,,vol4 ,,iii1 ,,pp4 #da-eb1 ,,may #a1   
#ahia    ,,! ,,national ,,geographic    
,,magaz9e          ,,geography ,,( ,,!  
,,air    ,,annual ,,report ,,by         
,,vice-,,presid5t    ,a4 ,w4 ,,greely   
,,wa%+ton    ,,publi%$ ,,by ,,!         
,,national ,,geographic ,,society       
,price #be ,c5ts4      #da      ,,vol4  
,,iii1 ,,pp4 #da-eb1 ,,may #a1 #ahia    
,,! ,,national ,,geographic ,,magaz9e   
,,geography ,,( ,,! ,,air4    ,,annual  
,,report ,,by ,,vice-,,presid5t    ,a4  
,w4 ,,greely4    7,pres5t$ to ! ,society
 ,janu>y #bc1 #ahia47      ,9 fulfill+ !
 duties gr[+ out ( 8 (ficial position 9 
connection ) ?is ,society1 y\r          
,vice-,presid5t ( ! ,geography (  ! ,air
 has be5 s closely occupi$ ) executive &
 o!r (ficial  duties devolv+ ^u him z to
 preclude 8 giv+ t am\nt (  "t & labor  
to ?is annual report t ! subject m]its4 
,inde$1  no report w\ld be submitt$ ?is 
ye> _h x n seem$ bett] to  insure a     
cont9uity ( ^! annual addresses1 ev5 if 
"o ( !m  might n be up to ! high /&>d   

:i* %\ld be ma9ta9$ =  !m4    ,x mu/ h  
impress$ e g5]al read] ( sci5tific      
j\rnals  t ! pa/ ye> has be5 m>k$ by !  
publication ( an unusual  numb] (       
controv]sial articles relat+ entirely or
 9 "p to  meteorology4 ,"s ( !          
discussions ( ?is subject appe> to be 9 
! nature ( speculation1 :i*1 by good    
au?ority1 is def9$ to be  *iefly ! "w ( 
! imag9ation1 & has little to d )       
realities4 ,! /atus ( ! meteorological  
discussion :i* has be5  go+ on = "s "t  
seems to be ?is3 ,a numb] ( m51 apply+  
!mselves to inve/igation 9 sep>ate      
bran*es or /ages ( ! same  sci5ce1 are  
attempt+ to reconcile _! views1 :i*1    
bas$ z !y  are ^u entirely diff]5t      
processes ( inve/igation1 are n         
entirely accordant4 ,"s1 at lea/1 ( ^!  
writ]s are /ill  app>5tly grop+ 9 !     
prelim9>y1 ! natural hi/ory /age (  !   
#db sci5ce ( meteorology1 :ile "o alone 
/&s z !  expon5t ( ! natural philosophy 
( meteorology4    ,to me x seems t x    
c\ld n h fail$ to impress any int]e/$   

read] :o has foll[$ ! late publications 
on ! convectional  !ory t1 9 ord] to    
cle> ! gr\nd = def9ite meteorological   
discussion1 x is necess>y to det]m9e !  
exact mean+ ( !  v>i\s te*nical t]ms    
employ$ by ! v>i\s writ]s4 ,:e!r f      
loos5ess ( v]biage orig9ally or f ! n   
infrequ5t habit (  disputants :5 wor/$  
to *ange _! gr\nd by claim+ to be       
misund]/ood1 we f9d t "s writ]s are     
unwill+ ei!r to /&  by _! fir/          
criticisms or to op5ly ab&on !m2 !y     
pref] to  expla9 away _! defective      
/atem5ts & gradually %ift ar\nd to      
positions almo/ diametrically oppos$ to 
^? orig9ally assum$4    ,! g5]ally      
accept$ !ory z to cyclones attributes _!
  initiatory =mation to an unequal      
di/ribution ( temp]ature )  result+ mean
 dim9ution ( pressure1 & ! movem5t ( !  
air  f places ( high to places ( l[     
pressure1 ! l[] air asc5d+  ) a gyratory
 motion1 :ile air p>ticles mov+ f       
opposite  directions =m c\ples :i*      
produce rotation4 ,:5 en]getic motions  

raise ! asc5d+ air to su* a height t !  
temp]ature1 cool$  dynamically 9 asc5d+1
 goes bel[ ! dew-po9t1 !n ! great  /ore 
( lat5t heat !reby set free becomes1 x  
is assum$1 ! ma9  s\rce ( en]gy 9       
ma9ta9+ ! upw>d convectional movem5t4 ,!
  subsidi>y causes are attribut$ to !   
dim9ution ( pressure on !  collapse ( ! 
vapor1 & also to ! direct absorption ( !
 sun's  heat at ! upp] cl\d surface4    
,9 anticyclones a sl[ gyratory desc5d+  
motion ( ! air is  assum$4 ,f]rel       
consid]s ! cyclone & anticyclone "o     
sy/em1 &  believes t air fl[+ into !    
cyclone f a high at ! gr\nd  passes out 
into ! high] atmosph]ic /rata4    ,dr4  
,hann has put =? ! hypo!sis t ! g5esis (
 cyclones &  anticyclones may be s\ght 9
 ! g5]al atmosph]ic circulation  ?r\gh a
 diff]5ce ( temp]ature ( ! air f !      
equator to !  poles4 ,he speaks ( a     
conge/ion 9 ! upp] or anti-trade w9ds1  
:]e ! air heaps up to a great height1   
?is be+ ! cause ( !  anticyclones2 & he 
ma9ta9s t ! l[ temp]ature ( ! high  is  

due to gr\nd radiation1 & t no "p ( !   
high pressure is  ! result ( l[         
temp]ature4    #dc ,to ?is hypo!sis (   
,dr4 ,hann1 ascrib+ ! g5esis ( /orms  to
 ! g5]al circulation ( ! atmosph]e1 no  
application ( !  laws ( dynamics has yet
 be5 made ) a view ( develop+ x into  an
 acceptable !ory4 ,if x %\ld be e/abli%$
 x does n foll[  t x w 9 any way affect 
! tru? ( ! commonly accept$             
convectional sy/em1 :i*1 f\nd$ z x is on
 ! well-kn[n laws  ( !rmo-dynamics1 is n
 likely to be successfully assail$4 ,!re
  may be an improv$ nom5clature = ! laws
 ( /atics & dynamics  t w express to !  
m9d m cle>ly ! relation ( cause &       
effect2 b until ! advance ( sci5tific   
rese>* modifies !  pres5t =mulation ( ^!
 laws ! convectional !ory w be  g5]ally 
accept$ z giv+ ! true int]pretation (   
all !  ph5om5a to :i* x c\ld be appli$4 
,pr(essor ,russell1 9 comm5t+ on ?is    
subject1 expresses !  op9ion t ! l[     
temp]ature is due to ! convective       
int]*ange  ( air at a l[ temp]ature 9 ! 

upp] /rata ) air ( a high  temp]ature 9 
l[] /rata1 su* convective int]*ange t5d+
 to  make ! :ole body ( air ( a         
temp]ature co9cid+ ?r\gh\t )  !         
adiabatic rate ( upw>d dim9ution1 ) !   
consequ5t result (  r5d]+ ! air at !    
surface ( ! e>? cool] ?an previ\sly  & !
 upp] air w>m]4 ,:5 ! upw>d dim9ution ( 
temp]ature is  less ?an ! adiabatic     
rate1 9 ! =c$ circulation ( air  cross+ 
a m\nta9 ridge1 !re occurs ! dynamic    
heat+ :i* is  obs]v$ 9 ! case ( ! foehn 
w9ds4 ,! l[ temp]ature ne> !  e>? he    
does n believe c\ld ev] be entirely     
produc$ by nocturnal  radiation f !     
gr\nd4 ,! high pressure1 9 8 op9ion1 is 
l>gely ! result ( great] d5sity due to  
l[ temp]ature1 z is  v cle>ly indicat$  
by ! fact t ! temp]ature is almo/       
inv]sely proportional to ! pressure1 & t
 ! places ( l[]  temp]ature sub/antially
 co9cide ) ! places ( greate/  pressure4
    ,9 advanc+ hypo!ses & invit+        
discussion ! real object is1 or  at lea/
 %\ld be1 to discov] ! ess5tial cause or

 causes :i*  det]m9e ! initial =mation &
 subsequ5t ma9t5ance &  progress ( !    
cyclone4 ,"s real progress 9 *>t+ l9es (
 equal  d5sity seems to h be5 made by   
,m4 ,nils ,ekholm foll[+ ,pr(essor      
,abbe's sy/em ( iso/a?s1 "o us+ ! t]m   
d5sity1 ! o!r  buoyancy4 ,pr(essor ,abbe
 also introduces ! factor ( ! orographic
  gradi5t1 b ! #dd latt] is simply !    
measure ( a resi/ance4  ,! objection to 
?is =m ( det]m9ation is ?is1 t x is a   
measure ( mass only4 ,! d5sity ( two    
masses ( air is det]m9$  to be ! same2 b
 z ! d5sity may result f two entirely   
diff]5t causes1 _! physical relations _c
 be fully express$  9 units ( gravity4  
,! me?ods ( ,pr(essor ,abbe & ( ,m4     
,nils  ,ekholm und\bt$ly give good      
results1 p>tly f ! co9cid5ce t  humidity
 usually v>ies directly z ! temp]ature4 
,! me?od propos$ by ,capta9 ,james ,all5
 9 #ahhh1 :i* is briefly  describ$ 9    
app5dix #bd to ! annual report ( ! ,*ief
 ,signal  ,(fic] = #ahij1 appe>s to af=d
 ! means ( m cle>ly  express+ !         

relations t exi/ betwe5 ! mass ( !      
atmosph]e  & ! =ces available = !       
g5]ation & movem5t ( /orms4  ,its       
t5tative application at ! ,signal ,(fice
 has anticipat$ &  expla9$ /orm movem5ts
 n indicat$ or acc\nt$ = by ! usual     
me?ods4    ,z p]t95t to ?is matt]1 !re  
is in/anc$ a /udy ( !  progress (       
?und]-/orms made by ,b]g1 :o obs]ves t !
 l9e (  /orm front 9 e case inve/igat$  
made a decid$ly conspicu\s  b5d into !  
d5se/ "p ( ! l9es repres5t+ ! absolute  
humidity4           99       99       99
       99       99    ,sci5tific        
conditions h s *ang$ t 9 ^! lat] ye>s x 
becomes m & m difficult = inve/igators  
to publi% any "w  :i* may be *>act]iz$ z
 magnum opus4 ,"u ?is head1 h[ev]1  mu/ 
be class$ ,bu*an's important memoir on !
 di/ribution (  atmosph]ic pressure1    
temp]ature1 & w9d direction ov] ! :ole  
_w2 a l>ge qu>to volume1 :i* conta9s mu*
 new mat]ial4 ,x has  be5 incorporat$ ) 
! results ( obs]vations dur+ !  ,*all5g]
 exp$ition1 9 :i* s]ies ?is "w appe>s4  

,! isob>s  & iso!rms = ea* mon? 9 ! ye> 
= ! :ole e>? are  *>t$ on ,m]cator's    
projection1 & = ! nor!rn hemisph]e on a 
*>t con/ruct$ on a pol> projection4 ,9  
connection ) an  ab/ruse subject1 to :i*
 ,bu*an has paid s mu* att5tion1 !      
diurnal v>iation ( pressure1 he op9es f 
! ,*all5g]  obs]vations t ! oscillations
 are due to ! heat tak5 f !  sol> rays  
directly 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! air &          
in/antane\sly  communicat$ ?r\gh ! :ole 
mass f top to bottom by heat+ &         
evaporation ( wat] on innum]able du/    
p>ticles4 ,! aft]noon  m9imum1 he ?9ks1 
is caus$ by upw>d curr5ts remov+ a      
portion (  ! l[] air4 ,m>k$ #de         
diff]5ces exi/ betwe5 ! cont95tal  &    
insul> types1 s9ce on isl&s ! morn+     
m9imum is unusually  l>ge & ! aft]noon  
m9imum s small z to disappe>1 :ile 9    
cont95tal types ! rev]se conditions     
obta94           99       99       99   
99       99    ,w]n] ,von ,siem5s1 9    
answ]+ ,sprung's criticism on 8 g5]al   
air  curr5ts1 aft] repell+ c]ta9        

/atem5ts ( ,sprung1 describes 8  own    
!ories1 :i* are wor?y ( re/at+3    #a4  
,all w9ds are caus$ by ! di/urbances (  
indiff]5t  equilibrium1 & ! motion ( !  
air is to re/ore equilibrium4    #b4 ,^!
 di/urbances are caus$ ?r\gh ov]heat+ ( 
! lay]s (  air ne> ! surface ( ! e>? by 
insolation1 ?r\gh unsymmetrical  cool+ (
 ! high] lay]s by radiation1 & ?r\gh !  
heap+ up  ( air masses caus$ by         
ob/ructions4    #c4 ,! di/urbances are  
adju/$ by asc5d+ curr5ts1 :]e9 !        
p>ticul> species ( accel]ation occurs 9 
:i* ! increase (  velocity is           
proportion$ to ! dim9ution ( pressure4  
#d4 ,! upw>d curr5ts correspond to      
equally great desc5d+ curr5ts  9 :i* !re
 is a decrease ( velocity correspond+ to
 !  accel]ation 9 ! upw>d velocity4     
#e4 ,if ! region ( ov]heat+ ( ! air is  
limit$ locally1 a local  upw>d curr5t   
rea*+ to ! highe/ lay]s ( air arises1 & 
:irlw9ds appe> ) int]ior spirally asc5d+
 curr5ts &  outside simil> spiral       
desc5d+ curr5ts4 ,! result ( ?is is     

disp]sion ( ! sup]flu\s heat ( ! l[] air
 by :i* !  adiabatic equilibrium is     
di/urb$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole column ( air     
tak+ "p 9 ! :irl+ motion4    #f4 ,9 case
 ! region ( di/urbance ( ! indiff]5t 7or
 adiabatic7  equilibrium is v ext5sive1 
z1 = example1 ! :ole ( !  tropical zone1
 ! temp]ature adju/m5t c no long] be    
accompli%$ by locally asc5d+ :irls1 & a 
:irl+ curr5t mu/  !n arise involv+ !    
:ole atmosph]e4 ,! same conditions apply
  to ^! z to ! local :irls ( accel]at$  
upw>d motion &  ret>d$ desc5t 9 su* a   
mann] t ! velocity at diff]5t  altitudes
 aris+ f heat conv]t$ to "w is          
approximately  proportional to !        
prevail+ pressure at ! place4    #g4 ,9 
consequ5ce ( ! m]idional motion produc$ 
& ma9ta9$ by  conv]sion ( heat into "w1 
! :ole atmosph]e 9 e latitude  mu/      
rotate ) approximately ! same absolute  
velocity4 ,?us !  m]idional curr5ts     
produc$ by ov]heat+ comb9e ) ! curr5ts  
embrac+ ! :ole #df w9d sy/em ( ! e>?1 ) 
! result (  dissem9at+ ! excess (       

temp]ature & humidity ( ! torrid  zone  
ov] ! temp]ate & arctic zones1 !reby    
produc+ !  prevail+ w9ds4    #h4 ,?is is
 accompli%$ by ! production ( alt]nat+  
local  depressions & elevations (       
b>ometric pressure by ! di/urbance  (   
indiff]5t equilibrium 9 ! upp] lay]s ( !
 air4    #i4 ,highs & l[s are a         
consequ5ce ( ! temp]atures &  velocities
 ( ! upp] curr5ts4    ,:5ce x foll[s t !
 mo/ important problem ( meteorology is 
! inve/igation ( ! causes & consequ5ces 
( ! di/urbance (  indiff]5t equilibrium 
( ! atmosph]e1 & ! weightie/ problem  9 
wea!r pr$iction is ! inve/igation ( !   
geographical orig9  or extraction ( air 
curr5ts pursu+ _! c\rse above u t[>d  ! 
pole4           99       99       99    
99       99    ,9 ,pomortsew's treatise 
on synoptic meteorology1 publi%$ 9      
,russia1  !re are full *apt]s on        
pr$iction ( wea!r1 :e!r f  synoptic     
*>ts1 f obs]vations at a s+le place1 or 
f  progno/ics ( great l5g? bas$ on      
rese>*es on ! succession (  w>m & cold  

mon?s4 ,x also conta9s ,pomortsew's     
inve/igations on  ! types ( pressure    
di/ribution 9 ea/]n ,europe1 z well z ! 
av]age pa? ( cyclones4           99     
99       99       99       99    ,!     
favorable opportunities af=d$ by !      
,eiffel t[] h be5  utiliz$ by ,fr5*     
meteorologi/s4 ,m4 ,angot /ates t dur+ !
  anti-cyclone ( ,novemb]1 #ahhi1 !     
temp]ature on ! t[] 0  sev]al degrees   
high] ?an bel[4 ,! *ange ( wea!r set 9  
e>li]1 ) a /rong & w>m w9d1 on ! t[]1   
:ile ! air at  ! gr\nd 0 cold & calm4   
,w9d obs]vations on ! t[] %[ a  ratio ( 
#c4a at t height 7#cjc met]s7 to !      
velocity at a height  ( #ba met]s1 z    
det]m9$ f #aja days' obs]vations1 :i*1  
rem>kable at su* a small height1        
discloses ! peculi>ity ( high  m\nta9   
/ations4           99       99       99 
99       99    ,p>ts*1 writ+ on evid5ce 
( climatic *anges )9 hi/orical  times 9 
! ,m$it]ranean region1 rem>ks t too mu* 
att5tion has  be5 giv5 to *anges 9      
crops1 ! introduction ( plants1 & !     

limits ( dome/ic animals4 ,he /ates t   
exi/+ in=mation z to  ! h>ve/ "t (      
anci5t days indicates an un*ang$        
climate1 :ile  ! l&-lock$ lakes 9       
,tunis1 :i* af=d ! be/ evid5ce on       
ra9fall v>iation1 %[ absolutely no      
climatic *ange4           99       99   
99       99       99    #dg ,van ,bebb]1
 9 writ+ on wea!r types1 claims t a l9e 
drawn  f ! c5t] ( a cyclone p]p5dicul>ly
 9 ! direction ( !  heavie/ gradi5ts w 9
 g5]al be p]p5dicul> to ! subsequ5t  pa?
 ( ! l[1 & t ^! l[s leave high          
temp]ature on !  "r h&4           99    
99       99       99       99    ,hill1 
9 describ+ hail-/ones & tornadoes 9     
,india1 expla9s !m  on ! pr9ciple ( !   
great dim9ution ( temp]ature upw>ds 9 ! 
air1 b a critic1 9 combat+ ?is !ory1    
objects to ! high &  l[ /ations select$ 
to %[ temp]atures4           99       99
       99       99       99    ,!       
s-call$ wea!r plant ( ! tropics has     
pass$ ?r\gh !  process ( inve/igation ) 
! usual result4 ,x appe>s surpris+  t 9 

^! days x %\ld be believ$ t any plant or
 animal c  =etell wea!r #dh h\rs 9      
advance1 p>ticul>ly aft] consid]+  ! va/
 am\nt ( pro( z to ! enorm\s rapidity ) 
:i*  wea!r-*anges progress f day to day4
           99       99       99       99
       99    ,hugo ,mey]1 9 treat+ !    
precipitation ( c5tral ,g]many = !  t5  
ye>s end+ 9 #ahhe1 p]t95tly rem>ks t !  
same  significance does n atta* to !    
same ra9fall = all places &  diff]5t    
times ( ! ye>1 = ?is av]age value is n !
 am\nt  mo/ likely to fall 9 any        
p>ticul> int]val ( "t1 s9ce !re is  a   
limit to ! ext5t ( ! negative deviations
 on "o side--t is1  #j or no ra9fall1   
:ile on ! positive side !re is no limit4
 ,!  mo/ probable dep? ( ra9fall1 !re=e1
 is less ?an ! mean  value1 !           
prepond]ance ( negative ov] positive    
deviations be+  ab\t #aj p] c5t4 &      
sometimes z great z #bj p] c5t4         
99       99       99       99       99  
,pr(essor ,w4 ,m4 ,davis wrote an       
int]e/+ review ( ,pr(essor  ,f]rel's    

popul> treatise on ! w9ds1 publi%$ a ye>
 ago4  ,comm5t+ on ! review1 ! editor ( 
,meteorologis*e ,zelts*rift1  ,vi5na1   
rem>ks on a v important omission 9 !    
treatise1 namely1  ! abs5ce ( all       
ref]5ce to ! diurnal v>iation ( ! w9d & 
! _m int]e/+ relations x be>s to o!r    
ph5om5a1 a notable  omission 9 a        
treatise specially devot$ to w9ds4 ,!   
treatm5t (  ! monsoon w9d & its relation
 to ! g5]al circulation is highly       
comm5d$ by ! editor1 & indicat$ z be+   
all new4           99       99       99 
99       99    ,y\r ,vice-,presid5t has 
else:]e express$ 8 op9ion t monsoon     
w9ds1 apply+ ! t]m by lib]al con/ruction
 to signify w9ds  :i* recur ) return+   
seasons1 _c ) #dh any degree (          
correctness be ass]t$ to prevail 9 !    
,unit$ ,/ates4 ,x is true  t ! prevail+ 
surface w9ds ( ! great] "p ( ! ,unit$   
,/ates come f ! we/]n quadrants--t is1  
betwe5 s\?we/ &  nor?we/--& s are 9     
sub/antial h>mony ) ! g5]al  atmosph]ic 
circulation z %[n by ! upp]-w9d curr5ts 

( ,m\nt  ,wa%+ton 7f ! nor?we/7 &       
,pike's peak 7f ! s\?we/74  ,b1 ap>t f !
 ea/]ly & nor!a/]ly trades on ! ,florida
  coa/1 x appe>s f ! records t 9 no case
 = any  consid]able section ( ! c\ntry d
 #ej p] c5t4 ( ! w9ds bl[1  = any       
consecutive numb] ( mon?s1 ei!r f any   
s+le po9t or  f two neighbor+ po9ts ( ! 
compass4 ,occasionally1 h[ev]1 !  local 
configuration ( ! c\ntry is su* t w9ds  
are drawn up or  d[n valleys1 &1 be+    
div]t$ f _! free & prop]  direction1 !  
w9d 9 su* cases foll[s ! tr5d ( ! valley
 or  depression4           99       99  
99       99       99    ,9 g5]al y\r    
,vice-,presid5t w\ld feel incl9$ to ref]
 only  casually to ! "w proce$+ f !     
,bureau ov] :i* he has !  honor to      
preside1 b ?is ye> has be5 m>k$ by      
special rese>*es  & inve/igations (     
g5]al int]e/4 ,z ! "w ( inve/igation    
has be5 entru/$ to ! pr(essors ( !      
,signal ,s]vice1 due cr$it  %\ld n be   
refus$ !m f _! own (ficial *ief4        
,special ref]5ce %\ld be made to ! "w ( 

,pr(essor ,*>les ,f4  ,m>v91 ^:         
successful exp]im5ts on w9d pressures & 
velocities  h attract$ ! att5tion (     
exp]ts bo? 9 ,europe & 9 ?is  c\ntry4   
,un=tunately !re 0 available only a     
small sum 7ab\t "o  hundr$ doll>s7 = !  
exp5se ( exp]im5ts1 b ) ?is petty  sum1 
supplem5t$ by 8 +5uity1 ,pr(essor ,m>v9 
has v  satisfactorily det]m9$ !         
coffici5ts ( ! v>i\s =ms ( !  ,rob9son  
anemomet]1 ) :i* in/rum5t ! velocity ( !
 w9d is  v g5]ally det]m9$4 ,foll[+ ^!  
inve/igations1 ! ,royal  ,meteorological
 ,society ( ,engl& reop5$ ! "q1 :i*1    
aft]  a co/ly set ( exp]im5ts ) results 
widely diff]+ f ^?  ( ,pr(essor ,m>v91  
_h be5 consid]$ clos$4    ,! g5]al      
results ( ^! rese>*es1 :i* are believ$  
to be  suffici5tly def9ite = g5]al      
que/ions1 are n only priz$ by  !        
sci5ti/1 b !y are ( value to ! eng9e] & 
! build]4  ,inde$1 to all int]e/$ 9     
co/ly /ructures or ext5d$ works  liable 
to h>m f w9d pressures1 ! factor (      
safety is #di a  matt] ( no small       

pecuni>y importance4 ,^! exp]im5ts %[ t1
  z 0 =m]ly believ$ to be ! case1 ! w9d 
pressure v>ies z  ! squ>e ( ! velocity (
 ! w9d1 express$ 9 miles p] h\r2  b a   
mo/ important fact has develop$1 namely1
 t ! pressure 9  p\nds p] squ>e foot is 
equal to ! miles ( h\rly velocity       
multipli$ by #j4jjd in/ead ( #j4jje1 z 0
 =m]ly assum$4    ,pr(essor ,m>v9 0 n   
cont5t ) "o sy/em ( exp]im5ts1 b  he    
fur!r attack$ ! problem 9 a direct mann]
 by a me?od :i*  *eck$ & v]ifi$ 8       
exp]im5ts ) ! :irl+ ma*9e4 ,on !  summit
 ( ,m\nt ,wa%+ton1 at an elevation (    
#f1cjj feet1 he obta9$  simultane\sly & 
"u ! same conditions1 by automatic &    
electrical app>atus1 cont9u\s           
regi/ration ( ! pressure ( !  w9d 9     
p\nds p] squ>e foot & ( ! velocity 9    
miles p] h\r4    ,! results ?us v]ifi$ c
 be consid]$ z conclusive f a  g5]al    
/&po9t4 ,! corrections = ! ,rob9son     
anemomet] ?us  det]m9$ f ^! exp]im5ts   
are comp>atively unimportant at l[      
velocities1 say f #aj to #ae miles p]   

h\r1 be+ only a fraction (  a mile p]   
h\r4 ,! uncorrect$ velocities1 h[ev]1   
are 9 all cases  too l>ge1 & by great] &
 great] am\nts ! high] ! velocity4  ,at 
#fj miles p] h\r ! obs]v$ velocities are
 ab\t #ab miles p]  h\r too high1 & = an
 indicat$ velocity ( #ij miles !        
exp]im5ts %[ t ! actual velocity is b a 
fraction ov] #fi  miles p] h\r4    ,!   
anemomet] =mula f\nd to satisfy mo/     
closely ! entire range  ( exp]im5ts has 
! foll[+ =m = velocities 9 miles p]     
h\r3      ,log4 ,v  #j4eji  #j4ijab log4
 v4    ,?is diff]5ce indicat$ by ! =mula
 may seem small &  insignificant1 z x is
 9 ! case ( light w9ds1 b at v high     
velocities ! diff]5ces are v great4 ,=  
in/ance1 an actual  velocity ( #fj miles
 p] h\r may occur at "s "t 9 almo/ any  
locality ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates = a few      
m9utes1 & ev5 great]  velocities are    
occasionally report$1 ap>t f sev]e      
tornadoes4  ,"u ! old coffici5ts = !    
,rob9son anemomet] an actual  velocity (
 #fj miles p] h\r w\ld h be5 report$ z  

#gg miles p]  h\r1 :i* "u ! old factor (
 #j4jje w\ld mean a pressure (  #bi4f   
p\nds p] squ>e foot2 b :5 consid]$ )    
ref]5ce to !  true velocity ( #fj miles1
 "u #ej ! new factor ( #j4jjd1 !        
pressure w\ld only be #ad4d p\nds p]    
squ>e foot--a r$uction (  ov] #ej p]    
c5t4 f ! pressure-values =m]ly accept$4 
,pr(essor ,m>v9 has und]tak5 to v]ify1 &
 also to ext5d to ev5  l[] temp]atures1 
! obs]vations ( ,regnault z to !        
pressure (  aque\s vapor at l[          
temp]atures1 especial att5tion be+ giv5 
to  temp]ature conditions f #j c5tigrade
 to -#ej c5tigrade4 ,^!  obs]vations    
disclose1 bel[ #j c5tigrade1 small b    
con/ant  diff]5ces f ! values assign$ by
 ,regnault4    ,9 all ?is "w ,pr(essor  
,m>v9 has %[n su* +5uity (  res\rce1 su*
 skill 9 adapt+ means to ! end1 & su*   
deftness  9 improvis+ & manufactur+ !   
requisite in/rum5ts z h  elicit$        
comm5dation f all :o h se5 8 "w & foll[$
 8  me?ods4 ,y\r ,vice-,presid5t alludes
 to ?is n only to give t  cr$it         

rightfully due to ,pr(essor ,m>v91 b to 
illu/rate ?is z a  type ( ! highly      
important "w :i* is be+ done 9 all      
bran*es  ( sci5ce "h 9 ,wa%+ton by "y m5
 sometimes illy equipp$ z  to means1 &  
/ill m illy paid4 ,m5 engag$ 9 "w (     
orig9al  inve/igation %\ld receive high]
 pay ?an cl]ks 9 *>ge (  r\t9e duties2 b
 un=tunately ! majority ( !m d n4       
99       99       99       99       99  
,! "w ( ,pr(essor ,haz5 9 *>t+ tornadoes
 & 9 det]m9+  _! relative frequ5cy &    
sev]ity is directly 9 ! l9e ( !         
,geography ( ! ,air4    ,great att5tion 
_h previ\sly be5 giv5 to ?is subject by 
,lieut5ant ,john ,p4 ,f9ley1 :o1 )      
indefatigable indu/ry1 _h  accumulat$ an
 enorm\s mass ( data relative to ^!     
viol5t  outbur/s ( nature's =ces4 ,!    
figures & d$uctions previ\sly  put =? "u
 ! au?ority ( ! ,signal ,s]vice hav+ be5
  que/ion$1 ! ,*ief ,signal ,(fic] felt 
oblig$1 9 view ( !  gr[+ practical      
importance ( ! "q1 z indicat$ by !      
great sums annually paid out 9 ! ,ohio  

valley & 9 !  trans-,mississippi region 
= protection aga9/ tornadoes1 to rep5  !
 subject4 ,in/ructions ( ! mo/          
cons]vative "* 7  giv5 to ,pr(essor     
,haz5 to det]m9e c>efully ! preval5ce & 
numb] ( tornadoes 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 !  
areas deva/at$ by  !m1 & ! numb] ( lives
 lo/ annually4 ,?is "w 0 c>efully       
scrut9iz$ dur+ its progress to see t x  
%\ld be devoid (  !ory & re/ on ! solid 
basis ( fact4 ,! results are mo/  assur+
 to e #ea "o1 & mu/ s]ve to allay !     
unreasonable  fe>s ( ! inhabitants ( !  
s-call$ tornado di/ricts4 ,x  appe>s t  
!re is no "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 :i*    
annually  m ?an "o squ>e mile (         
deva/ation or sev]e de/ruction c be     
expect$ = ea* #ahe1jjj squ>e miles1     
al?\gh cases ( limit$  de/ruction may   
occur annually = ab\t e #e1jjj squ>e    
miles (  area4 ,9 no /ate may de/ructive
 tornadoes be expect$1 on an  av]age1 m 
?an once 9 two ye>s2 & ! area ov] :i*   
total  de/ruction c be expect$ is1 z %[n
 by ! =ego+ figures1  exce$+ly small1   

ev5 9 localities mo/ liable to ^! viol5t
  /orms4 ,! annual dea? casualties f    
tornadoes h av]ag$1 9  ! la/ #ah ye>s1  
#ajb annually2 b x is believ$ t ! dea?  
rate f lightn+ is great] ?an t f        
tornadoes1 s9ce dur+  ,m>* to ,augu/1   
#ahij1 ! names ( #aaj are on record :o h
 lo/  _! lives by lightn+1 al?\gh ! data
 are incomplete1 especially  z reg>ds ! 
s\!rn /ates4 ,^! /ati/ics _c be pass$ by
  lightly1 h[ev]1 & x is d\btful if 9 ! 
ma9 !y are mu* 9  error4 ,by !m x appe>s
 f five ye>s' record t ! av]age  annual 
dea? rate by lightn+ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates  
is #c4h p] million  ( inhabitants1 or   
#j4b above ! av]age4 ,9 ,sw$51 = sixty  
ye>s1  ! av]age has be5 #c4j2 9 ,france1
 = =ty-n9e ye>s1 #c4a2 9  ,bad51 =      
sev5te5 ye>s1 #c4h2 & 9 ,prussia1 =     
fifte5 ye>s1  #d4d p] million4    ,o!r  
figures1 giv5 by a life-insurance ag5t 9
 ,/4 ,l\is1 :i* !  au?or claims to h    
compil$ ) great c>e1 place ! av]age     
annual rate ( dea? f lightn+ 9 ! ,unit$ 
,/ates at #bjf1 be+  m ?an d\ble ! dea?s

 f tornadoes4 ,x mu/ be und]/ood t  ^!  
figures are n v\*$ =1 & mu/ be v        
cauti\sly  receiv$1 z orig9at+ )        
companies int]e/$ pecuni>ily 9 !        
/ati/ics4    ,on ! :ole1 !re=e1 x may be
 safely assum$ t tornadoes are  n s     
de/ructive to life z ?und]-/orms4       
99       99       99       99       99  
,pr(essor ,?omas ,russell has =mulat$ a 
me?od = pr$iction (  cold waves4 ,!y    
always occur aft] l[s & be=e highs1 &   
diff]5t cold waves v>y 9 ext5t f ?ree   
units to sixty4 ,a  unit (              
temp]ature-fall is tak5 z a fall ( tw5ty
 degrees ov]  an area ( #ej1jjj squ>e   
miles4    ,! temp]ature-fall curves 9 ! 
,unit$ ,/ates are approximately         
elliptical 9 %ape4 ,p]fect ellipses     
repres5t actual temp]ature  falls ) an  
error n exce$+ six degrees 9 #eb mo/    
cases4  ,^! fall l9es are int]sections (
 planes ) a cone :i*  graphically       
repres5ts ! totality ( temp]ature-fall1 
! cont5ts  ( ! cone be+ equal to ! area 
( its base multipli$ by its  altitude1  

:i* is ! greate/ fall 9 temp]ature at ! 
c5t] (  ! cold wave4    ,a =mula has be5
 devis$1 bas$ on #abg special cases1    
repres5t+  ! am\nt ( fall 9 t]ms ( !    
am\nt ( b>ometric depression 9  a l[1 & 
! am\nt ( excess if a high1 & ! d5sity (
 !  iso!rmal l9es 9 ! region4    ,f     
prop] consid]ation ( ! type ( l[ area1  
%ape ( isob>s1  & position ( ! long     
axis1 def9ite conclusions c be drawn z  
to  ! subsequ5t %ape ( ! elliptical     
tw5ty-degree temp]ature-fall  area & its
 position4    ,a me?od has be5 devis$1  
also by ,pr(essor ,russell1 = det]m9+  !
 maximum fall ( temp]ature at ! c5t] ( !
 cold wave4 ,!  maximum fall & ext5t (  
fall be+ kn[n1 f suitably prep>$        
tables1 ! area ( tw5ty-degree fall c be 
d]iv$4 ,previ\sly  prep>$ pieces (      
c>d-bo>d are laid 9 ! prop] position on 
a map  ( suitable scale1 & l9es drawn   
ar\nd !m4 ,betwe5 ! l9e  repres5t+ !    
tw5ty-degree fall & ! c5t]1 ! o!r falls 
(  ?irty degrees1 =ty degrees1 etc41 are
 sket*$ 94           99       99        

99       99       99    ,! =ego+ sket* (
 ! geography ( ! air may appe> too      
sup]ficial & limit$ = ! purposes ( ?is  
,society1 b its  fur!r elaboration 0    
impracticable4 ,inde$1 ! subject (      
meteorology c\ld h>dly h be5 t\*$ ^u ?is
 ye> _h x n  be5 = ! c\rtesy ( ,pr(essor
 ,russell 9 plac+ at my disposal  notes 
^u translations f =eign publications1   
especially f !  ,g]man2 :i* publications
 ,i h be5 unable to exam9e save 9 a     
casual way4    ,! address1 z x is1 is   
submitt$ only 9 ! hope t x may  s]ve1 if
 no o!r purpose1 at lea/ to indicate !  
great int]e/  :i* n[ obta9s 9 !         
geography ( ! air1 & :i* manife/s       
itself 9 ! production ( meteorological  
pamphlets & publications  too num]\s to 
p]mit any "o *>g$ ) important executive 
duties  to exam9e !m all1 ev5 9 a       
non-critical way4