,transcrib]'s ,notes ,text pr9t$ 9 italics has be5 transcrib$ betwe5 und]scores1 bold face text betwe5 tildes4 ,small capitals h be5 replac$ ) ,,all ,,capitals4 text & text repres5t subscript & sup]script texts respectively4 ,m ,transcrib]'s ,notes may be f\nd at ! end ( ?is text4 ,,! ,,r>e ,,e>?s ,,! ,,r>e ,,e>?s ,,_! ,,occurr5ce1 ,,*emi/ry1 ,,& ,,te*nology ,,by ,s4 ,i4 ,,levy ,b4,a4 7,,cantab471 ,b4,,sc4 7,,lond471 ,a4,i4,c4 ,,late ,,hut*9son ,,rese>* ,,/ud5t ,,( ,,/4 ,,john',s ,,college ,,cambridge ,,) ,,illu/rations ,,london ,,edw>d ,,arnold #aiae ,all rights res]v$ ,,preface ,dur+ ! ?irty ye>s :i* h elaps$ s9ce ,dr4 ,au]'s application ( ! r>e e>?s to ! production ( artificial light1 ! inc&esc5t mantle indu/ry has develop$ to an ext5t :i* gives x a prom95t place among ^? *emical indu/ries :i* may be consid]$ ess5tial to mod]n civilisation4 ,?is te*nical developm5t has 9 turn assi/$ & /imulat$ ! sci5tific exam9ation ( ! elem5ts ( ?is gr\p1 ) ! result t ord]$ & accurate k is beg9n+ to replace ! confus$ & unc]ta9 data :i* _h be5 collect$ by e>li] work]s 9 ! field4 ,^! advances h s]v$ to emphasise ! sci5tific int]e/ & importance ( ! r>e e>? gr\p1 & ! difficulty ( br++ x into relation ) ! o!r elem5ts4 ,! relatively scant att5tion devot$ to ! /udy ( ?is prov9ce ( inorganic *emi/ry by tea*]s & /ud5ts 9 ,engl& is probably due no less to ! difficulty 9 classification1 & ! unc]ta9ty ) reg>d to ! homog5eity & individuality ( ! v>i\s memb]s ( ! family--an unc]ta9ty by no means entirely remov$ ev5 n[--?an to ! fact t ! v ext5sive lit]ature on ! subject is some:at confus$ & difficult ( access1 especially to ^? unfamili> ) ! ,fr5* & ,g]man languages4 ,! pres5t "w is int5d$ to give a g5]al b fairly compreh5sive acc\nt ( ! r>e e>? gr\p4 ,9 accordance ) g5]al usage1 ! elem5ts zirconium & ?orium h be5 includ$1 ?\gh ^! are n[ recognis$ z fall+ outside ! limits ( ! r>e e>? gr\p prop]4 ,! inclusion ( titanium1 :i* *emically is s f> remov$ f ! c]ium & yttrium elem5ts1 has be5 consid]$ desirable1 n only on acc\nt ( its g5]al occurr5ce 9 ! r>e e>? m9]als1 & its position 9 ,gr\p ,,ivb ) zirconium1 c]ium1 & ?orium1 b also on acc\nt ( its increas+ *emical & te*nical int]e/1 & its use 9 ! ord9>y quantitative laboratory op]ations4 ,?\gh ! nature ( ! matt] embrac$ has r5d]$ ! division into ?ree p>ts desirable1 ! :ole subject has be5 treat$ prim>ily f ! *emical /&po9t4 ,9 view1 h[ev]1 ( ! occurr5ce ( consid]able quantities ( monazite )9 ! ,briti% ,empire1 & ( ! possibility t 9 ! ne> future ! ,brazilian fields w n rema9 ! sole s\rce ( ?orium nitrate1 /ress has be5 laid on ! te*nical aspect1 :i* is m especially develop$ z reg>ds ! production ( monazite & ! inc&esc5t mantle indu/ry 9 ,*apt]s ,,vii & ,,xvii-,,xx4 ,9 ! prep>ation ( ,"p ,i full use has be5 made ( ,dana's indisp5sable #8,sy/em ( ,m9]alogy1' z well z ( ! encyclopdic #8,h&bu*' ( ,h9tze1 :il/ = ,"p ,,ii ! excell5t monograph ( ,r4 ,j4 ,mey]1 9 ,abegg's #8,h&bu*1' ,vol4 ,,iii1 ,div4 ,i1 & ! "w ( ! same au?or & ,haus]1 #8,die ,analyse d] selt55 ,erd5 und d] ,erdsur51' ,vols4 ,,xiv-,,xv ( #8,die ,*emis*e ,analyse1' h be5 ( s]vice4 ,i h great pleasure 9 express+ my gratitude to ,mr4 ,a4 ,hut*9son1 ( ,pembroke ,college1 ,cambridge1 :o has k9dly read = me ! manuscript ( ,"p ,i1 & sugge/$ improvem5ts2 to ,dr4 ,h4 ,j4 ,h4 ,f5ton1 ( ,*ri/'s ,college1 :o has giv5 me simil> assi/ance 9 ,"p ,,ii2 & to ,dr4 ,s4 ,ruhemann1 ( ,gonville & ,caius ,college1 :o has read ,p>ts ,,ii & ,,iii4 ,i am also greatly indebt$ to ,mr4 ,e4 ,j4 ,holmy>d1 ( ,sidney ,sussex ,college1 :o help$ me ) ! prep>ation ( ,"p ,,ii2 & to ,mr4 ,h4 ,m4 ,spi]s1 ( ,gonville & ,caius ,college1 :o read ! pro(s = me ) special ?or\ghness & c>e4 ,i h also to ?ank ,pr(essor ,soddy & 8 publi%]s1 ,messrs4 ,longmans1 ,gre5 ,co41 = k9d p]mission to reproduce f #8,! ,*emi/ry ( ! ,radio-,elem5ts' ! diagram on p4 #ach4 ,s4 ,i4 ,,levy4 ,,cont5ts ,,"p ,i ,,occurr5ce ,,( ,,! ,,r>e ,,e>?s ,,*apt] ,,page ,i4 ,,! ,,nature ,,( ,,! ,,m9]als ,,& ,,_! ,,mode ,,( ,,occurr5ce #a ,,ii4 ,,! ,,silicates #cj 7a7 ,silicates ( ,yttrium & ,c]ium ,metals--,c]ite2 ,gadol9ite1 ,gl[+ ( ,m9]als2 ,allanite1 ,hell&ite1 ,?alnite & ,?ortveitite2 etc4 7b7 ,silicates ( ,?orium & ,zirconium--,?orite1 ,zircon1 ,naegite2 etc4 7c7 ,mix$ ,silicates--,eudialyte1 ,beckelite2 etc4 ,,iii4 ,,! ,,titano-,,silicates ,,& ,,titanates #eb 7a7 ,titano-silicates--,yttrotitanite1 ,titanite2 etc4 7b7 ,titanates--,yttrocrasite1 ,delor5zite1 ,ilm5ite2 etc4 ,,iv4 ,,! ,,tantalo-,,columbates #fj 7a7 ,conta9+ no ,titanium ,dioxide--,sam>skite 7,ann]dite71 ,plumboniobite1 ,yttrotantalite1 ,f]gusonite1 ,sipylite2 etc4 7b7 ,conta9+ ,titanium ,dioxide--s*ynite2 ! isodimorph\s s]ies ,eux5ite1 ,polycrase1 ,blom/r&9e1 ,priorite2 ,risrite1 ,wiikite2 etc4 ,v4 ,,! ,,oxides ,,& ,,c>bonates #gb 7a7 ,oxides--,uran9ite1 ,?orianite1 ,baddeleyite2 ,rutile1 ,anatase & ,brookite2 etc4 7b7 ,c>bonates--,lan?anite2 ,p>isite 7,syn*isite71 ,cordylite2 etc4 ,,vi4 ,,! ,,phosphates ,,& ,,halides #hb 7a7 ,phosphates--,monazite1 ,x5otime 7,hussakite72 etc4 7b7 ,halides--,yttroc]ite1 ,yttr(luorite2 etc4 ,,vii4 ,,! ,,monazite ,,s&s #ij ,,viii4 ,,radioactivity ,,( ,,! ,,m9]als #ii ,,"p ,,ii ,,! ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,! ,,elem5ts ,,ix4 ,,g5]al ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,! ,,c]ium ,,& ,,yttrium ,,gr\ps #aaa ,x4 ,,g5]al ,,me?ods ,,( ,,sep>ation #adb ,,xi4 ,,! ,,c]ium ,,gr\p--,,c]ium #aef ,,xii4 ,,! ,,c]ium ,,gr\p 7,,cont9u$7--,,lan?anum1 ,,praseodymium1 ,,neodymium1 ,,& ,,sam>ium #afh ,,xiii4 ,,! ,,t]bium ,,gr\p #ahd ,,xiv4 ,,! ,,erbium ,,& ,,ytt]bium ,,gr\ps--,,yttrium ,,& ,,sc&ium #aid ,,xv4 ,,! ,,gr\p ,,iva ,,elem5ts--,,titanium #bai ,,xvi4 ,,! ,,gr\p ,,iva ,,elem5ts 7,,cont9u$7--,,zirconium ,,& ,,?orium #bch ,,"p ,,iii ,,! ,,te*nology ,,( ,,! ,,elem5ts ,,xvii4 ,,! ,,inc&esc5t ,,mantle ,,indu/ry--,,hi/orical ,,& ,,g5]al ,,introduction #bfe ,,xviii4 ,,! ,,*emical ,,treatm5t ,,( ,,monazite #bge ,,xix4 ,,! ,,manufacture ,,( ,,mantles ,,f ,,cotton ,,& ,,ramie #bia ,,xx4 ,,artificial ,,silk--,,its ,,production ,,& ,,use ,,9 ,,! ,,mantle ,,indu/ry #cja ,,xxi4 ,,o!r ,,te*nological ,,uses ,,( ,,! ,,c]ium ,,& ,,yttrium ,,elem5ts1 ,,zirconium ,,& ,,?orium #cac ,,xxii4 ,,! ,,indu/rial ,,applications ,,( ,,titanium ,,& ,,its ,,comp\nds #cbe ,,index #cdb ,,table ,,( ,,abbreviations ,,employ$ ,,9 ,,! ,,ref]5ces ,ab/r4 ,*em4 ,soc4 ,ab/racts 9 ,j\rnal ( ! ,*emical ,society4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,j4 ,am]ican ,*emical ,j\rnal4 ,am]4 ,j4 ,sci4 ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce4 ,annal5 ,ju/us ,liebig's ,annal5 d] ,*emie4 ,ann4 ,*im4 ,phys4 ,annales de ,*imie et de ,physique4 ,a/rophys4 ,j4 ,a/rophysical ,j\rnal4 ,b]4 ,b]i*te d] ,deuts*5 *emis*5 ,gesells*aft4 ,b]z4 ,jahres4 ,b]zelius' ,jahresb]i*t b] die ,=ts*ritte d] ,*emie und ,m9]alogie4 ,bull4 ,imp4 ,in/4 ,bullet9 ( ! ,imp]ial ,in/itute4 ,bull4 ,soc4 *im4 ,bullet9 de la ,socit *imique de ,france4 ,bull4 ,soc4 franc4 ,m94 ,bullet9 de la ,socit franaise de ,m9ralogie4 ,bull4 ,soc4 franc4 ,photog4 ,bullet9 de la ,socit franaise de ,photographie4 ,bull4 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey ,bullet9 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey4 ,cass4 ,mag4 ,cassi]'s ,magaz9e4 ,c5tr4 ,m94 ,c5tralblatt fr ,m9]alogie1 ,geologie und ,palontologie4 ,*em4 ,eng4 ,*emical ,eng9e]4 ,*em4 ,ind4 ,*emis*e ,indu/rie4 ,*em4 ,news ,*emical ,news4 ,*em4 ,zeitg4 ,*emik] ,zeitung4 ,*em4 ,z5tr4 ,*emis*es ,z5tralblatt4 ,compt4 r5d4 ,comptes r5dus hebdomadaires des ,sances de l',acadmie des ,sci5ces4 ,d+l4 ,polyt4 ,j4 ,d+l]'s ,polyte*nis*es ,j\rnal4 ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 ,deuts*e ,rei*spat5ts*rift4 ,e4 ,engli% ,pat5t ,specification4 ,elect4 *em4 ,ind4 ,electro*emical ,indu/ry 7s9ce #aijd1 ,electro*emical & ,metallurgical ,indu/ry74 ,f4 ,brevet d',inv5tion de la ,rpublique ,franaise4 ,j4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc4 ,j\rnal ( ! ,am]ican ,*emical ,society4 ,j4 ,gasbel4 ,j\rnal fr ,gasbeleu*tung4 ,j4 ,gaslight+ ,j\rnal ( ,gaslight+4 ,j4 ,ind4 ,eng4 ,*em4 ,j\rnal ( ,indu/rial & ,eng9e]+ ,*emi/ry4 ,j4 pr4 ,*em4 ,j\rnal fr practis*e ,*emie4 ,j4 ,russ4 ,phys4 ,*em4 ,soc4 ,j\rnal ( ! ,physical & ,*emical ,society ( ,russia4 ,j4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind4 ,j\rnal ( ! ,society ( ,*emical ,indu/ry4 ,met4 ,*em4 ,eng4 ,metallurgical & ,*emical ,eng9e]+4 ,m94 ,mag4 ,m9]alogical ,magaz9e & ,j\rnal ( ! ,m9]alogical ,society4 ,monats4 ,monat%efte fr ,*emie und v]w&te ,!ile &]] ,wiss5s*aft54 ,phil4 ,mag4 ,philosophical ,magaz9e4 ,phil4 ,trans4 ,philosophical ,transactions ( ! ,royal ,society ( ,london4 ,pogg4 ,ann4 ,pogg5dorff's ,annal5 d] ,physik und ,*emie4 ,proc4 ,am]4 ,acad4 ,proce$+s ( ! ,am]ican ,academy4 ,proc4 ,*em4 ,soc4 ,proce$+s ( ! ,*emical ,society4 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,proce$+s ( ! ,royal ,society4 ,prog4 ,age ,progressive ,age 7n[ ,gas ,age74 ,publ4 ,a/rophys4 ,obs]v4 ,publikation5 des ,a/rophysikalis*5 ,potsdam ,obs]vatoriums zu ,potsdam4 ,s*weigg4 ,j4 ,s*weigg]'s ,j\rnal fr ,*emie und ,physik4 ,sitzungsb]4 kais]l4 ,akad4 ,sitzungsb]i*te d] kais]li* ,akademie ,wiss4 ,wi5 d] ,wiss5s*aft5 zu ,wi54 ,sitzungsb]4 knigl4 ,akad4 ,sitzungsb]i*te d] knigli* ,akademie ,preussis*5 ,wiss4 ,b]l9 d] ,wiss5s*aft5 zu ,b]l94 ,/ahl ,eis5 ,/ahl und ,eis54 ,trans4 ,am]4 ,el4 *em4 ,soc4 ,transactions ( ! ,am]ican ,electro*emical ,society4 ,trans4 ,am]4 ,in/4 ,m94 ,transactions ( ! ,am]ican ,in/itute ,eng4 ( ,m9+ ,eng9e]s4 ,trans4 ,*em4 ,soc4 ,transactions ( ! ,*emical ,society4 ,ts*4 ,m94 ,mitt4 ,ts*]mak's ,m9]alogis*e ,mit!ilung54 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey--,m9]al ,res\rces ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,u4 ,s4 ,p4 ,unit$ ,/ates ,pat5t ,specification4 ,zeits*4 anal4 ,*em4 ,zeits*rift fr analytis*e ,*emie4 ,zeits*4 angew4 ,*em4 ,zeits*rift fr angew&te ,*emie4 ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 ,zeits*rift fr anorganis*e ,*emie4 ,zeits*4 ,elektro*em4 ,zeits*rift fr ,elektro*emie4 ,zeits*4 ,kry/4 ,m94 ,zeits*rift fr ,kry/allographie und ,m9]alogie4 ,zeits*4 physikal4 ,*em4 ,zeits*rift fr physikalis*e ,*emie1 ,/*iometrie und ,v]w&ts*aftslehre4 ,zeits*4 pr4 ,geol4 ,zeits*rift fr praktis*e ,geologie4 ,zeits*4 wiss4 ,photo*em4 ,zeits*rift fr wiss5s*aftli*e ,photographie1 ,photophysik und ,photo*emie4 ,,introduction ,by ,,sir ,,william ,,crookes1 ,o4,m41 ,f4,e4,s4 ,! my/]i\s gr\p ( sub/ances to :i* h be5 giv5 ! title ( 8r>e e>?s0 has long be5 ! subject ( my special /udy1 & no "o kn[s bett] ! magnitude ( ! difficulties enc\nt]$ 9 ! inve/igation1 or realises m cle>ly ! comp>ative insignificance ( ! k we h acquir$4 ,! r>e e>?s con/itute ! mo/ /rik+ example ( ! association ( *emical sub/ances ) o!rs :i* are closely alli$ to !mselves1 & f :i* !y are sep>able only ) extreme difficulty4 ,!y =m a gr\p to !mselves1 %>ply dem>cat$ f ! o!r elem5ts1 & x is my belief t by foll[+ ! /udy ( !m to ! utmo/ limits1 we may arrive at ! explanation ( :at ! *emical elem5ts really are & h[ !y orig9at$1 & discov] ! reasons = _! prop]ties & mutual relations4 ,:5 ?is k has be5 wre/$ f ,nature *emi/ry w be e/abli%$ ^u an entirely new basis4 ,we %all be set free f ! ne$ = exp]im5t1 kn[+ a priori :at ! result ( ea* & e exp]im5t mu/ be2 & our k !n w z mu* transc5d our pres5t sci5tific sy/ems z ! k ( ! skill$ ma!matician ( ! pres5t day exce$s t ( primitive man1 c\nt+ ^u 8 f+]s4 ,! great problem ( ! nature & g5esis ( ! elem5ts is approa*+ solution1 & :5 ! consummation is rea*$ x w und\bt$ly be f\nd t ! /udy ( ! r>e e>?s has be5 an important factor 9 br++ x ab\t4 ,!re has long be5 a ne$ = a "w 9 ! ,engli% language deal+ hi/orically & descriptively ) ^! sub/ances1 & ,mr4 ,levy's book is well fitt$ to fill ! gap4 ,! *apt]s on ! te*nical applications ( ! r>e e>?s are p>ticul>ly valuable1 & ! *emical aspect ( ! inc&esc5t light+ indu/ry is admirably treat$4 ,! au?or is to be congratulat$ ^u hav+ successfully a*iev$ an important & useful piece ( "w4 ,,william ,,crookes4 ,decemb] #aiad4 ,,! ,,r>e ,,e>?s ,,"p ,i ,,occurr5ce ,,( ,,! ,,r>e ,,e>?s ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,nature ,,( ,,! ,,m9]als ,,& ,,_! ,,mode ,,( ,,occurr5ce ,! hi/ory ( ! r>e e>? m9]als beg9s 9 ! ye> #agea1 :5 ! ,sw$i% m9]alogi/ ,cron/$t describ$ a new m9]al1 :i* he _h f\nd intimately mix$ ) *alcopyrite#a 9 ! qu>ry ( ,ba/ns1 ne> ,rydd>hyttan1 9 ! prov9ce ( ,we/mannl&1 ,sw$54 ,cron/$t gave ! m9]al ! "n ,tung-/5 7heavy /one72 b z ! "n ,t5n-spat 7heavy sp>1 or heavy m9]al7 _h already be5 select$ by ,wall]ius 7#agdg7 = a new species f ,bohemia1 believ$ to conta9 t91 ! *oice 0 n a happy "o4 ,m ?an fifty ye>s aft] its discov]y1 a new e>?1 n[ kn[n z c]ia1 0 isolat$ f ,cron/$t's m9]al1 = :i* at ! same "t ! "n ,c]ite 0 propos$4#b ,mean:ile1 h[ev]1 ! ,f9ni% *emi/ ,johann ,gadol9 _h obs]v$1 9 ! ye> #agid1 a new e>? 9 a m9]al discov]$ by ,arrh5ius at ,ytt]by 9 ,sw$5 9 #aghh2 he call$ ! new oxide ,ytt]bia1 & ! m9]al 9 :i* he obs]v$ x1 ,ytt]bite4 ,! discov]y 0 confirm$ 9 #agig by ,ekeb]g1 :o sugge/$ ! names ,yttria & ,gadol9ite = ! oxide & m9]al respectively2 ^! names 7 accept$ by ,klapro?1 & soon came into g5]al use4#c ,:il/ !n ,c]ite 0 ! fir/ ( ! r>e e>? m9]als to be discov]$1 x 0 9 ,gadol9ite t new elem5ts 7 fir/ recognis$1 & ! *emi/ry ( ! r>e e>?s began 9 #agid ) ,gadol9's obs]vation4 #a ,*alcopyrite1 or ,copp] pyrites1 is a mix$ sulphide ( iron & copp]1 ( ! approximate =mula ,cu,fe,s4 #b ,= ! hi/ory ( ! "n ,tung/51 see "u ! m9]al ,c]ite1 ,*4 ,,ii4 #c ,! hi/ory ( ^! names w be f\nd some:at m fully "u ,gadol9ite1 ,*4 ,,ii4 ,dur+ ! n9ete5? c5tury a consid]able numb] ( r>e e>? m9]als 0 discov]$ & analys$2 ! quantities ( ! m9]als obs]v$1 h[ev]1 7 s small t ! "n #8,r>e e>?s1' appli$ to ! new oxides f\nd1 0 9 e s5se ju/ifi$4 ,until ! ye> #ahhe1 ?\gh by t "t ! sci5tific int]e/ ( ! gr\p _h be5 fully demon/rat$ by ! discov]y ( sev]al new elem5ts1 x 0 suppos$ t ! m9]als 7 almo/ entirely conf9$ to a few scatt]$ localities 9 ,sc&9avia & ! ,ural m\nta9s4 ,9 t ye> ,dr4 ,au] von ,welsba* ann\nc$ 8 application ( ! r>e e>?s to ! manufacture ( inc&esc5t mantles4 ,imm$iately !re 0 a great dem& = raw mat]ial = ! prep>ation ( ?oria & c]ia4 ,! ag5ts ( ! ,welsba* ,company visit$ all ! important m9+ c5tres ( ,europe & ,am]ica1 int5t on a se>* :i* %ortly made x cle> t ! metals ( ! s-call$ #8r>e e>?s' are really q widely di/ribut$ 9 nature4 ,! *ief comm]cial deposits are ! monazite s&s ( ! ,c>ol9as1 ! ,idaho bas91 & ,brazil1 ! gem-gravels ( ,ceylon1 & ! rem>kable deposits ( gadol9ite & alli$ m9]als at ,b>r+] ,hill 9 ,texas4 ,:il/ deposits ( comm]cial importance are n v common1 improv$ sci5tific me?ods & m c>eful se>* h %[n t 9 traces ! r>e e>?s are ( exce$+ly wide di/ribution4 ,sir ,william ,crookes has %[n t yttria e>?s are (t5 pres5t 9 calcite & 9 coral2 :il/ ,headd5#d not$ t q consid]able am\nts 7up to #jjc p] c5t47 7 pres5t 9 a yell[ phosphoresc5t v>iety ( calcite f ,colorado4 ,simil>ly ,humphreys#e f\nd t fluorsp> usually conta9s traces ( yttrium1 :il/ "o or two phosphoresc5t v>ieties conta9 quantities v>y+ up to #jje p] c5t4 ,! pres5ce ( yttria elem5ts 9 phosphoresc5t v>ieties ( calcite is int]e/+1 & "s connection has be5 sugge/$2 !re is1 h[ev]1 no positive gr\nd = ! belief 9 su* a relation4 #d ,am]4 ,j4 ,sci41 #aijf1 iv41 #ba1 #cja4 #e ,a/rophys4 ,j41 #aijd1 #bj1 #bff4 ,m rec5tly ,eb]h>d#f has f\nd v consid]able quantities ( r>e e>?s 9 cassit]ite 7t9 dioxide1 ,sn,o7 & wolframite an iron manganese tung/ate1 7,fe1,mn7,,wo4 ,a specim5 ( wolframite f ! ,erzgebirge 0 f\nd to conta9 ne>ly #jd p] c5t4 ( r>e e>?s1 ov] half ( ?is quantity be+ sc&ium oxide4 ,a process :i* is readily susceptible ( comm]cial application has be5 work$ out by ,r4 ,j4 ,mey]1#g = ! extraction ( sc&ia & ! yttria e>?s f ! mix$ oxides left aft] ! treatm5t ( wolframite = tung/ic acid4 #f ,sitzungsb]4 knigl4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,b]l91 #aijh1 #hea2 #aiaj1 #djd4 #g ,mey]1 ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em41 #aijh1 #fj1 #acd4 ,mey] und ,w9t]1 ibid41 #aiaj1 #fg1 #cih4 ,us+ ! spectroscopic me?od1 :i* is capable ( detect+ "o "p ( sc&ia 9 tw5ty ?\s&1 ,eb]h>d 7loc4 cit47 has f\nd t m9ute quantities ( sc&ia & yttria e>?s are pres5t 9 almo/ all ! common] rocks & m9]als4 ,! m9]als ri*e/ 9 sc&ium 7 b]yl1 cassit]ite1 wolfram1 ! zircon m9]als1 & ! titanates & columbates ( ! c]ia & yttria oxides4 ,^! results are 9 agreem5t ) ! obs]vations ( ,sir ,william ,crookes1#h :o has made ! /udy ( sc&ium especially 8 own4 ,f ! fact t sc&ium 0 (t5 obs]v$ unaccompani$ by any o!r memb] ( ! r>e e>? gr\p1 ,eb]h>d r fav\rs ,urba9's conclusion#i t sc&ium may n be a memb] ( ! r>e e>? family4 ,spectroscopic exam9ation has also %[n ! exi/5ce ( "s ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts 9 ! sun & />s 7see ,europium1 p4 #ahi74 #h ,phil4 ,trans4 #aiaj1 ,a1 #baj1 #cei4 #i ,see "u ,sc&ium 9 ,pt4 ,,ii4 ,9 view ( ?is extraord9>ily wide di/ribution ( ! r>e e>?s 9 ! m9]al _w1 x is b natural t !y %\ld be f\nd also 9 ! vegetable & animal k+doms4 ,ts*]nik#aj f\nd #aj p] c5t4 ( r>e e>?s 9 ! a% ( a coal f ,kutais1 9 ! ,caucasus1 & small] quantities h be5 f\nd 9 ! a%es ( v>i\s plants2 memb]s ( ! gr\p h also be5 id5tifi$ 9 ! human body4 #aj ,see ,ab/r4 9 ,zeits*4 ,kry/4 ,m941 #ahii1 #ca1 #eac4 ,ap>t f ! g5]al occurr5ce 9 traces ?r\gh\t ! m9]al k+dom1 ! m9]als 9 :i* ! r>e e>?s occur are n v common2 & ?\gh ( fairly wide di/ribution1 !y are f\nd usually only 9 small quantities4 ,! e>lie/ kn[n locality1 & ! mo/ fruitful 9 reg>d to numb] ( species1 has be5 ! s\!rn "p ( ! ,sc&9avian p59sula2#aa ! m9]als occur 9 ! num]\s pegmatite ve9s trav]s+ ! granitic c\ntry-rock4 ,! m9+ di/rict r\nd ,miask1 9 ! ,ural m\nta9s1 has also long be5 kn[n z a fruitful s\rce4 ,o!r di/ricts 9 ,europe are ! ,h>z & ,erzgebirge1 ! ,laa*] ,see 9 ,prussia1 ,joa*im/hal 9 ,bohemia1 ,dauph91 ,cornwall1 etc4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates num]\s localities are kn[n2 ! *ief are 9 ! ,c>ol9as & ,georgia1 ,idaho1 ,oregon1 ,cali=nia1 ,texas1 ,colorado1 ,virg9ia1 ,p5nsylvania & ,connecticut4 ,_m ( ! s\!rn prov9ces ( ,brazil also furni% important s\rces2 ! fam\s diamond fields ( ,m9as ,g]aes1 ,matto-,grosso1 ,goyaz & ! surr\nd+ prov9ces yield num]\s species1 :il/ ! s&s along ! s\!rn coa/s ( ,bahia are ri* 9 monazite1 & =m to-day ! mo/ important s\rce ( ! m9]al4 ,monazite1 z well z o!r r>e e>? m9]als1 occurs also 9 ,s\? ,africa4 ,an int]e/+ species1 plumboniobite 7q4v471 has rec5tly be5 f\nd 9 ,g]man ,ea/ ,africa4 ,f ,au/ralia num]\s occurr5ces are report$1 :il/ 9 ,canada only a few di/ricts are kn[n to yield memb]s ( ! gr\p4 ,9 ,asia important localities are ,ceylon--! fam\s gem-gravels be+ ! mo/ accessible s\rce--& "o or two di/ricts 9 ,japan2 monazite has be5 report$ rec5tly 9 consid]able quantities ne> ,travancore1 ,india4#ab ,a m ext5d$ se>* w d\btless %[ t !y occur 9 _m o!r places4 #aa ,see ,brgg]1 ,die ,m9]ali5 d] ,sd-,norwegis*e ,granit-,pegmatitgnge1 ,*ri/iania1 #aijf4 #ab ,bull4 ,imp4 ,in/41 #aiaa1 vol4 ix2 ,no4 #b1 p4 #ajc4 ,= sev]al reasons1 ! r>e e>? m9]als#ac =m a gr\p ( ! highe/ sci5tific int]e/4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !y are g5]ally ( v complex composition1 m especially ) reg>d to _! r>e e>? cont5t4 ,?us1 :il/ x sometimes happ5s t "o or o!r ( ! two gr\ps ( oxides 7! c]ia & yttria gr\ps7 may pr$om9ate to ! complete exclusion ( ! second1 x is no uncommon ?+ = a species to conta9 almo/ all ! elem5ts ( ! r>e e>? family4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is v uncommon = z mu* z #ej p] c5t4 ( ! r>e e>? cont5t to consi/ ( any "o oxide4 ,! usual case is t a m9]al conta9s *iefly yttria e>?s ) "s c]ia e>?s1 or vice v]s1 ! two sub-gr\ps be+ almo/ always complex mixtures ( sev]al oxides1 9 :i* occasionally "o may pr$om9ate4 ,! rem>kable simil>ity 9 *emical behavi\r ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts1 & ! difficulty ( sep>at+ !m1 correspond to ?is peculi>ity 9 _! occurr5ce4 #ac ,! phrase #8r>e e>? m9]als' w be us$ :5ev] x is desir$ to indicate collectively ^? m9]als ( :i* ! yttria & c]ia e>?s =m an important con/itu5t1 z contra/$ to ^? 9 :i* only traces ( ^! oxides occur4 ,su* m9]als may (t5 conta9 titanium1 zirconium1 or ?orium1 &1 = conv5i5ce1 ! t]m may be tak5 to include ! common] zirconium & ?orium m9]als1 b n ! common] titanium m9]als4 ,a second po9t ( ev5 great] int]e/ is t ! r>e e>? m9]als are z a g5]al rule /rongly radio-active2 fur!r1 x only occasionally happ5s t any m9]al 9 :i* ! r>e e>?s d n =m an important con/itu5t has m ?an ! feeble/ activity2 ! exceptions be+1 ( c\rse1 ^? uranium m9]als :i* d n conta9 r>e e>?s4 ,! connection may be pu%$ ev5 fur!r2 = :il/ x appe>s t h>dly any rock or m9]al possesses absolutely no radio-activity1 x is equally wor?y ( notice t traces ( ! r>e e>?s1 if n q univ]sal 9 ! m9]al _w1 are yet normally f\nd 9 ! majority ( common m9]als4 ,z a natural consequ5ce ( _! activity1 ! r>e e>? m9]als are also z a rule ri* 9 helium4 ,^! facts & ! problems :i* !y op5 up w be treat$ m fully 9 a lat] *apt]4 ,a po9t ( fur!r int]e/ is t ( ! age ( ! r>e e>? m9]als4 ,except 9 a few cases :]e !y are obvi\sly ( second>y =mation1 ^! m9]als are among ! olde/ kn[n to u4 ,!y occur usually 9 igne\s rocks1 p>ticul>ly 9 granites :i* h be5 consid]ably metamorphos$4 ,:]e erosion has occurr$1 !y are f\nd 9 deposits ( su* a nature z to leave v little d\bt t ! orig9al rock 0 ( plutonic =mation & ( v consid]able age4 ,:il/ x is true1 h[ev]1 t ! r>e e>? m9]als are g5]ally ( v great antiquity 7none ( ! prim>y m9]als be+ ( m rec5t date ?an ! palozoic age71 ,eb]h>d has po9t$ out t ! age & nature ( common rocks seem to h absolutely no influ5ce on ! traces ( sc&ia & yttria oxides :i* !y conta94 ,! geological evid5ce %[s t ! r>e e>? m9]als are on ! :ole exce$+ly /able1 & t !y h be5 g5]ally =m$ dur+ ! pegmatitic alt]ation ( granites4 ,z e>ly z ! ye> #ahdj1 ,s*e]] drew att5tion to ^! facts1 & to ! extreme age ( ! r>e e>? m9]als2 b s f> 8 obs]vation seems to h attract$ little att5tion1 & no explanation has be5 put =w>d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,9 ! foll[+ *apt]s no attempt is made to treat ! r>e e>? m9]als fully4 ,an alphabetical li/ ( all ! m9]als ( any importance :i* conta9 r>e e>?s1 titanium1 zirconium or ?orium is giv51 & ( ^! sev]al are select$ = full] treatm5t4 ,! basis ( selection has be5 some:at arbitr>y4 ,^? species :i* are ( m9]alogical importance1 z well z ^? to :i* any special hi/orical1 sci5tific or comm]cial int]e/ atta*es1 h ( c\rse be5 s+l$ out2 9 addition1 ! m rec5tly discov]$ species h occasionally be5 consid]$ wor?y ( sep>ate m5tion4#ad #ad ,a full li/ ( ! m9]als conta9+ r>e e>?s kn[n up to #aijd1 ) an acc\nt ( _! prop]ties & v full ref]5ces1 w be f\nd 9 ! "w ( ,dr4 ,j4 ,s*ill+1 ,das ,vorkomm5 d] ,selt55 ,erd5 im ,m9]alrei*e1 #aijd4 ,x is n[ be+ realis$ t "s k ( cry/allography is ess5tial to ! *emi/1 & = ?is reason %ort acc\nts ( ! cry/allography ( ! select$ types h be5 giv54 ,ap>t f ?is1 e ef=t has be5 made to r5d] ! m9]alogy intelligible to ! /ud5t ( *emi/ry :o has devot$ no att5tion previ\sly to ?is subject1 & also to /imulate an int]e/ 9 ! problems ( m9]al *emi/ry1 un=tunately too (t5 ignor$ by our pres5t-day tea*]s4 ,! r>e e>? m9]als af=d good examples ( "s ph5om5a ( great int]e/ to ! *emi/1 z1 e4g4 ,isomorphism & ,solid ,solution1 ,dimorphism1 ,isodimorphism1 & ,molecul> ,*ange1 & 9 "o or two cases ^! are treat$ r fully4 ,no special advantages are claim$ = ! sy/em ( classification1 :i* is m]ely "o ( conv5i5ce4 ,! m9]als are divid$ into five gr\ps3-- 7#a7 ,! ,silicates1 :i* are gr\p$ into ?ree sub-divisions4 7#b7 ,! ,titano-silicates & ! ,titanates4 7#c7 ,! ,tantalo-columbates1 sub-divid$ into ^? free f titanium & ^? 9 :i* titanium is pres5t4 7#d7 ,! ,oxides & ,c>bonates4 7#e7 ,! ,halides & ,phosphates4 ,a sep>ate *apt] has be5 devot$ to ! monazite s&s1 & ano!r to ! radio-active prop]ties ( ! m9]als4 ,,alphabetical ,,li/ ,,( ,,m9]als ,,conta9+ ,,titanium1 ,,zirconium1 ,,?orium1 ,,or ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,! ,,c]ium ,,& ,,yttrium ,,gr\ps4 ,! foll[+ li/ conta9s all b a few entirely unimportant memb]s ( ^! classes ( m9]als4 ,! names ( ^? species select$ = full] treatm5t are pr9t$ 9 heavy type1 :il/ names ( ^? n s select$1 :i* = conv5i5ce are includ$ "u ! g5]ic t]m #8,r>e e>? m9]al1' i4e4 r\ghly all ^? conta9+ ,?orium1 or elem5ts ( ! ,c]ium & ,yttrium gr\ps1 & ! common] ,zirconium m9]als1 z di/+ui%$ f m9]als conta9+ ,titanium1 are pr9t$ 9 italics4 7,see footnote on p4 #d47 ,_! prop]ties are giv5 9 ! foll[+ ord]3-- ,*emical ,composition & ,r>e ,e>? ,cont5t4 ,cry/allographic ,data4 ,physical ,prop]ties4 ,locality1 etc4 ,! foll[+ contractions are employ$3 ,e any elem5t or elem5ts ( ! c]ium or yttrium gr\ps4 ,c] oxides ( ! c]ium metals4 ,yttr oxides ( ! yttrium metals4 ,g ,specific ,gravity4 ,h ,h>dness4 ,a5igmatite4 ,a ,titanosilicate ( ,fe & ,na1 ) small proportions ( ,fe & ,al4 ,closely alli$ to ! amphiboles4 ,ti,o #g-h4 ,anor?ic4 ,habit prismatic4 ,g #chj-chf4 ,h #e4 ,black2 pleo*roism /rong4 ,gre5l& & ,s4 ,norway4 ,aes*ynite ,a ,titanocolumbate ( ,c]ium metals1 ) ,?1 ,fe1 ,ca1 ,mn1 aq4 ,c] #aid-bda2 ,yttr #aa-ca2 ,th,o #aeg-agf2 ,ti,o #ba-bb4 ,rhombic1 holosymmetric4 ,habit prismatic or tabul>4 ,g #di-eg4 ,h #ef4 ,black2 opaque4 ,hitt]1 ,norway2 ,miask1 ,urals2 also 9 ,g]many & ,brazil4 ,allanite 7,or?ite74 ,h,o1 #d,r,o1 #c,r,o1 #f,si,o1 :]e ,r ,ca1 ,fe1 ,be1 & ,r ,al1 ,fe1 ,e4 ,an epidote conta9+ r>e e>?s4 ,c] #cf-ea 7usually #aj-be72 ,yttr #j-h 7usually #c72 ,th,o #j-ce4 ,monocl9ic2 isomorph\s ) epidote4 ,g #ce-db4 ,h #e-f4 ,br[n to black2 opaque4 ,widely di/ribut$ 9 ,gre5l& & ,sc&9avia4 ,alvite 7,&]b]gite74 ,silicate ( ,zr & ,e1 ) ,ca1 ,mg1 ,be1 ,al1 ,cu1 ,zn1 & aq4 9 small quantities4 ,c] #cih2 ,yttr #bb2 ,zr,o #cje-fad4 ,tetragonal2 optically isotropic4 ,pseudomorph\s aft] zircon4 ,g #cc-dc4 ,h #e-f4 ,yell[i% br[n2 transp>5t4 ,ytt]by1 ,sw$52 ,ar5dal1 ,norway2 v>i\s localities 9 ,n4 ,am]ica4 ,anatase 7,octah$rite74 ,titanium dioxide4 ,ti,o #ig-ajj4 ,tetragonal2 habit octah$ral4 ,g #chb-cie4 ,h #e-f4 ,transp>5t to opaque2 br[n to black4 ,dauph92 ,bav>ia2 ,cornwall2 ,norway2 ,brazil1 etc4 ,ancylite4 #d;,ce7,,oh7,,co #c,sr,c,o #c;,h,o2 ) ,fe1 ,mn1 ,ca1 ,f1 traces4 ,c] #dfc4 ,rhombic2 prismatic4 ,g #cie4 ,h #d4 ,br[n2 transluc5t4 ,pla9 ( ,n>s>suk1 ,gre5l&4 ,ann]dite4 ,a p>allel gr[? ( ,columbite on ,sam>skite1 once believ$ to be a new species4 ,correspond+ to ,columbite4 ,arfv$sonite4 ,metasilicate ( ,na1 ,ca1 ,fe1 ,zr2 approximately #d,na,o1#c;,ca,o1#ad;,fe,o17,al1,fe7,o1# ba,si,o4 ,zr,o #a-f4 ,monocl9ic--an amphibole4 ,g #cdd4 ,h #f4 ,black2 pleo*roism /rong4 ,s4 ,gre5l& & ,s4 ,norway4 ,arizonite4 ,f]ric metatitanate1 ,fe,o1#c,ti,o or ,fe7,ti,o74 ,ti,o #cfg4 ,unc]ta92 app>5tly monocl9ic4 ,g #dbe4 ,h #f-g4 ,d>k /eel-grey2 opaque4 ,hackb]ry1 ,arizona4 ,arrh5ite4 ,silico-tantalate ( ,yttrium metals1 ) ,ce1 ,al1 ,fe1 ,ca1 ,be1 aq4 ,yttr #ccb2 ,c] #bf2 ,zr,o #cd4 ,amorph\s4 ,g #cfh4 ,r$2 transluc5t to opaque4 ,ytt]by1 ,sw$54 ,a/rophyllite4 ,titano-silicate ( ,fe1 ,al1 ,mn1 ,zr1 ,k1 ,na1 ) aq4 ,zr,o #ab-de2 ,ti,o #g-ad4 ,rhombic4 ,cleavage 7#jaj7 p]fect4 ,g #cb-cd4 ,h #c4 ,gold5 to bronze yell[2 /rongly pleo*roic4 ,brevik1 ,norway2 ,el ,caso ,co41 ,colorado2 ,gre5l&4 ,au]ba*ite4 ,an impure hydrat$ =m ( ,zircon1 ,zr,si,o4 ,zr,o #eeb4 ,tetragonal2 isotropic4 ,pseudomorph\s aft] zircon4 ,g #djf4 ,h #f4 ,br[ni%-grey2 transluc5t to opaque4 ,alex&rovsk1 ,russia4 ,au]lite4 #c,th,o1#c,si,o1,p,o#f;,h,o2 traces ( ,fe1 ,ca1 ,mg1 ,al1 ,,co1 etc4 ,si,o replac$ by ,p,o_/#c8 ,th,o #fib-gbb4 ,tetragonal2 probably a pseudomorph aft] ,?orite4 ,g #dd-dh4 ,h #b-c4 ,yell[i% to orange-r$4 ,h5d]son ,co41 ,n4 ,c>ol9a4 ,baddeleyite4 ,zr,o1 ) small am\nts ( ,si,o1 ,fe,o1 ,al,o1 ,ca,o1 etc4 ,zr,o #ife4 ,monocl9ic4 ,g #dd-fj4 ,h #f4 ,br[n2 pleo*roic4 ,so ,paulo1 ,brazil2 ,rakwana1 ,ceylon4 ,bagrationite4 ,a v>iety ( ,allanite 7or?ite7 ) no important *emical diff]5ce4 ,monocl9ic2 habit prismatic4 ,g #chd4 ,h #f4 ,black2 transluc5t to opaque4 ,a*matovsk1 ,urals4 ,ba/nsite 7,h>matite74 ,hydrat$ fluoc>bonate ( ,c]ium metals1 ,e7,f7,,co4 ,c] #fd-ice2 ,th,o #j-aj4 ,hexagonal prisms1 pseudomorph\s aft] ,tysonite 7q4v472 or massive4 ,g #di-eb4 ,h #d-d4 ,yell[ to br[n2 transp>5t4 ,ba/ns1 ,sw$52 ,pike's ,peak1 ,colorado4 ,beckelite4 ,zirconosilicate ( r>e e>?s & lime1 ,ca,e7,si1,zr7,o4 ,c] #eig2 ,yttr #bh2 ,zr,o #be4 ,cubic1 9 octah$ra & dodecah$ra4 ,cubic cleavage4 ,g #dae4 ,br[n2 transp>5t4 ,ne> ,sea ( ,azov1 ,russia4 ,b5itoite4 ,a ,titano-silicate ( b>ium1 ,ba,ti,si,o4 ,ti,o #bja4 ,rhomboh$ral4 ,h #f-g4 ,col\rless to blue2 transp>5t2 pleo*roism /rong4 ,s\rce ( ,san ,b5ito ,riv]1 ,cali=nia4 ,blom/r&9e4 ,dimorph\s ) ,polycrase 7q4v471 & ( same composition4 ,or?orhombic2 isomorph\s ) priorite 7q4v474 ,g #de-ej2 ,h #f4 ,bright black2 transluc5t4 ,hitt] & ,ar5dal1 ,norway4 ,blom/r&ite4 ,hydrat$ titano-columbate ( ,u1 ) "s ,fe & ,ca4 ,ti,o #ajg4 ,massive4 ,g #dag-dbe4 ,h #e4 ,black2 opaque4 ,nohl1 ,sw$54 ,bod5ite4 ,a v>iety ( ,allanite 7q4v471 ri* 9 ,al & ,ca1 ) no ,be4 ,yttr #ag2 ,c] #ah4 ,monocl9ic4 ,z ,allanite4 ,bod51 ne> ,m>i5burg4 ,bri?olite4 ,a basic phosphosilicate ( c]ium metals1 ) ,fe1 ,ca1 ,mg1 ,na1 ,f4 ,c] #fje-fji4 ,hexagonal2 habit prismatic4 ,g #dddf4 ,h #e4 ,br[n2 transp>5t4 ,naujakasik1 ,gre5l&4 ,brgg]ite4 ,a v>iety ( ,uran9ite 7q4v471 ) r>e e>?s1 ,?1 ,pb1 ,fe1 ,ca1 ,si1 aq41 etc4 ,c] #jd2 ,yttr #ad-dc2 ,th,o #dg-fa4 ,traces ( ,zr,o4 ,cubic1 9 octah$ra & dodecah$ra4 ,g #hg-ij4 ,h #e-f4 ,black2 transluc5t to opaque4 ,ann]d1 ne> ,moos1 ,norway4 ,brookite4 ,titanium dioxide1 ,ti,o #ii-ajj2 trimorph\s ) ,anatase & ,rutile4 ,or?orhombic4 ,g #chg-dja4 ,h #e-f4 ,br[n2 opaque4 ,dauph92 ,urals2 ,switz]l&2 ,magnet ,cove1 ,arkansas4 ,calcio?orite4 ,a v>iety ( ,?orite conta9+ lime--#e,th,si,o1#b;,ca,si,o #aj;,h,o4 ,th,o #eic4 ,completely amorph\s4 ,g #daad4 ,h #d4 ,deep r$2 transluc5t4 ,isl&s ( ,lv5 & ,ar1 ,langesund ,fiord1 ,norway4 ,cappel5ite4 ,a borosilicate ( r>e e>? metals & b>ium1 ) traces ( ,?1 ,ca1 ,k1 ,na1 aq4 ,approximately ,ba,si,o1 ,,ybo4 ,c] #db2 ,yttr #ebe4 ,hexagonal2 habit prismatic4 ,g #ddjg4 ,h #f-f4 ,gre5i% br[n2 transluc5t4 ,isl& ( ,kle9-,ar1 ,langesund ,fiord1 ,norway4 ,c>yoc]ite 7,k>yoc]ite74 ,complex fluosilicate ( ,e1 ) ,ta1 ,?1 ,ca2 also ,,co1 ,p,o1 ,b1 ,al1 ,fe1 ,mn1 ,u1 ,mg1 ,na1 aq41 etc4 ,approa*+ ,melanoc]ite1 7q4v471 b ri*] 9 ,?4 ,v complex4 ,c] #dah2 ,yttr #bb2 ,th,o #acf2 ,zr,o #je4 ,rhomboh$ral1 b isotropic2 app>5tly a pseudomorph aft] ,melanoc]ite 7q4v47 ,g #dbie4 ,h #e-f4 ,nut br[n2 transluc5t4 ,faces v brilliant1 b /riat$4 ,lu/re vitre\s to res9\s4 ,v>i\s rocks & %oals r\nd ,ar ,isl&1 ,langesund ,fiord1 ,norway4 ,ca/elnaudite4 ,a v>iety ( ,x5otime 7q4v47 conta9+ ,zr4 ,yttr #fjd2 ,zr,o #gd4 ,tetragonal4 ,g #de4 ,h #d-e4 ,greyi% :ite to pale yell[4 ,diamond s&s ( ,brazil4 ,cataplejite 7,kataplejite74 ,h7,na1,ca7,zr,si,o4 ,zr,o #bif-dj 7usually #cj-cc74 ,monocl9ic1 pseudohexagonal4 ,becomes truly hexagonal at #adj;,c4 ,g #bh4 ,h #f4 ,yell[ to br[n2 transp>5t to opaque4 ,a blue v>iety is kn[n :i* conta9s no calcium4 ,isl&s ( ,langesund ,fiord1 ,norway2 ,n>s>suk1 ,gre5l&4 ,c]ite4 ,a basic silicate ( ,c]ium metals1 ) ,ca & ,fe4 ,approximately ,h7,ca1,fe7,ce,si,o4 ,c] #ejg-gah4 ,9 a v>iety f ,bat\m1 ,ts*]mak reports ,yttr #gf & ,zr,o #aag4 ,or?orhombic2 usually massive or granul>4 ,g #di4 ,h #e-f4 ,br[n to r$2 transluc5t to opaque4 ,rydd>hyttan1 ,sw$52 ,bat\m1 ,caucasus8 ,*alcolamprite4 ,a silico-columbate ( ,e1 ,zr1 ,ca1 ,fe1 ,na1 ,k2 ,r,cb,f,si,o1 :]e ,r repres5ts v>i\s metals4 ,e #cda2 ,zr,o #eg4 ,cubic1 9 small octah$ra4 ,g #cgg4 ,h #e4 ,gre5i% br[n2 opaque4 ,metallic lu/re 7 ,copp]1 lu/re74 ,n>s>suk1 ,s4 ,gre5l&4 ,*ur*ite4 ,hydr\s phosphate ( ,c]ium metals & ,ca2 ,c] #eahg4 ,monocl9ic8 ,allegations only4 ,g #cad4 ,h #c4 ,greyi%2 transp>5t to transluc5t4 ,cornwall4 ,cleveite4 ,a v>iety ( ,uran9ite 7q4v47 ri* 9 r>e e>?s & helium4 ,c] #bc-bi2 ,yttr #ajj-ajc2 ,th,o #df-dh4 ,cubic2 usually massive4 ,g #gdi4 ,h #e4 ,black2 opaque4 ,ar5dal1 ,norway4 ,cordylite4 ,fluoc>bonate ( ,c]ium metals & ,ba2 ,e,f,ba7,,co74 ,c] #did4 ,hexagonal2 isomorph\s ) ,p>isite 7q4v474 ,g #dca4 ,h #d4 ,yell[2 transp>5t4 ,pla9 ( ,n>s>suk1 ,gre5l&4 ,cossyrite4 ,a v>iety ( ,a5igmatite 7q4v47 ( v complex composition1 ,ti,o #f-h4 ,anor?ic4 ,g #cgd4 ,h #e4 ,black2 opaque4 ,isl& ( ,pantell>ia 7=m]ly ,cossyra74 ,cyrtolite4 ,a pseudomorph aft] zircon1 alli$ to ,alvite 7q4v474 ,tetragonal4 ,see ,alvite4 ,v>i\s localities 9 ,sc&9avia1 & ,u4,s4,a4 ,davidite4 ,a ,titanate ( ,fe1 ,u1 ,v1 ,cr1 & ,e--unc]ta9 =mula4 ,ti,o #ej2 ,e,o #e-aj4 ,cubic--9 gra9s & r\nd$ cry/als4 ,g #d ab\t4 ,black1 ) brilliant lu/re4 ,ol>y1 ,s4 ,au/ralia4 ,delor5zite4 #b;,fe,o1,,uo1#b,y,o1#bd,ti,o4 ,yttr #adfc2 ,ti,o #ee4 ,rhombic2 habit prismatic4 ,g #dg4 ,h #e-f4 ,black2 transluc5t to opaque2 lu/r\s4 ,craveggia1 ,pi$mont1 ,italy4 ,d]bylite4 ,fe,o1,sb,o #e;,fe,o1,ti,o8 ,ti,o #ce ab\t4 ,or?orhombic2 habit prismatic4 ,g #dec4 ,h #e4 ,pit* black2 opaque2 lu/re res9\s4 ,tripuhy1 ,m9as ,g]aes1 ,brazil4 ,dysanalyte 7,p]ovskite74 ,approximately #f,r,ti,o1,r7,cb1,ta7,o1 :]e ,r ,ca1 ,fe4 ,believ$ by ,haus] to be m]ely an impure ,p]ovskite 7q4v474 ,c] #j-ea2 ,ti,o #dae-eic4 ,cubic4 ,g #dac4 ,h #e-f4 ,black2 opaque4 ,vogtsburg1 ne> ,bad51 ,g]many4 ,elpidite4 ,na,zr7,si,o71 #a;,h,o4 ,zr,o #bje4 ,or?orhombic4 ,g #beb-bef4 ,h #g-h4 ,col\rless to r$2 transluc5t4 ,v>i\s localities 9 ,gre5l&4 ,endeiolite4 ,r,cb,o7,,oh7 ,r,si,o 7cf4 ,*alcolamprite74 ,e,o #ddc2 ,zr,o #cgh4 ,cubic4 ,g #cdd4 ,h #d4 ,d>k *ocolate-br[n2 transp>5t4 ,n>s>suk1 ,gre5l&4 ,erdmannite 7,mi*aelsonite74 ,a silicate ( ,e & ,ca1 ) ,zr1 ,be1 ,?1 ,al1 ,fe1 aq41 etc4 ,an alt]$ ,homilite8 ,c] #agg-cdi2 ,yttr #ad-ba2 ,th,o ,zr,o #j-ab4 ,amorph\s2 isotropic4 ,g #cja-cci4 ,h #d4 ,br[n to leek-gre54 ,ne> ,brevig1 ,norway4 ,erikite4 ,a phosphosilicate ( ,e1 ,ca1 ,al1 ,k & ,na1 ) ,th,o1 ,h,o1 etc4 ,c] #dje2 ,th,o #cc4 ,or?orhombic4 ,g #cdgc4 ,h #e-f4 ,br[n2 opaque4 ,julianehaab1 ,gre5l&4 ,eucolyte4 ,r,r,zr7,si,o71 :]e ,r ,k1 ,na1 ,h1 & ,r ,ce7,,oh71 ,fe1 ,mn1 ,ca1 & ,zr7,o,cl7 may replace ,si,o8 ,a v complex m9]al4 ,zr,o #aji-bj2 ,c] #j-eb4 ,rhomboh$ral4 ,g #cj-ca4 ,h #e-e4 ,r$ to br[n2 transluc5t4 ,d\ble ,refraction /rong1 -ve4 ,v>i\s localities 9 ,norway4 ,eucrasite4 ,an alt]$ ,?orite 7q4v47 conta9+ ,e1 ,ca1 ,fe1 ,mn1 ,na1 ,ti1 ,h,o1 etc4 ,c] #ad2 ,yttr #ei2 ,th,o #cfj2 ,zr,o #jf4 ,rhombic 7,paijkull74 ,amorph\s1 isotropic 7,brgg]74 ,g #dci4 ,h #d-e4 ,br[ni% black2 opaque4 ,ne> ,brevig1 ,norway4 ,eudialite4 ,a v>iety ( ,eucolyte 7q4v47 ( ! same composition4 ,z ,eucolyte4 ,g #bib4 ,d\ble ,refraction /rong1 ve4 ,o!rwise z ,eucolyte4 ,gre5l&2 ,lapl&2 ,arkansas1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,eux5ite4 ,e7,cb,o71,e7,ti,o71#a;,h,o2 ) ,u & ,zr4 ,c] #bc-hd2 ,yttr #acb-cdf2 ,ti,o #bj-bc4 ,th,o ,zr,o usually 9 traces4 ,or?orhombic2 usually massive4 ,g #df-ej4 ,h #f4 ,br[ni%-black2 transluc5t to opaque4 ,hitt]1 ,brevig1 ,jol/]1 ,ar5dal1 ,norway2 ,cooglegong1 ,au/ralia2 ,n4 ,c>ol9a4 ,f]gusonite4 ,approximately ,e,o1 7,cb1,ta7,o1 ) ,u1 ,fe1 ,ca4 ,c] #je-aci2 ,yttr #bgi-dga2 ,th,o ,zr,o #j-g4 ,b]zelius f\nd ,c] #cfc2 ,yttr #j 9 "o specim54 ,tetragonal1 pol>4 ,g #ehd-dc :5 l>gely hydrat$4 ,h #ef4 ,br[n to black4 ,norway2 ,au/ralia2 ,texas1 etc4 ,flor5cite4 ,a silico-phosphate ( ,e & ,al4 ,c] #bh approximately4 ,g #cf4 ,h #e4 ,yell[ to r$4 ,res9\s lu/re4 ,m9as ,g]aes & diamond localities 9 ,brazil4 ,fluoc]ite4 ,basic fluoride ( r>e e>? metals1 ,e,o1#d;,,ef4 ,c] #had-hbf2 ,yttr #aa-dc4 ,massive4 ,orig9al hexagonal m9]al ( ,b]zelius & ,haid+]1 probably ,tysonite 7q4v474 ,g #eg-ei4 ,h #d4 ,r$di% yell[2 opaque4 /]by1 ,sw$54 ,freyalite4 ,silicate ( ,e & ,?1 ) ,al1 ,fe1 ,mn1 ,na1 aq41 etc4 ,c] #cac2 ,th,o #bhd2 ,zr,o #fc4 ,amorph\s4 ,g #djf-dag4 ,h #f4 ,br[n2 opaque2 lu/re res9\s4 ,brevig1 ,norway4 ,gadol9ite4 ,fe,o1 #b;,be,o1 ,y,o1 #b,si,o1 :]e ,y yttrium metals4 ,c] #cd-eae 7usual #f-bj72 ,yttr #e-fj 7usual #ce-dh74 ,monocl9ic2 habit prismatic4 ,(t5 amorph\s & isotropic4 ,g #dj-de4 ,h #f-g4 ,br[n & gre54 ,d\ble ,refraction /rong1 ve4 ,ytt]by & ,fahlun1 ,sw$52 ,hitt] & ,mal1 ,norway2 ,llano ,co41 ,texas2 ,colorado1 etc4 ,geikielite4 7,mg1,fe7,ti,o4 ,ti,o #efa-fdh4 ,specim5s ri* 9 iron are call$ ,picroilm5ite4 ,massive4 ,g #d ab\t4 ,h #f4 ,purpli% or br[ni% black4 ,ceylon4 ,gorceixite4 ,an alum9o-phosphate ( alkal9e & c]ia e>?s4 ,c] #j-c4 ,microcry/all9e4 ,g #c4 ,h #f4 ,:ite to br[n4 ,transluc5t4 ,diamond s&s ( ,brazil4 ,gu>9ite4 ,=m]ly suppos$ to be dimorph\s ) ,titanite 7q4v472 %[n by ,zambon9i & ,prior 7#aiji7 to be id5tical ) ,hiortdahlite 7q4v474 ,ha9ite4 ,tantalo-silicate & titanate ( ,zr1 ,ca1 ,na4 ,zr,o #bi-cb4 ,anor?ic4 ,g #cb4 ,h #e4 ,col\rless to yell[2 transp>5t4 ,bohemia4 ,hell&ite4 #c;,h#j1 #b,r,o1 #c,r,o1 #d,si,o1 :]e ,r ,ca1 ,mg1 ,?_/#b2 ,r ,e1 ,al1 ,fe1 ,mn4 ,e,o #dj4 ,monocl9ic2 habit prismatic4 ,g #cgj4 ,h #e4 ,r$di%-br[n :5 fre%4 ,l9dvikskollan & ,krag]1 ,norway4 ,hiortdahlite4 #c;,ca,si,o1,ca7,f1,,oh7,na,zr,o4 ,zr,o #bae2 ,ti,o #ae4 ,anor?ic2 habit tabul>4 ,g #cbg2 ,h #e-e4 ,yell[1 ) weak pleo*roism4 ,isl& ( ,lv51 ,langesund ,fiord1 ,norway4 ,hjelmite 7,hielmite74 ,a /anno-tantalate ( ,ca1 ,mn1 ,fe1 ,e1 relat$ to ,yttrotantalite 7q4v474 ,e,o #a-f4 ,or?orhombic4 ,g #ehb4 ,h #e4 ,black2 lu/re metallic4 ,fahlun1 ,sw$54 ,homilite4 7,ca1,fe77,,bo77,si,o74 ,sometimes ) c]ia e>?s1 #j-bf4 ,monocl9ic--isomorph\s ) ,gadol9ite 78 ,brgg]74 ,g #ccd-cch4 ,h #d-e4 ,black2 pleo*roic4 ,isl&s ( ,lanegsund ,fiord1 ,norway4 ,hussakite 7,x5otime74 ,a prismatic =m ( ,x5otime 7q4v471 errone\sly suppos$ to conta9 #f ,,s4 ,diamond s&s ( ,brazil4 ,hydrotitanite4 ,an alt]$ ,p]ovskite 7q4v47 ) ,fe & aq4 ,ti,o #hbh4 ,amorph\s4 ,g #cfh4 ,h #a-b4 ,yell[i% grey4 ,magnet ,cove1 ,arkansas4 ,ilm5ite4 ,fe,ti,o2 composition v>ies widely4 ,ti,o #ce-ebc4 ,rhomboh$ral4 ,g #de-e4 ,h #e-f4 ,black2 opaque4 ,slightly magnetic4 ,norway2 ,dauph92 ,bohemia2 ,cornwall1 etc4 ,ilm5orutile4 ,fe,o1,nb,o1#e,ti,o8 ,ti,o #ff-ge4 ,tetragonal1 v ne> to ,rutile 7q4v474 ,g #dc-ej4 ,h #f-g4 ,br[n to black2 opaque4 ,ilm5 ,m\nta9s1 ,russia4 ,john/rupite4 ,silico-titanate ( ,e1 ,al1 ,mg1 ,ca1 ,na1 etc41 ) ,f & aq4 ,c] #ace2 ,yttr #aa2 ,ti,o #g-h2 ,th,o ,zr,o #cf4 ,monocl9ic1 v close to ,epidote4 ,g #cai-cbi4 ,h #e4 ,br[ni% gre52 weakly pleo*roic4 ,isl&s ( ! ,langesund ,fiord1 ,norway4 ,ka9osite 7,c5osite74 ,ca,y7,si,o71,ca,c,o1#b;,h,o1 :]e ,y ,yttrium metals4 ,yttr #cj-cg4 ,unc]ta92 pseudo-hexagonal4 ,g #cch-cda4 ,h #e-f4 ,yell[i% br[n4 ,hitt] & prov9ce ( ,nordm>k1 ,norway4 ,keilhauite 7,yttrotitanite74 ,an isomorph\s mixture ( ,titanite 7q4v47 ) 7,e1,al1,fe7,si,o4 ,e,o #e-ab2 ,ti,o #bf-cj4 ,monocl9ic2 isomorph\s ) ,titanite4 ,g #ceb-cgg4 ,h #f4 ,br[n to black4 ,v>i\s localities 9 ,norway4 ,kis*timite4 ,a fluoc>bonate ( ! ,c]ium metals1 ne> ,p>isite 7q4v474 ,c] #gdb4 ,massive4 ,g #dgh4 ,h #d4 ,yell[i% br[n2 transluc5t4 ,b>sovka ,riv]1 ,ky%tymsk1 ,urals4 ,knopite4 ,a v>iety ( ,p]ovskite 7q4v47 conta9+ ,e & ,fe4 ,c] #d-g2 ,ti,o #ee4 ,pseudo-cubic4 ,g #db4 ,h #e4 ,grey2 opaque2 lu/re metallic4 ,aln1 ,sw$54 ,ko*elite4 ,a columbate ( ,e1 ,fe1 ,zr2 ) ,th,o1 ,si,o1 ,ca1 aq41 etc4 ,alli$ to ,f]gusonite 7q4v474 ,yttr #agbb2 ,zr,o #abh2 ,th,o #abc4 ,d\btful2 may be tetragonal4 ,g #cgd4 ,h #c-c4 ,br[n to honey yell[2 transluc5t4 ,! ,ko*elweise1 ne> ,s*reib]hau1 ,silesia4 ,koppite4 ,columbate ( ,e1 ,ca1 ,fe1 ,?1 ,k1 ,na1 etc4 ,ne> ,pyro*lore 7q4v474 ,c] #d-aj2 ,zr,o #j-e4 ,cubic2 9 dodecah$ra4 ,g #dde-ddf4 ,h #e-f4 ,br[n2 transp>5t4 ,s*el+51 ,black ,=e/ ,m\nta9s1 ,g]many4 ,lan?anite4 ,hydrat$ c>bonate ( ,c]ium metals1 especially ,la2 ,e7,,co71#i;aq4 ,c] #edi4 ,or?orhombic2 habit tabul>4 ,g #bf-bg4 ,h #b4 ,:ite2 opaque4 ,) ,c]ite 7q4v47 at ,ba/ns1 ,sw$52 ,be?lehem1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,lav5ite4 7,mn1,ca1,fe77,zr,o,f7,na7,si,o78 ,zr,o #bhh-caf4 ,monocl9ic2 habit prismatic4 ,g #cea-cee4 ,h #f4 ,br[n to yell[2 transluc5t4 ,langesund ,fiord1 ,norway2 ! ,ard5nes1 ,france4 ,leucosph5ite4 ,ba,o1#b,na,o1#b7,ti1,zr7,o1#aj,si,o4 ,ti,o #acb2 ,zr,o #ce4 ,monocl9ic2 w$ge-%ap$4 ,g #cje4 ,h #f4 ,:ite2 transp>5t4 ,n>s>suk1 ,gre5l&4 ,lewisite4 #c,r,sb,o1#b,r,ti,o1 :]e ,r ,ca1 ,fe & ,mn4 ,ti,o #aa-ab4 ,cubic2 9 small octah$ra4 ,g #die4 ,h #e4 ,yell[ to br[n2 transluc5t4 ,tripuhy1 ,m9as ,g]aes1 ,brazil4 ,loranskite4 ,tantalate ( ,e1 ,zr1 ,fe1 etc4 ,yttr #aj2 ,c] #c2 ,zr,o #bj4 ,massive4 ,g #df4 ,h #e4 ,black2 opaque4 ,metallic lu/re4 ,f9l&4 ,lor5z5ite4 ,titano-silicate ( ,na & ,zr2 ,ti,o #ce2 ,zr,o #ab4 ,or?orhombic2 acicul>4 ,g #cd4 ,h #f4 ,col\rless2 transp>5t4 ,s\? ,gre5l&4 ,mack9to%ite4 ,mixture ( oxides1 *iefly ( ,? & ,u2 also ,fe1 ,ca1 ,mg1 ,pb1 ,na1 ,b1 ,ta1 etc4 ,composition v complex4 ,th,o #dec2 ,e,o #ai2 ,zr,o #a4 ,tetragonal1 resembl+ ?orite 7q4v474 ,g #edb4 ,h #e4 ,black2 opaque4 ,bluffton1 ,llano ,co41 ,texas4 ,malacone4 ,an alt]$ ,zircon 7q4v471 ) ,e1 ,ca1 ,fe1 ,h,o1 etc4 ,zr,o #dg-fg4 ,tetragonal2 pseudomorph\s4 ,g #ci-da4 ,h #f4 ,br[n1 (t5 dull :ite int]nally4 ,hitt]1 ,norway2 ,haute ,loire1 ,france2 & 9 ,u4,s4,a4 ,mauzeliite4 ,v simil> to ,lewisite 7q4v471 ) ,pb4 ,ti,o #h4 ,cubic4 ,g #eaa4 ,h #e-f4 ,br[n2 transluc5t4 ,jakobsb]g1 ,sw$54 ,melanoc]ite4 ,v complex fluosilicate ( ,e & ,ca1 *iefly4 ,c] #dh2 ,yttr #ib2 ,th,o ,zr,o #b4 ,rhomboh$ral2 habit tabul>4 ,g #dac4 ,h #e-f4 ,deep br[n to black4 ,transp>5t4 ,langesund ,fiord1 ,norway4 ,microlite4 ,complex columbate ( ,ca1 ,e1 ,fe1 etc41 ) ,f & ,h,o4 ,e,o #h4 ,cubic2 habit octah$ral4 ,g #edh-eef4 ,h #e-e4 ,r$ to yell[4 ,/ockholm1 ,sw$52 ,isl& ( ,elba2 & 9 ,u4,s4,a4 ,mol5graafite4 ,titano-silicate ( ,ca1 ,na1 ,fe1 ,al1 ,mn1 etc4 ,ti,o #bh4 ,monocl9ic2 9 small prisms4 ,yell[4 ,high refraction & birefr+5ce4 ,pil&sb]g1 ,transvaal4 ,monazite4 ,phosphate ( ,e1 ) ,? & ,si,o4 ,c] #di-gd2 ,yttr #a-d2 ,th,o #a-bj4 ,monocl9ic4 ,g #di-ec4 ,h #e-e4 ,r$ to br[n & yell[2 transluc5t4 ,! ,c>ol9as2 ,idaho2 ,brazil2 ,sc&9avia1 etc4 ,mos&rite4 ,9 composition id5tical ) ,john/rupite 7q4v474 ,isom]ic ) ,john/rupite 7q4v474 ,g #bic-cjc4 ,h #d4 ,r$di% br[n2 transluc5t4 ,langesund ,fiord1 ,norway4 ,muromontite4 ,a v>iety ( ,allanite 7q4v471 ri* 9 yttria e>?s & ,be1 b poor 9 ,al & c]ia e>?s4 ,c] #ia2 ,yttr #cga4 ,see ,allanite4 ,g #dbfc4 ,h #g4 ,black to gre5i% black4 ,mau]sb]g1 ,erzgebirge1 ,saxony4 ,naegite4 ,a silicate ( ,zr1 ,zr,si,o1 ) ,e1 ,?1 ,u1 ,cb1 etc4 ,zr,o #eeb2 ,yttr #iab2 ,th,o #eja4 ,tetragonal2 9 globul> aggregates4 ,gr #djia4 ,h #g4 ,d>k gre5 or br[n2 dull4 ,gravel-t9 ( ,japan4 ,n>s>sukite4 ,na,fe,ti,si,o,f4 ,ti,o #ad4 ,tetragonal4 ,habit tabul>4 ,gr #bge4 ,h #g-g4 ,yell[ to r$di%-br[n2 pleo*roic4 ,pla9 ( ,n>s>suk1 ,gre5l&4 ,neptunite4 7,k1,na77,fe1,mg1,ca177,ti1,si7,o4 ,ti,o #ah4 ,monocl9ic4 ,habit prismatic4 ,g #cbc4 ,h #e4 ,black1 r$ 9 flakes4 ,transluc5t to opaque4 ,n>s>suk1 ,gre5l&4 ,niv5ite4 ,a v>iety ( ,cleveite 7q4v471 readily soluble 9 dilute acids4 ,cubic2 cry/allisation indi/9ct4 ,g #hja4 ,h #e4 ,velvet black2 opaque4 ,bluffton1 ,llano ,co41 ,texas4 ,nohlite4 ,a v>iety ( ,sam>skite 7q4v47 conta9+ wat] 7 #df74 ,massive1 )\t cleavage4 ,g #ejd4 ,h #d-e4 ,br[ni% black2 opaque4 ,nohl1 ne> ,kongelf1 ,sw$54 ,o]/$ite4 ,a v>iety ( ,zircon 7q4v471 poor 9 ,si,o4 ,zr,o #fi4 ,tetragonal2 angles exactly ^? ( ,zircon4 ,g #cfbi4 ,h #e4 ,r$di%-br[n2 adamant9e lu/re4 ,ar5dal1 ,norway4 ,orangite4 ,th,si,o1 usually ) ,fe1 ,ca1 ,h,o 9 traces4 ,th,o #gab-gch4 ,tetragonal4 ,habit prismatic4 ,g #eai-edj4 ,h #d-e4 ,orange yell[2 lu/r\s4 ,see "u ,?orite4 ,p>isite4 ,e,ca,f7,,co74 ,c] #ejh-fdd2 ,yttr #j-be4 ,hexagonal4 ,habit pyramidal4 ,g #dcf4 ,h #d4 ,yell[ to r$2 transp>5t4 ,muso ,valley1 ,columbia2 ,montana1 ,u4,s4,a42 ,gre5l&2 ,norway2 ! ,urals1 etc4 ,p]ovskite4 ,ca,ti,o1 ) traces ( ,fe4 ,ti,o #ehi4 ,pseudo-cubic8 ,optically biaxial4 ,g #djag4 ,h #e4 ,yell[2 transp>5t to opaque4 ,! ,urals2 ,switz]l&2 ,tyrol1 etc4 ,pilb>ite4 ,pb,o1,,uo1,th,o1#b,si,o1#b;,h#j #b;aq4 ,th,o #cac4 ,c] & ,yttr--traces4 ,amorph\s4 ,g #dd-dg4 ,h #b-c4 ,bright yell[2 opaque4 ,pilb>a goldfields1 ,we/ ,au/ralia4 ,pit*bl5de4 ,a mixture ( oxides1 *iefly ,,uo & ,,uo1 b )\t ,e,o or ,th,o4 ,amorph\s4 ,g #e-fe4 ,h #c-d4 ,black2 res9\s lu/re4 ,bohemia2 ,cornwall2 ,c>ol9a2 ,norway1 etc4 ,plumboniobite4 ,a v>iety ( ,sam>skite 7q4v47 conta9+ ,pb2 ,r,cb,o1 ,r7,cb,o71 :]e ,r ,fe1 ,pb1 ,ca1 ,,uo1 ,r ,e1 ,al4 ,yttr #adc4 ,massive1 isotropic4 ,g #dhj-dha4 ,h #e-e4 ,d>k br[n to black4 ,morogoro1 ,uluguru ,m\nta9s1 ,g]man ,e4 ,africa4 ,polycrase4 ,a titano-columbate ( ,e & ,u2 ,yttr #aie-cbe2 ,ti,o #be-cc4 ,c] & ,th,o traces4 ,isomorph\s ) ,eux5ite4 ,or?orhombic4 ,g #dj-dh4 ,h #f4 ,black2 vitre\s lu/re4 ,norway4 ,priorite4 ,dimorph\s ) ,eux5ite 7q4v474 ,or?orhombic2 isomorph\s ) ,blom/r&9e4 ,g #df-ej4 ,h #f4 ,black2 transp>5t 9 flakes4 ,swazil&1 ,s4 ,africa4 ,pseudobrookite4 ,fe7,ti,o71 f]ric or?otitanate4 ,ti,o #dd-ec4 ,or?orhombic4 ,g #dci-dih4 ,h #f4 ,d>k br[n to black4 ,norway2 ,france4 ,pyro*lore4 ,a columbate ( ,ca & ,e1 ) ,?1 ,fe1 ,ti1 ,f1 etc4 ,e,o #ah2 ,ti,o #e-ad4 ,cubic4 ,g #db-dcf4 ,h #e-e4 ,d>k br[n4 ,sc&9avia2 ! ,urals2 ,tasmania1 etc4 ,pyrophanite4 ,mn,ti,o1 ) traces ( ,si,o4 ,ti,o #ej-ec4 ,rhomboh$ral2 isomorph\s ) ,ilm5ite4 ,g #decg4 ,h #e4 ,deep blood-r$2 transluc5t2 lu/r\s4 ,pajsb]g1 ,sw$54 ,retzian4 ,hydrat$ ars5ate ( ,mn1 ,ca1 ,e4 ,c] ,yttr #h-aa4 ,or?orhombic1 usually 9 prisms4 ,g #dae4 ,h #d4 ,br[n2 pleo*roic2 transp>5t4 ,prov9ce ( ,nordm>k51 ,sw$54 ,rhabdophane 7,scovillite74 ,hydrat$ phosphate ( ,e1 ,al1 ,fe1 ,mg1 etc41 ) ,si,o4 ,c] #ech-eg2 ,yttr #ba-ajj4 ,massive4 ,g #cid-dja4 ,h #c4 ,br[n to yell[2 transluc5t4 ,cornwall2 ,scoville1 ,connecticut1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,rhnite4 7,na1,k1,h7,ca7,fe1,mg77,al1,fe77,si1,ti 7,o4 ,ti,o #ie4 ,anor?ic1 isomorph\s ) ,a5igmatite4 ,g #ce-dc4 ,br[n1 ) /rong pleo*roism4 ,rhn ,m\nta9s1 ,saxony4 ,r9kite4 ,a titanosilicate closely alli$ to ,mos&rite & ,john/rupite 7q4v47--,na,ca,ce7,ti1,?7,si,o8 ,c] #ba2 ,yttr #jd-ad2 ,ti,o #ac-ad4 ,monocl9ic1 v close to ,john/rupite4 ,g #cdf4 ,h #e4 ,yell[1 pleo*roic2 transluc5t4 ,kang]dlu>suk1 ,gre5l&4 ,risrite4 ,an yttria columbate1 ne> ,f]gusonite1 b ) no ,u & consid]able ,ti,o2 ,yttr #cg2 ,c] #bi-dj2 ,ti,o #fe4 ,no data yet det]m9$4 ,isotropic4 ,g #dagi4 ,h #e4 ,yell[i% br[n4 ,norway4 ,rog]site4 ,hydrat$ yttria columbate4 ,yttr #fjab4 ,a wea!r$ ,sam>skite8 ,amorph\s1 mamill>y4 ,g #ccac4 ,h #c4 ,:ite4 ,mit*ell ,co41 ,n4 ,c>ol9a4 ,ros5bus*ite4 ,titanosilicate ( ,ca1 ,zr1 ,na1 ,e1 ,fe1 ,mn1 ) ,f4 ,zr,o #ahg-bj2 ,c] #jc-bd4 ,monocl9ic1 9 sph]ical aggregates4 ,g #ccj-cca4 ,h #e-f4 ,orange-grey4 ,ne> ,brevik1 ,sw$54 ,r[l&ite4 ,silicate ( ,e1 ) ,?1 ,ti1 ,fe1 etc4--#b,y,o1 #c,si,o4 ,c] #add2 ,yttr #dgg2 ,th,o #jf4 ,massive4 ,g #deae4 ,h #f4 ,pale dull gre54 ,llano ,co41 ,texas4 ,rutile4 ,titanium dioxide2 ,ti,o #ih-ajj ,tetragonal2 habit prismatic4 ,g #dah-dbe4 ,h #f-f4 ,r$di%-br[n to black4 ,v widely 9 ,europe & ,am]ica4 ,sam>skite4 ,r,r7,cb1,ta7,o1 :]e ,r ,fe1 ,ca1 ,,uo2 ,r ,e4 ,c] #ab-fd2 ,yttr #dgb-bab2 ,th,o ,zr,o #g4 ,or?orhombic2 usually massive4 ,g #ef-eh4 ,h #e-f4 ,deep velvet black2 opaque4 ,miask2 ,urals2 ,mit*ell ,co41 ,n4 ,c>ol9a4 ,s*orlomite4 ,a titanif]\s ,g>net--#c;,ca,o17,fe1,ti7,o1#c7,si1,ti7 ,o4 ,ti,o #abe-bb4 ,cubic2 usually massive4 ,g #cha-chh4 ,h #g-g4 ,black2 transp>5t 9 flakes4 ,magnet ,cove1 ,arkansas4 ,s5aite4 7,fe1,mn1,pb7,o1,ti,o1 cf4 ,ilm5ite4 ,ti,o #di-eb4 ,rhomboh$ral2 isomorph\s ) ,ilm5ite1 ,geikielite1 etc4 ,g #ec 7to #db :5 wea!r$74 ,h #f4 ,black4 ,diamant9a1 ,m9as ,g]aes1 ,brazil4 ,sipylite4 ,columbate ( ,e1 ,zr1 ,fe1 ,u1 ,sn1 etc42 ne> ,f]gusonite 7q4v474 ,cubic1 9 octah$ra4 ,usually granul>4 ,g #dhi4 ,h #f4 ,br[ni%-black2 transluc5t4 ,amhur/ ,co41 ,virg9ia4 ,/e5/rup9e4 ,a silicate ( ,e1 ,fe1 ,na1 ,?1 ,mn1 ,al1 ,ti1 ,h,o1 etc42 ne> ,melanoc]ite4 ,c] #add-cbe2 ,yttr #j-aei2 ,th,o #ba-ga4 ,rhomboh$ral4 ,g #cch4 ,h #d4 ,br[n2 faces dull4 ,kang]dlu>suk1 ,gre5l&4 ,/rv]ite4 ,fe,o17,nb1,ta7,o1#d,ti,o4 ,ti,o #fi-ga4 ,tetragonal2 angles v close to ^? ( rutile4 ,g #ej4 ,h #f-g4 ,black2 opaque4 ,craveggia1 ,pi$mont1 ,italy2 & 9 ,madagasc>4 ,ta*yaphaltite4 ,an alt]$ zircon1 conta9+ ,h,o4 ,zr,o #dj-ej4 ,tetragonal2 v close to ,zircon4 ,g #cf4 ,h #e4 ,d>k br[n4 ,krag]1 ,norway4 ,t5g]ite4 ,hydrat$ c>bonate ( ,e1 ,be1 ,ca1 etc42 a wea!r$ ,gadol9ite 7q4v474 ,e,o #cib-dgh4 ,amorph\s4 ,:ite2 opaque2 v s(t4 ,llano ,co41 ,texas4 ,?al5ite4 ,h,e,si,o1 ) traces ( ,fe & ,al4 ,yttr #ehf-fci4 ,monocl9ic4 ,g #dbc4 ,h #f4 ,bright r$ & yell[1 /]by1 ,sw$54 ,?orianite4 ,mix$ ,th,o ,,uo1 ) ,e1 ,pb1 ,zr1 ,si1 ,fe1 etc4 ,th,o #gb-gi2 ,c] #a-h4 ,rhomboh$ral2 pseudocubic4 ,g #hj-ig4 ,h #g4 ,jet black2 bright res9\s lu/re4 ,gem-gravels ( ,ceylon4 ,?orite4 ,th,si,o1 ) ,h,o1 ,u1 ,fe1 ,e1 ,ca1 ,al1 etc4 ,th,o #dad-egi2 ,e,o #j-f4 ,tetragonal2 habit prismatic4 ,g #dd-dh2 ,h #d-e4 ,br[n to black4 ,v>i\s localities 9 ,sc&9avia4 ,?orogummite4 ,,uo1#c,th,o1#c,si,o1#f;,h,o8 ,an alt]$ ,mack9to%ite 7q4v478 ,th,o #dad2 ,e,o #fg4 ,usually massive2 sometimes 9 cry/als resembl+ ,zircon4 ,g #ddc-ded4 ,h #d-d4 ,dull br[n2 opaque4 ,llano ,co41 ,texas4 ,?ortveitite4 ,e,o1#b,si,o1 ) ,fe1 ,al1 ,mn traces2 ,e *iefly ,sc4 ,yttr #ede4 ,or?orhombic1 9 radial aggregates4 ,g #cega4 ,h #f-g4 ,greyi% gre52 transluc5t4 ,ivel&1 ,st]sdal51 ,norway4 ,titanite 7,sph5e1 ,gro?ite74 ,ca,si,ti,o1 ) ,fe1 ,mn4 ,ti,o #cd-de 7usually #da74 ,monocl9ic2 w$ge-%ap$4 ,g #cdj-cef4 ,h #e-e4 ,yell[1 gre51 or br[n2 pleo*roism /rong2 lu/re res9\s4 ,widely di/ribut$ 9 ,europe & ,n4 ,am]ica4 ,titanium ,oliv9e4 7,h1,fe1,mg77,si1,ti7,o2 ,mn & ,f 9 traces4 ,ti,o #c-ab4 ,or?orhombic4 ,g #cbe-cbg4 ,h #f-g4 ,deep r$ to yell[2 pleo*roic4 ,pfund]s1 ,tyrol2 ,z]matt1 ,switz]l&4 ,tritomite4 ,a fluo-borosilicate ( ,e1 ,?1 ,ca1 ) ,zr1 ,na1 ,h,o1 etc4 ,c] #ddb-eib2 ,yttr #jd-df2 ,th,o ,zr,o #j-ajf4 ,rhomboh$ral2 9 cry/als resembl+ regul> tetrah$ra4 ,g #dae-dbe4 ,h #e4 ,d>k br[n2 transp>5t to opaque4 ,langesund ,fiord1 ,norway4 ,ts*effk9ite4 ,titano-silicate ( ,e1 ,?1 ,fe1 ,ca1 etc4 ,c] #bc-dg2 ,yttr #j-cd2 ,th,o ,zr,o #j-bj2 ,ti,o #af-ba4 ,massive1 amorph\s4 ,g #dbf-dee4 ,h #e-e4 ,velvet black4 ,ilm5 ,m\nta9s2 ,nelson ,co4 & ,b$=d ,co41 ,virg9ia1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,tysonite4 ,fluoride ( ,e1 ) ,?1 ,h,o1 ,,co1 etc4 ,c] #fib-gjf2 ,th,o #j-ca4 ,hexagonal2 9 ?ick prisms4 ,g #fab-fad4 ,h #d-e4 ,wax yell[2 transp>5t to transluc5t4 ,fahlun & /]by1 ,sw$52 ,pike's ,peak1 ,colorado4 ,uhligite4 ,titanate ( ,zr1 ,ca1 ,al2 ,ca7,zr1,ti7,o ,al7,ti1,al7,o8 ,ti,o #dh2 ,zr,o #bb4 ,cubic2 ne> to ,p]ovskite 7q4v474 ,h #e-f4 ,black4 ,transp>5t 9 flakes4 ,lake ,magad1 ,e4 ,africa4 ,uran9ite4 ,oxides ( ,u 7#fj-ge71 ) ,pb,o1 ,th,o1 ,zr,o1 ,e,o1 ,fe,o1 etc4 ,c]4 #j-bg2 ,yttr #j-ajb2 ,th,o #af-aaa2 ,zr,o #j-ha4 ,cubic1 usually massive2 alt]s to amorph\s pit*bl5de4 ,g #fd 7massive72 #ig 7cry/all9e74 ,h #e4 ,black2 transp>5t 9 spl9t]s4 ,norway2 ,bohemia2 ,saxony2 ,cornwall2 ,c>ol9a1 etc4 ,viet+h(ite4 ,a hydrat$ f]rug9\s sam>skite 7q4v474 ,e,o #hb2 ,zr,o #aj4 ,amorph\s4 ,g #eec4 ,h #e-f4 ,dull black2 opaque4 ,lake ,baikal1 ,sib]ia4 ,w>wickite4 #f,mg,o1,fe,o1#b,ti,o1#c;,b,o8 ,ti,o #bce4 ,or?orhombic2 habit prismatic1 elongat$4 ,g #cce-ccf4 ,h #c-d4 ,d>k br[n to black2 pleo*roic4 ,d\ble refraction /rong1 ve4 ,ed5ville1 ,new ,york ,/ate4 ,weibyite4 ,c>bonate ( ,e1 ) ,ca1 ,sr1 ,f1 & ,h,o2 alli$ to ,ba/nsite 7q4v474 ,c] #ffif8 ,or?orhombic2 9 pyramids resembl+ ^? ( ,zircon4 ,cry/als are small1 & cov]$ ) a ?9 yell[ cru/2 !y are int]gr[n ) ,p>isite 7q4v47 ,langesund ,fiord1 ,norway4 ,wiikite4 ,titano-tantalo-silicate ( ,zr1 ,?1 ,e1 ,fe1 ,u1 ) ,cb,o1 ,h,o1 etc4 ,c] #be2 ,yttr #gf2 ,sc,o #ab2 ,th,o #ee2 ,zr,o ,ti,o #bcd4 ,p]fectly amorph\s4 ,g #dhe4 ,h #f4 ,black2 opaque2 infusible4 ,impilaks1 ,lake ,ladoga1 ,f9l&4 ,whl]ite4 ,silicate & columbate ( ,ca1 ,zr1 ,na2 ,si,zr,cb,o,f,ca,na8 ,zr,o #aeb-bbg4 ,c]1 traces4 ,monocl9ic2 prismatic or tabul> habit4 ,g #cda-cdd4 ,h #e-f4 ,light yell[2 pleo*roic4 ,langesund ,fiord4 ,x5otime4 ,phosphate ( ,e1 ) ,th,o1 ,si,o1 ,zr1 etc4 ,c] #j-aa2 ,yttr #eda-fdg2 ,th,o #a-e4 ,tetragonal2 isomorph\s ) ,zircon8 ,g #dde-def4 ,h #d-e4 ,br[n to yell[2 opaque4 ,diamond s&s ( ,brazil2 ,norway4 ,yttrialite 7,gre5 ,gadol9ite74 ,a wea!r$ gadol9ite 7q4v47--,e,o1#b,si,o4 ,c] #ff-hb2 ,yttr #dcd-dfe2 ,th,o #ajh-abh4 ,amorph\s1 massive4 ,g #df4 ,h #e4 ,gre5 to br[n2 transluc5t4 ,bluffton1 ,llano ,co41 ,texas4 ,yttroc]ite4 ,ca,e,f1 #a;,h,o4 ,c] #ic-ahb2 ,yttr #ha-bid4 ,massive1 granul>4 ,g #cde4 ,h #d4 ,:ite to violet blue or br[n4 ,v>i\s localities 9 ,sc&9avia4 ,yttrocrasite4 7,ca1,pb7,o17,?1,u7,o1#c;,e,o1#af,ti,o1# f;,h,o4 ,yttr #beg2 ,c] #bi2 ,th,o #hg2 ,ti,o #dig4 ,or?orhombic2 axial ratios unkn[n4 ,g #dhj4 ,h #e-f4 ,black2 lu/r\s4 ,burnet ,co4 ,texas4 ,yttr(luorite4 n,ca,f m,,yf 9 isomorph\s mixture8 ,yttr #bj-be2 ,c] #a-b4 ,cubic4 ,g #ced-cef4 ,h #d4 ,closely resembles fluorsp>1 except 9 badness ( cleavage4 ,nor!rn ,norway4 ,yttrog>net4 ,a v>iety ( g>net ) ,e & ,zr4 ,yttr #a-fg2 ,zr,o #j-c4 ,cubic 7cf4 ,g>net74 ,d>k r$di% br[n 7cf4 ,g>net74 ,/ock1 ,norway2 ,s*reib]hau1 ,g]many4 ,yttrogummite4 ,,uo1 #c,th,o1 #c,si,o1 #f;,h,o8 ,e,o #fg2 ,th,o #dad4 ,tetragonal2 angles ne> ,zircon4 ,usually massive4 ,g #ddc-ded4 ,h #d-d4 ,yell[i% br[n4 ,llano ,co41 ,texas4 ,yttrotantalite4 ,r,r7,cb1,ta7,o #d;,h,o2 ,r ,fe1 ,ca2 ,r ,e2 ,c] #j-bd2 ,yttr #agb-chc4 ,or?orhombic2 isomorph\s ) ,sam>skite 7q4v474 ,g #ee-eh4 ,h #e-f4 ,yell[ to black4 ,ytt]by1 ,sw$52 ,s\? ,norway4 ,zircon4 ,zr,si,o1 ) ,fe1 ,?1 etc41 9 traces4 ,zr,o #faj-gjj4 ,tetragonal2 habit prismatic4 ,g #dfh-dgj4 v>y+ consid]ably4 ,h #g4 ,col\r v v>iable4 ,widely di/ribut$ z a rock m9]al1 9 s&s1 etc4 ,zirkelite4 7,ca1,fe77,zr1,ti1,?7,o1 ) ,e1 ,u1 ,mg1 etc4 ,zr,o #dhi-ebi2 ,th,o #j-gc2 ,ti,o #ad-ae2 ,e,o #j-c4 ,cubic2 9 tw9n$ octah$ra4 ,g #dg4 ,h #e4 ,black2 transp>5t 9 ?9 flakes4 ,jacupiranga1 ,so ,paulo1 ,brazil4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,silicates 7a7 ,,silicates ,,( ,,! ,,yttrium ,,& ,,c]ium ,,metals ,c]ite4--,c]ite is a silicate ( ! c]ium metals1 ) small am\nts ( lime1 f]r\s oxide & wat]4 ,h9tze gives ! =mula ,h7,ca1,fe7,ce,si,o1#ae :i* ,gro? int]prets z a basic metasilicate 7,ca1,fe7,ce,o,ce7,,oh77,si,o71 i4e4 a basic salt ( ! acid ,h,si,o1 a polym] ( metasilicic acid1 ,h,si,o4 #ae ,! symbol 7,ca1,fe7 "h indicates t ! iron & calcium occur 9 v>iable proportions1 ! v>iation h[ev] occurr+ 9 su* a way t ! equival5t ( ! two tak5 toge!r is always ! same1 i4e4 ! iron c replace ! calcium1 or vice v]sa1 atom by atom4 ,! recognition ( ?is possibility ( #8,vic>i\s ,replacem5t' betwe5 simil> elem5ts fir/ br\ght ord] into ! confus$ field ( m9]al *emi/ry1 & all[$ a sy/ematic classification ( m9]als accord+ to *emical composition to be made4 ,iron & calcium1 or1 accord+ to ! m conv5i5t nom5clature ( ! m9]alogi/s1 lime & f]r\s oxide1 are "h vic>i\s con/itu5ts4 ,! symbol ,ce "h /&s = elem5ts ( ! c]ium gr\p1 :i* are nev] f\nd s+ly4 ,cry/als are n v common1 ! m9]al usually occurr+ granul> or massive4 ,cry/als1 or?orhombic1 holosymmetric2 a 3 b 3 c #jiihh 3 #a 3 #jhabg4 ,usual =ms--! ,p9akoids a1 b1 & c #ajj1 #jaj & #jja1 prisms m #aaj & q #acj1 domes u #aja1 t #cja & n #jaa1 & "s pyramids hkl4 ,angles1 a m #dd #eh1 u c #ci #h1 n c #ci #f4 ,! cry/als usually occur z %ort prisms4 ,no cleavage4 ,optical con/ants unkn[n4 ,9 flakes ! absorption spectrum ( didymium c be obs]v$4 ,! m9]al is brittle2 h>dness #e to #f on ,mohs' scale2 sp4 gr4 v>ies a little ab\t #di4 ,fracture spl9t]y2 lu/re dull1 res9\s4 ,col\r br[n to r$ & greyi%-r$1 /reak greyi%-:ite4 ,! m9]al is almo/ opaque4 ,c]ite is infusible be=e ! bl[pipe4 ,x is attack$ readily by sulphuric acid1 less easily by hydro*loric acid1 ) :i* x gives a gelat9\s mass4 ,rammelsb]g#af f\nd t ! silica left beh9d on treatm5t ( ! p[d]$ granul> v>iety ) ! latt] acid conta9$ a v>iable proportion ( bases1 :i* he obta9$ & e/imat$ aft] fus+ ! silice\s residue ) sodium c>bonate4 ,f ! diff]5t proportions ( ! e>?s 9 ! "p attack$ by ! acid & t left 9 ! silica1 he rem>ks1 #8,x w\ld almo/ appe> t ,c]ite is a mixture ( silicates :i* are n all attack$ ) ! same ease by hydro*loric acid4' ,app>5tly )\t previ\s k ( ?is obs]vation1 ,welsba*#ag notic$ ! same ?+ 9 #ahhd4 ,he conclud$ t ord9>y granul> #8c]ite' is a mixture ( sev]al m9]als1 among :i* !re are at lea/ two :i* conta9 r>e e>?s4 ,( ^!1 "o1 ! *ief con/itu5t ( ! aggregate1 is probably id5tical ) ! cry/allis$ m9]al1 & is *>act]is$ by ! read9ess & complet5ess ) :i* x is attack$ by hydro*loric acid4 ,! o!r does n react1 ) hydro*loric1 b is readily attack$ by sulphuric acid2 x conta9s yttria e>?s1 9 addition to ! c]ia e>?s4 ,9 ! extraction ( c]ia e>?s f ! m9]al aggregate1 ,welsba* us$ hydro*loric acid1 s leav+ ?is second m9]al un*ang$2 b to avoid loss ( ! r>e e>?s1 sulphuric acid is m commonly employ$ = ! decomposition4 #af ,pogg4 ,ann41 #ahei1 #ajg1 #fca4 #ag ,monats41 #ahhd1 #e1 #eab4 ,?\gh ( great hi/orical int]e/1 c]ite is ( v small importance = ! extraction ( r>e e>?s at ! pres5t "t1 on acc\nt ( its v r>e occurr5ce4 ,! m9]al seems to be almo/ entirely conf9$ to ! ,ba/ns qu>ry ne> ,rydd>hyttan1 ,sw$51 :]e x is f\nd ) ! r>e e>? silicate allanite 7q4v471 biotite1 hornbl5de1 bismu? glance1 *alcopyrite1 etc4 ,"h x 0 obs]v$ 9 #agea by ,cron/$t1 :o call$ x ,tung/5 7vide supra1 p4 #a74 ,9 #agha ,s*eele exam9$ a specim5 ( ,wall]ius's #8,t5n-spat' f ,bipsb]g1 ,dalec>lia1 & f\nd ,tung/ic ,oxide 7,acid71 ,,wo1 9 x4#ah ,aft] ,s*eele's "w1 ! ,rydd>hyttan m9]al 0 kn[n z ,r$ ,tung/51 until ,b]gmann 7#aghj7 & d',elhuy> 7#aghd7 %[$ t ! two m9]als 7 *emically di/9ct4 ,!y consid]$ ! r$ v>iety to be a silicate ( iron & calcium1 ! r>e e>?s be+ mi/ak5 = lime4 ,9 #ahjd ,klapro? exam9$ x1 & f\nd a new e>?2 he call$ ! m9]al #8,o*roite1' f its col\r4 ,9 ! same ye>1 b indep5d5tly ( ,klapro?1 ,b]zelius & ,his+] made ! same discov]y2 !y call$ ! m9]al ,c]ite & ! new metal ,c]ium1 9 hon\r ( ! discov]y ( ! m9or planet ,c]es by ,piazzi 9 #ahja4 #ah ,?is m9]al1 :i* ,s*eele knew z ,tung/e91 is n[ call$ ,s*eelite4 ,! analyses ( c]ite made 9 ! e>li] "p ( ! n9ete5? c5tury result$ 9 "s confusion4 ,klapro? 9 #ahjg f\nd #cde p] c5t4 ,si,o 9 a specim5 78 ,o*roite72 ,vauquel9 9 #ahje1 & ,his+] 9 #ahaj1 f\nd #agj & #ahj p] c5t4 respectively4#ai ,h]mann#bj call$ att5tion to ?is discrepancy 9 #ahdc 7& aga9 9 #ahfa71 & decl>$ t ! two c\ld n be ! same4 ,= ,klapro?'s m9]al he propos$ to revive ! "n ,o*roite1 :il/ f 8 own analyses he propos$ = ! c]ite ( ,b]zelius ! "n ,lan?anoc]ite1 hav+ f\nd c>bon dioxide & lan?anum1 ) mu* less c]ium1 9 ! latt]4#ba ,9 #ahfa ,k5ngott p>tly expla9$ ^! results by %[+ t ! sample ( c]ite :i* ,h]mann _h analys$ conta9$ ,lan?anite#bb2 b ! extraord9>ily high p]c5tage ( silica obta9$ by ,klapro? rema9$ unexpla9$4 ,x may h be5 due to impurities ( high silica cont5t 9 ! specim5 he exam9$4 #ai ,vide ,h9tze1 ,h&bu* d] ,m9]alogie1 ,leipzig1 #ahig1 ii41 #acbi4 #bj ,h]mann1 ,j4 pr4 ,*em4 #ahdc1 #cj1 #aid1 & #ahfa1 #hb1 #djf4 #ba ,! ann\ncem5t ( ! discov]y ( ,lan?anum by ,mos&] 0 made 9 #ahci4 #bb ,lan?anite 7see li/7 is an hydrat$ c>bonate1 ,r,o1#c;,,co1#i;,h,o1 :]e ,r c]ium metals1 *iefly ,lan?anum4 ,c]ite conta9s f #eid to #gah p] c5t4 ( r>e e>?s 7oxides71 ! am\nt & nature ( :i* v>y ) ! precise locality4 ,! oxides consi/ *iefly ( c]ia1 lan?ana1 & didymia 7praseodymia & neodymia71 ! complexity ( ! s-call$ c]ia hav+ be5 %[n by ,mos&] 9 ! case ( c]ia sep>at$ f gadol9ite z well z f c]ite2 b yttria e>?s are also f\nd to a small ext5t 9 ! m9]al4 ,x is rem>kable t nei!r ?orium nor uranium has be5 f\nd 9 c]ite1 :i* is ?us practically unique among ! r>e e>? m9]als4 ,?is anomaly becomes ev5 m m>k$ 9 view ( ! v high p]c5tage ( in]t gases f\nd by ,ts*]nik#bc 9 a relat$ m9]al f ,bat\m4 ,?is is a v complex m9]al 9 :i* ! basic "p is repres5t$ by r>e e>?s1 *iefly c]ia e>?s 7#ejh p] c5t47 ) wat] 7#cd p] c5t471 & oxides ( iron1 calcium & copp] 7#fh p] c5t472 ! acidic oxides be+ silica 7#ff p] c5t471 zirconia 7#aaf p] c5t471 & titanium dioxide 7#adg p] c5t471 ) phosphorus p5toxide 7#cb p] c5t471 & sulphuric anhydride 7#ag p] c5t474 ,traces ( ?oria are pres5t1 b no uranium2 v consid]able quantities 7up to #a p] c5t487 ( helium 7 f\nd4 #bc ,g4 ,ts*]nik1 ,j4 ,russ4 ,phys4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #ahif1 #bh1 #cde2 #ahig1 #bi1 #bia4 ,ab/racts 9 ,zeits*4 ,kry/4 ,m94 #ahii1 #ca1 #eac & #ead4 ,x is some:at heavi] ?an c]ite 7sp4 gr4 #ejh71 b o!rwise resembles x closely4 ,gadol9ite 7,ytt]bite74--,gadol9ite is a silicate ( iron1 b]yllium1 & ! yttria e>?s1 ( ! =mula #b;,be,o1,fe,o1,y,o1#b,si,o1 :i* may be writt5 ,fe,be,y,si,o4 ,accord+ to ,gro?1 x is a basic or?osilicate1 ,be,fe7,,yo77,si,o71 d]iv$ f ! acid ,h,si,o4 ,! b]yllium cont5t v>ies consid]ably1 & "s au?ors recognise two v>ieties ( ! m9]al1 "o ri*1 & "o poor 9 b]yllium2 b ,s*e]] po9t$ out 9 #ahdj t iron & b]yllium are probably vic>i\s con/itu5ts4 ,analysis gives silica #bah to #bec p] c5t42 yttria e>?s #bb to #dg p] c5t42 c]ia e>?s #e to #ca p] c5t4 ,9 a v>iety f ,ytt]by1 ! r>e e>? ,sc&ia 0 fir/ f\nd1 =m+ up to #jjb p] c5t4 ( ! m9]al4 ,small quantities ( ?oria1 ,th,o may be pres5t1 & traces ( helium 7 f\nd by ,ramsay1 ,collie1 & ,trav]s4 ,accord+ to ,/rutt x conta9s also uranium & radium4 ,l c]ite1 x does n (t5 occur cry/all9e1 be+ usually f\nd 9 amorph\s masses4 ,! cry/als are monocl9ic2 a 3 b 3 c #jfbgc 3 #a 3 #acbae2 #hi #bf4 ,common =ms are--,or?o-1 cl9o-1 & basal p9akoids1 a #ajj1 b #jaj1 & c #jja1 hemi-prisms m #aaj1 v #abj1 cl9o-prisms w #jab1 q #jaa1 & _m o!rs2 & v>i\s hemi-pyramids hkl & hkl4 ,angles a m #cb #f1 c q #eb #ec1 c 7#aja7 #fd #i4 ,cry/als commonly prismatic1 t]m9at$ by c4 ,faces r\gh & co>se2 lu/re vitre\s to greasy1 se5 only on fre%ly-brok5 surfaces4 ,brittle4 ,no cleavage4 ,fracture con*oidal to spl9t]y4 ,h>dness #f-g2 sp4 gr4 #dj-de4 ,col\r black1 gre5i%- & br[ni%-black2 gre5 & transp>5t 9 flakes4 ,! cry/all9e v>iety has /rong positive birefr+5ce1 ) ! plane ( ! optic axes p>allel to 7b71 ! plane ( symmetry2 ! amorph\s v>iety is ( c\rse isotropic4 ,! br[n v>iety %[s v di/9ct pleo*roism1 i4e4 ! col\r z se5 by transmitt$ light v>ies ) ! direction 9 :i* ! light trav]ses ! cry/al2 ! gre5 k9ds h mu* weak] pleo*roism4 ,gadol9ite is ( common occurr5ce 9 ! pegmatite ve9s ( ! ,sc&9avian granite4 ,x 0 fir/ f\nd 9 a felsp> qu>ry on ! isl& ( ,ytt]by1 ne> ,/ockholm1 by a ,lieut5ant ,arrh5ius#bd2 x is also f\nd1 toge!r ) a l>ge numb] ( o!r r>e e>? m9]als1 at ,fahlun4 ,x occurs 9 ,norway on ! isl&s ( ,hitt] & ,mal1 & 9 ,g]many 9 ! ,ries5gebirge & ! ,h>z4 ,probably ! l>ge/ deposit is t 9 ,texas1 at ,b>r+] ,hill1 ne> ,bluffton1 on ! we/ bank ( ! ,colorado ,riv]1 ,llano ,c\nty1 n[ own$ & work$ by ! ,n]n/ ,light ,company ( ,pittsburg2 9 #aijd a mass ( v pure gadol9ite weigh+ #bjj lb4 0 f\nd "h4#be #bd ,vide ,geij]1 ,crell's ,*emis*e ,annal51 #aghh1 #a1 #bbi4 #be ,see ,u4,s4 ,geol4 ,survey 7,m9]als71 #aijd1 #abac4 ,9 ! same place a decomposition product ( gadol9ite 0 discov]$ by ,hidd5 & ,mack9to% 9 #ahhi4 ,!y nam$ x ,yttrialite or ,gre5 ,gadol9ite4 ,x conta9s no b]yllium1 & twice z mu* silica z ! p>5t m9]al1 & approximates to ! =mula ,r,o1#b,si,o1 :]e ,r,o is *iefly yttria oxides2 x is ?us simil> 9 composition to ! newly f\nd sc&ium silicate1 ,?ortveitite 7q4v474 ,x is amorph\s & massive2 & is (t5 f\nd 9 cont9u\s gr[? ) gadol9ite4 ,pieces up to #aj lb4 9 weight h be5 obta9$4 ,z /at$ above1 ,gadol9ite 0 discov]$ by ,arrh5ius 9 #aghh4 ,geij] exam9$ x 9 ! same ye>1 & describ$ x z a black zeolite4 ,9 #agid x 0 analys$ by ,gadol91 :o decl>$ x to be a silicate ( iron1 alum9ium1 & a new elem5t :i* he call$ ,ytt]bium4 ,9 #agig ,ekeb]g exam9$ x1 & confirm$ ! discov]y4 ,he propos$ ! "n ,gadol9ite = ! m9]al1 & ,yttria = ! new e>?2 ^! names 7 accept$ by ,klapro?1 :o exam9$ x ) ,vauquel9 9 #ahjj1 & by ! ,fr5* cry/allograph] ,hay4 ,9 #ahjb ,ekeb]g %[$ t ! oxide orig9ally tak5 = alum9a 0 9 reality b]yllia2 9 #ahaf ,b]zelius %[$ t c]ia 0 pres5t ) ! yttria4#bf ,ab\t #ahch ,mos&] began 8 classical "w on ! e>?s 9 gadol9ite4 ,9 t ye> he ann\nc$ ! sep>ation ( ,lan?ana1#bg & 9 #ahdb t ( ,didymia1 :i* he _h actually discov]$ eighte5 mon?s e>li]4 ,9 ! latt] ye> he ann\nc$#bh ! sep>ation ( erbia & t]bia4 ,9 #ahdb also ,s*e]]#bi decl>$ t ! yttria f gadol9ite 0 a mixture ( e>?s1 f its diff]5t behavi\r on heat+ 9 clos$ & op5 vessels2 b :5 ,mos&] ann\nc$ ! discov]y ( didymia 7! ann\ncem5t appe>s to h be5 ha/5$ inde$ by ,s*e]]'s obs]vation7 x 0 agre$ t ! col\ration obs]v$ 0 probably due to t e>?4 ,! fur!r hi/ory ( ^! e>?s mu/ be cont9u$ else:]e 7vide p4 #aaa74 #bf ,s*weigg4 ,j41 #ahaf1 #af1 #dje4 #bg ,b]zelius 7a lett] to ,pel\ze71 ,pogg4 ,ann41 #ahci1 #df1 #fdh4 #bh ,b]z4 ,jahres41 #bc1 #ade2 #bd1 #aje4 #bi ,pogg4 ,ann41 #ahdb1 #ef1 #dhc4 ,! behavi\r ( gadol9ite on heat+ is ( great int]e/4 ,:5 heat$ uni=mly1 9 clos$ or op5 vessels1 ! m9]al sudd5ly gl[s v /rongly at a def9ite temp]ature 7accord+ to ,h(mann & ,z]ban#cj at #dcj;,c471 ) consid]able alt]ation 9 prop]ties4 ,! amorph\s v>iety exhibits ! ph5om5on mu* m m>k$ly ?an ! cry/all9e =m4 ,! *ange 9 ! two cases is entirely di/9ct1 ! only effect 9 common be+ t bo? v>ieties are r5d]$ insoluble 9 acids aft] ! gl[+4 ,! amorph\s v>iety1 9 ! act ( gl[+1 *anges to ! cry/all9e =m4 #cj ,b]41 #aijc1 #cf1 #cjie4 ,?is ph5om5on ( phosphoresc5ce1 or gl[+1 on heat+1 ) a *ange 9 prop]ties1 0 fir/ obs]v$ by ,b]zelius 9 #ahaf4 ,he f\nd t ! oxides ( _m metals1 e4g4 *romium1 tantalum1 & rhodium1 became d5s] & insoluble 9 acids aft] be+ heat$4 ,lat] 9 ! same ye> he obs]v$ ! gl[+1 ) a simil> *ange 9 prop]ties1 9 ! case ( a gadol9ite f ,fahlun4#ca ,app>5tly )\t k ( ?is obs]vation1 ,wolla/on publi%$ a simil> acc\nt ( ! gl[+ ( a gadol9ite 9 #ahbe4 ,9 #ahdj ,s*e]] not$ an almo/ id5tical *ange 9 ! case ( ! m9]al allanite 7q4v474 ,s*e]] made a c>eful /udy ( ! ph5om5a 9 ! cases ( allanite & gadol9ite4#cb ,9 ea* case he f\nd t ! v>iety ( l[] specific gravity %[$1 on heat+1 a v /rong phosphoresc5ce1 accompani$ by *ange ( col\r & optical prop]ties1 & a m>k$ increase ( specific gravity4 ,gadol9ite suff]$ no appreciable loss ( weight1 b allanite _h lo/ a little wat] aft] ! *ange4 ,c>eful measurem5t ( ! specific gravity be=e & aft] ! *ange %[$1 9 ! case ( two v>ieties ( gadol9ite & "o ( allanite1 t ! volume _h decreas$ 9 ! ratio #a 3 #jid4 ,s*e]] assum$ t ?is ratio 0 con/ant = all su* cases1 & advanc$ a g5]al explanation4 ,we "k n[ t num]\s cases ( simil> ph5om5a occur1 9 :i* ! *ange ( volume is q diff]5t2 b ,s*e]]'s explanation is s +5i\s1 & s =e%ad[s "s mod]n !ories1 t x is giv5 "h 9 full4 #ca ,s*weigg4 ,j41 #ahaf1 #af1 #dje4 #cb ,pogg4 ,ann41 #ahdj1 #ea1 #dic4 ,he ascribes ! alt]ation to #8int]atomic *ange1 involv+ *ange ( relative position ( atoms & decrease ( int]atomic di/ances4' 7,s*e]] & ! *emi/s ( t p]iod und]/ood by atoms ! ultimate p>ticles ( a body1 mak+ no di/9ction betwe5 elem5ts & comp\nds2 9 ?is case he meant by atoms :at we mean by molecules1 & ! ^w #8molecule' has !re=e be5 sub/itut$ = #8atom' 9 :at foll[s47 ,! *ange is simply "o ( clos] pack+ ( ! molecules1 :i* take up a m /able position ) lib]ation ( en]gy z heat & light4 ,he imag9es 8 molecules z uni=m sph]es arrang$ 9 horizontal lay]s1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #a4 ,9 plac+ "o lay] v]tically ov] ano!r !re are ?ree possible arrangem5ts1 ( :i* only two conc]n u4 ,9 ! arrangem5t = close/ pack+1 ,b1 say1 a molecule ( any "o lay] t\*es ?ree molecules 9 ea* ( ! lay]s above & bel[1 :i* ) ! six x t\*es 9 its own lay] make twelve altoge!r4 ,9 ! next close/ arrangem5t1 ,a1 say1 a molecule ( any "o lay] t\*es only two molecules 9 ea* ( ! lay]s above & bel[ x1 s t "o molecule is 9 contact ) t5 o!rs altoge!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a ,n[ x c be %[n t ! volumes ( equal numb]s ( molecules 9 ! arrangem5ts ,a & ,b w be to "o ano!r z ! height1 ,h1 ( an equilat]al triangle1 to ! height1 h1 ( a regul> tetrah$ron ^: edges are equal to ! sides ( ! triangle1 a l5g? ,r 7:i* w be equal to ! diamet] ( a molecule74 ,!n ,h ,r#c1 h ,r4 ,!n vol4 9 arrangem5t ,a 3 vol4 9 arr4 ,b ,h 3 h i4e4 #c_/b 3 #a 3 #jidc4 ,t is1 ! volume *anges 9 ! ratio #a to #jidc1 ! amorph\s v>iety ( gadol9ite consi/+ ( molecules 9 arrangem5t ,a1 :i* g ov] to ! clos] pack$ arrangem5t ,b 9 ! *ange to ! cry/all9e =m4 ,m ext5d$ "w has %[n t ?is +5i\s & int]e/+ explanation is n ( g5]al application4 ,?us ,h4 ,rose#cc f\nd t sam>skite 7q4v47 exhibit$ ! ph5om5on ( gl[+1 b t ! specific gravity 0 actually less aft] ! *ange ?an x 0 be=e1 i4e4 !re 0 an increase ( volume4 ,dam\r obs]v$ gl[+ 9 ! case ( zircon f ,ceylon 7q4v47 ) increase ( d5sity1 ! volume *ange be+ f #a to #jibb1 i4e4 ev5 great] ?an = gadol9ite4 ,aga91 ,haus]#cd obs]v$ 9 ! case ( 8 new r>e e>? m9]al risrite a sudd5 *ange at a r$ heat1 ! m9]al los+ wat]1 becom+ v brittle1 & increas+ v consid]ably 9 specific gravity 7! volume *ang+ f #a to #jij approximately71 b )\t gl[+4 ,ramsay & ,trav]s#ce f\nd t f]gusonite 7q4v47 gl[$ /rongly :5 heat$ to #ejj-fjj1 ) decrease ( specific gravity 7#efb be=e to #ecg aft]71 evolution ( all its helium1 & v consid]able evolution ( heat2 !y sugge/$ t helium 0 pres5t 9 comb9ation1 9 an endo!rmic comp\nd decompos$ by heat1 b 9 view ( ! prop]ties ( helium1 ?is hypo!sis seems h>dly t5able4 #cc ,j4 pr4 ,*em4 #aheh1 #gc1 #cia4 #cd ,b]4 #aijg1 #dj1 #caah4 #ce ,zeits*4 physikal4 ,*em4 #ahih1 #be1 #efh4 ,x appe>s unlikely t any "o explanation c cov] all ^! int]e/+ facts2 !re are 9 ea* case peculi> factors to be tak5 into acc\nt4 ,9 #ahda1 ,regnault1#cf consid]+ ! case ( ! oxides obs]v$ by ,b]zelius1 inf]r$ t ! developm5t ( light & heat d5ot$ t ! bodies possess$ a l[] specific heat aft] ! *ange ?an be=e4 ,! exp]im5tal difficulties enc\nt]$ 9 attempt+ to dry ! oxides prev5t$ him f confirm+ ?is view4 ,he measur$ ! specific heats ( ! m9]als calcite & aragonite 7,ca,c,o71 & ( ! two allotropic modifications ( phosphorus1 b c\ld obs]ve no appreciable diff]5ces4 ,h4 ,rose 7vide supra7 %[$ by exp]im5t t consid]able heat 0 evolv$ on ! gl[+ ( gadol9ite1 ) a decrease ( ab\t "o-f\rte5? 9 ! specific heat4 ,9 ! case ( sam>skite !re 01 h[ev]1 no appreciable evolution ( heat1 nor c\ld he det]m9e any diff]5ce 9 ! specific heats be=e & aft] gl[+4 #cf ,pogg4 ,ann4 #ahda1 #ec1 #bdi4 ,probably ! only inf]5ce t c be safely drawn is t 9 mo/ cases ! *ange is due to "s molecul> re-arrangem5t4 ,! evolution ( wat]1 helium1 etc41 9 "s cases1 may possibly be due to intramolecul> *ange1 b on ! "o h& ! curr5t view at pres5t is t ! helium is me*anically held 9 radio-active m9]als1 & on ! o!r h& x is n kn[n t ! wat] evolv$ is wat] ( con/itution2 9 an int]molecul> *ange at fairly high temp]ature1 ^! might be evolv$ )\t disruption ( ! true m9]al molecules4 ,! "q ( ! en]gy involv$1 & consequ5tly ( ! specific heats1 appe>s to dep5d on factors peculi> to ea* case1 ( :i* at pres5t no accurate conception c be =m$2 & ! *ange 9 specific gravity is probably b\nd up ) ^!4 ,! loss ( solubility 9 acids is a factor n always connect$ ) gl[+1 z x is frequ5tly obs]v$ 9 ! laboratory aft] ignition ( comp\nds1 b "h aga9 no adequate explanation is =?com+4 ,! possibility ( *emical *ange 9 "o or two cases1 h[ev]1 mu/ n be ignor$4 ,?us ammonium magnesium phosphate1 ,,nh,mg,p,o1 on heat+ gl[s1 & is conv]t$ to magnesium pyrophosphate1 accord+ to ! equation3 #b,,nh,mg,p,o ,mg,p,o ,h,o #b,,nh ,a case possibly analog\s to ?is is t ( ! m9]al sipylite 7q4v471 ,r,cb,o1 ) #8basic wat]' 7i4e4 ,r p>tially replac$ by ,h74 ,be=e ! bl[pipe ?is decrepitates ) loss ( wat]1 & gl[s brilliantly4 ,! specific gravity aft] ! *ange does n appe> to h be5 det]m9$4 ,mallet expla9s ! gl[ z due to a *ange to ! pyrocolumbate4 ,simil> explanations may possibly hold 9 ! cases ( allanite & risrite1 b x mu/ be rememb]$ t we are really ignorant ( ! "p play$ by ! wat] 9 ^! m9]als4 ,allanite4--,allanite1 or ,or?ite1 z x is (t5 call$1 is a m9]al ( ! epidote family1 conta9+ r>e e>?s4 ,! g5]al =mula = ,epidote is ,h,o1#d,r,o1#c,r,o1#f,si,o1 :]e ,r is a dival5t & ,r a trival5t metal1 or vic>i\s s]ies ( metals4 ,9 ! case ( ,allanite1 ,r 7,fe1,ca71 ,r 7,al1,fe1,e71 :]e ,e /&s = metals ( ! c]ium & yttrium gr\ps 7,eng/rm's =mula74 ,gro? =mulates x z a basic salt1 ,r7,,oh7,r,si,o1 ( ! acid ,h,si,o 7 #c;,h,si,o74 ,cry/als are fairly common1 b ! m9]al usually occurs massive or 9 r\nd$ gra9s4 ,cry/als--,monocl9ic1 holosymmetric2 a 3 b 3 c #aeeji 3 #a 3 #agfia1 #fd #ei4 ,common =ms--,or?o- & basal p9akoids a #ajj & c #jja2 m #aaj & o!r prisms1 e #aja & o!r hemi-or?o-prisms1 o #jaa1 d #aaa & o!r hemi-pyramids4 ,angles1 7#ajj7 7#aaj7 #ed #cd2 7#jja7 7#aja7 #fc #bd2 7#jja7 7#jaa7 #eh #c4 ,tabul>1 p>allel to a1 or long & sl5d] by elongation p>allel to axis b4 ,birefr+5ce weak1 v>iable4 ,refraction /rong4 ,col\r br[n to br[ni%-black2 almo/ opaque4 ,9 flakes v /rongly pleo*roic1 ! col\rs = light p>allel to ! ?ree vibration directions c1 b & a be+ br[ni%-yell[1 r$di%-br[n1 & gre5i%-br[n respectively4 ,brittle4 ,h>dness #e-f2 sp4 gr4 #ce-db4 ,on heat+1 allanite becomes amorph\s & isotropic ) increase ( specific gravity 7cf4 ,gadol9ite74 ,be=e ! bl[pipe x loses wat]1 & melts to a black magnetic glass1 _m v>ieties phosphoresc+ /rongly 7vide supra74 ,) hydro*loric acid x gelat9ises1 unless previ\sly heat$ /rongly1 9 :i* case x is n attack$4 ,analyses %[ t ! r>e e>? cont5t v>ies consid]ably 7vic>i\sly z reg>ds f]ric iron & alum9ium71 c]ia e>?s v>y+ f #cf to #eaa p] c5t4 & yttria e>?s f traces up to #dg p] c5t4#cg ,?oria is usually pres5t1 #j to #ce p] c5t4 ,9 #aiji ,fromme#ch f\nd small quantities ( b]yllia 9 ! m9]al1 & 9 #aiaa ,mey]#ci f\nd am\nts ( sc&ium oxide up to #a p] c5t4 ,x conta9s traces ( uranium1 & is weakly radioactive4 ,ramsay1 ,collie & ,trav]s f\nd no helium 7#ahie71 b 9 #aije ,/rutt f\nd radium 9 x1 s t ! pres5ce ( helium seems a priori probable4 #cg ,vide ,s*ill+1 pp4 #gj-ge = analyses ( ?is m9]al4 #ch ,fromme1 ,ts*4 ,m94 ,mitt4 #aiji1 #bh4 #ci ,mey]1 ,sitzungsb]4 knigl4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,b]l91 #aiaa1 #cgi4 ,_m v>ieties ( ! m9]al are kn[n1 diff]+ 9 habit1 col\r1 wat] cont5t1 specific gravity1 etc41 & ! p]c5tage composition v>ies v mu* by reason ( vic>i\s replacem5t ( ! bases4 ,golds*midt#dj has f\nd #8,epidote-or?ites' :i* are isomorph\s mixtures ( or?ite ) an iron epidote2 he concludes t mo/ or?ites are probably simil> solid solutions1 & 9 ?is way acc\nts to a l>ge ext5t = ! v>y+ composition4 #dj ,c5tr4 ,m94 #aiaa1 #d4 ,allanite is ( v wide di/ribution1 ?\gh x is n (t5 f\nd 9 l>ge quantities4 ,! usual occurr5ce 9 pegmatitic ve9s 9 granites1 sy5ites & o!r acid plutonic rocks has be5 (t5 not$1 e4g4 9 _m p>ts ( ,sw$5 & ,norway4 ,x is f\nd also 9 ! ext9ct crat] n[ =m+ ! ,laa*] ,see1 ne> ,cobl5z1 ,g]many1 & at ,impilaks1 ne> ,lake ,ladoga1 on ! bord] ( ,f9l&2 a mass ( ! pure m9]al weigh+ #cjj lb4 0 rec5tly discov]$ at ,b>r+] ,hill1 7cf4 "u ,gadol9ite71 & x occurs 9 l>ge quantities 9 ,amh]/ ,co41 ,virg9ia4 ,x is an accessory con/itu5t ( _m acid volcanic & hypabyssal rocks1 & has be5 f\nd also 9 lime/one1 & 9 magnetic iron ores4 ,on acc\nt ( its exce$+ly wide di/ribution1 & ! v>iations 9 appe>ance & composition1 x has be5 repeat$ly describ$ "u v>i\s names1 v>ieties be+ con/antly mi/ak5 = new m9]al species4 ,its hi/ory is r curi\s4#da ,9 #ahjf ! ,dani% m9]alogi/ ,giesecke made a protract$ voyage to ,gre5l&1 collect+ m9]als & rocks2 he rema9$ !re until #ahac4 ,9 #ahjh he s5t (f 8 fir/ collection by %ip to ,cop5hag52 on ! voyage ! %ip 0 tak5 by an ,engli% private]1 & ! c>go l&$ & sold at ,lei?4 ,! m9]als 7 b\ght by ,allan1 a ,scot* m9]alogi/1 :o recognis$1 t !y 7 f ,gre5l& by ! pres5ce ( cryolite1 at t "t only kn[n to occur 9 ,gre5l&4 ,he mi/ook ! m9]al subsequ5tly nam$ aft] him = gadol9ite1 & s5t x to ,?omson = analysis4#db ,?omson recognis$ x z a new m9]al1 & nam$ x ,allanite 7#ahaj74 ,9 #ahae ,his+] describ$ a m9]al f ,rydd>hyttan1 ,sw$51 :i* he call$ ,c]92 ,leonh>d 7#ahba7 & ,hauy 7#ahbb7 %[$ t ?is 0 id5tical ) ,allanite4 ,9 #ahah ,b]zelius describ$ two v>ieties ( a m9]al f ,f9bo1 ne> ,fahlun1 ,sw$51 :i* he call$ ,or?ite1 & ,pyror?ite2 ^! 7 ev5tually %[n by ,s*e]] 7#ahdd7 to be v>ieties ( ,allanite4 ,9 #ahbd ! ,fr5* m9]alogi/ ,lvy describ$ a m9]al f ,ar5dal1 ,norway1 :i* he nam$ ,buckl&ite1 9 hon\r ( ! ,engli% naturali/2 9 #ahbe ?is 0 id5tifi$ ) a #8black zeolite' f ! ,laa*] ,see by ,g4 ,rose1 & 9 #ahbh bo? 7 %[n by ,h]mann to h ! same composition z or?ite or allanite4 ,! li/ might be ext5d$ at w2 ! ,tautolite ( ,koks*>[ 7#ahdg71 ! ,bod5ite ( ,brei?aupt 7#ahdd71 ! ,muromontite ( ,kemdt 7#ahdh71 & ! ,vasite ( ,bahr 7#ahfc7 h all be5 %[n to be v>ieties ( ! same bewild]+ m9]al4 #da ,vide ,s*ill+1 pp4 #ge-gf1 :]e full ref]5ces are giv54 #db ,see ,kobell's ,ges*i*te d] ,m9]alogie1 #ahfd1 p4 #fgi4 ,hell&ite4--,hell&ite#dc is a mix$ silicate ( r>e e>?s ) lime1 magnesia1 alum9a1 f]ric & manganic oxides1 ) consid]able quantities ( wat]4 ,! =mula approximates to #c;,h,o1#b,r,o1#c,r,o1#d,si,o1 :]e ,r 7,ca1,mg1,?_/#b7--,?orium be+ able to replace two atoms ( calcium or magnesium--& ,r 7,al1,fe1,mn & r>e e>? metals74 ,?is may be writt5 z a basic or?osilicate1 ,r,r7,,oh77,si,o71 a basic salt ( ! acid ,h,si,o 7 #d;,h,si,o74 ,?is composition puts x 9 ! class conta9+ topaz & "s r>] silicates4 #dc ,brgg]1 ,zeits*4 ,kry/4 ,m94 #aijf1 #db1 #dag4 ,! m9]al is cry/all9e1 ! cry/als be+ well develop$1 b (t5 dull & opaque by alt]ation 7hydration74 ,cry/al sy/em--,monocl9ic1 holosymmetric1 a 3 b 3 c #bjfdf 3 #a 3 #bejg4 #aji #de4 ,habit usually prismatic1 ) #ajj1 #jaj1 & sev]al prisms hko1 t]m9at$ by v>i\s pyramid =ms4 ,angles 7#ajj7 7#jja7 #gj #cb2 7#ajj7 7#aaj7 #fb #bb2 7#jaj7 7#aaj7 #bg #ad2 7#aaj7 7#aaj7 #abe #j4 ,tw9n$ on 7#jja71 tw9 plane 7#jja71 =m+ knee-%ap$ tw9s4 ,h>dness v>ies f #e 9 ! lea/ alt]$ to #a 9 ! mo/ alt]$ specim5s2 sp4 gr4 #cgj 9 lea/ alt]$ specim5s1 decreas+ ) hydration4 ,col\r ( fre% cry/als1 r$di%-br[n2 on alt]ation !y become br[ni%-black1 yell[1 or ev5 :ite4 ,! m9]al dissolves easily 9 hydro*loric acid1 ) evolution ( *lor9e2 x is less soluble 9 nitric & sulphuric acids4 ,x readily fuses to a yell[ mass4 ,x 0 fir/ discov]$ by ,brgg] at ,l9dvikskollan1 9 #aijc1 & lat]1 9 l>g] quantities1 at ,krag] 9 ,norway4 ,x occurs 9 pegmatite ve9s 9 granite4 ,?alnite4#dd--;,a silicate ( yttria e>?s ) wat] & small quantities ( alum9a1 f]ric oxide1 c>bon dioxide & alkalies4 ,! ratio ( r>e e>?s to silica gives ! =mula ,r,o1#b,si,o1 or ,r,si,o2 if ! wat] be includ$1 ! =mula becomes ,h,r,si,o4 ,! pres5ce ( bo? wat] & c>bon dioxide indicates1 h[ev]1 t ! m9]al has be5 some:at alt]$1 & ! simpl] =mula ,r,si,o1 7cf4 ,?ortveitite1 bel[7 probably expresses ! composition ( ! orig9al m9]al4 ,x conta9s consid]able quantities ( nitrog5 & helium1 ?\gh uranium & ?orium appe> to be abs5t4 #dd ,b5$icts1 ,ab/ract 9 ,zeits*4 ,kry/4 ,m94 #aijj1 #cb1 #fad4 ,monocl9ic2 a 3 b 3 c #aaed 3 #a 3 #jfjb4 #hj #ab4 ,common =ms are ! p9akoids #ajj & #jaj1 hemi-prism #aaj1 hemi-pyramids #aaa & #aaa1 & o!rs1 & ! hemi-dome #jba4 ,angles1 7#ajj7 7#jaj7 #ia #j2 7#ajj7 7#aaj7 #dh #i2 7#ajj7 3 7#aaa7 #ei #d4 ,d\ble refraction weak4 ,no cleavage4 ,brittle4 ,h>dness #f4 ,col\r1 bright fle%-r$2 transluc5t1 ) greasy lu/re2 sp4 gr4 #dbbg1 increas+ to #dbi aft] ignition4 ,a yell[ v>iety has sp4 gr4 #daa-daf1 & is transp>5t4 ,! #8av]age atomic weight' ( ! r>e e>? metals is #ii1 f :i* x appe>s t ^! consi/ *iefly ( yttrium1 ) a small] quantity ( ! metals ( high] atomic weight4 ,x 0 discov]$ 9 #ahih by ,b5$icts1 accompany+ fluoc]ite 7q4v47 9 a qu>tz qu>ry at ,oe/]by 9 ,dalek>lia4 ,?ortveitite4#de--;,a silicate ( yttria e>?s1 *iefly sc&ia1 ( ! =mula ,r,o1#b,si,o4 ,sc&ia =ms ab\t #cg p] c5t4 ( ! :ole 7,r4 ,j4 ,mey]72 yttria ) small quantities ( ! o!r yttria e>?s =ms ! bulk ( ! rema9d] ( ! bases1 ! c]ia gr\p be+ almo/ completely abs5t4 ,f]ric oxide 7) traces ( manganic oxide & alum9a7 =ms ab\t #c p] c5t4 ,?orium is pres5t only 9 traces1 & radioactivity is b>ely p]ceptible4 #de ,j4 ,s*etelig1 ,c5tr4 ,m94 #aiaa1 #gba4 ,?ortveitite is ! fir/ m9]al to be discov]$ 9 :i* ! cont5t ( sc&ia is great] ?an #b p] c5t42 9 #aijh ,crookes#df exam9$ a v l>ge numb] ( yttria m9]als = sc&ia1 & f9ally *ose = extraction ( ! e>? ,wiikite 7q4v47 :i* has a sc&ia cont5t ( #ab p] c5t4#dg #df ,phil4 ,trans4 #aijh1 ,a1 #bji1 #ae4 #dg ,accord+ to ,eb]h>d1 "s v>ieties ( ,wiikite h a mu* l[] sc&ia cont5t4 ,?ortveitite is or?orhombic2 a 3 b 3 c #jgdef 3 #a 3 #adiab2 commonly comb9ations ( pyramids o #aaa & s #baa ) prism m #aaj1 9 radial aggregates ( cry/als elongat$ p>allel to ! c axis4 ,cleavage p>allel to m1 fair4 ,tw9 plane m 7#aaj71 tw9n+ v common4 ,refraction /rong2 birefr+5ce /rong1 negative4 ,acute bisectrix p]p5dicul> to 7#jja71 plane ( ! optic axes 7#jaj74 ,h>dness1 #f-g2 sp4 gr4 #cega4 ,extremely brittle2 lu/re brilliant1 vitre\s to adamant9e4 ,col\r1 greyi%-gre51 :ite to r$di%-grey on alt]ation2 9 transmitt$ light yell[i%-gre51 aft] ignition1 r$di%2 ! *ange be+ probably due to pres5ce ( oxides ( iron4 ,x is fusible ) difficulty1 & only p>tially attack$ by hydro*loric acid4 ,x 0 f\nd by ,?ortveit1 9 #aiaj1 9 a pegmatite ve9 9 granite1 at ,ivel&1 ,st]sdal51 ,s4 ,norway1 accompani$ by eux5ite1 monazite1 b]yl1 & ! usual ve9-mat]ials 7qu>tz1 felsp>1 etc474 ,x 0 analys$ & recognis$ z a new m9]al by ,s*etelig 7loc4 cit474 99 99 99 99 99 ,! foll[+ m9]als1 ( :i* p>ticul>s w be f\nd 9 ! alphabetical li/1 also belong to ?is class3 ,bagrationite1 ,bod5ite1 & ,muromontite1 v>ieties ( allanite ) diff]5ces 9 composition & physical prop]ties4 ,yttrialite1 a wea!r$ v>iety ( gadol9ite4 ,elpidite1 ,erdmannite & ,ca9osite1 m complex silicates4 ,r[l&ite1 a comp>atively simple silicate ( ! yttrium metals4 ,yttrog>net1 a v>iety ( g>net conta9+ yttrium metals4 7b7 ,,silicates ,,( ,,?orium ,,& ,,zirconium ,?orite4--,?orite & its v>iety ,orangite are some:at alt]$ =ms ( a pure silicate ( ?orium1 ,th,si,o1 conta9+ also small quantities ( wat]1 usually uranium1 & (t5 r>e e>?s1 ) iron1 lead1 calcium1 & alum9ium4 ,orangite diff]s f ?orite 9 its beautiful orange col\r & great] specific gravity4 ,bo? v>ieties are radio-active4 ,:5 unalt]$1 ! cry/als are tetragonal & uniaxial1 ! pure m9]al ,th,si,o be+ isomorph\s ) zircon1 ,zr,si,o 7q4v474 ,by alt]ation !y become isotropic4 ,cry/als are tetragonal1 holosymmetric2 c #jfdjb2 p p #ef #dj4 ,common =ms are ! prism m #aaj ) ! pyramids p #aaa & z #caa4 ,h>dness #d-e2 sp4 gr4 #dd to #dh = ?orite1 #eb to #ed = orangite4 ,?orite conta9s f #ad to #ca p] c5t4 ( r>e e>?s4 ,accord+ to ,nilson & ,blom/r&1 ! uranium is pres5t z uranium dioxide1 ,,uo replac+ ?oria1 ,th,o1 b ,dun/an & ,blake /ate t ! two oxides are isomorph\s 7see "u ,?orianite1 p4 #gd71 & s !y might be expect$ to be vic>i\s4 ,?orite 0 discov]$ by ,esm>k 9 #ahbh1 & fir/ analys$ by ,b]zelius1#dh :o ann\nc$ ! discov]y ( a new e>? 9 x 9 #ahbi4 ,! "n ,?orite is f ,?or1 ! god ( ,sc&9avian my?ology4 #dh ,pogg4 ,ann41 #ahbi1 #af1 #che4 ,?orite is a memb] ( a peculi>ly int]e/+ s]ies ( isomorph\s m9]als1 :i* includes ,cassit]ite 7,sn,o71 ,rutile 7,ti,o71 ,zircon 7,zr,si,o71 & mo/ probably ! alli$ silicate ,naegite1 & ! r>e e>? phosphate ,x5otime 7q4v471 :i* are v simil> 9 =ms & angles4 ,! oxide ,ti,o is itself trimorph\s1 be+ kn[n 9 ! ?ree cry/allographically diff]5t =ms1 ,rutile1 ,anatase1 & ,brookite 7q4v474 ,on acc\nt ( ! isomorphism ( cassit]ite & rutile ) ! two silicates1 x has be5 sugge/$ t ! oxide =mul be d\bl$ & writt5 ,sn7,sn,o7 & ,ti7,ti,o7 respectively1#di to %[ ! analogy ) ,?7,si,o7 & ,zr7,si,o74 ,consid]ation ( ! molecul> volumes 7obta9$ by divid+ molecul> weight by specific gravity1 i4e4 multiply+ by specific volume7 l5ds a c]ta9 am\nt ( support to ?is view4 ,x has (t5 be5 obs]v$ t isomorph\s comp\nds1 & _m comp\nds :i* occur 9 p>allel gr[? to "o ano!r1 h ne>ly equal molecul> volumes2 !re are1 h[ev]1 _m exceptions4 ,tak+ molecul> volumes = ! s]ies "u consid]ation1 we h1 us+ approximate numb]s only-- ,mol4 ,wt4 ,sp4 ,gr4 ,mol4 ,vol4 ,cassit]ite1 ,sn,o #aea #fi #bb ,rutile1 ,ti,o #hj #db #ai ,zircon1 ,zr,si,o #ahb #dg #ci ,?orite1 ,th,si,o #cbe #ed 7,orangite7 #fj ,x5otime1 ,,xpo #ahd #de #da #di ,?is isomorph\s s]ies has rec5tly be5 ext5d$ by ,zambon9i1 & also by ,s*all]1 by ! inclusion ( m9]als conta9+ ,columbium & ,tantalum2 see "u ,ilm5orutile & ,/rv]ite1 end ( ,*4 ,,iv41 p4 #ga4 ,x w be se5 t if ! numb]s = cassit]ite & rutile be d\bl$1 f\r out ( ! five %[ v fair approximation to ! con/ant value #dj4 ,! numb] #fj = ?orite is q irreconcilable ) ! values obta9$ f ! o!r memb]s2 ( c\rse pure silicate ( ?orium1 ,th,si,o1 is n kn[n z a m9]al1 b x is mo/ unlikely t ! relatively small am\nt ( impurity 9 ! d5se/ specim5s ( orangite %\ld h depress$ ! specific gravity by ov] two units1 z w\ld be requir$ if ! molecul> volume ( ?orite 7 to %[ ev5 ! mo/ approximate semblance ( agreem5t ) ! o!rs4 ,x _c be too (t5 rem>k$1 h[ev]1 t v little inde$ is kn[n ( ! molecul> =mulas ( m9]als1 & t v little reliance c be plac$ on su* figures z ! above4 ,on ! contr>y1 x is h>dly conceivable t amphot]ic oxides l ^? ( t9 & titanium1 occurr+ 9 ! =m ( heavy cry/all9e m9]als1 %\ld h molecul> =mul only d\ble ! empirical =mul4 ,:]e agreem5ts ( ! k9d d occur1 !y mu/ be tak5 z indicat+ approximately equal degrees ( molecul> complexity 9 ! m9]als conc]n$1 r ?an z af=d+ any real insight into ! molecul> condition4 ,zircon4--,zircon is a silicate ( zirconium1 ,zr,si,o1 ) small quantities ( o!r elem5ts4 ,mo/ v>ieties conta9 f]ric oxide & ?oria2 m r>ely small proportions ( ! yttria e>?s may be pres5t4 ,all v>ieties conta9 traces ( a l>ge numb] ( ! common metals4 ,traces ( radium are usually pres5t1 ) helium & neon1#ej & ! m9]al is /rongly radioactive4 #ej ,/rutt1 ,nature1 #aijf1 #ajb4 ,sy/em tetragonal1 holosymmetric sub-class4 c #jfdjd2 7#jja7 7#aja7 #cb #ch4 ,usual =ms--,prisms a #ajj & m #aaj2 pyramids e #aja1 p #aaa1 u #bba & x #caa1 etc4 ,! basal p9akoid c #jja is r>e4 ,! usual comb9ation is "o or bo? ( ! prisms a1 m1 ) "o or two pyramids4 ,tw9n+ is r>e1 ! tw9 plane be+ e 7#aja71 giv+ knee-%ap$ tw9s simil> to ^? s *>act]i/ic ( cassit]ite & rutile4 ,cleavage m imp]fect1 p bad4 ,brittle2 con*oidal fracture4 ,h>dness #g2 sp4 gr4 usually #dfh-dgj1 b v>y+ f #db to #dhf4 ,adamant9e lu/re4 ,cle> & col\rless to yell[-1 r$- or gre5i%-br[n4 ,transp>5t to opaque4 ,refraction & d\ble refraction /rong1 d\ble refraction positive 7 #aibd1 #aifh1 = sodium light72 on heat+ x becomes biaxial1 & occasionally is f\nd biaxial 9 nature4 ,by alt]ation x becomes isotropic4 ,x is infusible be=e ! bl[pipe1 b loses its col\r2 "s v>ieties gl[ & increase 9 d5sity 7see p4 #ch74 ,9 "s v>ieties also ! col\r *anges or disappe>s rapidly on exposure to sunlight1 & is (t5 re/or$ on keep+ 9 ! d>k4 ,^! ph5om5a ( col\r *ange h be5 attribut$ v>i\sly to alt]ation 9 ! /ate ( oxidation ( ! iron pres5t1 & to ! pres5ce ( organic matt]4 ,x seems probable t ei!r cause or ev5 bo? may be at ! root ( ! *ange 9 p>ticul> cases4 ,on acc\nt ( ! h>dness1 unalt]ability1 & /rong refraction & d\ble refraction1 good cry/als ( zircon are us$ z gems4 ,! two gem v>ieties1 ,hyac9? & ,j>gon1 are f\nd *iefly 9 ! gem gravels ( ,ceylon4 ,x 0 9 a zircon f ,ceylon t ,klapro? discov]$ ! new e>?1 ,zirconia1 9 #aghi4ea ,9 #agie he f\nd ! same e>? 9 hyac9?1 & s %[$ ! two to be id5tical4 #ea ,s*rift5 d] ,gesells*aft natur=s*5d] ,freunde 9 ,b]l91 #aghi1 vol4 #i4 ,artificial cry/als ( zircon h be5 obta9$ by ! action ( silicon tetra*loride & silicon tetrafluoride on zirconia1 & by ! action ( zirconium tetrafluoride on silica at high temp]atures4 ,zircon is "o ( ! mo/ widely di/ribut$ m9]als kn[n1 ?\gh usually x occurs 9 v small quantities4 ,good cry/als h be5 f\nd 9 ,new ,zeal&1 9 ,ceylon1 at ,miask 9 ! ,urals1 & 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a4 ,?is la/ deposit has be5 work$ comm]cially = ! extraction ( zirconia = ,n]n/ lamps 7vide p4 #cbj74 ,x occurs 9 a decompos$ felsp> 9 a pegmatite dyke 9 ! ,ar*an gneiss ne> ,zirconia1 ,h5d]son ,co41 & c be easily extract$ by pick+ or wa%+1 aft] cru%+ if necess>y4 ,%\ld !re ev] be a consid]able dem& = zirconia1 x c\ld d\btless be sav$ z a by-product 9 ! extraction ( ?oria f monazite s&s 7q4v471 zircon be+ v g5]ally f\nd 9 ^? s&s 7see bel[74 ,zircon is common 9 cry/all9e rocks1 lime/ones1 s*i/s1 sy5ites1 granites1 etc4 ,x is a con/ant accessory con/itu5t 9 ! acid igne\s rocks1 especially 9 ! m acid eruptive rocks4 ,x is readily detect$ "u ! microscope by ! pleo*roic haloes ) :i* ! t9y cry/als are surr\nd$2 ^! h be5 %[n by ,joly to be due to alt]ation ( ! surr\nd+ rock by ! radiations emitt$ by ! radio-active con/itu5ts ( ! zircon4 ,x also occurs z a con/itu5t ( ^? s&s :i* are =m$ by ! erosion ( ! igne\s rocks 9 :i* x is enclos$1 & h5ce x almo/ inv>iably accompanies monazite 9 ! s-call$ monazite s&s4 ,zircon is "o ( ! lea/ easily alt]$ m9]als2 by ! prolong$ action ( *alybeate & o!r wat]s1 dur+ _m geological ages1 h[ev]1 x gradually *anges1 los+ silica & ga9+ lime1 oxides ( iron1 & wat]4 ,"s ( ^! alt]$ v>ieties h receiv$ special names1 z1 e4g4 ,au]ba*ite1 ,malacone1 ,cyrtolite1 & ,alvite2 b none ( !m is ( special int]e/4 ,naegite4#eb--,?is r>e m9]al is a silicate closely relat$ to zircon1 b ( r m complex composition4 ,x may be repres5t$ z silicate ( zirconium1 ,zr,si,o 7zirconia #eec1 silica #bjf p] c5t471 ) r>e e>?s 7*iefly yttria1 #ia p] c5t471 uranium 7,,uo #c p] c5t471 & ?orium 7,th,o #ej p] c5t471 p>tly z silicates1 p>tly z columbates & tantalates 77,cb1,ta7,o #gg p] c5t474#ec #eb ,beitrge zur ,m9]alogie von ,japan1 #aijf1 #b1 #bc4 #ec ,an e>li] analysis 7,ab/r4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aije1 #hh1 ii41 #agg7 gave ov] #bj p] c5t4 ( uran\s oxide1 ,,uo2 ! great] "p ( ?is appe>s to h be5 zirconia1 ,zi,o4 ,x is tetragonal1 usually occurr+ 9 globul> aggregates ( cry/als4 ,! measurable angles are extremely close to ^? ( zircon1 & x is probable t naegite is isomorph\s ) ! s]ies m5tion$ above "u ,?orite4 ,! h>dness is #g1 ! sp4 gr4 #djia4 ,! col\r is d>k gre5 or br[n1 becom+ dull by wea!r+4 ,! d\ble refraction is extremely weak4 ,s f> x has only be5 f\nd 9 ! #8plac]' t9 deposits or #8gravel t9' ( ,japan4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! foll[+ m9]als 7see li/7 are also to be includ$ 9 ?is sub-class3 ,alvite 7,&]b]gite or ,cyrtolite71 ,au]ba*ite1 ,malacone1 ,o]/$ite & ,ta*yaphaltite1 alt]$ v>ieties ( zircon4 ,calcio?orite1 ,eucrasite & ,freyalite1 alt]$ v>ieties ( ,?orite4 ,pilb>ite1 ,?orogummite & ,yttrogummite1 hydrat$ silicates ( ?orium ) uranium & o!r metals4 7c7 ,,complex ,,silicates ,eudialyte 7,eucolyte74--,?is is a complex silicate ( alkalies1 lime1 f]r\s oxide1 r>e e>?s1 etc41 conta9+ *lor9e & a high proportion 7up to #ag p] c5t47 ( zirconia4 ,! empirical =mula is giv5 by ,dana z ,na7,ca1,fe7,cl7,si1,zr7,o4 ,brgg] gives ! simpl] metasilicate =mula ,r,r,zr7,si,o71 :]e ,r 7,na1,k1,h71 ,r 7,ca1,fe1,mn1,ce,o,h71 & ,zr7,o,cl7 may p>tly function z an acid 9 place ( ,si,o4 ,! true =mula1 h[ev]1 is q unc]ta91 z ! zirconia may function ei!r z an acidic or basic oxide4 ,! fact t a m9]al ( su* exce$+ly complex composition occurs 9 p]fectly well-def9$ cry/als indicates ! intricate nature ( ! problems to be solv$ 9 m9]al *emi/ry4 ,! cry/als are rhomboh$ral1 a 3 c #a 3 #baaaf4 ,common =ms are--! p9akoid c #aaa1 prisms a #aja1 & m #baa1 & pyramids r #ajj & e #aaj4 c r #ca #bb4 ,habit tabul> p>allel to c1 rhomboh$ral ) e prom95t1 or prismatic ) a prom95t4 ,cleavage c v good1 a difficult4 ,! col\r is br[n or r$ to br[ni%- or blui%-r$4 ,brittle4 ,h>dness #e to #e2 sp4 gr4 #bib = eudialyte1 #cj to #ca = eucolyte4 ,! d\ble refraction is /rong1 be+ positive = eudialyte1 negative = ! ,norwegian v>iety1 eucolyte4 ,f c>eful microscopic exam9ation1 ,ramsay has f\nd t zones ( positive & negative birefr+5ce1 z well z isotropic 7s+ly-refract+7 zones c occur on ! same cry/al1 & he sugge/s t ! m9]al is really compos$ ( two isomorph\s comp\nds =m+ mixtures4 ,9 view ( ! cont9u\s v>iation ( optical prop]ties 9 an isomorph\s s]ies l ! felsp>s1 su* an explanation seems d\btful4 ,! optical behavi\r ( m9]als is v (t5 anomal\s1 & ! ph5om5a 9 ?is case are probably due to repeat$ tw9n+1 ) "s alt]ation 9 ! d\ble refraction1 or to ! lamell> int]gr[? ( two v>ieties hav+ slightly diff]5t optical prop]ties4 ,on heat+1 ! m9]al evolves moi/ure & readily fuses4 ,x is easily attack$ ev5 by dilute acids1 be+ nam$ by ,/rohmey] 7#ahai7 on acc\nt ( ?is prop]ty4 ,! dilute hydro*loric acid solution r$d5s turm]ic pap]--a te/ = ! pres5ce ( zirconium4 ,x is f\nd 9 ,gre5l&1 usually emb$d$ 9 felsp>1 9 ,norway1 9 ,lapl& & 9 ,arkansas1 be+ g5]ally associat$ ) m9]als ri* 9 alkalies1 e4g4 gir9e1 lolite1 nephel9e1 sodalite1 arfv$sonite1 etc4 ,beckelite4--,?is is a m9]al simil> 9 composition to eudialyte1 ?\gh n s complex1 & ( m rec5t discov]y4#ed ,x is a silicate ( c]ia e>?s & lime1 9 :i* zirconia replaces silica2 ! oxyg5 ratio 7i4e4 ratio ( oxyg5 9 basic oxides to oxyg5 9 acid oxides7 is #c 3 #a1 & ! =mula ,ca,r7,si1,zr7,o1 :]e ,r r>e e>? metals1 *iefly ( ! c]ium gr\p4 ,x is ?us a salt ( an acid ,h,si,o #c;,h,si,o #c7c;,h,o1,si,o7 ) zirconium & silicon vic>i\s4 #ed ,ab/r4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aije1 #hh1 ii1 #agg4 ,! cry/als appe> to belong to ! cubic sy/em1 occurr+ 9 cuboid gra9s1 & 9 octah$ra & dodecah$ra4 ,x is br[n1 & isotropic1 ) cubic cleavage4 ,sp4 gr4 #dae4 ,x is soluble 9 hot hydro*loric acid1 ev5 aft] ignition2 ! solution gives ! turm]ic te/ = zirconium4 ,x 0 f\nd 9 a dyke 9 an lolite sy5ite1 ne> ! ,sea ( ,azov4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! foll[+ m9]als 7see li/7 are also to be plac$ 9 ! class ( mix$ silicates3 ,arfv$sonite & cataplejite1 complex zircono-silicates4 ,hiortdahlite 7,gu>9ite7 & ,lav5ite1 zircono-silicates ) fluor9e4 ,c>yoc]ite1 ,melanoc]ite & ,/e5/rup9e1 complex fluosilicates4 ,au]lite1 ,bri?olite1 ,erikite & ,flor5cite1 phospho-silicates4 ,cappel5ite1 ,homilite & ,tritomite1 boro-silicates4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,titano-,,silicates ,,& ,,titanates 7a7 ,,! ,,titano-,,silicates ,yttrotitanite or ,keilhauite4--,a titano-silicate ( calcium1 alum9ium1 iron & yttrium metals4 ,! m9]al is isomorph\s ) titanite1 ,ca,o1,ti,o1,si,o 7q4v471 & is itself probably an isomorph\s mixture ( titanite ) ! silicate 7,y1,al1,fe7,si,o1 :]e ,y yttrium metals4 ,its composition w !n be repres5t$ by ! =mula m 7,y1,al1,fe77,si,o7 n ,ca,ti7,si,o74 ,x is monocl9ic1 ) axial ratios & angles v close to ^? ( titanite4 ,usual =ms--p9akoids a #ajj & c #jja1 hemi-prism m #aaj1 hemi-pyramids n #aaa1 e #aaa & l #aab4 ,cleavage n di/9ct4 ,birefr+5ce weak1 ve4 ,col\r br[n to br[ni%-black4 ,h>dness #f2 sp4 gr4 #ceb to #cgg4 ,! m9]al is fusible be=e ! bl[pipe1 & is decompos$ by hydro*loric acid4 ,x 0 nam$ by ,s*e]] 9 #ahdd f its composition1 & by ,ekeb]g 9 ! same ye> 9 hon\r ( ! ,norwegian geologi/ ,keilhau4 ,titanite or ,sph5e4--,?is species1 important z an accessory m9]al ( _m rocks1 is a titano-silicate ( calcium1 g5]ally conta9+ small quantities ( alum9ium & iron4 ,! approximate =mula usually giv51 ,ca,ti,si,o1 is unsatisfactory2 "s specim5s conta9 z mu* z #g p] c5t4 ( f]ric oxide1 o!rs up to #b p] c5t4 ( manganese1 :il/ ! p]c5tage ( titanium oxide1 ,ti,o1 v>ies v consid]ably 7#cj to #de p] c5t474 ,zambon9i & ,nickolan h indep5d5tly analys$ specim5s = :i* no satisfactory =mul c\ld be d$uc$4 ,= specim5s conta9+ trival5t metals1 ,gro? consid]s ! m9]al to be an isomorph\s mixture ( ,ca,ti,si,o & ,r,si,o 7see "u ,yttrotitanite1 above72 ,blom/r&1 h[ev]1 advances ! =mula #b7,r,r,o1,ti,o7,o1,si,o1 :]e ,ti,o is basic1 & ! trival5t metals occur 9 ! dival5t gr\p ,r,o2 ?is =mula is also support$ by ,zambon9i4 ,m rec5tly ! problem ( ! con/itution has be5 attack$ by ,bruckmos]1 us+ ,ts*]mak's me?od ( det]m9+ ! nature ( ! salts pres5t 9 silicates4 ,9 ?is me?od1 ! m9]al is dige/$ ) hydro*loric acid1 at a temp]ature n great] ?an #fj1 until decomposition is complete2 ! silicic acid =m$ is wa%$ by decantation1 & dri$ 9 air at a con/ant temp]ature2 x is weigh$ at regul> int]vals until ! weight is con/ant4 ,x is /at$ t if a curve ( times & weights be plott$1 a break is obs]v$ at ! po9t :]e dry+ ceases 7= ! acid is ( c\rse wet7 & decomposition beg9s2 ! composition at ?is po9t1 :i* is tak5 z ! composition ( ! acid requir$1 c be det]m9$ f ! weight ( ! acid1 & ! weight ( anhydr\s silica pres5t1 :i* is det]m9$ by ignition aft] ! weight has become con/ant4 ,employ+ ?is me?od 9 ! case ( titanite1 ,bruckmos] claims to h obta9$ ! acids ,h,si,o & ,h,ti,o4 ,he !re=e concludes t ! con/itution ( ! m9]al is repres5t$ by ! =mula ,si,o1,ti,o,ca1 :i* presumably may be writt5 ,ca7,ti1,si7,o4 ,cry/al sy/em--monocl9ic2 a 3 b 3 c #jgedg 3 #a 3 #jhedc4 #fj #ag4 ,common =ms 7,des ,cloizeaux's ori5tation7--! p9akoids a #ajj & c #jja1 ) m #aaj1 s #jba1 x #ajb1 n #aaa1 & _m o!rs4 7#ajj7 7#aaj7 #ch #ad2 7#jja7 7#aja7 #fe #eg2 7#jja7 7#jaa7 #cf #cd4 ,! habit is v v>i$1 ! commone/ be+ ! w$ge =m1 elongat$ c4 ,tw9n+ is fairly common1 especially on ! law--,tw9 plane a1 :i* gives bo? contact & int]p5etrant tw9s4 ,cleavage m1 fairly di/9ct4 ,h>dness #e to #e2 sp4 gr4 #cdj to #cef4 ,lu/re adamant9e to res9\s4 ,! col\r v>ies v mu*1 d\btless ) ! cont5t ( iron & manganese2 x is commonly yell[1 gre51 or br[n4 ,pleo*roism is v di/9ct4 ,! refraction & disp]sion are v high1 giv+ ! facett$ /one a #8fire' inf]ior only to t ( diamond4 ,birefr+5ce positive1 /rong2 ! axial angles v>y v widely 9 diff]5t specim5s4 ,x is fusible ) difficulty be=e ! bl[pipe4 ,hot conc5trat$ hydro*loric acid decomposes x p>tially1 ) sep>ation ( silica2 boil+ sulphuric acid1 or1 bett]1 fus$ potassium hydrog5 sulphate1 decomposes x completely4 ,on acc\nt ( ! high disp]sion & refractive index1 cle> specim5s ( sph5e make v beautiful gems1 b ! /one is n suffici5tly h>d to /& mu* we>4 ,! m9]al 0 discov]$ 9 ,*am\ni by ,pictet 9 #aghg1 & 0 nam$ ,pictite by ,delam!rie 7#agig74 ,9 #agie ,klapro? analys$ a specim5 f ,passau1 &1 obs]v+ ! pres5ce ( titanium 7:i* he _h j discov]$ 9 rutile71 propos$ ! "n ,titanite4 ,! m9]al describ$ by de ,saussure 7#agif7 z #8,s*orl rayonnante1' & aft]w>ds by ,hauy 7#ahja7 z ,sph5e 7 a w$ge71 0 %[n to be id5tical 9 composition ) titanite by ,cordi]1 & also by ,klapro? 7#ahaj72 ! cry/allographic id5tity 0 prov$ by ,g4 ,rose 7#ahbj74 ,on acc\nt ( ! diff]5ce 9 col\r & composition1 a l>ge numb] ( v>ieties are di/+ui%$4 ,! ord9>y yell[ & br[n v>ieties are kn[n indiff]5tly z sph5e or titanite4 ,ligurite has an apple-gre5 col\r2 ,semel9e is a gre5i% =m nam$ f a fanci$ resemblance to flax se$4 ,l$]ite is a br[n v>iety ( tabul> habit2 ,gre5ovite is rose-col\r$1 & conta9s manganese4 ,al%$ite & ,eucolite-,titanite are ri* 9 ! trival5t metals2 ,gro?ite is a br[n v>iety conta9+ a consid]able p]c5tage ( f]ric iron4 ,yttrotitanite1 :i* conta9s a high proportion ( r>e e>?s1 is usually treat$ z a sep>ate species 7see above74 ,titanomorphite & ,leucox5e are :ite amorph\s v>ieties *iefly produc$ by alt]ation ( rutile & ilm5ite4 ,titanite is a fairly widespread m9]al2 z an accessory rock con/itu5t x is common 9 ! massive plutonic rocks 9 t9y cry/als1 readily di/+ui%$ "u ! microscope by ! high refraction & birefr+5ce1 :il/ 9 l>ge emb$d$ cry/als x occurs 9 _m granul> lime/ones1 & 9 plutonic acid1 z well z 9 "s metamorphic rocks4 ,9 good cry/als x is f\nd 9 _m p>ts ( ,switz]l& & ! ,alps1 9 ,dauph91 ! ,tyrol1 ,pi$mont1 ! ,urals1 ,s\? ,norway1 & o!r ,european localities2 x is also widely di/ribut$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,canada4 ,! m9]al is important z a valuable s\rce ( titanium4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! class ( ,titano-silicates is a v l>ge "o1 & might be ext5d$ almo/ at w by ! inclusion ( ! num]\s silicates :i* conta9 titanium4 ,ow+ to ! frequ5cy ) :i* small quantities ( silica are replac$ by titanium dioxide1 almo/ all ! common] silicate m9]als conta9 ! latt] oxide1 s t titanium is "o ( ! mo/ widely di/ribut$ ( ! elem5ts4 ,relatively v few1 h[ev]1 ( ! titanium-be>+ m9]als conta9 ! elem5t 9 consid]able quantities1 & only two or ?ree h any importance z comm]cial s\rces ( titanium comp\nds4 ,only ^? additional titano-silicates :i* conta9 titanium z an important con/itu5t are m5tion$ bel[2 %ort acc\nts w be f\nd 9 ! alphabetical li/4 ,john/rupite1 ,mos&rite1 ,r9kite1 ,ros5bus*ite & ,ts*effk9ite are complex titano-silicates conta9+ yttrium or c]ium metals4 ,a/rophyllite1 ,leucosph5ite1 ,mol5graafite1 ,neptunite & ,rhnite are complex titano-silicates free f r>e e>? elem5ts4 ,b5itoite is a simple titano-silicate ( b>ium2 nigmatite & ,n>s>sukite conta9 iron & sodium2 ,lor5z5ite has sodium & zirconium4 ,s*orlomite is a titanif]\s g>net4 ,a v>iety ( oliv9e ri* 9 titanium 7,titanium ,oliv9e7 is also kn[n4 7b7 ,,! ,,titanates ,yttrocrasite4#ee--,?is is a complex titanate ( r>e e>?s 7*iefly yttria e>?s7 ) lime1 ?oria1 & oxides ( lead1 iron1 uranium1 etc42 x has a consid]able wat] cont5t4 ,an approximate =mula is ,r,o1,riv,o1#c,r,o1#af,ti,o1#f;,h,o1 :]e ,r 7,ca1,pb1,fe71 ,riv 7,?1,u71 & ,r,o r>e e>?s4 ,no con/itutional =mula c be giv52 x w be notic$ t ! am\nt ( titanium dioxide is consid]ably m ?an is requir$ to comb9e ) ! bases pres5t 7cf4 also ,delor5zite bel[74 ,x is radioactive4 #ee ,hidd5 & ,w>r51 ,am]4 ,j4 ,sci4 #aijf1 iv41 #bb1 #eae2 also ,zeits*4 ,kry/4 ,m94 #aijg1 #dc1 #ah4 ,imp]fect cry/als only 7 f\nd1 app>5tly belong+ to ! or?orhombic sy/em4 ,no cry/allographic data c\ld be det]m9$4 ,! m9]al is black1 closely resembl+ polycrase & eux5ite 7q4v47 9 appe>ance4 ,h>dness #e-f2 sp4 gr4 #dhj4 ,x is infusible1 & n easily soluble 9 acids4 ,hydr(luoric acid decomposes x1 & ! p[d]$ m9]al is also sl[ly attack$ by boil+ conc5trat$ sulphuric acid4 ,x 0 f\nd 9 #aijd by ,b>r+]1 9 ,burnet ,co41 ,texas4 ,delor5zite4#ef--;,a comp\nd simil> to ! above1 b ev5 ri*] 9 titanium dioxide1 :i* am\nts to #ff p] c5t4 ,t9 dioxide is also pres5t1 ) traces ( columbic anhydride4 ,! bases are ! yttria e>?s 7almo/ free f c]ia e>?s71 uranium dioxide1 & "s f]r\s oxide1 ! =mula be+ #b;,fe,o1,,uo1#b,y,o1#bd,ti,o1 ) a little ,sn,o replac+ ,ti,o4 ,x is /rongly radioactive4 ,its close/ *emical neighb\r is yttrocrasite1 b 9 appe>ance & angles x closely resembles polycrase 7q4v474 ,its discov]]1 ,zambon9i1 !re=e =mulates x z a metatitanate ) titanium act+ also z a base--polycrase is a mix$ metatitanate & metacolumbate--?us1 #b;,fe,ti,o ,u7,ti,o7 #b,y7,ti,o7 #g7,ti,o7,ti,o4 #ef ,zambon9i1 ,zeits*4 ,kry/4 ,m94 #aijh1 #de1 #gf4 ,! cry/als occur 9 aggregates ( num]\s individuals 9 sub-p>allel gr[?4 ,! sy/em is or?orhombic2 a 3 b 3 c #jccge 3 #a 3 #jcdab4 ,usual =ms--! p9akoids a #ajj & b #jaj ) prism m #aaj1 dome d #bja1 etc4 ,habit prismatic1 elongat$ c axis4 ,h>dness #e-f2 sp4 gr4 ab\t #dg4 ,x 0 f\nd ) /ruvite 9 a pegmatite at ,craveggia1 ,pi$mont1 ,italy4 ,ilm5ite or ,m5accanite 7,specul> ,iron ,ore1 ,titanif]\s ,iron/one1 etc474--,?is is a titanate ( iron1 usually writt5 ,fe,ti,o4 ,its con/itution has giv5 rise to v consid]able discussion#eg2 n only d ! relative proportions ( iron & titanium v>y greatly1 b ! iron is und\bt$ly pres5t 9 bo? ! f]r\s & ! f]ric /ates1 & 9 ! =m] /ate is p>tly replac$ 9 "s specim5s by manganese & magnesium4 ,9 #ahbi ,mos&] put =w>d ! view t ! m9]al consi/$ ( ,fe,ti,o1 f]r\s titanate1 ) v>y+ proportions ( f]ric oxide1 ! =ms & angles ( ilm5ite be+ v simil> to ^? ( hmatite1 ,fe,o4 ,?is view 0 disput$ by ,h4 ,rose1 :o conclud$ t ! m9]al mu/ h be5 orig9ally an isomorph\s mixture ( f]ric oxide1 ,fe,o1 & titanic oxide1 ,ti,o1 :i* on exposure to high temp]ature 9 ! e>?'s cru/ w\ld *ange accord+ to ! equation ,fe,o ,ti,o #b,ti,o #b;,fe,o s t ! proportion ( f]r\s iron increases ) ! proportion ( titanium dioxide1 z is actually f\nd to be ! case4 ,?is condition1 h[ev]1 is also satisfi$ by ,mos&]'s view4 ,! latt] view 0 also support$ by ,rammelsb]g1 :o po9t$ out t ! pres5ce ( magnesium indicat$ ! exi/5ce ( f]r\s iron z a prim>y con/itu5t4 ,additional support is l5t to ?is view by ! discov]y ( ,pyrophanite1 ,mn,ti,o 7see li/71 :i* is f\nd to be isomorph\s ) ilm5ite1 s t !re c be little d\bt t ,mg,ti,o1 :i* c be only a titanate1 w\ld1 if x exi/$ 9 ! cry/all9e =m 7see ,geikielite 9 li/71 also be isomorph\s ) ilm5ite4 ,fri$el & ,gur9 7#ahgf7 prep>$ artificial titanium sesquioxide1 ,ti,o1 & f\nd x to be isomorph\s ) hmatite1 ,fe,o2 !y conclud$ t ,fe,fe,o1 ,fe,ti,o & ,ti,ti,o =m$ an isomorph\s s]ies1 & t ilm5ite 0 a mixture ( ! second ) ! o!r two4 ,9 #ahij ,hamb]g po9t$ out t !re 0 no reason to suppose t hmatite1 ,fe,o1 conta9s f]r\s iron1 i4e4 has ! con/itution ,fe,feiv,o1 analog\s to ,fe,tiiv,o1 s9ce 9 corundum1 ! analog\s comp\nd ( alum9ium1 ,al,o1 dival5t alum9ium c h>dly exi/2 nev]!less1 /rict analogy ( con/itution is n necess>y = isomorphism1 z %[n by ! case ( potassium nitrate1 ,,kno1 & aragonite1 ,ca,c,o1 s t hmatite1 ,fe,o1 & f]r\s titanate1 ,fe,ti,o1 might =m solid solutions 9 v>y+ proportions )\t ! /rictly analog\s =mula ,fe,fe,o be+ true = ! =m]4 ,! balance ( op9ion incl9es to ! con/itution 7m,fe,ti,o n,fe,o 9 isomorph\s mixture7 orig9ally propos$ by ,mos&]4 ,! evid5ce 9 support ( ?is view has be5 greatly /r5g!n$ by ! rec5t "w ( ,man*ot1#eh :i* has prov$ ! abs5ce ( titanium sesquioxide1 ,ti,o2 ! m9]al is !re=e to be reg>d$ z a titanate4 #eg ,= a full acc\nt ( ! e>li] "w on ! con/itution ( ilm5ite vide ,h9tze1 i4 #aheh et seq4 #eh ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aiab1 #gd1 #gi4 ,cry/al sy/em--rhomboh$ral2 9 =ms & angles v close to hmatite1 b ! two diff] 9 symmetry 7hmatite has t1 #c1 c1 #c2 ilm5ite has only t1 c74 c #achdeh2 7#aaa7 7#ajj7 #eg #eh2 habit1 tabul>1 ?ick2 or 9 ?9 lam94 ,usually 9 emb$d$ gra9s or roll$ cry/als 9 s&4 ,h>dness #e to #f2 sp4 gr4 #de to #ej1 increas+ ) p]c5tage ( f]ric oxide4 ,iron black1 opaque2 /reak black to br[ni%-r$4 ,lu/re sub-metallic4 ,slightly magnetic4 ,! m9]al is infusible2 :5 p[d]$1 x dissolves sl[ly 9 boil+ hydro*loric acid1 ! filt]$ yell[ solution giv+ ! *>act]i/ic blue col\ration ( titanium salts on addition ( t9foil4 ,9 fus$ potassium hydrog5 sulphate x dissolves readily4 ,! v>iation 9 composition c be judg$ f ! foll[+ limits3 ,ti,o ,fe,o ,fe,o #ce #icf #cc p] c5t4 #ebh #ab #dfe ,ilm5ite is a widely di/ribut$ m9]al4 ,9 cry/als x occurs *iefly at ,krag] & ,ar5dal 9 ,norway1 at ,miask 9 ! ,ilm5 m\nta9s1 9 ,dauph91 ! ,/4 ,go?>d1 etc42 9 ! massive =m at ,bay ,/4 ,paul1 ,quebec1 & o!r localities 9 ,am]ica2 & 9 s&s at ,m5accan 9 ,cornwall1 ,is]wiese 9 ,bohemia1 ,puy de ,dme1 dp4 ,haute ,loire1 ,france1 & 9 ,brazil1 ,au/ralia1 & ,new ,zeal&4 ,! m9]al 0 discov]$ at ,m5accan 9 ,cornwall by ,mc,gregor1 ab\t #agij4 ,he describ$ x z conta9+ iron & a new oxide2 ! unkn[n oxide 0 obta9$ 9 #agie f rutile by ,klapro?1 :o gave ! "n ,titanium to ! new metal x conta9$4 99 99 99 99 99 ,%ort descriptions ( ! foll[+ titanates are also giv5 7see li/73 ,davidite & ,knopite2 ^! are complex titanates conta9+ elem5ts ( ! c]ium & yttrium gr\ps4 ,arizonite & ,pseudobrookite--f]ric titanates4 ,p]ovskite1 calcium titanate1 & its v>iety ,hydrotitanite4 ,pyrophanite1 a manganese titanate isomorph\s ) ilm5ite1 & ,s5aite1 a species int]m$iate 9 composition betwe5 ^! two4 ,geikielite1 ! magnesium analogue ( ilm5ite1 ) ! v>iety ,picroilm5ite1 :i* is ri* 9 iron4 ,uhligite1 a titanate ( zirconium1 calcium & alum9ium4 ,d]bylite1 ,lewisite & ,mauzeliite1 an int]e/+ s]ies ( titano-antimonates4 ,w>wickite1 a boro-titanate4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,tantalo-,,columbates 7a7 ,,tantalo-,,columbates ,,conta9+ ,,no ,,titanium ,,dioxide ,sam>skite1 ,yttro-ilm5ite or ,eytl&ite 7,urano-tantalite74--,sam>skite is a tantalo-columbate#ei ( ! r>e e>? metals1 ) iron1 calcium1 & uranium4 #ei ,9 ?is & all simil> m9]als1 columbium 7niobium7 & tantalum are to be reg>d$ z vic>i\s2 !y replace ea* o!r 9 all proportions4 ,x seldom happ5s t a pure columbate is f\nd free f tantalum1 or vice v]sa2 "o or o!r may pr$om9ate1 b ! two are almo/ always f\nd toge!r4 ,rammelsb]g gives ! =mula ,r,r7,cb1,ta7,o1 :]e ,r 7,fe1,ca1,,uo71 & ,r r>e e>? metals4 ,gro? reg>ds x z ess5tially a pyrocolumbate 7tantalate7 ( r>e e>? metals ,r7,cb1,ta7,o ! iron1 calcium & uranium be+ m or less accessory con/itu5ts4 ,des ,cloizeaux consid]s ! =mula indef9ite4 ,! m9]al has also be5 f\nd to conta9 t91 ?orium1 g]manium1 & helium4 ,! yttria e>?s usually pr$om9ate 7#aai to #ahi p] c5t471 ! p]c5tage ( c]ia e>?s be+ l[ 7#bd to #eb p] c5t474 ,! yttria e>?s conta9 ! v r>e oxide sam>ia4 ,! m9]al is radio-active4 ,cry/al sy/em--or?orhombic2 a 3 b 3 c #jedef 3 #a 3 #jeagh4 ,=ms--macro- & bra*y-p9akoids a #ajj & b #jaj2 prisms m #aaj & h #abj1 ! macrodome e #aja1 & pyramids p #aaa & v #bca4 ,angles--7#ajj7 7#aaj7 #bh #cg2 7#jja7 7#aja7 #dc #cj2 7#jja7 7#jaa7 #bg #bb4 ,habit usually prismatic1 ) e prom95t2 sometimes tabul> p>allel to a or b4 ,cleavage b1 imp]fect4 ,! faces are usually r\gh4 ,! m9]al commonly occurs massive1 & 9 flatt5$ gra9s emb$d$ 9 granite4 ,con*oidal fracture4 ,brittle4 ,h>dness #e to #f2 sp4 gr4 #ef to #eh4 ,col\r velvet-black1 /reak r$di%-br[n4 ,opaque ev5 9 ?9 films4 ,be=e ! bl[pipe x fuses at ! edges2 ) borax x gives an iron bead4 ,x is decompos$ by boil+ conc5trat$ sulphuric acid1 bett] by fusion ) potassium hydrog5 sulphate1 & lea*+ ! residue ) dilute hydro*loric acid--?is leaves ! insoluble oxides ,cb,o & ,ta,o4 ,on heat+ x gl[s1 ) decrease 9 specific gravity 7cf4 p4 #ch74 ,sam>skite occurs ) o!r columbo-tantalates 9 felsp>1 or 9 ve9s 9 granite1 ne> ,miask 9 ! ,urals1 ne> ,quebec 9 ,canada1 & 9 ,mit*ell ,c\nty1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a4 ,f ! la/-nam$ locality1 masses up to tw5ty p\nds 9 weight h be5 obta9$4 ,! m9]al 0 fir/ discov]$ 9 ! ,urals by ,ewre9(f1 capta9 ( a corps ( ,russian m\nta9 eng9e]s4 ,he s5t a specim5 = id5tification to ! m9]alogi/ ,gu/ave ,rose1 :o pron\nc$ x to be a tantalate ( uranium conta9+ manganese1 & call$ x ,urano-tantalite4#fj ,9 #ahdg ! *emi/ ,he9ri* ,rose1 bro!r ( ,gu/ave1 9 ! c\rse ( 8 rese>*es on tantalic #8acid' 7oxide71 analys$ a specim54 ,he f\nd ! composition giv5 above1 & r5am$ x ,sam>skite1#fa 9 hon\r ( ! ,russian eng9e] :o furni%$ him ) ! specim5 = analysis4 #fj ,pogg4 ,ann4 #ahci1 #dh1 #eee4 #fa ,ibid41 #ahdg1 #ga1 #aeg4 ,9 #aijg1 ,brgg]#fb ann\nc$ t ,ann]dite1 ( :i* he _h publi%$ an acc\nt z a new species 9 #ahha1 0 a p>allel gr[? ( ! m9]al columbite1 7,fe1,mn7,cb,o1 on sam>skite4 #fb ,ab/r4 ,*em4 ,soc41 #aijg1 #ib1 ii4 #hhe4 ,bo? m9]als are or?orhombic1 b !y are n isomorph\s4 ,! mi/ake 0 due to ! fact t :il/ ! cry/allographic data 7 det]m9$ f ! upp] cry/als ( columbite1 ! cry/als ( sam>skite 7 us$ = analysis4 ,plumboniobite4#fc--,?is is a rec5tly discov]$ m9]al closely relat$ to sam>skite & yttrotantalite 7q4v474 ,x is ess5tially a columbate#fd ( yttrium metals1 lead & uranium1 ) wat]1 f]r\s oxide1 titanium dioxide1 /annic oxide1 alum9a1 lime1 & cupr\s oxide4 ,! =mula giv5 is ,r,cb,o1,r7,cb,o71 :]e ,r 7,fe1,pb1,ca1,,uo71 & ,r ,al & yttria metals1 ) isomorph\s 787 metatitanate4 ,! m9]al is radio-active1 & gives consid]able quantities ( gas on be+ heat$ ) sulphuric acid 7c>bon dioxide #jai1 helium & nitrog5 #jbb p] c5t474 ,! yttria e>?s are ri* 9 ! oxides ( gadol9ium & sam>ium1 & ! m9]al %\ld prove a valuable s\rce ( ^! elem5ts4 ,x is rem>kable t ! c]ia e>?s are almo/ entirely abs5t4 #fc ,haus] u4 ,f9*1 ,b]4 #aiji1 #db1 #bbgj2 ,haus]1 ibid41 #aiaj1 #dc1 #dag4 #fd ,x is to be und]/ood t small quantities ( columbium are replac$ by tantalum4 ,! m9]al is massive1 ) "s indication ( cry/all9e /ructure4 ,x is d>k br[n to black1 transp>5t 9 flakes1 & "u ! microscope is se5 to be isotropic1 ) d\bly-refract+ inclusions1 und\bt$ly ( a second>y nature4 ,h>dness #e to #e2 sp4 gr4 #dhj to #dha4 ,unlike sam>skite1 x does n gl[ on ignition4 ,x occurs ) mica & pit*bl5de 9 pegmatite ve9s 9 granite1 at ,morogoro1 9 ! ,uluguru ,m\nta9s1 ,g]man ,ea/ ,africa4 ,yttrotantalite4--,?is is a tantalo-columbate simil> 9 composition to ,sam>skite1 & isomorph\s ) x2 ?\gh1 z ! "n implies1 ! acidic oxide is *iefly tantalum p5toxide1 ! p]c5tage ( columbic anhydride be+ mu* l[] ?an 9 ! latt] m9]al4 ,x is a pyro-salt ( ! =mula ,r,r7,cb1,ta7,o #d;,h,o1#fe :]e ,r 7,fe1,ca7 & ,r r>e e>? 7*iefly yttrium7 metals 7,rammelsb]g74 ,/rutt f\nd ?orium & radium 9 x4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! wat] is comb9$ 9 ?is1 z 9 _m o!r m9]als1 is at pres5t undet]m9$4 #fe ,dana gives ,r,r7,cb1,ta7,o #d;,h,o2 ?is appe>s to be an error4 ,cry/al sy/em--or?orhombic2 a 3 b 3 c #jedaa 3 #a 3 #aaccj4 ,common =ms--p9akoids b #jaj & c #jja1 prisms m #aaj1 o #baj1 p #abj1 domes s #bja & #jaa4 ,habit1 prismatic ) m & b prom95t1 or tabul> p>allel to b4 ,col\r yell[ to black1 :ite aft] /rong ignition4 ,x is f\nd at ,ytt]by 9 ,sw$51 & 9 ,s\? ,norway4 ,f]gusonite1 ,tyrite1 or ,bragite4--,a columbate & tantalate ( ! r>e e>? metals1 ) uranium1 iron1 calcium1 etc4 ,! g5]al =mula is t ( an or?o-comp\nd1 ,r,o17,cb1,ta7,o or ,r7,cb1,ta7,o1 :]e ,r metals ( ! r>e e>?s1 *iefly ( ! yttrium gr\p4 ,brgg] includes ! o!r con/itu5ts 9 ! m complex =mula 7,?1,u77,si1,sn7,o #ab,r7,cb1,ta7,o2 b ! simpl] =mula agrees q well ) specim5s f ! mo/ widely sep>at$ localities1 & is usually adopt$4 ,! m9]al is radio-active & conta9s helium4 ,tetragonal1 pol> 7) tetrad axis ( symmetry only7 c #adfdc4 7#jja7 7#aja7 #ee #dj4 ,common =ms--,basal p9akoid c #jja1 tetragonal prism g #cbj1 pyramids s #aaa1 z #cba4 ,brittle4 ,h>dness #e to #f2 sp4 gr4 #ehd1 decreas+ on hydration4 ,lu/re dull1 brilliantly vitre\s on brok5 surfaces4 ,col\r br[ni%-black4 ,transluc5t to opaque4 ,f]gusonite 0 discov]$ by ,h>twell4 ,x occurs ) sam>skite1 & (t5 ) gadol9ite & allanite1 9 ,norway & ,sw$51 ! ,c>ol9as1 ,texas1 ! ,urals1 ,w4 ,au/ralia1 etc4 ,on heat+ x gl[s sudd5ly betwe5 #ejj & #fjj;,c41#ff los+ all its helium1 & ) decrease 9 d5sity 7#efai to #ecge74 ,at ! same "t x gives out a consid]able am\nt ( heat--#hji ,c4#fg = #a gm4 7see p4 #ch74 #ff ,ramsay & ,trav]s1 ,zeits*4 physikal4 ,*em4 #ahih1 #be1 #efh4 #fg ,! heat ( combu/ion ( a gram ( hydrog5 is #cdb ,k4 ,sipylite4--,ess5tially a columbate ( r>e e>? metals1 ) oxides ( tantalum1 tung/51 zirconium1 uranium1 iron & calcium1 & "s wat]4 ,mallet1 ! discov]]1 gives ! =mula z ,r,o1,cb,o1 ! basic oxides includ+1 besides ! r>e e>?s1 ,cb,o ) ,ta,o & ,,wo1 & "s wat]4 ,an alt]native =mula1 mak+ x a complex pyro-salt1 is also giv51 b f its great simil>ity 9 =m & angles to f]gusonite1 ! fir/ =mula is pref]r$4 ,/rutt f9ds t x conta9s n only uranium1 radium & helium1 b also ?orium 9 consid]able quantity 7,th,o #di p] c5t471 a fact :i* _h be5 ov]look$ by ,mallet4 ,! r>e e>?s conta9 a high proportion ( erbia4 ,x is tetragonal1 c #adgfg1 7#jja7 7#aja7 #ee #ed4 ,! cry/als are octah$ral1 ) ! =m p #aaa2 p p #gi #ae1 p p #abh #ej4 ,cleavage di/9ct p4 ,x is usually granul> & amorph\s4 ,col\r br[ni%-black to br[ni%-r$1 lu/re res9\s4 ,brittle4 ,h>dness #f2 sp4 gr4 #dhi4 ,transluc5t4 ,its behavi\r on heat+ has be5 already m5tion$ 7see p4 #ci72 x is infusible4 ,boil+ hydro*loric acid p>tially dissolves x2 ! solution gives ! turm]ic te/ = zirconium1 & on dilut+ & add+ metallic t9 a sapphire-blue col\r is develop$1 due to ! columbium pres5t4 ,boil+ conc5trat$ sulphuric acid decomposes x sl[ly4 ,x is f\nd 9 ,amhur/ ,co41 ,virg9ia1 adh]5t to ! allanite :i* occurs !re 9 l>ge quantities4 ,x 0 discov]$ !re by ,mallet 9 #ahgg1 :o nam$ x1 on acc\nt ( ! columbium 7niobium7 pres5t1 f ,sipylus1 "o ( ! sons ( ,niobe4#fh #fh ,see ,mallet1 ,am]4 ,j4 ,sci4 #ahgg1 iii41 #ad1 #cig4 99 99 99 99 99 ,9 ?is class1 also1 are to be includ$ ! foll[+ m9]als 7see li/73 ,nohlite & ,viet+h(ite1 v>ieties ( ,sam>skite4 ,hjelmite & ,ko*elite1 m9]als closely relat$ to ,yttrotantalite & ,f]gusonite respectively4 ,koppite1 ,loranskite1 ,microlite & ,rog]site1 complex tantalo-columbates conta9+ elem5ts ( ! c]ium or yttrium gr\ps4 7b7 ,,tantalo-,,columbates ,,conta9+ ,,titanium ,,dioxide s*ynite4--,a columbate & titanate ( ! c]ium metals1 ) ?orium1 calcium1 iron1 etc4 ,f ! results ( an analysis on a specim5 f ,hitt]1 ,norway1 ,ts*]nik propos$ ! r =midable =mula #b7b;,ce,o1#c,ti,o71#d7,th,o1,ti,o71,y7, cb,o71#c7;,ca,o1,ti,o71#c;,fe7,cb,o71 ,fe7,ta,o71#f,ti,o4 ,?is c be simplifi$ to ,y7,cb,o7 ,th,ti,o ,ti,o1 9 :i* ,y repres5ts r>e e>? metals p>tially replac$ 7#b atoms7 by f]r\s iron 7#c atoms71 :il/ ?orium c be p>tially replac$ by 7#b atoms (7 f]r\s iron or calcium4 ,/rutt f\nd x to conta9 ! uranium-radium comb9ation & helium4 ,! cry/als are or?orhombic1 holosymmetric2 a 3 b 3 c #jdhff 3 #a 3 #jfgcg4 ,common =ms--bra*y- & basal p9akoids b #jaj & c #jja1 prisms m #aaj & r #abj1 domes d #aja & v #jba1 ) pyramid o #aaa4 7#ajj7 7#aaj7 #be #eg2 7#jja7 7#aja7 #ed #i2 7#jja7 7#jaa7 #cc #eh4 ,habit prismatic1 v]tically /riat$1 or tabul> p>allel to b ) horizontal /riations4 ,brittle4 ,h>dness #e to #f2 sp4 gr4 #di to #eg4 ,col\r ne>ly black4 ,ne>ly opaque4 ,x occurs at ,miask1 9 ! ,urals1 at ,hitt] 9 ,norway1 & at ,fr$riksv>n4 ,! v>iety f ! la/ locality is call$ ,polymignite2 x 0 %[n by ,rose to be probably id5tical ) s*ynite4 s*ynite 0 discov]$ by ,b]zelius at ,miask & nam$ by him f ! ,greek 1 %ame1 f ! fact t its composition c\ld n at t "t be det]m9$4 ,if ! c]ia e>?s be l>gely replac$ by yttria e>?s1 a v>iety v simil> 9 appe>ance & angles1 b approximat+ to polycrase 7q4v47 9 composition1 is obta9$4 ,?is m9]al 0 f\nd 9 #ahgi1 & ref]r$ to s*ynite2 analysis subsequ5tly %[$ its true composition1 & x 0 nam$ ,blom/r&9e 7q4v47 by ,brgg] 9 #aijg4 ,! ,isodimorph\s ,s]ies ,eux5ite1 ,polycrase1 ,blom/r&9e1 & ,priorite4 ,eux5ite & ,polycrase are memb]s ( an isomorph\s s]ies & v>y consid]ably 9 composition4 ,! composition ( ! s]ies is t ( mix$ columbates & titanates ( yttria e>?s 7)1 z usual1 "s c]ia e>?s71 ) uranium & zirconium1 & wat]4 ,be=e ! isomorph\s relation 0 recognis$1 ,rammelsb]g gave = ,eux5ite ! =mula ,r7,cb,o71,r7,ti,o71#a;,h,o4 ,! ratio ( ! acidic oxides1 ,cb,o 3 ,ti,o1 is "h #a 3 #b4 ,?is is ! greate/ value ( ! ratio1 :i* v>ies = ! s]ies betwe5 #a 3 #b & #a 3 #e4fi ,! end memb]s1 ! pure metacolumbate & pure metatitanate respectively1 are unkn[n2 all ! memb]s occurr+ 9 nature are to be reg>d$ z mixtures ( ^! )9 ! limits set by ! ratios & 4 ,brgg]#gj sugge/s t ! "n ,eux5ite be reta9$ = all memb]s = :i* ! ratio is betwe5 & 1 :il/ = ^? m9]als 9 :i* x is less ?an ! "n ,polycrase be kept2 ^! views h be5 support$ by ,lange1 :o has analys$ memb]s ( ! s]ies4 #fi ,lange 7,ab/r4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiaa1 #ajj1 ii4 #dii7 gives ! limits & 4 #gj ,ab/r4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aijg1 #ib1 ii4 #hhe4 ,! memb]s ( ?is isomorph\s s]ies1 h[ev]1 are !mselves dimorph\s1 t is1 c ea* cry/allise 9 two diff]5t ways4 ,! second =m correspond+ to ! ,eux5ites is kn[n z ,priorite1 :il/ t correspond+ to ,polycrase is kn[n z ,blom/r&9e2 & ^! second =ms are !mselves memb]s ( a p>allel isomorph\s s]ies ( ! same *emical composition1 ( c\rse1 z ! fir/ s]ies4 ,x is1 p]haps1 undesirable to cite ?is z a typical example ( an isodimorph\s s]ies1 s9ce no end memb]s ( unmix$ composition are kn[n4 ,a p]fect example ( su* a s]ies is furni%$ by ! oxides ( antimony & ars5ic4 ,ea* ( ^! comp\nds exi/s 9 two di/9ct cry/all9e v>ieties1 antimony trioxide1 ,sb,o1 z ,val5t9ite 7or?orhombic7 & ,s5>montite 7cubic71 ars5ic trioxide1 ,z,o1 z ,claudetite 7or?orhombic7 & ,ars5olite 7cubic72 & ^! two modifications are isomorph\s ) "o ano!r1 s5>montite ) ars5olite1 & val5t9ite ) claudetite4 ,9 ! case we are consid]+1 ! "n ,eux5ite is appli$ to "o cry/all9e modification 7,a7 ( a numb] ( isomorph\s comp\nds )9 c]ta9 limits ( composition1 ! "n ,priorite to ! second cry/all9e modification 7,b7 ( ! same comp\nds2 ! "n ,polycrase is appli$ to comp\nds hav+ ! cry/al =m ,a1 & a composition v>y+ )9 a second set ( limits 9 ! same *emical s]ies1 :il/ ?is second set ( comp\nds 9 ! cry/all9e =m ,b is kn[n z ,blom/r&9e4 ,/at$ z concisely z possible1 ! relation%ip is z foll[s3 ,ea* memb] ( ?is *emical s]ies ( cont9u\sly v>y+ composition c cry/allise 9 two =ms1 :i* are ! same = e memb]4 ,! two v>ieties at "o end ( ! s]ies are call$ eux5ite & priorite1 at ! o!r end polycrase & blom/r&9e4 ,?us1 :il/ eux5ite & priorite1 at ! "o end1 & polycrase & blom/r&9e at ! o!r1 h ! same compositions1 eux5ite & polycrase h ! same cry/all9e =m1 :il/ priorite & blom/r&9e h ! same second cry/all9e =m4 ,all f\r m9]als h ! same bright black appe>ance1 & bright con*oidal fracture2 !y are all f\r isotropic1 probably z a result ( hydration4 ,all are or?orhombic1 b ! measurem5ts = eux5ite & polycrase are diff]5t f ^? = blom/r&9e & priorite4 ,! two latt] are n s widely di/ribut$ z ! two =m]4 ,blom/r&9e occurs at ,hitt]1 ,ar5dal1 & o!r localities 9 ,norway2 priorite is f\nd 9 ,swazil&1 ,s\? ,africa4 ,! cry/al sy/em ( ! ,polycrase-,eux5ite s]ies is or?orhombic1 b ,dana gives slightly diff]5t axial ratios = ! two m9]als4 ,?is1 ?\gh ,brgg] gives ! same values = bo?1 is by no means incompatible ) isomorphism1 z a glance at ! axial ratios = ! m9]als aragonite1 /rontianite1 )]ite1 etc41 ( ! s]ies ( ! or?orhombic c>bonates1 w %[4 ,brgg]'s ratios = ! two are a 3 b 3 c #jcghi 3 #a 3 #jcebg2 ,dana gives = polycrase #jcdfb 3 #a 3 #jcabd1 = eux5ite #jcfd 3 #a 3 #jcjc4 ,eux5ite4 ,?is species occurs usually 9 ! massive =m z a bright br[ni%-black m9]al1 ( h>dness #f1 & sp4 gr4 #df to #ej4 ,! cry/als are prismatic 9 habit2 ! common =ms are ! p9akoids a #ajj & b #jaj1 ! prism m #aaj1 ! unit pyramid p #aaa1 & ! dome #bja4 ,ramsay1 ,collie & ,trav]s f\nd no helium 9 x2 ,boltwood f\nd uranium1 radium & helium1 & ,/rutt f\nd 9 addition to ^! ?orium4 ,z e>ly z #ahgi1 ,blom/r& _h obs]v$ zirconium 9 eux5ite4 ,! m9]al is infusible & ) difficulty soluble 9 acids4 ,x occurs 9 _m localities 9 ,sc&9avia 7,hitt]1 ,ar5dal1 ,brevig1 etc471 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ,s\? ,au/ralia1 etc4 ,x 0 discov]$ by ,s*e]] at ,jl/]1 9 ,norway1 9 #ahci4 ,! ,eux5ite-,polycrase s]ies 0 /udi$ by ,haus] & ,wir? 9 #aiji1ga 9 an endeav\r to e/abli% _! !ory t ! proportions 9 :i* ! v>i\s e>?s & acids occur 9 ?is gr\p ( m9]als is subject to def9ite laws beyond ! ord9>y laws ( comb9ation4 ,?us ( ! erbia e>?s !y /ate t ! proportion ( holmia & dysprosia increases relatively to erbia z titanium dioxide increases1 i4e4 z we pass f ! eux5ites to ! polycrases2 at ! same "t sc&ia & yttria increase relatively to ! o!r yttria e>?s 7! t]bia gr\p71 :il/ 9 ! c]ia gr\p sam>ia & praseodymia decrease relatively to ! o!rs4 ,?us sam>ia is f\nd 9 appreciable quantities only :5 ! titanium cont5t is l[4 ,! orig9al pap] mu/ be consult$ = full details4 #ga ,b]4 #aiji1 #db1 #dddc4 ,x 0 /at$ above t zirconium 0 f\nd 9 eux5ite 9 #ahgi4 ,9 #aija ,h(mann & ,pr&tl#gb decl>$ t zirconia 0 an unfail+ con/itu5t ( ! m9]al1 & t x 0 always accompani$ by a new oxide1 :i* !y nam$ ,eux5ia 7#8,eux5]de'74 ,?is 0 *>act]is$ by ! solubility ( its oxalate 9 acid solutions1 ! insolubility ( ! precipitat$ hydroxide 9 excess ( alkali1 & ! gradual precipitation by hydrog5 p]oxide f a slightly acid solution ( its salts4 ,9 _! pap] quot$ above1 ,haus] & ,wir? /ate t zirconia is nev] pres5t 9 typical eux5ites4 ,9 a second pap]#gc !y /ate t aft] exhau/ive treatm5t ( e kn[n zirconia m9]al1 !y c f9d no trace :atev] ( ! #8new e>?1' & conclude t ,h(mann & ,pr&tl mu/ h made "s exp]im5tal error4 ,dur+ ?is exam9ation1 !y obs]v$ radioactivity 9 "s m9]als :i* conta9$ no traces ( uranium or ?orium4 #gb ,ibid4 #aija1 #cd1 #ajfd4 #gc ,b]4 #aiaj1 #dc1 #ahjg4 ,risrite4#gd--;,a columbate ( yttria e>?s1 ) titanium2 f]ric oxide1 alum9a1 lime & lead monoxide are pres5t 9 small quantities4 ,x resembles f]gusonite 9 composition1 b diff]s 9 ! almo/ complete abs5ce ( uranium1 ! high loss on ignition1 & ! am\nt ( titanium pres5t1 :i* is "h consid]able 7,ti,o #fe p] c5t474 ,haus] reg>ds x z an or?ocolumbate1 ,r7,cb1,ta7,o1 ) an isomorph\s admixture ( metatitanate1 ,r7,ti,o74 #gd ,haus]1 ,b]4 #aijg1 #dj1 #caah2 ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aijh1 #fj1 #bcj4 ,! r>e e>?s are *iefly yttria1 ) "s erbia e>?s & a little t]bia2 c]ia1 lan?ana & didymia are also pres5t4 ,! m9]al conta9s a consid]able am\nt ( helium1 :i* is rem>kable 9 view ( ! v small cont5t ( uranium & ?orium 7cf4 ,?al5ite74 ,x is radioactive1 ! active con/itu5t be+ precipitat$ ) ! lead 7& to a v small ext5t ) ! r>e e>?s74 ,x is infusible1 b at a r$ heat x loses mu* wat]1 & becomes v brittle1 ) increase ( specific gravity2 no gl[+ is obs]v$4 ,x is attack$ by boil+ conc5trat$ sulphuric acid1 & by fus$ potassium bisulphate2 also by hydr(luoric acid 7#dj p] c5t471 ) sep>ation ( ! insoluble r>e e>? fluorides4 ,no good cry/als h be5 f\nd1 & no cry/allographic data are kn[n2 exam9$ by pol>is$ light x appe>s isotropic1 b ?is may be due to alt]ation4 ,col\r1 yell[i%- to gre5i%-br[n4 ,/reak1 yell[i%-:ite4 ,h>dness #e2 sp4 gr4 #dagi1 increas+ to #dfgh aft] ignition 7cf4 p4 #ch74 ,! m9]al 0 f\nd 9 a granite-pegmatite at ,risr1 ,s\? ,norway4 ,wiikite4#ge--;,a m9]al ( v complex composition1 = :i* no def9ite =mula c be assign$4 ,its *emical nature may be und]/ood f ! foll[+ analytical data3 ,columbic & tantalic anhydrides #afj2 ,dioxides ( titanium & zirconium #bcd2 ,silica #agj2 ,c]ia #be2 ,yttria #gf2 ,sc&ia #ab2 ,?oria #ee2 ,f]r\s oxide #aee2 ,uranic oxide #cf2 wat] 7& gas7 #eh p] c5t4 #ge ,crookes1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #aijh1 ,a1 #bji1 #ae4 ,traces ( lime1 magnesia1 /annic oxide & sulphur are also pres5t4 ,! m9]al is infusible2 on heat+1 helium1 sulphurett$ hydrog5 & wat] vap\r are giv5 (f1 & a :ite sublimate is =m$4 ,! evolution ( gas is almo/ explosive1 ! m9]al break+ ) a curi\s fracture4 ,x is black & p]fectly amorph\s1 %[+ no trace ( cry/all9e /ructure or action on pol>is$ light4 ,h>dness1 #f2 sp4 gr4 #dhe4 ,wiikite is p>tially attack$ by acids1 readily by fus$ potassium bisulphate4 ,x is radioactive4 ,! m9]al 0 f\nd ) monazite 9 a felsp> qu>ry at ,impilaks1 ,lake ,ladoga1 ,f9l&4 ,x is important z ! s\rce ( sc&ium us$ by ,sir ,william ,crookes 9 8 inve/igations ( t elem5t2 "s specim5s ( ! m9]al conta9 ov] #a p] c5t4 ( ! oxide 7see p4 #dd74 99 99 99 99 99 ,! foll[+ relat$ m9]als1 ( :i* descriptions are giv5 9 ! alphabetical li/1 are to be includ$ "h3 ,arrh5ite1 ,*alcolamprite1 ,endeiolite & ,whl]ite1 are complex tantalo-columbates conta9+ silica4 ,ha9ite conta9s bo? silicon & titanium4 ,dysanalyte is a titano-columbate believ$ by ,haus]#gf to be m]ely an impure =m ( p]ovskite 7see p4 #ad74 #gf ,vide ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aijh1 #fj1 #bcg4 ,ilm5orutile & ,/rv]ite are closely alli$ m9]als believ$ by ,prior#gg & ,s*all]#gh to be isomorph\s mixtures ( rutile ) ,tapiolite or ,mossite 7f]r\s tantalo-columbates74 #gg ,m94 ,mag4 #aijh1 #ae1 #gh4 #gh ,ab/r4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiab1 #ajb1 ii4 #ggc4 ,pyro*lore is a complex titano-columbate conta9+ elem5ts ( ! c]ium or yttrium gr\ps4 ,blom/r&ite is an hydrat$ titano-columbate ( r>e e>? elem5ts1 ) calcium & uranium2 x mu/ n be confus$ ) blom/r&9e4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,oxides ,,& ,,c>bonates 7a7 ,,! ,,oxides ,uran9ite or ,pit*bl5de4--,uran9ite consi/s ess5tially ( oxides ( uranium 7,,uo ,,uo #ge to #he p] c5t471 associat$ ) ?oria1 zirconia1 r>e e>?s1 b]yllia1 & oxides ( lead4 ,traces ( lime1 iron oxides1 silica1 bismu?1 & ars5ic are also sometimes pres5t1 ) wat] 9 widely v>y+ quantities4 ,nitrog5 & helium are always f\nd 9 x1 &1 ( c\rse1 radium4 ,gro? reg>ds pit*bl5de z uran\s uranate ,uiv7,uvi,o71 ! uranium 9 ! acidic radicle be+ hexaval5t & 9 ! basic radicle tetraval5t1 & 9 ! latt] condition p>tially replac$ by lead1 ?orium1 & r>e e>?s4 ,szil>d#gi reg>ds x r z a loose comp\nd or ev5 a solid solution ( oxides ( ?orium & uranium1#hj ) small quantities ( o!r oxides1 he hav+ obta9$ app>5tly homog5e\s 7?\gh non-cry/all9e7 bodies by dissolv+ ?orium hydroxide 9 solutions ( uranium salts & evaporat+ to dryness4 #gi ,compt4 r5d4 #aijg1 #ade1 #dfc4 #hj ,see "u ,?orianite1 infra4 ,! cubic =m ( ! cry/all9e v>ieties has be5 tak5 z indicat+ t ! m9]al is really a sp9el1#ha b x is difficult to see h[ ! g5]al =mula ( t gr\p c be consid]$ comp>able to ! uranyl uranate =mula1 ,,uo1,,uo1 = pit*bl5de4 #ha ,! ,sp9els are an isomorph\s family ( cubic m9]als ( ! g5]al =mula ,r,o1,r,o1 :]e ,r ,be1 ,fe1 ,mg1 ,ca1 etc41 & ,r ,fe1 ,al1 ,cr1 etc4 ,cry/als are r>e1 & belong to ! cubic sy/em1 ! common =ms be+ ! octah$ron o #aaa & ! dodecah$ron d #aaj2 ! cube a #ajj is sometimes pres5t4 ,! m9]al is massive1 usually botryoidal4 ,! cry/all9e or prim>y =m is black1 ) h>dness #e1 sp4 gr4 #ij to #ig2 ! alt]$ v>ieties are grey to gre5i%- & br[ni%-black1 sp4 gr4 #ej to #fd4 ,x is infusible be=e ! bl[pipe1 b readily soluble 9 nitric acid4 ,! m9]al occurs bo? z a prim>y & second>y con/itu5t ( rocks2 z a prim>y m9]al x is f\nd 9 ,norway1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 etc42 z a second>y species x occurs 9 ! massive & hydrat$ =m1 ) ores ( lead1 silv]1 t91 etc41 9 ,saxony & ,cornwall1 & at ! celebrat$ m9e ( ,joa*im/hal1 9 ,bohemia4 ,! latt] deposits1 consi/+ ( ! massive & alt]$ v>ieties1 = :i* ! "n ,pit*bl5de is g5]ally res]v$1 h be5 mu* us$ z a s\rce ( radium1 especially ^? at ,joa*im/hal1 & ! ,cornwall ore4 ,sev]al v>ieties ( uran9ite h be5 di/+ui%$ by special names4 ,cry/all9e v>ieties f ,ann]d & ,ar5dal 9 ,norway are kn[n z ,brgg]ite & ,cleveite respectively2 ,niv5ite is a ?ird =m4 ,9 ^! v>ieties uranium oxides h be5 replac$ to a consid]able ext5t by ! r>e e>?s & ?oria4 ,an amorph\s v>iety ( d\btful composition1 produc$ by alt]ation1 is kn[n z ,gummite2 ,uranosphrite is a simil> alt]$ =m4 ,?orianite4#hb--,?is int]e/+ m9]al consi/s *iefly ( ?oria1 ,th,o 7#ee-gi p] c5t471 ) oxides ( uranium 7#aa-cb p] c5t471 & c]ia oxides 7#a-h p] c5t472 oxides ( lead & iron are also pres5t 9 small quantities1 & zirconia ) silica1 probably due to associat$ zircon4 #hb ,dun/an & ,blake1 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 #aije1 ,a1 #gf1 #bec2 ,dun/an & ,jones1 ibid41 #aijf1 ,a1 #gg1 #edf4 ,helium is pres5t1 & ! m9]al is /rongly radioactive4 ,a c>eful analysis by ,hahn#hc %[s traces ( _m metals2 ! same *emi/ has also sep>at$ an extremely active compon5t1 #bej1jjj times z active z ?orium nitrate1 :i* he calls ,radio?orium4 #hc ,hahn1 ibid41 #aijg1 ,a1 #gh1 #che4 ,! composition has be5 acc\nt$ = 7,dun/an & ,jones1 loc4 cit47 on ! hypo!sis t ?oria 7,th,o7 & uran\s oxide 7,,uo7 are isomorph\s1 ! m9]al be+ really a solid solution4 ,:il/1 h[ev]1 ! cry/al sy/em ( ! natural body is really rhomboh$ral 7vide infra7 ! two pure oxides appe> to be cubic4 ,?us ,troo/ & ,ouvr>d#hd obta9$ artificial ?oria 9 m9ute octah$ra2 &1 simil>ly1 ,hillebr&#he obta9$ uran\s oxide 9 octah$ra by r$uction ( uranyl *loride1 ,,uo,cl1 ?\gh 8 "w seems to be op5 to objection4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! same au?or#hf f\nd t uran\s oxide & ?oria1 fus$ toge!r 9 almo/ any proportions1 gave a homog5e\s body cry/allis+ 9 octah$ra 7cf4 ,szil>d1 ,compt4 r5d4 #aijg1 #ade1 #dfc1 quot$ "u ,uran9ite74 ,! probability ( ! isomorphism ( ! oxides is /r5g!n$ by ! obs]vation ( isomorphism 9 ! sulphates4 ,z e>ly z #ahhf1 ,rammelsb]g %[$ t uran\s sulphate1 ,u7,,s71 cry/allises ) n9e molecules ( wat] & is isomorph\s ) ! correspond+ ?orium sulphate1 ,?7,,s71#i;,h,o2 & six ye>s lat]1 ,hillebr& & ,melville#hg obta9$ mix$ cry/als ( ! two sulphates :i* 7 exce$+ly close 9 =ms & angles to ^? ( pure uran\s sulphate4 ,x is !n at lea/ probable t ! two oxides are isomorph\s1 ?\gh ! po9t _c be reg>d$ z satisfactorily prov$1 by reason ( ! anomal\s cry/al =ms ( ! naturally occurr+ mixtures1 ?orianite & uran9ite4 ,! rec5t results ( ,kobaya%i#hh po9t to ! conclusion t diff]5t v>ieties ( ?orianite may exi/1 9 ea* ( :i* ! oxides ( ?orium & uranium be> def9ite simple ratios to "o ano!r4 #hd ,compt4 r5d4 #ahhb1 #ajb1 #adbb4 #he ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #ahic1 #c1 #bdc4 #hf ,bull4 ,u4,s4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,no4 #aac1 #ahic4 #hg ,ibid4 ,no4 #ij1 #ahib1 p4 #cj4 #hh ,ab/r4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiab1 #ajb1 ii4 #aaha4 ,?orianite occurs 9 jet-black cry/als ) a bright res9\s lu/re4 ,!y are pseudocubic1 & ! tw9n+ resembles t ( ! cubic m9]al fluorsp>--int]p5etrant cubes1 tw9 axis a cube diagonal4 ,close exam9ation %[s1 h[ev]1 t tw9n+ c only take place ab\t "o ( ! f\r diagonals1 & an optical exam9ation makes x cle> t ! symmetry is really rhomboh$ral4 ,! case is exactly analog\s to t ( ! m9]al *abazite1 a zeolite :i* occurs 9 rhomboh$ra ( :i* ! angles diff] b little f ^? ( ! cube1 & :i* also =ms ! int]p5etrant tw9s4 ,9 view ( ! fact t bo? uran\s oxide & ?oria h be5 obta9$ z octah$ra1 :il/ a fus$ mixture ( ! two on cool+ =ms cubic cry/als1 x seems n unlikely t at high temp]atures ! pseudocubic ?orianite w\ld become truly cubic2 b no exp]im5ts 9 ?is direction seem to h be5 tri$4 ,! cry/als are brittle2 h>dness #g2 sp4 gr4 #hj-ig4 ,?orianite is infusible1 inc&esc+ be=e ! bl[pipe4 ,:5 p[d]$1 x dissolves readily 9 nitric & sulphuric acids1 ) evolution ( helium4 ,gray#hi has %[n t ! helium cont5t c be r$uc$ by #bh p] c5t4 by f9e gr9d+1 ?us %[+ t "p at lea/ ( ! gas mu/ be me*anically held4 #hi ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 #aijh1 ,a1 #hb1 #cjf4 ,?orianite 0 f\nd 9 ,ceylon1 be+ orig9ally mi/ak5 = pit*bl5de4 ,a sample 0 suppli$ by ! discov]]1 ,mr4 ,holl&1 to ! (fic]s ( ! ,m9]al ,survey1 by :om x 0 s5t to ,london = exam9ation4 ,its composition 0 det]m9$ by ,dun/an1 :o nam$ x4 ,x 0 f\nd 9 ! riv] gravels 7gem-gravels71 ! matrix be+ a pegmatite granite4 ,x is a valuable s\rce ( ?orium nitrate = inc&esc5t mantles1 "o ton ( ! m9]al 7) ?oria cont5t ( #gj p] c5t47 hav+ be5 sold = #aejj2 b ! supply is small & unreliable4 ,baddeleyite4#ij-- ,baddeleyite consi/s ( almo/ pure zirconia 7,zr,o #ife p] c5t47 ) small quantities ( f]ric oxide1 alum9a1 lime1 magnesia1 alkalies & silica4 ,?oria & r>e e>?s are pres5t 9 traces1 uranium is abs5t2 ! m9]al is n radioactive1 & conta9s only traces ( helium4 #ij ,vide ,flet*]1 ,m94 ,mag4 #ahic1 #df1 #aj1 #adh2 ,hussak1 ,zeits*4 ,kry/4 ,m94 #ahie1 #bd1 #afd1 & #be1 #bih4 ,monocl9ic--a 3 b 3 c #jihga 3 #a 3 #jeaad4 #ih #de4 ,common =ms--all ?ree p9akoids1 a #ajj1 b #jaj1 & c #jja1 ) ! hemi-prisms m #aaj1 k #abj1 & l #bcj1 & v>i\s pyramids & domes4 ,angles--7#ajj7 7#aaj7 #dd #ag2 7#ajj7 7#jja7 #ha #ad2 7#ajj7 7#aja7 #ee #cc4 ,cleavage c & b1 p>t+ m due to repeat$ tw9n+4 ,tw9n+ is exce$+ly common2 ( _m hundr$ cry/als exam9$ by ,hussak1 only ?ree 7 f\nd untw9n$4 ,tw9 planes m 7#aaj71 a 7#ajj71 & x 7#bja74 ,col\r br[n1 v>y+ 9 zones by tw9n+1 ) di/9ct pleo*roism4 ,h>dness2 sp4 gr4 v>ies f #dd to #fj1 be+ ab\t #ee to #ef = fairly pure mat]ial4 ,d\ble refraction negative1 #b ,e #gj-ge4 ,acute bisectrix ne>ly co9cid5t ) c axis1 plane ( ! optic axes b1 7#jaj74 ,! m9]al is insoluble 9 acids1 readily soluble 9 fus$ potassium hydrog5 sulphate4 ,be=e ! bl[pipe x is almo/ infusible2 x dissolves 9 ! fus$ borax bead1 rapid cool+ caus+ sep>ation ( cry/als4 ,if a bead conta9+ zirconia be heat$ until ! borax is p>tially volatilis$1 zirconia cry/allises on cool+ 9 tetragonal cry/als1 isomorph\s ) ^? ( rutile4#ia #ia ,nord5skild1 ,pogg4 ,ann4 #ahfa1 #aad1 #fbe2 = tetragonal zirconia see also ,troo/ & ,ouvr>d1 ,compt4 r5d4 #ahhh1 #ajb1 #adbb4 ,! m9]al 0 discov]$ 9 #ahib by ,hussak & ,l4 ,flet*] indep5d5tly4 ,! =m]1 :o obta9$ x f ! pyrox5ite s& ( ,so ,paulo1 ,s\? ,brazil1 believ$ x to be a tantalo-columbate1 & call$ x ,brasilite4 ,flet*] f\nd x 9 a gem-gravel f ,rakwana1 ,ceylon1 & nam$ x ,baddeleyite4 ,an analysis by ,blom/r& ( ,hussak's m9]al %[$ x to be id5tical ) ! ,ceylon m9]al1 & ,hussak )drew 8 "n & accept$ ,flet*]'s4 ,x has rec5tly be5 f\nd#ib 9 a corundum-sy5ite1 ne> ,bozeman1 ,montana1 ,u4,s4,a4 #ib ,rog]s1 ,am]4 ,j4 ,sci4 #aiab1 iv41 #cc1 #ed4 ,! m9]al n[ comes on ! m>ket 9 comm]cial quantities2 pure zirconia almo/ entirely free f iron c be obta9$ by lea*+ ) acids4 ,! pure oxide is extraord9>ily refractory1 & promises to be ( great use = crucibles1 furnace l9+s1 etc4 7vide p4 #cbd74 ,rutile4--,titanium dioxide1 ,ti,o1 occurs cry/allis$ 9 nature 9 ! ?ree m9]als ,rutile1 ,brookite1 & ,anatase 7,octah$rite71 :i* !re=e =m a trimorph\s s]ies4 ,!y are all /able m9]als1 ?\gh rutile appe>s ! mo/ /able1 be+ occasionally f\nd 9 pseudomorphs aft] ! o!r two4 ,! family is rem>kable 9 t x is n unusual to f9d two ( !m occurr+ toge!r--an uncommon ph5om5on ) polymorph\s m9]als4 ,rutile (t5 conta9s small quantities ( iron & *romium4 ,! f]rif]\s v>ieties are di/+ui%$ z ,nigr9e1 :i* is black1 ) #b-c p] c5t4 f]ric oxide1 & ,ilm5orutile1 ) up to #aj p] c5t4 ( f]ric oxide1 & specific gravity up to #eac4 ,cry/al sy/em--tetragonal1 holosymmetric2 c #jfddb2 7#jja7 7#aja7 #cb #dg4 ,common =ms--prisms a #ajj1 m #aaj1 & l #caj2 pyramids e #aja1 s #aaa1 & _m o!rs4 ,! basal p9akoid c #jja is v r>e4 ,habit1 prismatic1 ) v]tical /riations2 or 9 sl5d] ne$les4 ,tw9n+ v common & v>i$2 usually on ! cassit]ite law--tw9 plane e 7#aja7--;=m+ ! knee-%ap$ tw9s1 & irregul> rosettes by repetition1 & _m contact tw9s4 ,contact tw9s on ! law--tw9 plane v 7#cja7 are less common4 ,cleavage a 7#ajj7 & m 7#aaj71 di/9ct4 ,h>dness #f-f2 sp4 gr4 #dah-dbe1 & up to #eb if mu* iron is pres5t4 ,col\r r$di%-br[n to black1 ) good metallic lu/re2 transp>5t to opaque4 ,! refraction & d\ble refraction are v high-- #bfaeh1 #bijbi = sodium light--& all[ ! cry/als to be readily di/+ui%$ 9 rock-sections4 ,! m9]al is insoluble 9 acids1 b c be dissolv$ aft] fusion ) alkalies or alkali c>bonates4 ,rutile is a memb] ( ! isomorph\s s]ies1 cassit]ite1 zircon1 etc4 7see "u ,?orite71 & 9 p>ticul> x has ! col\r1 appe>ance1 & tw9n+ ( cassit]ite1 f :i*1 h[ev]1 x is readily di/+ui%$ by its l[] specific gravity4 ,9 ?is connection x is int]e/+ to note t an app>5tly pure specim51 q free f inclusions1 0 f\nd 7#aijd7 to conta9 #ag p] c5t4 ( t9 dioxide4#ic #ic ,fri$el et ,gr&jean1 ,bull4 ,soc4 franc4 ,m94 #aiji1 #cb1 #eb4 ,z an accessory rock m9]al1 & also z an important con/itu5t ( _m s&s1 rutile is ( v wide di/ribution4 ,x occurs1 usually imb$d$ 9 qu>tz or felsp>1 9 _m granites1 sy5ites1 gneisses1 slates1 & alli$ rocks2 9 acicul> cry/als p5etrat+ qu>tz x =ms ! #8,v5]is ,cr9is' ( ,pl9y4 ,at ,risr & o!r localities 9 ,norway1 x is f\nd 9 ! massive =m1 & x is l>gely work$ at ,risr z a s\rce ( titanium4 ,x occurs 9 all ! c\ntries ( ,europe1 & l>gely 9 ,am]ica4 ,ar5dal1 ,krag]1 & ,risr1 9 ,norway1 ! ,b9n5?al1 ! ,urals1 ! ,/4 ,go?>d1 ,ca/ile1 ,magnet ,cove 9 ,arkansas1 ,alex&] ,co4 9 ,n4 ,c>ol9a1 ,b>re & ,%elburne 9 ,massa*usetts1 & ,*e/] ,co4 9 ,p5nsylvania are ! *ief localities4 ,x 0 9 ?is m9]al t ! elem5t titanium 0 fir/ recognis$ by ,klapro? 7#agie74 ,anatase 7,octah$rite7 is ! second cry/all9e modification ( titanium dioxide4 ,tetragonal c #aggga4 7#jja7 7#aja7 #fj #ch1 7#aaa7 7#aaa7 #hb #i4 ,common =ms--,prisms a #ajj & m #aaj1 pyramids p #aaa1 e #aja1 & _m o!r complex =ms2 ! basal plane c #jja is occasionally f\nd4 ,habit usually octah$ral1 ) p or v prom95t2 sometimes tabul> ) c1 m r>ely prismatic ) a well develop$4 ,cleavage c & p p]fect4 ,h>dness #e-f2 sp4 gr4 #chb-cie1 usually increas+ aft] heat+4 ,lu/re adamant9e1 s spl5d5t t 9 ,brazil deta*$ cry/als h be5 mi/ak5 = diamonds4 ,col\r1 "s %ade ( blui%-black to br[n2 by transmitt$ light1 gre5i%-yell[4 ,transp>5t to opaque4 ,d\ble refraction negative1 /rong2 = sodium light #beed1 #bdic4 ,x is f\nd at ,b\rg d',oisans 9 ,dauph91 & 9 ,norway1 ! ,urals1 ,brazil1 etc4 ,9 ,switz]l& x occurs z ! v>iety ,wis]9e1 :i* 0 at "o "t believ$ to be x5otime4 ,x 0 nam$ ,octah$rite by de ,saussure1 9 #agif1 f ! prevail+ habit1 & ,oisanite1 f its occurr5ce 9 ,dauph91 by ,delam!rie1 9 #agig4 ,! "n anatase 7 erection7 0 propos$ by ,hay1 be+ int5d$ to d5ote t ! v]tical axis 7c 3 a7 is great] ?an t ( rutile1 ! o!r tetragonal modification ( ! dioxide4 ,brookite1 ! ?ird =m ( ?is comp\nd1 is or?orhombic4 a 3 b 3 c #jhdaf 3 #a 3 #jiddd4 ,common =ms--! ?ree p9akoids a #ajj1 b #jaj1 & c #jja1 prisms m #aaj1 l #baj1 pyramids e #abb1 z #abb1 & num]\s o!rs4 ,angles--7#ajj7 7#aaj7 #dj #e2 7#jja7 7#ajj7 #dh #ah2 7#jja7 7#jaa7 #dc #bb4 ,! habit is v>i$2 x occurs usually 9 bipyramids ) e & m or prismatic ) m1 a1 & t]m9at+ pyramids4 ,cleavage m indi/9ct1 c v poor4 ,h>dness #e-f2 sp4 gr4 #chg-dja4 ,lu/re metallic4 ,col\r br[n to r$di%- & yell[i%-br[n & black4 ,! optical behavi\r is int]e/+4 ,! acute bisectrix is p]p5dicul> to a 7#ajj71 b :ile = r$ light ! plane ( ! optic axes is 7#jja71 = blue x is 7#jaj72 = an int]m$iate light1 !re=e 7 #eeej 71 ! m9]al appe>s uniaxial4 ,! *ief localities are ,b\rg d',oisans1 ,miask1 ! ,/4 ,go?>d1 ! ,tyrol1 ,magnet ,cove 9 ,arkansas1 & ,tremadoc 9 ,wales4 ,titanium dioxide c be obta9$ cry/all9e by ! action ( /eam on titanium tetrafluoride1 ,ti,f1 at high temp]atures2 x is /at$ t by v>y+ ! temp]ature ( ! reaction1 any "o ( ! ?ree cry/all9e modifications c be obta9$4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! only o!r m9]als :i* ne$ be m5tion$ 9 ?is class 7see li/7 are3 ,zirkelite1 a complicat$ mixture ( oxides1 9 :i* ?oria1 zirconia1 & titanium dioxide act z acidic oxides1 & ,mack9to%ite1 a mixture ( sev]al oxides1 ( :i* ^? ( ?orium & uranium are ! mo/ important4 7b7 ,,! ,,c>bonates ,lan?anite1 ,hydroc]ite4--,?is m9]al is a c>bonate ( c]ia e>?s1 *iefly lan?ana1 ( ! =mula ,la7,,co71#i;,h,o4 ,or?orhombic2 a 3 b 3 c #jiebh 3 #a 3 #jijbc4 ,common =ms--! p9akoids a #ajj & c #jja1 ) m #aaj & o #aaa4 ,angles--7#ajj7 7#aaj7 #dc #cg2 7#jja7 7#aja7 #dc #bf2 7#jja7 7#jaa7 #db #c4 ,habit tabul>1 p>allel to c2 cleavage p]fect1 c4 ,d\ble refraction negative2 optic axis plane a 7#ajj74 ,usually amorph\s1 be+ probably an alt]ation product ( a m9]al ri* 9 lan?anum4 ,h>dness #b2 sp4 gr4 #bf-bg4 ,col\r :ite to yell[i%-:ite1 usually opaque2 infusible be=e ! bl[pipe 7be+ conv]t$ to ! oxide71 readily soluble 9 acids4 ,lan?anite occurs ) c]ite at ,ba/ns1 & at ,be?lehem1 ,p5nsylvania4 ,morton#id /ates t he prep>$ a cry/all9e didymium c>bonate 9 ! laboratory1 ( ! =mula ,di7,,co71#h;,h,o1 :i* 0 isomorph\s ) lan?anite2 he conclud$ t ! latt] _h only eight in/ead ( n9e molecules ( wat]4 #id ,see ab/ract 9 ,zeits*4 ,kry/4 ,m94 #ahhf-hg1 #ab1 #eah4 ,p>isite 7,syn*isite71 & ,cordylite4--,p>isite is a fluoc>bonate ( calcium & c]ium metals2 ,cordylite is an analog\s comp\nd 9 :i* b>ium replaces calcium1 & is isomorph\s ) ,p>isite4 ,! =mula ( ,p>isite is ,ca,r,f7,,co71 :]e ,r c]ium metals4 ,gro? =mulates ?is z 7,ca,f77,,rf7,r7,,co71 ,p5field & ,w>r5 z 7,,rf7,ca7,,co71 :il/ ,s*ill+ gives ,ce7,,co71,ca,f4 ,analog\s =mul may be propos$ = ,cordylite1 ,ba,r,f7,,co74 ,s9ce ! two m9]als are v simil> 9 cry/allographic prop]ties1 "o description w be suffici5t = bo?4 ,! foll[+ are ,dana's data = ,p>isite3 ,hexagonal1 c #cbhia4 7#jjja7 7#ajaa7 #ge #ae4 ,=ms are extremely num]\s1 & h rem>kably high indices4 ,among ! simple/ are ! base c #jjja1 ! prism m #ajaj1 pyramids q #ajab1 & h #aabb2 ! o!r =ms are *iefly rhomboh$ra & pyramids4 ,! usual habit is t ( an acute d\ble hexagonal pyramid1 ) =m o #bjba1 t]m9at$ by c4 ,cleavage c1 p]fect4 ,x is br[ni%-yell[ to r$4 ,h>dness #d2 sp4 gr4 #dcf4 ,! d\ble refraction is /rong1 positive4 ,soluble 9 hydro*loric acid ) eff]vesc5ce4 ,bo? m9]als are *>act]i/ic pneumatolytic species ( ! riebeckite-gir9e rocks4 ,p>isite 0 discov]$ by ,p>is 9 ! em]ald m9es ( ! ,muso valley1 ,colombia1 9 #ahce1 & fir/ correctly analys$ by ,buns5 9 #ahde4 ,be=e ! bl[pipe x gl[s1 rema9+ infusible 7! gl[ does n appe> to h be5 inve/igat$ 9 ?is case74 ,cordylite 0 discov]$ by ,fl9k 9 #aijj1 9 ,gre5l&4 ,x is yell[ to br[ni%-yell[ & col\rless4 ,h>dness #d2 sp4 gr4 #dca4 ,be=e ! bl[pipe x decrepitates1 & is infusible2 moi/5$ ) hydro*loric acid1 x gives ! *>act]i/ic b>ium flame4 ,! s-call$ ,syn*isite 0 discov]$ by ,nord5skild :o correctly describ$ x z ,p>isite4 ,fl9k f\nd x 9 ,gre5l&1 & ann\nc$ x z a new species1 ) ! =mula ,r,f,ca7,,co71 i4e4 ! =mula = p>isite plus "o molecule ( calcium c>bonate1 ,ca,c,o4 ,f its extraord9>y resemblance to p>isite 9 physical & cry/allographic prop]ties1 ,pala*e & ,w>r5#ie believe t ! specim5s select$ by ,fl9k = analysis mu/ h consi/$1 9 reality1 ( p>isite ) admix$ calcium c>bonate4 ,?is conclusion has n[ be5 confirm$ by ,qu]cigh1 by a c>eful comp>ison ( ! optical prop]ties4#if ,! m9]als are usually f\nd toge!r1 ! *ief localities be+ ,s4 ,norway1 ! gold di/ricts ( ! ,urals1 ,n>s>suk 9 ,s4 ,gre5l&1 & ,montana1 ,u4,s4,a4 #ie ,am]4 ,j4 ,sci4 #aiaa1 iv41 #ca1 #ecc4 #if ,ab/r4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiab1 #ajb1 ii4 #ggc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! foll[+ r>e e>? c>bonates are describ$ 9 ! alphabetical li/3 ,ancylite1 a basic hydrat$ c>bonate4 ,t5g]ite1 a hydrat$ c>bonate =m$ by ! wea!r+ ( gadol9ite4 ,kis*timite1 a fluo-c>bonate relat$ to p>isite4 ,ba/nsite 7,h>matite7 & ,weibyite1 hydrat$ fluoc>bonates ( ! c]ium elem5ts4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,! ,,phosphates ,,& ,,halides 7a7 ,,! ,,phosphates ,monazite1 ,phosphoc]ite4--,monazite1 by f> ! mo/ important1 comm]cially1 ( all ! r>e e>? m9]als1 is ess5tially an or?ophosphate ( ! c]ia e>?s1 ( ! =mula ,r,,po4#ig ,! yttria e>?s are usually pres5t 9 small quantities4 ,silica & ?oria1 9 quantities v>y+ f traces up to #f p] c5t4 ( ! =m] & f #a to #bj p] c5t4 ( ! latt]1 are inv>iable con/itu5ts2 x is almo/ entirely to ! p]c5tage ( ?oria t ! m9]al owes its comm]cial value4 ,! foll[+ also are common con/itu5ts1 ?\gh usually 9 v small quantities only--/annic1 f]ric & mangan\s oxides1 alum9a1 lime1 magnesia1 zirconia & wat]4 ,helium 0 obs]v$ 9 x by ,tild51 & by ,ramsay1 ,collie & ,trav]s4#ih ,boltwood#ii & ,z]ban#ajj f\nd uranium 9 x2 ! latt] attribut$ ?is to impurities1 ! =m] reg>d$ x z an ess5tial con/itu5t4 ,/rutt#aja f\nd uranium 9 a pure monazite4 ,hait+] & ,pet]s#ajb detect$ radium1 _! result be+ confirm$ by ,boltwood & ,/rutt4 #ig ,= ! composition ( ! e>?s 9 monazite1 see ,james1 ,j4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiac1 #ce1 #bce4 #ih ,trans4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #ahie1 #fg1 #fhd4 #ii ,phil4 ,mag4 #aije1 vi41 #i1 #eii4 #ajj ,b]4 #aije1 #ch1 #eeg4 #aja ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 #aije1 ,a1 #gf1 #hh & #cab4 #ajb ,sitzungsb4 kais]l4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,wi51 ,may1 #aijd4 ,monazite occurs 9 small cry/als belong+ to ! monocl9ic sy/em4 a 3 b 3 c #jific 3 #a 3 #jibef1 #gf #bj4 ,^! values v>y slightly ) diff]5t specim5s4 ,common =ms--,or?o- & cl9o-p9akoids a #ajj1 b #jaj1 hemi-prisms m #aaj1 & n #abj1 hemi-or?o-prisms w #aja & x #aja1 hemi-cl9o-prism e #jaa1 hemi-pyramid v #aaa1 etc42 ! basal p9akoid c #jja is r>e4 ,angles--a m #dc #ag1 c w #cg #h1 c e #da #eh4 ,habit tabul>1 p>allel to a1 ne$le-%ap$ by elongation p>allel to b axis1 or prismatic by good developm5t ( v4 ,cleavage c1 p]fect1 a1 di/9ct1 b1 difficult4 ,tw9 plane a 7#ajj74 ,birefr+5ce mod]ate1 positive2 plane ( optic axes p]p5dicul> to b1 ne>ly p>allel to a4 ,acute bisectrix incl9$ to c at angle ( #a-d4 ,disp]sion feeble1 4 ,brittle4 ,h>dness #e-e2 sp4 gr4 #di-ec2 con*oidal fracture4 ,lu/re res9\s4 ,col\r1 r$ to br[n1 yell[1 yell[i%- & gre5i%-br[n4 ,transp>5t :5 pure2 m (t5 transluc5t to opaque4 ,monazite is ) difficulty soluble 9 acids2 be=e ! bl[pipe x is infusible2 :5 moi/5$ ) sulphuric acid x col\rs ! flame gre5i%-blue4 ,! m9]al (t5 occurs massive1 yield+ angul> fragm5ts1 b is mo/ common 9 roll$ gra9s4 ,x occurs 9 ! gneiss ( ! ,c>ol9as & ,georgia1 & 9 s&s d]iv$ f ! gneiss1 9 ,idaho & _m ( ! ,pacific ,/ates2 9 ,brazil1 at v>i\s localities 9 ! prov9ces ( ,m9as ,g]aes1 ,bahia1 ,espirito ,santo2 9 ,que5sl&1 ,au/ralia2 9 ,madagasc>2 9 ,ceylon2 ne> ,travancore 9 ,india2 9 ! ,urals2 9 ,sc&9avia1 etc4 ,! deposits ( comm]cial value w be treat$ m fully 9 ! next *apt]4 ,x is ( wide di/ribution z an accessory con/itu5t ( granites1 diorites1 & gneisses4 ,monazite 0 fir/ describ$1 "u ! "n ,turn]ite1 by ,lvy1#ajc 9 #ahbc2 ! specim5 0 f ! collection ( ! ,engli% *emi/ ,turn]1 :o ?\ght x a v>iety ( sph5e 7titanite71 & 0 nam$ aft] him at ! sugge/ion ( ! m9]alogi/ ,heul&4 ,! specim5 0 /at$ to h be5 f\nd 9 ,dauph91 b 9 spite ( consid]able exam9ation ( ! "q1 ! precise locality is /ill unkn[n4 ,! resemblance betwe5 ,turn]ite & ! m9]al lat] describ$ z monazite 7 to be solit>y7 0 po9t$ out by ,dana 9 #ahff1 & confirm$ by ,pisani1 #ahgg4 ,! "n ,monazite 0 fir/ us$ by ,brei?aupt#ajd 9 describ+ a m9]al f\nd by ,m5ge 7#ahbf7 accompany+ zircon 9 a granite f ,miask 9 ! ,urals4 ,brei?aupt conclud$1 f ! high specific gravity1 t ! m9]al conta9$ a heavy metallic oxide4 ,x 0 aga9 describ$ z ,m5gite by ,brooke#aje 9 #ahca4 ,x 0 re-discov]$ by ,%eph>d#ajf 9 ,s\? ,c>ol9a 9 #ahcg1 & describ$ by him "u ! "n ,edw>dsite1 a v>iety f ,connecticut be+ call$ ,eremite4 ,to ,%eph>d belongs ! hon\r ( hav+ discov]$ its true nature2 aft] analysis he describ$ x z a #8,basic ,sesquiphosphate ( ! ,protoxide ( ,c]ium1' giv+ ! =mula 7mod]n notation7 #c;,ce,o1#b,p,o1 & f9d+ also zirconia1 alum9a1 & silica 9 x 78 specim5 0 probably v impure74 ,gu/av ,rose#ajg %[$ ?is to be id5tical ) monazite 9 #ahdj4 ,9 #ahdf ,whl] describ$1 "u ! "n ,cryptolite1 a v>iety ( tetragonal habit closely resembl+ zircon4 ,?is occurs at ,ar5dal 9 ,norway1 enclos$ by apatite1 9 ! granite2 x may be obta9$ by treatm5t ) dilute nitric acid1 :i* dissolves ! apatite4 #ajc ,annals ( ,philosophy1 #ahbc1 #ba1 #bda4 #ajd ,s*weigg4 ,j4 #ahbi1 #ee1 #cj4 #aje ,phil ,mag4 #ahca1 ii41 #aj1 #aci4 #ajf ,am]4 ,j4 ,sci4 #ahcg1 #cb1 #afb4 #ajg ,pogg4 ,ann4 #ahdj1 #di1 #bbc4 ,! "q ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! ?orium is comb9$ 9 monazite is ( consid]able importance1 9 view ( ! fact t x is to ?is elem5t t ! m9]al owes its comm]cial value4 ,! am\nt pres5t v>ies f traces up to ov] #bj p] c5t41 b ! usual value is betwe5 #e & #g p] c5t4 ,! fir/ explanation ( its pres5ce 0 advanc$ by ,dunn+ton#ajh :o sugge/$1 on ! result ( only "o analysis1 t orangite 7,th,si,o7 0 pres5t me*anically mix$ ) ! monazite4 ,p5field#aji support$ ?is sugge/ion1 & /at$ t 9 ?ree analyses ( pure mat]ial he f\nd ! ratio ( r>e e>?s to phosphorus p5toxide & t ( ?oria to silica exactly equal to unity1 ?\gh ! actual am\nts ( ?oria v>i$ consid]ably4 ,he also quotes an analysis made by ,rammelsb]g 9 #ahgg1 9 :i* no ?oria 0 f\nd1 to %[ t x is n an ess5tial con/itu5t4 ,9 a microscopic exam9ation he f\nd d>k res9\s p>ticles scatt]$ ?r\gh\t ! section2 aft] moi/5+ ) hydro*loric acid1 w>m+1 & wa%+1 ^! d>k spots became :ite1 & c\ld be /a9$ ) fu*s9e1 ! monazite rema9+ unaffect$ ?r\gh\t4 ,he conclud$ t ^! p>ticles 7 ?orite or orangite4 #ajh ,am]4 ,*em4 ,j4 #ahhb1 #d1 #ach4 #aji ,am]4 ,j4 ,sci4 #ahhb1 iii41 #bd1 #bej2 #ahhh1 #cf1 #cbb4 ,blom/r&#aaj disput$ ,p5field's conclusions4 ,9 twelve analyses ( monazite f v>i\s p>ts ( ,sc&9avia he nev] once f\nd ei!r ?oria or silica abs5t4 ,( ^! twelve analyses1 two give ! ratio ( ?oria to silica1 ,th,o 3 ,si,o1 exactly unity1 9 sev5 cases ! ratio is n great] ?an #abe1 9 five cases x v>ies consid]ably4 ,he summ$ up 8 results 9 ?ree /atem5ts3 7a7 ,silica is nev] abs5t2 its am\nt dep5ds n on ! am\nt ( ?oria1 b on ! am\nt ( phosphorus p5toxide pres5t4 7b7 ,! ?oria :i* is always pres5t is comb9$ p>tly ) silica1 p>tly ) phosphorus p5toxide4 7c7 ,9 mo/ cases1 ! r>e e>?s alone are insuffici5t to satisfy ! ratio ,r,o 3 ,p,o #a4 #aaj ,j4 pr4 ,*em4 #ahij1 #da1 #bff4 ,an exhau/ive exam9ation ( ! "q has be5 made m rec5tly by ,kress & ,metzg]4#aaa ,!y made 9 all ov] fifty analyses1 us+ ?irty diff]5t specim5s ( monazite2 !y e/imat$ silica bo? z qu>tz & z silicate silica1 & det]m9$ ?orium by ! fum>ate me?od--! o!r inve/igators _h us$ ! ?iosulphate me?od ( ,h]mann 7vide p4 #bhf74 ,_! results may be summ>is$ z foll[s3 7i47 ,silica is always pres5t4 7ii47 ,! am\nt ( silica usually increases ) ! ?oria1 b n regul>ly4 7iii47 ,by f> ! majority ( cases %[$ insuffici5t total silica to comb9e ) ! ?oria pres5t4 7iv47 ,9 ab\t #i p] c5t4 ( ! cases1 ! ?oria pres5t 0 insuffici5t to comb9e ) ! silicate silica1 f :i* x foll[s t "s =eign silicate mu/ be at lea/ occasionally pres5t4 7v47 ,a c>eful microscopic exam9ation %[$ conclusively t no ?orite 7,th,si,o7 0 pres5t1 ! silicate be+ biaxial2 qu>tz is pres5t z su*4 #aaa ,j4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiji1 #ca1 #fdj4 ,!y conclude t ?orium is pres5t z phosphate1 & is an ess5tial con/itu5t1 b t !re is always "s admix$ silicate1 mo/ probably a felsp>4 ,x5otime4--,*emically ?is m9]al is closely alli$ to monazite1 be+ an or?ophosphate ( r>e e>?s1 conta9+ silica & ?oria2 :]eas1 h[ev]1 9 monazite ! cont5t ( yttria e>?s does n rise above #d p] c5t41 9 x5otime ^! con/itute by f> ! great] "p ( ! bases1 ! cont5t ( c]ia e>?s rang+ f #hb to #aa p] c5t4 ,! yttria e>?s1 *iefly oxides ( yttrium & ! erbium gr\p1 v>y f #eda to #fdg p] c5t4 ,!re are traces ( zirconia2 ,ramsay1 ,collie & ,trav]s detect$ helium1 :il/ ,boltwood1 & also ,/rutt1 f\nd uranium & radium4 ,x also appe>s to conta9 traces ( sulphuric anhydride4 ,! cry/als are tetragonal1 holosymmetric4 c #jfahg2 7#jja7 7#aja7 #ca #de4 ,common =ms are ! prisms a #ajj & m #aaj1 ! basal p9akoid c #jja1 ! pyramids e #aja1 f #bja1 z #aaa1 etc4 ,cleavage m1 p]fect4 ,uniaxial1 d\ble refraction /rong1 positive4 ,transp>5t to opaque4 ,col\r1 br[n to r$di%-br[n & yell[4 ,h>dness #d-e2 sp4 gr4 #dde-def4 ,x is insoluble 9 acids1 & infusible be=e ! bl[pipe2 :5 moi/5$ ) sulphuric acid1 h[ev]1 x turns ! flame blui%-gre51 l mo/ m9]al phosphates 7vide monazite74 ,x is n s widely di/ribut$ z monazite1 b is n uncommon4 ,x (t5 occurs ) zircon--to :i* x is v closely alli$ 9 cry/al =m1 if ! two are n actually isomorph\s--9 p>allel gr[?1 9 granitic rocks4 ,! diamond s&s ( ,diamant9a1 ,brazil1 =m ! ri*e/ s\rce ( ! m9]al1 b x is also f\nd 9 ,sc&9avia1 at ,hitt]1 ro1 etc4 ,! m9]al is ( consid]able importance1 *emically1 on acc\nt ( ! high p]c5tage ( erbia e>?s4 ,9 ! works ( ,bau]1 ,ros5bus*1 ,we9s*5k1 ,s*ill+ & ,idd+s w be f\nd acc\nts ( a m9]al nam$ #8,hussakite4' ,^! acc\nts re/$ on ! "w ( ,kraus & ,reit+]1#aab :o 9 #aija ann\nc$ ! discov]y ( a new species4 ,! cry/als 7 obta9$ z a specim5 ( x5otime by ,pr(4 ,mu?mann f ,dr4 ,e4 ,hussak1 9 ,so ,paulo1 & _h ! cry/allographic prop]ties ( t m9]al4 ,on analysis1 ! am\nt ( sulphur trioxide pres5t 0 f\nd to be rem>kably high 7#fc p] c5t471 & ,kraus & ,reit+] conclud$ t ! sub/ance 0 di/9ct f x5otime4 ,!y ann\nc$ x z a new m9]al1 ) ! "n ,hussakite1 & ! =mula #c,r,o1#c,p,o1,,s or #f,,rpo1,,s1 & /at$ t by ! action ( dilute alkalies ! sulphur trioxide c\ld be easily & completely remov$4 ,!y !re=e reg>d$ x5otime z a pseudomorph#aac aft] hussakite1 ! sulphur trioxide hav+ be5 remov$ f ! latt] by ! action ( ! alkal9e wat]s ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,9 support ( ?is view1 !y gave analyses ( opaque cry/als f a ,bahia s& repres5t$ z conta9+ #bf to #bg p] c5t4 ( sulphur trioxide1 & s z be+ int]m$iate =ms produc$ dur+ ! *ange4 #aab ,zeits*4 ,kry/4 ,m94 #aija1 #cd1 #bfh4 #aac ,"o m9]al is said to be pseudomorph\s aft] ano!r :5 ! fir/ is produc$ f ! second by a *emical *ange :i* proce$s s sl[ly t ! orig9al /ructure & cry/all9e =m are unalt]$ 7i4e4 a *ange proce$+ molecule by molecule74 ,! pseudomorph is usually opaque & %[s cle> signs ( ! alt]ation4 ,! latt] conclusion 0 quickly *all5g$ by ,brgg]1 :o f\nd no sulphur trioxide 9 a p]fectly fre% & transp>5t x5otime f ro 9 ,sc&9avia4 ,brgg] conclud$ t ! ,hussakite ( ,kraus & ,reit+] 0 an indep5d5t species ( ! =mula #e,,ypo17,,yso7,,po1 & t x5otime 0 n d]iv$ f x4 ,bas+ 8 "w on ! b>ium *loride te/ giv5 by ,kraus & ,reit+] 7see bel[7 ,rsl]#aad decl>$ t #8,hussakite' 0 a common accessory con/itu5t ( igne\s rocks1 hav+ be5 previ\sly mi/ak5 = zircon1 :i* x resembles 9 appe>ance & optical prop]ties4 #aad ,zeits*4 ,kry/4 ,m94 #aijb1 #cf1 #beh4 ,9 #aijg ,hussak#aae publi%$ a pap] 9 :i* he %[$ t ! m9]al nam$ aft] him 0 n a new species at all1 b a x5otime ( prismatic habit4 ,analyses made at 8 reque/ by ,flor5ce 9 ,brazil1 ,g4 ,t4 ,prior 9 ,london1 & ,ts*]nik 9 ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 confirm$ ! orig9al values giv5 by ,gorceix 7sulphur trioxide up to #jbe p] c5t474 ,he m5tions ,brgg]'s analysis ( ! ,norwegian specim5 9 :i* ,kraus & ,reit+] _h f\nd #b-c p] c5t4 ( sulphur trioxide1 b 9 :i* ,brgg] f\nd none4 ,he expla9s ! results ( ,kraus & ,reit+] z due to ! addition ( b>ium *loride to ! acidifi$ solution ( ! c>bonate fusion ( ! m9]al1 by :i* b>ium phosphate 0 precipitat$2 ?is 0 dri$ & weigh$ z b>ium sulphate4 ,rsl]'s te/s are decl>$ d\btful2 x5otime is n a widely spread rock con/itu5t1 ! m9]al 9 "q be+ really zircon4 #aae ,c5tr4 ,m94 #aijg1 #ecc4 ,9 face ( ^! results1 !re c be little d\bt t ! "n #8hussakite' is unnecess>y & undesirable1 s9ce ! m9]al to :i* x 0 appli$ is prov$ to be x5otime4 99 99 99 99 99 ,9 ! alphabetical li/1 p>ticul>s ( ! foll[+ r>e e>? phosphates w be f\nd3 ,ca/elnaudite1 a v>iety ( x5otime conta9+ zirconia4 ,*ur*ite & ,rhabdophane 7,scovillite71 hydrat$ phosphates4 ,gorceixite1 an alum9o-phosphate ( alkal9e & c]ia e>?s4 ,retzian1 an hydrat$ ars5ate ( manganese1 calcium & r>e e>? metals4 7b7 ,,! ,,halides ,yttroc]ite4--,?is m9]al is a fluoride ( calcium & r>e e>? metals1 ) wat]4 ,a rec5t analysis by ,ts*]nik#aaf gives ! =mula ,ce,f1#b,y,f1#i;,ca,f1#b;,h,o4 ,putt+ ! r>e e>? metals toge!r1 ?is gives #f,,rf1#i;,ca,f1#b;,h,o1 or ,r,ca,f1,h,o4 ,yttroc]ite is ( int]e/ s9ce x 0 probably 9 ! analysis ( ?is m9]al by ! discov]]s1 ,b]zelius & ,gahn1 t ! d\ble sulphate me?od ( sep>at+ ! yttria f ! c]ia e>?s 0 fir/ employ$#aag 7vide p4 #aef74 #aaf ,ab/r4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aijg1 #ib1 ii4 #cfb4 #aag ,s*weigg4 ,j4 #ahaf1 #af1 #bdd4 ,x is f\nd only massive or granul>4 ,col\r usually :ite to violet-blue1 sometimes r$di%-br[n4 ,h>dness #d2 sp4 gr4 #cde4 ,infusible1 b loses col\r be=e ! bl[pipe4 ,:5 p[d]$1 x dissolves completely 9 boil+ hydro*loric acid1 & readily 9 sulphuric acid ) evolution ( heat4 ,x has be5 f\nd at v>i\s localities 9 ,sc&9avia4 ,yttr(luorite4#aah--,?is is a fluoride ( v>y+ composition1 v simil> to yttroc]ite1 b *>act]is$ by ! abs5ce ( wat]1 & ! v small c]ia cont5t 7#ag p] c5t474 ,x is ?us a fluoride ( calcium & ! yttrium metals4 #aah ,t4 ,vogt1 ,c5tr4 ,m94 #aiaa1 #cgc4 ,cubic1 ) poor octah$ral cleavage4 ,col\r1 yell[ to br[n & yell[i%-gre52 transp>5t to transluc5t1 blea*$ by wea!r+4 ,v brittle4 ,h>dness #d2 sp4 gr4 #ced-cef4 ,x is v simil> to fluorsp> 7except t ! octah$ral cleavage ( ! latt] is v good71 & is reg>d$ by ,vogt z an isomorph\s mixture ( ! latt] ) yttrium fluoride 7or ) a d\ble yttrium calcium fluoride1 :i* is less probable74 ,?is view w\ld acc\nt = ! v>iations 9 composition1 & also = ! rem>kable frequ5cy ) :i* traces ( r>e e>?s are f\nd 9 fluorsp> 7vide p4 #b74 ,yttroc]ite is reg>d$ z a simil> isomorph\s mixture1 b conta9+ c]ium metals 9 addition to ! yttrium gr\p4 ,yttr(luorite occurs 9 pegmatite ve9s 9 granite 9 ,nor!rn ,norway1 ) gadol9ite1 f]gusonite1 allanite1 fluorsp>1 & ! usual ve9 m9]als4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! o!r memb]s ( ?is family 7see li/7 are3 ,fluoc]ite1 a basic fluoride ( yttrium & c]ium metals4 ,tysonite1 a hydrat$ fluoride conta9+ c>bonates4 ,x is to be notic$ t fluor9e is ! only memb] ( ! halog5 family :i* occurs 9 nature 9 comb9ation ) r>e e>? elem5ts4 ,?is fact is possibly connect$ ) ! great age ( ! r>e e>? m9]als1 & _! =mation dur+ pneumatolytic metamorphism ( plutonic rocks 7vide ,*apt] ,i74 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,! ,,monazite ,,s&s ,x has be5 /at$ t monazite is a n uncommon accessory con/itu5t ( _m rocks1 p>ticul>ly ( granites1 gneisses1 diorites1 etc4 ,! cry/all9e mat]ial1 ( :i* an acc\nt has be5 giv51 is f\nd sometimes 9 ve9s 9 ^! rocks1 m (t5 9 t9y cry/als dissem9at$ ?r\gh\t ! mass4 ,mo/ ( ^! monazite-be>+ rocks are extremely old1 belong+ to ! ,ar*an or pre-,cambrian age1 & probably none are ( second>y 7,mesozoic7 or lat] age4 ,x foll[s1 !n1 t !y h be5 subject$ to erosion dur+ practically ! :ole imm5se p]iod ( :i* geology c give u any detail$ k4 ,heat1 fro/1 w9d1 ! action ( vegetation & ( p]colat+ wat]1 ! innum]able wea!r+ ag5ts kn[n to ! geologi/1 h be5 at "w on !m dur+ c\ntless ages1 break+1 cru%+1 dissolv+2 ra9s1 brooks1 riv]s1 ev5 ocean-waves h dissolv$ or wa%$ away ! fragm5ts1 sort$ !m out un]r+ly accord+ to d5sity1 & re-deposit$ !m1 n[ 9 a riv]-b$1 n[ at ! base ( "s sea cliff1 n[ 9 a wide alluvial pla9 f :i* ! wat] has long s9ce retir$4 ,x is 9 deposits ( ?is nature t ! monazite has be5 conc5trat$4 ,its relatively high specific gravity 7ab\t #ej7 has secur$ its sep>ation f ! light] mica1 qu>tz1 & felsp> ( ! p>5t-rock2 b ! heavi] ve9 or accessory m9]als h1 ( c\rse1 be5 conc5trat$ ) x4 ,zircon is an inv>iable con/itu5t ( ^! #8monazite s&s1' z su* deposits are call$2 & o!rs almo/ z frequ5tly f\nd are rutile1 ilm5ite1 sph5e 7titanite71 & apatite4 ,common1 too1 are ! *>act]i/ic m9]als ( ! metamorphic rocks1 g>net1 epidote1 sillimanite1 t\rmal9e1 etc4 ,r>e e>? m9]als f\nd 9 ! monazite s&s include x5otime1 f]gusonite1 sam>skite1 gadol9ite1 & allanite4 ,! rema9+ m9]als are oxides ( iron & t91 )1 ( c\rse1 a consid]able am\nt ( qu>tz4 ,x is app>5t1 f :at has be5 said above1 t monazite w be conc5trat$ ) ! heavie/ con/itu5ts ( ! rocks f :i* x is d]iv$4 ,v (t51 inde$ usually1 ^! rocks are precisely ^? 9 :i* gold occurs1 dissem9at$ sometimes 9 t9y p>ticles1 sometimes collect$ into nuggets 9 ve9s ( qu>tz & pegmatitic m9]als4 ,! erosion ( ^! rocks conc5trates ! gold ) ! heavie/ m9]als2 & h5ce x happ5s t monazite is an almo/ univ]sal con/itu5t ( ! gold- & gem-be>+ s&s & gravels4 ,9 ! ,c>ol9as & 9 ,brazil1 monazite is f\nd 9 ! gold wa%+s2 & ?\gh 9 ! pa/ ! two h always be5 extract$ sep>ately1 ! gold fir/ & ! monazite f ! wa%+s or tail+s1 !re appe>s to be no reason :y a sy/em calculat$ to extract bo?--:]e1 ( c\rse1 ! cont5t is high en\gh--%\ld n be put into op]ation 9 ! future4 ,a *emical te/ af=ds ! only reliable me?od ( detect+ monazite 9 a s&4 ,a little ( ! s& is wa%$ ) wat] to remove ! light] m9]als & w>m$ ) conc5trat$ sulphuric acid4 ,a few drops ( ! liquid are p\r$ (f1 evaporat$ to small bulk1 & "o drop plac$ on a glass plate4 ,?is is plac$ "u a microscope & "o drop ( a conc5trat$ solution ( sodium acetate is add$4 ,if monazite is pres5t 9 ! s&1 t9y po9t$ oval cry/als ( sodium c]ium sulphate w sep>ate4 ,on ! comm]cial scale1 monazite is extract$ f ! s&s only1 9 ! mann] describ$ bel[4 ,an ef=t 0 made 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a 9 #aijf by ! ,briti% ,monazite ,company1 repres5t+ ! ,s\? ,metropolitan ,gas ,light ,company ( ,london1 to extract monazite f ! rock 9 :i* x occurs dissem9at$4 ,! rock 0 cru%$ & p[d]$1 & ! monazite sep>at$ by wa%+ (f ! light] p>ticles on conc5tration tables 7see bel[74 ,9 ! same ye>1 h[ev]1 ! price ( ?orium nitrate 0 sudd5ly l[]$ #ej p] c5t4 by ! ,g]man ,?orium ,syndicate1 :i* l>gely controls ! ,brazilian output ( monazite1 & ! ,briti% company /opp$ op]ations 9 #aijg4 ,at pres5t x may be said t only ! s&s are available = pr(itable extraction4 ,up to #ahie1 ! ,c>ol9a deposits1 :i* 7 work$ *iefly by ! ,welsba* ,light ,company ( ,new ,york1 ei!r directly or indirectly1 suppli$ all ! dem&1 b 9 t ye> ! ,brazilian s&s 7 fir/ work$1 & a ke5 /ruggle comm5c$ = ! m>ket4 ,! ,am]ican companies1 aft] keep+ up a consid]able output = "s ye>s1 7 =c$ to susp5d op]ations 9 ,may #aiaj4 ,! ,brazil deposits1 work$ by ! ,g]man ,?orium ,syndicate & ! ,au/rian ,welsba* ,company1 :i* h an agreem5t1 n[ meet practically ! :ole dem&4 ,! ,brazilian s& occurs *iefly along ! %ores ( ! s\!rn prov9ces1 hav+ be5 conc5trat$ by ! action ( ! tides f ! products ( erosion ( ! cliffs2 x is v uni=m & consid]ably ri*] ?an ! ,c>ol9a s&1 & ow+ to its occurr5ce on ! sea-%ore1 ! co/ ( transport+ x is v l[4 ,x is export$ *iefly to ,g]many1 rec5tly also to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & to a small ext5t lately to ,engl&4 ,! me?od ( work+ x is simil> to t employ$ 9 ,c>ol9a--namely1 conc5tration by wa%+ & magnetic sep>ation4 ,,! ,,nor? ,,am]ican ,,deposits#aai #aai ,see ,nitze1 ,bull4 ,no4 #i1 ,n4 ,c>ol9a ,geol4 ,survey1 #ahie2 also ,te/1 ,colorado ,s*ool ( ,m9es ,bull4 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,no4 #b1 p4 #abe1 ,jan4 #aijh4 ,!re are two important regions 9 ,nor? ,am]ica )9 :i* monazite s&s occur2 "o ext5ds ov] ! ,c>ol9as1 & ! nor?-we/]n "p ( ,georgia1 ! o!r ov] ! ,idaho bas9 & neighb\r+ c\nties ( ! ,pacific ,slope4 ,x w be be/ to treat ^! sep>ately1 z ! deposits are some:at diff]5t 9 "*4 7a7 ,! ,c>ol9a ,deposits1 includ+ ! unimportant ,georgia deposits1 :i* belong to ! same field1 occur ov] an area approa*+ #djjj squ>e miles4 ,! area is occupi$ *iefly by ! ,pi$mont plateau1 :i* is dra9$ by a numb] ( /reams ris+ 9 ! ,s\? ,m\nta9s1 an ea/]n outli] ( ! ,blue ,ridge2 x is 9 ! bas9s & valleys ( ^! /reams1 p>ticul>ly at ! head-wat]s1 t ! monazite is *iefly f\nd4 ,! geology ( ! di/rict is v complicat$1#abj ! rocks be+ v highly alt]$ granites4 ,! *ief b$ is kn[n z ! ,c>ol9a gneiss1 & includes sev]al types ( gneiss1 usually v mu* wea!r$4 ,! s&s1 :i* av]age ab\t #a p] c5t4 ( monazite1 are work$ 9 & ne> ! /ream b$s2 !y occur 9 ! b$s1 & 9 lay]s #a to #b feet 9 ?ickness a few feet bel[ ! surface ( ! surr\nd+ soil4 #abj ,see ,/]ret1 ,u4,s4 ,geol4 ,survey 7,m9]als71 #aijf1 p4 #aaie4 ,conc5tration 0 =m]ly effect$ *iefly by a crude process ( wa%+4 ,9 ?is process ! s& is ?r[n on to a sort ( sieve1 fix$ ov] ! upp] end ( a long wood5 tr\gh1 by "o workman2 a jet ( wat] is direct$ on to ! sieve1 wa%+ ! s& ?r\gh x4 ,! heavi] p>ticles fall to ! bottom ( ! tr\gh1 :il/ ! light] are wa%$ "r ?r\gh4 ,a second workman cont9ually turns ov] ! s& left 9 ! box & on ! sieve2 at ! end ( a day's "w ! #8conc5trate' is collect$4 ,?is av]ages f #ae to #gj p] c5t4 ( monazite1 accord+ to ! nature & am\nt ( ! heavy m9]als accompany+ x 9 ! s&4 ,! conc5trate is dri$ ei!r on rubb] or oil$ clo?s 9 ! sun1 or on an iron plate cov]+ a tr\gh 9 :i* a fire is light$4 ,! iron m9]als are !n pick$ out by means ( a magnet1 & ! s& fill$ into sacks = transport4 ,be=e treatm5t = ?orium nitrate1 ! s& is at ! pres5t day fur!r conc5trat$ by p[]ful magnetic sep>ators4 ,9 a few cases ! old] me?od ( conc5tration by h&-wa%+ has be5 ab&on$ = ma*9e conc5tration1 ! ,wilfley table be+ sometimes employ$4 ,! pr9ciple "h is exactly ! same1 ! s& be+ f$ into a hopp] by means ( a mov+ belt & !nce on to a ma*9e-%ak5 table f :i* runn+ wat] con/antly removes ! p>ticles1 sort+ !m accord+ to _! specific gravity4 ,fur!r sep>ation ( ! dri$ conc5trate has be5 effect$ by ?ree k9ds ( sep>ators4#aba ,! fir/ 0 ( ! ,edison1 or fall-&-deflection type2 9 ?is ! s& is all[$ to fl[ 9 a ?9 v]tical /ream pa/ a horizontal magnet1 :i* deflects ! m9]als conta9+ iron2 ^! fall on "o side ( a p>tition1 ! "p ri*] 9 monazite on ! o!r4 ,! second 0 an electro/atic ma*9e2 ! heat$ s& is borne on a mov+ belt und]nea? a rotat+ vulcanite cyl9d]1 excit$ by felt-cov]$ rubb]s2 ! light] p>ticles are attract$ to ! cyl9d]1 & dropp$ on "o side1 ! heavi] pass+ on4 ,nei!r ( ^! ma*9es is ( mu* value 9 effect+ conc5tration1 & nei!r is 9 g5]al use4 #aba ,see ,pratt & ,/]rett1 ,trans4 ,am]4 ,in/4 ,m94 ,eng4 #aiji1 #dj1 #cac4 ,! ?ird1 & by f> ! mo/ effici5t & mo/ widely-us$ ma*9e1 is kn[n z ! ,we!rill electro-magnetic sep>ator4 ,x dep5ds on ! pr9ciple1 fir/ appli$ by ! ,am]ican eng9e] ,we!rill1 t n only ! iron m9]als1 b a l>ge numb] ( o!r m9]als may be attract$ if ! magnetic field be suffici5tly /rong4 ,9 all types ( ?is ma*9e us$ 9 clean+ monazite conc5trates1 f\r magnetic fields ( increas+ int5sity are trav]s$ by ! s&2 ! fir/ removes magnetite1 ilm5ite1 & ! l>g] fragm5ts ( g>net2 ! second removes all ! rema9+ g>net & ilm5ite2 ! ?ird removes ! co>s]1 & ! f\r? ! f9] monazite1 tail+s ( zircon1 rutile1 & silica pass+ on4 ,c>eful adju/m5t ( ! magnetic fields w readily give a #ig-ii p] c5t4 monazite4 ,two types ( ?is ma*9e are 9 common use4 ,9 ! fir/ ! magnetic fields are obta9$ by f\r successive electro-magnets1 arrang$ s t a broad horizontally-mov+ belt passes betwe5 ! poles ( ea* 9 succession4 ,! upp] poles are gr\nd d[n to a f9e edge p]p5dicul> to ! direction ( ! belt1 to secure a m p[]ful field4 ,j b5ea? ^! edges1 & j above ! broad belt are f\r rapidly driv5 horizontal belts mov+ at "r angles to ! fir/ or ma9 belt2 ^! c>ry (f & deposit 9 sep>ate b9s ! m9]als attract$ by _! respective magnets4 ,?is type is kn[n z ! ,r[& sep>ator4 ,9 ! second type f\r horizontal belts are arrang$ 9 ! =m ( desc5d+ /eps1 z %[n 9 ! diagram 7,fig4 #b74 ,! magnets are plac$ at ! end ( ea* belt1 & )9 x4 ,! attract$ m9]al is held to its own belt1 :il/ ! rema9d] drops on to ! next2 ! attract$ m9]al falls into a b9 z soon z its belt c>ries x out ( ! magnetic field4 ,! s& to be clean$ is f$ on to ! fir/ belt by means ( a hopp]4 ,! almo/ pure monazite s obta9$ is n[ treat$ *emically = its ?orium4 ,! processes propos$ & 9 use are describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,z already /at$1 ! extraction ( monazite 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates has practically ceas$2 b ! processes outl9$ above1 :i* 7 fir/ br\ght into use 9 ! ,c>ol9as1 h be5 adopt$ = ! treatm5t ( ! ,brazilian s&s4 7b7 ,! ,idaho ,deposits4--,monazite 0 fir/ obs]v$ 9 plac]-gold deposits 9 ! vic9ity ( ,boise city ne> ! ,snake riv]4 ,?is deposit 0 a gold-be>+ s& d]iv$ f granite4 ,lat] ! gold-be>+ s&s ( ,oregon 7 also f\nd to conta9 monazite2 ^! s&s are ri* 9 zircon1 & conta9 plat9um & alli$ metals z well z gold4 ,! s&s ( ! ,pacific slope are ! s-call$ black s&s1 d]iv$ f hornbl5de1 & augite-granites1 usually porphyritic1 :i* are mu* wea!r$ at ! surface4 ,! soil is loose & is l>gely compos$ ( granite fragm5ts2 ! ra9 & /reams con/antly br+ x d[n to ! valleys1 & cont9ually r5ew ! deposits4 ,! conc5trates obta9$ by wa%+ are ri* 9 well-cry/allis$ zircon1 ) titanite & g>net4 ,9 #aijf a company 0 =m$ to extract monazite f ! black s& residues left aft] ! extraction ( gold4 ,by #aiji !y _h erect$ plant & comm5c$ op]ations at ,c5t]ville1 & propos$ to "w ! poor] aurif]\s s&s = gold dur+ ! monazite wa%+4 ,?is1 x 0 expect$1 c\ld be done by wa%+ ! s&s 9 boxes l9$ ) amalgamat$ copp] plates1 :i* w\ld reta9 ! gold4 ,consid]able am\nts ( monazite _h already be5 extract$ f ! tail+s :5 a disa/r\s fire put a /op to ! op]ations 9 #aiaj4 ,s9ce !n ! production ( monazite 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates has practically ceas$4 ,,! ,,brazilian ,,deposits ,brazil fir/ became a s]i\s competitor 9 ! _w's m>ket ) ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 = ! supply ( monazite1 9 #ahie4 ,! great] p]c5tage ( ?orium1 ! m ev5 quality ( ! s&s1 & above all ! occurr5ce on ! sea-coa/1 r5d]$ ! ,brazilian monazite *eap] f ! beg9n+1 s t x soon ou/$ ! ,c>ol9a s&1 & s9ce #aiaj has suppli$ ! :ole dem&4 ,! deposits at pres5t work$ lie along ! coa/s ( ,bahia1 ,m9as ,g]aes & ,espirito ,santo1 & :il/ !y are v ri* 9 monazite1 !re is ! disadvantage t _! position & ext5t1 & s also ! possibility ( work+ !m1 dep5d v l>gely on ! v>iations 9 ! tides1 etc4 ,! l>ge/ ( ^! deposits is on ! %ores ( a bay ne> ! isl& ( ,alcobaca1 on ! s\!rn coa/ ( ,bahia4 ,monazite also occurs to a consid]able ext5t 9 ! diamond s&s & gold-be>+ s&s ( _m ( ! int]ior prov9ces4 ,9 ,m9as ,g]aes x has long be5 kn[n to occur at ! celebrat$ m9+ c5tres ( ,diamant9a & ,ouro ,preto1 :]e x5otime & o!r r>e e>? m9]als are also f\nd2 x is also kn[n at v>i\s localities 9 ! surr\nd+ m9+ prov9ces ( ,so ,paulo1 ,goyaz1 & ,matto ,grosso4 ,m rec5tly1 ext5sive inl& deposits h be5 f\nd by ,freise1 9 ! prov9ce ( ,espirito ,santo4#abb ,9 ! plateau-bas9 ( ! ,muriah & ,pomba riv]s he f\nd a s& kn[n locally z #8catalco' :i* c>ries an av]age ( #ba p] c5t4 ( monazite & a gold-cont5t ( #age grams p] ton4 ,9 ! ,aymor's m\nta9s he f\nd monazite1 bo? massive & granul>1 9 pegmatite ve9s 9 granite2 analysis %[$ a ?oria cont5t ( #ibc p] c5t41 :i* is v high4 ,^! deposits w\ld =m a v valuable & ext5sive s\rce ( ?oria1 if ! difficulties ( transport c\ld be ov]come4 #abb ,zeits*4 pr4 ,geol4 #aiji1 #ag1 #ead2 ibid41 #aiaj1 #ah1 #adc4 ,at pres5t1 z /at$ above1 only ! bea* deposits are work$4 ,! ,brazilian ,gov]nm5t has laid a v heavy tax on all monazite export$2 x is /at$#abc t ! ,g]man ,?orium ,syndicate pays #ej p] c5t4 ( its pr(its 9 royalties to ! ,gov]nm5t4 ,9 spite ( ?is1 ! high quality ( ! s& & ! l[ co/ ( transport h enabl$ ?is comb9e to l[] ! price ( ?orium nitrate to a po9t at :i* ! ,c>ol9a s&s _c be work$1 & x appe>s probable t ! _w's m>kets w be suppli$ = "s "t1 at lea/1 entirely f ,brazil4 ,! me?ods employ$ 9 work+ ! s& are simil> to ^? already describ$4 #abc ,u4,s4 ,geol4 ,survey 7,m9]als71 #aijf1 p4 #aaie4 ,9 ! la/ few ye>s monazite deposits h be5 f\nd 9 v>i\s places1 notably 9 ,au/ralia1 ,india1 & ,ceylon4 ,9 ! latt] locality x occurs sp>+ly 9 ! gem-gravels1 9 association ) ! mu* m valuable ?orianite & ?orite1 b ! supply is unc]ta91 & ! m9]als _c be work$ regul>ly4 ,9 ,au/ralia x occurs 9 ,victoria & 9 ,que5sl&4 ,9 ,victoria ! deposits are poor 9 monazite--ab\t #jjbe p] c5t4--s t work+ is n pr(itable4 ,9 ,que5sl& x occurs 9 bea* s&s on ! s\!rn coa/1 ) gold1 plat9um1 & cassit]ite2 !re seems to be no reason :y ^! deposits %\ld n be pr(itably work$ :5 suffici5t lab\r is =?com+4 ,x also occurs 9 ,nor? ,que5sl&1 on ! ,wal% & ,t9>oo m9]al fields2 "h x is f\nd massive & granul> 9 ve9s 9 granite1 associat$ ) wolframite1 molybd5ite1 & cassit]ite4 ,q rec5tly1 deposits ( consid]able ext5t h be5 f\nd ne> ,travancore1 ,india4#abd ,^! s&s conta9 ab\t #df p] c5t4 ( ! m9]al1 :i* is itself v ri* 9 ?oria1 conta9+ ab\t #aj p] c5t4 ( ! oxide2 ! unconc5trat$ s& is !re=e z valuable z a s\rce ( ?orium nitrate z ! ord9>y ,brazilian conc5trates1 :i* av]age #d p] c5t4 or less ( ! oxide4 #abd ,bull4 ,imp4 ,in/4 #aiaa1 vol4 ix41 ,no4 #b1 p4 #ajc4 ,monazite has also be5 obs]v$ 9 ! t9-be>+ s&s ( ,embabaan1 ,swazil&1 ,s\? ,africa1 & 9 ! prov9ce ( ,ottawa1 ,canada4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,radioactivity ,,( ,,! ,,m9]als ,9 ! pres5t *apt] no attempt w be made to give a complete acc\nt ( all ! ph5om5a ( radioactivity :i* h be5 obs]v$ 9 ! m9]al _w4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 a few problems ( ! highe/ sci5tific int]e/ :i* c5tre ab\t ! r>e e>? m9]als1 & m5tion ( ^! c h>dly be avoid$ 9 a "w :i* pr(esses to give a g5]al acc\nt ( ! r>e e>? gr\p4 ,x is obvi\s t a detail$ treatm5t _c be giv5 )\t ent]+ into ph5om5a :i* w\ld be q beyond ! range ( ! pres5t "w1 & an excuse is h>dly ne$$1 !re=e1 = ! fragm5t>y & abbreviat$ acc\nt :i* foll[s4 ,! read]'s acqua9tance ) ! g5]al ph5om5a ( radioactivity is ( necessity assum$4 ,radioactivity 7! spontane\s emission ( special radiations7 0 fir/ obs]v$ by ,becqu]el1 9 #ahif1 9 ! case ( potassium uranyl sulphate1 & 0 soon f\nd to be common to all uranium comp\nds1 & to ! metal itself4 ,mme4 ,curie %[$ t :il/ 9 uranium salts ! degree ( activity v>ies directly ) ! p]c5tage ( uranium1 9 m9]als conta9+ ! elem5t ! same rule does n hold4 ,! obs]vation t pit*bl5de is consid]ably m active ?an ! uranium x conta9s l$ to ! discov]y ( polonium#abe & radium 9 #ahih4 ,exactly analog\s ph5om5a 7 %[n to hold = ?orium salts & ?orium-conta9+ m9]als by ,mme4 ,curie & ,s*midt 9 #ahih1 & 9 #aije ,hahn sep>at$ ,radio-?orium f ?orianite4 ,9 #ahii ,debi]ne discov]$ t ! r>e e>?s precipitat$ f ! solution obta9$ on treatm5t ( pit*bl5de are associat$ ) ano!r extremely active body1 :i* he nam$ ,act9ium2 ,giesel f\nd t 9 ! sep>ation ( ! r>e e>?s ?is rema9s ) lan?anum4 ,9 #aijc ,ramsay & ,soddy exp]im5tally confirm$ ! pr$iction ( ,ru!r=d & ,soddy1 t radium w\ld be f\nd to produce helium cont9u\sly4 ,! discov]y ( ^! rem>kable ph5om5a has modifi$ _m fundam5tal physical conceptions1 & has op5$ up a new field ( sci5tific enquiry1 :i* is be+ develop$ ) unexampl$ rapidity4 #abe ,polonium1 :i* 0 nam$ by ,mme4 ,curie 9 hon\r ( h] native c\ntry1 has be5 %[n to be id5tical ) ,m>ckwald's #8,radio-tellurium1' :i* 0 nam$ by ,ru!r=d #8,radium ,f'2 x is "o ( ! degradation products ( radium4 ,x has be5 m5tion$1 9 ! acc\nts ( ! r>e e>? m9]als giv5 above1 t almo/ all ^! m9]als are radioactive1 i4e4 h ! prop]ty ( emitt+ specific radiations4 ,moreov]1 radioactivity1 to any consid]able ext5t at lea/1 is1 ) a few important exceptions1 conf9$ to ! m9]als :i* h be5 already describ$4 ,x has be5 %[n by _m inve/igators1 *ief among/ :om are ,/rutt & ,boltwood1 t ! activity is usually due to ! pres5ce ( uranium or ?orium1 or bo?4#abf #abf ,haus] & ,wir? 7,b]4 #aiaj1 #dc1 #ahjg7 obs]v$ activity 9 "s zirconium m9]als conta9+ nei!r ?orium nor uranium4 ,aft] ! discov]y ( helium 9 ,cleveite 7a v>iety ( pit*bl5de1 vide p4 #ac7 9 #ahie by ,ramsay1 a l>ge numb] ( m9]als 7 exam9$ = ?is gas1 & x 0 f\nd t almo/ all ! r>e e>? m9]als conta9 helium4 ,! fact t ^! m9]als are also = ! mo/ "p radioactive1 naturally sugge/$ "s relation betwe5 ! activity & ! pres5ce ( helium1 & l$ directly to ! discov]y t radium is cont9u\sly produc+ helium2 & x became app>5t t helium has be5 accumulat+ 9 ^! m9]als s9ce _! =mation1 by ! decay ( radioactive elem5ts4 ,! "q ( ! orig9 ( helium 9 m9]als w be t\*$ on aga94 ,9 #aijd ,boltwood advanc$ ! !ory t radium is produc$ by ! degradation ( uranium1 ! p>5t-elem5t hav+1 h[ev]1 a mu* great] half-life p]iod4 ,if uranium cont9u\sly produces radium1 :il/ ! latt] decays mu* m rapidly ?an ! =m]1 x mu/ foll[ t 9 m9]als conta9+ uranium a /ate ( equilibrium is rea*$ betwe5 uranium & radium1 & ! ratio ( ^! two 9 all m9]als %\ld !re=e be con/ant1 & indep5d5t ( ! geological age4 ,boltwood exam9$ a numb] ( ! m9]als ( :i* descriptions h be5 giv5 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s1 & f\nd ! ratio to be surpris+ly con/ant4#abg ,/rutt also exam9$ a l>ge numb] ( m9]als1#abh & :il/ on ! :ole 8 results seem$ to support ! !ory1 8 values = ! ratio 7 by no means s con/ant z ^? ( ,boltwood4 ,/rutt includ$ 9 8 exam9ation ! int]e/+ radium-conta9+ m9]al obs]v$ by ,danne at ,issy l',evque4#abi ,?is 0 a pyromorphite 7lead *lorophosphate7 conta9+ nei!r uranium nor ?orium4 ,danne sugge/$ t ! radium 0 n an orig9al con/itu5t1 b _h be5 introduc$ by ! action ( p]colat+ wat]s4 ,?is view 0 confirm$ by ,mc,coy & ,ross1#acj :o f\nd t ! activity 0 entirely conf9$ to ! surface lay]4 #abg ,am]4 ,j4 ,sci4 #aijd1 iv41 #ah1 #ig2 ,phil4 ,mag4 #aije1 iv41 #i1 #eii4 #abh ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 #aije1 ,a1 #gf1 #hh & #cab4 ,ibid4 #aijg1 ,a1 #hj1 #ef4 #abi ,compt4 r5d4 #aije1 #adj1 #bda4 #acj ,j4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aijg1 #bi1 #afih4 ,mlle4 ,gl$its* has also exam9$ ! "q ( ! uranium-radium ratio 9 m9]als4 ,h] e>li] "w#aca gave ratios :i*1 :il/ con/ant = ea* m9]al species1 v>i$ 9 mu* ! same mann] z ,/rutt's = diff]5t species1 & af=d$ v little support to ,boltwood's !ory4 ,h] m rec5t results1#acb h[ev]1 are mu* m closely 9 accord ) ! !ory1 :i* has be5 /ill fur!r /r5g!n$ by ! "w ( ,pirret & ,soddy#acc & ( ,m>ckwald & ,russell4#acd ,x may n[ be reg>d$ z firmly e/abli%$ t radium is 9 ! l9e ( direct desc5t f uranium4 #aca ,compt4 r5d4 #aiji1 #adi1 #bfg2 ,le ,radium1 #aiji1 #f1 #afe4 #acb ,le ,radium1 #aiaa1 #h1 #bef4 #acc ,phil4 ,mag4 #aiaa1 vi41 #ba1 #feb4 #acd ,b]4 #aiaa1 #dd1 #ggg4 ,boltwood _h assum$ t ! helium 9 radioactive m9]als is produc$ f ! uranium1 dur+ its dis9tegration4 ,/rutt1 h[ev]1 disput$ ?is2 8 exp]im5ts %[$ t v little helium is f\nd ev5 9 ! ri*e/ radium-uranium m9]als unless ?orium is also pres5t4 ,?us pit*bl5de conta9s a v high p]c5tage ( uranium1 b relatively little helium 7!re is usually a consid]able ?orium p]c5tage "h too1 s t no?+ conclusive c be d$uc$ f ?is74 ,adams#ace f\nd t c>notite1 a m9]al v ri* 9 uranium1 b conta9+ no ?orium1 conta9s no helium at all2 he expla9$ its abs5ce by ! v loose texture & p]meability ( ! m9]al1 :i* w\ld all[ ! gas to escape4 ,/rutt conclud$ t :il/ helium is und\bt$ly produc$ by dis9tegration 9 ! uranium s]ies1 9 m9]als x is produc$ m by ?orium or1 z m rec5t "w indicates1 by radio-?orium1 ?an by uranium4 #ace ,am]4 ,j4 ,sci4 #aije1 iv41 #bj1 #bef4 ,! "q ( ! orig9 ( helium 9 m9]als is1 h[ev]1 n def9itely settl$1 = sev]al anomal\s cases are kn[n4 ,?us ! yttria silicate1 ,?alnite 7q4v471 conta9s quantities ( helium1 b no uranium or ?orium is giv5 9 ! analyses4 ,simil>ly1 ,risrite conta9s a relatively l>ge quantity ( helium1 b only traces ( uranium & ?orium4 ,9 ! la/ m9]al1 ! active con/itu5t is precipitat$ ) ! lead1 s t no radio-?orium appe>s to be pres5t4 ,fur!r1 ,?oms5 analys$ a fluorsp> f ,ivitgut 9 ,gre5l& :i* he f\nd to conta9 #bg c4c4 ( helium p] kilogram4 ,?is specim5 conta9s no uranium1 b gives (f ! ?orium emanation 9 quantities :i* sugge/ ! pres5ce ( radio-?orium2 mod]ate quantities ( ?orium are also pres5t4 ,s9ce ! p>ticle has be5 def9itely id5tifi$ z a positively *>g$ helium atom1 x appe>s c]ta9 t dis9tegration 9 all ?ree s]ies 7uranium1 act9ium1 & ?orium s]ies7 produces helium1 & a m9]al conta9+ a memb] ( any ( ^! s]ies 7:i* gives rays or ray-giv+ products7 w\ld also conta9 helium4 ,ev5 s1 !re is a case 9 :i* ! helium cont5t is anomal\s1 if n altoge!r beyond explanation at ! pres5t /age4 ,9 exam9+ a l>ge numb] ( m9]als = helium1 ,/rutt#acf f\nd t "s samples ( b]yl1 a b]yllium alum9ium silicate1 conta9 a relatively v l>ge am\nt ( helium1 b only traces ( ?orium1 & 0 altoge!r inactive4 ,! abs5ce ( any active con/itu5t r5d]s unt5able ! ord9>y explanations ( ! pres5ce ( su* a surpris+ quantity ( helium4 ,boltwood has put =w>d a sugge/ion :i* 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k mu/ be reg>d$ z a provisional explanation4 ,he conceives t 9 ! conc5tration ( b]yllium f ! p>5t magma1 x may h become associat$ ) "s %ort-liv$ int]m$iate radioactive elem5t1 :i* _h be5 altoge!r sep>at$ f its long-liv$ p>5t elem5t 9 ! process ( conc5tration2 ?is int]m$iate elem5t1 hav+ collect$ 9 ! cry/allis$ b]yl1 decay$ completely 9 ! c\rse ( ! great p]iod :i* mu/ h elaps$1 leav+ ! helium to :i* x _h giv5 rise dur+ its dis9tegration enclos$ 9 ! m9]al4 ,x is difficult to see h[ two sub/ances :i* mu/ be s intimately connect$ z a p>5t-elem5t & its product c\ld be completely sep>at$ 9 ! process ( cool+ ( a magma2 b s9ce s little is kn[n ( ! process ( cry/allisation ( m9]als1 ! sugge/ion c h>dly be reject$ on geological gr\nds4 ,9 any case1 we h "h only "o /rongly m>k$ exception to ! v def9ite rule t 9 all cases 9 :i* helium occurs 9 m9]als1 x is accompani$ by & und\bt$ly produc$ f1 a radioactive elem5t or elem5ts2 & 9 ! majority ( cases1 ! helium 9 m9]als is produc$ by dis9tegration ( uranium or ?orium & _! products4 #acf ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 #aijh1 ,a1 #hj1 #egb4 ,/rutt f\nd t traces ( helium are univ]sal 9 ! m9]al _w4 ,8 me?od ( det]m9+ helium 0 approximate only4 ,he obta9$ ! gas cont5t by heat+ ! p[d]$ m9]al--a me?od :i*1 z ,wood has %[n1#acg w only give all ! gas :5 v high temp]atures 7up to #ajjj;,c47 are employ$4 ,! gases 7 fre$ f oxyg5 & hydrog5 by pass+ ov] a heat$1 p>tially oxidis$1 copp] spiral1 & f c>bon dioxide by means ( pota%4 ,nitrog5 0 remov$ by sp>k+ ) excess ( oxyg5 & %ak+ ov] pota%2 ! excess ( oxyg5 0 remov$ by melt$ phosphorus4 ,! in]t gases s obta9$ 7 fre$ f all impurities by ! use ( ! liquid alloy ( sodium & potassium = ! electrodes ( ! spectrum tube 9 :i* ! gases 7 exam9$ spectroscopically4#ach ,argon1 if pres5t--x seems to be a univ]sal con/itu5t ( igne\s rocks1 into :i* x may h be5 absorb$ f ! air--0 remov$ by *>coal at a temp]ature ( -#hj;,c4 ,! helium s left 0 exam9$ spectroscopically1 & measur$ 9 a ,mac,leod gauge4 #acg ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 #aiaj1 ,a1 #hd1 #gj4 #ach ,z soon z ! dis*>ge is />t$ 9 su* a tube1 all ! gases pres5t o!r ?an ^? ( ! helium family are absorb$ by ^! electrodes4 ,z /at$1 helium 0 f\nd 9 traces 9 ne>ly all m9]als1 & its pres5ce is to be attribut$ to traces ( radium1 :i* also appe>s univ]sal4 ,9 m9]als conta9+ uranium or ?orium1 or r>e e>?s 7! latt] are almo/ always accompani$ by uranium & ?orium71 helium is f\nd to a mu* great] ext5t1 & ,ramsay consid]s x possible t "s fraction ( ! helium cont5t may arise f ! r>e e>? metals4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no positive evid5ce to support ! conjecture4 ,he f\nd t ! helium ratio1 i4e4 ! volume ( helium p] gram ( uran\s oxide1 ,,uo1 v>ies ) ! am\nt ( ?oria pres5t2 b :]e ! latt] is abs5t ! v>iations are mu* less m>k$4 ,if helium 7 produc$ 9 a m9]al f uranium alone1 & none escap$1 x is obvi\s t ! helium ratio w\ld dep5d only on ! age ( ! m9]al4 ,= m9]als ( ab\t ! same age1 & conta9+ no ?orium1 ! helium ratio w\ld be r\ghly con/ant1 if no di/urb+ factor requir$ consid]ation4 ,9 #aije ,/rutt po9t$ out t 9 all ! m9]als he _h exam9$1 ?orium 0 nev] pres5t unless accompani$ by uranium & radium1 :il/ uranium & radium (t5 occurr$ )\t ?orium4 ,he sugge/$ t ! pres5t atomic weight ( ?orium1 #bcbe1 0 too l[1 & t x 0 really ! p>5t ( uranium 7at4 weight #bche72 he fur!r suppos$ t ! next p]man5t memb] 9 ! l9e ( desc5t 0 "o ( ! c]ium metals4 ,^! sugge/ions h be5 negativ$ by lat] "w ( ,boltwood & ,holmes4 ,! =m] po9t$ out#aci t x 0 f> m likely t ?orium is a dis9tegration product ( uranium ( consid]ably long] life4 ,on ! :ole1 h[ev]1 !re is v little positive evid5ce to connect ?orium ) uranium4 #aci ,boltwood1 ,am]4 ,j4 ,sci4 #aije1 iv41 #bj1 #bef4 ,9 ! same ye> ,boltwood 7loc4 cit47 drew att5tion to ! p]si/5t appe>ance ( traces ( lead1 bismu?1 b>ium1 etc41 9 ! radioactive m9]als1 & also po9t$ out t ! v>iations ( ! ratio ( helium to uranium 9 pit*bl5de might be us$ to det]m9e ! age ( ! m9]al4 ,9 #aijg he sugge/$#adj t lead 0 ! f9al product ( ! degradation ( uranium1 f :i* x foll[s t ! ratio ( uranium to lead %\ld be con/ant = m9]als ( ! same age 7s9ce1 lead decays1 if at all1 at an inf9itely sl[] rate ?an uranium74 ,he collect$ all ! available analyses1 & classifi$ ! m9]als dealt ) into six gr\ps accord+ to ! value ( ! ratio4 ,! ord] giv5 by ! ratio 0 decl>$ to be 9 accordance ) ! ord] ( age z giv5 by geological evid5ce4 #adj ,am]4 ,j4 ,sci4 #aijg1 iv41 #bc1 #gg4 ,holmes#ada has fur!r ext5d$ ?is "w4 ,he exam9$ a numb] ( r>e e>? & alli$ m9]als f ! ,*ri/iania di/rict1 :i* ,brgg] consid]s to be ( approximately ,l[] ,devonian age1 & f\nd ! ratio ( lead to uranium to approximate q closely1 = almo/ all ! m9]als exam9$1 to #jjde4 ,repres5t+ ! *ange 9 ! usual way z ,u #h;,he ,pb #bche #caib #bjga & us+ ! data calculat$ by ,ru!r=d & o!rs = ! rates ( decay1 he gives ! age ( ,l[] ,devonian /rata z ab\t #cgj million ye>s4 ,?is figure is ab\t twice z great z t d$uc$ by palontologi/s f ! flora & fauna1 & great] /ill ?an ! times bas$ on physical data1 e4g4 rates ( cool+1 precession & nutation1 etc4 ,8 figures = pre-,cambrian rocks1 bas$ on ! same ratio1 range betwe5 #ajjj & #afdj million ye>s1 ! lat] be+ d$uc$ f a ?orianite f ! ,ar*an rocks ( ,ceylon4 ,/rutt's figure = ,ar*an rocks is ab\t #gjj million ye>s2 ?is 0 d]iv$ f "w on ! helium ratio1 :i* mu/ n[ be consid]$4#adb #ada ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 #aiaa1 ,a1 #he1 #bdh4 #adb ,see ,/rutt1 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 #aijh1 ,a1 #hb1 #aff2 #aiji1 #hc1 #if2 #aiji1 #hc1 #bih2 #aiaj1 #hd1 #aid4 ,9 #ahih ,trav]s#adc _h exam9$ ! effect ( heat on cleveite & f]gusonite1 & f\nd t ab\t half ! total helium1 toge!r ) hydrog51 is giv5 (f at a bright r$ heat4 ,he consid]$ x likely t ! helium 0 comb9$ ) a metal 7?\gh he recognis$ no di/9ction betwe5 occlusion & comb9ation7 & rem>k$3 #8,! results ( su* exp]im5ts _c !re=e s]ve z a basis = speculation z to ! orig9 or hi/ory ( ! sub/ances 9 "q4' ,! *emical inactivity ( helium1 h[ev]1 z well z ! exp]im5ts ( ,moss & ,gray1 :o %[$ t helium 0 evolv$ on gr9d+ ! mat]ials1#add indicate t ! gas is me*anically b\nd only4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 introduces ! difficulty1 if an attempt be made to use ! helium-uranium ratio to calculate ! age ( m9]als1 t ! gas w\ld be expect$ to escape f a por\s mat]ial1 s t its am\nt is nev] s great z x %\ld be4 ,/rutt himself f\nd t helium escapes rapidly f p[d]$ monazite1 :il/ ev5 ! solid m9]al 0 f\nd to evolve helium at a rate mu* 9 excess ( ! probable rate ( production by radioactive *anges4 ,simil> results 7 f\nd ) ?orianite1 & ! only conclusion1 s9ce helium is f\nd 9 ! m9]als1 is t "u ! conditions "u :i* ^! m9]als exi/ 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 ?is escape is *eck$ or altoge!r prev5t$4 ,x foll[s1 h[ev]1 t any age det]m9$ f ! helium ratio mu/ be a m9imum age1 s9ce !re is always ! *ance ( loss2 ?is ( c\rse is n ! case--except :]e ! m9]als h suff]$ *emical *anges--) ! lead ratio1 & may acc\nt = ! discrepancies obs]v$4 #adc ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 #ahih-ii1 #fd1 #adj4 #add ,vide ,gray1 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 #aijh1 ,a1 #hb1 #cjf4 ,/rutt's e>li] "w on ! helium ratio 0 made ) phosphate m9]als 7coprolites & fossil bones7 ( kn[n ages4 ,! ratios f\nd 7 n 9 ord] ( age1 ! m9]als be+ v p]meable1 s t helium _h probably be5 lo/4 ,he next turn$ 8 att5tion to igne\s rocks1 & select$ zircon = ! "w4 ,"h he obta9$ "s sort ( regul>ity 9 ! ord] ( age & ! ord] giv5 by ! ratio1 & assum$ t if helium 7 lo/ at all1 x mu/ be lo/ 9 r\ghly proportional am\nts by reason ( ! simil>ity 9 conditions4 ,geological criticism t5ds to less5 ! tru/wor?9ess ( ! conclusions2 x is po9t$ out t ! age ( a specim5 ( zircon is n necess>ily t ( ! rock 9 :i* x occurs1 = zircon is an extremely /able m9]al1 & might survive un*ang$ sev]al fusions & re-cry/allisations ( ! magma4 ,/rutt replies to ?is t at ! temp]ature ( fusion ( a rock1 zircon w\ld c]ta9ly give up its accumulat$ helium1 s t ! age det]m9$ f ! helium cont5t w\ld be t ( ! la/ fusion1 i4e4 ! age z giv5 by geological data4 ,on ! o!r h&1 our ignorance ( ! real me*anism ( ! cry/allisation ( a magma1 & especially ( ! am\nt & effect ( ! pressures obta9+1 robs ?is reply ( its =ce1 & ! objection mu/ be c\nt$ valid4 ,9 /ill lat] "w ,/rutt us$ sph5e & ?orianite1 & 8 results agree z well z c be expect$4 ,! sph5es us$ 7 all f ,ar*an rocks1 except "o1 :i* 0 f a ,t]ti>y volcanic deposit ( ! ,laa*] ,see1 ne> ,cobl5z 7! lake is 9 ! crat] ( an ext9ct volcano74 ,9 ?is case ! helium ratio 0 v mu* small] 7ab\t ( ! values = ,ar*an rocks7 indicat+ ! 7comp>atively7 extremely rec5t =mation ( ! deposit4 ,! mo/ rec5t results 9 ! /udy ( radioactivity po9t to ! conclusion t elem5ts :i* diff] 9 atomic weight & radioactive prop]ties may be *emically id5tical1 or at lea/ *emically insep>able2 su* elem5ts h be5 t]m$ isotopes4 ,! end product ( ! ?orium s]ies ( radio-elem5ts %\ld h an atomic weight ( ab\t #bjhd1 & x has be5 sugge/$ t ! elem5t actually produc$ 9 ?is s]ies ( *anges may be bismu?4 ,! late/ results1 h[ev]1 r po9t to ! conclusion t dis9tegration 9 ! ?orium s]ies gives rise to an isotope ( lead4 ,if ?is hypo!sis be true1 ! lead d]iv$ f a m9]al ri* 9 ?orium & poor 9 uranium %\ld h an atomic weight appreciably high] ?an t ( ord9>y lead4 ,exp]im5ts to te/ ?is conclusion h rec5tly be5 c>ri$ out by ,soddy & ,hyman4#ade #ade ,proc4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiad1 #cj1 #acd4 ,^! au?ors h made analyses ( ,ceylon ?orite1 :i* !y f9d to conta9 #jce p] c5t4 ( lead2 f ! ratio ( ?orium to uranium 9 ! m9]al1 !y calculate t ! lead %\ld h an atomic weight ( #bjhb1 t ( ord9>y lead be+ #bjga4 ,prelim9>y comp>ative exp]im5ts on #a gram ( pure lead *loride extract$ f ! m9]al po9t to an atomic weight = ! ?orite lead ( #bjhd1 a result surpris+ly 9 accord ) !ory4 ,m ext5d$ exp]im5ts on ?is mo/ int]e/+ "q are 9 progress4 ,! pres5t *apt] w\ld be incomplete )\t a ref]5ce to ! int]e/+ "w ( ,goldsmidt on radioactivity z an aid 9 id5tify+ m9]al species4#adf ,he describes a simple me?od by :i* ! activity ( a m9]al may be rapidly & easily measur$ to a suffici5t degree ( approximation1 & %[s h[ ! det]m9ation enables a l9e to be drawn on a diagram already mapp$ out2 ?is l9e w int]sect an area on ! diagram :i* corresponds to ! p>ticul> m9]al4 ,ow+ to lack ( analytical data1 & to ! great difficulty ( det]m9+ ) accuracy small quantities ( uranium & ?orium1 ! me?od is at pres5t ( sci5tific int]e/ only2 b x is capable ( developm5t1 & its developm5t w\ld be ( und\bt$ value 9 ! fur!r /udy ( ?is bran* ( radioactivity4 #adf ,zeits*4 ,kry/4 ,m94 #aijg-h1 #dd1 #ede2 ibid4 #aijh1 #de1 #dij4 ,9 ord] to make ?is "p ( ! subject z cle> z possible1 ! *ief po9ts 9 ?is *apt] are summ>is$ z foll[s3 #a4 ,radioactivity is only obs]v$ to an appreciable ext5t 9 "s r r>e m9]als4 ,^! m9]als z a rule conta9 radium1 uranium1 ?orium1 r>e e>?s1 & helium4 #b4 ,! helium has be5 produc$ dur+ geological "t by ! degradation ( "o or m memb]s ( ! ?ree s]ies ( active elem5ts 7! ,uranium1 ,act9ium1 & ,?orium s]ies74 #c4 ,radium is a degradation product ( uranium1 & itself is degrad$ cont9u\sly2 ! f9al product ( degradation is probably lead4 #d4 ,! age ( m9]als has be5 calculat$ f ! ratio ( lead to uranium2 ! figures obta9$ are mu* great] ?an ^? put =w>d by geologi/s & physici/s4 #e4 ,! helium ratio has also be5 us$1 b appe>s less tru/wor?y1 ow+ to escape ( helium1 & unc]ta9ty z to geological age ( ! m9]als employ$4 #f4 ,"s connection betwe5 radioactivity & ! pres5ce ( ! yttrium or c]ium metals appe>s highly probable1 b no satisfactory !ories h be5 advanc$ on ?is po9t2 x has be5 %[n t act9ium is v closely alli$ to lan?anum4 ,,"p ,,ii ,,! ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,! ,,elem5ts ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,g5]al ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,! ,,c]ium ,,& ,,yttrium ,,gr\ps ,! *emi/ry ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts beg9s 9 ! ye> #agid1 ) ,gadol9's discov]y ( ! new oxide #8,ytt]bia1' = :i* ! "n ,yttria 0 subsequ5tly propos$ by ,ekeb]g1 & g5]ally adopt$ 7see ,*apt] ,i1 & "u ,gadol9ite1 p4 #ce74 ,! discov]y ( ,c]ia foll[$ 9 #ahjd 7see "u ,c]ite1 p4 #cb74 ,! classical "w ( ,mos&]1 c>ri$ out betwe5 #ahch & #ahdb1 %[$ ! complex nature ( ! new oxides4 ,f c]ia he sep>at$ ?ree new e>?s1 ,c]ia prop]1 ,lan?ana1 & ,didymia4 ,yttria 0 %[n to be a mixture ( at lea/ ?ree oxides1 = :i* ! names ,yttria1 ,erbia1 & ,t]bia 7 propos$4 ,^! oxides 7 believ$ to h ! g5]al =mula ,,ro1 by analogy ) ! alkal9e e>?s1 :i* !y 7 f\nd to resemble 9 _m respects1 notably 9 _! /rongly basic "*4 ,! prop]ties ( ! new oxides 7 exam9$ dur+ ! next tw5ty ye>s by _m *emi/s1 ! *ief work]s be+ ,m>ignac1 ,rammelsb]g1 & ,h]mann1 b ! next important advance 0 ! inve/igation ( ! absorption spectra ( solutions ( ! r>e e>? salts1 fir/ sugge/$ by ,glad/one 9 #ahef1 & develop$ m fully by ,buns5 & ,kir*h(f 9 #ahfj & ! foll[+ few ye>s4 ,! introduction ( ! me?ods ( spectrum analysis furni%$ a v delicate & valuable me?od ( exam9+ & id5tify+ ! v>i\s oxides1 & s greatly assi/$ ! labori\s processes ( sep>ation4 ,sixte5 elem5ts 7exclud+ ?orium & zirconium7 are at ! pres5t "t recognis$ z belong+ to ! r>e e>? gr\p4 ,) "o or two exceptions1 ^! %[ ! close/ resemblance to "o ano!r1 bo? 9 *emical behavi\r & 9 ! prop]ties ( _! comp\nds1 s t ! difficulties ( sep>at+ & purify+ !m are v great4 ,!y may be said to =m a s]ies1 9 :i* ! prop]ties v>y cont9u\sly b gradually f memb] to memb]1 s t no %>p diff]5ces are any:]e p]ceptible4 ,! me?od ( division into gr\ps is1 !re=e1 almo/ entirely "o ( conv5i5ce1 & has aris5 f ! c\rse :i* ! sep>ations h foll[$4 ,! elem5ts are divid$ into two *ief families or gr\ps1 t ( ! c]ium metals & t ( ! yttrium metals respectively4 ,! c]ium elem5ts are sep>at$ by a process dep5d+ on ! relative insolubility ( _! alkali d\ble sulphates2 9 ?is gr\p are includ$ c]ium1 lan?anum1 praseodymium1 neodymium1 & sam>ium4 ,! yttrium family is fur!r divid$ into f\r sub-gr\ps3 ! fir/ consi/s ( sc&ium & yttrium2 ! second or t]bium gr\p ( europium1 gadol9ium1 & t]bium2 ! ?ird or erbium gr\p ( dysprosium1 holmium1 erbium1 & ?ulium2 & ! f\r? or ytt]bium gr\p ( ytt]bium & lutecium--! elem5t celtium1 rec5tly discov]$ by ,urba91 w also fall into ?is sub-gr\p1 b ! discov]y awaits confirmation4 ,:il/ sc&ium & yttrium fall into some:at abnormal positions1 correspond+ to _! l[ atomic weights1 ! t]bium elem5ts occupy an int]m$iate position betwe5 ! c]ium elem5ts & ! rema9+ yttrium elem5ts1 or yttrium gr\p prop]1 & s are frequ5tly classifi$ z a ?ird or int]m$iate gr\p4 ,?is li/ does n include all ! names :i* h be5 put =w>d to designate :at h be5 claim$ f "t to "t z new elem5ts2 :il/ ! individuality ( "s ( ^? includ$ is n yet fully e/abli%$1 & ! homog5eity ( o!rs has be5 call$ 9 "q4 ,! unc]ta9ty is m pron\nc$ among ! yttrium elem5ts ?an among ! c]ium elem5ts2 ow+ to ! opportunities = inve/igation furni%$ by ! comm]cial treatm5t ( monazite1 ! *emi/ry ( ! c]ium gr\p may be reg>d$ z complete4 ,9 ! foll[+ table ! elem5ts are arrang$ 9 ord] ( increas+ atomic weight1 & x c be se5 at once h[ closely ! division into gr\ps foll[s ?is ord]3 ,,elem5t ,,atomic ,,wt4 ,,col\r ,,( ,,salts ,sc&ium1 ,sc #dda ,col\rless ,yttrium1 ,yt #hij ,col\rless ,lan?anum1 ,la #acij ,col\rless ,c]ium1 ,ce #adjbe ,c]\s1 col\rless2 c]ic1 ,c]ium orange to r$ ,gr\p4 ,praseodymium1 ,pr #adjf ,gre5 ,neodymium1 ,nd #addc ,r$ to r$di%-violet ,sam>ium1 ,sa #aejd ,topaz yell[ ,t]bium ,europium1 ,eu #aebj ,fa9t rose ,gr\p4 ,gadol9ium1 ,gd #aegc ,col\rless ,t]bium1 ,tb #aeib ,col\rless ,dysprosium1 ,dy #afbe ,bright gre5 ,erbium ,holmium1 ,ho #afce ,yell[ to orange ,gr\p4 ,erbium1 ,er #afgg ,deep rose ,?ulium1 ,tm #afhe ,blui%-gre5 ,ytt]bium ,ytt]bium1 ,yb #agbj ,col\rless ,gr\p4 ,lutecium1 ,lu #agdj ,col\rless ,9 _! *emical relations1 ! r>e e>? elem5ts may be plac$ betwe5 ! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s1 & ! trival5t metals iron1 alum9ium1 & *romium4 ,) ! exceptions ( c]ium 9 ! c]ic salts1 & ( sam>ium & europium 9 ! rec5tly discov]$ di*lorides1 !y are uni=mly trival5t1 b ! oxides are v /rong bases1 & ! salts v slightly hydrolys$ 9 dilute solutions2 g5]ally1 !re=e1 !y resemble ! calcium family r ?an ! alum9ium gr\p4 ,among ! common salts1 ! oxalates1 phosphates1 *romates1 iodates1 fluorides1 c>bonates1 t>trates1 & borates are almo/ insoluble2 ! sulphates are only sp>+ly soluble at ord9>y temp]atures4 ,among ! d\ble salts1 ! alkali d\ble sulphates are ( great importance f _! employm5t = sep>ations2 ! t5d5cy to ! =mation ( complex salts is great] among ! yttrium ?an among ! c]ium elem5ts1 increas+ ) ! atomic weight1 & ) ! decrease 9 basic /r5g? ( ! oxides4 ,! great simil>ity 9 *emical behavi\r ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts is app>5t n only 9 ! simil>ity 9 composition1 solubility & *emical prop]ties ( ! salts--:i* is s great t ! g5]al acc\nt ( ! comp\nds :i* foll[s applies almo/ 9 its entirety to ea* memb] ( ! gr\p--b also 9 ! cry/allographic relations betwe5 correspond+ comp\nds4 ,_m ( ! salt hydrates =m isomorph\s s]ies2 ! sulphate octohydrates1 = example1 appe> to be isomorph\s ?r\gh\t ! :ole gr\p1 & probably ! relation w\ld be f\nd to apply ev5 m completely ?an is g5]ally accept$1 if ! necess>y data 7 =?com+4 ,( great int]e/ & practical importance is ! isomorphism betwe5 ! nitrates & d\ble nitrates ( ! c]ium elem5ts & bismu?1 :i* has be5 utilis$ ) su* valuable results 9 ! processes ( fractional cry/allisation4 ,! ,metals4--,! e>li] attempts to r$uce comp\nds ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts to ! metallic condition1 by means ( metallic sodium or potassium1 did n yield pure products2 nor did ! use ( alum9ium or magnesium lead to results ( practical importance4 ,! metals 7 fir/ obta9$ 9 a coh]5t physical condition by ,hillebr& & ,norton1#adg by electrolysis ( ! fus$ *lorides4 ,^! inve/igators obta9$ c]ium1 lan?anum1 & ! s-call$ didymium1 & measur$ _! specific heats2 _! results confirm$ ! atomic weights assign$ to ! elem5ts by ,m5delejeff1 except 9 ! case ( lan?anum4 ,_! me?od has s9ce be5 elaborat$ by ,mu?mann1 ,h(] & ,weiss1#adh :o h prep>$ l>ge quantities ( ! c]ium elem5ts 9 ! pure /ate4 ,m rec5tly1 ,hirs* has prep>$ metallic c]ium 9 l>ge quantities1#adi & has /udi$ its prop]ties4 #adg ,pogg4 ,ann4 #ahge1 #aee1 #fca2 #aef1 #dff4 #adh ,annal51 #aijb1 #cbj1 #bca2 see also ,mu?mann & ,weiss1 ibid4 #aijd1 #cca1 #a4 #adi ,met4 ,*em4 ,eng4 #aiaa1 #i1 #edc4 ,by electrolytic r$uction ( ! mix$ *lorides ( ! c]ium elem5ts1 a mixture kn[n z #8,mis* metal' is obta9$2 ?is has p[]ful r$uc+ prop]ties1 &1 l alum9ium1 r$uces ! oxides ( iron1 *romium1 etc41 ) great developm5t ( heat4#aej ,! yttrium metals h n yet be5 obta9$ 9 ! pure /ate1 ! electrolytic me?od giv+ unsatisfactory results on acc\nt ( ! high melt+-po9ts ( ! metals1 & ! volatile nature ( _! *lorides4 #aej ,a full acc\nt ( ! prop]ties & prep>ation ( ! c]ium metals & _! alloys w be f\nd 9 ! monograph ( ,kell]mann1 #8,die ,c]itmetalle und ihre pyrophor5 ,legi]ung51 ,wilhelm ,knapp1 ,halle1 #aiab4 ,! c]ium metals are :ite or slightly yell[i% 9 col\r1 & are mod]ately /able 9 dry air4 ,9 moi/ air !y t>ni% sl[ly1 lan?anum1 z ! mo/ positive1 be+ mo/ readily oxidis$4 ,! melt+-po9ts & specific gravities are z foll[s3 ,elem5t ,melt+-po9t ,specific ,gravity ,c]ium #fbc #gjbdb ,lan?anum #haj #faede ,praseodymium #idj #fdged ,neodymium #hdj #fiefc ,sam>ium #acjj-adjj #gg-gh ,! metals decompose wat] sl[ly 9 ! cold1 b rapidly at ! boil+-po9t1 ) evolution ( hydrog54 ,!y h a great aff9ity = oxyg51 ! heats ( =mation ( ! oxides be+ ( ! ord] ( ^? ( alum9a & magnesia3 ,heat ( ,=mation p] ,equival5t ,weight ( ,oxide#aea ,la,o #gda ,k ,nd,o #gbe ,pr,o #fhg ,ce,o #efa ,al,o #fdc ,mg,o #gai #aea ,mu?mann & ,weiss1 loc4 cit42 ,k #a kilogram-calorie1 or #ajjj cal4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! high values ( ! heats ( combu/ion1 ! metals h p[]ful r$uc+ prop]ties4 ,! c]ium metals =m alloys ) magnesium1 z9c1 alum9ium1 & iron1 & comb9e ) boron & silicon4 ,! alloys ( c]ium1 & ! metal itself1 are rem>kable = _! prop]ty ( emitt+ brilliant sp>ks :5 scrat*$ 7see ,*apt] ,,xxi74 ,c]ium also =ms an amalgam ) m]cury4 ,! metals burn brilliantly :5 heat$ 9 oxyg51 & dissolve readily 9 dilute m9]al acids4 ,:5 heat$ to a temp]ature ( #bjj-cjj 9 a curr5t ( hydrog51 !y absorb ! gas v readily1 =m+ ! hydrides4 ,^! comp\nds are also obta9$ by heat+ ! oxides ) magnesium 9 a curr5t ( hydrog54 ,!y 7 fir/ prep>$ by ,w9kl]1#aeb :o d$uc$ f 8 analyses ! g5]al =mula ,,rh2 ! m rec5t "w ( ,mu?mann & ,beck1#aec h[ev]1 po9ts to ! =mula ,,rh4 #aeb ,b]4 #ahij1 #bc1 #bfdb2 #ahia1 #bd1 #hgc4 #aec ,annal51 #aijd1 #cca1 #eh4 ,if nitrog5 be sub/itut$ = hydrog5 9 ei!r ( ! above me?ods ( prep>ation1 nitrides ( ! g5]al =mula ,,rn are obta9$2 c]ium nitride1 h[ev]1 _c be obta9$ by heat+ ! elem5t 9 ! gas4#aed ,^! comp\nds are also obta9$ :5 ! c>bides are heat$ 9 ammonia4 ,!y are amorph\s solids1 :i* yield ammonia :5 act$ ^u by wat]4 #aed ,daf]t & ,miklanz1 ,monats4 #aiab1 #cc1 #iaa4 ,hydroxides4--,! hydroxides are ?r[n d[n z gelat9\s precipitates on ! addition ( alkalies to hot dilute solutions ( ! salts2 precipitation 9 ! cold1 or 9 /rong solution1 usually gives a basic salt1 or an hydroxide mix$ ) a l>ge quantity ( basic salt4 ,! hydroxides are insoluble 9 excess ( precipitant1 b ! precipitation is inhibit$ by ! pres5ce ( "s organic hydroxy-acids4#aee #aee ,= effect ( t>t>ic acid1 see p4 #acc4 ,! hydroxides are insoluble 9 wat]1 b dissolve v readily 9 acids4 ,! mo/ basic ( !m absorb c>bon dioxide f ! air2 lan?anum hydroxide is exceptional 9 t x col\rs litmus blue4 ,:il/ hydrog5 p]oxide 9 neutral solution does n react ) r>e e>? salts1#aef alkalies 9 pres5ce ( ?is reag5t precipitate gelat9\s hydrat$ p]oxides1 :i* are v un/able1 decompos+ on /&+1 or on treatm5t ) acids1 ) evolution ( oxyg54 ,! g5]al =mula ,r,o x,h,o 0 propos$ = ^! comp\nds by ,cleve1 b m rec5tly ! =mula ,r7,,ooh77,,oh7 has be5 advanc$4#aeg #aef ,comp>e behavi\r ( ?orium & zirconium1 ,*4 ,,xvi4 #aeg ,melik(f & ,piss>jewski1 ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #ahii1 #ba1 #gj2 ,melik(f & ,klim5to1 ,*em4 ,z5tr4 #aijb1 #a1 #agb4 ,oxides4--,9 _! mo/ /able /ate ( oxidation1 ! r>e e>? elem5ts are g5]ally trival5t4 ,9 ! case ( c]ium1 ! dioxide1 ,ce,o1 is m /able ?an ! sesquioxide ,ce,o1 b ! c]ic salts are un/able1 & are v readily r$uc$ to c]\s comp\nds1 correspond+ to ! oxide ,ce,o4 ,high] oxides are kn[n ) c]ta9ty among ! o!r elem5ts only 9 ! cases ( praseodymium & t]bium1 b ^! d n give rise to salts4 ,! oxides ,r,o are fairly /rong bases1 be+ comp>able 9 /r5g? to ! alkal9e e>?s1 & f> m /rongly basic ?an alum9a & oxides ( o!r trival5t elem5ts2 ?us !y lib]ate ammonia f ammonium comp\nds1 :il/ ! salts !y =m ) /rong acids are n easily hydrolys$4 ,_! relative /r5g?s z bases are express$ 9 ! foll[+ s]ies1 9 :i* ! elem5ts are plac$ 9 ord] ( dim9i%+ electropositive "*3#aeh ,la1 ,ce1 ,pr1 ,nd1 ,yt1 ,eu1 ,gd1 ,sa1 ,tb1 ,dy1 ,ho1 ,er1 ,tm1 ,yb1 ,lu1 ,sc1 ,ceiv4 #aeh ,! position ( yttrium 9 ?is s]ies is n kn[n ) c]ta9ty2 x is probably z positive z neodymium4 ,x is usually /at$ 7see ,mey] & ,haus]1 pp4 #cb-cc7 t ! t]bia oxides are int]m$iate 9 basic /r5g? betwe5 ! c]ia & yttria e>?s1 ?\gh ! arrangem5t into two s]ies1 consi/+ ( ! c]ium & yttrium gr\ps respectively1 is g5]ally adopt$2 ! electropositive "* ( ! elem5ts 9 ea* s]ies !n weak5s z ! atomic weight rises1 sc&ium be+ ( c\rse exceptional4 ,x w be se5 t1 ) ! exception ( sc&ium & yttrium1 ! metals ( ! c]ium & yttrium gr\ps become less electropositive z ! atomic weight increases4 ,?is arrangem5t is obta9$ by asc]ta9+ ! ord] 9 :i* ! v>i\s hydroxides are precipitat$ f a solution by gradual addition ( a dilute solution ( a /rong base4 ,! weake/ base is precipitat$ fir/1 & ! /ronge/ la/2 ^? int]m$iate 9 /r5g? are ?r[n d[n 9 asc5d+ ord] ( /r5g?4 ,simil> results may be obta9$ by ! fractional decomposition ( ! nitrates by heat2 9 ?is case ! nitrate ( ! weake/ base is decompos$ at ! l[e/ temp]ature4 ,?is ord] is also confirm$1 z f> z ! data are available1 by measurem5ts ( ! equival5t conductivities ( solutions ( ! salts 7see1 = example1 p4 #abb74 ,q rec5tly1 a v diff]5t ord] has be5 obta9$ f a consid]ation ( ! dissociation t5sions1 & ( ! heats ( dissociation ( ! anhydr\s sulphates4#aei ,9 ! foll[+ table ! elem5ts are arrang$ 9 ! ord] ( ! increase ( ! dissociation t5sion 7,t7 measur$ at #ijj1 :i* is ! same z ! ord] ( decrease ( ! heats ( dissociation 7,q73 ,elem5t ,at4 ,wt4 ,t4 7,mm4 ,hg47 ,q4 ,la #acij #b #eih ,yt #hij #c #ehi ,lu #agdj #ce #ehe ,yb #agbj #d #ehb ,er #afgg #e #egf ,pr #adjf #ee #egd ,nd #addc #f #egb ,gd #aegc #g #efi ,sa #aejd #h #efe ,sc #dda #aa #ede ,ce #adjbe #ebd #aei ,whl] & ,grnzweig1 ,b]4 #aiac1 #df1 #agbf4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! ord] is v diff]5t f ! ord] ( increase ( atomic weight1 ! positions ( lutecium & ytt]bium be+ especially surpris+2 ^! elem5ts are g5]ally consid]$ to be among ! lea/ electropositive ( ! :ole s]ies4 ,! anomal\s position ( c]ium is probably due to ! fact t ! sulphate on decomposition leaves ! dioxide1 & n ! sesquioxide1 z ) ! o!r elem5ts2 ?is w\ld und\bt$ly affect ! values4 ,! heats ( dissociation are ! greate/ yet obs]v$ = ! sulphates ( trival5t metals1 a fur!r evid5ce ( ! /rongly basic nature ( ! oxides4 ,ignit$ lan?ana resembles quicklime 9 t x readily absorbs c>bon dioxide f ! air1 & hisses :5 slak$ ) wat]2 z ! basicity becomes weak]1 ! aff9ity = wat] & c>bon dioxide becomes less m>k$4 ,all ! oxides are soluble 9 dilute acids1 ev5 aft] prolong$ ignition2 b ! ease ) :i* solution occurs is naturally mu* influ5c$ by ! treatm5t to :i* ! oxide has be5 subject$1 z well z by its /r5g? z a base4 ,! r>e e>? oxides are capable ( exi/+ 9 m ?an "o modification1 ! comp\nds obta9$ by ignition ( ! hydroxides diff]+ 9 appe>ance & reactivity f ^? prep>$ by ignition ( ! oxalates or nitrates1 & s on2 !y are probably highly polym]is$4 ,c]ium dioxide1 ,ce,o1 is rem>kable = its p[] ( comb9+ ) ! o!r oxides1 ,r,o1 ( ! r>e e>? metals4 ,! pure dioxide is insoluble 9 nitric acid1 b mixtures ( e>?s conta9+ up to #ej p] c5t4 ( ! dioxide dissolve readily4 ,! v>i\s col\rs ( mixtures ( ! c]ia e>?s may sometimes be attribut$ to a simil> comb9ation1#afj & !re c be little d\bt t ! dioxide sometimes functions z an acid 9 ! r>e e>? m9]als4 #afj ,! br[n col\r ( a mixture ( c]ia oxides conta9+ praseodymium is g5]ally attribut$ to ! pres5ce ( ! /rongly col\r$ p]oxide ( t elem5t4 ,sulphides4--,^! comp\nds _c be prep>$ 9 ! wet way1 t is1 by ! action ( hydrog5 sulphide or ammonium sulphide on ! salts 9 solution2 ! =m] reag5t gives no precipitate1 ! latt] ?r[s d[n ! hydroxides4 ,9 ?is behavi\r1 ! r>e e>? elem5ts resemble alum9ium & *romium4 ,! normal sulphides1 ,r,s1 are obta9$ by r$uction ( ! anhydr\s sulphates1 or f ! oxides at high temp]atures1 by treatm5t ) hydrog5 sulphide4 ,!y are /rongly col\r$ comp\nds1 fairly /able t[>ds cold wat]1 b readily hydrolys$ on boil+4 ,disulphides1 ,,rs1 are kn[n 9 ! cases ( c]ium1 lan?anum1 & praseodymium2 ^! are to be reg>d$ z polysulphides1 s9ce on treatm5t ) dilute acids !y yield hydrog5 p]sulphide1 ,h,s4 ,c>bides4--,by r$uction ( ! oxides ) c>bon 9 ! electric furnace1 ,moissan obta9$ ! c>bides 9 ! =m ( microscopic yell[ cry/als4 ,!y h ! g5]al =mula ,,rc1 & are attack$ by wat] & dilute acids1 ) evolution ( v complex mixtures ( gases4#afa ,! pr9cipal product is acetyl5e1 ) v>i\s high] homologues1 & 9 small] quantities e?yl5e & e?ane & _! homologues4 ,no me?ane is =m$1#afb b hydrog5 is always pres5t1 ! olef9es & p>aff9s probably aris+ f its action on ! acetyl5ic hydroc>bons4 ,! relation ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts to ! calcium gr\p is "h v close2 calcium c>bide :5 attack$ by wat] yields pure acetyl5e1 :]eas alum9ium c>bide gives pure me?ane4 #afa ,dami5s1 ,compt4 r5d4 #aiac1 #aeg1 #bad4 #afb ,moissan /at$ t #bd-cj p] c5t4 ( me?ane 0 =m$ 9 ?is action2 comp>e ,compt4 r5d4 #aijj1 #aca1 #eie4 ,halog5 ,salts4--,! halides ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts %[ a close analogy ) ! correspond+ comp\nds ( ! alkal9e e>? elem5ts4 ,! fluorides are insoluble 9 wat] & dilute m9]al acids1 & are obta9$ z gelat9\s precipitates by ! addition ( hydr(luoric acid1 or a soluble fluoride1 to solutions ( ! salts4 ,!y may be prep>$ 9 ! cry/all9e condition by heat+ ! c>bides 9 a /ream ( fluor9e1 or by ! action ( hydr(luoric acid ^u ! hydroxides 9 aque\s susp5sion4 ,! r>e e>? elem5ts1 z well z ?orium1 may be sep>at$ f zirconium by tak+ advantage ( ! insolubility ( _! fluorides 9 excess ( hydr(luoric acid or alkali fluorides1 s9ce zirconium fluoride is readily soluble 9 excess ( ! precipitant4 ,! solubility ( ! fluorides 9 a l>ge excess ( conc5trat$ acid increases ) ! electropositive "* ( ! metal1 ! fluorides ( ! m negative elem5ts be+ ! lea/ soluble4 ,?orium & sc&ium may1 !re=e1 be conc5trat$ to a l>ge ext5t by repeat$ precipitation ) hydr(luoric acid 9 acid solution4 ,! silic(luorides ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts h be5 us$ by ,r4 ,j4 ,mey] 9 ! extraction ( sc&ium f wolframite 7see ,*apt] ,i & "u ,sc&ium1 p4 #bae74 ,!y are ?r[n d[n z gelat9\s precipitates on addition ( potassium or sodium silic(luoride to boil+1 neutral solutions ( r>e e>? salts4 ,9 pres5ce ( m9]al acids1 h[ev]1 !y are n ?r[n d[n 9 ! cold2 on boil+1 ! c]ium metals are precipitat$ z fluorides1 by hydrolysis ( ! silic(luorides--! yttrium elem5ts1 ) ! exception ( sc&ium1 be+ held 9 solution by ! m9]al acid4 ,) ! exception ( ! fluorides1 ! halog5 salts ( ! r>e e>? metals are readily soluble 9 wat]1 & cry/allise f ! conc5trat$ solutions 9 ! hydrat$ =m4 ,! bromides & iodides h n be5 s fully /udi$ z ! *lorides2 !y are hygroscopic salts1 & decompose r easily4 ,! iodides h be5 obta9$ by ,moissan 9 ! anhydr\s /ate1 by ! action ( iod9e vap\r on ! c>bides at high temp]ature4 ,! anhydr\s *lorides may be obta9$ by ! application ( any ( ! ord9>y me?ods1 e4g4 by heat+ ! oxides ) c>bon 9 a /ream ( *lor9e1 by heat+ ! c>bides 9 ! same gas1 by heat+ ! sulphides or hydrat$ *lorides 9 hydrog5 *loride1 or by evaporat+ ! solutions ( ! hydrat$ salts to dryness 9 pres5ce ( ammonium *loride1 & !n ignit+ till ! latt] has all be5 remov$4 ,z obta9$ by any ( ^! me?ods1 !y are fusible at a r$ heat1 b only slightly volatile2 !y are easily soluble 9 wat] or alcohol1 ) dis5gagem5t ( heat4 ,!y are insoluble 9 mo/ organic solv5ts1 b dissolve to "s ext5t 9 "s bases2 ! *lorides ( ! yttrium elem5ts1 = example1 are readily soluble 9 pyrid9e4 ,) su* solv5ts1 ! *lorides =m comp\nds :i* may be consid]$ z d]iv$ f ! hydrat$ =ms1 by replacem5t ( ! s-call$ wat] ( cry/allisation by ! organic base4 ,conductivity measurem5ts %[ t ! salts are n p]ceptibly hydrolys$ 9 mod]ately dilute aque\s solutions1 ?\gh ! values = ! equival5t conductivities v>y some:at ) ! v>iations 9 ! electropositive "* ( ! elem5ts4 ,9 ! foll[+ table1 ! equival5t conductivities ( ! *lorides 9 solutions ( dilution #cb & #ajbd at #be;,c4 are giv54 ,x w be se5 t ! value 7 - 7 #aj is 9 all cases 7except = ! highly hydrolys$ sc&ium salt7 v close to #c1 an exp]im5tal pro( ( ! trival5t nature ( ! elem5ts4 ,! values = ! *lorides ( iron1 alum9ium & *romium are includ$2 x w be se5 t ^! elem5ts are consid]ably less positive ?an ! r>e e>? metals 7) ! exception1 ( c\rse1 ( sc&ium74 ,salt - ,la,cl #ajeh #acae #beg ,ce,cl #ajgh #aceb #bgf ,pr,cl #ajee #acei #cjd ,nd,cl #ajch #acdc #cje ,yt,cl #ihh #abcd #bdf ,yb,cl #ajgd #adjd #ccj ,sc,cl #aafi #begi #adaj ,al,cl #iii #achj #cha ,cr,cl #ihd #aebf #edb ,fe,cl #aagb #bjjg #hce ,f aque\s solutions ! *lorides cry/allise ) six molecules ( wat]1 except praseodymium *loride1 :i* has sev54 ,! hydrat$ salts1 :5 heat$ to #abj 9 ! air1 =m insoluble oxy*lorides ( ! g5]al =mula ,r,o,cl4 ,! *lorides d n %[ a great t5d5cy to =m d\ble salts ) o!r metallic *lorides2 on ! o!r h&1 !y readily =m complex comp\nds ) ! *lorides ( ! less electropositive metals1 e4g4 t91 bismu?1 gold1 & plat9um4 ,sub*lorides ( sam>ium & europium h rec5tly be5 obta9$2 9 ^! comp\nds1 = ! fir/ "t1 r>e e>? metals h be5 %[n to be capable ( function+ z dival5t elem5ts4 ,cyanides ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts are n kn[n2 addition ( potassium cyanide to solutions ( ! salts ?r[s d[n ! hydroxides4 ,! plat9ocyanides may be obta9$ by d\ble decomposition ( ! sulphates ) b>ium plat9ocyanide4 ,!y are v /able & *>act]i/ic bodies1 ( ! g5]al =mula ,r,pt7,,cn71 ) #ah or #ba molecules ( wat]4 ,! comp\nds ( ! c]ium elem5ts are yell[1 ) a /rong blue fluoresc5ce2 !y cry/allise 9 ! monocl9ic sy/em4 ,! plat9ocyanides ( ! yttrium metals are r$ or crimson1 ) a spl5did gre5 fluoresc5ce1 & cry/allise 9 ! rhombic sy/em4 ,sc&ium plat9ocyanide is ( great int]e/ f ! fact t x exi/s 9 two modifications1 :i* %[ ! *>act]i/ic appe>ance ( ! two gr\ps ( comp\nds respectively4 ,potassium f]rocyanide precipitates potassium e>? f]rocyanides ( ! g5]al =mula ,,kr7,fe,c,n71#c;,h,o1 f neutral solutions2#afc ! precipitate is some:at soluble 9 excess4 ,! f]rocyanides h be5 propos$ = ! purification ( yttrium2 ! me?od is useful :]e rapid conc5tration ( ! elem5t is requir$1 yttrium f]rocyanide be+ f> m soluble ?an ! analog\s comp\nds ( ! erbium & ytt]bium metals1 b ! precipitates are gelat9\s1 & v difficult to h&le4 #afc ,comp>e ,a/rid ,cleve1 ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aijb1 #cb1 #abi4 ,halog5 ,oxy-salts4--,p]*lorates & p]iodates ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts1 ( ! g5]al =mula ,r7,,xo71x,h,o1 h be5 obta9$4 ,! exi/5ce ( *lorates has be5 obs]v$ only 9 ! yttrium gr\p2 yttrium *lorate1 ,yt7,cl,o71#h;,h,o1 has be5 prep>$ by d\ble decomposition ( ! sulphate ) b>ium *lorate4 ,! bromates are also prep>$ 9 ?is way4 ,!y are readily soluble comp\nds1 ( :i* sev]al hydrat$ =ms are kn[n4 ,!y are ( consid]able importance = purposes ( sep>ation 9 ! yttrium gr\p4 ,! iodates are sp>+ly soluble bodies1 precipitat$ by addition ( ! alkali comp\nd to solutions ( ! r>e e>? salts4 ,! r>e e>? iodates are soluble 9 nitric acid1 ! solubility increas+ z ! electropositive "* ( ! elem5t becomes /rong]4 ,a me?od = ! purification ( yttrium has rec5tly be5 bas$ ^u ?is prop]ty ( ! iodates1 :il/ ! fact t ?orium iodate is completely insoluble 9 nitric acid all[s ( ! easy sep>ation & e/imation ( ?orium 9 m9]als or mixtures conta9+ r>e e>? elem5ts4 ,sulphates4--,! sulphates ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts are obta9$ by dissolv+ ! oxides or hydroxides 9 sulphuric acid4 ,f ! solutions s obta9$1 v>i\s hydrat$ salts sep>ate accord+ to ! temp]ature ( cry/allisation4 ,by heat+ ! hydrat$ salts to a temp]ature ( #cjj-djj1 ! anhydr\s salts are prep>$4 ,^! are extremely soluble 9 wat] at #j1 hav+ a great t5d5cy1 :i* is inde$ to be obs]v$ 9 ! hydrat$ =ms also1 to =m sup]saturat$ solutions4 ,:5 ! temp]ature ( su* a solution is all[$ to rise1 l>g] or small] quantities ( an hydrat$ =m sep>ate out1 ! diff]5ces ( solubility among ! sulphate hydrates ( ! v>i\s elem5ts be+ sometimes consid]able4 ,! hydrat$ sulphates ( ! c]ium elem5ts h be5 v closely /udi$ 9 connection ) ! purification ( ?orium4 ,c]ium sulphate itself =ms hydrates ) #ab1 #i1 #h1 #e1 & #d molecules ( wat]1 b sulphates ( ! o!r elem5ts g5]ally =m few] hydrates2 ! commone/ h #ab1 #h1 or #d molecules ( wat]1 & num]\s cases ( isomorphism are kn[n among !m4 ,! solubility curve ( ! c]ium sulphate hydrates is %[n 9 ! diagram4 ,fig4 #c4 ,! sulphates ( ! yttrium elem5ts h n yet be5 sy/ematically inve/igat$1 & 9 mo/ cases only ! octohydrates are kn[n4 ,sc&ium sulphate is notably diff]5t f ! o!r sulphates1 9 t x is consid]ably m soluble1 & cry/allises ) six molecules ( wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,x is an important *>act]i/ic ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts t ! solubility ( ! sulphates dim9i%es rapidly z ! temp]ature rises4 ,! /udy ( ! v>i\s equilibrium conditions is greatly complicat$ by ! t5d5cy to =m sup]saturat$ solutions1 & ! fact t _m hydrates c exi/ ?r\gh\t consid]able ranges ( temp]ature 9 ! meta/able condition2 9 consequ5ce ( ?is1 also1 ! solubilities ( _m hydrates are kn[n = temp]atures f> beyond ! transition po9ts4 ,=eign elem5ts may be sep>at$ by tak+ advantage ( ! v great solubility ( ! anhydr\s sulphates at #j1 & ! rapid decrease 9 solubility ) rise ( temp]ature4 ,= ?is purpose1 a solution ( ! anhydr\s sulphates saturat$ at #j is prep>$1 & aft] filtration is sl[ly all[$ to come to room temp]ature2 ! hydrat$ r>e e>? sulphates !n sep>ate1 leav+ 9 solution ! =eign sulphates4 ,?is me?od may inde$ be us$ in/ead ( ! oxalate sep>ation 7see p4 #adg74 ,9 pres5ce ( excess ( sulphuric acid1 acid sulphates ( ! g5]al =mula ,r7,,hso7 are =m$4 ,^! are fairly /able1 & mu/ be heat$ to a temp]ature ( #djj-ejj to decompose !m completely to ! normal salts2 ev5 at t temp]ature1 traces ( acid are t5aci\sly reta9$1 a fact :i* r5d]s ! det]m9ation ( ! equival5ts by ! sulphate me?od unreliable1 unless special precautions are tak54 ,on fur!r heat+1 ! normal sulphates pass into basic salts1 ,r,o1,,s1 & f9ally1 at ! temp]ature ( ! bl[pipe flame1 into ! oxides4 ,! temp]atures at :i* ^! decompositions occur v>y ) ! positive "* ( ! elem5ts2 ! mo/ basic oxide cl+s mo/ t5aci\sly to sulphuric anhydride1 & =ms ! mo/ /able acid salt4 ,lan?anum sulphate1 = example1 requires to be heat$ = a consid]able "t at a :ite heat if ! pure oxide is requir$1 :il/ ! sulphates ( ! less positive elem5ts are easily decompos$ at a r$ heat4 ,! ord] ( basic /r5g? ( ! oxides1 z det]m9$ by ! ease ) :i* ! sulphates are decompos$1 seems1 h[ev]1 to be v diff]5t f ! ord] det]m9$ by decomposition ( ! nitrates 7see p4 #aah74 ,) ! alkali sulphates1 ! sulphates ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts readily =m d\ble salts1 :i* are ( great importance 9 sep>ation1 on acc\nt ( ! great diff]5ces 9 solubility4 ,! d\ble sulphates ( ! c]ium gr\p are almo/ insoluble 9 excess ( alkali sulphate1 :]eas ! yttrium d\ble sulphates1 ) ! exception ( ^? ( ! t]bium metals1 :i* occupy an int]m$iate position1 are v easily soluble4 ,?is me?od ( sep>at+ ! elem5ts into ! two ma9 gr\ps 0 fir/ employ$ by ,b]zelius1 & ?\gh a c5tury has elaps$1 x rema9s to-day ! mo/ effici5t me?od ( effect+ ! sep>ation4 ,! e?ylsulphates h be5 employ$ by ,urba9 & o!rs 9 effect+ sep>ations1 especially 9 ! erbium & t]bium gr\ps4 ,! solubilities ( ^! salts are 9 ! same g5]al ord] z ^? ( ! alkali d\ble sulphates1 & !y are especially conv5i5t = sep>at+ ! metals into ! ?ree gr\ps ( ! c]ium1 t]bium1 & yttrium elem5ts respectively4 ,!y may be prep>$ by d\ble decomposition ( ! r>e e>? sulphates ) b>ium e?ylsulphate1 b on acc\nt ( ! ease ) :i* ! alkylsulphates are hydrolys$ by acids1 x is ess5tial t ! solutions %\ld be q neutral4 ,a m conv5i5t me?od1 accord+ to ,james1 is ! treatm5t ( ! anhydr\s *lorides 9 alcohol solution ) sodium e?ylsulphate dissolv$ 9 ! same m$ium2 sodium *loride is precipitat$1 :il/ ! e?ylsulphates ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts rema9 9 solution4 ,! sulphites ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts are sp>+ly soluble cry/all9e salts1 ( ! g5]al =mula ,r7,,s71x,h,o4 ,!y are obta9$ by pass+ sulphur dioxide into a susp5sion ( ! hydroxides 9 wat]1 or by d\ble decomposition ( soluble salts ) alkali sulphite4 ,!y dissolve 9 excess ( sulphur\s acid1 & on evaporation ( ! solution are deposit$ un*ang$4 ,!y are di/+ui%$ f ?orium sulphite by ! fact t !y =m no alkali d\ble salts4 ,! /rongly electropositive "* ( ! r>e e>? metals is %[n by ! fact t !y =m normal & n basic sulphites4 ,! ?iosulphates are readily soluble1 cry/all9e bodies4 ,) ! exception ( ! c]ic & sc&ium salts1 !y are n hydrolys$ 9 boil+ solution1 a fact :i* all[s ( a complete sep>ation f ! readily hydrolys$ ?iosulphates ( zirconium & ?orium4 ,di?ionates ( ! common] r>e e>? elem5ts1 ( ! g5]al =mula ,r7,s,o71x,h,o1 h be5 prep>$ by d\ble decomposition ( ! sulphates ) b>ium di?ionate4 ,!y are readily soluble1 cry/all9e salts4 ,! sel5ates are soluble1 cry/all9e salts1 :i* sep>ate f aque\s solutions 9 v>i\s hydrat$ =ms4 ,!y resemble ! sulphates 9 be+ less soluble 9 hot ?an 9 cold wat]1 & num]\s cases ( isomorphism h be5 obs]v$ among ! correspond+ sulphate & sel5ate hydrates4 ,sev]al alkali d\ble sel5ates h be5 describ$2 !y %[ a close resemblance to ! analog\s d\ble sulphates4 ,! sel5ites are amorph\s1 insoluble comp\nds1 obta9$ by ! action ( sel5i\s acid on ! c>bonates1 or on solutions ( neutral salts4 ,basic & acid sel5ites are also kn[n4 ,nitrates4--,! nitrates are cry/all9e1 deliquesc5t comp\nds1 readily soluble 9 wat] & alcohol1 b less easily 9 nitric acid1 a fact :i* has be5 ( consid]able importance = purposes ( sep>ation4 ,! solubility is greate/ 9 ! case ( lan?anum nitrate1 dim9i%+ ?r\gh ! c]ium gr\p to a m9imum 9 gadol9ium nitrate1 & !n increas+ aga94 ,!y sep>ate f aque\s solution 9 ! =m ( cry/all9e hydrates2 9 ! c]ium gr\p1 ^! h commonly ! =mula ,r7,,no71#f;,h,o1 :il/ ! nitrates ( ! yttrium elem5ts usually cry/allise ) #c or #e molecules ( wat]4 ,by c>efully heat+ ! hydrat$ salts1 basic nitrates may be obta9$1 :i* 9 ! yttrium gr\p are soluble 9 wat]1 & may be obta9$ cry/all9e2 9 ! c]ium gr\p1 ! basic nitrates are insoluble4 ,by fur!r heat+1 insoluble #8sup]basic salts1' & f9ally ! oxides1 are obta9$ 9 all cases4 ,! temp]atures at :i* ^! basic & sup]basic comp\nds are =m$ v>y ) ! electropositive "* ( ! elem5t2 ?is fact af=ds a me?od ( sep>ation :i* has be5 v frequ5tly employ$4 ,an int]e/+ s]ies ( addition comp\nds ( ! r>e e>? nitrates ) antipyr9e 7dime?ylph5ylpyrazolone1 ,c,h,,on7 has be5 describ$ rec5tly by ,kolbe4#afd ,^? ( ! c]ium metals h ! g5]al =mula ,r7,,no71#c;,c,h,,on2 ! yttrium nitrates appe> to comb9e ) f\r molecules ( ! base4 #afd ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aiac1 #hc1 #adc ,! t5d5cy to =m d\ble nitrates ) nitrates ( ! metals ( ,gr\p ,,ia & ,gr\p ,,iia also v>ies ) ! basic /r5g? ( ! hydroxides4 ,9 ! mo/ positive elem5ts ( ! c]ium gr\p1 ! t5d5cy is v pron\nc$1 & !re are a l>ge numb] ( /able1 cry/all9e d\ble salts2 b ! /ability decreases rapidly z ! atomic weight ( ! elem5t rises1 & 9 ! t]bium & yttrium gr\ps cry/allis$ d\ble nitrates _c be obta9$4 ,! solubility ( ^! d\ble salts increases rapidly 9 ! same direction1 ! lan?anum d\ble nitrates be+ ! lea/ soluble4 ,= ?is reason1 ^! comp\nds are ( great importance = ! purpose ( sep>ation1 especially 9 ! c]ium gr\p4 ,bismu? nitrate & ! v>i\s bismu? d\ble nitrates are isomorph\s ) ! correspond+ comp\nds ( ! c]ium gr\p1 & ! d\ble bismu? ammonium & bismu? magnesium salts h be5 l>gely us$ by ,urba9 9 ! sep>ation ( sam>ium & ! elem5ts ( ! t]bium gr\p4 ,phosphates4--,addition ( phosphoric acid1 or an alkali phosphate to solutions ( r>e e>? salts ?r[s d[n ! phosphates z gelat9\s precipitates1 :i* sl[ly become cry/all9e on /&+4 ,! precipitate is soluble 9 excess ( phosphoric acid1 & 9 o!r m9]al acids1 a fact ( great importance 9 ! comm]cial treatm5t ( monazite4 ,! composition ( ! precipitate is n kn[n ) c]ta9ty2 bo? neutral & acid phosphates c probably be obta9$ accord+ to ! conditions4 ,d\ble salts ) ! alkali phosphates c be prep>$ by fusion me?ods4 ,! naturally occurr+ phosphates1 monazite & x5otime1 are mixtures ( ! or?ophosphates ( ! c]ium & yttrium elem5ts respectively4 ,phosphites are kn[n 9 a few cases only2 ars5ates & ars5ites ( lan?anum h be5 prep>$4 ,vanadates ( "s ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts h be5 describ$4 ,*romates4--,! r>e e>? *romates are1 z a rule1 sp>+ly soluble 9 wat]1 & %[ consid]able diff]5ces ( solubility among/ !mselves2 = ?is reason1 !y h be5 ( "s use 9 ! sep>ation ( ! c]ium elem5ts4#afe ,!y are obta9$ by addition ( potassium *romate to neutral solutions ( r>e e>? salts z cry/all9e precipitates1 ( ! g5]al =mula ,r7,cr,o71#h;,h,o2 ) a l>ge excess ( alkali *romate1 d\ble *romates are obta9$1 :i* are m readily =m$1 & m soluble1 9 ! yttrium s]ies ?an 9 ! c]ium gr\p4 ,addition ( *romic acid or alkali bi*romate to solutions ( ! soluble salts gives no precipitate1 a fact :i* all[s ( ! sep>ation ( zirconium & ?orium1 & ( c]ium 9 ! tetraval5t /ate1 s9ce ! tetraval5t elem5ts are precipitat$ by bo? ^! reag5ts4 #afe ,mu?mann & ,bhm1 ,b]4 #aijj1 #cc1 #db2 ,bhm1 ,zeits*4 angew4 ,*em4 #aijd1 #ae1 #cgb & #abhb4 ,ammonium molybdate ?r[s d[n f neutral solution ( r>e e>? salts gelat9\s precipitates ( ! molybdates2 ! =mula ,la#b7;,h,mo,o7 is assign$ to ! lan?anum comp\nd obta9$ 9 ?is way4 ,no precipitation occurs if ! solution be /rongly acid2 on ?is fact a process has rec5tly be5 bas$ = ! volumetric e/imation ( ?orium1 9 pres5ce ( r>e e>? salts1 by means ( ammonium molybdate 7see p4 #bhi74 ,v>i\s silicotung/ates & d\ble tung/ates h be5 describ$4 ,c>bonates4--,! m pron\nc$ electropositive "* ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts1 z contra/$ ) o!r trival5t metals1 is well illu/rat$ by ! fact t !y =m /able neutral c>bonates ( ! =mula ,r7,,co71x,h,o4 ,^! may be obta9$ by pass+ a curr5t ( c>bon dioxide ?r\gh an aque\s susp5sion ( ! hydroxides1 or by addition ( an alkali c>bonate to neutral solutions ( ! salts4 ,basic c>bonates are kn[n 9 ! case ( ! less positive yttrium elem5ts only2 bo? ^! & ! neutral c>bonates are insoluble 9 wat]4 ,9 pres5ce ( a l>ge excess ( alkali c>bonate1 d\ble c>bonates are =m$4 ,! /ability z well z ! solubility ( ^! comp\nds increases 9 pass+ f ! c]ium to ! yttrium gr\p1 i4e4 z ! electropositive "* becomes weak]4 ,! d\ble c>bonates ( ! c]ium elem5ts are sp>+ly soluble1 & are decompos$ by wat]1 especially on w>m+2 !y may1 h[ev]1 be recry/allis$ f alkali c>bonate solution4 ,! sodium & ammonium d\ble salts are less soluble ?an ! potassium comp\nds4 ,! latt] h ! g5]al =mula ,r7,,co71,k,,co1#ab;,h,o1 & are ( consid]able importance 9 _m processes ( sep>ation4 ,! yttrium elem5ts c be sep>at$ f ! c]ium metals1 & ! latt] f "o ano!r1 by tak+ advantage ( ! diff]5ces ( solubility %[n by ! potassium d\ble c>bonates4 ,if a conc5trat$ solution ( ! salts 9 potassium c>bonate solution be fractionally dilut$ ) wat]1 ! c]ium elem5ts sep>ate 9 ! ord]3 lan?anum1 praseodymium1 c]ium1 neodymium1 & sam>ium2 ! m soluble yttrium comp\nds rema9 9 ! solution4 ,?orium =ms d\ble alkali c>bonates :i* are v readily soluble 9 excess ( alkali c>bonate2 ?is prop]ty is ( great importance = ! te*nical sep>ation ( ! elem5t4 ,oxalates4--,! oxalates ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts are ( ! greate/ importance1 on acc\nt ( ! fact t !y are n only insoluble 9 wat]1 b are also v sp>+ly soluble 9 dilute m9]al acids1 & 9 excess ( oxalic acid4 ,!y c be completely precipitat$ ev5 f /rongly acid solutions by addition ( suffici5t excess ( oxalic acid1 or alkali oxalate1 & ?us af=d a means ( easily & completely sep>at+ ! r>e e>? gr\p f ! common] elem5ts4 ,!y are ?r[n d[n by addition ( oxalic acid1 or alkali oxalate1 z amorph\s precipitates1 :i* rapidly become cry/all9e1 especially if ! solution is w>m$4 ,f wat] at normal temp]atures !y usually sep>ate z ! decahydrates1 ,r7,c,o71#aj;,h,o1 b hydrates ) #g1 #i1 & #aa molecules ( wat] ( cry/allisation are also kn[n4 ,f /rongly acid solutions1 mix$ oxalo-salts ( ! g5]al =mula ,r7,c,o7,x1 :]e ,x ,cl1 ,,no1 ,,hso1 etc41 may be obta9$4 ,^! mix$ salts may also be prep>$ by dissolv+ ! oxalates 9 conc5trat$ solutions ( ! *lorides1 nitrates1 etc41 :il/ nitro-sulphates1 ,r7,,s7,,no1 h be5 obta9$ by recry/allis+ ! sulphates f /rong nitric acid4 ,! t5d5cy to =m salts ) mix$ acid radicles appe>s to be g5]al4#aff #aff ,see ,mey] & ,m>ckwald1 ,b]4 #aijj1 #cc1 #ajjc2 also ,matignon1 ,ann4 ,*im4 ,phys4 #aijf1 viii41 #h1 #bdc4 ,! solubilities ( ! oxalates 9 m9]al acids ( v>i\s conc5trations h be5 exam9$ by ,haus] & ,wir?4#afg ,:il/ ! solubilities 9 wat] are exce$+ly slight1 & increase ) increas+ atomic weight ( ! elem5ts1 i4e4 f ! c]ium to ! yttrium gr\p1 9 m9]al acids ( conc5tration #c-d,n ! solubility becomes noticeable1 & is greate/ = ! oxalates ( ! mo/ positive elem5ts4 ,! solubility is greatly less5$1 h[ev]1 if consid]able excess ( oxalic acid be pres5t4 #afg ,zeits*4 anal4 ,*em4 #aijh1 #dg1 #chi4 ,d\ble oxalates ) ! alkali oxalates c be obta9$ ) ! salts ( ! yttrium elem5ts only1 ! oxalates ( ! c]ium elem5ts be+ almo/ insoluble 9 excess ( alkali oxalate 9 ! cold4 ,( ! alkali d\ble oxalates1 ! potassium comp\nds are ! mo/ soluble1 b ! ammonium comp\nds %[ ! greate/ diff]5ces 9 solubility2 von ,welsba* has employ$ ! me?od ( fractional cry/allisation ( ^! salts f a saturat$ solution ( ammonium oxalate = sep>ations 9 ! yttrium gr\p4 ,! sodium d\ble oxalates are ! lea/ soluble ( ^! d\ble salts4 ,s9ce ! r>e e>? elem5ts are almo/ always sep>at$ 9 ! =m ( ! oxalates1 ! me?ods = trans=m+ ^! into soluble comp\nds become important4 ,!y may be ignit$ to oxides1 & ^! dissolv$ 9 nitric acid2 if ! cont5t ( c]ia is v high1 ! oxide mixture may become insoluble1 b ?is difficulty may be ov]come by addition ( a r$uc+ ag5t--hydrog5 p]oxide is v conv5i5t = ?is purpose4 ,! oxalates may also be dissolv$ directly 9 fum+ nitric acid1 c>e be+ tak5 to avoid loss2 if ! mixture conta9s c]ium1 ! oxidation is ha/5$1 c]ic salts hav+ ! prop]ty ( act+ z oxyg5 c>ri]s4 ,by boil+ = a %ort "t ) pota%1 ! oxalates may be easily trans=m$ into ! hydroxides1 :i* c be dissolv$ 9 dilute acids4 ,=mates4--,on acc\nt ( ! consid]able diff]5ces 9 solubility by :i* !y are *>act]is$1 ^! salts h be5 employ$ = sep>ations4 ,! =mates ( ! c]ium gr\p are consid]ably less soluble ?an ^? ( ! yttrium gr\p4 ,!y may be p>tly precipitat$ f solutions ( r>e e>? salts by addition ( alkali =mate--=mic acid itself causes precipitation only ) salts ( weak acids1 e4g4 ! acetates--b are be/ prep>$ by dissolv+ ! oxides 9 =mic acid2 on conc5tration ( ! solution1 ! =mates ( ! c]ium & t]bium elem5ts successively sep>ate1 ! salts ( ! yttrium gr\p rema9+ 9 solution4 ,! sep>ation ( ! t]bium e>?s by ?is me?od 0 attempt$ by ,delafonta9e2 8 #8new' elem5t1 ,philippium1 obta9$ f ! "m-liquors1 0 9 reality a mixture ( ! t]bium & yttrium elem5ts1 :i* _c be completely sep>at$ by ! =mate me?od4#afh #afh ,see ,urba91 ,ann4 ,*im4 ,phys4 #aijj1 vii41 #ai1 #ahd4 ,! acetates are readily soluble 9 wat]1 ! yttrium salts be+ r less easily soluble ?an ^? ( ! c]ium gr\p4 ,!y are !re=e obta9$ by dissolv+ ! oxides 9 acetic acid2 addition ( alkali acetate to a solution ( a r>e e>? salt gives no precipitate1 ev5 on boil+1 behavi\r :i* is 9 m>k$ contra/ to ! ease ) :i* ! salts ( o!r trival5t metals are hydrolys$ "u ^! conditions4 ,9 ?is respect ! r>e e>? elem5ts diff] also f ! tetraval5t elem5ts zirconium & ?orium 7& f c]ium 9 ! tetraval5t /ate72 soluble salts ( ! latt]1 on boil+ ) sodium acetate1 give insoluble basic acetates4 ,ev5 sp>+ly soluble comp\nds ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts are z a rule tak5 into solution by dige/ion ) ammonium acetate4 ,t>trates4--,addition ( ammonium t>trate to a neutral solution ( r>e e>? salts ?r[s d[n an amorph\s precipitate1 :i* dissolves easily 9 acids1 & 9 excess ( ! precipitant4 ,9 ! pres5ce ( t>t>ic acid1 precipitation ( ! e>?s by addition ( sodium hydroxide is completely inhibit$4 ,potassium hydroxide "u ^! conditions gives a precipitate 9 ! case ( ! yttrium elem5ts1 ?\gh only on boil+2 ammonia gives a cry/all9e precipitate ev5 9 ! cold ) ?is gr\p4 ,^! precipitates are alkali d\ble t>trates ( ! yttrium metals2 ! c]ium elem5ts give no precipitate at all4 ,9 all cases1 !re=e1 ! precipitation ( ! hydroxides is inhibit$ by ! pres5ce ( t>t>ic acid4 ,a v l>ge numb] ( organic salts ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts has be5 prep>$ & exam9$ dur+ ! pa/ two decades1 9 ! endeav\r to f9d "s class ( comp\nds :i* w all[ ( an easy sep>ation ( ! gr\p4 ,! b5zoates1 succ9ates1 hippurates1 citrates & simil> relatively simple salts fir/ receiv$ att5tion1 b less common acids1 z e4g4 ! hydroxynaph?al5esulphonic acids1 h also be5 employ$4#afi ,! use ( v>i\s organic acids = ! sep>ation & e/imation ( ?orium 9 pres5ce ( ! r>e e>?s is outl9$ 9 t connection 7see p4 #bhh74 ,m rec5tly1 ! glycollates & cacodylates h be5 prep>$4 ,! glycollates#agj ( ! c]ium elem5ts h ! g5]al =mula ,r7,c,h,o71 & cry/allise 9 cru/s2 !y are m soluble ?an ! yttrium comp\nds1 :i* h ! =mula ,r7,c,h,o71#b;,h,o1 & cry/allise 9 ne$les4 ,! cacodylates1#aga ,r,z7,,*7,o1 cry/allise ) #af or #ah molecules ( wat]1 & h simil> solubility relations4 #afi ,erdmann & ,wir?1 ,annal51 #aijh1 #cfa1 #aij2 see also ,pratt & ,james1 ,j4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiaa1 #cc1 #accj2 ,bask]ville & ,turr5t9e1 ibid41 #aijd1 #bf1 #df2 ,james1 ,hob5 & ,rob9son1 ibid41 #aiab1 #cd1 #bgf1 etc4 #agj ,jants* & ,grnkraut1 ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aiac1 #gi1 #cje4 #aga ,:ittlemore & ,james1 ,j4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiac1 #ce1 #fbg4 ,! ph?alates ( ! yttrium gr\p h be5 f\nd to be v valuable = purposes ( sep>ation by ,mey] & ,wuor954#agb ,! salts are readily obta9$ 9 solution by %ak+ toge!r cold aque\s susp5sions ( ! r>e e>? hydroxides1 & ph?alic acid2 ! cle> solutions :5 w>m$ become cl\dy1 ! organic salts hydrolys+ v easily1 ) sep>ation ( ! hydroxides4 ,! mo/ positive elem5ts naturally rema9 longe/ 9 ! solution1 ! weakly basic oxides accumulat+ 9 ! fir/ precipitates4 #agb ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aiac1 #hj1 #g4 ,an organic comp\nd :i* has prov$ v useful 9 ! treatm5t ( ! r>e e>?s is acetylacetone1 ,,*4,,co4,,*4,,co4,,*4#agc ,9 its enolic =m1 ?is sub/ance =ms salts ) metals1 :i* 9 ! case ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts are especially *>act]is$ by ! ease ) :i* !y may be obta9$1 & _! high cry/allis+ p[]4 ,!y may be prep>$ by d\ble decomposition ( neutral solutions ( r>e e>? salts ) ammonium acetylacetone1 & cry/allise readily f dilute alcohol4 ,!y h be5 us$ by ,urba9 9 ! fractionation ( ! yttrium gr\p1 & = det]m9ation ( molecul> weights by ! boil+ po9t me?od2 ,biltz#agd has %[n t 9 solution !y g5]ally h ! d\ble =mula ,r7,c,h,o74 #agc ,urba91 ,bull4 ,soc4 *im4 #ahig1 iii41 #ag1 #ih2 ,urba9 & ,budis*(sky1 ,compt4 r5d4 #ahig1 #abd1 #fah2 ,biltz & ,cl9*1 ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aijd1 #dj1 #bah4 #agd ,annal51 #aijd1 #cca1 #ccd4 ,,! ,,r>e ,,e>? ,,elem5ts1 ,,& ,,! ,,p]iodic ,,classification ,at ! "t ( ! introduction ( ! p]iodic classification ! r>e e>? elem5ts 7 g5]ally believ$ to be dival5t4 ,?is belief1 :i* has p]si/$ until q rec5tly1#age 0 bas$ *iefly on ! electropositive "* ( ! metals1 & _! g5]al *emical resemblance to ! elem5ts ( ! alkal9e e>?s2 ! isomorphism ( ! tung/ates ( calcium & ! c]ium elem5ts1 & ( ! molybdates ( lead & ! c]ium elem5ts1 also supports ?is view4 ,! physical evid5ce 9 fav\r ( ,m5delejeff's view1 h[ev]1 is q ov]:elm+2 ! specific heats ( ! metals1 ! equival5t conductivities ( ! *lorides1 & molecul> weight det]m9ations by means ( vap\r d5sities & ! boil+ po9t me?od1 prove beyond d\bt t ! elem5ts are 9 fact trival5t4 #age ,see ,wyr\b(f1 ,bull4 ,soc4 franc4 ,m94 #ahif1 #ai1 #bai2 ,wyr\b(f & ,v]neuil1 ,compt4 r5d4 #ahig1 #abd1 #abcj & #acjj2 ibid41 #ahii1 #abh1 #aegc2 etc4 ,9 decid+ 9 fav\r ( ! trival5t nature ( ! r>e e>? metals1 ,m5delejeff 0 influ5c$ *iefly by ! fact t !re 0 no room 9 ! table = dival5t elem5ts ) ! equival5t weights !n assign$ to ! c]ium & yttrium elem5ts4 ,at t "t1 only ! six oxides obta9$ by ,mos&] 7 kn[n2 ( ^! ! accept$ equival5ts & atomic weights 7 z foll[s3 ,elem5t4 ,equival5t4 ,atomic ,weight4 ,lan?anum #df #ib ,c]ium #df #ib ,didymium #dh #if ,yttrium #ca #fb ,erbium #ef #aab ! values = t]bium be+ unc]ta94 ,if c]ium be consid]$ trival5t 9 ! c]\s salts1 its atomic weight becomes #ach1 t ( b>ium be+ #acf4 ,m5delejeff plac$ c]ium 9 ,gr\p ,,iv1 s]ies #h1 9 ! position :i* x /ill occupies2 he po9t$ out t ! accept$ equival5t mu/ be too l[1 & sugge/$ t ! atomic weight %\ld be at lea/ #adj1 almo/ exactly ! value accept$ to-day4 ,?is *oice left ! positions 9 ,gr\p ,,iii1 s]ies #h1 horizontally be=e c]ium1 & 9 ,gr\p ,,iv1 s]ies #aj1 v]tically bel[ x 7see figure71 to be fill$ by ! two elem5ts1 lan?anum & didymium4 ,no *emical evid5ce be+ available to decide ! *oice1 he provisionally assign$ didymium to ! fir/ 7,gr\p ,,iii1 s]ies #h71 & lan?anum to ! second 7,gr\p ,,iv1 s]ies #aj7 position1 at ! same "t express+ ! op9ion t didymium 0 probably a mixture ( closely relat$ elem5ts4 ,yttrium !n fell into place 9 ,gr\p ,,iii1 s]ies #f1 above didymium1 & erbium 9 ,gr\p ,,iii1 s]ies #aj1 bel[ x4 ,to ! vacant space above yttrium 9 ,gr\p ,,iii1 s]ies #d1 he assign$ ! hypo!tical elem5t ,eka-boron1 ) atomic weight #dd2 ?is space is n[ occupi$ by sc&ium1 :i* corresponds almo/ exactly 9 prop]ties to ! metal describ$ by ! ,russian *emi/4 ,a "p ( ! table illu/rat+ ^! positions is %[n 9 ,fig4 #d4 ,! det]m9ation ( ! specific heats ( ! metals by ,hillebr& & ,norton 9 #ahge1 :il/ confirm+ ! trival5cy ( ! elem5ts1 r5d]$ x necess>y to alt] ! position ( lan?anum1 :i* 0 plac$ 9 ,gr\p ,,iii1 s]ies #h1 in/ead ( didymium1 :i* 0 ?us left )\t a place4 ,?is fir/ indication t all ! r>e e>? elem5ts c\ld n be fitt$ into ! table )\t difficulties 0 soon foll[$ by ! discov]y ( sev]al o!r memb]s ( ! gr\p1 = :i* places c\ld n easily be f\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,gr\p #j ,i ,,ii ,,iii ,,iv ,v ,a ,b,a ,b,a ,b,a ,b,a ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,s]ies #a ,h ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #b ,li ,be ,b ,c ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #c ,na ,mg ,al ,si ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #d ,k ,ca ,eka- ,ti boron #e ,cu ,zn ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #f ,sr ,yt ,zr #g ,ag ,cd ,sn ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #h ,ba ,di8 ,ce #i ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #aj ,er ,la8 #aa ,au ,hg ,pb ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #ab ,? ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,,fig4 #d4--,,"p ,,( ,,! ,,p]iodic ,,table1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,positions ,,orig9ally ,,assign$ ,,to ,,! ,,r>e ,,e>? ,,elem5ts ,,by ,,m5delejeff ,x 0 fir/ po9t$ out by ,braun] 9 #ahha t1 ) ! exception ( sc&ium 7#dda7 & yttrium 7#hij71 ! r>e e>? elem5ts =m a zone ( increas+ atomic weight betwe5 b>ium 7#acgcg7 & tantalum 7#ahae74 ,9 #aijb he propos$#agf to consid] ! r>e e>? metals z a k9d ( zone or belt among ! elem5ts1 comp>able to ! a/]oids 9 ! sol> sy/em1 ext5d+ f c]ium 9 ,gr\p ,,iv to tantalum 9 ,gr\p ,v 9 a cont9u\s s]ies4 ,! sugge/ion seems at fir/ sight contr>y to ! :ole pr9ciple ( p]iodic classification1 b x accords v well ) ! anomal\s position ( ! r>e e>? gr\p among ! o!r elem5ts2 x is v well illu/rat$ 9 ! accompany+ ,fig4 #e1 :i* %[s an helical or space repres5tation ( ! table4 #agf ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aijb1 #cb1 #a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,,helical ,,repres5tation ,,( ,,! ,,p]iodic ,,law ,electropositive ,elem5ts1 above plane ( pap]1 black lett]s on :ite gr\nd4 ,electronegative ,elem5ts1 bel[ plane ( pap]1 :ite lett]s on black gr\nd4 ,int]m$iate ,elem5ts1 9 plane ( pap]1 black lett]s on section$ gr\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,gr\p ,,iii4 ,,iv4 ,v4 ,,vi4 ,,vii4 ,,viii4 ,a ,b,a ,b,a ,b,a ,b,a ,b ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,s]ies #f,yt ,zr ,cb ,mo ,ru ,rh ,pd #g ,9 ,sn ,sb ,te ,i ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #h,la ,ce ,pr ,nd ,sa ,eu #i ,gd ,tb ,dy ,ho ,er,tm,yb ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #aj,lu ,ta ,w ,os ,ir ,pt #aa ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,,fig4 #f4--,,"p ,,( ,,! ,,p]iodic ,,table1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,positions ,,assign$ ,,to ,,! ,,r>e ,,e>? ,,elem5ts ,,by ,,braun] ,,9 #aijh ,braun]'s conception is also 9 accord ) ! physical prop]ties ( ! elem5ts & _! comp\nds4 ,^! v>y cont9u\sly ?r\gh\t ! gr\p1 & %[ n[h]e ! sudd5 transitions :i* are *>act]i/ic ( o!r s]ies 9 ! table4 ,b5$icts#agg has collect$ all ! data be>+ on ! atomic volumes1 & f9ds t ^? also v>y cont9u\sly1 ) rise 9 ! atomic weights1 )9 q small limits1 all ly+ betwe5 ! values = b>ium & tantalum4 ,9 face ( all ! evid5ce furni%$ by physical & *emical prop]ties1 h[ev]1 ,braun]#agh has rec5tly rev]t$ to an idea :i* he put =w>d 9 #ahha1 accord+ to :i* lan?anum & c]ium are plac$ z usual 9 ,gr\ps ,,iii & ,,iv1 s]ies #h1 :il/ ! o!r elem5ts are di/ribut$ 9 ord] ?r\gh\t ! rema9+ gr\ps1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #f4 #agg ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aijd1 #ci1 #da4 #agh ,monats4 #ahha1 #c1 #a2 ,zeits*4 ,elektro*em4 #aijh1 #ad1 #ebe4 ,9 support ( ?is arrangem5t1 he quotes ! fact t "s ( ! elem5ts appe> to be able to =m high] oxides 9 ! pres5ce ( o!r oxides1 :i* act z oxyg5 c>ri]s 7see pp4 #agd1 #agg-h71 ?\gh ^! high] oxides are c]ta9ly n salt-=m+4 ,he also d$uces1 f ! rates ( hydrolysis ( ! sulphates1 t ! elem5ts fall into two p>allel s]ies1 accord+ to ! /r5g?s ( ! hydroxides z bases1 on :i* gr\nd he ju/ifies ! di/ribution ?r\gh\t s]ies #h & #i4 ,!re c be no d\bt1 h[ev]1 t ?is disposition is f> less 9 accordance ) ! behavi\r & prop]ties ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts ?an is ! fir/ arrangem5t1 :i* places !m 9 a transition zone betwe5 b>ium & tantalum2 x is impossible1 = example1 to reconcile ! prop]ties ( praseodymium ) ^? ( columbium & tantalum1 or to f9d ! slighte/ analogy betwe5 neodymium & molybd5um or tung/51 z ! second arrangem5t requires4 ,! analogy ( ! r>e e>? gr\p to ! elem5ts ( ,gr\p ,,viii has be5 po9t$ out by _m au?ors4#agi ,on ! gr\nd t ! r>e e>? elem5ts _c be spread ov] ! table 9 s]ies #h-aj1 ,/eele#ahj fav\rs ! e>ly classification ( ,?oms51 accord+ to :i* ! elem5ts are divid$ into ?ree gr\ps4 ,! fir/1 correspond+ to ,gr\ps ,i & ,,ii ( ,m5delejeff's table1 consi/s ( two sub-gr\ps1 ea* conta9+ sev5 elem5ts#aha2 ! second1 correspond+ to ! fir/ two long s]ies ( ! p]iodic table1 has two sub-gr\ps1 ea* ( sev5te5 elem5ts1 ( :i* ! fir/ & la/ sev5 are analog\s--^! elem5ts fall into ! same gr\ps 9 ! p]iodic table--:il/ ! middle ?ree are int]p]iodic4 ,^! int]p]iodic elem5ts are ^? :i* ,m5delejeff places 9 ,gr\p ,,viii4 ,! ?ird division consi/s ( "o 7or two7 gr\p7s7 ( ?irty-"o elem5ts2 "h aga91 ! fir/ & la/ sev5 are analog\s1 :il/ ! int]p]iodic elem5ts1 :i* are sev5te5 9 numb]1 include ! r>e e>? metals4 #agi ,comp>e ,biltz1 ,b]4 #aijb1 #ce1 #efb4 #ahj ,*em4 ,news1 #aija1 #hd1 #cde4 #aha ,! in]t gases are n includ$4 ,/eele's idea has be5 ext5d$ by ,w]n]1#ahb :o has drawn up a table to illu/rate x4 ,9 ?is classification1 ! elem5ts are arrang$ 9 ord] ( atomic weight1 b arbitr>y gaps are left 9 su* a way t simil> elem5ts may fall into ! same v]tical columns1 z 9 ! p]iodic table4 ,! arrangem5t has ! advantage t ! int]p]iodic elem5ts1 consi/+ ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts & ! elem5ts plac$ 9 ,gr\p ,,viii ( ! p]iodic table1 "h d fall 9 ! middle ( _! respective p]iods1 b x has sev]al drawbacks1 & does n repres5t ! transition ( prop]ties f elem5t to elem5t s well z ! helical repres5tation ( ! p]iodic table1 :i* br+s out mo/ cle>ly ! true relations betwe5 ! elem5ts1 & ! anomal\s position ( ! r>e e>? metals4 #ahb ,b]4 #aije1 #ch1 #iad4 ,m5tion mu/ be made at ?is po9t ( ! !ory ( #8,meta-elem5ts' put =w>d 9 #ahhh by ,sir ,william ,crookes4#ahc ,f 8 "w on ! ca?ode lum9esc5ce ( "s ( ! oxides 7see next *apt]71 t au?or 0 l$ to ! conclusion t sev]al ( ! !n-accept$ r>e e>? elem5ts1 notably sam>ium & yttrium1 7 9 reality het]og5e\s1 consi/+ ( l>ge numb]s ( v closely relat$ bodies1 diff]+ s v slightly 9 prop]ties t only ! mo/ ref9$ me?ods c\ld p]ceive ! v>iations2 = ^! he propos$ ! "n ,meta-elem5ts4 ,?\gh x has be5 prov$ t ! diff]5ces obs]v$ by ,crookes 9 ! lum9esc5ce spectra 7 really due to ! pres5ce ( v small quantities ( impurities1 8 pap] is ( great int]e/1 9 t x conta9s a !ory ( evolution ( ! elem5ts1 & po/ulates ! possibility ( _! decay4 ,mod]n developm5ts 9 radioactivity h n only l5t a curi\s =ce to ^! speculations1 b ev5 support 8 cont5tion t a *emical elem5t1 9 ! ord9>y s5se ( ! ^w1 is n necess>ily homog5e\s4#ahd ,9 ! field ( ! r>e e>?s1 also1 ! homog5eity ( elem5ts is ev5 n[ cont9ually be+ call$ into "q 7see ,?ulium1 p4 #bjd74 ,9 any case1 we h 9 ! r>e e>? elem5ts a s]ies ( bodies 9 :i* ! *ange ( prop]ties f "o memb] to ano!r--& ! consequ5t possibility ( easy sep>ation--is s v slight1 & s f> )\t p>allel 9 ! :ole field ( *emi/ry1 t we are at lea/ ju/ifi$ 9 ask+ :e!r "s ext5sion ( our ord9>y conception ( an elem5t is n requir$4 #ahc ,trans4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #ahhh1 #ec1 #dhg4 #ahd ,see ,soddy1 ,! ,*emi/ry ( ! ,radio-,elem5ts1 ,"p ,,ii41 ,introduction4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,g5]al ,,me?ods ,,( ,,sep>ation ,! *emi/ :o sets out to prep>e a pure comp\nd ( a r>e e>? elem5t is fac$ by a great difficulty4 ,! r>e e>? comp\nds occur 9 nature1 z "o might expect f _! great simil>ity1 z mixtures ( v complex composition4 ,aft] ! relatively simple sep>ation f =eign elem5ts has be5 accompli%$1 ! enorm\sly great] difficulty ( sep>at+ ! elem5ts f "o ano!r has to be enc\nt]$4 ,s great is ?is difficulty1 by reason ( ! fact t1 ) ! sole exception ( c]ium1 ! elem5ts %[ no v>iation 9 prop]ty suffici5t to all[ ( ! use ( ord9>y analytical me?ods1 t ev5 at ! pres5t day x is extremely d\btful if all ! elem5ts 9 ! yttrium gr\p are kn[n to u4 ,! me?ods :i* c be adopt$ 9 attempt+ a sep>ation are ( two k9ds4 ,! fir/ includes ^? processes :i* take advantage ( ! gradual v>iation 9 basic /r5g? ( ! hydroxides z ! atomic weight *anges2 ! mo/ important ( ^! are fractional precipitation ( ! hydroxides1 & fractional decomposition ( ! nitrates4 ,fractional precipitation ( ! hydroxides is g5]ally effect$ by gradual addition ( ammonia1 soda1 magnesia1 or o!r base1 to a solution ( ! mix$ salts2 su* a solution may also be dige/$ ) ! oxides obta9$ by ignition ( ano!r fraction ( ! r>e e>? comp\nds4 ,if ! dige/ion be suffici5tly complete1 ! precipitate 9 ea* case w be ri*] 9 ! less basic hydroxides1 :il/ ! solution w be ri*] 9 ! salts ( ! m electropositive elem5ts4 ,! fractional decomposition ( ! nitrates is bas$ on ! fact t :5 a mixture ( ! salts is heat$ gradually1 ! nitrate ( ! lea/ positive elem5t beg9s to decompose fir/4 ,! temp]ature is ma9ta9$ = "s "t at ! po9t at :i* decomposition beg9s2 :5 nitr\s fumes cease to be evolv$ ! mixture is cool$1 & extract$ ) wat] or dilute acids4 ,! insoluble portion--basic or sup]basic nitrate 7see p4 #abh7--w !n be ri*] 9 ! less electropositive elem5ts2 ! solution is evaporat$1 & ! solid s obta9$ subject$ to a some:at high] temp]ature1 & ! process repeat$ sev]al times4 ,9 ?is way1 a s]ies ( fractions is obta9$1 9 :i* ! elem5ts t5d to di/ribute !mselves 9 ord] ( electropositive "*4 ,by a suffici5t numb] ( sy/ematic repetitions ( su* /eps1 ! elem5ts may ev5tually be obta9$ 9 ! =m ( comp\nds ( approximate purity1 :i* may !n be ref9$ by "o ( ! me?ods ( ! second k9d describ$ bel[4 ,exp]i5ce has %[n1 h[ev]1 t a quick] & m complete sep>ation may g5]ally be effect$ by comb9+ two or m me?ods ( sep>ation2 "o me?od w give ! be/ sep>ation up to c]ta9 limits1 b !n becomes mu* less valuable2 ! sep>ation at ?is po9t is !re=e tak5 up by ano!r process4 ,a process dep5d+ on diff]5ces ( basic /r5g? ( ! hydroxides is g5]ally supplem5t$ by a me?od ( ! second class1 i4e4 a process ( fractional cry/allisation2 :]e ! basicity me?od is n us$ 7z1 = example1 9 mo/ ( ! rec5t processes = sep>ation ( ! c]ium elem5ts71 two or m diff]5t me?ods ( fractional cry/allisation w supplem5t "o ano!r4 ,! me?ods ( ! second class1 :i* are processes ( fractional cry/allisation1 dep5d on ! diff]5ces 9 solubility :i* are obs]v$ 9 analog\s comp\nds 9 pass+ f "o memb] ( ! gr\p to ano!r4 ,! value ( ^! me?ods1 z oppos$ to ! me?ods dep5d+ on diff]5ces 9 basic /r5g?1 0 cle>ly %[n by ,au] von ,welsba*1 :o 9 #ahhe succe$$ 9 resolv+ ,mos&]'s #8,didymium' into two new elem5ts1 praseodymium & neodymium1 by fractional cry/allisation ( ! ammonium d\ble nitrates2 s9ce t date1 mu* att5tion has be5 devot$ to ! task ( f9d+ r>e e>? comp\nds :i* w l5d !mselves to su* processes4 ,! me?od is extremely labori\s1 & may involve sev]al ?\s& recry/allisations1 9 consequ5ce ( ! g5]ally v slight diff]5ces ( solubility1 & ! ease ) :i* ! r>e e>? comp\nds1 be+ almo/ always isomorph\s ) "o ano!r1 =m mix$ cry/als4 ,:il/ ! me?od ( fractional cry/allisation has come into g5]al use = ! sep>ation ( "o elem5t f ano!r only )9 ! la/ ?irty ye>s1 processes = ! sep>ation ( ! c]ium gr\p f ! yttrium elem5ts1 dep5d+ on diff]5ces ( solubility1 h long be5 kn[n & us$4 ,! mo/ important ( ^!1 ! d\ble sulphate me?od1 dep5ds on ! fact t ! potassium d\ble sulphates ( ! c]ium metals are almo/ insoluble1 :il/ ^? ( ! t]bium gr\p are sp>+ly1 & ( ! yttrium gr\p readily soluble 9 a conc5trat$ solution ( potassium sulphate4 ,! c]ium elem5ts may be ?us completely remov$ f a solution ( mix$ salts by addition ( a cru/ ( potassium sulphate cry/als1 or ( an hot conc5trat$ solution ( ! same reag5t4 ,9 o!r cases1 e4g4 9 ! d\ble c>bonate & d\ble oxalate processes1 sep>ation is effect$ by tak+ advantage ( ! great] t5d5cy to ! =mation ( d\ble salts possess$ by ! yttrium metals4 ,9 effect+ a sep>ation ( closely relat$ bodies by fractional processes1 9 :i* a l>ge numb] ( repetitions ( ! same op]ation are necess>y1 only ! mo/ c>eful & sy/ematic proc$ure c avoid mu* wa/e ( valuable mat]ial2 9 ^! processes1 ! object ( ! *emi/ is to obta9 pure end fractions1 :il/ keep+ ! middle fractions z small z possible4 ,"o me?od ( proc$ure g5]ally adopt$ is illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #g1 :i* repres5ts a fractional cry/allisation ( a mixture ( f\r or five sub/ances1 1 1 444 2 ! sep>ations be+ usually conduct$ 9 su* a way t subgr\ps ( ?ree1 f\r or five elem5ts are fir/ obta9$1 ^! be+ !n fur!r fractionat$ to obta9 ! pure elem5ts4 ,9 ! diagram1 crops ( cry/als are repres5t$ by crosses1 ! "m-liquors by circles2 = ! sake ( illu/ration1 ! process is made to appe> z simple z possible4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g ,! mixture is dissolv$ up1 & all[$ to cry/allise2 ! cry/als are filt]$ (f1 ! filtrate conc5trat$1 & a second crop obta9$2 ?is is repeat$ until five or six crops ( cry/als h be5 obta9$4 ,^!1 ) ! "m-liquor1 con/itute s]ies ,a4 ,! fir/ fraction is n[ recry/allis$2 x yields a crop ( cry/als1 fraction #a ( s]ies ,b1 & a "m-liquor1 :i* is add$ to fraction #b ( s]ies ,a1 z indicat$ by ! dott$ arr[ & circle2 on recry/allisation ( ?is mixture1 a crop ( cry/als1 fraction #b ( s]ies ,b1 is obta9$1 toge!r ) a "m-liquor1 :i* is recry/allis$ ) fraction #c ( s]ies ,a4 ,9 ?is way1 by cont9u$ repetition1 s]ies are obta9$1 ( :i* ea* conta9s "o fraction m ?an its pr$ecessor2 ! lea/ soluble con/itu5t is ?us conc5trat$ 9 ! fractions repres5t$ on ! left ( ! diagram1 :il/ ! mo/ soluble accumulates 9 ! "m-liquors4 ,aft] a great] or small] numb] ( s]ies h be5 trav]s$1 accord+ to ! diff]5ces 9 solubility1 ! end fractions 9 ea* s]ies w be pure4 ,^! are no long] fractionat$1 & ! numb] ( fractions 9 ea* s]ies beg9s to dim9i%1 z %[n on ! diagram4 ,! middle fractions w conta9 ! comp\nds ( int]m$iate solubility2 ^! may be sep>at$ by fur!r fractionation on ! same l9es1 or may p]haps be bett] treat$ by a diff]5t or modifi$ process4 ,9 a modification ( ! me?od1 ea* fraction ( s]ies ,a is recry/allis$ sep>ately1 yield+ a crop ( cry/als1 & a "m-liquor2 s]ies ,b is !n built up by add+ to ! cry/als f fraction #b ! "m-liquor f fraction #a1 to ! cry/als f fraction #c ! "m-liquor f fraction #b1 & s on2 ! fractions 9 ?is s]ies are !n recry/allis$ sep>ately1 & ! ?ird s]ies built up by ! simil> comb9ation ( ! cry/als & "m-liquors4 ,simil> sy/ematic me?ods ( proc$ure mu/ be adopt$ 9 work+ out any me?od ( fractional sep>ation2 x c at once be se5 t :]e1 z 9 ! r>e e>? gr\p1 only small v>iations 9 prop]ties exi/1 mu* "t & c>e mu/ be exp5d$1 if pure products are requir$4 ,s9ce ! developm5t ( ! me?ods ( spectrum analysis1 ! difficulty ( te/+ ! effici5cy ( a me?od ( sep>ation1 & ( exam9+ ! purity ( ! products obta9$1 has be5 greatly less5$4 ,! only reliable te/ at ! disposal ( ! e>li] *emi/s 0 ! det]m9ation ( ! equival5t weight1 :i* /ill con/itutes an important *eck on ! mod]n me?ods4 ,"s acc\nt ( ! me?ods available = ! control ( ! me?ods ( sep>ation is ess5tial 9 a g5]al acc\nt ( ! r>e e>?s2 b be=e describ+ ^!1 x w be conv5i5t to give a %ort description ( ! me?ods us$ 9 ! extraction ( ! elem5ts f ! r>e e>? m9]als4 ,,extraction ,,( ,,! ,,r>e ,,e>?s ,,f ,,m9]als ,) ! exception ( ^? conta9+ l>ge proportions ( columbium1 tantalum1 & titanium1 ! r>e e>? m9]als are easily decompos$ by acids4 ,! silicates1 z a g5]al rule1 c be satisfactorily treat$ ) hydro*loric acid 9 ! ord9>y way1 b = l>ge quantities1 ! use ( sulphuric acid is m desirable4 ,! m refractory m9]als are completely decompos$ by fus$ alkali hydrog5 sulphate2 sodium bisulphate is m suitable = ?is purpose ?an ! potassium comp\nd1 ! sodium d\ble sulphates ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts be+ m soluble ?an ! potassium salts4 ,hydr(luoric acid also attacks ! refractory m9]als v readily2 ! r>e e>?s1 9 ?is case1 are left z ! insoluble fluorides4 ,aft] decomposition ) sulphuric acid or bisulphate1 ! cold residue is extract$ ) wat]1 ! r>e e>? sulphates or d\ble sulphates be+ remov$ 9 solution4 ,dige/ion ) nitric acid may be necess>y at ?is /age1 if titanium1 columbium1 etc41 are pres5t2 aft] filtration1 ! solution is evaporat$ to dryness1 & ! residue extract$ ) dilute hydro*loric acid4 ,! solution is saturat$ ) sulphurett$ hydrog5 to remove lead1 copp]1 bismu?1 molybd5um1 etc41 & treat$ 9 ! usual way ) ammonium *loride & ammonia4 ,! precipitate is wa%$1 & dissolv$ 9 hydro*loric acid1 ! solution heat$ to ab\t #fj1 & ! r>e e>?s precipitat$ by addition ( excess ( oxalic acid1 :i* holds 9 solution any zirconium :i* may be pres5t4 ,9 ! pres5ce ( phosphates1 e4g4 9 ! treatm5t ( monazite or x5otime1 ! precipitate ( oxalates %\ld be ignit$ to ! oxides1 ^! dissolv$ 9 acid1 & a second precipitation ) oxalic acid effect$2 ?is treatm5t is necess>y to remove phosphoric acid completely4 ,prelim9>y exam9ation ( ! e>? mixture4--,be=e a me?od ( sep>ation c be decid$ ^u1 "s k ( ! composition ( ! mixture to be treat$ mu/ be obta9$4 ,! nature ( ! m9]al us$ = ! extraction w1 z a rule1 af=d useful in=mation4 ,x is kn[n t 9 "s m9]als ! c]ium gr\p1 9 o!rs ! yttrium gr\p1 pr$om9ates m or less completely2 c]ta9 m9]als1 also1 are kn[n to be ri* 9 elem5ts ( "o or ano!r subgr\p4 ,an approximate k ( ! relative proportions ( ! c]ium1 t]bium1 & yttrium gr\ps w be af=d$ by a r\gh d\ble sulphate sep>ation2 ?orium1 zirconium1 & sc&ium come d[n ) ! c]ium e>?s4 ,= approximate sep>ation1 ,urba9#ahe proposes ! use ( ! e?ylsulphates4 ,! yttrium elem5ts c be quickly sep>at$ 9 an approximate mann] by fractional precipitation ( ! hydroxides ) magnesia4 ,! successive fractions obta9$ by ^! me?ods are exam9$ spectroscopically2 f ! results1 ! composition ( ea*1 & s ( ! orig9al mixture1 may be r\ghly d$uc$4 #ahe ,ann4 ,*im4 ,phys4 #aijj1 vii41 #ai1 #ahd4 ,,! ,,spectrum ,,exam9ation ,9 no dep>tm5t ( *emi/ry h ! me?ods ( spectrum analysis prov$ ( m value ?an 9 ! field ( ! r>e e>?s4 ,!y provide ! *emi/ ) a means ( foll[+ & controll+ 8 processes ( sep>ation :i* is f> m delicate & decisive ?an ! old] me?od ( det]m9+ ! equival5t weight4 ,:il/ ! exam9ation ( emission spectra1 & especially ( arc spectra1 is ( decisive value 9 e case1 x has ! disadvantage ( requir+ delicate & complicat$ app>atus & great exp]im5tal skill2 :]ev] possible1 !re=e1 ! exam9ation ( ! absorption spectra is pref]r$1 ?\gh ?is is useful only = a few ( ! elem5ts1 & v>ies consid]ably ) ! conditions employ$4 ,! ,absorption ,spectra4--,absorption 9 ! visible region ( ! spectrum is obs]v$ only ) ^? r>e e>? comp\nds :i* are col\r$1 & is ( value1 !re=e1 *iefly = id5tification 9 ! case ( praseodymium & neodymium among ! c]ium elem5ts1 & ( erbium among ! yttrium metals2 ^! give *>act]i/ic absorption b&s1 ev5 9 dilute solution4 ,! absorption spectra ( ! r>e e>? comp\nds are highly *>act]i/ic1 ! b&s be+ well def9$ & %>ply b\nd$1 :]eas col\r$ comp\nds ( ! common elem5ts %[ g5]al absorption1 or at be/ diffuse b&s1 "u ! same conditions4 ,9 obs]v+ an absorption spectrum1 ! light f a ,n]n/ lamp1 or inc&esc5t burn]1 is pass$ ?r\gh a lay] ( a suitable solution ( ! col\r$ comp\nd1 ( kn[n conc5tration & ?ickness1 & aft] collimation is analys$ by a suitable prism2 ! spectrum is obs]v$ by a telescope 9 ! ord9>y way4 ,:]e accurate read+s are n requir$1 z1 = example1 9 te/+ = ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( a p>ticul> elem5t1 ! position ( ! b&s may be read to a suffici5t degree ( accuracy by means ( a scale1 ! image ( :i* is adju/$ to co9cide ) ! spectrum z se5 ?r\gh ! eyepiece2 b 9 mapp+ a spectrum accurately1 m ref9$ me?ods mu/ ( c\rse be us$4 ,! photographic me?od1 9 :i* a photograph ( ! spectrum is tak5 on a plate :i* be>s1 = purposes ( measurem5t1 a comp>ison spectrum ( kn[n l9es1 is v conv5i5t = exam9+ ! absorption 9 ! violet & ultraviolet regions4 ,! int5sity1 & to "s ext5t also ! position1 ( b&s 9 an absorption spectrum may v>y consid]ably1 accord+ to ! conditions employ$4 ,( ! v>i\s factors :i* mu/ be consid]$1 ! conc5tration ( ! solution1 ! ?ickness ( ! lay] us$1 ! nature ( ! solv5t1 & ( ! acid radicle1 & ! pres5ce ( o!r e>?s are ! mo/ important4 ,! conc5tration ( ! solution1 & ! ?ickness ( ! lay]1 :i* toge!r con/itute ! ,optical ,d5sity1 mu/ be s adju/$ t ! absorption is nei!r too /rong nor too weak2 9 ! fir/ case ! %>p b&s t5d to m]ge into broad diffusion areas1 & details are obscur$1 :il/ 9 ! second case ! pres5ce ( col\r$ comp\nds :i* d n %[ /rong absorption b&s may be ov]look$4 ,! nature ( ! acid radicle has consid]able influ5ce on ! position ( ! absorption maxima1 ! g5]al rule be+ t ! b&s are %ift$ t[>ds ! r$ end ( ! spectrum z ! molecul> weight ( ! comp\nd us$ increases4 ,naturally1 also1 ! nature ( ! solv5t has an important effect1 all ! usual ph5om5a :i* mu/ be consid]$ 9 ! measurem5t ( ! physical prop]ties ( sub/ances 9 solution com+ into play2 electrolytic dissociation1 hydration1 dissociation & ! =mation ( complexes1 = example1 are all important factors4 ,! pres5ce ( col\rless e>?s has also be5 f\nd to cause important diff]5ces4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 t = ! *emi/1 ! absorption spectra c be consid]$ z a valuable aid only 9 detect+ ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( ! ?ree elem5ts :i* give ! /ronge/ & mo/ *>act]i/ic absorption b&s1 viz4 praseodymium1 neodymium1 & erbium1 & t conclusions reg>d+ ! quantitative composition ( mixtures mu/ be drawn ) ! utmo/ caution4 ,! ,emission ,spectra3 ,sp>k ,spectra4--,! factors :i* t5d to limit ! value ( ! absorption spectra = analytical purposes1 = ! mo/ "p disappe> :5 ! emission spectra are employ$4 ,9 ! case ( ! sp>k spectra1 inde$1 great diff]5ces are obs]v$ accord+ to ! conditions & me?od ( exp]im5t2 b ! arc spectra are practically inv>iable "u all conditions1 & h5ce !y con/itute ! ultimate te/ 9 all cases4 ,! sp>k spectra are obs]v$ :5 "o t]m9al--! ca?ode--( an induction coil is emb$d$ 9 ! oxides to be exam9$1 & ! dis*>ge !n pass$4 ,! dis*>ge is also frequ5tly pass$ betwe5 plat9um poles p>tly imm]s$ 9 a /rong solution ( a salt ( ! elem5t "u exam9ation2 a =m ( app>atus v suitable = ?is me?od ( obs]vation has be5 describ$ by ,sir ,w4 ,crookes4#ahf ,! spectra s obta9$ are 9 a high degree *>act]i/ic1 b !y v>y v consid]ably ) ! =m & dim5sions ( ! coil1 ! l5g? & cross-section ( ! wires1 ! pot5tial diff]5ce employ$1 & s on4 ,an entirely new spectrum also is obta9$ 9 _m cases by m]e rev]sal ( ! curr5t2 "u ^! conditions1 a phosphoresc5t appe>ance is obs]v$1 ! spectrum ( :i*--rev]s$ sp>k spectrum ( de ,boisbaudran--has be5 f\nd 9 _m cases to resemble ! ca?ode lum9esc5ce spectra ( ,crookes4 #ahf ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 #aijc1 #gb1 #bie4 ,! ,arc ,spectra4--,! f9al crit]ion ( purity 9 ! exam9ation ( a r>e e>? elem5t is 9 almo/ all cases ! arc spectrum4 ,s9ce = "s ( ! elem5ts1 especially 9 ! yttrium gr\p1 ! entire spectrum has n yet be5 accurately mapp$ out1 spectra are g5]ally obs]v$ frequ5tly ?r\gh\t ! c\rse ( a fractionation2 by ?is means1 ! sep>ation c be foll[$ by ! disappe>ance ( "s l9es1 & ! appe>+ or /r5g!n+ ( o!rs1 & su* exam9ations h l$ occasionally to ! discov]y ( new elem5ts 7see1 = example1 "u ,sep>ation ( ytt]bium e>?s1 p4 #bje74 ,su* det]m9ations1 h[ev]1 require mu* "t & ext5sive & complicat$ app>atus4 ,c>bon electrodes are g5]ally employ$1 & x is immat]ial 9 ?is case :i* is ! anode1 & :i* ! ca?ode4 ,! l[] c>bon is holl[$ out1 & ! space fill$ ) ! oxide or sulphate ( ! elem5t or mixture to be exam9$2 or ! electrode may be impregnat$ ) a conc5trat$ solution ( a salt4 ,! light is exam9$ by means ( a diffraction grat+1 & ! spectrum photograph$ on a plate :i* be>s a comp>ison spectrum = measurem5t4 ,! l9es are mo/ num]\s 9 ! violet & ultraviolet regions1 & ! mo/ *>act]i/ic spectra are giv5 by ! col\rless e>?s4 ,! me?od is naturally m delicate = "s elem5ts ?an = o!rs2 ! great p]si/5cy ( ! sc&ium l9e #cfacihd1 = example1 0 f\nd v valuable by ,crookes & by ,eb]h>d 9 ! exam9ation ( v>i\s rocks & m9]als = t elem5t1 :il/ o!r int5se & p]si/5t l9es h s]v$ = ! detection ( v>i\s r>e e>? elem5ts 9 ! sun & _m />s4 ,! ,ca?ode ,lum9esc5ce ,spectra4--,! ph5om5on ( ca?ode lum9esc5ce1 :i* 0 obs]v$ & v fully inve/igat$ by ,sir ,william ,crookes1 & :i* l$ t au?or to 8 !ory ( ,meta-elem5ts1 is "o ( ! greate/ sci5tific int]e/4 ,crookes obs]v$ t c]ta9 ( ! r>e e>?s1 :5 subject$ to ! action ( ca?ode rays 9 a vacuum tube1 exhibit a brilliant phosphoresc5ce1 :i*1 :5 exam9$ by ! spectroscope1 %[ *>act]i/ic spectra1 :i* diff] greatly = fractions ( app>5tly id5tical *emical composition1 & are o!rwise di/+ui%able by physical prop]ties4 ,! rese>*es ( ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran1 & ! m rec5t "w ( ,baur & ,m>c1#ahg h %[n t ?is lum9esc5ce is obs]v$ :5 a small quantity ( a col\r$ e>? is pres5t ) a v l>ge quantity ( a col\rless e>?1 ! maximum phosphoresc5ce be+ produc$ by ab\t #a p] c5t4 ( ! col\r$ e>?1 or #8phosphorog54' ,! "q has rec5tly be5 v fully exam9$ by ,urba94#ahh ,he %[s t ! s5sitiv5ess ( ! ph5om5on is s great t x _c be employ$ = ! ord9>y purposes ( *emical analysis1 "o "p 9 a million ( ! phosphorog5 be+ suffici5t to cause a cle>ly p]ceptible lum9esc5ce 9 a pure col\rless oxide4 #ahg ,b]4 #aija1 #cd1 #hgh4 #ahh ,ann4 ,*im4 ,phys4 #aiji1 viii41 #ah1 #bbb2 see also ,introduction l'tude de la ,spectro*imie1 pp4 #ade et seq4 ,! ,magnetic ,susceptibility4--,! fact t ! r>e e>?s diff] v consid]ably f "o ano!r 9 _! magnetic prop]ties has be5 kn[n = sev]al ye>s1#ahi & has rec5tly be5 employ$ by ,urba9 & ,jants*#aij z a means ( id5tification1 & a te/ ( purity1 & = foll[+ processes ( fractionation4 ,! magnetic susceptibility rea*es a m9imum at sam>ium1 & rises v %>ply on ei!r side ( t elem5t1 s t ! pres5ce ( ! closely relat$ elem5ts1 neodymium on ! "o side1 & europium & gadol9ium on ! o!r1 :i* diff] only v slightly f sam>ium 9 atomic weight & solubility1 c easily be detect$ by ?is means4 ,! prop]ty is highly additive1 & c be us$1 !re=e1 to e/imate ! relative proportions ( two oxides 9 a mixture2 ! det]m9ations are said to be easily & quickly c>ri$ out4 #ahi ,see ,mey]1 ,monats4 #ahih1 #bj1 #cfi & #gic4 #aij ,compt4 r5d4 #aijh1 #adg1 #abhf2 see also ,urba91 ibid41 #aiaj1 #aej1 #iac4 ,:5 ! elem5ts are consid]$ 9 ord] ( atomic weight1 ! coeffici5t rea*es a maximum at neodymium 9 ! c]ium gr\p1 & aga9 at dysprosium 7or holmium7 9 ! yttrium gr\p3--#aia ,coeffici5t ( magnetisation ,elem5t4 ,atomic ,weight4 = ! oxide4 x #aj ,sc&ium #dda -#jje ,yttrium #hij -#jad ,lan?anum #acij -#jah ,neodymium #addc #cce ,sam>ium #aejd #fe ,europium #aebj #cce ,gadol9ium #aegc #afa ,t]bium #aeib #bcg ,dysprosium #afbe #bij #aia ,see ,urba9 & ,jants*1 loc4 cit42 ! values = lan?ana1 sc&ia1 & yttria 7 det]m9$ by ,w$ek9d 7see ,mey] & ,wuor951 ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aiac1 #hj1 #g74 ,erbium1 ?ulium1 ytt]bium1 & lutecium appe> 9 desc5d+ ord] at ! end ( ! s]ies1 b no figures are giv54 ,! mo/ int]e/+ application ( ! prop]ty has be5 ,urba9's discov]y ( ! new elem5t ,celtium 7see p4 #bjg74 ,,! ,,equival5t ,,weight ,,det]m9ation ,! det]m9ation ( ! mean equival5t weight1 :i* 0 = ! e>li] *emi/s ! only reliable me?od ( controll+ _! fractionations1 is /ill ( consid]able importance = ?is purpose1 especially 9 ! yttrium gr\p1 9 :i* ! diff]5ces 9 atomic weights are m consid]able ?an among ! c]ium metals4 ,great importance1 moreov]1 /ill atta*es to ^! det]m9ations1 s9ce !y s]ve to fix ! atomic weights2 save t ! me?ods us$ 9 an atomic weight det]m9ation are some:at m elaborate & ref9$ ?an ^? us$ :5 x is desir$ m]ely to te/ a fractionation1 ! same processes apply 9 bo? cases4 ,! me?ods :i* h be5 mo/ commonly us$ are ^? bas$ on a det]m9ation ( ! ratio ,r,o 3 ,r7,,s71 & ^! are ( two k9ds1 ! syn!tic & ! analytical4 ,! fir/1 9 :i* a kn[n weight ( ! oxide is conv]t$ into ! sulphate1 has be5 mo/ us$ = ! mo/ /rongly basic oxides1 s9ce ) ^! x is difficult to remove ! la/ traces ( sulphuric anhydride f ! oxide by heat4 ,! oxides are be/ obta9$ f ! oxalates1 :i* are precipitat$ f an acid solution ( ! nitrates1 wa%$ ?or\ghly ) wat]1 alcohol & e!r 9 succession1 dri$1 & ignit$ 9 a t>r$ plat9um crucible4 ,! oxide is be/ dissolv$ 9 dilute hydro*loric or nitric acid on ! wat]ba?1 a slight excess ( sulphuric acid be+ add$ only :5 a cle> solution has be5 obta9$2 ! liquid is !n heat$ gradually to #cjj1 & f9ally 9 ! electric furnace at #dej-eej until con/ant 9 weight4 ,if sulphuric acid be add$ directly to ! weigh$ oxide1 p>ticles ( ! latt] may become completely coat$ ) ! insoluble sulphate1 & s escape ! action ( ! acid4 ,9 ! analytical me?od1 a kn[n weight ( sulphate is ignit$ to ! oxide1 & weigh$ z su*4 ,?is me?od is mo/ suitable = ! less basic memb]s ( ! yttria e>?s1 ( :i* ! sulphates c be completely decompos$ )\t difficulty at a r$ heat4 ,by ! use ( ! microbalance1 a suffici5tly accurate det]m9ation c be c>ri$ out by ei!r ( ^! me?ods 9 little m ?an half an h\r1 z ! *emical *anges are exce$+ly rapid :]e only small quantities are employ$1 & no "t is requir$ to all[ ! vessels & solids to cool4 ,us+ ! microbalance1 ,brill#aib has c>ri$ out a s]ies ( exp]im5ts to det]m9e ! limits ( temp]ature )9 :i* ! v>i\s /eps ( ! process %\ld be c>ri$ out4 ,he f9ds t a temp]ature ( #djj-eej is requir$ to decompose ! la/ traces ( acid sulphate1 & give ! pure neutral sulphate4 ,betwe5 ! temp]atures ( #hej & #iej1 basic salts are =m$1 f :i* ! la/ trace ( sulphuric anhydride is expell$ at #ijj-aaej2 ! precise temp]ature requir$ 9 ea* case dep5ds1 ( c\rse1 on ! basic /r5g? ( ! oxide 9 "q4 #aib ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aije1 #dg1 #dfd4 ,! det]m9ation ( equival5ts by means ( ! ratio ,r,o 3 ,r7,c,o71 has be5 br\ght to a high degree ( accuracy by ,braun]4#aic ,a weigh$ quantity ( ! c>efully prep>$ oxalate is ignit$1 ) suitable precautions1 to ! oxide1 9 a t>r$ plat9um crucible4 ,a second weigh$ specim5 ( ! same oxalate prep>ation is dissolv$ 9 dilute sulphuric acid1 & titrat$ at #fj ) p]manganate1 :i* is /&>dis$ aga9/ pure ammonium oxalate4 #aic ,ibid4 #aijc1 #cd1 #ajc1 #bjg4 ,( ! me?ods ( volumetric analysis :i* h be5 propos$1 t put =w>d by ,feit & ,przibylla appe>s to be ! mo/ suitable4 ,a conv5i5t quantity ( oxide1 :i* has be5 ignit$ until con/ant 9 weight1 is dissolv$ by g5tly heat+ ) a kn[n excess ( ,n_/#b sulphuric acid1 9 a conical flask ( ,j5a glass4 ,! excess ( acid is titrat$ ) ,n_/#aj sodium hydroxide1 us+ me?yl orange z indicator4 ,?is me?od1 :i* has ! advantages ( ease & quickness1 is v reliable1 if suitable precautions are tak51 9 ! case ( ! m /rongly basic oxides2 b ) ! lea/ /rongly basic memb]s ( ! yttria gr\p1 ! erbia & ytt]bia oxides1 ! end po9t is n v %>p1 :il/ ) ! weakly basic sc&ia1 ! me?od breaks d[n entirely4#aid #aid ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aije1 #dc1 #bjb2 #aijf1 #ej1 #bdi4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,! ,,c]ium ,,gr\p--,,c]ium ,! extraction ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts f m9]als1 by :i* !y are obta9$ 9 ! =m ( ! oxalates1 & ! me?ods ( br++ ^! into solution1 h already be5 describ$4 ,f ! solution1 be=e any sep>ation ( ! r>e e>?s is attempt$1 ?orium %\ld be remov$2 = ?is purpose1 any ( ! me?ods describ$ "u e/imation ( ?orium 7see p4 #bhf7 may be us$1 ! mo/ conv5i5t be+ ! p]oxide precipitation ( ,wyr\b(f & ,v]neuil4 ,! solution is !n treat$ ) potassium sulphate until ! absorption b&s ( didymium 7praseodymium & neodymium7 c no long] be obs]v$1 or appe> only v fa9tly1 :5 a lay] ( ! solution is exam9$ ) a spectroscope2 ! precipitate !n consi/s ( ! potassium d\ble sulphates ( ! c]ium ) "s ( ! t]bium elem5ts4 ,if ! mixture is v ri* 9 ! c]ium elem5ts1 & correspond+ly poor 9 ! yttrium elem5ts--z1 = example1 ! mixture ( e>?s obta9$ f monazite--,drossba*#aie recomm5ds a prelim9>y sep>ation by means ( ! d\ble c>bonates2 ! d\ble sulphate me?od may !n be employ$ to remove ! la/ ( ! yttrium & mo/ ( ! t]bium elem5ts4 ,! sp>+ly soluble d\ble sulphates ( ! c]ium metals may be trans=m$ into ! hydroxides by dige/ion ) potassium hydroxide1 & ^! tak5 into solution1 aft] wa%+1 by hydro*loric or nitric acid4 #aie ,b]4 #aijj1 #cc1 #cejf4 ,c]ium1 ,ce #adjbe ,( all ! r>e e>? elem5ts1 c]ium1 by virtue ( its prop]ty ( =m+ c]ic salts correspond+ to ! dioxide ,ce,o1 is ! "o mo/ easily sep>at$ & obta9$ 9 ! pure /ate4 ,9 ^? comp\nds 9 :i* x is tetraval5t1 c]ium functions z a mu* less /rongly electropositive elem5t ?an 9 ! c]\s comp\nds1 & all ! me?ods ( sep>ation are bas$ on ?is fact4 ,mos&]1 :o fir/ demon/rat$ t ! old #8c]ia' 0 a mixture1 sep>at$ ! elem5t by treat+ a susp5sion ( ! hydroxides 9 potassium hydroxide ) *lor9e2 yell[ c]ic hydroxide rema9s undissolv$1 :il/ ! o!r elem5ts g into solution z ! *lorides & hypo*lorites4 ,?is me?od 0 ext5sively us$ until q rec5tly2 x has ! advantage ( sep>at+ ! c]ium completely1 b ! product is v impure1 & sev]al repetitions are requir$ to give good results4 ,! basic nitrate me?od1 :i* is n[ us$ on ! comm]cial scale 9 extract+ c]ium f monazite 7see p4 #bhd71 is also due to ,mos&]1 ?\gh x has be5 employ$ subsequ5tly by _m work]s4 ,sev]al me?ods take advantage ( ! ease ) :i* ! c]ic salts1 z comp>$ ) salts ( ! trival5t elem5ts1 may be hydrolys$4 ,braun]#aif dissolves ! oxides 9 nitric acid1 & aft] removal ( excess ( acid1 boils ) a l>ge volume ( wat]--basic c]ic nitrate is ?r[n d[n1 ! o!r elem5ts rema9+ 9 solution z nitrates4 ,! precipitate is r$issolv$1 & ! process repeat$ until ! c]ium is f\nd spectroscopically to be free f didymium4 ,! hydrolysis ( ! c]ic salt may be effect$ m quickly & completely by ! addition ( ammonium sulphate or magnesium acetate4#aig ,james#aih boils ! solution ( ! nitrates ) potassium bromate1 keep+ ! :ole neutral by addition ( p[d]$ m>ble2 ! c]ium is completely & v quickly precipitat$ z basic nitrate4 #aif ,trans4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #ahhe1 #dg1 #hgi4 #aig ,mey] & ,koss1 ,b]4 #aijb1 #ce1 #fgb4 #aih ,j4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiab1 #cd1 #geg2 ?is pap] gives a complete s*eme = a full sep>ation ( all ! elem5ts4 ,an int]e/+ me?od is due to ,koppel#aii2 ! oxides are dissolv$ 9 a solution ( hydrog5 *loride 9 me?yl alcohol1 & treat$ ) pyrid9e1 :5 ! sp>+ly soluble d\ble *loride1 7,c,h,,nh7,ce,cl1 sep>ates1 & may be obta9$ pure by recry/allisation f alcohol & e!r4 ,! p]manganate me?od ( ,drossba*1 :i* is us$ on ! comm]cial scale1 is describ$ on p4 #bhe4 #aii ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #ahih1 #ah1 #cje4 ,! c]ium comp\nds obta9$ by ^! me?ods are purifi$ by trans=mation into ! anhydr\s sulphate1 :i* is dissolv$ 9 ice-wat]2 :5 ?is solution is all[$ to come sl[ly to room temp]ature1 ! pure octohydrate sep>ates4 ,pure c]ium salts %\ld %[ no trace ( absorption :5 conc5trat$ solutions are exam9$ spectroscopically2 on ignition1 ! oxide obta9$ %\ld be almo/ col\rless1 hav+ at mo/ a fa9t yell[ t+e4 ,a r$di% or br[ni%-r$ %ade indicates ! pres5ce ( praseodymium4 ,an arc spectrum exam9ation w g5]ally %[ ! pres5ce ( lan?anum1 :i* occurs 9 traces ev5 9 ! mo/ c>efully purifi$ c]ium prep>ations4 ,! prep>ation & prop]ties ( metallic c]ium h already be5 describ$ 7see p4 #aad72 = an acc\nt ( ! pyrophoric alloys1 see p4 #cad4 ,,! ,,c]\s ,,comp\nds ,! salts ( trival5t c]ium are v simil> to ^? ( ! o!r r>e e>? elem5ts1 & a detail$ description ( !m is !re=e unnecess>y4 ,! sesquioxide1 ,ce,o1 _c be obta9$ by ignition ( ! oxalate1 nitrate1 or o!r simil> salt1 s9ce ^! decompose at high temp]atures ) =mation ( ! dioxide1 ,ce,o4 ,x has be5 prep>$ by ! r$uction ( ! dioxide ) calcium2#bjj x has a great aff9ity = oxyg51 & readily absorbs ! gas :5 expos$ to moi/ air4 ,c]\s hydroxide1 ,ce7,,oh71 obta9$ by addition ( alkali to solutions ( c]\s salts1 has also /rong r$uc+ prop]ties1#bja & c only be prep>$ & pres]v$ :5 oxyg5 is c>efully exclud$4 ,x has be5 obta9$ z a p]fectly :ite solid by ! action ( wat] on ! c>bide2#bjb :5 dri$ 9 an in]t atmosph]e1 x yields a p]fectly :ite oxide4 ,9 pres5ce ( air1 x d>k5s1 assum+ a r$di%-violet col\r1 :i* passes into yell[ z ! oxidation becomes complete4 ,! oxidation proce$s m quickly 9 pres5ce ( pota% or soda1 c]ic hydroxide1 ,ce7,,oh71 be+ =m$2 9 pres5ce ( potassium c>bonate1 h[ev]1 a d>k-col\r$ p]oxyhydrate is =m$ by autoxidation4 ,! col\r s produc$ disappe>s on %ak+ if an #8acceptor' is pres5t1 c]ic hydroxide be+ left2 if ! acceptor _c r$uce ?is1 ! solution aft] %ak+ loses ! p[] ( re-=m+ ! d>k p]oxide1 b if ! acceptor c r$uce ! c]ic comp\nd to c]\s hydroxide1 ! solution aft] %ak+ rega9s ! p[] ( =m+ ! p]oxide :i* is a prop]ty ( ! l[] hydroxide4 #bjj ,burg]1 ,b]4 #aijg1 #dj1 #afeb4 #bja ,d5nis & ,magee1 ,j4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #ahid1 #af1 #fdi2 also ,biltz & ,zimm]man1 ,b]4 #aijg1 #dj1 #digi4 #bjb ,dami5s1 ,compt4 r5d4 #aiac1 #aeg1 #bad4 ,c]\s nitride1 ,ce,n1 has be5 prep>$ by ,moissan#bjc by ! action ( ammonia on ! heat$ c>bide2 x c also be obta9$ by heat+ ! hydride 9 a /ream ( nitrog54#bjd ,mu?mann & ,kraft also /ate#bje t x c be prep>$ by heat+ metallic c]ium 9 ! gas1 ! metal burn+ ) ! lib]ation ( mu* en]gy 9 ! =m ( heat & light2 b ,daf]t & ,miklanz#bjf d5y t x c be obta9$ 9 ?is way4 ,c]ium nitride is a lu/r\s1 brass yell[ to bronze col\r$ solid1 /able 9 dry air1 b at once attack$ by moi/ air1 ) evolution ( ammonia1 & =mation ( ! dioxide4 ,:5 moi/5$ 9 air ) a few drops ( wat]1 ! sub/ance reacts viol5tly1 becom+ heat$ to r$ness4 ,alkalies & acids decompose x1 ) =mation ( c]\s comp\nds4 #bjc ,compt4 r5d4 #aijj1 #aca1 #hfe4 #bjd ,daf]t & ,miklanz1 ,monats4 #aiab1 #cc1 #iaa4 #bje ,annal51 #aijb1 #cbe1 #bfa4 #bjf ,loc4 cit4 ,! sulphide1 ,ce,s1 has be5 prep>$ by ,biltz#bjg by heat+ ! sulphate to a r$ heat 9 a curr5t ( sulphurett$ hydrog52 he describes x z a r$ p[d]4 ,! *loride1 ,ce,cl1 comb9es ) ammonia ) evolution ( heat ev5 at a temp]ature ( -#hj4 ,five additive comp\nds are describ$2#bjh !y are :ite p[d]s1 decompos$ by wat]4 #bjg ,b]4 #aijh1 #da1 #ccda4 #bjh ,b>re1 ,compt4 r5d4 #aiac1 #aef1 #ajag4 ,! solubility curve ( ! v>i\s sulphate hydrates has already be5 giv5 7see p4 #abe74 ,v>i\s d\ble sulphates ) ammonium sulphate1 & ! sulphates ( sodium1 potassium1 ?allium & cadmium are kn[n4 ,! cadmium d\ble comp\nd has ! composition ,ce7,,s71,cd,s,o1#f;,h,o1 & is prep>$ by mix+ solutions ( ! simple salts 9 pres5ce ( sulphuric acid4 ,_m d\ble nitrates h be5 prep>$2 ^! are = ! mo/ "p /able1 highly cry/all9e comp\nds1 easily soluble 9 wat] & alcohol4 ,) ! nitrates ( ! common dival5t metals1 c]\s nitrate =ms a s]ies ( d\ble salts ( ! g5]al =mula #b;,ce7,,no71#c,r7,,no71#bd;,h,o1 :]e ,r ,mg1 ,mn1 ,co1 ,ni1 or ,zn2 ^! =m an isomorph\s s]ies1 cry/allis+ 9 ! hexagonal sy/em4 ,! acetylacetone comp\nd melts at #aca-acb4 ,9 ! pres5ce ( hydrog5 p]oxide 9 ! cold1 ammonia ?r[s d[n f solutions ( c]\s salts a r$di%-br[n p]oxyhydrate1 ,ce7,,ooh77,,oh71#bji :i* on heat+ loses oxyg51 & yields c]ic hydroxide4 ,! reaction is v delicate1 & may be us$ z a te/ = c]ium4 ,if ! precipitate be treat$ ) acids 9 ! cold1 c]ic salts are fir/ obta9$1 b ^! are at once r$uc$1 9 ! acid solution1 by ! hydrog5 p]oxide =m$1 s t c]\s salts rema92 c]ic salts may be obta9$ by fir/ boil+ ! susp5sion ( ! p]oxyhydrate & treat+ ! c]ic hydroxide s obta9$ ) acids4 #bji ,piss>jewski1 ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aijb1 #ca1 #cei4 ,,! ,,c]ic ,,comp\nds ,! c]ic salts are mu* m readily hydrolys$ ?an ! c]\s salts1 & %[ a great t5d5cy1 9 dilute solution1 to pass ov] into ! latt]4 ,s great is ?is t5d5cy t a solution ( a c]ic salt acts z if x 7 sup]saturat$ ) oxyg52 c]ic sulphate1 = example1 9 dilute solution sl[ly evolves oxyg51 :il/ ! *loride evolves *lor9e4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is behavi\r1 c]ic comp\nds h a v p[]ful oxidis+ action4 ,! c]ic salts are yell[ to r$ 9 col\r2 _! solutions are /rongly acid1 ow+ to ! ease ) :i* ! salts hydrolyse1 & on boil+ deposit insoluble basic salts4 ,beside ! me?ods :i* h already be5 m5tion$1 c]ic comp\nds may be prep>$ f c]\s by oxidation ) sodium p]oxide1 bismu? tetroxide1 ammonium p]sulphate1 etc4 ,9 electrolysis ( c]\s salts1 also1 c]ic comp\nds are obta9$ at ! anode4 ,c]ic hydroxide1 ,ce7,,oh71 is obta9$ z a gelat9\s yell[ precipitate on ! addition ( alkali to a solution ( a c]ic salt1 or by ! oxidation ( c]\s hydroxide4 ,! fre%ly prep>$ precipitate dissolves 9 nitric acid ) a r$di% col\r2 hydro*loric acid r$uces x1 ) evolution ( *lor9e1 & =mation ( c]\s *loride1 :il/ sulphuric acid dissolves x ) p>tial r$uction1 oxyg5 be+ evolv$4 ,if a solution ( a c]ic comp\nd be dialys$ = "s days1 a cle> neutral solution is obta9$1 :i* conta9s ! hydroxide 9 ! colloidal condition2 by evaporation ( ! solution1 a gummy mass is obta9$1 :i* dissolves aga9 9 wat] to a cle> solution4 ,electrolytes rapidly cause coagulation4 ,c]ium dioxide1 ,ce,o1 is obta9$ by ! ignition ( any salt ( c]ium ) a volatile acid1 or by burn+ ! elem5t 9 oxyg52 ! latt] reaction produces a v int5se & bl9d+ light1 on acc\nt ( :i* c]ium comp\nds are (t5 sugge/$ = use 9 fla%light p[d]s 7see p4 #cai74 ,! pure oxide %\ld be almo/ :ite1 or at mo/ a v fa9t yell[1 b ! exact %ade & appe>ance v>y accord+ to ! me?od & temp]ature employ$ 9 prep>ation1 d\btless by reason ( ! possibility ( diff]5t degrees ( polym]isation4#baj ,! oxide c act z an oxyg5 c>ri] t[>ds o!r sub/ances1 notably t[>ds o!r oxides ( ! r>e e>? gr\p1#baa b ! ph5om5a h n be5 fully elucidat$4 ,9 virtue ( ?is prop]ty1 ! dioxide has be5 propos$ z a sub/itute = plat9is$ asbe/os 9 ,d5n/$t's me?od = ! combu/ion ( organic bodies4#bab #baj ,see 9 ?is connection ,wyr\b(f & ,v]neuil1 ,compt4 r5d4 #ahih1 #abg1 #hfc2 ibid4 #ahii1 #abh1 #eja2 & 9 ,la *imie des t]res r>es1 #8,confr5ces de la ,socit *imique de ,p>is1' ,p>is1 #aijc4 #baa ,see ,mey] & ,koss1 ,b]4 #aijb1 #ce1 #cgdj4 #bab ,bekk1 ,b]4 #aiac1 #df1 #begd4 ,! ignit$ oxide is soluble 9 nitric or hydro*loric acid only 9 pres5ce ( a r$uc+ ag5t4 ,conc5trat$ sulphuric acid conv]ts x into c]ic sulphate2 fus$ bisulphate attacks x m readily4 ,9 ! cry/all9e =m1 obta9$ by fus+ ! amorph\s =m ) borax1 or a suitable salt1#bac x is extremely resi/ant to acids & to alkalies4 #bac ,see1 e4g4 ,/]ba1 ,ann4 ,*im4 ,phys4 #aijd1 viii41 #b1 #aic4 ,by heat+ ! dioxide 9 a /ream ( hydrog51 c>e be+ tak5 to exclude air1 a d>k blue oxide1 ( :i* ! composition corresponds approximately to t requir$ by ! =mula ,ce,o1 is obta9$4#bad ,?is sub/ance has /rong r$uc+ prop]ties2 :5 w>m$ 9 air1 x gl[s1 =m+ ! dioxide1 & r$uces c>bon dioxide :5 heat$ 9 a curr5t ( t gas4 ,?is int]m$iate oxide is said to correspond 9 composition to ! violet hydroxide :i* is obta9$ z an int]m$iate product 9 ! oxidation ( c]\s to c]ic hydroxide1 & :i* is said to yield ! blue oxide1 ,ce,o1 :5 dri$ 9 vacuo4 #bad ,/]ba1 ,compt4 r5d4 #aija1 #acc1 #bba2 ,mey]1 ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aijc1 #cg1 #cgh4 ,! disulphide1 ,ce,s1 has be5 obta9$ by ,biltz#bae by prolong$ heat+ ( anhydr\s c]\s sulphate 9 a curr5t ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 at a dull r$ heat2 x is a d>k1 yell[i%-br[n1 cry/all9e solid1 :i* on treatm5t ) hydro*loric acid yields hydrog5 p]sulphide4 #bae ,b]4 #aijh1 #da1 #ccda4 ,halog5 salts4--,no halog5 comp\nds are kn[n 9 ! free /ate1 except ! fluoride1 ,ce,f1,h,o1 :i* 0 obta9$ by ,braun] z a yell[i%-br[n mass1 by ! action ( hydr(luoric acid on ! hydroxide4 ,a d\ble fluoride1 #b;,ce,f1#c,,kf1#b;,h,o1 0 prep>$ by ! same au?or by dissolv+ ! hydroxide 9 potassium hydrog5 fluoride2 x is insoluble 9 wat]4 ,by dissolv+ a c]ic salt 9 conc5trat$ hydro*loric acid1 a d>k r$ solution is obta9$1 :i* is believ$ to conta9 ! un/able complex acid1 ,h,ce,cl2 ?is decomposes sl[ly 9 ! cold1 m quickly on w>m+1 ) evolution ( *lor9e1 & =mation ( c]\s *loride4 ,sev]al d\ble comp\nds ( c]ic *loride ) hydro*lorides ( organic bases h1 h[ev]1 be5 obta9$4 ,c]ic sulphate1 ,ce7,,s71 is obta9$ by ! action ( conc5trat$ sulphuric acid on ! dioxide4 ,x is a deep yell[ cry/all9e p[d]1 dissolv+ readily 9 wat] to a br[n solution1 :i* has a /rongly acid reaction2 on w>m+ or dilut+1 a basic sulphate sep>ates4 ,! solution sl[ly evolves oxyg51 & !re=e always conta9s c]\s comp\nds4 ,on evaporation1 a c]o-c]ic acid sulphate ( ! =mula ,h,ceiii,ceiv7,,s71#ab7ac 87,h,o fir/ sep>ates2 ! hydrat$ sulphate ,ce7,,s71#d;,h,o1 be+ m soluble1 sep>ates on fur!r conc5tration4#baf ,! relative am\nts ( ! two comp\nds obta9$ dep5ds on ! temp]ature & ! conc5tration ( acid 9 ! solution2 if bo? ^! factors are kept l[1 ! almo/ pure hydrat$ sulphate c be at once obta9$4 ,?is sep>ates 9 yell[ cry/als belong+ to ! rhombic sy/em2 x is readily soluble 9 wat]4 ,! mix$ acid salt is less soluble1 & =ms orange prisms & ne$les1 :i* cl+ t5aci\sly to sulphuric acid4 ,o!r complex & d\ble salts h also be5 obta9$4 ,:51 = example1 silv] nitrate is add$ to a w>m solution ( ! sulphate 9 conc5trat$ sulphuric acid1 a bright orange-yell[ precipitate ( ! salt #aj;,ce7,,s71#f;,ag,,s is obta9$4#bag #baf ,see ,mey] & ,aufre*t1 ,b]4 #aijd1 #cg1 #adj2 ,braun]1 ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aijd1 #ci1 #bfa4 #bag ,pozzi-,escot1 ,compt4 r5d4 #aiac1 #aef1 #ajgd4 ,neutral c]ic nitrate is unkn[n4 ,a basic nitrate1 ,ce7,,no7,,oh1#c;,h,o1 is obta9$ 9 r$ cry/als by evaporation ( a solution ( c]ic hydroxide 9 /rong nitric acid4 ,! solid is readily soluble 9 wat]1 =m+ a yell[1 acid solution1 :i* becomes pal] by hydrolysis1 on w>m+ or on /&+4 ,! c\rse ( ! hydrolysis is also indicat$ by ! action t[>ds acids1 & t[>ds hydrog5 p]oxide4#bah ,a fre%ly prep>$ c]ic salt1 on addition ( acid1 becomes imm$iately mu* d>k] 9 col\r1 :]eas ! col\r *ange is v sl[1 if consid]able hydrolysis has occurr$4 ,simil>ly1 hydrog5 p]oxide at once r$uces a fre%ly prep>$ solution1 =m+ col\rless c]\s salts1 :il/ if mu* hydrolysis has occurr$1 deeply col\r$ high] oxidation products are at fir/ =m$1 & ^! lose _! col\r only sl[ly4 #bah ,mey] & ,jacoby1 ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aija1 #bg1 #cei4 ,! d\ble c]ic nitrates#bai are a l>ge & v important class ( comp\nds2 !y are ! mo/ /able ( ! c]ic salts4 ,) nitrates ( ! monoval5t metals1 c]ic nitrate =ms d\ble nitrates ( ! type ,r,ce7,,no72 ^! are deep r$ hygroscopic sub/ances1 cry/allis+ 9 ! monocl9ic sy/em1 readily soluble 9 wat] & alcohol1 b dissolv+ only sp>+ly 9 nitric acid4 ,! ammonium salt is important = ! sep>ation ( c]ium4 ,a s]ies ( d\ble nitrates ) ! nitrates ( manganese1 magnesium1 z9c1 nickel1 & cobalt has ! g5]al =mula ,r,ce7,,no71#h;,h,o1 b ^! are mu* less /able 9 solution ?an ! alkali d\ble salts4 #bai ,mey] & ,jacoby1 loc4 cit4 ,,atomic ,,weight ,,( ,,c]ium ,no less ?an tw5ty-eight sep>ate det]m9ations ( ! atomic weight ( c]ium h be5 c>ri$ out4 ,! e>li] det]m9ations are r5d]$ unreliable by ! almo/ c]ta9 pres5ce ( o!r elem5ts1 & ,braun]#bbj has %[n t "s ( ! me?ods employ$ 9 lat] "w give errone\s results4 #bbj ,trans4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #ahhe1 #dg1 #hgi2 also ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aijc1 #cd1 #bjg4 ,a v c>eful det]m9ation 0 made by ,rob9son 9 #ahhd4bba ,c]ium oxalate 0 heat$ 9 a /ream ( dry hydrog5 *loride1 mix$ ) c>bon dioxide1 & ! anhydr\s *loride fre$ f traces ( acid 9 a vacuum ov] *alk4 ,! weigh$ *loride 0 !n dissolv$ 9 wat]1 & titrat$ ) silv] nitrate4 ,he obta9$ ! value #adjbf2 recalculation f 8 data ) ! mod]n values = silv] & *lor9e give #adjai4 ,braun] po9ts out t ?is result is too l[1 s9ce no acc\nt 0 tak5 ( ! solubility ( silv] *loride 9 wat]4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye>1 ,braun]#bbb det]m9$ ! ratio ,ce7,,s7 3 #b;,ce,o1 & obta9$ ! atomic weight #adjbb4 ,wyr\b(f & ,v]neuil#bbc 9 #ahig disput$ ,braun]'s "w1 & z a result ( sev]al det]m9ations gave ! values #aciba1 #acidc1 & #aciej2 _! det]m9ations1 h[ev]1 v>i$ v consid]ably1 & ! "w has be5 sev]ely criticis$ by ,braun]4 ,9 #aijc1 ! latt] au?or & ,batk#bbd obta9$ ! values #adjba & #adjbg by ! sulphate & oxalate me?ods respectively2 :il/ 9 ! same ye>1 us+ ! same me?ods1 ,braun]#bbe obta9$ f ?ree indep5d5t s]ies ( det]m9ations ! values #adjbe1 #adjbd1 & #adjbe4 #bba ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 #ahhd1 #cg1 #aej4 #bbb ,loc4 cit4 #bbc ,compt4 r5d4 #ahig1 #abd1 #acjj4 #bbd ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aijc1 #cd1 #ajc4 #bbe ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aijc1 #cd1 #bjg4 ,! ,int]national ,atomic ,weight ,committee h accept$ ! value #adjbe s9ce #aijd4 ,,detection ,,& ,,e/imation ,,( ,,c]ium ,! detection ( c]ium 9 a mixture ( e>?s is a comp>atively simple matt]1 z x has sev]al di/9ctive reactions4 ,! br[n col\r ( ! p]oxy-comp\nds has be5 sugge/$ z a conv5i5t te/ by sev]al au?ors4 ,?is may be obs]v$ :5 ammonia is add$ to a c]\s salt 9 pres5ce ( hydrog5 p]oxide4 ,9 ! pres5ce ( a l>ge excess ( =eign e>?s1 v dilute ammonia %\ld be add$1 drop by drop1 ) cont9u\s %ak+1 until a small p]man5t precipitate rema9s2 ?is w be ri* 9 ! weakly basic c]ic hydroxide1 & on addition ( ! p]oxide solution w %[ ! col\r cle>ly4#bbf ,= v small quantities ( c]ium1 ! neutral solution is add$ to w>m conc5trat$ potassium c>bonate solution1 & "o or two drops ( dilute hydrog5 p]oxide add$ to ! cle> liquid2 ! yell[ col\r is !n v *>act]i/ic4#bbg #bbf ,m>c1 ,b]4 #aijb1 #ce1 #bcgj4 #bbg ,mey]1 ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aijd1 #da1 #id4 ,biltz & ,zimm]man#bbh employ ! r$uc+ p[]s ( c]\s hydroxide2 ammoniacal silv] nitrate is add$ to ! neutral solution ( ! c]\s salt1 & ! mixture w>m$4 ,dilute solutions 7#a-b mgms4 p] litre7 give a br[n col\r1 conc5trat$ solutions a black precipitate4 ,! oxidation ( an ammoniacal solution ( ! t>trate by air or hydrog5 p]oxide1 by :i* an int5se yell[i% br[n col\r is develop$1 has be5 rec5tly sugge/$ by ,wir?#bbi z a v delicate te/ = ! elem5t4 #bbh ,b]4 #aijg1 #dj1 #digi4 #bbi ,ab/r4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiac1 #ajd1 ii4 #gab4 ,spectrum analysis4--,c]\s salts %[ no absorption1 c]ic salts g5]al absorption ( ! violet end ( ! spectrum4 ,arc spectrum--see ,exn] & ,has*ek1#bcj ,ed] & ,val5ta1#bca & ,coop]4#bcb ,! emission spectrum ( c]ium is especially ri* 9 l9es2 = id5tification1 ! foll[+ may be us$3 #bcj ,die ,spektr5 d] ,elem5te1 etc41 ,leipzig & ,vi5na1 #aiaa4 #bca ,sitzungsb]4 kais]l4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,wi51 #aiaj1 #aai1 ,,iia1 #eca4 #bcb ,a/rophys4 ,j4 #aiji1 #bi1 #ceb4 #daejaa #dahfgh #dbbbgh #dbifhh #dccgif #dchbcb #dchfie #ddfjdj #ddgieb #ddhgjf #debgea #debhfd #deciij #defbeb #degbde #deidaa #dfbhcc #eeabgb ,! e/imation ( c]ium _c be c>ri$ out accurately by gravimetric me?ods 9 ! pres5ce ( o!r e>?s2 volumetric me?ods1 h[ev]1 w give reasonably accurate results1 if ! necess>y precautions are tak54 ,9 ,buns5's me?od ! ignit$ oxides are treat$ ) hydro*loric acid 9 pres5ce ( potassium iodide1 ! iod9e set free f ! hydriodic acid by r$uction ( ! c]ium dioxide be+ e/imat$ by means ( sodium ?iosulphate1 9 ! usual way4 ,?is me?od gives v inaccurate results1 s9ce 9 ! pres5ce ( c]ium dioxide1 o!r oxides ( ! gr\p c be conv]t$ into high] oxides :i* w also lib]ate iod9e "u ^! conditions4 ,! mo/ reliable me?od is t ( v4 ,knorre4#bcc ,! solution to be e/imat$ is acidifi$ ) sulphuric acid1 & oxidis$ by means ( ammonium p]sulphate4 ,! excess ( ! oxidis+ ag5t hav+ be5 de/roy$ by boil+1 ! cool$ solution is treat$ ) a slight excess ( hydrog5 p]oxide1 :i* r$uces ! c]ic salt accord+ to ! equation3 #b;,ce7,,s7 ,h,o ,ce7,,s7 ,h,,s ,o ,! excess ( hydrog5 p]oxide is !n e/imat$ by means ( a dilute p]manganate solution4 ,p]manganate is itself r$uc$ by ! c]\s salt =m$1 b ! action is s sl[ 9 acid solution at ! ord9>y temp]ature t ! excess ( p]oxide c be accurately det]m9$ )\t unduly hurry+ ! titration4 ,9 ?is =m ! me?od is g5]ally employ$ = ! e/imation ( c]ium 9 monazite s&s1 & 9 ! inc&esc5t mantle indu/ry4 ,! greate/ difficulty is ! adju/m5t ( ! conc5tration ( ! sulphuric acid requir$4 ,if ?is be too l[1 basic c]ic sulphate sep>ates on boil+1 & ! e/imation fails2 if x be too high1 oxidation to ! c]ic salt is h9d]$1 & may ev5 be inhibit$4 ,?is difficulty disappe>s 9 ! modifi$ me?od ( ,waegn] & ,mull]1#bcd 9 :i* ! oxidation to ! c]ic condition is effect$ by means ( bismu? tetroxide 9 nitric acid solution4 ,a simil> me?od1 9 :i* r$uction to ! c]\s /ate is effect$ by a f]r\s salt1 9 place ( hydrog5 p]oxide1 has be5 employ$ by ,metzg]4#bce #bcc ,b]4 #aijj1 #cc1 #aibd4 #bcd ,b]4 #aijc1 #cf1 #bhb & #agcb4 #bce ,j4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiji1 #ca1 #ebc2 see also ,metzg] & ,heideb]g]1 ibid4 #aiaj1 #cb1 #fdb4 ,_m attempts h be5 made to e/imate c]ium comp\nds by means ( p]manganate1 :i* 9 alkal9e solution oxidises c]\s salts to ! c]ic condition1 b ! autoxidation ( c]\s hydroxide 9 ! air introduces errors1 unless suitable precautions are tak54 ,mey] & ,s*weitz]#bcf %[ t if ! solution ( ! c]\s salt be add$1 ) con/ant %ak+1 to a kn[n volume ( a /&>d p]manganate solution1 9 pres5ce ( excess ( magnesia1 ! liquid be+ kept w>m1 ?is difficulty is ov]come2 ! results are usually a little high1 h[ev]1 probably by reason ( ! oxidis+ action ( ! c]ium dioxide on ! o!r oxides pres5t4 #bcf ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aijg1 #ed1 #ajd2 see also ,rob]ts1 ibid4 #aiaa1 #ga1 #cje4 ,good results h also be5 obta9$ by ! use ( potassium f]ricyanide 9 alkal9e solution1#bcg oxidation tak+ place accord+ to ! equation3 ,ce,o #b,k,fe7,,cn7 #b,,koh #b,k,fe7,,cn7 #b;,ce,o ,h,o ,! c]ic hydroxide is filt]$ (f1 & ! f]rocyanide =m$ e/imat$ by means ( p]manganate 9 acid solution4 #bcg ,br[n+ & ,palm]1 ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aijh1 #ei1 #ga4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,c]ium ,,gr\p 7cont9u$7 ,,lan?anum1 ,,praseodymium1 ,,neodymium1 ,,& ,,sam>ium ,9 8 exam9ation ( ! c]ia e>?s 9 #ahci1 ,mos&] discov]$ a new con/itu5t1 :i* he call$ ,lan?ana2 ! new oxide 0 remov$ 9 solution :5 ! ignit$ mixture 0 extract$ ) dilute nitric acid1 :i* leaves c]ium dioxide undissolv$4 ,on exam9ation1 ! new oxide 0 f\nd to be het]og5e\s2 by fractional precipitation ) ammonia1 & subsequ5t recry/allisation ( ! sulphates1 he obta9$ two oxides1 :i* he call$ respectively ,lan?ana 71 to be hidd571 f ! abs5ce ( col\r & specific reactions1 & ,didymia1 71 tw9s7 f _! simil>ity & ! occurr5ce ( ! two toge!r4 ,sam>ia 0 isolat$ by ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran1 9 #ahgi1 f a specim5 ( didymia extract$ f ! m9]al sam>skite4 ,two ye>s previ\sly1 ,delafonta9e _h %[n t ! didymia sep>at$ f ?is m9]al 0 n spectroscopically id5tical ) ! oxide obta9$ f o!r s\rces1 & 9 #ahgh _h isolat$ an oxide :i* he call$ ,decipia2 ?is 0 %[n lat]1 h[ev]1 to be a mixture ( :i* sam>ia 0 "o compon5t4 ,! sam>ia obta9$ by de ,boisbaudran 0 by no means pure1 be+ associat$ ) t]bia e>?s2 sev]al inve/igators claim$ to h sep>at$ f x new oxides1 mo/ ( ^! be+ prov$ aft]w>ds to h be5 m or less impure specim5s ( ,europia4 ,9 #ahhe1 ,au] von ,welsba*#bch employ$ = ! fir/ "t ! me?od :i* has n[ become ( p>am\nt importance = ! sep>ation ( ! c]ium gr\p1 viz4 ! fractional cry/allisation ( ! d\ble nitrates4 ,by ?is me?od he succe$$ 9 resolv+ ,mos&]'s didymia into two new oxides1 = :i* he propos$ ! names ,praseodidymia 71 leek-gre571 f ! col\r ( ! salts1 & ,neodidymia respectively2 ! %ort] names praseodymia & neodymia are1 h[ev]1 n[ g5]ally adopt$4 #bch ,monats4 #ahhe1 #f1 #dgg2 ,sitzungsb]4 kais]l4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,wi51 #ahhe1 #ib1 ,,ii1 #cag4 ,illu/ration3 ,,gr\p ,a ,,mix$ ,,d\ble ,,nitrates4 #b,r7,,no71#c,mg7,,no71#bd;,h,o4 -------------------------------- ------------------------------ #a #b #c #d ,la1 ,pr ,pr1 ,nd ,crude ,nd ,"m-liquors4 ,comp\nds4 ,comp\nds4 ,comp\nds4 ,fractionate z ,fractionate z ,cont9ue ! ,sa1 ,eu1 ,gd1 etc4 ,r7,,no71#b,,nh,,no1 #b,r7,,no71 ,sep>ation4 ,cry/allise ) #d;,h,o4 #c,mn7,,no71#bd;,h,o4 ,bismu? magnesium nitrate4 ------- ------------- ---------------------- ,t]bium elem5ts4 --- #e #f #g #h #i ,pure ,la ,pr ) ,la4 ,impure ,pr ,pure ,nd ,pure ,sa ,comp\nd4 ,comp\nd4 ,comp\nd4 ,comp\nd4 ,ref9e by ,cont9ue4 ,cont9ue4 ,ref9e by ,sulphate ,sulphate cry/allisa- cry/allisa- tion4 tion4 ------------- ---- ,mixture ( ,pr4 ,pr1 ,la4 ,ref9e by ,sulphate cry/allisation4 ,,fig4 #h4--,,sep>ation ,,( ,,! ,,c]ium ,,elem5ts ,,sep>ation ,! mod]n me?ods = ! sep>ation ( ^! elem5ts are bas$ almo/ entirely on ! diff]5ces 9 solubility ( ! v>i\s d\ble nitrates4#bci ,! mix$ d\ble sulphates sep>at$ by saturation ( a solution ( ! *lorides ) sodium sulphate1 :i* conta9 ! c]ium & mo/ ( ! t]bium elem5ts1 are trans=m$ into nitrates1 & ! neutral solution boil$ ) potassium bromate1 9 pres5ce ( p[d]$ m>ble1 till all ! c]ium is precipitat$ z basic c]ic nitrate4 ,f ! filt]$ solution ! o!r elem5ts are ?r[n d[n z oxalates1 trans=m$ into ! magnesium d\ble nitrates 7,a 9 ,fig4 #h71 & fractionat$ f nitric acid solution#bdj until a r\gh sep>ation has be5 effect$ 7fractions #a1 #b1 #c1 & #d74 ,! sep>ation1 :i* is some:at long & t$i\s1 is foll[$ by means ( ! absorption spectra1 & by ! col\r *anges ( ! fractions4 ,fraction #a1 conta9+ lan?anum & "s praseodymium1 %\ld be fa9t gre5 to col\rless2 fraction #b is col\rless by ! complem5t>y action ( ! col\r$ salts ( neodymium & praseodymium2 fraction #c1 :i* %\ld conta9 ! crude neodymium salt1 is ame?y/2 & fraction #d1 ! "m-liquor1 is yell[ f ! pres5ce ( ! sam>ium comp\nd4 #bci ,! foll[+ s*eme is l>gely f ,james1 #8,! ,sep>ation ( ! ,r>e ,e>?s1' ,j4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiab1 #cd1 #geg4 #bdj ,see ,dem>ay1 ,compt4 r5d4 #aijj1 #acj1 #ajai & #aahf2 also ,drossba*1 ,b]4 #aijb1 #ce1 #bhbf1 & ,mu?mann & ,weiss1 ,annal51 #aijd1 #cca1 #a4 ,fraction #a is n[ conv]t$ to ! d\ble ammonium nitrates1 :i* all[ ( a readi] sep>ation at ?is /age2 two fractions are obta9$1 ( :i* ! less soluble1 fraction #e1 is ! fairly pure lan?anum comp\nd1 :il/ ! m soluble1 fraction #f1 conta9s ! praseodymium ) a little lan?anum4 ,! lan?anum ammonium nitrate1 fraction #e1 is conv]t$ into ! anhydr\s sulphate1 :i* is dissolv$ 9 ice-wat]2 :5 ! solution is gradually w>m$1 ! enneahydrate1 ,la7,,s71#i;,h,o1 sep>ates1 & may be obta9$ p]fectly pure by recry/allisation4 ,x is ( int]e/ t ! radioactive elem5t act9ium is *emically v simil> to lan?anum1 & foll[s x closely ?r\gh ! process ( sep>ation4 ,! mix$ praseodymium & neodymium magnesium nitrates :i* con/itute fraction #b are trans=m$ into ! d\ble manganese nitrates1 & ! cry/allisation f nitric acid cont9u$4#bda ,! less soluble "p1 fraction #g1 is fairly free f neodymium1 & ! sep>ation is cont9u$ ) t ( fraction #f1 until bo? lan?anum & neodymium h be5 completely remov$4 ,! m soluble "p1 fraction #h1 yields ! pure neodymium comp\nd1 z does also ! crude neodymium magnesium nitrate :i* con/itutes fraction #c1 if ! cry/allisation be cont9u$4 #bda ,cf4 ,lacombe1 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,*im4 #aijd1 iii41 #ca1 #egj4 ,! "m-liquors1 fraction #d1 are treat$ ) bismu? magnesium nitrate1#bdb :i* is int]m$iate 9 solubility betwe5 ! analog\s comp\nds ( sam>ium & europium1 & ! cry/allisation cont9u$4 ,! less soluble fraction conta9s ! sam>ium comp\nd1 9 :i* bismu? is ! only impurity2 ?is is easily remov$ by treatm5t ) sulphurett$ hydrog54 ,! rema9+ fractions are us$ z a s\rce ( ! t]bium elem5ts 7see p4 #ahf74 #bdb ,see ,urba9 & ,lacombe1 ,compt4 r5d4 #aijc1 #acg1 #gib2 ibid4 #aijd1 #ach1 #hd & #aacf4 ,! d\ble c>bonate me?od#bdc is v suitable = ! prep>ation ( pure lan?anum comp\nds aft] ! removal ( c]ium4 ,! mixture ( salts is add$ to a w>m #ej solution ( potassium c>bonate1 & to ! cle> liquid1 wat] is add$ gradually1 ) con/ant /irr+4 ,! d\ble c>bonates ( ! mo/ positive elem5ts are ! lea/ soluble1 & are fir/ ?r[n d[n1 s t ! precipitate is ri* 9 lan?anum2 x is collect$ & wa%$ ) a #be potassium c>bonate solution1 & ! process repeat$4 ,a few repetitions suffice to sep>ate lan?anum completely f ! o!r memb]s ( ! gr\p4 ,! me?od may also be us$ = ! purification ( praseodymium salts4 #bdc ,mey]1 ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aijd1 #da1 #id4 ,lan?anum1 ,la #acij ,z ! mo/ electropositive elem5t ( ! r>e e>? gr\p1 lan?anum is ! mo/ simil> 9 its *emical prop]ties to ! metals ( ! alkal9e e>?s4 ,! metal itself 7see p4 #aae7 oxidises ev5 9 dry air1 & 9 moi/ air rapidly becomes coat$ ) a :ite lay] ( hydroxide2 x attacks wat]1 & burns vigor\sly :5 heat$ 9 ! air4 ,an alloy ) alum9ium1 ( ! =mula ,la,al1 has be5 prep>$ by ,mu?mann & ,beck#bdd2 x =ms lu/r\s :ite cry/als1 v /able 9 ! air & v resi/ant t[>ds acids4 #bdd ,annal51 #aijd1 #cca1 #df4 ,! hydroxide is ( int]e/ f ! fact t1 if precipitat$ "u suitable conditions1 x has ! p[] ( tak+ up solid iod9e to =m a deep blue adsorption comp\nd#bde2 colloidal solutions ( basic lan?anum acetate are also col\r$ blue by addition ( a few drops ( iod9e solution4 ,if precipitation ) alkali be c>ri$ out 9 pres5ce ( hydrog5 p]oxide1 an hydrat$ p]oxide ( ! composition ,la,o1n,h,o is obta9$4#bdf ,?is comp\nd p>tially decomposes ) evolution ( oxyg5 at ord9>y temp]atures2 t[>ds c>bon dioxide & acids x acts z a true p]oxide1 ) =mation ( hydrog5 p]oxide4 #bde ,dam\r1 ,compt4 r5d4 #aheg1 #dc1 #igf2 see also ,biltz1 ,b]4 #aijd1 #cg1 #gai #bdf ,melik(f & ,piss>jewski1 ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #ahii1 #ba1 #gj4 ,! oxide is col\rless1 & =ms col\rless salts ) ^? acids 9 :i* ! anion is n col\r$4 ,! oxide is di/+ui%$ f ! o!r r>e e>? oxides 9 t x turns moi/5$ litmus pap] blue2 x resembles lime1 9 hiss+ :5 slak$1 absorb+ c>bon dioxide f ! air1 & lib]at+ ammonia f ammonium salts4 ,by fusion ) alkali c>bonates1 & by dige/ion ) conc5trat$ alkali hydroxides1 ,bask]ville & ,catlett#bdg claim to h obta9$ lan?anates & metalan?anates1 b _! "w has n yet be5 confirm$4 #bdg ,j4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aijd1 #bf1 #ge4 ,! sulphate1 ,la7,,s71#i;,h,o1 is ! lea/ soluble ( all ! r>e e>? sulphates4 ,! enneahydrate is ! only =m /able at ord9>y temp]atures1#bdh ?\gh "u special conditions1 hydrates ) #f & ) #af molecules ( wat] ( cry/allisation h be5 obta9$4 ,x sep>ates 9 ne$les belong+ to ! hexagonal sy/em2 #ajj p>ts ( wat] dissolve at #j1 #cja1 & at #ajj1 #jfi p>ts ( ! salt4 ,! acetylacetone comp\nd melts at #ahe4 #bdh ,mu?mann & ,rlig1 ,b]4 #ahih1 #ca1 #agah4 ,a l>ge numb] ( o!r lan?anum comp\nds h be5 prep>$1 b ^! are s typical ( ! r>e e>? salts g5]ally t no detail$ treatm5t is requir$2 = a full acc\nt ( !m1 ! read] is ref]r$ to ,abegg's classical h&book4 ,atomic ,weight4--,a l>ge numb] ( det]m9ations ( ?is con/ant h be5 made1 b ! results ev5 ( rec5t inve/igations d n agree s closely z might be desir$4 ,! value adopt$ by ! ,int]national ,committee1 #acij1 is bas$ on ! "w ( ,braun] & ,pavliek1#bdi c>ri$ out 9 #aijb4 ,^! au?ors give an acc\nt ( all ! det]m9ations made up to t date1 ) critical discussion ( ! me?ods employ$ & ! possible s\rces ( error4 ,! m important inve/igations h be5 bas$ on ! ratio ,la,o 3 ,la7,,s71 = ! det]m9ation ( :i* ! mo/ /r+5t precautions mu/ be tak54 ,! syn!tic me?od has g5]ally be5 employ$1 on acc\nt ( ! t5acity ) :i* ! oxide cl+s to traces ( sulphuric anhydride4 ,9 ?is me?od1 ! total decomposition ( ! acid sulphate1 & ! protection ( ! v hygroscopic sulphate1 ,la7,,s71 f atmosph]ic moi/ure1 con/itute ! *ief difficulties4 ,by ?is me?od1 ,h4 ,c4 ,jones#bej 9 #aijb obta9$ a result 7#achgf7 consid]ably l[] ?an ! value f\nd by ,braun] & ,pavliek 7loc4 cit47 ,a lat] rese>* by ,brill1#bea :o c>ri$ out a syn!tic sulphate det]m9ation on a m9ute scale1 us+ a ,n]n/ microbalance1 gave ! value #acie1 :i*1 :il/ consid]ably high] ?an ei!r ( ! o!r figures1 %[s t ,braun] & ,pavliek's numb] c h>dly be too high4 #bdi ,trans4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aijb1 #ha1 #abdc4 #bej ,am]4 ,*em4 ,j4 #aijb1 #bh1 #bc4 #bea ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aijf1 #dg1 #dfd4 ,detection4--,pure lan?anum comp\nds %[ no absorption 9 ! visible region1 & ! pure oxide gives no ca?ode lum9esc5ce4 ,! emission spectra %[ v *>act]i/ic l9es 9 ! violet & ultraviolet4 ,! *ief l9es are3 #cidibg #cihhfi #dbchee #dcccih #fbejad #fbfbeb #fciddf ,= arc spectra see ,exn] & ,has*ek2 ,ed] & ,val5ta4#beb #beb ,sitzungsb]4 kais]l4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,wi51 #aiaj1 #aai1 ,i,ia1 #ci4 ,praseodymium1 ,pr #adjf ,?is elem5t occurs only 9 small quantities 9 ! common] r>e e>? m9]als1 & its sep>ation 9 ! pure /ate is 9 consequ5ce a matt] ( v great difficulty4 ,! salts & _! solutions h a *>act]i/ic gre5 col\r4 ,! salts are d]iv$ f ! sesquioxide1 ,pr,o1 b a dioxide1 ,pr,o1 & an int]m$iate oxide ( unc]ta9 composition are kn[n4 ,! absorption spectrum has five absorption b&s1 "o ( :i* co9cides ) a b& 9 ! absorption spectrum ( neodymium2 ?is fact has be5 int]pret$ z an indication ( ! non-elem5t>y nature ( bo? metals4#bec ,diff]5ce 9 ! absorption spectra h be5 put =w>d by sev]al work]s z indicat+ ! complex nature ( praseodymium1 b an exhau/ive exam9ation by ,/ahl#bed 9 #aiji %[$ t !re is no reason to d\bt t ! metal is really an elem5t4 #bec ,au] von ,welsba*1 ,sitzungsb]4 kais]l4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,wi51 #aijc1 #aab1 ,,iia1 ,july2 also ,urba91 ,ann4 ,*im4 ,phys4 #aijj1 vii1 #ai1 #ahd4 #bed ,le ,radium1 #aiji1 #f1 #bae4 ,! metal is prep>$ by electrolysis ( ! fus$ *loride2 9 ord] to atta9 ! temp]ature requir$ to fuse ! elem5t1 a v ?9 ca?ode is employ$2 if too p[]ful a curr5t be us$1 ! dioxide is =m$4 ,! metal is purifi$ by remelt+ x 9 crucibles ( magnesia1 "u a lay] ( anhydr\s b>ium *loride4 ,x has a yell[i% %ade1 & is m /able 9 ! air ?an lan?anum & c]ium4 ,= physical prop]ties1 see p4 #aae4 ,no alloys h be5 prep>$4 ,! hydroxide is ?r[n d[n by alkalies z a gelat9\s gre5 precipitate2 9 ! pres5ce ( hydrog5 p]oxide1 an hydrat$ p]oxide1 :i* closely resembles ! correspond+ lan?anum comp\nd1 is ?r[n d[n4 ,! ,oxides4--,by ignition ( salts ( volatile acids1 ,au] von ,welsba*#bee obta9$ an oxide to :i* he assign$ ! =mula ,pr,o4 ,m rec5t "w#bef has %[n t ! composition ( ! oxide obta9$ dep5ds ^u ! conditions "u :i* ! v>i\s salts are decompos$4 ,by fus+ ! nitrate 9 pres5ce ( potassium nitrate at #djj-dej;,c41 ,mey] obta9$ ! dioxide1 ,pr,o2 at high] temp]atures ?is decomposes1 giv+ ! int]m$iate oxides4 ,! =mation ( ! dioxide is greatly influ5c$ by ! pres5ce ( o!r oxides1#beg--;c]ic oxide1 act+ z an oxyg5 c>ri]1 fav\r+ :il/ ! o!r oxides h9d]4 ,! pure dioxide is a br[ni%-black p[d]1 :i* resembles manganese dioxide1 b is less /able4 ,x lib]ates halog5s f ! halog5 acids1 & oxidises manganese salts to p]manganates1 b does n completely oxidise f]r\s or /ann\s salts1 los+ in/ead a "p ( its oxyg5 9 ! gase\s =m4 ,! dioxide _c be obta9$ 9 ! wet way4 #bee ,monats4 #ahhe1 #f1 #dgg4 #bef ,see1 e4g4 ,mey]1 ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aijd1 #da1 #id4 #beg ,braun]1 ,monats4 #ahhb1 #c1 #a2 ,m>c1 ,b]4 #aijb1 #ce1 #bcgj2 ,mey] & ,koss1 ibid4 #cdgj4 ,:5 heat$ 9 a /ream ( hydrog51 ! dioxide yields ! sesquioxide1 ,pr,o1 z a gre5i%-yell[ p[d]1:i* readily absorbs oxyg5 f ! air1 becom+ br[n1 ) =mation ( ! int]m$iate oxide4 ,! *loride1 ,pr,cl1#g;,h,o1 =ms l>ge gre5 prisms1 v readily soluble 9 wat]2 #ajj p>ts ( ! solv5t at #ac take up #ccdb p>ts ( ! hydrat$ salt1 ! solution hav+ ! specific gravity #afhg4 ,! anhydr\s *loride is a pale gre5 deliquesc5t p[d]1 :i* melts at a r$ heat to a cle> gre5 liquid2 ebullioscopic measurem5ts %[ t 9 alcoholic solution x has ! simple molecul> =mula ,pr,cl4 ,! ,bromate1 ,pr7,br,o71#i;,h,o1 has be5 obta9$ by ,james & ,langeli]#beh by dissolv+ ! oxide 9 aque\s bromic acid1 & also by d\ble decomposition4 ,x =ms gre5i% hexagonal prisms1 melt+ at #efe1 & is readily soluble2 #ajj p>ts ( wat] dissolve #aij p>ts ( ?is salt at #be4 ,at #ajj x loses five molecules ( wat]1 =m+ ! tetrahydrate ,pr7,br,o71#d;,h,o1 :i* loses all its wat] at #acj4 ,! anhydr\s salt beg9s to decompose at #aej4 #beh ,j4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiji1 #ca1 #iac4 ,! sulphate cry/allises ) #h molecules ( wat] ( cry/allisation at ord9>y temp]atures1 b hydrates ) #ae1 #ab1 & #e molecules ( wat] respectively h be5 describ$4 ,! octohydrate is consid]ably m soluble ?an lan?anum sulphate enneahydrate4 ,! anhydr\s salt is a bright gre5 p[d]4 ,praseodymium acetylacetone melts at #adf4 ,atomic ,weight4--,! value #adjf1 adopt$ by ! ,int]national ,committee1 is bas$ on ! "w ( ,jones1 v4 ,s*eele1 ,au] von ,welsba*1 & ,feit & ,przibylla2 ! "w ( ,braun]1 h[ev]1 po9ts consi/5tly to a high] atomic weight4 ,mo/ ( ^! inve/igators h us$ ! sulphate me?od4 ,! fir/ det]m9ations ( von ,welsba* = ! newly discov]$ elem5t#bei gave ! value #adjh 7see p4 #agi72 ano!r s]ies ( det]m9ations publi%$ 9 #aijcbfj gave ! mean value #adjeg4 ,jones#bfa obta9$ ! sesquioxide = ! syn!tic sulphate op]ation by r$uction ( ! p]oxide 9 a curr5t ( hydrog52 accord+ to ,braun]1 ?is me?od gives an oxide :i* is n p]fectly pure1 probably by absorption ( wat] vap\r & c>bon dioxide f ! air4 ,jones' mean value 0 #adjdff4 v4 ,s*eele#bfb us$ ! same me?od1 z well z a comb9$ oxalate-sulphate me?od2 8 figures v>y consid]ably1 ! mean value be+ #adjee4 ,feit & ,przibylla1#bfc us+ _! volumetric me?od1 obta9$ ! value #adjed4 #bei ,monats4 #ahhe1 #f1 #dgg4 #bfj ,sitzungsb]4 kais]l4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,wi51 #aijc1 #aab1 #ajcg4 #bfa ,am]4 ,*em4 ,j4 #ahih1 #bj1 #cde4 #bfb ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #ahih1 #ag1 #caj4 #bfc ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aijf1 #ej1 #bdi4 ,braun]'s e>li] "w1#bfd c>ri$ out 9 #ahih1 gave ! value #adjie4 ,9 #aija ?is au?or#bfe c>ri$ out an ext5sive rese>* on ! atomic weight ( praseodymium1 employ+ f\r diff]5t me?ods ) spectroscopically pure mat]ial2 ! mean value ( 8 v concordant results 0 #adjig1 almo/ ! value he obta9$ 9 #aija4 ,a fur!r inve/igation into ! value ( ?is con/ant appe>s desirable4 #bfd ,proc4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #ahih1 #ad1 #gj4 #bfe ,ibid4 #aija1 #ag1 #fe2 see also ,abegg1 ,,iii1 i4 #bfc4 ,detection4--,! maxima ( ! absorption b&s are giv5 by ,re*#bff z foll[s3 #bff ,zeits*4 wiss4 ,photo*em4 #aijf1 #c1 #daa4 ,yell[ #eifd & #ehhb1 weak4 ,blue #dhac v int5se4 #dfhc co9cid5t ) a neodymium b&4 ,violet #dddb ,! arc spectrum is v ri* 9 l9es4#bfg ,! mo/ int5se1 :i* may be us$ also = id5tification1 are ! foll[+3 #bfg ,exn] & ,has*ek2 ,b]tram1 ,zeits*4 wiss4 ,photo*em4 #aijf1 #c1 #af2 ,ed] & ,val5ta1 ,sitzungsb]4 kais]l4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,wi51 #aiaj1 #aai1 ,,iia1 #fe4 #djjhij #dajjia #daahgj #dadccc #dagifj #dahigj #dbjfhh #dbbcah #dbbeej #dbdabj #dcjeii #ddbich #ddiffj #deajcb ,neodymium1 ,nd #addc4 ,neodymium is1 aft] c]ium1 ! commone/ con/itu5t ( ! c]ium gr\p 9 ! m important r>e e>? m9]als1 & its sep>ation is !re=e by no means s difficult z t ( praseodymium4 ,! comp\nds ( ! elem5t obta9$ by von ,welsba* 9 #ahhe 7 n pure1 be+ admix$ ) sam>ium comp\nds :i* _h n be5 completely sep>at$4 ,neodymium salts 7 fir/ prep>$ free f sam>ium by ,dem>ay#bfh 9 #ahih2 !y are ( a violet-rose col\r1 & %[ 9 solution a well-m>k$ & *>act]i/ic absorption spectrum1 ! b&s be+ v num]\s & %>ply def9$1 & ext5d+ ov] ! :ole optical region4 ,9 *emical z well z 9 physical & cry/allographic prop]ties1 !y %[ an extremely close resemblance to ! comp\nds ( praseodymium4 #bfh ,compt4 r5d4 #ahih1 #abf1 #ajci4 ,on acc\nt ( ! high melt+-po9t1 ! prep>ation ( ! metal pres5ts ! same difficulties z t ( praseodymium4 ,a curr5t ( #ij-ajj ampres is employ$ at a pot5tial diff]5ce ( #ae-bb volts2 ?is suffices to raise ! ?9 c>bon ca?ode to a bright :ite heat1 & to fuse ! lib]at$ metal4 ,= ! prop]ties ( ! elem5t1 see p4 #aae4 ,! sesquioxide1 ,nd,o1 :5 p]fectly pure1 has a light blue or lilac col\r1 ) a fa9t r$di% fluoresc5ce2 ! %ade v>ies some:at accord+ to ! me?od ( & temp]ature employ$ = ! prep>ation4 ,a blui% or violet-r$ fluoresc5ce is highly *>act]i/ic ( ! salts1 & is p>ticul>ly noticeable if ! p[d]$ recry/allis$ oxalate be view$ 9 a good light4 ,! greyi% or br[ni% col\r ( ! oxide obs]v$ by "s au?ors is probably due to traces ( impurity4#bfi ,! exi/5ce ( high] oxides ( ! =mul ,nd,o & ,nd,o respectively1 :i* ,braun]#bgj put =w>d1 has be5 disput$ by o!r writ]s1 ?\gh x is f\nd#bga t 9 ! pres5ce ( c]ia & praseodymia1 ! sesquioxide c take up m oxyg54 ,waegn]#bgb claim$ to h obta9$ ! comp\nd ,nd,o by heat+ ! oxalate 9 a /ream ( oxyg51 ?\gh 8 mat]ial1 z well z t ( ,braun]1 conta9$ praseodymia4 ,m rec5tly1 ,joye & ,g>ni]#bgc h %[n t ! spectrum attribut$ by ,waegn] to ! hypo!tical ,nd,o 0 9 reality t ( an hydrat$ oxide1 #b,nd,o1#b;,h,o2 ^! au?ors h also prep>$ a second hydrat$ oxide ( ! =mula #b,nd,o1#c;,h,o4 #bfi ,see ,waegn]1 ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aijd1 #db1 #aah2 also ,baxt] & ,*ap91 ,j4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiaa1 #cc1 #a4 #bgj ,*em4 ,news1 #ahih1 #gg1 #afa2 ibid4 #aija1 #hc1 #aig4 #bga ,see ,mey] & ,koss1 ,b]4 #aijb1 #ce1 #cgdj2 & ,m>c1 ibid4 #bcgj4 #bgb ,loc4 cit4 #bgc ,compt4 r5d4 #aiab1 #aed1 #eaj4 ,! *loride1 ,nd,cl1#f;,h,o1 is obta9$ by cry/allisation f aque\s solutions2 x is also precipitat$ by addition ( wat] to an alcoholic solution4 ,x =ms l>ge deliquesc5t rose-col\r$ cry/als2 #ajj p>ts ( wat] at #ac dissolve #bdfb p>ts ( ! salt1 ! saturat$ solution hav+ ! d5sity #agda2 at #ajj1 #eaaf p>ts are dissolv$4 ,! solution resembles ^? ( ! o!r *lorides ( ! gr\p 9 t x readily dissolves ! r>e e>? oxalates4 ,:5 heat$ 9 a curr5t ( hydrog5 *loride ( #acj1 ! hexahydrate yields a monohydrate1 ,nd,cl1,h,o2 at #afj ! anhydr\s *loride is obta9$ z a v deliquesc5t rose-col\r$ p[d]1 :i* melts at a r$ heat to a cle> r$ liquid4 ,! anhydr\s *loride =ms an additive comp\nd ,nd,cl1#ab,,nh1 :5 expos$ to ! action ( ammonia at l[ temp]atures2#bgd by gradually heat+ ?is1 a l>ge numb] ( o!r additive comp\nds are =m$1 conta9+ small] quantities ( ammonia4 #bgd ,matignon & ,trannoy1 ,compt4 r5d4 #aijf1 #adb1 #ajdb4 ,! anhydr\s iodide1 ,nd,i1 has be5 obta9$#bge by pass+ hydrog5 iodide ov] ! heat$ anhydr\s *loride1 & also by heat+ ! c>bide 9 iod9e vap\r4 ,x fuses to a black liquid1 :i* at a high] temp]ature sudd5ly becomes transp>5t4 #bge ,matignon1 ibid4 #aije1 #adj1 #afcg4 ,! bromate1 ,nd7,br,o71#i;,h,o1 :i* is exactly simil> to ! analog\s comp\nd ( praseodymium1 =ms rose-col\r$ hexagonal prisms1 melt+ at #ffg4 ,! sulphate1 ,nd7,,s71#h;,h,o1 is isomorph\s ) ! correspond+ salt ( praseodymium1 b is consid]ably less soluble4 ,only ! "o hydrate is kn[n4 ,! nitrates %[ an int]e/+ case ( isomorphism ) ! correspond+ bismu? nitrate hydrates4#bgf ,! /able =m ( ! neodymium salt is ! hexahydrate1 ,nd7,,no71#f;,h,o1 :il/ ! p5tahydrate1 ,nd7,,no71#e;,h,o1 is labile4 ,( ! bismu? salts1 on ! o!r h&1 ! p5tahydrate is /able :il/ ! hexahydrate is labile2 b mix$ cry/als ( bo? pairs may be obta9$1 ! /able neodymium hexahydrate ) ! un/able bismu? comp\nd1 & ! /able bismu? p5tahydrate ) ! labile neodymium salt4 #bgf ,bodman1 ,b]4 #ahih1 #ca1 #abcg4 ,_m d\ble c>bonates are obta9$ by dissolv+ ! normal c>bonate 9 excess ( ! precipitant4 ,! absorption spectra ( ^! solutions1 :i* h a blue col\r1 are abnormal & v int5se1 & h be5 sugge/$ z a basis ( quantitative e/imation4#bgg #bgg ,mu?mann & ,/utzel1 ,b]4 #ahii1 #cb1 #bfec4 ,! acetylacetone d]ivative =ms violet cry/als1 melt+ at #add-ade4 ,a l>ge numb] ( organic salts ( neodymium h be5 prep>$ by ,james1 ,hob51 & ,rob9son4#bgh #bgh ,j4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiab1 #cd1 #bgf4 ,atomic ,weight4--,! e>li] det]m9ations ( ?is con/ant 7 c>ri$ out by ! sulphate me?od1 ! syn!tic process be+ usually employ$4 ,au] von ,welsba*1 at ! "t ( ! discov]y ( praseodymium & neodymium1#bgi gave ! values #adcf & #adjh respectively = _! atomic weights4 ,braun]1 :o c>ri$ out a det]m9ation 9 #ahih1bhj %[$ t ^! numb]s %\ld be int]*ang$1 & gave ! value #adcfc = neodymium4 ,b\d\>d1#bha employ+ ! analytical sulphate me?od1 obta9$ ! value #adcje1 :il/ 9 ! same ye> ,jones#bhb gave ! value #adcf4 ,a second det]m9ation by ,braun]#bhc gave ! value #adchi4 ,all ^! values are und\bt$ly too l[1 ! mat]ial be+ probably contam9at$ ) o!r e>?s4 #bgi ,loc4 cit4 #bhj ,proc4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #ahih1 #ad1 #gj4 #bha ,compt4 r5d4 #ahih1 #abf1 #ijj4 #bhb ,am]4 ,*em4 ,j4 #ahih1 #bj1 #cde4 #bhc ,proc4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aija1 #ag1 #ff4 ,9 8 second det]m9ation 9 #aijh1 ,au] von ,welsba*#bhd gave ! value #added z ! mean ( ?ree det]m9ations4 ,feit & ,przibylla1#bhe us+ _! volumetric me?od1 gave ! value #addeb1 :il/ ,holmb]g1#bhf us+ mat]ial :i* he consid]$ to h be5 ! pure/ obta9$ up to t "t1 obta9$ ! figure #addaa4 ,m rec5tly1 ,baxt] & ,*ap9#bhg h made det]m9ations by treat+ ! *loride ) pure silv] nitrate1 & weigh+ ! precipitat$ silv] *loride1 z well z by titration4 ,! mean value obta9$ by ! fir/ me?od--ratio ,nd,cl 3 #c;,ag,cl--0 #addbgb 7extremes #addbej & #addbih71 & by ! second me?od--ratio ,nd,cl 3 #c;,ag--0 #addbfh 7extremes #addbdi & #addbhc71 giv+ ! mean value = ! :ole s]ies ( #addbgj4 #bhd ,loc4 cit4 #bhe ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aije1 #dc1 #bjb2 ibid4 #aijf1 #ej1 #bdi4 #bhf ,ibid4 #aijg1 #ec1 #abd4 #bhg ,proc4 ,am]4 ,acad4 #aiaa1 #df1 #bae4 ,! value adopt$ by ! ,int]national ,committee is #addc4 ,detection4--,! absorption spectra ( neodymium comp\nds h be5 exam9$ by ,dem>ay1 ,=sl+1 von ,welsba*1 ,re*1 ,s*f]s1 & ,baxt] & ,*ap91 ) concordant results4 ,! positions ( ! absorption maxima z giv5 by ,holmb]g#bhh f ! measurem5ts ( ,=sl+ are z foll[s1 ! weak] b&s be+ omitt$3 #bhh ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aijg1 #ec1 #hc4 #fgge #fbag #eghe ,9 conc5trat$ solution #eged ^! give ! #egce int5se absorption #egaf region 9 ! yell[4 #ecbc #ebaf ,9 conc5trat$ #ebjd solution ^! #eabd give "o int5se #ejhg b&4 #dgde #dfhg #dfaj #dbga ,! arc spectrum is giv5 by ,exn] & ,has*ek1 ,b]tram1#bhi & ,ed] & ,val5ta4#bij ,! mo/ int5se l9es are z foll[s3 #bhi ,zeits*4 wiss4 ,photo*em4 #aijf1 #c1 #af4 #bij ,sitzungsb]4 kais]l4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,wi51 #aiaj1 #aai1 ,,iia1 #eed4 #chfceb #cieacb #djfabg #daefcj #dbdged #dbhbfg #dcjcgh #dcbehg #dcgeaa #dcheha #ddjjif #dddfea #ddeaga #ddfcji #dibjhd #eibcce #ecaiih #eeideh #efbjge #fcajfi #fcadfi #fchecb ,sam>ium1 ,sa #aejd ,! sam>ium ( ! e>li] *emi/s 7see p4 #afh7 conta9$ a l>ge proportion ( ! t]bium elem5ts1 f :i* a fairly complete sep>ation 0 fir/ effect$ by ,dem>ay 9 #aijj4bia ,by ! fractional cry/allisation ( ! d\ble magnesium nitrate 9 pres5ce ( bismu? magnesium nitrate1 ,urba9 & ,lacombe#bib succe$$ 9 prep>+ sam>ium comp\nds1 :i* 7 %[n by spectroscopic exam9ation#bic to be free f o!r e>?s4 ,! elem5t is int]m$iate 9 electropositive "* & 9 ! solubility relations ( its salts betwe5 neodymium & ! t]bium e>?s2 its salts are topaz-yell[ 9 col\r1 & 9 conc5trat$ solutions %[ absorption 9 ! blue & violet regions4 ,! oxide is almo/ :ite 9 col\r1 ) only a fa9t yell[ t+e4 ,a sy/ematic inve/igation ( sam>ium comp\nds 0 c>ri$ out by ,cleve1#bid b 8 "w 0 vitiat$ by ! fact t 8 mat]ial 0 v impure4 ,m rec5tly1 ! pure salts h be5 exam9$ by ,matignon & 8 pupils4 #bia ,compt4 r5d4 #aijj1 #acj1 #aahe4 #bib ,ibid4 #aijd1 #ach1 #hd & #aaff4 #bic ,eb]h>d1 ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aije1 #de1 #cgd4 #bid ,trans4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #ahhc1 #dc1 #cfb2 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,*im4 #ahhe1 ii41 #dc1 #ec2 ,*em4 ,news1 #ahhf1 #ec1 #cj1 #de1 #fg1 #hj1 #ia1 #ajj4 ,! melt+-po9t ( ! metal lies betwe5 #acjj & #adjj;,c41 s t its prep>ation by ! electrolytic me?od is a matt] ( great difficulty4 ,a mixture ( ! *loride ) "o-?ird ( its weight ( b>ium *loride is electrolys$ by means ( a curr5t ( #ajj ampres1 us+ a ca?ode ( only #be mm4 ?ickness2 ! metal s obta9$ is greyi% :ite 9 col\r1 & is ! h>de/ ( ! c]ium elem5ts4 ,! *loride sep>ates f aque\s solution z ! hexahydrate1 ,sa,cl1,h,o1 9 l>ge tabul> yell[ cry/als4 ,! anhydr\s *loride is :ite1 b fuses to a *ocolate-br[n liquid2 x =ms a l>ge numb] ( additive comp\nds ) ammonia4 ,:5 heat$ 9 an atmosph]e ( dry hydrog5 or ammonia1 air & moi/ure be+ c>efully exclud$1 x yields ! sub*loride1#bie ,sa,cl1 z a d>k br[n cry/all9e solid1 insoluble 9 alcohol & all organic solv5ts4 ,sam>\s *loride dissolves 9 wat]1 =m+ a deep br[ni%-r$ solution1 :i* rapidly becomes col\rless1 ) evolution ( hydrog51 & precipitation ( ! oxide & oxy*loride4 ,sam>\s iodide1 ,sa,i1 may be obta9$ by a simil> process1 & closely resembles ! *loride4 #bie ,matignon & ,cazes1 ,compt4 r5d4 #aijf1 #adb1 #hc4 ,! bromate1 ,sa7,br,o71#i;,h,o1 melts at #ge1 & closely resembles ! correspond+ comp\nds ( ! didymium metals4 ,! sulphate cry/allises ) #h1 & ! nitrate ) #f molecules ( wat]4 ,! c>bonate1 ,sa7,,co71#c;,h,o1 c be obta9$ only by pass+ c>bon dioxide ?r\gh an aque\s susp5sion ( ! hydroxide2 addition ( alkali c>bonate to a solution ( a sam>ium salt precipitates hydrat$ d\ble c>bonates4 ,! acetylacetone comp\nd melts at #adf-adg;,c4 ,_m organic salts h be5 prep>$ by ,james1 ,hob51 & ,rob9son 7loc4 cit474 ,atomic ,weight4--,! e>li] det]m9ations ( ?is con/ant 7 c>ri$ out ) mat]ial n entirely free f europium4 ,dem>ay#bif c>ri$ out a syn!tic sulphate op]ation ) ! mat]ial :i* he obta9$ free f europium 9 #aijj1 & f\nd values betwe5 ! limits #adgb & #adhj4 ,! ,int]national ,committee has adopt$ ! value #aejd1 :i* is bas$ on ! "w ( ,urba9 & ,lacombe#big 9 #aijd4 ,^! au?ors made det]m9ations ( ?ree s]ies ( ratios1 obta9$ by 7a7 conv]sion ( sulphate octohydrate to anhydr\s sulphate1 7b7 conv]sion ( anhydr\s sulphate to oxide1 & 7c7 conv]sion ( sulphate octohydrate to oxide2 ^! gave ! values #aejcad1 #aejecc1 & #aejdhd respectively1 f :i* ! mean atomic weight is #aejdd4bih #bif ,loc4 cit4 #big ,compt4 r5d4 #aijd1 #ach1 #aaff4 #bih ,^! numb]s are calculat$ by ,braun] 7,abegg's ,h&bu*1 ,,iii4 i4 p4 #bhe7 on ! basis ,o #af1 ,s #cbjf1 ,h #ajjgf1 & are some:at high] ?an ^? giv5 by ,urba9 & ,lacombe1 :o us$ ! r\nd numb]s ,o #af1 ,s #cb1 & ,h #a4 ,detection4--,! absorption spectrum ( sam>ium comp\nds is only visible 9 fairly conc5trat$ solutions1 s t ! elem5t _c usually be detect$ 9 a mixture by ?is means4 ,! position ( ! maxima ( ! /ronge/ b&s 7,dem>ay1 loc4 cit47 are3 #dgf #dfc #dag #djb ,^! are all 9 ! blue & violet regions2 ! fir/ & second are 9 ! neighb\rhood ( neodymium & europium b&s 7q4v471 & 9 conc5trat$ solutions ! b&s w\ld p>tially co9cide4 ,s9ce ^! are ! two elem5ts f :i* ! sep>ation is mo/ difficult1 & are moreov] ! mo/ con/ant 9 _! occurr5ce ) sam>ium1 ! absorption spectrum is ( v little use z a te/4 ,! arc spectrum is v ri* 9 l9es1#bii ( :i* ! mo/ int5se are3 #cgcicj #daebch #dbjcah #dbbedh #dbbihc #dbcfhh #dbefed #dcaiab #dcbiba #dccdcb #dcdgie #dciajc #ddbjgb #ddbacb #ddbdee #ddcdjg #ddcdeb #ddebib #ddedhd #ddehgj #ddfgej #deaihj #debdjh #deddab #deffch #degghh #dfdbda #dfgdgi #bii ,exn] & ,has*ek2 ,ed] & ,val5ta2 ,rtt5 & ,m]s*1 ,zeits*4 wiss4 ,photo*em4 #aije1 #c1 #aha4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,! ,,t]bium ,,gr\p ,9 8 exam9ation ( ! yttria e>?s 9 #ahdb1 ,mos&] describ$ two new oxides isolat$ f ! old yttria4 ,to "o ( ^!1 an orange-yell[ e>? :i* yield$ col\rless salts1 he gave ! "n ,erbia2 ! second e>?1 :i* 0 col\rless & gave rose-col\r$ salts1 he call$ ,t]bia4 ,bahr & ,buns5 exam9$ ! yttria oxides 9 #ahff1 & obta9$ only ! latt] e>?1 :i* gave rose-col\r$ salts2 to ?is !y appli$ ,mos&]'s "n ,erbia1 & /at$ t ! e>? to :i* ,mos&] _h giv5 t "n _h no exi/5ce4 ,delafonta9e1 h[ev]1 confirm$ ,mos&]'s "w1 %[+ t ! orange-yell[ e>? :i* yield$ col\rless salts 7,mos&]'s ,erbia7 _h be5 fractionat$ out ( _! mat]ial by ,bahr & ,buns5 9 ! d\ble sulphate sep>ation ( ! c]ium gr\p2 to avoid fur!r confusion1 h[ev]1 he propos$ to give to ?is oxide 7,mos&]'s ,erbia7 ! "n ,t]bia1 leav+ = ! col\rless oxide1 :i* =ms rose-col\r$ salts 7:i* ,mos&] _h call$ ,t]bia7 ! "n ,erbia appli$ to x by ,bahr & ,buns54 ,?is rev]s$ nom5clature has be5 g5]ally accept$4 ,delafonta9e1#cjj cont9u+ 8 "w on ! e>?s f sam>skite 7see p4 #afh7 ann\nc$ 9 #ahgh ! discov]y ( a new oxide1 ,philippia1 int]m$iate betwe5 t]bia & yttria2 b ?is 0 subsequ5tly %[n to be a mixture ( yttria & t]bia 7see p4 #acc74 ,9 ! same ye>1 ,lawr5ce ,smi?#cja ann\nc$ ! discov]y ( ano!r oxide1 ,mos&ria1 f ! sam>skite e>?s2 ?is 0 aft]w>ds %[n by ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran to be a mixture ( t]bia ) gadol9ia4#cjb ,9 #ahhj ,m>ignac#cjc ann\nc$ ! discov]y ( two m new oxides1 ,y & ,y f ! same m9]al2 ,y 0 aft]w>ds f\nd to be id5tical ) sam>ia1 :il/ ,y 0 subsequ5tly sep>at$ f ! old t]bia e>?s by ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran1 :o propos$1 ) ! ass5t ( ,m>ignac1 ! "n ,gadol9ium4#cjd ,! t]bia left aft] removal ( ! erbia e>?s & gadol9ia 0 believ$ by t au?or to be /ill a mixture1 a conclusion support$ by ! "w ( ,h(mann & ,kruss 9 #ahic4cje #cjj ,compt4 r5d4 #ahgh1 #hg1 #eei4 #cja ,ibid4 #ahgh1 #hg1 #adf4 #cjb ,ibid4 #ahhf1 #ajb1 #fdg4 #cjc ,compt4 r5d4 #ahhj1 #ij1 #hii4 #cjd ,loc4 cit4 #cje ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #ahic1 #d1 #bg4 ,9 #ahhf ,dem>ay#cjf isolat$ f sam>ia a new oxide1 :i* he designat$ ,s4 ,f 8 "w on ?is oxide 9 #ahib-ahic1 de ,boisbaudran#cjg conclud$ t sam>ia consi/$ ( at lea/ ?ree oxides1 sam>ia prop]1 & two new oxides ,z & ,z4 ,9 #ahif1 ,dem>ay#cjh sep>at$ an e>? 1 :i* %[$ ! sp>k-spectrum ( ,z & ! rev]sal spectrum ( ,z1 & f9ally 9 #aijacji he obta9$ ! new oxide 9 a fairly pure condition1 & gave x ! "n ,europia4 #cjf ,compt4 r5d4 #ahhf1 #ajb1 #aeea4 #cjg ,ibid4 #ahib1 #aad1 #ege2 ibid4 #ahic1 #aaf1 #faa & #fgd4 #cjh ,ibid4 #ahif1 #abb1 #gbh4 #cji ,ibid4 #aija1 #acb1 #adhd4 ,! complicat$ hi/ory ( ! t]bium gr\p has be5 entirely cle>$ up by ! "w ( ,urba9 & 8 co-work]s dur+ ! e>ly ye>s ( ! pres5t c5tury1 & processes h be5 devis$ by :i* ! sep>ation ( ! ?ree memb]s ( ! gr\p f "o ano!r1 & f ! relat$ elem5ts ( ! erbium gr\p on ! "o side1 & sam>ium on ! o!r1 c be satisfactorily accompli%$4 ,! *emi/ry ( ?is gr\p1 !re=e1 may be reg>d$ z satisfactorily settl$1 ?\gh relatively little is kn[n ( ! prop]ties ( ! elem5ts & _! comp\nds4 ,9 _! g5]al *emical relations1 elem5ts ( ! t]bium gr\p occupy an int]m$iate position betwe5 ! c]ium gr\p & ! elem5ts ( ! yttrium gr\p 9 ! n>r[] s5se4 ,9 ! solubility relations ( ! d\ble salts1 !y are b\nd$ on ! "o side by sam>ium & ! less soluble c]ium gr\p1 on ! o!r by dysprosium & holmium & ! m soluble yttrium gr\p4 ,!y %[ only v slight diff]5ces 9 electropositive "*1 & me?ods bas$ on diff]5ces 9 basic /r5g? ( ! oxides1 !re=e1 are ( v little use = sep>at+ !m f "o ano!r4 ,fractional precipitation ) ammonia sep>ates !m 9 ! ord] t]bium1 sam>ium1 gadol9ium1 & europium--sam>ia be+ less /rongly basic ?an ! oxides ( gadol9ium & europium2 ?is con/itutes an exception to ! g5]al rule reg>d+ ! solubilities ( ! d\ble nitrates & sulphates ) increas+ electropositive "*4#caj ,! difficulties ( sep>ation are greatly increas$ by ! v small proportions 9 :i* ! elem5ts are usually f\nd 9 r>e e>? m9]als4 ,gadol9ium usually occurs 9 ! l>ge/ quantities2 9 consequ5ce ( ?is1 !re is little d\bt t mo/ ( ! mat]ial describ$ by ! e>li] work]s z t]bia consi/$ v l>gely ( gadol9ia4 #caj ,see ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran1 ,compt4 r5d4 #ahij1 #aaa1 #cid4 ,! gr\p is n *>act]is$ by well-m>k$ absorption spectra2 europium & t]bium %[ weak absorption 9 ! blue region4 ,t]bium1 ( :i* ! salts are col\rless1 =ms a v /rongly col\r$ p]oxide1 analog\s to t ( praseodymium2 small quantities ( ?is give to ! mix$ oxides obta9$ by ignition ! *>act]i/ic yell[ col\r1 :il/ mixtures ri*] 9 ! p]oxide become correspond+ly d>k] & d>k]4 ,,sep>ation ,9 ! d\ble sulphate sep>ation ( ! yttrium & c]ium gr\ps1 ! t]bium elem5ts divide !mselves betwe5 ! soluble & ! insoluble portions2 if ! sep>ation is made z complete z possible by addition ( a l>ge excess ( alkali sulphate "u suitable conditions1 ! l>g] "p ( ! comp\nds ( ! gr\p w be precipitat$ ) ! c]ium elem5ts4 ,9 ! sep>ation ( ! c]ium elem5ts ! t]bium elem5ts collect 9 ! mo/ soluble fractions1 & ! "m-liquors ( ! d\ble nitrate cry/allisations !re=e =m a v conv5i5t s\rce ( ^! elem5ts4 ,a consid]able proportion1 h[ev]1 w usually rema9 9 solution ) ! d\ble sulphates ( ! yttrium gr\p2 9 ! bromate sep>ation ( ^! 7see p4 #aih71 ! t]bium elem5ts collect 9 ! lea/ soluble fractions4 ,by c>eful fractionation "u suitable conditions1 ! d\ble sulphate me?od may be us$ to sep>ate ! t]bium gr\p completely f ! c]ium & yttrium elem5ts4 ,a v conv5i5t me?od ( sep>at+ ! t]bium gr\p f a r>e e>? mixture is ! e?ylsulphate process ( ,urba94 ,by fractional cry/allisation ( ^! salts f alcohol or wat]1 ! sep>ation into ?ree gr\ps c be satisfactorily accompli%$4 ,= ! sep>ation ( ! t]bium elem5ts f "o ano!r1 ! nitrate & d\ble nitrate me?ods are mo/ suitable4 ,sam>ium c readily be sep>at$ by cry/allisation ( ! d\ble magnesium nitrates 9 pres5ce ( bismu? magnesium nitrate2 by cont9u+ ! fractionation1 europium magnesium nitrate c be sep>at$ 9 a pure /ate1 z !re is a consid]able diff]5ce betwe5 ! solubility ( ?is salt & ! correspond+ comp\nd ( gadol9ium2#caa ! process1 h[ev]1 is some:at long & t$i\s4 ,= ! sep>ation ( gadol9ium & t]bium1 ! d\ble nitrates are conv]t$ into ! simple nitrates1 & ^! fractionat$ f nitric acid 9 pres5ce ( bismu? nitrate4 ,! gadol9ium nitrate sep>ates be=e ! bismu? nitrate1 & may be obta9$ fairly pure 9 ?is way1 ?\gh ! process is extremely t$i\s1 & sev]al ?\s& recry/allisations are requir$4#cab ,t]bium nitrate has almo/ ! same solubility z bismu? nitrate1 & ! two sep>ate toge!r 9 ! middle fractions4 ,! m soluble nitrates ( ! erbia e>?s collect 9 ! "m-liquors4 #caa ,james 7,j4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiab1 #cd1 #geg7 employs at ?is /age ! fractional cry/allisation ( ! d\ble nickel nitrates4 #cab ,see ,urba91 ,compt4 r5d4 #aijd1 #aci1 #gcf4 ,europium1 ,eu #aebj ,?is elem5t is "o ( ! r>e/ ( ! :ole gr\p1 & occurs only 9 extremely small quantities4 ,monazite s& is said to conta9 ab\t #jjjb p] c5t4 ( ! oxide1 ?\gh on acc\nt ( ! rem>kable int5sity ( "s ( ! /rong] l9es 9 ! arc spectrum1 ,eb]h>d#cac 0 able to detect europium ) ease 9 a mixture ( r>e e>? oxides f t m9]al1 aft] ! sep>ation ( c]ium4 ,! oxide has a pale rose col\r2 ! salts are also fa9tly col\r$1 & 9 solution %[ weak absorption b&s4 #cac ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aije1 #de1 #cgh4 ,europium sulphate1 ,eu7,,s71#h;,h,o1 sep>ates 9 p9k cry/als1 :i* are completely dehydrat$ at #cge2 europic *loride1 ,eu,cl1 9 ! anhydr\s /ate =ms f9e yell[ ne$les2 europium oxy*loride1 ,eu,o,cl1 prep>$ by heat+ europic *loride 9 dry air to #fjj1 is a :ite solid1 insoluble 9 wat]1 b soluble 9 /rong acids2 europ\s *loride1 ,eu,cl1 prep>$ by r$uction ( ! high] *loride 9 hydrog51 is a :ite amorph\s solid1 soluble 9 wat] to a neutral solution1 :i* on boil+ ?r[s d[n ! oxide1 ,eu,o4#cad ,sev]al organic salts h be5 prep>$ by ,james & ,rob9son4#cae #cad ,urba9 & ,b\rion1 ,compt4 r5d4 #aiaa1 #aec1 #aaee4 #cae ,j4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiac1 #ce1 #ged4 ,atomic ,weight4--,us+ ! mat]ial isolat$ f sam>ia1 ,dem>ay#caf 9 #aijj1 by ! syn!tic sulphate me?od1 f\nd ! atomic weight ( europium to be ab\t #aea4 ,urba9 & ,lacombe#cag det]m9$ ! value 9 #aijd1 ) mat]ial free f gadol9ium & sam>ium1 us+ ! ?ree ratios :i* !y employ$ 9 ! case ( ! latt] elem5t 7see p4 #ahb72 _! values1 correct$ by ,braun]1 7 #aebjj1 #aeaic & #aeaid respectively4 ,ano!r s]ies ( det]m9ations 0 c>ri$ out by ,jants*#cah 9 #aijh1 ! same me?od be+ employ$2 he obta9$ ! mean value #aebjc1 ) an error ( #jb4 ,! ,int]national ,committee h adopt$ ! value #aebj4 #caf ,compt4 r5d4 #aijj1 #acj1 #adfi4 #cag ,ibid4 #aijd1 #ach1 #fbg4 #cah ,ibid4 #aijh1 #adf1 #dgc4 ,detection4--,! absorption spectrum 0 det]m9$ by ,dem>ay1#cai b is n suffici5tly int5se or *>act]i/ic = ord9>y purposes ( detection4 ,! sp>k spectrum has be5 inve/igat$ by ! same au?or 7loc4 cit472 x is v bright1 & %[s ! ?ree blue rays :i* *>act]is$ ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran's ,z4 ,! rev]sal spectrum %[s ! *>act]i/ic b& ( ,z4 ,! pure oxide1 accord+ to ,urba91#cbj %[s no lum9esc5ce "u ! influ5ce ( ca?ode rays1 b :5 impure1 or v l>gely dilut$ ) lime or gypsum1 x gives v bright & *>act]i/ic spectra4 #cai ,ibid4 #aijj1 #acj1 #dfi4 #cbj ,ibid41 #aijf1 #adb1 #bje1 #aeah4 ,! arc spectrum#cba is v *>act]i/ic1 & conta9s "s exce$+ly int5se l9es1 by means ( :i* ,lunt#cbb has detect$ europium 9 ! sun & 9 _m />s4 ,! l9es mo/ suit$ = id5tification ( ! elem5t are ! foll[+3 #cba ,exn] & ,has*ek2 ,ed] & ,val5ta1 ,sitzungsb]4 kais]l4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,wi51 #aiaj1 #aai1 ,,iia1 #ca4 #cbb ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 #aijg1 #gi2 ,a1 #aah4 #cfhheg #cgbeaj #chaihj #cijgbh #cicjff #cigbaf #dabiij #dbjebj #ddcege #debbgf #deidbg #dfbgdg #dffbaj #ffdedd ,gadol9ium1 ,gd #aegc4 ,gadol9ia is ! commone/ ( ! t]bia oxides1 & occurs 9 consid]able quantities 9 "s ( ! r>e e>? m9]als1 notably 9 sam>skite & gadol9ite2 its sep>ation f ! neighb\r+ oxides1 europia & t]bia1 is1 h[ev]1 exce$+ly difficult1 & has only be5 satisfactorily accompli%$ 9 rec5t times4 ,! gadol9ium comp\nds prep>$ & exam9$ by ! e>li] work]s1 z appe>s f ! atomic weight det]m9ations1 mu/ h be5 associat$ ) e>?s ( l[] atomic weight1 & und\bt$ly also ) small quantities ( t]bium4 ,aft] ! isolation ( ,m>ignac's ,y1 & ! exam9ation ( ! elem5t by ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran1 to :om ! "n gadol9ium is due1 fur!r inve/igations 7 c>ri$ out by ,bett5dorff#cbc & by ,b5$icts4#cbd ,pure gadol9ia 0 probably fir/ obta9$ by ,dem>ay1#cbe by fractional cry/allisation ( ! magnesium d\ble nitrate2 ! oxide obta9$ by ,urba9 & ,lacombe#cbf by cry/allisation ( ! nitrates 9 pres5ce ( bismu? nitrate1 0 prov$ to be spectroscopically pure by ,eb]h>d4#cbg #cbc ,annal51 #ahib1 #bgj1 #cgf4 #cbd ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aijj1 #bb1 #cic4 #cbe ,compt4 r5d4 #aijj1 #aca1 #cdc2 ibid4 #aija1 #acb1 #adhd4 #cbf ,ibid4 #aije1 #adj1 #ehc1 etc4 #cbg ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aije1 #ed1 #cgd4 ,! gadol9ia obta9$ by ignition ( ! salts ( volatile acids %\ld be p]fectly :ite2 pres5ce ( t]bia causes x to assume a yell[ col\r4#cbh ,! salts are col\rless1 & _! solutions %[ no absorption 9 ! visible region1 ?\gh ,urba9#cbi has %[n t !re are f\r /rong b&s 9 ! ultraviolet4 #cbh ,eb]h>d 7loc4 cit47 has %[n t ev5 9 ! p]fectly :ite oxide1 traces ( t]bia c be di/+ui%$ by spectroscopic exam9ation4 #cbi ,compt4 r5d4 #aije1 #adj1 #abcc4 ,! hydroxide1 ,gd7,,oh71 is a gelat9\s precipitate ) /rongly basic prop]ties1 rapidly absorb+ c>bon dioxide f ! air4 ,! oxide1 ,gd,o1 also absorbs c>bonic anhydride f ! air1 & is easily soluble 9 acids1 ev5 aft] /rong ignition4 ,! elem5t is !re=e /rongly electropositive4 ,its position among ! yttrium elem5ts1 h[ev]1 is ju/ifi$ by ! prop]ties ( ! plat9ocyanide1 #b;,gd7,,cn71#c,pt7,,cn71#ah;,h,o1 :i* =ms long1 po9t$ r$ cry/als1 ) a gre5 metallic lu/re1 belong+ to ! rhombic sy/em1 & isomorph\s ) ! correspond+ yttrium & erbium salts2 ! c]ium elem5ts1 on ! o!r h&1 give yell[ plat9ocyanides1 ) a blue metallic lu/re1 :i* cry/allise 9 ! monocl9ic sy/em4 ,! nitrate1 ,gd7,,no71#f;,h,o1 sep>ates f aque\s solutions at ! ord9>y temp]atures 9 l>ge cry/als belong+ to ! anor?ic sy/em1 & is isomorph\s ) ! correspond+ comp\nds ( praseodymium & neodymium4#ccj ,f solutions 9 /rong nitric acid1 a p5tahydrate is obta9$1 :i* melts at #ib2 ! hexahydrate melts at #ia4 ,! sulphate sep>ates f aque\s solution z ! octohydrate1 ,gd7,,s71#h;,h,o1 isomorph\s ) ! correspond+ salts ( bo? gr\ps4 ,! anhydr\s sulphate is mu* less soluble 9 wat] at #j ?an ! correspond+ comp\nds ( ! c]ium elem5ts4 ,! sel5ate =ms hydrates ) #aj & #h molecules ( wat] ( cry/allisation respectively2 ^! are isomorph\s ) ! correspond+ sel5ates ( yttrium & ! erbium metals4 #ccj ,lang & ,hait+]1 ,annal51 #aijg1 #cea1 #dej4 ,atomic ,weight4--,! det]m9ations ( ?is con/ant made by ! e>li] work]s 7 all c>ri$ out ) impure mat]ial & gave results :i* 7 consid]ably too l[4 ,! ,int]national ,committee h adopt$ ! value #aegc1 :i* is bas$ on ! "w ( ,urba94#cca ,9 employ+ ! analytical sulphate me?od1 t au?or obs]v$ t ! anhydr\s sulphate did n rema9 con/ant 9 weight :5 all[$ to rema9 9 a desiccator1 & t x c\ld n be accurately weigh$4 ,he !re=e det]m9$ ! ratio ,gd7,,s71#h;,h,o 3 ,gd,o1 by conv]t+ ! octohydrate directly to oxide1 & obta9$ ! mean value #aegbd4 #cca ,compt4 r5d4 #aije1 #adj1 #ehc4 ,detection4--,pure gadol9ium comp\nds %[ no absorption 9 ! visible spectrum1 b !re are f\r /rong b&s#ccb 9 ! ultraviolet1 viz4 #caaf-caje2 #cjfj-cjeg2 #cjef-cjee2 & #cjed-cjej4 ,! arc spectrum#ccc is v ri* 9 l9es1 ( :i* ! mo/ int5se are ! foll[+3 #ccb ,urba91 ibid4 #aije1 #adj1 #abcc4 #ccc ,exn] & ,has*ek2 ,ed] & ,val5ta1 ,sitzungsb]4 kais]l4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,wi51 #aiaj1 #aai1 ,,iia1 #ba4 #cjhbae #cajjff #cdbbfb #cedeid #cedieb #ceheab #cfdfcf #cfgaci #cgaifc #cgdcfh #cgfhfj #cgiffb #chadah #chebfe #ciafgj #djcgdi #djejje #djfcfb #djgjea #djgcii #djhegc #djihhj #dacjei #dahddh #dbeaij #dbfbbd #dcbehc #dcbgbi #dcdbce #faadbf ,! sp>k spectra h be5 exam9$ by ,dem>ay1#ccd ,baur & ,m>c1#cce ,urba9#ccf & ,crookes4#ccg #ccd ,compt4 r5d4 #aijj1 #aca1 #cdc4 #cce ,b]4 #aija1 #cd1 #bdfj4 #ccf ,loc4 cit4 #ccg ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 #aije1 #gd1 #dbj4 ,t]bium1 ,tb #aeib ,t]bia occurs among ! r>e e>? oxides 9 exce$+ly small quantities1 & its sep>ation has 9 consequ5ce pres5t$ su* great difficulties t only )9 ! la/ few ye>s h t]bium comp\nds be5 completely fre$ f gadol9ium & neighb\r+ elem5ts4 ,9 #ahhf ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran1#cch by fractional precipitation ( ! hydroxides ) ammonia1 & subsequ5t fractional cry/allisation ( ! d\ble sulphates1 obta9$ an oxide mu* ri*] 9 t]bia ?an any specim5 previ\sly prep>$2 x 0 d>k yell[ 9 col\r4 ,9 #aijb ,m>c#cci obta9$ f monazite a v d>k oxide conta9+ ab\t #ae p] c5t4 ( t]bia1 :il/ ,feit#cdj 9 #aije obta9$ a d>k br[n oxide consi/+ ( gadol9ia ) ab\t #ac p] c5t4 ( t]bia4 ,pure t]bium comp\nds 7 obta9$ by ,urba9 9 #aijd1cda by fractional cry/allisation ( ! nitrate f nitric acid1 9 pres5ce ( bismu? nitrate1 & by cry/allisation ( ! d\ble nickel nitrates1 & precipitation ) ammonia2 he %[$ t ! elem5t 0 id5tical ) ! ,z & ,z ( de ,boisbaudran1#cdb ) ! ( ,dem>ay1#cdc & ) ! ,g & possibly ! ,g ( ,crookes#cdd 7see p4 #aic74 #cch ,compt4 r5d4 #ahhf1 #ajb1 #cie1 #dhc4 #cci ,b]4 #aijb1 #ce1 #bchb4 #cdj ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aije1 #dc1 #bfg4 #cda ,compt4 r5d4 #aijd1 #aci1 #gcf2 #aije1 #ada1 #eba2 #aiji1 #adi1 #cg4 #cdb ,ibid4 #ahie1 #aba1 #gji2 #aijd1 #aci1 #ajae4 #cdc ,ibid4 #aijj1 #aca1 #cdc4 #cdd ,trans4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #ahhi1 #ee1 #beh4 ,! elem5t gives ! :ite sesquioxide1 ,tb,o1 & col\rless salts4#cde ,! p]oxide1 ( :i* ! composition corresponds approximately to ! =mula ,tb,o1 is obta9$ z a br[ni%-black p[d] by ignition ( suitable salts4 ,its pres5ce1 ev5 9 small quantities1 gives s deep a col\ration to ! o!r e>?s t "s k9d ( salt =mation seems probable4 ,x is insoluble 9 cold acids2 x dissolves 9 hot nitric acid ) evolution ( oxyg51 =m+ a solution f :i* ! nitrate1 ,tb7,,no71#f;,h,o1 melt+ at #hic1 sep>ates on cool+4 ,9 hot hydro*loric acid1 ! p]oxide dissolves ) evolution ( *lor9e1 =m+ solutions f :i* ! *loride1 ,tb,cl1#f;,h,o1 c be isolat$ ) difficulty2 ?is salt is extremely deliquesc5t1 & easily =ms sup]saturat$ solutions4 ,! sulphate1 ,tb7,,s71#h;,h,o1 c be precipitat$ f a sulphuric acid solution ( ! oxide by addition ( consid]able quantities ( alcohol2 x is isomorph\s ) ! o!r sulphate octohydrates1 & is completely dehydrat$ at #cfj4 #cde ,! t]bium comp\nds "h describ$ h be5 prep>$ by ,urba9 7loc4 cit47 f c>efully purifi$ mat]ial2 o!r comp\nds h be5 describ$ by ,potratz 7,*em4 ,news1 #aije1 #ib1 #c71 b h] mat]ial conta9$ a l>ge proportion ( gadol9ium4 ,atomic ,weight4--,! value adopt$ by ! ,int]national ,committee is #aeib1 :i* 0 obta9$ by ,urba9 9 #aije 7loc4 cit47 f ! ratio ,tb7,,s71#h;,h,o 3 ,tb7,,s74 ,?is is ! only det]m9ation on :i* reliance c be plac$1 z ! mat]ial ( ! e>li] work]s 0 seldom ev5 approximately pure4 ,detection4--,solutions ( t]bium salts %[ only "o b& 9 ! visible spectrum1 at #dhgg 9 ! blue4 ,?is b& 0 obs]v$ by ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran 9 a specim5 ( t]bia conta9+ dysprosia1 & assum$ by him to belong to a new elem5t1 ,z 7loc4 cit47 ,9 ! ultraviolet n9e absorption b&s h be5 obs]v$ 7,urba91 loc4 cit47 ,! sp>k spectrum %[s ! l9es obs]v$ by ,dem>ay 9 #aijj1 & attribut$ by him to ! new elem5t 4 ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran's elem5t ,z %[$ a gre5 fluoresc5ce ) ! rev]s$ sp>k1 a ph5om5on :i* ,urba9 has f\nd to be exhibit$ by pure t]bium comp\nds4 ,! arc spectrum ( ,urba9's pure t]bia 0 exam9$ by ,eb]h>d#cdf--see also ,exn] & ,has*ek1 & ,ed] & ,val5ta4#cdg ,! elem5t may be detect$ 9 m9]als & e>? mixtures by ! foll[+ l9es3 #cebchb #cfgfeb #cgjcje #cgjdja #djjefb #dbghga ,! *ief l9es 9 ! arc spectrum 7,exn] & ,has*ek7 are ! foll[+3 #ccbdec #cejicd #cecahf #cefaij #cefhfi #cfjjfj #cfbhec #cfejfj #cfeijb #cgjdaj #cgaaia #chdhij #chgdcc #chiicd #cibefj #cicige #ciggja #cihbjg #djjegj #djabii #dbghgj #dgebfi ,pure t]bia does n exhibit ! ph5om5on ( ca?ode lum9esc5ce1 b gadol9ia conta9+ a trace ( t]bia %[s a m>k$ gre5 fluoresc5ce1 :i* 0 attribut$ by ,crookes to a new ,meta-elem5t1 ,g4 ,a trace ( t]bia 9 alum9ium oxide causes ! latt] to exhibit a highly *>act]i/ic int5se :ite lum9esc5ce4 #cdf ,sitzungsb]4 knigl4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,b]l91 #aijf1 #ah1 #che4 #cdg ,sitzungsb]4 kais]l4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,wi51 #aiaj1 #aai1 ,,iia1 #ad4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,! ,,erbium ,,& ,,ytt]bium ,,gr\ps--,,yttrium ,,& ,,sc&ium ,9 8 exam9ation ( ! #8,yttria' ( ,gadol9 & ,ekeb]g1 dur+ ! ye>s #ahci to #ahdc1 ,mos&]1 by me?ods bas$ on diff]5ces 9 /r5g? ( ! oxides z bases1 sep>at$ ! e>? into ?ree new oxides1 yttria prop]1 ! mo/ /rongly basic1 t]bia1 int]m$iate 9 /r5g?1 & erbia1#cdh ! lea/ basic4 ,no fur!r sep>ation 0 effect$ until #ahgh1 :5 ,m>ignac1 by fractional decomposition ( ! nitrates1 sep>at$ f erbia a new oxide1 = :i* he propos$ ! "n ,ytt]bia2 ! new oxide 0 ! lea/ basic ( ! erbia e>?s4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye>1 ,nilson#cdi isolat$ f ytt]bia a /ill less basic oxide1 by ! same me?od2 he propos$ ! "n ,sc&ia1 to recall ! fact t x occurr$ 9 gadol9ite & eux5ite1 :i* up to t "t _h be5 f\nd only 9 ,sc&9avia4 ,9 #ahgi also1 ,soret#cej ann\nc$ ! discov]y ( a new elem5t ,x1 evid5ce = ! exi/5ce ( :i* he _h obta9$ dur+ a spectroscopic exam9ation ( a mixture ( erbia & t]bia e>?s2 ! oxide ( ,x 0 isolat$ 9 ! same ye> by ,cleve#cea f ! old erbia1 by fractional decomposition ( ! nitrates1 & ! "n ,holmium1 f ! t[n ( ,/ockholm1 0 propos$ = ! new elem5t4 ,! same inve/igation l$ to ! discov]y ( ,?ulium1 :i* d]ives its "n f ,?ule1 an old "n = ,sc&9avia4 #cdh ,! rev]s$ nom5clature ( ,delafonta9e is "h employ$ 7see p4 #ahd74 #cdi ,compt4 r5d4 #ahgi1 #hh1 #fdb1 #fde4 #cej ,ibid4 #ahgi1 #hi1 #eba4 #cea ,ibid4 #ahgi1 #hi1 #dgh1 #gjh4 ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran#ceb 9 #ahhf %[$ ,cleve's ,holmia to be a mixture ( at lea/ two oxides2 he reta9$ ! "n ,holmium = ! elem5t :i* gave ! mo/ *>act]i/ic absorption b&s ( ! old holmium1 & propos$ ! "n ,dysprosium 7f 1 difficult ( access7 = ! second elem5t4 ,! "n ,erbia 0 reta9$ = ! oxide rema9+ aft] ! removal ( holmia1 ?ulia1 & dysprosia f ! old erbia2 ! homog5eity ( ?is erbia has be5 call$ 9 "q1 b is n[ fairly firmly e/abli%$4 ,! individuality ( dysprosium#cec & holmium#ced may also be reg>d$ z def9itely e/abli%$2 t ( ?ulium rema9s d\btful 7see p4 #bjd74 #ceb ,ibid4 #ahhf1 #ajb1 #ajjc1 #ajje4 #cec ,urba91 ,compt4 r5d4 #aijf1 #adb1 #ghe4 #ced ,holmb]g1 ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aiaa1 #ga1 #bbf4 ,! homog5eity ( ytt]bia 0 que/ion$ by ,au] von ,welsba*#cee 9 #aijf2 by fractionation ( ! ammonium d\ble oxalates1 t au?or isolat$ ! oxides ( two new elem5ts1 = :i* he propos$ ! names ,aldeb>anium & ,cassiopeium4 ,by fractionation ( ! nitrates f nitric acid solution1 ,urba9#cef arriv$ at ! same result1 & propos$ ! names ,ytt]bium 7,neoytt]bium7 & ,lutecium1 :i* h be5 adopt$ by ! ,int]national ,committee4 ,! latt] au?or1 employ+ ! same me?od 9 ! fractionation ( ! gadol9ite e>?s1 has rec5tly obta9$ v /rong evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce 9 ?is gr\p ( ano!r elem5t1 = :i* he proposes ! "n ,celtium2#ceg ! discov]y1 h[ev]1 awaits confirmation4 #cee ,monats4 #aijf1 #bg1 #ice2 #aijh1 #bi1 #aba4 #cef ,compt4 r5d4 #aijg1 #ade1 #gei4 #ceg ,ibid4 #aiaa1 #aeb1 #ada4 ,,sep>ation ,9 ! sep>ation ( ! yttrium elem5ts1 me?ods bas$ on diff]5ces 9 electropositive "* are ( mu* great] importance ?an 9 ! sep>ation ( ! c]ium & t]bium gr\ps1 & ! me?od ( nitrate fusion has be5 v l>gely employ$ ev5 9 comp>atively rec5t "w4 ,?is me?od1 :i* 0 introduc$ by ,b]l9 9 #ahfj1 has be5 ( great value 9 ! sep>ation ( yttrium & ! ytt]bium elem5ts f ! erbium gr\p2 x 0 employ$ 9 ! isolation ( ytt]bium by ,m>ignac1 & ( sc&ium by ,nilson4 ,if a conc5trat$ solution ( ! nitrates be evaporat$ d[n1 & ! syrupy residue subject$ to gradually increas+ temp]ature1 ! nitrates ( ! ytt]bium elem5ts & sc&ium are conv]t$ fir/ into ! basic nitrates2 at some:at high] temp]atures ! erbium salts are decompos$1 :il/ yttrium nitrate & ! nitrates ( any c]ium elem5ts pres5t are ! la/ to break up4 ,if ! mixture ( basic & neutral nitrates be dissolv$ 9 boil+ wat]1 ! =m]1 be+ less soluble1 cry/allise out on cool+1 & may be sep>at$ by ?is means1 ! process be+ repeat$ ) ! filtrate conta9+ ! un*ang$ nitrates4 ,9 ?is way1 ! weakly basic sc&ia & ytt]bia quickly collect 9 ! fir/ fractions1 :il/ ! oxides ( ! erbia gr\p are easily sep>at$ f ! m /rongly basic yttria4 ,! pres5ce ( ! int]m$iate t]bium gr\p r5d]s ! process mu* less easily workable4 ,! process may be modifi$ by rais+ ! temp]ature to su* an ext5t t ! soluble basic nitrates are conv]t$ into insoluble sup]basic nitrates1 ! temp]atures at :i* ?is *ange occurs increas+ f elem5t to elem5t z ! positive "* becomes m m>k$2 ! mixture ( basic & sup]basic salts is !n extract$ ) dilute nitric acid :i* leaves t latt] undissolv$ & removes ! m positive elem5ts 9 solution4 ,fractional precipitation ( ! hydroxides by means ( ammonia1 alkalies1 or alkal9e e>?s has also be5 frequ5tly employ$4 ,a modification ( ?is process is ! precipitation ) anil9e1 c>ri$ out by ,kruss2#ceh 9 ?is me?od1 ! solution ( ! *loride 9 w>m dilute alcohol is treat$ ) an alcoholic solution ( ! organic base4 ,ano!r modification is ! #8,oxide process' employ$ by ,au] von ,welsba*#cei = ! sep>ation ( ! c]ium elem5ts1 & by ,drossba*#cfj 9 ! yttrium gr\p4 ,! conc5trat$ solution ( ! mix$ salts is ?or\ghly dige/$ ) ! oxides obta9$ by precipitat+ a fraction ( ! e>?s2 ! m /rongly basic oxides t5d to displace ! less basic1 s t ^! accumulate 9 ! insoluble "p4 ,! solution is filt]$ f ! undissolv$ oxides1 ano!r fraction precipitat$1 & ! oxides obta9$ f ! precipitate dige/$ ) ! conc5trat$ solution z be=e4 #ceh ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #ahic1 #c1 #ajh1 #cec4 #cei ,monats4 #ahhc1 #d1 #fcj4 #cfj ,b]4 #aijb1 #ce1 #bhbf4 ,illu/ration3 ,,gr\p ,b ,,yttrium ,,d\ble ,,suplhates4 ,fractionate z ,bromates4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ------------------------ #a #b #c #d #e ,gd1 ,tb1 ,dy4 ,tb1 ,dy1 ,ho1 ,dy1 ,ho1 ,er1 ,yt1 ,er1 & ,tm1 ,yb1 ,lu1 ,yt4 ,yt4 ,sc8 etc4 ,= sep>a- ,trans=m to ,fractionate ,fractionate ,cont9ue4 tion ( ,e?yl- by ,nitrate by ,nitrate ,t]bium sulphates4 ,fusion4 ,fusion4 gr\p4-- --- ,t]bium ,gr\p4 ---------- ---- ----------- --- ---------- ----- ----- ----- ----- #f #h #aj #ab #ad ,tb1 ,dy4 ,ho1 ,yt4 ,yt1 ,er4 ,tm4 ,lu4 ,cont9ue ,fractionate ,cont9ue4 ,bromate4 ,bromate4 ,e?ylsulphate by ,nitrate ,fractiona- ,fusion4 ---- tion4 --- #g #i #aa #ac ,dy4 ,yt4 ,er4 ,yb4 ,e?ylsulphate4 ,nitrate4 ,nitrate4 ,bromate4 --------- ---------- ,yb1 ,lu4 ,ct8 ,bromates4 ,bromate4 ,ho4 ,ho1 ,yt4 ,basic ,nitrate4 ,,fig4 #i4--,,sep>ation ,,( ,,! ,,yttrium ,,elem5ts ,! m mod]n me?ods ( sep>ation comb9e ! above processes ) ! me?ods ( fractional cry/allisation1 = :i* ! bromates & alkylsulphates ( ^! elem5ts are well adapt$4 ,! proc$ure#cfa :i* exp]i5ce %[s w lead to a fairly rapid sep>ation is r\ghly repres5t$ 9 ,fig #i4 ,! d\ble sulphates 7,b71 left 9 solution aft] removal ( ! c]ium & "p ( ! t]bium gr\p1 are trans=m$ into ! bromates1 :i* are sep>at$ by fractional cry/allisation into five ma9 fractions4 ,! lea/ soluble portion1 fraction #a1 conta9s ! t]bium elem5ts ) "s dysprosium2 9 ! fractionation ( ! t]bium gr\p by means ( ! nitrates & d\ble nitrates1 ! dysprosium1 ) "s t]bium1 collects 9 ! f9al fractions 7fraction #f74 ,fraction #b conta9s t]bium1 dysprosium1 holmium1 & yttrium z ! bromates2 ^! are conv]t$ into ! anhydr\s *lorides1 f :i*1 by treatm5t ) sodium e?ylsulphate 9 alcoholic solution1 ! e?ylsulphates are obta9$4 ,by fractional cry/allisation1 dysprosium may be obta9$ 9 a fairly pure condition 7fraction #g71 ! lea/ soluble "p 7fraction #f7 conta9+ ! t]bium ) "s dysprosium4 ,holmium & yttrium collect 9 ! mo/ soluble "p 7fraction #h71 f :i* pure holmium c be obta9$ by ! me?od ( nitrate fusion4 ,fraction #c conta9s yttrium & erbium1 ) small quantities ( dysprosium & holmium2 ! latt] are readily sep>at$ by ! nitrate fusion1 :i* w also all[ ( a fairly complete sep>ation ( yttrium 7fraction #i74 ,fraction #d conta9s yttrium & erbium2 sc&ium if pres5t w also collect "h4 ,erbium c be obta9$ pure by ! nitrate fusion2 ! second fraction f ?is process conta9s bo? yttrium & erbium1 & may be fur!r work$ up ) ! fraction ( simil> composition 7fraction #aj7 f fraction #c4 #cfa ,james1 ,j4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiab1 #cd1 #geg4 ,! "m-liquors f ! bromate sep>ation 7fraction #e7 conta9 ?ulium & ! ytt]bium elem5ts2 ! cry/allisation is cont9u$1 & all[s ( complete sep>ation ( ?ulium & ytt]bium1 & probably ( lutecium1 ?\gh ! mo/ soluble fractions d n seem to h be5 fully sep>at$4 ,,! ,,erbium ,,gr\p ,! oxides ( ?is gr\p1 z contra/$ ) ! ytt]bia oxides1 give rise to col\r$ salts1 :i* 9 solution %[ def9ite absorption spectra 9 ! optical region2 ! spectrum ( erbium salts is p>ticul>ly def9ite & *>act]i/ic4 ,erbium has among ! yttrium elem5ts ! place ( neodymium among ! c]ium elem5ts2 aft] yttria1 erbia is ! commone/ oxide ( ! yttria gr\p1 ?\gh on acc\nt ( ! difficulties ( sep>ation ! *emi/ry ( erbium is by no means s complete & def9ite z t ( neodymium4 ,! oxides 9 ord] ( decreas+ basicity1 z %[n by ! ord] 9 :i* !y are ?r[n d[n by ammonia1 are3 dysprosia1 holmia1 erbia1 ?ulia2 ! electropositive "* becomes weak]1 !re=e--z g5]ally 9 ! r>e e>? s]ies--z ! atomic weight ( ! elem5ts increases4 ,dysprosium1 ,dy #afbe ,comp\nds ( ?is elem5t 7 probably prep>$ 9 ! pure /ate = ! fir/ "t by ,urba9#cfb 9 #aijf1 by ! fractional cry/allisation ( ! e?ylsulphate4 ,he %[$ t aft] f\rte5 recry/allisations1 ! absorption spectrum ( ! salts & ! mean atomic weight ( ! elem5t rema9 unalt]$1 & t aft] removal ( t]bium by ! v effici5t e?ylsulphate me?od1 all rema9+ traces ( yttrium c\ld be rapidly remov$ by cry/allisation ( ! nitrate4 ,! salts h g5]ally a m or less pron\nc$ yell[ col\r4 #cfb ,compt4 r5d4 #aijf1 #adb1 #ghe4 ,! oxide1 ,dy,o1 is a :ite p[d] :i* does n alt] 9 composition :5 /rongly heat$ 9 r$uc+ or oxidis+ atmosph]es4 ,x is rem>kable 9 t x is ! mo/ /rongly p>amagnetic oxide kn[n1 hav+ a coeffici5t ( susceptibility mu* great] ?an t ( f]ric oxide4#cfc ,! *loride cry/allises ) #f1 ! sulphate ) #h1 & ! nitrate ) #e molecules ( wat] ( cry/allisation4 ,! bromate1 ,dy7,br,o71#i;,h,o1#cfd obta9$ by d\ble decomposition1 melts at #gh4 ,! plat9ocyanide1 ,dy,pt7,,cn71#ba;,h,o1 =ms bright r$ cubic cry/als1 ) gre5i% fluoresc5ce4 #cfc ,compt4 r5d4 #aijh1 #adf1 #ibb4 #cfd ,jants* & ,ohl1 ,b]4 #aiaa1 #dd1 #abgd4 ,sev]al o!r salts are describ$ by ,urba91 & by ,jants* & ,ohl 7loc4 cit474 ,atomic ,weight4--,urba9 & ,dem5itr\x#cfe det]m9$ ?is con/ant f ! ratio ,dy7,,s71#h;,h,o 3 ,dy,o4 ,! mean value ( six det]m9ations c>ri$ out ) mat]ial obta9$ by fractional cry/allisation ( ! nitrate 0 #afbeb2 ) mat]ial purifi$ by ! e?ylsulphate cry/allisation1 ! mean ( six det]m9ations gave ! value #afbed4 ,! ,int]national ,atomic ,weight is #afbe4 #cfe ,compt4 r5d4 #aijf1 #adc1 #eih4 ,detection4--,lecoq de ,boisbaudran#cff & ,urba9#cfg give ! position ( ! foll[+ absorption maxima 9 ! visible & ultraviolet regions respectively3 #gec #cfhe #cch #dge #cgie #ccbe #deae #cfe #dbge #cea #cff ,ibid4 #ahhf1 #ajb1 #ajjc4 #cfg ,ibid4 #aijf1 #adb1 #ghe4 ,! arc spectrum ( ,urba9's mat]ial 0 exam9$ by ,eb]h>d1#cfh :o gives z mo/ suitable = detection ( ! elem5t 9 a m9]al or oxide mixture ! foll[+ l9es3 #ccheaf #cecahf #cecfag #cfdeed #chihfi #ciddhc #djjjei #djghaa #dahgjj #dbaahb #cfh ,publ4 a/rophys4 ,obs]v4 ,potsdam1 #aiji1 #bj1 ,no4 #fj4 ,see also ,exn] & ,has*ek1 & ,ed] & ,val5ta4#cfi #cfi ,sitzungsb]4 kais]l4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,wi51 #aiaj1 #aai1 ,,iia1 #i4 ,! ultraviolet arc spectrum & ! ca?ode phosphoresc5ce h also be5 exam9$ by ,urba94#cgj #cgj ,loc4 cit4 ,holmium1 ,ho #afce ,! individuality ( ?is elem5t c h>dly be reg>d$ z p]fectly e/abli%$1 ?\gh ,holmb]g#cga has prep>$ salts :i* 9 solution %[ only fa9t indications ( erbium & dysprosium1 :5 te/$ spectroscopically4 ,t au?or fractionat$ ! yttrium elem5ts obta9$ f eux5ite by a long process ( sep>ation1 :i* involv$ cry/allisation ( ! m-nitrob5z5esulphonates1 ( ! simple nitrates 7two s]ies71 ( ! d\ble ammonium oxalates1 & f9ally fractional precipitation ( ! hydroxides by ammonia4 #cga ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aiaa1 #ga1 #bbf2 see also ,langlet1 ,ab/r4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aijg1 #ib1 ii4 #iee4 ,he det]m9$ ! ,atomic ,weight z #afce1 :i* is ! value accept$ by ! ,int]national ,committee1 & mapp$ ! absorption spectrum4 ,! oxide1 ,ho,o1 is a pale yell[ p[d]2 ! salts are yell[1 ) a fa9t orange t+e4 ,erbium1 ,er #afgg ,al?\gh erbia 0 sep>at$ by ,mos&] sev5ty ye>s ago1 x is d\btful if ! p]fectly pure oxide has ev] be5 prep>$4 ,:il/ ! individuality ( ! elem5t is well e/abli%$1 its homog5eity has frequ5tly be5 call$ 9 "q4 ,! "n #8,neo-,erbia' 0 giv5 by ,cleve#cgb to ! residue left aft] ! sep>ation f ! old erbia ( ytt]bia1 sc&ia1 ?ulia1 & holmia 7) :i* dysprosia 7q4v47 0 also sep>at$71 b ! spectrum exam9ation ( ,kruss & ,nilson#cgc l$ !m to reg>d ,cleve's oxide z /ill complex4 ,_! results1 h[ev]1 7 expla9$ by ! "w ( ,h(mann & 8 pupils1#cgd :o consid] erbia to be a homog5e\s product2 ! homog5eity ( ! elem5t1 !re=e1 may be consid]$ z e/abli%$1 ?\gh x w\ld be /r5g!n$ by a m complete k ( ! neighb\r+ elem5ts1 holmium & ?ulium4 #cgb ,loc4 cit4 #cgc ,b]4 #ahhg1 #bj1 #bacd4 #cgd ,b]4 #aijh1 #da1 #cjh2 also ,h(mann1 ibid4 #aiaj1 #dc1 #bfca4 ,! elem5t =ms a rose-col\r$ oxide1 & rose-col\r$ salts1 :i* give to ! comp\nds ( ! mix$ erbia e>?s _! *>act]i/ic col\r4 ,! oxide gives a v def9ite & *>act]i/ic reflection spectrum1 b ! salts d n possess ?is prop]ty2#cge ! reflection spectrum rema9s un*ang$ 9 ! pres5ce ( =eign oxides1 provid$ no comb9ation occurs4 ,f ! atomic weight det]m9ations1 x seems cle> t ! salts describ$ by ,cleve & 8 pupils#cgf 7 n pure erbium comp\nds2 a few salts only appe> to h be5 rec5tly obta9$ 9 ! pure /ate = ! atomic weight det]m9ation 7q4v474 #cge ,see ,kruss & ,bugge1 ,b]4 #aijh1 #da1 #cghc4 #cgf ,see ,compt4 r5d4 #ahhj1 #ia1 #cha4 ,! sulphate sep>ates f aque\s solutions at ord9>y temp]atures z ! octohydrate1 ,er7,,s71#h;,h,o1 :i* =ms rose-col\r$ monocl9ic cry/als isomorph\s ) ! correspond+ sulphates ( ! :ole gr\p4 ,! anhydr\s sulphate is =m$ by long heat+ at #djj1 m quickly at #dge1 & c be heat$ to #fcj )\t decomposition4 ,at #hde a basic salt1 ,er,o1,,s1 is =m$1 :i* beg9s to decompose at #iej2 at #ajee ! trans=mation to ! oxide is complete4 ,! ammonium & potassium d\ble sulphates are easily soluble 9 cold wat]4 ,! oxalate is ?r[n d[n 9 rosettes ( bright rosy plates1 :i* accord+ to ,h(mann#cgg h ! =mula ,er7,c,o71#aj;,h,o1 ev5 :5 dri$ 9 ! air4 ,cleve believ$ ! salt to be ?r[n d[n z ! enneahydrate4 ,:5 kept 9 vacuo ov] phosphoric anhydride1 ! decahydrate passes into ! trihydrate1 :i* :5 heat$ decomposes1 pass+ into ! oxide at a temp]ature ( #ege4 ,! nitrate1 ,er7,,no71#e;,h,o1 sep>ates f aque\s solution z ! p5tahydrate1 9 l>ge /able r$ cry/als4 ,! plat9ocyanide1 ,er,pt7,,cn71#ba;,h,o1 has ! *>act]i/ic r$ col\r ) gre5 fluoresc5ce4 ,! =mate1 ,er7,,hcoo7--,cleve1 loc4 cit4--is a r$ p[d]1 obta9$ by dissolv+ ! oxide 9 =mic acid2 x cry/allises f wat] z ! dihydrate4 #cgg ,loc4 cit4 ,atomic ,weight4--,! det]m9ations ( ! e>li] work]s1 be+ c>ri$ out ) impure mat]ial1 gave results :i* diff] v widely1 & are q unreliable4 ,cleve's value ( #ahhj1 = mat]ial free f ytt]bia1 b n app>5tly free f e>?s ( l[] equival5t1 0 #affbe2 ,braun]1#cgh us+ ! same mat]ial 9 #aije1 obta9$ ! mu* high] value #afgad4 ,! det]m9ations ( ,h(mann & ,burg]#cgi 9 #aijh gave ! mean value #afgch2 ) pur] mat]ial1 ,h(mann 9 #aiajchj obta9$ ! mean value #afgfh1 on :i* is bas$ ! value accept$ by ! ,int]national ,committee1 #afgg4 #cgh ,abegg1 ,,iii4 i4 #cah4 #cgi ,loc4 cit4 #chj ,loc4 cit4 ,detection4--,salts ( erbium give 9 solution absorption spectra :i* are well def9$ & highly *>act]i/ic1 ?\gh n s int5se z ^? ( praseodymium & neodymium4 ,h(mann & ,bugge#cha give ! foll[+ absorption maxima = a #aj p] c5t4 solution ( _! pure nitrate 9 a lay] ( #ae mm4 ?ickness3 #ffg weak #fed /rong #eda v weak #ebc v /rong #eai %ad[y #dib #dhg /rong #dej #ddb weak #cha ,b]4 #aijh1 #da1 #cghc4 ,! arc spectrum has be5 mapp$ by ,ed] & ,val5ta#chb & ,exn] & ,has*ek4 ,! foll[+ l9es are us$ by ,eb]h>d#chc = purposes ( detection3 #cbcjgc #cbfdia #ccabef #ccgbib #cdiibh #cfibhe #chifdj #cijfdg #cichgi #chb ,sitzungsb]4 kais]l4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,wi51 #aiaj1 #aai1 ,,iia1 #ah4 #chc ,publ4 a/rophys4 ,obs]v4 ,potsdam1 #aiji1 #bj1 ,no4 #fj4 ,?ulium1 ,tm #afhe ,! ?ulia isolat$ 9 #ahgi 0 describ$ by ,cleve#chd z pale rose 9 col\r2 9 ! foll[+ ye>1 hav+ obta9$ x 9 l>g] quantity1 he f\nd t x 0 :ite1 & dissolv$ 9 acids to =m col\rless solutions :i* %[$ absorption b&s 9 ! r$ & blue4 ,! spectra ( ! ?ulium comp\nds prep>$ by ,cleve 7 exam9$ by ,?aln1#che :o conclud$ t a new elem5t 0 c]ta9ly pres5t1 ?\gh x _h n be5 fre$ f ytt]bium & erbium4 ,incid5tal obs]vations on ! new oxide 7 made by v>i\s inve/igators1 b no ext5sive rese>*es 7 c>ri$ out ^u x until #aiaa1 :5 ,james#chf publi%$ an acc\nt ( ! sep>ation & purification by ! bromate me?od1 /at+ t aft] "s #ae1jjj op]ations1 8 products rema9$ unalt]$2 he gives1 h[ev]1 no spectroscopic det]m9ations1 ?\gh "p ( 8 mat]ial1 spectroscopically exam9$ by ,sir ,william ,crookes1 0 describ$ z #8,v good ?ulium1 ) a trace ( ytt]bium4' ,9 ! same ye> ,au] von ,welsba*#chg publi%$ an acc\nt ( a spectroscopic inve/igation1 z a result ( :i* he concludes t ?ulium is a mixture ( at lea/ ?ree elem5ts1 ( :i* ! second1 ,tm ,,ii1 agrees fairly well 9 prop]ties1 s f> z ! two acc\nts all[ ( comp>ison1 ) ! ?ulium ( ,james4 #chd ,loc4 cit4 #che ,compt4 r5d4 #ahhj1 #ia1 #cgf4 #chf ,j4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiaa1 #cc1 #accc4 #chg ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aiaa1 #ga1 #dci4 ,?ulia is describ$ by ,james z a d5se :ite p[d]1 ) a gre5i% t+e1 :i* #8emits a c>m9e col\r$ gl[1 :5 c>efully made to inc&esce4' ,! salts h a gre5i% t9t1 v susceptible to traces ( erbium2 addition ( erbium comp\nds turn ! solution fir/ yell[i%-gre51 !n col\rless1 & f9ally p9k4 von ,welsba* describes ,?ulium ,,ii z =m+ an almo/ :ite sesquioxide1 :i*1 :5 heat$ 9 ! flame1 gives a purpli% light quickly succe$$ by a spl5did *>act]i/ic gl[2 ! salts are pale yell[i%-gre5 by daylight1 em]ald-gre5 by artificial light1 ! col\r be+ almo/ complem5t>y to t ( erbium salts4 ,9 solution1 salts ( ,tm ,,ii give ! b&s at #fhe & #dfd ascrib$ by ,james & o!r work]s to ?ulium4 ,until fur!r rese>*es on ^! int]e/+ results are publi%$1 ! elem5t>y nature ( ?ulium _c be consid]$ def9itely settl$2 x appe>s probable1 h[ev]1 t homog5e\s salts ( a def9ite elem5t 7 obta9$ by ,james4 ,! foll[+ salts are describ$ by ,james 7loc4 cit474 ,! *loride1 ,tm,cl1#g;,h,o1 sep>ates at ord9>y temp]atures f ! conc5trat$ solution ( ! oxide 9 hydro*loric acid z gre5i% cry/als1 v soluble 9 alcohol & wat]4 ,! bromate1 ,tm7,br,o71#i;,h,o1 =ms pale blui%-gre5 hexagonal prisms1 isomorph\s ) ! analog\s salts ( ! gr\p4 ,! sulphate & nitrate sep>ate z ! octohydrates4 ,! precipitat$ oxalate has ! =mula ,tm7,c,o71#f;,h,o1 & is soluble 9 excess ( alkali oxalate4 ,! acetylacetone d]ivative 0 prep>$ by dissolv+ ! precipitat$ & well-wa%$ hydroxide 9 alcoholic acetylacetone2 x recry/allises f absolute 787 alcohol z ! dihydrate1 ,tm7,c,h,o71#b;,h,o4 ,! ph5oxyacetate1 ,tm7,c,h,o,,*,,coo71#f;,h,o1 0 obta9$ 9 a simil> mann] by addition ( ! hydroxide to a solution ( ph5oxyacetic acid 9 dilute alcohol4 ,atomic ,weight4--,cleve gave ! value #agjg = ?is con/ant1 b 8 mat]ial 0 v impure4 ,9 a footnote to a pap] publi%$ 9 #aijg1 ,urba9#chh po9t$ out t ! value c\ld n be above #afhe4 ,analyses ( ! salts prep>$ by ,james agree fairly well ) ! !oretical values calculat$ on ?is basis1 b a sy/ematic det]m9ation ) pure mat]ial has n yet be5 made4 ,! ,int]national ,committee 7#aiab7 h adopt$ ! value #afhe4 #chh ,compt4 r5d4 #aijg1 #ade1 #gfj4 ,detection4--,! elem5t c be detect$ 9 solution by its absorption spectrum1 ! mo/ int5se b&s be+ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( #fhe1 & #dfd4 ,= provisional arc spectra see ,exn] & ,has*ek1 & = sp>k spectra ,au] von ,welsba* 7loc4 cit47 & ,ed] & ,val5ta4#chi #chi ,sitzungsb]4 kais]l4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,wi51 #aiaj1 #aai1 ,,iia1 #ajc4 ,ytt]bium 7,neoytt]bium1 ,aldeb>anium71 ,yb #agbj4 ,lutecium 7,cassiopeium71 ,lu #agdj4 ,! fir/ indication ( ! complexity ( ,m>ignac's ,ytt]bium 0 furni%$ on spectroscopic gr\nds by ,au] von ,welsba* 9 #aije2cij he %[$ t a sep>ation c\ld be effect$ by ! fractional cry/allisation ( ! ammonium d\ble oxalates f conc5trat$ ammonium oxalate4 ,?ree ye>s lat]#cij he publi%$ a full acc\nt ( 8 me?od1 gave atomic weight det]m9ations1 & mapp$ ! spectra ( ! two new elem5ts4 ,9 #aijg1 ,urba9#cia indep5d5tly effect$ a sep>ation by ! fractional cry/allisation ( ! nitrates f nitric acid1 & propos$ ! names ,lutecium 7f ! old "n = ,p>is7 & ,neoytt]bium = ! elem5ts4 #cij ,see ,monats4 #aijh1 #bi1 #bjd4 #cia ,compt4 r5d4 #aijg1 #ade1 #gei4 ,! two new elem5ts resemble "o ano!r s closely 9 *emical prop]ties t ! acc\nt giv5 by ,a/rid ,cleve 9 #aijbcib ( ! comp\nds ( ! old ytt]bium applies 9 practically e detail to ! new elem5ts4 ,! oxides are :ite1 & yield col\rless salts1 %[+ 9 solution no absorption b&s 9 ! visible region4 #cib ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aijb1 #cb1 #abi4 ,! oxides1 ,r,o1 ?\gh p]fectly :ite1 are col\r$ yell[ or br[n by ! fa9te/ traces ( ?ulium4 ,!y are attack$ by acids only sl[ly 9 ! cold1 b dissolve readily on w>m+2 lutecia is slightly ! less /rongly basic4 ,! *lorides cry/allise ) six molecules ( wat]1 & are extremely soluble & deliquesc5t2 :5 heat$ 9 a /ream ( hydrog5 *loride1 !y =m oxy*lorides ( ! type ,r,o,cl4 ,! plat9ocyanides cry/allise ) #ah molecules ( wat]1 & h ! *>act]i/ic appe>ance ( ! analog\s comp\nds ( ! yttrium elem5ts4 ,! sulphates cry/allise at all temp]atures z ! normal octohydrates1 & are mod]ately easily soluble 9 wat]2 conductivity measurem5ts %[ t !y are p>tially hydrolys$ 9 solution4 ,! nitrates cry/allise f conc5trat$ aque\s or nitric acid solutions z ! tetrahydrates2 by evaporation ( ! aque\s solutions ov] sulphuric acid1 ! trihydrates are obta9$4 ,^! comp\nds are anomal\s among ! r>e e>? nitrates1 by reason ( _! l[ wat] cont5t4 ,! neutral c>bonates are ?r[n d[n by ammonium c>bonate z ! tetrahydrates2 if a /ream ( c>bon dioxide be l$ into aque\s susp5sion ( ! hydroxides1 basic c>bonates ( ! =mula ,r7,,oh7,,co1,h,o1 are obta9$4 ,! oxalates are precipitat$ z ! decahydrates2 !y are readily soluble 9 excess ( alkali oxalate4 ,_m o!r salts ( ! old ytt]bium h be5 prep>$4 ,atomic ,weights4--,! values det]m9$ by ,urba9 7loc4 cit47 = ! fractions obta9$ by ! nitrate me?od gave ! numb] #agja = ! lea/ soluble fraction free f t]bium1 & #agcd = ! mo/ soluble fraction4 ,au] von ,welsba* 7loc4 cit47 obta9$ ! values #agbi & #agdb = ! lea/ soluble & mo/ soluble fractions f ! d\ble oxalate cry/allisation respectively4 ,m rec5tly#cic he has det]m9$ ^! con/ants ) highly purifi$ mat]ial1 employ+ a modifi$ me?od4 ,! weigh$ anhydr\s sulphates are trans=m$ into ! oxalates1 :i* are !n ignit$ to ! oxides4 ,he obta9$ ! values ,yb #agcjj1 ,lu #agejj4 #cic ,monats4 #aiac1 #cd1 #agac4 ,! values adopt$ by ! ,int]national ,committee are ,yb #agbj & ,lu #agdj4 ,spectra4--,! sp>k spectra are ( m use 9 di/+ui%+ ! two elem5ts ?an ! arc spectra4 ,! sp>k spectrum ( ! old ytt]bium 0 mapp$ by ,exn] & ,has*ek1#cid & ( ! two comp\nds by bo? discov]]s 7loc4 cit474 ,see also ,ed] & ,val5ta4#cie #cid ,sitzungsb]4 kais]l4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,wi51 #ahii1 #ajh1 ,,iia1 #aabc4 #cie ,ibid4 #aiaj1 #aai1 ,,iia1 #c4 ,! arc spectra h be5 mapp$ by ,ed] & ,val5ta 7loc4 cit47 & by ,exn] & ,has*ek2 ! latt] au?ors give z ! mo/ int5se l9es ! foll[+3 ,yb ,lu #cjcabf #bfaeej #ccigba #dabdhg #cajgii #biaaec #cdgbfe #dahddj #cbhiej #cjggge #cejgeg #deahgd #cdfddg #caihbg #cejhee #edgfhh #cihhaf #cbedde #ceedeh #eihcib #eeeffg #cbhahi #cefhjj #eihdcb #ccabcj #cfbdaj #fbbbaj #cceigd #cfcfda #fdfcdj #ccgffi #chgfhj ,celtium ,! sep>ation ( ,m>ignac's ytt]bium into ! two elem5ts describ$ above 0 accompli%$ by ,urba9 ) ! yttria e>?s extract$ f x5otime4 ,9 c>ry+ out ! same process ) ! ytt]bia e>?s f gadol9ite1 t au?or#cif obta9$ f ! "m-liquor an e>? = :i* ! coeffici5t ( magnetisation 0 f\nd to be #da #aj2 lutecia has a coeffici5t ?ree to f\r times z great4 ,a spectroscopic exam9ation reveal$ ! pres5ce ( l9es :i* did n correspond ) ^? ( any kn[n body1 & ,urba9 consid]$ t a new elem5t1 = :i* he propos$ ! "n ,celtium1 ) ! symbol ,ct1 mu/ be pres5t4 ,lutecia f x5otime %[s no trace ( ! new elem5t4 #cif ,compt4 r5d4 #aiaa1 #aeb1 #ada4 ,spectroscopic evid5ce = ! exi/5ce ( a ?ird ytt]bium elem5t _h previ\sly be5 br\ght =w>d by ,au] von ,welsba*#cig & also by ,exn] & ,has*ek4#cih #cig ,monats4 #aijh1 #bi1 #bjd4 #cih ,exn] & ,has*ek1 ,sitzungsb]4 kais]l4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,wi51 #aiaj1 #aai1 ,,iia1 #gga4 ,! new elem5t appe>s to be int]m$iate betwe5 lutecium & sc&ium1 & !re=e may be expect$ to h a high] atomic weight ?an ! =m] elem5t4 ,its *loride is m volatile ?an t ( lutecium1 less volatile ?an t ( sc&ium2 its hydroxide is m feebly basic ?an t ( lutecium1 b m /rongly basic ?an t ( sc&ium4 ,urba9 7loc4 cit47 gives ! foll[+ z ! pr9cipal l9es 9 ! spectrum2 /rong l9es are d5ot$ by a s+le1 v /rong by a d\ble1 a/]isk3 #bdeid #bdfic #bdhaf 99 #becfi 99 #bfggg #bfheb 9999 #bgbia 99 #bgcgi #bgfeh 9999 #bhcdc 99 #bhcgc 99 #bhdeb 99 #bhgjb #bhhea 99 #bijci 99 #bicai #bidie 99 #cjhjg 9999 #caahf 9999 #cagad 99 #caigi 9999 #ccbfj 99 #cciae 99 #cffef ,yttrium1 ,yt #hij ,s9ce ! sep>ation ( yttria prop] f ! old yttria e>?s by ,mos&]1 9 #ahdb1 ! individuality ( yttrium has be5 well e/abli%$4 ,! yttria ( ! work]s ( ! sixties & sev5ties1 to judge f ! atomic weight det]m9ations1 mu/ h be5 v impure1 b no d\bts 7 rais$ z to its homog5eity4 ,by exam9ation ( ! ca?ode lum9esc5ce spectra1 ,crookes#cii conclud$ t ! oxide 0 ( a complex nature2 ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran1 h[ev]1 %[$ t ! ph5om5a obs]v$ by ,crookes 7 due to traces ( impurity 9 8 mat]ial1 a conclusion confirm$ by ! "w ( ,baur & ,m>c4#djj #cii ,trans4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #ahhi1 #ee1 #bee4 #djj ,b]4 #aija1 #cd1 #bdfj4 ,! oxide is ! mo/ /rongly basic ( all ! yttria e>?s2 9 ! basicity me?ods ( sep>ation1 !re=e1 x collects 9 ! end fractions1 & is easily sep>at$ f ! erbia & ytt]bia e>?s by ! nitrate fusion & simil> processes4 ,! t]bia e>?s1 h[ev]1 :i* are comp>able to x 9 basic /r5g?1 _c be easily sep>at$ by su* me?ods2 processes ( fractional cry/allisation are v conv5i5t 9 ?is case1 s9ce yttrium falls1 ) reg>d to ! solubility ( its simple salts1 among ! erbium gr\p--betwe5 holmium & erbium g5]ally--:i* is easily sep>at$ f ! less soluble t]bium elem5ts4 ,! sep>ation ( yttrium1 !re=e1 af=ds an example ( ! comb9ation ( me?ods ( bo? k9ds4 ,! me?ods = ! sep>ation & purification ( yttrium h rec5tly be5 exhau/ively exam9$ by ,mey] & ,wuor954#dja ,!y consid] ! *romate me?od suitable only if ! t]bium elem5ts h already be5 remov$4 ,! e?ylsulphate me?od is said to be t$i\s1 :il/ ! f]rocyanide me?od inde$ effects v rapid conc5tration1 b ) great loss4 ,= purposes ( conc5tration !y f9d ! mo/ suitable me?od 9 ! fractional hydrolysis ( ! ph?alates2 ^! salts are soluble 9 cold wat]1 b hydrolyse :5 ! solution is w>m$1 ! mo/ positive elem5ts rema9+ ( c\rse longe/ 9 solution4 ,= ! f9al purification1 !y recomm5d fractional precipitation ( ! iodate f nitric acid solution2 yttrium iodate be+ m soluble ?an ! iodates ( ! erbium & ytt]bium gr\p1 ! latt] collect 9 ! fir/ precipitates4 #dja ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aiac1 #hj1 #g2 ,mey] & ,we9heb]1 ,b]4 #aiac1 #df1 #bfgb4 ,pure yttria is q :ite1 & gives rise to col\rless salts1 :i* 9 solution %[ no absorption spectrum 9 ! visible region4 ,a v l>ge numb] ( yttrium comp\nds h be5 prep>$1 ( :i* suffici5tly detail$ acc\nts h be5 giv5 9 ! g5]al description ( r>e e>? comp\nds4 ,= an exhau/ive treatm5t1 ! read] is ref]r$ to ,abegg's #8,h&bu*4' ,! metal has probably n be5 obta9$ 9 ! pure /ate2 impure yttrium has be5 obta9$ by ,w9kl]#djb by ! action ( magnesium on ! oxide1 & by ,cleve#djc by ! action ( sodium on a mixture ( ! *loride ) common salt1 & by electrolysis ( ! mixture ( fus$ *lorides4 ,x is describ$ z a greyi% metal1 resembl+ iron 9 appe>ance2 x oxidises 9 ! air & readily decomposes boil+ wat]4 ,! hydroxide is ?r[n d[n z a gelat9\s precipitate by alkalies2 ammonia ?r[s d[n basic salts1 b 9 pres5ce ( hydrog5 p]oxide an hydrat$ p]oxide is obta9$4 ,! oxide absorbs c>bon dioxide f ! air1 & lib]ates ammonia f ammonium salts4 #djb ,b]4 #ahij1 #bc1 #ggb4 #djc ,bull4 ,soc4 ,*im4 #ahgd1 ii41 #ba1 #cdd2 ,cleve & ,hglund1 ibid4 #ahgc1 ii41 #ah1 #aic2 see also ,popp1 ,annal51 #ahfd1 #aca1 #cei4 ,! anhydr\s *loride has be5 prep>$ by _m au?ors2 x melts at a relatively l[ temp]ature1 #fhj1 & is ! mo/ easily volatilis$ ( all ! r>e e>? *lorides4 ,aft] fusion1 x =ms a mass ( brilliant :ite lamell4#djd ,x is *>act]is$ by ! ease ) :i* x dissolves 9 pyrid9e4 ,f aque\s solution x sep>ates z ! hexahydrate1 ,yt,cl1#f;,h,o1 :i* melts at #afj4 ,! bromide sep>ates f solution z ! enneahydrate1 ,yt,br1#i;,h,o2 ! bromate#dje also sep>ates ) #i molecules ( wat] ( cry/allisation4 #djd ,compt4 r5d4 #aijb1 #acd1 #acjh4 #dje ,james & ,langeli]1 ,j4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiji1 #ca1 #iac4 ,! nitrate _c be obta9$ anhydr\s2 ! normal hydrate1 ,yt7,,no71#f;,h,o1 loses #c molecules ( wat] at #ajj1 b fur!r heat+ conv]ts x into basic salts4 ,a basic nitrate1 #c,yt,o1#d,n,o1#bj;,h,o1 is describ$ by ,james & ,pratt#djf z /able at ord9>y temp]atures1 & 9 contact ) solutions ( ! normal nitrate4 ,! sulphate octohydrate is isomorph\s ) analog\s comp\nds ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts1 & ) ! sel5ate1 ,yt7,se,o71#h;,h,o2 ! latt] comp\nd c also =m an enneahydrate4 ,! phosphate1 ,yt,p,o1 occurs 9 nature 9 ! m9]al x5otime1 & has be5 obta9$ 9 ! laboratory 9 ! cry/all9e =m2 _m o!r phosphates h be5 prep>$4 ,! plat9ocyanide1 ,yt,pt7,,cn71#ba;,h,o1 has ! *>act]i/ic r$ col\r ) gre5i%-blue fluoresc5ce4 #djf ,j4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiaj1 #cb1 #hgc4 ,_m organic yttrium salts h be5 prep>$ by ,james & ,pratt#djg & by ,tanat> & ,voljanski4#djh #djg ,j4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiaa1 #cc1 #accj4 #djh ,vide ,ab/r4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiaj1 #ih1 i4 #hji4 ,atomic ,weight4--,! numb]s obta9$ by ! inve/igators :o h det]m9$ ?is con/ant v>y to su* an ext5t t consid]able unc]ta9ty atta*es to ! value1 #hij1 at pres5t accept$ by ! ,int]national ,committee4 ,! det]m9ations c>ri$ out prior to #ahgj gave su* div]se results t !y are ( little use 9 fix+ ! con/ant2 s9ce t date1 all ! inve/igations1 ) ! exception ( ! mo/ rec5t1 h giv5 values bel[ #ij1 ! sulphate me?od be+ g5]ally employ$4 ,cleve & ,hglund1#dji 9 #ahhc1 c>ri$ out six det]m9ations by ! syn!tic me?od2 _! results 7 concordant1 & gave ! mean value #hieg4 ,braun] consid]s ?is result if any?+ too l[1 z traces ( undecompos$ acid sulphate may h be5 pres5t 9 ! anhydr\s sulphate4 ,! same me?od 0 employ$ aga9 by ,cleve 9 #ahhd2daj ! mean ( twelve v concordant results gave ! numb] #hiaa4 #dji ,loc4 cit4 #daj ,compt4 r5d4 #ahhc1 #ie1 #abbe4 ,mu* /ress is laid by ,braun]#daa on an unpubli%$ det]m9ation ( ,m>ignac1 c>ri$ out ) mat]ial entirely free f t]bia1 :i* gave ! value #hhhh4 ,h4 ,c4 ,jones 9 #ahiedab c>ri$ out two s]ies ( det]m9ations ) mat]ial purifi$ by ,r[l&'s me?od1 i4e4 precipitation ) potassium f]rocyanide2#dac ! results 9 bo? s]ies 7 v concordant1 ! syn!tic me?od giv+ ! value #hhie1 ! analytical me?od ! value #hhig4 ,?is "w has be5 tak5 by ! ,int]national ,committee z ! basis = ! accept$ value4 ,accord+ to ,braun]1 ! f]rocyanide me?od does n give p]fectly pure mat]ial4#dad #daa ,abegg's ,h&bu*1 ,,iii4 i4 #cbh4 #dab ,am]4 ,*em4 ,j4 #ahie1 #ag1 #aed4 #dac ,r[l&1 ,*em4 ,news1 #ahid1 #gj1 #fh2 comp>e also ,crookes1 ibid4 #gj1 #ha-hb4 ,bett5dorff 7see ,bhm1 ,die ,d>/ellung d] selt55 ,erd51 ,i4 #dhj7 has also us$ ! me?od4 #dad ,see also ,mey] & ,wuor95 7loc4 cit474 ,egan & ,balke#dae h rec5tly f\nd ! ratio ,yt,o 3 #b,yt,cl to be v suitable z a basis = atomic weight det]m9ations2 ! oxide is conv]t$ into ! anhydr\s *loride 9 a qu>tz flask4 ,9 a prelim9>y exp]im5t1 !y obta9 z a mean ( ?ree consi/5t det]m9ations ! provisional value #ijab2 ! yttria employ$ 0 consid]$ to conta9 n m ?an "o-half p] c5t4 ( erbia4 #dae ,j4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiac1 #ce1 #cfe4 ,rec5t "w by ,mey] & 8 co-work]s#daf indicates t ! accept$ value is too high4 ,prelim9>y "w ) ! syn!tic sulphate me?od gave ! values 7correct$7 #hhga & #hhgc2 ! mean value ( six analytical sulphate det]m9ations1 made on mat]ial c>efully purifi$ by ! iodate me?od1 0 #hhge1 ! extreme values be+ #hhga & #hhgf4 ,!y consid] t ! true atomic weight is #hhg1 ! value ( ! second decimal figure be+ a little unc]ta94 #daf ,mey] & ,wuor952 ,mey] & ,we9heb]1 loc4 cit4 ,detection4--,! sp>k spectrum ( yttrium has be5 exam9$ by _m au?ors1 & ! ultraviolet z well z ! visible regions h be5 mapp$2 vide ,exn] & ,has*ek2 ,ed] & ,val5ta1 also ,becqu]el4#dag #dag ,compt4 r5d4 #aijh1 #adf1 #fhc4 ,! arc spectrum has be5 exam9$ by ,kays]1 ,eb]h>d1#dah & ,ed] & ,val5ta2#dai ,exn] & ,has*ek give ! foll[+ z ! mo/ int5se l9es3 #dah ,zeits*4 wiss4 ,photo*em4 #aiji1 #g1 #bde4 #dai ,sitzungsb]4 kais]l4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,wi51 #aiaj1 #aai1 ,i,ia1 #a4 #cbafhc #cbdbdb #ccbhjb #cfjjib #cfaabj #cfbaaj #cfccbh #cffdgh #cgajdg #cggdeb #cghhhh #ciejeb #cihbgi #djgged #dajbeg #dabhej #dadcjc #dagggd #dcjbde #dcjigi #dcdhic #dcgeab #dhhchi #faiaia #fdcebg ,pure yttrium comp\nds %\ld be col\rless1 %[ no absorption 9 ! visible region1 & yield a p]fectly :ite oxide4 ,sc&ium1 ,sc #dda ,! sc&ia obta9$ by ,nilson 9 #ahgi 0 isolat$ f ! m9]als gadol9ite & eux5ite2 x consi/$ v l>gely ( ytt]bia1 z %[n by spectrum exam9ation#dbj & by atomic weight det]m9ations1 :i* gave ! value #ij4 ,9 ! same ye>#dba ,cleve prep>$ ! oxide 9 a mu* pur] /ate1 us+ z 8 s\rce ! m9]als gadol9ite & keilhauite2 he describ$ sev]al salts1 c>ri$ out atomic weight det]m9ations by ! analytical & syn!tic sulphate me?ods1 & %[$ t sc&ium corresponds ) ! ,eka-boron ( :i* ! exi/5ce 0 pr$ict$ by ,m5delejeff 9 #ahga4dbb ,/>t+ f a l>ge quantity ( eux5ite1 ,nilson#dbc 9 ! foll[+ ye> prep>$ sev]al grams ( approximately pure sc&ia1 :i* conta9$ only traces ( ytt]bium4 #dbj ,?aln1 ,compt4 r5d4 #ahgi1 #hh1 #fdb2 #ahhj1 #ia1 #de4 #dba ,compt4 r5d4 #ahgi1 #hh1 #dai4 #dbb ,see also ,m5delejeff1 ,b]4 #ahha1 #ad1 #bhba4 #dbc ,b]4 #ahhj1 #ac1 #adci4 ,! inve/igation ( sc&ium1 :i* occurs only 9 extremely small quantities 9 ! m9]als employ$ by ,nilson & ,cleve1 & 0 !re=e believ$ to be exce$+ly r>e1 0 n cont9u$ until #aijh1 :5 ,sir ,william ,crookes#dbd made a sy/ematic inve/igation ( a l>ge numb] ( m9]als 9 ord] to f9d a conv5i5t s\rce ( ! elem5t4 ,he %[$ t sc&ium is pres5t 9 _m r>e e>? m9]als1 & select$ z ! mo/ suitable = ! extraction ( ! elem5t a complex m9]al nam$ ,wiikite1 "s specim5s ( :i* he f\nd to conta9 ov] #a p] c5t4 ( sc&ia 7see p4 #gj74 ,! m9]al 0 decompos$ by fusion ) potassium hydrog5 sulphate1 & sc&ia extract$ f ! r>e e>?s by ! nitrate fusion4 ,! sep>ation effect$ on ^! l9es 0 v ?or\gh1 ,crookes consid]+ a specim5 ( sc&ia unsatisfactory if x %[$ any trace ( ! dom9ant ytt]bium l9e1 #cfidcdd1 on an ov]-expos$ plate1 or if x gave an atomic weight = ! elem5t high] ?an #dda4 #dbd ,phil4 ,trans4 #aijh1 ,a1 #bji1 #ae4 ,a sy/ematic inve/igation ( ! common rocks & m9]als = sc&ium 0 c>ri$ out by ,eb]h>d 9 #aijh1 z a result ( :i* processes = ! extraction ( ! oxide f wolframite 7 work$ out by ,r4 ,j4 ,mey] 7see pp4 #c1 #aca74 ,wolframite is a tung/ate ( iron & manganese1 conta9+1 9 addition to o!r oxides1 small quantities ( ! r>e e>?s1 ( :i* consid]able proportions are f\nd to be sc&ia4 ,! m9]al is fus$ ) soda 9 ! usual way1 & ! r>e e>?s conc5trat$ by ! oxalate me?od4 ,sc&ium is precipitat$ z ! fluoride by addition ( sodium silic(luoride to ! boil+ acid solution1 & purifi$ by precipitation z ! d\ble ammonium t>trate4#dbe #dbe ,mey] & ,gold5b]g1 ,*em4 ,news1 #aiab1 #ajf1 #ac4 ,:il/ ! rese>*es ( ,crookes & ,eb]h>d h %[n h[ widely di/ribut$ ! elem5t really is1 ! m9]als :i* !y f\nd ri*e/ 9 sc&ium /ill conta9$ extremely small quantities ( ! oxide4 ,! discov]y ( ! m9]al ,?ortveitite 7see p4 #dd71 :i* conta9s ab\t #cg p] c5t4 ( sc&ia1 is !re=e ( ! greate/ sci5tific int]e/1 & w d\btless all[ ( a v se>*+ exam9ation ( ! prop]ties ( ?is int]e/+ elem5t4 ,:il/ ! l[ atomic weights ( sc&ium & yttrium place !m1 to "s ext5t1 ap>t f ! o!r r>e e>? elem5ts1 ! latt] elem5t at lea/ is s closely alli$ 9 prop]ties to ! o!r memb]s ( ! gr\p t yttria is "o ( ! typical oxides ( ! family4 ,sc&ium & its comp\nds1 h[ev]1 pres5t _m peculi>ities ( behavi\r :5 comp>$ ) ! typical memb]s1 on ! gr\nds ( :i* ,urba9#dbf has cont5d$ t sc&ia %\ld n be class$ among ! r>e e>?s at all4 ,:il/ ?is cont5tion is p]haps r extreme1 especially 9 view ( ! fact t 9 nature sc&ia always occurs ) o!r yttria oxides1 x mu/ be admitt$ t 9 _m respects ! elem5t is anomal\s4 ,! oxide is ! weake/ base ( ! :ole gr\p1 yet ! oxalate is comp>atively readily soluble 9 m9]al acids 7comp>e p4 #acb71 & ! potassium d\ble sulphate is almo/ insoluble 9 potassium sulphate4 ,! sulphate is altoge!r exceptional 9 t x is v easily soluble 9 wat]1 & cry/allises out ) #f molecules ( wat] ( cry/allisation4 ,! fluoride & ! c>bonate bo? dissolve readily 9 excess ( precipitant1 :il/ sodium ?iosulphate precipitates a basic salt f neutral solutions4 #dbf ,*em4 ,news1 #aije1 #ij1 #cai4 ,mey] has po9t$ out ! close resemblance betwe5 b]yllium & sc&ium4 ,! oxide & salts are col\rless2 ! latt] h a peculi> sweet a/r+5t ta/e1 & readily yield basic salts4 ,! hydroxide1 ,sc7,,oh71 is ?r[n d[n by alkalies z a bulky :ite gelat9\s mass2 ! oxide is a :ite p[d]1 less readily soluble 9 dilute acids ?an mo/ ( ! r>e e>?s4 ,! fluoride is important on acc\nt ( its insolubility 9 m9]al acids1 :i* exce$s t ( all ! o!r r>e e>? fluorides1 & approa*es t ( ?orium4 ,x is ?r[n d[n f neutral or acid solutions by addition ( hydr(luoric acid or a soluble fluoride2 if ! solution be boil$1 a soluble silic(luoride w also precipitate sc&ium fluoride1 ?\gh no precipitate is obta9$ 9 ! cold4 ,?is behavi\r is due to ! ease ) :i* ! silic(luoride is hydrolys$ at high temp]atures1 accord+ to ! equation3 ,sc7,si,f7 #f;,h,o #b,sc,f #c,si,o #f;,h,f & is ( great value 9 sep>at+ sc&ium f ! o!r e>?s4 ,! fluoride is extremely resi/ant to acids1 be+ completely decompos$ only by fus$ bisulphate4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( acids1 ! fre%ly precipitat$ fluoride dissolves 9 excess ( conc5trat$ alkali fluoride1 =m+ d\ble salts2 9 ?is behavi\r1 sc&ium resembles zirconium1 b diff]s f ?orium & ! c]ium & yttrium elem5ts4 ,! *loride sep>ates f solution at ord9>y temp]atures z ! dodecahydrate1 ,sc,cl1#ab;,h,o1 :i* loses #i molecules ( wat] :5 kept = six h\rs at #ajj4 ,! trihydrate ,sc,cl1#c;,h,o1 is conv]t$ into sc&ia at a r$ heat1 ) ! loss ( #f molecules ( hydrog5 *loride4 ,! iodate1 ,sc7,,io71#ah;,h,o1 is obta9$ z an almo/ insoluble :ite cry/all9e p[d] by addition ( ammonium iodate to a salt 9 solution2 hydrates ) #ae1 #ac1 & #aj molecules ( wat] are kn[n1 & at #bej ! anhydr\s comp\nd is obta9$4 ,x resembles ! iodates ( ! c]ium & yttrium gr\p 9 be+ soluble 9 /rong nitric acid1 b ! sep>ation ( ?oria & sc&ia by ?is me?od is t$i\s & unsatisfactory4#dbg #dbg ,mey]1 ,w9t] & ,spet]1 ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aiaa1 #ga1 #fe4 ,! plat9ocyanide1 ,sc,pt7,,cn71#ba;,h,o1 0 obta9$ by ,crookes#dbh by d\ble decomposition ( ! sulphate ) b>ium plat9ocyanide1 9 crimson monocl9ic prisms1 ) a gre5 fluoresc5ce4 ,x dissolves 9 wat] to a col\rless solution4 ,orlov#dbi %[s t x c occur also 9 a second =m1 /able at high] temp]atures2 ?is is yell[1 ) a blue fluoresc5ce & cry/allises ) #ah molecules ( wat]4 ,! two modifications resemble respectively ! plat9ocyanides ( ! yttrium & ( ! c]ium elem5ts2 9 ?is respect1 !re=e1 sc&ium occupies an int]m$iate position betwe5 ! two gr\ps4 #dbh ,phil4 ,trans4 #aiaj1 ,a1 #baj1 #cei4 #dbi ,ab/r4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiac1 #ajd1 i4 #bg4 ,! sulphate1 ,sc7,,s71 is obta9$ anhydr\s by evaporat+ ! excess ( acid f a solution ( ! oxide 9 ! conc5trat$ acid1 c>e be+ tak5 to avoid too high a temp]ature4 ,! comp\nd dissolves v easily 9 wat]1 & sl[ly hydrates itself ) evolution ( heat2 no cry/als c be obta9$ f ! solution until x has be5 conc5trat$ to ! consi/5cy ( a syrup1 :5 on cool+ x sl[ly deposits ! hexahydrate4 ,?is effloresces 9 a dry atmosph]e1 =m+ ! p5tahydrate1 :i* appe>s to be ! mo/ /able hydrate at ord9>y temp]atures4 ,accord+ to ,nilson1 ! hexahydrate loses #d molecules ( wat] :5 ma9ta9$ at #ajj4 ,at #bej x becomes anhydr\s2 above t temp]ature1 basic salts are =m$4 ,! potassium d\ble sulphate1 #c,k,,s1,sc7,,s71 0 %[n by ,nilson to resemble ! analog\s c]ium comp\nds 9 be+ insoluble 9 a saturat$ solution ( potassium sulphate4 ,! nitrate1 ,sc7,,no71#d;,h,o1 sep>ates f conc5trat$ solutions ov] sulphuric acid z ! tetrahydrate2 x is v soluble 9 wat] & alcohol1 & extremely deliquesc5t4 ,! c>bonate1 ,sc7,,co71#ab;,h,o1 is ?r[n d[n by addition ( ammonium c>bonate z a bulky :ite precipitate1 easily soluble 9 a hot solution ( ! precipitant2 ! solubility 9 excess may be us$ 9 ! sep>ation ( sc&ia f yttria4 ,addition ( wat] to su* solutions causes sep>ation ( a basic c>bonate1 b cry/all9e d\ble c>bonates may be obta9$ by evaporation ( conc5trat$ solutions conta9+ a l>ge excess ( alkali c>bonate4 ,! sodium comp\nd1 ,sc7,,co71#d,na,,co1#f;,h,o1 is v sp>+ly soluble1 & has be5 us$ 9 ! sep>ation f ?orium4 ,! oxalate1 ,sc7,c,o71#e;,h,o1 diff]s f o!r oxalates ( ! gr\p1 :i* g5]ally sep>ate ) #aj molecules ( wat] ( cry/allisation1 n only 9 its wat] cont5t1 & 9 its solubility 9 acids1 b also 9 ! ease ) :i* x =ms d\ble oxalates soluble 9 excess ( alkali oxalate2 9 ?is latt] prop]ty x %[s a fur!r resemblance to zirconium & ?orium4 ,! =mate & acetate h ! =mul ,sc7,,oh77,,hcoo71,h,o & ,sc7,,oh77,,*,,coo71#b;,h,o1 respectively4 ,a l>ge numb] ( organic salts h be5 describ$ by ,sir ,william ,crookes4#dcj #dcj ,loc4 cit42 see also ,mey]1 ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aijh1 #fj1 #acd2 ,mey] & ,w9t]1 ibid4 #aiaj1 #fg1 #cih4 ,atomic ,weight4--,! mean values obta9$ by ,cleve#dca 9 #ahgi 7 #ddif & #debj by ! analytical & syn!tic sulphate me?ods respectively4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye> ,nilson1#dcb us+ pur] mat]ial1 obta9$ ! value #ddac by ! syn!tic me?od4 ,mey] & o!rs 7loc4 cit47 h criticis$ ,nilson's e/imation on ! gr\nd ( 8 empirical me?od ( obta9+ ! neutral anhydr\s sulphate4 ,det]m9ations made ) mat]ial purifi$ f ?orium by ! iodic acid me?od gave ! values #ddaa1 #ddaa1 #ddbj2 mat]ial purifi$ by ! d\ble ammonium t>trate me?od gave ! atomic weight #dcij4 ,mey] has %[n t small quantities ( ?oria 9 ! oxide _c be detect$ spectroscopically2 ! value ( ! magnetisation coeffici5t1 h[ev]1 %[$ ! oxide obta9$ by ! la/ me?od to be free f ?oria1 & he consid]s ano!r det]m9ation ( ! atomic weight to be necess>y4 #dca ,loc4 cit4 #dcb ,loc4 cit4 ,! value accept$ by ! ,int]national ,committee is #dda4 ,detection4--,sc&ium gives no absorption spectrum 9 ! visible region4 ,! sp>k spectrum has be5 exam9$ by ,?aln 7loc4 cit47 & ,nilson2#dcc see also ,exn] & ,has*ek1 ,locky] & ,bax5dall1#dcd & ,crookes 7loc4 cit474 ,! arc spectrum has be5 exam9$ by ,f[l]1#dce ,ed] & ,val5ta1#dcf & ,exn] & ,has*ek4 #dcc ,compt4 r5d4 #ahhj1 #ia1 #ef1 #aah4 #dcd ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 #aije1 #gd1 #ech4 #dce ,phil4 ,trans4 #aijh1 ,a1 #bji1 #dg4 #dcf ,sitzungsb]4 kais]l4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,wi51 #aiaj1 #aai1 ,,iia1 #egf4 ,! mo/ int5se l9es ( ! arc spectrum are ! foll[+3 #ccecij #ccgbcc #ceehfi #cefghi #cegbgc #cegfec #cfadjj #cfcjic #cfdbii #cijgfi #ciabjc #djbjfj #djbchh #dbdgjb #dcadca #dcbjih #dcbebb #dcgdfi #ddjjfc #ddaegh #fcjeid ,f[l] 7loc4 cit47 exam9$ ! arc spectrum ) ref]5ce to sol> spectra4 ,= detection ( ! elem5t 9 m9]als see ,crookes 7loc4 cit47 & ,eb]h>d 7loc4 cit474 ,! purity ( sc&ium prep>ations may be det]m9$ by ! foll[+ te/s3 7#a7 ,precipitation ) ?iosulphate 9 boil+ solution %\ld remove all ! r>e e>? cont5t f solution4 7#b7 ,! iodate te/ = ?orium %\ld give no result4 7#c7 ,! oxide mu/ be p]fectly :ite1 & salt solutions %[ no absorption4 7#d7 ,r4 ,j4 ,mey] has f\nd t :il/ #je p] c5t4 ( ?oria _c be detect$ spectroscopically 9 sc&ia1 ! magnetisation coeffici5t af=ds an exce$+ly delicate te/4 ,! value = pure sc&ia is -#jab #aj1 ! oxide be+ diamagnetic2 = sc&ia ) #je p] c5t4 ?oria ! coeffici5t 0 f\nd to be #jjd #aj1 ! mixture be+ p>amagnetic4 ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,! ,,gr\p ,,iva ,,elem5ts--,,titanium ,! oxides zirconia & ?oria 7 g5]ally class$ among ! r>e e>?s by ! e>li] *emi/s4 ,?is view 0 bas$ p>tly ^u ! mode ( occurr5ce ( ! oxides1 :i* are v g5]ally associat$ 9 nature ) r>e e>?s1 & 7 believ$ to be equally sp>+ly di/ribut$1 & p>tly on fallaci\s *emical analogies4 ,?us ,b]zelius reg>d$ ?oria z a monoxide1 ,th,o1 & class$ x ) ! o!r e>? oxides1 magnesia1 lime1 c]ia1 lan?ana1 etc41 to all ( :i* ! g5]al =mula ,,ro 0 assign$4 ,zirconia 0 reg>d$ z a sesquioxide1 ,zr,o1 analog\s to alum9a1 ,al,o1 :i* 9 turn %[$ _m po9ts ( resemblance to ! r>e e>?s4 ,! introduction ( ! p]iodic classification1 & a wid] k ( ! *emical prop]ties ( ! oxides1 h gradually alt]$ ! old] conceptions1 & zirconia & ?oria are n[ only class$ "u ! head #8,r>e ,e>?s' :5 t t]m is us$ 9 its wide/ s5se4 ,m g5]ally1 ! t]m is re/rict$ to ! oxides ( ! c]ium & yttrium elem5ts1 :i*1 :il/ !y _c all be plac$ 9 ,gr\p ,,iii ( ! table1 yet con/itute a s]ies ) prop]ties :i* entitle !m to be consid]$ 9 t relation4 ,! elem5ts :i* fall into gr\p ,,iva ( ,m5delejeff's classification are titanium1 zirconium1 c]ium1 & ?orium2 ! elem5ts ( l[] atomic weight1 c>bon & silicon1 are plac$ by "s au?ors 9 ,gr\p ,,ivb1 by o!rs 9 ,gr\p ,,iva4 ,x is a feature ( ! p]iodic sy/em t ! memb]s ( ! ,a & ,b families %[ great diff]5ces 9 ! end gr\ps1 ,i & ,,vii1 ,,ii & ,,vi1 :i* disappe> z ! middle gr\ps are approa*$2 9 gr\p ,,iv ! families ,a & ,b %[ only slight diff]5ces 9 prop]ties1 correspond+ to _! amphot]ic "* & electro*emical indiff]5ce1 s t ! elem5ts c>bon & silicon may be plac$ z well 9 ! "o z 9 ! o!r4 ,g5]ally !y are plac$ 9 family ,b4 ,9 its tetraval5t condition1 titanium %[s a close relation%ip to silicon2 ! simil>ity is manife/$ by ! ease ) :i* ! dioxide replaces silica 9 _m m9]als1 & ! isomorphism ( _m titanates ) correspond+ silicates4 ,yet ! /r5g!n+ ( electropositive "*1 :i* always accompanies ! *ange 9 atomic weight 9 desc5d+ a v]tical column ( ! table1 is v app>5t 9 ! case ( titanium1 & its ability to =m salts 9 ! tetraval5t /ate is a v important prop]ty4 ,?is /r5g!n+ ( ! electropositive "* is /ill m m>k$ 9 ! case ( ! succe$+ elem5ts4 ,! salts ( zirconium are highly hydrolys$ 9 solution1 b !y are consid]ably m /able ?an ^? ( tetraval5t titanium2 ! c]ic salts %[ ! same *ange1 :il/ ?orium salts are comp>atively /able 9 solution1 & c be recry/allis$ f wat] )\t *ange4 ,zirconium hydroxide w n dissolve 9 alkalies1 ?\gh zirconates may be obta9$ 9 ! dry way2 ?orium hydroxide %[s no acidic prop]ties :atev]4 ,! *ange 9 electro*emical "* is accompani$ by correspond+ *anges 9 physical prop]ties ( ! elem5ts & _! comp\nds4 ,) ! exception ( c]ium1 :i* has a v l[ melt+-po9t 7#fbc71 ! elem5ts fuse only at high temp]atures2 titanium is ! mo/ refractory1 zirconium melts at ov] #aejj1 & ?orium at ab\t #adej4 ,! boil+-po9ts ( ! *lorides rise z ! s]ies is desc5d$2 titanium tetra*loride boils at #acf1 zirconium & ?orium *lorides at #djj-dej & #iej respectively2 zirconium *loride p>tly sublimes1 :il/ c]ic *loride decomposes :5 heat$4 ,! elem5ts ( ,gr\p ,,iva are di/+ui%$ f ! r>e e>? elem5ts by _! mu* less /rongly m>k$ electropositive "*4 ,?is is app>5t n only 9 ! amphot]ic nature ( ! oxides1 & 9 ! ease ) :i* ! salts are hydrolys$ 9 solution1 b 9 ! m pron\nc$ t5d5cy to ! =mation ( complex salts4 ,! complex fluorides ( ! type ,k,,rf are peculi>ly *>act]i/ic1 & 9 ! case ( titanium & zirconium h be5 v important = purposes ( analysis & atomic weight det]m9ation4 ,! solubility ( zirconium & ?orium salts 9 excess ( alkali oxalate or c>bonate is also 9 h>mony ) ! less pron\nc$ electropositive "* ( ^! elem5ts4 ,! sulphates ( titanium & zirconium appe> to be ( complex con/itution1 :il/ _! neutral *lorides _c be obta9$ f solution4 ,z is to be expect$ f its high atomic weight1 ?orium approa*es mo/ ne>ly to ! r>e e>?s 9 *emical prop]ties2 ?us x =ms /able d\ble nitrates ( ! type ,r,?7,,no7 & its salts1 especially ! sulphate1 resemble ^? ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts 9 _! solubility relations4 ,! elem5ts titanium1 zirconium1 & ?orium are di/+ui%$ also by ! fact t !y =m no def9ite hydroxides4 ,! precipitates ?r[n d[n f solutions ( ! salts1 on addition ( alkali1 are hydrat$ oxides1 :i* lose wat] cont9u\sly :5 dri$1 giv+ rise to no def9ite *emical individuals until con/ant weight is rea*$ ) ! anhydr\s oxides4 ,! hydroxides h ! fur!r *>act]i/ic1 common also to ! o!r memb]s ( ,gr\p ,,iv1 ( readily =m+ colloidal solutions & gels1 a prop]ty possess$ to "s ext5t also by ! elem5ts !mselves1 & p>ticul>ly by zirconium1 :i*1 :5 r$uc$ f its comp\nds1 %[s a great t5d5cy to g into colloidal solution m]ely on wa%+4 ,highly *>act]i/ic also is ! prop]ty ( =m+ #8meta'-oxides 7acids7 & #8meta'-salts1 :i* is common to all ! ,gr\p ,,iv elem5ts :i* h solid oxides4 ,9 pres5ce ( hydrog5 p]oxide1 alkalies ?r[ d[n *>act]i/ic hydrat$ p]oxides1 :i* h def9ite acidic prop]ties 9 ! case ( titanium3 ! zirconium comp\nd is less /rongly acidic1 ! c]ium comp\nd %[s no t5d5cy to salt =mation1 :il/ if hydrog5 p]oxide be add$ to a neutral or fa9tly acid solution ( a ?orium salt1 ! precipitate is a p]oxy-salt1 conta9+ "s acid gr\p+1 e4g4 ,,s1,,no4 ,) reg>d to val5cy1 ! elem5ts 9 ! typical comp\nds are tetraval5t4 ,titanium =ms ?ree s]ies ( salts1 9 :i* ! elem5t is respectively di-1 tri-1 & tetraval5t2 salts ( ! fir/ two s]ies h p[]ful r$uc+ prop]ties1 & ! comp\nds 9 :i* ! metal is tetraval5t are mo/ /able4 ,zirconium is always1 ) ! d\btful exception ( its p]oxy-comp\nds & ! l[] oxides1 tetraval5t4 ,c]ium1 z already describ$1 c =m two s]ies ( comp\nds1 9 :i* x is respectively tri- & tetraval5t2 ?orium1 l zirconium1 is always tetraval5t4 ,titanium1 ,ti #dha ,?\gh g5]ally class$ among ! r>e elem5ts1 titanium is probably at lea/ z widely di/ribut$ 9 nature z mo/ ( ! common metals4 ,x occurs z ! dioxide 9 small quantities 9 all ! common silicate rocks & m9]als1 & 9 traces 9 ! animal & vegetable k+doms2 ! elem5t has be5 id5tifi$ 9 ! sun & 9 _m />s1 & has be5 f\nd 9 meteorites4 ,probably ! commone/ m9]al 9 :i* ! elem5t occurs 9 quantity is ilm5ite1 or titanif]\s iron/one1 :i* occurs 9 enorm\s quantities 9 _m p>ts ( ! _w 7see p4 #eg74 ,! pure dioxide occurs 9 ! ?ree =ms ,rutile1 ,brookite1 & ,anatase 7q4v471 9 :i* x is said to be isotrimorph\s ) t9 dioxide4 ,o!r important titanium m9]als are ,p]ovskite1 ,titanite or ,sph5e1 ! ,eux5ite s]ies1 & o!r m9]als ( ! tantalo-columbate gr\p 7see ,"p ,i74 ,! comm]cial s\rces ( titanium comp\nds are ! m9]als rutile & ilm5ite4 ,^! may be op5$ up by fusion ) alkali or alkali c>bonate2 ! residue aft] extraction ) wat] is dissolv$ 9 acid1 & precipitat$ ) ammonia2 ! mixture ( iron & titanium oxides ?r[n d[n may be sep>at$ by "o ( ! me?ods outl9$ on p4 #cci4 ,fusion ) potassium bisulphate has also be5 employ$4 ,a v satisfactory me?od is t ( ,/hl]1#dcg 9 :i* ! ore is fus$ ) c>bon 9 ! electric furnace4 ,! c>bides s obta9$ are heat$ 9 a /ream ( *lor9e1 :5 ! volatile titanium tetra*loride di/ils ov]1 & may be obta9$ q pure by r$i/illation2 by appropriate me?ods1 ! requir$ comp\nds may be obta9$ f ?is4 7,see also pp4 #cbf-g47 #dcg ,b]4 #aijd1 #cg1 #ddje2 #aijf1 #ch1 #bfai4 ,! ,metal4--,! difficulty ( isolat+ metallic titanium 9 ! pure /ate is v great1 on acc\nt ( its great aff9ity = nitrog51 oxyg51 hydrog51 c>bon1 etc41 ! ease ) :i* x =ms alloys ) all ! common metals1 & ! extremely high melt+-po9t2 9 consequ5ce1 x is only )9 rec5t times t ! elem5t has be5 obta9$ 9 a /ate approximately approa*+ purity1 & ! acc\nts giv5 ( its physical prop]ties v>y v widely4 ,b]zelius prep>$ an impure titanium 7,ti #hf p] c5t47 by r$uction ( potassium titan(luoride ) potassium2 ! me?od 0 modifi$ by ,whl]1 :o heat$ a tube conta9+ two boats1 ( :i* "o 0 fill$ ) ! fluoride1 ! o!r ) sodium1 r$uction be+ effect$ by ! sodium vap\r4 ,_m au?ors h attempt$ ! r$uction ( titanium tetra*loride by means ( hydrog54 ,by heat+ ! tetra*loride ) sodium 9 a ca/ iron bomb1 ,nilson & ,pett]sson obta9$ a product conta9+ #ie p] c5t4 ( ! elem5t4 ,r$uction ( ! dioxide by means ( sodium1 magnesium1 silicon1 or alum9ium has n be5 f\nd to yield good results1 by reason ( ! ease ) :i* titanium alloys ) ^! elem5ts4 ,r$uction ( ! dioxide ) c>bon yields good results only :5 precautions are tak5 to avoid ! =mation ( ! comp\nd :i* ! elem5t s readily =ms ) c>bon & nitrog54 ,moissan#dch f\nd t if temp]atures high en\gh to decompose ?is comp\nd 7 us$1 ! product conta9$ z ! only impurity c>bon1 :i* c\ld be p>tly remov$ by fus+ ) ! dioxide2 ! product !n conta9$ #ih p] c5t4 ( titanium4 #dch ,compt4 r5d4 #ahie1 #abj1 #bij4 ,! elem5t has be5 obta9$ 9 ! fus$ condition by ,weiss & ,kays]1#dci :o press$ ! amorph\s =m into /icks1 "u a pressure ( #gj1jjj atmosph]es1 & employ$ ^! z p5cils = ! electric arc 9 vacuo2 ! metal fus$1 =m+ globules on ! ends ( ! electrodes1 :i* 7 deta*$ aft] ! app>atus _h be5 all[$ to cool4 #dci ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aiaj1 #fe1 #chh4 ,! amorph\s elem5t is a d>k p[d]1 resembl+ f9ely divid$ iron 7,f]rum r$uctum71 ( d5sity #ce-cf4 ,! specific heat rises rapidly ) ! temp]ature1 s t ! atomic heat has ! values #edj betwe5 #j & #ajj1 #fah betwe5 #j & #baj1 #gac betwe5 #j & #cjj1 & #ggg betwe5 #j & #ddj4 ,! amorph\s elem5t is said to be p>amagnetic4 ,! fus$ c>bonace\s product ( ,moissan =m$ an extremely brittle mass1 ) a %9+ :ite lu/re on ! fractur$ surface1 suffici5tly h>d to scrat* qu>tz & /eel2 its d5sity 0 det]m9$ z #dhg4 ,! product ( ,weiss & ,kays] 0 also extremely h>d & brittle2 :5 rubb$ aga9/ /eel1 x gave bright sp>ks4 ,its d5sity 0 f\nd to be #eagd1 & ! heat ( combu/ion = ! gram-atom1 #iggi ,k4 ,! amorph\s v>iety is fairly /able 9 air1 b burns vigor\sly :5 heat$ 9 air1 oxyg51 or halog5s4 ,heat$ 9 nitrog5 or ammonia1 x reacts vigor\sly1 =m+ ! nitride ,ti,n2 if c>bon is pres5t1 a peculi> sub/ance ( unc]ta9 composition1 kn[n z titanium cyanonitride1 is =m$4 ,?is sub/ance is also obta9$ :5 air is pass$ ov] a heat$ mixture ( ! dioxide ) coke1 & is f\nd 9 bla/-furnaces 9 :i* ores conta9+ small quantities ( titanium are work$2 x =ms brilliant r$ cubes1 :i* are extremely h>d & resi/ant to acids4 ,?is sub/ance1 z well z ! nitride itself1 yields ammonia :5 heat$ 9 /eam1 & has be5 propos$ z a m$ium = #8fix+' atmosph]ic nitrog5 7see p4 #ccg74 ,! amorph\s elem5t also absorbs hydrog51 :5 heat$ 9 ! gas1 b no def9ite hydride is kn[n4 ,x comb9es :5 heat$ ) almo/ all ! kn[n non-metals1 & =ms alloys ) all ! common metals4 ,moissan#ddj claims to h prep>$ a comp\nd z h>d z diamond by heat+ titanium ) boron 9 ! electric furnace4 ,! elem5t attacks /eam at a r$ heat4 #ddj ,loc4 cit4 ,! elem5t is fairly resi/ant to acids 9 ! cold1 b is readily attack$1 ) evolution ( hydrog51 on w>m+4 ,hot dilute hydro*loric acid gives ! tri*loride2 b dilute sulphuric acid is v>i\sly report$ to give ! di- & tri-salt4 ,hot nitric acid oxidises x readily1 =m+ ! s-call$ metatitanic acid4 ,hydr(luoric acid attacks x v readily1 =m+ ! tetrafluoride4 ,,comp\nds ,,( ,,dival5t ,,titanium4 ,! comp\nds ( dival5t titanium %[ resemblances to ^? ( dival5t iron1 *romium & vanadium1 b on acc\nt ( ! great difficulty ( prep>+ !m & protect+ !m f oxidation1 little is kn[n ( _! prop]ties & behavi\r2 ev5 ! col\r ( ! salts 9 solution is n kn[n ) c]ta9ty4 ,9 its dival5t /ate2 ! elem5t does n appe> to act z a /rongly positive metal2 ! salts 9 solution are said to %[ an acid reaction1 :il/ ! precipitates ?r[n d[n ) alkali oxalates & acetates are soluble 9 excess ( ! precipitant1 =m+ deeply col\r$ solutions4 ,) sodium phosphate ! soluble salts give a blui%-black precipitate1 ) potassium f]rocyanide & f]ricyanide1 d>k br[n & r$di%-br[n precipitates respectively4 ,!y are di/+ui%$ f salts ( ! high] oxides ( titanium by ! br[n col\ration produc$ by potassium ?iocyanate 9 pres5ce ( hydro*loric acid4#dda #dda v4 d4 ,p=dt51 ,annal51 #ahhf1 #bcd1 #beg2 #ahhg1 #bcg1 #bja2 see also ,b]4 #ahhi1 #bb1 #adhe4 ,! hydroxide is ?r[n d[n f solutions by addition ( alkali1 alkali c>bonate1 alkali cyanide1 or ammonium sulphide1 z a black precipitate4 ,x _c be trans=m$ to ! correspond+ oxide by dry+1 s9ce x attacks ! wat] ) evolution ( hydrog51 =m+ ! dioxide4 ,! monoxide1 ,ti,o1 has probably nev] be5 obta9$ 9 ! pure /ate2 x is =m$ by r$uction ( ! dioxide ) z9c or magnesium4 ,moissan#ddb obta9$ x 9 ! =m ( black prismatic cry/als by treat+ ! dioxide ) ! calculat$ am\nt ( *>coal 9 ! electric furnace4 ,! sulphide1 ,ti,s1 is an extremely /able comp\nd2 x c be prep>$ by heat+ ! high] sulphides 9 a /ream ( hydrog5 to a v high temp]ature1 & !n =ms pseudomorphs aft] ^!4#ddc ,x is a d>k r$ metallic mass1 :i* reacts 9 ! air only :5 heat$1 =m+ ! dioxide2 dilute acids & alkalies h no action on x1 conc5trat$ nitric acid oxidises x sl[ly4 #ddb ,loc4 cit4 #ddc ,see v4 d4 ,p=dt5 7loc4 cit472 ,?orpe1 ,*em4 ,news1 #ahhe1 #ea1 #bfj4 ,! di*loride1 ,ti,cl1 is obta9$ 9 ! impure /ate z a black p[d] by decomposition ( ! tri*loride at a r$ heat3 ! tetra*loride is =m$ at ! same "t1 & volatilises4#ddd ,accord+ to v4 d4 ,p=dt51#dde x is obta9$ by r$uction ( ! tetra*loride by sulphurett$ hydrog5 or sodium amalgam 9 ! cold4 ,! latt] au?or /ates t x dissolves 9 alcohol or wat] 9 abs5ce ( air to a d>k br[n solution2 ,fri$el & ,gur91 h[ev]1 /ate t x acts en]getically on ^! solv5ts ) evolution ( hydrog51 =m+ a yell[ solution4 ,:5 heat$ 9 ! air x burns1 evolv+ fumes ( ! tetra*loride & leav+ a residue ( ! dioxide4 ,! iodide1 ,ti,i1 has be5 obta9$ by ,defacq & ,copaux#ddf by r$uction ( ! tetraiodide ) silv] or m]cury1 z a black1 lu/r\s1 infusible sublimate4 ,x is insoluble 9 organic solv5ts1 b reacts ) wat] & aque\s alkalies1 & is readily attack$ by acids4 ,hydrog5 at a bright r$ heat r$uces x to amorph\s titanium4 #ddd ,fri$el & ,gur91 ,compt4 r5d4 #ahge1 #ha1 #hhi2 #ahgf1 #hb1 #eji1 #hgb4 #dde ,loc4 cit4 #ddf ,compt4 r5d4 #aijh1 #adg1 #fe4 ,,comp\nds ,,( ,,trival5t ,,titanium4#ddg #ddg ,comp\nds ( trival5t titanium are frequ5tly ref]r$ to 9 ,engli% *emical & te*nical lit]ature z #8,titan\s ,comp\nds1' ! salts ( ! tetraval5t elem5t be+ tacitly recognis$ z #8,titanic ,comp\nds4' ,9 view ( ! exi/5ce ( comp\nds ( dival5t titanium1 to :i* ! "n #8,titan\s ,comp\nds' might be m logically appli$1 ! =m] nom5clature _c be reg>d$ z altoge!r satisfactory1 & x is !re=e n adopt$ "h4 ,^! salts are obta9$ :5 ! elem5t is dissolv$ 9 hydro*loric & sulphuric acids1 & by r$uction ( ! comp\nds ( tetraval5t titanium 9 solution by means ( z9c & hydro*loric acid1 or by electrolysis4 ,accord+ to ,die!lm & ,=/]#ddh ! r$uction may also be effect$ by hydrog5 9 pres5ce ( f9ely divid$ plat9um4 ,! salts h /rong r$uc+ prop]ties1 trans=m+ nitro-bodies to am9es & decol\ris+ azo-d]ivatives v rapidly2 !y r$uce unsaturat$ bodies1 & r$uce dyes to ! leuco-bases2 !y r$uce sulphur\s acid to sulphur1 precipitate gold1 silv] & m]cury f _! salts1 & r$uce cupric & f]ric salts to cupr\s & f]r\s comp\nds respectively4 ,! salts are gre5 or violet 9 solution1 %[+ ! ph5om5on ( hydrate-isom]ism :i* is exhibit$ by ! *romic salts2 !y are to "s ext5t hydrolys$ 9 aque\s solution1 z %[n by ! acid reaction ( ! *loride4 ,!y resemble ! salts ( f]ric iron & alum9ium 9 giv+ precipitates ( basic salts :5 boil$ ) sodium acetate or sodium =mate1 & 9 giv+ no precipitate ) alkalies 9 ! pres5ce ( organic hydroxy-acids4 ,f]rocyanide & f]ricyanide give br[n precipitates4 #ddh ,zeits*4 physikal4 ,*em4 #aijh1 #fb1 #abi4 ,! hydroxide1 ,ti7,,oh71x,h,o1 is ?r[n d[n z a d>k precipitate ) /rong r$uc+ prop]ties2 x attacks wat] ) evolution ( hydrog51 =m+ ! dioxide2 :5 an aque\s susp5sion is %ak5 ) air1 autoxidation occurs1 hydrog5 p]oxide be+ =m$4 ,! sesquioxide1 ,ti,o1 has be5 prep>$ by ,fri$el & ,gur9#ddi by heat+ ! dioxide to a :ite heat 9 a curr5t ( hydrog5 & titanium tetra*loride2 x =ms black lu/r\s cry/als1 isomorph\s ) hmatite4 ,! sulphide1 ,ti,s1 is be/ obta9$ by r$uction ( ! disulphide1 at a mod]ate temp]ature1 9 a /ream ( hydrog5 or nitrog51 b is also prep>$ by ! action ( a mixture ( c>bon disulphide & sulphurett$ hydrog5 on ! dioxide at a high temp]ature4 ,x is a d>k grey metallic p[d]1 /able t[>ds air1 wat]1 alkalies & dilute acids4 #ddi ,loc4 cit4 ,titanium ,nitride1 ,ti,n1 is obta9$ 9 all r$uction processes 9 :i* titanium comp\nds are us$1 if air or nitrog5 is admitt$2 x is =m$ :5 ! elem5t is heat$ 9 nitrog51 & by ! action ( ammonia on ! *loride4 ,x =ms lu/r\s1 bronze-col\r$ leaflets1 :i* appe> blue or violet :5 p[d]$4 ,x is extremely h>d1 & v /able1 b is attack$ by alkalies ) evolution ( ammonia4 ,x r$uces ! oxides ( copp] & lead 9 ! fus$ /ate4 ,ruff & ,eisn] h %[n t x is a true nitride ( ! trival5t elem5t1 & t only "o nitride exi/s4#dej #dej ,b]4 #aije1 #ch1 #gdb2 #aijh1 #da1 #bbej4 ,! fluoride1 ,ti,f1 has be5 obta9$ z an insoluble violet p[d] by r$uction ( potassium titan(luoride1 ,k,ti,f1 ) hydrog54 ,f a solution x may be obta9$ by r$uction ( ! same salt ) z9c & hydro*loric acid1 or sodium amalgam4 ,x =ms complex salts ) alkali or ammonium fluoride1 ( :i* ! comp\nd 7,,nh7,ti,f is an example2 ?is salt appe>s to be isomorph\s ) ! analog\s comp\nds1 7,,nh7,,vf1 7,,nh7,cr,f1 & 7,,nh7,fe,f4 ,by autoxidation 9 ! air1 ! solutions =m fluoroxyp]titanates4 ,! complex salts appe> to exi/ 9 two =ms1 a violet insoluble =m & a gre5 soluble modification4 ,! *loride1 ,ti,cl1 is obta9$ anhydr\s by r$uction ( ! tetra*loride--m]cury1 silv]1 & hydrog5 be+ ! mo/ suitable ag5ts4 ,heat$ 9 hydrog51 x breaks up1 =m+ ! tetra*loride & ! di*loride2 heat$ 9 air x burns1 evolv+ ! tetra*loride & leav+ a residue ( dioxide4 ,9 solution1 9 comb9ation ) alkali *lorides1 & z ! solid hydrate1 x exi/s 9 ! gre5 & violet =ms4 ,conc5trat$ aque\s solutions deposit ! violet hexahydrate1 ,ti,cl1#f;,h,o4 ,if su* a solution be cov]$ ) e!r1 & saturat$ at #j ) hydrog5 *loride1 ! gre5 modification is =m$1 & may be extract$ by ! e!r2 x is /able only 9 ! pres5ce ( hydro*loric acid4 ,9 ! violet =m1 all ! *lor9e is 9 ! ionic condition1 & c be remov$ by silv] nitrate2 simil> det]m9ations h n be5 made ) ! gre5 =m1 b x is mo/ probable1 z 9 ! case ( ! analog\s *romic salts1 t only "p ( ! *lor9e cont5t c be remov$ by silv] nitrate4 ,bck & ,mos]#dea h rec5tly describ$ a br[n sub/ance1 obta9$ by ! action ( ! sil5t electric dis*>ge on a mixture ( hydrog5 & ! vap\r ( titanium tetra*loride at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 :i* !y believe to be a monotropic modification ( ! ord9>y violet tri*loride2 ! *ange ( ?is br[n =m to ! violet =m is irrev]sible4 #dea ,monats4 #aiab1 #cc1 #iga2 #aiac1 #cd1 #ahbe4 ,! bromide & iodide resemble ! *loride1 b are v un/able4 ,! sulphate1 ,ti7,,s71 is obta9$ z a gre5 cry/all9e p[d] by heat+ ) sulphuric acid ! violet solution obta9$ by r$uction ( a solution ( ! dioxide 9 sulphuric acid4 ,x dissolves 9 dilute acids1 =m+ violet solutions4 ,) alkali sulphates x =ms titanium alums1 :i* c be recry/allis$ f dilute sulphuric acid1 & h ! g5]al =mulae1 prop]ties1 & cry/al =m ( ! o!r alums4 ,an acid sulphate1 #c,ti7,,s71,h,,s1#be;,h,o1 is obta9$ by electrolytic r$uction ( a /rongly acid solution ( ! dioxide 9 sulphuric acid1 or by treat+ ! *loride repeat$ly ) hot dilute sulphuric acid4 ,x =ms a cry/all9e violet p[d]1 ) silky lu/re1 insoluble 9 alcohol1 e!r1 & #fj p] c5t1 sulphuric acid2 x dissolves sl[ly 9 wat]1 =m+ a violet solution4 ,:5 ! aque\s solution is treat$ ) excess 7#b molecules7 ( alkali sulphate1 x =ms sp>+ly soluble d\ble sulphates1 :i* sep>ate 9 bright blue cry/als2 ! comp\nds ,ti7,,nh77,,s71#i;,h,o1 & ,ti,rb7,,s71#ab;,h,o1 h be5 obta9$ 9 ?is way4 ,! ,use ( ,salts ( ,trival5t ,titanium 9 ,volumetric ,analysis4--,ow+ to _! p[]ful r$uc+ prop]ties1 ^! salts h be5 propos$ z v conv5i5t reag5ts 9 volumetric analysis1#deb ! *loride be+ mo/ useful 9 ?is respect4 ,! e/imations mu/ be c>ri$ out 9 abs5ce ( air1 to avoid atmosph]ic oxidation2 g5]ally ! app>atus is fill$ ) c>bon dioxide4 ,! titanium solutions = use mu/ also be pres]v$ f ! oxidis+ action ( ! air4 #deb ,see ,kne*t1 ,b]4 #aijc1 #cf1 #aff2 ,kne*t & ,hibb]t1 ibid4 #aijc1 #cf1 #aedi2 #aije1 #ch1 #ccah2 #aijg1 #dj1 #chai4 ,= e/imation ( f]ric salts1 an aliquot quantity is titrat$ directly ) ! titanium solution1 ammonium ?iocyanate be+ us$ z indicator4 ,f]r\s salts & f]ric salts 9 ! same solution are easily e/imat$ by titrat+ ! =m] ) p]manganate solution1 or bett] ) hydrog5 p]oxide1 & !n e/imat+ ! total f]ric salt ) ! titanium solution4 ,oxidis+ ag5ts l nitrates & *lorates c be e/imat$ 9 acid solution by treatm5t ) an excess ( a f]r\s salt1 & e/imation ( ! f]ric comp\nd =m$ by means ( titanium4 ,azo-bodies & organic dyes c be titrat$ directly1 if soluble 9 hydro*loric acid1 ! disappe>ance ( col\r m>k+ ! end ( ! reaction2 nitroso-comp\nds c also be e/imat$ 9 ?is way4 ,if ! comp\nd is insoluble1 x may be r$uc$ 9 hydro*loric acid susp5sion ) excess ( ! titanium salt1 & ! excess !n det]m9$ by means ( f]ric iron4 ,insoluble dyes may also be conv]t$ into soluble sulphonic acids1 & e/imat$ directly 9 solution4 ,ammonium p]sulphate may be e/imat$ by r$uction ) excess ( ! *loride1 & back titration ( ! excess ) f]ric iron4 ,hydrog5 p]oxide may be e/imat$ directly1 ! disappe>ance ( ! yell[ col\r =m$ at ! fir/ addition m>k+ ! end ( ! reaction4 ,t9 may be e/imat$ by addition ( an excess ( a f]ric salt1 & e/imation ( ! excess by titanium 9 ! usual way4 ,cupric salts also may be e/imat$ directly1#dec ! end po9t be+ rea*$ :5 ! blui%-gre5 solution becomes col\rless4 #dec ,mos]1 ,*em4 ,zeitg4 #aiab1 #cf1 #aabf4 ,,comp\nds ,,( ,,tetraval5t ,,titanium ,! comp\nds ( tetraval5t titanium are mu* m /able ?an ! comp\nds 9 :i* ! elem5t has a l[] val5cy1 & are v readily =m$ f !m4 ,! dioxide is amphot]ic 9 "*1 & acts z a weak acid z well z a weak base2 ! salts x =ms ) acids z well z ^? x =ms ) bases are v easily hydrolys$1 ) sep>ation ( ! hydrat$ oxide4 ,titanium salts1 !re=e1 c only be held 9 solution by a consid]able excess ( acid4 ,! t5d5cy to ! =mation ( complex comp\nds is v pron\nc$1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! case ( ! fluoride1 oxalate & t>trate4 ,! hydroxide1 or hydrat$ oxide1 is capable ( exi/+ 9 two modifications1 accord+ to ! conditions "u :i* x is ?r[n d[n1 ?\gh ! two c h>dly be said to be v def9itely diff]5tiat$4 ,! or or?o =m is obta9$ z a volum9\s :ite precipitate by ! addition ( ammonia or alkali hydroxide 9 ! cold to a fre%ly prep>$ solution ( a titanium salt4 ,x is insoluble 9 wat] & alcohol1 b dissolves readily 9 dilute m9]al acids1 & to "s ext5t also 9 dilute alkalies4 ,! wat] cont5t is v v>iable1 & no def9ite hydrate or hydroxide c be prep>$2 :5 ! sub/ance is heat$1 x loses wat] cont9u\sly1 & at a def9ite temp]ature gl[s1 d\btless by reason ( "s polym]ic *ange4 ,if x be ma9ta9$ = "s "t at a temp]ature some:at bel[ ! normal temp]ature ( gl[+1 ?is ph5om5on no long] occurs :5 ! temp]ature is fur!r rais$4 ,! modification1 or metatitanic acid1 z x is call$1 is obta9$ by hydrolysis ( ! salts by boil+1 or by addition ( alkali at #ajj1 z a f9e :ite precipitate4 ,x is almo/ insoluble 9 dilute acids & alkalies1 b dissolves 9 wat] to a colloidal solution2 :5 heat$ x does n gl[4 ,! =m is also obta9$ :5 ! metatitanates are treat$ ) wat]2 ^! comp\nds hydrolyse v readily1 b ! precipitat$ dioxide c>ries d[n alkali by adsorption4 ,! dioxide1 ,ti,o1 occurs cry/all9e 9 nature 9 ! ?ree =ms ,rutile1 ,brookite1 & ,anatase1 all ( :i* c be prep>$ by laboratory me?ods2#ded ! amorph\s =m is obta9$ by ignition ( ! hydrat$ oxide1 & ( suitable salts4 ,! oxide melts at #aefj1 =m+ a mobile 787 liquid ( d5sity #da2 = ! physical prop]ties1 see ! acc\nts ( ! naturally occurr+ =ms 9 ,*apt] ,v4 ,:5 heat$ 9 a curr5t ( hydrog5 or c>bon monoxide1 x gives rise to int]m$iate oxides1 ,ti,o1 ,ti,o1 etc41 :i* are n v well kn[n1 & are ( d\btful individuality4 ,x reacts :5 heat$ 9 *lor9e1 & ) _m non-metallic *lorides1 =m+ ! tetra*loride2 ) c>bon disulphide at high temp]atures x gives ! disulphide1 ammonia at a r$ heat =ms ! nitride4 ,x is exce$+ly resi/ant to acids1 b is attack$ sl[ly by boil+ sulphuric acid1 m quickly by fus$ bisulphate4 #ded ,see p4 #gi2 also ,hautefeuille1 ,ann4 *im4 phys4 #ahfc1 iv41 #d1 #abi4 ,titanium disulphide1 ,ti,s1 is obta9$ 9 ! pure /ate :5 a mixture ( ! vap\r ( ! tetra*loride & sulphurett$ hydrog5 is l$ ?r\gh a /rongly heat$ porcela9 tube4 ,x is a fairly /able sub/ance1 =m+ metallic cry/als :i* yield ! dioxide :5 heat$ 9 air4 ,:5 heat$ 9 a /ream ( hydrog5 or nitrog5 x yields "o or o!r ( ! l[] sulphides accord+ to ! temp]ature employ$4 ,x is n attack$ by wat]1 b dissolves 9 acids1 & is decompos$ by boil+ pota%1 =m+ a titanate2 x is insoluble 9 alkali sulphides4 ,! c>bide1 ,ti,c1 0 prep>$ by ,moissan by heat+ ! oxide ) c>bon 9 ! electric furnace2 any excess ( c>bon sep>ates on cool+ z graphite4 ,x has ! d5sity #dbe1 & resembles ! fus$ elem5t 9 appe>ance4 ,x dissolves 9 nitric b n 9 hydro*loric acid4 ,titanium tetrafluoride1 ,ti,f1 is obta9$ by ! action ( fluor9e on ! elem5t or ! c>bide1 & by ! action ( anhydr\s hydr(luoric acid on ! elem5t or ! tetra*loride4 ,x is a :ite p[d]1 & boils at #bhd2 x is v hygroscopic1 & dissolves easily 9 alcohol & wat]1 %[+ little t5d5cy to =m basic salts4 ,f ! conc5trat$ aque\s solution x sep>ates z ! dihydrate1 ,ti,f1#b;,h,o2 basic salts are obta9$ only by repeat$ evaporation ) wat]4 ,! anhydr\s comp\nd =ms additive products ) ammonia & ) pyrid9e4 ,) aque\s hydr(luoric acid x =ms ! complex ,h,ti,f1 z %[n by conductivity measurem5ts1 & ! fact t only a sl[ & incomplete precipitation ( ! hydroxide is effect$ by addition ( ammonia4 ,! solution dissolves metallic oxides & c>bonates1 =m+ titan(luorides1 :i* are = ! mo/ "p isomorph\s ) ! correspond+ silic(luorides1 /ann(luorides1 & zircon(luorides4 ,!y are v /able cry/all9e salts1 ( ! g5]al =mula ,r,ti,f2 _m salts ( ! types ,r,ti,f1 ,r,ti,f1 etc41 h be5 prep>$4 ,! mo/ important is ! potassium salt1 ,k,ti,f1 :i* cry/allises f acid solutions 9 monocl9ic tablets2 f aque\s solution x sep>ates z ! monohydrate1 ,k,ti,f1,h,o1 isomorph\s ) ! comp\nds ,k,cb,o,f1,h,o & ,k,,wo,f1,h,o4 ,! hydrate loses its wat] at #ajj1 & melts at a :ite heat )\t decomposition4 ,x is mod]ately soluble 9 hot1 v sp>+ly soluble 9 cold wat]1 & h5ce is readily recry/allis$4 ,! tetra*loride1 ,ti,cl1 is important1 on acc\nt ( its l[ boil+-po9t1 = ! sep>ation & purification ( titanium comp\nds4 ,9 physical z well z *emical prop]ties1 x resembles ! *loride ( a non-metallic elem5t r ?an a normal salt1 & is di/+ui%$ by ! ease ) :i* x comb9es or reacts ) ! mo/ widely diff]+ organic comp\nds4 ,x is prep>$ by ! action ( *lor9e ^u ! elem5t1 ! c>bide1 or a mixture ( ! dioxide ) c>bon1 & by ! action ( *lor(orm or c>bon tetra*loride ^u ! dioxide at a bright r$ heat4 ,x is a col\rless1 transp>5t liquid1 ( d5sity #agf at #j2 x freezes at -#bc1 & boils at #acf "u atmosph]ic pressure4 ,9 moi/ air x fumes excessively1 yield+ hydrog5 *loride by hydrolysis3 ,ti,cl ,h,o ,ti,o,cl #b;,h,cl1 & is decompos$ by wat] ) sep>ation ( ! hydrat$ oxide4 ,if ! comp\nd be add$ sl[ly to a l>ge quantity ( cold wat]1 & ! cle> solution w>m$1 ! oxide =m$ by hydrolysis rema9s 9 colloidal solution4 ,! *loride dissolves 9 fum+ hydro*loric acid1 =m+ a deep yell[ solution1 :i* becomes col\rless :5 dilut$4 ,! solution appe>s to conta9 ! un/able complex acid ,h,ti,cl1 or its ions2 by addition ( ammonia1 or organic bases1 salts ( ! type 7,,nh7,ti,cl c be obta9$ z yell[ cry/all9e solids4 ,an int]e/+ prop]ty ( ! *loride is its ability to =m /able additive comp\nds ) ! *lorides ( negative elem5ts4 ,a long s]ies ( ^! are kn[n1 ( :i* ! comp\nds ,ti,cl1,p,cl1 ,ti,cl1,p,cl1 ,ti,cl1,p,o,cl1 & ,ti,cl1#b,p,o,cl may be consid]$ examples2 = ! mo/ "p1 !y c be di/ill$ )\t decomposition4 ,a v long s]ies ( comp\nds1 p>tly additive & p>tly cond5sation products1 ) all k9ds ( organic sub/ances1 is also kn[n4 ,a s]ies ( oxy*lorides1 or basic *lorides1 ,ti,cl7,,oh71 ,ti,cl7,,oh71 & ,ti,cl7,,oh71 has be5 obta9$ by addition ( hydro*loric acid1 9 c]ta9 quantities & conc5trations1 to ! *loride2 !y are amorph\s solids1 ( :i* little is kn[n4 ,! tetrabromide1 ,ti,br1 is a yell[ cry/all9e solid1 melt+ at #ci & boil+ at #bcj4 ,its solutions 9 conc5trat$ hydrobromic acid are ( a blood-r$ col\r1 & by treatm5t ) ammonia & organic bases yield deep r$ cry/all9e salts ( ! type 7,,nh7,ti,br4 ,! tetraiodide1 ,ti,i1 is a r$di%-br[n metallic-look+ solid1 melt+ at #aej1 & boil+ at #cfj2 no complex salts are kn[n4 ,! sulphates4--,_m comp\nds ( d\btful composition & individuality h be5 describ$ z titanium sulphates1 b relatively little is kn[n ) c]ta9ty ( ?is class ( d]ivatives4 ,! mo/ /able seems to be ! titanyl sulphate1 ,ti,o,s,o1 obta9$ z a :ite p[d]1 :i* is sl[ly hydrolys$ by wat]1 by evaporat+ a solution ( ! dioxide 9 conc5trat$ sulphuric acid4 ,"u suitable conditions1 e4g4 :5 sep>at$ f acid or alcoholic solutions1 x is said to =m hydrat$ comp\nds2 ! mono-1 di- & p5ta-hydrate h be5 describ$4 ,:5 solutions ( ?is comp\nd 9 conc5trat$ sulphuric acid are treat$ ) conc5trat$ aque\s solutions ( alkali sulphates1 salts ( ! =mul 7,,nh7,ti,o7,,s71,h,o & ,k7,ti,o77,,s71#aj;,h,o1 are obta9$4 ,by treat+ solutions ( ! dioxide 9 a l>ge excess ( conc5trat$ acid ) solutions ( calcium or /rontium sulphate 9 sulphuric acid1 salts ( ! type ,r,ti7,,s7 are obta9$2 ! b>ium salt has ! =mula #c,ti7,,s71#b;,ba,s,o4 ,all ^! comp\nds are rapidly hydrolys$ by wat]4 ,phosphoric ,acid ,d]ivatives4--,solutions ( titanium comp\nds are completely precipitat$ by ! addition ( phosphoric acid1 or soluble phosphates1 ev5 9 pres5ce ( a l>ge excess ( m9]al acid1 b ! composition ( ! precipitate obta9$ is unkn[n4 ,by heat+ ! oxide ) or?ophosphoric acid1 a cry/all9e comp\nd1 ,ti,o1,p,o1 is obta9$1 & v>i\s alkali d\ble phosphates may be prep>$ by suitable fusions4 ,conc5trat$ aque\s oxalic acid solutions readily dissolve "o equival5t ( titanium dioxide1 =m+ gre5i%-yell[ solutions :i* conta9 titanyl oxalate1 ,ti,o7,c,o74 ,f alcoholic solution1 ?is sub/ance c be precipitat$ by e!r z ! alcoholate1 ,ti,o7,c,o71,c,h,,oh1 a micro-cry/all9e precipitate soluble 9 wat] & alcohol4 ,titanyloxalic acid1 ,ti,o7,,hc,o71,h,o1 & its salts are /able comp\nds2 ! latt] are obta9$ by dissolv+ ! dioxide 9 alkali b9oxalate1 ! acid itself be+ obta9$ by treatm5t ( ! sp>+ly soluble b>ium salt ) sulphuric acid4 ,complex acids are also =m$ ) t>t>ic acid1 & o!r organic hydroxy-acids2 f its solutions 9 ^! acids1 ! dioxide _c be aga9 precipitat$ by boil+1 or by addition ( alkalies4 ,titanates & ,p]titanates4--,on acc\nt ( ! weakly acid "* ( ! dioxide1 /able titanates c be prep>$ only 9 ! dry way4 ,! dioxide resembles silica 9 ! conditions "u :i* x =ms salts1 & 9 ! nature1 & g5]ally ! cry/allographic prop]ties1 ( ! products obta9$4 ,! commone/ salts are ! metatitanates ( ! =mulae ,r,ti,o & ,r,ti,o1 :i* are obta9$ by fus+ ! dioxide ) metallic oxides & c>bonates1 sometimes ) addition ( a suitable ag5t to act z a cry/allis+ m$ium1 e4g4 sodium tung/ate1 calcium *loride1 magnesium *loride1 etc4 ,calcium metatitanate1 ,ca,ti,o1 prep>$ by heat+ titanium dioxide ) calcium c>bonate 9 pres5ce ( calcium *loride1 is id5tical 9 prop]ties ) ! naturally occurr+ comp\nd1 ,p]ovskite 7q4v474 ,or?otitanates ( dival5t metals only are kn[n2 ^! h ! g5]al =mula ,r,ti,o1 & are prep>$ by simil> me?ods4 ,! iron comp\nd ,fe,ti,o is also id5tical 9 prop]ties ) ! m9]al ilm5ite1 & isomorph\s ) ! sesquioxides ,fe,o1 ,ti,o4 ,magnesium titanates ( bo? ! or?o type 7,mg,ti,o7 & ! meta type 7,mg,ti,o7 h be5 prep>$ 9 ! laboratory2 ! latt] is id5tical ) ! m9]al ,geikielite 7q4v474 ,! comp\nds prep>$ 9 ?is way are all insoluble 9 wat]1 d\btless by reason ( ! sl[ness ) :i* su* compact solids c be attack$2 !y dissolve easily 9 dilute acids4 ,! weakly acid "* ( titanium dioxide is %[n by ! fact t if ! fusion ) metallic c>bonates be c>ri$ out 9 vessels s adju/$ t ! c>bon dioxide ex]ts a pressure ( "o atmosph]e1 a condition ( equilibrium is rea*$1 9 :i* a consid]able "p ( ! c>bonate rema9s unattack$4 ,9 ! pres5ce ( hydrog5 p]oxide1 h[ev]1 ! acidic prop]ties are consid]ably /r5g!n$1 & ! p]-salts c be obta9$ 9 ! wet way4 ,addition ( hydrog5 p]oxide to a neutral or acid solution ( a titanium comp\nd gives a yell[ col\r1 due to ! =mation ( a p]oxide1 ,ti,o1aq4 ,su* solutions h ! same oxidis+ p[]s z hydrog5 p]oxide1 b d n give ! blue col\ration ) *romium salts4 ,by treatm5t ( ! solution ) dilute alkalies1 an hydrat$ p]oxide is ?r[n d[n1 :i*1 :5 dri$ ov] phosphoric anhydride1 has ! =mula ,ti,o1#c;,h,o1 & =ms a yell[1 horny mass4 ,! fre%ly precipitat$ p]oxide dissolves 9 acids & alkalies2 f ! latt] solutions1 by addition ( hydrog5 p]oxide & alcohol1 p]titanates ( v>i\s composition c be obta9$1 ( :i* ! foll[+ are examples 3 ,na,o1,ti,o1#c;,h,o2 7,,nh7,o1,ti,o1,h,o2 ,ba,o1,ti,o1#e;,h,o2 ,k,o1,k,o1,ti,o1#aj;,h,o1 etc4 ,^! salts lose hydrog5 p]oxide :5 treat$ ) dilute acids1 & _! con/itutions are unkn[n4 ,an int]e/+ s]ies ( fluoroxyp]titanates has be5 prep>$ by oxidation ( ! solution ( titanium dioxide 9 hydr(luoric acid ) hydrog5 p]oxide1 & addition ( metallic fluorides4 ,! ammonium comp\nd1 7,,nh7,ti,o,f1 cry/allises 9 yell[ octah$ra1 isomorph\s ) ! salts ,zr,f1#c,,nh,f & ,cb,o,f1#c,,nh,f4 ,! potassium salt1 ,k,ti,o,f1 cry/allises well f wat]1 & is easily obta9$ 9 ! pure /ate2 v>i\s b>ium salts are kn[n4 ,simil> comp\nds ) oxalic acid h also be5 prep>$4 ,atomic ,weight ( ,titanium4--,! fir/ reliable det]m9ations ( ?is con/ant 7 c>ri$ out by ,h4 ,rose 9 #ahbi4 ,he det]m9$ ! ratio ,ti,cl 3 #d;,ag,cl1 by dissolv+ ! pure tetra*loride1 weigh$ 9 seal$ glass bulbs1 9 wat] 9 clos$ flasks1 precipitat+ ! dioxide by ammonia1 & weigh+ ! silv] *loride obta9$ by add+ silv] nitrate to ! filt]$ & acidifi$ solution4 ,he obta9$ ! values #dhbg & #dhac1 :i* agree v well ) ! accept$ value1 #dha4 ,9 ! same ye>1 ,mos&]1 us+ a me?od n specifi$1 obta9$ ! value #dgae4 ,det]m9ations c>ri$ out by ,pi]re 7#ahdg7 & ,demoly 7#ahdi7 l$ to widely v>y+ results4 ,a s]ies ( det]m9ations c>ri$ out by ,?orpe dur+ ! ye>s #ahhc-ahhe gave consi/5t results4 ,! me?od us$ 0 ! precipitation ( silv] halide f ! tetra*loride & tetrabromide1 & ! mean value ( sev5 s]ies ( det]m9ations gave ! numb] #dhjh4 ,! ,int]national ,committee h adopt$ ?is result z ! basis ( ! accept$ value1 #dha4 ,detection4--,! specific reactions = ! elem5t are frequ5tly mask$ by ! pres5ce ( o!r metals1 especially ( iron1 columbium1 tantalum1 & vanadium1 :i* mo/ frequ5tly accompany x 9 nature1 & f :i* a quantitative sep>ation is frequ5tly v difficult 7see p4 #cch74 ,! mo/ *>act]i/ic reactions are ! foll[+3 7#a7 ,r$uction 9 acid solution by means ( t9 or z9c gives an int5se violet col\r1 due to ! =mation ( trival5t titanium salts4 ,v>i\s col\rs are giv5 by vanadium1 columbium1 & tung/51 s t ! te/ is n decisive if ^! are pres5t4 7#b7 ,hydrog5 p]oxide 9 acid solution gives a r$di%-yell[ col\r1 :i* is v delicate1 & is us$ 9 quantitative e/imation2 vanadium comp\nds int]f]e4 7#c7 ,9 sulphuric acid solution1 *>act]i/ic col\rs are obta9$ ) _m ph5olic comp\nds2 ?ymol gives a blood-r$ col\r :i* is exce$+ly int5se4 7#d7 ,a v *>act]i/ic & int5se col\r is giv5 9 acid solution on ! addition ( #a3h-;dihydroxynaph?al5e-#b3d-;disulphon ic acid 7*romotropic acid74 ,! me?ods = ! e/imation ( titanium are giv5 9 ,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,! ,,gr\p ,,iva ,,elem5ts 7cont9u$7--,,zirconium ,,& ,,?orium ,zirconium1 ,zr #ijf ,! oxide zirconia 0 isolat$ z a new e>? f zircon f ,ceylon by ,klapro? 9 #aghi2 six ye>s lat] ! new e>? 0 obta9$ also f hyac9?1 ! gem-v>iety ( ! same m9]al4 ,! new oxide 0 exam9$ 9 #ahah by ,b]zelius1 :o po9t$ out its resemblance to alum9a1 & gave x ! =mula ,zr,o2 dur+ ! next two decades he ?or\ghly inve/igat$ its prop]ties1 prep>+ ! elem5t itself1 & det]m9+ its equival5t4 ,9 #aheg a det]m9ation ( ! vap\r d5sity ( ! *loride1 by ,deville & ,troo/1 %[$ t ! elem5t is really tetraval5t1 & t ! =mula ,zr,o mu/ be assign$ to ! oxide2 ?is =mula 0 %[n to accord ) ! isomorphism ( rutile 7,ti,o7 & zircon 7,zr,o1,si,o7 by ,rose 9 #ahei1 :il/ 9 ! foll[+ ye> ,m>ignac obs]v$ ! isomorphism betwe5 ! fluozirconates ( z9c & nickel & ! fluosilicates1 fluotitanates1 & fluo/annates ( ^! metals4 ,! homog5eity ( ! oxide has be5 que/ion$2 ,svanb]g 9 #ahde consid]$ x to be a mixture ( at lea/ ?ree e>?s1 :il/ ,sorby & ,=bes 9 #ahfi claim$ to h discov]$ 9 x a new oxide1 #8,j>gonia4' ,^! claims1 h[ev]1 h be5 %[n to h be5 f\nd$ on inaccurate exp]im5tal "w1 & ! individuality ( ! elem5t is at ! pres5t "t consid]$ to be well e/abli%$4 ,zirconium is fairly widely di/ribut$ 9 nature1 b g5]ally 9 v small quantities1 & c be rightly class$ z "o ( ! r>] elem5ts4 ,x occurs 9 "s silicates1 & 9 small quantities 9 almo/ all ! r>e e>? m9]als4 ,! mo/ important s\rce ( ! elem5t & its comp\nds 0 until q rec5tly ! m9]al ,zircon1 ) its gem-v>ieties ,hyac9? & ,j>gon1 & ! l>ge numb] ( second>y alt]$ zircon m9]als4 ,s9ce its discov]y 9 #ahib1 h[ev]1 ! naturally occurr+ oxide1 ,baddeleyite1#dee has become increas+ly important = ! extraction ( zirconium comp\nds1 especially = ! prep>ation ( ! pure oxide = fire-resi/ant mat]ials4 #dee ,= acc\nts ( ! zircon m9]als1 see pp4 #dg & #ge1 & ! alphabetical li/4 ,! m9]als may be treat$ by any ( ! usual me?ods4 ,zircon may be fus$ ) alkali or alkali c>bonate2 ! cool$ melt is extract$ ) wat]1 & ! insoluble alkali zirconate decompos$ by dilute acids2 f ! solution1 zirconia is ?r[n d[n by alkalies4 ,potassium hydrog5 fluoride & potassium hydrog5 sulphate may be us$ = ! treatm5t ei!r ( zircon or ( baddeleyite2 9 ! fir/ case1 ! potassium fluozirconate =m$ may be dissolv$ by boil+ ) dilute hydr(luoric acid1 & sep>ates out readily on cool+1 :il/ ! fluosilicate =m$ is n dissolv$2 ! second treatm5t yields ! sulphate1 :i* may also be dissolv$ out by dilute acid4 ,a v conv5i5t me?od consi/s 9 r$uc+ ) c>bon1 ei!r alone or 9 pres5ce ( lime1 at ! temp]ature ( ! electric arc2 ! infusible zirconium c>bide is =m$1 :il/ silica1 if pres5t1 is r$uc$ to ! c>bide1 :i* is volatile at t temp]ature & is !re=e driv5 (f4 ,! zirconium c>bide may be dissolv$ 9 w>m aqua regia4 ,9 all ^! me?ods ! comp\nds obta9$ are contam9at$ ) iron1 :i* cl+s to zirconium v t5aci\sly4 ,_m me?ods h be5 devis$ = its removal4 ,a v suitable me?od is ! ?iosulphate precipitation4 ,zirconia is ?r[n d[n quantitatively1 mix$ ) sulphur1 f a n too /rongly acid solution by addition ( sodium ?iosulphate at ! boil+-po9t1 sulphur dioxide be+ at ! same "t evolv$1 by decomposition ( ! pot5tial ?iosulphuric acid =m$ by hydrolysis4 ,?orium & titanium accompany ! zirconium1 b iron1 alum9ium1 & ! r>e e>?s rema9 9 solution4 ,ano!r me?od dep5ds on ! fact t zirconium is n precipitat$ f alkal9e solution by ammonium sulphide 9 ! pres5ce ( t>t>ic acid1 :]eas ?is reag5t does n inhibit ! precipitation ( f]r\s sulphide4 ,iron may also be remov$ f a solution 9 conc5trat$ hydro*loric acid by means ( e!r1 9 :i* m$ium f]ric *loride is easily soluble4 ,zirconium comp\nds may be obta9$ free f iron by repeat$ cry/allisations ( ! oxy*loride4 ,zirconium =ms only "o s]ies ( comp\nds1 9 :i* ! metal is tetraval5t4 ,its *emical behavi\r accords well ) its position 9 ! p]iodic classification4 ,x is some:at m electropositive ?an titanium1 z %[n by ! fact t ! hydroxide w n dissolve 9 alkalies1 ?\gh zirconates may be obta9$ by ! fusion me?ods2 ! oxide1 h[ev]1 is /ill a weak base1 & ! salts are to a l>ge ext5t hydrolys$ 9 solution4 ,! =mation ( a /able oxy*loride1 :i* c be recry/allis$ )\t *ange 9 composition1 %[s cle>ly ! /r5g!n+ ( ! electropositive "*4 ,x has /ill1 h[ev]1 9 a high degree1 ! prop]ty ( =m+ complex salts1 :i* is *>act]i/ic ( ! less electropositive metals4 ,! gr\p relations are borne out by ! isomorphism ( _m relat$ salts4 ,! hydroxide & oxide %[ polym]ic modifications1 & ! =m] has ! usual t5d5cy ( comp\nds ( ?is gr\p to =m colloidal solutions1 a t5d5cy :i* ext5ds to ! elem5t itself4 ,! metal resembles titanium 9 ! eag]ness ) :i* x comb9es ) o!r elem5ts1 especially ) oxyg51 nitrog51 & c>bon1 :il/ ! *loride closely resembles titanium tetra*loride 9 g5]al prop]ties1 & 9 ! ease ) :i* x =ms addition & cond5sation products ) o!r sub/ances4 ,! ,metal4--,all ! difficulties :i* att5d ! attempts to prep>e metallic titanium 9 ! pure /ate h to be enc\nt]$ 9 ! prep>ation ( metallic zirconium4 ,! attempts :i* h be5 made h us$ ! same me?ods1 & obta9$ mu* ! same k9d ( result z ^? employ$ 9 ! case ( titanium4#def ,! r$uction ( potassium fluozirconate by metallic potassium1 fir/ employ$ by ,b]zelius1 gives an amorph\s product ( unkn[n metal-cont5t2 x c]ta9ly conta9s a consid]able p]c5tage ( oxyg54 ,! monoxide is obta9$ :5 zirconia is r$uc$ by magnesium 7,w9kl]'s me?od74 ,! r$uction ( ! fluozirconates ( potassium by means ( sodium gives bett] results if ! reaction is c>ri$ out 9 pres5ce ( sodium *loride 9 a seal$ iron bomb2 ! product aft] c>eful wa%+ conta9s #ig-ih p] c5t4 ( ! metal4 ,r$uction ) alum9ium leads to ! =mation ( alloys2 ,weiss & ,neumann#deg h us$ ^! 9 ! =m ( p5cils z electrodes betwe5 :i* !y pass ! electric arc 9 vacuo1 & s obta9 an almo/ pure zirconium4 ,! #ig-ih p] c5t4 amorph\s product obta9$ by ! sodium r$uction also yields ! practically pure metal :5 treat$ 9 ?is way 7comp>e ,titanium1 p4 #bbc74 ,a v pure zirconium has be5 obta9$ by ,w$ek9d#deh by heat+ ! oxide ) f9e calcium turn+s 9 an evacuat$ iron tube2 ! p[d]$ product is wa%$1 9 abs5ce ( air1 & heat$ 9 an evacuat$ porcela9 tube to #hjj-ajjj1 at :i* temp]ature ! p[d] s9t]s into lumps :i* take a brilliant poli% & conta9 #iia p] c5t4 ( ! metal4 ,attempts to prep>e a pur] product f ?is by ! me?od ( ,weiss & ,neumann 7 unsuccessful4 #def ,= a detail$ acc\nt ( ^!1 see ,lewis1 ,/udi5 b] das elem5t>e ,zirconium1 ,/uttg>t1 #aiab4 #deg ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aiji1 #fe1 #bdh4 #deh ,annal51 #aiac1 #cie1 #adi4 ,! amorph\s metal is a d>k p[d]1 :i* :5 wa%$ ) wat] on ! filt] pap] passes ?r\gh z a d>k blue colloidal solution2 x burns readily :5 heat$ 9 ! air4 ,accord+ to ,w$ek9d & ,lewis1#dei amorph\s zirconium is really ! colloidal =m ( ! metal4 ,! fus$ metal is v h>d 7#g-h1 ,mohs' scale--x scrat*es qu>tz b n topaz7 & v brittle2 x has ! d5sity #fd1 & is ( a :iti% col\r1 ) good metallic lu/re on fre%ly brok5 surfaces4 ,! atomic heat is abnormally high1 be+ approximately #gc2 ! elem5t is p>amagnetic4 ,! melt+-po9t 0 giv5 by ,w$ek9d & ,lewis#dfj z #bccj-bchj1 b lat] "w ( ! =m] au?or#dfa gives ! mu* l[] value ( #aecj1 :i* seems m probable 9 view ( ! fact t ! elem5t _c be employ$ = electric lamp filam5ts 7see p4 #cbb74 #dei ,ibid4 #aiaj1 #cga1 #cfg4 #dfj ,weiss & ,neumann1 loc4 cit42 also ,w$ek9d1 loc4 cit4 #dfa ,annal51 #aiac1 #cie1 #adi4 ,metallic zirconium is highly resi/ant to acids2 x is attack$ only by hydr(luoric acid & by aqua regia4 ,9 ! compact =m x burns 9 ! air only at v high temp]atures1 ?\gh :5 p[d]$ x gl[s 9 ! air at a r$ heat1 =m+ probably a mixture ( l[] oxides4 ,x is attack$ by *lor9e & by hydrog5 *loride at a r$ heat1 ) =mation ( ! *loride2 fus$ pota% also oxidises x1 ) evolution ( hydrog54 ,:5 heat$ 9 a curr5t ( hydrog5 at a r$ heat1 x =ms ! hydride1 ,zr,h1#dfb z a velvet-black p[d]1 :i* burns ) an int5se blui% flame 9 oxyg51 =m+ ! sesquioxide1 ,zr,o4 ,:5 heat$ 9 nitrog5 or ammonia1 amorph\s zirconium yields nitrides1 :i* are also obta9$ :5 any attempt is made to r$uce zirconium comp\nds to ! metal 9 air4 ,! mo/ def9ite is ! comp\nd ,zr,n1#dfb :i* =ms a bronze-col\r$ p[d]1 resi/ant to all m9]al acids except hydr(luoric acid4 ,*lor9e & brom9e trans=m ?is to ! halide4 #dfb ,w$ek9d & ,lewis1 ,annal51 #aiaj1 #cga1 #cfg4 ,! hydroxide is ( d\btful individuality1 s9ce on dry+ x loses wat] progressively z ! temp]ature is rais$1 no def9ite /able comp\nd be+ kn[n2 9 ?is respect zirconium resembles titanium4 ,:5 heat$ to #ajj1 its composition corresponds approximately ) t requir$ by ! =mula ,zr,o1,h,o1 b ! p]c5tage ( wat] v>ies ) ! hi/ory ( ! specim54 ,:5 precipitat$ by alkalies 9 ! cold1 x =ms ! s-call$ or or?o modification1 :i*1 l ! analog\s titanium comp\nd1 is readily soluble 9 dilute acids1 & gl[s :5 heat$4 ,by precipitation at ! boil+ po9t1 ! =m is obta9$2 ?is is less soluble 9 acids1 & does n gl[ :5 heat$4 ,! diff]5ces betwe5 ! two =ms are by no means %>ply m>k$2 !y are r ! limit+ =ms ( a cont9u\sly v>y+ s]ies ?an di/9ct *emical individuals1 & ! prop]ties ( any hydroxide precipitate dep5d v l>gely on ! conditions "u :i* x is ?r[n d[n4 ,! hydroxide is insoluble 9 wat]1 b c be obta9$ 9 colloidal solution aft] x has be5 repeat$ly heat$ ) dilute acids1 :i* s]ve to break d[n ! molecul> complexes2 x c be also readily obta9$ 9 colloidal solution by dialysis ( ! nitrate1 *loride1 or acetate4 ,9 ^! solutions x is positively *>g$2 electrolytes precipitate x ) great ease4 ,! gel has a v high p[] ( =m+ adsorption products4 ,:5 ?r[n d[n f solution by soda or pota%1 x c>ries d[n consid]able quantities ( alkali1 to :i* x cl+s s t5aci\sly t ! mo/ c>eful wa%+ _c entirely remove !m4 ,if ! gel be plac$ 9 contact ) an ammoniacal solution ( a cupric comp\nd1 x removes ! cuprammonium complex entirely f ! solution1 becom+ itself deep blue 9 col\r1 & leav+ ! liquid q cle> & col\rless4 ,9 colloidal solution x =ms adsorption comp\nds ) negatively *>g$ colloids1 especially metals1 ! gels obta9$ f su* solutions conta9+ bo? colloids4 ,9 ! pres5ce ( hydrog5 p]oxide1 ammonia ?r[s d[n an hydrat$ p]oxide1 :i* is also obta9$#dfc by electrolysis ( a br9e solution 9 :i* ! hydroxide is susp5d$1 oxidation be+ effect$ by ! sodium hypo*lorite =m$4 ,?is reaction is express$ by ! equation3 ,zr7,,oh7 ,na,o,cl ,zr7,,ooh77,,oh7 ,na,cl #dfc ,piss>jewski1 ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aijj1 #be1 #cgh4 ,x is an endo!rmic comp\nd1 & is v un/able1 los+ oxyg5 on /&+2 by ! action ( acids x gives hydrog5 p]oxide4 ,x dissolves 9 alkalies conta9+ hydrog5 p]oxide2 f su* solutions1 alcohol precipitates salts ( ! =mula ,r,zr,o1#i;,h,o4 ,zirconium oxide1 ,zr,o1 occurs 9 nature2 x c be obta9$ 9 ! laboratory z a volum9\s :ite p[d] by ignition ( ! hydroxide or a suitable salt4 ,! physical prop]ties are describ$ "u ! m9]al ,baddeleyite 7p4 #ge7 & 9 ,*apt] ,,xxi 7p4 #cbc71 9 :i* an acc\nt ( its te*nical applications is giv54 ,! melt+-po9t is probably ab\t #bgjj2 at #cjjj x beg9s to volatilise4 ,x dissolves readily 9 m9]al acids1 unless previ\sly ignit$ v /rongly2 all specim5s dissolve easily 9 hydr(luoric acid1 & are readily conv]t$ by conc5trat$ sulphuric acid into ! sulphate4 ,:5 fus$ ) metallic oxides or c>bonates1 x gives cry/all9e zirconates1 ( :i* a l>ge numb] h be5 prep>$2 ! calcium comp\nd1 ,ca,zr,o1 is said to be isomorph\s ) p]ovskite1 ,ca,ti,o4 ,a suboxide1 ,zr,o1 ( some:at d\btful individuality1#dfd is said to be obta9$ :5 ! dioxide is r$uc$ ) magnesium2 x =ms a dry black p[d]1 :i* is n attack$ by acids1 & :5 heat$ gl[s1 =m+ ! dioxide4 ,a sesquioxide1 ,zr,o1 is obta9$ z a gre5i% p[d] :5 ! hydride is burnt 9 oxyg52 :5 heat$ 9 ! air1 x oxidises v sl[ly1 =m+ ! dioxide4 #dfd ,w$ek9d & ,telet[ 7,annal51 #aiac1 #cie1 #adi7 h rec5tly d5i$ ! exi/5ce ( ?is oxide4 ,an oxysulphide1 ,zr,o,s1 is obta9$ :5 ! anhydr\s sulphate is heat$ 9 a curr5t ( sulphurett$ hydrog52 x is a bright yell[ p[d]1 :i* ignites spontane\sly 9 ! air4 ,no disulphide is kn[n4 ,! c>bide1 ,zr,c1 is obta9$1 accord+ to ,moissan & ,l5gfeld1#dfe :5 ! oxide is heat$ ) c>bon 9 any proportions1 excess ( c>bon sep>at+ on cool+ z graphite2 ! process is ha/5$ by addition ( lime4 ,x is a h>d1 d>k-grey solid1 & is a v good conductor ( electricity4 ,:5 heat$ 9 oxyg5 or nitrog51 x reacts readily1 =m+ ! oxide & nitride respectively2 halog5s attack x at q l[ temp]atures 7#bej-djj71 =m+ ! halide comp\nds1 :i* are inde$ be/ prep>$ 9 ?is way4 ,/rong m9]al acids1 ) ! exception ( hydro*loric acid1 attack x1 & fus$ alkalies dissolve x readily4 #dfe ,compt4 r5d4 #ahif1 #abb1 #fea4 ,! fluoride1 ,zr,f1 is be/ obta9$ by ! action ( anhydr\s hydr(luoric acid on ! *loride4 ,x =ms a :ite cry/all9e mass1 :i* readily sublimes1 & is soluble 9 hydr(luoric acid2 f ! solution x cry/allises z ! trihydrate1 ,zr,f1#c;,h,o4 ,! anhydr\s sub/ance is v slightly soluble 9 wat] 9 ! cold2 :5 w>m$1 x hydrolyses1 =m+ ! hydroxide4 ,! solution 9 hydr(luoric acid dissolves metallic c>bonates & oxides1 =m+ ! num]\s fluozirconates or zircon(luorides4 ,!re are _m types ( ^! comp\nds1 ( :i* ! potassium salt1 ,k,zr,f1 is ! mo/ important4 ,! solubility ( ?is salt increases v rapidly ) ! temp]ature2 #ajj p>ts ( wat] dissolve1 at #ae1 #ada p>ts1 at #ajj1 #be p>ts ( ! comp\nd4 ,x has be5 frequ5tly us$ = ! purification ( zirconium comp\nds1 = ! prep>ation ( ! elem5t1 & = analytical det]m9ations4 ,o!r potassium salts1 ,k,zr,f & ,k,zr,f1,h,o1 are obta9$ by us+ a l>ge excess ( potassium fluoride & zirconium fluoride respectively4 ,! ammonium comp\nds are analog\s 9 composition to ! potassium salts1 b ! sodium salt1 ,na,zr,f1 is obta9$ f mixtures ( ! compon5ts 9 all proportions2 on acc\nt ( its v l[ solubility1 x c be obta9$ by d\ble decomposition ( ! potassium salt ) sodium *loride4 ,( ! salts ) dival5t metals1 ! types ,r,zr,f1x,h,o & ,r,zr,f1x,h,o1 are ! mo/ common4 ,! *loride1 ,zr,cl1 is kn[n1 on acc\nt ( ! ease ) :i* x hydrolyses1 9 ! anhydr\s /ate only4 ,x c be obta9$ by all ! usual me?ods1 ( :i* p]haps ! action ( *lor9e on ! c>bide1 & ( c>bon tetra*loride1 or a mixture ( *lor9e & sulphur mono*loride1 on ! oxide1 are ! mo/ conv5i5t2 an int]e/+ me?od consi/s 9 heat+ ! oxide ) phosphorus p5ta*loride 9 a clos$ tube at #aij4 ,x =ms a volatile :ite sublimate1 :i* fumes /rongly 9 air1 & reacts vigor\sly ) wat]2 x is soluble 9 e!r4 ,x =ms a s]ies ( addition comp\nds ) ammonia & organic bases1 z well z ) ! *lorides ( non-metallic elem5ts2 w>m$ ) phosphorus p5ta*loride1 x =ms a /able solid1 #b,zr,cl1,p,cl1 :i* melts at #bdj1 & boils at #cde4 ,) organic comp\nds1 especially ) e/]s1 acids1 & ph5ols1 x =ms a long s]ies ( addition & cond5sation products1 ( :i* ! comp\nds ,zr,cl7,c,h,,cooc,h7 & ,zr,cl,o,c,h,,*o may be tak5 z examples4 ,by addition ( organic bases to a solution ( ! *loride 9 alcoholic hydrog5 *loride1 d\ble *lorides ( ! type 7,c,h,,nh7,zr,cl are obta9$4 ,! oxy*loride1 ,zr,o,cl1#h;,h,o1 sep>ates 9 *>act]i/ic tetragonal prisms :5 ! tetra*loride is dissolv$ 9 wat] or hydro*loric acid ( any conc5tration4 ,x is readily soluble 9 wat] & alcohol1 b sp>+ly soluble 9 hydro*loric acid1 f :i* !re=e x is g5]ally recry/allis$4 ,accord+ to ,*auv5et1#dff x effloresces 9 dry air1 =m+ ! hexahydrate1 ,zr,o,cl1#f;,h,o2 :5 dri$ 9 a vacuum1 x =ms ! hydrate1 ,zr,o,cl1#c;,h,o1 :il/ ! dihydrate1 ,zr,o,cl1#b;,h,o1 is obta9$ by heat+ at #ajj-aje 9 hydrog5 *loride4 ,:5 ! dihydrate is heat$ to #bcj1 x =ms ano!r basic *loride1 ,zr,o,cl,zr,o1#dfg :i* is /able up to #fjj2 above ?is temp]ature1 x breaks up1 =m+ ! volatile tetra*loride1 & leav+ a residue ( ! dioxide4 #dff ,compt4 r5d4 #aiab1 #aed1 #hba4 #dfg ,ibid4 #abcd4 ,by repeat$ evaporation ( ! oxy*loride ) small quantities ( wat]1 a #8metazirconium *loride' is obta9$1 :i* dissolves 9 wat] to a colloidal solution1 & on dialysis yields a colloidal solution ( #8metazirconic acid4' ,! bromide1 ,zr,br1 v closely resembles ! *loride2 :5 treat$ ) wat] x =ms ! oxybromide1 :i* sep>ates f solution accord+ to ! conditions 9 v>i\s hydrat$ =ms1 ( :i* ! commone/ is ! octohydrate1 ,zr,o,br1#h;,h,o4 ,! iodide1 ,zr,i1 is a v reactive body1 :i* closely resembles ! prec$+2 x =ms an oxyiodide1 ,zr,o,i1#h;,h,o4 ,zirconyl *lorate1 ,zr,o7,cl,o71#f;,h,o1 is obta9$ f ! sulphate by d\ble decomposition ) b>ium *lorate2 x =ms v soluble col\rless ne$les4 ,alkali iodates or iodic acid ?r[ d[n a volum9\s oxyiodate1 v sp>+ly soluble1 l ! correspond+ c]ic & ?orium salts1 9 wat] & acids4 ,! ,sulphates4--,:5 zirconium dioxide is dissolv$ 9 conc5trat$ sulphuric acid1 & ! excess ( acid remov$ by heat+ to #djj1 ! #8neutral' sulphate1 ,zr7,,s71 rema9s4 ,! comp\nd dissolves 9 dilute sulphuric acid to =m solutions :i* conta9 v>i\s #8complexes' z %[n by conductivity measurem5ts1 & ! behavi\r t[>ds oxalic acid4 ,:il/ solutions ( ! nitrate or *loride give imm$iate precipitates ) ?is reag5t1 solutions ( ! #8sulphate' give no precipitate1 or at mo/ a v gradual "o2 moreov]1 addition ( sulphuric acid or ( alkali sulphates to o!r zirconium salts inhibits ! oxalate precipitation4 ,^! facts are expla9$ by reg>d+ ! #8neutral' sulphate1 ,zr7,,s71#d;,h,o1 z zirconylsulphuric acid1 ,zr,o,s,o1,h,,s1#c;,h,o1 :i* 9 solution ionises to #b;,h4 & ,zr,o,s,o1,,s4 ,?is conclusion is confirm$ by ! fact t :il/ 9 solutions ( ! *loride 9 hydro*loric acid1 zirconium goes on electrolysis to ! ca?ode1 on addition ( sulphuric acid to ! solution x travels to ! anode4 ,! anhydr\s comp\nd & ! hydrate are extremely soluble 9 wat]1 b mu* less readily soluble 9 dilute sulphuric acid4 ,probably 9 solution m complex salts are =m$ by fur!r hydrolysis1 = by addition ( conc5trat$ alkali sulphate solution 9 ! cold1 d\ble salts ( ! =mula ,zr,o7,,rso71#h;,h,o are obta9$4 ,:5 ! solution is kept = "s "t at #ci-dj1 a basic sulphate1 #d,zr,o1#c,,s1#ad;,h,o1 sep>ates sl[ly4 ,:5 conc5trat$ solutions are boil$1 a salt1 #b,zr,o1#c,,s1#e;,h,o1 sep>ates z a cry/all9e precipitate2 9 contact ) wat] x sl[ly hydrates itself to ! comp\nd #b,zr,o1#c,,s1#ad;,h,o2 :5 heat$ to #cjj1 x becomes anhydr\s )\t fur!r *ange4 ,v>i\s o!r basic1 acid & complex salts h also be5 describ$4 ,! nitrate1 ,zr7,,no71#e;,h,o1 sep>ates f conc5trat$ solutions ( ! oxide 9 nitric acid by evaporation ov] sulphuric acid & sodium hydroxide2 x is believ$ to be a zirconylnitric acid1 ,zr,o7,,no71#b;,,hno1#d;,h,o by analogy ) ! sulphate4 ,:5 its aque\s solutions are w>m$1 basic salts sep>ate4 ,kolbe#dfh has describ$ an additive comp\nd ) antipyr9e1 ,zr7,,no71#f;,c,h,,on1 :i* is soluble 9 wat]1 & melts at #bag-bah4 #dfh ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aiac1 #hc1 #adc4 ,:5 phosphoric acid or a soluble phosphate is add$ to a solution ( a zirconium salt1 zirconium phosphates ( d\btful composition are ?r[n d[n2 by fusion me?ods1 v>i\s d\ble phosphates h be5 prep>$4 ,a hypophosphate1 ,zr7,,po71,h,o1 has rec5tly be5 obta9$ by ,haus] & ,h]zfeld#dfi by precipitation4 ,! same au?ors h prep>$ a hypophosphite1 :i* is s5sitive to light4 ,:5 hypophosphor\s acid1 ,h,,po1 is add$ to a solution ( zirconium nitrate1 a precipitate is obta9$1 :i* dissolves 9 excess ( ! acid2 by addition ( alcohol to ! cle> solution1 ! hypophosphite1 ,zr7,h,,po71,h,o1 is ?r[n d[n 9 col\rless1 highly refract+ prisms1 :i* on exposure to sunlight = a %ort "t become deep violet1 )\t fur!r p]ceptible *ange4 #dfi ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aiac1 #hd1 #ib4 ,zirconium c>bonate has rec5tly be5 obta9$ by ,*auv5et4#dgj ,addition ( sodium c>bonate precipitates a basic or?oc>bonate1 ,zr,c,o1,zr,o1#h;,h,o1 soluble 9 excess2 :5 dri$ 9 vacuo1 ! precipitate loses wat]1 =m+ ! dihydrate1 ,zr,c,o1,zr,o1#b;,h,o4 ,:5 ! latt] comp\nd is treat$ ) c>bon dioxide at a pressure ( #cj-dj atmosph]es1 ! neutral or?oc>bonate1 ,zr,c,o1#b;,h,o1 is =m$4 ,:5 ! comp\nds are heat$1 o!r basic salts are obta9$4 #dgj ,bull4 ,soc4 ,*im4 #aiac iv41 #ac1 #ded4 ,zirconyl oxalate1 ,zr,o1,c,o1 is obta9$ 9 ! hydrat$ =m :5 oxalic acid is add$ to a zirconium salt 9 ! pres5ce ( hydro*loric or acetic acid4 ,x is a :ite p[d]1 soluble 9 oxalic acid1 & easily hydrolys$ by wat]4 ,if an aque\s solution ( oxalic acid be saturat$ ) zirconium hydroxide1 an acid oxalate1 ,zr,o,h7,,hc,o71#g;,h,o1 is obta9$ on evaporation4 ,d\ble oxalates are readily obta9$ by dissolv+ zirconium hydroxide 9 solutions ( alkali hydrog5 oxalates1 ! g5]al =m be+ ,zr7,c,o,r71x,h,o4 ,! t>trate precipitat$ :5 t>t>ic acid is add$ to a zirconium salt 9 solution probably has ! cyclic /ructure1 ,c,o,o,zr7,,oh7 ,,*--,o ,zr7,,oh7 _/ ,,*--,o ,c,o,o,zr7,,oh7 z %[n by ! great rise 9 ! specific rotatory p[] ( solutions ( alkali oxalates on addition ( zirconium comp\nds4 ,! precipitate dissolves readily 9 alkalies1 & v>i\s d\ble alkali t>trates h be5 prep>$2 ! potassium salt1 ,zr,o7,c,h,o,k71#c;,h,o1 is analog\s to ! ?orium alkali t>trates4 ,! solubility 9 alkalies is ( great importance = ! sep>ation ( iron & zirconium4 ,atomic ,weight ( ,zirconium4--,! value ( ?is con/ant is n v accurately kn[n4 ,! ,int]national ,committee has adopt$ ! value #ijf1 b !re is "s unc]ta9ty z to ! value ( ! decimal fraction4 ,b]zelius 9 #ahbe employ$ ! analytical sulphate me?od1 & f\nd ,zr #hhdg4 ,! numb]s ( ,h]mann 7#ahdd71 obta9$ by ! analysis ( ! oxy*loride1 #b,zr,o,cl1#i;,h,o1#dga 7 v discordant1 ! mean giv+ ! value #hief4 ,m>ignac 9 #ahfj analys$ ! potassium salt1 ,k,zr,f2 ?is he heat$ ) /rong sulphuric acid1 ! residue be+ ignit$ until all ! zirconium sulphate 0 trans=m$ to oxide2 ! weigh$ mixture 0 !n fre$ f potassium sulphate1 & ! residual oxide dri$ & weigh$4 ,f ! ?ree ratios ,k,zr,f 3 ,zr,o1 ,k,zr,f 3 ,h,,s1 & ,k,,s 3 ,zr,o1 he obta9$ ! mean values #ijjb1 #iaee1 & #ijfh respectively4 ,weibull 9 #ahha-ahhb det]m9$ ! ratios ,zr7,,s7 3 ,zr,o & ,zr7,se,o7 3 ,zr,o by ignition ( ! sulphate & sel5ate respectively2 he obta9$ ! values #hiee & #ijha4 #dga ,*auv5et 7loc4 cit47 c\ld n confirm ! exi/5ce ( ?is hydrate4 ,bailey c>ri$ out a s]ies ( analytical sulphate det]m9ations 9 #ahij1 obta9+ ! mean value #ijfef4 ,braun] criticises ! me?od on ! gr\nd t ! prep>ation ( ! pure neutral anhydr\s sulphate is almo/ impossible2 ! sulphate heat$ to #djj is n yet anhydr\s1 s t ,bailey's result1 on ?is gr\nd1 is probably too l[4 ,v5able 9 #ahih analys$ ! oxy*loride2 he claim$ to h obta9$ ! comp\nd ,zr,o,cl1#c;,h,o1 by heat+ ! cry/allis$ salt at #ajj-abe 9 hydrog5 *loride1 a me?od :i* ,*auv5et 7loc4 cit47 has f\nd to lead to ! dihydrate1 ,zr,o,cl1#b;,h,o4 ,8 value 0 #ijhjc4 ,detection & ,e/imation4--,! foll[+ reactions may be employ$ to di/+ui% zirconium3 7#a7 ,! oxalate precipitat$ f neutral or fa9tly acid solution dissolves readily 9 excess ( oxalic acid2 ! oxalates ( ?orium & ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts are practically insoluble "u ^! conditions4 ,! fluoride also dissolves 9 excess ( hydr(luoric acid or ( alkali fluoride1 behavi\r *>act]i/ic ( ?is elem5t alone among ! gr\p4 7#b7 ,by fusion ) sodium c>bonate 9 ! oxidis+ flame1 a bead is obta9$1 :i*1 :5 dissolv$ 9 boil+ hydro*loric acid1 =ms a solution :i* gives a volum9\s precipitate on addition ( disodium hydrog5 phosphate1 if zirconium is pres5t4 ,iron1 alum9ium1 titanium1 ?orium1 & r>e e>?s h no influ5ce on ! te/4#dgb #dgb ,biltz & ,meckl5burg1 ,zeits*4 angew4 ,*em4 #aiab1 #be1 #baaj4 7#c7 ,a solution ( a zirconium salt 9 hydro*loric acid gives an orange col\ration ) curcuma pap]4 ,f]ric & titanium salts1 if pres5t1 mu/ be r$uc$ by means ( z9c be=e ! te/ is appli$4 ,! e/imation ( zirconium is complicat$ by ! difficulty ( sep>at+ x f ! accompany+ elem5ts4 ,! solubility ( ! oxalate 9 oxalic acid all[s ( a rapid & easy sep>ation f ?orium & r>e e>? elem5ts1 s t iron1 alum9ium1 & *romium only rema9 to be remov$4 ,iron may be sep>at$ by ! ?iosulphate me?od1 or o!r processes m5tion$ on p4 #cch2 :5 free f t elem5t1 zirconium may be sep>at$ f alum9ium & *romium by precipitation ) alkali iodate 9 pres5ce ( ! lea/ possible excess ( acid4 ,! precipitates 9 ! ?iosulphate & iodate me?ods may be wa%$1 & ignit$ directly to ! dioxide1 :i* is weigh$ z su*2 if ! zirconium is left aft] sep>ation 9 solution1 x may be precipitat$ ) ammonia1#dgc & aft] wa%+ & dry+1 ignit$ & weigh$ z dioxide4 #dgc ,on acc\nt ( ! adsorption ( alkalies by ! zirconium oxide gel1 pota% or soda is nev] us$ = ?is precipitation4 ,?orium1 ,? #bcbd ,! "n ,?oria 7?or9a7 0 propos$ by ,b]zelius 9 #ahag = :at appe>$ to be a new e>?1 b :i* 9 #ahbd 0 recognis$ z a basic yttria phosphate4 ,9 #ahbh a new m9]al 0 discov]$ by ,esm>k ne> ,brevig 9 ,norway2 to ! oxide isolat$ f ?is1 ,b]zelius gave ! "n ?oria1 f its resemblance to ! sub/ance he _h obta9$ 9 #ahag4 ,! homog5eity ( ! new elem5t 0 que/ion$ by ,b]gmann 9 #aheg1 & also by ,bahr 9 #ahfb1 b ! conclusions ( ^? au?ors h be5 %[n to be q unf\nd$4 ,?orium occurs 9 traces 9 a l>ge numb] ( common m9]als1 & 9 v>y+ quantities 9 mo/ ( ! uranium & r>e e>? m9]als4 ,its occurr5ce 9 monazite1 & ! di/ribution ( ! latt] m9]al1 h already be5 dealt )2 ! comm]cial treatm5t ( monazite is describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,! oxide =ms ! *ief con/itu5t 9 ,?orite1 ) its gem-v>iety ,orangite1 & ! v>i\s second>y m9]als1 & 9 ! m9]al ,?orianite1 9 :i* ! only o!r important con/itu5t is uran\s oxide4 ,! extraction f ^! m9]als is a comp>atively simple matt]4 ,decomposition is easily effect$ by hydro*loric or sulphuric acid1 ?orianite dissolv+ easily also 9 nitric acid2 ! solutions obta9$1 aft] appropriate treatm5t to remove silica1 excess ( acid1 etc41 are treat$ ) sulphurett$ hydrog51 to remove lead1 bismu?1 & simil> =eign metals1 & fre$ f ! r>e e>?s by ! c>bonate1 oxalate1 or sulphate me?ods4 ,! la/ dep5ds on ! fact t ?orium sulphate & its hydrates are mu* less soluble ?an correspond+ comp\nds ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts2 ! fir/ two on ! fact t ?orium salts dissolve readily 9 excess ( alkali c>bonates or oxalates1 :il/ ! r>e e>? comp\nds are mu* less easily soluble4 ,?orium1 l zirconium1 =ms only "o s]ies ( salts1 9 :i* ! metal is tetraval5t4 ,! =mula ,th,o 0 orig9ally put =w>d by ,b]zelius = ! oxide1 f its resemblance to ! c]ia & yttria oxides1 & its g5]al occurr5ce ) ^!4 ,! true =mula 0 d$uc$1 :5 ! val5cy ( zirconium _h be5 decid$ by ! vap\r d5sity exp]im5ts ( ,troo/ & ,deville1 9 #aheg1 f ! isomorphism ( zircon & ?orite1 & ! close relation%ip betwe5 ! comp\nds ( ! two elem5ts1 especially among ! d\ble fluorides1 & 0 confirm$ by a det]m9ation ( ! specific heat ( ! metal by ,nilson 9 #ahhc4 ,9 its *emical relations1 ! elem5t resembles zirconium1 ?\gh1 z is to be expect$ f ! high atomic weight1 x %[s a mu* m m>k$ electropositive "*1 approa*+ 9 ?is respect ! elem5ts ( ! yttrium gr\p4 ,! oxide has no long] acid prop]ties1 & ! neutral salts1 ?\gh !y hydrolyse readily & are !re=e acid to indicators 9 solution1 may be recry/allis$ un*ang$ f aque\s solution4 ,! t5d5cy to =m d\ble salts is /ill pres5t1 ?\gh dim9i%$2 ! oxalate is soluble 9 a l>ge excess ( alkali oxalate1 b n 9 oxalic acid1 & ! d\ble fluorides are less num]\s & v>i$ ?an ^? ( zirconium & titanium4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x =ms a well-cry/allis$ & *>act]i/ic s]ies ( d\ble nitrates1 ,r,?7,,no71 isomorph\s ) ! analog\s c]ic salts4 ,9 ! behavi\r ( its sulphate x diff]s m>k$ly f zirconium1 & closely approa*es ! r>e e>? elem5ts4 ,! hydroxide has ! *>act]i/ic t5d5cy to =m colloidal solutions & gels4 ,?orium is peculi>1 among ! elem5ts :i* h be5 consid]$1 ?r\gh its prop]ty ( giv+ *>act]i/ic radiations1 & dis9tegrat+ ) =mation ( a :ole family ( new elem5ts2 or1 z x is commonly express$1 ?r\gh its radioactive prop]ties4#dgd ,! elem5t has a half-life p]iod ( ! ord] ( #d #aj ye>s2 9 ! c\rse ( decay1 x gives rise to meso?orium #a1 :i* is rayless1 b decays to meso?orium #b1 ) its product radio?orium1 bo? ( :i* give p[]ful radiations4 ,meso?orium #a ( c\rse occurs 9 all ?orium-conta9+ m9]als1 & may be sep>at$ f monazite by addition ( a b>ium comp\nd dur+ ! sulphuric acid decomposition2 9 consequ5ce ( ! p[]ful radiat+ prop]ties ( its products1 x is itself ( consid]able importance1 & proposals = extract+ x f monazite 9 ! prep>ation ( ! ?orium nitrate ( comm]ce h be5 put =w>d 7see p4 #bgf74 #dgd ,! nature ( ! pres5t "w all[s only ! briefe/ ref]5ce to be made to ! exce$+ly int]e/+ ph5om5a :i* c5tre ab\t ?is subject2 = a m complete acc\nt1 ! /ud5t %\ld consult ,soddy1 ,! ,*emi/ry ( ! ,radio-,elem5ts1 ,"p ,i1 #aiaa4 ,meso?orium appe>s to be *emically id5tical ) radium2 s9ce monazite1 l all o!r ?orium-be>+ m9]als1 conta9s uranium & radium1 ! latt] elem5t is sep>at$ ) ! meso?orium1 & inde$1 hav+ a v mu* l>g] half-life p]iod1 con/itutes by f> ! great] "p ( su* #8meso?orium' prep>ations4 ,on acc\nt ( ! great activity ( ! meso?orium products1 ! be/ prep>ations f monazite1 ?\gh e/imat$ to conta9 only #a p] c5t4 ( meso?orium to #ii p] c5t4 radium1 are said to be f\r times z active z pure radium comp\nds4 ,! *emical id5tity ( ! two products seems to preclude any possibility ( det]m9+ ! physical prop]ties & con/ants ( meso?orium4 ,! elem5t radio?orium1 :i* 0 discov]$ by ,hahn 9 #aije1 9 ! m9]al ?orianite1 is *emically id5tical ) ! p>5t elem5t ?orium1 b c be sep>at$ by means ( ! int]m$iate elem5t1 meso?orium #a4 ,! latt] is readily sep>at$ by ! sulphate precipitation1 & ! radio?orium to :i* x gives rise may be sep>at$ by precipitation ) ammonia4 ,?orium is also *emically id5tical ) ionium1 ! p>5t ( radium1 & ! ?orium nitrate ( comm]ce !re=e conta9s important quantities ( ionium--important t is1 9 view ( ! high radiat+ p[] ( ! latt] elem5t4 ,! /udy ( ^! relation%ips con/itutes "o ( ! mo/ important & int]e/+ fields 9 ! prov9ce ( radioactivity4 ,! ,metal4--,elem5t>y ?orium has n yet be5 obta9$ 9 ! pure /ate1 ow+ to ! ease ) :i* x =ms comp\nds & alloys ) all ! common elem5ts1 & to its great aff9ity = oxyg52 ! high melt+-po9t also increases ! difficulty ( obta9+ ! pure metal4 ,b]zelius attempt$ to r$uce ! alkali d\ble fluorides & d\ble *lorides ) sodium or potassium2 ,nilson c>ri$ out ! same reaction 9 a clos$ iron cyl9d]1 b 8 product /ill conta9$ #bj p] c5t4 ( ?oria4 ,r$uction ( ! oxide ) magnesium is nev] complete1 & ! c>bon me?od gives only a mixture ( c>bide & metal4 ,electrolytic me?ods give no bett] results1 s9ce ! metal lib]at$ at ! ca?ode always encloses oxide & o!r impurities4 ,moissan & ,hnigs*mid 9 #aijf1 by heat+ ! c>efully purifi$ anhydr\s *loride ) sodium 9 a seal$ glass tube f :i* air & moi/ure _h be5 remov$1 claim to h obta9$ a product conta9+ only #c p] c5t4 ( ! oxide4 ,! elem5t has rec5tly be5 prep>$ 9 leaf =m by =c+ ! amorph\s product into ! bore ( a copp] tube1 hamm]+ into %eets1 & remov+ ! copp] by dilute nitric acid4#dge #dge v4 ,bolton1 ,zeits*4 ,elektro*em4 #aijh1 #ad1 #gfh4 ,! amorph\s impure metal is a d>k grey p[d]1 ( specific gravity #aac2 ! hamm]$ & /rongly heat$ leaf has ! d5sity #abaf4 ,x burns readily 9 air ) great brilliance1 & :5 f9ely p[d]$ ignites if cru%$ or rubb$4 ,:5 heat$ 9 ! electric furnace1 x melts1 accord+ to von ,bolton1#dgf at ab\t #adej2 von ,w>t5burg#dgg f\nd ! melt+-po9t to be ab\t #agjj2 ! fus$ beads resemble plat9um 9 physical prop]ties4 ,x is some:at resi/ant to acids1 dissolv+ easily only 9 aqua regia1 & m sl[ly 9 fum+ hydro*loric acid4 ,x comb9es directly :5 heat$ 9 sulphur or halog5s1 & 9 nitrog5 & hydrog54 #dgf v4 ,bolton1 ,zeits*4 ,elektro*em4 #aijh1 #ad1 #gfh4 #dgg ,ibid4 #aiji1 #ae1 #hff4 ,! hydride1 ,th,h1 is be/ obta9$ by heat+ ! metal 9 hydrog51 an en]getic reaction tak+ place at a r$ heat4 ,w9kl] obs]v$ t a mixture ( ! dioxide ) magnesium absorbs hydrog5 readily :5 heat$4 ,! hydride is a /able greyi%-black p[d]1 n attack$ by wat]1 b dissolv+ readily 9 hydro*loric acid1 ) evolution ( hydrog54 ,! nitride1 ,?,n1 is prep>$ by heat+ ! metal 9 ! gas1 or ! c>bide 9 a /ream ( ammonia4 ,x is a br[n p[d]1 decompos$ by wat] ) evolution ( ammonia & =mation ( ! dioxide4 ,! azide has be5 us$ = purposes ( detection & e/imation1 s9ce 9 boil+ solution x is hydrolys$ ) sep>ation ( ! hydroxide2 zirconium & c]ic salts also %[ ?is reaction1 b ! r>e e>? salts give no precipitate4 ,! hydroxide1 ,?7,,oh71x,h,o1 is precipitat$ f solutions ( ?orium salts by alkalies or ammonia1 z a gelat9\s :ite precipitate1 insoluble 9 excess4 ,x dissolves readily 9 m9]al acids or 9 alkali c>bonates4 ,hydrog5 p]oxide & ammonia ?r[ d[n an hydrat$ p]oxide1 ,?,o2 f neutral solutions hydrog5 p]oxide alone ?r[s d[n p]oxy-salts1 :i* conta9 acid gr\ps4 ,?is p]oxide may also be obta9$ by ! action ( sodium hypo*lorite or hydrog5 p]oxide on ! hydroxide1 z 9 ! case ( ! zirconium comp\nd4 ,x readily gives up oxyg51 pass+ into ! m /able p]oxide1 ,th,o4 ,s9ce 9 neutral or fa9tly acid solutions zirconium & ! r>e e>?s give no precipitate ) hydrog5 p]oxide1 ! reaction is extremely useful 9 ! detection & e/imation ( ?orium4 ,?orium dioxide1 ,th,o1 is obta9$ by ! ignition ( ! hydroxide or ( suitable salts z a :ite p[d]1 ( :i* ! prop]ties & appe>ance dep5d l>gely on ! me?od & temp]ature us$ 9 its =mation4 ,:il/ ! residue obta9$ by ignition ( ! nitrate is an extraord9>ily volum9\s & light flaky mass1 ! sulphate yields a d5se ?ick p[d]2 ! nitrate 0 !re=e always pref]r$ 9 ! manufacture ( inc&esc5t mantles 7q4v471 z x 0 ?\ght t ! oxide obta9$ f x 0 ! mo/ suitable = illum9ation4 ,9 ! cry/all9e =m ! oxide has be5 obta9$ 9 ! laboratory by fusion ) borax & ) potassium phosphate4 ,! fir/ me?od gives tetragonal cry/als1 probably isomorph\s ) ^? ( rutile & cassit]ite2 ! phosphate fusion is said to give cubic cry/als 7see p4 #gd74 ,! oxide is insoluble 9 acids1 b c be trans=m$ into ! sulphate by evaporation ) conc5trat$ sulphuric acid1 or fusion ) alkali bisulphate4 ,x does n lib]ate c>bon dioxide :5 fus$ ) alkali c>bonates4 ,by repeat$ evaporation ) small quantities ( acids1 ?oria c be trans=m$ into a gel soluble 9 wat] 7?orium meta-oxide74 ,! sol is an opalesc5t fluid1 orange-r$ by transmitt$ light1 & conta9s small quantities ( ! acid employ$4 ,! hydroxide may also be obta9$ 9 ?is =m by c>efully wa%+ x1 & boil+ ) small quantities ( acids1 or ) ?orium or o!r salts1 or ev5 by long cont9u$ wa%+ ) pure wat]2 simil>ly1 cont9u$ dialysis ( ?orium salts ev5tually yields su* gels4 ,! colloid is positively *>g$1 & resembles ! zirconium oxide gel 9 its relation to negatively *>g$ colloids4 ,! gel is easily precipitat$ by electrolytes4 ,ignit$ ?orium oxide has f\nd consid]able application 9 rec5t ye>s a cataly/ 9 ! prep>ation ( ketones by ! contact me?od ( ,sabati] & ,s5d]5s4#dgh ,by pass+ mixtures ( ! vap\rs ( appropriate acids ov] ! cataly/ heat$ to ! necess>y temp]ature1 good yields ( ! requir$ ketones are obta9$4#dgi #dgh ,cf4 ,s5d]5s1 ,ann4 ,*im4 ,phys4 #aiac viii41 #bh1 #adc4 #dgi ,cf4 ,pick>d & ,k5yon1 ,trans4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiac1 #ajc1 #aibc4 ,! sulphide1 ,th,s1 is obta9$1 toge!r ) ! oxysulphide1 ,th,o,s1 accord+ to ,dubo91#dhj by pass+ a curr5t ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 ov] a mixture ( ?orium *loride ) excess ( sodium *loride1 at a r$ heat4 ,! =m] =ms l>ge br[n cry/als1 f :i* ! small orange-yell[ cry/als ( ! oxysulphide may be sep>at$ by means ( a sieve2 ! latt] is purifi$ by treatm5t ) w>m nitric acid1 :i* dissolves ! sulphide v readily4 ,! oxysulphide is also obta9$ :5 ! anhydr\s sulphate is heat$ 9 sulphurett$ hydrog54#dha #dhj ,compt4 r5d4 #aijh1 #adf1 #hae4 #dha ,haus]1 ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aijg1 #ec1 #gd4 ,! c>bide1 ,th,c1 is obta9$ by ! action ( c>bon on ! oxide 9 ! electric furnace2 x is a yell[ cry/all9e mass1 decompos$ sl[ly by wat]1 en]getically by dilute acids 9 ! cold1 ) evolution ( a complex mixture ( hydrog5 & hydroc>bons1 9 :i* _m memb]s ( ! p>aff91 olef9e & acetyl5e s]ies h be5 obs]v$4#dhb ,hydrog5 con/itutes ov] #ej p] c5t4 ( ! mixture1 ! next mo/ important con/itu5ts be+ ! acetyl5ic hydroc>bons1 foll[$ by e?ane4 #dhb ,lebeau & ,dami5s1 ,compt4 r5d4 #aiac1 #aef1 #aihg4 ,?orium fluoride1 ,th,f1 is obta9$ anhydr\s by pass+ hydrog5 fluoride ov] ! anhydr\s *loride or bromide at a temp]ature ( #cej-djj4 ,! tetrahydrate1 ,th,f1#d;,h,o1 is precipitat$ by addition ( hydr(luoric acid to a solution ( a ?orium salt1 or by ! action ( ! acid on ! hydroxide4 ,hydr(luosilicic acid also ?r[s d[n ! fluoride1 ev5 9 ! cold1 f solutions ( ?orium salts4 ,! fluoride is insoluble 9 wat] & m9]al acids1 z well z 9 excess ( precipitant2 ?is behavi\r all[s ( a complete & easy sep>ation ( ?orium f titanium & zirconium4 ,! r>e e>? fluorides are also mu* m easily soluble 9 conc5trat$ m9]al acids ?an ?orium fluoride1 s t ?is comp\nd may also be us$ 9 ! sep>ation f ! r>e e>?s4 ,:5 heat$ 9 a /ream ( ! acid to #hjj1 ! hydrat$ salt yields ! oxyfluoride1 ,th,o,f2 ignit$ 9 ! air1 x leaves ! dioxide4 ,precipitation ) potassium fluoride gives ! d\ble fluoride1 ,k,th,f1,h,o1 :i* may be obta9$ anhydr\s by fusion ( ! mix$ fluorides2 x is insoluble4 ,an amorph\s insoluble comp\nd1 ,k,th,f1#d;,h,o1 is obta9$ by boil+ ! hydroxide ) a mixture ( potassium hydrog5 fluoride & hydr(luoric acid4 ,sodium & ammonium fluorides ?r[ d[n ! simple fluoride4 ,?orium *loride1 ,th,cl1 is obta9$ 9 ! anhydr\s =m by all ! usual me?ods1 ! mo/ conv5i5t be+ p]haps ! action ( *lor9e & sulphur mono*loride on ! heat$ dioxide4 ,x almo/ inv>iably conta9s small quantities ( oxy*loride4 ,:5 pure1 x =ms col\rless ne$les fairly /able 9 dry air2 ! impure product gradually d>k5s 9 col\r4 ,x dissolves 9 wat] ) consid]able evolution ( heat1 & is soluble also 9 alcohol & moi/ e!r4 ,x melts at ab\t #hbj1 & sublimes un*ang$ at some:at high] temp]atures2 ! vap\r beg9s to dissociate at ab\t #ajej1 ! dissociation increas+ rapidly z ! temp]ature rises4 ,x resembles zirconium *loride 9 ! ease ) :i* x =ms additive comp\nds ) ammonia & organic bases1 & addition & cond5sation products ) organic oxyg5-comp\nds2 _m d\ble & complex *lorides are also kn[n1 among :i* ! plat9um comp\nds ,th,pt,cl1#ab;,h,o & ,?,pt,cl1#bd;,h,o1 & ! pyrid9e salt 7,c,h,,nh7,th,cl may be m5tion$4 ,f aque\s solution ! octohydrate1 ,th,cl1#h;,h,o1 sep>ates at ord9>y temp]atures2 a heptahydrate & an enneahydrate h be5 describ$ z precipitat$ f ! alcoholic solution by addition ( wat]4 ,! basic salts1 ,?7,,oh7,cl1#g;,h,o & ,?7,,oh7,cl1#e;,h,o1 h be5 obta9$ by addition ( ! hydroxide to alcoholic hydrog5 *loride4 ,! oxy*loride1 ,th,o,cl1 may be obta9$ by ! c>efully regulat$ action ( c>bon tetra*loride on ! dioxide1 accord+ to ! equation3 ,th,o ,c,cl ,th,o,cl ,c,o,cl ,x is a col\rless cry/all9e solid1 :i* takes up moi/ure f ! air1 =m+ ! hexahydrate4 ,?orium bromide1 ,th,br1 is a volatile solid :i* boils at #gbe2 x closely resembles ! *loride4 ,! iodide & a basic iodide1 ,?7,,oh7,i1#aj;,h,o1 are kn[n4 ,no cyanide ( ?orium is kn[n1 addition ( potassium cyanide m]ely caus+ sep>ation ( ! hydroxide4 ,a f]rocyanide1 ,?,fe7,,cn71#d;,h,o1 is ?r[n d[n z a :ite p[d] by potassium f]rocyanide2 ) potassium f]ricyanide no precipitate is obta9$4 ,! plat9ocyanide1 ,?,pt7,,cn71#af;,h,o1 is obta9$ by d\ble decomposition 9 yell[i%-br[n prisms4 ,among ! halog5 oxysalts1 ! p]*lorate1 *lorate1 bromate1 & iodate 7 prep>$ by ,cleve4 ,! iodate is ( great importance = purposes ( detection & e/imation1 f ! fact t1 9 pres5ce ( a l>ge excess ( alkali iodate1 x is insoluble 9 /rong nitric acid1 :il/ ! analog\s comp\nds ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts dissolve readily 9 t solv5t4 ,! sulphate1 ,?7,,s71 is obta9$ anhydr\s by evaporat+ ! excess ( acid f a solution ( ! dioxide 9 oil ( vitriol1 or by heat+ ! hydrates4 ,x resembles ! sulphates ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts1 9 t x dissolves 9 wat] at #j to =m a highly sup]saturat$ solution1 f :i* ! hydrat$ =ms sep>ate out almo/ quantitatively :5 ! temp]ature is all[$ to rise4 ,! solubility relations ( ! v>i\s hydrates1 on acc\nt ( _! comm]cial importance1 are some:at fully treat$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,a dihydrate1 ,?7,,s71#b;,h,o1 is obta9$ by keep+ ! tetrahydrate at #aaj4 ,! ennea- & octohydrates are isomorph\s ) ! correspond+ ?orium sel5ate hydrates1 & ! ennea- & tetrahydrates ) ! analog\s uran\s sulphate hydrates4 ,! hydrates yield ! anhydr\s salt :5 heat$ to #djj2 ! anhydr\s sulphate has already a consid]able dissociation t5sion 7#ae mm47 at #ege4 ,by treatm5t ) excess ( acid1 & subsequ5t heat+ to #acj 9 vacuo1 ! acid sulphate1 ,?7,,s71,h,,s1 is obta9$4 ,an insoluble basic salt1 ,th,o,s,o1#b;,h,o1 is =m$ by cont9u$ boil+ ( ! tetrahydrate 9 dilute solution1 or m quickly by heat+ ! solution 9 a clos$ tube to #abj-abe2 a monohydrate1 ,th,o,s,o1,h,o1 is also kn[n4 ,halla#dhc has rec5tly obta9$ ! hydrate1 ,th,o,s,o1#e;,h,o1 by boil+ a solution ( ! neutral sulphate ) magnesium sulphate1 & also by treat+ ! anhydr\s sulphate ) a little wat] 9 pres5ce ( magnesium c>bonate4 #dhc ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aiab1 #gi1 #bfj4 ,by precipitation ) potassium sulphate ! d\ble salt1 ,?7,,s71#b,k,,s1#b;,h,o1 is =m$2 ?is is soluble 9 wat] b insoluble 9 potassium sulphate solution4 ,! analog\s sodium & ammonium salts are soluble bo? 9 wat] & excess ( ! correspond+ alkali sulphate4 ,! sulphite1 ,?7,,s71,h,o1 is obta9$ z a :ite amorph\s precipitate by w>m+ a solution ( a ?orium salt ) sulphur\s acid4 ,basic sulphites & d\ble sulphites are also kn[n2 ! precipitates obta9$ by addition ( alkali sulphite dissolve readily 9 excess4 ,! hydroxide is almo/ insoluble 9 sulphur\s acid1 behavi\r :i* di/+ui%es ?orium 7& zirconium7 f all ! trival5t metals4 ,no ?iosulphate is kn[n1 ! hydroxide be+ ?r[n d[n f boil+ solution by addition ( sodium ?iosulphate3 ?is me?od ( precipitation 0 =m]ly mu* us$ = purposes ( e/imation1 b x is m t$i\s & less accurate ?an ! mod]n me?ods4 ,?orium nitrate1 ,?7,,no71#ab;,h,o1 cry/allises at ord9>y temp]atures 9 l>ge hygroscopic tablets1 v soluble 9 wat] & alcohol4 ,! hydrates1 ,?7,,no71#f;,h,o & ,?7,,no71#e;,h,o1 h be5 obta9$ f hot solution & f nitric acid solution respectively4 ,?orium is employ$ 9 comm]ce almo/ entirely 9 ! =m ( ?is salt1 :i* is dehydrat$ until x conta9s ab\t #dh p] c5t4 ,th,o1 :i* approximates to ! =mula ,?7,,no71#d;,h,o2 ! comm]cial product1 h[ev]1 is n a def9ite hydrate4 ,kolbe#dhd has describ$ ! additive product ) antipyr9e1 #b,?7,,no71#e;,c,h,,on1 :i* melts at #afh4 ,! ext5t to :i* ?orium salts are hydrolys$ 9 solution is v consid]able1 z is evid5t f ! fact t ! nitrate may be titrat$ ) /&>d pota% 9 pres5ce ( ph5olph?ale9 z indicator2 ! solution fir/ becomes alkal9e to ?is reag5t :5 #ce molecules ( pota% h be5 add$ = ea* molecule ( ?orium nitrate pres5t4#dhe ,( ! l>ge numb] ( d\ble nitrates :i* h be5 prep>$1 ! g5]al types ,r,?7,,no71 :]e ,r ,,nh1,k1,rb1,cs1 & ,r,?7,,no71#h;,h,o1 :]e ,r ,mg1,mn1,zn1,ni1,co1 are ! mo/ important4 #dhd ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aiac1 #hc1 #adc4 #dhe ,halla1 loc4 cit4 ,?orium phosphates4--,! precipitates obta9$ by addition ( phosphoric acid or alkali phosphates to solutions ( ?orium salts are gelat9\s solids ( d\btful composition2 !y dissolve 9 m9]al acids & 9 alkali c>bonates1 & _! behavi\r is ( great importance 9 ! te*nical treatm5t ( monazite4 ,v>i\s phosphates & d\ble phosphates are obta9$ by fusion me?ods1 b none ( ^! are important4 ,! phosphite1 ,?7,,hpo71#c;,h,o1 & hypophosphite1 ,?7,h,,po71 are insoluble solids obta9$ by d\ble decomposition4 ,! hypophosphate ,th,p,o1#aa;,h,o1 is ( great importance = purposes ( detection & e/imation1 s9ce x is ?r[n d[n quantitatively f /rongly acid solutions2 "u ^! conditions ! r>e e>?s rema9 9 solution4 ,no neutral c>bonate ( ?orium is kn[n4 ,alkali c>bonates precipitate a basic salt1 :i* dissolves readily 9 excess2 ?is fact is ( v great importance 9 ! comm]cial extraction ( ?orium1 ! sodium & ammonium d\ble c>bonates ( ! c]ium elem5ts be+ almo/ insoluble 9 alkali c>bonates4 ,addition ( alcohol to ! solution ?r[s d[n d\ble c>bonates1 :i* c be wa%$ ) ice wat]4 ,! salts ,k,?7,,co71#aj;,h,o1 ,na,?7,,co71#ab;,h,o1 & 7,,nh7,?7,,co71#f;,h,o h be5 obta9$ 9 ?is way2 !y dissolve readily 9 wat] or dilute alkali c>bonate1 ?\gh on w>m+ or dilut+ ! solution1 ! hydroxide sep>ates4 ,! ?allium comp\nd1 ,tl,?7,,co71 is sp>+ly soluble1 & is ?r[n d[n f a solution ( ! ammonium comp\nd on addition ( a ?allium salt2 x has be5 propos$ = ! micro*emical detection ( ?orium4 ,! quantitative sep>ation ( ?orium by means ( pure moi/ lead c>bonate has be5 propos$ = ! purpose ( e/imation 7see p4 #bhh74 ,?orium oxalate1 ,?7,c,o71#f;,h,o1 is precipitat$ quantitatively by means ( oxalic acid1 ev5 9 pres5ce ( consid]able quantities ( m9]al acids4 ,x is less soluble 9 sulphuric acid ?an any ( ! r>e e>? oxalates1#dhf & is n attack$1 z are ! latt] comp\nds1 by conc5trat$ nitric acid4 ,9 hydro*loric acid ! solubility fir/ increases rapidly ) ! conc5tration ( ! acid1 & !n sudd5ly decreases2 ?is behavi\r is due to ! =mation ( an oxalo*loride1 #c,?7,c,o71,th,cl1#bj;,h,o4 ,:5 ! amorph\s oxalate obta9$ by precipitation is all[$ to rema9 = a consid]able "t 9 contact ) acids1 x =ms *>act]i/ic tetragonal prisms ( ! m /able =m4 ,! dihydrate1 ,?7,c,o71#b;,h,o1 is obta9$ :5 ! hexahydrate is dri$ ov] sulphuric acid1 or heat$ to #ajj4 ,! salt dissolves easily 9 excess ( alkali oxalate1 b is precipitat$ f ! solutions by m9]al acids1 a fact :i* all[s ( ano!r means ( sep>ation f zirconium1 ! d\ble oxalates ( :i* are mu* m /able t[>ds acids4 ,! solubility ( ! oxalate 9 alkali oxalate all[s ( sep>ation f ! r>e e>? elem5ts1 :il/ its insolubility 9 excess ( oxalic acid c be us$ = ! sep>ation f zirconium4 #dhf ,haus] & ,wir?1 ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aiab1 #gh1 #ge4 ,! =mate & acetate c be obta9$ 9 ! =m ( neutral salts by ! action ( ! acids on ! hydroxide2 by d\ble decomposition1 amorph\s precipitates ( basic salts are obta9$4 ,) t>t>ic acid /able complex comp\nds are =m$1 z %[n by ! fact t alkalies w n precipitate ! hydroxide f a solution 9 pres5ce ( t reag5t1 & by ! elevation ( ! specific rotatory p[]4 ,_m complex salts are kn[n1 ! simple/ hav+ ! composition ,th,o7,c,h,o,r71#h;,h,o1 :]e ,r ,k1,na1,,nh2 ^! are obta9$ by dissolv+ ?orium hydroxide 9 conc5trat$ solutions ( alkali hydrog5 t>trates4 ,?orium acetylacetone1 ,?7,c,h,o71 is precipitat$ by addition ( ammonia to an aque\s solution ( ! nitrate mix$ ) acetylacetone dissolv$ 9 ammonia2 ! solid is recry/allis$ f alcohol1 & melts at #aga4 ,atomic ,weight ( ,?orium4--,! value adopt$ by ! ,int]national ,committee 7#aiad7 is #bcbd1 b mo/ ( ! det]m9ations c>ri$ out )9 ! la/ ?irty ye>s %[ consid]able discrepancies4 ,! e>li] "w ( ,b]zelius 7#ahbi7 & ,*yd5ius 7#ahfa7 l$ to v widely v>y+ results1 & = ! same reason little reliance c be plac$ on ! results ( ,delafonta9e 7#ahfc7 & ,h]mann 7#ahfd74 ,9 #ahgd ,cleve det]m9$ ! con/ant by ignition ( ! sulphate1 obta9+ ! mean values #bcdjc & #bccig2 ! figure #bcd bas$ on ^! results 0 = _m ye>s accept$ z ! true atomic weight4 ,a s]ies ( det]m9ations c>ri$ out by ,nilson 9 #ahhb l$ to mu* l[] results4 ,he employ$ ! sulphate ennea- & octohydrates1 fir/ dehydrat+ ^!1 & !n ignit+ to oxide1 & %[$ t ,cleve's value mu/ be too high on acc\nt *iefly ( ! hygroscopic nature ( ! ignit$ oxide1 :i* increases 9 weight :5 kept2 b 8 own values %[ consid]able discrepancies4 ,! ratio ,?7,,s71#i;,h,o-,th,o 3 ,th,o 7enneahydrate conv]t$ to oxide7 gave ! figure 7correct$ to vacuo7 #bcbea1 :il/ ! ratio ,th,o 3 #b,,s 7anhydr\s sulphate to oxide7 gave #bcbaf2 ! ratio ,?7,,s7 3 #i;,h,o 7hydrate to anhydr\s salt7 gave1 h[ev]1 #bccge4 ,! value obta9$ = ! ratio ,th,o 3 #b,,s = anhydr\s sulphate prep>$ f ! octohydrate 0 #bcbdi 7correct$ to vacuo74 ,five ye>s lat]1 ,krss & ,nilson prep>$ ! anhydr\s sulphate f ! pure octohydrate1 & ignit$ ?is to ! oxide4 ,! ratio ,th,o 3 #b,,s gave z a mean ( v concordant results ! figure #bcbdi4 ,braun] criticises ^! values on ! gr\nd t no details are giv5 z to ! temp]ature requir$ to obta9 ! anhydr\s salt f ! hydrates1 & t probably "s traces ( sulphate mu/ be decompos$ at ! temp]atures requir$ 7#dej-ejj7 to drive (f all ! wat]4 ,! results obta9$ f ! enneahydrate are to a great ext5t invalidat$ by ! d\bts z to ! purity ( ! hydrate1 complet5ess ( dehydration1 etc41 :i* arise f ! discrepancies 9 ! values d$uc$ f ! ?ree ratios4 ,he accepts1 h[ev]1 ! figure #bcbdi obta9$ by ,nilson & by ,krss & ,nilson f mat]ial sep>at$ z octohydrate1 ) "s unc]ta9ty z to ! second decimal figure4 ,braun] himself employ$ ! oxalate me?od 9 #ahih2 ! purifi$ hexahydrate 0 us$1 ! p]c5tage ( ?oria be+ det]m9$ by ignition1 & ( 7,c,o7 by titration ) p]manganate4 ,! ratio ,th,o 3 #b;,c,o gave results v>y+ f #bcbba to #bcbbi1 b z ! value rose cont9u\sly z purification 0 c>ri$ fur!r & fur!r1 he did n feel ju/ifi$ 9 tak+ a mean value4 ,9 #aijj ,urba9 det]m9$ ! con/ant ) mat]ial purifi$ by ! acetylacetone me?od4 ,he prep>$ ! octohydrate1 heat$ x = t5 h\rs 9 a ba? ( sulphur vap\r at #ddj1 & ignit$ ! anhydr\s salt s obta9$ at a :ite heat4 ,! ratio ,th,o 3 #b,,s gave ! result 7correct$ to vacuo7 ,? #bccfg4 ,braun] criticises ! value on ! gr\nd t ! hydrat$ salt 0 heat$ 9 a vessel op5 to ! air1 & t at ! high temp]ature obta9$1 traces ( moi/ure ga9+ access to ! sulphate caus$ hydrolysis1 ) loss ( sulphuric acid2 ?is w\ld cause ! results to be too high4 ,9 #aije ,mey] & ,gump]z employ$ ! same me?od1 & obta9$ values v>y+ f #bcbb to #bcbg1 ) ! mean #bcbdg4 ,f9ally ,braun] c>ri$ out an ext5d$ inve/igation to disprove ! het]og5eity ( ?orium :i* _h be5 #8discov]$' by ,bask]ville 7#aijd71 9 ! c\rse ( :i* he %[$ ! atomic weight ( ! elem5t to lie betwe5 ! limits #bcbcd & #bcbeb4 ,detection ( ,?orium4--,! elem5t is be/ detect$ 9 a mixture ( e>?s by ! foll[+ reactions3 7#a7 ,precipitation ) hydrog5 p]oxide f w>m1 fa9tly acid solution4 7#b7 ,precipitation ) sodium hypophosphate1 ,na,h,p,o1 9 conc5trat$ hydro*loric acid solution4 ,on boil+1 a p]ceptible precipitate is obta9$ if only traces ( ?orium are pres5t2 b c]ic & zirconium salts & titanium mu/ be abs5t4 ,! latt] elem5t gives no precipitate "u ^! conditions if hydrog5 p]oxide is pres5t2 c]ic salts may be decompos$ by boil+4 ,! possible pres5ce ( zirconium r5d]s x necess>y to boil ! hypophosphate precipitate ) nitric acid2 on addition ( oxalic acid to ! cle> solution1 ?orium is precipitat$1 :il/ zirconium rema9s 9 solution1 & may be detect$4 7#c7 ,potassium azide1 ,,kn1 ?r[s d[n ?orium hydroxide f boil+ neutral or fa9tly acid solutions4 ,c]ic salts if pres5t mu/ be previ\sly r$uc$2 zirconium mu/ be previ\sly remov$ by oxalic acid4 7#d7 ,precipitation may be effect$ ) potassium iodate 9 /rong nitric acid solution4 ,"h also c]ic salts mu/ be r$uc$ be=e apply+ ! te/4 ,zirconium also gives ! te/2 ! precipitate mu/ !re=e be wa%$ & w>m$ ) oxalic acid1 9 :i* ?orium iodate is insoluble1 :il/ zirconium iodate is soluble4 ,! me?ods ( e/imat+ ?orium are giv5 9 ,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,"p ,,iii ,,! ,,te*nology ,,( ,,! ,,elem5ts ,,*apt] ,,xvii ,,! ,,inc&esc5t ,,mantle ,,indu/ry--,,hi/orical ,,& ,,g5]al ,,introduction ,! gr\p ( elem5ts :i* we are consid]+ c be divid$1 f ! po9t ( view ( te*nical application1 into two classes4 ,! fir/ ( ^! conta9s "o elem5t only1 titanium1 :i* 9 its te*nology1 z 9 its *emi/ry1 /&s ap>t f ! o!rs2 x w1 accord+ly1 be treat$ 9 a sep>ate *apt]4 ,! second class conta9s ! yttrium & c]ium metals1 ) zirconium & ?orium2 ! te*nical importance ( ^! elem5ts is due *iefly to ! use ( _! oxides 9 illum9ation1 to a small ext5t 9 ,n]n/ lamps1 & to a mu* great] ext5t 9 ! s-call$ ,inc&esc5t ,light+4 ,! manufacture ( inc&esc5t mantles#dhg is a l>ge & ev]-ext5d+ indu/ry1 intimately b\nd up ) ! old] process ( coal-di/illation1 ) its innum]able ramifications2 inde$1 x may be said t b = ! +5i\s inv5tion ( ,dr4 ,au]1 illum9ation by means ( coal-gas w\ld to-day h be5 almo/ obsolete4 ,! discov]y :i* result$ 9 ! production ( ! famili> inc&esc5t mantle ( ! pres5t day may be reg>d$ z ! culm9ation ( a c5tury's ef=t to increase ! value ( coal-gas z an illum9at+ ag5t4 ,9 ! pres5t *apt] x is propos$ to outl9e ! hi/ory ( ^! endeav\rs1 & to give a %ort g5]al acc\nt ( ,au]'s "w & its results4 #dhg ,! t]m #8inc&esc5t mantle' is n1 p]haps1 sci5tifically v desirable4 ,x is us$ "h1 n only on acc\nt ( its g5]al acceptance1 b also because !re seems to be no brief & conv5i5t t]m :i* might be us$ 9 its /ead4 ,soon aft] ! introduction ( gas z an illum9at+ ag5t x 0 realis$ t ! lum9osity ( ! flame is dep5d5t on ! pres5ce ( solid p>ticles1 :i* by ! heat ( combu/ion ( ! gas are rais$ to a temp]ature at :i* !y emit radiations ( wave-l5g?s correspond+ to ! #8lum9\s rays' ( ! spectrum4 ,a non-lum9\s flame ( suffici5tly high temp]ature1 !re=e1 c be r5d]$ lum9\s by ! introduction ( suitable solids1 & numb]less inve/igators h /riv51 dur+ ! pa/ c5tury1 to discov] ! mo/ suitable me?od ( increas+ ! lum9osity ( a flame 9 ?is way4 ,! lum9osity ( ! ord9>y #8bats-w+' or #8flat' flame1 n[ s rapidly go+ out ( use1 is due to ! pres5ce 9 ! out] zone ( ! flame ( heat$ p>ticles ( c>bon1 produc$ by ! decomposition--or p>tial combu/ion--( #8d5se' hydroc>bons1 i4e4 ( hydroc>bons hav+ a high p]c5tage ( c>bon4 ,ord9>y coal-gas consi/s l>gely ( a mixture ( hydrog5 & me?ane1 bo? ( :i* burn ) practically non-lum9\s flames1 ) small quantities ( olef9es1 acetyl5es1 etc41 to :i* ! lum9osity is *iefly due4 ,x w\ld appe>1 !n1 t by ! introduction ( d5se hydroc>bons1 a gas ( poor illum9at+ p[] might be made mu* m valuable z a s\rce ( light4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is also app>5t t ! same end might be a*iev$ by ! introduction into a non-lum9\s or feebly lum9\s flame ( an altoge!r =eign sub/ance1 introduc$ z su*1 & n cont9u\sly consum$1 z is ! c>bon 9 ! =m] me?od4 ,bo? ^! directions ( improvem5t h be5 foll[$2 s9ce1 h[ev]1 ! results a*iev$ by ! latt] me?od h become rec5tly ( f> great] importance1 ! applications ( ! fir/ me?od w be dismiss$ q briefly1 & ! hi/ory ( ! second w !n be treat$ some:at fully4 ,! fir/ important attempt to increase ! illum9at+ p[] ( gases burn+ ) feebly lum9\s flames 0 t ( ,f>aday1 :o 9 ! c\rse ( an inve/igation into ! causes ( ! v>iations 9 lum9osity ( #8portable gas1' discov]$ b5z5e1 or bic>buret ( hydrog51 z he call$ x1 9 #ahbf4 ,9 #ahcj an eng9e] nam$ ,dunnovan und]took to illum9ate ,dubl9 by means ( wat]-gas#dhh :i* he #8c>buris$' by addition ( d5se hydroc>bons4 ,dur+ ! latt] half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury ?is me?od became ( "s importance4 ,x has be5 appli$1 9 p>ticul>1 to enri* ! #8natural gas' ( ,ohio1 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! d5se hydroc>bons necess>y = ?is purpose are obta9$ by ! process kn[n z #8crack+4' ,! visc\s residues f ! di/illation ( ! m9]al oil ( ! di/rict are all[$ to drop into a brick *amb]1 ( :i* ! walls are rais$ to a bright r$ heat1 & ! d5se hydroc>bons :i* are evolv$ are remov$ by a curr5t ( ! gas to be enri*$4 ,9 ?is way a gas ( relatively high illum9at+ p[] is obta9$4 #dhh ,wat]-gas is a mixture ( equal volumes ( c>bon monoxide & hydrog51 obta9$ by bl[+ /eam ?r\gh a gl[+ coke furnace4 ,at int]vals ! /eam is %ut (f1 & air is bl[n ?r\gh to raise ! temp]ature ( ! coke4 ,9 ! ye> previ\s to t 9 :i* ,f>aday fir/ c>buris$ wat]-gas1 ,b]zelius _h obs]v$ t ?oria & zirconia1 :5 heat$ 9 a non-lum9\s flame1 emit an int5se :ite light4 ,simil> behavi\r _h long be=e be5 obs]v$ 9 ! cases ( magnesia1 alum9a1 lime1 z9c oxide1 etc4 ,! fir/ practical application ( ?is prop]ty ( ! oxides 0 t ( ,drummond1 :o 9 #ahbf heat$ a p5cil ( lime 9 ! oxy-hydrog5 flame & obta9$ ! int5se :ite light :i* has s9ce become s famili> z ! ,drummond or #8lime-light4' ,a fur!r developm5t 9 ?is direction 0 due to du ,motay & ,m>*al1 :o 9 #ahfg illum9at$ ! ,place de ,tuil]ies & ! ,htel de ,ville 9 ,p>is by means ( p5cils ( compress$ zirconia--magnesia 0 also us$--heat$ by means ( oil vap\r & oxyg54 ,! use ( non-lum9\s flames to secure illum9ation1 by rais+ ! temp]ature ( solids susp5d$ 9 !m to ! po9t ( inc&esc5ce 0 propos$ 9 #ahci by ,cruick%ank1 :o us$ a mantle ( plat9um wire1 cov]$ ) lime & r>e e>?s1 :i* he heat$ by means ( wat]-gas4 ,9 #ahdf ,gill>d employ$ mantles ( plat9um wire1 rais$ to inc&esc5ce 9 ! flame ( burn+ hydrog51 :i* he obta9$ by pass+ /eam ov] heat$ iron wire2 lat] he us$ wat]-gas 7#ahdh71 8 lamps ) ?is modification be+ employ$ 9 ,p>is & 9 ,philadelphia4 ,n>bonne 0 lat] illum9at$ 7#ahef-ahfe7 by a simil> device1 b p]man5t success c\ld h>dly be obta9$ 9 view ( ! co/ ( ! plat9um mantles1 :i* la/$ only a few mon?s4 ,! same mantle 0 propos$ 9 #ahhb by ,lewis1 ! ord9>y ,buns5 flame be+ sugge/$ z ! s\rce ( heat4 ,9 ! same ye> ,popp exhibit$ at ! ,cry/al ,palace lamps 9 :i* a plat9um mantle 0 rais$ to inc&esc5ce by means ( a flame ( coal-gas & heat$ air4 ,^! attempts1 h[ev]1 s]v$ only to %[ t no p]man5t advance c\ld be made 9 ?is direction4 ,a new developm5t 0 made 9 #ahhj by ,clamond4 ,he prep>$ a pa/e by gr9d+ up calc9$ & p[d]$ magnesia ) a conc5trat$ solution ( magnesium acetate2 by =c+ ?is ?r\gh a press he obta9$ a ribbon :i* 0 !n w\nd crosswise on a wood5 %ap]1 dri$ c>efully1 & ignit$4 ,9 8 lat] exp]im5ts tw5ty p] c5t4 ( zirconia 0 add$ to ! magnesia4 ,! mantle 0 support$ 9 a plat9um cage & heat$ 9 ! flame ( a mixture ( coal-gas & heat$ air4 ,?is mantle gave an int5se light1 b 0 too fragile = ext5d$ use4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye>1 ,lundgr5 pat5t$ a process by :i* lime1 magnesia1 & zirconia1 made into a pa/e by ! addition ( gum1 7 =c$ ?r\gh a press1 & ! result+ ?read w\nd on a graphite-cov]$ %ap]4 ,! mantle s obta9$ 0 /able1 & gave an int5se :ite light1 b aft] hav+ be5 heat$ = "s "t ! oxides crumbl$ to p[d]4 ,a modification ( ?is process 0 introduc$ by ,knfl] 9 #ahid1 9 an attempt to use a cellulose solution conta9+ r>e e>? salts2 ?is 0 =c$ ?r\gh jets1 & ! cellulose precipitat$ z a cont9u\s ?read f :i* ! mantle 0 made4 ,a fur!r modification ( ,knfl]'s process by ,plaisetty 9 #aija 0 te*nically successful2 b ^! developm5ts mu/ be tak5 up 9 a lat] *apt] 7vide p4 #cjg74 ,9 #ahhc a process 0 pat5t$ by ,fahnehjelm 9 ,/ockholm1 by :i* = ! fir/ "t a *eap & /able mantle ( consid]able effici5cy 0 produc$1 & :i*1 b = ! adv5t ( ! ,au] mantle1 w\ld und\bt$ly h be5 comm]cially successful4 ,fahnehjelm's mantle consi/$ ( an arrangem5t ( ne$les or lamell ( magnesia1 lime1 zirconia1 etc41 susp5d$ ov] a burn]4 ,! plates & ne$les 7 usually arrang$ 9 ! =m ( a comb ( suitable %ape1 & 7 f\nd to give an int5se light1 & to be long-liv$4 ,9 lat] =ms ! combs 7 made ( rods ( magnesia dipp$ into solutions ( *romium salts4 ,! great disadvantage ( ?is inv5tion lay 9 ! fact t ! combs requir$ to be heat$ 9 ! flame ( wat]-gas1 9 ord] to secure a good inc&esc5ce2 _h x be5 possible to atta9 a suffici5tly high temp]ature by ! use ( coal-gas1 x is d\btful :e!r ! ,au] mantle w\ld h ev] be5 evolv$4 ,! m important attempts to secure arrangem5ts by :i* ! radiations ( heat$ solids c\ld be us$ = illum9ation h n[ be5 outl9$ & ! gr\nd cle>$ = ! consid]ation ( ! "w ( ,b>on von ,welsba*4 ,!re rema9 yet to be m5tion$1 h[ev]1 two attempts :i* are ( especial int]e/ 9 view ( t "w4 ,! fir/ is t ( ,frank5/e91 :o 9 #ahdi made use ( a #8,light-multipli]' obta9$ by impregnat+ gauze ) a pa/e ( *alk & magnesia gr\nd ) wat]4 ,! second is t ( ,edison1 :o propos$ 7#ahgh7 to utilise ! obs]vations ( ,bahr & ,buns5 7#ahfd7 & ( ,delafonta9e 7#ahgd71 ( ! rem>kable inc&esc5ce exhibit$ by ! yttria & erbia e>?s1 & ! t]bia e>?s1 respectively1 :5 heat$2 he sugge/$ ! employm5t ( a mantle ( plat9um wire cov]$ ) zirconia & ! oxides ( ! r>e e>? metals1 a proposal simil> to t put =w>d ne>ly =ty ye>s e>li] by ,cruick%ank4 ,ab\t ! ye> #ahhj ,dr4 ,c>l ,au] began ! /udy ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts4 ,! *emical aspect ( 8 "w has already be5 dealt ) 7vide p4 #afh72 b ! results obta9$ by ! te*nical application ( 8 obs]vation t ?reads ( cotton1 impregnat$ ) a solution ( salts ( ! elem5ts1 leave aft] ignition a coh]5t a% ( oxide1 :i* gl[s brightly :5 heat$1 h be5 ( f> great] importance ?an ! purely sci5tific aspect1 valuable ?\gh t is4 ,a s]ies ( exp]im5ts soon %[$ t a fabric ( suitable %ape1 impregnat$ ) a solution ( nitrates or acetates ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts1 aft] be+ dri$ & drawn toge!r at "o end by means ( a plat9um wire1 c be ignit$ 9 a ,buns5 flame 9 su* a way z to leave a coh]5t skeleton ( ! e>? oxides1 :i* c be =m$ & h>d5$ by suitable manipulation ) a high temp]ature burn]2 ! mantle s prep>$1 :5 susp5d$ f a lat]al support 9 a ,buns5 flame1 gives a light ( consid]able int5sity1 ! col\r v>y+ ) ! oxides employ$ f gre5 to orange t9ts4 ,! e>li] mantles1 :i* 7 plac$ on ! m>ket ab\t #ahhc1 consi/$ *iefly ( oxides ( lan?anum & zirconium1 ) small] quantities ( ! o!r oxides1 select$ accord+ to ! %ade ( light desir$4 ,^! mantles 7 protect$ by pat5ts tak5 out 9 ,france 9 #ahhd1 & 9 ,g]many 9 #ahhe & ! foll[+ ye>s4 ,! process#dhi 0 briefly ! foll[+3 ,a vegetable fibre1 ( cyl9drical =m1 wov5 f ?reads ( ab\t #jbb mm4 diamet]1 is wa%$ ) dilute hydro*loric acid1 !n ) di/ill$ wat]1 & impregnat$ ) a #cj p] c5t4 solution ( ! select$ salts4 ,! fabric is !n wrung out & dri$1 & cut into suitable l5g?s1 all[ance be+ made = subsequ5t %r9kage4 ,"o end ( ea* cyl9d] is !n drawn toge!r by means ( a plat9um wire1 & ! mantle hung f a side support ov] a burn] & inc9]at$4 ,! head is !n treat$ ) a solution ( alum9ium & magnesium nitrates 7b]yllium nitrate & ! correspond+ phosphates are also specifi$7 to /r5g!n x1 & ! mantle dri$1 & #8=m$' by means ( a v hot flame4 ,?is fir/ pat5t protect$ sev]al def9ite mixtures ( salts1 *os5 s t ! mantle %\ld emit light ( a def9ite kn[n t9t4 ,! *ief oxides employ$ 7 lan?ana1 yttria1 magnesia1 & zirconia4 ,a ,g]man pat5t grant$ 9 #ahhfdij protects ! use ( ?orium salts1 & a long li/ ( salts ( ! elem5ts ) num]\s acids2 an important advance m5tion$ 9 ?is specification is ! process ( collod9isation ( ! f9i%$ mantle1 by dipp+ 9 a solution ( rubb] 9 b5z5e or ( collodion 7cellulose nitrate7 9 e!r & alcohol1 :i* r5d]s ! product /rong en\gh = transport4 ,f #ahhe to #ahia num]\s improvem5ts 7 effect$2 asbe/os ?reads 7 sub/itut$ = plat9um wire1 c5tral rods ( magnesia replac$ ! lat]al plat9um support1 & v>i\s mixtures ( oxides 7 tri$4 ,none ( ! innum]able mixtures employ$1 h[ev]1 0 successful 9 e/abli%+ ! /ruggl+ indu/ry on a firm basis 9 face ( ! vigor\s competition ( ! electric lamp1 & x 0 n till #ahia t ! introduction ( ! f9al #8,au] ,mixture1' :i* is 9 use at ! pres5t day1 gave ! welcome assurance ( a c]ta9 success to von ,welsba* & 8 assi/ants4 ,! discov]y ( ?is mixture 0 a result ( ! exam9ation ( a quantity ( impure ?oria2 x 0 f\nd t mantles made f ! nitrate gave a light :i* /eadily decreas$ 9 int5sity z ! impurities 7 remov$4 ,x ne$$ only ! obs]vation t ! impurities consi/$ *iefly ( c]ium comp\nds to turn ! long & ardu\s inve/igation 9 ! direction ( f9al success1 & our pres5t mantles1 :i* consi/ approximately ( #ii p] c5t4 ?oria & #a p] c5t4 c]ia1 7 plac$ on ! m>ket 9 #ahia1 ! composition be+ ann\nc$ by pat5t 9 #ahic4dia #dhi ,vide ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #ciafb4 ,grant$ ,septemb] #bc1 #ahhe4 #dij ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #daide4 #dia ,vide1 e4g4 ,moell]1 ,e4 #abd1 #ahic4 ,! effect ( increas+ or decreas+ ! ratio ( ! two oxides1 & ! !ories :i* h be5 advanc$ to acc\nt = ! results1 mu/ be ref]r$ to 9 a lat] *apt] 7vide p4 #bid74 ,x may be m5tion$ "h1 h[ev]1 t practically no o!r kn[n mixture gives su* satisfactory results1 ?\gh mantles h be5 manufactur$ ( alum9a ) small quantities ( *romic oxide1 & #8inv]t$' mantles made ( ^! oxides ) zirconia h rec5tly be5 advocat$ by ,pr(essor ,lewes1#dib an au?ority on gas light+4 ,mixtures ( alum9a & uranium oxide h also be5 pat5t$1 b no mantles appe> to h be5 manufactur$ accord+ to ! specifications4 ,9 ?is connection1 also1 may be m5tion$ ! v>i\s attempts to evade ! ,au] pat5ts by tak+ advantage ( ! #8discov]y' ( #8new' elem5ts4 ,"o ent]pris+ firm1 aft] hav+ an acc\nt ( a #8new' elem5t1 ,lucium1 ins]t$ 9 a well-kn[n sci5tific p]iodical1 put salts on ! m>ket1 & proce$$ to manufacture mantles f :at 7 prov$ by analysis to be c]ium comp\nds4 ,simil> #8new' elem5ts 7 ,russium1 ,kosmium1 & ,neo-kosmium1 names :i* cov]$ v>i\s mixtures ( ?orium & c]ium comp\nds ) o!r salts4 #dib ,vide ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #bahccc ( ,janu>y #aiaj4 ,aft] ! introduction 9 #ahia ( ! f9al ,au] mixture1 progress became rapid4 ,! orig9al mantles1 made f cotton1 _h _m disadvantages2 ?us aft] be+ 9 use = "s "t !y 7 f\nd to %r9k consid]ably1 ) m>k$ decrease 9 /r5g? & light-giv+ p[]4 ,once ! success ( ! new =m ( light+ 0 assur$1 numb]less inve/igations 7 und]tak5 to l5g!n ! life & increase ! effici5cy ( ! mantles4 ,! mo/ important ( ^! 7 connect$ ) ! endeav\r to replace cotton by "s fabric :i* on ignition w\ld leave ! oxide skeleton 9 a h>d]1 m coh]5t & m ela/ic condition4 ,! fir/ great advance 9 ?is connection 0 ! introduction ( ,ramie fibre by ,buhlmann 9 #ahih4 ,ramie1 ,*9a-grass1 or grass-clo?1 z x is sometimes t]m$1 is a fabric made f ! fibres ( ! ts*uma plant ( ! ,yang-tse-kiang valley & o!r p>ts ( ,asia2 mantles made f x la/ long] & ma9ta9 _! effici5cy mu* bett] ?an ! e>li] cotton mantles1 :i* !y h v l>gely displac$4 ,! use ( artificial silk 0 pat5t$ by ,de ,m>e 9 #ahid1 b 8 process 0 unworkable2 x 0 an ef=t to adapt to ! purposes ( inc&esc5t light+ ! nitro-cellulose process introduc$ by ,*>donnet 9 #ahij = ! manufacture ( artificial silk4 ,9 #ahig ,de ,l]y & 9 #aijj ,plaisetty made fur!r ef=ts 9 ?is direction1 & f9ally 9 #aijb-aijc ! latt] work$ out a process by :i* mantles 7 made directly f ! spun fabric4 ,^! mantles are sup]ior 9 e way to ! e>li] ramie or cotton k9ds1 & are rapidly com+ into g5]al use1 especially = lamps us+ high-pressure gas4 ,numb]less pat5ts = ! manufacture & improvem5t ( ?is k9d ( mantle h be5 tak5 out dur+ ! la/ t5 ye>s2 ! mo/ important ( ^! w be dealt ) 9 a lat] *apt]4 ,attempts h be5 made to secure great] /r5g? & t\ghness 9 mantles 9 o!r directions also4 ,! use ( metallic wires 9 ! fibre has be5 sugge/$2 num]\s pat5ts deal ) mantles #8/r5g!n$' by d\bl+ ! ?read at int]vals1 & by special me?ods ( weav+ ! fibre4 ,"o me?od1 :i* foll[s on ! l9es ( ,glamond & ,lundgr51 proposes#dic ! use ( mantles made f v>i\s oxides mix$ ) silica1 ! :ole be+ work$ into a pa/e by use ( a gum or soap1 f :i* ?reads are prep>$ by pressure2 mantles made f ^! ?reads are said to be v /rong & por\s4 ,ano!r pat5t#did protects ! manufacture ( #8inc&esc5ce bodies' made f plates or combs prep>$ f a ?read obta9$ 9 a r simil> way4 ,a ?ird ( ^! innum]able sugge/ions recomm5ds a prelim9>y impregnation ( ! fabric ) an alum9ium or magnesium salt1#die f :i* ! oxide is precipitat$ on ! fabric by a suitable means1 impregnation ) ! ord9>y #8light+ fluid' be+ effect$ aft] dry+4 ,q an e>ly pat5t#dif proposes ! impregnation ( ! prep>$ mantle1 ei!r aft] or j be=e burn+ (f1 ) an alcoholic solution ( an organic silicon comp\nd1 s t :5 ! mantle is 9 use a skeleton ( silica is =m$ to #8/r5g!n' ! oxide a%4 ,no useful purpose c be s]v$ by ext5d+ ! li/ ( ^! proposals2 en\gh has be5 said to indicate ! v>i\s directions 9 :i* s _m va9 attempts at improvem5t h be5 made4 #dic ,laigle1 ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #bafhga ( ,decemb]1 #aiji2 see also ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #bafhgg & #baifdj4 #did ,mi*aud & ,delasson1 ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #bajfdj1 ,june1 #aiji2 see also ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #bbgbeg4 #die ,zdan[i*1 ,e4 #bggee1 #aijh4 #dif ,jasp]1 ,e4 #cjade1 #ahig4 ,f ! me*anical & physical side ! rec5t developm5ts h be5 v m>k$4 ,! introduction ( ! #8inv]t$' lamp 0 a trem5d\s /ep =w>d1 & pav$ ! way to ! second great improvem5t1 ! use ( #8high-pressure' gas1 ) :i* su* successful results are be+ obta9$4 ,! =m ( lamp n[ com+ into use = /reet light+ gives #aejj c&le-p[] p] mantle1 & usually c>ries ?ree mantles2 ea* lamp ?us develops #dejj c&le-p[]4 ,! purely me*anical devices :i* are n[ us$ to secure #8automatic' light+ are rapidly br++ ?is =m ( lamp into fav\r = /reet illum9ation4 ,a full acc\nt ( ^! developm5ts w\ld be entirely beyond ! scope ( ! pres5t "w4 ,9 ! foll[+ *apt]s1 !re=e1 no complete treatm5t ( ! inc&esc5t light+ indu/ry c be giv52 b :il/ ! *emical aspect is treat$ at "s l5g?1 _m po9ts ( m purely te*nical "*1 :i* are connect$ ) ?is1 h also be5 includ$4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii ,,! ,,*emical ,,treatm5t ,,( ,,monazite ,x has be5 /at$ 9 ! previ\s *apt] t ! fir/ ,au] mantles 7 made ( mixtures ( v>i\s r>e e>? oxides1 ! mixture ( ?oria ) #a p] c5t4 ( c]ia be+ fir/ employ$ 9 ,octob]1 #ahia4 ,! impetus giv5 to ! mantle indu/ry by ! success ( ! new mixture caus$ an imm$iate dem& = ?oria1 :i* 0 at t "t extract$ f ?orite 7see p4 #dc74 ,a #8?orite-fev]' broke out along ! coa/s ( ,sc&9avia1 & ! price ( orangite rose to #fjj m>ks p] kilogram 7ab\t #ac #ajs4 p] p\nd avoirdupois71 s9k+ aga9 %ortly to #hj m>ks#dig 7ab\t #a #afs4 p] lb74 ,! discov]y ( ! monazite s&s ( ! ,c>ol9as & ,brazil1 :i* at ! pres5t rate ( consumption may be consid]$ to be1 = all practical purposes1 inexhau/ible1 plac$ ! indu/ry on a firm basis1 & ! pure monazite1 extract$ f ^! deposits by ! me?ods outl9$ 9 ,*apt] ,,vii1 is n[ almo/ ! sole s\rce ( ! ?orium nitrate ( comm]ce4 ,small quantities are obta9$ f ?orianite1 ! sep>ation ( ! pure mat]ial pres5t+1 9 ?is case1 v little difficulty by reason ( ! solubility ( ! m9]al 9 acids & ! v high p]c5tage ( ?oria4 #dig ,vide ,bhm1 #8,die ,?orium ,indu/rie1' ,*em4 ,ind4 #aijf1 #bi1 #dej & #dhh4 ,! extraction ( pure ?orium comp\nds f monazite is a process ( v great te*nical difficulty4 ,! p]c5tage ( ?oria is small1 :]eas t ( ! c]ia oxides is high4 ,! m9]al is almo/ always decompos$ by heat+ ) conc5trat$ sulphuric acid1 & :5 ! result+ pa/y mass is tak5 up ) wat]1 a l>ge am\nt ( free sulphuric acid mu/ be pres5t 9 ord] to hold ! r>e e>? phosphates 9 solution4 ,= ! sep>ation ( ?oria f c]ia & yttria comp\nds 9 acid solution no processes 7 kn[n until q rec5tly4 ,:5 x is rememb]$ t ! ?orium nitrate us$ = ! manufacture ( mantles mu/ be ( a degree ( purity :i* v few comm]cial products ev] approa*1 "s idea ( ! difficulties ( ! extraction may be obta9$4 ,decomposition ( ! ,monazite4--,two processes h be5 us$ = ! work+ up ( monazite4 ,! fir/ ( ^! consi/s 9 fus+ ! m9]al ) soda1 & extract+ ! sodium phosphate ) wat]2 ! e>?s may !n be tak5 into solution ) acid1 & ! sep>ation effect$ z outl9$ bel[4 ,?is me?od is v r>ely us$4 ,a process has be5 propos$1 9 :i* ! monazite is fus$ ) c>bon 9 an electric furnace2 ! cool$ mass is treat$ ) m9]al acids1 :i* take ! e>?s into solution free f phosphoric acid4 ,no te*nical application has s f> be5 made ( ?is proposal4 ,! me?od commonly us$ is t 9 :i* ! s& is decompos$ by means ( sulphuric acid4 ,! *>ge usually employ$1 ab\t two to ?ree hundr$ kilograms1 requires f f\r to six h\rs' heat+1 ab\t twice ! weight ( conc5trat$ acid be+ ne$$4 ,! op]ation is c>ri$ out 9 ca/-iron vessels1 & an effici5t draught mu/ be ma9ta9$ to remove ! acid fumes2 ! factories are usually isolat$4 ,! treatm5t ) sulphuric acid conv]ts ! phosphates *iefly into sulphates2 :5 ! reaction is f9i%$1 ! liquor fumes /rongly & beg9s to ?ick51 heat+ be+ /opp$ :5 a ?ick bro? is obta9$4 ,! cool$ mass is extract$ ) wat]1 c>e be+ tak5 to ma9ta9 a degree ( acidity suffici5t to prev5t any precipitation ( ! phosphates4 ,x has be5 already /at$ 9 ,"p ,i 7vide p4 #gc7 t a /rongly radioactive product4 ,radio?orium1 has be5 obta9$ f ! m9]al ?orianite4 ,?is body is produc$ by ! atomic degradation ( ?orium1 & an int]m$iate body1 meso?orium1 has be5 f\nd to be =m$ dur+ ! *ange4 ,meso?orium is a sub/ance :i*1 ?\gh x appe>s to be *emically id5tical ) radium1 has an activity equal to ?ree hundr$ times t ( radium1 & :5 9 equilibrium ) its degradation products ! #8rays' x emits are v simil> to ^? ( ! latt] elem5t4 ,s9ce meso?orium is a degradation-product ( ?orium1 x occurs 9 m9ute quantities 9 all ?orium m9]als1 & by reason ( ! possibility ( us+ x z a sub/itute = radium1 its extraction becomes a matt] ( importance4 ,soddy#dih has %[n t if a b>ium comp\nd be add$ to monazite be=e ! treatm5t ) sulphuric acid1 ! meso?orium rema9s ) ! b>ium sulphate2 ?is is readily sep>at$ f ! heavy un*ang$ gra9s ( s&1 & is purifi$1 & f9ally obta9$ z *loride by treat+ ! solution ) hydrog5 *loride4 ,on recry/allisation ( ! b>ium *loride1 ! active products are conc5trat$ 9 ! less soluble "p1 & x is possible to prep>e on ! comm]cial scale a mixture :i*1 ?\gh x conta9s only #jbe p] c5t4 ( meso?orium1 has an activity equal to t ( pure radium bromide4 ,?is mixture conta9s #be p] c5t4 ( radium comp\nds1 radium be+ pres5t z an orig9al con/itu5t ( monazite2 ow+ to ! *emical id5tity ( radium & meso?orium1#dih ! latt] _c be sep>at$1 b ,soddy1 by removal ( mu* ( ! b>ium comp\nd 9 ! laboratory1 has obta9$ a product f\r times z active z ! pure radium salt4 #dih ,proc4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiaj1 #bf1 #ccf1 & ,e4 #beejd1 ,novemb]1 #aiaj4 ,see also ,hahn1 ,*em4 ,zeitg4 #aiaa1 #ce1 #hde4 ,x is probable t ! treatm5t ( monazite w 9 ! future be modifi$ by ! addition ( b>ium sulphate be=e ! sulphuric acid decomposition1 to all[ ( ! comm]cial extraction ( its meso?orium4 ,sep>ation ( ,?orium4--,! sep>ation ( a crude ?orium product f ! acid solution obta9$ aft] decomposition ( ! m9]al c be effect$ 9 two ways1 bo? ( :i* are bas$ on ! fact t ?oria is less basic ?an ! oxides ( ! c]ium & yttrium metals4 ,9 ! fir/1 ! r>e e>? elem5ts1 includ+ ?orium1 are precipitat$ z oxalates by ! addition ( oxalic acid to ! acid solution4 ,^! are aga9 tak5 into solution by ! action ( hydro*loric acid on ! hydroxides1 obta9$ by prolong$ dige/ion ( ! oxalates ) sodium hydroxide2 ! acid solution is !n treat$ c>efully ) sodium hydroxide1 or pure p[d]$ magnesia1 until ab\t "o-six? ( ! bases has be5 precipitat$1 ! liquid be+ con/antly /irr$4 ,?orium hydroxide be+ v weakly basic is precipitat$ be=e ! o!r hydroxides1 & ! precipitate obta9$1 aft] "o or two repetitions1 conta9s mo/ ( ! ?orium orig9ally pres5t 9 ! monazite4 ,9 ! second process1 ?orium is p>tially sep>at$ f ! o!r metals by add+ gradually to ! solution obta9$ aft] ! treatm5t ( ! m9]al ) sulphuric acid1 ! quantity ( magnesia calculat$ to precipitate a suitable fraction ( ! e>?s1 ) con/ant /irr+2 ?is ?r[s d[n a mixture ( phosphates conta9+ almo/ all ! ?orium & "s ( ! o!r elem5ts4 ,! slimy phosphate precipitate is dissolv$ 9 hydro*loric acid1 & ! e>?s precipitat$ z oxalates2 ! precipitate mu/ be wa%$ ?or\ghly 9 ord] to remove phosphoric acid4 ,x w be se5 t ^! two me?ods diff] only 9 t 9 ! fir/ ! phosphoric acid is remov$ be=e ! precipitation ( ?orium1 :]eas 9 ! second ! ?orium is precipitat$ z phosphate1 & ?is trans=m$ into oxalate4 ,q rec5tly1 me?ods h be5 propos$ by :i* ! ?orium c be sep>at$ 9 a fairly pure condition f ! acid solution obta9$ f ! sulphuric acid treatm5t4 ,ros5heim1 ,mey] & ,koppel#dii protect ! use ( hydr(luosilicic acid 7,h,si,f71 & its salts1 = ?is purpose4 ,! sodium salt1 add$ to ! hot acid liquid1 produces a quantitative sep>ation ( ?orium silic(luoride2 ! precipitate is wa%$ by decantation1 & treat$ ) sulphuric acid1 ! ?orium sulphate be+ !n purifi$ directly by ! sulphate me?od describ$ bel[4 ,a second me?od proposes to make use ( ! insolubility ( ?orium hypophosphate1 ,th,p,o1#aa;,h,o1 :i* 0 f\nd by ,kaufmann 9 #ahii to be insoluble 9 wat]1 & 9 acids & alkalies4 ,?is me?od has already be5 9 use = "s ye>s = analytical "w2#ejj x appe>s to be readily susceptible ( adaptation = ! te*nical extraction1#eja ! sodium hypophosphate1 ,na,h,p,o1#f;,h,o requir$ z ! precipitat+ ag5t be+ obta9able 9 l>ge quantities by ! electrolytic oxidation ( copp] phosphide1 employ$ z ! anode 9 an electrolytic cell4#ejb ,?is me?od also gives a ?orium comp\nd suffici5tly free f o!r e>?s to be subject$ at once to ! ref9+ process2 ! hypophosphate has 9 fact be5 sugge/$ z a v suitable comp\nd = ! impregnation ( artificial silk mantles directly4 ,! ?orium nitrate ( comm]ce1 h[ev]1 is /ill prep>$ almo/ entirely f ! crude product obta9$ by "o or o!r ( ! two me?ods ( fractional precipitation fir/ describ$1 s t x becomes necess>y to outl9e ! me?od g5]ally employ$ = sep>at+ f ?is a comp\nd pure en\gh to be suitable = ! f9al ref9+ process4 #dii ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #badhhf1 ,octob]1 #aiji4 #ejj ,ros5heim1 ,*em4 ,zeitg4 #aiab1 #cf1 #hba2 also ,koss1 ibid4 #fhf #eja ,wir?1 ,zeits*4 angew4 ,*em4 #aiab1 #be1 #afgh4 #ejb ,ros5heim & ,p9sk]1 ,b]4 #aiaj1 #dc1 #bjjc4 ,! crude oxalate or hydroxide is ?or\ghly dige/$ ) a conc5trat$ solution ( sodium c>bonate4 ,! c>bonates ( ! c]ium elem5ts are mu* less soluble 9 sodium c>bonate solution ?an is ?orium c>bonate4 ,aft] ?or\gh dige/ion ! liquid is filt]$ f ! undissolv$ c>bonates4 ,! ?orium is reprecipitat$ f ! filtrate1 ei!r z oxalate1 by ! addition ( hydro*loric acid 7if ! crude mat]ial 0 9 ! =m ( oxalate71 or z hydroxide1 by ! addition ( sodium hydroxide4 ,! process is aga9 repeat$1 & a f9al dige/ion is !n made ) ammonium c>bonate2 addition ( an alkali to ! cle> filtrate n[ gives ?orium hydroxide suffici5tly pure to be us$ = ! la/ ref9+4 ,purification ( ! ,?orium ,comp\nds4--,! object ( ?is la/ /age is to remove f ! ?orium comp\nd small quantities ( c]ium & yttrium salts :i* _c be sep>at$ by ! c>bonate me?od4 ,! *ief process is ! sulphate cry/allisation1 ! pr9ciples und]ly+ :i* h be5 ?or\ghly exam9$ 9 ! pati5t rese>*es ( ,koppel & ,holtkamp4#ejc ,s9ce ! process is bas$ on ! solubilities ( ! v>i\s ?orium sulphate hydrates1 x is necess>y to consid] ^! 9 "s detail4 #ejc ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aiaj1 #fg1 #bff4 ,! solubility-curve ( ?orium sulphate 0 exam9$ by ,dem>ay & by ,roozeboom4 ,?ree important hydrates are kn[n1 viz4 ,?7,,s71#i;,h,o1 ,?7,,s71#h;,h,o1 & ,?7,,s71#d;,h,o1 o!r un/able int]m$iate comp\nds be+ said to exi/4 ,f a /udy ( ! diagram x w be se5 t ! hydrate ) #h molecules ( wat] is labile1 :il/ ! #i-;hydrate & ! #d-;hydrate h a transition temp]ature at #dc;,c41 ! transition temp]ature ( ! #h-;hydrate & ! #d-;hydrate be+ j bel[ ?is4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj ,s9ce ! #h-;hydrate is labile ) reg>d to ! #i-;hydrate1 & ! transition temp]atures are s ne>1 ! =m] w be =m$ fir/ z a solution cools1 & by reason ( ! great simil>ity ( ! solubility-curves = ! #i- & #h-;hydrates ! rate ( *ange ( ?is to ! #i-;hydrate w be v sl[4 ,9 practice1 !re=e1 x is always ! #h-;hydrate :i* is =m$1 & x is on ! sep>ation ( ?is comp\nd t ! success ( ! process dep5ds4 ,! anhydro-comp\nd1 ,?7,,s71 :i* c be obta9$ by heat+ any ( ! hydrates to #cjj-djj;,c41 is v soluble at #j1 b sl[ly hydrates itself & sep>ates f ! solution z ! #h-;hydrate1 :i* has a v l[ solubility4 ,! sulphates ( ! c]ium metals1 comp\nds ( :i* =m ! *ief impurities to be remov$1 are consid]ably m soluble1 & c be sep>at$ by repeat$ cry/allisations4 ,! ?orium hydroxide to be purifi$ is dissolv$ 9 sulphuric acid1 & 9 ! fir/ =m 9 :i* ! me?od 0 employ$1 ! ?orium sulphate obta9$ by evaporation ( ! solv5t 0 heat$ until x became anhydr\s4 ,?is 0 dissolv$ to saturation at #j1 & ! solution rais$ to ! boil+-po9t1 ! #d-;hydrate be+ precipitat$2 ?is treatm5t 0 repeat$ sev]al times4 ,x 0 po9t$ out by ,buns51 f !oretical gr\nds1 t ?is me?od c\ld nev] yield a pure ?orium salt1 & ,krss & ,nilson accord+ly introduc$ a modification4 ,! impure sulphate1 aft] dehydration1 z be=e1 is dissolv$ at #j1 & all[$ to come to ord9>y room temp]ature1 #bj2 ! hydrate :i* sep>ates 7! #h-;hydrate7 is collect$ & dri$ at high temp]ature & ! cry/allisation repeat$4 ,?is me?od gives a fairly pure salt aft] ?ree recry/allisations1 b ! process is v t$i\s1 ow+ to ! "t requir$ = dry+ & heat+ ! hydrate4 ,= ?is reason ! me?od 0 fur!r modifi$ by ,cleve & ,witt4 ,! crude sulphate is boil$ ) ammonia1 & ! hydroxide obta9$ dissolv$ 9 hydro*loric acid2 addition ( sulphuric acid to ! conc5trat$ solution 9 ! cold trans=ms ! *loride into ! sulphate1 :i* sep>ates z ! #h-;hydrate at ord9>y temp]atures4 ,?ree repetitions give a satisfactory product1 & 9 ?is =m ! me?od is n[ mu* us$4 ,! "w ( ,koppel & ,holtkamp ref]r$ to above has plac$ ! process on a s\nd basis4 ,^! au?ors h exam9$ ! solubilities ( ! v>i\s hydrates 9 pres5ce ( hydro*loric1 nitric1 & sulphuric acids1 & mixtures ( ^!1 at diff]5t temp]atures4 ,!y f9d t hydro*loric acid is to be pref]r$ to nitric acid1 9 ! process ( ,cleve & ,witt1 z besides its l[] price1 its use involves less loss ?an t ( ! latt] acid2 excess ( hydro*loric acid is n h>mful )9 wide limits1 :il/ a slight excess ( sulphuric acid ov] ! quantity requir$ to =m ! sulphate is desirable1 to secure ! greate/ yield4 ,f9ally1 ! temp]ature at ! addition ( ! sulphuric acid mu/ n be all[$ to rise above #be1 = 9 ! pres5ce ( s mu* acid ! transition temp]ature to ! #d-;hydrate1 normally #db1 is consid]ably l[]$2 x is necess>y to avoid sep>ation ( ! #d-;hydrate1 :i* is a floccul5t unworkable precipitate4 ,rec5tly x has be5 propos$ to c>ry out ! purification by use ( alkyl hydrog5 sulphates1#ejd z x is /at$ t ! diff]5ces ( solubilities ( ! alkyl sulphates ( ?orium & ! c]ium metals are great] ?an 9 ! case ( ! sulphates !mselves4 ,x is also claim$ t ! pres5ce ( a small quantity ( ! alkyl sulphate 9 ! ?orium nitrate :i* =ms ! f9al product has a good effect on ! quality ( ! mantles made f x4 #ejd ,kreidl u4 ,hell]1 ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #bccjbc1 ,m>*1 #aiaa2 ,f4 #daddfc1 ,june1 #aiaj4 ,ano!r process ( purification :i* has f\nd consid]able comm]cial application is ! acetate cry/allisation1 ?orium acetate be+ consid]ably less soluble ?an ! acetates ( ! c]ium elem5ts4 ,! impure hydroxide is dissolv$ 9 acetic acid & ! solution evaporat$ to dryness2 repeat$ wa%+ ) small quantities ( wat] removes ! c]ium acetates1 & a fairly pure salt is obta9$4 ,?is is repeat$ly damp$ ) nitric acid & heat$ to dryness1 b ev5 aft] ?is treatm5t a c]ta9 am\nt ( un*ang$ ?orium acetate is usually pres5t4 ,9 a second =m ( ?is me?od1 due to ,hab]1 ! impure hydroxide is dissolv$ 9 hydro*loric acid1 & ! acetate precipitat$ by addition ( sodium acetate4 ,! precipitate is filt]$ (f & re-dissolv$ 9 acid1 & ! acetate aga9 ?r[n d[n by means ( sodium acetate4 ,! precipitate is !n dissolv$ 9 nitric acid1 & ! solution evaporat$ to dryness4 ,9 ?is =m ! me?od gives v good results1 ev5 f a comp>atively crude product2 b ! process is1 ( c\rse1 consid]ably m exp5sive ?an ! sulphate purification4 ,! high price ( ! necess>y reag5ts1 aga91 is a b> to ! te*nical application ( ! v simple & effici5t process ( ,wyr\b(f & ,v]neuil4 ,^! au?ors sugge/ ! precipitation ( ?orium p]oxide f a w>m dilute neutral solution by means ( hydrog5 p]oxide1 a process :i* is quantitative & yields a v pure product4 ,! la/ traces ( ! c]ium metals c be completely remov$ by a second precipitation4 ,! co/ ( hydrog5 p]oxide is too high1 h[ev]1 to all[ its employm5t on su* a l>ge scale1 & ! me?od has n1 9 consequ5ce1 come into g5]al use4 ,! ?orium nitrate obta9$ aft] purification by ! sulphate me?od1 or by ! less g5]ally employ$ acetate me?od1 is usually consid]$ suffici5tly pure = te*nical purposes4 ,ev5 n[1 h[ev]1 x may conta9 traces ( sulphate1 ( iron1 ( alkalies1 & ( c]ium metals4 ,if absolute purity is desir$1 ! salt may be dissolv$1 & fre$ f all impurities1 except ! c]ium comp\nds1 by precipitation ) ammonium oxalate & ?or\gh wa%+2 ! oxalate may !n be dissolv$ 9 *romic acid1 & potassium *romate solution add$ drop by drop2 ! precipitat$ ?orium *romate is ne>ly free f o!r r>e e>? comp\nds1 & repetition ( ! process w give a pure salt4 ,! sep>ation f c]ium metals may also be effect$ by ! hydrog5 p]oxide process4 ,if ! te*nical processes are c>efully c>ri$ out1 h[ev]1 a ?orium nitrate ( a v high degree ( purity may be obta9$1 & ! laboratory purification ne$ only be und]tak5 if mat]ial is ne$$ = v accurate quantitative "w4 ,prep>ation ( ,?orium ,nitrate f ,mantle-a%4--,s9ce ! ord9>y inc&esc5t mantle1 9 use1 consi/s only ( ! pure ?oria & c]ia1 ) small quantities ( alum9a1 lime1 & magnesia1 :i* h be5 employ$ to /r5g!n ! #8head1' ! work+-up ( mantle-a% gives an easy means ( obta9+ ! nitrates1 & high prices are accord+ly paid = ! a% 9 quantity4 ,at "o p]iod ( great competition betwe5 rival manufactur]s1 canvass]s w5t f h\se to h\se 9 _m l>ge t[ns buy+ up mantle residues1 to be us$ = ! extraction ( ! ?orium = #8light+-fluid4' ,= ?is purpose1 ! oxides are treat$ ) hot conc5trat$ sulphuric acid1 ! cool$ residue dissolv$ 9 wat]1 & ! ?orium & c]ium precipitat$ free f comp\nds ( alum9ium1 magnesium1 & calcium by oxalic acid4 ,if pure ?orium nitrate1 free f c]ium1 is requir$1 ! oxalates are add$ to ! la/ precipitate f ! d\ble c>bonate purification 9 ! treatm5t ( monazite 7vide supra71 & ! ord9>y processes ( ref9em5t cont9u$2 m (t51 h[ev]1 ! mix$ nitrate = impregnation ( ! mantle-fabric is requir$1 & ?is is obta9$ by ignition ( ! oxalates & solution ( ! oxides s obta9$ 9 nitric acid1 m c]ium nitrate be+ add$ if necess>y4 ,extraction ( ,c]ium ,nitrate4--,s9ce monazite is prim>ily a phosphate ( ! c]ium metals1 ! p]c5tage ( ?oria be+ usually q l[ 7vide ,monazite1 ,*apt] ,,vi71 v l>ge quantities ( comp\nds ( ! c]ium gr\p ( elem5ts are annually produc$ 9 ! process ( extraction ( ?orium4 ,!re is at pres5t a v limit$ dem& = ^! comp\nds 7vide ,*apt] ,,xxi71 no important uses hav+ yet be5 f\nd = !m4 ,9 ! ord9>y process ( extraction ( ! ?orium1 ^! elem5ts rema9 z ! sp>+ly soluble d\ble c>bonates1 :il/ ! ?orium d\ble c>bonate is remov$ 9 solution4 ,f ! mix$ salts :i* conta9 #ej-fj p] c5t4 ( ! c]ium comp\nd1 ! c]ium nitrate requir$ = ! manufacture ( mantles is prep>$1 b ! am\nt s us$ is a small fraction ( ! :ole1 & l>ge quantities ( comp\nds ( c]ium & ! alli$ elem5ts are available z soon z pr(itable uses c be f\nd4 ,?ree processes are 9 g5]al use = ! prep>ation ( c]ium nitrate f ! mix$ c>bonates2 all ( ^! are bas$ on ! fact t c]ium c become tetraval5t1 =m+ 9 ?is condition comp\nds :i* c readily be sep>at$ f ^? ( ! alli$ elem5ts1 :i* c be obta9$ only 9 ! trival5t condition4 ,:5 c]ia is dissolv$ 9 hot nitric acid1 c]ic nitrate1 ,ce7,,no71 is =m$1 ?\gh ! action ( nitric acid on c]\s c>bonate or oxalate gives rise to c]\s nitrate4 ,two ( ! ?ree processes are bas$ on ?is reaction1 & = ^! ! mix$ c>bonates are dissolv$ 9 hydro*loric acid1 fre$ f =eign elem5ts by precipitation ) oxalic acid1 & ! oxalates ignit$ to ! oxides1 :i* are !n dissolv$ 9 ! requir$ quantity ( nitric acid4 ,9 ! fir/ process ! c]ium is precipitat$ f ?is solution by m]ely p\r+ x into a l>ge excess ( v dilute nitric acid1 :5 a yell[ basic c]ic nitrate is precipitat$2 ?is is wa%$ ) dilute nitric acid by decantation1 dissolv$ 9 conc5trat$ acid1 & purifi$ by a second precipitation 9 ! same way4 ,9 ! second process1 sep>ation is effect$ by addition to ! nitric acid solution ( ! calculat$ quantity ( ammonium nitrate2 ! solution is conc5trat$ to incipi5t cry/allisation1 & on cool+ ! d\ble c]ic ammonium nitrate1 ,ce7,,no71#b,,nh,,no1 sep>ates4 ,?is is collect$1 wa%$ ) dilute nitric acid1 & recry/allis$ until a pure salt is obta9$4 ,! d\ble nitrate c be readily decompos$ by ignition1 leav+ c]ia1 :i* is dissolv$ 9 nitric acid2 ! nitrate is obta9$ by evaporation4 ,! ?ird me?od1 due to ,drossba*1 is bas$ on ! oxidation ( c]ium salts 9 neutral solution by potassium p]manganate4 ,! mix$ c>bonates are dissolv$ 9 hydro*loric acid1 a fur!r quantity ( ! c>bonates /irr$ 91 to neutralise excess ( acid1 & a solution ( ! requir$ quantity ( potassium p]manganate add$4 ,! reaction is said to proce$ accord+ to ! equation3 #c;,ce,o #b,k,mn,o ,h,o #f;,ce,o #b,,koh #b,mn,o ,! precipitat$ solid is sep>at$1 & dissolv$ 9 acid2 ! c]ium is !n precipitat$ z ! oxalate1 :i* is trans=m$ into nitrate 9 ! usual way4 ,! solution conta9s ! o!r elem5ts ( ! c]ium gr\p1 :i* are precipitat$ by means ( sodium hydroxide4 ,! yield obta9$ by ?is me?od is v good1 practically ! :ole ( ! c]ium be+ sep>at$ )\t loss2 :il/ x has ! fur!r advantage t ! rema9+ elem5ts ( ! gr\p c be precipitat$ at once aft] ! sep>ation4 ,analysis ( a ,monazite or ,monazite ,s& = ,?orium4--,s9ce ! comm]cial value ( a monazite s& or conc5trate1 or ( ! pure m9]al1 dep5ds1 at pres5t1 entirely on ! p]c5tage ( ?oria1 x is important to h a rapid & reliable me?od ( e/imat+ ?is con/itu5t4 ,! only reliable me?ods ( quantitatively decompos+ ! m9]al1 h[ev]1 all involve acid treatm5t1 & excess ( acid mu/ always be pres5t to prev5t precipitation ( phosphates4 ,until rec5tly1 no way 0 kn[n = e/imat+ ?orium 9 an acid solution1 & all ! e>li] me?ods !re=e involv$ t$i\s processes = complete removal ( phosphoric acid1 s t ! salts c\ld be obta9$ 9 neutral solution4 ,?is 0 usually effect$ by precipitation ( ! :ole r>e e>? cont5t ) oxalic acid1 & ?or\gh wa%+ ( ! oxalates2 ^! c !n be dissolv$ directly 9 fum+ nitric acid on ! wat]-ba?1 or ignit$ to ! oxides1 :i* may !n be dissolv$ 9 ! same reag5t4 ,! solution ( nitrates is evaporat$ to dryness1 to effect removal ( ! excess ( acid1 ! nitrates dissolv$ 9 wat]1 & ! ?orium e/imat$ 9 ! neutral solution4 ,among ! e>lie/ me?ods employ$ = ! e/imation 9 neutral solution 0 ! ?iosulphate precipitation4#eje ,?orium ?iosulphate is n kn[n2 :5 sodium ?iosulphate is add$ to a neutral solution ( a ?orium salt1 a precipitate ( ?oria mix$ ) sulphur is obta9$1 by hydrolysis ( ! pot5tial ?iosulphate1 & decomposition ( ! un/able ?iosulphuric acid4 ,! me?od1 h[ev]1 leaves mu* to be desir$2 o!r e>?s are p>tly precipitat$1 & ! sep>ation ( ?oria is n complete4 ,= analytical purposes ! precipitate obta9$ is r$issolv$ 9 hydro*loric acid1 & a second precipitation ) ?iosulphate effect$4 ,! filtrates f ! two precipitations are collect$1 & ! :ole e>?-cont5t precipitat$ f ^! ) ammonia2 ! hydroxides are dissolv$ 9 hydro*loric acid1 & aga9 treat$ ) ?iosulphate to ?r[ d[n any ?oria :i* has escap$ ! previ\s precipitations4 ,! ?ree precipitates ( ?oria are !n collect$1 dri$1 & ignit$ = weigh+ z pure ?orium dioxide1 ,th,o4 #eje ,full acc\nts ( ?is & ! two foll[+ me?ods w be f\nd 9 an important pap] by ,b5z1 ,zeits*4 angew4 ,*em4 #aijb1 #ae1 #big ,ev5 m t$i\s & unsatisfactory is ! me?od bas$ on ! solubility ( ?orium oxalate 9 excess ( ammonium oxalate 9 neutral solution4 ,! solution is boil$1 ammonium oxalate add$1 & aft] "s mom5ts a small quantity ( ammonium acetate solution4 ,on cool+1 ! oxalates ( ! c]ium metals sep>ate1 & c be collect$2 ?oria is precipitat$ f ! filtrate by addition ( ammonia4 ,! process mu/ be repeat$ two or ?ree times1 ! solution be+ all[$ to /& = "o or two days ea* "t1 & f9ally ! ?oria mu/ be precipitat$ by ?iosulphate to remove traces ( ! o!r bases be=e x c be weigh$4 ,b5z 7loc4 cit47 gives a complete acc\nt ( ?is me?od1 & quotes num]\s analyses c>ri$ out to te/ its accuracy4 ,f> m satisfactory ?an ei!r ( ! above is ! p]oxide me?od us$ by de ,boisbaudran & ,cleve1 & lat] by ,wyr\b(f & ,v]neuil4#ejf ,?orium is completely precipitat$ z a #8p]oxide salt' 7,?,o1,,s or ,?,o1,n,o respectively7 f w>m neutral solutions ( ! sulphate or nitrate on addition ( dilute hydrog5 p]oxide1 a second precipitation be+ necess>y to free x f c]ium comp\nds4 ,wyr\b(f & ,v]neuil /ate t ! process is r5d]$ difficult by ! fact t ! p]oxide _c be conv]t$ into ! dioxide by heat+1 ei!r alone or ) acids1 z decrepitation takes place & may cause loss2 !y accord+ly r$uce ! comp\nd 9 pres5ce ( hydro*loric acid by ammonium iodide1 & precipitate ?orium hydroxide by ammonia4 ,b5z 7loc4 cit47 does n f9d ?is difficulty2 he /ates t small quantities ( ! p]oxide dissolve easily 9 acids )\t loss1 & fur!r f9ds t if an ammonium salt be add$ to ! neutral solution ( ! ?orium comp\nd be=e addition ( hydrog5 p]oxide1 ! precipitate =ms mu* m readily & is v easily h&l$4 ,borelli#ejg /ates t ! precipitat$ p]oxide c be ignit$ )\t loss to ! dioxide1 & weigh$ z ?is4 #ejf ,compt4 r5d4 #ahih1 #abf1 #cdj4 #ejg ,ab/ract 9 ,j4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind4 #aiji1 #bh1 #fbe4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! azoimide me?od ( ,d5nis#ejh is ( int]e/ r ?an ( use4 ,he f9ds t addition ( potassium azoimide1 ,n,k1 precipitates ?oria quantitatively f a neutral solution1 ! reaction be+ express$ by ! equation3 ,?7,,no7 #d,n,k #b;,h,o #d,,kno ,th,o #d,n,h ,c]ium1 h[ev]1 if pres5t1 is always precipitat$ ) ! ?orium1 & _c be remov$ by re-precipitation2 ?is fact1 toge!r ) ! co/ ( ! reag5t & ! difficulty ( obta9+ x pure1 r5d]s ! me?od q useless = m9]al analysis4 #ejh ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #ahig1 #ac1 #dab4 ,numb]less exp]im5ts h be5 made ) organic acids 9 ! hope t an easy me?od ( sep>ation might be f\nd1 b ?\gh "s useful results h be5 obta9$1 precipitation has always to be effect$ 9 neutral solution1 s t all su* processes involve ! t$i\s prelim9>y "w ( :i* an outl9e has be5 giv5 above4 ,metzg]#eji f9ds t a quantitative sep>ation ( ?orium c be effect$ f a solution 9 #dj p] c5t4 alcohol by use ( fum>ic acid2 a second precipitation is ne$$ to secure ! complete removal ( ! c]ium elem5ts4 ,nei%#eaj uses meta-nitrob5zoic acid1 :i* precipitates ! ?orium salt f a boil+ solution2 c]ium e>?s1 if pres5t1 are c>ri$ d[n 9 small quantities1 & are remov$ by dissolv+ ! precipitate 9 dilute nitric acid1 add+ a fur!r quantity ( ! organic acid1 & treat+ c>efully ) ammonia to almo/ complete neutralisation4 ,! comp\nd obta9$ by ?is second precipitation is ! pure ?orium salt4 ,m rec5tly1 ,smi? & ,james#eaa h %[n t sebacic acid gives a quantitative precipitation ( ! ?orium salt1 f boil+ neutral solution1 z a volum9\s granul> precipitate1 readily filt]$ & wa%$2 sebacic acid is v sp>+ly soluble 9 cold wat]1 b dissolves readily at #ajj1 & s9ce1 9 virtue ( ?is prop]ty1 x c be readily recov]$ aft] use1 ! au?ors sugge/ x z a suitable reag5t = ! te*nical sep>ation ( ?orium f monazite4 ,9 all cases :]e ?orium is precipitat$ z an organic salt 9 quantitative analysis1 ! precipitate is dri$ & ignit$1 & ! residue weigh$ z ! pure dioxide4 #eji ,j4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aijb1 #bd1 #bge & #ija4 #eaj ,ibid4 #aijd1 #bf1 #ghj4 #eaa ,ibid4 #aiab1 #cd1 #bha4 ,an int]e/+ me?od has be5 work$ out by ,giles4#eab ,if pure moi/ lead c>bonate be /irr$ into a neutral solution ( r>e e>? comp\nds1 ?oria is completely precipitat$4 ,only ! tetraval5t elem5ts are sep>at$ by ?is me?od1 s t if c]ic comp\nds are pres5t1 !y mu/ fir/ be r$uc$ by means ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 or sulphur dioxide2 zirconium1 if pres5t1 mu/ aft]w>ds be sep>at$ f ! ?orium4 ,"o precipitation is said to ensure almo/ complete sep>ation f ! trival5t elem5ts4 ,! precipitate is collect$1 wa%$1 & dissolv$ 9 hydro*loric acid2 aft] filt]+1 if necess>y1 ! solution is saturat$ ) sulphurett$ hydrog51 to ensure complete removal ( ! lead1 & ?orium hydroxide is !n precipitat$ by ammonia4 ,! drawback to ?is me?od lies probably 9 ! fact t x is necess>y to use absolutely pure lead c>bonate1 a sub/ance :i*1 z ! au?or's elaborate process ( purification seems to %[1 c\ld n be obta9$ v *eaply on a l>ge scale4 #eab ,*em4 ,news1 #aije1 #ib1 #a & #cj4 ,an acc\nt has rec5tly be5 publi%$#eac ( a volumetric me?od = ! e/imation ( ?orium4 ,! mix$ oxides are dissolv$ 9 conc5trat$ acetic acid1 & ! solution titrat$ ) a /&>d solution ( ammonium molybdate4 ,?is reag5t effects complete precipitation ( ?orium1 b does n react ) comp\nds ( ! c]ium elem5ts2 excess ( ! molybdate is %[n by a solution ( diph5yl c>bazide1 ,,co7,,nh,,nh,c,h71 us$ z an ext]nal indicator4 ,! c>bazide1 :i* is obta9$ by ! action ( ph5yl hydraz9e on urea1 has ! prop]ty ( produc+ def9ite1 ?\gh evanesc5t1 col\rations ) comp\nds ( _m ( ! metallic elem5ts2 a drop ( ! work+ solution1 br\ght into contact ) a drop ( ! c>bazide solution1 %[s a deep rose col\ration :5 excess ( ammonium molybdate is pres5t4#ead #eac ,metzg] & ,zons1 ,j4 ,ind4 ,eng4 ,*em4 #aiab1 #d1 #dic4 #ead ,vide ,sk9n] & ,ruhemann1 ,trans4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #ahhh1 #ec1 #eed2 also ,caz5euve1 ,compt4 r5d4 #aijj1 #aca1 #cdf4 ,! iodate process ( ,mey] & ,spet]#eae has ! great advantage t x is c>ri$ out 9 a /rongly acid solution1 s t "h ! t$i\s purification f phosphoric acid is no long] necess>y4 ,aft] decomposition ( ! m9]al ) sulphuric acid1 ! sulphates are extract$ ) wat]1 & a suitable quantity ( nitric acid add$2 ! solution is !n treat$ ) a nitric acid solution ( potassium iodate1 & ! ?orium iodate :i* sep>ates is dissolv$ 9 conc5trat$ nitric acid1 & re-precipitat$ to remove traces ( ! c]ium elem5ts4 ,! iodate1 aft] wa%+1 is dissolv$ 9 hydro*loric acid1 & r$uc$ by sulphur dioxide2 ! hydroxide is !n precipitat$ by ammonia4 ,s9ce zirconium is also ?r[n d[n "u ^! conditions1 ! hydroxide is dissolv$ 9 hydro*loric acid2 pure ?orium oxalate is precipitat$ f ?is solution by oxalic acid1 & is ignit$ & weigh$ z oxide1 9 ! usual mann]4 ,s9ce c]ic iodate is also insoluble 9 dilute nitric acid1 x is necess>y to r$uce any c]ic comp\nd :i* may be pres5t be=e ! iodate treatm5t by ! usual me?ods4 #eae ,*em4 ,zeitg4 #aiaj1 #cd1 #cjf4 ,see also ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aiaa1 #ga1 #fe4 ,ano!r me?od :i* c be c>ri$ out 9 acid solution is bas$ on ! insolubility ( ! hypophosphite1 ,th,p,o1#aa;,h,o1 9 dilute acids4#eaf ,to ! boil+ acid solution1 an aque\s solution ( sodium hypophosphate1 ,na,h,p,o1#f;,h,o1 is add$ drop by drop4 ,! precipitate1 :i* conta9s any titanium & zirconium pres5t 9 ! orig9al solution1 is be/ treat$ ) a mixture ( sulphuric & fum+ nitric acids2 ! phosphates produc$ by ! oxidation are fre$ f nitric acid by evaporation1 dissolv$ 9 wat]1 ) addition ( sulphuric acid1 & ?orium precipitat$ z ! oxalate1 :i* is !n ignit$ z usual4 ,?is me?od has be5 sugge/$ = ! te*nical sep>ation ( ?orium f monazite 7vide p4 #bgh74 ,s9ce ! precipitations by means ( sodium hypophosphate & potassium iodate c be c>ri$ out ) solutions obta9$ directly f ! product ( ! action ( sulphuric acid on ! m9]al1 ^! two me?ods are probably m suitable = ! rapid & accurate e/imation ( ?orium = te*nical purposes ?an any ( ! o!rs m5tion$4 #eaf ,wir?1 ,zeits*4 angew4 ,*em4 #aiab1 #be1 #afgh2 see also ,koss1 ,*em4 ,zeitg4 #aiab1 #cf1 #fhf1 & ,ros5heim1 ibid4 p4 #hba4 ,,*apt] ,,xix ,,! ,,manufacture ,,( ,,mantles ,,f ,,cotton ,,& ,,ramie ,! fabric *os5 = ! manufacture ( ! orig9al ,welsba* mantles 0 a specially select$ cotton1 wov5 f ?reads ( a specifi$ ?ickness4 ,! oxide skeleton left aft] burn+ (f ! impregnat$ fabric1 h[ev]1 %[$ _m s]i\s defects4 ,gradual %r9kage occurr$ dur+ use1 s t ! mantle 0 gradually )drawn f ! hotte/ zone ( ! flame2 ! contraction also result$ 9 crumpl+1 :i* caus$ ! fragile fabric to fall to pieces4 ,! light-giv+ p[] %[$ a gradual b cont9u\s dim9ution1 s t aft] a hundr$ h\rs1 ! decrease sometimes am\nt$ to ?irty p] c5t4 ( ! orig9al int5sity4 ,la/ly1 ow+ to ! fragility due to ! torsion introduc$ by ! twi/+ toge!r ( s _m %ort fibres 9 ! sp9n+ ( ! fabric1 ! life ( ^! mantles 0 v %ort1 & _! susceptibility to %ock v great4 ,) ! introduction ( ramie1 _m ( ^! defects disappe>$4 ,mantles made f ?is fibre d n %r9k cont9u\sly1 nor to any consid]able ext5t1 s t crumpl+ does n occur2 ! decrease 9 light-giv+ p[] is v mu* less ?an ) ! cotton mantles1 ! life is mu* long]1 & ! resi/ance to %ock v mu* great]4 ,microscopic exam9ation ( ! fibres1 & ( ! a% left aft] burn+ (f1 %[s t ^! diff]5ces are traceable to diff]5ces 9 ! me*anical /ructure ( ! two fabrics4 ,! cotton ?read is spun f a v l>ge numb] ( v %ort fibres1 :i* are twi/$ toge!r1 :]eas ! sep>ate fibres ( ramie are ( mu* great] l5g?1 & ! torsion 9 ! ?read correspond+ly less4 ,9 ! case ( artificial silk1 cont9u\s filam5ts are spun into ?reads1 & ?is simple fact acc\nts = ! v mu* great] durability & ela/icity ( mantles made f ?is fabric4 ,! introduction ( ramie = ! manufacture ( mantles effect$ no great alt]ations 9 ! processes employ$ 9 ! case ( cotton2 ! treatm5t ( artificial silk1 h[ev]1 requires a pr(\ndly modifi$ me?od1 & 9 consequ5ce ! prep>ation ( ?is fabric & ! manufacture ( mantles f x1 are consid]$ sep>ately 9 ano!r *apt]4 ,?\gh ! manufacture ( artificial silk 0 fir/ comm5c$ 9 ,france1 x is 9 ,g]many t its adaptation to ! inc&esc5t mantle indu/ry has be5 successfully effect$4 ,its adoption1 h[ev]1 has n yet become g5]al1 & by f> ! greate/ numb] ( mantles are to-day made f ramie4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :]e ! e>ly work+ ( ! monazite deposits gave a great impetus to ! indu/ry1 ! manufactur]s /ill cl+ l>gely to ! old] me?ods1 s t ev5 n[ q a consid]able numb] ( mantles are made f cotton4 ,9 ! pres5t *apt]1 a %ort acc\nt w be giv5 ( ! me?ods employ$ 9 ! manufacture ( mantles f ramie & cotton4 ,! g5]al me?ods ( prep>ation ( cotton fabrics are well kn[n4 ,ramie is prep>$ f ! ts*uma plant1 :i* is f\nd 9 ,india1 ,*9a1 & o!r p>ts ( ,asia4 ,! fibre is obta9$ f ! inn] side ( ! b>k2 ?is is dri$1 press$ into bales1 & export$4 ,aft] removal ( gum & res91 by heat+ ) sodium hydroxide solution "u pressure1 ! fibre is blea*$1 dri$ & clean$1 & !n comb$ & spun 9 ! usual mann]4#eag #eag ,= ! prep>ation & te*nical uses ( ,ramie1 or ,rhea1 z x 0 =m]ly call$1 vide ,cross1 #8,! ,indu/rial ,uses ( ,cellulose1' 9 ! ,cantor ,lectures ( ! ,society ( ,arts1 #ahig1 vi1 p4 #bj4 ,wa%+4--,! influ5ce ( ev5 small quantities ( impurities on ! int5sity ( ! light emitt$ by a mantle is rem>kably great1 & ! manufacture requires a degree ( c>e & att5tion f> beyond t ne$$ 9 ord9>y te*nical processes4 ,wa%+ ( ! fabric 9 p>ticul> mu/ be v ?or\gh & c>eful1 if a mantle ( reasonable quality is requir$4 ,if ! m9]al cont5t ( ! fabric1 i4e4 ! a% left on inc9]ation1 am\nt to m ?an #jjc p] c5t4 ( ! total weight1 ! quality ( ! mantle is s]i\sly affect$4 ,p>ticul>ly is ?is ! case if ev5 ! smalle/ traces ( iron come 9 contact ) ! fabric2 on ?is acc\nt wood5 implem5ts mu/ be us$ z f> z possible 9 ! wa%+ h\se1 & all iron p>ts mu/ be c>efully protect$ s t no wat] c drip f !m on to ! mat]ial4 ,! fabric is us$ 9 ! =m ( a long cyl9drical tube usually ( ab\t twice ! diamet] requir$ = ! base ( ! f9i%$ mantle4 ,be=e ! m9]al impurities c be remov$1 ?is mu/ be entirely fre$ f grease4 ,x is !re=e wa%$ ?or\ghly ) a w>m solution ( sodium c>bonate1 :i* removes all ! hydrolysable fats4 ,if p>aff9 or o!r non-hydrolysable grease is pres5t1 ! alkal9e wa% mu/ be foll[$ by a soap wa%4 ,! fabric is n[ cleans$ f alkali & soap by runn+ wat]1 & m9]al impurities are remov$ by treatm5t ) dilute hydro*loric acid 7#a-c p] c5t47 at a temp]ature ( #ej-fj;,c42 x is f9ally wa%$ free f acid ) di/ill$ wat]4 ,s susceptible is ! mantle to traces ( impurity t ! use ( ord9>y tap wat]1 or ev5 ( a di/ill$ wat] :i* has become contam9at$ to ! smalle/ degree1 = ?is f9al wa%+1 w consid]ably l[] its effici5cy4 ,a c5trifugal ma*9e removes mo/ ( ! wat]1 & ! dry+ is complet$ by passage ov] wood5 roll]s1 ?r\gh a small *amb]1 ( :i* ! air is kept at #cj-dj;,c4 ,! dri$ fabric is n[ cut into l5g?s ready = ! next process4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa ,impregnation4--,! composition ( ! #8,light+ ,fluid1' z ! solution ( salts us$ = impregnation is te*nically t]m$1 v>ies slightly accord+ to ! nature ( ! mantle requir$1 & ! conditions ( wa%+4 ,x is ( ! greate/ importance t ! ratio ( ?oria to c]ia %\ld be con/ant & def9ite2 ! usual proportions are *os5 s t ! ratio ( ! oxides is #ii 3 #a4 ,fig4 #aa %[s at a glance to :at a rem>kable ext5t small v>iations 9 ! p]c5tage ( c]ia affect ! lum9osity ( ! f9i%$ product4#eah ,! ?orium nitrate is made up ) di/ill$ wat] to a solution ( #be-ce p] c5t4 /r5g?1 & ! calculat$ quantity ( a /&>d solution ( c]ium nitrate is add$4 ,x is usual to add to ! mixture a small quantity ( ano!r nitrate1 :i* on ignition w leave an oxide ( :i* ! function is to /r5g!n ! skeleton ( a%4 ,b]yllium1 zirconium1 magnesium1 or alum9ium nitrate is usually employ$1 9 quantity calculat$ to leave an am\nt ( oxide con/itut+ ab\t #je p] c5t4 ( ! total oxides2 = ramie fabrics1 b]yllium nitrate is g5]ally *os54 #eah ,numb]less !ories h be5 advanc$ to acc\nt = ! extraord9>ily high light-emitt+ p[] ( ?is p>ticul> mixture ( ?oria & c]ia4 ,an acc\nt ( ^! w\ld be beyond ! prov9ce ( ! pres5t "w2 ! read] :o desires to pursue ! subject %\ld consult ! int]e/+ "w ( ,dr4 ,h4 ,w4 ,fis*]1 ,d] ,au]/rumpf1 ,ahr5's ,sammlung1 #aijf1 vol4 xi4 ,vide also ,lvy1 ,l'clairage l'inc&esc5ce p> le gaz1 ,p>is1 #aiaj1 ,*4 ,,ii2 & ,foix1 ,?se prs5te la ,facult des ,sci5ces de ,p>is1 ,p>is1 ,gau?i]-,vill>s1 #aiaj4 ,! diagram is aft] ,drossba*1 ,j4 ,gasbel4 #ahih1 #ceb4 ,aft] hav+ be5 imm]s$ = two to five m9utes 9 ! solution1 ! sep>ate l5g?s are fre$ f excess ( ! light+ fluid by means ( a small wr++ ma*9e4 ,! pressure betwe5 ! roll]s mu/ be regulat$ v exactly1 s9ce on ! am\nt ( solution tak5 up by ! fabric w dep5d ! mass ( ! oxide skeleton4 ,! weight ( oxides left aft] ignition %\ld be #je-jf gm4 = a #8normal' upright mantle ( #ie cm4 l5g?1 correspond+ to #aj-ab gms4 ( ! nitrates1 or1 = a #cj p] c5t4 solution1 to #cc-dj gms4 ( solution4 ,! weight ( ! fabric be=e impregnation is approximately #e gms4 = cotton1 #c gms4 = ramie1 & #ae gms4 = artificial silk4 ,a cotton mantle-fabric1 !re=e1 mu/ be all[$ to reta9 r less1 a ramie fabric r m1 ?an its own weight ( solution1 :il/ an artificial silk fabric mu/ take up #b-b times its own weight ( ! fluid4 ,! weight ( ! oxide a% left f ^! quantities has be5 f\nd by exp]i5ce to be mo/ suitable2 if ! mass is great] ?an ?is1 ! light-emission is dim9i%$ )\t a comp5sat+ ga9 9 /r5g?2 if x is less1 ! light-emission is inde$ great]1 b ! mantle becomes too fragile4 ,! impregnat$ fabric-l5g?s1 aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! wr++ ma*9e1 are drawn s+ly on to glass =ms :i* are arrang$ on /&s1 & fre$ f moi/ure 9 a dry+ room by hot air1 a temp]ature ( ab\t #cj;,c4 be+ ma9ta9$4 ,?ree to f\r h\rs are requir$1 "u ^! conditions2 if ! dry+ be too rapid1 consid]able %r9kage occurs1 & ! mantles obta9$ are !n extremely fragile4 ,! ,mantle ,head4--,! normal upright mantle is support$ f a c5tral rod ( compress$ magnesia--fus$ qu>tz has rec5tly be5 sugge/$#eai--;by means ( an asbe/os ?read4 ,! ?read 9 ! old] patt]ns 0 support$ by simply d\bl+ ov] ! fabric at ! end :i* 0 to become ! head2 m g5]ally1 h[ev]1 a /rip ( tulle or gauze is sewn to ! head end be=e ! impregnation4 ,9 ord] to /r5g!n ! head1 x is treat$ be=e #8f9i%+' ) a h>d5+ or #8fix+' fluid1 :i* usually consi/s ( a mixture ( magnesium & alum9ium nitrates 9 aque\s solution2 ! foll[+ may be cit$ z a typical mixture3 ,alum9ium nitrate1 #cjj p>ts2 magnesium nitrate1 #cjj p>ts2 *romium nitrate1 #c p>ts2 borax1 #e p>ts2 di/ill$ wat]1 #aejj p>ts4 ,9 ord] to secure t ?is fluid is appli$ to ! head only1 a little organic col\r+ matt] is g5]ally add$1 s t x may be cle>ly se54 ,! solution is soak$ on to ! head f me*anically held felt pads1 :i* are kept at a conv5i5t degree ( saturation ) ! fluid by means ( an +5i\s compress$-air device4 ,! mantle is !n rapidly dri$ 9 a hot-air *amb]4 #eai ,vide ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #bddiei1 ,m>*1 #aiab4 ,aft] ! fix+ & dry+ processes1 ! head is #8f9i%$4' ,! ord9>y upright mantle is sewn toge!r1 at ! end :i* has be5 treat$1 ) c>efully select$ asbe/os ?reads1 an op5+ ( "s t5 millimetres be+ left1 & ! asbe/os is ?read$ diametrically across ?is op5+--^! diametrical ?reads support ! mantle on its rod dur+ use4 ,^! op]ations 7 =m]ly done by h&1 :5 mantles ( good quality 7 requir$1 b ma*9e treatm5t is gradually com+ into ext5d$ use4 ,sev]al mantles n[ on ! m>ket are support$ at ! head by metal r+s1 made f ?9 %eets ( iron :i* h be5 plat$ ) alum9ium4 ,9 petroleum lamps1 ! mantle is usually support$ f bo? sides by means ( asbe/os ?reads4 ,9 ! case ( fabrics f :i* #8inv]t$' mantles are to be made1 fix+ is c>ri$ out z usual at "o end1 to a dep? ( ab\t #ae cm4 ,aft] dry+1 a /rip ( ab\t #je cm4 wid? is b5t ov] & sewn d[n1 & ?r\gh ?is d\ble b& an asbe/os ?read is drawn1 by :i* ! mantle is secur$ to a magnesia r+4 ,! l[] end is drawn toge!r 9 ! %ape ( a hemisph]e1 by means ( ?reads drawn ?r\gh ! me%es ( ! fabric2 an op5+ ( #f-h mm4 is sometimes left1 b 9 ! m mod]n patt]ns ! end is drawn almo/ completely toge!r1 & aft] cutt+ is press$ out on a wood5 %ap] by a wood5 mallet4 ,! product is n[ ready = burn+ (f2 if x is to be m>k$1 x is /amp$ at ?is /age ) a solution ( didymium nitrate & me?yl5e blue2 ! =m] be+ only fa9tly col\r$1 ! organic dye is add$ to give a def9ite impression4 ,on ignition1 ! nitrate is conv]t$ into ! oxide1 :i* is deeply col\r$1 &1 ( c\rse1 p]man5t4 ,burn+ (f & ,%ap+4--,= ! production ( mantles ( ! be/ quality1 ^! processes are usually c>ri$ out by skill$ op]ators1 ea* mantle be+ treat$ sep>ately4 ,v frequ5tly1 h[ev]1 me*anical arrangem5ts are employ$4 ,! great objection to ma*9e treatm5t ( su* a product lies 9 ! fact t x mu/ be id5tical = e mantle2 :]eas x is exce$+ly difficult to ensure t ! orig9al fabric1 & ! processes ( wa%+1 impregnat+1 wr++1 & dry+ h be5 absolutely uni=m4 ,! op]ation ( %ap+ & h>d5+ is a v delicate "o1 & on ! c>e ) :i* x is c>ri$ out1 ! quality ( ! mantle f9ally dep5ds4 ,until q rec5tly1 only ! *eap] k9ds ( mantles 7 ma*9e-treat$2 b z ! uni=mity ( ! fabric becomes m assur$1 & ! e>li] op]ations m exact1 employm5t ( ma*9es at ?is /age w und\bt$ly increase4 ,! prep>$ fabric is %ap$ on a suitable =m1 & remov$ by a hold]1 :i* supports x f ! asbe/os ?read2 a flame is !n appli$ to ! head4 ,! burn+-(f proce$s readily1 once />t$2 :5 ! upp] half has be5 inc9]at$1 ! flame is remov$4 ,! weight ( ! unburnt portion prev5ts too rapid contraction tak+ place at fir/2 :5 ! flame is remov$1 ! gl[ spreads sl[ly d[nw>ds1 & ! %r9k+ is ?us kept z uni=m z possible4 ,! op]ation mu/ be c>ri$ out "u a v5tilat+ hood4 ,! organic mat]ial ( ! fabric is completely oxidis$1 & ! nitrates are conv]t$ into oxides1 :i* reta9 ! exact %ape ( ! orig9al fibres4 ,! skeleton n[ und]goes ! process ( %ap+ & h>d5+1 = :i* a #8radial' bl[pipe flame is us$4 ,! burnt-(f product is plac$ ov] ?is2 ! gas is suppli$ at an initial pressure ( only a few in*es ( wat]1 :i* is increas$ t[>ds ! end ( ! op]ation4 ,! process comm5ces at ! head1 ! mantle be+ sl[ly lift$ & rotat$ s t x is %ap$ & h>d5$ along ! :ole l5g?4 ,by ?is means ! oxide skeleton is n only suitably %ap$1 b is r5d]$ consid]ably m ela/ic & resi/ant4 ,= inv]t$ mantles1 ( c\rse1 specially %ap$ burn]s are requir$4 ,! eyes ( ! op]ators mu/ be protect$ f ! gl>e by %ades ( gre5 glass4 ,rec5tly ! processes ( burn+-(f & h>d5+ h be5 c>ri$ out by means ( ! same burn]4 ,:]e ma*9es are employ$1 ! prep>$ fabrics are burnt (f on wire %ap]s1 usually 9 r[s ( t52 me*anical arrangem5ts = cont9u\s ignition & motion &1 9 ! h>d5+1 = cont9u\s elevation ( ! a%-skeleton1 are 9 use1 b ! f9i%$ mantles ma9ta9 a uni=m good quality only :5 ! /ructure ( ! fabric & ! e>li] processes h be5 absolutely uni=m4 ,collod9isation4--,! burnt-(f mantle is n[ ready = use1 b is f> too fragile = transport4 ,a me?od has !re=e to be f\nd by :i* ! f9i%$ product c be protect$ = a "t )\t detrim5t to its use = illum9ation4 ,mantles ( artificial silk1 p>ticul>ly ^? = use 9 high-pressure lamps1 are sometimes s5t out )\t hav+ und]gone ! f9al processes ( burn+ (f & %ap+1 :i*1 9 ?is case1 mu/ be c>ri$ out on ! consum]'s burn]4 #8,inv]t$' mantles also 7 =m]ly s5t out aft] impregnation & dry+4 ,9 ?is condition1 ( c\rse1 ! mantles are readily pack$ & transport$1 & !re is ! additional advantage t ! duty on ! unburnt product is v mu* less ?an t on ! f9i%$ mantle4 ,"o ( ! e>lie/ ( ,au]'s pat5ts 7vide supra1 p4 #bga7 protect$ ! process ( collod9isation1 :i* is n[ ext5sively employ$4 ,! oxide skeleton is dipp$ into a solution ( collodion 7! mix$ l[] nitro-d]ivatives ( cellulose1 or cellulose nitrates7 9 a mixture ( alcohol & e!r1 to :i*1 to prev5t %r9kage on dry+1 a little camphor is add$4 ,on acc\nt ( ! inflammability ( ! mixture1 ! e?yl alcohol & e!r are occasionally replac$ by a mixture ( me?yl alcohol & acetone1 b ) ?is less volatile mixture1 dry+ ( c\rse is sl[]4 ,aft] dipp+1 ! solv5ts are remov$ 9 a curr5t ( air1 leav+ ! mantle coat$ ) an exce$+ly ?9 film ( collodion1 :i* increases enorm\sly its p[] ( resi/+ %ock & vibration4 ,?is film is n remov$ until ! mantle is plac$ on ! consum]'s burn]1 :5 on ! application ( a mat* x ignites in/antly & burns away1 leav+ ! oxide skeleton 9 ! condition to :i* x 0 br\ght 9 ! f9al /age ( h>d5+ & %ap+ 9 ! factory4 ,! process is n[ us$ = almo/ all k9ds ( mantles1 hav+ be5 successfully appli$ 9 ,g]many 9 rec5t ye>s to ^? made f artificial silk4 ,! addition ( small quantities ( v>i\s inorganic salts1 e4g4 nitrates ( zirconium1 magnesium1 plat9um1 ?orium1 etc41 to ! collodion solution1 has be5 propos$2 ^! salts make ! collod9is$ product extremely resi/ant1 b h a v h>mful effect on ! oxide a% :5 ! collodion has be5 burnt (f4 ,! collod9is$ mantles are cut to l5g? on a trimm+ ma*9e1 & are !n ready = pack+4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! pres5t *apt] may be conclud$ ) a b>e m5tion ( a few disconnect$ details1 select$ f ! great mass ( proposals1 sugge/ions1 & developm5ts :i* h sprung up r\nd ! inc&esc5t mantle indu/ry4#ebj #ebj ,= a complete acc\nt ( ! me*anical developm5ts1 ! read] is ref]r$ to ! monograph #8,beleu*tung und ,li*tmessung1' by ,dr4 ,brn/e91 9 ,damm]'s ,*emis*e ,te*nologie d] ,neuzeit1 ,/uttg>t1 #aiaj-aa1 ii4 #bdc-bff4 ,) reg>d to ! composition ( mantles1 num]\s proposals h be5 made4 ,x is /at$ t ?oria ) #jbe p] c5t4 ( uranic oxide1 ,,uo1 gives a light almo/ equal to t ( ! ,au] mantle4 ,zirconia ) #jdj p] c5t4 ( vanadium1 9 ! =m ( ! p5toxide1 is said to give a spl5did :ite light2 ! vanadium oxide sl[ly volatilises1 b addition ( an equival5t proportion ( silica is said to prev5t ?is4 ,langhans claims to h obta9$ a product equal 9 light-giv+ p[] to ! ,au] mantle1 by us+ z impregnat+ fluid a solution ( colloidal silica1 obta9$ by ! addition ( nitric acid to a solution ( sodium silicate1 to :i* suitable quantities ( r>e e>? nitrates are add$4 ,bodies obta9$ by ! use ( v simil> solutions give skeletons :i* are com+ into ext5d$ employm5t = gas radiators4 ,! #8,sunlight' mantles use a mixture ( ?oria 7#ej p] c5t471 alum9a 7#dj p] c5t471 & *romium sesquioxide 7#aj p] c5t474 ,a direction ( developm5t 9 :i* "s success has be5 atta9$ is ! introduction ( self-light+ devices4 ,! catalytic action ( f9ely divid$ metals has be5 propos$ 9 innum]able pat5ts1#eba b ^! devices are unreliable1 & x seems d\btful if *emical me?ods w ev] be successfully appli$ to ! problem4 ,= ! light+ ( /reets1 %ops1 etc41 ! #8by-pass' sy/em is employ$2 a t9y jet ( gas burns cont9u\sly f a p9-hole nozzle1 :i* is mom5t>ily increas$1 :5 ! ma9 supply is turn$ on1 to su* an ext5t t ! gas issu+ f ! burn] is ignit$4#ebb #eba ,vide1 e4g4 ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #aehigd & #beceej2 ,f4 #dagicd4 #ebb ,= automatic regulators = self-light+1 vide ,j4 ,gasbel4 #aiaj1 #ec1 #dij4 ,an acc\nt ( ! innum]able =ms ( lamps & burn]s :i* h be5 introduc$ 9 ! la/ tw5ty ye>s w\ld fill sev]al volumes4 ,! !oretical gr\nds on :i* improvem5ts 9 ?is direction are bas$ are outl9$ 9 an able article by ,dr4 ,h4 ,bunte1 a recognis$ au?ority on inc&esc5t light+1 :i* appe>$ rec5tly2#ebc = an acc\nt ( "s ( ! lamps :i* h be5 successfully appli$1 ! read] is ref]r$ to a rec5t ,fr5* publication4#ebd #ebc ,j4 ,gasbel4 #aiaa1 #ed1 #dfi2 vide also ,pick]+1 ,j4 ,gaslight+1 #aiaa1 #aac1 #aef4 #ebd ,l'clairage l'inc&esc5ce p> le gaz1 ,lvy1 ,"p ,i4 ,*4 ,,iii4 ,,*apt] ,,xx ,,artificial ,,silk--,,its ,,production ,,& ,,use ,,9 ,,! ,,mantle ,,indu/ry ,! hi/ory ( ! artificial silk indu/ry1 s9ce its f\ndation ab\t ! ye> #ahij1 illu/rates curi\sly ! rapidity ) :i* isolat$ facts1 ( app>5tly m]ely academic int]e/1 are seiz$ ^u & adapt$ to ! ne$s ( mod]n civilisation4 ,x is dur+ ?is p]iod1 especially1 t ! bonds betwe5 sci5ce & indu/ry1 9 a doz5 diff]5t directions1 h be5 drawn s close t to-day x is 9 _m cases impossible to diff]5tiate ! two4 ,! pure sci5ce ( to-day is ! te*nology ( to-morr[--& n always ev5 ( to-morr[1 b ( to-day4 ,b we h mov$ ev5 beyond ?is2 ! indu/rial ne$s ( ! day are creat+ & ext5d+ our sci5ce at a rate :i* %[s h[ relatively poor a /imulus has be5 ! m]e desire = k4 ,su* has be5 ! hi/ory ( ! artificial silk indu/ry4 ,no soon] _h ,*>donnet %[n t ! prep>ation ( a new fabric 0 n only possible b pr(itable1 ?an a ?\s& aspects ( ! problem 7 tak5 up4 ,pat5ts 7 tak5 out on all sides--! majority1 z usual1 valueless1 "o or two ( great importance4 ,companies 7 =m$1 factories built1 ma*9es inv5t$2 numb]less applications 7 propos$1 mo/ly aga9 wor?less1 :il/ pati5t rese>* & innum]able exp]im5ts h c>ri$ "o or two sugge/ions to a successful place 9 practice4 ,among ^! has be5 ! adaptation ( artificial silk to ! manufacture ( mantles1 :i* w be outl9$ 9 ! pres5t *apt]4 ,be=e tak+ up ?is "q1 h[ev]1 a %ort acc\nt ( ! manufacture ( ! fabric itself mu/ be giv54 ,*>donnet ,process4--,9 ! ,*>donnet process1 an acc\nt ( :i* 0 publi%$ ab\t #ahij1 cont9u\s fibres are obta9$ by =c+ ?r\gh t9y jets a visc\s solution ( collodion1 or nitrocellulose1 z x has be5 misnam$1 9 a mixture ( e?yl alcohol & e!r4 ,9 ! orig9al =m ( ! process1 ! solution 0 =c$ into wat]1 :i*1 by remov+ ! alcohol & e!r1 caus$ an in/antane\s coagulation ( ! surface1 s t a filam5t 0 obta9$ :i* c\ld be w\nd directly on to a spool4 ,m g5]ally1 h[ev]1 ! jets deliv] ! solution into a *amb] ?r\gh :i* w>m air is pass$2 ?is is equally effective 9 remov+ ! solv5ts & caus+ surface coagulation1 & ! filam5ts are wov5 directly into ?reads ( t5 to =ty /r&s1 accord+ to ! purpose = :i* ! fabric is requir$1 fifte5 to tw5ty be+ us$ = silk f :i* mantles are to be made4 ,on acc\nt ( its inflammability1 ! ?read is d5itrat$ by means ( a solution ( ammonium sulphide4 ,! raw mat]ial = ! process is cellulose1 usually 9 ! =m ( cotton4 ,treatm5t ( ?is ) a suitable mixture ( conc5trat$ sulphuric & nitric acids replaces "s ( ! hydroxyl gr\ps by ! #8nitrate radicle1' ,,no1 a mixture ( v>i\s nitrates ( cellulose be+ =m$1 9 :i* ! s-call$ tetra-1 p5ta-1 & hexa-nitrates pr$om9ate4#ebe ,! product1 cellulose nitrate or collodion1 v closely resembles ! orig9al cellulose 9 appe>ance & /ructure4 ,x is wa%$ ?or\ghly to free x f traces ( acid--:i* r5d] x liable to explode spontane\sly--& aft] dry+1 dissolv$ 9 ! m9imum quantity ( ! mix$ solv5ts2#ebf ! solution is filt]$ f insoluble impurities ?r\gh wads ( cotton1 pressures ( ?irty to sixty atmosph]es be+ requir$4 ,?is filtration purifies & ?or\ghly mixes ! solution1 s t p]fect uni=mity is obta9$ 9 ! product4 ,! glass jets ?r\gh :i* ! solution is n[ =c$1 "u a pressure ( =ty to fifty atmosph]es1 h a diamet] ( #jjh mm41 b ! ?reads obta9$ contract on ! removal ( ! solv5ts1 s t fibres ( #jja-jjb mm4 are =m$4 #ebe ,! cellulose e/]s are usually nam$ z if !y 7 d]iv$ f a comp\nd ,c,h,o1 ! =mula = cellulose be+ 7,c,h,o7n4 ,?us ! =mation ( ! #8hexa-nitrate' w\ld be repres5t$-- ,c,h,o #f;,,hno ,c,h,o7,,no7 #f;,h,o4 #ebf ,9 ! ,lehn] process1 9 :i* collodion is also us$1 l>g] quantities ( solv5t are employ$1 s t mu* m dilute solutions are obta9$2 ^! require l[ pressures to =m ! ?read1 :i* is !n h>d5$ *emically4 ,*>donnet probably began 8 "w ab\t #ahhe4 ,x is int]e/+ to obs]ve t an ,engli%man1 ,swan1 _h propos$ 9 #ahhc to use a solution ( collodion 9 acetic acid1 fabrics prep>$ by 8 process be+ %[n at ! ,london ,exhibition ( #ahhd4ebg #ebg ,vide ,bhm1 ,zeits*4 angew4 ,*em4 #aiab1 #be1 #feg4 ,!re is no acc\nt ( ?is process 9 ! ,engli% pat5t lit]ature4 ,! ,pauly or ,cuprammonium ,process4#ebh--;,x has long be5 kn[n t a solution ( copp] hydroxide 9 ammonia solution--,s*weitz]'s reag5t--w dissolve cellulose4 ,! use ( ?is solv5t = ! production ( artificial silk 0 propos$ ab\t #aijj1 & ! me?od has become a s]i\s rival ( ! old] ,*>donnet process4 ,! solv5t is prep>$ on a l>ge scale by pass+ air ?r\gh an ammonia solution to :i* copp] turn+s h be5 add$4 ,aft] addition ( ! cellulose1 & filtration1 ! solution is =c$ ?r\gh t9y jets into a ba? ( dilute acid1 :i* removes ! copp] & precipitates ! cellulose aga94 #ebh ,a full acc\nt ( ?is & ( ! o!r processes employ$ 9 ! manufacture ( artificial silk w be f\nd 9 ! "w ( ,pie/1 ,die ,zellulose1 ,/uttg>t1 #aiaj4 ,! solution ( cellulose by ,s*weitz]'s reag5t is und\bt$ly a *emical action4 ,cellulose is to be reg>d$ z a polyhydric alcohol1 ) "o or sev]al atoms ( hydrog5 ( ! hydroxyl gr\ps replaceable by metals4 ,accord+ to ,pie/ 7loc4 cit47 a #8,cupram9e base' is =m$ by ! replacem5t ( ?is hydrog5 by copp] & ! am9o-gr\p1 ,,nh4 ,! action ( sodium hydroxide on cellulose1 h[ev]1 is g5]ally reg>d$ r z an additive reaction1 ! product1 #8alkali cellulose1' be+ usually writt5 ,c,h,o1,na,o,h4 ,a c>eful *emical inve/igation alone c reveal ! actual nature ( ! comp\nd =m$2 su* an inve/igation1 ap>t f its sci5tific int]e/1 might yield results ( consid]able te*nical importance4 ,! ,viscose ,process4--,%ortly aft] ! introduction ( ! ,*>donnet process1 pat5ts 7 tak5 out :i* protect$ a v *eap & simple me?od ( dissolv+ cellulose1#ebi :i* _h be5 discov]$ by two well-kn[n ,engli% au?orities4 ,cross & ,bevan4 ,!y f\nd t m]c]isation1 i4e4 ! action ( ! sodium hydroxide on cellulose1 produces a swoll51 transp>5t mass1 :i* v readily takes up c>bon disulphide4 ,:5 expos$ to ! action ( ?is liquid = ?ree or f\r h\rs1 at ord9>y temp]atures1 ! mass swells fur!r1 gelat9is+ & becom+ soluble 9 wat]4 ,on treatm5t ) wat]1 a yell[i%1 extremely slimy solution is obta9$1 f :i* cellulose is precipitat$ on prolong$ /&+1 by heat+1 or by oxidation4 ,! sub/ance is app>5tly a cellulose xan?ate1 & may be writt5 ,na,s,,cs,o,c,h,o1,na,o,h4#ecj ,on acc\nt ( ! extremely visc\s nature ( ! aque\s solution1 ,cross & ,bevan gave x ! "n ,viscoid4 #ebi ,vide1 e4g4 ,cross1 ,bevan1 & ,beadle1 ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #gjiii1 grant$ ,septemb]1 #ahic4 #ecj ,vide ,beltz]1 ,zeits*4 angew4 ,*em4 #aijh1 #ba1 #agca4 ,dur+ ! la/ few ye>s ?is me?od ( dissolv+ cellulose has be5 employ$ 9 ! manufacture ( artificial silk1 "u ! "n #8,viscose ,process4' ,! product obta9$ is v suitable = ! manufacture ( inc&esc5t mantles1 & is consid]ably *eap] ?an ei!r ! ,*>donnet or ,pauly silk4 ,! ,acetate ,process4--,q rec5tly num]\s exp]im5ts h be5 c>ri$ out ) ! object ( f9d+ me?ods = employ+ ! cellulose e/]s ( organic acids 9 ! prep>ation ( fabrics4 ,! acetate1 :i* is g5]ally us$1 gives solutions f :i* fibres c be obta9$ :i* are comp>able to natural silk 9 /r5g?1 & :i* h ! fur!r advantage ( be+ non-inflammable1 & f> less readily affect$ by wat] ?an artificial fabrics obta9$ by ! above me?ods4 ,x is prep>$ by treat+ cellulose ) dilute acid1 by :i* ! s-call$ #8hydrocellulose' is obta9$2 ?is is treat$ ) a mixture ( glacial acetic acid & acetyl *loride1 & ! :ole1 aft] addition ( a little conc5trat$ sulphuric acid1 w>m$ to #fe-gj;,c4 ,z e>ly z #ahid1 ,cross & ,bevan#eca _h pat5t$ a process = ?is prep>ation by ! action ( acetyl *loride 9 ! cold on an intimate mixture ( cellulose & z9c *loride4 #eca ,e4 #ifgf1 #ahid4 ,f ! solution obta9$1 ! acetates are precipitat$ by wat]1 wa%$ & dri$4 ,! mixture ( e/]s dissolves 9 *lor(orm1 nitrome?ane1 acetic acid1 ph5ol1 pyrid9e1 etc41 & is re-precipitat$ by addition ( alcohol1 b5z5e1 or ligro9 7petroleum e!r74 ,on acc\nt ( its non-inflammable "*1 cellulose acetate1 z ! product is call$1 is be+ us$ in/ead ( ! nitrate 9 ! manufacture ( celluloid2 x is also us$ = non-inflammable c9ematograph films4 ,fibres c be obta9$ by =c+ ! solutions ?r\gh jets1 & remov+ ! solv5t1 z 9 ! above processes2 ^! are spun into ?reads :i* are com+ into increas+ use1 on acc\nt ( _! extremely l[ conduct+ p[]1 = ! insulation ( v f9e electric leads4 ,! product is at pres5t too exp5sive1 h[ev]1 = use 9 ! textile indu/ries1 or = ! manufacture ( mantles4 ,a solv5t :i* _h at "o "t "s te*nical importance is z9c *loride4#ecb ,! conc5trat$ aque\s solution ( ! salt w take up cellulose 9 consid]able quantity2 & ! solution has be5 us$ 9 ! prep>ation ( c>bon filam5ts = gl[ lamps4 #ecb ,gulbr&s51 ,prog4 ,age1 #aiab1 #cj1 #gg2 ,wynne & ,p[ell1 ,e4 #afhje1 ,decemb]1 #ahhd4 ,! fabrics prep>$ by ! processes :i* h be5 m5tion$ above are ( great te*nical value4 ,9 lu/re !y f> surpass natural silk1 & !y take dyes v well1 b ow+ to ! ease ) :i* !y te>1 !y _c be wov5 alone = textiles1 b are always us$ 9 #8mix$' mat]ials4 ,! acetate silk1 :i* approa*es ! natural fibre 9 /r5g?1 is n mu* less exp5sive4 ,:il/ ! price ( natural silk is r\ghly #ce francs p] kilo4 7approx4 #acs4 #c;d4 p] lb471 ! co/s ( production ( ! artificial fabrics are--,*>donnet #ae frs41 ,pauly #ab frs41 ,viscose #g frs4 p] kilo4 7respectively #es4 #h;d41 #ds4 #f;d41 & #bs4 #h;d4 p] lb474 ,artificial silk1 h[ev]1 has uses di/9ct f ! natural fibre1 & is at pres5t a competitor ) x 9 "o or two small fields only4 ,?us ! production ( natural silk is t5 times t ( artificial silk 7#ej1jjj1jjj kilos4 p] annum to #e1jjj1jjj kilos47 9 spite ( ! diff]5ce 9 price4 ,artificial silk is v susceptible to ! action ( wat]1 :i* weak5s x v consid]ably4 ,its resi/ance is said to be greatly increas$ by ! action ( =maldehyde2 ! fabric is plung$ into a ba? conta9+ an aque\s solution ( ! aldehyde1 to :i* a little lactic acid has be5 add$4 ,! *emi/ry ( ! *ange is discuss$ at l5g? by ,beltz] 7loc4 cit474 ,! ?reads ( artificial silk f> surpass 9 lightness ^? spun f vegetable fibres4 ,a ?read ( tw5ty /r&s weigh+ "o p\nd avoirdupois w\ld be m ?an tw5ty miles long4 ,at ! same "t ! filam5ts h n ! irregul> tubul> /ructure ( vegetable fibres1 b are solid cyl9d]s4 ,! fact t ! filam5ts are cont9u\s1 s t !re is relatively little torsion 9 ?reads spun f !m1 gives artificial silk its great advantage ov] ! natural vegetable fibres = ! manufacture ( mantles4 ,= ?is purpose ! ,pauly or ,cuprammonium silk is mo/ suitable1 ?\gh ,viscose silk is almo/ z good2 ! fibre obta9$ by ! ,*>donnet process is n q s useful 9 ?is direction4 ,! ,manufacture ( ,mantles f ,artificial ,silk4--,:il/ ! fabrics made by ! v>i\s processes outl9$ above are m exp5sive ?an ! cotton & ramie =m]ly exclusively us$ 9 ! mantle indu/ry1 !y h ! advantage1 9 addition to ! fact t !y produce bett] & m la/+ mantles1 t !y d n ne$ ! labori\s & tr\blesome process ( wa%+ :i* is s ess5tial 9 ! case ( ! vegetable fibres4 ,f ! nature ( ! me?ods us$ 9 its manufacture1 artificial silk c conta9 no m9]al residue2 h5ce ! fabric is imm$iately ready = impregnation4 ,z e>ly z ! ye> #ahib ,s*lumb]g] & ,s9ibaldi propos$ ! use ( ,*>donnet silk = ! manufacture ( mantles2 b _! pat5t1 a ,belgian "o1#ecc attract$ little att5tion1 al?\gh !y /at$ cle>ly t ! d5itrat$ silk w readily take up ! light+ fluid4 ,ignorance ( ?is fact def]r$ ! successful application ( ?is fibre = t5 ye>s4 ,9 #ahid ,de ,m>e sugge/$ ! prep>ation ( mantles by addition ( ! necess>y salts to ! collodion solution be=e squirt+2 9 ! foll[+ ye> ,knfl] us$ ! same process1 recomm5d+ 9 addition ! use ( ammonium sulphide to d5itrate ! impregnat$ ?reads4 ,^! two attempts1 :i* 7 f\nd to be unworkable1 ow+ to ! difficulty ( obta9+ a homog5e\s product be=e squirt+1 7 m]ely ef=ts to compete aga9/ ! ,au] monopoly1 re/+ on ,welsba*'s pat5ts1 :i* cov]$ impregnation ( any natural fibre4 ,9 ,knfl]'s process1#ecd ! salts 7 dissolv$ 9 alcohol & add$ to ! collodion solution1 :i* 0 !n =c$ ?r\gh jets into wat]1 to :i* ammonia 0 add$ to prev5t removal ( ! nitrates 9 solution2 ! ?reads 7 !n d5itrat$ ) ammonium sulphide4 ,! ammonia treatm5t ( c\rse conv]ts ! nitrates into ! insoluble hydroxides1 a dep>ture :i* 0 foll[$ 9 mo/ ( ! num]\s pat5ts inspir$ by ,knfl]'s process4 #ecc ,vide ,bhm1 ,zeits*4 angew4 ,*em4 #aiab1 #be1 #feg4 ,app>5tly ?is pat5t 0 n tak5 up2 no acc\nt ( x has be5 f\nd 9 ! publi%$ pat5ts ( ! ,belgian ,gov]nm5t4 #ecd ,e4 #aajch1 #ahie1 grant$ ,july1 #ahie4 ,! fir/ indications ( ! me?od :i* ultimately l$ to success are to be f\nd 9 a pat5t tak5 out by ,plaisetty1 9 #aija4ece ,! specification protects ! addition ( ?orium & c]ium hydroxides to ! cuprammonium solution ( cellulose1 b app>5tly )\t any inkl+ ( ! results t 7 to foll[1 & m or less incid5tally1 he includes 9 ?is pat5t ! impregnation ( ! f9i%$ fabric & ! subsequ5t treatm5t ) ammonia4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye> he appli$ = a ,g]man pat5t1#ecf :i* 0 grant$ 9 ,may1 #aijc1 9 :i* he def9itely protects ! impregnation ( ! f9i%$ fabric1 & ! ammonia treatm5t1 ! fabric be+ !n wa%$ & dri$1 & burnt (f z usual4 #ece ,e4 #bjgdg1 #aija4 #ecf ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #adabdd4 ,impregnation4--,s9ce ! filam5ts f :i* artificial silk is obta9$ are solid & rod-l 9 =m1 z oppos$ to ! tubul> /ructure ( cotton & ramie filam5ts1 x is r surpris+ t ! fabric %\ld take up ! light+ fluid 9 ! necess>y quantity 7vide p4 #bie74 ,x is f\nd t a #ej p] c5t4 solution ( nitrates gives ! be/ results1 ! impregnation requir+ half an h\r2 a w>m ba? is usually employ$4 ,x is usual to add to ! ba? a quantity ( ?orium hydroxide1 s9ce ! ?orium nitrate ( comm]ce g5]ally conta9s nitric acid1 :i* has a bad effect on ! fabric4#ecg ,! excess ( solution is remov$ by means ( a glass or porcela9 c5trifuge1 n1 z ) cotton or ramie mantles1 by use ( a wr+]2 dry+ mu/ be c>ri$ out v sl[ly4 ,! fabric is n cut into l5g?s be=e impregnation1 z 9 ! case ( cotton or ramie1 b is imm]s$ 9 ! light+ fluid 9 long /rips4 #ecg ,vide ,buhlmann1 ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #ahhdbg1 #aijg2 also ,e4 #fhbh1 #aijg4 #8,fix+4'--,if ! dri$ fabric1 impregnat$ ) ! necess>y salts1 be f9i%$ & burnt (f 9 ! usual way1 ! oxide skeleton is extremely fragile1 & soon falls to p[d]4 ,! reason = ?is lies probably 9 ! explosive decomposition ( ! nitrates1 ! weight ( organic matt] relative to ! salts be+ v mu* less ?an 9 ! case ( ramie or cotton fabrics 7vide p4 #bie74 ,! additional ammonia ba? advocat$ by ,knfl] 7vide supra7 0 !re=e adopt$ by ,plaisetty1 & ! nitrates 9 ! dri$ impregnat$ fabric are conv]t$ into hydroxides by ?is treatm5t4 ,= ?is process1 to :i* ! "n #8,fix+' has be5 giv5 by ,bhm1 numb]less alt]native proposals h be5 made4 ,plaisetty's ammonia fix+ gives a mantle :i*1 aft] burn+ (f1 is exce$+ly ela/ic & /rong1 b x is nev]!less op5 to s]i\s objections4 ,?us ! nitrates may be to "s ext5t dissolv$ out by ! fix+ ba? be=e precipitation ( ! hydroxides has occurr$2 to rem$y ?is1 ! impregnat$ fabric mu/ be v ?or\ghly dri$ be=e fix+1 & 9 ?is case1 ap>t f ! tr\ble involv$1 ! acid ( ! comm]cial nitrates w attack ! fabric unless addition ( ?orium hydroxide has be5 made to ! impregnat+ fluid4 ,aga91 ! conv]sion into oxides is n complete1 ! out] lay] fir/ =m$ prev5t+ free diffusion ( ! alkal9e fluid4 ,f9ally1 s9ce ammonium nitrate is =m$ 9 ! reaction1 a v ?or\gh wa%+ is necess>y to remove ?is salt4 ,x w\ld be impossible to m5tion all ( ! numb]less proposals :i* h be5 put =w>d = fix+2 nor are ! great majority wor?y ( m5tion4#ech ,"o ( ! mo/ important 0 t ( ,albre*t1#eci by :i* hydrog5 p]oxide is sub/itut$ = ammonia4 ,?is reag5t1 z is well kn[n1 precipitates f solutions ( ?orium salts #8p]oxide' comp\nds 7vide p4 #bee72 f ! fabric impregnat$ ) ! nitrate1 free nitric acid is lib]at$ 9 ! reaction4 ,s9ce ! p]oxide is soluble 9 nitric acid1 two ba?s are us$1 ! fabric be+ all[$ to rema9 = a %ort "t only 9 ! fir/1 :i* becomes /rongly acid1 & be+ !n transf]r$ to ! second1 9 :i* ! precipitation is complet$4 ,! burn+ (f ( ! product s treat$ proce$s q quietly1 & leaves a v h>d & ela/ic skeleton4 ,! me?od1 h[ev]1 has ! grave disadvantage t c]ium salts are n precipitat$ "u ^! conditions1 b escape into ! solution4 ,to rem$y ?is1 arbitr>y additions ( c]ium nitrate are made to ! fix+ ba?1 b ! p]c5tage ( c]ium1 & !re=e ! light+ p[] 7vide p4 #bic7 ( mantles fix$ by ?is me?od is liable to fluctuate4 ,a modification has be5 introduc$#edj 9 :i* v>i\s salts are add$ to ! hydrog5 p]oxide fix+ ba?s to prev5t ! )drawal ( ! c]ium salt2 ^! are *iefly acetates ( ! alkali metals & alli$ comp\nds4 ,! fabric requires wa%+ aft] ?is treatm5t4 #ech ,a l>ge numb] ( pat5ts are m5tion$ by ,bhm1 ,j4 ,gasbel4 #aiji1 #eb1 #hee4 #eci ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #ahhdbg1 ,septemb]1 #aijg2 ,e4 #aebie1 #aijg4 #edj ,vide ,e4 #bbdj1 #aijh4 ,c](irm ,gesells*aft1 by ,brit4 ,c](irm ,co4 ,a r simil> proposal#eda sub/itutes = ammonia an alkal9e solution ( hydrog5 p]oxide1 obta9$ by dissolv+ sodium p]oxide 9 wat]4 ,aft] saturation = a m9ute or s1 ! fabric is wrung out & dri$1 !re be+ no necessity1 accord+ to ! pat5t1 = any subsequ5t wa%+4 ,! same company 9 an e>li] pat5t#edb sugge/ a fix+ ba? ( #8an alkali or am9e ) an acid :i* c =m insoluble basic d\ble salts ) ! e>? metals1' ! said salt to be precipitat$ on ! fibre1 :il/ an alkali or am9e nitrate goes into solution2 acetic & b5zoic acids & ph5ol are m5tion$4 ,app>5tly ?is process did n give satisfactory results4 ,! same may be said ( ! hypo*lorite me?od ( ,visseaux4#edc ,equally int]e/+1 & d\btless equally practical is ! proposal#edd to treat ! dri$ impregnat$ mantle ) ozone 9 a clos$ *amb]1 :i* possibly inspir$ ! ev5 m orig9al sugge/ion#ede t ! fabric be fir/ wa%$ 9 ozonis$ wat]1 dri$1 !n impregnat$ & dri$1 & f9ally treat$ ) ozone4 ,accord+ to yet ano!r ,fr5* pat5t1#edf ! impregnat$ & dri$ fabric is to be treat$ ) an alcoholic solution ( hydr(luoric acid1 :i* w give a visc\s insoluble mixture ( ?orium & c]ium fluorides 9 ! fabric1 & at ! same "t w remove any impurities4 ,ano!r pat5t#edg proposes ! use ( hydraz9e & simil> bases1 c]ium nitrate be+ add$ to ! fix+ solution4 #eda ,d4 #bdgidj1 ,june1 #aiab2 ,f4 #dcjdag1 ,augu/1 #aiaa4 #edb ,f4 #djcdcc1 ,septemb]1 #aiji1 ,bruno ,co4 #edc ,f4 #djhhjg1 ,febru>y1 #aiaj4 #edd ,f4 #dadgjj1 ,june1 #aiaj4 #ede ,f4 #dbbfdc1 ,janu>y1 #aiaa4 #edf ,f4 #dbfaef1 ,april1 #aiaa4 #edg ,e4 #aaijd1 #aiji4 ,innum]able sugge/ions h be5 made = fix+ by means ( ammonia gas1 or vap\rs ( organic bases4#edh ,an ,engli% pat5t grant$ 9 ,febru>y #aiajedi protects #8v>i\s improvem5ts1' :i* consi/ 9 c>ry+ out a prelim9>y treatm5t ) /eam1 impregnation ) ! solution ( nitrates1 conv]sion ( nitrates into oxides ei!r by /eam c>ry+ ammonia1 pyrid9e1 etc41 or by ! action ( ^! vap\rs )\t /eam 9 a vacuum1 all 9 "o *amb]1 :i* c be exhau/$ or fill$ ) v>i\s solutions or vap\rs z requir$4 #edh ,vide1 e4g4 ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #aiifae ( ,june1 #aijh4 #edi ,e4 #beedi1 #aijh4 ,m rec5tly1 ! use ( organic salts ( ?orium & c]ium = impregnation has be5 propos$ by ,dr4 ,f4 ,w4 ,wir?2#eej 9 fix+ ! impregnat$ fabric ) hydrog5 p]oxide1 ! c]ium is n remov$ 9 solution1 s9ce ! weak organic acid =m$ w n dissolve c]ium p]oxide4 ,! same au?or has also sugge/$#eea ! addition to ! fix+ ba? ( sub/ances :i* absorb oxyg5 f ! air--e4g4 sodium hydrog5 sulphite1 resorc9ol1 tann9--to prev5t removal ( c]ium4 ,he has also advocat$ impregnation ) amorph\s salts1#eeb :i* w obviate ! necessity = any subsequ5t fix+ treatm5t1 ! hypophosphites & d\ble comp\nds ) ammonium oxalate be+ specifi$4 ,attempts h be5 made to a*ieve ! same end by o!r me?ods4 ,?us ,silb]mann#eec has propos$ a prelim9>y treatm5t ) alkalies 7m]c]isation72 ! fabric is treat$ ) conc5trat$ sodium hydroxide solution 9 abs5ce ( air = half an h\r1 press$ ?r\gh roll]s1 & plung$ into ! impregnat+ solution4 ,two ye>s previ\sly a pat5t 0 tak5 out by ,drossba*#eed to protect ! use ( colloidal solutions ( ! hydroxides4 ,to a boil+ susp5sion ( well-wa%$1 fre%ly-precipitat$ ?orium hydroxide1 a solution ( a small quantity ( ! nitrate is gradually add$2 aft] half an h\r a colloidal solution is obta9$1 :i*1 aft] ! addition ( ! requir$ quantity ( c]ium nitrate1 & dilution to a suitable ext5t1 is employ$ directly = impregnation4 ,! pat5t /ates t ?is solution is m readily absorb$ ?an ! ord9>y nitrate solution1 b ! /atem5t has be5 que/ion$4 #eej ,*em4 ,zeitg4 #aiaa1 #ce1 #geb4 #eea ,zeits*4 angew4 ,*em4 #aiab1 #be1 #ibb4 #eeb ,*em4 ,zeitg4 #aiaa1 #ce1 #geb4 #eec ,*em4 ,zeitg4 #aiaa1 #ce1 #ajcg4 #eed ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #babhdb1 ,augu/1 #aiji2 vide also ,kreidl & ,hell]1 ,e4 #aghfb1 #aiji1 & ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #bbhbjc1 #aiaj4 ,artificial silk itself is ( a colloidal nature1 ! solidification ( ! filam5ts ( cellulose dur+ ! manufacture be+ r 9 ! nature ( a coagulation ?an ( a precipitation2 x is to ?is fact t ! fibres owe _! solid1 rod-l /ructure1 & x is probably ?is circum/ance also :i* det]m9es ! v intimate absorption ( ! hydroxides or p]oxides produc$ by fix+4 ,x is well kn[n t colloidal sub/ances "u "s circum/ances possess ! prop]ty ( cl++ t5aci\sly to =eign bodies1 exhibit+ ! s-call$ ph5om5on ( adsorption4 ,! /r5g? & ela/icity ( ! oxide skeleton1 obta9$ :5 ! fix$ & dri$ fabric is subject$ to ! op]ation ( burn+ (f1 are presumably to be ref]r$ to su* a relation betwe5 ! cellulose ( ! fibres & ! insoluble ?orium & c]ium comp\nds1 precipitat$ by "o ( ! me?ods ( fix+ describ$4 ,! ,f9al ,/ages4--,! treatm5t ( ! fabric aft] impregnation & fix+ diff]s only slightly f t us$ = ! impregnat$ ramie & cotton products4 ,! dri$ /rips are cut into suitable l5g?s1 & ! head is drawn toge!r ) asbe/os & ?read$ across4 ,no tulle or gauze is requir$1 ! end be+ simply turn$ d[n be=e ?read+4 ,aft] ! ord9>y /r5g!n+ process = ! head 7vide p4 #bif7 ! process ( manufacture 01 until rec5tly1 f9i%$1 ! goods be+ s5t out 9 ! unburnt condition1 on acc\nt ( ! difficulties ( collod9isation4 ,^! h n[ be5 ov]come1 s t ! mantles are burnt (f & collod9is$ z usual4 ,burn+ (f & %ap+ are n[ frequ5tly effect$ 9 "o op]ation by ma*9e2 ! nature ( ! me?ods by :i* ! fibre is made produces a uni=m fabric1 & if ! e>li] processes are c>efully c>ri$ out1 a uni=m product is obta9$1 :i* is !re=e suitable = ma*9e treatm5t4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi ,,o!r ,,te*nological ,,uses ,,( ,,! ,,c]ium ,,& ,,yttrium ,,elem5ts1 ,,zirconium ,,& ,,?orium ,! te*nical uses ( ! memb]s ( ?is gr\p ( ! elem5ts we are consid]+1 ap>t f ! employm5t 9 ! manufacture ( inc&esc5t mantles1 are at pres5t v re/rict$4 ,innum]able proposals = ! employm5t ( ! comp\nds ( c]ium & ! alli$ metals1 :i* are obta9$ 9 su* l>ge quantities z by-products 9 ! ?orium indu/ry1 h be5 put =w>d1 b ! actual ext5t to :i* !y are utilis$ is s small t only an insignificant fraction ( ! available quantities is annually requir$4 ,9 ! metallic =m1 a limit$ application is f\nd = v>i\s alloys1 e4g4 ! s-call$ pyrophoric alloys1 mis* metal1 & ! magnesium & alum9ium alloys4 ,v>i\s comp\nds ( ! elem5ts1 z well z "s alloys1 h be5 sugge/$ = use 9 arc-lamp electrodes1 & ! use ( ! metals !mselves1 z well z ( v>i\s salts1 = ! manufacture ( fla%light p[d]s1 is protect$ by sev]al pat5ts4 ,inve/igations h be5 made to det]m9e ! value ( ! oxides & sulphates z cataly/s 9 ! contact process = ! manufacture ( sulphuric acid1 & "o pat5t /ates t ! yield obta9$ is equal to t giv5 by plat9is$ asbe/os4 ,c]ium salts h be5 propos$ = tann+1 & 9 ! prep>ation ( enamels2 c]ium sodium sulphate is us$ 9 ! catalytic oxidation ( anil9e to anil9e black4 ,! oxalate has a v slight use 9 m$ic9e4 ,! oxidis+ p[] ( c]ic salts is ( "s use 9 photography2 c]ic sulphate 9 acid solution is also said to be an effici5t oxidis+ ag5t = aromatic hydroc>bons4 ,on acc\nt ( ! deep col\r ( ! high] oxide ( praseodymium1 didymium salts f9d a limit$ application = m>k+ textiles4 ,comp\nds ( ! yttrium gr\p h at pres5t no te*nical importance4 ,!y 7 =m]ly us$ to "s ext5t = ! manufacture ( filam5ts = ,n]n/ lamps1 b ) ! introduction ( metal filam5t lamps 9 electric light+1 ! dem& = ,n]n/ lamps & consequ5tly = ! yttria oxides1 has to a v great ext5t di$ away4 ,zirconium & its comp\nds1 on ! o!r h&1 promise to become ( "s te*nical importance4 ,! metal receiv$ consid]able att5tion 9 ! e>li] /ages ( exp]im5tal "w on metallic filam5ts = electric light+1 b x has be5 %[n t its melt+-po9t is n suffici5tly high to all[ ( ext5d$ use 9 ?is direction4 ,! c>bide has be5 propos$ = ! same purpose1 b is ev5 less suitable2 ?is comp\nd1 h[ev]1 on acc\nt ( its great h>dness1 is likely to f9d employm5t z an abrasive1 & 9 glass-cutt+4 ,! oxide1 :i* occurs 9 nature 9 an impure =m z ! m9]al ,baddeleyite 7q4v471 is employ$ 9 ! manufacture ( #8,siloxide' glass & ( enamels1 z a pigm5t & poli%+ ag5t1 & 9 v>i\s =ms ( lamps1 e4g4 ! ,n]n/ & ,bl]iot lamps1 ! ,drummond light1 etc4 ,f> m important1 h[ev]1 is its use = fire-resi/ant crucibles1 furnace l9+s & supports1 etc41 = :i* its refractory nature r5d]s x p>ticul>ly suitable4 ,on acc\nt ( its high specific gravity & non-poison\s "*1 x has be5 propos$ = use 9 ! ,rntg5 ray exam9ation ( ! human body4 ,q rec5tly1 metallic zirconium has be5 employ$ 9 metallurgy2 addition ( small quantities1 9 ! =m ( suitable alloys1 is said to secure s\nd ca/+s1 ) increas$ /r5g? & resi/ance to acids4 ,,! ,,c]ium ,,gr\p ,pyrophoric ,alloys4--,x has long be5 kn[n t ! metals ( ! c]ium gr\p possess ! prop]ty1 :5 scrat*$ or /ruck1 ( ?r[+ (f gl[+ p>ticles2 ?is p[] ( emitt+ sp>ks is n lo/ :5 ! metals are alloy$1 s long z ! p]c5tage ( =eign metal is n all[$ to become too high4 ,9 a pat5t#eee protect+ ! use ( v>i\s #8pyrophoric alloys1' z ^! sp>k-giv+ alloys are call$1 ,au] /ates t ! pure metals d n %[ ?is prop]ty1 :i* only appe>s :5 =eign metals are pres5t2 he accord+ly pat5ts alloys ( ! c]ium metals ) iron1 specify+ p>ticul>ly ! alloy ) #cj p] c5t4 ( ! latt] elem5t4 ,au]'s /atem5t has be5 contradict$1#eef & x seems to be g5]ally accept$ t mis*-metal#eeg ( ord9>y te*nical purity has ! prop]ty ( sp>k+ :5 scrat*$4 ,?is alloy ( ! c]ium metals1 h[ev]1 is f> too s(t to be useful = ! purpose1 & ! addition ( "s =eign elem5t is requir$ to obta9 ! /r5g?1 h>dness1 & brittl5ess necess>y 9 ! v>i\s =ms ( #8light]s4' ,besides ! addition ( iron1 ! use ( t91 lead1 z9c1 cadmium1 silicon1 etc41 has be5 pat5t$4#eeh #eee ,e4 #afhec1 #aijc2 ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #aedhjg4 #eef ,vide ,bhm1 ,*em4 ,zeitg4 #aiaj1 #cd1 #cfa4 #eeg ,! crude mixture ( c]ium1 lan?anum1 neodymium1 praseodymium1 sam>ium1 etc41 ) small quantities ( iron & o!r metals1 obta9$ by r$uction ( ! e>?-comp\nds =m$ z by-products 9 ! ?orium indu/ry1 is te*nically kn[n z #8mis*-metal4' #eeh ,f4 #dcijeh1 ,m>*1 #aiab4 ,v>i\s =ms ( ^! light+ devices are manufactur$2#eei 9 all ( ^! ! sp>ks produc$ by scrat*+ ! pyrophoric alloy ) h>d5$ /eel1 by means ( "s simple me*anical device1 is caus$ to ignite a fragm5t ( t9d]1 or a wick suppli$ ) a suitable liquid1 e4g4 me?yl alcohol1 b5z5e1 or petrol4 ,9 ! numb]less =ms ( cig>ette-light]s at pres5t be=e a some:at indiff]5t public1 ! friction is obta9$ by means ( a too!d :eel1 actuat$ by a spr+ :i* is releas$ :5 ! device is op5$4 ,_m =ms ( gas light] are also on ! m>ket1 b ! dem& = !m is v small4 ,_m attempts h be5 made to adapt ! device to ! ignition ( ! ,davy m9]s' lamp1 b none h be5 successful1 s9ce x is impossible to prev5t ! sp>ks fly+ ?r\gh ! gauze4 ,mu* "w has also be5 sp5t 9 ef=ts to utilise ! pyrophoric alloys = ! automatic ignition ( inc&esc5t gas-lamps1 b ^! h be5 equally unsuccessful1 s t x may be said t important te*nical applications ( ?is int]e/+ prop]ty h /ill to be made4 #eei ,vide ,bhm1 ,*em4 ,zeitg4 #aiaj1 #cd1 #cgg2 also ,kell]mann1 ,die ,c]itmetalle und ihre pyrophor5 ,legi]ung51 ,wilhelm ,knapp1 ,halle1 #aiab1 pp4 #id et seq4 ,au] prep>$ 8 alloys by addition ( iron1 or o!r heavy metal1 to ! fus$ mixture ( c]ium metals obta9$ 9 ! electrolytic app>atus employ$ = ! production ( ! latt]4 ,!y c1 h[ev]1 be prep>$ by fus+ toge!r ! requir$ quantities ( =eign metal & mis*-metal1 ! latt] be+ obta9$ by processes o!r ?an ^? ( electrolysis usually employ$4 ,! r>e metals 7 obta9$ by ! e>li] *emi/s 9 a v impure /ate by r$uction ( ! halog5 or d\ble halog5 comp\nds ) sodium or potassium4 ,m rec5tly#efj mu* pur] products h be5 obta9$--especially 9 ! case ( zirconium--by ! action ( metallic calcium1 9 ! =m ( p[d]1 on ! oxides4 ,ano!r me?od1#efa :i* has be5 employ$ 9 ! prep>ation ( metallic filam5ts = lamps1 consi/s 9 heat+ ! oxides ) p[d]$ magnesium 9 an atmosph]e ( hydrog5 or nitrog52 by ?is means1 hydrides or nitrides are obta9$1 :i* on heat+ decompose into ! gas & ! metal4 #efj ,vide ,kuzel & ,w$ek9d1 ,e4 #bcbae1 #aiji4 #efa ,electrodon ,gesells*aft1 ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #aedfia1 ,septemb]1 #aijd4 ,! ease ) :i* mis*-metal & its alloys ) iron & o!r elem5ts ?r[ (f gl[+ p>ticles :5 /ruck is due to ! l[ ignition temp]ature ( c]ium1 & ! en]gy ) :i* x comb9es ) oxyg54 ,:5 su* alloys are scrat*$1 small fragm5ts are /ruck (f1 :i* are rais$ to ! ignition temp]ature by ! heat ( friction4 ,x is g5]ally accept$1 h[ev]1 t ?is explanation is by no means a complete "o1 & ! exi/5ce ( a pyrophoric suboxide 0 sugge/$4#efb ,! !ory 0 advanc$ t ! pyrophoric prop]ties ( ! alloys 7 due prim>ily to ! =mation on ! surface ( a film ( ?is sub-oxide1 & ! p>tial oxidation ( c]ium alloys1 protect$ by pat5t 7loc4 cit471 0 said to cause a m>k$ increase 9 ! ease ) :i* sp>ks c\ld be obta9$4 ,9 ?is connection1 an exp]im5t ( ,hirs*1 :o has ?or\ghly inve/igat$ ! prop]ties ( metallic c]ium1#efc is ( int]e/4 ,he f\nd t :5 ! elem5t is w>m$ 9 a seal$ glass bottle1 a black p[d] =ms on ! surface1 :i*1 :5 ! bottle is op5$1 ignites spontane\sly4 ,x is probable t ?is black sub-oxide plays an important "p 9 ! production ( sp>ks f ! ord9>y pyrophoric alloys4 #efb ,vide ,f4 #djgaag1 ,decemb]1 #aiji4 #efc ,met4 ,*em4 ,eng4 #aiaa1 #i1 #edc4 ,o!r ,alloys4--,on acc\nt ( ! great aff9ity ( ! c]ium metals = oxyg51 mis*-metal has be5 sugge/$ z a r$uc+ ag5t1#efd z h also ! alloys ( c]ium & magnesium2#efe ! =mation ( ! latt] is endo!rmic1 s t !y act mu* m vigor\sly ?an ei!r metal sep>ately4 ,! alloys ( c]ium ) t9 & alum9ium h be5 ?or\ghly inve/igat$ f ! /&-po9t ( metallography1 by ,vogel4#eff ,x has rec5tly be5 claim$ t ! addition ( v small quantities ( c]ium to alum9ium has a v m>k$ effect1 ! r>e e>? metal act+ z a purify+ ag5t1#efg & greatly improv+ ! prop]ties ( ! alum9ium4 ,! c]ium may be introduc$ z fluoride1 ei!r to ! electrolytic ba? 9 :i* ! alum9ium is be+ prep>$1 or to ! latt] metal1 aft] prep>ation1 9 ! fus$ /ate4 ,! mo/ fav\rable effect is said to be produc$ by #jb p] c5t4 ( c]ium4 #efd ,vide1 e4g4 ,escales1 ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #adehbj1 ,octob]1 #aijc4 #efe ,hirs*1 loc4 cit4 #eff ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aiaa1 #gb1 #cai2 #aiab1 #ge1 #da4 #efg ,bor*]s & ,b>?1 ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #bdfdhd1 ,may1 #aiab4 ,applications ( ! ,c]ium ,comp\nds4#efh--,"o ( ! e>lie/ inve/igations 9 :i* c]ium comp\nds 7 exam9$ ) a view to te*nical employm5t1 0 t ( ,kruis1#efi :o made exp]im5ts on ! comp>ative value ( ! salts ( diff]5t metals z cataly/s 9 ! manufacture ( anil9e black4 ,he %[$ t a solution ( anil9e ) an oxidis+ ag5t 7potassium *lorate or *romate7 develops no col\ration unless a salt ( a heavy metal is pres5t4 ,9 ! case ( ! fabric impregnat$ ) ! solution1 ! only metals ( :i* comp\nds 7 f\nd suitable = produc+ a col\r 7 copp]1 :i* 0 !n g5]ally us$ = ! purpose1 & c]ium1 iron1 & manganese4 ,( ^!1 c]ium1 us$ 9 ! =m ( ! d\ble sulphate1 0 f\nd to be by f> ! mo/ suitable1 & moreov] to h ! advantage t only small quantities are requir$2 ! price 0 at t "t too high to all[ ( its use1 b x has s9ce be5 employ$4#egj ,c]ium comp\nds h also be5 propos$ z mordants = aliz>91#ega b !y d n appe> ev] to h come into g5]al use4 #efh ,an acc\nt ( ! v>i\s sugge/ions = ! te*nical employm5t ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts1 by ,dr4 ,max ,spet]1 w be f\nd 9 ,damm]1 ,die ,*emis*e ,te*nologie d] ,neuzeit1 ,/uttg>t1 #aiaj1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ejj-ejd4 #efi ,d+l4 ,polyt4 ,j4 #ahgd1 #bab1 #cdg4 #egj ,vide ,buhrig1 ,d+l4 ,polyt4 ,j4 #ahgi1 #bca1 #gg2 & ,ab/r4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #ahgi1 #cf1 #fhc4 #ega ,vide ,witt1 ,*em4 ,ind4 #ahif1 #ai1 #aef4 ,9 photography1 c]ic sulphate has be5 employ$ = "s "t = ! purpose ( #8r$uc+1' i4e4 remov+ silv] f ov]-develop$ negatives4#egb ,x is said to act v ev5ly & rapidly1 ! small quantity ( free sulphuric acid requir$ to hold ! salt 9 solution hav+ no bad effect4 ,m rec5tly1 c]ium salts h be5 propos$ = use 9 col\r photography4#egc ,an emulsion is obta9$ by add+ salts ( iron1 uranium1 or c]ium to a colloidal solution ( album5 9 ammonia1 borax solution1 or sodium c>bonate solution2 ?is is spread on ! pap] or negative1 & is said to be readily s5sitive to light4 #egb ,vide ,lumire1 ,bull4 ,soc4 franc4 ,photog4 7#b7 #aijj1 #af1 #ajc4 ,also ,e4 #dgj1 #aijj4 #egc ,fateau1 ,e4 #bjgdj1 #aijg4 ,! crude mixture ( c]\s sulphate ) basic sulphates ( o!r elem5ts ( ! c]ium gr\p1 :i* has be5 pat5t$ = use z a cataly/ 9 ! contact process = ! manufacture ( sulphuric acid1#egd is prep>$ f ! e>? comp\nds obta9$ z by-products 9 ! treatm5t ( monazite4 ,^! are conv]t$ into ! sulphates1 &1 aft] evaporation ( ! excess ( sulphuric acid1 heat$ = sev]al h\rs at a l[ r$ heat 7#cjj-fjj;,c474 ,! por\s mass is !n brok51 & is ready = use4 ,x is /at$ t a ne>ly quantitative yield ( sulphur trioxide is obta9$1 & t ! mixture acts m effici5tly ?an pure c]\s sulphate4 ,! reaction is said to dep5d on ! cont9u\s =mation & decomposition ( ! c]ic salt1 ?us3 ,ce7,,s7 ,,s ,o #b;,ce7,,s7 #b;,ce7,,s7 ,ce7,,s7 ,,s ,o #egd ,hlbl+1 ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #adbadd & ,f4 #cbfcba ( ,may1 #aijc4 ,?is process does n appe> to h come into g5]al use4 ,a g5]al pat5t _h be5 tak5 out 9 #aija1 protect+ ! use ( oxides ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts = #8high-temp]ature catalysis' 9 ! manufacture ( sulphuric acid1#ege b ! oxides d n seem to be v effici5t4#egf #ege ,mei/]1 ,lucius & ,brn+1 ,e4 #ache1 #aija4 #egf ,vide ,plddemann1 ,diss]tation1 ,beitrag zur ,aufklrung des ,s*wefelsurekontaktprozesses1 ,b]l91 #aijg4 ,x has also be5 propos$ to utilise ! oxidis+ p[] ( c]ic salts 9 acid solution#egg = ! prep>ation ( aldehydes1 qu9ones1 etc41 f aromatic hydroc>bons1 = :i* purpose !y are claim$ to be m effici5t ?an *romates4 ,by ! use ( a crude c]ium dioxide 7#fj-gj p] c5t4 ,ce,o7 obta9$ by ! ignition ( ! by-products ( ! ?orium indu/ry1 good yields 7 obta9$ ( b5zaldehyde1 naph?aqu9one & an?raqu9one f tolu5e1 naph?al5e & an?rac5e respectively4 #egg ,mei/]1 ,lucius & ,brn+1 ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #aehfji1 ,m>*1 #aije4 ,g>elli#egh has exam9$ ! action ( c]ium salts 9 tann+2 he /ates t ) neutral solutions1 effects v simil> to ^? produc$ by alum9ium salts are obta9$1 b ,eitn]1 :o has also exam9$ ! "q1#egi is ( op9ion t ! co/ ( isolat+ & purify+ ! salts f ! monazite residues r5d]s _! employm5t = ?is purpose impossible4 #egh ,j4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind4 #aiab1 #ca1 #hcj4 #egi ,ibid4 #aiaa1 #cj1 #aabh4 ,! fluoride1 silic(luoride1 & dioxide h also be5 propos$ = ! prep>ation ( enamels1#ehj b d n give satisfactory results4 #ehj ,rickmann & ,rappe1 ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #iiafe1 ,septemb]1 #ahih2 also ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #bjcggc1 ,octob]1 #aijh4 ,sev]al pat5ts protect ! use ( r>e e>? comp\nds = fla%light p[d]s4 ,= mo/ ( ! mixtures cov]$1 x is claim$ t ! usual defects ( fumes1 sl[ fir+1 etc41 are abs5t4 ,! usual recipes#eha are = magnesium or alum9ium p[d] ) *romates1 nitrates1 or simil> salts ( ?orium1 c]ium1 etc42 9 "o case#ehb ! r>e e>? metals1 alloy$ ) b>ium1 silicon1 uranium1 or titanium1 are to be us$ ) #8an oxidis+ ag5t :i* leaves a non-volatile residue4' ,none ( ^! mixtures appe>s to h be5 successful4 #eha ,vide1 e4g4 ,e4 #adfib1 #aijh2 ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #aehbae4 #ehb ,f4 #djcgbb1 ,octob]1 #aiji4 ,c]ium comp\nds h also be5 propos$ = use 9 arc-lamp electrodes2 x is claim$ t !y give a v int5se light1 "o pat5t#ehc add+ t ! pres5ce ( c]ium p]oxide & a little fluorsp> causes ! arc to burn ev5ly & quietly4 ,9 ano!r1 ! use ( a mixture ( tung/ates or molybdates ( ! alkal9e e>?s1 ) fluorides ( ! r>e e>? elem5ts is protect$2#ehd ! use ( pyrophoric alloys1 ei!r entirely1 or = ! core ( ! electrode1 has also be5 sugge/$4#ehe #ehc ,e4 #dadgjg1 ,june1 #aiaj4 #ehd ,f4 #dcajdj1 ,augu/1 #aiaa2 also ,e4 #bacgd1 #aiji4 #ehe ,e4 #haej1 #aiji4 ,! ,n]n/ ,lamp4--,! fir/ ef=ts :i* 7 made = ! employm5t ( electricity 9 illum9ation endeav\r$ to utilize ! heat produc$1 :5 a curr5t trav]ses a v ?9 metallic filam5t1 to raise ! conductor to inc&esc5ce4 ,num]\s ef=ts 7 made to adapt plat9um to ?is purpose1 b its melt+-po9t 0 f9ally admitt$ to be too l[2 at l5g? x 0 f\nd possible to produce c>bon filam5ts1 & ! well-kn[n c>bon lamps came into use4 ,num]\s attempts 7 made to effect improvem5ts2#ehf "o plan 0 to coat ! c>bon filam5t1 aft] its production1 ) a sk9 ( metallic conductor1 & zirconium & ?orium 7 among ! metals propos$ 9 ?is connection4#ehg ,! fir/ really important advance1 h[ev]1 0 effect$ by ,n]n/1 :o took up ! /udy ( #8conductors ( ! second ord]1' & )9 a few mon?s succe$$ 9 adapt+ ^! to ! purposes ( illum9ation 7#ahig-ahih74 ,! ,n]n/ lamps gave a v int5se :ite light ) consid]ably less consumption ( electricity ?an ! c>bon filam5t lamps2 !y enjoy$ a v consid]able vogue = "s ye>s1 b h be5 almo/ entirely displac$ by ! *eap] metal filam5t lamps1 :i* 7 occupy+ ! att5tion ( ,au] von ,welsba* at ! "t ,n]n/ p]fect$ 8 inv5tion4#ehh #ehf ,! read] is recomm5d$ to consult ! ,jahresb]i*te b] die ,lei/ung5 d] ,*emis*5 ,te*nologie ( ,fis*]1 ,section #8,beleu*tung1' = ! ye>s #ahih-aija inclusive1 f :i* "s idea may be obta9$ ( ! innum]able proposals & sugge/ions1 usually protect$ by pat5t1 :i* 7 put =w>d at ?is "t4 #ehg ,vide1 e4g4 ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #aeciei4 #ehh ,vide ,e4 #aece1 #acaaf & #agehj1 #ahih4 ,9 8 fir/ pat5t1#ehi ,n]n/ propos$ ! use ( a rod ( magnesia or zirconia z filam5t2 ^! oxides1 :i* belong to 8 class ( conductors ( ! second ord]1 are non-conductors at ord9>y temp]atures1 b _! resi/ance decreases z ! temp]ature rises1 s t at high temp]atures !y w conduct electricity at ! ord9>y voltage4 ,! prelim9>y heat+ 0 at fir/ effect$ by means ( a ,buns5 burn]1 b a lat] pat5t#eij ( ! same ye> protects a me?od ( heat+ by means ( a plat9um spiral 9 an auxili>y circuit1 :i* is automatically cut out :5 ! curr5t 9 ! ma9 circuit1 be>+ ! filam5t1 atta9s its requir$ /r5g?4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye>#eia x 0 f\nd t filam5ts compos$ ( mixtures ( oxides 7 f> m suitable ?an ! e>li] magnesia or zirconia rods2 yttria1 ?oria1 & zirconia 7 ! *ief oxides us$1 small quantities ( c]ia be+ occasionally introduc$4 ,) ^! filam5ts1 ! increase ( conductivity ) temp]ature is f> m rapid ?an ) ! pure oxides2 ! prelim9>y heat+ requir$1 !re=e1 is less & ! light obta9$ m int5se4 ,! filam5ts us$ 7 9 ! =m ( rods or spirals obta9$ by compress+ ! p[d]$ oxides4 #ehi ,e4 #aidbd1 #ahig4 #eij ,e4 #bcdgj1 #ahig4 #eia ,e4 #face1 #ahih4 ,! ,n]n/ filam5ts diff] m>k$ly f ^? ( ! ord9>y electric gl[ lamp 9 t !y are n conductors 9 ! ord9>y s5se 7or ( ! fir/ ord]1 z ,n]n/ puts x7 b electrolytes1 ! passage ( ! curr5t be+ actually att5d$ by an electro-*emical *ange 9 ! filam5t4#eib ,! oxide is ionis$2 ! ions ( ! metals travel to ! ca?ode or negative pole1 :]e ! lib]at$ atoms ( metal in/antly recomb9e ) ! oxyg5 ( ! air1 :il/ oxyg5 ions travel to ! anode1 f :i* ! gas is lib]at$4 ,!re is ?us a gradual r$i/ribution1 result+ 9 accumulation ( oxide at ! ca?ode ) a correspond+ loss at ! anode1 :i* is balanc$1 aft] "s "t1 by diffusion1 s t equilibrium is atta9$4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is r$i/ribution ! filam5t gl[s m brightly at ! anode1 :]e x is ?9ne/1 ?an at ! ca?ode4 #eib ,vide ,n]n/1 ,zeits*4 ,elektro*em4 #ahii1 #f1 #da4 ,,indu/rial ,,applications ,,( ,,zirconium ,x has already be5 m5tion$ t zirconium receiv$ consid]able att5tion z a suitable sub/ance = ! prep>ation ( metallic filam5ts dur+ ! e>ly /ages ( _! developm5t4 ,:il/ at ! pres5t "t ?is elem5t has be5 ab&on$ = ! purpose1#eic sev]al zirconium lamps 7 at "o "t on ! m>ket1 & a brief m5tion ( "s ( ! "w done 9 ?is direction may n be out ( place4 #eic ,vide ,baumhau]1 ,zeits*4 angew4 ,*em4 #aiaj1 #bc1 #bjfe4 ,"o ( ! g5]al me?ods = ! prep>ation ( ! metallic filam5ts may be illu/rat$ by a pat5t tak5 out 9 #aijb by ,s&]1#eid = ! prep>ation ( filam5ts ( zirconium1 ) or )\t addition ( zirconium c>bide4 ,! metal1 or a comp\nd :i* on heat+ w yield ! metal & a volatile sub/ance :i* c be remov$1 is prep>$ 9 a f9ely divid$ condition1 & made into a pa/e ) "s organic b9d+ mat]ial2 ! pa/e is !n =c$ ?r\gh a t9y ap]ture1 & ! result+ ?read is %ap$ & heat$ to a high temp]ature 9 vacuo or 9 an in]t atmosph]e4 ,if an organic sub/ance be us$ to =m a pa/e ) metallic zirconium1 ! f9al process ( heat+ results 9 ! =mation ( ! c>bide2 ! same comp\nd is also obta9$ by ano!r process protect$ by ,s&] 7loc4 cit47 9 :i* ! hydride ( zirconium1 prep>$ by ! r$uction ( ! oxide by means ( p[d]$ magnesium 9 an atmosph]e ( hydrog51 is mix$ ) a cellulose solution1 & ! liquid treat$ z 9 ! manufacture ( artificial silk1 ! ?reads obta9$ be+ !n heat$ to remove all organic matt] z f> z possible4 #eid ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #accgja1 ,july1 #aijb4 ,! c>bide is also probably obta9$ by ! process ( ! ,briti% ,?omson-,h\/on ,company1 9 :i* advantage is tak5 ( ! fact t zirconium oxalate is a pa/y gelat9\s sub/ance1 :i* c be =c$ ?r\gh a die to =m a ?read )\t addition ( any agglut9at+ ag5t4 ,! oxalate1 precipitat$ by addition ( ammonium oxalate to a solution ( a zirconium salt1 is mix$ ) f9ely divid$ c>bon1 & ! ?reads obta9$ f ! pa/y mass heat$ to a v high temp]ature 9 a furnace4#eie ,zirconium oxalate is also propos$ z a b9d+ mat]ial = p[d]$ tung/51 9 ! prep>ation ( filam5ts f t metal4#eif #eie ,e4 #edae1 #aijh4 #eif ,e4 #ajeij1 #aijh4 ,! comp\nds ( zirconium & ?orium ) elem5ts ( gr\p ,,vb1 accord+ to two ,g]man pat5ts1#eig are suitable = ! prep>ation ( metallic filam5ts 9 mu* ! same way4 ,?orium1 titanium1 & zirconium are also among ! metals :i*1 x is claim$1 c be obta9$ 9 ! pure fus$ /ate by heat+ 9 an electric arc 9 vacuo1 s t filam5ts c be drawn directly4#eih #eig ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #aecieh & #aedbii1 ,septemb]1 #aijd4 #eih ,ibid4 #afiibh1 ,april1 #aijf4 ,metallic zirconium & its alloys h rec5tly be5 employ$ 9 metallurgy4 ,! pure metal c be obta9$ by ! calcium r$uction ( ,kuzel & ,w$ek9d 7vide p4 #caf72 zirconia is n r$uc$ by p[d]$ alum9ium 7,golds*midt's process71 b alloys ( zirconium & iron c be easily obta9$ by ! r$uction ( mixtures ( ! two oxides by ?is me?od4 ,alloys c be obta9$ conta9+ up to #ce p] c5t4 ( zirconium2 ?is f]ro-zircon1 z x is call$1 has be5 us$ to "s ext5t rec5tly 9 place ( f]ro-titanium 7vide infra7 = ! purification ( /eels4#eii ,addition ( small quantities ( zirconium to /eels1 brass1 copp]1 etc41 is said to secure s\nd ca/+s1 & to increase consid]ably ! /r5g? & resi/ance to acids ( ! metal4 #eii ,vide ,weiss1 ,e4 #bicgf1 #aiaj1 & ,lesmll]1 ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #bcajjb1 ,febru>y1 #aiaa4 ,! ,te*nical ,uses ( ,zirconia4--,s9ce ! discov]y ( ,baddeleyite1 ! natural oxide ( zirconium 7vide p4 #ge71 :i* occurs 9 l>ge quantities 9 ,brazil1 _m proposals h be5 br\ght =w>d = ! employm5t ( ?is comp\nd4 ,its application to ! manufacture ( glasses & enamels w be ref]r$ to 9 ! next *apt]4 ,pat5ts h be5 tak5 out protect+ its use = ! prep>ation ( :ite pigm5ts1#fjj z a toilet-p[d]1#fja & z a poli%+ p[d]1#fjb = x is extremely /able t[>ds *emical reag5ts1 v volum9\s1 & at ! same "t v h>d4 ,x has long be5 employ$ = coat+ ! lime & magnesia p5cils us$ 9 ! ,drummond or #8lime' light2 & rec5tly x has be5 employ$ = ! headlights ( automobiles1 9 ! ,blriot lamp1#fjc 9 :i* a rod ( zirconia is heat$ 9 a bl[pipe flame f$ ) oil vap\r & oxyg54 #fjj ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #bcedie4 #fja ,ibid4 #bcgfbd4 #fjb ,ibid4 #bcjgeg4 #fjc ,ibid4 #agdcac1 ,septemb]1 #aijf4 ,by f> ! mo/ important prop]ty ( ! oxide1 f ! te*nical po9t ( view1 is ! ease ) :i* x resi/s high temp]atures4 ,! natural oxide c be fre$1 to a v l>ge ext5t1 f ! iron oxide :i* x encloses1 by ! prolong$ action ( hydro*loric acid2 exp]im5ts 7 c>ri$ out on ! mat]ial s obta9$ by ,simonis1#fjd :o %[$ t by prolong$ heat+ at a high temp]ature1 ! rema9+ impurities1 *iefly f]ric oxide & silica1 c\ld be volatilis$1 leav+ ! zirconia un*ang$4 ,riecke#fje %[$ t :il/ ! oxide is v suitable = ! manufacture ( highly resi/ant crucibles1 its use is re/rict$ by ! fact t x is easily r$uc$ by c>bon at high temp]atures1 =m+ ! c>bide4 #fjd ,spre*saal1 #aijh1 #da 7#a71 #baj4 #fje ,ibid4 #bad4 ,weiss & ,lehmann h c>ri$ out exhau/ive exp]im5ts on ! prep>ation ( crucibles ( zirconia4#fjf ,!y work$ fir/ ) mixtures ( zirconia & magnesia1 ) phosphoric acid z a b9d+ mat]ial2 ! be/ results 7 obta9$ ) a mixture ( #ij p] c5t4 zirconia & #aj p] c5t4 magnesia1 :i* gave extraord9>ily resi/ant crucibles4 ,prolong$ heat+ at temp]atures ov] #aijj;,c4 elim9at$ all ! phosphoric acid by volatilisation2 ! crucibles c\ld !n be heat$ 9 ! bl[pipe flame & plung$ imm$iately into cold wat] )\t crack+ or break+1 & 7 n affect$ by fus$ sodium hydroxide or potassium hydrog5 sulphate4 ,crucibles 7 also made ) ! addition ( potassium & sodium salts1 & 7 f\nd to answ] v well2 plat9um c\ld be melt$ 9 !m to a mobile liquid4 ,simil> crucibles are already on ! m>ket4 #fjf ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aiaj1 #fe1 #bah4 ,z e>ly z #aijd ! use ( zirconia 0 sugge/$ = coat+ muffles1 retorts1 & tubes :i* are requir$ to )/& high temp]atures4#fjg ,9 #aijf x 0 propos$#fjh = ! manufacture ( crucibles 9 :i* rock-cry/al 7qu>tz7 is fus$ = ! prep>ation ( qu>tz-glass1 s9ce zirconia is n attack$ by molt5 silica4 ,x promises to be ( ! greate/ use 9 all cases :]e a v refractory mat]ial1 /able t[>ds ! ord9>y *emical reag5ts1 is requir$4 #fjg ,pufahl1 ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #aefgef4 #fjh ,h]u ,co41 ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #agiegj4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii ,,! ,,indu/rial ,,applications ,,( ,,titanium ,,& ,,its ,,comp\nds ,?\gh probably at lea/ z pl5tiful 9 nature z mo/ ( ! common metals1 titanium has always1 until q rec5tly1 be5 reg>d$ z "o ( ! r>e elem5ts4 ,( its *emi/ry1 v little inde$ 0 kn[n1 & x is improbable1 ev5 n[1 t ! pure elem5t has be5 isolat$4 ,x _h no te*nical value2 inde$1 its commone/ ore1 ilm5ite or titanif]\s iron ore1 0 s$ul\sly avoid$ by manufactur]s1 :o consid]$ t ev5 v small p]c5tages ( ! elem5t r5d]$ an iron ore valueless because unsuitable = work+ 9 bla/ furnaces4 ,t[>ds ! end ( ! la/ c5tury1 "o or two metallurgi/s _h demon/rat$ t ilm5ite1 "u ! prop] work+ conditions1 w\ld yield a pig iron ( v good quality :5 smelt$ 9 ! bla/ furnace1 b x 0 left = ! long & ardu\s rese>*es ( ,kossi to %[ t ! elem5t is possess$ ( prop]ties :i* r5d] x v valuable = metallurgical purposes4 ,s9ce ! successful culm9ation ( 8 "w 9 ! fir/ few ye>s ( ! pres5t c5tury1 titanium has atta9$ consid]able importance 9 ! treatm5t ( special /eels = rails1 c> :eels1 cru%+ ma*9]y1 etc4 ,at pres5t1 titanif]\s iron ores are be+ work$ on a l>ge scale1 & _m titanium comp\nds are com+ into use = te*nical purposes4 ,! titanium m9]als ( comm]cial importance are rutile & ilm5ite 7vide ,"p ,i4 pp4 #eg & #gg74 ,! =m]1 ! pure titanium dioxide1 is ( fairly wide di/ribution1 b ilm5ite occurs 9 f> great] quantities1 =m+ deposits ( enorm\s dim5sions1 especially 9 ,am]ica1 z1 e4g4 9 ,new ,york ,co4 & ,quebec4 ,ow+ to its high melt+-po9t & relatively l[ specific gravity1 metallic titanium c only be incorporat$ ) molt5 /eels ) ! greate/ difficulty1 & = ?is reason alloys ( titanium & iron1 kn[n te*nically z f]ro-titanium1 are usually employ$ = ! treatm5t ( /eels4 ,= ! prep>ation ( f]ro-titanium1 ilm5ite ( good quality is z suitable z rutile1 &1 ( c\rse1 f> *eap]2 h5ce ! latt] is only employ$ = ! prep>ation ( titanium salts = use 9 col\r+ & mordant+1 & = titanium comp\nds = arc-lamp electrodes1 etc4 ,v>i\s processes are employ$ = ! manufacture ( f]ro-titanium f ilm5ite4 ,9 cases 9 :i* a consid]able p]c5tage ( c>bon is n undesirable1 = in/ance1 :]e ! alloy is requir$ = ! treatm5t ( ca/ iron or ( high-c>bon /eel1 ! m9]al is r$uc$ directly ) c>bon 9 an electric furnace2 ! f]ro-titanium s obta9$ usually conta9s f six to eight p] c5t4 ( c>bon4 ,= pure iron-titanium alloys1 ! process work$ out by ,rossi#fji is us$ 9 ,am]ica almo/ entirely4 ,ilm5ite is *>g$ into a ba? ( molt5 alum9ium1 heat$ electrically2 ! m9]al is at once attack$1 ) =mation ( iron1 9 :i* ! titanium dissolves z r$uction proce$s4 ,?is process may also be us$ = r$uction ( rutile1 if scrap iron is add$ to ! alum9ium ba?1 to all[ ( ! =mation ( ! requir$ alloy4 ,9 ,g]many1 ! ,golds*midt or #8!rmite' reaction is l>gely employ$2 p[d]$ ilm5ite is intimately mix$ ) ! calculat$ quantity ( alum9ium p[d]1 r$uction be+ />t$ z usual by means ( a fuse ( magnesium ribbon imb$d$ 9 a small quantity ( b>ium p]oxide4 #fji ,elect4 *em4 ,ind4 #aijc1 #a1 #ebc4 ,q rec5tly1 ! "q ( ! sep>ation ( titanium comp\nds f ilm5ite us$ = ! manufacture ( pig iron has attract$ consid]able att5tion4 ,x has be5 already m5tion$ 7vide supra7 t titanif]\s iron ores h be5 %[n to be p]fectly am5able to bla/-furnace treatm5t1 ! old & deeply root$ idea t titanium-be>+ slags are /iff & tr\blesome be+ entirely contr>y to facts1 :5 suitable conditions are obs]v$2#faj moreov]1 x is %[n t ! pig iron obta9$ is ( unusually good quality4 ,rossi has sugge/$#faa t if suffici5t c>bon be add$ to r$uce all ! silica & oxides ( iron1 ) en\gh lime to slag (f ! titanium dioxide z calcium titanate1 ! latt] c be us$ z a s\rce ( titanium comp\nds or alloys1 :il/ a f]ro-silicon w be obta9$ z pig metal2 ! temp]ature mu/ be c>efully adju/$ to ensure r$uction ( ! silica )\t loss ( titanium dioxide4 ,ano!r pat5t#fab proposes ! r$uction ( ! ore 9 an electric furnace1 & ! treatm5t ( ! crude f]ro-titanium 9 a conv]t] ) a bla/ ( air or nitrog52 ! titanium nitride =m$ is !n driv5 out ( ! metal by a bla/ ( sup]heat$ /eam--any ammonia or cyanog5 =m$ be+ collect$--& remov$1 ! iron rema9+ be+ #8,bessem]is$' directly 9 ! same conv]t]2 ! titanium nitride c be us$ z a manure1 or = ! manufacture ( ammonia or nitric acid 7vide infra74 ,! removal ( iron z ! volatile c>bonyl has also be5 sugge/$1#fac ! titanium be+ subsequ5tly trans=m$ into ! nitride4 #faj ,vide1 e4g4 ,iron ,age1 #aiji1 #hd1 #aadi & #abbc4 #faa ,e4 #cehb1 #aija4 #fab ,s9d+-,l>s5 & ,willums51 ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #bbjedd1 ,april1 #aiaj4 #fac ,s9d+-,l>s51 ,e4 #agfcb1 #aiaj4 ,employm5t ( ! ,elem5t 9 ,metallurgy4--,x has be5 already m5tion$ t titanium itself is q unsuitable = direct incorporation ) /eel4 ,besides ! relatively l[ specific gravity 7#eb71 :i* w\ld r5d] mix+ v difficult1 ! v high melt+-po9t 7giv5 by ,weiss & ,kays]#fad z #bcej7 w\ld prev5t uni=m dissem9ation4 ,! elem5t is !re=e g5]ally us$ 9 ! =m ( a f]ro-titanium ( l[ titanium cont5t1 #aj-ae p] c5t4 be+ ! proportion usually employ$4 ,! addition %\ld be made at ! end ( ! ,bessem] process1 & aft] ! addition ( ! requir$ quantities ( manganese & silicon alloys2 ! calculat$ quantity ( f]ro-titanium is add$ z ! /eel runs f ! conv]t] into ! ladle4 ,a suitable proportion is said to be "o-half p] c5t4 ( alloy1 s t ! actual proportion ( titanium to /eel is some:]e ab\t #ae-ah lb4 p] ton4 ,six or eight m9utes %\ld be all[$ aft] ! addition1 = ! titanif]\s slag to come to ! surface4 #fad ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aiaj1 #fe1 #cde4 ,al?\gh l[ p]c5tage f]ro-titanium is usually employ$1 x has be5 /at$ t high-p]c5tage alloys1 & ev5 ! elem5t itself1 are imm$iately tak5 up by /eel if alum9ium be add$ at ! same "t4 ,?us ,v5ator#fae /ates t if titanium & alum9ium be add$ toge!r to ! ba?1 bo? elem5ts are imm$iately tak5 up1 ! reaction be+ v rapid & complete2 ! effects produc$ by ! titanium are 9 no way influ5c$ by ! pres5ce ( ! alum9ium4 ,golds*midt#faf proposes ! use ( f]ro-titanium conta9+ #bd-be p] c5t4 ( ! elem5t1 ) #c p] c5t4 ( alum9ium2 ?is dissolves v readily1 is v effective1 & moreov]1 c be v easily prep>$ by ! alum9o-!rmic reaction4 #fae ,/ahl ,eis51 #aiaj1 #cj1 #fej4 #faf ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #bcedfa1 ,june1 #aiaa4 ,9 "s cases1 :]e x is desir$ to treat a /eel bo? ) silicon & ) titanium1 f]ro-alloys conta9+ bo? ( ^! elem5ts may be employ$4 ,by r$uction ( ilm5ite or rutile ) c>bon 9 an electric furnace1 9 pres5ce ( silica1 ,becket#fag obta9s alloys ( high titanium & silicon cont5t1 :i* are said to dissolve v easily 9 molt5 /eels & to produce improv$ effects4 ,! ,titanium ,alloy ,manufactur+ ,company h also pat5t$#fah ! prep>ation ( titanium-silicon alloys1 ) or )\t addition ( iron or copp]1 by ! r$uction ( a mixture ( rutile & qu>tz4 #fag ,u4 ,s4 ,p4 #idjffe & #idaeec ( ,novemb]1 #aiji4 #fah ,f4 #djgheh1 ,janu>y1 #aiaj4 ,rec5tly ! use ( f]ro-titanium 9 ! manufacture ( pig iron has attract$ att5tion4 ,= ?is purpose1 alloys ( v l[ titanium-cont5t 7#ja-aj p] c5t47 are employ$4 ,addition ( v small am\nts ( su* alloys to ! molt5 metal be=e ca/+ is said to h a m>k$ cleans+ effect1#fai result+ 9 mu* bett] & /rong] ca/+s4 #fai ,vide ,slocum1 ,*em4 ,eng4 #aiaa1 #ac1 #beg4 ,:il/ x is v g5]ally agre$ t ! addition ( titanium results 9 ! production ( mu* /rong] & m durable products1 ! "q ( ! precise effect obta9$ is by no means def9itely settl$4 ,! exp]im5tal "w1 :il/ po9t+ on ! :ole to ! sup]iority ( titanium-treat$ /eel1 is by no means conclusive2 9 "s cases1 inde$1 x is conflict+4 ,?us ! micro-photographs obta9$ by von ,maltitz#fbj & ,v5ator#fba %[ t ! titanium-treat$ /eel has a f> clean] fracture & f> m homog5e\s /ructure ?an /eels n s treat$2 on ! o!r h&1 ! micro-photographs ( ,treuheit#fbb %[ practically no improvem5t 9 /ructure = ! titanium /eel4 ,! exhau/ive te/s ( ! fir/ two au?ors1 aga91 & ! exp]im5ts ( num]\s railways 9 ! use ( titanium /eel rails1#fbc demon/rate cle>ly t ! treatm5t results 9 improvem5t 9 /r5g? & durability ( ! product2 b ! "w ( ,otto#fbd proves equally cle>ly t 8 products did n diff] m>k$ly1 :e!r titanium-treat$ or n1 & he is ( op9ion t ! rail te/s 7 n suffici5tly prolong$ or se>*+ to be consid]$ conclusive4 ,x is nev]!less to be consid]$ c]ta9 t ! use ( titanium does cause a m>k$ improvem5t 9 ! quality ( ! /eels obta9$1 & especially 9 ! durability ( rails4 ,! negative results obta9$ by "s au?ors may be expla9$1 fir/ly1 on ! gr\nd t no te/s are conclusive unless c>ri$ out ) /eel f ! "o ba?1 "o half ( :i* has be5 treat$ ) titanium1 & ! o!r half n s treat$2 secondly1 t ! f]ro-titanium mu/ be incorporat$ ) ! metal1 & mu/ n be suff]$ to be tak5 up by ! slag1 & s lo/2 & ?irdly1 t ! ba? mu/ be all[$ to rema9 = "s m9utes aft] treatm5t1 9 ord] t ! reaction may be complete1 & ! titanium-be>+ slag all[$ to rise to ! surface4 ,:5 ^! conditions are c>efully obs]v$1 exp]im5t %[s t m>k$ improvem5t 9 ! quality ( ! /eels produc$ is effect$4 #fbj ,/ahl ,eis51 #aiaj1 #bi1 #aeic4 #fba ,ibid4 #aiaj1 #cj1 #fej4 #fbb ,ibid4 #aiaj1 #cj1 #aaib4 #fbc ,vide ,dudley1 ,j4 ,ind4 ,eng4 ,*em4 #aiaj1 #b1 #bii2 also ,cass4 ,mag4 #aiaa1 #dj1 #dhc4 #fbd ,vide ab/ract 9 ,/ahl ,eis51 #aiab1 #cb1 #adig4 ,z to ! actual nature ( ! effect produc$1 x is g5]ally believ$ t titanium acts m]ely z a cleans+ ag5t1 free+ ! metal f occlud$ or comb9$ gases1 & remov+ bl[-holes1 s produc+ a d5s] & m homog5e\s /ructure1 ) consequ5t improvem5t 9 prop]ties4 ,! add$ titanium is usually f\nd entirely 9 ! slag1 s t x appe>s c]ta9 t x does n alloy1 b m]ely purifies4 ,x c]ta9ly acts z a p[]ful & rapid deoxidis]1 remov+ ! la/ traces ( ! gas :i* h escap$ ! action ( ! manganese1 silicon1 etc41 ) :i* /eels are n[ g5]ally treat$4 ,_m au?orities1 on ! gr\nd ( analyses1 & ( ! kn[n aff9ity ( titanium = nitrog51 believe t x v l>gely r$uces ! nitrog5-cont5t1#fbe :i* is s h>mful2 ?is1 h[ev]1 is /ill an op5 "q4#fbf ,x is /at$ t if excess ( titanium is us$1 s t small quantities--#jje-jbj p] c5t4--rema9 9 ! f9i%$ /eel1 ! t\ghness & durability are fur!r increas$2#fbg b z a rule1 manufactur]s pref] to "w ) small] quantities1 s t no free titanium rema9s 9 ! product4 #fbe ,vide von ,maltitz1 loc4 cit4 #fbf ,vide ,v5ator1 loc4 cit4 #fbg ,vide ,bull4 ,imp4 ,in/4 #aiaa1 #i1 #acd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! prep>ation ( alloys ( titanium ) almo/ all ! common] metals is protect$ by pat5t1 b few ( ^! are ( te*nical importance4 ,small quantities ( titanium are said to improve v consid]ably ! prop]ties ( copp] & its alloys1 ! brasses1 bronzes1 etc41 especially 9 ca/+s4 ,! addition is usually made 9 ! =m ( an appropriate titanium alloy1 prep>$ by r$uction ( ! mix$ oxides ) c>bon 9 an electric furnace1 or treatm5t ( ! mix$ oxides1 toge!r ) ! alloy+ metal1 ) alum9ium "u simil> conditions4#fbh ,! titanium-silv] alloys obta9$ 9 ?is way#fbi are said to improve greatly ! /ructure ( silv]1 by prev5t+ ! famili> #8spitt+' z ! fus$ metal cools4 #fbh ,vide ,rossi1 ,u4 ,s4 ,p4 #ihfeje1 ,m>*1 #aiaa2 #icehfc1 ,octob]1 #aiji1 etc4 #fbi ,rossi1 ,u4 ,s4 ,p4 #ajbddgf & #ajbedbf1 ,augu/1 #aiab4 ,an int]e/+ process1 :i* has be5 pat5t$ by ,rossi1#fcj recalls ! me?od ( =mation ( cem5tation /eels4 ,he has f\nd t if a metal be loosely cov]$ ) its alloy ) titanium1 9 a f9ely p[d]$ condition1 & ! :ole heat$1 ! titanium diffuses into ! metal1 to a dep? & conc5tration :i* v>y ) ! temp]ature & ! "t ( heat+4 ,he sugge/s t 9 ?is way a metallic body may be t\gh5$ & /r5g!n$ at any desir$ po9t1 e4g4 /eel = arm\r-plate at ! surface4 ,:e!r ! process w be ( any te*nical value or n c only be %[n by exp]im5t4 #fcj ,u4 ,s4 ,p4 #ihfejd1 ,m>*1 #aiaa4 ,application to ,arc-lamp ,electrodes4--,dur+ ! la/ fifte5 ye>s1 innum]able ef=ts h be5 made to adapt titanium & its comp\nds to ! manufacture ( arc-lamp electrodes1 or p5cils4#fca ,! sp>k-spectrum ( titanium is v ri* 9 l9es1 & 9 respect ( light effici5cy1 ! elem5t is v suitable = ! purpose2 ! exp]im5tal difficulties1 h[ev]1 h be5 v great1 & ?\gh electrodes conta9+ titanium comp\nds h be5 on ! m>ket = "s ye>s1 ! problem _c be said to h be5 satisfactorily solv$4 ,! be/ p5cils conta9 titanium c>bide1 b successful attempts h be5 made to use ! oxide4 ,z e>ly z #aijd1 ,we$on#fcb propos$ an electrode prep>$ by heat+ #g p>ts 7#a mol47 ( ! dioxide ) #a "p ( c>bon to #aejj-bjjj;,c42 ! #8sub-oxide' produc$ 0 p[d]$1 work$ up into a pa/e ) a suitable b9d+ mat]ial1 & =c$ ?r\gh a nozzle4 ,! /icks s obta9$1 aft] dry+ & bak+ 9 ! usual mann]1 7 said to give satisfactory results1 b consumption is v rapid1 & tr\blesome deposits ( ! dioxide are =m$ at ! end ( ! electrode4 ,! dioxide1 :i* alone is a v bad conductor1 ent]s directly into ! composition ( ! s-call$ #8magnetite' p5cils1 :i* are be/ made#fcc by fus+ toge!r magnetite1 rutile1 & *romite1 9 suitable proportions1 ) a little potassium fluoride1 p[d]+ ! brittle mass1 & us+ ?is to =m a pa/e f :i* ! p5cils may be obta9$ z usual4 ,^! electrodes are said to give a v effici5t & fairly /eady arc4 ,!y h ! disadvantage t t9y gl[+ p>ticles are ?r[n (f1 :i* soon r5d] ! globes opaque2 ! addition ( sulphur#fcd to ! p[d] dur+ manufacture is said greatly to dim9i% ?is inconv5i5ce4 ,p5cils made 9 a simil> mann] f p[d]$ f]ro-titanium#fce d n appe> to h come into use4 #fca ,vide1 e4g4 ,lad(f1 ,j4 ,ind4 ,eng4 ,*em4 #aiji1 #a1 #gaa4 #fcb ,e4 #bfiba1 #aijd4 #fcc ,e4 #bjbg1 #aiji4 #fcd ,e4 #ahife1 #aiji4 #fce ,u4 ,s4 ,p4 #hdjfcd1 ,janu>y1 #aijg4 ,! c>bide alone is a good conductor1 & gives a v satisfactory light1#fcf b electrodes made f ?is comp\nd )\t additions h sev]al disadvantages4 ,! life is %ort1 & ! arc soon becomes flick]+ & un/eady4 ,a deposit ( ! badly conduct+ dioxide gradually accumulates on ! anode1 & once ! curr5t has be5 int]rupt$1 ?is deposit r5d]s x v difficult to /rike ! arc aga94 ,^! disadvantages are l>gely ov]come by a s]ies ( improvem5ts rec5tly pat5t$ 9 ,g]many by ! ,allgeme9e ,elektrizitts ,gesells*aft ( ,b]l94 ,addition ( small quantities--#de p] c5t4--( *romium c>bide increases ! l5g? ( life2#fcg ! un/ead9ess & flick]+ are greatly dim9i%$ by incorporation ( p[d]$ coke1 cryolite & fluorsp>1#fch or bett]1 ( ! titan(luoride ( calcium or c]ium1#fci :il/ ! addition ( f9ely divid$ sulphur 7or sel5ium or tellurium7#fdj greatly r$uces ! disadvantage due to ! ?r[+ (f ( inc&esc5t p>ticles4 ,! ,briti% ,?omson-,h\/on ,company pat5ts a simil> electrode1#fda 9 :i* a c>bon-mixture is us$ in/ead ( coke1 & ! electrode is manufactur$ ) a c>bon %ell4 ,= ?is purpose1 ! pa/e prep>$ f ! p[d]$ mixture may be fill$ into a holl[ c>bon rod1 or ! lightly bak$ p5cil may be coat$ ) pit* & heat$ to a high temp]ature4 ,! use ( a mixture ( c]ium fluoride & tung/ate1 ) c>bon & cryolite1 is also said to prev5t flick]+4#fdb #fcf ,we$on1 ,trans4 ,am]4 ,el4 *em4 ,soc4 #aiaa1 #af1 #bag4 #fcg ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #bcabca1 ,febru>y1 #aiaa4 #fch ,ibid4 #bccabe1 ,m>*1 #aiaa4 #fci ,ibid4 #beahcg1 ,octob]1 #aiab4 #fdj ,ibid4 #bcddff1 ,may1 #aiaa4 #fda ,e4 #fejj1 #aiab4 #fdb ,guay1 ,u4 ,s4 ,p4 #ajciebb1 ,septemb]1 #aiab4 ,9 arc lamps 9 :i* p5cils conta9+ titanium comp\nds are us$1 ! anode is g5]ally made ( copp]1 & is plac$ bel[ ! ca?ode1 ! rev]se be+ ! case :]e c>bon electrodes are employ$4 ,! copp] is inactive1 & contributes no?+ to ! light2 if ! anode be ( suitable dim5sions1 x we>s away v sl[ly1 :]eas ! ca?ode1 conta9+ ! titanium comp\nd1 is rapidly consum$4 ,9 lamps 9 :i* c>bon electrodes are us$1 ! light is emitt$ *iefly f ! extremities ( ! electrodes1 ! pa? ( ! arc be+ comp>atively non-lum9\s2 ! light has ! famili> r$di%-yell[ col\r *>act]i/ic ( ! e>li] =ms ( arc lamps4 ,:]e titanium p5cils are employ$1 h[ev]1 ! light is emitt$ almo/ entirely f ! arc itself1 ! electrodes contribut+ v little1 & is ( a pure :ite col\r1 v diff]5t f t ( ! c>bon lamp4 ,attempts h be5 made to employ titanium 9 ! manufacture ( metal filam5ts = gl[ lamps4 ,! metal w\ld be v suitable = ?is purpose1 by reason ( its high melt+-po9t & l[ conductivity1 b ! difficulty ( obta9+ x 9 ! pure /ate1 & ! rem>kable susceptibility ( ! filam5t to traces ( impurity1 h s f> prov$ insup]able4 ,= ! sake ( illu/ration1 a proposal put =w>d 9 #aijh may be briefly ref]r$ to4#fdc ,pure titanium dioxide is heat$ 9 a /ream ( ammonia2 ! nitride obta9$ is decompos$ at #abjj 9 vacuo1 & aft] cool+1 ! metal is p[d]$ & made into a pa/e ) a solution ( album5 9 ammonia4 ,! ?reads obta9$ f ?is 9 ! usual mann] are heat$ to #abjj 9 an electric furnace2 ! c>bon deposit$ f ! album5 =ms ! cyanide by reaction ) ! trace ( nitride :i* has escap$ decomposition1 or :i* has be5 =m$ by fur!r action ( ammonia4 ,! cyanide is volatile1 & c be remov$ at high temp]atures 9 vacuo1 leav+ a s9t]$ filam5t ( ! metal4 ,s susceptible is ! filam5t to impurity1 t ! trace ( c>bon deposit$ f ! vap\r ( ! oil ( ! pump :i* diffuses into ! vacuum is suffici5t to r5d] x s fragile z to be useless4#fdd #fdc ,tr5z5 & ,pope1 ,e4 #adheb1 #aijh4 #fdd ,vide ,bull4 ,imp4 ,in/4 #aiaa1 #i1 #acd4 ,titanium ,comp\nds 9 ,dye+ & ,col\r+4--,! use ( titanium comp\nds z mordants 9 ! dye+ ( lea!r & textile goods has be5 kn[n = a consid]able "t4#fde ,z e>ly z #ahif1 a pat5t 0 tak5 out by ,b>nes#fdf = ! treatm5t ( prep>$ animal sk9s by imm]sion 9 a ba? ( a titanium salt4 ,subsequ5t boil+ or /eam+ causes hydrolysis1 ) precipitation 9 ! sk9 ( hydrat$ titanium dioxide1 :i* =ms la/+ dye-lakes :5 ! fabric is imm]s$ 9 ! dye-ba?4 ,:il/ ?is treatm5t has be5 f\nd satisfactory ) "s classes ( lea!r goods1#fdg m delicate k9ds are liable to be injur$ by ! m9]al acid set free1 & num]\s pat5ts protect+ ! prep>ation & employm5t ( organic salts ( ! elem5t h be5 tak5 out by ,dreh]4#fdh ,! same inve/igator#fdi has discov]$ t excell5t results c be obta9$ 9 ! cold by ! addition ( v>i\s #8,hlfsalze1' :i* are *iefly acetates or =mates ( ! alkal9e e>? metals1 *romium1 or alum9ium1 or basic salts ( ! la/ two4 ,d\ble decomposition ( ^! ) ! titanium salt =ms basic or highly hydrolys$ salts ( ! latt]1 s t ! hydrat$ oxide or a basic comp\nd is =m$ on ! fabric4 #fde ,a good acc\nt ( "s ( ! e>li] "w 9 ?is connection is giv5 by ,erban1 ,*em4 ,zeitg4 #aijf1 #cj1 #ade4 #fdf ,e4 #egab1 #ahif4 #fdg ,vide ,dreh]1 ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #adbdfd1 ,june1 #aijc4 #fdh ,vide ,e4 #bbfbi & #bcahh ( #aija1 #adiba & #bgeig ( #aijb1 & #ebaa ( #aijc4 #fdi ,vide ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #acijei & #acijfj ( ,febru>y1 #aijc1 & #acihch ( ,m>*1 #aijc4 ,! titanium salts specifi$ 9 ^! pat5ts are salts ( ! elem5t 9 ! tetraval5t condition1 prep>$ f rutile by ! action ( /rong m9]al acids4 ,z e>ly z #aijb1 ! te*nical prep>ation ( salts ( trival5t titanium = r$uc+ purposes 0 pat5t$ by ,sp5ce & ,sp5ce1 ( ,man*e/]4#fej ,! process is an electrolytic "o1 & is effect$ 9 a cell divid$ into two comp>tm5ts by a por\s p>tition1 "o electrode be+ introduc$ into ea* comp>tm5t2 an electromotive =ce ( #c-d volts is requir$4 ,a #bj-be p] c5t4 titanium tetra*loride solution is introduc$ into ! ca?ode comp>tm5t1 & dilute hydro*loric acid into ! anode comp>tm5t2 on electrolys+1 *lor9e is evolv$ at ! anode1 & may be utilis$ z usual 9 ! prep>ation ( blea*+ p[d]1 etc41 :il/ ! tetra*loride 9 ! ca?ode comp>tm5t is r$uc$ to tri*loride4 ,! solution is !n conc5trat$ at #fe-gj;,c4 "u r$uc$ pressure1 & ! cry/all9e tri*loride sep>at$4 ,9 ! prep>ation ( ! correspond+ sulphate1 sodium sulphate mu/ be pres5t 9 ! ca?ode comp>tm5t1 & a d\ble salt is obta9$2 ! process is c>ri$ out 9 lead-l9$ cells1 9 pres5ce ( excess ( sulphuric acid4 ,! prep>ation ( ! sesquioxide1 ,ti,o1 free f comp\nds ( alum9ium & iron1 0 also sugge/$ by ,dreh]#fea by r$uction ( ! acid solution ( ! impure or mix$ salts ) z9c or sodium amalgam1 & approximate neutralisation2 ! sesquioxide diff]s f ! dioxide 9 t x sep>ates :ile ! solution is /ill some:at acid1 :i* ! hydrat$ oxides ( iron & alum9ium w n d4 ,dreh] sugge/$ t ! /rong r$uc+ prop]ties ( ! sesquioxide & its salts %\ld make ^! valuable = blea*+1 col\r-pr9t+1 & simil> purposes4 #fej ,e4 #afbch & #ahajh ( #aijb4 #fea ,e4 #ahce1 #aijc4 ,m rec5tly#feb ! r$uction ( titanium salts by means ( alum9ium p[d] has be5 sugge/$2 9 ! case ( ! sulphate1 ! alum9ium salt =m$ may be p>tly elim9at$ z alum1 9 ! ord9>y way1 if desir$1 b x is claim$ t its effect is b5eficial r ?an h>mful4 ,! prep>ation ( organic d\ble basic salts ( trival5t titanium1#fec :i* hydrolyse v readily1 sugge/$ ! use ( su* comp\nds z mordants & = r$uc+ purposes4 ,^! salts may be prep>$ fairly easily#fed by add+ conc5trat$ solutions ( ! appropriate potassium1 sodium1 or ammonium salts 9 excess to conc5trat$ solutions ( ! tri*loride1 9 abs5ce ( air4 ,! d\ble salts sep>ate1 & are wa%$ & dri$2 9 ?is condition !y are fairly /able1 b ! solutions hydrolyse at once on m]ely w>m+1 ) sep>ation ( ! hydrat$ sesquioxide4 ,on ?is acc\nt1 & also because ( ! /rong r$uc+ action1 ^! comp\nds are likely to prove valuable z mordants1 & = o!r purposes4 #feb ,sp5ce1 ,craig1 & ,sp5ce1 ,e4 #acbfj1 #aiaa4 #fec ,/hl] & ,ba*ran1 ,b]4 #aiaa1 #dd1 #biab4 #fed ,kunheim & ,co4 & ,/hl]1 ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #bhdbea1 ,june1 #aiab4 ,titanium comp\nds h frequ5tly be5 sugge/$ = ! prep>ation ( col\r+-matt]s2 ! f]rocyanide has a f9e gre5 col\r1 & is us$ to "s ext5t 9 place ( ars5ical pigm5ts = ! prep>ation ( col\r$ wall-pap]s1 :il/ ! dioxide is ( "s value = t9t+ artificial tee?1 porcela9 tiles1 etc4 ,yell[ & r$di%-yell[ pigm5ts are produc$ f rutile & ilm5ite by v>i\s me?ods4 ,a f9e cov]+ pa9t is said to be obta9$ by a process#fee 9 :i* ilm5ite is p[d]$ & roa/$ to #ejj;,c42 ! cool$ product is cru%$ ) wat]1 & aft] "o or two wa%+s to remove soluble comp\nds1 yields a v f9ely divid$ orange-yell[ susp5sion1 ! precise %ade ( :i* v>ies ) ! duration & temp]ature ( ! roa/+4 ,! product is at once ?r[n d[n f ! susp5sion1 by addition ( a small quantity ( a salt solution1 & s c easily be obta9$ 9 ! solid /ate4 ,9 ano!r process1#fef ! pulv]is$ ilm5ite is w>m$ ) conc5trat$ sulphuric acid1 9 :i* x dissolves ) great developm5t ( heat2 ! excess ( acid is remov$ by evaporation & ! mass calc9$ to decompose ! sulphates4 ,x is /at$ t diff]5t %ades may be obta9$ by c>ry+ out ! la/ op]ation 9 an atmosph]e ( sulphur dioxide or o!r gas4 #fee ,f>up1 ,e4 #cfdi1 #aiaj2 ,f4 #dabefc1 ,may1 #aiaj4 #fef ,e4 #ajcfh1 #aiaa4 ,9 connection ) ! col\r+ prop]ties ( ! oxides ( titanium1 x is int]e/+ to note t ! blue col\r ( sapphires is probably due to ! pres5ce ( comp\nds ( trival5t titanium2 ,v]neuil#feg has succe$$ 9 prep>+ artificial sapphires 9 all respects id5tical ) ! natural /ones by fus+ alum9a ) small quantities ( titanium dioxide & f]ric oxide 9 ! flame ( ! oxyhydrog5 bl[pipe1 :i* effects ! r$uction4 #feg ,compt4 r5d4 #aiaj1 #aej1 #ahe4 ,o!r ,uses ( ,titanium ,comp\nds4--,ow+ to ! high price ( ! t9 dioxide :i* is l>gely employ$ = ! prep>ation ( enamels & opaque glasses1 innum]able sugge/ions h be5 made = ! employm5t ( ! oxides ( titanium & zirconium 9 ?is direction4#feh ,a critical exam9ation ( ! "q has be5 made by ,grnwald2#fei he f9ds t ! opacity consequ5t on addition ( ^! comp\nds increases ) ! am\nt ( clay us$1 )9 limits1 & concludes t ! effect is due to displacem5t ( alum9a by ! oxides1 ) =mation ( silicates ( titanium & zirconium1 :i* dissolve 9 ! melt4 ,he /ates t ! results obta9$ f ! use ( ^! oxides are n comp>able ) ^? giv5 :5 /annic oxide is employ$1 & t !re=e ! =m] oxides are ( little use = ?is purpose4 #feh ,vide1 e4g4 ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #ahicfd1 #bahcaf1 #aaejaf1 #bjgjja2 ,f4 #dchijh1 etc4 #fei ,spre*saal1 #aiaa1 #dd1 #gb4 ,^! two oxides f9d employm5t to a small ext5t 9 ! manufacture ( #8,siloxide' qu>tz glass4#ffj ,quantities up to #ae p] c5t41 add$ to ! molt5 silica1 r$uce ! difficulty ( work+ ! mat]ial4 ,exhau/ive te/s c>ri$ out by ,?omas#ffa indicate t ! vessels made f ?is mat]ial are1 on ! :ole1 to be pref]r$ to ord9>y qu>tz glass1 resi/+ high temp]ature bett]1 & %[+ less t5d5cy to become cry/all9e & !re=e brittle :5 ma9ta9$ = consid]able times at high temp]ature4 #ffj ,wolf-,burckh>dt & ,bor*]s1 ,f4 #dcbghf1 ,octob]1 #aiaa4 #ffa ,*em4 ,zeitg4 #aiab1 #hf1 #be4 99 99 99 99 99 ,mu* "w has be5 c>ri$ out dur+ ! la/ few ye>s ) ! object ( utilis+ titanium comp\nds = ! #8fixation' ( nitrog54 ,! metal comb9es v vigor\sly ) ! gas at ab\t #hjj;,c4 7vide p4 #bbd71 =m+ ! nitride4 ,if ! gas1 or air1 be pass$ ov] a heat$ mixture ( ! dioxide ) p[d]$ coke1 =mation ( ! cyanonitride occurs at comp>atively l[ temp]atures 7#aajj-acjj;,c47 if a small quantity ( an alkali salt be pres5t1#ffb ! action be+ app>5tly catalytic2 if excess ( c>bon is us$1 consid]able quantities ( ! cyanide may be =m$4 ,num]\s exp]im5ts c>ri$ out by ! *emi/s ( ! ,badis*e ,anil9- und ,soda-,fabrik h %[n t at high temp]atures1 ! action ( wat] & a suitable oxidis+ ag5t1 or 9 ! pres5ce ( metallic comp\nds1 ! action ( /eam alone1 w lib]ate consid]able quantities ( ammonia f bo? ^! d]ivatives1#ffc :il/ 9 ! pres5ce ( plat9um comp\nds1 if air be pump$ 91 ! high] oxides ( nitrog5 are =m$4 ,"o or two examples may be giv53 7#a7 ,ti,n #d,na,o,h ,h,o #b;,cu,o #b,,nh ,cu,o #b,na,ti,o--autoclave at #ahj;,c4 7#b7 #b,ti,n #b;,h,,s #f;,h,o ,o #d,ti,o #b7,,nh7,,s--autoclave at #abj-adj;,c4 7#c7 ,ti,n #c;,h,o ,ti,o #b,,nh--/eam at #ejj-fjj;,c4 #ffb ,vide ,bos*1 ,u4 ,s4 ,p4 #ieghdb1 ,may1 #aiaj4 #ffc ,vide1 e4g4 ,d4 ,r4 ,p4 #bjbefc & #bjcgdh ( ,m>*1 #aijg2 #bjdbjd & #bjddge ( ,novemb]1 #aijh2 ,e4 #bdad1 #aijh2 ,f4 #chgjjb ( ,june1 #aijh2 ,u4 ,s4 ,p4 #ieghdc ( ,may1 #aiaj1 gives a rsum ( all ! processes4 ,9 ! second case1 ! oxyg5 is d]iv$ f air pump$ into ! app>atus1 & f]r\s sulphate is us$ z a cataly/4 ,9 ! ?ird case1 a metallic salt1 oxide1 or hydroxide is requir$ z a cataly/4 ,9 view ( ! success ( ! cyanamide me?od = ! fixation ( atmosph]ic nitrog51 ^! processes1 ?\gh ( consid]able !oretical int]e/1 d n seem likely to become ( practical importance4 99 99 99 99 99 ,"o or two m9or uses h be5 sugge/$ = titanium dioxide4 ,small quantities are fus$ ) bauxite1 silica1 & f]ric oxide 9 ! prep>ation ( abrasives1#ffd :il/ a mixture ) c>bon is sugge/$ z a refractory body = l9+s1 crucibles1 etc41 surface heat+ ( ?is =m+ a lay] ( highly resi/ant c>bide4#ffe ,an int]e/+ ,am]ican pat5t protects ! use ( ! dioxide = ! prep>ation ( phosphorus p5toxide f bone-a% or natural calcium phosphate4#fff ,! pulv]is$ mixture ( ! phosphate & oxide is introduc$ at ! upp] end ( an incl9$ rotat+ furnace1 by means ( a hopp] & screw fe$2 fuel is f$ 9 at ! l[] end1 & an outlet is provid$ = ! p]iodic removal ( ! calcium titanate1 etc41 =m$4 ,! silica & alum9a ( ! impure phosphate1 toge!r ) ! titanium dioxide introduc$1 displace ! phosphorus p5toxide1 :i*1 be+ volatile1 escapes cont9u\sly ?r\gh a special pipe2 !re is left a mixture ( silicate1 alum9ate & titanate ( calcium1 :i* may be us$ z a s\rce ( titanium comp\nds4 #ffd ,saund]s1 ,u4 ,s4 ,p4 #iedgff1 #iedggg1 & #iedggh4 #ffe ,becket1 ,u4 ,s4 ,p4 #ajchhbg1 ,septemb]1 #aiab4 #fff ,peacock1 ,u4 ,s4 ,p4 #iiehig1 ,june1 #aiaa4 ,e/imation ( ! ,elem5t4--,ow+ to ! difficulties ( ! sep>ation f ! acidic oxides1 silica1 zirconia1 & ! p5toxides ( columbium & tantalum1 & f ! basic oxides1 alum9a & ! oxides ( iron & t91 ! e/imation ( titanium 9 a m9]al or a /eel is usually a difficult & t$i\s process4 ,gravimetric z well z volumetric me?ods are employ$4 ,9 ! =m]1 ! elem5t is isolat$ & weigh$ 9 ! =m ( ! dioxide2 9 ! latt]1 /&>d solutions ( suitable oxidis+ ag5ts are employ$1 advantage be+ tak5 ( ! ease ) :i* ! elem5t c be trans=m$ f ! trival5t to ! tetraval5t condition4 ,! m9]al or /eel 9 :i* ! elem5t is to be e/imat$ is usually fus$ ) sodium hydrog5 sulphate1 :i* =ms ! sulphate4 ,if ?orium1 uranium or r>e e>?s are pres5t1 treatm5t 9 ! cold ) hydr(luoric acid is (t5 m suitable2 ! acidic oxides are tak5 into solution1 leav+ ! m positive elem5ts 9 ! =m ( ! insoluble fluorides4 ,trautmann f9ds t /eels or f]ro-titaniums ( high silicon cont5t are attack$ only v slightly by fus$ sodium bisulphate2 he recomm5ds#ffg ignition to ! oxides1 evaporation ) hydr(luoric acid to remove silicon z ! volatile tetrafluoride1 & fusion ( ! residue ) bisulphate4 #ffg ,zeits*4 angew4 ,*em4 #aiaa1 #bd1 #hgg4 ,! bisulphate melt1 aft] cool+1 is lea*$ ) wat]1 & ! :ole boil$ "u a reflux cond5s] = sev]al h\rs2 ?is treatm5t %\ld ?r[ d[n ! oxides ( titanium1 columbium & tantalum1 leav+ zirconium & alum9ium 9 ! =m ( ! sulphates 9 ! acid solution2 ! addition ( ammonia may be necess>y to effect complete hydrolysis4 ,! acidic oxides may also be precipitat$ if ! solution be dilut$ & treat$ ) excess ( acetic acid be=e boil+4 ,9 bo? cases1 a consid]able quantity ( iron is ?r[n d[n4 ,! precipitat$ oxides are dissolv$ 9 ! cold by dilute sulphuric acid to :i* hydrog5 p]oxide has be5 add$4 ,= volumetric e/imation1 sep>ation f iron is n g5]ally necess>y4 ,if gravimetric me?ods are to be employ$1 sep>ation may be effect$ 9 sev]al ways4 ,titanium dioxide may be precipitat$ 9 a fairly pure condition by r$uc+ ! solution ) sulphur dioxide1 & boil+ until ! titanium sulphate has be5 completely hydrolys$4 ,accord+ to ,b>neby & ,i%am1#ffh ?is me?od gives l[ results2 ^! au?ors pref] to remove iron completely f ! solution1 & !n effect complete hydrolysis by addition ( ammonium acetate & acetic acid to ! boil+ solution4 ,= ?is purpose1 !y dissolve ! mix$ oxides 9 hydro*loric acid1 & remove f]ric *loride by e!r extraction4 ,bornemann & ,s*irmei/]#ffi precipitate titanium dioxide completely by means ( ammonia1 hold+ iron 9 solution z f]rocyanide2 = ?is purpose1 iron is completely r$uc$ to ! f]r\s /ate by means ( sodium hydrog5 sulphite1 & solutions ( potassium cyanide & ammonia are add$ toge!r to ! w>m liquid1 :i* is aft]w>ds heat$ ne>ly to ! boil+-po9t to effect ! precipitation4 #ffh ,j4 ,am]4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiaj1 #cb1 #ieg4 #ffi ,metallurgie1 #aiaj1 #g1 #gbc4 ,iron may also be remov$ by ! ord9>y me?ods1 if "s reag5t be previ\sly add$ to hold titanium 9 solution4 ,= ?is purpose1 t>t>ic acid & its salts are commonly us$2 none ( ! ord9>y precipitants w ?r[ d[n ! elem5t if ?is reag5t be pres5t4 ,aft] addition ( ammonium t>trate1 iron is remov$ by means ( ammonium sulphide4 ,aft] filt]+1 t>t>ic acid may be remov$ by means ( potassium p]manganate1 ! manganese dioxide =m$ be+ r$uc$ ) sulphur dioxide4 ,accord+ to ,?ornton1#fgj evaporation ) a mixture ( sulphuric & nitric acids is a m conv5i5t me?od ( de/roy+ ! organic acid2 titanium dioxide is !n ?r[n d[n by dilut+ & boil+ 9 ! usual way4 #fgj ,am]4 ,j4 ,sci4 iv41 #aiab1 #cd1 #bad4 ,b\rion#fga describes a me?od ( sep>at+ ! oxides by ! action ( a mixture ( hydrog5 *loride & sulphur mono*loride at a suitable temp]ature4 ,! f]ric *loride :i* is =m$ sublimes1 leav+ titanium dioxide unattack$4 #fga ,compt4 r5d4 #aiab1 #aed1 #abbi4 ,= volumetric e/imation ( small quantities ( titanium 9 solution1 colorimetric me?ods are g5]ally employ$4 ,addition ( hydrog5 p]oxide to su* a solution gives an int5se r$di%-yell[ col\ration1 :i* is comp>$ ) ! col\rations obta9$ ) solutions conta9+ kn[n quantities ( ! elem5t4 ,wells#fgb f9ds t "u suitable conditions1 an accuracy ( ab\t #b p] c5t4 is to be expect$ ) ?is me?od4 ,lehn] & ,craw=d#fgc f9d t 9 conc5trat$ sulphuric acid solution1 ?ymol gives a r$ col\ration :i* is at lea/ tw5ty-five times z int5se z ! col\r giv5 by hydrog5 p]oxide1 & !y accord+ly propose ?ymol z a suitable reag5t = ! colorimetric e/imation4 ,f5ton#fgd has %[n t a v int5se col\ration is obta9$ :5 a solution ( a titanium salt is treat$ ) dihydroxymaleic acid2 ?is reaction has be5 %[n by ,mellor#fge to be well adapt$ = ! colorimetric e/imation & = ! e/imation ( titanium & vanadium toge!r 9 a solution4 #fgb ,zeits*4 anorg4 ,*em4 #aiaa1 #gj1 #cie4 #fgc ,j4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind4 #aiab1 #ca1 #ief4 #fgd ,trans4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aijh1 #ic1 #ajfd4 #fge ,ab/r4 ,*em4 ,soc4 #aiac1 #ajd1 ii4 #fbg4 ,! volumetric me?ods = ! e/imation ( l>g] quantities require complete r$uction to ! trival5t condition4 ,?is is be/ effect$ by means ( z9c & hydro*loric acid1 or1 :]e potassium p]manganate is to be us$1 by z9c & sulphuric acid4 ,precautions mu/ be tak5 to ensure t r$uction is complete2 an app>atus suitable = rapid e/imations has rec5tly be5 describ$ by ,%im] & ,%im]4#fgf ,:]e potassium p]manganate is employ$ 7,pisani's me?od71 ! iron mu/ be e/imat$ sep>ately by means ( a /&>d solution ( titanium tri*loride4 ,kne*t & ,hibb]t#fgg titrate directly1 aft] r$uction1 ) a /&>d solution ( a f]ric salt1 us+ potassium ?iocyanate z indicator2 "h no correction has to be appli$ = iron orig9ally pres5t 9 ! solution4 ,! same advantage atta*es also to ! me?od ( titration by means ( me?yl5e blue1#fgh a dye r$uc$ to ! col\rless leuco-base by salts ( trival5t titanium1 b n affect$ by f]r\s salts4 #fgf ,j4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind4 #aiab1 #ca1 #iee4 #fgg ,b]4 #aijc1 #cf1 #aedi4 #fgh ,see ,hibb]t1 ,j4 ,soc4 ,*em4 ,ind4 #aiji1 #bh1 #aij4 ,,index ,absorption ,spectra1 #adh ,acetate process1 #cjd ,acetylacetone d]ivatives1 #ace ,act9ium1 #ajj ,a5igmatite1 #h1 #ee ,aes*ynite1 #h1 #fe ,aldeb>anium1 #bje ,allanite1 #h1 #cf1 #ci1 #ia ,al%$ite1 #ed ,alvite1 #h1 #ei ,anatase1 #h1 #gh ,ancylite1 #h1 #ha ,&]b]gite1 #h1 #di ,ann]dite1 #i1 #fa ,arc spectra1 #aea ,arfv$sonite1 #i1 #ea ,arizonite1 #i1 #ei ,arrh5ite1 #i1 #gj ,a/rophyllite1 #i1 #ee ,au] mantles1 hi/ory (1 #bgj ,au]ba*ite1 #i1 #ca ,au]lite1 #i1 #ea ,baddeleyite1 #aj1 #ge ,bagrationite1 #aj1 #de ,ba/nsite1 #aj1 #ha ,beckelite1 #aj1 #ea ,b5itoite1 #aj1 #ee ,b]yl1 #ajb ,blom/r&9e1 #aj1 #fh ,blom/r&ite1 #aj1 #ga ,bod5ite1 #aa1 #db1 #de ,bragite1 #fc ,brasilite1 #gf ,bri?olite1 #aa1 #ea ,brgg]ite1 #aa1 #gc ,brookite1 #aa1 #gi ,buckl&ite1 #db ,calcio?orite1 #aa1 #di ,calcite1 #b1 #ch ,cappel5ite1 #aa1 #ea ,c>bides ( r>e e>? gr\p1 #abj ,c>bonates ( r>e e>? gr\p1 #acj ,c>yoc]ite1 #ab1 #ea ,cassiopeium1 #bje ,cassit]ite1 #c1 #de1 #df1 #gg ,ca/elnaudite1 #ab1 #hh ,cataplejite1 #ab1 #ea ,ca?ode lum9esc5ce1 #aea ,celtium1 #bjg ,c]ia1 #aaa1 #aag1 #aah1 #afa ,c]ic comp\nds1 #afj ,c]ite1 #a1 #cj ,c]ium1 atomic weight (1 #afd comp\nds1 applications (1 #cag detection (1 #afe e/imation (1 #aff gr\p1 hi/ory (1 #afh sep>ation (1 #afi int]m$iate oxide (1 #afb metallic1 #aae nitrate1 extraction f monazite (1 #bhd sep>ation (1 #aef ,c]\s comp\nds1 #aeh ,*alcolamprite1 #ab1 #gj ,*>donnet process1 #cjb ,*lorides ( r>e e>? gr\p1 #aba ,*romates ( r>e e>? gr\p1 #abi ,*ur*ite1 #ab1 #hj ,clamond mantles1 #bfh ,cleveite1 #ac1 #gc ,cordylite1 #ac1 #hj ,cossyrite1 #ac ,cryptolite1 #hd ,cuprammonium process1 #cjc ,crytolite1 #ac1 #di ,davidite1 #ac1 #ei ,delor5zite1 #ac1 #ef ,d]bylite1 #ac1 #ei ,drummond light1 #bfg ,dysanalyte1 #ad1 #ga ,dysprosium1 #aii hi/ory (1 #aie sep>ation (1 #aif ,edw>dsite1 #hd ,elpidite1 #ad1 #de ,endeiolite1 #ad1 #gj ,equival5t weight det]m9ation1 #aec ,erbium1 atomic weight (1 #bjb detection (1 #bjc gr\p1 #aii hi/ory (1 #aid1 #bja salts (1 #bjb sep>ation (1 #aif ,erdmannite1 #ad1 #de ,eremite1 #hd ,erikite1 #ad1 #ea ,e?ylsulphates ( r>e e>? gr\p1 #abg ,eucolyte1 #ad1 #ej ,eucolyte-,titanite1 #ed ,eucrasite1 #ae1 #di ,eudialite1 #ae1 #ej ,europium1 atomic weight (1 #ahh comp\nds (1 #ahh hi/ory (1 #ahe ,eux5ite1 #ae1 #ff1 #fh ,eytl&ite1 #fj ,fahnehjelm mantles1 #bfi ,f]gusonite1 #ae1 #ch1 #fc1 #ij ,f]rocyanides ( r>e e>? gr\p1 #abc ,f]ro-titanium1 #cbf ,flor5cite1 #ae1 #ea ,fluoc]ite1 #ae1 #hi ,fluorides ( r>e e>? gr\p1 #abj ,fluorsp>1 #b1 #hi1 #ajb ,=mates ( r>e e>? gr\p1 #acc ,freyalite1 #af1 #di ,gadol9ite1 #a1 #af1 #cc1 #ia ,gadol9ium1 atomic weight (1 #aij comp\nds (1 #aij detection (1 #aia hi/ory (1 #ahd1 #ahi ,geikielite1 #af1 #ei ,gorceixite1 #af1 #hh ,gre5ovite1 #ed ,gr?ite1 #bf1 #ed ,gu>9ite1 #af1 #ea ,gummite1 #gc ,ha9ite1 #af1 #gj ,halog5 oxy-salts ( r>e e>? gr\p1 #abc ,h>matite1 #aj1 #ha ,helium ratio1 #ajd1 #ajf ,hell&ite1 #af1 #db ,hiortdahlite1 #ag1 #ea ,hjelmite1 #ag1 #fd ,holmium1 comp\nds (1 #bja hi/ory (1 #aie sep>ation (1 #aif ,homilite1 #ag1 #ea ,hussakite1 #ag1 #hg ,hydrides ( r>e e>? gr\ps1 #aaf ,hydrotitanite1 #ag1 #ei ,hydroxides ( r>e e>? gr\ps1 #aaf ,illum9at+ p[] ( gas1 #bff ( mantles1 #bid ,ilm5ite1 #ag1 #eg1 #ij ,ilm5orutile1 #ag1 #ga ,john/rupite1 #ag1 #ee ,ka9osite1 #ah1 #de ,k>yoc]ite1 #ab ,kataplejite1 #ab1 #ea ,keilhauite1 #ah1 #eb ,kis*timite1 #ah1 #ha ,knopite1 #ah1 #ei ,ko*elite1 #ah1 #fd ,koppite1 #ah1 #fd ,lan?anite1 #ah1 #gi ,lan?anum1 atomic weight (1 #agc comp\nds (1 #agb detection (1 #agc metallic1 #aae1 #aga sep>ation (1 #agj ,lav5ite1 #ai1 #ea ,lead1 #aje1 #ajg ,l$]ite1 #ed ,leucosph5ite1 #ai1 #ee ,leucox5e1 #ee ,lewisite1 #ai1 #ei ,light+ devices1 #cae ,ligurite1 #ed ,loranskite1 #ai1 #fd ,lor5z5ite1 #ai1 #ee ,lutecium1 #bje ,mack9to%ite1 #ai1 #gi ,magnetic susceptibility1 #aeb ,malacone1 #ai1 #di ,mauzeliite1 #bj1 #ei ,melanoc]ite1 #bj1 #ea ,m5accannite1 #eg ,m5gite1 #hd ,meso?orium1 #beb1 #bgf ,metals ( r>e e>? gr\p1 #aad ,mi*aelsonite1 #ad ,microlite1 #bj1 #fd ,mis* metal1 #aae1 #cae ,mol5graafite1 #bj1 #ee ,monazite1 #d1 #bj1 #hb s&s1 #hc1 #ij te*nical treatm5t (1 #bgf ,mos&rite1 #bj1 #ee ,muromontite1 #bj1 #db1 #de ,naegite1 #ca1 #de1 #di ,n>s>sukite1 #ba1 #ee ,neodymium1 atomic weight (1 #agi detection (1 #ahj metallic1 #aae1 #agg oxides1 #agg salts1 #agh ,neoytt]bium1 #bjf ,neptunite1 #ba1 #ee ,n]n/ lamp1 #cbj ,nitrates ( r>e e>? gr\p1 #abh ,nitrides ( r>e e>? gr\p1 #aaf ,niv5ite1 #ba1 #gc ,nohlite1 #ba1 #fd ,octah$rite1 #h1 #gh ,o]/$ite1 #ba1 #di ,oisanite1 #gh ,orangite1 #ba1 #de ,organic salts ( r>e e>? gr\p1 #acc ,or?ite1 #h1 #ci ,oxalates ( r>e e>? gr\p1 #aca ,oxides ( r>e e>? gr\p1 #aae1 #aag ,p>isite1 #ba1 #hj ,pauly process1 #cjc ,p]ovskite1 #ad1 #bb1 #ei ,p]oxides ( r>e e>? gr\p1 #aag ,p]titanates1 #bce ,phosphates ( r>e e>? gr\p1 #abi ,ph?alates ( r>e e>? gr\p1 #acd ,picroilm5ite1 #af1 #ei ,pictite1 #ed ,pilb>ite1 #bb1 #di ,pit*bl5de1 #bb1 #gb ,plat9ocyanides ( r>e e>? gr\p1 #abc ,plat9um mantles1 #bfh ,plumboniobite1 #bb1 #fb ,polonium1 #ii ,polycrase1 #bb1 #ff ,praseodymium-- atomic weight (1 #age comp\nds (1 #agd detection (1 #agf hi/ory (1 #afh metallic1 #aae1 #agd sep>ation (1 #agj ,priorite1 #bb1 #ff ,pseudobrookite1 #bb1 #ei ,pyro*lore1 #bc1 #ga ,pyromorphite1 #aja ,pyrophanite1 #bc1 #ei ,pyrophoric alloys1 #cad ,radioactivity1 #ii ,radio?orium1 #gd1 #ii1 #bec ,ramie1 mantles (1 #bia ,r>e e>? mixtures1 exam9ation (1 #adg ,r>e e>?s-- extraction (1 f m9]als1 #adg & p]iodic classification1 #ace ,retzian1 #bc1 #hh ,rhabdophane1 #bc1 #hh ,rhnite1 #bc1 #ee ,r9kite1 #bc1 #ee ,risrite1 #bc1 #ch1 #fi1 #ajb ,rog]site1 #bd1 #fd ,ros5bus*ite1 #bd1 #ee ,r[l&ite1 #bd1 #ee ,rutile1 #bd1 #de1 #gg1 #ij ,sam>ium1 atomic weight (1 #ahb detection (1 #ahc hi/ory (1 #afh metallic1 #aae1 #aha salts (1 #ahb sep>ation (1 #aga ,sam>skite1 #bd1 #ch1 #fj1 #ia ,sc&ium1 atomic weight (1 #bag *emical relations (1 #bad comp\nds (1 #bae detection (1 #bah hi/ory (1 #aid1 #bac occurr5ce (1 #c sep>ation (1 #ahf ,s*orlomite1 #bd1 #ee ,scovillite1 #bc1 #hh ,sel5ates ( r>e e>? gr\p1 #abh ,sel5ites ( r>e e>? gr\p1 #abh ,semel5e1 #ed ,s5aite1 #bd1 #ei ,silic(luorides ( r>e e>? gr\p1 #aba ,sipylite1 #bd1 #ci1 #fc ,sp>k spectra1 #aej ,sph5e1 #bf1 #eb1 #ij1 #ajg ,/e5/rup9e1 #be1 #ea ,/rv]ite1 #be1 #ga ,sulphates ( r>e e>? gr\p1 #abd ,sulphides ( r>e e>? gr\p1 #aai ,sulphites ( r>e e>? gr\p1 #abg ,syn*isite1 #ha ,ta*yaphaltite1 #be1 #di ,tautolite1 #db ,t5g]ite1 #be1 #ha ,t]bium1 atomic weight (1 #aib detection (1 #aic gr\p1 *emical relations (1 #ahe hi/ory (1 #ahd sep>ation (1 #ahf hi/ory (1 #ahd1 #aia salts (1 #aib ,?alnite1 #be1 #dc1 #ajb ,?iosulphates ( r>e e>? gr\p1 #abg ,?orianite1 #be1 #gc1 #ajg1 #bea ,?orite1 #be1 #de1 #ajh1 #bea ,?orium1 atomic weight (1 #bfb *emical relations (1 #bea comp\nds (1 #bed detection (1 #bfc e/imation (1 #bhe extraction (1 #bea1 #bge1 #bhc gr\p relations (1 #bbj metallic1 #bec radio*emi/ry (1 #beb sep>ation (1 #bgg sulphate purification (1 #bgi ,?orogummite1 #bf1 #di ,?ortveitite1 #bf1 #dd ,?ulium1 hi/ory (1 #aid1 #bjc individuality (1 #bjd salts (1 #bjd sep>ation (1 #aif ,titanates1 #bcd ,titanif]\s iron/one1 #eg ,titanite1 #bf1 #eb1 #ij ,titanium1 atomic weight (1 #bcf comp\nds = fixation ( nitrog51 #ccg comp\nds (1 9 dye+1 #ccc comp\nds ( dival5t1 #bbe comp\nds ( trival5t1 #bbf comp\nds ( tetraval5t1 #bcj cyanonitride1 #bbd detection (1 #bcf electrodes1 #cca e/imation (1 #cch gr\p relations (1 #bai metallic1 #bbc occurr5ce & extraction (1 #bbb oliv9e1 #bf1 #ee /eels1 #cbi uses (1 9 metallurgy1 #cbg1 #ccj ,tritomite1 #bf1 #ea ,ts*effk9ite1 #bf1 #ee ,tung/51 #a1 #ca ,turn]ite1 #hc ,tyrite1 #fc ,tysonite1 #bf1 #hi ,uhligite1 #bg1 #ei ,uran9ite1 #bi1 #eb ,uranosphrite1 #gc ,urano-tantalite1 #fj ,vasite1 #db ,viet5ghfiote1 #bg1 #fd ,viscose process1 #cjd ,w>wickite1 #bg1 #ei ,weibyite1 #bg1 #ha ,wiikite1 #bg1 #gj ,whl]ite1 #bh1 #gj ,wolframite1 #b1 #bad ,x5otime1 #bh1 #de1 #hf1 #ij1 #bjg ,ytt]bia1 #a1 #bjf ,ytt]bite1 #a1 #cc ,ytt]bium1 atomic weight (1 #bjf detection (1 #bjg hi/ory (1 #aid1 #bje salts (1 #bjf sep>ation (1 #aif1 #bje ,yttria1 #a1 #ce1 #aaa1 #bji ,yttrialite1 #bh1 #cd1 #de ,yttrium1 atomic weight (1 #baa detection (1 #bab gr\p1 hi/ory (1 #aid sep>ation (1 #aie hi/ory (1 #aid1 #bjh salts (1 #baj sep>ation (1 #aif1 #bje ,yttroc]ite1 #bh1 #hh ,y?rocrasite1 #bh1 #ef ,y?r(luirite1 #bh1 #hi ,yttr(luorite1 #bh1 #hi ,yttrog>net1 #bh1 #de ,yttrogummite1 #bh1 #di ,yttroilm5ite1 #fj ,yttrotantalite1 #bi1 #fb ,yttrotitanite1 #ah1 #eb ,zircon1 #bi1 #ch1 #de1 #dg1 #ij1 #ajg ,zirconia1 uses (1 #cbc ,zirconium1 atomic weight (1 #bdi comp\nds (1 #bdi detection (1 #bdb e/imation (1 #bej extraction (1 #bci gr\p1 relations (1 #bai1 #bdj hi/ory (1 #bch indu/rial applications (1 #cba ,zirkelite1 #bi1 #gi ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,spottiswoode ,,& ,,co4 ,,ltd41 ,,col*e/] ,,london ,,& ,,eton ,transcrib]'s ,notes ,inconsi/5t & unusual spell+ & hyph5ation 7includ+ ^? 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