file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #fcjia-;h4htm or #fcjia-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu b_/#fcjia_/pg#fcjia-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#fc jia_/fcjia-;h4zip7 ,images of the original pages are available through ,internet ,archive4 ,see https3_/_/archive4org_/details_/gri#ccab ejjjjbdeej ,some characters might not display properly in this ,,utf-#h text file 7e4g41 empty squares74 ,if so1 the reader should consult the html version or the original page images noted above4 ,the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art ,publication of the ,committee on ,education ,,the ,,craft ,,of ,,athenian ,,pottery by ,,gisela ,m4 ,a4 ,,richter 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,,of ,,this ,,book #ejj ,,copies ,,were ,,printed ,,in ,,may #aibc #ejj ,,additional ,,copies ,,were ,,printed ,,in ,,march #aibd 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art ,,the ,,craft ,,of ,,athenian ,,pottery ,an ,investigation of the ,technique of ,black-,figured and ,red-,figured ,athenian ,vases by ,,gisela ,m4 ,a4 ,,richter1 ,,litt4,d4 ,associate ,curator1 ,department of ,classical ,art ,illustration ,new ,haven ,yale ,university ,press ,london ,humphrey ,milford ,oxford ,university ,press ,,mdccccxxiv ,copyright #aibc by the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art ,printed in the ,united ,states of ,america ,,contents ,page ,list of ,illustrations vii ,preface xi ,chapter ,i4 ,technical ,processes in the ,making of ,modern ,pottery and their ,application to the ,technique of ,ancient ,vases #a ,preparation of the ,clay #a ,ingredients and ,properties #a ,washing #b ,wedging #b ,fashioning the ,vases #d 7#a7 ,wheelwork #d ,types of ,wheel #d ,throwing #g ,turning #aj ,work in ,sections #ae ,polishing #ai ,attachment of handles #bj 7#b7 ,building #bf 7#c7 ,moulding #bg ,firing the ,vases #bi ,production of ,temperature #bi ,types of ,kilns #cb ,packing the ,kiln #cd ,firing #ce ,number of ,firings #cg ,injuries in the ,firing #dd ,glazing #dg ,red ,ochre ,wash #ec ,were ,athenian ,vases ,made for ,every-,day ,use8 #ei ,chapter ,,ii4 ,representations of ,ancient ,potters #fd ,fashioning the ,vases #fd ,decorating the ,vases #gj ,firing the ,vases #ge ,miscellaneous ,scenes #gh ,representations ,wrongly ,interpreted as ,pottery ,scenes #hc ,potter's ,implements #hd ,chapter ,,iii4 ,references to the ,pottery ,craft in ,ancient ,literature #hg ,preparation of the ,clay #hg ,fashioning the ,vases #hi 7#a7 ,wheelwork #hi 7#b7 ,building #ic ,firing the ,vases #id ,red ,ochre ,wash #if ,porosity of ,greek ,pottery #ih ,the ,status of ,potters #ih ,conclusion #ajf ,selected ,bibliography #aji ,index #aaa ,,illustrations ,figure ,page #a4 ,wedging 7a7 #c #b4 ,wedging 7b7 #d #c4 ,kick-wheel with treadle #e #d4 ,kick-wheel with disk #f #e4 ,wheel put in motion by assistant turning handle #f ,processes of throwing3 #f4 ,centering ball #g #g4 ,pressing clay down #g #h4 ,squeezing clay into cone #g #i4 ,inserting thumb #g #aj4 ,making cylinder #h #aa4 ,making bowl #h #ab4 ,making jar #h #ac4 ,making bottle #h #ad4 ,turning a vase #aj #ae4 ,turned foot #aa #af4 ,foot left as thrown #ab #ag4 ,turning marks on outside of vase #ac #ah4 ,turning marks on inside of vase #ac #ai4 ,finishing marks left in handwork #ad #bj4 ,unturned inside of amphora #ae #ba4 ,vase thrown in sections #af #bb4 ,sections in place #ag #bc4 ,vase after turning #ag #bd4 ,wet cellar #ah #be4 ,detail of kylix showing joint #ai #bf4 ,detail of amphora showing difference between polished and unpolished surfaces #bj #bg4 ,attachment of handles #ba #bh-cc4 ,athenian vases showing treatment of handles #bb1 #bc1 #bd #cd4 ,detail of krater showing under part of handle left rough #be #ce4 ,making coils #bf #cf4 ,vase poured in a mould #bh #cg4 ,inside of moulded vase #bi #ch4 ,vase showing joint of two parts of mould #cj #ci4 ,open kiln #ca #dj4 ,muffle kiln with biscuit ware #cb #da4 ,open kiln showing saggers #cc #db4 ,muffle kiln with glazed ware #cd #dc4 ,detail of amphora showing preliminary sketch #cg #dd4 ,design on red-figured krater4 7a7 ,preliminary sketch #ch 7b7 ,completed painting #ch #de4 ,detail of hydria showing dent with mark over black glaze #da #df4 ,detail of amphora showing dent with clay from other body still adhering #db #dg4 ,unfinished kylix #dc #dh4 ,foot of unfinished kylix #dc #di4 ,black-glazed amphora with large red spot on one side #df ,methods of ,glazing3 #ej4 ,dipping #dh #ea4 ,pouring #di #eb4 ,use of the brush #ej #ec4 ,spraying #ea #ed4 ,hydria showing brush marks #eb #ee4 ,detail of psykter showing relief line #ec #ef4 ,detail of amphora showing diluted black glaze line 7on arm7 going over red ochre left in preliminary sketch line #eg #eg4 ,inside of krater showing extensive wear #fc ,representations of ancient potters fashioning vases3 #eh4 ,athenian pottery establishment #fd #ei4 ,potter throwing #ff #fj4 ,potter throwing #ff #fa4 ,potter attaching handles #fg #fb4 ,potter incising lines 787 #fh #fc4 ,potter joining sections 787 #fh #fd4 ,boy finishing a vase #fi #fe4 ,potter building a vase #gj ,representations of ancient potters decorating vases3 #ff4 ,athena and ,victories crowning potters at work #ga #fg4 ,youth decorating kylix #gb #fh4 ,potter glazing kylix #gc #fi4 ,potter painting bands on a krater #gc #gj4 ,three youths1 one painting a krater #gd #ga4 ,pottery establishment #ge ,representations of ancient potters firing3 #gb4 ,potter stoking fire #gf #gc4 ,potter stoking fire #gf #gd-gi4 ,potters regulating draught #gg #hj4 ,vases stacked in potter's kiln #gh ,representations of ancient potters3 miscellaneous scenes3 #ha4 ,youth removing vase from oven with two sticks #gi #hb4 ,youth working on vases 787 #gi #hc4 ,master potter787 #hj #hd4 ,woman potter787 #ha #he4 ,client in potter's shop #hb #hf4 ,ship with cargo of pottery #hb ,potter's ,implements3 #hg4 ,wheel-head #hd #hh4 ,tools found at ,arezzo #he #hi4 ,stilt #he ,,preface ,for our knowledge of the technique of ,athenian vases we have various sources of information4 ,there are a number of references to the craft in ancient literature2 we have several actual representations of potters at work among extant vase paintings2 and there is the important testimony of the vases themselves4 ,the information gleaned from these three sources has been duly worked over by archaeologists1 and the many accounts we have of the technique of ,greek vases are all based more or less on this evidence4 ,there is1 however1 another very important source of information ready to our hand which has not been fully utilized1 namely1 the study of the technical processes employed in the making of modern pottery4 ,for1 the nature and properties of clay being the same now that they were in ,greek times1 the manner of working it must have been essentially the same then as now4 ,many archaeologists have1 of course1 seen potters at work in different places1 or perhaps consulted potters on specific points2 but that is a different thing from getting a thorough knowledge of the craft oneself and learning once for all what is possible and what is not possible in clay-working4 ,the neglect of this highly valuable source of information has led to some surprising theories regarding the technique of ,greek vases2 and these theories have been repeated over and over again in our books on vases1 for the simple reason that1 not having any first-hand knowledge1 we have copied these statements from one another4 ,a modern potter reading these accounts finds them remarkable literature4 ,the present writer1 realizing her own ignorance on the many questions of clay-working1 went to a modern pottery school4 ,the result of this first-hand study was not only the acquisition of new knowledge1 but a totally new insight into the whole subject4 ,the present essay is an attempt to revise the current theories of the technique of ,athenian pottery in the light of this practical experience4 ,not only does such practical experience supply us with the knowledge essential for the consideration of technical problems1 but it gives us a new appreciation of the beauty of ,athenian vases4 ,if we try to make such shapes ourselves we shall begin to observe many details which perhaps passed unnoticed before--the finely designed handles1 the well-proportioned feet1 the practical mouths2 and the curves1 the mouldings1 and the subtle variations will become a constant delight to the eye4 ,moreover1 we shall be impressed more than ever with the wonderful sense of proportion in ,athenian vases4 ,for the relation of the height to the width1 the proportions of the neck1 the body1 the foot1 and the handles to one another appear to be all nicely thought out4 ,there is no hit-or-miss about it2 the whole is an interrelated theme evidently planned carefully before making1 either by the potter himself or by a professional designer4 ,in short1 any one who has tried his hand in the production of ,greek forms will understand very well that the makers of such vases were proud of their work and that the signature of a well-known potter was at least as valuable as that of a popular decorator4#a ,the pottery school to which ,i went was the ,new ,york ,state ,school of ,ceramics at ,alfred1 ,new ,york4 ,throughout my work at the school and later in my investigation of ,greek vases at the ,metropolitan ,museum1 ,i had the great benefit of the advice of ,professor ,charles ,f4 ,binns1 director of the school4 ,in fact1 any value which this paper may possess is largely due to this opportunity of appeal to someone who possesses the rare combination of expert knowledge in the field of practical pottery with a scholar's attitude toward the problems presented by the ancient ware4 ,it is also a pleasure to acknowledge the many helpful suggestions made from time to time by ,miss ,maude ,robinson1 director of the pottery work at ,greenwich ,house1 ,new ,york1 as well as by ,miss ,elsie ,binns and ,harold ,nash1 modern potters whom ,i have had the advantage of consulting on various questions4 ,i am indebted to ,miss ,helen ,mc,clees for valuable assistance in the section dealing with the references to pottery craft in ancient literature4 ,in my examination of ,greek vases1 which necessitated handling of the specimens1 ,i was greatly helped by the courteous assistance of many museum directors4 ,the plan of this book is as follows3 ,the first chapter gives a concise account of the processes in use in the making of vases at modern pottery schools#b and their application to the technique of ancient vases4 ,the second chapter contains a description of the various representations we have of ancient potters at work4 ,in the third chapter are collected the chief ,greek and ,latin texts referring to the ancient pottery craft4 ,after this presentation of all the evidence on the technique of ,athenian vases comes a short summary of the new conclusions arrived at1 and a selected bibliography4 ,the illustrations of modern pottery scenes were taken under the direction of ,charles ,f4 ,binns at the ,new ,york ,state ,school of ,ceramics1 ,alfred1#c and of ,maude ,robinson at pottery studios in ,new ,york ,city4#d ,i4 ,,technical ,,processes ,,in ,,the ,,making ,,of ,,modern ,,pottery ,,and ,,their ,,application ,,to ,,the ,,technique ,,of ,,ancient ,,vases ,,preparation ,,of ,,the ,,clay ,ingredients and properties4 ,the making of a pot begins in the clay bed4 ,the clay has to be found1 it has to be transported1 and above all it has to be tested to see whether it is adapted to the potter's needs4 ,for there are many different kinds of clay and they are as individual as human beings2 so that a thorough understanding of them is essential to the successful potter4 ,the chief ingredients of clay are silica1 alumina1 and water4 ,other possible ingredients are iron oxide1 lime 7calcium oxide71 magnesia1 and potash4 ,to the iron compounds are due the different colors of the clay4 ,when potters speak of the color of a clay--red1 yellow1 white--they refer to the color after burning1 not in the raw state4 ,the tones of the color are controlled by heat2 for instance1 a red clay becomes first pink1 then in a higher fire a deeper red1 and in a still higher fire a brownish red4 ,the potter demands three properties of his clay3 7#a7 plasticity1 the property which enables the clay to acquire form2 7#b7 porosity1 the property which enables the water to escape2 and 7#c7 vitrification1 the property which enables the clay to be fired4 ,these three properties are due to the three chief component parts of the clay2 namely1 clay base1 quartz1 and feldspar4 ,it will be found that some clays are not plastic enough1 others not sufficiently porous1 and others again not properly vitrifiable2 in such cases the addition of certain substances is necessary to make the clay usable4 ,the actual composition of the clay1 therefore1 is of great importance1 as no amount of skilful labor will avail if the clay itself has not the right consistency4 ,washing4 ,when the right composition of the clay has been assured1 the next step is to wash it and separate it from the many natural impurities1 such as stones1 sticks1 etc41 with which it is mixed4 ,a clay not properly washed is a source of great vexation in the later stages of pottery making4 ,the best method is that of 8blunging10 that is1 the dry clay is put into water and stirred constantly until it reaches the consistency of cream1 technically called 8slip10 whereupon it is poured through sieves1 coarse or fine according to the desired consistency4 ,the liquid clay or slip must then be dried sufficiently to become plastic and workable4 ,this can be done either in filter presses in which the water is squeezed out in a comparatively short time1 or in shallow receptacles in the open air where the water is allowed slowly to evaporate4 ,wedging4 ,but even at this stage the clay is not yet ready for use2 it has first to go through the important process of kneading or 8wedging40 ,this consists of cutting a ball of clay in two against a wire 7fig4 #a71 slapping the two parts on a plaster or wooden board1 one on top of the other 7fig4 #b71 then lifting up the whole lump1 cutting it in two again1 and slapping it down as before4 ,the purpose is to remove all air bubbles and to correct irregularities in hardness4 ,the operation has sometimes to be repeated fifteen or twenty times before a good texture is secured4#e ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,wedging 7a7 ,we learn from the above survey that the fine consistency of the clay in ,athenian and in some other ,greek wares is not necessarily due to its natural state1 but to the careful washing and kneading undergone in its preparation for use4 ,when different particles are found in the fired clay they are due to indifferent washing4 ,and the varying shades of pink and red of ,greek vases likewise do not presuppose different kinds of clay1 but are due largely to the various temperatures to which the vases were fired4 ,we have too often made our analyses of clays of ,greek vases without due cognizance of these facts4 ,,fashioning ,,the ,,vases 7#a7 ,,wheelwork ,there are three principal ways of making vases--fashioning them on the wheel1 building them1 and making them from moulds4 ,let us examine first the work on the wheel1 the potter's tool par excellence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,wedging 7b7 ,types of wheel4 ,there are various types of wheel in general use today4 ,the wheel run by electric power does not concern us here since it cannot have been used by the ,greeks4 ,in studio potteries1 a kick-wheel is often used4 ,in this the operator stands and kicks with his left foot against a treadle1 the weight of his body being supported by the right 7fig4 #c74 ,another fairly popular type has a large1 heavy disk at the bottom revolving in a horizontal plane1 and kept in motion by one foot of the operator 7fig4 #d74 ,a very simple type of wheel in use some time ago is illustrated in fig4 #e4 ,here the motion is imparted by an assistant turning the handle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,kick-wheel with treadle ,any one of these three types may have been used by the ,greeks4 ,in the representations of ancient potters at work 7cf4 pp4 #fd ff47 the wheel appears to have been propelled either with the foot or by an assistant4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,kick-,wheel with disk ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,wheel put in motion by assistant turning handle ,barber1 ,the ,pottery and ,porcelain of the ,united ,states1 p4 #d1 fig4 #b ,throwing4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #f-i4 ,processes of throwing ,fig4 #f4 ,centering ball ,fig4 #g4 ,pressing clay down ,fig4 #h4 ,squeezing clay into cone ,fig4 #i4 ,inserting thumb ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #aj-ac4 ,processes of throwing ,fig4 #aj4 ,making cylinder ,fig4 #aa4 ,making bowl ,fig4 #ab4 ,making jar ,fig4 #ac4 ,making bottle ,the first task in fashioning a vase on the wheel--or 8throwing0 it1 as it is technically called--is to center the ball of clay on the wheel-head4 ,it is accomplished by pressing the left hand against the ball of clay as it revolves rapidly1 care being taken to keep the left forearm absolutely rigid 7fig4 #f74 ,the right hand is used for keeping the clay wet by sprinkling it with water1 and for pulling the clay inward1 thus squeezing it up to a cone4 ,the cone is pressed up and down in this manner several times 7figs4 #g and #h74 ,when the ball runs perfectly true1 it is time to open it by inserting the thumb in the center 7fig4 #i72 then by placing the fingers of one hand inside the hollow1 and the fingers of the other on the outside1#f and by raising both hands gradually several times and squeezing the clay lightly while so doing1 a cylinder is formed 7fig4 #aj74 ,the cylinder is the foundation of all other shapes4 ,for to produce a bowl1 one need only pull out the cylinder a little at the top 7fig4 #aa72 to make a globular jar1 pull it out at the bottom and in at the top 7fig4 #ab72 to fashion a long-necked vase1 pull it out at the bottom and in at the top1 leaving enough clay to spin the top into a tall1 narrow cylinder which will serve as a neck 7fig4 #ac72 and by various other manipulations one can produce almost every variety of shape4 ,to throw a vase to specific measurements1 a careful drawing of the shape should first be made and calipers and measuring sticks kept close at hand for checking the work as it proceeds4 ,the earliest ,greek vases are made by hand2 but from the ,early ,minoan ,,iii and ,middle ,helladic ,i periods 7i4e41 about #bbjj ,b4,c47 in certain places at least1 vases were regularly thrown on the wheel4 ,they could not have the regular and symmetrical outlines they have if they were built by hand1 and many would show traces of vertical joints if they were made in moulds4 ,that the processes of throwing were identical with those described as in use today1 there is of course no means of determining2 but they certainly must have been similar1 as clay has not changed its nature from ,greek times to ours4 ,the evidence which we glean from representations on ,greek vases of potters at work1 scanty though it is1 bears out this self-evident fact4 ,from the above description it will be noted that in this work of throwing the simultaneous use of both hands is necessary--an important fact to remember when interpreting scenes to be related to the fashioning of vases4 ,turning4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,turning a vase ,after a piece has been thrown on the wheel1 it has assumed its general shape1 but that is all4 ,the thinning of the walls1 the refinements of foot and lip1 all such finishing touches must be reserved for the next process4 ,this is known among modern potters as 8turning40 ,in this the clay is no longer in a wet state1 but in a 8leather-hard0 condition1 and it is not worked with the hands but with steel cutting tools4 ,a newly shaped vase becomes leather hard after it has been kept in the air and the water allowed to evaporate for about twenty-four hours4 ,pieces in this state are hard enough to be handled with care and to be cut easily with a knife4 ,they are not so fragile as either in the wet or in the 8bone-dry0 state1 but they are still delicate and exposed to many dangers4 ,not until a vase has been fired is it safe to handle it freely4 ,the cutting with the steel tools is done on the wheel 7or 8jigger0#g71 the right hand which grasps the tool being kept steady by letting it rest on a stick held in the left hand2 the stick should have a sharpened nail on one end1 the point of which is pressed into a wooden board at the height required 7fig4 #ad74 ,by continued cutting off of thin shavings of clay and by adding more clay in slip form when more is needed1 the final outline of the shape and the various grooves and mouldings for lip and foot can be obtained4 ,but it is a slow process1 requiring time1 care1 and great patience4 ,for the smoothing of the surface1 scrapers1 sandpaper1 and sponge are useful4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,turned foot ,met4 ,mus4 ,acc4 ,no4 #ab4bcd4b ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,foot left as thrown ,met4 ,mus4 ,acc4 ,no4 #jg4bcb4cj ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,turning marks on outside of vase ,met4 ,mus4 ,acc4 ,no4 #jf4ajba4fd ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,turning marks on inside of vase ,met4 ,mus4 ,acc4 ,no4 ,g4,r4#abbh ,this turning or refining of the shape after throwing1 was1 as we might expect1 not in universal use in ancient times4 ,prior to the sixth century ,b4,c4 it was used occasionally here and there1 and often only to a limited extent4 ,but there cannot be the slightest doubt that in the ,athenian black-figured and red-figured vases extensive use was made of the turning tools4 ,the grooves and mouldings for lip and foot were produced by this turning process1 not1 as modern archaeologists tell us1 by the use of moulds4#h ,for this there is abundant proof4 ,the feet of ,athenian vases are almost all turned at the bottom1 some with remarkable care and finish 7fig4 #ae71 not left flat1 as they would be after throwing 7fig4 #af74 ,the lids of pyxides and similar vases could not have been made to fit so neatly on their ledges without the use of turning4 ,above all1 the wonderful finish and precision of ,athenian vases could never have been attained by mere throwing4 ,but there is even more convincing proof4 ,unless the marks of the turning tools are very carefully obliterated 7with scrapers1 sandpaper1 and sponge71 traces of them are always visible4 ,and this is the case also in ,athenian vases4 ,the outside surfaces are generally carefully smoothed1 but even there the ridges formed by the tools are often discernible 7fig4 #ag72 and on the inside of the necks or feet or lids such ridges and concentric or spiral scratches are quite frequent 7fig4 #ah74 ,they are very different1 however1 from the finishing marks left in handwork 7fig4 #ai74 ,to appreciate the fine1 smooth surface which work with the turning tools produces1 we need only examine the insides of most ,athenian amphorai and hydriai2 for these1 being more or less concealed1 are generally left as thrown1 often showing the spiral ridges which rapidly revolving clay will cause 7fig4 #bj74 ,they thus form a striking contrast to the finely smoothed outside surfaces4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,finishing marks left in handwork ,met4 ,mus4 ,acc4 ,no4 ,g4,r4#hcd ,the fact that the ,athenian potter made use of the turning process shows incidentally that he was able to make his vases to very exact measurements4 ,this is important in connection with ,jay ,hambidge's theory that ,athenian pottery was carefully designed on certain geometrical principles2#i for if the ,athenian potter had confined himself merely to throwing on the wheel that would not have been possible4 ,it is during the second process of turning that an expert potter can effect many changes in width and height or in details1 and thus make his product correspond exactly with his carefully planned design4 ,modern potters of standing work in the same way today4 ,they first make a drawing of a vase1 full size or to scale1 and then proceed to follow this drawing in every detail1 using rules and calipers for their guidance4 ,of course it needs a great deal of skill and patience to be able to work so exactly2 but ,greek potters1 we can be quite sure1 had a good supply of both of these qualities4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,unturned inside of amphora ,met4 ,mus4 ,acc4 ,no4 ,g4,r4#ede ,work in sections4 ,so far we have spoken only of comparatively small vases1 which can be thrown all in one piece4 ,larger vases are best thrown in sections4 ,to throw large jars in one piece requires great physical strength1 and it is very difficult to finish such jars properly on the inside and to prevent them from being unduly heavy4 ,the section work is by no means easy4 ,at first a drawing of the vase has to be made1 either full size or to scale1 and the heights of the different parts marked off4 ,while throwing the respective pieces use must be made of measuring sticks and calipers1 to obtain the right heights and diameters4 ,the measurements should be those of the soft clay1 which will of course be slightly larger than those of the final shape4 ,about one-eighth is the average allowance for the shrinkage of the clay in drying and firing4 ,this shrinkage will naturally be proportional2 so that the relation of every part to the whole will be the same in the fired vase as in the thrown product4 ,the joining is obtained by applying a thick slip of the same clay as was used for the vase1 to act as a binder4 ,when all the sections are in place the outside of the vase can be 8turned40 ,if this and the foregoing processes are done skilfully the final joints will hardly be visible1 even before the glaze is applied4 ,figs4 #ba1 #bb1 #bc show the three chief stages in the making of a vase in sections4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,vase thrown in sections ,to obtain good results in this work it is important that it should not be hurried4 ,it is best1 for instance1 before joining the sections1 to let them stand on top of one another for a day or longer1 in order that they may mature together4 ,to retain the pieces during this time in leather-hard condition1 they must be kept in a 8wet cellar10 that is1 in a moist place where the water in the clay will not evaporate 7fig4 #bd74 ,with this simple precaution pieces can be kept leather hard practically indefinitely4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,sections in place ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,vase after turning ,section work was used by the ,greeks1 as it is now4 ,there would1 in fact1 be nothing gained in throwing the very large vases1 such as some of the kraters and amphorai1 all in one piece2 and though the joints are1 as a rule1 skilfully concealed1 they are plainly visible on certain examples1 especially on the inside4 ,where possible the joints seem to have been made at the natural angles or 8articulations0 of the vase 7that is1 at the neck1 the foot1 etc472 and further to simplify the work1 a thin ridge of clay was often added to conceal the joint4#aj ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,wet cellar ,one of the most difficult things to throw successfully is a flat1 wide bowl on a foot2 and the larger the diameter of the bowl the more difficult the task1 since the overhanging rim almost always sags at the critical moment4 ,the fifth-century kylix has therefore always been rightly admired as one of the greatest feats of the ,athenian potter4 ,how did he prevent the bowl from sagging8 ,did he throw it upside down and hollow it out later with the turning tools8 ,or did he make the base very thick and then 8turn0 it down to fit on a slender foot8 ,both methods would be clumsy1 as they would entail lengthy turning work4 ,or was the ,athenian potter so skilful that he somehow prevented the clay from sagging8 ,not at all4 ,he simply threw his kylix in two sections2 the foot with a bowl about half the required diameter in one piece 7or possibly two1 with the foot separate71 and the remaining part of the bowl as a separate section4 ,the joints where the two parts of the bowl were united are clearly visible on many kylikes on the outside 7fig4 #be7aa2 the inside of the kylix1 being the most conspicuous part1 is always so carefully turned that no joining can be detected4 ,polishing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,detail of kylix showing joint ,met4 ,mus4 ,acc4 ,no4 #jf4ajba4afg ,to impart a polish1 the blade of a knife is applied to the surface while the vase is revolving2 for an inward curve a curved tool must be used4 ,the operation is simple and can be accomplished in a few minutes4 ,it is not often employed1 however1 by the modern potter1 whose object is to keep the pores of his vase open for the better adhesion of the glaze with which he intends to cover the surface of his pot4 ,the ,athenian potter1 on the other hand1 put great stress on giving the surface of his vase a fine polish2 probably using the simple method described above4 ,the difference between a polished and an unpolished surface is clearly seen on some vases on which the potter has omitted to repolish the parts round the handles where the slip used for the attachment had spilled over 7fig4 #bf74 ,attachment of handles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,detail of amphora showing difference between polished and unpolished surfaces ,met4 ,mus4 ,acc4 ,no4 ,g4,r4#ecj ,the final process in the fashioning of a vase is the attachment of the handles4 ,these can be made either in moulds or by hand4 ,any one who thinks that the making of handles is a simple or quick process will soon be undeceived4 ,whether working in plaster1 as one would if the handle is made in a mould1 or in clay1 if it is made by hand1 the potter must bestow infinite care on the work1 as both clay and plaster are very liable to break2 and working on so small a thing as a handle is extremely fussy4 ,the writer personally found nothing so difficult in her whole pottery training as the making of handles4 ,the best method of procedure in handwork is first to shape the handle roughly while the clay is soft and plastic1 then wait until it becomes leather hard1 and finally refine it to the desired form and finish with modeling tools4 ,in moulded work1 the handle has to be cut out in plaster and then used for making the mould4 ,when the handles are finally made1 they are joined to the vase by means of slip1 in the same way that the sections were 7fig4 #bg74 ,as the handle is pressed into position the superfluous slip will of course spill over the edge1 and this has to be carefully removed and the surface smoothed before the vase can be pronounced finished4 ,the vase is then put in the drying room so that all the water in the clay may evaporate4 ,only when it is perfectly dry can it be fired in the kiln2 otherwise it is liable to crack4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,attachment of handles ,the handles of ,athenian vases show perhaps better than anything else the great skill and sense of beauty of the ,athenian potter2 and they will repay detailed study 7cf4 figs4 #bh-cc74 ,they are never1 as so often on modern vases1 detached pieces stuck on the vase as a kind of afterthought4 ,rather1 they seem to grow out of the vase like branches from a tree1 which gives them a wonderful1 living quality4 ,moreover1 the place where they were attached1 the size1 and the curve have been carefully considered both from a practical and from an aesthetic point of view4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,amphora in the ,boston ,museum ,acc4 ,no4 #ja4ag ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,hydria in the ,metropolitan ,museum ,acc4 ,no4 #jf4ajba4aij ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,kantharos in the ,boston ,museum ,acc4 ,no4 #ie4cf ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,volute krater in the ,boston ,museum ,acc4 ,no4 #ij4aec ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,bell krater in the ,metropolitan ,museum ,acc4 ,no4 #jg4bhf4hf ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,kylix in the ,metropolitan ,museum ,acc4 ,no4 ,g4,r4#ajdg ,athenian handles are made by hand1 not in moulds4 ,practically every pair of handles shows perceptible variations such as are unavoidable in handwork and distinguish it from the mechanical products of moulding4 ,the handles were attached to the vase in leather-hard condition1 and often the pressure entailed thereby resulted in a slight bulge on the inner side4 ,this is particularly noticeable on kylikes where the walls of the pot were especially thin4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,detail of krater showing under part of handle left rough ,met4 ,mus4 ,acc4 ,no4 #jg4bhf4gc ,it may be noted that the handles of ,athenian vases are not finished off neatly in parts where they were not seen4 ,for instance1 the under parts of handles on column kraters are generally left quite rough 7fig4 #cd74 ,this fact1 together with that already observed1 that the insides of amphorai and hydriai are usually unturned1 shows that the ,greeks1 at least1 had no such theories as those often held today that a work should be finished perfectly all over1 even in places not ordinarily seen1 and were quite willing to save trouble when possible4 ,many potters today bestow as much care on the inside of a narrow flask as on that of an open bowl4 ,it is characteristic of the sense of proportion of the ,greeks that their potters took infinite trouble with what was important--the shapes1 the proportions1 the decoration--but that they did not spend time and labor where it profited nobody4 7#b7 ,,building ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,making coils ,compared to the wheelwork the building appears simple at first1 but experience will soon show that it too needs considerable practice4 ,though the actual process has not the glamor and thrill associated with wheelwork1 there is a certain quality in a built vase which gives it a value of its own4 ,building is generally done nowadays by means of coils of clay 7fig4 #ce71 which must be a little thicker than the walls of the vase are to be and should be as uniform as possible4 ,to make the foot of the vase1 the end of one of these coils is laid in the center of a plaster bat and the rest coiled round in spiral line4 ,to hide the joints the surface is rubbed over with the fingers on both sides4 ,in making the walls of the vase a coil is used for each round and the superfluous clay pinched off1 every new coil being begun at a new point4 ,the whole surface1 inside and outside1 is again smoothed by rubbing with the fingers1 using very little water in the process4 ,only about three coils should be worked in at a time and then left to harden before new coils are added4 ,in building up a certain shape it is best to use a templet of cardboard or plaster1 to be sure that the profile of the vase is followed out correctly4 ,to give the required finish at the end1 modeling tools as well as further rubbing with the fingers are required4 ,with this process in mind it is easy to distinguish between built and wheel-made pottery among the ,greek wares4 ,in the built pottery1 however careful the work1 there is always a certain unevenness of outline--which indeed gives it some of its charm4 ,unlike the moderns1 the ,greeks did not continue to build pottery after the invention of the wheel4 ,naturally the general adoption of the wheel was not synchronous in all ceramic centers4 ,it was used considerably earlier in ,crete1 for instance1 than in ,cyprus4 ,but when once its convenience was thoroughly realized1 the slower and more monotonous method was entirely dropped4 ,among ,athenian black-figured and red-figured vases there are no built pieces4 7#c7 ,,moulding ,the process of moulding vases is the one most in use nowadays1 for the simple reason that when once the required mould has been made the production of any number of vases is a rapid and easy task4 ,but though commercially favored1 this method is looked down upon by the artistic potter as being purely mechanical1 and there is no doubt that a moulded vase has all the characteristics of machine work4 ,the material used for moulds nowadays is plaster4 ,the clay can either be poured into a mould in slip form or pressed into a mould while soft and plastic4 ,in the former process the mould or moulds are made in two or more pieces1 which fit closely together leaving an opening at the top4 ,by pouring the clay slip into the opening1 leaving it to harden a little1 and then pouring out again what has not hardened1 a hollow vase is formed4 ,after due shrinkage the mould is carefully removed from the vase 7fig4 #cf74 ,the same mould can be used indefinitely for making vases of the same shape2 it has only to be dried between one use and the next4 ,handles can be produced in the same way and then attached4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,vase poured in a mould ,in pressing clay into moulds each part of the mould is used separately1 except where only one mould is required1 as in the case of an open bowl or tile4 ,when the clay has been carefully pressed into every part of the mould1 it is left to harden1 and then1 upon shrinkage1 can be easily separated4 ,if the vase has been pressed in several pieces1 the parts must be carefully joined and the seams effaced as neatly as possible4 ,the ,greek potter did not use moulding as a labor-saving device4 ,he employed it only where the work demanded it1 as in the ,athenian plastic ware4 ,here we sometimes even find the same mould used several times1 as in the group of a negro and a crocodile of which chance has preserved us at least five replicas#ab2 but the number of such repetitions is not great and certainly would not indicate mass production4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,inside of moulded vase ,met4 ,mus4 ,acc4 ,no4 #jf4ajba4bje ,the material of ,greek moulds was burnt clay4 ,that the ,athenian plastic vases were pressed into moulds rather than poured can be seen from the fact that the insides of these vases are rough and show finger-marks 7cf4 fig4 #cg74 ,the joints of the two parts are clearly visible on many examples 7cf4 fig4 #ch74 ,often the lip was thrown separately on the wheel and attached4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,vase showing joint of two parts of mould ,met4 ,mus4 ,acc4 ,no4 #jf4ajba4bjc ,,firing ,,the ,,vases ,production of ,temperature4 ,in the fire the great miracle takes place and the dry clay1 most friable and perishable of materials1 becomes one of the most durable4 ,this is accomplished by the softening of the feldspar grains which cement the whole together and thus form a dense mass4 ,to produce the temperature at which this phenomenon takes place two things are necessary1 fuel and draught1 the former supplying the carbon1 the latter the oxygen4 ,the liberation of the carbon in the fuel and its union with the oxygen of the air develop combustion1 during which heat is generated4 ,combustion can be complete or incomplete4 ,it is complete when there is an excess of air and the carbon can combine with two molecules of oxygen to form carbon dioxide 7,,co74 ,this condition is called oxidation4 ,it is incomplete when there is not enough air and the carbon can get only one molecule of oxygen1 forming carbon monoxide 7,,co74 ,this condition is called reduction4 ,carbon monoxide1 being very hungry for oxygen1 will try to extract it from whatever source it can4 ,if ferric oxide 7,fe,o7 is present in the clay--which is the case in red clay--the carbon monoxide will take one molecule of oxygen from it and convert it into ferrous oxide 7,,co ,fe,o ,,co #b;,fe,o74 ,the important feature in this process is that ferric oxide is red and will make the clay burn red2 but ferrous oxide 7,fe,o7 is black and will give the clay a blackish color4 ,if no ferric oxide is present in the clay1 that is1 if the clay is not a red clay1 then reduction has no effect on the color of the clay and can be freely used4 ,in ,europe potters regularly burn under reducing conditions1 while in ,america the general practice is to burn under oxidizing conditions4 ,when the draught in the kiln is faulty1 partial reduction will often occur1 and many faults in the burning1 especially in the glazes1 are attributable to this cause4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,open kiln ,we shall see presently how important is a knowledge of these chemical changes during the process of firing when we come to consider the defects on ,greek vases caused by injuries in the firing 7cf4 pp4 #dd ff474 ,types of kilns4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,muffle kiln with biscuit ware ,there are two chief types of kiln construction in use today3 7#a7 the open kiln1 in which the flame passes through the kiln chamber 7fig4 #ci72 7#b7 the muffle kiln1 in which the flame passes around the chamber and not through it 7fig4 #dj74 ,in the open kiln the ware either comes in direct contact with the flame1 or is stacked in saggers1 i4e41 boxes made of fire clay fitting one on top of the other 7fig4 #da74 ,the muffle kiln is1 so to speak1 one large sagger1 and the ware is stacked on shelves4 ,the draught in the kiln can be either an up draught or a down draught2 in either case the air supply1 as well as the fuel supply1 must be under control1 so that the combustion shall be as desired4 ,the draught can be regulated by means of dampers1 the fuel by attention to the burners4 ,an arched top is an advantage1 for it imparts greater strength--an important item considering the strain to which the kiln is subjected--and it facilitates the circulation of the heat4 ,coal1 wood1 gas1 or kerosene oil can be used for fuel4 ,of these1 oil and gas are now the most popular2 coal and wood are rapidly coming into disuse on account of the greater labor they entail4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,open kiln showing saggers ,packing the kiln4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,muffle kiln with glazed ware ,in packing the kiln the ware is stacked as closely as possible for economical reasons1 so that as much as possible shall be accomplished in one firing4 ,in biscuit firing the ware can be placed so that it touches 7fig4 #dj72 in glaze firing the pieces must be separated 7fig4 #db7 both from one another and from the bottom of the saggers or shelves on which they stand1 since the melted glaze is apt to run4 ,glazed pieces are therefore generally placed on stilts made of burnt clay1 and the marks of these stilts will often show on the bottoms of the vases4 ,that the chief features of modern and ,athenian kilns were similar is clear from an examination of the ancient representations of kilns 7cf4 figs4 #gb-ha and pp4 #gf ff474 ,how closely the ware was sometimes stacked is clearly seen in fig4 #hj4 ,the fuel used by the ,greeks was probably wood and charcoal4 ,almost all modern pottery is twice fired2 once for the conversion of the clay into terracotta or biscuit1 and the second time for the glaze4 ,to glaze unbiscuited ware is a delicate business1 and the risk of glazing a piece of raw clay is considered larger than the trouble of burning it a second time4 ,it is done occasionally when very tough clay is used1 for instance1 in kitchen crooks and in stoneware2 in that case it is best to apply the glaze when the clay is in leather-hard condition1 for then the absorption is less4 ,more than the two regular firings are often used for correcting mistakes in glazing1 for additional coats of glaze1 and for decorating the ware4 ,firing4 ,different wares and different glazes require different temperatures4 ,thus porcelain and stoneware are fired to much higher temperatures than ordinary pottery1 and salt and alkaline glazes need a higher fire to mature than the ordinary lead glazes4 ,when the required temperature has been reached--which nowadays is determined either by means of a pyrometer or with the help of pyrometric cones which melt at a given temperature and which are watched through a spy-hole 7cf4 fig4 #dj where the cones are set up opposite the spy-hole in the door1 and fig4 #db where the cones have melted7--the fire is gradually extinguished and the kiln left to cool slowly4 ,twelve hours for the firing and twelve for cooling is a rough estimate for the firing of an ordinary kiln4 ,it is important not to hurry the process of cooling1 as a too rapidly cooling fire may crack the ware or affect the glaze injuriously4 ,the ,greeks fired their pottery at a considerably lower temperature than potters do today4 ,it seems to have been about #ifj centigrade 7corresponding to about cone #jaj7 since any increase over this temperature causes a change in the color of the clay together with an additional contraction4 ,mr4 ,tonks has made the ingenious suggestion that1 #iej and #ajfe being the melting points of silver and gold respectively1 the ,greeks may have used these metals in the same way as the modern potters use cones1 to regulate the heat of the kiln4#ac ,when the kiln is finally opened comes the exciting moment of seeing what the fire has done with one's products4 ,in taking out the contents of the kiln1 gloves and sticks are often useful for handling ware that is still too hot to touch4 ,invariably there will be surprises--what one has expected to be a great success often turns out a failure1 and what one thought little of may become a rare thing of beauty4 ,in the biscuit firing the adventures of the pot are comparatively few2 it may crack or sag or warp1 but as a rule the expected shape is maintained4 ,but in the glaze firing so many elements enter in that even an experienced potter can never be sure of the result4 ,the color may turn out a different shade from that desired2 the glaze may unexpectedly be matt 7dull7 or too glossy2 it may blister or peel or crack2 it may be too thin or too thick4 ,such defects are almost invariably due to faulty composition of the clay or the glaze or to the conditions of firing4 ,they can often be remedied by further glazings and firings2 but quite often a pot on which much time and labor have been bestowed is hopelessly ruined4 ,a good potter1 however1 will soon learn to bear such mishaps philosophically2 and it is certainly true that one often learns much more from failures than from successes4 ,moreover1 the element of uncertainty lends spice to the craft4 ,a careful consideration of the modern processes of firing pottery described above will help us to settle the problems connected with the firing of ,greek vases--for the action of fire on clay remains the same even though the kilns in use by the ,greeks were probably somewhat more primitive than now4 ,the chief problems which confront us in ,athenian pottery are 7#a7 the number of firings1 7#b7 the interpretation of defects on ,greek vases as injuries in the firing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,detail of amphora showing preliminary sketch ,met4 ,mus4 ,acc4 ,no4 #jf4ajba4aad ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,design on red-figured krater 7a7 ,preliminary sketch 7b7 ,completed painting ,furtwngler u4 ,reichhold1 ,griechische ,vasenmalerei1 ,i1 pl4 ,,vii ,number of firings4 ,was ,athenian pottery once or twice fired8#ad ,that is1 was it decorated in leather-hard or in biscuit condition8 ,this has been one of the most debated questions in ,greek ceramics4 ,archaeologists often assume offhand a number of firings1#ae but without stating any evidence or squarely facing the problems involved4 ,briefly1 the arguments for and against are as follows4 ,as is well known1 a large proportion of red-figured vases of good period show a preliminary1 colorless sketch for the design traced with a blunt#af instrument directly on the clay 7cf4 figs4 #dc-dd74 ,the smooth grooves of this sketch show beyond doubt that the sketch was made while the clay was in leather-hard condition1 that is1 before firing4 ,if the vase had been fired1 even at a low temperature1 the sketch would have had to be scratched in with a sharp tool1 and would have left a ragged1 not a smooth line4#ag ,now it is not a natural procedure for an artist to make a rough sketch for his design1 and then to leave his vase to be fired before completing his work4 ,furthermore1 an examination of the incised lines on the black-figured vases--which clearly go over the black glaze--shows also that these lines must have been made while the clay was still leather hard4 ,the ragged edge of the glaze along the incisions has sometimes been thought to indicate that they were made after firing4 ,but just this effect is produced by cutting through dry glaze on unfired clay2 and it would have been very difficult to attain the required delicacy1 swing1 and smoothness by incision into hard1 fired clay4 ,any one who will try the experiment will soon become convinced of this4#ah ,so that1 for the black-figured period at least1 this evidence points to a once-fired pottery4 ,on the other hand1 it might be urged that if we assume that the decoration was executed in leather-hard condition1 the vase painters whom we see depicted on ,greek vases should be handling their pots with considerable care1 and that this is hardly conveyed in the representations4 ,on the ,boston fragment1 for instance1 the painter is holding a kylix by its slender foot without any apparent fear of breaking it 7fig4 #fg74 ,and whoever painted the scene knew what he was doing1 for he was in the act of decorating such a kylix himself4 ,however1 if the clay used by the ,athenians was of a tough variety1#ai this would1 ,i have been told by potters1 be a perfectly possible procedure2 and experiments made with imported ,athenian clay#bj bore this out to an astonishing degree4 ,vases made of this clay could be handled quite freely in leather-hard condition4 ,so that if the ,athenian potter of the fifth century used similar clay to that of his present-day descendant1 his handling of these pots on the vase paintings would be perfectly justified in the leather-hard state4 ,there is1 moreover1 evidence which seems to settle this question beyond dispute4 ,on a number of the ,athenian vases there are dents such as can only have occurred while the vase was still in a leather-hard state4 ,the mark of the object contact with which caused the dent is invariably over the black glaze 7cf4 fig4 #de71 showing clearly that the glaze must have been applied in leather-hard condition4#ba ,in some cases we find still adhering in the dents a little burnt clay1 apparently from another vase contact with which caused the accident4 ,here it is probable that the accident was caused not while the vase was leather hard1 but when red hot in the kiln1 at least in those instances1 as in the black-figured amphora in the ,metropolitan ,museum#bb 7fig4 #df71 where the glaze shows a rough fracture due to the separation of the two pieces which had stuck together2 for this fractured edge would have become fused and smooth upon subsequent firing4#bc ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,detail of hydria showing dent with mark over black glaze ,met4 ,mus4 ,acc4 ,no4 #ag4bcj4ae ,the fragments of unfinished vases which have been found from time to time#bd have been used as evidence to prove several glaze fires2 for they show fired vases at a definite stage in the glazing1 the outlines and inner markings painted1 but the background not yet filled in4 ,must we1 then1 suppose that it was the regular practice--at least in the later red-figured period to which all the unfinished pieces belong--to fire before and after the painting of the background8 ,it is difficult to see what would be gained by the process4 ,if the pottery were fired before any decoration was applied1 there would be the advantage of safer handling of the ware2 but to have an extra firing with the decoration more than half completed gives no apparent gain and there is the distinct disadvantage of the extra expense of firing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,detail of amphora showing dent with clay from other body still adhering ,met4 ,mus4 ,acc4 ,no4 ,g4,r4#ecj ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,unfinished kylix ,met4 ,mus4 ,acc4 ,no4 #aa4bab4i ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,foot of unfinished kylix ,met4 ,mus4 ,acc4 ,no4 #aa4bab4i ,the unfinished kylix in the collection of the ,metropolitan ,museum may shed light on this problem 7fig4 #dg74 ,it is not so fragmentary as the pieces in the other museums1 being complete except for portions of the rim4 ,the foot is very roughly turned 7fig4 #dh71 very different from the average kylix foot1 as if it had not been worth while to spend much time on this product4 ,the decoration itself is also quite cursory4 ,this suggests that the piece was merely a 8test10 such as potters use often nowadays for making trials of their clay body1 or their glaze1 or their kiln4 ,the kylix is1 as a matter of fact1 too soft fired1 and the glaze has turned reddish in parts4 ,may we be permitted the guess that this was a trial to test out a new kiln8 ,it is only a possibility and there are many others4 ,the important point is that the evidence of the unfinished fragments does not make it necessary to assume more than one glaze firing4 ,the probability1 therefore1 is that ,athenian pottery is once fired1#be all ornamentation--both glaze and accessory colors#bf--;being applied while the vase was in leather-hard condition2 for in the case of the accessory colors also there would have been no advantage in an additional firing4 ,injuries in the firing4 ,the action of the fire on the potter's products was apparently as much an open question in ,greek times as it is now4 ,practical experience must have gone a long way then as today2 but full control could not be achieved4 ,in forming an estimate of what proportion of the pottery was spoiled in the kiln we must remember that in our museums we are apt to encounter the survival of the fittest--what the potter considered worth preserving1 what the ,greek client deemed adequate to his need1 and what the modern museum curator considers good enough for exhibition4 ,but even in this selection we meet with a number of kiln mishaps1 which apparently were so common that they were hardly noticed4 ,when our eyes have become trained to observe such things1 we shall note that in any collection of ,greek vases there are many cases of warping and sagging1 especially in the overhanging lips of the hydriai and amphorai4#bg ,there are many cracks and dents1#bh many faults in the glaze4 ,a very conspicuous fault is the change of the clay from a pink to a grayish color4#bi ,archaeologists often explain this as due to over-firing4#cj ,the real reason is not that the temperature has been too high1 but that the clay has been subjected in the kiln or in the funeral pyre1 to fumes the carbon of which has been absorbed by the clay4 ,in other words1 there was either reduction and the red ferric oxide in the clay has been changed to black ferrous oxide 7cf4 pp4 #cj f471 or the clay has absorbed the black carbon physically4 ,when controlled1 this change is very useful to the potter for obtaining certain effects4 ,thus bucchero pottery is simply red clay fired under completely reducing conditions2 and in the ,vasiliki mottled ware some carbonaceous pigment like tar was probably placed on the spots which were intended to be black1 whereupon the carbon would be absorbed by the clay and the iron reduced4#ca ,the commonest injury to the glaze in the fire is its change into a brilliant red instead of the intended black4 ,this can be observed on many vases1 sometimes as a large spot 7cf4 fig4 #di71 other times as a less clearly defined variegation4#cb ,the cause was irregularity of fire1 a jet of air passing through the kiln coming in contact with parts of the vases4 ,in other words1 there was an excess of oxygen 7or the reverse of reduction7 which turned the black ferrous oxide of the glaze into red ferric oxide4#cc ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,black-glazed amphora with large red spot on one side ,met4 ,mus4 ,acc4 ,no4 ,g4,r4#fjg ,such red spots caused by jets of air coming in contact with the vases must not be confused with the very similar red spots which are due to the wearing off of the black glaze and the exposure underneath it of the ochre-tinted clay 7cf4 p4 #eh74 ,examination with a magnifying glass will show the difference3 in one case the red is part of and level with the black glaze1 in the other it is on a layer beneath the black glaze2 in the former case the red will not come off when rubbed1 in the latter it will4 ,,glazing ,besides shaping and firing a vase1 a potter must understand the art of glazing1 to many the most alluring part of the craft2 this comprises both the preparation of the glaze and its application to the pot4 ,a glaze is a chemical compound1 known as a silicate1 which upon firing becomes a glassy substance4 ,it has three chief ingredients3 7#a7 an oxide of lead1 of lime1 of alkali1 etc41 which forms the foundation of the glaze2 7#b7 alumina and boron oxide1 which regulate the behavior of the glaze in the fire2 and 7#c7 silica1 which controls the fitting of the glaze to the body4 ,modern glazes are divided into two chief categories3 lead glazes and leadless glazes4 ,of these the former are by far the more numerous2 but alkaline glazes1 tin enamels1 etc41 are also used1 especially in studio potteries4 ,in the preparation of a glaze the ingredients have first to be weighed out carefully in the required proportions2 the mixture has then to be ground with water and sieved2 and when the right thickness is attained 7usually about the consistency of cream71 the glaze is applied to the vase1 which should first be soaked in water to saturation to prevent too rapid absorption4 ,gum tragacanth is used as a binder to make the glaze stick4 ,the glaze can be applied in various ways--by dipping 7fig4 #ej71 by pouring 7fig4 #ea71 by the use of the brush 7fig4 #eb71 or by spraying 7fig4 #ec71 the method depending chiefly on the individual choice of the potter4 ,to apply a glaze properly to the clay body is a great art1 and upon it1 as much as on the preparation of the glaze1 final success depends4 ,the glaze mixtures when applied are whitish or grayish2 it is only after firing that they assume the wonderful range of colors which delight us so much today4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,method of glazing3 dipping ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,method of glazing3 pouring ,the ,athenian potter had no ambition to produce brilliant color effects in glazing4 ,he was content with the one variety which he had brought to perfection--a thin1 luminous glaze of a deep1 velvety black color and of astonishing durability4 ,after generations of experiments we cannot yet say that we can successfully imitate it4 ,its composition is1 however1 no longer a secret4 ,it has been shown by analysis and synthesis that the chief component parts of the glaze are an alkali 7potash or soda71 a clay 7which would contain some silica such as flint naturally71 and ferrous oxide4#cd ,the exact proportion of these parts1 and above all the manipulation of the glaze are still unknown4 ,at least1 nothing completely corresponding to the ,greek glaze has as yet been produced1 though ,mr4 ,tonks#ce and especially ,mr4 ,binns#cf have come very near it4 ,whether the secret lies in the proportion1 in the medium used for binder1#cg or in some undiscovered element one cannot tell4 ,it is only certain that when the discovery is made1 as doubtless it must be1 it will be of great import both to archaeologists and to modern potters4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,method of glazing3 use of the brush ,the glaze was1 as ,i have endeavored to show 7cf4 pp4 #cg ff471 applied to the vase in leather-hard condition4 ,at that stage the clay still contains enough water to prevent too rapid absorption1 and the glaze1 therefore1 runs in an easy1 flowing manner4#ch ,to carry out his work the painter could take his time1 for1 as we have seen 7cf4 p4 #af71 a vase can be kept leather hard for an indefinite period by the simple device of placing it in a damp box1 that is1 an air-tight case with a pan of water at the bottom4#ci ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,method of glazing3 spraying ,cox1 ,pottery for ,artists1 ,craftsmen and ,teachers1 p4 #aaa1 fig4 #ea ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,hydria showing brush marks ,met4 ,mus4 ,acc4 ,no4 #aa4bab4g ,how did the ,greek painter apply the glaze to his pottery8 ,we know that on the broader surfaces the brush was used1 for brush marks are clearly visible in many cases4#dj ,when possible the backgrounds and horizontal bands were painted while the piece was rotating on the wheel2 where a panel had to be reserved1 the irregularity of free-hand brush work can readily be observed 7fig4 #ed74 ,for the 8flat0 glaze lines1 in both the figured scenes and the ornamental motives1 smaller brushes were employed4 ,but what was the instrument which produced the famous 8relief0 lines1 that is1 those fine lines which stand out perceptibly from the surface and which were used for the contours and inner markings of the figures during the best red-figured period 7fig4 #ee78 ,the quality of these lines has been justly admired by all who have studied them and it has been thought that the instrument used had much to do with the result4#da ,after a number of experiments with fine brushes1 single bristles1 reeds1 feathers1 pens1 etc41 ,i have come to the conclusion that it is of little avail to discuss the instrument used before we can employ in our experiments a glaze identical with the ,greek4 ,for to get the wonderful flow of the ,greek line1 the glaze must run much more easily than any imitation black glaze which we have so far produced4 ,the groove which runs down the middle of the relief lines hardly affords a clue2 for slight pressure of any instrument seems to produce such a result4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,detail of psykter showing relief line ,met4 ,mus4 ,acc4 ,no4 #aj4baj4ah ,,red ,,ochre ,,wash ,in three statements of ancient writers the addition of red ochre to ,athenian pottery is referred to4#db ,in ,pliny1 ,natural ,history1 ,,xxxv1 #aeb1 we read3 ,boutades inventum est rubricam addere aut ex rubra creta fingere1 8,boutades first added red ochre1 or made pottery of red clay40 ,isidorus1 ,etymologiae1 ,,xx1 iv1 #c1 speaks of pottery vases having been first invented at ,samos and then adds3 ,postea inventum et rubricam addere et ex rubra creta fingere1 8a later invention was to add red ochre and to make pottery of red clay40 ,suidas in his lexicon1 where he describes ,cape ,kolias as a place in ,attica where pottery is made1 says that the clay from that region is the best1 and adds3 1 8so that it is also dyed with red ochre40 ,archaeologists have assumed that this red ochre was mixed with the clay and that to it was due the deeper color of ,athenian ware as compared1 for instance1 with the geometric4 ,thus in practically all our books on vases the preparation of the clay for the manufacture of ,athenian vases is described somewhat as follows3 8,the clay having been thoroughly purified and washed1 was then kneaded and brought to a consistency suitable for shaping it on the wheel4 ,it was at this stage that other substances1 chiefly a red earth 7ochre 71 were worked in with the clay to deepen the color40 ,first of all1 it should be noted that if ochre is to be added to the clay it must be done long before the kneading stage1 otherwise the red ochre will of course not mix evenly4 ,the best time would be when the clay is dry1 so that a definite proportion could be weighed out4 ,but that is too obvious to need discussion4 ,the question is1 ,does the addition of red ochre materially change the color of the clay8 ,it may be interesting in this connection to record my experience in the matter4 ,about three years ago ,i was asked to speak at a convention of modern potters meeting at the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art1 on the subject of ,greek vases4 ,i thought that these potters would probably be specially interested in the technical side of ,greek ceramics1 and with the courage of ignorance ,i described in detail our theories regarding the manufacture of ,greek pottery4 ,it was the questions which the potters asked me afterwards which convinced me that it was time ,i went to a pottery school4 ,one of my statements which aroused considerable interest was this theory that red ochre was added as an ingredient to deepen the color of red clay4 ,several men came to me after the talk and said1 8,i don't see why the ,greeks did that2 for by just slightly raising the temperature they could easily have deepened the color40 ,i had no answer then1 but when ,i went to the pottery school ,i thought ,i should take nothing for granted1 but convince myself by making my own experiments4 ,so ,i made some tests1 adding certain percentages of ochre to see how it would affect the color4 ,apparently the ochre had little effect1 and the pieces with and without ochre were about equally pink when they came out of the kiln4 ,i then burned some pieces without any ochre to a little higher temperature and the red was considerably deepened4 ,i was quite convinced then that the ochre added as an ingredient to the clay would not have the desired result2 besides1 if we needed further proof we might remember that analyses made of ,athenian clay have shown no trace of ochre4#dc ,what1 then1 do ,pliny and ,suidas mean when they speak of the addition of red ochre to ,athenian pottery8 ,a number of archaeologists have observed from time to time that ,athenian vases1 especially of the late red-figured period1 show traces of a reddish pigment applied over the surface4 ,reichhold in his technical description of vases in ,furtwngler und ,reichhold1 ,griechische ,vasenmalerei1 frequently refers to it as 8rtliche ,lasur40#dd ,pottier ascribed it to a sort of varnish or lustre applied over the surface of the decorated1 fired vase which on decomposition precipitated into a red deposit4#de ,walters thought that red ochre was rubbed on certain parts of the vase which had remained too pale after baking4#df ,a detailed examination of the vases in many ,european and ,american museums convinced me that the use of this red pigment was quite general throughout the red-figured period1 and to a limited extent in the black-figured period4 ,on a few vases it appears in excellent preservation4#dg ,the majority of red-figured vases of all periods#dh and a few of the black-figured vases#di show traces of it4 ,when it is not otherwise visible1 it can often be detected in the slight depressions of the preliminary sketch1 or under the handles1 or on the under side of the foot4 ,as the color comes off when rubbed with a damp cloth1 it is not surprising that it is not better preserved1 after the extensive cleaning that most museum specimens have undergone4 ,but the many traces which are still preserved can only be satisfactorily explained by assuming that it was the general practice--at least in the red-figured period--to apply a red pigment over the whole surface of the vase4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,detail of amphora showing diluted black glaze line 7on arm7 going over red ochre left in preliminary sketch line ,met4 ,mus4 ,acc4 ,no4 #ab4bcf4b ,in the light of this experience let us again examine what ,pliny and ,suidas say4 ,pliny's statement is sufficiently vague to make any interpretation possible2 but ,suidas' use of the word 1 8to be dipped10 is illuminating4 ,the clay could not have been 8dipped0 in a powdery or liquid state1 the only way of having the ochre become an actual ingredient in the clay4 ,the term implies that the clay must have become a solid vase1 in which case the ochre was applied only on its surface4 ,indeed ,athenaeus 7#dhj ,e7 uses the term to signify the 8glazing0 or 8silvering0 of earthen vessels4 ,so that literary testimony seems to agree with the evidence of the vases themselves that the ochre was applied on the surface4 ,at what stage1 then1 was this ochre added8 ,was it before or after the black glaze8 ,careful examination has shown that it was previous to the glazing4 ,when the black glaze is chipped off it generally takes the surface too1 so that instances of the red ochre showing underneath are not numerous2 but there are nevertheless a number of undoubted examples4#ej ,an especially convincing instance is on an amphora in the ,metropolitan ,museum in which a diluted black glaze line goes clearly over traces of the red lift in a preliminary sketch line 7fig4 #ef74 ,furthermore1 in many cases the glaze on the background surfaces has disintegrated and shows the red ochre beneath4#ea ,since the black glaze was probably applied to the leather-hard clay1 the ochre wash must also have been added in that state4 ,the leather-hard vase might have been dipped in an ochre solution or the ochre applied with a brush or rubbed into the surface as a powder4 ,in order to make it adhere properly to the clay actual experiments have shown that by far the best results are obtained by giving the surface a good polish after the application of the ochre4 ,the ochre is thereby actually incorporated with the clay and forms a good firm surface4 ,if not so polished1 it is powdery after firing and comes off easily4 ,experiments further showed that 7#a7 red ochre applied in this manner on the red clay in leather-hard condition produced an effect identical with the red 8wash0 observable on the ,athenian vases2 7#b7 preliminary sketch lines engraved lightly with a blunt tool did not remove the ochre2 7#c7 the ochre in no way interfered with the adhesion of the black glaze over it2 7#d7 the ochre came off only a little at a time even when rubbed hard while wet4 ,it is therefore only during the long processes of wear and time that the red ochre application has worn off4 ,but even when it has entirely disappeared1 it has stained the clay a deeper color--namely1 the orangey hues which we see now2 for the actual color of the clay is lighter and pinker1 as any fracture will show4#eb ,originally1 however1 we learn from our investigation1 the red-figured ,athenian vases had an even deeper and richer tint than they have now--approaching more nearly the color of copper4 ,the general effect1 therefore1 must have been considerably more vivid than it is today1 and to some this thought may not at first appeal4 ,but we should remember that we are discovering also in other fields that the ,greeks loved bright1 intense color1 not the faded tints that so many of their works present today4 ,,were ,,athenian ,,vases ,,made ,,for ,,every-,,day ,,use8 ,the theory has often been advanced that the painted black-figured and red-figured vases were made for decoration and for votive and funeral purposes1 but not for actual use4 ,percy ,gardner in his ,grammar of ,greek ,art 7p4 #afj7 holds this view and gives as his reason that the painted vases were too fragile to be easily handled and too porous to contain liquid4 ,reichhold in ,furtwngler und ,reichhold1 ,griechische ,vasenmalerei1 ,text1 ,i1 p4 #hb1 and ,skizzenbuch griechischer ,meister1 p4 #aj1 is of the same opinion1 and bases his assumption on the fact that a number of the vases show ancient rivet marks and could not therefore have served any practical purpose in such a condition2 also that no ancient vases show signs of wear1 which would have been unavoidable if they had been in daily use4 ,does our investigation of the technique of ,athenian vases help to settle this question8 ,let us look first at the case in its broader aspects4 ,nobody can work long with ,greek vases or other forms of ,greek industrial art without being impressed with the wonderful combination of beauty and practical utility which these objects show4 ,the ,greek vases are not only finely proportioned1 but each one is admirably adapted to its purpose4 ,we need only try pouring from an oinocho to see how easily the liquid flows without any danger of spilling2 or from a lekythos to see how the oil trickles through the narrow neck1 drop by drop1 or in a very thin stream1 just right for cooking or the making of salad dressing4 ,we need only drink from a kylix to realize how1 contrary to expectations1 it is an easy and delightful process--the little curve of the rim preventing the liquid from spilling down one's cheeks4#ec ,we need only closely observe the handles of ,greek vases to see how their positions1 their curves1 and above all their extraordinary solidity render them eminently practical4 ,moreover1 the study of a hundred little details1 the forms of the knobs on pyxides1 the projections for holding the lids in place1 the outward or inward curves of the lips1 the substantial feet1 all combine to form overpowering evidence that these vases were designed for actual use4 ,it is only in isolated instances1 such as the loutrophoroi which have no bottoms or the white lekythoi which have no connection between the neck and body1 that this rule does not hold good4 ,such vases1 however1 belong to clearly defined classes evidently made as votive offerings or as tomb furniture4 ,that the bulk of vases were made for votive purposes1 there is no real evidence4 ,among the many sixth- and fifth-century inscriptions recording such offerings there are few relating to pottery vases4 ,nor is it conceivable that these vases were purely ornamental4 ,we know that private houses in ,athens were at that period excessively simple1 consisting mostly of a courtyard and a few rooms opening on it1 so that it is not likely that people surrounded themselves with a lot of useless ornaments2 nor can we believe that in a period which1 at least in the sixth century1 was still one of strenuous endeavor1 these vases were exported to all parts of the world merely as decorative bric--brac4 ,everything we know of ,greek life at that time points against such an assumption4 ,moreover1 if the ,greeks had such decorations in their homes we should expect to see1 depicted in the vase paintings1 cabinets or shelves with vases displayed on them2 instead1 when vases are shown1 they are invariably in actual use1 or hanging on a nail on the wall1 ready for immediate service4#ed ,there is another consideration4 ,even if1 from our modern point of view1 we may hesitate to believe that a beautiful cup of ,euphronios was used merely as a drinking vessel1 where are we to draw the line8 ,any one who has worked in a museum or has excavated on fifth-century sites knows that besides the selected specimens exhibited in museum cases there are a large number of inferior examples1 hastily decorated1 which could hardly have been displayed as ornaments1 but which are open to the same objections raised against the vases of better workmanship4 ,and now let us examine these objections4 ,first1 the vases are supposed to be too porous to contain liquid4 ,the fineness of the clay1 the polish which was imparted to it1 and perhaps the application of the ochre tended to reduce this porosity somewhat4 ,in the course of time the deposit left by wine and oil would still further close the pores4 ,in any case1 experiments show that ,athenian vases do hold liquids without any difficulty4 ,the unglazed portions become damp1 and a damp mark is left on the table if the foot is not glazed2 but in the days before highly polished furniture there was no strong objection to that1 and there was on the other hand a very real advantage4 ,for it allows a certain amount of evaporation which would tend to cool the liquid--a very desirable thing in a warm climate without a regulated ice supply4 ,any one who has tried the experiment of keeping water in an unglazed jar in a warm room has found that the evaporation keeps it delightfully cool4 ,in southern ,europe today liquids are kept in that manner during the summer4 ,we must also remember that a large number of the early wares from the ,bronze ,age down1 as well as the commoner wares at all times1 are either wholly unglazed or have unglazed portions4 ,and surely nobody wants to contend that these vases were not manufactured for use4 ,the objection that ,athenian pottery is fragile is easily disposed of4 ,actual handling of the vases will show that they are anything but fragile1 in fact that they are remarkably strong4 ,all those portions which would get special wear1 such as handles and rims1 are almost always stoutly made1 more so than much of the china and earthenware and glass we use today4 ,occasionally1 of course1 we get a very thin and delicate example2 and that would have to be handled with special care4 ,then1 as regards the question of wear4 ,terracotta is1 as a matter of fact1 one of the most indestructible materials we have1 and especially so when glazed4 ,glazed earthenware1 consequently1 even though in constant use shows little trace of wear4 ,what little we should expect1 a close inspection of ,athenian vases will reveal4 ,the black glaze1 even when perfectly preserved on the exterior1 is much worn on the interior of stamnoi or kraters 7cf4 fig4 #eg71 where the liquid came in constant contact with the glaze1 and the unglazed interiors of amphorai and hydriai are certainly not perfectly fresh and unused looking4 ,it is also noteworthy that finely and poorly decorated vases are in the same condition in this respect4 ,a comparison with the ,corean pottery of the ,korai period1 #ice-acib ,a4,d41#ee which is known to have been made to serve merely as tomb furniture1 is helpful4 ,the fresh and clean insides of these vases offer a very different appearance from that of the discolored interiors of ,greek amphorai and hydriai--a clear proof that the ,athenian ware did not serve the same unutilitarian purpose as the ,corean4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,inside of krater showing extensive wear ,met4 ,mus4 ,acc4 ,no4 #jg4bhf4gd ,lastly1 regarding the argument about riveted vases1 it is surely natural now and then1 instead of throwing away a broken pot1 to have it put together and make the best of it in its mended state4 ,we do the same thing nowadays4 ,at all events1 the vase could still have been used to contain dry materials4 ,such ,athenian vases with ancient rivet marks are in any case infrequent1 and do not compare in number with the broken vases which have not been mended4 ,such considerations should once for all explode the theory that ,athenian vases were not actually used2 so that we can think of them1 in the way that appeals to our imagination1 as serving in the daily life of the ,athenians and as adding to the enjoyment of that life1 both by their beauty and by their usefulness4 ,,ii4 ,,representations ,,of ,,ancient ,,potters ,an important source of knowledge for the technique of ,greek vases is supplied by the representations of ancient potters at work and by potter's implements which have survived4 ,it may be interesting to review these and see what new interpretations experience at a modern pottery school will suggest4 ,,fashioning ,,the ,,vases #a4 ,black-figured hydria in ,munich4 ,furtwngler u4 ,reichhold1 ,griechische ,vasenmalerei1 ,i1 ,text1 p4 #aei4 ,jahn1 ,beschreibung der ,vasensammlung in der ,pinakothek zu ,mnchen1 ,no4 #gca4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,athenian pottery establishment ,furtwngler u4 ,reichhold1 ,griechische ,vasenmalerei1 ,i1 ,text1 p4 #aei ,an ,athenian pottery establishment4 ,to the left a man sits on a stool and is holding with both hands an amphora on his lap2 a boy 7only the head and one hand are preserved7 is standing before him1 placing one hand on the body of the vase2 the latter is painted black1 that is1 it has already been glazed4 ,the man has the air of inspecting it1 while the boy is apparently helping him hold it 7since it is still in leather-hard condition1 it requires careful handling74 ,the next group represents a man throwing a tall vase on a wheel2 a boy is sitting before him on a low stool1 turning the wheel with both hands at whatever speed is required4 ,the vase is so tall that the entire forearm of the potter is inserted2 while his other hand 7now missing7 was doubtless placed on the outside of the vase1 so that by the pressure of the two hands the pot might acquire the necessary form and thickness4 ,the vase is painted white to show that it is as yet unglazed4 ,a pair of calipers is hanging on the wall ready for use1 to enable the potter to check the heights and widths of his products4 ,to the right a youth is carefully carrying away a vase that has just been thrown1 to dry4 ,a similar vase is already standing on the other side of a column1 drying in the open air or in a court4 ,both vases are painted white to indicate their unglazed condition4 ,next we see an old man walking leisurely with a stick4 ,his dignified air is in strong contrast to the busy absorption of the workmen4 ,he is evidently the overseer or proprietor of the pottery4 ,to his right a tall youth is carrying a heavy weight on his back1 apparently a sack of charcoal4 ,he is bringing it to the kiln1 which is being stoked by the fireman4 ,the kiln has a satyr head at the top to avert the evil eye and protect the pottery from all danger during the firing4#ef #b4 ,fragment of a ,corinthian pinax in the ,berlin ,museum4 ,antike ,denkmler1 ,i1 #ahhf1 pls4 #h1 #ag4 ,furtwngler1 ,beschreibung der ,vasensammlung in ,berlin1 ,i1 ,no4 #hfi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,potter throwing ,antike ,denkmler1 ,i1 pl4 #h1 ,no4 #ag ,a potter throwing a vase on a wheel1 with both his hands placed on the outer surface2 only the two hands of the potter and the upper part of the wheel with the vase are preserved4 #c4 ,red-figured fragment from the ,akropolis in ,athens4 ,athenische ,mittheilungen1 ,,xiv1 #ahhi1 p4 #aeg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,potter throwing ,athenische ,mittheilungen1 #ahhi1 p4 #aeg ,a potter is sitting on a stool and throwing a vase on a wheel which is being propelled by a boy2 another man sits behind him with a krater on his lap4 #d4 ,interior of a black-figured kylix in the ,british ,museum4 ,british ,museum1 ,guide to ,greek and ,roman ,life 7#b;d edition71 #aibj1 p4 #ahb1 fig4 #bah4 ,walters1 ,catalogue of the ,greek and ,etruscan ,vases1 ,,ii1 ,b4#dcb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,potter attaching handles ,british ,museum1 ,guide to ,greek and ,roman ,life 7#b;d ,edition71 p4 #ahb1 fig4 #bah ,a potter is sitting in front of his wheel on which a kylix is standing4 ,he is apparently engaged in attaching the handles4 ,on a shelf above are piled some more kylikes and a jug4 ,the whole is very roughly painted4 #e4 ,corinthian black-figured pinax in the ,museum of the ,louvre4 ,gazette archologique1 ,,vi1 #ahhj1 p4 #ajf1 #c;a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,potter incising lines 787 ,gazette archologique1 #ahhj1 p4 #ajf 7#c;a7 ,a potter is sitting before his wheel propelling it with one hand4 ,he is working on what appears to be a one-handled jug4 ,he is not 8throwing0 or 8turning0 it1 since it already has its handle attached4 ,perhaps he is incising horizontal lines on it1 for which process he could easily propel his own wheel4 ,on the wall hang two other jugs 7with similar incised lines71 and some plates 787 are stacked on the floor4 #f4 ,corinthian pinax in the ,berlin ,museum4 ,antike ,denkmler1 ,i1 #ahhf1 pl4 #h1 #ad;b4 ,furtwngler1 ,beschreibung der ,vasensammlung in ,berlin1 ,i1 ,no4 #hhe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,potter joining sections 787 ,antike ,denkmler1 ,i1 pl4 #h1 ,no4 #ad;b ,a man is sitting in front of a tall globular vase on a high foot4 ,he is not throwing it1 for there is no indication of a wheel4 ,perhaps he is joining the sections of a tall vase1 some of which are already in place1 while one part lies on the floor waiting to be attached4 ,but the whole scene is so roughly painted that it is impossible even to know definitely that a potter is represented4 #g4 ,interior of a red-figured kylix1 ,berlin ,museum ,no4 #bedb4 ,rayet et ,collignon1 ,histoire de la cramique grecque1 p4 ,,xvii1 fig4 #g4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,boy finishing vase ,rayet et ,collignon1 ,histoire de la ,cramique grecque p4 ,,xvii1 fig4 #g ,a boy is sitting with a cup 7kotyle7 in one hand and an implement in the other1 evidently engaged in a finishing process4 ,perhaps he is removing the surplus clay after the handles have been attached2 for the vase is as yet unglazed and is left in the red color of the clay1 in contrast to the black kotyle and oinocho on the stand close by4 #h4 ,terracotta statuette of a potter in the ,british ,museum4 ,british ,museum1 ,guide to ,greek and ,roman ,life 7#b;d edition71 #aibj1 p4 #aha1 fig4 #baf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,potter building a vase ,british ,museum1 ,guide to ,greek and ,roman ,life 7#b;d ,edition71 p4 #aha1 fig4 #baf ,a man is represented in a crouching attitude apparently engaged in building a pot4 ,,decorating ,,the ,,vases #a4 ,red-figured hydria in ,ruvo4 ,annali dell',instituto1 #ahgf1 pl4 ,,de4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,athena and ,victories crowning potters at work ,annali dell',instituto1 #ahgf1 pl4 ,,de ,athena and two ,victories crowning potters at work4 ,to the left is a potter sitting on a low stool and engaged in decorating a volute krater2 he is holding a brush in his closed fist in ,japanese fashion1 and is looking in surprise at the ,nike who is crowning him2 by his side are two paint pots4 ,in front of him another workman1 comfortably seated on a chair1 is busily painting a kantharos which he holds tipped on his lap4 ,he also holds the brush in his fist downwards4 ,another kantharos and an oinocho stand on the floor1 awaiting their turn to be decorated2 on a low stand close by are two paint pots1 one with its lid tipped against the side4 ,the artist is completely absorbed in his work and has not yet discovered ,athena1 the patron of arts and crafts1 approaching him with a wreath4 ,behind ,athena a third workman is seated on a low stool1 decorating a bell krater with a palmette design4 ,he tips up the vase with one hand1 holds the brush firmly in his fist1 and has his paint pot within easy reach on the floor4 ,a ,nike is about to crown him with a wreath2 but he1 too1 is entirely engrossed in his work and quite unconscious of the honor to be conferred on him4 ,completing the scene on the right is a girl on a low platform painting the handle of a large volute krater4 ,the figure is of special interest today1 for it shows that there were women potters then as now4 ,above her on the wall are suspended a kantharos and a lekythos4 ,the whole scene is of great importance as the most representative we possess of ancient vase painters at work4 #b4 ,red-figured kylix in the ,museum of ,fine ,arts1 ,boston4 ,hartwig1 ,jahrbuch des ,instituts1 ,,xiv1 #ahii1 pl4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,youth decorating kylix ,hartwig1 ,jahrbuch des ,instituts1 #ahii1 pl4 ,,iv ,a youth is sitting on a stool1 holding a kylix by the foot and decorating the outside of it with what looks like a brush with long bristles1 though it has also been identified as a feather 7by ,hartwig74 ,in the hand that grasps the kylix is a pointed instrument which has been identified by ,hartwig as the implement with which the preliminary sketch was drawn4 ,the attitude of the painter suggests the quiet absorption required by a delicate task4 ,behind the youth is his knotted staff1 and on the wall hang his oil flask and strigil4 #c4 ,fragment of a red-figured kylix1 found on the ,akropolis1 ,athens4 ,hartwig1 ,jahrbuch des ,instituts1 ,,xiv1 #ahii1 p4 #aed1 fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4 ,potter glazing kylix ,hartwig1 ,jahrbuch des ,instituts1 #ahii1 pl4 #aed1 fig4 #b ,a potter glazing the inside of a kylix as it rotates on the wheel4 ,a woman appears to be crowning him with a wreath4 #d4 ,corinthian pinax in the ,berlin ,museum4 ,antike ,denkmler1 ,i1 pl4 #h1 ,no4 #ah4 ,furtwngler1 ,beschreibung der ,vasensammlung zu ,berlin1 ,i1 ,no4 #hfh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,potter painting bands on a krater ,antike ,denkmler1 ,i1 pl4 #h1 ,no4 #ah ,a potter is sitting on a stool before his wheel1 apparently in the act of painting broad black bands on a column krater while the vase is revolving4 #e4 ,red-figured bell-krater in the ,ashmolean ,museum1 ,oxford4 ,beazley1 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 ,,xxviii1 #aijh1 pl4 ,,xxxii1 ,a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,three youths1 one painting a krater ,beazley1 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 ,,xxviii 7#aijh71 pl4 ,,xxxii1 ,a4 ,to the left a youth is sitting on a stool painting the outside of a bell krater4 ,he is steadying the vase with his left arm placed inside the krater1 while he lets the rim rest on his lap4 ,by his side is a low stand with a skyphos evidently containing the paint4 ,a second workman is carrying off another krater to the right4 ,he may be going to fetch some water or wine in it1 for it is evidently a completed1 fired vase1 otherwise he would not be carrying it by the handles4 ,a third workman is moving in the same direction holding up a skyphos1 perhaps to get more paint or some water or wine to drink4 ,a krater standing on the ground completes the scene4 ,on the wall hang some implements of the potter's trade1 identified by ,beazley from the original as 7#a7 a kylix for drinking1 7#b7 a mortar for grinding the ingredients of the glaze1 7#c7 a brush case1 7#d7 a bowl to contain liquid glaze1 7#e7 a strainer for sieving the glaze4 #f4 ,botian black-figured skyphos in the ,polytechnion in ,athens4 ,found in ,lokris4 ,blmner1 ,athenische ,mittheilungen1 ,,xiv1 #ahhi1 p4 #aea4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,pottery establishment ,blmner1 ,athenische ,mittheilungen1 ,,xiv1 #ahhi1 p4 #aea ,the master of the pottery is sitting with a kylix in one hand1 while with the other he is trying to beat a slave who is running off with three skyphoi4 ,three other skyphoi are on the ground1 while a kantharos and a skyphos are near by on a shelf4 ,another workman is inspecting a skyphos he has just glazed2 a paint pot and brush are on a low stand by his side4 ,he takes no notice of a scene which is taking place close by1 a man beating a slave suspended from the ceiling4 ,the workmanship is very crude1 and if it is a product of the pottery establishment which it depicts1 it is a fair sample of the work we might expect from a place run on such methods6 ,,firing ,,the ,,vases #a-aj ,votive tablets or pinakes found at ,penteskuphia near ,corinth1 dating #fej-eej ,b4,c4 7figs4 #gb-hj74 ,nos4 #gc-gh1 #hj are in the ,berlin ,museum2 ,nos4 #gb1 #gi in the ,museum of the ,louvre4 ,antike ,denkmler1 ,i1 #ahhf1 pl4 #h1 ,nos4 #a1 #d1 #ab1 #ae1 #ai;b1 #ba1 #bb1 #bf 7,furtwngler1 ,beschreibung der ,vasensammlung zu ,berlin1 ,i1 ,nos4 #fjh1 #hjb1 #faf1 #hic1 #iji1 #hbg1 #faa74 ,gazette archologique1 ,,vi1 #ahhj1 p4 #aje 7#a71 p4 #ajf 7#a74 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #gb-gc4 ,potters stoking the fire ,antike ,denkmler1 ,i1 pl4 #h1 #bf4 ,gazette archologique1 ,,vi1 p4 #aje4 ,representations of potter's kilns4 ,the kilns are domed1 and have three openings1 one at the bottom for the fuel1 one on the side for the insertion of the ware and to act as a spy-hole1 and one at the top to let out the smoke and for the regulation of the draught4 ,on figs4 #gb-gi1 the firemen are busy stoking the fire1 and climbing to the top of the kiln to manipulate the draught-hole with a hooked implement2 for the flames are seen emerging at the top1 which means that heat is being wasted4 ,fig4 #hj shows the inside of a kiln1 in horizontal section1 with two openings for the fire1 each opening having two channels into the kiln4 ,the vases should of course stand upright1 but the painter naturally found it difficult to depict them in the right perspective looking at them from the top4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #gd-gi4 ,potters regulating draught ,antike ,denkmler1 ,i1 pl4 #h1 ,nos4 #d1 #ab1 #a1 #ba1 #bb2 ,gazette archologique1 ,,vi1 p4 #ajf4 ,furtwngler 7,beschreibung der ,vasensammlung zu ,berlin1 ,i1 p4 #gj1 note7 was inclined to think that these ovens are not pottery kilns1 but furnaces for metal smelting4 ,his objections1 however1 do not hold4 ,the ovens are not too large for pottery1 and the climbing to the top for the regulation of the draught is a well-known proceeding4 ,moreover1 the scene 7fig4 #hj7 showing the stacked vases1 the little pots painted on figs4 #ge and #gh as if to indicate the purpose of the ovens1 and the representations of potters at work on other tablets1 make the interpretation as pottery kilns the most likely4 ,these pictures are of special importance since no actual ,greek kilns have yet been discovered1 though several ,etruscan and numerous ,roman ones have come to light 7cf4 ,montelius1 ,civilisation primitive1 pl4 #ajg1 #aa1 and ,blmner1 op4 cit41 ,,ii1 pp4 #bc ff474 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,vases stacked in potter's kiln ,antike ,denkmler1 ,i1 pl4 ,,viii1 ,no4 #ai;b ,,miscellaneous ,,scenes #a4 ,engraved gem1 present whereabouts not known4 ,millin1 ,peintures de vases antiques1 ,,ii1 title vignette4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,youth removing vase from oven with two sticks ,millin1 ,peintures de vases1 ,,ii1 title vignette ,a youth is sitting in front of an oven removing with two sticks a two-handled vase which has been placed there for drying4 ,he is using the sticks instead of his fingers because the pot is too hot to touch2 not in order to avoid injuring the fresh glaze on the vase1 as has been suggested 7cf4 ,blmner1 ,technologie u4 ,terminologie ,,ii1 #ahie1 p4 #eb71 for the sticks would mark the glaze as much as the fingers would4 ,modern potters often use sticks for removing hot ware from the kilns 7cf4 p4 #cf74 #b4 ,engraved gem1 present whereabouts not known4 ,millin1 ,peintures de vases antiques1 ,i1 vignette4 ,blmner1 ,technologie u4 ,terminologie1 ,,ii1 p4 #eb1 fig4 #ac4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,youth working on vases 787 ,millin1 ,peintures de vases1 ,i1 vignette ,a youth is sitting on a low tripod in front of an oven4 ,he holds a jug by the handle1 and seems to be working on it with an instrument4 ,it is not clear what he is doing2 the way he holds the vase by one handle suggests that the vase has been fired4 ,on the oven are a kylix and an oinocho1 perhaps placed there for drying4 #c4 ,archaic ,greek stele in the ,akropolis ,museum1 ,athens4 ,lechat1 ,la ,sculpture attique avant ,pheidias1 p4 #cfg1 fig4 #bi4 ,dickins1 ,catalogue of the ,akropolis ,museum at ,athens1 p4 #bgb1 ,no4 #accb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4 ,master potter 787 ,lechat1 ,la ,sculpture attique avant ,phidias1 p4 #cfg1 fig4 #bi ,a bearded man is represented seated1 holding in his left hand two kylikes1 one by the handle1 the other by the foot4 ,a large part of the stele is missing4 ,the figure has been interpreted1 with some probability1 as a 8master potter40 #d4 ,greek stele in the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art1 ,new ,york4 ,richter1 ,handbook of the ,classical ,collection1 p4 #bji1 fig4 #abe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4 ,woman potter 787 ,met4 ,mus4 ,acc4 ,no4 #jh4beh4db ,a woman is represented seated with a pyxis on her lap and a lekythos in one hand4 ,on the analogy of the ,akropolis stele1 it is possible that here too we have a votive offering of a potter4 #e4 ,interior of a kylix in the ,johns ,hopkins ,university1 ,baltimore4 ,hartwig1 ,die griechischen ,meisterschalen1 pl4 ,,xvii1 ,i1 and title vignette4 ,hoppin1 ,a ,handbook of ,attic ,red-,figured ,vases1 ,,ii1 p4 #cee4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4 ,client in potter's shop ,hartwig1 ,die griechischen ,meisterschalen1 title vignette ,a client in a potter's shop is examining the stacked ware1 and holds his purse ready to pay for what he will select4 #f4 ,fragment of a ,corinthian pinax in the ,berlin ,museum4 ,antike ,denkmler1 ,i1 #ahhf1 pl4 #h1 #c;a4 ,furtwngler1 ,beschreibung der ,vasensammlung zu ,berlin1 ,i1 ,no4 #hca;b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4 ,ship with cargo of pottery ,antike ,denkmler1 ,i1 pl4 #h1 #c;a ,sailing-ship with a sheet wound round the mast1 and a row of jugs painted in the field above4 ,the latter apparently indicate the cargo of the ship1 and the tablet is probably an offering of a merchant to the sea-god ,poseidon for the safe conduct of his precious consignment to foreign lands4 ,this is the only picture we have of the transport of ,greek vases1 which we know played so significant a part in ,greek ceramic industry4 ,even in the seventh century ,b4,c41 when most important localities produced their own wares1 such shipments must have been frequent1 since1 for instance1 large numbers of ,corinthian vases have been unearthed in ,etruria1 and ,laconian vases are found scattered far and wide4 ,in the sixth and fifth centuries ,b4,c41 when ,athens supplied a large part of the ,greek world with her pottery1 the trade must have been an exceedingly active one2 so that we must imagine ship after ship laden with pottery sailing from the ,piraeus for distant lands4 ,,representations ,,wrongly ,,interpreted ,,as ,,pottery ,,scenes ,from time to time various representations have been interpreted as pottery scenes which probably have no such significance4 ,the following are the two most important4 #a4 ,interior of a kylix in the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art4 ,a satyr is stoking the fire of an oven on which is a skyphos4 ,this scene is figured in many of the books on vases 7cf4 e4g4 ,walters1 ,history of ,ancient ,pottery1 ,i1 p4 #baf1 fig4 #fh7 and interpreted as a satyr firing pottery2 probably he is simply cooking his dinner4 #b4 ,interior of a kylix4 ,gerhard1 ,auserlesene ,vasenbilder1 pls4 ,,clxxx-,,clxxxi4 ,youth holding the rim of a large krater with both hands4 ,he is sometimes interpreted as a potter working on a vase2 but there is no clear connection with pottery work4 ,,potter',s ,,implements ,unfortunately very few potter's implements of classical ,greek times have survived4 ,we have no ,athenian wheel or kiln or turning tools4 ,and even from other periods the list of such utensils is a slim one4 ,but what has survived here and there from other periods is in line with the general trend of the evidence--that the techniques in ancient times were very similar to what they are today4 ,perhaps the most interesting pieces are the terracotta disks found at ,gournia1 ,arezzo1 and elsewhere1#eg which are wheel-heads#eh on which the pottery was thrown and turned4 ,on the under side of some of these is a hole for insertion in the pivot 7fig4 #hg74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4 ,wheel-head ,british ,museum1 ,guide to ,greek and ,roman ,life 7#b;d ,edition71 p4 #aha1 fig4 #bag ,the potter's tools found at ,arezzo 7fig4 #hh7ei are not unlike our modern modeling tools and were doubtless used for various finishing processes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4 ,tools found at ,arezzo ,daremberg et ,saglio1 ,dictionnaire des antiquits grecques et romaines1 p4 #aabb1 fig4 #cjcf ,in the ,british ,museum 7,nos4 #gd4g-aj1cjb7 are terracotta stilts used for supporting vases in the kilns1 very like the stilts used by potters today4 ,it is unlikely that they were used by the ,athenian potters1 since the ,greek black glaze is so thin it would not be apt to run1 but for the ,roman ware with metallic glaze they were essential1 and the marks they left are visible on the feet of the vases4#fj ,on one of the ,british ,museum stilts 7fig4 #hi7 are remains of a greenish glaze from such a vase4 ,no moulds for the ,athenian plastic ware have to my knowledge been found4 ,but moulds for the later wares1 such as the ,arretine1 are of course plentiful4 ,they are invariably made of burnt clay4 ,the kilns which have survived all date from ,roman times 7cf4 ,blmner1 op4 cit41 ,,ii1 pp4 #bc ff474 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4 ,stilt ,,iii4 ,,references ,,to ,,the ,,pottery ,,craft ,,in ,,ancient ,,literature ,the information derived from ancient literature on the subject of the technique of ,athenian vases is decidedly meagre2 and naturally so4 ,the only people who could have given us valuable data regarding technical questions were the potters themselves1 and they were not writers4 ,outsiders knew as little of the technique of the craft as they do today4 ,so we obtain from them only general remarks2 and these on the whole bear out the points we have already made4 ,occasionally1 however1 they throw fresh light on a question1 or give us information on some point on which the vases themselves cannot speak1 such as the status of the ancient potters1 the value placed on the vases1 etc4 ,it is important1 therefore1 to examine the chief references in ,greek and ,roman literature on this subject4 ,,preparation ,,of ,,the ,,clay ,geoponica1 ,,ii1 #di4 #c4 ,it is most necessary for every reason to have potters 7on a farm71 since we are convinced that it is possible to find potter's clay on any land2 for either on the surface1 or deep down1 or in out-of-the-way places on the land you will find earth suitable for making pottery4 #c4 1 1 1 1 4 ,the abundance of clay on ,greek soil must have helped the manufacture of the many local varieties before ,athens obtained the monopoly in the sixth century ,b4,c4 ,geoponica1 ,,vi1 #c4 ,on making pithoi #a4 ,not all earth is suitable for pottery1 but with regard to potter's clay1 some prefer the yellowish red1 some the white1 and others mix the two4 #b4 ,some in judging of a well-made pithos are satisfied if1 when struck1 it gives forth a sharp1 clear sound4 #c4 ,that1 however1 is not enough1 but the person in charge ought to be present while the work is going on1 and see to it that the clay has been well worked1 and not let it be put on the wheel before the clay shows what sort of pot it will make when fired4 #a4 1 1 1 4 #b4 1 4 #c4 1 1 1 1 4 ,good potters were evidently well aware1 then as now1 of the importance of the right composition and consistency of their clay4 ,it is also interesting to note that potters in modern ,athens still regularly use a mixture of red and white clay 7cf4 p4 #dj1 note #b74 ,sophokles1 ,fragments1 #dch4 ,first begin to work the clay with your hands4 4 ,hesychius1 ,lexicon1 s4 v4 4 3 to make ready2 or as is said1 to knead the clay1 which is to prepare it1 to mix it1 to wet it1 to work it into a plastic mass4 1 1 1 1 1 4 in other words was the ,greek expression for wedging the clay and getting it ready for throwing4 ,,fashioning ,,the ,,vases 7#a7 ,,wheelwork ,diodorus ,siculus1 ,,iv1 #gf4 ,talos1 the son of ,daedalus' sister1 was brought up as a child by ,daedalus1 and being cleverer than his teacher1 he invented the potter's wheel4 1 ' 4 ,strabo1 ,geography1 ,,vii1 p4 #cjc4 ,ephoros says that ,anacharsis' inventions were the bellows1 the double-fluked anchor1 and the potter's wheel4 ,i repeat this statement1 although ,i am well aware that this writer is not very accurate1 and especially in the account of ,anacharsis1 for how could the potter's wheel be an invention of his1 while ,homer#fa who was of an earlier time knew of it8 444 4 1 4 1 2 ,pliny1 ,natural ,history1 ,,vii1 #aih4 ,coroebus the ,athenian invented earthen pots1 and among the inventors1 the ,scythian ,anacharsis1 or as others say1 ,hyperbius the ,corinthian1 discovered the potter's wheel4 444 figlinas 7invenit7 ,coroebus ,atheniensis1 in iis orbem ,anacharsis ,scythes1 ut alii1 ,hyperbius ,corinthus4 ,critias1 ,elegies1 ,i1 #ab-ad 7,bergk74 ,the child of the wheel and the earth and the kiln1 the famous pottery1 useful house servant1 that city invented which set up the glorious trophy at ,marathon4 ' 1 1 1 4 ,it is natural that the ancients should have attributed the great invention of the potter's wheel to various individuals or cities1 but they themselves realized the anomaly of ascribing it to a comparatively recent period1 when it was known to ,homer 7see below74 ,actual remains of wheel-thrown vases show that the wheel was known in ,crete and ,greece in the ,early ,minoan and ,early ,helladic ,,iii periods 7before #bbjj ,b4,c47 and in ,egypt in the third and fourth dynasties#fb 7about #cjjj ,b4,c474 ,homer1 ,iliad1 ,,xviii1 #eii-fja4 ,and now they would run round with deft feet exceeding lightly1 as when a potter sitting by his wheel that fitteth between his hands maketh trial of it whether it run4 7,lang1 ,leaf and ,myers47 ' 1 '1 4 1 4 ,plutarch1 ,de genio ,socratis1 p4 #ehh;f4 ,one ought not to be surprised at seeing the movement of large merchant-vessels controlled by small helms1 nor the whirling of the potter's wheel moving regularly at the mere touch of the tips of his fingers4 1 4 ,persius1 ,satires1 ,,iii1 #bc-bd4 ,advice to an idle young man of good position4 ,you are wet1 soft clay2 at this very moment you should be hastening to shape yourself on the swift wheel4 udum et molle lutum es1 nunc nunc properandus et acri fingendus sine fine rota4 ,hippokrates1 1 ,i1 ,littr1 ,,vi1 p4 #did1 #bb4 ,potters turn the wheel which moves neither backward nor forward and at the same time imitates the rotation of the universe1 and on this same wheel as it whirls they make things of all kinds1 no one of them like another1 from the same materials with the same tools4 1 1 4 ,the fascination of a pot shaped on a rapidly turning wheel appealed to the ancients as it does to us2 and the parallelism between a pot in the making and man shaped by life is too obvious to have escaped them4 ,hippokrates' remark that of the vases produced on the wheel no two are alike is characteristic of the ,greek love of variety4 ,ecclesiasticus1 #ch1 #cb4 ,so does the potter sitting at his work and turning his wheel round with his feet1 who is always painstaking with his task2 and all his work is done by number4 ,he moulds the clay with his arm1 and his feet4 ,literal translation of the ,greek text written by a ,hebrew and evidently colored by his own idiom4 1 1 1 4 1 4 ,this is the only place in ancient literature in which the action of the foot in wheelwork is referred to4 ,in the second century ,b4,c41 therefore1 we might assume the knowledge of the kick-wheel1 though it may well have been in use long before then1 since it is a simple and obvious device4 ,where labor1 however1 was cheap and plentiful1 as in fifth-century ,athens1 a slave boy turning the wheel for the potter1 whose whole strength and attention could then be expended on his work1 would be preferable2 and this is the manner in which wheelwork is depicted in ,athenian vase paintings 7cf4 pp4 #fd ff74 ,athenaeus1 ,,xi1 p4 #dhj c4 ,these kylikes are clay drinking-cups1 and are so called from being turned on the wheel4 ' 4 ,the kylix is1 of course1 the wheel-made vase par excellence4 ,nothing so light and graceful or with such a fine flow of line could be produced by handwork4 ,plato1 ,gorgias1 p4 #ead e4 ,is not this1 as they say1 to learn the potter's craft by undertaking a pithos1 444 and does not this seem to you a foolish thing to do8 444 2 ,plato1 ,laches1 p4 #ahg b4 ,for if this is your first attempt at education1 you must take care lest you try the experiment1 not on a ,carian slave1 but on your sons or the children of your friends1 and let the proverb fit you which says that the potter's art is in the pithos4 1 1 ' 1 4 ,scholiast on ,plato1 ,laches1 p4 #ahg b4 ,the proverb1 8in the pithos is the potter's art10 about those who skip the first lessons and take hold of the greatest tasks which are properly the last4 1 1 1 4 ,corpus ,paroemiographorum ,graecorum1 ,zenobius1 ,,iii1 #fe4 8,i learn the potter's craft on the pithos02 a proverb upon those who skip the first lessons1 and immediately attempt greater things2 as if anyone who was learning to be a potter1 before learning to mould plates or any other small thing1 should undertake a pithos4 3 1 4 1 1 4 ,the fact that there was a ,greek proverb on the folly of attempting large vases before a thorough knowledge of the craft has been acquired1 shows how common was the realization of the difficulty of the task4 ,plutarch1 ,quaestiones conviviales1 ,,ii1 p4 #fcf c4 ,polykleitos the modeler said that the work is most difficult when the clay stands the test of the nail 7874 1 4 ,if we interpret this passage as referring to a potter1 and as meaning when the stage has been reached that the clay is hard enough to be scratched with the nail1 this may possibly be an allusion to turning2 which may well be called the most difficult process of pottery making4 ,but this interpretation is very uncertain4 ,the passage is usually taken as referring to the sculptor's last touches on a clay model for a bronze statue4 7#b7 ,,building ,geoponica1 ,,vi1 #c 7#d74 #d4 ,potters do not use the wheel for all pithoi1 but only for the small ones4 ,the larger ones they build up day by day1 placing them on the ground in a warm room1 and thus make them large4 #d4 1 4 1 4 ,pollux1 ,onomasticon1 ,,vii1 #afd4 #afd4 ,that around which those who make pithoi put the clay and shape it--this wooden core is called 4 #afd4 1 4 ,such hand-built ware does not1 of course1 include the large painted kraters and amphorai of ,athenian make2 for these have all the ear-marks of wheel-thrown pottery4 ,wooden cores are still used today in the making of cement forms4 ,since the clay cement shrinks upon drying and the wood does not1 care must be taken to prevent the former from cracking4 ,the wooden core is therefore made in collapsible form4 ,a wedge is made in the center and a core built around it4 ,when the work is finished the wedge can be drawn out and the sides of the core will fall in4#fc ,,firing ,,the ,,vases ,geoponica1 ,,vi1 #c 7#e74 #e4 ,the firing is no small part of the potter's craft4 ,not too little or too much fire should be built under the pots1 but just enough4 1 1 4 ,vita ,herodotea ,epigrammata ,homerica1 #ad4 7,text of ,t4 ,w4 ,allen1 in ,oxford ,university ,classical ,texts47 ,some potters1 seeing him ,homer setting out the next morning while they were building a fire in a kiln of fine pottery1 called him to them1 knowing that he was a poet1 and they bade him sing1 promising to give him some of the pottery and whatever else they had1 and ,homer sang to them the following poem1 which is called the 8,kiln03-- 8,if you will give me a reward ,i will sing to you1 ,o potters4 ,come hither1 ,athena1 and stretch thy hand over the kiln1 and may the kotyloi blacken well and all the 444 and may they be well baked1 and receive the price due to their value1 many being sold in the market1 and many in the streets4 ,may they gain much4444 ,but if you turn to shamelessness1 and choose falsehood1 then ,i summon the destroyers to fall upon the kiln1 ,crasher and ,smasher and ,unquenchable and ,shatterer and ,fierce ,conquerer1 who would bring many evils upon this craft 444 and may the whole kiln be thrown into confusion1 while the potters lament loudly4 ,as a horse's jaw eats greedily1 so may the kiln devour all the pottery within it1 making it brittle4 ,come hither1 ,circe1 daughter of the sun1 skilled in drugs2 bring malignant poisons1 afflict the men and ruin their work4 ,let ,cheiron bring hither many ,centaurs1 both those who escaped the hands of ,herakles1 and those who perished4 ,let them harshly smite the work and smite the kiln1 and may the men themselves see these grievous deeds with lamentations4 ,but ,i shall be happy when ,i see their unlucky craft4 ,and the man who peeps over1 may his whole face burn on account of this1 so that all may know how to do what is right40 ,t 1 1 1 4 1 ' ' 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 4 ' ' ' 1 ' 1 ' ' 1 ' 4 1 4 1 ' ' 4 4 1 ' 4 1 ' 1 ' 1 1 ' 4 ' 4 ' 1 1 ' 4 ,this is a good picture of the havoc that may happen in a kiln4 ,hippokrates1 ,epidemia1 ,,iv1 #bj2 ,littr1 ,v1 p4 #afj4 ,the man who fell down from the potter's oven1 since a cupping-glass was not applied immediately1 suffered from an internal inflammation and on the twentieth day grew worse4 1 1 1 4 ,this reminds us of the men we see climbing on the kilns in the representations on ,corinthian pinakes 7p4 #gf74 ,pollux1 ,onomasticon1 ,,vii1 #ajh4 ,it was the custom for bronze casters to hang something ridiculous in front of their furnaces1 or to mould something upon them1 in order to avert envy4 ,these were called 4 1 1 4 4 ,such devices to avert the evil eye would apply equally to pottery kilns1 as we know from actual representations 7cf4 pp4 #fd f474 ,it is natural that the vagaries of a kiln should be ascribed by the superstitious ancients to supernatural forces4 ,,red ,,ochre ,,wash ,inscriptiones ,graecae1 ,,ii1 #a1 #edf4 ,be it decreed by the senate and people of the ,ioulietai concerning the representations of the envoys from ,athens1 that the export of miltos shall be to ,athens1 and to no other place from this day forward2 if anyone exports it to any other place1 his ship and its cargo shall be confiscated and a half shall be given to the informer2 444 ,if the ,athenians decree any other regulations for the guarding of the miltos they shall be valid4 77 1 7 ' 1 7 1 7 71 4 7 1 7 4 7 7 444 7 7 7 444 7 4 ,inscriptiones ,graecae1 ,,ii1 #a1 #edf4 ,theogenes moved3 be it decreed by the senate and people of the ,koresians1 concerning the representations of the envoys from ,athens1 the export of miltos shall be to ,athens 444 as it was before2 and in order that the decrees of the ,athenians and ,koresians concerning miltos may be valid1 it shall be exported in a ship which they shall designate and in no other ship 444 the tax of two per cent shall be paid to the collectors by those engaged in the trade4 77 4 77 7 4 ' 71 7 444 7 4 ' 7 7 7444 7 1 7 444 1 7 444 77 4 ,it is interesting to learn how important miltos 7red ochre7 was to the ,athenians4 ,we know that it was used in building for the dressing of stones#fd2 and if the appearance of one of the chief articles of commerce of ,athens1 viz4 the pottery1 was dependent on it 7cf4 pp4 #ec ff471 it is natural that stringent provisions should be made for its acquisition and monopoly4 ,pliny1 ,natural ,history1 ,,xxxv1 #ab 7#dc71 #aeb4 ,the addition of red ochre or moulding in red clay is the invention of ,butades4 ,butades inventum est rubricam addere aut ex rubra creta fingere4 ,suidas1 ,lexicon1 s4 v4 4 ,potters of ,kolias3 ,kolias1 a place in ,attica where vases are moulded4 ,it is said that of all the kinds of clay that are brought to the wheel 7and the wheel on which vessels are shaped is meant71 that is1 of all the clay fit for making vases1 the clay of ,kolias is the best1 so that it is also dyed with miltos4 1 1 1 7 7 1 1 4 ,isidorus1 ,etymologiae1 ,,xx1 iv1 #c4 ,it is said that pottery vases were first invented in the island of ,samos1 being made of clay and hardened by fire1 whence comes the term ,samian vases4 ,a later invention was to add red ochre and to make pottery of red clay4 ,fictilia vasa in ,samo insula prius inventa traduntur1 facta ex creta et indurata igni2 unde et ,samia vasa3 postea inventum et rubricam addere et ex rubra creta fingere4 ,the significance of these passages has already been discussed on pp4 #ec-ei4 ,,porosity ,,of ,,greek ,,pottery ,pollux1 ,onomasticon1 ,,vii1 #afa ff4 #afb4 ,aristophanes says that a clay vinegar jar has leprosy1 instead of saying that it is moist 7sweats874 1 1 4 ,this appears to refer to the fact that unglazed ware 7and even painted ,athenian pottery is unglazed in parts7 becomes moist when filled with liquid1 on account of its porosity4 ,,the ,,status ,,of ,,potters ,isokrates1 ,de ,permutatione1 #b4 ,as if one should have the insolence to call ,pheidias1 who made the statue of ,athena1 a statuette maker1 or to say that ,zeuxis and ,parrhasius had plied the same trade as that of the painters of pinakes4 1 4 ,aristophanes1 ,ekklesiazousai1 #iie f4 ,old ,woman4 ,who is this8 ,young ,man4 ,the man who paints lekythoi for the dead4 4 ' 2 4 4 ,plutarch1 ,life of ,numa1 #ag4 ,so1 distinguishing the whole people by the several arts and trades1 he formed the companies of musicians1 goldsmiths1 carpenters1 dyers1 shoemakers1 skinners1 braziers1 and potters 7,a4 ,h4 ,clough74 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 ,plato1 ,euthydemos1 #cja1 c1 d4 ,what1 said he1 is the business of a good workman8 ,tell me1 in the first place1 whose business is hammering8 ,the smith's4 ,and whose the making of pots8 ,the potter's4 ,and who has to kill and skin and mince and boil and roast8 ,the cook1 ,i said4 ,and if a man does his business1 he does rightly8 ,certainly4 ,and the business of the cook is to cut up and skin1 you have admitted that8 ,yes1 ,i have1 but you must not be too hard upon me4 ,then if some one were to kill1 mince1 boil1 roast the cook1 he would do his business1 and if he were to hammer the smith1 and make a pot of the potter1 he would do their business 7,jowett74 1 1 2 1 2-- 4-- 1 2 4-- 1 2--1 ' 4-- 1 1 1 2 4-- 1 1 2 2--1 1 -- 1 ' 1 1 4 1 4 ,justinus1 ,historiae ,philippicae1 ,,xxii1 #a1 #a and #b4 ,agathocles1 the tyrant of ,sicily1 who succeeded to the great power of the elder ,dionysius1 came into the splendor of a kingdom from a humble and base family4 ,and too1 being born in ,sicily of a potter1 he had a boyhood not more honorable than his origin4 ,agathocles1 ,siciliae tyrannus1 qui magnitudini prioris ,dionysii successit1 ad regni maiestatem ex humili et sordido genere pervenit4 ,quippe in ,sicilia patre figulo natus non honestiorem pueritiam quam principia originis habuit4 ,much has been written about the lowly status of ,greek potters1#fe and the above references bear out this general idea4 ,the craft of pottery was evidently placed on a par with other trades1 and all such manual work was not considered a worthy occupation of free-born citizens1 and left mostly to the metics1 or non-citizens4 ,we know this not only from texts and inscriptions on stone1 but also from the non-,attic forms of the names of the potters1 as well as the inscriptions on the vases which frequently show non-,attic spellings4 ,it would be absurd1 however1 to infer that all pottery was as contemptuously regarded as the rough little tomb lekythoi#ff and the pinakes referred to by ,aristophanes and ,isokrates4 ,and this is borne out by the following references4 ,plato1 ,hippias ,maior1 p4 #bhh d4 ,if a skilful potter had made the vessel smooth and rounded and well baked1 like some of the fine two-handled jars which hold six choai--if he should ask us about such a vessel as this1 we should be obliged to agree that it was beautiful4 1 1 1 1 1 4 ,pliny1 ,natural ,history1 ,,xxxv1 #afa4 ,at ,erythrae in the temple there are shown today two amphorai consecrated on account of their thinness1 a pupil and a teacher having contested as to which of them could draw the clay thinner4 ,erythris in templo hodieque ostenduntur amphorae duae propter tenuitatem consecratae discipuli magistrique certamine1 uter tenuiorem humum duceret4 ,amphis1 ,ampelourgos1 ,i4 ,meineke1 ,fragmenta ,comicorum ,graecorum1 ,,iii1 p4 #cjb4 ,there is no sweeter solace in life for human ills than craftsmanship2 for the mind1 absorbed in its study1 sails past all troubles and forgets them4 4 ,pindar1 ,nemean ,odes1 ,x1 #ce1 #cf4 ,and in earthenware baked in the fire1 within the closure of figured urns1 there came among the goodly folk of ,hera the prize of the olive-fruit 7,myers74 4 ,simonides1 ,fragments1 #aee 7#bac7 7,bergk74 ,and he won five garlands in succession at the ,panathenaic games1 amphorai full of oil4 ' ' 4 ,that finely executed pottery was held in high esteem is evident from the remarks of ,plato1 ,pliny1 and ,pindar2 and there certainly could be no more enthusiastic eulogy of craftsmanship than ,amphis' beautiful lines4 ,moreover1 the fact that clay vases were used as prizes at the most important games at ,athens certainly points to considerable and wide-spread appreciation of them4 ,ktesias ap4 ,athenaeus1 p4 #dfd a4 ,and ,ktesias says1 8,among ,persians he whom the king wishes to insult uses pottery vessels40 8 0 1 8 1 04 ,plutarch1 ,life of ,galba1 #ab4 ,when he was dining with ,claudius ,caesar he stole a silver cup1 and ,caesar1 finding it out1 invited him to dinner again on the next day1 but ordered his servants to bring out and put before the guest nothing silver1 but everything of pottery4 4 1 1 4 ,tibullus1 ,elegies1 ,i1 #a1 #cg f4 ,come1 ye gods1 nor scorn the gifts from a poor man's table1 from clean pottery vessels4 ,adsitis1 divi1 neu vos e paupere mensa dona nec e puris spernite fictilibus4 ,juvenal1 ,satires1 ,,iii1 #afh4 ,even a poor man is ashamed to dine off pottery dishes4 fictilibus cenare pudet-- ,martial1 ,epigrams1 ,,xiv1 #ih4 ,we advise you not overmuch to despise ,arretian vases3 ,tuscan earthenware was luxury to ,porsena 7,w4 ,e4 ,ker74 ,arretina nimis ne spernas vasa monemus4 lautus erat ,tuscis ,porsena fictilibus4 ,lucian1 ,prometheus1 #a4 ,then you say ,i am ,prometheus8 ,if1 ,sir1 it is because ,i too work in clay1 ,i recognize the similarity and acknowledge that ,i am like him1 nor do ,i refuse to be called a potter4 2 1 1 1 1 ' 4 ,athenaeus1 ,,xi1 p4 #dhb b4 7,repeated by ,macrobius1 ,satires1 ,v1 #ba1 #aj47 ,they placed a krater for the gods1 not of silver nor set with stones1 but of clay from ,kolias4 1 1 4 ,though the ,persians and the ,romans set great store by metal vases and regarded clay vases as fit only for a poor man's table1 the ,greeks had no such feelings1 as we learn from ,athenaeus and from innumerable vase paintings of banquets4 ,inscriptiones ,graecae1 ,i1 ,suppl41 #cfb1 p4 #gi4 ,euphronios the potter offered 444 in supplication to 7,athena7 ,hygieia4 77 7 7 7444 7 774 ,inscriptiones ,graecae1 ,i1 ,suppl4 #cgc1 p4 #aja4 ,mnesiades the potter and ,andokides dedicated me4 77 4 ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,graecarum1 #cdhe4 ,the lord of the land and sea1 ,imperator ,caesar ,m4 ,aurelius ,severus ,antoninus1 ,pius1 ,augustus1 the potters have erected from their own property4 4 77 1 1 1 7 7 77 4 ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,graecarum1 #iahh4 ,sarcophagus of ,theophilos and his son ,tyrannos1 a potter by trade4 7 7 7777 77 774 ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,graecarum1 addenda #dbab4 ,i1 ,sesames the potter1 have bought through the board of magistrates this burial vault for myself and my wife ,elpis and my mother-in-law ,euphrosyne and for ,ianoarios and our children1 and for ,soterichos my father-in-law4 ,no one else shall be buried here1 since 7the violator7 shall pay to the sacred treasurer #aejj denarii4 7 77 7 7 77 77 77 774 774 7777 7 77 4 ,these inscriptions of dedications show that potters sometimes became people of means and influence4 ,plato1 ,republic1 p4 #dfg a4 ,did you never observe in the arts how the potters' boys look on and help1 long before they touch the wheel8 7,jowett74 1 1 2 ,quintilian1 ,institutio ,oratoria1 ,,ii1 #ag1 #c4 444 ,for what man is there so bereft1 ,i will not say of learning1 but of sense1 that he thinks that there is an art of constructing and of weaving1 and of making vases from clay1 but that rhetoric1 that greatest and noblest work1 as ,i said above1 has risen to such sublime heights without art8 444 nam quis est adeo non ab eruditione modo1 sed a sensu remotus hominis1 ut fabricandi quidem et texendi et e luto vasa ducendi artem putet1 rhetoricen autem1 maximum ac pulcherrimum1 ut supra diximus1 opus1 in tam sublime fastigium existimet sine arte venisse8 ,suidas1 ,lexicon1 s4 v4 4 ,to make pottery3 commonly said instead of 8to work hard40 4 4 ,hesiod1 ,works and ,days1 #be f4 ,potter bears a grudge against potter1 and carpenter against carpenter1 and beggar envies beggar1 and minstrel is jealous of minstrel4 4 ,aristotle1 ,rhetoric1 #b1 #d1 #ba1 #bb4 ,we are friendly towards our equals1 and towards those who have the same interests1 if they do not clash with us1 and if their livelihood does not come from the same source1 for thus arises the proverb 8,potter hates potter40 1 ' 4 4 ,aristotle1 ,nicomachaean ,ethics1 #h1 #a1 #f4 ,for some define friendship as a kind of resemblance1 and claim that those who resemble each other are friends1 whence is the saying 8,like to like10 and 8,jackdaw to ,jackdaw10 and so on4 ,others1 on the contrary1 say that all such people are like potters to each other4 1 4 1 4 ' 4 ,evidently it was fully recognized that pottery was a craft which needed a long apprenticeship1 and in such a highly specialized art we are not surprised to read of the keen rivalry existing among potters4 ,the inscription by ,euthymides on one of his vases1 8,never has ,euphronios painted the like of this0 7cf4 ,hoppin1 ,handbook of ,attic ,red-,figured ,vases1 p4 #dcb71 is evidence of the same spirit4 ,judging from the evidence collected above it is fair to assume that though the estimate of potters and pottery varied at different times1 in the period of ,athenian vase painting it was distinctly high4 ,potters had1 it is true1 no social status2 but they were respected members of the community1 and the keen appreciation of their work had as its natural result eager rivalry among the potters and the setting of high standards4 ,that their craft was regarded as a 8trade0 is of course nothing new4 ,artists as a class have only lately been promoted to the higher social ranks4 ,we need only recall ,albrecht ,drer's description of the great ,procession from the ,church of ,our ,lady at ,antwerp1 in which he lists the painters and sculptors and goldsmiths with 8the masons1 the joiners1 the carpenters1 the sailors1 the fishermen1 the butchers1 the leatherers1 the clothmakers1 the bakers1 the tailors1 the cordwainers10 and refers to the group as 8workmen of all kinds and many craftsmen and dealers who work for their livelihood40 ,this is not so much an indignity to art as a wholesome appreciation of all manual labor4 ,,conclusion ,the following is a summary of the technical processes of the black-figured and red-figured ,athenian vases in the order which our study of the subject has suggested4 ,i4 ,,the ,,preparation ,,of ,,the ,,clay 7#a7 ,mixing the requisite ingredients 7unless the natural clay was satisfactory74 7#b7 ,washing4 7#c7 ,wedging or kneading4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,fashioning ,,of ,,the ,,vase 7#a7 ,throwing4 7#b7 ,turning4 7#c7 ,polishing4 7#d7 ,attaching handles4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,decoration ,,of ,,the ,,vase a4 ,black-figured ,technique4 7#a7 ,application of red ochre over the whole surface4 ,traces of the red ochre solution on black-figured vases are not common2 so that it is possible that its application was not a regular proceeding4 7#b7 ,preliminary sketch for design4 ,as this was completely covered by the black glaze afterwards and there are therefore only occasional traces of it now 7cf4 e4g4 ,furtwngler u4 ,reichhold1 ,griechische ,vasenmalerei1 ,i1 pl4 #d71 it is uncertain1 though inherently probable1 that such a sketch was generally made4 7#c7 ,painting of the design1 including figures1 decorative motives1 and backgrounds1 in black glaze4 7#d7 ,incision of details4 7#e7 ,addition of purple and white accessory colors4 b4 ,red-figured ,technique4 7#a7 ,application of red ochre over the whole surface4 7#b7 ,preliminary sketch for design with a blunt instrument4 7#c7 ,painting of the design1 the decorative motives1 and the solid black surfaces4 ,the process of the figure painting was as follows3 the outlines of the figures were indicated outside the spaces intended for them1 first with a narrow line1 then with a broader contour stripe2 then the details within the red silhouette1 and sometimes the outlines1 were painted in black glaze lines2 finally the background was filled in with the black glaze4 7#d7 ,addition of accessory colors if needed4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,firing ,,of ,,the ,,vase ,the most important revisions of current theories on the technique of ,athenian vases which our treatment of the subject has suggested are3 7#a7 ,the use of turning as a regular process applied to the vases after they were thrown4 ,to this operation they owe much of their finish and refinement4 7#b7 ,the application of a red ochre pigment on the surface of the vases in their raw state1 before they were decorated or fired4 ,it is to this red ochre application that the present orangey color of the ,athenian vases is due1 as against the pinkish hue shown in the fractures of the clay4 ,originally1 however1 this color was even deeper1 approaching that of bright red copper4 7#c7 ,both the glaze and the accessory colors were applied when the vases were in leather-hard condition1 before any firing4 ,instead of the two1 three1 or four firings often assumed by archaeologists1 the evidence points to only one fire1 after total completion of the vase4 7#d7 ,the great majority of ,athenian vases were made for actual use1 not for votive1 decorative1 or funeral purposes1 as is still often assumed4 ,,footnotes #a ,reichhold's theory in his ,skizzenbuch griechischer ,meister 7#aiai71 p4 #ab1 that the word 78made it07 in a signature refers to the draughtsman of the sketch for the decoration1 while its executor signed 78painted it071 since the actual making of the vase 8required no artistic skill and could be left to every apprentice10 only shows his exclusive preoccupation with the drawings on the vases1 in the copying of which he so much excelled4 #b ,for any one who wishes to study this subject at greater length1 ,charles ,f4 ,binns's work on the ,potter's ,craft is strongly recommended 7second edition1 #aibb74 #c ,figs4 #a1 #b1 #f-ac1 #ad1 #ba-bc1 #bg1 #ci1 #da4 #d ,figs4 #c1 #d1 #ce1 #cf1 #dj1 #db1 #ej1 #ea1 #eb4 #e ,in commercial potteries where a larger output and coarser wares are produced wedging en gros becomes necessary4 ,in modern ,greece it is done by treading the clay with bare feet4 #f ,sometimes a wooden scraper is held on the outside to obtain a smoother surface2 especially in cases when the later process of turning is dispensed with4 #g ,the jigger is the technical word for the wheel on which shapes are moulded with the aid of a jolly or profile2 but it can be used for other purposes4 ,the difference between an ordinary wheel and a jigger is that in the former the speed is changeable1 in the latter fixed4 #h ,cf4 e4g4 ,walters1 ,ancient ,pottery1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #bjh2 ,herford1 ,greek ,vase ,painting1 p4 #i2 etc41 etc4 #i ,cf4 ,jay ,hambidge1 ,dynamic ,symmetry1 the ,greek ,vase1 and ,l4 ,d4 ,caskey1 ,geometry of ,greek ,vases4 #aj ,cf4 e4g4 in the ,metropolitan ,museum ,nos4 #jh4beh4ba and #ab4bcf1 where the joint is visible underneath the clay ridge4 #aa ,cf4 also especially ,metropolitan ,museum ,nos4 ,g4 ,r4 #ecd1 #ji4bba4dg1 #ji4bba4dh1 #jf4ajba4afh1 ,g4 ,r4 #eha1 #ah4ade4bh1 etc4 #ab ,cf4 ,buschor1 ,mnchner ,jahrbuch der bildenden ,kunst1 #aiai1 ,i_/,,ii1 pp4 #a ff4 #ac ,cf4 ,american ,journal of ,archaeology1 ,,xii1 second series1 #aijh1 p4 #dba4 #ad 8,twice fired0 technically means1 as already explained 7p4 #ce71 once for biscuit1 another time for glaze2 the glazing itself may have necessitated several firings1 but the piece would still be spoken of as twice fired4 #ae ,cf4 e4g4 ,walters1 op4 cit41 pp4 #bba1 #bbb1 and ,herford1 op4 cit41 pp4 #ac1 #ad4 ,reichhold1 op4 cit41 p4 #aeb1 felt convinced there was only one firing4 #af ,occasionally a toothed instrument seems to have been used2 as on the pyxis1 ,no4 #jf4aaag1 in the ,metropolitan ,museum4 #ag ,archaeologists' accounts are very misleading here1 for some even assume that vases are in leather-hard condition after the first firing4 7,cf4 ,herford1 ,handbook of ,greek ,vase ,painting1 p4 #ab47 #ah ,e4 ,pottier has come to the same conclusion2 cf4 his ,catalogue of the ,louvre ,vases1 ,,iii1 p4 #fgd4 #ai ,the clay of ,reichhold's pot1 which he says could be dropped on the floor without appreciable damage 7,furtwngler und ,reichhold1 ,griechische ,vasenmalerei1 ,i1 p4 #aeb71 must have been very tough indeed4 ,potters ,i have asked have never encountered clay quite as tough as that4 ,the leather-hard vases ,i have handled were fit only for the dust bin when they fell on the floor--a not unusual event when learning to turn4 #bj ,i wish here to acknowledge the great kindness of ,a4 ,j4 ,b4 ,wace1 director of the ,british ,school of ,athens1 who went to much trouble in sending me this clay4 ,the clay sent is that used by the ,athenian potters today4 ,it is a mixed clay1 composed of red earth from ,chalandri and white earth from ,koukouvaones4 #ba ,cf4 also ,nos4 #jf4ajba4aad1 #jg4bhf4gh1 #ag4bcj4ac in the ,metropolitan ,museum1 and other instances quoted by ,reichhold in ,furtwngler u4 ,reichhold1 ,griechische ,vasenmalerei1 ,i1 p4 #aeb4 ,if1 as ,reichhold assumes1 the vases were actually placed in the kiln leather hard1 they must have been allowed to dry for some days in the kiln before firing2 otherwise they would have cracked4 #bb ,cf4 also ,furtwngler u4 ,reichhold1 loc4 cit4 #bc ,this is ,mr4 ,binns's explanation4 #bd ,five are listed by ,hartwig1 ,jahrbuch des deutschen arch4 ,instituts1 ,,xiv1 #ahii1 p4 #afd1 note #ba1 one in ,athens1 one in ,svres1 one in ,wrzburg1 one in ,berlin1 one in ,bonn4 ,a sixth piece is a fragmentary kylix in the ,metropolitan ,museum1 ,no4 #aa4bab4i1 and a seventh one1 the cover of a toilet box1 in the ,british ,museum1 ,room of ,greek and ,roman ,life1 ,no4 #dbf4 #be ,an interesting parallel is furnished by ,chinese porcelain for which1 ,mr4 ,bosch ,reitz tells me1 there is clear evidence that it is once fired4 #bf ,it is sometimes assumed that the accessory colors--purple and white--were not fired and that this is the reason why they are less well preserved and dull instead of shiny like the black glaze4 ,that they were fired is shown by the discoloration of the black glaze beneath the white or purple4 ,they are neither shiny nor durable for the simple reason that they are not a glaze but earth colors4 #bg ,cf4 e4g4 ,no4 #jf4ajba4aad1 in the ,metropolitan ,museum4 #bh ,cf4 e4g4 ,nos4 ,g4 ,r4 #ecj1 #jf4ajba4hb1 #jf4ajba4aad1 etc41 in the ,metropolitan ,museum1 and ,no4 #cgi 7,salle ,g7 as a conspicuous example in the ,louvre4 #bi ,cf4 e4g4 ,nos4 #jg4bhf4dg1 #jg4bhf4ha1 and ,c4 ,r4 #eda in the ,metropolitan ,museum4 #cj ,cf4 e4g4 ,reichhold in ,furtwngler u4 ,reichhold1 ,griechische ,vasenmalerei1 ,i1 p4 #aec4 #ca ,this is ,mr4 ,binns's explanation4 ,he does not consider that the accidental piling together of glowing coals could account for the carefully designed effects in the ,vasiliki ware2 so that ,mr4 ,seager's ingenious theory 7cf4 ,hawes1 etc41 ,gournia1 p4 #ej7 would have to be given up4 #cb ,cf4 e4g4 #aa4bab4g1 #ab4ccf4a1 ,g4 ,r4 #ed1 ,g4 ,r4 #abbi1 #jf4ajba4abj1 #jf4ajba4aia1 #ab4bbi4ae1 etc41 in the ,metropolitan ,museum4 #cc ,this explanation is also that offered by ,reichhold in ,furtwngler u4 ,reichhold1 ,griechische ,vasenmalerei1 ,i1 p4 #aec4 ,it is to this same cause that ,i should be inclined to attribute ,reichhold's 8,lagerringe10 round red spots or black spots surrounded by red rings 7op4 cit41 p4 #aed74 ,supports such as he describes which came into direct contact with the glaze are inconceivable2 the glaze would have stuck to them and serious injury resulted4 ,furthermore1 ,athenian vases must have been placed in the kiln standing on their feet1 and for this purpose the under surfaces of the feet are left unglazed so as to prevent the glaze from sticking4 ,if placed in the positions ,reichhold suggests1 the vases would have been apt to warp1 and no potter would run such risks4 #cd ,cf4 ,salvtat in ,brongniart1 ,trait des arts cramiques1 ,i1 p4 #eej2 and ,tonks1 ,black ,glaze on ,greek ,vases1 ,american ,journal of ,archaeology1 ,,xii1 second series1 #aijh1 pp4 #dbj ff4 ,mr4 ,binns in a series of experiments has come to the same conclusion4 #ce ,cf4 ,american ,journal of ,archaeology1 ,,xii1 second series1 #aijh1 pp4 #dbc f4 #cf ,mr4 ,binns's experiments are as yet unpublished4 #cg ,under ,mr4 ,binns's direction ,i tried gum arabic1 honey1 water glass1 glue1 white of egg1 glycerine1 and oil as binders1 but none gave complete satisfaction4 #ch ,h4 ,b4 ,walters in his ,ancient ,pottery1 ,i1 p4 #bab1 says that the glaze runs best on a surface already baked4 ,as a matter of fact1 to make glaze run at all on the baked surface1 the biscuit has to be soaked in water4 #ci ,reichhold in ,furtwngler u4 ,reichhold1 ,griechische ,vasenmalerei1 ,i1 p4 #aeb1 forgets this when he argues that since the decorations were applied on leather-hard clay they must have been executed within a few days4 #dj ,some archaeologists even claim that they have noticed hairs of brushes in the glaze4 ,it is1 however1 impossible that these are hairs from the brushes with which the glaze was painted1 as they would have burned up in the fire to which the glaze was subjected4 #da ,cf4 e4g4 the discussions by ,hartwig1 ,jahrbuch d4 ,instituts1 ,,xiv1 #ahii1 pp4 #adg ff42 ,reichhold1 in ,furtwngler u4 ,reichhold1 ,griechische ,vasenmalerei1 ,i1 ,text1 pp4 #adh and #bcj2 ,tonks1 ,american ,journal of ,archaeology1 ,,xii1 second series1 #aijh1 p4 #dbe2 ,walters1 ,ancient ,pottery1 ,i1 pp4 #bbg ff4 #db ,for full quotations of these statements cf4 pp4 #ig1 #ih4 #dc ,cf4 ,john1 ,malerei der ,alten1 p4 #agc4 #dd ,cf4 e4g4 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #adj1 #ade4 #de ,cf4 e4g4 ,pottier1 ,catalogue des vases antiques du ,louvre1 ,,iii1 p4 #fhb4 #df ,cf4 e4g4 ,walters1 ,ancient ,pottery1 ,i1 p4 #bah4 #dg ,cf4 e4g4 in the ,museum fr ,kleinkunst1 ,munich1 the kylix with ,dionysos by ,exekias1 ,no4 #bjdd1 and the ,euphronios kylix1 ,no4 #bfbj4 ,these give us an excellent idea of the original appearance of ,athenian vases4 #dh ,cf4 especially in the ,british ,museum1 ,e#agh1 ,e#adi1 ,e#bhb1 ,e#chb2 and in the ,metropolitan ,museum1 ,g4 ,r4 #fjd1 #jg4bhf4gc1 #jg4bhf4gd1 #jf4ajba4ajh1 #ab4bcf4b1 #jg4bhf4fe1 ,g4 ,r4 #ehi1 #jf4ajba4aba1 ,g4 ,r4 #egc1 #ag4bcj4ac1 where extensive traces can still be seen4 #di ,cf4 e4g4 in the ,british ,museum1 ,b4#dci1 ,b4#eaf1 ,b4#eib1 ,b4#ddf2 ,metropolitan ,museum1 #jf4ajba4ef1 ,g4 ,r4 #eee4 #ej ,cf4 e4g4 ,british ,museum1 ,e4#gd1 ,e4#gb1 ,e4#cjg1 ,e4#chb1 ,e4#adi1 ,e4#ccc4 #ea ,such red spots must not be confused with those caused by excess of oxidation in the firing 7cf4 pp4 #dd ff474 #eb ,imported ,athenian clay 7cf4 p4 #dj7 fired to the temperature to which the ancient ,greeks fired their pottery was so light and characterless in color that some process to deepen the hue would appear almost imperative4 #ec ,many modern imitations of kylikes lack just this feature1 which makes drinking out of them a very different story4 #ed ,cf4 ,antike ,denkmler1 ,,ii1 pl4 #h2 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 ,,xii1 #ahia1 pl4 ,,xx1 and ,,xxxii1 #aiab1 pl4 ,,vii2 ,furtwngler u4 ,reichhold1 ,griechische ,vasenmalerei1 ,i1 pls4 #ai and #bd1 ,,iii1 text1 p4 #ai1 fig4 #g2 ,notor1 ,la femme dans l'antiquit1 p4 #bec2 ,wiener ,vorlegebltter1 #ahhi1 pl4 ,,xii 7on ,ficoroni cista72 ,hartwig1 ,griechische ,meisterschalen1 pl4 ,,lxvii1 #c;a and #d1 pl4 ,,lxix1 #b;a-c2 ,daremberg et ,saglio1 ,dictionnaire ,,iv1 part #b1 p4 #aafj1 fig4 #fbeb2 etc4 #ee ,cf4 e4g4 ,metropolitan ,museum1 ,nos4 #ae4afj4b-c1 #ai4ci4bj4 #ef ,it is interesting to compare in this connection the satyr heads on shields1 perhaps intended to frighten the enemy 7cf4 ,gerhard1 ,auserlesene ,vasenbilder1 pl4 ,,clxxxviii2 ,micali1 ,storia degli antichi popoli italiani ,,iii1 p4 #fc1 pl4 #da1 #a-c74 #eg ,cf4 e4g4 ,zahn1 ,berichte der schsischen ,gesellschaft1 #ahed1 p4 #dj1 note #df2 ,british ,museum1 ,guide to ,greek and ,roman ,life 7#b;d edition71 #aibj1 p4 #aha1 fig4 #bag 7,no4 #aije4f-ac4a72 ,dchelette1 ,les vases cramiques orns de la ,gaule romaine1 ,,ii1 #aijd1 p4 #cch4 #eh ,nowadays plaster or wood is the usual material for such wheel-heads4 #ei ,cf4 e4g4 ,fabroni1 ,storia degli antichi vasi fittili aretini1 #ahda1 pl4 ,,iii1 #i1 #aj2 ,v1 #g1 #h1 #i2 p4 #fd1 and ,daremberg et ,saglio1 ,dictionnaire1 under figlinum1 p4 #aabb1 fig4 #cjcf4 #fj ,cf4 e4g4 ,nos4 #ae4afc4a1 #ag4abj4bej in the ,metropolitan ,museum4 #fa ,cf4 e4g4 ,iliad1 ,,xviii1 #eii-fja1 quoted below4 #fb ,cf4 ,reisner1 ,naga-ed-,dr1 ,i1 p4 #acc4 #fc ,this information ,i owe to ,mr4 ,binns4 #fd ,cf4 ,g4 ,p4 ,stevens in ,fowler-,wheeler1 ,greek ,archaeology1 p4 #ajb4 #fe ,see especially ,pottier1 ,catalogue des ,vases au ,muse du ,louvre1 ,,iii1 pp4 #fij ff4 #ff ,there is no reason to assume1 as has been done by ,walters1 ,history of ,ancient ,pottery1 ,i1 pp4 #acb and others1 that these lekythoi are the beautiful white lekythoi in our collections2 it is more likely that they are the very roughly painted little jugs found in large quantities in tombs1 but rarely placed with selected museum examples4 ,,selected ,,bibliography ,the technique of ,greek vases has naturally been a subject of study with most writers on ,greek ceramics4 ,the following is a selection of the most important works in this field3 ,,bl,,mner1 ,h4 ,technologie u4 ,terminologie der ,gewerbe u4 ,knste bei den ,griechen u4 ,rmern1 ,,ii1 pp4 #cb ff4 ,leipzig1 #ahie4 ,,brongniart1 ,a4 ,trait des arts cramiques ou des poteries1 ,i4 ,second edition1 ,paris1 #ahed4 ,,jahn1 ,o4 ber ein ,vasenbild welches eine ,tpferei vorstellt1 in ,berichte der schsischen ,gesellschaft der ,wissenschaften4 ,leipzig1 #ahed4 ,,jamot1 ,p41 in ,daremberg et ,saglio1 ,dictionnaire des antiquits grecques et romaines1 under figlinum4 ,,luynes1 ,duc de4 ,de la poterie antique1 in ,annali dell',instituto1 ,,iv1 pp4 #ach ff4 ,milan1 #ahid4 ,,perrot1 ,g41 in ,perrot et ,chipiez1 ,histoire de l'art dans l'antiquit1 ,,ix1 pp4 #cbb ff4 ,paris1 #aiaa4 ,,pottier1 ,e4 ,catalogue des vases antiques de terre cuite au ,muse du ,louvre1 ,,iii1 pp4 #fea ff4 ,paris1 #aijf4 ,,rayet1 ,o41 et ,collignon1 ,m4 ,histoire de la cramique grecque1 ,introduction4 ,paris1 #ahhh4 ,,reichhold1 ,k41 in ,furtwngler u4 ,reichhold1 ,griechische ,vasenmalerei1 text passim but especially ,i1 pp4 #ab ff41 #ai ff41 #de1 #ed1 #fh1 #hb1 #adj1 #ade ff41 #aha2 ,,ii1 pp4 #aii ff4 ,munich1 #aijd4 ,,robinson1 ,e4 ,catalogue of ,greek1 ,etruscan1 and ,roman ,vases in the ,museum of ,fine ,arts1 ,boston1 pp4 #cc ff4 ,boston and ,new ,york1 #ahic4 ,,walters1 ,h4 ,b4 ,history of ,ancient ,pottery1 ,greek1 ,etruscan1 and ,roman1 ,i1 pp4 #bjb ff4 ,london1 #aije4 ,,wheeler1 ,j4 ,r41 in ,fowler and ,wheeler1 ,greek ,archaeology1 pp4 #dbj ff4 ,new ,york1 #aiji4 ,the two following handbooks on the manufacture of modern pottery will be found useful also by students of ancient techniques3 ,,binns1 ,c4 ,f4 ,the ,potter's ,craft4 ,new ,york1 #aiaj 7second edition1 #aibb74 ,,cox1 ,g4 ,pottery for ,artisans1 ,craftsmen1 and ,teachers4 ,new ,york1 #aiad4 ,,index ,alumina1 #dg4 ,binder1 medium used as1 #af1 #dg1 #ej4 ,biscuit1 #cd-cg1 #ea4 ,blunging1 #b4 8,bone-dry10 #aa4 ,brush-case1 #gd4 ,brushes1 #dg1 #ea1 #eb1 #gj1 #ga-ge2 representations of1 #gj-gb4 ,bucchero pottery1 technique of1 #de4 ,building1 #d1 #bf-bg1 #ic-id2 coils1 #bf2 literary references to1 #ic-id2 terracotta statuette of man in act of7871 #gj2 wooden core for1 #ic-id4 ,calipers1 #ae1 #af1 #fe4 ,carbon1 #cj1 #de2 dioxide1 #cj2 monoxide1 #cj4 ,centering1 #g1 #h4 ,clay1 #a1 #bj1 #dj-dd2 color of1 #a1 #c1 #de1 #ed1 #ee1 #eh1 #hg1 #hh2 component parts of1 #a1 #hh2 ingredients of1 #a1 #ee1 #eg2 literary references to1 #hg1 #hh2 plasticity of1 #a1 #b1 #hh2 porosity of1 #a1 #ei1 #fa1 #fb2 preparation of1 #a1 #hh2 varieties of1 #dj2 vitrification of1 #a1 #bi1 #cj2 washing of1 #b1 #c4 ,color1 #cf1 #ed1 #eh1 #ei2 accessory1 #dd2 change of1 through firing1 #a1 #c1 #ca1 #cf1 #de1 #eh2 literary references to1 see ,miltos4 ,cones1 pyrometric1 #ce1 #cf4 ,decorating1 #ce1 #ci1 #db1 #dd1 #ea2 ancient representations of1 #dj1 #gj-ge4 ,design1 #ae2 before or after firing1 #cg-dd2 preliminary1 #cg1 #ci1 #eh1 #gb4 ,draught1 #cj1 #ca1 #cc1 #gf4 ,drying1 #aj1 #ba4 ,fashioning of vases1 #d-bi2 literary references to1 #hi-id4 ,finish1 #be1 #fi2 inside1 #ae2 outer surface1 #be2 under handles1 #be4 ,firing of vases1 #c1 #bi-dg1 #gi2 accidents through1 #cf1 #cg1 #dj1 #da1 #dd-dg2 length of1 #ce1 #cf2 literary references to1 #id-if2 methods of1 #cd-cf2 number of firings1 #ce1 #cg1 #da1 #db1 #dd2 temperature of1 #ce2 8twice-fired10 #ce1 #cg1 #ci4 ,foot1 #aa1 #ab1 #ag1 #ah1 #bf4 ,fuel1 #cj1 #cc1 #cd1 #fe1 #gf4 ,glaze1 #ai1 #ca1 #cd-cf1 #ci1 #dg1 #eg1 #eh1 #fa1 #fb1 #fe1 #gd1 #gh1 #hf2 application of1 #ci1 #dj-dd1 #dg-ec1 #eg1 #gb2 ,athenian1 #dh-di2 composition of1 #dg-di2 discoloration of1 #de-dg2 preparation of1 #dg2 varieties of1 #dg2 wearing qualities1 #dg-di4 ,gum tragacanth1 #dg4 ,handles1 #ai-be1 #ef1 #fj1 #fb2 attachment of1 #ai1 #ba1 #fg1 #fi2 handmade1 #bj1 #bd2 moulded1 #bj1 #bh4 ,implements1 potter's1 #aj1 #aa1 #fd1 #hd-hf4 ,incision of details1 #cg-ci4 ,jigger1 #aa4 ,joining1 #af-ai1 #bh1 #bi2 representation of1 on pinax7871 #fh1 #fi4 ,jolly1 #aa4 ,kiln1 #ba1 #cb-cg1 #da1 #dd-df1 #hf2 ancient representations of1 #cd1 #fd1 #fe1 #gf-gh2 literary references to1 #hi1 #id-if2 packing of1 #cd4 8,lagerringe10 #df4 8,lasur10 see ,miltos4 ,leather-hard1 #aj1 #af1 #be1 #cg1 #ci1 #dj1 #dd1 #ej1 #ea1 #eh1 #fe4 ,lip1 #aa1 #ab1 #bi1 #dd1 #fj4 ,metics1 as potters1 #ajj2 social standing of1 #ajj4 ,miltos1 #dg1 #ec-ei1 #fa2 as wash1 #eh1 #ei2 laws governing export of1 #if1 #ig2 literary references to1 #if-ih2 methods of applying1 #ee-eh4 ,mortar1 for crushing glaze1 #gd4 ,moulding of vases1 #bj1 #bd1 #bg-bi4 ,moulds1 #d1 #ab1 #bj1 #ba1 #bd1 #bg1 #bh1 #hf2 material of1 #bg1 #bi1 #hf4 ,oven1 see ,kiln4 ,oxidation1 #cj1 #eh4 ,oxide1 #a2 boron1 #dg2 calcium1 #a2 ferric1 #cj1 #ca1 #de1 #df2 ferrous1 #cj1 #ca1 #de1 #df1 #di4 ,painting1 #ci1 #dj1 #db1 #ea1 #gj-ge1 #ih2 brushes for1 #ea-ec1 #gj-gb1 #ge4 ,paint-pots1 #gj1 #ga1 #gd1 #ge4 ,pinax1 #fe1 #fg-fi1 #gc1 #ge-gh4 ,plaster1 #bj1 #ba1 #bf1 #bg1 #he4 ,polishing1 #ai1 #eh2 tools for1 #ai4 ,porosity1 #a1 #ei1 #fa1 #fb2 literary reference to1 #ih4 ,potter1 #ad1 #ae1 #ag-ai1 #be1 #bg1 #ca1 #dj1 #dd1 #dg1 #ed1 #ee2 ancient representations of1 #e1 #i1 #fd-gg1 #hj1 #ha2 implements of1 #aj1 #aa1 #fd1 #hd-hf2 literary references to1 #hg-aje2 8master potter10 #ge1 #hj2 miscellaneous scenes1 #gh-hd2 shop of1 #ha1 #hb2 statues of ,greek1 #ih-ajj1 #ajb-aje2 of ,roman1 #ii1 #ajb2 women as1 #ga4 ,pottery1 ancient representations of1 #fd-gj1 #ge1 #gg1 #gh2 literary references to1 #hg-ajd4 ,proportion1 #ad1 #bf1 #ei4 ,pyrometer1 #ce4 ,pyrometric cones1 #ce1 #cf4 ,red ochre1 see ,miltos4 ,reduction1 #cj1 #ca1 #de1 #df2 partial1 #ca4 8,relief0 lines1 #eb1 #ec4 ,rivets1 #ei1 #fc4 ,saggers1 #cb1 #cd4 ,satyr1 stoking oven1 #hc2 head1 to avert evil eye1 #fd1 #fe4 ,sections1 work in1 #ae-ai4 ,ship1 with pottery1 #hb1 #hc4 ,shrinkage1 #af1 #bh4 ,silicate1 #dg1 #di4 ,slip1 #b1 #aa1 #af1 #ai1 #ba1 #bg1 #bh4 ,stele1 votive1 #hj1 #ha2 8master potter10 #hj4 ,stilts1 #cd1 #he1 #hf4 ,stoking kiln1 #fe1 #gf4 ,strainer for clay1 #b2 for glaze1 #gd4 ,symmetry1 ,dynamic1 #ad4 ,temperature of firing1 #c1 #bi-cb1 #ce1 #cf1 #ee4 ,templet1 #bg4 8,test10 #dc1 #dd4 ,throwing1 #g-i1 #ab1 #bi2 ancient representations of1 #fe1 #ff2 in sections1 #ae-ai1 #fi2 literary references to1 #hh-ia2 to measurements1 #i1 #ad1 #ae4 ,turning1 #aj-ae1 #ai1 #dj1 #db2 literary references to1 #hi-ib2 tools for1 #aj-ab1 #ad1 #ah4 ,use of ,greek vases1 #ei-fc2 as ornaments1 #fj1 #fa2 as practical utensils1 #ei-fc2 as votive offerings1 #fj4 ,vases1 ,attic1 #ab1 #bg-bi1 #ed1 #eh1 #ei2 fragility of1 #ei1 #fb2 measurements of1 #ad2 porosity of1 #ei1 #fa1 #fb2 proportions of1 #ei2 value of1 #hg1 #ajj1 #aja2 wearing qualities of1 #ei1 #fb4 ,vasiliki ware1 technique of1 #de4 ,votive offerings1 #fj1 #fg1 #fh1 #gc1 #ge4 ,wedging1 #b1 #c2 literary reference to1 #hh4 ,wheel1 #d-i1 #bg1 #bi1 #ea1 #ed2 ancient representations of1 #e1 #fe-fh1 #gb1 #gc2 invention of potter's1 #bg1 #hi2 literary references to1 #hh-ia1 #ig1 #ajc2 types of1 #d-f1 #ia4 ,wheel-head1 #g1 #hd1 #he4