atta9$ human morality4 ,ev5 ! fam\s declamation aga9/ ! fir/ f\nd] ( prop]ty 9 l& seems to pass away 9 an admission t ?is 0 an inevitable /age 9 ! gr[? ( human capacities1 :i* ! au?or w\ld n s]i\sly desire to rema9 undevelop$4 ,two fur!r po9ts may be not$2 fir/1 ! fundam5tal cont5tion t m5 are by nature n equal b unequal1 ! evil ( civilisation ly+ j 9 ! replacem5t ( natural by political inequality4 ,if ?is political inequality 7 consid]$ z modifiable1 x is pla9 t ! view w\ld po9t to an advantage 9 ! way ( equality #b possess$ by society ov] nature4 ,secondly1 ! view "h tak5 ( natural lib]ty 9 relation to ! social pact %\ld be comp>$ ) t ( ! ,contrat ,social4 ,9 ! essay1 8natural lib]ty0 is on ! :ole pref]r$2 9 ! ,contrat1 ano!r k9d ( lib]ty is held a tru] good1 al?\gh mu* ( ! tone & language associat$ ) ! pref]5ce ( natural lib]ty cont9ues by ! side ( ! lat] view4 ,x is pla9 t we are deal+1 n ) an unconsid]+ fanatical en?usiasm = "o or ano!r /ate ( man1 b ) a /ruggl+ insight1 :i* sees evil b also good 9 all1 &1 ) hesitation & reluctance1 depresses ! scale fir/ 9 fav\r ( ! "o1 & !n 9 fav\r ( ! o!r condition ( human be+s4 #a ,he seems to reg>d ! beg9n+s ( indu/rial co-op]ation z ! end ( ! 8/ate ( nature0 9 ! wide/ s5se4 ,! rem>k t 8iron & corn civilis$ man & ru9$ ! human race10 anticipates mu* 9 lat] speculations4 #b ,we f9d ,r\sseau actually draw+ att5tion to ?is 9 ! ,contrat ,social4 ,see ,cont4 ,soc41 ,i4 ix4 f941 :]e obs]ve 7i7 t he half believes himself to h spok5 ( natural equality1 & n ( natural inequality1 9 ! 8,essay02 & 7#b7 ! 8h$g+0 footnote on ! illusor9ess ( social equality4 #c4 ,! fam\s op5+ words ( *ap4 i4 ( ! #hh ,contrat ,social 7publi%$ #agfb7 s\nd l ! beg9n+ ( a tirade aga9/ civilisation & ! ,/ate4 8,man is born free1 & ev]y:]e he is 9 *a9s4 ,"o ?9ks himself ! ma/] ( o!rs1 :o does n fail to be m ( a slave ?an !y40 ,"h we might well suppose ourselves to be read+ ! preface to a demon/ration t all social con/ra9t is slav]y1 & t man1 9 a /ate ( nature1 possess$ a lib]ty :i* he has n[ lo/4 ,we expect su* an op5+ to be foll[$ by a d5unciation ( ! fett]s ( society1 & a panegyric on ! pre-social life4 ,& !re c h>dly be a d\bt t ^! s5t5ces1 along ) a few simil> phrases :i* /ick 9 ! memory1 are ! gr\nd ( ! popul> idea ( ,r\sseau1 %>$ by too _m s*ol>s4 #a ,b h[ does ,r\sseau g on8 ,"h are ! succe$+ s5t5ces4 8,h[ did ?is *ange take place8 ,i d n "k4 ,:at c r5d] x legitimate8 ,i ?9k ,i c tell40 ,"h1 z previ\sly 9 ! disc\rse on 8,equality10 he 7#a7 cuts himself loose 9 pr9ciple f ! hi/orical fiction ( a social pact succe$+ a /ate ( nature2 & 7#b7 he promises to furni% a ju/ification = ! *ange 7or1 /rik+ out ! quasi-hi/orical t]m 8*ange10 = ! condition ( man71 :i* is express$ by ! words1 8is ev]y:]e 9 *a9s40 #a ,pr(essor ,h5ry ,sidgwick & ,pr(essor ,rit*ie are notable exceptions4 ,see also1 & pre-em95tly1 ! essay ( ! late ,pr(essor ,wallace ref]r$ to above4 ,?is !n is ! task :i* he has set himself4 ,! s5t5ces la/ cit$ %[ t 8 answ] w1 9 "s degree1 turn its back on 8 "q1 & t really man _h little natural fre$om to lose1 & is n ev]y:]e 9 *a9s4 ,b ! fact t #hi ! problem fir/ /ruck ,r\sseau's m9d ?r\gh a feel+ ( rebellion aga9/ social slav]y1 & a loa?+ = ! civilisation ( 8 day1 sets him at ! v beg9n+ ( ! pa? :i* social !ory has to trav]se1 & ensures t ! difficulties :i* we all feel at times w be met 9 _! %>pe/ =m4 ,he kn[s1 9 %ort1 t some?+1 :i* c look l utt] bondage1 is a fact2 & he kn[s t ?is fact has to be ju/ifi$4 ,aft] "s *apt]s devot$ to cle>+ away inadequate solutions ( ! problem1 he re-/ates x z foll[s1 9 t]ms ( t =m ( ! suppos$ social contract 9 :i* x 0 reg>d$ z a compact ( all ) all = ! con/itution ( a community3 8,to f9d a =m ( association :i* %all def5d & protect1 ) ! entire common =ce1 ! p]son & ! goods ( ea* associate1 & by :i*1 ea*1 unit+ himself to all1 may nev]!less obey only himself1 & rema9 z free z be=e40 #a #a ,contrat ,social1 bk4 i41 *4 vi4 #d4 ,be=e proce$+ to exam9e ! true mean+ ( ?is =mula & its answ]1 we w briefly notice ! conflict ( ideas sugge/$ by x4 ,man's fre$om1 x is impli$1 rema9s at ! same level4 ,ev5 8 p[] is n increas$2 x is only t individuals comb9e _! =ces1 previ\sly isolat$4 ,^! implications suit nei!r ! view he />ts f1 nor ! view he arrives at4 ,if man _h a natural fre$om1 & !n submitt$ to society1 ?\gh m]ely to increase 8 =ce ( action1 "s ( 8 fre$om mu/ be lo/1 & he _c rema9 z free z he 0 be=e4 ,b if man 9 society #ij has a nature1 :i* he c\ld n h out ( society1 su* t 8 individuality is maximis$ by ! organisation ( a social :ole1 !n x is pla9 t he is n m]ely z free 8z he 0 be=e10 b v mu* m free2 free1 inde$1 /rictly speak+1 "u social conditions alone4 ,! notion :i* ,r\sseau />t$ f1 t man has surr5d]$ "s "p ( a previ\s fre$om 9 ord] to make ! mo/ ( ! rema9d]1 appe>s1 z "h1 9 ! language ( compromise1 frequ5tly ?r\gh ! ,contrat ,social4 ,b x is n effectively reli$ on1 = ,r\sseau is too acute to attempt a dem>cation !ory1 & :ile he assumes1 = example1 accord+ to ! lit]al notion ( a compact1 t man only surr5d]s z mu* ( 8 lib]ty z is necess>y to ! community1 he sees t ! sov]eign is sole judge ( ?is proportion & consequ5tly is absolute4 #a ,9 ! same way he fir/ d$uces ! sov]eign's "r ( inflict+ capital puni%m5t f ! individual's pre-exi/+ "r to risk 8 life 9 ord] to save x1 9 virtue ( :i* he has transf]r$ to ! sov]eign a "r to dem& 8 life :5 necess>y to ! public safety1 :i* includes 8 own4 ,& !n1 feel+ ?is to be a fiction1 he ekes x out by ! precisely contr>y sugge/ion t a crim9al has brok5 ! social treaty1 has ceas$ to be a memb] ( ! community1 & is dealt ) z an enemy on t]ms ( w>4 #b ,?is supplem5tation %[s t ,r\sseau is aw>e ( ! weakness ( 8 o!r acc\nt ( ! matt]1 bas$ on non-social individual "r4 ,8 con/ant failure1 entire or p>tial1 to free himself f ! language ( 8fir/ appe>ance #ia !ories10 z we h v5tur$ to call !m1 is j :at makes him s in/ructive1 9 view ( ! simil> incl9ation :i* besets u all4 #a ,contrat ,social1 bk4 ,,ii41 *4 v4 #b ,bk4 ,,ii41 *4 v4 #e4 ,we w n[ exam9e ! real nature ( 8 solution4 ,= ! hi/orical fiction ( a social contract1 he sub/itutes1 9 answ] to ! problem =mulat$ above 7see section #c1 end71 ! conditions :i* con/itute a 8p0 or commonweal?4 ,he speaks1 inde$1 ( ! 8act0 or 8contract0 :i* con/itutes x--a survival ( ! language :i* belongs to ! fiction4 #a ,b x is pla91 ev5 if he _h n said s di/9ctly 9 ! fir/ *apt]1 t he is deal+ n ) an act 9 hi/orical "t1 b ) ! ess5tial nature ( a social body4 ,! 8clauses ( ! contract10 he expla9s1 are dep5d5t on 8! nature ( ! act02 !y are implicit & univ]sal--t is to say1 n capable ( be+ affect$ by any actual or suppos$ agreem5t 9 contrav5tion ( :at ! ess5ce ( a body politic requires4 ,he is1 z he has cle>ly said 9 ! previ\s *apt]1 analys+ ! 8act0 8by :i* a p is a p10 i4e4 ! conditions ( political unity4 #a ,contrat ,social1 bk4 ,,ii41 *4 v4 ,! 8clauses ( ! contract0 !n r$uce !mselves to a s+le "o1 8! total ali5ation ( ea* associat$ memb]1 ) all 8 rights1 7! language is m\ld$ by ! fiction ( an actual contract & pre-social rights17 to ! community z a :ole40 ,! community z a :ole is !re=e absolute4 ,! subsequ5t passage1 ref]r$ to above1 #a 9 :i* he speaks z if individual rights 7 reta9$1 is a case ( ! vacillation on :i* we h rem>k$4 #a ,p4 #ij4 #ib ,! ess5ce ( ?is 8social pact0 is fur!r r$ucible to ! foll[+ =mula3 8,ea* ( u puts into ! common /ock 8 p]son & 8 entire p[]s "u ! supreme direction ( ! g5]al w3 & we fur!r receive ea* individual z an indivisible memb] ( ! :ole40 8,in/antane\sly1 9 place ( ! p>ticul> p]son ( ea* contract+ p>ty1 ?is act ( association produces a moral & collective body1 compos$ ( z _m memb]s z ! assembly has voices1 :i* receives f ?is same act its unity1 its common self 7son moi commun71 its life1 & its w4 ,?is public p]son :i* ?us =ms itself1 by ! union ( all ! o!rs1 us$ to take ! "n ( city1 #a & n[ takes t ( republic or body politic1 :i* is call$ by its memb]s ,/ate :5 x is passive1 ,sov]eign :5 x is active1 ,p[] :5 comp>+ x ) o!rs40 #a ,r\sseau's footnote 9 loc4 8,! true s5se ( ?is ^w is almo/ entirely effac$ among ! mod]ns2 mo/ ( !m take a t[n = a city1 & a t[nsman = a citiz54 ,!y are n aw>e t ! h\ses make ! t[n1 b ! citiz5s make ! city40 ,9 ?is passage ! =mula ( association1 & mu* ( ! comm5t>y ^u x1 imply ! 8contract0 to h be5 an ev5t 9 hi/ory4 ,su* is ! be>+ ( ! words 8act ( association10 8produces10 8receives10 8=ms itself40 ,x is admitt$ t ,r\sseau's ?\ghts are always m or less /ruggl+ ) ?is conception1 :i*1 x mu/ h[ev] be rememb]$1 he explicitly refuses to rely on2 & h5ce=w>d1 hav+ suffici5tly call$ att5tion to x1 we %all n encumb] ourselves ) obs]v+ ^u x 9 e in/ance4 ,putt+ aside !n ! defective t]m9ology1 & #ic be>+ 9 m9d t ,r\sseau consid]s himself to be analys+ ! ess5ce ( t act or "* 8by :i* a p is a p10 we f9d 9 ?is passage v f>-rea*+ ideas4 ,we f9d t ! ess5ce ( human society consi/s 9 a common self1 a life & a w1 :i* belong to & are ex]cis$ by ! society z su*1 or by ! individuals 9 society z su*2 x makes no diff]5ce :i* expression we *oose4 ,! reality ( ?is common self1 9 ! action ( ! political :ole1 receives ! "n ( ! 8g5]al w10 & we %all exam9e its nature & attributes 9 ! foll[+ *apt]4 ,! prim>y po9t :i* x is necess>y to make cle>1 h[ev]1 is :e!r ! :ole set ( ideas is to be s]i\sly press$1 or :e!r ! unity :i* !y indicate is m]ely =mal & sup]ficial4 ,= phrases ( ! k9d "h employ$ may be f\nd 9 _m e>li] writ]s4 ,! t]m 8p]son10 = example1 comes ?r\gh ,hobbes f ! ,roman law4 8,p]sona10 9 ,roman law1 we are told1 #a means ei!r a complex ( rights or ! possessor ( ^? rights1 :e!r an individual or a corporate body4 8,unus homo su/9et plures p]sonas40 ,?us a man may devolve 8 8p]sona0 on ano!r man4 ,a corporation has a s+le 8p]sona40 ,x is 9 ?is s5se t = ,hobbes1 ! ,/ate is a 8real unity 9 "o p]son10 :i* p]son has be5 devolv$ by all ! individuals ( a multitude ^u "o man or a def9ite assembly ( m51 ^: acts !re=e are1 politically speak+1 ! acts ( ! :ole multitude s unit$ 9 "o 8p]son40 #a ,see1 e4g41 ,gre5's ,lectures on ! ,pr9ciples ( ,political ,obligation1 p4 #fa4 #id ,?is use ( ! t]m 8p]son0 is "o ( ! cases allud$ to 9 *4 ,i41 :]e an ab/raction ( law has pres]v$ ! se$ ( a philosophical idea ( unity4 ,h[ f> ! unity ?us indicat$ is an empty fiction1 or h[ f> x is grasp$ z some?+ vital1 into :i* ! individual m9d goes out & 9 :i* x f9ds :at its nature dem&s1 is :at we n[ h to consid] fur!r4 #f4 ,*apt]s vii4 & viii4 ( book ,i4 ( ! ,contrat ,social %[ ! outcome ( ,r\sseau's conflict+ ideas 9 a v few rem>kable propositions4 ,! "q is :e!r ! unity ( a body politic is an arbitr>y ab/raction or a fundam5tal =ce & reality4 ,r\sseau is discuss+ 9 *apt] vii4 ! gu>antees :i* exi/ = a fulfilm5t ( obligations by ! sov]eign 7or :ole7 to its memb]s & by ! memb]s to ! sov]eign respectively4 ,z reg>ds ! obligation ( ! sov]eign to its memb]s1 he runs /raight into ! fallacy ref]r$ to 9 *4 ,i4 ,he cont5ds1 t is to say1 t ! :ole is necess>ily1 by its con/itution1 t :i* x ought to be1 & be+ compos$ ( all ! individuals c h no int]e/ opposite to !irs z a :ole1 :ile1 qua sov]eign1 x is deb>r$ f any su* special #a action z might be hurtful to any s+le individual4 ,?is presupposes t ! :ole always acts accord+ to its idea z a :ole1 & nei!r is 8captur$0 by individual int]e/s nor transgresses ! limits set to its action by re/riction to true public conc]ns4 ,b if ?is 7 s1 ! ,/ate w\ld be p]fectly wise & #ie good2 & we d n ne$ to be told t a ,/ate1 qua wise & good1 c\ld d no inju/ice to its memb]s4 ,! :ole is ( c\rse liable to vices correlative to ^? :i* ,r\sseau is ab\t to gu>d aga9/ :5 !y arise 9 ! individual4 #a ,see bel[1 p4 #aab4 ,& 8 view ( individual disloyalty is decisive z to ! vitality ( 8 conception ( political unity4 8,inde$10 he says1 8ea* individual may1 z a man1 h a p>ticul> w contr>y to or unlike ! g5]al w :i* he has z citiz52 8 p>ticul> int]e/ may speak to him q diff]5tly f ! common int]e/2 8 absolute & naturally indep5d5t exi/5ce may make him reg>d :at he owes to ! common cause z a gratuit\s contribution1 ! loss ( :i* w\ld be less injuri\s to o!rs ?an its paym5t is burd5some to himself2 & consid]+ ! moral p]son :i* con/itutes ! ,/ate z an ab/raction 7tre de raison7 because x is n a man1 he w\ld enjoy ! rights ( ! citiz5 )\t cons5t+ to fulfil ! duties ( ! subject--an inju/ice ! progress ( :i* w\ld cause ! ru9 ( ! body politic40 8,9 ord]1 !n1 t ! social pact may n be a va9 =mula1 x tacitly includes ! cov5ant1 :i* alone c conf] b9d+ =ce on ! o!rs1 t :oev] %all refuse to obey ! g5]al w %all be con/ra9$ to d s by ! :ole body1 :i* means no?+ else ?an t he w be =c$ to be free40 ,9 ?is passage ,r\sseau lays b>e ! v he>t ( :at "s w\ld call political fai?1 & o!rs political sup]/ition4 ,?is lies 9 ! #if conviction t ! 8moral p]son #a :i* con/itutes ! /ate0 is a reality1 z oppos$ to ! natural idea t x is an ab/raction or fiction ( ! reflective m9d 7an 8ens rationis10 tre de raison71 because x is n an actual individual human be+4 ,! !ories ( ! fir/ appe>ance1 z we h call$ !m1 are *>act]is$ by accept+ z ultimate 8! absolute & naturally indep5d5t exi/5ce0 ( ! physical individual1 & !re=e reg>d+ gov]nm5t z an encroa*m5t on ! self1 & =ce z oppression4 ,:]eas1 if ! social p]son is tak5 z ! reality1 x foll[s1 z ,r\sseau po9ts out1 t =ce aga9/ ! physical individual may become a condition ( fre$om4 ,we saw ev5 9 ,mill h[ extreme cases br+ out ! necessity = assum+ a 8real0 w at v>iance ) ! individual's imm$iate desire4 #b ,!re is m to be said1 ( c\rse1 z to ! limits )9 :i* =ce c be s appli$4 #c #a ,= ! mean+ ( 8p]son10 see acc\nt above1 p4 #ic4 ,note on ! mean+ ( 8moral0 z "h us$ t x is det]m9$ by a g5]al opposition to physical1 z 9 8moral c]ta9ty40 ,none ! less1 ?is use ( 8moral p]son0 =ms an int]e/+ /age 9 ! advance f ! physical individual ?r\gh ! legal 8p]son0 t[>ds ! notion ( a high] or great] self4 #b ,! trivial case :i* he takes1 ( its be+ no curtailm5t to fre$om to keep a man (f an untru/wor?y bridge1 z he c]ta9ly does n want to be dr[n$1 has receiv$ t]rible illu/ration ( late 7,june1 #ahih7 by ! disa/] at ! laun* ( ! 8,albion40 ,! disa/] occurr$ because n en\gh =ce 0 us$ aga9/ ! passionate mom5t>y eag]ness ( individuals1 & 9 fav\r ( :at x is fair to presume _! real w w\ld be4 #c ,see bel[1 *4 ,,viii4 ,x is wor? :ile to cite "h ! :ole ( ! %ort *apt] viii41 :i* draws out ! #ig consequ5ces ( ! above conception ( a social pact & ( sov]eignty4 8,( ! ,civil ,condition4--,?is passage f ! /ate ( nature to ! civil /ate produces 9 man a v rem>kable *ange by replac+1 9 8 conduct1 in/9ct by ju/ice1 & giv+ to 8 actions ! morality :i* !y lack$ be=e4 ,x is !n alone t1 ! voice ( duty succe$+ to physical impulse1 & "r to appetite1 man1 :o till !n _h only consid]$ himself1 sees himself compell$ to act on o!r pr9ciples1 & to consult 8 reason be=e li/5+ to 8 incl9ations4 ,al?\gh he deprives himself 9 ?is /ate ( sev]al advantages :i* he holds f nature1 he ga9s su* great ones 9 _! place1 8 faculties ex]cise & develop !mselves1 8 ideas exp&1 8 s5tim5ts are ennobl$1 8 :ole s\l is exalt$ to su* a degree1 t1 if ! abuses ( 8 new condition did n (t5 degrade him bel[ t f :i* he has em]g$1 #a x w\ld be 8 duty to bless )\t ceas+ ! happy in/ant :i* tore him f x = ev]1 &1 f a /upid & n>r[ animal1 made him an intellig5t be+ & human4 8,let u r$uce ^! pros & cons to t]ms easy to comp>e4 ,:at man loses by ! social contract is 8 natural lib]ty & an unlimit$ "r to all :i* attracts him & :i* he c obta92 :at he ga9s is civil lib]ty & ! #ih prop]ty ( :at he possesses4 ,to avoid error 9 ^! reckon+s we mu/ c>efully di/+ui% natural lib]ty1 :i* has no b\nds b ! p[]s ( ! individual1 f ! civil lib]ty :i* is limit$ by ! g5]al w2 & possession1 :i* is only ! effect ( =ce or ! "r ( ! fir/ occupant1 f prop]ty1 :i* c only be f\nd$ on a positive title4 8,we might1 9 view ( ! prec$+1 add to ! ga9s ( ! civil /ate ! moral fre$om :i* alone makes man ma/] ( himself2 = ! impulsion ( appetite alone is slav]y1 & ob$i5ce to ! law :i* we h prescrib$ to ourselves is lib]ty4 ,b ,i h already said too mu* on ?is head1 & ! philosophical s5se ( ! ^w lib]ty is n my subject "h40 #a ,cf4 ! well-kn[n l9es ( ,fau/3 8,e9 w5ig bess] wrd er leb51 ,htt'/ ,dur ihm ni*t d5 ,s*e9 des ,himmelsli*ts gegeb52 ,er n5nt's ,v]nunft1 und brau*t's alle9 ,nur ?i]is*] als j$es ,?i] zu seyn40 ,besides ! t]m9ology ( ! hi/orical fiction ?is curi\s passage %[s 9 ! /ronge/ light ! /ruggle by :i* ,r\sseau pass$ f ! position ( ! 8,disc\rse on ! ,orig9 ( ,inequality0 to t ( ! 8,contrat ,social40 ,! 8h$g+0 ( ! s5t5ce1 8,al?\gh he deprives himself10 etc41 repres5ts a loa?+ ( ! decad5t society ( 8 day1 :i* 0 deep-seat$ 9 ,r\sseau's m9d1 & :i* 8 life enables u ?or\ghly to und]/&4 ,! son ( a ,g5evese artisan1 ) a t\* ( vagabond impulses1 & m ?an a t\* ( ,wordswor?ian g5ius1 he 0 ! fir/1 p]haps1 ( great mod]n writ]s to feel ! true democratic passion1 #a & to see 8 artificial age z ,plato or z ,rusk9 might #ii h se5 x4 ,x 0 no small feat ( insight to subdue 8 j repugnance s f> z to e/imate1 9 ! language ( ! *apt] be=e u1 ! use1 z di/9ct f ! abuse1 ( law & society4 #a ,note ! s5t5ce 9 mile1 8,c'e/ le peuple qui compose le g5re huma92 ce qui n'e/ pas peuple e/ si peu de *ose que ce n'e/ pas la pe9e de le compt]40 7,bk4 iv41 #crd maxim47 ,z a feature ( ?is conflict ( ideas1 we may obs]ve m especially ! notion ( orig9al individual "r1 ascrib$ to a condition ( man 9 :i*1 accord+ to ! previ\s p>agraph1 "r c\ld n exi/4 ,! phrase is m]ely tak5 up f previ\s writ]s1 z is also ! s-call$ 8"r ( ! fir/ occupant40 ,& ! anti!sis ) true "r & prop]ty1 recognis$ by ! social m9d1 9 :i* ?is *apt] pres5ts !m1 has ! effect ( a de/ructive analysis ( ^! uncritical conceptions4 #a #a ,r\sseau's brilliant criticism1 bk4 ,i41 *4 iii41 has f9ally de/roy$ ! conception ( a "r1 :e!r natural or social1 f\nd$ m]ely on =ce4 ,true "r1 !n1 beg9s ) t social unity 8by :i* a p is a p10 figur$ by ,r\sseau "u ! image ( ! social compact4 ,?is unity is "o aspect ( ! rule ( reason1 ! s5se ( duty1 & ! ess5ce ( humanity4 ,! quality ( man is lib]ty1 #a & we "h see t ?is fundam5tal pr9ciple :i* ,r\sseau has above laid d[n 9 an undet]m9$ s5se1 mu/1 9 ! c\rse ( 8 reason+1 take on ! high] mean+ dem&$ by ! conceptions ( ?is *apt]4 #a ,bk4 i41 *4 iv4 ,& ! import ( ! t]m 8lib]ty0 9 ?is *apt] is a measure ( ! modification ( ideas :i* has be5 br\ght ab\t 9 ! process ( 8ju/ify+0 ! 8bondage0 ( man4 #a ,! fam\s #ajj s5t5ce1 8,man is born free1 & ev]y:]e he is 9 *a9s10 n[ turns out to mean1 8,man is born 9 natural lib]ty 7:i*1 if x ref]s to any actual condition at all1 implies1 9 animal isolation71 & by subs]vi5ce to social law1 he atta9s ! civil lib]ty ?r\gh :i* alone he becomes truly man40 ,( c\rse1 h[ev]1 ! phrase 8born free0 has ! "u curr5t ( mean+1 8is born = ! true/ fre$om10 b 9 ord] t ?is import may be elicit$ ! rhetorical anti!sis1 8& ev]y:]e is 9 *a9s10 mu/ be ab&on$4 #a ,see bk4 i41 *4 i4 ,! f9al p>agraph ( *apt] viii4 makes x cle> t ,r\sseau consid]s ! civil /ate z an embodim5t ( moral lib]ty1 :ile he is rightly anxi\s n to seem to cut ! knot ( 8 problem by appeal+ to ! m]ely e?ical or philosophical s5se ( ! t]m fre$om4 ,= ?is latt] conception1 tak5 by itself1 is apt to be und]/ood z ! e/abli%m5t ( unity 9 ! self by ! pa? ( r5unciation4 ,n[1 ! fre$om ( ! true civil /ate is1 on ! "o h&1 only a /age 9 ! asc5t t[>ds p]fect e?ical fre$om or unity1 = x involves r ! recognition ( su* fre$om z ! imp]ative end ( social law1 ?an ! actual atta9m5t ( x2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 x is some?+ broad] & m sub/antial ?an e?ical fre$om is apt to be conceiv$ z imply+1 because ( t outgr[? ( ! self into an organis$ social cont5t :i* ! civil condition involves4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 ! civil /ate & e?ical fre$om is !re=e a s\nd "o1 b yet does n prev5t _! juxta-position 9 ?is passage f ?r[+ #aja important light on ,r\sseau's conception ( ! =m]4 ,! expansion ( old conceptions 9 ,r\sseau's h&s1 & ! direction 9 :i* 8 views are advanc+1 are well illu/rat$ by ! p>agraph be=e u 9 comp>ison ) ,locke's idea ( cons5t4 ,a rec5t editor ( ! ,contrat #a cites 9 illu/ration ( ! words1 8,ob$i5ce to ! law :i* we h prescrib$ to ourselves is lib]ty0 ,locke's s5t5ce1 8,! lib]ty ( man 9 society is to be "u no o!r legislative p[] b t e/abli%$ by cons5t 9 ! commonweal?40 #b ,b ,locke is speak+1 accord+ to 8 !ory1 ( ! actual or tacit cons5t ( individuals to ! e/abli%m5t ( a gov]n+ p[]2 a cons5t :i*1 = him1 is conditional & revocable1 & !re=e fails to meet ! full difficulty ( self-gov]nm5t4 ,r\sseau1 borr[+ v likely 8 actual phrases f ,locke1 is speak+ ( some?+ q diff]5t1 viz41 ! recognition ( a law & a w1 ) :i* "o's ev]yday self may be at odds1 z nev]!less "o's tru] & full] self1 & imp]ative z aga9/ ! commonplace trivial moods :i* con/itute "o's inf]ior exi/5ce4 #a ,m4 ,dreyfus-,brisac4 #b ,civil ,gov]nm5t1 ii4 #bb4 ,?us f>1 !n1 we h se5 h[ ! problem ( self-gov]nm5t is trans=m$ by a deep] insight4 7a7 ,! negative relation ( ! self to o!r selves beg9s to dissolve away be=e ! conception ( ! common self2 & 7b7 ! negative relation ( ! self to law & gov]nm5t beg9s to disappe> 9 ! idea ( a law :i* expresses our real w1 z oppos$ to our trivial & rebelli\s moods4 ,! :ole notion ( man z "o among #ajb o!rs t5ds to break d[n2 & we beg9 to see some?+ 9 ! "o :i* actually id5tifies him ) ! o!rs1 & at ! same "t t5ds to make him :at he admits t he ought to be4 ,we h n[ to foll[ ^! ideas to _! application4 #ajc ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,! ,,conception ,,( ,a 8,,real0 ,,w4 #a4 ,we saw 9 ! c\rse ( ! la/ *apt] t = ,r\sseau's political !ory ev]y?+ turns on ! reality ( ! 8moral p]son0 :i* con/itutes ! ,/ate4 ,:5 active1 ?is 8moral0 or 8public p]son10 or common self1 is call$ sov]eign2 #a & sov]eignty = ,r\sseau consi/s 9 ! ex]cise ( ! ,g5]al ,w2 #b & x is 9 ?is *>act]i/ic ( political society t he f9ds t ju/ification = ! use ( =ce ^u individuals #c :i* he set out to seek4 ,at ! close ( ! la/ *apt] we not$ ! trans=mation 9 ! problem ( 8self-gov]nm5t0 :i* su* a conception t5ds to produce4 ,9 face ( x1 ! opposition betwe5 self & o!rs1 & betwe5 self & law or gov]nm5t1 w h to be int]pret$ altoge!r afre%4 ,! pres5t *apt] w be devot$ to expla9+ ! idea ( a ,g5]al ,w ) ref]5ce to ,r\sseau's pres5tation ( x1 & ! re/ ( ! "w w develop & apply x m freely4 #a ,bk4 ,i41 *4 vi4 #b ,bk4 ,,ii41 *4 i4 #c ,bk4 i41 *4 vii42 cf4 ,i41 *4 i4 ,a few words may be said ^u ,r\sseau's relation to ,hobbes #a & ,locke1 simply to #ajd illu/rate ! process by :i* deep5+ political exp]i5ce awak5$ ! anci5t mean+ )9 ab/ractions :i* _h pres]v$ x 9 a lat5t =m4 #a ,see also p4 #ic above4 ,bo? ,hobbes & ,locke use expressions1 9 treat+ ( ! gov]nm5t & unity ( a commonweal?1 :i* closely resemble ,r\sseau's phrases respect+ ! ,g5]al ,w1 ! moral p]son1 & ! real unity4 ,hobbes1 = example1 insi/$ t sov]eignty mu/ lie 9 a w1 & t ?is w mu/ be real & mu/ be tak5 z repres5t+ or /&+ = ! w ( ! community4 8,?is is m ?an cons5t or concord2 x is a real unity ( !m all 9 "o & ! same p]son40 #a ,only1 int]pret+ 8real0 z imply+ inh]5ce 9 tangible det]m9ate individuals1 he 9 fact sub/itut$ ! w 7tak+ ! ^w 9 its ord9>y s5se7 ( a c]ta9 individual or c]ta9 individuals = ! w ( ! community or moral p]son z su*4 ,8 temp]am5t 0 emphatically "o ( ^? describ$ by ,r\sseau z treat+ ! 8moral p]son0 z a fiction4 ,b s f> f ab&on+ = t reason all idea ( actual effective unity1 he replaces ! fictiti\s or ab/ract unity ( ! 8p]son0 by ! 8real unity0 ( an actual human be+ or a det]m9ate gr\p ( human be+s1 to be tak5 z ! unity ( ! ,commonweal? z su*4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 ) a logic :i* is irresi/ible on ! basis :i* he adopts1 he d5ies all possibility ( o!r repres5tation ( ! p :]e !re is already a sov]eign p[]4 ,= ! "o & only repres5tative ( ! p is = him ! #aje sov]eign1 on :om ! 8p]son0 ( ! community is1 by ! v fact ( 8 sov]eignty1 assum$ to be conf]r$4 ,we may say !n1 9 %ort1 t ,hobbes places ! unity ( political society 9 a w1 & t1 9 8 s5se1 a real or actual w1 b emphatically n 9 a g5]al w4 ,he inh]its ! language :i* enables him to pr$icate unity & p]sonality ( ! /ate1 b 9 8 m\? ! t]ms h n recov]$ a true political mean+1 & ! social "r1 :i* !y are int5d$ to acc\nt =1 rema9s a m]e "n4 #a ,levia?an1 pt4 ,,ii41 *4 xvii4 ,italics m9e4 ,locke br+s to be> a tru] political exp]i5ce1 b a f> less coh]5t logic4 ,he feels t actual gov]nm5t is a tru/1 & t ! ultimate supreme p[] rema9s 9 ! community z a :ole4 ,! difficulty 9 8 case is to und]/& h[ ! w or int]e/ ( ! community z su* obta9s det]m9ate expression4 ,g5]ally1 & ap>t f p>ticul> causes ( diss5t1 x is to be tak5 z "o ) ! w ( ! gov]n+ body to :i*1 accord+ to ! con/itution1 ! "w ( gov]nm5t is giv5 9 tru/4 ,b ! tru/ is conditional1 & !oretically revocable2 ! ultimate supreme p[] is 9 ! community at l>ge1 :i* may )draw ! tru/ if its conditions are violat$4 ,( c\rse1 no det]m9ate means ( do+ ?is 9 a lawful mann] is1 or c be1 sugge/$1 #a & !re=e ! w ( ! p is n express$ by ,locke z a real or actual w4 ,& s ! "r1 :i* 0 to be display$ z social1 rema9s #ajf a lat5t "r 9 individuals to ass5t or to diss5t1 & society is n repres5t$ z a g5u9e unity4 #a ,! ref]5dum is n really su* a means4 ,x c only "w )9 a well organis$ con/itution1 & c\ld n be us$ to re-make ! :ole con/itution--! =ms & conditions ( sov]eignty--at a bl[4 ,= ,hobbes1 !n1 we might v5ture to say1 political unity lies 9 a w :i* is actual1 b n g5]al2 :ile = ,locke x lies 9 a w :i* is g5]al1 b n actual4 ,if ! two are press$ to extremes1 ! =m] !ory annihilates 8self10 & ! latt] annihilates 8gov]nm5t40 ,= ! =m] !re is no true "r1 because ! w ( ! /ate is relat$ z m]e =ce to ! actual individual w2 = ! latt] !re is no true "r1 because ! individual's w rema9s a m]e natural claim1 :i* is nev] ?or\ghly trans=m$ by social recognition & adju/m5t4 ,b if x 7 possible to inspire a logic z coh]5t z t ( ,hobbes1 ) a political cont5t z l>ge z t :i* animates ,locke1 a new gr\nd w\ld be won4 ,& ?is is :at ,r\sseau has attempt$ 9 8 conception ( a w at once actual & g5]al2 on ! "o h&1 an absolute & det]m9ate adju/m5t & recognition ( rights2 on ! o!r h&1 embody+ 9 its recognitions all individual claims :i* repres5t a true individuality4 ,"h1 if su* a !ory 7 workable1 we %\ld h a g5u9e acc\nt ( self-gov]nm5t1 political obligation1 & social "r4 ,x may be admitt$ t ! !ory is n workable 9 ! =m :i* ,r\sseau gave x4 ,z ,b5?am contemptu\sly said1 8 doctr9e w\ld make all laws invalid1 except+1 p]haps1 ^? ( ! ,republic ( ,san ,m>9o4 ,b we %all see t ^! difficulties arise j :]e ,r\sseau fail$ to be true to 8 own be/ insight2 & we %all f9d indications 9 8 writ+s :i* sugge/ a diff]5t conclusion4 #ajg #b4 ,:at ,r\sseau means to indicate by 8 expression1 8! ,g5]al ,w10 may seem to _m p]sons1 z he cle>ly saw1 to h no actual exi/5ce4 ,x is ( ! nature ( a pr9ciple op]at+ among & und]nea? a great v>iety ( confus+ & disguis+ factors1 & c only be def9$ by ! help ( an 8z su*0 or 89 s f> z40 ,x is1 we might say1 ! w ( ! :ole society 8z su*0 or ! wills ( all individuals 89 s f> z0 !y aim at ! common good4 ,x is express$ 9 law1 89 s f> z0 law is :at x ought to be2 & sov]eignty1 8z su*10 i4e4 :5 truly itself because rightly act+ = ! common int]e/1 is ! ex]cise ( ! ,g5]al ,w4 ,9 its idea1 z ! key to ! :ole problem ( self-gov]nm5t & fre$om "u law1 x is t id5tity betwe5 my p>ticul> w & ! wills ( all my associates 9 ! body politic :i* makes x possible to say t 9 all social co-op]ation1 & 9 submitt+ ev5 to =cible con/ra9t1 :5 impos$ by society 9 ! true common int]e/1 ,i am obey+ only myself1 & am actually atta9+ my fre$om4 ,x embodies inde$ ! same factors z ! conception ( self-gov]nm5t1 b 9 a %ape :i* is a /age ne>] to reconciliation4 ,x po/ulates a w :i* 9 "s s5se transc5ds ! individual ^: w x is1 & is direct$ ^u an object ( wid] conc]n4 ,& 9 "o way or o!r1 we "k t ?is may be1 & inde$ always is ! case1 = our w is always direct$ to some?+ :i* we are n4 ,we may1 p]haps1 approa* ,r\sseau's ?\ght m successfully by />t+ f ! idea ( :at is impli$ 9 ! nature ( w1 z a *>act]i/ic #ajh ( an intellig5t be+4 ,we may !n f9d gr\nd = conceiv+ t my w or y\rs1 z we ex]cise x 9 ! trivial r\t9e ( daily life1 does n fulfil all t x implies or sugge/s4 ,x is n>r[1 arbitr>y1 self-contradictory4 ,x implies a 8true0 or 8real0 or 8rational0 w1 :i* w\ld be completely1 or m completely1 :at ours attempts to be1 & fails4 ,?us1 x has be5 said t :at ,r\sseau really aim$ at1 ) 8 conception ( ! ,g5]al ,w1 0 ! w 89 itself10 or ! w z x w\ld be if x c>ri$ out :at its nature implies & dem&s4 ,we c see t "s notion ( ?is k9d floats be=e ,r\sseau's m9d f ! pr$icates :i* he assigns to ,sov]eignty & ! ,g5]al ,w1 :i* are = him ne>ly conv]tible t]ms4 ,sov]eignty1 = example1 is inali5able & indivisible2 #a t is to say1 x is a simple consequ5ce ( ! nature ( a body politic1 8t by :i* a p is a p40 ,y c no m ali5ate or break x into p>ts ?an y c ali5ate or break into p>ts ! use ( y\r own judgm5t4 ,to be capable ( sov]eignty means to be a p 8z su*0 or 8z a :ole10 t is a liv+ & *oos+ p4 ,! p may ( c\rse give g5]al ord]s to subord9ates to hold good till revok$1 z ,i may give a p[] ( attorney = m or less specifi$ purposes to ano!r man4 ,b t is ! delegation 8( p[]1 n ( w40 #a ,bk4 ,,ii41 *s4 i4 & ii4 ,"h ,r\sseau is foll[+ ,hobbes v closely4 ,we see ! au?or's int5tion /ill m cle>ly :5 he ma9ta9s t ! ,g5]al ,w is always #aji "r1 #a & is inde/ructible4 #b ,?\gh x is always "r1 z ,w1 yet ! p may be misl$ 9 _! k & judgm5t ( details2 ?\gh x is inde/ructible 9 ! human brea/1 yet a man may vote at ! poll+ boo? on ano!r issue ?an t :i* he w\ld h be=e him if he consult$ ! ,g5]al ,w4 ,he may answ] by 8 vote n ! "q1 8,is ?is = ! public good80 b ! "q1 8,is ?is = my private good80 ,if s1 he does n inde$ ext+ui% ! ,g5]al ,w 9 himself1 b he evades x4 ,or1 z we might say1 ! man does n altoge!r cease1 h[ev] ignorant or int]e/$1 to possess a man's lean+ t[>ds mak+ ! real be/ ( himself1 ?\gh 8 private int]e/ may at times s ma/] 8 m9d z to ?r[ ! high] or common good into ! second place4 ,?us1 ! relation ( ! g5]al w to a community is pla9ly appreh5d$ by ,r\sseau mu* 9 ! _s ( ! doctr9e t man always aims at some?+ :i* he takes to be good4 ,& s ! ,g5]al ,w is z mu* impli$ 9 ! life ( a society z "s sort ( w = good 9 ! life ( an individual4 ,! two1 9 fact1 are n m]ely analog\s b to a great ext5t id5tical4 ,! ,g5]al ,w seems to be1 9 ! la/ resort1 ! in]adicable impulse ( an intellig5t be+ to a good ext5d+ beyond itself1 9 z f> z t good takes ! =m ( a common good4 ,?\gh ?is impulse may be ma/]$ or *eat$ 9 a degree1 yet1 if x 7 ext9ct1 human life w\ld h ceas$4 #a ,bk4 ,,ii41 *4 iii4 #b ,bk4 iv41 *4 i4 ,we ne$ n ent] at l5g? ^u ! "q :e!r ! good :i* ext5ds beyond oneself #aaj is adequately describ$ z ! good :i* is g5]al or common to oneself & o!rs4 ,x is pla9 t ! unity ( myself ) o!rs 9 a common good is ! same 9 pr9ciple z ! unity ( myself ) myself :i* ,i aim at 9 aim+ at my own good4 ,?\ght & language1 we %\ld be> 9 m9d1 unite me to myself j z !y unite me to o!rs1 & !y exp& my be+ by b9d+ my own life into a :ole no less ?an by mak+ int]c\rse possible betwe5 my fell[ m5 & myself4 ,j s1 ! good at :i* ,i aim ext5ds beyond my trivial or mom5t>y self--t is to say1 is univ]sal z aga9/ myself z p>ticul>--9 ways :i* are n prima facie exhau/$ by say+ t !y include ! good ( o!rs4 ,b aga91 j l ?\ght & language1 ! good :i* enables me to ent] deep] into communion ) myself or ) ! _w mu/ always h an aspect ( ext5d+ t communion to o!rs2 & !re=e1 = ! purposes ( social philosophy1 we may treat ! univ]sal good or self z also 9 its nature a g5]al or common good or self4 ,x is t at lea/1 ?\gh x may be m1 9 accordance ) ! logical relation betwe5 ! rational univ]sal1 & ! num]ical g5]ality4 ,?is inde/ructible impulse t[>ds ! ,good1 :i* is necess>ily a common good1 ! sub/antial unity & fill+ ( life by ! int]e/s ?r\gh :i* man is human1 is :at ,r\sseau pla9ly has be=e him 9 8 acc\nt ( ! ,g5]al ,w4 ,b x has rightly be5 obs]v$ #a t he did n really di/+ui% ?is conception1 analog\s z x is to :at ,plato or ,ari/otle might h said #aaa ( ! 8div9e reason :i* is ! s\rce ( ! laws & discipl9e ( ! ideal polity10 f ! legal idea ( ! sov]eign 89 ! s5se ( "s p[] ( :i* x c\ld reasonably be ask$ h[ x 0 e/abli%$ 9 ! "p :]e x resides1 :5 & by :om & 9 :at way x is ex]cis$40 ,we w po9t out1 h[ev]1 ! negative & positive indications :i* he furni%es z to :]e x is n & :]e x is to be look$ =4 ,t he fails to emancipate himself f ! fallacies :i* he acutely indicates is a ph5om5on = :i* ! read] is1 ,i tru/1 suffici5tly prep>$4 #a ,gre51 ,pr9ciples ( ,political ,obligation1 p4 #hb4 #c4 ,r\sseau develops 8 idea ( a ,g5]al ,w by ! contra/ :i* he draws betwe5 ! ,g5]al ,w & ! ,w ( ,all4 #a ,! ,g5]al ,w aims at a common int]e/2 & x is ?is community ( int]e/1 & n ! numb] ( votes 9 :i* x may f9d expression1 :i* 9 tru? 8g5]alises ! w40 #b ,! ,w ( ,all aims at private int]e/ z su* 78l'intrt priv07 & is only a sum ( p>ticul> wills4 ,only1 ,r\sseau fancies1 if y let ! p>ticul> wills fight x out freely1 _! diff]5ces are likely to cancel ea* o!r1 & ! ,g5]al ,w to make itself felt1 l any p]vad+ factor ?r\gh a *aos ( indef9ite v>iations4 #a ,contrat ,social1 ,,ii4 iii4 #b ,ib4 ,,ii4 iv42 cf4 above4 ,! important po9t 9 ! idea ( ! ,w ( ,all0 lies 9 its be+ 8a sum0 ( 8p>ticul>s10 z oppos$ to some?+ common or g5]al 9 its nature4 ,?us1 9 ! limit+ case1 y may h a unanim\s vote 9 fav\r ( a c]ta9 c\rse ( action1 & yet ! vot]s may sev]ally h be5 det]m9$ by aims & consid]ations :i* #aab ,r\sseau w\ld n admit to be capable ( ent]+ at all into a det]m9ation ( ! ,g5]al ,w4 ,= a private affair z su* is incapable 9 ,r\sseau's view ( be+ made ! subject ( law1 t is ( an act ( ! ,g5]al ,w4 ,su* an act mu/ be g5]al1 n only 9 ! numb] ( votes 7:i*1 z we h se51 is ! less important factor71 b 9 ! nature ( its subject-matt]1 :i* mu/ be1 z we %\ld say1 a "q ( g5u9e public int]e/4 #a ,n[1 :5 m5's m9ds leave out ( sight ! public or truly g5]al aspect ( a "q1 & are det]m9$1 ea* ( !m sev]ally1 by ! expect$ consequ5ces to himself z a private individual2 !n1 ?\gh all may practically agree 9 ! decision :i* is arriv$ at1 yet su* a decision is f\nd$ on no view ( truly public int]e/1 b is :at ,r\sseau calls 8a sum ( p>ticul> wills40 ,! di/9ction betwe5 su* a sum ( wills1 & a w t aims at a truly common int]e/ or good1 re/s ^u t fundam5tal contra/ betwe5 a m]e aggregate & an organic unity1 :i* is embodi$ 9 ! oppos+ views ( society :i* we h be5 discuss+4 ,pu%$ to extremes1 x might raise a difficulty = ^? :o are n famili> ) ! logical di/9ction betwe5 a ,judgm5t ( ,allness & a true ,univ]sal ,judgm5t4 #b ,:at h>m c !re be1 x may be ask$1 9 my vot+ accord+ to ! effect a measure w h ^u my affairs1 if ev]yone else is all[$ to vote accord+ to ! effect x w h ^u 8 affairs1 especially z 9 ! extreme case sugge/$1 ! result is t we are all agre$8 ,:at c be m = ! g5]al #aac int]e/ ?an a decision 9 :i* e p>ticul> int]e/ is satisfi$8 ,on ! m]e basis ( comp>ative g5]ality1 z e/imat$ by numb]1 !re is pla9ly no answ] to ?is objection4 ,we meet "h ) ano!r in/ance ( ! difficulties :i* arise f work+ ) ! notion ( society z 8self & o!rs10 & ( ! good z an altrui/ic aim4 ,= 9 ! case suppos$1 ! o!rs are all satisfi$ z mu* z myself2 & s ,i %\ld give weight to no high] aim by consid]+ _! int]e/ ?an by consid]+ my own1 unless ,i consid]$ x on diff]5t gr\nds f ^? :i* ,i admitt$ 9 judg+ ( my own advantage4 ,b any diff]5t1 high]1 or deep] gr\nds might j z well pres5t !mselves to me ) ref]5ce to my own advantage z ) ref]5ce to !irs2 & w\ld diff] f motives ( private int]e/1 n by br++ ab\t a m unanim\s adhesion1 b by belong+ to a deep] appreciation ( ! common good1 & !re=e produc+ a less sup]ficial unity ( resolve4 ,! real diff]5ce betwe5 ,allness & true ,univ]sality is t a 8univ]sal0 *>act]i/ic goes m deeply into ! nature ( t :i* x *>act]ises ?an does a m>k or attribute :i*1 l ! own]'s "n 9 ! books ( a libr>y1 simply happ5s to be atta*$ ab extra to all ! objects 9 "q4 ,s "h1 ! suppos$ accordant decisions ( all ! vot]s1 z guid$ ea* by 8 /rictly private int]e/1 are n really or completely accordant4 ,!y happ5 to come toge!r 9 "o po9t :i* has to be settl$ at ! mom5t2 b beyond t !y express no on5ess ( life or pr9ciple2 /ill less c !y give voice to any dem& ( ! great] or rational #aad self 9 :i* ! real common good resides4 ,?is is :at ,r\sseau means by say+ t x is ! community ( ! int]e/ or ! nature ( ! object1 & n ! numb] ( voices1 :i* di/+ui%es ! ,g5]al ,w f ! ,w ( ,all4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 t ! private int]e/ z su*1 :i* 9 ! case suppos$ det]m9es ! individual vot]1 is n ultimately 8 true int]e/2 & x may be said1 8,b if ea* foll[$ 8 own true int]e/ ! ,w ( ,all w\ld be "r40 ,b a true int]e/1 z oppos$ to an app>5t int]e/1 necess>ily has j ! *>act]s :i* ! true ,univ]sal has z aga9/ ! collection ( p>ticul>s1 or ! ,g5]al ,w aga9/ ! ,w ( ,all4 ,s t to say1 8,if ev]yone pursu$ 8 own true private int]e/ ! ,w ( ,all w\ld be "r10 is m]ely to say1 8,if ev]yone pursu$ 8 true private int]e/ he w\ld pursue ! common int]e/02 or1 8,! ,w ( ,all1 if direct$ to ! common good1 w\ld be "o ) ! ,g5]al ,w40 ,! reason :y x is necess>y to insi/ ^u ! di/9ction betwe5 true & app>5t int]e/1 univ]sal & aggregate ( p>ticul>s1 ,g5]al ,w & ,w ( ,all1 is j t a true int]e/ g5]ally requires "s degree ( en]gy or ef=t1 p]haps ( self-sacrifice2 :ile ! purely private or app>5t int]e/1 ! int]e/ ( ea* ( u 9 8 r\t9e frame ( m9d1 is t by :i* _m are always det]m9$1 & a :ole community is only too likely to be guid$4 ,t is :y x is wor? :ile to di/+ui% ! ,w ( ,all f ! ,g5]al ,w4 ,let u suppose t ,!mi/ocles _h be5 beat5 9 ! ,a!nian assembly :5 he propos$ t1 in/ead ( divid+ ! rev5ue #aae f ! silv] m9es among all ! citiz5s1 !y %\ld devote ?is rev5ue annually to build+ a fleet--! fleet :i* f\ght at ,salamis4 ,x is easy to see t 9 su* a case a relatively ideal end1 dem&+ a c]ta9 self-d5ial1 might appe> less attractive to all ! individuals--ea* keep+ be=e himself 8 own sep>ate %>e ( pr(it--?an ! accu/om$ di/ribution ( money4 ,& if su* a view _h ga9$ ! day1 hi/ory w\ld nev] h told1 & no free ,europe w\ld h exi/$ to und]/&1 by :at decision ! true g5]al w & common int]e/ ( ,a!ns might h transc5d$ ! aggregate private int]e/s ( all h] citiz5s4 ,no d\bt1 x may be add$1 a true univ]sal end is usually m p[]ful ?an a limit$ int]e/ ev5 9 ! m]e area ( its op]ation2 & we may ultimately f9d1 9 ! b5efits conf]r$ by ,a!ns on ! _w1 a ju/ification ( h] c\rage & self-d5ial1 ev5 by ! r\gh & unreliable /&>d ( ! numb] ( individuals b5eficially affect$4 #a ,contrat ,social1 ,,ii4 iv4 #b ,cf4 p4 #aaj above4 ,if su* a !ory z t j /at$ 7 to be lit]ally press$1 x w\ld lead to ! conclusion t a law :i* 0 n really = ! g5]al int]e/ 0 n b9d+ on ! subjects ( a /ate4 ,=1 by ! def9ition1 su* a law c\ld n be a true act ( sov]eignty4 ,no political !ori/1 h[ev] vision>y1 c\ld accept su* a conclusion z ?is1 & ,r\sseau1 see+ t ! decision ( ! recognis$ sov]eign mu/ be f9al1 attempts to %[ h[ & :5 x comes ne>e/ to a true ,g5]al ,w4 ,! decisive po9t ( 8 doctr9e on ?is subject is 8 ho/ility to repres5tative gov]nm5t1 #a #aaf & 8 consequ5t dem& ( a prim>y assembly & a small community z ! only gu>antees = ! g5u9e expression ( a w = ! common good4 8,! ,engli% p10 accord+ to 8 well-kn[n say+1 8is only free dur+ a g5]al election40 ,fur!r1 x is a sign t ! ,w ( ,all is1 on ! :ole1 co9cid+ ) ! ,g5]al ,w1 :5 unanimity prevails 9 ! assembly4 ,b long discussions & ! organisation ( m9or 8int]e/s0 & associations )9 ! /ate1 9 %ort1 all ! ph5om5a ( mature political life1 are signs & conditions ( failure to express ! ,g5]al ,w1 :i* is mo/ likely to make itself felt :5 p>ticul> wills neutralise "o ano!r 9 ! way expla9$ above4 #b #a ,bk4 ,,iii4 xv42 cf4 ,,iv4 ii4 #b ,p4 #aaa ,n[ all ?is makes x cle> t 9 endeav\r+ to po9t out ! signs ( ! ,g5]al ,w1 ,r\sseau is really en?ron+ ! ,w ( ,all4 ,he aims at elicit+ a direct op9ion1 uncontam9at$ by ext]nal influ5ce or int]e/1 f ea* & e memb] ( ! citiz5 body4 ,9 ?is aim1 :at is pres5t to 8 m9d is ( c\rse ! popul> idea ( ! anci5t ,city-,/ate4 ,b ! actual work+ ev5 ( ,a!nian or ( ,roman in/itutions 0 f> m subtle & complex ?an ?is4 ,& m especially1 ! v core ( ! common good repres5t$ by ! life ( a mod]n ,nation-,/ate is its pr(\nd & complex organisation1 :i* makes x great] ?an ! consci\s mom5t>y w ( any individual4 ,by r$uc+ ! ma*9]y = ! expression ( ! common good to ! isolat$ & unassi/$ judgm5t ( ! memb]s ( ! :ole body ( citiz5s1 ,r\sseau is ensur+ ! #aag exact rev]se ( :at he pr(esses to aim at4 ,he is appeal+ f ! organis$ life1 in/itutions1 & select$ capacity ( a nation to t nation reg>d$ z an aggregate ( isolat$ individuals4 ,&1 !re=e1 he is en?ron+ z sov]eign1 n ! national m9d1 b t aggregate ( private int]e/s & ideas :i* he has himself describ$ z ! ,w ( ,all4 ,he is s f> aw>e ( ?is t1 z we h se51 he refuses to contemplate a great mod]n nation z a political :ole1 because he fails to conceive h[1 = su* a community1 ! ,g5]al ,w c satisfactorily f9d expression4 ,b 9 z f> z he commits himself to ! view t ! sov]eign1 con/itut$ z he w\ld h x1 8necess>ily is :at x ought to be10 or 8is incapable ( inju/ice to any ( its memb]s10 s f> he has =gott5 ! dang]s ( ! ,w ( ,all1 & has affirm$ ! absolute supremacy ( ! popul> w 9 ! v s5se aga9/ :i* 8 conception ( ! ,w ( ,all is a prote/4 ,! notion ( prim>y assemblies & ( direct p>ticipation 9 citiz5 life has no d\bt a real lesson = ! political !ori/2 b x does n po9t to r$uc+ ! :ole political sy/em ( a great /ate to a model :i* nev]1 p]haps1 ?or\ghly fulfill$ its idea except "u v special conditions4 #d4 ,! o!r & m fruitful direction ( ,r\sseau's speculations ^u ! ,g5]al ,w is to be f\nd 9 8 rem>ks on ! function ( ! ,legislator4 ,we w approa* !m by help ( a %ort re/atem5t ( ! problem z x n[ /&s4 ,x 0 obs]v$ above t :at ,r\sseau _h be=e him 9 8 notion ( ! ,g5]al ,w might #aah be describ$ z ! 8,w 9 itself10 or ! ,real ,w4 ,any su* conception involves a contra/ betwe5 ! ,real ,w & ! ,actual ,w1 :i* may seem to be mean+less4 ,h[ c !re be a ,w :i* is no "o's ,w8 & h[ c any?+ be my ,w :i* ,i am n fully aw>e (1 or :i* ,i am ev5 av]se to8 ,?is "q w be treat$ m fully on psy*ological gr\nds 9 a lat] *apt]4 ,= ! pres5t1 x is en\gh to call att5tion to ! pla9 fact t (t5 :5 p d n "k :at !y mean1 !y yet mean some?+ ( v great importance2 or t1 z has commonly be5 said1 8:at p dem& is seldom :at w\ld satisfy !m if !y got x40 ,we may recall ! in/ances #a 9 :i* ev5 ,mill admitt$ t x is legitimate to inf]1 f ! inh]5t nature ( w1 t p d n really 8w0 some?+ :i* !y desire to d at a giv5 mom5t4 ,! example ( slav]y is a /rik+ "o4 ,a man may contract to become a slave1 b no civilis$ gov]nm5t w en=ce 8 contract at law1 & ! ultimate reason = ! refusal is1 z ,mill 9 effect po9ts out1 t man's nature is to ex]cise w--to h lib]ty--& a resolution to dive/ himself ( ?is capacity mu/ be tak5 z ipso facto void1 by contradict+ ! v ess5ce ( humanity4 #b #a ,p4 #fi above4 #b 8,lib]ty is ! quality ( man40 7,r\sseau1 ,contrat ,social74 ,n[ ! contradiction1 :i* "h appe>s 9 an ultimate =m1 p]vades ! 8actual0 w1 :i* we ex]t f mom5t to mom5t z consci\s individuals1 ?r\gh & ?r\gh4 ,a comp>ison ( our acts ( w ?r\gh a mon? or a ye> is #aai en\gh to %[ t no "o object ( action1 z we conceive x :5 act+1 exhau/s all t our w dem&s4 ,ev5 ! life :i* we wi% to live1 & :i* on ! av]age we d live1 is nev] be=e u z a :ole 9 ! motive ( any p>ticul> volition4 ,9 ord] to obta9 a full /atem5t ( :at we w1 :at we want at any mom5t mu/ at lea/ be correct$ & am5d$ by :at we want at all o!r mom5ts2 & ?is _c be done )\t also correct+ & am5d+ x s z to h>monise x ) :at o!rs want1 :i* involves an application ( ! same process to !m4 ,b :5 any consid]able degree ( su* correction & am5dm5t _h be5 gone ?r\gh1 our own w w\ld return to u 9 a %ape 9 :i* we %\ld n "k x aga91 al?\gh e detail w\ld be a necess>y inf]5ce f ! :ole ( wi%es & resolutions :i* we actually *]i%4 ,& if x 7 to be supplem5t$ & readju/$ s z to /& n m]ely = ! life :i* on ! :ole we manage to live1 b = a life ideally )\t contradiction1 x w\ld appe> to u q remote f any?+ :i* we "k4 ,su* a process ( h>monis+ & readju/+ a mass ( data to br+ !m into a rational %ape is :at is meant by criticism4 ,& criticism1 :5 appli$ to our actual w1 %[s t x is n our real w2 or1 9 ! pla9e/ language1 t :at we really want is some?+ m & o!r ?an at any giv5 mom5t we are aw>e t we w1 al?\gh ! wants :i* we are aw>e ( lead up to x at e po9t4 ,to obta9 some?+ :i* approximates to a real w1 !n1 involves a process ( criticism & #abj int]pretation1 :i* may be ei!r natural or intellectual2 t is to say1 x may proce$ by 8natural selection10 ?r\gh ! me?od ( trial & error1 or x may be rapidly advanc$ at fav\rable mom5ts by ! insight ( a great m9d4 ,b "s =w>dness 9 ?is criticism & int]pretation1 br++ ) x "s deposit1 s to speak1 ( objects ( volition 9 :i* ! private w1 s f> z x is di/+ui%$ at all1 f9ds h>mony & expansion1 mu/ be coeval ) social life1 &1 9 %ort1 ) humanity4 ,x is su* a process ( int]pretation t ,r\sseau ascribes to ! legislator4 ,he fa!rs on him ! :ole lab\r ( hi/ory & social logic 9 m\ld+ ! cu/oms & in/itutions ( mank9d4 ,& 9 agreem5t ) our g5]al attitude to ,r\sseau's hi/orical imag9ation1 we may take :at he says ( legislation & ! legislator z an expression ( 8 views on ! function ( cu/oms & ord9ances 9 ! con/itution ( w4 ,x is v rem>kable1 consid]+ ! o!r aspect ( 8 views1 t he %\ld h conceiv$ s di/9ctly1 z ! foll[+ passage %[s t he did1 ! imm5se contra/ betwe5 a real w & any?+ :i* c\ld be pres5t$ z a :ole 9 ! mom5t>y consci\sness ( human be+s4 ,"h is 8 /atem5t ( ! problem4 8,laws are1 /rictly speak+1 only ! conditions ( civil association4 ,! p :i* submits to ! laws ought to be _! au?or4 ,only ! associates c h ! "r to regulate ! conditions ( ! society4 ,b h[ are !y to regulate !m8 ,c #aba x be done by a common agreem5t1 by a sudd5 inspiration8 ,has ! body politic an organ = pron\nc+ its acts ( w8 ,:o w give x ! necess>y =esight to =m su* acts & to publi% !m be=e !y are ne$$8 ,or h[ is x to pron\nce !m at ! mom5t :5 !y are requir$8 ,h[ is a bl9d multitude1 :i* (t5 does n "k :at x wills1 because x r>ely kn[s :at is good = x1 to execute = itself s great & difficult an ent]prise z a sy/em ( legislation8 ,( itself1 ! p always wills ! good1 b x does n always see x4 ,! g5]al w is always "r1 b ! judgm5t :i* guides x is n always enlight5$4 ,x mu/ be made to see objects su* z !y are1 &1 sometimes1 su* z !y ought to appe> to x2 x mu/ be %[n ! "r road :i* x seeks1 mu/ be protect$ f ! allurem5ts ( private w2 places & times mu/ be br\ght close to its eyes1 & ! attractions ( pres5t & visible advantages c\nt]balanc$ by ! dang] ( remote & lat5t evils4 ,private p]sons see ! good :i* !y reject2 ! public wills ! good :i* x does n see4 ,all alike ne$ guidance4 ,! =m] mu/ be oblig$ to con=m _! w to _! reason2 ! latt] mu/ be taught to "k :at x wills4 #b ,!n1 f ! public enlight5m5t !re results ! union ( und]/&+ & ( w 9 ! social body2 & h5ce ! precise co-op]ation ( ! p>ts & ! greate/ p[] #abb ( ! :ole4 ,h5ce spr+s ! necessity ( a legislator40 #a #a ,contrat ,social1 bk4 ,,ii41 *4 vi4 #b ,!re is a prima facie contradiction 9 ?is rhetorical anti!sis2 if all private individuals 7 enlight5$1 b selfi%ly int]e/$1 !re c\ld be no public good w4 ,! contra/ mu/ lie betwe5 diff]5t classes ( p]sons1 if x is to h a mean+4 ,9 ! foll[+ *apt] #a ,r\sseau t\*es ! ess5ce ( laws & in/itutions 9 a few words1 :i* only embody a contradiction or a miracle because he is ?9k+ ( ! legislator's "w z a creation accompli%$ at "o bl[4 8,9 ord] t a p at its bir? %\ld h ! capacity to appreciate ! s\nd maxims ( policy & foll[ ! fundam5tal rules ( political reason1 x w\ld be necess>y = ! effect to become ! cause2 = ! social _s1 :i* is meant to be ! "w ( ! legislation1 to preside ov] ! legislation itself1 & = m5 to be1 be=e laws are made1 :at !y are meant to become by _! means40 ,! legislator !n1 9 face ( ?is contradiction1 mu/ h rec\rse to sup]natural sanctions4 #a ,contrat ,social1 ,,ii4 vii4 ,b ! p>adox precisely expresses ! fact4 ,laws & in/itutions are only possible because man is already1 :at !y gradually make m & m explicit2 because he has a g5]al w1 t is1 because ! good :i* he pres5ts to himself z 8 own is necess>ily 9 "s degree a good :i* ext5ds beyond himself1 or a common good4 ,! criticism or int]pretation :i* elicits ! g5]al w or actual social _s1 by removal ( contradictions1 & embodim5t 9 p]man5t =m1 is ess5tially "o ) ! "w :i* ,r\sseau ascribes to ! legislator4 ,& 8 p>adox is remov$ :5 we und]/& t ! legislator is m]ely "o ( ! organs ( ! social _s itself1 z x c>ries out its self-criticism & self-int]pretation1 9 "p by trial & error #abc & 9 "p by consci\s insight & adju/m5t4 ,! habits & in/itutions ( any community are1 s to speak1 ! /&+ int]pretation ( all ! private wills :i* compose x1 & x is ?us possible to assign to ! ,g5]al ,w an actual & concrete mean+ z some?+ diff]5t at once f e private w1 & f ! vote ( any giv5 assembly1 & yet z /&+1 on ! :ole1 = :at bo? ! "o & ! o!r necess>ily aim at su/a9+ z ! framework ( _! life4 ,x is ne$less to obs]ve t su* a repres5tation ( ! ,real ,w is imp]fect1 s9ce e set ( in/itutions is an incomplete embodim5t ( life2 & any giv5 sy/em ( life is itself also incomplete4 ,x is m important to rememb] t1 ?\gh always incomplete1 j z ! sy/em ( sci5ces is an incomplete expression ( tru?1 ! complex ( social in/itutions is1 z we h se51 v mu* m complete ?an ! explicit ideas :i* at any giv5 in/ant move any individual m9d 9 volition4 #abd ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,conception ,,( ,,lib]ty1 ,,z ,,illu/rat$ ,,by ,,! ,,=ego+ ,,sugge/ions4 #a4 ,we h n[ se5 t ! problem ( ,self-,gov]nm5t may be reg>d$ f a po9t ( view o!r ?an t :i* pres5t$ x z a contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,! contradiction dep5d$ on ! absolute opposition betwe5 self & o!rs :i* 0 embodi$ 9 ! prima facie idea ( society2 ! result ( :i* 0 t all increase ( individuality & all ass]tion ( self 7 at ! fir/ view ho/ile z reg>d$ o!rs1 & lib]ty1 ! condition ( individuality1 became a negative idea1 prescrib+ z x 7 a maximum ( empty space1 to be pres]v$ aga9/ all trespass]s1 r\nd e unit ( ! social :ole4 ,we saw t notions ( ?is k9d 7 pu%$ s f> z to endang] ! fundam5tal pr9ciple1 accord+ to :i* self-affirmation is ! root ( morality1 & x 0 ma9ta9$ t ! e?ical attitude ess5tially lay 9 ! negation & limitation impos$ by social life ^u ! natural t5d5cy to self-ass]tion4 #a ,accord+ to ^! ideas1 ! self 9 society is some?+ less ?an1 if x c\ld s exi/1 x w\ld #abe be out ( society1 & lib]ty is ! arrangem5t by :i*1 at a sacrifice ( "s ( its activities1 x is enabl$ to disport itself 9 vacuo ) ! rema9d]4 #a ,pp4 #bg & #gc4 ,b if we may give weight to ! sugge/ions ( ! two previ\s *apt]s1 ! assumptions :i* we "w ) are trans=m$4 ,! diff]5ce ( pr9ciple is t ! av]age individual1 su* z ea* ( u takes himself to be 9 8 ord9>y #a trivial moods1 :5 he sees1 or ?9ks he sees1 no?+ 9 life b 8 own private int]e/ & amusem5t1--?is av]age individual is no long] accept$ z ! real self or individuality4 ,! c5tre ( gravity ( exi/5ce is ?r[n outside him4 ,ev5 8 p]sonality1 8 unique & p]sonal be+1 ! inn]mo/ %r9e ( :at he is & likes to be1 is n admitt$ to lie :]e a c>eless scrut9y1 back$ by !oretical prejudice1 is apt to locate x4 ,x is n 9 ! nooks & recesses ( ! s5sitive self1 :5 ! man is mo/ )drawn f ?+s & p]sons & wrapp$ up 9 ! intimacies ( 8 feel+1 t he enjoys & ass]ts 8 individual self to ! full4 ,?is idea is a c>icature ( ! g5u9e exp]i5ce ( individuality4 ,x is true t to feel y\r individuality is to feel some?+ di/9ctive1 :i* gives y a hold & sub/ance 9 y\rself & a def9ite position among o!rs1 &1 x may be1 aga9/ !m4 ,b on a c>eful consid]ation1 x w be f\nd t ?is sub/ance & position are always su/a9$ by "s k9d #abf ( det]m9ate a*ievem5t or expansion on ! "p ( ! self4 ,x always comes f tak+ hold ( ! _w 9 "s def9ite way2 :i*1 j because x is def9ite & affirmative1 is at once a di/9ct ass]tion ( ! self1 & a transition f ! private self into ! great communion ( reality4 ,! simple/ ma*9e w %[ u t x is ! diff]5ces ( ! p>ts :i* enable !m to make a :ole4 ,& s1 we are n[ sugge/+1 x is 9 ! diff]5ce :i* contributes to ! :ole t ! self feels itself at home & possesses its individuality4 #a ,!re is a difficulty 9 /at+ ?is po9t )\t confusion1 j because ! 8ord9>y0 individual1 be+ at ! bottom diff]5t f :at he seems1 is actually det]m9$ 9 all sorts ( ways1 consci\sly & unconsci\sly1 by dem&s & ideas :i* g f> beyond :at he w\ld admit to det]m9e him4 ,foll[+ up su* ?\ghts z ^!1 we see t !re is a mean+ 9 ! sugge/ion t our real self or individuality may be some?+ :i* 9 "o s5se we are n1 b :i* we recognise z imp]ative ^u u4 ,z ,r\sseau has said ( ! social self1 we say m g5]ally ( ! self or life :i* ext5ds beyond our av]age private exi/5ce1 t x is m real ?an we are1 & we only feel ourselves real 9 proportion z we id5tify ourselves ) x4 ,) su* sugge/ions 9 our m9ds1 we see ! problem ( lib]ty 9 a new light4 ,lib]ty1 no d\bt1 is z ,r\sseau has told u1 s f> agree+ ) ,mill1 ! ess5tial quality ( human life4 ,x is s1 we und]/ood1 because x is ! condition ( our be+ ourselves4 ,b n[ t x has occurr$ to u t 9 ord] to be ourselves we mu/ be always becom+ some?+ :i* we are n1 or 9 o!r words1 we mu/ always recognise t we are some?+ m ?an we h become1 lib]ty1 z ! condition ( our be+ ourselves1 _c simply be some?+ :i* #abg we h1 /ill less some?+ :i* we h always _h--a /atus quo to be ma9ta9$4 ,x mu/ be a condition relevant to our cont9u$ /ruggle to ass]t ! control ( some?+ 9 u1 :i* we recognise z imp]ative ^u u or z our real self1 b :i* we only obey 9 a v imp]fect degree4 ,?us x is t we c speak1 )\t a contradiction1 ( be+ =c$ to be free4 #a ,x is possible = u to acquiesce1 z rational be+s1 9 a law & ord] :i* on ! :ole makes = ! possibility ( ass]t+ our true or univ]sal selves1 at ! v mom5t :5 ?is law & ord] is con/ra9+ our p>ticul> private wills 9 a way :i* we res5t1 or ev5 condemn4 ,su* a law & ord]1 ma9ta9$ by =ce1 :i* we recognise z on ! :ole ! in/rum5t ( our greate/ self-affirmation1 is a sy/em ( rights2 & our lib]ty1 or to use a good old expression1 our lib]ties1 may be id5tifi$ ) su* a sy/em consid]$ z ! condition & gu>antee ( our becom+ ! be/ t we h x 9 u to be1 t is1 ( becom+ ourselves4 ,& because su* an ord] is ! embodim5t up to a c]ta9 po9t ( a self or sy/em ( w :i* we recognise z :at ought to be1 z aga9/ ! indol5ce1 ignorance1 or rebellion ( our casual private selves1 we may rightly call x a sy/em ( self-gov]nm5t or free gov]nm5t2 a sy/em1 t is to say1 9 :i* ourselves1 9 "o s5se1 gov]n ourselves 9 ano!r s5se2 n z ,mill has said1 by ea* "o ( u be+ subject to all ! 8o!rs0 7tak+ 8o!rs0 9 ! same s5se 9 :i* ea* ( u is 8"o071 #abh b by all ( u1 z casual private units1 be+ subject to an ord] :i* expresses1 up to a c]ta9 po9t1 ! rational self or w :i*1 z rational be+s1 we may be assum$ #b to recognise z imp]ative4 #a ,= limitations see *4 viii4 bel[4 #b ,9 pr9ciple1 actual individual ass5t is n ne$$4 ,! "q :5 ! assumption breaks d[n belongs to ! subject ( ! duty ( rebellion & ! significance ( puni%m5t4 #b4 ,be=e proce$+ to develop ! idea ( lib]ty1 we may consid] = a mom5t ! closely analog\s idea ( 8nature0 & :at is 8natural40 ,l ! notion ( 8lib]ty0 :i* is t ( 8be+ able to be y\rself10 ! notion ( nature1 :i* is t ( 8com+ to be ( y\rself1 or ( itself10 has always1 h[ev] imp]fectly appreh5d$1 ex]cis$ imm5se p[] ov] ! m9d4 ,x is felt t y h t\* ) reality :5 y h f\nd some?+ :i* c gr[ ( itself4 ,b aga91 l ! notion ( lib]ty1 ! notion ( nature is apt to be appreh5d$ 9 a =m s p>tial z to be practically negative1 & 9 ?is =m1 to be giv5 a ho/ile be>+ aga9/ :at are1 9 fact1 complet] phases ( ! same idea4 ,t :i* is natural1 or by nature1 9 ! mo/ obvi\s s5se--:at mo/ pla9ly appe>s to h 8come ( itself0--is :at comes fir/ 9 "t1 & :at comes ) ! lea/ putt+ toge!r ! primitive & ! simple z aga9/ ! late & ! complex4 ,& s 9 ! !oretical inquiry aft] :at is solid & c be reli$ ^u1 !re con/antly recurs 9 all ages ! t5d5cy to /ory-tell+2 to ! n>ration ( :at is suppos$ to h come fir/1 z ! simple #abi spontane\s beg9n+ out ( :i* ! _w z we "k x has em]g$ ) greatly alt]$ attributes4 ,! note ( /ory-tell+ is unmi/akable 9 ?is nave !ory1 :e!r we f9d x 9 poets :o portray ! ,gold5 ,age1 f ,hesiod d[nw>ds1 #a or repres5t$ z a fallacy ( social compact by ,plato 9 ! second book ( ! ,republic #b or adopt$ z a juri/ic !ory by ,tacitus #c & ! writ]s :o reli$ on ! idea ( a 8/ate ( nature10 d[n to ,r\sseau4 #a ,! resemblance betwe5 ,hesiod's dream ( ! ,gold5 ,age & mod]n doctr9es ( int5sive culture is />tl+1 & !re is probably a true hi/orical cont9uity betwe5 !m4 ,?is does n involve ! ass]tion t !re c be no tru? 9 ! latt]1 b x does sugge/ t ! disproportionate emphasis laid ^u x 7e4g4 by ,f\ri] & 9 ,m]rie ,engl&7 indicates an elem5t ( ! old 8,nature0 fallacy4 #b ,rep41 #ceh ,e4 #c ,annals1 iii4 #bf2 cf4 ,g]mania1 *4 xix4 #bj1 8,neque corrump]e et corrumpi #8seculum' vocatur4 4440 ,note ! id5tification ( 8our age0 ) corruption2 cp4 use ( f9 de sicle4 ,x may be obs]v$ at ?is po9t t ! conception ( a 8law ( nature0 made a v valuable middle t]m betwe5 ! conception ( a purely primitive condition ( ! _w & ! ideal ( a complete society4 ,! logical reason is pla94 ,! in/9ct ( gett+ at some?+ solid & p]man5t1 :i* fir/ reveals itself by go+ back to ! suppos$ orig9al or simple1 soon atta*es itself also to :at is g5]ally f\nd to exi/1 und]/&+ g5]ality z a m>k ( t t5d5cy to come ( itself :i* x feels to atta* to :at is real & able to /& 9 its own "r4 ,b g5]ality is a clue :i* leads a long way2 & ! m9d passes f say+ 8,fire burns #a by nature1 #acj = x burns ev]y:]e2 b law is v>iable0 #b to obs]v+ t !re are features ( law :i* h _! own g5]ality1 & !re ?us appe>s to be a 8natural0 elem5t 9 law1 :i* may mean ! "r ( ! /ronge/1 #c b may aga9 am\nt to a t5d5cy to come out ( ! 8/ate ( nature40 ,j 9 ! same way1 ! conception ( ,lib]ty has always drawn f exp]i5ce a c]ta9 positive t5d5cy to progress1 & has nev] p]haps1 ev5 9 ! mo/ fanatical !ory1 ma9ta9$ ! full dem& = isolation :i* its negative be>+ might seem to imply4 #a ,argum5t cit$ by ,ari/otle1 ,e?41 v4 #aj4 #b ,j s1 9 /rict sci5ce1 f ! ,atomi/s d[nw>d1 ! prim>y qualities 7spatial7 are real1 ! second>y 7col\rs7 conv5tional 7or1 z we say1 8subjective072 ! =m] mean+ holds good m g5]ally ?an ! latt]4 #c ,plato1 ,gorgias1 p4 #dhd4 ,b aga91 ! in/9ct :i*1 9 look+ = :at has p[] to gr[ or come ( itself1 lays hold ( :at is m]ely primitive or m]ely g5]al1 has 9 all great epo*s ( ?\ght be5 met by a deep] insight4 ,x is n m]ely :at we are born z1 or :at ! _w beg9s )1 t comes ( itself4 ,! mo/ ord9>y conception ( gr[? involves maturity1 & ! t]m nature 9 ,greek & ,lat91 z 9 ,engli%1 c indicate n only :at we are born z1 b :at we are born =1 our true1 or real1 or complete nature4 ,?us ! great ?9k]s ( e age h be5 l$ to some?+ l ,ari/otle's conception1 8:at a ?+ is :5 its gr[? is complet$1 t is :at we call its nature #a 7gr[? or evolution702 & s1 if we are to ?9k ( 8nature0 z a :ole1 x w n be1 #aca z :5 we speak ( 8natural0 sci5ce1 an outw>d _w1 :e!r ( atoms or ( organisms1 contra/$ bo? ) ,god & ) ,man1 8= nature 9 ,ari/otle is n ! outw>d _w ( creat$ ?+s2 x is ! creative =ce1 ! productive pr9ciple ( ! univ]se40 #b ,to u1 incl9$ to contra/ ! natural at once ) ! human & ! div9e1 !re is some?+ />tl+ 9 ! vivid reality ) :i* ! ,greek ?9k]s hold ! ?ree ideas toge!r4 ,! creative activity ( ! div9e pr9ciple seems = ,plato to be actually "o ) gr[?1 or nature1 or evolution4 #c ,x may be ( int]e/ to cite ! great passage 9 :i* ,plato lays 8 f+] on ! common fallacy4 #d 8,_m le>n$ m5 say t ! elem5ts & inorganic & organic _w bel[ man came by nature & *ance1 b t law & ju/ice & man's works & social in/itutions & religion are m]ely conv5tional1 v>iable1 & untrue4 ,b we mu/ ma9ta9 t law & religion & man's works exi/ by nature1 or are n l[] ?an nature1 be+ ! products ( m9d accord+ to "r reason40 444 8,= !y give ! "n ( nature to ! orig9 ( ! e>lie/ ?+s2 #e b if really m9d is e>lie/ ( all ?+s1 !n x may rightly be said to be sup]latively natural40 #a ,ari/otle1 ,pol41 i4 i4 #b ,but*]1 ,ari/otle's ,!ory ( ,poetry & ,f9e ,art1 p4 #aaf4 #c ,republic1 x4 #eig4 #d ,laws1 #hhi ff4 abridg$4 #e ,we are n deal+ "h ) ,platonic int]pretation1 b x seems necess>y to po9t out t1 lit]ally tak51 ?is passage accepts ! pr9ciple t nature prim>y g5esis1 & sets out to prove m9d to be natural 9 ?is s5se4 ,we might r reject ! appeal to succession 9 ,"t altoge!r1 z at bottom ,plato means to4 ,b we see h[ emphatically m9d is = ,plato ! sup]latively natural4 ,& s1 z ! univ]se is = ! great ?9k]s #acb at once natural & div9e1 ! same applies to human society4 ,n only 9 ,ari/otle's tr5*ant expressions to ! effect t ! ,city ,/ate is a natural gr[?1 b 9 ! :ole ( ,plato's c>eful analysis ( moral & social life1 we f9d society depict$ z a liv+ & gr[+ creature1 9 :i* man's nature exp&s itself f m to m1 hav+ its own ess5ce progressively communicat$ to x4 ,& s we f9d t ! peculi> naturalness ( ! primitive & ! simple is only an illusion1 caus$ by ! great] difficulty ( recognis+ ! l>g] individuality :i* comes bo? ( & to itself 9 ! lat] & m complex phases ( life4 ,b :atev] x 0 t 0 real & t came ( itself 9 ! primitive & simple is !re to a great] degree--) m reality & z ! same self1 only m complete--9 ! lat] & complex4 ,! idea ( a dim9ution ( be+ z we pass f ! simpl] to ! m develop$ self is a fallacy ( non-recognition4 ,r\sseau1 z we saw1 ma9ta9s 9 words ! traditional opposition betwe5 ! natural & ! civil or moral condition ( man4 ,f ! t5d5cy ( 8 views1 h[ev]1 we might h expect$ t 9 8 philosophy ! :eel w\ld come full circle1 & ! t]m 8nature0 w\ld rev]t to its ,greek mean+4 ,b ?is is n ! case1 ?\gh 9 mile !re is a compromise :i* po9ts 9 "s su* direction4 ,yet a rem>kable passage #a f ,burlamaqui1 a ,g5evese juri/1 ! e>li] contempor>y ( ,r\sseau1 %[s ! rev]sion to ! ,greek view ( social nature complet$ 9 pr9ciple4 8,la lib]t civile l'emporte de #acc beauc\p sur la lib]t naturelle1 et1 p> consqu5t1 l'tat civil qui l'a produit e/ de t\s les tats de l'homme le plus p>fait1 et1 p>l] exactem5t1 le v]itable tat naturel de l'homme4 ,l'tablissem5t d'un g\v]nem5t et d'une puissance s\v]a9e1 ram5ant les hommes l'obs]vation des lois naturelles1 #b et p> consqu5t dans la r\te de bonheur1 les fait r5tr] dans leur tat naturel1 duquel ils tai5t sortis p> le mauvais usage qu'ils faisai5t de leur lib]t40 #a ,cit$ 9 ,dreyfus-,brisac's edition ( ! ,contrat ,social1 p4 #ci4 #b ,note ! value ( 8natural law0 z a middle t]m equival5t to ! g5]al & rational features ( positive law1 & =m+ a /ep by :i* ! 8natural0 is c>ri$ beyond ! suppos$ 8/ate ( nature40 ,^u ?is rev]sion to anci5t usage !re foll[$ ! movem5t ( ! age ( romantic g5ius & ( organic sci5ce1 & ) ,goe!'s ,erdgei/ & ,wordswor?'s religion ( ,nature ! re/riction ( ! natural to ! primitive & simple 0 de/roy$4 ,nature /ill rema9s a po9t ( view "u :i* we reg>d :at relatively speak+ 8comes ( itself10 b x has ceas$ to exi/ z a "q-begg+ pr$icate1 atta*$ to pre-social or extra-social conditions ( man4 #c4 ,lib]ty1 z und]/ood by ! writ]s :o 7 discuss$ 9 *4 iii4 ( ! pres5t "w1 is relat$ to ! ,/ate mu* z ,nature1 9 ! m\? ( /ory-tell+ !ory1 is relat$ to civilis$ society4 ,we saw t ,seeley 9 8 ,introduction to ,political ,sci5ce #a lays x d[n t 8p]fect lib]ty is equival5t to total abs5ce ( gov]nm5t40 ,& ?is no d\bt fairly repres5ts our fir/ notion ( ! matt]1 :5 cle>$ ( ! limitations impos$ ^u x by practical life1 :i* #acd limitations--really a fir/ h9t ( ! tru?--we are apt to mi/ake = m]e sophi/ications & imp]fections4 ,we not$ 9 ,r\sseau ! surviv+ contra/ betwe5 natural lib]ty on ! "o h& & civil or moral lib]ty on ! o!r1 & we obs]v$ t ! exp&+ idea ( :at 0 natural c\ld n be prev5t$ f cov]+ ! gr\nd ( ! civil or moral life4 ,! ?read ( connection1 or r ! f]m5t ( expansion1 we f\nd to be1 9 ! case ( nature1 ! idea ( self-orig9ation4 ,t 0 natural :i* came ( itself4 #a ,seeley1 quot$ p4 #ia above4 7a7 ,9 ! simple ideal ( lib]ty1 z equival5t to ! abs5ce ( all gov]nm5t--= we mu/ n =get t x is an ideal1 obta9$ by neglect+ ! facts ( life :i* run c\nt] to x--!re is cle>ly embodi$ a claim :i* comm&s our respect4 ,! claim is s self-evid5t & s conv9c+ to av]age human feel+--,mr4 ,sp5c] w\ld inde$ say1 ) "s tru?1 to animal feel+ 9 g5]al--t its precise nature is seldom /at$ 9 di/9ct language4 ,we h assum$ above t ! root ( x lies 9 ! claim to be ourselves4 ,b x is saf] to take x 9 ! %ape :i* x actually has = ! av]age consci\sness1 & ?is is ! negative %ape1 z a claim to be free f con/ra9t4 #a ,if we ask1 8,:at is con/ra9t80 ! answ] is f\nd$ on ! curr5t di/9ction betwe5 myself & o!rs z diff]5t m9ds atta*$ to diff]5t bodies4 ,x is con/ra9t :5 my m9d is int]f]$ ) 9 its control ( my body ei!r by actual or by ?reat5+ physical #ace viol5ce "u ! direction ( ano!r m9d4 ,a p]man5t & settl$ condition ( su* con/ra9t1 by :i* ,i become 9 effect ! in/rum5t ( ano!r m9d1 is slav]y4 ,& x w n lead u f> wrong if we assume t ! value put ^u lib]ty & its erection into some?+ l an ideal comes f ! contra/ ) slav]y4 ,! ideal ( positive political fre$om presupposes m complex exp]i5ces4 ,b ,hom] already kn[s t 8,zeus deprives a man ( half 8 manhood :5 he becomes a slave40 #a ,we mu/ assume1 ,i suppose1 t 9 ,seeley's s5t5ce 8,gov]nm5t0 8,con/ra9t10 or its vraisemblance is lo/4 ,?is1 !n1 we may take z ! practical />t+ po9t 9 ! notion ( fre$om4 ,x is :at1 ) ref]5ce to a =m$ society1 we may call a /atus2 ! position ( a freeman z oppos$ to a slave2 t is1 ( "o :o1 :atev] oppression he may meet ) de facto f "t to "t1 or :atev] specifi$ s]vices he may be b\nd to r5d]1 normally reg>ds himself & is reg>d$ by o!rs z1 on ! :ole1 at 8 own disposal1 & n ! m]e in/rum5t ( ano!r m9d4 ,?us ! juri/ic mean+ ( ! t]m lib]ty1 bas$ on ! normal di/9ction betwe5 "o self-det]m9+ p]son & ano!r1 we may set d[n z its lit]al mean+1 & s f> ! ,engli% writ]s1 ( :om ,seeley is ! late/ type1 are on solid gr\nd :5 !y def9e lib]ty z ! abs5ce ( re/ra9t1 or p]fect lib]ty z ! abs5ce ( all gov]nm5t 79 ! s5se ( habitual con/ra9t by o!rs74 7b7 ,x is obvi\s t ! above def9ition w\ld be :olly inadequate to ! simple/ facts respect+ ! dem&s :i* h ?r\gh all hi/ory be5 ass]t$ & a*iev$ "u ! "n ( political #acf lib]ty4 ,a man may be a long way m ?an a slave & yet a long way less ?an a citiz54 ,if1 z ,seeley says1 ! ,engli% writ] ( ! v]ses1 8,ah1 ,fre$om is a noble ?+10 only meant by ,fre$om1 be+ out ( prison1 x is c]ta9 t he meant mu* less ?an ! ,greek hi/orian :o two ?\s& ye>s be=e us$ almo/ ! same words4 8,! "r ( equal spee*10 he wrote1 8demon/rates itself 9 e way z a noble ?+40 #a ,by ?is1 z 8 words & _! occasion make pla91 he meant a c]ta9 det]m9ate security = ! positive ex]cise ( activities affect+ ! welf>e ( ! social :ole1 & "s su* security is always und]/ood to be involv$ 9 ! notion ( political lib]ty4 ,b we w cont5t ourselves at ?is po9t ) not+ ! di/9ction & connection betwe5 ! negative or juri/ic1 & ! v>y+ly positive or political conception ( lib]ty4 ,= ! latt] is1 9 its degree1 a case ( t full] fre$om :i* we are ab\t to trace to its embodim5t 9 ! /ate2 & ! ph5om5a ( political lib]ty are cov]$1 ( c\rse1 by ! po9t ( view :i* we %all take 9 indicat+ ! /ate z ! ma9 organ & condition ( ! full] lib]ty4 #a ,hdt41 v4 #gh4 7c7 ,! connection1 we said1 betwe5 juri/ic & political lib]ty %\ld be obs]v$ at ?is po9t4 ,x is m]ely an example ( :at we %all f9d ?r\gh\t1 t ! app>5tly negative has its roots & its mean+ 9 ! positive1 &1 9 proportion z its true nature becomes evid5t1 its positive aspects become explicit4 ,!re is no true security = juri/ic lib]ty ap>t f political #acg lib]ty2 & x has con/antly be5 ! infraction ( juri/ic lib]ty t has be5 ! orig9 ( ! dem& = a %>e 9 highly positive political duties & functions4 ,m]e protection = p]son & prop]ty may seem an easy ?+ to def9e & ma9ta9 ) j a little goodwill2 b ! que/ions :51 h[1 & 9 :at s5se x is to be ma9ta9$ involve ! positive "* ( ! political sy/em1 & !re is no ultimate security unless t sy/em is m\ld$ by ! :ole compass ( individuality :i* society conta9s4 7d7 ,recurr+ !n to ! lit]al or elem5t>y s5se ( lib]ty1 z ! abs5ce ( con/ra9t ex]cis$ by "o ^u o!rs1 we may admit t1 9 go+ beyond x1 we are m or less mak+ use ( a metaphor4 #a ,we are pass+ f ! idea ( non-con/ra9t pure & simple to ! idea ( m or less m\ld+ & selection )9 ! p[]s & activities ( ! self4 ,x is true1 inde$1 & mu/ be ma9ta9$ z a fundam5tal pr9ciple1 t ! 8high]0 lib]ty is also 9 fact ! 8l>g]0 lib]ty1 pres5t+ ! great] area to activity & ! m ext5sive *oice to self-det]m9ation4 #b ,b ?is l>g] developm5t rema9s )9 a positive g5]al "*1 & if m alt]natives are op51 !re are also1 by t v fact1 m :i* are clos$4 ,we _c :olly exhau/ ! new mean+ ( lib]ty z appli$ to ! law-abid+ & moral life ( a #ach consci5ti\s citiz5 ev5 by *ang+ ! negative into ! positive1 & say+ t1 :]eas m]e juri/ic fre$om 0 only fre$om f con/ra9t1 political fre$om means fre$om to act4 ,! high] s5se ( lib]ty1 l ! l[]1 involves fre$om f "s ?+s z well z fre$om to o!rs4 ,& t :i* we are fre$ f is1 9 ?is case1 n ! con/ra9t ( ^? :om we commonly reg>d z o!rs1 b ! con/ra9t ( :at we commonly reg>d z a "p ( ourself4 ,"h is ! reason = say+ t1 :5 we speak ( lib]ty 9 ! high] s5se1 we mu/ be admitt$ to be speak+ metaphorically4 #c #a ,9 ?is & ! foll[+ section ,i h made great use ( ,gre5's discussion 9 ! fir/ *apt] ( ! ,pr9ciples ( ,political ,obligation4 #b ,p]haps ,i may ref] on ?is head to 8,lib]ty & ,legislation0 9 my ,civilisation ( ,*ri/5dom 7,sonn5s*e974 #c ,b see bel[1 p4 #ade4 ,9 ! /raight=w>d s5se ( ! ^w1 we saw1 ,i am free :5 ,i am n made ! in/rum5t ( ano!r p]son's w ?r\gh physical viol5ce or ! ?reat ( x4 ,! subtle que/ions :i* may arise ) reg>d to due or undue degrees ( influ5ce1 by :i* ,i may become ! in/rum5t ( ano!r's m9d1 ) m or less will+ness on ! "p ( my own1 are "h disreg>d$4 ,i am assum$ to be act+ freely s long z ,i foll[ ! incl9ation ( my m9d1 ap>t f any pa9ful conflict =c$ ^u x by ! prospect ( physical int]f]5ce ) its belong+s4 ,b f ! e>lie/ ages ( e?ical reflection1 a fur!r s5se has be5 ascrib$ to ! t]m lib]ty4 ,x has be5 po9t$ out by morali/s & philosoph]s--fir/1 p]haps by ,socrates & ,plato--t ! condition ( man z to be+ himself is fundam5tally affect$ n only by ! p[] to d :at he likes )\t con/ra9t1 b by ! nature ( t :i* he likes to d4 ,! human #aci m9d1 x is expla9$1 is nev] :olly at "o ) itself1 & ! common phrases 8self-ma/]y0 or 8self-control0 are adduc$ by way ( pres5t+ :at we spoke ( above z ! e?ical p>adox ( self-gov]nm5t4 #a ,! m9d1 !n1 is treat$ by a metaphor z if x 7 two or m p]sons2 & ! t]m lib]ty1 :i* applies prima facie to ! non-con/ra9t ( "o p]son by ano!r1 is appli$ to ! non-con/ra9t ( some?+ )9 an individual m9d by some?+ else )9 x4 ,n[1 ap>t f fur!r scrut9y1 x does n appe> :y ! t]m lib]ty1 :5 ?us appli$1 %\ld mean any?+ ( e?ical value4 ,z ,plato obs]v$1 9 a passage #b f :i* ! curr5t use ( all ^! phrases is probably d]iv$1 x seems absurd at fir/ sight to speak ( self-control z a di/9ctive pr$icate ( c]ta9 /ates ( m9d4 ,= surely1 )9 ! m9d1 t :i* is controll$ mu/ be ( ! nature ( self no less ?an t :i* controls x1 s t1 9 say+ t ,i h self-control1 ,i am say+ t ,i am self-indulg5t2 9 say+ t my m9d is free1 ,i am at ! same "t say+ t x is a slave4 ,)9 c]ta9 limits ?is p>adox repres5ts a tru?1 & ! e?ical rank ( ! elem5ts :i* co]ce & are co]c$ may be q oppositely e/imat$4 ,we may ?9k fit to call ourselves free ei!r :5 love conqu]s reason or :5 reason triumphs ov] love4 ,/ill1 z ,plato proce$s to po9t out1 ! g5]al adoption ( ! metaphor1 ! fact t we ?9k & call ourselves 8free0 or 8self-controll$0 or 8fully ourselves0 9 "s cases & n 9 o!rs2 & t we d n 9 ea* ( #adj ^! cases reg>d ! opposite attribution 8slave10 8self-indulg5t10 8n ourselves0 z equally true ) ! =m]1 indicates t "s sub/antial fact is =c+ itself ^u u ?r\gh ! metaphor 9 "q4 ,x is ! same problem z t :i* ,pr(essor ,james has wittily /at$ :5 he po9ts out t 8! slugg>d1 ! drunk>d1 ! c[>d nev] talk ( _! conduct 9 t way 7i4e4 z conqu]+ _! impulses & temptations7 or say !y resi/ _! en]gy1 ov]come _! sobriety1 conqu] _! c\rage1 & s =?40 #c #a ,p4 #ee4 #b ,republic1 #dcj ,e4 #c ,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology1 ii4 #edh4 ,x is mo/ important1 we may v5ture to obs]ve 9 pass+1 n to und]/& ! sub/antive fact1 or ,plato's pres5tation ( x1 z if x lay 9 an alt]native betwe5 two psy*ological factors1 say intellig5ce & desire1 ! "o ( :i* 0 to be pref]r$ & ! o!r to be repudiat$1 ?r\gh "s quasi-e?ical conception ( rank1 su* z ! suppos$ aff9ity ( ! "o factor ) div9e or ( ! o!r ) animal life4 ,we are speak+ ( ! s5se 9 :i* x c be ass]t$ t ! human self is1 comp>atively speak+1 free 9 "o k9d ( life & unfree 9 ano!r1 bo? be+ assum$ to be *os51 9 ! abs5ce ( con/ra9t by an ext]nal w4 ,x is pla9 t ! only gr\nd on :i* su* an ass]tion c really be su/a9$ is t ! "o life m ?an ! o!r gives effect to ! self z a :ole1 or removes its contradictions & s makes x mo/ fully :at x is able to be1 or :at1 by ! impli$ nature ( ea* & all ( its wants1 x may be said really to want to be4 ,! claims ( intellig5ce & desire 9 _! v>i\s phases mu/ be #ada criticis$ accord+ to ?is pr9ciple1 & n advocat$ ^u presuppositions drawn f ext]nal comp>isons4 ,b our "q at ! pres5t mom5t is n z to ! deep] nature ( t :i* we call ! self p> excell5ce1 b z to ! be>+ ( ! metaphor by :i* ! ass]tion ( su* a self is id5tifi$ ) lib]ty or abs5ce ( con/ra9t4 ,& ! po9t is pla9ly ?is2 #a t 9 ! conflict betwe5 t :i* /&s = ! self p> excell5ce & t :i*1 at any "t1 /&s oppos$ to x1 we h ! cle> exp]i5ce t we are capable ( be+ det]m9$ by a w )9 our m9ds :i* nev]!less we repudiate & dis[n1 #b & !re=e we feel ourselves to be l a slave z comp>$ ) a freeman if we yield1 b l a freeman comp>$ ) a slave if we conqu]4 ,we may be det]m9$ by some?+ :i* n only is n ourself--= 9 ! greate/ mom5ts ( life1 :5 our be+ t\*es its maximum1 we1 9 a s5se1 feel an impulse :i* is n ourself--b x is n ourself z some?+ :i* has got hold ( u by =ce1 & op]ates ^u u by conflict & viol5ce1 )\t hav+ ! k9d ( p[] ne$$ to c>ry u away & sweep our :ole self h>moni\sly into its curr5t4 ,t we c be det]m9$ by a w 9 u :i* nei!r is ourself nor repres5ts x at a high] level1 & :i* we loa! & dis[n1 is ! exp]i5ce on :i* ! metaphor ( fre$om & slav]y is #adb bas$1 :5 appli$ to ! life ( man consid]$ ap>t f ext]nal con/ra9t4 #c #a ,see ,gre5's ,pr9ciples ( ,political ,obligation1 p4 i4 #b ,?is rema9s sub/antially true1 ev5 if we agree ) ,socrates t x is impossible to "k ! bett] & pref] ! worse at a giv5 mom5t4 ,our normal self w repudiate ! view we took at "s mom5t4 #c ,!re is some?+ wor?y ( ,dante 9 ,r\sseau's obs]vation 7,contrat ,social1 ,bk4 iv4 *4 #b1 note7 t ! convicts 9 ! galleys at ,g5oa _h 8,lib]ty0 /amp$ on _! *a9s4 ,! fett]s ( ! bad self are ! symbol ( fre$om4 ,r\sseau turns 8 rem>k to commonplace1 aft] 8 fa%ion1 by ref]r+ x to ! m]e lib]ation ( society f malefactors4 7e7 ,! metaphorical application ( ! t]m ,lib]ty to a /ate ( ! individual m9d has bo? its dang] & its ju/ification4 ,! /ate ( m9d 9 "q1 we repeat1 is t 9 :i* ! impulse t[>ds self-satisfaction sets itself ^u an object :i* repres5ts ! nature ( ! self z a :ole1 z free f contradiction or z at its maximum ( be+1 & triumphs ov] ! ali5 & p>tial w1 ! t5d5cy to n>r[] tracks ( indulg5ce1 :5 entangl$ 9 :i* x feels itself oppress$ & con/ra9$ by a =eign influ5ce4 ,:5 ! m9d does :at1 z a :ole1 x wills1 z ,plato implies1 #a x feels free4 ,:5 x _c be said to w any?+ z a :ole1 b is di/ract$ among aims :i* _c satisfy x1 !n !re is no s5se 9 :i* x c be said to d :at x wills1 & x feels itself "u con/ra9t & a slave4 #a ,republic1 ix4 #egg ,e4 ,! metaphor has ?is dang]4 ,! contra/ betwe5 :ole & "p is too readily trans=m$1 9 popul> !ory1 into ! contra/ betwe5 an empty g5]ality & ev]y?+ 9 p>ticul>4 ,! claim to be free !n involves ! sep>ation betwe5 m9d z a g5]al faculty ( volition1 & e p>ticul> object4 ,m9d is !n said to be free z an undet]m9$ faculty1 b z fill$ & #adc m\ld$ by any object or idea1 7! passive p>ticiples 8fill$0 & 8m\ld$0 imply a relation :i* is n real1 b1 z assum$1 is ! gr\nd ( ! fallacy 9 "q7 x has lo/ its fre$om & become a slave4 ,b if we reta9 ! conception t m9d has reality only z a :ole ( det]m9ate "*1 self-det]m9$ ?r\gh its p[] ( be+ a self1 b n ?r\gh any p[] ( creat+ p>ticul>s out ( no?+1 we %all avoid ?is c>icature ( ! high] fre$om4 ,b x is f> m important to note ! ju/ification ( ! metaphor4 ,we saw t1 f ,hom] d[nw>ds1 ! conviction has be5 in]adicable t lib]ty is ! true nature ( man4 ,& we n[ obs]ve t ! metaphor1 ?r\gh :i* ! deepe/ s5se ( ?is quality has express$ itself1 dep5ds ^u ! same pr9ciple z ! lit]al usage f :i* x is drawn4 ,9 ! case ( ,lib]ty1 conceiv$ z a condition ( ! m9d1 j z 9 ! case ( ,lib]ty1 conceiv$ z ! abs5ce ( physical m5ace or co]cion on ! "p ( o!r p]sons1 ! root ( ! matt] is ! claim to be det]m9$ only by ourself4 ,b1 9 ! lit]al case1 :at we mean by ourself is ! giv5 self1 ! gr\p ( w & wi%es1 ( feel+s & ideas1 associat$ f "t to "t ) my p>ticul> body2 9 %ort1 ! actual uncriticis$ 8m9d10 z we exp]i5ce x all day & e day4 ,9 ! metaphorical case1 we h made s mu* progress 9 self-criticism z to "k at lea/ t our 8self0 is some?+ ( a problem4 ,we "k t ! giv5 self1 ! m9d f day to day1 #a is n satisfactory2 & #add we ?r[ ! c5tre ( gravity outside x1 & place ! true self 9 some?+ :i* we r want to be ?an actually are2 al?\gh1 at ! same "t1 x is cle> t to "s ext5t we are ?is some?+ or we %\ld n want to be x4 ,we realise1 inde$1 t to be ourselves is a pr9ciple at once ( di/9ction or position among o!rs1 & ( ?or\gh transition into & unity ) ! life :i* is at ! root ( !irs4 ,& x is = ?is reason t we feel s confid5t1 9 proportion z we at all lay hold ^u a life :i* c ?us di/+ui% & id5tify u1 t we h "h ! grasp ( :at is 9 its nature our true self4 ,"h !n1 z 9 ! lit]al case ( lib]ty f p]sonal con/ra9t1 we are putt+ 9 act ! pr9ciple ( 8be+ det]m9$ only by ourself40 #a ,see1 h[ev]1 note on p4 #abe above4 ,& ?us ,lib]ty z und]/ood by 8!ori/s ( ! fir/ look10 or by ^? :o 9 all ages h resi/$ arbitr>y tyranny1 belongs aft] all to ! same pr9ciple ) ! civil or moral lib]ty ( ! philosoph]4 ,! claim to obey only y\rself is a claim ess5tial to humanity2 & ! fur!r significance ( x re/s ^u :at y mean by 8y\rself40 ,n[ if x is true t resi/ance to arbitr>y aggression is a condition ( obey+ only ourselves1 x is m deeply true1 :5 man is 9 any degree civilis$1 t1 9 ord] to obey y\rself z y want to be1 y mu/ obey "s ?+ v diff]5t f y\rself z y are4 ,& x has be5 well po9t$ out #a t ! consci\sness ( civilis$ peoples is deeply alive to ?is significance ( lib]ty1 s t any "w ( self-improvem5t may be mo/ effectively #ade pres5t$ to a popul> audi5ce z an ef=t to atta9 fre$om by break+ ! bondage ( dr9k1 = example1 or ( ignorance1 or ( paup]ism4 ,9 spite ( ! objection t ,fre$om z ?us repres5t$ is a m]e metaphor1 8! feel+ #b ( oppression1 :i* always goes ) ! consci\sness ( unfulfill$ possibilities1 w always give mean+ to ! repres5tation ( ! ef=t aft] any k9d ( self-improvem5t z a dem& = fre$om40 ,we h foll[$ ! usual c\rse ( ,engli% ?\ght1 & ! example ( a writ] ^: caution equall$ 8 en?usiasm1 9 admitt+ t ! l[] s5se ( ! t]m ,lib]ty is ! lit]al s5se1 & t ! deep] mean+ may be treat$ z metaphorical4 ,x is wor? :ile to obs]ve t ! ju/ice ( ?is way ( look+ at ! matt] is v d\btful4 ,x is because we "k1 h[ev] indef9itely1 t our self has a rea* beyond its daily ne$s1 t arbitr>y oppression becomes a ?+ to be resi/$ at ! price ( life itself4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c] draws att5tion to ! /ruggles ( an animal :i* we try to conf9e1 z a pro( ( ! innate feel+ ( lib]ty4 ,b ! dome/icat$ animal is ! highe/ animal1 or at anyrate n ! l[e/2 :ile ! man dome/icat$ on simil> t]ms is :at we call a slave1 because he has sold 8 lib]ty = 8 life4 ,x is !re=e 9 tru? ! s5se ( ! high] lib]ty--! greatness & unity ( life--t has communicat$ uncontrollable =ce to ! claim = ! l[]2 & if ! full] mean+ is ! reality & ! less] ! symbol1 x w\ld be ne>] ! tru? to say t ! reality is ! lib]ty ( #adf a moral be+ ^: w f9ds adequate expression 9 its life1 ( :i* lib]ty ! abs5ce ( ext]nal con/ra9t is only an elem5t>y type or symbol4 ,! claim ( ! diction>y-mak] t ! e>lie/ or ! av]age mean+ is also ! true/ or ! 8prop]0 mean+ ( words has no f\ndation4 #c #a ,gre5's ,pr9ciples p4 #ah4 #b ,loc4 cit4 #c ,nettle%ip's ,rema9s1 i4 #bg & #cj4 #d4 ,lib]ty1 !n1 ?r\gh\t1 is ! be+ ourselves1 & ! fulle/ condition ( lib]ty is t 9 :i* we are ourselves mo/ completely4 ,! ideal ?us impli$ may be fur!r expla9$ by help ( ! philosophical expression1 8,! free w is ! w t wills itself40 ,we h already se51 by implication1 ! mean+ ( ?is4 ,if we are ask$1 8,b does n our w always w itself80 we h ! answ] ready1 t 9 "o s5se x does1 b 9 ano!r x does n4 ,we always want :at we w1 b :at we w is n always :at w\ld satisfy our want4 ,a w t will$ itself w\ld be a w t 9 will+ _h be=e x an object t w\ld satisfy its :ole want1 & no?+ b its want4 ,its desires w\ld n be n>r[ & p>tial desires1 9 ! fulfilm5t ( :i* a man feels *ok$ & oppress$ l "o lo/ 9 a bl9d alley :i* gr[s n>r[] & n>r[]4 ,!y w\ld n be artificial desires /imulat$ & elaborat$ into a tyranny ( ! ma*9]y ( life by ! self :i* gropes = m & _c f9d ! 8m0 :i* x ne$s4 ,t is to say1 ! volitions ( ! self w\ld h und]gone a process j su* z is und]gone by a casual s5su\s obs]vation z x passes into a great sci5tific !ory4 ,z ! obs]vation /&s x is inadequate to itself2 = x poses z a tru?1 & is manife/ly a false #adg connection4 ,s x is supplem5t$ on ! "o h& & purg$ away on ! o!r2 conditions & qualifications are ins]t$ into x to h>monise x ) o!r k1 until x makes "s approa* to be+ an expression ( exp]i5ce fit to occupy a p]man5t place 9 man's conception ( ! _w4 ,?is1 ! adju/m5t ( a p>tial elem5t to unity ) ! :ole1 is ! ess5ce ( criticism4 ,& x is j su* ano!r process by :i* ! exp]i5ce ( life fills up & purifies ! objects pres5t$ to ! casual volition4 ,t is to say1 ! nature ( ! process may be repres5t$ by consid]+ x z hav+ an effect ( ?is k9d on an unh>monis$ w2 & relatively at any giv5 mom5t su* a process is 9 "s degree go+ on4 ,b we mu/ be> 9 m9d t we are n to ?9k ( ! s5su\s individual z totally prior 9 "t to ! social consci\sness1 & z a pre-exi/+ matt]1 ^u :i* su* an effect is to be ?\ght ( z sup]-induc$4 ,t w\ld be precisely ! fallacy ) :i* ,r\sseau /ruggles s h>d1 & ! escape f :i* we are attempt+ to illu/rate2 none ! worse1 p]haps1 if our own language betrays h[ v difficult x is to ?r[ x (f altoge!r4 ,we really "k ! s5su\s individual z su*1 ! w 9 its impure & uncriticis$ =m1 only 9 our exp]i5ce1 con/ant z t is1 ( failure1 error1 & =getfulness1 9 adh]+ to ! rational life1 :i*1 on ! :ole1 is inh]5t 9 ! v nature ( our rational be+1 & :i* we only des]t 9 ! same way & to ! same ext5t z we make mi/akes 9 intellectual matt]s4 ,we g wrong by n>r[ness & confusion1 by errone\s ab/ractions out ( ! :ole1 9 a way only possible #adh = a social & intellectual be+1 & n prior to our entire social & intellectual "*4 ,und]/&+ !n t we are deal+ ) n>r[ness & confusion & _! opposites )9 a social intellig5ce already exi/+ & pr$om9ant on ! :ole1 we may note ! sort ( relation 9 :i* ! m adequate w is analog\s to ! m adequate piece ( k4 ,take1 z we said above1 ! actual casual w ( any individual at any giv5 mom5t1 especially if x is ( a nature :i*1 )9 ! context ( civilis$ life1 we commonly pron\nce to be wrong4 ,let x be1 = example1 an impulse ( s5sual passion4 ,x is a commonplace t 9 su* impulses ! self c f9d no abid+ satisfaction4 ,!y pass & leave him empty4 ,!y br+ ) !m no op5+ out ( fre% possibilities1 no great] /ability to ! m9d4 ,yet !y h _! mean+1 & belong to human nature4 ,!y imply a ne$ = union1 & an attraction outside ! imm$iate self4 ,if we comp>e !m ) ! objects & affections ( a happy & devot$ family1 we see ! diff]5ce betwe5 a less adequate & a m adequate w4 ,! impulse1 9 pass+ into family affection1 has become bo? less & m4 ,x is bo? discipl9$ & exp&$4 ,! object pres5t$ to ! w is trans=m$ 9 "*4 ,lawlessness is exclud$2 b1 9 place ( a pass+ pleasure1 a :ole _w ( affections & int]e/s1 ext5d+ beyond ! individual life1 is (f]$ z a purpose & a /imulus to ! self4 ,9 %ort--= x is idle to expatiate ^u :at ev]ybody recognises at once--y c make a life out ( ! "o1 & y _c out ( ! o!r4 ,9 ! family at its be/ ! w has an #adi object :i* is real & /able1 & :i* corresponds to a great "p ( its own possibilities & capacities4 ,9 will+ ?is object1 x is1 relatively speak+1 will+ itself4 ,we might comp>e 9 ! same way ! m]e w to e>n our daily bread1 ) ! horizon ( a great intellectual pr(ession2 or ! r\t9e ( an indu/ry or pr(ession vacantly & =mally pursu$ ) ! v same r\t9e consci5ti\sly foll[$ 9 a _s ( enlight5m5t4 ,9 e case we are l$ up to ! contra/ ( ! actual indol5t or selfi% w1 & ! w1 9 z f> z x comes to be :at its nature implies1 namely1 t :i* we h spok5 ( z ! real or rational w1 embodi$ 9 objects :i* h p[] to make a life wor? liv+ = ! self t wills !m4 ,n[1 our nature z rational be+s implies ! imp]ative claim ^u u ( a w :i* is ?us real or rational4 ,recognis$ or unrecognis$1 x is root$ 9 our own wills1 z ! claim to be true is root$ 9 our ass]tions4 ,any sy/em ( in/itutions :i* repres5ts to u1 on ! :ole1 ! conditions ess5tial to affirm+ su* a w1 9 objects ( action su* z to con/itute a tol]ably complete life1 has an imp]ative claim ^u our loyalty & ob$i5ce z ! embodim5t ( our lib]ty4 ,! only "q t c arise is :e!r ! sy/em is t :i* x pret5ds to be4 ,b ev5 if rebellion is a duty1 x c only be s because ! imp]ative obligation1 z we recognise x1 is irreconcilable ) ! p>ticul> sy/em :i* claims our ob$i5ce 9 its "n4 ,! imp]ative claim ( ! w t wills itself is our own inmo/ nature1 & we _c ?r[ x (f4 ,?is is ! ultimate root ( political obligation4 #e4 ,x is su* a 8real0 or rational w t #aej ?9k]s aft] ,r\sseau h id5tifi$ ) ! ,/ate4 ,9 ?is !ory !y are foll[+ ! pr9ciples ( ,plato & ,ari/otle1 no less ?an ! indications :i* ,r\sseau furni%$1 by 8 !ory ( ! g5]al w 9 connection ) ! "w ( ! legislator4 ,! ,/ate1 :5 ?us reg>d$1 is to ! g5]al life ( ! individual mu* z we saw ! family to be ) reg>d to c]ta9 ( 8 impulses4 ,! idea is t 9 x1 or by its help1 we f9d at once discipl9e & expansion1 ! transfiguration ( p>tial impulses1 & some?+ to d & to c>e =1 su* z ! nature ( a human self dem&s4 ,if1 t is to say1 y />t ) a human be+ z he is 9 fact1 & try to devise :at w furni% him ) an outlet & a /able purpose capable ( do+ ju/ice to 8 capacities--a satisfy+ object ( life--y w be driv5 on by ! necessity ( ! facts at lea/ z f> z ! ,/ate1 & p]haps fur!r4 ,two po9ts may be insi/$ on to make ?is conception less p>adoxical to ! ,engli% m9d4 7a7 ,! ,/ate1 z ?us conceiv$1 is n m]ely ! political fabric4 ,! t]m ,/ate acc5ts inde$ ! political aspect ( ! :ole1 & is oppos$ to ! notion ( an an>*ical society4 ,b x includes ! entire hi]>*y ( in/itutions by :i* life is det]m9$1 f ! family to ! trade1 & f ! trade to ! ,*ur* & ! ,univ]sity4 ,x includes all ( !m1 n z ! m]e collection ( ! gr[?s ( ! c\ntry2 b z ! /ructure :i* gives life & mean+ to ! political :ole1 :ile receiv+ f x mutual adju/m5t1 & !re=e expansion & a m lib]al air4 ,! ,/ate1 x might be said1 is ?us conceiv$ z ! op]ative criticism ( all #aea in/itutions ! modification & adju/m5t by :i* !y are capable ( play+ a rational "p 9 ! object ( human w4 ,& criticism1 9 ?is s5se1 is ! life ( in/itutions4 ,z exclusive objects1 !y are a prey to /agnation & disease--?9k ( ! temp] :i* lives solely = ! family or solely = ! ,*ur*2 x is only z tak5 up into ! movem5t & circulation ( ! ,/ate t !y are liv+ spiritual be+s4 ,x foll[s t ! ,/ate1 9 ?is s5se1 is1 above all ?+s1 n a numb] ( p]sons1 b a work+ conception ( life4 ,x is ! conception by ! guidance ( :i* e liv+ memb] ( ! commonweal? is enabl$ to p]=m 8 function1 z ,plato has taught u4 ,if we ask :e!r ?is means t a complete conception ( ! aims & possibilities ( ! common life exi/s ev5 9 ! m9ds ( /atesm51 n to speak ( ord9>y citiz5s1 ! "q answ]s itself 9 ! negative4 ,& yet ! ,/ate c only live & "w 9 z f> z su* a conception1 9 h[ev] fragm5t>y1 "o-sid$ %apes1 p]vades ! g5]al m9d4 ,x is n !re mo/ly 9 reflective %ape2 & 9 s f> z x is 9 reflective %ape x is accord+ to ultimate /&>ds contradictory & incomplete4 ,b ev]yone :o has a fair judgm5t ( :at 8 own place dem&s f him1 has1 at 8 own angle1 s to speak1 a work+ insight into ! end ( ! ,/ate2 &1 ( c\rse1 practical contradictions w\ld be few] if su* conceptions 7 complet] & m cov]$ by ea* o!r4 ,b a complete reflective conception ( ! end ( ! ,/ate1 compreh5sive & free f contradiction1 w\ld mean a complete idea ( ! realisation ( all human #aeb capacity1 )\t wa/e or failure4 ,su* a conception is impossible ow+ to ! gradual "* ( ! process by :i* ! end ( life1 ! nature ( ! good1 is det]m9$ = man4 ,! ,real ,w1 z repres5t$ by ! ,/ate1 is only a p>tial embodim5t ( x4 7b7 ,! ,/ate1 z ! op]ative criticism ( all in/itutions1 is necess>ily =ce2 & 9 ! la/ resort1 x is ! only recognis$ & ju/ifi$ =ce4 ,x seems important to obs]ve t =ce is inh]5t 9 ! ,/ate1 & no true ideal po9ts 9 ! direction ( de/roy+ x4 ,= ! =ce ( ! ,/ate proce$s ess5tially f its "* ( be+ our own m9d ext5d$1 s to speak1 beyond our imm$iate consci\sness4 ,n only is ! conduct ( life z a :ole beyond ! p[]s ( ! av]age individual at 8 av]age level1 b x is beyond ! p[]s ( all ! av]age individuals 9 a society tak5 toge!r at _! av]age level4 ,we make a great mi/ake 9 ?9k+ ( ! =ce ex]cis$ by ! ,/ate z limit$ to ! re/ra9t ( disord]ly p]sons by ! police & ! puni%m5t ( int5tional law-break]s4 ,! ,/ate is ! fly-:eel ( our life4 ,its sy/em is con/antly rem9d+ u ( duties1 f sanitation to ! incid5ts ( tru/ee%ip1 :i* we h n ! lea/ desire to neglect1 b :i* we are ei!r too ignorant or too indol5t to c>ry out ap>t f in/ruction & au?oritative sugge/ion4 ,we pr(it at e turn by in/itutions1 rules1 traditions1 rese>*es1 made by m9ds at _! be/1 :i*1 ?r\gh ,/ate action1 are n[ 9 a =m to op]ate z ext5sions ( our own m9ds4 ,x is n m]ely ! contra/ #aec betwe5 ! limit$ activity ( "o individual & ! great] a*ievem5t ( millions put toge!r4 ,x is ! contra/ betwe5 individuals work+ 9 ! ord] & arm$ ) ! laws1 cu/oms1 writ+s1 & in/itutions devis$ by ages1 & ! same individuals consid]$ z _! daily av]age selves1 ) a v>y+ b always limit$ range ( imm$iate consci\sness4 ,= at any giv5 mom5t1 no judge kn[s all ! law2 no au?or kn[s all 8 own books1 n to m5tion ^? ( o!rs2 no (ficial ( an in/itution has ! :ole logic & mean+ ( ! in/itution be=e 8 m9d4 ,all individuals are cont9ually re9=c$ & c>ri$ on1 beyond _! av]age imm$iate consci\sness1 by ! k1 res\rces1 & en]gy :i* surr\nd !m 9 ! social ord]1 ) its inh]itance1 ( :i* ! ord] itself is ! greate/ "p4 ,& ! return ( ?is great] self1 =m+ a sy/em adju/$ to unity1 ^u _! isolat$ m9ds1 z an expansion & /imulus to !m1 necess>ily takes ! %ape ( =ce1 9 z f> z _! m9ds are in]t4 ,& ?is mu/ always be ! case1 n m]ely s long z wills are /raight=w>dly rebelli\s aga9/ ! common good1 b s long z ! k & en]gy ( ! av]age m9d are unequal to deal+1 on its own initiative & out ( its own res\rces1 ) all possible conjunctions 9 :i* necess>y conditions ( ! common good are to be ma9ta9$4 ,9 o!r words1 !re mu/ be in]tia to ov]come1 z long z ! limitations ( our animal nature #a exi/ at all4 ,! ,/ate is1 z #aed ,plato told u1 ! individual m9d writ l>ge1 or1 z we h said1 our m9d re9=c$ by capacities :i* are ( its own nature1 b :i* supplem5t its defects4 ,& ?is be+ s1 ! less complete mu/ cle>ly submit to f9d itself 9 ! m complete1 & be c>ri$ along ) x s f> z ! latt] is able to advance4 ,x is v important to note1 h[ev]1 t our m9d at its be/ is v diff]5t f our m9d at its av]age2 & x has und]/ood & approv$1 :5 at its be/1 a great deal :i* 9 its av]age mom5ts comes ^u x z =ce or cu/om f ! outside4 ,?us1 !re is no abrupt division betwe5 our consci\s m9d & ! social sy/em ( sugge/ion1 cu/om1 & =ce1 :i* supports & ext5ds & am5ds x4 ,! two are relat$ mu* z ! focus ( consci\sness is relat$ to ! sub-consci\s & automatic habits by :i* daily life is r5d]$ possible4 ,x is no m conceivable t social life %\ld g on )\t =ce & au?oritative cu/om1 because ! end ( social life is reflect$ 9 ! v>y+ intellig5ce ( individuals1 ?an t individual life %\ld g on )\t sub-consci\sness & automatism1 because x is ultimately relative to ! ends :i* appe> z ideas 9 ! %ift+ focus ( ! m9d4 ,! inh]5t limitations ( ,/ate action w be dealt ) 9 a lat] *apt]4 ,we h ?us f> be5 attempt+ to make cle> :at is meant by ! id5tification ( ! ,/ate ) ! ,real ,w ( ! ,individual 9 :i* he wills 8 own nature z a rational be+2 9 :i* id5tification we f9d ! only true acc\nt ( political obligation4 #a ,n 8( our individuality40 ,individuality is n1 9 pr9ciple1 a limitation :i* makes u unequal to our "p 9 ! :ole4 #aee ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,psy*ological ,,illu/ration ,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,a ,,real ,,or ,,g5]al ,,w4 #a4 ,! object ( ! pres5t *apt] is to assi/ ! read] 9 br++ toge!r ! conception ( ! ,/ate or ! ,community on ! "o h&1 & t ( an actual p]sonal w1 exi/+ 9 an individual m9d1 on ! o!r4 #a ,we h se5 t ,self-,gov]nm5t c only be expla9$ if ! c5tre ( gravity ( ! self is ?r[n outside :at we are cont9ually tempt$ to reckon z our individuality1 &1 if we recognise z our real be+1 & !re=e z imp]ative ^u u1 a self & a good :i* are b slightly repres5t$ 9 our explicit consci\sness1 at its ord9>y level4 ,we h se5 t all s\nd !ory & all good practice are f\nd$ on ! insight or on ! fai? #b t ! common self or moral p]son ( society is m real ?an ! app>5t individual2 & we h foll[$ ,r\sseau's clue 9 criticis+ z defective & contradictory ! actual w ( #aef giv5 p]sons1 & 9 look+ = its int]pretation & completion 9 law & in/itutions z ! embodim5t ( ! social _s4 #a ,cf4 *4 ii41 p4 #dc4 #b ,! fai? may ( c\rse exi/ 9 m9ds :i* w\ld absolutely repudiate ! !oretical =m "h prop\nd$ = x4 ,no "o c\ld h _h a m ard5t actual fai? 9 ! reality ( ! great] self ?an ,b5?am & ,mill4 ,b ,society & ! ,/ate pres5t !mselves at fir/ sight z indef9ite multitudes ( p]sons4 ,in/itutions are _m-sid$ facts2 & an unreflective citiz5 c\ld h>dly say ( :at he takes !m to be compos$4 ,& ?\gh law & cu/om approa* m ne>ly to :at we commonly und]/& by a 8w10 yet !y aga9 are apt to be reg>d$ z a sort ( dead ext]nal weight ) :i* ! liv+ volition ( ! ord9>y man has little or no?+ to d4 ,our purpose1 !re=e1 is to expla9 :at is meant by say+ t 8a w0 c be embodi$ 9 ! ,/ate1 9 society1 9 law & in/itutions2 & h[ x is possible = ! individual1 z we "k him1 to be 9 an id5tity ) ?is w1 su* z cont9ually to v>y1 b nev] :olly to disappe>4 ,h[ c a man's real self lie 9 a great degree outside 8 normal self1 & be some?+ :i* he only n[ & !n gets hold ( di/9ctly1 & nev] completely8 #b4 ,we w beg9 7#a7 by po9t+ out ! analogy betwe5 ! gr\ps or sy/ems ( :i* our intellig5ce is compos$1 & ! gr\ps or sy/ems :i* make up ! fabric ( society1 & we w !n g on 7#b7 to exhibit !m z up to a c]ta9 po9t aspects ( ! same fact4 7#a7 ,we may note two degrees ( connection betwe5 ! memb]s ( a :ole1 :i* we may call 8,association0 & 8,organisation40 7i47 ,:5 two individuals are s connect$ t :]e y f9d ! "o y expect to f9d ! #aeg o!r1 !y may be call$ associates4 ,& any k9d ( habitual gr\p+1 f a gang ( ?ieves to a sci5tific or philan?ropic in/itution1 may be call$ an ,association4 ,ow+ probably to ! v]bal =ce :i* x borr[s f ! v]b 8to associate10 ! t]m 8association0 implies ! int5tional com+ toge!r ( units :i* h be5 sep>ate1 & :i* may become sep>ate aga94 ,! ^w 8,society10 on ! o!r h&1 has n ?is v]bal =ce1 & al?\gh an 8association0 may call itself 8a society10 yet 8,society0 z su* is n spok5 ( z an 8,association40 ,:5 we speak ( 8,society0 we d n emphasise ! aspect ( be+ put toge!r out ( elem5ts :i* exi/ ap>t1 & !re=e we habitually apply ! ^w to t natural gr\p+1 :i*1 at any rate1 we d n normally ?9k ( z purposely put toge!r & liable to be dissolv$ aga94 ,:5 ! ,/ate is treat$ z an ,association1 a def9ite !ory ( its nature is impli$1 su* z is involv$ 9 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]'s comp>ison betwe5 x & a jo9t /ock company4 ,n[ ?is same t]m 8,association0 is ! mo/ famili> expression = a connection betwe5 elem5ts ( m9d1 analog\s to t betwe5 p]sons :o are call$ associates4 ,if two elem5ts ( m9d are s connect$ t1 :]e we f9d ! "o we expect to f9d ! o!r1 !y are said to be 8associat$40 ,if ! eng9e's :i/le makes me ?9k ! tra9 is go+ to />t1 !n x w\ld be said t ! idea 8tra9 />t+0 is associat$ 9 my m9d ) ! idea 8eng9e :i/l+40 ,!y h be=e ent]$ into ! same m5tal gr\p or :ole1 & s1 :]e we f9d ! "o1 #aeh we expect to f9d ! o!r1 j z1 :]e my fri5d ,x is1 8 comrade ,y is probably n f> (f4 ,we may "h note ! analogy betwe5 ^! two modes ( association--t ( p]sons & t ( m5tal elem5ts4 ,9 bo? cases1 accord+ to ! pla9 man's view ( ! matt]1 we are deal+ ) :olly casual conjunctions ( units naturally indep5d5t4 ,! associates 9 ei!r case ne$ no bett] reason = n[ be+ toge!r ?an t !y _h be5 toge!r be=e4 ,_! connection expresses no?+ intimate or ess5tial 9 _! natures1 &1 if !y fall ap>t aga91 !y w n be s]i\sly affect$ by ! sep>ation4 ,n[1 ( c\rse1 ?is idea ( m]e conjunction is n /rictly true ev5 ( ! connections betwe5 ! mo/ casual associates4 ,e association1 :e!r ( comrades or ( ideas1 is a connection betwe5 qualities1 & !re=e a g5]al connection betwe5 ! natures ( ! relat$ t]ms4 ,p are n really companions = no reason at all2 & ideas are n really units or atoms :i* /ick toge!r by m]e juxtaposition1 s t :5 "o is pull$ up out ( ! ,hades ( oblivion x drags ! o!r ) x4 ,bo? ! association ( companions & ! association ( ideas are t5d5cies 9 :i* "s g5]al connection ( qualities is at "w1 & expresses itself ?r\gh ! detail ( ! actual surr\nd+s1 s f> z an op5+ is left to x4 ,:5 ! association is made explicit by bo? memb]s be+ pres5t toge!r1 !re is an outlet or utt]ance ( ! nature ( ! associates :i* !re is n :5 !y are sep>at$4 #aei ,b ?\gh all ?is is true1 & c be detect$ 9 cases ( association by c>eful analysis1 x is1 relatively speak+1 ! fact t commonplace association dep5ds ^u qualities :i* are s sup]ficial t !y may set up a t5d5cy to connection betwe5 any units :i* are memb]s ( ! same _w4 ,&1 !re=e1 z comp>$ ) any m ?or\gh-go+ k9d ( connection1 su* association may be set d[n z casual1 & z det]m9$ by ! m]e *ance ( juxtaposition4 7ii47 ,let u comp>e ! k9d ( connection j describ$ z association ) t :i* we h agre$ to call organisation4 ,associates1 #a we saw1 7 toge!r1 z might r\ghly be said1 simply because !y f\nd !mselves toge!r4 ,t is to say1 !y 71 aft] _! association1 :at !y 7 be=e x1 & w\ld n be s]i\sly affect$ if !y 7 to be sep>at$4 ,connections ( ?is k9d are ess5tially betwe5 unit & unit4 ,!y fall %ort ( ! nature ( a plan :i* det]m9es a great range ( elem5ts1 v>i\sly b ) ref]5ce to an id5tical op]ation4 #a ,an 8,association10 x may be urg$1 g5]ally has a def9ite purpose1 & s f>1 z inde$ we said above1 ! associates come toge!r1 & d n m]ely f9d !mselves toge!r4 ,b ?is is only an app>5t difficulty4 ,9 comp>ison ) ! :ole compass ( _! nature1 associates :o come toge!r = "s limit$ purpose--,bimetallism1 ,philan?ropy1 a political cause--d m]ely f9d !mselves toge!r4 ,!y =m1 z ! cynic w say1 an extraord9>y m5ag]ie1 & _! association may break up )\t any app>5t effect ^u _! nature4 ,obvi\sly1 h[ev]1 !re are "s purposes :i* g deep] into m5's *>act]s1 & o!rs :i* are %all[]2 & ?is m]ely illu/rates our po9t t ! mo/ casual association is a univ]sal connection ( qualities 9 disguise4 ,beg9n+1 z be=e1 ) ! connection betwe5 #afj p]sons1 we may illu/rate ! diff]5ce by ! comp>ison betwe5 a cr[d & an army4 ,! m9d ( a cr[d has inde$ be5 tak5 z ! type ( a true social m9d4 ,b x is really some?+ q diff]5t4 ,x is m]ely ! sup]ficial connection betwe5 unit & unit on an ext5d$ & int5sifi$ scale4 ,z unit jo9s unit 9 ! /reet1 ea* det]m9es 8 imm$iate neighb\rs1 & is det]m9$ by !m ?r\gh ! contagion ( excitem5t1 & ) ref]5ce to ! mo/ pass+ ideas & emotions4 ,:at acts ^u !m 9 common is necess>ily :at !re is 9 common betwe5 p]sons meet+1 z x 71 = no reason1 & n kn[+ :at !y %>e beyond :at !y imm$iately see & feel4 ,! cr[d may inde$ 8act z "o man02 b if x does s1 its level ( intellig5ce & responsibility w1 z a rule1 be extraord9>ily l[4 ,x has no?+ 9 common beyond :at unit c infect unit ) 9 a mom5t4 ,conc]t$ action1 mu* m reason+ & criticism1 are out ( ! "q4 ,! do+ or ?9k+ ( a diff]5t ?+ by ea* unit ) ref]5ce to a s+le end is impossible4 ,! cr[d moves z a m]e mass1 because its p>ts are connect$ m]ely z unit ) unit4 ,any =m ( connection :i* c\ld effect an organisation 9 ! :ole w\ld make a dem& on ! nature ( e unit1 :i*1 :]e _! conjunction is m]ely casual1 c\ld n possibly be met4 ,an army1 #a no less ?an a cr[d1 consi/s ( a multitude ( m51 :o are associat$1 unit to unit4 ,influ5ces mu/ pass & repass betwe5 e "o #afa ( ! m5 & ^? m5 ) :om he is /&+ 9 ! ranks1 or ) :om he passes 8 leisure "t4 ,we may note1 by ! way1 t ^! influ5ces are !mselves ( a m p]man5t nature ?an ^? :i* pass betwe5 memb]s ( a cr[d1 & t !y mu/ necess>ily be modifi$ by t o!r connection ( :i* we are ab\t to speak4 ,= ! l9ks ( 8association0 betwe5 man & man are n ! det]m9+ =ce 9 ! op]ations ( ! army z su*4 ,! army is a ma*9e1 or an organisation1 :i* is b\nd toge!r by op]ative ideas embodi$ on ! "o h& 9 ! (fic]s1 & on ! o!r h& 9 ! habit ( ob$i5ce & ! tra9$ capacity :i* make e unit will+ & able to be det]m9$ n by ! impulse ( 8 neighb\rs1 b by ! ord]s ( 8 (fic]s4 ,:at ! army does is det]m9$ by ! g5]al's plan1 & n by influ5ces communicat+ !mselves f man to man1 z 9 a cr[d4 ,9 o!r words1 e unit moves ) ref]5ce to ! movem5ts ( a great :ole1 ) mo/ p>ts ( :i* he is n 9 direct t\* at all4 ,he is n det]m9$ by simple ref]5ce to ! movem5ts ( 8 imm$iate neighb\rs4 ,! army1 t is1 is a sy/em or organis$ gr\p1 ! nature ( :i*1 or ! pr$om9ant idea embodi$ 9 its /ructure1 det]m9es ! movem5ts & relations ( its p>ts or memb]s4 ,! diff]5ce ( ! two modes ( det]m9ation is pla9ly visible on a review day1 if we fir/ wat* ! compact regim5ts m>*+ (f ! gr\nd1 & !n ! cr[d /ream+ away irregul>ly 9 se>* ( re/ or refre%m5t4 ,by organisation !n1 z oppos$ to association1 we mean det]m9ation ( #afb p>ticul>s by ! s*eme or g5]al nature ( a sy/ematic gr\p to :i* !y belong1 z oppos$ to _! det]m9ation by imm$iate l9ks unit+ !m ) :at1 relatively speak+1 are o!r p>ticul>s 9 casual juxtaposition ) !m4 #b #a ,! illu/ration 0 sugge/$ to me by a passage 9 ,mr4 ,/\t's ,analytic ,psy*ology4 #b ,ultimately1 ( c\rse1 ! di/9ction is "o ( degree4 ,:at op]ates is always a g5]al connection betwe5 memb]s ( a :ole2 ! only "q is :at k9d ( :ole1 &1 !re=e1 :at k9d ( connection4 ,9 ! work+ & composition ( m9d ! same diff]5ce is obs]vable betwe5 association & organisation4 ,m]e association means t any p]ception or idea may sugge/ absolutely any m5tal elem5t :atev] ) :i* x has develop$ a connection by ent]+ into ! same m5tal :ole4 ,a /udy ( ! purely associative m9d is sometimes said to be f\nd 9 ! "* ( ,miss ,bates 9 8,emma40 ,p]haps1 z really uncontroll$ association c h>dly be f\nd 9 a sane intellect1 we may say t ! "* 9 "q is some?+ m subtle & m true to nature2 & t is1 a /udy ( ! t5d5cy to pure association cont9ually break+ out1 & z cont9ually repress$1 or 8h]d$ back0 to ! ma9 subject1 to use ! expression :i* ,walt] ,scott applies to ! way 9 :i* j su* an associative talk] #a is br\ght back to 8 po9t by 8 he>]4 #a ,claude ,halcro 9 ! ,pirate4 ,9 m9d1 z 9 ! ext]nal _w1 ! high] /age ( association is organisation4 ,! *>act]i/ic ( organisation is control by a g5]al s*eme #a z oppos$ to influ5ce by juxtaposition #afc ( units4 ,! zigzag c\rse ( ?\ght :i* is repres5t$ 9 su* a "* z ,miss ,bates is due to ! abs5ce ( control by any g5]al s*eme4 ,e idea--e significant ^w--has practically innum]able connections 9 ! m9d4 ,if ! c\rse ( ?\ght has no g5]al direction impress$ ^u x1 no selective control op]ative )9 x1 x may *ange its l9e altoge!r at e pr9cipal ^w4 #b ,! possibilities ( ! ideas at our comm& make !m l a complex ( railways1 :olly consi/+ ( turn-tables1 s t1 on any "o ( ^! compon5t p>ts1 ! tra9 may sw+ r\nd & g (f 9 a :olly new direction4 ,?is is notably illu/rat$ by ! s5se ( context 9 int]pretation4 ,= anyone :o has no su* s5se1 possible errors are endless1 beyond ! hope ( correction4 #a ,= ! psy*ological !ory ( su* control see ,/\t1 ,analytic ,psy*4 ii4 #c4 #b ,if x has n en\gh control to complete a significant s5t5ce1 ( c\rse !re is insanity or idiocy4 ,! opposite ( su* a zigzag c\rse is a tra9 ( ?\ght su* z an argum5t4 ,9 a tra9 ( ?\ght1 "o g5]al idea prescribes ! direction1 or =ms ! 8subject10 or limits :at has be5 call$ ! univ]se ( disc\rse4 ,att5tion is :olly guid$ by ! g5]al idea1 & refuses to be di/ract$ by any int]e/ or sugge/ion :i* does n be> ^u x4 ,let ! g5]al idea be1 = example1 ! relation ( weal? to ! be/ life4 ,exp]i5ce %[s t x is mo/ difficult to resi/ ! v>i$ int]e/s & di/ractions :i* pres5t !mselves 9 ! attempt to keep ?is relation 9 view4 ,easy & attractive modes ( acquisition1 easy & attractive modes ( exp5diture1 =ce !mselves ^u ! m9d z isolat$ #afd sugge/ions1 & div]t x f ! "q3 8,%all ,i1 or w any "o else1 be ! bett] = x1 z ,i und]/& bett]80 ,! ef=t ( control1 ne$$ to keep 9 view ! g5]al nature ( our conception ( :at is be/ 9 life1 & to att5d to sugge/ions :i* (f] !mselves z to acquisition & exp5diture1 only 9 s f> z !y seem likely to promote t conception1 means ! pr$om9ance ( a s*eme or g5]al idea ?r\gh all ! v>i$ circum/ances ( economic possibility4 ,x makes no diff]5ce :e!r we are speak+ ( reason+ or ( practice4 ,! nature ( ! control :i* insi/s on relevancy1 & ( ! intellectual sy/em 9 :i* x exhibits itself1 is ! same 9 bo? cases4 ,e m9d1 9 fact1 is m or less organis$ "u ! control ( dom9ant ideas1 :i* belong to its habitual preoccupations & det]m9e ! con/ant bias ( its ?\ghts4 ,!re is a well-kn[n /ory h[ a travell] 9 a railway c>riage und]took to detect ! vocation ( ea* ( 8 fell[ travell]s f _! respective answ]s to a s+le "q4 ,! "q 03 8,:at is t :i* de/roys :at x has itself produc$80 & a naturali/1 s ! /ory runs1 reveal$ himself by ! answ]1 8vital =ce10 a soldi] repli$ 8w>10 a s*ol> 8,kronos10 a j\rnali/ 8revolution10 & a f>m] 8a bo>40 #a ,ea* answ] 0 det]m9$ by ! dom9ant bias or idea :i* select$ out ( ! possible answ]s to ! riddle t :i* w\ld h>monise ) ! g5]al m5tal sy/em "u its control4 ,selection1 x mu/ be rememb]$1 is at ! same "t creation4 ,9 e situation1 #afe !oretical or practical1 ! surr\nd+s z a :ole are new1 & ! rule or s*eme has to ass]t itself 9 conditions :i* are n precisely repeat$ f any =m] case4 ,9 s ass]t+ itself x does n simply reproduce some?+ old1 any m ?an a batsman recalls a =m] movem5t :5 he plays a ball1 b x produces t ?\ght or de$ :i* expresses its nature ) ref]5ce to ! new surr\nd+s 9 :i* x has to act4 #b ,= x is a univ]sal t5d5cy1 a s*eme p>tly def9$1 & 9 process ( fur!r def9+ itself by m\ld+ ! mat]ial pres5t$ to x4 #a ,/e9?al1 9 ,james' ,psy*ology1 ,,ii41 #ajh4 #b ,see ,mr4 ,/\t on 8,proportional ,sy/ems10 ,analytic ,psy*ology1 ii4 #afg4 ,!re is "o m ess5tial po9t4 ,a m9d has its dom9ant nature1 b is no s+le sy/em equally organis$ ?r\gh\t4 ,x is r a con/ruction ( su* sy/ems1 :i* may be 9 all degrees ( alliance1 indiff]5ce1 & opposition to "o ano!r4 ,ea* ( su* sy/ems1 or gr\ps ( ideas & exp]i5ces1 has its own dom9ant s*eme1 & its own t5d5cy 9 controll+ ?\ght or action4 ,&1 z a g5]al rule1 9 proportion z "o sy/em is active1 all ! o!rs are quiesc5t2 9 proportion z we are int5t or engag$ ^u "o tra9 ( ?\ght or "o pursuit1 we are n alive to sugge/ions belong+ to any o!r4 ,e sy/em1 or gr\p ( ?is k9d1 is call$ 9 psy*ology an 8,app]cipi5t mass10 because x is a set ( ideas1 b\nd toge!r by a common rule or s*eme1 :i* dictates ! po9t ( view f :i* p]ception w take place1 s f> z ! sy/em 9 "q is active4 ,& )\t "s 8app]ception10 "s po9t ( view 9 ! m9d :i* enables ! #aff newcom] to be class$1 !re _c be p]ception at all4 ,! eye only sees :at x br+s ) x ! p[] ( see+4 ,h5ce "s ( ! mo/ /rik+ in/ances ( app]ception are drawn f elem5t>y cases 9 :i* a really remote sy/em is active 9 default ( a bett]1 j because ! action ( "s sy/em is necess>y & ! ne>e/ responds4 ,a *ild calls an orange 8a ball02 a ,polynesian calls a horse 8a pig40 ,^! are ! ne>e/ 8heads0 or rules ( app]ception "u :i* ! new p]ception c be br\ght4 ,e sci5tific idea we apply1 e set ( relations 9 :i* we /&1 & e pursuit ) :i* ! m9d is famili>1 is a case ( su* an app]cipi5t mass1 or rule or s*eme ( att5tion4 ,& we "k by common exp]i5ce h[ entirely quiesc5t is "o su* factor ( ! m9d :ile we are absorb$ 9 ! activity ( ano!r2 h[ utt]ly1 = example1 we disreg>d ! botanical "* ( wild fl[]s :5 we are cle>+ !m out ( ! g>d5 z we$s1 & h[ :olly we neglect ! "q :e!r !y are 8fl[]s0 or 8we$s0 :5 we are occupi$ 9 /udy+ _! botanical "*4 ,& 9 ! action ( e app]cipi5t mass1 9 z f> z x det]m9es ?\ght by ! g5]al nature ( a sy/ematic :ole1 r ?an ?r\gh ! isolat$ attraction ex]cis$ by unit ^u unit1 we h an example ( organisation z oppos$ to association2 or1 if we l1 ( sy/ematic connection or association betwe5 :ole & "p1 z oppos$ to ! same pr9ciple op]at+ casually & sup]ficially betwe5 unit & unit4 ,! s*eme or sy/ematic connection1 x mu/ be add$1 may "w unconsci\sly4 ,n all ideas #afg :i* control our ?\ght & action are explicit ideas 9 ab/ract =m2 & p]haps ! g5]al nature & limits ( a man's m9d are some?+ ( :i* he c nev] be reflectively consci\s1 ?\gh he is aw>e ( :at he takes to be 8 lead+ ideas4 ,x is well kn[n t pr9ciples :i* are n pres5t$ to reflection may be intellectually op]ative1 & embodi$ 9 a tra9 ( results4 ,?us our app]cipi5t masses may h v diff]5t degrees ( explicit sy/em4 ,b _! action is always sy/ematic--! nature ( ! :ole modify+ :at x comes 9 contact )1 & be+ modifi$ by x4 ,) ?is conception ( psy*ical sy/ems be=e u1 let u ca/ "o m glance at ! organisation ( society & ! ,/ate4 ,we refus$ to take a cr[d z a true type ( society1 & we look$ to ! example ( an army = ! lead+ features ( organisation z oppos$ to casual 8association40 ,! *>act]i/ic ( an army on :i* we insi/$ 0 ! det]m9ation ( e unit 9 x1 n by ! movem5ts & impulses ( 8 imm$iate neighb\rs1 b by ! s*eme or idea ( ! :ole4 ,n[1 on look+ clos]1 we see t society z su* is a va/ tissue ( sy/ems ( ?is type1 ea* ( !m a relatively1 ?\gh n absolutely1 clos$ & self-complete organisation4 ,!re are :eels )9 :eels1 sy/ems )9 sy/ems1 gr\ps )9 gr\ps4 ,b1 speak+ g5]ally1 ! bus9ess & pleasure ( society is c>ri$ on by p]sons arrang$ 9 gr\ps1 :i* exhibit ! *>act]i/ic ( organisation t ! capacity ( e p]son is det]m9$ by ! g5]al nature & pr9ciple ( ! gr\p consid]$ z a :ole1 & n by 8 relations to ! units :o happ5 to be next him4 #afh ,su* gr\ps1 = example1 are ! trades & pr(essions4 ,_! /ructure may be v diff]5t4 ,9 "s ! work%op is aga9 a subord9ate self-organis$ gr\p4 ,9 o!rs ! pr(essional man works alone1 & to all appe>ances goes 8 own way4 ,x is common to all ( !m1 h[ev]1 t !y =m gr\p+s ( memb]s1 )9 ea* ( :i* gr\p+s all memb]s are det]m9$ 9 a c]ta9 way by ! common nature ( ! gr\p4 ,)9 8 trade or pr(ession1 a man acts1 z x is said1 9 a def9ite 8capacity40 ,he reg>ds himself & is reg>d$ f a def9ite po9t ( view1 & all o!r po9ts ( view t5d to be neglect$ :ile & 9 s f> z he is act+ 9 ! capacity correspond+ to 8 memb]%ip ( a c]ta9 gr\p4 #a #a ,! gr\p to :i* he belongs1 z b\nd toge!r by diff]5ces1 is (t5 r t ( 8 cli5ts or cu/om]s ?an ( 8 colleagues 9 8 vocation4 ,b !re is g5]ally a diff]5tiation )9 ! vocation-gr\p also4 ,prima facie1 !re may be1 z ) sy/ems :i* compose ! m9d1 all degrees ( alliance1 indiff]5ce1 or opposition betwe5 ^! gr\p+s ( p]sons2 & ! same p]son1 belong+ to _m diff]5t gr\ps1 may f9d 8 div]se 8capacities0 app>5tly at v>iance ) "o ano!r4 ,a consci5ti\s ,trade ,unioni/ may f9d 8 capacity z a memb] ( ! ,union1 int]pret$ z b9d+ him to d 8 utmo/ = ! amelioration ( work+ class conditions 9 g5]al1 app>5tly at v>iance ) 8 capacity z ! head ( a family b\nd to provide imm$iately = ^? :om he has br\ght into ! _w4 ,or a judge or magi/rate1 oblig$ to #afi en=ce :at he conceives to be a bad law1 may f9d 8 (ficial capacity app>5tly at v>iance ) 8 duty z a consci5ti\s citiz54 ,x is pla9 t unless1 on ! :ole1 a work+ h>mony 7 ma9ta9$ betwe5 ! diff]5t gr\ps :i* =m society1 life c\ld n g on4 ,& x is = ?is reason t ! ,/ate1 z ! wide/ gr\p+ ^: memb]s are effectively unit$ by a common exp]i5ce1 is necess>ily ! "o community :i* has absolute p[] to ensure1 by =ce1 if ne$ be1 at lea/ suffici5t adju/m5t ( ! claims ( all o!r gr\p+s to make life possible4 ,assum+1 inde$1 t all ! gr\p+s are organs ( a s+le p]vad+ life1 we f9d x incr$ible t !re %\ld ultimately be irreconcilable opposition betwe5 !m4 ,t !y %\ld contradict "o ano!r is n m nor less possible ?an t human nature %\ld be at v>iance ) itself4 ,?us1 we h se5 t ! m9d1 & society or ! ,/ate1 are id5tical 9 ! *>act]i/ic ( be+ organisations1 ea* compos$ ( a sy/em ( organisations1 e sup]ior & subord9ate gr\p+ hav+ its own nature & pr9ciple :i* det]m9es its memb]s z su*1 & e "o1 consequ5tly1 t5d+ to impose ^u its memb]s a peculi> capacity or po9t ( view1 :i*1 9 s f> z a giv5 sy/em is active1 t5ds to put all o!r sy/ems out ( sight4 ,! connection betwe5 ^! sy/ems is ( v diff]5t k9ds1 & v unequal 9 degree2 b 9 z f> z ! m9d & ! community are actual work+ :oles1 x is to be presum$ t 9 ea* !re is an ultimate or p]vad+ adju/m5t :i* h9d]s #agj contradiction f proce$+ to de/ructive extremes4 ,& nei!r ! m9d nor ! community1 z work+ organisations1 c be acc\nt$ = on ! pr9ciple ( m]e association4 7#b7 ,aft] po9t+ out ! analogy betwe5 ! organis$ /ructure ( m9ds & ! organis$ /ructure ( society1 we n[ g on to %[ t m9ds & society are really ! same fabric reg>d$ f diff]5t po9ts ( view4 ,! explanation may be divid$ into ?ree p>ts4 7i47 ,e social gr\p is ! ext]nal aspect ( a set ( correspond+ m5tal sy/ems 9 individual m9ds4 7ii47 ,e individual m9d is a sy/em ( su* sy/ems correspond+ to ! totality ( social gr\ps z se5 f a p>ticul> position4 7iii47 ,! social :ole1 ?\gh impli$ 9 e m9d1 only has reality 9 ! totality ( m9ds 9 a giv5 community consid]$ z an id5tical work+ sy/em4 7i47 ,society & ! ,/ate & e in/itution pres5t !mselves to u at fir/ sight z a numb] ( p]sons1 toge!r1 p]haps1 ) c]ta9 build+s & o!r ext]nal app>atus1 & c]ta9 k9ds ( "w c>ri$ on & tangible results produc$--s _m *ildr5 8educat$10 s _m workm5 8employ$10 s _m %ips built or fields till$4 ,b if we c\ld br+ be=e ourselves ! complete reality ( any social gr\p or in/itution1 we %\ld f9d ourselves consid]+ a v diff]5t ord] ( facts4 ,let u ?9k = a mom5t ( a rate-support$ elem5t>y s*ool4 ,we imag9e x z a heap ( build+s & a mass ( *ildr5 ) a p]c5tage ( tea*]s scatt]$ among #aga !m4 ,b 9 :at does its actual work+ really consi/1 & on :at does x dep5d8 ,! actual reality ( ! s*ool lies 9 ! fact t c]ta9 liv+ m9ds are connect$ 9 a c]ta9 way4 ,tea*]s1 pupils1 manag]s1 p>5ts1 & ! public mu/ all ( !m h c]ta9 op]ative ideas1 & mu/ be guid$ accord+ to ^! ideas 9 c]ta9 portions ( _! lives1 if ! s*ool is to be a s*ool4 ,n[1 ! be+ guid$ by c]ta9 op]ative ideas is1 9 o!r words1 ! activity ( c]ta9 app]cipi5t masses dictat+ a c]ta9 po9t ( view1 9 s f> z ^? p>ticul> masses are awake4 ,& x mu/ be not$ t ! connection or id5tity 9 :i* ! s*ool exi/s presupposes a diff]5t activity1 t is1 a diff]5t app]cipi5t sy/em1 9 e m9d1 & m especially 9 e class ( m9d conc]n$4 ,x is ! same z 9 our old example ( ! screw & ! nut4 ,no s*ool c\ld be made ( tea*]s alone or ( pupils alone2 nor1 aga91 c\ld a s*ool be made ) tea*]s :o 7 all ! same1 or ) pupils :o 7 all ! same4 ,s1 if we c\ld visualise ! reality ( ! s*ool--! in/itution--:at we %\ld see w\ld be an id5tical connection runn+ ?r\gh a numb] ( m9ds1 v>i\s & v>i\sly condition$4 ,b )9 ea* m9d ! connection w\ld take a p>ticul> %ape1 su* z to play into ! connections ) all o!r m9ds1 z a cog:eel plays into ! o!r cog:eels ( a ma*9e4 ,! pupil mu/ be prep>$ to le>n 9 8 p>ticul> way & ! tea*] to tea* 9 8 p>ticul> way4 ,! p>5ts & ! public also h _! #agb own relations to ! "w ( tea*+1 & :e!r = good or = evil !y take up "s attitude to x1 & _! attitude modifies x4 ,?us ! connection1 z x is )9 any "o m9d1 is useless & mean+less if y take x :olly ap>t f :at corresponds to x 9 ! o!rs4 ,x is l a :eel )\t an axle or a pump h&le )\t a pump4 ,& x is because ( ?is nature ( ! elem5ts :i* make up ! in/itution t x is possible = ! in/itution itself to be an id5tity1 or connection1 or meet+ po9t1 by :i* _m m9ds are b\nd toge!r 9 a s+le sy/em4 ,x may seem z if ?is way ( analys+ an in/itution 0 r$uc+ a solid fact into m]e ?\ghts4 ,b x is n really s4 ,tak+ ! ideas ( all conc]n$ z !y really are1 we h ! facts 9 space & "t--build+s1 appliances1 h\rs ( "w & att5dance1 & s on--includ$ 9 !m4 ,x is impossible to /ate ! idea fully & correctly )\t includ+ ! environm5t on :i* x re/s1 & ! activities 9 :i* x is realis$4 ,we are n to omit ! facts 9 space & "t f :at we mean by an in/itution2 ! only ?+ is t we h n kn[n !m z !y really are till we h kn[n !m z b\nd into unity by ! m5tal sy/ems ( :i* !y are ! context or ! expression4 ,! *ild & ! tea*] alike mu/ ?9k ( _! "w ) ref]5ce to p>ticul> times & places1 or !y w\ld n d x at ^? times & places2 & x is only 9 actually do+ x at ^? times & places t ! idea1 or po9t ( view1 :i* /&s = ! s*ool 9 ea* ( _! m9ds1 is able to ass]t itself )\t fru/ration4 #agc ,?us we may fairly say t e social gr\p1 or in/itution1 is ! aspect 9 space & "t ( a set ( correspond+ m5tal sy/ems 9 individual m9ds4 ,we may draw coroll>ies f ?is conception1 bo? z to ! nature ( ! individual w1 or active m9d1 & z to ! nature ( ! social & political :ole4 7ii47 ,e individual m9d1 9 s f> z x ?9ks & acts 9 def9ite s*emes or contexts1 is a /ructure ( app]cipi5t sy/ems or organis$ dispositions4 ,n[1 we d n sugge/ at pres5t t all app]cipi5t sy/ems c be repres5t$ z social gr\ps1 ?\gh !re are few1 if any1 su* sy/ems :i* d n involve "s relations ) p]sons connect$ 9 "t & space4 ,b x is cle>1 f ! explanations ( ! la/ section1 t e social gr\p or in/itution involves a sy/em ( app]cipi5t sy/ems1 by :i* ! m9ds t take "p 9 x are kept 9 correspond5ce4 ,e individual m9d1 !n1 s f> z x takes "p 9 social gr\p+s or in/itutions1 is a /ructure ( app]cipi5t sy/ems1 answ]+1 ea* to ea*1 to ! diff]5t capacities 9 :i* x ent]s into ea* gr\p+ respectively4 ,we h already rem>k$ on ! way 9 :i* ! di/9ction betwe5 diff]5t 8capacities0 answ]s to ! psy*ological t5d5cy = ! activity ( "o app]cipi5t sy/em to ob/ruct ! activity ( all o!rs4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to po9t out t1 p>tly = ?is reason1 ?\gh ! m9d mu/ be an actual /ructure ( sy/ems1 x is v f> f be+ a rational sy/em ( sy/ems4 ,! fact t1 :5 "o sy/em is active1 all o!rs1 z a rule1 are in]t1 conceals ! contradictions :i* #agd und]lie ! entire fabric1 & protects !m f criticism & correction4 ,b ?\gh ! m9d is ?us implicitly self-contradictory 9 v>i\s degrees1 ?is does n alt] ! fact t its g5]al nature is to be a unity ( organis$ ideas answ]+ to ! actual set ( p>ts :i* ! individual plays 9 ! _w ( space & "t4 ,?us ea* individual m9d1 if we consid] x z a :ole1 is an expression or reflection ( society z a :ole f a po9t ( view :i* is di/9ctive & unique4 ,e social factor or relation1 to :i* x 9 any way corresponds1 or 9 :i* x 9 any way plays its "p1 is repres5t$ 9 "s feature ( its app]cipi5t organism4 ,& probably1 j z1 9 any man's idea ( ,london1 !re is h>dly any factor ( ,london life :i* does n at lea/ col\r ! backgr\nd1 s1 9 e individual impression ( ! social :ole1 !re is no social feature t does n1 9 "o way or ano!r1 contribute to ! total effect4 ,9 ! dispositions ( e m9d ! entire social /ructure is reflect$ 9 a unique =m1 & x is on ?is reflection 9 e m9d1 & on ! uniqu5ess ( ! =m 9 :i* x is reflect$1 t ! work+ ( ! social :ole1 by means ( diff]5ces :i* play into "o ano!r1 dep5ds4 ,if1 s to speak1 we lay a m9d on ! dissect+ table1 we f9d x to consi/ = ! mo/ "p ( a fabric ( organis$ dispositions1 ea* disposition correspond+ to a unique po9t ( view or special angle #a f :i* x plays a "p 9 "s human function4 ,ab\t ! precise relation ( a human function to ! fact t1 z a #age rule1 x connects toge!r a plurality ( human be+s1 we %all h m to say 9 ! foll[+ *apt]4 ,x is en\gh = ! pres5t t :atev] does connect a plurality ( human be+s dep5ds on ! op]ation ( app]cipi5t sy/ems 9 _! m9ds1 & !re=e e individual m9d is1 z ,plato has told u1 s f> z x goes1 = good or evil1 ! true effective reality ( ! social :ole4 ,& x is easy to see :5 we consid] ! work+ ( organis$ app]ception1 h[ x is possible actually to w m or less ( our own volitional sy/em4 ,!re is fir/ ! contra/ betwe5 app]cipi5t sy/ems :i* are at any "t active & ^? :i* are n active1 & !n !re is ! contra/ betwe5 our actual volitional nature at its actual fulle/1 & ! dem&s impli$ by ! nature ( ! :ole1 f :i* x is insep>able4 ,^! dem&s are always appe>+ m or less 9 e act ( will+ our own w4 #a ,i owe ?is comp>ison to a lecture by ,pr(4 ,s4 ,alex&]4 7iii47 ,! social :ole1 reg>d$ f a correspond+ po9t ( view1 w\ld be a :ole consi/+ ( psy*ical dispositions & _! activities1 answ]+ to "o ano!r 9 det]m9ate ways4 ,x w\ld !re=e be ( ! nature ( a cont9u\s or self-id5tical be+1 p]vad+ a sy/em ( diff]5ces & realis$ only 9 !m4 ,x diff]s f a ma*9e1 or f :at is call$ an 8organism0 pure & simple1 by ! pres5ce ( ! :ole 9 e "p1 n m]ely = ! inf]5ce ( ! obs]v]1 b1 9 "s degree1 = ! "p itself1 ?r\gh ! action ( consci\sness4 ,b x w\ld be a mi/ake1 we %\ld obs]ve at ?is po9t1 to id5tify ! pres5ce ( #agf ! :ole = ! "p by means ( consci\sness1 ) ! consci\sness ( ! "p t ! :ole is pres5t to x4 ,! latt] is a speculative idea1 ! =m] is a fact :i* embodies ?is idea = ! obs]v+ !ori/1 b n necess>ily or usually = ! work+ consci\sness itself4 ,9 ! %ape ( our m9ds & _! adju/m5t to our "w1 ( :i* we are unconsci\s1 !re is an irr$ucible analogy betwe5 human society & ! l[] organisms4 ,! consci\sness :i* guides our lives is a consci\sness ( some?+1 b n z a rule a consci\sness ( ! place ( t some?+ 9 ! :ole ( life4 ,we live 9 our objects1 b we d n "k h[ or h[ f> our objects id5tify u ) ! :ole to :i* we ultimately belong4 ,x is pla9 t ! social :ole c1 9 practice1 only be complete 9 a plurality ( individuals4 ,we "k t 9 ! developm5t ( human nature1 :i* we take z ! ultimate /&>d ( life1 no "o individual c cov] ! :ole gr\nd4 ,z 9 ! natural _w 9 space & "t1 s1 9 ! _w ( human be+s :i* on "o side belongs to x1 diff]5tiation implies disp]sion into a plurality ( c5tres4 ,! same man1 accord+ to :at seems to be ! limit ( physical & psy*ical possibility1 c\ld n be bo? ,plato & ,ari/otle1 nor bo? ,greek & ,jew1 n ev5 bo? ,sp>tan & ,a!nian1 n to say bo? man & woman4 ,we are on less secure gr\nd :5 we say t he c\ld n1 effectively & z a rule1 be bo? /atesman & %oemak]1 or soldi] & cl]gyman4 ,x is pla9 t 9 "s cases capacities may be unit$ :i* 9 o!r cases are f\nd ap>t4 #agg ,! same man may be a good ar*itect & a good workman1 or aga91 ! ar*itect & ! workman may be diff]5t p]sons1 ?\gh suit$ to "w toge!r4 ,we may reply1 ( c\rse1 t :atev] abilities lie )9 "o p]sonality1 effective "w dem&s ! division ( lab\r4 ,?is is true1 b is obvi\sly a matt] ( degree4 ,! man :o does only "o ?+ does n always d x be/1 & x is n easy to say :at 8"o ?+0 means4 ,! po9t ( ^! sugge/ions is to make x cle> t1 :ile plurality ( human be+s is necess>y to enable society to cov] ! gr\nd1 z x 71 :i* human nature is capable ( cov]+1 yet actual individuals are n ultimate or equal embodim5ts ( ! true p>ticul>s ( ! social univ]sal4 ,we ?us see once m t ! giv5 individual is only 9 mak+1 & t 8 reality may lie l>gely outside him4 ,8 w is n a :ole1 b implies & re/s ^u a :ole1 :i* is !re=e ! true nature ( 8 w4 ,we also ga9 "s light on ! unity ( ! social m9d4 ,= x seems pla9 t "o actual human be+ may cov] ! gr\nd1 :i*1 9 o!r in/ances1 x takes _m m5 to occupy4 ,& 9 "s su* examples--n1 or n obvi\sly1 9 ^? :]e a high int5sity ( g5ius is ! ess5tial quality--!re seems little reason to di/+ui% ! correlation ( dispositions )9 ! "o p]son f ! correlation ( ! same dispositions if disp]s$ among diff]5t p]sons4 ,if ,i am my own g>d5]1 or my own critic1 or my own doctor1 does ! relation ( ! answ]+ dispositions )9 my be+ diff] absolutely & altoge!r f :at #agh takes place :5 g>d5] & ma/]1 critic & au?or1 pati5t & doctor1 are diff]5t p]sons8 ,my in/ructions to my g>d5] are convey$ 9 language1 x w be said1 :ile ,i "k my own wi%es directly4 ,& ?is is n ! place to press ! problem home ei!r psy*ologically or metaphysically4 ,b1 j to induce reflection1 x may be ask$ :e!r my in/ructions to myself are n z a rule convey$ & rememb]$ 9 language4 ,if we consid] my unity ) myself at diff]5t times z ! limit+ case1 #a we %all f9d x v h>d to e/abli% a diff]5ce ( pr9ciple betwe5 ! unity ( :at we call "o m9d & t ( all ! 8m9ds0 :i* ent] into a s+le social exp]i5ce4 #a ,cp4 p4 #aaj above4 ,9 any case1 we h said en\gh to sugge/ t ,society prima facie exi/s 9 ! correlat$ dispositions by :i* a plurality ( individual m9ds meets ! ne$ = cov]+ ! gr\nd op5 to human nature1 by division ( lab\r 9 ! fulle/ s5se4 ,b we h fur!r po9t$ out t ! true p>ticul>isation ( ! human univ]sal does n necess>ily co9cide ) ! di/9ction betwe5 diff]5t p]sons1 & t ! correlation ( diff]5ces & ! id5tity :i* !y con/itute rema9 mu* ! same :e!r !y *ance to fall )9 a s+le human be+1 or to be disp]s$ ov] sev]al4 ,! /ress seems1 !re=e1 to lie on ! atta9m5t ( ! true p>ticul>isation :i* does ju/ice to ! maximum ( human capacity1 r ?an on ! m]e relations :i* arise betwe5 ! memb]s ( a de facto plurality4 ,n t ! pres5ce ( human nature 9 any #agi individual does n con/itute a claim t x %all be p]fect$ 9 him1 b t its p]fect+ mu/ be judg$ by a criticism address$ to det]m9+ real capacities1 & n by ! accid5tal /&>d ( a giv5 plurality4 ,we %all pursue ^! ideas fur!r 9 ! foll[+ *apt]4 #ahj ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,nature ,,( ,,! ,,end ,,( ,,! ,,/ate ,,& ,,consequ5t ,,limit ,,( ,,/ate ,,action4 #a4 ,accord+ to ! c\rse ( ?\ght :i* we h be5 pursu+1 ! di/9ction betwe5 ! individual on ! "o h&1 & ! social or political :ole on ! o!r1 is n relevant to ! "q :]e ! 8end0 ( man 9 ,society is to be s\ght4 ,= ! conceptions ( ,society & ! ,individual are correlative conceptions ?r\gh & ?r\gh2 at :atev] level1 !re=e1 we take ! "o1 we are b\nd to con/rue ! o!r z at ! same level2 s t1 to di/+ui% ! "o elem5t f ! o!r z sup]ior f inf]ior1 or z means f end1 becomes a contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,if we beg9 by draw+ b\nd>ies r\nd ! individual1 ! b\nd>ies :i* we draw reproduce !mselves 9 society conceiv$ z a total ( su* individuals1 & ! "q ( means & end1 z we saw 9 ,b5?am's case1 #a takes ! =m :e!r 8ea*0 is ! means to ! welf>e ( 8all10 or 8all0 to ! welf>e ( 8ea*02 ! di/9ction ?us becom+ purely v]bal4 ,:ile1 if we set no limit to individuality1 except ! limit ( ! nature #aha :i* makes x contributory to ! social univ]sal1 !n we f9d t ! advancem5ts ( ! univ]sal & ( its diff]5ces v>y toge!r1 & are inde$ "o & ! same ?+4 ,x is idle to ?9k ( dissociat+ !m z means & end4 #a ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,! only way 9 :i* ! idea ( means & end c be appli$ to ! social :ole & its p>ts1 is to take ,society :5 at its l[] level1 be+ dealt ) "u ! aspect ( m]e plurality1 z a means to :at x is at its high] level1 :5 realis$ z a communion ( individualities at _! be/4 ,b f ?is po9t ( view we get no di/9ction ( means & end z betwe5 ,individuals & ,society4 ,:at we get is ,individuals & ,society alike1 z und]/ood & p>tly exi/+ at "o level 7t ( commonplace ,individualism & ,collectivism71 tak5 z a means to bo? ,individuals & ,society at a high] level4 ,z we h se51 ! only true explanation ( self-gov]nm5t is to ?r[ ! reality ( ! self outside :at passes = its av]age nature1 & 9 ?is s5se ! av]age nature may be treat$ z a means to ! tru] or full] self--z some?+1 t is to say1 :i* is in/rum5tal to ! latt]1 & has no rights aga9/ x4 #b4 ,= u1 !n1 ! ultimate end ( ,society & ! ,/ate z ( ! individual is ! realisation ( ! be/ life4 ,! difficulty ( def9+ ! be/ life does n tr\ble u1 because we rely ?r\gh\t on ! fundam5tal logic ( human nature qua rational4 ,we ?9k ourselves no m call$ ^u to specify 9 advance :at w be ! details ( ! life :i* satisfies an intellig5t be+ z su*1 ?an we are call$ ^u to specify 9 advance #ahb :at w be ! details ( ! k :i* satisfies an intellig5t be+ z su*4 ,:]ev] a human be+ t\*es practice1 z :]ev] he t\*es !ory1 we f9d him driv5 on by 8 intol]ance ( contradictions t[>ds %ap+ 8 life z a :ole4 ,:at we mean by 8good0 & 8tru?0 is practical & !oretical exp]i5ce 9 s f> z ! logic :i* und]lies man's :ole nature p]mits him to repose 9 x4 ,& ! be/ life is ! life :i* has mo/ ( ?is g5]al "*--! "* :i*1 s f> z realis$1 satisfies ! fundam5tal logic ( man's capacities4 ,n[1 x is pla9 t ?is be/ life c only be realis$ 9 consci\sness1 t be+ ! m$ium ( all satisfaction & ! only true type ( a :ole 9 exp]i5ce4 ,& all consci\sness1 z exp]i5c$ by man1 is on "o side p>ticul>1 atta*$ to bodies1 & exclusive ( consci\snesses atta*$ to o!r bodies4 ,9 a s5se1 x is true t no "o consci\sness c p>take ( or actually ent] into ano!r4 ,?us1 x is apt to be held1 z we h amply se51 t ! ess5tial dang] ( ,/ate int]f]5ce lies 9 ! intrusion ( some?+ orig9at$ by 8o!rs0 ^u a di/9ct p>ticul> consci\sness1 ^: di/9ction & p>ticul>ity--its fre$om--are ?us impair$4 ,x is all-important to our po9t ( view t ?is prejudice %\ld be dispell$4 ,=ce or automatic cu/om or au?oritative tradition or 8sugge/ion0 are n ho/ile to "o individuality because !y come f 8o!rs10 b because _! nature is contradictory to ! nature ( ! highe/ self-ass]tion ( m9d1 because !y are1 s to speak1 9 a m$ium incompatible ) its m$ium4 ,!y #ahc are j z ho/ile to ?is self-ass]tion1 j z ali51 if !y emanate1 z !y con/antly d1 f conflict+ elem5ts 9 our complex private exp]i5ce1 z if !y come to u1 z we say1 8f )\t40 ,! "q is ( _! 8nature0 & t5d5cy1 n ( _! c5tre ( orig94 ,individuals are limit$ & isolat$ 9 _m ways4 ,b _! true individuality does n lie 9 _! isolation1 b 9 t di/9ctive act or s]vice by :i* !y pass into unique contributions to ! univ]sal4 ,true individuality1 z we h said1 is n 9 ! m9imisation :i* =bids fur!r subdivision1 b 9 ! maximisation :i* includes ! greate/ possible be+ 9 an inviolable unity4 ,x is n1 !re=e1 ! intrusion ^u isolation1 z su*1 t int]f]es ) individuality2 x is ! intrusion1 ^u a gr[+ unity ( consci\sness1 ( a m$ium ho/ile to its gr[?4 ,b we h se5 t =ce1 automatism1 & sugge/ion1 are 9 "s ways necess>y to ! support & ma9t5ance ( ! human consci\sness1 ow+ to its animal limitations4 ,!y are1 inde$1 z is well kn[n1 ! condition ( its progress4 ,!re=e1 9 promot+ ! be/ life1 ^! aids mu/ be employ$ by society z ex]cis+ absolute p[]--viz41 by ! ,/ate4 ,& ! problem pres5t$ by _! employm5t is n a "q ( ! 8int]f]5ce ( ! ,/ate ) ! ,individual0--an anti!sis :i* is /rictly mean+less2 b x is a "q h[ f> & 9 :at way ! use ( =ce & ! l by ! ,/ate is a h9drance to ! end = :i* ! ,/ate itself exi/s4 ,9 o!r words1 x is to be asc]ta9$ h[ f> ! fulle/ self-ass]tion ( ! social #ahd univ]sal 9 its diff]5ces--! be/ life--c be promot$ or is likely to be endang]$ by means :i* are ( a diff]5t ord]1 & s 9 "s circum/ances oppos$ to x4 ,! po9t is n t ,i & "s ?\s&s m break 9 by =ce ^u y 9 p>ticul> & violate y\r isolation2 b t su* break+ 9 by =ce1 :oev] does x & :oev] suff]s by x1 & ev5 if ?r\gh passion or obsession y d x to y\rself & ,i to myself1 is ho/ile prima facie to ! liv+ logic ( ! w1 :i* alone c create a unity & realise a be/4 ,h[ !n1 & "u :at res]vations1 9 ! complicat$ conflict ( ! full] & n>r[] self1 c ?is dang]\s drug ( viol5ce be adm9i/]$1 s to speak1 z a c\nt]-poison to t5d5cies :i* w\ld o!rwise give no *ance to ! logical w8 ,) ?is difficulty 9 our m9ds1 we w endeav\r to det]m9e ! g5]al pr9ciple on :i* =ce & m5ace %\ld be us$ by ! ,/ate1 & a r\t9e be me*anically ma9ta9$ by x4 #c4 ,we h hi!rto spok5 ( ! ,/ate & ,society z almo/ conv]tible t]ms4 #a ,& 9 fact x is "p ( our argum5t t ! influ5ces ( ,society diff] only 9 degree f ! p[]s ( ! ,/ate1 & t ! explanation ( bo? is ultimately ! same4 ,b on ! o!r h&1 x is also "p ( our argum5t t ! ,/ate z su* is a necess>y factor 9 civilis$ life2 & t no true ideal lies 9 ! direction ( m9imis+ its individuality or re/rict+ its absolute p[]4 ,by ! ,/ate1 !n1 we mean ,society z a unit1 recognis$ z rightly ex]cis+ control ov] its memb]s #ahe ?r\gh absolute physical p[]4 ,! limits ( ! unit are1 ( c\rse1 det]m9$ by :at looks l hi/orical accid5t2 b !re is logic und]nea? ! app>5t accid5t1 & ! mo/ trem5d\s political que/ions turn ^u ! delimitation ( political units4 ,a pr9ciple1 s to speak1 ( political p>simony--entia non sunt multiplic&a praet] necessitatem1 8two organisations w n survive :5 "o c d ! "w0--is always t5d+ to exp& ! political unit4 ,! limits ( ! common exp]i5ce necess>y = effective self-gov]nm5t are always op]at+ to control ?is expansion4 ,we might !re=e sugge/1 z a pr9ciple det]m9+ ! area ( /ates1 8! wide/ t]ritorial area compatible ) ! unity ( exp]i5ce :i* is dem&$ by effective self-gov]nm5t40 ,b ! ,/ate de facto 7:i* is also de jure7 is ! ,society :i* is recognis$ z ex]cis+ compulsory p[] ov] its memb]s1 & z pres5t+ itself qua a s+le indep5d5t corporation among o!r indep5d5t corporations4 ,)\t su* p[]1 or :]e1 if any:]e1 x does n exi/1 !re c be no ultimate & effective adju/m5t ( ! claims ( individuals1 & ( ! v>i\s social gr\ps 9 :i* individuals are involv$4 ,x is ! ne$ = ?is ultimate effective adju/m5t :i* con/itutes ! ne$ t e individual 9 civilis$ life %\ld belong to "o /ate1 & to "o only4 ,o!rwise 8 8real0 w might h no work+ repres5tative at all1 b all be %e] conflict4 ,t ,society1 !n1 is a ,/ate1 :i* is habitually recognis$ z a unit lawfully ex]cis+ =ce4 ,we saw t ! *>act]i/ics ( ,society pass gradually into ^? ( ! ,/ate4 ,x w\ld n be true t #aif ,society is a ,/ate only z actually ex]cis+ =ce2 b x w\ld p]haps be true to say t ,/ate action z su*1 ?\gh f> f be+ limit$ to ! d[nright ex]cise ( =ce1 yet consi/s ( all t side ( social action :i* dep5ds on ! "* ( ultimate arbit] & regulator1 ma9ta9] ( me*anical r\t9e1 & s\rce ( au?oritative sugge/ion1 a "* :i* is "o ) ! "r to ex]cise =ce 9 ! la/ resort4 #a ,see1 h[ev]1 p4 #aej ff4 ,! end ( ! ,/ate1 !n1 is ! end ( ,society & ( ! ,individual--! be/ life1 z det]m9$ by ! fundam5tal logic ( ! w4 ,! means at its disposal1 qua ,/ate1 always p>take ( ! nature ( =ce1 ?\gh ?is does n exclude _! hav+ o!r aspects z well4 ,taxation may h ! mo/ reasonable & ev5 ! mo/ popul> purpose1 yet ! g5]ality & ju/ice ( its incid5ce1 & ! c]ta9ty ( its productiv5ess1 c only be secur$ by compulsion4 ,no ,/ate c\ld und]take its "w on ! basis ( volunt>y contributions4 ,a univ]sal end1 we might say1 is inde$ n a m]e g5]al rule2 b y _c c>ry out a univ]sal end 9 a plurality ( units--& a set ( human individuals is always 9 "o aspect a plurality ( units--)\t en=c+ g5]al rules4 #d4 ,"h1 !n1 we h our problem m closely det]m9$ ?an 9 ! previ\s *apt]s4 ,!re we saw1 9 g5]al1 t self-gov]nm5t c h no mean+ unless we c 8really0 w some?+ :i* we d n always 8actually0 w4 ,& we 7 l$ to look = a clue to our real or impli$ w 9 ! social _s z incorporat$ 9 laws & in/itutions1 t is to say 9 ,society z a #ahg work+ :ole reflect$ 9 ! full sy/em ( ! consci\snesses :i* compos$ x4 ,we suppos$ ourselves prep>$1 !n1 x w\ld seem1 to d & suff] any?+ :i* w\ld promote ! be/ life ( ! :ole--t maximisation ( our be+ :i*1 f ! nature ( our real w1 we saw to be imp]ative ^u u--a dem& impli$ 9 e volition & f :i* we c\ld nev] escape4 ,b n[ we are face to face ) ! "q :at we are call$ ^u to d or to suff]1 z memb]s ( a ,/ate1 9 promotion ( ! be/ life4 ,we h "h to r5ew1 f ano!r /&po9t1 ! discussions ( *apt] iii4 ,! gov]n+ fact ( ! situation is t ! means ( action at our disposal z memb]s ( a ,/ate are n1 on _! di/9ctive side1 9 p>i mat]ia ) ! end4 ,x is true t ! ,/ate1 z an intellig5t sy/em1 c appeal by reason+ & p]suasion to ! logical w z su*4 ,x con/antly does s 9 v>i\s =ms1 & a ,/ate :i* did no?+ ( ! k9d ei!r directly or indirectly w\ld n possess ! recognition :i* is necess>y to its v exi/5ce4 ,s f> its "w is 9 p>i mat]ia ) ! end1 be+ a direct elem5t 9 ! expansion ( m9d & "* 9 _! own spiritual m$ium ( ?\ght & w4 ,b ?is side ( its "w is n di/9ctive ( ! ,/ate1 &1 !re=e1 is n t = :i* m p>ticul>ly x exi/s4 ,its di/9ctive attribute is to be ultimate arbit] & regulator ( claims1 ! gu>antor ( life z at lea/ a workable sy/em 9 ! bodily _w4 ,x is 9 its ultimat5ess de facto t ! diff]5tia lies :i* sep>ates x f ! innum]able #ahh o!r gr\p+s & associations :i* g to make up our complex life4 ,?is is %[n 9 ! fact t ea* ( u1 z we h said1 mu/ belong to a ,/ate1 & c belong to "o only4 ,= an ultimate au?ority mu/ be s+le4 ,n[1 au?ority :i* is to be ultimate 9 a sph]e includ+ ! _w ( bodily action1 mu/ be an au?ority :i* c use =ce4 ,& x is = ?is reason t1 z we said1 =ce is involv$ 9 ! di/9ctive attributes ( ! ,/ate4 ,b =ce is n 9 p>i mat]ia ) ! expansion ( m9d & "* 9 _! spiritual m$ium4 ,&1 ?us1 !re at once appe>s an inadequacy ( means to end z betwe5 ! di/9ctive modus op]&i ( ! ,/ate & ! end 9 virtue ( :i* x claims to repres5t ! 8real0 w4 ,:at is ! be>+ ( ?is inadequacy8 ,:at is ! mo/ t ! ,/ate1 9 its di/9ctive capacity1 c d t[>ds promot+ a =m ( life :i* x recognises z desirable8 ,its direct p[] is limit$ to secur+ ! p]=mance ( ext]nal #a actions4 ,?is does n mean m]ely ! p]=mance ( outw>d bodily movem5ts1 su* z might be br\ght to pass by actual physical =ce4 ,x is rem>kable t actual physical =ce plays a v small "p 9 ! "w ( any dec5tly ord]$ ,/ate4 ,:5 we say t ! ,/ate c d no m ?an secure ! p]=mance ( ext]nal actions1 we d n exclude f ! action ! int5tion to act 9 a c]ta9 way4 ,) out su* an int5tion !re is no action 9 ! s5se ( human action at all1 b m]ely a muscul> movem5t4 ,x is necess>y = ! ,/ate to atta* #ahi importance to int5tion1 :i* is involv$ 9 ! idea ( human action1 & is ! only m$ium ?r\gh :i* ! muscul> movem5ts ( human be+s c be det]m9$ ) any degree ( c]ta9ty4 ,! ,/ate1 !n1 ?r\gh its au?ority1 back$ ultimately by physical =ce1 c produce1 ) a fair degree ( c]ta9ty1 ! int5tion to act 9 a c]ta9 way1 & !re=e ! actions !mselves4 ,:y d we call int5tional actions1 s produc$1 ext]nal actions only8 #a ,gre51 ,pr9ciples ( ,political ,obligation1 pp4 #cd1 #ce4 ,x is because ! ,/ate is unable to det]m9e t ! action %all be done f ! gr\nd or motive :i* alone w\ld give x imm$iate value or durable c]ta9ty z an elem5t 9 ! be/ life4 ,on ! contr>y1 9 s f> z ! do+ ( ! action is due to ! di/9ctive mode ( op]ation :i* belongs to ! ,/ate1 due1 t is to say1 to ! hope ( rew>d or ! fe> ( puni%m5t1 its value z an elem5t 9 ! be/ life is ipso facto de/roy$1 except 9 s f> z its ult]ior effects are conc]n$4 ,an action p]=m$ 9 ?is s5se "u compulsion is n a true "p ( ! w4 #a ,x is an int5tion adopt$ f submissiv5ess or selfi%ness1 & lacks n only ! moral value1 b :at is p>tly ! same ?+1 ! reliable con/ancy ( pr9ciple1 display$ 9 an action :i* arises out ( ! p]man5t purposes ( a life4 #a ,! !ory ( puni%m5t w modify ?is proposition 9 "s degree4 ,! ,/ate1 !n1 z su*1 c only secure ! p]=mance ( ext]nal actions4 ,t is to say1 x c only en=ce z mu* int5tion #a z is #aij necess>y to ensure1 on ! :ole1 compliance ) requirem5ts /at$ 9 t]ms ( movem5ts affect+ ! out] _w4 ,s f> f promot+ ! p]=mance ( actions :i* ent] into ! be/ life1 its op]ations1 :]e effective1 mu/ directly n>r[ ! area ( su* actions by /imulat+ l[] motives z reg>ds "s portion ( x4 #a ,on ?is "q vide ,gre5's v ?or\gh discussion4 ,x is true1 ( c\rse1 t ! law takes acc\nt ( int5tion1 & does n1 e4g41 treat accid5tal homicide z murd]1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 !m be+ a diff]5ce ( int5tion4 ,b x is obvi\s t1 9 attempt+ to influ5ce human action at all1 s mu* acc\nt z ?is mu/ be tak5 ( int5tion2 = int5tion is necess>y to con/itute a human action4 ,an un9t5tional movem5t ( ! muscles _c be gu>d$ aga9/ by laws & p5alties2 x is only ?r\gh ! int5tion t det]r5t or o!r motives c get at ! action1 & a con/ant law-abid+ disposition is ! be/ security = law-abid+ action4 ,on ! importance ( int5tion & disposition z af=d+ a c]ta9ty ( action1 ,b5?am1 :o :olly rejects judgm5t accord+ to moral motive1 is z emphatic z possible4 #e4 ,! ,/ate1 !n1 9 its di/9ctive capacity1 has no ag5cy at its comm& = influ5c+ conduct1 b su* z may be us$ to produce an ext]nal c\rse ( behavi\r by ! injunction or prohibition ( ext]nal acts1 9 en=c+ :i* acts ! ,/ate w take note ( int5tions1 s f> z x c inf] !m1 because x is only ?r\gh !m t its influ5ce c be ex]t$4 ,! relation ( su* a means to ! imp]ative end1 on :i* we h se5 t political obligation dep5ds1 mu/ be 9 a c]ta9 s5se negative4 ,! means is "o :i* _c directly promote ! end1 & :i* ev5 t5ds to n>r[ its sph]e4 ,:at x c effect is to remove ob/acles1 to de/roy conditions ho/ile to ! realisation ( ! end4 ,?is br+s u back to a pr9ciple laid d[n by ,kant1 #a & 9 its b>e /atem5t /rongly resembl+ ,mill's cont5tion4 ,:5 =ce is oppos$ to #aia fre$om1 a =ce t repels t =ce is "r4 ,"h1 ( c\rse1 all dep5ds ^u :at we mean by fre$om1 & 9 :at s5se we ?9k t =ce c h9d] h9drances to x4 ,if fre$om meant = u ! empty hexagon #b r\nd ea* individual1 ! pr9ciple w\ld take u back to ,mill's ,lib]ty4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 we fail$ to grasp ! discrepancy betwe5 =ce ( any k9d & ! positive nature ( ! common good :i* we take to be fre$om1 ! pr9ciple w\ld lead u /raight to a ma*9e-made ,utopia4 ,= its negative "* _c re/ra9 x f "s degree ( positive action4 ,x is only ?r\gh positive op]ation t a negation or opposition c f9d reality 9 ! _w4 ,& ! limits ( its positive action mu/ dep5d on ! precise be>+s ( ! negation :i* x puts 9 =ce4 #a ,w41 ix4 #cd4 ,fi*te rem>k$ on ! pregnancy ( ?is pr9ciple4 #b ,see p4 #gb1 above4 ,n[1 = u1 aft] ! explanations :i* h be5 giv51 ! negative nature ( our pr9ciple is to be s]i\sly press$1 al?\gh its action has to take positive =m4 ,! ,/ate is 9 its "r :5 x =cibly h9d]s h9drance to ! be/ life or common good4 ,9 h9d]+ su* h9drances x w inde$ d positive acts4 ,x may try to h9d] illit]acy & intemp]ance by compell+ education & by municipalis+ ! liquor traffic4 ,:y n1 x w be ask$1 h9d] also unemploym5t by univ]sal employm5t1 ov]-cr[d+ by univ]sal h\se-build+1 & immorality by puni%+ immoral & rew>d+ moral actions8 ,"h comes ! value ( rememb]+ t1 accord+ to our pr9ciple1 ,/ate action is negative 9 its imm$iate be>+1 ?\gh positive bo? 9 its #aib actual do+s & its ultimate purpose4 ,on e problem ! "q mu/ recur1 8,is ! propos$ measure bona fide conf9$ to h9d]+ a h9drance1 or is x attempt+ direct promotion ( ! common good by =ce80 ,= x is to be borne 9 m9d ?r\gh\t t :atev] acts are en=c$ are1 s f> z ! =ce op]ates1 )drawn f ! high] life4 ,! promotion ( morality by =ce1 = in/ance1 is an absolute self-contradiction4 #a ,no g5]al pr9ciple w tell u h[ 9 p>ticul> to solve ?is subtle "q1 ap>t f common s5se & special exp]i5ce4 ,b !re is p]haps m to be le>n$ f ?is pr9ciple1 if approa*$ ) bona fides #b ?an f mo/ g5]alities ( philosophy on social or e?ical topics4 ,x is well1 ,i ?9k1 con/antly to apply ! idea ( remov+ h9drances1 9 criticism ( our ef=ts to promote ! be/ life by means involv+ compulsion4 ,we ought1 z a rule1 :5 we propose action involv+ compulsion1 to be able to %[ a def9ite t5d5cy to gr[?1 or a def9ite res]ve ( capacity1 :i* is fru/rat$ by a kn[n imp$im5t1 ! removal ( :i* is a small matt] comp>$ to ! capacities to be set free4 #c ,= x %\ld be rem>k$ t #aic e act done by ! public p[] has "o aspect ( encroa*m5t1 h[ev] slight1 on ! sph]e ( "* & intellig5ce1 if only by us+ funds rais$ by taxation1 or by introduc+ an automatic arrangem5t into life4 ,x c1 !re=e1 only be ju/ifi$ if x lib]ates res\rces ( "* & intellig5ce great] beyond all "q ?an ! encroa*m5t :i* x involves4 ,?is relation is altoge!r p]v]sely pres5t$1 z we saw above1 if x is treat$ z an encroa*m5t ( society ^u individuals4 ,all ?is is beside ! m>k4 ,! s]i\s po9t is1 t x is an int]f]5ce1 s f> z compulsion op]ates 9 x1 ( "o type ( action ) ano!r & high] type ( action2 ( automatism1 s to speak1 ) intellig5t volition4 ,! high] type ( action1 ! embodim5t ( ! common good 9 logical gr[?1 is s f> f be+ m]ely individual z oppos$ to social1 t x is ! :ole end & purpose 9 ! "n ( :i* allegiance to society c be dem&$ f any individual4 ,z 9 ! private s 9 ! g5]al life1 e encroa*m5t ( automatism mu/ be ju/ifi$ by op5+ new possibilities to self-consci\s developm5t1 if x is n to mean deg5]ation & s5ility4 #a 8,y w admit10 x 0 once said1 8t compulsory religion is bett] ?an no religion40 8,i fail to see ! di/9ction0 0 ! reply4 #b ,among true /ud5ts bona fides is presuppos$4 ,! range op5$ to sophi/ry by a pr9ciple ( ?is k9d1 :i* comm5ds positive action ) a negative be>+ = a positive end1 is1 ( c\rse1 immeasurable4 ,practically1 ,i believe t bona fides is ab\t ! fir/ & la/ necessity = ! application ( political ideas4 #c ,p]haps ,i may adduce an in/ance ( real int]e/4 ,x has be5 argu$ t %ip-ma/]s %\ld be induc$ by a premium to %ip boys z appr5tices to ! trade ( seaman%ip1 & t tra9+ = ?is trade %\ld be fo/]$ by local au?orities l any o!r =m ( te*nical education4 ,! argum5t :i* really told 9 ! discussion1 consi/$ ( /ati/ics :i* seem$ to prove a wide-spread eag]ness on ! "p ( boys & _! p>5ts t !y %\ld ent] a m>itime life1 & ! exi/5ce ( a h9drance simply 9 ! abs5ce ( adequate tra9+ = a few ye>s dur+ boyhood4 ,x is ! same pr9ciple 9 o!r words :i* ,gre5 lays d[n :5 he says 9 effect #a t only su* acts 7or omissions7 %\ld be en=c$ by ! public p[] z x is bett] %\ld take place #aid f any motive :atev] ?an n take place at all4 ,:51 t is1 we en=ce an act 7or omission7 by law1 we %\ld be prep>$ to say1 8grant+ t ?is act1 :i* might conceivably h come to be done f a s5se ( duty1 n[ may come to be done = ! mo/ "p f a fe> ( puni%m5t1 or f a me*anical t5d5cy to submit to ext]nal rules 7att5d$ by ! practical inconv5i5ces ( ins5sibility1 half-he>t$ness1 & evasion :i* atta* to acts s en=c$71 /ill s mu* dep5ds1 = ! high] life ( ! p1 ^u ! ext]nal conditions at /ake1 t we ?9k x wor? :ile to en=ce ! act 7or omission7 ?\gh our eyes are fully op5 to ! risk ( ext5d$ automatism40 #a ,pr9ciples ( ,political ,obligation1 p4 #ch4 ,"h we may h to meet our own argum5ts aga9/ ,mill4 8,y said x 0 a contradiction10 we %all be told1 8to admit co]cion z a means to lib]ty4 ,b "h y are advocat+ co]cion z a means to some?+ z incompatible ) x1 9 s f> z x is op]ative1 z our #8lib]ty1' viz41 a c]ta9 /ate ( m9d & w4 ,if ! area ( co]cion is necess>ily subtract$ f ! area ( lib]ty1 z y argu$ above1 is n ! area ( co]cion necess>ily subtract$ f t to be occupi$ by ! desir$ gr[? ( w & "*80 ,! answ] dep5ds1 z we indicat$ 9 *4 iii41 on ! diff]5ce betwe5 b>e lib]ty & a det]m9ate gr[?4 ,if y\r lib]ty is :olly indet]m9ate1 !n e re/ra9t is a r$uction ( x4 ,y _c increase a quantity :i* is all ( "o k9d by tak+ away a "p ( x4 ,&1 9 fact1 ! idea t !re 0 or c\ld h #aie be5 a previ\s g5]al lib]ty1 ( :i* a "p 0 giv5 up 9 ex*ange = m1 is a m]e illusion4 ,lib]ty has gr[n up )9 ! positive det]m9ations ( life1 z !y h exp&$ & come to fit mank9d bett]4 ,b if ! quantity to be increas$ is a det]m9ate gr[?1 ( a type ^: g5]al "* is kn[n1 ! problem is trans=m$4 ,x is ! commone/ ( exp]i5ces t h9drances c be remov$ & fav\rable conditions ma9ta9$1 if ?is has to be done1 n ) a view to e conceivable & inconceivable developm5t1 b = a gr[? ! g5]al l9e ( :i* is kn[n4 ,9 ?is case1 z ! :ole exp&s1 ! re/ra9ts & ! lib]ty1 ! room = action1 may ev5 increase toge!r4 #a ,?is is n only true 9 univ]sal !ory1 b mu* m important ?an is always rememb]$ 9 special !ory or practice4 ,! possibility ( promot+ fre$om or well-be+ by compulsion dep5ds v greatly inde$ on ! unity ( habit & exp]i5ce :i* b9ds toge!r a s+le community4 ,! m ! life has 9 common1 ! m def9ite & automatic arrangem5ts y may safely make 9 promotion ( x4 ,! rules ( my h\sehold1 :i* inconv5i5ce its memb]s no m ?an _! clo!s d1 w\ld produce a rebellion if !y 7 en=c$ by law ev5 ?r\gh\t our village4 #a ,see ! au?or's essay1 8,lib]ty & ,legislation10 9 ,civilisation ( ,*ri/5dom 7,sonn5s*e974 ,?us1 !n1 we may ma9ta9 our pr9ciple ( ! limits ( di/9ctive ,/ate action4 ,! peculi>ity ( x is t x all[s ( positive acts & int]f]5ces1 motiv$ by an ultimate positive #aif purpose1 b ) a be>+ on t purpose :i* is prim>ily negative or indirect4 ,h[ev] positive1 z actual facts1 are ! conditions :i* x may become advisable to ma9ta91 !y may always1 on ! side :i* is di/9ctively due to ,/ate compulsion1 be reg>d$ z ! h9drance ( h9drances4 ,& ! bona-fide application ( ?is pr9ciple w really be1 :5 aid$ by special exp]i5ce1 9 "s degree a valuable clue to :at ought to be done4 ,x is only putt+ 9 o!r words ! rule ( action foll[$ by all practical m5 9 matt]s ( :i* !y h g5u9e exp]i5ce4 ,we may ?9k1 = in/ance1 ( ! problem involv$ 9 ,/ate ma9t5ance ( univ]sities4 ,x is easy to vote money1 to build build+s1 & to pass /atutes4 ,b none ( ^! ?+s w secure ! objects ( a univ]sity4 ,money & build+s & /atutes may ?r[ op5 an ar5a1 s to speak1 = ! "w ( will+ m9ds 9 le>n+ & education4 ,b ! "w itself is 9 a diff]5t m$ium f any?+ :i* c be produc$ by compulsion1 & is s f> less vital z x is condition$ by ! op]ation ( =ce ^u m9ds :i* dem& no "w ( ! k9d4 ,b "h we meet a difficulty ( pr9ciple4 ,d we say t no ext]nal conditions are m ?an h9drances ( h9drances to ! be/ life8 ,d we d5y t ! be/ life c be positively promot$ by ext]nal conditions2 or if we admit ?is1 d we /ill d5y t x c be positively promot$ by ! "w ( ! ,/ate8 ,! answ] has already be5 impli$1 b may be explicitly re/at$4 ,we refus$ #a to sep>ate m9d f its embodim5t 9 #aig mat]ial ?+s1 & s to be drawn into a purely inw>d !ory ( morality1 ,x w\ld be exagg]ation to call su* ext]nal conditions z1 e4g41 fir/-rate educational app>atus1 #b m]e negative conditions ( ! be/ life4 ,b !n1 we are n[ ask$1 _c ! ,/ate supply su* ext]nal conditions by exp5diture compulsorily provid$ =1 & if s1 is n our pr9ciple de/roy$1 viz41 ! limitation ( ,/ate action to ! h9drance ( h9drances8 #a ,page #ca4 #b ,see ,?r+ on ! importance ( ?is1 9 ,p>k9's life ( him4 ,note1 h[ev]1 also ! modification ( 8 view by ! adv5ture ( ,upp+ham on ! ,sea4 ,! difficulty spr+s f ! fact1 t ! ,/ate1 z us+ compulsion1 is only "o side ( ,society1 & its action is only "o side ( social action4 ,if fir/-rate educational app>atus is call$ into exi/5ce by a ,/ate end[m5t1 ! fir/-rat5ess ( ! app>atus is n due to ! compulsion appli$ to taxpay]s1 :i* r1 s f>1 negatives ! action ( intellig5t w z su*4 ,b x mu/ be due1 9 "o way or ano!r1 to ! fact t fir/-rate ability 9 ! way ( devis+ app>atus 0 some:]e press+ = an outlet1 :i*1 by a /roke ( ! pickaxe1 s to speak1 ! public p[] 0 able to provide = x4 ,we mu/ n confuse ! elem5t ( compulsion1 :i* is ! side ( social action di/9ctly belong+ to ,/ate int]f]5ce1 ) ! :ole ( ! mat]ial results :i* lib]at$ intellig5ce produces4 ,:5 we say1 !n1 t ! ,/ate z su* c d no?+ = ! be/ life b h9d] h9drances to x1 ! pr9ciple applies 9 ! /ricte/ s5se only to ! compulsory or automatic side ( ,/ate action1 :i* #aih mu/1 s to speak1 be reckon$ aga9/ x #a 9 comp>+ its products ) ^? :i* are spontane\s social gr[?s ?r\gh\t4 #a ,subject to :at w be said on ! !ory ( rights & puni%m5t4 ,b x is fur!r true t mat]ial conditions :i* come close to life1 su* z h\ses1 wages1 educational app>atus1 d n :olly escape our pr9ciple4 ,!y occupy a v int]e/+ middle region betwe5 m]e h9drances ( h9drances & ! actual /imulation ( m9d & w4 ,on ! "o side !y are *>g$ ) m9d & "*1 & s f> are actual elem5ts 9 ! be/ life4 ,on ! o!r side !y dep5d on ext]nal actions1 & !re=e seem accessible to ,/ate compulsion1 :i* ext5ds to all ext]nal do+s & omissions4 ,b :at we h to obs]ve is1 & x is 9 practice mo/ important1 t1 z *>g$ ) m9d & w1 ^! mat]ial facts may n be accessible to ,/ate compulsion1 :ile1 z accessible to ,/ate compulsion pure & simple1 !y may =feit _! "* ( be+ *>g$ ) m9d & w4 ,?is %[s itself 9 two ways4 ,fir/1 j because !y are facts ( a k9d :i* come s close to life 79 o!r words dep5d s greatly ^u be+ *>g$ ) m9d & w71 ,/ate compulsion _c ) c]ta9ty secure ev5 _! app>5t exi/5ce4 ,!y fail bodily1 l human be+s1 if !re is no _s to keep !m alive4 ,! relation ( wages to ! /&>d ( life illu/rates ?is po9t4 ,secondly1 suppos+ t = a "t1 by h]culean ef=ts ( compulsion1 :i* mu/ call active intellig5ce to its aid1 su* facts are made to pres5t a satisfactory appe>ance ( exi/5ce1 none ! less1 #aii s f> z !y are *>act]is$ by compulsion1 !y may lose _! "* z elem5ts 9 ! be/ life4 ,t is to say1 !y may fail to b5efit ^? :om !y are meant to b5efit4 ,! fact may fail to be absorb$ 9 ! life4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! h9drance ( h9drances is mo/ valuable & lum9\s :5 rightly grasp$1 j 9 ^! middle cases4 ,a pretty & heal?y h\se1 :i* its inhabitant is fond (1 is an elem5t 9 ! be/ life4 ,:o c\ld d\bt x :o kn[s :at home-life is8 ,b 9 ord] t putt+ a family out ( a bad h\se into a good "o %\ld give rise to su* an elem5t ( ! be/ life1 x is /rictly & precisely necess>y t ! case or policy %\ld come "u our pr9ciple4 ,t is to say1 unless !re 0 a bett] life /ruggl+ to utt] itself1 & ! deadlift ( int]f]5ce j remov$ an ob/acle :i* b\nd x d[n1 ! good h\se w n be an elem5t 9 a bett] life1 & ! encroa*m5t on ! gr\nd ( volition w h be5 made ) out comp5sation--a fact :i* may %[ itself 9 _m fatal ways4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! /ruggl+ t5d5cy to a bett] life has p[] #a to effect ! *ange )\t ! deadlift f outside1 !n ! result is c]ta9 & :olly to ! good4 #a ,_m =ms ( social co-op]ation1 x mu/ be rememb]$1 ne$ no deadlift f ! ,/ate z su*4 ,we are n sett+ self-help aga9/ co-op]ation1 b w aga9/ automatism4 ,?us we may say t e law & in/itution1 e ext]nal fact ma9ta9$ by ! public p[]1 mu/ be judg$ by ! degree 9 :i* x sets at lib]ty a gr[? ( m9d & _s4 ,x is a #bjj problem p>tly ( remov+ ob/acles to gr[?1 & p>tly ( ! division ( lab\r betwe5 consci\sness & automatism4 ,x ought to occur to ! read] t ! gr\nd "h assign$ = ! limitation ( ,/ate action--t is1 ( social action ?r\gh ! public p[]--is n prima facie 9 h>mony ) ! acc\nt ( political obligation1 accord+ to :i* laws & in/itutions repres5t$ a real self or g5]al w1 recognis$ by individuals z impli$ 9 ! common good :i* 0 imp]ative ^u !m4 ,we spoke1 = example1 ( be+ =c$ to be free1 & ( ! sy/em ( law & ord] z repres5t+ ! high] self4 ,& yet we are n[ say+ t1 9 z f> z =ce is op]ative ?r\gh compulsion & au?oritative sugge/ion1 x is a means :i* c only rea* its end ?r\gh a negation4 ,b ?is prima-facie contradiction is really a pro( ( ! vitality ( our pr9ciple4 ,x foll[s f ! fact t we accept self-gov]nm5t 9 ! full /r5g? ( bo? its factors1 & c deal ) x on ?is basis4 ,! social sy/em "u :i* we live1 tak+ x z "o :i* does n dem& imm$iate revolution1 repres5ts ! g5]al w & high] self z a :ole to ! community z a :ole1 & c only /& by virtue ( t repres5tation be+ recognis$4 ,our loyalty to x makes u m5 & citiz5s1 & is ! ma9 spiritualis+ =ce ( our lives4 ,b some?+ 9 all ( u1 & mu* 9 "s ( u1 is recalcitrant ?r\gh rebellion1 indol5ce1 incompet5ce1 or ignorance4 ,& x is only on ^! elem5ts t ! public p[] op]ates z p[]1 ?r\gh compulsion #bja or au?oritative sugge/ion4 ,?us1 ! g5]al w :5 x meets u z =ce1 & au?ority re/+ on =ce1 & n z a social obligation :i* we spontane\sly rise to accept1 comes to u ex hypo!si z some?+ :i* claims to be ourself1 b :i*1 = ! mom5t1 we m or less fail to recognise4 ,&1 accord+ to ! adju/m5t betwe5 x & our complex & l>gely un9tellig5t self1 x may ab&on u to automatism1 or /ir 9 u rebellion or recognition1 & s may h9d] ! full] life 9 u or remove h9drances to x4 ,x seems wor? :ile to di/+ui% two ma9 cases ( ! relation betwe5 ! ord9>y self & ! g5]al w4 ,"o ( ^! cases cov]s ! :ole ( our e-day law-abid+ life1 9 its grades ( active loyalty1 acceptance ( sugge/ion1 & automatic acquiesc5ce2 & consi/s ( ! relation ( our ord9>y self to ! g5]al sy/em ( rights ma9ta9$ by ! ,/ate z ultimate regulator & arbit]4 ,! o!r is conf9$ to m exceptional situations1 & has to d ) collision betwe5 ! p>ticul> & ! g5]al w1 z treat$ 9 ! !ory ( puni%m5t4 ,! subject ( rew>d may be m5tion$ at ! same "t1 if only to %[ :y x is almo/ an empty head+ 9 political !ory4 ,we w end ?is *apt]1 !re=e1 ) a g5]al acc\nt ( ! sy/em ( rights & ( rew>d & puni%m5t4 #f4 ,! idea ( individual rights comes d[n to u f ! doctr9e ( natural "r1 & has g5]ally be5 discuss$ ) ref]5ce to x4 ,we ne$ n n[ g back ^u ! illusions connect$ ) ! notion ( natural "r4 ,x is en\gh if we be> 9 m9d t we inh]it f x ! important #bjb idea ( a positive law :i* is :at x ought to be4 ,a "r1 #a !n1 has bo? a legal & a moral ref]5ce4 ,x is a claim :i* c be en=c$ at law1 :i* no moral imp]ative c be2 b x is also recognis$ to be a claim :i* ought to be capable ( en=cem5t at law1 & ?us x has a moral aspect4 ,! case 9 :i* positive enactm5t & ! moral 8ought0 appe> to div]ge w be consid]$ bel[4 ,b a typical 8"r0 unites ! two sides4 ,x bo? is1 & ought to be1 capable ( be+ en=c$ at law4 #a ,?is is a "r 9 ! fulle/ s5se4 ,! nature ( a m]ely legal or m]ely moral "r w be illu/rat$ bel[4 ,its peculi> position foll[s f :at we h se5 to be ! end ( ! ,/ate1 & ! means at its disposal4 ,! end ( ! ,/ate is a moral purpose1 imp]ative on its memb]s4 ,b its di/9ctive action is re/rict$ to remov+ h9drances to ! end1 t is1 to l5d+ its =ce to ov]come--bo? 9 m9d & 9 ext]nals ess5tial to m9d--ob/acles :i* o!rwise w\ld ob/ruct ! realisation ( ! end4 ,! :ole ( ! conditions ?us en=c$ is ! :ole ( 8rights0 atta*+ to ! selves1 :o1 /&+ 9 def9ite relations1 con/itute ! community4 ,= x is 9 ^! selves t ! end ( ! ,/ate is real1 & x is by ma9ta9+ & regulat+ _! claims to ! removal ( ob/ructions t ! ,/ate is able to promote ! end = :i* x exi/s4 ,rights !n are claims recognis$ by ! ,/ate1 i4e4 by ,society act+ z ultimate au?ority1 to ! ma9t5ance ( conditions fav\rable to ! be/ life4 ,& if we ask 9 g5]al = a def9ition & limitation ( ,/ate action z su*1 ! answ] is1 9 a simple #bjc phrase1 t ,/ate action is co9cid5t ) ! ma9t5ance ( rights4 ,! sy/em ( rights :i* ! ,/ate ma9ta9s may be reg>d$ f diff]5t po9ts ( view4 ,fir/1 7a7 f ! po9t ( view ( ! :ole community1 t is1 z ! g5]al result 9 ! promotion ( good life obta9$ by ! work+ ( a free ,society1 z a /atesman or outside critic might reg>d x4 ,?us look$ at1 ! sy/em ( rights may be describ$ z 8! organic :ole ( ! outw>d conditions necess>y to ! rational life10 or 8t :i* is really necess>y to ! ma9t5ance ( mat]ial conditions ess5tial to ! exi/5ce & p]fection ( human p]sonality40 #a ,?is po9t ( view is ess5tial z a full contradiction ( t uncritical conception by :i* rights are reg>d$ z some?+ ) :i* ! individual is inve/$ 9 8 aspect ( isolation1 & indep5d5tly ( 8 relation to ! end4 ,x =ces u away f ?is false p>ticul>isation1 & compels u to consid] ! :ole ,/ate-ma9ta9$ ord] 9 its connect$ness z a s+le expression ( a common good or w1 9 s f> z su* a good c f9d utt]ance 9 a sy/em ( ext]nal acts & habits4 ,& x enables u to weigh ! value :i* belongs to ! ma9t5ance ( any tol]able social ord]1 simply because x is an ord]1 & s f> enables life to be liv$1 & a det]m9ate1 if limit$1 common good to be realis$4 ,f o!r po9ts ( view we are apt to neglect ?is *>act]i/ic1 & to =get #bjd h[ great is ! effect1 = ! possibilities ( life ?r\gh\t1 ( ! m]e fact t a social ord] exi/s4 ,hegel obs]ves t a man ?9ks x a matt] ( c\rse t he goes back to 8 h\se aft] night-fall 9 security4 ,he does n reflect to :at he owes x4 ,yet ?is v naturalness1 s to speak1 ( liv+ 9 a social ord] is p]haps ! mo/ important f\ndation :i* ! ,/ate c furni% to ! bett] life4 8,si monum5tum qua]is1 circumspice0 ,if we ask h[ x affects our w1 ! answ] is t x =ms our _w4 ,speak+ broadly1 ! memb]s ( a civilis$ community h se5 no?+ b ord] 9 _! lives1 & c\ld n accommodate _! action to any?+ else4 #a ,krause & ,h5rici1 cit4 by ,gre51 ,pr9ciples ( ,political ,obligation1 p4 #ce4 ,cp4 8,! sy/em ( "r is ! realm ( realis$ fre$om1 ! _w ( ! m9d produc$ by ! m9d z a second nature0 7,hegel1 ,philosophie d4 ,re*ts1 sect4 #d74 ,x %\ld be m5tion$ z a dang] ( ?is po9t ( view t1 fasc9at$ by ! spectacle ( ! social fabric z a :ole1 we may fail to di/+ui% :at 9 x is ! m]e ma9t5ance ( rights1 & :at is ! gr[? :i* su* ma9t5ance c promote b _c con/itute4 ,?us we may lose all idea ( ! true limits ( ,/ate action4 7b7 ,we may reg>d ?is complex ( rights f ! /&po9t ( ! selves or p]sons :o compose ! community4 ,x is 9 ^! selves1 z we h se51 t ! social good is actual1 & x is to _! diff]5tiat$ functions1 #a :i* con/itute _! life & ! end ( ! community1 t ! sub-gr\p+s ( rights1 or conditions ( good life1 h to be adju/$ ea* to ea* l suits ( clo!s4 ,! rights are1 f ?is po9t ( view1 prim>ily ! ext]nal incid5ts1 s f> z ma9ta9$ by law--! au?oritative ve/ure z x 7--( a #bje p]son's position 9 ! _w ( 8 community4 ,& we %all d well to reg>d ! nature ( rights1 z atta*+ to selves or p]sons1 f ?is po9t ( view ( a place or position 9 ! ord] det]m9$ by law4 ,x has be5 argu$1 ,i d n "k ) :at ju/ice1 t1 9 consid]+ ! relations ( p>ticles 9 space1 ! prop] c\rse w\ld be to reg>d _! positions or di/ances f ea* o!r z ! prim>y fact1 & to treat attributions ( attractive & repulsive =ces z modes ( express+ ! ma9t5ance ( ! necess>y positions r ?an z descriptive ( real causes :i* br+ x ab\t4 ,at lea/1 x appe>s to me1 su* a conception may well be appli$ to ! relative ideas ( "r & obligation4 ,:at comes fir/1 we may say1 is ! position1 ! place or places1 function or functions1 det]m9$ by ! nature ( ! be/ life z display$ 9 a c]ta9 community1 & ! capacity ( ! individual self = a unique contribution to t be/ life4 ,su* places & functions are imp]ative2 !y are ! full] self 9 ! p>ticul> p]son1 & make up ! p>ticul> p]son z he passes into ! full] self4 ,8 hold on ?is is 8 true w1 9 o!r words1 8 appreh5sion ( ! g5]al w4 ,su* a way ( speak+ may seem unreally simplifi$ :5 we look at ! myriad relations ( mod]n life & ! sort ( ab/raction by :i* ! individual is apt to become a roll+ /one ) no assignable place--inde$ 8ga!r+ no moss0--& to pass ?r\gh 8 positions & relations z if !y 7 /ations on a railway j\rney4 ,b 9 tru? x is only simplifi$ & n falsifi$4 ,if we look ) c>e we %all see t x1 or no?+1 is true ( all lives4 #a ,i d n say m]ely social functions1 i4e4 functions deal+ directly ) 8o!rs0 z su*4 #bjf ,! ,position1 !n1 is ! real fact--! vocation1 place or function1 :i* is simply "o read+ ( ! p]son's actual self & relations 9 ! _w 9 :i* he lives4 ,hav+ ?or\ghly grasp$ ?is prim>y fact1 we c readily deal ) ! po9ts ( view :i* pres5t ! position or its incid5ts 9 ! p>tial aspects ( rights or obligations4 7i47 ,a "r1 we said1 is a claim recognis$ by society & en=c$ by ! ,/ate4 ,my place or position1 !n1 & its incid5ts1 s f> z sanction$ by ! ,/ate1 con/itute my rights1 :5 ?\ght ( z some?+ :i* ,i claim1 or reg>d z p[]s in/rum5tal to my purposes4 ,a "r ?us reg>d$ is n any?+ prim>y4 ,x is a way ( look+ at c]ta9 conditions1 :i*1 by reason ( _! relation to ! end ( ! :ole z manife/$ 9 me1 are imp]ative alike = me & = o!rs4 ,x is1 fur!r1 ! p>ticul> way ( look+ at ^! conditions :i* is 9 "q :5 ,i claim !m or am presum$ to claim !m1 z p[]s secur$ to me ) a view to an end :i* ,i accept z m9e4 ,i h ! rights no less 9 virtue ( my presum$ capacity = ! end1 if ,i am 9 fact indiff]5t to ! end4 ,b1 9 ?is case1 ?\gh attribut$ ab extra z rights1 !y t5d to pass into obligations4 7ii47 ,if rights are an imp]ative 8position0 or function1 :5 look$ at z a gr\p ( ,/ate-secur$ p[]s claim$ by a p]son = a c]ta9 end1 obligations are ! opposite aspect ( su* a position or gr\p ( p[]s4 ,t is to say1 ! conditions ( a 8position0 are reg>d$ z obligations 9 z f> z !y are ?\ght ( z #bjg requir+ en=cem5t1 & !re=e1 prim>ily1 f ! po9t ( view ( p]sons n directly id5tifi$ ) ! 8position0 or end to :i* !y are in/rum5tal4 ,rights are claim$1 obligations are ow$4 ,& prima-facie rights are claim$ by a p]son1 & obligations are ow$ to a p]son1 be+ 8 rights z reg>d$ by ^? aga9/ :om !y are en=ceable4 ,?us1 ! di/9ction ( self & o!rs1 :i* we refus$ to take z ! basis ( society1 makes itself prom95t 9 ! region ( compulsion4 ,! reason is t compulsion is conf9$ to h9d]+ or produc+ ext]nal acts1 & is exclud$ f produc+ an act 9 its relation to a moral end1 t is1 ! ex]cise ( a "r 9 its true s5se2 ?\gh x c en=ce an act :i* 9 fact fav\rs ! possibility ( act+ t[>ds a moral end t is1 an obligation4 ,?is is ! same ?+ z say+ t normally a "r is :at ,i claim1 & ! obligation relative to x is :at y owe2 z an obligation is t :i* c be en=c$1 & t is an act or omission ap>t f ! will+ ( an end2 & a "r involves :at _c be en=c$1 viz41 ! relation ( an act to an end 9 a p]son's w4 ,b ev5 "h ! di/9ction ( self & o!rs is h>dly ultimate4 ,! obligation on me to ma9ta9 my p>5ts becomes almo/ a "r #a if ,i claim ! task z #bjh a privilege4 ,& _m rights ( my position may actually be erect$ into1 or m commonly may give rise to1 obligations incumb5t on me = ! sake ( my position or function4 ,if ! ex]cise ( ! fran*ise 7 made compulsory t w\ld be a "r treat$ also z an obligation2 b x might be urg$ t qua obligation x 0 held due to ! position ( o!rs1 & only qua "r to my own 8position40 ,b if ! law int]f]es ) my poison+ myself #b ei!r by dra9s or ) alcohol1 t1 ,i presume1 is ! en=cem5t ( an obligation aris+ out ( my own position & function z a man & a citiz51 :i* makes reasonable c>e = my life imp]ative ^u me4 #a ,i d n "k t ,i c compel my p>5ts to be ma9ta9$ by me1 & !re=e x is n my legal "r to ma9ta9 !m2 b at lea/ ! obligation1 if ,i claim x1 ceases to dep5d on =ce4 ,an ,ea/-,end ,london] w say1 8,he _h a "r to ma9ta9 8 fa!r10 mean+ t he 0 b\nd to d s2 & ,jeannie ,deans says1 8,i h no "r to h /ories told ab\t my family )\t my cons5t10 repres5t+ h] own claim z an obligation on h]self z well z on o!rs4 ,%e repres5ts ! ?\ght1 8,i h a "r t y %\ld n tell /ories1 etc410 9 a =m :i* puts x z a case ( ! ?\ght1 8,y h no "r to tell /ories10 disreg>d+ ! di/9ction betwe5 h]self & o!rs z accid5tal4 #b ,! law us$ to int]f]e ) bad sanitation only z a 8nuisance10 i4e4 z an annoyance to 8o!rs40 ,x n[ int]f]es ) any /ate ( ?+s dang]\s to life z su*1 :i* probably means t a *ange ( !ory has unconsci\sly set 94 ,legislation = dang]\s trades almo/ proves ! po9t1 ?\gh "h x is possible to urge t ! employ] is put "u obligation = ! sake ( 8 work]s1 & n ! work]s = _! own sake4 ,b ! di/9ction is h>dly real4 7c7 ,x is commonly said t e "r implies a duty4 ,?is has two mean+s1 :i* %\ld be di/+ui%$4 ,9 ! "o case1 7i47 = 8duty0 %\ld be read 8obligation10 i4e4 a dem& en=ceable by law4 ,?is simply means t e 8position0 may be reg>d$ z involv+ ei!r p[]s secur$ or conditions en=c$1 :i* are "o & ! same ?+ diff]5tly look$ at4 ,r\ghly speak+1 !y are ! same ?+ z diff]5tly look$ at by "o p]son1 & by o!r p]sons4 ,my "r #bji to walk along ! high road involves an obligation ^u all o!r p]sons n to ob/ruct me1 & 9 ! la/ resort ! ,/ate w s5d horse1 foot & artill]y r ?an let me be causelessly ob/ruct$ 9 walk+ along ! high road4 ,x is also true t e position :i* c be ! s\rce ( obligations en=ceable 9 fav\r ( my rights is likewise a l9k ) obligations en=ceable on me 9 fav\r ( ! rights ( o!rs4 ,by claim+ a "r 9 virtue ( my position ,i recognise & te/ify to ! g5]al sy/em ( law accord+ to :i* ,i am reciprocally "u obligation to respect ! rights1 or r ! function & position1 ( o!rs4 ,my rights !n imply obligations bo? 9 o!rs1 & p]haps 9 myself1 correlative to ^! rights1 & 9 me correlative to ! rights ( o!rs4 ,b x _c /rictly be said t ! obligations are ! s\rce ( ! rights1 or ! rights ( ! obligations4 ,bo? are ! v>i$ ext]nal conditions ( 8positions0 z reg>d$ f diff]5t po9ts ( view4 ,b 7ii47 !re is a diff]5t s5se 9 :i* e "r implies a duty4 ,& ?is1 ! true mean+ ( ! phrase1 is involv$ 9 :at we h said ( ! nature ( a 8position40 ,all rights1 z claims :i* bo? are & ought to be en=ceable by law1 d]ive _! imp]ative au?ority f _! relation to an end :i* ent]s into ! bett] life4 ,all rights1 !n1 are p[]s in/rum5tal to mak+ ! be/ ( human capacities1 & c only be recognis$ or ex]cis$ ^u ?is gr\nd4 ,9 ?is s5se1 ! duty is ! purpose ) a view to :i* ! "r is secur$1 & n m]ely #baj a correspond+ obligation equally d]iv$ f a common gr\nd2 & ! "r & duty are n di/+ui%$ z some?+ claim$ by self & some?+ ow$ to o!rs1 b ! duty z an imp]ative purpose1 & ! "r z a p[] secur$ because in/rum5tal to x4 7d7 ,we h treat$ rights ?r\gh\t z claims1 ! en=cem5t ( :i* by ! ,/ate is m]ely ! climax ( _! recognition by society4 ,:y d we ?us dem& recognition = rights8 ,if we d5y t !re c be unrecognis$ rights1 d we n surr5d] human fre$om to despotism or to popul> caprice8 7i47 ,9 deal+ ) ! g5]al "q :y recognition is dem&$ z an ess5tial ( rights1 we mu/ rememb] :at we took to be ! nature ( society & ! s\rce ( obligation4 ,we conceiv$ a society to be a /ructure ( intellig5ces s relat$ z to co-op]ate ) & to imply "o ano!r4 ,we took ! s\rce ( obligation to lie 9 ! fact t ! logic ( ! :ole is op]ative 9 e "p1 & consequ5tly t e "p has a reality :i* goes beyond its av]age self1 & id5tifies x ) ! :ole1 mak+ dem&s ^u x 9 do+ s4 ,n[1 we are said to 8recognise0 any?+ :5 x comes to u ) a consci\sness ( famili>ity1 z some?+ 9 :i* we feel at home4 ,& ?is is our g5]al attitude to ! dem&s :i* ! logic ( ! :ole1 impli$ 9 our e act1 is cont9u\sly mak+ ^u u4 ,x is involv$ 9 ! int]dep5d5ce ( m9ds1 :i* has be5 expla9$ to con/itute ! m9d ( :i* ! visible community is ! body4 ,a tea*]'s #baa behavi\r t[>ds 8 pupils1 = example1 implies a c]ta9 special k9d ( int]dep5d5ce betwe5 _! m9ds4 ,:at he c d = !m is condition$ by :at !y expect ( him & are ready to d = him1 & vice v]sa4 ,! relation ( ea* to ! o!r is a special =m ( 8recognition40 ,t is to say1 ! m9d ( ea* has a def9ite & positive attitude t[>ds t ( ! o!r1 :i* is bas$ on1 or r1 s f> z x goes1 simply is1 ! relation ( _! 8positions0 to ea* o!r4 ,?us1 social positions or vocations actually h _! be+ 9 ! m$ium ( recognition4 ,!y are ! attitudes ( m9ds t[>ds "o ano!r1 ?r\gh :i* _! sev]al di/9ct *>act]i/ics are in/rum5tal to a common good4 ,?us1 !n1 a "r1 be+ a p[] secur$ 9 ord] to fill a position1 is simply a "p ( ! fact t su* a position is recognis$ z in/rum5tal to ! common good4 ,x is impossible to argue t ! position may exi/1 & n be recognis$4 ,= we are speak+ ( a relation ( m9ds1 &1 9 s f> z m9ds are unit$ into a s+le sy/em by _! attitudes t[>ds ea* o!r1 _! 8positions0 & ! recognition ( !m are "o & ! same ?+4 ,_! attitude1 receptive1 co-op]ative1 tol]ant1 & ! l1 is s f> a recognition1 ?\gh n necess>ily a reflective recognition4 ,probably ?is is :at is int5d$ by ^? :o speak ( imitation or o!r analog\s pr9ciples z ! ultimate social fact4 ,!y d n mean ! repetition ( ano!r p]son's conduct1 ?\gh t may ent] 9 "p into ! relation ( int]dep5d5ce4 ,!y mean ! #bab consci\s adoption #a ( an attitude t[>ds o!rs1 embody+ ! relations betwe5 ! 8positions0 :i* social logic assigns to ea*4 #a ,to call ?is imitation is some?+ l call+ f9e art imitation4 ,really1 9 bo? cases1 we f9d a re-arrangem5t & modification ( mat]ial1 incid5t to a new expression4 ,! process1 if we mu/ "n x1 is 8relative sugge/ion0 r ?an imitation4 7ii47 ,b !n ! "q ( page #baj presses ^u u 8,if we d5y t !re c be unrecognis$ rights1 d we n surr5d] human fre$om to despotism or to popul> caprice80 ,! /+ ( ?is sugge/ion is tak5 out :5 we ?or\ghly grasp ! idea t recognition is a matt] ( logic1 work+ on & ?r\gh exp]i5ce1 & n ( *oice or fancy4 ,if my m9d has no attitude to y\rs1 !re is no int]dep5d5ce & ,i _c be a p>ty to secur+ y rights4 ,y are n1 = me1 a %>] 9 a capacity = a common good1 :i* ea* ( u inevitably respects4 ,a dog or a tree may be an in/rum5t to ! good life1 & x may !re=e be "r to treat x 9 a c]ta9 way1 b x _c be a subject ( rights4 ,if my m9d has an attitude to y\rs1 !n !re is c]ta9ly a recognition betwe5 u1 & ! nature ( t recognition & :at x involves are matt]s = reason+ & = ! appeal to exp]i5ce4 ,x is idle = me1 = in/ance1 to communicate ) y by language or to buy & sell ) y1 p]haps ev5 idle to g to w> ) y1 #a & /ill to say t ,i recognise no capacity 9 y = a common good4 ,my behavi\r is !n inconsi/5t ) itself1 & ! "q takes ! =m :at rights are involv$ #bac 9 ! recognition ( y :i* exp]i5ce demon/rates4 ,no p]son & no society is consi/5t ) itself1 & ! pro( & am5dm5t ( _! inconsi/5cy is always possible4 ,&1 "o inconsi/5cy be+ am5d$1 ! pa? is op5$ to progress by ! em]g5ce ( ano!r4 ,if slaves come to be recognis$ z free b n z citiz5s1 ?is ( itself op5s a road by :i* ! new freeman may make good 8 claim t x is an inconsi/5cy n to recognise him z a citiz54 #a ,z di/9ct f hunt+4 ,we d n g to w> ) lions & tig]s4 ,b no "r c be f\nd$ on my m]e desire to d :at ,i l4 #a ,! wi% = ?is is ! /+ ( ! claim to unrecognis$ rights1 & ?is wi% is to be met1 z ! fe> t our view might lead to despotism 0 met4 ,! matt] is "o ( fact & logic1 n ( fancies & wi%es4 ,if ,i desire to ass]t an unrecognis$ "r1 ,i mu/ %[ :at 8position0 involves x1 & h[ t position ass]ts itself 9 ! sy/em ( recognitions :i* is ! social m9d1 & my po9t c only be e/abli%$ univ]sally ) reg>d to a c]ta9 type ( position1 & n m]ely = myself z a p>ticul> ,a or ,b4 ,9 o!r words1 ,i mu/ %[ t ! alleg$ "r is a requirem5t ( ! realisation ( capacities = good1 &1 fur!r1 t x does n dem& a sacrifice ( capacities n[ be+ realis$1 out ( proportion to ! capacities :i* x w\ld enable to ass]t !mselves4 ,i mu/ %[1 9 %ort1 t 9 s f> z ! claim 9 "q is n secur$ by ! ,/ate1 ,society is inconsi/5t ) itself1 & falls %ort ( be+ :at x pr(esses to be1 an organ ( good life4 ,& all my %[+ gives no "r1 till x has #bad modifi$ ! law4 ,to ma9ta9 a "r aga9/ ! ,/ate by =ce or disob$i5ce is rebellion1 &1 9 consid]+ ! duty ( rebellion1 we h to set ! :ole value ( ! exi/5ce ( social ord] aga9/ ! importance ( ! matt] 9 :i* we ?9k ,society defective4 ,!re c h>dly be a duty to rebellion 9 a ,/ate 9 :i* law c be alt]$ by con/itutional process4 #a ,gre51 ,pr9ciples ( ,political ,obligation1 p4 #adi4 ,! ,/ate-ma9ta9$ sy/em ( rights1 !n1 9 its relation to ! normal self & w ( ord9>y citiz5s ) _! v>y+ moods ( en?usiasm & indol5ce1 may be comp>$ to ! automatic action ( a human body4 ,automatic actions are su* z we p]=m 9 walk+1 eat+1 dress+1 play+ ! piano or rid+ ! bicycle4 ,!y h be5 =m$ by consci\sness1 & are ( a "* subs]vi5t to its purposes1 & ob$i5t to its signals4 ,z a rule1 !y dem& no ef=t ( att5tion1 & 9 ?is way att5tion is economis$ & enabl$ to devote itself to problems :i* dem& its int5s] ef=ts4 ,!y are relegat$ to automatism because !y are uni=m1 necess>y1 & ext]nal--8ext]nal0 9 ! s5se expla9$ above1 t ! way 9 :i* !y are requir$ makes x en\gh if !y are done1 :atev] _! motives1 or ) no motives at all4 ,by f> ! great] bulk ( ! sy/em ( rights is relat$ 9 ?is way to normal consci\sness4 ,we may pay taxes1 ab/a9 f fraud & assault1 use ! roads & ! po/-(fice1 & enjoy our g5]al security1 )\t kn[+ t we are do+ or enjoy+ any?+ t dem&s special att5tion4 ,p>tly1 ( c\rse1 att5tion is be+ giv5 by o!r consci\snesses to ma9ta9+ ! securities & #bae facilities ( our life4 ,ev5 s1 ! arrangem5t is automatic 9 s f> z !re is no reason = ar\s+ ! g5]al att5tion 9 respect to x2 b to a v>y+ ext5t x is automatic ?r\gh\t1 & engra9$ 9 ! sy/em & habits ( ! :ole p4 ,we are all suppos$ to "k ! :ole law4 ,n ev5 a judge has x all 9 8 k at any "o "t2 b ! mean+ is t x r\ghly expresses our habits1 & we live accord+ to x )\t great difficulty1 & expect ea* o!r to d s4 ,?is automatism is n h>mful1 b absolutely "r & necess>y1 s long z we relegate to x only 8ext]nal0 matt]s2 i4e4 su* z are necess>y to be done1 motive or no motive1 9 "s way :i* c be g5]ally laid d[n4 ,?us us$1 x is an indisp5sable condition ( progress4 ,x repres5ts ! gr\nd won & settl$ by our civilisation1 & leaves u free to ?9k & w su* matt]s z h _! value 9 & ?r\gh be+ ?\ght & will$ rightly4 ,if we try to relegate ^! to automatism1 !n moral & intellectual dea? has set 94 ,b if ! sy/em ( rights is automatic1 h[ c x re/ on recognition8 ,automatic actions1 we mu/ rememb]1 are /ill ( a texture1 s to speak1 cont9u\s ) consci\sness4 8,recognition0 expresses v fairly our habitual attitude t[>ds !m 9 ourselves & o!rs4 ,we might ?9k1 = example1 ( ! sy/em ( habits & expectations :i* =ms our h\sehold r\t9e4 ,we g ?r\gh x = ! mo/ "p automatically1 :ile 8recognis+0 ! 8position0 ( ^? :o %>e x ) u1 & respect+ ! life :i* is its end4 ,at po9ts "h & !re 9 :i* x #baf affects ! deep] possibilities ( our be+1 our att5tion becomes active1 & we ass]t our position ) en?usiasm & consci5ti\sness4 ,our attitude to ! social sy/em ( rights is some?+ l ?is4 ,! :ole ord] has our habitual recognition2 we are aw>e ( & respect m or less ! imp]ative end on :i* x re/s--! claim ( a common good ^u u all4 ,)9 ! framework ( ?is ord] !re is room = all degrees ( laxity & consci5ti\sness2 b1 9 any case1 x is only at c]ta9 po9ts1 :i* ei!r conc]n our special capacity or dem& readju/m5t 9 ! g5]al int]e/1 t int5se active att5tion is possible or desirable4 ,! view "h tak5 ( automatism & att5tion 9 ! social :ole impairs nei!r ! unity ( intellig5ce ?r\gh\t society nor ! individual's recognition ( ?is unity z a self liable to be oppos$ to 8 usual self4 ,z to ! =m] po9t1 e individual m9d %[s exactly ! same ph5om5a1 ( a cont9uum l>gely automatic1 & ?or\ghly alive only 9 c]ta9 regions1 connect$1 b n ?or\ghly coh]5t4 ,z to ! latt] po9t1 p]meation ( ! individual by ! habits ( social automatism does n prev5t1 b r gives mat]ial =1 8 t5d5cy to ab/ract himself f ! :ole1 & to frame an attitude = himself inconsi/5t ) 8 true 8position10 aga9/ :i* t5d5cy ! imp]ative recognition ( 8 true self has con/antly to be ex]t$4 #g4 ,we h f9ally to deal ) ! actual application by ! ,/ate ( its ultimate res\rce = ! ma9t5ance ( rights1 viz41 =ce4 ,sup]ior =ce may be ex]cis$ ^u human nature bo? #bag by rew>ds & by puni%m5ts4 ,9 bo? respects its ex]cise by ! ,/ate w\ld fall g5]ally )9 ! l9es ( automatism2 t is to say1 x w\ld be a case ( ! promotion ( an end by means o!r ?an ! influ5ce ( an idea ( t end ^u ! w4 ,b1 ow+ to ! subtle cont9uity ( human nature ?r\gh\t all its phases1 we %all f9d t !re is some?+ m ?an ?is to be said1 & t ! idea ( ! end is op]ative 9 a peculi> way j :]e ! ag5cies t promote x appe> to be mo/ ali5 & me*anical4 ,9 s f> z ?is is ! case1 ! g5]al !ory ( ! negative "* ( ,/ate action has to be modifi$1 z we =esaw1 #a by ! !ory ( puni%m5t4 ,prima facie1 h[ev]1 x is true t rew>d & puni%m5t belong to ! automatic elem5t ( social life4 ,!y arise 9 no direct relation ( ! w to ! end4 ,!y are a reaction ( ! automatic sy/em1 in/rum5tal to ! end1 aga9/ a friction or ob/acle :i* intrudes ^u x1 or 79 ! case ( rew>ds7 ^u ! opposite ( a friction or ob/acle4 ,!re is no object 9 press+ a comp>ison into e detail2 b p]haps1 z social & individual automatism d really be> ! same k9d ( relation to consci\sness1 x may be po9t$ out t rew>d & puni%m5t correspond 9 "s degree to ! pleasures & pa9s ( a high-class second>y automatism1 say ( rid+ or ( read+1 i4e4 ( some?+ specially conducive to enhanc$ life4 ,su* activities br+ pleasure :5 unimp$$1 & pa9 :5 %>ply int]rupt$ by a />t or blund] :i* j>s ^u u4 ,putt+ ?is latt] case 9 language :i* #bah c>ries out ! analogy to puni%m5t1 we might say t ! =m$ habit ( action1 unconsci\sly or semi-consci\sly relevant to ! end or full] life1 is ob/ruct$ by "s p>tial />t ( m9d1 & _! conflict is accompani$ ) recognition1 pa91 & vexation4 8,:at a fool ,i 010 we exclaim1 8to ride c>elessly at t corn]10 or 8to let t plan = a holiday int]rupt me 9 my morn+'s read+40 #a ,p4 #ahi4 ,x may seem rem>kable t rew>d plays a small & app>5tly decreas+ "p 9 ! self-managem5t ( society by ! public p[]4 ,to ! nave ,a!nian1 #a x seem$ a natural in/rum5t = ! enc\ragem5t ( public _s1 probably r by a want ( discrim9ation betwe5 motives ?an by a real belief 9 political selfi%ness4 ,9 ,european c\ntries hon\rs /ill appe> to play a consid]able "p1 b on analysis x w\ld be f\nd less ?an x seems4 ,p>tly !y are recognitions ( important functions1 & ?us conditions r ?an rew>ds4 ,to a great ext5t1 aga91 !y recognise exi/+ facts1 & are r consequ5ces ( ! respect :i* society feels = c]ta9 types ( life 7) v curi\s results 9 regions :]e ! g5]al m9d is inexp]i5c$1 e4g4 9 f9e art7 ?an means employ$ to regulate ! conduct ( citiz5s4 ,we %\ld ?9k a soldi] mean ^: aim 0 a pe]age1 /ill m a poet or an arti/4 ,i h>dly "k t rew>ds adjudg$ by ! ,/ate1 z di/9ct f comp5sations1 exi/ #bai 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica4 #b ,rew>ds !n fill no place correlative to t ( puni%m5ts1 & ! reason seems pla94 ,puni%m5t corresponds mu* bett] to ! negative me?od :i* alone is op5 to ! ,/ate = ! ma9t5ance ( rights4 ,= ,puni%m5t proclaims its negative "*1 & no "o c suppose x laudable simply to be det]r$ f wrong-do+ by fe> ( puni%m5t4 ,b ?\gh precisely ! same pr9ciple applies to m]itori\s actions done ) a view to rew>d1 an illusion is almo/ c]ta9 to arise :i* w hide ! pr9ciple 9 ?is case4 ,=1 if rew>d is l>gely us$ z an inducem5t to actions conducive to ! be/ life1 x is almo/ c]ta9 t x w be us$ z an inducem5t to actions1 ! value & c]ta9ty ( :i* dep5d on ! /ate ( w to :i* !y are due4 ,& !n ! di/9ction betwe5 gett+ !m done1 motive or no motive1 :i* is ! true region ( ,/ate action1 & _! be+ done ) a c]ta9 motive1 :i* is necess>y to give !m ei!r practical or moral value1 is pretty sure to be oblit]at$1 & ! range ( ! moral w tr5*$ ^u 9 its high] portion & ) a con/ant t5d5cy to self-deception4 #c #bbj ,x is ! same tru? 9 o!r words :5 we po9t out t tak+ rew>d & puni%m5t1 z int]f]5ces1 only to deal ) exceptional cases1 rew>d w\ld deal ) ! exceptionally good4 ,!re=e1 aga91 rew>d mu/ ei!r make an impossible attempt to deal ) all ! normal z good1 :i* involves ! dang] ( de-moralis+ ! :ole ( normal life1 or mu/ take ! l9e ( specially promot+ :at is exceptionally conducive to good life2 9 :i* case confusion is c]ta9 to arise f int]f]5ce ) ! delicate middle class ( ext]nal actions analys$ above4 #d ,& ?us x is only :at we %\ld expect :5 we f9d t ,/ates hav+ no damnosa h]$itas ( a crav+ = p]sonal hon\rs are h>dly acqua9t$ ) ! be/[al ( rew>ds by ! public p[]4 #a 8,spee* ( ,p]icles10 ,?ucyd41 ii4 #df3 8,:]e !re are ! greate/ rew>ds ( m]it1 !re w be ! be/ m5 to d ! "w ( ! ,/ate40 ,contra/ ,plato's pr9ciple t !re c be no s\nd gov]nm5t :ile public s]vice is done ) a view to rew>d4 #b ,! precise !ory ( ! grants 9 money made to soldi]s or sailors1 = di/+ui%$ s]vice1 is n easy to /ate4 ,b x seems cle> t !y are n int5d$ to act z motives4 ,!y are ess5tially a recognition aft] ! act1 n an inducem5t held out be=e x4 #c ,x is p]haps p]missible to obs]ve 9 g5]al1 :at is v well kn[n to all :o h mu* exp]i5ce ( :at is call$ philan?ropy1 t ! t5d5cy to di/+ui% x by public hon\rs is exce$+ly dang]\s to its quality1 :i* dep5ds entirely on t en]gy & purity ( intellig5ce :i* c only accompany ! deepe/ & highe/ motives4 ,m]e vulg> self-seek+ is n ! dang] 7?\gh x does occur7 s mu* z obfuscation ( intellig5ce ?r\gh a mixture ( aims & ideas4 #d ,p4 #aii4 ,x w be suffici5t1 !n1 to complete ! acc\nt ( ,/ate action 9 ma9t5ance ( rights by "s acc\nt ( ! nature & pr9ciples ( puni%m5t4 ,& we may pr(itably beg9 by recall+ ,m4 ,durkheim's sugge/ion1 :i* 0 m5tion$ 9 a =m] *apt]4 #a ,puni%m5t1 he obs]ves1 f ! simple/ & mo/ actual po9t ( view1 includes 9 itself all ^? sides :i* !ory has t5d$ to reg>d z incompatible4 ,x is1 9 ess5ce1 simply ! reaction ( a /rong & det]m9ate collective s5tim5t aga9/ an act :i* (f5ds x4 ,x is idle to include su* a reaction entirely "u ! head ei!r ( re=mation1 or ( retaliation1 or ( prev5tion4 ,an aggression is ipso facto a sign ( "*1 an injury1 & a m5ace2 & ! reaction aga9/ x is equally ipso facto an attempt #bba to affect "*1 a retaliation aga9/ an injury1 & a det]r5t or prev5tive aga9/ a m5ace4 ,:5 we fire up at aggression x is pretty mu* a *ance :e!r we say 8,i am go+ to tea* him bett] mann]s10 or 8,i am go+ to s]ve him out10 or 8,i am go+ to see t he doesn't d t aga940 ,a consid]ation ( ea* ( ^! aspects is necess>y to d ju/ice bo? to ! !ories & to ! facts4 #a ,p4 #cg4 i4 ,an obvi\s po9t ( view1 & ! fir/ p]haps to appe> 9 philosophy1 ?\gh /rongly oppos$ to e>ly law1 is t ! aim ( puni%m5t is to make ! (f5d] good4 ,z te/ ( ! adequacy ( ?is doctr9e by itself1 ! "q may be put1 8,if pleasures w\ld cure ! (f5d]1 ought he to be giv5 pleasures80 ,! doctr9e1 h[ev]1 does n1 by any means1 altoge!r incl9e to l5i5cy4 ,= x c>ries z a coroll>y ! extirpation ( ! incurable1 :i* ,plato proposes 9 a passage ( s+ul>ly mod]n quality1 :5 he sugge/s ! co-op]ation ( judges & physicians 9 ma9ta9+ ! moral & physical heal? ( society4 #a #a ,republic1 #dji1 #daj4 ,! fir/ comm5t t occurs to u is1 t by a m]e m$ical treatm5t ( ! (f5d]1 includ+ or consi/+ ( pleasant conditions1 if helpful to 8 cure1 ! int]e/ ( society seems to be disreg>d$4 ,:at is to become ( ! ma9t5ance ( rights1 if aggressors h to anticipate a pleasant or l5i5t 8cure08 ,x may be true t brutal puni%m5ts /imulate a crim9al temp] 9 ! p r ?an *eck x2 b x is a long way f ?is to lay+ d[n t !re is no ne$ #bbb = t]ror to be associat$ ) crime4 ,to suppose t pleasures may simply act ?r\gh\t z pa9s1 is play+ ) words & ?r[s no light on ! "q4 ,if we leave words _! mean+1 we mu/ say t puni%m5t mu/ be det]r5t = o!rs z well z re=matory = ! (f5d]1 & !re=e 9 "s degree pa9ful4 ,x is true1 h[ev]1 t ! (f5d]1 z a human be+1 & presumably capable ( a common good1 has1 z ,gre5 puts x1 8rev]sion>y rights0 ( humanity1 & ^!1 puni%m5t mu/ s f> z possible respect4 ,b !re is a deep] difficulty4 ,if ! re=mation !ory is to be s]i\sly di/+ui%$ f ! o!r !ories ( puni%m5t1 x has a mean+ :i* is unju/ to ! (f5d] himself4 ,x implies t 8 (f5ce is a m]ely natural evil1 l disease1 & c be cur$ by !rapeutic treatm5t direct$ to remov+ its causes4 ,b ?is is to treat him n z a human be+2 to treat him z a 8pati5t10 n z an ag5t2 to exclude him f ! g5]al recognition t makes u m54 7,if ! !rapeutic treatm5t includes a recognition & *a/isem5t ( ! (f5d]'s bad w #a--! =m ( :i* *a/isem5t may1 ( c\rse1 be v v>i\sly modifi$--!n !re is no long] any?+ to di/+ui% ! re=matory !ory f o!r !ories ( puni%m5t47 ,x has be5 lately po9t$ out #b :at a confusion is involv$ 9 ! claim t be+s1 :o are irresponsible & s incapable ( guilt1 are !re=e 9 ! /rict s5se innoc5t4 ,"h are ! true objects #bbc = a pure re=matory !ory4 ,"h t may freely be done1 z to creatures incapable ( rights1 :i* is k9de/ = !m & safe/ = society1 f quasi-m$ical treatm5t to extirpation4 ,!re is no guilt 9 !m to dem& puni%m5t1 b !re is no human w 9 !m to h ! rights ( innoc5ce4 #a ,plato's re=matory !ory seems to involve ?is4 #b ,mr4 ,bradley1 9 ! ,int]national ,j\rnal ( ,e?ics1 ,april1 #ahid4 ,b1 appli$ to responsible human be+s1 su* a !ory1 if really kept to its di/9ctive cont5tion1 is an insult4 ,x leads to ! notion t ! ,/ate may take hold ( any man1 ^: life or ideas are ?\ght capable ( improvem5t1 & set to "w to ameliorate !m by =cible treatm5t4 ,!re is no true puni%m5t except :]e "o is an (f5d] aga9/ a sy/em ( rights :i* he %>es1 & !re=e aga9/ himself4 ,& su* an (f5d] has a "r to ! recognition ( 8 ho/ile w2 x is inhuman to treat him z a wild animal or a *ild1 :om we simply m\ld to our aims4 ,)\t su* a recognition1 to be puni%$ is n1 accord+ to ! old ,scot* phrase1 to be 8ju/ifi$40 ii4 ,! idea ( retaliation or retribution1 ?\gh 9 hi/ory ! olde/ conception ( puni%m5t1 #a may be tak5 9 !ory z a prote/ aga9/ ! conception t puni%m5t is only a means = mak+ a man bett]4 ,its /rong po9t is its def9ite idea ( ! (f5d]4 ,! (f5d] is a responsible p]son1 belong+ to a c]ta9 ord] :i* he recognises z ent]+ into him & z ent]$ into by him1 & he has made actual an int5tion ho/ile to ?is ord]4 ,he has1 #bbd z ,plato's ,socrates insi/s 9 ! ,crito1 de/roy$ ! ord] s f> z 9 him lies4 ,9 o!r words1 he has violat$ ! sy/em ( rights :i* ! ,/ate exi/s to ma9ta91 & by :i* alone he & o!rs are secur$ 9 ! ex]cise ( any capacity = good1 ?is security consi/+ 9 _! reciprocal respect = ! sy/em4 ,8 ho/ile w /&s up & defies ! "r1 9 s f> z 8 p]sonality is ass]t$1 ?r\gh a tangible de$ :i* embodies ! wrong4 ,x is necess>y1 !n1 t ! p[] :i* ma9ta9s ! sy/em ( rights %\ld n m]ely1 if possible1 undo ! ext]nal h>m :i* has be5 done1 b %\ld /rike d[n ! ho/ile w :i* has defi$ ! "r by do+ t h>m4 ,! end or true self is 9 ! m$ium ( m9d & w1 & is contradict$ & nullifi$ s f> z a ho/ile w is p]mitt$ to triumph4 #a ,we saw t1 ev5 9 its e>lie/ =ms1 x _c really be tak5 to exclude ! o!r aspects4 ,x is obvi\s1 h[ev]1 t ! means by :i* ! ho/ile w c be negativ$ fall prima facie )9 ! region ( automatism4 ,! recalcitrant elem5t ( consci\sness is n susceptible to ! end z an idea1 or x w\ld n be recalcitrant4 ,! end c "h ass]t itself1 agreeably to ! g5]al pr9ciple ( ,/ate action1 only ?r\gh ext]nal action ! m5tal effects ( :i* _c be precisely e/imat$4 ,x might1 !re=e1 seem t ! pa9 produc$ by ! reaction ( ! automatic sy/em on ! ab]rant consci\sness--! puni%m5t--0 simply a natural pa91 :i* might act z a det]r5t f ab]ration1 b _h no visible connection ) ! true :ole or end = ! m9d ( ! (f5d]4 ,we %all speak bel[ ( ! s5se 9 :i* #bbe puni%m5t is det]r5t or prev5tive4 ,b x is to be not$ at ?is po9t t a high-class second>y automatism1 ) :i* all along we h comp>$ ! sy/em ( rights z engra9$ 9 ! habits ( a p1 reta9s a v close connection ) consci\sness4 ,we d n inde$ w e /ep t we walk1 b we only walk :ile we w to walk1 & s ) ! :ole sy/em ( r\t9e automatism :i* is ! me?od & organ ( our daily life4 ,at any int]ruption1 any h9drance or failure1 consci\sness />ts up1 & ! end ( ! :ole r\t9e comes %>ply back ^u u ?r\gh our ab]ration4 ,s x is ) puni%m5t4 ,prim>ily1 no d\bt1 *a/isem5t by pa91 & ! appeal to fe> & to submissiv5ess1 is effective ?r\gh our l[] nature1 &1 9 z f> z op]ative1 sub/itutes selfi% motives = ! w t wills ! good1 & s n>r[s its sph]e4 ,b !re is m beh9d4 ,! automatic sy/em is puls+ ) ! vitality ( ! end to :i* x is in/rum5tal2 & :5 we kick aga9/ ! pricks1 & x reacts ^u u 9 pa91 ?is pa9 has subtle connections ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( our be+4 ,x br+s u to our s5ses1 z we say2 t is1 x sugge/s1 m or less1 a consci\sness ( :at ! habitual sy/em means1 & ( :at we h committ$ 9 (f5d+ aga9/ x4 ,:5 "o /umbles & hurts 8 foot1 he may look up & see t he is (f ! pa?4 ,if a man is told t ! way he works 8 factory or keeps 8 t5em5t h\ses is r5d]+ him liable to f9e or imprisonm5t1 !n1 if he is an ord9>y1 c>eless1 b respectable citiz51 he w feel "s ?+ ( a %ock1 & recognise t he 0 gett+ #bbf too neglectful ( ! rights ( o!rs1 & t1 9 be+ pull$ up1 he is br\ght back to himself4 ,8 citiz5 hon\r w be t\*$4 ,he w n l to be bel[ ! av]age :i* ! common consci5ce _h embodi$ 9 law4 ,:5 we come to ! actual crim9al consci\sness1 ! =m :i* ! recognition may take 9 fact may v>y greatly2 & z an extreme !re may be a furi\s ho/ility aga9/ ! :ole recognis$ sy/em ( law1 ei!r involv+ self-outlawry ?r\gh a despair ( reconciliation1 or aris+ ?r\gh "s sort ( habitual conspiracy 9 :i* ! man f9ds 8 *os5 law & ord] z aga9/ t recognis$ by ! ,/ate4 #a ,b aft] all1 we are deal+ ) a "q ( social logic & n ( empirical psy*ology4 ,& x mu/ be laid d[n t1 9 z f> z any sane man fails altoge!r to recognise 9 any =m ! ass]tion ( some?+ :i* he normally respects 9 ! law :i* puni%es him 7putt+ aside :at he takes to be misc>riage ( ju/ice71 he is outlaw$ by himself & ! ess5tials ( citiz5%ip are n 9 him4 ,d\btless1 if an un$ucat$ man 7 told1 9 !oretical language1 t 9 be+ puni%$ = an assault he 0 realis+ 8 own w1 he w\ld ?9k x cruel nons5se4 ,b ?is is a m]e "q ( language1 & has really no?+ to d ) ! ess5tial /ate ( 8 consci\sness4 ,he w\ld und]/& p]fectly well t he 0 be+ s]v$ z he w\ld say anyone %\ld be s]v$1 :om he saw act+ z he _h done1 9 a case :]e 8 own #bbg passions 7 n engag$4 ,& ?is recognition1 9 :atev] =m x is admitt$1 c>ries ! consequ5ce :i* we affirm4 #a ,see ! acc\nt ( ! ,mafia 9 ,m>ion ,craw=d's ,corleone4 ,accept+ ?is z describ$1 x simply is ! social w 9 :i* ! population ( a c]ta9 region f9d _! sub/itute = ! ,/ate4 ,9 %ort1 !n1 compulsion ?r\gh puni%m5t & ! fe> ( x1 ?\gh prim>ily act+ on ! l[] self1 does t5d1 :5 ! conditions ( true puni%m5t exi/ 7i4e4 ! reaction ( a sy/em ( rights violat$ by "o :o %>es 9 x71 to a recognition ( ! end by ! p]son puni%$1 & may s f> be reg>d$ z 8 own w1 impli$ 9 ! ma9t5ance ( a sy/em to :i* he is a p>ty1 return+ ^u himself 9 ! =m ( pa94 ,& ?is is ! !ory ( puni%m5t z retributive4 ,! te/ doctr9e ( ! !ory may be f\nd 9 ,kant's say+ t1 ev5 ?\gh a society 7 ab\t to be dissolv$ by agreem5t1 ! la/ murd]] 9 prison mu/ be execut$ be=e x breaks up4 ,! puni%m5t is1 s to speak1 8 "r1 ( :i* he mu/ n be defraud$4 ,!re are two natural p]v]sions ( ?is !ory4 ,! fir/ is to confuse ! necess>y retribution or reaction ( ! g5]al self1 ?r\gh ! ,/ate1 ) p]sonal v5geance4 #a ,ev5 9 ! vulg> =m1 :5 a brutal murd] evokes a g5]al desire to h ! (f5d] s]v$ out1 #b ! g5]al or social indignation is n ! same z ! selfi% desire = rev5ge4 ,x is ! (fspr+ ( a r\gh notion ( law & humanity1 & ( ! feel+ t a /rik+ aggression ^u !m dem&s to be /rik+ly put d[n4 ,su* a s5tim5t is a "p #bbh ( ! consci\sness :i* ma9ta9s ! sy/em ( rights1 & c h>dly be abs5t :]e t consci\sness is /rong4 #a ,x may be not$ t ,durkheim1 rely+ *iefly on e>ly religi\s s5tim5t1 d5ies ,ma9e's view t crim9al law arises out ( private feud4 #b ,gre51 ,pr9ciples ( ,political ,obligation1 p4 #ahd4 ,! second p]v]sion consi/s 9 ! sup]/ition t puni%m5t %\ld be 8equival5t0 to (f5ce4 ,9 a s5se1 we h se51 x is id5tical2 i4e4 x is a return ( ! (f5d]'s act ^u himself by a connection inevitable 9 a moral organism4 ,b z = equival5ce ( pa9 inflict$1 ei!r ) ! pa9 caus$ by ! (f5ce or ) its guilt1 ! ,/ate kn[s no?+ ( x & has no means ( secur+ x4 ,x _c e/imate ei!r pa9 or moral guilt4 ,puni%m5t _c be adapt$ to factors :i* _c be kn[n4 ,& fur!r1 ! attempt to puni% = immorality has evils ( its own4 #a ,! graduation ( puni%m5ts mu/ dep5d on :olly diff]5t pr9ciples1 :i* we w consid] 9 speak+ ( puni%m5t z prev5tive or det]r5t4 #a ,see above1 p4 #aib4 iii4 ,! graduation ( puni%m5ts mu/ be almo/ entirely det]m9$ by exp]i5ce ( _! op]ation z det]r5ts4 ,x is to be borne 9 m9d1 inde$1 7i47 t ! 8rev]sion>y rights0 ( humanity 9 ! (f5d] are n to be ne$lessly sacrific$1 & 7ii47 t ! true ess5ce ( puni%m5t1 z puni%m5t1 ! negation ( ! (f5d]'s anti-social w1 is 9 "s way to be secur$4 ,b ^! conditions are includ$ 9 ! prev5tive or det]r5t !ory ( puni%m5t1 if completely und]/ood2 if1 t is to say1 x is made cle> precisely :at x is t is to be prev5t$4 ,if we speak ( puni%m5t1 !n1 z hav+ = #bbi its aim to be det]r5t or prev5tive1 we mu/ n und]/& ?is to mean t a majority1 or any p]sons 9 p[]1 may rightly prev5t1 by ! ?reat ( p5alties1 any acts t seem to !m to be inconv5i5t4 ,t :i* is to be prev5t$ by puni%m5t is a violation ( ! ,/ate-ma9ta9$ sy/em ( rights by a p]son :o is a p>ty to t sy/em1 & !re=e ! above-m5tion$ conditions1 impli$ 9 a true und]/&+ ( ! re=matory & retributive aspects ( puni%m5t1 are also involv$ 9 x z det]r5t4 ,b1 ?is be+ admitt$1 we may add to !m ! di/9ctive pr9ciple on :i* a det]r5t !ory insi/s4 ,if a light] puni%m5t det] z effectively z a heavi]1 x is wrong to impose ! heavi]4 ,= ! precise aim ( ,/ate action is ! ma9t5ance ( rights2 & if rights are effectively ma9ta9$ )\t ! heavi] puni%m5t1 ! aim ( ! ,/ate does n ju/ify its imposition4 ,x is well kn[n t success 9 ! ma9t5ance ( rights dep5ds n only on ! sev]ity ( puni%m5ts1 b also on ! true adju/m5t ( ! rights !mselves to human ends1 & on t c]ta9ty ( detect+ crime :i* is a result ( effici5t gov]nm5t4 ,& x mu/ always be consid]$1 9 deal+ ) a relative failure ( ! det]r5t p[] ( puni%m5t 9 reg>d to c]ta9 (f5ces1 :e!r a bett] adju/m5t ( rights or a great] c]ta9ty ( detection w n meet ! end m effectively ?an increas$ sev5ty ( puni%m5t4 ,we h se5 t ! equival5ce ( puni%m5t & (f5ce is really a mean+less sup]/ition4 ,& !re is no pr9ciple on :i* #bcj puni%m5t c be rationally graduat$1 except its det]r5t p[] z le>n$ by exp]i5ce4 ,?is view corresponds to ! true limits ( ,/ate action z det]m9$ by ! means at its disposal comp>$ ) ! end :i* is its ju/ification1 & is !re=e1 :5 grasp$ 9 its full mean+ z n d5y+ ! nature ( puni%m5t1 ! true !ory ( x4 ,we saw1 9 speak+ ( puni%m5t z retributive1 9 :at s5se x c & _c re/ ^u a judgm5t imput+ moral guilt4 ,( degrees ( moral guilt z manife/$ 9 ! p>ticul> acts ( individuals1 ! ,/ate1 l all ( u1 is necess>ily ignorant4 ,b ?is is n to say t puni%m5t is :olly divorc$ f a j moral s5tim5t4 ,und\bt$ly x implies & re/s ^u a disapproval ( t ho/ile attitude to ! sy/em ( rights :i* is impli$ 9 ! realis$ int5tion con/itut+ ! violation ( "r4 ,?\gh 9 practice ! di/9ction betwe5 civil & crim9al law 9 ,engl& c>ries out no ?or\ghly logical dem>cation1 yet x is true on ! :ole to say ) ,hegel t1 9 ! matt] ( a civil action1 !re is no violation ( "r z su*1 b only a "q 9 :om a c]ta9 "r resides2 :ile 9 a matt] ( crim9al law !re is involv$ an infraction ( "r z su*1 :i* by implication is a d5ial ( ! :ole sph]e ( law & ord]4 ,?is infraction ! g5]al consci5ce disapproves1 & its disapproval is embodi$ 9 a =cible deal+ ) ! (f5d]1 h[ev] t deal+ may be graduat$ by o!r consid]ations4 ,i may t\* "h on an int]e/+ po9t ( detail1 foll[+ ,gre54 ,if puni%m5t is ess5tially #bca graduat$ accord+ to its det]r5t p[]1 & n accord+ to moral guilt1 h[ does x come to pass t 8ext5uat+ circum/ances0 are all[$ to influ5ce s5t5ces8 ,t !y d s really1 if n nom9ally1 ev5 9 ,engl&1 !re c be no d\bt4 ,is x n t !y indicate a less degree ( wick$ness 9 ! (f5d] ?an ! (f5ce 9 "q w\ld normally presuppose8 ,x w\ld seem t judges !mselves are sometimes "u ?is impression4 ,b x may well be t !y act "u a "r in/9ct & assign a wrong reason4 ,= x is impossible to get ov] ! fact t moral iniquity is some?+ :i* _c be really e/imat$4 ,! true reason = all[+ circum/ances :i* *ange ! "* ( ! act to influ5ce ! s5t5ce is t1 9 *ang+ its "*1 !y may take x out ( ! class ( (f5ces f :i* m5 ne$ to be det]r$ by a recognis$ am\nt ( sev]ity4 ,if a man is />v+ & /eals a turnip1 8 (f5ce1 be+ s exceptionally condition$1 does n ?reat5 ! g5]al "r ( prop]ty1 & does n ne$ to be associat$ ) any high degree ( t]ror 9 ord] to protect t "r4 ,a man :o /eals "u no extraord9>y pressure ( ne$ does :at might become a common practice if n associat$ ) z mu* t]ror z is f\nd by exp]i5ce to det] m5 f !ft4 ,x may be said1 9 "s exceptional em]g5cy1 8b _m m5 are n[ />v+2 ought n ! !ft ( food1 on ! pr9ciple ( prev5tion1 to be n[ puni%$ ) extreme sev]ity1 z o!r wise x is likely to become common80 ,or 9 g5]al1 ought n sev]ity to increase ) #bca temptation or provocation1 z a great] det]r5t is ne$$ to c\nt]balance ?is8 ,! case 9 :i* ! temptation or provocation is exceptional has j be5 dealt )4 ,b if abnormal temptation or provocation becomes common1 z 9 a fam9e1 or 9 "s excit$ condition ( public feel+1 !n x mu/ be rememb]$ t n "o "r only1 b ! sy/em ( rights z su*1 is :at ! ,/ate has to ma9ta94 ,if />vation is common1 "s readju/m5t ( rights1 or at lea/ "s tempor>y protection ( ! "r to live1 is ! rem$y indicat$1 & n1 or n solely1 increas$ sev]ity 9 deal+ ) !ft4 #a ,if provocation becomes common1 !n ! rights ( ^? provok$ mu/ be rememb]$1 & ! provocation itself p]haps made puni%able1 l ! s++ ( faction songs 9 ,irel&4 ,puni%m5t is to protect rights1 n to enc\rage wrongs4 #a ,?\gh = ! sake ( all p>ties1 & to avoid temptation1 a /rong polic+ ( ?reat5$ di/ricts may be desirable 9 su* circum/ances4 ,?us1 we h se5 ! true nature & aims ( puni%m5t z foll[+ f ! aim ( ! ,/ate 9 ma9ta9+ ! sy/em ( rights in/rum5tal to ! fulle/ life4 ,! ?ree ma9 aspects ( puni%m5t :i* we h consid]$ are really insep>able1 & ea*1 if prop]ly expla9$1 exp&s s z to include ! o!rs4 ,we may1 9 conclusion1 sum up ! :ole !ory ( ,/ate action 9 ! =mula :i* we inh]it f ,r\sseau--t ,sov]eignty is ! ex]cise ( ! ,g5]al ,w4 ,fir/4 ,all ,/ate action is ,g5]al 9 its be>+ & ju/ification1 ev5 if p>ticul>1 or r #bcb concrete1 9 its details4 ,x is embodi$ 9 a sy/em ( rights1 & !re is no elem5t ( x :i* is n det]m9$ by a be>+ ^u a public int]e/4 ,! v]ification ( ?is tru?1 ?r\gh\t1 = example1 our ,engli% sy/em ( public & private ,acts ( ,p>liam5t1 w\ld run p>allel to ! logical !ory ( ! ,univ]sal ,judgm5t z x passes into ,judgm5ts ^: subjects are prop] names4 ,b ! imm$iate po9t is t no rights are absolute1 or deta*$ f ! :ole1 b all h _! w>rant 9 ! aim ( ! :ole1 :i* at ! same "t implies _! adju/m5t & regulation accord+ to g5]al pr9ciples4 ,?is g5]ality ( law is practically an imm5se protection to individuals aga9/ arbitr>y int]f]5ce4 ,x makes e regulation /rike a class & n a s+le p]son4 ,&1 secondly4 ,all ,/ate action is at bottom ! ex]cise ( a ,w2 ! real ,w1 or ! ,w z logically impli$ 9 intellig5ces z su*1 & m or less recognis$ z imp]ative ^u !m4 ,&1 !re=e1 ?\gh 9 ! =m ( =ce x acts ?r\gh automatism1 t is1 n directly z consci\s ,w1 b ?r\gh a sy/em :i* gives rise to acts by influ5ces app>5tly ali51 yet ! root & s\rce ( ! :ole /ructure is ( ! nature ( ,w1 & its end1 l t ( organic automatism1 is to cle> ! road = true volition2 x is 8=c+ m5 to be free40 ,& 9 s f> z by misdirection ( ! automatic #a process x #bcd encroa*es on ! region ( liv+ ,w ! region :]e ! good realises itself directly by its own =ce z a motive x is 8saw+ (f ! bran* on :i* x sits10 & sup]s$+ ! aim by ! in/rum5t4 #a ,x mu/ n be =gott5 t ! ,/ate is1 by its nature1 "u a con/ant temptation to ?r[ its weight on ! side ( ! automatic process4 ,a mo/ /rik+ example is its adoption ( ! automatic wat]-c>riage sy/em 9 dra9age1 ) f>-rea*+ economic consequ5ces4 ,see ,poore's ,rural ,hygi5e & ,! ,dwell+ ,h\se4 #bce ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,r\sseau',s ,,!ory ,,z ,,appli$ ,,to ,,! ,,mod]n ,,/ate3 ,,kant1 ,,fi*te1 ,,hegel4 #a4 ,probably no o!r philosophical movem5t has ev] focuss$ 9 itself s mu* human nature z ! po/-,kantian ,idealism4 ,x has fall5 to ! pres5t writ] to %[ else:]e #a h[ ! 8f9d+ ( ,greek art10 :i* x ow$ to ,w9ckelmann1 gave x unrivall$ insight into m9d z embodi$ 9 objects ( s5se4 ,"h we h to deal ) ano!r s\rce ( its ideas4 ,z we po9t$ out 9 ! fir/ *apt]1 ! e?ical & political !ory ( ,kant1 ,fi*te1 & ,hegel spr+s f ! same ,evangel ( ,jean ,jacques f :i* ! ,fr5* ,revolution drew its =mulae4 ,x w\ld n be true to say t x spr+s f ?is alone4 ,great philosoph]s "k h[ to fuse ! mat]ials !y "w 92 & p>ticul>ly ! mod]n ab/raction ( 8fre$om0 0 bl5d$1 = ,hegel1 ) ! idea ( concrete life ?r\gh ! tradition ( ! ,greek city1 ) its aff9ity = autonomy on ! "o h& & = beauty on ! o!r4 ,nev]!less1 few l9es ( affiliation are bett] e/abli%$ 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy ?an t betwe5 ,r\sseau's #bcf decl>ation t lib]ty is ! quality ( man & ! philosophy ( ,"r z x develop$ f ,kant to ,hegel4 #a ,hi/ory ( ,ae/hetic 7,sonn5s*e974 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t ! lit]>y int]c\rse ( ,france1 ,engl&1 & ,g]many 0 f> clos] 9 ! eighte5? c5tury ?an x is to-day1 9 spite ( ! imm5se me*anical developm5t ( communication 9 ! int]val4 ,national self-consci\sness & ! div]g5t gr[? ( national m9ds h1 x is urg$1 rais$ a b>ri] betwe5 peoples1 :i* exi/$ 9 ! la/ c5tury to a f> small] degree4 #a ,?is "q ( lit]>y hi/ory lies beyond my subject2 b at lea/ x seems probable t ,r\sseau _h a p[] 9 ,g]many :i* no ,fr5* writ] ( to-day c\ld possibly ex]cise outside 8 own c\ntry4 ,8 educational influ5ce #b alone =ms a consid]able *apt] 9 ! hi/ory ( ,pdagogik1 & t\*es closely on philosophy4 ,our psy*ologi/s ( *ildhood are 8 spiritual desc5dants1 & inde$ ! "q ( ! developm5t ( ! human be+ is closely ak9 to ! "q ( lib]ty4 #a ,see ,m4 ,lvy-,bruhl1 8,de l',influ5ce de ,jean ,jacques ,r\sseau en ,allemagne10 ,annales de l'cole libre des ,sci5ces ,politiques1 ,juillet1 #ahig4 #b ,cf4 ,kant et ,fi*te et la ,problme de l',education1 ,duproix1 ,alcan41 #ahig2 & on ,r\sseau's v>i$ initiative1 see ,amiel1 ,j\rnal ,intime ,e4 tr4 ,i4 #bjb1 8,j4,j4 ,r\sseau is an ance/or 9 all ?+s4 ,x 0 he :o f\nd$ travell+ on foot be=e ,tpff]1 rev]ie be=e ,r51 lit]>y botany be=e ,george ,s&1 ! wor%ip ( nature be=e ,b]n>d9 de ,/4 ,pi]re1 ! democratic !ory be=e ! ,revolution ( #agig1 political discussion & !ological discussion be=e ,mirabeau & ,rnan1 ! sci5ce ( tea*+ be=e ,pe/alozzi1 & ,alp9e description be=e ,de ,saussure40 ,8 lit]>y influ5ce1 z ! prophet ( nature & feel+1 & ! *ampion ( s5tim5tal #bcg religion aga9/ ! ,philosophes1 c>ri$ ev]y?+ be=e x4 ,he /ruck into ! pa? :i* _h be5 op5$ 9 ,g]many by ! translation ( ,?omson's ,seasons be=e #agej1 & foll[$ by ! ,swiss critics & ! idyllic poets1 :o 7 oppon5ts ( ! dom9ant pseudo-classicism4 #a ,jacobi1 :o pass$ "s ye>s ( 8 y\? at ,g5eva1 ow$ 8 doctr9e ( feel+ z ! faculty ( religi\s tru? 9 "p at lea/ to ,r\sseau4 ,kl+]1 ^: drama1 ,/urm und ,drang1 gave its "n to ! romantic & naturali/ revolution1 m>k$ by ,goe!'s ,gtz von ,b]li*+5 7#aggc7 & ,s*ill]'s ,rub] 7#agha71 0 responsible1 we are told1 9 lat] ye>s1 = ! surpris+ judgm5t t ,r\sseau 79 ,emile7 is ! "y man's be/ guide ?r\gh life4 #b ,ev5 ,s*ill] & ,h]d] pass$ ?r\gh a p]iod ( en?usia/ic admiration = ,r\sseau4 ,x is exce$+ly significant t ,s*ill]'s ,lett]s on ! ,ae/hetic ,education ( ,humanity are address$ expressly to ! problem ( reconcil+ ! claims ( ,nature #c & ( ! ,/ate ^u individual man4 ,=1 :5 ,s*ill] sugge/s t ! clue to ! requir$ reconciliation betwe5 ,nature & ! ,/ate lies 9 ! union ( feel+ & intellig5ce :i* is f\nd 9 ,beauty1 we h be=e u 9 a s+le focus ?ree ma9 types ( exp]i5ce1 f ! fusion ( :i* a new idealism 0 to em]ge4 #a ,see au?or's ,hi/ory ( ,ae/hetic1 p4 #bad4 #b ,lvy-,bruhl1 ,loc4 cit4 p4 #ccj4 ,! citation appe>s to be f a romance1 & ,i h n se5 ! context4 #c ,lett] #c conta9s a pr(\nd criticism ( ! suppos$ actual 8/ate ( nature10 & x might be said ) tru? t ! :ole subject ( ! lett]s is ! problem 8h[ man is to be free )\t ceas+ to be s5su\s40 #bch #b4 ,return+ to our imm$iate subject1 ! ,philosophy ( ,"r1 we w consid] = a mom5t ! specific relation ( ,r\sseau's idea ( ,fre$om to ,kantian or po/-,kantian ?\ght4 ,x is p]missible1 p]haps1 to embody ! *ief "p ( :at has to be said 9 extracts f works ( great orig9al value & n v g5]ally accessible4 ,n only ! poets & s5tim5tali/s ( ,g]many1 b also ! great philosoph]s1 di/9ctly recognis$ ! debt ( ! ,g]man g5ius to ! ideas ( ,r\sseau4 ,! conception ( ! 8,social ,contract0 has an importance :i* surprises ! mod]n read] 9 ! political philosophy ( ,kant & m especially ( ,fi*te1 & x is n till we come to ,hegel t ! lit]al int]pretation ( ! 8,social ,contract0 is completely discrim9at$ f ! tru? convey$ by ! doctr9e ( ! ,g5]al ,w4 ,ap>t f all que/ions ab\t ! lit]al mean+ ( ! 8,social ,contract10 x is simple fact t ! :ole political philosophy ( ,kant1 ,hegel1 & ,fi*te is f\nd$ on ! idea ( fre$om z ! ess5ce ( man1 fir/ ann\nc$--su* 0 ,hegel's di/9ct judgm5t--by ,r\sseau4 ,i beg9 by cit+ ! crucial passage f ,hegel's ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 :i* gives 9 a few l9es ! basis ( 8 own !ory ( ,"r1 z well z 8 view ( ,r\sseau's position4 #a #a ,hegel's ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 iii4 #dgg4 ,aft] expla9+ t ,r\sseau treat$ ! "r ( ,gov]nm5t z on "o side1 9 its hi/orical aspect1 re/+ #a on =ce & compulsion1 ,hegel #bci cont9ues1 8,b ! pr9ciple ( ?is ju/ification 7! absolute ju/ification ( ! ,/ate7 ,r\sseau makes ! free w1 &1 disreg>d+ ! positive "r 7or law7 ( ,/ates1 he answ]s to ! above "q #b 7z to ! ju/ification or basis ( ! ,/ate7 t man has free w1 see+ t #8,fre$om is ! di/9ctive quality ( man4 #c ,to r5\nce "o's fre$om1 means to r5\nce "o's humanity4 ,n to be free is !re=e a r5unciation ( "o's human rights1 & ev5 ( "o's duties4' ,! slave has nei!r rights nor duties4 ,r\sseau says1 !re=e1 #d ,! fundam5tal problem #e is to f9d a =m ( association :i* %all protect & def5d at once ! p]son & ! prop]ty ( e memb] ) ! :ole common =ce1 & 9 :i* ea* individual1 inasmu* z he atta*es himself to ?is association1 obeys only himself1 & rema9s z free z be=e #e ,! solution is giv5 by ! ,social ,contract2 #e x 7,r\sseau says7 is ?is comb9ation1 to :i* ea* belongs ?r\gh 8 w4 ,^! pr9ciples1 ?us set up 9 ! ab/ract1 we _c b take z correct2 yet ambiguity beg9s at once4 ,man is free2 ?is is no d\bt ! sub/antive nature ( man2 & 9 ! ,/ate x is n only n ab&on$1 b 9 fact x is !re9 fir/ e/abli%$4 ,! fre$om ( nature1 ! capacity ( fre$om1 is n ! actual fre$om2 #bdj = no?+ %ort ( ! ,/ate is ! actualisation ( fre$om4 ,b ! misund]/&+ ab\t ! 8,g5]al ,w0 beg9s at ! foll[+ po9t4 ,! notion ( ,fre$om mu/ n be tak5 9 ! s5se ( ! casual free-w ( ea* individual1 b 9 ! s5se ( ! reasonable w1 ! w 9 & = itself4 #f ,! g5]al w is n to be reg>d$ z comp\nd$ ( ! express$ individual wills1 #g s t ^! rema9 absolute2 else ! proposition w\ld be true1 8:]e ! m9ority has to obey ! majority1 !re is no fre$om40 ,r ! g5]al w mu/ be ! rational w1 ev5 ?\gh p are n aw>e ( x2 ! ,/ate1 !re=e1 is no su* association z is det]m9$ ^u by individuals4 ,! false appreh5sion ( ^! pr9ciples does n matt] to u4 ,:at matt]s to u is t by _! means x comes z a cont5t into consci\sness1 t man has 9 8 m9d ,fre$om z ! d[nright absolute1 t ! free w is ! notion ( man4 ,x is j fre$om t is ! self ( ?\ght2 "o :o repudiates ?\ght & talks ( fre$om kn[s n :at he is say+4 ,! on5ess ( ?\ght ) itself #h is fre$om1 ! free w4 ,?\ght1 only tak5 9 ! =m ( w1 is ! impulse to break ?r\gh #i "o's m]e subjectivity1 is relation to def9ite be+1 realisation ( "o's #bda self1 inasmu* z ,i w to make myself z an exi/5t adequate to myself z ?9k+4 ,! w is free only z t :i* ?9ks4 ,! pr9ciple ( fre$om dawn$ on ! _w 9 ,r\sseau1 & gave inf9ite /r5g? to man1 :o ?us appreh5d$ himself z inf9ite4 ,?is furni%es ! transition to ! ,kantian philosophy1 :i*1 f a !oretical po9t ( view1 took ?is pr9ciple z its basis4 ,k #aj 0 ?us direct$ ^u its own fre$om1 & ^u a concrete cont5t1 #aj :i* x possesses 9 its consci\sness40 #a ,9 ! place ref]r$ to1 ,contrat ,social1 ,bk4 ,i4 *s4 iii41 iv41 ,r\sseau po9ts out cle>ly t =ce gives no "r4 ,s :5 ,hegel describes him z say+ t ! "r ( rule re/$ on =ce1 etc41 9 its hi/orical aspect1 ?is is incorrect unless x means t1 ?is 8hi/orical0 aspect giv+ no explanation ( "r1 ! t]m 8"r0 is a m]e "n s f> z x is conc]n$4 #b ,cont4 ,social1 ,bk4 ,i41 iv4 #c ,i reta9 ,hegel's p>aphra/ic r5d]+ ( ,r\sseau's words4 #d ,cont4 ,social1 ,bk4 ,i41 iv41 cf4 p4 #hi above4 #e ,hegel's italics4 #f ,any?+ is 89 & = itself0 :5 x has become 8= itself10 i4e4 consci\sly & explicitly :at x is 89 itself10 i4e4 9 its lat5t or pot5tial nature4 #g ,r\sseau's ,w ( ,all4 #h i4e4 ,any?+ is free1 9 z f> z x is able to be itself4 ,?\ght1 z ! embodim5t ( ! return ^u oneself or be+ ) oneself1 is = ,hegel ! /ronge/ case ( ?is4 #i i4e4 ,by go+ beyond x4 #aj ,i4e4 ,philosophy1 by bas+ itself on ! idea ( fre$om1 is l$ to scrut9ise ! life 9 :i* m9d realises itself1 be=e x becomes1 & on ! way to becom+1 reflectively philosophical2 & :i* is !re=e 8its own fre$om0--z "o texture ) k--& also a 8concrete cont5t10 i4e4 an actual sy/em ( liv+1 z an object 9 :i* m9d c f9d itself express$--a relation :i* fre$om4 ,ev]yone is famili>1 9 g5]al t]ms1 ) ! "p play$ by ! idea ( fre$om 9 ,kant's philosophy4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be ( int]e/ to po9t out h[ def9itely x comes to him 9 ! =m giv5 x by ,r\sseau4 ,omitt+ ! :ole subject ( ,kant's educational int]e/1 #a ,i w ref] to two passages f ,kant's e>ly notes #b 9 connection ) ! tract on ! ,feel+s ( ! ,sublime & ! ,beautiful1 & two f ! ,philosophy ( ,"r1 :i* fir/ appe>$ 9 ! autumn ( #agif4 #a ,see ,duproix1 ,loc4 cit4 #b ,betwe5 #agfe & #agge4 ,fir/1 !n1 to e/abli% ! def9ite impulse communicat$ to ,kant 9 8 e>li] ye>s by ,r\sseau 9 p>ticul>4 8,i am myself10 he writes1 #a 8a /ud5t by incl9ation4 ,i feel ! :ole ?ir/ = k1 & ! covet\s re/lessness t dem&s to advance 9 x1 & aga9 ! satisfaction ( e #bdb /ep ( progress4 ,!re 0 a "t :5 ,i believ$ t all ?is might con/itute ! hon\r ( humanity1 & ,i despis$ ! cr[d t kn[s no?+4 ,x 0 ,r\sseau :o set me "r4 ,t dazzl+ privilege disappe>$2 & ,i %\ld ?9k myself f> less useful ?an common artisans if ,i did n believe t my l9e ( /udy might imp>t value to all o!rs 9 ! way ( e/abli%+ ! rights ( humanity40 #a ,kant's ,w]ke 7,ros5krantz71 xi41 p4 #bdj4 ,cf4 p4 #bah4 ,kant seems1 f ! context1 to be =e%ad[+ ! idea ( 8 critical philosophy1 z putt+ man 9 8 place 9 ! ord] ( creation4 8,if !re is any sci5ce10 he says j bel[1 8:i* man really ne$s1 x is t :i* ,i tea*1 to fill prop]ly t place :i* is assign$ to man 9 creation2 a sci5ce f :i* he c le>n :at "o mu/ be 9 ord] to be human40 ,?is ?r[s light on ! curi\s passage 9 ! same set ( notes1 #a :]e1 9 a discussion ( ! idea ( ,provid5ce1 ,kant fir/ ref]s to ,newton's discov]y ( ord] 9 ! multiplicity ( ! planet>y motions1 & !n proce$s1 8,r\sseau fir/ discov]$1 b5ea? ! multiplicity ( ! =ms assum$ by man1 ! deeply lat5t nature ( humanity1 & ! hidd5 law1 accord+ to :i* ,provid5ce is ju/ifi$ by 8 obs]vations4 ,be=e t ! objection ( ,alphonsus & ( ,manes #b held ! field4 ,aft] ,newton & ,r\sseau1 ,god is ju/ifi$1 & h5ce=w>ds ,pope's doctr9e is true40 #a ,ib1 p4 #bdh4 #b ,! ,mani*ean doctr9e4 8,pope's doctr9e0 is no d\bt 8 ,leibnitzian optimism1 f\nd$ on a suppos$ insight into man's true place 9 creation4 #a ,r\sseau's #bdc 8discov]y10 :i* ,kant "h connects ) ?is doctr9e1 mu/ be 8 ass]tion ( man's natural goodness & fre$om1 :i* he t5ds to =feit by dep>t+ 9 civilisation f ! place assign$ him by nature4 ,x is cle> t ,r\sseau's impea*m5t ( lit]ature & civilisation _h at ?is "t made a consid]able impression ^u ,kant4 ,x is all ! m int]e/+ to see ,kant retrac+1 on a v diff]5t scale1 ! developm5t :i* ,r\sseau _h initiat$1 f natural to social & e?ical fre$om4 #a ,see passage cit$ f ,kant1 j above4 ,i subjo9 two passages f ! ,philosophy ( ,"r 7#agif71 :i* exhibit ?is lat] developm5t1 /ill 9 its connection ) ,r\sseau's phraseology4 8,! innate ,"r is "o only4--,fre$om 7indep5d5ce ( ! con/ra9+ w ( ano!r71 9 z f> z x c co-exi/ ) ! fre$om ( e o!r accord+ to a univ]sal law1 is ?is unique orig9al "r1 belong+ to e human be+ by reason ( 8 humanity40 #a #a ,kant's ,w]ke 7,ros5krantz71 ix4 #db4 ,an indication ( ! embodim5t ( ?is fre$om 9 ! ,/ate may be giv5 z foll[s3 8,all ^? ?ree p[]s 9 ! ,/ate 7,sov]eignty or ! ,legislative1 ! ,executive1 & ! ,judicial71 are (fices2 &1 z ess5tial1 & necess>ily proce$+ f ! idea ( a ,/ate 9 g5]al ) ref]5ce to ! e/abli%m5t 7,con/itution7 ( "o1 are (fices ( ,/ate4 ,!y conta9 ! relation ( a univ]sal supreme ,p[] 7:i*1 consid]$ accord+ to laws ( fre$om1 c be no o!r ?an ! unit$ p71 to ! cr[d ( individuals :i* compose x qua ! gov]n$2 t is1 ( ! rul] 7imp]ans7 to ! #bdd subject 7subditus74 ,! act :]eby ! p con/itutes itself into a ,/ate1 or /rictly speak+ only ! idea ( t ,act1 accord+ to :i* idea alone ! ju/ice ( ! ,act c be conceiv$1 #a is ! orig9al contract1 #b accord+ to :i* all 7omnes et s+uli7 ( ! p surr5d] _! ext]nal fre$om1 9 ord] at once to receive x back aga9 z memb]s ( a commonweal?1 t is1 ( ! p reg>d$ z a ,/ate 7univ]si74 ,& "o _c say1 ,! ,/ate1 or man 9 ! ,/ate1 has sacrific$ a "p ( its innate outw>d fre$om = a c]ta9 end2 b r1 he has totally ab&on$ 8 wild lawless fre$om 9 ord] to f9d 8 entire fre$om aga9 undim9i%$ 9 a lawful dep5d5ce1 t is1 9 a condition ( "r or law2 7undim9i%$71 because ?is dep5d5ce spr+s f 8 own legislative w40 #c #a ,! italics are m9e4 #b ,kant's italics4 #c ,ib41 #afj ,x is rem>kable1 9 face ( ^! g5]al views1 t bo? ,kant & ,fi*te foll[ ,r\sseau1 = reasons :i* ,kant expla9s f ! political conditions ( ! "t1 9 di/ru/+ repres5tative gov]nm5t4 #a #a ,ib41 #aff 7! deputies are practically dep5d5t on ! ,m9i/ry74 ,b cf4 p4 #aic1 :i* %[s t 9 a true ,republic ! repres5tative sy/em might1 accord+ to ,kant1 be a reality1 & !n w\ld be ! ideal =m4 ,! :ole discussion is full ( ref]5ce to ,r\sseau4 ,! passage j cit$ is ( c\rse a reproduction ( ,r\sseau's view modifi$ by int]pretation v mu* 9 ! s5se 9 :i* we int]pret$ x above4 #c4 ,:5 we pass to ,fi*te 7^: e>li] "w ^u ,natural ,"r 0 publi%$ actually be=e t ( ,kant71 we obs]ve ! idea ( contract 9 ! act ( transmut+ itself1 ?\gh #bde by an imp]fect transition1 into ! idea ( an organic :ole4 ,= ,fi*te1 ! ,/ate is a necess>y implication ( ! human self2 = a self involves a society ( selves1 & law or "r is ! relation betwe5 selves 9 a bodily _w4 ,& ! 8contract0 on :i* citiz5%ip re/s1 by ! fact t x is g5]al1 #a =ges an indisc]nible unity ( ! social :ole4 ,9 ?is connection1 ,fi*te makes ! rem>kable claim to be fir/ to apply ! simile ( an organism to ! :ole civic relation4 ,i cite an important passage3 8,z f> z ,i "k1 ! idea ( ! :ole ( ! ,/ate has s f> only be5 e/abli%$ ?r\gh ! ideal comb9ation ( individuals1 & !reby ! true insight into ! nature ( ?is relation has be5 cut (f40 #b #a ,fi*te 7,w]ke1 iii4 #bjc ff47 says1 8,indet]m9ate02 viz4 ,i und]take to aid 9 protect+ :oev] is injur$4 ,n[1 ,i c nev] "k 7he argues7 :o 9 p>ticul> is to be b5efit$ by ?is und]tak+2 _m are invisibly b5efit$ by x ?r\gh ! suppression ( ! injuri\s w be=e x comes to be manife/4 ,!re=e ! relation is really organic2 e "p /rives to cons]ve e "p1 because injury to any "p may conc]n any "p4 ,x is ! g5]al z indet]m9ate1 really less ( a unity ?an ,r\sseau's 8moi commun04 #b ,w]ke1 iii4 #bjg4 ,! 8ideal comb9ation0 ! imag9>y contract4 ,y mu/1 he urges1 n m]ely h an idea ( comb9ation2 y mu/ %[ a bond ( union beyond ! idea1 or mak+ ! idea necess>y4 8,9 our acc\nt ?is has be5 a*iev$4 ,9 ! notion ( t :i* is to be protect$1 9 accordance ) ! necess>y unc]ta9ty :i* individual w ne$ ! visible protection1 & /ill fur!r1 :i* x w h advantag$ invisibly 9 ! case ( a wrongful w suppress$ by ! law be=e its outbreak1 all individuals are =c$ into unity4 #bdf 8,! mo/ fitt+ simile to elucidate ?is notion is t ( an organis$ natural product1 :i* has (t5 be5 employ$ 9 mod]n times to describe ! diff]5t bran*es ( ! public p[] z a unity1 b n1 s f> z ,i "k1 to ?r[ light on ! :ole civic relation4 ,j z1 9 ! natural product1 e "p c be :at x is only 9 ?is comb9ation1 & out ( ?is comb9ation simply w\ld n be ?is 7inde$ outside all organic comb9ation !re w\ld simply be no?+ 44473 j s x is only 9 ! comb9ation ( ! ,/ate t man atta9s a def9ite position 9 ! s]ies ( ?+s1 a po9t ( re/ 9 nature2 & ea* atta9s ?is det]m9ate position t[>ds o!rs1 & t[>ds ,nature1 only ?r\gh ! fact t he is 9 ?is det]m9ate comb9ation4 444 ,9 ! organic body e "p cont9ually ma9ta9s ! :ole1 & :ile x ma9ta9s x1 is itself ma9ta9$ !reby2 j su* is ! citiz5's relation to ! ,/ate40 ,"h we seem to be back ) ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,we are 9 fact too ne> to ,plato2 = ! di/9ction betwe5 ma9t5ance ( ! citiz5's det]m9ate activity1 & ma9t5ance ( ! g5]al conditions ( su* activity1 be+ de/roy$ by ,fi*te 9 8 desire to make ,/ate action positive & n negative1 ! conclusion necess>ily arises t ! citiz5 mu/ be secur$ & ma9ta9$ 9 8 def9ite activity or occupation1 & f ?is spr+s ! notion ( ! clos$ comm]cial ,/ate2 8clos$0 aga9/ =eign trade 9 ord] t ! gov]nm5t may be able to det]m9e prices & assign occupations4 ,9 o!r words1 ! basis ( ! ,/ate is /ill ! ,ego conceiv$ z ! individual self2 x is n ! social good op]at+ by its own #bdg p[] on intellig5t w4 ,&1 aris+ f ?is individualism1 ! precautions :i* seem necess>y to protect & su/a9 ! individual 9 8 fix$ relation to ! :ole1 make ,fi*te's 8,clos$ ,comm]cial ,/ate0 p]haps ! e>lie/ docum5t ( a rigor\s ,/ate ,socialism4 ,fre$om1 z he himself recognises to be prima facie ! case1 is annihilat$ by ! provisions = its protection4 #a ,x is curi\s to see ,r\sseau's phrase 8=c$ to be free10 #b :i* ref]s 9 him to ! supremacy ( law1 reappe>+ z a def5ce ( ! en=cem5t ( leisure "t1 #c z ?\gh fre$om 7 n realis$ 9 lab\r & 9 loyalty4 ,"h is ,hegel's judgm5t ( ! transition we h j be5 consid]+4 8,kant began to f\nd "r on fre$om1 & ,fi*te too 9 8 ,natural ,"r made fre$om 8 pr9ciple2 b x is1 z 9 ,r\sseau1 ! fre$om ( ! p>ticul> individual4 ,?is is a great beg9n+2 b 9 ord] to get to p>ticul> results !y 7 oblig$ to accept presuppositions4 ,! univ]sal 7= !m7 is n ! _s1 ! sub/ance ( ! :ole1 b ! ext]nal me*anical negative p[] aga9/ individuals4 444 ,! individuals rema9 always h>d & negative aga9/ "o ano!r2 ! prison-h\se1 ! bonds1 become ev] m oppressive1 in/ead ( ! ,/ate be+ appreh5d$ z ! realisation ( fre$om40 #d #a ,fi*te1 ,na*gelass5e ,w]ke1 ii4 #ece4 #b ,ibid41 #ecg4 #c ,( c\rse su* en=cem5t may h ju/ification4 #d ,hegel1 ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 iii4 #egf4 ,! idea ( organism 0 ?us me*anically appreh5d$4 #d4 ,to appreh5d ! ,/ate z ! realisation ( fre$om 0 ! aim ( ,hegel's ,philosophy ( ,"r1 :i* has p]haps be5 m grossly misrepres5t$ #bdg ?an any "w ( a great political philosoph]1 except+ ,plato's ,republic4 ,popul> criticism w tell u t ,hegel f\nd 8 ideal 9 ! ,prussian bureaucracy1 & w fur!r h9t t 8 do+ s 0 to 8 advantage4 ,su* sugge/ions imply two misappreh5sions1 = "o ( :i* ,hegel's tactlessness 0 responsible1 :ile ! o!r dep5ds on a g5u9e difficulty att5d+ any philosophical analysis ( society4 ,i w try to ?r[ light on ea* ( ^! misappreh5sions4 7a7 ,if ,hegel _h wi%$ to h a p>tisan t5d5cy attribut$ to 8 book1 he c\ld n h tim$ x bett] nor writt5 a preface m c]ta9 to mislead4 ,9 #ahbj1 :5 ! book 0 publi%$1 ! m9ds bo? ( gov]nm5ts & ( peoples 7 full ( irritation4 ,! anti-con/itutional reaction _h rec5tly decl>$ itself4 #a ,! demon/ration at ! ,w>tburg1 celebrat+ ! anniv]s>y ( ! ,re=mation1 & ( ! ,battle ( ,leipzig1 took place 9 ,octob]1 #ahag4 ,! unacc\ntable *ange 9 ! ideas ( ! ,cz> f ,lib]alism to reaction took place1 we are assur$1 #b 9 ,june1 #ahah4 ,! murd] ( ,kotzebue1 a ,russian ag5t1 reaction>y j\rnali/1 & decay$ dramati/1 took place 9 ,m>*1 #ahai4 ,kotzebue seems to h be5 popul>ly cr$it$ ) p]v]t+ ! views ( ! ,cz>4 ,8 assass9ation _h an effect 9 no way relat$ to 8 real importance4 ,h>d5b]g1 ! ,prussian m9i/]1 exclaim$ on he>+ ( x t a ,prussian con/itution _h n[ become impossible4 ,innoc5t p]sons #bdi 7 arre/$ 9 ,prussia at ,mett]ni*'s in/igation1 & private pap]s 7 seiz$ & publi%$ 9 a g>bl$ =m4 ,! publication ( ,hegel's book ) a preface attack+ ,fries = "s expressions us$ by him at ! ,w>tburg fe/ival1 took place1 z we said1 9 #ahbj1 & ,hegel _h mov$ f ,heidelb]g to ,b]l91 hav+ obta9$ ! hon\r ( a ,b]l9 pr(essor%ip1 9 #ahah4 ,small wond] t 8x 0 po9t$ out t ! new pr(essor 0 a fav\rite ( ! lead+ m9i/]1 t 8 influ5ce 0 dom9ant 9 s*ola/ic appo9tm5ts1 & t occasional gratuities f ! ,cr[n prov$ 8 acceptability10 or t ,fries rem>k$ t ,hegel's !ory ( ! ,/ate _h gr[n1 8n 9 ! g>d5 ( sci5ce1 b on ! dunghill ( s]vility40 #c ,hegel himself 80 aw>e t he _h plant$ a bl[ 9 ! face ( a %all[ & pret5ti\s sect1 & t 8 book _h giv5 great (f5ce to ! demagogic folk40 #d #a ,see ,fyffe's ,hi/ory ( ,mod]n ,europe1 vol4 ,,ii41 *4 ii4 #b ,fyffe1 ,loc4 cit4 #c ,wallace1 ,hegel's ,philosophy ( ,m9d1 p4 clxxix4 #d ,wallace1 ,loc4 cit4 ,& yet1 s f> z ! ess5ce ( ,hegel's political philosophy is conc]n$1 !re is no?+ 9 all ?is4 ,! fir/ sket* ( ! ,philosophy ( ,"r 0 publi%$ 9 ! ,encyclopa$ia ( ! ,philosophical ,sci5ces 9 #ahag1 be=e ,hegel left ,heidelb]g4 ,8 political int]e/1 9 its gradual developm5t1 c be trac$ back 9 unpubli%$ writ+s to #ahjb4 #a ,he />t$ f ! conception ( ! ,greek ,/ate1 on :i* 8 e>ly sket* ( ! e?ical sy/em 7#ahjb1 unpubli%$ 9 8 lifetime7 0 f\nd$4 ,& 8 subsequ5t developm5t consi/$ 9 enl>g+ ?is conception by draw+ out its framework to include ! m #bej acc5t$ fre$om ( mod]n life1 z he div9$ x f ! att5tive /udy bo? ( ,engli% & ( ,g]man politics4 ,8 sub/antive political !ory nev] *ang$1 except by developm5t1 9 accordance ) 8 g5]al attitude t[>ds ! diff]5ces betwe5 ,greek & mod]n life4 #a ,see ,wallace1 ,op4 cit41 clxxx4 & clxxxvii4 7b7 8,b10 popul> criticism w rejo91 8"h we h ,hegel's ideal ,/ate1 depict$ by 8 own h&1 & x is pretty mu* ! ,prussian ,/ate ( 8 "t1 temp]$ by a few ref]5ces to ,engli% politics4 ,is n ?is a n>r[ horizon & a l[ ideal80 ,?is criticism is ( value1 because x leads up to an important feature ( true political !ory4 ,to depict :at mo/ p call 8an ideal ,/ate0 is no m ! object ( political philosophy ?an x is ! object1 say1 ( ,c>p5t]'s ,human ,physiology to depict an 8ideal0 man or an angel4 ,! object ( political philosophy is to und]/& :at a ,/ate is1 & x is n necess>y = ?is purpose t ! ,/ate :i* is analys$ %\ld be 8ideal10 b only t x %\ld be a ,/ate2 j z ! nature ( life is repres5t$ pretty ne>ly z well by "o liv+ man z by ano!r4 8,e ,/ate10 #a ,hegel says1 8ev5 if y\r pr9ciples lead y to pron\nce x bad1 ev5 if y detect ?is or t defici5cy 9 x1 always has 7especially if x belongs to ! m develop$ ,/ates ( our "t7 ! ess5tial mom5ts ( its exi/5ce 9 x4 ,b because x is easi] to discov] defects ?an to grasp ! affirmative1 p easily fall into ! error ( all[+ p>ticul> aspects to lead !m to =get ! inn] organism #bea ( ! ,/ate4 ,! ,/ate is no "w ( art1 x /&s 9 ! _w1 t is1 9 ! sph]e ( caprice1 accid5t1 & error2 evil behavi\r is able to m> x 9 _m respects4 ,b ! uglie/ human be+1 a crim9al1 a sick man1 or a cripple1 is all ! same a liv+ human be+2 ! affirmative1 8 life1 p]si/s 9 spite ( ! defect1 & ?is affirmative is :at we are conc]n$ ) "h40 #a ,phil4 d4 ,re*ts1 p4 #cac4 ,( c\rse1 no comp>ison is q precise1 & x may be urg$ t ! ,/ate is m artificial ?an a human body4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 #a we %all at lea/ und]/& ,hegel's attitude bett]1 &1 z ,i v5ture to ?9k1 adopt by f> ! mo/ fruitful /&po9t = ourselves1 if we look at political philosophy l "o :o is try+ to asc]ta9 :at is ! nature ( human life z he obs]ves x 9 any or e human body4 ,if ! life is !re1 its ess5tials are !re1 & 8 aim is to und]/& !m4 ,no d\bt a door is "h op5$ to argum5t ) reg>d to :at logicians call a 8pure case40 ,9 und]/&+ life 8z su*10 y mu/1 x w\ld seem1 purge out its m]e defects1 9 reg>d to :i* x is n 8life10 & ! rema9d]1 :at y pl$ge y\rself to z ess5tial1 mu/ be ex hypo!si y\r 8ideal0 ( life4 ,& p]haps !re is no reason to reject ?is responsibility if conf9$ to ! emphasis ( elem5ts & int]connection ( facts4 ,x _c apply to m4 #a ,! comm5t w probably betray ! type ( pessimism indicat$ by ,r\sseau4 ,see p4 #ie above4 ,we _c con/ruct an ideal body by r$uc+ life1 nor an ideal polity by r$uc+ m9d1 to its pure case or ess5tials1 s9ce we _c con/ruct #beb organisms #a or hi/ory at all4 ,& x is because ?is is always be+ =gott5 t ! duty ( und]/&+ r ?an con/ruct+ has to be insi/$ ^u4 ,x is true t 9 und]/&+1 z 9 con/ruct+1 we imply ess5tial relations1 & s incur responsibility1 & are liable to betray a bias2 b /ill1 life c be und]/ood by help ( any creature t is alive1 & !re=e x is n ! example ) :i* ! /ud5t works1 b ! insight :i* he %[s1 t is ! decisive po9t4 #a 8,no human m9d has ev] conceiv$ a new animal40 ,rusk91 ,mod]n ,pa9t]s1 ii4 #adh4 #d4 ,we h to beg9 by realis+ :at is involv$ 9 ! fact t we are ab\t to treat ! analysis ( a ,mod]n ,/ate z a *apt] 9 ! ,philosophy ( ,m9d4 ,= ,hegel's ,philosophy ( ,"r 7or ( ,law71 ?\gh publi%$ by him z an indep5d5t "w1 is ess5tially an expansion ( p>agraphs :i* =m "o sub-division ( 8 ,philosophy ( ,m9d1 itself ! ?ird & conclud+ portion ( ! ,encyclopa$ia ( ,philosophy1 ( :i* ! two e>li] portions are ! ,logic & ! ,philosophy ( ,nature4 ,we saw 9 ! second *apt] ( ! pres5t "w t ! m]e =ce ( facts has driv5 mod]n sociologi/s to h&le _! sci5ce 9 a m or less intimate connection ) ,psy*ology4 ,! diff]5tia ( society1 we saw1 has be5 /at$ 9 v>i\s =mulae ( a psy*ological "*4 ,b x seem$ to u t1 ow+ to a neglect ( ! logic ( id5tity1 ! nature ( m9d 0 brok5 up by su* unreal di/9ctions z t betwe5 inv5tion & imitation1 v>i$ by ! unreal #bec r$uction ( ! "o to ! o!r1 #a & also t an unexpla9$ sep>ation & p>allelism surviv$ z betwe5 ! individual & ! social m9d1 be>+ witness to ! vitality ( ! sup]/ition :i* ,r\sseau's insight pick$ out = condemnation4 #b ,we d n d5y t m9d may be m ?an social2 b 9 z f> z x is social x is /ill real m9d1 & t means t x is n some?+ o!r ?an :at we "k z individual lives1 #c a pale & unreal reflection ( !m1 b x is a *>act]i/ic :i* belongs to _! mo/ intimate con/itution4 ,?is 0 ,plato's analysis ( moral autonomy1 & 8 "w rema9s classically valid1 ne$+ only expansion & int]pretation 9 apply+ x to mod]n free intellig5ce & social self-gov]nm5t4 #a ,pr(4 ,baldw91 ,social & ,e?ical ,int]pretation1 p4 #aje1 at lea/ sugge/s ?is unreal r$uction4 #b ,see p4 #ie above4 #c 8,lives10 & n m]ely 8consci\snesses10 z objective m9d is l>gely 9 ! =m ( habit4 ,! position ( ! analysis ( a ,/ate 9 ! ,philosophy ( ,m9d may be briefly indicat$ z foll[s4 ,:5 we emb>k on ! /udy ( ord9>y ,psy*ology1 we take ! individual human be+ z we f9d him to-day4 ,we accept him z a =m$ individual1 di/+ui%+ himself f ext]nal ?+s1 & possess+ :at we call a w--a capacity ( seek+ 8 own satisfaction1 :i* he repres5ts to himself 9 g5]al ideas by ! help ( language4 ,we analyse ! self & w ) _! aspects ( memory1 att5tion1 association1 impulse1 & emotion4 ,b all mod]n psy*ologi/s are aw>e t ?is =m$ self & w has mu* hi/ory beh9d x1 & presupposes a long g5esis connect+ x ) simpl] =ms ( #bed s\l-life4 ,hegel1 inde$1 0 among ! fir/ 9 mod]n times to see h[ f> back ! /ory ( m9d mu/ be tak54 ,! human intellig5ce1 z ! psy*ologi/ assumes x1 is = him a middle phase 9 ! romance ( :i* m9d is ! h]o4 ,be=e x come ! *apt]s ( ,an?ropology1 :i* treat ( ! fixation ( a s\l 9 ! discipl9$ p[]s & habits ( a human body1 & !n ! acc\nt #a ( a consci\sness :i* gradually rises f a /ruggl+ p]ception ( objects ar\nd x to a moral & sci5tific c]ta9ty ( be+ at home 9 ! _w4 #a ,= ?is acc\nt1 to :i* he has devot$ p]haps ! greate/ ( 8 works1 ,hegel has co9$ ! t]m 8,ph5om5ology ( ! ,m9d40 ,x is ! hi/ory ( ! em]g5ce ( ! free or mod]n _s f ! undevelop$ consci\sness ( ! anci5t _w1 to :i*1 = in/ance1 slav]y seem$ a natural ?+4 ,! /ory ( m9d1 !n1 beg9s long be=e ! free m9d1 ! object ( ,psy*ology to-day1 has appe>$ on ! sc5e4 ,& z to ?is !re w\ld be no great diff]5ce ( op9ion4 ,! peculi>ity ( ,hegel's treatm5t is t 8 romance ( ! intellig5ce n only beg9s long be=e ! phase ( free m9d is rea*$1 b cont9ues long aft]4 ,inve/igation c no m /op at ! individual ( to-day ?an x c beg9 ) him4 ,8 8m9d0 is n a sep>able entity1 & ?r\gh\t ! /ory no su* entity has appe>$4 ,x has be5 conv5i5t = ,hegel to treat ! e>li] division ( ! ,philosophy ( ,m9d1 compris+ ! ,an?ropology1 ,ph5om5ology1 #a & ,psy*ology1 z deal+ p> excell5ce ) ,m9d ,subjective4 ,?is is because its ma9 purpose 0 to trace ! gr[? ( 8subjectivity10 ! em]g5ce ( ! man ( full m5tal #bee /ature1 aw>e ( himself1 ( 8 ideas & purposes1 & confid5t 9 8 8subjectivity0 8 self-hood aga9/ all com]s4 #a ,see previ\s note4 ,b ! foll[+ division ( ! "w1 "u ! title ( ,m9d ,objective1 deals ) a necess>y implication :i* might h be5 not$ at any po9t ( ! entire hi/ory ( consci\sness1 ?\gh at any e>li] po9t x c\ld h be5 treat$ z ref]r+ to m9d only by anticipation4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 ! problem c no long] be def]r$4 ,! 8free m9d0 does n expla9 itself & _c /& alone4 ,its impulses _c be ord]$1 or1 9 o!r words1 its purposes _c be made det]m9ate1 except 9 an actual sy/em ( selves4 ,except by express+ itself 9 relation to an ord]$ life1 :i* implies o!rs1 x _c exi/4 ,&1 !re=e1 n some?+ additional & p>allel to x1 :i* might or might n exi/1 b a necess>y =m ( its own action z real & det]m9ate1 is ! actual fabric 9 :i* x utt]s itself z ,society & ! ,/ate4 ,?is is :at ,hegel treats 9 ! second division ( ! ,philosophy ( ,m9d "u ! "n ( ,m9d ,objective4 ,x is n = him ultimate4 ,a p>ticul> society /&s 9 "t1 & is op5 to criticism & to de/ruction4 ,beyond x lies ! reality1 cont9u\s ) m9d z kn[n 9 ! ,/ate1 b et]nal z ! =m] is p]i%able1 :i* z ,absolute ,m9d is op5 to human exp]i5ce 9 ,art1 ,religion1 & ,philosophy4 ,we w pursue 9 ! foll[+ *apt] ,hegel's analysis ( ! mod]n ,/ate z ,m9d ,objective1 a magnifi$ edition1 s to speak1 ( ,plato's ,republic1 br++ be=e ! eye 9 full detail di/9ctions & articulations :i* 7 !re invisible4 #bef ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,! ,,analysis ,,( ,a ,,mod]n ,,/ate4 ,,hegel',s 8,,philosophy ,,( ,,"r40 #a4 ,we are ab\t to analyse a mod]n ,/ate into gr\ps ( facts :i* are also ways ( ?9k+4 ,& a "q may arise 9 :at s5se ! connection is to be und]/ood :i* w be alleg$ to b9d toge!r ^! gr\ps ( facts or po9ts ( view4 ,:5 x is urg$ t gr\p b or view b is sugge/$ & made necess>y by ! %ortcom+s ( gr\p a or view a1 does ?is imply t gr\p a or its idea came into exi/5ce fir/1 & gr\p b or ! notion ( x sprang up subsequ5tly or z an effect ( ! =m]8 ,& c\ld su* a relation be reasonably ma9ta9$ z betwe5 ! compon5t p>ts ( a unity l ! ,/ate8 ,an answ] may be indicat$ z foll[s4 ,we are deal+1 9 society & 9 ! ,/ate1 ) an ideal fact4 ,z a fact1 a =m ( life1 society has always be5 a _m-sid$ creature1 meet+ ! v>i$ ne$s ( human nature by functions no less v>i$4 ,z an ideal fact1 h[ev]1 its advance has p>tak5 ( ! nature ( !oretical progress4 ,9 ! cont9u\s attempt to deal satisfactorily #beg ) ! ne$s ( intellig5t be+s1 ! m9d1 ! intellig5t w1 has ?r[n itself ) pr$om9ant int]e/ n[ into "o ( its functions & n[ into ano!r4 ,& ?is has n be5 a *ance ord] ( m>*4 ,obvi\sly1 :at x has emphasis$ & modifi$ 9 ! second place has dep5d$ bo? positively & negatively on :at x _h emphasis$ & modifi$ 9 ! fir/ place4 ,positively1 because :5 "o /ep is ?or\ghly secur$ ! next may be def9itely attempt$4 ,negatively1 because ! def9ite atta9m5t ( "o /ep exposes ! limitations ( :at has be5 a*iev$1 & ! ne$ = ano!r4 ,at e /age ! w is dissatisfi$ ) ! expression ( itself :i* x has creat$4 ,till "s public ord] has be5 e/abli%$1 morality c h>dly f9d expression2 b :5 a legal sy/em is ?or\ghly 9 =ce x becomes app>5t h[ f> ! lett] may fall %ort ( ! _s4 ,we see ! same action ( intellig5ce 9 pure !ory4 ,e conque/ ( sci5ce leads to a new dep>ture4 ,x sugge/s x by its success1 & dem&s x by its failure4 ,n[1 9 sci5ce x may or may n be ! case t ! connection :i* has l$ to a discov]y ent]s p]man5tly z a disc]nible factor into ! /ructure ( k4 ,! re-organisation ( exp]i5ce may sweep away ! /eps :i* l$ to x4 ,b 9 ! liv+ fact ( society ?is is n s4 ,its _m sides are actual & p]si/1 & ! emphasis laid f "t to "t on ! pr9ciple ( ea*--e4g4 on positive law1 on family ties1 on economic bonds--m]ely s]ves to acc5t an elem5t :i* has its p]man5t place 9 ! :ole4 ,?us1 !re mu/ always be family ties & economic bonds4 ,b at "o "t ev]y?+ t5ds to be con/ru$ #beh 9 t]ms ( k9%ip1 at ano!r "t 9 t]ms ( ex*ange4 ,& ! t5d5cy means a diff]5ce ( actual balance betwe5 ! functions z well z a diff]5t !ory4 ,! positive & negative connection ( elem5ts l ^!1 ! true place & limit ( ea*1 is p]man5tly root$ 9 human nature1 b may be elucidat$ by ! explicit logic ( _! attempt & failure to give ! tone to ! :ole social fabric4 ,x foll[s t ! social :ole gr[s1 l a great !ory1 9 adequacy to ! ne$s :i* are its facts2 & ! dissatisfaction ( ! w ) its own expression1 9 o!r words1 ! contradictions :i* practical intellig5ce is cont9ually attempt+ to remove1 becomes m l sugge/ion ?an flat contradiction--or *ange1 z we say1 becomes less revolution>y4 ,x may seem to be a diff]5ce betwe5 ! social :ole & a sci5tific !ory t ! =m]1 z x gr[s1 creates new difficulties1 by creat+ new & fre%ly contradictory matt]1 z 9 ! social problems ( civilisation2 :ile ! latt]1 z we imag9e1 deals ) an un*ang+ exp]i5ce4 ,b ?is di/9ction is less true ?an x appe>s1 & ! comp>ison ) ! gr[? ( a !ory w always ?r[ light on ! true nature ( ! w & its cont9u\s ef=t to satisfy itself4 #b4 ,"r or ,law may be tak5 9 ! wide/ s5se z includ+ ! :ole manife/ation ( ,w 9 an actual _w--8! actual body ( all ! conditions ( fre$om10 #a 8! realm ( realis$ fre$om1 ! _w ( m9d produc$ out ( itself1 z a second nature40 #b ,x is a m]it ( ! ,g]man #bei t]m 8,re*t0 #c t x ma9ta9s ! connection betwe5 ! law & ! _s ( law1 #d & almo/ ( itself prohibits ! sep>ation betwe5 positive law1 & w1 cu/om or s5tim5t1 :i* und]lies su* a !ory z ,au/9's4 #a ,hegel1 ,philos4 ( ,m9d 7,e4 ,tr471 p4 #ajd4 ,cf4 defs4 quot$ f ,gre51 p4 #bjc above4 #b ,re*tsphil41 sect4 #d4 #c ,cf4 ! ,greek's idea ( 8nomos40 #d ,see *4 ii4 above on ,montesquieu & ,r\sseau4 ,?is :ole sph]e ( ,"r or ,law1 ! m9d z actualis$ 9 ,society & ! ,/ate1 naturally divides itself on ! pr9ciple :i* has j be5 expla9$1 into ?ree connect$ gr\ps ( ideal facts or po9ts ( view4 ,! fir/1 or simple/ & mo/ inevitable1 ( ^!1 may be call$ ! 8lett] ( ! law0 z we come ^u x mo/ especially 9 ! law ( prop]ty--,%ylock's law--! %e] fact1 z x seems1 t ! _w is appropriat$ by legal 8p]sons40 ,! second1 obvi\sly condition$ by ! fir/ bo? positively & negatively1 may be describ$ z ! morality ( consci5ce2 ! revolt ( ! w aga9/ ! lett] ( ! law1 ?\gh ?is 0 its own direct expression ( itself 7e4g4 9 tak+ ?+s z prop]ty72 & its dem& to recognise z "r no?+ b :at spr+s f itself z ! good w4 ,& ?irdly1 !re is ! reality or concrete exp]i5ce 9 :i* ! two =m] sets ( facts1 or ideas1 f9d _! true place & ju/ification--! complet$ !ory1 s to speak1 :i* adju/s & expla9s ! n>r[] views f\nd$ on "o-sid$ contact ) life4 ,?is is indicat$ to consi/ 9 8social obs]vance10 or 8e?ical use & wont02 ! sy/em ( work+ m9d :]e ! true w appe>s z inc>nate 9 a way ( liv+4 ,?is1 #bfj l ! o!rs1 x mu/ be rememb]$1 is a fact1 ?\gh ak9 to a !ory4 ,n only does x expla9 & ju/ify ! o!r factors1 b its exi/5ce has enabl$ !m to exi/1 z !irs has also be5 ess5tial to x4 ,& yet ea* ( ! ?ree1 z "o aspect ( society :i* "u c]ta9 influ5ces may cat* ! eye1 has at times claim$--is1 inde$1 con/antly claim+--pr$om9ance1 & has ?us br\ght into relief its own defects & ! ne$ ( ! complem5t>y ideas4 ,we w speak ( ^! moods ( m9d or k9ds ( exp]i5ce 9 _! ord]1 expect+ a fur!r sub-division :5 we come to treat ( ! ?ird4 #c4 8,law10 !n1 9 ! directe/ possible s5se--! m9imum s5se1 s to speak--is ! h>d lit]al fact t x is a rule ( ! _w we live 9 = ?+s to be appropriat$ by p]sons4 ,?is is ! fir/ or m9imum *ange ( ! _w f m]e matt] into ! in/rum5ts ( m9d1 & x is a necess>y *ange4 ,?+s h no w ( _! own1 & x is by hav+ a w ass]t$ ^u !m t !y become organs ( life4 ,9 ! same way1 x is by ass]tion 9 ext]nal ?+s t ! w fir/ becomes a fact 9 ! mat]ial _w4 ,prop]ty is 8! fir/ reality ( fre$om40 #a ,x is n ! m]e provision = wants1 b ! mat]ial c\nt]p>t ( w4 ,contract belongs to ?is sph]e1 ! sph]e ( prop]ty4 ,x is an agreem5t ( p]sons ab\t an ext]nal ?+--a 8common w10 b n "o 8g5]al0 or 8univ]sal0 9 its own nature l t involv$ 9 ! ,/ate4 #a ,re*tsphil41 sect4 #da4 ,n1 9 its develop$ =m1 ! fir/ 9 "t4 ,hegel lays /ress on ! fact t true1 free1 prop]ty 0 h>dly realis$ ev5 9 8 own day4 #bfa ,?us1 x is a confusion ( sph]es to apply ! idea ( contract to ! ,/ate1 = ! ,/ate is an imp]ative necessity ( man's nature z rational1 :ile contract is a m]e agreem5t ( c]ta9 free p]sons ab\t c]ta9 ext]nal ?+s4 ,! idea ( ! social contract is a confusion ( ! same type z t by :i* public rights & functions 7 treat$ z private prop]ty 9 ! middle age4 ,! attributes ( private prop]ty are no?+ m ?an ! conditions ( 8p]sonal0 exi/5ce1 & absurdity results if !y are transf]r$ to functions ( ! ,/ate4 ,?is phase or view ( law z1 9 its lett]1 an ultimate & absolute rule1 may be illu/rat$1 ,hegel says1 by ! ,/oic notion t !re is only "o virtue & "o vice2 by ! ,draconic conception t e (f5ce dem&s ! extreme p5alty2 & by 8! b>b>ity ( ! =mal code ( hon\r1 :i* f\nd 9 e injury an unp>donable insult40 ,x might also be illu/rat$ by ,au/9's !ory ( law z a comm& en=c$ by a p5alty2 or by ! !ories :i* acc\nt = prop]ty simply by ! fact ( occupancy or ( lab\r mix$ ) ! ?+4 ,! common po9t ( all ^! views is t !y treat ! law1 n z a "p ( a liv+ sy/em1 #a ultimately re/+ on ! w to ma9ta9 a c]ta9 type ( life1 b z some?+ absolute 9 its sep>at5ess1 & equally sacr$ 9 all its accid5ts & inequalities4 #a ,see e4g4 above1 p4 #bcb1 h[ ! idea ( a sy/em ( rights may modify puni%m5t4 ,n[1 ?is emphasis & idea ( law1 be+ ! exagg]ation ( a s+le & direct necessity1 ! #bfb necessity ( ord] & prop]ty1 may be call$ 8primitive0 or b>b>\s1 b x _c ( c\rse be id5tifi$ ) ! e>lie/ /ate ( social au?ority kn[n to hi/ory or to an?ropology4 ,!re we %\ld probably f9d law undiff]5tiat$ f cu/om & f religi\s s5tim5t1 & consequ5tly1 ?\gh rigid en\gh1 n 9 any su* "o-sid$ absolut5ess z we h be5 describ+4 ,all we c say is t ?is is ! way 9 :i* law mu/ come to be reg>d$ :5ev] its liv+ _s is =gott51 & an unreal absolut5ess is assign$ to x2 & ?is connection ( pr9ciple v]ifies itself z a fact 9 recurr5t hi/orical ph5om5a1 & 9 fallacies :i* p]petually reappe>4 #d4 ,)9 ! :ole fabric ( "r or realis$ w1 ! elem5t :i* naturally ass]ts itself by antagonism to ! lett] ( ! law is ! morality ( consci5ce1 consci5ti\sness1 or ! idea ( ! ,good ,w4 ,x is connect$ ) ! lett] ( ! law1 z ,hegel puts x1 by ! v>i\s degrees ( wrong4 ,! w1 t is to say1 f9ds itself at v>iance 9 or ) #a ! ord] ( law & prop]ty :i* x has creat$ z its direct & necess>y /ep to fre$om4 ,its realis$ !ory1 s to speak1 is f\nd to break d[n at a c]ta9 po9t1 by be+ 9 contradiction ) ! ne$s :i* x 0 creat$ to meet4 8,summum jus1 summa injuria04 ,we may object t ! anti-legal w is simply wrong4 ,?is may be s1 & aga9 x may n be s4 ,:at ! w has awak5$ to1 :e!r "r or wrong1 is #bfc t x c acquiesce 9 no?+ :i* does n come home to x z fulfill+ its own pr9ciple4 ,:at s comes home to x is :at x calls 8good10 & x _c accept any ord] or necessity :i* x _c w z good1 i4e4 z satisfy+ its own idea4 #a 8,9 x10 :5 my w does n conflict ) "r z su*1 b claims ! "r 9 an object ,a to be m9e & n y\rs--a civil dispute4 8,) x10 :5 my w rebels1 & by its act1 s f> z 9 x lies1 d5ies & de/roys ! :ole fabric ( "r1 e4g4 takes ! object ,a1 )\t alleg+ a "r to x--!ft1 a crim9al (f5ce1 cf4 p4 #bcj4 ,:5 ?is phase ( reaction is pu%$ to its logical extreme1 we h ! mod]n doctr9e ( my consci5ce & my pure w4 ,x is ! conflict ( ! inn] self ) ! out] _w1 express$ 9 hi/ory ?r\gh ! ,/oic & ?r\gh "s =ms ( ! ,*ri/ian consci\sness 7especially ! ,prote/ant consci\sness71 & 9 philosophy ?r\gh ! ,kantian doctr9e ( ! good w1 utt]$ 9 ! fam\s s5t5ce1 8,no?+ c possibly be conceiv$ 9 ! _w or out ( x :i* c be call$ good )\t qualification except a good w40 #a ,no?+ is wor? do+ b :at "o ought1 & because "o ought4 #a ,kant1 ,grundlegung zur ,metaphysik d4 ,sitt51 sect4 ,i4 ,! criticism to :i* ?is pr9ciple has be5 subject$ is famili> to /ud5ts ( e?ics4 ,its po9t is1 9 brief1 t !re is no way ( connect+ any p>ticul> action ) ! m]e idea ( a pure w4 ,! =ms assum$ by evasions ( ?is difficulty1 :i* we fall into :5 we desire :olly to sep>ate ! inn] f ! out]1 or ! 8ought0 f ! 8is10 are treat$ by ,hegel ) unsurpassable vig\r & subtlety1 z inde$ ! annihilat+ criticism ( ?is conception is prim>ily due to him4 ,! ess5ce ( ! matt] is t ! pure w direct$ t[>ds good = ! sake ( good1 hav+ no real connection ) any detail$ conduct1 may be alleg$ by self-deception 9 support ( any behavi\r :atev]1 & out ( ?is may spr+ ! #bfd :ole sophi/ry & hypocrisy ( 8pure int5tion40 ,he makes ! %rewd obs]vation1 #a :i* is /ill ( int]e/1 t ! extreme ,prote/ant doctr9e ( consci5ce may take ! =m ( e?ical vacuity or in/ability1 & t ?is _h 9 8 "t be5 ! cause ( _m ,prote/ants go+ ov] to ,rome1 to secure "s sort ( moor+s1 if n precisely ! /ability ( ?\ght4 #a ,re*tsphil41 sect4 #ada4 ,/ill1 out ( all ?is "o-sid$ness1 !re survives ! p]man5t necessity t an intellig5t be+ c acquiesce only 9 :at ent]s into ! object ( 8 w4 ,x is 8 w :i* affirms ! aim to :i* 8 nature draws him1 & he is absolutely deb>r$ f repos+ 9 any?+ :i* does n appeal to 8 w4 ,! subjective w is ! only soil on :i* fre$om c be a reality4 ,s1 )9 ! g5]al organism ( ,"r or realis$ ,free-w1 we h f\nd two opposite gr\ps ( facts--= ! aspirations ( intellig5t be+s are facts--or t5d5cies or !ories1 :i* are connect$ by opposition1 & yet are necess>y to ! expression ( ! same und]ly+ ne$--! lett] ( ! law1 & ! fre$om ( consci5ce4 #e4 ,hegel's "n = ! ?ird t]m1 :i*1 z he puts x1 expresses ! 8tru?0 ( ^! extremes1 may be r5d]$ 8! ,e?ical ,sy/em10 or 8! ,moral ,life10 or 8,social ,e?ics40 ,x expresses 8! tru?0 ( ! extremes1 z a good !ory may express ! tru? ( two "o-sid$ views4 ,only1 z we h said1 x is a fact z well z a !ory1 & !re=e is some?+ :i* actually conta9s :at ^! two views dem&1 & does ! "w :i* !y1 & ! facts !y rely on1 #bfe exhibit z necess>y to be done4 ,?is relation is n obscure or unprec$5t$4 ,e in/itution1 e life1 works z a !ory1 & ei!r ma/]s its facts or fails to ma/] !m2 ?\gh n e !ory is a life or an in/itution4 ,! ,g]man ^w :i* ! above-m5tion$ phrases attempt to r5d] is 8,sittli*keit0 ,! ^w takes its mean+ f 8,sitte0 :i* 9 common usage is equival5t to 8cu/om40 ,hegel's use ( ! t]m1 9 8 lat] writ+s1 z oppos$ to 8,moralitt0 & z indicat+1 9 comp>ison ) x1 a full] & tru] phase ( life1 is an int5tional decl>ation ( w> aga9/ ! ,kantian pr9ciple ( ! pure good w1 & is ! gi/ ( ,hegel's e?ico-political view 9 a nut%ell4 ,! ^w w\ld mo/ naturally apply to ! life ( a community 9 :i* law1 cu/om1 & s5tim5t 7 n yet v %>ply di/+ui%$4 ,accord+ to accept$ views1 ! communities ( anci5t ,greece1 be=e !y 7 /irr$ by ! reflective movem5t :i* is associat$ ) ! names ( ,socrates & ! ,sophi/s1 w\ld be examples ( a disposition & ord] ( life :i* ! ^w 8,sittli*keit0 might d5ote4 ,& x 0 9 ! ,greek communities1 z is %[n by ! "w :i* he sket*$ z e>ly z #ahjb1 #a t ,hegel f\nd ?is sugge/ion ( a :ole 9 :i* law & cu/om1 duty & disposition1 7 absolutely at "o4 ,he subsequ5tly modifi$ ! conception 9 accordance ) ! mod]n idea ( fre$om1 by all[+ a great] emphasis & relief to its #bff compon5t p>ts1 & insi/+ 7aga9/ ,plato's ,republic = in/ance17 on ! pr9ciple ( individual *oice1 initiative1 & prop]ty1 z necess>y to ! complete communion ( intellig5t be+s4 ,z we h j se51 inde$1 he introduces reflective morality or consci5ti\sness into ! sph]e ( ,"r1 to repres5t ! full nature ( m9d1 :i* is only exhibit$ 9 a consci\sness :i* pursues its aims ( its own *oice & = _! own sake4 #a ,! ,sy/em d4 ,sittli*keit4 ,! ,re*tsphil4 0 n publi%$ till #ahag1 9 its e>lie/ =m4 ,see ,wallace1 ,hegel's ,philosophy ( ,m9d1 p4 #ahg4 ,! ,e?ical ,sy/em1 !n1 or ,social ,e?ics1 is put =w>d z ! ideal fact :i* includes1 & does ! "w ( bo? ! lit]al law & ! moral w1 alike 9 practice & z a !ory4 ,x is ! idea ( fre$om develop$ 7i47 into a pres5t _w1 & 7ii47 into ! nature ( self-consci\sness4 ,= 7i471 9 ! fir/ place1 ! e?ical sy/em1 or ! ways ( act+ :i* make up social e?ics1 con/itute a pres5t & actual _w4 ,s f> x p>takes ( ! nature ( ! lit]al law & ord]1 ! sy/em ( prop]ty-hold+1 :i*1 z we h se51 is all b a natural fact4 ,social ,e?ic1 we might say1 is a physical fact4 ,! bodily habits & ext]nal actions ( a p incorporate x4 ,x trans=ms ! face ( a c\ntry1 8dome/icat+ ! untam$ e>?40 #a ,ea* individual has 8 own bodily exi/5ce 9 a det]m9ate mode z a "p ( ! e?ical life ( society4 ,! rules & traditions ( e?ical liv+ are1 z has be5 said1 8! nature ( ?+s40 ,!y are z h>d1 z 8objective0 an ord] z 8sun1 moon1 m\nta9s1 riv]s1 & all objects ( nature40 #b ,man lives accord+ to !m be=e he kn[s t he #bfg does s1 & always1 9 a great degree1 indep5d5tly ( kn[+ t he does s4 ,z ?is gr\p ( facts1 or consid]$ f ?is po9t ( view1 ! e?ical sy/em is ! body ( ! moral _w4 #a ,aes*ylus1 ,eum5ides1 ,i4 #ad4 #b ,re*tsphil41 sect4 #adf4 7ii47 ,b x is also & no less ! v nature ( self-consci\sness4 ,x is z mu* a dem& ( man's intellig5ce or an inn] & univ]sal law z ! 8pure w0 itself4 #a ,! diff]5ce betwe5 !m is t ! ,e?ical ,sy/em is a sy/em1 a _w1 ?\gh f ! po9t ( view ( w reg>d$ z inn]1 t is to say1 z some?+ :i* is ! motive & fulfills ! dem& ( consci\sness4 ,?us1 x be>s ! "* ( a ?or\ghly sy/ematis$ !ory1 z contra/$ ) ! idea ( a good w1 :i* is a m]e g5]al po9t ( view4 ,& x is because ( ?is sy/ematic "* t x is enabl$ to connect ! individual or p>ticul> w ) ! univ]sal _s ( ! community4 ,x is only 9 a sy/em t a p>ticul> fact c be connect$ ) a univ]sal law1 z ! planet>y motions are ) ! law ( gravitation4 ,! p>ticul> w1 z we h expla9$ above1 is univ]salis$ by its relation to a sy/ematic purpose :i* x p>tly implies & p>tly realises4 ,a man wi%es = ?is ?+ or t ?+1 b n at any price4 ,! res]vations to :i* 8 wi% is subject1 by reason ( o!r purposes & po/ulates ( life1 are kn[n to him only 9 "p2 b if !y c\ld be /at$ 9 full1 !y w\ld con/itute ! sy/em ( 8 life z realis$ 9 ! univ]sal life ( ! community4 ,x is precisely #bfh analog\s to ! process :i* a common judgm5t ( p]ception has to g ?r\gh 9 becom+ a sci5tific tru?--! implications h to be /at$ 9 full1 & ! p]ception modifi$ 9 accordance ) !m4 ,& :5 ?is is done1 we h no long] a fact1 b a sci5ce4 #a ,on all ?is portion ( ! subject1 see ,mr4 ,bradley's ,essay1 8,my ,/ation & its ,duties10 9 ,e?ical ,/udies4 ,reg>d$ f ?is po9t ( view1 z ! sub/ance ( ! individual ,w1 ! ,e?ical ,sy/em is ! ,s\l ( ! moral _w4 ,9 analys+ ! ,e?ical ,sy/em1 we %all say no?+ ( 8duties0 or 8virtues40 ,duty is 9 ea* case :at ! relation requires--! atta*m5t ( ! univ]sal sy/em ( w to ! individual life4 ,virtue is a habit ( su* action1 consid]$ z embodi$ 9 ! nature ( an individual4 ,! idea ( virtue & virtu\sness is n1 9 ,hegel's view1 altoge!r suitable to ! memb]s ( an e?ical commonweal?4 ,x belongs r to a "t ( undevelop$ social life1 :5 e?ical pr9ciples & ! realisation ( !m are ascrib$ to ! nature ( peculi>ly gift$ individuals4 ,virtue or excell5ce1 to ! ,greek morali/1 = in/ance1 sugge/$ do+ some?+ bett] ?an ! av]age1 or be+ 9 "s way specially gift$1 & x is /ill apt to indicate ! desire to be "s ?+ exceptional1 & n simply to f9d y\rself 9 g5u9e s]vice4 ,! mean+ ( ! words to-day t5ds to n>r[ itself to c]ta9 special relations1 & does n indicate t life ( ! memb] 9 ! :ole1 :i* is ! ess5ce ( :at we really value4 ,! ,e?ical ,sy/em1 or ! ,ord] ( ,social ,e?ics1 !n--! m9d & conduct ( ! citiz5 9 ,*ri/5dom--may be reg>d$ z affirm+ fre$om #bfi 9 ?ree pr9cipal aspects1 necess>ily connect$1 & supplem5t+ "o ano!r4 ,outw>dly ^! aspects are diff]5t gr\ps ( facts--diff]5t in/itutions2 inw>dly !y are diff]5t moods or dispositions ( ! "o & indivisible human m9d4 ,?us1 ,hegel's analysis reg>ds ! social :ole or sy/em ( social e?ics f ?ree po9ts ( view4 ,fir/1 9 respect ( ! ,family2 secondly1 9 respect ( :at he has entitl$ ,b\rgeois ,society2 & ?irdly1 9 respect ( ! ,political ,organism1 or ! ,/ate 9 ! /rict s5se4 ,x is to be borne 9 m9d t1 l ! ?ree pr9cipal divisions 9 ! sph]e ( ,"r1 ^! head+s repres5t explicit !ories ( society1 z well z gr\ps ( facts4 #f4 ,beg9n+ once m1 )9 an ord]$ social sph]e1 at ! e?ical factor :i* /&s ne>e/ to ! natural _w1 & has tak51 s to speak1 ! m9imum /ep into ! realm ( purpose & consci\sness1 we />t f ! family4 ,z ! family exi/s 9 a mod]n civilis$ community1 x is some?+ necess>y to society & ! ,/ate1 b absolutely di/9ct f bo?4 ,x fir/ 7a7 repres5ts ! fact ( ! natural basis ( social relations1 be+ ! embodim5t ( natural feel+ 9 ! =m ( love1 bo? z betwe5 ! p>5ts1 & z embodi$ = !m 9 ! *ildr54 ,x is 9 accordance ) ,hegel's g5]al views ( ! mean+ ( a sy/em t he sees ?is elem5t ( m9d prim>ily repres5t$ by ! family1 z an organ pres]v$ & diff]5tiat$ ad hoc1 & n1 or n m]ely1 di/ribut$ indef9itely ?r\gh\t ! community4 ,?us1 ! mod]n family repres5ts = him a high] /age #bgj ( civilisation--an organ to a full] embodim5t ( m9d--?an ! clan or tribe1 or1 9 %ort1 ?an any =m ( community 9 :i* ! :ole bond ( union re/s on m]ely natural feel+1 k9dness1 g5]osity1 or affection4 ,9 ! nation1 inde$1 a t+e ( natural affection1 a col\r+ ( unity by k9%ip1 survives1 j z feel+ runs ?r\gh ! exp]i5ce ( ! individual m9d4 ,b ! di/9ctive "* ( ! ,/ate is cle> intellig5ce1 explicit law & sy/em1 & s ! natural basis ( feel+1 ?\gh necess>y to be pres]v$ & spiritualis$1 a*ieves ^! ne$s 9 ! family z a special organ1 & n 9 ! ,/ate z su*4 ,all ^? !ories1 !re=e1 :i* t5d to assimilate ! ,/ate to a family by a sort ( levell+ d[n ( ! =m] or levell+ up ( ! latt] 7,plato's ,republic1 ! phalan/]y1 pat]nal gov]nm5t1 & ! l7 involve = ,hegel a m]e confusion ( relations4 ,!y recognise an elem5t :i* is ess5tial to society1 & may truly be said to be ev5 its f\ndation4 ,b !y d n see its "r place 9 ! :ole1 & d n und]/& t 9 ord] to atta9 a /rong] & deep] unity 7:i* is1 9 %ort1 a /rong] & deep] m9d7 ! diff]5t elem5ts mu/ be all[$ a great] emphasis & relief1 & _! respective *>act]i/ics mu/ n be slurr$ or scamp$4 ,b 7b7 9 ! second place1 ! family is a factor 9 ! rational :ole1 ! ,/ate1 ?\gh its function p> excell5ce is t ( ! natural basis ( society4 ,h5ce its nature & sanction is e?ical--x re/s nei!r on m]e feel+ on #bga ! "o h&1 nor on m]e contract on ! o!r4 ,x has a public side1 & ! acceptance ( a univ]sal obligation by a decl>ation 9 explicit language 7language be+ ! /amp ( ! univ]sal71 9 face ( ! community1 is an ess5tial "p ( m>riage1 & n a m]e accid5t or accessory1 z ! vot>ies ( feel+ h urg$4 ,?is view is aim$ aga9/ ! confusion :i* f9ds ! sole ess5ce ( m>riage 9 feel+4 ,?is is a p]petually recurr+ cont5tion1 repres5t$ 9 ,hegel's day by ,fri$ri* von ,s*legel's ,luc9de1 :i* argues t ! =m ( m>riage de/roys ! value ( passion4 ,hegel's analyses are ev]y:]e direct$ aga9/ ?is inability to grasp ! di/9ct sides ( a _m-sid$ fact4 7c7 ,! e?ical aspect ( ! family #a %[s itself 9 ! nature & organisation ( ! h\sehold1 z an in/itution embody+ p]man5t int]e/s & relations ( ! two p]sons :o are its head1 & z an organ ( public duties 9 ! bodily & spiritual nurture ( ! *ildr54 ,! p]man5t & equal relation ( ! heads ( ! h\sehold1 involv$ 9 its nature z ! e?ical aspect ( ! family1 implies monogamy1 & x is ! monogam\s family alone :i* c c\nt z a true elem5t ( ! e?ical ord]4 #a ,cf4 ,gre5's ,pr9ciples ( ,political ,obligation1 p4 #bce4 7d7 ,! h\sehold1 be+ ! true & op]ative e?ical organ :i* makes p>5tage into family1 is ! unit :i* dem&s to be respect$ & protect$ by ! ,/ate aga9/ ! less diff]5tiat$ =ms ( consangu9ity1 su* z ! clan4 ,! true family />ts f m>riage & ! f\ndation ( a h\sehold1 & 9 ! e>ly #bgb developm5t ( law we f9d ! ,/ate1 ) a j in/9ct1 protect+ ! h\sehold aga9/ ! clan1 e4g4 by conf]r+ ! p[] ( beque/4 ,?is p[]1 ?\gh n[ x may imply a discretion ma9ly ho/ile to ! family1 pres5t$ itself 9 e>ly law r z a means ( p]petuat+ ! sep>ate h\sehold z aga9/ ! pret5sions ( ! clan to int]f]e ) its prop]ty4 ,?us1 ! monogam\s family is naturally & necess>ily1 to "s ext5t1 a unit 9 respect ( prop]ty2 ! *ildr51 at lea/1 be+ inevitably "u tutelage & incapable ( self-support1 ev5 if economic equality ass]ts itself z betwe5 husb& & wife4 ,?is peculi> relation 9 respect ( prop]ty is root$ 9 ! unique nature ( ! h\sehold1 z an organ = ! gu>dian%ip ( immature lives1 & z a unity ( feel+ r ?an ( explicit ?\ght4 ,x is noticeable t progress t5ds to introduce ! di/9ctions ( prop]ty )9 its unity #a 7?\gh = *ildr5 ?is c nev] g v f>71 & v slightly to introduce ! relations ( ! family into ! outside _w4 ,9 z f> z su* di/9ctions come to be made1 ! nature & functions ( ! h\sehold be+ undi/urb$1 a some:at high] int5sity ( e?ical union is r5d]$ necess>y1 & w no d\bt ass]t itself4 #a ,m>ri$ ,wom5's ,prop]ty1 ,protection ( ,e>n+s ( ,*ildr51 ,prop]ty assign$ by und]/&+ )9 h\sehold to "y *ildr54 #g4 ,:5 ! man 7or woman #a7 arrives at maturity & leaves ! safe h>b\r ( ! family1 he f9ds himself1 prima facie1 isolat$ 9 a _w #bgc ( conflict+ self-int]e/s4 ,he has 8 liv+ to make1 or 8 prop]ty to adm9i/]4 ,he is ti$ to o!rs1 9 appe>ance1 only by ! sy/em ( wants & "w1 ) ! elem5t>y function :i* is necess>y to x1 viz4 its police functions & ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice4 #a ,hegel w\ld say only or *iefly ! man1 :o is = him ! natural e>n] & *ief ( ! h\sehold4 ,x is ?is phase ( social life1 & ! temp] or disposition correspond+ to x1 :i* ,hegel indicates by ! expression ,b\rgeois ,society4 #a ,x pres5ts itself to him z ! opposite extreme ( life & m9d to t embodi$ 9 ! family4 ,x is an aggregate ( families--= ! units ( ! ,b\rgeois ,society are heads ( h\seholds--z se5 f ! outside1 9 ! great sy/em ( indu/ry & bus9ess1 :]e a man has to f9d 8 "w & d x4 ,x is1 9 m9d1 ! pres5ce ( def9ite ?\gh limit$ aims1 calculation & self-int]e/4 #b #a ,brg]li*e ,gesells*aft4 8,society10 ,wallace po9ts out1 is "h oppos$ to 8community10 & indicates a loos] phase ( union4 #b ,cf4 ! m]*ant 9 ,wilhelm ,mei/]'s ,lehrjahre1 viii4 #b4 8,i c assure y t ,i nev] reflect$ on ! ,/ate 9 my life4 ,my tolls1 *>ges1 & dues ,i h paid = no o!r reason ?an t x 0 e/abli%$ usage0 7cit$ f ,wallace1 ,hegel's ,philosophy ( ,m9d1 p4 cci474 ,b\rgeois ,society is ! aspect ( ! social :ole insi/$ on by ! classical political economy1 by :i*1 z an a*ievem5t 9 ! way ( r$uc+ complex appe>ances to pr9ciples1 ,hegel 0 mu* impress$4 ,x is1 aga91 ! view ( society embodi$ 9 ! conception ( ! purely police ,/ate1 & its pr9ciple is confus$ ) t ( ! ,/ate prop] by "o set ( !ori/s1 z t ( ! family is by ano!r4 ,x is ! peculi>ity ( ,hegel's view--probably #bgd ! mo/ def9itely orig9al1 z x is ! mo/ fam\s1 ( all 8 political ideas--to cont5d t ?is aspect ( society1 ) ! =m ( consci\sness belong+ to x1 is necess>y to a mod]n ,/ate4 ,accord+ to 8 logic1 inde$1 x is inevitable t e true :ole %all h an aspect ( 8diff]5ce10 ( break+ up into p>ticul>s4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! anci5t ,/ate1 z conc5trat$ly express$ 9 ,plato's ,republic1 0 weak & undevelop$1 & fell %ort ( ! true claims ( intellig5ce1 #a j because x d>$ n really let ! individual g--let him ass]t himself z himself4 8,subjectivity0 0 a pr9ciple fatal to x4 ,n t !re 0 an iron oppression 9 ! ,/ates ( antiquity4 ,! individual 01 = an onlook]1 magnific5tly develop$4 ,8 limitations 7 9 him1 & did n oppress him2 b = all t1 free *oice & ! c>e] op5 to tal5ts 7 n = him4 #a 8,0 n ideal en\gh0 7,hegel1 ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 ii4 #bed74 ,! 8notion0 = him necess>ily involves id5tity1 diff]5tiation1 & re-integration2 & 9 ?is respect ! anci5t ,/ate falls %ort ( a true notion1 :ile ! mod]n realises x4 ,! mod]n dem&--su* is ,hegel's conception--is h>d] & high]4 ,! individual's life is n pr$et]m9$ by 8 bir?1 b he is ?r[n face to face ) economic necessity1 :i* is a =m ( ! univ]sal end4 ,he has to /rip (f 8 crud5ess & vanity1 &1 ( himself1 m\ld himself into some?+ :i* fulfils a want4 ,?is is a /ep )\t :i* !re c be no true fre$om--! giv+ "o's self by "o's own act a def9ite place 9 ! region ( ext]nal necessity1 ! 8becom+ some?+0 or atta*+ oneself to #bge a def9ite class ( s]vice r5d]]s4 ,?us1 we are />tl$ to f9d culture or education treat$ 9 g5]al1 & 9 respect ( its indisp5sabl5ess1 "u ! head ( ! ,b\rgeois ,society4 ,= culture is ! lib]ation f "o's own caprices1 & ! acceptance ( a univ]sal task4 ,x is a sev]e process1 & !re=e unpopul>1 b x is a necess>y "o if we are to h true fre$om4 ,! criticism t su* a _w & temp] is ! _w & temp] ( self-int]e/ does n appeal /rongly to ,hegel4 ,we %all h to treat ( x m fully bel[4 #a #a ,see p4 #bia4 ,x may be not$ 9 pass+ t ! insecurity ( life1 :i* may seem to atta* to dep5d5ce on ! va/ sy/em ( wants & "w1 is m & m se51 z mod]n economic relations develop1 n to be insecurity at all1 except 9 z f> z 8culture0 9 ! =m ( indu/rial tra9+ is abs5t4 ,!re is1 inde$1 9 mod]n life1 n[h]e any absolute & oy/]-l /ability4 ,! highe/ /ability to be any:]e atta9$ is t due to fitness = s]vice 9 ! int]dep5d5t sy/em ( ne$s4 #a #a ,i may ref] to ,! ,/&>d ( ,life1 by ,h4 ,bosanquet1 essay on 8,klass5kampf04 ,!re=e1 z ,hegel saw1 b 9 m ways ?an he saw1 ! sy/em ( ,b\rgeois ,society--! economic & indu/rial _w--is n a sep>ate reality1 b only an appe>ance )9 a l>g] sy/em4 ,! memb] ( x is n s deta*$ z he may seem1 or ?9k4 ,he is )91 & su/a9$ by1 ! g5]al life ( ! ,/ate1 z ! aims :i* are 8 motives 9 8bus9ess0 or indu/ry are )9 #bgf & insep>able f ! :ole /ructure ( 8 intellig5ce4 ,?us1 ! _w ( ,b\rgeois ,society--a _w1 on ! :ole1 ( ca% nexus & m]e protection by ! ,/ate--has a /ructure or t5d5cy ( its own :i* br+s x back by necess>y /eps to connection ) ! ,/ate prop] or explicit & det]m9ate social unity4 ,x is1 we mu/ obs]ve1 po/]ior to ! ,/ate 9 "t4 ,x is only )9 ! ,/ate prop]1 & re/+ on its solid p[]1 t su* a _w z t ( ,b\rgeois ,society c\ld arise or be conceivable4 ,its priority to ! ,/ate is1 l t ( ! family1 ! priority ( comp>ative n>r[ness or simplicity1 ( deal+ ) few] factors1 & ( repres5t+ human nature 9 a m special1 ?\gh necess>y1 aspect4 ,& = ?is v reason x c\ld n exi/ by itself4 ,x has n ! _m-sid$ vitality indisp5sable to any?+ :i* is to hold its own 9 ! actual _w4 ,! work+ ( ! ,b\rgeois ,society1 !n1 exhibits an inevitable connection ) ! ,/ate prop]1 &1 s to speak1 leads up to x4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! economic _w implies ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice4 ,9 ?is1 z involv+ a develop$ sy/em ( civilis$ law1 !re is an advance on ! 8lett] ( ! law0 9 its crude/ & mo/ b>b>\s acceptation4 ,! sy/em ( law ( a mod]n ,/ate is1 & /ill m ought to be1 #a a fairly reasonable & intelligible def9ition ( ! rights & relations ( p]sons4 ,by ?is det]m9ation ! economic sy/em ( p>ticul> wants & s]vices ent]s ^u a fir/ #bgg approximation1 z x 71 to a unity ( pr9ciple4 ,! law only pr(esses1 inde$1 to protect prop]ty & ex*ange1 b 9 do+ s x unavoidably recognises t ! p>ticul> want has a g5]al be>+2 = ! develop$ sy/em ( law only comes into exi/5ce to enable wants to be suppli$1 & takes its def9ite %ape accord+ to ! sy/em ( wants4 ,we may illu/rate ?is fir/ approximation to univ]sality1 :i* law conf]s ^u ! p>ticul>s ( private int]e/1 by a sugge/ive view :i* ,m4 ,durkheim has prop\nd$4 #b ,he has po9t$ out t ! curr5t =mula = social *ange1 8f /atus to contract10 has a subtl] significance ?an is apt to be recognis$4 ,= contract is n really indet]m9ate1 z if x arose 9 vacuo )\t a prec$5t4 ,x runs 9 =ms det]m9$ by social exp]i5ce ?r\gh law & cu/om2 & ?us ! law1 :i* pr(ess$ly aims at protect+ prop]ty & ex*ange1 necess>ily regulates !m by ! modes 9 :i* x *ooses to protect !m4 #a ,hegel pleads /rongly = codification4 #b ,de la ,division du ,travail ,social1 #bbe ff4 ,a m intimate relation to ! ,/ate prop]--to a def9ite pr9ciple1 z we might say1 ( common good--gr[s out ( ! int]e/s ( ,b\rgeois ,society :i* take ! %ape ( :at a ,g]man calls 8,police & ,corporation10 i4e4 ,/ate regulation & ,trade ,societies4 ,! basis ( ,/ate regulation is ! em]g5ce ( aspects ( common int]e/ 9 ! sy/em ( p>ticul> int]e/s4 ,! region ( p>ticul> int]e/s 7supply & dem&7 has an accid5tal side1 & ! ,/ate has a "r & a duty to protect ! g5]al good aga9/ accid5tal #bgh h9drances4 ,on ! :ole1 no d\bt1 ! "r relation betwe5 produc] & consum] arises ( itself1 b misc>riages may occur :i* call = int]f]5ce on behalf ( ! explicit #a pr9ciple ( ! g5]al good4 ,! g5]al possibility ( ! individual's obta9+ :at he wants is a public int]e/1 & ! ,/ate has a "r to int]v5e ) ?is end 9 view1 bo? by execution ( necess>y public works1 by sanit>y inspection & ! l1 & by inspection & control ( fraud 9 ! case ( necess>y commodities (f]$ = sale to ! g5]al public4 ,= ! public (f] ( goods 9 daily use is n a purely private conc]n1 b a matt] ( ! g5]al int]e/4 ,if inde$ !re 0 complete (ficial regulation1 !re w\ld be a risk ( gett+ "w l ! ,pyramids1 t repres5t$ no private want at all2 b yet1 9 ! sy/em ( private wants1 !re is a public int]e/ t dem&s vigilance4 #a ,! explicit idea ( common good always belongs 9 ,hegel to ! ,/ate prop]4 ,a simil> approximation ( ,b\rgeois ,society to ! ,/ate is con/itut$ by ! 8,corporation10 :i* re/s on ! facts ( class4 ,e memb] ( ! ,b\rgeois ,society belongs by 8 vocation to a class1 & ?is break+ up into classes is a consequ5ce ( ! division ( lab\r :i* prevails 9 ! economic sph]e1 disguis+ ! common good z private int]e/ or necessity4 ,b 9 ! =mation ( classes society beg9s z x 7 to recov] f ! disp]sion :i* private int]e/ has occasion$4 ,z a memb] ( 8 class #a or #bgi 8e/ate10 ! citiz5 acquires solid>ity ) 8 fell[s1 & 8 p>ticul> int]e/ becomes ipso facto a common "o4 ,z a memb] ( ! class1 aga91 he is1 or ought to be1 a memb] ( 8 8trade society0 or 8corporation40 ,9 ?is he f9ds 8 hon\r or recognition1 #b a def9ite /&>d ( life 7ap>t f :i* he is apt to ass]t himself by aimless extravagance1 = want ( a recognis$ respectability71 a /&>d ( "w1 insurance aga9/ mis=tune1 & 7z a c&idate = admission7 ! means ( te*nical education4 #a ,! t]m 8,/nde0 x mu/ be rememb]$1 has = a ,g]man ! association ( elem5ts ( ! repres5tative assembly2 8tats01 e/ates ( ! realm4 #b ,cf4 ! ,engli% workman's phrase1 8a good tradesman10 i4e4 a compet5t memb] ( 8 trade4 ,if ! family is ! fir/ basis ( ! ,/ate1 ! classes or e/ates are ! second4 ,! ,corporation or ,trade ,society is a second family to its memb]s4 ,x is ! v root ( e?ical connection betwe5 ! private & ! g5]al #a int]e/1 & ! ,/ate %\ld see to x t ?is root holds z /rongly z possible4 #b #a 8,we c only say t ^! m51 if !y leave u1 w bitt]ly regret x4 444 ,! man :o is s unselfi% z to c>e no?+ = himself or 8 fell[-m5 w soon f9d himself1 z ye>s creep ov] him1 & grey hairs & glasses1 completely cut out40--8,bran* ,trade ,report 7,birm+ham7 to ,national ,union ( ,boot & ,%oe ,op]atives1 ,janu>y1 #ahif40 #b ,sects4 #bja & #bee4 ,i omit ,hegel's *>act]isation ( ! classes1 :i* has a good deal 9 common ) !ories :i* repres5t occupations z det]m9+ "*4 ,! contra/ betwe5 agricultural & indu/rial or comm]cial life1 betwe5 c\ntry & t[n1 is ( great importance 9 8 view4 ,he almo/ seems to conf9e ,b\rgeois indu/rialism z su* to ! life ( t[n-dwell]s2 ?\gh1 aga91 ultimately ! :ole division into classes is *>act]i/ic ( ,b\rgeois ,society 7cf4 sects4 #bef & #cje74 8,if10 ,hegel writes1 #a 89 rec5t days ! 8,corporation has be5 aboli%$1 ?is has ! significance #bhj t ! individual ought to provide = himself4 ,?is may be admitt$2 b ! corporation did n alt] ! individual's obligation to e>n 8 livelihood4 ,9 our mod]n ,/ates ! citiz5s h only a limit$ %>e 9 ! univ]sal bus9ess ( ! ,/ate2 b x is necess>y to p]mit ! e?ical human be+ a univ]sal activity ov] & above 8 private end4 ,?is univ]sal1 :i* ! mod]n ,/ate does n always provide = him1 he f9ds 9 ! ,corporation4 ,we saw be=e t ! individual provid+ = himself 9 ! ,b\rgeois ,society also acts = o!rs4 ,b ?is unconsci\s necessity is n en\gh2 x ne$s ! ,corporation to br+ x to a consci\s & ?\ghtful social e?ics4 ,( c\rse ! ,corporation ne$s ! high] sup]9t5d5ce ( ! ,/ate1 or x w\ld ossify1 %r9k into its %ell1 & be degrad$ into a wret*$ guild4 ,b 9 & = itself ! ,corporation is no clos$ guild2 x is r ! br++ ( an isolat$ trade into an e?ical connection1 & its admission into a sph]e 9 :i* x w9s /r5g? & hon\r40 #b #a ,sect4 #bee4 #b ,x is obvi\s t ?is treatm5t ( associations aris+ among classes 9 indu/ry & comm]ce does n apply 9 pr9ciple exclusively to trade or pr(essional societies4 ,x w\ld include1 e4g41 ,fri5dly ,societies & ,co-op]ative ,societies1 by :i* memb]s ( ! economic _w b9d !mselves toge!r = help1 recognition1 & ! ass]tion ( _! g5]al int]e/s4 #h4 ,! ,/ate prop]1 or political con/itution1 pres5ts itself to ,hegel z ! sy/em 9 :i* ! family & ! ,b\rgeois ,society f9d _! completion & _! security4 ,he 0 e>ly impress$1 z we h se51 ) ! beautiful unity ( ! anci5t ,greek commonweal?s4 ,& ! fir/ & la/ idea :i* gov]ns 8 repres5tations ( ! mod]n ,/ate is t ( ! ,greek commonweal? enl>g$ z x 0 f a sun to a sol> #bha sy/em4 ,! family feel+ & ! individual int]e/ are 9 ! mod]n ,/ate let g1 acc5t$1 int5sifi$ to _! utt]mo/ p[]2 & x is out ( & because ( ?is imm5se orbit ( its elem5ts t ! mod]n ,/ate has its 8enorm\s /r5g? & dep?40 ,x is ! typical m9d1 ! v ess5ce ( reason1 ^: complet5ess is directly z ! complet5ess ( ea* ( its t]ms or sides or factors2 & secure 9 ! logical confid5ce t feel+ & self-consci\sness1 ! m !y atta9 _! fulness1 mu/ return ! m c]ta9ly to _! place 9 ! reasonable sy/em :i* is _! v nature4 ,z ultimate p[]1 ! ,/ate ma9ta9s on "o side ! attitude ( an ext]nal necessity t[>ds ! sph]es ( private life1 ( ! family1 & ( ! economic _w4 ,x may int]v5e by =ce to remove h9drances 9 ! pa? ( ! common good1 :i* accid5t & immaturity may h plac$ !re4 ,b1 9 its ess5ce1 ! ,/ate is ! indwell+ & explicit end ( ^! modes ( liv+1 & is /rong 9 its union ( ! univ]sal purpose ) ! p>ticul> int]e/s ( mank9d4 ,x is1 9 %ort1 ! inc>nation ( ! g5]al or ,real ,w4 ,x has ! e?ical habit & temp] ( ! family z a p]vad+ basis1 comb9$ ) ! explicit consci\sness & purpose ( ! bus9ess _w4 ,9 ! organism ( ! ,/ate1 i4e4 9 z f> z we feel & ?9k z citiz5s1 feel+ becomes affectionate loyalty1 & explicit consci\sness becomes political insight4 ,z citiz5s we bo? feel & see t ! ,/ate includes & secures ! objects ( our affections & our int]e/s2 n z sep>ate items1 ?r[n toge!r by *ance1 b z purposes trans=m$ by _! relation to ! common good1 into #bhb :i*1 z we are m or less aw>e1 !y necess>ily pass4 ,?is feel+ & insight are ! true ess5ce ( patriotism4 ,x is easi] to be magnanim\s ?an to be m]ely "r1 & p pref] to ?9k ( patriotism z a read9ess to make great sacrifices :i* are nev] dem&$4 ,b true patriotism is ! e-day habit ( look+ on ! commonweal? z our sub/antive purpose & ! f\ndation ( our lives4 ,! division ( functions 9 ! ,/ate is a necess>y condition ( its rational organisation4 ,b1 z ,r\sseau _h insi/$1 x is altoge!r false to reg>d ^! sep>ate functions z indep5d5t1 or z *ecks on "o ano!r4 ,!re c\ld be no liv+ unity1 if ! functions ( ! ,/ate 7 ultimately indep5d5t & negative t[>ds ea* o!r4 ,_! diff]5tiation is simply ! rational division ( lab\r4 ,! ,/ate is an image ( a rational conception2 x is 8a hi]oglyph ( reason40 ,sov]eignty1 !re=e1 resides 9 no "o elem5t4 ,x is1 ess5tially1 ! relation 9 :i* ea* factor ( ! con/itution /&s to ! :ole4 ,t is to say1 x resides only 9 ! organis$ :ole act+ qua organis$ :ole4 ,if1 = example1 we speak ( ! 8,sov]eignty ( ! ,p0 9 a s5se oppos$ to ! ,sov]eignty ( ! ,/ate--z if !re 7 su* a ?+ z 8! p0 ov] & above ! organis$ means ( express+ & adju/+ ! w ( ! community--we are say+ :at is1 /rictly speak+1 mean+less4 ,x is j ! po9t ( diff]5ce betwe5 ,r\sseau's two views4 ,we saw t ,r\sseau cle>ly expla9$ ! impossibility ( express+ ! g5]al #bhc w except by a det]m9ate sy/em ( law4 ,b :at he seem$ to sugge/1 & 0 tak5 to mean1 by popul> ,sov]eignty1 0 no d\bt j ! view :i* ,hegel condemns4 ,x is ess5tially ! same "q z h[ a con/itution c be made4 ,/rictly1 a con/itution _c be made except by modification ( an exi/+ con/itution4 ,if1 to put a case1 y h a multitude new to ea* o!r 9 "s extra-political colony1 !y mu/ assume a con/itution1 s to speak1 be=e !y c make "o4 ,law & con/itution are utt]ances ( ! _s ( a nation4 ,! =m ( ,/ate :i* ,hegel analyses is a mod]n con/itutional mon>*y1 ) an executive 7m9i/]s sitt+ 9 ! *amb]s1 z he is c>eful to urge7 & ,*amb]s or ,e/ates repres5t+ ! classes develop$ 9 ! civic community4 ,repres5tation1 he urges1 is ( bodies or int]e/s r ?an ( masses ( individuals1 & ! ,corporations or ,trade ,societies h also an important place directly1 by _! t\* ) ! dep>tm5ts ( ! executive gov]nm5t4 #a ,! g5]al pr9ciple is1 z indicat$ above1 t ! problems ( connection betwe5 consid]able p>ticul> int]e/s & ! univ]sal int]e/s ( ! community are1 s to speak1 prep>$ on ! gr\nd ( ! ,corporation & ,b\rgeois ,society = a solution 9 ! int]e/ ( ! common good by ! ,legislative & ! ,executive ,gov]nm5t4 #a ,mu* z ?r\gh inspectors & commissions ! op9ion ( ,trade ,unions1 ,fri5dly ,societies1 & ,co-op]ators is elicit$ by our ,gov]nm5t ,dep>tm5ts ) a view to legislation1 indep5d5tly ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons4 ,! logical division ( p[]1 9 8 language1 #bhd is t ! ,legislature has to e/abli% univ]sal pr9ciples1 ! executive has to apply ^! pr9ciples to p>ticul> cases1 & ! pr9ce has to br+ to a po9t ! acts ( ! ,/ate by giv+ !m1 8l ! dot on ! i10 ! f9al %ape ( individual volition4 ,! di/9ction ( ,/ates into ,mon>*y1 ,ari/ocracy1 & ,democracy1 ,hegel refuses to reg>d z applicable to ! mod]n _w4 ,at be/1 x c\ld only apply to ! undevelop$ communities ( antiquity4 ,! mod]n ,/ate is a concrete1 &1 accord+ to its pr9ciple1 all ! elem5ts ( a p's life are repres5t$ 9 x z an indivisible unity4 ,a curi\s po9t is ,hegel's insi/5ce on ! function ( ! p]sonal ,head ( ! ,/ate4 ,by a junction ( ! extremes1 he connects x ) ! recognition ( free individuality1 :i* is usually reg>d$ z ! democratic pr9ciple ( ! mod]n _w4 ,!re is no act1 we may say 9 illu/ration1 accord+ to ! mod]n idea ( an act1 if x is n done 9 ! end by an individual1 ?\gh 9 a develop$ political sy/em ! mon>*'s action may only consi/ 9 sign+ 8 "n4 ,x is at lea/ rem>kable to comp>e ?is view ) ! t5d5cy to "o-man gov]nm5t 9 ! adm9i/ration ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica4 ,! ,/ate1 !n1 is on "o side ! ext]nal =ce & automatic ma*9]y impli$ 9 ! ma9t5ance & adju/m5t ( ! rights & purposes ( ! family & ! ,b\rgeois ,society z an actual life4 ,on ! o!r side1 & mo/ ess5tially1 x is t connection ( feel+ & insight1 work+ ?r\gh\t ! consci\snesses ( #bhe individuals z p>ts 9 a connect$ /ructure1 :i* unite 9 will+ a c]ta9 type ( life z a common good 9 :i* !y f9d _! own4 ,x has ! same cont5t z t ( ,religion2 b 9 an explicit & rationalis$ =m z contra/$ ) ! =m ( feel+4 ,only ! sep>ation ( ,*ur* & ,/ate1 & ! division ( ! ,*ur*es aga9/ "o ano!r1 h made x possible = ! ,/ate to exhibit its own free & e?ical "* 9 true fulness1 ap>t f bo? dogmatic au?ority & an>*ic fanaticism4 #i4 ,publicity ( discussion 9 ! assembly ( ! classes or e/ates is ! great means ( civic education4 ,x is n 9 ! lea/ true t e "o kn[s :at is = ! good ( ! ,/ate1 & has only to g d[n to ! ,h\se & utt] x4 ,x is 9 ! "w ( expression #a & discussion t ! good takes =m by adju/m5t ( private views to facts & ne$s br\ght to be> by criticism4 8,! views a man plumes himself on :5 he is at home ) 8 wife & fri5ds are "o ?+2 x is q ano!r ?+ :at happ5s 9 a great assembly1 :]e "o %rewd idea dev\rs ! o!r40 #b #a ,x is a rem>kable po9t 9 ,engli% politics to-day t legislation is practically 9 ! h&s ( ! ,gov]nm5t dep>tm5ts4 ,bills are reject$ or 8knock$ ab\t 9 ,committee02 b ! mass ( organis$ k necess>y to initiate legislation 9 a complex society c h>dly be f\nd outside ! ga!r$ exp]i5ce ( an (fice :i* has cont9uity 9 deal+ ) ! same problems4 ,?is t5d5cy m ?an ju/ifies ,hegel's po9t ( view4 ,an act ( ! 8,g5]al ,w0 has n only1 z he said1 to be m\ld$ by runn+ ! gauntlet ( public & critical discussion1 b has ev5 to be fir/ draft$ by ! help ( imm5se piles ( exp]i5ce1 :i* ! g5]al m9d does n possess1 & c\ld n deal )1 b :i*1 nev]!less1 enable its typical wi% & int5tion to be embodi$ 9 effective =m4 #b ,re*tsphil41 sect4 #cae4 #bhf ,! free judgm5t ( individuals bas$ on ! publicity ( political discussion is 8public op9ion40 ,9 public op9ion we h an actual exi/5t contradiction4 ,z public1 x is s\nd & true1 & conta9s ! e?ical _s ( ! ,/ate4 ,z express$ by individuals 9 _! p>ticul> judgm5ts1 on :i* !y plume !mselves1 x is full ( falsehood & vanity4 ,x is ! bad :i* is peculi>1 & :i* p pride !mselves on2 ! rational is univ]sal 9 its nature1 ?\gh n necess>ily common4 ,public op9ion is a contradictory appe>ance1 9 :i* ! true exi/s z false4 ,x is no accid5t1 b inevitable insight1 t leads bo? ( ^! *>act]s to be prov]bially express$1 z 9 8,vox populi1 vox ,dei10 contra/$ ) ,ario/o's 8,*e'l ,volg>e ignorante ogn'un' ripr5da ,e p>li plu di qual *e m5o int5da02 #a or ,goe!'s 8,zus*lag5 kann die ,masse ,da i/ sie respektabel2 ,ur!il5 gel+t ihr mis]abel40 #b or ! 8mo/ly fools0 ( ,c>lyle4 #a 8,t ! ignorant vulg> reproves ev]yone1 & talks mo/ ( :at x und]/&s lea/40 #b 8,! masses are respectable h&s at fight+1 b mis]able h&s at judg+40 ,n[1 z public op9ion ?us comb9es tru? & falsehood1 ! public _c be 9 e>ne/ ) bo?1 i4e4 bo? _c be its real w4 ,b if we re/rict ourselves to its express utt]ance1 we _c possibly tell :at x is 9 e>ne/ )--because x does n "k4 ,!re=e1 ! degree ( passion #bhg ) :i* a giv5 op9ion is ma9ta9$ ?r[s no light on ! "q1 on :at po9ts ! public is really 9 e>ne/1 9 ! s5se ( ! 8real w40 ,?is c only be kn[n f ! sub/antive reality1 :i* is ! 8true inw>dness0 ( public op9ion4 ,?is sub/antive reality1 ! true m]its ( any case1 is n to be got by ! /udy ( m]e public op9ion z express$1 b :5 x is successfully div9$ & ass]t$1 public op9ion w always come r\nd to x4 ,if we ask h[ x is to be div9$ or kn[n1 we mu/ g back to ! analogy ( a !ory4 ,! solution mu/ be con/ruct$ s z to satisfy ! real facts or ne$s1 & ! real facts or ne$s only become kn[n 9 proportion z x is con/ruct$1 j z 9 sci5tific discov]y4 ,! man :o c see & d :at 8 age wills & dem&s is ! great man ( ! age4 ,public op9ion1 !n1 dem&s to be at once e/eem$ & contemn$2 e/eem$ 9 its ess5tial basis1 contemn$ 9 its consci\s expression4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 ! pr9ciple ( ! mod]n _w t e "o is all[$ to contribute 8 op9ion4 ,:5 he has contribut$ x1 & s f> satisfi$ ! impulse ( self-ass]tion1 he is likely to acquiesce 9 :at is done1 to :i*1 he c feel1 he has ?r[n 9 "s elem5t ( sugge/ion or criticism4 #aj4 ,9 conclud+ ?is *apt]1 we w attempt to e/imate ! ne>ness ( su* an analysis ( ! ,/ate to ! actual facts ( life1 admitt+ c]ta9 appe>ances aga9/ x1 b reject+ pessimi/ic views :i* re/ on false ab/ractions4 ,i w /ate ! difficulties z !y appe>$ to ,t4,h4 ,gre51 a cauti\s & practical ,engli%man1 #bhh well exp]i5c$ 9 local politics1 & acqua9t$ ) diff]5t classes ( m54 #a 8,to an ,a!nian slave1 :o might be us$ to gratify a ma/]'s lu/1 x w\ld h be5 a mock]y to speak ( ! ,/ate z a realisation ( fre$om2 & p]haps x w\ld n be mu* less to speak ( x z su* to an untaught & "u-f$ d5iz5 ( a ,london y>d ) g9 %ops on ! "r h& & on ! left40 8,x is true t ! necessity :i* ! ,/ate lays on ! individual is = ! mo/ "p "o to :i* he is s accu/om$ t he no long] kicks aga9/ x2 b :at is x1 we may ask1 b an ext]nal necessity1 :i* he no m lays on himself ?an he does ! weight ( ! atmosph]e or ! pressure ( summ] heat & w9t] fro/s1 t compels ! ord9>y citiz5 to pay rates & taxes1 to s]ve 9 ! army1 to ab/a9 f walk+ ov] ! ,squire's fields1 sn>+ 8 h>es1 or fi%+ 8 pres]v$ /reams1 to pay 8 r5t1 to respect ^? artificial rights ( prop]ty :i* only ! possessors ( !m h any obvi\s int]e/ 9 ma9ta9+1 or ev5 7if he is "o ( ! prolet>iate7 to keep 8 h&s (f ! sup]flu\s weal? ( 8 neighb\r :5 he has none ( 8 own to lose80 8,a conception does n float 9 ! air4 ,x mu/ be somebody's conception4 ,^: conception1 !n1 ( g5]al good is x t ^! in/itutions repres5t80 8,is x n s]i\sly mislead+1 :5 ! requirem5ts ( ! ,/ate h s l>gely aris5 out ( =ce direct$ by selfi% motives1 & :5 ! motive ( ob$i5ce to ^! requirem5ts is det]m9$ by fe>1 to #bhi speak ( !m z hav+ a common s\rce ) ! morality ( :i* x is admitt$ t ! ess5ce is to be dis9t]e/$ & spontane\s80 #a ,pr9ciples ( ,political ,obligation1 p4 #h2 cf4 p4 #abg ff4 ,i h quot$ ^! passages--! :ole section %\ld be c>efully read--9 ord] to /ate pla9ly a p>adox :i* affects ! !ory ( society f beg9n+ to end4 ,x cont9ually %[s itself 9 ! pessimi/ic criticism ( economic motive1 political motive1 & ( e-day social motive4 ,! :ole "q really dep5ds on our und]/&+ ( ! relation ( ab/ract & concrete4 ,x is pla91 z ,gre5 says1 t ! idea ( a common good has nev] be5 ! sole influ5ce op]ative 9 ! =mation or ma9t5ance ( ,/ates4 ,&1 9 z f> z x has op]at$ at all1 x has only done s 9 v imp]fect =ms4 ,gre5 goes s f> z to say t ,hegel's acc\nt ( fre$om z realis$ 9 ! ,/ate does n seem to correspond to ! facts ( society z x is1 or ev5 z1 "u ! unalt]able conditions ( human nature1 x ev] c\ld be2 ?\gh1 no d\bt1 !re is a "w ( moral lib]ation1 :i* society1 ?r\gh its v>i\s ag5cies1 is con/antly c>ry+ on = ! individual4 ,n[1 ! tru? ( ^! criticisms may be grant$ 9 ! same s5se 9 :i* we grant ! imp]fection ( k 7z curr5tly conceiv$7 or ( morality--imp]fections n accid5tal1 b inh]5t 9 ea* p>ticul> =m ( human exp]i5ce4 ,! conflict ( int]e/s1 ! failure to reconcile rights1 & ! weight & opaqu5ess1 s to speak1 ( law & cu/om to ! individual m9d1 are contradictions ( ! same type & #bij due to causes ( ! same k9d z ^? :i* arise 9 ! _w ( e?ics & ( !ory4 ,&1 ?\gh ! new relations :i* spr+ up 9 society are p]petually result+ 9 new contradictions1 !re is no reason to comp>e ! ,/ate unfav\rably1 9 ?is respect1 ) ,morality or ) ,sci5ce4 ,! contradictions1 9 fact1 are ! mat]ial ( organisation4 #a #a ,take1 = in/ance1 ! *aos ( ! m$ical *>ities ( ,london4 ,x consi/s ( endeav\rs to adju/ help to ne$s1 :i* endeav\rs are !mselves unadju/$ to ea* o!r4 ,?us1 precisely z 9 ! !oretical progress1 ! unadju/m5t ( adju/m5ts br+s out ev] new contradictions :i* dem& readju/m5t4 ,)\t diff]+ pr(\ndly f ,gre5 9 !ory1 !re=e1 we v5ture to assign a greatly dim9i%$ importance to 8 criticisms4 ,?is is due 9 "p to ! gr[? ( a m intimate exp]i5ce1 ow+ 9 "s measure to 8 initiative1 :i* seems to %[ ! ess5tials ( life to be f> m id5tical ?r\gh\t ! s-call$ classes ( society ?an is admitt$ by su* a passage z t cit$ above ab\t ! dwell] 9 a ,london y>d4 #a ,x is due1 fur!r1 & 9 connection ) su* exp]i5ce1 to ! psy*ological conceptions develop$ 9 previ\s *apt]s1 accord+ to :i* ! place ( actual fe> ( puni%m5t 9 ma9ta9+ ! social sy/em is really v small1 :ile #bia ! place ( a habituation1 :i* is ess5tially e?ical1 is comp>atively l>ge4 ,^! sugge/ions1 :i* lead u to lay decreas+ /ress on ,gre5's criticism ( ,hegel1 po9t :olly 9 ! g5]al direction ( 8 own convictions1 & we may f9ally meet ! g5]al difficulty1 :i* expresses itself 9 pessimism1 by consid]ations su* z ,gre5 himself alleges 9 mitigation ( 8 own criticism4 #a ,n mu* /ress %\ld be laid on an isolat$ expression ( ?is k9d1 us$ 9 mak+ cle> ! difficulties ( a !ory :i* on ! :ole he support$1 & putt+ ^! difficulties1 z 0 8 cu/om1 z high z possible4 ,b x is wor? not+ t no "o1 :o really kn[s ! class ?us rhetorically allud$ to1 fails to exp]i5ce 9 !m ! same great relations & recognitions :i* make life wor? liv+ = m =tunate p]sons1 &1 z !y feel v ke5ly1 ! exp]i5ce is (t5 m emphatic !re ?an 9 ! ri*] class4 ,probably1 9 fundam5tal matt]s1 !re is z l>ge a proportion ( p]sons untaught & br$ up betwe5 temptations among ! ri* z among ! poor4 ,we may approa* ! matt] 9 ?is way4 ,! p>adox is1 t if y scrut9ise ! acts :i* h made ,/ates1 & :i* c>ry !m on1 or :i* g on "u & )9 !m1 y w e :]e be able to urge t !y spr+ f self-int]e/ & ambition--n f a desire = ! common good4 ,h[ !n c we say t ! ,/ate exi/s = a common good8 ,hegel's l>ge conception ( a social fabric & ! temp] ( m9d :i* ma9ta9s x %\ld h done "s ?+ to meet ?is problem4 ,b we may come a little clos] to ! precise difficulty4 ,no?+ is s fallaci\s z m]e psy*ological analysis appli$ to ! e/imation ( ! purposes :i* rule a m9d4 ,9 e act !re is necess>ily an aspect ( ! ag5t's p>ticul> self4 ,"o way or ano!r he is satisfi$ 9 x4 ,s ! pessimi/ic or sup]ficial psy*ologi/ c always--n 9 "s acts m]ely1 b 9 all--discov] a =m ( self-seek+4 ,life is a :ole made up ( p>ticul>s1 & ! univ]sal is a connection )9 !m1 n ano!r p>ticul> outside !m2 x is a mi/ake ( pr9ciple to suppose t any act c be outside ! tissue ( aims1 impulses1 & emotions :i* affect ! s5sitive self4 ,great purposes "w ?r\gh ^! affections & trans=m !m1 b #bib _c oblit]ate !m )\t oblit]at+ life4 8,!re is no?+ degrad+ 9 be+ alive40 #a ,b !re is a k9d ( eye :i* sees all ^! p>ticul>s ap>t f ! sub/antive aims :i* give !m _! "*1 & treats !m z if !y 7 ! sole det]m9+ motives ( ! ag5t4 ,hegel calls su* a critic--he is ?9k+ especially ( hi/orians--8! psy*ological valet1 = :om !re are no h]oes1 n because !y are no h]oes1 b because he is only a valet40 ,on ! :ole1 a man is :at he does4 ,if 8 s]ies ( actions has ! root ( ! matt] 9 x1 x is wrong ei!r = him to be det]r$1 or = a critic to c>p1 because !y br+ him ga9 or glory1 or gratify him by activity & excitem5t4 ,to %r9k f p>ticul> occasions ( action because "o's self may f9d satisfaction 9 !m is to fall back into ! m]e g5]al will+ ( ! ab/ract good4 ,& 8! laurels ( m]e will+ are dry leaves t nev] h be5 gre540 #a ,re*tsphil41 sect4 #abc4 ,we may illu/rate ^! ideas f ! life ( ! ord9>y memb]s ( ,/ates1 & f ! c>e] ( a great rul] or conqu]or4 #a #a ,gre51 ,pr9ciples ( ,political ,obligation1 sects4 #aba & #abh4 ,! life ( an ,engli% lab\r]1 = example1 may conc]n itself ) no su* ab/ract ideas #a z are express$ by ! words 8,/ate0 or 8common good40 ,b1 to beg9 )1 he is a law-abid+ citiz54 ,he keeps 8 h&s (f o!rs & _! belong+s by ! same rule by :i* he expects o!rs to keep _! h&s (f him & 8 belong+s4 #bic #b ,he recognises fairness ( b>ga9+1 & is prep>$ to treat o!rs fairly1 z he expects !m to treat him4 ,he is aw>e ( 8 claims1 t is to say1 z dep5d+ on some?+ 9 common betwe5 himself & o!rs2 & if he does n practically admit any su* community1 8he is "o ( ! dang]\s classes1 virtually outlaw$ by himself40 #c #a ,al?\gh ! lit]>y class are liable v s]i\sly to "u-rate ! significance ( =ms ( ?\ght unfamili> to !m4 #b ,habits1 su* z our habit ( rely+ on security ( life & prop]ty1 are second>ily automatic1 i4e4 are v intimately connect$ ) ideas4 ,see *ap4 viii4 #c ,gre51 ,loc4 cit4 ,s f> he is a loyal subject only4 ,if he is to h a full] s5se ( a social good1 he mu/ ei!r take "p 9 ! "w ( ! ,/ate1 or at lea/ be famili> ) su* "w1 ?r\gh int]e/ 9 8 fell[s %>e ( x1 & 9 ! organisations :i* connect 8 class int]e/s ) ! public good4 ,8 m9d mu/ n m]ely "w 9 its place 9 ! social m9d1 b mu/ be 9 "s degree aw>e ( ! connection betwe5 its place & ! :ole--( ! app]cipi5t /ructure to :i* x belongs4 ,he mu/1 9 %ort1 h t\* ) ! connection :i* ,hegel repres5ts z t betwe5 ! ,b\rgeois ,society & ! ,/ate prop]4 ,& ?is1 9 mod]n ,/ates1 is 9 pr9ciple op5 to him4 ,&1 fur!r1 he mu/ h ! feel+ = 8 ,/ate1 :i* is connect$ ) ! idea ( home & fa!rl&4 ,9 a mod]n nation ! atmosph]e ( ! family is n conf9$ to ! actual family4 ,! common dwell+-place1 hi/ory1 & tradition1 ! common language & common lit]ature1 give a col\r ( affection to ! e-day citiz5-consci\sness1 :i* is to ! nation :at family affection is 9 ! home circle4 #bid ,?us1 x is n true t ei!r ! feel+ or ! insight :i* con/itute a consci\sness ( a common good are want+ to ! e-day life ( an av]age citiz5 9 a mod]n ,/ate4 ,x may seem full ( selfi% c>e1 b ?is is only a n>r[ view4 ,if we look at ! _s ( ! :ole life we %all see t x is sub/antially dep5d5t on ! recognition ( a good1 & feels t dep5d5ce 9 concrete =m4 ,&1 secondly1 to take ! p>adox 9 its extreme %ape1 9 :i* ! ord] ( ! ,/ate appe>s to arise out ( ! selfi% ambition ( ! mo/ unscrupul\s ( m54 ,! contradiction may be /at$ 9 ! =m t ! actions ( bad m5 are 8ov]-rul$0 = good4 ,b ?is w\ld mean t ! 8psy*ological0 critic or hi/orian _h fir/ mis/at$ ! cause1 & !n _h rectifi$ 8 mis-/atem5t by a mean+less phrase4 ,! great ideas & causes :i* 7 advanc$1 = example1 by ! c>e] ( ,napoleon1 ow$ nei!r _! nature nor _! exi/5ce to 8 selfi% ambition4 ,!y did n1 h[ev]1 owe !m to any non-human cause2 to any op]ation ( ideas o!rwise ?an 9 ! m9ds ( m54 ,!y came into exi/5ce ?r\gh ! work+ ( innum]able m9ds t[>ds objective ends by ! inh]5t logic ( social gr[?1 ) v>i\s degrees ( moral insight1 & !y 7 promot$ by ,napoleon's c>e] 9 virtue ( ! common "* :i* unit$ 8 aims1 9 s f> z !y _h a reasonable side1 ) ! movem5t %ap$ by ! ideal =ces ( ! age4 ,!re is no reason to d\bt1 if we d n wilfully n>r[ our view ( ! situation1 t a conception ( good 0 z mu* op]ative 9 ! cause z x is pres5t 9 #bie ! effect--say1 9 ! unity ( ,italy4 ,we _c attempt to deal ) ! problem ( ! exi/5ce ( evil1 on ! gr\nd ( e?ical & political philosophy2 & we are n conc]n$ to d5y or to m9imise ! pres5ce ( gre$ & selfi%ness z di/ort+ =ces 9 ! m9ds ( m51 or 9 ! organisation ( ,/ates4 ,all t we ne$$ to %[1 0 t :at makes & ma9ta9s #a ,/ates z ,/ates is w & n =ce1 ! idea ( a common good1 & n gre$ or ambition2 & t ?is pr9ciple _c be ov]?r[n by ! facts ( self-int]e/ 9 ord9>y citiz5s1 or ( selfi%ness 9 ^? :o m\ld ! de/9ies ( nations4 #a ,ari/otle's say+ ( ! ,/ate1 t x 8comes to be = ! sake ( life1 b is = ! sake ( good life10 expresses 9 ! fir/ in/ance an app>5t contra/ betwe5 orig9 & purpose ( ,/ates4 ,b its real po9t is t ! purpose is impli$ 9 ! orig91 = ! ,/ate is natural1 & 9 e 8natural0 g5esis its purpose is impli$2 & ! orig9 is impli$ 9 ! purpose1 = ! ,/ate1 9 ! processes :i* ma9ta9 x1 8orig9ates10 i4e4 r5ews its mat]ial basis1 daily1 & mu/ d s 9 ord] to 8be40 #bif ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,in/itutions ,,consid]$ ,,z ,,e?ical ,,ideas4 #a4 ,we h be5 guid$ ?r\gh\t our argum5t by ! idea t ! relation ( a giv5 m9d to ! m9d ( society #a is comp>able to ! relation betwe5 our appreh5sion ( a s+le object & our view ( nature z a :ole4 ,! =m] t]m1 9 ea* case1 we _c b suppose to be an individualis$ case ( ! latt]4 ,! latt] seems inevitably to imply a univ]sal pr9ciple correspond+ to e feature ( ! =m]4 ,we c nev] see ?r\gh ! connections1 & ! connections ( ! connections--e4g4 ( gravitation & ( col\r--9 e "p4 ,b our ideal z !ori/s w\ld be to analyse ! physical object into features1 e "o ( :i* %\ld be a case ( a natural law1 & ! :ole tak5 toge!r a case ( ! :ole sy/em ( natural law1 :i* w\ld be our sci5tific view ( ! _w4 #a ,i neglect1 = ! mom5t1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! m9d ( society & m9d at its be/4 ,! diff]5ce is practically consid]able1 b ,i %all attempt to make x appe>1 9 ! c\rse ( ! pres5t *apt]1 to be a diff]5ce ( progress b n ( direction4 ,9 treat+ ( a human m9d 9 its relation to #big ,society & ! ,/ate1 our ideal is comp>able to ?is4 ,we %\ld l to analyse any giv5 m9d into features ea* ( :i* %\ld be an individual case ( a univ]sal pr9ciple1 & ! :ole ( :i*1 tak5 toge!r1 %\ld be a case ( ! :ole sy/em ( pr9ciples inc>nate 9 ! _w1 & proximately 9 ! social _w4 ,plato1 simplify+ = ! sake ( elucidation ! ,city-/ate1 :i* to our m9ds 0 already simple1 repres5t$ a community1 9 diagrammatic =m1 z consi/+ 9 a ?reefold /ructure ( classes1 9 :i* 7 inc>nate ! ?ree ma9 features :i* he discrim9at$ 9 ! individual s\l--! desires necess>y to liv+1 ! _s ( action1 & ! p[] ( see+ ?+s z a :ole4 #b4 ,! pr9ciples :i* con/itute a society are facts z well z ideas1 & purposes z well z facts4 ,?is ?reefold "* is unit$ 9 :at we describe by ! g5]al t]m 8in/itutions10 a t]m :i* w\ld apply p]fectly well to ,plato's 8classes0 9 virtue ( ! def9ite relations ) :i* he inve/s !m4 ,x is unnecess>y to insi/ on ! ext]nal aspect ( in/itutions z facts 9 ! mat]ial _w2 b x w be wor? :ile to ga!r up ! lead+ conceptions ( our analysis by trac+ ! nature ( "s prom95t 8in/itutions10 z ideas1 con/itu5t elem5ts ( ! m9d1 :i* are also purposes2 t is1 z e?ical ideas4 ,an in/itution may h gr[n up )\t special ord9ance1 or may h be5 call$ into exi/5ce by an act ( public w4 ,b x has always ! "* ( be+ recognis$ z if x _h be5 8in/itut$0 or e/abli%$ to fulfil "s public or quasi-public #bih purpose4 #a ,an old s]vant is sometimes said to be 8q an in/itution0--he is *>act]is$ by ! function ( keep+ alive c]ta9 common traditions ( a s*ool1 p]haps1 or a family--an annual cu/om may be an in/itution 9 virtue ( ! same k9d ( recognition2 ,sunday is an in/itution2 ! ^w is inde$ v vaguely appli$1 = obvi\sly almo/ e object or ev5t c h a significance ( ?is k9d atta*$ to x 9 je/ or e>ne/4 ,b = all t1 we c see pretty pla9ly :at usage is driv+ at4 ,an in/itution implies a purpose or s5tim5t ( m m9ds ?an "o1 & a m or less p]man5t embodim5t ( x4 8,( m m9ds ?an "o10 because x is to fix ! meet+ po9ts ( m9ds t ! ext]nal embodim5t is necess>y4 #a ,:y is n a memorial /atue or build+1 :i* expresses a public idea1 an 8in/itution0 ap>t f its uses8 ,app>5tly because x has n ! notion ( br++ p]sons toge!r or induc+ p]sons to act 9 "s def9ite way4 ,an 8in/itution10 !n1 belongs to ! level ( society1 z su*1 conceiv$ z a numb] ( p]sons4 ,?us1 a "w ( art is h>dly an in/itution1 ?\gh x expresses ! 8univ]sal0 ( _m m9ds2 b a weekly conc]t is an in/itution1 because _m p]sons act toge!r 9 giv+ & att5d+ x4 ,9 in/itutions1 !n1 we h t meet+ po9t ( ! individual m9ds :i* is ! social m9d4 ,b 8meet+ po9t0 is an unhappy t]m1 sugge/+ objects 9 space t t\* at c]ta9 spots4 ,r let u say1 we h "h ! ideal sub/ance1 :i*1 z a univ]sal /ructure1 is ! social1 b 9 its diff]5tiat$ cases is ! individual m9d4 ,& x is necess>y to obs]ve t ! mat]ial ( ?is fabric has det]m9ate s\rces4 ,m9d is n an empty po9t4 ,x is ! _w z exp]i5c$4 ,! in/itutions1 :i* z e?ical #bii ideas con/itute m9d1 are1 l a !ory1 attempts at unity 9 face ( ne$s1 pressures1 facts1 & sugge/ions :i* arise 9 :at we call our surr\nd+s1 & to ea* ( :i* m9d reveals a diff]5t quality2 z e tone ( a l&scape elicits its peculi> %ade ( feel+1 :i* b = x might h rema9$ lat5t = ev]4 ,x takes ! :ole _w to call out ! :ole m9d4 ,b x w be en\gh if we c trace1 9 "s prom95t examples1 ! nature ( an in/itution z at once a deal+ ) surr\nd+s1 #a an e?ical idea1 & a social pr9ciple4 #a ,!re are1 ( c\rse1 no absolute surr\nd+s4 ,at e po9t exp]i5ce re/s on m9d4 ,b at any po9t at :i* we are obs]v+1 we mu/ take "s facts z1 comp>atively speak+1 giv54 #c4 ,! family />ts f ! univ]sal physical fact ( p>5tage1 b takes its e?ical value ma9ly f ! special phase ( p>5tal relation :i* leads to ! =mation ( a h\sehold4 ,! association ( p>5ts & *ildr5 9 a h\sehold1 :i* is p]man5t until brok5 up into o!r h\seholds1 is due to economic conditions4 ,call+ to m9d ! orig9al mean+ ( words1 we see t we are ass]t+ ! =mation ( a h\se hold to be due to 8h\sehold0 #a conditions4 ,& ?is is some?+ m ?an a pun4 ,:atev] ! surr\nd+s may be :i* fav\r ! =mation ( h\seholds1 :e!r ! difficulty ( procur+ livelihood1 :i* makes ! fa!r's cont9u$ c>e ess5tial1 #b or ! *ances (f]$ by agriculture to a /able gr\p1 !y op]ate z elem5ts 9 a human _w1 9 a _w :i* is con/itut$ by #cjj ! focuss+ ( 8surr\nd+s0 7circum/ances7 9 a :ole4 ,conditions :i* h become 8economic0 h ceas$ to be mat]ial4 ,!y are motives1 int]e/s1 means to ends4 ,!y br+ ! _w into ! m9d1 b 9 do+ s !y become factors 9 ! purposiv5ess & re-adju/m5t1 :i* ! m9d1 z unity ass]t+ itself ?r\gh\t v>i$ sugge/ions1 is busi$ 9 br++ to pass4 ,by dem&+ p]man5ce1 = in/ance1 economic conditions elicit 9 ! relation ( p>5t & *ild ! simple/ =m ( univ]sality necess>y to an e?ical idea4 #a 8,economy0 h\sehold managem5t4 #b ,x is said t ! h\sehold does n readily =m itself 9 v easy conditions ( life4 ,we w n v5ture ^u ! hi/ory ( phases ( ! family life1 b w attempt at once to sket* its position & value 9 ! typical civilisation ( a mod]n ,/ate4 ,only x mu/ be insi/$ on once m1 #a t ! family or h\sehold z an e?ical /ructure is n ant]ior to ! ,/ate1 b is r a gr[? dep5d5t on ! _s & protection ( ! ,/ate1 & int5tionally fo/]$ by x z aga9/ =ms ( k9%ip :i* d less ju/ice to ! e?ical possibilities ( p>5tage4 #a ,cf4 p4 #bgb4 ,z an e?ical idea1 !n1 ! monogam\s family1 :i* is 9 ! normal case also a h\sehold1 has a unique place 9 ! /ructure ( ! citiz5 m9d4 ,its peculi>ity is 9 be+ a natural union ( feel+ ) ideal purpose4 ,t is to say1 ! ideal purpose1 a p]man5t int]e/ 9 a comp>atively p]man5t & ext]nal life1 atta*es itself by imp]ceptible l9ks to ! mo/ univ]sal incid5t ( animal exi/5ce4 ,! m]e rema9+ toge!r ( ! units1 a dem& ( _! physical ne$s1 is almo/ en\gh ( itself to trans=m _! inevitable #cja mutual dep5d5ce into a relation ( int5tional s]vice1 root$ 9 affection1 & t+$ ) "s degree ( =e?\ght4 ,&1 be+ ?us 8natural10 ! idea ( ! family has a hold l no o!r ^u ! :ole man4 ,9 ?is respect x anticipates ! p[]s :i* h be5 claim$ = ! love ( beauty4 ,! v animal roots ( life1 & e detail ( man's appetitive be+1 are made1 )\t consci\s ef=t or moralis+ int]f]5ce1 factors 9 a r\nd ( social s]vice4 ,! meal ( a lonely individual #a is p]haps1 at be/1 a ref9$ & lawful pleasure4 ,b ! family meal1 q ap>t f ov]-/ra9$ religionism1 has 9 x1 z a pla9 matt] ( fact1 ! fundam5tal elem5ts ( a sacram5t1 none ! less effective t !y are n ?\ght ( by t "n4 ,& bo? ?r\gh ma9ta9+ ! fitness ( ! p>5ts = _! life "w1 & ?r\gh ! tra9+ ( ! *ildr5 to ! same end1 ! natural e?ics ( ! family h an indisp5sable logical hold ^u ! m explicit common good kn[n to ! social w4 #a ,note1 h[ev]1 :at is said bel[ ( ! second>y or transf]r$ idea ( ! family4 ,! solit>y may p>take ( ! family sacram5t1 s to speak1 8by fai?40 ,&1 9 ! la/ place1 x %\ld be not$ t a feel+ & atmosph]e ( ?is k9d is n conf9$ to memb]s actually liv+ 9 h\seholds =m$ by families4 ,!re is no race1 x has be5 said1 t p>ts ) its *ildr5 s readily1 or reta9s _! affections s p]man5tly1 z ! ,anglo-,saxon race4 ,:5 ! type & _s are once =m$1 !y are contagi\s & p]si/5t2 !y #cjb affect all :o h se5 or kn[n !m1 & ev5 ^? :o h nev] =m$ "p ( a h\sehold b\nd by k9%ip4 ,if we contra/ ! idea ( ! h\sehold ) mona/icism z its repudiation1 & ) ! tribal /ate or phalan/]y z its exagg]ation1 we %all see its uniqu5ess 9 ! /ronge/ light4 ,! naturalness ( its f\ndation1 & ! complet5ess ( ! reciprocal int]e/ 7involv+ monogamy7 on :i* its idea re/s1 di/+ui% x f all o!r =ms ( union or disunion 9 :i* ! sexes are conc]n$4 ,x may be add$ t ! family1 & x alone1 has ! "r adju/m5t ( population 9 its p[]4 ,! fully tra9$ & equipp$ human be+ c nev] be sup]flu\s 9 ! _w4 ,& ! production ( ! fully tra9$ & equipp$ human be+ dep5ds on ! capacity ( =m+ a true family & meet+ its requirem5ts1 & :5 ?is capacity & idea regulate ! union ( ! sexes no gr[? nor app>5t decrease ( population ne$ cause anxiety4 ,x seems z idle to discuss :e!r civilisation is conceivable )\t ! family z :e!r human nature c *ange4 ,all t we c attempt1 z philosoph]s1 is to asc]ta9 ! di/9ctive "p :i* its idea plays 9 human life z su*4 ,!re mu/ be1 we c see1 "s su* idea--an e?ical idea cov]+ "s su* sides ( life--:ile man is a spiritual animal4 ,b by :at precise 8in/itution0 su* an idea might come to be repres5t$ 9 circum/ances :i* we d n "k1 x w\ld be beyond ! mode/y ( philosophy to pr$ict4 ,! in/itution ( ,prop]ty may be m5tion$ #cjc z a coroll>y to ! h\sehold-family4 ,its natural basis & e?ical value are v m>k$ly correlative to ^? ( ! latt]4 ,! outlook ^u life :i* x ess5tially implies is co-ext5sive ) t dem&$ by ! h\sehold1 al?\gh 9 ! relations ( acquisition & ex*ange _m fur!r rights & duties may atta* to x4 ,x dep5ds on ! fact t1 9 ord] to express a w 9 an individual life 7:i* is incomplete except z ! life ( a h\sehold71 !re mu/ be a p[] ( m\ld+ ! mat]ial _w 9 ! s]vice ( ideas1 :i* is condition$ by free acquisition & utilisation4 ,! in/itution ( prop]ty1 !n1 z an e?ical idea1 consi/s 9 ! conception ( individual 7prop]ly speak+1 h\sehold7 life z a unity 9 respect to its deal+s ) ! mat]ial in/rum5ts ( liv+4 ,x is n m]ely ! idea ( provision = ! future2 /ill less ! c]ta9ty ( satisfy+ wants z !y arise f day to day4 ,x is ! idea t all deal+s ) ! mat]ial conditions ( life =m "p ( a connect$ sy/em1 9 :i* our conceptions & our abilities express !mselves4 ,x b9ds toge!r ! necess>y c>e = food & clo?+ ) ideas ( mak+ ! mo/ ( our life & ( ! lives dep5d5t ^u u4 ,a be+ :i* has no w has s f> no prop]ty--a *ild has 9 practice1 & a slave _h by ,roman law1 prop]ty 9 a second>y s5se--& a be+ :i* has no prop]ty has s f> no actual w4 ,! 8p]son10 or responsible head 7or heads71 ( a h\sehold1 is ! true unit to :om ! idea ( prop]ty atta*es1 because he is ! unit to :i* we normally ascribe an individualis$ w1 a s+le #cjd di/9ctive %ape ( ! social m9d4 ,a *ild has n yet su* a w2 a gr\p ( mature p]sons has m ?an "o4 ,! *ange :i* is pass+ ov] ! h\sehold 9 consequ5ce ( ! recognition ( m>ri$ wom5 z individual wills is highly in/ructive on ?is po9t4 ,!y c hold & manage _! own prop]ty1 because x is admitt$ t !y c h _! own view ( life4 ,x is n propos$ t "y *ildr5 %\ld hold & manage prop]ty1 because e "o kn[s t !y h no mature individualis$ view ( life4 ,! corporate p]son ( ! h\sehold is s f> dissolv$ by legal recognition ( its m individual compon5ts2 & x is mo/ important1 !oretically1 to note t its unity is n dim9i%$ by ! recognition1 b is rais$ to a high] p[]4 #d4 ,x might seem fanciful to say t our di/rict is to our family z space to "t2 b x w\ld sugge/ some?+ ( ! po9t ( view f :i* x is well to look at ! /ructure ( our e?ical ideas4 ,x is desirable to realise h[ ! simple/ *>act]s ( our surr\nd+s & _! necess>y connections are e?ically important1 n because !y impose any?+ ^u u1 b because !y respond to some?+ )9 u1 or r1 to a possibility :i* is to be realis$ by ! _w1 z 9 u its v>iety /rives t[>ds unity4 ,p>5tage1 we saw1 0 a univ]sal animal fact1 & f x1 9 an exp]i5ce capable ( unity & p]man5ce1 spr+s ! family h\sehold & all t x implies = our lives4 ,"o's di/rict1 z an elem5t ( life1 implies1 ( c\rse1 "s /ability--a home1 n m]ely p]man5t z a #cje home1 l ! ,scy?ian's waggon1 b locat$ on "s spot ( e>?4 ,! nomad1 we mu/ suppose1 to a great ext5t c>ries 8 neighb\rhood--8 tribe--along ) him1 & = t v reason ! fact ( neighb\rhood has n its full effect on him4 ,b :5 a p]man5t home is fix$ on "s spot ( e>?1 presumably ) ! beg9n+s ( agriculture1 a new condition beg9s to op]ate--! 8indiff]5ce0 ( space4 ,p]haps we are surpris$ t 8indiff]5ce0 %\ld be an e?ical /imulus4 ,b no?+ is m in/ructive ?an to note h[ qualities ( our surr\nd+s1 :i* by !mselves seem negative or ! b>e/ natural necessities1 spr+ into significance :5 tak5 up into ! unity ( life4 ,locality means a pot5tial neighb\rhood4 ,x may be long be=e any "o comes ne> y except y\r own c\s9hood1 y\r tribe or clan4 ,b ! indiff]5ce ( space is a /&+ invitation1 & x is pretty c]ta9 t "s day /rang]s w become y\r neighb\rs1 & t y w h to take up "s m5tal attitude t[>ds !m4 ,hi/orians & juri/s h describ$ to u ! /ruggle betwe5 ! pr9ciple ( k9%ip & ! pr9ciple ( neighb\rhood4 ,:5 we read t a plebeian1 9 ! eyes ( a ,roman patrician1 simply c\ld n make a real m>riage any m ?an ! bea/s ( ! field1 ?is is n1 z x may h become by survival1 int5tional arrogance on ! patrician's "p4 ,x 0 r ! /ate ( m9d ( ,mrs4 ,transome t[>ds ,rufus ,lyon1 8%e] inability to consid] him40 ,a pro( ( :at a /ruggle x involv$ to rea* a new attitude ( m9d z reg>d$ ! resid5t ali5 is giv5 by #cjf ! half-way h\se at :i* x 0 f\nd necess>y to pause 9 ! process4 ,! recognition ( k9%ip on ! gr\nd ( resid5ce 0 ! fiction1 we are told1 by :i* ! m9d assi/$ itself to a positive attitude t[>ds ^? :om ! indiff]5ce ( space insi/$ on br++ )9 its range4 ,& ! positive attitude t[>ds :i* x 0 grop+ its way 0 ( c\rse ! recognition ( humanity1 ! equality ( man 9 ! true/ s5se :i* t ambigu\s phrase w be>4 ,9 mod]n ,/ates1 9 :i* ?is /ruggle is on ! :ole beh9d u1 our di/rict or locality ass]ts its full indiff]5ce4 ,its 8negative0 "h becomes a 8positive40 ,t is to say1 on ! :ole1 #a & "u "s reasonable res]vations z to evid5ce ( int5tion to accept duties1 & to r5\nce incompatible ones1 m5 are full memb]s ( ! di/rict to :i* !y *oose to belong4 ,! *all5ge ?r[n d[n by ! indiff]5ce ( space has result$ 9 a recognition ( univ]sal humanity4 ,our di/rict is our neighb\rhood4 ,we w look a little m closely at ! e?ical idea impli$4 ,we notice at once1 at lea/ 9 ,engli% exp]i5ce1 t ea* ( u belongs to a v>iety ( di/ricts :i* are conc5tric z reg>ds him4 ,ea* ( ^! di/ricts repres5ts a diff]5t purpose1 & we are told t = practical purposes great confusion results4 ,b x is a useful tra9+ to be made aw>e ( ! di/9ct purpose ( ea* #cjg organis$ locality :i* surr\nds u--to h ! c>e ( our heal?1 ( public ord]1 ( education1 ( ! relief ( ! de/itute1 & ( religion accord+ to our view ( x1 repres5t$ by diff]5t1 or possibly diff]5t1 b\nd>y l9es on ! map4 ,ea* ( ^! b\nd>ies indicates "s common elem5t ( ?\ght & feel+--"s common int]e/--9 ! m9d ( ! neighb\rhood1 & ! diff]5ce ( ! b\nd>ies1 :]e !y diff]--! diff]5ce1 e4g41 betwe5 ! civil & ecclesia/ical p>i%--may h a long gr[? ( ideas beh9d x4 ,at any rate1 all ^! are moral or physical ne$s1 :i*1 l our h\sehold necessities1 draw u out ( ourselves1 & reveal u to ourselves z cases ( a l>g] m9d4 #a ,settlem5t1 s*ol>%ips1 fell[%ips1 & *>ities g5]ally1 8close0 to localities1 & p]haps domicile1 ma9ta9 qualifications 9 contradiction ) actual resid5ce1 & 9 case ( allegiance ev5 dep5d+ 9 "p on bir?4 ,b "s fixity is1 ( c\rse1 conv5i5t2 & ,i believe t int5tion plus resid5ce w cancel almo/ any oppos+ qualification4 ,e locality1 !n1 is1 h[ev] imp]fectly & unconsci\sly1 a body :i* has a m9d4 ,x is1 z an idea :i* ent]s into u1 ! spiritual reflection ( our adjac5t surr\nd+s1 bo? human & natural1 z ! family is ( our animal p>5tage4 ,! neighb\rhood is = ! m9d its imm$iate picture ( ! _w1 ! frame into :i* its fur!r vi/a ( society z a :ole mu/ be fitt$1 or1 9 o!r words1 its sph]e ( direct relations4 ,! family is a gr\p ( natural relations2 b ! neighb\rhood consi/s ( relations :i* are z natural 9 a diff]5t way1 n ?r\gh blood1 b ?r\gh contact4 ,x is n a selection1 b r a specim5 ( life z a :ole1 = x mu/ include z a rule all ! necess>y elem5ts ( ! social fabric4 ,x includes all t comes to u by direct s5se-p]ception f day to day2 all our *ance meet+s & deal+s ) ^? outside our h\sehold1 & probably ! ne>] #cjh & m reliable illu/rations ( all social & political problems4 ,= x is a context ( life :i* we "k & feel 9 its total work+1 :i* is impossible ) :at we only ga!r f writ+s or f he>say4 ,z su* a reflection ( our direct surr\nd+s1 x col\rs our :ole basis ( feel+1 ,a peculi> t+e ( happ9ess1 anxiety1 depression1 or resolution atta*es to ! /reets or fields :i* we pass ?r\gh day by day1 & ! faces :i* we meet4 ,h[ f> ^! feel+s are true int]pretations ( :at we see1 & h[ f> !y spr+ f sup]ficial or s5tim5tal associations1 is "o ( ! greate/ te/s ( ! m9d & he>t4 ,d we see ! body ( a s\l1 ! symbols ( "* & happ9ess1 9 ! h\ses1 ! /reets1 ! tillage1 ! work%ops1 or ! g>d5s8 ,no o!r elem5t ( m9d c be ! sub/itute = ! neighb\rhood4 ,x is ! fai? 9 :i* we live1 s f> z embodi$ 9 our contact ) a s5su\s _w4 ,x is a microcosm ( humanity1 9 :i*1 by ! v indiff]5ce ( space1 we are liable to ! direct impact ( all possible factors4 ,x is p>ticul>ly ! sph]e ( *>ity & c\rtesy1 ( ! "r behavi\r 9 imm$iate human relations ( all possible k9ds4 ,! ,di/rict or ,neighb\rhood1 9 %ort1 z an e?ical idea1 is ! unity ( ! region ) :i* we are 9 s5su\s contact1 z ! family is t ( ! _w b\nd to u by blood or daily ne$s4 ,local self-gov]nm5t1 = example1 acquires a peculi> "* f ! possibilities ( intimate k ( ea* o!r among ^? :o c>ry x on4 ,a man's :ole way ( liv+ #cji is 9 "q :5 he sets up to be locally prom95t1 & ?\gh ! result may (t5 be corruption or vulg>ity1 #a ^! are only ! failure ( :at1 at its be/1 is a true type ( ! relation ( fell[-citiz5s4 #a ,! recrim9ations or int]e/$ intimacies ( a ve/ry or p>i% c\ncil re/ at bottom on ! p]sonal k :i*1 rightly us$1 gives security to local life4 ,z ) ! family1 we may illu/rate ! significance ( ,neighb\rhood by ! case 9 :i* x fails to be duly recognis$1 & t 9 :i* no?+ else is recognis$4 ,to a great ext5t1 9 ! life ( mod]n cities1 especially :5 supplem5t$ by suburban resid5ce1 ! pr9ciple is disreg>d$4 ,9 a great city1 ! actual neighb\rhood is m ?an c be dealt )1 & has (t5 no di/9ctive physical "*--at lea/ no attractiv5ess--& ! idea ( a special relation to x falls away4 ,! fact1 inde$1 is less univ]sal ?an is (t5 ass]t$1 & ne>ness 9 space1 toge!r ) local gov]nm5t1 reta9 & w reta9 a c]ta9 pr$om9ance ov] ! m9d4 ,! total disreg>d ( an e?ical purpose connect+ u ) ! surr\nd+s ne>e/ to u 9 bodily pres5ce1 t5ds to deprive ! g5]al life ( its vitality1 its s5su\s heal?1 /r5g?1 & beauty4 ,9 _m ways1 circuit\s p]haps1 b ultimately effective1 x may be t ?is factor ( imm$iacy w rega9 a prop] place 9 ! national m9d4 ,we may obs]ve t 9 z f> z electoral di/ricts are treat$ z m]e circumscriptions ( su* & su* numb]s ( electors1 ! life ( a neighb\rhood is disreg>d$4 ,to make ! con/itu5cy a m]e #caj numb] 7,h>e's s*eme7 w\ld be ! climax ( ?is t5d5cy4 ,9 ! anci5t ,city-/ate1 on ! o!r h&1 ! di/rict 0 all p[]ful4 ,! ,/ate 0 almo/ a s5su\s fact4 ,! memb]s ( ! ,/ate 7 ess5tially fri5ds & neighb\rs1 :o = bus9ess or pleasure 7 meet+ all day long4 ,:5 ! di/rict ?us absorbs ! ,/ate1 !re is a want ( :at we call fre$om1 ?\gh !re may be en\gh ( s5su\s uncon/ra9t4 ,! ,/ate & its ideal purposes are n cle>ly set above all fle% & blood4 ,a great legal sy/em is n creat$ till ! ,/ate ceases to be a neighb\rhood4 ,individual intimacy #a & ! 8h>d case0 obscure ! idea ( univ]sal law4 ,! possibility ( repres5tative gov]nm5t1 ( a political fai? :i* does n "w by sight1 is n conceiv$4 ,! di/rict1 z a natural fact1 0 at fir/ only a degree m lib]at+ ?an ! natural fact ( k9%ip4 #b ,x 0 n conceiv$ t man1 z man1 belong$ 8nei!r to ?is place nor to ,j]usalem40 ,) ! ideal unity ( a mod]n nation su* conceptions h>monise mu* m readily1 & ! neighb\rhood c l5d !m fle% & blood )\t hid+ !m4 #a ,imag9e a ,roman or ,engli% judge be+ address$ z ,demo/h5es1 9 8 spee* aga9/ ,panta5etus1 address$ 79 8 cli5t's "n7 ! ,a!nian jury3 8,i "k ,i h a hurri$ gait & a l\d voice1 & x annoys p2 b ,i am z ,i 0 made1 & ,i h a "r to ju/ice all ! same40 ,x s\nds l a spee* to a jury ( s*oolboys4 #b ,p4 #cjj above4 #e4 8,class0 is 9 democratic c\ntries no long] a political in/itution4 ,a man's vote is secur$ to him on a m9imum qualification1 & 8 practical influ5ce & acceptance dep5d nei!r on #caa bir? nor on occupation1 b on ! p[] :i* he c ex]cise by 8 qualities or 8 possessions4 ,?is is a consequ5ce ( ! recognition ( humanity z su*1 & has its bad side & its good side accord+ to ! bas5ess & nobility ( ! influ5ces :i* tell de facto ^u human nature4 ,x is horrible1 we may say1 t influ5ce %\ld belong to weal? )\t any security :atev] = a dis*>ge ( social function4 ,b ?is1 giv5 human nature z x is to-day1 is a result ( ! same causes :i* enable u to boa/1 ) "s tru?1 t a man ranks 9 ! g5]al _w by 8 p[]s1 "*1 & behavi\r1 & t we d n "k or c>e :e!r 8 livelihood comes to him z a m9] or z a duke4 ,weal? has weight because p give x weight2 b no "o ne$ give weight to weal? 9 politics or social int]c\rse unless he likes4 ,x is a consequ5ce1 !n1 ( ! recognition ( free humanity t 8class0 no long] is an in/itution 9 political "r z su*1 :ile 9 social int]c\rse1 ?\gh x practically exi/s z an in/itution1 x claims to be an expression ( :at p are 9 "* & behavi\r1 & its diff]5ces are n annex$ by any iron bond to diff]5ces ( occupation4 #a #a ,x may be tak5 z prov$ t a 8g5tleman0 c make 8 liv+ z a lab\r] or me*anic--at lea/ 9 ! ,u4,s4,a41 :]e irrational tradition is weak] ?an 9 ,engl&--& rema9 a g5tleman 9 ! draw+-room s5se ( ! t]m z well z 9 ess5tials4 ,?is be+ s1 !re c be no inh]5t impossibility 9 m5 born & br$ z lab\r]s or me*anics realis+ ! same qualities4 ,x w\ld be cant1 ,i ?9k1 to say t full equality ( social class1 full pleasantness & fre$om ( int]c\rse1 c\ld be atta9$ )\t ^? qualities4 ,b ?\gh occupation no long] det]m9es ei!r social or political class1 9 ! s5se ( #cab gradation by any =mal bond1 yet x rema9s & mu/ always rema9 a det]m9ant ( class 9 a n>r[] s5se1 & "o ( ! ma9 ideas :i* con/itute ! e?ical /ructure ( ! m9d4 ,! necessities :i* we comp>$ r\ghly to "t & space--! proximate p]man5t gr\p & ! adjac5t locality--give a value to man's animal r\t9e1 & a significance to ! area ( 8 e-day p]ceptions4 ,x is :5 ! division ( lab\r1 ! requital ( "o s]vice by a diff]5t "o1 becomes prom95t 9 a community1 t a fur!r grasp is laid ^u ! di/9ctive capacities ( ! individual consci\sness1 9 :i* mu/ be reckon$ ! surr\nd+s :i* con/itute its horizon ( possibilities4 ,we /ill answ] ! g5]al "q1 8,:at is he80 by nam+ a man's indu/ry or pr(ession4 ,! family & ! neighb\rhood su/a9 & col\r ! individual life1 b ! vocation /amps & m\lds x4 ,! m def9ite & articulate summons ( ! organis+ _w--9 :i* ( c\rse intellig5ce is active1 ev] disc]n+ new purposes 9 old r\t9e--elicits a deep] response f1 or takes a m concrete %ape 91 ! p>ticul> c5tre ( consci\sness4 ,! individual has 8 own nature communicat$ to him z he is summon$ to fit himself = r5d]+ a di/9ctive s]vice to ! common good4 ,he becomes 8some?+02 an inc>nation ( a factor 9 ! social idea4 ,! ,roman ^w 8class10 :i* ! ,engli% language has adopt$1 n = e sep>ate employm5t1 b = ! "* & position r\ghly connect$ ) a :ole gr\p ( employm5ts1 has an orig9 wor? recall+4 ,plato's classes #cac 7 8g5]a0 clans1 ext5d$ families4 ,! ,g]man classes 7 8,/nde0 /atuses1 positions1 e/ates 7comp>e ! ,fr5* 8tat10 :i* practically trade74 ,b ! ,roman 8classis0 0 8a summon+0 to public s]vice2 ! fir/ & second classes 7 ! fir/ & second summon+s2 #a !n inde$ to milit>y s]vice 9 an ord] bas$ on weal?4 ,b ! idea may survive4 ,our 8class0 may be ?\ght ( z ! gr\p or body 9 :i* we are call$ out = di/9ctive s]vice4 #a ,momms5 ,rom4 ,hi/41 i4 #aja1 ,e4 tr4 ,! 8classicus0 0 ! trumpet4 ,"o's class1 !n1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* x indicates ! type ( position & s]vice involv$ 9 "o's occupation1 approa*es v ne> ! c5tre ( "o's individuality4 ,9 pr9ciple1 z an e?ical idea1 x takes ! man or woman beyond ! family & ! neighb\rhood2 & = ! same reason takes him deep] into himself4 ,he acquires 9 x a complex ( qualities & capacities :i* put a special po9t ^u ! g5]al ne$ ( mak+ a livelihood = ! support ( 8 h\sehold4 ,9 pr9ciple1 8 individual s]vice is ! social m9d1 z x takes1 9 8 consci\sness1 ! %ape dem&$ by ! logic ( ! social :ole4 ,he is 8a public work]0 #a by do+ ! s]vice :i* society dem&s ( him4 ,& j because ! s]vice is 9 pr9ciple some?+ p>ticul>1 unique1 & di/9ctive1 he feels himself 9 x to be a memb] ( a unity held toge!r by diff]5ces4 ,& 9 ?is s5se ! bond ( social union is n 9 simil>ity1 b 9 ! highe/ degree ( individuality or specialisation1 ! ultimate po9t ( :i* w\ld be to feel t ,i am r5d]+ #cad to society a s]vice :i* is necess>y1 & :i* no "o b me c r5d]--! close/ conceivable tie1 & yet "o1 :i* 9 a s5se1 really exi/s 9 e case4 ,y\r special p[]s & functions supply my ne$1 & my special p[]s & functions supply y\r ne$1 & ea* ( u recognises ?is & rejoices 9 x4 ,?is e?ical idea ( unique s]vice1 or ! s]vice ( a unique class1 involves ( c\rse a m or less consci\s id5tity 9 diff]5ce4 ,t is to say1 ! individual's m9d is n r$uc$ to 8 special s]vice1 or he w\ld be a ma*9e4 ,r1 ! :ole social consci\sness is pres5t 9 him1 b pres5t 9 a modifi$ =m1 accord+ to ! po9t ( view f :i* x is look+4 ,! problem is simply put by ,plato's diagrammatic s*eme ( classes4 ,! /atesman's function is to be wise = ! community2 ! c>p5t]'s to c>p5t] = ! community4 ,b pla9ly ! community = :i* ! /atesman kn[s t he has to be wise1 mu/ include ! c>p5t]'s life & ! conditions ( 8 "w1 & ! community = :i* ! c>p5t] kn[s t he has to "w mu/ include "s ( ! ord] & organisation :i* belong to x 9 ! /atesman's vision4 ,! individual1 9 %ort1 is unique1 or belongs to a unique class1 n z an atom1 b z a case ( a law1 or t]m ( a connection4 ,?is is :at is meant by individuality 9 ! true s5se2 ! "* ( a unit :i* has a great deal t1 be+ 8 v self1 _c be divid$ f him2 n "o :i* has s little t !re is no?+ by subtraction ( :i* he c be imag9$ less4 ,su* individuality is 9 a s5se ! :ole e?ical idea1 b m p>ticul>ly is embodi$ 9 #cae ! idea ( a vocation4 ,our vocation1 l our neighb\rhood1 & usually ( c\rse 9 connection ) x1 /amps bo? m9d & body2 & :at we consid] mo/ intimately ourself is really ! /ructure ( e?ical ideas :i* we are describ+1 ) ! feel+s & habits 9 :i* !y are root$1 b none ( :i* are unmodifi$ by !m4 #a ,greek demi\rgos1 8artisan40 ,hom] speaks ( 8^? :o are public work]s--! soo?say]1 ! doctor1 & ! c>p5t]40 ,l ! o!r ideas ( :i* we h spok51 ! idea ( class or specialis$ function may be illu/rat$ bo? by ! extreme 9 :i* x is no?+1 & ! extreme 9 :i* x is ev]y?+4 ,! less a society is diff]5tiat$--! less t1 consid]$ z a m9d1 x has develop$ int5se & det]m9ate capacities--! m its /ructure repeats itself f h\sehold to h\sehold1 #a & fails to exhibit l9es ( =mation p]vad+ ! community z a :ole4 ,dicey's ,! ,peasant ,/ate #b gives an idea ( a social m9d ?us undiff]5tiat$1 )\t classes1 )\t ambitions1 & )\t int]e/s4 ,bo? 9 ?is case & 9 t ( ! ,bo]s ( ! ,transvaal x w\ld be ra% = an outsid] to pron\nce dogmatically on ! value ( ! life :i* is a*iev$4 ,b z cases ( social =mation & ( social m9ds1 !y illu/rate our pres5t !me4 ,to say t !re is no specialis$ function1 is ! same z to say t !re is no develop$ intellig5ce4 #a ,durkheim's 8,segm5t>y ,/ructure10 ,de la ,division1 p4 #aij4 #b ,see also ,h4 ,bosanquet1 ,/&>d ( ,life1 p4 #h4 8,class0 appe>s to be ev]y?+1 an absolute & inflexible rule ( prec$5ce & privilege1 :5 x has lo/ or has n ga9$ ! p[] ( accommodat+ itself to function1 & function to social logic4 ,su* d5ials ( free adju/m5t1 ( #caf ! c>e] op5 to tal5ts1 may take ! =m ( a confusion ( ! pr9ciple ( class ) t ( bir?1 or ev5 ) t ( private prop]ty4 ,9 ! =m] case function & position are inh]it$1 9 ! latt] !y are b\ght & sold4 ,! two confusions may ev5 be comb9$1 z :5 public functions are inh]it$ l or ) a h\se or an e/ate4 #a ,su* a 8class0 sy/em may be an oppression to its memb]s1 #b or to ! community1 or to bo?4 ,b ! ess5ce ( ! evil is t a function ( m9d is divorc$ f its *>act]i/ic ( free logical adaptation )9 ! social sy/em4 ,! in/itution has become ossifi$2 & in/ead ( m\ld+ itself1 l a !ory or a liv+ organism1 to ! facts & ne$s :i* x is !re to meet1 x nails itself to an ali5 pr9ciple1 & becomes a fallacy 9 social logic1 or a dead organ 9 ! social body4 #a ,z 9 ! judicial privileges ( ! ,b>on ( ,bradw>d9e & 8 likes4 #b ,! h]$it>y execution] 9 ,maurus ,jokai's novel1 ,die s*ne ,mi*al4 ,9 bo? ( ^! extreme cases individuality is m9imis$4 ,9 ! =m] ! individual does n pret5d to any high capacity4 ,9 ! latt] he pret5ds to a consid]able capacity1 b ?is be+ cut ap>t f ! pr9ciple ( ! :ole1 & pret5d+ to be ev]y?+ 9 itself to exi/ absolutely or = its own sake has lo/ ! connection :i* gave x value1 & becomes a m]e pret5sion4 ,!re is a /range & sad in/itution 9 :i*1 x may be sugge/$1 ! two extremes ( error are comb9$4 ,?is is ! in/itution ( 8! #cag poor0 z a class1 repres5t+1 z an e?ical idea 9 ! mod]n m9d1 a p]man5t object ( compassion & self-sacrifice4 8,pov]ty10 x has be5 said1 8has become a /atus40 ,! 8dclasss0 h become a social class1 ) ! passive social function ( /imulat+ ! goodness ( o!rs4 #a ,let any "o consid] c>efully1 f ! po9t ( view :i* reg>ds e?ical ideas z an embodim5t ( human or social purposes1 ! (f]tory s5t5ces ( ! ,*ur* ( ,engl&4 ,x is ne$less to press ! criticism1 = no "o w\ld be likely to d5y t "h we h ideas ga!r$ f o!r soils & climates1 & rightly applicable only 9 ! _s1 b n 9 ! lett]4 8,give alms ( ?y goods1 & nev] turn ?y face f any poor man2 & !n ! face ( ! ,"l %all n be turn$ away f !e40 8,he t ha? pity ^u ! poor l5de? unto ! ,"l1 & look1 :at he laye? out x %all be paid him aga940 ,! victims ( mis=tune 9 a small community1 "u /rict regulations1 z 7 ! ,jews1 = ! promotion ( indu/ry1 are "o ?+4 ,! recognition ( a class m>k$ by ! function ( dep5d5ce--to use a contradictory expression--9 a va/ community ^: indu/rial organisation re/s on ! individual w1 is ano!r ?+4 ,! idea ( pity & self-d5ial1 inh]it$1 ,i presume1 l>gely f ! ,jewi% scriptures z also f ! ,new ,te/am5t1 has t5d$1 9 ! mod]n _w1 to become me*anical1 & comb9e ) a false class-conception4 ,all :o "k ! inn] life ( evangelical ,*ri/ians a #cah g5]ation ago w admit t1 among e>ne/ p]sons ( ?is type1 ! notion ( ! ti!--! devotion ( "o t5? or m ( ! income to purposes ( religion or b5evol5ce--_h be5 inh]it$ z a guid+ idea1 repres5t+ an end valuable p] se1 almo/ accord+ to ! lett] ( ! (f]tory4 ,i am n sugge/+ any vulg> *>ge ( o!r-worldl9ess1 b recall+ a g5u9e conviction t ! surr5d] ( a portion ( income to a less =tunate class ( ! community 0 9 itself desirable & a religi\s duty4 #a ,! incurably sick & helpless 9 all ranks ( society d1 no d\bt1 rightly fulfil su* a passive function4 ,x w\ld n be difficult to %[ t ! true & highe/ idea ( ,*ri/ian *>ity is remote f ?is conception ( a dep5d5t /atus z inh]5t 9 a c]ta9 portion ( society4 ,:at seems to be ne$$ "h1 z 9 s _m aspects ( morality & religion1 is to comb9e ! inspiration & ab&on ( ! mod]n m9d ) ! def9it5ess ( purpose & lucidity ( plan t *>act]is$ ! anci5t ,city-/ate4 ,socialism1 at its be/1 #a unites ) rec5t political economy & ) ^? :o try to 8organise0 or rationalise *>ity1 9 *all5g+ ! preconception t pov]ty mu/ be recognis$ z a p]man5t class-function4 ,& ?is brave d5ial may rema9 writt5 to its cr$it :5 ! controv]sies ( imm$iate me?od are =gott54 #a ,i _c ?9k t 9 detail its advocates are consi/5t ) _! pr9ciples on ?is po9t4 ,b controv]sy is n my object "h4 ,we may attempt to indicate 9 a few words ! direction 9 :i* ! e?ical idea inc>nate 9 ! in/itution ( ! 8poor0 is t5d+ to supplem5t & modify itself z cle>] notions ( a commonweal? arise4 ,x may be obs]v$1 by #cai way ( introduction1 t we cruelly misconceive ! ,greek m9d :5 we ascribe to x a want ( love & compassion1 because we miss 9 its utt]ances ! religi\s note ( devotion to ! poor4 #a ,to a great ext5t ! true/ idea ( *>ity 0 presuppos$ 9 ! v axioms ( a ,greek commonweal?4 ,! ,greek spoke little ( 8! poor10 because he recognis$ no su* /atus4 #b ,x w\ld h meant to him a functionless class1 a dislocation ( ! body politic4 ,?is1 9 fact1 is :at x did mean :5 paup]ism began to press ^u ! ,greeks1 & ! philosoph] #c at once diagnoses ! evil1 & uses ! t]m1 8p )\t means10 i4e4 )\t ways ( support+ !mselves1 in/ead ( ! old] ^w1 :i* r sugge/s ! 8object ( #8*>ity'04 ,to get !m back into a function1 8a means10 is ! c\rse :i* ipso facto rises be=e him2 n to create a new e?ical idea = _! sake qua dclasss4 #a ,n altoge!r true1 ( c\rse4 ,9 ,hom] 8all /rang]s & poor m5 come f ,zeus40 #b ,x is a mi/ake to treat all ^! problems z automatically solv$ = ! anci5ts by slav]y4 ,! citiz5 population _h en\gh dep5d5ce on indu/rial life to be liable to disa/] f its dislocation1 & t ?is happ5$ s little 0 a true success :ile x la/$4 #c ,ari/otle1 ,politics1 #acbj1 d4 #bi4 ,! old] ^w is pto*os1 8"o :o cr\*es or cr+es1 a begg>02 x always _h a bad s5se till x 0 ennobl$ 9 ! ,gospels 7,liddell & ,scott74 ,ari/otle's ^w is aporos1 8)\t ways & means40 ,diff]5t f bo? is p5es1 = :i* we h no prop] ^w1 hav+ spoilt 8poor0 by ! idea ( dep5d5ce4 ,x means a poor man 9 ! s5se ( "o :o is n ri* en\gh to live )\t work+4 ,! spee*es 9 :i* ,pov]ty p5ia def5ds h] m]its aga9/ ,weal?1 & 9 di/9ction f ,begg>y pto*eia1 9 ,ari/ophanes' ,plutus1 are f9e1 ?\gh mix$ ) fallacies4 ,! full mod]n conception ( ! 8poor0 z #cbj an in/itution1 if !y mu/ be an in/itution1 ought at lea/ to avoid ! pitfall ( acquiesc5ce4 ,grant+ ! fire & love ( ! ,*ri/ian m9d to be a ga91 yet its object mu/ be br\ght into relation ) ! true mean+ ( a m9d or a commonweal?4 ,devotion to man at 8 weake/ mu/ n be sep>at$ f devotion to ! possibilities ( man at 8 /ronge/--possibilities ei!r exi/5t or at lea/ symbolis$ 9 ! mo/ unhappy ( ! functionless poor4 ,self-sacrifice = ! poor %\ld n mean a tribute to ! ma9t5ance ( a vici\s /atus1 b an abid+ & p]vad+ s5se ( ! claims :i* ! weak] humanity has to be made /rong4 #f4 ,! ,nation-,/ate1 we h already sugge/$1 is ! wide/ organisation :i* has ! common exp]i5ce necess>y to f\nd a common life4 ,?is is :y x is recognis$ z absolute 9 p[] ov] ! individual1 & z 8 repres5tative & *ampion 9 ! affairs ( ! _w outside4 ,x is obvi\s t !re c be b "o su* absolute p[] 9 relation to any "o p]son2 & t1 s f> z ! _w is organis$1 !re mu/ be "o2 &1 9 fact1 8 dis*>ge f "o allegiance c only be effect$ by 8 acceptance ( ano!r4 ,! analysis ( ! previ\s *apt] releases u f ! task ( sett+ out ! elem5ts :i* comb9e 9 ! ,nation-,/ate1 z ! conception ( sov]eign & ultimate adju/m5t betwe5 ! sph]es :i* realise ! elem5ts ( our e?ical life4 ,x %\ld be not$1 h[ev]1 t ! pr9ciples ( ! family1 ! di/rict1 & ! class1 n only ent] into ! nation 9 ^! def9ite %apes1 b affect ! g5]al fabric ( #cba ! national ,/ate ?r\gh ! s5se ( race1 ( c\ntry1 & ( a p]vad+ /&>d ( life & culture4 ,! reaction ( ideal unity on ! natural conditions ( a /ate is exemplifi$ by ! t5d5cy to sub/itute ideal fronti]s--a m]idian or a p>allel #a--;= fronti]s det]m9$ by natural b\nd>ies4 #a ,see1 e4g41 ! map ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! ,nation-,/ate z an e?ical idea is1 !n1 a fai? or a purpose--we might say a mission1 7 n ! ^w too n>r[ & too aggressive4 ,x seems to be less to its inhabitant ?an ! ,city-/ate to its citiz5s2 b t is greatly because1 z happ5s ) ! high] a*ievem5ts ( m9d1 x includes too mu* to be readily appreh5d$4 ,! mod]n nation is a hi/ory & a religion r ?an a cle> cut idea4 ,its p[] z an idea-=ce is n kn[n till x is tri$4 ,h[ little ! outsid]1 & ev5 memb]s ( ! community conc]n$1 7 able to gauge be=eh& ! /r5g? ( ! s5tim5t & conception t p]vad$ ! ,unit$ ,/ates ?r\gh ! w> ( secession4 #a ,! place ( ! idea ( ! ,nation-,/ate 9 ! :ole ( e?ical ideas may be illu/rat$ by ! ,greek conception ( ,happ9ess1 z t organisation ( aims1 :atev] x may be :i* p]mits ! fulle/ h>mony to life4 ,! ,/ate1 z su*1 we saw1 is limit$ to ! (fice ( ma9ta9+ ! ext]nal conditions ( a good life2 b ! conditions _c be conceiv$ )\t ref]5ce to ! life = :i* !y exi/1 & #cbb x is true1 !re=e1 to say t ! conception ( ! ,nation-,/ate involves at lea/ an outl9e ( ! life to :i*1 z a p[]1 x is in/rum5tal4 ,! ,/ate1 9 %ort1 _c be und]/ood ap>t f ! nation1 nor ! conditions f ! life1 al?\gh 9 ex]t+ political =ce x is important to di/+ui% !m4 ,z an e?ical idea1 ! idea ( a purpose1 x is ess5tial to hold ! two sides toge!r1 if we are n to walk bl9dly4 #b ,! dang]s besett+ ! ,fr5* ,republic to-day 7,decemb]1 #ahih7 are1 9 ess5ce1 te/s appli$ to ! /r5g? ( a national idea4 ,if ! idea _c ma9ta9 itself1 we mu/ reluctantly suppose t x ought n--t ! common life has n ! necess>y dep?4 #g4 ,our analysis ( ! ,nation-,/ate sugge/s a po9t ( view :i* may be appli$ to ! vex$ "q ( :e!r ,/ate action is to be judg$ by ! same moral te/s z private action4 ,! fir/ /ep is to get a cle> idea ( ! nature ( ,/ate action4 ,x mu/ be conf9$1 "o w\ld ?9k1 to :at is done 9 ! "n ( ! ,/ate1 & by some?+ approa*+ to an act ( w on its "p z a ,/ate4 ,we only pass moral judgm5t on individuals 9 respect ( _! acts ( w1 & we ought to ext5d ! same ju/ice to a ,/ate4 ,! "q is complicat$ by ! fact t a ,/ate has1 z its accr$it$ ag5ts1 individuals ^: acts x mu/ normally av[4 ,b x c h>dly be saddl$ ) moral responsibility = _! p]sonal misdo+s1 except "u circum/ances :i* are b>ely conceivable4 #a ,! ,/ate1 z su*1 c h no ends b public ends2 & 9 practice x has none b :at its organs conceive to be public ends4 ,if an ag5t1 ev5 "u ! ord] ( 8 executive sup]ior1 commits a brea* ( morality1 bona fide 9 ord] to :at he conceives to be a public end desir$ by ! ,/ate1 he & 8 sup]ior are c]ta9ly #cbc blamable1 b ! immorality c h>dly be laid at ! door ( ! public w4 #a i4e4 ,t x %\ld actually ord] a !ft1 murd]1 or ! l4 ,inde$1 a /rict def9ition ( ,/ate action might raise a difficulty l t ( def9+ ! ,g5]al ,w--if ! act 0 immoral1 c ! ,/ate1 z su*1 really h will$ x8 ,& waiv+ ?is z a m]e ref9em5t1 x /ill seems cle> t ! selfi%ness or s5suality1 :i* has at lea/ a good deal to d ) ! immorality ( private actions1 c h>dly be pres5t 9 an act ( ! public w1 9 ! same s5se z 9 a private volition4 ,! ,/ate1 z su*1 c]ta9ly _c be guilty ( p]sonal immorality1 & x is h>d to see h[ x c commit !ft or murd] 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ^! are moral (f5ces4 ,to speak ( ! "q z if x conc]n$ ! conduct ( /atesm5 & _! ag5ts1 in/ead ( ! volition ( a ,/ate z su*1 seems to introduce confusion4 ,we are discuss+ ! p>allel betwe5 public & private acts1 & we are ask$ to beg9 by treat+ ! public acts z private4 ,x may be said t ?is di/9ction betwe5 public & private acts leads to ! casui/ry ( pure int5tion4 ,we are say+1 x w be urg$1 t ! ,/ate rema9s pure1 because its w is on ! :ole t[>ds a public int]e/1 :atev] crimes its ag5ts may commit4 ,&1 no d\bt1 ?is l9e is (t5 tak5 9 practice4 ,a successful ag5t f9ds 8 evil de$s are w9k$ at2 an unsuccessful "o is disav[$4 ,9 ei!r case ! ,/ate pleads innoc5ce4 ,b ?is dang] _c alt] ! conditions ( a moral action1 & we _c impute t z an action to ! ,/ate1 ( :i* x knew no p>ticul>s1 :i* x nev] #cbd will$1 & :i* c h>dly inde$ be ! object ( a public w4 ,x has a duty to see to ! "* ( its ag5ts & puni% _! excesses2 b ! conditions "u :i* x is true t qui facit p] alium facit p] se1 c seldom apply to a public body ) reg>d to actions ( its ag5t :i* are n ( a nature to embody public ends4 ,promises & treaties1 h[ev]1 are acts :i* embody public ends4 ,& "h ! ,/ate1 on its side1 is b\nd to ma9ta9 good fai?2 b /ill its ag5t is likely to g wrong if he mixes up ! obligations ( ! ,/ate ) 8 private hon\r4 ,! "q = him1 if he has to keep or break a public und]tak+1 is1 to :at is ! ,/ate sub/antially b\nd1 n to :at ext5t w\ld he be b\nd if he _h made ! promise or engagem5t 9 "q 9 8 private capacity8 ,he1 or ! p[] :i* is to act1 mu/ consid] ! obligations & aims ( ! ,/ate1 z a :ole1 & "w = ! be/ fulfilm5t ( !m z a :ole4 ,! "q may be p>allel to t ( a private case ( hon\r1 b x is n 8 hon\r nor 8 promise t is 9 "q4 ,j s1 if he introduces 8 private consci5ce ab\t religion or morality into 8 public acts on behalf ( ! ,/ate1 he may cause frightful p]secutions or disa/]s4 ,! religi\s p]secutions1 & our position 9 ,india1 supply examples4 ,! ,/ate1 !n1 exi/s to promote good life1 & :at x does _c be morally indiff]5t2 b its actions _c be id5tifi$ ) ! de$s ( its ag5ts1 or morally judg$ z private volitions are judg$4 ,its acts prop] are always public acts1 #cbe & x _c1 z a ,/ate1 act )9 ! relations ( private life 9 :i* organis$ morality exi/s4 ,x has no det]m9ate function 9 a l>g] community1 b is itself ! supreme community2 ! gu>dian ( a :ole moral _w1 b n a factor )9 an organis$ moral _w4 ,moral relations presuppose an organis$ life2 b su* a life is only )9 ! ,/ate1 n 9 relations betwe5 ! ,/ate & o!r communities4 ,b all ?is1 x may be urg$1 is beside ! "q4 ,! "q is n1 c a ,/ate be a moral individual 7?\gh ?is is c]ta9ly "o "q78 b1 does an int]e/ ( ,/ate ju/ify :at w\ld o!rwise be immorality or wrong-do+ on ! "p ( an (fic] ( ,/ate8 ,aga91 ,i ?9k1 we mu/ di/+ui% betwe5 acts ess5tially private & acts ess5tially public4 ,to /eal or murd]1 to lie1 or to commit p]sonal immorality1 = in/ance1 z we said1 _c be a public act4 ,su* acts _c embody a g5]al int]e/ will$ by ! public w4 ,a ,/ate ag5t :o commits !m 9 pursuit ( in=mation or to secure a diplomatic result _c be ju/ifi$ on ! gr\nd t !y are n 8 acts b ! ,/ate's2 & !y are z immoral 9 him z 9 anyone else4 ,ultimately1 inde$1 x may be true t !re is no act :i* is incapable ( ju/ification1 suppos+ "s extreme alt]native2 & 9 ?is s5se1 b 9 ?is s5se only1 x might be t1 treat+ ! int]e/ ( a commonweal? l any o!r e?ically imp]ative int]e/1 su* acts might be relatively capable ( ju/ification4 ,b ?is ju/ification w\ld only mean t "s supreme int]e/ 0 subs]v$ by !m1 & w\ld h #cbf no special relation to ! suppos$ public "* ( ! int]e/4 ,x is !n a case ( ! conflict ( duties4 ,& ! common] occurr5ce1 :i* results 9 d\btful acts1 probably is t an ag5t1 *>g$ ) "s public s]vice1 f9ds x easie/ to promote x by "s act ( rascality1 & acts on 8 idea4 ,b ov] read9ess to make capital out ( an app>5t conflict ( duties is nei!r made worse nor bett] by ! fact t "o ( ! duties is ! s]vice ( ! ,/ate4 #a #a ,cruelty1 x has be5 said1 is a good deal ow+ to laz9ess4 ,x is m com=table to sit 9 ! %ade rubb+ r$ pepp] into a man's eyes to make him confess ?an to run ab\t 9 ! sun collect+ evid5ce4 ,i quote f memory1 f a lecture1 ,i ?9k1 by ,mr4 ,leslie ,/eph54 ,a public act :i* inflicts loss1 su* z w>1 confiscation1 ! repudiation ( a debt1 is :olly diff]5t f murd] or !ft4 ,x is n ! act ( a private p]son4 ,x is n a violation ( law4 #a ,x c h>dly be motiv$ by private malice or cupidity 9 ! /rict s5se1 & x is n a brea* ( an e/abli%$ moral ord] by a be+ )9 x & dep5d5t ^u x = ! organisation & protection ( 8 daily life4 ,x is ! act ( a supreme p[]1 :i* has ultimate responsibility = protect+ ! =m ( life ( :i* x is ! gu>dian1 & :i* is n itself protect$ by any s*eme ( functions or relations1 su* z prescribes a c\rse = ! reconciliation ( rights & secures its effectiv5ess4 ,! means adopt$ by su* a supreme p[] to dis*>ge its responsibilities z a :ole1 are ( c\rse subject to criticism z respects ! conception ( good :i* !y #cbg imply & _! appropriat5ess to ! task ( realis+ x4 ,b x is m]e confusion to apply to !m names borr[$ f analog\s acts ( individuals )9 communities1 to impute !m1 z x 71 to individuals "u dyslogi/ic pr$icates & to pass moral judgm5t ^u !m 9 ! same s5se z on private acts4 ,! ne>e/ approa* :i* we c imag9e to public immorality w\ld be :5 ! organs :i* act = ! ,/ate1 z su*1 exhibit 9 _! public action1 on its behalf1 a n>r[1 selfi% or brutal #b conception ( ! int]e/ ( ! ,/ate z a :ole1 9 :i*1 s f> z c be judg$1 public op9ion at ! "t agrees4 ,9 su* a case ! ,/ate1 z su*1 may really be said to be act+ immorally1 i4e4 9 contrav5tion ( its ma9 duty to su/a9 ! conditions ( z mu* good life z possible4 ,?is case mu/ be di/+ui%$1 if ,i am "r1 f ! case 9 :i* ! individuals1 act+ z ! public au?ority1 are corrupt$ 9 _! own private int]e/s #c n %>$ ) ! public4 ,= !n ! case w\ld r be t ! ,/ate1 ! organ ( ! public good1 _h n be5 giv5 a *ance to speak1 b _h simply be5 defraud$ by ^? :o spoke 9 its "n4 #a ,an act :i* violates its own law is n an act ( ! ,/ate4 ,& ! ,/ate is n subject to ! law ( any o!r ,/ate4 #b e4g4 ,if1 ) ! k ( ,p>liam5t1 & )\t a prote/ f x1 a price 7 (f]$ = ! kill+ ( a ho/ile /atesman or g5]al4 #c e4g4 ,brib$ by a =eign pot5tate1 or pursu+ ,/ock ,ex*ange int]e/s4 ,we d n sugge/1 !n1 t ! action ( ,/ates is beyond moral criticism1 nor t action ( individuals 9 _! int]e/ is above or bel[ morality1 except 9 ! s5se 9 :i* "o moral claim has con/antly to be po/pon$ to ano!r4 ,b we #cbh d5y t ,/ates c be treat$ z ! actors 9 private immoralities :i* _! ag5ts p]mit !mselves 9 ! alleg$ int]e/ ( ! ,/ate2 or1 aga91 c be b\nd by ! private hon\r & consci5ce ( su* ag5ts2 & we d5y1 moreov]1 t ! av[$ public acts ( sov]eign p[]s1 :i* cause loss or injury1 c be imput$ to individuals "u ! names ( private (f5ces2 t someone is guilty ( murd] :5 a c\ntry c>ries on w>1 or ( !ft :5 x adopts ! policy ( repudiation1 confiscation1 or annexation4 #h4 ,x is obvi\s t ! idea ( humanity1 ( ! _w ( intellig5t be+s on ! surface ( our e>?1 conceiv$ z a unity1 mu/ hold su* a place 9 any tol]ably complete philosophical ?9k+1 z 9 "s way to control ! idea ( p>ticul> ,/ates1 & to sum up ! purposes & possibilities ( human life4 ,! idea ( humanity is univ]sal1 & :atev] limits we h tacitly 9 m9d--:atev] limits ! ,greek ?9k] _h 9 m9d :ile he bas$ 8 e?ics on ! di/9ction betwe5 man & bea/--yet1 :5 we rely on ! idea ( man z man1 we are committ$ to treat 9 "s way ( ! _w ( mank9d4 7a7 ,! fir/ po9t :i* =ces itself ^u our att5tion is1 t ! idea :i* we tacitly ent]ta9 :5 we ref] to humanity1 is n true ( ! great] "p ( mank9d4 ,no d\bt1 we are q aw>e ( imp]fection & inconsi/5cy 9 ! family & ! ,/ate4 ,b "h1 9 ! case ( mank9d1 ! problem rea*es an acut] =m4 ,accord+ to ! curr5t ideas ( our civilisation1 a great "p ( ! lives :i* #cbi are be+ liv$ & h be5 liv$ by mank9d are n lives wor? liv+1 9 ! s5se ( embody+ qualities = :i* life seems valuable to u4 #a ,x is true t1 9 all to :om we give ! "n ( man1 we suppose a possibility ( su* liv+1 9 ! s5se t !y h an intellig5ce di/+ui%able f t ( animals4 ,b x is a possibility :i*1 = ! mo/ "p1 has be5 v slightly realis$1 & :i* involves no consci\s connection1 s f> z we c see1 ) any realisation4 ,our idea ( man is n =m$ by simple enum]ation1 b by fram+ a law :i* expla9s ! less p]fect & consi/5t facts ) ref]5ce to ! m p]fect & m consi/5t facts4 #a ,?is idea is embodi$ 9 ! doctr9e ( ,salvation conf9$ to ! few1 & conta9s p]haps a simil> error4 ,b x has a prima facie tru?4 7b7 ,?is be+ s1 x seems to foll[ t ! object ( our e?ical idea ( humanity is n really mank9d z a s+le community4 ,putt+ aside ! impossibilities aris+ f succession 9 "t1 we see t no su* id5tical exp]i5ce c be presuppos$ 9 all mank9d z is necess>y to effective memb]%ip ( a common society & ex]cise ( a g5]al w4 ,x does n foll[ f ?is t !re c be no g5]al recognition ( ! rights aris+ f ! capacities = good life :i* belong to man z man4 ,?\gh insuffici5t1 z v>i\sly & imp]fectly realis$1 to be ! basis ( an effective community1 !y may1 z f> z realis$1 be a common elem5t or tissue ( connection1 runn+ ?r\gh ! m concrete exp]i5ce on :i* effective communities #ccj re/4 ,su* a relation z t ( ,engl& & ,india br+s ! matt] home4 ,engli%m5 _c make "o effective self-gov]n$ community ) ! ,indian populations4 ,x w\ld be mis]y & ineffici5cy to bo? sides4 ,b our ,/ate c recognise ! prim>y rights ( humanity z det]m9$ 9 ! life ( its ,indian subjects1 & en=ce or respect ^! rights1 :e!r ,india be a dep5d5cy or an indep5d5t community4 ,! problem is n unlike t rais$ by ! idea ( a univ]sal language4 ,z a sub/itute = national languages1 x w\ld mean a dead level ( intellig5ce unsuit$ to e actual national m9d1 ! de/ruction ( lit]ature & poetry4 ,z an addition to exi/+ languages1 or m simply1 if x became cu/om>y = e p to be acqua9t$ ) ! tongues ( o!r nations1 !re w\ld be a common und]/&+ no less firm1 & a va/ ga9 ( appreciation & enjoym5t1 a levell+ up in/ead ( levell+ d[n4 ,! recognition ( human rights ?r\gh communities f\nd$ on organic unity ( exp]i5ce may be comp>$ 9 j ^! t]ms to ! idea ( a univ]sal society includ+ ! entire human race4 7c7 ,! contra/ betwe5 humanity & mank9d has always utt]$ itself ?r\gh a di*otom\s mode ( expression--,jew & ,g5tile1 ,greek #a & b>b>ian1 ,mussulman & infidel1 ,*ri/ian #cca & hea!n1 :ite civilisations & ! black & yell[ races4 ,x w be not$ at once t "s ( ^! divisions contradict ea* o!r1 & ?is fact may sugge/ ! probability t to e p its own life has seem$ ! cr[n ( ?+s1 & ! rema9d] ( mank9d only ! rema9d]4 ,su* a sugge/ion may h a real be>+ on our problem1 & we w return to x4 ,9 ! meantime1 h[ev]1 x is pla9 t humanity #b z an e?ical idea is a type or a problem r ?an a fact4 ,x means c]ta9 qualities1 at once realis$ 9 :at we take to be ! cr[n ( ! race1 & includ+ a s5sibility to ! claims ( ! race z su*4 ,s5sibility to ! claims ( ! race z su*1 is lea/ ( all qualities common to ! race z su*4 ,! respect ( ,/ates & individuals = humanity is !n1 aft] all1 9 its ess5ce1 a duty to ma9ta9 a type ( life1 n g5]al1 b ! be/ we "k1 :i* we call ! mo/ human1 & 9 accordance ) x to recognise & deal ) ! rights ( ali5 individuals & communities4 ,?is conception is oppos$ to ! treatm5t ( all individual human be+s z memb]s ( an id5tical community hav+ id5tical capacities & rights4 ,x foll[s our g5]al conviction t n numb]s b qualities det]m9e ! value ( life4 ,b qualities1 ( c\rse1 become self-contradictory if !y fail to meet ! dem&s impos$ on !m by numb]s4 ,& ?us we recur to a sugge/ion not$ #ccb above4 ,e p1 z a rule1 seems to f9d cont5tm5t 9 its own type ( life4 ,?is _c contradict1 = u1 ! imp]ativ5ess ( our own s5se ( ! be/4 ,b x may make u cauti\s z to ! g5]al !ory ( progress1 & ready to admit t "o type ( humanity _c cov] ! :ole gr\nd ( ! possibilities ( human nature4 ,our action mu/1 no d\bt1 be guid$ by :at we c und]/& ( human ne$s1 & ?is mu/ dep5d ultimately on our own type ( life4 ,b x makes a diff]5ce :e!r we />t f ! hypo!sis t our civilisation z su* /&s = ! goal ( progress1 or admit t !re is a necessity = cov]+ ! :ole gr\nd ( human nature4 ,& x may be t1 z ! gr\nd is cov]$1 our ,/ates may g ! way :i* o!rs h gone1 )\t1 h[ev]1 leav+ ?+s z !y are4 ,if ! ,/ate1 moreov]1 is n ultimate nor above criticism1 no m is any giv5 idea ( humanity2 & ref]5ce to 8! int]e/s ( mank9d0 only names ! problem1 :i* is to f9d out :at ^? int]e/s are1 9 t]ms ( human qualities to be realis$4 #a ,x is rem>kable t a limitation ( ! e>?'s surface1 rais+ an idea ( unity1 has always1 ,i believe1 be5 presuppos$4 ,= ! ,greeks1 ,delphi 0 ! c5tre ( ! e>?2 = u1 ! e>? be+ a sph]e & return+ into itself1 gives a c]ta9ty t x does n /ret* away to inf9ity1 s mak+ unity ( its inhabitants inconceivable4 ,! rem>k1 ,i ?9k1 is ,kant's4 #b 8,humanity0 8human5ess40 ,scot* 8,humanities0 ,greek & ,lat94 ,ox=d 8,lit]ae humaniores0 classics & philosophy4 ,greek philan?ropon1 a s5se ( :at is due to man1 e4g4 ( poetical ju/ice4 7d7 ,nei!r ! ,/ate1 h[ev]1 nor ! idea ( humanity1 nor ! int]e/s ( mank9d1 are ! la/ ^w ( !ory4 ,& ev5 political !ory mu/ s f> po9t ahead z to %[ t x kn[s :]e to look = its cont9uation4 ,we h tak5 ,society & ! ,/ate ?r\gh\t to h _! value 9 ! human capacities :i* !y are ! means ( realis+1 9 :i* realisation _! social aspect is an inevitable condition 7= human nature is n complete 9 solitude71 b is n by itself1 9 its =m ( multitudes1 ! end4 #ccc ,!re is1 !re=e1 no brea* ( cont9uity :5 ! imm$iate p>ticipation ( numb]s1 ! direct m\ld+ ( life by ! claims & relations ( selves1 falls away1 & ! human m9d1 consolidat$ & su/a9$ by society1 goes fur!r on its pa? 9 remov+ contradictions & %ap+ its _w & itself into unity4 ,art1 philosophy1 & religion1 ?\gh 9 a s5se ! v life-blood ( society1 are n & c\ld n be directly fa%ion$ to meet ! ne$s & uses ( ! multitude1 & _! aim is n 9 t s5se 8social40 ,!y %\ld r be reg>d$ z a cont9uation1 )9 & f\nd$ ^u ! commonweal?1 ( ! "w :i* ! commonweal? beg9s 9 realis+ human nature2 z full] utt]ances ( ! same univ]sal self :i* ! 8g5]al w0 reveals 9 m prec>i\s =ms2 & z 9 ! same s5se implicit 9 ! consci\sness ( all1 be+ an inh]itance :i* is !irs s f> z !y c take possession ( x4 ,we h ?us attempt$ to trace 9 outl9e ! cont5t ( ! self1 impli$1 b imp]fectly & v>i\sly rea*$1 9 ! actual individual consci\sness4 ,x is because ( ?is implication1 c>ry+ ! s5se t some?+ m ?an we are is imp]ative ^u u1 t self-gov]nm5t has a mean+1 & t fre$om--! non-ob/ruction ( capacities--is to be f\nd 9 a sy/em :i* lays burd5s on ! untam$ self & 8=ces u to be free40 ,:at we feel z m]e =ce _c z su* be fre$om2 b 9 our subtle & complex natures ! recognition ( a =ce may1 z we h tri$ to expla91 su/a91 regul>ise1 & reawak5 ! op]ation ( #ccd a consci\sness ( good1 :i* we rejoice to see ma9ta9$1 if our intellig5ce fails ( itself to ma9ta9 x1 aga9/ indol5ce1 incompet5ce1 & rebellion1 ev5 if !y are our own4 ,?is is ! root ( self-gov]nm5t1 & true political gov]nm5t is self-gov]nm5t4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,absolutism1 ,adm9i/rative1 #fc4 ,actual ,w1 contra/ ,real ,w1 #aah4 ,albion1 ,laun* (1 #if note4 ,alex&]1 ,pr(41 #agd n4 ,all & ea*1 z ,society & ,individual1 #ha1 #ahj4 ,w ( ,all di/4 ,g5]al ,w1 #aaa4 ,allness1 ,judgm5t (1 #aab4 ,altruism 9 ,h4 ,sp5c]1 #bd4 & ,egoism1 #dg1 #ha1 #hc4 ,amiel1 cit1 #bcf note4 ,analysis ( motive1 fallacy (1 #bia ff4 ,anglo-,saxon race1 #cja4 ,an?ropology 9 ,hegel1 #bed4 ,app]cipi5t masses1 #afe ff4 cpd4 social gr\ps1 #afi4 ,ari/ocracy1 ,mon>*y & ,democracy1 #bhd4 ,ari/otle1 #e ff41 #cb1 #abi ff41 #bie note4 on ! 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