,transcriber's ,note ,superscripts are shown as es2 italics are enclosed in underscores4 ,,hellenistic ,,sculpture ,illustration3 #a ,illustration3 #b ,,hellenistic ,,sculpture ,,by ,,guy ,,dickins1 ,m4,a4 ,,sometime ,,fellow ,,and ,,lecturer ,,of ,,st4 ,,john',s ,,college1 ,,oxford ,,and ,,lecturer ,,in ,,classical ,,archaeology ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,oxford ,,with ,a ,,preface ,,by ,,percy ,,gardner1 ,,litt4,d41 ,f4,b4,a4 ,,lincoln ,,and ,,merton ,,professor ,,of ,,classical ,,archaeology ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,oxford ,,oxford ,,at ,,the ,,clarendon ,,press #aibj ,,introductory ,,note ,guy ,dickins wrote these chapters on ,hellenistic ,sculpture as a brief sketch of the period to which he hoped to devote years of study4 ,they foreshadow some of the theories which he intended to work out1 and for that reason we believe that they will be useful to the student4 ,there are obvious omissions1 but no attempt has been made to fill up gaps in the manuscript1 such as paragraphs on the ,barberini ,faun or the ,attic ,gaul1 which were left blank in #aiad4 ,the illustrations1 which naturally must be limited in number1 have been selected by me mainly on the principle of reproducing the less accessible pieces of sculpture while giving references to standard works for the others4 ,in preparing my husband's manuscript for publication ,i have to acknowledge with gratitude the help of many friends4 ,to ,professor ,percy ,gardner ,i am particularly indebted for valuable advice and for his kindness in writing a preface to the volume2 to ,miss ,c4 ,a4 ,hutton for her counsel throughout2 and to ,mr4 ,alan ,wace for sending me photographs from ,athens4 ,i have also to thank the ,hellenic ,society1 the ,committee of the ,british ,school at ,athens1 and ,dr4 ,caskey of the ,boston ,museum for permission to reproduce certain photographs4 ,,mary ,,dickins4 ,,oxford1 ,march1 #aibj4 ,,preface ,among the losses which ,oxford has suffered from the war1 none is more to be regretted than that of the author of this volume4 ,as an undergraduate1 twenty years ago1 ,guy ,dickins gave up his intention of entering the ,indian ,civil ,service in order to devote himself to the study of ,classical ,archaeology1 an allegiance from which he never swerved4 ,in #aijd he went as ,craven ,fellow to the ,british ,school of ,athens1 and for five years lived mostly in ,greece1 studying and exploring4 ,in #aiji he returned to ,oxford as a ,fellow of ,st4 ,john's ,college1 and ,lecturer in ,ancient ,history4 ,in #aiad he was appointed ,university ,lecturer in ,classical ,archaeology2 but before he could take up the duties of the post the great call came1 and he obeyed it at once4 ,a most efficient and able company commander1 he served in the ,king's ,royal ,rifle ,corps4 ,in ,july #aiaf he died of wounds received in the battle of the ,somme4 ,before the war ,dickins had been occupied in tasks of research1 and in preparation for a teaching career4 ,he had published several papers1 and a volume of the catalogue of the ,acropolis ,museum4 ,he had visited most of the museums of ,europe1 and brought back a large collection of photographs1 which his widow has presented to the ,ashmolean ,museum4 ,he was especially interested in ,greek sculpture1 and had intended to collect materials for a history of art in the ,hellenistic ,age1 a subject which has been neglected1 but which is of the greatest importance4 ,several of his papers1 such as those on the followers of ,praxiteles and on ,damophon of ,messene1 show in what direction his mind was working1 though at the same time he was ready to take part in all the projects and the excavations of the ,school of ,athens4 ,the present volume1 alas1 is the only fruit which the study of antiquity is likely to reap from such continued and thorough preparation4 ,every reader will regret that it was not written on a far larger scale4 ,but it was planned as part of a complete history of ancient sculpture4 ,no doubt1 had he lived1 ,dickins would have rewritten it in a more complete form4 ,but as it stands it is far too valuable to lose1 full of suggestion1 and pointing the way to important lines of discovery4 ,in my opinion it contains the best that has been written on the subject2 and one rises from the reading of it with a keen regret that the author could not bring his harvest to completion4 ,dickins possessed in a high degree two qualities necessary for the best work in archaeology4 ,he was distinctly original1 always preferring to look at things in a light not borrowed from books or teachers but his own4 ,and he was at the same time of cool judgement and strong in common sense4 ,one of his fellow officers told me that whenever he was in doubt as to the course to be followed in attack or defence he consulted ,dickins1 and accepted his advice4 ,he did not1 like many young archaeologists1 delight in starting brilliant hypotheses2 but was ever content in coming nearer to the truth1 and setting it forth in orderly and sober fashion4 ,such qualities would have made him an invaluable factor in the teaching of archaeology in ,england4 ,i am told that the undergraduates of his college always felt that he set before them a high standard1 and had no sympathy with anything which was pretentious or meretricious4 ,the same qualities appeared in two or three courses of lectures on recent excavation1 which he gave at the ,ashmolean ,museum4 ,i add as an appendix a list of ,dickins's published works1 with a summary of their purpose and contents4 ,they are not great in extent2 he was not a rapid worker2 but every one of them is worthy of careful reading1 and does something to advance our knowledge of ,greek art and ancient life4 ,,percy ,,gardner4 ,,contents ,,page ,,preface vii ,i4 ,,the ,,school ,,of ,,pergamon #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,school ,,of ,,alexandria #ai ,,iii4 ,,the ,,rhodian ,,school #ce ,,iv4 ,,the ,,mainland ,,schools ,,during ,,the ,,hellenistic ,,age #ec ,v4 ,,greco-,,roman ,,sculpture #fh ,,appendix4 ,a ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,published ,,works ,,of ,,the ,,author #hi ,,index #ie ,,illustrations #a4 ,hermaphrodite4 ,constantinople ,frontispiece #b4 ,marsyas4 ,constantinople ,frontispiece ,facing page #c4 ,dancing ,satyr of ,pompeii4 ,naples #h #d4 ,ludovisi ,gaul4 ,rome1 ,museo ,nazionale #h #e4 ,head of a ,dead ,persian4 ,rome1 ,museo ,nazionale #ab #f4 ,gaul's ,head4 ,cairo #ab #g4 ,group from the ,great ,frieze of the ,altar at ,pergamon3 ,giant and ,dog4 ,berlin #ab #h4 ,group from the ,telephos ,frieze at ,pergamon3 ,telephos and ,herakles4 ,berlin #ab #i4 ,apollo of ,tralles4 ,constantinople #af #aj4 ,ephebe of ,tralles4 ,constantinople #af #aa4 ,venus ,anadyomene from ,cyrenaica4 ,rome1 ,museo ,nazionale #bj #ab4 ,sarapis of ,bryaxis4 ,british ,museum #bj #ac4 ,girl's ,head from ,chios4 ,boston1 ,fine ,arts ,museum #bj #ad4 ,bearded ,head4 ,rome1 ,museo ,capitolino #bb #ae4 ,zeus of ,otricoli4 ,rome1 ,vatican #bb #af4 ,isis4 ,louvre #bb #ag4 ,priest of ,isis4 ,rome1 ,museo ,capitolino #bd #ah4 ,capitol ,venus4 ,rome1 ,museo ,capitolino #bd #ai4 ,ariadne4 ,rome1 ,museo ,capitolino #bf #bj4 ,inopos from ,delos4 ,louvre #bf #ba4 ,dwarf from the ,mahdia ,ship #cj #bb4 ,old ,woman4 ,dresden #cj #bc4 ,grimani ,relief4 ,vienna #cj #bd4 ,nile4 ,rome1 ,vatican #cj #be4 ,aphrodite and ,triton4 ,dresden #cd #bf4 ,bronze ,athlete from ,ephesos4 ,vienna #cd #bg4 ,praying ,boy4 ,berlin #ch #bh4 ,resting ,hermes4 ,naples #ch #bi4 ,hero ,resting on his ,lance4 ,rome1 ,museo ,nazionale #db #cj4 ,jason4 ,louvre #db #ca4 ,draped ,figure from ,magnesia4 ,constantinople #dd #cb4 ,eros and ,psyche4 ,rome1 ,museo ,capitolino #dd #cc4 ,draped ,figure by ,philiskos from ,thasos4 ,constantinople #dd #cd4 ,victory of ,samothrace4 ,louvre #df #ce4 ,chiaramonti ,odysseus4 ,rome1 ,vatican #ej #cf4 ,menelaos and ,patroclos4 ,florence1 ,loggia dei ,lanzi #ej #cg4 ,youthful ,centaur4 ,rome1 ,museo ,capitolino #eb #ch4 ,bearded ,centaur4 ,rome1 ,museo ,capitolino #eb #ci4 ,hermes of ,andros4 ,athens1 ,national ,museum #ed #dj4 ,themis of ,chairestratos4 ,athens1 ,national ,museum #ed #da4 ,hermes from ,atalanta4 ,athens1 ,national ,museum #ed #db4 ,sleeping ,hermaphrodite4 ,rome1 ,museo ,nazionale #ef #dc4 ,victory of ,euboulides4 ,athens1 ,national ,museum #eh #dd4 ,athena of ,euboulides4 ,athens1 ,national ,museum #eh #de4 ,group by ,damophon 7restored7 #fj #df4 ,anytos4 ,athens1 ,national ,museum #fb #dg4 ,artemis4 ,athens1 ,national ,museum #fb #dh4 ,veil of ,despoina4 ,athens1 ,national ,museum #fb #di4 ,poseidon of ,melos4 ,athens1 ,national ,museum #fd #ej4 ,venus of ,capua4 ,naples #fd #ea4 ,appiades of ,stephanos4 ,louvre #gb #eb4 ,torso ,belvedere4 ,rome1 ,vatican #gb #ec4 ,athlete of ,stephanos4 ,rome1 ,villa ,albani #gb ,figs4 #c1 #g1 #h1 #ae1 #bg1 #bh1 and #ec are taken from casts in the ,ashmolean ,museum2 figs4 #d1 #e1 #aa1 #af1 and #db are from photographs by ,alinari2 figs4 #ab and #ba are from photographs by the ,hellenic ,society2 figs4 #bj1 #cj1 #cd1 and #ea are from photographs by ,giraudon2 figs4 #bc and #bf are from photographs by ,frankenstein2 fig4 #bi is from a photograph by ,anderson2 figs4 #cf and #ej are from photographs by ,brogi2 fig4 #de is reproduced by permission from the ,annual of the ,british ,school at ,athens1 vol4 xiii1 ,pl4 ,,xii4 ,i ,,the ,,school ,,of ,,pergamon ,most of the writers on ,greek art agree in calling the ,hellenistic period an age of decadence4 ,the period is a long one1 lasting from the death of ,alexander to the ,roman absorption of the ,hellenistic kingdoms1 i4e4 from about #cbj to later than #ajj ,b4,c4 ,the lowest limit is marked by the ,laocoon group1 and the fact that some critics have seen in that wonderful monument the climax of ,greek art may make us pause in a hasty generalization4 ,the decadence of the ,hellenistic age is due simply to its exaggeration of certain tendencies already present in the fourth century1 tendencies which accompany the inevitable development of all art gradually away from the ideal and gradually closer to realistic imitation of nature4 ,as long as the technical skill of the ,hellenistic artist shows no sign of abating1 it is unfair and untrue to call his work decadent4 ,the term is only justly applicable when loss of idealism or growth of frivolity in subject is accompanied by a decline in execution1 by a want of thoroughness1 and by a desire to shirk difficulties4 ,it is true to say that ,greek art on the mainland enters on a period of decadence in the third century1 for its execution and expression grow steadily worse after #bej ,b4,c41 but it is interesting to note that it reverts to a greater idealism4 ,the last great artist of the mainland1 ,damophon of ,messene1 might have been a member of the school of ,pheidias save for an inadequate mastery of the chisel4 ,on the other hand1 the schools of ,pergamon1 ,alexandria1 and ,rhodes show no falling off in technical skill as long as they remain independent of ,rome4 ,even their idealism does not wholly decline1 for the ,gallic victories of ,attalos and ,eumenes brought about an idealist revival in ,pergamene art associated with the decoration of the great altar4 ,rhodes remained ever wedded to the athletic ideal4 ,alexandria delighted most in scenes of genre and realistic imitations of nature4 ,but all turned out work of marvellous quality1 and it is mainly a vagary of fashion in criticism that now induces so many authorities to label as decadent wonderful masterpieces of sculpture like the ,victory of ,samothrace1 the kneeling boy of ,subiaco1 or the ,silenos with the young ,dionysos4 ,works so full of human nature and so rich in sympathy may well claim to replace by their romantic appeal the classical feeling of the fifth century4 ,it is only when romance becomes sentimentality that it meets with just condemnation4 ,the outstanding feature of the history of ,greek sculpture during the ,hellenistic period is the transference of its vital centres from the mainland to the new kingdoms of the ,diadochi on the east and south and to the great new free state of ,rhodes4 ,the chief cause was an economic one4 ,alexander's campaigns brought about a revival of prosperity and wealth in the ,greek world1 but among his friends and not among his enemies4 ,athens was always his enemy and the enemy of his ,macedonian successors4 ,consequently during the whole period from the death of ,alexander to the ,roman conquest ,athens was either under ,macedonian rule or in danger of ,macedonian attack4 ,it was ,macedonian policy to keep her weak and isolated1 and her trading supremacy began to be transferred to the island of ,delos4 ,the great days of ,attic art passed with the death of ,praxiteles and the coming of ,alexander4 ,in the ,peloponnese the pupils of ,lysippos carried on into the third century the traditions of the ,sikyonian school1 but we can see from such knowledge as we possess of their activities that the wealth and fame of the new kingdoms were already calling the artists to abandon the impoverished towns of the mainland4 ,the ,peloponnese also opposed ,alexander and his successors1 and ,macedonian garrisons held the chief fortresses of the country4 ,we find ,eutychides of ,sikyon working for ,antioch1 and ,chares working at ,lindos in ,rhodes4 ,after the date given for the pupils of ,lysippos in #bif ,b4,c41 ,pliny makes the following significant statement3 #8cessavit deinde ars1 ac rursus ,olympiade ,,clvi 7#aef ,b4,c47 revixit4'#a ,for #aej years the history of artistic development must be studied on the eastern side of the ,aegean4 ,after the preliminary conflicts between the successors of ,alexander for the partition of the empire a number of new states arose1 which are known to us usually as the kingdoms of the ,diadochi or ,successors4 ,of these the three most important were ,macedonia1 ,syria1 and ,egypt1 under the rule of ,antigonids1 ,seleucids1 and ,ptolemies respectively4 ,of smaller importance1 but quite independent and self-sustaining1 were ,bithynia1 ,pergamon1 and the island republic of ,rhodes1 the latter being the only one which maintained its ,hellenic democratic institutions4 ,the attitude of these states towards art differs remarkably4 ,macedonia remained always a military monarchy in a condition of almost constant frontier war1 and was wholly uninterested in artistic developments4 ,syria seems from the first to have fallen under ,semitic and oriental influences1 which destroyed its appreciation of the purer forms of ,greek art4 ,bithynia1 ,pontos1 and ,cappadocia were barbarian rather than ,greek4 ,as a result1 we find that the old artistic traditions are maintained prominently in three only of the new states3 ,pergamon1 the home of the very ,hellenic race of the ,attalids2 ,rhodes1 whose pure ,hellenic descent was untouched2 and ,alexandria1 which became practically a ,greek town in the midst of an older ,egyptian civilization4 ,the kingdom of ,pergamon included the area of the old ,ionian cities1 and inherited1 therefore1 an artistic tradition as old as its own existence4 ,it is no matter for surprise that its art-loving monarchs should have founded a great library and a great school of sculpture in open rivalry with the richer resources of ,ptolemaic ,alexandria4 ,the art of ,pergamon is well known to us from the magnificent groups and figures of the ,gallic dedications of ,attalos ,i after his victories about #bdj ,b4,c41 and from the marvellous frieze of the altar excavated in situ by the ,germans1 which belongs to the period of ,eumenes ,,ii and the early second century4 ,but before we come to these later developments of ,pergamene art1 it is important that we should discover the earliest tendencies and predilections of the ,pergamene court in the first half of the third century4 ,we are told#b that the most remarkable work of ,kephisodotos1 the son of ,praxiteles1 was his #8symplegma' at ,pergamon--probably an erotic group--which was noteworthy for its extraordinarily naturalistic rendering of the pressure of the fingers into the flesh4 ,such erotic groups of nymphs and satyrs or hermaphrodites exist in our museums1 and are ultimately derived from this type of statue4 ,actual discoveries at ,pergamon support this conception of early third-century ,pergamene art4 ,the well-known ,hermaphrodite in ,constantinople 7,fig4 #a7 and a beautiful girl's head in ,berlin#c show the extreme delicacy in the rendering of flesh and the fondness for a sensual body treatment which we might expect from an ,ionian version of the schools of ,scopas and ,praxiteles4 ,the existence of such a school in ,ionia in the late fourth century is highly probable4 ,the ,pergamene school of the early third century would seem to be the later natural development of the creators of the ,ephesos columns and the ,niobids4 ,scopaic expression and ,praxitelean flesh treatment are the hall-marks of the school4 ,another work of importance for the early ,pergamene period is the ,crouching ,aphrodite type1 so popular in ,roman times4 ,of this statue ,pliny tells us3 #8,venerem lavantem se ,daedalus fecit4'#d ,this ,daedalus was a ,bithynian artist of the early third century1 who must have fallen under the general influence of the prevalent ,pergamene school4 ,his ,aphrodite#e shows exactly the artistic tendencies of the early ,pergamene school4 ,the motive is unimportant and frivolous--a genre motive of a girl washing herself--but it is used for the purpose of demonstrating the technical skill of the artist in displaying the nude female form4 ,the artist does not use all his skill in the effort to produce a noble or even a romantic ideal4 ,the subject is immaterial1 provided it affords a chance of showing his technical skill4 ,the crouching attitude is a new one in art1 and one well adapted for exhibiting the human body in all its variety4 ,it appears again in the ,attalid dedications1 and was evidently a favourite at ,pergamon4 ,another example is in the well-known ,knife-,grinder of the ,uffizi1#f part of a great group of ,marsyas1 ,apollo1 and the ,scythian slave1 which we can certainly connect with this period of ,pergamene art4 ,the ,knife-,grinder himself is a copy and not an original4 ,that is made clear by his late plinth1 in spite of his magnificent workmanship4 ,but the finer copies of the hanging ,marsyas1 which belongs to the group1 are in a ,phrygian marble1 betraying their ,pergamene origin4 ,these copies of the ,marsyas are divided into two types3 a so-called #8red' type 7,fig4 #b71 made of the ,phrygian marble1 in which the expression of agony is more marked1 and a white type#g in which the face is less distorted4 ,a theory has been put forward that the white type represents an early third-century prototype1 while the red type is a ,pergamene variation of rather later date4#h ,we may1 however1 hesitate to see sufficient difference in the two types to make so wide a distinction4 ,the white type may be merely a less masterly adaptation of the red4 ,an ,apollo torso#i in ,berlin from ,pergamon with the right hand resting on the head agrees with a marble disc in ,dresden#aj showing a similar figure confronted by the hanging ,marsyas4 ,we may therefore associate this figure as the third member of the group with ,marsyas and the ,knife-,grinder4#aa ,the ,apollo is a seated figure of distinctly ,praxitelean influence4 ,the keen expression of the ,knife-,grinder and the agonized face of the ,marsyas may equally well be attributed to ,scopaic teaching4 ,we have a good example of this mixed tradition in early ,pergamene art4 ,technically we are at once compelled to notice the immense advance in realism and anatomical study4 ,the hanging ,marsyas shows a correct appreciation of the effects of such a posture on swollen veins and strained abdomen4 ,the corner of the mouth is drawn up in agony2 the forehead is corrugated with rows of wrinkles2 the hair1 even on the chest1 is matted with perspiration4 ,one would say that so remarkable a statue could only be studied from nature1 and one recalls the stories of ,parrhasios1 who is said to have used an actual model for his ,prometheus ,bound4#ab ,we are long past the time when sculptors worked from memory4 ,even ,praxiteles was said to have made his ,cnidian goddess with ,phryne as a model4 ,in the ,knife-,grinder we may perhaps detect some of the earliest traces of that exaggeration of the muscles which will so soon affect athletic art4 ,one of the most important of the ,pergamon finds was the little bronze satyr1#ac which has enabled us to associate with ,pergamon a whole host of satyr types of more or less similar style4 ,the ,dancing ,satyr of ,pompeii 7,fig4 #c7 and ,athens1 the ,satyr of the ,uffizi clashing cymbals1#ad with its replica in ,dresden1 and the ,satyr turning round to examine his tail#ae are all variants of the new artistic cult of the satyr1 a cult which seems to have had a ,pergamene origin4#af ,the satyr gave to the ,pergamene artist just that opportunity for the display of wild and somewhat sensual enthusiasm which he wanted1 for new and original poses1 and for combination with his nymphs and bacchanals4 ,in ,phrygia especially orgiastic manifestations of religion were the regular practice1 and dancing was both wild and universal4 ,the new artistic conceptions show the clear influence of this spirit on the more restrained art of the fourth-century schools4 ,the ,dancing ,maenad of ,berlin1#ag the ,aphrodite ,kallipygos of ,naples1#ah and the famous ,sleeping ,hermaphrodite#ai are further examples of the marvellous flesh treatment and the wild frenzy of movement which we learn to associate with third-century ,pergamene art4 ,apart from the general spirit of ,pergamene work there are several definite technical peculiarities which enable us to postulate a ,pergamene origin for many unclassed works of the ,hellenistic age4 ,these can be gathered from the definitely ,pergamene ,gallic statues1 which we have yet to discuss1 and from the satyr types already mentioned4 ,one is the hair tossed up off the forehead and falling in lank matted locks of wild disordered type4 ,the eyebrows are usually straight and shaggy1 with a heavy bulge of the frontal sinus over the nose4 ,the cheekbones are prominent1 and the lips thick and parted4 ,in the body the most marked feature is the desire to get away from the old-fashioned straight plane for the front of the torso4 ,the lower part of the chest usually projects strongly1 while the waist is drawn in1 so that the profile of the torso is shaped like a very obtuse z4 ,in the female body there is a general affection for rather heavy forms with a good envelope of flesh4 ,the artist's skill is here devoted mainly to the delineation of surface4 ,the heads of such female figures as we can attribute to ,pergamene art show very little expression4 ,the hair is done on the ,praxitelean model1 but the locks tend to become more rope-like and twisted as time goes on4 ,we cannot point to any great peculiarities in the ,pergamene treatment of women4 ,neither ,lysippos nor ,scopas seems to have had much effect on the feminine types of ,greek sculpture4 ,the whole ,hellenistic age is in servitude to ,praxitelean ideals of women whether in ,alexandria1 ,rhodes1 or ,pergamon4 ,the differences are only in the details of execution1 the ,pergamenes tending always towards clear cutting of hair and features1 while the ,alexandrines preferred an impressionist smoothing away of all sharp edges4 ,illustration3 #c ,illustration3 #d ,we come now to the two great dedications of ,attalos for his victories over the ,gauls4#bj ,these were made at some time later than #bda ,b4,c41 and consist of two series of statues4 ,one is life-size or larger1 and is represented by some of the best-known examples of ,hellenistic sculpture1 such as the ,dying ,gaul#ba and the ,ludovisi group of a ,gaul slaying his wife and himself 7,fig4 #d74 ,the other consisted of a number of small figures about three feet high1 and was dedicated by ,attalos in ,athens1 where they stood on the parapet of the south wall of the ,acropolis4 ,four battle-groups were included--a gigantomachy1 an ,amazonomachy1 a battle of ,greeks and ,persians1 and a battle of ,greeks and ,gauls4 ,several copies from this smaller group are in existence1 the best known being in ,naples4#bb ,the originals of both groups were probably in bronze1 and we have the names of some of the artists of the larger group1 ,phyromachos1 ,antigonos1 and ,epigonos or ,isigonos4 ,stratonicos and ,niceratos of ,athens may also have taken part4#bc ,these works all deserve careful study1 as they differ in many ways from the rather sensual and ecstatic art which we know to have preceded them1 and the very baroque and exaggerated art which followed them in the next century on the great altar4 ,eumenes and ,attalos had to fight for their lives against the ,gauls1 and a temporary return to an austerer and less luxurious art would be a not unnatural result of the great war4 ,we certainly find in the treatment of the ,amazons or of the wife of the ,ludovisi ,gaul no such insistence on sexual detail as marks the earlier studies of the feminine form1 and the expression of the male figures is distinguished by more ideal emotions of courage or resignation than the frenzy of the satyrs and the passions of the later gods and giants4 ,the ,attalid dedications show some bravura of pose2 the ,ludovisi ,gaul is a little histrionic in his attitude2 but as a whole they are sober and restrained sculpture1 when compared with the satyrs on the one hand and the altar frieze on the other4 ,in that sense they represent the high-water mark of ,pergamene art1 inspired with an equal skill1 but with a nobler ideal than the earlier work1 and not subject to the somewhat grotesque exaggerations of its later activities4 ,greek art has few nobler figures to show than the ,dying ,gaul of the ,capitol1 itself an admirable and closely contemporary copy1 perhaps made in ,ephesos1 of the bronze original at ,pergamon4 ,the sober restraint of the torso modelling is remarkable1 and contrasts most forcibly with the altar frieze4 ,the pathos of the expression and attitude is not forced or exaggerated in any way1 and if the curious hair gives a touch of strangeness to the head1 we must account for it as a naturalistic detail of the ,gallic fashion of greasing and oiling the hair4 ,the ,ludovisi ,gaul is a superb work1 rather more exaggerated1 both in expression and in detail1 than the ,capitol figure4 ,the right arm is perhaps wrongly restored1 as it hides the face from the front1 but it is more likely that the group should be looked at from a position farther to the left1 where the face1 the fine stride1 and the technical tour de force of the cloak can all be appreciated more fully4 ,the woman's face is not well finished1 and her whole pose is more effective from the other point of view4 ,the ,pergamene peculiarities in the treatment of chest and waist are clearly visible in this figure4 ,the little figures in ,naples1 the ,louvre1 ,venice1 and elsewhere are partly recumbent dead figures of ,persians1 giants1 and ,amazons1 and partly crouching figures defending themselves4 ,none of the victorious ,greeks seems to have survived1 except possibly the torso of a horseman in the ,terme ,museum4 ,they are dry1 rather hard figures1 much inferior in skill to the larger group and much closer to the bronze originals which they represent4 ,the head of a dead ,persian in the ,terme ,museum 7,fig4 #e7 is probably a more worthy copy 7on a larger scale7 of one of the figures of this series4 ,its type of features and its moustache resemble the ,ludovisi ,gaul4 ,another fine ,gallic head is in the ,gizeh ,museum at ,cairo 7,fig4 #f74 ,this has been often called an original1 an ,alexandrian variant of the ,gallic dedications4 ,there is1 however1 no need to separate it from the others4 ,if it shows more emotion1 that only brings it rather closer to what we know of earlier ,pergamene art4 ,the provenance of the ,gizeh head is disputed1 and it may be only a recent importation into ,egypt4#bd ,we now come to the frieze of the great altar at ,pergamon 7,fig4 #g71 the contribution of ,eumenes ,,ii to the series of monuments commemorating the defeats of the barbarians4 ,here again we have several inscriptions of artists1#be which are especially interesting as showing that four foreign artists of ,attic1 ,ephesian1 and ,rhodian origin all contributed to the great monument4 ,it is1 however1 quite uniform and unique in character1 and shows a baroque exaggeration of expression and of muscular detail1 which in the end becomes monotonous and overpowering4 ,the slight tendency towards a histrionic attitude1 which we noticed in the ,ludovisi ,gaul1 has now become much more pronounced4 ,most of the figures are in stage attitudes of fright1 ferocity1 attack1 or defence4 ,their bodies are covered either with drapery in wild disorder1 or1 if naked1 with massive rolls and lumps of muscle1 which are almost comical in their exaggeration4 ,their hair is in unrestrained twisted snaky locks2 their faces are distorted in fierce expressions of anger or alarm2 they are in every conceivable attitude of attack or defence4 ,when we add to this the colossal size of the monument and its figures1 we can well understand how its remains became known to early ,christian writers as the throne of ,satan4#bf ,illustration3 #e ,illustration3 #f ,illustration3 #g ,illustration3 #h ,the subject of the frieze is the battle of the gods and the giants1 and the members of the ,olympic ,pantheon are represented in attitudes of triumph over the serpent-footed denizens of ,tartarus4 ,this is probably the first appearance in sculpture of the serpent feet of the giant4 ,every earlier artist had realized how such a ridiculous detail would detract from the strength and probability of his figures1 but the ,pergamene artists are so glad of the chance of displaying extra technical skill that they pass over the artistic difficulty without hesitation4 ,the great frieze of the altar is like the work of a megalomaniac4 ,the restraint and good taste which have accompanied all ,hellenic art hitherto are quite forgotten1 and we are reminded rather of some ,assyrian scene of carnage and destruction4 ,this is the more curious1 because the smaller frieze of the altar1 the ,telephos frieze1 which is contemporary with the larger one1 shows altogether a different character4 ,it has therefore been plausibly argued1 with the support of some of the artists' signatures1 that the main style of the work is ,rhodian rather than ,pergamene4#bg ,the view would only involve us in further difficulties when we come to consider ,rhodian art4 ,there is ,rhodian influence in the frieze1 but the technical details of hair1 faces1 and bodies as a whole correspond closely to ,pergamene art4 ,moreover1 on a priori grounds1 ,pergamene art is much more likely to be affected by exotic oriental influences than the purer ,rhodian4 ,it is easier to assume a special development of ,pergamene art in this exaggerated direction for a monument which was itself a special and exceptional memorial4 ,the whole character of the work is a reversion to an earlier idealistic phase of art1 though carried out on very different artistic lines4 ,this is no romantic or frivolous treatment of mythological detail4 ,it is a great conception of the victory of right over might1 of ,hellas over the barbarian1 and as such the great altar of ,pergamon stands quite apart from most of the work of the ,hellenistic age1 and serves rather as a connecting link between the ,parthenon on the one hand and the ,imperial trophies of ,augustus1 like the ,ara ,pacis1 on the other4 ,it demonstrates the lack of judgement and balance in ,hellenistic art1 but it is a good proof that the ,hellenistic school was not wholly absorbed in questions of bravura and technique1 but could rise1 even if in rather clumsy fashion1 to the level of a great occasion4 ,the smaller frieze of ,pergamon1 giving incidents in the myth of ,telephos1 is of a very different type 7,fig4 #h74 ,firstly1 the subject is not a unity in time and place1 but a continuous narration of mythological episodes4 ,it thus resembles the setting in a continuous frieze of a number of metope-subjects4 ,telephos appears in different situations in a scene which apparently is uniform4 ,this is a decidedly new departure in artistic theory1 and it had the profoundest effect on all subsequent art4 ,we need not1 of course1 see in the ,telephos frieze the first appearance of this custom1 but it happens to be the earliest surviving monument in which the principle is easily remarked4 ,moreover1 the information as to change of scene is conveyed by means of changes in the background1 so that we see in it another new departure3 the use of a significant pictorial background instead of the blank wall against which earlier reliefs had been set4 ,here again the ,hellenistic artist revives rather than originates4 ,the pictorial background occurs as early as the #8,erechtheum' poros pediment of the ,acropolis1 but during the fifth and fourth centuries the idea was dropped only to reappear at a later date4 ,we have already seen that relief sculpture at all stages of its history is closely affected by the kindred art of painting4 ,during the fourth century painting underwent changes in the direction of naturalism as marked as1 if not more marked than1 the corresponding changes in sculpture4 ,the late fourth century and the third century form the great period of ,greek painting1 in which the names of ,parrhasios1 ,protogenes1 and ,apelles stand supreme4 ,a true and correct feeling for perspective and a naturalistic scheme of colouring were the main discoveries of the period1 discoveries which we are only able to appreciate in very roundabout methods through ,pompeian wall-paintings and mummy-cases from the ,fayum4 ,all ,hellenistic sculpture is profoundly influenced by painting1 as we shall see2 but naturally the art of relief is nearest akin and shows most clearly the effects of graphic ideas4 ,the ,hellenistic reliefs are almost all adaptations of pictures1 and the ,telephos frieze earns its main interest and reputation because it is one of the first monuments to show this influence very clearly4 ,we find a true use of perspective in part of this frieze1 and a deliberate intention to create the impression of depth4 ,one of the first results of these innovations was to free relief from its subordination to architecture4 ,it begins now to take its place as a self-sufficing artistic object like a picture4 ,greek pictures were mainly of the fresco type1 and therefore immovably fixed to walls1 though easel pictures now begin to be more frequent4 ,there was nothing dissimilar in the position of a relief decorating a wall-panel without architectural significance4 ,this idea found its earliest manifestation in ,ionia with friezes of the ,assos type on an architrave block1 and therefore at variance with architectural principles4 ,friezes as wall decorations appear commonly in the ,ionian buildings of the fifth and fourth centuries1 like the ,nereid and ,trysa monuments and the ,mausoleum4 ,we find in the ,hellenistic age the use of panels as wall decorations quite frequent all over ,asia ,minor4 ,thus at ,cyzicus we have some curious mythological reliefs called ,stylopinakia1 which appear to have been panels fixed between the columns of a peristyle4 ,we have the ,apotheosis of ,homer by ,archelaos of ,priene1 a clear instance of the decorative panel with a pictorial background2 we have smaller pieces like the ,menander relief in the ,lateran2 the visit of ,dionysos to a dramatic poet2 and all the series of so-called ,hellenistic reliefs ascribed by ,schreiber#bh to an ,alexandrian origin1 by ,wickhoff#bi to the ,augustan age and ,italian art4 ,the reliefs1 like other sculpture of the ,hellenistic age1 cannot be judged as a whole4#cj ,some are ,augustan1 like the reliefs in the ,palazzo ,spada1 and some are undoubtedly ,alexandrian1 like the ,grimani reliefs in ,vienna4 ,others1 again1 show a strong ,lysippic influence1 which at once connects them with ,rhodes4 ,the ,telephos frieze1 however1 is ,pergamene1 and the ,cyzicus reliefs must have fallen mainly in the ,pergamene sphere of art4 ,we are1 therefore1 entitled to demand a separation of the reliefs into just as many classes as the sculpture4 ,a fine piece of very high relief from ,pergamon is the group of ,prometheus on the ,caucasus freed by ,herakles4#ca ,besides the influence of pictures on relief there is also the influence of earlier sculpture4 ,one of the figures in the ,telephos relief reproduces the ,weary ,herakles of ,lysippos4#cb ,it would not be difficult to point out other examples of the adaptation of older types4 ,the ,marsyas group is itself a case in point4 ,the indifference of the ,hellenistic artist to his subject made him the readier to adapt earlier types1 provided he had a free hand for his details of execution and expression4 ,illustration3 #i ,illustration3 #aj ,the figures of ,pergamene art as a whole are short and stocky with squarish deep heads4 ,they correspond to the ,scopaic1 pre-,lysippic1 and ,peloponnesian type1 but the ,lysippic improvements in pose and swing of the body are thoroughly appreciated and adopted4 ,from ,praxiteles are derived the female type and the interest in the satyr as a vehicle of sculptural expression4 ,the athletic art of ,lysippos and the school of ,sikyon is practically unrepresented at ,pergamon or in those regions of ,ionia and ,bithynia which are connected with it and at which we must now glance4 ,from ,priene we have remains of a gigantomachy and some other sculpture4#cc ,the influence of ,praxiteles is marked1 and the work as a whole is clearly under ,pergamene guidance4 ,from ,magnesia we have remains of a great ,amazonomachy belonging to the frieze of the temple of ,artemis ,leucophryene and dating from the end of the third century4 ,the work is dull and careless but strongly under the influence of ,pergamon4 ,we shall in fact find no more architectural reliefs of even tolerable quality4 ,the new landscape or pictorial reliefs occupied the attention of the sculptors1 and temple decoration was left entirely to workmen4 ,one of the great ,hellenistic art centres is ,tralles1 whose treasures are mainly to be seen in the ,constantinople museum4 ,the colossal ,apollo or ,dionysos 7,fig4 #i7 is closely connected in pose and treatment with the ,apollo of the ,marsyas group1 and shows even more clearly than the torso in the ,uffizi the influence of ,praxiteles4 ,the cloaked ephebe of ,tralles 7,fig4 #aj7 is a good example of the eclecticism of the age4 ,the leaning attitude with the crossed legs reminds us of the satyrs of ,praxiteles and his school1 but the head is quite different and is strongly reminiscent of ,myron4 ,boethos of ,chalcedon belongs by birth to the northern or ,pergamene sphere of influence1 but he worked in ,rhodes and will be more suitably considered in connexion with ,rhodian art4 ,pergamene influence was also strong in the islands and on the mainland4 ,we shall see that the school of ,melos and both ,attic and ,peloponnesian art during the late third and second centuries were obviously affected by it4 ,,ii ,,the ,,school ,,of ,,alexandria ,it may well be questioned whether we are really in a position to separate the ,hellenistic schools as definitely and surely as we can separate the ,attic and ,peloponnesian schools of the fifth and fourth centuries or the earlier local schools of the sixth4 ,in the ,hellenistic age we find a far greater uniformity and cosmopolitanism in art than ever before4 ,the conquests of ,alexander had been in the long run ,panhellenic1 and outside the mainland at any rate the title ,greek came at last to mean more than merely a man's city or state4 ,it has therefore been argued by some critics that we must not expect to find the same local distinctions in ,hellenistic art4 ,in a cosmopolitan world with easy communications local and separate developments were no longer possible4 ,this position is plausible1 and so far as the question of ideals or even types is concerned there is little to choose between the ,hellenistic schools4 ,the so-called ,hellenistic reliefs are probably of very diverse origin2 the ,hellenistic love for genre scenes and for the grotesque appears to be universally indulged2 the erotic groups of ,pergamon were certainly equally popular in ,alexandria2 the influence of painting and the adaptation of earlier sculptural types are found in all parts of the ,aegean world4 ,but there does seem to be a distinction in technical execution between the three great schools of the period1 which is sufficient to justify their consideration in three separate chapters4 ,while ,pergamon is predominantly subject to the ,scopaic-,praxitelean mixed tradition with an especial fondness for extremely clear-cut work and soft finish1 ,rhodes appears to be equally faithful to the ,lysippic athletic tradition1 and ,alexandria to a strongly impressionist development of ,praxitelean ideas joined to a fondness for unsparing realism in the grotesque1 a combination not infrequent in the decadence of art4 ,for ,alexandrian art1 more than any of the others1 deserves the title of decadent through its abandonment of every vestige of idealism in motive4 ,we know the connexion of ,alexandria with ,athens was close in the late fourth century1 especially during the rule of ,demetrios of ,phaleron in its closing decades4 ,it was at this time that ,bryaxis made the ,sarapis 7,fig4 #ab71 which has perhaps survived for us in the innumerable copies of a wild-haired1 heavily bearded head with shadowed mysterious eyes4 ,during the next century ,macedonia was the chief foe of ,athens and of the ,ptolemies1 and all the earlier ,egyptian rulers were on close terms of friendship with the city4 ,thus a predominant influence of ,athens and of the greatest of the fourth-century ,athenian sculptors1 ,praxiteles1 is only what we should anticipate in ,alexandrian art4 ,it has1 however1 been argued that we have no evidence for a native art of ,alexandria at all4#cd ,while importing much late ,attic sculpture1 she borrowed also from ,pergamon works like the ,gaul's head at ,cairo1#ce and from ,antioch a group like the ,dresden ,aphrodite with the ,triton4#cf ,she was in fact a collecting rather than an originating centre4 ,illustration3 #aa ,illustration3 #ab ,illustration3 #ac ,this view is improbable on many grounds4 ,the ,egyptians were a people with a keen artistic sense1 and the sudden introduction of a new race like the ,greeks with their passion for cultural expression could hardly fail to give an impetus to artistic output4 ,moreover1 a great revival in architecture is noticeable all over ,egypt4 ,the ,ptolemaic age is one of the great building periods of the ,nile valley4 ,further1 our authorities are unanimous on the importance and brilliance of the ,alexandrian school of painting1 and we know that in gem-cutting ,pyrgoteles started a development never surpassed in antiquity or modern times4 ,in literature1 in criticism1 and in science the museum of ,alexandria held the chief place1 and it is impossible to suppose that ,egypt remained a mere collector of sculpture without any original development of her own4 ,we must1 therefore1 examine the artistic products of ,hellenistic ,egypt to see if they exhibit any technical peculiarities marking them off from other ,hellenistic centres and compelling us to credit them with a local origin4 ,any study of the sculpture of ,alexandrian origin reveals one characteristic almost invariably present in serious work1 as opposed to the grotesque1 and absent from the certified products of other centres4 ,this is that quality of slurring over all sharp detail in the features and producing a highly polished1 almost liquidly transparent surface for which we have borrowed the ,italian term morbidezza4#cg ,instances of this highly impressionist treatment are to be found in the ,british ,museum head of ,alexander from ,alexandria1 and also in the ,sieglin head from the same place2 in the ,triton head of the ,dresden ,alexandrian group of ,triton and ,aphrodite2 in the many ,anadyomene copies which are mostly connected with ,alexandria1 such for instance as the beautiful statue recently found in ,cyrenaica 7,fig4 #aa72 in girls' heads from ,alexandria in ,copenhagen and ,dresden4 ,in most of these works and in many others the soft transparent quality of the face is matched by a quite rough impressionist blocking-out of the hair4 ,thus we find both the characteristics of ,praxitelean impressionism1 the rough hair and the soft liquid gaze1 exaggerated and intensified in ,alexandrian sculpture4 ,while the female hair of ,pergamene art is invariably clear-cut and rope-like1 ,alexandrian hair is normally of the rough crinkly ,praxitelean type1 sometimes merely formal1 at others more complicated and complete4 ,this impressionist character of ,alexandrian sculpture is borne out by what we know of its painting1 and is doubtless due to some extent to the great influence of painting on sculpture as well as to the influence of ,praxiteles4 ,another technical point about ,alexandrian sculpture is connected with the local conditions of the country4 ,egypt is not a country of marble1 and therefore the artists had to be economical in the use of it4 ,this is probably the reason why so many ,alexandrian heads have the faces complete in marble but the hair added separately in stucco1 where the colouring would render the difference in material hardly noticeable4 ,thus many statues of ,alexandrian origin have large pieces of the upper part of their heads smoothed away and left for the addition of stucco4 ,this phenomenon is not confined to ,alexandrian art1 though it is much commoner at ,alexandria than elsewhere1 and where we find it in combination with the other qualities of impressionism and morbidezza already noticed we may feel fairly confident in claiming an ,alexandrian origin for the work in question4 ,illustration3 #ad ,illustration3 #ae ,illustration3 #af ,this theory is admirably illustrated in the beautiful little head of a girl from ,chios recently acquired by the ,boston ,museum 7,fig4 #ac74 ,the head shows us an extreme degree of morbidezza in the softening of all the sharper facial lines such as eyelids and lips4 ,the face is seen almost through a slight haze1 and it thus gets some of the impression conveyed by distance4 ,where the head is worked it is quite rough and formal in purely impressionist style1 but most of the hair was to be added in stucco1 as the sharp cuts on the upper part of the head demonstrate4 ,the head has been attributed too enthusiastically to ,praxiteles himself4 ,it is good work1 but it is not by the author of the ,hermes4 ,the too mechanical smile and the too formal cheeks show a less masterly touch4 ,but it is a perfect embodiment of ,alexandrian art about #cjj ,b4,c4 and must be unhesitatingly attributed to its real origin4 ,we see a general copy of the ,praxitelean long face with eyes about the centre of the head1 ,praxitelean proportions1 and ,praxitelean head-type4 ,another head of ,alexandrian origin is the fine bearded head of the ,capitol ,museum 7,fig4 #ad71 which is really almost a mask with the whole of the top and sides of the head left for stucco additions4 ,the rough blocking of the beard shows the artist's impressionist leanings4 ,the long face is purely ,attic1 though perhaps closer to ,bryaxis or some later artist than to ,praxiteles4 ,the head is more or less akin to the ,sarapis head and to the other much finer bearded head which stands in close relation to the ,sarapis1 the well-known ,zeus of ,otricoli 7,fig4 #ae74 ,in the ,otricoli head we have a similar prominence of the cheek-bones1 a similar narrowing of the forehead above the frontal sinus--,attic features but not ,praxitelean4 ,the ,otricoli ,zeus is also a marble work cut for stucco additions1 some of which are still visible1 and we should probably recognize in it another work of early ,alexandrian origin4 ,it is perhaps not too daring to see the prototype of these ,attic-shaped non-,praxitelean ,alexandrian bearded heads in the ,sarapis of ,bryaxis4#ch ,bryaxis or some other late ,attic artist seems to have affected the bearded male type of ,alexandria much as ,praxiteles influenced the feminine ideal4 ,nottingham ,castle contains a bearded head from ,nemi1#ci which belongs to the same class of work4 ,here again we have the hair added in stucco and a general resemblance to the ,otricoli type4 ,illustration3 #ag ,illustration3 #ah ,one of the new ,greco-,alexandrian types was naturally the goddess ,isis4 ,a head in the ,louvre 7,fig4 #af7 gives us a version of this figure1 which still1 even in a poor ,roman copy1 shows us something of the languid elegance of the original4 ,there is no traceable influence of ,scopas in ,alexandrian art4 ,the ,praxitelean and ,attic tradition was transferred pure1 and therefore the liveliness of movement and action in ,pergamene art is quite absent from the art of ,alexandria4 ,statues are mainly small1 partly perhaps for economy1 and partly from the lack of all desire for comparison with the gigantic masterpieces of ancient ,egypt1 and they are limited to simple standing or seated poses4 ,an interesting statue of obvious ,alexandrian origin is the priest of ,isis in the ,capitol 7,fig4 #ag71 which has been wrongly restored with a female head4 ,this head is itself ,alexandrian1 as its hair demonstrates1 but it has no connexion with the body1 which is male1 though draped in a light clinging tunic4#dj ,the tunic is interesting as giving us a good example of ,alexandrian drapery4 ,we may notice the very small closely set folds1 and the extreme realistic care with which the loose parts of the drapery are distinguished from those tightly stretched4 ,there is an element of artificiality no doubt in the way in which the folds radiate from the great jar carried against the chest and in their close symmetry of design1 but as a whole the effect of texture is marvellously well secured4 ,we have here a good example of the naturalism which now plays a large part in ,alexandrian art4 ,another statue which we must claim for ,alexandrian art is the ,capitoline ,venus 7,fig4 #ah71 an extremely interesting statue not only as a first-rate original but from its relation to the ,cnidian goddess of ,praxiteles4 ,the face and the hair show the usual qualities of ,alexandrian impressionism2 the fringed mantle thrown over the water-pot is the mantle of the ,egyptian ,isis1 and the foreshortening of the foot of the amphora is just the pictorial touch we expect in ,alexandrian art4 ,but the most interesting light which this statue throws on ,alexandrian art is its directness and want of subtlety in motive4 ,the goddess of ,cnidos is naked1 but she is only half-conscious of her nakedness4 ,her eyes are fixed on eternity1 and the actual bath is a mere accessory like the child of the ,hermes4 ,but the ,capitoline goddess is not thinking of eternity at all4 ,she is stepping into her bath1 and is suddenly aware of a spectator's gaze4 ,she is the classical counterpart of ,susannah in ,renaissance art4 ,all the vague beauty of the ,attic statue is lost by the touch of ,alexandrian realism1 which amounts almost to vulgarity4 ,as to the treatment of the body it is again real and not ideal4 ,the back in particular shows a close study of the model without any of the selective idealism of classical art4 ,like the beautiful torso in ,syracuse#da it is a marvellous study from nature1 not marked by any vestige of idealism4 ,another head in the ,capitol1 the so-called ,ariadne 7,fig4 #ai71 perhaps really a ,dionysos1 also suggests an ,alexandrian origin with its long face1 eyes close together1 and crinkly hair4#db ,it is a very favourite ,roman head often copied1 and must belong to some famous original4 ,it wears a band1 which presses into the hair1 and its sleepy languid gaze is remarkable4 ,this is produced by making the upper eyelid nearly straight and the lower one well curved4 ,the face is long and heavy4 ,both eye-shape and head recall the ,boston girl from ,chios and other ,alexandrian statues4 ,the surface of the face is highly polished1 the hair left crinkly and rough--an ,alexandrian procedure4 ,if we can accept this head1 we must class with it two heads of identical facial type1 the ,eubouleus of ,eleusis#dc sometimes attributed to ,praxiteles1 and the so-called ,inopos from ,delos in the ,louvre 7,fig4 #bj74 ,alexandrian dedications might plausibly be expected at ,delos and ,eleusis4 ,both ,inopos and ,eubouleus are highly impressionist4 ,we have said enough to show that what we may call the serious art of ,alexandria had certain characteristics of technique and execution1 which render not impossible an attempt to classify and arrange an ,alexandrian school of sculpture4 ,we must now turn to another side of ,alexandrian art which1 if of less artistic interest1 is nevertheless of paramount importance in our study of ,hellenistic art4 ,illustration3 #ai ,illustration3 #bj ,the people of ,alexandria were noted in the ancient world as scoffers and cynics4 ,their temper was fiery1 their jests were brutal1 and reverence of any kind was unknown to them4 ,a cosmopolitan medley of ,greek1 ,macedonian1 native ,egyptian1 ,jew1 and every nation of the ,east1 they were united only in their utter diversity of point of view and their scepticism of all ideal obligation4 ,to such a people caricature and a love of the grotesque were almost second nature4 ,by the side of the greater art of ,alexandria it is easy to discern a lesser art of comic1 grotesque1 and obscene statuettes of every description4 ,greek realism in portraiture went back to the ,pellichos of ,demetrios with his great paunch and scanty hair in the early fourth century4#dd ,with the end of the century the satyr was a recognized medium for every variety of the baroque and the macabre in expression4 ,but in ,alexandria above all the grotesque exaggeration of natural defects found its true popularity4 ,the negro1 the hunchback1 the drunkard1 the crtin of every kind1 became popular artistic models4 ,as if the delineation of youth and beauty was exhausted1 the ,hellenistic sculptors of ,alexandria rushed into the portrayal of disease1 of old age1 and of mutilation in every form4 ,they suffered as much as any modern decadent from #8la nostalgie de la boue'4 ,here again we must beware of attributing to ,alexandria all the grotesque figures of ,hellenistic art and all its pieces of most painful naturalism4 ,pergamon1 if not ,rhodes1 and doubtless ,antioch must have played their part in the commonest form of artistic decadence2 but we have so much of this work certified as ,alexandrian1 that we are justified in regarding ,egypt as its chief and most popular home4 ,works of this type fall into two classes3 the purely grotesque and the extremely naturalistic4 ,the former class is more or less confined to statuettes1 of which a number are collected in ,perdrizet's ,bronzes grecs d',egypte de la ,collection ,fouquet1 and the account of the ,mahdia ship in ,monuments ,piot for #aiji and #aiaj4 ,these include gnomes1 pygmies1 dwarfs 7,fig4 #ba71 and little obscene figures of all kinds4 ,needless to say1 ,praxitelean qualities of morbidezza and impressionism have no place in art of this kind4 ,we may presume that the demand was primarily foreign and not ,greek1 though all the skill of ,greek sculpture is employed in the faultless execution of many of them4 ,their ,alexandrian origin is better attested than that of the second class of extremely naturalistic works4 ,the latter are more important and more interesting4 ,they include some of the most skilful works of sculpture ever achieved4 ,the splendid negro's head of ,berlin#de and the fisherman of the ,louvre are of undoubted ,alexandrian origin1 but such works as the fisherman and the peasant woman of the ,conservatori#df or the old women of the ,capitol and of ,dresden are not so clear in their origin4 ,when we get a statue of this type1 combined with some clearly ,alexandrian quality1 such as the so-called ,diogenes of the ,villa ,albani#dg--;a naked beggar carried out with fine realism but also with considerable morbidezza and impressionism--we may claim an ,alexandrian origin2 but impressionism is rare among such statues1 as the artists seem to love to dwell on every detail4 ,we may1 however1 regard them as a single class irrespective of their individual origin4 ,the ,louvre fisherman#dh deserves careful study for its absolutely unsparing truth to nature4 ,the slackness of skin caused by long wading in water1 the swelling of the veins through hard work1 the feebleness and hollowness of chest due to old age or disease1 the coarse peasant's head1 in which each wrinkle is faithfully delineated1 deserve our wonder if not our admiration4 ,the little companion pair in the ,conservatori1 though inferior in workmanship as ,roman copies1 are also full of interest for their vitality and truth4 ,finest of all perhaps is the splendid old woman's head in ,dresden 7,fig4 #bb71 with its marvellous mimicry of the ravages of age4 ,such art is decadent1 because it is pessimistic1 cynical1 and unhappy1 and because it refuses to select and idealize as it might do even in studies of decay2 but of its brilliant execution there can be no doubt4 ,only the ,chinese have made grotesques which can rank with the products of ,alexandria4 ,this is a convenient place for dealing with the great series of ,hellenistic reliefs1 though it is no longer possible to maintain that these have a uniform and common origin either in ,alexandria or in ,imperial ,rome4#di ,we have seen their beginning in the ,telephos frieze1 the first to show us a pictorial background and an episodic mythological treatment4 ,the appearance of the relief panel as a self-sufficient whole without architectural background is an invention of the ,hellenistic age as early as the third century ,b4,c41 but it continues as an artistic force right through ,roman into mediaeval and modern art4 ,certainly not even the ,hellenistic reliefs have a common origin1 but it is not impossible that ,alexandria was the home of one class of them1 the pre-eminently pastoral scenes like the ,grimani reliefs in ,vienna 7,fig4 #bc74 ,alexandria was the greatest city of the ,hellenistic world and the farthest from any conception of the pastoral life of the country4 ,it is1 therefore1 possible that the rise of the pastoral tendency in art was connected with the ,alexandrian craving for novelty and variety in a sphere of which it knew nothing4 ,it is certain that the pastoral poems of ,theocritos delighted the citizens of ,alexandria1 and the ,hellenistic pastoral relief is strictly analogous to the poems of ,theocritos4 ,it shows a countryside of the ,watteau type with satyrs and nymphs to correspond to the shepherds and shepherdesses of the court of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,it is an artificial country without a touch of the reality of nature4 ,thus the pastoral reliefs and the poems of ,theocritos represent the one element of idealism in the materialistic culture of ,alexandria4 ,illustration3 #ba ,illustration3 #bc ,illustration3 #bb ,illustration3 #bd ,the ,hellenistic reliefs may be divided into three classes3 the pastoral reliefs such as the scenes showing sheep and a lioness and cubs1 called the ,grimani reliefs1 in ,vienna2 mythological reliefs like the ,bellerophon and ,pegasus of the ,palazzo ,spada1#ej or ,perseus and ,andromeda of the ,capitol#ea in ,rome2 and more complicated little scenes or groups like the ,menander relief of the ,lateran1#eb the ,apotheosis of ,homer1#ec the slaying of the ,niobids1#ed or the visit of ,dionysos to a dramatic poet4#ee ,they are all closely related to painting--how closely a reference to ,pompeian wall-paintings or mosaics like the famous ,praenestine pavement will show--but there are some differences between the groups which are worthy of mention4 ,the pastoral scenes are straightforward and naturalistic4 ,the little group of a countryman driving a cow past a ruined temple in ,munich is a good example of straightforward naturalism4 ,the mythological reliefs are usually distinctly affected in style4 ,the gesture with which ,perseus receives ,andromeda is like that of an exquisite handing a lady from her carriage4 ,bellerophon waters his horse with a nonchalant air4#ef ,daedalos and ,icaros#eg present a curious mixture of affectation and realism4 ,but it may now be regarded as certain that the ,spada reliefs are ,augustan in date at the earliest1 and the affectation may well be imported4 ,this is1 indeed1 partially demonstrated by a comparison of the two copies of the ,daedalos-,icaros group in the ,villa ,albani1 of which one is ,roman1 the other probably late ,hellenistic4 ,at the same time it is remarkable that the figures of the mythological reliefs all show the long slender proportions of ,lysippos4 ,this at once suggests a ,rhodian connexion4 ,mythological groups are favourites in ,rhodes1 and it is the one place where the ,lysippic tradition certainly lasted4 ,it is not a wholly hazardous suggestion to propose a ,rhodian origin for the mythological1 and an ,alexandrian origin for the pastoral1 reliefs4 ,one might be tempted1 therefore1 to ascribe the most intimate and domestic scenes to ,pergamon1 but there is insufficient evidence for proof at present1 though the reliefs deserve careful study with these possible divisions in mind4 ,in general we can only point out their fine naturalism and perfect execution4 ,their artists seem to have mastered all the problems of perspective and to deal with the third dimension as easily as with the other two4 ,it is natural to notice some advance in freedom of style4 ,the earlier reliefs1 like the ,telephos frieze1 or the ,dolon relief1#eh are in less pronounced relief and with less carefully conceived perspective4 ,later reliefs like the so-called ,menander relief show some of the figures in part detached from the background1 while the perspective of a group is most subtly graded4 ,we may compare the finest of them with the bronze doors of the ,florentine ,baptistery and their marvellous panels4 ,we are still left with one important monument of ,alexandrian art which perhaps can be treated most fitly in connexion with the pastoral reliefs--the great statue of the ,nile in the ,braccio ,nuovo of the ,vatican 7,fig4 #bd74 ,the god lies out at length supported on his elbow1 and little boys1 representing the cubits of his annual rise1 play about over him4 ,the work is a ,roman copy1 and tells us little of technique1 but the putti are interesting as a typical ,hellenistic development4 ,this is the period in which ,eros1 who has been growing steadily younger from the youth of ,praxiteles to the boy of ,lysippos1 turns finally into the chubby ,roman ,cupid or ,amorino of ,renaissance art4 ,as such he helps ,aphrodite in her toilet or performs all manner of tasks in the fine frieze of ,erotes at ,ephesos4 ,it is the logical ending of the transformation of mythology into genre4 ,alexandrian art is essentially mundane and frivolous1 sceptical and humorous4 ,her artists would have appreciated the earlier ,pergamene developments1 but they would have laughed at the clumsy idealism of the great altar frieze4 ,nor would they have felt much sympathy with the athletic art of ,rhodes4 ,we may perhaps consider here the little we know of the art of ,antioch1 since it has certain points in common with that of ,alexandria4 ,the chief monument used in all discussion of ,antiochene art is the statue of ,antioch#ei on the ,orontes1 made by ,eutychides1 a pupil of ,lysippos4 ,a small copy of this in the ,vatican shows us a fine seated figure crowned with the turreted crown1 who rests her foot on a little male figure with outstretched arms representing the stream of the ,orontes4 ,unfortunately the copy is too small to give us much information about the artist1 though he seems to have used the same idea for another statue of the ,eurotas4 ,we have1 however1 a figure of ,aphrodite from ,egypt 7,fig4 #be71 which shows a supporting ,triton in an attitude indubitably connected with the figure of the ,orontes4 ,this is an ,egyptian work1 but it argues some artistic connexion between ,alexandria and the ,seleucid capital4 ,another link is given us by the statement#fj that the ,apollo at ,daphne near ,antioch was made by ,bryaxis1 the author of the ,alexandrian ,sarapis4 ,antioch1 though like ,alexandria in many respects--in her turbulent population1 her cosmopolitanism1 her irreverence for all authority--seems never to have developed the cultured love of literature and the arts which we find at ,pergamon and on the ,nile4 ,she remained in all probability a collector and not an originator of art4 ,the glimpses which we can get of her statues indicate a catholic taste4 ,the ,apollo seated on the ,omphalos1 which decorates the ,seleucid coins1 resembles the ,lysippic type1 and a ,herakles type1 also found on ,syrian coins and reproduced in the bronze colossus of the ,conservatori1 has some connexion with the later ,sikyonian school4 ,by the side of these we must place the ,apollo of ,bryaxis4 ,ephesos1 a strong place more or less at the meeting-point of three empires1 has left us considerable remains of ,hellenistic art4 ,her bronze athlete at ,vienna 7,fig4 #bf7 belongs to a later development of the ,scopaic school2 her frieze of ,erotes#fa is more in the ,alexandrian manner4 ,some beautiful bronzes1 in particular a ,herakles attacking a centaur1#fb are in the mixed ,lysippo-,scopaic manner4 ,there are also traces of ,praxitelean influence in her art4 ,these cosmopolitan collecting centres cannot tell us much of the methods of ,hellenistic art4 ,our best resource is to examine more closely the works of certified origin4 ,ephesos is1 however1 important for its school of copyists4 ,the marble copies of the ,attalid dedications were perhaps made here1 and ,agasias1 the author of the ,borghese ,fighter1#fc was an ,ephesian by birth1 although a ,rhodian by education4 ,illustration3 #be ,illustration3 #bf ,,iii ,,the ,,rhodian ,,school ,the school of ,rhodes stands on a different footing from that of ,pergamon or ,alexandria4 ,the latter were new foundations1 or at least new societies1 in which the ,greek element was associated with much that was alien and exotic4 ,the orgiastic wildness of ,phrygia went far to influence the art of ,pergamon1 whether in its earlier sensuality or its later pageantry of exaggerated triumph4 ,in ,alexandria and in ,antioch non-,greek races imported into ,hellenic art the cynicism and the world-weariness of older and exhausted civilizations4 ,but ,rhodes was pure ,greek and a living1 growing1 prosperous community without recollections of humiliation and defeat4 ,rhodes as a city had been born of the union of ,lindos1 ,kameiros1 and ,ialysos at the end of the fifth century4 ,the fourth century brought slow growth1 but the successful defence against ,demetrios ,poliorcetes in its last decade opened a new chapter in ,rhodian history4 ,henceforward ,rhodes was mistress of an empire4 ,she acquired possessions on the mainland2 her fleet rode and controlled her neighbouring seas2 her trade stretched out tentacles in all directions2 and among the semi-barbarous ,hellenistic kingdoms she alone carried proudly the torch of undefiled ,hellenic tradition4 ,chares of ,lindos1 a pupil of ,lysippos1 headed the long roll of her sculptors2 her painter1 ,protogenes1 had but one rival in the ,sikyonian ,apelles4 ,thus from the first she boasted great artists1 closely connected too with the school of ,sikyon4 ,her ,dorian sympathies naturally isolated her from the ,attic school and from the mixed ,praxitelean-,scopaic school of the ,ionian mainland4 ,her ,peloponnesian and ,sikyonian connexions identified her at once with athletic art and with the school of ,lysippos4 ,thus while ,alexandria and ,pergamon patronized marble sculpture1 ,rhodes now becomes the home of bronze casting4 ,her vast ,colossus was matched by at least one hundred more statues of remarkable size1 and the roll of her artists as recorded in inscriptions is noteworthy for its length4 ,the great siege gave that impulse of idealism which is necessary for the growth of any artistic development1 and the traditional friendship with the rising power of ,rome helped her to preserve her prosperity and independence later than any of her neighbours4 ,the last great work of ,rhodian art1 the ,laocoon1 is almost as late as the ,empire1 and the whole period of two hundred and fifty years between it and the ,colossus is marked by an immense output of sculpture4 ,we have already suggested that the ,hellenistic art of ,rhodes began under the dominant influence of the athletic school of ,lysippos4 ,we must first examine the character and achievements of this school4 ,daippos1 ,boedas1 and ,euthykrates are said to have been sons and pupils of the great ,sikyonian4 ,of these ,euthykrates was the best known1 and ,pliny tells us that he followed his father's carefulness rather than his elegance1 and that his style was more severe than genial 7#8constantiam potius imitatus patris quam elegantiam austero maluit genere quam iucundo placere'74#fd ,his works were mainly athletic or equestrian1 with a few female subjects1 and his pupil ,tisicrates was a faithful copyist of the style of ,lysippos1 so much so1 in fact1 that his works could hardly be distinguished from the master's4 ,daippos made a perixyomenos or athlete scraping himself1#fe and ,boedas made an adorans or praying figure4#ff ,pliny's description is important1 because it assures us of the faithfulness with which the pupils of ,lysippos kept to their master's style4 ,this is the basis for the argument of those who see in the ,apoxyomenos of the ,vatican a work of the pupil ,daippos rather than the master2 but the argument is two-edged1 if ,lysippos' own style is to be found in the ,agias1 since the two statues have little in common4 ,the mention of the adorans enables us to connect two well-known bronzes with this school--the ,praying ,boy of ,berlin 7,fig4 #bg7 and the ,resting ,hermes of ,naples 7,fig4 #bh74 ,the ,praying ,boy is a subject unparalleled elsewhere1 and belongs to the early ,hellenistic age4 ,he can hardly be other than a copy of the statue of ,boedas4 ,the slender proportions and small head follow the ,lysippic canon1 and the easy swing of the body proves its chronological position4 ,this figure and the others1 which we shall subsequently notice1 show a new growth of naturalism by less insistence on the outlines of the torso muscles4 ,the average body in repose does not show the massive muscles of ,pheidian or even of ,lysippic art1 and the post-,lysippic sculptors of the third century tend to soften and naturalize the torso to a considerable extent4 ,the ,pergamene ,dying ,gaul is a good example of this fine restraint1 which was utterly abandoned by the later ,pergamene school and even by the late ,rhodians1 but which in all third-century art of ,rhodes is noteworthy4 ,the ,resting ,hermes is a fine copy of a post-,lysippic original1 which stood in close connexion with the ,praying ,boy4 ,the torso1 slender1 restrained1 and full of vitality1 shows the same treatment1 and must belong to the ,lysippic school4 ,illustration3 #bg ,illustration3 #bh ,eutychides of ,sikyon1 another pupil of ,lysippos1 is known to us only from his ,antioch4#fg ,this figure1 even in its poor copy1 is of great importance1 since it is almost the only certified draped female figure of the ,lysippic school4 ,our whole theory of ,lysippic and early ,rhodian drapery must1 therefore1 rest upon it4 ,a comparison with the ,herculaneum figure#fh in ,dresden will show at once a considerable resemblance in treatment1 so much so1 in fact1 that it has caused the attribution of the ,dresden figure to the ,lysippic school4 ,this cannot be allowed because of the greater resemblance to ,attic grave-reliefs and the ,mantinean basis1 which demonstrates the origin of the type in the school of ,praxiteles4#fi ,but it is sufficient to show that the new scheme of the school of ,praxiteles was adopted in the main by the pupils of ,lysippos2 their faithfulness to their teacher will incline us to the belief that ,lysippos used it also4 ,this type of drapery shows a tendency to an artificially effective or artistic arrangement rather than to complete simplicity of naturalism like the drapery of ,praxiteles himself1 but it is important to notice that it does not become purely artificial or stereotyped till much later1 and that all the early examples preserve a considerable share of freer naturalism4 ,the characteristic of the drapery is an opposition of folds in many differing directions1 so as to counteract the uniformity of the older ,pheidian type4 ,the folds themselves are quite natural2 it is only in their arrangement that we find the element of art4 ,the ,antioch permits us to assume the tall figure swathed in a long thin cloak as the female type of the ,lysippic school1 and therefore of the early ,rhodian school1 while the ,praying ,boy and the ,resting ,hermes give us the male type4 ,the close connexion postulated rests on the fact that ,chares of ,lindos1 the author of ,rhodes' most famous statue1 the great ,colossus1 was himself a member of the ,sikyonian school and a pupil of the master4 ,but the ,colossus itself is unknown to us in any certain copy1 and therefore we cannot speak with full knowledge of his art4 ,some statuettes in bronze in marked ,lysippic style may well reproduce the statue1 but we cannot feel the necessary certainty in their identification4 ,there is a group of athletic statues of the third century which carry out the ,lysippic tradition to its logical conclusion1 and which consequently we are practically bound to attribute to ,rhodian artists4 ,but until we have a definite copy of ,chares' work we must argue backwards to the first ,rhodian school1 of which we have no direct information1 from the later ,rhodian school1 of which we know a great deal4 ,the ,laocoon#gj and the ,farnese ,bull#ga are certified works of ,rhodian art of the first century ,b4,c41 and they show us a type of male figure which is quite distinct from the types of ,pergamene and ,alexandrian art4 ,we are1 therefore1 entitled to argue back to the ,rhodian school of the third century1 and to attribute to it such athletic sculpture as is clearly of the earlier date while offering distinct technical and stylistic resemblances to the later groups4 ,the male figures of this later period differ from the ,pergamene works1 with which they are most easily compared1 in certain well-defined points4 ,the heads are smaller and rounder and the hair is rougher and less carefully arranged4 ,the eyebrows have a tendency to form sharp angles with the nose instead of the broad straight curves of the ,pergamene brows4 ,this makes the bridge of the nose thinner and usually substitutes vertical forehead wrinkles for the swelling frontal sinus of ,pergamene work4 ,except in cases of great strain the torso muscles are treated with more restraint1 but the veins receive more careful attention1 especially on the abdomen4 ,in the back a more broken-up system of muscles replaces the great upright rolls on either side of the backbone1 which mark ,pergamene work4 ,finally1 the proportions are slighter and more ,lysippic4 ,these considerations apply most powerfully to two great statues of the ,louvre1 whose third-century date is almost certain3 the ,borghese ,warrior#gb and the ,jason 7,fig4 #cj74 ,the former statue is by ,agasias of ,ephesos1 an artist whom we can date with some degree of certainty in the middle of the third century4 ,the ,jason comes so close to the ,lysippic type of ,poseidon on the one hand and to the ,fighter of ,agasias on the other1 that the ,lysippic-,rhodian origin of the two is fairly well established4 ,the analogies of the ,borghese ,warrior with the ,apoxyomenos have been often pointed out1 but his resemblances to the ,laocoon and the ,farnese groups require an equal recognition4 ,both the ,louvre statues show the influence of a later generation on the ,lysippic type4 ,while reproducing the general proportions1 each develops ,lysippic innovations to a further degree4 ,lysippos made a distinct advance in anatomical skill1 but both these statues show a more exact scientific knowledge4 ,while their torso muscles are less prominent1 they reveal new details in abdomen1 groin1 and the inner side of the thighs1 unknown to the earlier sculptor4 ,they also develop much further the ,lysippic substitution of an all-round figure for a merely frontal one4 ,each of them can be regarded effectively from any point of view1 and neither has any real front4 ,they1 therefore1 represent a distinct technical advance4 ,but at the same time they show a decline in artistic feeling1 for there is perhaps too much science about them4 ,they belong to a school immensely interested in detail1 and tending1 therefore1 to lose its grasp on the general treatment4 ,the anatomical structure of the male form cannot be rendered more perfectly than in the statue of ,agasias1 so well known to all art students1 but the statue affects us with a feeling of strain and discomfort from its want of unity and repose4 ,all the athletic statues of the ,rhodian school seem to be restless and unsatisfied4 ,there is none of the calm repose about them that marked earlier ,greek art4 ,the desire to display newly acquired scientific knowledge invariably demands a strained and therefore disquieting motive4 ,as we shall see when we come to examine the ,laocoon later1 the influence of the stage appears to be affecting sculpture4 ,poses are histrionic1 and expression begins to depend upon grimaces and action rather than upon more subtle indications of feeling4 ,with the ,borghese ,fighter and the ,jason we may class1 perhaps1 a work like the ,actaeon torso in the ,louvre1#gc and also that much discussed and very beautiful work1 the ,subiaco ,youth4#gd ,this shows the same restraint in torso modelling which distinguished the ,praying ,boy and the ,resting ,hermes1 but in the strain of its attitude it resembles rather the ,fighter of ,agasias1 especially in the twist of the body above the waist1 which ,lysippos had originated and which his pupils tend to exaggerate4 ,one of the disquieting features of the ,borghese ,fighter is that he implies the presence of another figure which is not there4 ,he is a fighter without an opponent4 ,the ,subiaco ,boy is in the same plight4 ,his attitude can hardly be other than that of a suppliant touching chin and knee of his enemy in ,greek fashion4 ,his artistic defect is that he again is a suppliant without an enemy1 part of a group without his counterpart4 ,in their anxiety to study the human figure in all positions the ,rhodian artists were apt to overlook the question of artistic unity4 ,illustration3 #bi ,illustration3 #cj ,two fine bronzes in the ,terme ,museum may be attributed with some certainty to ,rhodian artists1 in view of the ,rhodian monopoly of ,hellenistic bronze casting4 ,both are ,greek originals--the seated boxer#ge and the hero resting on a lance 7,fig4 #bi74 ,the latter is commonly called a portrait of some ,hellenistic prince1 but the absence of the royal tiara or any personal indications is significant rather of a heroic type4 ,the face is strongly individual1 but so is that of the ,boxer1 the ,fighter of ,agasias1 and even the ,jason4 ,we have no reason to see a portrait in any of them1 but personality is beginning to affect even ideal statues in the ,hellenistic age4 ,the hero with the lance is a fine1 if rather histrionic1 figure more or less following the ,lysippic type of ,alexander with the lance#gf and showing a somewhat massive and emphatic rendering of a ,lysippic type4 ,he belongs to the later ,rhodian school1 into which exaggeration has crept1 rather than to the more restrained art of the third century4 ,the ,boxer1 on the other hand1 brutal and coarse as his expression is1 has no trace of muscular exaggeration1 and is an earlier work4 ,his broken nose1 swollen ears1 scarred face1 and blood-bespattered hair show the unsparing realism of the artist4 ,he is another instance of the all-round statue of the late ,lysippic school1 a masterpiece of technique1 if a somewhat disagreeable work of art4 ,we can connect the names and the works of few of the earlier ,rhodian artists1 but ,boethos of ,chalcedon is now established as a worker in ,rhodes1#gg where he received the honour of 4 ,pliny mentions his ,boy ,strangling a ,goose1#gh and the many copies of this statue in existence give us a good idea of its popularity4 ,boethos was apparently a silversmith and also a sculptor of boys4 ,he was famous as a maker of elaborate couches1 and we are possibly the possessors of such a couch in the fine bronze litter of the ,conservatori ,museum1#gi on which are little boys' heads strikingly similar to the ,boy with the ,goose4 ,this group is often quoted as an example of the new feeling for genre or homely domestic detail in sculpture4 ,it is1 in fact1 of great importance for its new recognition of the comic in art1 and for the appearance of the fat chubby boy like the ,erotes of ,ephesos or the little statuettes of ,alexandria4 ,the small boy or girl now becomes a favourite subject of the sculptor1 and we may compare closely with the ,boy of ,boethos the ,eros and ,psyche of the ,capitol 7,fig4 #cb71 who are really a little boy and girl engaged in a children's game4 ,we must now turn to another very important side of ,rhodian art--the delineation of female drapery4 ,the followers of ,lysippos favoured an austere style1 and the nude female figure has no place in ,rhodian art4 ,but while the other sculptors of the ,hellenistic world were modifying and to some extent vulgarizing the beautiful conceptions of ,scopas and ,praxiteles1 the ,rhodians were attacking the draped female figure as they inherited it from ,praxiteles and ,lysippos1 and producing modifications just as interesting and important as those connected with the athletic statue4 ,illustration3 #ca ,illustration3 #cb ,illustration3 #cc ,we know that ,philiskos of ,rhodes was the author of a group of ,muses which was much admired in ,rome4 ,it has been suggested that the new type of female drapery which appears on an altar from ,halicarnassos and on the relief of the ,apotheosis of ,homer by ,archelaos of ,priene1 certainly a member of the ,rhodian school1 was his work4#hj ,this new type of drapery is to be seen also in a number of statues of ,muses1 of which we have a collection from ,miletos in the museum of ,constantinople4#ha ,it may be described most simply as an aggravation and exaggeration of the style of drapery introduced by the school of ,praxiteles4 ,the desire to get a series of folds at sharply contrasting angles leads to a very artificial arrangement of the dress1 which produces an inharmonious effect4 ,but there is a new development which deserves our attention4 ,transparent drapery had been elaborated by ,alkamenes and the pupils of ,pheidias1 but always with the intention of displaying the body beneath it4 ,the new drapery of the ,muses is transparent with the desire to display other drapery beneath it4 ,the earlier ,greeks had used a thick mantle over a transparent chiton1 but the ,rhodian author of the new drapery used a transparent mantle over a clinging chiton4 ,he thus doubles the subtlety of his technique1 and provides himself with a series of new and intricate problems1 just as the athletic sculptor does with his anatomical discoveries4 ,this transparent mantle immediately obtained an immense vogue1 and it comes down into ,roman art as a strong rival of the late ,praxitelean drapery1 which1 however1 still prevails by the side of the other4 ,the greater number of ,roman female draped statues use one or the other type of garments4 ,the ,milesian ,muses are not in themselves great works of art4 ,the real technical possibilities of the new drapery are better displayed by a wonderful figure from ,magnesia in ,constantinople 7,fig4 #ca71 in which the new fashion is rendered with consummate skill4 ,it is of considerable importance that we should date this change in drapery as accurately as possible4 ,the date hitherto proposed for its supposed author ,philiskos has been put about #bbj ,b4,c4 ,the ,apotheosis of ,homer is taken to be about #baj judging from a portrait of ,ptolemy ,,iv appearing in it1 and the ,halicarnassos base is put about the same time4 ,but the portrait is by no means certainly that of ,ptolemy ,,iv4 ,it is more like ,ptolemy ,,ii1 and might belong to any period4 ,philiskos himself has nothing to do with it4 ,a female figure by him with a signed base has been discovered in ,thasos 7,fig4 #cc74 ,the drapery of this female figure follows the type of the ,mantinean basis1#hb and the earlier ,muses group of the ,vatican4 ,the inscription is not earlier than the first century ,b4,c4 ,philiskos1 then1 was a late artist who used the ,praxitelean drapery4 ,as for the transparent drapery1 it is highly improbable that it was invented before the frieze of the great altar at ,pergamon4 ,we know that ,rhodian artists worked on this altar1 and ,rhodian style is visible in some of the figures1 but transparent drapery of the ,rhodian type appears nowhere on the frieze4 ,there seems to be no reason to date any figure wearing this drapery earlier than #aij ,b4,c41 and we should therefore attribute it to the second century4 ,we have seen in the ,antioch of ,eutychides the ,praxitelean type taken over by the earlier ,rhodian artists in the third century4 ,have we any link by which we can connect the transparent mantle with the earlier form8 ,illustration3 #cd ,the answer to this question is provided by one of the greatest statues of antiquity1 the ,victory of ,samothrace 7,fig4 #cd74 ,the date and school of this masterpiece are still warmly disputed1 and the current view tends to connect it with the victory of ,demetrios ,poliorcetes in #cjf1 by which he won the command of the sea4 ,coins of ,demetrios show a trumpet-blowing ,victory on the prow of a ship in an attitude closely resembling the ,louvre statue4 ,but the statue has no connexion with the coin1 for a detailed study of the neck and fragments of the right shoulder reveals the impossibility of the trumpet-blowing attitude4 ,the right hand and arm are raised high and backwards probably with a victor's wreath4 ,moreover1 the coin has a low girdle and no cloak1 the statue the high third-century girdle and a great flapping mantle4 ,the type is not so rare as might be expected4 ,we have it in small bronzes1 and we have it also in situ on a votive statue in ,rhodes4 ,the ,victory of ,samothrace is a later version of the statue possibly erected by ,demetrios4 ,its ,rhodian origin depends partly on the extraordinary finesse and delicate naturalism of its drapery1 a study never popular in ,pergamon1 and partly on the strong probability1 not yet decisively proved1 that the marble of its base is ,rhodian4 ,the latter point may provide definite proof1 but the former is the one on which we must at present rely4 ,the ,rhodian origin or at least the ,lysippic connexions of the statue are further supported by the twist above the waist so universal among the followers of that artist and the strong vital momentary pose1 which is wrongly rendered in the present attitude of the statue4 ,it is not a standing figure1 but a ,victory who is just alighting after flight1 and it should therefore be tilted farther forward4 ,the only statue now existing which presents a real parallel to the intricate folds of the ,victory's drapery is the ,magnesian statue already mentioned1#hc which belongs to the new ,rhodian drapery school4 ,but the mantle of the ,victory is older in type4 ,thus the ,victory's drapery stands midway between the ,antioch figure and the new ,rhodian fashion4 ,it shows just that scientific naturalism which we have noticed in the anatomy of the athletic figures1 and just that tendency to miss the perfect whole by an over-anxious care for detail4 ,the date for such work is #bej and not #cjj ,b4,c4 ,the ,chiaramonti ,niobid#hd is a work of similar tendency though of a different school1 and must fall about the same date4 ,we now possess some evidence for the continuous study and development of female drapery at ,rhodes parallel to the study and development of the male form4 ,the ,rhodian school is in fact the most industrious and the most scientific of all the ,hellenistic art centres4 ,in mastery of detail they are unapproachable1 but they have ceased to care much for motive or idealism in their subjects4 ,to such art both impressionism and romantic feeling are foreign4 ,rhodian art is very versatile and very straightforward1 but its constant aspiration after the unusual renders it in the end monotonous4 ,the earlier and later periods of ,rhodian art are separated by the quarrel with ,rome and consequent loss of the land-empire in #afg ,b4,c4 ,this ended the real independence of ,rhodes1 and with it disappeared the inventive genius of her artists4 ,she continued for another century to be the great and almost the sole centre of art production1 for both ,pergamon and ,alexandria now lost all artistic importance1 but she ceased to develop and originate4 ,the works of her second period are brilliant in the extreme1 but they are no longer vital and progressive4 ,it is significant that the best-known works of this period are great groups rather than single statues4 ,we may notice the ,laocoon group1 the ,farnese ,bull1 the #8,pasquino' of ,ajax and ,patroclos1 the ,scylla group1 and the group of ,odysseus with the ,cyclops4 ,of these the earliest is perhaps the ,farnese ,bull1#he which we possess in an ,antonine copy at ,naples from the ,baths of ,caracalla4 ,it represents the punishment of ,dirce by ,zethos and ,amphion for her cruelty to their mother ,antiope4 ,the two heroes hold the bull1 to whose horns they are about to tie the unfortunate ,dirce4 ,it was made by ,apollonios and ,tauriskos of ,tralles1 and brought from ,rhodes to ,rome by ,asinius ,pollio4 ,the date can be fixed by a comparison of inscriptions to about the year #acj ,b4,c4 ,tauriskos' son has signed a base at ,magnesia about #ajj ,b4,c4 ,both ,tauriskos and ,apollonios were adopted by ,menecrates1 son of ,menecrates1 one of the artists of the ,pergamon frieze4 ,but in examining the group we must beware of the ,roman additions and restorations1 which include nearly all the landscape details together with the figure of ,antiope and the mountain god4 ,the head of ,zethos is a portrait of ,caracalla4 ,the group has been adapted to act as a centre-piece for the great hall of the ,baths of ,caracalla1 and consequently has been made square4 ,even in its original form1 however1 it must have been a good example of all-round sculpture4 ,the figures are ,lysippic1 and the lower part of ,dirce1 which is the only antique part of her1 shows more archaic drapery than usual4 ,this is only what we might expect from an art which has passed its prime4 ,novelty of treatment is no longer a first essential4 ,tauriskos also made figures called ,hermerotes4 ,these must have been herm figures with an ,eros head similar to a statue in the courtyard of the ,conservatori ,museum1 and comparable with the ,hermathena1 which belonged to ,cicero4 ,herms of all kinds became very popular in ,greco-,roman art1 and we see here in ,rhodes perhaps the first development of the old archaistic ,dionysos herms into more modern studies4 ,another dramatic group similar to that of the ,farnese ,bull and the ,laocoon was the lost group by ,aristonides of ,rhodes1 showing ,athamas in remorse for the murder of his son1 ,learchos4 ,pliny tells a foolish tale that the sculptor mixed iron with the copper in order to portray the blush of shame1 a story told also about the ,jocasta of ,silanion4 ,a little figure of ,odysseus 7,fig4 #ce7 in the ,chiaramonti gallery of the ,vatican holding out a bowl of wine to the ,cyclops must be part of another mythological group of this period4 ,the movement and action of the hero are typically ,rhodian1 and his face corresponds to the ,rhodian type4 ,the rest of the group is lost4 ,the group of ,scylla and the sailors of ,odysseus is represented only by a much mutilated and fragmentary copy in ,oxford1 which gives us little information4 ,we have more copies of the well-known ,pasquino group of ,menelaos or ,ajax and ,patroclos4 ,there are fragments in the ,vatican1 and a well-preserved replica in the ,loggia dei ,lanzi in ,florence 7,fig4 #cf74 ,here again the extraordinary interest in anatomical forms is shown not only in the strain and twist of the living hero--the invariable twist of all these ,rhodian figures--but in the admirable contrast between the vivid living body and the relaxed corpse4 ,this contrasting of physical and mental conditions is a part of the dramatic feeling in later ,rhodian art1 which has quite abandoned its earlier simplicity and has followed on the lines of baroque extravagance laid down by the second ,pergamene school4 ,illustration3 #ce ,illustration3 #cf ,of all the groups the best known and the most instructive is the latest of all1 the ,laocoon4#hf ,in this marvellous group we see the full development of the effect of strained agony on the human form1 and we see the mature form contrasted both with an active youth's body and with the semi-inanimate body of the younger boy4 ,when we have removed the restorations and lowered the right arm of ,laocoon nearer to his head1 we get a perfect group-design unified by the terrible serpent-coils and by the central theme of agony4 ,the torso muscles of ,laocoon are fully developed and even exaggerated1 though not to the same extent as those of the ,pergamene frieze1 but the boys' forms are simpler1 and all reflect the basic principles of ,rhodian art already enumerated4 ,pain is shown by the downward sloping eyebrows with sharp interior angles1 by the half-closed eyes1 wrinkled forehead1 and parted lips4 ,the hair is wild1 and all the veins of the body stand out sharply4 ,the twist above the waist occurs in all three bodies4 ,it is interesting to notice that even in the ,laocoon1 the latest work of the most scientific school of ,greek sculpture1 anatomical accuracy is still lacking4 ,the lower curve of the ribs above the abdomen follows a line impossible in nature1 and the left thumb of the elder son is provided with three joints instead of the normal two4 ,neither the ,laocoon nor any one of the other ,rhodian groups is perfectly satisfactory to modern taste4 ,there is too much strain1 too much agony1 too little relief or repose4 ,every inch of the group is illustrative of pain and passion4 ,our sense of sympathy is deadened by excessive emphasis and repetition4 ,but in technical skill the group has never been surpassed4 ,a close parallel to the head of the ,laocoon is found in the bearded centaur of the pair made by ,aristeas and ,papias of ,aphrodisias 7,fig4 #ch74 ,copies of this statue existing in the ,capitol and in the ,louvre show the despair of the elderly victim of love in the guise of a centaur tormented by a little ,eros on his back4 ,the companion figure 7,fig4 #cg7 is young and delights in the persuasions of his rider4 ,this group of rather obvious allegory belongs to the ,antonine age1 but the resemblance to the ,laocoon proves a first-century original1 which is interesting because it is one of the earliest examples of a corresponding pair of statues clearly designed for house decoration4 ,the growth of #8cabinet pieces'1 as opposed to temple or national dedications1 now develops into the whole mass of furniture sculpture in the shape of candelabra1 table-legs1 consoles1 decorative herms1 c41 which mark the imperial age4 ,the school of ,rhodes ends in extraordinary brilliance4 ,there is nothing decadent in its technique1 nothing paltry in its conceptions4 ,we have seen the very pure and slightly finicky naturalism of the early third century give way to a rather more baroque extravagance in detail1 but in neither its earlier nor its later stage did the purest of the ,hellenistic schools affect the exaggerations of ,alexandria or ,pergamon4 ,in ,rhodes1 at any rate1 the steady development of ,greek sculpture reached its perfect and logical conclusion4 ,we have seen it start with a great idealism and no technique at all4 ,in the fifth century technique and idealism are almost equally balanced4 ,in the ,laocoon the last word of technical perfection is spoken1 but there is no idealism at all1 only a man and two boys writhing in the grasp of serpents4 ,it is not photographic naturalism1 but it is histrionic1 artificial1 and dead4 ,we cannot believe in the ,laocoon as we believe in the ,hermes of ,praxiteles4 ,illustration3 #cg ,illustration3 #ch ,,iv ,,the ,,mainland ,,schools ,,during ,,the ,,hellenistic ,,age ,while the full tide of artistic development was running in the new societies of ,pergamon1 ,rhodes1 and ,alexandria1 the ,greek mainland became a backwater4 ,the rise of the kingdoms meant the decline of the old autonomous city states4 ,athens in particular fell into the background on account of her uncompromising hostility to the power of ,macedonia4 ,in spite of some brief periods of revival1 her destiny was for the future rarely in her own hands1 and her political subordination seems to have reacted with great rapidity upon her artistic output4 ,she remained for another century after the death of ,alexander the home of philosophy1 but her art began to revive only after the ,roman conquest1 in a new form1 which will require later consideration4 ,here at least the ,hellenistic age is a period of rapid decadence and decline4 ,the ,peloponnese is in much the same position4 ,the pupils of ,lysippos found their best clients abroad1 and left no successors of importance at home4 ,the political loss of power was here intensified by a growing poverty4 ,the new wealth which began to pour into ,europe as the result of the conquest of ,asia went either to ,macedonia or to those states which had sent mercenaries to ,alexander's army4 ,the future prosperity of ,greece was in the hands of ,arcadia1 ,achaia1 and ,aetolia rather than ,argos1 ,sparta1 and ,sikyon4 ,the new states had few artistic traditions1 and the old states had no means of gratifying theirs4 ,the inevitable result was a great decline in artistic output as well as in artistic skill4 ,almost the only sphere left for sculpture was the erection of formal honorary statues to distinguished or wealthy individuals1 a type of work which does not beget great art4 ,illustration3 #ci ,illustration3 #dj ,illustration3 #da ,the first half of the third century was a period of very good work in portraiture1 which is1 however1 a subject by itself4 ,the ,demosthenes of ,polyeuctes is dated about #bhj ,b4,c41 and the statues of ,aeschines1 ,aristotle1 and others show the existence of an admirable school of portrait sculptors at this time in ,athens4 ,but ideal sculpture shows a sad falling-off4 ,the ,themis of ,chairestratos 7,fig4 #dj7 belongs approximately to this period1 and it is marked by a great formality1 not only in pose but in the treatment of hair and drapery4 ,the classical period of sculpture in ,athens was followed by what we must call an academic period4 ,the foreign schools were developing on lines of naturalism1 but at home sculptors tended merely to formalize the work of the fourth-century masters1 and to produce statues of mechanical correctness without any vitality at all4 ,we have seen the beginning of this tendency in the drapery system of the followers of ,praxiteles4 ,it now affects the whole of ,attic sculpture4 ,old types are adopted again and again1 until they become purely mechanical4 ,drapery styles are similarly used up1 and the increasing formality of every department stifles entirely the possibilities of originality4 ,the ,hermes of ,andros 7,fig4 #ci7 is a good example of this kind of crystallization of types4 ,the statue was found in connexion with a tomb1 and it is clearly a memorial statue4 ,its companion was a female figure reproducing exactly the pose and drapery of the draped female figure from ,herculaneum at ,dresden4 ,the date would seem to be late third century4 ,the ,hermes itself is a replica of a type known in the ,antinous of the ,belvedere and other statues1 and is a product of the ,praxitelean school1 like the ,dresden figure4 ,but the influence of ,praxiteles is not alone in it4 ,we have a clear use of ,lysippic proportions and some ,lysippic influence in the head4 ,this eclecticism is an invariable mark of archaistic art4 ,the sculptor1 who has no new message of his own to deliver1 looks back to antiquity for his types1 but does not imitate one statue directly4 ,the only form of originality which he is able to use is originality of combination and selection4 ,consequently he absorbs details from several artists and produces work which we label ,lysippo-,scopaic1 or ,lysippo-,praxitelean1 c4 ,we have seen how the late fourth-century artists in ,asia ,minor combined characteristics of ,scopas and ,praxiteles4 ,the late fourth-century and third-century ,attic artists made use of all their predecessors1 and produced statues in which we can detect the disiecta membra of half a dozen styles4 ,at the same time we may recognize the general predominance of ,praxitelean tradition over that of the other artists and a universal predilection for marble instead of bronze4 ,one of the most interesting ,hellenistic works of the ,attic school is the bronze figure from ,anticythera1#hg which is still the subject of much dispute4 ,it is a typical piece of eclecticism4 ,the pose and twist of the shoulder and upper part of the torso are ,lysippic1 while the head is a mixture of ,praxiteles and ,scopas4 ,the result1 as might be expected1 is somewhat inharmonious4 ,in shape and profile the head is mainly ,praxitelean1 and therefore on its discovery it was acclaimed as a ,praxitelean original4 ,but looking from the front we at once see the resemblance to the ,scopaic ,meleager type1#hh with its broad head1 slight chin1 and fringe of short upright locks like little flames4 ,the head1 and indeed the whole statue1 is not unlike the bronze athlete of ,ephesos1#hi which has the same hair and facial type1 together with a similar rather heavy ,lysippic body4 ,this heaviness of the torso in both statues shows that the ,lysippic ideal is not followed directly1 but rather the ,attic version of it as used in the ,agias of ,delphi4#ij ,another ,attico-,lysippic figure is preserved for us in a number of replicas1 of which the two best known are the ,hermes from ,atalanta in ,athens 7,fig4 #da7 and the ,hermes ,richelieu in the ,louvre4 ,here again ,lysippic proportions are combined with a rather heavier ,attic torso in a whole which lacks something of harmony and repose4 ,the work has been referred back to a ,lysippic original1 but it seems more likely that it is an ,attic adaptation of the eclectic school now springing into existence4 ,the ,attic grave reliefs give us good information about ,attic art down to the end of the fourth century1 but ,demetrios of ,phaleron prohibited them for sumptuary reasons in #cji ,b4,c41 and in future we have no such good guide to ,attic art4 ,eclecticism is1 however1 pretty clear in the later examples which we do possess4 ,the votive reliefs from the ,asklepieion throw some light on the third century1 but they are not on a sufficiently large scale to be very instructive4 ,illustration3 #db ,in ,greece at all times professions tended to run in one family1 and we have already seen examples of families of sculptors1 such as that of ,praxiteles1 in which the craft was handed down from father to son for generations4 ,the ,hellenistic age is full of evidence for this phenomenon in ,athens and elsewhere4 ,rhodes in particular gives us detailed families of sculptors1 since we are better provided with inscriptions in ,rhodes than in other centres4 ,in ,hellenistic ,athens two such families are worthy of notice4 ,polykles1 whom we may call ,polykles ,i1 had two sons1 ,timokles and ,timarchides ,i2 the latter had two sons1 ,polykles ,,ii and ,dionysios2 and ,polykles ,,ii had a son1 ,timarchides ,,ii4 ,these are known to us from literature or from inscriptions1 and they cover more or less the second century ,b4,c4 ,it is a question to which member of the house we are to ascribe the very famous bronze ,hermaphrodite mentioned by ,pliny1#ia or whether it should be referred to an earlier artist of the same name in the fourth century4#ib ,a further question is involved in the identification of the ,hermaphrodite1 since it is commonly assumed that the ,sleeping ,hermaphrodite 7,fig4 #db71 far the most famous type now extant in numerous copies1 must have had a marble and not a bronze original4 ,the statue of ,polykles is identified with the ,berlin ,hermaphrodite#ic by those who would give him a fourth-century date2 with a bronze in ,epinal#id by those who associate him with ,hellenistic art4 ,the ,berlin ,hermaphrodite is of ,praxitelean type2 the ,epinal bronze resembles rather what we have called the ,pergamene type of the ,turning ,satyr and the ,aphrodite ,kallipygos4 ,the question is a difficult one1 but we may safely exclude ,polykles ,,ii4 ,timarchides ,i1 his father1 and ,dionysios1 his brother1 worked on statues of a marked academic tendency4 ,the ,c4 ,ofellius of ,delos was the work of his brother1 a statue of purely mechanical taste4 ,this ,polykles is not likely to have originated a great and famous statue4 ,polykles ,i worked as early as #bjj1 a much better period for original work4 ,he is a more likely candidate for the authorship of the type1 if we suppose it to have resembled either the ,epinal bronze or the ,sleeping ,hermaphrodite4 ,on a priori grounds of its great popularity one would distinctly prefer to connect the latter with the statue mentioned by ,pliny4 ,it is true that it looks like a marble statue and not a bronze one1 but a marble replica which served as the prototype for marble copies is by no means an impossible suggestion4 ,but this ,sleeping ,hermaphrodite is a work of distinctly ,pergamene tendency1 intended to bring out the artist's skill in the rendering of soft sensual forms4 ,it would seem to belong to an earlier date than #bjj or even #bej4 ,the ,epinal bronze implies a similar date1 and therefore we are left with a double difficulty4 ,the best ,polykles for our purpose seems to be fifty years too late for either of the types we require4 ,we are1 therefore1 driven to suppose an intermediate ,polykles about #bgj ,b4,c4 ,in any case we must infer a reaction of ,pergamene influence on the academic art of third-century ,athens1 but it was a solitary example which seems to have left no heritage to later artists4 ,illustration3 #dc ,illustration3 #dd ,the sculptor family best known to us from inscriptions is that of ,eucheir and ,euboulides4 ,we know of at least two representatives of each name1 ,eucheir ,i about #bbj1 ,euboulides ,i about #aij1 ,eucheir ,,ii about #afj1 and ,euboulides ,,ii thirty years later4 ,the first ,euboulides made a statue of ,chrysophis1 the second ,eucheir athletes and warriors1 and a marble ,hermes at ,pheneos4 ,the second ,euboulides is more important1 for he was the author of a great monument outside the ,dipylon ,gate1 considerable fragments of which have been recovered4 ,these fragments are our main evidence for the art of ,athens in the second half of the second century ,b4,c41 and they show us that the academic art of the second half of the third century has followed out its natural development4 ,the figures of ,victory 7,fig4 #dc7 and ,athena 7,fig4 #dd71 which have partially survived1 are grandiose without being noble or effective4 ,there is a distinct attempt to absorb some of the exaggerated idealism of the second ,pergamene school2 there is also an effort to recover some of the simplicity and grandeur of ,pheidias2 but the result is a staid and rather mechanical classicism1 which is made only a little more obvious by the larger size of the figures4 ,the ,athena head1 with its straightforward gaze1 archaistic hair1 large1 wide-open eyes1 and round1 heavy chin is distinctly ,pheidian2 the ,victory in rapid movement with head turned to the side is more affected by ,pergamene art4 ,her drapery shows a curious combination of naturalism and formalism in the folds at the girdle2 each individual set of folds is well studied from nature2 but the repetition of a similar set right round the body is purely mechanical4 ,the group is a good example of the limitations of the ,attic artist at the end of his development4 ,the next century sees a totally different activity4 ,in the ,peloponnese we have a great gap after the pupils of ,lysippos1 a gap devoid of any evidence either literary or monumental4 ,during the whole of the third century it would be difficult to point to any ,peloponnesian art on a scale deserving of attention4 ,but the second century opens with a name of some importance1 ,damophon of ,messene4 ,we are in the rare and fortunate position of possessing undoubted originals from his hand in the great group of ,lycosura4 ,these are practically our sole monumental evidence for the ,hellenistic art of the ,peloponnese4#ie ,the date of ,damophon is now established by inscriptions for the first half of the second century ,b4,c41 and a number of his works are more or less attested by coin-types4 ,he had a considerable vogue in the last generation before the ,roman conquest1 and his leading position is evidenced by the commission he received to restore the ,olympian ,zeus4 ,it may have been his hand which touched up and restored the corner figures of the west pediment of the temple4 ,the great group of ,lycosura represented ,demeter and ,kore enthroned between standing figures of ,artemis and a ,titan ,anytos4 ,it survives in three heads and numerous fragments of limbs and drapery1 and its conjectural restoration has been recently undertaken 7,fig4 #de74 ,the discovery of a coin representing the group on its reverse goes far to justify the proposed design4#if ,illustration3 #de ,the group is interesting from many points of view1 but mainly from the flood of light which it throws on the methods of ,peloponnesian sculpture at the very close of its development4 ,it thus forms a complementary picture to the remains of the monument of ,euboulides in ,athens4 ,damophon1 like ,euboulides1 underwent the influence of ,pergamon4 ,the colossal scale of his group and the wild hair of his giant ,anytos 7,fig4 #df7 demonstrate the influence of the altar frieze4 ,damophon also went back to ,pheidias for inspiration4 ,he must have absorbed many lessons from his work at ,olympia4 ,the seated group of his goddesses is reminiscent of the two figures next to #8,theseus' in the west pediment of the ,parthenon4 ,the simple wide-eyed grave expression of his ,demeter head goes back to the fifth-century ideal1 while his ,artemis 7,fig4 #dg7 wears the melon-coiffure associated with the school of ,praxiteles4 ,the attitudes of ,artemis and ,anytos are ,lysippic4 ,here we have every evidence of academic eclecticism4 ,the same feature is borne out by three coins which reproduce the statues of ,damophon4 ,his ,asklepios at ,aigion gives us a fourth-century type4 ,he copied the ,laphria of ,patras for ,messene4 ,his ,herakles in the guise of an ,idaean ,dactyl at ,megalopolis seems to have been a variant of the now fashionable herm figures and to copy a ,hermerakles type known by numerous extant examples4 ,damophon's style then was academic and eclectic1 borrowing from all sources of inspiration and in general using up over again well-known groups and poses4 ,his execution is even more interesting for its extraordinary inequality4 ,his heads are on the whole very good4 ,the ,demeter is a dull piece of work1 but both the ,anytos and the ,artemis show some fancy and some power of original expression4 ,the girl is demure and cheerful1 the giant benevolent and rather sly4 ,but when we come to examine the execution of the fragments of the bodies and limbs which survive at ,lycosura1 we find a very hasty and poor technical ability4 ,the arms and legs are nearly shapeless4 ,they are colossal1 but practically formal in design1 and details of muscles and sinews are almost entirely omitted4 ,the drapery makes some effort to follow ,pheidian designs1 but it is poorly carved and without effect4 ,only in one direction does the artist show any skill1 and that is in the great embroidered veil 7,fig4 #dh7 worn by ,despoina4 ,this is an extraordinary tour de force1 not for its sculptural effect1 which is purely formal1 but for the reproduction of a complicated embroidered design in very low relief4 ,a border of tassels with bands of design about it and large embroidered figures of ,victory above the bands is rendered with consummate art4 ,we have a frieze of sea-monsters1 nymphs1 and ,erotes according to a common ,hellenistic design1 a curious local dance of beast figures in human dress1 a dance paralleled by some small terra-cotta figures found in the same shrine1 and the larger figures of ,victory above carrying candelabra4 ,it is interesting to see the total want of proportion in the artist's mind1 who could devote so much time and originality to a comparatively unimportant piece of decoration1 while treating the main lines of his drapery with carelessness and monotony4 ,it is probable that we have here a procedure to be noticed in the ,demeter of ,cnidos--a head done with great care and placed on a torso of inferior execution4 ,while ,damophon worked the heads of all the figures and the drapery of ,despoina1 he must have left the rest of his group to a band of journeymen assistants4 ,we know from inscriptions that ,damophon had two sons1 ,xenophilos and another whose name is lost4 ,it is1 therefore1 possible that ,xenophilos and ,straton1 the ,argive sculptors1 were his sons4 ,their subjects were similar1 and their ,asklepios1 as shown on a coin1 is identical with ,damophon's4 ,illustration3 #df ,illustration3 #dg ,illustration3 #dh ,thus ,greek sculpture on the mainland came to a somewhat inglorious and academic conclusion with the ,roman conquest in #adf ,b4,c4 ,we may examine one more centre of artistic work before leaving it1 since it forms a link between ,greece and ,ionia1 between the declining schools of the mainland and the vigorous art of ,pergamon and ,rhodes4 ,melos has left us several ,hellenistic statues of interest4 ,the ,aphrodite of the ,louvre and the ,poseidon in ,athens are their most important representatives4 ,the ,poseidon 7,fig4 #di7 is a typical work of histrionic bravura under the influence of the second ,pergamene school4 ,he stands in a defiant and dramatic attitude as if summoning his adversaries to combat1 and his burly hair and beard recall the giants of the altar4 ,but an eclectic taste is visible here also4 ,his pose is ,lysippic1 and his restrained torso owes more to ,rhodes than ,pergamon4 ,melos is a meeting-point of trade-routes1 in which many artistic currents must have come together4 ,the ,aphrodite of ,melos#ig has attained a somewhat undeserved position as one of the world's masterpieces of sculpture4 ,splendid piece of work as it is1 it has most of the faults of its period4 ,much controversy has raged even over the actual facts of the discovery of this statue1 but there appears to be no reason to doubt that the inscribed base1 which was found with it and brought perhaps later to ,paris1 is part of it1 and contains the true record of its author 444sandros from ,antioch on the ,maeander4#ih ,this base has been lost1 but drawings and statements exist to show that it fitted the actual base4 ,the missing fragment had a rectangular hole on the upper surface1 in which some additional attribute was fitted4 ,the restoration of this missing piece of the base with its hole disposes of the theories occasionally ventilated that the statue was one of a pair4 ,the hole is not the socket for fastening a statue1 nor will it hold one of the small herms which were found with the ,aphrodite4 ,its true significance has been pointed out by ,furtwngler by analogy with several other statues and designs1 including one from ,melos and one actual copy of the ,aphrodite herself4 ,it served for the fastening of a slender column or stele on which the goddess rested her left elbow4 ,a beautiful little fourth-century bronze in ,dresden shows a similar motive4 ,the restoration of the figure is now easy4 ,with her right hand the goddess held or was about to hold her drapery to prevent it from slipping2 her left elbow rested on the pillar1 and her left hand1 palm upwards1 held an apple4 ,this hand holding the apple was actually found with the statue1 and undoubtedly belongs to it1 as well as a piece of the upper left arm4 ,the other hand found at the same time is alien and on a larger scale4 ,the position of the hand1 palm upwards1 is certified by the unworked back1 which would be invisible4 ,the apple of course is a frequent symbol of ,aphrodite1 and particularly appropriate in the island to which it gave its name4 ,illustration3 #di ,illustration3 #ej ,the ,aphrodite was found in a niche or exedra1 which was dedicated by one ,bacchios with a second-century inscription4 ,the base inscription of 444sandros1 whose name we may guess to have been ,agesandros1 is also second century1 and therefore we cannot hesitate to accept a date about #ahj-afj ,b4,c4 for the ,aphrodite1 especially as its style and technique are indubitably of that period4 ,the pose may be described as reminiscent of ,lysippos with its opposing lines of shoulders and hips and twist of the body above the waist4 ,the head-type is ,scopaic1 but only ,scopaic at second-hand1 since the influence of ,pergamon is much clearer4 ,if we compare the head with the head of the girl in ,berlin from ,pergamon1#ii or with the ,pergamon ,hermaphrodite in ,constantinople1#ajj we see an identical treatment of hair1 identical head-shape1 and the same type of features in almost every detail4 ,the drapery is interesting for yet another source of inspiration4 ,its division into flattish panels separated by groups of deeply-cut waving folds is in the manner of ,pheidias and the late fifth century1 while the naturalistic little detail on the right hip1 where the lower folds are caught up and radiate from a single point1 is thoroughly ,hellenistic4 ,the style of the statue as well as its technique is clear proof of its date4 ,the attitude of the goddess has no discernible motive4 ,there is no reason why she should be half naked1 or why she should twist her body round so violently from the hips4 ,there is no explanation why her drapery should stay up at all in so insecure a position1 or why her left foot should be raised higher than her right4 ,but if we compare for a moment the ,melian ,aphrodite with the ,capuan ,venus in ,naples 7,fig4 #ej71 a statue in a nearly identical position1 all these points are explained4 ,the ,capuan ,venus is half naked1 because she is admiring her beauty in the mirror of the shield of ,ares4 ,she is twisted so as to look at herself in the shield and yet display her body to the spectator--in itself a ,hellenistic device4 ,her drapery is held up1 because the shield-edge holds it against her left hip2 her foot is raised1 because it rests on ,ares' helmet and thereby gives better support to the shield4 ,the attitude of the ,melian goddess is clumsy and stiff1 because it has no motive2 that of the ,capuan is graceful and effective1 because its motive is clear4 ,now it is noteworthy that the many examples of this type in our possession are all copies of the ,capuan and not of the ,melian figure4 ,this is clear from the direction of the drapery folds1 which differs in the ,melian from all the other figures4 ,the history of the type is thereby made clear4 ,it was an early ,hellenistic or late fourth-century statue of the ,armed ,aphrodite1 possibly the cult statue1 which appears in identical pose on coins of ,corinth4 ,itself a typical genre adaptation of a very early myth1 it at once gained favour and was much copied1 especially in ,roman times4 ,the ,melian goddess was a second-century ,hellenistic copy1 but not a mere copy1 rather an adaptation of the earlier prototype to a figure more suitable for ,melos itself4 ,unfortunately the artist was unable to make the pose suit his new scheme properly4 ,we get another adaptation in the ,augustan age in the shape of the ,victory of ,brescia inscribing a roll of the dead on the shield1#aja and finally1 in the second century and later1 we get a crowd of copies much closer to the original1 of which the ,capuan ,venus is the best4 ,the history of the ,melian ,aphrodite throws much light on the ,hellenistic art of the mainland and its neighbouring islands4 ,we see its artists bankrupt of new ideas1 and able only to adapt older conceptions to new requirements with a series of eclectic modifications4 ,the ,aphrodite is a close parallel to the monuments of ,damophon and ,euboulides1 although its artist is admittedly a better sculptor4 ,all three show a poverty of new ideas1 but a strong reaction against the excesses of the later ,pergamene school4 ,they are1 therefore1 forced to look backward and make up new conceptions out of a medley of older details4 ,it is of the utmost importance that we should remember this state of mind when we come to deal with ,greco-,roman art4 ,v ,,greco-,,roman ,,sculpture ,we have now completed our survey of ,greek sculpture on the mainland1 and in connexion with the eastern kingdoms which ,greece absorbed as conqueror4 ,we have yet one other aspect to consider3 ,greek sculpture in connexion with the ,roman world of the west1 by which ,greece was conquered4 #8,conquered ,greece led her conqueror captive1' and while ,greek civilization as a whole strongly modified the ,italic civilization by which it was overthrown1 ,greek art in particular established its mastery over the inartistic nation which supplanted it4 ,we have many accounts of how ,roman connoisseurs filled their galleries with ,greek statues4 ,mummius1 ,aemilius ,paulus1 ,verres1 ,cicero1 ,sulla1 ,asinius ,pollio1 were all robbers or purchasers of ,greek sculpture1 and by the time of ,pompey and ,caesar the great market for ,greek sculpture was in ,rome4 ,the demand exceeded the supply of antique marbles1 enormous as the supply must have been1 for the systematic plundering of the great shrines belongs to a later date4 ,and as the ,roman noble could not be accommodated with originals1 he had to content himself with copies4 ,doubtless few of the collectors could tell the difference4 ,rhodes continued to turn out original sculpture until the time of ,augustus1 but ,pergamon and ,alexandria had long sunk into decay4 ,it was1 therefore1 the opportunity for a new school of artists to arise in ,athens1 an opportunity which was promptly taken4 ,athens and ,delos1 ,ephesos1 and later ,aphrodisias1 became great centres of the new industry1 which was primarily commercial4 ,there was no longer any talk of idealism or of votive offerings to deities4 ,the necessity was to turn out quantities of work suitable to the ,roman taste4 ,greco-,roman sculpture falls into three clear divisions4 ,there are copies pure and simple like the ,delian ,diadumenos1 a straightforward replica of the masterpiece of ,polykleitos2 there are adaptations of earlier work like those turned out by the school of ,pasiteles and ,arcesilaos2 and there are1 finally1 new works1 mostly in relief1 which have been termed ,neo-,attic1 and which represent a new artistic development based on an elegant and artificial archaism4 ,athens is the centre of all this art1 and she thus recovers in the first century ,b4,c4 the position which she had lost for so long4 ,the direct copies of this age need not be considered here4 ,direct copying from the antique as distinguished from adaptation is a new feature very eloquent of the poverty of original ideas both in the buyer and seller of statues4 ,but it is important to realize that the ,roman market made sculpture for the first time a really paying business1 and therefore saved it from the possibility of extinction4 ,had it not been for the new ,attic school of sculptors1 who sprang up in the two preceding generations1 it is hard to see how ,augustus could have secured the workmen for his great ,roman buildings1 which formed the basis of a fresh artistic development in ,roman imperial sculpture4 ,the copies of this period are the best and most faithful which we possess4 ,they have still some vitality of their own1 and are not the dead and soulless caricatures produced by a later age4 ,but in addition to their copying work the latest generation of ,attic artists busied themselves with free adaptations from the antique on lines laid down by contemporary art4 ,these productions are to be distinguished both from purely archaistic works1 which copy the style as well as the poses of ancient sculpture1 and from works like the ,aphrodite of ,melos1 which make a wide selection from ancient styles and poses4 ,statues such as the ,farnese ,herakles of ,glycon1#ajb the ,apollo ,belvedere1#ajc or the ,artemis of ,versailles1#ajd are not eclectic at all2 they are older types taken over and translated into modern style4 ,they show less originality than the ,melian goddess1 because there is no real change of pose or of meaning4 ,an old statue is simply worked out with a new technique4 ,thus the ,farnese ,herakles gives a ,hellenistic rendering of a statue by ,lysippos1 while the ,apollo ,belvedere is perhaps a new version of a work by ,leochares4 ,the former attempts to render the massive strength of the hero by immense exaggeration of muscular development in a style worse than anything perpetrated at ,pergamon4 ,the latter attempts to outdo the elegance of its original by an ultra-refinement of surface in every direction1 and by an affected stage-pose and gesture4 ,in both cases we see the effect of commercialism on art1 for the artist no longer works on his own high standard of achievement4 ,he is bound by the tastes of the patrons for whom he caters1 and the uneducated ,roman buyer liked to see strength shown by mighty muscles and refinement by daintiness of gesture4 ,both the ,herakles of ,glycon and the ,apollo ,belvedere are fine pieces of sculpture1 but as works of art they are little short of abominable4 ,we have no evidence about the original of the ,artemis of ,versailles1 a statue of somewhat similar type to the ,apollo4 ,we may notice how the little fold of drapery above the left knee is turned up without any justification simply for the purpose of displaying the outline of the leg4 ,the ,medici ,venus in ,florence#aje is an adaptation of the later version of the ,praxitelean nude ,aphrodite1 the ,capitoline rather than the ,cnidian type4 ,it is also an ,attic work of this period1 finely executed1 but adding a yet further degradation to the ,capitoline version by the additional elegance of its gestures4 ,the ,torso ,belvedere 7,fig4 #eb7 is another ,attic work of great technical ability4 ,its prototype is unknown1 and considerable controversy exists about its meaning and correct restoration4 ,it is a seated figure with head and upper torso turned sharply towards its left1 a position which suggests a ,lysippic original4 ,the massive musculature of the torso recalls ,glycon's ,herakles1 but the influence here is more ,rhodian than ,pergamene4 ,one of the most popular suggestions#ajf for its restoration makes it a ,polyphemos shading his eyes with one hand1 as he looks out for ,galatea1 and holding a club in the other4 ,a similar type is known from wall paintings4 ,no agreement on this point has1 however1 been reached4 ,works of this quality of technique1 even if uninspired by high artistic feeling1 show how greatly the ,attic school has improved since the days of ,euboulides4 ,in sculpture the skill of the workman depends largely on the popularity of1 and demand for1 his work4 ,the new vogue of sculpture soon produced a high standard of technical efficiency4 ,but if ,greco-,roman art remained wholly and unalterably ,greek1 ,greece itself was not allowed the monopoly of its production4 ,during the early years of the first century two ,greek artists transferred their business to ,rome itself1 and initiated thereby a new school of ,hellenistic sculpture4 ,these were ,pasiteles and ,arcesilaos1 names of high importance for ,greek art4 ,illustration3 #ea ,illustration3 #eb ,illustration3 #ec ,pasiteles was an artist of great versatility and scientific attainments4 ,he wrote a work on ,greek art in five books1 which served as a primary authority for ,pliny4#ajg ,he was a goldsmith and a metal worker1 and his range of sculptural subjects was very wide4 ,he is known to have paid special attention to the sculpture of animals1 and it is recorded that he studied a lion from life at the ,roman docks4 ,he seems also to have been the originator of a device1 which did much to injure the later development of marble sculpture4#ajh ,bronze workers had always had to prepare clay models usually finished in wax after the invention of the cire perdue process2 metal workers of all kinds had need of the same preparation2 but in marble sculpture the use of models had hitherto been confined to pedimental designs or similar productions prepared by great artists and worked out by masons4 ,the effect on architectural sculpture had usually been unfortunate4 ,it is expressly told us of ,pasiteles that he always made use of clay models for all his work1 that is1 including his marble sculpture4 ,it was1 no doubt1 inevitable in a commercial age1 where copies were in great request1 and where several replicas were made of the one original1 that the use of clay models designed by the master and copied in marble by pupils and workmen should become general4 ,the ultimate results of such a procedure were destructive to the whole art2 for workshops came to possess a stock of models and to turn out machine-made copies on demand4 ,the finished statue became merely the work of masons untouched by the original master1 who devoted himself entirely to the preparation of models and designs4 ,the sculptor's workshop instead of being a studio degenerated into a factory4 ,no doubt ,pasiteles himself was an artist who did much original work1 but in the hands of his pupils and followers statue-making was a mere trade4 ,unfortunately the works of his school1 which survive for us1 are almost wholly these mechanical and commercial by-products4 ,the works of real fancy and charm have almost wholly disappeared4 ,many of the ,hellenistic reliefs1 especially those of the ,palazzo ,spada type1 are to be attributed to the ,greek sculptors in ,rome4 ,these show an elegance and a dainty affectation quite in keeping with the spirit of the age4 ,the group of ,appiades 7,fig4 #ea7 by ,stephanos1#aji a pupil of ,pasiteles1 has been recognized in the group of three nude girls holding up a water-pot1 now in the ,louvre4#aaj ,the ,three ,graces are also a conception of this age4 ,neat competent work of a decorative type seems to sum up the original achievements of this school1 which fall more or less in line with the ,neo-,attic reliefs shortly to be considered4 ,but most of our remains of the school of ,pasiteles belong to a different class of statue1 best illustrated by the athlete of ,stephanos1 ,pasiteles' pupil1 in the ,villa ,albani 7,fig4 #ec74 ,all periods of art which are bankrupt in new ideas tend to be archaistic2 the ,greco-,roman school looked backwards for all its inspiration2 but while ,neo-,attics found their models in ,ionian art of the sixth century1 the pupils of ,pasiteles studied their larger sculpture mainly in the light of the early fifth-century ,argive school4 ,the athlete of ,stephanos shows the proportions1 the stiff pose1 and the surface treatment of the pre-,polykleitan types of ,ageladas4 ,he is comparable with the ,ligourio bronze#aaa or the ,acropolis ephebe#aab of ,kritios for all his ,lysippic slenderness and later expression4 ,the type was immensely popular and may have originated with ,pasiteles himself4 ,we have it in single examples and combined in groups1 as in the ,orestes and ,electra of ,naples1#aac where the companion figure is female1 or in the ,ildefonso group#aad where it is combined with another male statue4 ,all these figures are copied from early fifth-century art1 though the signs of eclectic archaism are sufficiently clear4 ,if we examine the so-called ,electra of ,naples1 we see an archaic early fifth-century head together with a pose approaching the ,praxitelean1 transparent drapery of the style of ,alkamenes1 and a low girdle and uncovered shoulder reminiscent of ,pergamon4 ,the group of ,menelaos1#aae a pupil of ,stephanos1 in the ,terme ,museum1 is a less archaic-looking and a more satisfactory work4 ,fifth century in detail1 in style it reminds us rather of the fourth-century grave reliefs4 ,to the same period1 or perhaps a later one1 belongs the idea of grouping well-known statues originally separate4 ,thus we have in the ,capitol a group of the ,melian ,venus with the ,ares ,borghese4#aaf ,this actual group1 however1 belongs to a much later time4 ,arcesilaos was another well-known sculptor of the age1 a friend of ,pompey and ,caesar4 ,the ,venus ,genetrix of the ,louvre#aag was made for the ,house of the ,julii4 ,it bears its fifth-century origin clearly stamped on its style4 ,arcesilaos also was a great provider of clay models1 which he sold outright to workshops for manufacturing purposes1 so that a finished statue might have never been seen by the artist responsible for its design4 ,a series of herms in the ,terme ,museum#aah show a strong archaistic tendency towards fifth-century models1 but bear also in details of pose and drapery the clear stamp of the ,greco-,roman age4 ,statues of this type were intended for the decoration of ,roman palaces4 ,they are no longer self-sufficing works of art1 but are subject to the general demands of artistic decoration4 ,this brings us to the third division of ,greco-,roman sculpture1 in reality its most original contribution to the history of ,greek art3 the ,neo-,attic reliefs1#aai all of which are primarily decorative in their purpose4 ,the works with which we have hitherto dealt--the ,apollo ,belvedere1 the ,torso ,belvedere1 or the ,venus ,genetrix--have all been eclectic in style1 and consequently have lacked the sense of harmony or uniformity1 which is one of the conditions of great sculpture4 ,the same criticism applies to all the sculpture of the mainland in the ,hellenistic age4 ,on the other hand the schools of ,pergamon1 ,rhodes1 and ,alexandria attained a uniformity of style1 and consequently were enabled to produce masterpieces of art4 ,their works can be attributed to a school1 because they contain common elements of style and technique based on a common theory of art4 ,this community of purpose has been wholly lacking in the works of ,euboulides1 ,damophon1 and the ,melian artists1 and only partially felt in the works of ,pasiteles and ,arcesilaos4 ,all these artists were individualists selecting and combining at their own will and pleasure4 ,the ,neo-,attic artists are quite different4 ,their names are immaterial1 because their works all bear the impress of precisely the same style4 ,there is no chance of mistaking a ,neo-,attic work2 its origin is clear in every line4 ,these reliefs represent the last true school of ,greek sculpture1 the last monuments in which a common line of development can be studied unaffected by individual idiosyncrasies4 ,they are strongly archaistic1 but in spite of this they are essentially modern4 ,they neither copy the antique exactly1 nor adapt it to existing modes as the followers of ,pasiteles did4 ,they rather invent a new mode and a new style in art1 but they make use of archaic technical details for its expression4 ,their art is essentially artificial and symbolic1 so that they represent a reaction against the academic classicism of the period2 but it is also meticulous in detail1 so that it can merit no reproach of a loose impressionism4 ,the ,neo-,attic artists of the first century ,b4,c4 are really the pre-,raphaelites of ,greek art1 and ,rossetti and ,burne-,jones are the nearest parallel to them in later art history4 ,their reliefs are all decorative in purpose1 for the adornment of altars1 candelabra1 fountains1 well-heads1 or wall-panels2 and therefore they are not unnaturally attracted by the most decorative of all the archaic schools1 the late ,ionian or ,attic-,ionian art of the end of the sixth century4 ,they make use also of later models1 of the ,victories of the ,balustrade1 of ,scopaic ,maenads1 of ,praxitelean satyrs1 but all the models which they adopt are treated in a uniform style1 a new style of exaggerated daintiness of pose and gesture accompanied by an archaistic formality of drapery and modelling4 ,in this detail they contrast strongly with the realism of the pre-,raphaelites4 ,their daintiness and formality are derived from ,ionian models1 but reproduced in a wholly different setting4 ,the vase of ,sosibios in the ,louvre#abj reproduces some of their favourite types1 which occur over and over again in the decorative art of the early empire4 ,the flute-playing satyr1 the dancing maenad1 the armed dancer1 and all the other types are reproduced in every variety of combination1 but in identical form4 ,the ,neo-,attic sculptors were content with the elaboration of a few types which they combined at pleasure4 ,they never attempted more intricate groups than their variant of the two ,victories with a bull from the ,acropolis ,balustrade4 ,usually they merely group single figures in long rows without any connexion in thought4 ,nothing could bring out more clearly their essential poverty of ideas and the purely commercial character of their art4 ,the designs are like so many stencil patterns which can be applied to any form of monument4 ,when we examine the figures more closely1 we can see the elements which make up their characteristic style4 ,the figures invariably march on tiptoe4 ,their fingers are extended and the little finger is usually bent back in an affected manner4 ,this detail is derived from the archaic pose of the hand holding out a flower1 so common in late ,ionian art4 ,the tiptoe pose is also found on ancient reliefs4 ,the drapery is based mainly on that of the late fifth-century ,attic school1 but with various additions and refinements4 ,the fluttering ends of cloaks and mantles recall fourth-century reliefs1 while the curving swallow-tail ends of flying drapery are imitated directly from the sixth century4 ,the drapery on the figure itself usually hangs in straight archaic lines as in the ,artemis of ,pompeii1#aba where the zigzag shape of ancient folds is reproduced with great formality2 or it follows an almost equally artificial system of wavy folds1 based on the school of the ,balustrade1 as in the fine relief of a dancing ,maenad in the ,conservatori ,museum4#abb ,the elegant lounging poses with bent head1 which remind us somewhat of ,burne-,jones figures1 are based no doubt on ,praxiteles4 ,the delineation of the surface muscles of the nude body also follows a uniform rule derived rather from the middle fifth-century ,attic art than from that of ,ionia4 ,the muscles of the male figures tend to be over-emphasized1 so far as that is conformable with the elegant slenderness of their figures4 ,but a description of the figure-types of ,neo-,attic art is incomplete without some notice of the intricate decorative designs of plants and animals which always frame and enshrine the reliefs on altar or candelabrum4 ,archaic ,greek decoration was always formal and conventional in character4 ,the exquisite mouldings of the ,erechtheum or of the later ,corinthian capital are not naturalistic but highly stylized4 ,naturalistic floral or animal decoration begins with the ,hellenistic age1 and is especially prominent in the ,neo-,attic monuments4 ,the trailing vine1 grape-clusters1 wreaths of flowers1 new heraldic sphinxes1 lions' heads1 c41 are carefully worked out from nature and combined with the remnants of the old decoration of palmettes1 volutes1 and tongue and dart mouldings4 ,the vase of ,sosibios shows a combination of the two principles1 which is truly symbolic of the ,greco-,roman combined school1 for naturalistic decorative designs are just as representative of ,roman art as formal ones are of ,hellenic4 ,from the combined system of the ,neo-,attic reliefs we pass directly to the purely naturalistic floral designs of ,augustan architectural sculpture4 ,our survey of ,greek sculpture must conclude with the great buildings of ,augustus4 ,in them we see for the first time the combination of ,italian with ,greek principles4 ,the ,greco-,roman art which we have noticed hitherto has been archaistic and eclectic1 but it has been purely ,greek4 ,roman tastes have been studied and gratified1 but style and technique have remained wholly ,greek and uncontaminated4 ,even in the new buildings this procedure still continued4 ,pliny tells us that ,augustus1 who had the fashionable taste for the archaic in ,greek art1 actually imported the ,korai of ,bupalos and ,athenis for use as acroteria on his monuments4 ,the ,conservatori ,museum contains an almost exact copy of one of these ,korai1#abc which must belong to the age of ,augustus1 as well as a very inferior adaptation of the same type4 ,the ,kore figure was translated into the so-called ,spes type for mirror handles and other elements of decoration4 ,but ,augustus was not the man to submit to a complete extinction of ,italian artistic principles4 ,his system was closely identified with a revival of ancient ,italy in all directions1 and he was not likely to abandon ,italic art4 ,it therefore came to pass that in the greatest sculptured monument of his period--the ,ara ,pacis#abd erected on the ,campus ,martius1 which is now being gradually and laboriously pieced together again--we have a combination of ,greek and ,italian principles of first-rate importance for the subsequent development of ,roman art4 ,one side of the altar contained a relief of ,tellus or the ,earth1 which is hardly distinguishable from the pastoral ,hellenistic reliefs1 but the procession which fills the greater part of the other sides is treated in a very different manner4 ,the general scheme is ,greek1 and must have been influenced by the ,parthenon frieze1 but the treatment in detail is ,italian4 ,thus we have the ,roman toga with its voluminous soft folds1 and the ,roman principle of direct realistic portraiture in all the heads4 ,but more important than the portraiture is the appearance of a new development of perspective in relief which is destined to have a great career in the future of art1 and which has been regarded by some authorities as purely ,italian4 ,greek reliefs had always been represented as if against a tangible background1 at first practically in two planes only1 and then in ,hellenistic times in truer perspective1 but invariably against a background of some kind4 ,roman art1 on the other hand1 in its more developed reliefs like those on the ,arch of ,titus1#abe eliminates the idea of background and regards the wall on which the reliefs are placed as nonexistent4 ,the reliefs are intended to give the illusion of free sculpture1 as if they were standing in the round against a background of the sky4 ,a much greater depth must1 therefore1 enter into the principle of perspective4 ,just as in the bronze reliefs of the ,florentine ,baptistery ,ghiberti used the principle of no background and attempted to show a whole countryside behind his figures as if the relief were a picture1 so the artist of the reliefs of the ,arch of ,titus uses a strongly diminishing perspective and a pronounced foreshortening of his figures to produce this same effect of free sculpture4 ,in ,greek sculpture of the ,hellenistic age it is true to say that the depth of the background has been greatly increased4 ,this is visible even as early as the ,telephos frieze4 ,but it would be hard to point to a ,greek relief in which the effect was wholly pictorial and the idea of the background was entirely abolished4 ,this principle1 however1 does appear in the reliefs of the ,ara ,pacis1 and therefore they mark a new era in art4 ,the perspective and the foreshortening are stronger and more illusional4 ,in the background we get flat heads just incised in the marble to give the effect of the depth of the crowd4 ,the scene is in fact not a procession in ,indian file but a true crowd many ranks deep4 ,the principle is not altogether adequately carried out in the ,ara ,pacis1 but soon it is more completely mastered4 ,the stucco decorations of the ,villa ,farnesina1#abf though in the lowest possible relief1 express a depth greater than any ,hellenistic landscape relief4 ,they are purely pictorial in character4 ,the subordination of sculpture to pictorial ideas is ,italian not ,greek4 ,italy through ,etruria1 her real artistic pioneer1 was always a patron of painting rather than sculpture1 and therefore under the ,empire sculpture becomes either wholly decorative or merely devoted to portraiture4 ,during the reign of ,augustus ,greek influence still persists1 and under ,hadrian we have a ,greek revival1 but from ,tiberius to the ,renaissance sculpture descends from a primary to a secondary art4 ,another great development of ,augustan sculpture is the free use of naturalistic floral designs4 ,etruscan and ,roman art was always realistic1 and never tolerated conventions when they could be eliminated4 ,roman architecture and art both abandoned at once the ,greek use of formal conventional mouldings4 ,the ,ara ,pacis and other monuments of the ,augustan age first give us the beautiful rendering of purely realistic wreaths of flowers and fruit1 which are the hall-marks of ,roman altars and friezes4 ,the ,imperial art of ,rome as it begins under ,augustus is profoundly indebted to ,greek art for almost all its types and its technical procedure4 ,doubtless the greater number of his artists and architects were ,greeks4 ,but they were working in the midst of a new culture and a new environment1 and thus they unconsciously absorbed new traditions and new ideas1 just as their predecessors had done in ,pergamon and ,alexandria4 ,in ,greece itself no further advance was possible4 ,artistic production was purely commercial1 and all the sources of inspiration were closed4 ,in ,rome1 where alone could be found a career for a creative artist1 he had gradually to submit to the genius loci4 ,the artificers of the empire must have long remained ,greeks1 and all ,roman art bears the stamp of ,hellenic origin1 but at the same time ,greek art is changed along the lines of pictorial illusion and pure realism in portraiture4 ,it loses all touch with ,greek idealism and serves to express ,roman narrative history4 ,its gods1 its myths1 and its outlook are changed4 ,it becomes ,roman1 just as ,gothic art became national in each country which it invaded4 ,we are left then with only one further question to discuss4 ,what are the permanent elements of ,hellenism in ,roman art1 and1 after ,roman art1 in the art of the ,renaissance and of modern times8 ,what is the true character of ,greek sculpture1 and what has it bequeathed to all civilizations which have followed it8 ,the question is a large one which cannot be easily solved in a few phrases4 ,greek sculpture is not to be hastily identified with what we call classicism in art and contrasted with romanticism and realism4 ,greek art is classic1 if we mean by that term academic1 only for a brief period of its decadence4 ,during the fourth century and the ,hellenistic age it displays all the phenomena of romantic and realistic art4 ,in fact ,greek art as a whole comprises every form of artistic expression1 and exhibits wellnigh the whole of the possibilities that lie between the caveman and the aesthete4 ,we do not1 however1 confuse the work of ,donatello or of ,rodin or of modern impressionists with ,greek sculpture1 and this clarity of distinction demands some examination4 ,how can we distinguish ,greek work from that of every other civilization8 ,the answer is not to be found in style or in technique4 ,it lies in the more hidden depths of psychology4 ,if we take the history of ,greek sculpture as a whole1 the attitude of the artist to his work and of the public to art in general and of art itself to life is different from that prevalent in any other society4 ,neither under the ,roman ,empire nor during the ,renaissance nor in the modern world is art regarded as an essential form of self-expression as natural as conversation or amusement or religion4 ,it is fair to assume that the average modern man regards statues with indifference slightly flavoured with amusement4 ,nobody would notice the difference if he were living in a town full of statues or in one without any4 ,they satisfy no need in modern existence1 and they are mere excrescences on our civilization4 ,even pictures1 which we understand better1 are mainly regarded from the point of view of decorative furniture4 ,art is an embellishment of modern life1 not an essential part of it4 ,it is considered a means of pleasure or a means of amusement1 not as part of the serious business of life4 ,even in the ,renaissance1 where art played a much more important rle in the life of the community than it now does1 it was still a by-product of man's activity4 ,popes and rulers found leisure to patronize ,cellini or ,michael ,angelo1 but their main business in life was rather to poison each other or to increase their landed property4 ,the ,romans looked on art much as we do1 and with the same tolerant air of showing our superiority by a correct taste4 ,the attitude of the ,greeks was wholly different4 ,to them art was bound up with religion1 for their religion found its natural expression in art rather than in any emotional ceremonies such as ,christianity introduced4 ,the religion of the city in particular1 a stronger feeling than our modern patriotism1 could only be expressed by art4 ,the disappearance of the city-state was1 therefore1 a great blow to the idealism of ,greek art1 but even after this time a man's private feelings could better be expressed in terms of art than in terms of religion4 ,the ,cnidian goddess of ,praxiteles was more than a statue2 it was an idea4 ,the ,victory of ,samothrace was ,triumph itself1 not a mere masterpiece4 ,to a ,greek the statues he loved represented what religion means to most ,christians2 not that his feelings were equally intense or equally pure1 but they expressed the same side of his nature4 ,in a psychological state like this both the artist and the public are bound to regard art with very different eyes4 ,the ,greeks could have tolerated experimental frivolity or chicanery in art as little as we should tolerate the travesty of a religious service4 ,therefore they admitted dogma in art1 as we admit dogma in religion4 ,we lightly overthrow all established artistic principles to introduce a new temporary fad4 ,to the ,greek such an idea was equivalent to sacrilege4 ,this accounts very largely for the slow development of ,greek art and its great reluctance to admit new principles4 ,it could never become purely experimental or adventurous4 ,until the end of the fifth century this driving-force of the religious connexion is paramount in all ,greek art4 ,in the fourth century and the ,hellenistic age the connexion of art and religion is shaken1 but if religion passes away1 the passionate devotion to art takes its place1 and art itself becomes almost a religion4 ,the stories of the great painters and of the intense love of whole communities for their works of art can be parallelled perhaps in some of the states of the ,renaissance1 but they have assuredly no parallel in ,roman or in modern times4 ,our whole attitude towards art as an #8extra' and an unessential prevents us from appreciating its vital importance to the ,greek4 ,a community1 whose ideas of art are ,hellenic1 knows no abrupt distinctions between the useful and the beautiful1 because all the objects of its daily life are beautiful of necessity2 it knows nothing of good taste1 because there is no bad taste to contrast1 and we may even find1 as in the case of ,greece herself1 that its words for #8good' and #8evil' are simply #8beautiful' and #8ugly' 7 and 74 ,the whole fabric of ,greek art goes to pieces when it is brought into contact with a purely utilitarian nation like ,rome4 ,it succeeded in humanizing and educating the upper classes1 but it had little effect on the mob4 ,art1 therefore1 in ,rome became a means of decorating palaces and not a national treasure4 ,the contact with ,christianity was even more destructive1 for if the ,romans had been merely indifferent1 the ,christians were actively hostile4 ,the new religion was ,semitic in origin1 and cared nothing for beauty or ugliness4 ,if anything1 it found in ugliness a means of atonement for sin4 ,the ,greek love of beauty was the worst enemy ,christianity encountered1 and the ,fathers direct long pamphlets and arguments against the pagan deities and their statues4 ,nor were they content with arguments1 when they could wield a hammer or throw a stone4 ,early ,christianity1 like ,mohammedanism or the ,spartan system1 depended on a strict subordination of the individual1 and consequently attacked most bitterly the artistic spirit which must be free if it is to live at all4 ,of all the nations who have existed since the fall of ,greece the ,chinese and ,japanese have come nearest to the ,greek spirit in art owing to the lack of a religion of self-denial4 ,the earlier period of the ,renaissance was also ,hellenic1 but when artists were captured by the ,church and turned to painting saints and madonnas1 their ,greek freedom left them4 ,parrhasios might have claimed kinship with ,botticelli's ,birth of ,venus or his ,pallas2 he would have seen no beauty in his ,madonnas4 ,another consequence of the vital importance of art in ,greek life was that artistic expression was almost wholly confined to the human form4 ,just as we exclude animals and plants from our religion1 the ,greek excluded them from his art as long as its religious connexion was intact4 ,between the sixth century and the ,hellenistic age no ,greek artist paid any attention to any animal save the horse1 whose human associations exempted him1 and even the horse had to be content with a more or less conventional treatment4 ,greek art1 like ,greek religion1 is essentially anthropomorphic4 ,when we ask what is the debt of modern art to ,greek art1 there is no reply4 ,we cannot point to this idea or that1 and say this is ,hellenic and that is non-,hellenic4 ,we can say this is ,pheidian1 that ,scopaic1 or this is ,pergamene and that ,rhodian1 but to say art is ,greek is simply to say it is good4 ,for ,greek art comprises every genuine effort of the artist2 every statue which is made with sincere love of beauty and unmixed desire for its attainment is ,greek in spirit2 every statue1 however cunning and ingenious1 which is merely frivolous or hypocritical or untrue1 is a crime against ,hellenism and a sin against the light4 ,the ,greek bequest to later artists is nothing tangible2 it is the soul and spirit of the artist4 ,true art cannot be attained by rule2 it demands a condition of receptivity of inspiration1 in other words1 of faith1 in the artist2 only thus can the elements of technique be so combined as to make something far greater than their mere sum total4 ,great art must reflect something intangible that strikes a chord of sympathy in the spectator1 and the chord1 as ,abt ,vogler expresses it1 is something far greater than the sum of its notes3 ,but here is the finger of ,god1 a flash of the will that can1 ,existent beyond all laws1 that made them and1 lo1 they are6 ,and ,i know not if1 save in this1 such gift be allowed to man1 ,that out of three sounds he frame1 not a fourth sound1 but a star4 ,,appendix ,,published ,,works ,,of ,,the ,,author ,the published papers of ,guy ,dickins may best be ranged under three heads3 7#a7 historic work1 7#b7 results of travel and excavation1 7#c7 studies in ,greek sculpture4 ,i4 ,under the first head come #8,some points with regard to the ,homeric ,house' 7,j4,h4,s41 #aijc74 ,this is ,dickins's earliest paper4 ,the subject has attracted several of our younger archaeologists4 ,dickins takes up in particular the internal arrangement of the ,megaron1 and the nature and position of the and the 4 ,he proceeds very carefully1 trying to combine the testimony of the ,palace of ,tiryns with that of ,cnossus and ,phylakopi4 #8,the true cause of the ,peloponnesian ,war' 7,class4 ,quarterly1 #aiaa74 #8,the growth of ,spartan ,policy' 7,j4,h4,s41 #aiab1 #aiac74 ,these are detailed attempts to explain the policy of ,sparta in regard to the neighbouring states and ,athens down to the time of ,archidamus and ,agis4 ,in consequence of the paucity of existing historic records1 the sketch is necessarily of a somewhat speculative character1 the more so as a chief object of inquiry is unavoidably the motives which dominated the statesmen and the parties at ,sparta4 ,there is good ground for the contention that down to #eej ,b4,c4 ,sparta underwent a political development1 and even an artistic growth1 parallel to that in other ,greek cities2 but that after that time the city developed on lines of its own1 as a purely military state4 ,this is1 as we shall see1 the most interesting result established by the recent excavations on the site4 ,looking for a personality to associate with the change1 ,dickins finds one in ,chilon1 a name not prominent in history1 but suggestively mentioned by ,herodotus and ,diogenes ,laertius4 ,he seems to have succeeded in raising the ,ephors to equal power with the ,kings1 and thenceforward1 according to ,dickins1 the clue to ,spartan policy is to be found in the clashings of the two powers4 ,until #dfh the struggle was acute2 and it was not until the end of the fifth century that the supremacy of the ,ephors was established4 ,the question of dominance over the helots1 which has by some writers been regarded as the mainspring of ,spartan policy1 was less important in the fifth century than it became in the fourth4 ,in the paper in the ,classical ,quarterly it is maintained1 in opposition to some recent historians of ,greece1 that ,thucydides is right in saying that it was jealousy of the rising power of ,athens which brought on the ,peloponnesian ,war4 ,dickins is well versed in both ancient and modern historians1 and he writes with clearness and force2 but the motives of statesmen and the underlying causes of events are so intricate that the discussion of them seldom leads to a really objective addition to our knowledge of ancient history4 ,,ii4 ,under the second head1 accounts of exploration and excavation1 come ,dickins's ,reports of his work in the exploration of ,laconia and ,sparta4 ,in the years #aijd-h the ,british ,school of ,athens was engaged in the interesting task1 assigned to it by the ,greek ,government1 of making a careful survey of ,laconia1 and trying by excavation what could be recovered of the monuments and history of ancient ,sparta4 ,mr4 ,r4 ,m4 ,dawkins1 the ,director of the ,school1 was in charge of the excavations1 and various parts of the work were assigned to students of the school1 ,a4 ,j4 ,b4 ,wace1 ,j4 ,p4 ,droop1 ,a4 ,m4 ,woodward1 ,dickins1 and others4 ,in the ,annual of the school1 vols4 xi to xiv1 there are several papers written by ,dickins1 one on excavation at ,thalamae in ,laconia1 others on the excavation of the shrine of ,athena ,chalkioikos at ,sparta1 and the works of art found on the site4 ,it is this temple and that of ,artemis ,orthia which have yielded the most important results of the undertaking4 ,but as the work was one executed in common by a group of students who worked into one another's hands1 it is not desirable or possible to separate the threads in ,dickins's hands from the others4 ,,iii4 ,men of strong originality usually produce more satisfactory work on subjects as to which they have gradually acquired first-hand knowledge than on subjects which they have merely taken up as a task4 ,this was notably the case with ,dickins4 ,his best papers by far are those dealing with ,sparta and ,lycosura1 places where he worked on definite lines1 and where he reached important results4 ,his paper on the art of ,sparta#abg is extremely valuable2 and as it is hidden in a place little visited by classical scholars1 it is desirable to speak of it in some detail4 ,there will before long appear a work on the results of the excavations of the ,british ,school of ,athens at ,sparta1 a work which will contain some contributions by ,dickins3 and of course it is possible that the excavators will modify the views set forth ten years ago4 ,but meantime the paper in question is the best summary existing of the results of the excavation in relation to ,spartan art4 ,the current notion that from the first settlement of the ,dorians in ,sparta they formed a state organized for war only has to be greatly modified4 ,the warlike ,sparta familiar to us from ,plutarch and other writers came into existence only in the course of the sixth century4 ,the earlier history of ,sparta had been parallel to that of other ,greek cities2 and we are able now to mark out successive periods of development in the local artistic remains4 ,in these remains ,dickins discerns four periods4 ,first1 there is the age of geometric art1 the ninth and early eighth centuries1 when art products show the dominance of the early ,dorian civilization which the ,spartans brought with them from the north4 ,next comes a period in which we find oriental art invading1 owing to trade with ,egypt and ,ionia4 ,in the third period we find a fusion of native ,greek art with the oriental style of importation4 ,the fourth period1 the sixth and fifth centuries1 should show us at ,sparta1 as in other ,greek cities1 a bloom of local art2 but it never had a fair chance of development1 as the rise of the military spirit and asceticism in manners blighted it in the midst of its spring4 ,thenceforward ,sparta is cut off from the stream which leads to such wonderful results in the architecture and sculpture of ,argos and ,athens4 ,it is a lesson for all times4 ,many of the early ,spartan works of art are represented in the article4 ,their character is striking3 ,dickins compares them with the works found by ,dr4 ,hogarth in the earliest strata of ,ephesus2 and the ,ionian influence in them confirms the tales told by the historians of the frequent relations between ,sparta and ,asia ,minor4 ,the sculptural group of ,damophon of ,messene at ,lycosura in ,arcadia has long been an object of interest to archaeologists4 ,we knew that it consisted of four colossal figures1 ,demeter1 ,despoina1 ,artemis1 and the ,titan ,anytus4 ,but there was no agreement as to the date of the group3 ,damophon had been assigned by various writers to periods as far apart as the fourth century before1 and the second century after1 our era4 ,when the site at ,lycosura was excavated in #ahhi-ij by the ,greek archaeologists ,leonardos and ,kavvadias1 fragments of the statues were found1 and the style proved somewhat disappointing4 ,the closer study of these fragments was resumed in #aijf by ,dr4 ,kourouniotis1 who partially restored two of the figures4 ,but it was reserved for ,dickins1 in a series of closely reasoned and masterly papers1#abh to complete the restoration of the group1 and to fix definitely the date and style of ,damophon4 ,the first paper deals with the date of ,damophon1 which is fixed on the definite evidence of inscriptions to the first half of the second century ,b4,c41 and deals so thoroughly with his historic connexion that little is left for any future archaeologist to say in regard to it4 ,the architectural evidence at ,lycosura confirms the date assigned4 ,in the second paper ,dickins carries out a most detailed and convincing restoration of the group1 adding a discussion of the style of ,damophon4 ,in the third paper he is able to confirm the accuracy of his restoration by comparing with it a copy of the group on a bronze coin of ,julia ,domna struck at ,megalopolis4 ,when the restoration was published nothing was known of this coin2 it may therefore be regarded as independent evidence of the most satisfying character2 and its agreement in all but a few details with ,dickins's restoration shows that his work survives that most severe of all tests1 the discovery of fresh evidence4 ,few conjectural restorations of archaeologists stand on so firm a basis4 ,damophon had interested ,dickins even before he became his special subject of study1 for as early as #aije he had published two bearded heads1 one in the ,vatican1 one in the ,ny ,carlsberg ,glyptothek1 which resemble the head of ,anytus4#abi ,in #aijf he published a new replica of the ,choiseul ,gouffier type4#acj ,his keen eye had discerned in the ,terme ,museum at ,rome a detached leg of the same form and style as the left leg of the ,choiseul ,gouffier figure of the ,british ,museum4 ,to the support to which this leg is attached there is also attached a quiver1 and this led ,dickins to conclude that the ,choiseul ,gouffier figure is not1 as many have thought1 an athlete1 but an ,apollo1 as ,mr4 ,murray always maintained4 ,in #aiaa he published an account#aca of a colossal marble sandal in the ,palazzo dei ,conservatori at ,rome1 adorned with reliefs on the side of the sole4 ,struck with the likeness of the style of these reliefs to that of the figures on the garment at ,lycosura1 he boldly suggests that it is an original work of ,damophon4 ,in #aiad he discussed the question#acb whether the noteworthy female head at ,holkham ,hall can be given1 as ,sir ,charles ,walston has suggested1 to the east pediment of the ,parthenon2 and answered the question with a decided negative4 ,another paper in the same year suggests the identification of several sculptured heads in various museums as portraits of kings of the ,hellenistic ,age1 ,egyptian1 ,syrian1 and ,pergamene4 ,the paper also discusses the portraits of ,thucydides and ,aristotle4 ,there is no more treacherous ground in archaeology than the assignment of portraits which are uninscribed2 but the keenness of sight and the cautious method of ,dickins had made him eminently fit for such inquiries4 ,in #aiab appeared a work on which ,dickins had expended great labour1 the first volume of the ,catalogue of the ,acropolis ,museum at ,athens1#acc comprising the sculpture down to the time of the ,persian wars4 ,the archaic ,korae and male figures which stood in lines on the ,acropolis and the pediments of the temples and shrines which adorned it when the ,persians broke in in #dhj constitute one of the most wonderful revelations of early ,greek art4 ,they have been frequently photographed2 but their scientific study had not advanced with their popularity1 and a number of difficult questions1 as to date1 artistic school1 and manner of drapery awaited the cataloguer4 ,with great care and excellent method ,dickins approached these questions2 and laid down a platform of knowledge on which all future discussions must be based4 ,the work is in several ways a model4 ,a posthumous paper on #8,the ,followers of ,praxiteles'1 published in the ,annual of the ,british ,school1#acd had been given as a lecture at ,oxford4 ,it covers some of the ground occupied by the present volume4 ,this with some manuscript to be printed in the forthcoming account of excavations at ,sparta and in the forthcoming second volume of the ,catalogue of the ,municipal ,collections of ,sculpture at ,rome1 completes the list of published works4 ,my claim is that they should rather be weighed than measured4 ,p4 ,,gardner4 ,,footnotes #a ,n4 ,h4 xxxiv4 #eb4 #b ,pliny1 ,n4 ,h4 xxxvi4 #bd4 #c ,collignon1 ,pergame1 figure on p4 #bjd2 ,brunn-,bruckmann1 ,denkmler1 ,pl4 #aei4 #d ,n4 ,h4 xxxvi4 #ce4 #e ,collignon1 ,sculpture grecque1 ii1 ,fig4 #cjb4 #f ,collignon1 ,sculpture grecque1 ii1 ,fig4 #bhb4 #g ,amelung1 ,antiken in ,florenz1 ,pl4 #ad4 #h ,ibid41 p4 #fb4 #i ,ibid41 ,pl4 #ag4 #aj ,annali dell' ,instituto1 #ahea1 ,pl4 ,e4 #aa ,collignon1 ,sculpture grecque1 ii4 #edf4 #ab ,seneca1 ,controv4 x4 #e4 #ac ,collignon1 ,pergame1 figure on p4 #bjf4 #ad ,amelung1 ,antiken in ,florenz1 p4 #dc4 #ae ,klein1 ,praxiteles1 ,fig4 #ce4 #af ,furtwngler1 ,der ,satyr aus ,pergamon1 #dj;es ,programm zum ,winckelmannsfeste1 #ahhj4 #ag ,collignon1 ,sculpture grecque1 ii1 ,fig4 #cah4 #ah ,bulle1 ,der schne ,mensch1 ,pl4 #afb4 #ai ,fig4 #db4 #bj ,klein1 ,geschichte1 iii4 #eg ff42 ,bienkowski1 ,darstellungen der ,gallier4 #ba ,e4 ,gardner1 ,handbook of ,greek ,sculpture1 ,fig4 #abi4 #bb ,ibid41 ,fig4 #acj4 #bc ,pliny1 ,n4 ,h4 xxxiv4 #hd4 #bd ,catalogue du ,muse du ,caire1 no4 #bgdge4 #be ,fraenkel1 ,inschriften von ,pergamon1 pp4 #gj-hd4 #bf ,revelation ii4 #ac4 #bg ,klein1 ,geschichte1 iii4 #abb ff4 #bh ,die hell4 ,reliefbilder4 #bi ,roman ,art4 #cj ,vid4 inf41 p4 #bi4 #ca ,collignon1 ,pergame1 figure on p4 #bbb4 #cb ,fig4 #h4 #cc ,wiegand und ,schrader1 ,priene1 p4 #cff4 #cd ,cf4 ,wace1 ,annual of the ,british ,school at ,athens1 ix4 #bbe1 for summary of views2 ,rm4 ,mittheil4 xix1 ,pfuhl1 ,zur alexand4 ,kunst1 pp4 #a ff4 #ce ,fig4 #f4 #cf ,fig4 #be4 #cg ,amelung1 ,bull4 ,arch4 ,comm4 xxv4 #aaj4 #ch ,ausonia1 iii4 #aag 7,amelung74 #ci ,wallis1 ,catalogue of ,nemi ,antiquities1 no4 #hcb4 #dj ,dieterich1 ,kleine ,schriften1 #aiaa1 p4 #ddj2 ,stuart ,jones1 ,catalogue of the ,museo ,capitolino1 p4 #cde4 #da ,bulle1 ,der schne ,mensch1 ,pl4 #ahg4 #db ,stuart ,jones1 ,catalogue of the ,museo ,capitolino1 p4 #cdd4 #dc ,e4 ,gardner1 op4 cit41 ,fig4 #add4 #dd ,lucian1 ,philops4 #ah4 #de ,schrader1 ,marmorkopf eines ,negers1 plates1 ,winckelmannsfeste1 #aijj4 #df ,brunn-,bruckmann1 ,denkmler1 ,pl4 #cic4 #dg ,hekler1 ,greek and ,roman ,portraits1 p4 #aac4 #dh ,reinach1 ,rpertoire1 i4 #afe4 #di ,schreiber1 ,hell4 ,reliefbilder2 ,wickhoff1 ,roman ,art4 #ej ,schreiber1 op4 cit41 ,pl4 ,,iii4 #ea ,ibid41 ,pl4 ,,xii4 #eb ,ibid41 ,pl4 #hd4 #ec ,collignon1 ,sculpture grecque1 ii1 ,fig4 #ced4 #ed ,stark1 ,niobe1 p4 #afe4 #ee ,e4 ,gardner1 op4 cit41 ,fig4 #abf4 #ef ,schreiber1 op4 cit41 ,pl4 ,,iii4 #eg ,ibid41 ,pl4 ,,xi4 #eh ,brunn-,bruckmann1 ,denkmler1 ,pl4 #fbg b4 #ei ,e4 ,gardner1 op4 cit41 ,fig4 #abh2 see below1 p4 #ch4 #fj ,cedren1 ,hist4 ,comp4 #cjf ,b4 #fa ,ausstellung von ,fundstcken aus ,ephesos1 figures on pp4 #ad and #ae4 #fb ,ibid41 figure on p4 #e4 #fc ,e4 ,gardner1 op4 cit41 ,fig4 #acf4 #fd ,n4 ,h4 xxxiv4 #ff4 #fe ,n4 ,h4 xxxiv4 #hg4 #ff ,ibid4 xxxiv4 #gc4 #fg ,e4 ,gardner1 op4 cit41 ,fig4 #abh4 #fh ,annual of the ,british ,school at ,athens1 vol4 xxi1 ,pl4 ,i4 #fi ,ibid41 ,dickins1 ,followers of ,praxiteles1 p4 #a4 #gj ,e4 ,gardner1 op4 cit41 ,fig4 #acd4 #ga ,ibid41 ,fig4 #ace4 #gb ,e4 ,gardner1 op4 cit41 ,fig4 #acf4 #gc ,reinach1 ,rpertoire1 ii4 #eee4 #gd ,brunn-,bruckmann1 ,denkmler1 ,pl4 #bdi4 #ge ,e4 ,gardner1 op4 cit41 ,fig4 #adf4 #gf ,schreiber1 ,das ,bildniss ,alexanders1 pp4 #ajj ff4 #gg ,archol4 ,anzeiger1 #aijd1 p4 #bab4 #gh ,e4 ,gardner1 op4 cit41 ,fig4 #abg4 #gi ,helbig1 ,fhrer1 no4 #eej4 #hj ,watzinger1 ,relief des ,archelaos1 #fjtes ,prog4 zum ,winckelmannsfeste4 #ha ,mendel1 ,catalogue des ,muses ,ottomans1 pp4 #cbj-h4 #hb ,annual of ,british ,school at ,athens1 vol4 xxi1 ,pl4 #a4 #hc ,fig4 #ca4 #hd ,e4 ,gardner1 op4 cit41 ,fig4 #abb4 #he ,e4 ,gardner1 op4 cit41 ,fig4 #ace4 #hf ,e4 ,gardner1 op4 cit41 ,fig4 #acd4 #hg ,e4 ,gardner1 op4 cit41 ,fig4 #ade4 #hh ,furtwngler1 ,masterpieces1 ,pl4 ,,xv4 #hi ,fig4 #bf4 #ij ,e4 ,gardner1 op4 cit41 ,fig4 #aae4 #ia ,n4 ,h4 xxxiv4 #hj4 #ib ,klein1 ,geschichte1 iii4 #afe4 #ic ,antike ,sculpturen zu ,berlin1 no4 #aic4 #id ,arndt-,brunn-,bruckmann1 ,texte1 no4 #egh1 ,figs4 #d and #e4 #ie ,cf4 my papers on ,damophon in the ,annual of the ,british ,school at ,athens1 vols4 xii1 xiii1 xvii4 #if ,annual of the ,british ,school at ,athens1 xvii4 #ha4 #ig ,e4 ,gardner1 op4 cit41 ,fig4 #adb4 #ih ,furtwngler1 ,masterpieces1 pp4 #cfg ff4 #ii ,vide p4 #e1 note #a4 #ajj ,fig4 #a4 #aja ,brunn-,bruckmann1 ,denkmler1 ,pl4 #bii4 #ajb ,e4 ,gardner1 op4 cit41 ,fig4 #adh4 #ajc ,ibid41 ,fig4 #adj4 #ajd ,ibid41 ,fig4 #ada4 #aje ,e4 ,gardner1 op4 cit41 ,fig4 #adg4 #ajf ,sauer1 ,torso von ,belvedere4 #ajg ,pliny1 ,n4 ,h4 xxxvi4 #cj4 #ajh ,furtwngler1 ,ueber ,statuenkopieen im ,altertum1 p4 #ede1 ,munich1 #ahif 7,abhandl4 der ,k4 ,akademie74 #aji ,pliny1 ,n4,h4 xxxvi4 #cc4 #aaj ,klein1 ,geschichte der griech4 ,kunst1 iii4 #cdj4 #aaa ,e4 ,gardner1 op4 cit41 ,fig4 #di4 #aab ,dickins1 ,catalogue of the ,acropolis ,museum1 no4 #fih4 #aac ,e4 ,gardner1 op4 cit41 ,fig4 #aea4 #aad ,brunn-,bruckmann1 ,denkmler1 ,pl4 #cjh4 #aae ,kekul1 ,die ,gruppe des ,knstlers ,menelaos2 ,brunn-,bruckmann1 ,denkmler1 ,pl4 #cji4 #aaf ,stuart ,jones1 ,catalogue of the ,museo ,capitolino1 p4 #big4 #aag ,e4 ,gardner1 op4 cit41 ,fig4 #aej4 #aah ,helbig1 ,fhrer1 nos4 #abij-f4 #aai ,hauser1 ,die ,neu-,attischen ,reliefs4 #abj ,brunn-,bruckmann1 ,denkmler1 ,pl4 #fj4 #aba ,collignon1 ,sculpture grecque1 ii1 ,fig4 #cde2 ,rm4 ,mittheil41 #ahhh1 ,pl4 #aj4 #abb ,collignon1 ,sculpture grecque1 ii1 ,fig4 #cdj4 #abc ,helbig1 ,fhrer1 nos4 #ige and #igj4 #abd ,studniczka1 ,ara ,pacis2 ,petersen1 ,ara ,pacis ,augustae4 #abe ,e4 ,strong1 ,roman ,sculpture1 ,pl4 ,,xxxiv4 #abf ,monumenti1 ,supplemento1 ,pl4 ,,xxxiii-,,xxxvi4 #abg ,burlington ,magazine1 ,november #aijh4 #abh ,annual of the ,british ,school1 vols4 xii1 xiii1 xvii4 #abi ,annual of the ,british ,school1 xi4 #acj ,j4,h4,s4 xxvi4 #aca ,j4,h4,s4 xxxi4 #acb ,j4,h4,s4 xxxiv4 #acc ,published by the ,cambridge ,university ,press4 #acd ,no4 xxi1 #aiad-af4 ,,index ,actaeon torso1 #da4 ,adorans of ,boedas1 #cg4 ,agasias1 #cd1 #dj4 ,ageladas1 #gd4 ,agias of ,delphi1 #ef4 ,ajax 7,menelaos7 and ,patroclos1 #dh1 #ej4 ,alexander1 ,british ,museum head of1 #ba2 ,sieglin head of1 #ba2 with lance1 #db4 ,alexandria1 school of1 #ai sqq42 characteristics of1 #ba sqq42 connexion with ,antioch1 #cc2 grotesques of1 #bg2 pastoral reliefs of1 #cj2 realism of1 #be1 #bg sqq4 ,andros1 ,hermes of1 #ed sq4 ,anticythera1 bronze figure from1 #ee sq4 ,antioch1 art of1 #cb sq42 coins of1 #cc2 ,eutychides working at1 #c2 statue of1 #cc1 #df1 #dg4 ,anytos1 #fj sqq4 ,apelles1 #ae1 #cj4 ,aphrodite1 armed1 #ff2 with ,ares1 #gd2 ,capitoline1 #be2 ,capuan1 #fe sq42 ,cnidian1 #be2 from ,cyrenaica1 #bb2 of ,daedalus1 #e2 ,kallipygos1 #h1 #eg2 of ,melos1 #fc sqq42 with ,triton at ,dresden1 #bj1 #ba1 #cc4 ,apollo1 ,belvedere1 #gj2 at ,daphne1 #cc2 torso in ,berlin1 #f2 of ,tralles1 #ag4 ,apollonios of ,tralles1 #dh sq4 ,apotheosis of ,homer1 #af1 #cj1 #dd4 ,appiades of ,stephanos1 #gc4 ,ara ,pacis1 #ad1 #gi1 #hj1 #hb4 ,arcesilaos1 #fi1 #ge4 ,archelaos of ,priene1 #af1 #dd4 ,ares ,borghese1 #gd4 ,ariadne1 ,capitol1 #bf4 ,aristeas of ,aphrodisias1 #ea4 ,aristonides of ,rhodes1 #di4 ,artemis1 of ,damophon1 #fj sqq42 ,leucophryene1 temple of1 #ag2 of ,pompeii1 #gh2 of ,versailles1 #gj sq4 ,asklepios of ,damophon1 #fa sq4 ,athena of ,euboulides1 #ei4 ,athens1 art of1 #ed sqq41 #ge sqq4 ,athlete from ,ephesos1 #cd1 #ef4 ,attalid dedications1 #d1 #f1 #i sqq41 #cd4 ,augustus1 monuments of1 #gi1 #hj4 ,bearded head1 in ,capitol1 #bc2 from ,nemi1 #bd4 ,bellerophon and ,pegasus1 #cj4 ,belvedere1 ,apollo1 #gj2 torso1 #ga4 ,boedas1 #cf sq4 ,boethos of ,chalcedon1 #ah1 #dc4 ,borghese warrior1 #dj sqq4 ,boston1 ,chian girl's head in1 #bc1 #bf4 ,boxer1 statue of1 #db sq4 ,boy with goose1 #dc4 ,brescia1 ,victory of1 #ff4 ,bronze casting1 #cf4 ,bryaxis1 #bj1 #bc sq41 #cc4 #8,cabinet' pieces1 popularity of1 #ea4 ,capitoline1 ,ariadne1 #bf2 bearded head1 #bc2 old woman1 #bh2 priest of ,isis1 #bd2 ,venus1 #be4 ,capuan ,venus1 #fe sq4 ,centaurs1 pair of1 in ,capitol1 #ea4 ,chairestratos1 ,themis of1 #ed4 ,chares of ,lindos1 #c1 #ce1 #ci4 ,chios1 girl's head from1 #bc1 #bf4 ,colossus1 of the ,conservatori1 #cc2 of ,rhodes1 #cf1 #ci4 ,copies1 ,greco-,roman1 #fi4 ,crouching attitude1 introduction of1 #e sq4 ,cyrenaica1 ,aphrodite from1 #bb4 ,daedalos and ,icaros1 relief of1 #ca4 ,daedalus of ,bithynia1 ,aphrodite of1 #e4 ,daippos1 #cf sq4 ,damophon of ,messene1 #a1 #fj sqq4 ,dancing1 influence of1 on sculpture1 #h4 ,decadence in art1 #a2 of ,alexandrian school1 #bj1 #bi4 ,demetrios ,poliorcetes1 #ce1 #df4 ,demetrios1 portrait by1 #bg4 ,designs1 naturalistic1 #hb2 ,neo-,attic1 #gh4 ,despoina1 veil of1 #fb4 ,diadochi1 kingdoms of1 #b1 #c4 ,diadumenos of ,polykleitos1 #fi4 ,diogenes of ,villa ,albani1 #bh4 ,dionysios1 #eg sq4 ,drapery1 academic1 #ed2 ,alexandrian1 #be2 of ,alkamenes1 #gd2 of ,aphrodite of ,melos1 #fe2 of ,neo-,attic school1 #gi2 ,rhodian1 #ch1 #dd sqq4 ,eclecticism1 #ee1 #ef1 #fa1 #fc1 #ff1 #ge4 ,ephesos1 art of1 #cd4 ,epinal ,hermaphrodite1 #eg sq4 ,eros1 transformation of1 into ,cupid1 #cb2 with ,psyche1 #dd4 ,erotes1 frieze of1 #cd1 #dc4 ,eubouleus head1 #bf4 ,euboulides1 #eh sq4 ,eucheir1 #eh sq4 ,euthykrates1 #cf4 ,eutychides of ,sikyon1 #c1 #cc1 #ch1 #df sq4 ,farnese ,bull1 #ci1 #dh sq4 ,farnesina1 ,villa1 decorations of1 #ha4 ,fisherman1 of ,louvre1 #bh2 of ,conservatori1 #bh4 ,gaul1 ,dying1 #i sq41 #cg2 head of1 at ,cairo1 #aa1 #bj2 ,ludovisi1 #aj sq4 ,genetrix1 ,venus1 #ge4 ,genre statues1 #cb1 #dc4 ,glycon1 ,herakles of1 #gj4 ,grimani reliefs1 #cj4 ,grotesques1 ,alexandrian1 #bg sqq4 ,grouping1 of statues1 #gd2 on ,neo-,attic reliefs1 #gg4 ,halicarnassos1 altar from1 #dd sq4 ,hellenism1 meaning of1 #hc sqq4 ,herakles1 on ,antioch coins1 #cc2 of ,damophon1 #fa2 ,farnese1 #gj2 on ,telephos frieze1 #af4 ,herculaneum figure in ,dresden1 #ch1 #ee4 ,hermaphrodite1 in ,berlin1 #eg2 bronze1 mentioned by ,pliny1 #eg2 in ,constantinople1 #e1 #fe2 ,epinal1 #eg2 sleeping1 #h1 #eg sq4 ,hermerotes1 #di4 ,hermes1 of ,andros1 #ed sq42 from ,atalanta1 #ef2 at ,pheneos1 #ei2 ,resting1 #cg sq42 ,richelieu1 #ef4 ,herms1 #di1 #eb1 #ge4 ,hero resting on lance1 #db sq4 ,idealism1 in ,hellenistic art1 #b2 lack of in ,alexandrian school1 #bj4 ,ildefonso group1 #gd4 ,inopos in ,louvre1 #bf4 ,isis1 head of1 in ,louvre1 #bd2 priest of1 in ,capitol1 #bd4 ,jason in ,louvre1 #dj sqq4 ,kephisodotos1 symplegma of1 #d4 ,knife-grinder of the ,uffizi1 #f sq4 ,korai in ,greco-,roman art1 #gi4 ,kritios1 ephebe of1 #gd4 ,laocoon1 #a1 #ci1 #da1 #dh1 #ej1 #ea4 ,leochares1 #gj4 ,ligourio bronze1 #gd4 ,litter1 bronze1 in ,conservatori1 #dc4 ,lycosura1 group at1 #fj sqq4 ,lysippos1 pupils of1 #c1 #cf sqq42 all-round figures of1 #da2 female type of1 #ci2 influence of3 on ,antiochene art1 #cc2 on ,farnese ,bull1 #di2 on ,hermes of ,andros1 #ee2 on ,rhodian school1 #cf sqq42 on ,victory of ,samothrace1 #dg4 ,macedonia1 attitude of1 towards art1 #c2 as enemy of ,athens1 #b4 ,maenad1 dancing1 in ,berlin1 #h2 in ,conservatori1 #gh2 ,scopaic1 in ,neo-,attic art1 #gf4 ,magnesia1 ,amazonomachy from1 #ag2 draped figure from1 #de1 #dg4 ,mahdia ship1 statuettes from1 #bh4 ,mainland schools of ,greece1 #ec sqq4 ,mantinean basis1 #ch1 #de4 ,marsyas1 #8red' and #8white'1 #f2 ,pergamene group of1 with ,apollo and ,scythian slave1 #f sq4 ,medici ,venus1 #ga4 ,meleager type1 ,scopaic1 #ef4 ,melos1 art of1 #fc sqq4 ,menander relief1 #af1 #cj1 #cb4 ,menelaos 7,ajax7 and ,patroclos1 #dh1 #ej4 ,menelaos1 pupil of ,stephanos1 group by1 #gd4 ,models1 use of living1 #g2 clay1 #gb4 ,morbidezza in ,alexandrian work1 #ba4 ,muscles1 exaggeration of1 #g2 of ,farnese ,herakles1 #gj2 of ,laocoon1 #ej2 in ,neo-,attic works1 #gh2 ,rhodian naturalism in rendering of1 #cg4 ,muses1 of ,philiskos1 #dd sq42 of the ,vatican1 #df4 ,naturalism1 in ,alexandrian art1 #be1 #bg sqq42 in floral designs1 #hb2 in ,rhodian art1 #cg sq41 #dg4 ,negro's head in ,berlin1 #bh4 ,nemi1 bearded head from1 #bd4 ,neo-,attic sculpture1 #fi1 #ge sqq4 ,nile1 statue of1 #cb4 ,niobid1 ,chiaramonti1 #dg4 ,niobids1 slaying of1 #cj4 ,nottingham ,castle1 head in1 #bd4 ,odysseus1 ,chiaramonti1 #dh sq4 ,ofellius1 ,c41 of ,delos1 #eh4 ,old woman1 of ,capitol1 #bh2 of ,conservatori1 #bh2 of ,dresden1 #bi4 ,orestes and ,electra1 #gd4 ,orontes1 figure of1 #cc4 ,otricoli1 ,zeus of1 #bc4 ,painting1 influence of1 on sculpture1 #ae1 #bb1 #cj1 #ha4 ,papias of ,aphrodisias1 #ea4 ,parrhasios1 #g1 #ae4 ,pasiteles1 #fi1 #gb sqq4 ,pastoral reliefs1 #cj sqq4 ,pellichos1 portrait of1 #bg4 ,peloponnese1 art of1 #ei sqq4 ,pergamon1 early school of1 #d sqq42 later school of1 #ab sqq42 altar friezes from1 #ab sqq42 characteristics of art of1 #e1 #h1 #ag2 erotic groups of1 #d2 girl's head from1 #e1 #fe2 ,hellenistic reliefs ascribed to1 #ca2 mixed tradition in art of1 #g1 #ag2 satyr types of1 #g2 influence of3 on other schools1 #ah2 on ,damophon1 #fj2 on ,euboulides1 #ei2 on ,melian ,aphrodite1 #fe2 on ,melian ,poseidon1 #fc4 ,persian1 head of dead1 in ,terme ,museum1 #aa4 ,philiskos1 #dd sq4 ,pliny1 on ,aristonides1 #di2 on ,attalid dedications1 #aj2 on ,boethos1 #dc2 on ,daedalus1 #e2 on ,euthykrates1 #cf2 on the ,hermaphrodite1 #eg2 on ,pasiteles1 #gb2 on ,stephanos1 #gc4 ,polyeuctes1 the ,demosthenes of1 #ed4 ,polykles1 #eg4 ,portraiture1 realism in1 #bg2 at ,athens1 #ed4 ,poseidon of ,melos1 #fc4 ,praxiteles1 ,cnidian ,aphrodite of1 #be2 drapery of1 #ch1 #df2 ,eubouleus ascribed to1 #bf2 impressionism of1 #bb2 influence of1 in ,hellenistic art1 #i1 #ag1 #bc1 #cd1 #ee4 ,praying ,boy of ,berlin1 #cg4 ,priene1 sculpture from1 #ag2 ,archelaos of1 #af1 #dd4 ,priest of ,isis in ,capitol1 #bd4 ,protogenes1 #ae1 #ce4 ,pyrgoteles1 #ba4 ,realism in ,alexandrian art1 #bg sqq4 ,reliefs1 from ,asklepieion1 #ef2 ,attic grave1 #ef2 classification of ,hellenistic1 #af1 #bi sqq42 early distinguished from late1 #cb2 ,greco-,roman1 #hj1 #ha2 influence of painting on1 #ae1 #cj1 #ha2 ,neo-,attic1 #ge sqq42 perspective in1 #hj sq42 pictorial background in1 #ad1 #ha4 ,rhodes1 school of1 athletic sculpture of1 #bj1 #ci sqq42 characteristics of1 #ce sqq42 connexion with ,victory of ,samothrace1 #dg2 drapery of1 #ch1 #dd sqq42 exaggeration of1 #dc1 #ej2 influence of1 on ,pergamon frieze1 #ac2 mythological reliefs of1 #ca2 perfection of technique of1 #eb4 ,samothrace1 ,victory of1 #df sqq4 ,sarapis of ,bryaxis1 #bj1 #bc sq4 ,satyr types1 ,pergamene1 #g1 #ag1 #bg4 ,scopaic school1 #e1 #g1 #ag1 #cd1 #ee1 #ef1 #fe4 ,scylla group1 #dh1 #ej4 ,silanion1 ,jocasta of1 #di4 ,sosibios1 vase of1 #gg4 ,spada1 ,palazzo1 reliefs in1 #cj1 #ca1 #gc4 ,stephanos1 ,appiades of1 #gc2 athlete of1 #gc sq4 ,straton1 #fb4 ,stucco1 hair added in1 #bb sq4 ,stylopinakia1 #af4 ,subiaco youth1 #db4 ,syracuse1 torso at1 #bf4 ,tauriskos of ,tralles1 #dh sq4 ,telephos frieze1 #ad sq4 ,thasos1 figure from1 #de4 ,themis of ,chairestratos1 #ed4 ,timarchides1 #eg4 ,tisicrates1 #cg4 ,titus1 arch of1 #hj sq4 ,tralles1 ,apollo of1 #ag2 ,apollonios and ,tauriskos of1 #dh2 as art centre1 #ag sq42 ephebe of1 #ag4 ,venus1 ,capuan1 #fe sq42 from ,cyrenaica1 #bb2 ,genetrix1 #ge2 ,medici1 #ga4 ,victory1 of the ,balustrade1 #gf sq42 of ,brescia1 #ff2 of ,euboulides1 #ei2 of ,samothrace1 #df sqq4 ,visit of ,dionysos1 relief of1 #af1 #cj4 ,xenophilos1 #fb4 ,zeus of ,otricoli1 #bc4 ,,printed ,,in ,,england ,,at ,,the ,,oxford ,,university ,,press ,transcriber's ,notes ,punctuation1 hyphenation1 and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in the original book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,simple typographical errors were corrected2 unbalanced quotation marks were remedied when the change was obvious1 and otherwise left unbalanced4 ,illustrations in this e,book have been positioned between paragraphs and outside quotations4 ,in versions of this e,book that support hyperlinks1 the page references in the ,list of ,illustrations lead to the corresponding illustrations4 ,the index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references4 ,page #da3 8statue of ,agasias0 may be a misprint for 8statue by ,agasias04