,equinoctial ,regions of ,america ,alexander von ,humboldt ,,bohn',s ,,scientific ,,library4 ,,humboldt',s ,,personal ,,narrative ,,volume #a4 ,,personal ,,narrative ,,of ,,travels ,,to ,,the ,,equinoctial ,,regions ,,of ,,america ,,during ,,the ,,years #agii-ahjd ,,by ,,alexander ,,von ,,humboldt ,,and ,,aime ,,bonpland4 ,,translated ,,from ,,the ,,french ,,of ,,alexander ,,von ,,humboldt ,,and ,,edited ,,by ,,thomasina ,,ross4 ,,in ,,three ,,volumes ,,volume #a4 ,,london4 ,,george ,,bell ,,sons4 #aijg4 ,,london3 ,,portugal ,,st41 ,,lincoln',s ,,inn4 ,,cambridge3 ,,deighton1 ,,bell ,,and ,,co4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,co4 ,,bombay3 ,a4,h4 ,,wheeler ,,and ,,co4 ,,editor',s ,,preface4 ,the increasing interest attached to all that part of the ,american ,continent situated within and near the tropics1 has suggested the publication of the present edition of ,humboldt's celebrated work1 as a portion of the ,,scientific ,,library4 ,prior to the travels of ,humboldt and ,bonpland1 the countries described in the following narrative were but imperfectly known to ,europeans4 ,for our partial acquaintance with them we were chiefly indebted to the early navigators1 and to some of the followers of the ,spanish ,conquistadores4 ,the intrepid men whose courage and enterprise prompted them to explore unknown seas for the discovery of a ,new ,world1 have left behind them narratives of their adventures1 and descriptions of the strange lands and people they visited1 which must ever be perused with curiosity and interest2 and some of the followers of ,pizarro and ,cortez1 as well as many learned ,spaniards who proceeded to ,south ,america soon after the conquest1 were the authors of historical and other works of high value4 ,but these writings of a past age1 however curious and interesting1 are deficient in that spirit of scientific investigation which enhances the importance and utility of accounts of travels in distant regions4 ,in more recent times1 the researches of ,la ,condamine tended in a most important degree to promote geographical knowledge2 and he1 as well as other eminent botanists who visited the coasts of ,south ,america1 and even ascended the ,andes1 contributed by their discoveries and collections to augment the vegetable riches of the ,old ,world4 ,but1 in their time1 geology as a science had little or no existence4 ,of the structure of the giant mountains of our globe scarcely anything was understood2 whilst nothing was known beneath the earth in the ,new ,world1 except what related to her mines of gold and silver4 ,it remained for ,humboldt to supply all that was wanting1 by the publication of his ,personal ,narrative4 ,in this1 more than in any other of his works1 he shows his power of contemplating nature in all her grandeur and variety4 ,the researches and discoveries of ,humboldt's able coadjutor and companion1 ,m4 ,bonpland1 afford not only a complete picture of the botany of the equinoctial regions of ,america1 but of that of other places visited by the travellers on their voyage thither4 ,the description of the ,island of ,teneriffe and the geography of its vegetation1 show how much was discovered by ,humboldt and ,bonpland which had escaped the observation of discerning travellers who had pursued the same route before them4 ,indeed1 the whole account of the ,canary ,islands presents a picture which cannot be contemplated without the deepest interest1 even by persons comparatively indifferent to the study of nature4 ,it is1 perhaps1 scarcely necessary to remind the reader that since the time when this work was first published in ,paris1 the separation of the ,spanish ,colonies from the mother-country1 together with subsequent political events1 have wrought great changes in the governments of the ,south ,american ,states1 as well as in the social condition of their inhabitants4 ,one consequence of these changes has been to render obsolete some facts and observations relating to subjects1 political1 commercial1 and statistical1 interspersed through this work4 ,however useful such matter might have been on its original publication1 it is wholly irrelevant to the existing state of things1 and consequently it has been deemed advisable to omit it4 ,by this curtailment1 together with that of some meteorological tables and discussions of very limited interest1 the work has been divested of its somewhat lengthy and discursive character1 and condensed within dimensions better adapted to the taste and requirements of the present time4 ,an ,english translation of this work by ,helen ,maria ,williams1 was published many years ago1 and is now out of print4 ,though faultless as respects correctness of interpretation1 it abounds in foreign turns of expression1 and is somewhat deficient in that fluency of style without which a translated work is unsatisfactory to the ,english reader4 ,in the edition now presented to the public it is hoped that these objections are in some degree removed4 ,a careful ,english version is given of all the ,spanish and ,portuguese terms1 phrases1 and quotations which occur in this work4 ,though the author has only in some few instances given a ,french translation of these passages1 yet it is presumed that the interpretation of the whole in ,english will not be deemed superfluous2 this new edition of the ,personal ,narrative having been undertaken with the view of presenting the work in the form best suited for the instruction and entertainment of the general reader4 ,t4,r4 ,london1 ,december #ahea4 999999 ,,measures3 ,in this narrative1 as well as in the ,political ,essay on ,new ,spain1 all the prices are reckoned in piastres1 and silver reals 7reales de plata74 ,eight of these reals are equivalent to a piastre1 or one hundred and five sous1 ,french money 7#d shillings #d #a_/b pence ,english74 ,nouv4 ,esp4 volume #b pages #eai1 #faf and #hff4 ,the magnetic dip is always measured in this work1 according to the centesimal division1 if the contrary be not expressly mentioned4 ,one flasco contains #gj or #hj cubic inches1 ,paris measure4 #aab ,english pounds #aje ,french pounds2 and #afj ,spanish pounds #ic ,french pounds4 ,an arpent des eaux et forets1 or legal acre of ,france1 of which #a4 #ie #a hectare4 ,it is about #a #a_/d acre ,english4 ,a tablon1 equal to #ahdi square toises1 contains nearly an acre and one-fifth3 a legal acre has #acdd square toises1 and #a4ie legal acre is equal one hectare4 ,for the sake of accuracy1 the ,french ,measures1 as given by the ,author1 and the indications of the ,centigrade ,thermometer1 are retained in the translation4 ,the following tables may1 therefore1 be found useful4 ,,table ,,of ,,linear ,,measure4 #a toise #f feet #d4gc inches4 #a foot #ab4gh inches4 #a metre #c feet #c4cg inches4 7,transcriber's ,note3 ,the 'toise' was introduced by ,charlemagne in #gij2 it originally represented the distance between the fingertips of a man with outstretched arms1 and is thus the same as the ,british 'fathom'4 ,during the founding of the ,metric ,system1 less than #bj years before the date of this work1 the 'toise' was assigned a value of #a4idi meters1 or a little over two yards4 ,the 'foot'2 actually the ',french foot'1 or 'pied'1 is defined as #a_/f of a 'toise'1 and is a little over an ,english foot47 ,,centigrade ,,thermometer ,,reduced ,,to ,,fahrenheit',s ,,scale4 ,cent4 ,fahr4 ,cent4 ,fahr4 ,cent4 ,fahr4 ,cent4 ,fahr4 #ajj #bab #fe #adi #cj #hf -#e #bc #ii #baj4b #fd #adg4b #bi #hd4b -#f #ba4b #ih #bjh4d #fc #ade4d #bh #hb4d -#g #ai4d #ig #bjf4f #fb #adc4f #bg #hj4f -#h #ag4f #if #bjd4h #fa #ada4h #bf #gh4h -#i #ae4h #ie #bjc #fj #adj #be #gg -#aj #ad #id #bja4b #ei #ach4b #bd #ge4b -#aa #ab4b #ic #aii4d #eh #acf4d #bc #gc4d -#ab #aj4d #ib #aig4f #eg #acd4f #bb #ga4f -#ac #h4f #ia #aie4h #ef #acb4h #ba #fi4h -#ad #f4h #ij #aid #ee #aca #bj #fh -#ae #e #hi #aib4b #ed #abi4b #ai #ff4b -#af #c4b #hh #aij4d #ec #abg4d #ah #fd4d -#ag #a4d #hg #ahh4f #eb #abe4f #ag #fb4f -#ah -#j4d #hf #ahf4h #ea #abc4h #af #fj4h -#ai -#b4b #he #ahe #ej #abb #ae #ei -#bj -#d #hd #ahc4b #di #abj4b #ad #eg4b -#ba -#e4h #hc #aha4d #dh #aah4d #ac #ee4d -#bb -#g4f #hb #agi4f #dg #aaf4f #ab #ec4f -#bc -#i4d #ha #agg4h #df #aad4h #aa #ea4h -#bd -#aa4b #hj #agf #de #aac #aj #ej -#be -#ac #gi #agd4b #dd #aaa4b #i #dh4b -#bf -#ad4h #gh #agb4d #dc #aji4d #h #df4d -#bg -#af4f #gg #agj4f #db #ajg4f #g #dd4f -#bh -#ah4d #gf #afh4h #da #aje4h #f #db4h -#bi -#bj4b #ge #afg #dj #ajd #e #da -#cj -#bb #gd #afe4b #ci #ajb4b #d #ci4b -#ca -#bc4h #gc #afc4d #ch #ajj4d #c #cg4d -#cb -#be4f #gb #afa4f #cg #ih4f #b #ce4f -#cc -#bg4d #ga #aei4h #cf #if4h #a #cc4h -#cd -#bi4b #gj #aeh #ce #ie #j #cb -#ce -#ca #fi #aef4b #cd #ic4b -#a #cj4b -#cf -#cb4h #fh #aed4d #cc #ia4d -#b #bh4d -#cg -#cd4f #fg #aeb4f #cb #hi4f -#c #bf4f -#ch -#cf4d #ff #aej4h #ca #hg4h -#d #bd4h -#ci -#ch4b 999999 ,,volume #a4 ,,contents4 ,,editor',s ,,preface4 ,,introduction ,,by ,,the ,,author4 ,,chapter #a4a4 ,,preparations4--,,instruments4--,,depar ture ,,from ,,spain4-- ,,landing ,,at ,,the ,,canary ,,islands4 ,,chapter #a4b4 ,,stay ,,at ,,tenerife4--,,journey ,,from ,,santa ,,cruz ,,to ,,orotava4--,,excursion ,,to ,,the ,,summit ,,of ,,the ,,peak ,,of ,,teyde4 ,,chapter #a4c4 ,,passage ,,from ,,tenerife ,,to ,,south ,,america4-- ,,the ,,island ,,of ,,tobago4--,,arrival ,,at ,,cumana4 ,,chapter #a4d4 ,,first ,,abode ,,at ,,cumana4--,,banks ,,of ,,the ,,manzanares4 ,,chapter #a4e4 ,,peninsula ,,of ,,araya4--,,salt-,,marshes4-- ,,ruins ,,of ,,the ,,castle ,,of ,,santiago4 ,,chapter #a4f4 ,,mountains ,,of ,,new ,,andalucia4--,,valley ,,of ,,the ,,cumanacoa4-- ,,summit ,,of ,,the ,,cocollar4--,,missions ,,of ,,the ,,chayma ,,indians4 ,,chapter #a4g4 ,,convent ,,of ,,caripe4--,,cavern ,,of ,,the ,,guacharo4--,,nocturnal ,,birds4 ,,chapter #a4h4 ,,departure ,,from ,,caripe4--,,mountain ,,and ,,forest ,,of ,,santa ,,maria4-- ,,mission ,,of ,,catuaro4--,,port ,,of ,,cariaco4 ,,chapter #a4i4 ,,physical ,,constitution ,,and ,,manners ,,of ,,the ,,chaymas4--,,their ,,language4-- ,,filiation ,,of ,,the ,,nations ,,which ,,inhabit ,,new ,,andalucia4-- ,,pariagotos ,,seen ,,by ,,columbus4 ,,chapter #a4aj4 ,,second ,,abode ,,at ,,cumana4--,,earthquakes4--,,extraordina ry ,,meteors4 ,,chapter #a4aa4 ,,passage ,,from ,,cumana ,,to ,,la ,,guayra4--,,morro ,,of ,,nueva ,,barcelona4-- ,,cape ,,codera4--,,road ,,from ,,la ,,guayra ,,to ,,caracas4 ,,chapter #a4ab4 ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,provinces ,,of ,,venezuela4-- ,,diversity ,,of ,,their ,,interests4--,,city ,,and ,,valley ,,of ,,caracas4-- ,,climate4 ,,chapter #a4ac4 ,,abode ,,at ,,caracas4--,,mountains ,,in ,,the ,,vicinity ,,of ,,the ,,town4-- ,,excursion ,,to ,,the ,,summit ,,of ,,the ,,silla4--,,indications ,,of ,,mines4 ,,chapter #a4ad4 ,,earthquakes ,,at ,,caracas4--,,connection ,,of ,,those ,,phenomena ,,with ,,the ,,volcanic ,,eruptions ,,of ,,the ,,west ,,india ,,islands4 ,,chapter #a4ae4 ,,departure ,,from ,,caracas4--,,mountains ,,of ,,san ,,pedro ,,and ,,of ,,los ,,teques4-- ,,la ,,victoria4--,,valleys ,,of ,,aragua4 999999 ,,introduction ,,by ,,the ,,author4 ,many years have elapsed since ,i quitted ,europe1 to explore the interior of the ,new ,continent4 ,devoted from my earliest youth to the study of nature1 feeling with enthusiasm the wild beauties of a country guarded by mountains and shaded by ancient forests1 ,i experienced in my travels1 enjoyments which have amply compensated for the privations inseparable from a laborious and often agitated life4 ,these enjoyments1 which ,i endeavoured to impart to my readers in my ',remarks upon the ,steppes1' and in the ',essay on the ,physiognomy of ,plants1' were not the only fruits ,i reaped from an undertaking formed with the design of contributing to the progress of natural philosophy4 ,i had long prepared myself for the observations which were the principal object of my journey to the torrid zone4 ,i was provided with instruments of easy and convenient use1 constructed by the ablest makers1 and ,i enjoyed the special protection of a government which1 far from presenting obstacles to my investigations1 constantly honoured me with every mark of regard and confidence4 ,i was aided by a courageous and enlightened friend1 and it was singularly propitious to the success of our participated labour1 that the zeal and equanimity of that friend never failed1 amidst the fatigues and dangers to which we were sometimes exposed4 ,under these favourable circumstances1 traversing regions which for ages have remained almost unknown to most of the nations of ,europe1 ,i might add even to ,spain1 ,m4 ,bonpland and myself collected a considerable number of materials1 the publication of which may throw some light on the history of nations1 and advance the study of nature4 ,i had in view a two-fold purpose in the travels of which ,i now publish the historical narrative4 ,i wished to make known the countries ,i had visited2 and to collect such facts as are fitted to elucidate a science of which we as yet possess scarcely the outline1 and which has been vaguely denominated ,natural ,history of the ,world1 ,theory of the ,earth1 or ,physical ,geography4 ,the last of these two objects seemed to me the most important4 ,i was passionately devoted to botany and certain parts of zoology1 and ,i flattered myself that our investigations might add some new species to those already known1 both in the animal and vegetable kingdoms2 but preferring the connection of facts which have been long observed1 to the knowledge of insulated facts1 although new1 the discovery of an unknown genus seemed to me far less interesting than an observation on the geographical relations of the vegetable world1 on the migrations of the social plants1 and the limit of the height which their different tribes attain on the flanks of the ,cordilleras4 ,the natural sciences are connected by the same ties which link together all the phenomena of nature4 ,the classification of the species1 which must be considered as the fundamental part of botany1 and the study of which is rendered attractive and easy by the introduction of natural methods1 is to the geography of plants what descriptive mineralogy is to the indication of the rocks constituting the exterior crust of the globe4 ,to comprehend the laws observed in the position of these rocks1 to determine the age of their successive formations1 and their identity in the most distant regions1 the geologist should be previously acquainted with the simple fossils which compose the mass of mountains1 and of which the names and character are the object of oryctognostical knowledge4 ,it is the same with that part of the natural history of the globe which treats of the relations plants have to each other1 to the soil whence they spring1 or to the air which they inhale and modify4 ,the progress of the geography of plants depends in a great measure on that of descriptive botany2 and it would be injurious to the advancement of science1 to attempt rising to general ideas1 whilst neglecting the knowledge of particular facts4 ,i have been guided by these considerations in the course of my inquiries2 they were always present to my mind during the period of my preparatory studies4 ,when ,i began to read the numerous narratives of travels1 which compose so interesting a part of modern literature1 ,i regretted that travellers1 the most enlightened in the insulated branches of natural history1 were seldom possessed of sufficient variety of knowledge to avail themselves of every advantage arising from their position4 ,it appeared to me1 that the importance of the results hitherto obtained did not keep pace with the immense progress which1 at the end of the eighteenth century1 had been made in several departments of science1 particularly geology1 the history of the modifications of the atmosphere1 and the physiology of animals and plants4 ,i saw with regret1 7and all scientific men have shared this feeling7 that whilst the number of accurate instruments was daily increasing1 we were still ignorant of the height of many mountains and elevated plains2 of the periodical oscillations of the aerial ocean2 of the limit of perpetual snow within the polar circle and on the borders of the torrid zone2 of the variable intensity of the magnetic forces1 and of many other phenomena equally important4 ,maritime expeditions and circumnavigatory voyages have conferred just celebrity on the names of the naturalists and astronomers who have been appointed by various governments to share the dangers of those undertakings2 but though these eminent men have given us precise notions of the external configuration of countries1 of the natural history of the ocean1 and of the productions of islands and coasts1 it must be admitted that maritime expeditions are less fitted to advance the progress of geology and other parts of physical science1 than travels into the interior of a continent4 ,the advancement of the natural sciences has been subordinate to that of geography and nautical astronomy4 ,during a voyage of several years1 the land but seldom presents itself to the observation of the mariner1 and when1 after lengthened expectation1 it is descried1 he often finds it stripped of its most beautiful productions4 ,sometimes1 beyond a barren coast1 he perceives a ridge of mountains covered with verdure1 but its distance forbids examination1 and the view serves only to excite regret4 ,journeys by land are attended with considerable difficulties in the conveyance of instruments and collections1 but these difficulties are compensated by advantages which it is unnecessary to enumerate4 ,it is not by sailing along a coast that we can discover the direction of chains of mountains1 and their geological constitution1 the climate of each zone1 and its influence on the forms and habits of organized beings4 ,in proportion to the extent of continents1 the greater on the surface of the soil are the riches of animal and vegetable productions2 the more distant the central chain of mountains from the sea-shore1 the greater is the variety in the bosom of the earth1 of those stony strata1 the regular succession of which unfolds the history of our planet4 ,as every being considered apart is impressed with a particular type1 so1 in like manner1 we find the same distinctive impression in the arrangement of brute matter organized in rocks1 and also in the distribution and mutual relations of plants and animals4 ,the great problem of the physical description of the globe1 is the determination of the form of these types1 the laws of their relations with each other1 and the eternal ties which link the phenomena of life1 and those of inanimate nature4 ,having stated the general object ,i had in view in my expeditions1 ,i will now hasten to give a slight sketch of the whole of the collections and observations which we have accumulated1 and the union of which is the aim and end of every scientific journey4 ,the maritime war1 during our abode in ,america1 having rendered communication with ,europe very uncertain1 we found ourselves compelled1 in order to diminish the chance of losses1 to form three different collections4 ,of these1 the first was embarked for ,spain and ,france1 the second for the ,united ,states and ,england1 and the third1 which was the most considerable1 remained almost constantly under our own eyes4 ,towards the close of our expedition1 this last collection formed forty-two boxes1 containing an herbal of six thousand equinoctial plants1 seeds1 shells1 insects1 and 7what had hitherto never been brought to ,europe7 geological specimens1 from the ,chimborazo1 ,new ,grenada1 and the banks of the river ,amazon4 ,after our journey to the ,orinoco1 we left a part of these collections at the island of ,cuba1 intending to take them on our return from ,peru to ,mexico4 ,the rest followed us during the space of five years1 on the chain of the ,andes1 across ,new ,spain1 from the shores of the ,pacific to the coasts of the ,caribbean ,sea4 ,the conveyance of these objects1 and the minute care they required1 occasioned embarrassments scarcely conceiveable even by those who have traversed the most uncultivated parts of ,europe4 ,our progress was often retarded by the necessity of dragging after us1 during expeditions of five or six months1 twelve1 fifteen1 and sometimes more than twenty loaded mules1 exchanging these animals every eight or ten days1 and superintending the ,indians who were employed in driving the numerous caravan4 ,often1 in order to add to our collections of new mineral substances1 we found ourselves obliged to throw away others1 which we had collected a considerable time before4 ,these sacrifices were not less vexatious than the losses we accidentally sustained4 ,sad experience taught us but too late1 that from the sultry humidity of the climate1 and the frequent falls of the beasts of burden1 we could preserve neither the skins of animals hastily prepared1 nor the fishes and reptiles placed in phials filled with alcohol4 ,i enter into these details1 because1 though little interesting in themselves1 they serve to show that we had no means of bringing back1 in their natural state1 many objects of zoology and comparative anatomy1 of which we have published descriptions and drawings4 ,notwithstanding some obstacles1 and the expense occasioned by the carriage of these articles1 ,i had reason to applaud the resolution ,i had taken before my departure1 of sending to ,europe the duplicates only of the productions we collected4 ,i cannot too often repeat1 that when the seas are infested with privateers1 a traveller can be sure only of the objects in his own possession4 ,a very few of the duplicates1 which we shipped for ,europe during our abode in ,america1 were saved2 the greater part fell into the hands of persons who feel no interest for science4 ,when a ship is condemned in a foreign port1 boxes containing only dried plants or stones1 instead of being sent to the scientific men to whom they are addressed1 are put aside and forgotten4 ,some of our geological collections taken in the ,pacific were1 however1 more fortunate4 ,we were indebted for their preservation to the generous activity of ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 ,president of the ,royal ,society of ,london1 who1 amidst the political agitations of ,europe1 unceasingly laboured to strengthen the bonds of union between scientific men of all nations4 ,in our investigations we have considered each phenomenon under different aspects1 and classed our remarks according to the relations they bear to each other4 ,to afford an idea of the method we have followed1 ,i will here add a succinct enumeration of the materials with which we were furnished for describing the volcanoes of ,antisana and ,pichincha1 as well as that of ,jorullo3 the latter1 during the night of the #bjth of ,september1 #agei1 rose from the earth one thousand five hundred and seventy-eight ,french feet above the surrounding plains of ,mexico4 ,the position of these singular mountains in longitude and latitude was ascertained by astronomical observations4 ,we took the heights of the different parts by the aid of the barometer1 and determined the dip of the needle and the intensity of the magnetic forces4 ,our collections contain the plants which are spread over the flanks of these volcanoes1 and specimens of different rocks which1 superposed one upon another1 constitute their external coat4 ,we are enabled to indicate1 by measures sufficiently exact1 the height above the level of the ocean1 at which we found each group of plants1 and each volcanic rock4 ,our journals furnish us with a series of observations on the humidity1 the temperature1 the electricity1 and the degree of transparency of the air on the brinks of the craters of ,pichincha and ,jorullo2 they also contain topographical plans and geological profiles of these mountains1 founded in part on the measure of vertical bases1 and on angles of altitude4 ,each observation has been calculated according to the tables and the methods which are considered most exact in the present state of our knowledge2 and in order to judge of the degree of confidence which the results may claim1 we have preserved the whole detail of our partial operations4 ,it would have been possible to blend these different materials in a work devoted wholly to the description of the volcanoes of ,peru and ,new ,spain4 ,had ,i given the physical description of a single province1 ,i could have treated separately everything relating to its geography1 mineralogy1 and botany2 but how could ,i interrupt the narrative of a journey1 a disquisition on the manners of a people1 or the great phenomena of nature1 by an enumeration of the productions of the country1 the description of new species of animals and plants1 or the detail of astronomical observations4 ,had ,i adopted a mode of composition which would have included in one and the same chapter all that has been observed on one particular point of the globe1 ,i should have prepared a work of cumbrous length1 and devoid of that clearness which arises in a great measure from the methodical distribution of matter4 ,notwithstanding the efforts ,i have made to avoid1 in this narrative1 the errors ,i had to dread1 ,i feel conscious that ,i have not always succeeded in separating the observations of detail from those general results which interest every enlightened mind4 ,these results comprise in one view the climate and its influence on organized beings1 the aspect of the country1 varied according to the nature of the soil and its vegetable covering1 the direction of the mountains and rivers which separate races of men as well as tribes of plants2 and finally1 the modifications observable in the condition of people living in different latitudes1 and in circumstances more or less favourable to the development of their faculties4 ,i do not fear having too much enlarged on objects so worthy of attention3 one of the noblest characteristics which distinguish modern civilization from that of remoter times is1 that it has enlarged the mass of our conceptions1 rendered us more capable of perceiving the connection between the physical and intellectual world1 and thrown a more general interest over objects which heretofore occupied only a few scientific men1 because those objects were contemplated separately1 and from a narrower point of view4 ,as it is probable that these volumes will obtain the attention of a greater number of readers than the detail of my observations merely scientific1 or my researches on the population1 the commerce1 and the mines of ,new ,spain1 ,i may be permitted here to enumerate all the works which ,i have hitherto published conjointly with ,m4 ,bonpland4 ,when several works are interwoven in some sort with each other1 it may perhaps be interesting to the reader to know the sources whence he may obtain more circumstantial information4 #a4;,i4#a4 ,,astronomical ,,observations1 ,,trigonometrical ,,operations1 ,,and ,,barometrical ,,measurements ,,made ,,during ,,the ,,course ,,of ,a ,,journey ,,to ,,the ,,equinoctial ,,regions ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,continent1 ,,from #agii ,,to #ahjd4 ,this work1 to which are added historical researches on the position of several points important to navigators1 contains1 first1 the original observations which ,i made from the twelfth degree of southern to the forty-first degree of northern latitude2 the transits of the sun and stars over the meridian2 distances of the moon from the sun and the stars2 occultations of the satellites2 eclipses of the sun and moon2 transits of ,mercury over the disc of the sun2 azimuths2 circum-meridian altitudes of the moon1 to determine the longitude by the differences of declination2 researches on the relative intensity of the light of the austral stars2 geodesical measures1 etc4 ,secondly1 a treatise on the astronomical refractions in the torrid zone1 considered as the effect of the decrement of caloric in the strata of the air2 thirdly1 the barometric measurement of the ,cordillera of the ,andes1 of ,mexico1 of the province of ,venezuela1 of the kingdom of ,quito1 and of ,new ,grenada2 followed by geological observations1 and containing the indication of four hundred and fifty-three heights1 calculated according to the method of ,m4 ,laplace1 and the new co-efficient of ,m4 ,ramond2 fourthly1 a table of near seven hundred geographical positions on the ,new ,continent2 two hundred and thirty-five of which have been determined by my own observations1 according to the three co-ordinates of longitude1 latitude1 and height4 #a4;,i4#b4 ,,equinoctial ,,plants ,,collected ,,in ,,mexico1 ,,in ,,the ,,island ,,of ,,cuba1 ,,in ,,the ,,provinces ,,of ,,caracas1 ,,cumana1 ,,and ,,barcelona1 ,,on ,,the ,,andes ,,of ,,new ,,grenada1 ,,quito1 ,,and ,,peru1 ,,and ,,on ,,the ,,banks ,,of ,,the ,,rio ,,negro1 ,,the ,,orinoco1 ,,and ,,the ,,river ,,amazon4 ,m4 ,bonpland has in this work given figures of more than forty new genera of plants of the torrid zone1 classed according to their natural families4 ,the methodical descriptions of the species are both in ,french and ,latin1 and are accompanied by observations on the medicinal properties of the plants1 their use in the arts1 and the climate of the countries in which they are found4 #a4;,i4#c4 ,,monography ,,of ,,the ,,melastoma1 ,,rhexia1 ,,and ,,other ,,genera ,,of ,,this ,,order ,,of ,,plants4 ,comprising upwards of a hundred and fifty species of melastomaceae1 which we collected during the course of our expeditions1 and which form one of the most beautiful ornaments of tropical vegetation4 ,m4 ,bonpland has added the plants of the same family1 which1 among many other rich stores of natural history1 ,m4 ,richard collected in his interesting expedition to the ,antilles and ,french ,guiana1 and the descriptions of which he has communicated to us4 #a4;,i4#d4 ,,essay ,,on ,,the ,,geography ,,of ,,plants1 ,,accompanied ,,by ,a ,,physical ,,table ,,of ,,the ,,equinoctial ,,regions1 ,,founded ,,on ,,measures ,,taken ,,from ,,the ,,tenth ,,degree ,,of ,,northern ,,to ,,the ,,tenth ,,degree ,,of ,,southern ,,latitude4 ,i have endeavoured to collect in one point of view the whole of the physical phenomena of that part of the ,new ,continent comprised within the limits of the torrid zone from the level of the ,pacific to the highest summit of the ,andes2 namely1 the vegetation1 the animals1 the geological relations1 the cultivation of the soil1 the temperature of the air1 the limit of perpetual snow1 the chemical constitution of the atmosphere1 its electrical intensity1 its barometrical pressure1 the decrement of gravitation1 the intensity of the azure colour of the sky1 the diminution of light during its passage through the successive strata of the air1 the horizontal refractions1 and the heat of boiling water at different heights4 ,fourteen scales1 disposed side by side with a profile of the ,andes1 indicate the modifications to which these phenomena are subject from the influence of the elevation of the soil above the level of the sea4 ,each group of plants is placed at the height which nature has assigned to it1 and we may follow the prodigious variety of their forms from the region of the palms and arborescent ferns to those of the johannesia 7chuquiraga1 ,juss471 the gramineous plants1 and lichens4 ,these regions form the natural divisions of the vegetable empire2 and as perpetual snow is found in each climate at a determinate height1 so1 in like manner1 the febrifuge species of the quinquina 7cinchona7 have their fixed limits1 which ,i have marked in the botanical chart belonging to this essay4 #a4;,i4#e4 ,,observations ,,on ,,zoology ,,and ,,comparative ,,anatomy4 ,i have comprised in this work the history of the condor2 experiments on the electrical action of the gymnotus2 a treatise on the larynx of the crocodiles1 the quadrumani1 and birds of the tropics2 the description of several new species of reptiles1 fishes1 birds1 monkeys1 and other mammalia but little known4 ,m4 ,cuvier has enriched this work with a very comprehensive treatise on the axolotl of the lake of ,mexico1 and on the genera of the ,protei4 ,that naturalist has also recognized two new species of mastodons and an elephant among the fossil bones of quadrupeds which we brought from ,north and ,south ,america4 ,for the description of the insects collected by ,m4 ,bonpland we are indebted to ,m4 ,latreille1 whose labours have so much contributed to the progress of entomology in our times4 ,the second volume of this work contains figures of the ,mexican1 ,peruvian1 and ,aturian skulls1 which we have deposited in the ,museum of ,natural ,history at ,paris1 and respecting which ,blumenbach has published observations in the ',decas quinta ,craniorum diversarum gentium4' #a4;,i4#f4 ,,political ,,essay ,,on ,,the ,,kingdom ,,of ,,new ,,spain1 ,,with ,a ,,physical ,,and ,,geographical ,,atlas1 ,,founded ,,on ,,astronomical ,,observations ,,and ,,trigonometrical ,,and ,,barometrical ,,measurements4 ,this work1 based on numerous official memoirs1 presents1 in six divisions1 considerations on the extent and natural appearance of ,mexico1 on the population1 on the manners of the inhabitants1 their ancient civilization1 and the political division of their territory4 ,it embraces also the agriculture1 the mineral riches1 the manufactures1 the commerce1 the finances1 and the military defence of that vast country4 ,in treating these different subjects ,i have endeavoured to consider them under a general point of view2 ,i have drawn a parallel not only between ,new ,spain1 the other ,spanish colonies1 and the ,united ,states of ,north ,america1 but also between ,new ,spain and the possessions of the ,english in ,asia2 ,i have compared the agriculture of the countries situated in the torrid zone with that of the temperate climates2 and ,i have examined the quantity of colonial produce necessary to ,europe in the present state of civilization4 ,in tracing the geological description of the richest mining districts in ,mexico1 ,i have1 in short1 given a statement of the mineral produce1 the population1 the imports and exports of the whole of ,spanish ,america4 ,i have examined several questions which1 for want of precise data1 had not hitherto been treated with the attention they demand1 such as the influx and reflux of metals1 their progressive accumulation in ,europe and ,asia1 and the quantity of gold and silver which1 since the discovery of ,america down to our own times1 the ,old ,world has received from the ,new4 ,the geographical introduction at the beginning of this work contains the analysis of the materials which have been employed in the construction of the ,mexican ,atlas4 #a4;,i4#g4 ,,views ,,of ,,the ,,cordilleras1 ,,and ,,monuments ,,of ,,the ,,indigenous ,,nations ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,continent499 799,atlas ,pittoresque1 ou ,vues des ,cordilleres1 #a volume folio1 with #fi plates1 part of which are coloured1 accompanied by explanatory treatises4 ,this work may be considered as the ,atlas to the historical narrative of the travels47 ,this work is intended to represent a few of the grand scenes which nature presents in the lofty chain of the ,andes1 and at the same time to throw some light on the ancient civilization of the ,americans1 through the study of their monuments of architecture1 their hieroglyphics1 their religious rites1 and their astrological reveries4 ,i have given in this work a description of the teocalli1 or ,mexican pyramids1 and have compared their structure with that of the temple of ,belus4 ,i have described the arabesques which cover the ruins of ,mitla1 the idols in basalt ornamented with the calantica of the heads of ,isis2 and also a considerable number of symbolical paintings1 representing the serpent-woman 7the ,mexican ,eve71 the deluge of ,coxcox1 and the first migrations of the natives of the ,aztec race4 ,i have endeavoured to prove the striking analogies existing between the calendar of the ,toltecs and the catasterisms of their zodiac1 and the division of time of the people of ,tartary and ,thibet1 as well as the ,mexican traditions on the four regenerations of the globe1 the pralayas of the ,hindoos1 and the four ages of ,hesiod4 ,in this work ,i have also included 7in addition to the hieroglyphical paintings ,i brought to ,europe71 fragments of all the ,aztec manuscripts1 collected in ,rome1 ,veletri1 ,vienna1 and ,dresden1 and one of which reminds us1 by its lineary symbols1 of the kouas of the ,chinese4 ,together with the rude monuments of the aborigines of ,america1 this volume contains picturesque views of the mountainous countries which those people inhabited2 for example1 the cataract of ,tequendama1 ,chimborazo1 the volcano of ,jorullo and ,cayambe1 the pyramidal summit of which1 covered with eternal ice1 is situated directly under the equinoctial line4 ,in every zone the configuration of the ground1 the physiognomy of the plants1 and the aspect of lovely or wild scenery1 have great influence on the progress of the arts1 and on the style which distinguishes their productions4 ,this influence is so much the more perceptible in proportion as man is farther removed from civilization4 ,i could have added to this work researches on the character of languages1 which are the most durable monuments of nations4 ,i have collected a number of materials on the languages of ,america1 of which ,,mm4 ,frederic ,schlegel and ,vater have made use2 the former in his ,considerations on the ,hindoos1 the latter in his ,continuation of the ,mithridates of ,adelung1 in the ,ethnographical ,magazine1 and in his ,inquiries into the ,population of the ,new ,continent4 ,these materials are now in the hands of my brother1 ,william von ,humboldt1 who1 during his travels in ,spain1 and a long abode at ,rome1 formed the richest collection of ,american vocabularies in existence4 ,his extensive knowledge of the ancient and modern languages has enabled him to trace some curious analogies in relation to this subject1 so important to the philosophical study of the history of man4 ,a part of his labours will find a place in this narrative4 ,of the different works which ,i have here enumerated1 the second and third were composed by ,m4 ,bonpland1 from the observations which he made in a botanical journal4 ,this journal contains more than four thousand methodical descriptions of equinoctial plants1 a ninth part only of which have been made by me4 ,they appear in a separate publication1 under the title of ,nova ,genera et ,species ,plantariem4 ,in this work will be found1 not only the new species we collected1 which1 after a careful examination by one of the first botanists of the age1 ,professor ,willdenouw1 are computed to amount to fourteen or fifteen hundred1 but also the interesting observations made by ,m4 ,bonpland on plants hitherto imperfectly described4 ,the plates of this work are all engraved according to the method followed by ,m4 ,labillardiere1 in the ,specimen ,planterum ,novae ,hollandiae1 a work remarkable for profound research and clearness of arrangement4 ,after having distributed into separate works all that belongs to astronomy1 botany1 zoology1 the political description of ,new ,spain1 and the history of the ancient civilization of certain nations of the ,new ,continent1 there still remained many general results and local descriptions1 which ,i might have collected into separate treatises4 ,i had1 during my journey1 prepared papers on the races of men in ,south ,america2 on the ,missions of the ,orinoco2 on the obstacles to the progress of society in the torrid zone arising from the climate and the strength of vegetation2 on the character of the landscape in the ,cordilleras of the ,andes compared with that of the ,alps in ,switzerland2 on the analogies between the rocks of the two hemispheres2 on the physical constitution of the air in the equinoctial regions1 etc4 ,i had left ,europe with the firm intention of not writing what is usually called the historical narrative of a journey1 but to publish the fruit of my inquiries in works merely descriptive2 and ,i had arranged the facts1 not in the order in which they successively presented themselves1 but according to the relation they bore to each other4 ,amidst the overwhelming majesty of ,nature1 and the stupendous objects she presents at every step1 the traveller is little disposed to record in his journal matters which relate only to himself1 and the ordinary details of life4 ,i composed a very brief itinerary during the course of my excursions on the rivers of ,south ,america1 and in my long journeys by land4 ,i regularly described 7and almost always on the spot7 the visits ,i made to the summits of volcanoes1 or mountains remarkable for their height2 but the entries in my journal were interrupted whenever ,i resided in a town1 or when other occupations prevented me from continuing a work which ,i considered as having only a secondary interest4 ,whenever ,i wrote in my journal1 ,i had no other motive than the preservation of some of those fugitive ideas which present themselves to a naturalist1 whose life is almost wholly passed in the open air4 ,i wished to make a temporary collection of such facts as ,i had not then leisure to class1 and note down the first impressions1 whether agreeable or painful1 which ,i received from nature or from man4 ,far from thinking at the time that those pages thus hurriedly written would form the basis of an extensive work to be offered to the public1 it appeared to me1 that my journal1 though it might furnish certain data useful to science1 would present very few of those incidents1 the recital of which constitutes the principal charm of an itinerary4 ,the difficulties ,i have experienced since my return1 in the composition of a considerable number of treatises1 for the purpose of making known certain classes of phenomena1 insensibly overcame my repugnance to write the narrative of my journey4 ,in undertaking this task1 ,i have been guided by the advice of many estimable persons1 who honour me with their friendship4 ,i also perceived that such a preference is given to this sort of composition1 that scientific men1 after having presented in an isolated form the account of their researches on the productions1 the manners1 and the political state of the countries through which they have passed1 imagine that they have not fulfilled their engagements with the public1 till they have written their itinerary4 ,an historical narrative embraces two very distinct objects2 the greater or the less important events connected with the purpose of the traveller1 and the observations he has made during his journey4 ,the unity of composition also1 which distinguishes good works from those on an ill-constructed plan1 can be strictly observed only when the traveller describes what has passed under his own eye2 and when his principal attention has been fixed less on scientific observations than on the manners of different people and the great phenomena of nature4 ,now1 the most faithful picture of manners is that which best displays the relations of men towards each other4 ,the character of savage or civilized life is portrayed either in the obstacles a traveller meets with1 or in the sensations he feels4 ,it is the traveller himself whom we continually desire to see in contact with the objects which surround him2 and his narration interests us the more1 when a local tint is diffused over the description of a country and its inhabitants4 ,such is the source of the interest excited by the history of those early navigators1 who1 impelled by intrepidity rather than by science1 struggled against the elements in their search for the discovery of a new world4 ,such is the irresistible charm attached to the fate of that enterprising traveller 7,mungo ,park471 who1 full of enthusiasm and energy1 penetrated alone into the centre of ,africa1 to discover amidst barbarous nations the traces of ancient civilization4 ,in proportion as travels have been undertaken by persons whose views have been directed to researches into descriptive natural history1 geography1 or political economy1 itineraries have partly lost that unity of composition1 and that simplicity which characterized those of former ages4 ,it is now become scarcely possible to connect so many different materials with the detail of other events2 and that part of a traveller's narrative which we may call dramatic gives way to dissertations merely descriptive4 ,the numerous class of readers who prefer agreeable amusement to solid instruction1 have not gained by the exchange2 and ,i am afraid that the temptation will not be great to follow the course of travellers who are incumbered with scientific instruments and collections4 ,to give greater variety to my work1 ,i have often interrupted the historical narrative by descriptions4 ,i first represent phenomena in the order in which they appeared2 and ,i afterwards consider them in the whole of their individual relations4 ,this mode has been successfully followed in the journey of ,m4 de ,saussure1 whose most valuable work has contributed more than any other to the advancement of science4 ,often1 amidst dry discussions on meteorology1 it contains many charming descriptions2 such as those of the modes of life of the inhabitants of the mountains1 the dangers of hunting the chamois1 and the sensations felt on the summit of the higher ,alps4 ,there are details of ordinary life which it may be useful to note in an itinerary1 because they serve for the guidance of those who afterwards journey through the same countries4 ,i have preserved a few1 but have suppressed the greater part of those personal incidents which present no particular interest1 and which can be rendered amusing only by the perfection of style4 ,with respect to the country which has been the object of my investigations1 ,i am fully sensible of the great advantages enjoyed by persons who travel in ,greece1 ,egypt1 the banks of the ,euphrates1 and the islands of the ,pacific1 in comparison with those who traverse the continent of ,america4 ,in the ,old ,world1 nations and the distinctions of their civilization form the principal points in the picture2 in the ,new ,world1 man and his productions almost disappear amidst the stupendous display of wild and gigantic nature4 ,the human race in the ,new ,world presents only a few remnants of indigenous hordes1 slightly advanced in civilization2 or it exhibits merely the uniformity of manners and institutions transplanted by ,european colonists to foreign shores4 ,information which relates to the history of our species1 to the various forms of government1 to monuments of art1 to places full of great remembrances1 affect us far more than descriptions of those vast solitudes which seem destined only for the development of vegetable life1 and to be the domain of wild animals4 ,the savages of ,america1 who have been the objects of so many systematic reveries1 and on whom ,m4 ,volney has lately published some accurate and intelligent observations1 inspire less interest since celebrated navigators have made known to us the inhabitants of the ,south ,sea islands1 in whose character we find a striking mixture of perversity and meekness4 ,the state of half-civilization existing among those islanders gives a peculiar charm to the description of their manners4 ,a king1 followed by a numerous suite1 presents the fruits of his orchard2 or a funeral is performed amidst the shade of the lofty forest4 ,such pictures1 no doubt1 have more attraction than those which pourtray the solemn gravity of the inhabitant of the banks of the ,missouri or the ,maranon4 ,america offers an ample field for the labours of the naturalist4 ,on no other part of the globe is he called upon more powerfully by nature to raise himself to general ideas on the cause of phenomena and their mutual connection4 ,to say nothing of that luxuriance of vegetation1 that eternal spring of organic life1 those climates varying by stages as we climb the flanks of the ,cordilleras1 and those majestic rivers which a celebrated writer 7,m4 ,chateaubriand47 has described with such graceful accuracy1 the resources which the ,new ,world affords for the study of geology and natural philosophy in general have been long since acknowledged4 ,happy the traveller who may cherish the hope that he has availed himself of the advantages of his position1 and that he has added some new facts to the mass of those previously acquired6 ,since ,i left ,america1 one of those great revolutions1 which at certain periods agitate the human race1 has broken out in the ,spanish colonies1 and seems to prepare new destinies for a population of fourteen millions of inhabitants1 spreading from the southern to the northern hemisphere1 from the shores of the ,rio de la ,plata and ,chile to the remotest part of ,mexico4 ,deep resentments1 excited by colonial legislation1 and fostered by mistrustful policy1 have stained with blood regions which had enjoyed1 for the space of nearly three centuries1 what ,i will not call happiness but uninterrupted peace4 ,at ,quito several of the most virtuous and enlightened citizens have perished1 victims of devotion to their country4 ,while ,i am giving the description of regions1 the remembrance of which is so dear to me1 ,i continually light on places which recall to my mind the loss of a friend4 ,when we reflect on the great political agitations of the ,new ,world1 we observe that the ,spanish ,americans are by no means in so favourable a position as the inhabitants of the ,united ,states2 the latter having been prepared for independence by the long enjoyment of constitutional liberty4 ,internal dissensions are chiefly to be dreaded in regions where civilization is but slightly rooted1 and where1 from the influence of climate1 forests may soon regain their empire over cleared lands if their culture be abandoned4 ,it may also be feared that1 during a long series of years1 no foreign traveller will be enabled to traverse all the countries which ,i have visited4 ,this circumstance may perhaps add to the interest of a work which pourtrays the state of the greater part of the ,spanish colonies at the beginning of the #aith century4 ,i even venture to indulge the hope that this work will be thought worthy of attention when passions shall be hushed into peace1 and when1 under the influence of a new social order1 those countries shall have made rapid progress in public welfare4 ,if then some pages of my book are snatched from oblivion1 the inhabitant of the banks of the ,orinoco and the ,atabapo will behold with delight populous cities enriched by commerce1 and fertile fields cultivated by the hands of free men1 on those very spots where1 at the time of my travels1 ,i found only impenetrable forests and inundated lands4 999999 ,,personal ,,narrative ,,of ,a ,,journey ,,to ,,the ,,equinoctial ,,regions ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,continent4 ,,volume #a4 ,,chapter #a4a4 ,,preparations4 ,,instruments4 ,,departure ,,from ,,spain4 ,,landing ,,at ,,the ,,canary ,,islands4 ,from my earliest youth ,i felt an ardent desire to travel into distant regions1 seldom visited by ,europeans4 ,this desire is characteristic of a period of our existence when appears an unlimited horizon1 and when we find an irresistible attraction in the impetuous agitations of the mind1 and the image of positive danger4 ,though educated in a country which has no direct communication with either the ,east or the ,west ,indies1 living amidst mountains remote from coasts1 and celebrated for their numerous mines1 ,i felt an increasing passion for the sea and distant expeditions4 ,objects with which we are acquainted only by the animated narratives of travellers have a peculiar charm2 imagination wanders with delight over that which is vague and undefined2 and the pleasures we are deprived of seem to possess a fascinating power1 compared with which all we daily feel in the narrow circle of sedentary life appears insipid4 ,the taste for herborisation1 the study of geology1 rapid excursions to ,holland1 ,england1 and ,france1 with the celebrated ,mr4 ,george ,forster1 who had the happiness to accompany captain ,cook in his second expedition round the globe1 contributed to give a determined direction to the plan of travels which ,i had formed at eighteen years of age4 ,no longer deluded by the agitation of a wandering life1 ,i was anxious to contemplate nature in all her variety of wild and stupendous scenery2 and the hope of collecting some facts useful to the advancement of science1 incessantly impelled my wishes towards the luxuriant regions of the torrid zone4 ,as personal circumstances then prevented me from executing the projects by which ,i was so powerfully influenced1 ,i had leisure to prepare myself during six years for the observations ,i proposed to make on the ,new ,continent1 as well as to visit different parts of ,europe1 and to explore the lofty chain of the ,alps1 the structure of which ,i might afterwards compare with that of the ,andes of ,quito and of ,peru4 ,i had traversed a part of ,italy in #agie1 but had not been able to visit the volcanic regions of ,naples and ,sicily2 and ,i regretted leaving ,europe without having seen ,vesuvius1 ,stromboli1 and ,etna4 ,i felt1 that in order to form a proper judgment of many geological phenomena1 especially of the nature of the rocks of trap-formation1 it was necessary to examine the phenomena presented by burning volcanoes4 ,i determined therefore to return to ,italy in the month of ,november1 #agig4 ,i made a long stay at ,vienna1 where the fine collections of exotic plants1 and the friendship of ,messrs4 de ,jacquin1 and ,joseph van der ,schott1 were highly useful to my preparatory studies4 ,i travelled with ,m4 ,leopold von ,buch1 through several cantons of ,salzburg and ,styria1 countries alike interesting to the landscape-painter and the geologist2 but just when ,i was about to cross the ,tyrolese ,alps1 the war then raging in ,italy obliged me to abandon the project of going to ,naples4 ,a short time before1 a gentleman passionately fond of the fine arts1 and who had visited the coasts of ,greece and ,illyria to inspect their monuments1 made me a proposal to accompany him in an expedition to ,upper ,egypt4 ,this expedition was to occupy only eight months4 ,provided with astronomical instruments and able draughtsmen1 we were to ascend the ,nile as far as ,assouan1 after minutely examining the positions of the ,said1 between ,tentyris and the cataracts4 ,though my views had not hitherto been fixed on any region but the tropics1 ,i could not resist the temptation of visiting countries so celebrated in the annals of human civilization4 ,i therefore accepted this proposition1 but with the express condition1 that on our return to ,alexandria ,i should be at liberty to continue my journey through ,syria and ,palestine4 ,the studies which ,i entered upon with a view to this new project1 ,i afterwards found useful1 when ,i examined the relations between the barbarous monuments of ,mexico1 and those belonging to the nations of the old world4 ,i thought myself on the point of embarking for ,egypt1 when political events forced me to abandon a plan which promised me so much satisfaction4 ,an expedition of discovery in the ,south ,sea1 under the direction of captain ,baudin1 was then preparing in ,france4 ,the plan was great1 bold1 and worthy of being executed by a more enlightened commander4 ,the purpose of this expedition was to visit the ,spanish possessions of ,south ,america1 from the mouth of the river ,plata to the kingdom of ,quito and the isthmus of ,panama4 ,after visiting the archipelago of the ,pacific1 and exploring the coasts of ,new ,holland1 from ,van ,diemen's ,land to that of ,nuyts1 both vessels were to stop at ,madagascar1 and return by the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,i was in ,paris when the preparations for this voyage were begun4 ,i had but little confidence in the personal character of captain ,baudin1 who had given cause of discontent to the court of ,vienna1 when he was commissioned to conduct to ,brazil one of my friends1 the young botanist1 ,van der ,schott2 but as ,i could not hope1 with my own resources1 to make a voyage of such extent1 and view so fine a portion of the globe1 ,i determined to take the chances of this expedition4 ,i obtained permission to embark1 with the instruments ,i had collected1 in one of the vessels destined for the ,south ,sea1 and ,i reserved to myself the liberty of leaving captain ,baudin whenever ,i thought proper4 ,m4 ,michaux1 who had already visited ,persia and a part of ,north ,america1 and ,m4 ,bonpland1 with whom ,i then formed the friendship that still unites us1 were appointed to accompany this expedition as naturalists4 ,i had flattered myself during several months with the idea of sharing the labours directed to so great and honourable an object when the war which broke out in ,germany and ,italy1 determined the ,french government to withdraw the funds granted for their voyage of discovery1 and adjourn it to an indefinite period4 ,deeply mortified at finding the plans ,i had formed during many years of my life overthrown in a single day1 ,i sought at any risk the speediest means of quitting ,europe1 and engaging in some enterprise which might console me for my disappointment4 ,i became acquainted with a ,swedish consul1 named ,skioldebrand1 who having been appointed by his court to carry presents to the dey of ,algiers1 was passing through ,paris1 to embark at ,marseilles4 ,this estimable man had resided a long time on the coast of ,africa2 and being highly respected by the government of ,algiers1 he could easily procure me permission to visit that part of the chain of the ,atlas which had not been the object of the important researches of ,m4 ,desfontaines4 ,he despatched every year a vessel for ,tunis1 where the pilgrims embarked for ,mecca1 and he promised to convey me by the same medium to ,egypt4 ,i eagerly seized so favourable an opportunity1 and thought myself on the point of executing a plan which ,i had formed previously to my arrival in ,france4 ,no mineralogist had yet examined that lofty chain of mountains which1 in the empire of ,morocco1 rises to the limits of the perpetual snow4 ,i flattered myself1 that1 after executing some operations in the alpine regions of ,barbary1 ,i should receive in ,egypt from those illustrious men who had for some months formed the ,institute of ,cairo1 the same kind attentions with which ,i had been honoured during my abode in ,paris4 ,i hastily completed my collection of instruments1 and purchased works relating to the countries ,i was going to visit4 ,i parted from a brother who1 by his advice and example1 had hitherto exercised a great influence on the direction of my thoughts4 ,he approved the motives which determined me to quit ,europe2 a secret voice assured us that we should meet again2 and that hope1 which did not prove delusive1 assuaged the pain of a long separation4 ,i left ,paris with the intention of embarking for ,algiers and ,egypt2 but by one of those vicissitudes which sway the affairs of this life1 ,i returned to my brother from the river ,amazon and ,peru1 without having touched the continent of ,africa4 ,the ,swedish frigate which was to convey ,m4 ,skioldebrand to ,algiers1 was expected at ,marseilles toward the end of ,october4 ,m4 ,bonpland and myself repaired thither with great celerity1 for during our journey we were tormented with the fear of being too late1 and missing our passage4 ,m4 ,skioldebrand was no less impatient than ourselves to reach his place of destination4 ,several times a day we climbed the mountain of ,notre ,dame de la ,garde1 which commands an extensive view of the ,mediterranean4 ,every sail we descried in the horizon excited in us the most eager emotion2 but after two months of anxiety and vain expectation1 we learned by the public papers1 that the ,swedish frigate which was to convey us1 had suffered greatly in a storm on the coast of ,portugal1 and had been forced to enter the port of ,cadiz1 to refit4 ,this news was confirmed by private letters1 assuring us that the ,jaramas1 which was the name of the frigate1 would not reach ,marseilles before the spring4 ,we felt no inclination to prolong our stay in ,provence till that period4 ,the country1 and especially the climate1 were delightful1 but the aspect of the sea reminded us of the failure of our projects4 ,in an excursion we made to ,hyeres and ,toulon1 we found in the latter port the frigate la ,boudeuse1 which had been commanded by ,m4 de ,bougainville1 in his voyage round the world4 ,she was then fitting out for ,corsica4 ,m4 de ,bougainville had honoured me with particular kindness during my stay in ,paris1 when ,i was preparing to accompany the expedition of captain ,baudin4 ,i cannot describe the impression made upon my mind by the sight of the vessel which had carried ,commerson to the islands of the ,south ,sea4 ,in some conditions of the mind1 a painful emotion blends itself with all our feelings4 ,we still persisted in the intention of visiting the ,african coast1 and were nearly becoming the victims of our perseverance4 ,a small vessel of ,ragusa1 on the point of setting sail for ,tunis1 was at that time in the port of ,marseilles2 we thought the opportunity favourable for reaching ,egypt and ,syria1 and we agreed with the captain for our passage4 ,the vessel was to sail the following day2 but a circumstance trivial in itself happily prevented our departure4 ,the live-stock intended to serve us for food during our passage1 was kept in the great cabin4 ,we desired that some changes should be made1 which were indispensable for the safety of our instruments2 and during this interval we learnt at ,marseilles1 that the government of ,tunis persecuted the ,french residing in ,barbary1 and that every person coming from a ,french port was thrown into a dungeon4 ,having escaped this imminent danger1 we were compelled to suspend the execution of our projects4 ,we resolved to pass the winter in ,spain1 in hopes of embarking the next spring1 either at ,carthagena1 or at ,cadiz1 if the political situation of the ,east permitted4 ,we crossed ,catalonia and the kingdom of ,valencia1 on our way to ,madrid4 ,we visited the ruins of ,tarragona and those of ancient ,saguntum2 and from ,barcelona we made an excursion to ,montserrat1 the lofty peaks of which are inhabited by hermits1 and where the contrast between luxuriant vegetation and masses of naked and arid rocks1 forms a landscape of a peculiar character4 ,i employed myself in ascertaining by astronomical observations the position of several points important for the geography of ,spain1 and determined by means of the barometer the height of the central plain4 ,i likewise made several observations on the inclination of the needle1 and on the intensity of the magnetic forces4 ,on my arrival at ,madrid ,i had reason to congratulate myself on the resolution ,i had formed of visiting the ,peninsula4 ,baron de ,forell1 minister from the court of ,saxony1 treated me with a degree of kindness1 of which ,i soon felt the value4 ,he was well versed in mineralogy1 and was full of zeal for every undertaking that promoted the progress of knowledge4 ,he observed to me1 that under the administration of an enlightened minister1 ,don ,mariano ,luis de ,urquijo1 ,i might hope to obtain permission to visit1 at my own expense1 the interior of ,spanish ,america4 ,after the disappointments ,i had suffered1 ,i did not hesitate a moment to adopt this idea4 ,i was presented at the court of ,aranjuez in ,march #agii and the king received me graciously4 ,i explained to him the motives which led me to undertake a voyage to the new world and the ,philippine ,islands1 and ,i presented a memoir on the subject to the secretary of state4 ,senor de ,urquijo supported my demand1 and overcame every obstacle4 ,i obtained two passports1 one from the first secretary of state1 the other from the council of the ,indies4 ,never had so extensive a permission been granted to any traveller1 and never had any foreigner been honoured with more confidence on the part of the ,spanish government4 ,many considerations might have induced us to prolong our abode in ,spain4 ,the abbe ,cavanilles1 no less remarkable for the variety of his attainments than his acute intelligence2 ,m4 ,nee1 who1 together with ,m4 ,haenke1 had1 as botanist1 made part of the expedition of ,malaspina1 and who had formed one of the greatest herbals ever seen in ,europe2 ,don ,casimir ,ortega1 the abbe ,pourret1 and the learned authors of the ,flora of ,peru1 ,messrs4 ,ruiz and ,pavon1 all opened to us without reserve their rich collections4 ,we examined part of the plants of ,mexico1 discovered by ,messrs4 ,sesse1 ,mocino1 and ,cervantes1 whose drawings had been sent to the ,museum of ,natural ,history of ,madrid4 ,this great establishment1 the direction of which was confided to ,senor ,clavijo1 author of an elegant translation of the works of ,buffon1 offered us1 it is true1 no geological representation of the ,cordilleras1 but ,m4 ,proust1 so well known by the great accuracy of his chemical labours1 and a distinguished mineralogist1 ,m4 ,hergen1 gave us curious details on several mineral substances of ,america4 ,it would have been useful to us to have employed a longer time in studying the productions of the countries which were to be the objects of our research1 but our impatience to take advantage of the permission given us by the court was too great to suffer us to delay our departure4 ,for a year past1 ,i had experienced so many disappointments1 that ,i could scarcely persuade myself that my most ardent wishes would be at length fulfilled4 ,we left ,madrid about the middle of ,may1 crossed a part of ,old ,castile1 the kingdoms of ,leon and ,galicia1 and reached ,corunna1 whence we were to embark for ,cuba4 ,the winter having been protracted and severe1 we enjoyed during the journey that mild temperature of the spring1 which in so southern a latitude usually occurs during ,march and ,april4 ,the snow still covered the lofty granitic tops of the ,guadarama2 but in the deep valleys of ,galicia1 which resemble the most picturesque spots of ,switzerland and the ,tyrol1 cistuses loaded with flowers2 and arborescent heaths clothed every rock4 ,we quitted without regret the elevated plain of the two ,castiles1 which is everywhere devoid of vegetation1 and where the severity of the winter's cold is followed by the overwhelming heat of summer4 ,from the few observations ,i personally made1 the interior of ,spain forms a vast plain1 elevated three hundred toises 7five hundred and eighty-four metres7 above the level of the ocean1 is covered with secondary formations1 grit-stone1 gypsum1 sal-gem1 and the calcareous stone of ,jura4 ,the climate of the ,castiles is much colder than that of ,toulon and ,genoa2 its mean temperature scarcely rises to #ae degrees of the centigrade thermometer4 ,we are astonished to find that1 in the latitude of ,calabria1 ,thessaly1 and ,asia ,minor1 orange-trees do not flourish in the open air4 ,the central elevated plain is encircled by a low and narrow zone1 where the chamaerops1 the date-tree1 the sugar-cane1 the banana1 and a number of plants common to ,spain and the north of ,africa1 vegetate on several spots1 without suffering from the rigours of winter4 ,from the #cfth to #djth degrees of latitude1 the medium temperature of this zone is from #ag to #bj degrees2 and by a concurrence of circumstances1 which it would be too long to explain1 this favoured region has become the principal seat of industry and intellectual improvement4 ,when1 in the kingdom of ,valencia1 we ascend from the shore of the ,mediterranean towards the lofty plains of ,la ,mancha and the ,castiles1 we seem to discern1 far inland1 from the lengthened declivities1 the ancient coast of the ,peninsula4 ,this curious phenomenon recalls the traditions of the ,samothracians1 and other historical testimonies1 according to which it is supposed that the irruption of the waters through the ,dardanelles1 augmenting the basin of the ,mediterranean1 rent and overflowed the southern part of ,europe4 ,if we admit that these traditions owe their origin1 not to mere geological reveries1 but to the remembrance of some ancient catastrophe1 we may conceive the central elevated plain of ,spain resisting the efforts of these great inundations1 till the draining of the waters1 by the straits formed between the pillars of ,hercules1 brought the ,mediterranean progressively to its present level1 lower ,egypt emerging above its surface on the one side1 and the fertile plains of ,tarragona1 ,valencia1 and ,murcia1 on the other4 ,everything that relates to the formation of that sea199 799 ,some of the ancient geographers believed that the ,mediterranean1 swelled by the waters of the ,euxine1 the ,palus ,maeotis1 the ,caspian ,sea1 and the ,sea of ,aral1 had broken the pillars of ,hercules2 others admitted that the irruption was made by the waters of the ocean4 ,in the first of these hypotheses1 the height of the land between the ,black ,sea and the ,baltic1 and between the ports of ,cette and ,bordeaux1 determine the limit which the accumulation of the waters may have reached before the junction of the ,black ,sea1 the ,mediterranean1 and the ,atlantic1 as well to the north of the ,dardanelles1 as to the east of this strip of land which formerly joined ,europe to ,mauritania1 and of which1 in the time of ,strabo1 certain vestiges remained in the ,islands of ,juno and the ,moon47 which has had so powerful an influence on the first civilization of mankind1 is highly interesting4 ,we might suppose1 that ,spain1 forming a promontory amidst the waves1 was indebted for its preservation to the height of its land2 but in order to give weight to these theoretic ideas1 we must clear up the doubts that have arisen respecting the rupture of so many transverse dikes2--we must discuss the probability of the ,mediterranean having been formerly divided into several separate basins1 of which ,sicily and the island of ,candia appear to mark the ancient limits4 ,we will not here risk the solution of these problems1 but will satisfy ourselves in fixing attention on the striking contrast in the configuration of the land in the eastern and western extremities of ,europe4 ,between the ,baltic and the ,black ,sea1 the ground is at present scarcely fifty toises above the level of the ocean1 while the plain of ,la ,mancha1 if placed between the sources of the ,niemen and the ,borysthenes1 would figure as a group of mountains of considerable height4 ,if the causes1 which may have changed the surface of our planet1 be an interesting speculation1 investigations of the phenomena1 such as they offer themselves to the measures and observations of the naturalist1 lead to far greater certainty4 ,from ,astorga to ,corunna1 especially from ,lugo1 the mountains rise gradually4 ,the secondary formations gently disappear1 and are succeeded by the transition rocks1 which indicate the proximity of primitive strata4 ,we found considerable mountains composed of that ancient grey stone which the mineralogists of the school of ,freyberg name grauwakke1 and grauwakkenschiefer4 ,i do not know whether this formation1 which is not frequent in the south of ,europe1 has hitherto been discovered in other parts of ,spain4 ,angular fragments of ,lydian stone1 scattered along the valleys1 seemed to indicate that the transition schist is the basis of the strata of greywacke4 ,near ,corunna even granitic ridges stretch as far as ,cape ,ortegal4 ,these granites1 which seem formerly to have been contiguous to those of ,britanny and ,cornwall1 are perhaps the wrecks of a chain of mountains destroyed and sunk in the waves4 ,large and beautiful crystals of feldspar characterise this rock4 ,common tin ore is sometimes discovered there1 but working the mines is a laborious and unprofitable operation for the inhabitants of ,galicia4 ,the first secretary of state had recommended us very particularly to brigadier ,don ,raphael ,clavijo1 who was employed in forming new dock-yards at ,corunna4 ,he advised us to embark on board the sloop ,pizarro199 799 ,according to the ,spanish nomenclature1 the ,pizarro was a light frigate 7fragata lijera747 which was to sail in company with the ,alcudia1 the packet-boat of the month of ,may1 which1 on account of the blockade1 had been detained three weeks in the port4 ,senor ,clavijo ordered the necessary arrangements to be made on board the sloop for placing our instruments1 and the captain of the ,pizarro received orders to stop at ,teneriffe1 as long as we should judge necessary to enable us to visit the port of ,orotava1 and ascend the peak4 ,we had yet ten days to wait before we embarked4 ,during this interval1 we employed ourselves in preparing the plants we had collected in the beautiful valleys of ,galicia1 which no naturalist had yet visited3 we examined the fuci and the mollusca which the north-west winds had cast with great profusion at the foot of the steep rock1 on which the lighthouse of the ,tower of ,hercules is built4 ,this edifice1 called also the ,iron ,tower1 was repaired in #aghh4 ,it is ninety-two feet high1 its walls are four feet and a half thick1 and its construction clearly proves that it was built by the ,romans4 ,an inscription discovered near its foundation1 a copy of which ,m4 ,laborde obligingly gave me1 informs us1 that this pharos was constructed by ,caius ,sevius ,lupus1 architect of the city of ,aqua ,flavia 7,chaves71 and that it was dedicated to ,mars4 ,why is the ,iron ,tower called in the country by the name of ,hercules8 ,was it built by the ,romans on the ruins of a ,greek or ,phoenician edifice8 ,strabo1 indeed1 affirms that ,galicia1 the country of the ,callaeci1 had been peopled by ,greek colonies4 ,according to an extract from the geography of ,spain1 by ,asclepiades the ,myrlaean1 an ancient tradition stated that the companions of ,hercules had settled in these countries4 ,the ports of ,ferrol and ,corunna both communicate with one bay1 so that a vessel driven by bad weather towards the coast may anchor in either1 according to the wind4 ,this advantage is invaluable where the sea is almost always tempestuous1 as between capes ,ortegal and ,finisterre1 which are the promontories ,trileucum and ,artabrum of ancient geography4 ,a narrow passage1 flanked by perpendicular rocks of granite1 leads to the extensive basin of ,ferrol4 ,no port in ,europe has so extraordinary an anchorage1 from its very inland position4 ,the narrow and tortuous passage by which vessels enter this port1 has been opened1 either by the irruption of the waves1 or by the reiterated shocks of very violent earthquakes4 ,in the ,new ,world1 on the coasts of ,new ,andalusia1 the ,laguna del ,obispo 7,bishop's lake7 is formed exactly like the port of ,ferrol4 ,the most curious geological phenomena are often repeated at immense distances on the surface of continents2 and naturalists who have examined different parts of the globe1 are struck with the extreme resemblance observed in the rents on coasts1 in the sinuosities of the valleys1 in the aspect of the mountains1 and in their distribution by groups4 ,the accidental concurrence of the same causes must have everywhere produced the same effects2 and amidst the variety of nature1 an analogy of structure and form is observed in the arrangement of inanimate matter1 as well as in the internal organization of plants and of animals4 ,crossing from ,corunna to ,ferrol1 over a shallow1 near the ,white ,signal1 in the bay1 which according to ,d',anville is the ,portus ,magnus of the ancients1 we made several experiments by means of a valved thermometrical sounding lead1 on the temperature of the ocean1 and on the decrement of caloric in the successive strata of water4 ,the thermometer on the bank1 and near the surface1 was from #ab4e to #ac4c degrees centigrades1 while in deep water it constantly marked #ae or #ae4c degrees1 the air being at #ab4h degrees4 ,the celebrated ,franklin and ,mr4 ,jonathan ,williams99 799 ,author of a work entitled ,thermometrical ,navigation1 published at ,philadelphia47 were the first to invite the attention of naturalists to the phenomena of the temperature of the ,atlantic over shoals1 and in that zone of tepid and flowing waters which runs from the gulf of ,mexico to the banks of ,newfoundland and the northern coasts of ,europe4 ,the observation1 that the proximity of a sand-bank is indicated by a rapid descent of the temperature of the sea at its surface1 is not only interesting to the naturalist1 but may become also very important for the safety of navigators4 ,the use of the thermometer ought certainly not to lead us to neglect the use of the lead2 but experiments sufficiently prove1 that variations of temperature1 sensible to the most imperfect instruments1 indicate danger long before the vessel reaches the shoals4 ,in such cases1 the frigidity of the water may induce the pilot to heave the lead in places where he thought himself in the most perfect safety4 ,the waters which cover the shoals owe in a great measure the diminution of their temperature to their mixture with the lower strata of water1 which rise towards the surface on the edge of the banks4 ,the moment of leaving ,europe for the first time is attended with a solemn feeling4 ,we in vain summon to our minds the frequency of the communication between the two worlds2 we in vain reflect on the great facility with which1 from the improved state of navigation1 we traverse the ,atlantic1 which compared to the ,pacific is but a larger arm of the sea2 the sentiment we feel when we first undertake so distant a voyage is not the less accompanied by a deep emotion1 unlike any other impression we have hitherto felt4 ,separated from the objects of our dearest affections1 entering in some sort on a new state of existence1 we are forced to fall back on our own thoughts1 and we feel within ourselves a dreariness we have never known before4 ,among the letters which1 at the time of our embarking1 ,i wrote to friends in ,france and ,germany1 one had a considerable influence on the direction of our travels1 and on our succeeding operations4 ,when ,i left ,paris with the intention of visiting the coast of ,africa1 the expedition for discoveries in the ,pacific seemed to be adjourned for several years4 ,i had agreed with captain ,baudin1 that if1 contrary to his expectation1 his voyage took place at an earlier period1 and intelligence of it should reach me in time1 ,i would endeavour to return from ,algiers to a port in ,france or ,spain1 to join the expedition4 ,i renewed this promise on leaving ,europe1 and wrote to ,m4 ,baudin1 that if the government persisted in sending him by ,cape ,horn1 ,i would endeavour to meet him either at ,monte ,video1 ,chile1 or ,lima1 or wherever he should touch in the ,spanish colonies4 ,in consequence of this engagement1 ,i changed the plan of my journey1 on reading in the ,american papers1 in #ahja1 that the ,french expedition had sailed from ,havre1 to circumnavigate the globe from east to west4 ,i hired a small vessel from ,batabano1 in the island of ,cuba1 to ,portobello1 and thence crossed the isthmus to the coast of the ,pacific2 this mistake of a journalist led ,m4 ,bonpland and myself to travel eight hundred leagues through a country we had no intention to visit4 ,it was only at ,quito1 that a letter from ,m4 ,delambre1 perpetual secretary of the first class of the ,institute1 informed us1 that captain ,baudin went by the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 without touching on the eastern or western coasts of ,america4 ,we spent two days at ,corunna1 after our instruments were embarked4 ,a thick fog1 which covered the horizon1 at length indicated the change of weather we so anxiously desired4 ,on the #dth of ,june1 in the evening1 the wind turned to north-east1 a point which1 on the coast of ,galicia1 is considered very constant during the summer4 ,the ,pizarro prepared to sail on the #eth1 though we had intelligence that only a few hours previously an ,english squadron had been seen from the watch-tower of ,sisarga1 appearing to stand towards the mouth of the ,tagus4 ,those who saw our ship weigh anchor asserted that we should be captured in three days1 and that1 forced to follow the fate of the vessel1 we should be carried to ,lisbon4 ,this prognostic gave us the more uneasiness1 as we had known some ,mexicans at ,madrid1 who1 in order to return to ,vera ,cruz1 had embarked three times at ,cadiz1 and having been each time taken at the entrance of the port1 were at length obliged to return to ,spain through ,portugal4 ,the ,pizarro set sail at two in the afternoon4 ,as the long and narrow passage by which a ship sails from the port of ,corunna opens towards the north1 and the wind was contrary1 we made eight short tacks1 three of which were useless4 ,a fresh tack was made1 but very slowly1 and we were for some moments in danger at the foot of fort ,st4 ,amarro1 the current having driven us very near the rock1 on which the sea breaks with considerable violence4 ,we remained with our eyes fixed on the castle of ,st4 ,antonio1 where the unfortunate ,malaspina was then a captive in a state prison4 ,on the point of leaving ,europe to visit the countries which this illustrious traveller had visited with so much advantage1 ,i could have wished to have fixed my thoughts on some object less affecting4 ,at half-past six we passed the ,tower of ,hercules1 which is the lighthouse of ,corunna1 as already mentioned1 and where1 from a very remote time1 a coal-fire has been kept up for the direction of vessels4 ,the light of this fire is in no way proportionate to the noble construction of so vast an edifice1 being so feeble that ships cannot perceive it till they are in danger of striking on the shore4 ,towards the close of day the wind increased and the sea ran high4 ,we directed our course to north-west1 in order to avoid the ,english frigates1 which we supposed were cruising off these coasts4 ,about nine we spied the light of a fishing-hut at ,sisarga1 which was the last object we beheld in the west of ,europe4 ,on the #gth we were in the latitude of ,cape ,finisterre4 ,the group of granitic rocks1 which forms part of this promontory1 like that of ,torianes and ,monte de ,corcubion1 bears the name of the ,sierra de ,torinona4 ,cape ,finisterre is lower than the neighbouring lands1 but the ,torinona is visible at seventeen leagues' distance1 which proves that the elevation of its highest summit is not less than #cjj toises 7#ehb metres74 ,spanish navigators affirm that on these coasts the magnetic variation differs extremely from that observed at sea4 ,m4 ,bory1 it is true1 in the voyage of the sloop ,amaranth1 found in #agea1 that the variation of the needle determined at the ,cape was four degrees less than could have been conjectured from the observations made at the same period along the coasts4 ,in the same manner as the granite of ,galicia contains tin disseminated in its mass1 that of ,cape ,finisterre probably contains micaceous iron4 ,in the mountains of the ,upper ,palatinate there are granitic rocks in which crystals of micaceous iron take the place of common mica4 ,on the #hth1 at sunset1 we descried from the mast-head an ,english convoy sailing along the coast1 and steering towards south-east4 ,in order to avoid it we altered our course during the night4 ,from this moment no light was permitted in the great cabin1 to prevent our being seen at a distance4 ,this precaution1 which was at the time prescribed in the regulations of the packet-ships of the ,spanish navy1 was extremely irksome to us during the voyages we made in the course of the five following years4 ,we were constantly obliged to make use of dark-lanterns to examine the temperature of the water1 or to read the divisions on the limb of the astronomical instruments4 ,in the torrid zone1 where twilight lasts but a few minutes1 our operations ceased almost at six in the evening4 ,this state of things was so much the more vexatious to me as from the nature of my constitution ,i never was subject to sea-sickness1 and feel an extreme ardour for study during the whole time ,i am at sea4 ,on the #ith of ,june1 in latitude #ci degrees #ej minutes1 and longitude #af degrees #aj minutes west of the meridian of the observatory of ,paris1 we began to feel the effects of the great current which from the ,azores flows towards the straits of ,gibraltar and the ,canary ,islands4 ,this current is commonly attributed to that tendency towards the east1 which the straits of ,gibraltar give to the waters of the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,m4 de ,fleurieu observes that the ,mediterranean1 losing by evaporation more water than the rivers can supply1 causes a movement in the neighbouring ocean1 and that the influence of the straits is felt at the distance of six hundred leagues4 ,without derogating from the respect ,i entertain for the opinion of that celebrated navigator1 ,i may be permitted to consider this important object in a far more general point of view4 ,when we cast our eyes over the ,atlantic1 or that deep valley which divides the western coasts of ,europe and ,africa from the eastern coasts of the new world1 we distinguish a contrary direction in the motion of the waters4 ,within the tropics1 especially from the coast of ,senegal to the ,caribbean ,sea1 the general current1 that which was earliest known to mariners1 flows constantly from east to west4 ,this is called the equinoctial current4 ,its mean rapidity1 corresponding to different latitudes1 is nearly the same in the ,atlantic and in the ,pacific1 and may be estimated at nine or ten miles in twenty-four hours1 consequently from #j4ei to #j4fe of a foot every second6 ,in those latitudes the waters run towards the west with a velocity equal to a fourth of the rapidity of the greater part of the larger rivers of ,europe4 ,the movement of the ocean in a direction contrary to that of the rotation of the globe1 is probably connected with this last phenomenon only as far as the rotation converts into trade winds99 799 ,the limits of the trade winds were1 for the first time1 determined by ,dampier in #afff47 the polar winds1 which1 in the low regions of the atmosphere bring back the cold air of the high latitudes toward the equator4 ,to the general impulsion which these trade-winds give the surface of the sea1 we must attribute the equinoctial current1 the force and rapidity of which are not sensibly modified by the local variations of the atmosphere4 ,in the channel which the ,atlantic has dug between ,guiana and ,guinea1 on the meridian of #bj or #bc degrees1 and from the #hth or #ith to the #bnd or #crd degrees of northern latitude1 where the trade-winds are often interrupted by winds blowing from the south and south-south-west1 the equinoctial current is more inconstant in its direction4 ,towards the coasts of ,africa1 vessels are drawn in the direction of south-east2 whilst towards the ,bay of ,all ,saints and ,cape ,st4 ,augustin1 the coasts of which are dreaded by navigators sailing towards the mouth of the ,plata1 the general motion of the waters is masked by a particular current 7the effects of which extend from ,cape ,st4 ,roche to the ,isle of ,trinidad7 running north-west with a mean velocity of a foot and a half every second4 ,the equinoctial current is felt1 though feebly1 even beyond the tropic of ,cancer1 in the #bfth and #bhth degrees of latitude4 ,in the vast basin of the ,atlantic1 at six or seven hundred leagues from the coasts of ,africa1 vessels from ,europe bound to the ,west ,indies1 find their sailing accelerated before they reach the torrid zone4 ,more to the north1 in #bh and #ce degrees1 between the parallels of ,teneriffe and ,ceuta1 in #df and #dh degrees of longitude1 no constant motion is observed3 there1 a zone of #adj leagues in breadth separates the equinoctial current 7the tendency of which is towards the west7 from that great mass of water which runs eastward1 and is distinguished for its extraordinary high temperature4 ,to this mass of waters1 known by the name of the ,gulf-stream199 799 ,sir ,francis ,drake observed this extraordinary movement of the waters1 but he was unacquainted with their high temperature47 the attention of naturalists was directed in #aggf by the curious observations of ,franklin and ,sir ,charles ,blagden4 ,the equinoctial current drives the waters of the ,atlantic towards the coasts inhabited by the ,mosquito ,indians1 and towards the shores of ,honduras4 ,the ,new ,continent1 stretching from south to north1 forms a sort of dyke to this current4 ,the waters are carried at first north-west1 and passing into the ,gulf of ,mexico through the strait formed by ,cape ,catoche and ,cape ,st4 ,antonio1 follow the bendings of the ,mexican coast1 from ,vera ,cruz to the mouth of the ,rio del ,norte1 and thence to the mouths of the ,mississippi1 and the shoals west of the southern extremity of ,florida4 ,having made this vast circuit west1 north1 east1 and south1 the current takes a new direction northward1 and throws itself with impetuosity into the ,gulf of ,florida4 ,at the end of the ,gulf of ,florida1 in the parallel of ,cape ,cannaveral1 the ,gulf-stream1 or current of ,florida1 runs north-east4 ,its rapidity resembles that of a torrent1 and is sometimes five miles an hour4 ,the pilot may judge1 with some certainty1 of the proximity of his approach to ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia1 or ,charlestown when he reaches the edge of the stream2 for the elevated temperature of the waters1 their saltness1 indigo-blue colour1 and the shoals of seaweed which cover their surface1 as well as the heat of the surrounding atmosphere1 all indicate the ,gulf-stream4 ,its rapidity diminishes towards the north1 at the same time that its breadth increases and the waters become cool4 ,between ,cayo ,biscaino and the bank of ,bahama the breadth is only #ae leagues1 whilst in the latitude of #bh #a_/b degrees1 it is #ag1 and in the parallel of ,charlestown1 opposite ,cape ,henlopen1 from #dj to #ej leagues4 ,the rapidity of the current is from three to five miles an hour where the stream is narrowest1 and is only one mile as it advances towards the north4 ,the waters of the ,mexican ,gulf2 forcibly drawn to north-east1 preserve their warm temperature to such a point1 that in #dj and #da degrees of latitude ,i found them at #bb4e degrees 7#ah degrees ,r47 when1 out of the current1 the heat of the ocean at its surface was scarcely #ag4e degrees 7#ad degrees ,r474 ,in the parallel of ,new ,york and ,oporto1 the temperature of the ,gulf-stream is consequently equal to that of the seas of the tropics in the #ahth degree of latitude1 as1 for instance1 in the parallel of ,porto ,rico and the islands of ,cape ,verd4 ,to the east of the port of ,boston1 and on the meridian of ,halifax1 in latitude #da degrees #be minutes1 and longitude #fg degrees1 the current is near #hj leagues broad4 ,from this point it turns suddenly to the east1 so that its western edge1 as it bends1 becomes the western limit of the running waters1 skirting the extremity of the great bank of ,newfoundland1 which ,m4 ,volney ingeniously calls the bar of the mouth of this enormous sea-river4 ,the cold waters of this bank1 which according to my experiments are at a temperature of #h4g or #aj degrees 7#g or #h degrees ,r47 present a striking contrast with the waters of the torrid zone1 driven northward by the ,gulf-stream1 the temperature of which is from #ba to #bb4e degrees 7#ag to #ah degrees ,r474 in these latitudes1 the caloric is distributed in a singular manner throughout the ocean2 the waters of the bank are #i4d degrees colder than the neighbouring sea2 and this sea is #c degrees colder than the current4 ,these zones can have no equilibrium of temperature1 having a source of heat1 or a cause of refrigeration1 which is peculiar to each1 and the influence of which is permanent4 ,from the bank of ,newfoundland1 or from the #ebnd degree of longitude to the ,azores1 the ,gulf-stream continues its course to east and east-south-east4 ,the waters are still acted upon by the impulsion they received near a thousand leagues distance1 in the straits of ,florida1 between the island of ,cuba and the shoals of ,tortoise ,island4 ,this distance is double the length of the course of the river ,amazon1 from ,jaen or the straits of ,manseriche to ,grand ,para4 ,on the meridian of the islands of ,corvo and ,flores1 the most western of the group of the ,azores1 the breadth of the current is #afj leagues4 ,when vessels1 on their return from ,south ,america to ,europe1 endeavour to make these two islands to rectify their longitude1 they are always sensible of the motion of the waters to south-east4 ,at the #ccrd degree of latitude the equinoctial current of the tropics is in the near vicinity of the ,gulf-stream4 ,in this part of the ocean1 we may in a single day pass from waters that flow towards the west1 into those which run to the south-east or east-south-east4 ,from the ,azores1 the current of ,florida turns towards the straits of ,gibraltar1 the isle of ,madeira1 and the group of the ,canary ,islands4 ,the opening of the ,pillars of ,hercules has no doubt accelerated the motion of the waters towards the east4 ,we may in this point of view assert1 that the strait1 by which the ,mediterranean communicates with the ,atlantic1 produces its effects at a great distance2 but it is probable also1 that1 without the existence of this strait1 vessels sailing to ,teneriffe would be driven south-east by a cause which we must seek on the coasts of the ,new ,world4 ,every motion is the cause of another motion in the vast basin of the seas as well as in the aerial ocean4 ,tracing the currents to their most distant sources1 and reflecting on their variable celerity1 sometimes decreasing as between the gulf of ,florida and the bank of ,newfoundland2 at other times augmenting1 as in the neighbourhood of the straits of ,gibraltar1 and near the ,canary ,islands1 we cannot doubt but the same cause which impels the waters to make the circuitous sweep of the gulf of ,mexico1 agitates them also near the island of ,madeira4 ,on the south of that island1 we may follow the current1 in its direction south-east and south-south-east towards the coast of ,africa1 between ,cape ,cantin and ,cape ,bojador4 ,in those latitudes a vessel becalmed is running on the coast1 while1 according to the uncorrected reckoning1 it was supposed to be a good distance out at sea4 ,were the motion of the waters caused by the opening at the straits of ,gibraltar1 why1 on the south of those straits1 should it not follow an opposite direction8 ,on the contrary1 in the #beth and #bfth degrees of latitude1 the current flows at first direct south1 and then south-west4 ,cape ,blanc1 which1 after ,cape ,verd1 is the most salient promontory1 seems to have an influence on this direction1 and in this parallel the waters1 of which we have followed the course from the coasts of ,honduras to those of ,africa1 mingle with the great current of the tropics to resume their tour from east to west4 ,several hundred leagues westward of the ,canary ,islands1 the motion peculiar to the equinoctial waters is felt in the temperate zone from the #bhth and #bith degrees of north latitude2 but on the meridian of the island of ,ferro1 vessels sail southward as far as the tropic of ,cancer1 before they find themselves1 by their reckoning1 eastward of their right course499 799 ,see ,humboldt's ,cosmos volume #a page #cab ,bohn's edition47 ,we have just seen that between the parallels of #aa and #dc degrees1 the waters of the ,atlantic are driven by the currents in a continual whirlpool4 ,supposing that a molecule of water returns to the same place from which it departed1 we can estimate1 from our present knowledge of the swiftness of currents1 that this circuit of #chjj leagues is not terminated in less than two years and ten months4 ,a boat1 which may be supposed to receive no impulsion from the winds1 would require thirteen months to go from the ,canary ,islands to the coast of ,caracas1 ten months to make the tour of the gulf of ,mexico and reach ,tortoise ,shoals opposite the port of the ,havannah1 while forty or fifty days might be sufficient to carry it from the straits of ,florida to the bank of ,newfoundland4 ,it would be difficult to fix the rapidity of the retrograde current from this bank to the shores of ,africa2 estimating the mean velocity of the waters at seven or eight miles in twenty-four hours1 we may allow ten or eleven months for this last distance4 ,such are the effects of the slow but regular motion which agitates the waters of the ,atlantic4 ,those of the river ,amazon take nearly forty-five days to flow from ,tomependa to ,grand ,para4 ,a short time before my arrival at ,teneriffe1 the sea had left in the road of ,santa ,cruz the trunk of a cedrela odorata covered with the bark4 ,this ,american tree vegetates within the tropics1 or in the neighbouring regions4 ,it had no doubt been torn up on the coast of the continent1 or of that of ,honduras4 ,the nature of the wood1 and the lichens which covered its bark1 bore evidence that this trunk had not belonged to these submarine forests which ancient revolutions of the globe have deposited in the polar regions4 ,if the cedrela1 instead of having been cast on the strand of ,teneriffe1 had been carried farther south1 ,it would probably have made the whole tour of the ,atlantic1 and returned to its native soil with the general current of the tropics4 ,this conjecture is supported by a fact of more ancient date1 recorded in the history of the ,canaries by the abbe ,viera4 ,in #aggj1 a small vessel laden with corn1 and bound from the island of ,lancerota1 to ,santa ,cruz1 in ,teneriffe1 was driven out to sea1 while none of the crew were on board4 ,the motion of the waters from east to west1 carried it to ,america1 where it went on shore at ,la ,guayra1 near ,caracas4 ,whilst the art of navigation was yet in its infancy1 the ,gulf-stream suggested to the mind of ,christopher ,columbus certain indications of the existence of western regions4 ,two corpses1 the features of which indicated a race of unknown men1 were cast ashore on the ,azores1 towards the end of the #aeth century4 ,nearly at the same period1 the brother-in-law of ,columbus1 ,peter ,correa1 governor of ,porto ,santo1 found on the strand of that island pieces of bamboo of extraordinary size1 brought thither by the western currents4 ,the dead bodies and the bamboos attracted the attention of the ,genoese navigator1 who conjectured that both came from a continent situate towards the west4 ,we now know that in the torrid zone the trade-winds and the current of the tropics are in opposition to every motion of the waves in the direction of the earth's rotation4 ,the productions of the new world cannot reach the old but by the very high latitudes1 and in following the direction of the current of ,florida4 ,the fruits of several trees of the ,antilles are often washed ashore on the coasts of the islands of ,ferro and ,gomera4 ,before the discovery of ,america1 the ,canarians considered these fruits as coming from the enchanted isle of ,st4 ,borondon1 which according to the reveries of pilots1 and certain legends1 was situated towards the west in an unknown part of the ocean1 buried1 as was supposed1 in eternal mists4 ,my chief view in tracing a sketch of the currents of the ,atlantic is to prove that the motion of the waters towards the south-east1 from ,cape ,st4 ,vincent to the ,canary ,islands1 is the effect of the general motion to which the surface of the ocean is subjected at its western extremity4 ,we shall give but a very succinct account of the arm of the ,gulf-stream1 which in the #deth and #ejth degrees of latitude1 near the bank called the ,bonnet ,flamand1 runs from south-west to north-east towards the coasts of ,europe4 ,this partial current becomes very strong at those times when the west winds are of long continuance3 and1 like that which flows along the isles of ,ferro and ,gomera1 it deposits every year on the western coasts of ,ireland and ,norway the fruit of trees which belong to the torrid zone of ,america4 ,on the shores of the ,hebrides1 we collect seeds of ,mimosa scandens1 of ,dolichos urens1 of ,guilandina bonduc1 and several other plants of ,jamaica1 the isle of ,cuba1 and of the neighbouring continent4 ,the current carries thither also barrels of ,french wine1 well preserved1 the remains of the cargoes of vessels wrecked in the ,west ,indian seas4 ,to these examples of the distant migration of the vegetable world1 others no less striking may be added4 ,the wreck of an ,english vessel1 the ,tilbury1 burnt near ,jamaica1 was found on the coast of ,scotland4 ,on these same coasts are sometimes found various kinds of tortoises1 that inhabit the waters of the ,antilles4 ,when the western winds are of long duration1 a current is formed in the high latitudes1 which runs directly towards east-south-east1 from the coasts of ,greenland and ,labrador1 as far as the north of ,scotland4 ,wallace relates1 that twice 7in #afhb and #afhd71 ,american savages of the race of the ,esquimaux1 driven out to sea in their leathern canoes1 during a storm1 and left to the guidance of the currents1 reached the ,orkneys4 ,this last example is the more worthy of attention1 as it proves at the same time how1 at a period when the art of navigation was yet in its infancy1 the motion of the waters of the ocean may have contributed to disseminate the different races of men over the face of the globe4 ,in reflecting on the causes of the ,atlantic currents1 we find that they are much more numerous than is generally believed2 for the waters of the sea may be put in motion by an external impulse1 by difference of heat and saltness1 by the periodical melting of the polar ice1 or by the inequality of evaporation1 in different latitudes4 ,sometimes several of these causes concur to one and the same effect1 and sometimes they produce several contrary effects4 ,winds that are light1 but which1 like the trade-winds1 are continually acting on the whole of a zone1 cause a real movement of transition1 which we do not observe in the heaviest tempests1 because these last are circumscribed within a small space4 ,when1 in a great mass of water1 the particles at the surface acquire a different specific gravity1 a superficial current is formed1 which takes its direction towards the point where the water is coldest1 or where it is most saturated with muriate of soda1 sulphate of lime1 and muriate or sulphate of magnesia4 ,in the seas of the tropics we find1 that at great depths the thermometer marks #g or #h centesimal degrees4 ,such is the result of the numerous experiments of commodore ,ellis and of ,m4 ,peron4 ,the temperature of the air in those latitudes being never below #ai or #bj degrees1 it is not at the surface that the waters can have acquired a degree of cold so near the point of congelation1 and of the maximum of the density of water4 ,the existence of this cold stratum in the low latitudes is an evident proof of the existence of an under-current1 which runs from the poles towards the equator3 it also proves that the saline substances which alter the specific gravity of the water1 are distributed in the ocean1 so as not to annihilate the effect produced by the differences of temperature4 ,considering the velocity of the molecules1 which1 on account of the rotatory motion of the globe1 vary with the parallels1 we may be tempted to admit that every current1 in the direction from south to north1 tends at the same time eastward1 while the waters which run from the pole towards the equator1 have a tendency to deviate westward4 ,we may also be led to think that these tendencies diminish to a certain point the speed of the tropical current1 in the same manner as they change the direction of the polar current1 which in ,july and ,august1 is regularly perceived during the melting of the ice1 on the parallel of the bank of ,newfoundland1 and farther north4 ,very old nautical observations1 which ,i have had occasion to confirm by comparing the longitude given by the chronometer with that which the pilots obtained by their reckoning1 are1 however1 contrary to these theoretical ideas4 ,in both hemispheres1 the polar currents1 when they are perceived1 decline a little to the east2 and it would seem that the cause of this phenomenon should be sought in the constancy of the westerly winds which prevail in the high latitudes4 ,besides1 the particles of water do not move with the same rapidity as the particles of air2 and the currents of the ocean1 which we consider as most rapid1 have only a swiftness of eight or nine feet a second2 it is consequently very probable1 that the water1 in passing through different parallels1 gradually acquires a velocity correspondent to those parallels1 and that the rotation of the earth does not change the direction of the currents4 ,the variable pressure on the surface of the sea1 caused by the changes in the weight of the air1 is another cause of motion which deserves particular attention4 ,it is well known1 that the barometric variations do not in general take place at the same moment in two distant points1 which are on the same level4 ,if in one of these points the barometer stands a few lines lower than in the other1 the water will rise where it finds the least pressure of air1 and this local intumescence will continue1 till1 from the effect of the wind1 the equilibrium of the air is restored4 ,m4 ,vaucher thinks that the tides in the lake of ,geneva1 known by the name of the seiches1 arise from the same cause4 ,we know not whether it be the same1 when the movement of progression1 which must not be confounded with the oscillation of the waves1 is the effect of an external impulse4 ,m4 de ,fleurieu1 in his narrative of the voyage of the ,isis1 cites several facts1 which render it probable that the sea is not so still at the bottom as naturalists generally suppose4 ,without entering here into a discussion of this question1 we shall only observe that1 if the external impulse is constant in its action1 like that of the trade-winds1 the friction of the particles of water on each other must necessarily propagate the motion of the surface of the ocean even to the lower strata2 and in fact this propagation in the ,gulf-stream has long been admitted by navigators1 who think they discover the effects in the great depth of the sea wherever it is traversed by the current of ,florida1 even amidst the sand-banks which surround the northern coasts of the ,united ,states4 ,this immense river of hot waters1 after a course of fifty days1 from the #bdth to the #deth degree of latitude1 or #dej leagues1 does not lose1 amidst the rigours of winter in the temperate zone1 more than #c or #d degrees of the temperature it had under the tropics4 ,the greatness of the mass1 and the small conductibility of water for heat1 prevent a more speedy refrigeration4 ,if1 therefore1 the ,gulf-stream has dug a channel at the bottom of the ,atlantic ocean1 and if its waters are in motion to considerable depths1 they must also in their inferior strata keep up a lower temperature than that observed in the same parallel1 in a part of the sea which has neither currents nor deep shoals4 ,these questions can be cleared up only by direct experiments1 made by thermometrical soundings4 ,sir ,erasmus ,gower remarks1 that1 in the passage from ,england to the ,canary islands1 the current1 which carries vessels towards the south-east1 begins at the #cith degree of latitude4 ,during our voyage from ,corunna to the coast of ,south ,america1 the effect of this motion of the waters was perceived farther north4 ,from the #cgth to the #cjth degree1 the deviation was very unequal2 the daily average effect was #ab miles1 that is1 our sloop drove towards the east #ge miles in six days4 ,in crossing the parallel of the straits of ,gibraltar1 at a distance of #adj leagues1 we had occasion to observe1 that in those latitudes the maximum of the rapidity does not correspond with the mouth of the straits1 but with a more northerly point1 which lies on the prolongation of a line passing through the strait and ,cape ,st4 ,vincent4 ,this line is parallel to the direction which the waters follow from the ,azores to ,cape ,cantin4 ,we should moreover observe 7and this fact is not uninteresting to those who examine the nature of fluids71 that in this part of the retrograde current1 on a breadth of #abj or #adj leagues1 the whole mass of water has not the same rapidity1 nor does it follow precisely the same direction4 ,when the sea is perfectly calm1 there appears at the surface narrow stripes1 like small rivulets1 in which the waters run with a murmur very sensible to the ear of an experienced pilot4 ,on the #acth of ,june1 in #cd degrees #cf minutes north latitude1 we found ourselves in the midst of a great number of these beds of currents4 ,we took their direction with the compass1 and some ran north-east1 others east-north-east1 though the general movement of the ocean1 indicated by comparing the reckoning with the chronometrical longitude1 continued to be south-east4 ,it is very common to see a mass of motionless waters crossed by threads of water1 which run in different directions1 and we may daily observe this phenomenon on the surface of lakes2 but it is much less frequent to find partial movements1 impressed by local causes on small portions of waters in the midst of an oceanic river1 which occupies an immense space1 and which moves1 though slowly1 in a constant direction4 ,in the conflict of currents1 as in the oscillation of the waves1 our imagination is struck by those movements which seem to penetrate each other1 and by which the ocean is continually agitated4 ,we passed ,cape ,st4 ,vincent1 which is of basaltic formation1 at the distance of more than eighty leagues4 ,it is not distinctly seen at a greater distance than #ae leagues1 but the granitic mountain called the ,foya de ,monchique1 situated near the ,cape1 is perceptible1 as pilots allege1 at the distance of #bf leagues4 ,if this assertion be exact1 the ,foya is #gjj toises 7#acfc metres71 and consequently #aaf toises 7#bbe metres7 higher than ,vesuvius4 ,from ,corunna to the #cfth degree of latitude we had scarcely seen any organic being1 excepting sea-swallows and a few dolphins4 ,we looked in vain for sea-weeds 7fuci7 and mollusca1 when on the #aath of ,june we were struck with a curious sight which afterwards was frequently renewed in the southern ocean4 ,we entered on a zone where the whole sea was covered with a prodigious quantity of medusas4 ,the vessel was almost becalmed1 but the mollusca were borne towards the south-east1 with a rapidity four times greater than the current4 ,their passage lasted near three quarters of an hour4 ,we then perceived but a few scattered individuals1 following the crowd at a distance as if tired with their journey4 ,do these animals come from the bottom of the sea1 which is perhaps in these latitudes some thousand fathoms deep8 or do they make distant voyages in shoals8 ,we know that the mollusca haunt banks2 and if the eight rocks1 near the surface1 which captain ,vobonne mentions having seen in #agcb1 to the north of ,porto ,santo1 really exist1 we may suppose that this innumerable quantity of medusas had been thence detached2 for we were but #bh leagues from the reef4 ,we found1 beside the ,medusa aurita of ,baster1 and the ,medusa pelagica of ,bosc with eight tentacula 7,pelagia denticulata1 ,peron71 a third species which resembles the ,medusa hysocella1 and which ,vandelli found at the mouth of the ,tagus4 ,it is known by its brownish-yellow colour1 and by its tentacula1 which are longer than the body4 ,several of these sea-nettles were four inches in diameter3 their reflection was almost metallic3 their changeable colours of violet and purple formed an agreeable contrast with the azure tint of the ocean4 ,in the midst of these medusas ,m4 ,bonpland observed bundles of ,dagysa notata1 a mollusc of a singular construction1 which ,sir ,joseph ,banks first discovered4 ,these are small gelatinous bags1 transparent1 cylindrical1 sometimes polygonal1 thirteen lines long and two or three in diameter4 ,these bags are open at both ends4 ,in one of these openings1 we observed a hyaline bladder1 marked with a yellow spot4 ,the cylinders lie longitudinally1 one against another1 like the cells of a bee-hive1 and form chaplets from six to eight inches in length4 ,i tried the galvanic electricity on these mollusca1 but it produced no contraction4 ,it appears that the genus dagysa1 formed at the time of ,cook's first voyage1 belongs to the salpas 7biphores of ,bruguiere71 to which ,m4 ,cuvier joins the ,thalia of ,brown1 and the ,tethys vagina of ,tilesius4 ,the salpas journey also by groups1 joining in chaplets1 as we have observed of the dagysa4 ,on the morning of the #acth of ,june1 in #cd degrees #cc minutes latitude1 we saw large masses of this last mollusc in its passage1 the sea being perfectly calm4 ,we observed during the night1 that1 of three species of medusas which we collected1 none yielded any light but at the moment of a very slight shock4 ,this property does not belong exclusively to the ,medusa noctiluca1 which ,forskael has described in his ,fauna ,aegyptiaca1 and which ,gmelin has applied to the ,medusa pelagica of ,loefling1 notwithstanding its red tentacula1 and the brownish tuberosities of its body4 ,if we place a very irritable medusa on a pewter plate1 and strike against the plate with any sort of metal1 the slight vibrations of the plate are sufficient to make this animal emit light4 ,sometimes1 in galvanising the medusa1 the phosphorescence appears at the moment that the chain closes1 though the exciters are not in immediate contact with the organs of the animal4 ,the fingers with which we touch it remain luminous for two or three minutes1 as is observed in breaking the shell of the pholades4 ,if we rub wood with the body of a medusa1 and the part rubbed ceases shining1 the phosphorescence returns if we pass a dry hand over the wood4 ,when the light is extinguished a second time1 it can no longer be reproduced1 though the place rubbed be still humid and viscous4 ,in what manner ought we to consider the effect of the friction1 or that of the shock8 ,this is a question of difficult solution4 ,is it a slight augmentation of temperature which favours the phosphorescence8 or does the light return1 because the surface is renewed1 by putting the animal parts proper to disengage the phosphoric hydrogen in contact with the oxygen of the atmospheric air8 ,i have proved by experiments published in #agig1 that the shining of wood is extinguished in hydrogen gas1 and in pure azotic gas1 and that its light reappears whenever we mix with it the smallest bubble of oxygen gas4 ,these facts1 to which several others may be added1 tend to explain the causes of the phosphorescence of the sea1 and of that peculiar influence which the shock of the waves exercises on the production of light4 ,when we were between the island of ,madeira and the coast of ,africa1 we had slight breezes and dead calms1 very favourable for the magnetic observations1 which occupied me during this passage4 ,we were never weary of admiring the beauty of the nights2 nothing can be compared to the transparency and serenity of an ,african sky4 ,we were struck with the innumerable quantity of falling stars1 which appeared at every instant4 ,the farther progress we made towards the south1 the more frequent was this phenomenon1 especially near the ,canaries4 ,i have observed during my travels1 that these igneous meteors are in general more common and luminous in some regions of the globe than in others2 but ,i have never beheld them so multiplied as in the vicinity of the volcanoes of the province of ,quito1 and in that part of the ,pacific ocean which bathes the volcanic coasts of ,guatimala4 ,the influence which place1 climate1 and season appear to exercise on the falling stars1 distinguishes this class of meteors from those to which we trace stones that drop from the sky 7aerolites71 and which probably exist beyond the boundaries of our atmosphere4 ,according to the observations of ,messrs4 ,benzenberg and ,brandes1 many of the falling stars seen in ,europe have been only thirty thousand toises high4 ,one was even measured which did not exceed fourteen thousand toises1 or five nautical leagues4 ,these measures1 which can give no result but by approximation1 deserve well to be repeated4 ,in warm climates1 especially within the tropics1 falling stars leave a tail behind them1 which remains luminous #ab or #ae seconds3 at other times they seem to burst into sparks1 and they are generally lower than those in the north of ,europe4 ,we perceive them only in a serene and azure sky2 they have perhaps never been below a cloud4 ,falling stars often follow the same direction for several hours1 which direction is that of the wind4 ,in the bay of ,naples1 ,m4 ,gay-,lussac and myself observed luminous phenomena very analogous to those which fixed my attention during a long abode at ,mexico and ,quito4 ,these meteors are perhaps modified by the nature of the soil and the air1 like certain effects of the looming or mirage1 and of the terrestrial refraction peculiar to the coasts of ,calabria and ,sicily4 ,when we were forty leagues east of the island of ,madeira1 a swallow99 799 ,hirundo rustica1 ,linn47 perched on the topsail-yard4 ,it was so fatigued1 that it suffered itself to be easily taken4 ,it was remarkable that a bird1 in that season1 and in calm weather1 should fly so far4 ,in the expedition of d',entrecasteaux1 a common swallow was seen #fj leagues distant from ,cape ,blanco2 but this was towards the end of ,october1 and ,m4 ,labillardiere thought it had newly arrived from ,europe4 ,we crossed these latitudes in ,june1 at a period when the seas had not for a long time been agitated by tempests4 ,i mention this last circumstance1 because small birds and even butterflies1 are sometimes forced out to sea by the impetuosity of the winds1 as we observed in the ,pacific ocean1 when we were on the western coast of ,mexico4 ,the ,pizarro had orders to touch at the isle of ,lancerota1 one of the seven great ,canary ,islands2 and at five in the afternoon of the #afth of ,june1 that island appeared so distinctly in view that ,i was able to take the angle of altitude of a conic mountain1 which towered majestically over the other summits1 and which we thought was the great volcano which had occasioned such devastation on the night of the #ast of ,september1 #agcj4 ,the current drew us toward the coast more rapidly than we wished4 ,as we advanced1 we discovered at first the island of ,forteventura1 famous for its numerous camels299 799 ,these camels1 which serve for labour1 and sometimes for food1 did not exist till the ,bethencourts made the conquest of the ,canaries4 ,in the sixteenth century1 asses were so abundant in the island of ,forteventura1 that they became wild and were hunted4 ,several thousands were killed to save the harvest4 ,the horses of ,forteventura are of singular beauty1 and of the ,barbary race4--,noticias de la ,historia ,general de las ,islas ,canarias por ,don ,jose de ,viera1 tome #b page #dcf47 and a short time after we saw the small island of ,lobos in the channel which separates ,forteventura from ,lancerota4 ,we spent part of the night on deck4 ,the moon illumined the volcanic summits of ,lancerota1 the flanks of which1 covered with ashes1 reflected a silver light4 ,antares threw out its resplendent rays near the lunar disk1 which was but a few degrees above the horizon4 ,the night was beautifully serene and cool4 ,though we were but a little distance from the ,african coast1 and on the limit of the torrid zone1 the centigrade thermometer rose no higher than #ah degrees4 ,the phosphorescence of the ocean seemed to augment the mass of light diffused through the air4 ,after midnight1 great black clouds rising behind the volcano shrouded at intervals the moon and the beautiful constellation of the ,scorpion4 ,we beheld lights carried to and fro on shore1 which were probably those of fishermen preparing for their labours4 ,we had been occasionally employed1 during our passage1 in reading the old voyages of the ,spaniards1 and these moving lights recalled to our fancy those which ,pedro ,gutierrez1 page of ,queen ,isabella1 saw in the isle of ,guanahani1 on the memorable night of the discovery of the ,new ,world4 ,on the #agth1 in the morning1 the horizon was foggy1 and the sky slightly covered with vapour4 ,the outlines of the mountains of ,lancerota appeared stronger3 the humidity1 increasing the transparency of the air1 seemed at the same time to have brought the objects nearer our view4 ,this phenomenon is well known to all who have made hygrometrical observations in places whence the chain of the ,higher ,alps or of the ,andes is seen4 ,we passed through the channel which divides the isle of ,alegranza from ,montana ,clara1 taking soundings the whole way2 and we examined the archipelago of small islands situated northward of ,lancerota4 ,in the midst of this archipelago1 which is seldom visited by vessels bound for ,teneriffe1 we were singularly struck with the configuration of the coasts4 ,we thought ourselves transported to the ,euganean mountains in the ,vicentin1 or the banks of the ,rhine near ,bonn4 ,the form of organized beings varies according to the climate1 and it is that extreme variety which renders the study of the geography of plants and animals so attractive2 but rocks1 more ancient perhaps than the causes which have produced the difference of the climate on the globe1 are the same in both hemispheres4 ,the porphyries containing vitreous feldspar and hornblende1 the phonolite1 the greenstone1 the amygdaloids1 and the basalt1 have forms almost as invariable as simple crystallized substances4 ,in the ,canary ,islands1 and in the mountains of ,auvergne1 in the ,mittelgebirge in ,bohemia1 in ,mexico1 and on the banks of the ,ganges1 the formation of trap is indicated by a symmetrical disposition of the mountains1 by truncated cones1 sometimes insulated1 sometimes grouped1 and by elevated plains1 both extremities of which are crowned by a conical rising4 ,the whole western part of ,lancerota1 of which we had a near view1 bears the appearance of a country recently convulsed by volcanic eruptions4 ,everything is black1 parched1 and stripped of vegetable mould4 ,we distinguished1 with our glasses1 stratified basalt in thin and steeply-sloping strata4 ,several hills resembled the ,monte ,novo1 near ,naples1 or those hillocks of scoria and ashes which the opening earth threw up in a single night at the foot of the volcano of ,jorullo1 in ,mexico4 ,in fact1 the abbe ,viera relates1 that in #agcj1 more than half the island changed its appearance4 ,the great volcano1 which we have just mentioned1 and which the inhabitants call the volcano of ,temanfaya1 spread desolation over a most fertile and highly cultivated region3 nine villages were entirely destroyed by the lavas4 ,this catastrophe had been preceded by a tremendous earthquake1 and for several years shocks equally violent were felt4 ,this last phenomenon is so much the more singular1 as it seldom happens after an eruption1 when the elastic vapours have found vent by the crater1 after the ejection of the melted matter4 ,the summit of the great volcano is a rounded hill1 but not entirely conic4 ,from the angles of altitude which ,i took at different distances1 its absolute elevation did not appear to exceed three hundred toises4 ,the neighbouring hills1 and those of ,alegranza and ,isla ,clara1 were scarcely above one hundred or one hundred and twenty toises4 ,we may be surprised at the small elevation of these summits1 which1 viewed from the sea1 wear so majestic a form2 but nothing is more uncertain than our judgment on the greatness of angles1 which are subtended by objects close to the horizon4 ,from illusions of this sort it arose1 that before the measures of ,messrs4 de ,churruca and ,galleano1 at ,cape ,pilar1 navigators considered the mountains of the straits of ,magellan1 and those of ,terra del ,fuego1 to be extremely elevated4 ,the island of ,lancerota bore formerly the name of ,titeroigotra4 ,on the arrival of the ,spaniards1 its inhabitants were distinguished from the other ,canarians by marks of greater civilization4 ,their houses were built with freestone1 while the ,guanches of ,teneriffe dwelt in caverns4 ,at ,lancerota1 a very singular custom prevailed at that time1 of which we find no example except among the people of ,thibet4 ,a woman had several husbands1 who alternately enjoyed the prerogatives due to the head of a family4 ,a husband was considered as such only during a lunar revolution1 and whilst his rights were exercised by others1 he remained classed among the household domestics4 ,in the fifteenth century the island of ,lancerota contained two small distinct states1 divided by a wall2 a kind of monument which outlives national enmities1 and which we find in ,scotland1 in ,china1 and ,peru4 ,we were forced by the winds to pass between the islands of ,alegranza and ,montana ,clara1 and as none on board the sloop had sailed through this passage1 we were obliged to be continually sounding4 ,we found from twenty-five to thirty-two fathoms4 ,the lead brought up an organic substance of so singular a structure that we were for a long time doubtful whether it was a zoophyte or a kind of seaweed4 ,the stem1 of a brownish colour and three inches long1 has circular leaves with lobes1 and indented at the edges4 ,the colour of these leaves is a pale green1 and they are membranous and streaked like those of the adiantums and ,gingko biloba4 ,their surface is covered with stiff whitish hairs2 before their opening they are concave1 and enveloped one in the other4 ,we observed no mark of spontaneous motion1 no sign of irritability1 not even on the application of galvanic electricity4 ,the stem is not woody1 but almost of a horny substance1 like the stem of the ,gorgons4 ,azote and phosphorus having been abundantly found in several cryptogamous plants1 an appeal to chemistry would be useless to determine whether this organized substance belonged to the animal or vegetable kingdom4 ,its great analogy to several sea-plants1 with adiantum leaves1 especially the genus caulerpa of ,m4 ,lamoureux1 of which the ,fucus proliter of ,forskael is one of the numerous species1 engaged us to rank it provisionally among the sea-wracks1 and give it the name of ,fucus vitifolius4 ,the bristles which cover this plant are found in several other fuci499 799 ,fucus lycopodioides1 and ,f4 hirsutus47 ,the leaf1 examined with a microscope at the instant we drew it up from the water1 did not present1 it is true1 those conglobate glands1 or those opaque points1 which the parts of fructification in the genera of ulva and fucus contain2 but how often do we find seaweeds in such a state that we cannot yet distinguish any trace of seeds in their transparent parenchyma4 ,the vine-leaved fucus presents a physiological phenomenon of the greatest interest4 ,fixed to a piece of madrepore1 this seaweed vegetates at the bottom of the ocean1 at the depth of #aib feet1 notwithstanding which we found its leaves as green as those of our grasses4 ,according to the experiments of ,bouguer1 light is weakened after a passage of #ahj feet in the ratio of #a to #adgg4h4 ,the seaweed of ,alegranza consequently presents a new example of plants which vegetate in great obscurity without becoming white4 ,several germs1 enveloped in the bulbs of the lily tribes1 the embryo of the malvaceae1 of the rhamnoides1 of the pistacea1 the viscum1 and the citrus1 the branches of some subterraneous plants2 in short1 vegetables transported into mines1 where the ambient air contains hydrogen or a great quantity of azote1 become green without light4 ,from these facts we are inclined to admit that it is not exclusively by the influence of the solar rays that this carburet of hydrogen is formed in the organs of plants1 the presence of which makes the parenchyma appear of a lighter or darker green1 according as the carbon predominates in the mixture4 ,mr4 ,turner1 who has so well made known the family of the seaweeds1 as well as many other celebrated botanists1 are of opinion that most of the fuci which we gather on the surface of the ocean1 and which1 from the #bcrd to the #ceth degree of latitude and #cbnd of longitude1 appear to the mariner like a vast inundated meadow1 grow primitively at the bottom of the ocean1 and float only in their ripened state1 when torn up by the motion of the waves4 ,if this opinion be well founded1 we must agree that the family of seaweeds offers formidable difficulties to naturalists1 who persist in thinking that absence of light always produces whiteness2 for how can we admit that so many species of ulvaceae and dictyoteae1 with stems and green leaves1 which float on the ocean1 have vegetated on rocks near the surface of the water8 ,from some notions which the captain of the ,pizarro had collected in an old ,portuguese itinerary1 he thought himself opposite to a small fort1 situated north of ,teguisa1 the capital of the island of ,lancerota4 ,mistaking a rock of basalt for a castle1 he saluted it by hoisting the ,spanish flag1 and sent a boat with an officer to inquire of the commandant whether any ,english vessels were cruising in the roads4 ,we were not a little surprised to learn that the land which we had considered as a prolongation of the coast of ,lancerota1 was the small island of ,graciosa1 and that for several leagues there was not an inhabited place4 ,we took advantage of the boat to survey the land1 which enclosed a large bay4 ,the small part of the island of ,graciosa which we traversed1 resembles those promontories of lava seen near ,naples1 between ,portici and ,torre del ,greco4 ,the rocks are naked1 with no marks of vegetation1 and scarcely any of vegetable soil4 ,a few crustaceous lichen-like variolariae1 leprariae1 and urceorariae1 were scattered about upon the basalts4 ,the lavas which are not covered with volcanic ashes remain for ages without any appearance of vegetation4 ,on the ,african soil excessive heat and lengthened drought retard the growth of cryptogamous plants4 ,the basalts of ,graciosa are not in columns1 but are divided into strata ten or fifteen inches thick4 ,these strata are inclined at an angle of #hj degrees to the north-west4 ,the compact basalt alternates with the strata of porous basalt and marl4 ,the rock does not contain hornblende1 but great crystals of foliated olivine1 which have a triple cleavage499 799 ,blaettriger olivin47 ,this substance is decomposed with great difficulty4 ,m4 ,hauy considers it a variety of the pyroxene4 ,the porous basalt1 which passes into mandelstein1 has oblong cavities from two to eight lines in diameter1 lined with chalcedony1 enclosing fragments of compact basalt4 ,i did not remark that these cavities had the same direction1 or that the porous rock lay on compact strata1 as happens in the currents of lava of ,etna and ,vesuvius4 ,the marl199 799 ,mergel47 which alternates more than a hundred times with the basalts1 is yellowish1 friable by decomposition1 very coherent in the inside1 and often divided into irregular prisms1 analogous to the basaltic prisms4 ,the sun discolours their surface1 as it whitens several schists1 by reviving a hydro-carburetted principle1 which appears to be combined with the earth4 ,the marl of ,graciosa contains a great quantity of chalk1 and strongly effervesces with nitric acid1 even on points where it is found in contact with the basalt4 ,this fact is the more remarkable1 as this substance does not fill the fissures of the rock1 but its strata are parallel to those of the basalt2 whence we may conclude that both fossils are of the same formation1 and have a common origin4 ,the phenomenon of a basaltic rock containing masses of indurated marl split into small columns1 is also found in the ,mittelgebirge1 in ,bohemia4 ,visiting those countries in #agib1 in company with ,mr4 ,freiesleben1 we even recognized in the marl of the ,stiefelberg the imprint of a plant nearly resembling the ,cerastium1 or the ,alsine4 ,are these strata1 contained in the trappean mountains1 owing to muddy irruptions1 or must we consider them as sediments of water1 which alternate with volcanic deposits8 ,this last hypothesis seems so much the less admissible1 since1 from the researches of ,sir ,james ,hall on the influence of pressure in fusions1 the existence of carbonic acid in substances contained in basalt presents nothing surprising4 ,several lavas of ,vesuvius present similar phenomena4 ,in ,lombardy1 between ,vicenza and ,albano1 where the calcareous stone of the ,jura contains great masses of basalt1 ,i have seen the latter enter into effervescence with the acids wherever it touches the calcareous rock4 ,we had not time to reach the summit of a hill very remarkable for having its base formed of banks of clay under strata of basalt1 like a mountain in ,saxony1 called the ,scheibenbergen ,hugel1 which is become celebrated on account of the disputes of volcanean and neptunean geologists4 ,these basalts were covered with a mammiform substance1 which ,i vainly sought on the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 and which is known by the names of volcanic glass1 glass of ,muller1 or hyalite3 it is the transition from the opal to the chalcedony4 ,we struck off with difficulty some fine specimens1 leaving masses that were eight or ten inches square untouched4 ,i never saw in ,europe such fine hyalites as ,i found in the island of ,graciosa1 and on the rock of porphyry called el ,penol de los ,banos1 on the bank of the lake of ,mexico4 ,two kinds of sand cover the shore2 one is black and basaltic1 the other white and quartzose4 ,in a place exposed to the rays of the sun1 the first raised the thermometer to #ea4b degrees 7#da degrees ,r47 and the second to #dj degrees 7#cb degrees ,r47 ,the temperature of the air in the shade was #bg4g or #g4e degrees higher than that of the air over the sea4 ,the quartzose sand contains fragments of feldspar4 ,it is thrown back by the water1 and forms1 in some sort1 on the surface of the rocks1 small islets on which seaweed vegetates4 ,fragments of granite have been observed at ,teneriffe2 the island of ,gomora1 from the details furnished me by ,m4 ,broussonnet1 contains a nucleus of micaceous schist3--the quartz disseminated in the sand1 which we found on the shore of ,graciosa1 is a different substance from the lavas and the trappean porphyries so intimately connected with volcanic productions4 ,from these facts it seems to be evident that in the ,canary ,islands1 as well as on the ,andes of ,quito1 in ,auvergne1 in ,greece1 and throughout the greater part of the globe1 subterraneous fires have pierced through the rocks of primitive formation4 ,in treating hereafter of the great number of warm springs which we have seen issuing from granite1 gneiss1 and micaceous schist1 we shall have occasion to return to this subject1 which is one of the most important of the physical history of the globe4 ,we re-embarked at sunset1 and hoisted sail1 but the breeze was too feeble to permit us to continue our course to ,teneriffe4 ,the sea was calm2 a reddish vapour covered the horizon1 and seemed to magnify every object4 ,in this solitude1 amidst so many uninhabited islets1 we enjoyed for a long time the view of rugged and wild scenery4 ,the black mountains of ,graciosa appeared like perpendicular walls five or six hundred feet high4 ,their shadows1 thrown over the surface of the ocean1 gave a gloomy aspect to the scenery4 ,rocks of basalt1 emerging from the bosom of the waters1 wore the resemblance of the ruins of some vast edifice1 and carried our thoughts back to the remote period when submarine volcanoes gave birth to new islands1 or rent continents asunder4 ,every thing which surrounded us seemed to indicate destruction and sterility2 but the back-ground of the picture1 the coasts of ,lancerota presented a more smiling aspect4 ,in a narrow pass between two hills1 crowned with scattered tufts of trees1 marks of cultivation were visible4 ,the last rays of the sun gilded the corn ready for the sickle4 ,even the desert is animated wherever we can discover a trace of the industry of man4 ,we endeavoured to get out of this bay by the pass which separates ,alegranza from ,montana ,clara1 and through which we had easily entered to land at the northern point of ,graciosa4 ,the wind having fallen1 the currents drove us very near a rock1 on which the sea broke with violence1 and which is noted in the old charts under the name of ,hell1 or ,infierno4 ,as we examined this rock at the distance of two cables' length1 we found that it was a mass of lava three or four toises high1 full of cavities1 and covered with scoriae resembling coke4 ,we may presume that this rock199 799 ,i must here observe1 that this rock is noted on the celebrated ,venetian chart of ,andrea ,bianco1 but that the name of ,infierno is given1 as in the more ancient chart of ,picigano1 made in #acfg1 to ,teneriffe1 without doubt because the ,guanches considered the peak as the entrance into hell4 ,in the same latitudes an island made its appearance in #ahaa47 which modern charts call the ,west ,rock 7,roca del ,oeste71 was raised by volcanic fire2 and it might heretofore have been much higher2 for the new island of the ,azores1 which rose from the sea at successive periods1 in #afch and #agai1 had reached #ced feet when it totally disappeared in #agbc1 to the depth of #dhj feet4 ,this opinion on the origin of the basaltic mass of the ,infierno is confirmed by a phenomenon1 which was observed about the middle of the last century in these same latitudes4 ,at the time of the eruption of the volcano of ,temanfaya1 two pyramidal hills of lithoid lava rose from the bottom of the ocean1 and gradually united themselves with the island of ,lancerota4 ,as we were prevented by the fall of the wind1 and by the currents1 from repassing the channel of ,alegranza1 we resolved on tacking during the night between the island of ,clara and the ,west ,rock4 ,this resolution had nearly proved fatal4 ,a calm is very dangerous near this rock1 towards which the current drives with considerable force4 ,we began to feel the effects of this current at midnight4 ,the proximity of the stony masses1 which rise perpendicularly above the water1 deprived us of the little wind which blew3 the sloop no longer obeyed the helm1 and we dreaded striking every instant4 ,it is difficult to conceive how a mass of basalt1 insulated in the vast expanse of the ocean1 can cause so considerable a motion of the waters4 ,these phenomena1 worthy the attention of naturalists1 are well known to mariners2 they are extremely to be dreaded in the ,pacific ocean1 particularly in the small archipelago of the islands of ,galapagos4 ,the difference of temperature which exists between the fluid and the mass of rocks does not explain the direction which these currents take2 and how can we admit that the water is engulfed at the base of these rocks1 7which often are not of volcanic origin7 and that this continual engulfing determines the particles of water to fill up the vacuum that takes place4 ,the wind having freshened a little towards the morning on the #ahth1 we succeeded in passing the channel4 ,we drew very near the ,infierno the second time1 and remarked the large crevices1 through which the gaseous fluids probably issued1 when this basaltic mass was raised4 ,we lost sight of the small islands of ,alegranza1 ,montana ,clara1 and ,graciosa1 which appear never to have been inhabited by the ,guanches4 ,they are now visited only for the purpose of gathering archil1 which production is1 however1 less sought after1 since so many other lichens of the north of ,europe have been found to yield materials proper for dyeing4 ,montana ,clara is noted for its beautiful canary-birds4 ,the note of these birds varies with their flocks1 like that of our chaffinches1 which often differs in two neighbouring districts4 ,montana ,clara yields pasture for goats1 a fact which proves that the interior of this islet is less arid than its coasts4 ,the name of ,alegranza is synonymous with the ,joyous1 7,la ,joyeuse17 which denomination it received from the first conquerors of the ,canary ,islands1 the two ,norman barons1 ,jean de ,bethencourt and ,gadifer de ,salle4 ,this was the first point on which they landed4 ,after remaining several days at ,graciosa1 a small part of which we examined1 they conceived the project of taking possession of the neighbouring island of ,lancerota1 where they were welcomed by ,guadarfia1 sovereign of the ,guanches1 with the same hospitality that ,cortez found in the palace of ,montezuma4 ,the shepherd king1 who had no other riches than his goats1 became the victim of base treachery1 like the sultan of ,mexico4 ,we sailed along the coasts of ,lancerota1 of the island of ,lobos1 and of ,forteventura4 ,the second of these islands seems to have anciently formed part of the two others4 ,this geological hypothesis was started in the seventeenth century by the ,franciscan1 ,juan ,galindo4 ,that writer supposed that king ,juba had named six ,canary ,islands only1 because1 in his time1 three among them were contiguous4 ,without admitting the probability of this hypothesis1 some learned geographers have imagined they recognized1 in the two islands ,nivaria and ,ombrios1 the ,canaria and ,capraria of the ancients4 ,the haziness of the horizon prevented us1 during the whole of our passage from ,lancerota to ,teneriffe1 from discovering the summit of the peak of ,teyde4 ,if the height of this volcano is #aije toises1 as the last trigonometrical measure of ,borda indicates1 its summit ought to be visible at a distance of #dc leagues1 supposing the eye on a level with the ocean1 and a refraction equal to #j4jgi of distance4 ,it has been doubted whether the peak has ever been seen from the channel which separates ,lancerota from ,forteventura1 and which is distant from the volcano1 according to the chart of ,varela1 #b degrees #bi minutes1 or nearly #ej leagues4 ,this phenomenon appears nevertheless to have been verified by several officers of the ,spanish navy4 ,i had in my hand1 on board the ,pizarro1 a journal1 in which it was noted1 that the peak of ,teneriffe had been seen at #ace miles distance1 near the southern cape of ,lancerota1 called ,pichiguera4 ,its summit was discovered under an angle considerable enough to lead the observer1 ,don ,manual ,baruti1 to conclude that the volcano might have been visible at nine miles farther4 ,it was in ,september1 towards evening1 and in very damp weather4 ,reckoning fifteen feet for the elevation of the eye1 ,i find1 that to render an account of this phenomenon1 we must suppose a refraction equal to #j4aeh of the arch1 which is not very extraordinary for the temperate zone4 ,according to the observations of ,general ,roy1 the refractions vary in ,england from one-twentieth to one-third2 and if it be true that they reach these extreme limits on the coast of ,africa1 7which ,i much doubt17 the peak1 in certain circumstances1 may be seen on the deck of a vessel as far off as #fa leagues4 ,navigators who have much frequented these latitudes1 and who can reflect on the physical causes of the phenomena1 are surprised that the peaks of ,teyde and of the ,azores99 799 ,the height of this peak of the ,azores1 according to ,fleurieu1 is #aajj toises2 to ,ferrer1 #abch toises2 and to ,tofino1 #abfj toises3 but these measures are only approximative estimates4 ,the captain of the ,pizarro1 ,don ,manuel ,cagigal1 proved to me1 by his journal1 that he observed the peak of the ,azores at the distance of #cg leagues1 when he was sure of his latitude within two minutes4 ,the volcano was seen at #d degrees south-east1 so that the error in longitude must have an almost imperceptible influence in the estimation of the distance4 ,nevertheless1 the angle which the peak of the ,azores subtended was so great1 that the captain of the ,pizarro was of opinion this volcano must be visible at more than #dj or #db leagues4 ,the distance of #cg leagues supposes an elevation of #adca toises47 are sometimes visible at a very great distance1 though at other times they are not seen when the distance is much less1 and the sky appears serene and the horizon free from fogs4 ,these circumstances are the more worthy of attention because vessels returning to ,europe1 sometimes wait impatiently for a sight of these mountains1 to rectify their longitude2 and think themselves much farther off than they really are1 when in fine weather these peaks are not perceptible at distances where the angles subtended must be very considerable4 ,the constitution of the atmosphere has a great influence on the visibility of distant objects4 ,it may be admitted1 that in general the peak of ,teneriffe is seldom seen at a great distance1 in the warm and dry months of ,july and ,august2 and that1 on the contrary1 it is seen at very extraordinary distances in the months of ,january and ,february1 when the sky is slightly clouded1 and immediately after a heavy rain1 or a few hours before it falls4 ,it appears that the transparency of the air is prodigiously increased1 as we have already observed1 when a certain quantity of water is uniformly diffused through the atmosphere4 ,independent of these observations1 it is not astonishing1 that the peak of ,teyde should be seldomer visible at a very remote distance1 than the summits of the ,andes1 to which1 during so long a time1 my observations were directed4 ,this peak1 inferior in height to those parts of the chain of ,mount ,atlas at the foot of which is the city of ,morocco1 is not1 like those points1 covered with perpetual snows4 ,the ,piton1 or ,sugar-loaf1 which terminates the peak1 no doubt reflects a great quantity of light1 owing to the whitish colour of the pumice-stone thrown up by the crater2 but the height of that little truncated cone does not form a twenty-second part of the total elevation4 ,the flanks of the volcano are covered either with blocks of black and scorified lava1 or with a luxuriant vegetation1 the masses of which reflect the less light1 as the leaves of the trees are separated from each other by shadows of more considerable extent than that of the part enlightened4 ,hence it results that1 setting aside the ,piton1 the peak of ,teyde belongs to that class of mountains1 which1 according to the expression of ,bouger1 are seen at considerable distances only in a ,,negative ,,manner1 because they intercept the light which is transmitted to us from the extreme limits of the atmosphere2 and we perceive their existence only on account of the difference of intensity subsisting between the aerial light which surrounds them1 and that which is reflected by the particles of air placed between the mountains and the eye of the observer4 ,as we withdraw from the isle of ,teneriffe1 the ,piton or ,sugar-loaf is seen for a considerable space of time in a ,,positive ,,manner1 because it reflects a whitish light1 and clearly detaches itself from the sky4 ,but as this cone is only #hj toises high1 by #dj in breadth at its summit1 it has recently been a question whether1 from the diminutiveness of its mass1 it can be visible at distances which exceed #dj leagues2 and whether it be not probable1 that navigators distinguish the peaks as a small cloud above the horizon1 only when the base of the ,piton begins to be visible on it4 ,if we admit1 that the mean breadth of the ,sugar-loaf is #ajj toises1 we find that the little cone1 at #dj leagues distance1 still subtends1 in the horizontal direction1 an angle of more than three minutes4 ,this angle is considerable enough to render an object visible2 and if the height of the ,piton greatly exceeded its base1 the angle in the horizontal direction might be still smaller1 and the object still continue to make an impression on our visual organs2 for micrometrical observations have proved that the limit of vision is but a minute only1 when the dimensions of the objects are the same in every direction4 ,we distinguish at a distance1 by the eye only1 trunks of trees insulated in a vast plain1 though the subtended angle be under twenty-five seconds4 ,as the visibility of an object detaching itself in a brown colour1 depends on the quantities of light which the eye meets on two lines1 one of which ends at the mountain1 and the other extends to the surface of the aerial ocean1 it follows that the farther we remove from the object1 the smaller the difference becomes between the light of the surrounding atmosphere1 and that of the strata of air before the mountain4 ,for this reason1 when less elevated summits begin to appear above the horizon1 they present themselves at first under a darker hue than those we discern at very great distances4 ,in the same manner1 the visibility of mountains seen only in a negative manner1 does not depend solely on the state of the lower regions of the air1 to which our meteorological observations are limited1 but also on the transparency and physical constitution of the air in the most elevated parts2 for the image detaches itself better in proportion as the aerial light1 which comes from the limits of the atmosphere1 has been originally more intense1 or has undergone less loss in its passage4 ,this consideration explains to a certain point1 why1 under a perfectly serene sky1 the state of the thermometer and the hygrometer being precisely the same in the air nearest the earth1 the peak is sometimes visible1 and at other times invisible1 to navigators at equal distances4 ,it is even probable1 that the chance of perceiving this volcano would not be greater1 if the ashy cone1 at the summit of which is the mouth of the crater1 were equal1 as in ,vesuvius1 to a quarter of the total height4 ,these ashes1 being pumice-stone crumbled into dust1 do not reflect as much light as the snow of the ,andes2 and they cause the mountain1 seen from afar1 to detach itself not in a bright1 but in a dark hue4 ,the ashes also contribute1 if we may use the expression1 to equalize the portions of aerial light1 the variable difference of which renders the object more or less distinctly visible4 ,calcareous mountains1 devoid of vegetable earth1 summits covered with granitic sand1 the high savannahs of the ,cordilleras199 799 ,los ,pajonales1 from paja1 straw4 ,this is the name given to the region of the gramina1 which encircles the zone of the perpetual snows47 which are of a golden yellow1 are undoubtedly distinguished at small distances better than objects which are seen in a negative manner2 but the theory indicates a certain limit1 beyond which these last detach themselves more distinctly from the azure vault of the sky4 ,the colossal summits of ,quito and ,peru1 towering above the limit of the perpetual snows1 concentre all the peculiarities which must render them visible at very small angles4 ,the circular summit of the peak of ,teneriffe is only a hundred toises in diameter4 ,according to the measures ,i made at ,riobamba1 in #ahjc1 the dome of the ,chimborazo1 #aec toises below its summit1 consequently in a point which is #acjj toises higher than the peak1 is still #fgc toises 7#acab metres7 in breadth4 ,the zone of perpetual snows also forms a fourth of the height of the mountain2 and the base of this zone1 seen on the coast of the ,pacific1 fills an extent of #cdcg toises 7#fgjj metres74 ,but though ,chimborazo is two-thirds higher than the peak1 we do not see it1 on account of the curve of the globe1 at more than #ch miles and a third farther distant4 ,the radiant brilliancy of its snows1 when1 at the port of ,guayaquil1 at the close of the rainy season1 ,chimborazo is discerned on the horizon1 may lead us to suppose1 that it must be seen at a very great distance in the ,south ,sea4 ,pilots highly worthy of credit have assured me1 that they have seen it from the rock of ,muerto1 to the south west of the isle of ,puna1 at a distance of #dg leagues4 ,whenever it has been seen at a greater distance1 the observers1 uncertain of their longitude1 have not been in a situation to furnish precise data4 ,aerial light1 projected on mountains1 increases the visibility of those which are seen positively2 its power diminishes1 on the contrary1 the visibility of objects which1 like the peak of ,teneriffe and that of the ,azores1 detach themselves in a brown tint4 ,bouguer1 relying on theoretical considerations1 was of opinion that1 according to the constitution of our atmosphere1 mountains seen negatively cannot be perceived at distances exceeding #ce leagues4 ,it is important here to observe1 that these calculations are contrary to experience4 ,the peak of ,teneriffe has been often seen at the distance of #cf1 #ch1 and even at #dj leagues4 ,moreover1 in the vicinity of the ,sandwich ,islands1 the summit of ,mowna-,roa1 at a season when it was without snows1 has been seen on the skirt of the horizon1 at the distance of #ec leagues4 ,this is the most striking example we have hitherto known of the visibility of a mountain2 and it is the more remarkable1 that an object seen negatively furnishes this example4 ,the volcanoes of ,teneriffe1 and of the ,azores1 the ,sierra ,nevada of ,santa ,martha1 the peak of ,orizaba1 the ,silla of ,caracas1 ,mowna-,roa1 and ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 insulated in the vast extent of the seas1 or placed on the coasts of continents1 serve as sea-marks to direct the pilot1 when he has no means of determining the position of the vessel by the observation of the stars2 everything which has a relation to the visibility of these natural seamarks1 is interesting to the safety of navigation4 ,,chapter #a4b4 ,,stay ,,at ,,tenerife4 ,,journey ,,from ,,santa ,,cruz ,,to ,,orotava4 ,,excursion ,,to ,,the ,,summit ,,of ,,the ,,peak ,,of ,,teyde4 ,from the time of our departure from ,graciosa1 the horizon continued so hazy1 that1 notwithstanding the considerable height of the mountains of ,canary199 799 ,isla de la ,gran ,canaria47 we did not discover that island till the evening of the #ahth of ,june4 ,it is the granary of the archipelago of the ,fortunate ,islands2 and1 what is very remarkable in a region situated beyond the limits of the tropics1 we were assured1 that in some districts1 there are two wheat harvests in the year2 one in ,february1 and the other in ,june4 ,canary has never been visited by a learned mineralogist2 yet this island is so much the more worthy of observation1 as the physiognomy of its mountains1 disposed in parallel chains1 appeared to me to differ entirely from that of the summits of ,lancerota and ,teneriffe4 ,nothing is more interesting to the geologist1 than to observe the relations1 on the same point of the globe1 between volcanic countries1 and those which are primitive or secondary4 ,when the ,canary ,islands shall have been examined1 in all the parts which compose the system of these mountains1 we shall find that we have been too precipitate in considering the whole group as raised by the action of submarine fires4 ,on the morning of the #aith1 we discovered the point of ,naga1 but the peak of ,teneriffe was still invisible3 the land1 obscured by a thick mist1 presented forms that were vague and confused4 ,as we approached the road of ,santa ,cruz we observed that the mist1 driven by the winds1 drew nearer to us4 ,the sea was strongly agitated1 as it most commonly is in those latitudes4 ,we anchored after several soundings1 for the mist was so thick1 that we could scarcely distinguish objects at a few cables' distance2 but at the moment we began to salute the place1 the fog was instantly dispelled4 ,the peak of ,teyde appeared in a break above the clouds1 and the first rays of the sun1 which had not yet risen on us1 illumined the summit of the volcano4 ,we hastened to the prow of the vessel to behold the magnificent spectacle1 and at the same instant we saw four ,english vessels lying to1 and very near our stern4 ,we had passed without being perceived1 and the same mist which had concealed the peak from our view1 had saved us from the risk of being carried back to ,europe4 ,the ,pizarro stood in as close as possible to the fort1 to be under its protection4 ,it was on this shore1 that1 in the landing attempted by the ,english two years before our arrival1 in ,july #agig1 admiral ,nelson had his arm carried off by a cannon-ball4 ,the situation of the town of ,santa ,cruz is very similar to that of ,la ,guayra1 the most frequented port of the province of ,caraccas4 ,the heat is excessive in both places1 and from the same causes2 but the aspect of ,santa ,cruz is more gloomy4 ,on a narrow and sandy beach1 houses of dazzling whiteness1 with flat roofs1 and windows without glass1 are built close against a wall of black perpendicular rock1 devoid of vegetation4 ,a fine mole1 built of freestone1 and the public walk planted with poplars1 are the only objects which break the sameness of the landscape4 ,the view of the peak1 as it presents itself above ,santa ,cruz1 is much less picturesque than that we enjoy from the port of ,orotava4 ,there1 a highly cultured and smiling plain presents a pleasing contrast to the wild aspect of the volcano4 ,from the groups of palm trees and bananas which line the coast1 to the region of the arbutus1 the laurel1 and the pine1 the volcanic rock is crowned with luxuriant vegetation4 ,we easily conceive how the inhabitants1 even of the beautiful climates of ,greece and ,italy1 might fancy they recognised one of the ,fortunate ,isles in the western part of ,teneriffe4 ,the eastern side1 that of ,santa ,cruz1 on the contrary1 is every where stamped with sterility4 ,the summit of the peak is not more arid than the promontory of basaltic lava1 which stretches towards the point of ,naga1 and on which succulent plants1 springing up in the clefts of the rocks1 scarcely indicate a preparation of soil4 ,at the port of ,orotava1 the top of the ,piton subtends an angle in height of more than eleven degrees and a half2 while at the mole of ,santa ,cruz99 799 ,the oblique distances from the top of the volcano to ,orotava and to ,santa ,cruz are nearly #hfjj toises and #bb1ejj toises47 the angle scarcely exceeds #d degrees #cf minutes4 ,notwithstanding this difference1 and though in the latter place the volcano rises above the horizon scarcely as much as ,vesuvius seen from the mole of ,naples1 the aspect of the peak is still very majestic1 when those who anchor in the road discern it for the first time4 ,the ,piton alone was visible to us2 its cone projected itself on a sky of the purest blue1 whilst dark thick clouds enveloped the rest of the mountain to the height of #ahjj toises4 ,the pumice-stone1 illumined by the first rays of the sun1 reflected a reddish light1 like that which tinges the summits of the higher ,alps4 ,this light by degrees becomes dazzlingly white2 and1 deceived like most travellers1 we thought that the peak was still covered with snow1 and that we should with difficulty reach the edge of the crater4 ,we have remarked1 in the ,cordillera of the ,andes1 that the conical mountains1 such as ,cotopaxi and ,tungurahua1 are oftener seen free from clouds1 than those of which the tops are broken into bristly points1 like ,antisana and ,pichincha2 but the peak of ,teneriffe1 notwithstanding its pyramidical form1 is a great part of the year enveloped in vapours1 and is sometimes1 during several weeks1 invisible from the road of ,santa ,cruz4 ,its position to the west of an immense continent1 and its insulated situation in the midst of the sea1 are no doubt the causes of this phenomenon4 ,navigators are well aware that even the smallest islets1 and those which are without mountains1 collect and harbour the clouds4 ,the decrement of heat is also different above the plains of ,africa1 and above the surface of the ,atlantic2 and the strata of air1 brought by the trade winds1 cool in proportion as they advance towards the west4 ,if the air has been extremely dry above the burning sands of the desert1 it is very quickly saturated when it enters into contact with the surface of the sea1 or with the air that lies on that surface4 ,it is easy to conceive1 therefore1 why vapours become visible in the atmospherical strata1 which1 at a distance from the continent1 have no longer the same temperature as when they began to be saturated with water4 ,the considerable mass of a mountain1 rising in the midst of the ,atlantic1 is also an obstacle to the clouds1 which are driven out to sea by the winds4 ,on entering the streets of ,santa ,cruz1 we felt a suffocating heat1 though the thermometer was not above twenty-five degrees4 ,those who have for a long time inhaled the air of the sea suffer every time they land2 not because this air contains more oxygen than the air on shore1 as has been erroneously supposed1 but because it is less charged with those gaseous combinations1 which the animal and vegetable substances1 and the mud resulting from their decomposition1 pour into the atmosphere4 ,miasms that escape chemical analysis have a powerful effect on our organs1 especially when they have not for a long while been exposed to the same kind of irritation4 ,santa ,cruz1 the ,anaza of the ,guanches1 is a neat town1 with a population of #hjjj souls4 ,i was not struck with the vast number of monks and secular ecclesiastics1 which travellers have thought themselves bound to find in every country under the ,spanish government2 nor shall ,i stop to enter into the description of the churches2 the library of the ,dominicans1 which contains scarcely a few hundred volumes2 the mole1 where the inhabitants assemble to inhale the freshness of the evening breeze2 or the famed monument of ,carrara marble1 thirty feet high1 dedicated to ,our ,lady of ,candelaria1 in memory of the miraculous appearance of the ,virgin1 in #acib1 at ,chimisay1 near ,guimar4 ,the port of ,santa ,cruz may be considered as a great caravanserai1 on the road to ,america and the ,indies4 ,every traveller who writes the narrative of his adventures1 begins by a description of ,madeira and ,teneriffe2 and if in the natural history of these islands there yet remains an immense field untrodden1 we must admit that the topography of the little towns of ,funchal1 ,santa ,cruz1 ,laguna1 and ,orotava1 leaves scarcely anything untold4 ,the recommendation of the court of ,madrid procured for us1 in the ,canaries1 as in all the other ,spanish possessions1 the most satisfactory reception4 ,the captain-general gave us immediate permission to examine the island4 ,colonel ,armiaga1 who commanded a regiment of infantry1 received us into his house with kind hospitality4 ,we could not cease admiring the banana1 the papaw tree1 the ,poinciana pulcherrima1 and other plants1 which we had hitherto seen only in hot-houses1 cultivated in his garden in the open air4 ,the climate of the ,canaries however is not warm enough to ripen the real ,platano ,arton1 with triangular fruit from seven to eight inches long1 and which1 requiring a temperature of #bd centesimal degrees1 does not flourish even in the valley of ,caracas4 ,the bananas of ,teneriffe are those named by the ,spanish planters ,camburis or ,guineos1 and ,dominicos4 ,the ,camburi1 which suffers least from cold1 is cultivated with success even at ,malaga1 where the temperature is only #ah degrees2 but the fruit we see occasionally at ,cadiz comes from the ,canary ,islands by vessels which make the passage in three or four days4 ,in general1 the musa1 known by every people under the torrid zone1 though hitherto never found in a wild state1 has as great a variety of fruit as our apple and pear trees4 ,these varieties1 which are confounded by the greater part of botanists1 though they require very different climates1 have become permanent by long cultivation4 ,we went to herborize in the evening in the direction of the fort of ,passo ,alto1 along the basaltic rocks that close the promontory of ,naga4 ,we were very little satisfied with our harvest1 for the drought and dust had almost destroyed vegetation4 ,the ,cacalia ,kleinia1 the ,euphorbia canariensis1 and several other succulent plants1 which draw their nourishment from the air rather than the soil on which they grow1 reminded us by their appearance1 that this group of islands belongs to ,africa1 and even to the most arid part of that continent4 ,though the captain of the ,pizarro had orders to stop long enough at ,teneriffe to give us time to scale the summit of the peak1 if the snows did not prevent our ascent1 we received notice1 on account of the blockade of the ,english ships1 not to expect a longer delay than four or five days4 ,we consequently hastened our departure for the port of ,orotava1 which is situated on the western declivity of the volcano1 where we were sure of finding guides4 ,i could find no one at ,santa ,cruz who had mounted the peak1 and ,i was not surprised at this4 ,the most curious objects become less interesting1 in proportion as they are near to us2 and ,i have known inhabitants of ,schaffhausen1 in ,switzerland1 who had never seen the fall of the ,rhine but at a distance4 ,on the #bjth of ,june1 before sunrise1 we began our excursion by ascending to the ,villa de ,laguna1 estimated to be at the elevation of #cej toises above the port of ,santa ,cruz4 ,we could not verify this estimate of the height1 the surf not having permitted us to return on board during the night1 to take our barometers and dipping-needle4 ,as we foresaw that our expedition to the peak would be very precipitate1 we consoled ourselves with the reflection that it was well not to expose instruments which were to serve us in countries less known by ,europeans4 ,the road by which we ascended to ,laguna is on the right of a torrent1 or baranco1 which in the rainy season forms fine cascades2 it is narrow and tortuous4 ,near the town we met some white camels1 which seemed to be very slightly laden4 ,the chief employment of these animals is to transport merchandise from the custom-house to the warehouses of the merchants4 ,they are generally laden with two chests of ,havannah sugar1 which together weigh #ijj pounds2 but this load may be augmented to thirteen hundred-weight1 or #eb arrobas of ,castile4 ,camels are not numerous at ,teneriffe1 whilst they exist by thousands in the two islands of ,lancerota and ,forteventura2 the climate and vegetation of these islands1 which are situated nearer ,africa1 are more analogous to those of that continent4 ,it is very extraordinary1 that this useful animal1 which breeds in ,south ,america1 should be seldom propagated at ,teneriffe4 ,in the fertile district of ,adexe only1 where the plantations of the sugar-cane are most considerable1 camels have sometimes been known to breed4 ,these beasts of burden1 as well as horses1 were brought into the ,canary ,islands in the fifteenth century by the ,norman conquerors4 ,the ,guanches were previously unacquainted with them2 and this fact seems to be very well accounted for by the difficulty of transporting an animal of such bulk in frail canoes1 without the necessity of considering the ,guanches as a remnant of the people of ,atlantis1 or a different race from that of the western ,africans4 ,the hill1 on which the town of ,san ,christobal de la ,laguna is built1 belongs to the system of basaltic mountains1 which1 independent of the system of less ancient volcanic rocks1 form a broad girdle around the peak of ,teneriffe4 ,the basalt on which we walked was darkish brown1 compact1 half-decomposed1 and when breathed on1 emitted a clayey smell4 ,we discovered amphibole1 olivine199 799 ,peridot granuliforme4 ,hauy47 and translucid pyroxenes1 99 799 ,augite4--,werner47 with a perfectly lamellar fracture1 of a pale olive green1 and often crystallized in prisms of six planes4 ,the first of these substances is extremely rare at ,teneriffe2 and ,i never found it in the lavas of ,vesuvius2 but those of ,etna contain it in abundance4 ,notwithstanding the great number of blocks1 which we stopped to break1 to the great regret of our guides1 we could discover neither nepheline1 leucite199 799 ,amphigene4--,hauy47 nor feldspar4 ,this last1 which is so common in the basaltic lavas of the island of ,ischia1 does not begin to appear at ,teneriffe1 till we approach the volcano4 ,the rock of ,laguna is not columnar1 but is divided into ledges1 of small thickness1 and inclined to the east at an angle of #cj or #dj degrees4 ,it has nowhere the appearance of a current of lava flowing from the sides of the peak4 ,if the present volcano has given birth to these basalts1 we must suppose1 that1 like the substances which compose the ,somma1 at the back of ,vesuvius1 they are the effect of a submarine effusion1 in which the liquid mass has formed strata4 ,a few arborescent ,euphorbias1 the ,cacalia ,kleinia1 and ,indian figs 7,cactus71 which have become wild in the ,canary ,islands1 as well as in the south of ,europe and the whole continent of ,africa1 are the only plants we see on these arid rocks4 ,the feet of our mules were slipping every moment on beds of stone1 which were very steep4 ,we nevertheless recognized the remains of an ancient pavement4 ,in these colonies we discover at every step some traces of that activity which characterized the ,spanish nation in the #afth century4 ,as we approached ,laguna1 we felt the temperature of the atmosphere gradually become lower4 ,this sensation was so much the more agreeable1 as we found the air of ,santa ,cruz very oppressive4 ,as our organs are more affected by disagreeable impressions1 the change of temperature becomes still more sensible when we return from ,laguna to the port3 we seem then to be drawing near the mouth of a furnace4 ,the same impression is felt1 when1 on the coast of ,caracas1 we descend from the mountain of ,avila to the port of ,la ,guayra4 ,according to the law of the decrement of heat1 three hundred and fifty toises in height produce in this latitude only three or four degrees difference in temperature4 ,the heat which overpowers the traveller on his entrance into ,santa ,cruz1 or ,la ,guayra1 must consequently be attributed to the reverberation from the rocks1 against which these towns are built4 ,the perpetual coolness which prevails at ,laguna causes it to be considered in the ,canaries a delightful abode4 ,situated in a small plain1 surrounded by gardens1 protected by a hill which is crowned by a wood of laurels1 myrtle1 and arbutus1 the capital of ,teneriffe is very beautifully placed4 ,we should be mistaken if1 relying on the account of some travellers1 we believed it seated on the border of a lake4 ,the rain sometimes forms a sheet of water of considerable extent2 and the geologist1 who beholds in everything the past rather than the present state of nature1 can have no doubt but that the whole plain is a great basin dried up4 ,laguna has fallen from its opulence1 since the lateral eruptions of the volcano have destroyed the port of ,garachico1 and since ,santa ,cruz has become the central point of the commerce of the island4 ,it contains only #ijjj inhabitants1 of whom nearly #djj are monks1 distributed in six convents4 ,the town is surrounded with a great number of windmills1 which indicate the cultivation of wheat in these high countries4 ,i shall observe on this occasion1 that different kinds of grain were known to the ,guanches4 ,they called wheat at ,teneriffe tano1 at ,lancerota triffa2 barley1 in the grand ,canary1 bore the name of aramotanoque1 and at ,lancerota it was called tamosen4 ,the flour of roasted barley 7gofio7 and goat's-milk constituted the principal food of the people1 on the origin of which so many systematic fables have been current4 ,these aliments sufficiently prove that the race of the ,guanches belonged to the nations of the old continent1 perhaps to those of ,caucasus1 and not like the rest of the ,atlantides199 to the inhabitants of the ,new ,world 799 ,without entering here into any discussion respecting the existence of the ,atlantis1 ,i may cite the opinion of ,diodorus ,siculus1 according to whom the ,atlantides were ignorant of the use of corn1 because they were separated from the rest of mankind before these gramina were cultivated472 these1 before the arrival of the ,europeans1 were unacquainted with corn1 milk1 and cheese4 ,a great number of chapels1 which the ,spaniards call ermitas1 encircle the town of ,laguna4 ,shaded by trees of perpetual verdure1 and erected on small eminences1 these chapels add to the picturesque effect of the landscape4 ,the interior of the town is not equal to its external appearance4 ,the houses are solidly built1 but very antique1 and the streets seem deserted4 ,a botanist ought not to complain of the antiquity of the edifices4 ,the roofs and walls are covered with ,canary house-leek and those elegant trichomanes1 mentioned by every traveller4 ,these plants are nourished by the abundant mists4 ,mr4 ,anderson1 the naturalist in the third voyage of captain ,cook1 advises physicians to send their patients to ,teneriffe1 on account of the mildness of the temperature and the equal climate of the ,canaries4 ,the ground on these islands rises in an amphitheatre1 and presents simultaneously1 as in ,peru and ,mexico1 the temperature of every climate1 from the heat of ,africa to the cold of the higher ,alps4 ,santa ,cruz1 the port of ,orotava1 the town of the same name1 and that of ,laguna1 are four places1 the mean temperatures of which form a descending series4 ,in the south of ,europe the change of the seasons is too sensibly felt to present the same advantages4 ,teneriffe1 on the contrary1 situated as it were on the threshold of the tropics1 though but a few days' sail from ,spain1 shares in the charms which nature has lavished on the equinoctial regions4 ,vegetation here displays some of her fairest and most majestic forms in the banana and the palm-tree4 ,he who is alive to the charms of nature finds in this delicious island remedies still more potent than the climate4 ,no abode appeared to me more fitted to dissipate melancholy1 and restore peace to the perturbed mind1 than that of ,teneriffe or ,madeira4 ,these advantages are the effect not of the beauty of the site and the purity of the air alone3 the moral feeling is no longer harrowed up by the sight of slavery1 the presence of which is so revolting in the ,west ,indies1 and in every other place to which ,european colonists have conveyed what they call their civilization and their industry4 ,in winter the climate of ,laguna is extremely foggy1 and the inhabitants often complain of the cold4 ,a fall of snow1 however1 has never been seen2 a fact which may seem to indicate that the mean temperature of this town must be above #ah4g degrees 7#ae degrees ,r471 that is to say1 higher than that of ,naples4 ,i do not lay this down as an unexceptional conclusion1 for in winter the refrigeration of the clouds does not depend so much on the mean temperature of the whole year1 as on the instantaneous diminution of heat to which a district is exposed by its local situation4 ,the mean temperature of the capital of ,mexico1 for instance1 is only #af4h degrees 7#ac4e degrees ,r471 nevertheless1 in the space of a hundred years snow has fallen only once1 while in the south of ,europe and in ,africa it snows in places where the mean temperature is above #ai degrees4 ,the vicinity of the sea renders the climate of ,laguna more mild in winter than might be expected1 arising from its elevation above the level of the ocean4 ,i was astonished to learn that ,m4 ,broussonnet had planted in the midst of this town1 in the garden of the ,marquis de ,nava1 the bread-fruit tree 7,artocarpus incisa71 and cinnamon-tree 7,laurus ,cinnamomum74 ,these valuable productions of the ,south ,sea and the ,east ,indies are naturalized there as well as at ,orotava4 ,does not this fact prove that the bread-fruit might flourish in ,calabria1 ,sicily1 and ,granada8 ,the culture of the coffee-tree has not equally succeeded at ,laguna1 though its fruit ripens at ,teguesta1 as well as between the port of ,orotava and the village of ,st4 ,juan de la ,rambla4 ,it is probable that some local circumstances1 perhaps the nature of the soil and the winds that prevail in the flowering season1 are the cause of this phenomenon4 ,in other regions1 in the neighbourhood of ,naples1 for instance1 the coffee-tree thrives abundantly1 though the mean temperature scarcely rises above #ah centigrade degrees4 ,no person has ascertained in the island of ,teneriffe1 the lowest height at which snow falls every year4 ,this fact1 though easy of verification by barometrical measurements1 has hitherto been generally neglected under every zone4 ,it is nevertheless highly interesting both to agriculture in the colonies and meteorology1 and fully as important as the measure of the limit of the perpetual snows4 ,my observations furnished me with the data1 set down in the following table3-- ,column #a3 ,north latitude4 ,column #b3 ,lowest height in toises at which snow falls4 ,column #c3 ,lowest height in metres at which snow falls4 ,column #d3 ,inferior limit in toises of the perpetual snows4 ,column #e3 ,inferior limit in metres of the perpetual snows4 ,column #f3 ,difference in toises of columns #d and #e4 ,column #g3 ,difference in metres of columns #d and #e4 ,column #h3 ,mean temperature degrees centigrade4 ,column #i3 ,mean temperature degrees ,reaum4 #j 3 #bjdj 3 #cigf 3 #bdfj 3 #dgid 3 #dbj 3 #hah 3 #bg 3 #ba4f4 #bj 3 #aeej 3 #cjbj 3 #bcfj 3 #deih 3 #haj 3 #aegh 3 #bd4e 3 #ai4f4 #dj 3 #j 3 #j 3 #aedj 3 #cjja 3 #aedj 3 #cjja 3 #ag 3 #ac4f4 ,this table presents only the ordinary state of nature1 that is to say1 the phenomena as they are annually observed4 ,exceptions founded on particular local circumstances1 exist4 ,thus it sometimes snows1 though seldom1 at ,naples1 at ,lisbon1 and even at ,malaga1 consequently as low as the #cgth degree of latitude3 and1 as we have just observed1 snow has been seen to fall at ,mexico1 the elevation of which is #aagc toises above the level of the ocean4 ,this phenomenon1 which had not been seen for several centuries1 took place on the day that the ,jesuits were expelled1 and was attributed by the people to that act of severity4 ,a more striking exception was found in the climate of ,valladolid1 the capital of the province of ,mechoacan4 ,according to my measures1 the height of this town1 situate in latitude #ai degrees #db minutes1 is only a thousand toises3 and yet1 a few years before our arrival in ,new ,spain1 the streets were covered with snow for some hours4 ,snow had been seen to fall also at ,teneriffe1 in a place lying above ,esperanza de la ,laguna1 very near the town of that name1 in the gardens of which the artocarpus flourishes4 ,this extraordinary fact was confirmed to ,m4 ,broussonnet by very aged persons4 ,the ,erica arborea1 the ,myrica ,faya1 and the ,arbutus callicarpa199 799 ,this fine arbutus1 imported by ,m4 ,broussonnet1 is very different from the ,arbutus laurifolia1 with which it has been confounded1 but which belongs to ,north ,america47 did not suffer from the snow2 but it destroyed all the vines in the open air4 ,this observation is interesting to vegetable physiology4 ,in hot countries1 the plants are so vigorous1 that cold is less injurious to them1 provided it be of short duration4 ,i have seen the banana cultivated in the island of ,cuba1 in places where the thermometer descends to seven centesimal degrees1 and sometimes very near freezing point4 ,in ,italy and ,spain the orange and date-trees do not perish1 though the cold during the night may be two degrees below freezing point4 ,in general it is remarked by cultivators1 that the trees which grow in a fertile soil are less delicate1 and consequently less affected by great changes in the temperature1 than those which grow in land that affords but little nutriment499 799 ,the mulberries1 cultivated in the thin and sandy soils of countries bordering on the ,baltic ,sea1 are examples of this feebleness of organization4 ,the late frosts do more injury to them1 than to the mulberries of ,piedmont4 ,in ,italy a cold of #e degrees below freezing point does not destroy robust orange trees4 ,according to ,m4 ,galesio1 these trees1 less tender than the lemon and bergamot orange trees1 freeze only at ten centesimal degrees below freezing point47 ,in order to pass from the town of ,laguna to the port of ,orotava and the western coast of ,teneriffe1 we cross at first a hilly region covered with black and argillaceous earth1 in which are found some small crystals of pyroxene4 ,the waters most probably detach these crystals from the neighbouring rocks1 as at ,frascati1 near ,rome4 ,unfortunately1 strata of ferruginous earth conceal the soil from the researches of the geologist4 ,it is only in some ravines1 that we find columnar basalts1 somewhat curved1 and above them very recent breccia1 resembling volcanic tufa4 ,the breccia contain fragments of the same basalts which they cover2 and it is asserted that marine petrifactions are observed in them4 ,the same phenomenon occurs in the ,vicentin1 near ,montechio ,maggiore4 ,the valley of ,tacoronte is the entrance into that charming country1 of which travellers of every nation have spoken with rapturous enthusiasm4 ,under the torrid zone ,i found sites where nature is more majestic1 and richer in the display of organic forms2 but after having traversed the banks of the ,orinoco1 the ,cordilleras of ,peru1 and the most beautiful valleys of ,mexico1 ,i own that ,i have never beheld a prospect more varied1 more attractive1 more harmonious in the distribution of the masses of verdure and of rocks1 than the western coast of ,teneriffe4 ,the sea-coast is lined with date and cocoa trees4 ,groups of the musa1 as the country rises1 form a pleasing contrast with the dragon-tree1 the trunks of which have been justly compared to the tortuous form of the serpent4 ,the declivities are covered with vines1 which throw their branches over towering poles4 ,orange trees loaded with flowers1 myrtles1 and cypress trees encircle the chapels reared to devotion on the isolated hills4 ,the divisions of landed property are marked by hedges formed of the agave and the cactus4 ,an innumerable quantity of cryptogamous plants1 among which ferns are the most predominant1 cover the walls1 and are moistened by small springs of limpid water4 ,in winter1 when the volcano is buried under ice and snow1 this district enjoys perpetual spring4 ,in summer1 as the day declines1 the breezes from the sea diffuse a delicious freshness4 ,the population of this coast is very considerable2 and it appears to be still greater than it is1 because the houses and gardens are distant from each other1 which adds to the picturesque beauty of the scene4 ,unhappily the real welfare of the inhabitants does not correspond with the exertions of their industry1 or with the advantages which nature has lavished on this spot4 ,the farmers are not land-owners2 the fruits of their labour belong to the nobles2 and those feudal institutions1 which1 for so long a time1 spread misery throughout ,europe1 still press heavily on the people of the ,canary ,islands4 ,from ,tegueste and ,tacoronte to the village of ,st4 ,juan de la ,rambla 7which is celebrated for its excellent malmsey wine71 the rising hills are cultivated like a garden4 ,i might compare them to the environs of ,capua and ,valentia1 if the western part of ,teneriffe was not infinitely more beautiful on account of the proximity of the peak1 which presents on every side a new point of view4 ,the aspect of this mountain is interesting not merely from its gigantic mass2 it excites the mind1 by carrying it back to the mysterious source of its volcanic agency4 ,for thousands of years1 no flames or light have been perceived on the summit of the ,piton1 nevertheless enormous lateral eruptions1 the last of which took place in #agih1 are proofs of the activity of a fire still far from being extinguished4 ,there is also something that leaves a melancholy impression on beholding a crater in the centre of a fertile and well cultivated country4 ,the history of the globe informs us1 that volcanoes destroy what they have been a long series of ages in creating4 ,islands1 which the action of submarine fires has raised above the waters1 are by degrees clothed in rich and smiling verdure2 but these new lands are often laid waste by the renewed action of the same power which caused them to emerge from the bottom of the ocean4 ,islets1 which are now but heaps of scoriae and volcanic ashes1 were once perhaps as fertile as the hills of ,tacoronte and ,sauzal4 ,happy the country1 where man has no distrust of the soil on which he lives6 ,pursuing our course to the port of ,orotava1 we passed the smiling hamlets of ,matanza and ,victoria4 ,these names are mingled together in all the ,spanish colonies1 and they form an unpleasing contrast with the peaceful and tranquil feelings which those countries inspire4 ,matanza signifies slaughter1 or carnage2 and the word alone recalls the price at which victory has been purchased4 ,in the ,new ,world it generally indicates the defeat of the natives3 at ,teneriffe1 the village of ,matanza was built in a place99 799 ,the ancient ,acantejo47 where the ,spaniards were conquered by those same ,guanches who soon after were sold as slaves in the markets of ,europe4 ,before we reached ,orotava1 we visited a botanic garden at a little distance from the port4 ,we there found ,m4 ,le ,gros1 the ,french vice-consul1 who had often scaled the summit of the ,peak1 and who served us as an excellent guide4 ,he was accompanying captain ,baudin in a voyage to the ,west ,indies1 when a dreadful tempest1 of which ,m4 ,le ,dru has given an account in the narrative of his voyage to ,porto ,rico1 forced the vessel to put into ,teneriffe4 ,there ,m4 ,le ,gros was led by the beauty of the spot to settle4 ,it was he who augmented scientific knowledge by the first accurate ideas of the great lateral eruption of the ,peak1 which has been very improperly called the explosion of the volcano of ,chahorra4 ,this eruption took place on the #hth of ,june1 #agih4 ,the establishment of a botanical garden at ,teneriffe is a very happy idea1 on account of the influence it is likely to have on the progress of botany1 and on the introduction of useful plants into ,europe4 ,for the first conception of it we are indebted to the ,marquis de ,nava4 ,he undertook1 at an enormous expense1 to level the hill of ,durasno1 which rises as an amphitheatre1 and which was begun to be planted in #agie4 ,the marquis thought that the ,canary ,islands1 from the mildness of their climate and geographical position1 were the most suitable place for naturalising the productions of the ,east and ,west ,indies1 and for inuring the plants gradually to the colder temperature of the south of ,europe4 ,the plants of ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,south ,america1 may easily be brought to ,orotava2 and in order to introduce the bark-tree99 into ,sicily1 ,portugal1 or ,grenada1 it should be first planted at ,durasno1 or at ,laguna1 and the shoots of this tree may afterwards be transported into ,europe from the ,canaries4 799 ,i speak of the species of bark-tree 7cinchona71 which at ,peru1 and in the kingdom of ,new ,granada1 flourish on the back of the ,cordilleras1 at the height of between #ajjj and #aejj toises1 in places where the thermometer is between nine and ten degrees during the day1 and from three to four during the night4 ,the orange bark-tree 7,cinchona lancifolia7 is much less delicate than the red bark-tree 7,c4 oblongifolia747 ,in happier times1 when maritime wars shall no longer interrupt communication1 the garden of ,teneriffe may become extremely useful with respect to the great number of plants which are sent from the ,indies to ,europe2 for ere they reach our coasts1 they often perish1 owing to the length of the passage1 during which they inhale an air impregnated with salt water4 ,these plants would meet at ,orotava with the care and climate necessary for their preservation4 ,at ,durasno1 the protea1 the psidium1 the jambos1 the chirimoya of ,peru199 799 ,annona cherimolia4 ,lamarck47 the sensitive plant1 and the heliconia1 grow in the open air4 ,we gathered the ripened seeds of several beautiful species of glycine from ,new ,holland1 which the governor of ,cumana1 ,mr4 ,emparan1 had successfully cultivated1 and which grow wild on the coasts of ,south ,america4 ,we arrived very late at the port of ,orotava199 799 ,puerto de la ,cruz4 ,the only fine port of the ,canary ,islands is that of ,st4 ,sebastian1 in the isle of ,gomara47 if we may give the name of port to a road in which vessels are obliged to put to sea whenever the winds blow violently from the north-west4 ,it is impossible to speak of ,orotava without recalling to the remembrance of the friends of science the name of ,don ,bernardo ,cologan1 whose house at all times was open to travellers of every nation4 ,we could have wished to have sojourned for some time in ,don ,bernardo's house1 and to have visited with him the charming scenery of ,st4 ,juan de la ,rambla and of ,rialexo de ,abaxo499 799 ,this last-named village stands at the foot of the lofty mountain of ,tygayga47 ,but on a voyage such as we had undertaken1 the present is but little enjoyed4 ,continually haunted by the fear of not executing the designs of the morrow1 we live in perpetual uneasiness4 ,persons who are passionately fond of nature and the arts feel the same sensations1 when they travel through ,switzerland and ,italy4 ,enabled to see but a small portion of the objects which allure them1 they are disturbed in their enjoyments by the restraints they impose on themselves at every step4 ,on the morning of the #bast of ,june1 we were on our way to the summit of the volcano4 ,m4 ,le ,gros1 whose attentions were unwearied1 ,m4 ,lalande1 secretary to the ,french ,consulate at ,santa ,cruz1 and the ,english gardener at ,durasno1 joined us on this excursion4 ,the day was not very fine1 and the summit of the peak1 which is generally visible at ,orotava from sunrise till ten o'clock1 was covered with thick clouds4 ,we were agreeably surprised by the contrast between the vegetation of this part of ,teneriffe1 and that of the environs of ,santa ,cruz4 ,under the influence of a cool and humid climate1 the ground was covered with beautiful verdure2 while on the road from ,santa ,cruz to ,laguna the plants exhibited nothing but capsules emptied of their seeds4 ,near the port of ,santa ,cruz1 the strength of the vegetation is an obstacle to geological research4 ,we passed along the base of two small hills1 which rise in the form of bells4 ,observations made at ,vesuvius and in ,auvergne lead us to think that these hills owe their origin to lateral eruptions of the great volcano4 ,the hill called ,montanita de la ,villa seems indeed to have emitted lavas2 and according to the tradition of the ,guanches1 an eruption took place in #adcj4 ,colonel ,franqui assured ,borda1 that the place is still to be seen whence the melted matter issued2 and that the ashes which covered the ground adjacent1 were not yet fertilized4 ,whenever the rock appeared1 we discovered basaltic amygdaloid99 799 ,basaltartiger ,mandelstein4 ,werner47 covered with hardened clay199 799 ,bimstein-,conglomerat4 ,w47 which contains rapilli1 or fragments of pumice-stone4 ,this last formation resembles the tufas of ,pausilippo1 and the strata of puzzolana1 which ,i found in the valley of ,quito1 at the foot of the volcano of ,pichincha4 ,the amygdaloid has very long pores1 like the superior strata of the lavas of ,vesuvius1 arising probably from the action of an elastic fluid forcing its way through the matter in fusion4 ,notwithstanding these analogies1 ,i must here repeat1 that in all the low region of the peak of ,teneriffe1 on the side of ,orotava1 ,i have met with no flow of lava1 nor any current1 the limits of which are strongly marked4 ,torrents and inundations change the surface of the globe1 and when a great number of currents of lava meet and spread over a plain1 as ,i have seen at ,vesuvius1 in the ,atrio dei ,cavalli1 they seem to be confounded together1 and wear the appearance of real strata4 ,the villa de ,orotava has a pleasant aspect at a distance1 from the great abundance of water which runs through the principal streets4 ,the spring of ,agua ,mansa1 collected in two large reservoirs1 turns several mills1 and is afterward discharged among the vineyards of the adjacent hills4 ,the climate is still more refreshing at the villa than at the port of ,la ,cruz1 from the influence of the breeze1 which blows strong after ten in the morning4 ,the water1 which has been dissolved in the air at a higher temperature1 frequently precipitates itself2 and renders the climate very foggy4 ,the villa is nearly #afj toises 7#cab metres7 above the level of the sea1 consequently #bjj toises lower than the site on which ,laguna is built3 it is observed also1 that the same kind of plants flower a month later in this latter place4 ,orotava1 the ancient ,taoro of the ,guanches1 is situated on a very steep declivity4 ,the streets seem deserted2 the houses are solidly built1 and of a gloomy appearance4 ,we passed along a lofty aqueduct1 lined with a great number of fine ferns2 and visited several gardens1 in which the fruit trees of the north of ,europe are mingled with orange trees1 pomegranate1 and date trees4 ,we were assured1 that these last were as little productive here as on the coast of ,cumana4 ,although we had been made acquainted1 from the narratives of many travellers1 with the dragon-tree of the garden of ,m4 ,franqui1 we were not the less struck with its enormous magnitude4 ,we were told1 that the trunk of this tree1 which is mentioned in several very ancient documents as marking the boundaries of a field1 was as gigantic in the fifteenth century as it is at the present time4 ,its height appeared to us to be about #ej or #fj feet2 its circumference near the roots is #de feet4 ,we could not measure higher1 but ,sir ,george ,staunton found that1 #aj feet from the ground1 the diameter of the trunk is still #ab ,english feet2 which corresponds perfectly with the statement of ,borda1 who found its mean circumference #cc feet #h inches1 ,french measure4 ,the trunk is divided into a great number of branches1 which rise in the form of a candelabrum1 and are terminated by tufts of leaves1 like the yucca which adorns the valley of ,mexico4 ,this division gives it a very different appearance from that of the palm-tree4 ,among organic creations1 this tree is undoubtedly1 together with the ,adansonia or baobab of ,senegal1 one of the oldest inhabitants of our globe4 ,the baobabs are of still greater dimensions than the dragon-tree of ,orotava4 ,there are some which near the root measure #cd feet in diameter1 though their total height is only from #ej to #fj feet4 ,but we should observe1 that the ,adansonia1 like the ochroma1 and all the plants of the family of bombax1 grow much more rapidly99 than the dracaena1 the vegetation of which is very slow4 799 ,it is the same with the plane-tree 7,platanus occidentalis7 which ,m4 ,michaux measured at ,marietta1 on the banks of the ,ohio1 and which1 at twenty feet from the ground1 was #ae4g feet in diameter4 --,voyage a l',ouest des ,monts ,alleghany #ahjd page #ic4 ,the yew1 chestnut1 oak1 plane-tree1 deciduous cypress1 bombax1 mimosa1 caesalpina1 hymenaea1 and dracaena1 appear to me to be the plants which1 in different climates1 present specimens of the most extraordinary growth4 ,an oak1 discovered together with some ,gallic helmets in #ahji1 in the turf pits of the department of the ,somme1 near the village of ,yseux1 seven leagues from ,abbeville1 was about the same size as the dragon-tree of ,orotava4 ,according to a memoir by ,m4 ,traullee1 the trunk of this oak was #ad feet in diameter47 ,that in ,m4 ,franqui's garden still bears every year both flowers and fruit4 ,its aspect forcibly exemplifies that eternal youth of nature1 which is an inexhaustible source of motion and of life4 ,the dracaena1 which is seen only in cultivated spots in the ,canary ,islands1 at ,madeira1 and ,porto ,santo1 presents a curious phenomenon with respect to the migration of plants4 ,it has never been found in a wild state on the continent of ,africa4 ,the ,east ,indies is its real country4 ,how has this tree been transplanted to ,teneriffe1 where it is by no means common8 ,does its existence prove1 that1 at some very distant period1 the ,guanches had connexions with other nations originally from ,asia899 799 ,the form of the dragon-tree is exhibited in several species of the genus ,dracaena1 at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 in ,china1 and in ,new ,zealand4 ,but in ,new ,zealand it is superseded by the form of the yucca2 for the ,dracaena borealis of ,aiton is a ,convallaria1 of which it has all the appearance4 ,the astringent juice1 known in commerce by the name of dragon's blood1 is1 according to the inquiries we made on the spot1 the produce of several ,american plants1 which do not belong to the same genus and of which some are lianas4 ,at ,laguna1 toothpicks steeped in the juice of the dragon-tree are made in the nunneries1 and are much extolled as highly useful for keeping the gums in a healthy state47 ,on leaving ,orotava1 a narrow and stony pathway led us through a beautiful forest of chestnut trees 7el monte de ,castanos71 to a site covered with brambles1 some species of laurels1 and arborescent heaths4 ,the trunks of the latter grow to an extraordinary size2 and the flowers with which they are loaded form an agreeable contrast1 during a great part of the year1 to the ,hypericum canariense1 which is very abundant at this height4 ,we stopped to take in our provision of water under a solitary fir-tree4 ,this station is known in the country by the name of ,pino del ,dornajito4 ,its height1 according to the barometrical measurement of ,m4 de ,borda1 is #ebb toises2 and it commands a magnificent prospect of the sea1 and the whole of the northern part of the island4 ,near ,pino del ,dornajito1 a little on the right of the pathway1 is a copious spring of water1 into which we plunged the thermometer1 which fell to #ae4d degrees4 ,at a hundred toises distance from this spring is another equally limpid4 ,if we admit that these waters indicate nearly the mean heat of the place whence they issue1 we may fix the absolute elevation of the station at #ebj toises1 supposing the mean temperature of the coast to be #ba degrees1 and allowing one degree for the decrement of caloric corresponding under this zone to #ic toises4 ,we should not be surprised if this spring remained a little below the heat of the air1 since it probably takes its source in some more elevated part of the peak1 and possibly communicates with the small subterranean glaciers of which we shall speak hereafter4 ,the accordance just observed between the barometrical and thermometrical measures is so much more striking1 because in mountainous countries1 with steep declivities1 the springs generally indicate too great a decrement of caloric1 for they unite small currents of water1 which filtrate at different heights1 and their temperature is consequently the mean between the temperature of these currents4 ,the spring of ,dornajito has considerable reputation in the country2 and at the time ,i was there1 it was the only one known on the road which leads to the summit of the volcano4 ,the formation of springs demands a certain regularity in the direction and inclination of the strata4 ,on a volcanic soil1 porous and splintered rocks absorb the rain waters1 and convey them to considerable depths4 ,hence arises that aridity observed in the greater part of the ,canary ,islands1 notwithstanding the considerable height of their mountains1 and the mass of clouds which navigators behold incessantly overhanging this archipelago4 ,from ,pino del ,dornajito to the crater of the volcano we continued to ascend without crossing a single valley2 for the small ravines 7barancos7 do not merit this name4 ,to the eye of the geologist the whole island of ,teneriffe is but one mountain1 the almost elliptical base of which is prolonged to the north-east1 and in which may be distinguished several systems of volcanic rocks formed at different epochs4 ,the ,chahorra1 or ,montana ,colorada1 and the ,urca1 considered in the country as insulated volcanoes1 are only little hills abutting on the peak1 and masking its pyramidal form4 ,the great volcano1 the lateral eruptions of which have given birth to vast promontories1 is not however precisely in the centre of the island1 and this peculiarity of structure appears the less surprising1 if we recollect that1 as the learned mineralogist ,m4 ,cordier has observed1 it is not perhaps the small crater of the ,piton which has been the principal agent in the changes undergone by the island of ,teneriffe4 ,above the region of arborescent heaths1 called ,monte ,verde1 is the region of ferns4 ,nowhere1 in the temperate zone1 have ,i seen such an abundance of the pteris1 blechnum1 and asplenium2 yet none of these plants have the stateliness of the arborescent ferns which1 at the height of five or six hundred toises1 form the principal ornament of equinoctial ,america4 ,the root of the ,pteris aquilina serves the inhabitants of ,palma and ,gomera for food2 they grind it to powder1 and mix with it a quantity of barley-meal4 ,this composition1 when boiled1 is called gofio2 the use of so homely an aliment is a proof of the extreme poverty of the lower order of people in the ,canary ,islands4 ,monte ,verde is intersected by several small and very arid ravines 7canadas71 and the region of ferns is succeeded by a wood of juniper trees and firs1 which has suffered greatly from the violence of hurricanes4 ,in this place1 mentioned by some travellers under the name of ,caravela199 799 ,philosophical ,transactions volume #bi page #cag4 ,carabela is the name of a vessel with lateen sails4 ,the pines of the peak formerly were used as masts of vessels47 ,mr4 ,eden states that in the year #agje he saw little flames1 which1 according to the doctrine of the naturalists of his time1 he attributes to sulphurous exhalations igniting spontaneously4 ,we continued to ascend1 till we came to the rock of ,la ,gayta and to ,portillo3 traversing this narrow pass between two basaltic hills1 we entered the great plain of ,spartium4 ,at the time of the voyage of ,laperouse1 ,m4 ,manneron had taken the levels of the peak1 from the port of ,orotava to this elevated plain1 near #adjj toises above the level of the sea2 but the want of water1 and the misconduct of the guides1 prevented him from taking the levels to the top of the volcano4 ,the results of the operation1 7which was two-thirds completed17 unfortunately were not sent to ,europe1 and the work is still to be recommenced from the sea-coast4 ,we spent two hours and a half in crossing the ,llano del ,retama1 which appears like an immense sea of sand4 ,notwithstanding the elevation of this site1 the centigrade thermometer rose in the shade toward sunset1 to #ac4h degrees1 or #c4g degrees higher than toward noon at ,monte ,verde4 ,this augmentation of heat could be attributed only to the reverberation from the ground1 and the extent of the plain4 ,we suffered much from the suffocating dust of the pumice-stone1 in which we were continually enveloped4 ,in the midst of this plain are tufts of the retama1 which is the ,spartium nubigenum of ,aiton4 ,m4 de ,martiniere1 one of the botanists who perished in the expedition of ,laperouse1 wished to introduce this beautiful shrub into ,languedoc1 where firewood is very scarce4 ,it grows to the height of nine feet1 and is loaded with odoriferous flowers1 with which the goat hunters1 that we met in our road1 had decorated their hats4 ,the goats of the peak1 which are of a deep brown colour1 are reckoned delicious food2 they browse on the spartium1 and have run wild in the deserts from time immemorial4 ,they have been transported to ,madeira1 where they are preferred to the goats of ,europe4 ,as far as the rock of ,gayta1 or the entrance of the extensive ,llano del ,retama1 the peak of ,teneriffe is covered with beautiful vegetation4 ,there are no traces of recent devastation4 ,we might have imagined ourselves scaling the side of some volcano1 the fire of which had been extinguished as remotely as that of ,monte ,cavo1 near ,rome2 but scarcely had we reached the plain covered with pumice-stone1 when the landscape changed its aspect1 and at every step we met with large blocks of obsidian thrown out by the volcano4 ,everything here speaks perfect solitude4 ,a few goats and rabbits only bound across the plain4 ,the barren region of the peak is nine square leagues2 and as the lower regions viewed from this point retrograde in the distance1 the island appears an immense heap of torrefied matter1 hemmed round by a scanty border of vegetation4 ,from the region of the ,spartium nubigenum we passed through narrow defiles1 and small ravines hollowed at a very remote time by the torrents1 first arriving at a more elevated plain 7el ,monton de ,trigo71 then at the place where we intended to pass the night4 ,this station1 which is more than #aecj toises above the coast1 bears the name of the ,english ,halt 7,estancia de los ,ingleses99 799 ,this denomination was in use as early as the beginning of the last century4 ,mr4 ,eden1 who corrupts all ,spanish words1 as do most travellers in our own times1 calls it the ,stancha3 it is the ,station des ,rochers of ,m4 ,borda1 as is proved by the barometrical heights there observed4 ,these heights were in #ahjc1 according to ,m4 ,cordier1 #ai inches #i4e lines2 and in #aggf1 according to ,messrs4 ,borda and ,varela1 #ai inches #i4h lines2 the barometer at ,orotava keeping within nearly a line at the same height4771 no doubt because most of the travellers1 who formerly visited the peak1 were ,englishmen4 ,two inclined rocks form a kind of cavern1 which affords a shelter from the winds4 ,this point1 which is higher than the summit of the ,canigou1 can be reached on the backs of mules2 and here has ended the expedition of numbers of travellers1 who on leaving ,orotava hoped to have ascended to the brink of the crater4 ,though in the midst of summer1 and under an ,african sky1 we suffered from cold during the night4 ,the thermometer descended as low as to five degrees4 ,our guides made a large fire with the dry branches of retama4 ,having neither tents nor cloaks1 we lay down on some masses of rock1 and were singularly incommoded by the flame and smoke1 which the wind drove towards us4 ,we had attempted to form a kind of screen with cloths tied together1 but our enclosure took fire1 which we did not perceive till the greater part had been consumed by the flames4 ,we had never passed a night on a point so elevated1 and we then little imagined that we should1 one day1 on the ridge of the ,cordilleras1 inhabit towns higher than the summit of the volcano we were to scale on the morrow4 ,as the temperature diminished1 the peak became covered with thick clouds4 ,the approach of night interrupts the play of the ascending current1 which1 during the day1 rises from the plains towards the high regions of the atmosphere2 and the air1 in cooling1 loses its capacity of suspending water4 ,a strong northerly wind chased the clouds2 the moon at intervals1 shooting through the vapours1 exposed its disk on a firmament of the darkest blue2 and the view of the volcano threw a majestic character over the nocturnal scenery4 ,sometimes the peak was entirely hidden from our eyes by the fog1 at other times it broke upon us in terrific proximity2 and1 like an enormous pyramid1 threw its shadow over the clouds rolling beneath our feet4 ,about three in the morning1 by the sombrous light of a few fir torches1 we started on our journey to the summit of the ,piton4 ,we scaled the volcano on the north-east side1 where the declivities are extremely steep2 and after two hours' toil1 we reached a small plain1 which1 on account of its elevated position1 bears the name of ,alta ,vista4 ,this is the station of the neveros1 those natives1 whose occupation it is to collect ice and snow1 which they sell in the neighbouring towns4 ,their mules1 better practised in climbing mountains than those hired by travellers1 reach ,alta ,vista1 and the neveros are obliged to transport the snow to that place on their backs4 ,above this point commences the ,malpays1 a term by which is designated here1 as well as in ,mexico1 ,peru1 and every other country subject to volcanoes1 a ground destitute of vegetable mould1 and covered with fragments of lava4 ,we turned to the right to examine the cavern of ice1 which is at the elevation of #agbh toises1 consequently below the limit of the perpetual snows in this zone4 ,probably the cold which prevails in this cavern1 is owing to the same causes which perpetuate the ice in the crevices of ,mount ,jura and the ,apennines1 and on which the opinions of naturalists are still much divided4 ,this natural ice-house of the peak has1 nevertheless1 none of those perpendicular openings1 which give emission to the warm air1 while the cold air remains undisturbed at the bottom4 ,it would seem that the ice is preserved in it on account of its mass1 and because its melting is retarded by the cold1 which is the consequence of quick evaporation4 ,this small subterraneous glacier is situated in a region1 the mean temperature of which is probably not under three degrees2 and it is not1 like the true glaciers of the ,alps1 fed by the snow waters that flow from the summits of the mountains4 ,during winter the cavern is filled with ice and snow2 and as the rays of the sun do not penetrate beyond the mouth1 the heats of summer are not sufficient to empty the reservoir4 ,the existence of a natural ice-house depends1 consequently1 rather on the quantity of snow which enters it in winter1 and the small influence of the warm winds in summer1 than on the absolute elevation of the cavity1 and the mean temperature of the layer of air in which it is situated4 ,the air contained in the interior of a mountain is not easily displaced1 as is exemplified by ,monte ,testaccio at ,rome1 the temperature of which is so different from that of the surrounding atmosphere4 ,on ,chimborazo enormous heaps of ice are found covered with sand1 and1 in the same manner as at the peak1 far below the inferior limit of the perpetual snows4 ,it was near the ,ice-,cavern 7,cueva del ,hielo71 that1 in the voyage of ,laperouse1 ,messrs4 ,lamanon and ,monges made their experiments on the temperature of boiling water4 ,these naturalists found it #hh4g degrees1 the barometer at nineteen inches one line4 ,in the kingdom of ,new ,grenada1 at the chapel of ,guadaloupe1 near ,santa-,fe de ,bogota1 ,i have seen water boil at #hi4i degrees1 under a pressure of #ai inches #a4i lines1 ,at ,tambores1 in the province of ,popayan1 ,senor ,caldas found the heat of boiling water #hi4e degrees1 the barometer being at #ah inches #aa4f lines4 ,these results might lead us to suspect1 that1 in the experiment of ,m4 ,lamanon1 the water had not reached the maximum of its temperature4 ,day was beginning to dawn when we left the ice-cavern4 ,we observed1 during the twilight1 a phenomenon which is not unusual on high mountains1 but which the position of the volcano we were scaling rendered very striking4 ,a layer of white and fleecy clouds concealed from us the sight of the ocean1 and the lower region of the island4 ,this layer did not appear above #hjj toises high2 the clouds were so uniformly spread1 and kept so perfect a level1 that they wore the appearance of a vast plain covered with snow4 ,the colossal pyramid of the peak1 the volcanic summits of ,lancerota1 of ,forteventura1 and the isle of ,palma1 were like rocks amidst this vast sea of vapours1 and their black tints were in fine contrast with the whiteness of the clouds4 ,while we were climbing over the broken lavas of the ,malpays1 we perceived a very curious optical phenomenon1 which lasted eight minutes4 ,we thought we saw on the east side small rockets thrown into the air4 ,luminous points1 about seven or eight degrees above the horizon1 appeared first to move in a vertical direction2 but their motion was gradually changed into a horizontal oscillation4 ,our fellow-travellers1 our guides even1 were astonished at this phenomenon1 without our having made any remark on it to them4 ,we thought1 at first sight1 that these luminous points1 which floated in the air1 indicated some new eruption of the great volcano of ,lancerota2 for we recollected that ,bouguer and ,la ,condamine1 in scaling the volcano of ,pichincha1 were witnesses of the eruption of ,cotopaxi4 ,but the illusion soon ceased1 and we found that the luminous points were the images of several stars magnified by the vapours4 ,these images remained motionless at intervals1 they then seemed to rise perpendicularly1 descended sideways1 and returned to the point whence they had departed4 ,this motion lasted one or two seconds4 ,though we had no exact means of measuring the extent of the lateral shifting1 we did not the less distinctly observe the path of the luminous point4 ,it did not appear double from an effect of mirage1 and left no trace of light behind4 ,bringing1 with the telescope of a small sextant by ,troughton1 the stars into contact with the lofty summit of a mountain in ,lancerota1 ,i observed that the oscillation was constantly directed towards the same point1 that is to say1 towards that part of the horizon where the disk of the sun was to appear2 and that1 making allowance for the motion of the star in its declination1 the image returned always to the same place4 ,these appearances of lateral refraction ceased long before daylight rendered the stars quite invisible4 ,i have faithfully related what we saw during the twilight1 without undertaking to explain this extraordinary phenomenon1 of which ,i published an account in ,baron ,zach's ,astronomical ,journal1 twelve years ago4 ,the motion of the vesicular vapours1 caused by the rising of the sun2 the mingling of several layers of air1 the temperature and density of which were very different1 no doubt contributed to produce an apparent movement of the stars in the horizontal direction4 ,we see something similar in the strong undulations of the solar disk1 when it cuts the horizon2 but these undulations seldom exceed twenty seconds1 while the lateral motion of the stars1 observed at the peak1 at more than #ahjj toises1 was easily distinguished by the naked eye1 and seemed to exceed all that we have thought it possible to consider hitherto as the effect of the refraction of the light of the stars4 ,on the top of the ,andes1 at ,antisana1 ,i observed the sun-rise1 and passed the whole night at the height of #bajj toises1 without noting any appearance resembling this phenomenon4 ,i was anxious to make an exact observation of the instant of sun-rising at an elevation so considerable as that we had reached on the peak of ,teneriffe4 ,no traveller1 furnished with instruments1 had as yet taken such an observation4 ,i had a telescope and a chronometer1 which ,i knew to be exceedingly correct4 ,in the part where the sun was to appear the horizon was free from vapour4 ,we perceived the upper limb at #d hours #dh minutes #ee seconds apparent time1 and what is very remarkable1 the first luminous point of the disk appeared immediately in contact with the limit of the horizon1 consequently we saw the true horizon2 that is to say1 a part of the sea farther distant than #dc leagues4 ,it is proved by calculation that1 under the same parallel in the plain1 the rising would have begun at #e hours #a minute #ej4d seconds1 or #aa minutes #ea4c seconds later than at the height of the peak4 ,the difference observed was #ab minutes #ee seconds1 which arose no doubt from the uncertainty of the refraction for a zenith distance1 of which observations are wanting4 ,we were surprised at the extreme slowness with which the lower limb of the sun seemed to detach itself from the horizon4 ,this limb was not visible till #d hours #ef minutes #ef seconds4 ,the disc of the sun1 much flattened1 was well defined2 during the ascent there was neither double image nor lengthening of the lower limb4 ,the duration of the sun's rising being triple that which we might have expected in this latitude1 we must suppose that a fog-bank1 very uniformly extended1 concealed the true horizon1 and followed the sun in its ascent4 ,notwithstanding the libration of the stars199 which we had observed towards the east1 we could not attribute the slowness of the rising to an extraordinary refraction of the rays occasioned by the horizon of the sea2 for it is precisely at the rising of the sun1 as ,le ,gentil daily observed at ,pondicherry1 and as ,i have several times remarked at ,cumana1 that the horizon sinks1 on account of the elevation of temperature in the stratum of the air which lies immediately over the surface of the ocean4 799 ,a celebrated astronomer1 ,baron ,zach1 has compared this phenomenon of an apparent libration of the stars to that described in the ,georgics 7lib4 #ej v4 #cfe74 ,but this passage relates only to the falling stars1 which the ancients1 7like the mariners of modern times7 considered as a prognostic of wind47 ,the road1 which we were obliged to clear for ourselves across the ,malpays1 was extremely fatiguing4 ,the ascent is steep1 and the blocks of lava rolled from beneath our feet4 ,i can compare this part of the road only to the ,moraine of the ,alps or that mass of pebbly stones which we find at the lower extremity of the glaciers4 ,at the peak the lava1 broken into sharp pieces1 leaves hollows1 in which we risked falling up to our waists4 ,unfortunately the listlessness of our guides contributed to increase the difficulty of this ascent4 ,unlike the guides of the valley of ,chamouni1 or the nimble-footed ,guanches1 who could1 it is asserted1 seize the rabbit or wild goat in its course1 our ,canarian guides were models of the phlegmatic4 ,they had wished to persuade us on the preceding evening not to go beyond the station of the rocks4 ,every ten minutes they sat down to rest themselves1 and when unobserved they threw away the specimens of obsidian and pumice-stone1 which we had carefully collected4 ,we discovered at length that none of them had ever visited the summit of the volcano4 ,after three hours' walking1 we reached1 at the extremity of the ,malpays1 a small plain1 called ,la ,rambleta1 from the centre of which the ,piton1 or ,sugar-loaf1 takes its rise4 ,on the side toward ,orotava the mountain resembles those pyramids with steps that are seen at ,fayoum and in ,mexico2 for the elevated plains of ,retama and ,rambleta form two tiers1 the first of which is four times higher than the second4 ,if we suppose the total height of the ,peak to be #aijd toises1 the ,rambleta is #ahbj toises above the level of the sea4 ,here are found those spiracles1 which are called by the natives the ,nostrils of the ,peak 7,narices del ,pico74 ,watery and heated vapours issue at intervals from several crevices in the ground1 and the thermometer rose to #dc4b degrees4 ,m4 ,labillardiere had found the temperature of these vapours1 eight years before us1 #ec4g degrees2 a difference which does not perhaps prove so much a diminution of activity in the volcano1 as a local change in the heating of its internal surface4 ,the vapours have no smell1 and seem to be pure water4 ,a short time before the great eruption of ,mount ,vesuvius1 in #ahje1 ,m4 ,gay-,lussac and myself had observed that water1 under the form of vapour1 in the interior of the crater1 did not redden paper which had been dipped in syrup of violets4 ,i cannot1 however1 admit the bold hypothesis1 according to which the ,nostrils of the ,peak are to be considered as the vents of an immense apparatus of distillation1 the lower part of which is situated below the level of the sea4 ,since the time when volcanoes have been carefully studied1 and the love of the marvellous has been less apparent in works on geology1 well founded doubts have been raised respecting these direct and constant communications between the waters of the sea and the focus of the volcanic fire499 799 ,this question has been examined with much sagacity by ,m4 ,brieslak1 in his ,introduzzione alla ,geologia1 tome #b pages #cjb1 #cbc1 #cdg4 ,cotopaxi and ,popocatepetl1 which ,i saw ejecting smoke and ashes1 in #ahjd1 are farther from both the ,pacific and the ,gulf of the ,antilles1 than ,grenoble is from the ,mediterranean1 and ,orleans from the ,atlantic4 ,we must not consider the fact as merely accidental1 that we have not yet discovered an active volcano more than #dj leagues distant from the ocean2 but ,i consider the hypothesis1 that the waters of the sea are absorbed1 distilled1 and decomposed by volcanoes1 as very doubtful47 ,we may find a very simple explanation of a phenomenon1 that has in it nothing very surprising4 ,the peak is covered with snow during part of the year2 we ourselves found it still so in the plain of ,rambleta4 ,messrs4 ,o',donnel and ,armstrong discovered in #ahjf a very abundant spring in the ,malpays1 a hundred toises above the cavern of ice1 which is perhaps fed partly by this snow4 ,everything consequently leads us to presume that the peak of ,teneriffe1 like the volcanoes of the ,andes1 and those of the island of ,manilla1 contains within itself great cavities1 which are filled with atmospherical water1 owing merely to filtration4 ,the aqueous vapours exhaled by the ,narices and crevices of the crater1 are only those same waters heated by the interior surfaces down which they flow4 ,we had yet to scale the steepest part of the mountain1 the ,piton1 which forms the summit4 ,the slope of this small cone1 covered with volcanic ashes1 and fragments of pumice-stone1 is so steep1 that it would have been almost impossible to reach the top1 had we not ascended by an old current of lava1 the debris of which have resisted the ravages of time4 ,these debris form a wall of scorious rock1 which stretches into the midst of the loose ashes4 ,we ascended the ,piton by grasping these half-decomposed scoriae1 which often broke in our hands4 ,we employed nearly half an hour to scale a hill1 the perpendicular height of which is scarcely ninety toises4 ,vesuvius1 three times lower than the peak of ,teneriffe1 is terminated by a cone of ashes almost three times higher1 but with a more accessible and easy slope4 ,of all the volcanoes which ,i have visited1 that of ,jorullo1 in ,mexico1 is the only one that is more difficult to climb than the ,peak1 because the whole mountain is covered with loose ashes4 ,when the ,sugar-loaf 7el ,piton7 is covered with snow1 as it is in the beginning of winter1 the steepness of its declivity may be very dangerous to the traveller4 ,m4 ,le ,gros showed us the place where captain ,baudin was nearly killed when he visited the ,peak of ,teneriffe4 ,that officer had the courage to undertake1 in company with the naturalists ,advenier1 ,mauger1 and ,riedle1 an excursion to the top of the volcano about the end of ,december1 #agig4 ,having reached half the height of the cone1 he fell1 and rolled down as far as the small plain of ,rambleta2 happily a heap of lava1 covered with snow1 hindered him from rolling farther with accelerated velocity4 ,i have been told1 that in ,switzerland a traveller was suffocated by rolling down the declivity of the ,col de ,balme1 over the compact turf of the ,alps4 ,when we gained the summit of the ,piton1 we were surprised to find scarcely room enough to seat ourselves conveniently4 ,we were stopped by a small circular wall of porphyritic lava1 with a base of pitchstone1 which concealed from us the view of the crater499 799 ,called ,la ,caldera1 or the caldron of the peak1 a denomination which recalls to mind the ,oules of the ,pyrenees47 ,the west wind blew with such violence that we could scarcely stand4 ,it was eight in the morning1 and we suffered severely from the cold1 though the thermometer kept a little above freezing point4 ,for a long time we had been accustomed to a very high temperature1 and the dry wind increased the feeling of cold1 because it carried off every moment the small atmosphere of warm and humid air1 which was formed around us from the effect of cutaneous perspiration4 ,the brink of the crater of the peak bears no resemblance to those of most of the other volcanoes which ,i have visited3 for instance1 the craters of ,vesuvius1 ,jorullo1 and ,pichincha4 ,in these the ,piton preserves its conic figure to the very summit3 the whole of their declivity is inclined the same number of degrees1 and uniformly covered with a layer of pumice-stone very minutely divided2 when we reach the top of these volcanoes1 nothing obstructs the view of the bottom of the crater4 ,the peaks of ,teneriffe and ,cotopaxi1 on the contrary1 are of very different construction4 ,at their summit a circular wall surrounds the crater2 which wall1 at a distance1 has the appearance of a small cylinder placed on a truncated cone4 ,on ,cotopaxi this peculiar construction is visible to the naked eye at more than #bjjj toises distance2 and no person has ever reached the crater of that volcano4 ,on the peak of ,teneriffe1 the wall1 which surrounds the crater like a parapet1 is so high1 that it would be impossible to reach the ,caldera1 if1 on the eastern side1 there was not a breach1 which seems to have been the effect of a flowing of very old lava4 ,we descended through this breach toward the bottom of the funnel1 the figure of which is elliptic4 ,its greater axis has a direction from north-west to south-east1 nearly north #ce degrees west4 ,the greatest breadth of the mouth appeared to us to be #cjj feet1 the smallest #bjj feet1 which numbers agree very nearly with the measurement of ,,mm4 ,verguin1 ,varela1 and ,borda4 ,it is easy to conceive1 that the size of a crater does not depend solely on the height and mass of the mountain1 of which it forms the principal air-vent4 ,this opening is indeed seldom in direct ratio with the intensity of the volcanic fire1 or with the activity of the volcano4 ,at ,vesuvius1 which is but a hill compared with the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 the diameter of the crater is five times greater4 ,when we reflect1 that very lofty volcanoes throw out less matter from their summits than from lateral openings1 we should be led to think1 that the lower the volcanoes1 their force and activity being the same1 the more considerable ought to be their craters4 ,in fact1 there are immense volcanoes in the ,andes1 which have but very small openings2 and we might establish as a geological principle1 that the most colossal mountains have craters of little extent at the summits1 if the ,cordilleras did not present many instances to the contrary499 799 ,the great volcanoes of ,cotopaxi and ,rucupichincha have craters1 the diameters of which1 according to my measurements1 exceed #djj and #gjj toises47 ,i shall have occasion1 in the progress of this work1 to cite a number of facts1 which will throw some light on what may be called the external structure of volcanoes4 ,this structure is as varied as the volcanic phenomena themselves2 and in order to raise ourselves to geological conceptions worthy of the greatness of nature1 we must set aside the idea that all volcanoes are formed after the model of ,vesuvius1 ,stromboli1 and ,etna4 ,the external edges of the ,caldera are almost perpendicular4 ,their appearance is somewhat like the ,somma1 seen from the ,atrio dei ,cavalli4 ,we descended to the bottom of the crater on a train of broken lava1 from the eastern breach of the enclosure4 ,the heat was perceptible only in a few crevices1 which gave vent to aqueous vapours with a peculiar buzzing noise4 ,some of these funnels or crevices are on the outside of the enclosure1 on the external brink of the parapet that surrounds the crater4 ,we plunged the thermometer into them1 and saw it rise rapidly to #fh and #ge degrees4 ,it no doubt indicated a higher temperature1 but we could not observe the instrument till we had drawn it up1 lest we should burn our hands4 ,m4 ,cordier found several crevices1 the heat of which was that of boiling water4 ,it might be thought that these vapours1 which are emitted in gusts1 contain muriatic or sulphurous acid2 but when condensed1 they have no particular taste2 and experiments1 which have been made with re-agents1 prove that the chimneys of the peak exhale only pure water4 ,this phenomenon1 analogous to that which ,i observed in the crater of ,jorullo1 deserves the more attention1 as muriatic acid abounds in the greater part of volcanoes1 and as ,m4 ,vauquelin has discovered it even in the porphyritic lavas of ,sarcouy in ,auvergne4 ,i sketched on the spot a view of the interior edge of the crater1 as it presented itself in the descent by the eastern break4 ,nothing is more striking than the manner in which these strata of lava are piled on one another1 exhibiting the sinuosities of the calcareous rock of the higher ,alps4 ,these enormous ledges1 sometimes horizontal1 sometimes inclined and undulating1 are indicative of the ancient fluidity of the whole mass1 and of the combination of several deranging causes1 which have determined the direction of each flow4 ,the top of the circular wall exhibits those curious ramifications which we find in coke4 ,the northern edge is most elevated4 ,towards the south-west the enclosure is considerably sunk and an enormous mass of scorious lava seems glued to the extremity of the brink4 ,on the west the rock is perforated2 and a large opening gives a view of the horizon of the sea4 ,the force of the elastic vapours perhaps formed this natural aperture1 at the time of some inundation of lava thrown out from the crater4 ,the inside of this funnel indicates a volcano1 which for thousands of years has vomited no fire but from its sides4 ,this conclusion is not founded on the absence of great openings1 which might be expected in the bottom of the ,caldera4 ,those whose experience is founded on personal observation1 know that several volcanoes1 in the intervals of an eruption1 appear filled up1 and almost extinguished2 but that in these same mountains1 the crater of the volcano exhibits layers of scoriae1 rough1 sonorous1 and shining4 ,we observe hillocks and intumescences caused by the action of the elastic vapours1 cones of broken scoriae and ashes which cover the funnels4 ,none of these phenomena characterise the crater of the peak of ,teneriffe2 its bottom is not in the state which ensues at the close of an eruption4 ,from the lapse of time1 and the action of the vapours1 the inside walls are detached1 and have covered the basin with great blocks of lithoid lavas4 ,the bottom of the ,caldera is reached without danger4 ,in a volcano1 the activity of which is principally directed towards the summit1 such as ,vesuvius1 the depth of the crater varies before and after each eruption2 but at the peak of ,teneriffe the depth appears to have remained unchanged for a long time4 ,eden1 in #agae1 estimated it at #aae feet2 ,cordier1 in #ahjc1 at #aaj feet4 ,judging by mere inspection1 ,i should have thought the funnel of still less depth4 ,its present state is that of a solfatara2 and it is rather an object of curious investigation1 than of imposing aspect4 ,the majesty of the site consists in its elevation above the level of the sea1 in the profound solitude of these lofty regions1 and in the immense space over which the eye ranges from the summit of the mountain4 ,the wall of compact lava1 forming the enclosure of the ,caldera1 is snow-white at its surface4 ,the same colour prevails in the inside of the ,solfatara of ,puzzuoli4 ,when we break these lavas1 which might be taken at some distance for calcareous stone1 we find in them a blackish brown nucleus4 ,porphyry1 with basis of pitch-stone1 is whitened externally by the slow action of the vapours of sulphurous acid gas4 ,these vapours rise in abundance2 and what is rather remarkable1 through crevices which seem to have no communication with the apertures that emit aqueous vapours4 ,we may be convinced of the presence of the sulphurous acid1 by examining the fine crystals of sulphur1 which are everywhere found in the crevices of the lava4 ,this acid1 combined with the water with which the soil is impregnated1 is transformed into sulphuric acid by contact with the oxygen of the atmosphere4 ,in general1 the humidity in the crater of the peak is more to be feared than the heat2 and they who seat themselves for a while on the ground find their clothes corroded4 ,the porphyritic lavas are affected by the action of the sulphuric acid3 the alumine1 magnesia1 soda1 and metallic oxides gradually disappear2 and often nothing remains but the silex1 which unites in mammillary plates1 like opal4 ,these siliceous concretions199 799 ,opalartiger kieselsinter4 ,the siliceous gurh of the volcanoes of the ,isle of ,france contains1 according to ,klaproth1 #j4gb silex1 and #j4ba water2 and thus comes near to opal1 which ,karsten considers as a hydrated silex47 which ,m4 ,cordier first made known1 are similar to those found in the isle of ,ischia1 in the extinguished volcanoes of ,santa ,fiora1 and in the ,solfatara of ,puzzuoli4 ,it is not easy to form an idea of the origin of these incrustations4 ,the aqueous vapours1 discharged through great spiracles1 do not contain alkali in solution1 like the waters of the ,geyser1 in ,iceland4 ,perhaps the soda contained in the lavas of the peak acts an important part in the formation of these deposits of silex4 ,there may exist in the crater small crevices1 the vapours of which are not of the same nature as those on which travellers1 whose attention has been directed simultaneously to a great number of objects1 have made experiments4 ,seated on the northern brink of the crater1 ,i dug a hole of some inches in depth2 and the thermometer placed in this hole rose rapidly to #db degrees4 ,hence we may conclude what must be the heat in this solfatara at the depth of thirty or forty fathoms4 ,the sulphur reduced into vapour is condensed into fine crystals1 which however are not equal in size to those ,m4 ,dolomieu brought from ,sicily4 ,they are semi-diaphanous octahedrons1 very brilliant on the surface1 and of a conchoidal fracture4 ,these masses1 which will one day perhaps be objects of commerce1 are constantly bedewed with sulphurous acid4 ,i had the imprudence to wrap up a few1 in order to preserve them1 but ,i soon discovered that the acid had consumed not only the paper which contained them1 but a part also of my mineralogical journal4 ,the heat of the vapours1 which issue from the crevices of the caldera1 is not sufficiently great to combine the sulphur while in a state of minute division1 with the oxygen of the atmospheric air2 and after the experiment ,i have just cited on the temperature of the soil1 we may presume that the sulphurous acid is formed at a certain depth199 in cavities to which the external air has free access4 799 ,an observer1 in general very accurate1 ,m4 ,breislack1 asserts that the muriatic acid always predominates in the vapours of ,vesuvius4 ,this assertion is contrary to what ,m4 ,gay-,lussac and myself observed1 before the great eruption of #ahje1 and while the lava was issuing from the crater4 ,the smell of the sulphurous acid1 so easy to distinguish1 was perceptible at a great distance2 and when the volcano threw out scoriae1 the smell was mingled with that of petroleum47 ,the vapours of heated water1 which act on the fragments of lava scattered about on the caldera1 reduce certain parts of it to a state of paste4 ,on examining1 after ,i had reached ,america1 those earthy and friable masses1 ,i found crystals of sulphate of alumine4 ,,mm4 ,davy and ,gay-,lussac have already made the ingenious remark1 that two bodies highly inflammable1 the metals of soda and potash1 have probably an important part in the action of a volcano2 now the potash necessary to the formation of alum is found not only in feldspar1 mica1 pumice-stone1 and augite1 but also in obsidian4 ,this last substance is very common at ,teneriffe1 where it forms the basis of the tephrinic lava4 ,these analogies between the peak of ,teneriffe and the ,solfatara of ,puzzuoli1 might no doubt be shown to be more numerous1 if the former were more accessible1 and had been frequently visited by naturalists4 ,an expedition to the summit of the volcano of ,teneriffe is interesting1 not solely on account of the great number of phenomena which are the objects of scientific research2 it has still greater attractions from the picturesque beauties which it lays open to those who are feelingly alive to the majesty of nature4 ,it is a difficult task to describe the sensations1 which are the more forcible1 inasmuch as they have something undefined1 produced by the immensity of the space as well as by the vastness1 the novelty1 and the multitude of the objects1 amidst which we find ourselves transported4 ,when a traveller attempts to describe the loftiest summits of the globe1 the cataracts of the great rivers1 the tortuous valleys of the ,andes1 he incurs the danger of fatiguing his readers by the monotonous expression of his admiration4 ,it appears to me more conformable to the plan ,i have proposed to myself in this narrative1 to indicate the peculiar character that distinguishes each zone3 we exhibit with more clearness the physiognomy of the landscape1 in proportion as we endeavour to sketch its individual features1 to compare them with each other1 and to discover by this kind of analysis the sources of the enjoyments1 furnished by the great picture of nature4 ,travellers have learned by experience1 that views from the summits of very lofty mountains are neither so beautiful1 picturesque1 nor so varied1 as those from heights which do not exceed that of ,vesuvius1 ,righi1 and the ,puy-de-,dome4 ,colossal mountains1 such as ,chimborazo1 ,antisana1 or ,mount ,rosa1 compose so large a mass1 that the plains covered with rich vegetation are seen only in the immensity of distance1 and a blue and vapoury tint is uniformly spread over the landscape4 ,the peak of ,teneriffe1 from its slender form and local position1 unites the advantages of less lofty summits with those peculiar to very great heights4 ,we not only discern from its top a vast expanse of sea1 but we perceive also the forests of ,teneriffe1 and the inhabited parts of the coasts1 in a proximity calculated to produce the most beautiful contrasts of form and colour4 ,we might say1 that the volcano overwhelms with its mass the little island which serves as its base1 and it shoots up from the bosom of the waters to a height three times loftier than the region where the clouds float in summer4 ,if its crater1 half extinguished for ages past1 shot forth flakes of fire like that of ,stromboli in the ,aeolian ,islands1 the peak of ,teneriffe1 like a lighthouse1 would serve to guide the mariner in a circuit of more than #bfj leagues4 ,when we were seated on the external edge of the crater1 we turned our eyes towards the north-west1 where the coasts are studded with villages and hamlets4 ,at our feet1 masses of vapour1 constantly drifted by the winds1 afforded us the most variable spectacle4 ,a uniform stratum of clouds1 similar to that already described1 and which separated us from the lower regions of the island1 had been pierced in several places by the effect of the small currents of air1 which the earth1 heated by the sun1 began to send towards us4 ,the port of ,orotava1 its vessels at anchor1 the gardens and the vineyards encircling the town1 shewed themselves through an opening which seemed to enlarge every instant4 ,from the summit of these solitary regions our eyes wandered over an inhabited world2 we enjoyed the striking contrast between the bare sides of the peak1 its steep declivities covered with scoriae1 its elevated plains destitute of vegetation1 and the smiling aspect of the cultured country beneath4 ,we beheld the plants divided by zones1 as the temperature of the atmosphere diminished with the elevation of the site4 ,below the ,piton1 lichens begin to cover the scorious and lustrous lava3 a violet199 799 ,viola cheiranthifolia47 akin to the ,viola decumbens1 rises on the slope of the volcano at #agdj toises of height2 it takes the lead not only of the other herbaceous plants1 but even of the gramina1 which1 in the ,alps and on the ridge of the ,cordilleras1 form close neighbourhood with the plants of the family of the cryptogamia4 ,tufts of retama1 loaded with flowers1 adorn the valleys hollowed out by the torrents1 and encumbered with the effects of the lateral eruptions4 ,below the retama1 lies the region of ferns1 bordered by the tract of the arborescent heaths4 ,forests of laurel1 rhamnus1 and arbutus1 divide the ericas from the rising grounds planted with vines and fruit trees4 ,a rich carpet of verdure extends from the plain of spartium1 and the zone of the alpine plants even to the groups of the date tree and the musa1 at the feet of which the ocean appears to roll4 ,i here pass slightly over the principal features of this botanical chart1 as ,i shall enter hereafter into some farther details respecting the geography of the plants of the island of ,teneriffe499 799 ,see below47 ,the seeming proximity1 in which1 from the summit of the peak1 we behold the hamlets1 the vineyards1 and the gardens on the coast1 is increased by the prodigious transparency of the atmosphere4 ,notwithstanding the great distance1 we could distinguish not only the houses1 the sails of the vessels1 and the trunks of the trees1 but we could discern the vivid colouring of the vegetation of the plains4 ,these phenomena are owing not only to the height of the site1 but to the peculiar modifications of the air in warm climates4 ,in every zone1 an object placed on a level with the sea1 and viewed in a horizontal direction1 appears less luminous1 than when seen from the top of a mountain1 where vapours arrive after passing through strata of air of decreasing density4 ,differences equally striking are produced by the influence of climate4 ,the surface of a lake or large river is less resplendent1 when we see it at an equal distance1 from the top of the higher ,alps of ,switzerland1 than when we view it from the summit of the ,cordilleras of ,peru or of ,mexico4 ,in proportion as the air is pure and serene1 the solution of the vapours becomes more complete1 and the light loses less in its passage4 ,when from the shores of the ,pacific we ascend the elevated plain of ,quito1 or that of ,antisana1 we are struck for some days by the nearness at which we imagine we see objects which are actually seven or eight leagues distant4 ,the peak of ,teyde has not the advantage of being situated in the equinoctial region2 but the dryness of the columns of air which rise perpetually above the neighbouring plains of ,africa1 and which the eastern winds convey with rapidity1 gives to the atmosphere of the ,canary ,islands a transparency which not only surpasses that of the air of ,naples and ,sicily1 but perhaps exceeds the purity of the sky of ,quito and ,peru4 ,this transparency may be regarded as one of the chief causes of the beauty of landscape scenery in the torrid zone2 it heightens the splendour of the vegetable colouring1 and contributes to the magical effect of its harmonies and contrasts4 ,if the mass of light1 which circulates about objects1 fatigues the external senses during a part of the day1 the inhabitant of the southern climates has his compensation in moral enjoyment4 ,a lucid clearness in the conceptions1 and a serenity of mind1 correspond with the transparency of the surrounding atmosphere4 ,we feel these impressions without going beyond the boundaries of ,europe4 ,i appeal to travellers who have visited countries rendered famous by the great creations of the imagination and of art1--the favoured climes of ,italy and ,greece4 ,we prolonged in vain our stay on the summit of the ,peak1 awaiting the moment when we might enjoy the view of the whole of the archipelago of the ,fortunate ,islands399 we1 however1 descried ,palma1 ,gomera1 and the ,great ,canary1 at our feet4 799 ,of all the small islands of the ,canaries1 the ,rock of the ,east is the only one which cannot be seen1 even in fine weather1 from the top of the ,peak4 ,its distance is #c degrees #e minutes1 while that of the ,salvage is only #b degrees #a minute4 ,the island of ,madeira1 distant #d degrees #bi minutes1 would be visible1 if its mountains were more than #cjjj toises high47 ,the mountains of ,lancerota1 free from vapours at sunrise1 were soon enveloped in thick clouds4 ,supposing only an ordinary refraction1 the eye takes in1 in calm weather1 from the summit of the volcano1 a surface of the globe of #egjj square leagues1 equal to a fourth of the superficies of ,spain4 ,the question has often been agitated1 whether it be possible to perceive the coast of ,africa from the top of this colossal pyramid2 but the nearest parts of that coast are still farther from ,teneriffe than #b degrees #di minutes1 or #ef leagues4 ,the visual ray of the horizon from the ,peak being #a degree #eg minutes1 cape ,bojador can be seen only on the supposition of its height being #bjj toises above the level of the ocean4 ,we are ignorant of the height of the ,black ,mountains near cape ,bojador1 as well as of that peak1 called by navigators the ,penon ,grande1 farther to the south of this promontory4 ,if the summit of the volcano of ,teneriffe were more accessible1 we should observe without doubt1 in certain states of the wind1 the effects of an extraordinary refraction4 ,on perusing what ,spanish and ,portuguese authors relate respecting the existence of the fabulous isle of ,san ,borondon1 or ,antilia1 we find that it is particularly the humid wind from west-south-west1 which produces in these latitudes the phenomena of the mirage4 ,we shall not however admit with ,m4 ,vieyra1 that the play of the terrestrial refractions may render visible to the inhabitants of the ,canaries the islands of ,cape ,verd1 and even the ,apalachian mountains of ,america499 799 ,the ,american fruits1 frequently thrown by the sea on the coasts of the islands of ,ferro and ,gomera1 were formerly supposed to emanate from the plants of the island of ,san ,borondon4 ,this island1 said to be governed by an archbishop and six bishops1 and which ,father ,feijoa believed to be the image of the island of ,ferro1 reflected on a fog-bank1 was ceded in the #afth century1 by the ,king of ,portugal1 to ,lewis ,perdigon1 at the time the latter was preparing to take possession of it by conquest47 ,the cold we felt on the top of the ,peak1 was very considerable for the season4 ,the centigrade thermometer1 at a distance from the ground1 and from the apertures that emitted the hot vapours1 fell in the shade to #b4g degrees4 ,the wind was west1 and consequently opposite to that which brings to ,teneriffe1 during a great part of the year1 the warm air that floats above the burning desert of ,africa4 ,as the temperature of the atmosphere1 observed at the port of ,orotava by ,m4 ,savagi1 was #bb4h degrees1 the decrement of caloric was one degree every #id toises4 ,this result perfectly corresponds with those obtained by ,lamanon and ,saussure on the summits of the ,peak and ,etna1 though in very different seasons4 ,the tall slender form of these mountains facilitates the means of comparing the temperature of two strata of the atmosphere1 which are nearly in the same perpendicular plane2 and in this point of view the observations made in an excursion to the volcano of ,teneriffe resemble those of an ascent in a balloon4 ,we must nevertheless remark1 that the ocean1 on account of its transparency and evaporation1 reflects less caloric than the plains1 into the upper regions of the air2 and also that summits which are surrounded by the sea are colder in summer1 than mountains which rise from a continent2 but this circumstance has very little influence on the decrement of atmospherical heat2 the temperature of the low regions being equally diminished by the proximity of the ocean4 ,it is not the same with respect to the influence exercised by the direction of the wind1 and the rapidity of the ascending current2 the latter sometimes increases in an astonishing manner the temperature of the loftiest mountains4 ,i have seen the thermometer rise1 on the slope of the volcano of ,antisana1 in the kingdom of ,quito1 to #ai degrees1 when we were #bhcg toises high4 ,m4 ,labillardiere has seen it1 on the edge of the crater of the peak of ,teneriffe1 at #ah4g degrees1 though he had used every possible precaution to avoid the effect of accidental causes4 ,on the summit of the ,peak1 we beheld with admiration the azure colour of the sky4 ,its intensity at the zenith appeared to correspond to #da degrees of the cyanometer4 ,we know1 by ,saussure's experiment1 that this intensity increases with the rarity of the air1 and that the same instrument marked at the same period #ci degrees at the priory of ,chamouni1 and #dj degrees at the top of ,mont ,blanc4 ,this last mountain is #edj toises higher than the volcano of ,teneriffe2 and if1 notwithstanding this difference1 the sky is observed there to be of a less deep blue1 we must attribute this phenomenon to the dryness of the ,african air1 and the proximity of the torrid zone4 ,we collected on the brink of the crater1 some air which we meant to analyse on our voyage to ,america4 ,the phial remained so well corked1 that on opening it ten days after1 the water rushed in with impetuosity4 ,several experiments1 made by means of nitrous gas in the narrow tube of ,fontana's eudiometer1 seemed to prove that the air of the crater contained #j4ji degrees less oxygen than the air of the sea2 but ,i have little confidence in this result obtained by means which we now consider as very inexact4 ,the crater of the ,peak has so little depth1 and the air is renewed with so much facility1 that it is scarcely probable the quantity of azote is greater there than on the coasts4 ,we know also1 from the experiments of ,,mm4 ,gay-,lussac and ,theodore de ,saussure1 that in the highest as well as in the lowest regions of the atmosphere1 the air equally contains #j4ba of oxygen499 799 ,during the stay of ,m4 ,gay-,lussac and myself at the hospice of ,mont ,cenis1 in ,march #ahje1 we collected air in the midst of a cloud loaded with electricity4 ,this air1 analysed in ,volta's eudiometer1 contained no hydrogen1 and its purity did not differ #j4jjb of oxygen from the air of ,paris1 which we had carried with us in phials hermetically sealed47 ,we saw on the summit of the ,peak no trace of psora1 lecidea1 or other cryptogamous plants2 no insect fluttered in the air4 ,we found however a few hymenoptera adhering to masses of sulphur moistened with sulphurous acid1 and lining the mouths of the funnels4 ,these are bees1 which appear to have been attracted by the flowers of the ,spartium nubigenum1 and which oblique currents of air had carried up to these high regions1 like the butterflies found by ,m4 ,ramond at the top of ,mont ,perdu4 ,the butterflies perished from cold1 while the bees on the ,peak were scorched on imprudently approaching the crevices where they came in search of warmth4 ,notwithstanding the heat we felt in our feet on the edge of the crater1 the cone of ashes remains covered with snow during several months in winter4 ,it is probable1 that under the cap of snow considerable hollows are found1 like those existing under the glaciers of ,switzerland1 the temperature of which is constantly less elevated than that of the soil on which they repose4 ,the cold and violent wind1 which blew from the time of sunrise1 induced us to seek shelter at the foot of the ,piton4 ,our hands and faces were nearly frozen1 while our boots were burnt by the soil on which we walked4 ,we descended in the space of a few minutes the ,sugar-loaf which we had scaled with so much toil2 and this rapidity was in part involuntary1 for we often rolled down on the ashes4 ,it was with regret that we quitted this solitude1 this domain where ,nature reigns in all her majesty4 ,we consoled ourselves with the hope of once again visiting the ,canary ,islands1 but this1 like many other plans we then formed1 has never been executed4 ,we traversed the ,malpays but slowly2 for the foot finds no sure foundation on the loose blocks of lava4 ,nearer the station of the rocks1 the descent becomes extremely difficult2 the compact short-swarded turf is so slippery1 that we were obliged to incline our bodies continually backward1 in order to avoid falling4 ,in the sandy plain of ,retama1 the thermometer rose to #bb4e degrees2 and this heat seemed to us suffocating in comparison with the cold1 which we had suffered from the air on the summit of the volcano4 ,we were absolutely without water2 our guides1 not satisfied with drinking clandestinely the little supply of malmsey wine1 for which we were indebted to ,don ,cologan's kindness1 had broken our water jars4 ,happily the bottle which contained the air of the crater escaped unhurt4 ,we at length enjoyed the refreshing breeze in the beautiful region of the arborescent erica and fern2 and we were enveloped in a thick bed of clouds stationary at six hundred toises above the plain4 ,the clouds having dispersed1 we remarked a phenomenon which afterwards became familiar to us on the declivities of the ,cordilleras4 ,small currents of air chased trains of cloud with unequal velocity1 and in opposite directions3 they bore the appearance of streamlets of water in rapid motion and flowing in all directions1 amidst a great mass of stagnant water4 ,the causes of this partial motion of the clouds are probably very various2 we may suppose them to arise from some impulsion at a great distance2 from the slight inequalities of the soil1 which reflects in a greater or less degree the radiant heat2 from a difference of temperature kept up by some chemical action2 or perhaps from a strong electric charge of the vesicular vapours4 ,as we approached the town of ,orotava1 we met great flocks of canaries499 799 ,fringilla ,canaria4 ,la ,caille relates1 in the narrative of his voyage to the ,cape1 that on ,salvage ,island these canaries are so abundant1 that you cannot walk there in a certain season without breaking their eggs47 ,these birds1 well known in ,europe1 were in general uniformly green4 ,some1 however1 had a yellow tinge on their backs2 their note was the same as that of the tame canary4 ,it is nevertheless remarked1 that those which have been taken in the island of the ,great ,canary1 and in the islet of ,monte ,clara1 near ,lancerota1 have a louder and at the same time a more harmonious song4 ,in every zone1 among birds of the same species1 each flock has its peculiar note4 ,the yellow canaries are a variety1 which has taken birth in ,europe2 and those we saw in cages at ,orotava and ,santa ,cruz had been bought at ,cadiz1 and in other ports of ,spain4 ,but of all the birds of the ,canary ,islands1 that which has the most heart-soothing song is unknown in ,europe4 ,it is the capirote1 which no effort has succeeded in taming1 so sacred to his soul is liberty4 ,i have stood listening in admiration of his soft and melodious warbling1 in a garden at ,orotava2 but ,i have never seen him sufficiently near to ascertain to what family he belongs4 ,as to the parrots1 which were supposed to have been seen at the period of captain ,cook's abode at ,teneriffe1 they never existed but in the narratives of a few travellers1 who have copied from each other4 ,neither parrots nor monkeys inhabit the ,canary ,islands2 and though in the ,new ,continent the former migrate as far as ,north ,carolina1 ,i doubt whether in the ,old they have ever been met with beyond the #bhth degree of north latitude4 ,toward the close of day we reached the port of ,orotava1 where we received the unexpected intelligence that the ,pizarro would not set sail till the #bdth or #beth4 ,if we could have calculated on this delay1 we should either have lengthened our stay on the ,peak199 or have made an excursion to the volcano of ,chahorra4 799 ,as a great number of travellers who land at ,santa ,cruz1 do not undertake the excursion to the ,peak1 because they are ignorant of the time it occupies1 it may be useful to lay down the following data3 ,in making use of mules as far as the ,estancia de los ,ingleses1 it takes twenty-one hours from ,orotava to arrive at the summit of the ,peak1 and return to the port2 namely1 from ,orotava to the ,pino del ,dornajito three hours2 from the ,pino to the ,station of the ,rocks six hours2 and from this station to the ,caldera three hours and a half4 ,i reckon nine hours for the descent4 ,in this calculation ,i count only the time employed in walking1 without reckoning that which is necessary for examining the productions of the ,peak1 or for taking rest4 ,half a day is sufficient for going from ,santa ,cruz to ,orotava47 ,we passed the following day in visiting the environs of ,orotava1 and enjoying the agreeable company we found at ,don ,cologan's4 ,we perceived that ,teneriffe had attractions not only to those who devote themselves to the study of nature3 we found at ,orotava several persons possessing a taste for literature and music1 and who have transplanted into these distant climes the amenity of ,european society4 ,in these respects the ,canary ,islands have no great resemblance to the other ,spanish colonies1 excepting the ,havannah4 ,we were present on the eve of ,st4 ,john at a pastoral fete in the garden of ,mr4 ,little4 ,this gentleman1 who rendered great service to the ,canarians during the last famine1 has cultivated a hill covered with volcanic substances4 ,he has formed in this delicious site an ,english garden1 whence there is a magnificent view of the ,peak1 of the villages along the coast1 and the isle of ,palma1 which is bounded by the vast expanse of the ,atlantic4 ,i cannot compare this prospect with any1 except the views of the bays of ,genoa and ,naples2 but ,orotava is greatly superior to both in the magnitude of the masses and in the richness of vegetation4 ,in the beginning of the evening the slope of the volcano exhibited on a sudden a most extraordinary spectacle4 ,the shepherds1 in conformity to a custom1 no doubt introduced by the ,spaniards1 though it dates from the highest antiquity1 had lighted the fires of ,st4 ,john4 ,the scattered masses of fire and the columns of smoke driven by the wind1 formed a fine contrast with the deep verdure of the forests which covered the sides of the ,peak4 ,shouts of joy resounding from afar were the only sounds that broke the silence of nature in these solitary regions4 ,don ,cologan's family has a country-house nearer the coast than that ,i have just mentioned4 ,this house1 called ,la ,paz1 is connected with a circumstance that rendered it peculiarly interesting to us4 ,m4 de ,borda1 whose death we deplored1 was its inmate during his last visit to the ,canary ,islands4 ,it was in a neighbouring plain that he measured the base1 by which he determined the height of the ,peak4 ,in this geometrical operation the great dracaena of ,orotava served as a mark4 ,should any well-informed traveller at some future day undertake a new measurement of the volcano with more exactness1 and by the help of astronomical repeating circles1 he ought to measure the base1 not near ,orotava1 but near ,los ,silos1 at a place called ,bante4 ,according to ,m4 ,broussonnet there is no plain near the ,peak of greater extent4 ,in herborizing near ,la ,paz we found a great quantity of ,lichen roccella on the basaltic rocks bathed by the waters of the sea4 ,the archil of the ,canaries is a very ancient branch of commerce2 this lichen is however found in less abundance in the island of ,teneriffe than in the desert islands of ,salvage1 ,la ,graciosa1 and ,alegranza1 or even in ,canary and ,hierro4 ,we left the port of ,orotava on the #bdth of ,june4 ,to avoid disconnecting the narrative of the excursion to the top of the ,peak1 ,i have said nothing of the geological observations ,i made on the structure of this colossal mountain1 and on the nature of the volcanic rocks of which it is composed4 ,before we quit the archipelago of the ,canaries1 ,i shall linger for a moment1 and bring into one point of view some facts relating to the physical aspect of those countries4 ,mineralogists who think that the end of the geology of volcanoes is the classification of lavas1 the examination of the crystals they contain1 and their description according to their external characters1 are generally very well satisfied when they come back from the mouth of a burning volcano4 ,they return loaded with those numerous collections1 which are the principal objects of their research4 ,this is not the feeling of those who1 without confounding descriptive mineralogy 7oryctognosy7 with geognosy1 endeavour to raise themselves to ideas generally interesting1 and seek1 in the study of nature1 for answers to the following questions3-- ,is the conical mountain of a volcano entirely formed of liquified matter heaped together by successive eruptions1 or does it contain in its centre a nucleus of primitive rocks covered with lava1 which are these same rocks altered by fire8 ,what are the affinities which unite the productions of modern volcanoes with the basalts1 the phonolites1 and those porphyries with bases of feldspar1 which are without quartz1 and which cover the ,cordilleras of ,peru and ,mexico1 as well as the small groups of the ,monts ,dores1 of ,cantal1 and of ,mezen in ,france8 ,has the central nucleus of volcanoes been heated in its primitive position1 and raised up1 in a softened state1 by the force of the elastic vapours1 before these fluids communicated1 by means of a crater1 with the external air8 ,what is the substance1 which1 for thousands of years1 keeps up this combustion1 sometimes so slow1 and at other times so active8 ,does this unknown cause act at an immense depth2 or does this chemical action take place in secondary rocks lying on granite8 ,the farther we are from finding a solution of these problems in the numerous works hitherto published on ,etna and ,vesuvius1 the greater is the desire of the traveller to see with his own eyes4 ,he hopes to be more fortunate than those who have preceded him2 he wishes to form a precise idea of the geological relations which the volcano and the neighbouring mountains bear to each other3 but how often is he disappointed1 when1 on the limits of the primitive soil1 enormous banks of tufa and puzzolana render every observation on the position and stratification impossible6 ,we reach the inside of the crater with less difficulty than we at first expect2 we examine the cone from its summit to its base2 we are struck with the difference in the produce of each eruption1 and with the analogy which still exists between the lavas of the same volcano2 but1 notwithstanding the care with which we interrogate nature1 and the number of partial observations which present themselves at every step1 we return from the summit of a burning volcano less satisfied than when we were preparing to visit it4 ,it is after we have studied them on the spot1 that the volcanic phenomena appear still more isolated1 more variable1 more obscure1 than we imagine them when consulting the narratives of travellers4 ,these reflections occurred to me on descending from the summit of the peak of ,teneriffe1 the first unextinct volcano ,i had yet visited4 ,they returned anew whenever1 in ,south ,america1 or in ,mexico1 ,i had occasion to examine volcanic mountains4 ,when we reflect how little the labours of mineralogists1 and the discoveries in chemistry1 have promoted the knowledge of the physical geology of mountains1 we cannot help being affected with a painful sentiment2 and this is felt still more strongly by those1 who1 studying nature in different climates1 are more occupied by the problems they have not been able to solve1 than with the few results they have obtained4 ,the peak of ,ayadyrma1 or of ,echeyde199 799 ,the word ,echeyde1 which signifies ,hell in the language of the ,guanches1 has been corrupted by the ,europeans into ,teyde47 is a conic and isolated mountain1 which rises in an islet of very small circumference4 ,those who do not take into consideration the whole surface of the globe1 believe1 that these three circumstances are common to the greater part of volcanoes4 ,they cite1 in support of their opinion1 ,etna1 the peak of the ,azores1 the ,solfatara of ,guadaloupe1 the ,trois-,salazes of the isle of ,bourbon1 and the clusters of volcanoes in the ,indian ,sea and in the ,atlantic4 ,in ,europe and in ,asia1 as far as the interior of the latter continent is known1 no burning volcano is situated in the chains of mountains2 all being at a greater or less distance from those chains4 ,in the ,new ,world1 on the contrary1 7and this fact deserves the greatest attention17 the volcanoes the most stupendous for their masses form a part of the ,cordilleras themselves4 ,the mountains of mica-slate and gneiss in ,peru and ,new ,grenada immediately touch the volcanic porphyries of the provinces of ,quito and ,pasto4 ,to the south and north of these countries1 in ,chile and in the kingdom of ,guatimala1 the active volcanoes are grouped in rows4 ,they are the continuation1 as we may say1 of the chains of primitive rocks1 and if the volcanic fire has broken forth in some plain remote from the ,cordilleras1 as in mount ,sangay and ,jorullo199 799 ,two volcanoes of the ,provinces of ,quixos and ,mechoacan1 the one in the southern1 and the other in the northern hemisphere47 we must consider this phenomenon as an exception to the law1 which nature seems to have imposed on these regions4 ,i may here repeat these geological facts1 because this presumed isolated situation of every volcano has been cited in opposition to the idea that the peak of ,teneriffe1 and the other volcanic summits of the ,canary ,islands1 are the remains of a submerged chain of mountains4 ,the observations which have been made on the grouping of volcanoes in ,america1 prove that the ancient state of things represented in the conjectural map of the ,atlantic by ,m4 ,bory de ,st4 ,vincent99 799 ,whether the traditions of the ancients respecting the ,atlantis are founded on historical facts1 is a matter totally distinct from the question whether the archipelago of the ,canaries and the adjacent islands are the vestiges of a chain of mountains1 rent and sunk in the sea during one of the great convulsions of our globe4 ,i do not pretend to form any opinion in favour of the existence of the ,atlantis2 but ,i endeavour to prove1 that the ,canaries have no more been created by volcanoes1 than the whole body of the smaller ,antilles has been formed by madrepores47 is by no means contradictory to the acknowledged laws of nature2 and that nothing opposes the supposition that the summits of ,porto ,santo1 ,madeira1 and the ,fortunate ,islands1 may heretofore have formed1 either a distinct range of primitive mountains1 or the western extremity of the chain of the ,atlas4 ,the peak of ,teyde forms a pyramidal mass like ,etna1 ,tungurahua1 and ,popocatepetl4 ,this physiognomic character is very far from being common to all volcanoes4 ,we have seen some in the southern hemisphere1 which1 instead of having the form of a cone or a bell1 are lengthened in one direction1 having the ridge sometimes smooth1 and at others bristled with small pointed rocks4 ,this structure is peculiar to ,antisana and ,pichincha1 two burning mountains of the province of ,quito2 and the absence of the conic form ought never to be considered as a reason excluding the idea of a volcanic origin4 ,i shall develop1 in the progress of this work1 some of the analogies1 which ,i think ,i have perceived between the physiognomy of volcanoes and the antiquity of their rocks4 ,it is sufficient to state1 generally speaking1 that the summits1 which are still subject to eruptions of the greatest violence1 and at the nearest periods to each other1 are ,,slender ,,peaks of a conic form2 that the mountains with ,,lengthened ,,summits1 and rugged with small stony masses1 are very old volcanoes1 and near being extinguished2 and that rounded tops1 in the form of domes1 or bells1 indicate those problematic porphyries1 which are supposed to have been heated in their primitive position1 penetrated by vapours1 and forced up in a mollified state1 without having ever flowed as real lithoidal lavas4 ,to the first class belong ,cotopaxi1 the peak of ,teneriffe1 and the peak of ,orizava in ,mexico4 ,in the second may be placed ,cargueirazo and ,pichincha1 in the province of ,quito2 the volcano of ,puracey1 near ,popayan2 and perhaps also ,hecla1 in ,iceland4 ,in the third and last we may rank the majestic figure of ,chimborazo1 and1 7if it be allowable to place by the side of that colossus a hill of ,europe17 the ,great ,sarcouy in ,auvergne4 ,in order to form a more exact idea of the external structure of volcanoes1 it is important to compare their perpendicular height with their circumference4 ,this1 however1 cannot be done with any exactness1 unless the mountains are isolated1 and rising on a plain nearly on a level with the sea4 ,in calculating the circumference of the peak of ,teneriffe in a curve passing through the port of ,orotava1 ,garachico1 ,adexe1 and ,guimar1 and setting aside the prolongations of its base towards the forest of ,laguna1 and the north-east cape of the island1 we find that this extent is more than #ed1jjj toises4 ,the height of the ,peak is consequently one twenty-eighth of the circumference of its basis4 ,m4 von ,buch found a thirty-third for ,vesuvius2 and1 which perhaps is less certain1 a thirty-fourth for ,etna499 799 ,gilbert1 ,annalen der ,physik ,b4 #e page #dee4 ,vesuvius is #acc1jjj palmas1 or eighteen nautical miles in circumference4 ,the horizontal distance from ,resina to the crater is #cgjj toises4 ,italian mineralogists have estimated the circumference of ,etna at #hdj1jjj palmas1 or #aai miles4 ,with these data1 the ratio of the height to the circumference would be only a seventy-second2 but ,i find on tracing a curve through ,catania1 ,palermo1 ,bronte1 and ,piemonte1 only #fb miles in circumference1 according to the best maps4 ,this increases the ratio to a fifty-fourth4 ,does the basis fall on the outside of the curve that ,i assume87 ,if the slope of these three volcanoes were uniform from the summit to the base1 the peak of ,teyde would have an inclination of #ab degrees #bi minutes1 ,vesuvius #ab degrees #da minutes1 and ,etna #aj degrees #ac minutes1 a result which must astonish those who do not reflect on what constitutes an average slope4 ,in a very long ascent1 slopes of three or four degrees alternate with others which are inclined from #be to #cj degrees2 and the latter only strike our imagination1 because we think all the slopes of mountains more steep than they really are4 ,i may cite in support of this consideration the example of the ascent from the port of ,vera ,cruz to the elevated plain of ,mexico4 ,on the eastern slope of the ,cordillera a road has been traced1 which for ages has not been frequented except on foot1 or on the backs of mules4 ,from ,encero to the small ,indian village of ,las ,vigas1 there are #gejj toises of horizontal distance2 and ,encero being1 according to my barometric measurement1 #gdf toises lower than ,las ,vigas1 the result1 for the mean slope1 is only an angle of #e degrees #dj minutes4 ,in the following note will be seen the results of some experiments ,i have made on the difficulties arising from the declivities in mountainous countries499 799 ,in places where there were at the same time slopes covered with tufted grass and loose sands1 ,i took the following measures3-- #e degrees1 slope of a very marked inclination4 ,in ,france the high roads must not exceed #d degrees #df minutes by law2 #ae degrees1 slope extremely steep1 and which we cannot descend in a carriage2 #cg degrees1 slope almost inaccessible on foot1 if the ground be naked rock1 or turf too thick to form steps4 ,the body falls backwards when the tibia makes a smaller angle than #ec degrees with the sole of the foot2 #db degrees1 the steepest slope that can be climbed on foot in a ground that is sandy1 or covered with volcanic ashes4 ,when the slope is #dd degrees1 it is almost impossible to scale it1 though the ground permits the forming of steps by thrusting in the foot4 ,the cones of volcanoes have a medium slope from #cc to #dj degrees4 ,the steepest parts of these cones1 either of ,vesuvius1 the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 the volcano of ,pichincha1 or ,jorullo1 are from #dj to #db degrees4 ,a slope of #ee degrees is quite inaccessible4 ,if seen from above it would be estimated at #ge degrees47 ,isolated volcanoes1 in the most distant regions1 are very analogous in their structure4 ,at great elevations all have considerable plains1 in the middle of which arises a cone perfectly circular4 ,thus at ,cotopaxi the plains of ,suniguaicu extend beyond the farm of ,pansache4 ,the stony summit of ,antisana1 covered with eternal snow1 forms an islet in the midst of an immense plain1 the surface of which is twelve leagues square1 while its height exceeds that of the peak of ,teneriffe by two hundred toises4 ,at ,vesuvius1 at three hundred and seventy toises high1 the cone detaches itself from the plain of ,atrio dei ,cavalli4 ,the peak of ,teneriffe presents two of these elevated plains1 the uppermost of which1 at the foot of the ,piton1 is as high as ,etna1 and of very little extent2 while the lowermost1 covered with tufts of retama1 reaches as far as the ,estancia de los ,ingleses4 ,this rises above the level of the sea almost as high as the city of ,quito1 and the summit of ,mount ,lebanon4 ,the greater the quantity of matter that has issued from the crater of a mountain1 the more elevated is its cone of ashes in proportion to the perpendicular height of the volcano itself4 ,nothing is more striking1 under this point of view1 than the difference of structure between ,vesuvius1 the peak of ,teneriffe1 and ,pichincha4 ,i have chosen this last volcano in preference1 because its summit99 enters scarcely within the limit of the perpetual snows4 799 ,i have measured the summit of ,pichincha1 that is the small mountain covered with ashes above the ,llano del ,vulcan1 to the north of ,alto de ,chuquira4 ,this mountain has not1 however1 the regular form of a cone4 ,as to ,vesuvius1 ,i have indicated the mean height of the ,sugar-loaf1 on account of the great difference between the two edges of the crater47 ,the cone of ,cotopaxi1 the form of which is the most elegant and most regular known1 is #edj toises in height2 but it is impossible to decide whether the whole of this mass is covered with ashes4 ,,table #c3 ,,volcanoes3 ,column #a3 ,name of the volcano4 ,column #b3 ,total height in toises4 ,column #c3 ,height of the cone covered with ashes4 ,column #d3 ,proportion of the cone to the total height4 ,vesuvius 3 #fjf 3 #bjj 3 #a_/c4 ,peak of ,teneriffe 3 #aijd 3 #hd 3 #a_/bb4 ,pichincha 3 #bdij 3 #bdj 3 #a_/aj4 ,this table seems to indicate1 what we shall have an opportunity of proving more amply hereafter1 that the peak of ,teneriffe belongs to that group of great volcanoes1 which1 like ,etna and ,antisana1 have had more copious eruptions from their sides than from their summits4 ,thus the crater at the extremity of the ,piton1 which is called the ,caldera1 is extremely small4 ,its diminutive size struck ,m4 de ,borda1 and other travellers1 who took little interest in geological investigations4 ,as to the nature of the rocks which compose the soil of ,teneriffe1 we must first distinguish between productions of the present volcano1 and the range of basaltic mountains which surround the ,peak1 and which do not rise more than five or six hundred toises above the level of the ocean4 ,here1 as well as in ,italy1 ,mexico1 and the ,cordilleras of ,quito1 the rocks of trap-formation99 are at a distance from the recent currents of lava 799 ,the trap-formation includes the basalts1 green-stone 7grunstein71 the trappean porphyries1 the phonolites or porphyrschiefer1 etc472 everything shows that these two classes of substances1 though they owe their origin to similar phenomena1 date from very different periods4 ,it is important to geology not to confound the modern currents of lava1 the heaps of basalt1 green-stone1 and phonolite1 dispersed over the primitive and secondary formations1 with those porphyroid masses having bases of compact feldspar199 which perhaps have never been perfectly liquified1 but which do not less belong to the domain of volcanoes4 799 ,these petrosiliceous masses contain vitreous and often calcined crystals of feldspar1 of amphibole1 of pyroxene1 a little of olivine1 but scarcely any quartz4 ,to this very ambiguous formation belong the trappean porphyries of ,chimborazo and of ,riobamba in ,america1 of the ,euganean mountains in ,italy1 and of the ,siebengebirge in ,germany2 as well as the domites of the ,great-,sarcouy1 of ,puy-de-,dome1 of the ,little ,cleirsou1 and of one part of the ,puy-,chopine in ,auvergne47 ,in the island of ,teneriffe1 strata of tufa1 puzzolana1 and clay1 separate the range of basaltic hills from the currents of recent lithoid lava1 and from the eruptions of the present volcano4 ,in the same manner as the eruptions of ,epomeo in the island of ,ischia1 and those of ,jorullo in ,mexico1 have taken place in countries covered with trappean porphyry1 ancient basalt1 and volcanic ashes1 so the peak of ,teyde has raised itself amidst the wrecks of submarine volcanoes4 ,notwithstanding the difference of composition in the recent lavas of the ,peak1 there is a certain regularity of position1 which must strike the naturalist least skilled in geognosy4 ,the great elevated plain of ,retama separates the black1 basaltic1 and earthlike lava1 from the vitreous and feldsparry lava1 the basis of which is obsidian1 pitch-stone1 and phonolite4 ,this phenomenon is the more remarkable1 inasmuch as in ,bohemia and in other parts of ,europe1 the porphyrschiefer with base of phonolite99 799 ,klingstein4 ,werner47 covers also the convex summits of basaltic mountains4 ,it has already been observed1 that from the level of the sea to ,portillo1 and as far as the entrance on the elevated plain of the ,retama1 that is1 two-thirds of the total height of the volcano1 the ground is so covered with plants1 that it is difficult to make geological observations4 ,the currents of lava1 which we discover on the slope of ,monte ,verde1 between the beautiful spring of ,dornajito and ,caravela1 are black masses1 altered by decomposition1 sometimes porous1 and with very oblong pores4 ,the basis of these lower lavas is rather wacke than basalt2 when it is spongy1 it resembles the amygdaloids99 of ,frankfort-on-the-,main4 799 ,wakkenartiger mandelstein4 ,steinkaute47 ,its fracture is generally irregular2 wherever it is conchoidal1 we may presume that the cooling has been more rapid1 and the mass has been exposed to a less powerful pressure4 ,these currents of lava are not divided into regular prisms1 but into very thin layers1 not very regular in their inclination2 they contain much olivine1 small grains of magnetic iron1 and augite1 the colour of which often varies from deep leek-green to olive green1 and which might be mistaken for crystallized olivine1 though no transition from one to the other of these substances exists499 799 ,steffens1 ,handbuch der ,oryktognosie tome #a s4 #cfd4 ,the crystals which ,mr4 ,friesleben and myself have made known under the denomination of foliated olivine 7blattriger olivin7 belong1 according to ,mr4 ,karsten1 to the pyroxene augite4 ,journal des ,mines de ,freiberg #agia page #bae47 ,amphibole is in general very rare at ,teneriffe1 not only in the modern lithoid lavas1 but also in the ancient basalts1 as has been observed by ,m4 ,cordier1 who resided longer at the ,canaries than any other mineralogist4 ,nepheline1 leucite1 idocrase1 and meionite have not yet been seen at the peak of ,teneriffe2 for a reddish-grey lava1 which we found on the slope of ,monte ,verde1 and which contains small microscopic crystals1 appears to me to be a close mixture of basalt and analcime499 799 ,this substance1 which ,m4 ,dolomieu discovered in the amygdaloids of ,catania in ,sicily1 and which accompanies the stilbites of ,fassa in ,tyrol1 forms1 with the chabasie of ,hauy1 the genus ,cubicit of ,werner4 ,m4 ,cordier found at ,teneriffe xeolite in an amygdaloid which covers the basalts of ,la ,punta di ,naga47 ,in like manner the lava of ,scala1 with which the city of ,naples is paved1 contains a close mixture of basalt1 nepheline1 and leucite4 ,with respect to this last substance1 which has hitherto been observed only at ,vesuvius and in the environs of ,rome1 it exists perhaps at the peak of ,teneriffe1 in the old currents of lava now covered by more recent ejections4 ,vesuvius1 during a long series of years1 has also thrown out lavas without leucites3 and if it be true1 as ,m4 von ,buch has rendered very probable1 that these crystals are formed only in the currents which flow either from the crater itself1 or very near its brink1 we must not be surprised at not finding them in the lavas of the peak4 ,the latter almost all proceed from lateral eruptions1 and consequently have been exposed to an enormous pressure in the interior of the volcano4 ,in the plain of ,retama1 the basaltic lavas disappear under heaps of ashes1 and pumice-stone reduced to powder4 ,thence to the summit1 from #aejj to #aijj toises in height1 the volcano exhibits only vitreous lava with bases of pitch-stone99 799 ,petrosilex resinite4 ,hauy47 and obsidian4 ,these lavas1 destitute of amphibole and mica1 are of a blackish brown1 often varying to the deepest olive green4 ,they contain large crystals of feldspar1 which are not fissured1 and seldom vitreous4 ,the analogy of those decidedly volcanic masses with the resinite porphyries99 799 ,pechstein-porphyr4 ,werner47 of the valley of ,tribisch in ,saxony is very remarkable2 but the latter1 which belong to an extended and metalliferous formation of porphyry1 often contain quartz1 which is wanting in the modern lavas4 ,when the basis of the lavas of the ,malpays changes from pitchstone to obsidian1 its colour is paler1 and is mixed with grey2 in this case1 the feldspar passes by imperceptible gradations from the common to the vitreous4 ,sometimes both varieties meet in the same fragment1 as we observed also in the trappean porphyries of the valley of ,mexico4 ,the feldsparry lavas of the ,peak1 of a much less black tinge than those of ,arso in the island of ,ischia1 whiten at the edge of the crater from the effect of the acid vapours2 but internally they are not found to be colourless like that of the feldsparry lavas of the ,solfatara at ,naples1 which perfectly resemble the trappean porphyries at the foot of ,chimborazo4 ,in the middle of the ,malpays1 at the height of the cavern of ice1 we found among the vitreous lavas with pitch-stone and obsidian bases1 blocks of real greenish-grey1 or mountain-green phonolite1 with a smooth fracture1 and divided into thin laminae1 sonorous and keen edged4 ,these masses were the same as the porphyrschiefer of the mountain of ,bilin in ,bohemia2 we recognised in them small long crystals of vitreous feldspar4 ,this regular disposition of lithoid basaltic lava and feldsparry vitreous lava is analogous to the phenomena of all trappean mountains2 it reminds us of those phonolites lying in very ancient basalts1 those close mixtures of augite and feldspar which cover the hills of wacke or porous amygdaloids3 but why are the porphyritic or feldsparry lavas of the ,peak found only on the summit of the volcano8 ,should we conclude from this position that they are of more recent formation than the lithoid basaltic lava1 which contains olivine and augite8 ,i cannot admit this last hypothesis2 for lateral eruptions may have covered the feldsparry nucleus1 at a period when the crater had ceased its activity4 ,at ,vesuvius also1 we perceive small crystals of vitreous feldspar only in the very ancient lavas of the ,somma4 ,these lavas1 setting aside the leucite1 very nearly resemble the phonolitic ejections of the ,peak of ,teneriffe4 ,in general1 the farther we go back from the period of modern eruptions1 the more the currents increase both in size and extent1 acquiring the character of rocks1 by the regularity of their position1 by their division into parallel strata1 or by their independence of the present form of the ground4 ,the ,peak of ,teneriffe is1 next to ,lipari1 the volcano that has produced most obsidian4 ,this abundance is the more striking1 as in other regions of the earth1 in ,iceland1 in ,hungary1 in ,mexico1 and in the kingdom of ,quito1 we meet with obsidians only at great distances from burning volcanoes4 ,sometimes they are scattered over the fields in angular pieces2 for instance1 near ,popayan1 in ,south ,america2 at other times they form isolated rocks1 as at ,quinche1 near ,quito4 ,in other places 7and this circumstance is very remarkable71 they are disseminated in pearl-stone1 as at ,cinapecuaro1 in the province of ,mechoacan199 799 ,to the west of the city of ,mexico47 and at the ,cabo de ,gates1 in ,spain4 ,at the peak of ,teneriffe the obsidian is not found towards the base of the volcano1 which is covered with modern lava3 it is frequent only towards the summit1 especially from the plain of ,retama1 where very fine specimens may be collected4 ,this peculiar position1 and the circumstance that the obsidian of the ,peak has been ejected by a crater which for ages past has thrown out no flames1 favour the opinion1 that volcanic vitrifications1 wherever they are found1 are to be considered as of very ancient formation4 ,obsidian1 jade1 and ,lydian-stone199 799 ,lydischerstein47 are three minerals1 which nations ignorant of the use of copper or iron1 have in all ages employed for making keen-edged weapons4 ,we see that wandering hordes have dragged with them1 in their distant journeys1 stones1 the natural position of which the mineralogist has not yet been able to determine4 ,hatchets of jade1 covered with ,aztec hieroglyphics1 which ,i brought from ,mexico1 resemble both in their form and nature those made use of by the ,gauls1 and those we find among the ,south ,sea islanders4 ,the ,mexicans dug obsidian from mines1 which were of vast extent2 and they employed it for making knives1 sword-blades1 and razors4 ,in like manner the ,guanches1 7in whose language obsidian was called tabona17 fixed splinters of that mineral to the ends of their lances4 ,they carried on a considerable trade in it with the neighbouring islands2 and from the consumption thus occasioned1 and the quantity of obsidian which must have been broken in the course of manufacture1 we may presume that this mineral has become scarce from the lapse of ages4 ,we are surprised to see an ,atlantic nation substituting1 like the natives of ,america1 vitrified lava for iron4 ,in both countries this variety of lava was employed as an object of ornament3 and the inhabitants of ,quito made beautiful looking-glasses with an obsidian divided into parallel laminae4 ,there are three varieties of obsidian at the ,peak4 ,some form enormous blocks1 several toises long1 and often of a spheroidal shape4 ,we might suppose that they had been thrown out in a softened state1 and had afterwards been subject to a rotary motion4 ,they contain a quantity of vitreous feldspar1 of a snow-white colour1 and the most brilliant pearly lustre4 ,these obsidians are1 nevertheless1 but little transparent on the edges2 they are almost opaque1 of a brownish black1 and of an imperfect conchoidal fracture4 ,they pass into pitch-stone2 and we may consider them as porphyries with a basis of obsidian4 ,the second variety is found in fragments much less considerable4 ,it is in general of a greenish black1 sometimes of murky grey1 very seldom of a perfect black1 like the obsidian of ,hecla and ,mexico4 ,its fracture is perfectly conchoidal1 and it is extremely transparent on the edges4 ,i have found in it neither amphibole nor pyroxene1 but some small white points1 which seem to be feldspar4 ,none of the obsidians of the ,peak appear in those grey masses of pearl or lavender-blue1 striped1 and in separate wedge-formed pieces1 like the obsidian of ,quito1 ,mexico1 and ,lipari1 and which resemble the fibrous plates of the crystalites of our glass-houses1 on which ,sir ,james ,hall1 ,dr4 ,thompson1 and ,m4 de ,bellevue1 have published some curious observations499 799 ,the name crystalites has been given to the crystalized thin plates observed in glass cooling slowly4 ,the term glastenized glass is employed by ,dr4 ,thompson and others to indicate glass which by slow cooling is wholly unvitrified1 and has assumed the appearance of a fossil substance1 or real glass-stone47 ,the third variety of obsidian of the ,peak is the most remarkable of the whole1 from its connexion with pumice-stone4 ,it is1 like that above described1 of a greenish black1 sometimes of a murky grey1 but its very thin plates alternate with layers of pumice-stone4 ,dr4 ,thomson's fine collection at ,naples contained similar examples of lithoid lava of ,vesuvius1 divided into very distinct plates1 only a line thick4 ,the fibres of the pumice-stone of the ,peak are very seldom parallel to each other1 and perpendicular to the strata of obsidian2 they are most commonly irregular1 asbestoidal1 like fibrous glass-gall2 and instead of being disseminated in the obsidian1 like crystalites1 they are found simply adhering to one of the external surfaces of this substance4 ,during my stay at ,madrid1 ,m4 ,hergen showed me several specimens in the mineralogical collection of ,don ,jose ,clavijo2 and for a long time the ,spanish mineralogists considered them as furnishing undoubted proofs1 that pumice-stone owes its origin to obsidian1 in some degree deprived of colour1 and swelled by volcanic fire4 ,i was formerly of this opinion1 which1 however1 must be understood to refer to one variety only of pumice4 ,i even thought1 with many other geologists1 that obsidian1 so far from being vitrified lava1 belonged to rocks that were not volcanic2 and that the fire1 forcing its way through the basalts1 the green-stone rocks1 the phonolites1 and the porphyries with bases of pitchstone and obsidian1 the lavas and pumice-stone were no other than these same rocks altered by the action of the volcanoes4 ,the deprivation of colour and extraordinary swelling which the greater part of the obsidians undergo in a forge-fire1 their transition into pitch-stone1 and their position in regions very distant from burning volcanoes1 appear to be phenomena very difficult to reconcile1 when we consider the obsidians as volcanic glass4 ,a more profound study of nature1 new journeys1 and observations made on the productions of burning volcanoes1 have led me to renounce those ideas4 ,it appears to me at present extremely probable1 that obsidians1 and porphyries with bases of obsidian1 are vitrified masses1 the cooling of which has been too rapid to change them into lithoid lava4 ,i consider even the pearlstone as an unvitrified obsidian3 for among the minerals in the ,king's cabinet at ,berlin there are volcanic glasses from ,lipari1 in which we see striated crystalites1 of a pearl-grey colour1 and of an earthy appearance1 forming gradual approaches to a granular lithoid lava1 like the pearlstone of ,cinapecuaro1 in ,mexico4 ,the oblong bubbles observed in the obsidians of every continent are incontestible proofs of their ancient state of igneous fluidity2 and ,dr4 ,thompson possesses specimens from ,lipari1 which are very instructive in this point of view1 because fragments of red porphyry1 or porphyry lavas1 which do not entirely fill up the cavities of the obsidian1 are found enveloped in them4 ,we might say1 that these fragments had not time to enter into complete solution in the liquified mass4 ,they contain vitreous feldspar1 and augite1 and are the same as the celebrated columnar porphyries of the island of ,panaria1 which1 without having been part of a current of lava1 seem raised up in the form of hillocks1 like many of the porphyries in ,auvergne1 in the ,euganean mountains1 and in the ,cordilleras of the ,andes4 ,the objections against the volcanic origin of obsidians1 founded on their speedy loss of colour1 and their swelling by a slow fire1 have been shaken by the ingenious experiments of ,sir ,james ,hall4 ,these experiments prove1 that a stone which is fusible only at thirty-eight degrees of ,wedgwood's pyrometer1 yields a glass that softens at fourteen degrees2 and that this glass1 melted again and unvitrified 7glastenized71 is fusible again only at thirty-five degrees of the same pyrometer4 ,i applied the blowpipe to some black pumice-stone from the volcano of the isle of ,bourbon1 which1 on the slightest contact with the flame1 whitened and melted into an enamel4 ,but whether obsidians be primitive rocks which have undergone the action of volcanic fire1 or lavas repeatedly melted within the crater1 the origin of the pumice-stones contained in the obsidian of the ,peak of ,teneriffe is not less problematic4 ,this subject is the more worthy of being investigated1 since it is generally interesting to the geology of volcanoes2 and since that excellent mineralogist1 ,m4 ,fleuriau de ,bellevue1 after having examined ,italy and the adjacent islands with great attention1 affirms1 that it is highly improbable that pumice-stone owes its origin to the swelling of obsidian4 ,the experiments of ,m4 da ,camara1 and those ,i made in #ahjb1 tend to support the opinion1 that the pumice-stones adherent to the obsidians of the ,peak of ,teneriffe do not unite to them accidentally1 but are produced by the expansion of an elastic fluid1 which is disengaged from the compact vitreous matter4 ,this idea had for a long time occupied the mind of a person highly distinguished for his talents and reputation at ,quito1 who1 unacquainted with the labours of the mineralogists of ,europe1 had devoted himself to researches on the volcanoes of his country4 ,don ,juan de ,larea1 one of those men lately sacrificed to the fury of faction1 had been struck with the phenomena exhibited by obsidians exposed to a white heat4 ,he had thought1 that1 wherever volcanoes act in the centre of a country covered with porphyry with base of obsidian1 the elastic fluids must cause a swelling of the liquified mass1 and perform an important part in the earthquakes preceding eruptions4 ,without adopting an opinion1 which seems somewhat bold1 ,i made1 in concert with ,m4 ,larea1 a series of experiments on the tumefaction of the volcanic vitreous substances at ,teneriffe1 and on those which are found at ,quinche1 in the kingdom of ,quito4 ,to judge of the augmentation of their bulk1 we measured pieces exposed to a forge-fire of moderate heat1 by the water they displaced from a cylindric glass1 enveloping the spongy mass with a thin coating of wax4 ,according to our experiments1 the obsidians swelled very unequally3 those of the ,peak and the black varieties of ,cotopaxi and of ,quinche increased nearly five times their bulk4 ,the colour of the pumice-stones of the ,peak leads to another important observation4 ,the sea of white ashes which encircles the ,piton1 and covers the vast plain of ,retama1 is a certain proof of the former activity of the crater3 for in all volcanoes1 even when there are lateral eruptions1 the ashes and the rapilli issue conjointly with the vapours only from the opening at the summit of the mountain4 ,now1 at ,teneriffe1 the black rapilli extend from the foot of the ,peak to the sea-shore2 while the white ashes1 which are only pumice ground to powder1 and among which ,i have discovered1 with a lens1 fragments of vitreous feldspar and pyroxene1 exclusively occupy the region next to the ,peak4 ,this peculiar distribution seems to confirm the observations made long ago at ,vesuvius1 that the white ashes are thrown out last1 and indicate the end of the eruption4 ,in proportion as the elasticity of the vapours diminishes1 the matter is thrown to a less distance2 and the black rapilli1 which issue first1 when the lava has ceased running1 must necessarily reach farther than the white rapilli4 ,the latter appear to have been exposed to the action of a more intense fire4 ,i have now examined the exterior structure of the ,peak1 and the composition of its volcanic productions1 from the region of the coast to the top of the ,piton3--,i have endeavoured to render these researches interesting1 by comparing the phenomena of the volcano of ,teneriffe with those that are observed in other regions1 the soil of which is equally undermined by subterranean fires4 ,this mode of viewing ,nature in the universality of her relations is no doubt adverse to the rapidity desirable in an itinerary2 but it appears to me that1 in a narrative1 the principal end of which is the progress of physical knowledge1 every other consideration ought to be subservient to those of instruction and utility4 ,by isolating facts1 travellers1 whose labours are in every other respect valuable1 have given currency to many false ideas of the pretended contrasts which ,nature offers in ,africa1 in ,new ,holland1 and on the ridge of the ,cordilleras4 ,the great geological phenomena are subject to regular laws1 as well as the forms of plants and animals4 ,the ties which unite these phenomena1 the relations which exist between the varied forms of organized beings1 are discovered only when we have acquired the habit of viewing the globe as a great whole2 and when we consider in the same point of view the composition of rocks1 the causes which alter them1 and the productions of the soil1 in the most distant regions4 ,having treated of the volcanic substances of the isle of ,teneriffe1 there now remains to be solved a question intimately connected with the preceding investigation4 ,does the archipelago of the ,canary ,islands contain any rocks of primitive or secondary formation2 or is there any production observed1 that has not been modified by fire8 ,this interesting problem has been considered by the naturalists of ,lord ,macartney's expedition1 and by those who accompanied captain ,baudin in his voyage to the ,austral regions4 ,their opinions are in direct opposition to each other2 and the contradiction is the more striking1 as the question does not refer to one of those geological reveries which we are accustomed to call systems1 but to a positive fact4 ,doctor ,gillan imagined that he observed1 between ,laguna and the port of ,orotava1 in very deep ravines1 beds of primitive rocks4 ,this1 however1 is a mistake4 ,what ,dr4 ,gillan calls somewhat vaguely1 mountains of hard ferruginous clay1 are nothing but an alluvium which we find at the foot of every volcano4 ,strata of clay accompany basalts1 as tufas accompany modern lavas4 ,neither ,m4 ,cordier nor myself observed in any part of ,teneriffe a primitive rock1 either in its natural place1 or thrown out by the mouth of the ,peak2 and the absence of these rocks characterizes almost every island of small extent that has an unextinguishied volcano4 ,we know nothing positive of the mountains of the ,azores2 but it is certain1 that the island of ,bourbon as well as ,teneriffe1 exhibits only a heap of lavas and basalts4 ,no volcanic rock rears its head1 either on the ,gros ,morne1 or on the volcano of ,bourbon1 or on the colossal pyramid of ,cimandef1 which is perhaps more elevated than the ,peak of the ,canary ,islands4 ,bory ,st4 ,vincent nevertheless asserted1 that lavas including fragments of granite have been found on the elevated plain of ,retama2 and ,m4 ,broussonnet informed me1 that on a hill above ,guimar1 fragments of mica-slate1 containing beautiful plates of specular iron1 had been found4 ,i can affirm nothing respecting the accuracy of this latter statement1 which it would be so much the more important to verify1 as ,m4 ,poli1 of ,naples1 is in possession of a fragment of rock thrown out by ,vesuvius199 which ,i found to be a real mica-slate4 799 ,in the valuable collection of ,dr4 ,thomson1 who resided at ,naples till #ahje1 is a fragment of lava enclosing a real granite1 which is composed of reddish feldspar with a pearly lustre like adularia1 quartz1 mica1 hornblende1 and1 what is very remarkable1 lazulite4 ,but in general the masses of known primitive rocks1 7,i mean those which perfectly resemble our granites1 our gneiss1 and our mica-slates7 are very rare in lavas2 the substances we commonly denote by the name of granite1 thrown out by ,vesuvius1 are mixtures of nepheline1 mica1 and pyroxene4 ,we are ignorant whether these mixtures constitute rocks sui generis placed under granite1 and consequently of more ancient date2 or simply form either intermediate strata on veins1 in the interior of the primitive mountains1 the tops of which appear at the surface of the globe47 ,every thing that tends to enlighten us with respect to the site of the volcanic fire1 and the position of rocks subject to its action1 is highly interesting to geology4 ,it is possible1 that at the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 the fragments of primitive rocks thrown out by the mouth of the volcano may be less rare than they at present appear to be1 and may be heaped together in some ravine1 not yet visited by travellers4 ,in fact1 at ,vesuvius1 these same fragments are met with only in one single place1 at the ,fossa ,grande1 where they are hidden under a thick layer of ashes4 ,if this ravine had not long ago attracted the attention of naturalists1 when masses of granular limestone1 and other primitive rocks1 were laid bare by the rains1 we might have thought them as rare at ,vesuvius1 as they are1 at least in appearance1 at the ,peak of ,teneriffe4 ,with respect to the fragments of granite1 gneiss1 and mica-slate1 found on the shores of ,santa ,cruz and ,orotava1 they were probably brought in ships as ballast4 ,they no more belong to the soil where they lie1 than the feldsparry lavas of ,etna1 seen in the pavements of ,hamburg and other towns of the north4 ,the naturalist is exposed to a thousand errors1 if he lose sight of the changes1 produced on the surface of the globe by the intercourse between nations4 ,we might be led to say1 that man1 when expatriating himself2 is desirous that everything should change country with him4 ,not only plants1 insects1 and different species of small quadrupeds1 follow him across the ocean2 his active industry covers the shores with rocks1 which he has torn from the soil in distant climes4 ,though it be certain1 that no scientific observer has hitherto found at ,teneriffe primitive strata1 or even those trappean and ambiguous porphyries1 which constitute the bases of ,etna1 and of several volcanoes of the ,andes1 we must not conclude from this isolated fact1 that the whole archipelago of the ,canaries is the production of submarine fires4 ,the island of ,gomera contains mountains of granite and mica-slate2 and it is1 undoubtedly1 in these very ancient rocks1 that we must seek there1 as well as on all other parts of the globe1 the centre of the volcanic action4 ,amphibole1 sometimes pure and forming intermediate strata1 at other times mixed with granite1 as in the basanites or basalts of the ancients1 may1 of itself1 furnish all the iron contained in the black and stony lavas4 ,this quantity amounts in the basalt of the modern mineralogists only to #j4bj1 while in amphibole it exceeds #j4 #cj4 ,from several well-informed persons1 to whom ,i addressed myself1 ,i learned that there are calcareous formations in the ,great ,canary1 ,forteventura1 and ,lancerota499 799 ,at ,lancerota calcareous stone is burned to lime with a fire made of the alhulaga1 a new species of thorny and arborescent ,sonchus47 ,i was not able to determine the nature of this secondary rock2 but it appears certain1 that the island of ,teneriffe is altogether destitute of it2 and that in its alluvial lands it exhibits only clayey calcareous tufa1 alternating with volcanic breccia1 said to contain1 7near the village of ,la ,rambla1 at ,calderas1 and near ,candelaria17 plants1 imprints of fishes1 buccinites1 and other fossil marine productions4 ,m4 ,cordier brought away some of this tufa1 which resembles that in the environs of ,naples and ,rome1 and contains fragments of reeds4 ,at the ,salvages1 which islands ,la ,perouse took at a distance for masses of scoriae1 even fibrous gypsum is found4 ,i had seen1 while herborizing between the port of ,orotava and the garden of ,la ,paz1 heaps of greyish calcareous stones1 of an imperfect conchoidal fracture1 and analogous to that of ,mount ,jura and the ,apennines4 ,i was informed that these stones were extracted from a quarry near ,rambla2 and that there were similar quarries near ,realejo1 and the mountain of ,roxas1 above ,adexa4 ,this information led me into an error4 ,as the coasts of ,portugal consist of basalts covering calcareous rocks containing shells1 ,i imagined that a trappean formation1 like that of the ,vicentin in ,lombardy1 and of ,harutsh in ,africa1 might have extended from the banks of the ,tagus and ,cape ,st4 ,vincent as far as the ,canary ,islands2 and that the basalts of the ,peak might perhaps conceal a secondary calcareous stone4 ,these conjectures exposed me to severe animadversions from ,m4 ,g4,a4 de ,luc1 who is of opinion that every volcanic island is only an accumulation of lavas and scoriae4 ,m4 de ,luc declares it is impossible that real lava should contain fragments of vegetable substances4 ,our collections1 however1 contain pieces of trunks of palm-trees1 enclosed and penetrated by the very liquid lava of the isle of ,bourbon4 ,though ,teneriffe belongs to a group of islands of considerable extent1 the ,peak exhibits nevertheless all the characteristics of a mountain rising on a solitary islet4 ,the lead finds no bottom at a little distance from the ports of ,santa ,cruz1 ,orotava1 and ,garachico3 in this respect it is like ,st4 ,helena4 ,the ocean1 as well as the continents1 has its mountains and its plains2 and1 if we except the ,andes1 volcanic cones are formed everywhere in the lower regions of the globe4 ,as the ,peak rises amid a system of basalts and old lava1 and as the whole part which is visible above the surface of the waters exhibits burnt substances1 it has been supposed that this immense pyramid is the effect of a progressive accumulation of lavas2 or that it contains in its centre a nucleus of primitive rocks4 ,both of these suppositions appear to me ill-founded4 ,i think there is as little probability that mountains of granite1 gneiss1 or primitive calcareous stone have existed where we now see the tops of the ,peak1 of ,vesuvius1 and of ,etna1 as in the plains where almost in our own time has been formed the volcano of ,jorullo1 which is more than a third of the height of ,vesuvius4 ,on examining the circumstances which accompanied the formation of the new island1 called ,sabrina1 in the archipelago of the ,azores299 799 ,at ,sabrina island1 near ,st4 ,michael's1 the crater opened at the foot of a solid rock1 of almost a cubical form4 ,this rock1 surmounted by a small elevated plain perfectly level1 is more than two hundred toises in breadth4 ,its formation was anterior to that of the crater1 into which1 a few days after its opening1 the sea made an irruption4 ,at ,kameni1 the smoke was not even visible till twenty-six days after the appearance of the upheaved rocks4 ,philosophical ,transactions volume #bf pages #fi and #bjj1 volume #bg page #cec4 ,all these phenomena1 on which ,mr4 ,hawkins collected very valuable observations during his abode at ,santorino1 are unfavourable to the idea commonly entertained of the origin of volcanic mountains4 ,they are usually ascribed to a progressive accumulation of liquified matter1 and the diffusion of lavas issuing from a central mouth47 on carefully reading the minute and simple narrative1 given by the ,jesuit ,bourguignon of the slow appearance of the islet of the little ,kameni1 near ,santorino2 we find that these extraordinary eruptions are generally preceded by a swelling of the softened crust of the globe4 ,rocks appear above the waters before the flames force their way1 or lavas issue from the crater3 we must distinguish between the nucleus raised up1 and the mass of lavas and scoriae1 which successively increases its dimensions4 ,it is true that from all existing records of revolutions of this kind1 the perpendicular height of the stony nucleus appears never to have exceeded one hundred and fifty or two hundred toises2 even taking into the account the depth of the sea1 the bottom of which had been lifted up3 but when considering the great effects of nature1 and the intensity of its forces1 the bulk of the masses must not deter the geologist in his speculations4 ,every thing indicates that the physical changes of which tradition has preserved the remembrance1 exhibit but a feeble image of those gigantic catastrophes which have given mountains their present form1 changed the positions of the rocky strata1 and buried sea-shells on the summits of the higher ,alps4 ,doubtless1 in those remote times which preceded the existence of the human race1 the raised crust of the globe produced those domes of trappean porphyry1 those hills of isolated basalt on vast elevated plains1 those solid nuclei which are clothed in the modern lavas of the ,peak1 of ,etna1 and of ,cotopaxi4 ,the volcanic revolutions have succeeded each other after long intervals1 and at very different periods3 of this we see the vestiges in the transition mountains1 in the secondary strata1 and in those of alluvium4 ,volcanoes of earlier date than the sandstone and calcareous rocks have been for ages extinguished2 those which are yet in activity are in general surrounded only with breccias and modern tufas2 but nothing hinders us from admitting1 that the archipelago of the ,canaries may exhibit some real rocks of secondary formation1 if we recollect that subterranean fires have been there rekindled in the midst of a system of basalts and very ancient lavas4 ,we seek in vain in the ,periplus of ,hanno or of ,scylax for the first written notions on the eruptions of the ,peak of ,teneriffe4 ,those navigators sailed timidly along the coast1 anchoring every evening in some bay1 and had no knowledge of a volcano distant fifty-six leagues from the coast of ,africa4 ,hanno nevertheless relates1 that he saw torrents of light1 which seemed to fall on the sea2 that every night the coast was covered with fire2 and that the great mountain1 called the ,car of the ,gods1 appeared to throw up sheets of flame1 which rose even to the clouds4 ,but this mountain1 situated northward of the island of the ,gorilli1 formed the western extremity of the ,atlas chain2 and it is also very uncertain whether the flames seen by ,hanno were the effect of some volcanic eruption1 or whether they must be attributed to the custom1 common to many nations1 of setting fire to the forests and dry grass of the savannahs4 ,in our own days similar doubts were entertained by the naturalists1 who1 in the voyage of d',entrecasteaux1 saw the island of ,amsterdam covered with a thick smoke4 ,on the coast of the ,caracas1 trains of reddish fire1 fed by the burning grass1 appeared to me1 for several nights1 under the delusive semblance of a current of lava1 descending from the mountains1 and dividing itself into several branches4 ,though the narratives of ,hanno and ,scylax1 in the state in which they have reached us1 contain no passage which we can reasonably apply to the ,canary ,islands1 it is very probable that the ,carthaginians1 and even the ,phoenicians1 had some knowledge of the ,peak of ,teneriffe4 ,in the time of ,plato and ,aristotle1 vague notions of it had reached the ,greeks1 who considered the whole of the coast of ,africa1 beyond the ,pillars of ,hercules1 as thrown into disorder by the fire of volcanoes4 ,the ,abode of the ,blessed1 which was sought first in the north1 beyond the ,riphaean mountains1 among the ,hyperboreans1 and next to the south of ,cyrenaica1 was supposed to be situated in regions that were considered to be westward1 being the direction in which the world known to the ancients terminated4 ,the name of ,fortunate ,islands was long in as vague signification1 as that of ,el ,dorado among the conquerors of ,america4 ,happiness was thought to reside at the end of the earth1 as we seek for the most exquisite enjoyments of the mind in an ideal world beyond the limits of reality499 799 ,the idea of the happiness1 the great civilization1 and the riches of the inhabitants of the north1 was common to the ,greeks1 to the people of ,india1 and to the ,mexicans47 ,we must not be surprised that1 previous to the time of ,aristotle1 we find no accurate notion respecting the ,canary ,islands and the volcanoes they contain1 among the ,greek geographers4 ,the only nation whose navigations extended toward the west and the north1 the ,carthaginians1 were interested in throwing a veil of mystery over those distant regions4 ,while the senate of ,carthage was averse to any partial emigration1 it pointed out those islands as a place of refuge in times of trouble and public misfortune2 they were to the ,carthaginians what the free soil of ,america has become to ,europeans amidst their religious and civil dissensions4 ,the ,canaries were not better known to the ,romans till eighty-four years before the reign of ,augustus4 ,a private individual was desirous of executing the project1 which wise foresight had dictated to the senate of ,carthage4 ,sertorius1 conquered by ,sylla1 and weary of the din of war1 looked out for a safe and peaceable retreat4 ,he chose the ,fortunate ,islands1 of which a delightful picture had been drawn for him on the shores of ,baetica4 ,he carefully combined the notions he acquired from travellers2 but in the little that has been transmitted to us of those notions1 and in the more minute descriptions of ,sebosus and ,juba1 there is no mention of volcanoes or volcanic eruptions4 ,scarcely can we recognise the isle of ,teneriffe1 and the snows with which the summit of the ,peak is covered in winter1 in the name of ,nivaria1 given to one of the ,fortunate ,islands4 ,hence we might conclude1 that the volcano at that time threw out no flames1 if it were allowable so to interpret the silence of a few authors1 whom we know only by short fragments or dry nomenclatures4 ,the naturalist vainly seeks in history for documents of the first eruptions of the ,peak2 he nowhere finds any but in the language of the ,guanches1 in which the word ,echeyde denotes1 at the same time1 hell and the volcano of ,teneriffe4 ,of all the written testimonies1 the oldest ,i have found in relation to the activity of this volcano dates from the beginning of the sixteenth century4 ,it is contained in the narrative of the voyage of ,aloysio ,cadamusto1 who landed at the ,canaries in #aeje4 ,this traveller was witness of no eruptions1 but he positively affirms that1 like ,etna1 this mountain burns without interruption1 and that the fire has been seen by christians held in slavery by the ,guanches of ,teneriffe4 ,the ,peak1 therefore1 was not at that time in the state of repose in which we find it at present2 for it is certain that no navigator or inhabitant of ,teneriffe has seen issue from the mouth of the ,peak1 ,i will not say flames1 but even any smoke visible at a distance4 ,it would be well1 perhaps1 were the funnel of the ,caldera to open anew2 the lateral eruptions would thereby be rendered less violent1 and the whole group of islands would be less endangered by earthquakes4 ,the eruptions of the ,peak have been very rare for two centuries past1 and these long intervals appear to characterize volcanoes highly elevated4 ,the smallest one of all1 ,stromboli1 is almost always burning4 ,at ,vesuvius1 the eruptions are rarer than formerly1 though still more frequent than those of ,etna and the ,peak of ,teneriffe4 ,the colossal summits of the ,andes1 ,cotopaxi and ,tungurahua1 scarcely have an eruption once in a century4 ,we may say1 that in active volcanoes the frequency of the eruptions is in the inverse ratio of the height and the mass4 ,the ,peak also had seemed extinguished during ninety-two years1 when1 in #agih1 it made its last eruption by a lateral opening formed in the mountain of ,chahorra4 ,in this interval ,vesuvius had sixteen eruptions4 ,the whole of the mountainous part of the kingdom of ,quito may be considered as an immense volcano1 occupying more than seven hundred square leagues of surface1 and throwing out flames by different cones1 known under the particular denominations of ,cotopaxi1 ,tungurahua1 and ,pichincha4 ,the group of the ,canary ,islands is situated on the same sort of submarine volcano4 ,the fire makes its way sometimes by one and sometimes by another of these islands4 ,teneriffe alone contains in its centre an immense pyramid terminating in a crater1 and throwing out1 from one century to another1 lava by its flanks4 ,in the other islands1 the different eruptions have taken place in various parts2 and we nowhere find those isolated mountains to which the volcanic effects are confined4 ,the basaltic crust1 formed by ancient volcanoes1 seems everywhere undermined2 and the currents of lava1 seen at ,lancerota and ,palma1 remind us1 by every geological affinity1 of the eruption which took place in #acja at the island of ,ischia1 amid the tufas of ,epomeo4 ,the exclusively lateral action of the peak of ,teneriffe is a geological phenomenon1 the more remarkable as it contributes to make the mountains which are backed by the principal volcano appear isolated4 ,it is true1 that in ,etna and ,vesuvius the great flowings of lava do not proceed from the crater itself1 and that the abundance of melted matter is generally in the inverse ratio of the height of the opening whence the lava is ejected4 ,but at ,vesuvius and ,etna a lateral eruption constantly terminates by flashes of flame and by ashes issuing from the crater1 that is1 from the summit of the mountain4 ,at the ,peak this phenomenon has not been witnessed for ages3 and yet recently1 in the eruption of #agih1 the crater remained quite inactive4 ,its bottom did not sink in2 while at ,vesuvius1 as ,m4 von ,buch has observed1 the greater or less depth of the crater is an infallible indication of the proximity of a new eruption4 ,i might terminate these geological sketches by enquiring into the nature of the combustible which has fed for so many thousands of years the fire of the peak of ,teneriffe2--,i might examine whether it be sodium or potassium1 the metallic basis of some earth1 carburet of hydrogen1 or pure sulphur combined with iron1 that burns in the volcano2--but wishing to limit myself to what may be the object of direct observation1 ,i shall not take upon me to solve a problem for which we have not yet sufficient data4 ,we know not whether we may conclude1 from the enormous quantity of sulphur contained in the crater of the ,peak1 that it is this substance which keeps up the heat of the volcano2 or whether the fire1 fed by some combustible of an unknown nature1 effects merely the sublimation of the sulphur4 ,what we learn from observation is1 that in craters which are still burning1 sulphur is very rare2 while all the ancient volcanoes end in becoming sulphur-pits4 ,we might presume that1 in the former1 the sulphur is combined with oxygen1 while1 in the latter1 it is merely sublimated2 for nothing hitherto authorises us to admit that it is formed in the interior of volcanoes1 like ammonia and the neutral salts4 ,when we were yet unacquainted with sulphur1 except as disseminated in the muriatiferous gypsum and in the ,alpine limestone1 we were almost forced to the belief1 that in every part of the globe the volcanic fire acted on rocks of secondary formation2 but recent observations have proved that sulphur exists in great abundance in those primitive rocks which so many phenomena indicate as the centre of the volcanic action4 ,near ,alausi1 at the back of the ,andes of ,quito1 ,i found an immense quantity in a bed of quartz1 which formed a layer of mica-slate4 ,this fact is the more important1 as it is in strict conformity with the conclusions deduced from the observation of those fragments of ancient rocks which are thrown out intact by volcanoes4 ,we have just considered the island of ,teneriffe merely in a geological point of view2 we have seen the ,peak towering amid fractured strata of basalt and mandelstein2 let us examine how these fused masses have been gradually adorned with vegetable clothing1 what is the distribution of plants on the steep declivity of the volcano1 and what is the aspect or physiognomy of vegetation in the ,canary ,islands4 ,in the northern part of the temperate zone1 the cryptogamous plants are the first that cover the stony crust of the globe4 ,the lichens and mosses1 that develop their foliage beneath the snows1 are succeeded by grumina and other phanerogamous plants4 ,this order of vegetation differs on the borders of the torrid zone1 and in the countries between the tropics4 ,we there find1 it is true1 whatever some travellers may have asserted1 not only on the mountains1 but also in humid and shady places1 almost on a level with the sea1 ,funaria1 ,dicranum1 and ,bryum2 and these genera1 among their numerous species1 exhibit several which are common to ,lapland1 to the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 and to the ,blue ,mountains of ,jamaica4 7,this extraordinary fact was first observed by ,m4 ,swarz4 ,it was confirmed by ,m4 ,willdenouw when he carefully examined our herbals1 especially the collection of cryptogamous plants1 which we gathered on the tops of the ,andes1 in a region of the world where organic life is totally different from that of the old world47 ,nevertheless1 in general1 it is not by mosses and lichens that vegetation in the countries near the tropics begins4 ,in the ,canary ,islands1 as well as in ,guinea1 and on the rocky coasts of ,peru1 the first vegetation which prepares the soil are the succulent plants2 the leaves of which1 provided with an infinite number of orifices99 799 ,the pores corticaux of ,m4 ,decandolle1 discovered by ,gleichen1 and figured by ,hedwig47 and cutaneous vessels1 deprive the ambient air of the water it holds in solution4 ,fixed in the crevices of volcanic rocks1 they form1 as it were1 that first layer of vegetable earth with which the currents of lithoid lava are clothed4 ,wherever these lavas are scorified1 and where they have a shining surface1 as in the basaltic mounds to the north of ,lancerota1 the development of vegetation is extremely slow1 and many ages may pass away before shrubs can take root4 ,it is only when lavas are covered with tufa and ashes1 that the volcanic islands1 losing that appearance of nudity which marks their origin1 bedeck themselves in rich and brilliant vegetation4 ,in its present state1 the island of ,teneriffe1 the ,chinerfe99 799 ,of ,chinerfe the ,europeans have formed1 by corruption1 ,tchineriffe and ,teneriffe47 of the ,guanches1 exhibits five zones of plants1 which we may distinguish by the names--region of vines1 region of laurels1 region of pines1 region of the retama1 and region of grasses4 ,these zones are ranged in stages1 one above another1 and occupy1 on the steep declivity of the ,peak1 a perpendicular height of #agej toises2 while fifteen degrees farther north1 on the ,pyrenees1 snow descends to thirteen or fourteen hundred toises of absolute elevation4 ,if the plants of ,teneriffe do not reach the summit of the volcano1 it is not because the perpetual snow and the cold of the surrounding atmosphere mark limits which they cannot pass2 it is the scorified lava of the ,malpays1 the powdered and barren pumice-stone of the ,piton1 which impede the migration of plants towards the brink of the crater4 ,the first zone1 that of the vines1 extends from the sea-shore to two or three hundred toises of height2 it is that which is most inhabited1 and the only part carefully cultivated4 ,in the low regions1 at the port of ,orotava1 and wherever the winds have free access1 the centigrade thermometer stands in winter1 in the months of ,january and ,february1 at noon1 between fifteen and seventeen degrees2 and the greatest heats of summer do not exceed twenty-five or twenty-six degrees4 ,the mean temperature of the coasts of ,teneriffe appears at least to rise to twenty-one degrees 7#af4h degrees ,reaumur72 and the climate in those parts keeps at the medium between the climate of ,naples and that of the torrid zone4 ,the region of the vines exhibits1 among its vegetable productions1 eight kinds of arborescent ,euphorbia2 ,mesembrianthema1 which are multiplied from the ,cape of ,good ,hope to the ,peloponnesus2 the ,cacalia ,kleinia1 the ,dracaena1 and other plants1 which in their naked and tortuous trunks1 in their succulent leaves1 and their tint of bluish green1 exhibit distinctive marks of the vegetation of ,africa4 ,it is in this zone that the date-tree1 the plantain1 the sugar-cane1 the ,indian fig1 the ,arum ,colocasia1 the root of which furnishes a nutritive fecula1 the olive-tree1 the fruit trees of ,europe1 the vine1 and corn are cultivated4 ,corn is reaped from the end of ,march to the beginning of ,may3 and the culture of the bread-fruit tree of ,otaheite1 that of the cinnamon tree of the ,moluccas1 the coffee-tree of ,arabia1 and the cacao-tree of ,america1 have been tried with success4 ,on several points of the coast the country assumes the character of a tropical landscape2 and we perceive that the region of the palms extends beyond the limits of the torrid zone4 ,the chamaerops and the date-tree flourish in the fertile plains of ,murviedro1 on the coasts of ,genoa1 and in ,provence1 near ,antibes1 between the thirty-ninth and forty-fourth degrees of latitude2 a few trees of the latter species1 planted within the walls of the city of ,rome1 resist even the cold of #b4e degrees below freezing point4 ,but if the south of ,europe as yet only partially shares the gifts lavished by nature on the zone of palms1 the island of ,teneriffe1 situated on the parallel of ,egypt1 southern ,persia1 and ,florida1 is adorned with the greater part of the vegetable forms which add to the majesty of the landscape in the regions near the equator4 ,on reviewing the different tribes of indigenous plants1 we regret not finding trees with small pinnated leaves1 and arborescent gramina4 ,no species of the numerous family of the sensitive-plants has migrated as far as the archipelago of the ,canary ,islands1 while on both continents they have been seen in the thirty-eighth and fortieth degrees of latitude4 ,on a more careful examination of the plants of the islands of ,lancerota and ,forteventura1 which are nearest the coast of ,morocco1 we may perhaps find a few mimosas among many other plants of the ,african flora4 ,the second zone1 that of the laurels1 comprises the woody part of ,teneriffe3 this is the region of the springs1 which gush forth amidst turf always verdant1 and never parched with drought4 ,lofty forests crown the hills leading to the volcano1 and in them are found four species of laurel199 799 ,laurus indica1 ,l4 foetens1 ,l4 nobilis1 and ,l4 ,til4 ,with these trees are mingled the ,ardisia excelsa1 ,rhamnus glandulosus1 ,erica arborea and ,e4 texo47 an oak nearly resembling the ,quercus ,turneri99 799 ,quercus canariensis1 ,broussonnet47 of the mountains of ,tibet1 the ,visnea mocanera1 the ,myrica ,faya of the ,azores1 a native olive 7,olea excelsa71 which is the largest tree of this zone1 two species of ,sideroxylon1 the leaves of which are extremely beautiful1 the ,arbutus callicarpa1 and other evergreen trees of the family of myrtles4 ,bindweeds1 and an ivy very different from that of ,europe 7,hedera canariensis7 entwine the trunks of the laurels2 at their feet vegetate a numberless quantity of ferns199 799 ,woodwardia radicans1 ,asplenium palmatum1 ,a4 canariensis1 ,a4 latifolium1 ,nothalaena subcordata1 ,trichomanes canariensis1 ,t4 speciosum1 and ,davallia canariensis47 of which three species99 799 ,two ,acrostichums and the ,ophyoglossum lusitanicum47 alone descend as low as the region of the vines4 ,the soil1 covered with mosses and tender grass1 is enriched with the flowers of the ,campanula aurea1 the ,chrysanthemum pinnatifidum1 the ,mentha canariensis1 and several bushy species of ,hypericum499 799 ,hypericum canariense1 ,h4 floribundum1 and ,h4 glandulosum47 ,plantations of wild and grafted chestnut-trees form a broad border round the region of the springs1 which is the greenest and most agreeable of the whole4 ,in the third zone 7beginning at nine hundred toises of absolute height71 the last groups of ,arbutus1 of ,myrica ,faya1 and of that beautiful heath known to the natives by the name of ,texo1 appear4 ,this zone1 four hundred toises in breadth1 is entirely filled by a vast forest of pines1 among which mingles the ,juniperus cedro of ,broussonnet4 ,the leaves of these pines are very long and stiff1 and they sprout sometimes by pairs1 but oftener by threes in one sheath4 ,having had no opportunity of examining the fructification1 we cannot say whether this species1 which has the appearance of the ,scotch fir1 is really different from the eighteen species of pines with which we are already acquainted in ,europe4 ,m4 ,decandolle is of opinion that the pine of ,teneriffe is equally distinct from the ,pinus atlantica of the neighbouring mountains of ,mogador1 and from the pine of ,aleppo199 799 ,pinus halepensis4 ,m4 ,decandolle observes1 that this species1 which is not found in ,portugal1 but grows on the ,mediterranean shores of ,france1 ,spain1 and ,italy1 in ,asia ,minor1 and in ,barbary1 would be better named ,pinus mediterranea4 ,it composes the principal part of the pine-forests of the south-east of ,france1 where ,gouan and ,gerard have confounded it with the ,pinus sylvestris4 ,it comprehends the ,pinus halepensis1 ,mill41 ,lamb41 and ,desfont41 and the ,pinus maritima1 ,lamb47 which belongs to the basin of the ,mediterranean1 and does not appear to have passed the ,pillars of ,hercules4 ,we met with these last pines on the slope of the ,peak1 near twelve hundred toises above the level of the sea4 ,in the ,cordilleras of ,new ,spain1 under the torrid zone1 the ,mexican pines extend to the height of two thousand toises4 ,notwithstanding the similarity of structure existing between the different species of the same genus of plants1 each of them requires a certain degree of temperature and rarity in the ambient air to attain its due growth4 ,if in temperate climates1 and wherever snow falls1 the uniform heat of the soil be somewhat above the mean heat of the atmosphere1 it is probable that at the height of ,portillo the roots of the pines draw their nourishment from a soil1 in which1 at a certain depth1 the thermometer rises at most to nine or ten degrees4 ,the fourth and fifth zones1 the regions of the retama and the gramina1 occupy heights equal to the most inaccessible summits of the ,pyrenees4 ,it is the sterile part of the island where heaps of pumice-stone1 obsidian1 and broken lava1 form impediments to vegetation4 ,we have already spoken of those flowery tufts of alpine broom 7,spartium nubigenum71 which form oases amidst a vast desert of ashes4 ,two herbaceous plants1 the ,scrophularia glabrata and the ,viola cheiranthifolia1 advance even to the ,malpays4 ,above a turf scorched by the heat of an ,african sun1 an arid soil is overspread by the ,cladonia paschalis4 ,towards the summit of the ,peak the ,urceolarea and other plants of the family of the lichens1 help to work the decomposition of the scorified matter4 ,by this unceasing action of organic force the empire of ,flora is extended over islands ravaged by volcanoes4 ,on surveying the different zones of the vegetation of ,teneriffe1 we perceive that the whole island may be considered as a forest of laurels1 arbutus1 and pines1 containing in its centre a naked and rocky soil1 unfit either for pasturage or cultivation4 ,m4 ,broussonnet observes1 that the archipelago of the ,canaries may be divided into two groups of islands2 the first comprising ,lancerota and ,forteventura1 the second ,teneriffe1 ,canary1 ,gomera1 ,ferro1 and ,palma4 ,the appearance of the vegetation essentially differs in these two groups4 ,the eastern islands1 ,lancerota and ,forteventura1 consist of extensive plains and mountains of little elevation2 they have very few springs1 and bear the appearance1 still more than the other islands1 of having been separated from the continent4 ,the winds blow in the same direction1 and at the same periods3 the ,euphorbia mauritanica1 the ,atropa frutescens1 and the arborescent ,sonchus1 vegetate there in the loose sands1 and afford1 as in ,africa1 food for camels4 ,the western group of the ,canaries presents a more elevated soil1 is more woody1 and is watered by a greater number of springs4 ,though the whole archipelago contains several plants found also in ,portugal199 799 ,m4 ,willdenouw and myself found1 among the plants of the peak of ,teneriffe1 the beautiful ,satyrium diphyllum 7,orchis cordata1 ,willd47 which ,mr4 ,link discovered in ,portugal4 ,the ,canaries have1 in common with the ,flora of the ,azores1 not the ,dicksonia culcita1 the only arborescent heath found at the thirty-ninth degree of latitude1 but the ,asplenium palmatum1 and the ,myrica ,faya4 ,this last tree is met with in ,portugal1 in a wild state4 ,count ,hoffmansegg has seen very old trunks of it2 but it was doubtful whether it was indigenous1 or imported into that part of our continent4 ,in reflecting on the migrations of plants1 and on the geological possibility1 that lands sunk in the ocean may have heretofore united ,portugal1 the ,azores1 the ,canaries1 and the chain of ,atlas1 we conceive1 that the existence of the ,myrica ,faya in western ,europe is a phenomenon at least as striking as that of the pine of ,aleppo would be at the ,azores471 in ,spain1 at the ,azores1 and in the north-west of ,africa1 yet a great number of species1 and even some genera1 are peculiar to ,teneriffe1 to ,porto ,santo1 and to ,madeira4 ,such are the ,mocanera1 the ,plocama1 the ,bosea1 the ,canarina1 the ,drusa1 and the ,pittosporum4 ,a form which may be called northern1 that of the cruciform plant 7,among the small number of cruciform species contained in the ,flora of ,teneriffe1 we shall here mention ,cheiranthus longifolius1 l',herit42 ,ch4 fructescens1 ,vent42 ,ch4 scoparius1 ,brouss42 ,erysimum bicorne1 ,aiton2 ,crambe strigosa1 and ,c4 laevigata1 ,brouss471 is much rarer in the ,canaries than in ,spain and in ,greece4 ,still farther to the south1 in the equinoctial regions of both continents1 where the mean temperature of the air rises above twenty-two degrees1 the cruciform plants are scarcely ever to be seen4 ,a question highly interesting to the history of the progressive marks of organization on the globe has been very warmly discussed in our own times1 that of ascertaining whether the polymorphous plants are more common in the volcanic islands4 ,the vegetation of ,teneriffe is unfavourable to the hypothesis that nature in new countries is but little subject to permanent forms4 ,m4 ,broussonnet1 who resided so long at the ,canaries1 asserts that the variable plants are not more common there than in the south of ,europe4 ,may it not to be presumed1 that the polymorphous species1 which are so abundant in the isle of ,bourbon1 are assignable to the nature of the soil and climate rather than to the newness of the vegetation8 ,before we take leave of the old world to pass into the new1 ,i must advert to a subject which is of general interest1 because it belongs to the history of man1 and to those fatal revolutions which have swept off whole tribes from the face of the earth4 ,we inquire at the isle of ,cuba1 at ,st4 ,domingo1 and in ,jamaica1 where is the abode of the primitive inhabitants of those countries8 ,we ask at ,teneriffe what is become of the ,guanches1 whose mummies alone1 buried in caverns1 have escaped destruction8 ,in the fifteenth century almost all mercantile nations1 especially the ,spaniards and the ,portuguese1 sought for slaves at the ,canary ,islands1 as in later times they have been sought on the coast of ,guinea499 799 ,the ,spanish historians speak of expeditions made by the ,huguenots of ,rochelle to carry off ,guanche slaves4 ,i have some doubt respecting these expeditions1 which are said to have taken place subsequently to the year #aecj47 ,the ,christian religion1 which in its origin was so highly favourable to the liberty of mankind1 served afterwards as a pretext to the cupidity of ,europeans4 ,every individual1 made prisoner before he received the rite of baptism1 became a slave4 ,at that period no attempt had yet been made to prove that the blacks were an intermediate race between man and animals4 ,the swarthy ,guanche and the ,african negro were simultaneously sold in the market of ,seville1 without a question whether slavery should be the doom only of men with black skins and woolly hair4 ,the archipelago of the ,canaries was divided into several small states hostile to each other1 and in many instances the same island was subject to two independent princes4 ,the trading nations1 influenced by the hideous policy still exercised on the coast of ,africa1 kept up intestine warfare4 ,one ,guanche then became the property of another1 who sold him to the ,europeans2 several1 who preferred death to slavery1 killed themselves and their children4 ,the population of the ,canaries had considerably suffered by the slave trade1 by the depredations of pirates1 and especially by a long period of carnage1 when ,alonzo de ,lugo completed the conquest of the ,guanches4 ,the surviving remnants of the race perished mostly in #adid1 in the terrible pestilence called the modorra1 which was attributed to the quantity of dead bodies left exposed in the open air by the ,spaniards after the battle of ,la ,laguna4 ,the nation of the ,guanches was extinct at the beginning of the seventeenth century2 a few old men only were found at ,candelaria and ,guimar4 ,it is1 however1 consoling to find that the whites have not always disdained to intermarry with the natives2 but the ,canarians of the present day1 whom the ,spaniards familiarly call ,islenos 7,islanders71 have very powerful motives for denying this mixture4 ,in a long series of generations time effaces the characteristic marks of a race2 and as the descendants of the ,andalusians settled at ,teneriffe are themselves of dark complexion1 we may conceive that intermarriages cannot have produced a perceptible change in the colour of the whites4 ,it is very certain that no native of pure race exists in the whole island4 ,it is true that a few ,canarian families boast of their relationship to the last shepherd-king of ,guimar1 but these pretensions do not rest on very solid foundations1 and are only renewed from time to time when some ,canarian of more dusky hue than his countrymen is prompted to solicit a commission in the service of the king of ,spain4 ,a short time after the discovery of ,america1 when ,spain was at the highest pinnacle of her glory1 the gentle character of the ,guanches was the fashionable topic1 as we in our times laud the ,arcadian innocence of the inhabitants of ,otaheite4 ,in both these pictures the colouring is more vivid than true4 ,when nations1 wearied with mental enjoyments1 behold nothing in the refinement of manners but the germ of depravity1 they are pleased with the idea1 that in some distant region1 in the first dawn of civilization1 infant society enjoys pure and perpetual felicity4 ,to this sentiment ,tacitus owed a part of his success1 when he sketched for the ,romans1 subjects of the ,caesars1 a picture of the manners of the inhabitants of ,germany4 ,the same sentiment gives an ineffable charm to the narrative of those travellers who1 at the close of the last century1 visited the ,south ,sea ,islands4 ,the inhabitants of those islands1 too much vaunted 7and previously anthropophagi71 resemble1 under more than one point of view1 the ,guanches of ,teneriffe4 ,both nations were under the yoke of feudal government4 ,among the ,guanches1 this institution1 which facilitates and renders a state of warfare perpetual1 was sanctioned by religion4 ,the priests declared to the people3 ,the great ,spirit1 ,achaman1 created first the nobles1 the achimenceys1 to whom he distributed all the goats that exist on the face of the earth4 ,after the nobles1 ,achaman created the plebeians1 achicaxnas4 ,this younger race had the boldness to petition also for goats2 but the supreme ,spirit answered1 that this race was destined to serve the nobles1 and that they had need of no property4 ,this tradition was made1 no doubt1 to please the rich vassals of the shepherd-kings4 ,the faycan1 or high priest1 also exercised the right of conferring nobility2 and the law of the ,guanches expressed that every achimencey who degraded himself by milking a goat with his own hands1 lost his claim to nobility4 ,this law does not remind us of the simplicity of the ,homeric age4 ,we are astonished to see the useful labours of agriculture1 and of pastoral life1 exposed to contempt at the very dawn of civilization4 ,the ,guanches1 famed for their tall stature1 were the ,patagonians of the old world4 ,historians exaggerated the muscular strength of the ,guanches1 as1 previous to the voyage of ,bougainville and ,cordoba1 colossal proportions were attributed to the tribe that inhabited the southern extremity of ,america4 ,i never saw ,guanche mummies but in the cabinets of ,europe4 ,at the time ,i visited the ,canaries they were very scarce2 a considerable number1 however1 might be found if miners were employed to open the sepulchral caverns which are cut in the rock on the eastern slope of the ,peak1 between ,arico and ,guimar4 ,these mummies are in a state of desiccation so singular1 that whole bodies1 with their integuments1 frequently do not weigh above six or seven pounds2 or a third less than the skeleton of an individual of the same size1 recently stripped of the muscular flesh4 ,the conformation of the skull has some slight resemblance to that of the white race of the ancient ,egyptians2 and the incisive teeth of the ,guanches are blunted1 like those of the mummies found on the banks of the ,nile4 ,but this form of teeth is the result of art2 and on examining more carefully the physiognomy of the ancient ,canarians1 ,blumenbach and other able anatomists have recognized in the cheek bones and the lower jaw perceptible differences from the ,egyptian mummies4 ,on opening those of the ,guanches1 remains of aromatic plants are discovered1 among which the ,chenopodium ambrosioides is constantly perceived3 the bodies are often decorated with small laces1 to which are hung little discs of baked earth1 which appear to have served as numerical signs1 and resemble the quippoes of the ,peruvians1 the ,mexicans1 and the ,chinese4 ,the population of islands being in general less exposed than that of continents to the effect of migrations1 we may presume that1 in the time of the ,carthaginians and the ,greeks1 the archipelago of the ,canaries was inhabited by the same race of men as were found by the ,norman and ,spanish conquerors4 ,the only monument that can throw any light on the origin of the ,guanches is their language2 but unhappily there are not above a hundred and fifty words extant1 and several express the same object1 according to the dialect of the different islanders4 ,independently of these words1 which have been carefully noted1 there are still some valuable fragments existing in the names of a great number of hamlets1 hills1 and valleys4 ,the ,guanches1 like the ,biscayans1 the ,hindoos1 the ,peruvians1 and all primitive nations1 named places after the quality of the soil1 the shape of the rocks1 the caverns that gave them shelter1 and the nature of the tree that overshadowed the springs499 799 ,it has been long imagined1 that the language of the ,guanches had no analogy with the living tongues2 but since the travels of ,hornemann1 and the ingenious researches of ,marsden and ,venturi1 have drawn the attention of the learned to the ,berbers1 who1 like the ,sarmatic tribes1 occupy an immense extent of country in the north of ,africa1 we find that several ,guanche words have common roots with words of the ,chilha and ,gebali dialects4 ,we shall cite1 for instance1 the words3 ,,table ,,of ,,words4 ,column #a3 ,word4 ,column #b3 ,in ,guanche4 ,column #c3 ,in ,berberic4 ,heaven 3 ,tigo 3 ,tigot4 ,milk 3 ,aho 3 ,acho4 ,barley 3 ,temasen 3 ,tomzeen4 ,basket 3 ,carianas 3 ,carian4 ,water 3 ,aenum 3 ,anan4 ,i doubt whether this analogy is a proof of a common origin2 but it is an indication of the ancient connexion between the ,guanches and ,berbers1 a tribe of mountaineers1 in which the ancient ,numidians1 ,getuli1 and ,garamanti are confounded1 and who extend themselves from the eastern extremity of ,atlas by ,harutsh and ,fezzan1 as far as the oasis of ,siwah and ,augela4 ,the natives of the ,canary ,islands called themselves ,guanches1 from guan1 man2 as the ,tonguese call themselves bye1 and tongui1 which have the same signification as guan4 ,besides the nations who speak the ,berberic language are not all of the same race2 and the description which ,scylax gives1 in his ,periplus1 of the inhabitants of ,cerne1 a shepherd people of tall stature and long hair1 reminds us of the features which characterize the ,canarian ,guanches47 ,the greater attention we direct to the study of languages in a philosophical point of view1 the more we must observe that no one of them is entirely distinct4 ,the language of the ,guanches would appear still less so1 had we any data respecting its mechanism and grammatical construction2 two elements more important than the form of words1 and the identity of sounds4 ,it is the same with certain idioms1 as with those organized beings that seem to shrink from all classification in the series of natural families4 ,their isolated state is merely apparent2 for it ceases when1 on embracing a greater number of objects1 we come to discover the intermediate links4 ,those learned enquirers who trace ,egyptians wherever there are mummies1 hieroglyphics1 or pyramids1 will imagine perhaps that the race of ,typhon was united to the ,guanches by the ,berbers1 real ,atlantes1 to whom belong the ,tibboes and the ,tuarycks of the desert3 but this hypothesis is supported by no analogy between the ,berberic and ,coptic languages1 which are justly considered as remnants of the ancient ,egyptian4 ,the people who have succeeded the ,guanches are descended from the ,spaniards1 and in a more remote degree from the ,normans4 ,though these two races have been exposed during three centuries past to the same climate1 the latter is distinguished by the fairer complexion4 ,the descendants of the ,normans inhabit the valley of ,teganana1 between ,punta de ,naga and ,punta de ,hidalgo4 ,the names of ,grandville and ,dampierre are still pretty common in this district4 ,the ,canarians are a moral1 sober1 and religious people1 of a less industrious character at home than in foreign countries4 ,a roving and enterprising disposition leads these islanders1 like the ,biscayans and ,catalonians1 to the ,philippines1 to the ,ladrone ,islands1 to ,america1 and wherever there are ,spanish settlements1 from ,chile and ,la ,plata to ,new ,mexico4 ,to them we are in a great measure indebted for the progress of agriculture in those colonies4 ,the whole archipelago does not contain #afj1jcj inhabitants1 and the ,islenos are perhaps more numerous in the new continent than in their own country4 ,,chapter #a4c4 ,,passage ,,from ,,tenerife ,,to ,,south ,,america4 ,,the ,,island ,,of ,,tobago4 ,,arrival ,,at ,,cumana4 ,we left the road of ,santa ,cruz on the #beth of ,june1 and directed our course towards ,south ,america4 ,we soon lost sight of the ,canary ,islands1 the lofty mountains of which were covered with a reddish vapour4 ,the ,peak alone appeared from time to time1 as at intervals the wind dispersed the clouds that enveloped the ,piton4 ,we felt1 for the first time1 how strong are the impressions left on the mind from the aspect of those countries situated on the limits of the torrid zone1 where nature appears at once so rich1 so various1 and so majestic4 ,our stay at ,teneriffe had been very short1 and yet we withdrew from the island as if it had long been our home4 ,our passage from ,santa ,cruz to ,cumana1 the most eastern part of the ,new ,continent1 was very fine4 ,we cut the tropic of ,cancer on the #bgth2 and though the ,pizarro was not a very fast sailer1 we made1 in twenty days1 the nine hundred leagues1 which separate the coast of ,africa from that of the ,new ,continent4 ,we passed fifty leagues west of ,cape ,bojador1 ,cape ,blanco1 and the ,cape ,verd islands4 ,a few land birds1 which had been driven to sea by the impetuosity of the wind followed us for several days4 ,the latitude diminished rapidly1 from the parallel of ,madeira to the tropic4 ,when we reached the zone where the trade-winds are constant1 we crossed the ocean from east to west1 on a calm sea1 which the ,spanish sailors call the ,ladies' ,gulf1 el ,golfo de las ,damas4 ,in proportion as we advanced towards the west1 we found the trade-winds fix to eastward4 ,these winds1 the most generally adopted theory of which is explained in a celebrated treatise of ,halley199 are a phenomenon much more complicated than most persons admit4 799 ,the existence of an upper current of air1 which blows constantly from the equator to the poles1 and of a lower current1 which blows from the poles to the equator1 had already been admitted1 as ,m4 ,arago has shown1 by ,hooke4 ,the ideas of the celebrated ,english naturalist are developed in a ,discourse on ,earthquakes published in #afhf4 ,i think 7adds he7 that several phenomena1 which are presented by the atmosphere and the ocean1 especially the winds1 may be explained by the polar currents4--,hooke's ,posthumous ,works page #cfd47 ,in the ,atlantic ,ocean1 the longitude1 as well as the declination of the sun1 influences the direction and limits of the trade-winds4 ,in the direction of the ,new ,continent1 in both hemispheres1 these limits extend beyond the tropics eight or nine degrees2 while in the vicinity of ,africa1 the variable winds prevail far beyond the parallel of #bh or #bg degrees4 ,it is to be regretted1 on account of the progress of meteorology and navigation1 that the changes of the currents of the equinoctial atmosphere in the ,pacific are much less known than the variation of these same currents in a sea that is narrower1 and influenced by the proximity of the coasts of ,guinea and ,brazil4 ,the difference with which the strata of air flow back from the two poles towards the equator cannot be the same in every degree of longitude1 that is to say1 on points of the globe where the continents are of very different breadths1 and where they stretch away more or less towards the poles4 ,it is known1 that in the passage from ,santa ,cruz to ,cumana1 as in that from ,acapulco to the ,philippine ,islands1 seamen are scarcely ever under the necessity of working their sails4 ,we pass those latitudes as if we were descending a river1 and we might deem it no hazardous undertaking if we made the voyage in an open boat4 ,farther west1 on the coast of ,santa ,martha and in the ,gulf of ,mexico1 the trade-wind blows impetuously1 and renders the sea very stormy499 799 ,the ,spanish sailors call the rough trade-winds at ,carthagena in the ,west ,indies los brisotes de ,santa ,martha2 and in the ,gulf of ,mexico1 las brizas pardas4 ,these latter winds are accompanied with a grey and cloudy sky47 ,the wind fell gradually the farther we receded from the ,african coast3 it was sometimes smooth water for several hours1 and these short calms were regularly interrupted by electrical phenomena4 ,black thick clouds1 marked by strong outlines1 rose on the east1 and it seemed as if a squall would have forced us to hand our topsails2 but the breeze freshened anew1 there fell a few large drops of rain1 and the storm dispersed without our hearing any thunder4 ,meanwhile it was curious to observe the effect of several black1 isolated1 and very low clouds1 which passed the zenith4 ,we felt the force of the wind augment or diminish progressively1 according as small bodies of vesicular vapour approached or receded1 while the electrometers1 furnished with a long metallic rod and lighted match1 showed no change of electric tension in the lower strata of the air4 ,it is by help of these squalls1 which alternate with dead calms1 that the passage from the ,canary ,islands to the ,antilles1 or southern coast of ,america1 is made in the months of ,june and ,july4 ,some ,spanish navigators have lately proposed going to the ,west ,indies and the coasts of ,terra ,firma by a course different from that which was taken by ,columbus4 ,they advise1 instead of steering directly to the south in search of the trade-winds1 to change both latitude and longitude1 in a diagonal line from ,cape ,st4 ,vincent to ,america4 ,this method1 which shortens the way1 cutting the tropic nearly twenty degrees west of the point where it is commonly cut by pilots1 was several times successfully adopted by ,admiral ,gravina4 ,that able commander1 who fell at the battle of ,trafalgar1 arrived in #ahjb at ,st4 ,domingo1 by the oblique passage1 several days before the ,french fleet1 though orders of the court of ,madrid would have forced him to enter ,ferrol with his squadron1 and stop there some time4 ,this new system of navigation shortens the passage from ,cadiz to ,cumana one-twentieth2 but as the tropic is attained only at the longitude of forty degrees1 the chance of meeting with contrary winds1 which blow sometimes from the south1 and at other times from the south-west1 is more unfavourable4 ,in the old system1 the disadvantage of making a longer passage is compensated by the certainty of catching the trade-winds in a shorter space of time1 and keeping them the greater part of the passage4 ,at the time of my abode in the ,spanish colonies1 ,i witnessed the arrival of several merchant-ships1 which from the fear of privateers had chosen the oblique course1 and had had a very short passage4 ,nothing can equal the beauty and mildness of the climate of the equinoctial region on the ocean4 ,while the trade wind blew strongly1 the thermometer kept at #bc or #bd degrees in the day1 and at #bb or #bb4e degrees during the night4 ,the charm of the lovely climates bordering on the equator1 can be fully enjoyed only by those who have undertaken the voyage from ,acapulco or the coasts of ,chile to ,europe in a very rough season4 ,what a contrast between the tempestuous seas of the northern latitudes and the regions where the tranquillity of nature is never disturbed6 ,if the return from ,mexico or ,south ,america to the coasts of ,spain were as expeditious and as agreeable as the passage from the old to the new continent1 the number of ,europeans settled in the colonies would be much less considerable than it is at present4 ,to the sea which surrounds the ,azores and the ,bermuda ,islands1 and which is traversed in returning to ,europe by the high latitudes1 the ,spaniards have given the singular name of ,golfo de las ,yeguas 7the ,mares' ,gulf74 ,colonists who are not accustomed to the sea1 and who have led solitary lives in the forests of ,guiana1 the savannahs of the ,caracas1 or the ,cordilleras of ,peru1 dread the vicinity of the ,bermudas more than the inhabitants of ,lima fear at present the passage round ,cape horn4 ,to the north of the ,cape ,verd ,islands we met with great masses of floating seaweeds4 ,they were the tropic grape1 7,fucus natans71 which grows on submarine rocks1 only from the equator to the fortieth degree of north and south latitude4 ,these weeds seem to indicate the existence of currents in this place1 as well as to south-west of the banks of ,newfoundland4 ,we must not confound the latitudes abounding in scattered weeds with those banks of marine plants1 which ,columbus compares to extensive meadows1 the sight of which dismayed the crew of the ,santa ,maria in the forty-second degree of longitude4 ,i am convinced1 from the comparison of a great number of journals1 that in the basin of the ,northern ,atlantic there exist two banks of weeds very different from each other4 ,the most extensive is a little west of the meridian of ,fayal1 one of the ,azores1 between the twenty-fifth and thirty-sixth degrees of latitude499 799 ,it would appear that ,phoenician vessels came in thirty days' sail1 with an easterly wind1 to the weedy sea1 which the ,portuguese and ,spaniards call mar de zargasso4 ,i have shown1 in another place 7,views of ,nature ,bohn's edition page #df71 that the passage of ,aristotle1 ,de ,mirabil4 7ed4 ,duval page #aaeg71 can scarcely be applied to the coasts of ,africa1 like an analogous passage of the ,periplus of ,scylax4 ,supposing that this sea1 full of weeds1 which impeded the course of the ,phoenician vessels1 was the mar de zargasso1 we need not admit that the ancients navigated the ,atlantic beyond thirty degrees of west longitude from the meridian of ,paris47 ,the temperature of the ,atlantic in those latitudes is from sixteen to twenty degrees1 and the north winds1 which sometimes rage there very tempestuously1 drive floating isles of seaweed into the low latitudes as far as the parallels of twenty-four and even twenty degrees4 ,vessels returning to ,europe1 either from ,monte ,video or the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 cross these banks of ,fucus1 which the ,spanish pilots consider as at an equal distance from the ,antilles and ,canaries2 and they serve the less instructed mariner to rectify his longitude4 ,the second bank of ,fucus is but little known2 it occupies a much smaller space1 in the twenty-second and twenty-sixth degrees of latitude1 eighty leagues west of the meridian of the ,bahama ,islands4 ,it is found on the passage from the ,caiques to the ,bermudas4 ,though a species of seaweed99 799 ,the baudreux of the ,falkland ,islands2 ,fucus giganteus1 ,forster2 ,laminaria pyrifera1 ,lamour47 has been seen with stems eight hundred feet long1 the growth of these marine cryptogamia being extremely rapid1 it is nevertheless certain1 that in the latitudes we have just described1 the ,fuci1 far from being fixed to the bottom1 float in separate masses on the surface of the water4 ,in this state1 the vegetation can scarcely last longer than it would in the branch of a tree torn from its trunk2 and in order to explain how moving masses are found for ages in the same position1 we must admit that they owe their origin to submarine rocks1 which1 lying at forty or sixty fathoms' depth1 continually supply what has been carried away by the equinoctial currents4 ,this current bears the tropic grape into the high latitudes1 toward the coasts of ,norway and ,france2 and it is not the ,gulf-stream1 as some mariners think1 which accumulates the ,fucus to the south of the ,azores4 ,the causes that unroot these weeds at depths where it is generally thought the sea is but slightly agitated1 are not sufficiently known4 ,we learn only1 from the observations of ,m4 ,lamouroux1 that if the fucus adhere to the rocks with the greatest firmness before its fructification1 it separates with great facility after that period1 or during the season which suspends its vegetation like that of the terrestrial plants4 ,the fish and mollusca which gnaw the stems of the seaweeds no doubt contribute also to detach them from their roots4 ,from the twenty-second degree of latitude1 we found the surface of the sea covered with flying-fish199 799 ,exocoetus volitans47 which threw themselves up into the air1 twelve1 fifteen1 or eighteen feet1 and fell down on the deck4 ,i do not hesitate to speak on a subject of which voyagers discourse as frequently as of dolphins1 sharks1 sea-sickness1 and the phosphorescence of the ocean4 ,none of these topics can fail to afford interesting observations to naturalists1 provided they make them their particular study4 ,nature is an inexhaustible source of investigation1 and in proportion as the domain of science is extended1 she presents herself to those who know how to interrogate her1 under forms which they have never yet examined4 ,i have named the flying-fish1 in order to direct the attention of naturalists to the enormous size of their natatory bladder1 which1 in an animal of #f4d inches1 is #c4f inches long1 #j4i of an inch broad1 and contains three cubic inches and a half of air4 ,as this bladder occupies more than half the size of the fish1 it is probable that it contributes to its lightness4 ,we may assert that this reservoir of air is more fitted for flying than swimming2 for the experiments made by ,m4 ,provenzal and myself have proved1 that1 even in the species which are provided with this organ1 it is not indispensably necessary for the ascending movement to the surface of the water4 ,in a young flying-fish1 #e4h inches long1 each of the pectoral fins1 which serve as wings1 presented a surface to the air of #c #g_/af square inches4 ,we observed1 that the nine branches of nerves1 which go to the twelve rays of these fins1 are almost three times the size of the nerves that belong to the ventral fins4 ,when the former of these nerves are excited by galvanic electricity1 the rays which support the membrane of the pectoral fin extend with five times the force with which the other fins move when galvanised by the same metals4 ,thus1 the fish is capable of throwing itself horizontally the distance of twenty feet before retouching the water with the extremity of its fins4 ,this motion has been aptly compared to that of a flat stone1 which1 thrown horizontally1 bounds one or two feet above the water4 ,notwithstanding the extreme rapidity of this motion1 it is certain1 that the animal beats the air during the leap2 that is1 it alternately extends and closes its pectoral fins4 ,the same motion has been observed in the flying scorpion of the rivers of ,japan3 they also contain a large air-bladder1 with which the great part of the scorpions that have not the faculty of flying are unprovided4 ,the flying-fish1 like almost all animals which have gills1 enjoy the power of equal respiration for a long time1 both in water and in air1 by the same organs2 that is1 by extracting the oxygen from the atmosphere as well as from the water in which it is dissolved4 ,they pass a great part of their life in the air2 but if they escape from the sea to avoid the voracity of the ,dorado1 they meet in the air the ,frigate-bird1 the ,albatross1 and others1 which seize them in their flight4 ,thus1 on the banks of the ,orinoco1 herds of the ,cabiai1 which rush from the water to escape the crocodile1 become the prey of the jaguar1 which awaits their arrival4 ,i doubt1 however1 whether the flying-fish spring out of the water merely to escape the pursuit of their enemies4 ,like swallows1 they move by thousands in a right line1 and in a direction constantly opposite to that of the waves4 ,in our own climates1 on the brink of a river1 illumined by the rays of the sun1 we often see solitary fish fearlessly bound above the surface as if they felt pleasure in breathing the air4 ,why should not these gambols be more frequent with the flying-fish1 which from the strength of their pectoral fins1 and the smallness of their specific gravity1 can so easily support themselves in the air8 ,i invite naturalists to examine whether other flying-fish1 for instance the ,exocoetus exiliens1 the ,trigla volitans1 amid the ,t4 hirundo1 have as capacious an air-bladder as the flying-fish of the tropics4 ,this last follows the heated waters of the ,gulf-stream when they flow northward4 ,the cabin-boys amuse themselves with cutting off a part of the pectoral fins1 and assert1 that these wings grow again2 which seems to me not unlikely1 from facts observed in other families of fishes4 ,at the time ,i left ,paris1 experiments made at ,jamaica by ,dr4 ,brodbelt1 on the air contained in the natatory bladder of the sword-fish1 had led some naturalists to think1 that within the tropics1 in sea-fish1 that organ must be filled with pure oxygen gas4 ,full of this idea1 ,i was surprised at finding in the air-bladder of the flying-fish only #j4jd of oxygen to #j4id of azote and #j4jb of carbonic acid4 ,the proportion of this last gas1 measured by the absorption of lime-water in graduated tubes1 appeared more uniform than that of the oxygen1 of which some individuals yielded almost double the quantity4 ,from the curious phenomena observed by ,,mm4 ,biot1 ,configliachi1 and ,delaroche1 we might suppose1 that the swordfish dissected by ,dr4 ,brodbelt had inhabited the lower strata of the ocean1 where some fish99 have as much as #j4ib of oxygen in the air-bladder4 799 ,trigla cucullus47 ,on the #crd and #dth of ,july1 we crossed that part of the ,atlantic where the charts indicate the bank of the ,maal-stroom2 and towards night we altered our course to avoid the danger1 the existence of which is1 however1 as doubtful as that of the isles ,fonseco and ,st4 ,anne4 ,it would have been perhaps as prudent to have continued our course4 ,the old charts are filled with rocks1 some of which really exist1 though most of them are merely the offspring of those optical illusions which are more frequent at sea than in inland places4 ,as we approached the supposed ,maal-stroom1 we observed no other motion in the waters than the effect of a current which bore to the north-west1 and which hindered us from diminishing our latitude as much as we wished4 ,the force of this current augments as we approach the new continent2 it is modified by the configuration of the coasts of ,brazil and ,guiana1 and not by the waters of the ,orinoco and the ,amazon1 as some have supposed4 ,from the time we entered the torrid zone1 we were never weary of admiring1 at night1 the beauty of the southern sky1 which1 as we advanced to the south1 opened new constellations to our view4 ,we feel an indescribable sensation when1 on approaching the equator1 and particularly on passing from one hemisphere to the other1 we see those stars1 which we have contemplated from our infancy1 progressively sink1 and finally disappear4 ,nothing awakens in the traveller a livelier remembrance of the immense distance by which he is separated from his country1 than the aspect of an unknown firmament4 ,the grouping of the stars of the first magnitude1 some scattered nebulae1 rivalling in splendour the milky way1 and tracts of space remarkable for their extreme blackness1 give a peculiar physiognomy to the southern sky4 ,this sight fills with admiration even those who1 uninstructed in the several branches of physical science1 feel the same emotion of delight in the contemplation of the heavenly vault1 as in the view of a beautiful landscape1 or a majestic site4 ,a traveller needs not to be a botanist1 to recognize the torrid zone by the mere aspect of its vegetation4 ,without having acquired any notions of astronomy1 without any acquaintance with the celestial charts of ,flamsteed and ,de ,la ,caille1 he feels he is not in ,europe1 when he sees the immense constellation of the ,ship1 or the phosphorescent ,clouds of ,magellan1 arise on the horizon4 ,the heavens and the earth1--everything in the equinoctial regions1 presents an exotic character4 ,the lower regions of the air were loaded with vapours for some days4 ,we saw distinctly for the first time the ,southern ,cross only on the night of the #dth of ,july1 in the sixteenth degree of latitude4 ,it was strongly inclined1 and appeared from time to time between the clouds1 the centre of which1 furrowed by uncondensed lightnings1 reflected a silvery light4 ,if a traveller may be permitted to speak of his personal emotions1 ,i shall add1 that on that night ,i experienced the realization of one of the dreams of my early youth4 ,when we begin to fix our eyes on geographical maps1 and to read the narratives of navigators1 we feel for certain countries and climates a sort of predilection1 which we know not how to account for at a more advanced period of life4 ,these impressions1 however1 exercise a considerable influence over our determinations2 and from a sort of instinct we endeavour to connect ourselves with objects on which the mind has long been fixed as by a secret charm4 ,at a period when ,i studied the heavens1 not with the intention of devoting myself to astronomy1 but only to acquire a knowledge of the stars1 ,i was disturbed by a feeling unknown to those who are devoted to sedentary life4 ,it was painful to me to renounce the hope of beholding the beautiful constellations near the south pole4 ,impatient to rove in the equinoctial regions1 ,i could not raise my eyes to the starry firmament without thinking of the ,southern ,cross1 and recalling the sublime passage of ,dante1 which the most celebrated commentators have applied to that constellation3-- ,io mi volsi a man' destra e posi mente ,all' altro polo1 e vidi quattro stelle ,non viste mai fuorch' alla prima gente4 ,goder parea lo ciel di lor fiammelle2 ,o settentrional vedovo sito ,poiche privato sei di mirar quelle6 ,the pleasure we felt on discovering the ,southern ,cross was warmly shared by those of the crew who had visited the colonies4 ,in the solitude of the seas we hail a star as a friend1 from whom we have long been separated4 ,the ,portuguese and the ,spaniards are peculiarly susceptible of this feeling2 a religious sentiment attaches them to a constellation1 the form of which recalls the sign of the faith planted by their ancestors in the deserts of the ,new ,world4 ,the two great stars which mark the summit and the foot of the ,cross having nearly the same right ascension1 it follows that the constellation is almost perpendicular at the moment when it passes the meridian4 ,this circumstance is known to the people of every nation situated beyond the tropics1 or in the southern hemisphere4 ,it has been observed at what hour of the night1 in different seasons1 the ,cross is erect or inclined4 ,it is a timepiece which advances very regularly nearly four minutes a-day1 and no other group of stars affords to the naked eye an observation of time so easily made4 ,how often have we heard our guides exclaim in the savannahs of ,venezuela1 or in the desert extending from ,lima to ,truxillo1 ,midnight is past1 the ,cross begins to bend6 ,how often those words reminded us of that affecting scene1 where ,paul and ,virginia1 seated near the source of the river of ,lataniers1 conversed together for the last time1 and where the old man1 at the sight of the ,southern ,cross1 warns them that it is time to separate4 ,the last days of our passage were not so felicitous as the mildness of the climate and the calmness of the ocean had led us to hope4 ,the dangers of the sea did not disturb us1 but the germs of a malignant fever became manifest on board our vessel as we drew near the ,antilles4 ,between decks the ship was excessively hot1 and very much crowded4 ,from the time we passed the tropic1 the thermometer was at thirty-four or thirty-six degrees4 ,two sailors1 several passengers1 and1 what is remarkable enough1 two negroes from the coast of ,guinea1 and a mulatto child1 were attacked with a disorder which appeared to be epidemic4 ,the symptoms were not equally alarming in all the cases2 nevertheless1 several persons1 and especially the most robust1 fell into delirium after the second day4 ,no fumigation was made4 ,a ,gallician surgeon1 ignorant and phlegmatic1 ordered bleedings1 because he attributed the fever to what he called heat and corruption of the blood4 ,there was not an ounce of bark on board2 for we had emitted to take any with us1 under the impression that this salutary production of ,peru could not fail to be found on board a ,spanish vessel4 ,on the #hth of ,july1 a sailor1 who was near expiring1 recovered his health from a circumstance worthy of being mentioned4 ,his hammock was so hung1 that there was not ten inches between his face and the deck4 ,it was impossible to administer the sacrament in this situation2 for1 agreeably to the custom on board ,spanish vessels1 the viaticum must be carried by the light of tapers1 and followed by the whole crew4 ,the patient was removed into an airy place near the hatchway1 where a small square berth had been formed with sailcloth4 ,here he was to remain till he died1 which was an event expected every moment2 but passing from an atmosphere heated1 stagnant1 and filled with miasma1 into fresher and purer air1 which was renewed every instant1 he gradually revived from his lethargic state4 ,his recovery dated from the day when he quitted the middle deck2 and as it often happens in medicine that the same facts are cited in support of systems diametrically opposite1 this recovery confirmed our doctor in his idea of the inflammation of the blood1 and the necessity of bleeding1 evacuating1 and all the asthenic remedies4 ,we soon felt the fatal effects of this treatment4 ,for several days the pilot's reckoning differed #a degree #ab minutes in longitude from that of my time4 ,this difference was owing less to the general current1 which ,i have called the current of rotation1 than to that particular movement1 which1 drawing the waters toward the north-west1 from the coast of ,brazil to the ,antilles1 shortens the passage from ,cayenne to ,guadaloupe499 799 ,in the ,atlantic ,ocean there is a space where the water is constantly milky1 though the sea is very deep4 ,this curious phenomenon exists in the parallel of the island of ,dominica1 very near the #egth degree of longitude4 ,may there not be in this place some sunken volcanic islet1 more easterly still than ,barbadoes87 ,on the #abth of ,july1 ,i thought ,i might foretell our seeing land next day before sunrise4 ,we were then1 according to my observations1 in latitude #aj degrees #df minutes1 and west longitude #fj degrees #ed minutes4 ,a few series of lunar distances confirmed the chronometrical result2 but we were surer of the position of the vessel1 than of that of the land to which we were directing our course1 and which was so differently marked in the ,french1 ,spanish1 and ,english charts4 ,the longitudes deduced from the accurate observations of ,messrs4 ,churruca1 ,fidalgo1 and ,noguera1 were not then published4 ,the pilots trusted more to the log than the timekeeper2 they smiled at the prediction of so speedily making land1 and thought themselves two or three days' sail from the coast4 ,it was therefore with great pleasure1 that on the #acth1 about six in the morning1 ,i learned that very high land was seen from the mast-head1 though not clearly1 as it was surrounded with a thick fog4 ,the wind blew hard1 and the sea was very rough4 ,large drops of rain fell at intervals1 and every indication menaced tempestuous weather4 ,the captain of the ,pizarro intended to pass through the channel which separates the islands of ,tobago and ,trinidad2 and knowing that our sloop was very slow in tacking1 he was afraid of falling to leeward towards the south1 and approaching the ,boca del ,drago4 ,we were in fact surer of our longitude than of our latitude1 having had no observation at noon since the #aath4 ,double altitudes which ,i took in the morning1 after ,douwes's method1 placed us in #aa degrees #f minutes #ej seconds1 consequently #ae minutes north of our reckoning4 ,though the result clearly proved that the high land on the horizon was not ,trinidad1 but ,tobago1 yet the captain continued to steer north-north-west1 in search of this latter island4 ,an observation of the meridian altitude of the sun fully confirmed the latitude obtained by ,douwes's method4 ,no more doubt remained as to the position of the vessel1 with respect to the island1 and we resolved to double ,cape ,north 7,tobago7 to pass between that island and ,grenada1 and steer towards a port in ,margareta4 ,the island of ,tobago presents a very picturesque aspect4 ,it is merely a heap of rocks carefully cultivated4 ,the dazzling whiteness of the stone forms an agreeable contrast to the verdure of some scattered tufts of trees4 ,cylindric and very lofty cactuses crown the top of the mountains1 and give a peculiar physiognomy to this tropical landscape4 ,the sight of the trees alone is sufficient to remind the navigator that he has reached an ,american coast2 for these cactuses are as exclusively peculiar to the ,new ,world1 as the heaths are to the ,old4 ,we crossed the shoal which joins ,tobago to the island of ,grenada4 ,the colour of the sea presented no visible change2 but the centigrade thermometer1 plunged into the water to the depth of some inches1 rose only to #bc degrees2 while farther at sea eastward on the same parallel1 and equally near the surface1 it kept at #be4f degrees4 ,notwithstanding the currents1 the cooling of the water indicated the existence of the shoal1 which is noted in only a very few charts4 ,the wind slackened after sunset1 and the clouds disappeared as the moon reached the zenith4 ,the number of falling stars was very considerable on this and the following nights2 they appeared less frequent towards the north than the south over ,terra ,firma1 which we began to coast4 ,this position seems to prove the influence of local causes on meteors1 the nature of which is not yet sufficiently known to us4 ,on the #adth at sunrise1 we were in sight of the ,boca del ,drago4 ,we distinguished ,chacachacarreo1 the most westerly of the islands situated between ,cape ,paria and the north-west cape of ,trinidad4 ,when we were five leagues distant from the coast1 we felt1 near ,punta de la ,boca1 the effect of a particular current which carried the ship southward4 ,the motion of the waters which flow through the ,boca del ,draco1 and the action of the tides1 occasion an eddy4 ,we cast the lead1 and found from thirty-six to forty-three fathoms on a bottom of very fine green clay4 ,according to the rules established by ,dampier1 we ought not to have expected so little depth near a coast formed by very high and perpendicular mountains4 ,we continued to heave the lead till we reached ,cabo de tres ,puntas99 799 ,cape ,three ,points1 the name given to it by ,columbus47 and we every where found shallow water1 apparently indicating the prolongation of the ancient coast4 ,in these latitudes the temperature of the sea was from twenty-three to twenty-four degrees1 consequently from #a4e to two degrees lower than in the open ocean1 beyond the edge of the bank4 ,the ,cabo de tres ,puntas is1 according to my observations1 in #fe degrees #d minutes #e seconds longitude4 ,it seemed to us the more elevated1 as the clouds concealed the view of its indented top4 ,the aspect of the mountains of ,paria1 their colour1 and especially their generally rounded forms1 made us suspect that the coast was granitic2 but we afterwards recognized how delusive1 even to those who have passed their lives in scaling mountains1 are impressions respecting the nature of rocks seen at a distance4 ,a dead calm1 which lasted several hours1 permitted us to determine with exactness the intensity of the magnetic forces opposite the ,cabo de tres ,puntas4 ,this intensity was greater than in the open sea1 to the east of the island of ,tobago1 in the ratio of from #bcg to #bbi4 ,during the calm the current drew us on rapidly to the west4 ,its velocity was three miles an hour1 and it increased as we approached the meridian of ,testigos1 a heap of rocks which rises up amidst the waters4 ,at the setting of the moon1 the sky was covered with clouds1 the wind freshened anew1 and the rain descended in one of those torrents peculiar to the torrid zone4 ,the malady which had broken out on board the ,pizarro had made rapid progress1 from the time when we approached the coasts of ,terra ,firma2 but having then almost reached the end of our voyage we flattered ourselves that all who were sick would be restored to health1 as soon as we could land them at the island of ,st4 ,margareta1 or the port of ,cumana1 places remarkable for their great salubrity4 ,this hope was unfortunately not realised4 ,the youngest of the passengers attacked with the malignant fever fell a victim to the disease4 ,he was an ,asturian1 nineteen years of age1 the only son of a poor widow4 ,several circumstances rendered the death of this young man affecting4 ,his countenance bore the expression of sensibility and great mildness of disposition4 ,he had embarked against his own inclination2 and his mother1 whom he had hoped to assist by the produce of his efforts1 had made a sacrifice of her affection in the hope of securing the fortune of her son1 by sending him to the colonies to a rich relation1 who resided at the island of ,cuba4 ,the unfortunate young man expired on the third day of his illness1 having fallen from the beginning into a lethargic state interrupted only by fits of delirium4 ,the yellow fever1 or black vomit1 at ,vera ,cruz1 scarcely carries off the sick with so alarming a rapidity4 ,another ,asturian1 still younger1 did not leave for one moment the bed of his dying friend2 and1 what is very remarkable1 did not contract the disorder4 ,we were assembled on the deck1 absorbed in melancholy reflections4 ,it was no longer doubtful1 that the fever which raged on board had assumed within the last few days a fatal aspect4 ,our eyes were fixed on a hilly and desert coast on which the moon1 from time to time1 shed her light athwart the clouds4 ,the sea1 gently agitated1 emitted a feeble phosphoric light4 ,nothing was heard but the monotonous cry of a few large sea-birds1 flying towards the shore4 ,a profound calm reigned over these solitary regions1 but this calm of nature was in discordance with the painful feelings by which we were oppressed4 ,about eight o'clock the dead man's knell was slowly tolled4 ,at this lugubrious sound1 the sailors suspended their labours1 and threw themselves on their knees to offer a momentary prayer3 an affecting ceremony1 which brought to our remembrance those times when the primitive christians all considered themselves as members of the same family4 ,all were united in one common sorrow for a misfortune which was felt to be common to all4 ,the corpse of the young ,asturian was brought upon deck during the night1 but the priest entreated that it might not be committed to the waves till after sunrise1 that the last rites might be performed1 according to the usage of the ,romish church4 ,there was not an individual on board1 who did not deplore the death of this young man1 whom we had beheld1 but a few days before1 full of cheerfulness and health4 ,those among the passengers who had not yet felt symptoms of the disease1 resolved to leave the vessel at the first place where she might touch1 and await the arrival of another packet1 to pursue their course to the island of ,cuba and to ,mexico4 ,they considered the between-decks of the ship as infected2 and though it was by no means clear to me that the fever was contagious1 ,i thought it most prudent to land at ,cumana4 ,i wished not to visit ,new ,spain1 till ,i had made some sojourn on the coasts of ,venezuela and ,paria2 a few of the productions of which had been examined by the unfortunate ,loefling4 ,we were anxious to behold in their native site1 the beautiful plants which ,bose and ,bredemeyer had collected during their journey to the continent1 and which adorn the conservatories of ,schoenbrunn and ,vienna4 ,it would have been painful to have touched at ,cumana1 or at ,guayra1 without visiting the interior of a country so little frequented by naturalists4 ,the resolution we formed during the night of the #adth of ,july1 had a happy influence on the direction of our travels2 for instead of a few weeks1 we remained a whole year in this part of the continent4 ,had not the fever broken out on board the ,pizarro1 we should never have reached the ,orinoco1 the ,cassiquiare1 or even the limits of the ,portuguese possessions on the ,rio ,negro4 ,to this direction given to our travels we were perhaps also indebted for the good health we enjoyed during so long an abode in the equinoctial regions4 ,it is well known1 that ,europeans1 during the first months after their arrival under the scorching sky of the tropics1 are exposed to the greatest dangers4 ,they consider themselves to be safe1 when they have passed the rainy season in the ,west ,india islands1 at ,vera ,cruz1 or at ,carthagena4 ,this opinion is very general1 although there are examples of persons1 who1 having escaped a first attack of the yellow fever1 have fallen victims to the same disease in one of the following years4 ,the facility of becoming acclimated1 seems to be in the inverse ratio of the difference that exists between the mean temperature of the torrid zone1 and that of the native country of the traveller1 or colonist1 who changes his climate2 because the irritability of the organs1 and their vital action1 are powerfully modified by the influence of the atmospheric heat4 ,a ,prussian1 a ,pole1 or a ,swede1 is more exposed on his arrival at the islands or on the continent1 than a ,spaniard1 an ,italian1 or even an inhabitant of the ,south of ,france4 ,with respect to the people of the north1 the difference of the mean temperature is from nineteen to twenty-one degrees1 while to the people of southern countries it is only from nine to ten4 ,we were fortunate enough to pass safely through the interval during which a ,european recently landed runs the greatest danger1 in the extremely hot1 but very dry climate of ,cumana1 a city celebrated for its salubrity4 ,on the morning of the #aeth1 when nearly on a line with the hill of ,st4 ,joseph1 we were surrounded by a great quantity of floating seaweed4 ,its stems had those extraordinary appendages in the form of little cups and feathers1 which ,don ,hippolyto ,ruiz remarked on his return from the expedition to ,chile1 and which he described in a separate memoir as the generative organs of the ,fucus natans4 ,a fortunate accident allowed us the means of verifying a fact which had been but once observed by naturalists4 ,the bundles of fucus collected by ,m4 ,bonpland were completely identical with the specimens given us by the learned authors of the ,flora of ,peru4 ,on examining both with the microscope1 we found that the supposed parts of fructification1 the stamina and pistils1 belong to a new genus1 of the family of the ,ceratophytae4 ,the coast of ,paria stretches to the west1 forming a wall of rocks of no great height1 with rounded tops and a waving outline4 ,we were long without perceiving the bold coasts of the island of ,margareta1 where we were to stop for the purpose of ascertaining whether we could touch at ,guayra4 ,we had learned1 by altitudes of the sun1 taken under very favourable circumstances1 how incorrect at that period were the most highly-esteemed marine charts4 ,on the morning of the #aeth1 when the time-keeper placed us in #ff degrees #a minute #ae seconds longitude1 we were not yet in the meridian of ,margareta island2 though according to the reduced chart of the ,atlantic ocean1 we ought to have passed the very lofty western cape of this island1 which is laid down in longitude #ff degrees #j minutes4 ,the inaccuracy with which the coasts were delineated previously to the labours of ,fidalgo1 ,noguera1 and ,tiscar1 and ,i may venture to add1 before the astronomical observations ,i made at ,cumana1 might have become dangerous to navigators1 were not the sea uniformly calm in those regions4 ,the errors in latitude were still greater than those in longitude1 for the coasts of ,new ,andalusia stretch to the westward of ,cape ,three ,points 7or tres ,puntas7 fifteen or twenty miles more to the north1 than appears in the charts published before the year #ahjj4 ,about eleven in the morning we perceived a very low islet1 covered with a few sandy downs1 and on which we discovered with our glasses no trace of habitation or culture4 ,cylindrical cactuses rose here and there in the form of candelabra4 ,the soil1 almost destitute of vegetation1 seemed to have a waving motion1 in consequence of the extraordinary refraction which the rays of the sun undergo in traversing the strata of air in contact with plains strongly heated4 ,under every zone1 deserts and sandy shores appear like an agitated sea1 from the effect of mirage4 ,the coasts1 seen at a distance1 are like clouds1 in which each observer meets the form of the objects that occupy his imagination4 ,our bearings and our chronometer being at variance with the charts which we had to consult1 we were lost in vain conjectures4 ,some took mounds of sand for ,indian huts1 and pointed out the place where they alleged the fort of ,pampatar was situated2 others saw herds of goats1 which are so common in the dry valley of ,st4 ,john2 or descried the lofty mountains of ,macanao1 which seemed to them partly hidden by the clouds4 ,the captain resolved to send a pilot on shore1 and the men were preparing to get out the long-boat when we perceived two canoes sailing along the coast4 ,we fired a gun as a signal for them1 and though we had hoisted ,spanish colours1 they drew near with distrust4 ,these canoes1 like all those in use among the natives1 were constructed of the single trunk of a tree4 ,in each canoe there were eighteen ,guayqueria ,indians1 naked to the waist1 and of very tall stature4 ,they had the appearance of great muscular strength1 and the colour of their skin was something between brown and copper-colour4 ,seen at a distance1 standing motionless1 and projected on the horizon1 they might have been taken for statues of bronze4 ,we were the more struck with their appearance1 as it did not correspond with the accounts given by some travellers respecting the characteristic features and extreme feebleness of the natives4 ,we afterwards learned1 without passing the limits of the province of ,cumana1 the great contrast existing between the physiognomy of the ,guayquerias and that of the ,chaymas and the ,caribs4 ,when we were near enough to hail them in ,spanish1 the ,indians threw aside their mistrust1 and came straight on board4 ,they informed us that the low islet near which we were at anchor was ,coche1 which had never been inhabited2 and that ,spanish vessels coming from ,europe were accustomed to sail farther north1 between this island and that of ,margareta1 to take a coasting pilot at the port of ,pampatar4 ,our inexperience had led us into the channel to the south of ,coche2 and as at that period the ,english cruisers frequented this passage1 the ,indians had at first taken us for an enemy's ship4 ,the southern passage is1 in fact1 highly advantageous for vessels going to ,cumana and ,barcelona4 ,the water is less deep than in the northern passage1 which is much narrower2 but there is no risk of touching the ground1 if vessels keep very close to the island of ,lobos and the ,moros del ,tunal4 ,the channel between ,coche and ,margareta is narrowed by the shoals off the north-west cape of ,coche1 and by the bank that surrounds ,la ,punta de los ,mangles4 ,the ,guayquerias belong to that tribe of civilized ,indians who inhabit the coasts of ,margareta and the suburbs of the city of ,cumana4 ,next to the ,caribs of ,spanish ,guiana they are the finest race of men in ,terra ,firma4 ,they enjoy several privileges1 because from the earliest times of the conquest they remained faithful friends to the ,castilians4 ,the king of ,spain styles them in his public acts1 his dear1 noble1 and loyal ,guayquerias4 ,the ,indians of the two canoes we had met had left the port of ,cumana during the night4 ,they were going in search of timber to the forests of cedar 7,cedrela odorata1 ,linn471 which extend from ,cape ,san ,jose to beyond the mouth of ,rio ,carupano4 ,they gave us some fresh cocoa-nuts1 and very beautifully coloured fish of the ,chaetodon genus4 ,what riches to our eyes were contained in the canoes of these poor ,indians6 ,broad spreading leaves of ,vijao99 799 ,heliconia bihai47 covered bunches of plantains4 ,the scaly cuirass of an armadillo 7,dasypus71 the fruit of the ,calabash tree 7,crescentia cujete71 used as a cup by the natives1 productions common in the cabinets of ,europe1 had a peculiar charm for us1 because they reminded us that1 having reached the torrid zone1 we had attained the end to which our wishes had been so long directed4 ,the master of one of the canoes offered to remain on board the ,pizarro as coasting pilot 7practico74 ,he was a ,guayqueria of an excellent disposition1 sagacious in his observations1 and he had been led by intelligent curiosity to notice the productions of the sea as well as the plants of the country4 ,by a fortunate chance1 the first ,indian we met on our arrival was the man whose acquaintance became the most useful to us in the course of our researches4 ,i feel a pleasure in recording in this itinerary the name of ,carlos del ,pino1 who1 during the space of sixteen months1 attended us in our course along the coasts1 and into the inland country4 ,the captain of the corvette weighed anchor towards evening4 ,before we left the shoal or placer of ,coche1 ,i ascertained the longitude of the east cape of the island1 which ,i found to be #ff degrees #aa minutes #ec seconds4 ,as we steered westward1 we soon came in sight of the little island of ,cubagua1 now entirely deserted1 but formerly celebrated for its fishery of pearls4 ,there the ,spaniards1 immediately after the voyages of ,columbus and ,ojeda1 founded1 under the name of ,new ,cadiz1 a town1 of which there now remains no vestige4 ,at the beginning of the sixteenth century the pearls of ,cubagua were known at ,seville1 at ,toledo1 and at the great fairs of ,augsburg and ,bruges4 ,new ,cadiz having no water1 that of the ,rio ,manzanares was conveyed thither from the neighbouring coast1 though for some reason1 ,i know not what1 it was thought to be the cause of diseases of the eyes4 ,the writers of that period all speak of the riches of the first planters1 and the luxury they displayed4 ,at present1 downs of shifting sand cover this uninhabited land1 and the name of ,cubagua is scarcely found in our charts4 ,having reached these latitudes1 we saw the high mountains of ,cape ,macanao1 on the western side of the island of ,margareta1 which rose majestically on the horizon4 ,if we might judge from the angles of altitude of the tops1 taken at eighteen miles' distance1 they appeared to be about #ejj or #fjj toises high4 ,according to ,berthoud's time-keeper1 the longitude of ,cape ,macanao is #ff degrees #dg minutes #e seconds4 ,i speak of the rocks at the extremity of the cape1 and not that strip of very low land which stretches to the west1 and loses itself in a shoal4 ,the position of ,macanao and that which ,i have assigned to the east point of the island of ,coche1 differ only four seconds in time1 from the results obtained by ,m4 ,fidalgo4 ,there being little wind1 the captain preferred standing off and on till daybreak4 ,we passed a part of the night on deck4 ,the ,guayqueria pilot conversed with us respecting the animals and plants of his country4 ,we learned with great satisfaction that there was1 a few leagues from the coast1 a mountainous region inhabited by the ,spaniards1 in which the cold was sensibly felt2 and that in the plains there were two species of crocodiles1 very different from each other1 besides1 boas1 electric eels1 and several kinds of tigers4 ,though the words bava1 cachicamo1 and temblador1 were entirely unknown to us1 we easily guessed1 from the pilot's simple description of their manners and forms1 the species which the creoles distinguished by these denominations4 ,,chapter #a4d4 ,,first ,,abode ,,at ,,cumana4 ,,banks ,,of ,,the ,,manzanares4 ,on the #afth of ,july1 #agii1 at break of day1 we beheld a verdant coast1 of picturesque aspect4 ,the mountains of ,new ,andalusia1 half-veiled by mists1 bounded the horizon to the south4 ,the city of ,cumana and its castle appeared between groups of cocoa-trees4 ,we anchored in the port about nine in the morning1 forty-one days after our departure from ,corunna2 the sick dragged themselves on deck to enjoy the sight of a land which was to put an end to their sufferings4 ,our eyes were fixed on the groups of cocoa-trees which border the river3 their trunks1 more than sixty feet high1 towered over every object in the landscape4 ,the plain was covered with the tufts of ,cassia1 ,caper1 and those arborescent mimosas1 which1 like the pine of ,italy1 spread their branches in the form of an umbrella4 ,the pinnated leaves of the palms were conspicuous on the azure sky1 the clearness of which was unsullied by any trace of vapour4 ,the sun was ascending rapidly toward the zenith4 ,a dazzling light was spread through the air1 along the whitish hills strewed with cylindric cactuses1 and over a sea ever calm1 the shores of which were peopled with alcatras199 799 ,a brown pelican1 of the size of a swan4 7,pelicanus fuscus1 ,linn477 egrets1 and flamingoes4 ,the splendour of the day1 the vivid colouring of the vegetable world1 the forms of the plants1 the varied plumage of the birds1 everything was stamped with the grand character of nature in the equinoctial regions4 ,the city of ,cumana1 the capital of ,new ,andalusia1 is a mile distant from the embarcadero1 or the battery of the ,boca1 where we landed1 after having passed the bar of the ,manzanares4 ,we had to cross a vast plain1 called el ,salado1 which divides the suburb of the ,guayquerias from the sea-coast4 ,the excessive heat of the atmosphere was augmented by the reverberation of the soil1 partly destitute of vegetation4 ,the centigrade thermometer1 plunged into the white sand1 rose to #cg4g degrees4 ,in the small pools of salt water it kept at #cj4e degrees1 while the heat of the ocean1 at its surface1 is generally1 in the port of ,cumana1 from #be4b to #bf4c degrees4 ,the first plant we gathered on the continent of ,america was the ,avicennia tomentosa1#h 799 ,mangle prieto47 which in this place scarcely reaches two feet in height4 ,this shrub1 together with the sesuvium1 the yellow gomphrena1 and the cactus1 cover soil impregnated with muriate of soda2 they belong to that small number of plants which live in society like the heath of ,europe1 and which in the torrid zone are found only on the seashore1 and on the elevated plains of the ,andes499 799 ,on the extreme rarity of the social plants in the tropics1 see my ,essay on the ,geog4 of ,plants page #ai2 and a paper by ,mr4 ,brown on the ,proteacea1 ,transactions of the ,lin4 ,soc4 volume #aj page #a1 page #bc1 in which that great botanist has extended and confirmed by numerous facts my ideas on the association of plants of the same species47 ,the ,avicennia of ,cumana is distinguished by another peculiarity not less remarkable3 it furnishes an instance of a plant common to the shores of ,south ,america and the coasts of ,malabar4 ,the ,indian pilot led us across his garden1 which rather resembled a copse than a piece of cultivated ground4 ,he showed us1 as a proof of the fertility of this climate1 a silk-cotton tree 7,bombax heptaphyllum71 the trunk of which1 in its fourth year1 had reached nearly two feet and a half in diameter4 ,we have observed1 on the banks of the ,orinoco and the river ,magdalena1 that the bombax1 the carolinea1 the ochroma1 and other trees of the family of the malvaceae1 are of extremely rapid growth4 ,i nevertheless think that there was some exaggeration in the report of the ,indian respecting the age of his bombax2 for under the temperate zone1 in the hot and damp lands of ,north ,america1 between the ,mississippi and the ,alleghany mountains1 the trees do not exceed a foot in diameter1 in ten years4 ,vegetation in those parts is in general but a fifth more speedy than in ,europe1 even taking as an example the ,platanus occidentalis1 the tulip tree1 and the ,cupressus disticha1 which reach from nine to fifteen feet in diameter4 ,on the strand of ,cumana1 in the garden of the ,guayqueria pilot1 we saw for the first time a guama99 loaded with flowers1 and remarkable for the extreme length and silvery splendour of its numerous stamina4 799 ,inga spuria1 which we must not confound with the common inga1 ,inga vera1 ,willd4 7,mimosa ,inga1 ,linn474 ,the white stamina1 which1 to the number of sixty or seventy1 are attached to a greenish corolla1 have a silky lustre1 and are terminated by a yellow anther4 ,the flower of the guama is eighteen lines long4 ,the common height of this fine tree1 which prefers a moist soil1 is from eight to ten toises47 ,we crossed the suburb of the ,guayqueria ,indians1 the streets of which are very regular1 and formed of small houses1 quite new1 and of a pleasing appearance4 ,this part of the town had just been rebuilt1 for the earthquake had laid ,cumana in ruins eighteen months before our arrival4 ,by a wooden bridge1 we crossed the river ,manzanares1 which contains a few bavas1 or crocodiles of the smaller species4 ,we were conducted by the captain of the ,pizarro to the governor of the province1 ,don ,vincente ,emparan1 to present to him the passports furnished to us by the first ,secretary of ,state at ,madrid4 ,he received us with that frankness and unaffected dignity which have at all times characterized the natives of ,biscay4 ,before he was appointed governor of ,portobello and ,cumana1 ,don ,vincente ,emparan had distinguished himself as captain of a vessel in the navy4 ,his name recalls to mind one of the most extraordinary and distressing events recorded in the history of maritime warfare4 ,at the time of the last rupture between ,spain and ,england1 two brothers of ,senor ,emperan1 both of whom commanded ships in the ,spanish navy1 engaged with each other before the port of ,cadiz1 each supposing that he was attacking an enemy4 ,a fierce battle was kept up during a whole night1 and both the vessels were sunk almost simultaneously4 ,a very small part of the crew was saved1 and the two brothers had the misfortune to recognize each other a little before they expired4 ,the governor of ,cumana expressed his great satisfaction at the resolution we had taken to remain for some time in ,new ,andalusia1 a province which at that period was but little known even by name in ,europe1 and which in its mountains1 and on the banks of its numerous rivers1 contains a great number of objects worthy of fixing the attention of naturalists4 ,senor ,emperan showed us cottons dyed with native plants1 and fine furniture made exclusively of the wood of the country4 ,he was much interested in everything that related to natural philosophy2 and asked1 to our great astonishment1 whether we thought1 that1 under the beautiful sky of the tropics1 the atmosphere contained less azote 7azotico7 than in ,spain2 or whether the rapidity with which iron oxidates in those climates1 were only the effect of greater humidity as indicated by the air hygrometer4 ,the name of his native country pronounced on a distant shore would not have been more agreeable to the ear of a traveller1 than those words azote1 oxide of iron1 and hygrometer1 were to ours4 ,senor ,emparan was a lover of science1 and the public marks of consideration which he gave us during a long abode in his government1 contributed greatly to procure us a favourable welcome in every part of ,south ,america4 ,we hired a spacious house1 the situation of which was favourable for astronomical observations4 ,we enjoyed an agreeable coolness when the breeze arose2 the windows were without glass1 and even without those paper panes which are often substituted for glass at ,cumana4 ,the whole of the passengers of the ,pizarro left the vessel1 but the recovery of those who had been attacked by the fever was very slow4 ,we saw some who1 a month after1 notwithstanding the care bestowed on them by their countrymen1 were still extremely weak and reduced4 ,hospitality1 in the ,spanish colonies1 is such1 that a ,european who arrives1 without recommendation or pecuniary means1 is almost sure of finding assistance1 if he land in any port on account of sickness4 ,the ,catalonians1 the ,galicians1 and the ,biscayans1 have the most frequent intercourse with ,america4 ,they there form as it were three distinct corporations1 which exercise a remarkable influence over the morals1 the industry1 and commerce of the colonies4 ,the poorest inhabitant of ,siges or ,vigo is sure of being received into the house of a ,catalonian or ,galician pulpero199 799 ,a retail dealer47 whether he land in ,chile or the ,philippine ,islands4 ,among the sick who landed at ,cumana was a negro1 who fell into a state of insanity a few days after our arrival2 he died in that deplorable condition1 though his master1 almost seventy years old1 who had left ,europe to settle at ,san ,blas1 at the entrance of the gulf of ,california1 had attended him with the greatest care4 ,i relate this fact as affording evidence that men born under the torrid zone1 after having dwelt in temperate climates1 sometimes feel the pernicious effects of the heat of the tropics4 ,the negro was a young man1 eighteen years of age1 very robust1 and born on the coast of ,guinea2 an abode of some years on the high plain of ,castile1 had imparted to his organization that kind of irritability which renders the miasma of the torrid zone so dangerous to the inhabitants of the countries of the north4 ,the site on which ,cumana is built is part of a tract of ground1 very remarkable in a geological point of view4 ,the chain of the calcareous ,alps of the ,brigantine and the ,tataraqual stretches east and west from the summit of the ,imposible to the port of ,mochima and to ,campanario4 ,the sea1 in times far remote1 appears to have divided this chain from the rocky coasts of ,araya and ,maniquarez4 ,the vast gulf of ,cariaco has been caused by an irruption of the sea2 and no doubt can be entertained but that the waters once covered1 on the southern bank1 the whole tract of land impregnated with muriate of soda1 through which flows the ,manzanares4 ,the slow retreat of the waters has turned into dry ground this extensive plain1 in which rises a group of small hills1 composed of gypsum and calcareous breccias of very recent formation4 ,the city of ,cumana is backed by this group1 which was formerly an island of the gulf of ,cariaco4 ,that part of the plain which is north of the city1 is called ,plaga ,chica1 or the ,little ,plain1 and extends eastwards as far as ,punta ,delgada1 where a narrow valley1 covered with yellow gomphrena1 still marks the point of the ancient outlet of the waters4 ,the hill of calcareous breccias1 which we have just mentioned as having once been an island in the ancient gulf1 is covered with a thick forest of cylindric cactus and opuntia4 ,some of these trees1 thirty or forty feet high1 are covered with lichens1 and are divided into several branches in the form of candelabra4 ,near ,maniquarez1 at ,punta ,araya1 we measured a cactus199 the trunk of which was four feet nine inches in circumference 799 ,tuna macho4 ,we distinguish in the wood of the cactus the medullary prolongations1 as ,m4 ,desfontaines has already observed474 ,a ,european acquainted only with the opuntia in our hot-houses is surprised to see the wood of this plant become so hard from age1 that it resists for centuries both air and moisture3 the ,indians of ,cumana therefore employ it in preference to any other for oars and door-posts4 ,cumana1 ,coro1 the island of ,margareta1 and ,curassao1 are the parts of ,south ,america that abound most in plants of the nopal family4 ,there only1 a botanist1 after a long residence1 could compose a monography of the genus cactus1 the species of which vary not only in their flowers and fruits1 but also in the form of their articulated stems1 the number of costae1 and the disposition of the thorns4 ,we shall see hereafter how these plants1 which characterize a warm and singularly dry climate1 like that of ,egypt and ,california1 gradually disappear in proportion as we remove from the coasts1 and penetrate into the inland country4 ,the groups of columnar cactus and opuntia produce the same effect in the arid lands of equinoctial ,america as the junceae and the hydrocharides in the marshes of our northern climes4 ,places in which the larger species of the strong cactus are collected in groups are considered as almost impenetrable4 ,these places are called ,tunales2 and they are impervious not only to the native1 who goes naked to the waist1 but are formidable even to those who are fully clothed4 ,in our solitary rambles we sometimes endeavoured to penetrate into the ,tunal that crowns the summit of the castle hill1 a part of which is crossed by a pathway1 where we could have studied1 amidst thousands of specimens1 the organization of this singular plant4 ,sometimes night suddenly overtook us1 for there is scarcely any twilight in this climate2 and we then found ourselves dangerously situated1 as the ,cascabel1 or rattle-snake1 the ,coral1 and other vipers armed with poisonous fangs1 frequent these scorched and arid haunts1 to deposit their eggs in the sand4 ,the castle of ,san ,antonio is built at the western extremity of the hill1 but not on the most elevated point1 being commanded on the east by an unfortified summit4 ,the ,tunal is considered both here and everywhere in the ,spanish colonies as a very important means of military defence2 and when earthen works are raised1 the engineers are eager to propagate the thorny opuntia1 and promote its growth1 as they are careful to keep crocodiles in the ditches of fortified places4 ,in regions where organized nature is so powerful and active1 man summons as auxiliaries in his defence the carnivorous reptile1 and the plant with its formidable armour of thorns4 ,the castle is only thirty toises above the level of the water in the gulf of ,cariaco4 ,standing on a naked and calcareous hill1 it commands the town1 and has a very picturesque effect when viewed from a vessel entering the port4 ,it forms a bright object against the dark curtains of those mountains which raise their summits to the clouds1 and of which the vaporous and bluish tint blends with the azure sky4 ,on descending from ,fort ,san ,antonio to the south-west1 we find on the slope of the same rock the ruins of the old castle of ,santa ,maria4 ,this site is delightful to those who wish to enjoy at the approach of sunset the freshness of the breeze and the view of the gulf4 ,the lofty summits of the island of ,margareta are seen above the rocky coast of the isthmus of ,araya1 and towards the west the small islands of ,caracas1 ,picuita1 and ,boracha1 recall to mind the catastrophes that have overwhelmed the coasts of ,terra ,firma4 ,these islets resemble fortifications1 and from the effect of the mirage 7while the inferior strata of the air1 the ocean1 and the soil1 are unequally heated by the sun71 their points appear raised like the extremity of the great promontories of the coast4 ,it is pleasing1 during the day1 to observe these inconstant phenomena2 we see1 as night approaches1 these stony masses which had been suspended in the air1 settle down on their bases2 and the luminary1 whose presence vivifies organic nature1 seems by the variable inflection of its rays to impress motion on the stable rock1 and give an undulating movement to plains covered with arid sands499 799 ,the real cause of the mirage1 or the extraordinary refraction which the rays undergo when strata of air of different densities lie over each other1 was guessed at by ,hooke4--,see his ,posthumous ,works page #dgb47 ,the town of ,cumana1 properly so called1 occupies the ground lying between the castle of ,san ,antonio and the small rivers of ,manzanares and ,santa ,catalina4 ,the ,delta1 formed by the bifurcation of the first of these rivers1 is a fertile plain covered with ,mammees1 ,sapotas 7achras71 plantains1 and other plants cultivated in the gardens or charas of the ,indians4 ,the town has no remarkable edifice1 and the frequency of earthquakes forbids such embellishments4 ,it is true1 that strong shocks occur less frequently in a given time at ,cumana than at ,quito1 where we nevertheless find sumptuous and very lofty churches4 ,but the earthquakes of ,quito are violent only in appearance1 and1 from the peculiar nature of the motion and of the ground1 no edifice there is overthrown4 ,at ,cumana1 as well as at ,lima1 and in several cities situated far from the mouths of burning volcanoes1 it happens that the series of slight shocks is interrupted after a long course of years by great catastrophes1 resembling the effects of the explosion of a mine4 ,we shall have occasion to return to this phenomenon1 for the explanation of which so many vain theories have been imagined1 and which have been classified according to perpendicular and horizontal movements1 shock1 and oscillation499 799 ,this classification dates from the time of ,posidonius4 ,it is the successio and inclinatio of ,seneca2 but the ancients had already judiciously remarked1 that the nature of these shocks is too variable to permit any subjection to these imaginary laws47 ,the suburbs of ,cumana are almost as populous as the ancient town4 ,they are three in number3--,serritos1 on the road to the ,plaga ,chicha1 where we meet with some fine tamarind trees2 ,st4 ,francis1 towards the south-east2 and the great suburb of the ,guayquerias1 or ,guayguerias4 ,the name of this tribe of ,indians was quite unknown before the conquest4 ,the natives who bear that name formerly belonged to the nation of the ,guaraounos1 of which we find remains only in the swampy lands of the branches of the ,orinoco4 ,old men have assured me that the language of their ancestors was a dialect of the ,guaraouno2 but that for a century past no native of that tribe at ,cumana1 or in the island of ,margareta1 has spoken any other language than ,castilian4 ,the denomination ,guayqueria1 like the words ,peru and ,peruvian1 owes its origin to a mere mistake4 ,the companions of ,christopher ,columbus1 coasting along the island of ,margareta1 the northern coast of which is still inhabited by the noblest portion of the ,guayqueria nation199 799 ,the ,guayquerias of ,la ,banda del ,norte consider themselves as the most noble race1 because they think they are less mixed with the ,chayma ,indian1 and other copper-coloured races4 ,they are distinguished from the ,guayquerias of the continent by their manner of pronouncing the ,spanish language1 which they speak almost without separating their teeth4 ,they show with pride to ,europeans the ,punta de la ,galera1 or ,galley's ,point1 7so called on account of the vessel of ,columbus having anchored there71 and the port of ,manzanillo1 where they first swore to the whites in #adih1 that friendship which they have never betrayed1 and which has obtained for them1 in court phraseology1 the title of fieles1 loyal4--,see above47 encountered a few natives who were harpooning fish by throwing a pole tied to a cord1 and terminating in an extremely sharp point4 ,they asked them in the ,haiti language their name2 and the ,indians1 thinking that the question of the strangers related to their harpoons1 which were formed of the hard and heavy wood of the ,macana palm1 answered guaike1 guaike1 which signifies pointed pole4 ,a striking difference at present exists between the ,guayquerias1 a civilized tribe of skilled fishermen1 and those savage ,guaraounos of the ,orinoco1 who suspend their habitations on the trunks of the ,moriche palm4 ,the population of ,cumana has been singularly exaggerated1 but according to the most authentic registers it does not exceed #af1jjj souls4 ,probably the ,indian suburb will by degrees extend as far as the ,embarcadero2 the plain1 which is not yet covered with houses or huts1 being more than #cdj toises in length4 ,the heat is somewhat less oppressive on the side near the seashore1 than in the old town1 where the reverberation of the calcareous soil1 and the proximity of the mountain of ,san ,antonio1 raise the temperature to an excessive degree4 ,in the suburb of the ,guayquerias1 the sea breezes have free access2 the soil is clayey1 and1 for that reason1 it is thought to be less exposed to violent shocks of earthquake1 than the houses at the foot of the rocks and hills on the right bank of the ,manzanares4 ,the shore near the mouth of the small river ,santa ,catalina is bordered with mangrove trees199 but these mangroves are not sufficiently spread to diminish the salubrity of the air of ,cumana4 799 ,rhizophora mangle4 ,m4 ,bonpland found on the ,plaga ,chica the ,allionia incarnata1 in the same place where the unfortunate ,loefling had discovered this new genus of ,nyctagineae47 ,the soil of the plain is in part destitute of vegetation1 in part covered with tufts of ,sesuvium portulacastrum1 ,gomphrena flava1 ,g4 myrtifolia1 ,talinum cuspidatum1 ,t4 cumanense1 and ,portulaca lanuginosa4 ,among these herbaceous plants we find at intervals the ,avicennia tomentosa1 the ,scoparia dulcis1 a frutescent mimosa with very irritable leaves199 and particularly cassias1 the number of which is so great in ,south ,america1 that we collected1 in our travels1 more than thirty new species4 799 ,the ,spaniards designate by the name of dormideras 7sleeping plants71 the small number of mimosas with irritable leaves4 ,we have increased this number by three species previously unknown to botanists1 namely1 the ,mimosa humilis of ,cumana1 the ,m4 pellita of the savannahs of ,calabozo1 and the ,m4 dormiens of the banks of the ,apure47 ,on leaving the ,indian suburb1 and ascending the river southward1 we found a grove of cactus1 a delightful spot1 shaded by tamarinds1 brazilettos1 bombax1 and other plants1 remarkable for their leaves and flowers4 ,the soil here is rich in pasturage1 and dairy-houses built with reeds1 are separated from each other by clumps of trees4 ,the milk remains fresh1 when kept1 not in the calabashes99 of very thick ligneous fibres 799 ,these calabashes are made from the fruit of the ,crescentia cujete471 but in porous earthen vessels from ,maniquarez4 ,a prejudice prevalent in northern countries had long led me to believe1 that cows1 under the torrid zone1 did not yield rich milk2 but my abode at ,cumana1 and especially an excursion through the vast plains of ,calabozo1 covered with grasses1 and herbaceous sensitive plants1 convinced me that the ruminating animals of ,europe become perfectly habituated to the hottest climates1 provided they find water and good nourishment4 ,milk is excellent in the provinces of ,new ,andalusia1 ,barcelona1 and ,venezuela2 and butter is better in the plains of the equinoctial zone1 than on the ridge of the ,andes1 where the ,alpine plants1 enjoying in no season a sufficiently high temperature1 are less aromatic than on the ,pyrenees1 on the mountains of ,estremadura1 or of ,greece4 ,as the inhabitants of ,cumana prefer the coolness of the sea breeze to the sight of vegetation1 their favourite walk is the open shore4 ,the ,spaniards1 who in general have no great predilection for trees1 or for the warbling of birds1 have transported their tastes and their habits into the colonies4 ,in ,terra ,firma1 ,mexico1 and ,peru1 it is rare to see a native plant a tree1 merely with the view of procuring shade2 and if we except the environs of the great capitals1 walks bordered with trees are almost unknown in those countries4 ,the arid plain of ,cumana exhibits after violent showers an extraordinary phenomenon4 ,the earth1 when drenched with rain1 and heated again by the rays of the sun1 emits that musky odour which in the torrid zone1 is common to animals of very different classes1 namely3 to the jaguar1 the small species of tiger cat1 the cabiai or thick-nosed tapir199 799 ,cavia capybara1 ,linn42 chiguire47 the galinazo vulture199 799 ,vultur aura1 ,linn41 ,zamuro1 or ,galinazo3 the ,brazilian vulture of ,buffon4 ,i cannot reconcile myself to the adoption of names1 which designate1 as belonging to a single country1 animals common to a whole continent47 the crocodile1 the viper1 and the rattlesnake4 ,the gaseous emanations1 which are the vehicles of this aroma1 seem to be evolved in proportion only as the mould1 containing the spoils of an innumerable quantity of reptiles1 worms1 and insects1 begins to be impregnated with water4 ,i have seen ,indian children1 of the tribe of the ,chaymas1 draw out from the earth and eat millipedes or scolopendras99 eighteen inches long1 and seven lines broad4 799 ,scolopendras are very common behind the castle of ,san ,antonio1 on the summit of the hill47 ,whenever the soil is turned up1 we are struck with the mass of organic substances1 which by turns are developed1 transformed1 and decomposed4 ,nature in these climates appears more active1 more fruitful1 we may even say more prodigal1 of life4 ,on this shore1 and near the dairies just mentioned1 we enjoy1 especially at sunrise1 a very beautiful prospect over an elevated group of calcareous mountains4 ,as this group subtends an angle of three degrees only at the house where we dwelt1 it long served me to compare the variations of the terrestrial refraction with the meteorological phenomena4 ,storms are formed in the centre of this ,cordillera2 and we see from afar thick clouds resolve into abundant rains1 while during seven or eight months not a drop of water falls at ,cumana4 ,the ,brigantine1 which is the highest part of this chain1 raises itself in a very picturesque manner behind ,brito and ,tataraqual4 ,it takes its name from the form of a very deep valley on the northern declivity1 which resembles the interior of a ship4 ,the summit of this mountain is almost bare of vegetation1 and is flat like that of ,mowna ,roa1 in the ,sandwich ,islands4 ,it is a perpendicular wall1 or1 to use a more expressive term of the ,spanish navigators1 a table 7mesa74 ,this peculiar form1 and the symmetrical arrangement of a few cones which surround the ,brigantine1 made me at first think that this group1 which is wholly calcareous1 contained rocks of basaltic or trappean formation4 ,the governor of ,cumana sent1 in #agig1 a band of determined men to explore this entirely desert country1 and to open a direct road to ,new ,barcelona1 by the summit of the ,mesa4 ,it was reasonably expected that this way would be shorter1 and less dangerous to the health of travellers1 than the route taken by the couriers along the coasts2 but every attempt to cross the chain of the mountains of the ,brigantine was fruitless4 ,in this part of ,america1 as in ,australia99 to the west of ,sydney1 it is not so much the height of the mountain chains1 as the form of the rocks1 that presents obstacles difficult to surmount4 799 ,the ,blue ,mountains of ,australia1 and those of ,carmarthen and ,lansdowne1 are not visible1 in clear weather1 beyond fifty miles4--,peron1 ,voyage aux ,terres ,australes page #chi4 ,supposing the angle of altitude half a degree1 the absolute height of these mountains would be about #fbj toises47 ,the longitudinal valley formed by the lofty mountains of the interior and the southern declivity of the ,cerro de ,san ,antonio1 is intersected by the ,rio ,manzanares4 ,this plain1 the only thoroughly wooded part in the environs of ,cumana1 is called the ,plain of the ,charas199 on account of the numerous plantations which the inhabitants have begun1 for some years past1 along the river4 799 ,chacra1 by corruption chara1 signifies a hut or cottage surrounded by a garden4 ,the word ipure has the same signification47 ,a narrow path leads from the hill of ,san ,francisco across the forest to the hospital of the ,capuchins1 a very agreeable country-house1 which the ,aragonese monks have built as a retreat for old infirm missionaries1 who can no longer fulfil the duties of their ministry4 ,as we advance to the west1 the trees of the forest become more vigorous1 and we meet with a few monkeys199 799 ,the common machi1 or weeping monkey47 which1 however1 are very rare in the environs of ,cumana4 ,at the foot of the capparis1 the bauhinia1 and the zygophyllum with flowers of a golden yellow1 there extends a carpet of ,bromelia199 799 ,chihuchihue1 of the family of the ananas47 akin to the ,b4 karatas1 which from the odour and coolness of its foliage attracts the rattlesnake4 ,the waters of the ,manzanares are very limpid in quality1 and this river has no resemblance to the ,manzanares of ,madrid1 which appears the more magnificent in contrast with the fine bridge by which it is crossed4 ,it takes its source1 like all the rivers of ,new ,andalusia1 in the savannahs 7llanos7 known by the names of the plateaux of ,jonoro1 ,amana1 and ,guanipa199 799 ,these three eminences bear the names of mesas1 tables4 ,an immense plain has an almost imperceptible rise from both sides to the middle1 without any appearance of mountains or hills47 and it receives1 near the ,indian village of ,san ,fernando1 the waters of the ,rio ,juanillo4 ,it has been several times proposed to the government1 but without success1 to construct a dyke at the first ipure1 in order to form artificial irrigations in the plain of ,charas2 for1 notwithstanding its apparent sterility1 the soil is extremely productive1 wherever humidity is combined with the heat of the climate4 ,the cultivators were gradually to refund the money advanced for the construction of the sluices4 ,meanwhile1 pumps worked by mules1 and other hydraulic but imperfect machines1 have been erected1 to serve till this project is carried into execution4 ,the banks of the ,manzanares are very pleasant1 and are shaded by mimosas1 erythrinas1 ceibas1 and other trees of gigantic growth4 ,a river1 the temperature of which1 in the season of the floods1 descends as low as twenty-two degrees1 when the air is at thirty and thirty-three degrees1 is an inestimable benefit in a country where the heat is excessive during the whole year1 and where it is so agreeable to bathe several times in the day4 ,the children pass a considerable part of their lives in the water2 all the inhabitants1 even the women of the most opulent families1 know how to swim2 and in a country where man is so near the state of nature1 one of the first questions asked on meeting in the morning is1 whether the water is cooler than it was on the preceding evening4 ,one of the modes of bathing is curious4 ,we every evening visited a family1 in the suburb of the ,guayquerias4 ,in a fine moonlight night1 chairs were placed in the water2 the men and women were lightly clothed1 as in some baths of the north of ,europe2 and the family and strangers1 assembled in the river1 passed some hours in smoking cigars1 and in talking1 according to the custom of the country1 of the extreme dryness of the season1 of the abundant rains in the neighbouring districts1 and particularly of the extravagancies of which the ladies of ,cumana accuse those of ,caracas and the ,havannah4 ,the company were under no apprehensions from the bavas1 or small crocodiles1 which are now extremely scarce1 and which approach men without attacking them4 ,these animals are three or four feet long4 ,we never met with them in the ,manzanares1 but with a great number of dolphins 7toninas71 which sometimes ascend the river in the night1 and frighten the bathers by spouting water4 ,the port of ,cumana is a roadstead capable of receiving the fleets of ,europe4 ,the whole of the ,gulf of ,cariaco1 which is about #ce miles long and #dh broad1 affords excellent anchorage4 ,the ,pacific is not more calm on the shores of ,peru1 than the ,caribbean ,sea from ,porto-cabello1 and especially from ,cape ,codera to the point of ,paria4 ,the hurricanes of the ,west ,indies are never felt in these regions4 ,the only danger in the port of ,cumana is a shoal1 called ,morro ,roxo4 ,there are from one to three fathoms water on this shoal1 while just beyond its edges there are eighteen1 thirty1 and even thirty-eight4 ,the remains of an old battery1 situated north-north-east of the castle of ,san ,antonio1 and very near it1 serve as a mark to avoid the bank of ,morro ,roxo4 ,the city lies at the foot of a hill destitute of verdure1 and is commanded by a castle4 ,no steeple or dome attracts from afar the eye of the traveller1 but only a few trunks of tamarind1 cocoa1 and date trees1 which rise above the houses1 the roofs of which are flat4 ,the surrounding plains1 especially those on the coasts1 wear a melancholy1 dusty1 and arid appearance1 while a fresh and luxuriant vegetation marks from afar the windings of the river1 which separates the city from the suburbs2 the population of ,european and mixed race from the copper-coloured natives4 ,the hill of fort ,san ,antonio1 solitary1 white1 and bare1 reflects a great mass of light1 and of radiant heat3 it is composed of breccia1 the strata of which contain numerous fossils4 ,in the distance1 towards the south1 stretches a vast and gloomy curtain of mountains4 ,these are the high calcareous ,alps of ,new ,andalusia1 surmounted by sandstone1 and other more recent formations4 ,majestic forests cover this ,cordillera of the interior1 and they are joined by a woody vale to the open clayey lands and salt marshes of the environs of ,cumana4 ,a few birds of considerable size contribute to give a peculiar character to these countries4 ,on the seashore1 and in the gulf1 we find flocks of fishing herons1 and alcatras of a very unwieldy form1 which swim1 like the swan1 raising their wings4 ,nearer the habitation of man1 thousands of galinazo vultures1 the jackals of the winged tribe1 are ever busy in disinterring the carcases of animals499 799 ,buffon ,hist4 ,nat4 des ,oiseaux tome #a page #aad47 ,a gulf1 containing hot and submarine springs1 divides the secondary from the primary and schistose rocks of the peninsula of ,araya4 ,each of these coasts is washed by a tranquil sea1 of azure tint1 and always gently agitated by a breeze from one quarter4 ,a bright clear sky1 with a few light clouds at sunset1 reposes on the ocean1 on the treeless peninsula1 and on the plains of ,cumana1 while we see the storms accumulate and descend in fertile showers among the inland mountains4 ,thus on these coasts1 as well as at the foot of the ,andes1 the earth and the sky present the extremes of clear weather and fogs1 of drought and torrents of rain1 of absolute nudity and never-ceasing verdure4 ,the analogies which we have just indicated1 between the sea-coasts of ,new ,andalusia and those of ,peru1 extend also to the recurrence of earthquakes1 and the limits which nature seems to have prescribed to these phenomena4 ,we have ourselves felt very violent shocks at ,cumana2 and we learned on the spot1 the most minute circumstances that accompanied the great catastrophe of the #adth ,december1 #agig4 ,it is a very generally received opinion on the coasts of ,cumana1 and in the island of ,margareta1 that the gulf of ,cariaco owes its existence to a rent of the continent attended by an irruption of the sea4 ,the remembrance of that great event was preserved among the ,indians to the end of the fifteenth century2 and it is related that1 at the time of the third voyage of ,christopher ,columbus1 the natives mentioned it as of very recent date4 ,in #aecj1 the inhabitants were alarmed by new shocks on the coasts of ,paria and ,cumana4 ,the land was inundated by the sea1 and the small fort1 built by ,james ,castellon at ,new ,toledo199 was entirely destroyed4 799 ,this was the first name given to the city of ,cumana--,girolamo ,benzoni ,hist4 del ,mondo ,nuovo pages #c1 #ca1 and #cc4 ,james ,castellon arrived at ,st4 ,domingo in #aeba1 after the appearance of the celebrated ,bartholomew de las ,casas in these countries4 ,on attentively reading the narratives of ,benzoni and ,caulin1 we find that the fort of ,castellon was built near the mouth of the ,manzanares 7alla ripa del fiume de ,cumana72 and not1 as some modern travellers have asserted1 on the mountain where now stands the castle of ,san ,antonio47 ,at the same time an enormous opening was formed in the mountains of ,cariaco1 on the shores of the gulf bearing that name1 when a great body of salt-water1 mixed with asphaltum1 issued from the micaceous schist4 ,earthquakes were very frequent about the end of the sixteenth century2 and1 according to the traditions preserved at ,cumana1 the sea often inundated the shores1 rising from fifteen to twenty fathoms4 ,as no record exists at ,cumana1 and its archives1 owing to the continual devastations of the termites1 or white ants1 contain no document that goes back farther than a hundred and fifty years1 we are unacquainted with the precise dates of the ancient earthquakes4 ,we only know1 that1 in times nearer our own1 the year #aggf was at once the most fatal to the colonists1 and the most remarkable for the physical history of the country4 ,the city of ,cumana was entirely destroyed1 the houses were overturned in the space of a few minutes1 and the shocks were hourly repeated during fourteen months4 ,in several parts of the province the earth opened1 and threw out sulphureous waters4 ,these irruptions were very frequent in a plain extending towards ,casanay1 two leagues east of the town of ,cariaco1 and known by the name of the hollow ground 7tierra hueca71 because it appears entirely undermined by thermal springs4 ,during the years #agff and #agfg1 the inhabitants of ,cumana encamped in their streets2 and they began to rebuild their houses only when the earthquakes recurred once a month4 ,what was felt at ,quito1 immediately after the great catastrophe of ,february #agig1 took place on these coasts4 ,while the ground was in a state of continual oscillation1 the atmosphere seemed to dissolve itself into water4 ,tradition states that in the earthquake of #agff1 as well as in another remarkable one in #agid1 the shocks were mere horizontal oscillations2 it was only on the disastrous #adth of ,december1 #agig1 that for the first time at ,cumana the motion was felt by an upheaving of the ground4 ,more than four-fifths of the city were then entirely destroyed2 and the shock1 attended by a very loud subterraneous noise1 resembled1 as at ,riobamba1 the explosion of a mine at a great depth4 ,happily the most violent shock was preceded by a slight undulating motion1 so that most of the inhabitants were enabled to escape into the streets1 and a small number only perished of those who had assembled in the churches4 ,it is a generally received opinion at ,cumana1 that the most destructive earthquakes are announced by very feeble oscillations1 and by a hollow sound1 which does not escape the observation of persons habituated to this kind of phenomenon4 ,in those fatal moments the cries of 'misericordia6 tembla6 tembla6'99 are everywhere heard 799 ,mercy6 the earthquake6 the earthquake6--,see ,tschudi's ,travels in ,peru page #agj472 and it rarely happens that a false alarm is given by a native4 ,those who are most apprehensive attentively observe the motions of dogs1 goats1 and swine4 ,the last-mentioned animals1 endowed with delicate olfactory nerves1 and accustomed to turn up the earth1 give warning of approaching danger by their restlessness and their cries4 ,we shall not attempt to decide1 whether1 being nearer the surface of the ground1 they are the first to hear the subterraneous noise2 or whether their organs receive the impression of some gaseous emanation which issues from the earth4 ,we cannot deny the possibility of this latter cause4 ,during my abode at ,peru1 a fact was observed in the inland country1 which has an analogy with this kind of phenomenon1 and which is not unfrequent4 ,at the end of violent earthquakes1 the herbs that cover the savannahs of ,tucuman acquired noxious properties2 an epidemic disorder broke out among the cattle1 and a great number of them appeared stupified or suffocated by the deleterious vapours exhaled from the ground4 ,at ,cumana1 half an hour before the catastrophe of the #adth of ,december1 #agig1 a strong smell of sulphur was perceived near the hill of the convent of ,san ,francisco2 and on the same spot the subterraneous noise1 which seemed to proceed from south-east to north-west1 was loudest4 ,at the same time flames appeared on the banks of the ,manzanares1 near the hospital of the ,capuchins1 and in the gulf of ,cariaco1 near ,mariguitar4 ,this last phenomenon1 so extraordinary in a country not volcanic1 is pretty frequent in the ,alpine calcareous mountains near ,cumanacoa1 in the valley of ,bordones1 in the island of ,margareta1 and amidst the ,llanos or savannahs of ,new ,andalusia4 ,in these savannahs1 flakes of fire rising to a considerable height1 are seen for hours together in the dryest places2 and it is asserted1 that1 on examining the ground no crevice is perceptible4 ,this fire1 which resembles the springs of hydrogen1 or ,salse1 of ,modena1 or what is called the will-o'-the-wisp of our marshes1 does not burn the grass2 because1 no doubt1 the column of gas1 which develops itself1 is mixed with azote and carbonic acid1 and does not burn at its basis4 ,the people1 although less superstitious here than in ,spain1 call these reddish flames by the singular name of 'the soul of the tyrant ,aguirre2' imagining that the spectre of ,lopez ,aguirre1 harassed by remorse1 wanders over these countries sullied by his crimes499 799 ,when at ,cumana1 or in the island of ,margareta1 the people pronounce the words el tirano 7the tyrant71 it is always to denote the hated ,lopez d',aguirre1 who1 after having taken part1 in #aefj1 in the revolt of ,fernando de ,guzman against ,pedro de ,ursua1 governor of the ,omeguas and ,dorado1 voluntarily took the title of traidor1 or traitor4 ,he descended the river ,amazon with his band1 and reached by a communication of the rivers of ,guyana the island of ,margareta4 ,the port of ,paraguache still bears1 in this island1 the name of the ,tyrant's ,port47 ,the great earthquake of #agig produced some changes in the configuration of the shoal of ,morro ,roxo1 towards the mouth of the ,rio ,bordones4 ,similar swellings were observed at the time of the total destruction of ,cumana1 in #agff4 ,at that period1 the ,punta ,delgado1 on the southern coast of the gulf of ,cariaco1 became perceptibly enlarged2 and in the ,rio ,guarapiche1 near the village of ,maturin1 a shoal was formed1 no doubt by the action of the elastic fluids1 which displaced and raised up the bed of the river4 ,in order to follow a plan conformable to the end we proposed in this work1 we shall endeavour to generalize our ideas1 and to comprehend in one point of view everything that relates to these phenomena1 so terrific1 and so difficult to explain4 ,if it be the duty of the men of science who visit the ,alps of ,switzerland1 or the coasts of ,lapland1 to extend our knowledge respecting the glaciers and the aurora borealis1 it may be expected that a traveller who has journeyed through ,spanish ,america1 should have chiefly fixed his attention on volcanoes and earthquakes4 ,each part of the globe is an object of particular study2 and when we cannot hope to penetrate the causes of natural phenomena1 we ought at least to endeavour to discover their laws1 and distinguish1 by the comparison of numerous facts1 that which is permanent and uniform from that which is variable and accidental4 ,the great earthquakes1 which interrupt the long series of slight shocks1 appear to have no regular periods at ,cumana4 ,they have taken place at intervals of eighty1 a hundred1 and sometimes less than thirty years2 while on the coasts of ,peru1 for instance at ,lima1 a certain regularity has marked the periods of the total destruction of the city4 ,the belief of the inhabitants in the existence of this uniformity has a happy influence on public tranquillity1 and the encouragement of industry4 ,it is generally admitted1 that it requires a sufficiently long space of time for the same causes to act with the same energy2 but this reasoning is just only inasmuch as the shocks are considered as a local phenomenon2 and a particular focus1 under each point of the globe exposed to those great catastrophes1 is admitted4 ,whenever new edifices are raised on the ruins of the old1 we hear from those who refuse to build1 that the destruction of ,lisbon on the first day of ,november1 #agee1 was soon followed by a second1 and not less fatal convulsion1 on the #cast of ,march1 #agfa4 ,it is a very ancient opinion199 799 ,aristotle de ,meteor4 lib4 #b 7ed4 ,duval1 tome #a page #gih74 ,seneca ,nat4 ,quaest4 lib4 #f c4 #ab47 and one that is commonly received at ,cumana1 ,acapulco1 and ,lima1 that a perceptible connection exists between earthquakes and the state of the atmosphere that precedes those phenomena4 ,but from the great number of earthquakes which ,i have witnessed to the north and south of the equator2 on the continent1 and on the seas2 on the coasts1 and at #bejj toises height2 it appears to me that the oscillations are generally very independent of the previous state of the atmosphere4 ,this opinion is entertained by a number of intelligent residents of the ,spanish colonies1 whose experience extends1 if not over a greater space of the globe1 at least over a greater number of years1 than mine4 ,on the contrary1 in parts of ,europe where earthquakes are rare compared to ,america1 scientific observers are inclined to admit an intimate connection between the undulations of the ground1 and certain meteors1 which appear simultaneously with them4 ,in ,italy for instance1 the sirocco and earthquakes are suspected to have some connection2 and in ,london1 the frequency of falling-stars1 and those southern lights which have since been often observed by ,mr4 ,dalton1 were considered as the forerunners of those shocks which were felt from #agdh to #agef4 ,on days when the earth is shaken by violent shocks1 the regularity of the horary variations of the barometer is not disturbed within the tropics4 ,i had opportunities of verifying this observation at ,cumana1 at ,lima1 and at ,riobamba2 and it is the more worthy of attention1 as at ,st4 ,domingo1 7in the town of ,cape ,francois17 it is asserted1 that a water-barometer sank two inches and a half immediately before the earthquake of #aggj4 ,it is also related1 that1 at the time of the destruction of ,oran1 a druggist fled with his family1 because1 observing accidentally1 a few minutes before the earthquake1 the height of the mercury in his barometer1 he perceived that the column sank in an extraordinary manner4 ,i know not whether we can give credit to this story2 but as it is nearly impossible to examine the variations of the weight of the atmosphere during the shocks1 we must be satisfied with observing the barometer before or after these phenomena have taken place4 ,we can scarcely doubt1 that the earth1 when opened and agitated by shocks1 spreads occasionally gaseous emanations through the atmosphere1 in places remote from the mouths of volcanoes not extinct4 ,at ,cumana1 it has already been observed that flames and vapours mixed with sulphurous acid spring up from the most arid soil4 ,in other parts of the same province1 the earth ejects water and petroleum4 ,at ,riobamba1 a muddy and inflammable mass1 called moya1 issues from crevices that close again1 and accumulates into elevated hills4 ,at about seven leagues from ,lisbon1 near ,colares1 during the terrible earthquake of the #ast of ,november1 #agee1 flames and a column of thick smoke were seen to issue from the flanks of the rocks of ,alvidras1 and1 according to some witnesses1 from the bosom of the sea4 ,elastic fluids thrown into the atmosphere may act locally on the barometer1 not by their mass1 which is very small1 compared to the mass of the atmosphere1 but because1 at the moment of great explosions1 an ascending current is probably formed1 which diminishes the pressure of the air4 ,i am inclined to think that in the majority of earthquakes nothing escapes from the agitated earth2 and that1 when gaseous emanations and vapours are observed1 they oftener accompany or follow1 than precede the shocks4 ,this circumstance would seem to explain the mysterious influence of earthquakes in equinoctial ,america1 on the climate1 and on the order of the dry and rainy seasons4 ,if the earth generally act on the air only at the moment of the shocks1 we can conceive why a sensible meteorological change so rarely precedes those great revolutions of nature4 ,the hypothesis according to which1 in the earthquakes of ,cumana1 elastic fluids tend to escape from the surface of the soil1 seems confirmed by the great noise which is heard during the shocks at the borders of the wells in the plain of ,charas4 ,water and sand are sometimes thrown out twenty feet high4 ,similar phenomena were observed in ancient times by the inhabitants of those parts of ,greece and ,asia ,minor abounding with caverns1 crevices1 and subterraneous rivers4 ,nature1 in her uniform progress1 everywhere suggests the same ideas of the causes of earthquakes1 and the means by which man1 forgetting the measure of his strength1 pretends to diminish the effect of the subterraneous explosions4 ,what a great ,roman naturalist has said of the utility of wells and caverns99 is repeated in the ,new ,world by the most ignorant ,indians of ,quito1 when they show travellers the guaicos1 or crevices of ,pichincha4 799 ,in puteis est remedium1 quale et crebri specus praebent3 conceptum enim spiritum exhalant3 quod in certis notatur oppidis1 quae minus quatiuntur1 crebris ad eluviem cuniculis cavata4--,pliny lib4 #b c4 #hb 7ed4 ,par4 #agbc t4 #a page #aab47 ,even at present1 in the capital of ,st4 ,domingo1 wells are considered as diminishing the violence of the shocks4 ,i may observe on this occasion1 that the theory of earthquakes1 given by ,seneca1 7,nat4 ,quaest4 lib4 #f c4 #d-ca71 contains the germ of everything that has been said in our times on the action of the elastic vapours confined in the interior of the globe47 ,the subterranean noise1 so frequent during earthquakes1 is generally not in the ratio of the force of the shocks4 ,at ,cumana it constantly precedes them1 while at ,quito1 and recently at ,caracas1 and in the ,west ,india ,islands1 a noise like the discharge of a battery was heard a long time after the shocks had ceased4 ,a third kind of phenomenon1 the most remarkable of the whole1 is the rolling of those subterranean thunders1 which last several months1 without being accompanied by the least oscillatory motion of the ground499 799 ,the subterranean thunders 7bramidos y truenos subterraneos7 of ,guanaxuato4 ,the phenomenon of a noise without shocks was observed by the ancients4--,aristot4 ,meteor4 lib4 #b 7ed4 ,duval page #hjb74 ,pliny lib4 #b c4 #hj47 ,in every country subject to earthquakes1 the point at which1 probably owing to a particular disposition of the stony strata1 the effects are most sensibly felt1 is considered as the cause and the focus of the shocks4 ,thus1 at ,cumana1 the hill of the castle of ,san ,antonio1 and particularly the eminence on which stands the convent of ,st4 ,francis1 are believed to contain an enormous quantity of sulphur and other inflammable matter4 ,we forget that the rapidity with which the undulations are propagated to great distances1 even across the basin of the ocean1 proves that the centre of action is very remote from the surface of the globe4 ,from this same cause no doubt earthquakes are not confined to certain species of rocks1 as some naturalists suppose1 but all are fitted to propagate the movement4 ,keeping within the limits of my own experience ,i may here cite the granites of ,lima and ,acapulco2 the gneiss of ,caracas2 the mica-slate of the peninsula of ,araya2 the primitive thonschiefer of ,tepecuacuilco1 in ,mexico2 the secondary limestones of the ,apennines1 ,spain1 and ,new ,andalusia2 and finally1 the trappean porphyries of the provinces of ,quito and ,popayan499 799 ,i might add to the list of secondary rocks1 the gypsum of the newest formation1 for instance1 that of ,montmartre1 situated on a marine calcareous rock1 which is posterior to the chalk4--,see the ,memoires de l',academie tome #a page #cda on the earthquake felt at ,paris and its environs in #afha47 ,in these different places the ground is frequently agitated by the most violent shocks2 but sometimes1 in the same rock1 the superior strata form invincible obstacles to the propagation of the motion4 ,thus1 in the mines of ,saxony1 we have seen workmen hasten up alarmed by oscillations which were not felt at the surface of the ground4 ,if1 in regions the most remote from each other1 primitive1 secondary1 and volcanic rocks1 share equally in the convulsive movements of the globe2 we cannot but admit also that within a space of little extent1 certain classes of rocks oppose themselves to the propagation of the shocks4 ,at ,cumana1 for instance1 before the great catastrophe of #agig1 the earthquakes were felt only along the southern and calcareous coast of the gulf of ,cariaco1 as far as the town of that name2 while in the peninsula of ,araya1 and at the village of ,maniquarez1 the ground did not share the same agitation4 ,but since ,december #agig1 new communications appear to have been opened in the interior of the globe4 ,the peninsula of ,araya is now not merely subject to the same agitations as the soil of ,cumana1 but the promontory of mica-slate1 previously free from earthquakes1 has become in its turn a central point of commotion4 ,the earth is sometimes strongly shaken at the village of ,maniquarez1 when on the coast of ,cumana the inhabitants enjoy the most perfect tranquillity4 ,the gulf of ,cariaco1 nevertheless1 is only sixty or eighty fathoms deep4 ,it has been thought from observations made both on the continent and in the islands1 that the western and southern coasts are most exposed to shocks4 ,this observation is connected with opinions which geologists have long formed respecting the position of the high chains of mountains1 and the direction of their steepest declivities2 but the existence of the ,cordillera of ,caracas1 and the frequency of the oscillations on the eastern and northern coast of ,terra ,firma1 in the gulf of ,paria1 at ,carupano1 at ,cariaco1 and at ,cumana1 render the accuracy of that opinion doubtful4 ,in ,new ,andalusia1 as well as in ,chile and ,peru1 the shocks follow the course of the shore1 and extend but little inland4 ,this circumstance1 as we shall soon find1 indicates an intimate connection between the causes which produce earthquakes and volcanic eruptions4 ,if the earth was most agitated on the coasts1 because they are the lowest part of the land1 why should not the oscillations be equally strong and frequent on those vast savannahs or prairies199 which are scarcely eight or ten toises above the level of the ocean8 799 ,the ,llanos of ,cumana1 of ,new ,barcelona1 of ,calabozo1 of ,apure1 and of ,meta47 ,the earthquakes of ,cumana are connected with those of the ,west ,india ,islands2 and it has even been suspected that they have some connection with the volcanic phenomena of the ,cordilleras of the ,andes4 ,on the #dth of ,february #agig1 the soil of the province of ,quito suffered such a destructive commotion1 that near #dj1jjj natives perished4 ,at the same period the inhabitants of the eastern ,antilles were alarmed by shocks1 which continued during eight months1 when the volcano of ,guadaloupe threw out pumice-stones1 ashes1 and gusts of sulphureous vapours4 ,the eruption of the #bgth of ,september1 during which very long-continued subterranean noises were heard1 was followed on the #adth of ,december by the great earthquake of ,cumana4 ,another volcano of the ,west ,india ,islands1 that of ,st4 ,vincent1 affords an example of these extraordinary connections4 ,this volcano had not emitted flames since #agah1 when they burst forth anew in #ahab4 ,the total ruin of the city of ,caracas preceded this explosion thirty-five days1 and violent oscillations of the ground were felt both in the islands and on the coasts of ,terra ,firma4 ,it has long been remarked that the effects of great earthquakes extend much farther than the phenomena arising from burning volcanoes4 ,in studying the physical revolutions of ,italy1 in carefully examining the series of the eruptions of ,vesuvius and ,etna1 we can scarcely recognise1 notwithstanding the proximity of these mountains1 any traces of a simultaneous action4 ,it is on the contrary beyond a doubt1 that at the period of the last and preceding destruction of ,lisbon199 the sea was violently agitated even as far as the ,new ,world1 for instance1 at the island of ,barbados1 more than twelve hundred leagues distant from the coasts of ,portugal4 799 ,destruction of ,lisbon3 ,the #ast of ,november1 #agee1 and #cast of ,march1 #agfa4 ,during the first of these earthquakes1 the sea inundated1 in ,europe1 the coasts of ,sweden1 ,england1 and ,spain2 in ,america1 the islands of ,antigua1 ,barbados1 and ,martinique4 ,at ,barbados1 where the ordinary tides rise only from twenty-four to twenty-eight inches1 the water rose twenty feet in ,carlisle ,bay4 ,it became at the same time as black as ink2 being1 without doubt1 mixed with the petroleum1 or asphaltum1 which abounds at the bottom of the sea1 as well on the coasts of the gulf of ,cariaco1 as near the island of ,trinidad4 ,in the ,west ,indies1 and in several lakes of ,switzerland1 this extraordinary motion of the waters was observed six hours after the first shock that was felt at ,lisbon--,philosophical ,transactions volume #di pages #djc1 #daj1 #edd1 #ffh2 ibid4 volume #ec page #dbd4 ,at ,cadiz a mountain of water sixty feet high was seen eight miles distant at sea4 ,this mass threw itself impetuously on the coasts1 and beat down a great number of houses2 like the wave eighty-four feet high1 which on the #ith of ,june1 #aehf1 at the time of the great earthquake of ,lima1 covered the port of ,callao4--,acosta ,hist4 ,natural de las ,indias edition de #aeia page #abc4 ,in ,north ,america1 on ,lake ,ontario1 violent agitations of the water were observed from the month of ,october #agee4 ,these phenomena are proofs of subterraneous communications at enormous distances4 ,on comparing the periods of the great catastrophes of ,lima and ,guatimala1 which generally succeed each other at long intervals1 it has sometimes been thought1 that the effect of an action slowly propagating along the ,cordilleras1 sometimes from north to south1 at other times from south to north1 may be perceived4--,cosmo ,bueno ,descripcion del ,peru ed4 de ,lima page #fg4 ,four of these remarkable catastrophes1 with their dates1 may be here enumerated47 ,,table ,,of ,,four ,,catastrophes3 ,,column #a 3 ,,mexico4 7,latitude #ac degrees #cb minutes north47 ,,column #b 3 ,,peru4 7,latitude #ab degrees #b minutes south47 #cjth of ,november1 #aegg 3 #agth of ,june1 #aegh4 #dth of ,march1 #afgi 3 #agth of ,june1 #afgh4 #abth of ,february1 #afhi 3 #ajth of ,october1 #afhh4 #bgth of ,september1 #agag 3 #hth of ,february1 #agaf4 ,when the shocks are not simultaneous1 or do not follow each other at short intervals1 great doubts may be entertained with respect to the supposed communication of the movement47 ,several facts tend to prove that the causes which produce earthquakes have a near connection with those which act in volcanic eruptions4 ,the connection of these causes was known to the ancients1 and it excited fresh attention at the period of the discovery of ,america4 ,the discovery of the ,new ,world not only offered new productions to the curiosity of man1 it also extended the then existing stock of knowledge respecting physical geography1 the varieties of the human species1 and the migrations of nations4 ,it is impossible to read the narratives of early ,spanish travellers1 especially that of the ,jesuit ,acosta1 without perceiving the influence which the aspect of a great continent1 the study of extraordinary appearances of nature1 and intercourse with men of different races1 must have exercised on the progress of knowledge in ,europe4 ,the germ of a great number of physical truths is found in the works of the sixteenth century2 and that germ would have fructified1 had it not been crushed by fanaticism and superstition4 ,we learned1 at ,pasto1 that the column of black and thick smoke1 which1 in #agig1 issued for several months from the volcano near that shore1 disappeared at the very hour1 when1 sixty leagues to the south1 the towns of ,riobamba1 ,hambato1 and ,tacunga were destroyed by an enormous shock4 ,in the interior of a burning crater1 near those hillocks formed by ejections of scoriae and ashes1 the motion of the ground is felt several seconds before each partial eruption takes place4 ,we observed this phenomenon at ,vesuvius in #ahje1 while the mountain threw out incandescent scoriae2 we were witnesses of it in #ahjb1 on the brink of the immense crater of ,pichincha1 from which1 nevertheless1 at that time1 clouds of sulphureous acid vapours only issued4 ,everything in earthquakes seems to indicate the action of elastic fluids seeking an outlet to diffuse themselves in the atmosphere4 ,often1 on the coasts of the ,pacific1 the action is almost instantaneously communicated from ,chile to the gulf of ,guayaquil1 a distance of six hundred leagues2 and1 what is very remarkable1 the shocks appear to be the stronger in proportion as the country is distant from burning volcanoes4 ,the granitic mountains of ,calabria1 covered with very recent breccias1 the calcareous chain of the ,apennines1 the country of ,pignerol1 the coasts of ,portugal and ,greece1 those of ,peru and ,terra ,firma1 afford striking proofs of this fact4 ,the globe1 it may be said1 is agitated with the greater force1 in proportion as the surface has a smaller number of funnels communicating with the caverns of the interior4 ,at ,naples and at ,messina1 at the foot of ,cotopaxi and of ,tunguragua1 earthquakes are dreaded only when vapours and flames do not issue from the craters4 ,in the kingdom of ,quito1 the great catastrophe of ,riobamba led several well-informed persons to think that that country would be less frequently disturbed1 if the subterranean fire should break the porphyritic dome of ,chimborazo2 and if that colossal mountain should become a burning volcano4 ,at all times analogous facts have led to the same hypotheses4 ,the ,greeks1 who1 like ourselves1 attributed the oscillations of the ground to the tension of elastic fluids1 cited in favour of their opinion1 the total cessation of the shocks at the island of ,euboea1 by the opening of a crevice in the ,lelantine plain499 799 ,the shocks ceased only when a crevice1 which ejected a river of fiery mud1 opened in the plain of ,lelantum1 near ,chalcis4--,strabo47 ,the phenomena of volcanoes1 and those of earthquakes1 have been considered of late as the effects of voltaic electricity1 developed by a particular disposition of heterogeneous strata4 ,it cannot be denied1 that often1 when violent shocks succeed each other within the space of a few hours1 the electricity of the air sensibly increases at the instant the ground is most agitated2 but to explain this phenomenon1 it is unnecessary to recur to an hypothesis1 which is in direct contradiction to everything hitherto observed respecting the structure of our planet1 and the disposition of its strata4 ,,chapter #a4e4 ,,peninsula ,,of ,,araya4 ,,salt-,,marshes4 ,,ruins ,,of ,,the ,,castle ,,of ,,santiago4 ,,the first weeks of our abode at ,cumana were employed in testing our instruments1 in herborizing in the neighbouring plains1 and in examining the traces of the earthquake of the #adth of ,december1 #agig4 ,overpowered at once by a great number of objects1 we were somewhat embarrassed how to lay down a regular plan of study and observation4 ,whilst every surrounding object was fitted to inspire in us the most lively interest1 our physical and astronomical instruments in their turns excited strongly the curiosity of the inhabitants4 ,we had numerous visitors2 and in our desire to satisfy persons who appeared so happy to see the spots of the moon through ,dollond's telescope1 the absorption of two gases in a eudiometrical tube1 or the effects of galvanism on the motions of a frog1 we were obliged to answer questions often obscure1 and to repeat for whole hours the same experiments4 ,these scenes were renewed for the space of five years1 whenever we took up our abode in a place where it was understood that we were in possession of microscopes1 telescopes1 and electrical apparatus4 ,i could not begin a regular course of astronomical observations before the #bhth of ,july1 though it was highly important for me to know the longitude given by ,berthoud's time-keeper2 but it happened1 that in a country where the sky is constantly clear and serene1 no stars appeared for several nights4 ,the whole series of the observations ,i made in #agii and #ahjj give for their results1 that the latitude of the great square at ,cumana is #aj degrees #bg minutes #eb seconds1 and its longitude #ff degrees #cj minutes #b seconds4 ,this longitude is founded on the difference of time1 on lunar distances1 on the eclipse of the sun 7on the #bhth of ,october1 #agii71 and on ten immersions of ,jupiter's satellites1 compared with observations made in ,europe4 ,the oldest chart we have of the continent1 that of ,don ,diego ,ribeiro1 geographer to the emperor ,charles the ,fifth1 places ,cumana in latitude #i degrees #cj minutes2 which differs fifty-eight minutes from the real latitude1 and half a degree from that marked by ,jefferies in his ,american ,pilot1 published in #agid4 ,during three centuries the whole of the coast of ,terra ,firma has been laid down too far to the south3 this has been owing to the current near the island of ,trinidad1 which sets toward the north1 and mariners are led by their dead-reckoning to think themselves farther south than they really are4 ,on the #agth of ,august a halo round the moon fixed the attention of the inhabitants of ,cumana1 who considered it as the presage of some violent earthquake2 for1 according to popular notions1 all extraordinary phenomena are immediately connected with each other4 ,coloured circles around the moon are much more rare in northern countries than in ,provence1 ,italy1 and ,spain4 ,they are seen particularly 7and this fact is singular enough7 when the sky is clear1 and the weather seems to be most fair and settled4 ,under the torrid zone beautiful prismatic colours appear almost every night1 and even at the time of the greatest droughts2 often in the space of a few minutes they disappear several times1 because1 doubtless1 the superior currents change the state of the floating vapours1 by which the light is refracted4 ,i sometimes even observed1 between the fifteenth degree of latitude and the equator1 small halos around the planet ,venus2 the purple1 orange1 and violet1 were distinctly perceived3 but ,i never saw any colours around ,sirius1 ,canopus1 or ,acherner4 ,while the halo was visible at ,cumana1 the hygrometer denoted great humidity2 nevertheless the vapours appeared so perfectly in solution1 or rather so elastic and uniformly disseminated1 that they did not alter the transparency of the atmosphere4 ,the moon arose after a storm of rain1 behind the castle of ,san ,antonio4 ,as soon as she appeared on the horizon1 we distinguished two circles3 one large and whitish1 forty-four degrees in diameter2 the other a small circle of #a degree #dc minutes1 displaying all the colours of the rainbow4 ,the space between the two circles was of the deepest azure4 ,at four degrees height1 they disappeared1 while the meteorological instruments indicated not the slightest change in the lower regions of the air4 ,this phenomenon had nothing extraordinary1 except the great brilliancy of the colours1 added to the circumstance1 that1 according to the measures taken with ,ramsden's sextant1 the lunar disk was not exactly in the centre of the haloes4 ,without this actual measurement we might have thought that the excentricity was the effect of the projection of the circles on the apparent concavity of the sky4 ,if the situation of our house at ,cumana was highly favourable for the observation of the stars and meteorological phenomena1 it obliged us to be sometimes the witnesses of painful scenes during the day4 ,a part of the great square is surrounded with arcades1 above which is one of those long wooden galleries1 common in warm countries4 ,this was the place where slaves1 brought from the coast of ,africa1 were sold4 ,of all the ,european governments ,denmark was the first1 and for a long time the only power1 which abolished the traffic2 yet notwithstanding that fact1 the first negroes we saw exposed for sale had been landed from a ,danish slave-ship4 ,what are the duties of humanity1 national honour1 or the laws of their country1 to men stimulated by the speculations of sordid interest8 ,the slaves exposed to sale were young men from fifteen to twenty years of age4 ,every morning cocoa-nut oil was distributed among them1 with which they rubbed their bodies1 to give their skin a black polish4 ,the persons who came to purchase examined the teeth of these slaves1 to judge of their age and health2 forcing open their mouths as we do those of horses in a market4 ,this odious custom dates from ,africa1 as is proved by the faithful pictures drawn by the inimitable ,cervantes199 who after his long captivity among the ,moors1 described the sale of ,christian slaves at ,algiers4 799 ,el ,trato de ,argel4 ,jorn4 #b ,viage al ,parnasso #aghd page #caf47 ,it is distressing to think that even at this day there exist ,european colonists in the ,west ,indies who mark their slaves with a hot iron1 to know them again if they escape4 ,this is the treatment bestowed on those who save other men the labour of sowing1 tilling1 and reaping499 799 ,la ,bruyere ,caracteres edition #agfe chapter #aa page #cjj4 ,i will here cite a passage strongly characteristic of ,la ,bruyere's benevolent feeling for his fellow-creatures4 ,we find 7under the torrid zone7 certain wild animals1 male and female1 scattered through the country1 black1 livid1 and all over scorched by the sun1 bent to the earth which they dig and turn up with invincible perseverance4 ,they have something like articulate utterance2 and when they stand up on their feet1 they exhibit a human face1 and in fact these creatures are men47 ,in #ahjj the number of slaves did not exceed six thousand in the two provinces of ,cumana and ,barcelona1 when at the same period the whole population was estimated at one hundred and ten thousand inhabitants4 ,the trade in ,african slaves1 which the laws of the ,spaniards have never favoured1 is almost as nothing on these coasts where the trade in ,american slaves was carried on in the sixteenth century with desolating activity4 ,macarapan1 anciently called ,amaracapana1 ,cumana1 ,araya1 and particularly ,new ,cadiz1 built on the islet of ,cubagua1 might then be considered as commercial establishments for facilitating the slave trade4 ,girolamo ,benzoni of ,milan1 who at the age of twenty-two visited ,terra ,firma1 took part in some expeditions in #aedb to the coasts of ,bordones1 ,cariaco1 and ,paria1 to carry off the unfortunate natives1 he relates with simplicity1 and often with a sensibility not common in the historians of that time1 the examples of cruelty of which he was a witness4 ,he saw the slaves dragged to ,new ,cadiz1 to be marked on the forehead and on the arms1 and for the payment of the quint to the officers of the crown4 ,from this port the ,indians were sent to the island of ,haiti or ,st4 ,domingo1 after having often changed masters1 not by way of sale1 but because the soldiers played for them at dice4 ,the first excursion we made was to the peninsula of ,araya1 and those countries formerly celebrated for the slave-trade and the pearl-fishery4 ,we embarked on the ,rio ,manzanares1 near the ,indian suburb1 on the #aith of ,august1 about two in the morning4 ,the principal objects of this excursion were1 to see the ruins of the castle of ,araya1 to examine the salt-works1 and to make a few geological observations on the mountains forming the narrow peninsula of ,maniquarez4 ,the night was delightfully cool2 swarms of phosphorescent insects99 glistened in the air 799 ,elater noctilucus4 71 and over a soil covered with sesuvium1 and groves of mimosa which bordered the river4 ,we know how common the glow-worm99 799 ,lampyris italica1 ,l4 noctiluca47 is in ,italy and in all the south of ,europe1 but the picturesque effect it produces cannot be compared to those innumerable1 scattered1 and moving lights1 which embellish the nights of the torrid zone1 and seem to repeat on the earth1 along the vast extent of the savannahs1 the brilliancy of the starry vault of heaven4 ,when1 on descending the river1 we drew near plantations1 or charas1 we saw bonfires kindled by the negroes4 ,a light and undulating smoke rose to the tops of the palm-trees1 and imparted a reddish hue to the disk of the moon4 ,it was on a ,sunday night1 and the slaves were dancing to the music of the guitar4 ,the people of ,africa1 of negro race1 are endowed with an inexhaustible store of activity and gaiety4 ,after having ended the labours of the week1 the slaves1 on festival days1 prefer to listless sleep the recreations of music and dancing4 ,the bark in which we passed the gulf of ,cariaco was very spacious4 ,large skins of the jaguar1 or ,american tiger1 were spread for our repose during the night4 ,though we had yet scarcely been two months in the torrid zone1 we had already become so sensible to the smallest variation of temperature that the cold prevented us from sleeping2 while1 to our surprise1 we saw that the centigrade thermometer was as high as #ba4h degrees4 ,this fact is familiar to those who have lived long in the ,indies1 and is worthy the attention of physiologists4 ,bouguer relates1 that when he reached the summit of ,montagne ,pelee1 in the island of ,martinique1 he and his companions shivered with cold1 though the heat was above #ba4e degrees4 ,in reading the interesting narrative of captain ,bligh1 who1 in consequence of a mutiny on board the ,bounty1 was forced to make a voyage of twelve hundred leagues in an open boat1 we find that that navigator1 in the tenth and twelfth degrees of south latitude1 suffered much more from cold than from hunger4 ,during our abode at ,guayaquil1 in the month of ,january #ahjc1 we observed that the natives covered themselves1 and complained of the cold1 when the thermometer sank to #bc4h degrees1 whilst they felt the heat suffocating at #cj4e degrees4 ,six or seven degrees were sufficient to cause the opposite sensations of cold and heat2 because1 on these coasts of ,south ,america1 the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere is twenty-eight degrees4 ,the humidity1 which modifies the conducting power of the air for heat1 contributes greatly to these impressions4 ,in the port of ,guayaquil1 as everywhere else in the low regions of the torrid zone1 the weather grows cool only after storms of rain3 and ,i have observed that when the thermometer sinks to #bc4h degrees1 ,de ,luc's hygrometer keeps up to fifty and fifty-two degrees2 it is1 on the contrary1 at thirty-seven degrees in a temperature of #cj4e degrees4 ,at ,cumana1 during very heavy showers1 people in the streets are heard exclaiming1 que hielo6 estoy emparamado299 though the thermometer exposed to the rain sinks only to #ba4e degrees4 799 ,what an icy cold6 ,i shiver as if ,i was on the top of the mountains4 ,the provincial word emparamarse can be translated only by a very long periphrasis4 ,paramo1 in ,peruvian puna1 is a denomination found on all the maps of ,spanish ,america4 ,in the colonies it signifies neither a desert nor a heath1 but a mountainous place covered with stunted trees1 exposed to the winds1 and in which a damp cold perpetually reigns4 ,in the torrid zone1 the paramos are generally from one thousand six hundred to two thousand toises high4 ,snow often falls on them1 but it remains only a few hours2 for we must not confound1 as geographers often do1 the words paramo and puna with that of nevado1 in ,peruvian ritticapa1 a mountain which enters into the limits of perpetual snow4 ,these notions are highly interesting to geology and the geography of plants2 because1 in countries where no height has been measured1 we may form an exact idea of the lowest height to which the ,cordilleras rise1 on looking into the map for the words paramo and nevado4 ,as the paramos are almost continually enveloped in a cold and thick fog1 the people say at ,santa ,fe and at ,mexico1 cae un paramito when a thick small rain falls1 and the temperature of the air sinks considerably4 ,from paramo has been made emparamarse1 which signifies to be as cold as if we were on the ridge of the ,andes47 ,from these observations it follows1 that between the tropics1 in plains where the temperature of the air is in the day-time almost invariably above twenty-seven degrees1 warmer clothing during the night is requisite1 whenever in a damp air the thermometer sinks four or five degrees4 ,we landed about eight in the morning at the point of ,araya1 near the new salt-works4 ,a solitary house1 near a battery of three guns1 the only defence of this coast1 since the destruction of the fort of ,santiago1 is the abode of the inspector4 ,it is surprising that these salt-works1 which formerly excited the jealousy of the ,english1 ,dutch1 and other maritime powers1 have not created a village1 or even a farm2 a few huts only of poor ,indian fishermen are found at the extremity of the point of ,araya4 ,this spot commands a view of the islet of ,cubagua1 the lofty hills of ,margareta1 the ruins of the castle of ,santiago1 the ,cerro de la ,vela1 and the calcareous chain of the ,brigantine1 which bounds the horizon towards the south4 ,i availed myself of this view to take the angles between these different points1 from a basis of four hundred toises1 which ,i measured between the battery and the hill called the ,pena4 ,as the ,cerro de la ,vela1 the ,brigantine1 and the castle of ,san ,antonio at ,cumana1 are equally visible from the ,punta ,arenas1 situated to the west of the village of ,maniquarez1 the same objects were available for an approximate determination of the respective positions of several points1 which are laid down in the mineralogical chart of the peninsula of ,araya4 ,the abundance of salt contained in the peninsula of ,araya was known to ,alonzo ,nino1 when1 following the tracks of ,columbus1 ,ojeda1 and ,amerigo ,vespucci1 he visited these countries in #adii4 ,though of all the people on the globe the natives of ,south ,america consume the least salt1 because they scarcely eat anything but vegetables1 it nevertheless appears1 that at an early period the ,guayquerias dug into the clayey and muriatiferous soil of ,punta ,arenas4 ,even the brine-pits1 now called new1 7la salina nueva17 situated at the extremity of ,cape ,araya1 were worked in very remote times4 ,the ,spaniards1 who settled at first at ,cubagua1 and soon after on the coasts of ,cumana1 worked1 from the beginning of the sixteenth century1 the salt marshes which stretch away like a lagoon to the north of ,cerro de la ,vela4 ,as at that period the peninsula of ,araya had no settled population1 the ,dutch availed themselves of the natural riches of a soil which appeared to be property common to all nations4 ,in our days1 each colony has its own salt-works1 and navigation is so much improved1 that the merchants of ,cadiz can send1 at a small expense1 salt from ,spain and ,portugal to the southern hemisphere1 a distance of #aijj leagues1 to cure meat at ,monte ,video and ,buenos ,ayres4 ,these advantages were unknown at the time of the conquest2 colonial industry had then made so little progress1 that the salt of ,araya was carried1 at great expense1 to the ,west ,india ,islands1 ,carthagena1 and ,portobello4 ,in #afje1 the court of ,madrid sent armed ships to ,punta ,araya1 with orders to expel the ,dutch by force of arms4 ,the ,dutch1 however1 continued to carry on a contraband trade in salt till1 in #afbb1 there was built near the salt-works a fort1 which afterwards became celebrated under the name of the ,castillo de ,santiago1 or the ,real ,fuerza de ,araya4 ,the great salt-marshes are laid down on the oldest ,spanish maps1 sometimes as a bay1 and at other times as a lagoon4 ,laet1 who wrote his ,orbis ,novus in #afcc1 and who had some excellent notions respecting these coasts1 expressly states1 that the lagoon was separated from the sea by an isthmus above the level of high water4 ,in #agbf1 an impetuous hurricane destroyed the salt-works of ,araya1 and rendered the fort1 the construction of which had cost more than a million of piastres1 useless4 ,this hurricane was a very rare phenomenon in these regions1 where the sea is in general as calm as the water in our large rivers4 ,the waves overflowed the land to a great extent2 and by the effect of this eruption of the ocean the salt lake was converted into a gulf several miles in length4 ,since that period1 artificial reservoirs1 or pits1 7vasets17 have been formed1 to the north of the range of hills which separates the castle from the north coast of the peninsula4 ,the consumption of salt amounted1 in #agii and #ahjj1 in the two provinces of ,cumana99 and ,barcelona1 to nine or ten thousand fanegas1 each sixteen arrobas1 or four hundredweight4 ,this consumption is very considerable1 and gives1 if we deduct from the total population fifty thousand ,indians1 who eat very little salt1 sixty pounds for each person4 ,salt beef1 called tasajo1 is the most important article of export from ,barcelona4 ,of nine or ten thousand fanegas furnished by the two provinces conjointly1 three thousand only are produced by the salt-works of ,araya2 the rest is extracted from the sea-water at the ,morro of ,barcelona1 at ,pozuelos1 at ,piritu1 and in the ,golfo ,triste4 ,in ,mexico1 the salt lake of ,penon ,blanco alone furnishes yearly more than two hundred and fifty thousand fanegas of unpurified salt4 799 ,at the period of my visit to that country the government of ,cumana comprehended the two provinces of ,new ,andalusia and ,new ,barcelona4 ,the words province and govierno1 or government of ,cumana1 are consequently not synonymous4 ,a ,catalonian1 ,juan de ,urpin1 who had been by turns a canon1 a doctor of laws1 a counsellor in ,st4 ,domingo1 and a private soldier in the castle of ,araya1 founded in #afcf1 the city of ,new ,barcelona1 and attempted to give the name of ,new ,catalonia 7,nueva ,cathaluna7 to the province of which this newly constructed city became the capital4 ,this attempt was fruitless2 and it is from the capital that the whole province took its name4 ,since my departure from ,america1 it has been raised to the rank of a ,govierno4 ,in ,new ,andalusia1 the ,indian name of ,cumana has superseded the names ,nueva ,toledo and ,nueva ,cordoba1 which we find on the maps of the seventeenth century47 ,the province of ,caracas possesses fine salt-works at ,los ,roques2 those which formerly existed at the small island of ,tortuga1 where the soil is strongly impregnated with muriate of soda1 were destroyed by order of the ,spanish government4 ,a canal was made by which the sea has free access to the salt-marshes4 ,foreign nations who have colonies in the ,west ,indies frequented this uninhabited island2 and the court of ,madrid1 from views of suspicious policy1 was apprehensive that the salt-works of ,tortuga would give rise to settlements1 by means of which an illicit trade would be carried on with ,terra ,firma4 ,the royal administration of the salt-works of ,araya dates only from the year #agib4 ,before that period they were in the hands of ,indian fishermen1 who manufactured salt at their pleasure1 and sold it1 paying the government the moderate sum of three hundred piastres4 ,the price of the fanega was then four reals299 799 ,in this narrative1 as well as in the ,political ,essay on ,new ,spain1 all the prices are reckoned in piastres1 and silver reals 7reales de plata74 ,eight of these reals are equivalent to a piastre1 or one hundred and five sous1 ,french money 7#d shillings #d #a_/b pence ,english74 ,nouv4 ,esp4 volume #b pages #eai1 #faf and #hff47 but the salt was extremely impure1 grey1 mixed with earthy particles1 and surcharged with muriate and sulphate of magnesia4 ,since the province of ,cumana has become dependent on the intendancia of ,caracas1 the sale of salt is under the control of the excise2 and the fanega1 which the ,guayquerias sold at half a piastre1 costs a piastre and a half499 799 ,the fanega of salt is sold to those ,indians and fishermen who do not pay the duties 7derechos reales71 at ,punta ,araya for six1 at ,cumana for eight reals4 ,the prices to the other tribes are1 at ,araya ten1 at ,cumana twelve reals47 ,this augmentation of price is slightly compensated by greater purity of the salt1 and by the facility with which the fishermen and farmers can procure it in abundance during the whole year4 ,the salt-works of ,araya yielded to the treasury1 in #agii1 a clear income of eight thousand piastres4 ,considered as a branch of industry the salt produced here is not of any great importance1 but the nature of the soil which contains the salt-marshes is well worthy of attention4 ,in order to obtain a clear idea of the geological connection existing between this muriatiferous soil and the rocks of more ancient formation1 we shall take a general view of the neighbouring mountains of ,cumana1 and those of the peninsula of ,araya1 and the island of ,margareta4 ,three great parallel chains extend from east to west4 ,the two most northerly chains are primitive1 and contain the mica-slates of ,macanao1 and the ,san ,juan ,valley1 of ,maniquarez1 and of ,chuparipari4 ,these we shall distinguish by the names of ,cordillera of the island of ,margareta1 and ,cordillera of ,araya4 ,the third chain1 the most southerly of the whole1 the ,cordillera of the ,brigantine and of the ,cocollar1 contains rocks only of secondary formation2 and1 what is remarkable enough1 though analogous to the geological constitution of the ,alps westward of ,st4 ,gothard1 the primitive chain is much less elevated than that which was composed of secondary rocks499 799 ,in ,new ,andalusia1 the ,cordillera of the ,cocollar nowhere contains primitive rocks4 ,if these rocks form the nucleus of this chain1 and rise above the level of the neighbouring plains1 which is scarcely probable1 we must suppose that they are all covered with limestone and sandstone4 ,in the ,swiss ,alps1 on the contrary1 the chain which is designated under the too vague denomination of lateral and calcareous1 contains primitive rocks1 which1 according to the observations of ,escher and ,leopold von ,buch1 are often visible to the height of eight hundred or a thousand toises47 ,the sea has separated the two northern ,cordilleras1 those of the island of ,margareta and the peninsula of ,araya2 and the small islands of ,coche and of ,cubagua are remnants of the land that was submerged4 ,farther to the south1 the vast gulf ,cariaco stretches away1 like a longitudinal valley formed by the irruption of the sea1 between the two small chains of ,araya and the ,cocollar1 between the mica-slate and the ,alpine limestone4 ,we shall soon see that the direction of the strata1 very regular in the first of these rocks1 is not quite parallel with the general direction of the gulf4 ,in the high ,alps of ,europe1 the great longitudinal valley of the ,rhone also sometimes cuts at an oblique angle the calcareous banks in which it has been excavated4 ,the two parallel chains of ,araya and the ,cocollar were connected1 to the east of the town of ,cariaco1 between the lakes of ,campoma and ,putaquao1 by a kind of transverse dyke1 which bears the name of ,cerro de ,meapire1 and which in distant times1 by resisting the impulse of the waves1 has hindered the waters of the gulf of ,cariaco from uniting with those of the gulf of ,paria4 ,thus1 in ,switzerland1 the central chain1 that which passes by the ,col de ,ferrex1 the ,simplon1 ,st4 ,gothard1 and the ,splugen1 is connected on the north and the south with two lateral chains1 by the mountains of ,furca and ,maloya4 ,it is interesting to recall to mind those striking analogies exhibited in both continents by the external structure of the globe4 ,the primitive chain of ,araya ends abruptly in the meridian of the village of ,maniquarez2 and the western slope of the peninsula1 as well as the plains in the midst of which stands the castle of ,san ,antonio1 is covered with very recent formations of sandstone and clay mixed with gypsum4 ,near ,maniquarez1 breccia or sandstone with calcareous cement1 which might easily be confounded with real limestone1 lies immediately over the mica-slate2 while on the opposite side1 near ,punta ,delgada1 this sandstone covers a compact bluish grey limestone1 almost destitute of petrifactions1 and traversed by small veins of calcareous spar4 ,this last rock is analogous to the limestone of the high ,alps499 799 ,alpenkalkstein47 ,the very recent sandstone formation of the peninsula of ,araya contains3--first1 near ,punta ,arenas1 a stratified sandstone1 composed of very fine grains1 united by a calcareous cement in small quantity2--secondly1 at the ,cerro de la ,vela1 a schistose sandstone199 799 ,sandsteinschiefer47 without mica1 and passing into slate-clay199 799 ,thonschiefer47 which accompanies coal2--thirdly1 on the western side1 between ,punta ,gorda and the ruins of the castle of ,santiago1 breccia composed of petrified sea-shells united by a calcareous cement1 in which are mingled grains of quartz2--fourthly1 near the point of ,barigon1 whence the stone employed for building at ,cumana is obtained1 banks of yellowish white shelly limestone1 in which are found some scattered grains of quartz2--fifthly1 at ,penas ,negras1 at the top of the ,cerro de la ,vela1 a bluish grey compact limestone1 very tender1 almost without petrifactions1 and covering the schistose sandstone4 ,however extraordinary this mixture of sandstone and compact limestone99 799 ,dichter kalkstein47 may appear1 we cannot doubt that these strata belong to one and the same formation4 ,the very recent secondary rocks everywhere present analogous phenomena2 the molasse of the ,pays de ,vaud contains a fetid shelly limestone1 and the cerite limestone of the banks of the ,seine is sometimes mixed with sandstone4 ,the strata of calcareous breccia are composed of an infinite number of sea-shells1 from four to six inches in diameter1 and in part well preserved4 ,we find they contain not ammonites1 but ampullaires1 solens1 and terebratulae4 ,the greater part of these shells are mixed3 the oysters and pectinites being sometimes arranged in families4 ,the whole are easily detached1 and their interior is filled with fossil madrepores and cellepores4 ,we have now to speak of a fourth formation1 which probably rests99 on the calcareous sandstone of ,araya1 ,i mean the muriatiferous clay4 799 ,it were to be wished that mineralogical travellers would examine more particularly the ,cerro de la ,vela4 ,the limestone of the ,penas ,negras rests on a slate-clay1 mixed with quartzose sand2 but there is no proof of the muriatiferous clay of the salt-works being of more ancient formation than this slate-clay1 or of its alternating with banks of sandstone4 ,no well having been dug in these countries1 we can have no information respecting the superposition of the strata4 ,the banks of calcareous sandstone1 which are found at the mouth of the salt lake1 and near the fishermen's huts on the coast opposite ,cape ,macano1 appeared to me to lie beneath the muriatiferous clay47 ,this clay1 hardened1 impregnated with petroleum1 and mixed with lamellar and lenticular gypsum1 is analogous to the salzthon1 which in ,europe accompanies the sal-gem of ,berchtesgaden1 and in ,south ,america that of ,zipaquira4 ,it is generally of a smoke-grey colour1 earthy1 and friable2 but it encloses more solid masses of a blackish brown1 of a schistose1 and sometimes conchoidal fracture4 ,these fragments1 from six to eight inches long1 have an angular form4 ,when they are very small1 they give the clay a porphyroidal appearance4 ,we find disseminated in it1 as we have already observed1 either in nests or in small veins1 selenite1 and sometimes1 though seldom1 fibrous gypsum4 ,it is remarkable enough1 that this stratum of clay1 as well as the banks of pure sal-gem and the salzthon in ,europe1 scarcely ever contains shells1 while the rocks adjacent exhibit them in great abundance4 ,although the muriate of soda is not found visible to the eye in the clay of ,araya1 we cannot doubt of its existence4 ,it shows itself in large crystals1 if we sprinkle the mass with rain-water and expose it to the sun4 ,the lagoon to the east of the castle of ,santiago exhibits all the phenomena which have been observed in the salt lakes of ,siberia1 described by ,lepechin1 ,gmelin1 and ,pallas4 ,this lagoon receives1 however1 only the rain-waters1 which filter through the banks of clay1 and unite at the lowest point of the peninsula4 ,while the lagoon served as a salt-work to the ,spaniards and the ,dutch1 it did not communicate with the sea2 at present this communication has been interrupted anew1 by faggots placed at the place where the waters of the ocean made an irruption in #agbf4 ,after great droughts1 crystallized and very pure muriate of soda1 in masses of three or four cubic feet1 is still drawn from time to time from the bottom of the lagoon4 ,the salt waters of the lake1 exposed to the heat of the sun1 evaporate at their surface2 crusts of salt1 formed in a saturated solution1 fall to the bottom2 and by the attraction between crystals of a similar nature and form1 the crystallized masses daily augment4 ,it is generally observed that the water is brackish wherever lagoons are formed in clayey ground4 ,it is true1 that for the new salt-work near the battery of ,araya1 the seawater is received into pits1 as in the salt marshes of the south of ,france2 but in the island of ,margareta1 near ,pampatar1 salt is manufactured by employing only fresh water1 with which the muriatiferous clay has first been lixiviated4 ,we must not confound the salt disseminated in these clayey soils with that contained in the sands of the seashore1 on the coasts of ,normandy4 ,these phenomena1 considered in a geognostical point of view1 have scarcely any properties in common4 ,i have seen muriatiferous clay at the level of the ocean at ,punta ,araya1 and at two thousand toises' height in the ,cordilleras of ,new ,grenada4 ,if in the former of these places it lies on very recent shelly breccia1 it forms1 on the contrary1 in ,austria near ,ischel1 a considerable stratum in the ,alpine limestone1 which1 though equally posterior to the existence of organic life on the globe1 is nevertheless of high antiquity1 as is proved by the great number of rocks with which it is covered4 ,we shall not question1 that sal-gem1 either pure or mixed with muriatiferous clay1 may have been deposited by an ancient sea2 but everything evinces that it was formed during an order of things bearing no resemblance to that in which the sea at present1 by a slower operation1 deposits a few particles of muriate of soda on the sands of our shores4 ,in the same manner as sulphur and coal belong to periods of formation very remote from each other1 the sal-gem is also found sometimes in transition gypsum199 799 ,uebergangsgyps1 in the transition slate of ,white ,alley 7l',allee ,blanche71 and between the grauwacke and black transition limestone near ,bex1 below the ,dent de ,chamossaire1 according to ,m4 von ,buch47 sometimes in the ,alpine limestone199 799 ,at ,halle in the ,tyrol47 sometimes in a muriatiferous clay lying on a very recent sandstone199 799 ,at ,punta ,araya47 and lastly1 sometimes in a gypsum99 posterior to the chalk4 799 ,gypsum of the third formation among the secondary gypsums4 ,the first formation contains the gypsum in which are found the brine-springs of ,thuringia1 and which is placed either in the ,alpine limestone or zechstein1 to which it essentially belongs 7,freiesleben ,geognost4 ,arbeiten tome #b page #aca71 or between the zechstein and the limestone of the ,jura1 or between the zechstein and the new sandstone4 ,it is the ancient gypsum of secondary formation of ,werner's school 7alterer flozgyps71 which we almost preferably call muriatiferous gypsum4 ,the second formation is composed of fibrous gypsum1 placed either in the molasse or new sandstone1 or between this and the upper limestone4 ,it abounds in common clay1 which differs essentially from the salzthon or muriatiferous clay4 ,the third formation of gypsum is more recent than chalk4 ,to this belongs the bony gypsum of ,paris2 and1 as appears from the researches of ,mr4 ,steffens 7,geogn4 ,aufsatsze #ahaj page #adb71 the gypsum of ,segeberg1 in ,holstein1 in which sal-gem is sometimes disseminated in very small nests 7,jenaische ,litteratur-,zeitung #ahac page #ajj74 ,the gypsum of ,paris1 lying between a cerite limestone1 which covers chalk and a sandstone without shells1 is distinguished by fossil bones of quadrupeds1 while the ,segeberg and ,lunebourg gypsums1 the position of which is more uncertain1 are characterized by the boracits which they contain4 ,two other formations1 far anterior to the three we have just mentioned1 are the transition gypsum 7ubergangsgyps7 of ,aigle1 and the primitive gypsum 7urgyps7 of the valley of ,canaria1 near ,airolo4 ,i flatter myself that ,i may render some service to those geologists who prefer the knowledge of positive facts to speculation on the origin of things1 by furnishing them with materials from which they may generalize their ideas on the formation of rocks in both hemispheres4 ,the relative antiquity of the formations is the principal object of a science which is to render us acquainted with the structure of the globe2 that is to say1 the nature of the strata which constitute the crust of our planet47 ,the new salt-works of ,araya have five reservoirs1 or pits1 the largest of which have two thousand three hundred square toises surface4 ,their mean depth is eight inches4 ,use is made both of the rain-water1 which by filtration collects at the lowest part of the plain1 and of the water of the sea1 which enters by canals1 or martellieres1 when the flood-tide is favoured by the winds4 ,the situation of these new salt-works is less advantageous than that of the lagoon4 ,the waters which fall into the latter pass over steeper slopes1 washing a greater extent of ground4 ,the earth already lixiviated is never carried away here1 as it is from time to time in the island of ,margareta2 nor have wells been dug in the muriatiferous clay1 with the view of finding strata richer in muriate of soda4 ,the salineros1 or salt-workers generally complain of want of rain2 and in the new salt-works1 it appears to me difficult to determine what quantity of salt is derived solely from the waters of the sea4 ,the natives estimate it at a sixth of the total produce4 ,the evaporation is extremely strong1 and favoured by the constant motion of the air2 so that the salt is collected in eighteen or twenty days after the pits are filled4 ,though the muriate of soda is manufactured with less care in the peninsula of ,araya than at the salt-works of ,europe1 it is nevertheless purer1 and contains less of earthy muriates and sulphates4 ,we know not whether this purity may be attributed to that portion of the salt which is furnished by the sea2 for though it is extremely probable1 that the quantity of salt dissolved in the waters of the ocean is nearly the same under every zone1 it is not less uncertain whether the proportion between the muriate of soda1 the muriate and sulphate of magnesia1 and the sulphate and carbonate of lime1 be equally invariable4 ,having examined the salt-works1 and terminated our geodesical operations1 we departed at the decline of day to sleep at an ,indian hut1 some miles distant1 near the ruins of the castle of ,araya4 ,directing our course southward1 we traversed first the plain covered with muriatiferous clay1 and stripped of vegetation2 then two chains of hills of sandstone1 between which the lagoon is situated4 ,night overtook us while we were in a narrow path1 bordered on one side by the sea1 and on the other by a range of perpendicular rocks4 ,the tide was rising rapidly1 and narrowed the road at every step4 ,we at length arrived at the foot of the old castle of ,araya1 where we enjoyed a prospect that had in it something lugubrious and romantic4 ,the ruins stand on a bare and arid mountain1 crowned with agave1 columnar cactus1 and thorny mimosas3 they bear less resemblance to the works of man1 than to those masses of rock which were ruptured at the early revolutions of the globe4 ,we were desirous of stopping to admire this majestic spectacle1 and to observe the setting of ,venus1 whose disk appeared at intervals between the yawning crannies of the castle2 but the muleteer1 who served as our guide1 was parched with thirst1 and pressed us earnestly to return4 ,he had long perceived that we had lost our way2 and as he hoped to work on our fears he continually warned us of the danger of tigers and rattlesnakes4 ,venomous reptiles are1 indeed1 very common near the castle of ,araya2 and two jaguars had been lately killed at the entrance of the village of ,maniquarez4 ,if we might judge from their skins1 which were preserved1 their size was not less than that of the ,indian tiger4 ,we vainly represented to our guide that those animals did not attack men where the goats furnished them with abundant prey2 we were obliged to yield1 and return4 ,after having proceeded three quarters of an hour along a shore covered by the tide we were joined by the negro1 who carried our provision4 ,uneasy at not seeing us arrive1 he had come to meet us1 and he led us through a wood of nopals to a hut inhabited by an ,indian family4 ,we were received with the cordial hospitality observed in this country among people of every tribe4 ,the hut in which we slung our hammocks was very clean2 and there we found fish1 plantains1 and what in the torrid zone is preferable to the most sumptuous food1 excellent water4 ,the next day at sunrise we found that the hut in which we had passed the night formed part of a group of small dwellings on the borders of the salt lake1 the remains of a considerable village which had formerly stood near the castle4 ,the ruins of a church were seen partly buried in the sand1 and covered with brushwood4 ,when1 in #agfb1 to save the expense of the garrison1 the castle of ,araya was totally dismantled1 the ,indians and ,mulattoes who were settled in the neighbourhood emigrated by degrees to ,maniquarez1 to ,cariaco1 and in the suburb of the ,guayquerias at ,cumana4 ,a small number1 bound from affection to their native soil1 remained in this wild and barren spot4 ,these poor people live by catching fish1 which are extremely abundant on the coast and the neighbouring shoals4 ,they appear satisfied with their condition1 and think it strange when they are asked why they have no gardens or culinary vegetables4 ,our gardens1 they reply1 are beyond the gulf2 when we carry our fish to ,cumana1 we bring back plantains1 cocoa-nuts1 and cassava4 ,this system of economy1 which favours idleness1 is followed at ,maniquarez1 and throughout the whole peninsula of ,araya4 ,the chief wealth of the inhabitants consists in goats1 which are of a very large and very fine breed1 and rove in the fields like those at the ,peak of ,teneriffe4 ,they have become entirely wild1 and are marked like the mules1 because it would be difficult to recognize them from their colour or the arrangement of their spots4 ,these wild goats are of a brownish yellow1 and are not varied in colour like domestic animals4 ,if in hunting1 a colonist kills a goat which he does not consider as his own property1 he carries it immediately to the neighbour to whom it belongs4 ,during two days we heard it everywhere spoken of as a very extraordinary circumstance1 that an inhabitant of ,maniquarez had lost a goat1 on which it was probable that a neighbouring family had regaled themselves4 ,among the ,mulattoes1 whose huts surround the salt lake1 we found it shoemaker of ,castilian descent4 ,he received us with the air of gravity and self-sufficiency which in those countries characterize almost all persons who are conscious of possessing some peculiar talent4 ,he was employed in stretching the string of his bow1 and sharpening his arrows to shoot birds4 ,his trade of a shoemaker could not be very lucrative in a country where the greater part of the inhabitants go barefooted2 and he only complained that1 on account of the dearness of ,european gunpowder1 a man of his quality was reduced to employ the same weapons as the ,indians4 ,he was the sage of the plain2 he understood the formation of the salt by the influence of the sun and full moon1 the symptoms of earthquakes1 the marks by which mines of gold and silver are discovered1 and the medicinal plants1 which1 like all the other colonists from ,chile to ,california1 he classified into hot and cold499 799 ,exciting or debilitating1 the sthenic and asthenic1 of ,brown's system47 ,having collected the traditions of the country1 he gave us some curious accounts of the pearls of ,cubagua1 objects of luxury1 which he treated with the utmost contempt4 ,to show us how familiar to him were the sacred writings he took a pride in reminding us that ,job preferred wisdom to all the pearls of the ,indies4 ,his philosophy was circumscribed to the narrow circle of the wants of life4 ,the possession of a very strong ass1 able to carry a heavy load of plantains to the embarcadero1 was the consummation of all his wishes4 ,after a long discourse on the emptiness of human greatness1 he drew from a leathern pouch a few very small opaque pearls1 which he forced us to accept1 enjoining us at the same time to note on our tablets that a poor shoemaker of ,araya1 but a white man1 and of noble ,castilian race1 had been enabled to give us something which1 on the other side of the sea199 was sought for as very precious4 799 ',por alla1' or1 'del otro lado del charco1' 7properly 'beyond1' or 'on the other side of the great lake'71 a figurative expression1 by which the people in the ,spanish colonies denote ,europe47 ,i here acquit myself of the promise ,i made to this worthy man1 who disinterestedly refused to accept of the slightest retribution4 ,the ,pearl ,coast presents the same aspect of misery as the countries of gold and diamonds1 ,choco and ,brazil2 but misery is not there attended with that immoderate desire of gain which is excited by mineral wealth4 ,the pearl-breeding oyster 7,avicula margaritifera1 ,cuvier7 abounds on the shoals which extend from ,cape ,paria to ,cape la ,vela4 ,the islands of ,margareta1 ,cubagua1 ,coche1 ,punta ,araya1 and the mouth of the ,rio la ,hacha1 were1 in the sixteenth century1 as celebrated as were the ,persian ,gulf and the island of ,taprobana among the ancients4 ,it is incorrectly alleged by some historians that the natives of ,america were unacquainted with the luxury of pearls4 ,the first ,spaniards who landed in ,terra ,firma found the savages decked with pearl necklaces and bracelets2 and among the civilized people of ,mexico and ,peru1 pearls of a beautiful form were extremely sought after4 ,i have published a dissertation on the statue of a ,mexican priestess in basalt1 whose head-dress1 resembling the calantica of the heads of ,isis1 is ornamented with pearls4 ,las ,casas and ,benzoni have described1 but not without some exaggeration1 the cruelties which were exercised on the unhappy ,indian slaves and negroes employed in the pearl fishery4 ,at the beginning of the conquest the island of ,coche alone furnished pearls amounting in value to fifteen hundred marks per month4 ,the quint which the king's officers drew from the produce of pearls1 amounted to fifteen thousand ducats2 which1 according to the value of the precious metals in those times1 and the extensiveness of contraband trade1 may be regarded as a very considerable sum4 ,it appears that till #aecj the value of the pearls sent to ,europe amounted yearly on an average to more than eight hundred thousand piastres4 ,in order to judge of the importance of this branch of commerce to ,seville1 ,toledo1 ,antwerp1 and ,genoa1 we should recollect that at the same period the whole of the mines of ,america did not furnish two millions of piastres2 and that the fleet of ,ovando was thought to contain immense wealth1 because it had on board nearly two thousand six hundred marks of silver4 ,pearls were the more sought after1 as the luxury of ,asia had been introduced into ,europe by two ways diametrically opposite3 that of ,constantinople1 where the ,palaeologi wore garments covered with strings of pearls2 and that of ,grenada1 the residence of the ,moorish kings1 who displayed at their court all the luxury of the ,east4 ,the pearls of the ,east were preferred to those of the ,west2 but the number of the latter which circulated in commerce was nevertheless considerable at the period immediately following the discovery of ,america4 ,in ,italy as well as in ,spain1 the islet of ,cubagua became the object of numerous mercantile speculations4 ,benzoni99 relates the adventure of one ,luigi ,lampagnano1 to whom ,charles the ,fifth granted the privilege of proceeding with five caravels to the coasts of ,cumana to fish for pearls4 799 ,la ,hist4 del ,mondo ,nuovo page #cd4 ,luigi ,lampagnano1 a relation of the assassin of the ,duke of ,milan1 ,galeazzo ,maria ,sforza1 could not pay the merchants of ,seville who had advanced the money for his voyage2 he remained five years at ,cubagua1 and died in a fit of insanity47 ,the colonists sent him back with this bold message3 ,that the emperor was too liberal of what was not his own1 and that he had no right to dispose of the oysters which live at the bottom of the sea4 ,the pearl fishery diminished rapidly about the end of the sixteenth century2 and1 according to ,laet1 it had long ceased in #afcc499 799 ,insularum ,cubaguae et ,coches quondam magna fuit dignitas1 quum ,unionum captura floreret3 nunc1 illa deficiente1 obscura admodum fama4 ,laet ,nova ,orbis page #ffi4 ,this accurate compiler1 speaking of ,punta ,araya1 adds1 this country is so forgotten1 ut vix ulla ,americae meridionalis pars hodie obscurior sit47 ,the industry of the ,venetians1 who imitated fine pearls with great exactness1 and the frequent use of cut diamonds199 rendered the fisheries of ,cubagua less lucrative4 799 ,the cutting of diamonds was invented by ,lewis de ,berquen1 in #adef1 but the art became common only in the following century47 ,at the same time1 the oysters which yielded the pearls became scarcer1 not1 because1 according to a popular tradition1 they were frightened by the sound of the oars1 and removed elsewhere2 but because their propagation had been impeded by the imprudent destruction of the shells by thousands4 ,the pearl-bearing oyster is of a more delicate nature than most of the other acephalous mollusca4 ,at the island of ,ceylon1 where1 in the bay of ,condeatchy1 the fishery employs six hundred divers1 and where the annual produce is more than half a million of piastres1 it has vainly been attempted to transplant the oysters to other parts of the coast4 ,the government permits fishing there only during a single month2 while at ,cubagua the bank of shells was fished at all seasons4 ,to form an idea of the destruction of the species caused by the divers1 we must remember that a boat sometimes collects1 in two or three weeks1 more than thirty-five thousand oysters4 ,the animal lives but nine or ten years2 and it is only in its fourth year that the pearls begin to show themselves4 ,in ten thousand shells there is often not a single pearl of value4 ,tradition records that on the bank of ,margareta the fishermen opened the shells one by one3 in the island of ,ceylon the animals are thrown into heaps to rot in the air2 and to separate the pearls which are not attached to the shell1 the animal pulp is washed1 as miners wash the sand which contains grains of gold1 tin1 or diamonds4 ,at present ,spanish ,america furnishes no other pearls for trade than those of the gulf of ,panama1 and the mouth of the ,rio de la ,hacha4 ,on the shoals which surround ,cubagua1 ,coche1 and the island of ,margareta1 the fishery is as much neglected as on the coasts of ,california499 799 ,i am astonished at never having heard1 in the course of my travels1 of pearls found in the fresh-water shells of ,south ,america1 though several species of the ,unio genus abound in the rivers of ,peru47 ,it is believed at ,cumana1 that the pearl-oyster has greatly multiplied after two centuries of repose2 and in #ahab1 some new attempts were made at ,margareta for the fishing of pearls4 ,it has been asked1 why the pearls found at present in shells which become entangled in the fishermen's nets are so small1 and have so little brilliancy199 whilst1 on the ,spaniards' arrival1 they were extremely beautiful1 though the ,indians doubtless had not taken the trouble of diving to collect them4 799 ,the inhabitants of ,araya sometimes sell these small pearls to the retail dealers of ,cumana4 ,the ordinary price is one piastre per dozen47 ,the problem is so much the more difficult to solve1 as we know not whether earthquakes may have altered the nature of the bottom of the sea1 or whether the changes of the submarine currents may have had an influence either on the temperature of the water1 or on the abundance of certain mollusca on which the ,aronde feeds4 ,on the morning of the #bjth our host's son1 a young and very robust ,indian1 conducted us by the way of ,barigon and ,caney to the village of ,maniquarez1 which was four hours' walk4 ,from the effect of the reverberation of the sands1 the thermometer kept up to #ca4c degrees4 ,the cylindric cactus1 which bordered the road1 gave the landscape an appearance of verdure1 without affording either coolness or shade4 ,before our guide had walked a league1 he began to sit down every moment1 and at length he wished to repose under the shade of a fine tamarind tree near ,casas de la ,vela1 to await the approach of night4 ,this characteristic trait1 which we observed every time we travelled with ,indians1 has given rise to very erroneous ideas of the physical constitutions of the different races of men4 ,the copper-coloured native1 more accustomed to the burning heat of the climate1 than the ,european traveller1 complains more1 because he is stimulated by no interest4 ,money is without attraction for him2 and if he permits himself to be tempted by gain for a moment1 he repents of his resolution as soon as he is on the road4 ,the same ,indian1 who would complain1 when in herborizing we loaded him with a box filled with plants1 would row his canoe fourteen or fifteen hours together1 against the strongest current1 because he wished to return to his family4 ,in order to form a true judgment of the muscular strength of the people1 we should observe them in circumstances where their actions are determined by a necessity and a will equally energetic4 ,we examined the ruins of ,santiago199 the structure of which is remarkable for its extreme solidity4 799 ,on the map accompanying ,robertson's ,history of ,america1 we find the name of this castle confounded with that of ,nueva ,cordoba4 ,this latter denomination was formerly synonymous with ,cumana4--,herrera1 page #ad47 ,the walls of freestone1 five feet thick1 have been blown up by mines2 but we still found masses of seven or eight hundred feet square1 which have scarcely a crack in them4 ,our guide showed us a cistern 7aljibe7 thirty feet deep1 which1 though much damaged1 furnishes water to the inhabitants of the peninsula of ,araya4 ,this cistern was finished in #afha1 by the governor ,don ,juan de ,padilla ,guardiola1 the same who built at ,cumana the small fort of ,santa ,maria4 ,as the basin is covered with an arched vault1 the water1 which is of excellent quality1 keeps very cool3 the confervae1 while they decompose the carburetted hydrogen1 also shelter worms which hinder the propagation of small insects4 ,it had been believed for ages1 that the peninsula of ,araya was entirely destitute of springs of fresh water2 but in #agig1 after many useless researches1 the inhabitants of ,maniquarez succeeded in discovering some4 ,in crossing the arid hills of ,cape ,cirial1 we perceived a strong smell of petroleum4 ,the wind blew from the direction in which the springs of this substance are found1 and which were mentioned by the first historians of these countries499 799 ,oviedo terms it ,a resinous1 aromatic1 and medicinal liquor47 ,near the village of ,maniquarez1 the mica-slate99 799 ,the ,piedra pelada of the ,creoles47 comes out from below the secondary rock1 forming a chain of mountains from one hundred and fifty to one hundred and eighty toises in height4 ,the direction of the primitive rock near ,cape ,sotto is from north-east to south-west2 its strata incline fifty degrees to the north-west4 ,the mica-slate is silvery white1 of lamellar and undulated texture1 and contains garnets4 ,strata of quartz1 the thickness of which varies from three to four toises1 traverse the mica-slate1 as we may observe in several ravines hollowed out by the waters4 ,we detached with difficulty a fragment of cyanite from a block of splintered and milky quartz1 which was isolated on the shore4 ,this was the only time we found this substance in ,south ,america499 799 ,in ,new ,spain1 the cyanite has been discovered only in the province of ,guatimala1 at ,estancia ,grande1--,del ,rio ,tablas ,min4 #ahjd page #bg47 ,the potteries of ,maniquarez1 celebrated from time immemorial1 form a branch of industry which is exclusively in the hands of the ,indian women4 ,the manufacture is still carried on according to the method used before the conquest4 ,it indicates both the infancy of the art1 and that unchangeability of manners which is characteristic of all the natives of ,america4 ,three centuries have been insufficient to introduce the potter's-wheel1 on a coast which is not above thirty or forty days' sail from ,spain4 ,the natives have some confused notions with respect to the existence of this machine1 and they would no doubt make use of it if it were introduced among them4 ,the quarries whence they obtain the clay are half a league to the east of ,maniquarez4 ,this clay is produced by natural decomposition of a mica-slate reddened by oxide of iron4 ,the ,indian women prefer the part most abounding in mica2 and with great skill fashion vessels two or three feet in diameter1 giving them a very regular curve4 ,as they are not acquainted with the use of ovens1 they place twigs of desmanthus1 cassia1 and the arborescent capparis1 around the pots1 and bake them in the open air4 ,to the east of the quarry which furnishes the clay is the ravine of ,la ,mina4 ,it is asserted that1 a short time after the conquest1 some ,venetians extracted gold from the mica-slate4 ,it appears that this metal was not collected in veins of quartz1 but was found disseminated in the rock1 as it is sometimes in granite and gneiss4 ,at ,maniquarez we met with some creoles1 who had been hunting at ,cubagua4 ,deer of a small breed are so common in this uninhabited islet1 that a single individual may kill three or four in a day4 ,i know not by what accident these animals have got thither1 for ,laet and other chroniclers of these countries1 speaking of the foundation of ,new ,cadiz1 mention only the great abundance of rabbits4 ,the venado of ,cubagua belongs to one of those numerous species of small ,american deer1 which zoologists have long confounded under the vague name of ,cervus mexicanus4 ,it does not appear to be the same as the hind of the savannahs of ,cayenne1 or the guazuti of ,paraguay1 which live also in herds4 ,its colour is a brownish red on the back1 and white under the belly2 and it is spotted like the axis4 ,in the plains of ,cari we were shown1 as a thing very rare in these hot climates1 a variety quite white4 ,it was a female of the size of the roebuck of ,europe1 and of a very elegant shape4 ,white varieties are found in the ,new ,continent even among the tigers4 ,azara saw a jaguar1 the skin of which was wholly white1 with merely the shadow1 as it might be termed1 of a few circular spots4 ,of all the productions on the coasts of ,araya1 that which the people consider as the most extraordinary1 or we may say the most marvellous1 is 'the stone of the eyes1' 7piedra de los ojos47 ,this calcareous substance is a frequent subject of conversation3 being1 according to the natural philosophy of the natives1 both a stone and an animal4 ,it is found in the sand1 where it is motionless2 but if placed on a polished surface1 for instance on a pewter or earthen plate1 it moves when excited by lemon juice4 ,if placed in the eye1 the supposed animal turns on itself1 and expels every other foreign substance that has been accidentally introduced4 ,at the new salt-works1 and at the village of ,maniquarez1 these stones of the eyes99 were offered to us by hundreds1 and the natives were anxious to show us the experiment of the lemon juice4 799 ,they are found in the greatest abundance near the battery at the point of ,cape ,araya47 ,they even wished to put sand into our eyes1 in order that we might ourselves try the efficacy of the remedy4 ,it was easy to see that the stones are thin and porous opercula1 which have formed part of small univalve shells4 ,their diameter varies from one to four lines4 ,one of their two surfaces is plane1 and the other convex4 ,these calcareous opercula effervesce with lemon juice1 and put themselves in motion in proportion as the carbonic acid is disengaged4 ,by the effect of a similar reaction1 loaves placed in an oven move sometimes on a horizontal plane2 a phenomenon that has given occasion1 in ,europe1 to the popular prejudice of enchanted ovens4 ,the piedras de los ojos1 introduced into the eye1 act like the small pearls1 and different round grains employed by the ,american savages to increase the flowing of tears4 ,these explanations were little to the taste of the inhabitants of ,araya4 ,nature has the appearance of greatness to man in proportion as she is veiled in mystery2 and the ignorant are prone to put faith in everything that borders on the marvellous4 ,proceeding along the southern coast1 to the east of ,maniquarez1 we find running out into the sea very near each other1 three strips of land1 bearing the names of ,punta de ,soto1 ,punta de la ,brea1 and ,punta ,guaratarito4 ,in these parts the bottom of the sea is evidently formed of mica-slate1 and from it near ,cape de la ,brea1 but at eighty feet distant from the shore1 there issues a spring of naphtha1 the smell of which penetrates into the interior of the peninsula4 ,it is necessary to wade into the sea up to the waist1 to examine this interesting phenomenon4 ,the waters are covered with zostera2 and in the midst of a very extensive bank of weeds1 we distinguish a free and circular spot of three feet in diameter1 on which float a few scattered masses of ,ulva lactuca4 ,here the springs are found4 ,the bottom of the gulf is covered with sand2 and the petroleum1 which1 from its transparency and its yellow colour1 resembles naphtha1 rises in jets1 accompanied by air bubbles4 ,on treading down the bottom with the foot1 we perceive that these little springs change their place4 ,the naphtha covers the surface of the sea to more than a thousand feet distant4 ,if we suppose the dip of the strata to be regular1 the mica-slate must be but a few toises below the sand4 ,we have already observed1 that the muriatiferous clay of ,araya contains solid and friable petroleum4 ,this geological connection between the muriate of soda and the bitumens is evident wherever there are mines of sal-gem or salt springs3 but a very remarkable fact is the existence of a fountain of naphtha in a primitive formation4 ,all those hitherto known belong to secondary mountains299 799 ,as at ,pietra ,mala2 ,fanano2 ,mont ,zibio2 and ,amiano 7in these places are found the springs that furnish the naphtha burned in lamps in ,genoa7 and also at ,baikal47 a circumstance which has been supposed to favour the idea that all mineral bitumens are owing to the destruction of vegetables and animals1 or to the burning of coal4 ,in the peninsula of ,araya1 the naphtha flows from the primitive rock itself2 and this phenomenon acquires new importance1 when we recollect that the same primitive rocks contain the subterranean fires1 that on the brink of burning craters the smell of petroleum is perceived from time to time1 and that the greater part of the hot springs of ,america rise from gneiss and micaceous schist4 ,after having examined the environs of ,maniquarez1 we embarked at night in a fishing-boat for ,cumana4 ,the small crazy boats employed by the natives here1 bear testimony to the extreme calmness of the sea in these regions4 ,our boat1 though the best we could procure1 was so leaky1 that the pilot's son was constantly employed in baling out the water with a tutuma1 or shell of the ,crescentia cujete 7calabash74 ,it often happens in the gulf of ,cariaco1 and especially to the north of the peninsula of ,araya1 that canoes laden with cocoa-nuts are upset in sailing too near the wind1 and against the tide4 ,the inhabitants of ,araya1 whom we visited a second time on returning from the ,orinoco1 have not forgotten that their peninsula was one of the points first peopled by the ,spaniards4 ,they love to talk of the pearl fishery2 of the ruins of the castle of ,santiago1 which they hope to see some day rebuilt2 and of everything that recalls to mind the ancient splendour of those countries4 ,in ,china and ,japan those inventions are considered as recent1 which have not been known above two thousand years2 in the ,european colonies an event appears extremely old1 if it dates back three centuries1 or about the period of the discovery of ,america4 ,,chapter #a4f4 ,,mountains ,,of ,,new ,,andalucia4 ,,valley ,,of ,,the ,,cumanacoa4 ,,summit ,,of ,,the ,,cocollar4 ,,missions ,,of ,,the ,,chayma ,,indians4 ,our first visit to the peninsula of ,araya was soon succeeded by an excursion to the mountains of the missions of the ,chayma ,indians1 where a variety of interesting objects claimed our attention4 ,we entered on a country studded with forests1 and visited a convent surrounded by palm-trees and arborescent ferns4 ,it was situated in a narrow valley1 where we felt the enjoyment of a cool and delicious climate1 in the centre of the torrid zone4 ,the surrounding mountains contain caverns haunted by thousands of nocturnal birds2 and1 what affects the imagination more than all the wonders of the physical world1 we find beyond these mountains a people lately nomad1 and still nearly in a state of nature1 wild without being barbarous4 ,it was in the promontory of ,paria that ,columbus first descried the continent2 there terminate these valleys1 laid waste alternately by the warlike anthropophagic ,carib and by the commercial and polished nations of ,europe4 ,at the beginning of the sixteenth century the ill-fated ,indians of the coasts of ,carupano1 of ,macarapan1 and of ,caracas1 were treated in the same manner as the inhabitants of the coast of ,guinea in our days4 ,the soil of the islands was cultivated1 the vegetable produce of the ,old ,world was transplanted thither1 but a regular system of colonization remained long unknown on the ,new ,continent4 ,if the ,spaniards visited its shores1 it was only to procure1 either by violence or exchange1 slaves1 pearls1 grains of gold1 and dye-woods2 and endeavours were made to ennoble the motives of this insatiable avarice by the pretence of enthusiastic zeal in the cause of religion4 ,the trade in the copper-coloured ,indians was accompanied by the same acts of inhumanity as that which characterizes the traffic in ,african negroes2 it was attended also by the same result1 that of rendering both the conquerors and the conquered more ferocious4 ,thence wars became more frequent among the natives2 prisoners were dragged from the inland countries to the coast1 to be sold to the whites1 who ,loaded them with chains in their ships4 ,yet the ,spaniards were at that period1 and long after1 one of the most polished nations of ,europe4 ,the light which art and literature then shed over ,italy1 was reflected on every nation whose language emanated from the same source as that of ,dante and ,petrarch4 ,it might have been expected that a general improvement of manners would be the natural consequence of this noble awakening of the mind1 this sublime soaring of the imagination4 ,but in distant regions1 wherever the thirst of wealth has introduced the abuse of power1 the nations of ,europe1 at every period of their history1 have displayed the same character4 ,the illustrious era of ,leo ,x was signalized in the ,new ,world by acts of cruelty that seemed to belong to the most barbarous ages4 ,we are less surprised1 however1 at the horrible picture presented by the conquest of ,america when we think of the acts that are still perpetrated on the western coast of ,africa1 notwithstanding the benefits of a more humane legislation4 ,the principles adopted by ,charles ,v had abolished the slave trade on the ,new ,continent4 ,but the ,conquistadores1 by the continuation of their incursions1 prolonged the system of petty warfare which diminished the ,american population1 perpetuated national animosities1 and during a long period crushed the seeds of rising civilization4 ,at length the missionaries1 under the protection of the secular arm1 spoke words of peace4 ,it was the privilege of religion to console humanity for a part of the evils committed in its name2 to plead the cause of the natives before kings1 to resist the violence of the commendatories1 and to assemble wandering tribes into small communities called ,missions4 ,but these institutions1 useful at first in stopping the effusion of blood1 and in laying the first basis of society1 have become in their result hostile to its progress4 ,the effects of this insulated system have been such that the ,indians have remained in a state little different from that in which they existed whilst yet their scattered dwellings were not collected round the habitation of a missionary4 ,their number has considerably augmented1 but the sphere of their ideas is not enlarged4 ,they have progressively lost that vigour of character and that natural vivacity which in every state of society are the noble fruits of independence4 ,by subjecting to invariable rules even the slightest actions of their domestic life1 they have been rendered stupid by the effort to render them obedient4 ,their subsistence is in general more certain1 and their habits more pacific1 but subject to the constraint and the dull monotony of the government of the ,missions1 they show by their gloomy and reserved looks that they have not sacrificed their liberty to their repose without regret4 ,on the #dth of ,september1 at five in the morning1 we began our journey to the ,missions of the ,chayma ,indians and the group of lofty mountains which traverse ,new ,andalusia4 ,on account of the extreme difficulties of the road1 we had been advised to reduce our baggage to a very small bulk4 ,two beasts of burden were sufficient to carry our provision1 our instruments1 and the paper necessary to dry our plants4 ,one chest contained a sextant1 a dipping-needle1 an apparatus to determine the magnetic variation1 a few thermometers1 and ,saussure's hygrometer4 ,the greatest changes in the pressure of the air in these climates1 on the coasts1 amount only to #a to #a4c of a line2 and if at any given hour or place the height of the mercury be once marked1 the variations which that height experiences throughout the whole year1 at every hour of the day or night1 may with some accuracy be determined4 ,the morning was deliciously cool4 ,the road1 or rather path1 which leads to ,cumanacoa1 runs along the right bank of the ,manzanares1 passing by the hospital of the ,capuchins1 situated in a small wood of lignum-vitae and arborescent capparis499 799 ,these caper-trees are called in the country1 by the names pachaca1 olivo1 and ajito3 they are the ,capparis tenuisiliqua1 ,jacq41 ,c4 ferruginea1 ,c4 emarginata1 ,c4 elliptica1 ,c4 reticulata1 ,c4 racemosa47 ,on leaving ,cumana we enjoyed during the short duration of the twilight1 from the top of the hill of ,san ,francisco1 an extensive view over the sea1 the plain covered with bera99 and its golden flowers 799 ,palo sano1 ,zygophyllum arboreum1 ,jacq4 ,the flowers have the smell of vanilla4 ,it is cultivated in the gardens of the ,havannah under the strange name of the dictanno real 7royal dittany7471 and the mountains of the ,brigantine4 ,we were struck by the great proximity in which the ,cordillera appeared before the disk of the rising sun had reached the horizon4 ,the tint of the summits is of a deeper blue1 their outline is more strongly marked1 and their masses are more detached1 as long as the transparency of the air is undisturbed by the vapours1 which1 after accumulating during the night in the valleys1 rise in proportion as the atmosphere acquires warmth4 ,at the hospital of the ,divina ,pastora the path turns to north-east1 and stretches for two leagues over a soil without trees1 and formerly levelled by the waters4 ,we there found not only cactuses1 tufts of cistus-leaved tribulus1 and the beautiful purple euphorbia199 799 ,euphorbia tithymaloides47 but also the avicennia1 the allionia1 the sesuvium1 the thalinum1 and most of the portulaceous plants which grow on the banks of the gulf of ,cariaco4 ,this geographical distribution of plants appears to designate the limits of the ancient coast1 and to prove that the hills along the southern side of which we were passing1 formed heretofore a small island1 separated from the continent by an arm of the sea4 ,after walking two hours1 we arrived at the foot of the high chain of the interior mountains1 which stretches from east to west2 from the ,brigantine to the ,cerro de ,san ,lorenzo4 ,there1 new rocks appear1 and with them another aspect of vegetation4 ,every object assumes a more majestic and picturesque character2 the soil1 watered by springs1 is furrowed in every direction2 trees of gigantic height1 covered with lianas1 rise from the ravines2 their bark1 black and burnt by the double action of the light and the oxygen of the atmosphere1 contrasts with the fresh verdure of the pothos and dracontium1 the tough and shining leaves of which are sometimes several feet long4 ,the parasite monocotyledons take between the tropics the place of the moss and lichens of our northern zone4 ,as we advanced1 the forms and grouping of the rocks reminded us of ,switzerland and the ,tyrol4 ,the heliconia1 costus1 maranta1 and other plants of the family of the balisiers 7,canna indica71 which near the coasts vegetate only in damp and low places1 flourish in the ,american ,alps at considerable height4 ,thus1 by a singular similitude1 in the torrid zone1 under the influence of an atmosphere continually loaded with vapours the mountain vegetation presents the same features as the vegetation of the marshes in the north of ,europe on soil moistened by melting snow499 799 ,wahlenberg1 de ,vegetatione ,helvetiae et summi ,septentrionis pages #dg1 #ei47 ,before we leave the plains of ,cumana1 and the breccia1 or calcareous sandstone1 which constitutes the soil of the seaside1 we will describe the different strata of which this very recent formation is composed1 as we observed it on the back of the hills that surround the castle of ,san ,antonio4 ,this breccia1 or calcareous sandstone1 is a local and partial formation1 peculiar to the peninsula of ,araya1 the coasts of ,cumana1 and ,caracas4 ,we again found it at ,cabo ,blanco1 to the west of the port of ,guayra1 where it contains1 besides broken shells and madrepores1 fragments1 often angular1 of quartz and gneiss4 ,this circumstance assimilates the breccia to that recent sandstone called by the ,german mineralogists nagelfluhe1 which covers so great a part of ,switzerland to the height of a thousand toises1 without presenting any trace of marine productions4 ,near ,cumana the formation of the calcareous breccia contains3--first1 a compact whitish grey limestone1 the strata of which1 sometimes horizontal1 sometimes irregularly inclined1 are from five to six inches thick2 some beds are almost unmixed with petrifactions1 but in the greatest part the cardites1 the turbinites1 the ostracites1 and shells of small dimension1 are found so closely connected1 that the calcareous matter forms only a cement1 by which the grains of quartz and the organized bodies are united3 second1 a calcareous sandstone1 in which the grains of sand are much more frequent than the petrified shells2 other strata form a sandstone entirely free from organic fragments1 yielding but a small effervescence with acids1 and enclosing not lamellae of mica1 but nodules of compact brown iron-ore3 third1 beds of indurated clay containing selenite and lamellar gypsum4 ,the breccia1 or agglomerate of the sea-coast1 just described1 has a white tint1 and it lies immediately on the calcareous formation of ,cumanacoa1 which is of a bluish grey4 ,these two rocks form a contrast no less striking than the molasse 7bur-stone7 of the ,pays de ,vaud1 with the calcareous limestone of the ,jura4 ,it must be observed1 that1 by contact of the two formations lying upon each other1 the beds of the limestone of ,cumanacoa1 which ,i consider as an ,alpine limestone1 are always largely mixed with clay and marl4 ,lying1 like the mica-slate of ,araya1 north-east and south-west1 they are inclined1 near ,punta ,delgada1 under an angle of #fj degrees to south-east4 ,we traversed the forest by a narrow path1 along a rivulet1 which rolls foaming over a bed of rocks4 ,we observed1 that the vegetation was more brilliant1 wherever the ,alpine limestone was covered by a quartzose sandstone without petrifactions1 and very different from the breccia of the sea-coast4 ,the cause of this phenomenon depends probably not so much on the nature of the ground1 as on the greater humidity of the soil4 ,the quartzose sandstone contains thin strata of a blackish clay-slate199 799 ,schieferthon47 which might easily be confounded with the secondary thonschiefer2 and these strata hinder the water from filtering into the crevices1 of which the ,alpine limestone is full4 ,this last offers to view here1 as in ,saltzburg1 and on the chain of the ,apennines1 broken and steep beds4 ,the sandstone1 on the contrary1 wherever it is seated on the calcareous rock1 renders the aspect of the scene less wild4 ,the hills which it forms appear more rounded1 and the gentler slopes are covered with a thicker mould4 ,in humid places1 where the sandstone envelopes the ,alpine limestone1 some trace of cultivation is constantly found4 ,we met with huts inhabited by mestizoes in the ravine of ,los ,frailes1 as well as between the ,cuesta de ,caneyes1 and the ,rio ,guriental4 ,each of these huts stands in the centre of an enclosure1 containing plantains1 papaw-trees1 sugar-canes1 and maize4 ,we might be surprised at the small extent of these cultivated spots1 if we did not recollect that an acre planted with plantains99 799 ,musa paradisiaca47 produces nearly twenty times as much food as the same space sown with corn4 ,in ,europe1 our wheat1 barley1 and rye cover vast spaces of ground2 and in general the arable lands touch each other1 wherever the inhabitants live upon corn4 ,it is different under the torrid zone1 where man obtains food from plants which yield more abundant and earlier harvests4 ,in those favoured climes1 the fertility of the soil is proportioned to the heat and humidity of the atmosphere4 ,an immense population finds abundant nourishment within a narrow space1 covered with plantains1 cassava1 yams1 and maize4 ,the isolated situation of the huts dispersed through the forest indicates to the traveller the fecundity of nature1 where a small spot of cultivated land suffices for the wants of several families4 ,these considerations on the agriculture of the torrid zone involuntarily remind us of the intimate connexion existing between the extent of land cleared1 and the progress of society4 ,the richness of the soil1 and the vigour of organic life1 by multiplying the means of subsistence1 retard the progress of nations in the paths of civilization4 ,under so mild and uniform a climate1 the only urgent want of man is that of food4 ,this want only1 excites him to labour2 and we may easily conceive why1 in the midst of abundance1 beneath the shade of the plantain and bread-fruit tree1 the intellectual faculties unfold themselves less rapidly than under a rigorous sky1 in the region of corn1 where our race is engaged in a perpetual struggle with the elements4 ,in ,europe we estimate the number of the inhabitants of a country by the extent of cultivation3 within the tropics1 on the contrary1 in the warmest and most humid parts of ,south ,america1 very populous provinces appear almost deserted2 because man1 to find nourishment1 cultivates but a small number of acres4 ,these circumstances modify the physical appearance of the country and the character of its inhabitants1 giving to both a peculiar physiognomy2 the wild and uncultivated stamp which belongs to nature1 ere its primitive type has been altered by art4 ,without neighbours1 almost unconnected with the rest of mankind1 each family of settlers forms a separate tribe4 ,this insulated state arrests or retards the progress of civilization1 which advances only in proportion as society becomes numerous1 and its connexions more intimate and multiplied4 ,but1 on the other hand1 it is solitude that develops and strengthens in man the sentiment of liberty and independence2 and gives birth to that noble pride of character which has at all times distinguished the ,castilian race4 ,from these causes1 the land in the most populous regions of equinoctial ,america still retains a wild aspect1 which is destroyed in temperate climates by the cultivation of corn4 ,within the tropics the agricultural nations occupy less ground3 man has there less extended his empire2 he may be said to appear1 not as an absolute master1 who changes at will the surface of the soil1 but as a transient guest1 who quietly enjoys the gifts of nature4 ,there1 in the neighbourhood of the most populous cities1 the land remains studded with forests1 or covered with a thick mould1 unfurrowed by the plough4 ,spontaneous vegetation still predominates over cultivated plants1 and determines the aspect of the landscape4 ,it is probable that this state of things will change very slowly4 ,if in our temperate regions the cultivation of corn contributes to throw a dull uniformity upon the land we have cleared1 we cannot doubt1 that1 even with increasing population1 the torrid zone will preserve that majesty of vegetable forms1 those marks of an unsubdued1 virgin nature1 which render it so attractive and so picturesque4 ,thus it is that1 by a remarkable concatenation of physical and moral causes1 the choice and production of alimentary plants have an influence on three important objects at once2 the association or the isolated state of families1 the more or less rapid progress of civilization1 and the individual character of the landscape4 ,in proportion as we penetrated into the forest1 the barometer indicated the progressive elevation of the land4 ,the trunks of the trees presented here an extraordinary phenomenon2 a gramineous plant1 with verticillate branches199 climbs1 like a liana1 eight or ten feet high1 and forms festoons1 which cross the path1 and swing about with the wind4 799 ,carice1 analogous to the chusque of ,santa ,fe1 of the group of the ,nastusas4 ,this gramineous plant is excellent pasture for mules47 ,we halted1 about three o'clock in the afternoon1 on a small flat1 known by the name of ,quetepe1 and situated about one hundred and ninety toises above the level of the sea4 ,a few small houses have been erected near a spring1 well known by the natives for its coolness and great salubrity4 ,we found the water delicious4 ,its temperature was only #bb4e degrees of the centigrade thermometer1 while that of the air was #bh4g degrees4 ,the springs which descend from the neighbouring mountains of a greater height often indicate a too rapid decrement of heat4 ,if indeed we suppose the mean temperature of the water on the coast of ,cumana equal to #bf degrees1 we must conclude1 unless other local causes modify the temperature of the springs1 that the spring of ,quetepe acquires its great coolness at more than #cej toises of absolute elevation4 ,with respect to the springs which gush out in the plains of the torrid zone1 or at a small elevation1 it may be observed1 in general1 that it is only in regions where the mean temperature of summer essentially differs from that of the whole year1 that the inhabitants have extremely cold spring water during the season of great heat4 ,the ,laplanders1 near ,umea and ,soersele1 in the #feth degree of latitude1 drink spring-water1 the temperature of which1 in the month of ,august1 is scarcely two or three degrees above freezing point2 while during the day the heat of the air rises in the shade1 in the same northern regions1 to #bf or #bg degrees4 ,in the temperate climates of ,france and ,germany1 the difference between the air and the springs never exceeds #af or #ag degrees2 between the tropics it seldom rises to #e or #f degrees4 ,it is easy to account for these phenomena1 when we recollect that the interior of the globe1 and the subterraneous waters1 have a temperature almost identical with the annual mean temperature of the air2 and that the latter differs from the mean heat of summer1 in proportion to the distance from the equator4 ,from the top of a hill of sandstone1 which overlooks the spring of ,quetepe1 we had a magnificent view of the sea1 of cape ,macanao1 and the peninsula of ,maniquarez4 ,at our feet an immense forest extended to the edge of the ocean4 ,the tops of the trees1 intertwined with lianas1 and crowned with long wreaths of flowers1 formed a vast carpet of verdure1 the dark tint of which augmented the splendour of the aerial light4 ,this picture struck us the more forcibly1 as we then first beheld those great masses of tropical vegetation4 ,on the hill of ,quetepe1 at the foot of the ,malpighia cocollobaefolia1 the leaves of which are extremely coriaceous1 we gathered1 among tufts of the ,polygala montana1 the first melastomas1 especially that beautiful species described under the name of the ,melastoma rufescens4 ,as we advanced toward the south-west1 the soil became dry and sandy4 ,we climbed a group of mountains1 which separate the coast from the vast plains1 or savannahs1 bordered by the ,orinoco4 ,that part of the group1 over which passes the road to ,cumanacoa1 is destitute of vegetation1 and has steep declivities both on the north and the south4 ,it has received the name of the ,imposible1 because it is believed that1 in the case of hostile invasion1 this ridge of mountains would be inaccessible to the enemy1 and would offer an asylum to the inhabitants of ,cumana4 ,we reached the top a little before sunset1 and ,i had scarcely time to take a few horary angles1 to determine the longitude of the place by means of the chronometer4 ,the view from the ,imposible is finer and more extensive than that from the table-land of ,quetepe4 ,we distinguished clearly by the naked eye the flattened top of the ,brigantine 7the position of which it would be important to fix accurately71 the embarcadero or landing-place1 and the roadstead of ,cumana4 ,the rocky coast of the peninsula of ,araya was discernible in its whole length4 ,we were particularly struck with the extraordinary configuration of a port1 known by the name of ,laguna ,grande1 or ,laguna del ,obispo4 ,a vast basin1 surrounded by high mountains1 communicates with the gulf of ,cariaco by a narrow channel which admits only of the passage of one ship at a time4 ,this port is capable of containing several squadrons at once4 ,it is an uninhabited place1 but annually frequented by vessels1 which carry mules to the ,west ,india ,islands4 ,there are some pasture grounds at the farther end of the bay4 ,we traced the sinuosities of this arm of the sea1 which1 like a river1 has dug a bed between perpendicular rocks destitute of vegetation4 ,this singular prospect reminded us of the fanciful landscape which ,leonardo da ,vinci has made the back-ground of his famous portrait of ,mona ,lisa1 the wife of ,francisco del ,giacondo4 ,we could observe by the chronometer the moment when the disk of the sun touched the horizon of the sea4 ,the first contact was at #f hours #h minutes #ac seconds2 the second1 at #f hours #aj minutes #bf seconds2 mean time4 ,this observation1 which is not unimportant for the theory of terrestrial refractions1 was made on the summit of the mountain1 at the absolute height of #bif toises4 ,the setting of the sun was attended by a very rapid cooling of the air4 ,three minutes after the last apparent contact of the disk with the horizon of the sea1 the thermometer suddenly fell from #be4b to #ba4c degrees4 ,was this extraordinary refrigeration owing to some descending current8 ,the air was however calm1 and no horizontal wind was felt4 ,we passed the night in a house where there was a military post consisting of eight men1 under the command of a ,spanish serjeant4 ,it was an hospital1 built by the side of a powder magazine4 ,when ,cumana1 after the capture of ,trinidad by the ,english1 in #agig1 was threatened with an attack1 many of the inhabitants fled to ,cumanacoa1 and deposited whatever articles of value they possessed in sheds hastily constructed on the top of the ,imposible4 ,it was then resolved1 in case of any unforeseen invasion1 to abandon the castle of ,san ,antonio1 after a short resistance1 and to concentrate the whole force of the province round the mountains1 which may be considered as the key of the ,llanos4 ,the top of the ,imposible1 as nearly as ,i could perceive1 is covered with a quartzose sandstone1 free from petrifactions4 ,here1 as on the ridge of the neighbouring mountains1 the strata pretty regularly take the direction from north-north-east to south-south-west4 ,this direction is also most common in the primitive formations in the peninsula of ,araya1 and along the coasts of ,venezuela4 ,on the northern declivity of the ,imposible1 near the ,penas ,negras1 an abundant spring issues from sandstone1 which alternates with a schistose clay4 ,we remarked on this point fractured strata1 which lie from north-west to south-east1 and the dip of which is almost perpendicular4 ,the ,llaneros1 or inhabitants of the plains1 send their produce1 especially maize1 leather1 and cattle1 to the port of ,cumana by the road over the ,imposible4 ,we continually saw mules arrive1 driven by ,indians or mulattoes4 ,several parts of the vast forests which surround the mountain1 had taken fire4 ,reddish flames1 half enveloped in clouds of smoke1 presented a very grand spectacle4 ,the inhabitants set fire to the forests1 to improve the pasturage1 and to destroy the shrubs that choke the grass4 ,enormous conflagrations1 too1 are often caused by the carelessness of the ,indians1 who neglect1 when they travel1 to extinguish the fires by which they have dressed their food4 ,these accidents contribute to diminish the number of old trees in the road from ,cumana to ,cumanacoa2 and the inhabitants observe justly1 that1 in several parts of their province1 the dryness has increased1 not only because every year the frequency of earthquakes causes more crevices in the soil2 but also because it is now less thickly wooded than it was at the time of the conquest4 ,i arose during the night to determine the latitude of the place by the passage of ,fomalhaut over the meridian2 but the observation was lost1 owing to the time ,i employed in taking the level of the artificial horizon4 ,it was midnight1 and ,i was benumbed with cold1 as were also our guides3 yet the thermometer kept at #ai4g degrees4 ,at ,cumana ,i have never seen it sink below #ba degrees2 but then the house in which we dwelt on the ,imposible was #beh toises above the level of the sea4 ,at the ,casa de la ,polvora ,i determined the dip of the magnetic needle1 which was #db4e degrees499 799 ,the magnetic dip is always measured in this work1 according to the centesimal division1 if the contrary be not expressly mentioned47 ,the number of oscillations correspondent to #aj minutes of time was #bcc4 ,the intensity of the magnetic forces had consequently augmented from the coast to the mountain1 perhaps from the influence of some ferruginous matter1 hidden in the strata of sandstone which cover the ,alpine limestone4 ,we left the ,imposible on the #eth of ,september before sunrise4 ,the descent is very dangerous for beasts of burden2 the path being in general but fifteen inches broad1 and bordered by precipices4 ,in descending the mountain1 we observed the rock of ,alpine limestone reappearing under the sandstone4 ,the strata being generally inclined to the south and south-east1 a great number of springs gush out on the southern side of the mountain4 ,in the rainy season of the year1 these springs form torrents1 which descend in cascades1 shaded by the hura1 the cuspa1 and the silver-leaved cecropia or trumpet-tree4 ,the cuspa1 a very common tree in the environs of ,cumana and of ,bordones1 is yet unknown to the botanists of ,europe4 ,it was long used only for the building of houses1 and has become celebrated since #agig1 under the name of the cascarilla or bark-tree 7cinchona7 of ,new ,andalusia4 ,its trunk rises scarcely above fifteen or twenty feet4 ,its alternate leaves are smooth1 entire1 and oval499 799 ,at the summit of the boughs1 the leaves are sometimes opposite to each other1 but invariably without stipules47 ,its bark very thin1 and of a pale yellow1 is a powerful febrifuge4 ,it is even more bitter than the bark of the real cinchona1 but is less disagreeable4 ,the cuspa is administered with the greatest success1 in a spirituous tincture1 and in aqueous infusion1 both in intermittent and in malignant fevers4 ,on the coasts of ,new ,andalusia1 the cuspa is considered as a kind of cinchona2 and we were assured1 that some ,aragonese monks1 who had long resided in the kingdom of ,new ,grenada1 recognised this tree from the resemblance of its leaves to those of the real ,peruvian bark-tree4 ,this1 however1 is unfounded2 since it is precisely by the disposition of the leaves1 and the absence of stipules1 that the cuspa differs totally from the trees of the rubiaceous family4 ,it may be said to resemble the family of the honeysuckle1 or caprifoliaceous plants1 one section of which has alternate leaves1 and among which we find several cornel-trees1 remarkable for their febrifuge properties499 799 ,cornus florida1 and ,c4 sericea of the ,united ,states4--,walker on the ,virtues of the ,cornus and the ,cinchona compared4 ,philadelphia #ahjc47 ,the taste1 at once bitter and astringent1 and the yellow colour of the bark led to the discovery of the febrifugal virtue of the cuspa4 ,as it blossoms at the end of ,november1 we did not see it in flower1 and we know not to what genus it belongs2 and ,i have in vain for several years past applied to our friends at ,cumana for specimens of the flower and fruit4 ,i hope that the botanical determination of the bark-tree of ,new ,andalusia will one day fix the attention of travellers1 who visit this region after us2 and that they will not confound1 notwithstanding the analogy of the names1 the cuspa with the cuspare4 ,the latter not only vegetates in the missions of the ,rio ,carony1 but also to the west of ,cumana1 in the gulf of ,santa ,fe4 ,it furnishes the druggists of ,europe with the famous ,cortex ,angosturae1 and forms the genus ,bonplandia1 described by ,m4 ,willdenouw in the ,memoirs of the ,academy of ,berlin1 from notes communicated to him by us4 ,it is singular that1 during our long abode on the coast of ,cumana and the ,caracas1 on the banks of the ,apure1 the ,orinoco1 and the ,rio ,negro1 in an extent of country comprising forty thousand square leagues1 we never met with one of those numerous species of cinchona1 or exostema1 which are peculiar to the low and warm regions of the tropics1 especially to the archipelago of the ,west ,india ,islands4 ,yet we are far from affirming1 that1 throughout the whole of the eastern part of ,south ,america1 from ,porto ,bello to ,cayenne1 or from the equator to the #ajth degree of north latitude between the meridians of #ed and #ga degrees1 the cinchona absolutely does not exist4 ,how can we be expected to know completely the flora of so vast an extent of country8 ,but1 when we recollect1 that even in ,mexico no species of the genera cinchona and exostema has been discovered1 either in the central table-land or in the plains1 we are led to believe1 that the mountainous islands of the ,west ,indies and the ,cordillera of the ,andes have peculiar floras2 and that they possess particular species of vegetation1 which have neither passed from the islands to the continent1 nor from ,south ,america to the coasts of ,new ,spain4 ,it may be observed farther1 that1 when we reflect on the numerous analogies which exist between the properties of plants and their external forms1 we are surprised to find qualities eminently febrifuge in the bark of trees belonging to different genera1 and even different families499 799 ,it may be somewhat interesting to chemistry1 physiology1 and descriptive botany1 to consider under the same point of view the plants which have been employed in intermittent fevers with different degrees of success4 ,we find among rubiaceous plants1 besides the cinchonas and exostemas1 the ,coutarea speciosa or ,cayenne bark1 the ,portlandia grandiflora of the ,west ,indies1 another portlandia discovered by ,m4 ,sesse at ,mexico1 the ,pinkneia pubescens of the ,united ,states1 the berry of the coffee-tree1 and perhaps the ,macrocnemum corymbosum1 and the ,guettarda coccinea2 among magnoliaceous plants1 the tulip-tree and the ,magnolia glauca2 among zanthoxylaceous plants1 the ,cuspare of ,angostura1 known in ,america under the name of ,orinoco bark1 and the ,zanthoxylon caribaeum2 among leguminous plants1 the geoffraeas1 the ,swietenia febrifuga1 the ,aeschynomene grandiflora1 the ,caesalpina bonducella2 among caprifoliaceous plants1 the ,cornus florida and the ,cuspa of ,cumana2 among rosaceous plants1 the ,cerasus virginiana and the ,geum urbanum2 among amentaceous plants1 the willows1 oaks1 and birch-trees1 of which the alcoholic tincture is used in ,russia by the common people2 the ,populus tremuloides1 etc42 among anonaceous plants1 the ,uvaria febrifuga1 the fruit of which we saw administered with success in the ,missions of ,spanish ,guiana2 among simarubaceous plants1 the ,quassia amara1 celebrated in the feverish plains of ,surinam2 among terebinthaceous plants1 the ,rhus glabrum2 among euphorbiaceous plants1 the ,croton cascarilla2 among composite plants1 the ,eupatorium perfoliatum1 the febrifuge qualities of which are known to the savages of ,north ,america4 ,of the tulip-tree and the quassia1 it is the bark of the roots that is used4 ,eminent febrifuge virtues have also been found in the cortical part of the roots of the ,cinchona condaminea at ,loxa2 but it is fortunate1 for the preservation of the species1 that the roots of the real cinchona are not employed in pharmacy4 ,chemical researches are yet wanting upon the very powerful bitters contained in the roots of the ,zanthoriza apiifolia1 and the ,actaea racemosa3 the latter have sometimes been employed with success as a remedy against the epidemic yellow fever in ,new ,york47 ,some of these barks so much resemble each other1 that it is not easy to distinguish them at first sight4 ,but before we examine the question1 whether we shall one day discover1 in the real cinchona1 in the cuspa of ,cumana1 the ,cortex ,angosturae1 the ,indian swietenia1 the willows of ,europe1 the berries of the coffee-tree and uvaria1 a matter uniformly diffused1 and exhibiting 7like starch1 caoutchouc1 and camphor7 the same chemical properties in different plants1 we may ask whether1 in the present state of physiology and medicine1 a febrifuge principle ought to be admitted4 ,is it not probable1 that the particular derangement in the organization1 known under the vague name of the febrile state1 and in which both the vascular and the nervous systems are at the same time attacked1 yields to remedies which do not operate by the same principle1 by the same mode of action on the same organs1 by the same play of chemical and electrical attractions8 ,we shall here confine ourselves to this observation1 that1 in the species of the genus cinchona1 the antifebrile virtues do not appear to belong to the tannin 7which is only accidentally mingled in them71 or to the cinchonate of lime2 but in a resiniform matter1 soluble both by alcohol and by water1 and which1 it is believed1 is composed of two principles1 the cinchonic bitter and the cinchonic red499 799 ,in ,french1 l'amer et le rouge cinchoniques47 ,may it then be admitted1 that this resiniform matter1 which possesses different degrees of energy according to the combinations by which it is modified1 is found in all febrifuge substances8 ,those by which the sulphate of iron is precipitated of a green colour1 like the real cinchona1 the bark of the white willow1 and the horned perisperm of the coffee-tree1 do not on this account denote identity of chemical composition299 and that identity might even exist1 without our concluding that the medical virtues were analogous4 799 ,the cuspare bark 7,cort4 ,angosturae7 yields with iron a yellow precipitate2 yet it is employed on the banks of the ,orinoco1 and particularly at the town of ,st4 ,thomas of ,angostura1 as an excellent cinchona2 and on the other hand1 the bark of the common cherry tree1 which has scarcely any febrifuge quality1 yields a green precipitate like the real cinchonas4 ,notwithstanding the extreme imperfection of vegetable chemistry1 the experiments already made on cinchonas sufficiently show1 that to judge of the febrifuge virtues of a bark1 we must not attach too much importance either to the principle which turns to green the oxides of iron1 or to the tannin1 or to the matter which precipitates infusions of tan47 ,we see that specimens of sugar and tannin extracted from plants1 not of the same family1 present numerous differences3 while the comparative analysis of sugar1 gum1 and starch2 the discovery of the radical of the prussic acid 7the effects of which are so powerful on the organization71 and many other phenomena of vegetable chemistry1 clearly prove that substances composed of identical elements1 few in number and proportional in quantity1 exhibit the most heterogeneous properties1 on account of that particular mode of combination which corpuscular chemistry calls the arrangement of the particles4 ,leaving the ravine which descends from the ,imposible1 we entered a thick forest traversed by many small rivers1 which are easily forded4 ,we observed that the cecropia1 which in the disposition of its branches and its slender trunk1 resembles the palm-tree1 is covered with leaves more or less silvery1 in proportion as the soil is dry or moist4 ,we saw some small plants of the cecropia1 the leaves of which were on both sides entirely green499 799 ,is not the ,cecropia concolor of ,willdenouw a variety of the ,cecropia peltata87 ,the roots of these trees are hid under tufts of dorstenia1 which flourishes only in humid and shady places4 ,in the midst of the forest1 on the banks of the ,rio ,cedeno1 as well as on the southern declivity of the ,cocollar1 we find1 in their wild state1 papaw and orange-trees1 bearing large and sweet fruit4 ,these are probably the remains of some conucos1 or ,indian plantations2 for in those countries the orange-tree cannot be counted among the indigenous plants1 any more than the banana-tree1 the papaw-tree1 maize1 cassava1 and many other useful plants1 with the true country of which we are unacquainted1 though they have accompanied man in his migrations from the remotest times4 ,when a traveller newly arrived from ,europe penetrates for the first time into the forests of ,south ,america1 he beholds nature under an unexpected aspect4 ,he feels at every step1 that he is not on the confines but in the centre of the torrid zone2 not in one of the ,west ,india ,islands1 but on a vast continent where everything is gigantic1--mountains1 rivers1 and the mass of vegetation4 ,if he feel strongly the beauty of picturesque scenery he can scarcely define the various emotions which crowd upon his mind2 he can scarcely distinguish what most excites his admiration1 the deep silence of those solitudes1 the individual beauty and contrast of forms1 or that vigour and freshness of vegetable life which characterize the climate of the tropics4 ,it might be said that the earth1 overloaded with plants1 does not allow them space enough to unfold themselves4 ,the trunks of the trees are everywhere concealed under a thick carpet of verdure2 and if we carefully transplanted the orchideae1 the pipers1 and the pothoses1 nourished by a single courbaril1 or ,american fig-tree199 799 ,ficus nymphaeifolia47 we should cover a vast extent of ground4 ,by this singular assemblage1 the forests1 as well as the flanks of the rocks and mountains1 enlarge the domains of organic nature4 ,the same lianas which creep on the ground1 reach the tops of the trees1 and pass from one to another at the height of more than a hundred feet4 ,thus1 by the continual interlacing of parasite plants1 the botanist is often led to confound one with another1 the flowers1 the fruits1 and leaves1 which belong to different species4 ,we walked for some hours under the shade of these arcades1 which scarcely admit a glimpse of the sky2 the latter appeared to me of an indigo blue1 the deeper in shade because the green of the equinoctial plants is generally of a stronger hue1 with somewhat of a brownish tint4 ,a great fern tree199 799 ,possibly our ,aspidium caducum47 very different from the ,polypodium arboreum of the ,west ,indies1 rose above masses of scattered rocks4 ,in this place we were struck for the first time with the sight of those nests in the shape of bottles1 or small bags1 which are suspended from the branches of the lowest trees1 and which attest the wonderful industry of the orioles1 which mingle their warbling with the hoarse cries of the parrots and the macaws4 ,these last1 so well known for their vivid colours1 fly only in pairs1 while the real parrots wander about in flocks of several hundreds4 ,a man must have lived in those regions1 particularly in the hot valleys of the ,andes1 to conceive how these birds sometimes drown with their voices the noise of the torrents1 which dash down from rock to rock4 ,we left the forests1 at the distance of somewhat more than a league from the village of ,san ,fernando4 ,a narrow path led1 after many windings1 into an open but extremely humid country4 ,in such a site in the temperate zone1 the cyperaceous and gramineous plants would have formed vast meadows2 here the soil abounded in aquatic plants1 with sagittate leaves1 and especially in basil plants1 among which we noticed the fine flowers of the costus1 the thalia1 and the heliconia4 ,these succulent plants are from eight to ten feet high1 and in ,europe one of their groups would be considered as a little wood4 ,near ,san ,fernando the evaporation caused by the action of the sun was so great that1 being very lightly clothed1 we felt ourselves as wet as in a vapour bath4 ,the road was bordered with a kind of bamboo199 799 ,bambusa guadua47 which the ,indians call iagua1 or guadua1 and which is more than forty feet in height4 ,nothing can exceed the elegance of this arborescent gramen4 ,the form and disposition of its leaves give it a character of lightness which contrasts agreeably with its height4 ,the smooth and glossy trunk of the iagua generally bends towards the banks of rivulets1 and it waves with the slightest breath of air4 ,the highest reeds99 in the south of ,europe 799 ,arundo donax471 can give no idea of the aspect of the arborescent gramina4 ,the bamboo and fern-tree are1 of all the vegetable forms between the tropics1 those which make the most powerful impression on the imagination of the traveller4 ,bamboos are less common in ,south ,america than is usually believed4 ,they are almost wanting in the marshes and in the vast inundated plains of the ,lower ,orinoco1 the ,apure1 and the ,atabapo1 while they form thick woods1 several leagues in length1 in the north-west1 in ,new ,grenada1 and in the kingdom of ,quito4 ,it might be said that the western declivity of the ,andes is their true country2 and1 what is remarkable enough1 we found them not only in the low regions at the level of the ocean1 but also in the lofty valleys of the ,cordilleras1 at the height of #hfj toises4 ,the road skirted with the bamboos above mentioned led us to the small village of ,san ,fernando1 situated in a narrow plain1 surrounded by very steep calcareous rocks4 ,this was the first ,mission99 we saw in ,america4 799 ,a certain number of habitations collected round a church1 with a missionary monk performing the ministerial duties1 is called in the ,spanish colonies ,mision1 or ,pueblo de mision4 ,indian villages1 governed by a priest1 are called ,pueblos de doctrina4 ,a distinction is made between the ,cura doctrinero1 who is the priest of an ,indian parish1 and the ,cura rector1 priest of a village inhabited by whites and men of mixed race47 ,the houses1 or rather the huts of the ,chayma ,indians1 though separate from each other1 are not surrounded by gardens4 ,the streets1 which are wide and very straight1 cross each other at right angles4 ,the walls of the huts are made of clay1 strengthened by lianas4 ,the uniformity of these huts1 the grave and taciturn air of their inhabitants1 and the extreme neatness of the dwellings1 reminded us of the establishments of the ,moravian ,brethren4 ,besides their own gardens1 every ,indian family helps to cultivate the garden of the community1 or1 as it is called1 the conuco de la comunidad1 which is situated at some distance from the village4 ,in this conuco the adults of each sex work one hour in the morning and one in the evening4 ,in the missions nearest the coast the garden of the community is generally a sugar or indigo plantation1 under the direction of the missionary2 and its produce1 if the law were strictly observed1 could be employed only for the support of the church and the purchase of sacerdotal ornaments4 ,the great square of ,san ,fernando1 in the centre of the village1 contains the church1 the dwelling of the missionary1 and a very humble-looking edifice pompously called the king's house 7,casa del ,rey74 ,this is a caravanserai1 destined for lodging travellers2 and1 as we often experienced1 infinitely valuable in a country where the name of an inn is still unknown4 ,the ,casas del ,rey are to be found in all the ,spanish colonies1 and may be deemed an imitation of the tambos of ,peru1 which were established in conformity with the laws of ,manco ,capac4 ,we had been recommended to the friars who govern the ,missions of the ,chayma ,indians1 by their syndic1 who resides at ,cumana4 ,this recommendation was the more useful to us1 as the missionaries1 either from zeal for the purity of the morals of their parishioners1 or to conceal the monastic system from the indiscreet curiosity of strangers1 often adhere with rigour to an old regulation1 by which a white man of the secular state is not permitted to sojourn more than one night in an ,indian village4 ,the ,missions form 7,i will not say according to their primitive and canonical institutions1 but in reality7 a distinct and nearly independent hierarchy1 the views of which seldom accord with those of the secular clergy4 ,the missionary of ,san ,fernando was a ,capuchin1 a native of ,aragon1 far advanced in years1 but strong and healthy4 ,his extreme corpulency1 his hilarity1 the interest he took in battles and sieges1 ill accorded with the ideas we form in northern countries of the melancholy reveries and the contemplative life of missionaries4 ,though extremely busy about a cow which was to be killed next day1 the old monk received us with kindness1 and permitted us to hang up our hammocks in a gallery of his house4 ,seated1 without doing anything1 the greater part of the day1 in an armchair of red wood1 he bitterly complained of what he called the indolence and ignorance of his countrymen4 ,our missionary1 however1 seemed well satisfied with his situation4 ,he treated the ,indians with mildness2 he beheld his ,mission prosper1 and he praised with enthusiasm the waters1 the bananas1 and the dairy-produce of the district4 ,the sight of our instruments1 our books1 and our dried plants1 drew from him a sarcastic smile2 and he acknowledged1 with the naivete peculiar to the inhabitants of those countries1 that of all the enjoyments of life1 without excepting sleep1 none was comparable to the pleasure of eating good beef 7carne de vaca73 thus does sensuality obtain an ascendancy1 where there is no occupation for the mind4 ,the mission of ,san ,fernando was founded about the end of the #agth century1 near the junction of the small rivers of the ,manzanares and ,lucasperez4 ,a fire1 which consumed the church and the huts of the ,indians1 induced the ,capuchins to build the village in its present fine situation4 ,the number of families is increased to one hundred1 and the missionary observed to us1 that the custom of marrying at thirteen or fourteen years of age contributes greatly to this rapid increase of population4 ,he denied that old age was so premature among the ,chaymas1 as is commonly believed in ,europe4 ,the government of these ,indian parishes is very complicated2 they have their governor1 their major-alguazils1 and their militia-commanders1 all copper-coloured natives4 ,the company of archers have their colours1 and perform their exercise with the bow and arrow1 in shooting at a mark2 this is the national guard 7militia7 of the country4 ,this military establishment1 under a purely monastic system1 seemed to us very singular4 ,on the night of the #eth of ,september1 and the following morning1 there was a thick fog2 yet we were not more than a hundred toises above the level of the sea4 ,i determined geometrically1 at the moment of our departure1 the height of the great calcareous mountain which rises at #hjj toises distance to the south of ,san ,fernando1 and forms a perpendicular cliff on the north side4 ,it is only #bae toises higher than the great square2 but naked masses of rock1 which here exhibit themselves in the midst of a thick vegetation1 give it a very majestic aspect4 ,the road from ,san ,fernando to ,cumana passes amidst small plantations1 through an open and humid valley4 ,we forded a number of rivulets4 ,in the shade the thermometer did not rise above #cj degrees3 but we were exposed to the direct rays of the sun1 because the bamboos1 which skirted the road1 afforded but small shelter1 and we suffered greatly from the heat4 ,we passed through the village of ,arenas1 inhabited by ,indians1 of the same race as those at ,san ,fernando4 ,but ,arenas is no longer a mission2 and the natives1 governed by a regular priest199 799 ,the four villages of ,arenas1 ,macarapana1 ,mariguitar1 and ,aricagua1 founded by ,aragonese ,capuchins1 are called ,doctrinas de ,encomienda47 are better clothed1 and more civilized4 ,their church is also distinguished in the country by some rude paintings which adorn its walls4 ,a narrow border encloses figures of armadilloes1 caymans1 jaguars1 and other animals peculiar to the new world4 ,in this village lives a labourer1 ,francisco ,lozano1 who presented a highly curious physiological phenomenon4 ,this man has suckled a child with his own milk4 ,the mother having fallen sick1 the father1 to quiet the infant1 took it into his bed1 and pressed it to his bosom4 ,lozano1 then thirty-two years of age1 had never before remarked that he had milk3 but the irritation of the nipple1 sucked by the child1 caused the accumulation of that liquid4 ,the milk was thick and very sweet4 ,the father1 astonished at the increased size of his breast1 suckled his child two or three times a day during five months4 ,he drew on himself the attention of his neighbours1 but he never thought1 as he probably would have done in ,europe1 of deriving any advantage from the curiosity he excited4 ,we saw the certificate1 which had been drawn up on the spot1 to attest this remarkable fact1 eye-witnesses of which are still living4 ,they assured us that1 during this suckling1 the child had no other nourishment than the milk of his father4 ,lozano1 who was not at ,arenas during our journey in the missions1 came to us at ,cumana4 ,he was accompanied by his son1 then thirteen or fourteen years of age4 ,m4 ,bonpland examined with attention the father's breasts1 and found them wrinkled like those of a woman who has given suck4 ,he observed that the left breast in particular was much enlarged2 which ,lozano explained to us from the circumstance1 that the two breasts did not furnish milk in the same abundance4 ,don ,vicente ,emparan1 governor of the province1 sent a circumstantial account of this phenomenon to ,cadiz4 ,it is not a very uncommon circumstance1 to find1 among animals1 males whose breasts contain milk2 and climate does not appear to exercise any marked influence on the greater or less abundance of this secretion4 ,the ancients cite the milk of the he-goats of ,lemnos and ,corsica4 ,in our own time1 we have seen in ,hanover1 a he-goat1 which for a great number of years was milked every other day1 and yielded more milk than a female goat4 ,among the signs of the alleged weakness of the ,americans1 travellers have mentioned the milk contained in the breasts of men4 ,it is1 however1 improbable1 that it has ever been observed in a whole tribe1 in some part of ,america unknown to modern travellers2 and ,i can affirm that at present it is not more common in the new continent1 than in the old4 ,the labourer of ,arenas1 whose case has just been mentioned1 was not of the copper-coloured race of ,chayma ,indians1 but was a white man1 descended from ,europeans4 ,moreover1 the anatomists of ,st4 ,petersburgh have observed that1 among the lower orders of the people in ,russia1 milk in the breasts of men is much more frequent than among the more southern nations3 yet the ,russians have never been deemed weak and effeminate4 ,there is among the varieties of the human species a race of men whose breasts at the age of puberty acquire a considerable bulk4 ,lozano did not belong to that race2 and he often repeated to us his conviction1 that it was only the irritation of the nipple1 in consequence of the suction1 which caused the flow of milk4 ,when we reflect on the whole of the vital phenomena1 we find that no one of them is entirely isolated4 ,in every age examples are cited of very young girls and women in extreme old age1 who have suckled children4 ,among men these examples are more rare2 and after numerous researches1 ,i have not found above two or three4 ,one is cited by the anatomist of ,verona1 ,alexander ,benedictus1 who lived about the end of the fifteenth century4 ,he relates the history of an inhabitant of ,syria1 who1 to calm the fretfulness of his child1 after the death of the mother1 pressed it to his bosom4 ,the milk soon became so abundant1 that the father could take on himself the nourishment of his child without assistance4 ,other examples are related by ,santorellus1 ,faria1 and ,robert1 bishop of ,cork4 ,the greater part of these phenomena having been noticed in times very remote1 it is not uninteresting to physiology1 that we can confirm them in our own days4 ,on approaching the town of ,cumanacoa we found a more level soil1 and a valley enlarging itself progressively4 ,this small town is situated in a naked plain1 almost circular1 and surrounded by lofty mountains4 ,it was founded in #agag by ,domingo ,arias1 on the return of an expedition to the mouth of the ,guarapiche1 undertaken with the view of destroying an establishment which some ,french freebooters had attempted to found4 ,the new town was first called ,san ,baltazar de las ,arias2 but the ,indian name ,cumanacoa prevailed2 in like manner the name of ,santiago de ,leon1 still to be found in our maps1 is forgotten in that of ,caracas4 ,on opening the barometer we were struck at seeing the column of mercury scarcely #g4c lines shorter than on the coasts4 ,the plain1 or rather the table-land1 on which the town of ,cumanacoa is situated1 is not more than #ajd toises above the level of the sea1 which is three or four times less than is supposed by the inhabitants of ,cumana1 on account of their exaggerated ideas of the cold of ,cumanacoa4 ,but the difference of climate observable between places so near each other is perhaps less owing to comparative height than to local circumstances4 ,among these causes we may cite the proximity of the forests2 the frequency of descending currents1 so common in these valleys1 closed on every side2 the abundance of rain2 and those thick fogs which diminish during a great part of the year the direct action of the solar rays4 ,the decrement of the heat being nearly the same within the tropics1 and during the summer under the temperate zone1 the small difference of level of one hundred toises should produce only a change in the mean temperature of #a or #a4e degrees4 ,but we shall soon find that at ,cumanacoa the difference rises to more than four degrees4 ,this coolness of the climate is sometimes the more surprising1 as very great heat is felt at ,carthago 7in the province of ,popayan72 at ,tomependa1 on the bank of the river ,amazon1 and in the valleys of ,aragua1 to the west of ,caracas2 though the absolute height of these different places is between #bjj and #dhj toises4 ,in plains as well as on mountains the isothermal lines 7lines of similar heat7 are not constantly parallel to the equator1 or the surface of the globe4 ,it is the grand problem of meteorology to determine the inflections of these lines1 and to discover1 amid modifications produced by local causes1 the constant laws of the distribution of heat4 ,the port of ,cumana is only seven nautical leagues from ,cumanacoa4 ,it scarcely ever rains in the first-mentioned place1 while in the latter there are seven months of wintry weather4 ,at ,cumanacoa1 the dry season begins at the winter solstice1 and lasts till the vernal equinox4 ,light showers are frequent in the months of ,april1 ,may1 and ,june4 ,the dry weather then returns again1 and lasts from the summer solstice to the end of ,august4 ,then come the real winter rains1 which cease only in the month of ,november1 and during which torrents of water pour down from the skies4 ,it was during the winter season that we took up our first abode in the ,missions4 ,every night a thick fog covered the sky1 and it was only at intervals that ,i succeeded in taking some observations of the stars4 ,the thermometer kept from #ah4e to #bj degrees1 which under this zone1 and to the sensations of a traveller coming from the coasts1 appears a great degree of coolness4 ,i never perceived the temperature in the night at ,cumana below #ba degrees4 ,the greatest heat is felt from noon to #c o'clock1 the thermometer keeping between #bf and #bg degrees4 ,the maximum of the heat1 about two hours after the passage of the sun over the meridian1 was very regularly marked by a storm which murmured near4 ,large black and low clouds dissolved in rain1 which came down in torrents3 these rains lasted two or three hours1 and lowered the thermometer five or six degrees4 ,about five o'clock the rain entirely ceased1 the sun reappeared a little before it set1 and the hygrometer moved towards the point of dryness2 but at eight or nine we were again enveloped in a thick stratum of vapour4 ,these different changes follow successively1 we were assured1 during whole months1 and yet not a breath of wind is felt4 ,comparative experiments led us to believe that in general the nights at ,cumanacoa are from two to three1 and the days from four to five centesimal degrees cooler than at the port of ,cumana4 ,these differences are great2 and if1 instead of meteorological instruments1 we consulted only our own feelings1 we should suppose they were still more considerable4 ,the vegetation of the plain which surrounds the town is monotonous1 but1 owing to the extreme humidity of the air1 remarkable for its freshness4 ,it is chiefly characterized by an arborescent solanum1 forty feet in height1 the ,urtica baccifera1 and a new species of the genus ,guettarda499 799 ,these trees are surrounded by ,galega pilosa1 ,stellaria rotundifolia1 ,aegiphila elata of ,swartz1 ,sauvagesia erecta1 ,martinia perennis1 and a great number of ,rivinas4 ,we find among the gramineous plants1 in the savannah of ,cumanacoa1 the ,paspalus lenticularis1 ,panicum ascendens1 ,pennisetum uniflorum1 ,gynerium saccharoides1 ,eleusine indica1 etc47 ,the ground is very fertile1 and might be easily watered if trenches were cut from a great number of rivulets1 the springs of which never dry up during the whole year4 ,the most valuable production of the district is tobacco4 ,since the introduction of the farm99 799 ,estanco real de tabaco1 royal monopoly of tobacco47 in #aggi1 the cultivation of tobacco in the province of ,cumana is nearly confined to the valley of ,cumanacoa2 as in ,mexico it is permitted only in the two districts of ,orizaba and ,cordova4 ,the farm system is a monopoly odious to the people4 ,all the tobacco that is gathered must be sold to government2 and to prevent1 or rather to diminish fraud1 it has been found most easy to concentrate the cultivation in one point4 ,guards scour the country1 to destroy any plantations without the boundaries of the privileged districts2 and to inform against those inhabitants who smoke cigars prepared by their own hands4 ,next to the tobacco of the island of ,cuba and of the ,rio ,negro1 that of ,cumana is the most aromatic4 ,it excels all the tobacco of ,new ,spain and of the province of ,varinas4 ,we shall give some particulars of its culture1 which essentially differs from the method practised in ,virginia4 ,the prodigious expansion which is remarked in the solaneous plants of the valley of ,cumanacoa1 especially in the abundant species of the ,solanum arborescens1 of aquartia1 and of cestrum1 seems to indicate the favourable nature of this spot for plantations of tobacco4 ,the seed is sown in the open ground1 at the beginning of ,september2 though sometimes not till the month of ,december1 which period is however less favourable for the harvest4 ,the cotyledons appear on the eighth day1 and the young plants are covered with large leaves of heliconia and plantain1 and shelter them from the direct action of the sun4 ,great care also is taken to destroy weeds1 which1 between the tropics1 spring up with astonishing rapidity4 ,the tobacco is transplanted into a rich and well-prepared soil1 a month or two after it has risen from the seed4 ,the plants are disposed in regular rows1 three or four feet distant from each other4 ,care is taken to weed them often1 and the principal stalk is several times topped1 till greenish blue spots indicate to the cultivator the maturity of the leaves4 ,they begin to gather them in the fourth month1 and this first gathering generally terminates in the space of a few days4 ,it would be better if the leaves were plucked only as they dry4 ,in good years the cultivators cut the plant when it is only four feet high2 and the shoot which springs from the root1 throws out new leaves with such rapidity that they may be gathered on the thirteenth or fourteenth day4 ,these last have the cellular tissue very much extended1 and they contain more water1 more albumen and less of that acrid1 volatile principle1 which is but little soluble in water1 and in which the stimulant property of tobacco seems to reside4 ,at ,cumanacoa the tobacco1 after being gathered1 undergoes a preparation which the ,spaniards call cura seca4 ,the leaves are suspended by threads of cocuiza299 799 ,agave ,americana47 their ribs are taken out1 and they are twisted into cords4 ,the prepared tobacco should be carried to the king's warehouses in the month of ,june2 but the indolence of the inhabitants1 and the preference they give to the cultivation of maize and cassava1 usually prevent them from finishing the preparation before the month of ,august4 ,it is easy to conceive that the leaves1 so long exposed to very moist air1 must lose some of their flavour4 ,the administrator of the farm keeps the tobacco deposited in the king's warehouses sixty days without touching it4 ,when this time is expired1 the manoques are opened to examine the quality4 ,if the administrator find the tobacco well prepared1 he pays the cultivator three piastres for the aroba of twenty-five pounds weight4 ,the same quantity is resold for the king's profit at twelve piastres and a half4 ,the tobacco that is rotten 7podrido71 that is1 again gone into a state of fermentation1 is publicly burnt2 and the cultivator1 who has received money in advance from the royal farm1 loses irrevocably the fruits of his long labour4 ,we saw heaps1 amounting to five hundred arobas1 burnt in the great square1 which in ,europe might have served for making snuff4 ,the soil of ,cumanacoa is so favourable to this branch of culture1 that tobacco grows wild1 wherever the seed finds any moisture4 ,it grows thus spontaneously at ,cerro del ,cuchivano1 and around the cavern of ,caripe4 ,the only kind of tobacco cultivated at ,cumanacoa1 as well as in the neighbouring districts of ,aricagua and ,san ,lorenzo1 is that with large sessile leaves199 799 ,nicotiana tabacum47 called ,virginia tobacco4 ,the tobacco with petiolate leaves199 799 ,nicotiana rustica47 which is the yetl of the ancient ,mexicans1 is unknown4 ,in studying the history of our cultivated plants1 we are surprised to find that1 before the conquest1 the use of tobacco was spread through the greater part of ,america1 while the potato was unknown both in ,mexico and the ,west ,india ,islands1 where it grows well in the mountainous regions4 ,tobacco has also been cultivated in ,portugal since the year #aeei1 though the potato did not become an object of ,european agriculture till the end of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth century4 ,this latter plant1 which has had so powerful an influence on the well-being of society1 has spread in both continents more slowly than tobacco1 which can be considered only as an article of luxury4 ,next to tobacco1 the most important culture of the valley of ,cumanacoa is that of indigo4 ,the manufacturers of ,cumanacoa1 of ,san ,fernando1 and of ,arenas1 produce indigo of greater commercial value than that of ,caracas2 and often nearly equalling in splendour and richness of colour the indigo of ,guatimala4 ,it was from that province that the coasts of ,cumana received the first seeds of the ,indigofera anil199 which is cultivated jointly with the ,indigofera tinctoria4 799 ,the indigo known in commerce is produced by four species of plants2 the ,indigofera tinctoria1 ,i4 anil1 ,i4 argentea1 and ,i4 disperma4 ,at the ,rio ,negro1 near the frontiers of ,brazil1 we found the ,i4 argentea growing wild1 but only in places anciently inhabited by ,indians47 ,the rains being very frequent in the valley of ,cumanacoa1 a plant of four feet high yields no more colouring matter than one of a third part that size in the arid valleys of ,aragua1 to the west of the town of ,caracas4 ,the manufactories we examined are all built on uniform principles4 ,two steeping vessels1 or vats1 which receive the plants intended to be brought into a state of fermentation1 are joined together4 ,each vat is fifteen feet square1 and two and a half deep4 ,from these upper vats the liquor runs into beaters1 between which is placed the water-mill4 ,the axletree of the great wheel crosses the two beaters4 ,it is furnished with ladles1 fixed to long handles1 adapted for the beating4 ,from a spacious settling-vat1 the colouring fecula is carried to the drying place1 and spread on planks of brasiletto1 which1 having small wheels1 can be sheltered under a roof in case of sudden rains4 ,sloping and very low roofs give the drying place the appearance of hot-houses at some distance4 ,in the valley of ,cumanacoa1 the fermentation of the plant is produced with astonishing rapidity4 ,it lasts in general but four or five hours4 ,this short duration can be attributed only to the humidity of the climate1 and the absence of the sun during the development of the plant4 ,i think ,i have observed1 in the course of my travels1 that the drier the climate1 the slower the vat works1 and the greater the quantity of indigo1 at the minimum of oxidation1 contained in the stalks4 ,in the province of ,caracas1 where #efb cubic feet of the plant slightly piled up yield thirty-five or forty pounds of dry indigo1 the liquid does not pass into the beater till after twenty1 thirty1 or thirty-five hours4 ,it is probable that the inhabitants of ,cumanacoa would extract more colouring matter if they left the plants longer steeping in the first vat499 799 ,the planters are pretty generally of opinion1 that the fermentation should never continue less than ten hours4 ,beauvais-,raseau1 ,art de l',indigotier page #ha47 ,during my abode at ,cumana ,i made solutions of the indigo of ,cumanacoa1 which is somewhat heavy and coppery1 and that of ,caracas1 in sulphuric acid1 in order to compare them1 and the solution of the former appeared to me to be of a much more intense blue4 ,the plain of ,cumanacoa1 spotted with farms and small plantations of indigo and tobacco1 is surrounded with mountains1 which towards the south rise to considerable height4 ,everything indicates that the valley is the bottom of an ancient lake4 ,the mountains1 which in ancient times formed its shores1 all rise perpendicularly in the direction of the plain4 ,the only outlet for the waters of the lake was on the side of ,arenas4 ,in digging foundations1 beds of round pebbles1 mixed with small bivalve shells1 are found2 and according to the report of persons worthy of credit1 there were discovered1 thirty years ago1 at the bottom of the ravine of ,san ,juanillo1 two enormous femoral bones1 four feet long1 and weighing more than thirty pounds4 ,the ,indians imagined that these were giants' bones2 whilst the half-learned sages of the country1 who assume the right of explaining everything1 gravely asserted that they were mere sports of nature1 and little worthy of attention2 an opinion founded on the circumstance that human bones decay rapidly in the soil of ,cumanacoa4 ,in order to decorate their churches on the festival of the dead1 they take skulls from the cemeteries on the coast1 where the earth is impregnated with saline substances4 ,these pretended thigh-bones of giants were carried to the port of ,cumana1 where ,i sought for them in vain2 but from the analogy of some fossil bones which ,i brought from other parts of ,south ,america1 and which have been carefully examined by ,m4 ,cuvier1 it is probable that the gigantic femoral bones of ,cumanacoa belonged to elephants of a species now extinct4 ,it may appear surprising that they were found in a place so little elevated above the present level of the waters2 since it is a remarkable fact1 that the fragments of the mastodons and fossil elephants which ,i brought from the equinoctial regions of ,mexico1 ,new ,grenada1 ,quito1 and ,peru1 were not found in low regions 7as were the megatherium of ,rio ,luxan99 799 ,one league south-east from the town of ,buenos ,ayres47 and ,virginia199 799 ,the megatherium of ,virginia is the megalonyx of ,mr4 ,jefferson4 ,all the enormous remains found in the plains of the new continent1 either north or south of the equator1 belong1 not to the torrid1 but to the temperate zone4 ,on the other hand1 ,pallas observes that in ,siberia1 consequently also northward of the tropics1 fossil bones are never found in mountainous parts4 ,these facts1 intimately connected together1 seem calculated to lead to the discovery of a great geological law47 the great mastodons of the ,ohio1 and the fossil elephants of the ,susquehanna1 in the temperate zone71 but on table-lands having from six to fourteen hundred toises of elevation4 ,as we approached the southern bank of the basin of ,cumanacoa1 we enjoyed the view of the ,turimiquiri499 799 ,some of the inhabitants pronounce this name ,tumuriquiri1 others ,turumiquiri1 or ,tumiriquiri4 ,during the whole time of our stay at ,cumanacoa1 the summit of this mountain was covered with clouds4 ,it appeared uncovered on the evening of the #aath of ,september1 but only for a few minutes4 ,the angle of elevation1 taken from the great square of ,cumanacoa1 was #h degrees #b minutes4 ,this determination1 and the barometrical measurement which ,i made on the #acth1 may enable us to fix1 within a certain approximation1 the distance of the mountain at six miles and a third1 or #fjej toises2 admitting that the part uncovered by clouds was #hej toises above the plain of ,cumanacoa47 ,an enormous wall of rocks1 the remains of an ancient cliff1 rises in the midst of the forests4 ,farther to the west1 at ,cerro del ,cuchivano1 the chain of mountains seems as if broken by the effects of an earthquake4 ,the crevice is more than a hundred and fifty toises wide1 is surrounded by perpendicular rocks1 and is filled with trees1 the interwoven branches of which find no room to spread4 ,this cleft appears like a mine opened by the falling in of the earth4 ,it is intersected by a torrent1 the ,rio ,juagua1 and its appearance is highly picturesque4 ,it is called ,risco del ,cuchivano4 ,the river rises at the distance of seven leagues south-west1 at the foot of the mountain of the ,brigantine1 and it forms some beautiful cascades before it spreads through the plain of ,cumanacoa4 ,we visited several times a small farm1 the ,conuco of ,bermudez1 opposite the ,risco del ,cuchivano1 where tobacco1 plantains1 and several species of cotton-trees199 are cultivated in the moist soil 799 ,gossypium uniglandulosum1 improperly called herbaceum1 and ,g4 barbadense472 especially that tree1 the cotton of which is of a nankeen colour1 and which is so common in the island of ,margareta499 799 ,g4 religiosum47 ,the proprietor of the farm told us that the ,risco or crevice was inhabited by jaguar tigers4 ,these animals pass the day in caverns1 and roam around human habitations at night4 ,being well fed1 they grow to the length of six feet4 ,one of them had devoured1 in the preceding year1 a horse belonging to the farm4 ,he dragged his prey on a fine moonlight night1 across the savannah1 to the foot of a ceiba99 of an enormous size4 799 ,bombax ceiba3 five-leaved silk-cotton tree47 ,the groans of the dying horse awoke the slaves of the farm1 who went out armed with lances and machetes499 799 ,great knives1 with very long blades1 like a couteau de chasse4 ,no one enters the woods in the torrid zone without being armed with a machete1 not only to cut his way through the woods1 but as a defence against wild beasts47 ,the tiger1 crouching over his prey1 awaited their approach with tranquillity1 and fell only after a long and obstinate resistance4 ,this fact1 and many others verified on the spot1 prove that the great jaguar99 of ,terra ,firma 799 ,felis onca1 ,linn41 which ,buffon called panthere oillee1 and which he believed came from ,africa471 like the jaguarete of ,paraguay1 and the real tiger of ,asia1 does not flee from man when it is dared to close combat1 and when not intimidated by the number of its assailants4 ,naturalists at present admit that ,buffon was entirely mistaken with respect to the greatest of the feline race of ,america4 ,what ,buffon says of the cowardice of tigers of the new continent1 relates to the small ocelots499 799 ,felis pardalis1 ,linn41 or the chibiguazu of ,azara1 different from the ,tlateo-,ocelotl1 or tiger-cat of the ,aztecs47 ,at the ,orinoco1 the real jaguar of ,america sometimes leaps into the water1 to attack the ,indians in their canoes4 ,opposite the farm of ,bermudez1 two spacious caverns open into the crevice of ,cuchivano1 whence at times there issue flames1 which may be seen at a great distance in the night2 and1 judging by the elevation of the rocks1 above which these fiery exhalations ascend1 we should be led to think that they rise several hundred feet4 ,this phenomenon was accompanied by a subterranean1 dull1 and long continued noise1 at the time of the last great earthquake of ,cumana4 ,it is observed chiefly during the rainy season2 and the owners of the farms opposite the mountain of ,cuchivano allege that the flames have become more frequent since ,december #agig4 ,in a herborizing excursion we made at ,rinconada we attempted to penetrate into the crevice1 wishing to examine the rocks which seemed to contain in their bosom the cause of these extraordinary conflagrations2 but the strength of the vegetation1 the interweaving of the lianas1 and thorny plants1 hindered our progress4 ,happily the inhabitants of the valley themselves felt a warm interest in our researches1 less from the fear of a volcanic explosion1 than because their minds were impressed with the idea that the ,risco del ,cuchivano contained a gold mine2 and although we expressed our doubts of the existence of gold in a secondary limestone1 they insisted on knowing what the ,german miner thought of the richness of the vein4 ,ever since the time of ,charles ,v and the government of the ,welsers1 the ,alfingers1 and the ,sailers1 at ,coro and ,caracas1 the people of ,terra ,firma have entertained a great confidence in the ,germans with respect to all that relates to the working of mines4 ,wherever ,i went in ,south ,america1 when the place of my birth was known1 ,i was shown samples of ore4 ,in these colonies every ,frenchman is supposed to be a physician1 and every ,german a miner4 ,the farmers1 with the aid of their slaves1 opened a path across the woods to the first fall of the ,rio ,juagua2 and on the #ajth of ,september we made our excursion to the ,cuchivano4 ,on entering the crevice we recognised the proximity of tigers by a porcupine recently emboweled4 ,for greater security the ,indians returned to the farm1 and brought back some dogs of a very small breed4 ,we were assured that in the event of our meeting a jaguar in a narrow path he would spring on the dog rather than on a man4 ,we did not proceed along the brink of the torrent1 but on the slope of the rocks which overhung the water4 ,we walked on the side of a precipice from two to three hundred feet deep1 on a kind of very narrow cornice1 like the road which leads from the ,grindelwald along the ,mettenberg to the great glacier4 ,when the cornice was so narrow that we could find no place for our feet1 we descended into the torrent1 crossed it by fording1 and then climbed the opposite wall4 ,these descents are very fatiguing1 and it is not safe to trust to the lianas1 which hang like great cords from the tops of the trees4 ,the creeping and parasite plants cling but feebly to the branches which they embrace2 the united weight of their stalks is considerable1 and you run the risk of pulling down a whole mass of verdure1 if1 in walking on a sloping ground1 you support your weight by the lianas4 ,the farther we advanced the thicker the vegetation became4 ,in several places the roots of the trees had burst the calcareous rock1 by inserting themselves into the clefts that separate the beds4 ,we had some trouble to carry the plants which we gathered at every step4 ,the cannas1 the heliconias with fine purple flowers1 the costuses1 and other plants of the amomum family1 here attain eight or ten feet in height1 and their fresh tender verdure1 their silky gloss1 and the extraordinary development of the parenchyma1 form a striking contrast with the brown colour of the arborescent ferns1 the foliage of which is delicately shaped4 ,the ,indians made incisions with their large knives in the trunks of the trees1 and fixed our attention on those beautiful red and gold-coloured woods1 which will one day be sought for by our turners and cabinet-makers4 ,they showed us a plant of the compositae order1 twenty feet high 7the ,eupatorium laevigatum of ,lamarck71 the rose of ,belveria199 799 ,brownea racemosa47 celebrated for the brilliancy of its purple flowers1 and the dragon's-blood of this country1 which is a kind of croton not yet described499 799 ,plants of families entirely different are called in the ,spanish colonies of both continents1 sangre de draco2 they are dracaenas1 pterocarpi1 and crotons4 ,father ,caulin ,descrip4 ,corografica page #be1 in speaking of resins found in the forests of ,cumana1 makes a just distinction between the ,draco de la ,sierra de ,unare1 which has pinnate leaves 7,pterocarpus ,draco71 and the ,draco de la ,sierra de ,paria1 with entire and hairy leaves4 ,the latter is the ,croton sanguifluum of ,cumanacoa1 ,caripe1 and ,cariaco4 7 ,the red and astringent juice of this plant is employed to strengthen the gums4 ,the ,indians recognize the species by the smell1 and more particularly by chewing the woody fibres4 ,two natives1 to whom the same wood was given to chew1 pronounced without hesitation the same name4 ,we could avail ourselves but little of the sagacity of our guides1 for how could we procure leaves1 flowers1 and fruits growing on trunks1 the branches of which commence at fifty or sixty feet high8 ,we were struck at finding in this hollow the bark of trees1 and even the soil1 covered with moss99 and lichens4 799 ,real musci frondosi4 ,we also found1 besides a small ,boletus stipitatus1 of a snow-white colour1 the ,boletus igniarius1 and the ,lycoperdon stellatum of ,europe4 ,i had found this last only in very dry places in ,germany and ,poland47 ,the cryptogamous plants are here as common as in northern countries4 ,their growth is favoured by the moisture of the air1 and the absence of the direct rays of the sun4 ,nevertheless the temperature is generally at #be degrees in the day1 and #ai degrees at night4 ,the rocks which bound the crevice of ,cuchivano are perpendicular like walls1 and are of the same calcareous formation which we observed the whole way from ,punta ,delgada4 ,it is here a blackish grey1 of compact fracture1 tending sometimes towards the sandy fracture1 and crossed by small veins of white carbonated lime4 ,in these characteristic marks we thought we discovered the alpine limestone of ,switzerland and the ,tyrol1 of which the colour is always deep1 though in a less degree than that of the transition limestone499 799 ,escher1 in the ,alpina volume #d page #cdj47 ,the first of these formations constitutes the ,cuchivano1 the nucleus of the ,imposible1 and in general the whole group of the mountains of ,new ,andalusia4 ,i saw no petrifactions in it2 but the inhabitants assert that considerable masses of shells are found at great heights4 ,the same phenomenon occurs in the country about ,salzburg499 799 ,in ,switzerland1 the solitary beds of shells1 at the height of from #acjj to #bjjj toises 7in the ,jungfrauhorn1 the ,dent de ,morcle1 and the ,dent du ,midi71 belong to transition limestone47 ,at the ,cuchivano the alpine limestone contains beds of marly clay199 799,mergelschiefer47 three or four toises thick2 and this geological fact proves on the one hand the identity of the alpenkalkstein with the zechstein of ,thuringia1 and on the other the affinity of formation existing between the alpine limestone and that of the ,jura499 799 ,the ,jura and the ,alpine limestone are kindred formations1 and they are sometimes difficult to be distinguished1 where they lie immediately one upon another1 as in the ,apennines4 ,the alpine limestone and the zechstein1 famous among the geologists of ,freyberg1 are identical formations4 ,this identity1 which ,i noticed in the year #agic 7,uber die ,grubenwetter71 is a geological fact the more interesting1 as it seems to unite the northern ,european formations to those of the central chain4 ,it is known that the zechstein is situated between the muriatiferous gypsum and the conglomerate 7ancient sandstone72 or where there is no muriatiferous gypsum1 between the slaty sandstone with roestones 7buntesandstein1 ,wern471 and the conglomerate or ancient sandstone4 ,it contains strata of schistous and coppery marl 7bituminoce mergel and kupferschiefer7 which form an important object in the working of mines at ,mansfeld in ,saxony1 near ,riegelsdorf in ,hesse1 and at ,hasel and ,prausnitz1 in ,silesia4 ,in the southern part of ,bavaria 7,oberbaiern71 ,i saw the alpine limestone1 containing these same strata of schistous clay and marl1 which1 though thinner1 whiter1 and especially more frequent1 characterize the limestone of ,jura4 ,respecting the slates of ,blattenberg1 in the canton of ,glaris which some mineralogists1 because of their numerous impressions of fish1 have long mistaken for the cupreous slates of ,mansfeld1 they belong1 according to ,m4 von ,buch1 to a real transition formation4 ,all these geological data tend to prove that strata of marl1 more or less mixed with carbon1 are to be found in the limestone of ,jura1 in the alpine limestone1 and in the transition schists4 ,the mixture of carbon1 sulphuretted iron1 and copper1 appears to me to augment with the relative antiquity of the formations47 ,the strata of marl effervesce with acids1 though silex and alumina predominate in them3 they are strongly impregnated with carbon1 and sometimes blacken the hands1 like a real vitriolic schistus4 ,the supposed gold mine of ,cuchivano1 which was the object of our examination1 is nothing but an excavation cut into one of those black strata of marl1 which contain pyrites in abundance4 ,the excavation is on the right bank of the river ,juagua1 and must be approached with caution1 because the torrent there is more than eight feet deep4 ,the sulphurous pyrites are found1 some massive1 and others crystallized and disseminated in the rock2 their colour1 of a very clear golden yellow1 does not indicate that they contain copper4 ,they are mixed with fibrous sulphuret of iron199 799 ,haarkies47 and nodules of swinestone1 or fetid carbonate of lime4 ,the marly stratum crosses the torrent2 and1 as the water washes out metallic grains1 the people imagine1 on account of the brilliancy of the pyrites1 that the torrent bears down gold4 ,it is reported that1 after the great earthquake which took place in #agff1 the waters of the ,juagua were so charged with gold that men who came from a great distance1 and whose country was unknown1 established washing-places on the spot4 ,they disappeared during the night1 after having collected a great quantity of gold4 ,it would be needless to show that this is a fable4 ,pyrites dispersed in quartzose veins1 crossing the mica-slate1 are often auriferous1 no doubt2 but no analogous fact leads to the supposition that the sulphuretted iron which is found in the schistose marls of the alpine limestone1 contains gold4 ,some direct experiments1 made with acids1 during my abode at ,caracas1 showed that the pyrites of ,cuchivano are not auriferous4 ,our guides were amazed at my incredulity4 ,in vain ,i repeated that alum and sulphate of iron only could be obtained from this supposed gold mine2 they continued picking up secretly every bit of pyrites they saw sparkling in the water4 ,in countries possessing few mines1 the inhabitants entertain exaggerated ideas respecting the facility with which riches are drawn from the bowels of the earth4 ,how much time did we not lose during five years' travels1 in visiting1 on the pressing invitations of our hosts1 ravines1 of which the pyritous strata have borne for ages the imposing names of ',minas de oro6' ,how often have we been grieved to see men of all classes1 magistrates1 pastors of villages1 grave missionaries1 grinding1 with inexhaustible patience1 amphibole1 or yellow mica1 in the hope of extracting gold from it by means of mercury6 ,this rage for the search of mines strikes us the more in a climate where the ground needs only to be slightly raked to produce abundant harvests4 ,after visiting the pyritous marls of the ,rio ,juagua1 we continued following the course of the crevice1 which stretches along like a narrow canal overshadowed by very lofty trees4 ,we observed strata on the left bank1 opposite ,cerro del ,cuchivano1 singularly crooked and twisted4 ,this phenomenon ,i had often admired at the ,ochsenberg1 99 in passing the lake of ,lucerne4 799 ,this mountain of ,switzerland is composed of transition limestone4 ,we find these same inflexions in the strata near ,bonneville1 at ,nante d',arpenas in ,savoy1 and in the valley of ,estaubee in the ,pyrenees4 ,another transition rock1 the grauwakke of the ,germans 7very near the ,english killas71 exhibits the same phenomenon in ,scotland47 ,the calcareous beds of the ,cuchivano and the neighbouring mountains keep pretty regularly the direction of north-north-east and south-south-west4 ,their inclination is sometimes north and sometimes south2 most commonly they seem to take a direction towards the valley of ,cumanacoa2 and it cannot be doubted that the valley has an influence99 on the inclination of the strata4 799 ,the same observation may apply to the lake of ,gemunden in ,styria1 which ,i visited with ,m4 von ,buch1 and which is one of the most picturesque situations in ,europe47 ,we had suffered great fatigue1 and were quite drenched by frequently crossing the torrent1 when we reached the caverns of the ,cuchivano4 ,a wall of rock there rises perpendicularly to the height of eight hundred toises4 ,it is seldom that in a zone where the force of vegetation everywhere conceals the soil and the rocks1 we behold a great mountain presenting naked strata in a perpendicular section4 ,in the middle of this section1 and in a position unfortunately inaccessible to man1 two caverns open in the form of crevices4 ,we were assured that they are inhabited by nocturnal birds1 the same as those we were soon to become acquainted with in the ,cueva del ,guacharo of ,caripe4 ,near these caverns we saw strata of schistose marl1 and found1 with great astonishment1 rock-crystals encased in beds of alpine limestone4 ,they were hexahedral prisms1 terminated with pyramids1 fourteen lines long and eight thick4 ,the crystals1 perfectly transparent1 were solitary1 and often three or four toises distant from each other4 ,they were enclosed in the calcareous mass1 as the quartz crystals of ,burgtonna199 799 ,in the duchy of ,gotha47 and the boracite of ,lunebourg1 are contained in gypsum4 ,there was no crevice near1 or any vestige of calcareous spar499 799 ,this phenomenon reminds us of another equally rare1 the quartz crystals found by ,m4 ,freiesleben in ,saxony1 near ,burgorner1 in the county of ,mansfeld1 in the middle of a rock of porous limestone 7rauchwakke71 lying immediately on the alpine limestone4 ,the rock crystals1 which are pretty common in the primitive limestone of ,carrara1 line the insides of cavities in the rocks1 without being enveloped by the rock itself47 ,we reposed at the foot of the cavern whence those flames were seen to issue1 which of late years have become more frequent4 ,our guides and the farmer1 an intelligent man1 equally acquainted with the localities of the province1 discussed1 in the manner of the ,creoles1 the dangers to which the town of ,cumanacoa would be exposed if the ,cuchivano became an active volcano1 or1 as they expressed it1 se veniesse a reventar4 ,it appeared to them evident1 that since the great earthquakes of ,quito and ,cumana in #agig1 ,new ,andalusia was every day more and more undermined by subterranean fires4 ,they cited the flames which had been seen to issue from the earth at ,cumana2 and the shocks felt in places where heretofore the ground had never been shaken4 ,they recollected that at ,macarapan1 sulphurous emanations had been frequently perceived for some months past4 ,we were struck with these facts1 upon which were founded predictions that have since been almost all realized4 ,enormous convulsions of the earth took place at ,caracas in #ahab1 and proved how tumultuously nature is agitated in the north-east part of ,terra ,firma4 ,but what is the cause of the luminous phenomena which are observed in the ,cuchivano8 ,the column of air which rises from the mouth of a burning volcano99 is sometimes observed to shine with a splendid light4 799 ,we must not confound this very rare phenomenon with the glimmering commonly observed a few toises above the brink of a crater1 and which 7as ,i remarked at ,mount ,vesuvius in #ahje7 is only the reflection of great masses of inflamed scoria1 thrown up without sufficient force to pass the mouth of the volcano47 ,this light1 which is believed to be owing to the hydrogen gas1 was observed from ,chillo1 on the summit of the ,cotopaxi1 at a time when the mountain seemed in the greatest repose4 ,according to the statements of the ancients1 the ,mons ,albanus1 near ,rome1 known at present under the name of ,monte ,cavo1 appeared at times on fire during the night2 but the ,mons ,albanus is a volcano recently extinguished1 which1 in the time of ,cato1 threw out rapilli299 799 ,albano monte biduum continenter lapidibus pluit4--,livy lib4 #be cap4 #g4 7,heyne1 ,opuscula ,acad4 tome #c page #bfa477 while the ,cuchivano is a calcareous mountain1 remote from any trap formation4 ,can these flames be attributed to the decomposition of water1 entering into contact with the pyrites dispersed through the schistose marl8 or is it inflamed hydrogen that issues from the cavern of ,cuchivano8 ,the marls1 as the smell indicates1 are pyritous and bituminous at the same time2 and the petroleum springs at the ,buen ,pastor1 and in the island of ,trinidad1 proceed probably from these same beds of alpine limestone4 ,it would be easy to suppose some connexion between the waters filtering through this calcareous stone1 and decomposed by pyrites and the earthquakes of ,cumana1 the springs of sulphuretted hydrogen in ,new ,barcelona1 the beds of native sulphur at ,carupano1 and the emanations of sulphurous acid which are perceived at times in the savannahs4 ,it cannot be doubted also1 that the decomposition of water by the pyrites at an elevated temperature1 favoured by the affinity of oxidated iron for earthy substances1 may have caused that disengagement of hydrogen gas1 to the action of which several modern geologists have attributed so much importance4 ,but in general1 sulphurous acid is perceived more commonly than hydrogen in the eruption of volcanoes1 and the odour of that acid principally prevails while the earth is agitated by violent shocks4 ,when we take a general view of the phenomena of volcanoes and earthquakes1 when we recollect the enormous distance at which the commotion is propagated below the basin of the sea1 we readily discard explanations founded on small strata of pyrites and bituminous marls4 ,i am of opinion that the shocks so frequently felt in the province of ,cumana are as little to be attributed to the rocks above the surface of the earth1 as those which agitate the ,apennines are assignable to asphaltic veins or springs of burning petroleum4 ,the whole of these phenomena depend on more general1 ,i would almost say on deeper1 causes2 and it is not in the secondary strata which form the exterior crust of our globe1 but in the primitive rocks1 at an enormous distance from the soil1 that we should seek the focus of volcanic action4 ,the greater progress we make in geology1 the more we feel the insufficiency of theories founded on observations merely local4 ,on the #abth of ,september we continued our journey to the convent of ,caripe1 the principal settlement of the ,chayma missions4 ,we chose1 instead of the direct road1 that by the mountains of the ,cocollar99 799 ,is this name of ,indian origin8 ,at ,cumana ,i heard it derived in a manner somewhat far-fetched from the ,spanish word cogollo1 signifying the heart of oleraceous plants4 ,the ,cocollar forms the centre of the whole group of the mountains of ,new ,andalusia47 and the ,turimiquiri1 the height of which little exceeds that of ,jura4 ,the road first runs eastward1 crossing over the length of three leagues the table-land of ,cumanacoa1 in a soil formerly levelled by the waters3 it then turns to the south4 ,we passed the little ,indian village of ,aricagua surrounded by woody hills4 ,thence we began to ascend1 and the ascent lasted more than four hours4 ,we crossed two-and-twenty times the river of ,pututucuar1 a rapid torrent1 full of blocks of calcareous rock4 ,when1 on the ,cuesta del ,cocollar1 we reached an elevation two thousand feet above the level of the sea1 we were surprised to find scarcely any forests or great trees4 ,we passed over an immense plain covered with gramineous plants4 ,mimosas with hemispheric tops1 and stems only four or five feet high1 alone vary the dull uniformity of the savannahs4 ,their branches are bent towards the ground or spread out like umbrellas4 ,wherever there are deep declivities1 or masses of rocks half covered with mould1 the clusia or cupey1 with great nymphaea flowers1 displays its beautiful verdure4 ,the roots of this tree are eight inches in diameter1 and they sometimes shoot out from the trunk at the height of fifteen feet above the soil4 ,after having climbed the mountain for a considerable time1 we reached a small plain at the ,hato del ,cocollar4 ,this is a solitary farm1 situated on a table-land #djh toises high4 ,we rested three days in this retreat1 where we were treated with great kindness by the proprietor1 ,don ,mathias ,yturburi1 a native of ,biscay1 who had accompanied us from the port of ,cumana4 ,we there found milk1 excellent meat from the richness of the pasture1 and above all1 a delightful climate4 ,during the day the centigrade thermometer did not rise above #bb or #bc degrees2 a little before sunset it fell to #ai1 and at night it scarcely kept up to #ad degrees499 799 #aa4b degrees ,reaum47 ,the nightly temperature was consequently seven degrees colder than that of the coasts1 which is a fresh proof of an extremely rapid decrement of heat1 the table-land of ,cocollar being less elevated than the site of the town of ,caracas4 ,as far as the eye could reach1 we perceived1 from this elevated point1 only naked savannahs4 ,small tufts of scattered trees rise in the ravines2 and notwithstanding the apparent uniformity of vegetation1 great numbers of curious plants99 are found here4 799 ,cassia acuta1 ,andromeda rigida1 ,casearia hypericifolia1 ,myrtus longifolia1 ,buettneria salicifolia1 ,glycine picta1 ,g4 pratensis1 ,g4 gibba1 ,oxalis umbrosa1 ,malpighia caripensis1 ,cephaelis salicifolia1 ,stylosanthes angustifolia1 ,salvia pseudococcinea1 ,eryngium foetidum4 ,we found a second time this last plant1 but at a considerable height1 in the great forests of bark trees surrounding the town of ,loxa1 in the centre of the ,cordilleras47 ,we shall only speak of a superb lobelia99 with purple flowers 799 ,lobelia spectabilis472 the ,brownea coccinea1 which is upwards of a hundred feet high2 and above all2 the pejoa1 celebrated in the country on account of the delightful and aromatic perfume emitted by its leaves when rubbed between the fingers499 799 ,it is the ,gualtheria odorata4 ,the pejoa is found round the lake of ,cocollar1 which gives birth to the great river ,guarapiche4 ,we met with the same shrub at the ,cuchilla de ,guanaguana4 ,it is a subalpine plant1 which forms at the ,silla de ,caracas a zone much higher than in the province of ,cumana4 ,the leaves of the pejoa have even a more agreeable smell than those of the ,myrtus pimenta1 but they yield no perfume when rubbed a few hours after their separation from the tree47 ,but the great charms of this solitary place were the beauty and serenity of the nights4 ,the proprietor of the farm1 who spent his evenings with us1 seemed to enjoy the astonishment produced on ,europeans newly transplanted to the tropics1 by that vernal freshness of the air which is felt on the mountains after sunset4 ,in those distant regions1 where men yet feel the full value of the gifts of nature1 a land-holder boasts of the water of his spring1 the absence of noxious insects1 the salutary breeze that blows round his hill1 as we in ,europe descant on the conveniences of our dwellings1 and the picturesque effect of our plantations4 ,our host had visited the new world with an expedition which was to form establishments for felling wood for the ,spanish navy on the shores of the gulf of ,paria4 ,in the vast forests of mahogany1 cedar1 and brazil-wood1 which border the ,caribbean ,sea1 it was proposed to select the trunks of the largest trees1 giving them in a rough way the shape adapted to the building of ships1 and sending them every year to the dockyard near ,cadiz4 ,white men1 unaccustomed to the climate1 could not support the fatigue of labour1 the heat1 and the effect of the noxious air exhaled by the forests4 ,the same winds which are loaded with the perfume of flowers1 leaves1 and woods1 infuse also1 as we may say1 the germs of dissolution into the vital organs4 ,destructive fevers carried off not only the ship-carpenters1 but the persons who had the management of the establishment2 and this bay1 which the early ,spaniards named ,golfo ,triste 7,melancholy ,bay71 on account of the gloomy and wild aspect of its coasts1 became the grave of ,european seamen4 ,our host had the rare good fortune to escape these dangers4 ,after having witnessed the death of a great number of his friends1 he withdrew from the coast to the mountains of ,cocollar4 ,nothing can be compared to the majestic tranquillity which the aspect of the firmament presents in this solitary region4 ,when tracing with the eye1 at night-fall1 the meadows which bounded the horizon1--the plain covered with verdure and gently undulated1 we thought we beheld from afar1 as in the deserts of the ,orinoco1 the surface of the ocean supporting the starry vault of ,heaven4 ,the tree under which we were seated1 the luminous insects flying in the air1 the constellations which shone in the south2 every object seemed to tell us how far we were from our native land4 ,if amidst this exotic nature we heard from the depth of the valley the tinkling of a bell1 or the lowing of herds1 the remembrance of our country was awakened suddenly4 ,the sounds were like distant voices resounding from beyond the ocean1 and with magical power transporting us from one hemisphere to the other4 ,strange mobility of the imagination of man1 eternal source of our enjoyments and our pains6 ,we began in the cool of the morning to climb the ,turimiquiri4 ,this is the name given to the summit of the ,cocollar1 which1 with the ,brigantine1 forms one single mass of mountain1 formerly called by the natives the ,sierra de los ,tageres4 ,we travelled along a part of the road on horses1 which roam about these savannahs2 but some of them are used to the saddle4 ,though their appearance is very heavy1 they pass lightly over the most slippery turf4 ,we first stopped at a spring issuing1 not from the calcareous rock1 but from a layer of quartzose sandstone4 ,the temperature was #ba degrees1 consequently #a4e degrees less than the spring of ,quetepe2 and the difference of the level is nearly #bbj toises4 ,wherever the sandstone appears above ground the soil is level1 and constitutes as it were small platforms1 succeeding each other like steps4 ,to the height of #gjj toises1 and even beyond1 this mountain1 like those in its vicinity1 is covered only with gramineous plants499 799 ,the most abundant species are the paspalus2 the ,andropogon fastigiatum1 which forms the genus ,diectomis of ,m4 ,palissot de ,beauvais2 and the ,panicum olyroides47 ,the absence of trees is attributed at ,cumana to the great elevation of the ground2 but a slight reflection on the distribution of plants in the ,cordilleras of the torrid zone will lead us to conceive that the summits of ,new ,andalusia are very far from reaching the superior limit of the trees1 which in this latitude is at least #ahjj toises of absolute height4 ,the smooth turf of the ,cocollar begins to appear at #cej toises above the level of the sea1 and the traveller may contrive to walk upon this turf till he reaches a thousand toises in height4 ,farther on1 beyond this band covered with gramineous plants1 we found1 amidst peaks almost inaccessible to man1 a small forest of cedrela1 javillo199 799 ,huras crepitans1 of the family of the euphorbias4 ,the growth of its trunk is so enormous1 that ,m4 ,bonpland measured vats of javillo wood1 #ad feet long and #h wide4 ,these vats1 made from one log of wood1 are employed to keep the guarapo1 or juice of the sugar-cane1 and the molasses4 ,the seeds of javillo are a very active poison1 and the milk that issues from the petioles1 when broken1 frequently produced inflammation in our eyes1 if by chance the least quantity penetrated under the eyelids47 and mahogany4 ,these local circumstances induce me to think that the mountainous savannahs of the ,cocollar and ,turimiquiri owe their existence only to the destructive custom practised by the natives of setting fire to the woods when they want to convert the soil into pasturage4 ,where1 during the lapse of three centuries1 grasses and alpine plants have covered the soil with a thick carpet1 the seeds of trees can no longer germinate and fix themselves in the earth1 though birds and winds convey them continually from the distant forests into the savannahs4 ,the climate of these mountains is so mild that at the farm of the ,cocollar the cotton and coffee tree1 and even the sugar cane1 are cultivated with success4 ,whatever the inhabitants of the coasts may allege1 hoar-frost has never been found in the latitude of #aj degrees1 on heights scarcely exceeding those of the ,mont d',or1 or the ,puy-de-,dome4 ,the pastures of ,turimiquiri become less rich in proportion to the elevation4 ,wherever scattered rocks afford shade1 lichens and some ,european mosses are found4 ,the ,melastoma guacito199 799 ,melastoma xanthostachys1 called guacito at ,caracas47 and a shrub1 the large and tough leaves of which rustle like parchment99 when shaken by the winds1 799 ,palicourea rigida1 chaparro bovo4 ,in the savannahs1 or llanos1 the same ,castilian name is given to a tree of the family of the proteaceae47 rise here and there in the savannah4 ,but the principal ornament of the turf of these mountains is a liliaceous plant with golden flowers1 the ,marica martinicensis4 ,it is generally observed in the province of ,cumana and ,caracas only at #djj or #ejj toises of elevation499 799 ,for example1 in the ,montana de ,avila1 on the road from ,caracas to ,la ,guayra1 and in the ,silla de ,caracas4 ,the seeds of the marica are ripe at the end of ,december47 ,the whole rocky mass of the ,turimiquiri is composed of an alpine limestone1 like that of ,cumanacoa1 and a pretty thin strata of marl and quartzose sandstone4 ,the limestone contains masses of brown oxidated iron and carbonate of iron4 ,i have observed in several places1 and very distinctly1 that the sandstone not only reposes on the limestone1 but that this last rock frequently includes and alternates with the sandstone4 ,we distinguished clearly the round summit of the ,turimiquiri and the lofty peaks or1 as they are called1 the ,cucuruchos1 covered with thick vegetation1 and infested by tigers which are hunted for the beauty of their skin4 ,this round summit1 which is covered with turf1 is #gjg toises above the level of the ocean4 ,a ridge of steep rocks stretches out westward1 and is broken at the distance of a mile by an enormous crevice that descends toward the gulf of ,cariaco4 ,at the point which might be supposed to be the continuation of the ridge1 two calcareous paps or peaks arise1 the most northern of which is the loftiest4 ,it is this last which is more particularly called the ,cucurucho de ,turimiquiri1 and which is considered to be higher than the mountain of the ,brigantine1 so well known by the sailors who frequent the coasts of ,cumana4 ,we measured1 by angles of elevation1 and a basis1 rather short1 traced on the round summit1 the peak of ,cucurucho1 which was about #cej toises higher than our station1 so that its absolute height exceeded #ajej toises4 ,the view we enjoyed on the ,turimiquiri is of vast extent1 and highly picturesque4 ,from the summer to the ocean we perceived chains of mountains extended in parallel lines from east to west1 and bounding longitudinal valleys4 ,these valleys are intersected at right angles by an infinite number of small ravines1 scooped out by the torrents3 the consequence is1 that the lateral ranges are transformed into so many rows of paps1 some round and others pyramidal4 ,the ground in general is a gentle slope as far as the ,imposible2 ,farther on the precipices become bold1 and continue so to the shore of the gulf of ,cariaco4 ,the form of this mass of mountains reminded us of the chain of the ,jura2 and the only plain that presents itself is the valley of ,cumanacoa4 ,we seemed to look down into the bottom of a funnel1 in which we could distinguish1 amidst tufts of scattered trees1 the ,indian village of ,aricagua4 ,towards the north1 a narrow slip of land1 the peninsula of ,araya1 formed a dark stripe on the sea1 which1 being illumined by the rays of the sun1 reflected a strong light4 ,beyond the peninsula the horizon was bounded by ,cape ,macanao1 the black rocks of which rise amid the waters like an immense bastion4 ,the farm of the ,cocollar1 situated at the foot of the ,turimiquiri1 is in latitude #ai degrees #i minutes #cb seconds4 ,i found the dip of the needle #db4a degrees4 ,the needle oscillates #bbi times in ten minutes4 ,possibly masses of brown iron-ore1 included in the calcareous rock1 caused a slight augmentation in the intensity of the magnetic forces4 ,on the #adth of ,september we descended the ,cocollar1 toward the ,mission of ,san ,antonio4 ,after crossing several savannahs strewed with large blocks of calcareous stone1 we entered a thick forest4 ,having passed two ridges of extremely steep mountains199 799 ,these ridges1 which are rather difficult to climb towards the end of the rainy season1 are distinguished by the names of ,los ,yepes and ,fantasma47 we discovered a fine valley five or six leagues in length1 pretty uniformly following the direction of east and west4 ,in this valley are situated the ,missions of ,san ,antonio and ,guanaguana2 the first is famous on account of a small church with two towers1 built of brick1 in pretty good style1 and ornamented with columns of the ,doric order4 ,it is the wonder of the country4 ,the prefect of the ,capuchins completed the building of this church in less than two summers1 though he employed only the ,indians of his village4 ,the mouldings of the capitals1 the cornices1 and a frieze decorated with suns and arabesques1 are executed in clay mixed with pounded brick4 ,if we are surprised to find churches in the purest ,grecian style on the confines of ,lapland199 799 ,at ,skelefter1 near ,torneo4--,buch1 ,voyage en ,norwege47 we are still more struck with these first essays of art1 in a region where everything indicates the wild state of man1 and where the basis of civilization has not been laid by ,europeans more than forty years4 ,i stopped at the ,mission of ,san ,antonio only to open the barometer1 and to take a few altitudes of the sun4 ,the elevation of the great square above ,cumana is #baf toises4 ,after having crossed the village1 we forded the rivers ,colorado and ,guarapiche1 both of which rise in the mountains of the ,cocollar1 and blend their waters lower down towards the east4 ,the ,colorado has a very rapid current1 and becomes at its mouth broader than the ,rhine4 ,the ,guarapiche1 at its junction with the ,rio ,areo1 is more than twenty-five fathoms deep4 ,its banks are ornamented by a superb gramen1 of which ,i made a drawing two years afterward on ascending the river ,magdalena4 ,the distich-leaved stalk of this gramen often reaches the height of fifteen or twenty feet499 799 ,lata1 or cana brava4 ,it is a new genus1 between aira and arundo4 ,this colossal gramen looks like the donax of ,italy4 ,this1 the arundinaria of the ,mississippi1 7ludolfia1 ,willd41 miegia of ,persoon17 and the bamboos1 are the highest gramens of the ,new ,continent4 ,its seed has been carried to ,st4 ,domingo1 where its stalk is employed to thatch the negroes' huts47 ,towards evening we reached the ,mission of ,guanaguana1 the site of which is almost on a level with the village of ,san ,antonio4 ,the missionary received us cordially2 he was an old man1 and he seemed to govern his ,indians with great intelligence4 ,the village has existed only thirty years on the spot it now occupies4 ,before that time it was more to the south1 and was backed by a hill4 ,it is astonishing with what facility the ,indians are induced to remove their dwellings4 ,there are villages in ,south ,america which in less than half a century have thrice changed their situation4 ,the native finds himself attached by ties so feeble to the soil he inhabits1 that he receives with indifference the order to take down his house and to rebuild it elsewhere4 ,a village changes its situation like a camp4 ,wherever clay1 reeds1 and the leaves of the palm or heliconia are found1 a house is built in a few days4 ,these compulsory changes have often no other motive than the caprice of a missionary1 who1 having recently arrived from ,spain1 fancies that the situation of the ,mission is feverish1 or that it is not sufficiently exposed to the winds4 ,whole villages have been transported several leagues1 merely because the monk did not find the prospect from his house sufficiently beautiful or extensive4 ,guanaguana has as yet no church4 ,the old monk1 who during thirty years had lived in the forests of ,america1 observed to us that the money of the community1 or the produce of the labour of the ,indians1 was employed first in the construction of the missionary's house1 next in that of the church1 and lastly in the clothing of the ,indians4 ,he gravely assured us that this order of things could not be changed on any pretence1 and that the ,indians1 who prefer a state of nudity to the slightest clothing1 are in no hurry for their turn in the destination of the funds4 ,the spacious abode of the padre had just been finished1 and we had remarked with surprise1 that the house1 the roof of which formed a terrace1 was furnished with a great number of chimneys that looked like turrets4 ,this1 our host told us1 was done to remind him of a country dear to his recollection1 and to picture to his mind the winters of ,aragon amid the heat of the torrid zone4 ,the ,indians of ,guanaguana cultivate cotton for their own benefit as well as for that of the church and the missionary4 ,the natives have machines of a very simple construction to separate the cotton from the seeds4 ,these are wooden cylinders of extremely small diameter1 within which the cotton passes1 and which are made to turn by a treadle4 ,these machines1 however imperfect1 are very useful1 and they begin to be imitated in other ,missions4 ,the soil of ,guanaguana is not less fertile than that of ,aricagua1 a small neighbouring village1 which has also preserved its ancient ,indian name4 ,an almuda of land1 #ahej square toises1 produces in abundant years from #be to #cj fanegas of maize1 each fanega weighing #ajj pounds4 ,but here1 as in other places1 where the bounty of nature retards industry1 a very small number of acres are cleared1 and the culture of alimentary plants is neglected4 ,scarcity of subsistence is felt1 whenever the harvest is lost by a protracted drought4 ,the ,indians of ,guanaguana related to us as a fact not uncommon1 that in the preceding year they1 their wives1 and their children1 had been for three months al monte2 by which they meant1 wandering in the neighbouring forests1 to live on succulent plants1 palm-cabbages1 fern roots1 and fruits of wild trees4 ,they did not speak of this nomad life as of a state of privation4 ,the beautiful valley of ,guanaguana stretches towards the east1 opening into the plains of ,punzera and ,terecen4 ,we wished to visit those plains1 and examine the springs of petroleum1 lying between the river ,guarapiche and the ,rio ,areo2 but the rainy season had already arrived1 and we were in daily perplexity how to dry and preserve the plants we had collected4 ,the road from ,guanaguana to the village of ,punzera runs either by ,san ,felix or by ,caycara and ,guayuta1 which is a farm for cattle 7hato7 of the missionaries4 ,in this last place1 according to the report of the ,indians1 great masses of sulphur are found1 not in a gypseous or calcareous rock1 but at a small depth below the soil1 in a bed of clay4 ,this singular phenomenon appears to me peculiar to ,america2 we found it also in the kingdom of ,quito1 and in ,new ,spain4 ,on approaching ,punzera1 we saw in the savannahs small bags1 formed of a silky tissue suspended from the branches of the lowest trees4 ,it is the seda silvestre1 or wild silk of the country1 which has a beautiful lustre1 but is very rough to the touch4 ,the phalaena which produces it is probably analogous with that of the provinces of ,gua8uato and ,antioquia1 which also furnish wild silk4 ,we found in the beautiful forest of ,punzera two trees known by the names of curucay and canela2 the former1 of which we shall speak hereafter1 yields a resin very much sought after by the ,piaches1 or ,indian sorcerers2 the leaves of the latter have the smell of the real cinnamon of ,ceylon499 799 ,is this the ,laurus cinnamomoides of ,mutis8 ,what is that other cinnamon tree which the ,indians call tuorco1 common in the mountains of ,tocayo1 and at the sources of the ,rio ,uchere1 the bark of which is mixed with chocolate8 ,father ,caulin gives the name of curucay to the ,copaifera officinalis1 which yields the ,balsam of ,capivi4--,hist4 ,corograf41 pages #bd and #cd47 ,from ,punzera the road leads by ,terecin and ,nueva ,palencia1 7a new colony of ,canarians17 to the port of ,san ,juan1 situated on the right bank of the river ,areo2 and it is only by crossing this river in a canoe1 that the traveller can arrive at the famous petroleum springs 7or mineral tar7 of the ,buen ,pastor4 ,they were described to us as small wells or funnels1 hollowed out by nature in a marshy soil4 ,this phenomenon reminded us of the lake of asphaltum1 or of chopapote1 in the island of ,trinidad199 799 ,laguna de la ,brea1 south-east of the port of ,naparima4 ,there is another spring of asphaltum on the eastern coast of the island1 in the bay of ,mayaro47 which is distant from the ,buen ,pastor1 in a straight line1 only thirty-five sea leagues4 ,having long struggled to overcome the desire we felt to descend the ,guarapiche to the ,golfo ,triste1 we took the direct road to the mountains4 ,the valleys of ,guanaguana and ,caripe are separated by a kind of dyke1 or calcareous ridge1 well known by the name of the ,cuchilla99 de ,guanaguana4 799 ,literally blade of a knife4 ,throughout all ,spanish ,america the name of cuchilla is given to the ridge of a mountain terminated on each side by very steep declivities47 ,we found this passage difficult1 because at that time we had not climbed the ,cordilleras2 but it is by no means so dangerous as the people at ,cumana love to represent it4 ,the path is indeed in several parts only fourteen or fifteen inches broad2 and the ridge of the mountain1 along which the road runs1 is covered with a short slippery turf4 ,the slopes on each side are steep1 and the traveller1 should he stumble1 might slide down to the depth of seven or eight hundred feet4 ,nevertheless1 the flanks of the mountain are steep declivities rather than precipices2 and the mules of this country are so sure-footed that they inspire the greatest confidence4 ,their habits are identical with those of the beasts of burden in ,switzerland and the ,pyrenees4 ,in proportion as a country is wild1 the instinct of domestic animals improves in address and sagacity4 ,when the mules feel themselves in danger1 they stop1 turning their heads to the right and to the left2 and the motion of their ears seems to indicate that they reflect on the decision they ought to take4 ,their resolution is slow1 but always just1 if it be spontaneous2 that is to say1 if it be not thwarted or hastened by the imprudence of the traveller4 ,on the frightful roads of the ,andes1 during journeys of six or seven months across mountains furrowed by torrents1 the intelligence of horses and beasts of burden is manifested in an astonishing manner4 ,thus the mountaineers are heard to say1 ,i will not give you the mule whose step is the easiest1 but the one which is most intelligent 7la mas racional74 ,this popular expression1 dictated by long experience1 bears stronger evidence against the theory of animated machines1 than all the arguments of speculative philosophy4 ,when we had reached the highest point of the ridge or cuchilla of ,guanaguana1 an interesting spectacle unfolded itself before us4 ,we saw comprehended in one view the vast savannahs or meadows of ,maturin and of the ,rio ,tigre299 799 ,these natural meadows are part of the llanos or immense steppes bordered by the ,orinoco47 the peak of the ,turimiquiri299 799 ,el ,cucurucho47 and an infinite number of parallel ridges1 which1 seen at a distance1 looked like the waves of the sea4 ,on the north-east opens the valley in which is situated the convent of ,caripe4 ,the aspect of this valley is peculiarly attractive1 for being shaded by forests1 it forms a strong contrast with the nudity of the neighbouring mountains1 which are bare of trees1 and covered with gramineous plants4 ,we found the absolute height of the ,cuchilla to be #edh toises4 ,descending from the ridge by a winding path1 we entered into a completely woody country4 ,the soil is covered with moss1 and a new species of drosera199 799 ,drosera tenella47 which by its form reminded us of the drosera of the ,alps4 ,the thickness of the forests1 and the force of vegetation1 augmented as we approached the convent of ,caripe4 ,everything here changes its aspect1 even to the rock that accompanied us from ,punta ,delgada4 ,the calcareous strata becomes thinner1 forming graduated steps1 which stretch out like walls1 cornices1 and turrets1 as in the mountains of ,jura1 those of ,pappenheim in ,germany1 and near ,oizow in ,galicia4 ,the colour of the stone is no longer of a smoky or bluish grey2 it becomes white2 its fracture is smooth1 and sometimes even imperfectly conchoidal4 ,it is no longer the calcareous formation of the ,higher ,alps1 but a formation to which this serves as a basis1 and which is analogous to the ,jura limestone4 ,in the chain of the ,apennines1 between ,rome and ,nocera1 ,i observed this same immediate superposition499 799 ,in like manner1 near ,geneva1 the rock of the ,mole1 belonging to the ,alpine limestone1 lies under the ,jura limestone which forms ,mount ,saleve47 ,it indicates1 not the transition from one rock to another1 but the geological affinity existing between two formations4 ,according to the general type of the secondary strata1 recognised in a great part of ,europe1 the ,alpine limestone is separated from the ,jura limestone by the muriatiferous gypsum2 but often this latter is entirely wanting1 or is contained as a subordinate layer in the ,alpine limestone4 ,in this case the two great calcareous formations succeed each other immediately1 or are confounded in one mass4 ,the descent from the ,cuchilla is far shorter than the ascent4 ,we found the level of the valley of ,caripe #bjj toises higher than that of the valley of ,guanaguana499 799 ,absolute height of the convent above the level of the sea1 #dab toises47 ,a group of mountains of little breadth separates two valleys1 one of which is of delicious coolness1 while the other is famed for the heat of its climate4 ,these contrasts1 so common in ,mexico1 ,new ,grenada1 and ,peru1 are very rare in the north-east part of ,south ,america4 ,thus ,caripe is the only one of the high valleys of ,new ,andalusia which is much inhabited4 ,,chapter #a4g4 ,,convent ,,of ,,caripe4 ,,cavern ,,of ,,the ,,guacharo4 ,,nocturnal ,,birds4 ,an alley of perseas led us to the ,hospital of the ,aragonese ,capuchins4 ,we stopped near a cross of ,brazil-wood1 erected in the midst of a square1 and surrounded with benches1 on which the infirm monks seat themselves to tell their rosaries4 ,the convent is backed by an enormous wall of perpendicular rock1 covered with thick vegetation4 ,the stone1 which is of resplendent whiteness1 appears only here and there between the foliage4 ,it is difficult to imagine a more picturesque spot4 ,it recalled forcibly to my remembrance the valleys of ,derbyshire1 and the cavernous mountains of ,muggendorf1 in ,franconia4 ,instead of the beeches and maple trees of ,europe we here find the statelier forms of the ceiba and the palm-tree1 the praga and irasse4 ,numberless springs gush from the sides of the rocks which encircle the basin of ,caripe1 and of which the abrupt slopes present1 towards the south1 profiles of a thousand feet in height4 ,these springs issue1 for the most part1 from a few narrow crevices4 ,the humidity which they spread around favours the growth of the great trees2 and the natives1 who love solitary places1 form their conucos along the sides of these crevices4 ,plantains and papaw trees are grouped together with groves of arborescent fern2 and this mixture of wild and cultivated plants gives the place a peculiar charm4 ,springs are distinguished from afar1 on the naked flanks of the mountains1 by tufted masses of vegetation99 which at first sight seem suspended from the rocks1 and descending into the valley1 they follow the sinuosities of the torrents499 799 ,among the interesting plants of the valley of ,caripe1 we found for the first time a calidium1 the trunk of which was twenty feet high 7,c4 arboreum72 the ,mikania micrantha1 which may probably possess some of the alexipharmic properties of the famous guaco of the ,choco2 the ,bauhinia obtusifolia1 a very large tree1 called guarapa by the ,indians2 the ,weinnannia glabra2 a tree psychotria1 the capsules of which1 when rubbed between the fingers1 emit a very agreeable orange smell2 the ,dorstenia ,houstoni 7raiz de resfriado72 the ,martynia ,craniolaria1 the white flowers of which are six or seven inches long2 a scrophularia1 having the aspect of the ,verbascum miconi1 and the leaves of which1 all radical and hairy1 are marked with silvery glands47 ,we were received with great hospitality by the monks of ,caripe4 ,the building has an inner court1 surrounded by an arcade1 like the convents in ,spain4 ,this enclosed place was highly convenient for setting up our instruments and making observations4 ,we found a numerous society in the convent4 ,young monks1 recently arrived from ,spain1 were just about to settle in the ,missions1 while old infirm missionaries sought for health in the fresh and salubrious air of the mountains of ,caripe4 ,i was lodged in the cell of the superior1 which contained a pretty good collection of books4 ,i found there1 to my surprise1 the ,teatro ,critico of ,feijoo1 the ,lettres ,edifiantes1 and the ,traite d',electricite by abbe ,nollet4 ,it seemed as if the progress of knowledge advanced even in the forests of ,america4 ,the youngest of the capuchin monks of the last ,mission had brought with him a ,spanish translation of ,chaptal's ,treatise on ,chemistry1 and he intended to study this work in the solitude where he was destined to pass the remainder of his days4 ,during our long abode in the ,missions of ,south ,america we never perceived any sign of intolerance4 ,the monks of ,caripe were not ignorant that ,i was born in the protestant part of ,germany4 ,furnished as ,i was with orders from the court of ,spain1 ,i had no motives to conceal from them this fact2 nevertheless1 no mark of distrust1 no indiscreet question1 no attempt at controversy1 ever diminished the value of the hospitality they exercised with so much liberality and frankness4 ,the convent is founded on a spot which was anciently called ,areocuar4 ,its height above the level of the sea is nearly the same as that of the town of ,caracas1 or of the inhabited part of the ,blue ,mountains of ,jamaica4 ,thus the mean temperatures of these three points1 all situated within the tropics1 are nearly the same4 ,the necessity of being well clothed at night1 and especially at sunrise1 is felt at ,caripe4 ,we saw the centigrade thermometer at midnight1 between #af and #ag4e degrees2 in the morning1 between #ai and #bj degrees4 ,about one o'clock it had risen only to #ba1 or #bb4e degrees4 ,this temperature is sufficient for the development of the productions of the torrid zone2 though1 compared with the excessive heat of the plains of ,cumana1 we might call it the temperature of spring4 ,water exposed to currents of air in vessels of porous clay1 cools at ,caripe1 during the night1 as low as #ac degrees4 ,experience has proved that the temperate climate and rarefied air of this spot are singularly favourable to the cultivation of the coffee-tree1 which is well known to flourish on heights4 ,the prefect of the capuchins1 an active and enlightened man1 has introduced into the province this new branch of agricultural industry4 ,indigo was formerly planted at ,caripe1 but the small quantity of fecula yielded by this plant1 which requires great heat1 caused the culture to be abandoned4 ,we found in the conuco of the community many culinary plants1 maize1 sugar cane1 and five thousand coffee-trees1 which promised a fine harvest4 ,the friars were in hopes of tripling the number in a few years4 ,we cannot help remarking the uniform efforts for the cultivation of the soil which are manifested in the policy of the monastic hierarchy4 ,wherever convents have not yet acquired wealth in the ,new ,continent1 as formerly in ,gaul1 in ,syria1 and in the north of ,europe1 they exercise a happy influence on the clearing of the ground and the introduction of exotic vegetation4 ,at ,caripe1 the conuco of the community presents the appearance of an extensive and beautiful garden4 ,the natives are obliged to work in it every morning from six to ten1 and the alcaldes and alguazils of ,indian race overlook their labours4 ,these men are looked upon as great state functionaries1 and they alone have the right of carrying a cane4 ,the selection of them depends on the superior of the convent4 ,the pedantic and silent gravity of the ,indian alcaldes1 their cold and mysterious air1 their love of appearing in form at church and in the assemblies of the people1 force a smile from ,europeans4 ,we were not yet accustomed to these shades of the ,indian character1 which we found the same at the ,orinoco1 in ,mexico1 and in ,peru1 among people totally different in their manners and their language4 ,the alcaldes came daily to the convent1 less to treat with the monks on the affairs of the ,mission1 than under the pretence of inquiring after the health of the newly-arrived travellers4 ,as we gave them brandy1 their visits became more frequent than the monks desired4 ,that which confers most celebrity on the valley of ,caripe1 besides the extraordinary coolness of its climate1 is the great ,cueva1 or ,cavern of the ,guacharo499 799 ,the province of ,guacharucu1 which ,delgado visited in #aecd1 in the expedition of ,hieronimo de ,ortal1 appears to have been situated south or south-east of ,macarapana4 ,has its name any connexion with those of the cavern and the bird8 or is this last of ,spanish origin8 7,laet ,nova ,orbis page #fgf74 ,guacharo means in ,castilian one who cries and laments2 now the bird of the cavern of ,caripe1 and the guacharaca 7,phasianus parraka7 are very noisy birds47 ,in a country where the people love the marvellous1 a cavern which gives birth to a river1 and is inhabited by thousands of nocturnal birds1 the fat of which is employed in the ,missions to dress food1 is an everlasting object of conversation and discussion4 ,the cavern1 which the natives call a mine of fat is not in the valley of ,caripe itself1 but three short leagues distant from the convent1 in the direction of west-south-west4 ,it opens into a lateral valley1 which terminates at the ,sierra del ,guacharo4 ,we set out for the ,sierra on the #ahth of ,september1 accompanied by the alcaldes1 or ,indian magistrates1 and the greater part of the monks of the convent4 ,a narrow path led us at first towards the south1 across a fine plain1 covered with beautiful turf4 ,we then turned westward1 along the margin of a small river which issues from the mouth of the cavern4 ,we ascended during three quarters of an hour1 sometimes in the water1 which was shallow1 sometimes between the torrent and a wall of rocks1 on a soil extremely slippery and miry4 ,the falling down of the earth1 the scattered trunks of trees1 over which the mules could scarcely pass1 and the creeping plants that covered the ground1 rendered this part of the road fatiguing4 ,we were surprised to find here1 at scarcely #ejj toises above the level of the sea1 a cruciferous plant1 ,raphanus pinnatus4 ,plants of this family are very rare in the tropics2 they have in some sort a northern character1 and therefore we never expected to see one on the plain of ,caripe at so inconsiderable an elevation4 ,the northern character also appears in the ,galium caripense1 the ,valeriana scandens1 and a sanicle not unlike the ,s4 marilandica4 ,at the foot of the lofty mountain of the ,guacharo1 we were only four hundred paces from the cavern1 without yet perceiving the entrance4 ,the torrent runs in a crevice hollowed out by the waters1 and we went on under a cornice1 the projection of which prevented us from seeing the sky4 ,the path winds in the direction of the river2 and at the last turning we came suddenly before the immense opening of the grotto4 ,the aspect of this spot is majestic1 even to the eye of a traveller accustomed to the picturesque scenery of the higher ,alps4 ,i had before this seen the caverns of the peak of ,derbyshire1 where1 lying down flat in a boat1 we proceeded along a subterranean river1 under an arch two feet high4 ,i had visited the beautiful grotto of ,treshemienshiz1 in the ,carpathian mountains1 the caverns of the ,hartz1 and those of ,franconia1 which are vast cemeteries199 containing bones of tigers1 hyenas1 and bears1 as large as our horses4 799 ,the mould1 which has covered for thousands of years the soil of the caverns of ,gaylenreuth and ,muggendorf in ,franconia1 emits even now choke-damps1 or gaseous mixtures of hydrogen and nitrogen1 which rise to the roof of the caves4 ,this fact is known to the persons who show these caverns to travellers2 and when ,i was director of the mines of the ,fichtelberg1 ,i observed it frequently in the summer-time4 ,m4 ,laugier found in the mould of ,muggendorf1 besides phosphate of lime1 #j4aj of animal matter4 ,i was struck1 during my stay at ,steeben1 with the ammoniacal and fetid smell produced by it1 when thrown on a red-hot iron47 ,nature in every zone follows immutable laws in the distribution of rocks1 in the form of mountains1 and even in those changes which the exterior crust of our planet has undergone4 ,so great a uniformity led me to believe that the aspect of the cavern of ,caripe would differ little from what ,i had observed in my preceding travels4 ,the reality far exceeded my expectations4 ,if the configuration of the grottoes1 the splendour of the stalactites1 and all the phenomena of inorganic nature1 present striking analogies1 the majesty of equinoctial vegetation gives at the same time an individual character to the aperture of the cavern4 ,the ,cueva del ,guacharo is pierced in the vertical profile of a rock4 ,the entrance is towards the south1 and forms an arch eighty feet broad and seventy-two high4 ,the rock which surmounts the grotto is covered with trees of gigantic height4 ,the mammee-tree and the genipa199 799 ,caruto1 ,genipa americana4 ,the flower at ,caripe1 has sometimes five1 sometimes six stamens47 with large and shining leaves1 raise their branches vertically towards the sky2 whilst those of the courbaril and the erythrina form1 as they extend1 a thick canopy of verdure4 ,plants of the family of pothos1 with succulent stems1 oxalises1 and orchideae of a singular structure199 799 ,a dendrobium1 with a gold-coloured flower1 spotted with black1 three inches long47 rise in the driest clefts of the rocks2 while creeping plants waving in the winds are interwoven in festoons before the opening of the cavern4 ,we distinguished in these festoons a bignonia of a violet blue1 the purple dolichos1 and for the first time1 that magnificent solandra199 799 ,solandra scandens4 ,it is the gousaticha of the ,chayma ,indians47 which has an orange-coloured flower and a fleshy tube more than four inches long4 ,but this luxury of vegetation embellishes not only the external arch1 it appears even in the vestibule of the grotto4 ,we saw with astonishment plantain-leaved heliconias eighteen feet high1 the praga palm-tree1 and arborescent arums1 following the course of the river1 even to those subterranean places4 ,the vegetation continues in the cave of ,caripe as in those deep crevices of the ,andes1 half-excluded from the light of day1 and does not disappear till1 penetrating into the interior1 we advance thirty or forty paces from the entrance4 ,we measured the way by means of a cord2 and we went on about four hundred and thirty feet without being obliged to light our torches4 ,daylight penetrates far into this region1 because the grotto forms but one single channel1 keeping the same direction1 from south-east to north-west4 ,where the light began to fail1 we heard from afar the hoarse sounds of the nocturnal birds2 sounds which the natives think belong exclusively to those subterraneous places4 ,the guacharo is of the size of our fowls4 ,it has the mouth of the goat-suckers and procnias1 and the port of those vultures whose crooked beaks are surrounded with stiff silky hairs4 ,suppressing1 with ,m4 ,cuvier1 the order of picae1 we must refer this extraordinary bird to the passeres1 the genera of which are connected with each other by almost imperceptible transitions4 ,it forms a new genus1 very different from the goatsucker1 in the loudness of its voice1 in the vast strength of its beak 7containing a double tooth71 and in its feet without the membranes which unite the anterior phalanges of the claws4 ,it is the first example of a nocturnal bird among the ,passeres dentirostrati4 ,its habits present analogies both with those of the goatsuckers and of the alpine crow499 799 ,corvus ,pyrrhocorax47 ,the plumage of the guacharo is of a dark bluish grey1 mixed with small streaks and specks of black4 ,large white spots of the form of a heart1 and bordered with black1 mark the head1 wings1 and tail4 ,the eyes of the bird1 which are dazzled by the light of day1 are blue1 and smaller than those of the goatsucker4 ,the spread of the wings1 which are composed of seventeen or eighteen quill feathers1 is three feet and a half4 ,the guacharo quits the cavern at nightfall1 especially when the moon shines4 ,it is almost the only frugiferous nocturnal bird yet known2 the conformation of its feet sufficiently shows that it does not hunt like our owls4 ,it feeds on very hard fruits1 like the nutcracker99 799 ,corvus caryocatactes1 ,c4 glandarius4 ,our ,alpine crow builds its nest near the top of ,mount ,libanus1 in subterranean caverns1 nearly like the guacharo4 ,it also has the horribly shrill cry of the latter47 and the pyrrhocorax4 ,the latter nestles also in clefts of rocks1 and is known by the name of the night-crow4 ,the ,indians assured us that the guacharo does not pursue either the lamellicornous insects or those phalaenae which serve as food to the goatsuckers4 ,a comparison of the beaks of the guacharo and the goatsucker serves to denote how much their habits must differ4 ,it would be difficult to form an idea of the horrible noise occasioned by thousands of these birds in the dark part of the cavern4 ,their shrill and piercing cries strike upon the vaults of the rocks1 and are repeated by the subterranean echoes4 ,the ,indians showed us the nests of the guacharos by fixing a torch to the end of a long pole4 ,these nests were fifty or sixty feet high above our heads1 in holes in the shape of funnels1 with which the roof of the grotto is pierced like a sieve4 ,the noise increased as we advanced1 and the birds were scared by the light of the torches of copal4 ,when this noise ceased a few minutes around us1 we heard at a distance the plaintive cries of the birds roosting in other ramifications of the cavern4 ,it seemed as if different groups answered each other alternately4 ,the ,indians enter the ,cueva del ,guacharo once a year1 near midsummer4 ,they go armed with poles1 with which they destroy the greater part of the nests4 ,at that season several thousand birds are killed2 and the old ones1 as if to defend their brood1 hover over the heads of the ,indians1 uttering terrible cries4 ,the young199 799 ,called ,los pollos del ,guacharo47 which fall to the ground1 are opened on the spot4 ,their peritoneum is found extremely loaded with fat1 and a layer of fat reaches from the abdomen to the anus1 forming a kind of cushion between the legs of the bird4 ,this quantity of fat in frugivorous animals1 not exposed to the light1 and exerting very little muscular motion1 reminds us of what has been observed in the fattening of geese and oxen4 ,it is well known how greatly darkness and repose favour this process4 ,the nocturnal birds of ,europe are lean1 because1 instead of feeding on fruits1 like the guacharo1 they live on the scanty produce of their prey4 ,at the period commonly called1 at ,caripe1 the oil harvest199 799 ,la cosecha de la manteca47 the ,indians build huts with palm-leaves1 near the entrance1 and even in the porch of the cavern4 ,there1 with a fire of brushwood1 they melt in pots of clay the fat of the young birds just killed4 ,this fat is known by the name of butter or oil 7manteca1 or aceite7 of the guacharo4 ,it is half liquid1 transparent1 without smell1 and so pure that it may be kept above a year without becoming rancid4 ,at the convent of ,caripe no other oil is used in the kitchen of the monks but that of the cavern2 and we never observed that it gave the aliments a disagreeable taste or smell4 ,the race of the guacharos would have been long ago extinct1 had not several circumstances contributed to its preservation4 ,the natives1 restrained by their superstitious ideas1 seldom have courage to penetrate far into the grotto4 ,it appears also1 that birds of the same species dwell in neighbouring caverns1 which are too narrow to be accessible to man4 ,perhaps the great cavern is repeopled by colonies which forsake the small grottoes2 for the missionaries assured us that hitherto no sensible diminution of the birds has been observed4 ,young guacharos have been sent to the port of ,cumana1 and have lived there several days without taking any nourishment1 the seeds offered to them not suiting their taste4 ,when the crops and gizzards of the young birds are opened in the cavern1 they are found to contain all sorts of hard and dry fruits1 which furnish1 under the singular name of guacharo seed 7semilla del guacharo71 a very celebrated remedy against intermittent fevers4 ,the old birds carry these seeds to their young4 ,they are carefully collected1 and sent to the sick at ,cariaco1 and other places of the low regions1 where fevers are generally prevalent4 ,as we continued to advance into the cavern1 we followed the banks of the small river which issues from it1 and is from twenty-eight to thirty feet wide4 ,we walked on the banks1 as far as the hills formed of calcareous incrustations permitted us4 ,where the torrent winds among very high masses of stalactites1 we were often obliged to descend into its bed1 which is only two feet deep4 ,we learned with surprise1 that this subterranean rivulet is the origin of the river ,caripe1 which1 at the distance of a few leagues1 where it joins the small river of ,santa ,maria1 is navigable for canoes4 ,it flows into the river ,areo under the name of ,cano do ,terezen4 ,we found on the banks of the subterranean rivulet a great quantity of palm-tree wood1 the remains of trunks1 on which the ,indians climb to reach the nests hanging from the roofs of the cavern4 ,the rings1 formed by the vestiges of the old footstalks of the leaves1 furnish as it were the steps of a ladder perpendicularly placed4 ,the ,grotto of ,caripe preserves the same direction1 the same breadth1 and its primitive height of sixty or seventy feet1 to the distance of #dgb metres1 or #adeh feet1 accurately measured4 ,we had great difficulty in persuading the ,indians to pass beyond the anterior portion of the grotto1 the only part which they annually visit to collect the fat4 ,the whole authority of 'los padres' was necessary to induce them to advance as far as the spot where the soil rises abruptly at an inclination of sixty degrees1 and where the torrent forms a small subterranean cascade499 799 ,we find the phenomenon of a subterranean cascade1 but on a much larger scale1 in ,england1 at ,yordas ,cave1 near ,kingsdale in ,yorkshire47 ,the natives connect mystic ideas with this cave1 inhabited by nocturnal birds2 they believe that the souls of their ancestors sojourn in the deep recesses of the cavern4 ,man1 say they1 should avoid places which are enlightened neither by the sun 7zis71 nor by the moon 7nuna74 ',to go and join the guacharos1' is with them a phrase signifying to rejoin their fathers1 to die4 ,the magicians 7piaches7 and the poisoners 7imorons7 perform their nocturnal tricks at the entrance of the cavern1 to conjure the chief of the evil spirits 7ivorokiamo74 ,thus in every region of the earth a resemblance may be traced in the early fictions of nations1 those especially which relate to two principles governing the world1 the abode of souls after death1 the happiness of the virtuous and the punishment of the guilty4 ,the most different and most barbarous languages present a certain number of images1 which are the same1 because they have their source in the nature of our intelligence and our sensations4 ,darkness is everywhere connected with the idea of death4 ,the ,grotto of ,caripe is the ,tartarus of the ,greeks2 and the guacharos1 which hover over the rivulet1 uttering plaintive cries1 remind us of the ,stygian birds4 ,at the point where the river forms the subterranean cascade1 a hill covered with vegetation1 which is opposite to the opening of the grotto1 presents a very picturesque aspect4 ,it is seen at the extremity of a straight passage1 #bdj toises in length4 ,the stalactites descending from the roof1 and resembling columns suspended in the air1 are relieved on a back-ground of verdure4 ,the opening of the cavern appeared singularly contracted1 when we saw it about the middle of the day1 illumined by the vivid light reflected at once from the sky1 the plants1 and the rocks4 ,the distant light of day formed a strange contrast with the darkness which surrounded us in the vast cavern4 ,we discharged our guns at a venture1 wherever the cries of the nocturnal birds and the flapping of their wings1 led us to suspect that a great number of nests were crowded together4 ,after several fruitless attempts ,m4 ,bonpland succeeded in killing a couple of guacharos1 which1 dazzled by the light of the torches1 seemed to pursue us4 ,this circumstance afforded me the means of making a drawing of this bird1 which had previously been unknown to naturalists4 ,we climbed1 not without difficulty1 the small hill whence the subterranean rivulet descends4 ,we saw that the grotto was perceptibly contracted1 retaining only forty feet in height1 and that it continued stretching to north-east1 without deviating from its primitive direction1 which is parallel to that of the great valley of ,caripe4 ,in this part of the cavern1 the rivulet deposits a blackish mould1 very like the matter which1 in the grotto of ,muggendorf1 in ,franconia1 is called the earth of sacrifice499 799 ,opfer-erde of the cavern of ,hohle ,berg 7or ,hole ,mountain1--a mountain pierced entirely through477 ,we could not discover whether this fine and spongy mould falls through the cracks which communicate with the surface of the ground above1 or is washed down by the rain-water penetrating into the cavern4 ,it was a mixture of silex1 alumina1 and vegetable detritus4 ,we walked in thick mud to a spot where we beheld with astonishment the progress of subterranean vegetation4 ,the seeds which the birds carry into the grotto to feed their young1 spring up wherever they fix in the mould which covers the calcareous incrustations4 ,blanched stalks1 with some half-formed leaves1 had risen to the height of two feet4 ,it was impossible to ascertain the species of these plants1 their form1 colour1 and aspect having been changed by the absence of light4 ,these traces of organization amidst darkness forcibly excited the curiosity of the natives1 who examined them with silent meditation inspired by a place they seemed to dread4 ,they evidently regarded these subterranean plants1 pale and deformed1 as phantoms banished from the face of the earth4 ,to me the scene recalled one of the happiest periods of my early youth1 a long abode in the mines of ,freyberg1 where ,i made experiments on the effects of blanching 7etiolement71 which are very different1 according as the air is pure or overcharged with hydrogen or azote4 ,the missionaries1 with all their authority1 could not prevail on the ,indians to penetrate farther into the cavern4 ,as the roof became lower the cries of the guacharos were more and more shrill4 ,we were obliged to yield to the pusillanimity of our guides1 and trace back our steps4 ,the appearance of the cavern was however very uniform4 ,we found that a bishop of ,st4 ,thomas of ,guiana had gone farther than ourselves4 ,he had measured nearly #bejj feet from the mouth to the spot where he stopped1 but the cavern extended still farther4 ,the remembrance of this fact was preserved in the convent of ,caripe1 without the exact period being noted4 ,the bishop had provided himself with great torches of white ,castile wax4 ,we had torches composed only of the bark of trees and native resin4 ,the thick smoke which issued from these torches1 in a narrow subterranean passage1 hurts the eyes and obstructs the respiration4 ,on turning back to go out of the cavern1 we followed the course of the torrent4 ,before our eyes became dazzled with the light of day we saw on the outside of the grotto the water of the river sparkling amid the foliage of the trees which shaded it4 ,it was like a picture placed in the distance1 the mouth of the cavern serving as a frame4 ,having at length reached the entrance1 we seated ourselves on the bank of the rivulet1 to rest after our fatigues4 ,we were glad to be beyond the hoarse cries of the birds1 and to leave a place where darkness does not offer even the charm of silence and tranquillity4 ,we could scarcely persuade ourselves that the name of the ,grotto of ,caripe had hitherto been unknown in ,europe299 for the guacharos alone might have sufficed to render it celebrated4 799 ,it is surprising that ,father ,gili1 author of the ,saggio di ,storia ,americana1 does not mention it1 though he had in his possession a manuscript written in #aghj at the convent of ,caripe4 ,i gave the first information respecting the ,cueva del ,guacharo in #ahjj1 in my letters to ,messrs4 ,delambre and ,delametherie1 published in the ,journal de ,physique47 ,these nocturnal birds have been no where yet discovered1 except in the mountains of ,caripe and ,cumanacoa4 ,the missionaries had prepared a repast at the entry of the cavern4 ,leaves of the banana and the vijao199 799 ,heliconia bihai1 ,linn4 ,the ,creoles have changed the b of the ,haitian word bihao into v1 and the h into j1 agreeably to the ,castilian pronunciation47 which have a silky lustre1 served us as a table-cloth1 according to the custom of the country4 ,nothing was wanting to our enjoyment1 not even remembrances1 which are so rare in those countries1 where generations disappear without leaving a trace of their existence4 ,before we quit the subterranean rivulet and the nocturnal birds1 let us cast a last glance at the cavern of the ,guacharo1 and the whole of the physical phenomena it presents4 ,when we have step by step pursued a long series of observations modified by the localities of a place1 we love to stop and raise our views to general considerations4 ,do the great cavities1 which are exclusively called caverns1 owe their origin to the same causes as those which have produced the lodes of veins and of metalliferous strata1 or the extraordinary phenomenon of the porosity of rocks8 ,do grottoes belong to every formation1 or to that period only when organized beings began to people the surface of the globe8 ,these geological questions can be solved only so far as they are directed by the actual state of things1 that is1 of facts susceptible of being verified by observation4 ,considering rocks according to the succession of eras1 we find that primitive formations exhibit very few caverns4 ,the great cavities which are observed in the oldest granite1 and which are called fours 7ovens7 in ,switzerland and in the south of ,france1 when they are lined with rock crystals1 arise most frequently from the union of several contemporaneous veins of quartz199 799 ,gleichzeitige ,trummer4 ,to these stone veins which appear to be of the same age as the rock1 belong the veins of talc and asbestos in serpentine1 and those of quartz traversing schist 7,thonschiefer74 ,jameson on ,contemporaneous ,veins1 in the ,mem4 of the ,wernerian ,soc47 of feldspar1 or of fine-grained granite4 ,the gneiss presents1 though more seldom1 the same phenomenon2 and near ,wunsiedel199 799 ,in ,franconia1 south-east of ,luchsburg47 at the ,fichtelgebirge1 ,i had an opportunity of examining crystal fours of two or three feet diameter1 in a part of the rock not traversed by veins4 ,we are ignorant of the extent of the cavities which subterranean fires and volcanic agitations may have produced in the bowels of the earth in those primitive rocks1 which1 containing considerable quantities of amphibole1 mica1 garnet1 magnetic iron-stone1 and red schorl 7titanite71 appear to be anterior to granite4 ,we find some fragments of these rocks among the matters ejected by volcanoes4 ,the cavities can be considered only as partial and local phenomena2 and their existence is scarcely any contradiction to the notions we have acquired from the experiments of ,maskelyne and ,cavendish on the mean density of the earth4 ,in the primitive mountains open to our researches1 real grottoes1 those which have some extent1 belong only to calcareous formations1 such as the carbonate or sulphate of lime4 ,the solubility of these substances appears to have favoured the action of the subterranean waters for ages4 ,the primitive limestone presents spacious caverns as well as transition limestone199 and that which is exclusively called secondary4 799 ,in the primitive limestone are found the ,kuetzel-loch1 near ,kaufungen in ,silesia1 and probably several caverns in the islands of the ,archipelago4 ,in the transition limestone we remark the caverns of ,elbingerode1 of ,rubeland1 and of ,scharzfeld1 in the ,hartz2 those of the ,salzfluhe in the ,grisons2 and1 according to ,mr4 ,greenough1 that of ,torbay in ,devonshire47 ,if these caverns be less frequent in the first1 it is because this stone forms in general only layers subordinate to the mica-slate199 799 ,sometimes to gneiss1 as at the ,simplon1 between ,dovredo and ,crevola47 and not a particular system of mountains1 into which the waters may filter1 and circulate to great distances4 ,the erosions occasioned by this element depend not only on its quantity1 but also on the length of time during which it remains1 the velocity it acquires by its fall1 and the degree of solubility of the rock4 ,i have observed in general1 that the waters act more easily on the carbonates and the sulphates of lime of secondary mountains than on the transition limestones1 which have a considerable mixture of silex and carbon4 ,on examining the internal structure of the stalactites which line the walls of caverns1 we find in them all the characters of a chemical precipitate4 ,as we approach those periods in which organic life develops itself in a greater number of forms1 the phenomenon of grottoes becomes more frequent4 ,there exist several under the name of baumen199 799 ,in the dialect of the ,german ,swiss1 ,balmen4 ,the ,baumen of the ,sentis1 of the ,mole1 and of the ,beatenberg1 on the borders of the lake of ,thun1 belong to the ,alpine limestone47 not in the ancient sandstone to which the great coal formation belongs1 but in the ,alpine limestone1 and in the ,jura limestone1 which is often only the superior part of the ,alpine formation4 ,the ,jura limestone99 799 ,i may mention only the grottoes of ,boudry1 ,motiers-,travers1 and ,valorbe1 in the ,jura2 the grotto of ,balme near ,geneva2 the caverns between ,muggendorf and ,gaylenreuth in ,franconia2 ,sowia ,jama1 ,ogrodzimiec1 and ,wlodowice1 in ,poland47 so abounds with caverns in both continents1 that several geologists of the school of ,freyberg have given it the name of cavern-limestone 7hohlenkalkstein74 ,it is this rock which so often interrupts the course of rivers1 by engulfing them into its bosom4 ,in this also is formed the famous ,cueva del ,guacharo1 and the other grottoes of the valley of ,caripe4 ,the muriatiferous gypsum199 799 ,gypsum of ,bottendorf1 schlottengyps47 whether it be found in layers in the ,jura or ,alpine limestone1 or whether it separate these two formations1 or lie between the ,alpine limestone and argillaceous sandstone1 also presents1 on account of its great solubility1 enormous cavities1 sometimes communicating with each other at several leagues distance4 ,after the limestone and gypseous formations1 there would remain to be examined1 among the secondary rocks1 a third formation1 that of the argillaceous sandstone1 newer than the brine-spring formations2 but this rock1 composed of small grains of quartz cemented by clay1 seldom contains caverns2 and when it does1 they are not extensive4 ,progressively narrowing towards their extremity1 their walls are covered with a brown ochre4 ,we have just seen1 that the form of grottoes depends partly on the nature of the rocks in which they are found2 but this form1 modified by exterior agents1 often varies even in the same formation4 ,the configuration of caverns1 like the outline of mountains1 the sinuosity of valleys1 and so many other phenomena1 present at first sight only irregularity and confusion4 ,the appearance of order is resumed1 when we can extend our observations over a vast space of ground1 which has undergone violent1 but periodical and uniform revolutions4 ,from what ,i have seen in the mountains of ,europe1 and in the ,cordilleras of ,america1 caverns may be divided1 according to their interior structure1 into three classes4 ,some have the form of large clefts or crevices1 like veins not filled with ore2 such as the cavern of ,rosenmuller1 in ,franconia1 ,elden-hole1 in the peak of ,derbyshire1 and the ,sumideros of ,chamacasapa in ,mexico4 ,other caverns are open to the light at both ends4 ,these are rocks really pierced2 natural galleries1 which run through a solitary mountain3 such are the ,hohleberg of ,muggendorf1 and the famous cavern called ,dantoe by the ,ottomite ,indians1 and the ,bridge of the ,mother of ,god1 by the ,mexican ,spaniards4 ,it is difficult to decide respecting the origin of these channels1 which sometimes serve as beds for subterranean rivers4 ,are these pierced rocks hollowed out by the impulse of a current8 or should we rather admit that one of the openings of the cavern is owing to a falling down of the earth subsequent to its original formation2 to a change in the external form of the mountain1 for instance1 to a new valley opened on its flank8 ,a third form of caverns1 and the most common of the whole1 exhibits a succession of cavities1 placed nearly on the same level1 running in the same direction1 and communicating with each other by passages of greater or less breadth4 ,to these differences of general form are added other circumstances not less remarkable4 ,it often happens1 that grottoes of little space have extremely wide openings2 whilst we have to creep under very low vaults1 in order to penetrate into the deepest and most spacious caverns4 ,the passages which unite partial grottoes1 are generally horizontal4 ,i have seen some1 however1 which resemble funnels or wells1 and which may be attributed to the escape of some elastic fluid through a mass before being hardened4 ,when rivers issue from grottoes1 they form only a single1 horizontal1 continuous channel1 the dilatations of which are almost imperceptible2 as in the ,cueva del ,guacharo we have just described1 and the cavern of ,san ,felipe1 near ,tehuilotepec in the western ,cordilleras of ,mexico4 ,the sudden disappearance99 of the river 799 ,in the night of the #afth ,april1 #ahjb471 which took its rise from this last cavern1 has impoverished a district in which farmers and miners equally require water for refreshing the soil and for working hydraulic machinery4 ,considering the variety of structure exhibited by grottoes in both hemispheres1 we cannot but refer their formation to causes totally different4 ,when we speak of the origin of caverns we must choose between two systems of natural philosophy3 one of these systems attributes every thing to instantaneous and violent commotions 7for example1 to the elastic force of vapours1 and to the heavings occasioned by volcanoes72 while the other rests on the operation of small powers1 which produce effects almost insensibly by progressive action4 ,those who love to indulge in geological hypotheses must not1 however1 forget the horizontality so often remarked amidst gypseous and calcareous mountains1 in the position of grottoes communicating with each other by passages4 ,this almost perfect horizontality1 this gentle and uniform slope1 appears to be the result of a long abode of the waters1 which enlarge by erosion clefts already existing1 and carry off the softer parts the more easily1 as clay or muriate of soda is found mixed with the gypsum and fetid limestone4 ,these effects are the same1 whether the caverns form one long and continued range1 or several of these ranges lie one over another1 as happens almost exclusively in gypseous mountains4 ,that which in shelly or ,neptunean rocks is caused by the action of the waters1 appears sometimes to be in the volcanic rocks the effect of gaseous emanations99 acting in the direction where they find the least resistance4 799 ,at ,vesuvius1 the ,duke de la ,torre showed me1 in #ahje1 in currents of recent lava1 cavities extending in the direction of the current1 six or seven feet long and three feet high4 ,these little volcanic caverns were lined with specular iron1 which cannot be called oligiste iron1 since ,m4 ,gay-,lussac's last experiments on the oxides of iron47 ,when melted matter moves on a very gentle slope1 the great axis of the cavity formed by the elastic fluids is nearly horizontal1 or parallel to the plane on which the movement of transition takes place4 ,a similar disengagement of vapours1 joined to the elastic force of the gases1 which penetrate strata softened and raised up1 appears sometimes to have given great extent to the caverns found in trachytes or trappean porphyries4 ,these porphyritic caverns1 in the ,cordilleras of ,quito and ,peru1 bear the ,indian name of ,machays499 799 ,machay is a word of the ,quichua language1 commonly called by the ,spaniards the ,incas' language4 ,callancamachay means a cavern as large as a house1 a cavern that serves as a tambo or caravansarai47 ,they are in general of little depth4 ,they are lined with sulphur1 and differ by the enormous size of their openings from those observed in volcanic tufas99 in ,italy1 at ,teneriffe1 and in the ,andes4 799,sometimes fire acts like water in carrying off masses1 and thus the cavities may be caused by an igneous1 though more frequently by an aqueous erosion or solution47 ,it is by connecting in the mind the primitive1 secondary1 and volcanic rocks1 and distinguishing between the oxidated crust of the globe1 and the interior nucleus1 composed perhaps of metallic and inflammable substances1 that we may account for the existence of grottoes everywhere4 ,they act in the economy of nature as vast reservoirs of water and of elastic fluids4 ,the gypseous caverns glitter with crystallized selenites4 ,vitreous crystallized plates of brown and yellow stand out on a striated ground composed of layers of alabaster and fetid limestone4 ,the calcareous grottoes have a more uniform tint4 ,they are more beautiful1 and richer in stalactites1 in proportion as they are narrower1 and the circulation of air is less free4 ,by being spacious1 and accessible to air1 the cavern of ,caripe is almost destitute of those incrustations1 the imitative forms of which are in other countries objects of popular curiosity4 ,i also sought in vain for subterranean plants1 those cryptogamia of the family of the ,usneaceae1 which we sometimes find fixed on the stalactites1 like ivy on walls1 when we penetrate for the first time into a lateral grotto499 799 ,lichen tophicola was discovered when the beautiful cavern of ,rosenmuller in ,franconia was first opened4 ,the cavity containing the lichen was found closed on all sides by enormous masses of stalactite47 ,the caverns in mountains of gypsum often contain mephitic emanations and deleterious gases4 ,it is not the sulphate of lime that acts on the atmospheric air1 but the clay slightly mixed with carbon1 and the fetid limestone1 so often mingled with the gypsum4 ,we cannot yet decide1 whether the swinestone acts as a hydrosulphuret1 or by means of a bituminous principle499 799 ,that description of fetid limestone called by the ,german mineralogists stinkstein is always of a blackish brown colour4 ,it is only by decomposition that it becomes white1 after having acted on the surrounding air4 ,the stinkstein which is of secondary formation1 must not be confounded with a very white primitive granular limestone of the island of ,thasos1 which emits1 when scraped1 a smell of sulphuretted hydrogen4 ,this marble is coarser grained than ,carrara 7,marmor lunense74 ,it was frequently employed by the ,grecian sculptors1 and ,i often picked up fragments of it at the ,villa ,adriani1 near ,rome47 ,its property of absorbing oxygen gas is known to all the miners of ,thuringia4 ,it is the same as the action of the carburetted clay of the gypseous grottoes1 and of the great chambers 7sinkwerke7 dug in mines of fossil salt which are worked by the introduction of fresh water4 ,the caverns of calcareous mountains are not exposed to those decompositions of the atmospheric air1 unless they contain bones of quadrupeds1 or the mould mixed with animal gluten and phosphate of lime1 from which arise inflammable and fetid gases4 ,though we made many enquiries among the inhabitants of ,caripe1 ,cumanacoa1 and ,cariaco1 we did not learn that they had ever discovered in the cavern of ,guacharo either the remains of carnivorous animals1 or those bony breccias of herbivorous animals1 which are found in the caverns of ,germany and ,hungary1 and in the clefts of the calcareous rocks of ,gibraltar4 ,the fossil bones of the megatherium1 of the elephant1 and of the mastodon1 which travellers have brought from ,south ,america1 have all been found in the light soil of the valleys and table-lands4 ,excepting the megalonyx199 a kind of sloth of the size of an ox1 described by ,mr4 ,jefferson1 ,i know not a single instance of the skeleton of an animal buried in a cavern of the ,new ,world4 799 ,the megalonyx was found in the caverns of ,green ,briar1 in ,virginia1 at the distance of #aejj leagues from the megatherium1 which resembles it very much1 and is of the size of the rhinoceros47 ,the extreme scarcity of this geological phenomenon will appear the less surprising to us1 if we recollect1 that in ,france1 ,england1 and ,italy1 there are also a great number of grottoes in which we have never met with any vestige of fossil bones4 ,although1 in primitive nature1 whatever relates to ideas of extent and mass is of no great importance1 yet ,i may observe1 that the cavern of ,caripe is one of the most spacious known to exist in limestone formations4 ,it is at least #ijj metres or #bhjj feet in length499 799 ,the famous ,baumannshohle in the ,hartz1 according to ,messrs4 ,gilbert and ,ilsen1 is only #egh feet in length2 the cavern of ,scharzfeld #cej2 that of ,gaylenreuth #cjd2 that of ,antiparos #cjj4 ,but according to ,saussure1 the ,grotto of ,balme is #acjj feet47 ,owing to the different degrees of solubility in rocks1 it is generally not in calcareous mountains1 but in gypseous formations1 that we find the most extensive succession of grottoes4 ,in ,saxony there are some in gypsum several leagues in length2 for instance1 that of ,wimelburg1 which communicates with the cavern of ,cresfield4 ,the determination of the temperature of grottoes presents a field for interesting observation4 ,the cavern of ,caripe1 situated nearly in the latitude of #aj degrees #aj minutes1 consequently in the centre of the torrid zone1 is elevated #ejf toises above the level of the sea in the gulf of ,cariaco4 ,we found that1 in every part of it1 in the month of ,september1 the temperature of the internal air was between #ah4d and #ah4i degrees of the centesimal thermometer2 the external atmosphere being at #af4b degrees4 ,at the entrance of the cavern1 the thermometer in the open air was at #ag4f degrees2 but when immersed in the water of the little subterranean river1 it marked1 even to the end of the cavern1 #af4h degrees4 ,these experiments are very interesting1 if we reflect on the tendency to equilibrium of heat1 in the waters1 the air1 and the earth4 ,when ,i left ,europe1 men of science were regretting that they had not sufficient data on what is called the temperature of the interior of the globe2 and it is but very recently that efforts have been made1 and with some success1 to solve the grand problem of subterranean meteorology4 ,the stony strata that form the crust of our planet1 are alone accessible to our examination2 and we now know that the mean temperature of these strata varies not only with latitudes and heights1 but that1 according to the position of the several places1 it performs also1 in the space of a year1 regular oscillations round the mean heat of the neighbouring atmosphere4 ,the time is gone by when men were surprised to find1 in other zones1 the heat of grottoes and wells differing from that observed in the caves of the observatory at ,paris4 ,the same instrument which in those caves marks #ab degrees1 rises in the subterraneous caverns of the island of ,madeira1 near ,funchal1 to #af4b degrees2 in ,joseph's ,well1 at ,cairo99 to #ba4b degrees 799 ,at ,funchal 7latitude #cb degrees #cg minutes7 the mean temperature of the air is #bj4d degrees1 and at ,cairo 7latitude #cj degrees #b minutes71 according to ,nouet1 it is #bb4d degrees472 in the grottoes of the island of ,cuba to #bb or #bc degrees499 799 ,the mean temperature of the air at the ,havannah1 according to ,mr4 ,ferrer1 is #be4f degrees47 ,this increase is nearly in proportion to that of the mean temperature of the atmosphere1 from latitude #dh degrees to the tropics4 ,we have just seen that1 in the ,cueva del ,guacharo1 the water of the river is nearly #b degrees colder than the ambient air of the cavern4 ,the water1 whether in filtering through the rocks1 or in running over stony beds1 doubtless imbibes the temperature of these beds4 ,the air contained in the grotto1 on the contrary1 is not in repose2 it communicates with the external atmosphere4 ,though under the torrid zone1 the changes of the external temperature are exceedingly trifling1 currents are formed1 which modify periodically the internal air4 ,it is consequently the temperature of the waters1 that of #af4h degrees1 which we might look upon as the temperature of the earth in those mountains1 if we were sure that the waters do not descend rapidly from more elevated neighbouring mountains4 ,it follows from these observations1 that when we cannot obtain results perfectly exact1 we find at least under each zone certain numbers which indicate the maximum and minimum4 ,at ,caripe1 in the equinoctial zone1 at an elevation of #ejj toises1 the mean temperature of the globe is not below #af4h degrees1 which was the degree indicated by the water of the subterranean river4 ,we can even prove that this temperature of the globe is not above #ai degrees1 since the air of the cavern1 in the month of ,september1 was found to be at #ah4g degrees4 ,as the mean temperature of the atmosphere1 in the hottest month1 does not exceed #ai4e degrees199 it is probable that a thermometer in the grotto would not rise higher than #ai degrees at any season of the year4 799 ,the mean temperature of the month of ,september at ,caripe is #ah4e degrees2 and on the coast of ,cumana1 where we had opportunities of making numerous observations1 the mean heat of the warmest months differs only #a4h degrees from that of the coldest47 ,,chapter #a4h4 ,,departure ,,from ,,caripe4 ,,mountain ,,and ,,forest ,,of ,,santa ,,maria4 ,,mission ,,of ,,catuaro4 ,,port ,,of ,,cariaco4 ,the days we passed at the ,capuchin convent in the mountains of ,caripe1 glided swiftly away1 though our manner of living was simple and uniform4 ,from sunrise to nightfall we traversed the forests and neighbouring mountains1 to collect plants4 ,when the winter rains prevented us from undertaking distant excursions1 we visited the huts of the ,indians1 the conuco of the community1 or those assemblies in which the alcaldes every evening arrange the labours of the succeeding day4 ,we returned to the monastery only when the sound of the bell called us to the refectory to share the repasts of the missionaries4 ,sometimes1 very early in the morning1 we followed them to the church1 to attend the doctrina1 that is to say1 the religious instruction of the ,indians4 ,it was rather a difficult task to explain dogmas to the neophytes1 especially those who had but a very imperfect knowledge of the ,spanish language4 ,on the other hand1 the monks are as yet almost totally ignorant of the language of the ,chaymas2 and the resemblance of sounds confuses the poor ,indians and suggests to them the most whimsical ideas4 ,of this ,i may cite an example4 ,i saw a missionary labouring earnestly to prove that infierno1 hell1 and invierno1 winter1 were not one and the same thing2 but as different as heat and cold4 ,the ,chaymas are acquainted with no other winter than the season of rains2 and consequently they imagined the ,hell of the whites to be a place where the wicked are exposed to frequent showers4 ,the missionary harangued to no purpose3 it was impossible to efface the first impression produced by the analogy between the two consonants4 ,he could not separate in the minds of the neophytes the ideas of rain and hell2 invierno and infierno4 ,after passing almost the whole day in the open air1 we employed our evenings1 at the convent1 in making notes1 drying our plants1 and sketching those that appeared to form new genera4 ,unfortunately the misty atmosphere of a valley1 where the surrounding forests fill the air with an enormous quantity of vapour1 was unfavourable to astronomical observations4 ,i spent a part of the nights waiting to take advantage of the moment when some star should be visible between the clouds1 near its passage over the meridian4 ,i often shivered with cold1 though the thermometer only sunk to #af degrees1 which is the temperature of the day in our climates towards the end of ,september4 ,the instruments remained set up in the court of the convent for several hours1 yet ,i was almost always disappointed in my expectations4 ,some good observations of ,fomalhaut and of ,deneb have given #aj degrees #aj minutes #ad seconds as the latitude of ,caripe2 which proves that the position indicated in the maps of ,caulin is #ah minutes wrong1 and in that of ,arrowsmith #ad minutes4 ,observations of corresponding altitudes of the sun having given me the true time1 within about #b seconds1 ,i was enabled to determine the magnetic variation with precision1 at noon4 ,it was1 on the #bjth of ,september1 #agii1 #c degrees #ae minutes #cj seconds north-east2 consequently #j degrees #eh minutes #ae seconds less than at ,cumana4 ,if we attend to the influence of the horary variations1 which in these countries do not in general exceed #h minutes1 we shall find1 that at considerable distances the variation changes less rapidly than is usually supposed4 ,the dip of the needle was #db4ge degrees1 centesimal division1 and the number of oscillations1 expressing the intensity of the magnetic forces1 rose to #bbi in ten minutes4 ,the vexation of seeing the stars disappear in a misty sky was the only disappointment we felt in the valley of ,caripe4 ,the aspect of this spot presents a character at once wild and tranquil1 gloomy and attractive4 ,in the solitude of these mountains we are perhaps less struck by the new impressions we receive at every step1 than with the marks of resemblance we trace in climates the most remote from each other4 ,the hills by which the convent is backed1 are crowned with palm-trees and arborescent ferns4 ,in the evenings1 when the sky denotes rain1 the air resounds with the monotonous howling of the alouate apes1 which resembles the distant sound of wind when it shakes the forest4 ,yet amid these strange sounds1 these wild forms of plants1 and these prodigies of a new world1 nature everywhere speaks to man in a voice familiar to him4 ,the turf that overspreads the soil3 the old moss and fern that cover the roots of the trees2 the torrents that gush down the sloping banks of the calcareous rocks2 in fine1 the harmonious accordance of tints reflected by the waters1 the verdure1 and the sky2 everything recalls to the traveller1 sensations which he has already felt4 ,the beauties of this mountain scenery so much engaged us1 that we were very tardy in observing the embarrassment felt by our kind entertainers the monks4 ,they had but a slender provision of wine and wheaten bread2 and although in those high regions both are considered as belonging merely to the luxuries of the table1 yet we saw with regret1 that our hosts abstained from them on our account4 ,our portion of bread had already been diminished three-fourths1 yet violent rains still obliged us to delay our departure for two days4 ,how long did this delay appear6 ,it made us dread the sound of the bell that summoned us to the refectory4 ,we departed at length on the #bbnd of ,september1 followed by four mules1 laden with our instruments and plants4 ,we had to descend the north-east slope of the calcareous ,alps of ,new ,andalusia1 which we have called the great chain of the ,brigantine and the ,cocollar4 ,the mean elevation of this chain scarcely exceeds six or seven hundred toises3 in respect to height and geological constitution1 we may compare it to the chain of the ,jura4 ,notwithstanding the inconsiderable elevation of the mountains of ,cumana1 the descent is extremely difficult and dangerous in the direction of ,cariaco4 ,the ,cerro of ,santa ,maria1 which the missionaries ascend in their journey from ,cumana to their convent at ,caripe1 is famous for the difficulties it presents to travellers4 ,on comparing these mountains with the ,andes of ,peru1 the ,pyrenees1 and the ,alps1 which we successively visited1 it has more than once occurred to us1 that the less lofty summits are sometimes the most inaccessible4 ,on leaving the valley of ,caripe1 we first crossed a ridge of hills north-east of the convent4 ,the road led us along a continual ascent through a vast savannah1 as far as the table-land of ,guardia de ,san ,augustin4 ,we there halted to wait for the ,indian who carried the barometer4 ,we found ourselves to be at #ecc toises of absolute elevation1 or a little higher than the bottom of the cavern of ,guacharo4 ,the savannahs or natural meadows1 which yield excellent pasture for the cows of the convent1 are totally devoid of trees or shrubs4 ,it is the domain of the monocotyledonous plants2 for amidst the gramina only a few ,maguey99 plants rise here and there 799 ,agave ,americana472 their flowery stalks being more than twenty-six feet high4 ,having reached the table-land of ,guardia1 we appeared to be transported to the bed of an old lake1 levelled by the long-continued abode of the waters4 ,we seemed to trace the sinuosities of the ancient shore in the tongues of land which jut out from the craggy rock1 and even in the distribution of the vegetation4 ,the bottom of the basin is a savannah1 while its banks are covered with trees of full growth4 ,this is probably the most elevated valley in the provinces of ,venezuela and ,cumana4 ,one cannot but regret1 that a spot favoured by so temperate a climate1 and which without doubt would be fit for the culture of corn1 is totally uninhabited4 ,from the table-land of ,guardia we continued to descend1 till we reached the ,indian village of ,santa ,cruz4 ,we passed at first along a slope extremely slippery and steep1 to which the missionaries had given the name of ,baxada del ,purgatorio1 or ,descent of ,purgatory4 ,it is a rock of schistose sandstone1 decomposed1 covered with clay1 the talus of which appears frightfully steep1 from the effect of a very common optical illusion4 ,when we look down from the top to the bottom of the hill the road seems inclined more than #fj degrees4 ,the mules in going down draw their hind legs near to their fore legs1 and lowering their cruppers1 let themselves slide at a venture4 ,the rider runs no risk1 provided he slacken the bridle1 thereby leaving the animal quite free in his movements4 ,from this point we perceived towards the left the great pyramid of ,guacharo4 ,the appearance of this calcareous peak is very picturesque1 but we soon lost sight of it1 on entering the thick forest1 known by the name of the ,montana de ,santa ,maria4 ,we descended without intermission for seven hours4 ,it is difficult to conceive a more tremendous descent2 it is absolutely a road of steps1 a kind of ravine1 in which1 during the rainy season1 impetuous torrents dash from rock to rock4 ,the steps are from two to three feet high1 and the beasts of burden1 after measuring with their eyes the space necessary to let their load pass between the trunks of the trees1 leap from one rock to another4 ,afraid of missing their mark1 we saw them stop a few minutes to scan the ground1 and bring together their four feet like wild goats4 ,if the animal does not reach the nearest block of stone1 he sinks half his depth into the soft ochreous clay1 that fills up the interstices of the rock4 ,when the blocks are wanting1 enormous roots serve as supports for the feet of men and beasts4 ,some of these roots are twenty inches thick1 and they often branch out from the trunks of the trees much above the level of the soil4 ,the ,creoles have sufficient confidence in the address and instinct of the mules1 to remain in their saddles during this long and dangerous descent4 ,fearing fatigue less than they did1 and being accustomed to travel slowly for the purpose of gathering plants and examining the nature of the rocks1 we preferred going down on foot2 and1 indeed1 the care which our chronometers demanded1 left us no liberty of choice4 ,the forest that covers the steep flank of the mountain of ,santa ,maria1 is one of the thickest ,i ever saw4 ,the trees are of stupendous height and size4 ,under their bushy1 deep green foliage1 there reigns continually a kind of dim daylight1 a peculiar sort of obscurity1 of which our forests of pines1 oaks1 and beech-trees1 convey no idea4 ,notwithstanding its elevated temperature1 it is difficult to believe that the air can dissolve the quantity of water exhaled from the surface of the soil1 the foliage of the trees1 and their trunks3 the latter are covered with a drapery of orchideae1 peperomia1 and other succulent plants4 ,with the aromatic odour of the flowers1 the fruit1 and even the wood1 is mingled that which we perceive in autumn in misty weather4 ,here1 as in the forests of the ,orinoco1 fixing our eyes on the top of the trees1 we discerned streams of vapour1 whenever a solar ray penetrated1 and traversed the dense atmosphere4 ,our guides pointed out to us among those majestic trees1 the height of which exceeded #abj or #acj feet1 the curucay of ,terecen4 ,it yields a whitish liquid1 and very odoriferous resin1 which was formerly employed by the ,cumanagoto and ,tagiri ,indians1 to perfume their idols4 ,the young branches have an agreeable taste1 though somewhat astringent4 ,next to the curucay and enormous trunks of hymenaea1 7the diameter of which was more than nine or ten feet71 the trees which most excited our attention were the dragon's blood 7,croton sanguifluum71 the purple-brown juice of which flows down a whitish bark2 the calahuala fern1 different from that of ,peru1 but almost equally medicinal299 799 ,the calahuala of ,caripe is the ,polypodium crassifolium2 that of ,peru1 the use of which has been so much extended by ,messrs4 ,ruiz and ,pavon1 comes from the ,aspidium coriaceum1 ,willd4 7,tectaria calahuala1 ,cav47 ,in commerce the diaphoretic roots of the ,polypodium crassifolium1 and of the ,acrostichum huascaro1 are mixed with those of the calahuala or ,aspidium coriaceum47 and the palm-trees1 irasse1 macanilla1 corozo1 and praga499 799 ,aiphanes praga47 ,the last yields a very savoury palm-cabbage1 which we had sometimes eaten at the convent of ,caripe4 ,these palms with pinnated and thorny leaves formed a pleasing contrast to the fern-trees4 ,one of the latter1 the ,cyathea speciosa199 grows to the height of more than thirty-five feet1 a prodigious size for plants of this family4 799 ,possibly a hemitelia of ,robert ,brown4 ,the trunk alone is from #bb to #bd feet long4 ,this and the ,cyathea excelsa of the ,mauritius1 are the most majestic of all the fern-trees described by botanists4 ,the total number of these gigantic cryptogamous plants amounts at present to #be species1 that of the palm-trees to #hj4 ,with the cyathea grow1 on the mountain of ,santa ,maria1 ,rhexia juniperina1 ,chiococca racemosa1 and ,commelina spicata47 ,we discovered here1 and in the valley of ,caripe1 five new kinds of arborescent ferns499 799 ,meniscium arborescens1 ,aspidium caducum1 ,a4 rostratum1 ,cyathea villosa1 and ,c4 speciosa47 ,in the time of ,linnaeus1 botanists knew no more than four on both continents4 ,we observed that the fern-trees are in general much more rare than the palm-trees4 ,nature has confined them to temperate1 moist1 and shady places4 ,they shun the direct rays of the sun1 and while the pumos1 the corypha of the steppes and other palms of ,america1 flourish on the barren and burning plains1 these ferns with arborescent trunks1 which at a distance look like palm-trees1 preserve the character and habits of cryptogamous plants4 ,they love solitary places1 little light1 moist1 temperate and stagnant air4 ,if they sometimes descend towards the sea-coast1 it is only under cover of a thick shade4 ,the old trunks of the cyathea and the meniscium are covered with a carbonaceous powder1 which1 probably being deprived of hydrogen1 has a metallic lustre like plumbago4 ,no other plant presents this phenomenon2 for the trunks of the dicotyledons1 in spite of the heat of the climate1 and the intensity of the light1 are less burnt within the tropics than in the temperate zone4 ,it may be said that the trunks of the ferns1 which1 like the monocotyledons1 are enlarged by the remains of the petioles1 decay from the circumference to the centre2 and that1 deprived of the cortical organs through which the elaborated juices descend to the roots1 they are burnt more easily by the action of the oxygen of the atmosphere4 ,i brought to ,europe some powders with metallic lustre1 taken from very old trunks of ,meniscium and ,aspidium4 ,in proportion as we descended the mountain of ,santa ,maria1 we saw the arborescent ferns diminish1 and the number of palm-trees increase4 ,the beautiful large-winged butterflies 7nymphales71 which fly at a prodigious height1 became more common4 ,everything denoted our approach to the coast1 and to a zone in which the mean temperature of the day is from #bh to #cj degrees4 ,the weather was cloudy1 and led us to fear one of those heavy rains1 during which from #a to #a4c inches of water sometimes falls in a day4 ,the sun at times illumined the tops of the trees2 and1 though sheltered from its rays1 we felt an oppressive heat4 ,thunder rolled at a distance2 the clouds seemed suspended on the top of the lofty mountains of the ,guacharo2 and the plaintive howling of the araguatoes1 which we had so often heard at ,caripe1 denoted the proximity of the storm4 ,we now for the first time had a near view of these howling apes4 ,they are of the family of the alouates199 799 ,stentor1 ,geoffroy47 the different species of which have long been confounded one with another4 ,the small sapajous of ,america1 which imitate in whistling the tones of the passeres1 have the bone of the tongue thin and simple1 but the apes of large size1 as the alouates and marimondes199 799 ,ateles1 ,geoffroy47 have the tongue placed on a large bony drum4 ,their superior larynx has six pouches1 in which the voice loses itself2 and two of which1 shaped like pigeons' nests1 resemble the inferior larynx of birds4 ,the air driven with force into the bony drum produces that mournful sound which characterises the araguatoes4 ,i sketched on the spot these organs1 which are imperfectly known to anatomists1 and published the description of them on my return to ,europe4 ,the araguato1 which the ,tamanac ,indians call aravata199 799 ,in the writings of the early ,spanish missionaries1 this monkey is described by the names of aranata and araguato4 ,in both names we easily discover the same root4 ,the v has been transformed into g and n4 ,the name of arabata1 which ,gumilla gives to the howling apes of the ,lower ,orinoco1 and which ,geoffroy thinks belongs to the ,s4 straminea of ,great ,paria1 is the same ,tamanac word aravata4 ,this identity of names need not surprise us4 ,the language of the ,chayma ,indians of ,cumana is one of the numerous branches of the ,tamanac language1 and the latter is connected with the ,caribbee language of the ,lower ,orinoco47 and the ,maypures marave1 resembles a young bear499 799 ,alouate ourse 7,simia ursina747 ,it is three feet long1 reckoning from the top of the head 7which is small and very pyramidal7 to the beginning of the prehensile tail4 ,its fur is bushy1 and of a reddish brown2 the breast and belly are covered with fine hair1 and not bare as in the mono colorado1 or alouate roux of ,buffon1 which we carefully examined in going from ,carthagena to ,santa ,fe de ,bogota4 ,the face of the araguato is of a blackish blue1 and is covered with a fine and wrinkled skin3 its beard is pretty long2 and1 notwithstanding the direction of the facial line1 the angle of which is only thirty degrees1 the araguato has1 in the expression of the countenance1 as much resemblance to man as the marimonde 7,s4 belzebuth1 ,bresson7 and the capuchin of the ,orinoco 7,s4 chiropotes74 ,among thousands of araguatoes which we observed in the provinces of ,cumana1 ,caracas1 and ,guiana1 we never saw any change in the reddish brown fur of the back and shoulders1 whether we examined individuals or whole troops4 ,it appeared to me in general1 that variety of colour is less frequent among monkeys than naturalists suppose4 ,the araguato of ,caripe is a new species of the genus ,stentor1 which ,i have above described4 ,it differs equally from the ouarine 7,s4 guariba7 and the alouate roux 7,s4 seniculus1 old man of the woods74 ,its eye1 voice1 and gait1 denote melancholy4 ,i have seen young araguatoes brought up in ,indian huts4 ,they never play like the little sagoins1 and their gravity was described with much simplicity by ,lopez de ,gomara1 in the beginning of the sixteenth century4 ,the ,aranata de los ,cumaneses1 says this author1 has the face of a man1 the beard of a goat1 and a grave demeanour 7honrado gesto47 ,monkeys are more melancholy in proportion as they have more resemblance to man4 ,their sprightliness diminishes1 as their intellectual faculties appear to increase4 ,we stopped to observe some howling monkeys1 which1 to the number of thirty or forty1 crossed the road1 passing in a file from one tree to another over the horizontal and intersecting branches4 ,while we were observing their movements1 we saw a troop of ,indians going towards the mountains of ,caripe4 ,they were without clothing1 as the natives of this country generally are4 ,the women1 laden with rather heavy burdens1 closed the march4 ,the men were all armed2 and even the youngest boys had bows and arrows4 ,they moved on in silence1 with their eyes fixed on the ground4 ,we endeavoured to learn from them whether we were yet far from the ,mission of ,santa ,cruz1 where we intended passing the night4 ,we were overcome with fatigue1 and suffered from thirst4 ,the heat increased as the storm drew near1 and we had not met with a single spring on the way4 ,the words si1 patre2 no1 patre2 which the ,indians continually repeated1 led us to think they understood a little ,spanish4 ,in the eyes of a native every white man is a monk1 a padre2 for in the ,missions the colour of the skin characterizes the monk1 more than the colour of the garment4 ,in vain we questioned them respecting the length of the way3 they answered1 as if by chance1 si and no1 without our being able to attach any precise sense to their replies4 ,this made us the more impatient1 as their smiles and gestures indicated their wish to direct us2 and the forest seemed at every step to become thicker and thicker4 ,at length we separated from the ,indians2 our guides were able to follow us only at a distance1 because the beasts of burden fell at every step in the ravines4 ,after journeying for several hours1 continually descending on blocks of scattered rock1 we found ourselves unexpectedly at the outlet of the forest of ,santa ,maria4 ,a savannah1 the verdure of which had been renewed by the winter rains1 stretched before us farther than the eye could reach4 ,on the left we discovered a narrow valley1 extending as far as the mountains of the ,guacharo1 and covered with a thick forest4 ,looking downward1 the eye rested on the tops of the trees1 which1 at eight hundred feet below the road1 formed a carpet of verdure of a dark and uniform tint4 ,the openings in the forest appeared like vast funnels1 in which we could distinguish by their elegant forms and pinnated leaves1 the ,praga and ,irasse palms4 ,but what renders this spot eminently picturesque1 is the aspect of the ,sierra del ,guacharo4 ,its northern slope1 in the direction of the gulf of ,cariaco1 is abrupt4 ,it presents a wall of rock1 an almost vertical profile1 exceeding #cjjj feet in height4 ,the vegetation which covers this wall is so scanty1 that the eye can follow the lines of the calcareous strata4 ,the summit of the ,sierra is flat1 and it is only at its eastern extremity1 that the majestic peak of the ,guacharo rises like an inclined pyramid1 its form resembles that of the needles and horns99 of the ,alps4 799 ,the ,shreckhorner1 the ,finsteraarhorn1 etc47 ,the savannah we crossed to the ,indian village of ,santa ,cruz is composed of several smooth plateaux1 lying above each other like terraces4 ,this geological phenomenon1 which is repeated in every climate1 seems to indicate a long abode of the waters in basins that have poured them from one to the other4 ,the calcareous rock is no longer visible1 but is covered with a thick layer of mould4 ,the last time we saw it in the forest of ,santa ,maria it was slightly porous1 and looked more like the limestone of ,cumanacoa than that of ,caripe4 ,we there found brown iron-ore disseminated in patches1 and if we were not deceived in our observation1 a ,cornu-ammonis1 which we could not succeed in our attempt to detach4 ,it was seven inches in diameter4 ,this fact is the more important1 as in this part of ,america we have never seen ammonites4 ,the ,mission of ,santa ,cruz is situated in the midst of the plain4 ,we reached it towards the evening1 suffering much from thirst1 having travelled nearly eight hours without finding water4 ,the thermometer kept at #bf degrees2 accordingly we were not more than #aij toises above the level of the sea4 ,we passed the night in one of those ajupas called ,king's houses1 which1 as ,i have already said1 serve as tambos or caravanserais to travellers4 ,the rains prevented any observations of the stars2 and the next day1 the #bcrd of ,september1 we continued our descent towards the gulf of ,cariaco4 ,beyond ,santa ,cruz a thick forest again appears2 and in it we found1 under tufts of melastomas1 a beautiful fern1 with osmundia leaves1 which forms a new genus of the order of polypodiaceous plants499 799 ,polybotya47 ,having reached the mission of ,catuaro1 we were desirous of continuing our journey eastward by ,santa ,rosalia1 ,casanay1 ,san ,josef1 ,carupano1 ,rio ,carives1 and the ,montana of ,paria2 but we learnt with great regret1 that torrents of rain had rendered the roads impassable1 and that we should run the risk of losing the plants we had already gathered4 ,a rich planter of cacao-trees was to accompany us from ,santa ,rosalia to the port of ,carupano2 but when the time of departure approached1 we were informed that his affairs had called him to ,cumana4 ,we resolved in consequence to embark at ,cariaco1 and to return directly by the gulf1 instead of passing between the island of ,margareta and the isthmus of ,araya4 ,the ,mission of ,catuaro is situated on a very wild spot4 ,trees of full growth still surround the church1 and the tigers come by night to devour the poultry and swine belonging to the ,indians4 ,we lodged at the dwelling of the priest1 a monk of the congregation of the ,observance1 to whom the ,capuchins had confided the ,mission1 because priests of their own community were wanting4 ,at this ,mission we met ,don ,alexandro ,mexia1 the corregidor of the district1 an amiable and well-educated man4 ,he gave us three ,indians1 who1 armed with their machetes1 were to precede us1 and cut our way through the forest4 ,in this country1 so little frequented1 the power of vegetation is such at the period of the great rains1 that a man on horseback can with difficulty make his way through narrow paths1 covered with lianas and intertwining branches4 ,to our great annoyance1 the missionary of ,catuaro insisted on conducting us to ,cariaco2 and we could not decline the proposal4 ,the movement for independence1 which had nearly broken out at ,caracas in #agih1 had been preceded and followed by great agitation among the slaves at ,coro1 ,maracaybo1 and ,cariaco4 ,at the last of these places an unfortunate negro had been condemned to die1 and our host1 the vicar of ,catuaro1 was going thither to offer him spiritual comfort4 ,during our journey we could not escape conversations1 in which the missionary pertinaciously insisted on the necessity of the slave-trade1 on the innate wickedness of the blacks1 and the benefit they derived from their state of slavery among the ,christians6 ,the mildness of ,spanish legislation1 compared with the ,black ,code of most other nations that have possessions in either of the ,indies1 cannot be denied4 ,but such is the state of the negroes1 that justice1 far from efficaciously protecting them during their lives1 cannot even punish acts of barbarity which cause their death4 ,the road we took across the forest of ,catuaro resembled the descent of the mountain ,santa ,maria2 here also1 the most difficult and dangerous places have fanciful names4 ,we walked as in a narrow furrow1 scooped out by torrents1 and filled with fine tenacious clay4 ,the mules lowered their cruppers and slid down the steepest slopes4 ,this descent is called ,saca ,manteca499 799 ,or the ,butter-,slope4 ,manteca in ,spanish signifies butter47 ,there is no danger in the descent1 owing to the great address of the mules of this country4 ,the clay1 which renders the soil so slippery1 is produced by the numerous layers of sandstone and schistose clay crossing the bluish grey alpine limestone4 ,this last disappears as we draw nearer to ,cariaco4 ,when we reached the mountain of ,meapira1 we found it formed in great part of a white limestone1 filled with fossil remains1 and from the grains of quartz agglutinated in the mass1 it appeared to belong to the great formation of the sea-coast breccias4 ,we descended this mountain on the strata of the rock1 the section of which forms steps of unequal height4 ,farther on1 going out of the forest1 we reached the hill of ,buenavista199 799 ,mountain of the ,fine ,prospect47 well deserving the name it bears2 since it commands a view of the town of ,cariaco1 situated in the midst of a vast plain filled with plantations1 huts1 and scattered groups of cocoa-palms4 ,to the west of ,cariaco extends the wide gulf2 which a wall of rock separates from the ocean3 and towards the east are seen1 like bluish clouds1 the high mountains of ,paria and ,areo4 ,this is one of the most extensive and magnificent prospects that can be enjoyed on the coast of ,new ,andalusia4 ,in the town of ,cariaco we found a great part of the inhabitants suffering from intermittent fever2 a disease which in autumn assumes a formidable character4 ,when we consider the extreme fertility of the surrounding plains1 their moisture1 and the mass of vegetation with which they are covered1 we may easily conceive why1 amidst so much decomposition of organic matter1 the inhabitants do not enjoy that salubrity of air which characterizes the climate of ,cumana4 ,the chain of calcareous mountains of the ,brigantine and the ,cocollar sends off a considerable branch to the north1 which joins the primitive mountains of the coast4 ,this branch bears the name of ,sierra de ,meapire2 but towards the town of ,cariaco it is called ,cerro ,grande de ,curiaco4 ,its mean height did not appear to be more than #aej or #bjj toises4 ,it was composed1 where ,i could examine it1 of the calcareous breccias of the sea-coast4 ,marly and calcareous beds alternate with other beds containing grains of quartz4 ,it is a very striking phenomenon for those who study the physical aspect of a country1 to see a transverse ridge connect at right angles two parallel ridges1 of which one1 the more southern1 is composed of secondary rocks1 and the other1 the more northern1 of primitive rocks4 ,the latter presents1 nearly as far as the meridian of ,carupano1 only mica-slate2 but to the east of this point1 where it communicates by a transverse ridge 7the ,sierra de ,meapire7 with the limestone range1 it contains lamellar gypsum1 compact limestone1 and other rocks of secondary formation4 ,it might be supposed that the southern ridge has transferred these rocks to the northern chain4 ,when standing on the summit of the ,cerro del ,meapire1 we see the mountain currents flow on one side to the gulf of ,paria1 and on the other to the gulf of ,cariaco4 ,east and west of the ridge there are low and marshy grounds1 spreading out without interruption2 and if it be admitted that both gulfs owe their origin to the sinking of the earth1 and to rents caused by earthquakes1 we must suppose that the ,cerro de ,meapire has resisted the convulsive movements of the globe1 and hindered the waters of the gulf of ,paria from uniting with those of the gulf of ,cariaco4 ,but for this rocky dyke1 the isthmus itself in all probability would have had no existence2 and from the castle of ,araya as far as ,cape ,paria1 the whole mass of the mountains of the coast would have formed a narrow island1 parallel to the island of ,santa ,margareta1 and four times as long4 ,not only do the inspection of the ground1 and considerations deduced from its relievo1 confirm these opinions2 but a mere glance of the configuration of the coasts1 and a geological map of the country1 would suggest the same ideas4 ,it would appear that the island of ,margareta has been heretofore attached to the coast-chain of ,araya by the peninsula of ,chacopata and the ,caribbee islands1 ,lobo and ,coche1 in the same manner as this chain is still connected with that of the ,cocollar and ,caripe by the ridge of ,meapire4 ,at present we perceive that the humid plains which stretch east and west of the ridge1 and which are improperly called the valleys ,san ,bonifacio and ,cariaco1 are enlarging by gaining on the sea4 ,the waters are receding1 and these changes of the shore are very remarkable1 more particularly on the coast of ,cumana4 ,if the level of the soil seem to indicate that the two gulfs of ,cariaco and ,paria formerly occupied a much more considerable space1 we cannot doubt that at present the land is progressively extending4 ,near ,cumana1 a battery1 called ,la ,boca1 was built in #agia on the very margin of the sea2 in #agii we saw it very far inland4 ,at the mouth of the ,rio ,neveri1 near the ,morro of ,nueva ,barcelona1 the retreat of the waters is still more rapid4 ,this local phenomenon is probably assignable to accumulations of sand1 the progress of which has not yet been sufficiently examined4 ,descending the ,sierra de ,meapire1 which forms the isthmus between the plains of ,san ,bonifacio and ,cariaco1 we find towards the east the great lake of ,putacuao1 which communicates with the river ,areo1 and is four or five leagues in diameter4 ,the mountainous lands that surround this basin are known only to the natives4 ,there are found those great boa serpents known to the ,chayma ,indians by the name of guainas1 and to which they fabulously attribute a sting under the tail4 ,descending the ,sierra de ,meapire to the west1 we find at first a hollow ground 7tierra hueca7 which1 during the great earthquakes of #agff1 threw out asphaltum enveloped in viscous petroleum4 ,farther on1 a numberless quantity of sulphureous thermal springs99 are seen issuing from the soil 799 ,el ,llano de ,aguas calientes1 east-north-east of ,cariaco1 at the distance of two leagues472 and at length we reach the borders of the lake of ,campoma1 the exhalations from which contribute to the insalubrity of the climate of ,cariaco4 ,the natives believe that the hollow is formed by the engulfing of the hot springs2 and1 judging from the sound heard under the hoofs of the horses1 we must conclude that the subterranean cavities are continued from west to east nearly as far as ,casanay1 a length of three or four thousand toises4 ,a little river1 the ,rio ,azul1 runs through these plains which are rent into crevices by earthquakes4 ,these earthquakes have a particular centre of action1 and seldom extend as far as ,cumana4 ,the waters of the ,rio ,azul are cold and limpid2 they rise on the western declivity of the mountain of ,meapire1 and it is believed that they are augmented by infiltrations from the lake ,putacuao1 situated on the other side of the chain4 ,the little river1 together with the sulphureous hot springs1 fall into the ,laguna de ,campoma4 ,this is a name given to a great lagoon1 which is divided in dry weather into three basins situated north-west of the town of ,cariaco1 near the extremity of the gulf4 ,fetid exhalations arise continually from the stagnant water of this lagoon4 ,the smell of sulphuretted hydrogen is mingled with that of putrid fishes and rotting plants4 ,miasms are formed in the valley of ,cariaco1 as in the ,campagna of ,rome2 but the hot climate of the tropics increases their deleterious energy4 ,these miasms are probably ternary or quaternary combinations of azote1 phosphorus1 hydrogen1 carbon1 and sulphur4 ,the situation of the lagoon of ,campoma renders the north-west wind1 which blows frequently after sunset1 very pernicious to the inhabitants of the little town of ,cariaco4 ,its influence can be the less doubted1 as intermitting fevers are observed to degenerate into typhoid fevers1 in proportion as we approach the lagoon1 which is the principal focus of putrid miasms4 ,whole families of free negroes1 who have small plantations on the northern coast of the gulf of ,cariaco1 languish in their hammocks from the beginning of the rainy season4 ,these intermittent fevers assume a dangerous character1 when persons1 debilitated by long labour and copious perspiration1 expose themselves to the fine rains1 which frequently fall as evening advances4 ,nevertheless1 the men of colour1 and particularly the ,creole negroes1 resist much better than any other race1 the influence of the climate4 ,lemonade and infusions of ,scoparia dulcis are given to the sick2 but the cuspare1 which is the cinchona of ,angostura1 is seldom used4 ,it is generally observed1 that in these epidemics of the town of ,cariaco the mortality is less considerable than might be supposed4 ,intermitting fevers1 when they attack the same individual during several successive years1 enfeeble the constitution2 but this state of debility1 so common on the unhealthy coasts1 does not cause death4 ,what is remarkable enough1 is the belief which prevails here as in the ,campagna of ,rome1 that the air has become progressively more vitiated in proportion as a greater number of acres have been cultivated4 ,the miasms exhaled from these plains have1 however1 nothing in common with those which arise from a forest when the trees are cut down1 and the sun heats a thick layer of dead leaves4 ,near ,cariaco the country is but thinly wooded4 ,can it be supposed that the mould1 fresh stirred and moistened by rains1 alters and vitiates the atmosphere more than the thick wood of plants which covers an uncultivated soil8 ,to local causes are joined other causes less problematic4 ,the neighbouring shores of the sea are covered with mangroves1 avicennias1 and other shrubs with astringent bark4 ,all the inhabitants of the tropics are aware of the noxious exhalations of these plants2 and they dread them the more1 as their roots and stocks are not always under water1 but alternately wetted and exposed to the heat of the sun499 ,the mangroves produce miasms1 because they contain vegeto-animal matter combined with tannin4 799 ,the following is a list of the social plants that cover those sandy plains on the sea-side1 and characterize the vegetation of ,cumana and the gulf of ,cariaco4 ,rhizophora mangle1 ,avicennia nitida1 ,gomphrena flava1 ,g4 brachiata1 ,sesuvium portulacastrum 7vidrio71 ,talinum cuspidatum 7vicho71 ,t4 cumanense1 ,portulacca pilosa 7zargasso71 ,p4 lanuginosa1 ,illecebrum maritimum1 ,atriplex cristata1 ,heliotropium viride1 ,h4 latifolium1 ,verbena cuneata1 ,mollugo verticillata1 ,euphorbia maritima1 ,convolvulus cumanensis47 ,the town of ,cariaco has been repeatedly sacked in former times by the ,caribs4 ,its population has augmented rapidly since the provincial authorities1 in spite of prohibitory orders from the court of ,madrid have often favoured the trade with foreign colonies4 ,the population amounted1 in #ahjj1 to more than #fjjj souls4 ,the inhabitants are active in the cultivation of cotton1 which is of a very fine quality4 ,the capsules of the cotton-tree1 when separated from the woolly substance1 are carefully burnt2 as those husks if thrown into the river1 and exposed to putrefaction1 yield noxious exhalations4 ,the culture of the cacao-tree has of late considerably diminished4 ,this valuable tree bears only after eight or ten years4 ,its fruit keeps very badly in the warehouses1 and becomes mouldy at the expiration of a year1 notwithstanding all the precautions employed for drying it4 ,it is only in the interior of the province1 to the east of the ,sierra de ,meapire1 that new plantations of the cacao-tree are seen4 ,they become there the more productive1 as the lands1 newly cleared and surrounded by forests1 are in contact with an atmosphere damp1 stagnant1 and loaded with mephitic exhalations4 ,we there see fathers of families1 attached to the old habits of the colonists1 slowly amass a little fortune for themselves and their children4 ,thirty thousand cacao-trees will secure competence to a family for a generation and a half4 ,if the culture of cotton and coffee have led to the diminution of cacao in the province of ,caracas and in the small valley of ,cariaco1 it must be admitted that this last branch of colonial industry has in general increased in the interior of the provinces of ,new ,barcelona and ,cumana4 ,the causes of the progressive movement of the cacao-tree from west to east may be easily conceived4 ,the province of ,caracas has been from a remote period cultivated3 and1 in the torrid zone1 in proportion as a country has been cleared1 it becomes drier and more exposed to the winds4 ,these physical changes have been adverse to the propagation of cacao-trees1 the plantations of which1 diminishing in the province of ,caracas1 have accumulated eastward on a newly-cleared and virgin soil4 ,the cacao of ,cumana is infinitely superior to that of ,guayaquil4 ,the best is produced in the valley of ,san ,bonifacio2 as the best cacao of ,new ,barcelona1 ,caracas1 and ,guatimala1 is that of ,capiriqual1 ,uritucu1 and ,soconusco4 ,since the island of ,trinidad has become an ,english colony1 the whole of the eastern extremity of the province of ,cumana1 especially the coast of ,paria1 and the gulf of the same name1 have changed their appearance4 ,foreigners have settled there1 and have introduced the cultivation of the coffee-tree1 the cotton-tree1 and the sugar-cane of ,otaheite4 ,the population has greatly increased at ,carupano1 in the beautiful valley of ,rio ,caribe1 at ,guira1 and at the new town of ,punta di ,piedra1 built opposite ,spanish ,harbour1 in the island of ,trinidad4 ,the soil is so fertile in the ,golfo ,triste1 that maize yields two harvests in the year1 and produces three hundred and eighty fold the quantity sown4 ,early in the morning we embarked in a sort of narrow canoe1 called a lancha1 in hopes of crossing the gulf of ,cariaco during the day4 ,the motion of the waters resembles that of our great lakes1 when they are agitated by the winds4 ,from the embarcadero to ,cumana the distance is only twelve nautical leagues4 ,on quitting the little town of ,cariaco1 we proceeded westward along the river of ,carenicuar1 which1 in a straight line like an artificial canal1 runs through gardens and plantations of cotton-trees4 ,on the banks of the river of ,cariaco we saw the ,indian women washing their linen with the fruit of the parapara 7,sapindus saponaria1 or soap-berry71 an operation said to be very injurious to the linen4 ,the bark of the fruit produces a strong lather2 and the fruit is so elastic that if thrown on a stone it rebounds three or four times to the height of seven or eight feet4 ,being a spherical form1 it is employed in making rosaries4 ,after we embarked we had to contend against contrary winds4 ,the rain fell in torrents1 and the thunder rolled very near4 ,swarms of flamingoes1 egrets1 and cormorants filled the air1 seeking the shore1 whilst the alcatras1 a large species of pelican1 alone continued peaceably to fish in the middle of the gulf4 ,the gulf of ,cariaco is almost everywhere forty-five or fifty fathoms deep2 but at its eastern extremity1 near ,curaguaca1 along an extent of five leagues1 the lead does not indicate more than three or four fathoms4 ,here is found the ,baxo de la ,cotua1 a sand-bank1 which at low-water appears like a small island4 ,the canoes which carry provisions to ,cumana sometimes ground on this bank2 but always without danger1 because the sea is never rough or heavy4 ,we crossed that part of the gulf where hot springs gush from the bottom of the sea4 ,it was flood-tide1 so that the change of temperature was not very perceptible3 besides1 our canoe drove too much towards the southern shore4 ,it may be supposed that strata of water must be found of different temperatures1 according to the greater or less depth1 and according as the mingling of the hot waters with those of the gulf is accelerated by the winds and currents4 ,the existence of these hot springs1 which we were assured raise the temperature of the sea through an extent of ten or twelve thousand square toises1 is a very remarkable phenomenon4 799 ,in the island of ,guadaloupe1 there is a fountain of boiling water1 which rushes out on the beach4 ,hot-water springs rise from the bottom of the sea in the gulf of ,naples1 and near the island of ,palma1 in the archipelago of the ,canary ,islands47 ,proceeding from the promontory of ,paria westward1 by ,irapa1 ,aguas ,calientes1 the gulf of ,cariaco1 the ,brigantine1 and the valley of ,aragua1 as far as the snowy mountains of ,merida1 a continued band of thermal waters is found in an extent of #aej leagues4 ,adverse winds and rainy weather forced us to go on shore at ,pericantral1 a small farm on the south side of the gulf4 ,the whole of this coast1 though covered with beautiful vegetation1 is almost wholly uncultivated4 ,there are scarcely seven hundred inhabitants3 and1 excepting in the village of ,mariguitar1 we saw only plantations of cocoa-trees1 which are the olives of the country4 ,this palm occupies on both continents a zone1 of which the mean temperature of the year is not below #bj degrees499 799 ,the cocoa-tree grows in the northern hemisphere from the equator to latitude #bh degrees4 ,near the equator we find it from the plains to the height of #gjj toises above the level of the sea47 ,it is1 like the chamaerops of the basin of the ,mediterranean1 a true palm-tree of the coast4 ,it prefers salt to fresh water2 and flourishes less inland1 where the air is not loaded with saline particles1 than on the shore4 ,when cocoa-trees are planted in ,terra ,firma1 or in the ,missions of the ,orinoco1 at a distance from the sea1 a considerable quantity of salt1 sometimes as much as half a bushel1 is thrown into the hole which receives the nut4 ,among the plants cultivated by man1 the sugar-cane1 the plantain1 the mammee-apple1 and alligator-pear 7,laurus persea71 alone have the property of the cocoa-tree2 that of being watered equally well with fresh and salt water4 ,this circumstance is favourable to their migrations2 and if the sugarcane of the sea-shore yield a syrup that is a little brackish1 it is believed at the same time to be better fitted for the distillation of spirit than the juice produced from the canes in inland situations4 ,the cocoa-tree1 in the other parts of ,america1 is in general cultivated around farm-houses1 and the fruit is eaten2 in the gulf of ,cariaco1 it forms extensive plantations4 ,in a fertile and moist ground1 the tree begins to bear fruit abundantly in the fourth year2 but in dry soils it bears only at the expiration of ten years4 ,the duration of the tree does not in general exceed eighty or a hundred years2 and its mean height at that age is from seventy to eighty feet4 ,this rapid growth is so much the more remarkable1 as other palm-trees1 for instance1 the moriche199 799 ,mauritia flexuosa47 and the palm of ,sombrero199 799 ,corypha tectorum47 the longevity of which is very great1 frequently do not attain a greater height than fourteen or eighteen feet in the space of sixty years4 ,in the first thirty or forty years1 a cocoa-tree of the gulf of ,cariaco bears every lunation a cluster of ten or fourteen nuts1 all of which1 however1 do not ripen4 ,it may be reckoned that1 on an average1 a tree produces annually a hundred nuts1 which yield eight flascos99 of oil4 7,one flasco contains #gj or #hj cubic inches1 ,paris measure47 ,in ,provence1 an olive-tree thirty years old yields twenty pounds1 or seven flascos of oil1 so that it produces something less than a cocoa-tree4 ,there are in the gulf of ,cariaco plantations 7haciendas7 of eight or nine thousand cocoa-trees4 ,they resemble1 in their picturesque appearance1 those fine plantations of date-trees near ,elche1 in ,murcia1 where1 over the superficies of one square league1 there may be found upwards of #gj1jjj palms4 ,the cocoa-tree bears fruit in abundance till it is thirty or forty years old2 after that age the produce diminishes1 and a trunk a hundred years old1 without being altogether barren1 yields very little4 ,in the town of ,cumana there is prepared a great quantity of cocoa-nut oil1 which is limpid1 without smell1 and very fit for burning4 ,the trade in this oil is not less active than that on the coast of ,africa for palm-oil1 which is obtained from the ,elais guineensis1 and is used as food4 ,i have often seen canoes arrive at ,cumana laden with #cjjj cocoa-nuts4 ,we did not quit the farm of ,pericantral till after sunset4 ,the south coast of the gulf presents a most fertile aspect1 while the northern coast is naked1 dry1 and rocky4 ,in spite of this aridity1 and the scarcity of rain1 of which sometimes none falls for the space of fifteen months199 the peninsula of ,araya1 like the desert of ,canound in ,india1 produces patillas1 or water-melons1 weighing from fifty to seventy pounds4 799 ,the rains appear to have been more frequent at the beginning of the #afth century4 ,at any rate1 the canon of ,granada 7,peter ,martyr d',anghiera71 speaking in the year #aegd1 of the salt-works of ,araya1 or of ,haraia1 described in the fifth chapter of this work1 mentions showers 7cadentes imbres7 as a very common phenomenon4 ,the same author1 who died in #aebf1 affirms that the ,indians wrought the salt-works before the arrival of the ,spaniards4 ,they dried the salt in the form of bricks2 and our writer even then discussed the geological question1 whether the clayey soil of ,haraia contained salt-springs1 or whether it had been impregnated with salt by the periodical inundations of the ocean for ages47 ,in the torrid zone1 the vapours contained by the air form about nine-tenths of the quantity necessary to its saturation3 and vegetation is maintained by the property which the leaves possess of attracting the water dissolved in the atmosphere4 ,at sunrise1 we saw the ,zamuro vultures199 799 ,vultur aura47 in flocks of forty or fifty1 perched on the cocoa-trees4 ,these birds range themselves in files to roost together like fowls4 ,they go to roost long before sunset1 and do not awake till after the sun is above the horizon4 ,this sluggishness seems as if it were shared in those climates by the trees with pinnate leaves4 ,the mimosas and the tamarinds close their leaves1 in a clear and serene sky1 twenty-five or thirty-five minutes before sunset1 and unfold them in the morning when the solar disk has been visible for an equal space of time4 ,as ,i noticed pretty regularly the rising and setting of the sun1 for the purpose of observing the effect of the mirage1 or of the terrestrial refractions1 ,i was enabled to give continued attention to the phenomena of the sleep of plants4 ,i found them the same in the steppes1 where no irregularity of the ground interrupted the view of the horizon4 ,it appears1 that1 accustomed during the day to an extreme brilliancy of light1 the sensitive and other leguminous plants with thin and delicate leaves are affected in the evening by the smallest decline in the intensity of the sun's rays2 so that for vegetation1 night begins there1 as with us1 before the total disappearance of the solar disk4 ,but why1 in a zone where there is scarcely any twilight1 do not the first rays of the sun stimulate the leaves with the more strength1 as the absence of light must have rendered them more susceptible8 ,does the humidity deposited on the parenchyma by the cooling of the leaves1 which is the effect of the nocturnal radiation1 prevent the action of the first rays of the sun8 ,in our climates1 the leguminous plants with irritable leaves awake during the twilight of the morning1 before the sun appears4 ,,chapter #a4i4 ,,physical ,,constitution ,,and ,,manners ,,of ,,the ,,chaymas4 ,,their ,,language4 ,,filiation ,,of ,,the ,,nations ,,which ,,inhabit ,,new ,,andalucia4 ,,pariagotos ,,seen ,,by ,,columbus4 ,i did not wish to mingle with the narrative of our journey to the ,missions of ,caripe any general considerations on the different tribes of the indigenous inhabitants of ,new ,andalusia2 their manners1 their languages1 and their common origin4 ,having returned to the spot whence we set out1 ,i shall now bring into one point of view these considerations which are so nearly connected with the history of the human race4 ,as we advance into the interior of the country1 these subjects will become even more interesting than the phenomena of the physical world4 ,the north-east part of equinoctial ,america1 ,terra ,firma1 and the banks of the ,orinoco1 resemble in respect to the numerous races of people who inhabit them1 the defiles of the ,caucasus1 the mountains of ,hindookho1 at the northern extremity of ,asia1 beyond the ,tungouses1 and the ,tartare settled at the mouth of the ,lena4 ,the barbarism which prevails throughout these different regions is perhaps less owing to a primitive absence of all kind of civilization1 than to the effects of long degradation2 for most of the hordes which we designate under the name of savages1 are probably the descendants of nations highly advanced in cultivation4 ,how can we distinguish the prolonged infancy of the human race 7if1 indeed1 it anywhere exists71 from that state of moral degradation in which solitude1 want1 compulsory misery1 forced migration1 or rigour of climate1 obliterate even the traces of civilization8 ,if everything connected with the primitive state of man1 and the first population of a continent1 could from its nature belong to the domain of history1 we might appeal to the traditions of ,india4 ,according to the opinion frequently expressed in the laws of ,menou and in the ,ramajan1 savages were regarded as tribes banished from civilized society1 and driven into the forests4 ,the word barbarian1 which we have borrowed from the ,greeks and ,romans1 was possibly merely the proper name of one of those rude hordes4 ,in the ,new ,world1 at the beginning of the conquest1 the natives were collected into large societies only on the ridge of the ,cordilleras and the coasts opposite to ,asia4 ,the plains1 covered with forests1 and intersected by rivers2 the immense savannahs1 extending eastward1 and bounding the horizon2 were inhabited by wandering hordes1 separated by differences of language and manners1 and scattered like the remnants of a vast wreck4 ,in the absence of all other monuments1 we may endeavour1 from the analogy of languages1 and the study of the physical constitution of man1 to group the different tribes1 to follow the traces of their distant emigrations1 and to discover some of those family features by which the ancient unity of our species is manifested4 ,in the mountainous regions which we have just traversed1--in the two provinces of ,cumana and ,new ,barcelona1 the natives1 or primitive inhabitants1 still constitute about one-half of the scanty population4 ,their number may be reckoned at sixty thousand2 of which twenty-four thousand inhabit ,new ,andalusia4 ,this number is very considerable1 when compared with that of the hunting nations of ,north ,america2 but it appears small1 when we consider those parts of ,new ,spain in which agriculture has existed more than eight centuries3 for instance1 the ,intendencia of ,oaxaca1 which includes the ,mixteca and the ,tzapoteca of the old ,mexican empire4 ,this ,intendencia is one-third smaller than the two provinces of ,cumana and ,barcelona2 yet it contains more than four hundred thousand natives of pure copper-coloured race4 ,the ,indians of ,cumana do not all live within the ,missions4 ,some are dispersed in the neighbourhood of the towns1 along the coasts1 to which they are attracted by the fisheries1 and some dwell in little farms on the plains or savannahs4 ,the ,missions of the ,aragonese ,capuchins which we visited1 alone contain fifteen thousand ,indians1 almost all of the ,chayma race4 ,the villages1 however1 are less populous there than in the province of ,barcelona4 ,their average population is only between five or six hundred ,indians2 while more to the west1 in the ,missions of the ,franciscans of ,piritu1 we find ,indian villages containing two or three thousand inhabitants4 ,in computing at sixty thousand the number of natives in the provinces of ,cumana and ,barcelona1 ,i include only those who inhabit the mainland1 and not the ,guayquerias of the island of ,margareta1 and the great mass of the ,guaraunos1 who have preserved their independence in the islands formed by the ,delta of the ,orinoco4 ,the number of these is generally reckoned at six or eight thousand2 but this estimate appears to me to be exaggerated4 ,except a few families of ,guaraunos who roam occasionally in the marshy grounds1 called ,los ,morichales1 and between the ,cano de ,manamo and the ,rio ,guarapiche1 consequently1 on the continent itself1 there have not been for these thirty years1 any ,indian savages in ,new ,andalusia4 ,i use with regret the word savage1 because it implies a difference of cultivation between the reduced ,indian1 living in the ,missions1 and the free or independent ,indian2 a difference which is often belied by fact4 ,in the forests of ,south ,america there are tribes of natives1 peacefully united in villages1 and who render obedience to chiefs499 799 ,these chiefs bear the designations of ,pecannati1 ,apoto1 or ,sibierne47 ,they cultivate the plantain-tree1 cassava1 and cotton1 on a tolerably extensive tract of ground1 and they employ the cotton for weaving hammocks4 ,these people are scarcely more barbarous than the naked ,indians of the ,missions1 who have been taught to make the sign of the cross4 ,it is a common error in ,europe1 to look on all natives not reduced to a state of subjection1 as wanderers and hunters4 ,agriculture was practised on the ,american continent long before the arrival of ,europeans4 ,it is still practised between the ,orinoco and the river ,amazon1 in lands cleared amidst the forests1 places to which the missionaries have never penetrated4 ,it would be to imbibe false ideas respecting the actual condition of the nations of ,south ,america1 to consider as synonymous the denominations of ',christian1' 'reduced1' and 'civilized2' and those of 'pagan1' 'savage1' and 'independent4' ,the reduced ,indian is often as little of a ,christian as the independent ,indian is of an idolater4 ,both1 alike occupied by the wants of the moment1 betray a marked indifference for religious sentiments1 and a secret tendency to the worship of nature and her powers4 ,this worship belongs to the earliest infancy of nations2 it excludes idols1 and recognises no other sacred places than grottoes1 valleys1 and woods4 ,if the independent ,indians have nearly disappeared for a century past northward of the ,orinoco and the ,apure1 that is1 from the ,snowy ,mountains of ,merida to the promontory of ,paria1 it must not thence be concluded1 that there are fewer natives at present in those regions1 than in the time of the bishop of ,chiapa1 ,bartolomeo de las ,casas4 ,in my work on ,mexico1 ,i have shown that it is erroneous to regard as a general fact the destruction and diminution of the ,indians in the ,spanish colonies4 ,there still exist more than six millions of the copper-coloured race1 in both ,americas2 and1 though numberless tribes and languages are either extinct1 or confounded together1 it is beyond a doubt that1 within the tropics1 in that part of the ,new ,world where civilization has penetrated only since the time of ,columbus1 the number of natives has considerably increased4 ,two of the ,carib villages in the ,missions of ,piritu or of ,carony1 contain more families than four or five of the settlements on the ,orinoco4 ,the state of society among the ,caribbees who have preserved their independence1 at the sources of the ,essequibo and to the south of the mountains of ,pacaraimo1 sufficiently proves how much1 even among that fine race of men1 the population of the ,missions exceeds in number that of the free and confederate ,caribbees4 ,besides1 the state of the savages of the torrid zone is not like that of the savages of the ,missouri4 ,the latter require a vast extent of country1 because they live only by hunting2 whilst the ,indians of ,spanish ,guiana employ themselves in cultivating cassava and plantains4 ,a very little ground suffices to supply them with food4 ,they do not dread the approach of the whites1 like the savages of the ,united ,states2 who1 being progressively driven back behind the ,alleghany mountains1 the ,ohio1 and the ,mississippi1 lose their means of subsistence1 in proportion as they find themselves reduced within narrow limits4 ,under the temperate zone1 whether in the provincias internas of ,mexico1 or in ,kentucky1 the contact of ,european colonists has been fatal to the natives1 because that contact is immediate4 ,these causes have no existence in the greater part of ,south ,america4 ,agriculture1 within the tropics1 does not require great extent of ground4 ,the whites advance slowly4 ,the religious orders have founded their establishments between the domain of the colonists and the territory of the free ,indians4 ,the ,missions may be considered as intermediary states4 ,they have doubtless encroached on the liberty of the natives2 but they have almost everywhere tended to the increase of population1 which is incompatible with the restless life of the independent ,indians4 ,as the missionaries advance towards the forests1 and gain on the natives1 the white colonists in their turn seek to invade in the opposite direction the territory of the ,missions4 ,in this protracted struggle1 the secular arm continually tends to withdraw the reduced ,indian from the monastic hierarchy1 and the missionaries are gradually superseded by vicars4 ,the whites1 and the castes of mixed blood1 favoured by the corregidors1 establish themselves among the ,indians4 ,the ,missions become ,spanish villages1 and the natives lose even the remembrance of their natural language4 ,such is the progress of civilization from the coasts toward the interior2 a slow progress1 retarded by the passions of man1 but nevertheless sure and steady4 ,the provinces of ,new ,andalusia and ,barcelona1 comprehended under the name of ,govierno de ,cumana1 at present include in their population more than fourteen tribes4 ,those in ,new ,andalusia are the ,chaymas1 ,guayqueries1 ,pariagotos1 ,quaquas1 ,aruacas1 ,caribbees1 and ,guaraunos2 in the province of ,barcelona1 ,cumanagotos1 ,palenkas1 ,caribbees1 ,piritus1 ,tomuzas1 ,topocuares1 ,chacopatas1 and ,guarivas4 ,nine or ten of these fifteen tribes consider themselves to be of races entirely distinct4 ,the exact number of the ,guaraunos1 who make their huts on the trees at the mouth of the ,orinoco1 is unknown2 the ,guayqueries1 in the suburbs of ,cumana and in the peninsula of ,araya1 amount to two thousand4 ,among the other ,indian tribes1 the ,chaymas of the mountains of ,caripe1 the ,caribs of the southern savannahs of ,new ,barcelona1 and the ,cumanagotos in the ,missions of ,piritu1 are most numerous4 ,some families of ,guaraunos have been reduced and dwell in ,missions on the left bank of the ,orinoco1 where the ,delta begins4 ,the languages of the ,guaraunos and that of the ,caribs1 of the ,cumanagotos and of the ,chaymas1 are the most general4 ,they seem to belong to the same stock2 and they exhibit in their grammatical forms those affinities1 which1 to use a comparison taken from languages more known1 connect the ,greek1 the ,german1 the ,persian1 and the ,sanscrit4 ,notwithstanding these affinities1 we must consider the ,chaymas1 the ,guaraunos1 the ,caribbees1 the ,quaquas1 the ,aruacas or ,arrawaks1 and the ,cumanagotos1 as different nations4 ,i would not venture to affirm the same of the ,guayqueries1 the ,pariagotos1 the ,piritus1 the ,tomuzas1 and the ,chacopatas4 ,the ,guayquerias themselves admit the analogy between their language and that of the ,guaraunos4 ,both are a littoral race1 like the ,malays of the ancient continent4 ,with respect to the tribes who at present speak the ,cumanagota1 ,caribbean1 and ,chayma tongues1 it is difficult to decide on their first origin1 and their relations with other nations formerly more powerful4 ,the historians of the conquest1 as well as the ecclesiastics who have described the progress of the ,missions1 continually confound1 like the ancients1 geographical denominations with the names of races4 ,they speak of ,indians of ,cumana and of the coast of ,paria1 as if the proximity of abode proved the identity of origin4 ,they most commonly even give to tribes the names of their chiefs1 or of the mountains or valleys they inhabit4 ,this circumstance1 by infinitely multiplying the number of tribes1 gives an air of uncertainty to all that the monks relate respecting the heterogeneous elements of which the population of their ,missions are composed4 ,how can we now decide1 whether the ,tomuza and ,piritu be of different races1 when both speak the ,cumanagoto language1 which is the prevailing tongue in the western part of the ,govierno of ,cumana2 as the ,caribbean and the ,chayma are in the southern and eastern parts4 ,a great analogy of physical constitution increases the difficulty of these inquiries4 ,in the new continent a surprising variety of languages is observed among nations of the same origin1 and which ,european travellers scarcely distinguish by their features2 while in the old continent very different races of men1 the ,laplanders1 the ,finlanders1 and the ,estonians1 the ,germanic nations and the ,hindoos1 the ,persians and the ,kurds1 the ,tartar and ,mongol tribes1 speak languages1 the mechanism and roots of which present the greatest analogy4 ,the ,indians of the ,american ,missions are all agriculturists4 ,excepting those who inhabit the high mountains1 they all cultivate the same plants2 their huts are arranged in the same manner2 their days of labour1 their work in the conuco of the community2 their connexions with the missionaries and the magistrates chosen from among themselves1 are all subject to uniform regulations4 ,nevertheless 7and this fact is very remarkable in the history of nations71 these analogous circumstances have not effaced the individual features1 or the shades of character which distinguish the ,american tribes4 ,we observe in the men of copper hue1 a moral inflexibility1 a steadfast perseverance in habits and manners1 which1 though modified in each tribe1 characterise essentially the whole race4 ,these peculiarities are found in every region2 from the equator to ,hudson's ,bay on the one hand1 and to the ,straits of ,magellan on the other4 ,they are connected with the physical organization of the natives1 but they are powerfully favoured by the monastic system4 ,there exist in the missions few villages in which the different families do not belong to different tribes and speak different languages4 ,societies composed of elements thus heterogeneous are difficult to govern4 ,in general1 the monks have united whole nations1 or great portions of the same nations1 in villages situated near to each other4 ,the natives see only those of their own tribe2 for the want of communication1 and the isolated state of the people1 are essential points in the policy of the missionaries4 ,the reduced ,chaymas1 ,caribs1 and ,tamanacs1 retain their natural physiognomy1 whilst they have preserved their languages4 ,if the individuality of man be in some sort reflected in his idioms1 these in their turn re-act on his ideas and sentiments4 ,it is this intimate connection between language1 character1 and physical constitution1 which maintains and perpetuates the diversity of nations2 that unfailing source of life and motion in the intellectual world4 ,the missionaries may have prohibited the ,indians from following certain practices and observing certain ceremonies2 they may have prevented them from painting their skin1 from making incisions on their chins1 noses and cheeks2 they may have destroyed among the great mass of the people superstitious ideas1 mysteriously transmitted from father to son in certain families2 but it has been easier for them to proscribe customs and efface remembrances1 than to substitute new ideas in the place of the old ones4 ,the ,indian of the ,mission is secure of subsistence2 and being released from continual struggles against hostile powers1 from conflicts with the elements and man1 he leads a more monotonous life1 less active1 and less fitted to inspire energy of mind1 than the habits of the wild or independent ,indian4 ,he possesses that mildness of character which belongs to the love of repose2 not that which arises from sensibility and the emotions of the soul4 ,the sphere of his ideas is not enlarged1 where1 having no intercourse with the whites1 he remains a stranger to those objects with which ,european civilization has enriched the ,new ,world4 ,all his actions seem prompted by the wants of the moment4 ,taciturn1 serious1 and absorbed in himself2 he assumes a sedate and mysterious air4 ,when a person has resided but a short time in the ,missions1 and is but little familiarized with the aspect of the natives1 he is led to mistake their indolence1 and the torpid state of their faculties1 for the expression of melancholy1 and a meditative turn of mind4 ,i have dwelt on these features of the ,indian character1 and on the different modifications which that character exhibits under the government of the missionaries1 with the view of rendering more intelligible the observations which form the subject of the present chapter4 ,i shall begin by the nation of the ,chaymas1 of whom more than fifteen thousand inhabit the ,missions above noticed4 ,the ,chayma nation1 which ,father ,francisco of ,pampeluna99 began to reduce to subjection in the middle of the seventeenth century 799 ,the name of this monk1 celebrated for his intrepidity1 is still revered in the province4 ,he sowed the first seeds of civilization among these mountains4 ,he had long been captain of a ship2 and before he became a monk1 was known by the name of ,tiburtio ,redin471 has the ,cumanagotos on the west1 the ,guaraunos on the east1 and the ,caribbees on the south4 ,their territory occupies a space along the elevated mountains of the ,cocollar and the ,guacharo1 the banks of the ,guarapiche1 of the ,rio ,colorado1 of the ,areo1 and of the ,cano de ,caripe4 ,according to a statistical survey made with great care by the father prefect1 there were1 in the ,missions of the ,aragonese ,capuchins of ,cumana1 nineteen ,mission villages1 of which the oldest was established in #agbh1 containing one thousand four hundred and sixty-five families1 and six thousand four hundred and thirty-three persons3 sixteen doctrina villages1 of which the oldest dates from #affj1 containing one thousand seven hundred and sixty-six families1 and eight thousand one hundred and seventy persons4 ,these ,missions suffered greatly in #afha1 #afig1 and #agbj1 from the invasions of the ,caribbees 7then independent71 who burnt whole villages4 ,from #agcj to #agcf1 the population was diminished by the ravages of the small-pox1 a disease always more fatal to the copper-coloured ,indians than to the whites4 ,many of the ,guaraunos1 who had been assembled together1 fled back again to their native marshes4 ,fourteen old ,missions were deserted1 and have not been rebuilt4 ,the ,chaymas are in general short of stature and thick-set4 ,their shoulders are extremely broad1 and their chests flat4 ,their limbs are well rounded1 and fleshy4 ,their colour is the same as that of the whole ,american race1 from the cold table-lands of ,quito and ,new ,grenada to the burning plains of the ,amazon4 ,it is not changed by the varied influence of climate2 it is connected with organic peculiarities which for ages past have been unalterably transmitted from generation to generation4 ,if the uniform tint of the skin be redder and more coppery towards the north1 it is1 on the contrary1 among the ,chaymas1 of a dull brown inclining to tawny4 ,the denomination of copper-coloured men could never have originated in equinoctial ,america to designate the natives4 ,the expression of the countenance of the ,chaymas1 without being hard or stern1 has something sedate and gloomy4 ,the forehead is small1 and but little prominent1 and in several languages of these countries1 to express the beauty of a woman1 they say that 'she is fat1 and has a narrow forehead4' ,the eyes of the ,chaymas are black1 deep-set1 and very elongated3 but they are neither so obliquely placed1 nor so small1 as in the people of the ,mongol race4 ,the corner of the eye is1 however1 raised up towards the temple2 the eyebrows are black1 or dark brown1 thin1 and but little arched2 the eyelids are edged with very long eyelashes1 and the habit of casting them down1 as if from lassitude1 gives a soft expression to the women1 and makes the eye thus veiled appear less than it really is4 ,though the ,chaymas1 and in general all the natives of ,south ,america and ,new ,spain1 resemble the ,mongol race in the form of the eye1 in their high cheek-bones1 their straight and smooth hair1 and the almost total absence of beard2 yet they essentially differ from them in the form of the nose4 ,in the ,south ,americans this feature is rather long1 prominent through its whole length1 and broad at the nostrils1 the openings of which are directed downward1 as with all the nations of the ,caucasian race4 ,their wide mouths1 with lips but little protuberant though broad1 have generally an expression of good nature4 ,the passage from the nose to the mouth is marked in both sexes by two furrows1 which run diverging from the nostrils towards the corners of the mouth4 ,the chin is extremely short and round2 and the jaws are remarkable for strength and width4 ,though the ,chaymas have fine white teeth1 like all people who lead a very simple life1 they are1 however1 not so strong as those of the ,negroes4 ,the habit of blackening the teeth1 from the age of fifteen1 by the juices of certain herbs99 and caustic lime1 attracted the attention of the earliest travellers2 but the practice has now fallen quite into disuse4 799 ,the early historians of the conquest state that the blackening of the teeth was effected by the leaves of a tree which the natives called hay1 and which resembled the myrtle4 ,among nations very distant from each other1 the pimento bears a similar name2 among the ,haitians aji or ahi1 among the ,maypures of the ,orinoco1 ai4 ,some stimulant and aromatic plants1 which mostly belonging to the genus capsicum1 were designated by the same name47 ,such have been the migrations of the different tribes in these countries1 particularly since the incursions of the ,spaniards1 who carried on the slave-trade1 that it may be inferred the inhabitants of ,paria visited by ,christopher ,columbus and by ,ojeda1 were not of the same race as the ,chaymas4 ,i doubt much whether the custom of blackening the teeth was originally suggested1 as ,gomara supposed1 by absurd notions of beauty1 or was practised with the view of preventing the toothache4 99 ,this disorder is1 however1 almost unknown to the ,indians2 and the whites suffer seldom from it in the ,spanish colonies1 at least in the warm regions1 where the temperature is so uniform4 ,they are more exposed to it on the back of the ,cordilleras1 at ,santa ,fe1 and at ,popayan4 799 ,the tribes seen by the ,spaniards on the coast of ,paria1 probably observed the practice of stimulating the organs of taste by caustic lime1 as other races employed tobacco1 the chimo1 the leaves of the coca1 or the betel4 ,this practice exists even in our days1 but more towards the west1 among the ,guajiros1 at the mouth of the ,rio de la ,hacha4 ,these ,indians1 still savage1 carry small shells1 calcined and powdered1 in the husk of a fruit1 which serves them as a vessel for various purposes1 suspended to their girdle4 ,the powder of the ,guajiros is an article of commerce1 as was anciently1 according to ,gomara1 that of the ,indians of ,paria4 ,the immoderate habit of smoking also makes the teeth yellow and blackens them2 but would it be just to conclude from this fact1 that ,europeans smoke because we think yellow teeth handsomer than white87 ,the ,chaymas1 like almost all the native nations ,i have seen1 have small1 slender hands4 ,their feet are large1 and their toes retain an extraordinary mobility4 ,all the ,chaymas have a sort of family look2 and this resemblance1 so often observed by travellers1 is the more striking1 as between the ages of twenty and fifty1 difference of years is no way denoted by wrinkles of the skin1 colour of the hair1 or decrepitude of the body4 ,on entering a hut1 it is often difficult among adult persons to distinguish the father from the son1 and not to confound one generation with another4 ,i attribute this air of family resemblance to two different causes1 the local situation of the ,indian tribes1 and their inferior degree of intellectual culture4 ,savage nations are subdivided into an infinity of tribes1 which1 bearing violent hatred one to another1 form no intermarriages1 even when their languages spring from the same root1 and when only a small arm of a river1 or a group of hills1 separates their habitations4 ,the less numerous the tribes1 the more the intermarriages repeated for ages between the same families tend to fix a certain similarity of conformation1 an organic type1 which may be called national4 ,this type is preserved under the system of the ,missions1 each ,mission being formed by a single horde1 and marriages being contracted only between the inhabitants of the same hamlet4 ,those ties of blood which unite almost a whole nation1 are indicated in a simple manner in the language of the ,indians born in the ,missions1 or by those who1 after having been taken from the woods1 have learned ,spanish4 ,to designate the individuals who belong to the same tribe1 they employ the expression mis parientes1 my relations4 ,with these causes1 common to all isolated classes1 and the effects of which are observable among the ,jews of ,europe1 among the different castes of ,india1 and among mountain nations in general1 are combined some other causes hitherto unnoticed4 ,i have observed elsewhere1 that it is intellectual culture which most contributes to diversify the features4 ,barbarous nations have a physiognomy of tribe or of horde1 rather than individuality of look or features4 ,the savage and civilized man are like those animals of an individual species1 some of which roam in the forest1 while others1 associated with mankind1 share the benefits and evils which accompany civilization4 ,varieties of form and colour are frequent only in domestic animals4 ,how great is the difference1 with respect to mobility of features and variety of physiognomy1 between dogs which have again returned to the savage state in the ,new ,world1 and those whose slightest caprices are indulged in the houses of the opulent6 ,both in men and animals the emotions of the soul are reflected in the features2 and the countenance acquires the habit of mobility1 in proportion as the emotions of the mind are frequent1 varied1 and durable4 ,but the ,indian of the ,missions1 being remote from all cultivation1 influenced only by his physical wants1 satisfying almost without difficulty his desires1 in a favoured climate1 drags on a dull1 monotonous life4 ,the greatest equality prevails among the members of the same community2 and this uniformity1 this sameness of situation1 is pictured on the features of the ,indians4 ,under the system of the monks1 violent passions1 such as resentment and anger1 agitate the native more rarely than when he lives in the forest4 ,when man in a savage state yields to sudden and impetuous emotions1 his physiognomy1 till then calm and unruffled1 changes instantly to convulsive contortions4 ,his passion is transient in proportion to its violence4 ,with the ,indians of the ,missions1 as ,i have often observed on the ,orinoco1 anger is less violent1 less earnest1 but of longer duration4 ,besides1 in every condition of man1 it is not the energetic or the transient outbreaks of the passions1 which give expression to the features4 ,it is rather that sensibility of the soul1 which brings us continually into contact with the external world1 multiplies our sufferings and our pleasures1 and re-acts at once on the physiognomy1 the manners1 and the language4 ,if the variety and mobility of the features embellish the domain of animated nature1 we must admit also1 that both increase by civilization1 without being solely produced by it4 ,in the great family of nations1 no other race unites these advantages in so high a degree as the ,caucasian or ,european4 ,it is only in white men that the instantaneous penetration of the dermoidal system by the blood can produce that slight change of the colour of the skin which adds so powerful an expression to the emotions of the soul4 ,how can those be trusted who know not how to blush8 says the ,european1 in his dislike of the ,negro and the ,indian4 ,we must also admit1 that immobility of features is not peculiar to every race of men of dark complexion3 it is much less marked in the ,african than in the natives of ,america4 ,the ,chaymas1 like all savage people who dwell in excessively hot regions1 have an insuperable aversion to clothing4 ,the writers of the middle ages inform us1 that in the north of ,europe1 articles of clothing distributed by missionaries1 greatly contributed to the conversion of the pagan4 ,in the torrid zone1 on the contrary1 the natives are ashamed 7as they say7 to be clothed2 and flee to the woods1 when they are compelled to cover themselves4 ,among the ,chaymas1 in spite of the remonstrances of the monks1 men and women remain unclothed within their houses4 ,when they go into the villages they put on a kind of tunic of cotton1 which scarcely reaches to the knees4 ,the men's tunics have sleeves2 but women1 and young boys to the age of ten or twelve1 have the arms1 shoulders1 and upper part of the breast uncovered4 ,the tunic is so shaped1 that the fore-part is joined to the back by two narrow bands1 which cross the shoulders4 ,when we met the natives1 out of the boundaries of the ,mission1 we saw them1 especially in rainy weather1 stripped of their clothes1 and holding their shirts rolled up under their arms4 ,they preferred letting the rain fall on their bodies to wetting their clothes4 ,the elder women hid themselves behind trees1 and burst into loud fits of laughter when they saw us pass4 ,the missionaries complain that in general the young girls are not more alive to feelings of decency than the men4 ,ferdinand ,columbus99 relates that1 in #adih1 his father found the women in the island of ,trinidad without any clothing 799 ,life of the ,adelantado3 ,churchill's ,collection #agbc4 ,this ,life1 written after the year #aecg1 from original notes in the handwriting of ,christopher ,columbus himself1 is the most valuable record of the history of his discoveries4 ,it exists only in the ,italian and ,spanish translations of ,alphonso de ,ulloa and ,gonzales ,barcia3 for the original1 carried to ,venice in #aega by the learned ,fornari1 has not been published1 and is supposed to be lost4 ,napione della ,patria di ,colombo #ahjd4 ,cancellieri sopra ,christ4 ,colombo #ahji4 72 while the men wore the guayuco1 which is rather a narrow bandage than an apron4 ,at the same period1 on the coast of ,paria1 young girls were distinguished from married women1 either1 as ,cardinal ,bembo states1 by being quite unclothed1 or1 according to ,gomara1 by the colour of the guayuco4 ,this bandage1 which is still in use among the ,chaymas1 and all the naked nations of the ,orinoco1 is only two or three inches broad1 and is tied on both sides to a string which encircles the waist4 ,girls are often married at the age of twelve2 and until they are nine years old1 the missionaries allow them to go to church unclothed1 that is to say1 without a tunic4 ,among the ,chaymas1 as well as in all the ,spanish ,missions and the ,indian villages1 a pair of drawers1 a pair of shoes1 or a hat1 are objects of luxury unknown to the natives4 ,an ,indian servant1 who had been with us during our journey to ,caripe and the ,orinoco1 and whom ,i brought to ,france1 was so much struck1 on landing1 when he saw the ground tilled by a peasant with his hat on1 that he thought himself in a miserable country1 where even the nobles 7los mismos caballeros7 followed the plough4 ,the ,chayma women are not handsome1 according to the ideas we annex to beauty2 yet the young girls have a look of softness and melancholy1 contrasting agreeably with the expression of the mouth1 which is somewhat harsh and wild4 ,they wear their hair plaited in two long tresses2 they do not paint their skin2 and wear no other ornaments than necklaces and bracelets made of shells1 birds' bones1 and seeds4 ,both men and women are very muscular1 but at the same time fleshy and plump4 ,i saw no person who had any natural deformity2 and ,i may say the same of thousands of ,caribs1 ,muyscas1 and ,mexican and ,peruvian ,indians1 whom we observed during the course of five years4 ,bodily deformities1 and deviations from nature1 are exceedingly rare among certain races of men1 especially those who have the epidermis highly coloured2 but ,i cannot believe that they depend solely on the progress of civilization1 a luxurious life1 or the corruption of morals4 ,in ,europe a deformed or very ugly girl marries1 if she happen to have a fortune1 and the children often inherit the deformity of the mother4 ,in the savage state1 which is a state of equality1 no consideration can induce a man to unite himself to a deformed woman1 or one who is very unhealthy4 ,such a woman1 if she resist the accidents of a restless and troubled life1 dies without children4 ,we might be tempted to think1 that savages all appear well-made and vigorous1 because feeble children die young for want of care1 and only the strongest survive2 but these causes cannot operate among the ,indians of the ,missions1 whose manners are like those of our peasants1 or among the ,mexicans of ,cholula and ,tlascala1 who enjoy wealth1 transmitted to them by ancestors more civilized than themselves4 ,if1 in every state of cultivation1 the copper-coloured race manifests the same inflexibility1 the same resistance to deviation from a primitive type1 are we not forced to admit that this peculiarity belongs in great measure to hereditary organization1 to that which constitutes the race8 ,with copper-coloured men1 as with whites1 luxury and effeminacy weaken the physical constitution1 and heretofore deformities were more common at ,cuzco and ,tenochtitlan4 ,among the ,mexicans of the present day1 who are all labourers1 leading the most simple lives1 ,montezuma would not have found those dwarfs and humpbacks whom ,bernal ,diaz saw waiting at his table when he dined499 799 ,bernal ,diaz ,hist4 ,verd4 de la ,nueva ,espana #afcj47 ,the custom of marrying very young1 according to the testimony of the monks1 is no way detrimental to population4 ,this precocious nubility depends on the race1 and not on the influence of a climate excessively warm4 ,it is found on the north-west coast of ,america1 among the ,esquimaux1 and in ,asia1 among the ,kamtschatdales1 and the ,koriaks1 where girls of ten years old are often mothers4 ,it may appear astonishing1 that the time of gestation--the duration of pregnancy1 never alters in a state of health1 in any race1 or in any climate4 ,the ,chaymas are almost without beard on the chin1 like the ,tungouses1 and other nations of the ,mongol race4 ,they pluck out the few hairs which appear2 but independently of that practice1 most of the natives would be nearly beardless499 799 ,physiologists would never have entertained any difference of opinion respecting the existence of the beard among the ,americans1 if they had considered what the first historians of the ,conquest have said on this subject2 for example1 ,pigafetta1 in #aeai1 in his journal1 preserved in the ,ambrosian ,library at ,milan1 and published 7in #ahjj7 by ,amoretti2 ,benzoni ,hist4 del ,mundo ,nuovo #aegb2 ,bembo ,hist4 ,venet4 #aeeg47 ,i say most of them1 because there are tribes which1 as they appear distinct from the others1 are more worthy of fixing our attention4 ,such are1 in ,north ,america1 the ,chippewas visited by ,mackenzie1 and the ,yabipaees1 near the ,toltec ruins at ,moqui1 with bushy beards2 in ,south ,america1 the ,patagonians and the ,guaraunos4 ,among these last are some who have hairs on the breast4 ,when the ,chaymas1 instead of extracting the little hair they have on the chin1 attempt to shave themselves frequently1 their beards grow4 ,i have seen this experiment tried with success by young ,indians1 who officiated at mass1 and who anxiously wished to resemble the ,capuchin fathers1 their missionaries and masters4 ,the great mass of the people1 however1 dislike the beard1 no less than the ,eastern nations hold it in reverence4 ,this antipathy is derived from the same source as the predilection for flat foreheads1 which is evinced in so singular a manner in the statues of the ,aztec heroes and divinities4 ,nations attach the idea of beauty to everything which particularly characterizes their own physical conformation1 their national physiognomy499 799 ,thus1 in their finest statues1 the ,greeks exaggerated the form of the forehead1 by elevating beyond proportion the facial line47 ,hence it ensues that among a people to whom ,nature has given very little beard1 a narrow forehead1 and a brownish red skin1 every individual thinks himself handsome in proportion as his body is destitute of hair1 his head flattened1 and his skin besmeared with annatto1 chica1 or some other copper-red colour4 ,the ,chaymas lead a life of singular uniformity4 ,they go to rest very regularly at seven in the evening1 and rise long before daylight1 at half-past four in the morning4 ,every ,indian has a fire near his hammock4 ,the women are so chilly1 that ,i have seen them shiver at church when the centigrade thermometer was not below #ah degrees4 ,the huts of the ,indians are extremely clean4 ,their hammocks1 their reed mats1 their pots for holding cassava and fermented maize1 their bows and arrows1 everything is arranged in the greatest order4 ,men and women bathe every day2 and being almost constantly unclothed1 they are exempted from that uncleanliness1 of which the garments are the principal cause among the lower class of people in cold countries4 ,besides a house in the village1 they have generally1 in their conucos1 near some spring1 or at the entrance of some solitary valley1 a small hut1 covered with the leaves of the palm or plantain-tree4 ,though they live less commodiously in the conuco1 they love to retire thither as often as they can4 ,the irresistible desire the ,indians have to flee from society1 and enter again on a nomad life1 causes even young children sometimes to leave their parents1 and wander four or five days in the forests1 living on fruits1 palm-cabbage1 and roots4 ,when travelling in the ,missions1 it is not uncommon to find whole villages almost deserted1 because the inhabitants are in their gardens1 or in the forests 7al monte74 ,among civilized nations1 the passion for hunting arises perhaps in part from the same causes3 the charm of solitude1 the innate desire of independence1 the deep impression made by ,nature1 whenever man finds himself in contact with her in solitude4 ,the condition of the women among the ,chaymas1 like that in all semi-barbarous nations1 is a state of privation and suffering4 ,the hardest labour devolves on them4 ,when we saw the ,chaymas return in the evening from their gardens1 the man carried nothing but the knife or hatchet 7machete71 with which he clears his way among the underwood2 whilst the woman1 bending under a great load of plantains1 carried one child in her arms1 and sometimes two other children placed upon the load4 ,notwithstanding this inequality of condition1 the wives of the ,indians of ,south ,america appear to be in general happier than those of the savages of the ,north4 ,between the ,alleghany mountains and the ,mississippi1 wherever the natives do not live chiefly on the produce of the chase1 the women cultivate maize1 beans1 and gourds2 and the men take no share in the labours of the field4 ,in the torrid zone1 hunting tribes are not numerous1 and in the ,missions1 the men work in the fields as well as the women4 ,nothing can exceed the difficulty experienced by the ,indians in learning ,spanish1 to which language they have an absolute aversion4 ,whilst living separate from the whites1 they have no ambition to be called educated ,indians1 or1 to borrow the phrase employed in the ,missions1 'latinized ,indians' 7,indios muy latinos74 ,not only among the ,chaymas1 but in all the very remote ,missions which ,i afterwards visited1 ,i observed that the ,indians experience vast difficulty in arranging and expressing the most simple ideas in ,spanish1 even when they perfectly understand the meaning of the words and the turn of the phrases4 ,when a ,european questions them concerning objects which have surrounded them from their cradles1 they seem to manifest an imbecility exceeding that of infancy4 ,the missionaries assert that this embarrassment is neither the effect of timidity nor of natural stupidity1 but that it arises from the impediments they meet with in the structure of a language so different from their native tongue4 ,in proportion as man is remote from cultivation1 the greater is his mental inaptitude4 ,it is not1 therefore1 surprising that the isolated ,indians in the ,missions should experience in the acquisition of the ,spanish language1 less facility than ,indians who live among mestizoes1 mulattoes1 and whites1 in the neighbourhood of towns4 ,nevertheless1 ,i have often wondered at the volubility with which1 at ,caripe1 the native alcalde1 the governador1 and the sergento mayor1 will harangue for whole hours the ,indians assembled before the church2 regulating the labours of the week1 reprimanding the idle1 or threatening the disobedient4 ,those chiefs who are also of the ,chayma race1 and who transmit the orders of the missionary1 speak all together in a loud voice1 with marked emphasis1 but almost without action4 ,their features remain motionless2 but their look is imperious and severe4 ,these same men1 who manifest quickness of intellect1 and who were tolerably well acquainted with the ,spanish1 were unable to connect their ideas1 when1 in our excursions in the country around the convent1 we put questions to them through the intervention of the monks4 ,they were made to affirm or deny whatever the monks pleased3 and that wily civility1 to which the least cultivated ,indian is no stranger1 induced them sometimes to give to their answers the turn that seemed to be suggested by our questions4 ,travellers cannot be enough on their guard against this officious assent1 when they seek to confirm their own opinions by the testimony of the natives4 ,to put an ,indian alcalde to the proof1 ,i asked him one day1 whether he did not think the little river of ,caripe1 which issues from the cavern of the ,guacharo1 returned into it on the opposite side by some unknown entrance1 after having ascended the slope of the mountain4 ,the ,indian seemed gravely to reflect on the subject1 and then answered1 by way of supporting my hypothesis3 ,how else1 if it were not so1 would there always be water in the bed of the river at the mouth of the cavern8 ,the ,chaymas are very dull in comprehending anything relating to numerical facts4 ,i never knew one of these people who might not have been made to say that he was either eighteen or sixty years of age4 ,mr4 ,marsden observed the same peculiarity in the ,malays of ,sumatra1 though they have been civilized more than five centuries4 ,the ,chayma language contains words which express pretty large numbers1 yet few ,indians know how to apply them2 and having felt1 from their intercourse with the missionaries1 the necessity of so doing1 the more intelligent among them count in ,spanish1 but apparently with great effort of mind1 as far as thirty1 or perhaps fifty4 ,the same persons1 however1 cannot count in the ,chayma language beyond five or six4 ,it is natural that they should employ in preference the words of a language in which they have been taught the series of units and tens4 ,since learned ,europeans have not disdained to study the structure of the idioms of ,america with the same care as they study those of the ,semitic languages1 and of the ,greek and ,latin1 they no longer attribute to the imperfection of a language1 what belongs to the rudeness of the nation4 ,it is acknowledged1 that almost everywhere the ,indian idioms display greater richness1 and more delicate gradations1 than might be supposed from the uncultivated state of the people by whom they are spoken4 ,i am far from placing the languages of the ,new ,world in the same rank with the finest languages of ,asia and ,europe2 but no one of these latter has a more neat1 regular1 and simple system of numeration1 than the ,quichua and the ,aztec1 which were spoken in the great empires of ,cuzco and ,anahuac4 ,it is a mistake to suppose that those languages do not admit of counting beyond four1 because in villages where they are spoken by the poor labourers of ,peruvian and ,mexican race1 individuals are found1 who cannot count beyond that number4 ,the singular opinion1 that so many ,american nations reckon only as far as five1 ten1 or twenty1 has been propagated by travellers1 who have not reflected1 that1 according to the genius of different idioms1 men of all nations stop at groups of five1 ten1 or twenty units 7that is1 the number of the fingers of one hand1 or of both hands1 or of the fingers and toes together72 and that six1 thirteen1 or twenty are differently expressed1 by five-one1 ten-three1 and feet-ten499 799 ,savages1 to express great numbers with more facility1 are in the habit of forming groups of five1 ten1 or twenty grains of maize1 according as they reckon in their language by fives1 tens1 or twenties47 ,can it be said that the numbers of the ,europeans do not extend beyond ten1 because we stop after having formed a group of ten units8 ,the construction of the languages of ,america is so opposite to that of the languages derived from the ,latin1 that the ,jesuits1 who had thoroughly examined everything that could contribute to extend their establishments1 introduced among their neophytes1 instead of the ,spanish1 some ,indian tongues1 remarkable for their regularity and copiousness1 such as the ,quichua and the ,guarani4 ,they endeavoured to substitute these languages for others which were poorer and more irregular in their syntax4 ,this substitution was found easy3 the ,indians of the different tribes adopted it with docility1 and thenceforward those ,american languages generalized became a ready medium of communication between the missionaries and the neophytes4 ,it would be a mistake to suppose1 that the preference given to the language of the ,incas over the ,spanish tongue had no other aim than that of isolating the ,missions1 and withdrawing them from the influence of two rival powers1 the bishops and civil governors4 ,the ,jesuits had other motives1 independently of their policy1 for wishing to generalize certain ,indian tongues4 ,they found in those languages a common tie1 easy to be established between the numerous hordes which had remained hostile to each other1 and had been kept asunder by diversity of idioms2 for1 in uncultivated countries1 after the lapse of several ages1 dialects often assume the form1 or at least the appearance1 of mother tongues4 ,when it is said that a ,dane learns the ,german1 and a ,spaniard the ,italian or the ,latin1 more easily than they learn any other language1 it is at first thought that this facility results from the identity of a great number of roots1 common to all the ,germanic tongues1 or to those of ,latin ,europe2 it is not considered1 that1 with this resemblance of sounds1 there is another resemblance1 which acts more powerfully on nations of a common origin4 ,language is not the result of an arbitrary convention4 ,the mechanism of inflections1 the grammatical constructions1 the possibility of inversions1 all are the offspring of our own minds1 of our individual organization4 ,there is in man an instinctive and regulating principle1 differently modified among nations not of the same race4 ,a climate more or less severe1 a residence in the defiles of mountains1 or on the sea-coasts1 or different habits of life1 may alter the pronunciation1 render the identity of the roots obscure1 and multiply the number2 but all these causes do not affect that which constitutes the structure and mechanism of languages4 ,the influence of climate1 and of external circumstances1 vanishes before the influence which depends on the race1 on the hereditary and individual dispositions of men4 ,in ,america 7and this result of recent researches99 799 ,see ,vater's ,mithridates47 is extremely important with respect to the history of our species7 from the country of the ,esquimaux to the banks of the ,orinoco1 and again from these torrid regions to the frozen climate of the ,straits of ,magellan1 mother-tongues1 entirely different in their roots1 have1 if we may use the expression1 the same physiognomy4 ,striking analogies of grammatical construction are acknowledged1 not only in the more perfect languages1 as in that of the ,incas1 the ,aymara1 the ,guarauno1 the ,mexican1 and the ,cora1 but also in languages extremely rude4 ,idioms1 the roots of which do not resemble each other more than the roots of the ,sclavonic and the ,biscayan1 have those resemblances of internal mechanism which are found in the ,sanscrit1 the ,persian1 the ,greek1 and the ,german languages4 ,almost everywhere in the ,new ,world we recognize a multiplicity of forms and tenses in the verb199 799 ,in the ,greenland language1 for example1 the multiplicity of the pronouns governed by the verb produces twenty-seven forms for every tense of the ,indicative mood4 ,it is surprising to find1 among nations now ranking in the lowest degree of civilization1 this desire of graduating the relations of time1 this superabundance of modifications introduced into the verb1 to characterise the object4 ,matarpa1 he takes it away3 mattarpet1 thou takest it away3 mattarpatit1 he takes it away from thee3 mattarpagit1 ,i take away from thee4 ,and in the preterite of the same verb1 mattara1 he has taken it away3 mattaratit1 he has taken it away from thee4 ,this example from the ,greenland language shows how the governed and the personal pronouns form one compound1 in the ,american languages1 with the root of the verb4 ,these slight differences in the form of the verb1 according to the nature of the pronouns governed by it1 is found in the ,old ,world only in the ,biscayan and ,congo languages 7,vater1 ,mithridates4 ,william von ,humboldt1 ,on the ,basque ,language74 ,strange conformity in the structure of languages on spots so distant1 and among three races of men so different1--the white ,catalonians1 the black ,congos1 and the copper-coloured ,americans67 an ingenious method of indicating beforehand1 either by inflexion of the personal pronouns1 which form the terminations of the verb1 or by an intercalated suffix1 the nature and the relation of its object and its subject1 and of distinguishing whether the object be animate or inanimate1 of the masculine or the feminine gender1 simple or in complex number4 ,it is on account of this general analogy of structure1--it is because ,american languages which have no words in common 7for instance1 the ,mexican and the ,quichua71 resemble each other by their organization1 and form complete contrasts to the languages of ,latin ,europe1 that the ,indians of the ,missions familiarize themselves more easily with an ,american idiom than with the ,spanish4 ,in the forests of the ,orinoco ,i have seen the rudest ,indians speak two or three tongues4 ,savages of different nations often communicate their ideas to each other by an idiom not their own4 ,if the system of the ,jesuits had been followed1 languages1 which already occupy a vast extent of country1 would have become almost general4 ,in ,terra ,firma and on the ,orinoco1 the ,caribbean and the ,tamanac alone would now be spoken2 and in the south and south-west1 the ,quichua1 the ,guarano1 the ,omagua1 and the ,araucan4 ,by appropriating to themselves these languages1 the grammatical forms of which are very regular1 and almost as fixed as those of the ,greek and ,sanscrit1 the missionaries would place themselves in more intimate connection with the natives whom they govern4 ,the numberless difficulties which occur in the system of a ,mission consisting of ,indians of ten or a dozen different nations would disappear with the confusion of idioms4 ,those which are little diffused would become dead languages2 but the ,indian1 in preserving an ,american idiom1 would retain his individuality--his national character4 ,thus by peaceful means might be effected what the ,incas began to establish by force of arms4 ,how indeed can we be surprised at the little progress made by the ,chaymas1 the ,caribbees1 the ,salives1 or the ,otomacs1 in the knowledge of the ,spanish language1 when we recollect that one white man1 one single missionary1 finds himself alone amidst five or six hundred ,indians8 and that it is difficult for him to establish among them a governador1 an alcalde1 or a fiscal1 who may serve him as an interpreter8 ,if1 instead of the missionary system1 some other means of civilization were substituted1 if1 instead of keeping the whites at a distance1 they could be mingled with the natives recently united in villages1 the ,american idioms would soon be superseded by the languages of ,europe1 and the natives would receive in those languages the great mass of new ideas which are the fruit of civilization4 ,then the introduction of general tongues1 such as that of the ,incas1 or the ,guaranos1 without doubt would become useless4 ,but after having lived so long in the ,missions of ,south ,america1 after having so closely observed the advantages and the abuses of the system of the missionaries1 ,i may be permitted to doubt whether that system could be easily abandoned1 though it is doubtless very capable of being improved1 and rendered more conformable with our ideas of civil liberty4 ,to this it may be answered1 that the ,romans99 succeeded in rapidly introducing their language with their sovereignty into the country of the ,gauls1 into ,boetica1 and into the province of ,africa4 799 ,for the reason of this rapid introduction of ,latin among the ,gauls1 ,i believe we must look into the character of the natives and the state of their civilization1 and not into the structure of their language4 ,the brown-haired ,celtic nations were certainly different from the race of the light-haired ,germanic nations2 and though the ,druid caste recalls to our minds one of the institutions of the ,ganges1 this does not demonstrate that the idiom of the ,celts belongs1 like that of the nations of ,odin1 to a branch of the ,indo-,pelasgic languages4 ,from analogy of structure and of roots1 the ,latin ought to have penetrated more easily on the other side of the ,danube1 than into ,gaul2 but an uncultivated state1 joined to great moral inflexibility1 probably opposed its introduction among the ,germanic nations47 ,but the natives of these countries were not savages2--they inhabited towns2 they were acquainted with the use of money2 and they possessed institutions denoting a tolerably advanced state of cultivation4 ,the allurement of commerce1 and a long abode of the ,roman legions1 had promoted intercourse between them and their conquerors4 ,we see1 on the contrary1 that the introduction of the languages of the mother-countries was met by obstacles almost innumerable1 wherever ,carthaginian1 ,greek1 or ,roman colonies were established on coasts entirely barbarous4 ,in every age1 and in every climate1 the first impulse of the savage is to shun the civilized man4 ,the language of the ,chayma ,indians was less agreeable to my ear than the ,caribbee1 the ,salive1 and other languages of the ,orinoco4 ,it has fewer sonorous terminations in accented vowels4 ,we are struck with the frequent repetition of the syllables guaz1 ez1 puec1 and pur4 ,these terminations are derived in part from the inflexion of the verb to be1 and from certain prepositions1 which are added at the ends of words1 and which1 according to the genius of the ,american idioms1 are incorporated with them4 ,it would be wrong to attribute this harshness of sound to the abode of the ,chaymas in the mountains4 ,they are strangers to that temperate climate4 ,they have been led thither by the missionaries2 and it is well known that1 like all the inhabitants of warm regions1 they at first dreaded what they called the cold of ,caripe4 ,i employed myself1 with ,m4 ,bonpland1 during our abode at the hospital of the ,capuchins1 in forming a small catalogue of ,chayma words4 ,i am aware that languages are much more strongly characterised by their structure and grammatical forms than by the analogy of their sounds and of their roots2 and that the analogy of sounds is sometimes so disguised in different dialects of the same tongue1 as not to be recognizable2 for the tribes into which a nation is divided1 often designate the same objects by words altogether heterogeneous4 ,hence it follows that we readily fall into mistakes1 if1 neglecting the study of the inflexions1 and consulting only the roots 7for instance1 in the words which designate the moon1 sky1 water1 and earth71 we decide on the absolute difference of two idioms from the mere want of resemblance in sounds4 ,but1 while aware of this source of error1 travellers would do well to continue to collect such materials as may be within their reach4 ,if they do not make known the internal structure1 and general arrangement of the edifice1 they may point out some important parts4 ,the three languages now most used in the provinces of ,cumana and ,barcelona1 are the ,chayma1 the ,cumanagota1 and the ,caribbee4 ,they have always been regarded in these countries as different idioms1 and a dictionary of each has been written for the use of the ,missions1 by ,fathers ,tauste1 ,ruiz-blanco1 and ,breton4 ,the ,vocabulario y ,arte de la ,lengua de los ,indios ,chaymas has become extremely scarce4 ,the few ,american grammars1 printed for the most part in the seventeenth century1 passed into the ,missions1 and have been lost in the forests4 ,the dampness of the air and the voracity of insects99 render the preservation of books almost impossible in those regions 799 ,the termites1 so well known in ,spanish ,america under the name of comegen1 or 'devourer1' is one of these destructive insects473 they are destroyed in a short space of time1 notwithstanding every precaution that may be employed4 ,i had much difficulty to collect in the ,missions1 and in the convents1 those grammars of ,american languages1 which1 on my return to ,europe1 ,i placed in the hands of ,severin ,vater1 professor and librarian at the university of ,konigsberg4 ,they furnished him with useful materials for his great work on the idioms of the ,new ,world4 ,i omitted1 at the time1 to transcribe from my journal1 and communicate to that learned gentleman1 what ,i had collected in the ,chayma tongue4 ,since neither ,father ,gili1 nor the ,abbe ,hervas1 has mentioned this language1 ,i shall here explain succinctly the result of my researches4 ,on the right bank of the ,orinoco1 south-east of the ,mission of ,encaramada1 and at the distance of more than a hundred leagues from the ,chaymas1 live the ,tamanacs 7,tamanacu71 whose language is divided into several dialects4 ,this nation1 formerly very powerful1 is separated from the mountains of ,caripe by the ,orinoco1 by the vast steppes of ,caracas and of ,cumana2 and by a barrier far more difficult to surmount1 the nations of ,caribbean origin4 ,but notwithstanding distance1 and the numerous obstacles in the way of intercourse1 the language of the ,chayma ,indians is a branch of the ,tamanac tongue4 ,the oldest missionaries of ,caripe are ignorant of this curious fact1 because the ,capuchins of ,aragon seldom visit the southern banks of the ,orinoco1 and scarcely know of the existence of the ,tamanacs4 ,i recognized the analogy between the idiom of this nation1 and that of the ,chayma ,indians long after my return to ,europe1 in comparing the materials which ,i had collected with the sketch of a grammar published in ,italy by an old missionary of the ,orinoco4 ,without knowing the ,chaymas1 the ,abbe ,gili conjectured that the language of the inhabitants of ,paria must have some relation to the ,tamanac499 799 ,vater has also advanced some well-founded conjectures on the connexion between the ,tamanac and ,caribbean tongues and those spoken on the north-east coast of ,south ,america4 ,i may acquaint the reader1 that ,i have written the words of the ,american languages according to the ,spanish orthography1 so that the u should be pronounced oo1 the ch like ch in ,english1 etc4 ,having during a great number of years spoken no other language than the ,castilian1 ,i marked down the sounds according to the orthography of that language1 and now ,i am afraid of changing the value of these signs1 by substituting others no less imperfect4 ,it is a barbarous practice1 to express1 like the greater part of the nations of ,europe1 the most simple and distinct sounds by many vowels1 or many united consonants1 while they might be indicated by letters equally simple4 ,what a chaos is exhibited by the vocabularies written according to ,english1 ,german1 ,french1 or ,spanish notations6 ,a new essay1 which the illustrious author of the travels in ,egypt1 ,m4 ,volney1 is about to publish on the analysis of sounds found in different nations1 and on the notation of those sounds according to a uniform system1 will lead to great progress ,in the study of languages47 ,i will prove this connection by two means which serve to show the analogy of idioms2 namely1 the grammatical construction1 and the identity of words and roots4 ,the following are the personal pronouns of the ,chaymas1 which are at the same time possessive pronouns2 u-re1 ,i1 me2 eu-re1 thou1 thee2 teu-re1 he1 him4 ,in the ,tamanac1 u-re1 ,i2 amare or anja1 thou2 iteu-ja1 he4 ,the radical of the first and of third person is in the ,chayma u and teu499 799 ,we must not wonder at those roots which reduce themselves to a single vowel4 ,in a language of the ,old ,continent1 the structure of which is so artificially complicated1 7the ,biscayan17 the family name ,ugarte 7between the waters7 contains the u of ura 7water7 and arte between4 ,the g is added for the sake of euphony47 ,the same roots are found in the ,tamanac4 ,,table ,,of ,,chayma ,,and ,,tamanac ,,words ,,compared3 ,,column #a 3 ,english4 ,,column #b 3 ,,chayma4 ,,column #c 3 ,,tamanac4 ,i 3 ,ure 3 ,ure4 water 3 ,tuna 3 ,tuna4 rain 3 ,conopo99 3 ,canopo499 799 ,the same word1 conopo1 signifies rain and year4 ,the years are counted by the number of winters1 or rainy seasons4 ,they say in ,chayma1 as in ,sanscrit1 'so many rains1' meaning so many years4 ,in the ,basque language1 the word urtea1 year1 is derived from urten1 to bring forth leaves in spring47 to know 3 ,poturu 3 ,puturo4 fire 3 ,apoto 3 ,uapto 7in ,caribbean uato74 the moon1 a month 3 ,nuna 3 ,nuna499 799 ,in the ,tamanac and ,caribbean languages1 ,nono signifies the earth1 ,nuna the moon2 as in the ,chayma4 ,this affinity appears to me very curious2 and the ,indians of the ,rio ,caura say1 that the moon is 'another earth4' ,among savage nations1 amidst so many confused ideas1 we find certain reminiscences well worthy of attention4 ,among the ,greenlanders ,nuna signifies the earth1 and ,anoningat the moon47 a tree 3 ,je 3 ,jeje4 a house 3 ,ata 3 ,aute4 to you 3 ,euya 3 ,auya4 to you 3 ,toya 3 ,iteuya4 honey 3 ,guane 3 ,uane4 he has said it 3 ,nacaramayre 3 ,nacaramai4 a physician1 a sorcerer 3 ,piache 3 ,psiache4 one 3 ,tibin 3 ,obin 7in ,jaoi1 ,tewin74 two 3 ,aco 3 ,oco 7in ,caribbean1 ,occo74 two 3 ,oroa 3 ,orua 7in ,caribbean1 ,oroa74 flesh 3 ,pun 3 ,punu4 no 7negation7 3 ,pra 3 ,pra4 ,the verb to be1 is expressed in ,chayma by az4 ,on adding to the verb the personal pronoun ,i 7u from u-re71 a g is placed1 for the sake of euphony1 before the u1 as in guaz1 ,i am1 properly g-u-az4 ,as the first person is known by an u1 the second is designated by an m1 the third by an i2 maz1 thou art2 muerepuec araquapemaz8 why art thou sad8 properly what for sad thou art2 punpuec topuchemaz1 thou art fat in body1 properly flesh 7pun7 for 7puec7 fat 7topuche7 thou art 7maz74 ,the possessive pronouns precede the substantive2 upatay1 in my house1 properly my house in4 ,all the prepositions and the negation pra are incorporated at the end1 as in the ,tamanac4 ,they say in ,chayma1 ipuec1 with him1 properly him with2 euya1 to thee1 or thee to2 epuec charpe guaz1 ,i am gay with thee1 properly thee with gay ,i am2 ucarepra1 not as ,i1 properly ,i as not2 quenpotupra quoguaz1 ,i do not know him1 properly him knowing not ,i am2 quenepra quoguaz1 ,i have not seen him1 properly him seeing not ,i am4 ,in the ,tamanac tongue1 acurivane means beautiful1 and acurivanepra1 ugly--not beautiful2 outapra1 there is no fish1 properly fish none2 uteripipra1 ,i will not go1 properly ,i to go will not1 composed of uteri199 to go1 ipiri1 to choose1 and pra1 not4 799 ,in ,chayma3 utechire1 ,i will go also1 properly ,i 7u7 to go 7the radical ute1 or1 because of the preceding vowel1 te7 also 7chere1 or ere1 or ire74 ,in utechire we find the ,tamanac verb to go1 uteri1 of which ute is also the radical1 and ri the termination of the ,infinitive4 ,in order to show that in ,chayma chere or ere indicates the adverb also1 ,i shall cite from the fragment of a vocabulary in my possession1 u-chere1 ,i also2 nacaramayre1 he said so also2 guarzazere1 ,i carried also2 charechere1 to carry also4 ,in the ,tamanac1 as in the ,chayma1 chareri signifies to carry47 ,among the ,caribbees1 whose language also bears some relation to the ,tamanac1 though infinitely less than the ,chayma1 the negation is expressed by an m placed before the verb3 amoyenlengati1 it is very cold2 and mamoyenlengati1 it is not very cold4 ,in an analogous manner1 the particle mna added to the ,tamanac verb1 not at the end1 but by intercalation1 gives it a negative sense1 as taro1 to say1 taromnar1 not to say4 ,the verb to be1 very irregular in all languages1 is az or ats in ,chayma2 and uochiri 7in composition uac1 uatscha7 in ,tamanac4 ,it serves not only to form the ,passive1 but it is added also1 as by agglutination1 to the radical of attributive verbs1 in a number of tenses499 799 ,the present in the ,tamanac1 jarer-bae-ure1 appears to me nothing else then the verb bac1 or uac 7from uacschiri1 to be 71 added to the radical to carry1 jare 7in the infinitive jareri71 the result of which is carrying to be ,i47 ,these agglutinations remind us of the employment in the ,sanscrit of the auxiliary verbs as and bhu 7asti and bhavati99 799 ,in the branch of the ,germanic languages we find bhu under the forms bim1 bist2 as1 in the forms vas1 vast1 vesum 7,bopp page #ach74772 the ,latin1 of es and fu1 or fus299 799 ,hence fu-ero2 amav-issem2 amav-eram2 pos-sum 7pot-sum747 the ,biscayan1 of izan1 ucan1 and eguin4 ,there are certain points in which idioms the most dissimilar concur one with another4 ,that which is common in the intellectual organization of man is reflected in the general structure of language2 and every idiom1 however barbarous it may appear1 discloses a regulating principle which has presided at its formation4 ,the plural1 in ,tamanac1 is indicated in seven different ways1 according to the termination of the substantive1 or according as it designates an animate or inanimate object499 799 ,tamanacu1 a ,tamanac 7plur4 ,tamanakemi73 ,pongheme1 a ,spaniard 7properly a man clothed72 ,pongamo1 ,spaniards1 or men clothed4 ,the plural in cne characterizes inanimate objects3 for example1 cene1 a thing2 cenecne1 things3 jeje1 a tree2 jejecne1 trees47 ,in ,chayma the plural is formed as in ,caribbee1 in on2 teure1 himself2 teurecon1 themselves2 tanorocon1 those here2 montaonocon1 those below1 supposing that the interlocutor is speaking of a place where he was himself present2 miyonocon1 those below1 supposing he speaks of a place where he was not present4 ,the ,chaymas have also the ,castilian adverbs aqui and alla1 shades of difference which can be expressed only by periphrasis1 in the idioms of ,germanic and ,latin origin4 ,some ,indians1 who were acquainted with ,spanish1 assured us1 that zis signified not only the sun1 but also the ,deity4 ,this appeared to me the more extraordinary1 as among all other ,american nations we find distinct words for ,god and the sun4 ,the ,carib does not confound ,tamoussicabo1 the ,ancient of ,heaven1 with veyou1 the sun4 ,even the ,peruvian1 though a worshipper of the sun1 raises his mind to the idea of a ,being who regulates the movements of the stars4 ,the sun1 in the language of the ,incas1 bears the name of inti199 799 ,in the ,quichua1 or language of the ,incas1 the sun is inti2 love1 munay2 great1 veypul2 in ,sanscrit1 the sun1 indre3 love1 manya2 great1 vipulo4 7,vater ,mithridates tome #c page #ccc47 ,these are the only examples of analogy of sound1 that have yet been noticed4 ,the grammatical character of the two languages is totally different47 nearly the same as in ,sanscrit2 while ,god is called ,vinay ,huayna1 the eternally young4'99 799 ,vinay1 always1 or eternal2 huayna1 in the flower of age47 ,the arrangement of words in the ,chayma is similar to that found in all the languages of both continents1 which have preserved a certain primitive character4 ,the object is placed before the verb1 the verb before the personal pronoun4 ,the object1 on which the attention should be principally fixed1 precedes all the modifications of that object4 ,the ,american would say1 liberty complete love we1 instead of we love complete liberty2 ,thee with happy am ,i1 instead of ,i am happy with thee4 ,there is something direct1 firm1 demonstrative1 in these turns1 the simplicity of which is augmented by the absence of the article4 ,may it be presumed that1 with advancing civilization1 these nations1 left to themselves1 would have gradually changed the arrangement of their phrases8 ,we are led to adopt this idea1 when we reflect on the changes which the syntax of the ,romans has undergone in the precise1 clear1 but somewhat timid languages of ,latin ,europe4 ,the ,chayma1 like the ,tamanac and most of the ,american languages1 is entirely destitute of certain letters1 as f1 b1 and d4 ,no word begins with an l4 ,the same observation has been made on the ,mexican tongue1 though it is overcharged with the syllables tli1 tla1 and itl1 at the end or in the middle of words4 ,the ,chaymas substitute r for l2 a substitution that arises from a defect of pronunciation common in every zone499 799 ,for example1 the substitution of r for l1 characterizes the ,bashmurie dialect of the ,coptic language47 ,thus1 the ,caribbees of the ,orinoco have been transformed into ,galibi in ,french ,guiana by confounding r with l1 and softening the c4 ,the ,tamanac has made choraro and solalo of the ,spanish word soldado 7soldier74 ,the disappearance of the f and b in so many ,american idioms arises out of that intimate connection between certain sounds1 which is manifested in all languages of the same origin4 ,the letters f1 v1 b1 and p1 are substituted one for the other2 for instance1 in the ,persian1 peder1 father 7pater72 burader199 799 ,whence the ,german bruder1 with the same consonants47 brother 7frater72 behar1 spring 7ver72 in ,greek1 phorton 7forton71 a burthen2 pous 7pous7 a foot1 7fuss1 ,germ474 ,in the same manner1 with the ,americans1 f and b become p2 and d becomes t4 ,the ,chayma pronounces patre1 ,tios1 ,atani1 aracapucha1 for padre1 ,dios1 ,adan1 and arcabuz 7harquebuss74 ,in spite of the relations just pointed out1 ,i do not think that the ,chayma language can be regarded as a dialect of the ,tamanac1 as the ,maitano1 ,cuchivero1 and ,crataima undoubtedly are4 ,there are many essential differences2 and between the two languages there appears to me to exist merely the same connection as is found in the ,german1 the ,swedish1 and the ,english4 ,they belong to the same subdivision of the great family of the ,tamanac1 ,caribbean1 and ,arowak tongues4 ,as there exists no absolute measure of resemblance between idioms1 the degrees of parentage can be indicated only by examples taken from known tongues4 ,we consider those as being of the same family1 which bear affinity one to the other1 as the ,greek1 the ,german1 the ,persian1 and the ,sanscrit4 ,some philologists have imagined1 on comparing languages1 that they may all be divided into two classes1 of which some1 comparatively perfect in their organization1 easy and rapid in their movements1 indicate an interior development by inflexion2 while others1 more rude and less susceptible of improvement1 present only a crude assemblage of small forms or agglutinated particles1 each preserving the physiognomy peculiar to itself2 when it is separately employed4 ,this very ingenious view would be deficient in accuracy were it supposed that there exist polysyllabic idioms without any inflexion1 or that those which are organically developed as by interior germs1 admit no external increase by means of suffixes and affixes299 799 ,even in the ,sanscrit several tenses are formed by aggregation2 for example1 in the first future1 the substantive verb to be is added to the radical4 ,in a similar manner we find in the ,greek mach-eso1 if the s be not the effect of inflexion1 and in ,latin pot-ero 7,bopp pages #bf and #ff74 ,these are examples of incorporation and agglutination in the grammatical system of languages which are justly cited as models of an interior development by inflexion4 ,in the grammatical system of the ,american tongues1 for example in the ,tamanac1 tarecschi1 ,i will carry1 is equally composed of the radical ar 7infin4 jareri1 to carry7 and of the verb ecschi 7,infin4 nocschiri1 to be74 ,there hardly exists in the ,american languages a triple mode of aggregation1 of which we cannot find a similar and analogous example in some other language that is supposed to develop itself only by inflexion47 an increase which we have already mentioned several times under the name of agglutination or incorporation4 ,many things1 which appear to us at present inflexions of a radical1 have perhaps been in their origin affixes1 of which there have barely remained one or two consonants4 ,in languages1 as in everything in nature that is organized1 nothing is entirely isolated or unlike4 ,the farther we penetrate into their internal structure1 the more do contrasts and decided characters vanish4 ,it may be said that they are like clouds1 the outlines of which do not appear well defined1 except when viewed at a distance4 ,but though we may not admit one simple and absolute principle in the classification of languages1 yet it cannot be decided1 that in their present state some manifest a greater tendency to inflexion1 others to external aggregation4 ,it is well known1 that the languages of the ,indian1 ,pelasgic1 and ,german branch1 belong to the first division2 the ,american idioms1 the ,coptic or ancient ,egyptian1 and to a certain degree1 the ,semitic languages and the ,biscayan1 to the second4 ,the little we have made known of the idiom of the ,chaymas of ,caripe1 sufficiently proves that constant tendency towards the incorporation or aggregation of certain forms1 which it is easy to separate2 though from a somewhat refined sentiment of euphony some letters have been dropped and others have been added4 ,those affixes1 by lengthening words1 indicate the most varied relations of number1 time1 and motion4 ,when we reflect on the peculiar structure of the ,american languages1 we imagine we discover the source of the opinion generally entertained from the most remote time in the ,missions1 that these languages have an analogy with the ,hebrew and the ,biscayan4 ,at the convent of ,caripe as well as at the ,orinoco1 in ,peru as well as in ,mexico1 ,i heard this opinion expressed1 particularly by monks who had some vague notions of the ,semitic languages4 ,did motives supposed to be favourable to religion1 give rise to this extraordinary theory8 ,in the north of ,america1 among the ,choctaws and the ,chickasaws1 travellers somewhat credulous have heard the strains of the ,hallelujah99 of the ,hebrews 799 ,l',escarbot1 ,charlevoix1 and even ,adair 7,hist4 of the ,american ,indians #agge7472 as1 according to the ,pundits1 the three sacred words of the mysteries of the ,eleusis99 7konx om pax7 resound still in the ,indies4 799 ,asiat4 ,res4 volume #e1 ,ouvaroff on the ,eleusinian ,mysteries #ahaf47 ,i do not mean to suggest1 that the nations of ,latin ,europe may have called whatever has a foreign physiognomy ,hebrew or ,biscayan1 as for a long time all those monuments were called ,egyptian1 which were not in the ,grecian or ,roman style4 ,i am rather disposed to think that the grammatical system of the ,american idioms has confirmed the missionaries of the sixteenth century in their ideas respecting the ,asiatic origin of the nations of the ,new ,world4 ,the tedious compilation of ,father ,garcia1 ,tratado del ,origen de los ,indios199 799 ,treatise on the ,origin of the ,indians47 is a proof of this4 ,the position of the possessive and personal pronouns at the end of the noun and the verb1 as well as the numerous tenses of the latter1 characterize the ,hebrew and the other ,semitic languages4 ,some of the missionaries were struck at finding the same peculiarities in the ,american tongues3 they did not reflect1 that the analogy of a few scattered features does not prove languages to belong to the same stock4 ,it appears less astonishing1 that men1 who are well acquainted with only two languages extremely heterogeneous1 the ,castilian and the ,biscayan1 should have found in the latter a family resemblance to the ,american languages4 ,the composition of words1 the facility with which the partial elements are detected1 the forms of the verbs1 and their different modifications1 may have caused and kept up this illusion4 ,but we repeat1 an equal tendency towards aggregation or incorporation does not constitute an identity of origin4 ,the following are examples of the relations between the ,american and ,biscayan languages2 idioms totally different in their roots4 ,in ,chayma1 quenpotupra quoguaz1 ,i do not know1 properly1 knowing not ,i am4 ,in ,tamanac1 jarer-uac-ure1 bearing am ,i1--,i bear2 anarepra aichi1 he will not bear1 properly1 bearing not will he2 patcurbe1 good2 patcutari1 to make himself good2 ,tamanacu1 a ,tamanac2 ,tamanacutari1 to make himself a ,tainanac2 ,pongheme1 a ,spaniard2 ponghemtari1 to ,spaniardize himself2 tenecchi1 ,i will see2 teneicre1 ,i will see again2 teecha1 ,i go2 tecshare1 ,i return2 maypur butke1 a little ,maypure ,indian2 aicabutke1 a little woman2 maypuritaje1 an ugly ,maypure ,indian2 aicataje1 an ugly woman499 799 ,the diminutive of woman 7aica7 or of ,maypure ,indian is formed by adding butke1 which is the termination of cujuputke1 little3 taje answers to the accio of the ,italians47 ,in ,biscayan3 maitetutendot1 ,i love him1 properly1 ,i loving have him2 beguia1 the eye1 and beguitsa1 to see2 aitagana1 towards the father3 by adding tu1 we form the verb aitaganatu1 to go towards the father2 ume-tasuna1 soft and infantile ingenuity2 umequeria1 disagreeable childishness4 ,i may add to these examples some descriptive compounds1 which call to mind the infancy of nations1 and strike us equally in the ,american and ,biscayan languages1 by a certain ingenuousness of expression4 ,in ,tamanac1 the wasp 7uane-imu71 father 7im-de7 of honey 7uane7299 799 ,it may not be unnecessary here to acquaint the reader that honey is produced by an insect of ,south ,america1 belonging to1 or nearly allied1 to the wasp genus4 ,this honey1 however1 possesses noxious qualities which are by some naturalists attributed to the plant ,paulinia ,australis1 the juices of which are collected by the insect47 the toes1 ptarimucuru1 properly1 the sons of the foot2 the fingers1 amgnamucuru1 the sons of the hand2 mushrooms1 jeje-panari1 properly1 the ears 7panari7 of a tree 7jeje72 the veins of the hand1 amgna-mitti1 properly1 the ramified roots2 leaves1 prutpe-jareri1 properly1 the hair at the top of the tree2 puirene-veju1 properly1 the sun 7veju71 straight or perpendicular2 lightning1 kinemeru-uaptori1 properly1 the fire 7uapto7 of the thunder1 or of the storm4 7,i recognise in kinemeru1 thunder or storm1 the root kineme black47 ,in ,biscayan1 becoquia1 the forehead1 what belongs 7co and quia7 to the eye 7beguia72 odotsa1 the noise 7otsa7 of the cloud 7odeia71 or thunder2 arribicia1 an echo1 properly1 the animated stone1 from arria1 stone1 and bicia1 life4 ,the ,chayma and ,tamanac verbs have an enormous complication of tenses3 two ,presents1 four ,preterites1 three ,futures4 ,this multiplicity characterises the rudest ,american languages4 ,astarloa reckons1 in like manner1 in the grammatical system of the ,biscayan1 two hundred and six forms of the verb4 ,those languages1 the principal tendency of which is inflexion1 are to the common observer less interesting than those which seem formed by aggregation4 ,in the first1 the elements of which words are composed1 and which are generally reduced to a few letters1 are no longer recognisable3 these elements1 when isolated1 exhibit no meaning2 the whole is assimilated and mingled together4 ,the ,american languages1 on the contrary1 are like complicated machines1 the wheels of which are exposed to view4 ,the mechanism of their construction is visible4 ,we seem to be present at their formation1 and we should pronounce them to be of very recent origin1 did we not recollect that the human mind steadily follows an impulse once given2 that nations enlarge1 improve1 and repair the grammatical edifice of their languages1 according to a plan already determined2 finally1 that there are countries1 whose languages1 institutions1 and arts1 have remained unchanged1 we might almost say stereotyped1 during the lapse of ages4 ,the highest degree of intellectual development has been hitherto found among the nations of the ,indian and ,pelasgic branch4 ,the languages formed principally by aggregation seem themselves to oppose obstacles to the improvement of the mind4 ,they are devoid of that rapid movement1 that interior life1 to which the inflexion of the root is favourable1 and which impart such charms to works of imagination4 ,let us not1 however1 forget1 that a people celebrated in remote antiquity1 a people from whom the ,greeks themselves borrowed knowledge1 had perhaps a language1 the construction of which recalls involuntarily that of the languages of ,america4 ,what a structure of little monosyllabic and disyllabic forms is added to the verb and to the substantive1 in the ,coptic language6 ,the semi-barbarous ,chayma and ,tamanac have tolerably short abstract words to express grandeur1 envy1 and lightness1 cheictivate1 uoite1 and uonde2 but in ,coptic1 the word malice199 metrepherpetou1 is composed of five elements1 easy to be distinguished4 799 ,see1 on the incontestable identity of the ancient ,egyptian and ,coptic1 and on the particular system of synthesis of the latter language1 the ingenious reflexions of ,m4 ,silvestre de ,sacy1 in the ,notice des ,recherches de ,m4 ,etienne ,quatremere sur ,la ,litterature de l',epypte4 7 ,this compound signifies the quality 7met7 of a subject 7reph71 which makes 7er7 the thing which is 7pet71 evil 7ou74 ,nevertheless the ,coptic language has had its literature1 like the ,chinese1 the roots of which1 far from being aggregated1 scarcely approach each other without immediate contact4 ,we must admit that nations once roused from their lethargy1 and tending towards civilization1 find in the most uncouth languages the secret of expressing with clearness the conceptions of the mind1 and of painting the emotions of the soul4 ,don ,juan de la ,rea1 a highly estimable man1 who perished in the sanguinary revolutions of ,quito1 imitated with graceful simplicity some ,idylls of ,theocritus in the language of the ,incas2 and ,i have been assured1 that1 excepting treatises on science and philosophy1 there is scarcely any work of modern literature that might not be translated into the ,peruvian4 ,the intimate connection established between the natives of the ,new ,world and the ,spaniards since the conquest1 have introduced a certain number of ,american words into the ,castilian language4 ,some of these words express things not unknown before the discovery of the ,new ,world1 and scarcely recall to our minds at present their barbarous origin499 799 ,for example savannah1 and cannibal47 ,almost all belong to the language of the great ,antilles1 formerly termed the language of ,haiti1 of ,quizqueja1 or of ,itis499 799 ,the word ,itis1 for ,haiti or ,st4 ,domingo 7,hispaniola71 is found in the ,itinerarium of ,bishop ,geraldini 7,rome #afca47--,quum ,colonus ,itim insulam cerneret47 ,i shall confine myself to citing the words maiz1 tabaco1 canoa1 batata1 cacique1 balsa1 conuco1 etc4 ,when the ,spaniards1 after the year #adih1 began to visit the mainland1 they already had words99 to designate the vegetable productions most useful to man1 and common both to the islands and to the coasts of ,cumana and ,paria4 799 ,the following are ,haitian words1 in their real form1 which have passed into the ,castilian language since the end of the #aeth century4 ,many of them are not uninteresting to descriptive botany4 ,ahi 7,capsicum baccatum71 batata 7,convolvus batatas71 bihao 7,heliconia bihai71 caimito 7,chrysophyllum caimito71 cahoba 7,swietenia mahagoni71 jucca and casabi 7,jatropba manihot72 the word casabi or cassava is employed only for the bread made with the roots of the ,jatropha 7the name of the plant jucca was also heard by ,americo ,vespucci on the coast of ,paria72 age or ajes 7,dioscorea alata71 copei 7,clusia alba71 guayacan 7,guaiacum officinale71 guajaba 7,psidium pyriferum71 guanavano 7,anona muricata71 mani 7,arachis hypogaea71 guama 7,inga71 henequen 7was supposed from the erroneous accounts of the first travellers to be an herb with which the ,haitians used to cut metals2 it means now every kind of strong thread71 hicaco 7,chrysobalanus icaco71 maghei 7,agave ,americana71 mahiz or maiz 7,zea1 maize71 mamei 7,mammea ,americana71 mangle 7,rhizophora71 pitahaja 7,cactus pitahaja71 ceiba 7,bombax71 tuna 7,cactus tuna71 hicotea 7a tortoise71 iguana 7,lacerta iguana71 manatee 7,trichecus manati71 nigua 7,pulex penetrans71 hamaca 7a hammock71 balsa 7a raft2 however balsa is an old ,castilian word signifying a pool of water71 barbacoa 7a small bed of light wood1 or reeds71 canei or buhio 7a hut71 canoa 7a canoe71 cocujo 7,elater noctilucus1 the fire-fly71 chicha 7fermented liquor71 macana 7a large stick or club1 made with the petioles of a palm-tree71 tabaco 7not the herb1 but the pipe through which it is smoked71 cacique 7a chief74 ,other ,american words1 now as much in use among the ,creoles1 as the ,arabic words naturalized in the ,spanish1 do not belong to the ,haitian tongue2 for example1 caiman1 piragua1 papaja 7,carica71 aguacate 7,persea71 tarabita1 paramo4 ,abbe ,gili thinks with some probability1 that they are derived from the tongue of some people who inhabited the temperate climate between ,coro1 the mountains of ,merida1 and the tableland of ,bogota4 7,saggio volume #c page #bbh47 ,how many ,celtic and ,german words would not ,julius ,caesar and ,tacitus have handed down to us1 had the productions of the northern countries visited by the ,romans differed as much from the ,italian and ,roman1 as those of equinoctial ,america67 ,not satisfied with retaining these words borrowed from the ,haitians1 they helped also to spread them all over ,america 7at a period when the language of ,haiti was already a dead language71 and to diffuse them among nations who were ignorant even of the existence of the ,west ,india ,islands4 ,some words1 which are in daily use in the ,spanish colonies1 are attributed erroneously to the ,haitians4 ,banana is from the ,chaconese1 the ,mbaja language2 arepa 7bread of manioc1 or of the ,jatropha manihot7 and guayuco 7an apron1 perizoma7 are ,caribbee3 curiara 7a very long boat7 is ,tamanac3 chinchorro 7a hammock71 and tutuma 7the fruit of the ,crescentia cujete1 or a vessel to contain a liquid71 are ,chayma words4 ,i have dwelt thus long on considerations respecting the ,american tongues1 because ,i am desirous of directing attention to the deep interest attached to this kind of research4 ,this interest is analogous to that inspired by the monuments of semi-barbarous nations1 which are examined not because they deserve to be ranked among works of art1 but because the study of them throws light on the history of our species1 and the progressive development of our faculties4 ,it now remains for me to speak of the other ,indian nations inhabiting the provinces of ,cumana and ,barcelona4 ,these ,i shall only succinctly enumerate4 #a4 ,the ,pariagotos or ,parias4 ,it is thought that the terminations in goto1 as ,pariagoto1 ,purugoto1 ,avarigoto1 ,acherigoto1 ,cumanagoto1 ,arinagoto1 ,kirikirisgoto199 799 ,the ,kirikirisgotos 7or ,kirikiripas7 are of ,dutch ,guiana4 ,it is very remarkable1 that among the small ,brazilian tribes who do not speak the language of the ,tupis1 the ,kiriris1 notwithstanding the enormous distance of #fej leagues1 have several ,tamanac words47 imply a ,caribbean origin499 799 ,in the ,tamanac tongue1 which is of the same branch as the ,caribbean1 we find also the termination goto1 as in anekiamgoto an animal4 ,often an analogy in the termination of names1 far from showing an identity of race1 only indicates that the names of the nations are borrowed from one language47 ,all these tribes1 excepting the ,purugotos of the ,rio ,caura1 formerly occupied the country which has been so long under the dominion of the ,caribbees2 namely1 the coasts of ,berbice and of ,essequibo1 the peninsula of ,paria1 the plains of ,piritu and ,parima4 ,by this last name the little-known country1 between the sources of the ,cujuni1 the ,caroni1 and the ,mao1 is designated in the ,missions4 ,the ,paria ,indians are mingled in part with the ,chaymas of ,cumana2 others have been settled by the ,capuchins of ,aragon in the ,missions of ,caroni2 for instance1 at ,cupapuy and ,alta-,gracia1 where they still speak their own language1 apparently a dialect between the ,tamanac and the ,caribbee4 ,but it may be asked1 is the name ,parias or ,pariagotos1 a name merely geographical8 ,did the ,spaniards1 who frequented these coasts from their first establishment in the island of ,cubagua and in ,macarapana1 give the name of the promontory of ,paria99 to the tribe by which it was inhabited8 799 ,paria1 ,uraparia1 even ,huriaparia and ,payra1 are the ancient names of the country1 written as the first navigators thought they heard them pronounced4 ,it appears to me by no means probable1 that the promontory of ,paria should derive its name from that of a cacique ,uriapari1 celebrated for the manner in which he resisted ,diego ,ordaz in #aecj1 thirty-two years after ,columbus had heard the name of ,paria from the mouths of the natives themselves4 ,the ,orinoco at its mouth had also the name of ,uriapari1 ,yuyapari1 or ,iyupari4 ,in all these denominations of a great river1 of a shore1 and of a rainy country1 ,i think ,i recognise the radical par1 signifying water1 not only in the languages of these countries1 but also in those of nations very distant from one another on the eastern and western coasts of ,america4 ,the sea1 or great water1 is in the ,caribbean1 ,maypure1 and ,brazilian languages1 parana3 in the ,tamanac1 parava4 ,in ,upper ,guiana also the ,orinoco is called ,parava4 ,in the ,peruvian1 or ,quichua1 ,i find rain1 para2 to rain1 parani4 ,besides1 there is a lake in ,peru that has been very anciently called ,paria4 7,garcia1 ,origen de los ,indios1 page #bib47 ,i have entered into these minute details concerning the word ,paria1 because it has recently been supposed that some connection might be traced between this word and the country of the ,hindoo caste called the ,parias47 ,this we will not positively affirm2 for the ,caribbees themselves give the name of ,caribana to a country which they occupied1 and which extended from the ,rio ,sinu to the gulf of ,darien4 ,this is a striking example of identity of name between an ,american nation and the territory it possessed4 ,we may conceive1 that in a state of society1 where residence is not long fixed1 such instances must be very rare4 #b4 ,the ,guaraons or ,gu-ara-una1 almost all free and independent1 are dispersed in the ,delta of the ,orinoco1 with the variously ramified channels of which they alone are well acquainted4 ,the ,caribbees call the ,guaraons ,u-ara-u4 ,they owe their independence to the nature of their country2 for the missionaries1 in spite of their zeal1 have not been tempted to follow them to the tree-tops4 ,the ,guaraons1 in order to raise their abodes above the surface of the waters at the period of the great inundations1 support them on the hewn trunks of the mangrove-tree and of the ,mauritia palm-tree499 799 ,their manners have been the same from time immemorial4 ,cardinal ,bembo described them at the beginning of the #afth century1 quibusdam in locis propter paludes incolae domus in arboribus aedificant4 7,hist4 ,venet4 #aeea47 ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 in #aeie1 speaks of the ,guaraons under the names of ,araottes1 ,trivitivas1 and ,warawites4 ,these were perhaps the names of some tribes1 into which the great ,guaraonese nation was divided4 7,barrere ,essai sur l',hist4 ,naturelle de la ,france ,equinoctiale477 ,they make bread of the medullary flour of this palm-tree1 which is the sago of ,america4 ,the flour bears the name of yuruma3 ,i have eaten it at the town of ,st4 ,thomas1 in ,guiana1 and it was very agreeable to the taste1 resembling rather the cassava-bread than the sago of ,india499 799 ,m4 ,kunth has combined together three genera of the palms1 ,calamus1 ,sigus1 and ,mauritia1 in a new section1 the ,calameae47 ,the ,indians assured me that the trunks of the ,mauritia1 the tree of life so much vaunted by father ,gumilla1 do not yield meal in any abundance1 unless the palm-tree is cut down just before the flowers appear4 ,thus too the maguey199 799 ,agave ,americana1 the aloe of our gardens47 cultivated in ,new ,spain1 furnishes a saccharine liquor1 the wine 7pulque7 of the ,mexicans1 only at the period when the plant shoots forth its long stem4 ,by interrupting the blossoming1 nature is obliged to carry elsewhere the saccharine or amylaceous matter1 which would accumulate in the flowers of the maguey and in the fruit of the ,mauritia4 ,some families of ,guaraons1 associated with the ,chaymas1 live far from their native land1 in the ,missions of the plains or llanos of ,cumana2 for instance1 at ,santa ,rosa de ,ocopi4 ,five or six hundred of them voluntarily quitted their marshes1 a few years ago1 and formed1 on the northern and southern banks of the ,orinoco1 twenty-five leagues distant from ,cape ,barima1 two considerable villages1 under the names of ,zacupana and ,imataca4 ,when ,i made my journey in ,caripe1 these ,indians were still without missionaries1 and lived in complete independence4 ,their excellent qualities as boatmen1 their perfect knowledge of the mouths of the ,orinoco1 and of the labyrinth of branches communicating with each other1 give the ,guaraons a certain political importance4 ,they favour that clandestine commerce of which the island of ,trinidad is the centre4 ,the ,guaraons run with extreme address on muddy lands1 where the ,european1 the ,negro1 or other ,indians except themselves1 would not dare to walk2 and it is1 therefore1 commonly believed1 that they are of lighter weight than the rest of the natives4 ,this is also the opinion that is held in ,asia of the ,burat ,tartars4 ,the few ,guaraons whom ,i saw were of middle size1 squat1 and very muscular4 ,the lightness with which they walk in places newly dried1 without sinking in1 when even they have no planks tied to their feet1 seemed to me the effect of long habit4 ,though ,i sailed a considerable time on the ,orinoco1 ,i never went so low as its mouth4 ,future travellers1 who may visit those marshy regions1 will rectify what ,i have advanced4 #c4 ,the ,guaiqueries or ,guaikeri1 are the most able and most intrepid fishermen of these countries4 ,these people alone are well acquainted with the bank abounding with fish1 which surrounds the islands of ,coche1 ,margareta1 ,sola1 and ,testigos2 a bank of more than four hundred square leagues1 extending east and west from ,maniquarez to the ,boca del ,draco4 ,the ,guaiqueries inhabit the island of ,margareta1 the peninsula of ,araya1 and that suburb of ,cumana which bears their name4 ,their language is believed to be a dialect of that of the ,guaraons4 ,this would connect them with the great family of the ,caribbee nations2 and the missionary ,gili is of opinion that the language of the ,guaiqueries is one of the numerous branches of the ,caribbean tongue499 799 ,if the name of the port ,pam-patar1 in the island of ,margareta1 be ,guaiquerean1 as we have no reason to doubt1 it exhibits a feature of analogy with the ,cumanagoto tongue1 which approaches the ,caribbean and ,tamanac4 ,in ,terra ,firma1 in the ,piritu ,missions1 we find the village of ,cayguapatar1 which signifies house of ,caygua47 ,these affinities are interesting1 because they lead us to perceive an ancient connection between nations dispersed over a vast extent of country1 from the mouth of the ,rio ,caura and the sources of the ,erevato1 in ,parima1 to ,french ,guiana1 and the coasts of ,paria499 799 ,are the ,guaiqueries1 or ,o-aikeries1 now settled on the borders of the ,erevato1 and formerly between the ,rio ,caura and the ,cuchivero near the little town of ,alta ,gracia1 of a different origin from the ,guaikeries of ,cumana8 ,i know also1 in the interior of the country1 in the ,missions of the ,piritus1 near the village of ,san ,juan ,evangelista del ,guarive1 a ravine very anciently called ,guayquiricuar4 ,these resemblances seem to prove migrations from the south-west towards the coast4 ,the termination cuar1 found so often in ,cumanagoto and ,caribbean names1 means a ravine1 as in ,guaymacuar 7ravine of lizards71 ,pirichucuar 7a ravine overshaded by pirichu or piritu palm-trees71 ,chiguatacuar 7a ravine of land-shells74 ,raleigh describes the ,guaiqueries under the name of ,ouikeries4 ,he calls the ,chaymas1 ,saimas1 changing 7according to the ,caribbean pronunciation7 the ch into s47 #d4 ,the ,quaquas1 whom the ,tamanacs call ,mapoje1 are a tribe formerly very warlike and allied to the ,caribbees4 ,it is a curious phenomenon to find the ,quaquas mingled with the ,chaymas in the ,missions of ,cumana1 for their language1 as well as the ,atura1 of the cataracts of the ,orinoco1 is a dialect of the ,salive tongue2 and their original abode was on the banks of the ,assiveru1 which the ,spaniards call ,cuchivero4 ,they have extended their migrations one hundred leagues to the north-east4 ,i have often heard them mentioned on the ,orinoco1 above the mouth of the ,meta2 and1 what is very remarkable1 it is asserted99 that missionary ,jesuits have found ,quaquas as far distant as the ,cordilleras of ,popayan4 799 ,vater tome #c part #b page #cfd4 ,the name of ,quaqua is found on the coast of ,guinea4 ,the ,europeans apply it to a horde of ,negroes to the east of ,cape ,lahou47 ,raleigh enumerates1 among the natives of the island of ,trinidad1 the ,salives1 a people remarkable for their mild manners2 they came from the ,orinoco1 and settled south of the ,quaquas4 ,perhaps these two nations1 which speak almost the same language1 travelled together towards the coasts4 #e4 ,the ,cumanagotos1 or1 according to the pronunciation of the ,indians1 ,cumanacoto1 are now settled westward of ,cumana1 in the ,missions of ,piritu1 where they live by cultivating the ground4 ,they number more than twenty-six thousand4 ,their language1 like that of the ,palencas1 or ,palenques1 and ,guarivas1 is between the ,tamanac and the ,caribbee1 but nearer to the former4 ,these are indeed idioms of the same family2 but if we are to consider them as simple dialects1 the ,latin must be also called a dialect of the ,greek1 and the ,swedish a dialect of the ,german4 ,in considering the affinity of languages one with another1 it must not be forgotten that these affinities may be very differently graduated2 and that it would be a source of confusion not to distinguish between simple dialects and languages of the same family4 ,the ,cumanagotos1 the ,tamanacs1 the ,chaymas1 the ,guaraons1 and the ,caribbees1 do not understand each other1 in spite of the frequent analogy of words and of grammatical structure exhibited in their respective idioms4 ,the ,cumanagotos inhabited1 at the beginning of the sixteenth century1 the mountains of the ,brigantine and of ,parabolata4 ,i am unable to determine whether the ,piritus1 ,cocheymas1 ,chacopatas1 ,tomuzas1 and ,topocuares1 now confounded in the same villages with the ,cumanagotos1 and speaking their language1 were originally tribes of the same nation4 ,the ,piritus take their name from the ravine ,pirichucuar1 where the small thorny palm-tree199 called piritu1 grows in abundance 799 ,caudice gracili aculeato1 foliis pinnatis4 ,possibly of the genus ,aiphanes of ,willdenouw472 the wood of this tree1 which is excessively hard1 and little combustible1 serves to make pipes4 ,on this spot the village of ,la ,concepcion de ,piritu was founded in #aeef2 it is the chief settlement of the ,cumanagoto ,missions1 known by the name of the ,misiones de ,piritu4 #f4 ,the ,caribbees 7,carives74 ,this name1 which was given them by the first navigators1 is retained throughout all ,spanish ,america4 ,the ,french and the ,germans have transformed it1 ,i know not why1 into ,caraibes4 ,the people call themselves ,carina1 ,calina1 and ,callinago4 ,i visited some ,caribbean ,missions in the ,llanos199 799 ,i shall in future use the word ,llanos 7loca plana1 suppressing the p71 without adding the equivalent words pampas1 savannahs1 meadows1 steppes1 or plains4 ,the country between the mountains of the coast and the left bank of the ,orinoco1 constitutes the llanos of ,cumana1 ,barcelona1 and ,caracas47 on returning from my journey to the ,orinoco2 and ,i shall merely mention that the ,galibes 7,caribi of ,cayenne71 the ,tuapocas1 and the ,cunaguaras1 who originally inhabited the plains between the mountains of ,caripe 7,caribe7 and the village of ,maturin1 the ,jaoi of the island of ,trinidad and of the province of ,cumana1 and perhaps also the ,guarivas1 allies of the ,palencas1 are all tribes of the great ,caribbee nation4 ,with respect to the other nations whose affinities of language with the ,tamanac and ,caribbee have been mentioned1 they are not necessarily to be considered as of the same race4 ,in ,asia1 the nations of ,mongol origin differ totally in their physical organisation from those of ,tartar origin4 ,such has been1 however1 the intermixture of these nations1 that1 according to the able researches of ,klaproth1 the ,tartar languages 7branches of the ancient ,oigour7 are spoken at present by hordes incontestably of ,mongol race4 ,neither the analogy nor the diversity of language suffice to solve the great problem of the filiation of nations2 they merely serve to point out probabilities4 ,the ,caribbees1 properly speaking1 those who inhabit the ,missions of the ,cari1 in the llanos of ,cumana1 the banks of the ,caura1 and the plains to the north-east of the sources of the ,orinoco1 are distinguished by their almost gigantic size from all the other nations ,i have seen in the new continent4 ,must it on this account be admitted1 that the ,caribbees are an entirely distinct race8 and that the ,guaraons and the ,tamanacs1 whose languages have an affinity with the ,caribbee1 have no bond of relationship with them8 ,i think not4 ,among the nations of the same family1 one branch may acquire an extraordinary development of organization4 ,the mountaineers of the ,tyrol and ,salzburgh are taller than the other ,germanic races2 the ,samoiedes of the ,altai are not so little and squat as those of the sea-coast4 ,in like manner it would be difficult to deny that the ,galibis are really ,caribbees2 and yet1 notwithstanding the identity of languages1 how striking is the difference in their stature and physical constitution6 ,before ,cortez entered the capital of ,montezuma in #aeba1 the attention of ,europe was fixed on the regions we have just traversed4 ,in depicting the manners of the inhabitants of ,paria and ,cumana1 it was thought that the manners of all the inhabitants of the new continent were described4 ,this remark cannot escape those who read the historians of the ,conquest1 especially the letters of ,peter ,martyr of ,anghiera1 written at the court of ,ferdinand the ,catholic4 ,these letters are full of ingenious observations upon ,christopher ,columbus1 ,leo ,x1 and ,luther1 and are stamped by noble enthusiasm for the great discoveries of an age so rich in extraordinary events4 ,without entering into any detail on the manners of the nations which have been so long confounded one with another1 under the vague denomination of ,cumanians 7,cumaneses71 it appears to me important to clear up a fact which ,i have often heard discussed in ,spanish ,america4 ,the ,pariagotos of the present time are of a brown red colour1 as are the ,caribbees1 the ,chaymas1 and almost all the nations of the ,new ,world4 ,why do the historians of the sixteenth century affirm that the first navigators saw white men with fair hair at the promontory of ,paria8 ,were they of the same race as those ,indians of a less tawny hue1 whom ,m4 ,bonpland and myself saw at ,esmeralda1 near the sources of the ,orinoco8 ,but these ,indians had hair as black as the ,otomacs and other tribes1 whose complexion is the darkest4 ,were they albinos1 such as have been found heretofore in the isthmus of ,panama8 ,but examples of that degeneration are very rare in the copper-coloured race2 and ,anghiera1 as well as ,gomara1 speaks of the inhabitants of ,paria in general1 and not of a few individuals4 ,both describe them as if they were people of ,germanic origin199 799 ,aethiopes nigri1 crispi lanati2 ,pariae incolae albi1 capillis oblongis protensis flavis4--,pet4 ,martyr ,ocean41 dec4 #ej lib4 #f 7edition #aegd74 ,utriusque sexus indigenae albi veluti nostrates1 praeter eos qui sub sole versantur4 7,the natives of both sexes are as white as our people ,spaniards1 except those who are exposed to the sun47--,ibid4 ,gomara1 speaking of the natives seen by ,columbus at the mouth of the river of ,cumana1 says3 ,las donzellas eran amorosas1 desnudas y blancas 7las de la casa72 los ,indios que van al campo estan negros del sol4 7,the young women are engaging in their manners3 they wear no clothing1 and those who live in the houses ,,are ,,white4 ,the ,indians who are much in the open country are black1 from the effect of the sun47--,hist4 de los ,indios1 cap4 #gd4 ,los ,indios de ,paria son ,,blancos y rubios4--7,the ,indians of ,paria are ,,white and red47 ,garcia1 ,origen de los ,indios #agbi1 lib4 #d cap4 #i47 they call them ',whites with light hair2' they even add1 that they wore garments like those of the ,turks499 799 ,they wear round their head a striped cotton handkerchief--,ferd4 ,columb4 cap4 #ga4 7,churchill volume #b47 ,was this kind of head-dress taken for a turban8 7,garcia1 ,origen de los ,ind41 page #cjc74 ,i am surprised that people of these regions should have worn a head-dress2 but1 what is more curious still1 ,pinzon1 in a voyage which he made alone to the coast of ,paria1 the particulars of which have been transmitted to us by ,peter ,martyr of ,anghiera1 professes to have seen natives who were clothed3 ,incolas omnes genu tenus mares1 foeminas surarum tenus1 gossampinis vestibus amictos simplicibus repererunt2 sed viros more ,turcorum insuto minutim gossypio ad belli usum duplicibus4 7,the natives were clothed in thin cotton garments2 the men's reaching to the knee1 and the women's to the calf of the leg4 ,their war-dress was thicker1 and closely stitched with cotton after the ,turkish manner47--,pet4 ,martyr1 dec4 #b lib4 #g4 ,who were these people described as being comparatively civilized1 and clothed with tunics 7like those who lived an the summit of the ,andes71 and seen on a coast1 where before and since the time of ,pinzon1 only naked men have ever been seen87 ,gomara and ,anghiera wrote from such oral information as they had been able to collect4 ,these marvels disappear1 if we examine the recital which ,ferdinand ,columbus drew up from his father's papers4 ,there we find simply1 that the admiral was surprised to see the inhabitants of ,paria1 and those of the island of ,trinidad1 better made1 more civilized 7de buena conversacion71 and whiter than the natives whom he had previously seen499 799 ,churchill's ,collection volume #b1 ,herrera pages #hj1 #hc1 #hd4 ,munoz1 ,hist4 del ,nuevo ,mundo volume #a1 ,el color era baxo como es regular en los ,indios1 pero mas clara que en las islas reconocidas4 7,their colour was dark1 as is usual among the ,indians2 but lighter than that of the people of the islands previously known47 ,the missionaries are accustomed to call those ,indians who are less black1 less tawny1 ,,whitish1 and even ,,almost ,,white4--,gumilla1 ,hist4 de l',orenoque volume #a chapter #e paragraph #b4 ,such incorrect expressions may mislead those who are not accustomed to the exaggerations in which travellers often indulge47 ,this certainly did not mean that the ,pariagotos are white4 ,the lighter colour of the skin of the natives and the great coolness of the mornings on the coast of ,paria1 seemed to confirm the fantastic hypothesis which that great man had framed1 respecting the irregularity of the curvature of the earth1 and the height of the plains in this region1 which he regarded as the effect of an extraordinary swelling of the globe in the direction of the parallels of latitude4 ,amerigo ,vespucci 7in his pretended ,,first voyage1 apparently written from the narratives of other navigators7 compares the natives to the ,tartar nations199 799 ,vultu non multum speciosi sunt1 quoniam latas facies ,tartariis adsimilatas habent4 7,their countenances are not handsome1 their cheek-bones being broad like those of the ,tartars47--,americi ,vesputii ,navigatio ,prima1 in ,gryn's ,orbis ,novus #aeee47 not in regard to their colour1 but on account of the breadth of their faces1 and the general expression of their physiognomy4 ,but if it be certain1 that at the end of the fifteenth century there were on the coast of ,cumana a few men with white skins1 as there are in our days1 it must not thence be concluded1 that the natives of the ,new ,world exhibit everywhere a similar organization of the dermoidal system4 ,it is not less inaccurate to say1 that they are all copper-coloured1 than to affirm that they would not have a tawny hue1 if they were not exposed to the heat of the sun1 or tanned by the action of the air4 ,the natives may be divided into two very unequal portions with respect to numbers2 to the first belong the ,esquimaux of ,greenland1 of ,labrador1 and the northern coast of ,hudson's ,bay1 the inhabitants of ,behring's ,straits1 of the peninsula of ,alaska1 and of ,prince ,william's ,sound4 ,the eastern and western branches99 of this polar race 799 ,vater1 in ,mithridates volume #c4 ,egede1 ,krantz1 ,hearne1 ,mackenzie1 ,portlock1 ,chwostoff1 ,davidoff1 ,resanoff1 ,merk1 and ,billing1 have described the great family of these ,tschougaz-,esquimaux471 the ,esquimaux and the ,tschougases1 though at the vast distance of eight hundred leagues apart1 are united by the most intimate analogy of languages4 ,this analogy extends even to the inhabitants of the north-east of ,asia2 for the idiom of the ,tschouktsches99 at the mouth of the ,anadir 799 ,i mean here only the ,tschouktsches who have fixed dwelling-places1 for the wandering ,tschouktsches approach very near the ,koriaks471 has the same roots as the language of the ,esquimaux who inhabit the coast of ,america opposite to ,europe4 ,the ,tschouktsches are the ,esquimaux of ,asia4 ,like the ,malays1 that hyperborean race reside only on the sea-coasts4 ,they are almost all smaller in stature than the other ,americans1 and are quick1 lively1 and talkative4 ,their hair is almost straight1 and black2 but their skin 7and this is very characteristic of the race1 which ,i shall designate under the name of ,tschougaz-,esquimaux7 is originally whitish4 ,it is certain that the children of the ,greenlanders are born white2 some retain that whiteness2 and often in the brownest 7the most tanned7 the redness of the blood is seen to appear on their cheeks499 799 ,krantz1 ,hist4 of ,greenland #affg tome #a4 ,greenland does not seem to have been inhabited in the eleventh century2 at least the ,esquimaux appeared only in the fourteenth1 coming from the west47 ,the second portion of the natives of ,america includes all those nations which are not ,tschougaz-,esquimaux1 beginning from ,cook's ,river to the ,straits of ,magellan1 from the ,ugaljachmouzes and the ,kinaese of ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 to the ,puelches and ,tehuelhets of the southern hemisphere4 ,the men who belong to this second branch1 are taller1 stronger1 more warlike1 and more taciturn than the others4 ,they present also very remarkable differences in the colour of their skin4 ,in ,mexico1 ,peru1 ,new ,grenada1 ,quito1 on the banks of the ,orinoco and of the river ,amazon1 in every part of ,south ,america which ,i have explored1 in the plains as well as on the coldest table-lands1 the ,indian children of two or three months old have the same bronze tint as is observed in adults4 ,the idea that the natives may be whites tanned by the air and the sun1 could never have occurred to a ,spanish inhabitant of ,quito1 or of the banks of the ,orinoco4 ,in the north-east of ,america1 on the contrary1 we meet with tribes among whom the children are white1 and at the age of virility they acquire the bronze colour of the natives of ,mexico and ,peru4 ,michikinakoua1 chief of the ,miamis1 had his arms1 and those parts of his body not exposed to the sun1 almost white4 ,this difference of hue between the parts covered and not covered is never observed among the natives of ,peru and ,mexico1 even in families who live much at their ease1 and remain almost constantly within doors4 ,to the west of the ,miamis1 on the coast opposite to ,asia1 among the ,kolouches and ,tchinkitans99 of ,norfolk ,sound 799 ,between #ed and #eh degrees of latitude4 ,these white nations have been visited successively by ,portlock1 ,marchand1 ,baranoff1 and ,davidoff4 ,the ,tchinkitans1 or ,schinkit1 are the inhabitants of the island of ,sitka4 ,vater ,mithridates volume #c page #b4 ,marchand ,voyages volume #b471 grown-up girls1 when they have gashed their skin1 display the white hue of ,europeans4 ,this whiteness is found also1 according to some accounts1 among the mountaineers of ,chile499 799 ,molina1 ,saggio sull' ,istoria ,nat4 del ,chile edition #b page #bic4 ,may we believe the existence of those blue eyes of the ,boroas of ,chile and ,guayanas of ,uruguay2 represented to us as nations of the race of ,odin8 ,azara ,voyage tome #b47 ,these facts are very remarkable1 and contrary to the opinion so generally spread1 of the extreme conformity of organization among the natives of ,america4 ,if we divide them into ,esquimaux and non-,esquimaux1 we readily admit that this classification is not more philosophical than that of the ancients1 who saw in the whole of the habitable world only ,celts and ,scythians1 ,greeks1 and ,barbarians4 ,when1 however1 our purpose is to group numerous nations1 we gain something by proceeding in the mode of exclusion4 ,all we have sought to establish here is1 that1 in separating the whole race of ,tschougaz-,esquimaux1 there remain still1 among the coppery-brown ,americans1 other races1 the children of which are born white1 without our being able to prove1 by going back as far as the history of the ,conquest1 that they have been mingled with ,european blood4 ,this fact deserves to be cleared up by travellers who may possess a knowledge of physiology1 and may have opportunities of examining the brown children of the ,mexicans at the age of two years1 as well as the white children of the ,miamis1 and those hordes99 on the ,orinoco 799 ,these whitish tribes are the ,guaycas1 the ,ojos1 and the ,maquiritares471 who1 living in the most sultry regions1 retain during their whole life1 and in the fulness of their strength1 the whitish skin of the ,mestizoes4 ,in man1 the deviations from the common type of the whole race are apparent in the stature1 the physiognomy1 or the form of the body1 rather than on the colour of the skin499 799 ,the circumpolar nations of the two continents are small and squat1 though of races entirely different47 ,it is not so with animals1 where varieties are found more in colour than in form4 ,the hair of the mammiferous class of animals1 the feathers of birds1 and even the scales of fishes1 change their hue1 according to the lengthened influence of light and darkness1 and the intensity of heat and cold4 ,in man1 the colouring matter seems to be deposited in the epidermis by the roots or the bulbs of the hair399 799 ,adverting to the interesting researches of ,m4 ,gaultier1 on the organisation of the human skin1 ,john ,hunter observes1 that in several animals the colorating of the hair is independent of that of the skin47 and all sound observations prove1 that the skin varies in colour from the action of external stimuli on individuals1 and not hereditarily in the whole race4 ,the ,esquimaux of ,greenland and the ,laplanders are tanned by the influence of the air2 but their children are born white4 ,we will not decide on the changes which nature may have produced in a space of time exceeding all historical tradition4 ,reason stops short in these matters1 when no longer under the guidance of experience and analogy4 ,all white-skinned nations begin their cosmogony by white men2 they allege that the negroes and all tawny people have been blackened or embrowned by the excessive heat of the sun4 ,this theory1 adopted by the ,greeks199 799 ,strabo1 liv4 #ae47 though it did not pass without contradiction199 799 ,onesicritus1 apud ,strabonem1 lib4 #ae4 ,alexander's expedition appears to have contributed greatly to fix the attention of the ,greeks on the great question of the influence of climates4 ,they had learned from the accounts of travellers1 that in ,hindostan the nations of the south were of darker colour than those of the north1 near the mountains3 and they supposed that they were both of the same race47 has been propagated even to our own times4 ,buffon has repeated in prose what ,theodectes had expressed in verse two thousand years before3 that nations wear the livery of the climate in which they live4 ,if history had been written by black nations1 they would have maintained what even ,europeans have recently advanced199 that man was originally black1 or of a very tawny colour 799 ,see the work of ,mr4 ,prichard1 abounding with curious research4 ,researches into the ,physical ,history of ,man1 #ahac1 page #bci472 and that mankind have become white in some races1 from the effect of civilization and progressive debilitation1 as animals1 in a state of domestication1 pass from dark to lighter colours4 ,in plants and in animals1 accidental varieties1 formed under our own eyes1 have become fixed1 and have been propagated299 799 ,for example1 the sheep with very short legs1 called ancon sheep in ,connecticut1 and examined by ,sir ,everard ,home4 ,this variety dates only from the year #agia47 but nothing proves1 that in the present state of human organization1 the different races of black1 yellow1 copper-coloured1 and white men1 when they remain unmixed1 deviate considerably from their primitive type1 by the influence of climate1 of food1 and other external agents4 ,these opinions are founded on the authority of ,ulloa499 799 ,the ,indians ,americans are of a copper-colour1 which by the action of the sun and the air grows darker4 ,i must remark1 that neither heat nor cold produces any sensible change in the colour1 so that the ,indians of the ,cordilleras of ,peru are easily confounded with those of the hottest plains2 and those who live under the ,line cannot be distinguished1 by their colour1 from those who inhabit the fortieth degree of north and south latitude4--,noticias ,americanas4 ,no ancient author has so clearly stated the two forms of reasoning1 by which we still explain in our days the differences of colour and features among neighbouring nations1 as ,tacitus4 ,he makes a just distinction between the influence of climate1 and hereditary dispositions2 and1 like a philosopher persuaded of our profound ignorance of the origin of things1 he leaves the question undecided4 ,habitus corporum varii2 atque ex eo argumenta1 seu durante originis vi1 seu procurrentibus in diversa terris1 positio coeli corporibus habitum dedit4--,agricola1 cap #b47 ,that learned writer saw the ,indians of ,chile1 of the ,andes of ,peru1 of the burning coasts of ,panama1 and those of ,louisiana1 situated in the northern temperate zone4 ,he had the good fortune to live at a period when theories were less numerous2 and1 like me1 he was struck by seeing the natives equally bronzed under the ,line1 in the cold climate of the ,cordilleras1 and in the plains4 ,where differences of colour are observed1 they depend on the race4 ,we shall soon find on the burning banks of the ,orinoco ,indians with a whitish skin4 ,durans originis vis est4 ,,chapter #a4aj4 ,,second ,,abode ,,at ,,cumana4 ,,earthquakes4 ,,extraordinary ,,meteors4 ,we remained a month longer at ,cumana1 employing ourselves in the necessary preparations for our proposed visit to the ,orinoco and the ,rio ,negro4 ,we had to choose such instruments as could be most easily transported in narrow boats2 and to engage guides for an inland journey of ten months1 across a country without communication with the coasts4 ,the astronomical determination of places being the most important object of this undertaking1 ,i felt desirous not to miss the observation of an eclipse of the sun1 which was to be visible at the end of ,october3 and in consequence ,i preferred remaining till that period at ,cumana1 where the sky is generally clear and serene4 ,it was now too late to reach the banks of the ,orinoco before ,october2 and the high valleys of ,caracas promised less favourable opportunities1 on account of the vapours which accumulate round the neighbouring mountains4 ,i was1 however1 near being compelled by a deplorable occurrence1 to renounce1 or at least to delay for a long time1 my journey to the ,orinoco4 ,on the #bgth of ,october1 the day before the eclipse1 we went as usual1 to take the air on the shore of the gulf1 and to observe the instant of high water1 which in those parts is only twelve or thirteen inches4 ,it was eight in the evening1 and the breeze was not yet stirring4 ,the sky was cloudy2 and during a dead calm it was excessively hot4 ,we crossed the beach which separates the suburb of the ,guayqueria ,indians from the embarcadero4 ,i heard some one walking behind us1 and on turning1 ,i saw a tall man of the colour of the ,zambos1 naked to the waist4 ,he held almost over my head a macana1 which is a great stick of palm-tree wood1 enlarged to the end like a club4 ,i avoided the stroke by leaping towards the left2 but ,m4 ,bonpland1 who walked on my right1 was less fortunate4 ,he did not see the ,zambo so soon as ,i did1 and received a stroke above the temple1 which levelled him with the ground4 ,we were alone1 without arms1 half a league from any habitation1 on a vast plain bounded by the sea4 ,the ,zambo1 instead of attacking me1 moved off slowly to pick up ,m4 ,bonpland's hat1 which1 having somewhat deadened the violence of the blow1 had fallen off and lay at some distance4 ,alarmed at seeing my companion on the ground1 and for some moments senseless1 ,i thought of him only4 ,i helped him to raise himself1 and pain and anger doubled his strength4 ,we ran toward the ,zambo1 who1 either from cowardice1 common enough in people of this caste1 or because he perceived at a distance some men on the beach1 did not wait for us1 but ran off in the direction of the ,tunal1 a little thicket of cactus and arborescent avicennia4 ,he chanced to fall in running2 and ,m4 ,bonpland1 who reached him first1 seized him round the body4 ,the ,zambo drew a long knife2 and in this unequal struggle we should infallibly have been wounded1 if some ,biscayan merchants1 who were taking the air on the beach1 had not come to our assistance4 ,the ,zambo seeing himself surrounded1 thought no longer of defence4 ,he again ran away1 and we pursued him through the thorny cactuses4 ,at length1 tired out1 he took shelter in a cow-house1 whence he suffered himself to be quietly led to prison4 ,m4 ,bonpland was seized with fever during the night2 but being endowed with great energy and fortitude1 and possessing that cheerful disposition which is one of the most precious gifts of nature1 he continued his labours the next day4 ,the stroke of the macana had extended to the top of his head1 and he felt its effect for the space of two or three months during the stay we made at ,caracas4 ,when stooping to collect plants1 he was sometimes seized with giddiness1 which led us to fear that an internal abscess was forming4 ,happily these apprehensions were unfounded1 and the symptoms1 at first alarming1 gradually disappeared4 ,the inhabitants of ,cumana showed us the kindest interest4 ,it was ascertained that the ,zambo was a native of one of the ,indian villages which surround the great lake of ,maracaybo4 ,he had served on board a privateer belonging to the island of ,st4 ,domingo1 and in consequence of a quarrel with the captain he had been left on the coast of ,cumana1 when the ship quitted the port4 ,having seen the signal which we had fixed up for the purpose of observing the height of the tides1 he had watched the moment when he could attack us on the beach4 ,but why1 after having knocked one of us down1 was he satisfied with simply stealing a hat8 ,in an examination he underwent1 his answers were so confused and stupid1 that it was impossible to clear up our doubts4 ,sometimes he maintained that his intention was not to rob us2 but that1 irritated by the bad treatment he had suffered on board the privateer of ,st4 ,domingo1 he could not resist the desire of attacking us1 when he heard us speak ,french4 ,justice is so tardy in this country1 that prisoners1 of whom the jail is full1 may remain seven or eight years without being brought to trial2 we learnt1 therefore1 with some satisfaction1 that a few days after our departure from ,cumana1 the ,zambo had succeeded in breaking out of the castle of ,san ,antonio4 ,on the day after this occurrence1 the #bhth of ,october1 ,i was1 at five in the morning1 on the terrace of our house1 making preparations for the observation of the eclipse4 ,the weather was fine and serene4 ,the crescent of ,venus1 and the constellation of the ,ship1 so splendid from the disposition of its immense nebulae1 were lost in the rays of the rising sun4 ,i had a complete observation of the progress and the close of the eclipse4 ,i determined the distance of the horns1 or the differences of altitude and azimuth1 by the passage over the threads of the quadrant4 ,the eclipse terminated at #b hours #ad minutes #bc4d seconds mean time1 at ,cumana4 ,during a few days which preceded and followed the eclipse of the sun1 very remarkable atmospherical phenomena were observable4 ,it was what is called in those countries the season of winter2 that is1 of clouds and small electrical showers4 ,from the #ajth of ,october to the #crd of ,november1 at nightfall1 a reddish vapour arose in the horizon1 and covered1 in a few minutes1 with a veil more or less thick1 the azure vault of the sky4 ,saussure's hygrometer1 far from indicating greater humidity1 often went back from #ij to #hc degrees4 ,the heat of the day was from #bh to #cb degrees1 which for this part of the torrid zone is very considerable4 ,sometimes1 in the midst of the night1 the vapours disappeared in an instant2 and at the moment when ,i had arranged my instruments1 clouds of brilliant whiteness collected at the zenith1 and extended towards the horizon4 ,on the #ahth of ,october these clouds were so remarkably transparent1 that they did not hide stars even of the fourth magnitude4 ,i could distinguish so perfectly the spots of the moon1 that it might have been supposed its disk was before the clouds4 ,the latter were at a prodigious height1 disposed in bands1 and at equal distances1 as from the effect of electric repulsions3--these small masses of vapour1 similar to those ,i saw above my head on the ridge of the highest ,andes1 are1 in several languages1 designated by the name of sheep4 ,when the reddish vapour spreads lightly over the sky1 the great stars1 which in general1 at ,cumana1 scarcely scintillate below #bj or #be degrees1 did not retain even at the zenith1 their steady and planetary light4 ,they scintillated at all altitudes1 as after a heavy storm of rain499 799 ,i have not observed any direct relation between the scintillation of the stars and the dryness of that part of the atmosphere open to our researches4 ,i have often seen at ,cumana a great scintillation of the stars of ,orion and ,sagittarius1 when ,saussure's hygrometer was at #he degrees4 ,at other times1 these same stars1 considerably elevated above the horizon1 emitted a steady and planetary light1 the hygrometer being at #ij or #ic degrees4 ,probably it is not the quantity of vapour1 but the manner in which it is diffused1 and more or less dissolved in the air1 which determines the scintillation4 ,the latter is invariably attended with a coloration of light4 ,it is remarkable enough1 that1 in northern countries1 at a time when the atmosphere appears perfectly dry1 the scintillation is most decided in very cold weather47 ,it was curious that the vapour did not affect the hygrometer at the surface of the earth4 ,i remained a part of the night seated in a balcony1 from which ,i had a view of a great part of the horizon4 ,in every climate ,i feel a peculiar interest in fixing my eyes1 when the sky is serene1 on some great constellation1 and seeing groups of vesicular vapours appear and augment1 as around a central nucleus1 then1 disappearing1 form themselves anew4 ,after the #bhth of ,october1 the reddish mist became thicker than it had previously been4 ,the heat of the nights seemed stifling1 though the thermometer rose only to #bf degrees4 ,the breeze1 which generally refreshed the air from eight or nine o'clock in the evening1 was no longer felt4 ,the atmosphere was burning hot1 and the parched and dusty ground was cracked on every side4 ,on the #dth of ,november1 about two in the afternoon1 large clouds of peculiar blackness enveloped the high mountains of the ,brigantine and the ,tataraqual4 ,they extended by degrees as far as the zenith4 ,about four in the afternoon thunder was heard over our heads1 at an immense height1 not regularly rolling1 but with a hollow and often interrupted sound4 ,at the moment of the strongest electric explosion1 at #d hours #ab minutes1 there were two shocks of earthquake1 which followed each other at the interval of fifteen seconds4 ,the people ran into the streets1 uttering loud cries4 ,m4 ,bonpland1 who was leaning over a table examining plants1 was almost thrown on the floor4 ,i felt the shock very strongly1 though ,i was lying in a hammock4 ,its direction was from north to south1 which is rare at ,cumana4 ,slaves1 who were drawing water from a well more than eighteen or twenty feet deep1 near the river ,manzanares1 heard a noise like the explosion of a strong charge of gunpowder4 ,the noise seemed to come from the bottom of the well2 a very curious phenomenon1 though very common in most of the countries of ,america which are exposed to earthquakes4 ,a few minutes before the first shock there was a very violent blast of wind1 followed by electrical rain falling in great drops4 ,i immediately tried the atmospherical electricity by the electrometer of ,volta4 ,the small balls separated four lines2 the electricity often changed from positive to negative1 as is the case during storms1 and1 in the north of ,europe1 even sometimes in a fall of snow4 ,the sky remained cloudy1 and the blast of wind was followed by a dead calm1 which lasted all night4 ,the sunset presented a picture of extraordinary magnificence4 ,the thick veil of clouds was rent asunder1 as in shreds1 quite near the horizon2 the sun appeared at #ab degrees of altitude on a sky of indigo-blue4 ,its disk was enormously enlarged1 distorted1 and undulated toward the edges4 ,the clouds were gilded2 and fascicles of divergent rays1 reflecting the most brilliant rainbow hues1 extended over the heavens4 ,a great crowd of people assembled in the public square4 ,this celestial phenomenon1--the earthquake1--the thunder which accompanied it1--the red vapour seen during so many days1 all were regarded as the effect of the eclipse4 ,about nine in the evening there was another shock1 much slighter than the former1 but attended with a subterraneous noise4 ,the barometer was a little lower than usual2 but the progress of the horary variations or small atmospheric tides1 was no way interrupted4 ,the mercury was precisely at the minimum of height at the moment of the earthquake2 it continued rising till eleven in the evening1 and sank again till half after four in the morning1 conformably to the law which regulates barometrical variations4 ,in the night between the #crd and #dth of ,november the reddish vapour was so thick that ,i could not distinguish the situation of the moon1 except by a beautiful halo of #bj degrees diameter4 ,scarcely twenty-two months had elapsed since the town of ,cumana had been almost totally destroyed by an earthquake4 ,the people regard vapours which obscure the horizon1 and the subsidence of wind during the night1 as infallible pregnostics of disaster4 ,we had frequent visits from persons who wished to know whether our instruments indicated new shocks for the next day2 and alarm was great and general when1 on the #eth of ,november1 exactly at the same hour as on the preceding day1 there was a violent gust of wind1 attended by thunder1 and a few drops of rain4 ,no shock was felt4 ,the wind and storm returned during five or six days at the same hour1 almost at the same minute4 ,the inhabitants of ,cumana1 and of many other places between the tropics1 have long since observed that atmospherical changes1 which are1 to appearance1 the most accidental1 succeed each other for whole weeks with astonishing regularity4 ,the same phenomenon occurs in summer1 in the temperate zone2 nor has it escaped the perception of astronomers1 who often observe1 in a serene sky1 during three or four days successively1 clouds which have collected at the same part of the firmament1 take the same direction1 and dissolve at the same height2 sometimes before1 sometimes after the passage of a star over the meridian1 consequently within a few minutes of the same point of true time499 799 ,m4 ,arago and ,i paid a great deal of attention to this phenomenon during a long series of observations made in the year #ahji and #ahaj1 at the ,observatory of ,paris1 with the view of verifying the declination of the stars47 ,the earthquake of the #dth of ,november1 the first ,i had felt1 made the greater impression on me1 as it was accompanied with remarkable meteorological variations4 ,it was1 moreover1 a positive movement upward and downward1 and not a shock by undulation4 ,i did not then imagine1 that after a long abode on the table-lands of ,quito and the coasts of ,peru1 ,i should become almost as familiar with the abrupt movements of the ground as we are in ,europe with the sound of thunder4 ,in the city of ,quito1 we never thought of rising from our beds when1 during the night1 subterraneous rumblings 7bramidos71 which seem always to come from the volcano of ,pichincha1 announced a shock1 the force of which1 however1 is seldom in proportion to the intensity of the noise4 ,the indifference of the inhabitants1 who bear in mind that for three centuries past their city has not been destroyed1 readily communicates itself to the least intrepid traveller4 ,it is not so much the fear of the danger1 as the novelty of the sensation1 which makes so forcible an impression when the effect of the slightest earthquake is felt for the first time4 ,from our infancy1 the idea of certain contrasts becomes fixed in our minds3 water appears to us an element that moves2 earth1 a motionless and inert mass4 ,these impressions are the result of daily experience2 they are connected with everything that is transmitted to us by the senses4 ,when the shock of an earthquake is felt1 when the earth which we had deemed so stable is shaken on its old foundations1 one instant suffices to destroy long-fixed illusions4 ,it is like awakening from a dream2 but a painful awakening4 ,we feel that we have been deceived by the apparent stability of nature2 we become observant of the least noise2 we mistrust for the first time the soil we have so long trod with confidence4 ,but if the shocks be repeated1 if they become frequent during several successive days1 the uncertainty quickly disappears4 ,in #aghd1 the inhabitants of ,mexico were accustomed to hear the thunder roll beneath their feet199 799 ,los bramidos de ,guanazuato47 as it is heard by us in the region of the clouds4 ,confidence easily springs up in the human breast3 on the coasts of ,peru we become accustomed to the undulations of the ground1 as the sailor becomes accustomed to the tossing of the ship1 caused by the motion of the waves4 ,the reddish vapour which at ,cumana had spread a mist over the horizon a little before sunset1 disappeared after the #gth of ,november4 ,the atmosphere resumed its former purity1 and the firmament appeared1 at the zenith1 of that deep blue tint peculiar to climates where heat1 light1 and a great equality of electric charge seem all to promote the most perfect dissolution of water in the air4 ,i observed1 on the night of the #gth1 the immersion of the second satellite of ,jupiter4 ,the belts of the planet were more distinct than ,i had ever seen them before4 ,i passed a part of the night in comparing the intensity of the light emitted by the beautiful stars which shine in the southern sky4 ,i pursued this task carefully in both hemispheres1 at sea1 and during my abode at ,lima1 at ,guayaquil1 and at ,mexico4 ,nearly half a century has now elapsed since ,la ,caille examined that region of the sky which is invisible in ,europe4 ,the stars near the south pole are usually observed with so little perseverance and attention1 that the greatest changes may take place in the intensity of their light and their own motion1 without astronomers having the slightest knowledge of them4 ,i think ,i have remarked changes of this kind in the constellation of the ,crane and in that of the ,ship4 ,i compared1 at first with the naked eye1 the stars which are not very distant from each other1 for the purpose of classing them according to the method pointed out by ,herschel1 in a paper read to the ,royal ,society of ,london in #agif4 ,i afterwards employed diaphragms diminishing the aperture of the telescope1 and coloured and colourless glasses placed before the eye-glass4 ,i moreover made use of an instrument of reflexion calculated to bring simultaneously two stars into the field of the telescope1 after having equalized their light by receiving it with more or fewer rays at pleasure1 reflected by the silvered part of the mirror4 ,i admit that these photometric processes are not very precise2 but ,i believe the last1 which perhaps had never before been employed1 might he rendered nearly exact1 by adding a scale of equal parts to the moveable frame of the telescope of the sextant4 ,it was by taking the mean of a great number of valuations1 that ,i saw the relative intensity of the light of the great stars decrease in the following manner3 ,sirius1 ,canopus1 a ,centauri1 ,acherner1 b ,centauri1 ,fomalhaut1 ,rigel1 ,procyon1 ,betelgueuse1 e of the ,great ,dog1 d of the ,great ,dog1 a of the ,crane1 a of the ,peacock4 ,these experiments will become more interesting when travellers shall have determined anew1 at intervals of forty or fifty years1 some of those changes which the celestial bodies seem to undergo1 either at their surface or with respect to their distances from our planetary system4 ,after having made astronomical observations with the same instruments1 in our northern climates and in the torrid zone1 we are surprised at the effect produced in the latter 7by the transparency of the air1 and the less extinction of light71 on the clearness with which the double stars1 the satellites of ,jupiter1 or certain nebulae1 present themselves4 ,beneath a sky equally serene in appearance1 it would seem as if more perfect instruments were employed2 so much more distinct and well defined do the objects appear between the tropics4 ,it cannot be doubted1 that at the period when equinoctial ,america shall become the centre of extensive civilization1 physical astronomy will make immense improvements1 in proportion as the skies will be explored with excellent glasses1 in the dry and hot climates of ,cumana1 ,coro1 and the island of ,margareta4 ,i do not here mention the ridge of the ,cordilleras1 because1 with the exception of some high and nearly barren plains in ,mexico and ,peru1 the very elevated table-lands1 in which the barometric pressure is from ten to twelve inches less than at the level of the sea1 have a misty and extremely variable climate4 ,the extreme purity of the atmosphere which constantly prevails in the low regions during the dry season1 counterbalances the elevation of site and the rarity of the air on the table-lands4 ,the elevated strata of the atmosphere1 when they envelope the ridges of mountains1 undergo rapid changes in their transparency4 ,the night of the #aath of ,november was cool and extremely fine4 ,from half after two in the morning1 the most extraordinary luminous meteors were seen in the direction of the east4 ,m4 ,bonpland1 who had risen to enjoy the freshness of the air1 perceived them first4 ,thousands of bolides and falling stars succeeded each other during the space of four hours4 ,their direction was very regular from north to south4 ,they filled a space in the sky extending from due east #cj degrees to north and south4 ,in an amplitude of #fj degrees the meteors were seen to rise above the horizon at east-north-east and at east1 to describe arcs more or less extended1 and to fall towards the south1 after having followed the direction of the meridian4 ,some of them attained a height of #dj degrees1 and all exceeded #be or #cj degrees4 ,there was very little wind in the low regions of the atmosphere1 and that little blew from the east4 ,no trace of clouds was to be seen4 ,m4 ,bonpland states that1 from the first appearance of the phenomenon1 there was not in the firmament a space equal in extent to three diameters of the moon1 which was not filled every instant with bolides and falling stars4 ,the first were fewer in number1 but as they were of different sizes1 it was impossible to fix the limit between these two classes of phenomena4 ,all these meteors left luminous traces from five to ten degrees in length1 as often happens in the equinoctial regions4 ,the phosphorescence of these traces1 or luminous bands1 lasted seven or eight seconds4 ,many of the falling stars had a very distinct nucleus1 as large as the disk of ,jupiter1 from which darted sparks of vivid light4 ,the bolides seem to burst as by explosion2 but the largest1 those from #a to #a degree #ae minutes in diameter1 disappeared without scintillation1 leaving behind them phosphorescent bands 7trabes7 exceeding in breadth fifteen or twenty minutes4 ,the light of these meteors was white1 and not reddish1 which must doubtless be attributed to the absence of vapour and the extreme transparency of the air4 ,for the same reason1 within the tropics1 the stars of the first magnitude have1 at their rising1 a light decidedly whiter than in ,europe4 ,almost all the inhabitants of ,cumana witnessed this phenomenon1 because they had left their houses before four o'clock1 to attend the early morning mass4 ,they did not behold these bolides with indifference2 the oldest among them remembered that the great earthquakes of #agff were preceded by similar phenomena4 ,the ,guaiqueries in the ,indian suburb alleged that the bolides began to appear at one o'clock2 and that as they returned from fishing in the gulf1 they had perceived very small falling stars towards the east4 ,they assured us that igneous meteors were extremely rare on those coasts after two o'clock in the morning4 ,the phenomenon ceased by degrees after four o'clock1 and the bolides and falling stars became less frequent2 but we still distinguished some to north-east by their whitish light1 and the rapidity of their movement1 a quarter of an hour after sunrise4 ,this circumstance will appear less extraordinary1 when ,i mention that in broad daylight1 in #aghh1 the interior of the houses in the town of ,popayan was brightly illumined by an aerolite of immense magnitude4 ,it passed over the town1 when the sun was shining clearly1 about one o'clock4 ,m4 ,bonpland and myself1 during our second residence at ,cumana1 after having observed1 on the #bfth of ,september1 #ahjj1 the immersion of the first satellite of ,jupiter1 succeeded in seeing the planet distinctly with the naked eye1 eighteen minutes after the disk of the sun had appeared in the horizon4 ,there was a very slight vapour in the east1 but ,jupiter appeared on an azure sky4 ,these facts bear evidence of the extreme purity and transparency of the atmosphere in the torrid zone4 ,the mass of diffused light is the less1 in proportion as the vapours are more perfectly dissolved4 ,the same cause which checks the diffusion of the solar light1 diminishes the extinction of that which emanates either from bolides from ,jupiter1 or from the moon1 seen on the second day after its conjunction4 ,the #abth of ,november was an extremely hot day1 and the hygrometer indicated a very considerable degree of dryness for those climates4 ,the reddish vapour clouded the horizon anew1 and rose to the height of #ad degrees4 ,this was the last time it appeared that year2 and ,i must here observe1 that it is no less rare under the fine sky of ,cumana1 than it is common at ,acapulco1 on the western coast of ,mexico4 ,we did not neglect1 during the course of our journey from ,caracas to the ,rio ,negro1 to enquire everywhere1 whether the meteors of the #abth of ,november had been perceived4 ,in a wild country1 where the greater number of the inhabitants sleep in the open air1 so extraordinary a phenomenon could not fail to be remarked1 unless it had been concealed from observation by clouds4 ,the ,capuchin missionary at ,san ,fernando de ,apure199 799 ,north latitude #g degrees #ec minutes #ab seconds2 west longitude #gj degrees #bj minutes471 a village situated amid the savannahs of the province of ,varinas2 the ,franciscan monks stationed near the cataracts of the ,orinoco and at ,maroa199 799 ,north latitude #b degrees #db minutes #j seconds2 west longitude #gj degrees #ba minutes47 on the banks of the ,rio ,negro2 had seen numberless falling-stars and bolides illumine the heavens4 ,maroa is south-west of ,cumana1 at one hundred and seventy-four leagues distance4 ,all these observers compared the phenomenon to brilliant fireworks2 and it lasted from three till six in the morning4 ,some of the monks had marked the day in their rituals2 others had noted it by the proximate festivals of the ,church4 ,unfortunately1 none of them could recollect the direction of the meteors1 or their apparent height4 ,from the position of the mountains and thick forests which surround the ,missions of the ,cataracts and the little village of ,maroa1 ,i presume that the bolides were still visible at #bj degrees above the horizon4 ,on my arrival at the southern extremity of ,spanish ,guiana1 at the little fort of ,san ,carlos1 ,i found some ,portuguese1 who had gone up the ,rio ,negro from the ,mission of ,st4 ,joseph of the ,maravitans4 ,they assured me that in that part of ,brazil the phenomenon had been perceived at least as far as ,san ,gabriel das ,cachoeiras1 consequently as far as the equator itself499 799 ,a little to the north-west of ,san ,antonio de ,castanheiro4 ,i did not meet with any persons who had observed this meteor1 at ,santa ,fe de ,bogota1 at ,popayan1 or in the southern hemisphere1 at ,quito and ,peru4 ,perhaps the state of the atmosphere1 so changeable in these western regions1 prevented observation47 ,i was forcibly struck by the immense height which these bolides must have attained1 to have rendered them visible simultaneously at ,cumana1 and on the frontiers of ,brazil1 in a line of two hundred and thirty leagues in length4 ,but what was my astonishment1 when1 on my return to ,europe1 ,i learned that the same phenomenon had been perceived on an extent of the globe of #fd degrees of latitude1 and #ia degrees of longitude2 at the equator1 in ,south ,america1 at ,labrador1 and in ,germany6 ,i saw accidentally1 during my passage from ,philadelphia to ,bordeaux199 799 ,in the ,memoirs of the ,pennsylvanian ,society47 the corresponding observation of ,mr4 ,ellicot 7latitude #cj degrees #db72 and upon my return from ,naples to ,berlin1 ,i read the account of the ,moravian missionaries among the ,esquimaux1 in the ,bibliothek of ,gottingen4 ,the following is a succinct enumeration of the facts3 ,first4 ,the fiery meteors were seen in the east1 and the east-north-east1 at #dj degrees of elevation1 from #b to #f a4m4 at ,cumana 7latitude #aj degrees #bg minutes #eb seconds1 longitude #ff degrees #cj minutes72 at ,porto ,cabello 7latitude #aj degrees #f minutes #eb seconds1 longitude #fg degrees #e minutes72 and on the frontiers of ,brazil1 near the equator1 in longitude #gj degrees west of the meridian of ,paris4 ,second4 ,in ,french ,guiana 7latitude #d degrees #ef minutes1 longitude #ed degrees #ce minutes7 the northern part of the sky was suffused with fire4 ,numberless falling-stars traversed the heavens during the space of an hour and a half1 and shed so vivid a light1 that those meteors might be compared to the blazing sheaves which shoot out from fireworks4 ,the knowledge of this fact rests upon the highly trustworthy testimony of the ,count de ,marbois1 then living in exile at ,cayenne1 a victim to his love of justice and of rational1 constitutional liberty4 ,third4 ,mr4 ,ellicot1 astronomer to the ,united ,states1 having completed his trigonometric operations for the rectification of the limits on the ,ohio1 being on the #abth of ,november in the gulf of ,florida1 in latitude #be degrees1 and longitude #ha degrees #ej minutes1 saw in all parts of the sky1 as many meteors as stars1 moving in all directions4 ,some appeared to fall perpendicularly2 and it was expected every minute that they would drop into the vessel4 ,the same phenomenon was perceived upon the ,american continent as far as latitude #cj degrees #db minutes4 ,fourth4 ,in ,labrador1 at ,nain 7latitude #ef degrees #ee minutes71 and ,hoffenthal 7latitude #eh degrees #d minutes72 in ,greenland1 at ,lichtenau 7latitude #fa degrees #e minutes71 and at ,new ,herrnhut 7latitude #fd degrees #ad minutes1 longitude #eb degrees #bj minutes72 the ,esquimaux were terrified at the enormous quantity of bolides which fell during twilight at all points of the firmament1 and some of which were said to be a foot broad4 ,fifth4 ,in ,germany1 ,mr4 ,zeissing1 vicar of ,ittetsadt1 near ,weimar 7latitude #ej degrees #ei minutes1 longitude #i degrees #a minute east71 perceived1 on the #abth of ,november1 between the hours of six and seven in the morning 7half-past two at ,cumana71 some falling-stars which shed a very white light4 ,soon after1 in the direction of south and south-west1 luminous rays appeared from four to six feet long2 they were reddish1 and resembled the luminous track of a sky-rocket4 ,during the morning twilight1 between the hours of seven and eight1 the sky1 in the direction of south-west1 was observed from time to time to be brightly illumined by white lightning1 running in serpentine lines along the horizon4 ,at night the cold increased and the barometer rose4 ,it is very probable1 that the meteors might have been observed more to the east1 in ,poland and in ,russia499 799 ,in ,paris and in ,london the sky was cloudy4 ,at ,carlsruhe1 before dawn1 lightning was seen in the north-west and south-east4 ,on the #acth of ,november a remarkable glare of light was seen at the same place in the south-east47 ,the distance from ,weimar to the ,rio ,negro is #ahjj nautical leagues2 and from the ,rio ,negro to ,herrnhut in ,greenland1 #acjj leagues4 ,admitting that the same fiery meteors were seen at points so distant from each other1 we must suppose that their height was at least #daa leagues4 ,near ,weimar1 the appearance like sky-rockets was observed in the south and south-east2 at ,cumana1 in the east and east-north-east4 ,we may therefore conclude1 that numberless aerolites must have fallen into the sea1 between ,africa and ,south ,america1 westward of the ,cape ,verd ,islands4 ,but since the direction of the bolides was not the same at ,labrador and at ,cumana1 why were they not perceived in the latter place towards the north1 as at ,cayenne8 ,we can scarcely be too cautious on a subject1 on which good observations made in very distant places are still wanting4 ,i am rather inclined to think1 that the ,chayma ,indians of ,cumana did not see the same bolides as the ,portuguese in ,brazil and the missionaries in ,labrador2 but at the same time it cannot be doubted 7and this fact appears to me very remarkable7 that in the ,new ,world1 between the meridians of #df and #hb degrees1 between the equator and #fd degrees north1 at the same hour1 an immense number of bolides and falling-stars were perceived2 and that those meteors had everywhere the same brilliancy1 throughout a space of #iba1jjj square leagues4 ,astronomers who have lately been directing minute attention to falling-stars and their parallaxes1 consider them as meteors belonging to the farthest limits of our atmosphere1 between the region of the ,aurora ,borealis and that of the lightest clouds499 799 ,according to the observations which ,i made on the ridge of the ,andes1 at an elevation of #bgjj toises1 on the moutons1 or little white fleecy clouds1 it appeared to me1 that their elevation is sometimes not less than #fjjj toises above the level of the coast47 ,some have been seen1 which had not more than #ad1jjj toises1 or about five leagues of elevation4 ,the highest do not appear to exceed thirty leagues4 ,they are often more than a hundred feet in diameter3 and their swiftness is such1 that they dart in a few seconds through a space of two leagues4 ,of some which have been measured1 the direction was almost perpendicularly upward1 or forming an angle of #ej degrees with the vertical line4 ,this extremely remarkable circumstance has led to the conclusion1 that falling-stars are not aerolites which1 after having hovered a long time in space1 unite on accidentally entering into our atmosphere1 and fall towards the earth499 799 ,m4 ,chladni1 who at first considered falling-stars to be aerolites1 subsequently abandoned that idea47 ,whatever may be the origin of these luminous meteors1 it is difficult to conceive an instantaneous inflammation taking place in a region where there is less air than in the vacuum of our air-pumps2 and where 7at the height of #be1jjj toises7 the mercury in the barometer would not rise to #j4jab of a line4 ,we have ascertained the uniform mixture of atmospheric air to be about #j4 #jjc1 only to an elevation of #cjjj toises2 consequently not beyond the last stratum of fleecy clouds4 ,it may be admitted that1 in the first revolutions of the globe1 gaseous substances1 which yet remain unknown to us1 have risen towards that region through which the falling-stars pass2 but accurate experiments1 made upon mixtures of gases which have not the same specific gravity1 show that there is no reason for supposing a superior stratum of the atmosphere entirely different from the inferior strata4 ,gaseous substances mingle and penetrate each other on the least movement2 and a uniformity of their mixture may have taken place in the lapse of ages1 unless we believe them to possess a repulsive action of which there is no example in those substances we can subject to our observations4 ,farther1 if we admit the existence of particular aerial fluids in the inaccessible regions of luminous meteors1 of falling-stars1 bolides1 and the ,aurora ,borealis2 how can we conceive why the whole stratum of those fluids does not at once ignite1 but that the gaseous emanations1 like the clouds1 occupy only limited spaces8 ,how can we suppose an electrical explosion without some vapours collected together1 capable of containing unequal charges of electricity1 in air1 the mean temperature of which is perhaps #be degrees below the freezing point of the centigrade thermometer1 and the rarefaction of which is so considerable1 that the compression of the electrical shock could scarcely disengage any heat8 ,these difficulties would in great part be removed1 if the direction of the movement of falling-stars allowed us to consider them as bodies with a solid nucleus1 as cosmic phenomena 7belonging to space beyond the limits of our atmosphere71 and not as telluric phenomena 7belonging to our planet only74 ,supposing the meteors of ,cumana to have been only at the usual height at which falling-stars in general move1 the same meteors were seen above the horizon in places more than #caj leagues distant from each other499 799 ,it was this circumstance that induced ,lambert to propose the observation of falling-stars for the determination of terrestrial longitudes4 ,he considered them to be celestial signals seen at great distances47 ,how great a disposition to incandescence must have prevailed on the #abth ,november1 in the higher regions of the atmosphere1 to have rendered during four hours myriads of bolides and falling stars visible at the equator1 in ,greenland1 and in ,germany6 ,m4 ,benzenberg observes1 that the same cause which renders the phenomenon more frequent1 has also an influence on the large size of the meteors1 and the intensity of their light4 ,in ,europe1 the greatest number of falling stars are seen on those nights on which very bright ones are mingled with very small ones4 ,the periodical nature of the phenomenon augments the interest it excites4 ,there are months in which ,m4 ,brandes has reckoned in our temperate zone only sixty or eighty falling-stars in one night2 and in other months their number has risen to two thousand4 ,whenever one is observed1 which has the diameter of ,sirius or of ,jupiter1 we are sure of seeing the brilliant meteor succeeded by a great number of smaller ones4 ,if the falling stars be very numerous during one night1 it is probable that they will continue equally so during several weeks4 ,it would seem1 that in the higher regions of the atmosphere1 near that extreme limit where the centrifugal force is balanced by gravity1 there exists at regular periods a particular disposition for the production of bolides1 falling-stars1 and the ,aurora ,borealis499 799 ,ritter1 like several others1 makes a distinction between bolides mingled with falling-stars and those luminous meteors which1 enveloped in vapour and smoke1 explode with great noise1 and let fall 7chiefly in the day-time7 aerolites4 ,the latter certainly do not belong to our atmosphere47 ,does the periodical recurrence of this great phenomenon depend upon the state of the atmosphere8 or upon something which the atmosphere receives from without1 while the earth advances in the ecliptic8 ,of all this we are still as ignorant as mankind were in the days of ,anaxagoras4 ,with respect to the falling-stars themselves1 it appears to me1 from my own experience1 that they are more frequent in the equinoctial regions than in the temperate zone2 and more frequent above continents1 and near certain coasts1 than in the middle of the ocean4 ,do the radiation of the surface of the globe1 and the electric charge of the lower regions of the atmosphere 7which varies according to the nature of the soil and the positions of the continents and seas71 exert their influence as far as those heights where eternal winter reigns8 ,the total absence of even the smallest clouds1 at certain seasons1 or above some barren plains destitute of vegetation1 seems to prove that this influence can be felt as far as five or six thousand toises high4 ,a phenomenon analogous to that which appeared on the #abth of ,november at ,cumana1 was observed thirty years previously on the table-land of the ,andes1 in a country studded with volcanoes4 ,in the city of ,quito there was seen in one part of the sky1 above the volcano of ,cayamba1 such great numbers of falling-stars1 that the mountain was thought to be in flames4 ,this singular sight lasted more than an hour4 ,the people assembled in the plain of ,exido1 which commands a magnificent view of the highest summits of the ,cordilleras4 ,a procession was on the point of setting out from the convent of ,san ,francisco1 when it was perceived that the blaze on the horizon was caused by fiery meteors1 which ran along the skies in all directions1 at the altitude of twelve or thirteen degrees4 ,,chapter #a4aa4 ,,passage ,,from ,,cumana ,,to ,,la ,,guayra4 ,,morro ,,of ,,nueva ,,barcelona4 ,,cape ,,codera4 ,,road ,,from ,,la ,,guayra ,,to ,,caracas4 ,on the #afth of ,november1 at eight in the evening1 we were under sail to proceed along the coast from ,cumana to the port of ,la ,guayra1 whence the inhabitants of the province of ,venezuela export the greater part of their produce4 ,the passage is only a distance of sixty leagues1 and it usually occupies from thirty-six to forty hours4 ,the little coasting vessels are favoured at once by the wind and by the currents1 which run with more or less force from east to west1 along the coasts of ,terra ,firma1 particularly from cape ,paria to the cape of ,chichibacoa4 ,the road by land from ,cumana to ,new ,barcelona1 and thence to ,caracas1 is nearly in the same state as that in which it was before the discovery of ,america4 ,the traveller has to contend with the obstacles presented by a miry soil1 large scattered rocks1 and strong vegetation4 ,he must sleep in the open air1 pass through the valleys of the ,unare1 the ,tuy1 and the ,capaya1 and cross torrents which swell rapidly on account of the proximity of the mountains4 ,to these obstacles must be added the dangers arising from the extreme insalubrity of the country4 ,the very low lands1 between the sea-shore and the chain of hills nearest the coast1 from the bay of ,mochima as far as ,coro1 are extremely unhealthy4 ,but the last-mentioned town1 which is surrounded by an immense wood of thorny cactuses1 owes its great salubrity1 like ,cumana1 to its barren soil and the absence of rain4 ,in returning from ,caracas to ,cumana1 the road by land is sometimes preferred to the passage by sea1 to avoid the adverse current4 ,the postman from ,caracas is nine days in performing this journey4 ,we often saw persons1 who had followed him1 arrive at ,cumana ill of nervous and miasmatic fevers4 ,the tree of which the bark99 furnishes a salutary remedy for those fevers 799 ,cortex ,angosturae of our pharmacopaeias1 the bark of the ,bonplandia trifoliata471 grows in the same valleys1 and upon the edge of the same forests which send forth the pernicious exhalations4 ,m4 ,bonpland recognised the cuspare in the vegetation of the gulf of ,santa ,fe1 situated between the ports of ,cumana and ,barcelona4 ,the sickly traveller may perchance repose in a cottage1 the inhabitants of which are ignorant of the febrifuge qualities of the trees that shade the surrounding valleys4 ,having proceeded by sea from ,cumana to ,la ,guayra1 we intended to take up our abode in the town of ,caracas1 till the end of the rainy season4 ,from ,caracas we proposed to direct our course across the great plains or llanos1 to the ,missions of the ,orinoco2 to go up that vast river1 to the south of the cataracts1 as far as the ,rio ,negro and the frontiers of ,brazil2 and thence to return to ,cumana by the capital of ,spanish ,guiana1 commonly called1 on account of its situation1 ,angostura1 or the ,strait4 ,we could not determine the time we might require to accomplish a tour of seven hundred leagues1 more than two-thirds of that distance having to be traversed in boats4 ,the only parts of the ,orinoco known on the coasts are those near its mouth4 ,no commercial intercourse is kept up with the ,missions4 ,the whole of the country beyond the llanos is unknown to the inhabitants of ,cumana and ,caracas4 ,some think that the plains of ,calabozo1 covered with turf1 stretch eight hundred leagues southward1 communicating with the ,steppes or ,pampas of ,buenos ,ayres2 others1 recalling to mind the great mortality which prevailed among the troops of ,iturriaga and ,solano1 during their expedition to the ,orinoco1 consider the whole country1 south of the cataracts of ,atures1 as extremely pernicious to health4 ,in a region where travelling is so uncommon1 people seem to feel a pleasure in exaggerating to strangers the difficulties arising from the climate1 the wild animals1 and the ,indians4 ,nevertheless we persisted in the project we had formed4 ,we could rely upon the interest and solicitude of the governor of ,cumana1 ,don ,vicente ,emparan1 as well as on the recommendations of the ,franciscan monks1 who are in reality masters of the shores of the ,orinoco4 ,fortunately for us1 one of those monks1 ,juan ,gonzales1 was at that time in ,cumana4 ,this young monk1 who was only a lay-brother1 was highly intelligent1 and full of spirit and courage4 ,he had the misfortune shortly after his arrival on the coast to displease his superiors1 upon the election of a new director of the ,missions of ,piritu1 which is a period of great agitation in the convent of ,new ,barcelona4 ,the triumphant party exercised a general retaliation1 from which the lay-brother could not escape4 ,he was sent to ,esmeralda1 the last ,mission of the ,upper ,orinoco1 famous for the vast quantity of noxious insects with which the air is continually filled4 ,fray ,juan ,gonzales was thoroughly acquainted with the forests which extend from the cataracts towards the sources of the ,orinoco4 ,another revolution in the republican government of the monks had some years before brought him to the coast1 where he enjoyed 7and most justly7 the esteem of his superiors4 ,he confirmed us in our desire of examining the much-disputed bifurcation of the ,orinoco4 ,he gave us useful advice for the preservation of our health1 in climates where he had himself suffered long from intermitting fevers4 ,we had the satisfaction of finding ,fray ,juan ,gonzales at ,new ,barcelona1 on our return from the ,rio ,negro4 ,intending to go from the ,havannah to ,cadiz1 he obligingly offered to take charge of part of our herbals1 and our insects of the ,orinoco2 but these collections were unfortunately lost with himself at sea4 ,this excellent young man1 who was much attached to us1 and whose zeal and courage might have rendered him very serviceable to the missions of his order1 perished in a storm on the coast of ,africa1 in #ahja4 ,the boat which conveyed us from ,cumana to ,la ,guayra1 was one of those employed in trading between the coasts and the ,west ,india ,islands4 ,they are thirty feet long1 and not more than three feet high at the gunwale2 they have no decks1 and their burthen is generally from two hundred to two hundred and fifty quintals4 ,although the sea is extremely rough from ,cape ,codera to ,la ,guayra1 and although the boats have an enormous triangular sail1 somewhat dangerous in those gusts which issue from the mountain-passes1 no instance has occurred during thirty years1 of one of these boats being lost in the passage from ,cumana to the coast of ,caracas4 ,the skill of the ,guaiqueria pilots is so great1 that accidents are very rare1 even in the frequent trips they make from ,cumana to ,guadaloupe1 or the ,danish islands1 which are surrounded with breakers4 ,these voyages of #abj or #aej leagues1 in an open sea1 out of sight of land1 are performed in boats without decks1 like those of the ancients1 without observations of the meridian altitude of the sun1 without charts1 and generally without a compass4 ,the ,indian pilot directs his course at night by the pole-star1 and in the daytime by the sun and the wind4 ,i have seen ,guaiqueries and pilots of the ,zambo caste1 who could find the pole-star by the direction of the pointers alpha and beta of the ,great ,bear1 and they seemed to me to steer less from the view of the pole-star itself1 than from the line drawn through these stars4 ,it is surprising1 that at the first sight of land1 they can find the island of ,guadaloupe1 ,santa ,cruz1 or ,porto ,rico2 but the compensation of the errors of their course is not always equally fortunate4 ,the boats1 if they fall to leeward in making land1 beat up with great difficulty to the eastward1 against the wind and the current4 ,we descended rapidly the little river ,manzanares1 the windings of which are marked by cocoa-trees1 as the rivers of ,europe are sometimes bordered by poplars and old willows4 ,on the adjacent arid land1 the thorny bushes1 on which by day nothing is visible but dust1 glitter during the night with thousands of luminous sparks4 ,the number of phosphorescent insects augments in the stormy season4 ,the traveller in the equinoctial regions is never weary of admiring the effect of those reddish and moveable fires1 which1 being reflected by limpid water1 blend their radiance with that of the starry vault of heaven4 ,we quitted the shore of ,cumana as if it had long been our home4 ,this was the first land we had trodden in a zone1 towards which my thoughts had been directed from earliest youth4 ,there is a powerful charm in the impression produced by the scenery and climate of these regions2 and after an abode of a few months we seemed to have lived there during a long succession of years4 ,in ,europe1 the inhabitant of the north feels an almost similar emotion1 when he quits even after a short abode the shores of the ,bay of ,naples1 the delicious country between ,tivoli and the lake of ,nemi1 or the wild and majestic scenery of the ,upper ,alps and the ,pyrenees4 ,yet everywhere in the temperate zone1 the effects of vegetable physiognomy afford little contrast4 ,the firs and the oaks which crown the mountains of ,sweden have a certain family air in common with those which adorn ,greece and ,italy4 ,between the tropics1 on the contrary1 in the lower regions of both ,indies1 everything in nature appears new and marvellous4 ,in the open plains and amid the gloom of forests1 almost all the remembrances of ,europe are effaced2 for it is vegetation that determines the character of a landscape1 and acts upon the imagination by its mass1 the contrast of its forms1 and the glow of its colours4 ,in proportion as impressions are powerful and new1 they weaken antecedent impressions1 and their force imparts to them the character of duration4 ,i appeal to those who1 more sensible to the beauties of nature than to the charms of society1 have long resided in the torrid zone4 ,how dear1 how memorable during life1 is the land on which they first disembarked6 ,a vague desire to revisit that spot remains rooted in their minds to the most advanced age4 ,cumana and its dusty soil are still more frequently present to my imagination1 than all the wonders of the ,cordilleras4 ,beneath the bright sky of the south1 the light1 and the magic of the aerial hues1 embellish a land almost destitute of vegetation4 ,the sun does not merely enlighten1 it colours the objects1 and wraps them in a thin vapour1 which1 without changing the transparency of the air1 renders its tints more harmonious1 softens the effects of the light1 and diffuses over nature a placid calm1 which is reflected in our souls4 ,to explain this vivid impression which the aspect of the scenery in the two ,indies produces1 even on coasts but thinly wooded1 it is sufficient to recollect that the beauty of the sky augments from ,naples to the equator1 almost as much as from ,provence to the south of ,italy4 ,we passed at high water the bar formed at the mouth of the little river ,manzanares4 ,the evening breeze gently swelled the waves in the gulf of ,cariaco4 ,the moon had not risen1 but that part of the milky way which extends from the feet of the ,centaur towards the constellation of ,sagittarius1 seemed to pour a silvery light over the surface of the ocean4 ,the white rock1 crowned by the castle of ,san ,antonio1 appeared from time to time between the high tops of the cocoa-trees which border the shore2 and we soon recognized the coasts only by the scattered lights of the ,guaiqueria fishermen4 ,we sailed at first to north-north-west1 approaching the peninsula of ,araya2 we then ran thirty miles to west and west-south-west4 ,as we advanced towards the shoal that surrounds ,cape ,arenas and stretches as far as the petroleum springs of ,maniquarez1 we enjoyed one of those varied sights which the great phosphorescence of the sea so often displays in those climates4 ,bands of porpoises followed our bark4 ,fifteen or sixteen of these animals swam at equal distances from each other4 ,when turning on their backs1 they struck the surface of the water with their broad tails2 they diffused a brilliant light1 which seemed like flames issuing from the depth of the ocean499 799 ,see ,views of ,nature ,bohn's edition page #bdf47 ,each band of porpoises1 ploughing the surface of the waters1 left behind it a track of light1 the more striking as the rest of the sea was not phosphorescent4 ,as the motion of an oar1 and the track of the bark1 produced on that night but feeble sparks1 it is natural to suppose that the vivid phosphorescence caused by the porpoises was owing not only to the stroke of their tails1 but also to the gelatinous matter that envelopes their bodies1 and is detached by the shock of the waves4 ,we found ourselves at midnight between some barren and rocky islands1 which uprise like bastions in the middle of the sea1 and form the group of the ,caracas and ,chimanas499 799 ,there are three of the ,caracas islands and eight of the ,chimanas47 ,the moon was above the horizon1 and lighted up these cleft rocks which are bare of vegetation and of fantastic aspect4 ,the sea here forms a sort of bay1 a slight inward curve of the land between ,cumana and ,cape ,codera4 ,the islets of ,picua1 ,picuita1 ,caracas1 and ,boracha1 appear like fragments of the ancient coast1 which stretches from ,bordones in the same direction east and west4 ,the gulfs of ,mochima and ,santa ,fe1 which will no doubt one day become frequented ports1 lie behind those little islands4 ,the rents in the land1 the fracture and dip of the strata1 all here denote the effects of a great revolution3 possibly that which clove asunder the chain of the primitive mountains1 and separated the mica-schist of ,araya and the island of ,margareta from the gneiss of ,cape ,codera4 ,several of the islands are visible at ,cumana1 from the terraces of the houses1 and they produce1 according to the superposition of layers of air more or less heated1 the most singular effects of suspension and mirage4 ,the height of the rocks does not probably exceed one hundred and fifty toises2 but at night1 when lighted by the moon1 they seem to be of a very considerable elevation4 ,it may appear extraordinary1 to find the ,caracas ,islands so distant from the city of that name1 opposite the coast of the ,cumanagotos2 but the denomination of ,caracas denoted at the beginning of the ,conquest1 not a particular spot1 but a tribe of ,indians1 neighbours of the ,tecs1 the ,taramaynas1 and the ,chagaragates4 ,as we came very near this group of mountainous islands1 we were becalmed2 and at sunrise1 small currents drifted us toward ,boracha1 the largest of them4 ,as the rocks rise nearly perpendicular1 the shore is abrupt2 and in a subsequent voyage ,i saw frigates at anchor almost touching the land4 ,the temperature of the atmosphere became sensibly higher whilst we were sailing among the islands of this little archipelago4 ,the rocks1 heated during the day1 throw out at night1 by radiation1 a part of the heat absorbed4 ,as the sun arose on the horizon1 the rugged mountains projected their vast shadows on the surface of the ocean4 ,the flamingoes began to fish in places where they found in a creek calcareous rocks bordered by a narrow beach4 ,all these islands are now entirely uninhabited2 but upon one of the ,caracas are found wild goats of large size1 brown1 and extremely swift4 ,our ,indian pilot assured us that their flesh has an excellent flavour4 ,thirty years ago a family of whites settled on this island1 where they cultivated maize and cassava4 ,the father alone survived his children4 ,as his wealth increased1 he purchased two black slaves2 and by these slaves he was murdered4 ,the goats became wild1 but the cultivated plants perished4 ,maize in ,america1 like wheat in ,europe1 connected with man since his first migrations1 appears to be preserved only by his care4 ,we sometimes see these nutritive gramina disseminate themselves2 but when left to nature the birds prevent their reproduction by destroying the seeds4 ,we anchored for some hours in the road of ,new ,barcelona1 at the mouth of the river ,neveri1 of which the ,indian 7,cumanagoto7 name is ,enipiricuar4 ,this river is full of crocodiles1 which sometimes extend their excursions into the open sea1 especially in calm weather4 ,they are of the species common in the ,orinoco1 and bear so much resemblance to the crocodile of ,egypt1 that they have long been confounded together4 ,it may easily be conceived that an animal1 the body of which is surrounded with a kind of armour1 must be nearly indifferent to the saltness of the water4 ,pigafetta relates in his journal recently published at ,milan that he saw1 on the shores of the island of ,borneo1 crocodiles which inhabit alike land and sea4 ,these facts must be interesting to geologists1 since attention has been fixed on the fresh-water formations1 and the curious mixture of marine and fluviatile petrifactions sometimes observed in certain very recent rocks4 ,the port of ,barcelona has maintained a very active commerce since #agie4 ,from ,barcelona is exported most of the produce of those vast steppes which extend from the south side of the chain of the coast as far as the ,orinoco1 and in which cattle of every kind are almost as abundant as in the ,pampas of ,buenos ,ayres4 ,the commercial industry of these countries depends on the demand in the ,west ,india ,islands for salted provision1 oxen1 mules1 and horses4 ,the coasts of ,terra ,firma being opposite to the island of ,cuba1 at a distance of fifteen or eighteen days' sail1 the merchants of the ,havannah prefer1 especially in time of peace1 obtaining their provision from the port of ,barcelona1 to the risk of a long voyage in another hemisphere to the mouth of the ,rio de la ,plata4 ,the situation of ,barcelona is singularly advantageous for the trade in cattle4 ,the animals have only three days' journey from the llanos to the port1 while it requires eight or nine days to reach ,cumana1 on account of the chain of mountains of the ,brigantine and the ,imposible4 ,having landed on the right bank of the ,neveri1 we ascended to a little fort called ,el ,morro de ,barcelona1 situated at the elevation of sixty or seventy toises above the level of the sea4 ,the ,morro is a calcareous rock which has been lately fortified4 ,the view from the summit of the ,morro is not without beauty4 ,the rocky island of ,boracha lies on the east1 the lofty promontory of ,unare is on the west1 and below are seen the mouth of the river ,neveri1 and the arid shores on which the crocodiles come to sleep in the sun4 ,notwithstanding the extreme heat of the air1 for the thermometer1 exposed to the reflection of the white calcareous rock1 rose to #ch degrees1 we traversed the whole of the eminence4 ,a fortunate chance led us to observe some very curious geological phenomena1 which we again met with in the ,cordilleras of ,mexico4 ,the limestone of ,barcelona has a dull1 even1 or conchoidal fracture1 with very flat cavities4 ,it is divided into very thin strata1 and exhibits less analogy with the limestone of ,cumanacoa1 than with that of ,caripe1 forming the cavern of the ,guacharo4 ,it is traversed by banks of schistose jasper199 7,kieselschiefer of ,werner4 799 black1 with a conchoidal fracture1 and breaking into fragments of a parallelopipedal figure4 ,this fossil does not exhibit those little streaks of quartz so common in the ,lydian stone4 ,it is found decomposed at its surface into a yellowish grey crust1 and it does not act upon the magnet4 ,its edges1 a little translucid1 give it some resemblance to the hornstone1 so common in secondary limestones499 799 ,in ,switzerland1 the hornstone passing into common jasper is found in kidney-stones1 and in layers both in the ,alpine and ,jura limestone1 especially in the former47 ,it is remarkable that we find the schistose jasper which in ,europe characterizes the transition rocks199 7,the transition-limestone and schist47 in a limestone having great analogy with that of ,jura4 ,in the study of formations1 which is the great end of geognosy1 the knowledge acquired in the old and new worlds should be made to furnish reciprocal aid to each other4 ,it appears that these black strata are found also in the calcareous mountains of the island of ,boracha499 799 ,we saw some of it as ballast1 in a fishing boat at ,punta ,araya4 ,its fragments might have been mistaken for basalt47 ,another jasper1 that known by the name of the ,egyptian pebble1 was found by ,m4 ,bonpland near the ,indian village of ,curacatiche or ,curacaguitiche1 fifteen leagues south of the ,morro of ,barcelona1 when1 on our return from the ,orinoco1 we crossed the llanos1 and approached the mountains on the coast4 ,this stone presented yellowish concentric lines and bands1 on a reddish brown ground4 ,it appeared to me that the round pieces of ,egyptian jasper belonged also to the ,barcelona limestone4 ,yet1 according to ,m4 ,cordier1 the fine pebbles of ,suez owe their origin to a breccia formation1 or siliceous agglomerate4 ,at the moment of our setting sail1 on the #aith of ,november1 at noon1 ,i took some altitudes of the moon1 to determine the longitude of the ,morro4 ,the difference of meridian between ,cumana and the town of ,barcelona1 where ,i made a great number of astronomical observations in #ahjj1 is #cd minutes #dh seconds4 ,i found the dip of the needle #db4bj degrees3 the intensity of the forces was equal to #bbd oscillations4 ,from the ,morro of ,barcelona to ,cape ,codera1 the land becomes low1 as it recedes southward2 and the soundings extend to the distance of three miles4 ,beyond this we find the bottom at forty-five or fifty fathoms4 ,the temperature of the sea at its surface was #be4i degrees2 but when we were passing through the narrow channel which separates the two ,piritu ,islands1 in three fathoms water1 the thermometer was only #bd4e degrees4 ,the difference would perhaps be greater1 if the current1 which runs rapidly westward1 stirred up deeper water2 and if1 in a pass of such small width1 the land did not contribute to raise the temperature of the sea4 ,the ,piritu ,islands resemble those shoals which become visible when the tide falls4 ,they do not rise more than eight or nine inches above the mean height of the sea4 ,their surface is smooth1 and covered with grass4 ,we might have thought we were gazing on some of our own northern meadows4 ,the disk of the setting sun appeared like a globe of fire suspended over the savannah2 and its last rays1 as they swept the earth1 illumined the grass1 which was at the same time agitated by the evening breeze4 ,in the low and humid parts of the equinoctial zone1 even when the gramineous plants and reeds present the aspect of a meadow1 a rich accessory of the picture is usually wanting2 ,i allude to that variety of wild flowers1 which1 scarcely rising above the grass1 seem as it were1 to lie upon a smooth bed of verdure4 ,within the tropics1 the strength and luxury of vegetation give such a development to plants1 that the smallest of the dicotyledonous family become shrubs4 ,it would seem as if the liliaceous plants1 mingling with the gramina1 assumed the place of the flowers of our meadows4 ,their form is indeed striking2 they dazzle by the variety and splendour of their colours2 but being too high above the soil1 they disturb that harmonious proportion which characterizes the plants of our ,european meadows4 ,nature has in every zone stamped on the landscape the peculiar type of beauty proper to the locality4 ,we must not be surprised that fertile islands1 so near ,terra ,firma1 are not now inhabited4 ,it was only at the early period of the discovery1 and whilst the ,caribbees1 ,chaymas1 and ,cumanagotos were still masters of the coast1 that the ,spaniards formed settlements at ,cubagua and ,margareta4 ,when the natives were subdued1 or driven southward in the direction of the savannahs1 the preference was given to settlements on the continent1 where there was a choice of land1 and where there were ,indians1 who might be treated like beasts of burden4 ,had the little islands of ,tortuga1 ,blanquilla1 and ,orchilla been situated in the group of the ,antilles1 they would not have remained without traces of cultivation4 ,vessels of heavy burthen pass between the main land and the most southern of the ,piritu ,islands4 ,being very low1 their northern point is dreaded by pilots who near the coast in those latitudes4 ,when we found ourselves to westward of the ,morro of ,barcelona1 and the mouth of the river ,unare1 the sea1 till then calm1 became agitated and rough in proportion as we approached ,cape ,codera4 ,the influence of that vast promontory is felt from afar1 in that part of the ,caribbean ,sea4 ,the length of the passage from ,cumana to ,la ,guayra depends on the degree of ease or difficulty with which ,cape ,codera can be doubled4 ,beyond this cape the sea constantly runs so high1 that we can scarcely believe we are near a coast where 7from the point of ,paria as far as ,cape ,san ,roman7 a gale of wind is never known4 ,on the #bjth of ,november at sunrise we were so far advanced1 that we might expect to double the cape in a few hours4 ,we hoped to reach ,la ,guayra the same day2 but our ,indian pilot being afraid of the privateers who were near that port1 thought it would be prudent to make for land1 and anchor in the little harbour of ,higuerote1 which we had already passed1 and await the shelter of night to proceed on our voyage4 ,on the #bjth of ,november at nine in the morning we were at anchor in the bay just mentioned1 situated westward of the mouth of the ,rio ,capaya4 ,we found there neither village nor farm1 but merely two or three huts1 inhabited by ,mestizo fishermen4 ,their livid hue1 and the meagre condition of their children1 sufficed to remind us that this spot is one of the most unhealthy of the whole coast4 ,the sea has so little depth along these shores1 that even with the smallest barks it is impossible to reach the shore without wading through the water4 ,the forests come down nearly to the beach1 which is covered with thickets of mangroves1 avicennias1 manchineel-trees1 and that species of suriana which the natives call romero de la mar499 799 ,suriana maritima47 ,to these thickets1 and particularly to the exhalations of the mangroves1 the extreme insalubrity of the air is attributed here1 as in other places in both ,indies4 ,on quitting the boats1 and whilst we were yet fifteen or twenty toises distant from land1 we perceived a faint and sickly smell1 which reminded me of that diffused through the galleries of deserted mines1 where the lights begin to be extinguished1 and the timber is covered with flocculent byssus4 ,the temperature of the air rose to #cd degrees1 heated by the reverberation from the white sands which form a line between the mangroves and the great trees of the forest4 ,as the shore descends with a gentle slope1 small tides are sufficient alternately to cover and uncover the roots and part of the trunks of the mangroves4 ,it is doubtless whilst the sun heats the humid wood1 and causes the fermentation1 as it were1 of the ground1 of the remains of dead leaves and of the molluscs enveloped in the drift of floating seaweed1 that those deleterious gases are formed1 which escape our researches4 ,we observed that the sea-water1 along the whole coast1 acquired a yellowish brown tint1 wherever it came into contact with the mangrove trees4 ,struck with this phenomenon1 ,i gathered at ,higuerote a considerable quantity of branches and roots1 for the purpose of making some experiments on the infusion of the mangrove1 on my arrival at ,caracas4 ,the infusion in warm water had a brown colour and an astringent taste4 ,it contained a mixture of extractive matter and tannin4 ,the rhizophora1 the mistletoe1 the cornel-tree1 in short1 all the plants which belong to the natural families of the lorantheous and the caprifoliaceous plants1 have the same properties4 ,the infusion of mangrove-wood1 kept in contact with atmospheric air under a glass jar for twelve days1 was not sensibly deteriorated in purity4 ,a little blackish flocculent sediment was formed1 but it was attended by no sensible absorption of oxygen4 ,the wood and roots of the mangrove placed under water were exposed to the rays of the sun4 ,i tried to imitate the daily operations of nature on the coasts at the rise of the tide4 ,bubbles of air were disengaged1 and at the expiration of ten days they formed a volume of thirty-three cubic inches4 ,they were a mixture of azotic gas and carbonic acid4 ,nitrous gas scarcely indicated the presence of oxygen499 799 ,in a hundred parts there were eighty-four of nitrogen1 fifteen of carbonic acid gas that the water had not absorbed1 and one of oxygen47 ,lastly1 ,i set the wood and the roots of the mangrove thoroughly wetted1 to act on a given volume of atmospheric air in a phial with a ground-glass stopple4 ,the whole of the oxygen disappeared2 and1 far from being superseded by carbonic acid1 lime-water indicated only #j4jb4 ,there was even a diminution of the volume of air1 more than correspondent with the oxygen absorbed4 ,these slight experiments led me to conclude that it is the moistened bark and wood which act upon the atmosphere in the forests of mangrove-trees1 and not the water strongly tinged with yellow1 forming a distinct band along the coasts4 ,in pursuing the different stages of the decomposition of the ligneous matter1 ,i observed no appearance of a disengagement of sulphuretted hydrogen1 to which many travellers attribute the smell perceived amidst mangroves4 ,the decomposition of the earthy and alkaline sulphates1 and their transition to the state of sulphurets1 may no doubt favour this disengagement in many littoral and marine plants2 for instance1 in the fuci3 but ,i am rather inclined to think that the rhizophora1 the avicennia1 and the conocarpus1 augment the insalubrity of the air by the animal matter which they contain conjointly with tannin4 ,these shrubs belong to the three natural families of the ,lorantheae1 the ,combretaceae1 and the ,pyrenaceae1 in which the astringent principle abounds2 this principle accompanies gelatin1 even in the bark of beech1 alder1 and nut-trees4 ,moreover1 a thick wood spreading over marshy grounds would diffuse noxious exhalations in the atmosphere1 even though that wood were composed of trees possessing in themselves no deleterious properties4 ,wherever mangroves grow on the sea-shore1 the beach is covered with infinite numbers of molluscs and insects4 ,these animals love shade and faint light1 and they find themselves sheltered from the shock of the waves amid the scaffolding of thick and intertwining roots1 which rises like lattice-work above the surface of the waters4 ,shell-fish cling to this lattice2 crabs nestle in the hollow trunks2 and the seaweeds1 drifted to the coast by the winds and tides1 remain suspended on the branches which incline towards the earth4 ,thus1 maritime forests1 by the accumulation of a slimy mud between the roots of the trees1 increase the extent of land4 ,but whilst these forests gain on the sea1 they do not enlarge their own dimensions2 on the contrary1 their progress is the cause of their destruction4 ,mangroves1 and other plants with which they live constantly in society1 perish in proportion as the ground dries and they are no longer bathed with salt water4 ,their old trunks1 covered with shells1 and half-buried in the sand1 denote1 after the lapse of ages1 the path they have followed in their migrations1 and the limits of the land which they have wrested from the ocean4 ,the bay of ,higuerote is favourably situated for examining ,cape ,codera1 which is there seen in its full extent seven miles distant4 ,this promontory is more remarkable for its size than for its elevation1 being only about two hundred toises high4 ,it is perpendicular on the north-west and east4 ,in these grand profiles the dip of the strata appears to be distinguishable4 ,judging from the fragments of rock found along the coast1 and from the hills near ,higuerote1 ,cape ,codera is not composed of granite with a granular texture1 but of a real gneiss with a foliated texture4 ,its laminae are very broad and sometimes sinuous499 799 ,dickflasriger gneiss47 ,they contain large nodules of reddish feldspar and but little quartz4 ,the mica is found in superposed lamellae1 not isolated4 ,the strata nearest the bay were in the direction of #fj degrees north-east1 and dipped #hj degrees to north-west4 ,these relations of direction and of dip are the same at the great mountain of the ,silla1 near ,caracas1 and to the east of ,maniquarez1 in the isthmus of ,araya4 ,they seem to prove that the primitive chain of that isthmus1 after having been ruptured or swallowed up by the sea along a space of thirty-five leagues199 799 ,between the meridians of ,maniquarez and ,higuerote47 appears anew in ,cape ,codera1 and continues westward as a chain of the coast4 ,i was assured that1 in the interior of the earth1 south of ,higuerote1 limestone formations are found4 ,the gneiss did not act upon the magnetic needle2 yet along the coast1 which forms a cove near ,cape ,codera1 and which is covered with a fine forest1 ,i saw magnetic sand mixed with spangles of mica1 deposited by the sea4 ,this phenomenon occurs again near the port of ,la ,guayra4 ,possibly it may denote the existence of some strata of hornblende-schist covered by the waters1 in which schist the sand is disseminated4 ,cape ,codera forms on the north an immense spherical segment4 ,a shallow which stretches along its foot is known to navigators by the name of the points of ,tutumo and of ,san ,francisco4 ,the road by land from ,higuerote to ,caracas1 runs through a wild and humid tract of country1 by the ,montana of ,capaya1 north of ,caucagua1 and the valley of ,rio ,guatira and ,guarenas4 ,some of our fellow-travellers determined on taking this road1 and ,m4 ,bonpland also preferred it1 notwithstanding the continual rains and the overflowing of the rivers4 ,it afforded him the opportunity of making a rich collection of new plants499 799 ,bauhinia ferruginea1 ,brownea racemosa1 ,b ed4 ,inga hymenaeifolia1 ,i4 curiepensis 7which ,willdenouw has called by mistake ,i4 caripensis71 etc47 ,for my part1 ,i continued alone with the ,guaiqueria pilot the voyage by sea2 for ,i thought it hazardous to lose sight of the instruments which we were to make use of on the banks of the ,orinoco4 ,we set sail at night-fall4 ,the wind was unfavourable1 and we doubled ,cape ,codera with difficulty4 ,the surges were short1 and often broke one upon another4 ,the sea ran the higher1 owing to the wind being contrary to the current1 till after midnight4 ,the general motion of the waters within the tropics towards the west is felt strongly on the coast during two-thirds of the year4 ,in the months of ,september1 ,october1 and ,november1 the current often flows eastward for fifteen or twenty days in succession2 and vessels on their way from ,guayra to ,porto ,cabello have sometimes been unable to stem the current which runs from west to east1 although they have had the wind astern4 ,the cause of these anomalies is not yet discovered4 ,the pilots think they are the effect of gales of wind from the north-west in the gulf of ,mexico4 ,on the #bast of ,november1 at sunrise1 we were to the west of ,cape ,codera1 opposite ,curuao4 ,the coast is rocky and very elevated1 the scenery at once wild and picturesque4 ,we were sufficiently near land to distinguish scattered huts surrounded by cocoa-trees1 and masses of vegetation1 which stood out from the dark ground of the rocks4 ,the mountains are everywhere perpendicular1 and three or four thousand feet high2 their sides cast broad and deep shadows upon the humid land1 which stretches out to the sea1 glowing with the freshest verdure4 ,this shore produces most of those fruits of the hot regions1 which are seen in such great abundance in the markets of the ,caracas4 ,the fields cultivated with sugar-cane and maize1 between ,camburi and ,niguatar1 stretch through narrow valleys1 looking like crevices or clefts in the rocks3 and penetrated by the rays of the sun1 then above the horizon1 they presented the most singular contrasts of light and shade4 ,the mountain of ,niguatar and the ,silla of ,caracas are the loftiest summits of this littoral chain4 ,the first almost reaches the height of ,canigou2 it seems as if the ,pyrenees or the ,alps1 stripped of their snows1 had risen from the bosom of the ocean2 so much more stupendous do mountains appear when viewed for the first time from the sea4 ,near ,caravalleda1 the cultivated lands enlarge2 we find hills with gentle declivities1 and the vegetation rises to a great height4 ,the sugar-cane is here cultivated1 and the monks of ,la ,merced have a plantation with two hundred slaves4 ,this spot was formerly extremely subject to fever2 and it is said that the air has acquired salubrity since trees have been planted round a small lake1 the emanations of which were dreaded1 and which is now less exposed to the ardour of the sun4 ,to the west of ,caravalleda1 a wall of bare rock again projects forward in the direction of the sea1 but it has little extent4 ,after having passed it1 we immediately discovered the pleasantly situated village of ,macuto2 the black rocks of ,la ,guayra1 studded with batteries rising in tiers one over another1 and in the misty distance1 ,cabo ,blanco1 a long promontory with conical summits1 and of dazzling whiteness4 ,cocoa-trees border the shore1 and give it1 under that burning sky1 an appearance of fertility4 ,i landed in the port of ,la ,guayra1 and the same evening made preparations for transporting my instruments to ,caracas4 ,having been recommended not to sleep in the town1 where the yellow fever had been raging only a few weeks previously1 ,i fixed my lodging in a house on a little hill1 above the village of ,maiquetia1 a place more exposed to fresh winds than ,la ,guayra4 ,i reached ,caracas on the #bast of ,november1 four days sooner than ,m4 ,bonpland1 who1 with the other travellers on the land journey1 had suffered greatly from the rain and the inundations of the torrents1 between ,capaya and ,curiepe4 ,before proceeding further1 ,i will here subjoin a description of ,la ,guayra1 and the extraordinary road which leads from thence to the town of ,caracas1 adding thereto all the observations made by ,m4 ,bonpland and myself1 in an excursion to ,cabo ,blanco about the end of ,january #ahjj4 ,la ,guayra is rather a roadstead than a port4 ,the sea is constantly agitated1 and ships suffer at once by the violence of the wind1 the tideways1 and the bad anchorage4 ,the lading is taken in with difficulty1 and the swell prevents the embarkation of mules here1 as at ,new ,barcelona and ,porto ,cabello4 ,the free mulattoes and negroes1 who carry the cacao on board the ships1 are a class of men remarkable for muscular strength4 ,they wade up to their waists through the water2 and it is remarkable that they are never attacked by the sharks1 so common in this harbour4 ,this fact seems connected with what ,i have often observed within the tropics1 with respect to other classes of animals which live in society1 for instance monkeys and crocodiles4 ,in the ,missions of the ,orinoco1 and on the banks of the river ,amazon1 the ,indians1 who catch monkeys to sell them1 know very well that they can easily succeed in taming those which inhabit certain islands2 while monkeys of the same species1 caught on the neighbouring continent1 die of terror or rage when they find themselves in the power of man4 ,the crocodiles of one lake in the llanos are cowardly1 and flee even when in the water2 whilst those of another lake will attack with extreme intrepidity4 ,it would be difficult to explain this difference of disposition and habits1 by the mere aspect of the respective localities4 ,the sharks of the port of ,la ,guayra seem to furnish an analogous example4 ,they are dangerous and blood-thirsty at the island opposite the coast of ,caracas1 at the ,roques1 at ,bonayre1 and at ,curassao2 while they forbear to attack persons swimming in the ports of ,la ,guayra and ,santa ,martha4 ,the natives1 who like the ignorant mass of people in every country1 in seeking the explanation of natural phenomena1 always have recourse to the marvellous1 affirm that in the ports just mentioned1 a bishop gave his benediction to the sharks4 ,the situation of ,la ,guayra is very singular1 and can only be compared to that of ,santa ,cruz in ,teneriffe4 ,the chain of mountains which separates the port from the high valley of ,caracas1 descends almost directly into the sea2 and the houses of the town are backed by a wall of steep rocks4 ,there scarcely remains one hundred or one hundred and forty toises breadth of flat ground between the wall and the ocean4 ,the town has six or eight thousand inhabitants1 and contains only two streets1 running parallel with each other east and west4 ,it is commanded by the battery of ,cerro ,colorado2 and its fortifications along the sea-shore are well disposed1 and kept in repair4 ,the aspect of this place has in it something solitary and gloomy2 we seemed not to be on a continent1 covered with vast forests1 but on a rocky island1 destitute of vegetation4 ,with the exception of ,cabo ,blanco and the cocoa-trees of ,maiquetia1 no view meets the eye but that of the horizon1 the sea1 and the azure vault of heaven4 ,the heat is excessive during the day1 and most frequently during the night4 ,the climate of ,la ,guayra is justly considered to be hotter than that of ,cumana1 ,porto ,cabello1 and ,coro1 because the sea-breeze is less felt1 and the air is heated by the radiant caloric which the perpendicular rocks emit from the time the sun sets4 ,the examination of the thermometric observations made during nine months at ,la ,guayra by an eminent physician1 enabled me to compare the climate of this port1 with those of ,cumana1 of the ,havannah1 and of ,vera ,cruz4 ,this comparison is the more interesting1 as it furnishes an inexhaustible subject of conversation in the ,spanish colonies1 and among the mariners who frequent those latitudes4 ,as nothing is more deceiving in such matters than the testimony of the senses1 we can judge of the difference of climates only by numerical calculations4 ,the four places of which we have been speaking are considered as the hottest on the shores of the ,new ,world4 ,a comparison of them may serve to confirm what we have several times observed1 that it is generally the duration of a high temperature1 and not the excess of heat1 or its absolute quantity1 which occasions the sufferings of the inhabitants of the torrid zone4 ,a series of thermometric observations shows1 that ,la ,guayra is one of the hottest places on the earth2 that the quantity of heat which it receives in the course of a year is a little greater than that felt at ,cumana2 but that in the months of ,november1 ,december1 and ,january 7at equal distance from the two passages of the sun through the zenith of the town71 the atmosphere cools more at ,la ,guayra4 ,may not this cooling1 much slighter than that which is felt almost at the same time at ,vera ,cruz and at the ,havannah1 be the effect of the more westerly position of ,la ,guayra8 ,the aerial ocean1 which appears to form only one mass1 is agitated by currents1 the limits of which are fixed by immutable laws2 and its temperature is variously modified by the configuration of the lands and seas by which it is sustained4 ,it may be subdivided into several basins1 which overflow into each other1 and of which the most agitated 7for instance1 that over the gulf of ,mexico1 or between the sierra of ,santa ,martha and the gulf of ,darien7 have a powerful influence on the refrigeration and the motion of the neighbouring columns of air4 ,the north winds sometimes cause influxes and counter-currents in the south-west part of the ,caribbean ,sea1 which seem1 during particular months1 to diminish the heat as far as ,terra ,firma4 ,at the time of my abode at ,la ,guayra1 the yellow fever1 or calentura amarilla1 had been known only two years2 and the mortality it occasioned had not been very great1 because the confluence of strangers on the coast of ,caracas was less considerable than at the ,havannah or ,vera ,cruz4 ,a few individuals1 even creoles and mulattoes1 were sometimes carried off suddenly by certain irregular remittent fevers2 which1 from being complicated with bilious appearances1 hemorrhages1 and other symptoms equally alarming1 appeared to have some analogy with the yellow fever4 ,the victims of these maladies were generally men employed in the hard labour of cutting wood in the forests1 for instance1 in the neighbourhood of the little port of ,carupano1 or the gulf of ,santa ,fe1 west of ,cumana4 ,their death often alarmed the unacclimated ,europeans1 in towns usually regarded as peculiarly healthy2 but the seeds of the sporadic malady were propagated no farther4 ,on the coast of ,terra ,firma1 the real typhus of ,america1 which is known by the names vomito prieto 7black vomit7 and yellow fever1 and which must be considered as a morbid affection sui generis1 was known only at ,porto ,cabello1 at ,carthagena1 and at ,santa ,martha1 where ,gastelbondo observed and described it in #agbi4 ,the ,spaniards recently disembarked1 and the inhabitants of the valley of ,caracas1 were not then afraid to reside at ,la ,guayra4 ,they complained only of the oppressive heat which prevailed during a great part of the year4 ,if they exposed themselves to the immediate action of the sun1 they dreaded at most only those attacks of inflammation of the skin or eyes1 which are felt everywhere in the torrid zone1 and are often accompanied by a febrile affection and congestion in the head4 ,many individuals preferred the ardent but uniform climate of ,la ,guayra to the cool but extremely variable climate of ,caracas2 and scarcely any mention was made of the insalubrity of the former port4 ,since the year #agig everything has changed4 ,commerce being thrown open to other vessels besides those of the mother country1 seamen born in colder parts of ,europe than ,spain1 and consequently more susceptible to the climate of the torrid zone1 began to frequent ,la ,guayra4 ,the yellow fever broke out4 ,north ,americans1 seized with the typhus1 were received in the ,spanish hospitals2 and it was affirmed that they had imported the contagion1 and that the disease had appeared on board a brig from ,philadelphia1 even before the vessel had entered the roads of ,la ,guayra4 ,the captain of the brig denied the fact2 and asserted that1 far from having introduced the malady1 his crew had caught it in the port4 ,we know from what happened at ,cadiz in #ahjj1 how difficult it is to elucidate facts1 when their uncertainty serves to favour theories diametrically opposite one to another4 ,the more enlightened inhabitants of ,caracas and ,la ,guayra1 divided in opinion1 like the physicians of ,europe and the ,united ,states1 on the question of the contagion of yellow fever1 cited the instance of the ,american vessel2 some for the purpose of proving that the typhus had come from abroad1 and others1 to show that it had taken birth in the country itself4 ,those who advocated the latter opinion1 admitted that an extraordinary alteration had been caused in the constitution of the atmosphere by the overflowings of the ,rio de ,la ,guayra4 ,this torrent1 which in general is not ten inches deep1 was swelled after sixty hours' rain in the mountains1 in so extraordinary a manner1 that it bore down trunks of trees and masses of rock of considerable size4 ,during this flood the waters were from thirty to forty feet in breadth1 and from eight to ten feet deep4 ,it was supposed that1 issuing from some subterranean basin1 formed by successive infiltrations1 they had flowed into the recently cleared arable lands4 ,many houses were carried away by the torrent2 and the inundation became the more dangerous for the stores1 in consequence of the gate of the town1 which could alone afford an outlet to the waters1 being accidentally closed4 ,it was necessary to make a breach in the wall on the sea-side4 ,more than thirty persons perished1 and the damage was computed at half a million of piastres4 ,the stagnant water1 which infected the stores1 the cellars1 and the dungeons of the public prison1 no doubt diffused miasms in the air1 which1 as a predisposing cause1 may have accelerated the development of the yellow fever2 but ,i believe that the inundation of the ,rio de la ,guayra was no more the primary cause1 than the overflowings of the ,guadalquivir1 the ,xenil1 and the ,gual-,medina1 were at ,seville1 at ,ecija1 and at ,malaga1 the primary causes of the fatal epidemics of #ahjj and #ahjd4 ,i examined with attention the bed of the torrent of ,la ,guayra2 and found it to consist merely of a barren soil1 blocks of mica-slate1 and gneiss1 containing pyrites detached from the ,sierra de ,avila1 but nothing that could have had any effect in deteriorating the purity of the air4 ,since the years #agig and #agih1 at which periods there prevailed dreadful mortality at ,philadelphia1 ,st4 ,lucia1 and ,st4 ,domingo1 the yellow fever has continued its ravages at ,la ,guayra4 ,it has proved fatal not only to the troops newly arrived from ,spain1 but also to those levied in parts remote from the coasts1 in the llanos between ,calabozo and ,uritucu1 regions almost as hot as ,la ,guayra1 but favourable to health4 ,this latter fact would seem more surprising1 did we not know1 that even the natives of ,vera ,cruz1 who are not attacked with typhus in their own town1 sometimes sink under it during the epidemics of the ,havannah and the ,united ,states4 ,as the black vomit finds an insurmountable barrier at the ,encero 7four hundred and seventy-six toises high71 on the declivity of the mountains of ,mexico1 in the direction of ,xalapa1 where oaks begin to appear1 and the climate begins to be cool and pleasant1 so the yellow fever scarcely ever passes beyond the ridge of mountains which separates ,la ,guayra from the valley of ,caracas4 ,this valley has been exempt from the malady for a considerable time2 for we must not confound the vomito and the yellow fever with the irregular and bilious fevers4 ,the ,cumbre and the ,cerro do ,avila form a very useful rampart to the town of ,caracas1 the elevation of which a little exceeds that of the ,encero1 but of which the mean temperature is above that of ,xalapa4 ,i have published in another work99 799 ,nouvelle ,espagne tome #b47 the observations made by ,m4 ,bonpland and myself on the locality of the towns periodically subject to the visitation of yellow fever2 and ,i shall not hazard here any new conjectures on the changes observed in the pathogenic constitution of particular localities4 ,the more ,i reflect on this subject1 the more mysterious appears to me all that relates to those gaseous emanations which we call so vaguely the seeds of contagion1 and which are supposed to be developed by a corrupted air1 destroyed by cold1 conveyed from place to place in garments1 and attached to the walls of houses4 ,how can we explain why1 for the space of eighteen years prior to #agid1 there was not a single instance of the vomito at ,vera ,cruz1 though the concourse of unacclimated ,europeans and of ,mexicans from the interior1 was very considerable2 though sailors indulged in the same excesses with which they are still reproached2 and though the town was not so clean as it has been since the year #ahjj8 ,the following is the series of pathological facts1 considered in their simplest point of view4 ,when a great number of persons1 born in a cold climate1 arrive at the same period in a port of the torrid zone1 not particularly dreaded by navigators1 the typhus of ,america begins to appear4 ,those persons have not had typhus during their passage2 it appears among them only after they have landed4 ,is the atmospheric constitution changed8 or is it that a new form of disease develops itself among individuals whose susceptibility is highly increased8 ,the typhus soon begins to extend its ravages among other ,europeans1 born in more southern countries4 ,if propagated by contagion1 it seems surprising that in the towns of the equinoctial continent it does not attach itself to certain streets2 and that immediate contact99 does not augment the danger1 any more than seclusion diminishes it4 799 ,in the oriental plague 7another form of typhus characterised by great disorder of the lymphatic system7 immediate contact is less to be feared than is generally thought4 ,larrey maintains that the tumified glands may be touched or cauterized without danger2 but he thinks we ought not to risk putting on the clothes of persons attacked with the plague4--,memoire sur les ,maladies de l',armee ,francoise en ,egypte page #ce47 ,the sick1 when removed to the inland country1 and especially to cooler and more elevated spots1 to ,xalapa1 for instance1 do not communicate typhus to the inhabitants of those places1 either because the disease is not contagious in its nature1 or because the predisposing causes are not the same as in the regions of the shore4 ,when there is a considerable lowering of the temperature1 the epidemic usually ceases1 even on the spot where it first appeared4 ,it again breaks out at the approach of the hot season1 and sometimes long before2 though during several months there may have been no sick person in the harbour1 and no ship may have entered it4 ,the typhus of ,america appears to be confined to the shore1 either because persons who bring the disease disembark there1 and goods supposed to be impregnated with deleterious miasms are there accumulated2 or because on the sea-side gaseous emanations of a particular nature are formed4 ,the aspect of the places subject to the ravages of typhus seems often to exclude all idea of a local or endemical origin4 ,it has been known to prevail in the ,canaries1 the ,bermudas1 and among the small ,west ,india ,islands1 in dry places formerly distinguished for the great salubrity of their climate4 ,examples of the propagation of the yellow fever in the inland parts of the torrid zone appear very doubtful3 that malady may have been confounded with remitting bilious fevers4 ,with respect to the temperate zone1 in which the contagious character of the ,american typhus is more decided1 the disease has unquestionably spread far from the shore1 even into very elevated places1 exposed to cool and dry winds1 as in ,spain at ,medina-,sidonia1 at ,carlotta1 and in the city of ,murcia4 ,that variety of phenomena which the same epidemic exhibits1 according to the difference of climate1 the union of predisposing causes1 its shorter or longer duration1 and the degree of its exacerbation1 should render us extremely circumspect in tracing the secret causes of the ,american typhus4 ,m4 ,bailly1 who1 at the time of the violent epidemics in #ahjb and #ahjc1 was chief physician to the colony of ,st4 ,domingo1 and who studied that disease in the island of ,cuba1 the ,united ,states1 and ,spain1 is of opinion that the typhus is very often1 but not always1 contagious4 ,since the yellow fever has made such ravages in ,la ,guayra1 exaggerated accounts have been given of the uncleanliness in that little town as well as of ,vera ,cruz1 and of the quays or wharfs of ,philadelphia4 ,in a place where the soil is extremely dry1 destitute of vegetation1 and where scarcely a few drops of water fall in the course of seven or eight months1 the causes that produce what are called miasms1 cannot be of very frequent occurrence4 ,la ,guayra appeared to me in general to be tolerably clean1 with the exception of the quarter of the slaughter-houses4 ,the sea-side has no beach on which the remains of fuci or molluscs are heaped up2 but the neighbouring coast1 which stretches eastward towards ,cape ,codera1 and consequently to the windward of ,la ,guayra1 is extremely unhealthy4 ,intermitting1 putrid1 and bilious fevers often prevail at ,macuto and at ,caravalleda2 and when from time to time the breeze is interrupted by a westerly wind1 the little bay of ,cotia sends air loaded with putrid emanations towards the coast of ,la ,guayra1 notwithstanding the rampart opposed by ,cabo ,blanco4 ,the irritability of the organs being so different in the people of the north and those of the south1 it cannot be doubted1 that with greater freedom of commerce1 and more frequent and intimate communication between countries situated in different climates1 the yellow fever will extend its ravages in the ,new ,world4 ,it is even probable that the concurrence of so many exciting causes1 and their action on individuals so differently organized1 may give birth to new forms of disease and new deviations of the vital powers4 ,this is one of the evils that inevitably attend rising civilization4 ,the yellow fever and the black vomit cease periodically at the ,havannah and ,vera ,cruz1 when the north winds bring the cold air of ,canada towards the gulf of ,mexico4 ,but from the extreme equality of temperature which characterizes the climates of ,porto ,cabello1 ,la ,guayra1 ,new ,barcelona1 and ,cumana1 it may be feared that the typhus will there become permanent1 whenever1 from a great influx of strangers1 it has acquired a high degree of exacerbation4 ,tracing the granitic coast of ,la ,guayra westward1 we find between that port 7which is in fact but an ill-sheltered roadstead7 and that of ,porto ,cabello1 several indentations of the land1 furnishing excellent anchorage for ships4 ,such are the small bay of ,catia1 ,los ,arecifes1 ,puerto-la-,cruz1 ,choroni1 ,sienega de ,ocumare1 ,turiamo1 ,burburata1 and ,patanebo4 ,all these ports1 with the exception of that of ,burburata1 from which mules are exported to ,jamaica1 are now frequented only by small coasting vessels1 which are there laden with provisions and cacao from the surrounding plantations4 ,the inhabitants of ,caracas are desirous to avail themselves of the anchorage of ,catia1 to the west of ,cabo ,blanco4 ,m4 ,bonpland and myself examined that point of the coast during our second abode at ,la ,guayra4 ,a ravine1 called the ,quebrada de ,tipe1 descends from the table-land of ,caracas towards ,catia4 ,a plan has long been in contemplation for making a cart-road through this ravine and abandoning the old road to ,la ,guayra1 which resembles the passage over ,st4 ,gothard4 ,according to this plan1 the port of ,catia1 equally large and secure1 would supersede that of ,la ,guayra4 ,unfortunately1 however1 all that shore1 to leeward of ,cabo ,blanco1 abounds with mangroves1 and is extremely unhealthy4 ,i ascended to the summit of the promontory1 which forms ,cabo ,blanco1 in order to observe the passage of the sun over the meridian4 ,i wished to compare in the morning the altitudes taken with an artificial horizon and those taken with the horizon of the sea2 to verify the apparent depression of the latter1 by the barometrical measurement of the hill4 ,by this method1 hitherto very little employed1 on reducing the heights of the sun to the same time1 a reflecting instrument may be used like an instrument furnished with a level4 ,i found the latitude of the cape to be #aj degrees #cf minutes #de seconds2 ,i could only make use of the angles which gave the image of the sun reflected on a plane glass2 the horizon of the sea was very misty1 and the windings of the coast prevented me from taking the height of the sun on that horizon4 ,the environs of ,cabo ,blanco are not uninteresting for the study of rocks4 ,the gneiss here passes into the state of mica-slate 7,glimmerschiefer471 and contains1 along the sea-coast1 layers of schistose chlorite4 7,chloritschiefer47 ,in this latter ,i found garnets and magnetical sand4 ,on the road to ,catia we see the chloritic schist passing into hornblende schist4 7,hornblendschiefer47 ,all these formations are found together in the primitive mountains of the old world1 especially in the north of ,europe4 ,the sea at the foot of ,cabo ,blanco throws up on the beach rolled fragments of a rock1 which is a granular mixture of hornblende and lamellar feldspar4 ,it is what is rather vaguely called ,,primitive ,,grunstein4 ,in it we can recognize traces of quartz and pyrites4 ,submarine rocks probably exist near the coast1 which furnish these very hard masses4 ,i have compared them in my journal to the ,,paterlestein of ,fichtelberg1 in ,franconia1 which is also a diabase1 but so fusible1 that glass buttons are made of it1 which are employed in the slave-trade on the coast of ,guinea4 ,i believed at first1 according to the analogy of the phenomena furnished by the mountains of ,franconia1 that the presence of these hornblende masses with crystals of common 7uncompact7 feldspar indicated the proximity of transition rocks2 but in the high valley of ,caracas1 near ,antimano1 balls of the same diabase fill a vein crossing the mica-slate4 ,on the western declivity of the hill of ,cabo ,blanco1 the gneiss is covered with a formation of sandstone1 or conglomerate1 extremely recent4 ,this sandstone combines angular fragments of gneiss1 quartz1 and chlorite1 magnetical sand1 madrepores1 and petrified bivalve shells4 ,is this formation of the same date as that of ,punta ,araya and ,cumana8 ,scarcely any part of the coast has so burning a climate as the environs of ,cabo ,blanco4 ,we suffered much from the heat1 augmented by the reverberation of a barren and dusty soil2 but without feeling any bad consequences from the effects of insolation4 ,the powerful action of the sun on the cerebral functions is extremely dreaded at ,la ,guayra1 especially at the period when the yellow fever begins to be felt4 ,being one day on the terrace of the house1 observing at noon the difference of the thermometer in the sun and in the shade1 a man approached me holding in his hand a potion1 which he conjured me to swallow4 ,he was a physician1 who from his window1 had observed me bareheaded1 and exposed to the rays of the sun4 ,he assured me1 that1 being a native of a very northern climate1 ,i should infallibly1 after the imprudence ,i had committed1 be attacked with the yellow fever that very evening1 if ,i refused to take the remedy against it4 ,i was not alarmed by this prediction1 however serious1 believing myself to have been long acclimated2 but ,i could not resist yielding to entreaties1 prompted by such benevolent feelings4 ,i swallowed the dose2 and the physician doubtless counted me among the number of those he had saved4 ,the road leading from the port to ,caracas 7the capital of a government of near #ijj1jjj inhabitants7 resembles1 as ,i have already observed1 the passage over the ,alps1 the road of ,st4 ,gothard1 and of the ,great ,st4 ,bernard4 ,taking the level of the road had never been attempted before my arrival in the province of ,venezuela4 ,no precise idea had even been formed of the elevation of the valley of ,caracas4 ,it had indeed been long observed1 that the descent was much less from ,la ,cumbre and ,las ,vueltas 7the latter is the culminating point of the road towards the ,pastora at the entrance of the valley of ,caracas71 than towards the port of ,la ,guayra2 but the mountain of ,avila having a very considerable bulk1 the eye cannot discern simultaneously the points to be compared4 ,it is even impossible to form a precise idea of the elevation of ,caracas1 from the climate of the valley1 where the atmosphere is cooled by the descending currents of air1 and by the mists1 which envelope the lofty summit of the ,silla during a great part of the year4 ,when in the season of the great heats we breathe the burning atmosphere of ,la ,guayra1 and turn our eyes towards the mountains1 it seems scarcely possible that1 at the distance of five or six thousand toises1 a population of forty thousand individuals assembled in a narrow valley1 enjoys the coolness of spring1 a temperature which at night descends to #ab degrees of the centesimal thermometer4 ,this near approach of different climates is common in the ,cordillera of the ,andes2 but everywhere1 at ,mexico1 at ,quito1 in ,peru1 and in ,new ,granada1 it is only after a long journey into the interior1 either across plains or along rivers1 that we reach the great cities1 which are the central points of civilization4 ,the height of ,caracas is but a third of that of ,mexico1 ,quito1 and ,santa ,fe de ,bogota2 yet of all the capitals of ,spanish ,america which enjoy a cool and delicious climate in the midst of the torrid zone1 ,caracas is nearest to the coast4 ,what a privilege for a city to possess a seaport at three leagues distance1 and to be situated among mountains1 on a table-land1 which would produce wheat1 if the cultivation of the coffee-tree were not preferred6 ,the road from ,la ,guayra to the valley of ,caracas is infinitely finer than the road from ,honda to ,santa ,fe1 or that from ,guayaquil to ,quito4 ,it is kept in better order than the old road1 which led from the port of ,vera ,cruz to ,perote1 on the eastern declivity of the mountains of ,new ,spain4 ,with good mules it takes but three hours to go from the port of ,la ,guayra to ,caracas2 and only two hours to return4 ,with loaded mules1 or on foot1 the journey is from four to five hours4 ,the road runs along a ridge of rocks extremely steep1 and after passing the stations bearing respectively the names of ,torre ,quemada1 ,curucuti1 and ,salto1 we arrive at a large inn 7,la ,venta7 built at six hundred toises above the level of the sea4 ,the name ,torre ,quemada1 or ,burnt ,tower1 indicates the sensation that is felt in descending towards ,la ,guayra4 ,a suffocating heat is reflected from the walls of rock1 and especially from the barren plains on which the traveller looks down4 ,on this road1 as on that from ,vera ,cruz to ,mexico1 and wherever on a rapid declivity the climate changes1 the increase of muscular strength and the sensation of well-being1 which we experience as we advance into strata of cooler air1 have always appeared to me less striking than the feeling of languor and debility which pervades the frame1 when we descend towards the burning plains of the coast4 ,but such is the organization of man2 and even in the moral world1 we are less soothed by that which ameliorates our condition than annoyed by a new sensation of discomfort4 ,from ,curucuti to ,salto the ascent is somewhat less laborious4 ,the sinuosities of the way render the declivity easier1 as in the old road over ,mont ,cenis4 ,the ,salto 7or ,leap7 is a crevice1 which is crossed by a draw-bridge4 ,fortifications crown the summit of the mountain4 ,at ,la ,venta the thermometer at noon stood at #ai4c degrees1 when at ,la ,guayra it kept up at the same hour at #bf4b degrees4 ,la ,venta enjoys some celebrity in ,europe and in the ,united ,states1 for the beauty of its surrounding scenery4 ,when the clouds permit1 this spot affords a magnificent view of the sea1 and the neighbouring coasts4 ,an horizon of more than twenty-two leagues radius is visible2 the white and barren shore reflects a dazzling mass of light2 and the spectator beholds at his feet ,cabo ,blanco1 the village of ,maiquetia with its cocoa-trees1 ,la ,guayra1 and the vessels in the port4 ,but ,i found this view far more extraordinary1 when the sky was not serene1 and when trains of clouds1 strongly illumined on their upper surface1 seemed projected like floating islands on the ocean4 ,strata of vapour1 hovering at different heights1 formed intermediary spaces between the eye and the lower regions4 ,by an illusion easily explained1 they enlarged the scene1 and rendered it more majestic4 ,trees and dwellings appeared at intervals through the openings1 which were left by the clouds when driven on by the winds1 and rolling over one another4 ,objects then appear at a greater depth than when seen through a pure and uniformly serene air4 ,on the declivity of the mountains of ,mexico1 at the same height 7between ,las ,trancas and ,xalapa71 the sea is twelve leagues distant1 and the view of the coast is confused2 while on the road from ,la ,guayra to ,caracas we command the plains 7the tierra caliente71 as from the top of a tower4 ,how extraordinary must be the impression created by this prospect on natives of the inland parts of the country1 who behold the sea and ships for the first time from this point4 ,i determined by direct observations the latitude of ,la ,venta1 that ,i might be enabled to give a more precise idea of the distance of the coasts4 ,the latitude is #aj degrees #cc minutes #i seconds4 ,its longitude appeared to me by the chronometer1 nearly #b minutes #dg seconds west of the town of ,caracas4 ,i found the dip of the needle at this height to be #da4ge degrees1 and the intensity of the magnetic forces equal to two hundred and thirty-four oscillations4 ,from the ,venta1 called also ,la ,venta ,grande1 to distinguish it from three or four small inns formerly established along the road1 but now destroyed1 there is still an ascent of one hundred and fifty toises to ,guayavo4 ,this is nearly the most lofty point of the road4 ,whether we gaze on the distant horizon of the sea1 or turn our eyes south-eastward1 in the direction of the serrated ridge of rocks1 which seems to unite the ,cumbre and the ,silla1 though separated from them by the ravine 7quebrada7 of ,tocume1 everywhere we admire the grand character of the landscape4 ,from ,guayavo we proceed for half an hour over a smooth table-land1 covered with alpine plants4 ,this part of the way1 on account of its windings1 is called ,las ,vueltas4 ,we find a little higher up the barracks or magazines of flour1 which were constructed in a spot of cool temperature by the ,guipuzcoa ,company1 when they had the exclusive monopoly of the trade of ,caracas1 and supplied that place with provision4 ,on the road to ,las ,vueltas we see for the first time the capital1 situated three hundred toises below1 in a valley luxuriantly planted with coffee and ,european fruit-trees4 ,travellers are accustomed to halt near a fine spring1 known by the name of ,fuente de ,sanchorquiz1 which flows down from the ,sierra on sloping strata of gneiss4 ,i found its temperature #af4d degrees2 which1 for an elevation of seven hundred and twenty-six toises1 is considerably cool1 and it would appear much cooler to those who drink its limpid water1 if1 instead of gushing out between ,la ,cumbre and the temperate valley of ,caracas1 it were found on the descent towards ,la ,guayra4 ,but at this descent on the northern side of the mountain1 the rock1 by an uncommon exception in this country1 does not dip to north-west1 but to south-east1 which prevents the subterranean waters from forming springs there4 ,we continued to descend from the small ravine of ,sanchorquiz to la ,cruz de la ,guayra1 a cross erected on an open spot1 six hundred and thirty-two toises high1 and thence 7entering by the custom-house and the quarter of the ,pastora7 to the city of ,caracas4 ,on the south side of the mountain of ,avila1 the gneiss presents several geognostical phenomena worthy of the attention of travellers4 ,it is traversed by veins of quartz1 containing cannulated and often articulated prisms of rutile titanite two or three lines in diameter4 ,in the fissures of the quartz we find1 on breaking it1 very thin crystals1 which crossing each other form a kind of network4 ,sometimes the red schorl occurs only in dendritic crystals of a bright red499 799 ,especially below the ,cross of ,la ,guayra1 at #eid toises of absolute elevation47 ,the gneiss of the valley of ,caracas is characterized by the red and green garnets it contains2 they however disappear when the rock passes into mica-slate4 ,this same phenomenon has been remarked by ,von ,buch in ,sweden2 but in the temperate parts of ,europe garnets are in general contained in serpentine and mica-slates1 not in gneiss4 ,in the walls which enclose the gardens of ,caracas1 constructed partly of fragments of gneiss1 we find garnets of a very fine red1 a little transparent1 and very difficult to detach4 ,the gneiss near the ,cross of ,la ,guayra1 half a league from ,caracas1 presented also vestiges of azure copper-ore99 799 ,blue carbonate of copper47 disseminated in veins of quartz1 and small strata of plumbago 7black lead71 or earthy carburetted iron4 ,this last is found in pretty large masses1 and sometimes mingled with sparry iron-ore1 in the ravine of ,tocume1 to the west of the ,silla4 ,between the spring of ,sanchorquiz and the ,cross of ,la ,guayra1 as well as still higher up1 the gneiss contains considerable beds of saccharoidal bluish-grey primitive limestone1 coarse-grained1 containing mica1 and traversed by veins of white calcareous spar4 ,the mica1 with large folia1 lies in the direction of the dip of the strata4 ,i found in the primitive limestone a great many crystallized pyrites1 and rhomboidal fragments of sparry iron-ore of ,isabella yellow4 ,i endeavoured1 but without success1 to find tremolite 7,grammatite of ,hauy4 ,the primitive limestone above the spring of ,sanchorquiz1 is directed1 as the gneiss in that place1 hor4 #e4b1 and dips #de degrees north2 but the general direction of the gneiss is1 in the ,cerro de ,avila1 hor4 #c4d with #fj degrees of dip north-west4 ,exceptions merely local are observed in a small space of ground near the ,cross of ,la ,guayra 7hor4 #f4b1 dip #h degrees north72 and higher up1 opposite the ,quebrada of ,tipe 7hor4 #ab1 dip #ej degrees west7471 which in the ,fichtelberg1 in ,franconia1 is common in the primitive limestone without dolomite4 ,in ,europe beds of primitive limestone are generally observed in the mica-slates2 but we find also saccharoidal limestone in gneiss of the most ancient formation1 in ,sweden near ,upsala1 in ,saxony near ,burkersdorf1 and in the ,alps in the road over the ,simplon4 ,these situations are analogous to that of ,caracas4 ,the phenomena of geognosy1 particularly those which are connected with the stratification of rocks1 and their grouping1 are never solitary2 but are found the same in both hemispheres4 ,i was the more struck with these relations1 and this identity of formations1 as1 at the time of my journey in these countries1 mineralogists were unacquainted with the name of a single rock of ,venezuela1 ,new ,grenada1 and the ,cordilleras of ,quito4 ,,chapter #a4ab4 ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,provinces ,,of ,,venezuela4 ,,diversity ,,of ,,their ,,interests4 ,,city ,,and ,,valley ,,of ,,caracas4 ,,climate4 ,in all those parts of ,spanish ,america in which civilization did not exist to a certain degree before the ,conquest 7as it did in ,mexico1 ,guatimala1 ,quito1 and ,peru71 it has advanced from the coasts to the interior of the country1 following sometimes the valley of a great river1 sometimes a chain of mountains1 affording a temperate climate4 ,concentrated at once in different points1 it has spread as if by diverging rays4 ,the union into provinces and kingdoms was effected on the first immediate contact between civilized parts1 or at least those subject to permanent and regular government4 ,lands deserted1 or inhabited by savage tribes1 now surround the countries which ,european civilization has subdued4 ,they divide its conquests like arms of the sea difficult to be passed1 and neighbouring states are often connected with each other only by slips of cultivated land4 ,it is less difficult to acquire a knowledge of the configuration of coasts washed by the ocean1 than of the sinuosities of that interior shore1 on which barbarism and civilization1 impenetrable forests and cultivated land1 touch and bound each other4 ,from not having reflected on the early state of society in the ,new ,world1 geographers have often made their maps incorrect1 by marking the different parts of the ,spanish and ,portuguese colonies1 as though they were contiguous at every point in the interior4 ,the local knowledge which ,i obtained respecting these boundaries1 enables me to fix the extent of the great territorial divisions with some certainty1 to compare the wild and inhabited parts1 and to appreciate the degree of political influence exercised by certain towns of ,america1 as centres of power and of commerce4 ,caracas is the capital of a country nearly twice as large as ,peru1 and now little inferior in extent to the kingdom of ,new ,grenada499 799 ,the ,capitania-,general of ,caracas contains near #dh1jjj square leagues 7twenty-five to a degree74 ,peru1 since ,la ,paz1 ,potosi1 ,charcas and ,santa ,cruz de la ,sierra1 have been separated from it1 contains only #cj1jjj4 ,new ,grenada1 including the province of ,quito1 contains #fe1jjj4 ,reinos1 ,capitanias-,generales1 ,presidencies1 ,goviernos1 and ,provincias1 are the names by which ,spain formerly distinguished her transmarine possessions1 or1 as they were called1 ,dominios de ,ultramar 7,dominions beyond ,sea477 ,this country which the ,spanish government designates by the name of ,capitania-,general de ,caracas199 799 ,the captain-general of ,caracas has the title of ,capitan-,general de las ,provincias de ,venezuela y ,ciudad do ,caracas47 or of the united provinces of ,venezuela1 has nearly a million of inhabitants1 among whom are sixty thousand slaves4 ,it comprises1 along the coasts1 ,new ,andalusia1 or the province of ,cumana 7with the island of ,margareta7199 799 ,this island1 near the coast of ,cumana1 forms a separate govierno1 depending immediately on the captain-general of ,caracas47 ,barcelona1 ,venezuela or ,caracas1 ,coro1 and ,maracaybo2 in the interior1 the provinces of ,varinas and ,guiana2 the former situated on the rivers of ,santo ,domingo and the ,apure1 the latter stretching along the ,orinoco1 the ,casiquiare1 the ,atabapo1 and the ,rio ,negro4 ,in a general view of the seven united provinces of ,terra ,firma1 we perceive that they form three distinct zones1 extending from east to west4 ,we find1 first1 cultivated land along the sea-shore1 and near the chain of the mountains on the coast2 next1 savannahs or pasturages2 and finally1 beyond the ,orinoco1 a third zone1 that of the forests1 into which we can penetrate only by the rivers which traverse them4 ,if the native inhabitants of the forests lived entirely on the produce of the chase1 like those of the ,missouri1 we might say that the three zones into which we have divided the territory of ,venezuela1 picture the three states of human society2 the life of the wild hunter1 in the woods of the ,orinoco2 pastoral life1 in the savannahs or llanos2 and the agricultural state1 in the high valleys1 and at the foot of the mountains on the coast4 ,missionary monks and some few soldiers occupy here1 as throughout all ,spanish ,america1 advanced posts along the frontiers of ,brazil4 ,in this first zone are felt the preponderance of force1 and the abuse of power1 which is its necessary consequence4 ,the natives carry on civil war1 and sometimes devour one another4 ,the monks endeavour to augment the number of little villages of their ,missions1 by taking advantage of the dissensions of the natives4 ,the military live in a state of hostility to the monks1 whom they were intended to protect4 ,everything presents a melancholy picture of misery and privation4 ,we shall soon have occasion to examine more closely that state of man1 which is vaunted as a state of nature1 by those who inhabit towns4 ,in the second region1 in the plains and pasture-grounds1 food is extremely abundant1 but has little variety4 ,although more advanced in civilization1 the people beyond the circle of some scattered towns are not less isolated from one another4 ,at sight of their dwellings1 partly covered with skins and leather1 it might be supposed that1 far from being fixed1 they are scarcely encamped in those vast plains which extend to the horizon4 ,agriculture1 which alone consolidates the bases1 and strengthens the bonds of society1 occupies the third zone1 the shore1 and especially the hot and temperate valleys among the mountains near the sea4 ,it may be objected1 that in other parts of ,spanish and ,portuguese ,america1 wherever we can trace the progressive development of civilization1 we find the three ages of society combined4 ,but it must be remembered that the position of the three zones1 that of the forests1 the pastures1 and the cultivated land1 is not everywhere the same1 and that it is nowhere so regular as in ,venezuela4 ,it is not always from the coast to the interior1 that population1 commercial industry1 and intellectual improvement1 diminish4 ,in ,mexico1 ,peru1 and ,quito1 the table-lands and central mountains possess the greatest number of cultivators1 the most numerous towns situated near to each other1 and the most ancient institutions4 ,we even find1 that1 in the kingdom of ,buenos ,ayres1 the region of pasturage1 known by the name of the ,pampas1 lies between the isolated part of ,buenos ,ayres and the great mass of ,indian cultivators1 who inhabit the ,cordilleras of ,charcas1 ,la ,paz1 and ,potosi4 ,this circumstance gives birth to a diversity of interests1 in the same country1 between the people of the interior and those who inhabit the coasts4 ,to form an accurate idea of those vast provinces which have been governed for ages1 almost like separate states1 by viceroys and captains-general1 we must fix our attention at once on several points4 ,we must distinguish the parts of ,spanish ,america opposite to ,asia from those on the shores of the ,atlantic2 we must ascertain where the greater portion of the population is placed2 whether near the coast1 or concentrated in the interior1 on the cold and temperate table-lands of the ,cordilleras4 ,we must verify the numerical proportions between the natives and other castes2 search into the origin of the ,european families1 and examine to what race1 in each part of the colonies1 belongs the greater number of whites4 ,the ,andalusian-,canarians of ,venezuela1 the ,mountaineers99 799 ,montaneses4 ,the inhabitants of the mountains of ,santander are called by this name in ,spain47 and the ,biscayans of ,mexico1 the ,catalonians of ,buenos ,ayres1 differ essentially in their aptitude for agriculture1 for the mechanical arts1 for commerce1 and for all objects connected with intellectual development4 ,each of those races has preserved1 in the ,new as in the ,old ,world1 the shades that constitute its national physiognomy2 its asperity or mildness of character2 its freedom from sordid feelings1 or its excessive love of gain2 its social hospitality1 or its taste for solitude4 ,in the countries where the population is for the most part composed of ,indians and mixed races1 the difference between the ,europeans and their descendants cannot indeed be so strongly marked1 as that which existed anciently in the colonies of ,ionian and ,doric origin4 ,the ,spaniards transplanted to the torrid zone1 estranged from the habits of their mother-country1 must have felt more sensible changes than the ,greeks settled on the coasts of ,asia ,minor1 and of ,italy1 where the climates differ so little from those of ,athens and ,corinth4 ,it cannot be denied that the character of the ,spanish ,americans has been variously modified by the physical nature of the country2 the isolated sites of the capitals on the table-lands or in the vicinity of the coasts2 the agricultural life2 the labour of the mines1 and the habit of commercial speculation3 but in the inhabitants of ,caracas1 ,santa ,fe1 ,quito1 and ,buenos ,ayres1 we recognize everywhere something which belongs to the race and the filiation of the people4 ,if we examine the state of the ,capitania-,general of ,caracas1 according to the principles here laid down1 we perceive that agricultural industry1 the great mass of population1 the numerous towns1 and everything connected with advanced civilization1 are found near the coast4 ,this coast extends along a space of two hundred leagues4 ,it is washed by the ,caribbean ,sea1 a sort of ,mediterranean1 on the shores of which almost all the nations of ,europe have founded colonies2 which communicates at several points with the ,atlantic2 and which has had a considerable influence on the progress of knowledge in the eastern part of equinoctial ,america1 from the time of the ,conquest4 ,the kingdoms of ,new ,grenada and ,mexico have no connection with foreign colonies1 and through them with the nations of ,europe1 except by the ports of ,carthagena1 of ,santa ,martha1 of ,vera ,cruz1 and of ,campeachy4 ,these vast countries1 from the nature of their coasts1 and the isolation of their inhabitants on the back of the ,cordilleras1 have few points of contact with foreign lands4 ,the gulf of ,mexico also is but little frequented during a part of the year1 on account of the danger of gales of wind from the north4 ,the coasts of ,venezuela1 on the contrary1 from their extent1 their eastward direction1 the number of their ports1 and the safety of their anchorage at different seasons1 possess all the advantages of the ,caribbean ,sea4 ,the communications with the larger islands1 and even with those situated to windward1 can nowhere be more frequent than from the ports of ,cumana1 ,barcelona1 ,la ,guayra1 ,porto ,cabello1 ,coro1 and ,maracaybo4 ,can we wonder that this facility of commercial intercourse with the inhabitants of free ,america1 and the agitated nations of ,europe1 should in the provinces united under the ,capitania-,general of ,venezuela1 have augmented opulence1 knowledge1 and that restless desire of a local government1 which is blended with the love of liberty and republican forms8 ,the copper-coloured natives1 or ,indians1 constitute an important mass of the agricultural population only in those places where the ,spaniards1 at the time of the ,conquest1 found regular governments1 social communities1 and ancient and very complicated institutions2 as1 for example1 in ,new ,spain1 south of ,durango2 and in ,peru1 from ,cuzco to ,potosi4 ,in the ,capitania-,general of ,caracas1 the ,indian population is inconsiderable1 at least beyond the ,missions and in the cultivated zone4 ,even in times of great political excitement1 the natives do not inspire any apprehension in the whites or the mixed castes4 ,computing1 in #ahjj1 the total population of the seven united provinces at nine hundred thousand souls1 it appeared to me that the ,indians made only one-ninth2 while at ,mexico they form nearly one half of the inhabitants4 ,considering the ,caribbean ,sea1 of which the gulf of ,mexico makes a part1 as an interior sea with several mouths1 it is important to fix our attention on the political relations arising out of this singular configuration of the ,new ,continent1 between countries placed around the same basin4 ,notwithstanding the isolated state in which most of the mother-countries endeavour to hold their colonies1 the agitations that take place are not the less communicated from one to the other4 ,the elements of discord are everywhere the same2 and1 as if by instinct1 an understanding is established between men of the same colour1 although separated by difference of language1 and inhabiting opposite coasts4 ,that ,american ,mediterranean formed by the shores of ,venezuela1 ,new ,grenada1 ,mexico1 the ,united ,states1 and the ,west ,india ,islands1 counts upon its borders near a million and a half of free and enslaved blacks2 but so unequally distributed1 that there are very few to the south1 and scarcely any in the regions of the west4 ,their great accumulation is on the northern and eastern coasts1 which may be said to be the ,african part of the interior basin4 ,the commotions which since #agib have broken out in ,st4 ,domingo1 have naturally been propagated to the coasts of ,venezuela4 ,so long as ,spain possessed those fine colonies in tranquillity1 the little insurrections of the slaves were easily repressed2 but when a struggle of another kind1 that for independence1 began1 the blacks by their menacing position excited alternately the apprehensions of the opposite parties2 and the gradual or instantaneous abolition of slavery has been proclaimed in different regions of ,spanish ,america1 less from motives of justice and humanity1 than to secure the aid of an intrepid race of men1 habituated to privation1 and fighting for their own cause4 ,i found in the narrative of the voyage of ,girolamo ,benzoni1 a curious passage1 which proves that the apprehensions caused by the increase of the black population are of very old date4 ,these apprehensions will cease only where governments shall second by laws the progressive reforms which refinement of manners1 opinion1 and religious sentiment1 introduce into domestic slavery4 ,the negroes1 says ,benzoni1 multiply so much at ,st4 ,domingo1 that in #aede1 when ,i was in ,terra ,firma on the coast of ,caracas1 ,i saw many ,spaniards who had no doubt that the island would shortly be the property of the blacks499 799 ,vi sono molti ,spagnuoli che tengono per cosa certa1 che quest' isola 7,san ,dominico7 in breve tempo sara posseduta da questi ,mori di ,guinea4 7,benzoni ,istoria del ,mondo ,nuovo ediz4 #b;da #afgb page #fe47 ,the author1 who is not very scrupulous in the adoption of statistical facts1 believes that in his time there were at ,st4 ,domingo seven thousand fugitive negroes 7,mori cimaroni71 with whom ,don ,luis ,columbus made a treaty of peace and friendship47 ,it was reserved for our age to see this prediction accomplished2 and a ,european colony of ,america transform itself into an ,african state4 ,the sixty thousand slaves which the seven united provinces of ,venezuela are computed to contain1 are so unequally divided1 that in the province of ,caracas alone there are nearly forty thousand1 one-fifth of whom are mulattoes2 in ,maracaybo1 there are ten or twelve thousand2 but in ,cumana and ,barcelona1 scarcely six thousand4 ,to judge of the influence which the slaves and men of colour exercise on the public tranquility1 it is not enough to know their number1 we must consider their accumulation at certain points1 and their manner of life1 as cultivators or inhabitants of towns4 ,in the province of ,venezuela1 the slaves are assembled together on a space of no great extent1 between the coast1 and a line which passes 7at twelve leagues from the coast7 through ,panaquire1 ,yare1 ,sabana de ,ocumare1 ,villa de ,cura1 and ,nirgua4 ,the llanos or vast plains of ,calaboso1 ,san ,carlos1 ,guanare1 and ,barquecimeto1 contain only four or five thousand slaves1 who are scattered among the farms1 and employed in the care of cattle4 ,the number of free men is very considerable2 the ,spanish laws and customs being favourable to affranchisement4 ,a master cannot refuse liberty to a slave who offers him the sum of three hundred piastres1 even though the slave may have cost double that price1 on account of his industry1 or a particular aptitude for the trade he practises4 ,instances of persons who voluntarily bestow liberty on a certain number of their slaves1 are more common in the province of ,venezuela than in any other place4 ,a short time before we visited the fertile valleys of ,aragua and the lake of ,valencia1 a lady who inhabited the great village of ,victoria1 ordered her children1 on her death-bed1 to give liberty to all her slaves1 thirty in number4 ,i feel pleasure in recording facts that do honour to the character of a people from whom ,m4 ,bonpland and myself received so many marks of kindness4 ,if we compare the seven united provinces of ,venezuela with the kingdom of ,mexico and the island of ,cuba1 we shall succeed in finding the approximate number of white ,creoles1 and even of ,europeans4 ,the white ,creoles1 whom ,i may call ,hispano-,americans199 799 ,in imitation of the word ,anglo-,american1 adapted in all the languages of ,europe4 ,in the ,spanish colonies1 the whites born in ,america are called ,spaniards2 and the real ,spaniards1 those born in the mother country1 are called ,europeans1 ,gachupins1 or ,chapetons47 form in ,mexico nearly a fifth1 and in the island of ,cuba1 according to the very accurate enumeration of #ahja1 a third of the whole population4 ,when we reflect that the kingdom of ,mexico contains two millions and a half of natives of the copper-coloured race2 when we consider the state of the coasts bordering on the ,pacific1 and the small number of whites in the intendencias of ,puebla and ,oaxaca1 compared with the natives1 we cannot doubt that the province of ,venezuela at least1 if not the capitania-general1 has a greater proportion than that of one to five4 ,the island of ,cuba199 799 ,i do not mention the kingdom of ,buenos ,ayres1 where1 among a million of inhabitants1 the whites are extremely numerous in parts near the coast2 while the table-lands1 or provinces of the sierra are almost entirely peopled with natives47 in which the whites are even more numerous than in ,chile1 may furnish us with a limiting number1 that is to say1 the maximum which may be supposed in the capitania-general of ,caracas4 ,i believe we must stop at two hundred1 or two hundred and ten thousand ,hispano-,americans1 in a total population of nine hundred thousand souls4 ,the number of ,europeans included in the white race 7not comprehending the troops sent from the mother-country7 does not exceed twelve or fifteen thousand4 ,it certainly is not greater at ,mexico than sixty thousand2 and ,i find by several statements1 that1 if we estimate the whole of the ,spanish colonies at fourteen or fifteen millions of inhabitants1 there are in that number at most three millions of ,creole whites1 and two hundred thousand ,europeans4 ,when ,tupac-,amaru1 who believed himself to be the legitimate heir to the empire of the ,incas1 made the conquest of several provinces of ,upper ,peru1 in #agha1 at the head of forty thousand ,indian mountaineers1 all the whites were filled with alarm4 ,the ,hispano-,americans felt1 like the ,spaniards born in ,europe1 that the contest was between the copper-coloured race and the whites2 between barbarism and civilization4 ,tupac-,amaru1 who himself was not destitute of intellectual cultivation1 began with flattering the creoles and the ,european clergy2 but soon1 impelled by events1 and by the spirit of vengeance that inspired his nephew1 ,andres ,condorcanqui1 he changed his plan4 ,a rising for independence became a cruel war between the different castes2 the whites were victorious1 and excited by a feeling of common interest1 from that period they kept watchful attention on the proportions existing in the different provinces between their numbers and those of the ,indians4 ,it was reserved for our times to see the whites direct this attention towards themselves2 and examine1 from motives of distrust1 the elements of which their own caste is composed4 ,every enterprise in favour of independence and liberty puts the national or ,american party in opposition to the men of the mother-country4 ,when ,i arrived at ,caracas1 the latter had just escaped from the danger with which they thought they were menaced by the insurrection projected by ,espana4 ,the consequences of that bold attempt were the more deplorable1 because1 instead of investigating the real causes of the popular discontent1 it was thought that the mother-country would be saved by employing vigorous measures4 ,at present1 the commotions which have arisen throughout the country1 from the banks of the ,rio de la ,plata to ,new ,mexico1 an extent of fourteen hundred leagues1 have divided men of a common origin4 ,the ,indian population in the united provinces of ,venezuela is not considerable1 and is but recently civilized4 ,all the towns were founded by the ,spanish conquerors1 who could not carry out1 as in ,mexico and ,peru1 the old civilization of the natives4 ,caracas1 ,maracaybo1 ,cumana1 and ,coro1 have nothing ,indian but their names4 ,compared with the three capitals of equinoctial ,america199 799 ,mexico1 ,santa ,fe de ,bogota1 and ,quito4 ,the elevation of the site of the capital of ,guatimala is still unknown4 ,judging from the vegetation1 we may infer that it is less than #ejj toises47 situated on the mountains1 and enjoying a temperate climate1 ,caracas is the least elevated4 ,it is not a central point of commerce1 like ,mexico1 ,santa ,fe de ,bogota1 and ,quito4 ,each of the seven provinces united in one capitania-general has a port1 by which its produce is exported4 ,it is sufficient to consider the position of the provinces1 their respective degree of intercourse with the ,windward ,islands1 the direction of the mountains1 and the course of the great rivers1 to perceive that ,caracas can never exercise any powerful political influence over the territories of which it is the capital4 ,the ,apure1 the ,meta1 and the ,orinoco1 running from west to east1 receive all the streams of the llanos1 or the region of pasturage4 ,st4 ,thomas de la ,guiana will necessarily1 at some future day1 be a trading-place of high importance1 especially when the flour of ,new ,grenada1 embarked above the confluence of the ,rio ,negro and the ,umadea1 and descending by the ,meta and ,orinoco1 shall be preferred at ,caracas and ,guiana to the flour of ,new ,england4 ,it is a great advantage to the provinces of ,venezuela1 that their territorial wealth is not directed to one point1 like that of ,mexico and ,new ,grenada1 which flows to ,vera ,cruz and ,carthagena2 but that they possess a great number of towns equally well peopled1 and forming various centres of commerce and civilization4 ,the city of ,caracas is seated at the entrance of the plain of ,chacao1 which extends three leagues eastward1 in the direction of ,caurimare and the ,cuesta de ,auyamas1 and is two leagues and a half in breadth4 ,this plain1 through which runs the ,rio ,guayra1 is at the elevation of four hundred and fourteen toises above the level of the sea4 ,the ground on which the city of ,caracas is built is uneven1 and has a steep slope from north-north-west to south-south-east4 ,to form an accurate idea of the situation of ,caracas1 we must bear in mind the general direction of the mountains of the coast1 and the great longitudinal valleys by which they are traversed4 ,the ,rio ,guayra rises in the group of primitive mountains of ,higuerote1 which separates the valley of ,caracas from that of ,aragua4 ,it is formed near ,las ,ajuntas1 by the junction of the little rivers of ,san ,pedro and ,macarao1 and runs first eastward as far as the ,cuesta of ,auyamas1 and then southward1 uniting its waters with those of the ,rio ,tuy1 below ,yare4 ,the ,rio ,tuy is the only considerable river in the northern and mountainous part of the province4 ,the river flows in a direct course from west to east1 the distance of thirty leagues1 and it is navigable along more than three quarters of that distance4 ,by barometrical measurements ,i found the slope of the ,tuy along this length1 from the plantation of ,manterola99 799 ,at the foot of the high mountain of ,cocuyza1 #c east from ,victoria47 to its mouth1 east of ,cape ,codera1 to be two hundred and ninety-five toises4 ,this river forms in the chain of the coast a kind of longitudinal valley1 while the waters of the llanos1 or of five-sixths of the province of ,caracas1 follow the slope of the land southward1 and join the ,orinoco4 ,this hydrographic sketch may throw some light on the natural tendency of the inhabitants of each particular province1 to export their productions by different roads4 ,the valleys of ,caracas and of the ,tuy run parallel for a considerable length4 ,they are separated by a mountainous tract1 which is crossed in going from ,caracas to the high savannahs of ,ocumare1 passing by ,la ,valle and ,salamanca4 ,these savannahs themselves are beyond the ,tuy2 and the valley of the ,tuy being a great deal lower than that of ,caracas1 the descent is almost constantly from north to south4 ,as ,cape ,codera1 the ,silla1 the ,cerro de ,avila between ,caracas and ,la ,guayra1 and the mountains of ,mariara1 constitute the most northern and elevated range of the coast chain2 so the mountains of ,panaquire1 ,ocumare1 ,guiripa1 and of the ,villa de ,cura1 form the most southern range4 ,the general direction of the strata composing this vast chain of the coast is from south-east to north-west2 and the dip is generally towards north-west3 hence it follows1 that the direction of the primitive strata is independent of that of the whole chain4 ,it is extremely remarkable1 tracing this chain99 from ,porto ,cabello as far as ,maniquarez and ,macanao1 in the island of ,margareta 799 ,i have spoken1 in the preceding chapter1 of the interruption in the chain of the coast to the east of ,cape ,codera471 to find1 from west to east1 first granite1 then gneiss1 mica-slate1 and primitive schist2 and finally1 compact limestone1 gypsum1 and conglomerates containing sea-shells4 ,it is to be regretted that the town of ,caracas was not built farther to the east1 below the entrance of the ,anauco into the ,guayra2 on that spot near ,chacao1 where the valley widens into an extensive plain1 which seems to have been levelled by the waters4 ,diego de ,losada1 when he founded99 the town1 followed no doubt the traces of the first establishment made by ,faxardo4 ,at that time1 the ,spaniards1 attracted by the high repute of the two gold mines of ,los ,teques and ,baruta1 were not yet masters of the whole valley1 and preferred remaining near the road leading to the coast4 799 ,the foundation of ,santiago de ,leon de ,caracas dates from #aefg1 and is posterior to that of ,cumana1 ,coro1 ,nueva ,barcelona1 and ,caravalleda1 or ,el ,collado47 ,the town of ,quito is also built in the narrowest and most uneven part of a valley1 between two fine plains1 ,turupamba and ,rumipamba4 ,the descent is uninterrupted from the custom-house of the ,pastora1 by the square of ,trinidad and the ,plaza ,mayor1 to ,santa ,rosalia1 and the ,rio ,guayra4 ,this declivity of the ground does not prevent carriages from going about the town2 but the inhabitants make little use of them4 ,three small rivers1 descending from the mountains1 the ,anauco1 the ,catuche1 and the ,caraguata1 intersect the town1 running from north to south4 ,their banks are very high2 and1 with the dried-up ravines which join them1 furrowing the ground1 they remind the traveller of the famous ,guaicos of ,quito1 only on a smaller scale4 ,the water used for drinking at ,caracas is that of the ,rio ,catuche2 but the richer class of the inhabitants have their water brought from ,la ,valle1 a village a league distant on the south4 ,this water and that of ,gamboa are considered very salubrious1 because they flow over the roots of sarsaparilla499 799 ,throughout ,america water is supposed to share the properties of those plants under the shade of which it flows4 ,thus1 at the ,straits of ,magellan1 that water is much praised which comes in contact with the roots of the ,canella winterana47 ,i could not discover in them any aromatic or extractive matter4 ,the water of the valley does not contain lime1 but a little more carbonic acid than the water of the ,anauco4 ,the new bridge over this river is a handsome structure4 ,caracas contains eight churches1 five convents1 and a theatre capable of holding fifteen or eighteen hundred persons4 ,when ,i was there1 the pit1 in which the seats of the men are apart from those of the women1 was uncovered4 ,by this means the spectators could either look at the actors or gaze at the stars4 ,as the misty weather made me lose a great many observations of ,jupiter's satellites1 ,i was able to ascertain1 as ,i sat in a box in the theatre1 whether the planet would be visible that night4 ,the streets of ,caracas are wide and straight1 and they cross each other at right angles1 as in all the towns built by the ,spaniards in ,america4 ,the houses are spacious1 and higher than they ought to be in a country subject to earthquakes4 ,in #ahjj1 the two squares of ,alta ,gracia and ,san ,francisco presented a very agreeable aspect2 ,i say in the year #ahjj1 because the terrible shocks of the #bfth of ,march1 #ahab1 almost destroyed the whole city1 which is only now slowly rising from its ruins4 ,the quarter of ,trinidad1 in which ,i resided1 was destroyed as completely as if a mine had been sprung beneath it4 ,the small extent of the valley1 and the proximity of the high mountains of ,avila and the ,silla1 give a gloomy and stern character to the scenery of ,caracas2 particularly in that part of the year when the coolest temperature prevails1 namely1 in the months of ,november and ,december4 ,the mornings are then very fine2 and on a clear and serene sky we could perceive the two domes or rounded pyramids of the ,silla1 and the craggy ridge of the ,cerro de ,avila4 ,but towards evening the atmosphere thickens2 the mountains are overhung with clouds2 streams of vapour cling to their evergreen slopes1 and seem to divide them into zones one above another4 ,these zones are gradually blended together2 the cold air which descends from the ,silla1 accumulates in the valley1 and condenses the light vapours into large fleecy clouds4 ,these often descend below the ,cross of ,la ,guayra1 and advance1 gliding on the soil1 in the direction of the ,pastora of ,caracas1 and the adjacent quarter of ,trinidad4 ,beneath this misty sky1 ,i could scarcely imagine myself to be in one of the temperate valleys of the torrid zone2 but rather in the north of ,germany1 among the pines and the larches that cover the mountains of the ,hartz4 ,but this gloomy aspect1 this contrast between the clearness of morning and the cloudy sky of evening1 is not observable in the midst of summer4 ,the nights of ,june and ,july are clear and delicious4 ,the atmosphere then preserves1 almost without interruption1 the purity and transparency peculiar to the table-lands and elevated valleys of these regions in calm weather1 as long as the winds do not mingle together strata of air of unequal temperature4 ,that is the season for enjoying the beauty of the landscape1 which1 however1 ,i saw clearly illumined only during a few days at the end of ,january4 ,the two rounded summits of the ,silla are seen at ,caracas1 almost under the same angles of elevation99 as the peak of ,teneriffe at the port of ,orotava499 799 ,i found1 at the square of ,trinidad1 the apparent height of the ,silla to be #aa degrees #ab minutes #di seconds4 ,it was about four thousand five hundred toises distant47 ,the first half of the mountain is covered with short grass2 then succeeds the zone of evergreen trees1 reflecting a purple light at the season when the befaria1 the alpine rose-tree99 799 ,rhododendron ferrugineum of the ,alps47 of equinoctial ,america1 is in blossom4 ,the rocky masses rise above this wooded zone in the form of domes4 ,being destitute of vegetation1 they increase by the nakedness of their surface the apparent height of a mountain which1 in the temperate parts of ,europe1 would scarcely rise to the limit of perpetual snow4 ,the cultivated region of the valley1 and the gay plains of ,chacao1 ,petare1 and ,la ,vega1 form an agreeable contrast to the imposing aspect of the ,silla1 and the great irregularities of the ground on the north of the town4 ,the climate of ,caracas has often been called a perpetual spring4 ,the same sort of climate exists everywhere1 halfway up the ,cordilleras of equinoctial ,america1 between four hundred and nine hundred toises of elevation1 except in places where the great breadth of the valleys1 combined with an arid soil1 causes an extraordinary intensity99 of radiant caloric4 799 ,as at ,carthago and ,ibague in ,new ,grenada47 ,what can we conceive to be more delightful than a temperature which in the day keeps between #bj and #bf degrees 7,between #af and #bj4h degrees ,reaum472 and at night between #af and #ah degrees 7,between #ab4h and #ad4d degrees ,reaum471 which is equally favourable to the plantain1 the orange-tree1 the coffee-tree1 the apple1 the apricot1 and corn8 ,jose de ,oviedo y ,banos1 the historiographer of ,venezuela1 calls the situation of ,caracas that of a terrestrial paradise1 and compares the ,anauco and the neighbouring torrents to the four rivers of the ,garden of ,eden4 ,it is to be regretted that this delightful climate is generally inconstant and variable4 ,the inhabitants of ,caracas complain of having several seasons in one and the same day2 and of the rapid change from one season to another4 ,in the month of ,january1 for instance1 a night1 of which the mean temperature is #af degrees1 is sometimes followed by a day when the thermometer during eight successive hours keeps above #bb degrees in the shade4 ,in the same day1 we may find the temperature of #bd and #ah degrees4 ,these variations are extremely common in our temperate climates of ,europe1 but in the torrid zone1 ,europeans themselves are so accustomed to the uniform action of exterior stimulus1 that they suffer from a change of temperature of #f degrees4 ,at ,cumana1 and everywhere in the plains1 the temperature from eleven in the morning to eleven at night changes only #b or #c degrees4 ,moreover1 these variations act on the human frame at ,caracas more violently than might be supposed from the mere indications of the thermometer4 ,in this narrow valley the atmosphere is in some sort balanced between two winds1 one blowing from the west1 or the seaside1 the other from the east1 or the inland country4 ,the first is known by the name of the wind of ,catia1 because it blows from ,catia westward of ,cabo ,blanco through the ravine of ,tipe4 ,it is1 however1 only a westerly wind in appearance1 and it is oftener the breeze of the east and north-east1 which1 rushing with extreme impetuosity1 engulfs itself in the ,quebrada de ,tipe4 ,rebounding from the high mountains of ,aguas ,negras1 this wind finds its way back to ,caracas1 in the direction of the hospital of the ,capuchins and the ,rio ,caraguata4 ,it is loaded with vapours1 which it deposits as its temperature decreases1 and consequently the summit of the ,silla is enveloped in clouds1 when the catia blows in the valley4 ,this wind is dreaded by the inhabitants of ,caracas2 it causes headache in persons whose nervous system is irritable4 ,in order to shun its effects1 people sometimes shut themselves up in their houses1 as they do in ,italy when the sirocco is blowing4 ,i thought ,i perceived1 during my stay at ,caracas1 that the wind of ,catia was purer 7a little richer in oxygen7 than the wind of ,petare4 ,i even imagined that its purity might explain its exciting property4 ,the wind of ,petare coming from the east and south-east1 by the eastern extremity of the valley of the ,guayra1 brings from the mountains and the interior of the country1 a drier air1 which dissipates the clouds1 and the summit of the ,silla rises in all its beauty4 ,we know that the modifications produced by winds in the composition of the air in various places1 entirely escape our eudiometrical experiments1 the most precise of which can estimate only as far as 4#jjjc degrees of oxygen4 ,chemistry does not yet possess any means of distinguishing two jars of air1 the one filled during the prevalence of the sirocco or the catia1 and the other before these winds have commenced4 ,it appears to me probable1 that the singular effects of the catia1 and of all those currents of air1 to the influence of which popular opinion attaches so much importance1 must be looked for rather in the changes of humidity and of temperature1 than in chemical modifications4 ,we need not trace miasms to ,caracas from the unhealthy shore on the coast3 it may be easily conceived that men accustomed to the drier air of the mountains and the interior1 must be disagreeably affected when the very humid air of the sea1 pressed through the gap of ,tipe1 reaches in an ascending current the high valley of ,caracas1 and1 getting cooler by dilatation1 and by contact with the adjacent strata1 deposits a great portion of the water it contains4 ,this inconstancy of climate1 these somewhat rapid transitions from dry and transparent to humid and misty air1 are inconveniences which ,caracas shares in common with the whole temperate region of the tropics--with all places situated between four and eight hundred toises of elevation1 either on table-lands of small extent1 or on the slope of the ,cordilleras1 as at ,xalapa in ,mexico1 and ,guaduas in ,new ,granada4 ,a serenity1 uninterrupted during a great part of the year1 prevails only in the low regions at the level of the sea1 and at considerable heights on those vast table-lands1 where the uniform radiation of the soil seems to contribute to the perfect dissolution of vesicular vapours4 ,the intermediate zone is at the same height as the first strata of clouds which surround the surface of the earth2 and the climate of this zone1 the temperature of which is so mild1 is essentially misty and variable4 ,notwithstanding the elevation of the spot1 the sky is generally less blue at ,caracas than at ,cumana4 ,the aqueous vapour is less perfectly dissolved2 and here1 as in our climates1 a greater diffusion of light diminishes the intensity of the aerial colour1 by introducing white into the blue of the air4 ,this intensity1 measured with the cyanometer of ,saussure1 was found from ,november to ,january generally #ah1 never above #bj degrees4 ,on the coasts it was from #bb to #be degrees4 ,i remarked1 in the village of ,caracas1 that the wind of ,petare sometimes contributes singularly to give a pale tint to the celestial vault4 ,on the #bbnd of ,january1 the blue of the sky was at noon in the zenith feebler than ,i ever saw it in the torrid zone499 799 ,at noon1 thermometer in the shade #bc4g 7in the sun1 out of the wind1 #cj4d degrees72 ,de ,luc's hygrometer1 #cf4b2 cyanometer1 at the zenith1 #ab1 at the horizon #i degrees4 ,the wind ceased at three in the afternoon4 ,thermometer #ba2 hygrometer #ci4c2 cyanometer #af degrees4 ,at six o'clock1 thermometer #bj4b2 hygrometer #ci degrees47 ,it corresponded only to #ab degrees of the cyanometer4 ,the atmosphere was then remarkably transparent1 without clouds1 and of extraordinary dryness4 ,the moment the wind of ,petare ceased1 the blue colour rose at the zenith as high as #af degrees4 ,i have often observed at sea1 but in a smaller degree1 a similar effect of the wind on the colour of the serenest sky4 ,we know less exactly the mean temperature of ,caracas1 than that of ,santa ,fe de ,bogota and of ,mexico4 ,i believe1 however1 ,i can demonstrate1 that it cannot be very distant from twenty to twenty-two degrees4 ,i found by my own observations1 during the three very cool months of ,november1 ,december1 and ,january1 taking each day the maximum and minimum of the temperature1 the heights were #bj4b2 #bj4a2 #bj4b degrees4 ,rains are extremely frequent at ,caracas in the months of ,april1 ,may1 and ,june4 ,the storms always come from the east and south-east1 from the direction of ,petare and ,la ,valle4 ,no hail falls in the low regions of the tropics2 yet it occurs at ,caracas almost every four or five years4 ,hail has even been seen in valleys still lower2 and this phenomenon1 when it does happen1 makes a powerful impression on the people4 ,falls of aerolites are less rare with us than hail in the torrid zone1 notwithstanding the frequency of thunder-storms at the elevation of three hundred toises above the level of the sea4 ,the cool and delightful climate we have just been describing is also suited for the culture of equinoctial productions4 ,the sugar-cane is reared with success1 even at heights exceeding that of ,caracas2 but in the valley1 owing to the dryness of the climate1 and the stony soil1 the cultivation of the coffee-tree is preferred3 it yields indeed but little fruit1 but that little is of the finest quality4 ,when the shrub is in blossom1 the plain extending beyond ,chacao presents a delightful aspect4 ,the banana-tree1 which is seen in the plantations near the town1 is not the great ,platano harton2 but the varieties camburi and dominico1 which require less heat4 ,the great plantains are brought to the market of ,caracas from the haciendas of ,turiamo1 situated on the coast between ,burburata and ,porto ,cabello4 ,the finest flavoured pine-apples are those of ,baruto1 of ,empedrado1 and of the heights of ,buenavista1 on the road to ,victoria4 ,when a traveller for the first time visits the valley of ,caracas1 he is agreeably surprised to find the culinary plants of our climates1 as well as the strawberry1 the vine1 and almost all the fruit-trees of the temperate zone1 growing beside the coffee and banana-tree4 ,the apples and peaches esteemed the best come from ,macarao1 or from the western extremity of the valley4 ,there1 the quince-tree1 the trunk of which attains only four or five feet in height1 is so common1 that it has almost become wild4 ,preserved apples and quinces1 particularly the latter199 799 ,dulce de manzana y de membrillo1 are the ,spanish names of these preserves47 are much used in a country where it is thought that1 before drinking water1 thirst should be excited by sweetmeats4 ,in proportion as the environs of the town have been planted with coffee1 and the establishment of plantations 7which dates only from the year #agie7 has increased the number of agricultural negroes199 the apple and quince-trees scattered in the savannahs have given place1 in the valley of ,caracas1 to maize and pulse4 799 ,the consumption of provisions1 especially meat1 is so considerable in the towns of ,spanish ,america1 that at ,caracas1 in #ahjj1 there were #dj1jjj oxen killed every year3 while in ,paris1 in #agic1 with a population fourteen times as great1 the number amounted only to #gj1jjj47 ,rice1 watered by means of small trenches1 was formerly more common than it now is in the plain of ,chacao4 ,i observed in this province1 as in ,mexico and in all the elevated lands of the torrid zone1 that1 where the apple-tree is most abundant1 the culture of the pear-tree is attended with great difficulty4 ,i have been assured1 that near ,caracas the excellent apples sold in the markets come from trees not grafted4 ,there are no cherry-trees4 ,the olive-trees which ,i saw in the court of the convent of ,san ,felipe de ,neri1 were large and fine2 but the luxuriance of their vegetation prevented them from bearing fruit4 ,if the atmospheric constitution of the valley be favourable to the different kinds of culture on which colonial industry is based1 it is not equally favourable to the health of the inhabitants1 or to that of foreigners settled in the capital of ,venezuela4 ,the extreme inconstancy of the weather1 and the frequent suppression of cutaneous perspiration1 give birth to catarrhal affections1 which assume the most various forms4 ,a ,european1 once accustomed to the violent heat1 enjoys better health at ,cumana1 in the valley of ,aragua1 and in every place where the low region of the tropics is not very humid1 than at ,caracas1 and in those mountain-climates which are vaunted as the abode of perpetual spring4 ,speaking of the yellow fever of ,la ,guayra1 ,i mentioned the opinion generally adopted1 that this disease is propagated as little from the coast of ,venezuela to the capital1 as from the coast of ,mexico to ,xalapa4 ,this opinion is founded on the experience of the last twenty years4 ,the contagious disorders which were severely felt in the port of ,la ,guayra1 were scarcely felt at ,caracas4 ,i am not convinced that the ,american typhus1 rendered endemic on the coast as the port becomes more frequented1 if favoured by particular dispositions of the climate1 may not become common in the valley3 for the mean temperature of ,caracas is considerable enough to allow the thermometer1 in the hottest months1 to keep between twenty-two and twenty-six degrees4 ,the situation of ,xalapa1 on the declivity of the ,mexican mountains1 promises more security1 because that town is less populous1 and is five times farther distant from the sea than ,caracas1 and two hundred and thirty toises higher3 its mean temperature being three degrees cooler4 ,in #afif1 a bishop of ,venezuela1 ,diego de ,banos1 dedicated a church 7ermita7 to ,santa ,rosalia of ,palermo1 for having delivered the capital from the scourge of the black vomit 7vomito negro71 which is said to have raged for the space of sixteen months4 ,a mass celebrated every year in the cathedral1 in the beginning of ,september1 perpetuates the remembrance of this epidemic1 in the same manner as processions fix1 in the ,spanish colonies1 the date of the great earthquakes4 ,the year #afif was indeed very remarkable for the yellow fever1 which raged with violence in all the ,west ,india ,islands1 where it had only begun to gain an ascendancy in #afhh4 ,but how can we give credit to an epidemical black vomit1 having lasted sixteen months without interruption1 and which may be said to have passed through that very cool season when the thermometer at ,caracas falls to twelve or thirteen degrees8 ,can the typhus be of older date in the elevated valley of ,caracas1 than in the most frequented ports of ,terra ,firma4 ,according to ,ulloa1 it was unknown in ,terra ,firma before #agbi4 ,i doubt1 therefore1 the epidemic of #afif having been the yellow fever1 or real typhus of ,america4 ,some of the symptoms which accompany yellow fever are common to bilious remittent fevers2 and are no more characteristic than haematemeses of that severe disease now known at the ,havannah and ,vera ,cruz by the name of vomito4 ,but though no accurate description satisfactorily demonstrates that the typhus of ,america existed at ,caracas as early as the end of the seventeenth century1 it is unhappily too certain1 that this disease carried off in that capital a great number of ,european soldiers in #ahjb4 ,we are filled with dismay when we reflect that1 in the centre of the torrid zone1 a table-land four hundred and fifty toises high1 but very near the sea1 does not secure the inhabitants against a scourge which was believed to belong only to the low regions of the coast4 ,,chapter #a4ac4 ,,abode ,,at ,,caracas4 ,,mountains ,,in ,,the ,,vicinity ,,of ,,the ,,town4 ,,excursion ,,to ,,the ,,summit ,,of ,,the ,,silla4 ,,indications ,,of ,,mines4 ,i remained two months at ,caracas1 where ,m4 ,bonpland and ,i lived in a large house in the most elevated part of the town4 ,from a gallery we could survey at once the summit of the ,silla1 the serrated ridge of the ,galipano1 and the charming valley of the ,guayra1 the rich culture of which was pleasingly contrasted with the gloomy curtain of the surrounding mountains4 ,it was in the dry season1 and to improve the pasturage1 the savannahs and the turf covering the steepest rocks were set on fire4 ,these vast conflagrations1 viewed from a distance1 produce the most singular effects of light4 ,wherever the savannahs1 following the undulating slope of the rocks1 have filled up the furrows hollowed out by the waters1 the flame appears in a dark night like currents of lava suspended over the valley4 ,the vivid but steady light assumes a reddish tint1 when the wind1 descending from the ,silla1 accumulates streams of vapour in the low regions4 ,at other times 7and this effect is still more curious7 these luminous bands1 enveloped in thick clouds1 appear only at intervals where it is clear2 and as the clouds ascend1 their edges reflect a splendid light4 ,these various phenomena1 so common in the tropics1 acquire additional interest from the form of the mountains1 the direction of the slopes1 and the height of the savannahs covered with alpine grasses4 ,during the day1 the wind of ,petare1 blowing from the east1 drives the smoke towards the town1 and diminishes the transparency of the air4 ,if we had reason to be satisfied with the situation of our house1 we had still greater cause for satisfaction in the reception we met with from all classes of the inhabitants4 ,though ,i have had the advantage1 which few ,spaniards have shared with me1 of having successively visited ,caracas1 the ,havannah1 ,santa ,fe de ,bogota1 ,quito1 ,lima1 and ,mexico1 and of having been connected in these six capitals of ,spanish ,america with men of all ranks1 ,i will not venture to decide on the various degrees of civilization1 which society has attained in the several colonies4 ,it is easier to indicate the different shades of national improvement1 and the point towards which intellectual development tends1 than to compare and class things which cannot all be considered under one point of view4 ,it appeared to me1 that a strong tendency to the study of science prevailed at ,mexico and ,santa ,fe de ,bogota2 more taste for literature1 and whatever can charm an ardent and lively imagination1 at ,quito and ,lima2 more accurate notions of the political relations of countries1 and more enlarged views on the state of colonies and their mother-countries1 at the ,havannah and ,caracas4 ,the numerous communications with commercial ,europe1 with the ,caribbean ,sea 7which we have described as a ,mediterranean with many outlets71 have exercised a powerful influence on the progress of society in the five provinces of ,venezuela and in the island of ,cuba4 ,in no other part of ,spanish ,america has civilization assumed a more ,european character4 ,the great number of ,indian cultivators who inhabit ,mexico and the interior of ,new ,grenada1 impart a peculiar1 ,i may almost say1 an exotic aspect1 on those vast countries4 ,notwithstanding the increase of the black population1 we seem to be nearer to ,cadiz and the ,united ,states1 at ,caracas and the ,havannah1 than in any other part of the ,new ,world4 ,when1 in the reign of ,charles ,v1 social distinctions and their consequent rivalries were introduced from the mother-country to the colonies1 there arose in ,cumana and in other commercial towns of ,terra ,firma1 exaggerated pretensions to nobility on the part of some of the most illustrious families of ,caracas1 distinguished by the designation of los ,mantuanos4 ,the progress of knowledge1 and the consequent change in manners1 have1 however1 gradually and pretty generally neutralized whatever is offensive in those distinctions among the whites4 ,in all the ,spanish colonies there exist two kinds of nobility4 ,one is composed of creoles1 whose ancestors only from a very recent period filled great stations in ,america4 ,their prerogatives are partly founded on the distinction they enjoy in the mother-country2 and they imagine they can retain those distinctions beyond the sea1 whatever may be the date of their settlement in the colonies4 ,the other class of nobility has more of an ,american character4 ,it is composed of the descendants of the ,conquistadores1 that is to say1 of the ,spaniards who served in the army at the time of the first conquest4 ,among the warriors who fought with ,cortez1 ,losada1 and ,pizarro1 several belonged to the most distinguished families of the ,peninsula2 others1 sprung from the inferior classes of the people1 have shed lustre on their names1 by that chivalrous spirit which prevailed at the beginning of the sixteenth century4 ,in the records of those times of religious and military enthusiasm1 we find1 among the followers of the great captains1 many simple1 virtuous1 and generous characters1 who reprobated the cruelties which then stained the glory of the ,spanish name1 but who1 being confounded in the mass1 have not escaped the general proscription4 ,the name of ,conquistadares remains the more odious1 as the greater number of them1 after having outraged peaceful nations1 and lived in opulence1 did not end their career by suffering those misfortunes which appease the indignation of mankind1 and sometimes soothe the severity of the historian4 ,but it is not only the progress of ideas1 and the conflict between two classes of different origin1 which have induced the privileged castes to abandon their pretensions1 or at least cautiously to conceal them4 ,aristocracy in the ,spanish colonies has a counterpoise of another kind1 the action of which becomes every day more powerful4 ,a sentiment of equality1 among the whites1 has penetrated every bosom4 ,wherever men of colour are either considered as slaves or as having been enfranchised1 that which constitutes nobility is hereditary liberty--the proud boast of having never reckoned among ancestors any but freemen4 ,in the colonies1 the colour of the skin is the real badge of nobility4 ,in ,mexico1 as well as ,peru1 at ,caracas as in the island of ,cuba1 a bare-footed fellow with a white skin1 is often heard to exclaim3 ,does that rich man think himself whiter than ,i am8 ,the population which ,europe pours into ,america being very considerable1 it may easily be supposed1 that the axiom1 'every white man is noble' 7todo blanco es caballero71 must singularly wound the pretensions of many ancient and illustrious ,european families4 ,but it may be further observed1 that the truth of this axiom has long since been acknowledged in ,spain1 among a people justly celebrated for probity1 industry1 and national spirit4 ,every ,biscayan calls himself noble2 and there being a greater number of ,biscayans in ,america and the ,philippine ,islands1 than in the ,peninsula1 the whites of that race have contributed1 in no small degree1 to propagate in the colonies the system of equality among all men whose blood has not been mixed with that of the ,african race4 ,moreover1 the countries of which the inhabitants1 even without a representative government1 or any institution of peerage1 annex so much importance to genealogy and the advantages of birth1 are not always those in which family aristocracy is most offensive4 ,we do not find among the natives of ,spanish origin1 that cold and assuming air which the character of modern civilization seems to have rendered less common in ,spain than in the rest of ,europe4 ,conviviality1 candour1 and great simplicity of manner1 unite the different classes of society in the colonies1 as well as in the mother-country4 ,it may even be said1 that the expression of vanity and self-love becomes less offensive1 when it retains something of simplicity and frankness4 ,i found in several families at ,caracas a love of information1 an acquaintance with the masterpieces of ,french and ,italian literature1 and a marked predilection for music1 which is greatly cultivated1 and which 7as always results from a taste for the fine arts7 brings the different classes of society nearer to each other4 ,the mathematical sciences1 drawing1 and painting1 cannot here boast of any of those establishments with which royal munificence and the patriotic zeal of the inhabitants have enriched ,mexico4 ,in the midst of the marvels of nature1 so rich in interesting productions1 it is strange that we found no person on this coast devoted to the study of plants and minerals4 ,in a ,franciscan convent ,i met1 it is true1 with an old monk who drew up the almanac for all the provinces of ,venezuela1 and who possessed some accurate knowledge of astronomy4 ,our instruments interested him deeply1 and one day our house was filled with all the monks of ,san ,francisco1 begging to see a dipping-needle4 ,the curiosity excited by physical phenomena is naturally great in countries undermined by volcanic fires1 and in a climate where nature is at once so majestic and so mysteriously convulsed4 ,when we remember1 that in the ,united ,states of ,north ,america1 newspapers are published in small towns not containing more than three thousand inhabitants1 it seems surprising that ,caracas1 with a population of forty or fifty thousand souls1 should have possessed no printing office before #ahjf2 for we cannot give the name of a printing establishment to a few presses which served only from year to year to promulgate an almanac of a few pages1 or the pastoral letter of a bishop4 ,though the number of those who feel reading to be a necessity is not very considerable1 even in the ,spanish colonies most advanced in civilization1 yet it would be unjust to reproach the colonists for a state of intellectual lassitude which has been the result of a jealous policy4 ,a ,frenchman1 named ,delpeche1 has the merit of having established the first printing office in ,caracas4 ,it appears somewhat extraordinary that an establishment of this kind should have followed1 and not preceded1 a political revolution4 ,in a country abounding in such magnificent scenery1 and at a period when1 notwithstanding some symptoms of popular commotion1 most of the inhabitants seem only to direct attention to physical objects1 such as the fertility of the year1 the long drought1 or the conflicting winds of ,petare and ,catia1 ,i expected to find many individuals well acquainted with the lofty surrounding mountains4 ,but ,i was disappointed2 and we could not find in ,caracas a single person who had visited the summit of the ,silla4 ,hunters do not ascend so high on the ridges of mountains2 and in these countries journeys are not undertaken for such purposes as gathering alpine plants1 carrying a barometer to an elevated point1 or examining the nature of rocks4 ,accustomed to a uniform and domestic life1 the people dread fatigue and sudden changes of climate4 ,they seem to live not to enjoy life1 but only to prolong it4 ,our walks led us often in the direction of two coffee plantations1 the proprietors of which1 ,don ,andres de ,ibarra and ,m4 ,blandin1 were men of agreeable manners4 ,these plantations were situated opposite the ,silla de ,caracas4 ,surveying1 by a telescope1 the steep declivity of the mountains1 and the form of the two peaks by which it is terminated1 we could form an idea of the difficulties we should have to encounter in reaching its summit4 ,angles of elevation1 taken with the sextant at our house1 had led me to believe that the summit was not so high above sea-level as the great square of ,quito4 ,this estimate was far from corresponding with the notions entertained by the inhabitants of the city4 ,mountains which command great towns1 have acquired1 from that very circumstance1 an extraordinary celebrity in both continents4 ,long before they have been accurately measured1 a conventional height is assigned to them2 and to entertain the least doubt respecting that height is to wound a national prejudice4 ,the captain-general1 ,senor de ,guevara1 directed the teniente of ,chacao to furnish us with guides to conduct us on our ascent of the ,silla4 ,these guides were negroes1 and they knew something of the path leading over the ridge of the mountain1 near the western peak of the ,silla4 ,this path is frequented by smugglers1 but neither the guides1 nor the most experienced of the militia1 accustomed to pursue the smugglers in these wild spots1 had been on the eastern peak1 forming the most elevated summit of the ,silla4 ,during the whole month of ,december1 the mountain 7of which the angles of elevation made me acquainted with the effects of the terrestrial refractions7 had appeared only five times free of clouds4 ,in this season two serene days seldom succeed each other1 and we were therefore advised not to choose a clear day for our excursion1 but rather a time when1 the clouds not being elevated1 we might hope1 after having crossed the first layer of vapours uniformly spread1 to enter into a dry and transparent air4 ,we passed the night of the #bnd of ,january in the ,estancia de ,gallegos1 a plantation of coffee-trees1 near which the little river of ,chacaito1 flowing in a luxuriantly shaded ravine1 forms some fine cascades in descending the mountains4 ,the night was pretty clear2 and though on the day preceding a fatiguing journey it might have been well to have enjoyed some repose1 ,m4 ,bonpland and ,i passed the whole night in watching three occultations of the satellites of ,jupiter4 ,i had previously determined the instant of the observation1 but we missed them all1 owing to some error of calculation in the ,connaissance des ,temps4 ,the apparent time had been mistaken for mean time4 ,i was much disappointed by this accident2 and after having observed at the foot of the mountain the intensity of the magnetic forces1 before sunrise1 we set out at five in the morning1 accompanied by slaves carrying our instruments4 ,our party consisted of eighteen persons1 and we all walked one behind another1 in a narrow path1 traced on a steep acclivity1 covered with turf4 ,we endeavoured first to reach a hill1 which towards the south-east seems to form a promontory of the ,silla4 ,it is connected with the body of the mountain by a narrow dyke1 called by the shepherds the ,gate1 or ,puerta de la ,silla4 ,we reached this dyke about seven4 ,the morning was fine and cool1 and the sky till then seemed to favour our excursion4 ,i saw that the thermometer kept a little below #ad degrees 7#aa4b degrees ,reaum474 ,the barometer showed that we were already six hundred and eighty-five toises above the level of the sea1 that is1 nearly eighty toises higher than at the ,venta1 where we enjoyed so magnificent a view of the coast4 ,our guides thought that it would require six hours more to reach the summit of the ,silla4 ,we crossed a narrow dyke of rocks covered with turf2 which led us from the promontory of the ,puerta to the ridge of the great mountain4 ,here the eye looks down on two valleys1 or rather narrow defiles1 filled with thick vegetation4 ,on the right is perceived the ravine which descends between the two peaks to the farm of ,munoz2 on the left we see the defile of ,chacaito1 with its waters flowing out near the farm of ,gallegos4 ,the roaring of the cascades is heard1 while the water is unseen1 being concealed by thick groves of erythrina1 clusia1 and the ,indian fig-tree499 799 ,ficus nymphaeifolia1 ,erythrina mitis4 ,two fine species of mimosa are found in the same valley2 ,inga fastuosa1 and ,i4 cinerea47 ,nothing can be more picturesque1 in a climate where so many plants have broad1 large1 shining1 and coriaceous leaves1 than the aspect of trees when the spectator looks down from a great height above them1 and when they are illumined by the almost perpendicular rays of the sun4 ,from the ,puerta de la ,silla the steepness of the ascent increases1 and we were obliged to incline our bodies considerably forwards as we advanced4 ,the slope is often from #cj to #cb degrees499 799 ,since my experiments on slopes1 mentioned above in ,chapter #a4b1 ,i have discovered in the ,figure de la ,terre of ,bouguer1 a passage1 which shows that this astronomer1 whose opinions are of such weight1 considered also #cf degrees as the inclination of a slope quite inaccessible1 if the nature of the ground did not admit of forming steps with the foot47 ,we felt the want of cramp-irons1 or sticks shod with iron4 ,short grass covered the rocks of gneiss1 and it was equally impossible to hold by the grass1 or to form steps as we might have done in softer ground4 ,this ascent1 which was attended with more fatigue than danger1 discouraged those who accompanied us from the town1 and who were unaccustomed to climb mountains4 ,we lost a great deal of time in waiting for them1 and we did not resolve to proceed alone till we saw them descending the mountain instead of climbing up it4 ,the weather was becoming cloudy2 the mist already issued in the form of smoke1 and in slender and perpendicular streaks1 from a small humid wood which bordered the region of alpine savannahs above us4 ,it seemed as if a fire had burst forth at once on several points of the forest4 ,these streaks of vapour gradually accumulated together1 and rising above the ground1 were carried along by the morning breeze1 and glided like a light cloud over the rounded summit of the mountain4 ,m4 ,bonpland and ,i foresaw from these infallible signs1 that we should soon be covered by a thick fog2 and lest our guides should take advantage of this circumstance and leave us1 we obliged those who carried the most necessary instruments to precede us4 ,we continued climbing the slopes which lead towards the ravine of ,chacaito4 ,the familiar loquacity of the ,creole blacks formed a striking contrast with the taciturn gravity of the ,indians1 who had constantly accompanied us in the missions of ,caripe4 ,the negroes amused themselves by laughing at the persons who had been in such haste to abandon an expedition so long in preparation2 above all1 they did not spare a young ,capuchin monk1 a professor of mathematics1 who never ceased to boast of the superior physical strength and courage possessed by all classes of ,european ,spaniards over those born in ,spanish ,america4 ,he had provided himself with long slips of white paper1 which were to be cut1 and flung on the savannah1 to indicate to those who might stray behind1 the direction they ought to follow4 ,the professor had even promised the friars of his order to fire off some rockets1 to announce to the whole town of ,caracas that we had succeeded in an enterprise which to him appeared of the utmost importance4 ,he had forgotten that his long and heavy garments would embarrass him in the ascent4 ,having lost courage long before the creoles1 he passed the rest of the day in a neighbouring plantation1 gazing at us through a glass directed to the ,silla1 as we climbed the mountain4 ,unfortunately for us1 he had taken charge of the water and the provision so necessary in an excursion to the mountains4 ,the slaves1 who were to rejoin us1 were so long detained by him1 that they arrived very late1 and we were ten hours without either bread or water4 ,the eastern peak is the most elevated of the two which form the summit of the mountain1 and to this we directed our course with our instruments4 ,the hollow between these two peaks has suggested the ,spanish name of ,silla 7saddle71 which is given to the whole mountain4 ,the narrow defile which we have already mentioned1 descends from this hollow toward the valley of ,caracas1 commencing near the western dome4 ,the eastern summit is accessible only by going first to the west of the ravine over the promontory of the ,puerta1 proceeding straight forward to the lower summit2 and not turning to the east till the ridge1 or the hollow of the ,silla between the two peaks1 is nearly reached4 ,the general aspect of the mountain points out this path2 the rocks being so steep on the east of the ravine that it would be extremely difficult to reach the summit of the ,silla by ascending straight to the eastern dome1 instead of going by the way of the ,puerta4 ,from the foot of the cascade of ,chacaito to one thousand toises of elevation1 we found only savannahs4 ,two small liliaceous plants1 with yellow flowers199 alone lift up their heads1 among the grasses which cover the rocks4 799 ,cypura martinicensis1 and ,sisyrinchium iridifolium4 ,this last is found also near the ,venta of ,la ,guayra1 at #fjj toises of elevation47 ,a few brambles99 799 ,rubus jamaicensis47 remind us of the form of our ,european vegetation4 ,we in vain hoped to find on the mountains of ,caracas1 and subsequently on the back of the ,andes1 an eglantine near these brambles4 ,we did not find one indigenous rose-tree in all ,south ,america1 notwithstanding the analogy existing between the climates of the high mountains of the torrid zone and the climate of our temperate zone4 ,it appears that this charming shrub is wanting in all the southern hemisphere1 within and beyond the tropics4 ,it was only on the ,mexican mountains that we were fortunate enough to discover1 in the nineteenth degree of latitude1 ,american eglantines499 799 ,m4 ,redoute1 in his superb work on rose-trees1 has given our ,mexican eglantine1 under the name of ,rosier de ,montezuma1 ,montezuma rose47 ,we were sometimes so enveloped in mist1 that we could not1 without difficulty1 find our way4 ,at this height there is no path1 and we were obliged to climb with our hands1 when our feet failed us1 on the steep and slippery acclivity4 ,a vein filled with porcelain-clay attracted our attention499 799 ,the breadth of the vein is three feet4 ,this porcelain-clay1 when moistened1 readily absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere4 ,i found1 at ,caracas1 the residual nitrogen very slightly mingled with carbonic acid1 though the experiment was made in phials with ground-glass stoppers1 not filled with water47 ,it is of snowy whiteness1 and is no doubt the remains of a decomposed feldspar4 ,i forwarded a considerable portion of it to the intendant of the province4 ,in a country where fuel is not scarce1 a mixture of refractory earths may be useful1 to improve the earthenware1 and even the bricks4 ,every time that the clouds surrounded us1 the thermometer sunk as low as #ab degrees 7to #i4f degrees ,r472 with a serene sky it rose to #ba degrees4 ,these observations were made in the shade4 ,but it is difficult1 on such rapid declivities1 covered with a dry1 shining1 yellow turf1 to avoid the effects of radiant heat4 ,we were at nine hundred and forty toises of elevation2 and yet at the same height1 towards the east1 we perceived in a ravine1 not merely a few solitary palm-trees1 but a whole grove4 ,it was the palma real2 probably a species of the genus ,oreodoxa4 ,this group of palms1 at so considerable an elevation1 formed a striking contrast with the willows99 scattered on the depth of the more temperate valley of ,caracas4 799 ,salix ,humboldtiana of ,willdenouw4 ,on the alpine palm-trees1 see my ,prolegomena de ,dist4 ,plant4 page #bce47 ,we here discovered plants of ,european forms1 situated below those of the torrid zone4 ,after proceeding for the space of four hours across the savannahs1 we entered into a little wood composed of shrubs and small trees1 called el ,pejual2 doubtless from the great abundance here of the pejoa 7,gaultheria odorata71 a plant with very odoriferous leaves499 799 ,it is a great advantage of the ,spanish language1 and a peculiarity which it shares in common with the ,latin1 that1 from the name of a tree1 may be derived a word designating an association or group of trees of the same species4 ,thus are formed the words olivar1 robledar1 and pinal1 from olivo1 roble1 and pino4 ,the ,hispano-,americans have added tunal1 pejual1 guayaval1 etc41 places where a great many ,cactuses1 ,gualtheria odoratas1 and ,psidiums1 grow together47 ,the steepness of the mountain became less considerable1 and we felt an indescribable pleasure in examining the plants of this region4 ,nowhere1 perhaps1 can be found collected together1 in so small a space1 productions so beautiful1 and so remarkable in regard to the geography of plants4 ,at the height of a thousand toises1 the lofty savannahs of the hills terminate in a zone of shrubs which1 by their appearance1 their tortuous branches1 their stiff leaves1 and the magnitude and beauty of their purple flowers1 remind us of what is called1 in the ,cordilleras of the ,andes1 the vegetation of the paramos and the punas499 799 ,for the explanation of these words1 see above ,chapter #a4e47 ,we there find the family of the alpine rhododendrons1 the thibaudias1 the andromedas1 the vacciniums1 and those befarias with resinous leaves1 which we have several times compared to the rhododendron of our ,european ,alps4 ,even when nature does not produce the same species in analogous climates1 either in the plains of isothermal parallels199 7,we may compare together either latitudes which in the same hemisphere present the same mean temperature 7as1 for instance1 ,pennsylvania and the central part of ,france1 ,chile and the southern part of ,new ,holland72 or we may consider the relations that may exist between the vegetation of the two hemispheres under isothermal parallels47 or on table-lands1 the temperature of which resembles that of places nearer the poles199 we still remark a striking resemblance of appearance and physiognomy in the vegetation of the most distant countries4 799 ,the geography of plants comprises not merely an examination of the analogies observed in the same hemisphere2 as between the vegetation of the ,pyrenees and that of the ,scandinavian plains2 or between that of the ,cordilleras of ,peru and of the coasts of ,chile4 ,it also investigates the relations between the alpine plants of both hemispheres4 ,it compares the vegetation of the ,alleghanies and the ,cordilleras of ,mexico1 with that of the mountains of ,chile and ,brazil4 ,bearing in mind that every isothermal line has an alpine branch 7as1 for instance1 that which connects ,upsala with a point in the ,swiss ,alps71 the great problem of the analogy of vegetable forms may be defined as follows3 #ast1 examining in each hemisphere1 and at the level of the coasts1 the vegetation on the same isothermal line1 especially near convex or concave summits2 #bnd1 comparing1 with respect to the form of plants1 on the same isothermal line north and south of the equator1 the alpine branch with that traced in the plains2 #crd1 comparing the vegetation on homonymous isothermal lines in the two hemispheres1 either in the low regions1 or in the alpine regions47 ,this phenomenon is one of the most curious in the history of organic forms4 ,i say the history2 for in vain would reason forbid man to form hypotheses on the origin of things2 he still goes on puzzling himself with insoluble problems relating to the distribution of beings4 ,a gramen of ,switzerland grows on the granitic rocks of the straits of ,magellan499 799 ,phleum alpinum1 examined by ,mr4 ,brown4 ,the investigations of this great botanist prove that a certain number of plants are at once common to both hemispheres4 ,potentilla anserina1 ,prunella vulgaris1 ,scirpus mucronatus1 and ,panicum crus-galli1 grow in ,germany1 in ,australia1 and in ,pennsylvania47 ,new ,holland contains above forty ,european phanerogamous plants3 and the greater number of those plants1 which are found equally in the temperate zones of both hemispheres1 are entirely wanting in the intermediary or equinoctial region1 as well in the plains as on the mountains4 ,a downy-leaved violet1 which terminates in some sort the zone of the phanerogamous plants at ,teneriffe1 and which was long thought peculiar to that island199 is seen three hundred leagues farther north1 near the snowy summit of the ,pyrenees4 799 ,the ,viola cheiranthifolia has been found by ,,mm4 ,kunth and ,von ,buch among the alpine plants which ,jussieu brought from the ,pyrenees47 ,gramina and cyperaceous plants of ,germany1 ,arabia1 and ,senegal1 have been recognized among those that were gathered by ,m4 ,bonpland and myself on the cold table-lands of ,mexico1 along the burning shores of the ,orinoco1 and in the southern hemisphere on the ,andes and ,quito499 799 ,cyperus mucronatus1 ,poa eragrostis1 ,festuca myurus1 ,andropogos avenaceus1 ,lapago racemosa4 7,see the ,nova ,genera et ,species ,plantarum volume #a page #be477 ,how can we conceive the migration of plants through regions now covered by the ocean8 ,how have the germs of organic life1 which resemble each other in their appearance1 and even in their internal structure1 unfolded themselves at unequal distances from the poles and from the surface of the seas1 wherever places so distant present any analogy of temperature8 ,notwithstanding the influence exercised on the vital functions of plants by the pressure of the air1 and the greater or less extinction of light1 heat1 unequally distributed in different seasons of the year1 must doubtless be considered as the most powerful stimulus of vegetation4 ,the number of identical species in the two continents and in the two hemispheres is far less than the statements of early travellers would lead us to believe4 ,the lofty mountains of equinoctial ,america have certainly plantains1 valerians1 arenarias1 ranunculuses1 medlars1 oaks1 and pines1 which from their physiognomy we might confound with those of ,europe2 but they are all specifically different4 ,when nature does not present the same species1 she loves to repeat the same genera4 ,neighbouring species are often placed at enormous distances from each other1 in the low regions of the temperate zone1 and on the alpine heights of the equator4 ,at other times 7and the ,silla of ,caracas affords a striking example of this phenomenon71 they are not the ,european genera1 which have sent species to people like colonists the mountains of the torrid zone1 but genera of the same tribe1 difficult to be distinguished by their appearance1 which take the place of each other in different latitudes4 ,the mountains of ,new ,grenada surrounding the table-lands of ,bogota are more than two hundred leagues distant from those of ,caracas1 and yet the ,silla1 the only elevated peak in the chain of low mountains1 presents those singular groupings of befarias with purple flowers1 of andromedas1 of gualtherias1 of myrtilli1 of uvas camaronas199 799 ,the names vine-tree1 and uvas camaronas1 are given in the ,andes to plants of the genus ,thibaudia1 on account of their large succulent fruits4 ,thus the ancient botanists gave the name of bear's vine1 uva ursi1 and vine of ,mount ,ida 7,vitis idaea71 to an arbutus and a myrtillus1 which belong1 like the thibaudia1 to the family of the ,ericineae47 of nerteras1 and of aralias with hoary leaves199 799 ,nertera depressa1 ,aralia reticulata1 ,hedyotis blaerioides47 which characterize the vegetation of the paramos on the high ,cordilleras of ,santa ,fe4 ,we found the same ,thibaudia glandulosa at the entrance of the table-land of ,bogota1 and in the ,pejual of the ,silla4 ,the coast-chain of ,caracas is unquestionably connected 7by the ,torito1 the ,palomera1 ,tocuyo1 and the paramos of ,rosas1 of ,bocono1 and of ,niquitao7 with the high ,cordilleras of ,merida1 ,pamplona1 and ,santa ,fe2 but from the ,silla to ,tocuyo1 along a distance of seventy leagues1 the mountains of ,caracas are so low1 that the shrubs of the family of the ericineous plants1 just cited1 do not find the cold climate which is necessary for their development4 ,supposing1 as is probable1 that the thibaudias and the rhododendron of the ,andes1 or befaria1 exist in the paramo of ,niquitao and in the ,sierra de ,merida1 covered with eternal snow1 these plants would nevertheless want a ridge sufficiently lofty and long for their migration towards the ,silla of ,caracas4 ,the more we study the distribution of organized beings on the globe1 the more we are inclined1 if not to abandon the ideas of migration1 at least to consider them as hypotheses not entirely satisfactory4 ,the chain of the ,andes divides the whole of ,south ,america into two unequal longitudinal parts4 ,at the foot of this chain1 on the east and west1 we found a great number of plants specifically the same4 ,the various passages of the ,cordilleras nowhere permit the vegetable productions of the warm regions to proceed from the coasts of the ,pacific to the banks of the ,amazon4 ,when a peak attains a great elevation1 either in the middle of very low mountains and plains1 or in the centre of an archipelago heaved up by volcanic fires1 its summit is covered with alpine plants1 many of which are again found1 at immense distances1 on other mountains having an analogous climate4 ,such are the general phenomena of the distribution of plants4 ,it is now said that a mountain is high enough to enter into the limits of the rhododendrons and the befarias1 as it has long been said that such a mountain reached the limit of perpetual snow4 ,in using this expression1 it is tacitly admitted1 that under the influence of certain temperatures1 certain vegetable forms must necessarily be developed4 ,such a supposition1 however1 taken in all its generality1 is not strictly accurate4 ,the pines of ,mexico are wanting on the ,cordilleras of ,peru4 ,the ,silla of ,caracas is not covered with the oaks which flourish in ,new ,grenada at the same height4 ,identity of forms indicates an analogy of climate2 but in similar climates the species may be singularly diversified4 ,the charming rhododendron of the ,andes 7the befaria7 was first described by ,m4 ,mutis1 who observed it near ,pamplona and ,santa ,fe de ,bogota1 in the fourth and seventh degree of north latitude4 ,it was so little known before our expedition to the ,silla1 that it was scarcely to be found in any herbal in ,europe4 ,the learned editors of the ,flora of ,peru had even described it under another name1 that of acunna4 ,in the same manner as the rhododendrons of ,lapland1 ,caucasus1 and the ,alps99 799 ,rhododendron lapponicum1 ,r4 caucasicum1 ,r4 ferrugineum1 and ,r4 hirsutum47 differ from each other1 the two species of befaria we brought from the ,silla99 799 ,befaria glauca1 ,b4 ledifolia47 are also specifically different from that of ,santa ,fe and ,bogota499 799 ,befaria aestuans1 and ,b4 resinosa47 ,near the equator the rhododendrons of the ,andes 7,particularly ,b4 aestuans of ,mutis1 and two new species of the southern hemisphere1 which we have described under the name of ,b4 coarctata1 and ,b4 grandiflora47 cover the mountains as far as the highest paramos1 at sixteen and seventeen hundred toises of elevation4 ,advancing northward1 on the ,silla de ,caracas1 we find them much lower1 a little below one thousand toises4 ,the befaria recently discovered in ,florida1 in latitude #cj degrees1 grows even on hills of small elevation4 ,thus in a space of six hundred leagues in latitude1 these shrubs descend towards the plains in proportion as their distance from the equator augments4 ,the rhododendron of ,lapland grows also at eight or nine hundred toises lower than the rhododendron of the ,alps and the ,pyrenees4 ,we were surprised at not meeting with any species of befaria in the mountains of ,mexico1 between the rhododendrons of ,santa ,fe and ,caracas1 and those of ,florida4 ,in the small grove which crowns the ,silla1 the ,befaria ledifolia is only three or four feet high4 ,the trunk is divided from its root into a great many slender and even verticillate branches4 ,the leaves are oval1 lanceolate1 glaucous on their inferior part1 and curled at the edges4 ,the whole plant is covered with long and viscous hairs1 and emits a very agreeable resinous smell4 ,the bees visit its fine purple flowers1 which are very abundant1 as in all the alpine plants1 and1 when in full blossom1 they are often nearly an inch wide4 ,the rhododendron of ,switzerland1 in those places where it grows1 at the elevation of between eight hundred and a thousand toises1 belongs to a climate1 the mean temperature of which is #b and-#a degrees1 like that of the plains of ,lapland4 ,in this zone the coldest months are-#d1 and-#aj degrees3 the hottest1 #ab and #g degrees4 ,thermometrical observations1 made at the same heights and in the same latitudes1 render it probable that1 at the ,pejual of the ,silla1 one thousand toises above the ,caribbean ,sea1 the mean temperature of the air is still #ag or #ah degrees2 and that the thermometer keeps1 in the coolest season1 between #ae and #bj degrees in the day1 and in the night between #aj and #ab degrees4 ,at the hospital of ,st4 ,gothard1 situated nearly on the highest limit of the rhododendron of the ,alps1 the maximum of heat1 in the month of ,august at noon1 in the shade1 is usually #ab or #ac degrees2 in the night1 at the same season1 the air is cooled by the radiation of the soil down to #a or-#a4e degrees4 ,under the same barometric pressure1 consequently at the same height1 but thirty degrees of latitude nearer the equator1 the befaria of the ,silla is often1 at noon1 in the sun1 exposed to a heat of #bc or #bd degrees4 ,the greatest nocturnal refrigeration probably never exceeds #g degrees4 ,we have carefully compared the climate1 under the influence of which1 at different latitudes1 two groups of plants of the same family vegetate at equal heights above the level of the sea4 ,the results would have been far different1 had we compared zones equally distant1 either from the perpetual snow1 or from the isothermal line of #j degrees499 799 ,the stratum of air1 the mean temperature of which is #j degrees1 and which scarcely coincides with the superior limit of perpetual snow1 is found in the parallel of the rhododendrons of ,switzerland at nine hundred toises2 in the parallel of the befarias of ,caracas1 at two thousand seven hundred toises of elevation47 ,in the little thicket of the ,pejual1 near the purple-flowered befaria1 grows a heath-leaved hedyotis1 eight feet high2 the caparosa199 which is a large arborescent hypericum 799 ,vismia caparosa 7a loranthus clings to this plant1 and appropriates to itself the yellow juice of the vismia72 ,davallia meifolia1 ,heracium avilae1 ,aralia arborea1 ,jacq41 and ,lepidium virginicum4 ,two new species of lycopodium1 the thyoides1 and the aristatum1 are seen lower down1 near the ,puerto de la ,silla472 a lepidium1 which appears identical with that of ,virginia2 and lastly1 lycopodiaceous plants and mosses1 which cover the rocks and roots of the trees4 ,that which gives most celebrity in the country to the little thicket1 is a shrub ten or fifteen feet high1 of the corymbiferous family4 ,the ,creoles call it incense 7incienso7499 799 ,trixis nereifolia of ,m4 ,bonpland47 ,its tough and crenate leaves1 as well as the extremities of the branches1 are covered with a white wool4 ,it is a new species of ,trixis1 extremely resinous1 the flowers of which have the agreeable odour of storax4 ,this smell is very different from that emitted by the leaves of the ,trixis terebinthinacea of the mountains of ,jamaica1 opposite to those of ,caracas4 ,the people sometimes mix the incienso of the ,silla with the flowers of the pevetera1 another composite plant1 the smell of which resembles that of the heliotropium of ,peru4 ,the pevetera does not1 however1 grow on the mountains so high as the zone of the befarias2 it vegetates in the valley of ,chacao1 and the ladies of ,caracas prepare from it an extremely pleasant odoriferous water4 ,we spent a long time in examining the fine resinous and fragrant plants of the ,pejual4 ,the sky became more and more cloudy1 and the thermometer sank below #aa degrees1 a temperature at which1 in this zone1 people begin to suffer from the cold4 ,quitting the little thicket of alpine plants1 we found ourselves again in a savannah4 ,we climbed over a part of the western dome1 in order to descend into the hollow of the ,silla1 a valley which separates the two summits of the mountain4 ,we there had great difficulties to overcome1 occasioned by the force of the vegetation4 ,a botanist would not readily guess that the thick wood covering this valley is formed by the assemblage of a plant of the musaceous family499 799,scitamineous plants1 or family of the plantains47 ,it is probably a maranta1 or a heliconia2 its leaves are large and shining2 it reaches the height of fourteen or fifteen feet1 and its succulent stalks grow near one another like the stems of the reeds found in the humid regions of the south of ,europe499 799 ,arundo donax47 ,we were obliged to cut our way through this forest4 ,the negroes walked before with their cutlasses or machetes4 ,the people confound this alpine scitamineous plant with the arborescent gramina1 under the name of carice4 ,we saw neither its fruit nor flowers4 ,we are surprised to meet with a monocotyledonous family1 believed to be exclusively found in the hot and low regions of the tropics1 at eleven hundred toises of elevation2 much higher than the andromedas1 the thibaudias1 and the rhododendron of the ,cordilleras499 799 ,befaria47 ,in a chain of mountains no less elevated1 and more northern 7the ,blue ,mountains of ,jamaica71 the ,heliconia of the parrots and the bihai1 rather grow in the alpine shaded situations499 799 ,heliconia psittacorum1 and ,h4 bihai4 ,these two heliconias are very common in the plains of ,terra ,firma47 ,wandering in this thick wood of musaceae or arborescent plants1 we constantly directed our course towards the eastern peak1 which we perceived from time to time through an opening4 ,on a sudden we found ourselves enveloped in a thick mist2 the compass alone could guide us2 but in advancing northward we were in danger at every step of finding ourselves on the brink of that enormous wall of rocks1 which descends almost perpendicularly to the depth of six thousand feet towards the sea4 ,we were obliged to halt4 ,surrounded by clouds sweeping the ground1 we began to doubt whether we should reach the eastern peak before night4 ,happily1 the negroes who carried our water and provisions1 rejoined us1 and we resolved to take some refreshment4 ,our repast did not last long4 ,possibly the ,capuchin father had not thought of the great number of persons who accompanied us1 or perhaps the slaves had made free with our provisions on the way2 be that as it may1 we found nothing but olives1 and scarcely any bread4 ,horace1 in his retreat at ,tibur1 never boasted of a repast more light and frugal2 but olives1 which might have afforded a satisfactory meal to a poet1 devoted to study1 and leading a sedentary life1 appeared an aliment by no means sufficiently substantial for travellers climbing mountains4 ,we had watched the greater part of the night1 and we walked for nine hours without finding a single spring4 ,our guides were discouraged2 they wished to go back1 and we had great difficulty in preventing them4 ,in the midst of the mist ,i made trial of the electrometer of ,volta1 armed with a smoking match4 ,though very near a thick wood of heliconias1 ,i obtained very sensible signs of atmospheric electricity4 ,it often varied from positive to negative1 its intensity changing every instant4 ,these variations1 and the conflict of several small currents of air1 which divided the mist1 and transformed it into clouds1 the borders of which were visible1 appeared to me infallible prognostics of a change in the weather4 ,it was only two o'clock in the afternoon2 we entertained some hope of reaching the eastern summit of the ,silla before sunset1 and of re-descending into the valley separating the two peaks1 intending there to pass the night1 to light a great fire1 and to make our negroes construct a hut with the leaves of the heliconia4 ,we sent off half of our servants with orders to hasten the next morning to meet us1 not with olives1 but with a supply of salt beef4 ,we had scarcely made these arrangements when the east wind began to blow violently from the sea4 ,the thermometer rose to #ab4e degrees4 ,it was no doubt an ascending wind1 which1 by heightening the temperature1 dissolved the vapours4 ,in less than two minutes the clouds dispersed1 and the two domes of the ,silla appeared to us singularly near4 ,we opened the barometer in the lowest part of the hollow that separates the two summits1 near a little pool of very muddy water4 ,here1 as in the ,west ,india ,islands1 marshy plains are found at great elevations2 not because the woody mountains attract the clouds1 but because they condense the vapours by the effect of nocturnal refrigeration1 occasioned by the radiation of heat from the ground1 and from the parenchyma of the leaves4 ,the mercury was at #ba inches #e4g lines4 ,we shaped our course direct to the eastern summit4 ,the obstruction caused by the vegetation gradually diminished2 it was1 however1 necessary to cut down some heliconias2 but these arborescent plants were not now very thick or high4 ,the peaks of the ,silla themselves1 as we have several times mentioned1 are covered only with gramina and small shrubs of befaria4 ,their barrenness1 however1 is not owing to their height3 the limit of trees in this region is four hundred toises higher2 since1 judging according to the analogy of other mountains1 this limit would be found here only at a height of eighteen hundred toises4 ,the absence of large trees on the two rocky summits of the ,silla may be attributed to the aridity of the soil1 the violence of the winds blowing from the sea1 and the conflagrations so frequent in all the mountains of the equinoctial region4 ,to reach the eastern peak1 which is the highest1 it is necessary to approach as near as possible the great precipice which descends towards ,caravalleda and the coast4 ,the gneiss as far as this spot preserves its lamellar texture and its primitive direction2 but where we climbed the summit of the ,silla1 we found it had passed into granite4 ,its texture becomes granular2 the mica1 less frequent1 is more unequally spread through the rock4 ,instead of garnets we met with a few solitary crystals of hornblende4 ,it is1 however1 not a syenite1 but rather a granite of new formation4 ,we were three quarters of an hour in reaching the summit of the pyramid4 ,this part of the way is not dangerous1 provided the traveller carefully examines the stability of each fragment of rock on which he places his foot4 ,the granite superposed on the gneiss does not present a regular separation into beds3 it is divided by clefts1 which often cross one another at right angles4 ,prismatic blocks1 one foot wide and twelve long1 stand out from the ground obliquely1 and appear on the edges of the precipice like enormous beams suspended over the abyss4 ,having arrived at the summit1 we enjoyed1 for a few minutes only1 the serenity of the sky4 ,the eye ranged over a vast extent of country3 looking down to the north was the sea1 and to the south1 the fertile valley of ,caracas4 ,the barometer was at #bj inches #g4f lines2 the thermometer at #ac4g degrees4 ,we were at thirteen hundred and fifty toises of elevation4 ,we gazed on an extent of sea1 the radius of which was thirty-six leagues4 ,persons who are affected by looking downward from a considerable height should remain at the centre of the small flat which crowns the eastern summit of the ,silla4 ,the mountain is not very remarkable for height3 it is nearly eighty toises lower than the ,canigou2 but it is distinguished among all the mountains ,i have visited by an enormous precipice on the side next the sea4 ,the coast forms only a narrow border2 and looking from the summit of the pyramid on the houses of ,caravalleda1 this wall of rocks seems1 by an optical illusion1 to be nearly perpendicular4 ,the real slope of the declivity appeared to me1 according to an exact calculation1 #ec degrees #bh minutes499 799 ,observations of the latitude give for the horizontal distance between the foot of the mountain near ,caravalleda1 and the vertical line passing through its summit1 scarcely #ajjj toises47 ,the mean slope of the peak of ,teneriffe is scarcely #ab degrees #cj minutes4 ,a precipice of six or seven thousand feet1 like that of the ,silla of ,caracas1 is a phenomenon far more rare than is generally believed by those who cross mountains without measuring their height1 their bulk1 and their slope4 ,since the experiments on the fall of bodies1 and on their deviation to the south-east1 have been resumed in several parts of ,europe1 a rock of two hundred and fifty toises of perpendicular elevation has been in vain sought for among all the ,alps of ,switzerland4 ,the declivity of ,mont ,blanc towards the ,allee ,blanche does not even reach an angle of #de degrees2 though in the greater number of geological works1 ,mont ,blanc is described as perpendicular on the south side4 ,at the ,silla of ,caracas1 the enormous northern cliff is partly covered with vegetation1 notwithstanding the extreme steepness of its slope4 ,tufts of befaria and andromedas appear as if suspended from the rock4 ,the little valley which separates the domes towards the south1 stretches in the direction of the sea4 ,alpine plants fill this hollow2 and1 not confined to the ridge of the mountain1 they follow the sinuosities of the ravine4 ,it would seem as if torrents were concealed under that fresh foliage2 and the disposition of the plants1 the grouping of so many inanimate objects1 give the landscape all the charm of motion and of life4 ,seven months had now elapsed since we had been on the summit of the peak of ,teneriffe1 whence we surveyed a space of the globe equal to a fourth part of ,france4 ,the apparent horizon of the sea is there six leagues farther distant than at the top of the ,silla1 and yet we saw that horizon1 at least for some time1 very distinctly4 ,it was strongly marked1 and not confounded with the adjacent strata of air4 ,at the ,silla1 which is five hundred and fifty toises lower than the peak of ,teneriffe1 the horizon1 though nearer1 continued invisible towards the north and north-north-east4 ,following with the eye the surface of the sea1 which was smooth as glass1 we were struck with the progressive diminution of the reflected light4 ,where the visual ray touched the last limit of that surface1 the water was lost among the superposed strata of air4 ,this appearance has something in it very extraordinary4 ,we expect to see the horizon level with the eye2 but1 instead of distinguishing at this height a marked limit between the two elements1 the more distant strata of water seem to be transformed into vapour1 and mingled with the aerial ocean4 ,i observed the same appearance1 not in one spot of the horizon alone1 but on an extent of more than a hundred and sixty degrees1 along the ,pacific1 when ,i found myself for the first time on the pointed rock that commands the crater of ,pichincha2 a volcano1 the elevation of which exceeds that of ,mont ,blanc499 799 ,see ,views of ,nature1 ,bohn's edition1 page #ceh47 ,the visibility of a very distant horizon depends1 when there is no mirage1 upon two distinct things3 the quantity of light received on that part of the sea where the visual ray terminates2 and the extinction of the reflected light during its passage through the intermediate strata of air4 ,it may happen1 notwithstanding the serenity of the sky and the transparency of the atmosphere1 that the ocean is feebly illuminated at thirty or forty leagues' distance2 or that the strata of air nearest the earth may extinguish a great deal of the light1 by absorbing the rays that traverse them4 ,the rounded peak1 or western dome of the ,silla1 concealed from us the view of the town of ,caracas2 but we distinguished the nearest houses1 the villages of ,chacao and ,petare1 the coffee plantations1 and the course of the ,rio ,guayra1 a slender streak of water reflecting a silvery light4 ,the narrow band of cultivated ground was pleasingly contrasted with the wild and gloomy aspect of the neighbouring mountains4 ,whilst contemplating these grand scenes1 we feel little regret that the solitudes of the ,new ,world are not embellished with the monuments of antiquity4 ,but we could not long avail ourselves of the advantage arising from the position of the ,silla1 in commanding all the neighbouring summits4 ,while we were examining with our glasses that part of the sea1 the horizon of which was clearly defined1 and the chain of the mountains of ,ocumare1 behind which begins the unknown world of the ,orinoco and the ,amazon1 a thick fog from the plains rose to the elevated regions1 first filling the bottom of the valley of ,caracas4 ,the vapours1 illumined from above1 presented a uniform tint of a milky white4 ,the valley seemed overspread with water1 and looked like an arm of the sea1 of which the adjacent mountains formed the steep shore4 ,in vain we waited for the slave who carried ,ramsden's great sextant4 ,eager to avail myself of the favourable state of the sky1 ,i resolved to take a few solar altitudes with a sextant by ,troughton of two inches radius4 ,the disk of the sun was half-concealed by the mist4 ,the difference of longitude between the quarter of the ,trinidad and the eastern peak of the ,silla appears scarcely to exceed #j degrees #c minutes #bb seconds499 799 ,the difference of longitude between the ,silla and ,la ,guayra1 according to ,fidalgo1 is #j degrees #f minutes #dj seconds47 ,whilst1 seated on the rock1 ,i was determining the dip of the needle1 ,i found my hands covered with a species of hairy bee1 a little smaller than the honey-bee of the north of ,europe4 ,these insects make their nests in the ground4 ,they seldom fly2 and1 from the slowness of their movements1 ,i should have supposed they were benumbed by the cold of the mountains4 ,the people1 in these regions1 call them angelitos 7little angels71 because they very seldom sting4 ,they are no doubt of the genus ,apis1 of the division melipones4 ,it has been erroneously affirmed that these bees1 which are peculiar to the ,new ,world1 are destitute of all offensive weapons4 ,their sting is indeed comparatively feeble1 and they use it seldom2 but a person1 not fully convinced of the harmlessness of these angelitos1 can scarcely divest himself of a sensation of fear4 ,i must confess1 that1 whilst engaged in my astronomical observations1 ,i was often on the point of letting my instruments fall1 when ,i felt my hands and face covered with these hairy bees4 ,our guides assured us that they attempt to defend themselves only when irritated by being seized by their legs4 ,i was not tempted to try the experiment on myself4 ,the dip of the needle at the ,silla was one centesimal degree less than in the town of ,caracas4 ,in collecting the observations which ,i made during calm weather and in very favourable circumstances1 on the mountains as well as along the coast1 it would at first seem1 that we discover1 in that part of the globe1 a certain influence of the heights on the dip of the needle1 and the intensity of the magnetical forces2 but we must remark1 that the dip at ,caracas is much greater than could be supposed1 from the situation of the town1 and that the magnetical phenomena are modified by the proximity of certain rocks1 which constitute so many particular centres or little systems of attraction499 799 ,i have seen fragments of quartz traversed by parallel bands of magnetic iron1 carried into the valley of ,caracas by the waters descending from the ,galipano and the ,cerro de ,avila4 ,this banded magnetic iron-ore is found also in the ,sierra ,nevada of ,merida4 ,between the two peaks of the ,silla1 angular fragments of cellular quartz are found1 covered with red oxide of iron4 ,they do not act on the needle4 ,this oxide is of a cinnabar-red colour47 ,the temperature of the atmosphere varied on the summit of the ,silla from eleven to fourteen degrees1 according as the weather was calm or windy4 ,every one knows how difficult it is to verify1 on the summit of a mountain1 the temperature1 which is to serve for the barometric calculation4 ,the wind was east1 which would seem to prove that the trade-winds extend in this latitude much higher than fifteen hundred toises4 ,von ,buch had observed that1 at the peak of ,teneriffe1 near the northern limit of the trade-winds1 there exists generally at the elevation of one thousand nine hundred toises1 a contrary current from the west4 ,the ,academy of ,sciences recommended the men of science who accompanied the unfortunate ,la ,perouse1 to employ small air-balloons for the purpose of ascertaining at sea the extent of the trade-winds within the tropics4 ,such experiments are very difficult4 ,small balloons do not in general reach the height of the ,silla2 and the light clouds which are sometimes perceived at an elevation of three or four thousand toises1 for instance1 the fleecy clouds1 called by the ,french moutons1 remain almost fixed1 or have such a slow motion1 that it is impossible to judge of the direction of the wind4 ,during the short space of time that the sky was serene at the zenith1 ,i found the blue of the atmosphere sensibly deeper than on the coasts4 ,it is probable that1 in the months of ,july and ,august1 the difference between the colour of the sky on the coasts and on the summit of the ,silla is still more considerable1 but the meteorological phenomenon with which ,m4 ,bonpland and myself were most struck during the hour we passed on the mountain1 was the apparent dryness of the air1 which seemed to increase as the fog augmented4 ,this fog soon became so dense that it would have been imprudent to remain longer on the edge of a precipice of seven or eight thousand feet deep499 799 ,in the direction of north-west the slopes appear more accessible2 and ,i have been told of a path frequented by smugglers1 which leads to ,caravalleda1 between the two peaks of the ,silla4 ,from the eastern peak ,i took the bearings of the western peak1 #fd degrees #dj minutes south-west2 and of the houses1 which ,i was told belonged to ,caravalleda1 #ee degrees #bj minutes north-west4 7 ,we descended the eastern dome of the ,silla1 and gathered in our descent a gramen1 which not only forms a new and very remarkable genus1 but which1 to our great astonishment1 we found again some time after on the summit of the volcano of ,pichincha1 at the distance of four hundred leagues from the ,silla1 in the southern hemisphere499 799 ,aegopogon cenchroides47 ,the ,lichen floridus1 so common in the north of ,europe1 covered the branches of the befaria and the ,gualtheria odorata1 descending even to the roots of these shrubs4 ,examining the mosses which cover the rocks of gneiss in the valley between the two peaks1 ,i was surprised at finding real pebbles1--rounded fragments of quartz499 799 ,fragments of brown copper-ore were found mixed with these pebbles1 at an elevation of #aagj toises47 ,it may be conceived that the valley of ,caracas was once an inland lake1 before the ,rio ,guayra found an issue to the east near ,caurimare1 at the foot of the hill of ,auyamas1 and before the ravine of ,tipe opened on the west1 in the direction of ,gatia and ,cabo ,blanco4 ,but how can we imagine that these waters could ascend as high as the ,silla1 when the mountains opposite this peak1 those of ,ocumare1 were too low to prevent their overflow into the llanos8 ,the pebbles could not have been brought by torrents from more elevated points1 since there is no height that commands the ,silla4 ,must we admit that they have been heaved up1 like all the mountains which border the coast4 ,it was half after four in the afternoon when we finished our observations4 ,satisfied with the success of our journey1 we forgot that there might be danger in descending in the dark1 steep declivities covered by a smooth and slippery turf4 ,the mist concealed the valley from us2 but we distinguished the double hill of ,la ,puerta1 which1 like all objects lying almost perpendicularly beneath the eye1 appeared extremely near4 ,we relinquished our design of passing the night between the two summits of the ,silla1 and having again found the path we had cut through the thick wood of heliconia1 we soon arrived at the ,pejual1 the region of odoriferous and resinous plants4 ,the beauty of the befarias1 and their branches covered with large purple flowers1 again rivetted our attention4 ,when1 in these climates1 a botanist gathers plants to form his herbal1 he becomes difficult in his choice in proportion to the luxuriance of vegetation4 ,he casts away those which have been first cut1 because they appear less beautiful than those which were out of reach4 ,though loaded with plants before quitting the ,pejual1 we still regretted not having made a more ample harvest4 ,we tarried so long in this spot1 that night surprised us as we entered the savannah1 at the elevation of upwards of nine hundred toises4 ,as there is scarcely any twilight in the tropics1 we pass suddenly from bright daylight to darkness4 ,the moon was on the horizon2 but her disk was veiled from time to time by thick clouds1 drifted by a cold and rough wind4 ,rapid slopes1 covered with yellow and dry grass1 now seen in shade1 and now suddenly illumined1 seemed like precipices1 the depth of which the eye sought in vain to measure4 ,we proceeded onwards1 in single file1 and endeavoured to support ourselves by our hands1 lest we should roll down4 ,the guides1 who carried our instruments1 abandoned us successively1 to sleep on the mountain4 ,among those who remained with us was a ,congo black1 who evinced great address1 bearing on his head a large dipping-needle3 he held it constantly steady1 notwithstanding the extreme declivity of the rocks4 ,the fog had dispersed by degrees in the bottom of the valley2 and the scattered lights we perceived below us caused a double illusion4 ,the steeps appeared still more dangerous than they really were2 and1 during six hours of continual descent1 we seemed to be always equally near the farms at the foot of the ,silla4 ,we heard very distinctly the voices of men and the notes of guitars4 ,sound is generally so well propagated upwards1 that in a balloon at the elevation of three thousand toises1 the barking of dogs is sometimes heard499 799 ,gay-,lussac's account of his ascent on the #aeth of ,september1 #ahje47 ,we did not arrive till ten at night at the bottom of the valley4 ,we were overcome with fatigue and thirst1 having walked for fifteen hours1 nearly without stopping4 ,the soles of our feet were cut and torn by the asperities of a rocky soil and the hard and dry stalks of the gramina1 for we had been obliged to pull off our boots1 the soles having become too slippery4 ,on declivities devoid of shrubs or ligneous herbs1 which may be grasped by the hand1 the danger of the descent is diminished by walking barefoot4 ,in order to shorten the way1 our guides conducted us from the ,puerta de la ,silla to the farm of ,gallegos by a path leading to a reservoir of water1 called el ,tanque4 ,they missed their way1 however2 and this last descent1 the steepest of all1 brought us near the ravine of ,chacaito4 ,the noise of the cascades gave this nocturnal scene a grand and wild character4 ,we passed the night at the foot of the ,silla4 ,our friends at ,caracas had been able to distinguish us with glasses on the summit of the eastern peak4 ,they felt interested in hearing the account of our expedition1 but they were not satisfied with the result of our measurement1 which did not assign to the ,silla even the elevation of the highest summit of the ,pyrenees499 799 ,it was formerly believed that the height of the ,silla of ,caracas scarcely differed from that of the peak of ,teneriffe47 ,one cannot blame the national feeling which suggests exaggerated ideas of the monuments of nature1 in a country in which the monuments of art are nothing2 nor can we wonder that the inhabitants of ,quito and ,riobamba1 who have prided themselves for ages on the height of ,chimborazo1 mistrust those measurements which elevate the mountains of ,himalaya above all the colossal ,cordilleras8 ,during our journey to the ,silla1 and in all our excursions in the valley of ,caracas1 we were very attentive to the lodes and indications of ore which we found in the strata of gneiss4 ,no regular diggings having been made1 we could only examine the fissures1 the ravines1 and the land-slips occasioned by torrents in the rainy season4 ,the rock of gneiss1 passing sometimes into a granite of new formation1 sometimes into mica-slate199 799 ,especially at great elevations47 belongs in ,germany to the most metalliferous rocks2 but in the ,new ,continent1 the gneiss has not hitherto been remarked as very rich in ores worth working4 ,the most celebrated mines of ,mexico and ,peru are found in the primitive and transition schists1 in the trap-porphyries1 the grauwakke1 and the alpine limestones4 ,in several spots of the valley of ,caracas1 the gneiss contains a small quantity of gold1 disseminated in small veins of quartz1 sulphuretted silver1 azure copper-ore1 and galena2 but it is doubtful whether these different metalliferous substances are not too poor to encourage any attempt at working them4 ,such attempts were1 however1 made at the conquest of the province1 about the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,from the promontory of ,paria to beyond cape ,vela1 the early navigators had seen gold ornaments and gold dust1 in the possession of the inhabitants of the coast4 ,they penetrated into the interior of the country1 to discover whence the precious metal came2 and though the information obtained in the province of ,coro1 and the markets of ,curiana and ,cauchieto199 799 ,the ,spaniards found1 in #aejj1 in the country of ,curiana 7now ,coro71 little birds1 frogs1 and other ornaments made of gold4 ,those who had cast these figures lived at ,cauchieto1 a place nearer the ,rio de la ,hacha4 ,i have seen ornaments resembling those described by ,peter ,martyr of ,anghiera 7which indicate tolerable skill in goldsmiths' work71 among the remains of the ancient inhabitants of ,cundinamarca4 ,the same art appears to have been practised in places along the coasts1 and also farther to the south1 among the mountains of ,new ,grenada47 clearly proved that real mineral wealth was to be found only to the west and south-west of ,coro 7that is to say1 in the mountains near those of ,new ,grenada71 the whole province of ,caracas was nevertheless eagerly explored4 ,a governor1 newly arrived on that coast1 could recommend himself to the ,spanish court only by boasting of the mines of his province2 and in order to take from cupidity what was most ignoble and repulsive1 the thirst of gold was justified by the purpose to which it was pretended the riches acquired by fraud and violence might be employed4 ,gold1 says ,christopher ,columbus1 in his last letter99 7,lettera rarissima data nelle ,indie nella isola di ,jamaica a #g ,julio dei #aejc4--,le oro e metallo sopra gli altri excellentissimo2 e dell' oro si fanno li tesori e chi lo tiene fa e opera quanto vuole nel mondo81 e finel8mente aggionge a mandare le anime al ,paradiso47 to ,king ,ferdinand1 gold is a thing so much the more necessary to your majesty1 because1 in order to fulfil the ancient prophecy1 ,jerusalem is to be rebuilt by a prince of the ,spanish monarchy4 ,gold is the most excellent of metals4 ,what becomes of those precious stones1 which are sought for at the extremities of the globe8 ,they are sold1 and are finally converted into gold4 ,with gold we not only do whatever we please in this world1 but we can even employ it to snatch souls from ,purgatory1 and to people ,paradise4 ,these words bear the stamp of the age in which ,columbus lived2 but we are surprised to see this pompous eulogium of riches written by a man whose whole life was marked by the most noble disinterestedness4 ,the conquest of the province of ,venezuela having been begun at its western extremity1 the neighbouring mountains of ,coro1 ,tocuyo1 and ,barquisimeto1 first attracted the attention of the ,conquistadores4 ,these mountains join the ,cordilleras of ,new ,grenada 7those of ,santa ,fe1 ,pamplona1 la ,grita1 and ,merida7 to the littoral chain of ,caracas4 ,it is a land the more interesting in a geognostical point of view1 as no map has yet made known the mountainous ramifications which the paramos of ,niquitao and ,las ,rosas send out towards the north-east4 ,between ,tocuyo1 ,araure1 and ,barquisimeto1 rises the group of the ,altar ,mountains1 connected on the south-east with the paramo of ,las ,rosas4 ,a branch of the ,altar stretches north-east by ,san ,felipe el ,fuerte1 joining the granitic mountains of the coast near ,porto ,cabello4 ,the other branch takes an eastward direction towards ,nirgua and ,tinaco1 and joins the chain of the interior1 that of ,yusma1 ,villa de ,cura1 and ,sabana de ,ocumare4 ,the region we have been here describing separates the waters which flow to the ,orinoco from those which run into the immense lake of ,maracaybo and the ,caribbean ,sea4 ,it includes climates which may be termed temperate rather than hot2 and it is looked upon in the country1 notwithstanding the distance of more than a hundred leagues1 as a prolongation of the metalliferous soil of ,pamplona4 ,it was in the group of the western mountains of ,venezuela1 that the ,spaniards1 in the year #aeea1 worked the gold mine of ,buria199 799 ,real de ,minas de ,san ,felipe de ,buria47 which was the origin of the foundation of the town of ,barquisimeto499 799 ,nueva ,segovia47 ,but these works1 like many other mines successively opened1 were soon abandoned4 ,here1 as in all the mountains of ,venezuela1 the produce of the ore has been found to be very variable4 ,the lodes are very often divided1 or they altogether cease2 and the metals appear only in kidney-ores1 and present the most delusive appearances4 ,it is1 however1 only in this group of mountains of ,san ,felipe and ,barquisimeto1 that the working of mines has been continued till the present time4 ,those of ,aroa1 near ,san ,felipe el ,fuerte1 situated in the centre of a very insalubrious country1 are the only mines which are wrought in the whole capitania-general of ,caracas4 ,they yield a small quantity of copper4 ,next to the works at ,buria1 near ,barquisimeto1 those of the valley of ,caracas1 and of the mountains near the capital1 are the most ancient4 ,francisco ,faxardo and his wife ,isabella1 of the nation of the ,guaiquerias199 often visited the table-land where the capital of ,venezuela is now situated4 799 ,faxardo and his wife were the founders of the town of the ,collado1 now called ,caravalleda47 ,they had given this table-land the name of ,valle de ,san ,francisco2 and having seen some bits of gold in the hands of the natives1 ,faxardo succeeded1 in the year #aefj1 in discovering the mines of ,los ,teques199 to the south-west of ,caracas1 near the group of the mountains of ,cocuiza1 which separate the valleys of ,caracas and ,aragua4 799 ,thirteen years later1 in #aegc1 ,gabriel de ,avila1 one of the alcaldes of the new town of ,caracas1 renewed the working of these mines1 which were from that time called the ,real de ,minas de ,nuestra ,senora4 ,probably this same ,avila1 on account of a few farms which he possessed in the mountains adjacent to ,la ,guayra and ,caracas1 has occasioned the ,cumbre to receive the name of ,montana de ,avila4 ,this name has subsequently been applied erroneously to the ,silla1 and to all the chain which extends towards cape ,codera47 ,it is thought that in the first of these valleys1 near ,baruta1 south of the village of ,valle1 the natives had made some excavations in veins of auriferous quartz2 and that1 when the ,spaniards first settled there1 and founded the town of ,caracas1 they filled the shafts1 which had been dry1 with water4 ,it is now impossible to ascertain this fact2 but it is certain that1 long before the ,conquest1 grains of gold were a medium of exchange1 ,i do not say generally1 but among certain nations of the ,new ,continent4 ,they gave gold for the purchase of pearls2 and it does not appear extraordinary1 that1 after having for a long time picked up grains of gold in the rivulets1 people who had fixed habitations1 and were devoted to agriculture1 should have tried to trace the auriferous veins in the superior surface of the soil4 ,the mines of ,los ,teques could not be peaceably wrought1 till the defeat of the ,cacique ,guaycaypuro1 a celebrated chief of the ,teques1 who long contested with the ,spaniards the possession of the province of ,venezuela4 ,we have yet to mention a third point to which the attention of the ,conquistadores was called by indications of mines1 so early as the end of the sixteenth century4 ,in following the valley of ,caracas eastward beyond ,caurimare1 on the road to ,caucagua1 we reach a mountainous and woody country1 where a great quantity of charcoal is now made1 and which anciently bore the name of the ,province of ,los ,mariches4 ,in these eastern mountains of ,venezuela1 the gneiss passes into the state of talc4 ,it contains1 as at ,salzburg1 lodes of auriferous quartz4 ,the works anciently begun in those mines have often been abandoned and resumed4 ,the mines of ,caracas were forgotten during more than a hundred years4 ,but at a period comparatively recent1 about the end of the last century1 an ,intendant of ,venezuela1 ,don ,jose ,avalo1 again fell into the illusions which had flattered the cupidity of the ,conquistadores4 ,he fancied that all the mountains near the capital contained great metallic riches4 ,some ,mexican miners were engaged1 and their operations were directed to the ravine of ,tipe1 and the ancient mines of ,baruta to the south of ,caracas1 where the ,indians gather even now some little gold-washings4 ,but the zeal which had prompted the enterprise soon diminished1 and after much useless expense1 the working of the mines of ,caracas was totally abandoned4 ,a small quantity of auriferous pyrites1 sulphuretted silver1 and a little native gold1 were found2 but these were only feeble indications2 and in a country where labour is extremely dear1 there was no inducement to pursue works so little productive4 ,we visited the ravine of ,tipe1 situated in that part of the valley which opens in the direction of ,cabo ,blanco4 ,proceeding from ,caracas1 we traverse1 in the direction of the great barracks of ,san ,carlos1 a barren and rocky soil4 ,only a very few plants of ,argemone mexicana are to be found4 ,the gneiss appears everywhere above ground4 ,we might have fancied ourselves on the table-land of ,freiberg4 ,we crossed first the little rivulet of ,agua ,salud1 a limpid stream1 which has no mineral taste1 and then the ,rio ,garaguata4 ,the road is commanded on the right by the ,cerro de ,avila and the ,cumbre2 and on the left1 by the mountains of ,aguas ,negras4 ,this defile is very interesting in a geological point of view4 ,at this spot the valley of ,caracas communicates1 by the valleys of ,tacagua and of ,tipe1 with the coast near ,catia4 ,a ridge of rock1 the summit of which is forty toises above the bottom of the valley of ,caracas1 and more than three hundred toises above the valley of ,tacagua1 divides the waters which flow into the ,rio ,guayra and towards ,cabo ,blanco4 ,on this point of division1 at the entrance of the branch1 the view is highly pleasing4 ,the climate changes as we descend westward4 ,in the valley of ,tacagua we found some new habitations1 and also conucos of maize and plantains4 ,a very extensive plantation of tuna1 or cactus1 stamps this barren country with a peculiar character4 ,the cactuses reach the height of fifteen feet1 and grow in the form of candelabra1 like the euphorbia of ,africa4 ,they are cultivated for the purpose of selling their refreshing fruits in the market of ,caracas4 ,the variety which has no thorns is called1 strangely enough1 in the colonies1 tuna de ,espana 7,spanish cactus74 ,we measured1 at the same place1 magueys or agaves1 the long stems of which1 laden with flowers1 were forty-four feet high4 ,however common this plant is become in the south of ,europe1 the native of a northern climate is never weary of admiring the rapid development of a liliaceous plant1 which contains at once a sweet juice and astringent and caustic liquids1 employed to cauterize wounds4 ,we found several veins of quartz in the valley of ,tipe visible above the soil4 ,they contained pyrites1 carbonated iron-ore1 traces of sulphuretted silver 7glasserz71 and grey copper-ore 7fahlerz74 ,the works which had been undertaken1 either for extracting the ore1 or exploring the nature of its bed1 appeared to be very superficial4 ,the earth falling in had filled up those excavations1 and we could not judge of the richness of the lode4 ,notwithstanding the expense incurred under the intendancy of ,don ,jose ,avalo1 the great question whether the province of ,venezuela contains mines rich enough to be worked1 is yet problematical4 ,though in countries where hands are wanting1 the culture of the soil demands unquestionably the first care of the government1 yet the example of ,new ,spain sufficiently proves that mining is not always unfavourable to the progress of agriculture4 ,the best-cultivated ,mexican lands1 those which remind the traveller of the most beautiful districts of ,france and the south of ,germany1 extend from ,silao towards the ,villa of ,leon3 they are in the neighbourhood of the mines of ,guanaxuato1 which alone furnish a sixth part of all the silver of the ,new ,world4 ,,chapter #a4ad4 ,,earthquakes ,,at ,,caracas4 ,,connection ,,of ,,those ,,phenomena ,,with ,,the ,,volcanic ,,eruptions ,,of ,,the ,,west ,,india ,,islands4 ,on the evening of the #gth of ,february we took our departure from ,caracas4 ,since the period of our visit to that place1 tremendous earthquakes have changed the surface of the soil4 ,the city1 which ,i have described1 has disappeared2 and on the same spot1 on the ground fissured in various directions1 another city is now slowly rising4 ,the heaps of ruins1 which were the grave of a numerous population1 are becoming anew the habitation of men4 ,in retracing changes of so general an interest1 ,i shall be led to notice events which took place long after my return to ,europe4 ,i shall pass over in silence the popular commotions which have taken place1 and the modifications which society has undergone4 ,modern nations1 careful of their own remembrances1 snatch from oblivion the history of human revolutions1 which is1 in fact1 the history of ardent passions and inveterate hatred4 ,it is not the same with respect to the revolutions of the physical world4 ,these are described with least accuracy when they happen to be contemporary with civil dissensions4 ,earthquakes and eruptions of volcanoes strike the imagination by the evils which are their necessary consequence4 ,tradition seizes on whatever is vague and marvellous2 and amid great public calamities1 as in private misfortunes1 man seems to shun that light which leads us to discover the real causes of events1 and to understand the circumstances by which they are attended4 ,i have recorded in this work all ,i have been able to collect1 and on the accuracy of which ,i can rely1 respecting the earthquake of the #bfth of ,march1 #ahab4 ,by that catastrophe the town of ,caracas was destroyed1 and more than twenty thousand persons perished throughout the extent of the province of ,venezuela4 ,the intercourse which ,i have kept up with persons of all classes has enabled me to compare the description given by many eye-witnesses1 and to interrogate them on objects that may throw light on physical science in general4 ,the traveller1 as the historian of nature1 should verify the dates of great catastrophes1 examine their connection and their mutual relations1 and should mark in the rapid course of ages1 in the continual progress of successive changes1 those fixed points with which other catastrophes may one day be compared4 ,all epochs are proximate to each other in the immensity of time comprehended in the history of nature4 ,years which have passed away seem but a few instants2 and the physical descriptions of a country1 even when they offer subjects of no very powerful and general interest1 have at least the advantage of never becoming old4 ,similar considerations1 no doubt1 led ,m4 de la ,condamine to describe in his ,voyage a l',equateur1 the memorable eruptions of the volcano of ,cotopaxi199 which took place long after his departure from ,quito4 799 ,those of the #cjth of ,november1 #agdd1 and of the #crd of ,september1 #agej47 ,i feel the less hesitation in following the example of that celebrated traveller1 as the events ,i am about to relate will help to elucidate the theory of volcanic reaction1 or the influence of a system of volcanoes on a vast space of circumjacent territory4 ,at the time when ,m4 ,bonpland and myself visited the provinces of ,new ,andalusia1 ,new ,barcelona1 and ,caracas1 it was generally believed that the most eastern parts of those coasts were especially exposed to the destructive effects of earthquakes4 ,the inhabitants of ,cumana dreaded the valley of ,caracas1 on account of its damp and variable climate1 and its gloomy and misty sky2 whilst the inhabitants of the temperate valley regarded ,cumana as a town whose inhabitants incessantly inhaled a burning atmosphere1 and whose soil was periodically agitated by violent commotions4 ,unmindful of the overthrow of ,riobamba and other very elevated towns1 and not aware that the peninsula of ,araya1 composed of mica-slate1 shares the commotions of the calcareous coast of ,cumana1 well-informed persons imagined they discerned security in the structure of the primitive rocks of ,caracas1 as well as in the elevated situation of this valley4 ,religious ceremonies celebrated at ,la ,guayra1 and even in the capital1 in the middle of the night199 doubtless called to mind the fact that the province of ,venezuela had been subject at intervals to earthquakes2 but dangers of rare occurrence are slightly feared4 799 ,for instance1 the nocturnal procession of the #bast of ,october1 instituted in commemoration of the great earthquake which took place on that day of the month1 at one o'clock in the morning1 in #aggh4 ,other very violent shocks were those of #afda1 #agjc1 and #ahjb47 ,however1 in the year #ahaa1 fatal experience destroyed the illusion of theory and of popular opinion4 ,caracas1 situated in the mountains1 three degrees west of ,cumana1 and five degrees west of the volcanoes of the ,caribbee islands1 has suffered greater shocks than were ever experienced on the coast of ,paria or ,new ,andalusia4 ,at my arrival in ,terra ,firma1 ,i was struck with the connection between the destruction of ,cumana on the #adth of ,december1 #agig1 and the eruption of the volcanoes in the smaller ,west ,india ,islands4 ,this connection was again manifest in the destruction of ,caracas on the #bfth of ,march1 #ahab4 ,the volcano of ,guadaloupe seemed in #agig to have exercised a reaction on the coasts of ,cumana4 ,fifteen years later1 it was a volcano situated nearer the continent 7that of ,st4 ,vincent71 which appeared to have extended its influence as far as ,caracas and the banks of ,apure4 ,possibly1 at both those periods1 the centre of the explosion was1 at an immense depth1 equally distant from the regions towards which the motion was propagated at the surface of the globe4 ,from the beginning of #ahaa to #ahac1 a vast superficies of the earth199 799 ,between latitudes #e and #cf degrees north1 and #ca and #ia degrees west longitude from ,paris47 bound by the meridian of the ,azores1 the valley of the ,ohio1 the ,cordilleras of ,new ,grenada1 the coasts of ,venezuela1 and the volcanoes of the smaller ,west ,india ,islands1 was shaken throughout its whole extent1 by commotions which may be attributed to subterranean fires4 ,the following series of phenomena seems to indicate communications at enormous distances4 ,on the #cjth of ,january1 #ahaa1 a submarine volcano broke out near the island of ,st4 ,michael1 one of the ,azores4 ,at a place where the sea was sixty fathoms deep1 a rock made its appearance above the surface of the waters4 ,the heaving-up of the softened crust of the globe appears to have preceded the eruption of flame at the crater1 as had already been observed at the volcanoes of ,jorullo in ,mexico1 and on the appearance of the little island of ,kameni1 near ,santorino4 ,the new islet of the ,azores was at first a mere shoal2 but on the #aeth of ,june1 an eruption1 which lasted six days1 enlarged its extent1 and carried it progressively to the height of fifty toises above the surface of the sea4 ,this new land1 of which captain ,tillard took possession in the name of the ,british government1 giving it the name of ,sabrina ,island1 was nine hundred toises in diameter4 ,it has again1 it seems1 been swallowed up by the ocean4 ,this is the third time that submarine volcanoes have presented this extraordinary spectacle near the island of ,st4 ,michael2 and1 as if the eruptions of these volcanoes were subject to periodical recurrence1 owing to a certain accumulation of elastic fluids1 the island raised up has appeared at intervals of ninety-one or ninety-two years499 799 ,malte-,brun1 ,geographie ,universelle4 ,there is1 however1 some doubt respecting the eruption of #afbh1 to which some accounts assign the date of #afch4 ,the rising always happened near the island of ,st4 ,michael1 though not identically on the same spot4 ,it is remarkable that the small island of #agbj reached the same elevation as the island of ,sabrina in #ahaa47 ,at the time of the appearance of the new island of ,sabrina1 the smaller ,west ,india ,islands1 situated eight hundred leagues south-west of the ,azores1 experienced frequent earthquakes4 ,more than two hundred shocks were felt from the month of ,may #ahaa1 to ,april #ahab1 at ,st4 ,vincent2 one of the three islands in which there are still active volcanoes4 ,the commotion was not circumscribed to the insular portion of eastern ,america2 and from the #afth of ,december1 #ahaa1 till the year #ahac1 the earth was almost incessantly agitated in the valleys of the ,mississippi1 the ,arkansas river1 and the ,ohio4 ,the oscillations were more feeble on the east of the ,alleghanies1 than to the west of these mountains1 in ,tennessee and ,kentucky4 ,they were accompanied by a great subterranean noise1 proceeding from the south-west4 ,in some places between ,new ,madrid and ,little ,prairie1 as at the ,saline1 north of ,cincinnati1 in latitude #cg degrees #de minutes1 shocks were felt every day1 nay almost every hour1 during several months4 ,the whole of these phenomena continued from the #afth of ,december #ahaa1 till the year #ahac4 ,the commotion1 confined at first to the south1 in the valley of the lower ,mississippi1 appeared to advance slowly northward4 ,precisely at the period when this long series of earthquakes commenced in the ,transalleghanian ,states 7in the month of ,december #ahaa71 the town of ,caracas felt the first shock in calm and serene weather4 ,this coincidence of phenomena was probably not accidental2 for it must be borne in mind that1 notwithstanding the distance which separates these countries1 the low grounds of ,louisiana and the coasts of ,venezuela and ,cumana belong to the same basin1 that of the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,when we consider geologically the basin of the ,caribbean ,sea1 and of the ,gulf of ,mexico1 we find it bounded on the south by the coast-chain of ,venezuela and the ,cordilleras of ,merida and ,pamplona2 on the east by the mountains of the ,west ,india ,islands1 and the ,alleghanies2 on the west by the ,andes of ,mexico1 and the ,rocky ,mountains2 and on the north by the very inconsiderable elevations which separate the ,canadian lakes from the rivers which flow into the ,mississippi4 ,more than two-thirds of this basin are covered with water4 ,it is bordered by two ranges of active volcanoes2 on the east1 in the ,carribee ,islands1 between latitudes #ac and #af degrees2 and on the west in the ,cordilleras of ,nicaragua1 ,guatimala1 and ,mexico1 between latitudes #aa and #bj degrees4 ,when we reflect that the great earthquake at ,lisbon1 of the #ast of ,november1 #agee1 was felt almost simultaneously on the coasts of ,sweden1 at lake ,ontario1 and at the island of ,martinique1 it may not seem unreasonable to suppose1 that all this basin of the ,west ,indies1 from ,cumana and ,caracas as far as the plains of ,louisiana1 should be simultaneously agitated by commotions proceeding from the same centre of action4 ,it is an opinion very generally prevalent on the coasts of ,terra ,firma1 that earthquakes become more frequent when electric explosions have been during some years rare4 ,it is supposed to have been observed1 at ,cumana and at ,caracas1 that the rains were less frequently attended with thunder from the year #agib2 and the total destruction of ,cumana in #agig1 as well as the commotions felt in #ahjj1 #ahja1 and #ahjb1 at ,maracaibo1 ,porto ,cabello1 and ,caracas1 have not failed to be attributed to an accumulation of electricity in the interior of the earth4 ,persons who have lived long in ,new ,andalusia1 or in the low regions of ,peru1 will admit that the period most to be dreaded for the frequency of earthquakes is the beginning of the rainy season1 which1 however1 is also the season of thunder-storms4 ,the atmosphere and the state of the surface of the globe seem to exercise an influence unknown to us on the changes which take place at great depths2 and ,i am inclined to think that the connection which it is supposed has been traced between the absence of thunder-storms and the frequency of earthquakes1 is rather a physical hypothesis framed by the half-learned of the country than the result of long experience4 ,the coincidence of certain phenomena may be favoured by chance4 ,the extraordinary commotions felt almost continually during the space of two years on the banks of the ,mississippi and the ,ohio1 and which corresponded in #ahab with those of the valley of ,caracas1 were preceded at ,louisiana by a year almost exempt from thunder-storms4 ,the public mind was again struck with this phenomenon4 ,we cannot be surprised that there should be in the native land of ,franklin a great readiness to receive explanations founded on the theory of electricity4 ,the shock felt at ,caracas in the month of ,december #ahaa1 was the only one which preceded the terrible catastrophe of the #bfth of ,march1 #ahab4 ,the inhabitants of ,terra ,firma were alike ignorant of the agitations of the volcano in the island of ,st4 ,vincent1 and of those felt in the basin of the ,mississippi1 where1 on the #gth and #hth of ,february1 #ahab1 the earth was day and night in perpetual oscillation4 ,a great drought prevailed at this period in the province of ,venezuela4 ,not a single drop of rain had fallen at ,caracas or in the country to the distance of ninety leagues round1 during five months preceding the destruction of the capital4 ,the #bfth of ,march was a remarkably hot day4 ,the air was calm1 and the sky unclouded4 ,it was ,ascension-day1 and a great portion of the population was assembled in the churches4 ,nothing seemed to presage the calamities of the day4 ,at seven minutes after four in the afternoon the first shock was felt4 ,it was sufficiently forcible to make the bells of the churches toll2 and it lasted five or six seconds4 ,during that interval the ground was in a continual undulating movement1 and seemed to heave up like a boiling liquid4 ,the danger was thought to be past1 when a tremendous subterranean noise was heard1 resembling the rolling of thunder1 but louder and of longer continuance than that heard within the tropics in the time of storms4 ,this noise preceded a perpendicular motion of three or four seconds1 followed by an undulatory movement somewhat longer4 ,the shocks were in opposite directions1 proceeding from north to south1 and from east to west4 ,nothing could resist the perpendicular movement and the transverse undulations4 ,the town of ,caracas was entirely overthrown1 and between nine and ten thousand of the inhabitants were buried under the ruins of the houses and churches4 ,the procession of ,ascension-day had not yet begun to pass through the streets1 but the crowd was so great within the churches that nearly three or four thousand persons were crushed by the fall of the roofs4 ,the explosion was most violent towards the north1 in that part of the town situated nearest the mountain of ,avila and the ,silla4 ,the churches of la ,trinidad and ,alta ,gracia1 which were more than one hundred and fifty feet high1 and the naves of which were supported by pillars of twelve or fifteen feet diameter1 were reduced to a mass of ruins scarcely exceeding five or six feet in elevation4 ,the sinking of the ruins has been so considerable that there now scarcely remain any vestiges of pillars or columns4 ,the barracks1 called el ,quartel de ,san ,carlos1 situated north of the church of la ,trinidad1 on the road from the custom-house of ,la ,pastora1 almost entirely disappeared4 ,a regiment of troops of the line1 under arms1 and in readiness to join the procession1 was1 with the exception of a few men1 buried beneath the ruins of the barracks4 ,nine-tenths of the fine city of ,caracas were entirely destroyed4 ,the walls of some houses not thrown down1 as those in the street ,san ,juan1 near the ,capuchin ,hospital1 were cracked in such a manner as to render them uninhabitable4 ,the effects of the earthquake were somewhat less violent in the western and southern parts of the city1 between the principal square and the ravine of ,caraguata4 ,there1 the cathedral1 supported by enormous buttresses1 remains standing4 ,it is computed that nine or ten thousand persons were killed in the city of ,caracas1 exclusive of those who1 being dangerously wounded1 perished several months after1 for want of food and proper care4 ,the night of the ,festival of the ,ascension witnessed an awful scene of desolation and distress4 ,the thick cloud of dust which1 rising above the ruins1 darkened the sky like a fog1 had settled on the ground4 ,no commotion was felt1 and never was a night more calm or more serene4 ,the moon1 then nearly at the full1 illumined the rounded domes of the ,silla1 and the aspect of the sky formed a perfect contrast to that of the earth1 which was covered with the bodies of the dead1 and heaped with ruins4 ,mothers were seen bearing in their arms their children1 whom they hoped to recall to life4 ,desolate families were wandering through the city1 seeking a brother1 a husband1 or a friend1 of whose fate they were ignorant1 and whom they believed to be lost in the crowd4 ,the people pressed along the streets1 which could be traced only by long lines of ruins4 ,all the calamities experienced in the great catastrophes of ,lisbon1 ,messina1 ,lima1 and ,riobamba were renewed at ,caracas on the fatal #bfth of ,march1 #ahab4 ,wounded persons1 buried beneath the ruins1 were heard imploring by their cries the help of the passers-by1 and nearly two thousand were dug out4 ,never was pity more tenderly evinced2 never was it more ingeniously active than in the efforts employed to save the miserable victims whose groans reached the ear4 ,implements for digging and clearing away the ruins were entirely wanting2 and the people were obliged to use their bare hands1 to disinter the living4 ,the wounded1 as well as the invalids who had escaped from the hospitals1 were laid on the banks of the small river ,guayra1 where there was no shelter but the foliage of trees4 ,beds1 linen to dress the wounds1 instruments of surgery1 medicines1 every object of the most urgent necessity1 was buried in the ruins4 ,everything1 even food1 was wanting2 and for the space of several days water became scarce in the interior of the city4 ,the commotion had rent the pipes of the fountains2 and the falling in of the earth had choked up the springs that supplied them4 ,to procure water it was necessary to go down to the river ,guayra1 which was considerably swelled2 and even when the water was obtained vessels for conveying it were wanting4 ,there was a duty to be fulfilled to the dead1 enjoined at once by piety and the dread of infection4 ,it being impossible to inter so many thousand bodies1 half-buried under the ruins1 commissioners were appointed to burn them3 and for this purpose funeral piles were erected between the heaps of ruins4 ,this ceremony lasted several days4 ,amidst so many public calamities1 the people devoted themselves to those religious duties which they thought best fitted to appease the wrath of heaven4 ,some1 assembling in processions1 sang funeral hymns2 others1 in a state of distraction1 made their confessions aloud in the streets4 ,in ,caracas was then repeated what had been remarked in the province of ,quito1 after the tremendous earthquake of #agig2 a number of marriages were contracted between persons who had neglected for many years to sanction their union by the sacerdotal benediction4 ,children found parents1 by whom they had never till then been acknowledged2 restitutions were promised by persons who had never been accused of fraud2 and families who had long been at enmity were drawn together by the tie of common calamity4 ,but if this feeling seemed to calm the passions of some1 and open the heart to pity1 it had a contrary effect on others1 rendering them more rigorous and inhuman4 ,in great calamities vulgar minds evince less of goodness than of energy4 ,misfortune acts in the same manner as the pursuits of literature and the study of nature2 the happy influence of which is felt only by a few1 giving more ardour to sentiment1 more elevation to the thoughts1 and increased benevolence to the disposition4 ,shocks as violent as those which in about the space of a minute99 overthrew the city of ,caracas1 could not be confined to a small portion of the continent4 799 ,the duration of the earthquake1 that is to say the whole of the movements of undulation and rising 7undulacion y trepidacion71 which occasioned the horrible catastrophe of the #bfth of ,march1 #ahab1 was estimated by some at #ej seconds1 by others at #a minute #ab seconds47 ,their fatal effects extended as far as the provinces of ,venezuela1 ,varinas1 and ,maracaibo1 along the coast2 and especially to the inland mountains4 ,la ,guayra1 ,mayquetia1 ,antimano1 ,baruta1 ,la ,vega1 ,san ,felipe1 and ,merida1 were almost entirely destroyed4 ,the number of the dead exceeded four or five thousand at ,la ,guayra1 and at the town of ,san ,felipe1 near the copper-mines of ,aroa4 ,it would appear that on a line running east-north-east and west-south-west from ,la ,guayra and ,caracas to the lofty mountains of ,niquitao and ,merida1 the violence of the earthquake was principally directed4 ,it was felt in the kingdom of ,new ,grenada from the branches of the high ,sierra de ,santa ,martha99 799 ,as far as ,villa de ,los ,remedios1 and even to ,carthagena47 as far as ,santa ,fe de ,bogota and ,honda1 on the banks of the ,magdalena1 one hundred and eighty leagues from ,caracas4 ,it was everywhere more violent in the ,cordilleras of gneiss and mica-slate1 or immediately at their base1 than in the plains2 and this difference was particularly striking in the savannahs of ,varinas and ,casanara499 799 ,this is easily explained according to the system of those geologists who are of opinion that all chains of mountains1 volcanic and not volcanic1 have been formed by being raised up1 as if through crevices47 ,in the valleys of ,aragua1 between ,caracas and the town of ,san ,felipe1 the commotions were very slight2 and ,la ,victoria1 ,maracay1 and ,valencia1 scarcely suffered at all1 notwithstanding their proximity to the capital4 ,at ,valecillo1 a few leagues from ,valencia1 the yawning earth threw out such an immense quantity of water1 that it formed a new torrent4 ,the same phenomenon took place near ,porto-,cabello499 799 ,it is asserted that1 in the mountains of ,aroa1 the ground1 immediately after the great shocks1 was found covered with a very fine and white earth1 which appeared to have been projected through crevices47 ,on the other hand1 the lake of ,maracaybo diminished sensibly4 ,at ,coro no commotion was felt1 though the town is situated on the coast1 between other towns which suffered from the earthquake4 ,fishermen1 who had passed the day of the #bfth of ,march in the island of ,orchila1 thirty leagues north-east of ,la ,guayra1 felt no shock4 ,these differences in the direction and propagation of the shock1 are probably owing to the peculiar position of the stony strata4 ,having thus traced the effects of the earthquake to the west of ,caracas1 as far as the snowy mountains of ,santa ,martha1 and the table-land of ,santa ,fe de ,bogota1 we will proceed to consider their action on the country eastward of the capital4 ,the commotions were very violent beyond ,caurimare1 in the valley of ,capaya1 where they extended as far as the meridian of ,cape ,codera3 but it is extremely remarkable that they were very feeble on the coasts of ,nueva ,barcelona1 ,cumana1 and ,paria2 though these coasts are the continuation of the shore of ,la ,guayra1 and were formerly known to have been often agitated by subterranean commotions4 ,admitting that the destruction of the four towns of ,caracas1 ,la ,guayra1 ,san ,felipe1 and ,merida1 may be attributed to a volcanic focus situated under or near the island of ,st4 ,vincent1 we may conceive that the motion might have been propagated from north-east to south-west in a line passing through the islands of ,los ,hermanos1 near ,blanquilla1 without touching the coasts of ,araya1 ,cumana1 and ,nueva ,barcelona4 ,this propagation of the shock might even have taken place without any commotion having been felt at the intermediate points on the surface of the globe 7the ,hermanos ,islands for instance74 ,this phenomenon is frequently remarked at ,peru and ,mexico1 in earthquakes which have followed during ages a fixed direction4 ,the inhabitants of the ,andes say1 speaking of an intermediary tract of ground1 not affected by the general commotion1 that it forms a bridge 7que hace puente73 as if they mean to indicate by this expression that the undulations are propagated at an immense depth under an inert rock4 ,at ,caracas1 fifteen or eighteen hours after the great catastrophe1 the earth was tranquil4 ,the night1 as has already been observed1 was fine and calm2 and the commotions did not recommence till after the #bgth4 ,they were then attended by a very loud and long continued subterranean noise 7bramido74 ,the inhabitants of the destroyed city wandered into the country2 but the villages and farms having suffered as much as the town1 they could find no shelter till they were beyond the mountains of los ,teques1 in the valleys of ,aragua1 and in the llanos or savannahs4 ,no less than fifteen oscillations were felt in one day4 ,on the #eth of ,april there was almost as violent an earthquake as that which overthrew the capital4 ,during several hours the ground was in a state of perpetual undulation4 ,large heaps of earth fell in the mountains2 and enormous masses of rock were detached from the ,silla of ,caracas4 ,it was even asserted1 and this opinion prevails still in the country1 that the two domes of the ,silla sunk fifty or sixty toises2 but this statement is not founded on any measurement4 ,i am informed that1 in like manner1 in the province of ,quito1 the people1 at every period of great commotions1 imagine that the volcano of ,tunguragua diminishes in height4 ,it has been affirmed1 in many published accounts of the destruction of ,caracas1 that the mountain of the ,silla is an extinguished volcano2 that a great quantity of volcanic substances are found on the road from ,la ,guayra to ,caracas2 that the rocks do not present any regular stratification2 and that everything bears the stamp of the action of fire4 ,it has even been stated that twelve years prior to the great catastrophe1 ,m4 ,bonpland and myself had1 from our own observations1 considered the ,silla as a very dangerous neighbour to the city of ,caracas1 because the mountain contained a great quantity of sulphur1 and the commotions must come from the north-east4 ,it is seldom that observers of nature have to justify themselves for an accomplished prediction2 but ,i think it my duty to oppose ideas which are too easily adopted on the ,,local ,,causes of earthquakes4 ,in all places where the soil has been incessantly agitated for whole months1 as at ,jamaica in #afic1 ,lisbon in #agee1 ,cumana in #agff1 and ,piedmont in #ahjh1 a volcano is expected to open4 ,people forget that we must seek the focus or centre of action1 far from the surface of the earth2 that1 according to undeniable evidence1 the undulations are propagated almost at the same instant across seas of immense depth1 at the distance of a thousand leagues2 and that the greatest commotions take place not at the foot of active volcanoes1 but in chains of mountains composed of the most heterogeneous rocks4 ,in our geognostical observation of the country round ,caracas we found gneiss1 and mica-slate containing beds of primitive limestone4 ,the strata are scarcely more fractured or irregularly inclined than near ,freyburg in ,saxony1 or wherever mountains of primitive formation rise abruptly to great heights4 ,i found at ,caracas neither basalt nor dorolite1 nor even trachytes or trap-porphyries2 nor in general any trace of an extinguished volcano1 unless we choose to regard the diabases of primitive grunstein1 contained in gneiss1 as masses of lava1 which have filled up fissures4 ,these diabases are the same as those of ,bohemia1 ,saxony1 and ,franconia299 799 ,these grunsteins are found in ,bohemia1 near ,pilsen1 in granite2 in ,saxony1 in the mica-slates of ,scheenberg2 in ,franconia1 between ,steeben and ,lauenstein1 in transition-slates47 and whatever opinion may be entertained respecting the ancient causes of the oxidation of the globe at its surface1 all those primitive mountains1 which contain a mixture of hornblende and feldspar1 either in veins or in balls with concentric layers1 will not1 ,i presume1 be called volcanic formations4 ,mont ,blanc and ,mont d',or will not be ranged in one and the same class4 ,even the partisans of the ,huttonian or volcanic theory make a distinction between the lavas melted under the mere pressure of the atmosphere at the surface of the globe1 and those layers formed by fire beneath the immense weight of the ocean and superincumbent rocks4 ,they would not confound ,auvergne and the granitic valley of ,caracas in the same denomination2 that of a country of extinct volcanoes4 ,i never could have pronounced the opinion1 that the ,silla and the ,cerro de ,avila1 mountains of gneiss and mica-slate1 were in dangerous proximity to the city of ,caracas because they contained a great quantity of pyrites in subordinate beds of primitive limestone4 ,but ,i remember having said1 during my stay at ,caracas1 that the eastern extremity of ,terra ,firma appeared1 since the great earthquake of ,quito1 in a state of agitation1 which warranted apprehension that the province of ,venezuela would gradually be exposed to violent commotions4 ,i added1 that when a country had been long subject to frequent shocks1 new subterranean communications seemed to open with neighbouring countries2 and that the volcanoes of the ,west ,india ,islands1 lying in the direction of the ,silla1 north-east of the city1 were perhaps the vents1 at the time of an eruption1 for those elastic fluids which cause earthquakes on the coasts of the continent4 ,these considerations1 founded on local knowledge of the place1 and on simple analogies1 are very far from a prediction justified by the course of physical events4 ,on the #cjth of ,april1 #ahab1 whilst violent commotions were felt simultaneously in the valley of the ,mississippi1 in the island of ,st4 ,vincent1 and in the province of ,venezuela1 a subterranean noise resembling frequent discharges of large cannon was heard at ,caracas1 at ,calabozo 7situated in the midst of the steppes71 and on the borders of the ,rio ,apure1 over a superficies of four thousand square leagues4 ,this noise began at two in the morning4 ,it was accompanied by no shock2 and it is very remarkable1 that it was as loud on the coast as at the distance of eighty leagues inland4 ,it was everywhere believed to be transmitted through the air2 and was so far from being thought a subterranean noise1 that in several places1 preparations were made for defence against an enemy1 who seemed to be advancing with heavy artillery4 ,senor ,palacio1 crossing the ,rio ,apure below the ,orivante1 near the junction of the ,rio ,nula1 was told by the inhabitants1 that the firing of cannon had been heard distinctly at the western extremity of the province of ,varinas1 as well as at the port of ,la ,guayra to the north of the chain of the coast4 ,the day on which the inhabitants of ,terra ,firma were alarmed by a subterranean noise was that of the great eruption of the volcano in the island of ,st4 ,vincent4 ,that mountain1 near five hundred toises high1 had not thrown out lava since the year #agah4 ,scarcely was any smoke perceived to issue from it1 when1 in the month of ,may #ahaa1 frequent shocks announced that the volcanic fire was either rekindled1 or directed anew to that part of the ,west ,indies4 ,the first eruption did not take place till the #bgth of ,april1 #ahab1 at noon4 ,it was merely an ejection of ashes1 but attended with a tremendous noise4 ,on the #cjth1 the lava overflowed the brink of the crater1 and1 after a course of four hours1 reached the sea4 ,the sound of the explosion is described as resembling that of alternate discharges of very large cannon and musketry2 and it is worthy of remark1 that it seemed much louder to persons out at sea1 and at a great distance from land1 than to those within sight of land1 and near the burning volcano4 ,the distance in a straight line from the volcano of ,st4 ,vincent to the ,rio ,apure1 near the mouth of the ,nula1 is two hundred and ten leagues499 799 ,where the contrary is not expressly stated1 nautical leagues of twenty to a degree1 or two thousand eight hundred and fifty-five toises1 are always to be understood47 ,the explosions were consequently heard at a distance equal to that between ,vesuvius and ,paris4 ,this phenomenon1 in conjunction with a great number of facts observed in the ,cordilleras of the ,andes1 shows that the sphere of the subterranean activity of a volcano is much more extensive than we should be disposed to admit1 if we judged merely from the small changes effected at the surface of the globe4 ,the detonations heard during whole days together in the ,new ,world1 eighty1 one hundred1 or even two hundred leagues distant from a crater1 do not reach us by the propagation of the sound through the air2 they are transmitted by the earth1 perhaps in the very place where we happen to be4 ,if the eruptions of the volcano of ,st4 ,vincent1 ,cotopaxi1 or ,tunguragua1 resounded from afar1 like a cannon of immense magnitude1 the noise ought to increase in the inverse ratio of the distance3 but observations prove1 that this augmentation does not take place4 ,i must further observe1 that ,m4 ,bonpland and ,i1 going from ,guayaquil to the coast of ,mexico1 crossed latitudes in the ,pacific1 where the crew of our ship were dismayed by a hollow sound coming from the depth of the ocean1 and transmitted by the waters4 ,at that time a new eruption of ,cotopaxi took place1 but we were as far distant from the volcano1 as ,etna from the city of ,naples4 ,the little town of ,honda1 on the banks of the ,magdalena1 is not less than one hundred and forty-five leagues99 799 ,this is the distance from ,vesuvius to ,mont ,blanc47 from ,cotopaxi2 and yet1 in the great explosions of this volcano1 in #agdd1 a subterranean noise was heard at ,honda1 and supposed to be discharges of heavy artillery4 ,the monks of ,san ,francisco spread a report that the town of ,carthagena was besieged and bombarded by the ,english2 and the intelligence was believed throughout the country4 ,now the volcano of ,cotopaxi is a cone1 more than one thousand eight hundred toises above the basin of ,honda1 and it rises from a table-land1 the elevation of which is more than one thousand five hundred toises above the valley of the ,magdalena4 ,in all the colossal mountains of ,quito1 of the province of los ,pastos1 and of ,popayan1 crevices and valleys without number intervene4 ,it cannot be admitted1 under these circumstances1 that the noise was transmitted through the air1 or over the surface of the globe1 and that it came from the point at which the cone and crater of ,cotapaxi are situated4 ,it appears probable1 that the more elevated part of the kingdom of ,quito and the neighbouring ,cordilleras1 far from being a group of distinct volcanoes1 constitute a single swollen mass1 an enormous volcanic wall1 stretching from south to north1 and the crest of which presents a superficies of more than six hundred square leagues4 ,cotopaxi1 ,tunguragua1 ,antisana1 and ,pichincha1 are on this same raised ground4 ,they have different names1 but they are merely separate summits of the same volcanic mass4 ,the fire issues sometimes from one1 sometimes from another of these summits4 ,the obstructed craters appear to be extinguished volcanoes2 but we may presume1 that1 while ,cotopaxi or ,tunguragua have only one or two eruptions in the course of a century1 the fire is not less continually active under the town of ,quito1 under ,pichincha and ,imbabura4 ,advancing northward we find1 between the volcano of ,cotopaxi and the town of ,honda1 two other systems of volcanic mountains1 those of los ,pastos and of ,popayan4 ,the connection between these systems was manifested in the ,andes by a phenomenon which ,i have already had occasion to notice1 in speaking of the last destruction of ,cumana4 ,in the month of ,november #agif a thick column of smoke began to issue from the volcano of ,pasto1 west of the town of that name1 and near the valley of ,rio ,guaytara4 ,the mouths of the volcano are lateral1 and situated on its western declivity1 yet during three successive months the column of smoke rose so much higher than the ridge of the mountain that it was constantly visible to the inhabitants of the town of ,pasto4 ,they described to us their astonishment when1 on the #dth of ,february1 #agig1 they observed the smoke disappear in an instant1 whilst no shock whatever was felt4 ,at that very moment1 sixty-five leagues southward1 between ,chimborazo1 ,tunguragua1 and the ,altar 7,capac-,urcu71 the town of ,riobamba was overthrown by the most terrible earthquake on record4 ,is it possible to doubt1 from this coincidence of phenomena1 that the vapours issuing from the small apertures or ventanillas of the volcano of ,pasto had an influence on the pressure of those elastic fluids which convulsed the earth in the kingdom of ,quito1 and destroyed in a few minutes thirty or forty thousand inhabitants8 ,to explain these great effects of volcanic reactions1 and to prove that the group or system of the volcanoes of the ,west ,india ,islands may sometimes shake the continent1 ,i have cited the ,cordillera of the ,andes4 ,geological reasoning can be supported only by the analogy of facts which are recent1 and consequently well authenticated3 and in what other region of the globe could we find greater and more varied volcanic phenomena than in that double chain of mountains heaved up by fire8 in that land where nature has covered every mountain and every valley with her marvels8 ,if we consider a burning crater only as an isolated phenomenon1 if we be satisfied with merely examining the mass of stony substances which it has thrown up1 the volcanic action at the surface of the globe will appear neither very powerful nor very extensive4 ,but the image of this action becomes enlarged in the mind when we study the relations which link together volcanoes of the same group2 for instance1 those of ,naples and ,sicily1 of the ,canary ,islands199 of the ,azores1 of the ,caribbee islands of ,mexico1 of ,guatimala1 and of the table-land of ,quito2 when we examine either the reactions of these different systems of volcanoes on one another1 or the distance at which1 by subterranean communication1 they simultaneously convulse the earth4 7,i have already observed 7,chapter #a4b7 that the whole group of the ,canary ,islands rises1 as we may say1 above one and the same submarine volcano4 ,since the sixteenth century1 the fire of this volcano has burst forth alternately in ,palma1 ,teneriffe1 and ,lancerote4 ,auvergne presents a whole system of volcanoes1 the action of which has now ceased2 but in the middle of a system of active volcanoes1 for instance1 in that of ,quito1 we must not consider as an extinguished volcano a mountain1 the crater of which is obstructed1 and through which the subterraneous fire has not issued for ages4 ,etna1 the ,aeolian ,isles1 ,vesuvius1 and ,epomeo2 the peak of ,teyde1 ,palma1 and ,lancerote2 ,st4 ,michael1 ,la ,caldiera of ,fayal1 and ,pico2 ,st4 ,vincent1 ,st4 ,lucia1 and ,guadaloupe2 ,orizava1 ,popocatepetl1 ,jorullo1 and ,la ,colima2 ,bombacho1 the volcano of ,grenada1 ,telica1 ,momotombo1 ,isalco1 and the volcano of ,guatimala2 ,cotopaxi1 ,tunguragua1 ,pichincha1 ,antisana1 and ,sangai1 belong to the same system of burning volcanoes2 they are generally ranged in rows1 as if they had issued from a crevice1 or vein not filled up2 and1 it is very remarkable1 that their position is in some parts in the general direction of the ,cordilleras1 and in others in a contrary direction47 ,the study of volcanoes may be divided into two distinct branches2 one1 simply mineralogical1 is directed to the examination of the stony strata1 altered or produced by the action of fire2 from the formation of the trachytes or trap-porphyries1 of basalts1 phonolites1 and dolerites1 to the most recent lavas3 the other branch1 less accessible and more neglected1 comprehends the physical relations which link volcanoes together1 the influence of one volcanic system on another1 the connection existing between the action of burning mountains and the commotions which agitate the earth at great distances1 and during long intervals1 in the same direction4 ,this study cannot progress till the various epochs of simultaneous action1 the direction1 the extent1 and the force of the convulsions are carefully noted2 till we have attentively observed their progressive advance to regions which they had not previously reached2 and the coincidence between distant volcanic eruptions and those noises which the inhabitants of the ,andes very expressively term subterraneous thunders1 or roarings499 799 ,bramidos y truenos subterraneos47 ,all these objects are comprehended in the domain of the history of nature4 ,though the narrow circle within which all certain traditions are confined1 does not present any of those general revolutions which have heaved up the ,cordilleras and buried myriads of pelagian animals2 yet ,nature1 acting under our eyes1 nevertheless exhibits violent though partial changes1 the study of which may throw light on the most remote epochs4 ,in the interior of the earth those mysterious powers exist1 the effects of which are manifested at the surface by the production of vapours1 of incandescent scoriae1 of new volcanic rocks and thermal springs1 by the appearance of new islands and mountains1 by commotions propagated with the rapidity of an electric shock1 finally by those subterranean thunders199 heard during whole months1 without shaking the earth1 in regions far distant from active volcanoes4 799 ,in the town of ,guanaxuato1 in ,mexico1 these thunders lasted from the #ith of ,january till the #abth of ,february1 #aghd4 ,guanaxuato is situated forty leagues north of the volcano of ,jorullo1 and sixty leagues north west of the volcano of ,popocatepetl4 ,in places nearer these two volcanoes1 three leagues distant from ,guanaxuato1 the subterranean thunders were not heard4 ,the noise was circumscribed within a very narrow space1 in the region of a primitive schist1 which approaches a transition-schist1 containing the richest silver mines of the known world1 and on which rest trap-porphyries1 slates1 and diabasis 7grunstein477 ,in proportion as equinoctial ,america shall increase in culture and population1 and the system of volcanoes of the central table-land of ,mexico1 of the ,caribbee ,islands1 of ,popayan1 of los ,pastos1 and ,quito1 shall be more attentively observed1 the connection of eruptions and of earthquakes1 which precede and sometimes accompany those eruptions1 will be more generally recognized4 ,the volcanoes just mentioned1 particularly those of the ,andes1 which rise above the enormous height of two thousand five hundred toises1 present great advantages for observation4 ,the periods of their eruptions are singularly regular4 ,they remain thirty or forty years without emitting scoriae1 ashes1 or even vapours4 ,i could not perceive the smallest trace of smoke on the summit of ,tunguragua or ,cotopaxi4 ,a gust of vapour issuing from the crater of ,mount ,vesuvius scarcely attracts the attention of the inhabitants of ,naples1 accustomed to the movements of that little volcano1 which throws out scoriae sometimes during two or three years successively4 ,thence it becomes difficult to judge whether the emission of scoriae may have been more frequent at the time when an earthquake has been felt in the ,apennines4 ,on the ridge of the ,cordilleras everything assumes a more decided character4 ,an eruption of ashes1 which lasts only a few minutes1 is often followed by a calm of ten years4 ,in such circumstances it is easy to mark the periods1 and to observe the coincidence of phenomena4 ,if1 as there appears to be little reason to doubt1 that the destruction of ,cumana in #agig1 and of ,caracas in #ahab1 indicate the influence of the volcanoes of the ,west ,india ,islands99 on the commotions felt on the coasts of ,terra ,firma1 it may be desirable1 before we close this chapter1 to take a cursory view of this ,mediterranean archipelago4 799 ,the following is the series of the phenomena3-- #bgth of ,september1 #agif4 ,eruption in the ,west ,india ,islands4 7,volcano of ,guadaloupe74 ,november1 #agif4 ,the volcano of ,pasto began to emit smoke4 #adth of ,december1 #agif4 ,destruction of ,cumana4 #dth of ,february1 #agig4 ,destruction of ,riobamba4 #cjth of ,january1 #ahaa4 ,appearance of ,sabrina ,island1 in the ,azores4 ,the island enlarged very considerably on the #aeth of ,june1 #ahaa4 ,may1 #ahaa4 ,commencement of the earthquakes in the island of ,st4 ,vincent1 which lasted till ,may #ahab4 #afth of ,december1 #ahaa4 ,commencement of the commotions in the valley of the ,mississippi and the ,ohio1 which lasted till #ahac4 ,december1 #ahaa4 ,earthquake at ,caracas4 #bfth of ,march1 #ahaa4 ,destruction of ,caracas4 ,earthquakes1 which continued till #ahac4 #cjth of ,april1 #ahaa4 ,eruption of the volcano in ,st4 ,vincent2 and the same day subterranean noises at ,caracas1 and on the banks of the ,apure47 ,the volcanic islands form one-fifth of that great arc extending from the coast of ,paria to the peninsula of ,florida4 ,running from south to north1 they close the ,caribbean ,sea on the eastern side1 while the greater ,west ,india ,islands appear like the remains of a group of primitive mountains1 the summit of which seems to have been between ,cape ,abacou1 ,point ,morant1 and the ,copper ,mountains1 in that part where the islands of ,st4 ,domingo1 ,cuba1 and ,jamaica1 are nearest to each other4 ,considering the basin of the ,atlantic as an immense valley99 which separates the two continents1 and where1 from #bj degrees south to #cj degrees north1 the salient angles 7,brazil and ,senegambia7 correspond to the receding angles 7the gulf of ,guinea and the ,caribbean ,sea71 we are led to think that the latter sea owes its formation to the action of currents1 which1 like the current of rotation now existing1 have flowed from east to west2 and have given the southern coast of ,porto ,rico1 ,st4 ,domingo1 and the island of ,cuba their uniform configuration4 799 ,the valley is narrowest 7#cjj leagues7 between ,cape ,st4 ,roque and ,sierra ,leone4 ,proceeding toward the north along the ,coasts of the ,new ,continent1 from its pyramidal extremity1 or the ,straits of ,magellan1 we imagine we recognise the effects of a repulsion directed first toward the north-east1 then toward the north-west1 and finally again to the north-east47 ,this supposition of an oceanic irruption has been the source of two other hypotheses on the origin of the smaller ,west ,india ,islands4 ,some geologists admit that the uninterrupted chain of islands from ,trinidad to ,florida exhibits the remains of an ancient chain of mountains4 ,they connect this chain sometimes with the granite of ,french ,guiana1 sometimes with the calcareous mountains of ,pari4 ,others1 struck with the difference of geological constitution between the primitive mountains of the ,greater and the volcanic cones of the ,lesser ,antilles1 consider the latter as having risen from the bottom of the sea4 ,if we recollect that volcanic upheavings1 when they take place through elongated crevices1 usually take a straight direction1 we shall find it difficult to judge from the disposition of the craters alone1 whether the volcanoes have belonged to the same chain1 or have always been isolated4 ,supposing an irruption of the ocean to take place either into the eastern part of the island of ,java99 799 ,raffles1 ,history of ,java1 #ahag1 pages #bc-bh4 ,the principal line of the volcanoes of ,java1 on a distance of #afj leagues1 runs from west to east1 through the mountains of ,gagak1 ,gede1 ,tankuban-,prahu1 ,ungarang ,merapi1 ,lawu1 ,wilis1 ,arjuna1 ,dasar1 and ,tashem47 or into the ,cordilleras of ,guatimala and ,nicaragua1 where so many burning mountains form but one chain1 that chain would be divided into several islands1 and would perfectly resemble the ,caribbean ,archipelago4 ,the union of primitive formations and volcanic rocks in the same range of mountain is not extraordinary2 it is very distinctly seen in my geological sections of the ,cordillera of the ,andes4 ,the trachytes and basalts of ,popayan are separated from the system of the volcanoes of ,quito by the mica-slates of ,almaguer2 the volcanoes of ,quito from the trachytes of ,assuay by the gneiss of ,condorasta and ,guasunto4 ,there does not exist a real chain of mountains running south-east and north-west from ,oyapoc to the mouths of the ,orinoco1 and of which the smaller ,west ,india ,islands might be a northern prolongation4 ,the granites of ,guiana1 as well as the hornblende-slates1 which ,i saw near ,angostura1 on the banks of the ,lower ,orinoco1 belong to the mountains of ,pacaraimo and of ,parime1 stretching from west to east1 99 7,from the cataracts of ,atures towards the ,essequibo ,river4 ,this chain of ,pacaraimo divides the waters of the ,carony from those of the ,rio ,parime1 or ,rio de ,aguas ,blancas47 in the interior of the continent1 and not in a direction parallel with the coast1 between the mouths of the river ,amazon and the ,orinoco4 ,but though we find no chain of mountains at the north-east extremity of ,terra ,firma1 having the same direction as the archipelago of the smaller ,west ,india ,islands1 it does not therefore follow that the volcanic mountains of the archipelago may not have belonged originally to the continent1 and formed a part of the littoral chain of ,caracas and ,cumana499 799 ,among many such examples which the structure of the globe displays1 we shall mention only the inflexion at a right angle formed by the ,higher ,alps towards the maritime ,alps1 in ,europe2 and the ,belour-,tagh1 which joins transversely the ,mouz-,tagh and the ,himalaya1 in ,asia4 ,amid the prejudices which impede the progress of mineralogical geography1 we may reckon1 #ast1 the supposition of a perfect uniformity of direction in the chains of mountains2 #bnd1 the hypothesis of the continuity of all chains2 #crd1 the supposition that the highest summits determine the direction of a central chain2 #dth1 the idea that1 in all places where great rivers take rise1 we may suppose the existence of great tablelands1 or very high mountains47 ,in opposing the objections of some celebrated naturalists1 ,i am far from maintaining the ancient contiguity of all the smaller ,west ,india ,islands4 ,i am rather inclined to consider them as islands heaved up by fire1 and ranged in that regular line1 of which we find striking examples in so many volcanic hills in ,auvergne1 in ,mexico1 and in ,peru4 ,the geological constitution of the ,archipelago appears1 from the little we know respecting it1 to be very similar to that of the ,azores and the ,canary ,islands4 ,primitive formations are nowhere seen above ground2 we find only what belongs unquestionably to volcanoes3 feldspar-lava1 dolerite1 basalt1 conglomerated scoriae1 tufa1 and pumice-stone4 ,among the limestone formations we must distinguish those which are essentially subordinate to volcanic tufas99 from those which appear to be the work of madrepores and other zoophytes4 799 ,we have noticed some of the above1 following ,von ,buch1 at ,lancerote1 and at ,fortaventura1 in the system of the ,canary ,islands4 ,among the smaller islands of the ,west ,indies1 the following islets are entirely calcareous1 according to ,m4 ,cortes3 ,mariegalante1 ,la ,desirade1 the ,grande ,terre of ,guadaloupe1 and the ,grenadillas4 ,according to the observations of that naturalist1 ,curacoa and ,buenos ,ayres present only calcareous formations4 ,m4 ,cortes divides the ,west ,india ,islands into1 #ast1 those containing at once primitive1 secondary1 and volcanic formations1 like the greater islands2 #bnd1 those entirely calcareous1 7or at least so considered7 as ,mariegalante and ,curacoa2 #crd1 those at once volcanic and calcareous1 as ,antigua1 ,st4 ,bartholomew1 ,st4 ,martin1 and ,st4 ,thomas2 #dth1 those which have volcanic rocks only1 as ,st4 ,vincent1 ,st4 ,lucia1 and ,st4 ,eustache47 ,the latter1 according to ,m4 ,moreau de ,jonnes1 seem to lie on shoals of a volcanic nature4 ,those mountains1 which present traces of the action of fire more or less recent1 and some of which reach nearly nine hundred toises of elevation1 are all situated on the western skirt of the smaller ,west ,india ,islands499 799 ,journal des ,mines1 tome #c page #ei4 ,in order to exhibit in one point of view the whole system of the volcanoes of the smaller ,west ,india ,islands1 ,i will here trace the direction of the islands from south to north4--,grenada1 an ancient crater1 filled with water2 boiling springs2 basalts between ,st4 ,george and ,goave4--,st4 ,vincent1 a burning volcano4--,st4 ,lucia1 a very active solfatara1 named ,oualibou1 two or three hundred toises high2 jets of hot water1 by which small basins are periodically filled4--,martinique1 three great extinguished volcanoes2 ,vauclin1 the ,paps of ,carbet1 which are perhaps the most elevated summits of the smaller islands1 and ,montagne ,pelee4 7,the height of this last mountain is probably #hjj toises2 according to ,leblond it is #fgj toises2 according to ,dupuget1 #gcf toises4 ,between ,vauclin and the feldspar-lavas of the ,paps of ,carbet is found1 as ,m4 ,moreau de ,jonnes asserts1 in a neck of land1 a region of early basalt called ,la ,roche ,carree74 ,thermal waters of ,precheur and ,lameutin4--,dominica1 completely volcanic4--,guadaloupe1 an active volcano1 the height of which1 according to ,leboucher1 is #gii toises2 according to ,amie1 #hej toises4--,montserrat1 a solfatara2 fine porphyritic lavas with large crystals of feldspar and hornblende near ,galloway1 according to ,mr4 ,nugent4--,nevis1 a solfatara4--,st4 ,christopher's1 a solfatara at ,mount ,misery4--,st4 ,eustache1 a crater of an extinguished volcano1 surrounded by pumice-stone4 7,trinidad1 which is traversed by a chain of primitive slate1 appears to have anciently formed a part of the littoral chain of ,cumana1 and not of the system of the mountains of the ,caribbee ,islands477 ,each island is not the effect of one single heaving-up3 most of them appear to consist of isolated masses which have been progressively united together4 ,the matter has not been emitted from one crater1 but from several2 so that a single island of small extent contains a whole system of volcanoes1 regions purely basaltic1 and others covered with recent lavas4 ,the volcanoes still burning are those of ,st4 ,vincent1 ,st4 ,lucia1 and ,guadaloupe4 ,the first threw out lava in #agah and #ahab2 in the second there is a continual formation of sulphur by the condensation of vapours1 which issue from the crevices of an ancient crater4 ,the last eruption of the volcano of ,guadaloupe took place in #agig4 ,the ,solfatara of ,st4 ,christopher's was still burning in #afib4 ,at ,martinique1 ,vauclin1 ,montagne ,pelee1 and the crater surrounded by the five ,paps of ,carbet1 must be considered as three extinguished volcanoes4 ,the effects of thunder have been often confounded in that place with subterranean fire4 ,no good observation has confirmed the supposed eruption of the #bbnd of ,january1 #agib4 ,the group of volcanoes in the ,caribbee ,islands resembles that of the volcanoes of ,quito and ,los ,pastos2 craters with which the subterranean fire does not appear to communicate are ranged on the same line with burning craters1 and alternate with them4 ,notwithstanding the intimate connection manifested in the action of the volcanoes of the smaller ,west ,india ,islands and the earthquakes of ,terra ,firma1 it often happens that shocks felt in the volcanic archipelago are not propagated to the island of ,trinidad1 or to the coasts of ,caracas and ,cumana4 ,this phenomenon is in no way surprising3 even in the ,caribbees the commotions are often confined to one place4 ,the great eruption of the volcano in ,st4 ,vincent's did not occasion an earthquake at ,martinique or ,guadaloupe4 ,loud explosions were heard there as well as at ,venezuela1 but the ground was not convulsed4 ,these explosions must not be confounded with the rolling noise which everywhere precedes the slightest commotions2 they are often heard on the banks of the ,orinoco1 and 7as we were assured by persons living on the spot7 between the ,rio ,arauca and ,cuchivero4 ,father ,morello relates that at the ,mission of ,cabruta the subterranean noise so much resembles discharges of small cannon 7pedreros7 that it has seemed as if a battle were being fought at a distance4 ,on the #bast of ,october1 #agff1 the day of the terrible earthquake which desolated the province of ,new ,andalusia1 the ground was simultaneously shaken at ,cumana1 at ,caracas1 at ,maracaybo1 and on the banks of the ,casanare1 the ,meta1 the ,orinoco1 and the ,ventuario4 ,father ,gili has described these commotions at the ,mission of ,encaramada1 a country entirely granitic1 where they were accompanied by loud explosions4 ,great fallings-in of the earth took place in the mountain ,paurari1 and near the rock ,aravacoto a small island disappeared in the ,orinoco4 ,the undulatory motion continued during a whole hour4 ,this seemed the first signal of those violent commotions which shook the coasts of ,cumana and ,cariaco for more than ten months4 ,it might be supposed that men living in woods1 with no other shelter than huts of reeds and palm-leaves1 could have little to dread from earthquakes4 ,but at ,erevato and ,caura1 where these phenomena are of rare occurrence1 they terrify the ,indians1 frighten the beasts of the forests1 and impel the crocodiles to quit the waters for the shore4 ,nearer the sea1 where shocks are frequent1 far from being dreaded by the inhabitants1 they are regarded with satisfaction as the prognostics of a wet and fertile year4 ,in this dissertation on the earthquakes of ,terra ,firma and on the volcanoes of the neighbouring archipelago of the ,west ,india ,islands1 ,i have pursued the plan of first relating a number of particular facts1 and then considering them in one general point of view4 ,everything announces in the interior of the globe the operation of active powers1 which1 by mutual reaction1 balance and modify one another4 ,the greater our ignorance of the causes of these undulatory movements1 these evolutions of heat1 these formations of elastic fluids1 the more it becomes the duty of persons who apply themselves to the study of physical science to examine the relations which these phenomena so uniformly present at great distances apart4 ,it is only by considering these various relations under a general point of view1 and tracing them over a great extent of the surface of the globe1 through formations of rocks the most different1 that we are led to abandon the supposition of trifling local causes1 strata of pyrites1 or of ignited coal499 799 ,see ,views of ,nature--,on the structure and action of volcanoes in different parts of the world1 page #cec 7,bohn's edition72 also ,cosmos pages #aii-bbe 7,bohn's edition747 ,the following is the series of phenomena remarked on the northern coasts of ,cumana1 ,nueva ,barcelona1 and ,caracas2 and presumed to be connected with the causes which produce earthquakes and eruptions of lava4 ,we shall begin with the most eastern extremity1 the island of ,trinidad2 which seems rather to belong to the shore of the continent than to the system of the mountains of the ,west ,india ,islands4 #a4 ,the pit which throws up asphaltum in the bay of ,mayaro1 on the eastern coast of the island of ,trinidad1 southward of ,point ,guataro4 ,this is the mine of chapapote or mineral tar of the country4 ,i was assured that in the months of ,march and ,june the eruptions are often attended with violent explosions1 smoke1 and flames4 ,almost on the same parallel1 and also in the sea1 but westward of the island 7near ,punta de la ,brea1 and to the south of the port of ,naparaimo71 we find a similar vent4 ,on the neighbouring coast1 in a clayey ground1 appears the celebrated lake of asphaltum 7,laguna de la ,brea71 a marsh1 the waters of which have the same temperature as the atmosphere4 ,the small cones situated at the south-western extremity of the island1 between ,point ,icacos and the ,rio ,erin1 appear to have some analogy with the volcanoes of air and mud which ,i met with at ,turbaco in the kingdom of ,new ,grenada4 ,i mention these situations of asphaltum on account of the remarkable circumstances peculiar to them in these regions2 for ,i am not unaware that naphtha1 petroleum1 and asphaltum are found equally in volcanic and secondary regions199 and even more frequently in the latter4 799 ,the inflammable emanations of ,pietra ,mala1 7consisting of hydrogen gas containing naphtha in a state of suspension7 issue from the ,alpine limestone1 which may be traced from ,covigliano to ,raticofa1 and which lies on ancient sandstone near ,scarica l',asino4 ,under this sandstone 7old red sandstone7 we find black transition limestone and the grauwack 7quartzose psammite7 of ,florence47 ,petroleum is found floating on the sea thirty leagues north of ,trinidad1 around the island of ,grenada1 which contains an extinguished crater and basalts4 #b4 ,hot ,springs of ,irapa1 at the north-eastern extremity of ,new ,andalusia1 between ,rio ,caribe1 ,soro1 and ,yaguarapayo4 #c4 ,air-volcano1 or ,salce1 of ,cumacatar1 to the south of ,san ,jose and ,carupano1 near the northern coast of the continent1 between ,la ,montana de ,paria and the town of ,cariaco4 ,almost constant explosions are felt in a clayey soil1 which is affirmed to be impregnated with sulphur4 ,hot sulphureous waters gush out with such violence that the ground is agitated by very sensible shocks4 ,it is said that flames have been frequently seen issuing out since the great earthquake of #agig4 ,these facts are well worthy of being examined4 #d4 ,petroleum-spring of the ,buen ,pastor1 near ,rio ,areo4 ,large masses of sulphur have been found in clayey soils at ,guayuta1 as in the valley of ,san ,bonifacio1 and near the junction of the ,rio ,pao with the ,orinoco4 #e4 ,the ,hot ,waters 7,aguas ,calientes7 south of the ,rio ,azul1 and the ,hollow ,ground of ,cariaco1 which1 at the time of the great earthquake of ,cumana1 threw up sulphuretted water and viscous petroleum4 #f4 ,hot waters of the gulf of ,cariaco4 #g4 ,petroleum-spring in the same gulf1 near ,maniquarez4 ,it issues from mica-slate4 #h4 ,flames issuing from the earth1 near ,cumana1 on the banks of the ,manzanares1 and at ,mariguitar1 on the southern coast of the gulf of ,cariaco1 at the time of the great earthquake of #agig4 #i4 ,igneous phenomena of the mountain of ,cuchivano1 near ,cumanacoa4 #aj4 ,petroleum-spring gushing from a shoal to the north of the ,caracas ,islands4 ,the smell of this spring warns ships of the danger of this shoal1 on which there is only one fathom of water4 #aa4 ,thermal springs of the mountain of the ,brigantine1 near ,nueva ,barcelona4 ,temperature #dc4b degrees 7centigrade74 #ab4 ,thermal springs of ,provisor1 near ,san ,diego1 in the province of ,new ,barcelona4 #ac4 ,thermal springs of ,onoto1 between ,turmero and ,maracay1 in the valleys of ,aragua1 west of ,caracas4 #ad4 ,thermal springs of ,mariara1 in the same valleys4 ,temperature #eh4i degrees4 #ae4 ,thermal springs of ,las ,trincheras1 between ,porto ,cabello and ,valencia1 issuing from granite like those of ,mariara1 and forming a river of warm water 7,rio de ,aguas ,calientes74 ,temperature #ij4d degrees4 #af4 ,boiling springs of the ,sierra ,nevada of ,merida4 #ag4 ,aperture of ,mena1 on the borders of ,lake ,maracaybo4 ,it throws up asphaltum1 and is said to emit gaseous emanations1 which ignite spontaneously1 and are seen at a great distance4 ,these are the springs of petroleum and of thermal waters1 the igneous meteors1 and the ejections of muddy substances attended with explosions1 of which ,i acquired a knowledge in the vast provinces of ,venezuela1 whilst travelling over a space of two hundred leagues from east to west4 ,these various phenomena have occasioned great excitement among the inhabitants since the catastrophes of #agig and #ahab3 yet they present nothing which constitutes a volcano1 in the sense hitherto attributed to that word4 ,if the apertures1 which throw up vapours and water with violent noise1 be sometimes called volcancitos1 it is only by such of the inhabitants as persuade themselves that volcanoes must necessarily exist in countries so frequently exposed to earthquakes4 ,advancing from the burning crater of ,st4 ,vincent in the directions of south1 west and south-west1 first by the chain of the ,caribbee ,islands1 then by the littoral chain of ,cumana and ,venezuela1 and finally by the ,cordilleras of ,new ,grenada1 along a distance of three hundred and eighty leagues1 we find no active volcano before we arrive at ,purace1 near ,popayan4 ,the total absence of apertures1 through which melted substances can issue1 in that part of the continent1 which stretches eastward of the ,cordillera of the ,andes1 and eastward of the ,rocky ,mountains1 is a most remarkable geological fact4 ,in this chapter we have examined the great commotions which from time to time convulse the stony crust of the globe1 and scatter desolation in regions favoured by the most precious gifts of nature4 ,an uninterrupted calm prevails in the upper atmosphere2 but1 to use an expression of ,franklin1 more ingenious than accurate1 thunder often rolls in the subterranean atmosphere1 amidst that mixture of elastic fluids1 the impetuous movements of which are frequently felt at the surface of the earth4 ,the destruction of so many populous cities presents a picture of the greatest calamities which afflict mankind4 ,a people struggling for independence are suddenly exposed to the want of subsistence1 and of all the necessaries of life4 ,famished and without shelter1 the inhabitants are dispersed through the country1 and numbers who have escaped from the ruin of their dwellings are swept away by disease4 ,far from strengthening mutual confidence among the citizens1 the feeling of misfortune destroys it2 physical calamities augment civil discord2 nor does the aspect of a country bathed in tears and blood appease the fury of the victorious party4 ,after the recital of so many calamities1 the mind is soothed by turning to consolatory remembrances4 ,when the great catastrophe of ,caracas was known in the ,united ,states1 the ,congress1 assembled at ,washington1 unanimously decreed that five ships laden with flour should be sent to the coast of ,venezuela2 their cargoes to be distributed among the most needy of the inhabitants4 ,the generous contribution was received with the warmest gratitude2 and this solemn act of a free people1 this mark of national interest1 of which the advanced civilization of the ,old ,world affords but few examples1 seemed to be a valuable pledge of the mutual sympathy which ought for ever to unite the nations of ,north and ,south ,america4 ,,chapter #a4ae4 ,,departure ,,from ,,caracas4 ,,mountains ,,of ,,san ,,pedro ,,and ,,of ,,los ,,teques4 ,,la ,,victoria4 ,,valleys ,,of ,,aragua4 ,to take the shortest road from ,caracas to the banks of the ,orinoco1 we should have crossed the southern chain of mountains between ,baruta1 ,salamanca1 and the savannahs of ,ocumare1 passed over the steppes or llanos of ,orituco1 and embarked at ,cabruta1 near the mouth of the ,rio ,guarico4 ,but this direct route would have deprived us of the opportunity of surveying the valleys of ,aragua1 which are the finest and most cultivated portion of the province2 of taking the level of an important part of the chain of the coast by means of the barometer2 and of descending the ,rio ,apure as far as its junction with the ,orinoco4 ,a traveller who has the intention of studying the configuration and natural productions of a country is not guided by distances1 but by the peculiar interest attached to the regions he may traverse4 ,this powerful motive led us to the mountains of ,los ,teques1 to the hot springs of ,mariara1 to the fertile banks of the lake of ,valencia1 and through the immense savannahs of ,calabozo to ,san ,fernando de ,apure1 in the eastern part of the province of ,varinas4 ,having determined on this route1 our first direction was westward1 then southward1 and finally to east-south-east1 so that we might enter the ,orinoco by the ,apure in latitude #g degrees #cf minutes #bc seconds4 ,on the day on which we quitted the capital of ,venezuela1 we reached the foot of the woody mountains which close the valley on the south-west4 ,there we halted for the night1 and on the following day we proceeded along the right bank of the ,rio ,guayra as far as the village of ,antimano1 by a very fine road1 partly scooped out of the rock4 ,we passed by ,la ,vega and ,carapa4 ,the church of ,la ,vega rises very picturesquely above a range of hills covered with thick vegetation4 ,scattered houses surrounded with date-trees seem to denote the comfort of their inhabitants4 ,a chain of low mountains separates the little river ,guayra from the valley of ,la ,pascua99 7so celebrated in the history of the country7 799 ,valley of ,cortes1 or ,easter ,valley1 so called because ,diego de ,losada1 after having defeated the ,teques ,indians1 and their cacique ,guaycaypuro1 in the mountains of ,san ,pedro1 spent the ,easter there in #aefg1 before entering the valley of ,san ,francisco4 ,in the latter place he founded the city of ,caracas471 and from the ancient gold-mines of ,baruta and ,oripoto4 ,ascending in the direction of ,carapa1 we enjoy once more the sight of the ,silla1 which appears like an immense dome with a cliff on the side next the sea4 ,this rounded summit1 and the ridge of ,galipano crenated like a wall1 are the only objects which in this basin of gneiss and mica-slate impress a peculiar character on the landscape4 ,the other mountains have a uniform and monotonous aspect4 ,a little before reaching the village of ,antimano we observed on the right a very curious geological phenomenon4 ,in hollowing the new road out of the rock1 two large veins of gneiss were discovered in the mica-slate4 ,they are nearly perpendicular1 intersecting all the mica-slate strata1 and are from six to eight toises thick4 ,these veins contain not fragments1 but balls or spheres of granular diabasis199 formed of concentric layers4 799 ,ur-grunstein4 ,i remember having seen similar balls filling a vein in transition-slate1 near the castle of ,schauenstein in the margravate of ,bayreuth4 ,i sent several balls from ,antimano to the collection of the king of ,spain at ,madrid47 ,these balls are composed of lamellar feldspar and hornblende closely commingled4 ,the feldspar approximates sometimes to vitreous feldspar when disseminated in very thin laminae in a mass of granular diabasis1 decomposed1 and emitting a strong argillaceous smell4 ,the diameter of the spheres is very unequal1 sometimes four or eight inches1 sometimes three or four feet2 their nucleus1 which is more dense1 is without concentric layers1 and of a very dark green hue1 inclining to black4 ,i could not perceive any mica in them2 but1 what is very remarkable1 ,i found great quantities of disseminated garnets4 ,these garnets are of a very fine red1 and are found in the grunstein only4 ,they are neither in the gneiss1 which serves as a cement to the balls1 nor in the mica-slate1 which the veins traverse4 ,the gneiss1 the constituent parts of which are in a state of considerable disintegration1 contains large crystals of feldspar2 and1 though it forms the body of the vein in the mica-slate1 it is itself traversed by threads of quartz two inches thick1 and of very recent formation4 ,the aspect of this phenomenon is very curious3 it appears as if cannon-balls were embedded in a wall of rock4 ,i also thought ,i recognized in these same regions1 in the ,montana de ,avila1 and at ,cabo ,blanco1 east of ,la ,guayra1 a granular diabasis1 mixed with a small quantity of quartz and pyrites1 and destitute of garnets1 not in veins1 but in subordinate strata in the mica-slate4 ,this position is unquestionably to be found in ,europe in primitive mountains2 but in general the granular diabasis is more frequently connected with the system of transition rocks1 especially with a schist 7ubergangs-thonschiefer7 abounding in beds of ,lydian stone strongly carburetted1 of schistose jasper199 7,kieselschiefer47 ampelites199 7,alaunschiefer47 and black limestone4 ,near ,antimano all the orchards were full of peach-trees loaded with blossom4 ,this village1 the ,valle1 and the banks of the ,macarao1 furnish great abundance of peaches1 quinces1 and other ,european fruits for the market of ,caracas4 ,between ,antimano and ,ajuntas we crossed the ,rio ,guayra seventeen times4 ,the road is very fatiguing2 yet1 instead of making a new one1 it would perhaps be better to change the bed of the river1 which loses a great quantity of water by the combined effects of filtration and evaporation4 ,each sinuosity forms a marsh more or less extensive4 ,this loss of water is to be regretted in a province1 nearly all the cultivated portions of which are extremely dry4 ,the rains are much less frequent and less violent in this place than in the interior of ,new ,andalusia1 at ,cumanacoa1 and on the banks of the ,guarapiche4 ,many of the mountains of ,caracas enter the region of the clouds2 but the strata of primitive rocks dip at an angle of #gj or #hj degrees1 and generally to northwest1 so that the waters are either lost in the interior of the earth1 or gush out in copious springs not southward but northward of the mountains of the coast of ,niguatar1 ,avila1 and ,mariara4 ,the rising of the gneiss and mica-slate strata to the south appears to me to explain in a considerable degree the extreme humidity of the coast4 ,in the interior of the province we meet with portions of land1 two or three leagues square1 in which there are no springs2 consequently sugar-cane1 indigo1 and coffee1 grow only in places where running waters can be made to supply artificial irrigation during very dry weather4 ,the early colonists imprudently destroyed the forests4 ,evaporation is enormous on a stony soil surrounded with rocks1 which radiate heat on every side4 ,the mountains of the coast1 like a wall1 extending east and west from ,cape ,codera toward ,point ,tucacas1 prevent the humid air of the shore 7that is to say1 those inferior strata of the atmosphere resting immediately on the sea1 and dissolving the largest proportion of water7 from penetrating to the islands4 ,there are few openings1 few ravines1 which1 like those of ,catia or of ,tipe1 lead from the coast to the high longitudinal valleys1 and there is no bed of a great river1 no gulf allowing the sea to flow inland1 spreading moisture by abundant evaporation4 ,in the eighth and tenth degrees of latitude1 in regions where the clouds do not1 as it were1 skim the surface of the soil1 many trees are stripped of their leaves in the months of ,january and ,february2 not by the sinking of the temperature as in ,europe1 but because the air at this period1 the most distant from the rainy season1 nearly attains its maximum of dryness4 ,only those plants which have very tough and glossy leaves resist this absence of humidity4 ,beneath the fine sky of the tropics the traveller is struck with the almost hibernal aspect of the country2 but the freshest verdure again appears when he reaches the banks of the ,orinoco1 where another climate prevails2 and the great forests preserve by their shade a certain quantity of moisture in the soil1 by sheltering it from the devouring heat of the sun4 ,beyond the small village of ,antimano the valley becomes much narrower4 ,the river is bordered with ,lata1 a fine gramineous plant with distich leaves1 which sometimes reaches the height of thirty feet499 799 ,g4 saccharoides47 ,every hut is surrounded with enormous trees of persea199 799 ,laurus persea 7alligator pear747 at the foot of which the aristolochiae1 paullinia1 and other creepers vegetate4 ,the neighbouring mountains1 covered with forests1 seem to spread humidity over the western extremity of the valley of ,caracas4 ,we passed the night before our arrival at ,las ,ajuntas at a sugar-cane plantation4 ,a square house 7the hacienda or farm of ,don ,fernando ,key-,munoz7 contained nearly eighty negroes2 they were lying on skins of oxen spread upon the ground4 ,in each apartment of the house were four slaves3 it looked like a barrack4 ,a dozen fires were burning in the farm-yard1 where people were employed in dressing food1 and the noisy mirth of the blacks almost prevented us from sleeping4 ,the clouds hindered me from observing the stars2 the moon appeared only at intervals4 ,the aspect of the landscape was dull and uniform1 and all the surrounding hills were covered with aloes4 ,workmen were employed at a small canal1 intended for conveying the waters of the ,rio ,san ,pedro to the farm1 at a height of more than seventy feet4 ,according to a barometric calculation1 the site of the hacienda is only fifty toises above the bed of the ,rio ,guayra at ,la ,noria1 near ,caracas4 ,the soil of these countries is found to be but little favourable to the cultivation of the coffee-tree1 which in general is less productive in the valley of ,caracas than was imagined when the first plantations were made near ,chacao4 ,the finest coffee-plantations are now found in the savannah of ,ocumare1 near ,salamanca1 and at ,rincon1 in the mountainous countries of ,los ,mariches1 ,san ,antonio ,hatillo1 and ,los ,budares4 ,the coffee of the three last mentioned places1 situated eastward of ,caracas1 is of a superior quality2 but the trees bear a smaller quantity1 which is attributed to the height of the spot and the coolness of the climate4 ,the greater plantations of the province of ,venezuela 7as ,aguacates1 near ,valencia and ,rincon7 yield in good years a produce of three thousand quintals4 ,the extreme predilection entertained in this province for the culture of the coffee-tree is partly founded on the circumstance that the berry can be preserved during a great number of years2 whereas1 notwithstanding every possible care1 cacao spoils in the warehouses after ten or twelve months4 ,during the long dissensions of the ,european powers1 at a time when ,spain was too weak to protect the commerce of her colonies1 industry was directed in preference to productions of which the sale was less urgent1 and could await the chances of political and commercial events4 ,i remarked that in the coffee-plantations the nurseries are formed not so much by collecting together young plants1 accidentally rising under trees which have yielded a crop1 as by exposing the seeds of coffee to germination during five days1 in heaps1 between plantain leaves4 ,these seeds are taken out of the pulp1 but yet retaining a part of it adherent to them4 ,when the seed has germinated it is sown1 and it produces plants capable of bearing the heat of the sun better than those which spring up in the shade in coffee-plantations4 ,in this country five thousand three hundred coffee-trees are generally planted in a fanega of ground1 amounting to five thousand four hundred and seventy-six square toises4 ,this land1 if it be capable of artificial irrigation1 costs five hundred piastres in the northern part of the province4 ,the coffee-tree flowers only in the second year1 and its flowering lasts only twenty-four hours4 ,at this time the shrub has a charming appearance2 and1 when seen from afar1 it appears covered with snow4 ,the produce of the third year becomes very abundant4 ,in plantations well weeded and watered1 and recently cultivated1 trees will bear sixteen1 eighteen1 and even twenty pounds of coffee4 ,in general1 however1 more than a pound and a half or two pounds cannot be expected from each plant2 and even this is superior to the mean produce of the ,west ,india ,islands4 ,the coffee trees suffer much from rain at the time of flowering1 as well as from the want of water for artificial irrigation1 and also from a parasitic plant1 a new species of loranthus1 which clings to the branches4 ,when1 in plantations of eighty or a hundred thousand shrubs1 we consider the immense quantity of organic matter contained in the pulpy berry of the coffee-tree1 we may be astonished that no attempts have been made to extract a spirituous liquor from them499 799 ,the berries heaped together produce a vinous fermentation1 during which a very pleasant alcoholic smell is emitted4 ,placing1 at ,caracas1 the ripe fruit of the coffee-tree under an inverted jar1 quite filled with water1 and exposed to the rays of the sun1 ,i remarked that no extrication of gas took place in the first twenty-four hours4 ,after thirty-six hours the berries became brown1 and yielded gas4 ,a thermometer1 enclosed in the jar in contact with the fruit1 kept at night #d or #e degrees higher than the external air4 ,in the space of eighty-seven hours1 sixty berries1 under various jars1 yielded me from thirty-eight to forty cubic inches of a gas1 which underwent no sensible diminution with nitrous gas4 ,though a great quantity of carbonic acid had been absorbed by the water as it was produced1 ,i still found #j4gh in the forty inches4 ,the remainder1 or #j4bb1 was nitrogen4 ,the carbonic acid had not been formed by the absorption of the atmospheric oxygen4 ,that which is evolved from the berries of the coffee-tree slightly moistened1 and placed in a phial with a glass stopple filled with air1 contains alcohol in suspension2 like the foul air which is formed in our cellars during the fermentation of must4 ,on agitating the gas in contact with water1 the latter acquires a decidedly alcoholic flavour4 ,how many substances are perhaps contained in a state of suspension in those mixtures of carbonic acid and hydrogen1 which are called deleterious miasmata1 and which rise everywhere within the tropics1 in marshy grounds1 on the sea-shore1 and in forests where the soil is strewed with dead leaves1 rotten fruits1 and putrefying insects47 ,if the troubles of ,st4 ,domingo1 the temporary rise in the price of colonial produce1 and the emigration of ,french planters1 were the first causes of the establishment of coffee plantations on the continent of ,america1 in the island of ,cuba1 and in ,jamaica2 their produce has far more than compensated the deficiency of the exportation from the ,french ,west ,india ,islands4 ,this produce has augmented in proportion to the population1 the change of customs1 and the increasing luxury of the nations of ,europe4 ,the island of ,st4 ,domingo exported1 in #agjj1 at the time of ,necker's administration1 nearly seventy-six million pounds of coffee499 799 ,french pounds1 containing #ibaf grains4 #aab ,english pounds #aje ,french pounds2 and #afj ,spanish pounds #ic ,french pounds4 ,the island of ,st4 ,domingo was at that time1 it must be remembered1 a ,french colony47 ,tea could be cultivated as well as coffee in the mountainous parts of the provinces of ,caracas and ,cumana4 ,every climate is there found rising in stages one above another2 and this new culture would succeed there as well as in the southern hemisphere1 where the government of ,brazil1 protecting at the same time industry and religious toleration1 suffered at once the introduction of ,chinese tea and of the dogmas of ,fo4 ,it is not yet a century since the first coffee-trees were planted at ,surinam and in the ,west ,india ,islands1 and already the produce of ,america amounts to fifteen millions of piastres1 reckoning the quintal of coffee at fourteen piastres only4 ,on the eighth of ,february we set out at sunrise1 to cross the ,higuerote1 a group of lofty mountains1 separating the two longitudinal valleys of ,caracas and ,aragua4 ,after passing1 near ,las ,ajuntas1 the junction of the two small rivers ,san ,pedro and ,macarao1 which form the ,rio ,guayra1 we ascended a steep hill to the table-land of ,la ,buenavista1 where we saw a few lonely houses4 ,the view extends on the north-west to the city of ,caracas1 and on the south to the village of ,los ,teques4 ,the country has a very wild aspect1 and is thickly wooded4 ,we had now gradually lost the plants of the valley of ,caracas499 799 ,the ,flora of ,caracas is characterized chiefly by the following plants1 which grow between the heights of four hundred and six hundred toises4 ,cipura martinicensis1 ,panicum mieranthum1 ,parthenium hysterophorus1 ,vernonia odoratissima1 7,pevetera1 with flowers having a delicious odour of heliotropium71 ,tagetes caracasana1 ,t4 scoparia of ,lagasca 7introduced by ,m4 ,bonpland into the gardens of ,spain71 ,croton hispidus1 ,smilax scabriusculus1 ,limnocharis ,humboldti1 ,rich41 ,equisetum ramosissimum1 ,heteranthera alismoides1 ,glycine punctata1 ,hyptis ,plumeri1 ,pavonia cancellata1 ,cav41 ,spermacoce rigida1 ,crotalaria acutifolia1 ,polygala nemorosa1 ,stachytarpheta mutabilis1 ,cardiospermum ulmaceum1 ,amaranthus caracasanus1 ,elephantopus strigosus1 ,hydrolea mollis1 ,alternanthera caracasana1 ,eupatorium amydalinum1 ,elytraria fasciculata1 ,salvia fimbriata1 ,angelonia salicaria1 ,heliotropium strictum1 ,convolvulus batarilla1 ,rubus jamaicensis1 ,datura arborea1 ,dalea enneaphylla1 ,buchnera rosea1 ,salix ,humboldtiana1 ,willd41 ,theophrasta longifolia1 ,tournefortia caracasana1 ,inga cinerea1 ,i4 ligustrina1 ,i4 sapindioides1 ,i4 fastuosa1 ,schwenkia patens1 ,erythrina mitis4 ,the most agreeable places for herborizing near ,caracas are the ravines of ,tacagua1 ,tipe1 ,cotecita1 ,catoche1 ,anauco1 and ,chacaito47 ,we were eight hundred and thirty-five toises above the level of the ocean1 which is almost the height of ,popayan2 but the mean temperature of this place is probably only #ag or #ah degrees4 ,the road over these mountains is much frequented2 we met continually long files of mules and oxen2 it is the great road leading from the capital to ,la ,victoria1 and the valleys of ,aragua4 ,this road is cut out of a talcose gneiss99 in a state of decomposition4 799 ,the direction of the strata of gneiss varies2 it is either hor4 #c4d1 dipping to the north-west or hor4 #h4b1 dipping to the south-east47 ,a clayey soil mixed with spangles of mica covered the rock1 to the depth of three feet4 ,travellers suffer from the dust in winter1 while in the rainy season the place is changed into a slough4 ,on descending the table-land of ,buenavista1 about fifty toises to the south-east1 an abundant spring1 gushing from the gneiss1 forms several cascades surrounded with thick vegetation4 ,the path leading to the spring is so steep that we could touch with our hands the tops of the arborescent ferns1 the trunks of which reach a height of more than twenty-five feet4 ,the surrounding rocks are covered with jungermannias and hypnoid mosses4 ,the torrent1 formed by the spring1 and shaded with heliconias1 uncovers1 as it falls1 the roots of the plumerias199 799 ,the red jasmine-tree1 frangipanier of the ,french ,west ,india ,islands4 ,the plumeria1 so common in the gardens of the ,indians1 has been very seldom found in a wild state4 ,it is mixed here with the ,piper flagellare1 the spadix of which sometimes reaches three feet long4 ,with the new kind of fig-tree 7which we have called ,ficus gigantea1 because it frequently attains the height of a hundred feet71 we find in the mountains of ,buenavista and of ,los ,teques1 the ,ficus nymphaeifolia of the garden of ,schonbrunn1 introduced into our hot-houses by ,m4 ,bredemeyer4 ,i am certain of the identity of the species found in the same places2 but ,i doubt really whether it be really the ,f4 nymphaeifolia of ,linnaeus1 which is supposed to be a native of the ,east ,indies47 cupeys199 799 ,in the experiments ,i made at ,caracas1 on the air which circulates in plants1 ,i was struck with the fine appearance presented by the petioles and leaves of the ,clusia rosea1 when cut open under water1 and exposed to the rays of the sun4 ,each trachea gives out a current of gas1 purer by #j4jh than atmospheric air4 ,the phenomenon ceases the moment the apparatus is placed in the shade4 ,there is only a very slight disengagement of air at the two surfaces of the leaves of the clusia exposed to the sun without being cut open4 ,the gas enclosed in the capsules of the ,cardiospermum vesicarium appeared to me to contain the same proportion of oxygen as the atmosphere1 while that contained between the knots1 in the hollow of the stalk1 is generally less pure1 containing only from #j4ab to #j4ae of oxygen4 ,it is necessary to distinguish between the air circulating in the tracheae1 and that which is stagnant in the great cavities of the stems and pericarps47 browneas1 and ,ficus gigantea4 ,this humid spot1 though infested by serpents1 presents a rich harvest to the botanist4 ,the ,brownea1 which the inhabitants call rosa del monte1 or palo de cruz1 bears four or five hundred purple flowers together in one thyrsus2 each flower has invariably eleven stamina1 and this majestic plant1 the trunk of which grows to the height of fifty or sixty feet1 is becoming rare1 because its wood yields a highly valued charcoal4 ,the soil is covered with pines 7ananas71 hemimeris1 polygala1 and melastomas4 ,a climbing gramen99 799 ,carice4 ,see ,chapter #f47 with its light festoons unites trees1 the presence of which attests the coolness of the climate of these mountains4 ,such are the ,aralia capitata199 799 ,candelero4 ,we found it also at ,la ,cumbre1 at a height of #gjj toises47 the ,vismia caparosa1 and the ,clethra fagifolia4 ,among these plants1 peculiar to the fine region of the arborescent ferns199 799 ,called by the inhabitants of the country ,region de los helechos47 some palm-trees rise in the openings1 and some scattered groups of guarumo1 or cecropia with silvery leaves4 ,the trunks of the latter are not very thick1 and are of a black colour towards the summit1 as if burnt by the oxygen of the atmosphere4 ,we are surprised to find so noble a tree1 which has the port of the theophrasta and the palm-tree1 bearing generally only eight or ten terminal leaves4 ,the ants1 which inhabit the trunk of the guarumo1 or jarumo1 and destroy its interior cells1 seem to impede its growth4 ,we had already made one herborization in the temperate mountains of the ,higuerote in the month of ,december1 accompanying the capitan-general1 ,senor de ,guevara1 in an excursion with the intendant of the province to the ,valles de ,aragua4 ,m4 ,bonpland then found in the thickest part of the forest some plants of aguatire1 the wood of which1 celebrated for its fine red colour1 will probably one day become an article of exportation to ,europe4 ,it is the ,sickingia erythroxylon described by ,bredemeyer and ,willdenouw4 ,descending the woody mountain of the ,higuerote to the south-west1 we reached the small village of ,san ,pedro1 situated in a basin where several valleys meet1 and almost three hundred toises lower than the table-land of ,buenavista4 ,plantain-trees1 potatoes199 799 ,solanum tuberosum47 and coffee are cultivated together on this spot4 ,the village is very small1 and the church not yet finished4 ,we met at an inn 7pulperia7 several ,european ,spaniards employed at the government tobacco farm4 ,their dissatisfaction formed a strange contrast to our feelings4 ,they were fatigued with their journey1 and they vented their displeasure in complaints and maledictions on the wretched country1 or to use their own phrase1 estas tierras infelices1 in which they were doomed to live4 ,we1 on the other hand1 were enchanted with the wild scenery1 the fertility of the soil1 and the mildness of the climate4 ,near ,san ,pedro1 the talcose gneiss of ,buenavista passes into a mica-slate filled with garnets1 and containing subordinate beds of serpentine4 ,something analogous to this is met with at ,zoblitz in ,saxony4 ,the serpentine1 which is very pure and of a fine green1 varied with spots of a lighter tint1 often appears only superimposed on the mica-slate4 ,i found in it a few garnets1 but no metaloid diallage4 ,the valley of ,san ,pedro1 through which flows the river of the same name1 separates two great masses of mountains1 the ,higuerote and ,las ,cocuyzas4 ,we ascended westward in the direction of the small farms of ,las ,lagunetos and ,garavatos4 ,these are solitary houses1 which serve as inns1 and where the mule-drivers obtain their favourite beverage1 the guarapo1 or fermented juice of the sugar-cane3 intoxication is very common among the ,indians who frequent this road4 ,near ,garavatos there is a mica-slate rock of singular form2 it is a ridge1 or steep wall1 crowned by a tower4 ,we opened the barometer at the highest point of the mountain ,las ,cocuyzas199 799 ,absolute height #hde toises47 and found ourselves almost at the same elevation as on the table-land of ,buenavista1 which is scarcely ten toises higher4 ,the prospect at ,las ,lagunetas is extensive1 but rather uniform4 ,this mountainous and uncultivated tract of ground between the sources of the ,guayra and the ,tuy is more than twenty-five square leagues in extent4 ,we there found only one miserable village1 that of ,los ,teques1 south-east of ,san ,pedro4 ,the soil is as it were furrowed by a multitude of valleys1 the smallest of which1 parallel with each other1 terminate at right angles in the largest valleys4 ,the back of the mountains presents an aspect as monotonous as the ravines2 it has no pyramidal forms1 no ridges1 no steep declivities4 ,i am inclined to think that the undulation of this ground1 which is for the most part very gentle1 is less owing to the nature of the rocks1 7to the decomposition of the gneiss for instance71 than to the long presence of the water and the action of currents4 ,the limestone mountains of ,cumana present the same phenomenon north of ,tumiriquiri4 ,from ,las ,lagunetas we descended into the valley of the ,rio ,tuy4 ,this western slope of the mountains of ,los ,teques bears the name of ,las ,cocuyzas1 and it is covered with two plants with agave leaves2 the maguey of ,cocuyza1 and the maquey of ,cocuy4 ,the latter belongs to the genus ,yucca499 799 ,yucca acaulis1 ,humb47 ,its sweet and fermented juice yields a spirit by distillation2 and ,i have seen the young leaves of this plant eaten4 ,the fibres of the full-grown leaves furnish cords of extraordinary strength499 799 ,at the clock of the cathedral of ,caracas1 a cord of maguey1 half an inch in diameter1 sustained for fifteen years a weight of #cej pounds47 ,leaving the mountains of the ,higuerote and ,los ,teques1 we entered a highly cultivated country1 covered with hamlets and villages2 several of which would in ,europe be called towns4 ,from east to west1 on a line of twelve leagues in extent1 we passed ,la ,victoria1 ,san ,mateo1 ,turmero1 and ,maracay1 containing together more than #bh1 #jjj inhabitants4 ,the plains of the ,tuy may be considered as the eastern extremity of the valleys of ,aragua1 extending from ,guigne1 on the borders of the lake of ,valencia1 as far as the foot of ,las ,cocuyzas4 ,a barometrical measurement gave me #bie toises for the absolute height of the ,valle del ,tuy1 near the farm of ,manterola1 and #bbb toises for that of the surface of the lake4 ,the ,rio ,tuy1 flowing from the mountains of ,las ,cocuyzas1 runs first towards the west1 then turning to the south and to the east1 it takes its course along the high savannahs of ,ocumare1 receives the waters of the valley of ,caracas1 and reaches the sea near cape ,codera4 ,it is the small portion of its basin in the westward direction which1 geologically speaking1 would seem to belong to the valley of ,aragua1 if the hills of calcareous tufa1 breaking the continuity of these valleys between ,consejo and ,la ,victoria1 did not deserve some consideration4 ,we shall here again remind the reader that the group of the mountains of ,los ,teques1 eight hundred and fifty toises high1 separates two longitudinal valleys1 formed in gneiss1 granite1 and mica-slate4 ,the most eastern of these valleys1 containing the capital of ,caracas1 is #bjj toises higher than the western valley1 which may be considered as the centre of agricultural industry4 ,having been for a long time accustomed to a moderate temperature1 we found the plains of the ,tuy extremely hot1 although the thermometer kept1 in the day-time1 between eleven in the morning and five in the afternoon1 at only #bc or #bd degrees4 ,the nights were delightfully cool1 the temperature falling as low as #ag4e degrees4 ,as the heat gradually abated1 the air became more and more fragrant with the odour of flowers4 ,we remarked above all the delicious perfume of the ,lirio hermoso199 799 ,pancratium undulatum47 a new species of pancratium1 of which the flower1 eight or nine inches long1 adorns the banks of the ,rio ,tuy4 ,we spent two very agreeable days at the plantation of ,don ,jose de ,manterola1 who in his youth had accompanied the ,spanish embassy to ,russia4 ,the farm is a fine plantation of sugar-canes2 and the ground is as smooth as the bottom of a drained lake4 ,the ,rio ,tuy winds through districts covered with plantains1 and a little wood of ,hura crepitans1 ,erythrina corallodendron1 and fig-trees with nymphaea leaves4 ,the bed of the river is formed of pebbles of quartz4 ,i never met with more agreeable bathing than in the ,tuy4 ,the water1 as clear as crystal1 preserves even during the day a temperature of #ah4f degrees2 a considerable coolness for these climates1 and for a height of three hundred toises2 but the sources of the river are in the surrounding mountains4 ,the house of the proprietor1 situated on a hillock1 of fifteen or twenty toises of elevation1 is surrounded by the huts of the negroes4 ,those who are married provide food for themselves2 and here1 as everywhere else in the valleys of ,aragua1 a small spot of ground is allotted to them to cultivate4 ,they labour on that ground on ,saturdays and ,sundays1 the only days in the week on which they are free4 ,they keep poultry1 and sometimes even a pig4 ,their masters boast of their happiness1 as in the north of ,europe the great landholders love to descant upon the ease enjoyed by peasants who are attached to the glebe4 ,on the day of our arrival we saw three fugitive negroes brought back2 they were slaves newly purchased4 ,i dreaded having to witness one of those punishments which1 wherever slavery prevails1 destroys all the charm of a country life4 ,happily these blacks were treated with humanity4 ,in this plantation1 as in all those of the province of ,venezuela1 three species of sugar-cane can be distinguished even at a distance by the colour of their leaves2 the old ,creole sugar-cane1 the ,otaheite cane1 and the ,batavia cane4 ,the first has a deep-green leaf1 the stem not very thick1 and the knots rather near together4 ,this sugar-cane was the first introduced from ,india into ,sicily1 the ,canary ,islands1 and ,west ,indies4 ,the second is of a lighter green2 and its stem is higher1 thicker1 and more succulent4 ,the whole plant exhibits a more luxuriant vegetation4 ,we owe this plant to the voyages of ,bougainville1 ,cook1 and ,bligh4 ,bougainville carried it to the ,mauritius1 whence it passed to ,cayenne1 ,martinique1 and1 since #agib1 to the rest of the ,west ,india ,islands4 ,the sugar-cane of ,otaheite1 called by the people of that island ,to1 is one of the most important acquisitions for which colonial agriculture is indebted to the travels of naturalists4 ,it yields not only one-third more juice than the creolian cane on the same space of ground2 but from the thickness of its stem1 and the tenacity of its ligneous fibres1 it furnishes much more fuel4 ,this last advantage is important in the ,west ,indies1 where the destruction of the forests has long obliged the planters to use canes deprived of juice1 to keep up the fire under the boilers4 ,but for the knowledge of this new plant1 together with the progress of agriculture on the continent of ,spanish ,america1 and the introduction of the ,east ,india and ,java sugar1 the prices of colonial produce in ,europe would have been much more sensibly affected by the revolutions of ,st4 ,domingo1 and the destruction of the great sugar plantations of that island4 ,the ,otaheite sugar-cane was carried from the island of ,trinidad to ,caracas1 under the name of ,cana solera1 and it passed from ,caracas to ,cucuta and ,san ,gil in the kingdom of ,new ,grenada4 ,in our days its cultivation during twenty-five years has almost entirely removed the apprehension at first entertained1 that being transplanted to ,america1 the cane would by degrees degenerate1 and become as slender as the creole cane4 ,the third species1 the violet sugar-cane1 called ,cana de ,batavia1 or de ,guinea1 is certainly indigenous in the island of ,java1 where it is cultivated in preference in the districts of ,japara and ,pasuruan499 799 ,raffles ,history of ,java tome #a page #abd47 ,its foliage is purple and very broad2 and this cane is preferred in the province of ,caracas for rum4 ,the tablones1 or grounds planted with sugar-canes1 are divided by hedges of a colossal gramen2 the lata1 or gynerium1 with distich leaves4 ,at the ,tuy1 men were employed in finishing a dyke1 to form a canal of irrigation4 ,this enterprise had cost the proprietor seven thousand piastres for the expense of labour1 and four thousand piastres for the costs of lawsuits in which he had become engaged with his neighbours4 ,while the lawyers were disputing about a canal of which only one-half was finished1 ,don ,jose de ,manterola began to doubt even of the possibility of carrying the plan into execution4 ,i took the level of the ground with a lunette d'epreuve1 on an artificial horizon1 and found1 that the dam had been constructed eight feet too low4 ,what sums of money have ,i seen expended uselessly in the ,spanish colonies1 for undertakings founded on erroneous levelling6 ,the valley of the ,tuy has its 'gold mine1' like almost every part of ,america inhabited by whites1 and backed by primitive mountains4 ,i was assured1 that in #aghj1 foreign gold-gatherers had been engaged in picking up grains of that metal1 and had established a place for washing the sand in the ,quebrada del ,oro4 ,an overseer of a neighbouring plantation had followed these indications2 and after his death1 a waistcoat with gold buttons being found among his clothes1 this gold1 according to the logic of the people here1 could only have proceeded from a vein1 which the falling in of the earth had rendered invisible4 ,in vain ,i objected1 that ,i could not1 by the mere view of the soil1 without digging a large trench in the direction of the vein1 judge of the existence of the mine2 ,i was compelled to yield to the desire of my hosts4 ,for twenty years past the overseer's waistcoat had been the subject of conversation in the country4 ,gold extracted from the bosom of the earth is far more alluring in the eyes of the vulgar1 than that which is the produce of agricultural industry1 favoured by the fertility of the soil1 and the mildness of the climate4 ,north-west of the ,hacienda del ,tuy1 in the northern range of the chain of the coast1 we find a deep ravine1 called the ,quebrada ,seca1 because the torrent1 by which it was formed1 loses its waters through the crevices of the rock1 before it reaches the extremity of the ravine4 ,the whole of this mountainous country is covered with thick vegetation4 ,we there found the same verdure as had charmed us by its freshness in the mountains of ,buenavista and ,las ,lagunetas1 wherever the ground rises as high as the region of the clouds1 and where the vapours of the sea have free access4 ,in the plains1 on the contrary1 many trees are stripped of a part of their leaves during the winter2 and when we descend into the valley of the ,tuy1 we are struck with the almost hibernal aspect of the country4 ,the dryness of the air is such that the hygrometer of ,deluc keeps day and night between #cf and #dj degrees4 ,at a distance from the river scarcely any huras or piper-trees extend their foliage over thickets destitute of verdure4 ,this seems owing to the dryness of the air1 which attains its maximum in the month of ,february2 and not1 as the ,european planters assert1 to the seasons of ,spain1 of which the empire extends as far as the torrid zone4 ,it is only plants transported from one hemisphere to the other1 which1 in their organic functions1 in the development of their leaves and flowers1 still retain their affinity to a distant climate3 faithful to their habits1 they follow for a long time the periodical changes of their native hemisphere4 ,in the province of ,venezuela the trees stripped of their foliage begin to renew their leaves nearly a month before the rainy season4 ,it is probable1 that at this period the electrical equilibrium of the air is already disturbed1 and the atmosphere1 although not yet clouded1 becomes gradually more humid4 ,the azure of the sky is paler1 and the elevated regions are loaded with light vapours1 uniformly diffused4 ,this season may be considered as the awakening of nature2 it is a spring which1 according to the received language of the ,spanish colonies1 proclaims the beginning of winter1 and succeeds to the heats of summer499 799 ,that part of the year most abundant in rain is called winter2 so that in ,terra ,firma1 the season which begins by the winter solstice1 is designated by the name of summer2 and it is usual to hear1 that it is winter on the mountains1 at the time when summer prevails in the neighbouring plains47 ,indigo was formerly cultivated in the ,quebrada ,seca2 but as the soil covered with vegetation cannot there concentrate so much heat as the plains and the bottom of the ,tuy valley receive and radiate1 the cultivation of coffee has been substituted in its stead4 ,as we advanced in the ravine we found the moisture increase4 ,near the ,hato1 at the northern extremity of the ,quebrada1 a torrent rolls down over sloping beds of gneiss4 ,an aqueduct was being formed there to convey the water to the plain4 ,without irrigation1 agriculture makes no progress in these climates4 ,a tree of monstrous size fixed our attention499 799 ,hura crepitans47 ,it lay on the slope of the mountain1 above the house of the ,hato4 ,on the least dislodgment of the earth1 its fall would have crushed the habitation which it shaded3 it had therefore been burnt near its foot1 and cut down in such a manner1 that it fell between some enormous fig-trees1 which prevented it from rolling into the ravine4 ,we measured the fallen tree2 and though its summit had been burnt1 the length of its trunk was still one hundred and fifty-four feet499 799 ,french measure1 nearly fifty metres47 ,it was eight feet in diameter near the roots1 and four feet two inches at the upper extremity4 ,our guides1 less anxious than ourselves to measure the bulk of trees1 continually pressed us to proceed onward and seek the 'gold mine4' ,this part of the ravine is little frequented1 and is not uninteresting4 ,we made the following observations on the geological constitution of the soil4 ,at the entrance of the ,quebrada ,seca we remarked great masses of primitive saccharoidal limestone1 tolerably fine grained1 of a bluish tint1 and traversed by veins of calcareous spar of dazzling whiteness4 ,these calcareous masses must not be confounded with the very recent depositions of tufa1 or carbonate of lime1 which fill the plains of the ,tuy2 they form beds of mica-slate1 passing into talc-slate499 799 ,talkschiefer of ,werner1 without garnets or serpentine2 not eurite or weisstein4 ,it is in the mountains of ,buenavista that the gneiss manifests a tendency to pass into eurite47 ,the primitive limestone often simply covers this latter rock in concordant stratification4 ,very near the ,hato the talcose slate becomes entirely white1 and contains small layers of soft and unctuous graphic ampelite499 799 ,zeichenschiefer47 ,some pieces1 destitute of veins of quartz1 are real granular plumbago1 which might be of use in the arts4 ,the aspect of the rock is very singular in those places where thin plates of black ampelite alternate with thin1 sinuous1 and satiny plates of a talcose slate as white as snow4 ,it would seem as if the carbon and iron1 which in other places colour the primitive rocks1 are here concentrated in the subordinate strata4 ,turning westward we reached at length the ravine of gold 7,quebrada del ,oro74 ,on examining the slope of a hill1 we could hardly recognize the vestige of a vein of quartz4 ,the falling of the earth caused by the rains had changed the surface of the ground1 and rendered it impossible to make any observation4 ,great trees were growing in the places where the gold-washers had worked twenty years before4 ,it is probable that the mica-slate contains here1 as near ,goldcronach in ,franconia1 and in ,salzburgh1 auriferous veins2 but how is it possible to judge whether they be worth the expense of being wrought1 or whether the ore is only in nodules1 and in the less abundance in proportion as it is rich8 ,we made a long herborization in a thick forest1 extending beyond the ,hato1 and abounding in cedrelas1 browneas1 and fig-trees with nymphaea leaves4 ,the trunks of these last are covered with very odoriferous plants of vanilla1 which in general flower only in the month of ,april4 ,we were here again struck with those ligneous excrescences1 which in the form of ridges1 or ribs1 augment to the height of twenty feet above the ground1 the thickness of the trunk of the fig-trees of ,america4 ,i found trees twenty-two feet and a half in diameter near the roots4 ,these ligneous ridges sometimes separate from the trunk at a height of eight feet1 and are transformed into cylindrical roots two feet thick4 ,the tree looks as if it were supported by buttresses4 ,this scaffolding however does not penetrate very deep into the earth4 ,the lateral roots wind at the surface of the ground1 and if at twenty feet distance from the trunk they are cut with a hatchet1 we see gushing out the milky juice of the fig-tree1 which1 when deprived of the vital influence of the organs of the tree1 is altered and coagulates4 ,what a wonderful combination of cells and vessels exist in these vegetable masses1 in these gigantic trees of the torrid zone1 which without interruption1 perhaps during the space of a thousand years1 prepare nutritious fluids1 raise them to the height of one hundred and eighty feet1 convey them down again to the ground1 and conceal1 beneath a rough and hard bark1 under inanimate layers of ligneous matter1 all the movements of organic life6 ,i availed myself of the clearness of the nights1 to observe at the plantation of ,tuy two emersions of the first and third satellites of ,jupiter4 ,these two observations gave1 according to the tables of ,delambre1 longitude #d hours #ci minutes #ad seconds2 and by the chronometer ,i found #d hours #ci minutes #aj seconds4 ,during my stay in the valleys of the ,tuy and ,aragua the zodiacal light appeared almost every night with extraordinary brilliancy4 ,i had perceived it for the first time between the tropics at ,caracas1 on the #ahth of ,january1 after seven in the evening4 ,the point of the pyramid was at the height of #ec degrees4 ,the light totally disappeared at #i hours #ce minutes 7apparent time71 nearly #c hours #ej minutes after sunset1 without any diminution in the serenity of the sky4 ,la ,caille1 in his voyage to ,rio ,janeiro and the ,cape1 was struck with the beautiful appearance displayed by the zodiacal light within the tropics1 not so much on account of its less inclined position1 as of the greater transparency of the air499 799 ,the great serenity of the air caused this phenomenon to be remarked1 in #affh1 in the arid plains of ,persia47 ,it may appear singular1 that ,childrey and ,dominic ,cassini1 navigators who were well acquainted with the seas of the two ,indies1 did not at a much earlier period direct the attention of scientific ,europe to this light1 and its regular form and progress4 ,until the middle of the eighteenth century mariners were little interested by anything not having immediate relation to the course of a ship1 and the demands of navigation4 ,however brilliant the zodiacal light in the dry valley of ,tuy1 ,i have observed it more beautiful still at the back of the ,cordilleras of ,mexico1 on the banks of the lake of ,tezcuco1 eleven hundred and sixty toises above the surface of the ocean4 ,in the month of ,january1 #ahjd1 the light rose sometimes to more than #fj degrees above the horizon4 ,the ,milky ,way appeared to grow pale compared with the brilliancy of the zodiacal light2 and if small1 bluish1 scattered clouds were accumulated toward the west1 it seemed as if the moon were about to rise4 ,i must here relate another very singular fact4 ,on the #ahth of ,january1 and the #aeth of ,february1 #ahjj1 the intensity of the zodiacal light changed in a very perceptible manner1 at intervals of two or three minutes4 ,sometimes it was very faint1 at others it surpassed the brilliancy of the ,milky ,way in ,sagittarius4 ,the changes took place in the whole pyramid1 especially toward the interior1 far from the edges4 ,during these variations of the zodiacal light1 the hygrometer indicated considerable dryness4 ,the stars of the fourth and fifth magnitude appeared constantly to the naked eye with the same degree of light4 ,no stream of vapour was visible3 nothing seemed to alter the transparency of the atmosphere4 ,in other years ,i saw the zodiacal light augment in the southern hemisphere half an hour before its disappearance4 ,cassini admitted that the zodiacal light was feebler in certain years1 and then returned to its former brilliancy4 ,he thought that these slow changes were connected with the same emanations which render the appearance of spots and faculae periodical on the solar disk4 ,but this excellent observer does not mention those changes of intensity in the zodiacal light which ,i have several times remarked within the tropics1 in the space of a few minutes4 ,mairan asserts1 that in ,france it is common enough to see the zodiacal light1 in the months of ,february and ,march1 mingling with a kind of ,aurora ,borealis1 which he calls 'undecided1' and the nebulous matter of which spreads itself all around the horizon1 or appears toward the west4 ,i very much doubt1 whether1 in the observations ,i have been describing1 there was any mixture of these two species of light4 ,the variations in intensity took place at considerable altitudes2 the light was white1 and not coloured2 steady1 and not undulating4 ,besides1 the ,aurora ,borealis is so seldom visible within the tropics1 that during five years1 though almost constantly sleeping in the open air1 and observing the heavens with unremitting attention1 ,i never perceived the least traces of that phenomenon4 ,i am rather inclined to think that the variations of the zodiacal light are not all appearances dependent on certain modifications in the state of our atmosphere4 ,sometimes1 during nights equally clear1 ,i sought in vain for the zodiacal light1 when1 on the previous night1 it had appeared with the greatest brilliancy4 ,must we admit that emanations which reflect white light1 and seem to have some analogy with the tails of comets1 are less abundant at certain periods8 ,researches on the zodiacal light have acquired a new degree of interest since geometricians have taught us that we are ignorant of the real causes of this phenomenon4 ,the illustrious author of ,la ,mecanique ,celeste has shown that the solar atmosphere cannot reach even the planet ,mercury2 and that it could not in any case display the lenticular form which has been attributed to the zodiacal light4 ,we may also entertain the same doubts respecting the nature of this light1 as with regard to that of the tails of comets4 ,is it in fact a reflected or a direct light8 ,we left the plantation of ,manterola on the #aath of ,february1 at sunrise4 ,the road runs along the smiling banks of the ,tuy2 the morning was cool and humid1 and the air seemed embalmed by the delicious odour of the ,pancratium undulatum1 and other large liliaceous plants4 ,in our way to ,la ,victoria1 we passed the pretty village of ,mamon or of ,consejo1 celebrated in the country for a miraculous image of the ,virgin4 ,a little before we reached ,mamon1 we stopped at a farm belonging to the family of ,monteras4 ,a negress more than a hundred years old was seated before a small hut built of earth and reeds4 ,her age was known because she was a creole slave4 ,she seemed still to enjoy very good health4 ,i keep her in the sun 7la tengo al sol71 said her grandson2 the heat keeps her alive4 ,this appeared to us not a very agreeable mode of prolonging life1 for the sun was darting his rays almost perpendicularly4 ,the brown-skinned nations1 blacks well seasoned1 and ,indians1 frequently attain a very advanced age in the torrid zone4 ,a native of ,peru named ,hilario ,pari died at the extraordinary age of one hundred and forty-three years1 after having been ninety years married4 ,don ,francisco ,montera and his brother1 a well-informed young priest1 accompanied us with the view of conducting us to their house at ,la ,victoria4 ,almost all the families with whom we had lived in friendship at ,caracas were assembled in the fine valleys of ,aragua1 and they vied with each other in their efforts to render our stay agreeable4 ,before we plunged into the forests of the ,orinoco1 we enjoyed once more all the advantages which advanced civilization affords4 ,the road from ,mamon to ,la ,victoria runs south and south-west4 ,we soon lost sight of the river ,tuy1 which1 turning eastward1 forms an elbow at the foot of the high mountains of ,guayraima4 ,as we drew nearer to ,victoria the ground became smoother2 it seemed like the bottom of a lake1 the waters of which had been drained off4 ,we might have fancied ourselves in the valley of ,hasli1 in the canton of ,berne4 ,the neighbouring hills1 only one hundred and forty toises in height1 are composed of calcareous tufa2 but their abrupt declivities project like promontories on the plain4 ,their form indicates the ancient shore of the lake4 ,the eastern extremity of this valley is parched and uncultivated4 ,no advantage has been derived from the ravines which water the neighbouring mountains2 but fine cultivation is commencing in the proximity of the town4 ,i say of the town1 though in my time ,victoria was considered only as a village 7pueblo74 ,the environs of ,la ,victoria present a very remarkable agricultural aspect4 ,the height of the cultivated ground is from two hundred and seventy to three hundred toises above the level of the ocean1 and yet we there find fields of corn mingled with plantations of sugar-cane1 coffee1 and plantains4 ,excepting the interior of the island of ,cuba199 799 ,the district of ,quatro ,villas47 we scarcely find elsewhere in the equinoctial regions ,european corn cultivated in large quantities in so low a region4 ,the fine fields of wheat in ,mexico are between six hundred and twelve hundred toises of absolute elevation2 and it is rare to see them descend to four hundred toises4 ,we shall soon perceive that the produce of grain augments sensibly1 from high latitudes towards the equator1 with the mean temperature of the climate1 in comparing spots of different elevations4 ,the success of agriculture depends on the dryness of the air2 on the rains distributed through different seasons1 or accumulated in one season2 on winds blowing constantly from the east2 or bringing the cold air of the north into very low latitudes1 as in the gulf of ,mexico2 on mists1 which for whole months diminish the intensity of the solar rays2 in short1 on a thousand local circumstances which have less influence on the mean temperature of the whole year than on the distribution of the same quantity of heat through the different parts of the year4 ,it is a striking spectacle to see the grain of ,europe cultivated from the equator as far as ,lapland in the latitude of #fi degrees1 in regions where the mean heat is from #bb to-#b degrees1 in every place where the temperature of summer is above #i or #aj degrees4 ,we know the minimum of heat requisite to ripen wheat1 barley1 and oats2 but we are less certain in respect to the maximum which these species of grain1 accommodating as they are1 can support4 ,we are even ignorant of all the circumstances which favour the culture of corn within the tropics at very small heights4 ,la ,victoria and the neighbouring village of ,san ,mateo yield an annual produce of four thousand quintals of wheat4 ,it is sown in the month of ,december1 and the harvest is reaped on the seventieth or seventy-fifth day4 ,the grain is large1 white1 and abounding in gluten2 its pellicle is thinner and not so hard as that of the wheat of the very cold table-lands of ,mexico4 ,an acre99 799 ,an arpent des eaux et forets1 or legal acre of ,france1 of which #a4ie #a hectare4 ,it is about #a #a_/d acre ,english47 near ,victoria generally yields from three thousand to three thousand two hundred pounds weight of wheat4 ,the average produce is consequently here1 as at ,buenos ,ayres1 three or four times as much as that of northern countries4 ,nearly sixteenfold of the quantity of seed is reaped2 while1 according to ,lavoisier1 the surface of ,france yields on an average only five or six for one1 or from one thousand to twelve hundred pounds per acre4 ,notwithstanding this fecundity of the soil1 and this happy influence of the climate1 the culture of the sugar-cane is more productive in the valleys of ,aragua than that of corn4 ,la ,victoria is traversed by the little river ,calanchas1 running1 not into the ,tuy1 but into the ,rio ,aragua3 it thence results that this fine country1 producing at once sugar and corn1 belongs to the basin of the lake of ,valencia1 to a system of interior rivers not communicating with the sea4 ,the quarter of the town west of the ,rio ,calanchas is called la otra banda2 it is the most commercial part2 merchandize is everywhere exhibited1 and ranges of shops form the streets4 ,two commercial roads pass through ,la ,victoria1 that of ,valencia1 or of ,porto ,cabello1 and the road of ,villa de ,cura1 or of the plains1 called camino de los ,llanos4 ,we here find more whites in proportion than at ,caracas4 ,we visited at sunset the little hill of ,calvary1 where the view is extremely fine and extensive4 ,we discover on the west the lovely valleys of ,aragua1 a vast space covered with gardens1 cultivated fields1 clumps of wild trees1 farms1 and hamlets4 ,turning south and south-east1 we see1 extending as far as the eye can reach1 the lofty mountains of ,la ,palma1 ,guayraima1 ,tiara1 and ,guiripa1 which conceal the immense plains or steppes of ,calabozo4 ,this interior chain stretches westward along the lake of ,valencia1 towards the ,villa de ,cura1 the ,cuesta de ,yusma1 and the denticulated mountains of ,guigne4 ,it is very steep1 and constantly covered with that light vapour which in hot climates gives a vivid blue tint to distant objects1 and1 far from concealing their outlines1 marks them the more strongly4 ,it is believed that among the mountains of the interior chain1 that of ,guayraima reaches an elevation of twelve hundred toises4 ,i found in the night of the eleventh of ,february the latitude of ,la ,victoria #aj degrees #ac minutes #ce seconds1 the magnetic dip #dj4h degrees1 the intensity of the forces equal to #bcf oscillations in ten minutes of time1 and the variation of the needle #d4d degrees north-east4 ,we proceeded slowly on our way by the villages of ,san ,mateo1 ,turmero1 and ,maracay1 to the ,hacienda de ,cura1 a fine plantation belonging to ,count ,tovar1 where we arrived on the evening of the fourteenth of ,february4 ,the valley1 which gradually widens1 is bordered with hills of calcareous tufa1 called here tierra blanca4 ,the scientific men of the country have made several attempts to calcine this earth1 mistaking it for the porcelain earth proceeding from decomposed strata of feldspar4 ,we stayed some hours with a very intelligent family1 named ,ustariz1 at ,concesion4 ,their house1 which contains a collection of choice books1 stands on an eminence1 and is surrounded by plantations of coffee and sugar-cane4 ,a grove of balsam-trees 7balsamo99 799 ,amyris elata477 gives coolness and shade to this spot4 ,it was gratifying to observe the great number of scattered houses in the valley inhabited by freedmen4 ,in the ,spanish colonies1 the laws1 the institutions1 and the manners1 are more favourable to the liberty of the negroes than in other ,european settlements4 ,san ,mateo1 ,turmero1 and ,maracay1 are charming villages1 where everything denotes the comfort of the inhabitants4 ,we seemed to be transported to the most industrious districts of ,catalonia4 ,near ,san ,mateo we find the last fields of wheat1 and the last mills with horizontal hydraulic wheels4 ,a harvest of twenty for one was expected2 and1 as if that produce were but moderate1 ,i was asked whether corn yielded more in ,prussia and in ,poland4 ,by an error generally prevalent under the tropics1 the produce of grain is supposed to degenerate in advancing towards the equator1 and harvests are believed to be more abundant in northern climates4 ,since calculations have been made on the progress of agriculture in the different zones1 and on the temperatures under the influence of which corn will flourish1 it has been found that1 beyond the latitude of #de degrees1 the produce of wheat is nowhere so considerable as on the northern coasts of ,africa1 and on the table-lands of ,new ,grenada1 ,peru1 and ,mexico4 ,without comparing the mean temperature of the whole year1 but only the mean temperature of the season which embraces the corn cycle of vegetation1 we find for three months of summer199 in the north of ,europe1 from #ae to #ai degrees2 in ,barbary and in ,egypt1 from #bg to #bi degrees2 within the tropics1 between fourteen and three hundred toises of height1 from #ad to #be4e degrees of the centigrade thermometer4 799 ,the mean heat of the summers of ,scotland in the environs of ,edinburgh1 7latitude #ef degrees71 is found again on the table-lands of ,new ,grenada1 so rich in wheat1 at #adjj toises of elevation1 and at #d degrees north latitude4 ,on the other hand1 we find the mean temperature of the valleys of ,aragua1 latitude #aj degrees #ac minutes1 and of all the plains which are not very elevated in the torrid zone1 in the summer temperature of ,naples and ,sicily1 latitude #ci to #dj degrees4 ,these figures indicate the situation of the isotheric lines 7lines of the same summer heat71 and not that of the isothermal lines 7those of equal annual temperature74 ,considering the quantity of heat received on the same spot of the globe during a whole year1 the mean temperatures of the valleys of ,aragua1 and the table-lands of ,new ,grenada1 at #cjj and #adjj toises of elevation1 correspond to the mean temperatures of the coasts at #bc and #de degrees of latitude47 ,the fine harvests of ,egypt and of ,algiers1 as well as those of the valleys of ,aragua and the interior of the island of ,cuba1 sufficiently prove that the augmentation of heat is not prejudicial to the harvest of wheat and other alimentary grain1 unless it be attended with an excess of drought or moisture4 ,to this circumstance no doubt we must attribute the apparent anomalies sometimes observed within the tropics1 in the lower limit of corn4 ,we are astonished to see1 eastward of the ,havannah1 in the famous district of ,quatro ,villas1 that this limit descends almost to the level of the ocean2 whilst west of the ,havannah1 on the slope of the mountains of ,mexico and ,xalapa1 at six hundred and seventy-seven toises of height1 the luxuriance of vegetation is such1 that wheat does not form ears4 ,at the beginning of the ,spanish conquest1 the corn of ,europe was cultivated with success in several regions now supposed to be too hot1 or too damp1 for this branch of agriculture4 ,the ,spaniards on their first removal to ,america were little accustomed to live on maize4 ,they still adhered to their ,european habits4 ,they did not calculate whether corn would be less profitable than coffee or cotton4 ,they tried seeds of every kind1 making experiments the more boldly because their reasonings were less founded on false theories4 ,the province of ,carthagena1 crossed by the chain of the mountains ,maria and ,guamoco1 produced wheat till the sixteenth century4 ,in the province of ,caracas1 this culture is of very ancient date in the mountainous lands of ,tocuyo1 ,quibor1 and ,barquisimeto1 which connect the littoral chain with the ,sierra ,nevada of ,merida4 ,wheat is still successfully cultivated there1 and the environs of the town of ,tocuyo alone export annually more than eight thousand quintals of excellent flour4 ,but1 though the province of ,caracas1 in its vast extent1 includes several spots very favourable to the cultivation of ,european corn1 ,i believe that in general this branch of agriculture will never acquire any great importance there4 ,the most temperate valleys are not sufficiently wide2 they are not real table-lands2 and their mean elevation above the level of the sea is not so considerable but that the inhabitants cannot fail to perceive that it is more their interest to establish plantations of coffee1 than to cultivate corn4 ,flour now comes to ,caracas either from ,spain or from the ,united ,states4 ,the village of ,turmero is four leagues distant from ,san ,mateo4 ,the road leads through plantations of sugar1 indigo1 cotton1 and coffee4 ,the regularity observable in the construction of the villages1 reminded us that they all owe their origin to monks and missions4 ,the streets are straight and parallel1 crossing each other at right angles2 and the church is invariably erected in the great square1 situated in the centre of the village4 ,the church of ,turmero is a fine edifice1 but overloaded with architectural ornaments4 ,since the missionaries have been replaced by vicars1 the whites have mingled their habitations with those of the ,indians4 ,the latter are gradually disappearing as a separate race2 that is to say1 they are represented in the general statement of the population by the ,mestizoes and the ,zamboes1 whose numbers daily increase4 ,i still found1 however1 four thousand tributary ,indians in the valleys of ,aragua4 ,those of ,turmero and ,guacara are the most numerous4 ,they are of small stature1 but less squat than the ,chaymas2 their eyes denote more vivacity and intelligence1 owing less perhaps to a diversity in the race1 than to a superior state of civilization4 ,they work like freemen by the day4 ,though active and laborious during the short time they allot to labour1 yet what they earn in two months is spent in one week1 in the purchase of strong liquors at the small inns1 of which unhappily the numbers daily increase4 ,we saw at ,turmero the remains of the assembled militia of the country1 and their appearance alone sufficiently indicated that these valleys had enjoyed for ages undisturbed peace4 ,the capitan-general1 in order to give a new impulse to the military service1 had ordered a grand review2 and the battalion of ,turmero1 in a mock fight1 had fired on that of ,la ,victoria4 ,our host1 a lieutenant of the militia1 was never weary of describing to us the danger of these manoeuvres1 which seemed more burlesque than imposing4 ,with what rapidity do nations1 apparently the most pacific1 acquire military habits6 ,twelve years afterwards1 those valleys of ,aragua1 those peaceful plains of ,la ,victoria and ,turmero1 the defile of ,cabrera1 and the fertile banks of the lake of ,valencia1 became the scenes of obstinate and sanguinary conflicts between the natives and the troops of the mother-country4 ,south of ,turmero1 a mass of limestone mountains advances into the plain1 separating two fine sugar-plantations1 ,guayavita and ,paja4 ,the latter belongs to the family of ,count ,tovar1 who have property in every part of the province4 ,near ,guayavita1 brown iron-ore has been discovered4 ,to the north of ,turmero1 a granitic summit 7the ,chuao7 rises in the ,cordillera of the coast1 from the top of which we discern at once the sea and the lake of ,valencia4 ,crossing this rocky ridge1 which runs towards the west farther than the eye can reach1 paths somewhat difficult lead to the rich plantations of cacao on the coast1 to ,choroni1 ,turiamo1 and ,ocumare1 noted alike for the fertility of the soil and the insalubrity of their climate4 ,turmero1 ,maracay1 ,cura1 ,guacara1 every point of the valley of ,aragua1 has its mountain-road1 which terminates at one of the small ports on the coast4 ,on quitting the village of ,turmero1 we discover1 at a league distant1 an object1 which appears at the horizon like a round hillock1 or tumulus1 covered with vegetation4 ,it is neither a hill1 nor a group of trees close to each other1 but one single tree1 the famous zamang del ,guayre1 known throughout the province for the enormous extent of its branches1 which form a hemispheric head five hundred and seventy-six feet in circumference4 ,the zamang is a fine species of mimosa1 and its tortuous branches are divided by bifurcation4 ,its delicate and tender foliage was agreeably relieved on the azure of the sky4 ,we stopped a long time under this vegetable roof4 ,the trunk of the zamang del ,guayre199 799 ,the mimos of ,la ,guayre2 zamang being the ,indian name for the genera mimosa1 desmanthus1 and acacia4 ,the place where the tree is found is called ,el ,guayre47 which is found on the road from ,turmero to ,maracay1 is only sixty feet high1 and nine thick2 but its real beauty consists in the form of its head4 ,the branches extend like an immense umbrella1 and bend toward the ground1 from which they remain at a uniform distance of twelve or fifteen feet4 ,the circumference of this head is so regular1 that1 having traced different diameters1 ,i found them one hundred and ninety-two and one hundred and eighty-six feet4 ,one side of the tree was entirely stripped of its foliage1 owing to the drought2 but on the other side there remained both leaves and flowers4 ,tillandsias1 lorantheae1 ,cactus ,pitahaya1 and other parasite plants1 cover its branches1 and crack the bark4 ,the inhabitants of these villages1 but particularly the ,indians1 hold in veneration the zamang del ,guayre1 which the first conquerors found almost in the same state in which it now remains4 ,since it has been observed with attention1 no change has appeared in its thickness or height4 ,this zamang must be at least as old as the ,orotava dragon-tree4 ,there is something solemn and majestic in the aspect of aged trees2 and the violation of these monuments of nature is severely punished in countries destitute of monuments of art4 ,we heard with satisfaction that the present proprietor of the zamang had brought an action against a cultivator who had been guilty of cutting off a branch4 ,the cause was tried1 and the tribunal condemned the offender4 ,we find near ,turmero and the ,hacienda de ,cura other zamangs1 having trunks larger than that of ,guayre1 but their hemispherical heads are not of equal extent4 ,the culture and population of the plains augment in the direction of ,cura and ,guacara1 on the northern side of the lake4 ,the valleys of ,aragua contain more than #eb1jjj inhabitants1 on a space thirteen leagues in length1 and two in width4 ,this is a relative population of two thousand souls on a square league4 ,the village or rather the small town of ,maracay was heretofore the centre of the indigo plantations1 when this branch of colonial industry was in its greatest prosperity4 ,the houses are all of masonry1 and every court contains cocoa-trees1 which rise above the habitations4 ,the aspect of general wealth is still more striking at ,maracay1 than at ,turmero4 ,the anil1 or indigo1 of these provinces has always been considered in commerce as equal and sometimes superior to that of ,guatemala4 ,the indigo plant impoverishes the soil1 where it is cultivated during a long series of years1 more than any other4 ,the lands of ,maracay1 ,tapatapa1 and ,turmero1 are looked upon as exhausted2 and indeed the produce of indigo has been constantly decreasing4 ,but in proportion as it has diminished in the valleys of ,aragua1 it has increased in the province of ,varinas1 and in the burning plains of ,cucuta1 where1 on the banks of the ,rio ,tachira1 virgin land yields an abundant produce1 of the richest colour4 ,we arrived very late at ,maracay1 and the persons to whom we were recommended were absent4 ,the inhabitants perceiving our embarrassment1 contended with each other in offering to lodge us1 to place our instruments1 and take care of our mules4 ,it has been said a thousand times1 but the traveller always feels desirous of repeating it again1 that the ,spanish colonies are the land of hospitality2 they are so even in those places where industry and commerce have diffused wealth and improvement4 ,a family of ,canarians received us with the most amiable cordiality2 an excellent repast was prepared1 and everything was carefully avoided that might act as any restraint on us4 ,the master of the house1 ,don ,alexandro ,gonzales1 was travelling on commercial business1 and his young wife had lately had the happiness of becoming a mother4 ,she was transported with joy when she heard that on our return from the ,rio ,negro we should proceed by the banks of the ,orinoco to ,angostura1 where her husband was4 ,we were to bear to him the tidings of the birth of his first child4 ,in those countries1 as among the ancients1 travellers are regarded as the safest means of communication4 ,there are indeed posts established1 but they make such great circuits that private persons seldom entrust them with letters for the llanos or savannahs of the interior4 ,the child was brought to us at the moment of our departure3 we had seen him asleep at night1 but it was deemed indispensable that we should see him awake in the morning4 ,we promised to describe his features exactly to his father1 but the sight of our books and instruments somewhat chilled the mother's confidence4 ,she said that in a long journey1 amidst so many cares of another kind1 we might well forget the colour of her child's eyes4 ,on the road from ,maracay to the ,hacienda de ,cura we enjoyed from time to time the view of the lake of ,valencia4 ,an arm of the granitic chain of the coast stretches southward into the plain4 ,it is the promontory of ,portachuelo which would almost close the valley1 were it not separated by a narrow defile from the rock of ,la ,cabrera4 ,this place has acquired a sad celebrity in the late revolutionary wars of ,caracas2 each party having obstinately disputed its possession1 as opening the way to ,valencia1 and to the ,llanos4 ,la ,cabrera now forms a peninsula3 not sixty years ago it was a rocky island in the lake1 the waters of which gradually diminish4 ,we spent seven very agreeable days at the ,hacienda da ,cura1 in a small habitation surrounded by thickets4 ,we lived after the manner of the rich in this country2 we bathed twice1 slept three times1 and made three meals in the twenty-four hours4 ,the temperature of the water of the lake is rather warm1 being from twenty-four to twenty-five degrees2 but there is another cool and delicious bathing-place at ,toma1 under the shade of ceibas and large zamangs1 in a torrent gushing from the granitic mountains of the ,rincon del ,diablo4 ,in entering this bath1 we had not to fear the sting of insects1 but to guard against the little brown hairs which cover the pods of the ,dolichos pruriens4 ,when these small hairs1 well characterised by the name of picapica1 stick to the body1 they excite a violent irritation on the skin2 the dart is felt1 but the cause is unperceived4 ,near ,cura we found all the people occupied in clearing the ground covered with mimosa1 sterculia1 and ,coccoloba excoriata1 for the purpose of extending the cultivation of cotton4 ,this product1 which partly supplies the place of indigo1 has succeeded so well during some years1 that the cotton-tree now grows wild on the borders of the lake of ,valencia4 ,we have found shrubs of eight or ten feet high entwined with bignonia and other ligneous creepers4 ,the exportation of cotton from ,caracas1 however1 is yet of small importance4 ,it amounted at an average at ,la ,guayra scarcely to three or four hundred thousand pounds in a year2 but including all the ports of the ,capitania-general1 it arose1 on account of the flourishing culture of ,cariaco1 ,nueva ,barcelona1 and ,maracaybo1 to more than #bb1jjj quintals4 ,the cotton of the valleys of ,aragua is of fine quality1 being inferior only to that of ,brazil2 for it is preferred to that of ,carthagena1 ,st4 ,domingo1 and the ,caribbee ,islands4 ,the cultivation of cotton extends on one side of the lake from ,maracay to ,valencia2 and on the other from ,guayca to ,guigue4 ,the large plantations yield from sixty to seventy thousand pounds a year4 ,during our stay at ,cura we made numerous excursions to the rocky islands 7which rise in the midst of the lake of ,valencia17 to the warm springs of ,mariara1 and to the lofty granitic mountain called ,el ,cucurucho de ,coco4 ,a dangerous and narrow path leads to the port of ,turiamo and the celebrated cacao-plantations of the coast4 ,in all these excursions we were agreeably surprised1 not only at the progress of agriculture1 but at the increase of a free laborious population1 accustomed to toil1 and too poor to rely on the assistance of slaves4 ,white and mulatto farmers had everywhere small separate establishments4 ,our host1 whose father had a revenue of #dj1jjj piastres1 possessed more lands than he could clear2 he distributed them in the valleys of ,aragua among poor families who chose to apply themselves to the cultivation of cotton4 ,he endeavoured to surround his ample plantations with freemen1 who1 working as they chose1 either in their own land or in the neighbouring plantations1 supplied him with day-labourers at the time of harvest4 ,nobly occupied on the means best adapted gradually to extinguish the slavery of the blacks in these provinces1 ,count ,tovar flattered himself with the double hope of rendering slaves less necessary to the landholders1 and furnishing the freedmen with opportunities of becoming farmers4 ,on departing for ,europe he had parcelled out and let a part of the lands of ,cura1 which extend towards the west at the foot of the rock of ,las ,viruelas4 ,four years after1 at his return to ,america1 he found on this spot1 finely cultivated in cotton1 a little hamlet of thirty or forty houses1 which is called ,punta ,zamuro1 and which we visited with him4 ,the inhabitants of this hamlet are almost all mulattos1 ,zamboes1 or free blacks4 ,this example of letting out land has been happily followed by several other great proprietors4 ,the rent is ten piastres for a fanega of ground1 and is paid in money or in cotton4 ,as the small farmers are often in want1 they sell their cotton at a very moderate price4 ,they dispose of it even before the harvest3 and the advances1 made by rich neighbours1 place the debtor in a situation of dependence1 which frequently obliges him to offer his services as a labourer4 ,the price of labour is cheaper here than in ,france4 ,a freeman1 working as a day-labourer 7peon71 is paid in the valleys of ,aragua and in the llanos four or five piastres per month1 not including food1 which is very cheap on account of the abundance of meat and vegetables4 ,i love to dwell on these details of colonial industry1 because they serve to prove to the inhabitants of ,europe1 a fact which to the enlightened inhabitants of the colonies has long ceased to be doubtful1 namely1 that the continent of ,spanish ,america can produce sugar1 cotton1 and indigo by free hands1 and that the unhappy slaves are capable of becoming peasants1 farmers1 and landholders4 ,,end ,,of ,,volume #a4