,handbook #aci ,craters of the ,moon ,a ,guide to ,craters of the ,moon ,national ,monument ,idaho ,division of ,publications ,national ,park ,service ,u4,s4 ,department of the ,interior ,washington1 ,d4,c4 #aiia ,illustration3 uncaptioned ,using ,this ,handbook ,craters of the ,moon ,national ,monument protects volcanic features of the ,craters of the ,moon lava field4 ,part #a of this handbook introduces the park and recounts its early exploration4 ,part #b explores how life has adapted to the park's volcanic landscape--and how people have perceived it4 ,part #c presents concise travel guide and reference materials for touring the park and for camping4 ,national ,park ,handbooks are published to support the ,national ,park ,service's management programs and to promote understanding and enjoyment of the more than #cej ,national ,park ,system sites1 which represent important examples of our country's natural and cultural inheritance4 ,each handbook is intended to be informative reading and a useful guide before1 during1 and after a park visit4 ,more than #ajj titles are in print4 ,they are sold at parks and can be purchased by mail from the ,superintendent of ,documents1 ,u4,s4 ,government ,printing ,office1 ,washington1 ,,dc #bjdjb4 ,this is handbook number #aci4 ,library of ,congress ,cataloging-in-,publication ,data ,craters of the ,moon3 ,a ,guide to ,craters of the ,moon ,national ,monument1 ,idaho_/produced by the ,division of ,publications1 ,national ,park ,service4 p4 cm4--7,official national park handbook2 #aci7 #a4 ,craters of the ,moon ,national ,monument 7,idaho7--,guidebooks4 #b4 ,geology--,idaho--,craters of the ,moon ,national ,monument--,guidebooks4 ,i4 ,united ,states ,national ,park ,service4 ,division of ,publications4 ,,ii4 ,series3 ,handbook 7,united ,states4 ,national ,park ,service4 ,division of ,publications72 #aci4 ,f#geb4;,c#g;,c#gc #aiia #iag4if'ei--;dc#bj #hi-acfgj;,,cip ,,isbn #j-iabfbg-dd-a ,part #a ,welcome to ,craters of the ,moon #d ,rift ,volcanism on the ,snake ,river ,plain #g ,part #b ,from ,moonscape to ,landscape #bj ,geology of the ,craters of the ,moon #bc ,life ,adapts to a ,volcanic ,landscape #ce ,indians1 ,early ,explorers1 and ,practicing ,astronauts #dg ,part #c ,guide and ,adviser #eb ,approaching ,craters of the ,moon #ed ,visitor ,center and ,programs #ef ,map #eh ,take the ,driving ,tour #ei ,camping and ,backcountry ,use #fj ,winter ,recreation #fa ,regulations and ,safety #fb ,nearby ,attractions #fc ,armchair ,explorations #fd ,part #a ,welcome to ,craters of the ,moon ,illustration3 uncaptioned ,illustration3 ,rock or rope8 ,folds of lava rock look like coils of irregular rope4 ,lava flows of this type are known as pahoehoe1 a ,hawaiian word pronounced pah-hoy-hoy and meaning ropey4 ,rift ,volcanism on the ,snake ,river ,plain ,light playing on cobalt blue lavas of the ,blue ,dragon ,flows caught the inner eye of explorer ,robert ,limbert3 8,it is the play of light at sunset across this lava that charms the spectator4 ,it becomes a twisted1 wavy sea4 ,in the moonlight its glazed surface has a silvery sheen4 ,with changing conditions of light and air1 it varies also1 even while one stands and watches4 ,it is a place of color and silence44440 ,limbert explored the ,craters of the ,moon lava field in ,idaho in the #aibjs and wrote those words for a #aibd issue of ,national ,geographic ,magazine4 8,for several years ,i had listened to stories told by fur trappers of the strange things they had seen while ranging in this region10 wrote ,limbert1 a sometime taxidermist1 tanner1 and furrier from ,boise1 ,idaho4 8,some of these accounts seemed beyond belief40 ,to ,limbert it seemed extraordinary 8,that a region of such size and scenic peculiarity1 in the heart of the great ,northwest1 could have remained practically unknown and unexplored44440 ,on his third and most ambitious trek1 in #aibd1 ,limbert and ,w4 ,c4 ,cole were at times left speechless by the lava landscape they explored4 ,limbert recounted his impressions in magazine and newspaper articles whose publication was influential in the area's being protected under federal ownership4 ,in #aibd1 part of the lava field was proclaimed as ,craters of the ,moon ,national ,monument1 protected under the ,antiquities ,act4 ,it was created 8to preserve the unusual and weird volcanic formations40 ,the boundary has been adjusted and the park enlarged since then4 ,in #aigj1 a large part of the national monument was designated by ,congress as the ,craters of the ,moon ,wilderness4 ,it is further protected under the ,national ,wilderness ,preservation ,system4 ,until #aihf1 little was known about ,limbert except for those facts recounted above4 ,that year1 however1 a researcher compiling a history of the national monument located ,limbert's daughter in ,boise4 ,the daughter still possessed hundreds of items1 including early glass plate negatives1 photographs1 and manuscripts of her father and that shed more light on his life1 the early days of ,idaho1 and ,craters of the ,moon4 ,some of these photographs served as blueprints for the ,national ,park ,service in the rehabilitation of fragile spatter cone formations that have deteriorated over the years of heavy human traffic4 ,the ,limbert collection has been fully cataloged by ,boise ,state ,university curators and has already proven to be a valuable resource to historians interested in ,limbert and this fascinating part of ,idaho4 ,preservation of the area owes much to ,limbert's imaginative advocacy in the true spirit of the ,west in its earlier days4 ,local legends1 beginning in the late #ahjjs1 held that this area resembled the surface of the moon1 on which--it must now be remembered--no one had then walked6 ,geologist ,harold ,t4 ,stearns first used the name ,craters of the ,moon when he suggested to the ,national ,park ,service1 in #aibc1 that a national monument be established here4 ,stearns found 8the dark craters and the cold lava1 nearly destitute of vegetation0 similar to 8the surface of the moon as seen through a telescope40 ,the name ,craters of the ,moon would stick after ,limbert adopted it in ,national ,geographic ,magazine in #aibd4 ,later that year the name became official when the area was set aside by ,president ,calvin ,coolidge as a national monument under the ,antiquities ,act4 ,like some other areas in the ,national ,park ,system1 ,craters of the ,moon has lived to see the name that its early explorers affixed to it proved somewhat erroneous by subsequent events or findings4 ,when ,stearns and ,limbert called this lava field ,craters of the ,moon1 probably few persons other than science fiction buffs actually thought that human beings might one day walk on the moon and see firsthand what its surface is like4 ,people have now walked on the moon1 however1 and we know that its surface does not1 in fact1 closely resemble this part of ,idaho4 ,although there are some volcanic features on the surface of the moon1 most of its craters were formed by the impact of meteorites colliding with the moon4 ,moonscape or not1 early fur trappers avoided the lava flows along the base of the ,pioneer ,mountains at the north of today's park4 ,in doing so1 they followed ,indian trails such as one found by ,limbert that 8resembled a light streak winding through the lava4 ,when the sun was directly overhead it could be seen to advantage1 but at times was difficult to follow4 ,think of the years of travel10 ,limbert marveled1 8necessary to make that mark on rock60 ,at least one ,indian trail was destined to become part of ,goodale's ,cutoff1 an alternative route on the ,oregon ,trail that pioneers in wagon trains used in the #ahejs and #ahfjs4 ,many adjectives early used for this scene--weird1 barren1 exciting1 awe-inspiring1 monotonous1 astonishing1 curious1 bleak1 mysterious--still apply4 ,it is not difficult today to see why pioneering folk intent on wresting a living from the land did not tackle this volcanic terrain4 ,geologists possessed the proper motivation to tackle it1 however4 ,curiosity aroused by this lava field has led several generations of geologists1 beginning with ,israel ,c4 ,russell in #aija and ,harold ,t4 ,stearns in the #aibjs1 into a deeper understanding of its volcanic origins4 ,with ever increasing penetration of its geological history1 the apparent otherworldliness of ,craters of the ,moon has retreated--but not entirely4 ,the ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration 7,,nasa7 brought the second set of astronauts who would walk on the moon to this alien corner of the galaxy before their moonshot4 ,here they studied the volcanic rock and explored an unusual1 harsh1 and unforgiving environment before embarking on their own otherworldly adventure4 ,most types of volcanic features in the park can be seen quite readily by first stopping at the visitor center and then driving the ,loop ,road4 ,far more features can be seen if you also walk the interpretive trails at the stops along the ,loop ,road4 ,still more await those who invest the time required to come to feel the mysterious timelessness and raw natural force implicit in this expansive lava field4 ,many travelers are en route to ,yellowstone ,national ,park and spend only a couple of hours visiting ,craters of the ,moon4 ,this is ironic because here you are on the geological track of ,yellowstone4 ,in fact1 ,craters of the ,moon represents what ,yellowstone's landscape will resemble in the future1 and both areas can supplement your insight into what happens when the ,earth's unimaginable inner forces erupt to its surface4 ,illustration3 ,silvery leaves of the buckwheat dot a cinder garden with such regular spacing they almost look planted4 ,such spacing results from the shortage of available surface water3 ,each plant controls with its roots the space surrounding it1 discouraging competing plants4 ,rainwater and snowmelt penetrate volcanic cinders so readily that their moisture quickly drops beyond reach of most plants' root systems4 ,for a close-up view of a buckwheat1 see page #cf4 ,although ,idaho is famous for forests1 rivers1 and scenic mountain wilderness1 its ,snake ,river ,plain region boasts little of these attributes4 ,this plain arcs across southern ,idaho from the ,oregon border to the ,yellowstone area at the ,montana-,wyoming border4 ,it marks the trail of the passage of the ,earth's crust over an unusual geologic heat source that now brings the ,earth's incendiary inner workings so close to its surface near ,yellowstone4 ,this heat source fuels ,yellowstone's bubbling1 spewing1 spouting geothermal wonders4 ,craters of the ,moon therefore stands as a geologic prelude to ,yellowstone1 as its precursor and the ancestral stuff of its fiery secrets4 ,when did all this volcanism at ,craters of the ,moon happen8 ,will it happen again8 ,according to ,mel ,kuntz and other ,u4,s4 ,geological ,survey geologists who have conducted extensive field research at ,craters of the ,moon1 the volcanic activity forming the ,craters of the ,moon lava field probably started only #ae1jjj years ago4 ,the last eruption in the volcanic cycle ended #b1jjj years ago1 about the time that ,julius ,caesar ruled the ,roman ,empire4 ,craters of the ,moon is a dormant1 but not extinct1 volcanic area4 ,its sleeping volcanoes could become active again in the near future4 ,the largest earthquake of the last quarter century in the contiguous ,united ,states shook ,idaho's tallest mountain1 ,borah ,peak1 just north of here in #aihc4 ,when it did1 some geologists wondered if it might initiate volcanic activity at ,craters of the ,moon4 ,it did not4 ,according to ,kuntz1 however1 this is no reason not to expect another volcanic eruption here soon--probably 8within the next #a1jjj years40 ,part ,two of this handbook explores the still young and rapidly evolving understanding of the fascinating geologic story of ,craters of the ,moon4 ,today's ,craters of the ,moon ,national ,monument encompasses #hc square miles of the much larger ,craters of the ,moon lava field4 ,reaching southeastward from the ,pioneer ,mountains1 the park boundary encloses a series of fissure vents1 volcanic cones1 and lava flows known as the ,great ,rift volcanic zone4 ,this volcanic rift zone is a line of weakness in the ,earth's crust that can be traced for some #fj miles across the ,snake ,river ,plain4 ,recent volcanism marks much of its length4 ,you can explore the ,great ,rift and some of its volcanic features via the park's #g-mile ,loop ,drive1 as described in ,part ,three of this handbook4 ,in the park's northern part you will find spatter cones1 cinder cones1 lava flows1 lava caves1 and an unexpected variety of wildflowers1 shrubs1 trees1 and wild animals4 ,the much larger southern part of the park1 designated by ,congress in #aigj as the ,craters of the ,moon ,wilderness ,area1 is a vast and largely untraveled region of stark volcanic features flanking the ,great ,rift4 ,it offers a challenge to serious hikers and explorers--latter day ,robert ,limberts--who are prepared for rugged wilderness travel4 ,despite its seeming barrenness1 ,craters of the ,moon is indeed home to a surprising diversity of plant and animal life4 ,as ,limbert noted in #aibd3 8,in the ,west the term #8,lava ,beds of ,idaho' has always signified a region to be shunned by even the most venturesome travelers--a land supposedly barren of vegetation1 destitute of water1 devoid of animal life1 and lacking in scenic interest4 8,in reality the region has slight resemblance to its imagined aspect4 ,its vegetation is mostly hidden in pockets1 but when found consists of pines1 cedars1 junipers1 and sagebrush3 its water is hidden deep in tanks or holes at the bottom of large #8blow-outs' and is found only by following old ,indian or mountain sheep trails or by watching the flight of birds as they drop into these places to quench their thirst4 ,the animal life consists principally of migrant birds1 rock rabbits1 woodchucks1 black and grizzly bears3 its scenery is impressive in its grandeur40 ,years of patient record-keeping by scientists have fit numbers to ,limbert's perceptive observations4 ,the number of species identified includes more than #cjj plants1 #b1jjj insects1 #h reptiles1 #adj birds1 #cj mammals--and one amphibian1 the western toad4 ,we now call ,limbert's 8rock rabbit0 the pika4 ,the grizzly is long gone here4 ,with few exceptions1 the park's denizens live mostly under conditions of great environmental stress4 ,near constant winds1 breeze-to-gale in strength1 sweep across the park to rob moisture from all living things4 ,scant soils1 low levels of precipitation1 the inability of cinder cones to hold rainwater near the surface1 and the heat of the summer sun--intensified by heat-absorbing black lavas--only aggravate such moisture theft4 ,cinder surfaces register summer soil temperatures of over #aej;,f and show a lack of plant cover4 ,plants cover generally less than #e percent of the total surface of the cinder cones4 ,a recent study found that when the area is looked at on a parkwide basis1 most of the land is very sparsely vegetated 7less than #ae percent vegetative cover74 ,on a scale of sand trap to putting green1 this would approach the sand trap end of the scale4 ,illustration3 ,winter snow transforms these landscapes1 smoothing out both contours and the jagged edges of lavas4 ,less lunar in appearance now1 the park nonetheless maintains an otherworldly aura4 ,illustration3 ,the park was named in #aibd1 #de years before humans walked on the ,moon4 ,although we now know more about the ,moon's actual surface1 the park's name still rings true4 ,only a few trees immediately suggest that the large photo was taken on ,earth4 ,in the inset photo1 astronaut ,edwin ,e4 8,buzz0 ,aldrin walks on the ,moon near the lunar module4 ,into this difficult environment wildlife researcher ,brad ,griffith ventured to count1 mark1 and scrutinize the mule deer of ,craters of the ,moon in ,may #aihj4 ,griffith1 of the ,university of ,idaho1 conducted a three-year study of the park's mule deer population because the ,national ,park ,service was concerned that this protected and productive herd might multiply so much that it would eventually damage its habitat4 ,among other things1 he would find that the herd has developed a drought evasion strategy that makes it behave unlike any mule deer population known anywhere else4 8,by late summer10 ,griffith explains1 8plants have matured and dried so that they no longer provide adequate moisture to sustain the deer in this landscape that offers them no free water4 ,following about #ab days of warm nights and hot days in late ,july1 the deer migrate from #e to #aj miles north to the ,pioneer ,mountains4 ,there they find free-flowing creeks and the cool1 moist shade of aspen and ,douglas-fir groves and wait out summer's worst heat and dryness4 ,early fall rains trigger the deer's return to the park's wilderness from this oasis in late ,september to feed on the nutritious bitterbrush until ,november snowfalls usher them back to their winter range40 ,the pristine and high-quality forage of the ,craters of the ,moon ,wilderness ,area1 historically nearly untouched by domestic livestock grazing1 has inspired this migratory strategy for evading drought4 ,in effect1 the mule deer make use of a dual summer range1 a behavioral modification unknown elsewhere for their species4 8,their late summer and fall adaptations simply complete the mule deer's yearlong strategy for coping with the limits that this volcanic landscape imposes on them10 ,griffith explains4 ,taking a walk in the park on a mid-summer afternoon gives you a good opportunity to experience the influence of wind1 heat1 and lack of moisture4 ,the park's winds are particularly striking4 ,the lava that has flowed out of the ,great ,rift has built up and raised the land surface in the park to a higher elevation than its surroundings so that it intercepts the prevailing southwesterly winds4 ,afternoon winds usually die down in the evening4 ,as part of the dynamics of temperature and moisture that determine mule deer behavior1 this daily wind cycle helps explain why they are more active at night than are mule deer elsewhere4 ,these deer do not move around as much as mule deer in less ecologically trying areas4 ,they have adapted behaviors to conserve energy and moisture in this environmentally stressful landscape4 ,early mornings may find park rangers climbing up a cinder cone to count the deer1 continuing the collection of data that ,brad ,griffith set in motion with his three-year study4 ,the rangers still conduct spring and late summer censuses3 over a recent three-year period the deer populations averaged about #dbj animals4 ,another several years of collecting will give the ,national ,park ,service a body of data on the mule deer that is available nowhere else4 ,the uniqueness of this data about the park's mule deer population would surely please the booster aspect of ,robert ,limbert's personality4 ,likewise1 the research challenges involved in obtaining it would appeal to his explorer self4 ,history has justified ,limbert on both counts4 ,publicity arising from his explorations led to creation of the national monument4 ,furthermore1 that publicity put forth a rather heady claim that history has also unequivocally borne out3 8,although almost totally unknown at present10 ,limbert prophesied in #aibd1 8this section is destined some day to attract tourists from all ,america44440 ,every year tens of thousands of travelers fulfill ,robert ,limbert's prophecy of more than a half-century ago4 ,part #b ,from ,moonscape to ,landscape ,illustration3 uncaptioned ,illustration3 ,what last happened here about #b1jjj years ago looked much like this photograph of a volcanic eruption in ,hawaii4 ,bubbling1 pooling1 and flowing lava blanketed the landscape as molten materials poured or gushed out of the ,earth4 ,most volcanic phenomena preserved at ,craters of the ,moon have been seen in action in ,hawaii4 ,geology of the ,craters of the ,moon ,a #djj-mile-long arc known as the ,snake ,river ,plain cuts a swath from #cj to #abe miles wide across southern ,idaho4 ,idaho's official state highway map1 which depicts mountains with shades of green1 shows this arc as white because there is comparatively little variation here compared to most of the state4 ,upon this plain1 immense amounts of lava from within the ,earth have been deposited by volcanic activity dating back more than #ad million years4 ,however1 some of these lavas1 notably those at ,craters of the ,moon ,national ,monument1 emerged from the ,earth as recently as #b1jjj years ago4 ,craters of the ,moon contains some of the best examples of basaltic volcanism in the world4 ,to understand what happened here1 you must understand the ,snake ,river ,plain4 ,basaltic and ,rhyolitic ,lavas4 ,the lavas deposited on the ,snake ,river ,plain were mainly of two types classified as basaltic and rhyolitic4 ,magma1 the molten rock material beneath the surface of the ,earth1 issues from a volcano as lava4 ,the composition of this fluid rock material varies4 ,basaltic lavas are composed of magma originating at the boundary of the ,earth's mantle and its crustal layer4 ,rhyolitic lavas originate from crustal material4 ,to explain its past1 geologists now divide the ,snake ,river ,plain into eastern and western units4 ,the following geologic story relates to the eastern ,snake ,river ,plain1 on which ,craters of the ,moon lies4 ,on the eastern ,snake ,river ,plain1 basaltic and rhyolitic lavas formed in two different stages of volcanic activity4 ,younger basaltic lavas mostly lie atop older rhyolitic lavas4 ,this portion of the plain runs from north of ,twin ,falls eastward to the ,yellowstone area on the ,wyoming-,montana border4 ,drilling to depths of almost #b miles near the plain's midline1 geologists found mile of basaltic lava flows lying atop more than #a miles of rhyolitic lava flows4 ,how much deeper the rhyolitic lavas may extend is not known4 ,no one has drilled deeper here4 ,illustration3 ,crossing ,idaho in an arc1 the ,snake ,river ,plain marks the path of the ,earth's crustal plate as it migrates over a heat source unusually close to the surface4 ,it is believed that the heat source fueling ,yellowstone's thermal features today is essentially the same one that produced volcanic episodes at ,craters of the ,moon ending about #b1jjj years ago4 ,this combination--a thinner layer of younger basaltic lavas lying atop an older and thicker layer of rhyolitic lavas--is typical of volcanic activity associated with an unusual heat phenomenon inside the ,earth that some geologists have described as a mantle plume4 ,the mantle plume theory was developed in the early #aigjs as an explanation for the creation of the ,hawaiian ,islands4 ,according to the theory1 uneven heating within the ,earth's core allows some material in the overlying mantle to become slightly hotter than surrounding material4 ,as its temperature increases1 its density decreases4 ,thus it becomes relatively buoyant and rises through the cooler materials--like a tennis ball released underwater--toward the ,earth's crust4 ,when this molten material reaches the crust it eventually melts and pushes itself through the crust and it erupts onto the ,earth's surface as molten lava4 ,the ,earth's crust is made up of numerous plates that float upon an underlying mantle layer4 ,therefore1 over time1 the presence of an unusual heat source created by a mantle plume will be expressed at the ,earth's surface--floating in a constant direction above it--as a line of volcanic eruptions4 ,the ,snake ,river ,plain records the progress of the ,north ,american crustal plate--#cej miles in #ae million years--over a heat source now located below ,yellowstone4 ,the ,hawaiian chain of islands marks a similar line4 ,because the mechanisms that cause this geologic action are not well understood1 many geologists refer to this simply as a heat source rather than a mantle plume4 ,two ,stages of ,volcanism4 ,as described above1 volcanic eruptions associated with this heat source occur in two stages1 rhyolitic and basaltic4 ,as the upwelling magma from the mantle collects in a chamber as it enters the ,earth's lower crust1 its heat begins to melt the surrounding crustal rock4 ,since this rock contains a large amount of silica1 it forms a thick and pasty rhyolitic magma4 ,rhyolitic magma is lighter than the overlying crustal rocks1 therefore1 it begins to rise and form a second magma chamber very close to the ,earth's surface4 ,as more and more of this gas-charged rhyolitic magma collects in this upper crustal chamber1 the gas pressure builds to a point at which the magma explodes through the ,earth's crust4 ,explosive ,rhyolitic ,volcanism4 ,rhyolitic explosions tend to be devastating4 ,when the gas-charged molten material reaches the surface of the ,earth1 the gas expands rapidly1 perhaps as much as #be to #ge times by volume4 ,the reaction is similar to the bubbles that form in a bottle of soda pop that has been shaken4 ,you can shake the container and the pressure-bottled liquid will retain its volume as long as the cap is tightly sealed4 ,release the pressure by removing the bottle cap1 however1 and the soft drink will spray all over the room and occupy a volume of space far larger than the bottle from which it issued4 ,this initial vast spray is then followed by a foaming action as the less gas-charged liquid now bubbles out of the bottle4 ,collectively1 the numerous rhyolitic explosions that occurred on the ,snake ,river ,plain ejected hundreds of cubic miles of material into the atmosphere and onto the ,earth's surface4 ,in contrast1 the eruption of ,mount ,saint ,helens in #aihj1 which killed #fe people and devastated #aej square miles of forest1 produced less than #a cubic mile of ejected material4 ,so much material was ejected in the massive rhyolitic explosions in the ,snake ,river ,plain that the ,earth's surface collapsed to form huge depressions known as calderas4 7,like caldron1 whose root meaning it shares1 this name implies both bowl-shaped and warmed47 ,most evidence of these gigantic explosive volcanoes in the ,snake ,river ,plain has been covered by subsequent flows of basaltic lava4 ,however1 traces of rhyolitic eruptions are found along the margins of the plain and in the ,yellowstone area4 ,quiet ,outpourings of ,basaltic ,lava4 ,as this area of the ,earth's crust passed over and then beyond the sub-surface heat source1 the explosive volcanism of the rhyolitic stage ceased4 ,the heat contained in the ,earth's upper mantle and crust1 however1 remained and continued to produce upwelling magma4 ,this was basaltic magma that1 because it contained less silica than rhyolite1 was very fluid4 ,the basalt1 like the rhyolite1 collected in isolated magma chambers within the crust until pressures built up to force it to the surface through various cracks and fissures4 ,these weak spots in the ,earth's crust were the results of earlier geologic activity1 expansion of the magma chamber1 or the formation of a rift zone4 ,illustration3 ,microscopic cross section of basaltic rock4 ,illustration3 ,microscopic cross section of rhyolitic rock4 ,cross sections show vastly different textures4 ,rhyolitic magma contains more silica2 it is very thick and does not allow trapped gas to escape easily4 ,its volcanic eruptions blast large craters in the ,earth's crust4 ,basaltic magma is more fluid and allows gas to escape readily4 ,it erupts more gently4 ,here in the eastern ,snake ,river ,plain1 basaltic lava flows almost completely cover earlier rhyolitic deposits4 7continued on page #bh7 ,identifying the ,lava ,flows ,at ,craters of the ,moon the black rocks are lava flows4 ,the surface lava rocks1 basaltic in composition1 formed from magma originating deep in the ,earth4 ,they are named for their appearances3 ,pahoehoe 7pronounced 8pah-hoy-hoy0 and meaning 8ropey071 ,aa 7pronounced 8ah-ah0 and meaning 8rough071 or ,blocky4 ,geologists have seen how these flows behave in modern volcanic episodes in ,hawaii and elsewhere4 ,illustration3 ,pahoehoe lava ,pahoehoe ,more than half the park is covered by pahoehoe lava flows4 ,rivers of molten rock1 they harden quickly to a relatively smooth surface1 billowly1 hummocky1 or flat4 ,other pahoehoe formations resemble coiled1 heavy rope or ice jams4 ,illustration3 ,aa lava ,aa ,aa flows are far more rugged than pahoehoe flows4 ,most occur when a pahoehoe flow cools1 thickens1 and then turns into aa4 ,often impassable to those traveling afoot1 aa flows quickly chew up hiking boots4 ,blocky lava is a variety of aa lava whose relatively large silica content makes it thick and often dense1 glassy1 and smooth4 ,illustration3 ,blocky lava ,bombs ,lava pieces blown out of craters may solidify in flight4 ,they are classed by shape3 spindle1 ribbon1 and breadcrust4 ,bombs range from inch to more than #c feet long4 ,tree ,molds ,when molten lava advances on a living forest1 resulting tree molds may record impressions of charred surfaces of trees in the lava4 ,illustration3 ,blue ,dragon ,flows lava ,illustration3 ,breadcrust bomb ,illustration3 ,spindle bomb ,illustration3 ,wood-like lava ,illustration3 ,tree mold ,illustration3 ,lava river ,illustration3 ,mt4 ,st4 ,helens erupts in #aihj4 ,because the lava contained a large amount of silica1 its explosive eruption contrasts sharply with recent basaltic flows in volcanic activity in ,hawaii4 ,illustration3 ,basaltic flows in ,hawaii4 ,upon reaching the surface1 the gases contained within the lava easily escaped and produced rather mild eruptions4 ,instead of exploding into the air like earlier rhyolitic activity1 the more fluid basaltic lava flooded out onto the surrounding landscape4 ,these flows were fairly extensive and often covered many square miles4 ,after millions of years1 most of the older rhyolitic deposits have been covered by these basaltic lava flows4 ,the ,great ,rift and ,craters of the ,moon4 ,craters of the ,moon ,national ,monument lies along a volcanic rift zone4 ,rift zones occur where the ,earth's crust is being pulled in opposite directions4 ,geologists believe that the interactions of the ,earth's crustal plates in the vicinity of the ,snake ,river ,plain have stretched1 thinned1 and weakened the ,earth's crust so that cracks have formed both on and below the surface here4 ,magma under pressure can follow these cracks and fissures to the surface4 ,while there are many volcanic rift zones throughout the ,snake ,river ,plain1 the most extensive is the ,great ,rift that runs through ,craters of the ,moon4 ,the ,great ,rift is approximately #fj miles long and it ranges in width from #a to #e miles4 ,it is marked by short cracks--less than #a mile in length--and the alignment of more than #be volcanic cinder cones4 ,it is the site of origin for more than #fj different lava flows that make up the ,craters of the ,moon ,lava ,field4 ,eight ,major ,eruptive ,periods4 ,most of the lavas exposed at ,craters of the ,moon formed between #b1jjj and #ae1jjj years ago in basaltic eruptions that comprise the second stage of volcanism associated with the mantle plume theory4 ,these eight eruptive periods each lasted about #a1jjj years or less and were separated by periods of relative calm that lasted for a few hundred to more than #b1jjj years4 ,these sequences of eruptions and calm periods are caused by the alternating build up and release of magmatic pressure inside the ,earth4 ,once an eruption releases this pressure1 time is required for it to build up again4 ,eruptions have been dated by two methods3 paleomagnetic and radiocarbon dating4 ,paleomagnetic dating compares the alignment of magnetic minerals within the rock of flows with past orientations of the ,earth's magnetic fields4 ,radiocarbon dating makes use of radioactive carbon-#ad in charcoal created from vegetation that is overrun by lava flows4 ,dates obtained by both methods are considered to be accurate to within about #ajj years4 ,a ,typical ,eruption at ,craters of the ,moon4 ,research at the monument and observations of similar eruptions in ,hawaii and ,iceland suggest the following scenario for a typical eruption at ,craters of the ,moon4 ,various forces combine to cause a section of the ,great ,rift to pull apart4 ,when the forces that tend to pull the ,earth's crust apart are combined with the forces created as magma accumulates1 the crust becomes weakened and cracks form4 ,as the magma rises buoyantly within these cracks1 the pressure exerted on it is reduced and the gases within the magma begin to expand4 ,as gas continues to expand1 the magma becomes frothy4 ,at first the lava is very fluid and charged with gas4 ,eruptions begin as a long line of fountains that reach heights of #a1jjj feet or less and are up to a mile in length4 ,this 8curtain of fire eruption0 mainly produces cinders and frothy1 fluid lava4 ,after hours or days1 the expansion of gases decreases and eruptions become less violent4 ,segments of the fissure seal off and eruptions become smaller and more localized4 ,cinders thrown up in the air now build piles around individual vents and form cinder cones4 ,with further reductions in the gas content of the magma1 the volcanic activity again changes4 ,huge outpourings of lava are pumped out of the various fissures or the vents of cinder cones and form lava flows4 ,lava flows may form over periods of months or possibly a few years4 ,long-term eruptions of lava flows from a single vent become the source of most of the material produced during a sustained eruption4 ,as gas pressure falls and magma is depleted1 flows subside4 ,finally1 all activity stops4 ,when ,will the ,next ,eruption ,occur8 ,craters of the ,moon is not an extinct volcanic area4 ,it is merely in a dormant stage of its eruptive sequence4 ,by dating the lava flow1 geologists have shown that the volcanic activity along the ,great ,rift has been persistent over the last #ae1jjj years1 occurring approximately every #b1jjj years4 ,because the last eruptions took place about #b1jjj years ago1 geologists believe that eruptions are due here again--probably within the next #a1jjj years4 ,illustration3 ,from the air the ,great ,rift looks like an irregularly dashed line punctuated by tell-tale cones and craters4 ,illustration3 ,chainlike1 the ,hawaiian group of islands traces the migration of ,earth's crustal plate over an unusual undersea heat source4 ,the ,hawaiian chain of islands and the ,snake ,river ,plain map similar happenings4 7continued on page #cd7 ,indian ,tunnel ,illustration3 uncaptioned ,indian ,tunnel looks like a cave1 but it is a lava tube4 ,when a pahoehoe lava flow is exposed to the air1 its surface begins to cool and harden4 ,a crust or skin develops4 ,as the flow moves away from its source1 the crust thickens and forms an insulating barrier between cool air and molten material in the flow's interior4 ,a rigid roof now exists over the stream of lava whose molten core moves forward at a steady pace4 ,as the flow of lava from the source vent is depleted1 the level of lava within the molten core gradually begins to drop4 ,the flowing interior then pulls away from the hardening roof above and slowly drains away and out4 ,the roof and last remnants of the lava river inside it cool and harden1 leaving a tube4 ,illustration3 ,lava tube ,illustration3 ,great horned owl ,many lava tubes make up the ,indian ,tunnel ,lava ,tube ,system4 ,these tubes formed during the same eruption within a single lava flow whose source was a fissure or crack in the ,big ,craters_/,spatter ,cones area4 ,a tremendous amount of lava was pumped out here1 forming the ,blue ,dragon ,flows4 7,hundreds of tiny crystals on its surface produce the color blue when light strikes them47 ,lava forced through the roof of the tube system formed huge ponds whose surfaces cooled and began to harden4 ,later these ponds collapsed as lava drained back into the lava tubes4 ,big ,sink is the largest of these collapses4 ,blue ,dragon ,flows cover an area of more than #ajj square miles4 ,hidden beneath are miles of lava tubes1 but collapsed roof sections called skylights provide entry to only a small part of the system4 ,only time1 with the collapse of more roofs1 will reveal the total extent of the system4 ,illustration3 ,icicles 7ice stalactites7 ,illustration3 ,lava stalactites ,stalactites ,dripped from hot ceilings1 lava forms stalactites that hang from above4 ,mineral deposits ,sulfate compounds formed on many lava tube ceilings from volcanic gases or by evaporation of matter leached from rocks above4 ,ice ,in spring1 ice stalactites form on cave ceilings and walls4 ,ice stalagmites form on the cave floor4 ,summer heat destroys these features4 ,wildlife ,lava tube beetles1 bushy-tailed woodrats 7packrats71 and bats live in some dark caves4 ,violet-green swallows1 great horned owls1 and ravens may use wall cracks and shelves of well-lit caves for nesting sites4 ,cinder ,cones and ,spatter ,cones ,illustration3 uncaptioned ,illustration3 ,cinder cone ,illustration3 ,spatter cone ,cinder ,cones ,when volcanic eruptions of fairly moderate strength throw cinders into the air1 cinder cones may be built up4 ,these cone-shaped hills are usually truncated1 looking as though their tops were sliced off4 ,usually1 a bowl- or funnel-shaped crater will form inside the cone4 ,cinders1 which cooled rapidly while falling through the air1 are highly porous with gas vesicles1 like bubbles4 ,cinder cones hundreds of feet high may be built in a few days4 ,big ,cinder ,butte is a cinder cone4 ,at #gjj feet high it is the tallest cone in the park4 ,the shape develops because the largest fragments1 and in fact most of the fragments1 fall closest to the vent4 ,the angle of slope is usually about #cj degrees4 ,some cinder cones1 such as ,north ,crater1 the ,watchman1 and ,sheep ,trail ,butte1 were built by more than one eruptive episode4 ,younger lava was added to them as a vent was rejuvenated4 ,if strong winds prevailed during a cinder cone's formation1 the cone may be elongated--in the direction the wind was blowing--rather than circular4 ,grassy1 ,paisley1 ,sunset1 and ,inferno ,cones are elongated to the east because the dominant winds in this area come from the west4 ,the northernmost section of the ,great ,rift contains the most cinder cones for three reasons3 #a4 ,there were more eruptions at that end of the rift4 #b4 ,the lavas erupted there were thicker1 resulting in more explosive eruptions4 7,they are more viscous because they contain more silica47 #c4 ,large amounts of groundwater may have been present at the northern boundary of the lavas and when it came in contact with magma it generated huge amounts of steam4 ,all of these conditions lead to more extensive and more explosive eruptions that tend to create cinder cones rather than lava flows4 ,spatter ,cones ,when most of its gas content has dissipated1 lava becomes less frothy and more tacky4 ,then it is tossed out of the vent as globs or clots of lava paste called spatter4 ,the clots partially weld together to build up spatter cones4 ,spatter cones are typically much smaller than cinder cones1 but they may have steeper sides4 ,the ,spatter ,cones area of the park 7,stop #e on the map of the ,loop ,drive7 contains one of the most perfect spatter-cone chains in the world4 ,these cones are all less than #ej feet high and less than #ajj feet in diameter4 ,illustration3 ,lichens often pioneer new life on ,earth4 ,two plants in one1 lichens are composed of an alga and a fungus growing together to their mutual benefit1 usually on rock4 ,hardy and slow-growing1 lichens help break down rock to soil-building mineral matter4 ,eventually their vegetable matter decays1 helping to form the first soils that other plants can then use4 ,tough in the extreme1 some lichens can be heated to high temperatures and still be capable of resuming normal growth when returned to viable conditions4 ,life ,adapts to a ,volcanic ,landscape ,two thousand years after volcanic eruptions subsided1 plants and animals still struggle to gain toeholds on this unforgiving lava field4 ,much of the world's vegetation could not survive here at all4 ,environmental stresses created by scant soil and minimal moisture are compounded by highly porous cinders that are incapable of holding water near the ground surface where plants and other organisms can make ready use of it4 ,scarce at best--total average precipitation is between #ae to #bj inches per year--rainwater and snowmelt quickly slip down out of reach of the plants growing on cinder cones4 ,summer's hot1 dry winds rob moisture from all living things exposed to them4 ,whisking across leaves and needles the winds carry away moisture precious to plant tissues4 ,on the side of a cinder cone1 summer day temperatures at ground level can be more than #aej;,f4 ,the secret to survival here is adaptation4 ,most life forms cope by strategies of either resisting or evading the extremes of this semi-arid climate4 ,to resist being robbed of moisture by winds and heat1 a plant may feature very small leaves that minimize moisture loss4 ,to evade heat1 wind1 and aridity1 another plant may grow inside a crevice that provides life-giving shade and collects precious moisture and soil particles4 ,another plant may spend about #ie percent of the year dormant4 ,it may rush through the germination1 sprouting1 leafing out1 blooming1 and fruiting stages and return to the dormancy of its seed stage in just two weeks4 ,the dwarf buckwheat has adapted to life on porous cinders by evolving a root system that may spread out for up to #c feet to support its aboveground part1 which is a mere #d inches high4 ,this buckwheat only looks like a dwarf because you can not see its roots4 7continued on page #dj7 ,plants ,adapt to a ,volcanic ,landscape ,illustration3 uncaptioned ,water is the limiting factor in plant growth and reproduction both on the lava fields of ,craters of the ,moon and on the surrounding sagebrush steppe4 ,plants have developed a combination of adaptations to cope with drought conditions4 ,there are three major strategies3 #a4 ,drought tolerance ,physiological adaptations leading to drought tolerance are typical of desert plant species4 ,the tissues of some plants can withstand extreme dehydration without suffering permanent cell damage4 ,some plants can extract water from very dry soils4 ,sagebrush and antelope bitterbrush exemplify drought tolerance4 ,illustration3 ,dwarf monkeyflower ,illustration3 ,buckwheat #b4 ,drought avoidance ,certain structural modifications can enable plants to retain or conserve water4 ,common adaptations of this type include small leaves1 hairiness1 and succulence4 ,the small leaves of the antelope bitterbrush expose less area to evaporative influences such as heat and wind4 ,hairs on the scorpionweed reduce surface evaporation by inhibiting air flow and reflecting sunlight4 ,succulent plants such as pricklypear cactus have tissues that can store water for use during drought periods4 ,other plants1 such as wire lettuce1 avoid drought by having very little leaf surface compared to their overall volume4 #c4 ,drought escape ,some plants1 such as mosses and ferns1 escape drought by growing near persistent water supplies such as natural potholes and seeps from ice caves4 ,many other drought escapers1 such as dwarf monkeyflower1 simply carry out their full life cycle during the moist time of the year4 ,the rest of the year they survive in seed form4 ,illustration3 ,pricklypear cactus ,illustration3 ,ferns ,plant ,microhabitats ,illustration3 uncaptioned ,lava flows ,most plants cannot grow on lava flows until enough soil has accumulated to support them4 ,the park's older volcanic landscapes1 where soils are best developed1 are clothed with sagebrush-grassland vegetation4 ,on younger lava flows1 bits of soil first accumulate in cracks1 joints1 and crevices4 ,it is in these microhabitats that vascular plants may gain footholds4 ,narrow cracks and joints may contain desert parsley and lava phlox4 ,shallow crevices will hold scabland penstemon1 fernleaf fleabane1 and gland cinquefoil4 ,deep crevices can support the syringa1 various ferns1 bush rockspirea1 tansybush1 and even limber pine4 ,not until full soil cover is achieved can the antelope bitterbrush1 rubber rabbitbrush1 and sagebrush find suitable niches4 ,on lava flows soils first form from eroded lava and the slow decomposition of lichens and other plants able to colonize bare rock4 ,these soils can be supplemented by wind-blown soil particles until vascular plants gain footholds4 ,as plants begin to grow and then die1 their gradual decomposition adds further soil matter4 ,these soil beginnings accumulate in cracks and crevices1 which also provide critical shade and wind protection4 ,deep crevices provide lower temperatures favoring plant survival4 ,illustration3 ,rubber rabbitbrush ,illustration3 ,syringa ,cinder gardens ,compared to the lava flows1 cinder cones are much more quickly invaded by plants4 ,here1 too1 however1 volcanic origins influence plant growth4 ,compared to the relatively level lava flows1 steeply sloping cinder cones introduce a new factor that controls the development of plant communities3 topography4 ,here you find marked differences in the plant communities between the north- and south-facing slopes4 ,south-facing slopes are exposed to prolonged1 intense sunlight1 resulting in high evaporation of water4 ,because of the prevailing winds1 snow accumulates on northeast sides of cones1 giving them far more annual water than southwest-facing sides receive4 ,the pioneering herbs that first colonize cinder cones will persist on southwest-facing slopes long after succeeding plant communities have come to dominate north-facing slopes4 ,it is on these north-facing slopes that limber pine first develops in the cinder garden4 ,south-facing slopes may never support the limber pine but may be dominated by shrubs4 ,unweathered cinder particles range in size from #c to #d inches in diameter down to very small particles4 ,they average about inch in diameter4 ,illustration3 ,cinquefoil ,illustration3 ,wire lettuce ,ecological conditions at ,craters of the ,moon are generally so harsh that slight changes can make the difference for the survival of a plant or other organism4 ,life thrives in many rock crevices that are surrounded by barren exposed lava rock of the same physical composition4 ,these microhabitats provide the critical shade and increased soil and moisture content required for plant survival4 ,over the years1 particles of soil will naturally collect in rock crevices1 which also have the effect of funneling precipitation into their depths4 ,their shade further protects these pockets of soil and water from wind erosion1 excessive heat1 and evaporation and leaching by direct sunlight4 ,illustration3 ,limber pines are the tree pioneers of the lava terrain4 ,their seedlings often find suitable conditions for germination in rock crevices long before surrounding landscapes support tree growth4 ,most common of all the park's trees1 limber pine is named for its flexible branches4 ,many park animals depend on this tree in some fashion for their livelihoods4 ,illustration3 ,limber pine cones stay green and resinous through their first year of development and then turn brown and woody as their seeds mature in the second year4 ,cones grow to about #d inches long4 ,at ,craters of the ,moon1 crevices are of such importance to plants that botanists differentiate between narrow1 shallow1 and deep crevices when studying this phenomenon4 ,narrow crevices will support dwarf goldenweed or hairy goldaster4 ,shallow crevices support scabland penstemon1 fernleaf fleabane1 and gland cinquefoil4 ,deep crevices give rise to syringa1 ferns1 bush rockspirea1 tansybush1 ,lewis mockorange1 and even the limber pine tree4 ,complete soil cover and then vegetative cover can develop on these lava flows only after crevices have first become filled with soil4 ,plants exploit other means of protection to survive in this harsh environment4 ,shaded and wind-sheltered1 the northern side of a cinder cone can support grass1 shrubs1 and limber pine trees while the cone's southern face supports only scattered herbs4 ,most cinder cones in the park show distinct differences of plant cover between their northern and southern exposures4 ,northern exposures are cooler and more moist than southern exposures1 which receive far more direct sunlight4 ,in addition1 here at ,craters of the ,moon1 the prevailing southwesterly winds compound the ability of the dry heat to rob porous cinder cone surfaces and their living organisms of precious moisture4 ,the build-up of successive lava flows has so raised the landscape that it now intercepts wind currents that operate higher above surrounding plains4 ,limber pine trees find footholds on the shaded and sheltered northern exposures of cinder cones4 ,bitterbrush and rabbitbrush shrubs that can barely survive on the lower skirts of a cinder cone's southern side may grow two-thirds of the way up its protected northern face4 ,for many species of plants the limits of habitability on this volcanic landscape are narrowly defined4 ,very small variations in their situations can determine success or failure4 ,travelers often ask park rangers whether or not some of the park's plants were planted by people4 ,the plants in question are dwarf buckwheats and grow in cinder gardens4 ,it is their incredibly even spacing that creates an orderliness that is easy to mistake for human design4 ,the regular spacing comes about because of the competition for moisture1 however4 ,the root systems of these plants exploit the available water from an area of ground surface much larger than the spread of their foliage4 ,in this way1 mature plants can fend off competition by using the moisture that would be required for a potentially encroaching plant to become established4 ,the effect is an even spacing that makes it appear1 indeed1 as though someone had set out the plants on measured centers4 ,craters of the ,moon abounds with these surprising plant microhabitats that delight explorers on foot4 ,the bleak lava flows separate these emerging pockets of new life1 isolating them like islands or oases within their barren volcanic surroundings4 ,scientists have studied ,carey ,kipuka1 an island of plantlife in the most southern part of the park1 to find out what changes have occurred in the biologic community4 ,kipuka is a ,hawaiian name given to an area of older land that is surrounded by younger lava flows4 ,recent lava flows did not overrun ,carey ,kipuka1 so its plant cover is unaltered4 ,shortage of water protected it from livestock grazing that might have changed its character4 ,its vegetation is a benchmark for comparing plant cover changes on similar sites throughout southern ,idaho4 ,for the ,national ,park ,service and other managers of wildlands1 kipukas--representing isolated and pristine plant habitat unchanged by human influence--provide the best answer that we have to the important question1 8,what is natural80 ,armed with a satisfactory answer to that question1 it is possible to manage the land ecologically4 ,park managers can seek to restore natural systems and to allow them to be as self-regulating as possible4 ,it is ironic that ,craters of the ,moon1 a volcanic landscape subjected to profound change1 should also protect this informative glimpse of what remains unchanged4 ,illustration3 ,from the park's mazes of jumbled rock1 ground squirrels fashion homes with many entrances and exits4 ,opportunistic feeders on vegetable matter1 these engaging rodents fall prey to hawks and owls from above and small predatory mammals on the ground4 ,they therefore serve as an important transfer point between plant and animal layers of the park's food energy scheme4 ,illustration3 ,in the #aibjs1 members of the ,limbert ,expedition1 described on pages #ej and #ea1 followed the flight of doves to locate water as they explored what later became the park4 7continued on page #df7 ,wildflowers ,wildflowers carpet ,craters of the ,moon's seemingly barren lava fields from early ,may to late ,september4 ,the most spectacular shows of wildflowers come with periods of precipitation4 ,in late spring1 moisture from snowmelt--supplemented now and then by rainfall--sees the blossoming of most of the delicate annual plants4 ,many of the park's flowering plants1 having no mechanisms for conserving moisture1 simply complete their life cycles before the middle of summer4 ,this is particularly true of those that grow on the porous cinder gardens into which moisture quickly descends beyond reach of most plants' root systems4 ,as summer continues and supplies of moisture slowly dwindle1 only the most drought-resistant of flowering plants continue to grow and to bloom4 ,with the onset of autumn rains1 only the tiny yellow blossoms of the sagebrush and rabbitbrush remain4 ,illustration3 ,blazing star ,illustration3 ,monkeyflower ,illustration3 ,desert parsley ,illustration3 ,wild onion ,illustration3 ,bitterroot ,illustration3 ,paintbrush ,illustration3 ,scabland penstemon ,illustration3 ,arrow-leaved balsamroot ,illustration3 ,scorpionweed ,mule ,deer ,illustration3 uncaptioned ,brad ,griffith could be called the mule deer man4 ,in #aihj1 this wildlife researcher began a three-year study of the mule deer herd that summers in the park4 ,the immediate concern was that the deer1 protected inside the park1 might be overpopulating their range and endangering their habitat4 ,griffith set out to find out just how the deer use the area1 what their population level is1 and how certain factors--production1 mortality1 and distribution--affect their population dynamics4 ,the mule deer use the park ,april through ,november only1 because winter brings snows too deep for the deer to find food here4 ,the most striking finding of ,griffith's research is that the mule deer at ,craters of the ,moon--unlike mule deer studied elsewhere--have a dual summer range4 ,put simply1 the mule deer have had to undergo behavior modification to live here4 ,the deer move back into the southern park in mid-,april1 living in the protected wilderness area there4 ,while in the wilderness area1 the park's deer routinely live up to nearly #aj miles from open water1 getting their water from food1 dew1 fog1 and temporary puddles4 ,this area has higher quality forage for these deer than any other part of their annual range4 ,the trade-off is that the wilderness area has almost no open water4 ,when the moisture content of their forage decreases in summer1 usually in ,july1 the deer move up to the northern part of the park where there is open water4 ,their habits in the northern part of the park are unusual1 too1 ,griffith says1 because there the deer live in much closer quarters than other herds are known to tolerate on summer ranges4 ,they live in this wildlife equivalent of an apartment complex until the fall rains come4 ,then they move back down to the wilderness area4 ,the deer make this unusual summer migration1 ,griffith suggests1 to avail themselves of the high quality forage in the southern park4 8,the park serves as an island of high quality habitat for mule deer10 he wrote in his report4 ,it is now known the deer will leave the wilderness area for the northern park after #ab days with daytime highs above #hj;,f and nighttime lows above #ej;,f in summer4 8,we can't really predict this10 ,park ,ranger ,neil ,king says1 8but the deer know when this is40 ,what is happening is that the percentage of water in their forage plants falls below what is necessary to sustain the deer with increasingly hot weather4 ,as you would expect1 does nursing two fawns leave a couple days earlier than does with only one fawn4 ,the rate at which their fawns survive to the fall of the year is astonishing4 8,this is an incredibly productive herd10 ,griffith says1 8right up there with the highest fawn survival rate of any western mule deer herd40 ,park rangers continue ,griffith's studies by taking deer census counts4 ,illustration3 ,map showing fall1 summer1 and spring migrations ,illustration3 ,the ,northern ,shoshone regularly passed through the ,craters of the ,moon area on their annual summer migration from the ,snake ,river to the ,camas ,prairie1 west of the park4 ,they took this journey to get out of the hot desert and into the cooler mountains4 ,there they could gather root crops and hunt marmots1 jackrabbits1 porcupines1 and ground squirrels4 ,as they passed through today's park1 they left behind arrowheads1 choppers1 and scrapers and built stone circles that may have been used for ceremonial purposes4 ,these artifacts and structures are evidence the ,indians were temporary visitors to this vast volcanic landscape4 ,indians1 ,early ,explorers ,and ,practicing ,astronauts ,not surprisingly1 archeologists have concluded that ,indians did not make their homes on this immense lava field4 ,astronauts would one day trek about ,craters of the ,moon in hopes that experiencing its harshly alien environment would make walking on the moon less disorienting for them4 ,no wonder people have not chosen to live on these hot1 black1 sometimes sharp lava flows on which you must line the flight of doves to locate drinking water4 ,indians did traverse this area on annual summer migrations1 however1 as shown by the developed trails and many sites where artifacts of ,northern ,shoshone culture have been found4 ,most of these archeological sites are not easily discerned by the untrained eye1 but the stone windbreaks at ,indian ,tunnel are easily examined4 ,rings of rocks that may have been used for temporary shelter1 hunting blinds1 or religious purposes1 numerous stone tools1 and the hammerstones and chippings of arrowhead making are found scattered throughout the lava flows4 ,some of the harder1 dense volcanic materials found here were made into crude cutting and scraping tools and projectile points4 ,such evidence suggests only short forays into the lavas for hunting or collecting by small groups4 ,the ,northern ,shoshone were a hunting and gathering culture directly dependent on what the land offered4 ,they turned what they could of this volcanic environment to their benefit4 ,before settlement by ,europeans1 the vicinity of the park boasted several game species that are rare or absent from ,craters of the ,moon today4 ,these included elk1 wolf1 bison1 grizzly and black bear1 and the cougar4 ,bighorn sheep1 whose males sport characteristic headgear of large1 curled horns1 have been absent from the park since about #aibj4 ,military explorer ,u4,s4 ,army ,capt4 ,b4,l4,e4 ,bonneville left impressions of the ,craters of the ,moon lava field in his travel diaries in the early #ahjjs4 ,in ,the ,adventures of ,captain ,bonneville1 which were based on the diaries1 #aith-century author ,washington ,irving pictures a place 8where nothing meets the eye but a desolate and awful waste1 where no grass grows nor water runs1 and where nothing is to be seen but lava40 ,irving is perhaps most famous for ,the ,legend of ,sleepy ,hollow1 but his ,adventures is considered a significant period work about the ,west and provided this early1 if brief1 glimpse of a then unnamed ,craters of the ,moon4 ,pioneers working westward in the #aith century sought either gold or affordable farm or ranch lands so they1 like the ,northern ,shoshone1 bypassed these lava wastes4 ,later1 nearby settlers would venture into this area in search of additional grazing lands4 ,finding none1 they left ,craters of the ,moon substantially alone4 ,early pioneers who left traces in the vicinity of the park did so by following what eventually came to be known as ,goodale's ,cutoff4 ,the route was based on ,indian trails that skirted the lava fields in the northern section of the park4 ,it came into use in the early #ahejs as an alternate to the regular route of the ,oregon ,trail4 ,shoshone ,indian hostilities along the ,snake ,river part of the trail--one such incident is memorialized in ,idaho's ,massacre ,rocks ,state ,park--led the emigrants to search for a safer route4 ,they were headed for ,oregon1 particularly the ,walla ,walla area around ,whitman ,mission1 family groups in search of agricultural lands for settlement4 ,emigrants traveling it in #ahed noticed names carved in rocks and trees along its route4 ,it was named in #ahfb by travelers apparently grateful to their guide1 ,tim ,goodale1 whose presence1 they felt1 had prevented ,indian attacks4 ,illinois-born ,goodale was cut in the mold of the typical early trapper and trader of the ,far ,west4 ,he was known to the famous fur trade brothers ,solomon and ,william ,sublette4 ,his name turned up at such fur trade locales as ,pueblo1 ,taos1 ,fort ,bridger1 and ,fort ,laramie over a period of at least #bj years4 ,after the discovery of gold in ,idaho's ,salmon ,river country1 a party of emigrants persuaded ,goodale to guide them over the route they would name for him4 ,goodale was an experienced guide3 in #ahfa1 he had served in that capacity for a military survey west of ,denver4 ,the large band of emigrants set out in ,july and was joined by more wagons at ,craters of the ,moon4 ,eventually their numbers included #gie men and #cjj women and children4 ,indian attacks occurred frequently along the ,oregon ,trail at that time1 but the size of this group evidently discouraged such incursions4 ,the trip was not without incident1 but ,goodale's reputation remained sufficiently intact for his clients to affix his name to the route4 ,subsequent modifications and the addition of a ferry crossing on the ,snake ,river made ,goodale's ,cutoff into a popular route for western emigration4 ,traces of it are still visible in the vicinity of the park today4 ,curiosity about this uninhabitable area eventually led to more detailed knowledge of ,craters of the ,moon and knowledge led to its preservation4 ,geologists ,israel ,c4 ,russell and ,harold ,t4 ,stearns of the ,u4,s4 ,geological ,survey explored here in #aija and #aibc1 respectively4 ,taxidermist-turned-lecturer ,robert ,limbert explored the area in the early #aibjs4 ,limbert made three trips4 ,on the first two1 he more or less retraced the steps of these geologists4 ,on his third and most ambitious trek1 ,limbert and ,w4 ,l4 ,cole traversed what is now the park and the ,craters of the ,moon ,wilderness ,area south to north1 starting from the nearby community of ,minidoka4 ,their route took them by ,two ,point ,butte1 ,echo ,crater1 ,big ,craters1 ,north ,crater ,flow and out to the ,old ,arco-,carey ,road1 then known as the ,yellowstone ,park and ,lincoln ,highway4 ,these explorations and their attendant publicity in ,national ,geographic ,magazine were instrumental in the proclamation of ,craters of the ,moon as a national monument by ,president ,calvin ,coolidge in #aibd4 ,since ,limbert's day1 astronauts have walked both here and on the moon4 ,despite our now detailed knowledge of the differences between these two places1 the name--and much of the park's awe-inspiring appeal--remains the same4 ,it is as though by learning more about both these niches in our universe we somehow have learned more about ourselves as well4 ,illustration3 ,in the mid-#ahjjs the ,oregon ,trail served as a major route to the ,west for pioneers4 ,but when hostilities developed along the trail with the ,shoshone-,bannock ,indians1 many of the emigrants began using an alternate route known as ,goodale's ,cutoff4 ,this trail went further north and passed through the present-day park boundary4 7continued on page #eb7 ,early ,explorers and the ,limbert ,expedition ,illustration3 uncaptioned ,the first known explorations of these lava fields were conducted by two ,arco1 ,idaho1 cattlemen in #ahgi4 ,arthur ,ferris and ,j4,w4 ,powell were looking for water for their livestock4 ,the first scientific explorations were carried out by ,israel ,c4 ,russell1 surveying the area for the ,u4,s4 ,geological ,survey in #aija and #aijc4 ,beginning in #aiaj1 ,samuel ,a4 ,paisely1 later to become the park's first custodian1 also explored these lava fields4 ,in #aiba1 the ,u4,s4,g4,s4 sent two geologists here1 ,harold ,t4 ,stearns and ,o4,e4 ,meinzer1 with a geologist from the ,carnegie ,institute4 ,based on this field work1 ,stearns recommended that a national monument be created here4 ,also during the early #bjs1 the explorations of ,idaho entrepreneur ,robert ,w4 ,limbert caught the public's fancy4 ,a report of the explorations of 8,two-gun0 ,bob ,limbert was published in the ,march #aibd ,national ,geographic ,magazine4 ,limbert was a ,boise1 ,idaho1 taxidermist1 tanner1 and furrier4 ,he was also an amateur wrestler and quick-draw artist who later performed on the national lecture circuit4 ,reportedly1 ,limbert once challenged ,al ,capone to a pistol duel at #aj paces4 ,evidently ,capone declined4 ,limbert made three treks into the lava fields between #aiba and #aibd4 ,he first explored the more easily accessible northern portion of the lava fields4 ,limbert's third expedition crossed the area from south to north1 however1 starting from ,minidoka4 ,the ,limbert ,trek ,illustration3 ,on his third expedition1 ,limbert1 ,cole1 and a dog traversed the lava flows from south to north4 ,the photos that appeared in ,the ,national ,geographic ,magazine in #aibd were taken on various expeditions4 ,with ,limbert were ,w4,l4 ,cole and an ,airedale terrier4 ,taking the dog along was a mistake1 ,limbert wrote1 8for after three days' travel his feet were worn raw and bleeding40 ,limbert said it was pitiful to watch the dog as it hobbled after them4 ,the landscape was so unusual that ,limbert and ,cole had difficulty estimating distances4 ,things would be half again as far away as they had reckoned4 ,in some areas their compass needles went wild with magnetic distortions caused by high concentrations of iron in the lava rock4 ,bizarre features they found--such as multi-colored1 blow-out craters--moved ,limbert to write3 8,i noticed that at places like these we had almost nothing to say40 ,limbert and ,cole discovered ice caves with ice stalactites4 ,they found water by tracking the flights of mourning doves4 ,they found pockets of cold water 7trapped above ground by ice deposits below the surface7 covered with yellowjackets fatally numbed by the cold4 ,they drank the water anyway4 ,in desert country1 said ,limbert1 one can't be too picky4 ,between ,limbert's lively article in the ,national ,geographic ,magazine1 and the reports of geologist ,stearns1 ,president ,calvin ,coolidge was induced to designate part of the lava fields as ,craters of the ,moon ,national ,monument on ,may #b1 #aibd4 ,illustration3 untitled ,illustration3 untitled ,part #c ,guide and ,adviser ,illustration3 ,approaching ,craters of the ,moon ,craters of the ,moon ,national ,monument is located in south-central ,idaho's ,snake ,river ,plain1 midway between ,boise1 ,idaho1 and ,grand ,teton and ,yellowstone ,national ,parks4 ,the park includes #ec1ede acres1 and the elevation at the visitor center is #e1ijj feet above sea level4 ,u4,s4 #bj-bf-ic gives access to the park4 ,nominal entrance fees are charged4 ,golden ,eagle1 ,golden ,age1 and ,golden ,access passports are honored and may be obtained at the entrance station4 ,seasons and ,weather4 ,park facilities are open and naturalist programs are conducted from mid-,june through ,labor ,day4 ,from ,november to ,april1 the ,loop ,drive 7see map7 is closed by snow and park facilities are limited4 ,in spring and fall1 the opening and closing of facilities and the ,loop ,drive are determined by weather conditions1 which vary greatly from year to year4 ,in spring the weather is unpredictable4 ,strong winds may occur and snow and_/or freezing rain are not uncommon4 ,temperatures range from highs in the #ejs to lows in the #bjs,f4 ,summer features warm to hot days and cool nights4 ,expect afternoon winds4 ,there may be very sporadic afternoon thunderstorms1 and temperatures may range from the #djs to the #ijs4 ,fall offers generally fair weather with low precipitation and infrequent winds4 ,early snowstorms are possible1 and snow is certain by late fall4 ,fall temperatures range from highs in the #fjs to lows in the #cjs4 ,winter brings the possibility of severe storms with drifting snow4 ,highway access is often best described as snow-packed4 ,on bright sunny days temperatures may reach into the #djs1 but the range is generally from highs in the #cjs to lows around minus #aj4 ,illustration3 ,today's park encompasses a small portion of the ,great ,rift and the greater portion of the ,craters of the ,moon ,lava ,field near ,arco1 ,idaho4 ,blue arrows on this map show the route of the ,limbert ,expeditions in the #aibjs4 ,the detail map appears on page #eh4 ,limbert's route ,from ,minidoka4 ,two ,point ,butte ,vermillion ,chasm ,sheep ,trail ,butte ,echo ,crater ,bridge of ,tears ,big ,cinder ,butte ,big ,craters ,north ,crater ,flow ,old ,arco ,carey ,road ,martin ,p4,o4 ,see detail map ,visitor ,center ,handicapped ,access4 ,the park visitor center1 restrooms1 and amphitheater are accessible to the disabled4 ,travel ,planning4 ,u4,s4 #bj-bf-ic provides access to ,craters of the ,moon4 ,no public transportation serves the park4 ,scheduled airlines serve ,idaho ,falls1 ,twin ,falls1 and ,hailey1 ,idaho4 ,rental cars are generally available at these airports1 but advance reservations are advised4 ,it is about a three-hour drive from the park to ,grand ,teton ,national ,park1 and about a four-hour drive to ,yellowstone ,national ,park4 ,the official ,idaho ,state ,highway ,map is available from the ,idaho ,transportation ,department1 ,p4,o4 ,box #gabi1 ,boise1 ,,id #hcgjg1 telephone 7#bjh7 #ccd-hjjj4 ,idaho's travel office provides information about cultural activities1 scenic tours1 outfitters and guides1 chambers of commerce1 hotels1 and motels throughout the state4 ,write or call ,idaho's ,travel ,promotion ,division1 #gjj ,west ,state ,street1 ,boise1 ,,id #hcgbj-bgjj1 telephone 7#bjh7 #ccd-bdgj4 ,stay on ,roads4 ,please stay on roadways and parking pullouts that are provided4 ,if a vehicle goes off the roadway onto cinders1 the cinders are compacted and the tracks may remain visible for #aj to #bj years or more4 ,information about the ,park4 ,address specific inquiries about the park to the ,superintendent1 ,craters of the ,moon ,national ,monument1 ,p4,o4 ,box #bi1 ,arco1 ,,id #hcbac1 or telephone 7#bjh7 #ebg-cbeg4 ,illustration3 ,make the visitor center your first stop in the park4 ,ask at the information desk for schedules of ranger-led walks1 talks1 and other programs and for advice about camping4 ,illustration3 uncaptioned ,visitor ,center and ,programs ,the park visitor center is located near the only entrance to the park4 ,here you will find displays and information to help you plan your visit4 ,slides1 postcards1 maps1 and other publications about the park are displayed for sale4 ,park ,service rangers at the information counter can answer your questions and help you plan your stay in the park4 ,the displays alert you to wildflowers and wild animals you might expect to see here4 ,other exhibits describe the park's geologic history4 ,a film explains how lava flowed from fissures in the ,earth to create the cinder cones1 lava flows1 and other volcanic features you will see at ,craters of the ,moon4 ,the film includes actual footage of eruptions of the same type that occurred here some #b1jjj years ago4 ,check at the visitor center for the schedules of conducted walks and campfire programs4 ,you also can get information here about two self-guiding nature trails and the park's ,loop ,drive 7see page #ei74 ,activities and ,evening ,programs4 ,in summer1 ranger-guided walks and other programs give visitors an intimate look at various aspects of the park4 ,program schedules vary2 we suggest that you contact the park for current information prior to arrival4 ,several sites have been designed to make it easy to see the park on your own4 ,the visitor center is a good place to stop and plan your visit4 ,evening programs may find you wanting a sweater or light jacket to ward off the chill1 despite the hot summer days4 ,these programs explore such topics as the park's wildlife and its survival1 the powers of nature1 and this landscape's volcanic origins4 ,some programs are illustrated with slides or movies and take place in the amphitheater4 ,self-guiding ,trails4 ,explore three representative areas of the park on self-guiding nature trails4 ,devils ,orchard ,trail helps you understand the complex environmental concerns facing ,craters of the ,moon4 ,a pamphlet available at the trailhead discusses the major impacts visitors1 neighbors1 and managers have on the fragile lava landscape4 ,numbered explanations correspond to markers along the trail4 ,you can walk this trail in about #bj minutes4 ,north ,crater ,flow ,trail takes you through a lava flow that includes rafted blocks 7crater wall fragments7 and other interesting features characteristic of basaltic lava flows1 which are explained by wayside exhibits4 ,this trail goes through one of the most recent lava flows in the park4 ,the shiny lava flows made early explorers think the volcanic eruptions had happened only a few years before4 ,please stay on trails in this very fragile area4 ,the park was established to provide protection for its unusual landscape features4 ,these require continuing protection and you can help provide it4 ,caves ,trail allows you the opportunity to explore a lava tube4 ,these caves formed when the surface of lava flow cooled and hardened while the interior remained molten and continued to drain4 ,after the lava drained away1 a hollow tube remained4 ,a pamphlet at the trailhead provides a map of the cave area and tells you what to expect as you explore these lava tubes on your own4 ,wayside exhibits point out the most interesting lava formations along the trail4 ,to see only ,indian ,tunnel1 the largest of the lava tubes1 will require nearly one hour4 ,illustration3 ,visitors read a wayside exhibit beneath imposing monoliths4 ,flows of lava rafted such fragments of broken crater walls into otherwise inexplicable positions4 ,map ,illustration3 ,craters of the ,moon ,national ,monument ,wilderness area ,grassy ,cone #aibe m #fcae ft ,sunset ,cone #aied m #fdae ft ,backcountry area ,trail ,point of interest ,visitor ,center ,to ,arco ,to ,carey ,campground ,north ,crater ,flow ,trail ,north ,crater ,trail ,silent ,cone #ahch m #fceg ft4 ,north ,crater #aijh m #hbdd ft ,devils ,orchard ,nature ,trail ,paisley ,cone #ahha m #fajg ft ,inferno ,cone #ahhd m #faha ft ,snow ,cone ,spatter ,cones ,north ,crater ,trail ,,great ,,rift ,,zone ,,big ,,sink ,broken ,top #ahdf m #ejeh ft ,buffalo ,cave ,half ,cone #ahde m #ejee ft ,big ,cinder ,butte #aihh m #eeaf ft ,,tree ,,molds ,dewdrop ,cave ,surprise ,cave ,beauty ,cave ,boy ,scout ,cave ,indian ,tunnel ,,pioneer ,,mountains ,,green ,,dragon ,,flows ,,serrate ,,flow ,,blue ,,dragon ,,flows ,,broken ,,top ,,flow ,,lava ,,cascades ,,big ,,craters ,take ,the ,driving ,tour ,you can see most of the features for which ,craters of the ,moon is famous by a combined auto and foot tour along the ,loop ,drive4 ,with several short walks included1 you can make the drive in about two hours4 ,numbered stops are keyed to the map in the park folder4 #a4 ,visitor ,center4 ,the #g-mile ,loop ,drive begins at the visitor center4 ,most of the drive is one-way4 ,spur roads and trailheads enable you to explore this lava field even further4 #b4 ,north ,crater ,flow4 ,a short foot trail crosses the ,north ,crater ,flow to a group of crater wall fragments transported by lava flows4 ,this is one of the youngest flows here4 ,the triple twist tree and its #a1cej growth rings have in the past helped date the recency of the last flows here4 ,along this trail you can see fine examples of pahoehoe lava and aa lava flows 7see page #bf74 ,just beyond the ,north ,crater ,flow ,trail is the ,north ,crater ,trail4 ,this short1 steep1 self-guiding nature trail leads you to the vent overlooking the crater of a cinder cone4 #c4 ,devils ,orchard4 ,devils ,orchard is a group of lava fragments that stand like islands in a sea of cinders4 ,this marks the resting place for blocks of material from the walls of ,north ,crater that broke free and were rafted here on lava flows4 ,the short spur road leads to a self-guiding trail through these weird features4 ,you can easily walk the trail in about #bj minutes4 ,an early morning or evening visit may allow you to observe park wildlife4 ,in springtime1 the wildflower displays in the cinder gardens are glorious4 ,in ,june and early ,july1 dwarf blooming monkeyflowers give the ground a magenta cast4 #d4 ,inferno ,cone ,viewpoint4 ,from the viewpoint atop ,inferno ,cone1 a landscape of volcanic cinder cones spreads before you to the distant mountain ranges beyond4 ,notice that the cooler1 moister northern slopes of the cones bear noticeably more vegetation than the drier southern slopes1 which receive the brunt of sunshine4 ,if you take the short1 steep walk to the summit of ,inferno ,cone1 you can easily recognize the chain of cinder cones that defines the ,great ,rift4 ,perhaps nowhere else in the park is it so easy to visualize how the volcanic activity broke out along this great fissure in the ,earth4 ,towering in the distance above the lava plain is ,big ,cinder ,butte1 one of the world's largest1 purely basaltic1 cinder cones4 #e4 ,big ,craters and ,spatter ,cones ,area4 ,spatter cones formed along the ,great ,rift fissure where clots of pasty lava stuck together when they fell4 ,the materials and forces of these eruptions originated at depths of approximately #dj miles within the ,earth4 ,a short1 steep walk to the top of ,big ,craters offers a view of a series of volcanic vents4 #f4 ,trails to ,tree ,molds and the ,wilderness ,area4 ,a spur road just beyond ,inferno ,cone takes you to trails to the ,tree ,molds ,area and the ,craters of the ,moon ,wilderness4 ,tree molds formed where molten lava flows encased trees and then hardened 7see page #bg74 ,the cylindrical molds that remained after the wood burned and rotted away range from a few inches to more than #a foot in diameter4 #g4 ,cave ,area4 ,at this final stop on the ,loop ,drive1 a -mile walk takes you to the lava tubes4 ,here you can see ,dewdrop1 ,boy ,scout1 ,beauty1 and ,surprise ,caves and the ,indian ,tunnel4 7,for how these lava tubes formed1 see page #cj47 ,carry a flashlight in all caves except ,indian ,tunnel4 ,camping and ,backcountry ,use ,the campground has about #ej sites4 ,these are available on a first-come1 first-served basis4 ,reservations are not accepted4 ,a daily fee for camping is charged4 ,water and restrooms are provided in the campground1 but there are no showers1 dump station1 or hookups4 ,wood fires are prohibited in the park1 but grills at each campsite may be used for charcoal fires4 ,the campground accommodates both ,r,vs and tents4 ,during the summer1 park rangers present evening programs at the campground amphitheater4 ,backcountry ,use4 ,some of the park's most intriguing landscapes lie beyond the road's end in the #fh-square-mile ,craters of the ,moon ,wilderness ,area4 ,only two trails penetrate the wilderness1 and these for only short distances4 ,after the three-mile trail to ,echo ,crater runs out1 you are on your own4 ,for further exploration1 you can simply follow the ,great ,rift and its chain of cinder cones4 ,these landmarks help you find your way4 ,to explore farther afield1 you should have a good topographic map and basic map skills4 ,you can purchase such a map at the visitor center4 ,all hikers who plan to stay overnight in the wilderness are required to register with a park ranger4 ,backcountry use permits are available free at the visitor center4 ,each hiker should carry at least one gallon of water for each day out2 even more may be necessary during the hot summer4 ,there is no drinking water available in the wilderness4 ,the best times for wilderness travel are ,may-,june and ,september-,october4 ,daytime temperatures are usually mild then1 while nights are cool1 but you must be prepared for inclement and very cold weather in these transitional months4 ,summer daytime temperatures climb into the #ijs1 and reflected heat off the lavas may be even higher4 ,long distance hiking is not very pleasant then1 and the weight of necessary drinking water is burdensome4 ,safety4 ,sturdy boots and long pants are necessary gear for the jagged aa lava flows4 ,bring clothing for both hot and cool weather2 both can occur the same day in this desert climate4 7,see drinking water warning above47 ,regulations4 ,campfires are prohibited in the backcountry4 ,carry a self-contained backpack stove and fuel4 ,mechanized vehicles1 including bicycles1 are prohibited in the wilderness area4 ,pets are also prohibited in the wilderness4 ,pack out everything that you pack in--and any trash you find that others left behind4 ,a good admonition is3 8,take only pictures1 and try not to leave so much as a footprint40 ,winter ,recreation ,the visitor center is open every day except winter holidays4 ,winter hours are #h a4m4 to #d3cj p4m4 ,wilderness permits1 topographic maps1 and information are available here4 ,to find out about current snow conditions1 call 7#bjh7 #ebg-cbeg4 ,skiing4 ,crosscountry skiing provides an enjoyable experience of the park's landscape transformed by snow4 ,when heavy snows accumulate1 usually in late ,november1 the #g-mile ,loop ,drive is closed and it becomes a natural ski trail4 ,most of the ,loop ,drive follows fairly level terrain4 ,the best months for skiing are ,january to ,march in most winters4 ,usually there is about #ah inches of snowpack by ,january and #c feet by ,march4 ,temperatures range from #de;,f to well below zero4 ,be prepared for inclement weather and high winds at all times4 ,blizzards may be encountered4 ,hazards4 ,skiing off the ,loop ,drive is allowed but not recommended4 ,most of the park is covered by sharp1 jagged lava1 and snow cover may mask cracks and caverns underneath4 ,camping4 ,winter camping is permitted in the main campground4 ,the campground is not plowed2 be prepared to camp in the snow4 ,wood fires are not permitted anywhere in the park4 ,wilderness use4 ,the wilderness is ideal for overnight ski trips4 ,you should be well equipped and experienced at winter camping1 however4 ,a free wilderness use permit1 available at the visitor center1 is required for all overnight use outside the park campground4 ,both backpackers and crosscountry skiers find solitude in their respective seasons in the park4 ,others may prefer ranger-led explorations of the park's many unusual features4 ,illustration3 ,backpackers ,illustration3 ,crosscountry skiers ,illustration3 ,ranger-led explorations ,regulations and ,safety ,many management concerns1 regulations1 and safety tips are given under specific subjects in this handbook4 ,here are some other things to consider4 ,precautions must be taken when you explore the park because of the rugged terrain1 heat1 and lack of naturally available drinking water4 ,you will need sturdy boots1 a hat1 and ample1 leakproof water containers4 ,make sure containers are watertight before you leave home4 ,exploring caves requires flashlights4 ,camp only in the park campground4 ,all other overnight use1 even in winter1 requires a wilderness use permit4 ,a day-use permit is required to visit the area of the park that lies north of ,highway #bj-bf-ic4 ,pets4 ,pets are allowed only in the campground and on the ,loop ,drive1 but they must be kept on a leash at all times4 ,pets are prohibited in all public buildings1 on trails1 or in off-road areas4 ,vehicles4 ,all motor vehicles and bicycles must stay on paved roads only4 ,they are not allowed on trails4 ,firearms4 ,firearm restrictions are enforced3 ,no hunting is allowed in the park4 ,collecting4 ,the collection1 removal1 or disturbance of any natural features within the park is strictly prohibited4 ,illustration3 ,for contemporary explorers the driving tour and its associated trails make the safest trek routes4 ,exercise great caution--and close oversight of young children--at all times on your park expeditions4 ,illustration3 trail ,nearby ,attractions ,yellowstone ,national ,park is world famous for its geysers and mudpots1 canyons and waterfalls1 and wildlife and wilderness4 ,for information write or call1 ,superintendent1 ,yellowstone ,national ,park1 ,,wy #hbaij1 7#cjg7 #cdd-gcha4 ,illustration3 ,minerva ,terrace1 ,yellowstone ,grand ,teton ,national ,park features the spectacularly scenic ,teton ,range and lovely lakes at its base4 ,john ,d4 ,rockefeller1 ,jr41 ,memorial ,parkway joins ,grand ,teton with ,yellowstone4 ,for information write or call1 ,superintendent1 ,grand ,teton ,national ,park1 ,p4,o4 ,drawer #agj1 ,moose1 ,,wy #hcjab1 7#cjg7 #gcc-bhhj4 ,illustration3 ,grand ,teton in winter ,nez ,perce ,national ,historical ,park includes #bd widely scattered sites in north-central ,idaho that present the history of this ancestral homeland of the ,nez ,perce tribe4 ,for information write or call1 ,superintendent1 ,nez ,perce ,national ,historical ,park1 ,p4,o4 ,box #ic1 ,spalding1 ,,id #hceea1 7#bjh7 #hdc-bbfa4 ,illustration3 ,a ,nez ,perce today ,hagerman ,fossil ,beds ,national ,monument1 authorized in #aihh1 preserves ,pliocene fossil sites along ,idaho's ,snake ,river4 ,the ,national ,park ,service is planning for future needs4 ,facilities have not been developed4 ,for information write or call1 ,superintendent1 ,hagerman ,fossil ,beds ,national ,monument1 ,p4,o4 ,box #egj1 ,hagerman1 ,,id #hcccb1 7#bjh7 #hcg-dgic4 ,city of ,rocks ,national ,reserve is a fascinating landscape of monoliths1 spires1 and domes used historically by ,northern ,shoshone ,indians and emigrants on the ,california ,trail4 ,it has become a mecca for recreational rock climbers4 ,primitive facilities4 ,for information write1 ,manager1 ,city of ,rocks ,national ,reserve1 ,p4,o4 ,box #afi1 ,almo1 ,,id #hccab4 ,armchair ,explorations ,the nonprofit ,craters of the ,moon ,natural ,history ,association sells books1 maps1 and other publications at the visitor center or by mail4 ,for a free list write to the park address on page #ee4 ,the following selected books may also be of interest4 ,belknap1 ,william ,j4 8,man on the ,moon in ,idaho10 ,national ,geographic ,magazine1 ,volume #aai 7,october1 #aifj74 ,bonnichsen1 ,bill and ,roy ,m4 ,breckenridge et al4 ,cenozoic ,geology of ,idaho1 ,idaho ,geologic ,survey1 ,university of ,idaho1 #aihb4 ,bullard1 ,fred ,m4 ,volcanoes of the ,earth1 ,university of ,texas ,press1 #aigf4 ,chronic1 ,halka4 ,pages of ,stone3 ,the ,geologic ,story of ,our ,western ,parks and ,monuments1 ,the ,mountaineers1 #aihd4 ,clark1 ,david ,r4 ,craters of the ,moon--,idaho's ,unearthly ,landscape1 ,craters of the ,moon ,natural ,history ,association1 #aiij4 ,henderson1 ,paul ,a4 ,around the ,loop3 ,craters of the ,moon1 ,craters of the ,moon ,natural ,history ,association1 #aihf4 ,limbert1 ,robert ,w4 8,among ,craters of the ,moon10 ,national ,geographic ,magazine1 ,volume #de 7,march1 #aibd74 ,mc,kee1 ,bates4 ,cascadia1 ,mc,graw-,hill1 #aigb4 ,moser1 ,don4 ,the ,snake ,river ,country1 ,time-,life ,books1 #aigd4 ,national ,aeronautics and ,space ,administration 7,,nasa74 ,volcanism of the ,eastern ,snake ,river ,plain1 ,idaho3 ,a ,comparative ,planetary ,geology ,guidebook1 ,washington1 ,d4,c41 #aigg4 ,schwartz1 ,susan4 ,nature in the ,northwest1 ,prentice-,hall1 #aihc4 ,other ,national ,park ,handbooks in this series4 ,you might enjoy other official ,national ,park ,handbooks about areas in ,idaho1 ,wyoming1 and ,montana4 ,these handbooks include3 ,grand ,teton ,national ,park2 ,nez ,perce ,national ,historical ,park2 ,devils ,tower ,national ,monument2 and ,fort ,laramie ,national ,historic ,site4 ,these informative handbooks are available at the parks or by mail from3 ,superintendent of ,documents1 ,u4,s4 ,government ,printing ,office1 ,washington1 ,,dc #bjdjb4 ,for a list of handbooks write to3 ,national ,park ,service1 ,office of ,information1 ,p4,o4 ,box #cgabg1 ,washington1 ,,dc #bjjac-gabg4 ,,gpo3 #aiij--bfb-jih_/bjjjb ,national ,park ,service ,u4,s4 ,department of the ,interior ,as the ,nation's principal conservation agency1 the ,department of the ,interior has responsibility for most of our nationally owned public lands and natural resources4 ,this includes fostering wise use of our land and water resources1 protecting our fish and wildlife1 preserving the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places1 and providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation4 ,the ,department assesses our energy and mineral resources and works to assure that their development is in the best interest of all our people4 ,the ,department also promotes the goals of the ,take ,pride in ,america campaign by encouraging stewardship and citizen responsibility for the public lands and promoting citizen participation in their care4 ,the ,department also has major responsibility for ,american ,indian reservation communities and for people who live in island territories under ,u4,s4 administration4 ,the ,national ,park ,service expresses its appreciation to all those persons who made the preparation and production of this handbook possible4 ,special thanks are due the ,craters of the ,moon ,natural ,history ,association for financial support4 ,unless credited below1 photographs and illustrations come from the files of ,craters of the ,moon ,national ,monument and the ,national ,park ,service4 ,gary ,braasch #bh top ,bureau of ,land ,management #bi top ,vern ,crawford #cj-ca ,jeff ,gnass #d-e1 #f1 #bg tree mold ,charley ,gurche #aj-aa1 #cb-cc1 #cf monkeyflower ,russell ,lamb #fc ,nez ,perce ,roger ,mc,gehee #cj owl ,,nasa #af inset ,national ,geographic ,society #ej-ea1 #fc ,grand ,teton 7,david ,alan ,harvey7 ,u4,s4 ,geological ,survey #be both ,glenn ,van ,nimwegen #cd1 #cf-cg ,williams and ,heintz ,map ,corporation #eh ,transcriber's ,notes --,retained publication information from the printed edition3 this e,book is public-domain in the country of publication4 --,relocated all image captions to be immediately under the corresponding images1 removing redundant references like 0preceding page04 --,silently corrected a few palpable typos4 --,in the text versions only1 text in italics is delimited by underscores4