,illustration3 ,,xvii ,,aurora ,,borealis ,,peter ,,parley',s ,,wonders ,,of ,,the ,,earth1 ,,sea1 ,,and ,,sky4 ,,edited ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,t4 ,,wilson4 ,a ,new ,edition1 ,,with ,,additions ,,and ,,improvements4 ,,london3 ,,darton ,,and ,,clark1 ,,holborn ,,hill4 ,entered at ,stationers' ,hall4 ,,to ,,george ,,birkbeck1 ,esq4 ,m4,d41 ,f4,g4,s41 ,,president ,,of ,,the ,,london ,,mechanics' ,,institution1 ,,as ,a ,,tribute ,,of ,,respect ,,for ,,his ,,benevolent ,,and ,,effectual ,,endeavours ,,to ,,promote ,,the ,,diffusion ,,of ,,knowledge1 ,this ,little ,work ,,is1 ,,with ,,permission1 ,,dedicated ,,by ,,the ,,editor4 ,,preface4 ,it seems to me that there is something very unreasonable in the plan of a great many of the books intended to introduce young people to the various branches of ,natural ,history1 which have been recently published4 ,the chief aim of their authors seems to have been to combine brevity with comprehensiveness4 ,brevity is1 without doubt1 a great advantage1 inasmuch as the proverb is true1 that a great book is a great evil2 but in my opinion comprehensiveness ought not to be attempted in books intended for children4 ,if it were desirable1 ,i might indeed confidently say1 that it can never be obtained within the necessary limits2 and the attempt to effect it1 will very often reduce the work to a mere dry table of classification4 ,however neat and systematic tables of genera and species1 and lists of names may look1 they can never convey to the young the elements of sound scientific method2 and will seldom fail in being useless or disgusting to the mind1 at an age when it is seeking for that sort of knowledge which will exercise the understanding1 without burdening the memory4 ,this healthy appetite ought to be carefully cultivated2 and ,i am satisfied that if it were so1 from the earliest stage of education1 we should have but few complaints of bad memories4 ,the memory is apt to vanish from those who would make an idol of it2 and ,i am disposed to think that its cultivation may very safely be omitted1 as a direct object of education1 if due care is taken to keep the understanding active1 and to present the matter on which it is to be engaged in the most entertaining form possible4 ,in fact1 what is often termed a good memory1 that is1 a ready recollection independent of the connections which are made solely by the understanding1 is1 as we may see by its fruits in many persons of feeble intellect1 by no means desirable4 ,an apt example of such a memory is afforded1 in what ,dame ,quickly says to ,sir ,john ,falstaff1 when she reminds him of a mixed multitude of unimportant circumstances1 with no other principle of arrangement or connection1 than what was supplied by proximity of time and place4 ,i would not1 however1 willingly be supposed to recommend books1 in which systematic arrangement1 or the most scrupulous regard to accurate statement1 is overlooked4 ,i had particularly in view that numerous class of little books1 which under various names come out in series1 each volume professing in a manner to comprise the whole of the branch of ,natural ,history which may be the subject of it1 by its containing a mere arrangement of the names of the phenomena which the branch includes4 ,there is another and widely different class of books1 in which stories from travellers and other idle gossip of the like kind1 are compiled in an undigested mass1 without regard to the different names by which the same thing may be called1 and not unfrequently to a common respect for truth1 which is not much less to be deprecated4 ,and yet to books of this latter description1 often of a very unworthy character1 it is that many of us owe the first calling into consciousness of that taste which may have made us travellers or naturalists1 or lovers of knowledge4 ,i wish that1 without copying the example of their authors1 we should learn a lesson from them1 and put it in practice1 by striving to form a taste to enjoy knowledge in them we have to teach1 before we attempt any mode of systematic instruction4 ,the following little book has been written under the impressions which ,i have here stated4 ,i have selected a few of such phenomena of the ,kingdoms of ,nature1 as seemed to me to have in them most to excite wonder and admiration2 and ,i have sought to convey distinct notions with the least possible use of technical language2 neither forgetting the connection of things1 nor overloading the statements with matters that are merely expletive of an arbitrary system4 ,how far ,i may have succeeded1 is for my little friends1 and their instructors1 who have approved of my other books1 to decide4 ,wishing the former as much pleasure in the reading1 as ,i have had1 for their sakes1 in the writing1 ,i take my leave of them4 ,p4 ,p4 ,,contents4 ,,part ,i4--,,wonders ,,of ,,the ,,earth4 ,blah4 ,page ,chap4 ,i4 ,parley explains how the ,strata of the ,earth are placed #a ,chap4 ,,ii4 ,what creatures once lived where ,dorsetshire now is #e ,the ,icthyosaurus #f ,the ,plesiosaurus #ad ,the ,pterodactyle1 c4 #ag ,chap4 ,,iii4 ,what sort of a place once existed where the neighbourhood of ,paris is now1 and the animals that lived there #ba ,the ,palotherium #bb ,the ,anoplotherium1 c4 #be ,the ,dinotherium #bf ,chap4 ,,iv4 ,of ,great ,caverns in ,england and ,germany1 filled with bones of wild animals #cj ,dr4 ,buckland's account of the great cave of ,gaylenreuth #ca ,chap4 ,v4 ,of other animals that once lived in ,england and elsewhere ,the ,elephant #cd ,the ,gigantic ,elk #ch ,the ,megatherium #ci ,the ,beaver #da ,the ,dodo #db ,chap4 ,,vi4 ,parley describes ,volcanoes1 ,earthquakes1 and ,hot ,springs #dg ,earthquake of ,calabria #di ,volcanoes #fa ,the way in which an ,eruption takes place #fc ,lava ,streams #fe ,great ,lava ,streams from ,skapta ,jokul1 in ,iceland #fi ,alluvions #gj ,the ,great ,volcano ,kirauea1 in the island of ,hawaii #ga ,of the formation of new islands #gf ,parley describes his visit to the ,geysers of ,iceland #gh ,the ,sulphur ,mountains and ,sulphur ,springs #hg ,how the ,geysers may be caused #hi ,chap4 ,,vii4 ,of the ,rocks called ,basaltic #ib ,parley's visit to ,staffa #ic ,the ,giant's ,causeway #aja ,chap4 ,,viii4 ,why ,parley believes that there is a great source of heat within the globe #ajc ,chap4 ,,ix4 ,parley tells something about the history of ,mount ,vesuvius #aaa ,the ,grotto del ,cano #aab ,of the death of ,pliny1 the ,naturalist #aae ,herculaneum and ,pompeii #abd ,chap4 ,x4 ,parley describes the ,falls of ,niagara #ace ,,part ,,ii4--,,wonders ,,of ,,the ,,sea4 ,chap4 ,i4 ,parley tells about the ,frozen ,ocean #add ,icebergs #adf ,parley's dangerous situation on an ,iceberg #aej ,chap4 ,,ii4 ,the story of a long journey over the ice with some ,esquimaux #aeb ,chap4 ,,iii4 ,the journey over the ice1 continued #afg ,chap4 ,,iv4 ,the ,whale #agh ,the mode of catching ,whales #ahc ,character of the ,whale #ahg ,chap4 ,v4 ,a voyage on a ,tropical ,sea #aij ,trade ,winds and ,monsoons #aia ,chap4 ,,vi4 ,the ,waterspout #aid ,how ,parley supposes ,waterspouts to be caused #aii ,chap4 ,,vii4 ,coral ,reefs and ,islands #bjc ,various kinds of ,coral #bjd ,the ,coral-,making ,polypes #bjf ,forms of the ,coral ,reefs #baa ,parley's first sight of one #bac ,chap4 ,,viii4 ,luminous appearance of the sea #bba ,animals by which it is occasioned1 and the ,acalepha in particular #bbc ,chap4 ,,ix4 ,the ,cuttle ,fish #bca ,the ,octopus #bce ,chap4 ,x4 ,the ,paper ,nautilus1 or ,argonaut #bci ,how ,parley saw one sailing on the sea #bda ,the ,pearly ,nautilus #bde ,the ,nautilus ,spirula #bdh ,,part ,,iii4--,,wonders ,,of ,,the ,,sky4 ,chap4 ,i4 ,the ,colour of the ,sky #bej ,chap4 ,,ii4 ,the ,aurora ,borealis #bed ,chap4 ,,iii4 ,parley tells of some other ,meteors ,parhelia or ,mock ,suns #bfc ,ignes ,fatui #bfd ,experiment to show the cause #bff ,chap4 ,,iv4 ,shooting ,stars #bfg ,what they are #bfi ,chap4 ,v4 ,meteoric ,stones1 or ,aerolites #bgc ,how they are caused #bgg ,chap4 ,,vi4 ,bloody ,rain #bhj ,red ,snow #bha ,showers of ,frogs and ,fish #bhb ,chap4 ,,vii4 ,the ,spectre of the ,brocken #bhe ,chap4 ,,viii4 ,some other instances of ,aerial ,reflection ,souter ,fell #bia ,what a ,friend of ,parley's saw #bic ,dover ,castle #bic ,what ,humboldt saw #bid ,what ,captain ,scoresby saw #bie ,apparent distance of ,object #bif ,chap4 ,,ix4 ,fata ,morgana #bii ,the ,mirage #bii ,chap4 ,x4 ,how ,parley supposes these appearances to be produced #cjc ,refraction #cje ,reflection #caa ,conclusion4 ,of some other ,wonders1 c4 ,section ,i4 ,how we ought to think upon what we know #cad ,,ii4 ,ever ,part of the ,earth a ,home for something #caf ,,iii4 ,birds of ,passage1 ,dormice1 and ,snails #cah ,,iv4 ,the ,rein-deer--the ,camel #cbb ,v4 ,benefit of the difference of ,climate #cbd ,,vi4 ,the same ,organs in different ,animals developed in various modes and degrees--the ,acalepha1 ,actinia1 and ,sepia #cbf ,,vii4 ,how the ,stars and we are connected together-- ,gravitation--,aerolites #ccj ,,viii4 ,dew #ccb ,,ix4 ,how every thing is endowed with a tendency to preserve its own life1 and the existence of its race #ccd ,x4 ,the ,bud of the ,poppy--long retention of life by seeds and roots #ccf ,,xi4 ,of ,seeds which are furnished with wings or sails #cci ,,xii4 ,conclusion of the conclusion #cdj ,list of ,plates4 ,,plate ,page ,i4 ,,extinct ,,animals ,,that ,,once ,,lived ,,where ,,dorsetshire ,,now ,,is #e ,,ii4 ,,extinct ,,animals ,,that ,,once ,,lived ,,where ,,paris ,,now ,,is #ba ,,iii4 ,,great ,,bone ,,cavern ,,of ,,gaylenreuth #cj ,,iv4 ,,gigantic ,,elk ,,and ,,megatherium #ch ,v4 ,,vesuvius1 ,,with ,,the ,,pine-,,tree ,,cloud #fd ,,vi4 ,,vesuvius ,,in ,,eruption ,,at ,,night #ff ,,vii4 ,,the ,,geysers ,,of ,,iceland #gh ,,viii4 ,,island ,,of ,,staffa #ic ,,ix4 ,,fingal',s ,,cave #ig ,x4 ,,forum ,,of ,,pompeii #aca ,,xi4 ,,great ,,fall ,,of ,,niagara #ace ,,xii4 ,,escape ,,on ,,the ,,ice #aeg ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,water-,,spout #aid ,,xiv4 ,,actini--,,coral ,,builders #bjf ,,xv4 ,,sepias #bca ,,xvi4 ,,nautilus #bci ,,xvii4 ,,aurora ,,borealis 7,,frontispiece47 ,,xviii4 ,,spectre ,,of ,,the ,,brocken #bhe ,,xix4 ,,dover ,,castle #bic ,,xx4 ,,fata ,,morgana #bii ,,wonders ,,of ,,the ,,earth1 ,,sea1 ,,and ,,sky4 ,,part ,i4 ,,wonders ,,of ,,the ,,earth4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,parley ,,explains ,,how ,,the ,,strata ,,of ,,the ,,earth ,,are ,,placed4 ,i am now going to tell you1 my young friends1 about some of the wonderful things in the earth1 sea1 and sky4 ,a great number of them ,i have seen myself in my travels through various countries1 and others ,i have only read of2 but ,i shall tell you nothing that is not strictly true1 for ,i do not wish so much to astonish you as to make you take pleasure in contemplating the works of ,god1 and to increase your knowledge of ,his goodness1 wisdom1 and power4 ,i shall begin with some of the wonders of the earth which1 as ,i suppose you know1 belong to the branch of natural history which is called geology2 and to enable you to understand what follows1 ,i must first explain how the materials which compose the ground you tread upon are arranged4 ,if you hastily travel over any extensive tract of country1 such as that between ,new ,york and ,philadelphia1 or between ,london and ,bristol1 you might think that all the different substances1 clay1 chalk1 limestone1 and granite1 were irregularly mixed together4 ,this is1 however1 not the case1 when taken on a great scale2 for if you more carefully examine1 you will find that the various sorts of earth are disposed in layers1 or strata1 and that a uniform order of arrangement is nearly preserved4 ,if these layers were perfectly horizontal1 laid one over another like the coats of an onion1 we should have to dig through one before we could get to the second1 and our knowledge of what the globe consists1 would be much more limited than it is2 for the greatest depth to which men have descended in the deepest mines1 is not much greater than the thickness of one of the strata4 ,but1 instead of this1 the surface is broken up by some force from beneath elevating portions1 so as to form mountains and hills2 and in consequence of this the edges of the strata appear on the surface one after another2 just as you would see the edges of a row of bricks that had been set up on their ends1 and then the last one thrown down so as to push down all the others4 ,illustration ,this is the way in which the strata are placed in the neighbourhood of ,weymouth4 ,illustration ,the chief reason why ,i wished you to understand this is1 that you may see how it is known that one stratum is older than another4 ,it is evident that the substance marked a1 in the section1 which is limestone1 must have been deposited before b1 while b must certainly be older than c4 ,now in most of the strata above the granite1 which is nearly always in the position of the oldest formation1 there are found various shells1 plants1 and bones of animals2 and where certain remains of different animals or vegetables are found in one stratum1 it is concluded that they must have been living about the same time4 ,most of the animals of the older strata were different in form from any at present known to exist2 and some of them are very remarkable1 and if they were alive now1 would seem to us very strange and awkward4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,i ,,extinct ,,animals4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,what ,,creatures ,,once ,,lived ,,where ,,dorsetshire ,,now ,,is4 ,i will show you a picture of what creatures were once living where the town of ,lyme ,regis1 in ,dorsetshire1 now stands1 and tell you something about their structure and their habits4 ,you may perhaps be ready to think that a great deal of what we profess to know concerning them1 is the work of fancy1 but ,i can assure you it is not1 and by and by ,i will endeavour to convince you that there is reason enough for you to believe what ,i tell you4 ,,the ,,ichthyosaurus4 ,that large animal lying on the ground1 is called the ,icthyosaurus1 from two ,greek words signifying ,fish-,lizard1 in consequence of his possessing some of the peculiarities of both fishes and lizards4 ,the usual length of this creature was from twenty to thirty feet4 ,it possessed a most surprising combination of the powers and qualities of different animals which are now in existence4 ,in its general form and character it must have been something like the modern porpoise2 but it had the teeth of a crocodile1 the head of a lizard1 the back-bone of a fish1 and the fins or paddles1 of a whale4 ,i shall spend some little time in explaining to you each of these particulars1 that you may see how wisely all the parts of living things are framed to supply their wants1 and adapt them to the circumstances in which they are placed4 ,the head was not very different from that of a crocodile1 or lizard1 in its general shape4 ,the teeth were precisely like those of a crocodile1 and grew up in the same manner4 ,creatures of this sort lead a ruffian sort of life1 always biting something or other1 and as they live very much in the dark at the bottom of the water1 perhaps now and then snap at a stone or a piece of hard wood by mistake1 and often break their teeth2 and in order therefore to keep them in constant repair1 they have a fresh set once a year1 or at very short intervals1 so that they are always growing4 ,the young tooth a1 springs up inside the old one b1 till it becomes so large that it splits its predecessor1 and the pieces fall off1 just as the covering of some sorts of buds falls off as the flower expands1 as you will see in this cut1 representing one of the fossil teeth4 ,illustration ,you must have noticed in the picture the great length of his snout4 ,in a jaw-bone of such amazing length which was to be applied to such violent purposes1 it was necessary there should be great strength4 ,there were two ways of obtaining this3 one would have been by having the bones very hard and stout2 but this would not do1 because they would then have been so heavy that the animal would have found difficulty in raising his head to the surface of the water for the purpose of breathing1 since it would have overbalanced the other part of his body4 ,the other contrivance1 which was the one adopted by the wisdom of the ,creator1 was to make the jaws consist of several thin bones1 a1 b1 c1 d1 strongly bound together1 and terminating in succession like the plates of steel of which a carriage spring is made4 ,there are accordingly six of these bones thus disposed4 ,illustration ,but this was not all1 the principal middle bone marked b1 instead of having its fibres run straight1 parallel with the others1 had them placed in a slanting position1 and thus there was additional firmness given to the jaw by what ship-builders would call diagonal bracing1 a contrivance that you may often see used in the construction of houses and ships4 ,if you have ever seen a crocodile open its mouth1 and then snap together its long thin jaws1 so as to make you start with the noise1 you will see how necessary all these contrivances must be for him and the ,icthyosaurus1 whose jaws were still thinner1 to prevent them from breaking their bones4 ,this however is not at all more wonderful than the eye1 which in the old-fashioned animal ,i have been describing1 was much larger than that of the crocodile1 and not unfrequently bigger than a man's head4 ,from the very great quantity of light which such a large surface would receive1 the creature's power of seeing must have been very great4 ,and besides this advantage1 it had the same faculty as is possessed by the golden eagle1 the turtle1 the tortoise1 and the lizard1 of pressing the eye forward to render it more convex4 ,in man and most animals1 the eye is placed in a fixed cavity of thin bone1 something like an egg-cup1 but in the ,icthyosaurus1 the cavity was formed by several bones not quite touching each other2 7as you may see in the last cut1 and in figure #b1 you have two of the bones by themselves1 taken out of the socket of the eye27 and there were muscles to draw these bones closer together2 so that by making the cup less deep1 the eye was thrust forward and made to swell out in the middle4 ,this is illustrated in the ball b1 which is pressed outwards1 by drawing the plates of bone cc1 together at o1 close than those which have the ball a between them4 ,illustration ,you must have seen that the more convex magnifying glasses are1 the more they magnify1 and the nearer you must hold them to the object you are looking at4 ,by this contrivance1 the eye of the ,icthyosaurus could be made at pleasure into a microscope1 so as to see with wonderful quickness things which were quite close to it1 by pushing it forward and rendering it more convex2 or it could be made into a telescope like the eyes of some persons who are long-sighted1 for seeing what is at a greater distance1 by drawing it back4 ,in all these particulars you may see how the skill of man leads him to adopt the same plans to produce the same ends in the works of art1 as ,god has adopted before him in the works of nature1 without his being conscious of copying them2 and this should remind you that man was created in the image of his ,maker4 ,if man had never made a carriage-spring1 or a diagonal bracing1 he would not have understood the structure of the jaw of the ,icthyosaurus2 and if he had never invented the telescope1 he would not have been able to explain the construction of the eye4 ,you have now seen the points in which the ,icthyo-saurus chiefly resembled a crocodile or lizard2 from which the latter half of its name is derived1 saurus1 a lizard4 ,i must now tell you something of those parts in which it is like a fish1 from which it takes the other part of its name1 icthy1 for icthus1 a fish4 ,you know that crocodiles live a good part of their time on land1 and they therefore have feet and a back-bone like land animals1 which enable them to walk better1 but do not allow them to swim so well as fish4 ,the back-bone is heavy and firm1 and each of the bones composing it has one side slightly hollow1 and the other side swelling out to fit into the hollow in the one that comes next to it4 ,but in fish both sides of the bones are hollow1 and they are joined together by gristle1 as you can easily see in the fish that are commonly eaten2 this renders the back-bone much more flexible and lighter1 and therefore better adapted for an animal always swimming4 ,that of the ,icthyosaurus was formed in the same manner1 and we therefore judge that he spent his whole life in the water2 for a back-bone so formed1 would not have been able to support such a great heavy body when walking on the land4 ,the fins1 or paddles1 were very curious1 and much like those of the whale2 they consisted of above a hundred small bones strongly united together1 in a sort of pavement enclosed in a strong skin1 and not divided into toes1 as you may observe in this representation of the entire skeleton4 ,illustration ,you may see many specimens of the skeleton itself in the ,british ,museum4 ,the ,icthyosaurus was a great tyrant1 and used to prey on every creature that came within his reach2 this is known by the fossil remains found in the inside of his body4 ,he used at times even to act the cannibal1 and eat his own relations1 for a large one has been dug out of the cliff at ,lyme ,regis1 with part of a small one in his stomach undigested2 he must have been altogether a very unamiable character4 ,but as his family has been so long extinct1 and we are told that we ought to say nothing but what is good concerning the dead1 ,i shall not say any more about him1 leaving you to form your own conclusions from what ,i have related to you4 ,,the ,,plesiosaurus4 ,those still more strange looking animals with very long necks1 which are represented swimming in the water1 have been named ,plesiosauri1 a word signifying1 related to1 or closely resembling1 a lizard4 ,there are some nearly perfect specimens in the ,british ,museum1 and this is a representation made up by taking the uninjured parts of several1 so as to make up a perfect whole4 ,illustration ,taking it altogether1 there is not one of the fossil animals so much unlike anything at present known to exist4 ,its usual length was from #i to #ae feet1 but it was at times very much larger4 ,the head was much shorter in proportion than that of the ,icthyosaurus1 being more like that of the guana1 the lizard which people eat in the ,west ,indies4 ,the neck must have been longer than that of any living animal1 not even excepting the swan2 it contained thirty-three bones1 or vertebr1 while the whole of the rest of the back-bone in the body and tail1 contained only fifty-seven4 ,the faces of these vertebr were nearly flat1 and not hollow like those of the ,icthyosaurus1 which would better enable the animal to exist on land1 and it appears to have moved about in the same manner as seals do4 ,from some very ingenious observations on certain parts of its anatomy1 7which if ,i were to endeavour to explain to you1 you would not understand1 unless you possessed a great deal of anatomical knowledge17 naturalists have supposed that it used to change the colour of its skin like the chameleon4 ,its paddles were almost exactly like those of the turtle1 and its body was something of the same shape1 but not quite so wide4 ,from its long neck1 which1 although it was strengthened by the solid joints and peculiar shapes of the bones1 was not very strong1 and its small head and jaws1 the ,plesiosaurus could not have been near a match for its neighbour1 the ,icthyosaurus1 in combat1 even when the individuals were of the same size2 neither would its form adapt it for cutting through the water so quickly4 ,it must1 therefore1 no doubt1 have often fallen a prey to that voracious monster4 ,perhaps1 however1 it often played him a trick when he was pursuing it by running on shore out of his reach2 or it might mostly have kept out of his way in very shallow water amongst the rushes and reeds1 where it could every now and then dart its long neck like a swan1 down at the little fish that came near it2 or else suddenly reaching aloft into the air1 it may have seized upon some unlucky insect1 or ,pterodactyle1 7a sort of bat of which ,i shall presently speak7 and then laid down as quiet under the rushes as if nothing had happened1 waiting for its next mouthful4 ,,the ,,pterodactyle4 ,that odd-looking creature which is flying in the air over the heads of the ,plesiosauri1 has been called the ,pterodactyle1 which signifies wing-fingered4 ,there were several varieties1 of different sizes and figures1 from that of a snipe to that of a raven4 ,the most remarkable of them was indeed a curious creature1 and so you will say if you look at the picture of his skeleton4 ,illustration ,he was more like a bat in his general shape and habits1 than anything else we know of1 but was very different in a great many respects4 ,he had a head like a lizard1 with a long snout and sharp teeth2 his ribs were round and thread-like1 not flat like those of birds and bats2 his eyes were large2 and his wings like a bat's1 being a membrane or skin1 stretched out by one very long toe on each of his fore-feet4 ,in order to support his long head1 there were strong cords running down each side of the vertebr of his neck1 such as are found in some modern birds1 as is known by the forms of the bones to which the ends of them were attached4 ,his toes ended in sharp claws1 and he had also claws at his two principal joints1 so that he could catch hold of the branches of trees with them1 as bats do4 ,these creatures used principally to feed upon large dragon flies1 beetles1 and the other insects1 of which the remains are found1 and some of which are represented in the picture4 ,there were also living at the same time with these creatures1 several kinds of tortoises1 and fish in immense varieties4 ,the whole district where the south coast of ,england now is1 seems to have then been a marsh with no vegetation but sea-weeds1 reeds1 and the like2 and its only inhabitants were1 fish1 reptiles1 and insects4 ,after the races of animals which we have mentioned1 became extinct1 a period followed in which they were succeeded by some monstrous creatures1 like lizards in all respects1 except that they were fitted to live in the water by the construction of their back-bone1 their having lungs of the same kind as those of fishes1 and the possession of fins4 ,one of these1 called the ,iguanodon1 was sometimes seventy feet long4 ,it had a little horn near the end of its snout1 placed something like the horn of a rhinoceros1 and must have borne considerable resemblance in its general form to the guana1 which ,i mentioned before4 ,their bones and teeth1 are found at ,lewes1 in ,sussex1 and in the ,isle of ,wight1 where you may pick them up on the shore1 as you can the bones of ,icthyosauri and ,plesiosauri1 at ,lyme ,regis1 though not in such great numbers4 ,we are indebted for a great deal of what ,i have told you about the animals that once lived where ,dorsetshire is now1 to a lady1 ,miss ,anning1 who spends nearly her whole time in collecting fossils out of the cliffs4 ,no one ought to go near ,lyme ,regis without visiting her collection4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,,extinct ,,animals4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,what ,,sort ,,of ,a ,,place ,,once ,,existed ,,where ,,the ,,neighbourhood ,,of ,,paris ,,is ,,now4 ,i shall show you a picture representing a state of things much more like the present1 than the one we looked at before4 ,it existed at a later period1 though still a great many years ago2 and if you wish to know why we conclude it to be later1 since it is the other side of the water and we are therefore prevented from distinctly tracing the succession of the strata1 ,i will tell you4 ,after leaving the formations of ,dorsetshire1 in which the great saurian or lizard-like reptiles are found1 we come to chalk in ,hampshire and the ,isle of ,wight2 and after the chalk1 to some beds of clay1 and then some beds of limestone4 ,the formations above the chalk1 are those called tertiary2 those from the chalk down to the lowest containing animal and vegetable remains1 are the secondary2 and all below that1 consisting mainly of various sorts of granite1 are the primary4 ,now all this occurs in the same order in ,france1 and the neighbourhood of ,paris consisting of tertiary formations1 just corresponds with the tertiary strata of the ,isle of ,wight1 and them we know to be more recent than the secondary formations of ,dorsetshire4 ,of course1 therefore1 the animals found at ,paris1 must be more recent than those found at ,lyme ,regis4 ,the largest of the animals represented in the plate1 is called the ,palotherium4 ,the following is a picture of his skeleton1 as it has been made out1 bone by bone4 ,a single tooth was first discovered1 and the ,french naturalist1 ,cuvier1 was able to determine from this alone1 a great many particulars which have now been proved by the subsequent discovery of the bones2 such was the knowledge he had acquired by comparing the bones of different animals4 ,he thus discovered that a certain shape of tooth always accompanied a certain shape of foot1 as well as indicated what kind of food the animal lived upon4 ,from this might be judged a great deal about the organs of digestion1 and the internal structure1 and something of its habits and disposition4 ,in all these points and several others1 ,cuvier predicted from a single bone of the ,palotherium1 what has been exactly confirmed by the entire skeleton4 ,illustration ,it was about the size of a small horse1 and must have possessed a little trunk1 or proboscis1 like the modern ,tapir1 to which indeed it must have borne a great resemblance4 ,illustration3 ,american ,tapir4 ,the reason for thinking that it had a trunk1 is because there is a peculiar contrivance in the bones to give strength to the neck1 which only exists in animals that have a proboscis4 ,there are some ,tapirs in the ,zoological ,gardens1 and if you have seen them1 you will be able to form a pretty good notion of what the ,palotherium must have been4 ,it had perhaps rather more of the hog about it1 than the ,tapir has1 with a more dull heavy expression of countenance4 ,there were three varieties of ,palotherium distinguished by their size4 ,the smallest was not much larger than a little dog1 and you may see the figure of one of them in the picture1 going down to the water to drink4 ,the more slender animal1 which is walking towards the water1 is the ,anoplotherium1 or un-armed beast4 ,its size varied from that of a hare1 to that of a large dog2 it had a very thick tail like that of the ,kangaroo4 ,everything about it would lead one to suppose that it was a timid creature1 whose swiftness and agility would protect it against stronger animals2 not unlike in disposition to the antelope1 or the hare of our times4 ,another animal was living at the same period1 which ,i must describe to you1 as it was1 as far as we know1 the largest quadruped that ever lived upon the earth1 and in some respects the most remarkable4 ,it was called the ,dinotherium1 or terrible wild beast1 and you will soon know how well it deserved this name4 ,the individual of which a part of the head is now in the ,british ,museum1 must have been eighteen feet long in the body1 and proportionally large6 ,if you compare this size with that of the largest elephant you have ever seen1 you will be able to form some notion of his enormous magnitude4 ,in his general form he somewhat resembled the ,tapirs1 but by no means so nearly as did the ,palotherium4 ,he had a much longer trunk2 and his shoulder blade is formed like that of the mole1 by which we know that he must have used his feet in digging4 ,it seems almost certain that he was amphibious3 and the back part of his skull has a remarkable similarity to that of the whale1 and cetaceous fishes in general4 ,but the most striking peculiarity in the bones which remain of this monster1 is the existence of two large tusks bending down from the lower jaw1 like two hooks1 as you may see represented in this cut1 of the head preserved in the ,museum4 ,his legs were probably rather short1 and might have borne nearly the same proportion to his body1 as those of the ,hippopotamus do to his4 ,from all we can collect1 this must have been his general form and appearance4 ,illustration ,illustration ,there can be but little doubt that he was of a savage disposition and lead a sulky sort of life divided between the water and the land1 like the ,hippopotamus4 ,his great tusks must have rendered him a formidable enemy2 but as we know that he was a digging animal1 it is very likely that he more frequently used them as a sort of pickaxe1 to grub up such roots as he wanted to eat1 for he lived wholly upon vegetables4 ,he might also have employed them 7as ,dr4 ,buckland has conjectured71 to stick into the banks of rivers to support his head above water1 and to anchor himself so as not to be carried down by the stream1 while his huge body lay in his favourite element3 or it does not seem unlikely that he might at times have hooked them on to the lower boughs of trees1 to sustain himself while he plucked down from above the fruit and foliage with his trunk4 ,his bones have been found in various parts of ,france1 ,germany and ,austria4 ,when these animals were living1 the climate must have been very much warmer than it is at present in ,france1 for their bones are found associated with palm trees1 and other vegetable remains of hot climates1 and the bones of crocodiles1 tortoises1 and other creatures which only live in warm regions4 ,the isle of ,sheppey consists chiefly of land which was deposited about the same time1 and it contains a great quantity of fossil coffee1 and similar plants at present restricted to the ,east and ,west ,indies1 and countries near the equator4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,of ,,great ,,caverns ,,in ,,england1 ,,and ,,germany1 ,,containing ,,bones ,,of ,,wild ,,animals4 ,in several parts of ,england there are great caverns in limestone and other rocks1 which contain an immense quantity of the bones of such animals as are now found only in wild countries with warm climates4 ,one of the most celebrated of these caves1 is that of ,kirkdale1 in ,yorkshire4 ,of the bones which most of them contain1 three-fourths and upwards belong to bears1 of a sort no longer to be found in the living state4 ,one-half1 or perhaps two-thirds1 of the remaining fourth1 have been traced to a species of hyna1 which is also unknown at the present day4 ,a smaller number may be referred to a sort of tiger or lion1 and to some species of the wolf or dog family4 ,the smallest specimens are of various small flesh-eating animals1 such as the fox1 the polecat1 and other kindred species4 ,there are also in some of them bones of the ,elephant1 ,rhinoceros1 and ,hippopotamus4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,,cave ,,of ,,gaylenreuth ,but the largest and most remarkable of these caves1 is at ,gaylenreuth1 in ,germany1 of which the picture represents a section4 ,you will understand this representation1 if you read the following account of it by ,dr4 ,buckland1 the ,professor of ,geology1 in the ,university of ,oxford4 ,the first grotto turns to the right1 and is upwards of #hj feet long4 ,it is divided into four parts by the unequal heights of the vaulted roof2 the first three are from #ae to #bj feet high2 whereas1 the fourth is only from #d to #e4 ,on the bottom of this part1 and on a level with the floor1 there is an orifice only two feet high1 which leads into the second grotto4 ,this runs first southward for #fj feet1 being #dj wide and #ah high2 it then turns to the west through a space of #gj feet1 becoming gradually lower till its altitude is only #e feet4 ,the passage to the third grotto is very incommodious1 winding through several corridors4 ,it is thirty feet wide1 and only five or six high4 ,the loam of the floor is stuffed full of teeth and jaw-bones4 ,near the entrance to it1 is a gulf of #ae or #bj feet1 into which visitors descend by a ladder4 ,after going down1 they arrive at a vault #ae feet diameter by #cj feet in height2 and on the side on which they descend1 is a grotto all bestrewed with bones4 ,by going down a little further still1 they fall in with a new arcade which conducts to a grotto #dj feet long1 and a new gulf #ah or #bj feet deep4 ,even after this descent1 another cavern presents itself #dj feet high1 quite covered with bones4 ,a passage now of #e feet by #g leads to a grotto #be feet long and #ab wide2 then alleys1 #bj feet long1 conduct into another cave #bj feet high2 and finally1 a grand grotto expands1 #hc feet in width1 and #bd in height1 more copiously furnished with bones than any of the rest4 ,the sixth and last grotto runs in a northerly direction1 so that the whole series of caverns and corridors1 describes nearly a semicircle4 ,a rift in the third grotto1 disclosed in #aghd1 a new grotto1 #ae feet long by #d wide1 where the greatest number of hynas' and lions' bones were found4 ,the opening was much too narrow to have allowed these animals to have entered by it4 ,a peculiar tunnel which terminated in this small grotto1 afforded an incredible number of bones1 and large skulls quite entire4 ,it is supposed that these caves were inhabited by the fierce animals whose bones they contain1 and that the other more peaceable creatures were dragged in by them for prey1 since their bones have evidently been gnawed and crushed as they would be by fierce and powerful carnivorous animals4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,of ,,other ,,animals ,,that ,,once ,,lived ,,in ,,england ,,and ,,elsewhere4 ,,the ,,elephant4 ,i have before mentioned to you the bones of ,elephants1 as occurring in the bone caverns2 they were1 however1 not just like the ,elephants now living in ,africa and ,asia4 ,the tusks seem to have been larger1 and the head not quite so broad and blunt2 the teeth were also different4 ,there are not perhaps many counties in ,england in which some of these remains have not been found1 and generally not far below the surface of the soil4 ,about ,london1 and at ,woolwich in particular1 a great many specimens of the fossil tusks have been collected2 they are chiefly of about the consistency of chalk1 but if you break them across and look at the end1 you can see the grain of the ivory1 just as you do on a billiard-ball1 or at the end of a knife-handle4 ,before anatomy was understood so well as it is at present1 the bones of the ,elephant1 and those of several other large extinct animals1 were confounded together under the name of ,mammoth4 ,there is a remarkable account of the discovery of what was at the time called a ,mammoth1 7but which was1 doubtless1 an ,elephant17 imbedded in ice in ,siberia1 which ,i shall relate to you1 as it is very well written and of undoubted veracity4 ,in the year #agii1 a ,tungusian fisherman observed a strange shapeless mass projecting from an ice-bank1 near the mouth of a river in the north of ,siberia1 the nature of which he did not understand1 and which was so high in the bank as to be beyond his reach4 ,he next year observed the same object1 which was then rather more disengaged from among the ice2 but was still unable to conceive what it was4 ,towards the end of the following summer1 #ahja1 he could distinctly see that it was the frozen carcass of an enormous animal1 the entire flank of which1 and one of its tusks1 had become disengaged from the ice4 ,in consequence of the ice beginning to melt earlier1 and to a greater degree than usual1 in #ahjc1 the fifth year of this discovery1 the enormous carcass became entirely disengaged1 and fell down from the ice-crag on a sand-bank1 forming part of the coast of the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,in the month of ,march of that year1 the ,tungusian carried away the two tusks1 which he sold for fifty rubles1 about fifteen pounds sterling4 ,two years afterwards this animal still remained on the sand-bank where it had fallen from the ice2 but its body was then greatly mutilated4 ,the peasants had taken away considerable quantities of its flesh to feed their dogs2 and the wild animals1 particularly the white bears1 had also feasted on the carcass2 yet the skeleton remained quite entire1 except that one of the fore-legs was gone4 ,the entire spine1 the pelvis1 one shoulder-blade1 and three legs1 were still held together by their ligaments1 and by some remains of the skin2 and the other shoulder-blade was found at a short distance4 ,the head remained1 covered by the dried skin1 and the pupil of the eyes was still distinguishable4 ,the brain also remained within the skull1 but a good deal shrunk and dried up2 and one of the ears was in excellent preservation1 still retaining a tuft of strong bristly hair4 ,the upper lip was a good deal eaten away1 and the under lip was entirely gone1 so that the teeth were distinctly seen4 ,the animal had a long mane on its neck4 ,the skin was extremely thick and heavy1 and so much of it remained as required the exertions of ten men to carry away1 which they did with considerable difficulty4 ,more than thirty pounds' weight of the hair and bristles of this animal were gathered from the wet sand-bank1 having been trampled into the mud by the white bears1 while devouring the carcass4 ,the hair was of three distinct kinds2 one consisting of stiff black bristles1 a foot or more in length2 another of thinner bristles1 or coarse flexible hair1 of a reddish-brown colour2 and the third of a coarse reddish-brown wool1 which grew among the roots of the hair4 ,these afford an undeniable proof that this animal had belonged to a race of elephants inhabiting a cold region1 with which we are now unacquainted1 and by no means fitted to live in the torrid zone4 ,it is also evident that this enormous animal must have been frozen up by the ice at the moment of its death4 ,,the ,,gigantic ,,elk4 ,there are frequently found in the peat bogs of ,england and ,ireland1 the bones and horns of a large ,elk1 called the gigantic ,elk1 and sometimes the ,irish ,elk4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iv4 ,,megatherium ,,gigantic ,,elk ,here is a picture of him2 and you may judge how well he was entitled to his name1 when ,i tell you that some pairs of his horns have been found1 which measured nearly twelve feet across from tip to tip4 ,he must have been considerably larger than the ,wapiti ,deer in the ,zoological ,gardens1 and of quite a different form4 ,it is not known when these creatures became extinct2 but it is probable that it may have been since ,britain has been inhabited by man4 ,,the ,,megatherium4 ,the bones of this great beast were first found at ,buenos ,ayres in ,south ,america1 and a skeleton nearly complete was sent home from thence by the ,governor to the ,royal ,cabinet of ,madrid1 in #aghi4 ,they were found in loose soil1 and must apparently have belonged to nearly the same age as the ,fossil ,elephant and ,irish ,elk4 ,the head must have been very much like that of the sloth1 but it seems to have possessed the addition of a small trunk like the ,palotherium ,i told you of just now4 ,the structure of its legs 7and in particular its very strong short thigh-bone1 which is much stouter than that of any animal living17 shows that it must have moved very slowly4 ,its teeth show that it lived on vegetables1 and the great ungainly fore-feet1 armed with tremendous claws1 would lead one to suppose that it used to dig in the ground for roots1 and tear down the branches of trees4 ,it appears to have been covered with a thick shell or coating1 thicker than the hide of a rhinoceros1 and rather resembling the covering of the armadillo4 ,i have seen a piece of this wonderful coat of armour in the ,museum at ,paris1 which was found along with the skeleton in ,south ,america4 ,if one might decide from its likeness to other animals in its various parts1 it was a sulky beast1 and1 if it could have spoken1 would only have said to its neighbours1 ,let me alone--,i want nothing of you1 if you want nothing of me4 ,its length was full #ac feet1 and its height about #i feet2 so you may suppose armed1 and defended as it was1 there was not much chance of other animals being disposed to meddle with it1 for it must have been big enough and strong enough to take good care of itself1 though it could not run very fast4 ,,the ,,beaver4 ,you will1 perhaps1 be surprised to hear that ,beavers once lived in ,england2 but it is known from history1 that they were found in ,wales as late as the twelfth century4 ,i have got the bones of some1 that were given me by a countryman1 who picked them out of a peat bog in ,hampshire1 without knowing what they were4 ,they were buried close by some hazel nuts1 and some moss that had not lost its colour1 and was in no degree decayed2 such is the great power possessed by certain minerals that exist in these peat bogs1 to preserve things from decay1 even during a period which could hardly be less than a thousand years4 ,it is related1 that the foot of a lady1 which seemed quite fresh1 was found in peat1 where it had lain in contact with some of these substances1 with a sandal of a kind that must have been worn many hundreds of years ago4 ,and though ,i will not assert that it is true1 yet ,i will say1 that it is very likely to be so1 from what ,i have seen myself1 in regard to nuts1 and moss1 and various weeds4 ,,the ,,dodo4 ,when the ,dutch in the #afth century1 took possession of the ,isle of ,france1 now called ,mauritius1 which up to that time had not been inhabited by man1 they found a large bird something of the ,duck kind1 of which they sent home specimens and representations4 ,they called it the ,dodo1 but why1 ,i cannot tell you4 ,the race has now become extinct1 so that many naturalists have declared that it never existed1 and that the account of it was naughtily invented1 and sent home for the gratification and delusion of ,those who greedily pursue ,things wonderful instead of true4 ,but there is not the least doubt of its being a fact1 for in the ,museum in ,london there is a painting said to have been taken from the living bird2 there is also a leg and a plaster cast of the head placed near the painting1 which naturalists have determined could not have belonged to any other animal known1 from their peculiar construction2 there is also another foot and the head from which the cast was taken1 preserved in the ,museum of the ,university of ,oxford1 being the remains of an entire specimen which was kept in the collection of curiosities made by ,elias ,ashmole1 ,esq4 till it rotted4 ,this is representation of these two valuable relics4 ,illustration ,the account of the removal of the bones was entered in the records of the ,university1 and the date is the #ast ,january1 #agee4 ,more recently some of the bones have been found in the ,mauritius1 and have been sent to ,paris1 where ,i have heard they may be seen now4 ,it seems to have been the most unwieldy and inactive bird in existence1 and to have held nearly the same kind of place among feathered animals as the sloth does among beasts4 ,the body was very massive1 and almost round1 and seemed to be stuck upon two short thick legs like pillars4 ,the tail was strangely out of its place1 according to the usual form of birds2 and two little caricatures of wings were hung upon its great blank sides4 ,a thick pursy neck supported the head1 which consisted of two enormous chaps that opened far behind the eyes4 ,you will best understand the form of the bill by looking at the cut copied from the painting which ,i mentioned before1 and you may there see how like a monk's cowl the feathers of his head looked4 ,illustration ,some of the ,dutch who met with this bird in its own country called it the nauseous bird1 and declared that its flesh was intolerably disagreeable to the taste2 while others asserted that it was very good eating1 and that about three ,dodos would feast a hundred men4 ,but whatever may have been the quality of the flesh1 ,i do not believe what the latter said of its quantity1 for the head and leg which ,i have seen1 and which appear to have belonged to a full grown bird1 are not very much larger than those of a swan4 ,however this is now a question which of course will never be certainly decided1 as there are no more of them to be eaten4 ,it appears that1 like the beavers and wolves in ,england1 the progress of man and cultivation deprived them of their sources of sustenance4 ,if we may judge of what his character was1 from his appearance1 he must have been a silly1 voracious creature1 with hardly any power of resistance or flight4 ,however1 like all the rest of ,god's works1 he was no doubt adapted for the circumstances in which he was placed1 and had enough means of enjoyment1 to make it well worth his while to live as long as he could4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,parley ,,describes ,,volcanoes1 ,,earthquakes1 ,,and ,,hot ,,springs4 ,you have no doubt often heard of ,volcanoes and ,earthquakes1 for almost everybody in all ages has felt a deep interest in them1 and a curiosity to know what they are caused by4 ,if you will listen to me1 while ,i merely describe them as they really exist1 without drawing the long bow1 as people say1 ,i will then tell you how ,i think they are produced4 ,it is quite certain that there is an important connexion between ,volcanoes and ,earthquakes2 and we may safely take this for granted1 and at once call the cause of both1 whatever it may be1 volcanic agency4 ,it has been discovered by extensive observations1 that this agency does not exert itself in individual spots1 so as to produce here a ,volcano and there an ,earthquake2 but its operations take place over long tracts of country in which the ,volcanoes are placed1 and1 in the spaces between them1 ,earthquakes are more or less frequent4 ,these tracts are called ,volcanic bands2 one of them extends nearly parallel with the ,west ,coast of ,south ,america1 along the chain of mountains called the ,andes1 which you will see marked on the map2 and another much smaller extends from ,mount ,vesuvius to ,mount ,etna1 with the ,volcanic ,island ,stromboli1 and several extinct ,volcanoes lying between them1 and then turns to the ,east1 through several of the ,greek ,islands1 and passes on to ,syria1 where ,earthquakes are frequent4 ,earthquakes in their simplest form are nothing more than violent shakings of the ground2 but sometimes the earth is split open2 sometimes it is raised2 and sometimes it is depressed4 ,i shall tell you of some of the changes which took place in the great ,earthquake of ,calabria1 which lies in the smaller volcanic band ,i mentioned to you between ,vesuvius and ,etna4 ,,earthquake ,,of ,,calabria4 ,the shocks began in #aghc1 and lasted for nearly four years1 till the end of #aghf4 ,during this time the ,king of ,naples sent persons to take correct notes and representations of all that was going on1 and we have therefore got a better account of it than we have of any other ,earthquake that ever occurred4 ,the convulsion of the earth1 sea1 and air1 extended as far as ,naples1 and over the whole of ,sicily2 but the district over which it was so violent as to excite intense alarm1 was about five hundred miles in circumference4 ,the first shock of ,february #eth1 #aghc1 threw down1 in two minutes1 the greater part of the houses in all the cities1 towns1 and villages1 from the western sides of the ,apennines in ,calabria ,ultra1 to ,messina in ,sicily1 and convulsed the whole surface of the country4 ,another occurred on the #bhth of ,march1 with almost equal violence4 ,the chain of granite mountains which passes through ,calabria from north to south1 and attains the height of many thousand feet1 was shaken but slightly2 but it is said that a great part of the shocks which were spread with a wave-like motion through the recent strata from west to east1 became very violent when they reached the point of junction with the granite1 as if a reaction was produced where the wave-like movement of the soft strata was suddenly arrested by the more solid rocks4 ,the surface of the country often heaved like the billows of a swelling sea1 which produced a swimming in the head like sea-sickness4 ,it is particularly stated1 in almost all the accounts1 that just before each shock the clouds appeared motionless2 and although no explanation is offered of this phenomenon1 it is obviously the same as that observed in a ship at sea when it pitches violently4 ,the clouds seem arrested in their career as often as the vessel rises in a direction contrary to their course2 so that the ,calabrians must have experienced precisely the same motion on the land4 ,at ,messina in ,sicily1 the shore was rent2 and the soil along the port1 which before the shock was perfectly level1 was inclined towards the sea1 and the sea itself was considerably deeper1 which showed that the inclination must have been occasioned by the bottom's sinking4 ,the quay also sunk down #ad inches below the level of the sea1 and the houses in the neighbourhood were much cracked4 ,in one town there was a large round tower of great strength1 which was divided by a perpendicular rent1 and one-half was raised up several feet1 so as to show the foundations4 ,those who saw it1 said that it looked like a great tooth half extracted1 showing the fangs4 ,along the line of the crack1 the walls were found to fit so exactly together1 that you would not have known they had even been divided if the courses of the stones had not been disturbed4 ,illustration ,there was a very curious difference between some of the walls which had been thrown down1 or very much shaken by some of the shocks4 ,in some of them1 the separate stones were parted from the mortar1 so as to leave an exact mould where they had rested2 and in others1 the mortar was ground to dust between the stones4 ,it was not less strange to see the effect of what must have been whirling movements in the ground4 ,in some streets1 one house would be thrown down1 and leave the rest uninjured2 while in others1 all the houses but one were thrown down1 and that one remained firm and unmoved4 ,two obelisks were twisted round1 so that the stones of which they were composed1 stood at cross purposes4 ,this cut represents one of the two1 as it stood after the earthquake1 and before4 ,illustration ,it appears evident that a great part of the rending and splitting of the ground was the effect of a violent motion from below upwards2 and in a multitude of cases where the rents and chasms opened and closed alternately1 we must suppose that the earth was by turns heaved up1 and then let fall again4 ,we may conceive the same effect to be produced on a small scale1 if1 by some mechanical force1 a pavement composed of large flags of stone should be raised up and then allowed to fall suddenly1 so as to resume its original position4 ,if any small pebbles happened to be lying on the line of contact of two flags1 they would fall into the opening when the pavement rose1 and be swallowed up1 so that no trace of them would appear after the subsidence of the stones4 ,in the same manner1 when the earth was upheaved1 large houses1 trees1 cattle1 and men were engulfed in an instant in chasms and fissures2 and when the ground sunk down again1 the earth closed upon them1 so that no vestige of them was discoverable on the surface4 ,in many instances individuals were swallowed up by one shock1 and then thrown out alive1 together with large jets of water1 by the shock which immediately succeeded4 ,the district called ,jerocarne1 was torn in a surprising manner1 and in one spot the cracks resembled those in a starred pane of glass2 and as these cracks remained open when the earthquake was over1 it seemed as if the middle had been permanently lifted up4 ,illustration ,in the vicinity of ,oppido1 the central point from which the earthquake diffused its violent movements1 many houses were swallowed up by the yawning earth1 which closed immediately over them4 ,in the adjacent district also of ,cannamaria1 four farm-houses1 several oil-stores1 and some spacious dwelling-houses were so completely engulphed in one chasm1 that no vestige of them was afterwards discernible4 ,amongst the many fissures that were opened1 there was one1 a mile long1 a hundred feet wide1 and thirty feet deep2 and another1 three quarters of a mile long1 one hundred and fifty feet wide1 and one hundred feet deep2 and a third1 about a quarter of a mile long1 which was two hundred and twenty-five feet deep4 ,a mountain was cleft completely in two2 and a lake of considerable size was formed by the opening of this great chasm1 and springs bursting out at the bottom4 ,the inhabitants of the neighbourhood were afraid that the pool of nearly stagnant water which was thus formed would injure their health1 and were at great expense in trying to drain it2 but it was all in vain1 for the springs that fed it at the bottom were inexhaustible4 ,a great mass of earth1 or hill1 two hundred feet high1 and four hundred feet in diameter1 was moved nearly four miles out of its place1 with trees growing upon it2 and another similar mass1 with a house on it1 which was not at all injured4 ,some olive and mulberry trees travelled a full mile4 ,these great movements were aided by springs under the masses of earth1 which made a slimy sort of road for them2 and1 of course1 the whole distance was down hill4 ,great agitation was frequently observed in the bed of the sea during the shocks1 and1 on those parts of the coast where the movement was most violent1 all kinds of fish were taken in greater abundance1 and with much greater facility4 ,some rare species1 which usually lie buried in the sand1 were taken on the surface of the waters in great quantity4 ,the sea is said to have boiled up near ,messina1 and to have been agitated as if by a copious discharge of vapours from its bottom4 ,the ,prince of ,scilla had persuaded a great part of his vassals to betake themselves to their fishing-boats for safety1 and he himself had gone on board4 ,on the night of the #eth of ,february1 when some of the people were sleeping in the boats1 and others on a level plain1 slightly elevated above the sea1 the earth rocked1 and suddenly a great mass was torn from the contiguous ,mount ,jaci1 and thrown down with a dreadful crash upon the plain4 ,immediately afterwards1 the sea rising thirty palms above the level of this low tract1 rolled foaming over it1 and swept away the multitude4 ,it then retreated1 but soon rushed back again with greater violence1 bringing with it some of the people and animals it had carried away4 ,at the same time every boat was sunk or dashed against the beach1 and some of them were swept far inland4 ,the aged ,prince1 with one thousand four hundred and thirty of his people1 was destroyed4 ,the number of persons who perished during the earthquake is estimated at about forty thousand1 and about twenty thousand more died by diseases which were caused by insufficient nourishment1 exposure to the atmosphere1 and malaria1 arising from the new stagnant lakes and pools4 ,by far the greater number were buried under the ruins of their houses2 while some were burnt to death in the conflagrations which almost invariably followed the shocks1 and consumed immense magazines of oil and other provisions4 ,a small number were engulfed in chasms and fissures1 and their skeletons are perhaps buried in the earth to this day1 at the depth of several hundred feet1 for such was the profundity of some of the openings which did not close in again4 ,there is a fine description of the ,earthquake and this melancholy result1 in ,cowper's ,task1 which we shall quote4 ,alas for ,sicily6 rude fragments now ,lie scatter'd where the shapely column stood4 ,her palaces are dust4 ,in all her streets ,the voice of singing and the sprightly chord ,are silent4 ,revelry1 and dance1 and show ,suffer a syncope and solemn pause2 ,while ,god performs upon the trembling stage ,of his own works his dreadful part alone4 ,the rocks fall headlong1 and the valleys rise1 ,the rivers die into offensive pools1 ,and charged with putrid verdure1 breathe a gross ,and mortal nuisance into all the air4 ,what solid was1 by transformation strange1 ,grows fluid2 and the fix'd and rooted earth1 ,tormented into billows1 heaves and swells1 ,or with vortiginous and hideous whirl ,sucks down its prey insatiable4 ,immense ,the tumult and the overthrow1 the pangs ,and agonies of human and of brute ,multitudes1 fugitive on every side1 ,and fugitive in vain4 ,the sylvan scene ,migrates uplifted2 and1 with all its soil ,alighting in far distant fields1 finds out ,a new possessor1 and survives the change4 ,ocean has caught the frenzy1 and upwrought ,to an enormous and o'erbearing height1 ,not by a mighty wind1 but by that voice ,which winds and waves obey1 invades the shore ,with force resistless4 ,where now the throng1 ,that press'd the beach1 and1 hasty to depart1 ,look'd to the sea for safety8 ,they are gone1 ,gone with the refluent wave into the deep-- ,a prince with half his people6 ,you will find a great many other astonishing effects of this ,earthquake described in ,mr4 ,lyell's ,work on ,geology1 from which ,i have extracted some parts of the preceding account4 ,,volcanoes4 ,the word ,volcano comes from ,vulcan1 the name of the ,god of fire in the ,greek mythology4 ,you have read how the poets used to represent him as engaged underground in forging thunderbolts for ,jupiter1 and other work of the same kind1 with the assistance of his one-eyed journeymen the ,cyclopes4 ,they feigned that ,volcanoes were the chimneys of his workshops1 and that when an eruption took place he was busy forging his iron4 ,others pretended that when ,jupiter had overcome the giants named ,titans1 who had rebelled against him1 instead of putting them in the stocks1 he placed mountains upon them1 and that when the imprisoned monsters turned themselves from one side to the other1 earthquakes and eruptions were the consequence4 ,however1 we don't believe any of these stories now1 neither perhaps did the ancients4 ,but you must learn all about them and their meaning1 7where they have any17 from your schoolmaster4 ,my business now is to tell you what ,volcanoes are4 ,they are openings in the surface of the earth1 from whence ignited matter of various kinds1 smoke1 and ashes1 are sent forth by some subterranean agency4 ,for the most part they do not always keep in activity1 but have long intervals of rest for months1 and sometimes for very many years1 between the eruptions4 ,one of the few that always keeps in eruption1 is ,stromboli1 one of the ,lipari ,islands off the coast of ,sicily1 which there is good reason to think1 has been active for nearly #afjj years4 ,this ,volcano is merely a mountain or rock1 standing out of the sea1 and the melted matter1 that occasionally runs down its sides1 flows directly into the water1 and at once kills and parboils the fish that happen to be near it1 and they are thus sometimes taken and eaten by the poor fishermen who live about the base of the mountain4 ,the way in which an eruption takes place in a ,volcano of the other kind1 when it has been quiet for a long time1 is as follows4 ,great noises are heard about the foot of the mountain1 and earthquakes frequently occur for several days before any change is seen in the opening or crater1 as it is called4 ,the springs in the neighbourhood often disappear1 and as you may suppose all these forebodings make the people who live near gloomy enough4 ,after a time a dreadful burst takes place1 and the crater is in an instant cleared of the stones and earth that may have fallen into it during the period of repose2 ashes and cinders1 rocks and stones1 are thrown up to an immense height in the air1 and a great cloud of smoke and steam accompanies them4 ,in perfectly still weather1 this vapour is seen to shape itself in a very beautiful manner4 ,the immense impulse from beneath sends it up to a vast height as straight and almost as distinct as a pillar4 ,at a certain elevation1 it spreads abroad and assumes the appearance represented in the plate4 ,when this occurs on ,vesuvius1 the ,italians call it the pine tree cloud1 from the resemblance its form bears to that of a pine tree4 ,as the eruption goes on the cloud of smoke which is always copiously charged with electricity1 sends out brilliant lightnings2 its form becomes disturbed1 and the dark volumes of vapour are angrily sent forth in shapeless masses4 ,red-hot stones are sent into the air to a stupendous height2 the melted matter boils up inside the crater and rolls down the sides of the mountain1 setting fire to the trees that it meets with1 and destroying or enveloping whatever else remains in its way4 ,you will see their effect as they appear by night1 in the other plate4 ,i should tell you that the ,volcano represented in both the pictures is ,mount ,vesuvius4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,v4 ,,vesuvius ,no4 #a ,the melted matter that boils up in the crater1 and flows down the mountain1 is called ,lava4 ,i dare say most of you have seen some pieces of this substance when polished and worked into ornaments4 ,it is found in great variety1 and is sometimes black1 porous1 and light like cinders2 sometimes it consists of crystallized particles of quartz1 felspar1 and other minerals1 so as closely to resemble granite2 and not unfrequently it is a solid dark-coloured mass1 heavy and hard as the stone that our streets are paved with4 ,it issues from the crater in a melted state1 bubbling and boiling like water in a tea-kettle1 but you must not therefore suppose that it runs down the declivity of the mountain like water4 ,on the contrary1 its motion is mostly very slow1 seldom being faster when it gets at some distance from the crater1 than four miles an hour1 which is about as fast as a man can walk4 ,when it has run still further from its source it does not travel more than a few yards in a day4 ,the motion of a stream of ,lava is very peculiar1 for the surface exposed to the air is immediately formed into a crust1 and hence it constantly moves with a crackling noise1 and when the stream is quite fresh no light is seen except in the cracks that are constantly being formed at the extremity4 ,in this way a current will sometimes go drawling on for months after the eruption which gave rise to it has ceased4 ,a very curious effect is produced when the lava runs in a certain state of fluidity down a steep descent4 ,a thick1 strong crust forms on the outside1 and it is one of the qualities of lava when it has become hard1 like most other stony substances1 to present great opposition to the passage of heat4 ,in consequence of this the liquid lava in the inside of the current is kept hot1 and continues to run on for a long time after the supply from the crater has ceased1 and leaves the crust in the form of an arched passage4 ,from what ,i have told you about lava streams1 you will see that there is not much danger from them to living creatures1 who may always get out of their way fast enough3 but sometimes houses and even towns are enveloped in them4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vi4 ,,vesuvius ,no4 #b ,however1 from the peculiar mode in which they travel there is often a way of preventing this1 and on one occasion it was resorted to1 and the town of ,catania thereby saved4 ,a current of lava from ,mount ,etna was making its way straight towards the town1 but a body of fifty bold strong fellows went out to meet it1 armed with crow bars2 with these they broke great holes in the crust at the side1 and thus the stream was turned into another course1 and pursued its way on one side of the town4 ,throughout an eruption1 a great quantity of dust is produced by the rubbing of the stones against each other which are thrown out from the crater1 and often fall back and are thrown up again several times4 ,this dust is driven over a great extent of country1 and a gentleman whom ,i visited1 who lived about fourteen miles from ,mount ,vesuvius1 told me that during the great eruption of #ahbb1 his garden was covered with them1 to the depth of full six inches4 ,but in more violent eruptions they are carried much further than this4 ,in an eruption of a ,volcano in ,sumbawa1 an island which lies some miles to the ,east of ,java1 the ashes were carried to a distance of #bgj miles in such quantities as to darken the air1 and in another direction they were found #cjj miles off4 ,they fell so heavily #dj miles away from the ,volcano that they broke into many houses1 and rendered them uninhabitable4 ,quantities of liquid lava are thrown upwards1 and shape themselves into nearly the forms of fish by their passage through the air4 ,these are called bombs by the inhabitants1 and the fall of them is very justly dreaded1 as they come with great violence4 ,the size of the largest of those from which the following picture was taken1 was six inches long1 two inches and a quarter wide1 and one inch and three quarters thick2 but there are much larger sometimes4 ,illustration ,if you should have a chance of examining any of these1 you may observe how wisely the living principle1 which gives the figure to fish1 has been ordained by their ,creator to provide the best form to assist their motions1 in a medium in which they are suspended1 and do not move on ground as the beasts do2 seeing that it is precisely the same sort of figure as the laws of inanimate matter impress upon it1 when in a yielding state1 and being impelled to move under similar circumstances4 ,i must give you a notion of the quantity of lava sometimes sent out in a single eruption4 ,the ,volcano called ,skapta ,jokul1 in ,iceland1 in the year #agid1 sent out two great streams1 one of which was #ej miles in length1 from #aj to #ae in breadth1 and the ordinary depth about #ajj feet1 but in some deep valleys it was more than #ejj feet4 ,the other was forty miles long1 seven wide on the average1 and about the same depth as the first4 ,these streams were not cold in the year #ahje1 eleven years after they had issued from the earth1 so that you may judge how long the hardened lava keeps in the heat4 ,during the eruption in which this immense mass of melted matter was thrown out1 twenty villages were destroyed1 more than nine thousand persons killed1 and an immense number of cattle4 ,the vapour which rises at first in immense clouds1 when the eruption slackens1 or when it gets out of the reach of the heat1 condenses1 and mingled with the dust thrown up with it1 forms mud1 which rushes in torrents down the mountain4 ,these streams of mud are called alluvions1 and are very much more dreaded by the inhabitants than the lava streams1 because they are so much quicker in their movement4 ,it was one of these1 and not a stream of lava which enveloped the ,roman ,city ,pompeii2 and which entered the modern town of ,torre del ,greco1 and so raised the ground that the lower rooms of the houses were converted into cellars1 and the people were obliged to make the street doors on what had before been the second story4 ,,the ,,great ,,volcano ,,kirauea1 ,,in ,,the ,,island ,,of ,,hawaii4 ,there is a very remarkable ,volcano in the ,island of ,hawaii1 where ,captain ,cook was killed4 ,the crater1 instead of being at the top of a mountain like those of most other ,volcanoes1 is a large plain1 seven miles in circumference1 sunk below the surface of the surrounding country1 and walled in by rugged cliffs more than seven hundred feet high4 ,on this plain there are fifty-one conical hillocks1 which are almost constantly sending out vapour and lava1 and red hot stones4 ,the surrounding banks consist entirely of sulphur and lava4 ,the islanders1 before they were taught the truths of ,christianity1 believed it to be the abode of their deities1 the chief of whom they call ,pel1 and to her1 they say1 that everything which grows near the ,volcano is sacred4 ,when some missionaries were going to visit it1 and plucked some juicy berries from the shrubs that grew there to quench their thirst1 the native guides begged them to desist till they had made an offering to ,pel4 ,when they got to the edge of the crater1 they threw some of the berries in1 and said1 ,pel1 here are your berries1 and ,i am now going to eat some4 ,they then ate fast enough1 and were willing that the missionaries should do the same4 ,the following are extracts from the account of our countryman1 ,mr4 ,stewart's visit to this terrific place4 ,i can compare the general aspect of the bottom of the crater1 to nothing that will give a livelier image of it to your mind1 than to the appearance the ,otsego ,lake would present1 if the ice with which it is covered in winter1 were suddenly broken up by a heavy storm1 and as suddenly frozen again1 while large slabs and blocks were still toppling1 and dashing1 and heaping against each other1 with the motion of the waves4 ,just so rough and distorted was the black mass under our feet1 only a hundred-fold more terrific1 independently of the innumerable cracks1 fissures1 deep chasms and holes1 from which the sulphureous vapour1 steam1 and smoke were exhaled1 with a degree of heat that testified the near vicinity of fire4 ,at an inconsiderable distance from us1 was one of the largest of the conical craters1 whose laborious action had so greatly impressed our minds during the night1 and we hastened to a nearer examination of it4 ,on reaching its base1 we judged it to be one hundred and fifty feet high1 a huge1 irregularly shapen1 inverted funnel of lava1 covered with clefts1 orifices1 and tunnels1 from which bodies of steam escaped1 while pale flames1 ashes1 stones1 and lava1 were propelled with equal force and noise1 from its ragged mouth4 ,the chattering of the islanders around our cabins1 and the occasional sound of voices in protracted conversation among our own number1 had scarcely ceased long enough to admit of sound sleep1 when the volcano again began roaring and labouring with redoubled activity4 ,the confusion of noises was prodigiously great4 ,these sounds were not fixed or confined to one place1 but rolled from one end of the crater to the other2 sometimes seeming to be immediately under us1 when a sensible tremor of the ground on which we lay took place2 and then again rushing to the farthest end with incalculable velocity4 ,the whole air was filled with the tumult2 and those most soundly asleep were quickly roused by it to thorough wakefulness4 ,one of our party sprang up in his cot1 exclaiming1 ',we shall certainly have an eruption2 such power must burst through everything2' ,he had barely ceased speaking1 when a dense column of heavy black smoke was seen arising from the crater directly in front of us2 the subterranean struggle ceased1 and immediately after1 flames burst from a large cone1 near which we had been in the morning1 and which then appeared to have been long inactive4 ,red-hot stones1 cinders1 and ashes1 were also propelled to a great height with immense violence2 and shortly after1 the molten lava came boiling up1 and flowed down the sides of the cone1 and over the surrounding scoria1 in two beautiful curved streams1 glittering with indiscribable brilliance4 ,at the same time a whole lake of fire opened in a more distant part4 ,this could not have been less than two miles in circumference2 and its action was more horribly sublime than anything ,i ever imagined to exist1 even in the ideal vision of unearthly things4 ,its surface had all the agitation of an ocean2 billow after billow tossed its monstrous bosom in the air1 and occasionally those from different directions burst with such violence1 as in the concussion to dash the fiery spray forty and fifty feet high4 ,it was at once the most splendidly beautiful and dreadfully fearful of spectacles4 ,,of ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,new ,,islands4 ,you must know that most of the volcanic mountains bear evident traces of having been built up of matter thrown out1 in the first place1 from a crack or hole in the ground1 and afterwards from the crater or cup1 which would thus soon be formed4 ,at every eruption a new layer of dust1 and cinders1 and lava1 is added1 and thus a mountain is gradually produced4 ,in some instances1 the successive layers may be seen is the crater1 as is the case with ,vesuvius1 of the summit of which this would nearly represent the section1 if we could cut it in two4 ,illustration ,volcanic operations can go on very nearly as well at the bottom of the sea1 as upon dry land2 and if you remember what ,i told you before1 respecting the mode in which the currents of lava flow1 you will not be much surprised to hear that their progress is not stopped by the water1 though it may be somewhat impeded4 ,it is certain that the streams often travel a great way at the bottom of the sea4 ,when a ,volcano breaks out under the sea1 if the eruption send out a sufficient quantity of lava1 and stones and dust1 it gets above the surface and makes such a ,volcano as ,stromboli4 ,if the ,volcano should afterwards become quiet1 then an island is the result1 and if large enough1 it may be inhabited4 ,a great many of the islands of the ,south ,sea1 and some of the ,greek islands1 originated in this manner2 and1 only two or three years ago1 an island suddenly rose up off the coast of ,sicily1 and was taken possession of in due form by a ,british captain1 in the name of the king of ,england2 but1 as the land consisted of loose earth1 and had not much lava to bind it together1 it soon sunk down1 and now no trace of it is to be seen4 ,,of ,,the ,,geysers ,,of ,,iceland4 ,there are many ,volcanoes in ,iceland1 and the whole island seems to have been the produce of ,volcanic agency4 ,i am going to describe to you one of the most singular proofs of this4 ,geysers are springs which spout out at intervals great streams of hot water4 ,the name is taken from the ,icelandic word1 geysa1 which signifies1 to rage1 or1 burst forth violently4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vii4 ,,geysers ,,of ,,iceland ,the ,icelanders are a very simple1 excellent people1 and exceedingly kind and hospitable to strangers4 ,this is not the place for me to tell you how much kindness ,i experienced among them2 but if ,i were to do so1 you would have as high a regard for them as ,i have4 ,they have in general a considerable degree of intelligence1 but ,i was surprised to find that a great many of them did not know where the ,geysers were1 or anything about them4 ,there are many springs of the same kind in several parts of ,iceland2 but those that are generally known as the ,geysers1 are near the town of ,haukadal1 in the south-west part of ,iceland4 ,to these ,i went in company with four other persons1 and a guide4 ,after a dreary ride through a wild volcanic looking country1 we left our horses in a safe place1 and then1 proceeding some distance on foot1 we saw clouds of steam arising over the hills before us4 ,a little further on we got into the plain1 where the ,geysers are situated1 which is full of boiling springs and holes sending out steam like the valve of a steam-boiler4 ,the great ,geyser is at the top of a hillock1 which seems to have been formed in the course of years by the substances which the hot water holds in solution1 and deposits as it cools4 ,at the top of this mound we found a pond of the shape of a saucer1 lined with the most curious incrustations of spar1 which exactly resembled the heads of cauliflowers4 ,it was then about half full of the most beautiful hot water1 as clear as crystal1 which was just stirred in gentle waves by the steam that rose up from the opening at the bottom of the basin4 ,we took advantage of this tranquil state of the spring1 to examine this opening4 ,we let down a line1 with a weight at the end1 to the depth of about eighty feet1 and as nearly as we could judge1 it went down perpendicularly4 ,the hole was nearly round1 and about nine feet in diameter1 but it got gradually wider towards the top like a funnel4 ,the inside showed the same kind of flinty incrustation as the hillock was composed of1 worn as smooth as glass by the forcible passage of the water4 ,the water was then at a temperature of two hundred degrees4 ,the saucer-shaped reservoir was fifty feet across1 and four feet deep4 ,i ought to tell you that the waters of the ,geysers have a petrifying property1 and hence the ground all around them is covered with what was once grass1 moss1 and sticks1 converted into stone1 of which we brought away many beautiful specimens4 ,it was very late in the evening when we had completed this examination1 and fixed our tent where we intended to pass the night4 ,the springs still continued quiet1 and you may judge how impatient we were for something to be going on4 ,however1 as it was dark1 and we were very tired1 having had a great deal of fatigue during the day1 we lay down in the tent and went to sleep4 ,about midnight we were suddenly called up by one of our party1 to witness the great ,geyser in its full glory4 ,it threw up several jets1 should think of at least ninety feet high1 and sent off vast clouds of steam4 ,there was only just light enough for us to distinguish the water and steam2 but the effect was very grand1 and such as we shall never forget1 though it did not leave much behind in our minds to talk about1 as everything seemed indistinct and confused4 ,the next morning1 as soon as it was light1 there was a beautiful eruption of the ,new ,geyser1 as it is called4 ,the column of water was eight feet in diameter1 and full sixty feet high1 and the clouds of steam were prodigious4 ,the sun was just then rising1 and the effect of his rays through the water and stream1 was exquisitely beautiful1 producing many little rainbows4 ,when the water had sunk down1 its place was taken by a tremendous jet of spray and steam1 rushing out with a deafening roar to nearly the same height as the water4 ,when we threw some large stones into the pipe1 the steam instantly carried them up to an amazing height2 and in several instances1 when they went up quite perpendicularly1 kept them within its influence for some minutes1 throwing them upwards several times successively1 in a very strange manner2 the ,geyser seemed to play with them as a boy plays with his ball when he throws it up and catches it again and again4 ,we were not yet satisfied1 because we had not seen an eruption fairly from beginning to end2 so we waited some time longer4 ,at about seven o'clock in the morning1 we heard low grumbling sounds near the great ,geyser1 and the water in the basin bubbled up a little more actively4 ,we then had an hour and a half of anxious expectation1 during which we kept walking round the hillock2 there were then about a dozen loud reports which made the earth tremble1 and the water rose to near the top of the basin1 and became so restless that many of the waves washed over the edge4 ,a little while afterwards1 the reports became as loud as the firing of artillery2 the ground shook violently under our feet2 we ran down the mound1 and had hardly got upon the level ground before the water rushed up the pipe with such thick clouds of steam1 as completely to conceal the stream4 ,these bursts took place in this manner to the height of about twenty feet4 ,there was then a rest for a few seconds1 which was followed by several jets from forty to sixty feet high2 and after them a column was thrown up eighty feet high1 and ten feet in diameter4 ,but the last jet was the most remarkable1 for it was more than ninety feet high1 and lasted for seven minutes4 ,this great effort seemed to have wearied the ,geyser1 for the water instantly sunk down out of the basin into the pipe1 quite out of sight2 but in a few minutes it rose again to within a foot of the edge of the basin1 and then remained stationary4 ,besides the great perpendicular jets1 there were many little ones curling and twisting about in all directions2 and we were taught to be careful of these by one of my companions getting badly scalded in the leg1 for they were very sudden and uncertain in their movements4 ,when we were quite sure it was all over1 we tried the temperature of the water in the basin1 and found it to be twenty degrees cooler than before the eruption1 which was probably caused by the exposure of the water which had been thrown up into the air4 ,it seems there are generally about five or six eruptions of each of the two great ,geysers1 within twenty-four hours4 ,but while we were on the spot1 many of the smaller springs spouted up much oftener1 and one bustling little thing darted out its waters in all directions1 three or four times in an hour4 ,we did not see any jet from the great ,geyser above one hundred feet high2 but some travellers have asserted that they are at times two or three hundred feet in height4 ,it would appear that the force of the ,geysers varies considerably1 and in some instances is affected by the earthquakes which often happen here2 some of which seem to cripple1 and others to strengthen them4 ,some of the water of the great ,geyser falls over the edge of the basin into a deep hole in the rock below1 which makes a capital warm bath1 for by the time the water reaches it1 it is of the desirable coolness4 ,i can assure you1 we enjoyed a bathe in it very much indeed4 ,there are several other springs in ,iceland of nearly the same character1 and the most remarkable are the ,hot ,springs of ,reykium4 ,the largest of these has two openings1 from one of which the water is incessantly flowing to the height of six or eight feet2 the other opening is about ten feet distant1 and is surrounded by an incrusted brim1 like that of the great ,geyser4 ,the eruptions take place from this about fifteen times in twenty-four hours1 to the height of about thirty feet1 accompanied with a great deal of steam4 ,there is also a most wonderful spring in ,reykium1 called the ,badstofa4 ,it flows into a great cave1 from the bottom of which the water keeps on retreating and flowing like the waves of the sea1 with a deep rumbling sound for some time before the eruption1 when the water rushes up to the height of nearly twenty feet4 ,about half a mile from this place1 there are some ,hot ,springs that rise in the bed of a river1 and force themselves quite through the cold water which covers them4 ,,the ,,sulphur ,,mountains ,,and ,,sulphur ,,springs4 ,there is a wonderful place in ,iceland1 which ,i am sure you would like to hear about4 ,it is in the south-west part of the island nearer the sea than the ,geysers4 ,nearly the whole region consists of sulphur1 and hot clay1 and hot dirty water1 and it contains some mountains1 called the ,sulphur ,mountains1 from which great quantities of sulphur are collected by the peasants1 and sent to the continent of ,europe for sale4 ,the vapour that is always rising from this wretched-looking country1 makes a sort of crust over the hot clay2 and you will sometimes come to a spot that appears solid1 and as you go over it1 your horse's hoofs will make holes which will send out steam like little cauldrons4 ,a gentleman who would go over one of these on foot1 got terribly scalded by the crust breaking away under him4 ,there is here a sort of hut1 from the bottom of which much steam rises1 and it is used as a vapour bath4 ,people that are affected with various diseases1 come to it from the surrounding country in considerable numbers4 ,at a little distance from this you come to the brink of a cliff1 and looking over it1 you see twelve large ponds or basins of black mud1 boiling1 and splashing1 and raging perpetually1 with large volumes of vapour rolling off their surfaces4 ,beyond these some dismal black-looking mountains make a back ground4 ,can you imagine any thing more fearful to look upon8 ,besides these1 there is a kind of ,geyser of mud1 which just resembles the real ,geysers in its action2 but instead of sending up beautiful clear water1 it throws out black unsightly mud1 as thick as porridge1 which is caught in a nearly round reservoir of more than one hundred feet in diameter4 ,it is situated near the summit of a mountain called ,krabla and the reservoir seems to have been in time past a volcanic crater4 ,,how ,,the ,,geysers ,,may ,,be ,,caused4 ,of course there cannot be hot water without some source of heat1 and there must1 therefore1 be a source of heat taken into consideration in the action of the ,geysers4 ,now1 ,i do not wish to speak of this here1 ,i only wish to make you understand how it seems likely that the eruptions of the ,geysers are occasioned1 supposing there was a supply of hot water4 ,illustration ,this cut is intended to represent what may be a section of the subterranean reservoir1 ,s ,w1 of the great ,geyser1 and the pipe1 ,p1 connected with the saucer-shaped basin1 ,b1 at the top of the mound4 ,you see the cracks in the rock through which you must suppose hot water constantly trickling into the reservoir4 ,the space ,s will be constantly full of steam1 and the space below1 ,w1 will be always full of water4 ,the water will continue to rise till it gets to ,a1 and it will then quite stop up the escape of the steam4 ,the steam in ,s will then press upon the surface of the water1 and force it up the pipe ,p with more or less violence1 according to the supply of heat2 but when enough of the steam has escaped to render the pressure less1 and the water has sunk to near ,i1 the eruption will cease4 ,if you will take the trouble to understand this section1 you will see how reasonable it is that the ,geyser should be so constructed2 and ,i have seen a little apparatus made of glass1 which showed exactly the same sort of operations4 ,some little variation in the shape of the reservoir and pipe1 may perhaps be needed to account for all that takes place2 but the principle of the activity being produced by the agency of steam1 acting in a space which may be enclosed by the water in its rising to a certain height1 seems to be certain and satisfactory4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,of ,,the ,,rocks ,,called ,,basaltic4 ,in some parts of the world1 there are rocks which are not stratified and arranged like those which ,i described to you some time ago1 but are laid over the surfaces1 and in the crevices of others in this manner3-- ,illustration ,in this cut1 a1 a1 a1 are intended to represent the stratified rocks1 and b1 b1 b1 the others1 which from their position are sometimes called overlying rocks1 and they mostly consist of a substance called basalt1 which is nearly black and very hard1 and occasionally with white and coloured minerals imbedded in it4 ,there are two states in which it is found2 in one1 it occurs in masses without any particular form1 and in the other state it constitutes pillars shaped with great accuracy and regularity4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,viii4 ,,staffa4 ,the island of ,staffa1 one of the western islands of ,scotland1 and the ,giant's ,causeway1 on the north coast of ,ireland1 near ,londonderry1 are remarkable instances of the latter state2 and as ,i have seen them both1 ,i will tell you what sort of places they are4 ,,staffa4 ,this wonderful island was not generally known to exist1 even by the inhabitants of ,scotland1 till the last century1 when ,sir ,joseph ,bankes happened to see it1 and published an account of it4 ,since then it has been visited by numbers1 and lately a steam-boat has regularly plied to it twice a week1 from the little town of ,oban1 in ,argyleshire4 ,it was in this way that ,i went1 and a most delightful trip we had of it4 ,the steam-boat left ,oban in the afternoon1 full of kind light-hearted people1 who seemed fully resolved to enjoy themselves4 ,in the evening we reached the island of ,mull1 where we were to spend the night4 ,the inhabitants of ,tobermory1 7the little capital of ,mull17 anxiously look out for the arrival of the steam-boat1 for they are very poor1 and the little money which the passengers spend1 is a great object to them4 ,on these occasions the inns are seldom large enough to accommodate all the strangers1 and then a strange scramble takes place to get lodgings for the night4 ,most of our party succeeded in doing so1 and the rest remained on board the steam-boat4 ,we went to see a beautiful little estate on one side of the harbour of ,tobermory1 which belongs to the son of the old ,laird of ,coll1 whom ,dr4 ,johnson visited4 ,the grounds are nearly in the shape of a triangle1 and the two sides that are away from the sea1 are formed by lofty rocks with several beautiful waterfalls2 and in the middle is a pretty lake4 ,except the house on this estate1 there are scarcely any good houses in or near ,tobermory1 and the inhabitants are very ignorant and poor4 ,many of them who could not speak any other ,english words1 ran after us to ask us for pence and tobacco4 ,we started early in the morning1 and passed several small islands of curious forms1 composed of basalt2 one in particular1 which is called the ,dutchman's cap1 shaped like this4 ,illustration ,as we approached ,staffa1 on the north side1 we could see scarcely anything of the pillars4 ,it appeared a mass of ,basalt1 of very irregular shape1 rising abruptly out of the sea1 scantily covered with grass on the upper surface4 ,illustration ,it is the south side of the island that is chiefly remarkable1 of which ,i will show you a picture that ,i made on the spot4 ,it has 7as you may see7 exactly the appearance of a great layer of earth swelling out at the edges1 resting on a vast number of pillars stuck close together4 ,the colour of the pillars is nearly black1 and that of the stratum above1 lightish green1 yellow1 and brown1 from the grass and variously coloured lichens that grow upon it4 ,the sea is very deep1 quite close to the cliffs4 ,the day ,i was there1 was as fine as possible2 not a cloud was to be seen1 and the great ocean was as calm as a mill-pond1 which is not very common in these parts1 for there is mostly a considerable swell4 ,the celebrated cave of ,fingal1 as it is called1 7but why1 nobody knows17 is close to one extremity of the south side4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,ix4 ,,fingal',s ,,cave ,it seems just as if it had been formed by cutting away the middle of some of the pillars1 since you can see that many parts of the pillars now remaining on the roof1 are placed as if they were continuations of the stumps on which you walk at the bottom4 ,we went into it in a boat1 and when we were at the farther end1 we got out upon the broken pillars and surveyed everything at our leisure4 ,the length of the cave is two hundred and fifty feet1 the breadth about forty1 and the height above one hundred feet at the entrance1 and seventy at the inner end4 ,along the middle of the roof1 is a deep cleft1 or fissure1 which makes it something like a pointed arch1 resembling the roof of a cathedral4 ,the sides of the fissure are variegated1 yellow1 red1 brown1 and white1 in consequence of water containing various substances1 soaking through from the surface above2 and on each side of it1 there are several rows of the top of the broken pillars1 which look quite black4 ,on the sides at the bottom1 the stumps form a sort of pavement like this1 which is an exact copy of a small portion of it1 and will show you the forms of the pillars2 some stand higher than others2 but there is not generally sufficient difference to prevent you from walking over them4 ,illustration ,between these pavements the water is very deep1 and as it flows direct from the ,atlantic ,ocean without any dirty shore or shallows1 it looks very beautiful1--of a clear emerald green1 showing at the bottom the black basaltic pillars in ruins1 and a very few long luxuriant sea-weeds gracefully waving with the undulations of the water4 ,the exposed surfaces of the pillars1 between high and low water-marks1 are covered with the little shell-fish called balanus1 or ,,barnacle1 of colours varying from pink1 which is the hue of those that are placed deepest1 to yellow and white1 which are those that are least covered by the water4 ,the walls of the cave above these shells1 are of a deep slate colour4 ,the pillars which compose them1 are on the average about three feet in diameter1 and they are fitted so close together that you cannot get a penknife in between them4 ,if separated at certain intervals1 they break short off1 and leave a remarkably level surface without the least splinter4 ,between these joints they break roughly and irregularly4 ,here is a view of the inside of the cave4 ,it is supposed that these wonderful pillars are formed by the cooling of a melted mass1 and that this and other basaltic spots1 are the remains of streams of lava from a volcano long ago extinct4 ,in some of the lava streams of ,mount ,vesuvius1 there has been noticed an approach to this structure1 though not quite so regular as what we have been describing4 ,you may understand in some measure how it may come about1 by examining starch1 which always hardens into little columns or pillars2 and if you look at the little sketch of a portion of the pavement of the cave which ,i have given you above1 you will see that nearly all the pillars have six sides1 the same as the pieces of starch4 ,it is remarkable what pains the basalt seems to have taken to get into a six-sided form4 ,i should think about two-thirds of the columns have six sides1 though sometimes one side is little more than a sharp edge blunted1 because it seems to have been prevented by its neighbour making a similar effort to get its six sides complete4 ,none of the remaining third of the pillars1 have more than nine1 or1 of course1 less than three sides4 ,you might look a long time before you would find two pillars exactly alike4 ,all this you will find occurring just in the same manner in starch1 except that the edges of the basalt pillars are quite even1 while those of starch are more or less waved or twisted4 ,near the side of the cave there is a little rock formed by pillars into a pretty regular cone1 which you may see in the plate4 ,it has a very striking appearance as you approach the island4 ,close by the rock there is a little cave1 the mouth of which is formed by bent pillars1 in this manner4 ,illustration ,the water in this is not very deep1 but it was deep enough to give one of my companions a good ducking as he was trying to reach a shell which one of the ladies of our party wanted to possess4 ,you will also often see something like these bent pillars in starch4 ,,the ,,giant',s ,,causeway4 ,on the north coast of ,ireland1 the ,giant's ,causeway is a collection of similar pillars of rather a smaller size4 ,they stretch far into the sea1 and at low water you may walk a long distance upon the tops of them4 ,the pillars get higher as they approach the cliff1 and in the cliff itself1 just above them1 is a remarkable layer of fossil wood in the state called lignite1 which closely resembles charcoal4 ,at some distance from the ,causeway1 some of the pillars stand up by themselves1 looking just like tall chimneys4 ,there are also some wonderful caves in the ,basaltic cliffs behind it1 but none of them consisting of pillars like the great cave of ,staffa4 ,it is called the ,giant's ,causeway1 because some people have fancied that it resembled the commencement of a great pier or causeway1 which some beings of superhuman power had left unfinished4 ,this is only a fancy for poets to talk of2 you and ,i are now engaged about facts4 ,there are some similar formations in ,iceland1 of very great extent1 and in several other parts of the world2 but those ,i have told you about1 are the most remarkable which are known to exist4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,why ,,parley ,,believes ,,that ,,there ,,is ,a ,,great ,,source ,,of ,,heat ,,within ,,the ,,globe4 ,if you have attended to what ,i have already told you1 you will have seen that there must be a close connection between the causes of volcanoes1 earthquakes1 and hot springs1 7if they are not all to be ascribed to one cause17 from their always occurring in the neighbourhood of each other4 ,but there is something else that you ought to notice in reference to this connection4 ,i said1 that a volcanic eruption was almost always preceded by shakings of the ground round the root of the mountain4 ,these shakings are sometimes so violent as to be dreadful earthquakes1 and at other times the earthquake will be at a long distance from the volcano4 ,there was once a great earthquake which kept on for some days on the north shore of ,south ,america1 and then stopped quite suddenly4 ,it was afterwards found out1 that just at the moment it stopped1 a tremendous eruption burst forth from a volcano in one of the ,west-,india islands1 more than #aej miles off4 ,you know what the safety-valve of a steam-engine is4 ,now it would seem just as if volcanoes were safety-valves for the power which causes earthquakes4 ,very well4--,i am now going to tell you what people have thought this power has been owing to4 ,before ,i do so1 that you may not be disappointed1 ,i should tell you that we know very little on the subject2 nor shall we ever know much till somebody can get down to the centre of the earth1 unless some of the little black spirits1 that the ,rosicrucians called ,gnomes1 and fabled to live in the middle of the globe1 should be kind enough to give us some information on the subject4 ,in the meantime1 we can only guess2 but we ought to guess as well as we can1 and see whether our guess is not much more likely to be true than any of the others4 ,volcanic bands are always near the sea-shore1 and it has therefore been generally supposed that water has something to do with their action4 ,if you take a mixture of sulphur and iron filings1 and mix them into a paste with water1 and then bury them in the ground1 after a while they will become hot and send out a great quantity of steam4 ,some people have imagined that this is the way in which volcanic activity is produced1 but no one thinks so now1 and for very good reasons1 for there is nothing in the action so produced at all capable of accounting for long continued eruptions1 or for the flowing out of the lava4 ,sir ,humphrey ,davy found out1 that nearly all kinds of salt and earth1 which had been before looked upon as simple substances1 contained certain metals united to oxygen1 which1 7as you should know17 is one of the parts of water1 and1 in the form of gas1 of the air we breathe4 ,if you put a piece of one of these metals into water1 it is in such a hurry to join itself to the oxygen of the water1 that you set it on fire4 ,a little piece of potassium1 7the metal of the salt called potash1 or pearlash17 will float for a few moments on the surface of the water1 burning with a purple flame in the prettiest manner imaginable4 ,illustration ,sir ,humphrey thought he had got the true explanation of the thing4 ,these wonderful metals formed the basis of every substance in lava1 and supposing them to exist in the centre of the globe1 it was only necessary for water to get to them to set them on fire1 and thus to give rise to earthquakes and volcanoes4 ,it appeared only to be required that a crack should be made at the bottom of the sea1 and the water flow into the beds of metal underneath1 and the violent action produced would burst through the surface1 and throw out streams of melted matter1 accompanied with great clouds of steam1 just as takes place in the eruptions of ,mount ,vesuvius and other volcanoes4 ,but you would find it very difficult to think how this can account for continual and nearly steady operations1 such as have been known to exist in the ,geysers of ,iceland for more than #ajjj years1 and in ,mount ,stromboli for much longer than that1 so we will try another guess4 ,it has been observed in descending deep mines1 that the earth gets warmer the deeper you go4 ,the usual mode of trying it is to dig little holes1 as you go down1 in the sides and bottom of the mine1 and put a thermometer into them4 ,a great many observations of this kind1 have been made in different parts of the world1 and the greatest care has been taken to allow for all causes of irregularity1 consisting in climate and local peculiarities4 ,comparing these together1 it has been determined that the temperature increases about one degree every fifteen feet of descent4 ,a similar conclusion has been drawn from the heat of the water of the ,artesian ,wells4 ,but1 perhaps1 you do not know what ,artesian ,wells are1 so ,i will tell you4 ,they are deep borings in the earth1 out of which water rises to1 or even above1 the surface of the ground4 ,wherever you bore1 if you go deep enough you may get plenty of water1 and this water is always found to be warmer in proportion to the depth of the well in which it rises4 ,they are called ,artesian ,wells1 from ,artois1 a town in ,france1 where the first was constructed4 ,in a well of this kind near ,rochelle1 which was #caf feet deep1 the water near the surface was at a temperature of #ee degrees1 and at the bottom #fj degrees4 ,it was afterwards sunk to the depth of #cfi feet1 and the temperature at the bottom was then found to be #fe degrees4 ,do you not think it most likely that the heat continues to increase quite as fast in proportion below the deepest point that man has gone down to8 ,well1 if so1 at the depth of some miles it must be hot enough to melt anything1 even granite1 and all kinds of stones4 ,if we suppose1 on this evidence1 that the centre of the globe is intensely heated1 and that it gets gradually cooler towards the surface1 there is what at once will account for the hot springs1 the increasing heat in descending mines1 the constant action of some volcanoes1 the occasional action of others1 the streams of lava1 and the nature of all substances that are thrown out4 ,it is very natural to imagine that every now and then the action of the great heated mass inside1 would crack open the crust1 and the sea wearing away its bottom in some places as it does1 may have something to do in assisting this4 ,thus1 new volcanoes would be formed1 and earthquakes would happen where they never happened before2 and over these immense cracks there would be a volcanic band4 ,then1 after a time1 these cracks might be partially1 or wholly1 filled up by the matter thrown into them1 and the volcanoes on the surface above may become quiet for a time4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,parley ,,tells ,,something ,,about ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,mount ,,vesuvius4 ,i am going to relate to you the biography of a ,volcano1 and ,i hope you will find it amusing4 ,before the time of the ,roman ,emperor ,trajan1 ,mount ,vesuvius had been quiet for a great many centuries4 ,it is known that it had had many eruptions before then1 because there are some great lava streams close by it1 on which some of the most ancient ,italian cities are built4 ,in particular1 ,herculaneum1 which was said to have been built by the ,demi-god ,hercules1 and must therefore have been of the remotest antiquity1 was built chiefly of blocks of lava1 and founded upon a vast stream of the same substance4 ,and besides1 there is no doubt that the land all about the neighbourhood in the remotest times1 bore evident marks of the action of fire2 for it was here that the ,poets pretended that the gate of ,hell was1 and close by the black and dreary-looking lake ,avernus1 which you may read about in the neid of ,virgil4 ,this was also the place where the ,cimmerians dwelt1 whom ,ulysses is said to have visited1 according to ,homer1 on his way to the regions of the dead4 ,,the ,,grotto ,,del ,,cano4 ,near here1 too1 was the celebrated ,grotto del ,cano1 the cave which used to destroy the lives of small animals put into it1 by means of the exhalations that rose from the bottom2 but as these exhalations were heavier than the air1 consisting chiefly of the gas called carbonic acid1 they did not rise much above the bottom4 ,this is what an old writer1 the account of whose travels ,i am very fond of1 says of it4 ,whatsoever hath life1 being thrust into the farre end1 doth die in an instant4 ,yet entred it may be a good way with safety2 neither heat nor cold will oppress you1 nor is there any damp or vapour to be discerned2 being perspicuous to the bottome1 and the sole thereof dusty4 ,we made triall with a dog2 which we no sooner had thrust in1 but without crying1 or otherwise struggling than if shot to the heart1 his tongue hung out1 and his eyes setled in his head1 to our no small amazement4 ,forthwith drawne out1 starke1 and to our seeming without shew of life1 we threw him into the lake2 when anon he recovered1 and swimming to the shore1 ran crying away as fast as hee could1 to the not farre distant ,osteria3 where they get no small part of their living by shewing this place unto forreiners4 ,and it is a sport to see how the dogs thereabout will steale away1 and scud to the tops of the mountaines1 at the approach of a stranger4 ,the ,french ,king ,charles1 the eighth of that name1 who held the kingdome of ,naples for a while2 made triall thereof with an ,asse1 which immediately died4 ,the like befell to a foole-hardy souldier4 ,peter of ,toledo caused two offenders to be thrust thereinto1 and both expired in a moment4 ,nor found those three gallants any better successe1 who tempted ,god with their desperate entrance4 ,this place was not unknowne to ,pliny1 who calleth it the ,cave of ,charon4 ,the cause of so deadly an effect1 is said to proceede from the fervent vapours ascending at invisible pores1 so thin1 so dry1 and subtile1 as not to be discerned3 yet thickned by the cold that enters at the mouth of the ,cave1 convert into moisture1 which hangs farre within on the roofe like to drops of quick-silver2 and such esteemed to bee by a number4 ,carona ,pighyus1 desirous to informe himselfe in the mysteries hereof1 ventured so farre in as to touch one of those farre of shining drops1 and shewed it to his companions1 who entred also1 and stayed therein about a minute of an houre3 sensibly perceiving the heat to arise from their feet to their thighs1 till they did sweat at the browes without the endammaging of their senses1 who return'd1 to the wonder of the guide1 that thought they had preserved themselves by enchantments4 ,by this their experiment it appeares that the aire is most deadly neere to the pores where it first ascended2 especially to such creatures as hold their heads downeward1 exhaling at their nostrils the dry and hote vapours4 ,thrust a torch neere the bottome1 and it will forthwith go out3 yet advanced higher1 re-inflames1 which approves the former assertion4 ,,of ,,the ,,death ,,of ,,pliny ,,the ,,naturalist4 ,but although there were such gloomy places in the neighbourhood1 in the reign of ,trajan1 less than a hundred years after the ,christian ,era1 ,mount ,vesuvius was clothed with blooming vineyards1 and corn fields1 studded with villas and beautiful gardens1 and with three or four rich and populous cities near its foot4 ,the height of the mountain was then much less than it is at present1 and it seems to have had a broad flat top1 nearly surrounded by a ridge4 ,illustration ,this shape will account for the spot being chosen by the ,roman rebel ,spartacus to encamp in1 with his gladiators and slaves1 when he put ,rome in danger4 ,for some time before the first eruption on record1 there were dreadful earthquakes1 of which the effects are still to be seen in the cracked and ruined walls of ,pompeii and ,herculaneum4 ,there were great droughts1 says the historian1 and violent earthquakes1 so that the whole plain boiled and bubbled1 and the hills leapt1 and there were noises under ground like thunder1 and above ground like roaring2 the seas made a noise1 and the ,heavens resounded1 and then a sudden mighty crash was heard1 as if the mountains were dashed together2 great stones were then hurled upwards1 and were followed by mighty fires1 and immense smoke1 so that the whole air was overshadowed1 and the sun quite hidden as in an eclipse4 ,the same writer then tells us about some wonderful giants appearing to wander about the summit of the mountain1 which neither you nor ,i shall be ready to believe4 ,pliny1 the great naturalist1 was at that time living at the town of ,misenum1 and as he was a man always prying into nature1 and wishing to know the causes of things1 you may suppose his curiosity was very much excited by these strange occurrences4 ,but he paid dearly for this laudable curiosity1 as you shall hear in the account which his nephew has left us of the event4 ,on the #bdth of ,august1 about one in the afternoon1 my mother desired him to observe a cloud which appeared of a very unusual size and shape4 ,he had just returned from taking the benefit of the sun1 and after bathing himself in cold water1 and taking a slight repast1 had retired to his study4 ,he immediately arose and went out upon an eminence1 from whence he might more distinctly view this very uncommon appearance4 ,it was not at that distance discernible from what mountain this cloud issued1 but it was found afterwards to ascend from ,mount ,vesuvius4 ,i cannot give a more exact description of its figure1 than by comparing it to that of a pine-tree1 for it shot up a great height in the form of a trunk1 which extended itself at the top into a sort of branches2 occasioned1 ,i imagine1 either by a sudden gust of air that impelled it1 the force of which decreased as it advanced upwards1 or the cloud itself being pressed back again by its own weight1 expanded in this manner3 it appeared sometimes bright1 and sometimes dark and spotted1 as it was more or less impregnated with earth and cinders4 ,this extraordinary phenomenon excited my uncle's philosophical curiosity to take a nearer view of it4 ,he ordered a light vessel to be got ready1 and gave me the liberty1 if ,i thought proper1 to attend him4 ,i rather chose to continue my studies2 for1 as it happened1 he had given me an employment of that kind4 ,as he was coming out of the house1 he received a note from ,rectina1 the wife of ,bassus1 who was in the utmost alarm at the imminent danger which threatened her2 for her villa being situated at the foot of ,mount ,vesuvius1 there was no way to escape but by sea3 she earnestly entreated him1 therefore1 to come to her assistance4 ,he accordingly changed his first design1 and what he began with a philosophical1 he pursued with an heroical turn of mind4 ,he ordered the gallies to put to sea1 and went himself on board with the intention of assisting not only ,rectina1 but several others2 for the villas stand extremely thick upon that beautiful coast4 ,when hastening to the place from whence others fled with the utmost terror1 he steered his direct course to the point of danger1 and with so much calmness and presence of mind1 as to be able to make and dictate his observations upon the motion and figure of that dreadful scene4 ,he was now so nigh the mountain1 that the cinders1 which grew thicker and hotter the nearer he approached1 fell into the ships1 together with pumice-stones1 and black pieces of burning rock3 they were likewise in danger1 not only of being aground by the sudden retreat of the sea1 but also from the vast fragments which rolled down from the mountain1 and obstructed all the shore4 ,here he stopped to consider whether he should return back again2 to which the pilot advising him1 ',fortune1' said he1 'befriends the brave2 carry me to ,pomponianus4' ,his nephew then goes on to relate that he joined his friend who was in another vessel1 and went on shore1 where he took a bath and sat down to supper1 not seeming to be in the least alarmed1 when everybody about him was in the greatest consternation4 ,he then went to sleep so soundly1 that he was heard to snore4 ,the ashes fell so thick in the court before his apartment1 that it was getting nearly impassable1 and his servants thought proper to awaken him4 ,the walls of the houses began to rock1 and he and his friends then resolved to go out into the fields1 lest the stones and bricks should fall upon them4 ,they tied pillows upon their heads1 and went out with torches1 for though it was daytime1 the clouds of steam and ashes made it quite dark4 ,they went down to the sea1 and found it in violent commotion4 ,either a sudden gust of wind then brought the effluvia of the volcano towards them1 or else a little stream of deadly vapour burst out from a crack in the ground1 which dispersed the rest of the company4 ,but ,pliny1 who was a fat asthmatic old man1 had laid down upon the ground to watch what was going on4 ,he attempted to rise1 but almost before he had got on his feet1 he fell down dead4 ,as soon as it was light again1 says his nephew1 which was not till the third day after this melancholy accident1 his body was found entire1 and without any marks of violence upon it1 exactly in the same posture that he fell4 ,it was in the same eruption that the two great cities1 ,herculaneum and ,pompeii were overwhelmed by substances thrown out by the volcano4 ,it does not appear that a single stream of lava flowed out till many years afterwards4 ,there were several great eruptions between this time and the year #acjf1 and then the volcano was very nearly quiet for more than #cjj years4 ,during this time the volcanic power broke out in another place called ,puzzuoli1 at several miles distance4 ,after a succession of violent eruptions1 the earth was cleft open1 and a hill1 which is now called the ,monte ,nuovo1 was thrown up in the space of a single night1 which is #ddj feet high1 and a mile and a half in circumference4 ,at the end of this period ,vesuvius was richly covered with vegetation1 even within the crater4 ,but since the year #afej1 there has not been ten years pass without an eruption4 ,illustration ,the form of the mountain has quite changed1 and a little mountain has grown up out of the old broad topped one1 as you may see in the above picture4 ,,herculaneum ,,and ,,pompeii4 ,these cities which were of great extent and importance1 seem to have been almost forgotten during more than #afjj years4 ,they are not often mentioned in ,roman history1 and1 strange to say1 the ,latin writers who describe the eruption of ,vesuvius1 by which they must have been buried1 have said nothing about them1 except a very vague allusion or two1 which would hardly have attracted any notice1 if what ,i am going to tell you of1 had not happened4 ,in the year #agac1 as some people were sinking a well1 they discovered two statues1 one of ,hercules1 and the other of ,cleopatra2 and continuing to dig in several directions1 they found they had got into a ,roman theatre1 and after a while they discovered that this ,theatre was that of the ,city of ,herculaneum4 ,but in consequence of the hardness of the ground1 and the great depth of the city under the surface1 which is one hundred feet1 they have only been able to clear out a very few buildings1 and those cannot be seen except by torchlight1 so that very little is known about it4 ,i cannot tell you exactly how the ruins of ,pompeii were first discovered to be the remains of a city4 ,it appears that an architect1 who was employed to make a subterranean canal to convey water to the town of ,torre dell',annunziata1 nearly #cjj years ago1 met with some fragments of buildings2 and about eighty years afterwards1 enough was seen to convince the discoverers that the ruins were extensive4 ,in the year #agee1 a regular plan of excavation was commenced1 and nearly the whole city is now exposed to the light of day4 ,the situation of ,pompeii is considerably further from the crater of ,vesuvius than that of ,herculaneum1 and to that circumstance is owing the superiority of its preservation1 and the greater moveableness of the substances which covered it4 ,it is probable that both cities were originally assailed by alluvions1 or streams of mud1 such as ,i told you of some time ago1 as well as by showers of cinders and stones4 ,but while ,pompeii was only fourteen or fifteen feet below the surface1 and never had anything besides cinders and earth above it1 several streams of lava flowed over ,herculaneum1 with layers of the different substances1 which the volcano throws into the air1 between them1 so as to raise the surface one hundred feet4 ,illustration ,pompeii was three miles in circumference1 and was a sea-port town1 though it is now a full mile from the sea4 ,this is known1 because the steps which used to lead down from the quay1 for the convenience of passengers going into boats1 are still remaining1 and so are some large metal rings which were intended for cables to be fastened to4 ,there are several inscriptions in both cities commemorating the great injuries done by an earthquake which happened in the reign of the ,emperor ,nero1 sixteen years before they were destroyed4 ,there are also great cracks to be seen in some of the walls1 testifying of the same event4 ,this was one of the efforts of the volcanic power to get free before ,vesuvius became the safety-valve4 ,it is very evident that there was ample warning of the catastrophe before it happened1 and that most of the people had time to escape1 for the number of skeletons found has been but small4 ,in the barracks1 there were the skeletons of two soldiers chained in the stocks4 ,there were seventeen persons found in the cellar of a house just out of the town1 who seem to have fled there for safety1 and the deluge of mud then seems to have flowed in upon them1 for their bones were found in hardened mud4 ,one of the number was a woman1 with an infant in her arms1 and the impression of her form in the mud1 was wonderfully perfect1 though there was nothing left of her but the bones4 ,she seems to have been the mistress of the house1 and a person of consequence1 since she had a chain of gold about her neck1 and rich rings on her fingers4 ,in these instances1 7and there are related several others similar17 the destruction of the persons seems to be accounted for by the peculiar circumstances in which they were placed4 ,the soldiers1 poor fellows1 would1 doubtless1 have gone off with their companions1 if they had not been in the stocks2 and the family of seventeen might have escaped if they had fled into the open country1 instead of into their cellar4 ,the warning does not however seem to have been very long before the sad event1 perhaps only about an hour4 ,there have recently been found three skeletons1 which seem to have belonged to a father1 mother1 and daughter1 7the latter of whom was decorated with pearl-rings and ear-rings17 who were in the act of rushing out of their house4 ,and in one of the squares of the city1 a traveller saw a new altar of white marble1 exquisitely beautiful1 and apparently just out of the hands of the sculptor1 which had been erected there2 an enclosure was building all round2 the mortar1 just dashed against the side of the wall1 was but half spread out2 you saw the long sliding stroke of the trowel about to return and obliterate its own track--but it never did return3 the hand of the workman was suddenly arrested1 and1 after the lapse of #ahjj years1 the whole looks so fresh and new1 that you would almost say the mason was only gone to his dinner1 and about to come back immediately to smooth the roughness4 ,it is not unlikely that in the early part of the eruption1 the ashes and cinders which the volcano threw out1 fell in showers on the cities1 and that the walls were shaken by the subterranean movements1 so that most of the inhabitants thought themselves less in danger in the open fields1 like the people of ,misenum1 who went into the fields with pillows tied on their heads1 as described by ,pliny the younger1 in the passage ,i quoted just now4 ,some few others1 less afraid of their houses tumbling down about their ears1 than of the bombs and cinders1 betook themselves to their cellars1 and such places as they thought safest4 ,i shall now tell you a little of what has been discovered relating to the ancient state of the ,city4 ,its walls were about three miles in circumference2 the streets were generally narrow1 and paved with great flags of lava1 which are furrowed by very deep ruts made by the wheels of the carriages that once passed busily along them4 ,when the great hardness of the paving material is considered1 this circumstance is very remarkable1 and shows that the flags must have been laid down for a very long period1 for the like is not to be seen in the streets of the most ancient ,city in ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,x4 ,,forum ,,of ,,pompeii4 ,the ,forum was a very elegant building1 and if you look in the plate1 you will see a correct representation of what remains of it4 ,the ,forums of ancient cities were not mere marketplaces1 although provisions and other commodities were offered in them for sale2 but they also contained places fitted for meetings of the people1 and other public uses4 ,you will thus understand how it was that a place not larger than ,pompeii had such an extensive ,forum4 ,the names of the owners over the door of each house are still to be seen1 and some of them are perfectly legible2 and the colours of the paintings on the walls of the houses1 are as fresh as if they had been painted yesterday4 ,some books have been found1 but they are less perfect than those in ,herculaneum1 where a whole library has been discovered4 ,the wood of the houses in ,herculaneum is astonishingly perfect if you just scrape off the surface1 and some linen has been discovered1 of which the texture could be distinctly seen4 ,there were also some vessels full of almonds1 chesnuts1 and walnuts1 in a fruiterer's shop1 which preserved their form entire4 ,a baker lived near neighbour to this fruiterer1 and in his shop was a loaf with his stamp upon it1 ,,eleris ,q4 ,,crani ,,riser4 ,not far off was an apothecary's shop1 in which was a box of pills1 and a little roll of some kind of medicine ready to be cut into pills1 with a jar of herbs and other medicines4 ,another shop contained some sauces and olives1 which were quite moist4 ,these curious relics have been sealed up in glass1 and placed in the ,museum of ,naples4 ,there is a house in one of the streets of ,pompeii1 on one of the walls of which there has been scratched with some sharp-pointed instrument1 a rude device like this3 ,illustration ,the letters in the corner1 are1 ,campani victoria una cum ,nucerinis peristis4 ,campanians1 you perished in the victory along with the ,nucerians4 ,this was a jest of some merry fellow making fun of the inhabitants of ,nuceria1 a neighbouring city1 and of some other parts of ,campania1 over whom they had gained a victory in a squabble4 ,we are told that the ,nucerians1 when they were dead beaten1 went like cowards to the ,emperor ,nero1 and laid their case before him4 ,he decided in their favour1 and punished the ,pompeians in what may seem a strange way to you1--he forbade them to have any amusements in their theatre for ten years4 ,however1 from what we know of the general disposition and habits of the ancient ,greeks and ,romans1 this was a very severe punishment to them4 ,from the scarcity of books1 arising from their being copied by hand1 instead of being printed1 but few of them could spend their leisure time in reading1 as so many of us do now2 and in consequence of this1 the theatre was to them at once the principal source of literary improvement and of amusement4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xi4 ,,falls ,,of ,,niagara ,,chapter ,x4 ,,parley ,,describes ,,the ,,falls ,,of ,,niagara4 ,the river ,niagara runs out of ,lake ,erie into ,lake ,ontario1 and you may see the direction it takes if you look in the map of ,north ,america4 ,you may likewise observe that ,lake ,erie is connected with three other vast ,lakes1 and as its level is lower than theirs1 the whole of their waters pass through it into the ,niagara4 ,nearly half way between the ,lakes ,erie and ,ontario1 where the river is about three quarters of a mile wide1 it tumbles over a precipice of #afj feet in height4 ,i shall try to describe to you what ,i saw when ,i visited this place2 but ,i am quite certain ,i shall not be able to do justice to the scene4 ,you must form your conceptions of it rather from the bare facts ,i tell you respecting the mass of water and the height of the rocky ledge over which it falls4 ,as we travelled along from the town of ,waterloo on a level road on the west bank1 we saw the river gradually become wider till it was cut into two streams by a long narrow island some miles in length4 ,the streams after passing the island1 unite into one again1 which continues its course as before4 ,there is a sullen unpretending majesty about this part of the river1 as if it did not think it worth while to remind the traveller of the vast distance which its mighty waters have come1 or of the stupendous scene to which they are travelling onward4 ,there is nothing remarkable in its appearance1 and that very circumstance1 coupled with what we knew and what we shortly expected to see1 made us full of intense feeling2 and often and often did we put our ears to the ground to hear whether the sound of the falls could reach us1 and then remount and impatiently spur on our horses4 ,they say that the roar of the falls may be heard fifteen miles off when the wind is favourable4 ,but the day we went1 there was hardly any wind1 and we were within six miles of the spot before we heard the sound4 ,at the distance of three miles the waters seemed fretful and discontented1 as they approached what are called the rapids2 we could see afar off a silver cloud rising slowly into the sky--the everlasting incense of the waters1 consisting of vapour1 or rather fine spray1 which is dashed out by the violence of the fall2 and the roar seemed deeper and more tumultuous4 ,within half a mile the rapids commence in good earnest4 ,a rapid means the descent of a river down an inclined bed less sudden than a fall4 ,the descent here in half a mile1 is fifty feet4 ,the bed is rocky1 and the waters in rushing over it foam1 and eddy1 and tear along in all directions in which they can possibly approach the awful precipice4 ,the unity of the stream is broken by thousands of rocks and stones1 and every part of its broad surface seems earnestly taken up with driving forward to the falls4 ,after we had enjoyed this scene awhile1 we turned into the road again1 and lost sight of the river till we reached a public-house1 where we took refreshment and put up our horses4 ,the precipice which here breaks the course of the river1 is divided into three parts by two large islands1 and thus are formed three distinct falls4 ,one of these is called the ,great1 or ,horse ,shoe ,fall1 from its peculiar shape1 which you will see represented in the picture4 ,this is by far the most extensive waterfall in the world1 and is considered to be above a quarter of a mile in length4 ,then comes an island a thousand feet in width1 called ,goat ,island1 which has a great deal of wood growing on it4 ,after that the ,second ,fall1 not more than twenty feet in width1 then an island considerably smaller than the first2 and lastly1 ,fort ,scloper ,fall1 about a thousand feet wide1 which joins the opposite bank of the river4 ,illustration ,the quantity of water which descends every minute in the three falls1 has been estimated to be about #gjj1jjj tons4 ,well1 a path through the garden of the ,inn at which we were1 led us down a steep and thickly wooded bank1 to a complete shelf of rock1 about a foot in thickness1 called the ,table ,rock1 which stands out over the river4,a ,since ,i was there this piece of rock has broken away and fallen into the stream4 ,i was not at all surprised when ,i heard this intelligence1 for ,i can assure you that though ,i am no coward1 it did not seem very secure when ,i was standing on it1 and if ,i had not been quite taken up with what ,i was looking at1 ,i should not have staid there long4 ,here the whole scene on a sudden broke upon us4 ,we were on a level with the top of the precipice1 with the ,horse ,shoe ,fall just opposite1 and to our left1 the ,second1 and ,fort ,scloper ,falls4 ,footnote ,a3 ,the print is copied by the kind permission of ,messrs4 ,ackermann1 from one of the elegant series of engravings of the ,falls of ,niagara1 published by them4 ,in spite of the loud roar and the violent rushing of the waters1 the scene altogether produced on us feelings of deep tranquillity and beauty4 ,the portion of the river that falls over the ,horse ,shoe ,fall1 comes on in such an unbroken mass1 as if nothing dared to oppose the progress of a single drop of its water4 ,then the deep transparent green of the middle stream1 showing at a little depth beneath its surface1 shreds of milky foam1 the beautiful cloud of fine spray ever decorated with a rich rainbow when the sun shines1 and the thick woods of ,goat ,island1 7the island that limits the ,horse ,shoe ,fall17 are in such lovely harmony4 ,altogether1 ,i should say that the scene from the ,table ,rock1 is more remarkable for its beauty than its grandeur1 though its grandeur is quite equal to that of anything ,i ever looked upon in my life4 ,we got down to the bottom of the falls by means of some rough steps which have been cut in the rock4 ,as we stood on some large fragments which have fallen down from the cliff above1 the roar fell with overpowering heaviness upon our ears1 the fall was nearly hid from our eyes by the spray1 and the river rushed past our feet in a terrible tumult of white foam4 ,by getting along on the stones under the cliff1 we went in under the fall so as actually to be between the rock and the descending sheet of water4 ,your imagination must tell you better than ,i can1 the character of what we then saw by the broken light that made its way through the descending mass of waters4 ,we stopped there1 overpowered by indescribable feelings1 till we got wet through by the spray1 and then went back to the inn1 stored with recollections1 which will be a feast for us as long as we live4 ,a traveller who visited the ,falls in winter1 adds some particulars which will be interesting to you4 ,at the time of my visit1 says he1 the wind drove the floating ice out of ,lake ,erie1 with the drift wood of its tributary rivers1 and these were constantly precipitated over the ,falls1 but we were not able to discover any vestiges of them in the eddies below4 ,immediately in front of the sheet of falling water1 on the ,american side1 there was also an enormous bank of snow1 of nearly a hundred feet in height1 which the power of the sun had not been fierce enough to dissolve1 and which1 by giving an ,icelandic character to the landscape1 produced a fine effect4 ,it appeared to me to owe its accumulation to the fallen particles of frozen spray4 ,what has been said by ,goldsmith1 and repeated by others1 respecting the destructive influence of the rapids above1 to ducks and other water-fowl1 is only an effect of the imagination4 ,so far from being the case1 the wild duck is often seen to swim down the rapid to the brink of the ,falls1 and then fly out1 and repeat the descent1 seeming to take a delight in the exercise4 ,neither are small land-birds affected on flying over the ,falls1 in the manner that has been stated4 ,i observed the blue bird and the wren1 which had already made their annual visit to the banks of the ,niagara1 frequently fly within one or two feet of the brink1 apparently delighted with the gift of their wings1 which enabled them to sport over such frightful precipices1 without danger4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,wonders ,,of ,,the ,,sea4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,parley ,,tells ,,about ,,the ,,frozen ,,ocean4 ,your old friend ,peter loves to talk about the sea4 ,ever since he was a child1 he loved everything belonging to the sea1 and when he was a young man he went many long voyages1 and met with many strange adventures1 on the sea4 ,perhaps he did not find it quite so delightful to be shut up in the narrow compass of a ship1 during long voyages1 as he dreamt he should in his childhood4 ,but he does not now regret whatever labours or sufferings he may have endured1 for the pleasure he finds in telling you of them4 ,but ,i do not intend here to spin you a yarn 7as the sailors say7 about myself1 but merely to describe to you some of the wonderful things ,i have seen during my voyages1 that you may love and admire them4 ,you have never seen the sea frozen over in the same manner as you have seen ponds and rivers in winter4 ,the waters of the sea1 everywhere1 contain a large portion of salt1 as you know from their taste1 and this prevents them from freezing1 except where it is very cold4 ,it is only near the poles of the earth that the ocean freezes1 and there are large masses of ice1 both at the north and south poles1 which are never thawed1 but stand as stedfast as the everlasting hills of granite4 ,icebergs are large bodies of ice filling the valleys between the high mountains in northern latitudes4 ,sometimes they get loosened from the places where they were formed1 by parts of them thawing1 in seasons which are less cold than usual1 and then rush down towards the sea1 where they float about in all manner of fantastic and majestic forms4 ,illustration3 ,icebergs4 ,these icebergs are the creation of ages1 and annually increase by the falling of snows1 and of rain1 which instantly freezes1 and more than repairs the loss occasioned by the heat of the sun4 ,i must tell you a little about the way in which cold converts water into ice4 ,everything in nature is expanded or increased in bulk by heat4 ,you may see in a thermometer how the quick-silver or the coloured spirit rises in the tube1 because it expands when the instrument is in a warm place1 and how it sinks in a cold place4 ,it is just the same with solids and gases4 ,this would seem to be a universal law of nature1 if it were not for the single exception of water at the moment of its freezing4 ,if water is cooled down to the freezing point1 it will gradually diminish in bulk1 but at the moment it turns into ice1 it seems to spring outward1 and increases considerably4 ,in this way bottles are broken when the water in them freezes2 and rocks are often split open in the same manner when the cracks in them contain water4 ,you have seen that ice does not sink in water1 but floats upon the surface2 this takes place1 because from the circumstance which ,i have told you1 a certain quantity of ice by weight1 occupies more space than the same quantity of water4 ,now it is worth while for you to see how wisely this is arranged1 as it respects our own climate and country2 for if ice were to sink to the bottom1 the lakes1 and rivers1 and ponds1 would become solid masses of ice during winter1 which the sun's rays would never thoroughly thaw in summer1 because1 after the surface had been thawed1 the rays would have to pass through the water to get at the ice at the bottom1 and thus our climate would be rendered very much colder than it is at present1 and perhaps the springs would not circulate1 so that we should often suffer from scarcity of water4 ,but when the salt water freezes1 the ice is very porous1 almost like a honeycomb1 so that it is much lighter than frozen fresh water1 and is very buoyant upon the sea1 and stands out boldly to a great height1 as is represented in the cut of the ,icebergs4 ,i will tell you of a perilous situation in which ,i was placed in my younger days1 when ,i went a voyage to ,greenland in a whale ship4 ,it was at the end of the fishing season1 and our ship was the last but one of the oil traders left in those seas2 we had been very unsuccessful1 having only taken five small whales1 and we were anxious to amend our ill luck by tarrying after all the other ships had sailed1 in hopes of better success4 ,we were gently sailing about in search of whales amidst the broken ice when there suddenly arose a rather brisk breeze1 at which time our ship was situated between two icebergs1--one of them very high and resembling a lofty mountain1 and the other considerably smaller4 ,well1 at the time the breeze sprung up1 the large iceberg was to the windward of us1 that is1 on that side from whence the wind blew1 and having a very large surface which caught the wind1 it came sailing towards us very fast4 ,the vast bulk of this iceberg sheltered the smaller one1 which was to the leeward of us1 so that it did not move in the least1 and we who were between the two1 were completely becalmed4 ,the ship was not advancing a knot in an hour1 and we could do nothing whatever to help ourselves4 ,we were in the greatest dismay1 and could only consider the way in which we should meet our entire destruction4 ,the larger mountain of ice continued to bear down upon us1 and in a few minutes our vessel was crushed between it and the smaller one1 as if it had been put in a huge smith's vice4 ,fortunately1 however1 for us1 the two icebergs clung together1 the greater one impelling the lesser one forward1 and we thus had time to get out of the ship all our sea-chests1 a large quantity of cordage1 nearly all our provisions1 and everything portable2 but the smaller iceberg soon shifted round the large one and let our ship loose1 which instantly sank1 and we1 being on the small iceberg1 were left floating on the ocean with despair staring us in the face4 ,our despair1 however1 was soon put to flight1 for we perceived a ship at a short distance1 to which we made signal1 and they came to our assistance4 ,but1 now ,i come to a part of the event which ,i grieve to record4--,the captain and crew of the vessel which came to our succour1 seeing that we had no other alternative1 thought they could make an easy prey of us1 and before they would consent to save us1 required that we should give up to them all the things which we had been enabled to rescue from our wrecked ship6--,in such circumstances you need not ask what we did1--life is sweet1 it is said1 and the pitiless prospect of the frozen regions around us1 sharpened our appetite for the enjoyment of it1 and we surrendered all but the clothes in which we stood4 ,shall ,i tell you the place where these savages came from8 ,no4 ,i will only tell you that it lies in about #ef degrees ,north latitude1 by #d-a_/b ,west longitude2 you may1 if you please1 find its name by looking in the map4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,a ,,long ,,journey ,,over ,,the ,,ice4 ,illustration ,the ,esquimaux live in the most northern parts of ,america1 where there is hardly anything but ice and snow to be seen from year's end to year's end4 ,they build their houses of snow1 and make their longest journeys in sledges upon ice along the sea-shore4 ,you1 who have been used to a very different kind of life1 may wonder how they can enjoy themselves1 or even endure existence in such inhospitable regions4 ,but ,i can assure you they love their native country so much1 that they could by no means be happy out of it2 and their pleasures are real pleasures1 though they would not be pleasures to you4 ,and thus you may learn that ,god wishes everybody to be happy1 and enables them to be so if they choose to act according to the light which ,he has given them1 and not be ever struggling for something which they cannot1 and therefore ought not1 to possess4 ,and not only do the natives of these frozen countries endure perpetual frost and snow1 but good men have chosen to go and live among them for the purpose of teaching the natives the doctrines of ,christianity4 ,i shall relate to you a most interesting narrative of some of these men who were ,moravians1 and it will give you a better notion of the character of these parts of the world1 and of the sort of life men lead in them1 than anything ,i could you of my own1 for the story is extremely well told4 ,brother ,samuel ,liebisch was entrusted with the general care of the brethren's missions on the coast of ,labrador1 and the duties of his office required a visit to ,okkak1 the most northern of our settlements1 and about one hundred and fifty ,english miles distant from ,nain1 the place where he resided4 ,brother ,william ,turner being appointed to accompany him1 they left ,nain on ,march the #aath1 #aghb1 early in the morning1 with very clear weather1 the stars shining with uncommon lustre4 ,the sledge was driven by the baptized ,esquimaux ,mark1 and another sledge with ,esquimaux joined company4 ,an ,esquimaux sledge is drawn by a species of dogs1 not unlike a wolf in shape4 ,like them1 they never bark1 but howl disagreeably4 ,they are kept by the ,esquimaux in greater or larger packs or teams1 in proportion to the affluence of the master4 ,they quietly submit to be harnessed for their work1 and are treated with little mercy by the heathen ,esquimaux1 who make them do hard duty for the small quantity of food they allow them4 ,this chiefly consists in offal1 old skins1 entrails1 such parts of whale-flesh as are unfit for other use1 rotten whale-fins1 c41 and if they are not provided with this kind of dogs' meat1 they leave them to go and seek dead fish or muscles upon the beach4 ,illustration ,when pinched with hunger they will swallow almost anything1 and on a journey it is necessary to secure the harness within the snow-house over night1 lest by devouring it1 they should render it impossible to proceed in the morning4 ,when the travellers arrive at their night-quarters1 and the dogs are unharnessed1 they are left to burrow in the snow1 where they please1 and in the morning are sure to come at their driver's call1 when they receive some food4 ,their strength and speed1 even with an hungry stomach1 is astonishing4 ,in fastening them to the sledge1 care is taken not to let them go abreast4 ,they are tied by separate thongs1 of unequal lengths1 to an horizontal bar on the fore-part of the sledge2 an old knowing one leads the way1 running ten or twenty paces ahead1 directed by the driver's whip1 which is of great length1 and can be well managed only by an ,esquimaux4 ,the other dogs follow like a flock of sheep4 ,if one of them receives a lash1 he generally bites his neighbour1 and the bite goes round4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xii4 ,,escape ,,on ,,the ,,ice ,to return to our travellers3 the two sledges contained five men1 one woman1 and a child4 ,all were in good spirits1 and appearances being much in their favour1 they hoped to reach ,okkak in safety in two or three days4 ,the tract over the frozen sea was in the best possible order1 and they went with ease at the rate of six or seven miles an hour4 ,after they had passed the islands in the bay of ,nain1 they kept at a considerable distance from the coast1 both to gain the smoothest part of the ice1 and to weather the high rocky promontory of ,kiglapeit4 ,illustration ,about eight o'clock they met a sledge with ,esquimaux turning in from the sea4 ,after the usual salutation1 the ,esquimaux alighting1 held some conversation1 as is their general practice1 the result of which was1 that some hints were thrown out by the strange ,esquimaux1 that it might be better to return4 ,however1 as the missionaries saw no reason whatever for it1 and only suspected that the ,esquimaux wished to enjoy the company of their friends a little longer1 they proceeded4 ,after some time their own ,esquimaux hinted that there was a ground swell under the ice4 ,it was then hardly perceptible1 except on lying down and applying the ear close to the ice1 when a hollow disagreeable grating and roaring noise was heard1 as if ascending from the abyss4 ,the weather remained clear1 except towards the east1 where a bank of light clouds appeared1 interspersed with some dark streaks4 ,but the wind being strong from the ,north-west1 nothing less than a sudden change of weather was expected4 ,the sun had now reached its height1 and there was as yet little or no alteration in the appearance of the sky4 ,but the motion of the sea under the ice had grown more perceptible1 so as rather to alarm the travellers1 and they began to think it prudent to keep closer to the shore4 ,the ice had cracks and large fissures in many places1 some of which formed chasms of one or two feet wide2 but as they are not uncommon even in its best state1 and the dogs easily leap over them1 the sledge following without danger1 they are only terrible to new comers4 ,as soon as the sun declined towards the west1 the wind increased and rose to a storm1 the bank of clouds from the east began to ascend1 and the dark streaks to put themselves in motion against the wind4 ,the snow was violently driven about by partial whirlwinds1 both on the ice1 and from off the peaks of the high mountains and filled the air4 ,at the same time the ground swell had increased so much1 that its effect upon the ice became very extraordinary and alarming4 ,the sledges1 instead of gliding along smoothly upon an even surface1 sometimes ran with violence after the dogs1 and shortly after seemed with difficulty to ascend the rising hill1 for the elasticity of so vast a body of ice1 of many leagues square1 supported by a troubled sea1 though in some places three or four yards in thickness1 would1 in some degree1 occasion an undulatory motion not unlike that of a sheet of paper accommodating itself to the surface of a rippling stream4 ,noises were now likewise distinctly heard in many directions1 like the report of cannon1 owing to the bursting of the ice at some distance4 ,the ,esquimaux therefore drove with all haste towards the shore1 intending to take up their night-quarters on the south side of the ,nivak4 ,but as it plainly appeared that the ice would break and disperse in the open sea1 ,mark advised to push forward to the north of the ,nivak1 from whence he hoped the track to ,okkak might still remain entire4 ,to this proposal the company agreed1 but when the sledges approached the coast1 the prospect before them was truly terrific4 ,the ice having broken loose from the rocks1 was forced up and down1 grinding and breaking into a thousand pieces against the precipices1 with a tremendous noise1 which added to the raging of the wind1 and the snow driving about in the air1 deprived the travellers almost of the power of hearing and seeing anything distinctly4 ,to make the land at any risk1 was now the only hope left1 but it was with the utmost difficulty the frightened dogs could be forced forward1 the whole body of ice sinking frequently below the surface of the rocks1 then rising above it4 ,as the only moment to land was that1 when it gained the level of the coast1 the attempt was extremely nice and hazardous4 ,however1 by ,god's mercy1 it succeeded2 both sledges gained the shore1 and were drawn up the beach with much difficulty4 ,the travellers had hardly time to reflect with gratitude to ,god on their safety1 when that part of the ice from which they had just now made good their landing burst asunder1 and the water forcing itself from below1 covered and precipitated it into the sea4 ,in an instant1 as if by a signal given1 the whole mass of ice1 extending for several miles from the coast1 and as far as the eye could reach1 began to burst and be overwhelmed by the immense waves towering above4 ,the sight was tremendous and awfully grand2 the large fields of ice1 raising themselves out of the water1 striking against each other1 and plunging into the deep with a violence not to be described1 and a noise like the discharge of innumerable batteries of heavy guns4 ,the darkness of the night1 the roaring of the wind and sea1 and the dashing of the waves and ice against the rocks1 filled the travellers with sensations of awe and horror1 so as almost to deprive them of the power of utterance4 ,they stood overwhelmed with astonishment at their miraculous escape1 and even the heathen ,esquimaux expressed gratitude to ,god for their deliverance4 ,the ,esquimaux now began to build a snow-house1 about thirty paces from the beach2 but before they had finished their work1 the waves reached the place where the sledges were secured1 and they were with difficulty saved from being washed into the sea4 ,illustration ,about nine o'clock all of them crept into the snow-house1 thanking ,god for this place of refuge2 for the wind was piercingly cold and so violent1 that it required great strength to be able to stand against it4 ,before they entered this habitation1 they could not help once more turning to the sea1 which was now free from ice1 and beheld with horror1 mingled with gratitude1 the enormous waves1 driving furiously before the wind1 like huge castles1 and approaching the shore1 where with dreadful noise1 they dashed against the rocks1 foaming and filling the air with the spray4 ,the whole company now got their supper1 and having sung an evening hymn in the ,esquimaux language1 lay down to rest about ten o'clock4 ,they lay so close1 that if any one stirred1 his neighbours were roused by it4 ,the ,esquimaux were soon fast asleep1 but brother ,liebisch could not get any rest1 partly on account of the dreadful roaring of the wind and sea1 and partly owing to a sore throat1 which gave him great pain4 ,both missionaries were also much engaged in their minds in contemplating the dangerous situations into which they had been brought1 and amidst all thankfulness for their great deliverance from immediate death1 could not but cry unto their ,heavenly ,father for his help in this time of need4 ,the wakefulness of the missionaries proved the deliverance of the whole party from sudden destruction4 ,about two o'clock in the morning1 brother ,liebisch perceived some salt water to drop from the roof of the snow-house upon his lips4 ,though rather alarmed on tasting the salt1 which could not proceed from a common spray1 he kept quiet1 till the same dropping being more frequently repeated1 just as he was about to give the alarm1 on a sudden a tremendous surf broke close to the house1 discharging a quantity of water into it2 a second soon followed1 and carried away the slab of snow placed as a door before the entrance4 ,the missionaries immediately called aloud to the sleeping ,esquimaux1 to rise and quit the place4 ,they jumped up in an instant1 one of them with a large knife cut a passage through the side of the house1 and each seizing some part of the baggage1 it was thrown out upon a higher part of the beach1 brother ,turner assisting the ,esquimaux4 ,brother ,liebisch and the woman and child fled to a neighbouring eminence4 ,the latter were wrapt up by the ,esquimaux in a large skin1 and the former took shelter behind a rock1 for it was impossible to stand against the wind1 snow1 and sleet4 ,scarcely had the company retreated to the eminence when an enormous wave carried away the whole house1 but nothing of consequence was lost4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,journey ,,over ,,the ,,ice ,,continued4 ,they now found themselves a second time delivered from the most imminent danger of death2 but the remaining part of the night1 before the ,esquimaux could seek and find another more safe place for a snow-house1 were hours of great trial to mind and body1 and filled every one with painful reflections4 ,before the day dawned1 the ,esquimaux cut a hole into a large drift of snow1 to screen the woman and child1 and the two missionaries4 ,brother ,liebisch1 however1 could not bear the closeness of the air1 and was obliged to sit down at the entrance1 where the ,esquimaux covered him with skins1 to keep him warm1 as the pain in his throat was very great4 ,as soon as it was light1 they built another snow-house1 and miserable as such an accommodation is at all times1 they were glad and thankful to creep into it4 ,it was about eight feet square and six or seven feet high4 ,they now congratulated each other on their deliverance1 but found themselves in a very bad plight4 ,the missionaries had taken but a small stock of provisions with them1 merely sufficient for the short journey to ,okkak4 ,joel1 his wife and child1 and ,kassigiak1 the sorcerer1 had nothing at all4 ,they were obliged1 therefore1 to divide the small stock into daily portions1 especially as there appeared no hopes of soon quitting this place and reaching any dwellings4 ,only two ways were left for this purpose1 either to attempt the land passage across the wild and unfrequented mountain ,kiglapeit1 or wait for a new ice track over the sea1 which it might require much time to form2 they therefore resolved to serve out no more than a biscuit and a half per day4 ,but as this would not by any means satisfy an ,esquimaux's stomach1 the missionaries offered to give one of their dogs to be killed for them1 on condition1 that in case distress obliged them to resort again to that expedient1 the next dog killed should be one of the ,esquimaux's team4 ,they replied that they should be glad of it1 if they had a kettle to boil the flesh in1 but as that was not the case1 they must even suffer hunger1 for they could not1 even now1 eat dogs' flesh in its raw state4 ,the missionaries now remained in the snow-house1 and every day endeavoured to boil so much water over their lamp1 as might serve for two dishes of coffee a-piece4 ,through mercy1 they were preserved in good health1 and brother ,liebisch quite unexpectedly recovered on the first day of his sore throat4 ,the ,esquimaux also kept up their spirits1 and even the rough heathen ,kassigiak declared1 that it was proper to be thankful that they were still alive1 adding1 that if they had remained a very little longer upon the ice yesterday1 all their bones would have been broken to pieces in a short time4 ,he had1 however1 his heels frozen1 and suffered considerable pain4 ,in the evening1 the missionaries sung an hymn with the ,esquimaux1 and continued to do it every morning and evening4 ,god was present with them1 and comforted their hearts by his peace4 ,towards noon of the thirteenth1 the weather cleared up and the sea was seen1 as far as the eye could reach1 quite freed from ice4 ,mark and ,joel went up the hills to reconnoitre1 and returned with the disagreeable news that not a morsel of ice was to be seen even from thence1 in any direction1 and that it had even been forced away from the coast at ,nuasornak4 ,they were1 therefore1 of opinion1 that we could do nothing but force our way across the mountain ,kiglapeit4 ,to-day ,kassigiak complained much of hunger1 probably to obtain from the missionaries a larger portion than the common allowance4 ,they represented to him1 that they had no more themselves1 and reproved him for his impatience4 ,whenever the victuals were distributed1 he always swallowed his portion very greedily1 and put out his hand for what he saw the missionaries had left1 but was easily kept from any further attempt by serious reproof4 ,the ,esquimaux eat to-day an old sack made of fish-skin1 which proved indeed a dry and miserable dish4 ,while they were at this singular meal1 they kept repeating1 in a low humming tone1 'you was a sack but a little while ago1 and now you are food for us4' ,towards evening some flakes of ice were discovered driving towards the coast1 and on the fourteenth in the morning1 the sea was covered with them4 ,but the weather was again very strong1 and the ,esquimaux could not quit the snow-house1 which made them very low spirited and melancholy4 ,kassigiak suggested1 that it would be well to attempt to make good weather1 by which he meant to practise his art1 as a sorcerer1 to make the weather good4 ,the missionaries opposed it1 and told him that his heathenish practices were of no use1 but that the weather would become favourable as soon as it should please ,god4 ,kassigiak then asked1 whether ,jesus could make good weather4 ,he was told1 that to ,jesus was given all power in heaven and earth2 upon which he demanded1 that he should be applied to4 ,another time he said1 ,i shall tell my countrymen at ,seglek4 ,the missionaries replied4 ',tell them that in the midst of this affliction1 we placed our only hope and trust in ,jesus ,christ our ,saviour1 who loves all mankind1 and has shed his blood to redeem them from eternal misery4' ,to-day the ,esquimaux began to eat an old1 filthy1 and worn-out skin1 which had served them for a mattress4 ,on the fifteenth the weather continued extremely boisterous1 and the ,esquimaux appeared every now and then to sink under disappointment4 ,but they possess one good quality1 namely1 a power of going to sleep when they please1 and1 if need be1 they will sleep for days and nights together4 ,in the evening the sky became clear1 and their hopes revived4 ,mark and ,joel went out to reconnoitre1 and brought word that the ice had acquired a considerable degree of solidity1 and might soon be fit for use4 ,the poor dogs had1 meanwhile1 fasted for nearly four days1 but now in the prospect of a speedy release1 the missionaries allowed to each a few morsels of food4 ,the temperature of the air having been rather mild1 it occasioned a new source of distress1 for by the warm exhalations of the inhabitants1 the roof of the snow-house got to be in a melting state2 which occasioned a continual dropping1 and by degrees made every thing soaking wet4 ,the missionaries report1 that they considered this the greatest hardship they had to endure1 for they had not a dry thread about them1 nor a dry place to lie down in4 ,on the sixteenth early1 the sky cleared1 but the fine particles of snow were driven about like clouds4 ,joel and ,kassigiak resolved to pursue their journey to ,okkak1 by the way of ,nuasornak1 and set out1 with the wind and snow full in their faces4 ,mark could not resolve to proceed farther north1 because1 in his opinion1 the violence of the wind had driven the ice off the coast at ,tikkerasuk1 so as to render it impossible to land2 but he thought he might yet proceed to the south with safety1 and get round ,kiglapeit4 ,the missionaries endeavoured to persuade him to follow the above mentioned company to ,okkak1 but it was in vain2 and they did not feel at liberty to insist upon it1 not being sufficiently acquainted with the circumstances4 ,their present distress dictated the necessity of venturing something to reach the habitations of men1 and yet they were rather afraid of passing over the newly frozen sea under ,kiglapeit1 and could not immediately determine what to do4 ,brother ,turner therefore went again with ,mark to examine the ice1 and both seemed satisfied that it would hold4 ,they therefore came at last to a resolution to return to ,nain4 ,on the seventeenth1 the wind had considerably increased1 with heavy showers of snow and sleet1 but they set off at half-past ten o'clock in the afternoon4 ,mark ran all the way round ,kiglapeit1 before the sledge1 that he might find a good track1 and about one o'clock1 they were quite out of danger and reached the bay4 ,here they found a good track upon smooth ice1 made a meal of the remnant of their provisions1 and got some warm coffee4 ,thus refreshed1 they resolved to proceed without stopping1 till they reached ,nain1 where they arrived at twelve o'clock at night4 ,the brethren at ,nain rejoiced exceedingly to see them return1 for by several hints of the ,esquimaux1 who first met them going out to sea1 and who then in their own obscure way1 had endeavoured to warn them of their danger of the ground-swell1 but had not been attended to1 their fellow-missionaries1 and especially their wives1 had been much terrified4 ,one of these ,esquimaux1 whose wife had made some article of dress for brother ,liebisch1 whom they called ,samuel1 addressed her in the following manner3--',i should be glad of the payment for my wife's work4' ',wait a little1' answered sister ,liebisch1 'and when my husband returns he will settle with you1 for ,i am unacquainted with the bargain made between you4' ',samuel and ,william1' replied the ,esquimaux1 'will not return any more to ,nain4' ',how not return6 what makes you say so8' ,after some pause the ,esquimaux replied in a low tone1 ',samuel and ,william are no more6 all their bones are broken1 and in the stomachs of the sharks4' ,terrified at this alarming account1 sister ,liebisch called in the rest of the family1 and the ,esquimaux was examined as to his meaning2 but his answers were little less obscure4 ,he seemed so certain of the destruction of the missionaries1 that he was with difficulty prevailed on to wait some time for their return4 ,he could not believe that they could have escaped the effects of so furious a tempest1 considering the course they were taking4 ,it may easily be conceived1 with what gratitude to ,god the whole family at ,nain bid them welcome4 ,during the storm1 they had considered with some dread1 what might be the fate of their brethren1 though at ,nain its violence was not felt so much as on a coast1 unprotected by any islands4 ,added to this1 the hints of the ,esquimaux had considerably increased their apprehensions for their safety1 and their fears began to get the better of their hopes4 ,all therefore joined most fervently in praise and thanksgiving to ,god1 for this signal deliverance4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,whale4 ,it seems strange that the largest animal in nature should live in these regions1 where you would think everything must be starved by the cold4 ,but so it is1 and it should lead you to reflect1 how wonderfully the principle which animates living beings1 by the outward form and constitution which it gives to the bodies of animals1 adapts them to support the various circumstances in which they are placed4 ,there are many kinds of whale which all agree in these particulars4 ,they are very much larger than any other creatures existing2 they live in the sea and yet suckle their young with milk1 and have warm blood and lungs like land animals1 so that they can only breathe by putting their heads above water4 ,some people have doubted whether it was proper to call the whale a fish1 but on the whole it is certainly more like fishes than it is like any other of the great divisions of animals1 seeing that it swims with fins1 and cannot live out of the water4 ,illustration ,the ,greenland whale 7naturalists call it ,balena ,mysticetus17 is the most important of the varieties1 as it is the one which produces train oil in the largest quantities1 and whalebone4 ,in common with all the others1 it is a most awkward looking creature4 ,here is a picture of one4 ,its usual length is from #dj to #fj feet2 and the circumference of its body about #dj4 ,it not unfrequently weighs #fj or #gj tons1 which is more than the weight of #ahj fat oxen4 ,the tail is commonly about #f feet long1 and #be feet wide4 ,it lies flat upon the water1 and is what the creature principally uses in swimming1 for the fins near the head appear to be used merely to keep the body steady in the water4 ,it is also a weapon of defence1 and possesses prodigious strength1 as you shall hear by and by4 ,the inside of the mouth is1 perhaps1 the most wonderful part of the whale1 both from its size and construction4 ,i was once in one1 which was #ae feet in length and #g feet wide4 ,it is from the mouth that the ,whalebone1 as it is called1 comes4 ,the jaws are not furnished with teeth1 but in their place there is something which forms a curious sort of shrimp-trap1 which ,i will describe to you4 ,the whalebone is ranged along in blades upon the jaws1 like the laths of a ,venetian blind1 and the inner edge of each blade is furnished with a fringe of fibrous stuff almost like hair4 ,the natural position of the whale's mouth seems to be open1 and it mostly swims along or lies near the surface1 with its lower jaw hanging down4 ,little fish and insects1 most of them of the smallest size1 thus come in contact with the smooth edge of the blades of bone1 slip between them1 and become entangled in the hairy fringe of the inner edge1 so that they can never get out again4 ,when the whale thinks he has got enough in his mouth1 he immediately raises his enormous lower jaw and swallows4 ,one of his mouthfuls must often consist of millions of living creatures1 respecting the kinds of which ,i shall have something to tell you in a future page4 ,i told you that he was obliged to rise to the surface of the water to breathe4 ,you would like to see him ascend for this purpose1 and snort out a jet of thick vapour to the height of twenty feet1 or more1 and making such a noise1 as may be heard at a distance of several miles4 ,illustration ,under the skin1 all over the body1 there is a covering of yellowish fat of about a foot thick1 which keeps the animal warm1 answering the same purpose as the fur does on land animals4 ,it is necessary1 because the whale is not cold in the inside like other fish1 but has warm1 red blood1 which is of a higher temperature even than that of a human being4 ,this is another circumstance which becomes the more remarkable from the cold climate in which he lives4 ,this fat is generally called blubber1 and is what the oil comes from4 ,when first it is taken from the whale1 it has not the least unpleasant smell1 and it is not till the cargo is unstowed that a whale ship is at all disagreeable4 ,the largest sort of whale is called the razor back1 from a ridge that runs along his back4 ,they are often #ajj feet in length4 ,i never saw one of these taken1 but the sailors told me that they were very difficult to come near1 and after all1 not worth the trouble of killing1 for they have very little blubber4 ,then there is the ,cachalot1 or ,sperm ,whale1 which is smaller1 and much more slender than the common whale4 ,it has teeth1 and is of a very quarrelsome temper4 ,it often fights with its own kind1 and ,i have seen several of them which had been wounded in the jaws1 and made blind by such conflicts4 ,it is from the head of this animal that spermaceti is obtained4 ,a number of vessels are sent out every year to catch these great creatures1 and this is the way in which they manage their work4 ,every vessel is furnished with five or six boats which are hung on the sides of the vessel in such a way as to be easily lowered into the water on the shortest notice4 ,one or two of the boats are usually kept upon the look out1 in each of which there is a harpoon attached to a rope above #gjj feet in length1 and about as thick as a man's thumb4 ,this is the shape of the harpoon4 ,illustration ,when they see a whale showing himself above the surface of the water1 the man who is to throw the harpoon1 stations himself at the bow1 and the rest pull away as fast as they are able till they approach the whale as near as possible1 and this is often to within a very short distance in consequence of his being slower of hearing than most other animals4 ,the harpooner then throws the harpoon with all his might1 and if he is lucky1 it goes through the poor creature's skin and blubber1 into his flesh4 ,the moment he feels the wound1 he mostly sinks to a great depth1 and drags out the line which is carefully coiled at the bottom of the boat1 at a tremendous rate4 ,one man stands by with a mop to keep the edge of the boat over which the rope runs constantly wet1 lest the friction should set the boat on fire1 and another holds a hatchet ready to chop it in two in case it should become entangled4 ,if it goes out smoothly1 they add lines as long as they are necessary3 and on one occasion1 for a whale which was very refractory1 ,captain ,scoresby actually joined together three miles and three quarters of rope1 the weight of which was nearly two tons6 ,was not this a great fishing-line8 ,as soon as the whale is struck1 they hoist a flag1 and the men who are in the ship1 and constantly upon the look out1 immediately come to their assistance4 ,if the signal is made when any of them are asleep1 up they come with their clothes under their arms1 and dress afterwards as they can1 for not a moment is to be lost4 ,this is no joke1 when the cold is more than thirty degrees below the freezing point4 ,illustration ,however1 they are obliged to go2 and as many boats as there may be1 then watch anxiously for the re-appearance of the whale on the surface4 ,as soon as he shows himself1 the men of the other boats immediately strike their harpoons into him1 and so secure him till he is faint from loss of blood1 and at last comes up to the surface1 spouting out blood mixed with the vapour from his nostrils4 ,they then despatch him with an instrument called a lance1 and the great carcass rolls over upon its back4 ,it is afterwards lashed by strong ropes to the side of the ship1 and the blubber is cut up into lumps of convenient size1 and stowed in casks4 ,it occasionally happens1 after the harpooner has thrown his weapon1 that the creature in agony1 flaps about his tail with tremendous violence before he goes down4 ,many boats have been upset in this manner1 and ,captain ,scoresby relates an instance of a boat being dashed completely in two4 ,some people have thought the whale a very stupid creature1 but there does not seem much ground for this notion1 though we can never be in a condition to see much of its instinctive wisdom4 ,as far as we can see1 it is the very best thing it could do when struck by the harpoon1 to go downwards as it does2 and this seems to prove that it has quite its share of intelligence2 and it is still more remarkable1 that if a mass of ice be near when it is pursued1 either before or after it has been struck1 it gets under it as quickly as possible1 and often thus baffles its pursuers4 ,but the most interesting thing in the character of the whale is1 its extreme love for its offspring1 and a cruel use is often made by the whalers of this beautiful disposition4 ,they often strike a cub or sucker1 as they call the young whales1 which would not be worth taking itself1 because they know its mother will instantly expose herself to an attack in its defence4 ,you shall hear what ,captain ,scoresby says on this1 ,when the young whale is struck1 its mother joins it at the surface of the water1 whenever it has occasion to rise for respiration2 encourages it to swim off2 assists its flight1 by taking it under her fin2 and seldom deserts it while life remains4 ,she is then dangerous to approach2 but affords frequent opportunities for attack4 ,she loses all regard for her own safety1 in anxiety for the preservation of her young2--dashes through the midst of her enemies2--despises the danger that threatens her2--and even voluntarily remains with her offspring1 after various attacks on herself from the harpoons of the fishers4 ,in ,june #ahaa1 one of my harpooners struck a sucker1 with the hope of its leading to the capture of the mother4 ,presently she arose close by the 'fast-boat2' and seizing the young one1 dragged about a hundred fathoms of line out of the boat with remarkable force and velocity4 ,again she arose to the surface2 darted furiously to and fro2 frequently stopped short1 or suddenly changed her direction1 and gave every possible intimation of extreme agony4 ,for a length of time she continued thus to act1 though closely pursued by the boats2 and1 inspired with courage and resolution by her concern for her offspring1 seemed regardless of the danger which surrounded her4 ,at length1 one of the boats approached so near1 that a harpoon was hove at her4 ,it hit1 but did not attach itself4 ,a second harpoon was struck2 this also failed to penetrate3 but a third was more effectual1 and held4 ,still she did not attempt to escape1 but allowed other boats to approach2 so that1 in a few minutes1 three more harpoons were fastened2 and1 in the course of an hour afterwards1 she was killed4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,a ,,voyage ,,on ,a ,,tropical ,,sea4 ,to you1 my little friends1 who have always lived in a climate in which it seems as if the wind changed1 and it became sun-shiny or cloudy1 wet or dry1 cold or hot1 without any law or regularity1 it is something strange to hear of places where the inhabitants know almost to a day that the wind will blow constantly in one direction during so many months in the year1 and constantly in some other direction during the rest3 and where1 with equal certainty1 they know when to expect rain and when fine weather4 ,the truth is1 our changeable weather is under the influence of laws quite as certain and fixed as their uniform weather is1 only that there are more partial causes operating in our climate1 so that the effects are not so strictly periodical4 ,we know as little about the way in which the laws operate in one case1 as in the other4 ,the winds that always blow in one direction are called the ,trade ,winds1 and those which blow in one direction regularly during a certain portion of the year1 are called monsoons4 ,they make navigation in some parts of the ocean1 very certain1 and you cannot think how odd it seems to a young sailor the first time he sails in them4 ,he leads then a lazy sort of life2 there is no tacking about1 but day after day he has nothing to do but just such things as might be done on land4 ,when the sailors of ,columbus first found themselves in the ,trade ,wind blowing from the eastward1 having sailed before it for many days1 they gave themselves up to despair1 because they thought they should never be able to make their way back against it to their dear native country4 ,they did not know that it would by and by blow quite as certainly in another direction4 ,these uniform winds blow only within a certain distance of the equator1 and the cause of them is this4 ,the heat of the climate there occasions the air next to the surface of the earth to be always ascending1 and other air rushes in from other parts of the world to supply its place4 ,the motion of the earth upon its axis operates with this1 by bringing the parts of its surface successively in contact with any certain point in the atmosphere1 which does not revolve so rapidly as the earth itself1 and a fixed direction is thus given to the wind4 ,but it is still much more dull to find one's self in a calm on a tropical sea4 ,only imagine to yourselves a stagnant and shoreless sea1 often with unsightly masses of sea-weed floating on it1 a sky constantly of a gloomy-looking red1 and nothing to be seen day after day except this sky and sea2 insupportable thirst and bad water to quench it1 and the ship all the time rocking to and fro with a nasty dull motion1 and the ropes and sails idly flapping against the mast and yards4 ,but though ,i have seen and felt all this1 ,i cannot describe it to you so well as the poet1 so ,i will give you his words4 ,down dropt the breeze1 the sails dropt down1 ',twas sad as sad could be1 ,and we did speak only to break ,the silence of the sea4 ,all in a hot and copper sky1 ,the bloody sun at noon1 ,right up above the mast did stand ,no bigger than the moon4 ,day after day1 day after day1 ,we stuck1 nor breath nor motion2 ,as idle as a painted ship ,upon a painted ocean4 ,water1 water1 everywhere1 ,and all the boards did shrink2 ,water1 water1 everywhere1 ,nor any drop to drink4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,water-,,spout4 ,well6 one morning when we were only a few leagues off the ,west ,coast of ,africa1 to the ,south of the ,cape ,verd ,islands1 we thought we were going to have just such a calm as the poet has described4 ,there had been a violent storm during the night1 but every breath of wind had died away1 and left a long sleepy swell upon the sea4 ,about nine o'clock1 we noticed a cloud rising1 or rather seeming to form1 at some distance from us1 and just below it a white spot of foam appeared on the surface of the water1 and the waves raged over a little round space in a way that made me feel ,i don't know how1 for ,i had never seen such a thing before4 ,the cloud grew blacker and blacker1 and presently seemed to move down towards the sea and swell out in the same direction1 as if to provoke the waves below1 which seemed straining up towards it4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiii4 ,,water ,,spouts ,there suddenly seemed to grow out of the middle of the spot of waves1 a complete pillar of water of a tapering shape1 and at the same moment the lower part of the cloud seemed to condense and turn to water1 and shot downwards in a cone to meet it4 ,they united and formed one pillar1 almost as distinct as if it had been of ice instead of water4 ,you will see a correct representation of this in the picture4 ,the size at the base must have been very large1 not less than #bej feet in diameter1 but it tapered off so much that at the middle it was not more than three or four feet4 ,above the middle it increased in size1 and its solidity seemed to get gradually less till it ended in a great black cloud4 ,its height might have been about #gjj feet4 ,its form changed considerably4 ,it generally seemed as if it was composed of water sucked upwards in a spiral direction1 and looked almost like a great cable2 but now and then it looked like a simple hollow tube4 ,sometimes it inclined a little one way1 and then another2 and sometimes it was very considerably bent1 and then suddenly straightened itself again4 ,when the ship was nearest to it1 we heard a noise from it like the rushing of a waterfall1 and before it was over1 heavy rain came on with lightning1 but no thunder4 ,the wind all the time was very unsteady1 though it was not violent4 ,while we were looking at it1 two smaller ones formed at some distance under very nearly the same circumstances4 ,one of them stood quite still for some seconds1 and then disappeared2 but the other moved steadily on in a straight line1 for several minutes4 ,the great one continued moving also very slowly for nearly half an hour1 and then seemed to snap in two1 and one half sank rapidly into the sea1 as if it had been unhooked from above1 and the other half remained hanging from the cloud for some time1 and then curled upwards and disappeared1 throwing down a heavy torrent of rain4 ,i have seen many water-spouts since1 in my voyages over the great ocean1 but have never been so struck with the appearance of any one as of this4 ,there is a common notion that a cannon fired at a water-spout1 will disperse it by making a great concussion of the air2 but ,i do not think that this is true1 unless the water-spout be very small4 ,at all events1 it was not true in this case1 for we fired right at the large one several times1 and it took no effect except in splashing the water about as the ball went through4 ,it is also generally imagined that they are very dangerous to ships1 and if they come close1 that they throw such a quantity of water into them as to sink them4 ,i have somewhere read an account of a vessel having once been put in danger by one off the ,coast of ,guinea1 and two or three of the men being washed overboard1 and ,i once saw the sails and deck of a vessel1 made very wet by a small one1 myself4 ,but my own opinion is1 that there is not much to be dreaded from them1 for they are not a solid mass of water1 but merely condensed vapour in the form of a tube1 with a hollow space in the middle4 ,and ,i think if you were right under one of them1 it would be no worse than rain descending in very large drops4 ,illustration ,once ,i saw a much smaller water-spout on land4 ,it was a gusty1 cloudy day1 and the wind had changed several times1 when a dark cloud at some distance from where ,i was1 extended downwards till it came nearly to a point4 ,it seemed to reach about three-fourths of the distance from the cloud to the ground1 and moved along slowly for about ten minutes4 ,when ,i afterwards made inquiry of the people over whose houses it passed1 they told me that it had let fall in its progress a tremendous quantity of rain1 so as considerably to injure several houses4 ,,how ,,parley ,,supposes ,,water-,,spouts ,,to ,,be ,,caused4 ,i suppose you would now like me to tell you how water-spouts are caused4 ,i wish ,i could1 for your sakes2 and1 besides1 ,i should very much like to know myself4 ,i have1 however1 a tolerable guess upon the subject1 and that ,i will tell you of4 ,i dare say you have often seen little eddies of wind which take up dust1 straw1 and other light substances1 and carry them up1 twirling them round in a spiral direction like a cork-screw4 ,when these occur on a larger scale1 they are called whirlwinds1 and are often very destructive in their effects1 unroofing houses1 and doing various other mischief4 ,they are sometimes occasioned by draughts of air being disturbed in their course by mountains or hills1 and meeting each other4 ,but the largest are caused by two or more currents of wind1 produced by what ordinarily influences the direction of the wind1 meeting from different quarters1 and then twisting round each other just as two strings1 with weights at their ends1 would do if you swung them forcibly together so as to meet about the middle4 ,a whirlwind occurred some years ago1 near where ,i was living2 it lasted about ten minutes1 and produced some very curious effects4 ,it first met with a milk-maid1 who was carrying a pail of milk upon her head1 and tore off her bonnet along with the pail1 and carried both to a great distance1 where they were not found till some days afterwards4 ,it next twisted a wagon in pieces1 and blew most of the fragments over a wall2 it unroofed a house1 and carried some of the tiles to a great distance2 next it dashed through the window of the room where ,i was sitting1 swept all the ornaments off the mantelpiece1 and made strange havock with some of the furniture4 ,it then passed on to a neighbouring park1 where it tore up several trees4 ,the wind had not been extremely violent before1 neither was it immediately afterwards4 ,suppose a cloud happens to be exactly in the point of union of two currents of wind1 meeting as they did in this whirlwind1 it then becomes twisted in along with them1 and partially condensed2 and if it is over the land1 this is all that seems necessary to form the water-spout4 ,and if it happens to be over the sea1 the wind1 as it eddies round1 works up the waves into a ferment1 and much spray and foam is produced1 which is twisted in with the whirlwind in the same manner as the cloud1 and carried upwards to meet it4 ,whether this is just the way in which the thing takes place1 or not1 it is pretty certain that the water-spout is caused by the meeting of winds from various quarters1 from what ,dr4 ,franklin tells us in one of his letters which ,i read the other day4 ,he says that a sailor informed him that he was in one of three vessels which chanced to be placed as at the three corners of a triangle2 a water-spout was formed between them which seemed to be to the leeward of each of them4 ,illustration ,the cut will enable you to understand what ,i mean4 ,the star in the middle represents the water-spout1 and the three arrows the directions in which each of the three vessels found the wind come1 which shows that three diverse currents of air all set towards the water-spout4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,coral ,,reefs ,,and ,,islands4 ,when we were sailing through the ,pacific ,ocean1 ,i saw a great many coral reefs and islands2 and perhaps there is hardly one of the wonderful things which ,i have seen in my travels1 that ,i remember with more pleasure1 or love more to think about1 so ,i shall be glad to tell you all ,i know of them4 ,you are acquainted with the appearance of ,coral1 as you have often seen pieces of it in cabinets1 and employed as ornaments2 and you therefore know that it always abounds with little holes1 but its form1 and the shape of these holes1 vary considerably4 ,some of it occurs in branches1 like the branches of trees1 and in consequence of this1 and because it was known to increase in size from time to time1 it was taken for a marine plant1 before its nature was fully investigated4 ,the openings in this sort are placed in the form of stars1 as you will see in this little piece of one of the branches magnified4 ,illustration ,illustration ,sometimes it is in large roundish masses1 called brain stones1 from its resemblance to the brain of an animal2 the openings are then long holes placed in two rows between high ridges1 like this4 ,illustration ,and a third form is found consisting of thin pieces1 thinner than writing paper1 placed on edge1 spreading out from a centre1 or from a line down the middle of a long strip1 and the openings are then plain deep furrows1 running from the middle to the outside4 ,illustration ,there is also the precious red ,coral of which beads and other trinkets are made1 found principally in the ,mediterranean ,sea1 and several other sorts1 more or less rare4 ,but what ,i have described to you are the commonest4 ,this curious substance extends over hundreds of miles in various parts of the ,tropical ,seas1 in islands of different forms4 ,but before ,i describe these to you1 ,i must tell you what is known respecting the little animals by which it is manufactured1 for it is proved to be the work of certain kinds of the little creatures called ,polypes4 ,,the ,,coral-,,making ,,polypes4 ,the ,polypes are a kind of animals apparently of very simple structure1 without bones1 or shells1 or heads1 or brains4 ,they have very large mouths surrounded by a great number of tentacula1 or feelers1 which are threads of flesh possessing the sense of touch in great perfection2 and to these tentacula they owe the name ,polypes1 which comes from two ,greek words signifying many feet4 ,the ancient naturalists who named them1 ,i suppose did not know but that they were feet4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiv4 ,,actini ,,coral ,,builders ,if this was the case1 they were not1 however1 quite right4 ,most kinds of ,polypes very seldom move from one place to another in any way1 but stick themselves upon a rock by means of the flat part of their bodies1 and there remain2 and when they let go they generally suffer themselves to be washed by the waves to some other place1 where they can conveniently fix again4 ,if you have ever been at ,brighton1 or at any other places by the sea side1 for any length of time1 ,i dare say you have seen the sea anemones1 or sea flowers1 as they are called1 carried round by the fish people to show to their customers2 or possibly you may have seen them in the holes on the rocks4 ,they are proper ,polypes1 and the scientific name of them is ,actini4 ,as they lead their lazy lives as if they were rooted in the rock1 when they are hungry they spread out their tentacula to catch any little insects or minute fish1 such as crabs and shrimps1 which may come in their way4 ,the instant they feel anything1 they close in all their tentacula with surprising force4 ,it is worth while to put one's finger just in the centre of one of these flowers1 to feel how strongly they can draw anything in4 ,i have seen one suck in a little crab half as large as its own body1 in this manner4 ,when closed up they look an insensible lump of pulpy flesh1 but when their fringe of tentacula is expanded1 they are very beautiful indeed1 and exhibit various rich colours4 ,you may see them in each state in the plate 7fig4 #a471 where one is represented closed up1 and two are open4 ,if one of these curious creatures is cut into several pieces in certain directions1 each piece will become an animal4 ,you will say that this seems more like a plant which is propagated by cuttings1 than a proper animal4 ,but for all this1 and although it only appears to possess the same sort of sensibility1 in regard to light and touch1 as some plants do1 ,i can give you a very good reason for its being considered as an animal1--it can move itself according to its own will1 and in choosing the time in which it moves1 it exhibits instinctive intelligence4 ,when it finds its little inch of rock in any respect inconvenient from its being too high above low water mark1 or not sufficiently in the way of the little creatures on which it wants to satisfy its appetite1 it sucks in a great quantity of water1 and swells itself out so as to become nearly as light as the water1 and then looses its hold and continues to float about till it comes in contact with some more convenient home4 ,when ,i first saw them thus full of water1 and carried about by the waves1 ,i thought they were dead4 ,now the coral builders are all of the same general character as the ,actini1 in the construction of their bodies1 their various colours1 great mouths surrounded by feelers1 and habits of taking their meals4 ,but besides their being such wonderful architects1 they differ from the ,english creature in being very sociable1 and living together in immense companies4 ,when you read of the ,pyramids of ,egypt1 or of any other great structures1 you may justly think them wonderful proofs of what the labours of many men may do when directed to a single object2 but here you have not houses1 pyramids1 cities1 nor even mere islands1 but whole continents constructed by the combined labours of little insects4 ,i cannot tell you1 neither can any one else1 in what manner these little workmen perform their work4 ,it is only certain that they have some faculty by which they appropriate the particles of carbonate of lime contained in the sea water1 and dispose them in the various forms ,i have mentioned to you4 ,when the coral is in progress1 it is coated with a soft gluey sort of substance1 and over the star-like clusters of openings1 there may be seen1 when the creatures are hungry1 little rosettes of tentacula1 more beautiful than you can conceive4 ,in fig4 #b of the plate1 you may see some of these animals showing their rich rosettes on a piece of branch coral1 such as is represented in the first wood cut1 page #bjd4 ,there is another sort of branch coral1 where the animal always lives at the end of the branch1 the whole of which it has to itself1 and will then spread out its tentacula in a star on the extremity1 as you may see in figs4 #c and #d4 ,in fig4 #e1 you may see one of the animals which construct the sort of coral represented in the cut1 page #bje4 ,since these little creatures can lay down their tentacula in the openings of their stony houses1 when they are not hungry1 or when they are alarmed by the approach of anything that would hurt them1 they do not want the tough skin with which the ,actinia is covered1 but have bodies of a very soft and yielding texture4 ,,forms ,,of ,,the ,,coral ,,reefs4 ,as ,i have now introduced to you1 as well as ,i can by means of description and pictures1 the inhabitants of these wonderful submarine continents1 ,i shall now tell you something of the form in which they arrange their habitations4 ,those that ,i saw about the ,society and ,friendly ,islands1 were mostly in three different conditions4 ,one kind forms a nearly circular reef1 sometimes with an opening in it4 ,it is a part of the common design of the ,polypes always to make this opening on the ,leeward side1 when the place is one in which any particular wind blows during a great part of the year4 ,i cannot tell you why this is1 but it is constantly observed wherever coral reefs are found4 ,this peculiarity makes the enclosed spaces of water1 7which are called ,lagoons17 capital harbours for ships to anchor in1 for they are nearly always smooth1 the windward side of the reef acting as a breakwater4 ,here is a map of three reefs of this form1 in a part of the ocean where the prevailing wind is ,south ,east1 and you will see all the openings are towards the ,north ,west4 ,illustration ,another sort have an island of which the foundation is coral1 in the middle of a ring like the above2 and a third sort are merely the same kind of rings round large islands1 composed of other sorts of rocks and earth4 ,a very great number of the islands hereabouts1--perhaps most of them1 are surrounded in this manner4 ,i well remember the first impressions which the sight of a coral reef made upon me4 ,i always like to treasure up in my mind the first impression produced by a beautiful scene2 for however wonderful the objects may be1 when you have seen them many times1 you become in some degree indifferent to them4 ,this first impression that ,i am going to describe to you1 is a continual feast to me when ,i think upon it1 and ,i wish you could enjoy it with me4 ,the first parts of the reef we saw were black1 roundish masses1 standing up out of the water1 having just the appearance of black men's heads1 and when ,i asked the sailors what they were1 they told me they were negroes' heads4 ,i was curious1 as you may suppose1 to know what they could be1 and ,i afterwards found they were masses of coral1 which were not covered by the sea1 except at very high tides1 and had become blackened by the weather4 ,the sun was shining brightly1 and there was a smart breeze4 ,the waves breaking over the ragged surface of the coral threw up abundance of spray1 which the sun's rays1 every now and then1 painted with the most beautiful rainbow colours4 ,we sailed through an opening1 and when we had got into the ,lagoon1 the sea was perfectly smooth4 ,the water was as clear as crystal1 and we saw the bottom1 and what was going on there1 nearly as well as if we had been close to it1 though the depth was very considerable4 ,illustration ,no flower garden was ever more exquisitely varied1 both as to form and colour1 than the scene under the water4 ,the coral itself1 standing up in the forms of shrubs1 wheat-sheaves1 mushrooms1 stags'-horns1 cabbages1 and cauliflowers1 was mostly covered with millions of the little polypes1 displaying their graceful rosettes of green1 purple1 yellow1 brown and white4 ,among these were strewn innumerable shells from the smallest to the largest1 and amongst the most conspicuous were the gigantic clams1 of which many specimens weigh hundreds of pounds4 ,then there were seen fish darting in and out as they ,with quick glance1 ,showed to the ,sun their waved coats dropt with gold1 the variegated ,zebra fish1 and a hundred other species1 often popping up from deep holes and caves1 of which we could not see the bottom4 ,all seemed life1 beauty1 and enjoyment1 and when ,i had looked at it a long time1 it brought to my mind the time when ,god looked upon what he had formed1 and said that it was good1 for you could not wish anything to be different from what it was2 the scene appeared faultless1 and quite filled up the heart with emotions of love and beauty4 ,this reef was one of those which surrounded a good-sized island4 ,the cut will show you nearly how it appeared to be situated in regard to the land2 a is the land2 b the coral2 and c the ,lagoon1 the width of which was about a quarter of a mile4 ,illustration ,there were in it several masses of coral of a very curious shape1 such as ,i have since found always exist in ,lagoons4 ,they are first built up in the form of a sugar-loaf1 and when they get up somewhere between high and low-water-mark1 the polypes extend them at the sides so as to make a sort of mushroom top1 closely resembling the stones which farmers place ricks upon1 to keep them out of the way of rats and mice4 ,their constructing these rocks in the sugar-loaf form1 so as to make them as firm as possible1 is a proof that the labours of the polypes are directed by a common instinct1 and that each one does not do as he likes1 without regard to the rest4 ,i suppose the reason why they spread them out at top1 is because they love best the highest habitations they can get1 that are not quite out of the water2 and therefore as many polypes as can1 make their residences there4 ,as the tide went down1 a considerable space of the shore of the reef was left dry1 towards the ,lagoon1 where it slanted off gently4 ,upon this there were some of the large clam shells1 such as you saw a cut of just now4 ,they generally lay about half open1 but they would occasionally shut their shells together with a loud report1 and then spout up a stream of water three or four feet high4 ,we boiled one of these fish and tasted it1 but found it very disagreeable4 ,the fish weighed about four pounds1 and the shell about fifty4 ,there were many of a much larger size4 ,the reefs towards the sea outside the ,lagoons go down very suddenly1 and the soundings are generally deep1 close alongside them4 ,this is ascribed to their being built upon the tops of submarine hills and mountains1 for it is believed that the polypes cannot work at very great depths4 ,the surface of the reef is seldom quite so high as high-water-mark2 but they sometimes go along an incredible distance without interruption1 very near that point4 ,the inhabitants of the group of islands called ,disappointment ,islands1 and also of those called ,duff's ,islands1 pay visits to each other over a bridge of coral #fjj miles in length1 on a great part of which their feet are close to the water1 so that they look when on their journey at the time of high-water1 just like troops marching on the surface of the ocean4 ,the natives of some of the ,polynesian islands have actually employed some of these wonderful little masons to build quays and piers4 ,the way they do this1 is to break off large masses of coral from any reef that may be near1 and drop them down where they want to form the pier4 ,in a short time the polypes will have stuck them together as firmly as possible4 ,in an island called ,barabora1 a very fine quay has been thus constructed1 where a good-sized vessel may conveniently take in or discharge its cargo4 ,there were once coral islands where ,england is now1 for in many counties fossil coral is found in great quantities4 ,it is indeed most likely that there are large tracts in every part of the world1 which owe their existence to the labours of polypes4 ,this would most probably be the history of the formation of one of these tracts1 if it were in the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,a volcanic eruption would throw up a mountain from the bottom of the sea1 the top of which might be #fj or #gj feet below the surface4 ,as soon as the eruption had ceased1 some polypes who may have left their position on a neighbouring reef1 might be brought by the tide into contact with the summit1 and would immediately begin to work4 ,the race of polypes would multiply1 and the building would go on year after year1 till the reef reached the surface4 ,pieces of wood which are always drifting about in the ocean1 might be washed into the ,lagoon and rest upon the shore4 ,a little soil might thus be formed in the course of years1 and a cocoa-nut or some other sort of seed1 which would equally well bear soaking in the salt water1 might be brought from some distant land1 and may take root and produce a tree4 ,the steady trade winds would also bring some of those seeds which are provided with wings1 such as thistles4 ,various sea birds might build their nests upon the infant land1 which would thus be increased in a hundred different ways4 ,small animals driven out to sea on pieces of timber or trees1 torn away from their original position by hurricanes1 might land upon it2 and after a succession of ages1 man would take possession1 and a populous country in time be formed4 ,if you are fond of poetry1 you would be much pleased with a very beautiful description of such a process as this1 in ,james ,montgomery's poem1 called the ,pelican ,island1 which you should read4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,luminous ,,appearance ,,of ,,the ,,sea4 ,if you were to go on a long voyage1 there is nothing that you would be much more pleased with1 than the occasional bright appearance of the sea at night4 ,you might see this in all latitudes1 but more frequently in the tropical1 than in colder climates4 ,it occurs in a variety of modes1 and1 as it seems1 arises from several different causes4 ,sometimes the wake of the vessel looks like a waving line of beautiful silver light2 sometimes the surface will be studded with spots of bright light1 about as large as your heads2 not unfrequently you may see large islands of light2 and now and then a shoal of ,albicores1 or some other fish1 will pass the vessel1 shaking sparks of dazzling brightness from their fins in all directions4 ,it has been supposed by some that the brightness in the track of a vessel1 and that which sparkles and flashes in the spray on the tops of the waves1 is electrical light3 whether it is so or not1 ,i cannot tell you4 ,the effect is1 no doubt1 sometimes produced by decayed animal and vegetable bodies1 which appear bright in the dark4 ,i dare say you have seen the bodies of dead fish1 and the surface of rotten wood have this appearance4 ,the particles in which the brightness exists are so small1 that you cannot see them1 for1 if you touch the luminous body1 particularly if it is a stinking fish1 your fingers will immediately appear bright in the dark1 and when you look at them in the light1 you will not be able to see anything on the surface of the skin4 ,but the most wonderful and extensive cause of all1 is the existence of countless myriads of fish and insects1 which are supplied with a fluid substance that oozes out of their bodies1 and shines with a greenish light upon their surface4 ,some of them may easily be taken1 by dropping over a net where the luminous spots appear4 ,a few of them are small shell-fish1 of the crab or lobster kind4 ,however1 the greater part are an immense family of creatures called ,acaleph1 or sea nettles4 ,the word ,acalepha is the ,greek for a sting nettle1 and they are so called for a reason which ,i will tell you presently4 ,illustration ,there are a great many different forms of them1 but they mostly agree in having their bodies shaped something like an umbrella1 with long filaments hanging down from them4 ,this is a picture of one of the kind called ,berenice4 ,it takes its name from the resemblance of its filaments1 to the long hair of a lady4 ,berenice was the wife of a warrior1 who made a vow to sacrifice the hair of her head1 which was singularly beautiful1 to ,venus1 if her husband returned from some successful exploit in which he was engaged4 ,he did so1 and the lady accordingly hung up her hair in the temple of ,venus1 and thereby gained the honor of giving her name to a constellation called the hair of ,berenice1 and the curious animal figured in the cut4 ,the substance of the body is a mere mass of jelly1 mostly quite transparent1 but sometimes tinged with blue or green2 and when deprived of life it becomes merely a salt liquid1 and an extremely thin skin1 weighing only a few grains4 ,the mouth is underneath1 in amongst the filaments1 which seem to be placed where they are for the purpose of entangling small fish and insects1 to hold them till the ,acalepha can swallow them4 ,a very great number of them are of a kind called ,medusa1 from the resemblance of their filaments to the snakes1 which were said to take the place of hair upon the head of ,medusa1 one of the ,furies4 ,one or two sorts have a crest which they erect as a sail1 and thus move along before the wind1 on the surface of the sea1 in calm weather4 ,i will show you the picture of one of these called the ,physalia4 ,illustration ,the size varies from that of a pin's head1 to a foot or more in diameter1 and it is said that some have been found to weigh as much as #ej pounds4 ,their weight is a very little more in proportion to their bulk than that of salt water1 and they keep themselves afloat on the surface1 as long as they are inclined1 by moving very slowly along1 which they do by alternately contracting and expanding a very light ring of muscle1 which surrounds the umbrella4 ,when they are tired of their snail's gallop1 or they want to descend on any other account1 they cease moving1 and down they go4 ,in this respect they are just like a man swimming1 who sinks if he ceases to strike with his limbs4 ,there are some species peculiar to hot climates1 where they are generally larger1 and more luminous2 and some to cold4 ,but what is wanting in size is amply made up in number1 in the ,arctic regions4 ,a certain naturalist calculated by a fair average1 how many ,acaleph there were in two square miles of sea1 and the result of his calculation would fill up a whole line of this work with figures2 you may judge something of it1 by his saying that to count the number would have taken #hj1jjj persons all the time that has elapsed since the creation of the world1 counting as fast as they could6 ,it is on these creatures1 most of them so small that they cannot be seen without a microscope1 that the vast bodies of the whales are supported1 caught in the wonderful shrimp-trap1 which ,i described to you in a former page6 ,two or three kinds are found on your own shores1 and ,i should not wonder if some of you may not before now have found them lying on the sea-shore1 which the tide has left dry1 and taken them up in your hands4 ,if so1 ,i am sure you will not forget it1 nor be in any difficulty to know why they are called sea nettles4 ,they have a stinging power1 which will make the hand smart that touches them4 ,this is owing to a caustic fluid with which a part of their bodies is constantly covered4 ,it is this caustic fluid which is luminous4 ,it oozes through the skin all round the muscular ring by which they move1 and at the large filaments4 ,the whole body of the creature looks bright1 but it is only from the light transmitted by these parts4 ,you may get a very fair notion of the appearance of one of their bodies1 by rubbing together two partly transparent pebbles in the dark2 the light is of nearly the same colour1 and though it is only produced just at the points of contact of the pebbles1 it illuminates their whole substance4 ,as they move along they are much brighter when they contract their bodies1 than when they expand them2 this is because in contracting they press out the luminous fluid4 ,i will tell you of some experiments and observations1 which have been made on them4 ,the body of an ,acalepha was squeezed over a glass of warm fresh water1 and the fluid that dropped out communicated its luminous property to the water4 ,the same was then done with a glass of warm salt water1 but the effect was not nearly so great4 ,one was squeezed over a vessel containing nearly a quart of milk1 which it made so resplendent that one could see to read by it4 ,the milk retained its brightness for several hours1 and when it faded1 it could be restored by stirring3 even three days afterwards it was made bright by being warmed4 ,in this manner the ,acaleph communicate a slight degree of light to the sea-water1 in which they swim2 but1 if they are put into fresh water1 the light spreads much further4 ,i have often seen them round the ship1 looking like so many moons1 and emitting light enough for me to read by1 some on the surface1 and others at various depths below it4 ,their appearance was exquisitely beautiful when the weather was still and the night dark2 but as ,i thought about it1 ,i could not help having something of a melancholy feeling at the strange kind of half-life these creatures lead4 ,they might enjoy themselves1 but ,i could not tell how1 for they had no sight nor hearing2 they loved no light except their own selfish light2 they moved about in the open sea1 without seeming to enjoy their freedom1 for they did not care which way they moved2 they had no fixed homes or neighbourhoods to love1 like the coral insects2 and above all1 they did not care for their kind1 for they appear to come near each other only by chance as the wind or the waves may drive them4 ,but as they were created by ,god1 their life was given them for some wise end1 and no doubt they have something to do in creation1 and they are capable of enjoyment1 though perhaps of nothing that would be enjoyment to us4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xv4 ,,sepias ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,cuttle ,,fish4 ,have you ever seen the bone of a cuttle fish8 ,it is a flat1 white1 very light thing1 about the shape and size of a small sole1 or flat fish1 which may be often picked up on the sea-shore4 ,one side is covered with a very hard substance1 which stands out and forms a border all round2 but the other side1 which has no covering1 is so soft that you can easily scrape it into powder with your nail4 ,it is often used for making tooth-powder1 and polishing certain things1 such as hard woods and tortoise-shell4 ,illustration ,this comes from some of a most curious family of fishes1 called by the general name of ,cephalopods1 from the ,greek words for head and feet1 because their feet are placed round their heads1 and they walk along with their heads downwards4 ,there are several kinds represented in the plate1 which will give you a general notion of their form and appearance4 ,in the structure of their bodies they possess much more in common with the kind of animals with which you are familiar1 than the ,actini which make the coral1 or the ,acaleph which produce the luminous appearance on the sea2 though nothing can be more strange or unsightly than their aspect4 ,they have a complete system of circulation1 though their blood is neither warm nor red as ours is2 their brains are enclosed in a strong case or skull of gristle1 and their organs of sense are well developed2 they have large and perfect eyes1 7as you may see in the picture17 standing out prominently1 and ears on each side of the brain4 ,their mouths are armed with very strong horny lips not unlike the bill of a parrot1 between which is a very rough tongue4 ,they have no noses1 but it has been proved by experiment that they like some smells and dislike others1 and it has been supposed that the quality of substances which affects merely the organ of smell in us1 affects in like manner the whole surface of their bodies1 or at least1 of their heads4 ,they not only resemble birds in their mouths1 but also in having gizzards4 ,their great arms or legs1 for they serve both purposes equally well1 of which they generally have eight1 are very wonderful4 ,they have no bones in them to act as levers1 but are merely long and muscular masses of flesh which they move about with wonderful activity and power in all directions1 having the most complete command over them4 ,on their surfaces are great numbers of little suckers or cups resembling leather1 which adhere very strongly to anybody which the animal chooses to embrace4 ,you have1 no doubt1 often played with a round piece of thick leather with a string through it1 by wetting it and pressing it with your foot upon a stone1 so as to lift the stone up1 if it be not too heavy4 ,it is just on the same principle that the suckers of the ,cuttle ,fish act4 ,these curious creatures gather up some of their arms into a point1 as a sort of cut-water1 as sailors would call it1 and swim very rapidly1 by means of the others1 having their heads behind4 ,they crawl in all directions with equal facility4 ,illustration ,their skin changes colour in spots like that of the ,chameleon4 ,but ,i shall now tell you their most remarkable peculiarities4 ,they are provided with a bag filled with black stuff1 very like printer's ink4 ,this bag they can at pleasure open1 and press out some of the ink2 so when any voracious fish approaches1 which the ,cuttle ,fish thinks will be too strong for him1 he squeezes his ink-bag and colours the water round him1 and thus all of a sudden becomes enveloped in a dark cloud1 in which his enemy gropes about in vain1 while he makes the best of his way off4 ,is not this a most astonishing mode of defence8 ,the kind which is found most frequently in our country is represented in the plate fig4 #b4 ,its skin is smooth and often of a dusky white1 with reddish brown spots1 and its length about a foot4 ,it is eaten by the poor people on the coasts of the ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,i never tasted it1 but ,i do not think that either you or ,i should like it1 from the look of its flesh4 ,there is another species of which the ink makes the colour called sepia1 which is of great value to artists4 ,the largest is called ,octopus1 and is figured ,no4 #a1 in the plate4 ,it is a very powerful creature1 and very ferocious in its disposition4 ,it is mostly found in the ,indian ,ocean1 where it has been known to drown men by throwing its great arms round their limbs as they were swimming4 ,it is also much dreaded by the natives of some of the islands1 who sail in small canoes2 for an ,octopus will sometimes cast one of its arms over the side of the canoe1 and will be sure to overturn it1 if the man does not instantly chop the arm off4 ,like most other very wonderful things1 the accounts of the ,octopus seem to have been strangely exaggerated1 though we should not be too ready to deny what a man who seems to be sensible and honest relates1 merely because it is not like our own experience4 ,in regard to the largest size to which the creature has been known to attain1 it is very difficult to tell what is the truth4 ,i will relate to you what has been said on the subject4 ,some navigators have asserted that the largest vessels have been put in danger by an ,octopus raising its arms so as to get them entangled in the rigging2 and a great many have said the same respecting large boats4 ,pliny1 the ,roman ,naturalist1 tells a story of one in particular1 which was a sad thief4 ,i should tell you that the ,octopus is able to walk on land when the surface is uneven1 so that he can get something for his suckers to adhere to4 ,well1 this individual that ,pliny mentions1 used to visit a house near the sea-side1 and steal all the provisions within his reach4 ,he was seen once or twice before he could be taken2 but at last his thefts were so important1 that the inhabitants of the house watched for him all night1 and caught him by the help of dogs1 as he was striding over the rocks towards the sea4 ,it is said that he weighed #gjj pounds1 and that his arms were #cj feet in length1 and so stout that a man could not embrace them4 ,still more wonderful are the narrations which were commonly believed about #aej years ago1 respecting some ,sepias that frequented the coast of ,norway4 ,they were then generally called ,krakens1 and were supposed to be at times nearly a quarter of a mile in length4 ,it is related that sailors not unfrequently mistook them for islands4 ,this is alluded to by ,milton in a passage of the ,paradise ,lost1-- ,him haply slumbering on the ,norway foam ,the pilot of some small night-foundered skiff1 ,deeming some island1 oft1 as seamen tell1 ,with fixed anchor on his scaly rind1 ,moors by his side under the lee1 and waits ,the wished approach of morn4 ,i dare say you will be ready to think that these things are very unlikely1 and ,i shall not much differ from you if you do4 ,but no doubt some of these creatures must be very large1 and much to be dreaded1 or such things would never have been said of them4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xvi4 ,,paper ,,nautilus4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,nautilus4 ,but there is one of these ,sepias1 or ,cuttle ,fish1 which ,i like very much1 though its character rests under as severe an imputation for dishonesty and rapacity1 as that of the rest4 ,it is that one which inhabits the beautiful white semi-transparent shell1 and is called the ,paper ,nautilus1 or ,argonaut4 ,illustration ,its body is represented out of the shell in the plate1 fig4 #c1 and you will there see that it is not very different from those that are not provided with shells1 except in having two of its eight arms spread out at the ends into a thin membrane or web4 ,you shall hear presently the pretty use which it makes of these webs4 ,it has no muscular attachment to the shell1 as most other shell-fish have1 but merely adheres to it by means of its suckers4 ,on this account1 some have thought that the ,sepia must be an usurper1 who has murdered the original master of the shell1 and taken possession of his house4 ,but ,i do not believe there is any truth in this charge1 for the same sort of animal is always found in the same shell1 and if it be taken out1 though it may be kept in salt water1 it is sure to die4 ,when at the bottom of the sea1 he walks about with his shell uppermost1 like a snail1 but of course with a much more rapid motion1 and every now and then snatches any mouthful that may take his fancy1 with two of his long arms1 and conveys it to his horny beak4 ,when the weather is fine1 and he is disposed to enjoy it1 he partly empties his shell of water1 so as to make himself lighter than the surrounding sea1 and comes up to the surface1 on which he floats like a little ship4 ,i once had an excellent opportunity of watching one4 ,the sea was beautifully calm1 and blue1 and the sky perfectly clear1 when ,i caught sight of something white coming upwards at a little distance from the ship4 ,in an instant the delicate white shell popped above the surface1 twirled round1 and the ,sepia spouted out the water remaining in his shell1 spread out his two sails1 and threw out his six remaining feet1 three on each side of the edge of his shell1 which acted as oars1 and scudded away before the wind4 ,if you had but seen the glad little creature1 it would have done your heart good4 ,he seemed full of freedom1 and life1 and joy4 ,the dark deep caves of ocean1 with their corals and sea-weeds1 and strange variety of inhabitants2 the broad surface of the sea1 the fresh breeze1 the lovely blue sky1 and the glorious light of the sun1 were all at his command4 ,thou the light sail boldly spreadest1 ,o'er the furrowed waters gliding1 ,thou nor wreck nor foeman dreadest1 ,thou nor help nor comfort needest1 ,while the sun is bright above thee1 ,while the bounding surges love thee1 ,in their deepening bosoms hiding1 ,thou canst not fear ,small marinere2 ,for though the tides with restless motion ,bear thee to the desert ocean1 ,far as the ocean stretches to the sea1 ',tis all thy own1 'tis all thy empery4 ,lame is ,art1 and her endeavour ,follows ,nature's course but slowly1 ,guessing1 toiling1 seeking1 ever1 ,still improving1 perfect never4 ,little ,nautilus1 thou showest ,deeper wisdom than thou knowest2 ,lore1 which man should study slowly2 ,bold faith and cheer1 ,small marinere4 ,are thine within thy pearly dwelling2 ,thine1 a law of life compelling ,obedience1 perfect1 simple1 glad and free1 ,to the ,great ,will that animates the sea4 7,hartley ,coleridge47 ,you should read these exquisite lines with deep attention4 ,there is an allusion in the second verse to the common notion that the form of a ship was first taken from the ,nautilus2 and1 indeed1 there is a very distinct resemblance in a part of the shell to the keel1 and in another part to the poop4 ,the sails and oars you will see best in the picture4 ,do you think that if the ,sepia were a murderer and a thief1 in possession of what does not belong to him1 according to the notion of some naturalists which ,i was telling you of just now1 that he could be so happy1--so in every way at home1--in his silver boat8 ,if you had seen him as ,i did1 ,i am sure you would agree with me in saying that he could not be any other than the rightful owner4 ,after the small marinere had sailed some distance1 he folded up his sails and packed them and his oars close into his shell1 and went down like a stone4 ,the ,paper ,nautilus is mostly found in hot climates4 ,it is never seen on the surface unless at a long distance from land1 and it is very shy of danger1 so that it is not often you can get such a good chance of observing one as ,i had4 ,i have been told by a person who was to be trusted1 that sometimes the ,sepia will lay hold of a piece of drift wood1 a large leaf1 or any other floating substance1 and use it as a raft1 when it is not inclined to take the trouble of balancing its shell with its feet1 and spreading its sails4 ,and now1 my little friends1 what ,i have told you respecting these marvellous ,sepias1 reminds me of something on which ,i may give you a useful caution4 ,many people are very fond of congratulating you on the great wisdom and knowledge of the times in which you live1 and of making very light of what the ancients knew1 or thought they knew1 especially respecting natural history4 ,in doing this they are not just to those who lived before us1 and very often deceive themselves in regard to the present state of our knowledge4 ,aristotle1 the tutor of ,alexander the ,great1 did more in investigating the nature of the ,nautilus1 and all other kinds of ,cuttle fish1 than any other naturalist has done1 and in his writings1 7if you could read them17 you might find nearly all the particulars ,i have mentioned1 and a great many besides4 ,as to some foolish things that may be found related by him and other old writers1 which are held up for your ridicule1 it is not at all unlikely that future ages may find flaws and follies in what writings we may leave behind us1 as we now do in what our predecessors have left us4 ,,the ,,pearly ,,nautilus1 ,c4 ,there is another kind of ,nautilus1 the shell of which is very strong1 and marked with brown streaks4 ,you will see it in plate ,,xv1 fig4 #d4 ,it also differs from the ,paper ,nautilus1 in being divided into a succession of cells or chambers1 in this manner4 ,illustration ,in this respect it is like the immense family of extinct shells called ,ammonites1 or ,cornua ,ammonis2 but the partitions of the chambers of the latter are undulated1 thus ,illustration ,as the cells are mostly filled with various hard earthy substances1 so as to form one solid mass1 they used to be called snake-stones1 because it was fancied they were petrified snakes4 ,there are a great number of them on the coast of ,yorkshire1 and the story was once believed that the place had been infested with an immense quantity of snakes which were changed into stone at the prayer of ,st4 ,hilda4 ,what ,i am going to tell you1 relates both to the ,ammonites and the ,nautilus4 ,if you examine the first cut1 you will see small openings connecting all the cells with each other1 and the continuous passage thus formed through the whole of the shell1 is called the siphuncle4 ,the inhabitant of the shell is an animal of the ,sepia kind1 but without the webs which serve the ,paper ,nautilus for sails1 and with its arms not so long4 ,it always resides in the outermost chamber1 and it is supposed that it forms a new partition every year1 so that the age of the animal may be known by counting the number of chambers4 ,when the ,pearly ,nautilus wishes to rise to the surface1 it pumps out the water from its shell through the siphuncle1 and makes itself light4 ,it floats often with its shell upwards1 and at other times it moves along backwards for a considerable distance1 by means of spouting out water over the front edge of the shell4 ,it never floats with the same beautiful stateliness as the ,argonaut4 ,there is also the pretty little shell of the ,nautilus ,spirula1 not much larger than a shilling1 plate ,,xvi1 fig4 #e1 which does not contain a fish1 but is merely annexed to the body of a ,sepia1 as is represented1 fig4 #f4 ,its use appears to be just the same as that of the shell of the ,pearly ,nautilus1 to answer the purpose of a float4 ,these two kinds are very rarely seen floating on the surface1 though there must be many of both of them in the ocean1 from the number of their empty shells which are found4 ,perhaps this arises from their not being so buoyant as the ,argonauts1 and hence they more readily dip under the surface at the approach of a vessel4 ,it is now time for us to bid adieu to the sea and its wonderful inhabitants1 since ,i have promised to tell you of some of the wonders of the sky1 7though ,i remember a great many more things that ,i should like to tell you of74 ,illustration ,,part ,,iii4 ,,wonders ,,of ,,the ,,sky4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,colour ,,of ,,the ,,sky4 ,before ,i tell you of some of the wonders of the sky1 ,i should like to tell you what the sky is3 it is true you know pretty nearly as much as ,i do about it1 but you perhaps have not thought so much on what you know4 ,the sky is everything above our heads which is not connected with the earth3 thus1 you may speak of a cloudy sky1 or a clear sky2 or of the stars1 sun1 and moon1 being in the sky4 ,it may however be more proper to restrict the word to the blue appearance which the atmosphere above us assumes when it is not concealed by clouds4 ,this appearance is caused by looking into the air1 which surrounds the globe to the height of forty or fifty miles above its surface1 and not by anything which exists above it2 for mountains1 when seen from a great distance1 appear of the same colour1 evidently from the extent of the air between the spectator and them4 ,climate and the season of the year1 have a considerable influence on the colour of the sky4 ,you know what a rich full blue is over us in the hot months of summer2 and ,i hope you have before now enjoyed the pale blue of a clear winter's day1 when the brown and bare branches of the trees have showed against it1 and all the rivers and ponds have been frozen as solid as a stone pavement4 ,when ,i see some of you sliding and skating on the glassy ice1 at such times ,i am ready to wish ,i was a boy again1 to join in your pleasures4 ,however1 ,i have had my turn1 and old age has its pleasures as well as youth1 only we are apt to get into a way of looking at all past times as happier than the present1 which is both foolish and wicked4 ,if we were to keep ourselves diligently engaged in doing our duty1 we should always be happy1 whether old or young4 ,but the darkest blue sky you have ever seen in your country1 is light compared with the skies of hot climates4 ,in them you often see a deep rich indigo2 at other times you are under a canopy of reddish orange1 almost copper colour1 like that which was called in the poem ,i quoted to you when describing the tropical sea1 a hot and copper sky4 ,the elevation of the observer above the surface of the earth1 is likewise another cause of variation4 ,i have never myself ascended a mountain sufficiently high to see this1 but ,i have been told by a gentleman who had been at the top of ,mont ,blanc1 that the sky there looked nearly black4 ,as you must have seen them yourselves1 ,i need only remind you of the glorious changes of colour by the alteration of the light at the different times of day4 ,i hope none of you are so lazy as not often to have enjoyed the rosy mornings2 then there is the grey twilight of evening1 and the splendours of the setting sun in the west1 round which the deep orange shades off into the most delicate yellow1 which again glides imperceptibly into pale blue towards the east4 ,then the moon1 when she has the heavens all to herself1 and the stars1 when they are shining out boldly in her absence1 each make the sky so beautiful1 and are so beautiful in themselves1 that one cannot exceed the other4 ,i love to look at the moon when the winds rend the clouds asunder1 and drive them tumultuously along1 and you see her now and then in the dark blue depths between4 ,but if ,i were to tell you all the ordinary appearances in the sky which ,i love1 ,i should leave no room to describe its wonders2 which will not do1 because ,i meant this book to give you an account of things which most of you have not seen4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,aurora ,,borealis4 ,during the winter months in the ,polar ,regions1 the sun never rises above the horizon2 and during summer it performs in appearance a little circle round the pole of the ,heavens1 and never goes out of sight4 ,you may learn in what manner this is occasioned by the position of those countries on the surface of the earth1 from the book called ,the ,wonders of the ,telescope4 ,the year is thus in reality divided into one long day and one long night4 ,while the night continues1 the ground is covered with snow1 and no vegetable life is to be seen1 and the animals have much to do to support themselves on what fish they may chance to pick up on the sea shore1 by preying on each other1 or else by scraping away the snow to get at that scanty vegetation which exists underneath4 ,the odd-looking ,esquimaux and ,greenlanders would indeed be very badly off1 if it were not for the beautiful atmospheric phenomena which ,i am going to describe4 ,illustration ,there are seldom intervals of many hours which are not illuminated by these beautiful meteors1 called ,auror ,boreales1 or ,northern ,lights1 occurring in a never-ending variety of form1 colour1 and intensity4 ,they generally have a tendency to form an irregular arch1 and one side of them is always much better defined than the other4 ,the more ragged side sends out brilliant corruscations1 shooting out into the sharpest angles4 ,sir ,john ,ross describes one which was nearly the colour of the full moon1 and of equal brightness1 in the form of a well-defined arch extending quite across the heavens1 and reminded him of what he conceived must be the effect of ,saturn's ring seen by the inhabitants of that planet from its surface4 ,it lasted for several hours1 and at last broke up as it were into fragments of light1 and disappeared4 ,the distinctness of its form is much influenced by the wind1 and when the air becomes agitated1 showers of rays spread out in every direction with the quickness of lightning4 ,sir ,edward ,parry describes long bands of light extending with immense rapidity1 but always appearing to form round a fixed point1 something like a riband held in the hand and shaken with an undulatory motion4 ,little scraps of the brightest light dart about in the heavens1 called by the sailors1 merry dancers4 ,in stormy weather these wild little things assume all manner of fanciful shapes2 sometimes they shoot like rockets across the firmament1 then take a zigzag or waving direction1 and frequently seem to become invisible1 and shine out again a little further on4 ,the ,esquimaux say that these appearances are the spirits of their ancestors playing at ball with the head of a ,walrus6 ,you may perhaps laugh at this odd notion1 and ,i will laugh with you1 if you will learn a lesson from it4 ,you see that men in various states of society1 are always looking out for the appearance of spiritual beings1 and therefore that this disposition is a part of their constitution which is given them by ,god3 and although their fancies may form strange notions at times1 yet the exercise of the faculty1 in some way or other1 is very important4 ,men had much better think that they see spirits in the ,aurora ,borealis1 and that they hear them in the wind1 than forget that there are such things as spirits1 and that they have spirits within them1 which will live when their bodies are turned into dust4 ,but for you1 my little friends1 who are better instructed1 there is no occasion to think you can see or hear spirits with your bodily ears and eyes2 but ,i trust you will always feel inwardly that there are spirits within you and around you1 and one ,great ,spirit above you4 ,the most beautiful form of the ,aurora1 is called the ,corona4 ,it is a luminous ring generally just overhead1 with long distinct rays very slender1 but extremely bright1 diverging from it all round4 ,it only lasts a few seconds1 and then seems to burst like a firework1 scattering sparks in all directions4 ,the stars mostly shine through the ,aurora1 as through a veil of thin gauze4 ,the darkness of the sky1 with the stars shining in it above and below1 produces a most astonishing effect1 which you may see very well represented in the frontispiece1 where there is depicted a small portion of the middle of a luminous arch1 very clearly defined4 ,it was considered1 till quite lately1 that the ,aurora in the ,northern regions1 made a sort of rushing and rattling noise4 ,this1 however1 seems to be false1 for ,captain ,lyons used to stand on the ice with his ears uncovered till they were nearly frost-bitten1 listening with the utmost attention1 but he could never hear the slightest sound4 ,a very intelligent ,danish traveller says1 that he has often heard the sound1 but that he is convinced of its being produced by the wind blowing upon the ice4 ,the reason of its being heard while the ,aurora is shining1 seems to be that the ,aurora often appears when it is windy1 or has something to do with a change of weather1 which also occasions the noise4 ,the ,aurora often appears in this country1 but not with nearly so much brilliancy or frequency1 as in more northern countries4 ,i have1 however1 seen it very beautifully developed in light tints of red1 yellow1 and green1 but very seldom with a clear outline and determinate form4 ,it appears that it has been observed here much oftener than formerly1 within the last hundred years1 and this applies to nearly the whole of ,europe1 where it occurs4 ,in ,sweden1 before the year #agaf1 it was a great rarity1 and about the same time the inhabitants of ,iceland were alarmed at its becoming so much more frequent than it had previously been1 supposing that it portended some great misfortunes to be coming upon them4 ,a similar fancy prevailed amongst ignorant persons in this country1 and ,i have heard that people used to imagine that the appearance was a sign of an approaching war4 ,i have very little to say to you respecting the cause of this wonderful phenomenon4 ,the most reasonable notion seems to be1 that it is occasioned by electric fluid playing about1 and diffusing itself in the upper regions of the atmosphere1 where the air is very thin4 ,a similar kind of light is produced by a very pretty experiment1 which consists in sending an electric spark through a long glass vessel1 from which the air has been exhausted4 ,when the air is more compressed1 as it is near the surface of the earth1 the electric fluid does not so spread itself abroad1 but moves in more direct lines1 and in more compact masses1 as you may see in lightning1 or in the sparks of an electrifying machine sent into the atmosphere under ordinary circumstances of density4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,parley ,,tells ,,of ,,some ,,other ,,meteors4 ,,parhelia ,,or ,,mock ,,suns4 ,there are a great many very wonderful appearances in a polar sky1 besides the ,aurora ,borealis4 ,perhaps the most remarkable of these are ,parhelia1 or mock suns1 which are often seen to shine in various parts of the sky4 ,as many as six of them are sometimes seen at once1 all shining with great brilliancy4 ,they are generally brightest just before day-break1 and fade away as the true sun ascends4 ,parhelia have also been seen at different times on the continent of ,europe4 ,at ,marienberg1 in ,prussia1 many years ago1 towards evening1 one was observed which seemed attached to a small white cloud that was situated just below the sun4 ,it was at first of a reddish colour1 but as the sun descended towards it1 it assumed the aspect of the sun itself4 ,three at once were seen at ,sudbury1 in ,suffolk1 and two were seen in a part of ,rutlandshire4 ,there are recorded many other appearances of this remarkable phenomenon1 but they do not seem to differ much from each other4 ,there is great uncertainty as to what occasions these mock suns4 ,perhaps they are merely reflections of the image of the true sun upon reflecting clouds1 such as ,i shall describe to you presently4 ,the circumstance that seems to render this probable1 is that they sometimes become brighter as the sun approaches them1 which cannot easily be accounted for by supposing them to have any source of light in themselves4 ,on the contrary1 their fading away at times as he rises1 may be occasioned by the clouds on which they are reflected1 becoming rarified2 or the effect may be only comparative1 just as the moon grows paler1 and at last disappears1 as day comes on4 ,thus you see the two opposite effects of the sun's approach may be equally well accounted for1 on the supposition of the ,parhelia being mere reflections of the sun1 and ,i do not think that they could on any other4 ,,ignes ,,fatui4 ,the name ,ignis ,fatuus1 or ,false ,fire1 is applied to a flickering1 bluish light1 which is often seen in marshy districts1 and in damp burial grounds1 either on the surface of the earth or only a small distance above it4 ,so you see it is not strictly a wonder of the sky2 but ,i introduce it here because it seems to be somewhat similar to some of the higher meteors1 in the manner in which it is occasioned4 ,a great many entertaining stories are told of persons having mistaken these ,ignes ,fatui for real lights1 and it is said that benighted travellers have frequently been led far astray by them4 ,they are vulgarly called in various parts of the country1 ,will-o'-the-,whisp1 ,jack-o'-the-,lantern1 ,peg with her ,lantern1 and in burying grounds in ,scotland1 ,grave ,candles2 and strange superstitious notions are annexed to them4 ,they keep constantly in motion2 now rising a few feet above the earth1 now sinking to the surface2 now seeming to be close to you1 disappearing in an instant1 and shining out at some distance2 at times one of them dividing into two1 or two seeming to join into one4 ,i will presently tell you how you can try a simple experiment1 that will go a great way towards accounting for these idle ,will-o'-the-,whisps4 ,the inflammable gas called ,hydrogen1 is copiously produced by the decomposition of animal and vegetable bodies4 ,the substance called ,phosphorus1 is contained in animal bodies1 and is set at liberty in small quantities by their decomposition4 ,when phosphorus and hydrogen come together under certain circumstances1 they mix1 and a gas called ,phosphuretted ,hydrogen is the result4 ,there is1 therefore1 no difficulty in supposing that most marshy grounds may produce this gas2 and this experiment will show that it is very likely that the ,will-o'-the-,whisp is nothing more4 ,hydrogen may be obtained by pouring diluted ,sulphuric acid on small pieces of ,iron or ,zinc4 ,if you mix very small pieces of ,phosphorus with very small pieces of ,zinc1 and put them into a glass1 and pour over them the acid1 ,phosphuretted ,hydrogen will be sent off1 and the surface of the acid will be covered with a beautiful blue flame of the very colour of the ,ignis ,fatuus4 ,the cause of the flame is1 that the phosphuretted hydrogen is so wonderfully inflammable1 that the moment it comes into air of a common temperature1 it bursts into flame4 ,if you try this experiment1 you will see how likely it is that the ,will-o'-the-,whisp is an escape of this gas from the surface of the earth4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,shooting ,,stars4 ,there are few of you who have not seen falling or shooting stars1 as they are called4 ,perhaps some of you have loved to walk out when the stars have been shining brightly in the blue sky overhead1 to watch for these shy wanderers that seem to come from no where1 just to draw a line of silver light across the heavens1 and then disappear4 ,when ,i was a little child1 ,i used to think that each appearance of this kind was the destruction of one of the countless worlds that surround us1 and possibly the same fancy may1 at some time or other1 have occurred to you4 ,if you have taken delight in watching for them1 you have many a time been disappointed1 because they would not show themselves more frequently4 ,it is1 for the most part1 only now and then that you can catch sight of one2 but there have been some occasions on which they have appeared in immense numbers4 ,the most astonishing multitude of them on record1 appeared in the year #ahcc1 in the night of the #acth of ,november1 and was seen over nearly the whole of ,north ,america1 from the ,gulf of ,mexico to ,baffin's ,bay4 ,they came from all quarters of the ,heavens1 and are said at one time to have been half as thick as the flakes in a heavy fall of snow4 ,it was calculated1 on the most moderate grounds1 that #cf1jjj must have appeared every hour for seven hours successively4 ,previously1 in the year #agii1 also on the #acth of ,november1 a similar phenomenon was observed by ,humboldt1 the celebrated traveller1 by some ,moravian ,missionaries in ,greenland1 and by many persons in ,germany4 ,in the year #ahbb1 on the same day of the same month1 almost as great a number were seen in several parts of ,europe and ,asia4 ,in the year #ahca1 a ,french ,officer states1 that on the #acth of ,november1 while off the coast of ,spain1 he saw on an average more than two a minute during several hours of the night4 ,similar observations were made in the year #ahce1 in some parts of ,france2 and from several other instances1 there seems to be good reason for believing that there are more falling stars about the middle of ,november1 than during any other part of the year4 ,there have been a great many vague and silly notions devised to account for these remarkable phenomena1 and some that are not unreasonable1 though none perhaps quite satisfactory4 ,it has been considered that they were clouds of hydrogen gas1 suddenly ignited by electricity1 within the range of our own atmosphere1 and indeed only a very few miles above the earth4 ,recent investigations have1 however1 rendered it most probable that they are at very considerable elevations1 often as much as #ejj miles above us4 ,but supposing the circumstance of great multitudes of them appearing just at one particular period of the year1 to be a fact1 a new light is thrown upon their origin which must then be considered as decidedly of an astronomical character4 ,the theory which has been proposed1 is this3--that immense quantities of fragments of matter revolve in regular orbits in our solar system in various planes1 and that on the #acth of ,november the earth passes near the orbit in which the greatest number of such fragments move4 ,whether they are matter in a gaseous state1 or approaching it1 or quite solid2 or whether they are constantly illuminated1 or are only rendered luminous by their relation to other bodies1 such as reflection1 or meeting with electric fluid1 and so becoming ignited1 are questions which must remain unanswered4 ,there may be a slight evidence in favour of the notion of their light not being permanent in themselves1 from the fact of a ,french naturalist having observed on the #agth of ,june in #aggg1 a very large number of small black spots pass over the sun's disc4 ,if these spots were really bodies1 which under other circumstances would have been falling stars1 it should not be forgotten that the earth in ,june is nearly in the opposite part of its orbit to that which it passes over in ,november4 ,well1 after all1 this is a very doubtful subject1 and we may possibly be very much out in our notions2 but it is always worth while to see which is the best of two theories1 though there may be ever so little to choose between them4 ,we should make the best of what knowledge we have1 and never lazily satisfy ourselves by saying--nobody can tell which is true1 which is almost as bad as being too obstinate and dogmatical4 ,for even if we adopt a conclusion which is wrong1 we shall be more ready to receive the truth when our knowledge may be increased1 than if we have no conclusion at all4 ,one of the wisest men who ever lived1 said--,truth comes more easily out of positive error than out of confusion4 ,you who have been interested with what ,i have told you respecting shooting stars1 should compare with it what ,i shall tell you in my next chapter4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,v4 ,,meteoric ,,stones ,,or ,,aerolites4 ,there were a great many accounts in very early times1 of stones having fallen from the sky4 ,in ,china and some other eastern nations1 they have long had a notion that such occurrences were connected with political events1 and accordingly they have kept careful records of what they have known to fall for centuries back4 ,this was a vain superstition1 but it was not more vain than the incredulity with which these reports were received by nearly all the learned of ,europe1 till about forty years ago4 ,they denied the existence of aerolites1 for no other reason than because they had not seen them4 ,some new statements attracted the attention of scientific men in ,england and on the ,continent1 to the subject1 about the beginning of the present century1 and the conclusion of their researches was1 that stones of various sizes do1 in reality1 not unfrequently fall from above to the earth4 ,it appears that sometimes they fall singly1 and at other times in great numbers4 ,i will relate to you some particular instances4 ,near ,benares1 in the ,east ,indies1 in the month of ,december in the year #agih1 a very bright meteor seemed to fall to the earth1 about #h o'clock in the evening1 and a loud noise like thunder was heard1 which was followed by a shock like the fall of heavy bodies4 ,no cloud was to be seen in the sky4 ,the light of the meteor was so great as to cast very distinct shadows of the objects in its way4 ,the ground where it appeared to have fallen1 was afterwards examined1 and was found to be strangely torn up1 having a number of small holes in it about six inches deep4 ,at the bottom of each hole was an aerolite weighing on the average about one pound and a half4 ,in the year #ahjc1 a similar event took place in ,normandy4 ,the meteor1 when first seen1 must have been at a very great elevation1 for the inhabitants of two places more than a league distant from each other1 thought it was just over their respective towns4 ,a hissing noise was also heard1 like that of a stone hurled by a sling4 ,the space over which the stones were dispersed1 must have been more than eight miles long and three wide4 ,there were about two thousand of them collected1 of various weights1 from two drachms to seventeen pounds4 ,two stones1 one of which weighed #bjj and the other #cjj pounds1 fell in the year #affh1 at ,verona4 ,in #afhj1 several small ones are said to have fallen in ,london4 ,in #afbh1 several fell near ,hatford1 in ,berkshire1 one of which weighed twenty-four pounds4 ,in #agie1 one weighing fifty-five pounds1 fell in ,yorkshire4 ,in #ahaj1 a large aerolite fell1 which was the means of setting fire to five villages1 and killing several persons1 in ,india4 ,the largest of these are1 however1 small compared with some which are said1 and there is good reason to believe1 to have fallen from the sky1 at some time or other4 ,one of these1 now at ,bahia1 in ,brazil1 weighs #ad1jjj pounds4 ,this is a cut of an aerolite in the ,british ,museum1 which fell in ,buenos ,ayres4 ,it weighs #a1djj pounds4 ,illustration ,they are generally covered over with a thin crust1 which is quite black1 and have a very rough surface4 ,internally1 they are greyish and of a granulated texture4 ,by the help of a microscope1 you may distinguish roundish grains of a grey colour2 others1 like rusty iron2 some1 angular pieces of perfectly metallic iron1 which are attracted by the magnet2 and the rest is an earthy sort of cement in which the others are embedded4 ,their chemical composition is very uniform1 with the exception of some that consist almost entirely of iron2 of which sort is the one represented on the preceding page4 ,their descent appears to be quite independent of the state of the atmosphere1 from whence we may infer that the clouds have nothing at all to do with them1 but that they come from much higher regions4 ,when they have been found soon after falling1 they have always been extremely hot1 and1 as ,i told you of one in ,india1 they have been known to set on fire what they have come in contact with on the surface of the earth4 ,there have been four schemes devised to account for the existence of aerolites4 ,it has been imagined that they were substances which had been cast out by volcanoes to immense heights from distant parts of the world2 but this is disproved by the fact that no substance of the same composition as aerolites1 has ever been discovered amongst the known products of volcanoes4 ,the celebrated ,frenchman1 ,la ,place1 thought they were substances that had been cast out by volcanoes in the moon1 with such violence as to send them within the limits of the earth's attraction4 ,some have conjectured that they are formed in the air by the consolidation of clouds of gaseous matters exhaled from the earth2 but according to ,sir ,h4 ,davy's view of the nature of flame1 the light of meteors must arise from the ignition of solid bodies1 so that at least they must become solid while they are in the condition of meteors1 and long enough before they approach the earth4 ,i will tell you what ,i think1 according to the present state of our knowledge1 the likeliest explanation1 though ,i do not say that the reasons in favour of it are very conclusive4 ,you will remember what ,i told you respecting the probability of falling stars being fragments of matter revolving in orbits1 which the earth at certain times comes near in its annual course round the sun4 ,i suppose shooting stars and aerolites to be the same things1 only they are shooting stars while they show in the sky1 and aerolites after they have reached the earth4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,bloody ,,rain4 ,there are on record several instances of a fall of red liquid exactly resembling blood in appearance1 which has often been accompanied by a descent of aerolites4 ,on the #aeth of ,november #agee1 there was a heavy shower of this kind at ,ulm1 and several parts of ,russia and ,sweden4 ,there was another1 ,march #e1 #ahjc1 in ,apulia1 where it seemed to fall from a reddish black cloud4 ,a descent of large quantities of dry dust preceded the latter1 and has on several occasions occurred by itself4 ,before this phenomenon was understood1 you will easily suppose that it was looked upon as something dreadfully portentous1 and the more so from its occurring so unfrequently4 ,it is now known to be closely related to the aerolites1 as you shall hear4 ,some of the liquid1 looking just like congealed blood1 which fell at ,ulm1 was examined4 ,it was found to have a sour taste1 owing1 as it was thought1 to the presence of sulphuric acid4 ,when dried1 the dust that remained1 which constituted the colouring matter1 was found to be subject to magnetic attraction1 and in other respects to resemble the substance of the meteoric stones2 so there can be no doubt that the dust is nothing more than what is caused by the fracture or the friction one against the other1 of aerolites1 and that the rain is made red by the dust falling on the clouds1 from which it is precipitated4 ,,red ,,snow4 ,several travellers have witnessed the existence of snow of a bright red colour1 in various parts of ,baffin's ,bay2 and at ,arezzo1 in ,italy1 in ,march #ahac1 there was a fall of it1 which lasted many hours4 ,there seems some reason to suppose that in the latter instance the redness was caused by aerolite dust2 but a microscopic examination of some of that at ,baffin's ,bay1 has proved that its colour is owing to a still more wonderful cause4 ,the colouring particles are actually small plants or fungi1 which take root and grow1 and bear seed upon the snow itself6 ,what do you think of this ,lilliputian vegetation8 ,one full-sized plant is no more than #a-afjjth of an inch in diameter2 and to cover a single square inch of its cold bed of snow1 #b1ejj1jjj are necessary6 ,it has been named by its discoverer1 ,mr4 ,bauer1 ,uredo ,nivalis4 ,,showers ,,of ,,frogs ,,and ,,fish4 ,i dare say you have heard1 before now1 of its raining frogs and fish4 ,i like that you should have correct notions on these things1 so ,i shall just tell you what seems to have given rise to these reports4 ,if you understood what ,i told you respecting the water-spout1 you will see how likely it is that any small fish that may be on the spot1 should be sucked upwards along with the water1 even to the very top of the spout2 now they might be kept up there as long as the whirlwind kept up a rotatory motion in the cloud1 after it had ceased to sustain the column of water drawn up from the sea4 ,when the whirlwind was exhausted1 the little fish would naturally fall out of the cloud1 perhaps after it had travelled far from where the water-spout occurred4 ,if the water-spout had passed over fresh-water lakes or rivers1 frogs might be drawn up instead of fish1 and let fall in the same manner4 ,but ,i will relate to you another circumstance1 which may have been imputed to a descent of fish from the clouds4 ,i told you in the first part of this book respecting the alluvions1 or torrents of mud1 which make their way after an eruption down the sides of ,mount ,vesuvius4 ,in some of the great volcanoes of ,south ,america1 these alluvions have not to be formed in the regular way1 but mud of the consistence of pap is ejected from the craters themselves in amazing quantities4 ,this mud is supplied by subterranean waters connected with the volcanic channel1 and it often contains myriads of little fishes of the kind called ,pimelodes ,cyclopum3 they are generally about four inches long1 and they exist in such vast numbers1 that their putrifying has before now bred a pestilence in the neighbourhood of the ,volcano4 ,there are plenty of the same fish in the contiguous streams4 ,what renders the circumstance so wonderful1 is their being raised up to the level of #h or #ijjj feet1 and then thrown out from the crater with very little injury4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xviii4 ,,spectre ,,of ,,the ,,brocken ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,spectre ,,of ,,the ,,brocken4 ,i am going to tell you respecting some of the appearances produced by clouds which reflect like mirrors2 and by those changes in the atmosphere which turn aside1 in an irregular manner1 the rays of light1 which1 as they pass from an object to the eye which is looking at it1 excite the sensation called vision4 ,one of the most remarkable of these1 has long been known by the name of ,the ,spectre of the ,brocken4 ,the ,brocken is the loftiest summit of the ,hartz ,mountains1 in ,germany2 it is said to be #c1cjj feet above the level of the sea1 and to command the prospect of a tract of land which is inhabited by more than five millions of people4 ,it appears that clouds1 from some cause or other1 which perhaps we shall never perfectly know1 are wont at times to collect on the neighbouring heights1 and reflect a very distinct shadow of great size of whatever object may be on the summit of the ,brocken1 when the sun is rising and casts his beams horizontally4 ,the best account of this wonderful spectacle1 is given by the ,abbe ,hauy1 who visited it in #agig1 and ,i shall give you his own statement4 ,after having been here for the thirtieth time1 says ,mons4 ,hauy1 ,i was at length so fortunate as to have the pleasure of seeing the ,spectre4 ,the sun rose about four o'clock1 and the atmosphere being quite serene towards the east1 his rays could pass without any obstruction over the ,heinrichshohe4,a ,in the south-west1 however1 towards ,achtermanshohe1,b a brisk west wind carried before it thin transparent vapours1 which were not yet condensed into thick heavy clouds4 ,about a quarter past four ,i went towards the inn1 and looked round to see whether the atmosphere would permit me to have a free prospect to the south-west2 when ,i observed1 at a very great distance towards ,achtermanshohe1 a human figure of a monstrous size4 ,a violent gust of wind having almost carried away my hat1 ,i clapped my hand to it by moving my arm towards my head1 and the colossal figure did the same4 ,the pleasure which ,i felt on this discovery can hardly be described1 for ,i had already walked many a weary step in the hopes of seeing this shadowy image1 without being able to gratify my curiosity4 ,i immediately made another movement by bending my body1 and the colossal figure before me repeated it4 ,i was desirous of doing the same thing once more2 but my colossus had vanished3 ,i remained in the same position1 waiting to see whether it would return1 and in a few minutes it again made its appearance on the ,achtermanshohe4 ,i paid my respects to it a second time1 and it did the same to me4 ,i then called the landlord of the ,brocken2 and having both taken the same position which ,i had taken alone1 we looked towards the ,achtermanshohe1 but saw nothing4 ,we had not1 however1 stood long1 when two such colossal figures were formed over the above eminence1 which repeated our compliments by bending their bodies as we did2 after which they vanished4 ,we retained our position1 kept our eyes fixed on the same spot1 and in a little time the two figures again stood before us1 and were joined by a third1 7most likely by the double reflection of one of the spectators47 ,every movement that we made by bending our bodies1 these figures imitated2 but with this difference1 that the phenomenon was sometimes weak and faint1 sometimes strong and well defined4 ,footnote ,b3 ,two others of the ,hartz mountains4 ,there are some remarkable circumstances attending the ,brocken1 that are doubtless in some degree connected with ,the ,spectre1 which was once looked upon as a supernatural apparition4 ,when ,christianity was introduced into ,germany1 the priests and votaries of the old superstition1 retired to the ,brocken as a refuge1 and there long kept up the dark and mysterious rites of the great ,saxon idol1 ,cortho4 ,it is a very wild place1 full of clefts and caverns1 and with rivulets and waterfalls on all sides of it1 so that it would answer their purpose remarkably well4 ,after the inhabitants had taken up the profession of ,christianity1 they used to celebrate on this mountain a festival on ,midsummer night1 in honour of ,st4 ,walpurgis1 a female saint1 who had first introduced ,christianity among them4 ,a legend then prevailed1 that the summit of the mountain was occasionally haunted by a demon1 which could have been no other than the ,spectre4 ,everything about the mountain was looked upon with awe and veneration4 ,a beautiful spring which runs down its side1 is at this day called the ,magic ,spring2 a pretty little lily that abounds on the ,mountain1 is called the ,wizard's ,flower2 and two great square granite rocks are called the ,wizard's ,chair4 ,these names may be looked upon as monuments of the estimation in which the mountain was once held4 ,while you ought1 my young friends1 to feel happy and grateful in being taught what these natural things really are1 and released from all superstitious fears or notions respecting them2 you should be most careful not to forget what you owe to a purer faith1 of which the character is to invite you to inquire into1 and to know everything within your reach4 ,i shall say something to you respecting the cause of the ,spectre1 in a future chapter4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,some ,,other ,,instances ,,of ,,aerial ,,reflection4 ,there has been something very like the ,spectre of the ,brocken1 seen on ,souter ,fell1 a mountain about half a mile high1 in ,cumberland4 ,one summer's evening1 in the year #agdc1 as a farmer1 named ,john ,wren1 and his servant were sitting at the door of his cottage1 they saw a man with a dog furiously chasing some horses along a ledge on the side of the mountain which they knew was so narrow that a horse could hardly stand upon it4 ,they seemed to go round one end of the mountain1 and disappeared4 ,the next morning the farmer and his servant went round the track which the horses and man had seemed to take1 fully expecting to find that they had fallen over and been killed4 ,you may guess how surprised they were to find no trace whatever of them1 not even the mark of a hoof on the ground4 ,well1 they said nothing of what they had seen1 and perhaps they almost forgot it by nearly the same season in the following year1 when the servant1 whose name was ,daniel ,strickett1 saw one evening a whole troop of horsemen trot along the mountain-side1 near the same spot4 ,it seems that he had been laughed at by those to whom he had related the other apparition1 so he was rather timid1 and resolved to be well assured of the reality of this one before he mentioned it4 ,he looked at the figures for a considerable time1 and then called another person to witness the sight with him4 ,several others afterwards joined them1 and continued looking at the aerial horsemen till it was quite dark4 ,all these circumstances were attested before a magistrate in the year #aghe3 twenty-six persons are said to have been spectators of the sight4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xix4 ,,dover ,,castle ,,what ,a ,,friend ,,of ,,parley',s ,,saw4 ,a gentleman with whom ,i am acquainted1 who lives in the country1 told me that he once left some labourers at the bottom of a very steep hill1 whom he had ordered to do some earth work4 ,as he was going down1 intending to visit them again1 about sun-set1 he saw a part of the hill which he was descending1 and one of the labourers wheeling a barrow upon the side of it1 reflected on a cloud opposite with the greatest distinctness4 ,though it was quite impossible that he could see the men in their true position1 he knew exactly what this man was about1 and what work had been done1 from the reflected image4 ,,dover ,,castle4 ,dover ,castle stands upon the side of a hill1 and when looked at from the side towards ,ramsgate1 its four turrets may be just seen peeping over the top of the hill4 ,you may see how it appears in the upper figure of plate ,,xix4 ,on the #fth of ,august #ahjf1 when ,professor ,vince1 of ,cambridge1 was staying near ,ramsgate1 he was astonished to see the appearance of the castle as if it stood on the side of the hill next to him1 as is represented in the lower figure of the plate4 ,it continued so for nearly half an hour1 during which he looked at it several times with a telescope1 and the image appeared quite clear and distinct4 ,,what ,,humboldt ,,saw ,,in ,,south ,,america4 ,when ,humboldt was residing at ,cumana1 he frequently saw two small islands which lie off the coast1 suspended in the air4 ,he once saw some fishing boats seeming to float in the air for several minutes4 ,in another place he and his companion saw the figures of cows in the air at a great height2 and they were told by a person worthy of credit1 that he had seen the forms of horses suspended in like manner1 but with their legs upwards4 ,,what ,,captain ,,scoresby ,,saw ,,in ,,the ,,arctic ,,regions4 ,captain ,scoresby relates several remarkable appearances of a similar kind1 one of which ,i will describe to you4 ,he saw one morning the inverted image of a ship in the air1 which he at once recognized to be that in which his father was sailing4 ,it was1 says he1 so well defined1 that ,i could distinguish by a telescope every sail1 the general rig of the ship1 and its particular character2 insomuch that ,i confidently pronounced it to be my father's ship1 ',the ,fame1' which it afterwards proved to be2 though on comparing notes with my father1 ,i found that our relative position at the time1 gave a distance from one another of thirty miles1 being about seventeen miles beyond the horizon1 and some leagues beyond the limit of direct vision4 ,many other such things have been related by travellers1 but with very little variation of circumstance4 ,,apparent ,,distance ,,of ,,objects4 ,if you have never noticed the fact1 you will be surprised to observe what a great difference appears to exist in the distance of the same objects under different states of the atmosphere4 ,i do not mean when it is merely clearer than at another time1 but when it is equally clear1 the same object will show much higher above the horizon1 and therefore seem to be nearer to some given spot1 than at other times4 ,we who have been at sea1 have often seen this when we have been approaching land2 but you will better understand an instance which occurred at ,hastings1 on the coast of ,sussex4 ,the gentleman who related it was surprised one day to see a crowd of people running down to the sea-side1 and on inquiry he found they were going in consequence of a report that the coast of ,france had become visible to the naked eye4 ,he went down to the beach1 and actually saw the coast of ,france so plainly as to be able to distinguish objects1 and with a telescope he even clearly saw ,french fishing-boats at anchor1 close to the shore4 ,the illusion lasted for more than an hour1 and occasionally grew faint and then brightened again4 ,the distance is fifty miles1 and ,hastings would therefore be hidden from the opposite coast of ,france by the convexity of the earth2 so that if a straight line were drawn from one to the other1 it would pass through the sea4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,of ,,the ,,fata ,,morgana ,,and ,,the ,,mirage4 ,there is a very remarkable spectacle to be occasionally seen between the coasts of ,italy and ,sicily1 which the inhabitants call ,fata ,morgana1 or ,fairy ,illusion4 ,the shores on each side are rich and beautiful in the extreme1 and the narrow strait being very deep1 looks always blue and fresh4 ,according to the best accounts of the ,fata ,morgana1 it appears only when the sun is elevated at an angle of #de4 ,it consists in a reflection of the objects on the shore more or less magnified1 multiplied1 distorted1 and often decorated with the hues of the rainbow on the surface of the sea itself1 and the portion of the atmosphere which is in immediate contact with it4 ,the inhabitants of the neighbourhood look on it as a good omen1 and whenever it appears1 run down to the sea-side joyously crying out1 ,morgana6 ,morgana6 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xx4 ,,fata ,,morgana ,those who have seen it1 declare that nothing can be more beautiful4 ,the scene must look as wonderful as anything you have ever read about in a fairy tale4 ,castles1 palaces1 temples1 of the utmost magnificence1 houses1 hills and valleys1 woods1 green pastures1 all of the brightest colours1 and indeed every one of the beautiful objects on shore1 beautified tenfold4 ,you will see in the plate the attempt of an intelligent traveller to convey a notion of this glorious phenomenon4 ,,the ,,mirage4 ,this name is given to similar illusions which are seen in various parts of the world1 and more particularly to the illusive appearance of water1 which is frequent in the sandy deserts of the ,east4 ,you shall hear what the celebrated traveller1 ,dr4 ,clarke1 says of it4 ,we procured asses for our party1 and1 setting out for ,rosetta1 began to re-cross the desert1 which appeared like an ocean of sand1 but flatter and firmer as to its surface1 than before4 ,the ,arabs1 uttering their harsh guttural language1 ran chattering by the side of our asses2 until some of them calling out ',raschid6' we perceived its domes and turrets1 apparently upon the opposite side of an immense lake or sea1 that covered all the intervening space between us and the city4 ,not having in my own mind1 at the time1 any doubt as to the certainty of its being water1 and seeing the tall minarets and buildings of ,rosetta1 with all its groves of dates and sycamores1 as perfectly reflected by it as by a mirror1 insomuch that even the minutest detail of the architecture1 and of the trees1 might have been thence delineated1 ,i applied to the ,arabs to be informed in what manner we were to pass the water4 ,our interpreter1 although a ,greek1 and therefore likely to have been informed of such a phenomenon1 was as fully convinced as any of us that we were drawing near to the water's edge1 and became indignant when the ,arabs maintained1 that within an hour we should reach ,rosetta1 by crossing the sands in the direct line we then pursued1 and that there was no water4 ',what1' said he1 giving way to his impatience1 'do you suppose me an idiot1 to be persuaded contrary to the evidence of my senses8' ,the ,arabs1 smiling1 soon pacified him1 and completely astonished the whole party1 by desiring us to look back at the desert we had already passed1 where we beheld a precisely similar appearance4 ,it was1 in fact1 the ,mirage1 a prodigy to which every one of us were then strangers1 although it afterwards became more familiar4 ,yet upon no future occasion did we ever behold this extraordinary illusion so marvellously displayed4 ,the view of it enabled us to imagine the horrible despondency to which travellers must sometimes be exposed1 who1 in traversing the interminable desert1 destitute of water1 and perishing with thirst1 have sometimes this deceitful prospect before their eyes4 ,another traveller adds a particular which is well worthy of notice4 ,the most singular quality of this vapour is its power of reflection4 ,when a near observer is a little elevated1 as on horseback1 he will see trees and other objects reflected as from the surface of a lake4 ,the vapour1 when seen at a distance of six or seven miles1 appears to lie upon the earth like an opaque mass2 and it certainly does not rise many feet above the ground1 for ,i observed that1 while the lower part of the town of ,abusheher was hid from the view1 some of the more elevated buildings1 and the tops of a few date-trees1 were distinctly visible4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,how ,,parley ,,supposes ,,these ,,appearances ,,to ,,be ,,produced4 ,if you wish to understand the manner in which it is most probable that these illusions are produced1 you must closely attend to what ,i am going to tell you4 ,i will make my explanation as simple as ,i can1 but ,i shall be able to teach you nothing1 unless you do your part by paying attention4 ,you know that vision is produced by rays of light passing from the object seen1 to the eye of the spectator4 ,these rays have a tendency to form straight lines1 and they would be perfectly straight1 if they had only to pass through empty space2 but this cannot be the case near the surface of the earth1 as they there have to go through air1 and frequently through other transparent substances4 ,when these rays meet with a substance which they cannot go through1 and which is therefore called opaque1 such as a man or a house1 they are turned back or reflected1 and strike the eye of the person who may be looking in that direction1 so as to cause vision4 ,but when they meet with a body which they can pass through1 called therefore transparent1 such as water or glass1 they are turned aside out of their original course or refracted2 and this refraction takes place in different degrees1 according to the density of the substance4 ,thus1 in looking at objects through air1 you do not see anything exactly in its real position2 but in looking at them through water1 the variation between the reality and the appearance is still greater1 because the density of water being greater than that of air1 it will refract more4 ,to prove this you need only put a stick obliquely into water1 and it will look as if it were broken or bent at the surface of the water4 ,illustration ,the true position of the stick is marked by ,a ,b1 and the apparent position1 by ,a ,c4 ,we see the rising sun some minutes before he has risen above our horizon1 and the setting sun after he has sunk below it1 because his rays are refracted by our atmosphere4 ,illustration ,if the sun be at ,a1 he will appear to a spectator on the surface of the earth at ,c1 as if he were at ,b1 because the rays will be refracted at ,d1 which represents the limit of the atmosphere1 towards ,c4 ,perhaps you knew all this before4 ,well1 the knowledge of these laws will very nearly enable you to understand the wonders of which ,i have told you4 ,i will try to explain to you the manner in which it seems that the appearances are produced by the operation of the laws4 ,if a ray pass through a body that refracts it from its original course1 it will go on when it has got through1 in a line parallel with its first direction4 ,thus1 let ,a ,b be a thick piece of glass1 and ,c ,d1 a ray of light passing through it1 which would be refracted from c to d2 ,c c would be exactly parallel to d ,d1 and the point ,c would be seen from ,d as if it were at ,e4 ,illustration ,if you think a little upon this1 you will see that nothing is necessary to account for objects appearing nearer to a given point at one time than another1 or objects upon the earth appearing high up in the air1 except different degrees of refraction4 ,thus in the instance of the coast of ,france seeming to approach ,hastings1 it is evident that the effect would be produced by an extraordinary degree of refraction in a stratum of air over the sea1 through which the rays of light producing vision must come4 ,illustration ,the explanation will be the same as that of the diagram of the rising sun in a former page2 if the ray from ,a took the direction ,d1 as under ordinary circumstances it would do1 it is evident that a spectator at ,c would see nothing4 ,but instead of this1 the ray was refracted near the middle to the point ,c1 which represents the town of ,hastings1 and therefore the object ,a appeared as if it had been placed at ,b4 ,you shall now hear what causes are likely to alter the refracting power of the air at times4 ,when air1 water1 or any other substance1 is made hot1 it becomes rarified1 and its refracting power is thereby diminished4 ,have you ever watched1 while you have been on one side of a stove1 or of any heated body1 the appearance of things on the other side through the air above it8 ,if so1 you must have seen how strangely they seem to tremble4 ,now this is caused by a stream of irregularly heated air rising from the stove1 and enabling you every instant to see the things beyond it more nearly in their true position than you can through air of the ordinary temperature4 ,if you look through a magnifying glass at distant objects1 they will appear upside down4 ,you may learn why this takes place from books on optics4 ,the same effect is produced by rays passing through a medium which becomes gradually denser1 instead of suddenly passing from one state to another4 ,thus1 if you take a square glass bottle and put some clear syrup into it1 and then carefully pour water on the top of that1 anything1 such as a written or printed line1 seen through the space where the liquids are mixing1 will appear inverted4 ,again1 if you take a tin tube full of water1 stopped with a piece of plain glass at each end1 warm the middle of the tube1 and then look at one end1 you will see an object at the other end1 if held at a proper distance1 magnified1 and distant objects turned upside down1 just as they would be by a convex lens4 ,if1 on the contrary1 you cool the middle of the tube1 by applying ice to it1 the same ensues as by using a concave lens4 ,if a space of cold air be between two spaces of hot air1 or the contrary1 a space of hot air be between two spaces of cold air1 the effects would be the same1 only they could not be produced in so small a compass as they could with water4 ,the space where the two different temperatures were gradually mixing1 would influence the rays of light in the same manner as a lens on a very large scale4 ,now portions of air are often made of different temperature by the sun's rays1 by evaporation1 as from the surface of the sea1 or of lakes1 or from marshy districts1 and by winds operating under particular local circumstances4 ,i do not want to lengthen out this dry story1 but if you have read attentively what ,i have said1 you will see that various positions of masses of air heated to different degrees1 is all that is necessary to account for the instances which ,i have mentioned1 in which objects have appeared inverted and out of their true positions2 such as ,dover ,castle1 ,captain ,scoresby's father's ship1 the ,french coast opposite ,hastings1 and the islands1 and horses with their legs upwards1 described by ,humboldt4 ,the apparitions of ,souter ,fell may be accounted for in like manner4 ,the latter one was seen at a time of civil commotion1 when there were private troops of horse exercised in all parts of the country1 and so the fact of armed horsemen being in the neighbourhood1 is rendered very probable4 ,we have only to suppose the image of such a troop to be brought to the side of ,souter ,fell1 perhaps from the opposite side of the mountain1 by a complicated refraction1 like that which appeared to move ,dover ,castle out of its place4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but the ,spectre of the ,brocken1 the ,fata ,morgana1 and the image which my friend saw of the side of the hill on which he was1 require another sort of explanation1 because the object and the image are seen both at once2 the latter could therefore have been no other than the reflection of the first4 ,it seems likely that some vapours are capable of receiving shadows4 ,when ,i have been bathing in a river with a muddy bottom1 ,i have often seen my shadow on the cloud of muddy particles which ,i have disturbed from the bottom1 in a manner something similar to that in which ,i should think this may occasionally take place4 ,there is1 however1 another theory of it4 ,when rays pass from a thin medium into a denser medium1 the whole do not go through1 but they are strained1 as it were1 and a part are kept back and reflected4 ,it is thus that you see a reflection on a transparent pane of glass4 ,if you breathe very lightly upon it1 the reflection will be still more distinct1 and the resemblance to the phenomenon we are describing probably greater4 ,there are then two causes of reflection1 the change of refracting power1 and the presence of the watery particles4 ,something of this kind perhaps occurs on the top of the ,brocken4 ,a rush of cold air may set up from deep ravines1 with water and marshy land at the bottom1 on the ,west side1 while the rising sun is genially warming the air on the east side of the mountains4 ,mind1 ,i do not say that it is so1 but it does not seem unlikely that two currents1 one of cold air and the other of hot1 thus ascend close to each other2 and according to what ,i have told you1 there would be a reflecting power in the plane of contact1 which might be increased by the watery particles carried upwards4 ,a kind of aerial screen would thus be formed1 which might catch the shadow of a person on the opposite summit1 cast upon it by the horizontal rays of the morning sun4 ,thus you may account for the image1 and its being so greatly magnified1 requires no further explanation than ,i have given above2 as it only needs the supposition of a mass of heated air1 with two colder ones on each side1 being between the persons and the reflecting substance4 ,the doubling of one of the figures was possibly occasioned by a reflecting surface having been formed on a different plane from the first1 which might very easily occur4 ,,conclusion4 ,,of ,,some ,,other ,,wonders1 ,,and ,,how ,,we ,,ought ,,to ,,use ,,our ,,knowledge ,,of ,,the ,,wonders ,,of ,,nature4 ,i4 ,i have now given you1 my little friends an account of a few of the wonders of the wonderful world we live in1 and ,i hope they have entertained you4 ,i should like to have spoken to you of a great many other things1 but it would make my book too large4 ,some of you1 ,i dare say1 are fond of some branch or other of natural history1 and perhaps you may be in the habit of collecting shells1 plants1 insects1 or fossils4 ,well1 ,i hope a great many of you do so1 for it is a very delightful employment1 when you are not learning your regular lessons4 ,when ,i was a school-boy1 ,i loved to dig fossils out of the earth1 and many a sunny day have ,i spent with my hammer and chisel under the cliffs by the sea-side1 or in a stone-quarry4 ,many times ,i laboured long without success1 but at last ,i scraped together a very pretty collection1 and always managed to enjoy myself on these fossil-hunting days1 whether ,i was successful or not4 ,but what ,i want particularly to say to you before we part is1 that ,i hope none of you will rest satisfied with merely listening to what others tell you1 with making an orderly collection of specimens1 or recollecting merely the outsides of things4 ,though all these are very good when in their proper places1 they are not enough4 ,you should compare together different facts1 and often turn them over in your minds1 always keeping in view that there is something to be learned from them more interesting and more important than any knowledge1 however correct1 respecting the shapes of crystals1 shells1 or plants1 or the habits of animals4 ,if you are diligent in thinking on what you know1 you will see that nothing stands alone in nature2 every single thing is connected with other things1 so as to make up one great whole4 ,it is true that you will sometimes see what seems to be an exception to this2 you will see instances of conflict and disorder1 and1 as it seems1 things destroyed without a reason2 but you will also very often find1 as you come to know more1 that what seemed at first an exception was not such in reality1 and that it was what tends as much to the order and beauty of the whole1 as any of the particular things you admired at first4 ,,ii4 ,the ancients supposed that those parts of the world which were in the torrid zone1 and those towards the ,north ,pole1 could not be inhabited by man2 and we find from their writings1 that it was something of a puzzle to know of what use they could be4 ,they did not1 however1 know much about the extent of them1 for even the shape of the earth was then unknown1--some contending that it was in the form of a cylinder1 some that it was pear-shaped1 and others that it was round and flat like a trencher4 ,a very few made a shrewd guess at its true figure4 ,no one was quite certain on the subject1 till navigators had sailed round it1 so as to reach1 by continually going forward1 the same spot as they started from4 ,what men have learned within the last four centuries1 has taught us that only a small portion of the surface of the earth is uninhabitable4 ,man1 by the wonderful constitution of his nature1 is enabled to bear the extremes of heat and cold better than any of the animals that are sent for his use1 each of which is adapted for the particular climate in which it may be placed4 ,under the most extreme variations of the temperature of the atmosphere1 the heat of our bodies1 when we are in health1 is never increased or diminished more than a very few degrees2 so that a thermometer1 with the bulb put into the mouth of an ,esquimaux1 in a climate much below freezing1 will be only three or four degrees below what it will be in the mouth of an inhabitant of the ,east ,indies1 where the temperature often exceeds #ajj degrees4 ,the dog is almost the only animal that is prepared to accompany man in all climates4 ,the form and habits of this faithful creature vary most surprisingly1 according to the circumstances in which he is placed2 but he is everywhere the loving friend and faithful associate of man1 and ready to defend him and to share his toil1 in the hot and parched deserts of the ,east1 or the icy regions of the ,north4 ,there are a few animals that undergo remarkable changes1 to enable them to bear the vicissitudes of the climate in which they may be placed4 ,the hares and the foxes of the ,northern regions become covered with white hair in winter4 ,now1 it is proved1 that a body hotter than the surrounding atmosphere which has a white covering1 cools much more slowly than one covered with a dark colour3 hence1 the heat generated inwardly is preserved and economized by the winter coats of these animals1 to the great benefit of their health and comfort4 ,,iii4 ,some kinds of birds that love warm climates1 are taught to assemble together at a certain season near the end of summer1 almost to a day1 and start off on a pilgrimage to distant lands1 where nature is still blooming4 ,there are these birds which all live nearly the same sort of life1--the swift1 the swallow1 and the house marten1 which all bear a strong resemblance to each other4 ,they all come to us from the south in spring1 and take their departure before the next winter4 ,the swifts form themselves into companies1 and take their leave of us before the middle of ,august2 the swallows do the same about the middle of ,october1 and the martens at the end of the same month4 ,thus these happy creatures manage to live all their life long in summer and sunshine4 ,illustration ,they are furnished with astonishing capabilities for performing these very long journeys4 ,you are acquainted with their slender forms1 so exactly adapted for cutting through the air1 and their long1 beautiful wings4 ,each of these wings is moved by a muscle of prodigious power1 situated on each side of the breast-bone4 ,possibly you may have noticed in larks and other birds1 that are in the habit of flying long distances1 which are eaten1 what a large proportion of their flesh is in these two muscles2 in the swallow1 it greatly exceeds the weight of the flesh of all the other parts of the body4 ,you will hardly believe it when ,i tell you1 that the swift is able to fly at the rate of more than a hundred miles in an hour4 ,the little bird that perched upon your chimney this morning1 may perch to-morrow night upon one of the pyramids of ,egypt1 and next week may be at the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,you think a great deal of travelling twenty miles an hour on a railway1 but you see that is slow compared with the travelling of the swallows4 ,instead of thus following the summer about over the surface of the earth1 some creatures1 that love warmth1 make the best of it where they are4 ,some birds get into holes and other sheltered places1 put their heads under their wings1 and so sleep away the winter months4 ,the pretty little black-eyed dormouse makes up a snug nest1 and does the same1 and so do some other of our common animals4 ,during this inactive period1 all the functions which are necessary to support life become fitted to a state of repose2 the circulation gets slower1 and the supply of inward heat sinks to the lowest temperature which life will bear4 ,i dare say you have often found some sorts of snail-shells with the snail inside1 and the mouth sealed up firmly1 and have taken them for dead3 this is not the case4 ,the covering is only put over for the winter to keep out the cold1 and the creature lives till spring without food or motion4 ,how it must enjoy the first bright days of spring1 when it opens its eyes after its long nap1 reaching out its horns1 and dragging its shell over the green grass4 ,illustration ,,iv4 ,then1 in the distribution of different animals1 there is not less to engage our attention4 ,the rein-deer is the support and comfort of the ,laplanders4 ,it lives constantly on the scantiest1 and apparently least nourishing diet1 and when brought into warmer climates it soon languishes and dies4 ,the camel only flourishes where there are large sandy deserts1 with precarious supplies both of water and solid food2 and to fit him for his peculiar line of usefulness1 he has a receptacle to contain a stock of water1 which he can at pleasure turn into his stomach1 and can go eight or nine days without a fresh supply2 he eats any kind of vegetables1 however dry they may be2 and a pound a day is sufficient to support him for weeks together2 though he is very much larger than any of the animals which inhabit your country4 ,it is usual for camels to go the whole distance from ,cairo to ,suez1 in ,egypt1 without tasting a morsel1 and this remarkable faculty has been supposed to arise from the hump upon their backs4 ,when the animal is well fed1 this hump1 which is of a fatty substance1 fills out and becomes solid2 but when his food is scanty1 it wastes away1 and its substance appears to go to the nourishment of the more vital parts of his frame4 ,his large feet rest upon the sand without sinking in1 and at the rate of about two miles an hour1 he will travel thirty miles a day over a parched desert1 bearing a burden of seven or eight hundred weight4 ,he is called by the ,arabs the ,ship of the ,desert4 ,illustration ,v4 ,you may see that there is1 in every variety of circumstance1 something that enjoys itself1 and has a place to fill up and a part to act amongst the creatures which ,god has made4 ,but this is not all3 the existence of the cold of the ,poles1 and of the heat of the ,tropics1 is necessary to the well-being of the whole4 ,the free air that surrounds the globe1 which we breathe1 and through which we see1 and hear1 and smell1 and move1 is the same in composition in every part of the world4 ,it contains just the same proportions of the two gases1 oxygen and nitrogen1 in the coldest and the hottest climates1 in the deepest valleys and on the tallest mountains4 ,now1 this air1 considered on a large scale1 is always blowing from the ,poles towards the ,equator4 ,the more direct rays of the sun heat that portion of the earth's surface which lies in the ,torrid ,zone1 and therefore the air above it is perpetually ascending to the upper regions of the atmosphere1 to make room for that which presses upon it from the ,poles1 because it is cooler and heavier4 ,it is this process1 united with the motion of the earth on its axis1 which causes the ,trade ,winds and ,monsoons4 ,now1 do you not see how necessary the cold ,poles are to keep the rest of the world from becoming too hot1 by supplying constant currents of fresh air setting in upon the hotter regions from both sides8 ,then the air1 which ascends from the ,equator1 becomes cool1 and travels down again to join the air from the ,poles2 and so a healthful circulation is kept up1 which is necessary for all climates4 ,,vi4 ,it is very interesting to trace the dependance of the various tribes of vegetables and animals on each other1 and to observe how one flourishes through the dissolution of another2 and still more so to notice the gradual development of the same parts in the kinds1 as they ascend one above another4 ,you may see an instance of this in three of the animals that ,i described to you1 which were different enough in other respects1 but agreed in being without a bony skeleton1 and in having long organs round their mouths to catch their food with4 ,in the ,acaleph1 or sea-nettles1 these organs were merely filaments without sensation1 of which the use seemed to be1 to entangle little creatures in1 which chance might bring in their way4 ,the animals themselves would seem1 at first sight1 to be very ill able to destroy small crabs and other shell-fish4 ,you would suppose that the struggles they would make with their hard pointed legs1 would tear the tender bodies of the ,acaleph2 but the deficiency is supplied by the caustic luminous fluid which paralyzes the victim1 and disables it for violent struggles while it is detained by the filaments1 before the ,acalepha attempts to swallow it4 ,in the ,actini1 you will find the loose disorderly filaments changed into feelers1 with wonderfully acute sensation1 regularly disposed in a star4 ,when a substance touches the feelers they close in with considerable power1 but seem to act more like a mechanical trap1--as the leaves of certain plants catch flies and other insects1--than in direct dependance on the will of the animal4 ,however1 the ,actinia has the sense of feeling1 and has a perception of light and of odours1 though without eyes or nose4 ,having greater muscular strength and more compactures of film1 he does not need the destructive fluid with which the ,acalepha is furnished4 ,thus1 one sort of power is made to compensate for the loss of another4 ,the ,sepia also catches his food by means of fleshy organs placed round his mouth2 but in him you find them possessed of amazing power1 moving in strict subjection to his will2 never loosely floating about as in the others4 ,then he tastes1 sees1 and hears1 by means of a tongue1 eyes1 and ears1 distinctly formed4 ,a similar gradation is observed in the development of the various parts composing the hand and arm in animals with perfect skeletons1 in which the bones act as levers4 ,there is a very interesting book,c written on this subject1 which you would do well to read2 and you will see in it that all sorts of birds1 quadrupeds1 and even fishes1 have1 in their fore feet1 wings1 and fore fins1 elements resembling those of the human hand and arm4 ,often1 in comparing only two animals1 you might fail to trace the slightest resemblance2 but when one or two or more of other kinds are placed between them1 you find a sort of ladder which1 in an evident manner1 unites the lowest with the highest tribes4 ,footnote ,c3 ,sir ,charles ,bell's ,treatise on the ,hand4 ,at distant periods of the earth's history1 you may see the same sort of organs1 and the same dependance of the creatures one on another4 ,the fierce ,icthyosaurus1 and the sly1 long-necked ,plesiosaurus1 had eyes1 ears1 tongues1 and other parts1 the same as our contemporaries2 and they ate and digested their food1 and moved from place to place1 and preyed on each other in no other manner4 ,if our acquaintance with nature were much greater than it is1 we should doubtless be able to bring proofs that there is no sort of stones1 of vegetables1 or of animals1 nor any process or movement of the elements1 in which we have not an interest4 ,there is no fact that is not in some way or other connected with the whole1 so as to influence its well-being4 ,,vii4 ,not only are the creatures which inhabit the earth united together by bonds of similarity of structure and appetite1 of common wants and enjoyments1 and of mutual support2 but we are also united with the boundless system of worlds which the night unveils to our view4 ,the principle of gravitation1 and the beneficent rays of the sun operating on the planets and their moons1 throw over us a plain and obvious tie of brotherhood with the stars that we may see night after night making their way amongst the constellations1 as they move in their orbits1 distinguished by their steady light from the twinkling multitude of fixed stars4 ,the law that unites us to them is the same as causes a drop of rain to descend1 or a weary fly to settle on the earth4 ,it is not improbable1 that the aerolites 7if the theory which ,i hinted at in a former chapter be true7 may be fragments of original matter1 which have never been appropriated by any globe1 and now sometimes pitch on one planet1 and sometimes on another4 ,if this be the case1 we should be warranted in concluding that the matter of our solar system is everywhere the same1 chemically considered1 and is1 therefore1 governed by the same chemical laws2 for the aerolites contain no substance which is not to be found far below the surface of the earth4 ,some ignorant persons1 in all ages of the world1 have fancied that the relative positions of the stars to each other1 at the moment of the birth of an individual1 must have an influence upon his character and the future circumstances of his life4 ,thus arose what was called the science of astrology1 and the practice of casting nativities2 and in vulgar conversation it is not unfrequent for people1 who do not know the origin of the expression1 to thank their stars1 or to talk of their unlucky stars1 which arose from the prevalence of such a belief4 ,this1 ,i need hardly tell you1 is all nonsense1 from beginning to end2 but you may now know that there is1 in reality1 quite as wonderful a connection1 and as direct a one1 between yourselves and the stars1 as this which was fancied to exist4 ,,viii4 ,but who can tell how wide the relationship of our earth and everything upon it is extended1 through the agency of those wonderful principles ,light1 ,heat1 and ,electricity8 ,it may seem to you impossible1 when ,i tell you that there is not a blade of grass or a flower on this earth1 which may not1 in its little degree1 affect the climate of a star far beyond the limits of our solar system2 but if you will consider the way in which the falling of dews is regulated1 you will see that there are grounds for such a notion4 ,i must first tell you that it is a property of ,heat1 like ,light1 to radiate or expand itself in all directions1 without limit2 so that a heated body is always sending out its heat4 ,now1 this radiation is influenced by the surfaces of bodies3 ,heat will radiate more from a black rough surface than from a smooth white one1 and a black body will therefore much sooner get cool than a white one1 as ,i had occasion to tell you just now4 ,the heat radiates rapidly from the leaves of vegetables1 though from different kinds of plants in very different degrees1 while from stones and dry wood it radiates very slowly4 ,heat is also reflected1 or turned back1 by meeting with certain objects2 and in this respect1 too1 it resembles light4 ,you have possibly seen experiments showing this1 made with polished metal mirrors4 ,at night time1 when the sun's rays are not present1 as the heat radiates quickly from the plants on the ground1 each plant becomes thereby cooler than the earth and stones which surround it4 ,this causes the watery particles which the air contains1 to condense on its leaves and flowers1 in the same manner as you see the moisture in the air of a crowded room1 settle on the outside of a glass of cold water2 and1 what is most wonderful1 the surface of each plant is so constructed as to allow the escape of just so much heat1 and to receive just so much dew in return1 as its peculiar nature requires4 ,you may see1 if you look1 that some plants always have more dew on them than others4 ,on a cloudy night1 when dews are not so much required1 a great part of the heat thus radiated is sent back1 being reflected by the clouds4 ,hence the dew falls less heavily at such a time than on a clear starlight night1 when every blade of grass and every little flower sends out its ray of heat to an indefinite extent1 and may possibly meet another ray from the ,dog-stars or one of the ,pleiades6 ,this is very wonderful2 but if you think1 you will perceive that it is not more wonderful than that a ray of light should travel so far4 ,every particle of the surface of these stars does its part in emitting light1 and by that the light of our nights is increased2 and if ,light is affected by such remote influences1 why should not ,climate be so affected8 ,,ix4 ,as everything has a place to fill up amongst the creatures by which it becomes connected with the universal system1 we find innumerable instances of things being most wonderfully provided with powers of retaining the position for which they were created1 when circumstances may oppose it4 ,the tendency which every animal has to preserve its own life1 supplies abundant illustration4 ,it is this which causes the ,arctic animals to change their colour to white in winter1 and the swallows to migrate to warmer regions4 ,but there is something selfish in this1 as the provision is merely to save the animal's own life4 ,much more beautiful is it to observe the operation of the affections of parent animals towards their offspring1 by which the young1 when they are incapable of taking care of themselves1 are kept alive and preserved from injury often at the sacrifice of the enjoyment1 and even of the life of their parent4 ,you will remember what ,i told you respecting the love of the old whales towards the suckers4 ,nothing parts with its own life willingly1 but in a great many animals it may be seen that there is a greater regard to the preservation of their race than of their own individual lives4 ,illustration ,x4 ,these tendencies may be seen in vegetables as well as in animals4 ,the young buds of various plants1 of the common poppy for example1 hang down their heads1 so that the bottom of the calyx1 as it is called by botanists1 is placed upwards1 and forms a sort of thatch or roof4 ,when the flower spreads out its bright broad leaves1 although its weight is increased1 yet it then boldly lifts up its head to the sun1 and the neck of the stalk which seemed unable to bear up the bud1 is well able to sustain the full flower4 ,now if it were otherwise1 and if the bud held the same position as the flower1 the rain would run into the calyx and would lie there1 so as to cause the petals or leaves of the future flower to become rotten4 ,in this ,kingdom of ,nature1 the unwillingness to part with life is even more wonderfully exhibited than in animals4 ,seeds have been known to retain their principle of life for centuries1 and long after they have seemed perfectly dead and dry1 when placed in proper circumstances1 they have sent out shoots and borne flowers and fruit4 ,mr4 ,white relates1 that when some old beech trees were removed from a spot in the neighbourhood of ,selborne1 where they must have stood for ages1 some strawberry plants sprung up1 of which the seeds must have lain dormant under the roots of the beeches4 ,when the ,spaniards took possession of ,peru1 many of the race of ,incas1 the rulers of that country1 fled to the deserts and took with them what provisions they could carry4 ,there are now1 sometimes1 found in these deserts1 ancient vessels with very narrow mouths1 containing at the bottom a few grains of maize or ,indian corn1 the remains of the stock of those poor exiles4 ,i have got one of the vessels2 and the maize which came out of it was sown1 and took root and bore seed1 though it must have been bottled up for considerably more than three centuries4 ,but now ,i am going to tell you something still more surprising than this4 ,the ,ancient ,egyptians1 from some notion connected with their religion1 used at times to place in the hands and under the soles of the feet of the bodies they embalmed1 the roots of a kind of lily4 ,the roots are of a bulbous sort1 not much unlike an onion1 and they have often been found on those mummies which have been uncovered4 ,one or two of them have been set to vegetate1 and have actually borne flowers and seed1 after having slumbered in a mummy coffin for considerably more than #bjjj years6 ,,xi4 ,you know that some seeds have wings or sails1 by means of which they are transported by the winds over land and sea for very many miles4 ,the thistle-down everybody is acquainted with4 ,there is an eastern annual plant whose seeds are provided with wings1 which1 in a most curious manner1 it only uses when it needs them1 as you shall hear4 ,it grows in the little pools that occur here and there in the deserts of ,arabia1 which1 as you may suppose1 in a hot climate and a sandy soil1 are very apt to dry up at some seasons of the year4 ,the seeds grow on the stalk enclosed in a roll of flaxen fibres1 and when they are ripe they fall off1 and if the water continues till the next year1 they spring up close by where their parent plant lived4 ,but should the pool dry up1 the flaxen fibres become dry and spread out into wings1 the wind takes hold of them1 and away flies the seed till it reaches a more favoured spot4 ,when it is lucky enough to get to the water1 the pod speedily bursts open1 and the seeds take root at the bottom4 ,you see how1 by a simple mechanical contrivance1 this plant is enabled to do the same for the preservation of its species1 as ,i told you the ,actinia did by a very simple exercise of instinct1 for the preservation of itself4 ,,xii4 ,because you wonder at the works of creation1 you feel a desire to search into them4 ,you will find out many things1 and you may learn to explain a great many things1 the reasons of which you are ignorant of at present4 ,still1 your wonder will not be satisfied2 on the contrary1 the further you go1 the more it will be excited4 ,you will have to go wondering on1 but if you proceed in the right disposition1 every addition to your knowledge will increase your admiration and love2 for everything was made by the loving and wise ,god1 and therefore the whole must necessarily be beautiful and harmonious1 and there is nothing which has not its place to fill1 and its part to act4 ,may you1 my little friends1 ever keep in mind that you are not left out of this ,divine ,plan2 and that there is a place to be filled1 and duties to be performed1 by each one of you1 which are not left to a mechanical contrivance nor to animal instinct2 but must be found out and fulfilled by a never dying ,spirit1 which must be conscious of what it is about1 and is responsible to ,god for every action4 ,j4 ,,green ,,and ,,co41 ,,printers1 ,,bartlett',s ,,buildings4 ,,works ,,recently ,,published ,,by ,,darton ,,and ,,clark1 ,,holborn ,,hill4 ,,birds ,,and ,,flowers2 ,,and ,,other ,,country ,,things4 ,,by ,,mary ,,howitt4 ,,beautifully ,,illustrated ,,in ,a ,,new ,,style4 ,handsomely ,bound in ,saxony1 ,gilt ,edges4 ,royal #ahmo4 ,price #fs4 ,this is a charming addition to the gift books of the season4 ,the topics ,mrs4 ,howitt has chosen are ,birds and ,flowers1 and other ,country ,things2 and these are varied with skill1 and executed with much taste1 delicacy1 and a pastoral-poetical feeling4--,spectator4 ,we shall speak of this work with unreserved commendation4--,the wood-cuts are exquisite4--,athenum4 ,in the ,press4 ,,hymns ,,and ,,fireside ,,verses3 ,,by ,,mary ,,howitt4 ,,beautifully ,,illustrated1 ,,as ,a ,,companion ,,to ,,birds ,,and ,,flowers4 ,,tales ,,in ,,verse3 ,,by ,,mary ,,howitt4 ,,with ,,beautiful ,,illustrations4 ,price #es4 in ,elegant ,binding2 or in ,fancy ,wrapper1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,tales ,,in ,,prose3 ,,by ,,mary ,,howitt4 ,sweet ,mary ,howitt6 ,her name brings a magic with it1 let us see it when and where we will2 it is one crowded with pleasant associations1 telling of wisdom learned by the wayside and under the hedge-rows breathing perfume1--not the perfume of balls and routs1 but of violets and wild-flowers1--leading the mind to pure and pleasant thoughtfulness4--,new ,monthly ,magazine4 ,,the ,,little ,,conchologist2 ,a ,,guide ,,to ,,the ,,classification ,,of ,,shells3 ,,with ,a ,,copious ,,index ,,of ,,their ,,vulgar ,,names3 ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,t4 ,,wilson4 ,,second ,,edition4 ,square #cfmo4 ,gilt ,edges1 ,coloured ,frontispiece1 and ,copper-,plates4 ,price #as4 ,a nice sea-side book1 in a pretty exterior4--,tait's ,magazine4 ,ably drawn up1 and beautifully printed4--,family ,magazine4 ,a little gem4--,monthly ,review4 ,illustration ,just ,published1 ,,the ,,little ,,mineralogist2 ,,or1 ,,first ,,book ,,of ,,mineralogy4 ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,t4 ,,wilson4 ,with ,coloured ,plates1 a ,companion to the above4 ,price #as4 ,illustration ,in the ,press4 ,by the same ,author4 ,,the ,,little ,,geologist2 ,,or1 ,,first ,,book ,,of ,,geology ,illustration ,with ,numerous ,illustrative ,plates1 and ,gilt ,edges1 ,royal #cfmo4 ,fancy ,cloth ,boards4 ,price #as4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,little ,,book ,,of ,,botany2 ,,or1 ,,familiar ,,exposition ,,of ,,botanical ,,science2 ,,simplified ,,and ,,written ,,expressly ,,for ,young ,botanists4 ,,by ,,daniel ,,cooper1 ,a4,l4,s4 ,,curator ,,to ,,the ,,botanical ,,society ,,of ,,long ,,and ,,author ,,of ,,botanical ,,rambles ,,within ,,thirty ,,miles ,,of ,,london4 ,a ,new ,illustration of the ,geography of ,holy ,scripture1 upon an original plan1 expressly adapted for ,,schools and ,,family ,,instruction4 ,just ,published1 ,,palestine1 ,,and ,,part ,,of ,,egypt1 ,,with ,,the ,,countries ,,adjacent2 ,showing the ,route of the ,israelites through the ,wilderness1 and the ,division of ,canaan among the ,tribes2 and the ,holy ,land in the ,time of our ,saviour2 all the ,countries visited by the ,apostles1 and the great ,empires of the ,east2 being a complete ,geographical ,illustration of the ,sacred ,scriptures4 ,,by ,,william ,,martin1 ,,editor ,,of ,,the ,,educational ,,magazine4 ,size1 #ci by #bf inches1 price #ajs4 #f;d4--in a case1 #ads4 ,canvas and ,roller1 ,varnished1 #bas4 999999 ,the physical peculiarities of the countries represented1 and the sites of particular events1 with references to the passages of ,scripture in which they are recorded1 are laid down in this ,map with peculiar accuracy and clearness4 ,,darton ,,and ,,clark1 ,,holborn ,,hill4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber ,note ,some of the quoted passages have unusual spelling for some words4 ,these were left as is2 but other minor typos may have been corrected4 ,the ,table of ,contents and page #fi list name ,skapta-,jokul and ,skaptar ,jokul respectively4 ,a web search shows that the more common spelling was ,skapta ,jokul and both were changed to that4 ,some page references in the ,table of ,contents were corrected4 ,a reference to ,plate ,,xvi1 fig4 #d on page #bdf has been corrected to ,plate ,,xv1 fig4 #d4 ,illustrations were moved so as to prevent splitting paragraphs4 ,all materials were obtained from ,the ,internet ,archive and any files produced are placed in the ,public ,domain4