,,transcriber',s ,,note      ,italic    
text is denoted by underscores4         
,footnote anchors are denoted by number1
 and the footnotes have been    placed  
at the end of the book4      ,a         
superscript is denoted by x or xx1 for  
example ,edinr or #ast4      ,basic     
fractions are displayed as    etc2 other
 fractions are shown    in the form     
a_/b1 for example #i_/aj4      ,some    
minor changes to the text are noted at  
the end of the book4            ,,essay 
,,on ,,the      ,,theory ,,of ,,the     
,,earth4      ,illustration3            
,,frontispiece    ,page #eah        ,w4 
,h4 ,lizars ,sc4    ,,vertical ,,section
 ,,of ,,the ,,cavern ,,at ,,gaylenreuth 
,,in ,,franconia            ,,essay     
,,on ,,the      ,,theory ,,of ,,the     
,,earth4        ,,by ,,baron ,g4        
,,cuvier1      ,,perpetual ,,secretary  
,,of ,,the ,,french ,,institute1        
,,professor ,,and    ,,administrator    
,,of ,,the ,,museum ,,of ,,natural      
,,history1    c4 c4        ,,with       

,,geological ,,illustrations1      ,,by 
,,professor ,,jameson4        ,,fifth   
,,edition1      ,,translated ,,from     
,,the ,,last ,,french ,,edition1 ,,with 
,,numerous    ,,additions ,,by ,,the    
,,author ,,and ,,translator4            
,,william ,,blackwood1 ,,edinburgh2     
,,and    ,t4 ,,cadell1 ,,strand1        
,,london4      ,,mdcccxxvii4            
,printed by ,p4 ,neill4                 
,,preface    ,,to ,,the    ,,fifth      
,,edition4      ,geology1 now deservedly
 one of the most popular and attractive 
of  the physical sciences1 was1 not many
 years ago1 held in little  estimation2 
and even at present1 there are not      
wanting some who  do not hesitate to    
maintain1 that it is a mere tissue of   
ill  observed phenomena1 and of         
hypotheses of boundless extravagance4   
,the work of ,,cuvier now laid before   
the public1 contains in itself  not only
 a complete answer to these ignorant    
imputations1 but  also demonstrates the 
accuracy1 extent1 and importance of many

 of  the facts and reasonings of this   
delightful branch of ,natural  ,history4
 ,can it be maintained of a science1    
which requires for its  successful      
prosecution an intimate acquaintance    
with ,chemistry1  ,natural ,philosophy  
and ,astronomy1--with the details and   
views of  ,zoology1 ,botany1 and        
,mineralogy1 and which connects these   
different  departments of knowledge in a
 most interesting and striking          
manner1--that it is of no value8 ,can it
 be maintained of ,geology1  which      
discloses to us the history of the first
 origin of organic  beings1 and traces  
their gradual development from the      
monade to man  himself1--which          
enumerates and describes the changes    
that plants1  animals1 and minerals--the
 atmosphere1 and the waters of the      
globe--have undergone from the earliest 
geological periods up to our  own time1 
and which even instructs us in the      
earliest history of the  human          
species1--that it offers no             

gratification to the philosopher8  ,can 
even those who estimate the value of    
science1 not by intellectual  desires1  
but by practical advantages1 deny the   
importance of  ,geology1 certainly one  
of the foundations of agriculture1 and  
which enables us to search out materials
 for numberless important  economical   
purposes8    ,geology took its rise in  
the ,academy of ,freyberg1 with the     
illustrious ,,werner1 to whom we owe its
 present interesting condition4  ,this  
being the case1 we ought not1 7as is at 
present too much the  practice71 amidst 
the numerous discoveries in the mineral 
kingdom  which have been made since the 
system of investigation of that  great  
interpreter of nature was made known1   
forget the master1 and  arrogate all to 
ourselves4 ,in this ,island1 ,geology   
first took firm  root in the north3 in  
,edinburgh the ,wernerian geognostical  
views and  method of investigation1     
combined with the theory of ,,hutton1   
the  experiments and speculations of    

,,hall1 the illustrations of ,,playfair1
  and the labours of the ,royal and     
,wernerian ,natural ,history ,societies1
  excited a spirit of inquiry which     
rapidly spread throughout the  ,empire2 
and now ,great ,britain presents to the 
scientific world  a scene of geological 
acuteness1 activity1 and enterprise1 not
  surpassed in any other country4    ,on
 the ,continent the writings of         
,,cuvier1 distinguished equally by      
purity and beauty of style1 and profound
 learning1 have proved  eminently useful
 in aiding the progress of ,geology4 ,in
 this country  ,,cuvier was first made  
known as a geologist by the publication 
of the  present essay1 which1 from its  
unexampled popularity1 has made his     
name as familiar to us as that of the   
most distinguished of our own  writers4 
,,robert ,,jameson4      ,,college      
,,museum1 ,,edinburgh1    #beth         
,november #ahbf4                        
,,advertisement    ,,to    ,,fourth     
,,edition4      ,this ,fourth ,edition  

of the celebrated ,essay on the ,theory 
of the  ,earth1 contains1 besides many  
additional facts and statements in      
regard to the ,natural ,history of the  
,earth1 also learned discussions  by    
,,cuvier1 on the newness of the present 
continents1 as confirmed by  the history
 of nations2 and on the proofs regarding
 the antiquity  of nations alleged to be
 contained in their astronomical and    
other  monuments4          ,,robert     
,,jameson4      ,,college ,,museum1     
,,edinburgh1    #b;d ,april #ahbb4      
,fossil organic remains are the relics  
of a primeval world long    since gone  
past1 proclaiming with a loud voice the 
instability    of earthly affairs1 and  
impressing upon the minds of those who  
seriously consider them1 sentiments of  
piety and feelings of    devotion4 ,if  
the antiquary digs from among the ruins 
of ,herculaneum    a piece of ancient   
money1 a vase1 or a statue1 we rejoice  
with    him1 in finding the mode of     
life1 the manners and arts of an        

ancient people1 placed before our eyes3 
,if he finds an old record1             
illustrative of the history of his      
country1 however limited in    extent   
that country may be1 we are grateful to 
him for the particle    of knowledge he 
has added to our store2 but if1 among   
the ruins    of the common country of   
the human race1 we linger at the great  
sepulchre of animated beings destroyed  
by the hand of fate1 who    can look    
upon it without sentiments of piety6 ,it
 is not here the    statues of          
,polycletus that we admire1 but the     
admirable monuments    of the           
workmanship of ,nature1 taken from the  
ruins of the great    ,herculeum        
overwhelmed by the ocean1 that we look  
upon with feelings    of the deepest    
wonder and devotion4          ,,preface 
,,to ,,the    ,,third ,,edition4        
,the attention of naturalists was early 
directed to the investigation  of the   
fossil organic remains so generally and 
abundantly distributed  throughout the  

strata of which the crust of the ,earth 
is composed4  ,it is not1 as some       
writers now imagine1 entirely a modern  
study2  for even so early as the time of
 ,leibnitz1 we find that philosopher    
drawing and describing fossil bones4    
,after this period it continued  to     
interest individuals1 and engage the    
particular attention of  societies and  
academies4 ,the ,royal ,society of      
,london1 by the ,memoirs  of ,sloane1   
,collinson1 ,lister1 ,derham1 ,baker1   
,grew1 ,hunter1 ,jacobs1  ,plott1       
,camper1 and many others1 afforded      
satisfactory proofs of the  importance  
attached to this branch of ,natural     
,history by philosophers  in ,england2  
and the ,memoirs of ,m4 ,graydon1 in the
 ,transactions of  the ,royal ,irish    
,academy1 shew that it was not entirely 
neglected  in ,ireland4 ,on the         
continent of ,europe the natural history
 of  petrifactions was also much        
studied1 as appears from the ,memoirs of
  ,hollman1 ,beckman1 and ,blumenbach1  

in the ,transactions of the ,royal      
,society of ,gottingen2--of ,gmelin1    
,pallas1 ,herrmann1 ,chappe1 in the     
,memoirs of the ,imperial ,academy of   
,sciences of ,petersburg2--of           
,geoffroi1 ,buffon1 ,daubenton1 ,faujas 
,st ,fond1 and others of the old        
,french ,academy of ,sciences2--of      
,astruc and ,riviere1 of the ,royal     
,academy of ,sciences of                
,montpellier2--of ,collini of the       
,academia  ,theodoro-,palatina1 at      
,manheim1 c4 ,but the geognostical      
relations  of the rocks in which these  
organic remains are contained were but  
ill understood1 until ,werner pointed   
out the mode of investigating  them4    
,his interesting and important views    
were circulated from  ,freyberg1 by the 
writings and conversations of his       
pupils1 and have  contributed materially
 to the advancement of this branch of   
,natural  ,history in ,germany1 ,france1
 and also in ,great ,britain4           
,petrifactions  are no longer viewed as 

objects of mere curiosity1 as things    
isolated  and unrelated to the rocks of 
which the crust of the ,earth is        
composed2 on the contrary1 they are now 
considered as one of the  most important
 features in the strata of all regions  
of the earth4  ,by the regularity and   
determinate nature of their             
distribution1 they  afford characters   
which assist us in discriminating not   
only single  beds1 but also whole       
formations of rocks2 and in this respect
 they  are highly interesting to the    
geognostical inquirer4 ,to the geologist
  this beautiful branch of ,natural     
,history opens up numerous and          
uncommonly curious views of nature in   
the mineral kingdom3 it shews  him the  
commencement of the formation of organic
 beings1--it points  out the gradual    
succession in the formation of animals1 
from the  almost primeval coral near the
 primitive strata1 through all the      
wonderful variety of form and structure 
observed in shells1 fishes1  amphibious 

animals1 and birds1 to the perfect      
quadruped of the  alluvial land2 and it 
makes him acquainted with a geographical
 and  physical distribution of organic  
beings in the strata of the globe1  very
 different from what is observed to hold
 in the present state  of the organic   
world4 ,the zoologist views with wonder 
and amazement  those hosts of fossil    
animals1 sometimes so similar to the    
present  living species1 at other times 
so far removed from them in form and    
structure4 ,he compares the fossil      
orders1 genera and species1 with  those 
now inhabiting the earth's surface1 or  
living in its waters1  and discovers    
that there is a whole system of animals 
in a fossil  state different from the   
present4 ,even the physiologist1 in the 
various forms1 connections1 and         
relations of the parts of those         
animals1 obtains new facts for his      
descriptions and reasonings4  ,such1    
then1 being the nature of this branch of
 ,natural ,history1 it  is not          

surprising that1 when once understood1  
it should have many  and zealous        
cultivators1 and occupy the talents of  
men of learning  and sagacity4 ,in our  
time1 ,cuvier1 the celebrated ,professor
 of  ,natural ,history in ,paris1 has   
eminently distinguished himself by his  
numerous discoveries1 accurate          
descriptions1 and rational views1 on    
this subject4 ,his great work on ,fossil
 ,organic ,remains1 of which a  new     
edition is now in progress1 is the most 
splendid contribution to  ,natural      
,history furnished by any individual of 
this age4    ,the ,essay on the ,theory 
of the ,earth1 now translated1 is the   
introductory part of the great work of  
,cuvier4 ,the subject of  the deluge    
forms a principal object of this elegant
 discourse4  ,after describing the      
principal results at which the theory of
 the  earth1 in his opinion1 has        
arrived1 he next mentions the various   
relations which connect the history of  
the fossil bones of land  animals with  

these results2 explains the principles  
on which is  founded the art of         
ascertaining these bones1 or1 in other  
words1 of  discovering a genus1 and of  
distinguishing a species1 by a single   
fragment of bone3 and gives a rapid     
sketch of the results to which  his     
researches lead1 of the new genera and  
species which these have  been the means
 of discovering1 and of the different   
formations in  which they are contained4
 ,some naturalists1 as ,lamarck1 having 
maintained that the present existing    
races of quadrupeds are mere            
modifications or varieties of those     
ancient races which we now find  in a   
fossil state1 modifications which may   
have been produced by  change of        
climate1 and other local circumstances1 
and since brought  to the present great 
difference1 by the operation of similar 
causes  during a long succession of     
ages1--,cuvier shews that the difference
  between the fossil species and those  
which now exist1 is bounded by  certain 

limits2 that these limits are a great   
deal more extensive  than those which   
now distinguish the varieties of the    
same species1  and consequently1 that   
the extinct species of quadrupeds are   
not  varieties of the presently existing
 species4 ,this very interesting        
discussion naturally leads our author to
 state the proofs of the  recent        
population of the world2 of the         
comparatively modern origin  of its     
present surface2 of the deluge1 and the 
subsequent renewal of  human society4   
,in order to render this ,essay more    
complete and satisfactory1 ,i have      
illustrated the whole with an extensive 
series of observations1  and have       
arranged them in such a manner that they
 will be readily  accessible1 not only  
to the naturalist1 but also to the      
general  reader4    ,since the          
publication of the former edition of    
this ,essay1 many  curious discoveries  
have been made in regard to fossil      
organic  remains3--some of these are    

included in the ,illustrations at the   
end  of the ,essay1 others want of room 
forces us to omit4          ,r4         
,,jameson4      ,,college ,,of          
,,edinburgh1    #aith ,april #ahag4     
,,contents4              ,page          
,,preliminary ,,observations1      #a   
,plan of the ,essay1      #d      ,first
 ,appearance of the ,earth1      #f     
,first ,proofs of ,revolutions on the   
,surface of the ,globe1      #f         
,proofs that such ,revolutions have been
 numerous1      #aj      ,proofs that   
these ,revolutions have been sudden1    
#ad      ,proofs of the ,occurrence of  
,revolutions before the ,existence    of
 ,living ,beings1      #af              
,examination of the ,causes which act at
 present on the ,surface    of the      
,globe1      #bc      ,of ,slips1 or    
,falling ,down of the ,materials of     
,mountains1       #be      ,of ,alluvial
 ,formations1      #bf      ,of the     
,formation of ,downs1      #bh      ,of 
the ,formation of ,cliffs1 or ,steep    

,shores1      #bi      ,depositions     
formed in ,water1      #cj      ,of     
,stalactites1      #ca      ,of         
,lithophytes1      #cb      ,of         
,incrustations1      #cb      ,of       
,volcanoes1      #cd      ,constant     
,astronomical ,causes1      #cf         
,older ,systems of ,geologists1      #ch
      ,more ,recent ,systems1      #da  
,diversities of all the ,systems1       
#dd      ,causes of these ,differences1 
#df      ,nature and ,condition of the  
,problem1      #df      ,progress of    
,mineral ,geology1      #di             
,importance of ,fossil ,remains in      
,geology1       #ea      ,high          
importance of the ,fossil ,bones of     
,quadrupeds1      #ec      ,small       
probability of discovering new ,species 
of large    ,quadrupeds1       #ef      
,inquiry respecting the ,fabulous       
,animals of the ,ancients1       #fi    
,difficulty of determining the ,fossil  
,bones of ,quadrupeds1       #hb        
,principle by which this determination  

is effected1        #hc      ,view of   
the general ,results of these           
,researches1      #id      ,relations of
 the ,species of ,fossil ,animals1 with 
the ,strata in    which they are found1 
#ie      ,proofs that the extinct       
,species of ,quadrupeds are not         
,varieties    of the presently existing 
,species1      #ajb      ,proofs that   
there are no ,fossil ,human ,bones1     
#aad      ,physical ,proofs of the      
,newness of the present ,continents1    
#aba      ,additions of ,land by the    
action of ,rivers1        #abc          
,progress of ,downs1        #acc        
,peat-mosses and ,slips1       #ace     
,the ,history of ,nations confirms the  
,newness of the    ,continents1         
#acg      ,the very remote ,antiquity   
attributed to certain ,nations is    not
 supported by ,history1       #adi      
,the ,astronomical ,monuments left by   
the ,ancients do not    bear the        
excessively remote ,dates which have    
been attributed    to them1       #bja  

,table of the ,extent of the ,zodiacal  
,constellations1 as they    are designed
 upon our ,globes1 and of the ,times    
required by    the ,colures to traverse 
them1       #bab      ,construction and 
,use of the ,table1       #baf      ,the
 ,zodiac is far from bearing in itself a
 certain and    excessively remote date1
       #bcj      ,exaggerations relative
 to the ,antiquity of certain ,mining   
,operations1       #bch      ,general   
,conclusion relative to the ,period of  
the last    ,revolution1      #bci      
,further ,researches to be made in      
,geology1       #bdj                    
,recapitulation of the ,observations    
upon the ,succession of    the ,tertiary
 ,formations1       #bdc      ,table of 
,geological ,formations in the ,order of
 their    ,superposition2 by ,m4 ,a4 de 
,humboldt1       #bdi      ,enumeration 
of the ,fossil ,animals recognized by   
the ,author1       #bec                 
,ichthyosaurus1       #bee              
,plesiosaurus1       #bef               

,crocodile1       #beh                  
,megalosaurus1       #bei               
,pterodactylus1       #bfa              
,iguanodon1       #bfc      ,mosasaurus1
       #bfd      ,dolphin1       ib4    
,lamantin1       #bfe      ,morse1      
#bfe      ,palotherium1       #bff      
,lophiodon1       #bfh                  
,anoplotherium1       #bgj              
,anthracotheria1       #bgb             
,cheropotamus1       ib4      ,adapis1  
#bgc      ,vespertilio1       #bgd      
,ziphius1       #bhj      ,mammoth1     
#bhj      ,mastodon1       #bha         
,hippopotamus1       #bhc               
,rhinoceros1       ib4                  
,elasmotherium1       #bhe      ,horse1 
#bhe      ,fossil ,elk1        #bhf     
,megatherium1       #bhi                
,megalonyx1       #bij      ,bear1      
#bia      ,man1       #bid              
,,appendix4      ,on the ,birds to which
 the name of ,ibis was given by the     
,ancient ,egyptians1       #bii         
,,geological ,,illustrations    ,,by    

,,professor ,,jameson4                  
,page      ,on the ,subsidence of       
,strata1       #ccc      ,deluge1       
#ccd      ,formation of ,primitive      
,mountains1       #cce      ,on the     
,distribution of ,boulder-,stones in    
,scotland1 ,holland1    ,germany1       
,switzerland and ,america1       #cdd   
,on the ,alluvial ,land of the ,danish  
,islands in the ,baltic    and on the   
,coast of ,sleswigh1       #ced      ,on
 the ,sand-,flood1       #cfh           
,sand-,flood in ,morayshire1       #cfi 
,sand-,flood in the ,hebrides1 c4       
#cgb        ,moving ,sands of the       
,african ,deserts1       #cge           
,action of the ,sea upon ,coasts1       
#cgh      ,on the ,growth of ,coral     
,islands1       #cgi      ,on the ,level
 of the ,baltic1       #cih      ,fossil
 ,remains of the ,human ,species1       
#djf      ,account of the displacement  
of that part of the ,coast of    the    
,adriatic which is occupied by the      
,mouths of the ,po1       #daj      ,on 

the ,universal ,deluge1       #dag      
,on the action of ,running ,waters1     
#dcg      ,connection of ,geology with  
,agriculture and ,planting1       #dec  
,account of the ,fossil ,elk of         
,ireland1       #dhf      ,account of   
the ,living ,species of ,elephant1 and  
of the    ,extinct ,species of ,elephant
 or ,mammoth1       #ejh      ,account  
of the ,caves in which ,bones of        
,carnivorous ,animals    occur in great 
quantities1       #eaf      ,cave       
containing ,bones at ,adelsberg1 in     
,carniola1       #edj      ,tabular     
,view of the ,genera of ,fossil         
,mammifera1 ,cetacea1    ,aves1         
,reptilia1 and ,insecta1--with their    
,geognostical ,number    and            
,distribution1       #edg      ,tabular 
,view of the ,classes1 ,orders1 or      
,families of ,animals1    occurring in a
 ,living or ,fossil ,state1 with their  
,geognostical    ,distribution1         
#eej          ,,list ,,of ,,plates4     
,the ,frontispiece exhibits a vertical  

section of the ,bone-,caves    of       
,gaylenreuth1 in ,franconia4      ,plate
 ,i4 is a plan shewing the relative     
position of the ,tertiary    ,mineral   
,formations around ,paris4      ,,ii4 is
 illustrative of the ,succession of the 
,secondary ,formations1    and of the   
,distribution of ,petrifactions4        
,,ii a4 ,extraordinary ,fossil ,animal  
named ,pterodactylus    longirostrus1   
found near ,aichstedt1 in ,germany4     
,,iii4 ,figure of an ,ibis in a ,temple 
in ,upper ,egypt4      ,,iv4 ,skeleton  
of an ,ibis from a ,mummy found at      
,thebes4      ,v4 ,numenius ,ibis1      
supposed true ,ibis of the ,egyptians4  
,,vi4 ,fossil ,human ,skeleton found in 
,guadaloupe4      ,,vii4 ,cervus        
megaceros1 ,irish ,elk in the ,museum of
 the ,royal    ,dublin ,society4        
,,viii4 ,fig4 #a4 ,head and ,horn of the
 ,fossil ,irish ,elk4 ,it represents    
a larger view of the head1 in which the 
different markings are    delineated1   
and the expansion of the horns shewn in 

a front    view4 ,in this is also seen  
the peculiar forked appearance of the   
sur-antler4      ,fig4 #b4 ,the portion 
of cast horn mentioned at p4 #eja1      
having the    smooth convex surface at  
the root4      ,fig4 #c4 ,an internal   
and external view of the perforated rib1
    described in p4 #ejd4      ,,ix4    
,cervus megaceros1 ,irish or ,isle of   
,man ,elk in the ,royal ,museum    of   
the ,university of ,edinburgh4          
,illustration3      ,,plate ,i4         
,page #bdh4      ,,plan      ,shewing   
the relative position of the ,,mineral  
,,formations around ,,paris      #aj    
,upper fresh water                      
formation--,millstone--,flint--,limeston
e4      #i ,millstone without ,shells4  
#h ,upper marine ,sandstone4      #g    
,sandstone  ,sand without ,shells4      
#f ,bed of ,oysters4      #e ,gypsum    
,marl containing ,bones of ,animals4    
,lower fresh water formation            
,lower marine ,sandstone      #d        
,siliceous ,limestone without ,shells4  

#c ,coarse marine ,limestone4      #b   
,plastic ,clay  ,lower ,sand4      ,,ii4
 ,alluvial4      #a ,chalk  ,flint4     
,w4 ,h4 ,lizars ,sc4 ,edinr4            
,edinburgh ,published by ,wm4 ,blackwood
 #ahbg4      ,illustration3      ,,plate
 ,,ii4        ,page #bec4      ,,section
      ,illustrative of the succession of
 the ,,secondary ,,formations    and of 
the distribution of ,,petrifactions4    
,primitive ,rocks        ,no ,fossil    
,organic ,remains4      ,transition     
,rocks        ,first ,appearance of     
,fossil ,shells and ,corals4      #ast  
,sandstone or ,old ,red ,sandstone  ,old
 ,red ,conglomerate        ,fossil      
,wood2 ,fossil ,fishes8      #ast       
,limestone or ,mountn ,limestone        
,fossil ,corals  ,shells4      #b;d     
,sandstone or ,coal ,formation          
,impressions of ,plants principally     
,monocotyledonous1 many with        a   
,tropical aspect4      ,new ,red        
,conglomerate      #b;d ,limestone or   
,magnesian ,limestone        ,first     

appearance of ,fossil ,fishes and of    
,fossil ,oviparous        ,quadrupeds4  
#c;d ,sandstone or ,new ,red ,sandstone 
,fossil ,shells1 ,corals  ,vegetables4  
#c;d or ,shell ,limestone        ,fossil
 ,shells4      #dth ,sandstone or       
variegated ,marl        ,fossil ,plants 
and ,shells4      #dth ,limestone or    
,java ,oolite  ,lias ,limestones        
,fossil ,shells1 ,corals1 ,crustac1     
,lacert1 ,turtles4 ,fishes and          
,vegetables4      #eth ,sandstone or    
,green ,sand or ,quader ,sandstone      
with ,coal1 ,fishes1 ,lacert  ,emydes4  
#eth ,limestone  ,chalk        ,fossil  
,shells1 ,corals1 ,lacert1 ,turtles     
,fishes4      ,brown ,coal ,formation   
,crocodiles c4 also ,dictyledonous      
,plants4      ,hertfordshire            
,puddingstone        ,crocodiles c4 also
 ,dictyledonous ,plants4      ,paris    
,formation        ,first appearance of  
,fossil ,remains of ,birds  ,mammiferous
        ,animals4      ,diluvial        
,formation        ,remains of extinct   

species of ,elephant1 ,rhinoceros1      
,hippopotamus1 ,tapir1 ,deer1 ,hyena1   
,bear c4      ,post ,diluvial ,formation
        ,fossil ,remains of the ,human  
,species first appear in this           
formation4        ,edinburgh ,published 
by ,wm ,blackwood #ahbg4      ,w4 ,h4   
,lizars ,sc4      ,illustration3        
,,plate4 ,,ii4 a        ,page #bfa4     
,extraordinary animal1 named            
,,pterodactylus ,,longirostris found    
near    ,aichstedt in ,germany4         
,edinburgh ,published by ,wm4 ,blackwood
 #ahbg4      ,illustration3      ,,plate
 ,,iii4      ,page #cah4      ,,figure  
,,of ,,an ,,ibis    in one of the       
,temples in ,,upper ,,egypt4      ,beak1
 half the natural size of a mummy ,ibis4
      ,engd4 by ,w4 ,h4 ,lizars4        
,illustration3      ,,plate ,,iv4       
,page #cjg4      ,,skeleton ,,of ,,an   
,,ibis    extracted from a ,mummy found 
at ,,thebes in ,,egypt4      ,engd4 by  
,w4 ,h4 ,lizars ,edinr4                 
,illustration3      ,,plate ,v4         

,page #cji4      ,,numenius ,,ibix      
,supposed to be the true ,ibix of the   
,,egyptians4      ,engd4 by ,w4 ,h4     
,lizars ,edinr4      ,illustration3     
,,plate ,,vi4       ,page #djf4         
,,fossil      ,,human ,,skeleton        
,,found ,,in ,,guadaloupe               
,edinburgh ,published by ,wm4 ,blackwood
 #ahbg4      ,illustration3      ,,plate
 ,,vii4      ,page #dhf4      ,,cervus  
,,megaceros4    ,,irish ,,elk4    in the
 ,,museum of the ,,royal ,,dublin       
,,society4      ,w4 ,h4 ,lizars ,sc4    
,edinburgh ,published by ,w4 ,blackwood 
#ahbg4      ,illustration3      ,,plate 
,,viii4      ,page #dib4      ,,head    
,,and ,,horns    of the ,,irish ,,elk4  
,fig4 #a4    ,fig4 #b4    ,fig4 #c4     
,w4 ,h4 ,lizars ,sc4      ,edinburgh    
,published by ,w4 ,blackwood #ahbg4     
,illustration3      ,,plate ,,ix4       
,page #ejf4      ,,cervus ,,megaceros1  
,,isle ,,of ,,man ,,or ,,irish ,,elk4   
,royal ,museum1 ,college1 ,edinburgh4   
,w4 ,h4 ,lizars ,sc4      ,published by 

,w4 ,blackwood4 ,edinr4 #ahbg4          
,,essay    ,,on ,,the    ,,theory ,,of  
,,the ,,earth4      ,,preliminary       
,,observations4    ,in my work on       
,fossil ,bones1 the object which ,i     
proposed was to  discover to what       
animals the osseous remains1 with which 
the  superficial strata of the globe are
 filled1 may have belonged4 ,in         
pursuing this object1 ,i had to follow a
 path in which but little  progress had 
hitherto been made4 ,as an antiquary of 
a new order1 ,i  was obliged at once to 
learn the art of restoring these        
monuments  of past revolutions to their 
original forms1 and to discover  their  
nature and relations2 ,i had to collect 
and bring together  in their original   
order1 the fragments of which they      
consisted2  to reconstruct1 as it were1 
the ancient beings to which these       
fragments belonged2 to reproduce them   
with all their proportions  and         
characters2 and1 lastly1 to compare them
 with those which now  live at the      

surface of the globe3--an art almost    
unknown1 and which  presupposed a       
science whose first developments had    
scarcely yet been  traced1 that of the  
laws which regulate the co-existence of 
the  forms of the different parts in    
organised beings4 ,i had therefore to   
prepare myself for these inquiries1 by  
others of a far more extensive  kind1   
respecting the animals which still      
exist4 ,nothing1 except an  almost      
complete review of creation in its      
present state1 could give  a character  
of demonstration to the results of my   
investigation into  its ancient state2  
but1 from this review1 ,i had at the    
same time to  expect a great body of    
rules and affinities not less           
satisfactorily  demonstrated2 and it    
became obvious1 that1 in consequence of 
this  essay upon a small portion of the 
theory of the earth1 the whole  animal  
kingdom would necessarily be in some    
measure subjected to new  laws4    ,thus
 ,i was encouraged in this twofold      

investigation1 by the equal  interest   
which it promised to possess1 both with 
regard to the  general science of       
anatomy1 the essential basis of all     
those which  treat of organised bodies1 
and with regard to the physical history 
of  the globe1 the foundation of        
mineralogy1 geography1 and even1 it may 
be said1 of the history of ,man1 and of 
all that it most concerns him  to know  
with regard to himself4    ,if it be so 
interesting to us to follow1 in the     
infancy of our  species1 the almost     
obliterated traces of extinct nations1  
why should  it not also be so1 to       
search1 amid the darkness of the infancy
 of the  ,earth1 for the traces of      
revolutions which have taken place      
anterior  to the existence of all       
nations8 ,we admire the power by which  
the  human mind has measured the motions
 of the celestial bodies1 which  nature 
seemed to have concealed for ever from  
our view4 ,genius and  science have     
burst the limits of space2 and          

observations1 explained  by just        
reasoning1 have unveiled the mechanism  
of the universe4 ,would  it not also be 
glorious for man to burst the limits of 
time1 and1 by  means of observations1 to
 ascertain the history of this world1   
and  the succession of events which     
preceded the birth of the human race8   
,astronomers have undoubtedly advanced  
more rapidly than naturalists2  and the 
present period1 with respect to the     
,theory of the ,earth1  bears some      
resemblance to that in which some       
philosophers fancied  that the heavens  
were formed of polished stones1 and that
 the moon  was of the size of the       
,peloponnesus2 but after ,,anaxagoras1  
came  ,,copernicus and ,,kepler1 who    
pointed the way to ,,newton2 and why    
should  not natural history also one day
 have its ,newton8          ,plan of    
this ,essay4      ,what ,i especially   
propose to present in this discourse1 is
 the plan  and the result of my labours 
regarding ,fossil ,bones4 ,i shall also 

attempt to trace a rapid sketch of the  
efforts that have been made up  to the  
present day1 to restore the history of  
the revolutions of the  globe4 ,the     
facts which ,i have been enabled to     
discover1 form1 without  doubt1 only a  
small portion of those which would be   
necessary to  complete this ancient     
history2 but several of them lead to    
decisive  consequences1 and the rigorous
 manner in which ,i have proceeded in   
their determination1 affords me reason  
to think that they will be  regarded as 
points definitively fixed1 and which in 
their aggregate  will form an epoch in  
science4 ,lastly1 ,i trust their novelty
 will be  a sufficient excuse for me1 if
 ,i claim for them the earnest attention
  of my readers4    ,my object will     
first be to shew by what relations the  
history of  the fossil bones of         
terrestrial animals connects itself with
 the  theory of the earth1 and for what 
reasons a peculiar importance is  to be 
attributed to it1 with reference to this

 subject4 ,i shall then  unfold the     
principles upon which is founded the art
 of determining  these bones1 or1 in    
other words1 of recognizing a genus1 and
 of  distinguishing a species1 by a     
single fragment of bone1--an art1 on    
the certainty of which depends that of  
my whole work1 ,i shall give a  rapid   
account of the new species1 and of      
genera previously unknown1  which the   
application of these principles has led 
me to discover1 as  well as the         
different kinds of deposits in which    
they are contained4  ,and as the        
difference between these species and    
those which exist  at the present day is
 bounded by certain limits1 ,i shall    
show that  these limits much exceed     
those which now distinguish the         
varieties of  the same species4 ,i shall
 therefore make known to what extent    
these  varieties may go1 whether from   
the influence of time1 or from that of  
climate1 or1 lastly1 from that of       
domestication4    ,in this way ,i shall 

be enabled to conclude1 and to induce my
 readers  to conclude with me1 that     
great events were necessary to produce  
the more considerable differences which 
,i have discovered4 ,i shall  next      
mention the particular modifications    
which my researches must  necessarily   
introduce into the hitherto received    
opinions regarding  the revolutions of  
the globe2 and1 lastly1 ,i shall inquire
 how far  the civil and religious       
history of different nations corresponds
  with the results of observation with  
regard to the physical history  of the  
,earth1 and with the probabilities which
 these observations  afford concerning  
the period at which societies of men may
 have found  fixed places of abode1 and 
fields susceptible of cultivation1 and  
at  which1 therefore1 they may have     
assumed a durable form4          ,first 
,appearance of the ,earth4      ,when   
the traveller passes over those fertile 
plains where gently  flowing streams    
nourish in their course an abundant     

vegetation1 and  where the soil1        
inhabited by a numerous population1     
adorned with  flourishing villages1     
opulent cities1 and superb monuments1 is
 never  disturbed1 except by the ravages
 of war1 or by the oppression of  the   
powerful1 he is not led to suspect that 
,nature also has had her  intestine     
wars1 and that the surface of the globe 
has been broken  up by revolutions and  
catastrophes4 ,but his ideas change as  
soon as  he digs into that soil which   
now presents so peaceful an aspect1 or  
ascends to the hills which border the   
plain2 his ideas are expanded1  if ,i   
may use the expression1 in proportion to
 the expansion of the  view1 and begin  
to embrace the full extent and grandeur 
of those  ancient events1 when he climbs
 the more elevated chains1 whose base   
is skirted by these hills1 or when1 by  
following the beds of the  torrents     
which descend from those chains1 he     
penetrates1 as it were1  into their     
interior4          ,first proofs of     

,revolutions on the surface of the      
,globe4      ,the lowest and most level 
parts of the earth1 exhibit nothing1    
even when penetrated to a very great    
depth1 but horizontal strata  composed  
of substances more or less varied1 and  
containing almost  all of them          
innumerable marine productions4 ,similar
 strata1 with the  same kind of         
productions1 compose the lesser hills to
 a considerable  height4 ,sometimes the 
shells are so numerous as to constitute 
of  themselves the entire mass of the   
rock2 they rise to elevations  superior 
to the level of every part of the ocean1
 and are found in  places where no sea  
could have carried them at the present  
day1 under  any circumstances2 they are 
not only enveloped in loose sand1 but   
are  often inclosed in the hardest      
rocks4 ,every part of the earth1 every  
hemisphere1 every continent1 every      
island of any extent1 exhibits the  same
 phenomenon4    ,the times are past when
 ignorance could maintain1 that these   

remains  of organized bodies are mere   
sportings of nature1 productions        
generated in the womb of the ,earth1 by 
its own creative powers2 and  the       
efforts made by some metaphysicians of  
the present day1 will  not probably     
succeed in bringing these exploded      
opinions again into  repute4 ,a         
scrupulous comparison of the forms of   
these remains1 of  their texture1 and   
often even of their chemical            
composition1 does  not disclose the     
slightest difference between the fossil 
shells and  those which still inhabit   
the sea3 the preservation of the former 
is  not less perfect than that of the   
latter2 most commonly we neither        
observe detrition nor fracture in them1 
nothing1 in short1 that  announces a    
violent removal from their original     
places2 the smallest  of them retain    
their sharpest ridges1 and their most   
delicate spines4  ,they have1 therefore1
 not only lived in the sea1 but they    
have also  been deposited by it4 ,it is 

the sea which has left them in the      
places  where they are now found4 ,but  
this sea has remained for a certain     
period in those places2 it has covered  
them long enough1 and with  sufficient  
tranquillity to form those deposits1 so 
regular1 so thick1  so extensive1 and   
partly also so solid1 which contain     
those remains  of aquatic animals4 ,the 
basin of the sea has therefore undergone
  one change at least1 either in extent1
 or in situation4 ,such is  the result  
of the very first search1 and of the    
most superficial  examination4    ,the  
traces of revolutions become still more 
apparent and decisive1  when we ascend a
 little higher1 and approach nearer to  
the foot of  the great chains4 ,there   
are still found many beds of shells2    
some  of these are even thicker and more
 solid2 the shells are quite as         
numerous1 and as well preserved1 but    
they are no longer of the  same species4
 ,the strata which contain them are not 
so generally  horizontal2 they assume an

 oblique position1 and are sometimes    
almost  vertical4 ,while in the plains  
and low hills it was necessary to dig   
deep1 in order to discover the          
succession of the beds1 we here         
discover it at once by their exposed    
edges1 as we follow the valleys  that   
have been produced by their disjunction4
 ,great masses of debris  form at the   
foot of the cliffs1 rounded hills1 the  
height of which is  augmented by every  
thaw and tempest4    ,these inclined    
strata1 which form the ridges of the    
secondary  mountains1 do not rest upon  
the horizontal strata of the hills      
which are situate at their base1 and    
which form the first steps in           
approaching them2 but1 on the contrary1 
dip under them1 while the  hills in     
question rest upon their declivities4   
,when we dig through  the horizontal    
strata in the vicinity of mountains     
whose strata  are inclined1 we find     
these inclined strata re-appearing      
below2  and even sometimes1 when the    

inclined strata are not too elevated1   
their summit is crowned by horizontal   
ones#a4 ,the inclined strata  are       
therefore older than the horizontal     
strata2 and as they must  necessarily1  
at least the greater number of them1    
have been formed in  a horizontal       
position1 it is evident that they have  
been raised#b1  and that this change in 
their direction has been effected before
 the  others were superimposed upon     
them#c4    ,thus the sea1 previous to   
the deposition of the horizontal strata1
  had formed others1 which1 by the      
operation of problematical causes1  were
 broken1 raised1 and overturned in a    
thousand ways2 and1 as  several of those
 inclined strata which it had formed at 
more remote  periods1 rise higher than  
the horizontal strata which have        
succeeded  them1 and which surround     
them1 the causes by which the           
inclination  of these beds was effected1
 had also made them project above the   
level of the sea1 and formed islands of 

them1 or at least shoals and            
inequalities2 and this must have        
happened1 whether they had been  raised 
by one extremity1 or whether the        
depression of the opposite  extremity   
had made the waters subside4 ,this is   
the second result1 not  less clear1 nor 
less satisfactorily demonstrated1 than  
the first1 to  every one who will take  
the trouble of examining the monuments  
on  which it is established4            
,proofs that such revolutions have been 
numerous4      ,but it is not to this   
subversion of the ancient strata1 nor to
 this  retreat of the sea after the     
formation of the new strata1 that the   
revolutions and changes which have given
 rise to the present state of  the      
,earth are limited4    ,when we         
institute a more detailed comparison    
between the various  strata and those   
remains of animals which they contain1  
we presently  perceive1 that this       
ancient sea has not always deposited    
mineral  substances of the same kind1   

nor remains of animals of the same      
species2 and that each of its deposits  
has not extended over the  whole surface
 which it covered4 ,there has existed a 
succession of  variations2 the former of
 which alone have been more or less     
general1  while the others appear to    
have been much less so4 ,the older the  
strata are1 the more uniform is each of 
them over a great extent2 the  newer    
they are1 the more limited are they1 and
 the more subject to  vary at small     
distances4 ,thus the displacements of   
the strata were  accompanied and        
followed by changes in the nature of the
 fluid1 and  of the matters which it    
held in solution2 and when certain      
strata1 by  making their appearance     
above the waters1 had divided the       
surface of  the seas by islands and     
projecting ridges1 different changes    
might  take place in particular basins4 
,amidst these variations in the nature  
of the general fluid1 it  is evident1   
that the animals which lived in it could

 not remain  the same4 ,their species1  
and even their genera1 changed with the 
strata2 and1 although the same species  
occasionally recur at small  distances1 
it may be announced as a general truth1 
that the shells  of the ancient strata  
have forms peculiar to themselves2 that 
they  gradually disappear1 so as no     
longer to be seen at all in the recent  
strata1 and still less in the presently 
existing ocean1 in which  their         
corresponding species are never         
discovered1 and where several1  even of 
their genera1 do not occur3 that1 on the
 contrary1 the shells  of the recent    
strata are similar1 in respect to their 
genera1 to  those which exist in our    
seas2 and that1 in the latest and least 
consolidated of these strata1 and in    
certain recent and limited  deposits1   
there are some species which the most   
experienced eye could  not distinguish  
from those which are found in the       
neighbouring seas4    ,there has1       
therefore1 been a succession of         

variations in the economy  of organic   
nature1 which has been occasioned by    
those of the fluid  in which the animals
 lived1 or which has at least           
corresponded with  them2 and these      
variations have gradually conducted the 
classes of  aquatic animals to their    
present state1 till1 at length1 at the  
time  when the sea retired from our     
continents for the last time1 its       
inhabitants did not differ much from    
those which are found in it at  the     
present day4    ,we say for the last    
time1 because1 if we examine with still 
greater  care those remains of organised
 bodies1 we discover1 in the midst  of  
even the oldest strata of marine        
formation1 other strata replete  with   
animal or vegetable remains of          
terrestrial or fresh-water  productions2
 and1 amongst the more recent strata1   
or1 in other  words1 those that are     
nearest the surface1 there are some in  
which  land animals are buried under    
heaps of marine productions4 ,thus1 the 

various catastrophes which have         
disturbed the strata1 have not only     
caused the different parts of our       
continents to rise by degrees from  the 
bosom of the waves1 and diminished the  
extent of the basin of  the ocean1 but  
have also given rise to numerous        
shiftings of this  basin4 ,it has       
frequently happened1 that lands which   
have been laid  dry1 have been again    
covered by the waters1 in consequence   
either  of their being ingulphed in the 
abyss1 or of the sea having merely      
risen over them4 ,the particular        
portions also1 of the ,earth1 which  the
 sea abandoned in its last              
retreat1--those which are now inhabited 
by man and terrestrial animals1--had    
already been once laid dry1  and had    
then afforded subsistence to quadrupeds1
 birds1 plants1 and  land productions of
 all kinds3 the sea which left it had1  
therefore1  covered it at a previous    
period#d4    ,the changes in the level  
of the waters have not1 therefore1      

consisted  solely in a more or less     
gradual1 or more or less general        
retreat2  there have been various       
successive irruptions and retreats1 the 
final  result of which1 however1 has    
been a universal depression of the      
level of the sea4          ,proofs that 
these ,revolutions have been sudden4    
,it is of much importance to remark1    
that these repeated irruptions  and     
retreats of the sea have neither all    
been slow nor gradual2  on the contrary1
 most of the catastrophes which have    
occasioned  them have been sudden2 and  
this is especially easy to be proved1   
with regard to the last of these        
catastrophes1 that which1 by a  two-fold
 motion1 has inundated1 and afterwards  
laid dry1 our present  continents1 or at
 least a part of the land which forms   
them at the  present day4 ,in the       
northern regions1 it has left the       
carcases of  large quadrupeds which     
became enveloped in the ice1 and have   
thus  been preserved even to our own    

times1 with their skin1 their hair1  and
 their flesh4 ,if they had not been     
frozen as soon as killed1  they would   
have been decomposed by putrefaction4   
,and1 on the other  hand1 this eternal  
frost could not previously have occupied
 the  places in which they have been    
seized by it1 for they could not  have  
lived in such a temperature4 ,it was1   
therefore1 at one and the  same moment  
that these animals were destroyed1 and  
the country  which they inhabited became
 covered with ice4 ,this event has been 
sudden1 instantaneous1 without any      
gradation2 and what is so clearly       
demonstrated with respect to this last  
catastrophe1 is not less so  with       
reference to those which have preceded  
it4 ,the breaking to  pieces1 the       
raising up and overturning of the older 
strata1 leave  no doubt upon the mind   
that they have been reduced to the state
 in  which we now see them1 by the      
action of sudden and violent causes2    
and even the force of the motions       

excited in the mass of waters1 is  still
 attested by the heaps of debris and    
rounded pebbles which are  in many      
places interposed between the solid     
strata4 ,life1 therefore1  has often    
been disturbed on this earth by terrible
 events4 ,numberless  living beings have
 been the victims of these catastrophes2
 some1  which inhabited the dry land1   
have been swallowed up by inundations2  
others1 which peopled the waters1 have  
been laid dry1 from the bottom  of the  
sea having been suddenly raised2 their  
very races have been  extinguished for  
ever1 and have left no other memorial of
 their  existence than some fragments1  
which the naturalist can scarcely       
recognize4    ,such are the conclusions 
to which we are necessarily led by the  
objects that we meet with at every step1
 and which we can always  verify1 by    
examples drawn from almost every        
country4 ,these great  and terrible     
events are every where distinctly       
recorded1 so as to be  always legible by

 the eye skilled to decypher their      
history in the  monuments which they    
have left behind4    ,but what is still 
more astonishing and not less certain1  
life has  not always existed upon the   
globe2 and it is easy for the observer  
to distinguish the point at which it has
 begun to deposit its  productions4     
,proofs that there have been            
,revolutions anterior to the existence  
of  living beings4      ,if we ascend to
 higher points of elevation1 and advance
 towards the  great ridges1 the craggy  
summits of the mountain chains1 we shall
  presently find those remains of marine
 animals1 those innumerable  shells1 of 
which we have spoken1 becoming more     
rare1 and at length  disappearing       
altogether4 ,we arrive at strata of a   
different nature1  which contain no     
vestiges of living beings4              
,nevertheless1 their  crystallization1  
and even their stratification1 shew that
 they have  been also in a liquid state 
at their formation2 their inclined      

position1 and the cliffs into which they
 are broken1 shew that they  also have  
been forcibly moved from their original 
places2 the oblique  manner in which    
they dip under the shelly strata1 that  
they have been  formed previously to    
these latter2 and lastly1 the height to 
which  their rugged and bare peaks rise 
above all these shelly strata1 that     
their summits had already emerged from  
the waters1 when the shelly  strata were
 forming4    ,such are those celebrated 
,primitive ,mountains which traverse our
  continents in different directions1   
raising themselves above the  clouds1   
separating the basins of rivers from one
 another1 affording1  in their perennial
 snows1 reservoirs which feed the       
springs1 and  forming1 in some measure1 
the skeleton1 and as it were the rough  
framework1 of the ,earth4    ,the eye   
perceives from afar1 in the indentations
 with which their  ridge has been       
marked1 and in the sharp peaks with     
which it is  bristled1 indications of   

the violent manner in which they have   
been  elevated4 ,their appearance1 in   
this respect1 is very different from    
that of those rounded mountains1 and    
hills with long flat surfaces1  whose   
less ancient masses have always remained
 in the situation in  which they were   
quietly deposited by the waters of more 
recent seas4    ,these indications      
become more obvious as we approach4 ,the
 valleys  have no longer those          
gently-sloping sides1 those salient and 
re-entering angles corresponding on     
either side to each other1 which  seem  
to denote the beds of ancient streams4  
,they widen and they  contract without  
any general rule2 their waters1 at one  
time1 expand  into lakes2 at another1   
fall in torrents2 and sometimes their   
rocks1  suddenly approaching from each  
side1 form transverse dikes1 over  which
 the waters tumble in cataracts4 ,the   
dissevered strata1 while  they shew on  
one side their edges perpendicularly    
raised1 on the  other present large     

portions of their surface lying         
obliquely2 they  do not correspond in   
height1 but those which1 on one side1   
form the  summit of the cliff1 often dip
 underneath on the other1 and are no    
longer visible4    ,yet1 amidst all this
 confusion1 distinguished naturalists   
have  been able to demonstrate1 that    
there still reigns a certain order1  and
 that those immense deposits1 broken and
 overturned though they  be1 observe a  
regular succession with regard to each  
other1 which  is nearly the same in all 
the great mountain chains4 ,according to
  them1 ,granite1 of which the central  
ridges of the greater number of  these  
chains consist1 and which thus surmounts
 every other rock1  is also the rock    
which is found deepest in the solid     
crust of the  globe4 ,it is the most    
ancient of those which we have found    
means of  examining in the place        
assigned them by nature2 and we inquire 
not  at present1 whether it owes its    
origin to a general fluid1 which        

formerly held every thing in solution1  
or may have been the first  consolidated
 by the cooling of a great mass in      
fusion1 or even in a  state of vapour#e4
 ,foliated rocks rest upon its sides1   
and form  the lateral ridges of these   
great chains2 schists1 porphyries1      
sandstones1 and talcose rocks1          
intermingle with their strata2 lastly1  
granular marbles1 and other limestones  
destitute of shells1 resting  upon the  
schists1 form the outer ridges1 the     
lower steps as it were1  the            
counterforts1 of these chains1 and are  
the last formations1 by  which this     
unknown fluid1 this sea without         
inhabitants1 would seem to  have        
prepared materials for the mollusca and 
zoophytes1 which were  presently to     
deposite upon these foundations vast    
heaps of their  shells and corals4      
,we even find the first productions of  
these mollusca and zoophytes  appearing 
in small numbers1 and scattered at      
greater or less  distances1 in the last 

strata of these primitive formations1 or
 in  that portion of the crust of the   
globe to which geologists have  given   
the name of ,transition rocks4 ,here and
 there we meet with beds  containing    
shells1 interposed between certain      
granites of later  formation than the   
others1 between schists of various      
kinds1 and  between some newer beds of  
granular marbles4 ,life1 which was in   
the end to obtain entire possession of  
the globe1 seems1 in these  primordial  
times1 to have struggled with the inert 
nature which  formerly predominated2 and
 it was not until a considerable time   
after1 that it obtained the ascendancy  
over it1 and acquired for  itself the   
exclusive right of continuing and       
elevating the solid  envelope of the    
,earth4    ,hence1 it is impossible to  
deny1 that the masses which now         
constitute  our highest mountains1 have 
been originally in a liquid state2 and  
that they have for a long time been     
covered by waters in which  no living   

beings existed4 ,thus1 it has not been  
only since the  appearance of life that 
changes have been operated in the nature
 of  the matters which have been        
deposited2 for the masses formed        
previous  to that event1 have varied1 as
 well as those which have been formed   
since4 ,they have also experienced      
violent changes in their position1  and 
a part of these changes must have taken 
place at the period when  these masses  
existed by themselves1 and were not     
covered over by  the shelly masses4 ,the
 proof of this lies in the overturnings1
 the  disruptions1 and the fissures1    
which are observable in their strata1   
as well as in those of more recent      
formations1 and which are in the        
ancient strata even in greater number   
and better defined4    ,but these       
primitive masses have also undergone    
other revolutions  since the formation  
of the secondary strata1 and have1      
perhaps1  given rise to1 or at least    
have partaken of1 some of those changes 

which these strata themselves have      
experienced4 ,there are actually        
considerable portions of the primitive  
formations uncovered1 although  placed  
in lower situations than many of the    
secondary formations2  and we cannot    
conceive how it should have so happened1
 unless the  primitive strata in those  
places had forced themselves into view1 
after the secondary strata had been     
formed4 ,in certain countries1 we  find 
numerous large blocks of primitive      
substances scattered over  the surface  
of secondary formations1 and separated  
by deep valleys1  or even by arms of the
 sea1 from the peaks or ridges from     
which they  must have been derived4 ,we 
must necessarily conclude1 therefore1   
either that these blocks have been      
ejected by eruptions1 or that the       
valleys 7which must have stopped their  
course7 did not exist at the  time of   
their being transported2 or1 lastly1    
that the motions of the  waters by which
 they were transported1 exceeded in     

violence any thing  that we can imagine 
at the present day#f4    ,here1         
therefore1 we have a collection of      
facts1 a series of epochs1  anterior to 
the present time1 of which the          
successive steps may  be perfectly      
ascertained1 although the duration of   
their intervals  cannot be defined with 
precision4 ,they are so many fixed      
points1  which serve to regulate and    
direct our inquiries respecting this    
ancient chronology4                     
,examination of the ,causes which act at
 present on the surface of the  ,globe4 
,let us now examine those changes which 
are taking place at the  present day    
upon the globe1 investigating the causes
 which still act  in its surface1 and   
endeavouring to determine the possible  
extent  of their effects4 ,this portion 
of the history of the ,earth is so  much
 the more important1 that it has long   
been considered possible  to explain the
 more ancient revolutions on its surface
 by means of  these still existing      

causes2 in the same manner as it is     
found easy  to explain past events in   
political history1 by an acquaintance   
with the passions and intrigues of the  
present day4 ,but we shall  presently   
see1 that unfortunately the case is     
different in physical  history3--the    
thread of operations is here broken2 the
 march of  ,nature is changed2 and none 
of the agents which she now employs1    
would have been sufficient for the      
production of her ancient works4        
,there still exist1 however1 four causes
 in full activity1 which  contribute to 
alter the surface of our continents4    
,these are1 rains  and thaws1 which     
waste down the steep mountains1 and     
precipitate the  fragments to their     
bottoms2 running waters1 which carry off
 these  fragments1 and deposit them in  
places where their current is abated2   
the sea1 which undermines the           
foundations of elevated coasts1 forming 
steep cliffs1 and which throws up great 
banks of sand upon the low  coasts2 and1

 lastly1 volcanoes1 which pierce through
 the solid strata  from below1 elevate  
these strata1 or spread over the surface
 vast  quantities of ejected matter#g4  
,of ,slips1 or ,falling down of the     
,materials of ,mountains4      ,in every
 place where the broken strata present  
their edges on abrupt  surfaces1 there  
fall down to their base1 every spring1  
and even after  every storm1 fragments  
of their materials1 which are rounded by
  rolling upon each other4 ,these       
collected heaps gradually assume an     
inclination determined by the laws of   
cohesion1 and thus form1 at the  bottom 
of the cliff1 taluses1 of greater or    
less elevation1 according  as the       
fragments which have fallen are more or 
less abundant4  ,these taluses          
constitute the sides of the valleys in  
all elevated1  mountainous regions1 and 
are covered with a rich vegetation1     
whenever  the fragments from the upper  
parts begin to fall less abundantly2    
but their want of solidity subjects     

themselves also to slips1 when  they are
 undermined by rivulets4 ,on these      
occasions1 towns1 and rich  and populous
 districts1 are sometimes buried under  
the ruins of a  mountain2 the courses of
 rivers are interrupted1 and lakes are  
formed  in places which were before the 
abodes of fertility and cheerfulness4   
,fortunately these great slips happen   
but seldom1 and the principal  use of   
those hills of debris1 is to furnish    
materials for the ravages  of torrents4 
,alluvial ,formations#h4      ,the rains
 which fall1 the vapours which are      
condensed1 and the  snows which are     
melted1 upon the ridges and summits of  
mountains1  descend1 by an infinite     
number of rills1 along their slopes1    
carrying  with them some portions of the
 materials of which these slopes are    
composed1 and tracing slight furrows by 
their passage4 ,these rills  soon unite 
in the deeper gutters with which the    
surface is marked1  run off by the deep 
valleys which intersect their bottom1   

and thus  form streams and rivers1 which
 carry back to the sea the waters it    
had formerly supplied to the atmosphere4
 ,on the melting of the snows1  or when 
a storm takes place1 these mountain     
torrents become suddenly  swollen1 and  
rush down the declivities with a        
velocity proportioned  to their         
steepness4 ,they dash violently against 
the bases of those  taluses of fallen   
fragments which cover the sides of all  
the high  valleys1 carrying off the     
already rounded fragments of which they 
are  composed1 and which thus become    
smoothed1 and still farther polished1   
by attrition4 ,but in proportion as they
 reach the more level valleys1  where   
their violence is diminished1 or when   
they arrive at more  expanded basins1   
where their waters are permitted to     
spread1 they  throw out upon their banks
 the largest of those stones which they 
had  rolled down4 ,the smaller fragments
 are deposited still lower2 and  nothing
 reaches the great canal of the river   

excepting the minutest  particles1 or   
the most impalpable mud4 ,it often      
happens1 also1 that  before these       
streams unite to form great rivers1 they
 have to pass  through large and deep   
lakes1 in which their mud is deposited1 
and  from which their waters come forth 
limpid4    ,the lower rivers1 and all   
the streams which descend from the less 
elevated mountains and hills1 also      
produce effects1 upon the  districts    
through which they flow1 more or less   
analogous to those of  the torrents from
 the higher mountains4 ,when these      
rivers are swollen  by great rains1 they
 attack the base of the earthy or sandy 
hills  which they meet with in their    
course1 and carry their fragments to be 
deposited upon the lower grounds1 and   
which are thus1 in some degree1  raised 
by each succeeding inundation4 ,finally1
 when the rivers reach  great lakes or  
the sea1 and when that rapidity1 which  
carried off  and kept in suspension the 
particles of mud comes to cease         

entirely1  these particles are deposited
 at the sides of their mouths1 where    
they form low grounds1 by which the     
shores are prolonged4 ,and if  these    
shores are such1 that the sea also      
throws up sand upon them1  and thus     
contributes to their increase2 there are
 created1 as it  were1 provinces1 and   
even entire kingdoms1 which usually     
become the  most fertile1 and speedily  
the richest1 in the world1 if their     
rulers  permit human industry to exert  
itself in peace4          ,formation of 
,downs4#i      ,the effects which the   
sea produces1 without the co-operation  
of  rivers1 are much less beneficial4   
,when the coast is low1 and the  bottom 
sandy1 the waves push the sand toward   
the shore1 where1 at  every reflux of   
the tide1 it becomes partially dried2   
and the wind1  which almost always blows
 from the sea1 drifts it upon the beach4
  ,thus are formed those hillocks of    
sand1 named ,downs1 which1 if the       
industry of man does not fix them by    

suitable plants1 move slowly1  but      
invariably1 toward the interior of the  
country1 and overwhelm  fields and      
dwellings1 because the same wind that   
raises the sand of  the beach upon the  
down1 throws that of its summit in the  
opposite  direction from the sea4 ,when 
the nature of the sand1 and that of the 
water which is raised with it1 are such 
as to form a durable cement1  the shells
 and bones1 thrown upon the beach1      
become incrusted with  it4 ,pieces of   
wood1 trunks of trees1 and plants       
growing near the  sea1 are enveloped in 
these aggregates2 and thus are produced 
what  might be denominated indurated    
downs1 such as we see upon the  coasts  
of ,new ,holland1 and of which a precise
 idea may be formed from  the           
description given of them by ,peron#aj4 
,formation of ,cliffs or ,steep ,shores4
      ,on the other hand1 when the coast
 is high1 the sea1 which is thus        
prevented from throwing up any thing1   
exercises a destructive  action upon it4

 ,its waves1 by sapping the foundation1 
cause the  superincumbent portion of the
 face of the cliff1 thus deprived of    
support1 to be incessantly falling down 
in fragments4 ,these fragments  are     
tumbled about by the billows1 until the 
softer and more divided  parts          
disappear4 ,the harder portions1 from   
being rolled in contrary  directions1   
assume the form of boulders and pebbles2
 and these1 at  length1 accumulate in   
sufficient quantity to form a rampart1  
by which  the bottom of the cliff is    
protected against farther depredations4 
99       99       99       99       99  
,such is the action of water upon the   
solid land2 and we see1 that  it        
consists almost entirely in reducing it 
to lower levels1 but  not indefinitely4 
,the fragments of the great mountain    
ridges are  carried down into the       
valleys2 their finer particles1 together
 with  those of the lower hills and     
plains1 are borne to the sea2 alluvial  
depositions extend the coasts at the    

expence of the high grounds4  ,these are
 limited effects1 to which vegetation in
 general puts a  stop1 and which1       
besides1 presuppose the existence of    
mountains1  valleys1 and plains1 in     
short1 all the inequalities of the      
globe2 and  which1 therefore1 cannot    
have given rise to these inequalities4  
,the  formation of downs is a phenomenon
 still more limited1 both in regard  to 
height and horizontal extent2 and has no
 relation whatever to that  of those    
enormous masses into the origin of which
 it is the object of  geology to        
inquire4#aa          ,depositions formed
 in ,water4      ,although we cannot    
obtain a precise knowledge of the action
 exerted  by water within its own bosom1
 it is yet possible to determine its    
limits to a certain degree4    ,lakes1  
pools1 marshes1 and sea-ports1 into     
which rivulets discharge  their waters1 
more especially when these descend from 
near and steep  hills1 deposit large    
quantities of mud1 which would at length

 fill  them up entirely1 if care were   
not taken to clean them out4 ,the sea   
also throws quantities of slime and     
sediment into harbours and  creeks2 into
 all places1 in short1 where its waters 
are more tranquil  than ordinary4 ,the  
currents also heap up at their meeting1 
or throw  out at their sides1 the sand  
which they are continually raising from 
the bottom of the sea1 forming it into  
banks and shallows4                     
,stalactites4      ,certain waters1     
after dissolving calcareous substances  
by means of  the superabundant carbonic 
acid with which they are impregnated1   
allow these substances to crystallize   
after the acid has evaporated2  and1 in 
this manner1 form stalactites1 and other
 concretions4 ,there  are strata1       
confusedly crystallized in fresh water1 
which are  sufficiently extensive to be 
compared with some of those which have  
been deposited by the ancient sea4 ,the 
famous ,travertine quarries  of the     
neighbourhood of ,rome1 and the rocks of

 the same substance1  which are formed1 
and continually varied in figure1 by the
 river  of ,teverona1 are generally     
known4 ,these two modes of action may be
  combined2 the deposits accumulated by 
the sea may be solidified by            
stalactite4 ,thus1 when springs         
abounding in calcareous matter1 or      
containing some other substance in      
solution1 happen to fall into  places   
where these deposits are formed1 we then
 find aggregates in  which marine and   
fresh-water productions may be blended4 
,of this  description are the banks in  
the island of ,guadeloupe1 which1 along 
with human skeletons1 present land and  
sea shells mingled together4  ,of the   
same nature also is the quarry described
 by ,saussure1 in the  neighbourhood of 
,messina1 in which the sandstone is seen
 forming by  the consolidation of the   
sand thrown up by the sea4              
,lithophytes4      ,in the torrid zone1 
where lithophytes of many species       
abound1 and are  propagated with great  

rapidity1 their strong trunks are       
interwoven  and accumulated so as to    
form rocks and reefs2 and rising even to
  the surface of the water1 shut up the 
entrance of harbours1 and lay  frightful
 snares for navigators4 ,the sea1       
throwing up sand and mud  upon the tops 
of these shoals1 sometimes raises their 
surface above  its own level1 and forms 
islands1 which are soon covered with a  
rich  vegetation4                       
,incrustation4      ,it is also         
possible1 that1 in particular places1   
large quantities  of the animals        
inhabiting shells1 leave their stony    
coverings when  they die1 and that      
these1 cemented together by slime of    
greater or  less consistence1 or by     
other cementing substances1 form        
extensive  deposits or shell banks4 ,but
 we have no evidence that the sea can   
now  incrust those shells with a paste  
as compact as that of the marbles1  the 
sandstones1 or even the coarse limestone
 7calcaire grossier7 in  which we see   

the shells of our strata enveloped4     
,still less do we any  where find the   
sea depositing those more solid and more
 siliceous  strata which have preceded  
the formation of the shelly strata4     
,in short1 all these causes united1     
would not change1 in an  appreciable    
degree1 the level of the sea2 nor raise 
a single stratum  above its surface2 and
 still less would they produce the      
smallest  hillock upon the surface of   
the earth4    ,it has been asserted that
 the sea has undergone a general        
diminution  of level2 and proofs of this
 are said to have been discovered in    
some  parts of the shores of the        
,baltic4#ab ,but whatever may be the    
causes  of these appearances1 we are    
certain that they are not general in    
their operation2 and that1 in the       
greater number of harbours1 where  any  
alteration of the level would be a      
matter of so much interest1  and where  
fixed and ancient works afford so many  
means of measuring  its variations1 the 

mean level of the sea is constant4      
,there  has1 therefore1 never been a    
universal lowering1 nor a universal     
encroachment1 of the waters of the      
ocean4 ,in some places1 indeed1  such as
 ,scotland1 and various parts of the    
,mediterranean1 evidence  has been      
thought to have been found1 that the sea
 has risen1 and that  it now covers     
shores which were formerly above its    
level#ac4          ,volcanoes4      ,the
 action of volcanoes is still more      
limited1 and more local1 than  any of   
those which have yet been mentioned4    
,although we have no  precise idea of   
the means by which nature keeps up these
 violent  fires at such great depths1 we
 can judge decidedly1 by their effects1 
of the changes which they may have      
produced at the surface of the  globe4  
,after a volcano has announced itself1  
by some shocks of an  earthquake1 it    
forms for itself an opening4 ,stones and
 ashes are  thrown to a great distance1 
and lava is vomited forth4 ,the more    

fluid  part of the lava flows in long   
streams1 while the less fluid portion   
stops at the edges of the opening1      
raises its margins all round1 and  forms
 a cone1 terminated by a crater4 ,thus  
volcanoes accumulate upon  the surface  
matters which were previously buried in 
the bowels of  the earth1 after         
modifying their nature1 and raise       
themselves into  mountains4 ,by these   
means1 they have formerly covered some  
parts of  our continent1 and have also  
suddenly produced islands in the middle 
of the sea4 ,but these mountains and    
islands have always been composed  of   
lava1 and all their materials have      
undergone the action of fire3  they are 
disposed as matters should be1 which    
have flowed from an  elevated point4    
,volcanoes1 therefore1 neither raise nor
 overturn the  strata through which     
their apertures pass2 and if some causes
 acting  from those depths have         
contributed1 in certain cases1 to raise 
up  large mountains1 they cannot have   

been volcanic agents of the same  nature
 as those which exist at the present    
day4           99       99       99     
99       99    ,thus1 we repeat1 it is  
in vain that we search1 among the powers
  which now act at the surface of the   
earth1 for causes sufficient  to produce
 the revolutions and catastrophes1 the  
traces of which  are exhibited by its   
crust3 ,and if we have recourse to the  
constant  external forces with which we 
are as yet acquainted1 we shall have no 
greater success4          ,constant     
,astronomical ,causes4      ,the pole of
 the earth moves in a circle around the 
pole of the  ecliptic1 and its axis is  
more or less inclined to the plane of   
the ecliptic2 but these two motions1 the
 causes of which are now  ascertained1  
are much too limited for the production 
of effects like  those whose magnitude  
we have just been stating4 ,at any rate1
 their  excessive slowness would render 
them altogether inadequate to account   
for catastrophes which1 as we have      

shewn1 must have been sudden4    ,the   
same reasoning applies to all other slow
 motions which have been  conceived as  
causes of the revolutions in question1  
chosen doubtless  in the hope that their
 existence could not be denied1 because 
it  might always be easy to hold out    
that their very slowness rendered  them 
imperceptible4 ,but whether they be true
 or not is of little  importance1 for   
they explain nothing1 as no cause acting
 slowly could  have produced sudden     
effects4    ,admitting that there has   
been a gradual diminution of the waters2
  that the sea has transported solid    
matters in all directions2  that the    
temperature of the globe is either      
diminishing or  increasing2--none of    
these causes could have overturned our  
strata2  enveloped in ice large animals1
 with their flesh and skin2 laid dry    
marine testacea1 the shells of which    
are1 at the present day1 as  well       
preserved as if they had been drawn up  
alive from the sea2 and1  lastly1       

destroyed numerous species1 and even    
entire genera4    ,these considerations 
have struck most naturalists2 and among 
those  who have endeavoured to explain  
the present state of the globe1  hardly 
any one has attributed it entirely to   
the agency of slow  causes1 still less  
to causes operating under our eyes4 ,the
 necessity  to which they are thus      
reduced1 of seeking for causes different
  from those which we see acting at the 
present day1 is the very  circumstance  
that has forced them to make so many    
extraordinary  suppositions1 and to lose
 themselves in so many erroneous and    
contradictory speculations1 that the    
very name of their science1 as  ,i have 
elsewhere remarked1 has long been a     
subject of ridicule to  prejudiced      
persons1 who have only looked to the    
systems which it  has been the means of 
hatching1 and have forgotten the        
extensive  and important series of      
authentic facts which it has brought to 
light#ad4          ,older ,systems of   

,geologists4      ,during a long time1  
two events or epochs only1 the ,creation
 and  the ,deluge1 were admitted as     
comprehending the changes which have    
been operated upon the globe2 and all   
the efforts of geologists  were directed
 to account for the present existing    
state of things1  by imagining a certain
 original state1 afterwards modified by 
the  deluge1 of which also1 as to its   
causes1 its operations1 and its         
effects1 each entertained his own       
theory4    ,thus1 according to one#ae1  
the earth was at first invested with  an
 uniform light crust1 which covered the 
abyss of the sea2 and  which being      
broken up for the production of the     
deluge1 formed the  mountains by its    
fragments4 ,according to another#af1 the
 deluge was  occasioned by a momentary  
suspension of cohesion among the        
particles  of mineral bodies2 the whole 
mass of the globe was dissolved1 and    
the paste thus formed became penetrated 
with shells4 ,according to a  third#ag1 

,god raised up the mountains for the    
purpose of allowing  the waters1 which  
had produced the deluge1 to run off2 and
 selected  those places in which there  
was the greatest quantity of rocks1     
without which the mountains could not   
have supported themselves4 ,a  fourth#ah
 created the earth from the atmosphere  
of one comet1 and  deluged it by the    
tail of another3 ,the heat which it     
retained from  its origin1 was what1 in 
his opinion1 excited the whole of the   
living  beings upon it to sin2 for which
 they were all drowned1 excepting the   
fishes1 whose passions were apparently  
less vehement4    ,it is evident1 that1 
even while confined within the limits   
prescribed  by the ,book of ,genesis1   
naturalists might still have a pretty   
wide  range3 they soon found themselves1
 however1 in too narrow bounds2 and     
when they had succeeded in converting   
the six days of creation into  so many  
indefinite periods1 the lapse of ages no
 longer forming an  obstacle to their   

views1 their systems took a flight      
proportioned to  the periods which they 
could then dispose of at pleasure4      
,even the great ,leibnitz amused        
himself1 like ,descartes1 by conceiving 
the earth to be an extinguished sun#ai1 
a vitrified globe1 upon  which the      
vapours falling down again1 after it had
 cooled1 formed  seas1 which afterwards 
deposited the limestone formations4     
,by ,demaillet the whole globe was      
conceived to have been covered  with    
water for many thousands of years4 ,he  
supposed this water  had gradually      
retired2 that all the land animals were 
originally  inhabitants of the sea2 that
 man himself commenced his career as a  
fish2 and he asserts1 that it is not    
uncommon1 even now1 to meet with  fishes
 in the ocean1 which are still only half
 converted into men1  but whose         
descendants will in time become perfect 
human beings#bj4    ,the system of      
,buffon is merely an extension of that  
of ,leibnitz1 with  the addition only of

 a comet1 which1 by a violent blow1     
struck off  from the sun the liquefied  
mass of the earth1 together with those  
of  all the other planets at the same   
instant4 ,from this supposition1  he was
 enabled to assume positive dates1 as1  
from the present  temperature of the    
earth1 it could be calculated how long  
it had  taken to cool down so far2 and1 
as all the other planets had come  from 
the sun at the same time1 it could also 
be calculated how many  ages are still  
required for cooling the greater ones1  
and to what  degree the smaller are     
already frozen#ba4          ,more recent
 ,systems4      ,in our own times1 men  
of still bolder imaginations have       
exercised  their minds upon this great  
subject4 ,some writers have revived  and
 greatly extended the ideas of          
,demaillet4 ,they suppose that  every   
thing was originally fluid2 that this   
fluid gave existence  to animals1 which 
were at first of the most simple kind1  
such as  the monads and other infusory  

and microscopic species2 that1 in       
process of time1 and by assuming        
different habits1 the races of  animals 
became complicated1 and assumed that    
diversity of nature  and character in   
which they now appear4 ,by means of     
those various  races of animals1 part of
 the waters of the sea have gradually   
been  converted into calcareous earth2  
while the vegetables1 concerning the    
origin and metamorphoses of which these 
writers are totally silent1  have1 on   
their part1 converted a portion of the  
same water into clay3  ,these two       
earths1 on being stripped of the        
characters which life had  impressed    
upon them1 are resolved1 by a final     
analysis1 into silex2  and hence the    
reason that the oldest mountains are    
more siliceous  than the rest4 ,all the 
solid parts of the earth1 therefore1 owe
  their existence to life1 and1 without 
life1 the globe would still be  entirely
 liquid#bb4    ,other writers have      
preferred the ideas of ,kepler1 and1    

like that  great astronomer1 have       
considered the globe itself as possessed
 of  vital faculties4 ,according to them
 a vital fluid circulates in it2  a     
process of assimilation goes on in it1  
as well as in animated  bodies2 every   
particle of it is alive2 it possesses   
instinct and  volition1 even to the most
 elementary molecules1 which attract and
  repel each other according to         
sympathies and antipathies4 ,each kind  
of mineral has the power of converting  
immense masses into its own  nature1 as 
we convert our food into flesh and      
blood4 ,the mountains  are the          
respiratory organs of the globe1 and the
 schists its organs  of secretion2 it is
 by these latter that it decomposes the 
water of  the sea1 in order to produce  
the matters ejected by volcanoes4 ,the  
veins are carious sores1 abscesses of   
the mineral kingdom2 and the  metals are
 products of rottenness and disease1    
which is the reason  that almost all of 
them have so bad a smell#bc4    ,more   

recently still1 a philosophy1 which     
substitutes metaphor for  reasoning1 and
 proceeds on the system of absolute     
identity or of  pantheism1 attributes   
the production of all phenomena1 or     
which1  in the eyes of its supporters1  
is the same thing1 all beings1 to       
polarization1 such as is manifested by  
the two electricities2 and  denominating
 every kind of opposition or difference1
 whether of  situation1 of nature1 or of
 function1 by the title of              
,polarisation1  opposes to each other1  
in the first place1 ,god and the        
universe2  then1 in the universe1 the   
sun and the planets2 next1 in each      
planet1  the solid and the liquid2 and1 
pursuing this course1 changing its      
figures and allegories according to its 
necessities1 at length  arrives at the  
last details of organic species#bd4     
,it must1 however1 be observed1 that    
these are what may be termed  extreme   
examples1 and that all geologists have  
not carried the  extravagance of their  

conceptions to such a length as those   
which  we have just cited4 ,yet1 among  
those who have proceeded with  more     
caution1 and have not searched for      
geological causes beyond  the limits of 
physical and chemical science1 much     
diversity and  contradiction still      
prevail4          ,diversities of all   
the ,systems4      ,according to one    
system1 every thing has been            
successively  precipitated by           
crystallization1 and deposited nearly as
 it exists at  present2 but the sea1    
which covered all1 has gradually        
retired#be4    ,according to another1   
the materials of which the mountains    
consist1  are incessantly worn down and 
carried off by the rivers to be         
deposited at the bottom of the sea1     
where they are heated under an  enormous
 pressure1 and form strata1 which are   
one day to be violently  lifted up by   
the heat which consolidates them#bf4    
,a third supposes the fluid divided into
 a multitude of lakes1 placed1  like the

 seats of an amphitheatre1 above each   
other1 which1 after  having deposited   
our shelly strata1 have successively    
broken their  dikes1 to descend and fill
 the basin of the ocean#bg4             
,according to a fourth1 tides of seven  
or eight hundred fathoms depth  have    
carried off1 from time to time1 the     
matter lying at the bottom  of the sea1 
and have thrown it1 in the form of      
mountains and hills1  upon the original 
valleys or plains of the continent#bh4  
,a fifth makes the various fragments of 
which the earth is composed1  fall      
successively from heaven1 in the manner 
of meteoric stones1  bearing the impress
 of their foreign origin in the unknown 
beings  whose remains they contain#bi4  
,a sixth represents the globe as hollow1
 and places within it a  loadstone      
nucleus1 which is transported from one  
pole to the other1  by the attraction of
 comets1 carrying along with it the     
centre of  gravity1 and the mass of     
waters at the surface2 thus alternately 

drowning the two hemispheres#cj4    ,we 
might mention twenty other systems1 as  
different from one another  as those    
enumerated4 ,and to prevent mistake1 we 
may here state1 that  our intention is  
not captiously to criticize or find     
fault with their  authors2 on the       
contrary1 we admit that these ideas have
 generally  been conceived by men of    
intellect and knowledge1 who were not   
ignorant of facts1 several of whom had  
even travelled extensively for  the     
purpose of examining them1 and who1 in  
this manner1 made numerous  and         
important additions to science4         
,causes of these differences4           
,whence comes it1 then1 that there      
should be so much contrariety  in the   
solutions of the same problem1 that are 
given by men who  proceed upon the same 
principles8 ,may not this have been     
occasioned  by the conditions of the    
problem never having been all taken     
into consideration at once2 by which it 
has remained hitherto  indeterminate1   

and susceptible of many solutions1--all 
equally good1  when such or such        
conditions are abstracted2 and all      
equally bad1  when a new condition comes
 to be known1 or when the attention is  
directed to some condition which had    
been formerly neglected8                
,nature and ,conditions of the ,problem4
      ,to quit the language of          
mathematics1 it may be asserted1 that   
almost  all the authors of these        
systems1 confining their attention to   
certain difficulties which struck them  
more forcibly than others1  have        
endeavoured to solve these in a manner  
more or less plausible1  and have left  
unnoticed others1 equally numerous1 and 
equally  important4 ,for example1 the   
only difficulty with one consisted in   
explaining the changes that had taken   
place in the level of the  sea2 with    
another1 it consisted in accounting for 
the solution of  all terrestrial        
substances in one and the same          
menstruum2 and with  a third1 in shewing

 how animals that were believed to be   
natives of  the torrid zone could live  
in the frigid zone4 ,exhausting all the 
powers of the mind upon these questions1
 they conceived that they  had done     
every thing that was necessary when they
 had contrived some  method of answering
 them2 and yet1 while they neglected all
 the other  phenomena1 they did not     
always think of determining with        
precision  the measure and limits of    
those which they had endeavoured to     
explain4    ,this is peculiarly the case
 with regard to the secondary           
formations1  which constitute1 however1 
the most important and most difficult   
part  of the problem4 ,during a long    
time1 all that was done with respect  to
 these1 consisted of feeble attempts to 
determine the order of  superposition of
 their strata1 and the connections of   
these strata  with the species of       
animals and plants whose remains they   
contain4    ,are there certain animals  
and plants peculiar to certain strata1  

and  not found in others8 ,what are the 
species that appear first in order1  and
 what those which succeed8 ,do these two
 kinds of species sometimes  accompany  
each other8 ,are there alternations in  
their appearance2  or1 in other words1  
do the first reappear a second time1 and
 do the  others then disappear8 ,have   
these animals and plants all lived in   
the  places where their remains are     
found1 or have they been transported    
thither from other places8 ,do they all 
live at the present day in  some part of
 the earth1 or have they been partially 
or totally  destroyed8 ,is there any    
constant connection between the         
antiquity of  the strata and the        
resemblance1 or non-resemblance1 of the 
fossils  contained in them to the       
animals and plants which now exist8 ,is 
there  any connexion1 in regard to      
climate1 between the fossils and such   
living beings as resemble them most8    
,may it be concluded1 that the          
transportation of these living beings1  

if such a thing ever happened1  has     
taken place from north to south1 or from
 east to west2 or were  they irregularly
 scattered and mingled together2 and can
 the epochs  of these transportations be
 determined by the characters which they
  have impressed upon the strata8       
,what can be said regarding the causes  
of the existing state of the  globe1 if 
no reply can be made to these           
questions1--if there be no  sufficient  
grounds to determine the choice between 
answering in the  affirmative or        
negative8 ,it is but too true1 that1 for
 a long time1  none of these points was 
satisfactorily determined2 and scarcely 
even would geologists seem to have had  
any idea of the propriety of  clearing  
them up before constructing their       
systems4          ,reason for which the 
,conditions of the ,problem have been   
neglected4      ,the reason of this     
strange procedure will be discovered1   
when  we reflect1 that all geologists   
have hitherto been1 either mere  cabinet

 naturalists1 who had themselves paid   
little attention to the  structure of   
mountains1 or mere mineralogists1 who   
had not studied  in sufficient detail   
the innumerable varieties of animals1   
and the  infinite complication of their 
various parts4 ,the former of these     
have only constructed systems3 the      
latter have furnished excellent         
observations1 and have laid the         
foundation of true geological  science2 
but have been unable to complete the    
edifice4          ,progress of ,mineral 
,geology4      ,the purely mineral part 
of the great problem of the ,theory of  
the  ,earth has been investigated with  
admirable care by ,saussure1 and has    
been since carried to an astonishing    
degree of development by ,werner1  and  
by the numerous enlightened pupils of   
his school4    ,the former of these     
celebrated men1 by a laborious          
investigation  of the most inaccessible 
districts1 continued for twenty years1  
in  which he examined the ,alps on all  

sides1 and penetrated through  all their
 defiles2 has laid open to our view the 
entire disorder  of the primitive       
formations1 and has distinctly traced   
the limits  by which they are           
distinguished from the secondary        
formations4 ,the  other1 taking         
advantage of the numerous excavations   
made in the most  ancient mining        
district in the world1 has fixed the    
laws by which the  succession of the    
strata are regulated1 pointing out the  
relative  antiquity of these strata1 and
 tracing each of them through all its   
metamorphoses4 ,it is from him1 and from
 him alone1 that we date the            
commencement of real geology1 in so far 
as concerns the mineral  nature of the  
strata3 but neither he nor ,saussure    
have determined the  fossil organic     
species occurring in each kind of       
stratum1 with the  accuracy which has   
become necessary1 now that the number of
 animals  already known is so great4    
,other naturalists1 it is true1 have    

examined the the fossil remains  of     
organised bodies2 they have collected   
and figured them by  thousands1 and     
their works will serve as so many       
precious collections  of materials4     
,but1 considering these animals and     
plants more with  reference to their own
 nature1 than as connected with the     
theory of  the earth2 or regarding these
 petrifactions as curiosities1 rather   
than as historical documents2 or1       
lastly1 contenting themselves with      
practical explanations regarding the    
position of each fragment1  they have   
almost always neglected to investigate  
the general laws  affecting the         
geological position of organic remains1 
or their  connection with the strata4   
,importance of ,fossil ,remains in      
,geology4      ,and yet1 the idea of    
such an investigation was very natural2 
for  it is abundantly obvious1 that it  
is to these fossil remains alone  that  
we owe even the commencement of a theory
 of the earth1 and  that1 without them1 

we should perhaps never have even       
suspected that  there had existed any   
successive epochs1 and a series of      
different  operations1 in the formation 
of the globe4 ,by them alone we are1  in
 fact1 enabled to ascertain1 that the   
globe has not always had  the same      
external crust2 because1 we are         
thoroughly assured1 that  the plants and
 animals must have lived at the surface 
before they  had thus come to be buried 
deep beneath it4 ,it is only by analogy 
that we have been enabled to extend to  
the primitive formations1  the          
conclusion which is furnished directly  
for the secondary by the  organic       
remains which they contain2 and if there
 had only existed  formations in which  
no fossil remains were inclosed1 it     
could  never have been shewn that these 
formations had not all been of          
simultaneous origin4    ,it is also by  
means of the organic remains1 slight as 
is the  knowledge we have hitherto      
acquired of them1 that we have been     

enabled to discover the little that we  
yet know respecting the nature  of the  
revolutions of the globe4 ,from them we 
have learned1 that  the strata in which 
they are buried have been quietly       
deposited in  a fluid2 that their       
variations have corresponded with those 
of the  fluid in question2 that their   
being laid bare has been occasioned by  
the transportation of this fluid to some
 other place2 and that this             
circumstance must have befallen them    
more than once4 ,nothing of all  this   
could have been known with certainty1   
had no fossil remains  existed4    ,the 
study of the mineral part of geology1   
though not less necessary1  and even of 
much more utility to the practical arts1
 is yet much less  instructive with     
reference to the object of our present  
inquiry4    ,we remain in utter         
ignorance respecting the causes which   
have given  rise to the variety in the  
mineral substances of which the strata  
are  composed4 ,we are even ignorant of 

the agents which may have held some  of 
these substances in solution2 and it is 
still disputed1 respecting  several of  
them1 whether they have owed their      
origin to water or to  fire4 ,after all1
 philosophers are only agreed on one    
point1 which is1  that the sea has      
changed its place2 and how should this  
have been  known1 unless by means of the
 fossil remains8    ,the organic        
remains1 therefore1 which have given    
rise to the  theory of the earth1 have1 
at the same time1 furnished it with its 
principal illustrations2--the only ones1
 indeed1 that have as yet  been         
generally acknowledged4    ,it is this  
consideration which has encouraged us to
 investigate the  subject4 ,but the     
field is vast2 and it is but a very     
small portion  of it that could be      
cultivated by the labour of a single    
individual4  ,it was necessary1         
therefore1 to select a particular       
department2 and  the choice was soon    
made4 ,the class of fossil remains which

 forms  the subject of this work1       
engaged our attention at the very       
outset1  because it appeared to us to be
 that which is the most fertile in      
precise results1 and yet1 at the same   
time1 less known1 and richer in  new    
objects of research#ca4          ,high  
importance of the ,fossil ,bones of     
,quadrupeds4      ,it is obvious1 in    
fact1 that the fossil bones of          
quadrupeds must lead  to more accurate  
conclusions than any other remains of   
organized  bodies1 and that for several 
reasons4    ,in the first place1 they   
indicate much more clearly the nature of
  the revolutions to which they have    
already been subjected4 ,shells         
certainly announce the fact1 that the   
sea has once existed in the  places     
where they have been formed2 but the    
changes which have taken  place in their
 species1 when rigorously inquired into1
 may have  arisen from slight changes in
 the nature of the fluid in which they  
lived1 or merely in its temperature4    

,they may even have been produced  by   
causes still more accidental4 ,we can   
never be perfectly assured  that certain
 species1 and even genera1 inhabiting   
the bottom of the  sea1 and occupying   
certain fixed spaces1 for a longer or   
shorter  time1 may not have been driven 
away and supplanted by other species  or
 genera4    ,in regard to quadrupeds1 on
 the contrary1 every thing is precise4  
,the  appearance of their bones in      
strata1 and still more of their entire  
carcases1 announces1 either that the    
stratum itself which contains  them has1
 at a former period1 been laid dry1 or1 
at least1 that dry  land must have      
existed in its neighbourhood4 ,their    
disappearance  renders it certain1 that 
this stratum has been inundated1 or that
 the  dry land in question has ceased to
 exist4 ,it is from them1 therefore1    
that we learn with perfect certainty the
 important fact of repeated  irruptions 
of the sea1 which the shells and other  
marine productions  could not of        

themselves have proved2 and it is by a  
careful  investigation of them1 that we 
may hope to ascertain the number and    
the epochs of these irruptions4         
,secondly1 ,the nature of the           
revolutions which have altered the      
surface of the globe1 must have exerted 
a more powerful action  upon terrestrial
 quadrupeds1 than upon marine animals4  
,as these  revolutions have consisted   
chiefly of changes in the bed of the    
sea1 and as the waters must have        
destroyed all the quadrupeds which  they
 reached1 if their irruption was        
general1 it would necessarily  have     
destroyed the entire class2 or if it    
only overwhelmed certain  continents at 
one time1 it would at least have        
destroyed the species  peculiar to those
 continents1 without having the same    
effect upon the  marine animals4 ,on the
 other hand1 millions of aquatic animals
 would  have been left dry1 or buried   
under newly-formed strata1 or thrown    
violently on the coasts2 while their    

races would still have been  preserved  
in some more peaceful parts of the sea1 
whence they might  again be propagated  
after the agitation of the waters had   
ceased4    ,thirdly1 ,this more complete
 action is also more easily ascertained4
  ,it is more easy to demonstrate its   
effects1 because1 the number of         
quadrupeds being limited1 and the       
greater part of their species1 at  least
 the large ones1 being known1 we have   
more means of determining  whether      
fossil bones belong to them1 or to a    
species that is now  lost4 ,as1 on the  
other hand1 we are very far from being  
acquainted  with all the testaceous     
animals and fishes which inhabit the    
sea1  and as we are still probably      
ignorant of the greater number of those 
which live in deep water1 it is         
impossible to know with certainty1      
whether a species which occurs in a     
fossil state1 may not still exist       
somewhere alive4 ,and hence1 we see     
naturalists persisting in giving  the   

name of pelagic shells1 that is to say1 
shells inhabiting the  open sea1 to the 
belemnites1 cornua-ammonis1 and other   
testaceous  remains1 which have hitherto
 been found only in the older strata2   
meaning by this1 that if they have not  
yet been discovered in a  living state1 
it is because they inhabit the depths of
 the sea1 far  beyond the reach of our  
nets4          ,small probability of    
discovering ,new ,species of large      
,quadrupeds4      ,naturalists1         
certainly1 have not yet explored all the
 continents1 nor  do they even know all 
the quadrupeds which inhabit the        
countries that  they have explored4 ,new
 species of this class are discovered   
from  time to time2 and those who have  
not examined with attention all the     
circumstances belonging to these        
discoveries1 might also imagine that    
the unknown quadrupeds1 whose bones are 
found in our strata1 may  remain to this
 day concealed1 in some islands not yet 
discovered by  navigators1 or in some of

 the vast deserts which occupy the      
middle of  ,asia1 ,africa1 the two      
,americas1 and ,new ,holland4           
,however1 if we carefully examine what  
kinds of quadrupeds have been  recently 
discovered1 and in what circumstances   
they have been found1  we shall see that
 there is little hope of our ever       
finding alive  those which have hitherto
 been observed only in a fossil state4  
,islands of moderate extent1 and at a   
considerable distance from  the         
continents or large islands1 possess    
very few quadrupeds1 and  these1 for the
 greater part1 of diminutive size4 ,when
 they happen  to contain any of the     
larger species1 these must have been    
carried  to them from other countries4  
,bougainville and ,cook found no other  
large quadrupeds than hogs and dogs in  
the ,south ,sea ,islands2 and the       
largest species of the ,west ,india     
,islands was the agouti4    ,it is true 
that the great continents1 such as      
,asia1 ,africa1 the two  ,americas1 and 

,new ,holland1 possess large quadrupeds1
 and1 generally  speaking1 contain      
species peculiar to each2 insomuch1 that
 whenever  large countries of this      
description have been discovered1 which 
their situation has kept isolated from  
the rest of the world1 the  class of    
quadrupeds which they contained has been
 found entirely  different from any that
 existed elsewhere4 ,thus1 when the     
,spaniards  first penetrated into ,south
 ,america1 they did not find a single   
species of quadruped the same as any of 
,europe1 ,asia1 or ,africa4  ,the puma1 
the jaguar1 the tapir1 the cabiai1 the  
llama1 the vicuna1  the sloths1 the     
armadilloes1 the opossums1 and the whole
 tribe of  sapajous1 were to them       
entirely new animals1 of which they had 
no  idea4 ,similar circumstances have   
recurred in our own time1 when  the     
coasts of ,new ,holland and the adjacent
 islands were first  explored4 ,the     
various species of kangaroo1            
phascolomys1 dasyurus1 and  perameles1  

the flying phalangers1 the ornithorynchi
 and echidn1 have  astonished           
naturalists by the strangeness of their 
conformations1  which presented         
proportions contrary to all former      
rules1 and were  incapable of being     
arranged under any of the systems then  
in use4    ,if there yet remained some  
great continent to be discovered1 we    
might  still hope to become acquainted  
with new species1 among which there     
might be found some having more or less 
similarity to those of which  we have   
discovered the remains in the bowels of 
the earth4 ,but it is  sufficient to    
cast a glance over the map of the world1
 and see the  innumerable directions in 
which navigators have traversed the     
ocean1  in order to be satisfied that   
there remains no other large land to  be
 discovered1 unless it may be situated  
towards the ,south ,pole1  where the    
existence of life would necessarily be  
precluded by the  accumulation of ice4  
,hence1 it is only from the interior of 

the large divisions of the  world1 that 
we can have any hope of still procuring 
quadrupeds  hitherto unknown4 ,but a    
little reflection will be sufficient to 
convince us1 that our expectations from 
this source have as little  foundation  
as from that of the islands4            
,doubtless1 the ,european traveller     
cannot easily traverse vast extents  of 
countries1 which are either destitute of
 inhabitants1 or are  peopled only with 
ferocious tribes2 and this is more      
especially true  with regard to ,africa4
 ,but there is nothing to prevent the   
animals  themselves from roaming over   
these countries in all directions1 and  
penetrating to the coasts4 ,even when   
there may be great chains of  mountains 
between the coasts and the deserts of   
the interior1 they  must always be      
broken in some places to allow the      
rivers to pass  through2 and1 in these  
burning deserts1 the quadrupeds         
naturally  follow the banks of rivers4  
,the inhabitants of the coasts also     

ascend  these rivers1 and soon become   
acquainted with all the remarkable      
species which exist even to their       
sources1 either from personal           
observation1 or by means of intercourse 
with the inhabitants of  the interior4  
,at no period1 therefore1 could         
civilized nations have  frequented the  
coast of a large country for any        
considerable length  of time1 without   
gaining some tolerable knowledge of such
 of the  animals which it contained as  
were remarkable for their size or       
configuration4    ,this reasoning is    
confirmed by well known facts4 ,although
 the  ancients never passed the         
mountains of ,imaus1 or crossed the     
,ganges1  in ,asia2 and1 although they  
never penetrated very far beyond ,mount 
,atlas1 in ,africa2 yet were they1 in   
reality1 acquainted with all the  large 
animals of these two divisions of the   
world2 and1 if they have  not           
distinguished all the species1 it was   
not because they had not  seen them1 or 

heard them spoken of by others1 but     
because the mutual  resemblances of some
 of these species caused them to be     
confounded  together4 ,the only         
important exception which can be opposed
 to this  assertion1 presents itself in 
the ,tapir of ,malacca1 recently sent   
home from ,india by two young           
naturalists1 pupils of mine1 ,messrs    
,duvaucel and ,diard1 and which in fact 
is one of the most interesting          
discoveries with which ,natural ,history
 has been enriched in these  latter     
times4    ,the ancients were perfectly  
acquainted with the ,elephant2 and the  
history of that quadruped is given more 
accurately by ,aristotle than  by       
,buffon4 ,they were not even ignorant of
 some of the differences  which         
distinguish the elephants of ,africa    
from those of ,asia#cb4    ,they knew   
the two-horned ,rhinoceros1 which has   
never been seen alive  in modern        
,europe4 ,domitian exhibited it at      
,rome1 and had it stamped  on his       

medals1 which have been very well       
described by ,pausanias4    ,the        
one-horned ,rhinoceros1 distant as was  
its country1 was equally  known to them4
 ,pompey shewed one at ,rome2 and       
,strabo has accurately  described       
another which he saw at ,alexandria#cc4 
,the ,rhinoceros of ,sumatra described  
by ,mr ,bell2 and that of ,java1        
discovered and sent home by ,messrs     
,duvaucel and ,diard1 do not appear  to 
inhabit the continent4 ,hence1 it is not
 surprising1 that the  ancients should  
have been ignorant of them2 besides1    
they probably  would not have           
distinguished them from the others4     
,the ,hippopotamus has not been so well 
described as the preceding  animals2 yet
 very exact representations of it have  
been left by the  ,romans in their      
monuments relative to ,egypt1 such as   
the statue of  the ,nile1 the           
,palestrine pavement1 and a great number
 of medals4  ,in fact1 this animal was  
repeatedly seen by the ,romans2 having  

been  exhibited by ,scaurus1 ,augustus1 
,antoninus1 ,commodus1 ,heliogabalus1   
,philip1 and ,carinus#cd4    ,the two   
species of ,camel1 the ,bactrian and    
,arabian1 are both very  well described 
and characterized by ,aristotle#ce4     
,the ,giraffe1 or ,camelopard           
7,camel-,leopard71 was also well known  
to  the ancients4 ,a live one was shewn 
at ,rome1 in the circus1 during  the    
dictatorship of ,julius ,csar1 in the   
year of ,rome #gjh2 and ten  of them    
were exhibited together by ,gordian     
,,iii4 all of which were  killed at the 
secular games of ,philip#cf1 a          
circumstance which  may well surprise   
the moderns1 who have only witnessed a  
single  individual1 which was sent by   
the ,soldan of ,egypt to ,laurentius de 
,medicis1 in the fifteenth century1 and 
is painted in the frescoes of           
,poggio-,cajano4    ,if we read with    
attention the descriptions of the       
,hippopotamus1  given by ,herodotus and 
,aristotle1 and which are supposed to   

have  been borrowed from ,hecatus of    
,miletum1 we shall find1 that they  must
 have been made up from two different   
animals1 one of which  was perhaps the  
true hippopotamus1 and the other was    
assuredly the  ,gnou#cg1 a quadruped1 of
 which our naturalists begin to take    
notice  only about the end of the       
eighteenth century4 ,it is the same     
animal  of which fabulous accounts were 
given by ,pliny and lian1 under the     
name of catoblepas and catablepon#ch4   
,the ,ethiopian ,boar of ,agatharchides1
 which is described as having  horns1 is
 precisely the ,ethiopian ,boar of      
modern times1 the enormous  tusks of    
which deserve the name of horns nearly  
as much as those of  the elephant#ci4   
,the ,bubalus and ,nagor are described  
by ,pliny#dj2 the ,gazelle by  lian#da2 
the ,oryx by ,oppian#db2 the ,axis1 so  
early as the time of  ,ctesias#dc2 and  
the ,algazel1 and ,corinne1 are         
accurately figured  upon the ,egyptian  
monuments#dd4    lian has well described

 the ,bos grunniens or ,yak1 under the  
name  of the ox having a tail which     
serves for a fly-flapper#de4    ,the    
,buffalo was not domesticated by the    
ancients2 but the ,indian ,ox1  of which
 lian speaks#df1 and which had horns    
large enough to hold  three amphor1 was 
assuredly that variety of the buffalo   
which is  now called the arnee4 ,and    
even the wild ox with depressed horns1  
which is mentioned by ,aristotle as     
inhabiting ,arachosia1 a province  of   
ancient ,persia1 could be nothing else  
than the common buffalo#dg4    ,the     
ancients were acquainted with the       
hornless variety of the ox#dh1  and with
 the ,african oxen1 whose horns1 being  
only attached to the  skin1 moved with  
it#di4 ,they also knew the ,indian oxen1
 which  equalled the horse in speed#ej2 
and those which were so small as  not to
 exceed a he-goat in size#ea4 ,nor were 
the broad-tailed sheep  unknown to      
them#eb1--nor those of ,india1 which    
were said to be as  large as asses#ec4  

,although the accounts left us by the   
ancients1 respecting the  ,aurochs1 the 
,rein-deer1 and ,elk1 are all mingled   
with fable1 they  are yet sufficient to 
prove that these animals were in some   
degree  known to them1 but that the     
reports which had reached them1 had been
  communicated by ignorant people1 and  
had not been corrected by a  judicious  
examination#ed4 ,these animals still    
inhabit the countries  which the        
ancients assigned to them2 and have only
 disappeared in  such of them as have   
been too much cultivated for their      
habits4 ,the  aurochs#ee and elk still  
exist in the forests of ,lithuania1     
which  were formerly continuous with the
 great ,hercynian ,forest4 ,the former  
of these animals still occurs in the    
northern parts of ,greece1 as  it did in
 the days of ,pausanias4 ,the rein-deer 
inhabits the snowy  regions of the      
north1 where it always had its abode2 it
 changes  its colour1 not at pleasure1  
but according to the change of the      

seasons4 ,it was in consequence of      
mistakes scarcely excusable1 that  it   
was imagined to have occurred in the    
,pyrenees in the fourteenth  century#ef4
    ,even the ,white ,bear had been seen
 in ,egypt while under the              
,ptolemies#eg4    ,lions and ,panthers  
were common at ,rome1 where they were   
presented  by hundreds in the games of  
the ,circus4 ,even several ,tigers were 
exhibited there1 as well as the ,striped
 ,hyena and the ,crocodile  of the      
,nile4 ,in the ancient mosaics preserved
 at ,rome1 there are  excellent         
representations of the rarest of these  
animals4 ,among  others1 the striped    
hyena is seen represented with accuracy 
in a  fragment preserved in the ,museum 
of the ,vatican2 and1 while ,i was  at  
,rome in #ahji1 a mosaic pavement1      
composed of natural stones1  arranged in
 the ,florentine manner1 was discovered 
in a garden beside  the triumphal arch  
of ,galienus1 which represented four    
,bengal tigers  executed in a superior  

manner4    ,in the ,museum of the       
,vatican1 there is deposited the figure 
of a  crocodile in basalt1 which is     
almost a perfect representation of that 
animal#eh4    ,it cannot in the least be
 doubted1 that the ,hippotigris was the 
,zebra1 which1 however1 is only found in
 the southern parts of  ,africa#ei4     
,it would be easy to shew that almost   
all the more remarkable  species of     
,apes and ,monkeys have been distinctly 
indicated by the  ancients1 under the   
names of ,pitheci1 ,sphinxes1 ,satyri1  
,cebi1  ,cynocephali1 and               
,cercopitheci#fj4    ,they even knew1   
and have described several species of   
,glires  of inconsiderable size1 when   
these animals presented any thing       
remarkable in their conformation or     
properties#fa4 ,but the small  species  
are of no importance with reference to  
the object in view2  and1 it is         
sufficient for our purpose to have      
shewn1 that all the  large species1     
which possess any remarkable character1 

and which we  know to inhabit ,europe1  
,asia1 and ,africa1 at the present day1 
were  known to the ancients2 whence we  
may fairly conclude1 that their  silence
 in respect to the small quadrupeds1 and
 their neglect in  distinguishing the   
species which very nearly resemble each 
other1  as the various species of       
antelopes1 and of some other genera1    
were occasioned by want of attention and
 ignorance of methodical  arrangement1  
rather than by any difficulty proceeding
 from climate4  ,we may also conclude1  
with equal certainty1 that1 as the lapse
  of eighteen or twenty centuries1      
together with the advantages  of        
circumnavigating ,africa1 and of        
penetrating into ,india1 have  added    
nothing in this department to the       
information left us by the  ancients1   
there is no probability that succeeding 
ages will add much  to the knowledge of 
our posterity4    ,but perhaps some     
persons may be disposed to employ an    
opposite  train of argument1 and to     

allege that the ancients were not only  
acquainted with as many large quadrupeds
 as we are1 as has already  been shewn1 
but that they have described several    
others which we do  not now know1--that 
we act rashly in considering these      
animals as  fabulous1--that we ought to 
search for them before concluding that  
we  have exhausted the history of the   
present animal creation1--and1 in  fine1
 that among those animals which we      
presume to be fabulous1 we  may1        
perhaps1 discover1 when we become better
 acquainted with them1  the originals of
 those bones of unknown animals which we
 discover  buried in the earth4 ,some   
may even conceive1 that those various   
monsters1 which constitute the essential
 ornaments of the history of  the heroic
 ages of almost all countries1 are      
precisely those very  species which it  
was necessary to destroy1 in order to   
allow the  establishment of             
civilization4 ,thus the ,theseuses and  
,bellerophons  of ancient times had been

 more fortunate than all the nations of 
our  days1 which have only been able to 
drive back the noxious animals1  but    
have never yet succeeded in             
exterminating a single species4         
,inquiry respecting the ,fabulous       
,animals of the ,ancients4      ,it is  
easy to reply to the foregoing          
objection1 by examining  the            
descriptions of these unknown beings1   
and by inquiring into  their origins4   
,the greater number of them have an     
origin purely  mythological1 and of this
 origin their descriptions bear         
unequivocal  marks2 for in almost all of
 them we see merely parts of known      
animals  united by an unbridled         
imagination1 and in contradiction to all
 the  laws of nature4    ,those which   
were invented or arranged by the        
,greeks1 have at least  the merit of    
possessing elegance in their            
composition4 ,like those  arabesques    
which decorate the remains of some      
ancient buildings1  and which have been 

multiplied by the fertile pencil of     
,raphael1 the  forms which they combine1
 however repugnant to reason they may   
be1  present agreeable contours4 ,they  
are the fantastic productions of        
playful genius2 perhaps emblematic      
representations in the oriental  taste1 
in which were supposed to be concealed  
under mystical images  certain          
propositions in metaphysics or in       
morals4 ,we may excuse those  who employ
 their time in attempts to discover the 
wisdom concealed in  the sphinx of      
,thebes1 the pegasus of ,thessaly1 the  
minotaur of ,crete1  or the chimera of  
,epirus2 but it would be absurd to      
expect seriously  to find such          
productions in nature4 ,as well might we
 search for the  animals described in   
the ,book of ,daniel1 or for the beast  
of the  ,apocalypse4    ,neither may we 
look for the mythological animals of the
 ,persians1  creatures of a still bolder
 imagination3 the martichore1 or        
man-destroyer1 bearing a human head on  

the body of a lion1 terminated  by the  
tail of a scorpion#fb2 the griffon1     
guardian of treasures1  half eagle1 half
 lion#fc2 the cartazonon1 or wild ass1  
armed with  a long horn on its          
forehead#fd4    ,ctesias1 who has       
described these as real animals1 has    
been looked  upon by many authors as an 
inventor of fables2 whereas he has      
merely  attributed an actual existence  
to emblematical figures4 ,these         
imaginary compositions have been seen in
 modern times sculptured upon  the ruins
 of ,persepolis#fe4 ,what they were     
intended to signify we  shall probably  
never know2 but of this much we are     
certain1 that they  do not represent    
actual beings4    ,agatharchidas1       
another fabricator of animals1 drew his 
information in  all probability from a  
similar source4 ,the ancient ,egyptian  
monuments  still furnish us with        
numerous fantastic representations1 in  
which  the parts of different species   
are combined3 gods are often figured    

with a human body and the head of an    
animal1 and animals are seen  with human
 heads2 thus giving rise to the         
cynocephali1 sphinxes1 and  satyrs of   
ancient naturalists4 ,the custom of     
representing in the same  painting men  
of very different sizes1 of making the  
king or the  conqueror gigantic1 the    
subjects or the conquered three or four 
times  smaller1 must have given rise to 
the fable of the pigmies4 ,it was in    
some corner of one of these monuments   
that ,agatharchidas must have  seen his 
carnivorous bull1 which1 with mouth     
extending from ear to  ear1 devoured    
every other animal#ff4 ,certainly no    
naturalist would  admit the existence of
 such an animal2 for nature never       
combines  either cloven hoofs or horns  
with teeth adapted for devouring animal 
food4    ,there may perhaps have been   
many other figures equally strange1     
either among such of these monuments as 
have not been able to resist  the       
ravages of time1 or in the temples of   

,ethiopia and ,arabia1 which  have been 
destroyed by the religious zeal of the  
,mahometans and  ,abyssinians4 ,the     
monuments of ,india teem with such      
figures2 but the  combinations in these 
are too extravagant to have deceived any
 one4  ,monsters with a hundred arms1   
and twenty heads all different from  one
 another1 are far too absurd to be      
believed4 ,nay1 the inhabitants  of     
,japan and ,china also have their       
imaginary animals1 which they  represent
 as real1 and which figure even in their
 religious books4  ,the ,mexicans had   
them4 ,in short1 they are the fashion   
among all  nations1 whether at the      
periods when their idolatry has not yet 
been refined1 or when the import of     
these emblematical combinations  has    
been lost4 ,but who would dare to affirm
 that he had found those  productions of
 ignorance and superstition in nature8  
,and yet it may  have happened that     
travellers1 influenced by a desire of   
making  themselves famous1 might pretend

 that they had seen those strange       
beings1 or that1 deceived by a slight   
resemblance1 into which they  were too  
careless to enquire1 they may have taken
 real animals for  them4 ,in the eyes of
 such people1 large baboons or monkeys  
may have  appeared true cynocephali1    
sphinxes1 or men with tails4 ,it is thus
  that ,st ,augustin may have imagined  
he had seen a satyr4    ,some real      
animals1 inaccurately observed and      
described1 may have  given rise to      
monstrous ideas1 which1 however1 have   
had their  foundation in some reality4  
,thus1 we can have no doubt of the      
existence of the hyena1 although that   
animal has not its neck  supported by a 
single bone#fg1 and although it does not
 change its  sex every year1 as ,pliny  
alleges#fh4 ,thus1 also1 the carnivorous
  bull is perhaps nothing else than a   
two-horned rhinoceros erroneously       
described4 ,m4 de ,weltheim affirms with
 probability1 that the  auriferous ants 
of ,herodotus are corsacs4    ,one of   

the most famous amongst these fabulous  
animals of the  ancients1 is the        
unicorn4 ,even to our own time people   
have  obstinately persisted in searching
 for it1 or1 at least1 in seeking       
arguments to prove its existence4 ,three
 separate animals are  frequently       
mentioned by the ancients as having only
 one horn in the  middle of the         
forehead4 ,the ,african oryx1 having    
cloven hoofs1 the  hair placed in the   
contrary direction to that of other     
animals#fi1  equal in size to the       
bull#gj or even the rhinoceros#ga1 and  
said  to resemble deer and goats in     
form#gb2 the ,indian ass1 having  solid 
hoofs2 and the monoceros1 properly so   
called1 whose feet  are sometimes       
compared to those of the lion#gc1 and   
sometimes to  those of the elephant#gd1 
and which is therefore considered as    
having divided feet4 ,the one-horned    
horse#ge and one-horned bull are        
doubtless both to be referred to the    
,indian ass1 for even the latter  is    

described as having solid hoofs#gf4 ,i  
would ask1 ,if these animals  exist as  
distinct species1 should we not at least
 have their horns in  our collections8  
,and what single horns do we possess1   
excepting those  of the rhinoceros and  
narwal8    ,how is it possible1 after   
this1 to refer to rude figures traced by
  savages upon rocks#gg8 ,ignorant of   
perspective1 and wishing to  represent a
 straight horned antelope in profile1   
they could only give  it a single horn1 
and thus they produced an oryx4 ,the    
oryxes1 too1  that are seen on the      
,egyptian monuments1 are probably       
nothing more  than productions of the   
stiff style1 imposed upon the artists of
  that country by their religion4 ,many 
of their profiles of quadrupeds  shew   
only one fore and one hind leg2 and this
 being the case1 why  should they have  
shewn two horns8 ,it may perhaps have   
chanced that  individuals have been     
taken in the chace1 which had           
accidentally  lost one of their horns1  

as pretty frequently happens to the     
chamois  and saiga3 and this would have 
been sufficient to confirm the error    
produced by these representations4 ,it  
is probably in this way that  the       
unicorn has recently been reported to be
 found in the mountains  of ,thibet4    
,all the ancients1 however1 have not    
represented the oryx as having  only one
 horn4 ,oppian expressly gives it       
several#gh1 and lian  mentions oryxes   
which had four#gi4 ,finally1 if this    
animal was  ruminant and cloven-hoofed1 
we know assuredly that its frontal bone 
must have been longitudinally divided   
into two1 and that it could  not1 as is 
very justly remarked by ,camper1 have   
had a horn placed  upon the suture4     
,but it may be asked1 ,what two-horned  
animal could have given the  idea of the
 oryx1 and presented the characters     
which it is described  as possessing    
with regard to its conformation1 even   
independent of  the notion of a single  
horn8 ,to this ,i reply1 with ,pallas1  

that it  was the straight horned        
antelope1 the ,antilope oryx of ,gmelin1
  improperly named pasan by ,buffon4 ,it
 inhabits the deserts of  ,africa1 and  
must approach the confines of ,egypt4   
,it is this animal  which the           
hieroglyphics appear to represent4 ,its 
form is nearly  that of the stag2 its   
size equals that of the bull2 the hair  
of  its back is directed toward the     
head2 its horns form exceedingly        
formidable weapons1 pointed like        
javelins1 and hard as iron2 its hair  is
 whitish1 and its face is marked with   
spots and streaks of black4  ,such is   
the description given of it by          
naturalists2 and the fables  of the     
,egyptian priests1 which have occasioned
 the insertion of its  figure among     
their hieroglyphics1 do not require to  
have been founded  in nature4           
,supposing1 therefore1 that an          
individual of this species  had been    
seen which had lost one of its horns by 
some accident1 it  might have been taken

 as a representative of the whole race1 
and  erroneously adopted by ,aristotle1 
and copied by his successors4 ,all  this
 is possible1 and even natural1 and yet 
proves nothing with  regard to the      
existence of a single-horned species4   
,in regard to the ,indian ass1 if we    
attend to the properties ascribed  to   
its horns as an antidote against poison1
 we shall see that they  are precisely  
the same as those which the eastern     
nations attribute  at the present day to
 the horn of the rhinoceros4 ,when this 
horn was  first imported into ,greece1  
the animal to which it belonged might   
still have been unknown4 ,in fact1      
,aristotle makes no mention of the      
rhinoceros1 and ,agatharchides was the  
first who described it4 ,in  the same   
manner1 ivory was in use among the      
ancients long before  they were         
acquainted with the elephant4 ,it is    
even possible that  some of their       
travellers might have given to the      
rhinoceros the name  of ,indian ass1    

with as much propriety as the ,romans   
denominated  the elephant the bull of   
,lucania4 ,every thing1 moreover1 that  
is said of the strength1 size1 and      
ferocity of this wild ass of  theirs1   
corresponds very well with the          
rhinoceros4 ,in succeeding  times1      
naturalists1 who had now become better  
acquainted with the  rhinoceros1 finding
 this denomination of ,indian ass in the
 writings  of authors who had preceded  
them1 might have taken it1 from want  of
 proper examination1 for that of a      
distinct animal2 and from the  name1    
they would have concluded the animal    
should have solid hoofs4  ,there is1    
indeed1 a full description of the       
,indian ass given by  ,ctesias#hj1 but  
we have seen above that it had been     
taken from the  bas-reliefs of          
,persepolis1 and must therefore go for  
nothing in the  real history of the     
animal4    ,when there afterwards       
appeared more exact descriptions of an  
animal  having a single horn only1 but  

with several toes1 a third species      
would have been made out1 to which they 
gave the name of monoceros4  ,these     
double references applied to the same   
species1 are more  frequent among       
ancient naturalists1 because most of    
their works which  have come down to us 
were mere compilations2 even because    
,aristotle  himself has frequently      
mingled facts borrowed from others with 
those  which he had observed himself2   
and because the habit of critical       
examination was then as little known    
among naturalists as among  historians4 
,from all these reasonings and          
digressions1 it may be fairly           
concluded1 that the large animals of the
 old continent with which we  are now   
acquainted1 were known to the ancients2 
and that the animals  described by the  
ancients1 and which are now unknown1    
were fabulous4  ,it also follows1 that  
the large animals of the three principal
 parts  of the then discovered world    
could not have been long in being known 

to the nations which frequented their   
coasts4    ,it may also be concluded1   
that no large species remains to be     
discovered in ,america4 ,if there were  
any1 there can be no reason  why we     
should not be acquainted with it2 and in
 fact none has been  discovered there   
during the last hundred and fifty years4
 ,the tapir1  the jaguar1 the puma1 the 
cabiai1 the llama1 the vicuna1 the red  
wolf1 the buffalo or ,american bison1   
the ant-eaters1 sloths and  armadilloes1
 are as well described by ,margrave and 
,hernandez as by  ,buffon2 it may even  
be said that they are better1 for       
,buffon has  confused the history of the
 ant-eaters1 mistaken the jaguar and    
red wolf1 and confounded the bison of   
,america with the aurochs of  ,poland4  
,pennant1 it is true1 was the first     
naturalist who clearly  distinguished   
the small musk ox2 but it was long      
before made mention  of by travellers4  
,the cloven-footed horse of ,molina1 has
 not been  described by the early       

,spanish travellers2 but its existence  
is  more than doubtful1 and the         
authority of ,molina is too suspicious  
to authorise our adopting it4 ,it might 
be possible to characterise  more       
accurately than has been done the       
different species of deer  belonging to 
,america and ,india2 but the case is    
with respect to these  animals as it was
 among the ancients with respect to the 
antelopes2  it is the want of a good    
method for distinguishing them1 and not 
of opportunities of seeing them1 that   
has left them so imperfectly  known to  
us4 ,it may1 therefore1 be said1 that   
the ,mouflon of the ,blue  ,mountains is
 the only ,american quadruped of any    
considerable size of  which the         
discovery is altogether modern2 and even
 it is perhaps only  an argali that may 
have crossed upon the ice from ,siberia4
    ,how should it be thought1 after    
this1 that the huge mastodons and       
gigantic megatheria1 whose bones have   
been discovered under ground  in ,north 

and ,south ,america1 still exist alive  
on that continent8 ,how  should they    
have escaped those wandering tribes     
which continually  traverse the country 
in all directions1 and which are        
themselves  aware that these animals no 
longer exist1 since they have invented a
  fabulous account of their destruction1
 alleging that they were killed  by the 
,great ,spirit1 to prevent them from    
extirpating the human  race4 ,but it is 
evident that this fable has been        
occasioned by the  discovery of the     
bones1 like that of the inhabitants of  
,siberia with  respect to their mammoth1
 which they pretend to live under ground
  like the mole1 and1 like all those of 
the ancients1 about the graves  of      
giants1 who were thought by them to have
 been buried wherever the  bones of     
elephants were discovered4    ,thus it  
may safely be concluded1 that if1 as we 
have just said1 none  of the large      
species of quadrupeds whose remains are 
at the present  day found in regular    

mineral strata1 bear resemblance to any 
of the  known living species1 this is   
not the effect of mere chance1 nor      
because those species of which we       
possess nothing but the bones1  are     
still concealed in the deserts1 and have
 hitherto eluded the  observation of    
travellers4 ,on the contrary1 this      
phenomenon must be  regarded as         
resulting from general causes2 and its  
investigation may  be considered as     
affording one of the best means for     
discovering the  nature of these causes4
          ,difficulty of determining the
 ,fossil ,bones of ,quadrupeds4      ,if
 this study is more satisfactory in its 
results than that of other  fossil      
remains of animals1 it is also beset    
with more numerous  difficulties4       
,fossil shells usually present          
themselves in an entire  state1 and with
 all the characters requisite for       
comparing them with  their analogous    
species1 preserved in the collections or
 figured in  the works of naturalists4  

,even fishes present their skeleton more
  or less entire2 the general form of   
their body is almost always             
distinguishable1 and most commonly1     
also1 their generic and specific        
characters1 which are drawn from their  
solid parts4 ,in quadrupeds1  on the    
contrary1 even should the skeleton be   
found entire1 it would  be difficult to 
apply to it characters derived1 for the 
most part1  from the hair1 the colours1 
and other marks which have disappeared  
previous to their incrustation4 ,it is  
even excessively rare to find a  fossil 
skeleton approaching in any considerable
 degree to a complete  state4 ,the      
strata1 for the most part1 only contain 
separate bones1  scattered confusedly1  
and almost always broken1 and reduced to
  fragments2 and these constitute the   
only resources of knowledge to  the     
naturalist in this department4 ,it may  
also be stated1 that most  observers1   
deterred by these difficulties1 have    
passed slightly over  the fossil bones  

of quadrupeds2 have classed them in a   
vague manner1  according to superficial 
resemblances1 or have not even ventured 
to assign them a name2 so that this part
 of the history of fossil  remains1     
although the most important and most    
instructive of all1 is1  at the same    
time1 that which has been the least     
cultivated#ha4          ,principle by   
which this determination is effected4   
,fortunately1 comparative anatomy       
possesses a principle1 which1 when      
properly developed1 enables us to       
surmount all the obstacles4 ,this       
principle consists in the mutual        
relation of forms in organised  beings1 
by means of which1 each species may be  
determined1 with  perfect certainty1 by 
any fragment of any of its parts4       
,every organised being forms a whole1--a
 peculiar system of its own1  the parts 
of which mutually correspond1 and concur
 in producing  the same definitive      
action1 by a reciprocal reaction4 ,none 
of  these parts can change in form1     

without the others also changing2  and  
consequently1 each of them1 taken       
separately1 indicates and  ascertains   
all the others4    ,thus1 if the        
intestines of an animal are so organised
 as to be  fitted for the digestion of  
flesh only1 and that flesh recent1 it   
is necessary that its jaws be so        
constructed as to fit them for          
devouring live prey2 its claws for      
seizing and tearing it2 its teeth  for  
cutting and dividing it2 the whole      
system of its organs of  motion1 for    
pursuing and overtaking it2 and its     
organs of sense for  discovering it at a
 distance4 ,it is even requisite that   
nature have  placed in its brain the    
instinct necessary for teaching it to   
conceal  itself1 and to lay snares for  
its victims4    ,such are the general   
conditions which nature imposes upon the
  structure of carnivorous animals2 and 
which every animal of this  description 
must indispensably combine in its       
constitution1 for  without them its race

 could not subsist4 ,but subordinate to 
these  general conditions1 there exist  
others1 having relation to the size1    
the species1 and the haunts of the prey 
for which the animal is  adapted2 and   
from each of these particular           
conditions1 there result  modifications 
of detail in the forms which arise from 
the general  conditions4 ,thus not only 
the class1 but the order1 the genus1 and
  even the species1 are found expressed 
in the form of each part4    ,in fact1  
in order that the jaw may be able to    
seize1 it must have  a certain form of  
condyle2 that the resistance1 the moving
 power1  and the fulcrum1 should have a 
certain relative position in regard  to 
each other2 and that the temporal       
muscles should be of a certain  size2   
the hollow or depression1 too1 in which 
these muscles are  lodged1 must have a  
certain depth2 and the zygomatic arch1  
under  which they pass1 must not only   
have a certain degree of convexity1  but
 it must be sufficiently strong to      

support the action of the  masseter4    
,in order that the animal may be able to
 carry off its prey1 it must  have a    
certain degree of vigour in the muscles 
which elevate the  head2 whence there   
results a determinate form in the       
vertebr from  which these muscles take  
their rise1 and in the occiput into     
which  they are inserted4    ,in order  
that the teeth may be able to cut flesh1
 they must be  sharp-edged1 and must be 
so in a greater or less degree1         
according  as they have flesh more or   
less exclusively to cut4 ,their base    
will  be solid1 according to the        
quantity and size of the bones which    
they  have to break4 ,the whole of these
 circumstances must necessarily         
influence the development and form of   
all the parts which contribute  to move 
the jaws4    ,in order that the paws may
 be able to seize the prey1 there must  
be  a certain degree of mobility in the 
toes1 and a certain degree of  strength 
in the claws1 from which there will     

result determinate forms  in all the    
phalanges1 and a corresponding          
distribution of muscles and  tendons4   
,the fore-arm1 or cubitus1 must possess 
a certain facility  of turning1 from    
which there will also result determinate
 forms in  the bones of which it is     
composed4 ,but the bones of the cubitus 
being articulated to the humerus1 a     
change in the proportions of the        
former1 will necessarily induce a       
corresponding change in the latter4     
,the shoulder-bones must have a certain 
degree of firmness in such  animals as  
make use of their fore-legs for seizing1
 and from this  there must also result a
 certain peculiarity in their form4 ,the
 play  of all these parts will require  
certain proportions in all their        
muscles1 and the impressions made by    
these muscles so proportioned1  will    
determine still more particularly the   
forms of the bones4    ,it is easy to   
see that similar conclusions may be     
drawn with regard  to the posterior     

extremities which contribute to the     
rapidity of  the general motions2 with  
regard to the composition of the trunk1 
and the forms of the vertebr1 which     
exert an influence upon the  facility   
and flexibility of these motions2 and1  
lastly1 with regard  to the forms of the
 bones of the nose1 of the orbit1 and of
 the  ear1 the connection of which with 
the perfection of the senses of  smell1 
sight1 and hearing1 is evident4 ,in a   
word1 the form of the  tooth regulates  
the forms of the condyle1 of the        
scapula1 and of the  claws1 in the same 
manner as the equation of a curve       
regulates all  its properties2 and as1  
by taking each property separately for  
the  base of a particular equation1 we  
find both the ordinary equation1  and   
all the other properties whatever2 so1  
the claw1 the scapula1 the  condyle1 the
 femur1 and all the other bones taken   
separately1 give  the tooth1 or are     
reciprocally given by it2 and thus1 by  
commencing  with any one of these bones1

 a person who possesses an accurate     
knowledge of the laws of organic        
economy1 may reconstruct the whole      
animal4    ,this principle seems        
sufficiently evident1 in the general    
acceptation  in which it is here taken1 
and does not require any fuller         
demonstration2 but when it comes to be  
applied1 there will be found  many cases
 where our theoretical knowledge of the 
relations of forms  will not be         
sufficient1 unless it be supported by   
observation and  experience4    ,for    
example1 we are well aware1 that hoofed 
animals must all be  herbivorous1 since 
they have no means of seizing prey4 ,it 
is also  evident1 that1 having no other 
use to make of their fore-legs than  to 
support their body1 they do not require 
a shoulder so vigorously  organised as  
that of carnivorous animals2 they have1 
therefore1 no  acromion or clavicle1 and
 their shoulder-blades are narrow4      
,having  also no occasion to turn their 
fore-arm1 their radius is united to  the

 ulna by ossification1 or at least      
articulated by a ginglimus  or          
hinge-joint1 and not by arthrodia or    
ball and socket1 to the  humerus4 ,their
 food being herbaceous1 will require    
teeth furnished  with flat surfaces1 for
 bruising seeds and plants4 ,the crown  
of the  teeth must also be unequal1 and1
 for this purpose1 must be composed  of 
parts alternately consisting of bone and
 of enamel4 ,teeth of  this structure   
necessarily require horizontal motions  
to enable  them to triturate the food2  
and hence the condyle of the jaw cannot 
be so strictly confined within its      
articulating cavity as in the           
carnivorous animals1 but must be        
flattened1 and thus correspond with  a  
more or less flattened surface of the   
temporal bones4 ,further1 the  temporal 
fossa1 which will only have a small     
muscle to contain1 will  be narrower1   
and not so shallow1 as that of          
carnivorous animals4  ,all these        
circumstances are deducible from each   

other1 according to  their greater or   
less generality1 and in such a manner1  
that some of  them are essential and    
exclusively peculiar to hoofed animals1 
while  others1 although equally         
necessary in these animals1 are not     
entirely  peculiar to them1 but may     
occur in other animals also1 where the  
rest  of the conditions will permit     
their existence4    ,if we proceed to   
consider the orders or subdivisions of  
the class of  hoofed animals1 and       
examine what modifications the general  
conditions  undergo1 or rather what     
particular conditions are conjoined with
  them1 according to the respective     
characters of these orders1 the  reasons
 of these subordinate conditions begin  
to appear less obvious4  ,we can still  
easily conceive1 in general1 the        
necessity of a more  complicated system 
of digestive organs in those species    
which have  a more imperfect masticatory
 system2 and hence we may presume1 that 
these latter must be rather ruminating  

animals1 in which there is  wanting such
 or such an order of teeth2 and may also
 deduce from the  same consideration1   
the necessity of a certain form of the  
sophagus1  and of corresponding forms in
 the vertebr of the neck1 c4 ,but ,i    
doubt whether it would have been        
discovered1 independently of actual     
observation1 that the ruminating animals
 should all have cloven  hoofs1 and that
 they should be the only animals having 
them2 that  there should be horns on the
 fore-head in this class alone2 or that 
such of them as have sharp canine teeth1
 should1 in general1 have no  horns4    
,however1 since these relations are     
constant1 we may be assured that  they  
have a sufficient cause2 but as we are  
not acquainted with that  cause1 we must
 supply the defect of theory by means of
 observation1  and in this way establish
 empirical laws which become nearly as  
certain as those deduced from rational  
principles1 when founded  upon          
observations1 the authenticity of which 

is proved by frequent  repetition4      
,hence1 at the present day1 any one who 
observes only the  print of a cloven    
foot1 may conclude that the animal which
 left this  impression ruminates2 and   
this conclusion is quite as certain as  
any other in physics1 or in moral       
philosophy4 ,this simple footmark1      
therefore1 indicates at once to the     
observer the forms of the teeth1  of the
 jaws1 of the vertebr1 of all the bones 
of the legs1 thighs1  shoulders1 and    
pelvis of the animal which had passed4  
,it is a surer  mark than all those of  
,zadig4 ,that there are secret reasons1 
however1  for all these relations1 is   
what observation alone is sufficient to 
shew1 independently of any general      
principles of philosophy4    ,in fact1  
when we construct a table of these      
relations1 we remark  not only a        
specific constancy1 if the expression   
may be allowed1  between a particular   
form of a particular organ1 and some    
other form  of a different organ2 but we

 also perceive a classic constancy of   
conformation1 and a corresponding       
gradation1 in the development of  these 
two organs1 which demonstrate their     
mutual influence1 almost as  well as the
 most perfect deduction of reason4      
,for example1 the dentary system of the 
hoofed animals1 which are not  ruminant1
 is in general more perfect than that of
 the cloven-footed  or ruminating       
animals1 because the former have either 
incisors1 or  canine teeth1 and almost  
always both in each jaw2 and the        
structure  of their foot is in general  
more complicated1 because they have more
  toes or claws1 or their phalanges less
 enveloped in the hoof1--or a  greater  
number of distinct bones in the         
metacarpus and metatarsus--or  more     
numerous tarsal bones--or a fibula more 
distinct from the  tibia--or1 lastly1   
that all these circumstances are often  
united in  the same species of animals4 
,it is impossible to assign reasons for 
these relations2 but we are  certain    

that they are not the effects of chance1
 because1 whenever a  cloven-footed     
animal manifests1 in the arrangement of 
its teeth some  tendency to approach the
 animals we now speak of1 it also       
manifests  a similar tendency in the    
arrangement of its feet4 ,thus the      
camels1  which have canine teeth1 and   
even two or four incisors in the upper  
jaw1 have an additional bone in the     
tarsus1 because their scaphoid  bone is 
not united to the cuboid1 and they have 
very small hoofs1  with corresponding   
phalanges4 ,the musk animals1 whose     
canine teeth  are much developed1 have a
 distinct fibula along the whole length 
of their tibia2 while the other         
cloven-footed animals have only1 in     
place of a fibula1 a small bone         
articulated at the lower end of the     
tibia4 ,there is1 therefore1 a constant 
harmony between two organs  apparently  
having no connection2 and the gradations
 of their forms  preserve an            
uninterrupted correspondence1 even in   

those cases in  which we cannot account 
for their relations4    ,now1 by thus   
adopting the method of observation as a 
supplementary  means1 when theory is no 
longer able to direct our views1 we     
arrive  at astonishing results4 ,the    
smallest articulating surface of bone1  
or  the smallest apophysis1 has a       
determinate character1 relative to the  
class1 the order1 the genus1 and the    
species to which it belonged2  insomuch1
 that when one possesses merely a well  
preserved extremity  of a bone1 he can1 
by careful examination1 and the aid of a
 tolerable  analogical knowledge1 and of
 accurate comparison1 determine all     
these  things with as much certainty as 
if he had the entire animal before  him4
 ,i have often made trial of this method
 upon portions of known  animals1 before
 reposing full confidence upon it1 in   
regard to fossil  remains2 and it has   
always proved so completely             
satisfactory1 that  ,i have no longer   
any doubts regarding the certainty of   

the results  which it has afforded me4  
,it is true1 that ,i have enjoyed all   
the advantages which were  necessary for
 the undertaking2 and that my favourable
 situation1 in  the ,museum of ,natural 
,history at ,paris1 and assiduous       
research for  nearly thirty years1 have 
procured me skeletons of all the genera 
and sub-genera of quadrupeds1 and even  
of many species in some  genera1 and of 
several varieties of some species4 ,with
 such means1  it was easy for me to     
multiply my comparisons1 and to verify  
in all  their details the applications  
which ,i have made of the various laws  
deducible from such circumstances as    
have been stated4    ,we cannot here    
enter into a more lengthened detail of  
this method1  and must refer to the     
large work on ,comparative ,anatomy1 in 
which all  its rules will be found4 ,in 
the mean time1 an intelligent reader may
  gather a great number of these from   
the work upon ,fossil ,bones1 if he     
take the trouble of attending to all the

 applications of them which  we have    
there made4 ,he will see1 that it is by 
this method alone that  we are guided1  
and that it has almost always sufficed  
for referring  each bone to its species1
 when it was a living species--to its   
genus1  when it was an unknown          
species--to its order1 when it was a new
  genus--and to its class1 when it      
belonged to an order not hitherto       
established--and to assign it1 in the   
three last cases1 the proper  characters
 for distinguishing it from the nearest 
resembling orders1  genera1 and species4
 ,before the commencement of our        
researches1  naturalists had done no    
more than this with regard to animals1  
which  they had the opportunity of      
examining in their entire state4 ,yet1  
in  this manner1 we have determined and 
classed the remains of more  than a     
hundred and fifty mammiferous and       
oviparous quadrupeds4          ,view of 
the ,general ,results of these          
,researches4      ,considered with      

regard to species1 upwards of ninety of 
these animals  are most assuredly       
hitherto unknown to naturalists2 eleven 
or twelve  have so perfect a resemblance
 to species already known1 that the     
slightest doubt cannot be entertained of
 their identity2 the others  exhibit    
many traits of resemblance to known     
species1 but their  comparison has not  
yet been made with sufficient precision 
to remove  all doubts4    ,considered   
with regard to genera1 of the ninety    
hitherto unknown  species1 there are    
nearly sixty that belong to new genera4 
,the other  species rank under genera or
 subgenera already known4    ,it may not
 be without use1 also1 to consider these
 animals with  regard to the classes and
 orders to which they belong4 ,of the   
hundred  and fifty species1 about a     
fourth part are oviparous quadrupeds1   
and  all the rest mammifera4 ,of these  
last1 more than the half belong to      
non-ruminant hoofed animals4            
,notwithstanding what has been done1 it 

would still be premature to  establish  
upon these numbers any conclusion       
relative to the theory  of the earth1   
because they are not in sufficient      
proportion to the  numbers of genera and
 species which may be buried in the     
strata of  the earth4 ,hitherto the     
bones of the larger species have been   
chiefly  collected1 these being more    
obvious to agricultural labourers2 while
  the bones of the smaller species are  
usually neglected1 unless when  they    
chance to fall into the hands of a      
naturalist1 or when some  particular    
circumstance1 such as their excessive   
abundance in certain  places1 attracts  
the attention even of the common people4
          ,relations of the ,species of 
,fossil ,animals with the ,strata in    
which  they are found4      ,the most   
important consideration1 that which1 in 
fact1 is the chief  object of all my    
researches1 and which establishes their 
legitimate  connection with the ,theory 
of the ,earth1 is to ascertain in what  

strata each species is found1 and       
whether there may be some general  laws1
 relative either to the zoological      
subdivisions1 or to the  greater or less
 resemblance of the species to those of 
the present  day4    ,the laws which    
have been recognised with respect to    
these relations  are very distinct and  
satisfactory4    ,in the first place1 it
 is clearly ascertained that the        
oviparous  quadrupeds appear much more  
early than the viviparous2 that they are
  even more abundant1 larger1 and more  
varied1 in the ancient strata  than at  
the surface of the globe1 as it exists  
at present4    ,the ,ichthyosauri1 the  
,plesiosauri1 several species of        
,tortoise1 and  several species of      
,crocodile1 are found beneath the chalk1
 in the  deposits commonly called ,jura 
formations4 ,the ,monitors of ,thuringia
  would be still older1 if1 according to
 the ,wernerian ,school1 the            
copper-slate in which they are          
contained1 along with a great variety   

of fishes supposed to have belonged to  
fresh-water1 is to be placed  among the 
oldest beds of the secondary formations4
 ,the enormous  crocodiles and the great
 tortoises of ,maestricht1 are found in 
the  chalk formation itself2 but these  
are marine animals4    ,this earliest   
appearance of fossil bones seems1       
therefore1 already  to indicate1 that   
dry lands and fresh waters had existed  
before the  formation of the chalk      
deposits4 ,but neither at this period1  
nor  while the chalk was forming1 nor   
even long after1 have any bones of      
land-mammifera been encrusted2 or1 at   
least1 the small number of  these1 which
 are alleged to have been found in      
strata of these dates1  forms but a     
trifling exception4    ,we begin to find
 bones of marine mammifera1 namely1 of  
lamantins and  seals1 in the coarse     
shelly limestone which covers the chalk 
in the  neighbourhood of ,paris2 but    
there are still no bones of terrestrial 
mammifera4    ,notwithstanding the most 

assiduous investigation1 ,i have not    
been  able to discover any distinct     
trace of this class in any of the       
deposits preceding those which rest upon
 the coarse limestone4  ,certain        
lignites and molasses do in fact contain
 them2 but ,i am very  doubtful whether 
these deposits are all1 as is commonly  
supposed1  anterior to that limestone4  
,the places where these bones have  been
 found are so limited1 both in extent   
and in number1 as to  induce us to      
suppose some irregularity1 or some      
repetition of the  formation containing 
them4 ,on the contrary1 the moment we   
arrive  at the deposits which rest upon 
the coarse limestone1 the bones of      
land-animals present themselves in great
 abundance4    ,as it is reasonable to  
believe that shells and fishes did not  
exist  at the period of the formation of
 primitive rocks1 we are also led  to   
conclude that the oviparous quadrupeds  
began to exist along with  the fishes1  
and at the commencement of the period   

during which the  secondary rocks were  
formed2 but that the land-quadrupeds did
 not  appear upon the earth1 at least in
 any considerable number1 till  long    
after1 and until the coarse limestone   
strata1 which contain the  greater      
number of our genera of shells1 although
 of species different  from ours1 had   
been deposited4    ,it is remarkable    
that those coarse limestone strata which
 are used  at ,paris for building1 are  
the last formed strata which indicate a 
long and quiet continuance of the sea   
upon our continents4 ,above  them1      
indeed1 there are found formations      
containing shells and other  marine     
productions2 but these consist of       
collections of transported  matters1    
sand1 marls1 sandstones1 and clays1     
which rather indicate  transportations  
that have taken place with more or less 
violence1  than strata formed by        
tranquil deposition2 and1 if there be   
some  rocky and regular strata of pretty
 considerable magnitude1 beneath or     

above these transported matters1 they   
generally exhibit indications  of having
 been deposited from fresh water4       
,almost all the known bones of          
viviparous quadrupeds1 therefore1 have  
been found either in those fresh-water  
formations1 or in the alluvial          
formations2 and consequently there is   
every reason to conclude that  these    
quadrupeds have only begun to exist1 or1
 at least1 to leave  their remains in   
the strata of our earth1 after the last 
retreat of  the sea but one1 and during 
the state of things that preceded its   
last irruption4    ,but there is also an
 order in the disposition of these bones
 with  regard to each other2 and this   
order further announces a very          
remarkable succession in the appearance 
of the different species4  ,all the     
genera which are now unknown1 the       
,palotheria1 ,anaplotheria1  c41 with   
the position of which we are thoroughly 
acquainted1 belong  to the oldest of the
 formations of which we are now         

speaking1 those  which rest immediately 
upon the coarse limestone4 ,it is       
chiefly these  genera which occupy the  
regular beds that have been deposited   
from  fresh-water1 or certain alluvial  
beds of very ancient formation1         
generally composed of sand and rolled   
pebbles1 and which were perhaps  the    
earliest alluvium of that ancient world4
 ,along with these there  are also found
 some lost species of known genera1 but 
in small  numbers1 and some oviparous   
quadrupeds and fishes1 which appear to  
have been all inhabitants of            
fresh-water4 ,the beds which contain    
them  are always more or less covered by
 alluvial beds1 containing shells1  and 
other marine productions4    ,the most  
celebrated of the unknown species1 which
 belong to known  genera1 or to genera  
closely allied to those which are known1
 such as  the fossil elephants1         
rhinoceroses1 hippopotami1 and          
mastodons1 do  not occur along with     
those more ancient genera4 ,it is in the

 alluvial  formations alone that they   
are discovered1 sometimes accompanied   
with marine shells1 and sometimes with  
fresh-water shells1 but never  in       
regular stony beds4 ,every thing that is
 found along with these  species is     
either unknown like themselves1 or at   
least doubtful4    ,lastly1 the bones of
 species which are apparently the same  
as those  that are still found alive1   
are never discovered1 except in the last
  alluvial deposits formed on the sides 
of rivers1 or on the bottoms  of ancient
 pools or marshes now dried up1 or in   
the substance of beds  of peat1 or in   
the fissures and caverns of some rocks2 
or1 lastly1 at  small depths below the  
surface1 in places where they may have  
been  buried by the falling down of     
debris1 or even by the hand of man2 and 
their superficial position renders these
 bones1 although the most  recent of    
all1 almost always the worst preserved4 
,it must not1 however1 be thought that  
this classification of the  various     

geological positions of fossil remains1 
is as certain as that  of the species1  
or that it is equally capable of        
demonstration4 ,there  are numerous     
reasons which prevent this from being   
the case4    ,in the first place1 all my
 determinations of species have been    
made  upon the bones themselves1 or by  
means of good figures2 whereas it  has  
been impossible for me personally to    
examine all the places in  which these  
bones have been discovered4 ,i have very
 frequently been  obliged to content    
myself with vague and ambiguous         
accounts1 given by  people who were not 
themselves well aware of what it was    
necessary to  observe2 and1 more        
frequently still1 ,i have been unable to
 procure  any information whatever on   
the subject4    ,secondly1 these        
repositories of organic remains are     
subject to  infinitely greater doubts1  
than the bones themselves4 ,the same    
formation may appear recent in places   
where it shews itself at the  surface1  

and ancient in those where it is covered
 by the beds which  have succeeded it4  
,ancient formations may have been       
transported by  partial inundations1 and
 thus have covered recent bones2 they   
may  have fallen upon them by crumbling1
 and thus have enveloped and  mingled   
them with the productions of the ancient
 sea1 which they  previously contained4 
,bones of ancient periods may have been 
washed  out by the waters1 and          
afterwards enveloped in recent alluvial 
formations4 ,lastly1 recent bones may   
have fallen into the fissures  or       
caverns of ancient rocks1 and been      
enveloped by stalactites or  other      
incrustations4 ,in every individual     
instance1 therefore1 it  becomes        
necessary to analyze and appreciate all 
those circumstances  which might        
disguise the real origin of fossil      
remains2 and it rarely  happens that    
people who have collected bones have    
been themselves  aware of this          
necessity1 the consequence of which has 

been1 that the  true characters of their
 geological position have been almost   
always  neglected or misunderstood4     
,thirdly1 there are some doubtful       
species1 which must occasion more  or   
less uncertainty in the results of our  
researches1 until they  have been       
clearly ascertained4 ,thus the horses   
and buffaloes that  occur along with the
 elephants1 have not yet received       
appropriate  specific characters2 and   
such geologists as are disinclined to   
adopt  the different epochs which ,i    
have endeavoured to establish with      
regard to fossil bones1 may1 for many   
years to come1 draw from thence  an     
argument against my system1 so much the 
more convenient as it is  contained in  
my own work4    ,but allowing that these
 epochs are liable to some objections1  
from  such as may only consider some    
particular case1 ,i am not the less     
satisfied1 that those who shall take a  
comprehensive view of the  phenomena1   
will not be checked by such             

inconsiderable and partial              
difficulties1 and will be led to        
conclude1 as ,i have done1 that  there  
has been at least one1 and very probably
 two1 successions in  the class of      
quadrupeds1 previous to that which at   
the present day  peoples the surface of 
the earth4          ,proofs that the    
,extinct ,species of ,quadrupeds are not
 varieties of  the presently existing   
,species4      ,i now proceed to the    
consideration of another objection1 one1
 in  fact1 which has already been urged 
against me4    ,why may not the         
presently existing races of land        
quadrupeds1 it has  been asked1 be      
modifications of those ancient races    
which we find in  a fossil state2 which 
modifications may have been produced by 
local  circumstances and change of      
climate2 and carried to the extreme     
difference which they now present1      
during a long succession of ages8       
,this objection must appear strong to   
those especially who believe  in the    

possibility of indefinite alteration of 
forms in organised  bodies2 and who     
think that1 during a succession of ages1
 and by  repeated changes of habitudes1 
all the species might be changed into   
one another1 or might result from a     
single species4    ,yet to these persons
 an answer may be given from their own  
system4 ,if  the species have changed by
 degrees1 we ought to find traces of    
these  gradual modifications4 ,thus1    
between the palotheria and our present  
species1 we should be able to discover  
some intermediate forms2 and  yet no    
such discovery has ever been made4      
,why have not the bowels of the earth   
preserved the monuments of so  strange a
 genealogy1 if it be not because the    
species of former times  were as        
constant as ours2 or1 at least1 because 
the catastrophe which  destroyed them1  
had not left them sufficient time for   
undergoing the  variation alleged8      
,in order to reply to those naturalists 
who acknowledge that the  varieties of  

animals are restrained within certain   
limits fixed by  nature1 it would be    
necessary to examine how far these      
limits extend4  ,this is a very curious 
inquiry1--highly interesting in itself1 
under  a variety of relations1 and yet  
one that has been hitherto very  little 
attended to4    ,before entering upon   
this inquiry1 it is proper to define    
what is  meant by a species1 so that the
 definition may serve to regulate  the  
employment of the term4 ,a species1     
therefore1 may be defined1  as          
comprehending the individuals which     
descend from each other1  or from common
 parents1 and those which resemble them 
as much as  they resemble each other4   
,thus1 we consider as varieties of a    
species1 only the races more or less    
different which may have sprung  from it
 by generation4 ,our observations1      
therefore1 regarding the  differences   
between the ancestors and descendants1  
afford us the  only certain rule by     
which we can judge on this subject2 all 

other  considerations leading to        
hypothetical conclusions destitute of   
proof4 ,now1 considering the varieties  
in this view1 we observe  that the      
differences which constitute it1 depend 
upon determinate  circumstances1 and    
that their extent increases in          
proportion to the  intensity of these   
circumstances4    ,thus1 the most       
superficial characters are the most     
variable3 the  colour depends much upon 
the light2 the thickness of the fur upon
 the  heat2 the size1 upon the abundance
 of food4 ,but in a wild animal1  even  
these varieties are greatly limited by  
the natural habits of the  animal       
itself1 which does not voluntarily      
remove far from the places  where it    
finds1 in the necessary degree1 all that
 is requisite1 for  the support of its  
species1 and does not even extend its   
haunts to  any great distance1 unless it
 also finds all these circumstances     
conjoined4 ,thus1 although the wolf and 
the fox inhabit all the  climates from  

the torrid to the frigid zone1 we hardly
 find any other  difference among them1 
in the whole of that vast space1 than a 
little  more or a little less beauty in 
their fur4 ,i have compared skulls of   
foxes from the northern countries and   
from ,egypt1 with those of the  foxes of
 ,france1 and have found no difference  
but such as might be  expected in       
different individuals4 ,such of the wild
 animals as are  confined within        
narrower limits1 vary still less1       
especially those  which are carnivorous4
 ,the only difference between the hyena 
of  ,persia and that of ,morocco1       
consists in a thicker or a thinner mane4
    ,the wild herbivorous animals feel  
the influence of climate somewhat  more 
extensively1 because there is added to  
it in their case1 the  influence of the 
food1 which may happen to differ both as
 to quantity  and quality4 ,thus1 the   
elephants of one forest are often larger
 than  those of another2 and their tusks
 are somewhat longer in places where    

their food may happen to be more        
favourable for the production of the    
matter of ivory4 ,the same may take     
place with regard to the horns  of      
rein-deer and stags4 ,but let us compare
 two elephants the most  dissimilar1 and
 we shall not discover the slightest    
difference in the  number and           
articulations of the bones1 the         
structure of the teeth1 c4    ,besides1 
the herbivorous species1 in the wild    
state1 seem more  restrained from       
dispersing than the carnivorous animals1
 because the  sort of food which they   
require1 combines with the temperature  
to  prevent them4    ,nature also takes 
care to guard against the alteration of 
the  species1 which might result from   
their mixture1 by the mutual  aversion  
with which it has inspired them4 ,it    
requires all the  ingenuity and all the 
power of man to accomplish these unions1
 even  between species that have the    
nearest resemblances4 ,and1 when the    
individuals produced by these forced    

conjunctions are fruitful1 which  is    
very seldom the case1 their fecundity   
does not continue beyond a  few         
generations2 and would not probably     
proceed so far1 without a  continuance  
of the same cares which excited it at   
first4 ,thus1 we  never see in our woods
 individuals intermediate between the   
hare and  the rabbit2 between the stag  
and the doe2 or between the martin and  
the pole-cat4    ,but the power of man  
changes this order2 it discloses all    
those  variations1 of which the type of 
each species is susceptible2  and from  
them derives productions which the      
species1 if left to  themselves1 would  
never have yielded4    ,here the degree 
of the variations is still proportional 
to the  intensity of their cause1 which 
is slavery4 ,it is not very high in  the
 semi-domesticated species1 such as the 
cat4 ,a softer fur2 more  brilliant     
colours2 greater or less size2 these    
form the whole extent  of the variations
 in this species2 for the skeleton of an

 ,angora cat  differs in no regular and 
constant circumstance from that of a    
wild  cat4    ,in the domesticated      
herbivorous animals1 which we transport 
into  all kinds of climates1 and subject
 to all kinds of management1 both  with 
regard to labour and nourishment1 we    
certainly obtain greater  variations2   
but still they are all merely           
superficial4 ,greater  or less size2    
longer or shorter horns1 or even the    
want of these  entirely2 a hump of fat1 
larger or smaller1 on the shoulder2     
these  form the differences between the 
various races of the common ox or  bull2
 and these differences continue long1   
even in such breeds as  have been       
transported from the countries in which 
they were produced1  when proper care is
 taken to prevent crossing4    ,of this 
nature are also the innumerable         
varieties of the common  sheep1 which   
consist chiefly in differences of their 
fleeces1 as the  wool which they produce
 is an important object of attention4   

,these  varieties1 although not quite so
 perceptible1 are yet sufficiently      
marked among horses4 ,in general1 the   
forms of the bones vary little2  their  
connections and articulations1 and the  
forms of the large  grinding teeth1     
never vary at all4    ,the small size of
 the tusks in the domestic hog1 compared
 with the  wild boar's1 and the junction
 of its cloven hoofs into one in some   
races1 form the extreme point of the    
differences which we have  produced in  
the domesticated herbivorous quadrupeds4
    ,the most remarkable effects of the 
influence of man are manifested  in the 
animal which he has reduced most        
completely under subjection1  the       
dog1--that species so entirely devoted  
to ours1 that even the  individuals of  
it seem to have sacrificed to us their  
will1 their  interest1 and inclination4 
,transported by man into every part of  
the world1 subjected to all the causes  
capable of influencing their            
development1 regulated in their sexual  

intercourse by the pleasure of  their   
masters1 dogs vary in colour2 in the    
quantity of their hair1  which they     
sometimes even lose altogether1 and in  
its nature2 in  size1 which varies as   
one to five in the linear dimensions1   
amounting  to more than a hundred fold  
in bulk2 in the form of the ears1 nose1 
and tail2 in the proportional length of 
the legs2 in the progressive            
development of the brain in the domestic
 varieties1 whence results  the form of 
their head1 which is sometimes slender1 
with a lengthened  muzzle and flat      
forehead1 and sometimes having a short  
muzzle and a  protuberant forehead2     
insomuch that the apparent differences  
between  a mastiff and a water-spaniel1 
and between a greyhound and a pug1  are 
more striking than those that exist     
between any two species of  the same    
natural genus in a wild state4 ,finally1
 and this may be  considered as the     
maximum of variation hitherto known in  
the animal  kingdom1 there are races of 

dogs which have an additional toe on the
  hind foot1 with corresponding tarsal  
bones2 as there are1 in the  human      
species1 some families that have six    
fingers on each hand4 ,yet1  in all     
these varieties1 the relations of the   
bones remain the same1  nor does the    
form of the teeth ever change in any    
perceptible degree2  the only variation 
in respect to these latter being1 that1 
in some  individuals1 one additional    
false grinder appears1 sometimes on the 
one side1 and sometimes on the other#hb4
    ,animals1 therefore1 have natural   
characters1 which resist every kind  of 
influence1 whether natural or produced  
by human interference1 and  nothing     
indicates that1 with regard to them1    
time has more effect  than climate and  
domestication4    ,i am aware that some 
naturalists lay great stress upon the   
thousands  of ages which they call into 
action by a dash of the pen2 but1 in    
such matters1 we can only judge of what 
a long period of time might  produce1 by

 multiplying in idea what a less time   
produces4 ,with  this view1 ,i have     
endeavoured to collect the most ancient 
documents  relating to the forms of     
animals2 and there are none which equal1
  either in antiquity or abundance1     
those that ,egypt furnishes4 ,it        
affords us1 not only representations of 
animals1 but even their  identical      
bodies embalmed in its catacombs4    ,i 
have examined with the greatest         
attention the figures of quadrupeds  and
 birds sculptured upon the numerous     
obelisks brought from ,egypt to  ancient
 ,rome4 ,all these figures possess1 in  
their general character1  which alone   
could be the object of attention to an  
artist1 a perfect  resemblance to the   
species represented1 such as we see them
 at the  present day4    ,on examining  
the copies made by ,kirker and ,zoega1  
we find that1  without preserving every 
trait of the originals in its perfect   
purity1 they have given figures which   
are easily recognised4 ,we  readily     

distinguish the ibis1 the vulture1 the  
owl1 the falcon1 the  ,egyptian goose1  
the lapwing1 the landrail1 the aspic1   
the cerastes1  the ,egyptian hare with  
its long ears1 and even the             
hippopotamus2 and1  among the numerous  
monuments engraved in the great work on 
,egypt1 we  sometimes observe the rarest
 animals1 the algazel1 for example1     
which  was not seen in ,europe until    
within these few years#hc4    ,my       
learned colleague1 ,m4 ,geoffroy        
,saint-,hilaire1 strongly convinced  of 
the importance of this research1        
carefully collected in the tombs  and   
temples of ,upper and ,lower ,egypt as  
many mummies of animals as  he could4   
,he has brought home cats1 ibises1 birds
 of prey1 dogs1  monkeys1 crocodiles1   
and the head of an ox1 in this state2   
and there  is certainly no more         
difference to be perceived between these
 mummies  and the species of the same   
kind now alive1 than between the human  
mummies and the skeletons of men of the 

present day4 ,a difference  may1 indeed1
 be found between the mummies of the    
ibis and the bird  which naturalists    
have hitherto described under that name2
 but ,i have  cleared up all doubts on  
this matter1 in a ,memoir upon the      
,ibis1  which will be found at the end  
of this ,essay1 and in which ,i have    
shewn that it is still at the present   
day the same as it was in the  time of  
the ,pharaohs4 ,i am aware that1 in     
these1 ,i only cite the  monuments of   
two or three thousand years2 but this is
 the most remote  antiquity to which we 
can resort in such a case4    ,there is 
nothing1 therefore1 to be derived from  
all the facts  hitherto known1 that     
could1 in the slightest degree1 give    
support  to the opinion that the new    
genera which ,i have discovered or      
established among the fossil remains of 
animals1 any more than those  which have
 in like manner been discovered or      
established by other  naturalists1 the  
palotheria1 anoplotheria1 megalonyces1  

mastodonta1 pterodactyli1 ichthyosauri1 
c4 might have been  the sources of the  
present race of animals1 which have only
 differed  from them through the        
influence of time or climate4 ,even if  
it should  prove true1 which ,i am far  
from believing to be the case1 that the 
fossil elephants1 rhinoceroses1 elks1   
and bears1 differ no more from  those at
 present existing1 than the present     
races of dogs differ from  one another1 
this would not furnish a sufficient     
reason for inferring  the general       
identity of the species1 because the    
races of dogs have  been subjected to   
the influence of domestication1 which   
these other  animals neither did nor    
could experience4    ,farther1 when ,i  
maintain that the rocky beds contain the
 bones of  several genera1 and the      
alluvial strata those of several species
  which no longer exist1 ,i do not      
assert that a new creation was  required
 for producing the species existing at  
the present day4 ,i  only say that they 

did not originally inhabit the places   
where we  find them at present1 and that
 they must have come from some other    
part of the globe4    ,let us suppose1  
for instance1 that a great irruption of 
the sea were  now to cover the continent
 of ,new ,holland with a coat of sand or
  other debris2 it would bury the       
carcases of animals belonging to the    
genera ,kangurus1 ,phascolomys1         
,dasyurus1 ,perameles1 flying           
phalanger1 echidna1 and ornithorynchus1 
and it would entirely destroy  the      
species of all these genera1 since none 
of them exist now in any  other country4
    ,were the same revolution to lay dry
 the numerous narrow straits which      
separate ,new ,holland from the         
continent of ,asia1 it would open a     
road to the elephants1 rhinoceroses1    
buffaloes1 horses1 camels1 and  tigers1 
and to all the other ,asiatic           
quadrupeds1 which would come to  people 
a land where they had been previously   
unknown4    ,were some future           

naturalist1 after having made himself   
well  acquainted with this new race of  
animals1 to search below the surface  on
 which they live1 he would find remains 
of quite a different  nature4    ,what  
,new ,holland would be1 under the       
circumstances which we have  supposed1  
,europe1 ,siberia1 and a large portion  
of ,america1 now  actually are4 ,and1   
perhaps1 when other countries shall have
 been  examined1 and ,new ,holland among
 the rest1 it will one day be found     
that they have experienced similar      
revolutions1 ,i might almost say1       
mutual changes1 of productions4 ,for1 if
 we push the supposition  farther1 and1 
after the supply of ,asiatic animals to 
,new ,holland1  admit a second          
revolution1 which destroyed ,asia1 their
 original  country1 those naturalists   
who might observe them in ,new ,holland1
  their second country1 would be equally
 at a loss to know whence  they had     
come1 as we now are to find out the     
origin of the races of  animals that    

inhabit our own countries4    ,i now    
proceed to apply this manner of         
reasoning to the human species4         
,proofs that there are no ,fossil ,human
 ,bones4      ,it is certain that no    
human bones have yet been found among   
fossil  remains2 and this furnishes an  
additional proof that the fossil races  
were not mere varieties of known        
species1 since they could not have  been
 subjected to human influence4    ,when 
,i assert that human bones have never   
been found among fossil  organic        
remains1 7,i must be understood to speak
 of fossils or  petrifactions1 properly 
so called71 or1 in other words1 in the  
regular strata of the surface of the    
globe2 for in peat-bogs  7tourbires71   
and alluvial deposits1 as in            
burying-grounds1 human  bones might as  
well be found as bones of horses1 or    
other common  species4 ,they might      
equally be found in fissures of rocks1  
and in  caverns1 where they may have    
been covered over by stalactite2 but in 

the beds which contain the ancient      
races1 among the palotheria1  and even  
among the elephants and rhinoceroses1   
the smallest portion  of a human bone   
has never been discovered4 ,many of the 
labourers in  the gypsum quarries about 
,paris1 believe that the bones which    
occur  so abundantly in them1 are in a  
great part human2 but ,i have seen      
several thousands of these bones1 and ,i
 may safely affirm that not  one of them
 has ever belonged to our species4 ,i   
have examined at  ,pavia the groups of  
bones brought by ,spallanzani from the  
,island  of ,cerigo2 and1               
notwithstanding the assertion of that   
celebrated  observer1 ,i equally affirm1
 that there is not one among them that  
could be shewn to be human4 ,the homo   
diluvii testis of ,scheuchzer  has been 
restored1 in my first edition1 to its   
true genus1 which  is that of the       
salamanders2 and1 in a more recent      
examination of  it at ,haarlem1 allowed 
me by the politeness of ,mr ,van ,marum1

 who  permitted me to uncover the parts 
enveloped in the stone1 ,i obtained     
complete proof of what ,i had before    
announced4 ,among the bones found  at   
,canstadt1 the fragment of a jaw1 and   
some articles of human  manufacture1    
were found2 but it is known that the    
ground was dug up  without any          
precaution1 and that no notes were taken
 of the different  depths at which each 
article was discovered4 ,every where    
else1 the  fragments of bone alleged to 
be human1 are found1 on examination1 to 
belong to some animal1 whether these    
fragments have been examined            
themselves1 or merely through the medium
 of figures4 ,very recently1  some were 
pretended to have been discovered at    
,marseilles1 in a  quarry that had been 
long neglected2#hd but they have turned 
out to  be impressions of tuyaux        
marines4#he ,such real human bones as   
have  been exhibited as fossil1 belonged
 to bodies that had fallen into         
fissures1 or had been left in the old   

galleries of mines1 or that  had been   
incrusted2 and ,i extend this assertion 
even to the human  skeletons discovered 
at ,guadaloupe1 in a rock formed of     
fragments of  madrepore1 thrown up by   
the sea1 and united by water impregnated
  with calcareous matter4#hf ,the human 
bones found near ,kstriz1 and  pointed  
out by ,m4 de ,schlotheim1 had been     
announced as taken out of  very old     
beds2 but this estimable naturalist is  
anxious to make known  how much this    
assertion is still subject to doubt4#hg 
,the same has  been the case with the   
articles of human fabrication4 ,the     
pieces of  iron found at ,montmartre are
 fragments of the tools which the       
workmen  use for putting in blasts of   
gunpowder1 and which sometimes break in 
the stone#hh4    ,yet human bones       
preserve equally well with those of     
animals1 when  placed in the same       
circumstances4 ,in ,egypt1 no difference
 is remarked  between the mummies of men
 and those of quadrupeds4 ,i picked up1 

from the excavations made some years ago
 in the ancient church of ,st           
,genevieve1 human bones that had been   
interred below the first race1  which   
may even have belonged to some princes  
of the family of ,clovis1  and which    
still retained their forms very         
perfectly#hi4 ,we do not  find in       
ancient fields of battle that the       
skeletons of men are more  wasted than  
those of horses1 except in so far as    
they may have been  influenced by size2 
and we find among fossil remains the    
bones of  animals as small as rats1     
still perfectly preserved4    ,every    
circumstance1 therefore1 leads to the   
conclusion1 that the  human species did 
not exist in the countries in which the 
fossil  bones have been discovered1 at  
the epoch of the revolutions by which   
these bones were covered up2 for there  
cannot be a single reason  assigned1 why
 men should have entirely escaped from  
such general  catastrophes1 or why their
 remains should not be now found like   

those  of other animals4 ,i do not      
presume1 however1 to conclude that man  
did  not exist at all before this epoch4
 ,he might then have inhabited some     
narrow regions1 whence he might have    
repeopled the earth after those         
terrible events4 ,perhaps also1 the     
places which he inhabited may have  been
 entirely swallowed up in the abyss1 and
 his bones buried at the  bottom of the 
present seas1 with the exception of a   
small number of  individuals1 which have
 continued the species4    ,however this
 may be1 the establishment of man in    
those countries in  which we have said  
that the fossil remains of land animals 
are found1  that is to say1 in the      
greatest part of ,europe1 ,asia1 and    
,america1  has necessarily been         
posterior1 not only to the revolutions  
which  have covered up these bones1 but 
also to those which have laid bare  the 
strata containing them1 and which are   
the last that the globe  has undergone4 
,hence it clearly appears1 that no      

argument in favour  of the antiquity of 
the human species in these different    
countries  can be derived either from   
those bones themselves1 or from the more
  or less considerable masses of rocks  
or of earthy materials by which  they   
are covered4          ,physical ,proofs 
of the ,newness of the ,present         
,continents4      ,on the contrary1 by a
 careful examination of what has taken  
place  on the surface of the globe1     
since it has been laid dry for the  last
 time1 and its continents have assumed  
their present form1 at  least in the    
parts that are somewhat elevated1 it may
 be clearly  seen that this last        
revolution1 and consequently the        
establishment  of our existing          
societies1 could not have been very     
ancient4 ,this  result is one of the    
best established1 and1 at the same time1
 one  of the least attended to in       
rational geology2 and it is so much the 
more valuable1 that it connects natural 
and civil history in one  uninterrupted 

series4    ,when we measure the effects 
produced in a given time by causes still
  acting1 and compare them with those   
which the same causes have  produced    
since they have begun to act1 we are    
enabled to determine  nearly the instant
 at which their action commenced2 which 
is  necessarily the same as that in     
which our continents assumed their      
present form1 or that of the last sudden
 retreat of the waters4    ,it must1 in 
fact1 have been since this last retreat 
of the waters1  that our present steep  
declivities have begun to disintegrate1 
and  to form heaps of debris at their   
bases2 that our present rivers  have    
begun to flow1 and to deposit their     
alluvial matters2 that our  present     
vegetation has begun to extend itself1  
and to produce soil2  that our present  
cliffs have begun to be corroded by the 
sea2 that  our present downs have begun 
to be thrown up by the wind3 just as  it
 must have been since this same epoch1  
that colonies of men have  begun1 for   

the first or second time1 to spread     
themselves1 and to  form establishments 
in places fitted by nature for their    
reception4  ,i do not here take the     
action of volcanoes into account1 not   
only  because of the irregularity of    
their eruptions1 but because we have  no
 proofs of their not having been able to
 exist under the sea2 and  because1 on  
that account1 they cannot serve us as a 
measure of the  time which has elapsed  
since its last retreat4                 
,additions of ,land by the ,action of   
,rivers4      ,,mm4 ,deluc and ,dolomieu
 have most carefully examined the       
progress  of the formation of new ground
 by means of matters washed down by     
rivers2 and although exceedingly opposed
 to each other on many points  of the   
,theory of the ,earth1 they agree in    
this4 ,these formations  augment very   
rapidly2 they must have increased still 
more rapidly at  first1 when the        
mountains furnished more materials to   
the rivers1 and  yet their extent is    

still inconsiderable4    ,dolomieu's    
,memoir respecting ,egypt#ij tends to   
prove1 that the  tongue of land on which
 ,alexander caused his city to be built1
  did not exist in the days of ,homer2  
that they were then able to  navigate   
directly from the island of ,pharos into
 the gulf afterwards  called ,lake      
,mareotis2 and that this gulf was then1 
as indicated  by ,menelaus1 from fifteen
 to twenty leagues in length4 ,it had1  
therefore1 only required the nine       
hundred years that elapsed between  the 
time of ,homer and that of ,strabo1 to  
bring things to the state  in which this
 latter author describes them1 and to   
reduce the gulf  in question to the form
 of a lake1 of six leagues in length4   
,it is  more certain1 that1 since that  
time1 things have changed still more4   
,the sand thrown up by the sea and winds
 have formed1 between the  island of    
,pharos and the site of ancient         
,alexandria1 a tongue of land  two      
hundred fathoms in breadth1 upon which  

the modern city has been  built4 ,it has
 blocked up the nearest mouth of the    
,nile1 and reduced  the lake ,mareotis  
to almost nothing2 while1 during the    
same period1  the alluvial matter       
carried down by the ,nile1 has been     
deposited  along the rest of the shore1 
and has greatly increased its extent4   
,the ancients were not ignorant of these
 changes4 ,herodotus says1  that the    
,egyptian priests regarded their country
 as a gift of the  ,nile4 ,it is only in
 a manner1 he adds1 within a short      
period1 that  the ,delta has            
appeared#ia4 ,aristotle observes1 that  
,homer speaks of  ,thebes as if it had  
been the only great city in ,egypt2 and 
nowhere  makes mention of ,memphis#ib4  
,the ,canopian and ,pelusian mouths of  
the ,nile were formerly the principal   
ones2 and the coast extended in  a      
straight line from the one to the other2
 and in this manner it  still appears in
 the charts of ,ptolemy4 ,since then1   
the water has  been directed into the   

,bolbitian and ,phatnitic mouths2 and it
 is at  these entrances into the sea    
that the greatest depositions have been 
formed1 which have given the coast a    
semicircular outline4 ,the cities  of   
,rosetta and ,damieta1 which were built 
upon these mouths1 close  to the edge of
 the sea1 less than a thousand years    
ago1 are now two  leagues distant from  
it4 ,according to ,demaillet#ic1 it     
would only  have required twenty-six    
years to form a promontory of half a    
league  in extent before ,rosetta4      
,an elevation is produced in the soil of
 ,egypt1 at the same time  that this    
extension of its surface takes place1   
and the bed of the  river rises in the  
same proportion as the adjacent plains1 
which  makes the inundations of every   
succeeding century pass far beyond  the 
marks which it had left during the      
preceding ones4 ,according  to          
,herodotus1 a period of nine hundred    
years was sufficient to  establish a    
difference of level amounting to ten or 

twelve feet4 ,at  ,elephantia#id1 the   
inundation at present exceeds by seven  
feet the  greatest heights which it     
attained under ,septimus ,severus1 at   
the  commencement of the third century4 
,at ,cairo1 before it is judged         
sufficient for the purpose of           
irrigation1 it must exceed1 by three    
feet and a half1 the height which was   
necessary in the ninth century4  ,the   
ancient monuments of this celebrated    
land have all their bases  more or less 
buried in the soil4 ,the mud left by the
 river even  covers1 to a depth of      
several feet1 the artificial mounds on  
which  the ancient towns were built#ie4 
,the delta of the ,rhone is not less    
remarkable for its increase4  ,astruc   
gives a detailed account of it in his   
,natural ,history of  ,languedoc2 and   
proves1 by a careful comparison of the  
descriptions of  ,mela1 ,strabo and     
,pliny1 with the state of the places as 
they existed  at the commencement of the
 eighteenth century1 taking into account

  the statements of several writers of  
the middle age1 that the arms  of the   
,rhone have increased three leagues in  
length in the course  of eighteen       
hundred years2 that similar additions of
 land are made  to the west of the      
,rhone2 and that a number of places1    
which were  situated1 six or eight      
hundred years ago1 at the edge of the   
sea or  of large pools1 are now several 
miles distant from the water4    ,any   
one may observe in ,holland and ,italy1 
with what rapidity the  ,rhine1 the ,po1
 and the ,arno1 since they have been    
confined within  dikes1 raise their     
beds1 advance their mouths into the sea1
 forming  long promontories at their    
sides2 and judge1 from these facts1 how 
small a number of ages was required by  
these rivers to deposit the  low plains 
which they now traverse4    ,many       
cities1 which were flourishing sea-ports
 at well known periods  of history1 are 
now some leagues inland2 and several    
have even been  ruined1 in consequence  

of this change of position4 ,the        
inhabitants of  ,venice find it         
exceedingly difficult to preserve the   
lagunes1 by  which that city is         
separated from the continent2 and       
notwithstanding  all their efforts1 it  
will be inevitably joined to the        
mainland#if4    ,we know1 from the      
testimony of ,strabo1 that ,ravenna     
stood among  lagunes in the time of     
,augustus1 as ,venice does now2 but at  
present  ,ravenna is a league distant   
from the shore4 ,spina had been built by
  the ,greeks at the edge of the sea2   
yet in ,strabo's time it was ninety     
stadia from it1 and is now destroyed4   
,adria in ,lombardy1 which gave  name to
 the ,adriatic sea1 and of which it was1
 somewhat more than  twenty centuries   
ago1 the principal port1 is now six     
leagues distant  from it4 ,fortis has   
even rendered it probable that1 at a    
more remote  period1 the ,euganian      
,mountains may have been islands4    ,m4
 de ,prony1 a learned member of the     

,institute1 and inspector-general  of   
bridges and roads1 has communicated to  
me some observations which  are of the  
greatest importance1 as explaining those
 changes that  have taken place along   
the shores of the ,adriatic#ig4 ,having 
been  directed by government to         
investigate the remedies that might be  
applied to the devastations occasioned  
by the floods of the ,po1 he            
ascertained that this river1 since the  
period when it was shut in  by dikes1   
has so greatly raised the level of its  
bottom1 that the  surface of its waters 
is now higher than the roofs of the     
houses in  ,ferrara4 ,at the same time1 
its alluvial depositions have advanced  
so  rapidly into the sea1 that1 by      
comparing old charts with the present   
state1 the shore is found to have gained
 more than six thousand  fathoms since  
#afjd1 giving an average of a hundred   
and fifty or a  hundred and eighty1 and 
in some places two hundred feet yearly4 
,the ,adige and the ,po1 are at the     

present day higher than the whole  tract
 of land that lies between them2 and it 
is only by opening  new channels for    
them in the low grounds1 which they have
 formerly  deposited1 that the disasters
 which they now threaten may be averted4
    ,the same causes have produced the  
same effects along the branches of  the 
,rhine and the ,meuse2 and thus the     
richest districts of ,holland  have     
continually the frightful view of their 
rivers held up by  embankments at a     
height of from twenty to thirty feet    
above the level  of the land4    ,m4    
,wiebeking1 director of bridges and     
highways in the kingdom of  ,bavaria1   
has written a memoir upon this subject1 
so important as to  be worthy of being  
properly understood1 both by the people 
and the  government1 in all countries   
where these changes take place4 ,in this
  memoir1 he shews that the property of 
raising the level of their beds  is     
common in a greater or less degree to   
all rivers4    ,the additions of land   

that have been made along the shores of 
the  ,north ,sea1 have not been less    
rapid in their progress than in  ,italy4
 ,they can be easily traced in          
,friesland and in the country  of       
,groningen1 where the epoch of the first
 dikes1 constructed by  the ,spanish    
governor ,gaspar ,robls1 is well known  
to have been in  #aegj4 ,an hundred     
years afterwards1 land had already been 
gained1  in some places1 to the extent  
of three quarters of a league beyond    
these dikes2 and even the city of       
,groningen1 partly built upon the  old  
land1 on a limestone which does not     
belong to the present sea1  and in which
 the same shells are found as in the    
coarse limestone  of the neighbourhood  
of ,paris1 is only six leagues from the 
sea4  ,having been upon the spot1 ,i am 
enabled to adduce my own testimony  in  
confirmation of facts already well      
known1 and which have been so  well     
stated by ,m4 ,deluc#ih4 ,the same      
phenomenon may be as distinctly         

observed along the coasts of ,east      
,friesland1 and the countries of        
,bremen and ,holstein1 as the period at 
which the new grounds were  inclosed for
 the first time is known1 and the extent
 that has been  gained since can be     
measured4 ,this new alluvial land1      
formed by the  rivers and the sea1 is of
 astonishing fertility1 and is so much  
the more valuable1 as the ancient soil  
of these countries1 being  covered with 
heaths and peat-mosses1 is almost       
everywhere unfit  for cultivation4 ,the 
alluvial lands alone produce subsistence
 for  the many populous cities that have
 been built along these coasts1  since  
the middle age1 and which perhaps would 
not have attained  their present        
flourishing condition1 without the aid  
of the rich  deposits which the rivers  
had prepared for them1 and which they   
are  continually augmenting4    ,if the 
size which ,herodotus attributes to the 
,sea of ,asoph1 which he  makes equal to
 the ,euxine#ii1 had been less vaguely  

indicated1 and  if we knew precisely    
what he meant by the ,gerrhus#ajj1 we   
should  there find strong additional    
proofs of the changes produced by       
rivers1 and the rapidity with which they
 are made2 for the alluvial  depositions
 of rivers alone have1 since the time of
 ,herodotus1 that  is to say1 in the    
course of two thousand and two or three 
hundred  years1 reduced the ,sea of     
,asoph#aja to its present comparatively 
small size1 shut up the course of the   
,gerrhus1 or that branch of  the        
,dnieper which had formerly joined the  
,hypacyris1 and discharged  its waters  
along with that river into the gulf     
called ,carcinites1  now the            
,olu-,degnitz1 and reduced the          
,hypacyris itself to almost             
nothing#ajb4 ,we should possess proofs  
no less strong of the same  kind1 could 
we be certain that the ,oxus or ,sihoun1
 which at present  discharges itself    
into the lake ,aral1 formerly reached   
the ,caspian  ,sea4 ,but we are in      

possession of facts sufficiently        
conclusive on  the point in question1   
without adducing such as are doubtful1  
and  without being exposed to the       
necessity of making the ignorance of the
  ancients in geography the basis of our
 physical propositions4#ajc             
,progress of the ,downs4      ,the downs
 or hillocks of sand which the sea      
throws up on low coasts1  when its      
bottom is sandy1 have already been      
mentioned4 ,wherever human  industry has
 not succeeded in fixing these downs1   
they advance as  irresistibly upon the  
land as the alluvial depositions of the 
rivers  advance into the sea4 ,in their 
progress inland1 they push before them  
the large pools formed by the rain which
 falls upon the neighbouring  grounds1  
and whose communication with the sea is 
intercepted by them4  ,in many places   
they proceed with a frightful rapidity1 
overwhelming  forests1 buildings1 and   
cultivated fields4 ,those upon the coast
 of  the ,bay of ,biscay#ajd have       

already overwhelmed a great number of   
villages mentioned in the records of the
 middle age2 and at this  moment1 in the
 single ,department of the ,landes1 they
 threaten  ten with inevitable          
destruction4 ,one of these villages1    
named  ,mimisan1 has been struggling    
against them these twenty years1 with   
the melancholy prospect of a sand-hill  
of more than sixty feet  perpendicular  
height visibly approaching it4    ,in   
#ahjb1 the pent up pools overwhelmed    
five fine farming  establishments at the
 village of ,st ,julian#aje4 ,they have 
long  covered up an ancient ,roman road 
leading from ,bourdeaux to ,bayonne1    
and which could still be seen forty     
years ago1 when the waters  were        
low#ajf4 ,the ,adour1 which is known to 
have formerly passed  ,old ,boucaut1 to 
join the sea at ,cape ,breton1 is now   
turned to the  distance of more than two
 thousand yards4    ,the late ,m4       
,bremontier1 inspector of bridges and   
highways1 who  conducted extensive      

operations upon these downs1 estimated  
their  progress at sixty feet yearly1   
and in some places at seventy-two  feet4
 ,according to this calculation1 it will
 only require two  thousand years to    
enable them to reach ,bourdeaux2 and1   
from their  present extent1 it must have
 been somewhat more than four thousand  
years since they began to be formed#ajg4
    ,the overwhelming of the cultivated 
lands of ,egypt1 by the sterile  lands  
of ,libya1 which are thrown upon them by
 the west wind1 is  a phenomenon of the 
same nature with the downs4 ,these sands
 have  destroyed a number of cities and 
villages1 whose ruins are still to  be  
seen2 and this has happened since the   
conquest of the country  by the         
,mahometans1 for the summits of the     
minarets of some mosques  are seen      
projecting beyond the sand#ajh4 ,with a 
progress so rapid1  they would1 without 
doubt1 have filled up the narrow parts  
of the  valley1 if so many ages had     
elapsed since they began to be thrown   

into it#aji2 and there would no longer  
remain any thing between  the ,libyan   
chain and the ,nile4 ,here1 then1 we    
have another natural  chronometer1 of   
which it would be as easy as interesting
 to obtain  the measure4                
,peat-,mosses and ,slips4      ,the     
turbaries1 or peat-mosses1 which have   
been found so generally  in the northern
 parts of ,europe1 by the accumulation  
of the remains  of sphagna and other    
aquatic mosses1 also afford a measure of
  time4 ,they increase in height in     
proportions which are determinate  with 
regard to each place4 ,they thus        
envelope the small knolls of  the lands 
on which they are formed2 and several of
 these knolls have  been covered over   
within the memory of man4 ,in other     
places the  peat-mosses descend along   
the valleys1 advancing like glaciers1   
but  differing from them in this        
respect1 that1 while the glaciers melt  
at their lower part1 the progress of the
 peat is impeded by nothing4  ,by       

sounding their depth down to the solid  
ground1 we may estimate  their age2 and 
we find1 with regard to these           
peat-mosses1 as with  regard to the     
downs1 that they cannot have derived    
their origin from  an indefinitely      
remote period4 ,the same observation may
 be made with  regard to the slips or   
fallings1 which take place with         
wonderful  rapidity at the foot of all  
steep rocks1 and which are still very   
far  from having covered them4 ,but as  
no precise measures have hitherto  been 
applied to these two agents1 we shall   
not insist upon them at  greater        
length#aaj4    ,from all that has been  
said1 it may be seen that nature        
uniformly  speaks the same language1    
everywhere informing us that the present
  order of things cannot have commenced 
at a very remote period4 ,and1  what is 
very remarkable1 mankind everywhere     
speaks as nature1 whether  we consult   
the received traditions of the various  
nations1 or examine  their moral and    

political state1 and the intellectual   
attainments  which they had made at the 
period when their authentic records     
commence4          ,the ,history of     
,nations confirms the ,newness of the   
,continents4      ,in fact1 although1 at
 the first glance1 the traditions of    
some  ancient nations1 which extend     
their origin to so many thousands  of   
ages1 appear strongly to contradict this
 newness of the world1  as it exists at 
present2 yet when we examine these      
traditions  more carefully1 we soon     
perceive that they are not sufficiently 
authenticated4 ,we are1 on the contrary1
 quickly convinced1 that true  history1 
deserving that name1 and all that has   
been preserved of  positive documents   
regarding the first establishment of    
nations1  confirm what has been         
announced by the natural monuments      
already  mentioned4    ,the chronology  
of none of the western nations can be   
traced in a  continuous line farther    
back than #cjjj years4 ,none of them    

afford us1  previous to that period1 nor
 even two or three centuries after1 a   
series of facts connected with any      
degree of probability4 ,the north  of   
,europe possesses no authentic records  
which bear a remoter date  than that of 
its conversion to ,christianity4 ,the   
history of ,spain1  of ,gaul1 and of    
,england1 commences only at the period  
when these  countries were conquered by 
the ,romans2 that of northern ,italy is1
  at the present day1 almost unknown4   
,the ,greeks acknowledge that they  did 
not possess the art of writing1 until it
 was taught them by the  ,phnicians1    
fifteen or sixteen centuries before the 
,christian era2  even for a long time   
after1 their history is full of fables2 
and they  do not assign a more remote   
date than #cjj years farther back1 to   
their uniting into distinct tribes4 ,of 
the history of ,western ,asia1  we have 
only a few contradictory extracts1 which
 do not1 with any  connection1 give a   
greater antiquity than twenty-five      

centuries#aaa2  and even if we admit the
 few historical details which refer to  
more  remote periods1 it can scarcely be
 extended to forty#aab4    ,herodotus1  
the first profane historian whose works 
have been  transmitted to us1 has not a 
greater antiquity than #bcjj years#aac4 
,the historians1 prior to him1 whom he  
may have consulted1 do not  date a      
century before him#aad4 ,we may even    
judge of what they were  by the         
extravagances handed down to us1        
extracted from the works  of ,aristus of
 ,proconnesus1 and some others4 ,before 
them we have  only poets2 and ,homer1   
the most ancient that we possess1 ,homer
  the immortal master and model of all  
the ,west1 flourished only  twenty-seven
 or twenty-eight centuries before the   
present time4    ,when these first      
historians speak of ancient events1     
whether  occurring in their own nation1 
or in neighbouring countries1 they  only
 cite oral traditions1 and not public   
works4 ,it was not until  a long time   

after them1 that pretended extracts were
 given from the  ,egyptian1 ,phenician1 
and ,babylonian annals4 ,berosus wrote  
only in  the reign of ,seleucus         
,nicanor2 ,hieronymus in that of        
,antiochus  ,soter1 and ,manetho under  
,ptolemy ,philadelphia2 the whole three 
having flourished only in the third     
century before the ,christian era4      
,that ,sanconiatho was an author real or
 supposed1 was not known  till ,philo of
 ,byblos had published a translation of 
his work in the  reign of ,adrian1 in   
the second century before ,christ2 and1 
when he  did become known1 there was    
nothing found in his account of the     
early  ages1 as in those of all the     
authors of this kind1 but a puerile     
theogony1 or metaphysical doctrines1 so 
disguised under the form of  allegory as
 to be unintelligible4    ,one nation   
alone has preserved annals written in   
prose before the  period of ,cyrus1     
namely1 the ,jewish people4 ,the part of
 the ,old  ,testament which is known by 

the name of the ,pentateuch1 has existed
  in its present form1 at least since   
the separation of the ten tribes  under 
,jeroboam1 since it was received as     
authentic by the ,samaritans  equally as
 the ,jews1 which assures us that its   
actual antiquity is  upwards of #bhjj   
years4 ,besides this1 we have no reason 
to doubt the  book of ,genesis having   
been composed by ,moses himself1 which  
gives  it an antiquity of #ejj years    
more1 or of thirty-three centuries2  and
 it is only necessary to read it1 to    
perceive that it has in part  been      
composed of fragments of previously     
existing works4 ,we cannot1  therefore1 
hesitate to admit1 that this is the most
 ancient writing  which has been        
transmitted to modern times in the      
,west#aae4    ,now1 this work1 and all  
those which have been composed since1   
whatever strangers their authors might  
be to ,moses and his people1  speak of  
the nations on the shores of the        
,mediterranean as of recent  origin2    

they represent them as still in a half  
savage state some  ages before4 ,and1   
further1 they all speak of a general    
catastrophe1  an irruption of the       
waters1 which occasioned an almost total
  regeneration of the human race2 and to
 this epoch they do not assign  a very  
remote antiquity4 ,those texts of the   
,pentateuch1 which extend  this epoch   
the longest1 do not place it farther    
back than twenty  centuries before      
,moses1 and hence not more than #edjj   
years before the  present day#aaf4      
,in the poetical traditions of the      
,greeks1 from which is derived  the     
whole of our profane history with       
reference to those remote  ages1 there  
is nothing which contradicts the ,jewish
 annals4 ,on the  contrary1 they have a 
wonderful agreement with them1 by the   
epoch  which they assign to the         
,egyptian and ,phenician colonies1 by   
which  the first germs of civilization  
were carried into ,greece4 ,we find     
that1 about the same period when the    

,israelites took their departure  from  
,egypt1 to carry into ,palestine the    
sublime doctrine of the unity  of ,god1 
other colonies issued from the same     
country1 to carry into  ,greece a       
religion less pure1 at least in its     
external character1  whatever might have
 been the secret doctrines which it     
reserved for  the initiated2 while      
others1 again1 came from ,phenicia1 and 
imparted  to the ,greeks the art of     
writing1 and whatever was connected with
  navigation and commerce#aag4    ,it is
 undoubtedly far from being the case1   
that we have had since  that time a     
connected history1 since we still find1 
for a long  period after these founders 
of colonies1 a multitude of mythological
  events1 and adventures1 in which gods 
and heroes are concerned2 and  these    
chiefs are connected with authentic     
history only by means of  genealogies   
evidently fictitious#aah4 ,and1 it is   
still more certain1  that whatever      
preceded their arrival1 could only have 

been preserved  in very imperfect       
traditions1 and supplied by mere        
fictions1 similar  to those of our monks
 of the middle age regarding the origin 
of the  ,european nations4    ,thus1 not
 only should we not be surprised to     
find1 even in ancient  times1 many      
doubts and contradictions respecting the
 epochs of  ,cecrops1 ,deucalion1       
,cadmus and ,danaus2 and not only would 
it be  childish to attach the smallest  
importance to any opinion whatever1     
regarding the precise dates of          
,inachus#aai or ,ogyges#abj2 but1 if    
any thing ought to surprise us1 it is   
this1--that an infinitely more  remote  
antiquity had not been assigned to those
 personages4 ,it is  impossible that    
there has not been in this case some    
effect of the  influence of received    
traditions1 from which the inventors of 
fables  were not able to free           
themselves4 ,one of the dates assigned  
to the  deluge of ,ogyges1 even agrees  
so much with one of those which have    

been attributed to the deluge of ,noah1 
that it is almost impossible  it should 
not have been derived from some source1 
where this latter  deluge had been the  
one intended to be spoken of#aba4    ,as
 to ,deucalion1 whether this prince be  
regarded as a real or  fictitious       
personage1 however little we enter into 
the manner in  which his deluge has been
 introduced into the poems of the       
,greeks1  and the various details with  
which it becomes successively enriched1 
we perceive that it was nothing else    
than a tradition of the great           
cataclysm1 altered and placed by the    
,hellenians in the period which  they   
also assigned to ,deucalion1 because he 
was regarded as the  founder of their   
nation1 and because his history is      
confounded with  that of all the chiefs 
of the renewed nations#abb4    ,each of 
the different colonies of ,greece1 that 
had preserved  isolated traditions1     
commenced them with a particular deluge 
of  its own1 because some remembrance of

 the general deluge common to  all the  
nations1 was preserved among each of the
 tribes2 and1 when  it was afterwards   
attempted to reduce these various       
traditions to  a common chronology1     
different events were imagined to have  
been  recorded1 from the circumstance   
that dates1 in reality uncertain1 or    
perhaps altogether false1 although      
considered as authentic in the          
countries where they originated1 were   
not found to agree with each  other4    
,thus1 in the same manner that the      
,hellenes had a deluge of  ,deucalion1  
because they regarded him as the founder
 of their nation1  the ,autochtones of  
,attica had one of ,ogyges1 because it  
was with him  that their history        
commenced4 ,the ,pelasgi of ,arcadia had
 that which1  according to later        
authors1 compelled ,dardanus to retire  
towards  the ,hellespont4#abc ,the      
island of ,samothracia1 one of those in 
which a succession of priests had been  
more anciently established1  together   

with a regular worship and connected    
traditions1 had also  a deluge1 which   
passed for the most ancient of all#abd1 
and which  was attributed to the        
bursting of the ,bosphorus and the      
,hellespont4  ,some idea of a similar   
event was preserved in ,asia ,minor#abe1
 and in  ,syria#abf1 and to this the    
,greeks would afterwards naturally      
attach  the name of ,deucalion#abg4     
,but none of these traditions assign a  
very remote antiquity to  this          
cataclysm2 and there is none of them    
that does not admit of  explanation1 in 
so far as its date and other            
circumstances are  concerned1 from the  
variations to which narratives1 that are
 not  fixed by writing1 must be         
continually liable4          ,the very  
remote ,antiquity attributed to certain 
,nations is not  supported by ,history4 
,those who would attribute to the       
continents and the establishment  of    
nations1 a very remote antiquity1 are   
therefore obliged to have  recourse to  

the ,indians1 ,chaldeans1 and           
,egyptians1 three nations1  in fact1    
which appear to have been the most      
anciently civilized of  the ,caucasian  
,race1 and having a remarkable          
similarity1 not only in  their          
temperament1 and in the climate and     
nature of the countries  which they     
occupied1 but also in their political   
and religious  constitution1 but whose  
testimony this almost identical         
constitution  ought to render equally   
suspected#abh4    ,these three nations  
agreed in having each a hereditary      
caste1 to  which the care of religion1  
laws1 and science1 was exclusively      
consigned4 ,in all of them1 this caste  
had its allegorical language  and secret
 doctrines2 and in all it reserved to   
itself the privilege  of reading and    
explaining the sacred books1 the whole  
doctrines of  which had been revealed by
 the gods themselves4    ,we can easily 
conceive what history would necessarily 
come to in such  hands2 but1 without    

having recourse to any great efforts of 
reason1  we may learn it from the fact  
itself1 by examining what it has come   
to in the only one of these three       
nations which still exists1  namely1 the
 ,indians4    ,the truth is1 that       
history does not exist at all among     
them4 ,in the  midst of that infinity of
 books on mystical theology and abstract
  metaphysics which the ,brahmins       
possess1 and many of which have been    
made known to us by the ingenious       
perseverance of the ,english1 we  find  
no connected account of the origin of   
their nation1 or of the  vicissitudes of
 their society4 ,they even pretend that 
their religion  prohibits them from     
recording the events of the present     
time1 their  age of misfortune#abi4     
,according to the ,vedas1 the first     
revealed works1 on which are  founded   
the whole religious opinions of the     
,hindoos1 the literature  of this       
people1 like that of the ,greeks1 had   
its origin at two  great epochs2 the    

,ramaian and the ,mahabarat1--a thousand
 times  more monstrous in their wonders 
than the ,iliad and ,odyssey1 but  in   
which we also perceive some traces of a 
metaphysical doctrine  of that          
description generally termed sublime4   
,the other poems1  which1 together with 
the two mentioned1 compose the great    
body of  the ,pouranas1 are nothing else
 than metrical legends or romances1     
written at different periods1 and by    
different authors1 and not  less        
extravagant in their fictions than the  
great poems4 ,it has been  imagined     
that1 in some of these writings1 events 
and names of men  bearing some          
resemblance to those spoken of by the   
,greeks and ,latins1  might be          
discovered2 and it is chiefly from these
 resemblances of  names that ,mr        
,wilfort has attempted to extract from  
the ,pouranas  a kind of concordance    
with our ancient chronology of the west2
 a  concordance which1 in every line1   
betrays the hypothetical nature of  its 

basis1 and which1 moreover1 can only be 
admitted by absolutely  rejecting the   
dates given in the ,pouranas            
themselves#acj4    ,the list of kings   
which the ,indian pundits or doctors    
pretend to have  compiled according to  
these ,pouranas1 are nothing but mere   
catalogues  without any details1 or     
adorned with absurd ones1 like those of 
the  ,chaldeans and ,egyptians1 and like
 those which ,trithemus and ,saxo       
,grammaticus have made up for the       
northern nations#aca4 ,these lists  are 
far from corresponding2 none of them    
supposes a history1 or  registers1 or   
records2 the very basis on which they   
rest may have  been purely imagined by  
the poets from whose works they have    
been  extracted4 ,one of the pundits who
 furnished ,mr ,wilfort with them1      
acknowledged that he had arbitrarily    
filled up the spaces between  the       
celebrated kings with imaginary         
names#acb1 and avowed that his          
predecessors had done the same4 ,if this

 be true of the lists obtained  by the  
,english at the present day1 how should 
it not be so of those  given by         
,abou-,fazel1 as extracts from the      
annals of ,cachmere#acc1  and which1    
besides1 full of fables as they are1 do 
not extend farther  back than #dcjj     
years1 of which more than #abjj are     
occupied with names  of princes whose   
reigns1 in as far as regards their      
duration1 remain  undetermined4    ,even
 the era1 accordingly1 from which the   
,indians count their years  at the      
present day1 which commences fifty-seven
 years before ,christ1  and which bears 
the name of a prince called             
,vicramaditjia1 or  ,bickermadjit1 bears
 it only by a sort of convention2 for we
 find1  according to the synchronisms   
attributed to ,vicramaditjia1 that there
  may have been at least three1 and     
perhaps so many as eight or nine1       
princes of this name1 who have all      
similar legends1 and who have all  waged
 war with a prince named ,saliwahanna2  

and1 further1 we cannot  well make out  
whether this period1 the fifty-seventh  
year before the  ,christian era1 is that
 of the birth1 reign1 or death of the   
hero  whose name it bears4#acd          
,lastly1 the most authentic books of the
 ,indians1 contradict1 by  intrinsic and
 very obvious characters1 the antiquity 
attributed to  them by the pundits4     
,their vedas1 or sacred books1 alleged  
by  them to have been revealed by ,brama
 himself from the beginning of  the     
world1 and arranged by ,viasa 7a name   
which signifies nothing  else than      
collector71 at the commencement of the  
present age1 if we  judge of them by the
 calendar which is found annexed1 and to
 which  they refer1 as well as by the   
position of the colures indicated by    
this calendar1 may extend to #cbjj      
years1 or about the epoch of            
,moses4#ace ,nay1 perhaps those who give
 credit to the assertion of             
,megasthenes#acf1 that in his time the  
,indians were not acquainted  with the  

art of writing1 who reflect that none of
 the ancients  has made mention of their
 superb temples1 those immense pagodas1 
the remarkable monuments of the religion
 of the ,brahmins1 and who  are aware   
that the epochs of their astronomical   
tables have been  calculated backwards1 
and ill calculated1 and that their      
treatises of  astronomy are modern and  
antedated1 will be inclined still       
farther to  reduce the pretended        
antiquity of the ,vedas4    ,yet even in
 the midst of all the ,brahminical      
fictions1 circumstances  occur1 whose   
agreement with the result of the        
historical monuments of  more western   
countries cannot but astonish us4 ,thus1
 their mythology  consecrates the       
successive devastations which the       
surface of the  globe has already       
undergone1 or is yet destined to        
undergo2 and it  is only to a period    
somewhat less than #ejjj years1 that    
they refer  the last catastrophe4#acg   
,one of these revolutions1 which is in  

reality placed much farther from us1 is 
described in terms nearly  corresponding
 with those of ,moses#ach4 ,mr ,wilfort 
even assures us1  that1 in another event
 of the same mythology1 a conspicuous   
place is  held by a personage who       
resembles ,deucalion1 in his origin1    
name1 and  adventures1 and even in the  
name and adventures of his father#aci4  
,it is a circumstance equally worthy of 
remark1 that1 in the lists  of their    
kings1 imperfect and unauthentic as they
 are1 they date the  commencement of    
their first human sovereigns 7those of  
the race of  the sun and moon71 at an   
epoch which is nearly the same as that  
from  which ,ctesias1 in his singularly 
constructed list1 commences the  reign  
of his ,assyrian kings#adj4    ,this    
deplorable state of historical knowledge
 was necessarily  the result of the     
system of a people1 among whom the      
exclusive  privilege of writing1 of     
preserving1 and of explaining the books1
  was given to the hereditary priests of

 a religion monstrous in  its ritual1   
and cruel in its maxims4 ,some legend   
made up for the  purpose of establishing
 a place of pilgrimage1 inventions      
adapted  to impress more deeply a       
respect for their caste1 must have      
interested these priests more than any  
historical truths4 ,of the  sciences1   
they might have cultivated astronomy1   
which would give  them credit as        
astrologers2 mechanics1 which would     
assist them in  raising their monuments1
 those signs of their power1 and objects
 of  the superstitious veneration of the
 people2 geometry1 the basis of         
astronomy1 as well as of mechanics1 and 
an important auxiliary to  agriculture  
in those vast plains of alluvial        
formation1 which could  only be rendered
 healthy and fertile by the aid of      
numerous canals4  ,they might have      
encouraged the mechanical or chemical   
arts1 which  supported their commerce1  
and contributed to their luxury1 and the
  magnificence of their temples4 ,but   

history1 which informs men of  their    
mutual relations1 would be regarded by  
them with dread4    ,what we see in     
,india1 we might therefore expect to    
find in general1  wherever sacerdotal   
races1 constituted like those of the    
,brahmins1  and established in similar  
countries1 assumed the same empire over 
the mass of the people4 ,the same causes
 produce the same effects2  and1 in     
fact1 we have only to glance over the   
fragments of ,egyptian  and ,chaldean   
traditions which have been preserved1 to
 be convinced  that there is no more    
historical authenticity in them than in 
those  of the ,indians4    ,in order to 
judge of the nature of the chronicles   
which the ,egyptian  priests pretended  
to possess1 it is only necessary to     
review the  extracts which have been    
given by themselves at different        
periods1  and to different individuals4 
,those of ,sais1 for example1 informed  
,solon1 about #eej years before         
,christ1 that1 as ,egypt was not subject

 to deluges1 they had preserved  not    
only their own annals1 but those of     
other nations also2 that the  cities of 
,athens and ,sais had been built by     
,minerva1 the former #ijjj  years       
before1 the latter only #hjjj2 and to   
these dates they added  the well known  
fables respecting the ,atlantes1 and the
 resistance  which the ancient          
,athenians opposed to their conquests1  
together with  the whole romantic       
description of the ,atlantis#ada1 a     
description  in which we find events and
 genealogies similar to those of all    
mythological romances4    ,a century    
later1 about #dej years before ,christ1 
the priests of  ,memphis gave entirely  
different accounts to ,herodotus#adb4   
,menes1  the first king of ,egypt1      
according to them1 had built ,memphis1  
and  inclosed the ,nile within dikes1 as
 if it were possible that the first     
king of a country could perform         
operations of this kind4 ,between  this 
prince and ,mris1 who1 according to     

them1 reigned #ijj years  before the    
period at which this account was given  
7#acej years before  ,christ71 they had 
a succession of three hundred and thirty
 other  kings4    ,after these kings    
came ,sesostris1 who extended his       
conquests as far  as ,colchis#adc2 and  
altogether1 there were1 to the time of  
,sethos1  three hundred and forty-one   
kings1 and three hundred and forty-one  
chief priests1 in three hundred and     
forty-one generations1 during a  space  
of #aa1cdj years4 ,and1 in this         
interval1 as if to insure the           
authenticity of their chronology1 these 
priests asserted that the  sun had risen
 twice where he sets1 without any change
 having taken  place in the climate or  
productions of the country1 and without 
any  of the gods having at that time1 or
 before1 made their appearance and      
reigned in ,egypt4    ,to this fable1   
which1 despite of all the pretended     
explanations that  have been given of   
it1 evinces so gross an ignorance of    

astronomy1  they added1 regarding       
,sesostris1 ,phero1 ,helenius1 and      
,rhampsinitus1  the kings who built the 
pyramids1 and an ,ethiopian conqueror   
named  ,sabacos1 a set of tales equally 
absurd4    ,the priests of ,thebes did  
better3 they shewed ,herodotus1 and they
  had before shewn to ,hecatus1 three   
hundred and forty-five colossal  figures
 of wood1 which represented three       
hundred and forty-five high  priests1   
who had succeeded to each other from    
father to son1 all  men1 all born the   
one of the other1 but who had been      
preceded by  gods#add4 ,other ,egyptians
 told him that they had exact registers1
  not only of the reign of men1 but also
 of that of gods4 ,they reckoned        
#ag1jjj years from ,hercules to ,amases1
 and #ae1jjj from ,bacchus4 ,pan  had   
even been prior to ,hercules#ade4 ,these
 people evidently took for  history some
 allegories relating to pantheistic     
metaphysics1 which  formed1 unknown to  
them1 the basis of their mythology4     

,it is only from the time of ,sethos    
that ,herodotus commences the  part of  
his history which is somewhat rational2 
and it is worthy of  remark1 that this  
part begins with an event which agrees  
with the  ,hebrew annals1 the           
destruction of the army of the ,king of 
,assyria1  ,sennacherib#adf2 and this   
agreement continues under ,necho#adg1   
and under ,hophra or ,apries4    ,two   
centuries after ,herodotus 7about #bfj  
years before ,christ7  ,ptolemy         
,philadelphus1 a prince of a foreign    
race1 wished to become  acquainted with 
the history of the country which events 
had called  him to govern4 ,a priest1   
called ,manetho1 was employed to write  
it  for him4 ,it was not from registers 
or archives that he pretended to        
compile this work1 but from the sacred  
books of ,agathodmon1 the son  of the   
second ,hermes1 and the father of ,tat1 
who had copied it upon  pillars erected 
before the flood by ,tot or the first   
,hermes1 in the  ,seriadic land#adh4    

,and this second ,hermes1 this          
,agathodmon1 this  ,tat1 are personages 
of whom nothing had ever been said      
before1 any  more than of the ,seriadic 
land1 or of its pillars4 ,the deluge    
itself  was an event entirely unknown to
 the ,egyptians of preceding times1  and
 concerning which ,manetho says nothing 
in what remains of his  dynasties4 ,the 
product resembles its source2 not only  
is the whole  full of absurdities1 but  
they are absurdities peculiar to the    
work1  and utterly irreconcilable with  
those which the priests of older  times 
had related to ,solon and ,herodotus4   
,it is ,vulcan who commences the series 
of divine kings4 ,he reigns  #ijjj      
years2 the gods and demi-gods reign     
#aihe years4 ,the names1 and            
successions1 and dates of ,manetho are  
utterly unlike any thing that  was      
published before or after him2 and from 
the discrepancy of the  extracts given  
by ,josephus1 ,julius ,africanus1 and   
,eusebius1 we may  infer that his       

narratives were as obscure and confused 
in themselves1  as they were discordant 
with those of other authors4 ,even the  
duration of the respective reigns of his
 human kings is not settled4  ,according
 to ,julius ,africanus1 it extended to  
#eaja2 according to  ,eusebius1 to      
#dgbc2 and according to ,syncellus1 to  
#ceee years4 ,it  might be thought that 
the differences in the names and cyphers
 arose  from the inaccuracy of copyists2
 but ,josephus quotes a passage at      
length1 the details of which are        
manifestly in contradiction with the    
extracts of his successors4    ,a       
chronicle1 named the ancient#adi1 and   
which some consider  anterior1 others   
posterior1 to ,manetho1 gives still     
different  calculations4 ,the total     
duration of its kings is #cf1ebe years1 
of  which the sun reigned #cj1jjj1 the  
other gods #cihd1 and the demi-gods     
#bag2 there remaining for those of the  
human race only #bcci years4  ,there are
 thus also but #aac generations1 in     

place of the #cdj of  ,herodotus4    ,a 
learned man of an order different from  
that of ,manetho1 the  astronomer       
,eratosthenes1 discovered and published1
 in the reign  of ,ptolemy ,euergetes1  
about #bdj years before ,christ1 a      
particular  list of thirty-eight kings  
of ,thebes1 commencing with ,menes1 and 
continuing for a space of #ajbd years2  
of which we have an extract  that       
,syncellus has copied from              
,apollodorus#aej4 ,scarcely any of the  
names found in this list correspond with
 those of the others4    ,diodorus went 
to ,egypt in the reign of ,ptolemy      
,auletes1 about sixty  years before     
,christ1 consequently two centuries     
after ,manetho1 and  four after         
,herodotus4 ,he also collected from the 
narratives of the  priests a history of 
the country1 and his account is again   
quite  different from those of his      
predecessors#aea4 ,it is no longer      
,menes who built ,memphis1 but ,uchorus2
 and long before his time  ,busiris the 

second had built ,thebes4 ,the eighth   
ancestor of ,uchorus1  ,osymandyas1     
possessed himself of ,bactria1 and      
crushed rebellions in  it4 ,long after  
him1 ,sesoosis made still more extensive
 conquests1  having proceeded as far as 
the ,ganges1 and returned by ,scythia   
and  the ,tanais4 ,unfortunately these  
names of kings are unknown to all the   
preceding historians1 and none of the   
nations which they conquered  have      
preserved the slightest traces of them4 
,as to the gods and  heroes1 their      
reign1 according to ,diodorus1 extended 
through a space  of #ah1jjj years1 while
 that of the human sovereigns was       
#ae1jjj4 ,four  hundred and seventy of  
the kings were ,egyptians1 and four     
,ethiopians1  without reckoning the     
,persians and ,macedonians4 ,the fables1
 besides1  with which the whole is      
intermingled1 do not yield in           
childishness to  those of ,herodotus4   
,in the eighteenth year of the          
,christian era1 ,germanicus1 the nephew 

of ,tiberius1 led by the desire of      
becoming acquainted with the            
antiquities of this celebrated land1    
went over to ,egypt1 at the  risk of    
incurring the displeasure of a prince so
 suspicious as his  uncle1 and proceeded
 up the ,nile as far as ,thebes4 ,it was
 no more  ,sesostris or ,osymandyas1 of 
whom the priests spoke to him as a      
conqueror1 but ,rhamses1 who1 at the    
head of #gjj1jjj men1 had invaded       
,libya1 ,ethiopia1 ,media1 ,persia1     
,bactria1 ,scythia1 ,asia-,minor1 and   
,syria#aeb4    ,lastly1 in the          
celebrated article of ,pliny upon the   
obelisks#aec1  we find names of kings   
which are not to be seen elsewhere2     
,sothies1  ,mnevis1 ,zmarreus1          
,eraphius1 ,mestires1 a ,semenpserteus1 
contemporary  of ,pythagoras1 c4 ,a     
,ramises1 who might be thought the same 
as  ,rhamses1 is there made to live at  
the time of the siege of ,troy4    ,i am
 not sure whether it has been attempted 
to reconcile these  discordant lists by 

the supposition that the kings have     
borne several  names4 ,for my own part1 
when ,i consider not only the           
discrepancy of  these various accounts1 
but1 above all1 the mixture of authentic
  facts1 attested by vast monuments1 and
 of puerile extravagancies1  it appears 
to me much more natural to conclude1    
that the ,egyptian  priests possessed no
 real history whatever2 that1 inferior  
still to  those of ,india1 they had not 
even suitable and connected fables2     
that they preserved only lists more or  
less defective of their kings1  and some
 remembrances of the more distinguished 
among them1 of those  especially who had
 taken care to have their names         
inscribed upon the  temples and other   
great edifices which adorned their      
country2 but  that these remembrances   
were confused1 that they rested merely  
upon  the traditional explanation which 
was given to the representations        
painted or sculptured upon the          
monuments2 explanations founded  solely 

upon hieroglyphical inscriptions1       
conceived1 like that which  has been    
handed down to us#aed1 in very general  
terms1 and which1  passing from mouth to
 mouth1 were altered1 as to their       
details1 at  the pleasure of those who  
communicated them to strangers2 and that
 it  is consequently impossible to rest 
any proposition relative to the         
antiquity of the presently existing     
continents1 upon the shreds of  these   
traditions1 so incomplete even in their 
own times1 and become  utterly          
unintelligible under the pen of those   
who have been the means  of transmitting
 them to us4    ,should this assertion  
require other proofs1 they would be     
found  in the list of the sacred works  
of ,hermes1 which were carried  by the  
,egyptian priests in their solemn       
processions4 ,clement of                
,alexandria#aee names them all to the   
number of forty-two1 and there  is not  
even found among them1 as is the case   
with the ,brahmins1 one  epic poem1 or  

one book1 which has the pretension to be
 a narrative1  or to fix in any way a   
single great action or a single event4  
,the interesting researches of ,m4      
,champollion the younger1 and  his      
astonishing discoveries regarding the   
language of the  hieroglyphics#aef1 far 
from overturning these conjectures1 on  
the  contrary1 confirm them4 ,this      
ingenious antiquary has read1 in a      
series of hieroglyphic paintings in the 
temple of ,abydos#aeg1 the  prenomens of
 a certain number of kings placed in    
regular succession  one after another2  
and a part of these prenomens 7the last 
ten7  recurring on various other        
monuments1 accompanied with proper      
names1  he has concluded that they are  
those of kings who bore those proper    
names1 and this has afforded him nearly 
the same kings1 and in  the same order1 
as those of which ,manetho composes his 
eighteenth  dynasty1 that which expelled
 the shepherds4 ,the concordance1       
however1  is not complete3 in the       

painting of ,abydos1 six of the names   
that  appear in ,manetho's list are     
wanting2 there are some1 again1 which   
bear no resemblance2 and1 lastly1 there 
unfortunately occurs a  blank before the
 most remarkable of all1 the ,rhamses1  
who appears  the same as the king       
represented on many of the finest       
monuments1  with the attributes of a    
great conqueror4 ,it would be1 according
  to ,m4 ,champollion1 in the list of   
,manetho1 the ,sethos1 the chief  of the
 nineteenth dynasty1 who1 in fact1 is   
indicated as powerful  in ships and in  
cavalry1 and as having carried his arms 
into  ,cyprus1 ,media and ,persia4 ,m4  
,champollion thinks1 with ,marsham and  
many others1 that it is this ,rhamses1  
or this ,sethos1 who is the  ,sesostris1
 or the ,sesoosis of the ,greeks2 and   
this opinion possesses  some            
probability1 in this respect1 that the  
representations of the  victories of    
,rhamses1 probably carried over the     
wandering tribes in  the vicinity of    

,egypt1 or at the most into ,syria1 have
 given rise  to those fabulous ideas of 
vast conquests attributed1 by some other
  confusion1 to a ,sesostris4 ,but1 in  
,manetho1 it is in the twelfth  dynasty1
 and not in the eighteenth1 that a      
prince bearing the name  of ,sesostris  
is inscribed1 who is noted as having    
conquered ,asia  and ,thrace#aeh4       
,marsham also asserts1 that this twelfth
 dynasty  and the eighteenth make but   
one#aei4 ,manetho could not himself1    
therefore1 have understood the lists    
which he copied4 ,lastly1 if  we admit  
in their full degree1 both the          
historical truth of this  bas-relief of 
,abydos1 and its accordance1 whether    
with the part of  ,manetho's lists that 
seems to correspond to it1 or with the  
other  hieroglyphic inscriptions1 this  
consequence would result1 that the      
pretended eighteenth dynasty1 the first 
regarding which the ancient             
chronologists begin to manifest some    
agreement1 is also the first  which has 

left traces of its existence upon       
monuments4 ,manetho may  have consulted 
this document and others of a like      
nature2 but it  is not the less obvious1
 that a mere list1 a series of names or 
of  portraits1 as he has throughout1 is 
far from being a history4    ,ought not 
this1 then1 which is proved and         
demonstrated with respect  to the       
,indians1 and which ,i have rendered so 
probable with respect  to the           
inhabitants of the valley of the ,nile1 
be presumed also to  be the case with   
those of the valleys of the ,euphrates  
and ,tigris8  ,established1 like the    
,indians#afj and ,egyptians1 upon a much
  frequented route of commerce1 in vast 
plains1 which they had been  obliged to 
intersect with numerous canals2         
instructed1 like them1  by hereditary   
priests1 the pretended depositaries of  
secret books1  the privileged possessors
 of the sciences1 astrologers1 builders 
of pyramids1 and other great            
monuments#afa2 should they not also     

resemble them in other essential points8
 ,should not their history  be equally a
 mere collection of legendary tales8 ,i 
venture almost  to assert1 that not only
 is this probable1 but that it is       
actually  demonstrated4    ,up to this  
period neither ,moses nor ,homer speak  
of any great empire  in ,upper ,asia4   
,herodotus#afb gives to the supremacy of
 the ,assyrians  a duration of only #ebj
 years1 and does not attribute to their 
origin  a greater antiquity than about  
eight centuries before his own time4    
,after having been at ,babylon1 where he
 consulted the priests1 he had  not even
 learnt the name of ,ninus as king of   
the ,assyrians1 and does  not mention   
him otherwise than as the father of     
,agro#afc1 the first  ,lydian king of   
the family of the ,heraclides4          
,notwithstanding1 he  makes him the son 
of ,belus3 so much confusion had there  
been in the  traditions4 ,though he     
speaks of ,semiramis as one of the      
queens who  left great monuments in     

,babylon1 he only places her seven      
generations  before ,cyrus4             
,hellanicus1 who was cotemporary with   
,herodotus1 far from allowing  that     
,semiramis had built any thing at       
,babylon1 attributes the  foundation of 
that city to ,chaldus1 the fourteenth   
successor  of ,ninus#afd4 ,berosus1 a   
,babylonian and a priest1 who wrote     
scarcely a hundred and twenty years     
after ,herodotus1 gives an  astounding  
antiquity to ,babylon2 but it is to     
,nabuchodonosor1 a  prince comparatively
 very modern1 that he attributes the    
principal  monuments#afe4 ,regarding    
even ,cyrus1 a prince so remarkable1 and
  whose history must have been so well  
known and so popular1 ,herodotus1  who  
only lived a hundred years after him1   
owns that1 in his time1  there already  
existed three different opinions2 and1  
in fact1 sixty  years later1 ,xenophon  
gives a biography of this prince quite  
at  variance with that of ,herodotus4   
,ctesias1 who was nearly cotemporary    

with ,xenophon1 pretends to have        
extracted from the royal archives of the
 ,medes1 a chronology which  carries    
back the origin of the ,assyrian        
monarchy upwards of #hjj  years1 putting
 at the head of their kings1 that same  
,ninus1 the son  of ,belus1 whom        
,herodotus had made one of the          
,heraclides2 and1 at the  same time1 he 
attributes to ,ninus and ,semiramis     
conquests towards  the west1 of an      
extent absolutely incompatible with the 
,jewish and  ,egyptian history of the   
times in question#aff4    ,according to 
,megasthenes1 it was ,nabuchodonosor who
 made these  incredible conquests4 ,he  
pushed them by way of ,libya1 as far as 
,spain#afg4 ,we find that1 in the time  
of ,alexander1 ,nabuchodonosor  had     
completely usurped the reputation which 
,semiramis had possessed  in the time of
 ,artaxerxes4 ,but we must suppose1     
without doubt1 that  ,semiramis and     
,nabuchodonosor had conquered ,ethiopia 
and ,libya1 much  in the same way as the

 ,egyptians made ,india and ,bactria to 
be subdued  by ,sesostris or            
,osymandias4    ,it would lead to no    
result were we now to examine the       
different  accounts respecting          
,sardanapalus1 in which a celebrated    
writer  imagined he had found proofs of 
the existence of three princes of  that 
name1 who were all victims of similar   
misfortunes#afh2 much in  the same way  
as another writer found in the ,indian  
,vicramaditjia1  at least three princes1
 who were equally the heroes of similar 
adventures4    ,it is apparently from   
the want of agreement in all these      
accounts1  that ,strabo thought himself 
justified in saying1 that the authority 
of ,herodotus and ,ctesias was not equal
 to that of ,homer or  ,hesiod#afi4 ,nor
 has ,ctesias been more happy in        
transcribers than  ,manetho2 and it is  
very difficult1 at the present day1 to  
harmonize  the extracts made from his   
writings by ,diodorus1 ,eusebius1 and   
the  ,syncelle4    ,since there existed 

such a state of uncertainty in the fifth
 century  before the ,christian era1 how
 should it be imagined that ,berosus had
  been able to clear it up in the third 
century before that era2 or how  should 
we repose more confidence in the        
#dcj1jjj years which he puts  before the
 deluge1 or the #ce1jjj years which he  
places between the  deluge and          
,semiramis1 than in the registers of    
#aej1jjj years1 which  he boasts of     
having consulted#agj4    ,structures    
raised in remote provinces1 and bearing 
the name of  ,semiramis1 have been      
spoken of2 and columns erected by       
,sesostris#aga  have been pretended to  
have been seen in ,asia ,minor1 in      
,thrace4  ,but1 in the same way1 in     
,persia1 at the present day1 the ancient
  monuments1 perhaps even some of the   
above1 bear the name of ,roustan2  and  
in ,egypt or ,arabia1 they bear the     
names of ,joseph or ,solomon4  ,this is 
an ancient custom among the eastern     
nations1 and probably  among all        

ignorant people4 ,the peasants of our   
own country give the  name of ,csar's   
,camp to all the remains of ,roman      
entrenchments4    ,in a word1 the more  
,i consider the subject1 the more ,i am 
persuaded  that there existed no ancient
 history at ,babylon or ,ecbatan1 more  
than in ,egypt and ,india4 ,and1 in     
place of reducing mythology to  history1
 with ,evhemere and ,bannier1 ,i am of  
opinion that a great part  of history   
should be referred to mythology4    ,it 
is only at the epoch of what is commonly
 called the ,second ,kingdom  of        
,assyria1 that the history of the       
,assyrians and ,chaldeans begins to     
become more intelligible2 and this epoch
 is also that at which the  history of  
the ,egyptians undergoes a similar      
change1 when the kings  of ,nineveh1 of 
,babylon1 and of ,egypt1 commence their 
conflicts on the  theatre of ,syria and 
,palestine4    ,it appears1             
nevertheless1 that the authors of these 
countries1 or  those who had consulted  

the traditions regarding them1 ,berosus1
 and  ,hieronymus1 and ,nicholas de     
,damas1 agreed in speaking of a deluge4 
,berosus has even described it with     
circumstances so similar to those       
detailed in the book of ,genesis1 that  
it is almost impossible what he  says of
 it should not have been derived from   
the same sources1 even  although he     
removes its epoch a great number of ages
 back1--insomuch1  at least1 as we may  
judge of it1 by the confused extracts   
which  ,josephus1 ,eusebius1 and        
,syncellus1 have preserved of his       
writings4  ,but we must remark1 and with
 this observation we shall conclude what
  we have to say with regard to the     
,babylonians1 that these numerous  ages1
 and this long series of kings1 placed  
between the deluge and  ,semiramis1 are 
a new thing1 entirely peculiar to       
,berosus1 and  of which ,ctesias1 and   
those who have followed him1 had no     
idea1  and which has not even been      
adopted by any of the profane authors   

posterior to ,berosus4 ,justin and      
,velleius consider ,ninus as the first  
of the conquerors1 and those who1       
contrary to all probability1 place  him 
highest1 only refer him to a period of  
forty centuries before the  present     
time#agb4    ,the ,armenian authors of  
the middle age nearly agree with one of 
the texts of ,genesis1 when they refer  
the deluge to a period of  #diaf years  
from their own time2 and it might be    
thought that  having collected the old  
traditions1 and perhaps extracted the   
old  chronicles of their country1 they  
form an additional authority in  favour 
of the newness of the nations4 ,but when
 we reflect that their  historical      
literature commences only in the fifth  
century1 and that  they were acquainted 
with ,eusebius1 we perceive that they   
must have  accommodated themselves to   
his authority1 and to that of the       
,bible4  ,moses of ,chorene expressly   
professes to have followed the ,greeks1 
and  we see that his ancient history is 

moulded after ,ctesias#agc4    ,however1
 it is certain1 that the tradition of   
the deluge existed  in ,armenia long    
before the conversion of its inhabitants
 to  ,christianity2 and the city1 which1
 according to ,josephus1 was called  the
 ,place of the ,descent1 still exists at
 the foot of ,mount ,ararat1  and bears 
the name of ,nachid-chevan1 which1 in   
fact1 has the same  signification4#agd  
,along with the ,armenians1 we include  
the ,arabians1 ,persians1 ,turks1       
,mongolians1 and ,abyssinians1 of the   
present day4 ,their ancient  books1 if  
they ever had any1 no longer exist4     
,they have no ancient  history1 but that
 which they have recently made up1 and  
which they  have modelled after the     
,bible2 hence1 what they say of the     
deluge is  borrowed from ,genesis1 and  
adds nothing to the authority of that   
book4    ,it were curious to inquire    
what had been the opinion of the ancient
  ,persians upon this subject1 before it
 was modified by the ,christian  and    

,mahomedan creeds4 ,we find it deposited
 in their ,boundehesh1 or  ,cosmogony1 a
 work of the time of ,sassanides1 7but  
evidently extracted  or translated from 
more ancient works71 and which was      
discovered  by ,anquetil du ,perron1    
among the ,parsis of ,india4 ,according 
to it1  the total duration of the world 
could only be #ab1jjj years2 hence  it  
cannot still be very old4 ,the          
appearance of ,cayoumortz 7the          
bull-man1 the first of the human race71 
is preceded by the creation  of a great 
water4#age    ,for the rest1 it would be
 as useless to expect a regular history 
of  ancient times from the ,parsis1 as  
from the other eastern nations4 ,the    
,magi have left none1 any more than the 
,brahmins or ,chaldeans4 ,of this  there
 is nothing more required for proof than
 the uncertainty which  exists regarding
 the epoch of ,zoroaster4 ,it is even   
asserted1 that  the little history they 
may have possessed1 that which relates  
to the  ,achemenides1 the successors of 

,cyrus to ,alexander1 had been expressly
  altered1 and this in consequence of an
 official order to that purpose  from a 
monarch named ,sassanides#agf4    ,in   
order to discover authentic dates of the
 commencement of empires1  and traces of
 a general deluge1 we must therefore go 
beyond the  great deserts of ,tartary4  
,toward the east and north we find      
another  race of men1 who differ from us
 as much in their institutions and      
manners as in their form and            
temperament4 ,their language consists   
of monosyllables1 and they make use of  
arbitrary hieroglyphics in  writing4    
,they have only a political system of   
morals1 without  religion2 for the      
superstitions of ,fo were imported among
 them from  ,india4 ,their yellow skin1 
their prominent cheeks1 their narrow and
  oblique eyes1 and their scanty beard1 
render them so different from  us1 that 
one is tempted to believe that their    
ancestors and ours had  escaped the     
great catastrophe on two different      

sides4 ,but however  this may be1 the   
epoch which they assign to their deluge 
is nearly  the same as ours4    ,the    
,chou-king is the most ancient of the   
,chinese books#agg2 it is  said to have 
been compiled by ,confucius1 about #bbee
 years ago1 from  fragments of more     
ancient works4 ,two hundred years       
afterwards1 a  general persecution of   
the men of letters1 and destruction of  
the  books1 is said to have taken place 
under the emperor ,chi-,hoang-ti1  whose
 object in this was to destroy the      
traces of the feudal  government        
established under the dynasty which     
preceded his4 ,forty  years after1 under
 the dynasty which had overturned that  
to which  ,chi-,hoang-ti belonged1 a    
portion of the ,chou-king was restored  
from  memory by an old literatus1 and   
another was discovered in a tomb2 but   
nearly the half of it was for ever lost4
 ,now1 this book1 the most  authentic   
which the ,chinese possess1 commences   
the history of their  country with the  

reign of an emperor named ,yao1 whom it 
represents  to us as occupied in        
removing the waters1 which1 having risen
 to  the skies1 still bathed the foot of
 the higher mountains1 covered  the less
 elevated hills1 and rendered the plains
 impassable#agh4  ,according to some1   
the reign of ,yao was #dafc years before
 the present  time2 according to others1
 #cidc4 ,the discrepancy in the opinions
  regarding this epoch even amounts to  
#bhd years4    ,a few pages farther on  
we find one ,yu1 a minister and         
engineer1  re-establishing the courses  
of the waters1 raising embankments1     
digging canals1 and regulating the taxes
 of all the provinces in  ,china1 that  
is to say1 in an empire extending #fjj  
leagues in all  directions4 ,but the    
impossibility of such operations1 after 
such  events1 shews clearly that the    
whole is nothing else than a moral and  
political romance#agi4    ,more modern  
,chinese historians have added a series 
of emperors  before ,yao1 but with a    

multitude of fabulous circumstances1    
without  venturing to assign them fixed 
epochs4 ,these writers are at  perpetual
 variance with each other1 even         
regarding the number and  names of their
 emperors1 and are not universally      
approved by their  countrymen4 ,fouhi1  
with the body of a serpent1 the head of 
an ox1 and  the teeth of a tortoise1    
together with his successors1 who are   
not  less monstrous1 are altogether     
absurd1 and have no more existed than   
,enceladon and ,briareus4    ,is it     
possible that mere chance could have    
produced so striking a  result1 as to   
make the traditional origin of the      
,assyrian1 ,indian1  and ,chinese       
monarchies agree in being referred to an
 epoch of nearly  #djjj years from the  
present period8 ,would the ideas of     
nations which  have had so little       
communication with each other1 and whose
 language1  religion1 and laws are      
altogether different1 have corresponded 
upon  this point1 had they not been     

founded upon truth8    ,we could not    
expect precise dates from the natives of
 ,america1 who  had no real writings1   
and whose oldest traditions extended    
only to  a few centuries before the     
arrival of the ,spaniards4 ,and yet1    
even  among them1 traces of a deluge are
 imagined to be found in their rude     
hieroglyphics4 ,they have their ,noah1  
or ,deucalion1 as well as the  ,indians1
 ,babylonians1 and ,greeks#ahj4    ,the 
,negroes1 the most degraded race among  
men1 whose forms approach  the nearest  
to the brutes1 and whose intellect has  
not yet arrived  at the institution of  
regular governments1 or at any thing    
having  the least appearance of         
systematic knowledge1 have preserved no 
sort of annals or traditions4 ,they     
cannot1 therefore1 afford us any        
information on the subject of our       
present researches1 though all  their   
characters clearly shew us that they    
have escaped from the  great            
catastrophe1 at another point than the  

,caucasian and ,altaic  races1 from     
which they had perhaps been separated   
for a long time  previous to the        
occurrence of that catastrophe4    ,but 
if the ancients1 it is argued1 have left
 no history1 their long  existence as   
nations is not the less attested by the 
advances which  they have made in       
astronomy1 by observations whose date is
 easily  determined1 and even by        
monuments which still remain1 and which 
themselves bear their dates4 ,thus1 the 
length of the year1 such as  the        
,egyptians are supposed to have         
determined it1 according to the         
heliacal rising of ,sirius1 proves      
correct for a period comprised  between 
the year #cjjj and the year #ajjj before
 ,christ1 a period to  which the        
traditions of their conquests and of the
 great prosperity  of their empire also 
refer4 ,this accuracy proves to what    
perfection  they had carried their      
observations1 and shews that they had   
for  many ages applied themselves to    

such investigations4    ,in order to    
determine the force of this argument1 it
 is necessary  that we should here enter
 upon some explanations4    ,the        
solstice is the moment of the year at   
which the rise of the  ,nile commences1 
and that which the ,egyptians must have 
observed  with most attention4 ,having1 
at the beginning1 made1 from imperfect  
observations1 a civil or sacred year of 
three hundred and sixty-five  days      
complete1 they would preserve it from   
superstitious motives1  even after they 
had perceived that it did not agree with
 the natural  or tropical year1 and did 
not bring back the seasons to the same  
days#aha4 ,however1 it was this tropical
 year which it behoved them  to mark for
 the purpose of directing them in their 
agricultural  operations4    ,they      
would1 therefore1 have to search in the 
heavens for an apparent  sign of its    
return1 and they imagined they had found
 this sign when  the sun returned to the
 same position1 relatively to some      

remarkable  star4 ,thus they applied    
themselves1 like almost all nations who 
are beginning this inquiry1 to observe  
the heliacal risings and  settings of   
the stars4 ,we know that they chose     
particularly the  heliacal rising of    
,sirius1 at first1 doubtless1 on account
 of the  beauty of the star2 and1       
especially1 because1 in those ancient   
times1  this rising of ,sirius being    
nearly coincident with the solstice1    
and indicative of the inundation1 was to
 them the most important  phenomenon of 
this kind4 ,hence it was that ,sirius1  
under the name of  ,sothis1 occupied so 
conspicuous a place in their mythology1 
and in  their religious ceremonies4     
,supposing1 therefore1 that the return  
of  the heliacal rising of ,sirius and  
the tropical year were of the same      
duration1 and believing1 at length1 that
 this duration was #cfe days  and a     
quarter1 they would imagine a period    
after which the tropical  year and the  
old year1 the sacred year of #cfe days  

only1 would return  to the same day2 a  
period which1 according to these        
incorrect data1  was necessarily #adfa  
sacred years1 and #adfj of those        
improved years  to which they gave the  
name of years of ,sirius4    ,they took 
for the point of departure of this      
period1 which they named  the ,sothiac  
or great year1 a civil year1 the first  
day of which was1  or had been1 also    
that of a heliacal rising of ,sirius2   
and it is  known1 from the positive     
testimony of ,censorinus1 that one of   
these  great years had ended in the     
#achth year of the ,christian era#ahb4  
,it had consequently commenced in the   
#acbb;d before ,christ1 and that  which 
preceded it in the #bghb;d4 ,in fact1   
the calculations of ,m4  ,ideler shew1  
that ,sirius was heliacally risen on the
 #bjth ,july of the  ,julian year #aci1 
a day which corresponded that year to   
the first of  ,thot1 or the first day of
 the ,egyptian sacred year#ahc4    ,but 
not only is the position of the sun1    

with relation to the stars  of the      
ecliptic1 or the sidereal year different
 from the tropical  year1 on account of 
the precession of the equinoxes4 ,the   
heliacal  year of a star1 or the period 
of its heliacal rising1 especially when 
it is distant from the ecliptic1 differs
 still from the sidereal  year1 and     
differs in various degrees according to 
the latitudes of  the places where it is
 observed4 ,what is very singular1      
however1  and the observation has       
already been made by ,bainbridge#ahd and
  ,father ,petau#ahe1 it happens1 by a  
remarkable concurrence in the           
positions1 that1 in the latitude of     
,upper ,egypt1 at a certain epoch1  and 
during a certain number of ages1 the    
year of ,sirius was really  within very 
little of #cfe days and a quarter2 so   
that the heliacal  rising of this star  
returned in fact to the same day of the 
,julian  year1 the #bjth ,july1 in the  
year #acbb before1 and the year #ach    
after  ,christ#ahf4    ,from this actual

 coincidence1 at this remote period1 ,m4
 ,fourier1 who  has confirmed all these 
accounts by new calculations1 concludes1
  that1 since the length of the year of 
,sirius was so perfectly known  to the  
,egyptians1 they must have determined it
 by observations made  during a long    
series of years1 and conducted with     
great accuracy2  observations which must
 be referred to at least #bejj years    
before the  present time1 and which     
could not have been made long before or 
long  after this interval of time#ahg4  
,this result would assuredly be very    
striking1 had it been directly1  and by 
observations1 made upon ,sirius itself1 
that they had fixed  the length of the  
year of ,sirius4 ,but experienced       
astronomers affirm  it to be impossible 
that the heliacal rising of a star could
 afford  a sufficient foundation for    
exact observations on such a subject1   
especially in a climate where the       
circumference of the horizon  is        
constantly so much loaded with vapours1 

that1 in clear nights1  stars of the    
second or third magnitude can never be  
seen within some  degrees of the verge  
of the horizon1 and that the sun itself 
is  completely obscured at its rising   
and setting4#ahh ,they maintain1  that1 
if the length of the year had not been  
otherwise ascertained1  there would have
 been a mistake of one or two days4#ahi 
,they have no  doubt1 therefore1 that   
this duration of #cfe days and a        
quarter1 is  that of the tropical year  
inaccurately determined by the          
observation  of the shadow1 or by that  
of the point where the sun rose each    
day1  and through ignorance identified  
with the heliacal year of ,sirius2 so   
that it would be mere chance which had  
fixed with so much accuracy  the        
duration of this latter for the period  
of which we speak4#aij    ,perhaps it   
will also be judged1 that men capable of
 making  observations so exact1 and     
which they had continued during so long 
a period1 would not have attributed so  

much importance to ,sirius1  as to pay  
him religious homage2 for they would    
have seen that the  relations of the    
rising of this star with the tropical   
year1 and with  the inundation of the   
,nile1 were merely temporary1 and took  
place  only in a determinate latitude4  
,in fact1 according to ,m4 ,ideler's    
calculations1 in the year #bghb before  
,christ1 ,sirius appeared in  ,upper    
,egypt1 on the second day after the     
solstice2 in #acbb1 on the  third2 and  
in the year #aci after ,christ1 on the  
twenty-sixth4#aia ,at  the present day1 
its heliacal rising is more than a month
 after the  solstice4 ,the ,egyptians   
would therefore set themselves by       
preference  to finding the period1 which
 would bring about the coincidence of   
the commencement of the sacred year1    
with that of the true tropical  year1   
and then they would discover that their 
great period must have  been #aejh      
sacred years1 and not #adfa4aib ,now1 we
 assuredly do not  find any traces of   

this period of #aejh years in antiquity4
    ,in general1 we may defend ourselves
 with the idea1 that1 if the  ,egyptians
 had possessed so long a series of      
observations1 and of  accurate          
observations too1 their disciple        
,eudoxus1 who studied among  them for   
thirteen years1 would1 on his return1   
have brought into  ,greece a system of  
astronomy more perfect1 and maps of the 
heavens  less erroneous1 and more       
coherent in their different parts4#aic  
,how  should it happen that the         
precession of the equinoxes was not     
known  to the ,greeks1 but through the  
works of ,hipparchus1 if it had been    
marked in the registers of the          
,egyptians1 and inscribed in characters 
so manifest upon the ceilings of their  
temples8 ,and how comes it  that        
,ptolemy1 who wrote in ,egypt1 should   
not have deigned to avail  himself of   
any of the observations of the          
,egyptians8#aid    ,farther1 ,herodotus1
 who lived so long with them1 says      

nothing of  those six hours which they  
added to the sacred year1 nor of that   
great ,sothian period which resulted4   
,on the contrary1 he says  expressly    
that the ,egyptians1 making their year  
of #cfe days1 the  seasons returned to  
the same point1 so that in his time the 
necessity  of this quarter of a day does
 not appear to have been suspected4#aie 
,thalles1 who had visited the priests of
 ,egypt1 less than a century  before    
,herodotus1 did not1 in like manner1    
make known to his  countrymen1 any other
 than a year of #cfe days only4#aif     
,and1 if we  reflect that all the       
colonies which migrated from ,egypt1    
fourteen or  fifteen centuries before   
,christ1 the ,jews and the ,athenians1  
carried  with them the lunar year1 it   
will perhaps be inferred that the year  
of #cfe days itself had not existed in  
,egypt in these remote ages4    ,i am   
aware that ,macrobius#aig gives the     
,egyptians a solar year of  #cfe days2  
but this author1 who is comparatively   

modern1 and who  lived at a long period 
after the establishment of the fixed    
year  of ,alexandria1 must have         
confounded the epochs4 ,diodorus#aih and
  ,strabo#aii only attribute such a year
 to the ,thebans2 they do not  say that 
it was in general use1 and they         
themselves did not live till  long after
 ,herodotus4    ,thus the ,sothian or   
great year must have been a             
comparatively recent  invention1 since  
it results from the comparison of the   
civil year  with this pretended heliacal
 year of ,sirius2 and it is for this    
reason that it is only spoken of in the 
works of the second and third  century  
after ,christ#bjj1 and that ,syncellus  
alone1 in the ninth1  seems to cite     
,manetho as having made mention of it4  
,notwithstanding all that is said to the
 contrary1 the same opinion  must be    
formed of the astronomical knowledge of 
the ,chaldeans4 ,it is  natural enough  
to think1 that a people who inhabited   
vast plains1  under a sky perpetually   

serene1 must have been led to observe   
the  course of the stars1 even at a     
period when they still led a wandering  
life1 and when the stars alone could    
direct their courses during  the night2 
but since what period were they         
astronomers1 and to what  perfection did
 they carry the science8 ,here rests the
 question4 ,it is  generally allowed    
that ,callisthenes sent to ,aristotle   
observations  made by them1 and which   
referred to a period of #bbjj years     
before  ,christ2 but this fact is       
related only by ,simplicius#bja1 as     
stated  upon the authority of ,porphyry1
 and #fjj years after ,aristotle4       
,aristotle himself says nothing on the  
subject1 nor has any creditable         
astronomer spoken of it4 ,ptolemy       
mentions and makes use of ten           
observations of eclipses really made by 
the ,chaldeans2 but they do  not refer  
to an earlier period than that of       
,nabonassar 7#gba years  before         
,christ72 they are inaccurate also2 the 

time is expressed only  in hours and    
half-hours1 and the shadow only in      
halves or fourths of  the diameter4     
,notwithstanding1 as they had fixed     
dates1 the ,chaldeans  must have had    
some knowledge of the true length of the
 year1 and some  means of measuring     
time4 ,they appear to have known the    
period of  eighteen years1 which brings 
back the eclipses of the moon in the    
same order2 a piece of knowledge which  
the mere inspection of their  registers 
would promptly afford them2 but it is   
certain that they  could neither explain
 nor predict eclipses of the sun4    ,it
 is from not having sufficiently        
understood a passage of ,josephus1  that
 ,cassini1 and after him ,bailly1 have  
imagined that they  discovered in it a  
luni-solar period of #fjj years1 which  
had been  known from the time of the    
first patriarchs#bjb4    ,thus every    
thing leads us to believe that the great
 reputation of the  ,chaldeans was given
 them at a more recent period1 by their 

unworthy  successors1 who1 under the    
same name1 sold their horoscopes and    
predictions throughout the whole ,roman 
empire1 and who1 in order to  procure   
themselves more credit1 attributed to   
their rude ancestors  the honour of the 
discoveries of the ,greeks4    ,with    
regard to the ,indians1 every body knows
 that ,bailly1 believing  that the epoch
 which is used as a period of departure 
in some of  their astronomical tables   
had been actually observed1 has         
attempted  to draw from thence a proof  
of the great antiquity of the science   
among this people1 or at least among the
 nation which had bequeathed  them its  
knowledge4 ,but the whole of this       
system1 invented with so  much labour1  
falls to the ground of itself1 now that 
it is proved  that this epoch has been  
adopted but of late1 from calculations  
made  backwards1 and even false in their
 results4#bjc    ,mr ,bentley has       
discovered that the tables of           
,tirvalour1 on which the  assertion of  

,bailley especially rested1 must have   
been calculated  about #abha of the     
,christian era1 or #edj years ago1 and  
that the  ,surya-,siddhanta1 which the  
,brahmins regard as their oldest        
scientific  treatise on astronomy1 and  
which they pretend to have been revealed
  upwards of #bj1jjj1jjj of years ago1  
could not have been composed at  an     
earlier period than about #gfj years    
from the present day#bjd4    ,solstices 
and equinoxes indicated in the          
,pouranas1 and calculated  according to 
the positions which seem to be          
attributed to them by the  signs of the 
,indian zodiac1 such as they are        
supposed to be1 have  acquired the      
character of an enormous antiquity4 ,a  
more attentive  examination of these    
signs or nacchatras has lately convinced
 ,m4  de ,paravey that reference is only
 made to solstices of #abjj years       
before the ,christian era4 ,this author 
at the same time admits1 that  the place
 of the solstices is so inaccurately    

fixed1 that this  determination of their
 date must be received with a latitude  
of #bjj  or #cjj years4 ,they are in the
 same predicament as those of ,eudoxus  
and of ,tcheoukong#bje4    ,it is       
ascertained that the ,indians do not    
make observations1 and that  they are   
not in possession of any of the         
instruments necessary for  that purpose4
 ,m4 ,delambre indeed admits1 with      
,bailly and ,legentil1  that they have  
processes of calculation1 which1 without
 proving the  antiquity of their        
astronomy1 shew at least its            
originality#bjf2  and yet this          
conclusion can by no means be extended  
to their sphere2  for1 independently of 
their twenty-seven nacchatras or lunar  
houses1  which strongly resemble those  
of the ,arabians1 they have the same    
twelve constellations in the zodiac as  
the ,egyptians1 ,chaldeans1  and        
,greeks#bjg2 and1 if we refer to ,mr    
,wilfort's assertions1 their            
extra-zodiacal constellations are also  

the same as those of the  ,greeks1 and  
bear names which are merely slight      
alterations of their  ,greek names#bjh4 
,it is to ,yao that the introduction of 
astronomy into ,china is  attributed4   
,he is represented1 in the ,chou-king1  
as sending  astronomers toward the four 
cardinal points of his empire1 to       
examine what stars presided over the    
four seasons1 and to regulate  the      
operations to be carried on at each     
period of the year#bji1 as  if their    
dispersion was necessary for such an    
undertaking4 ,about  #bjj years later1  
the ,chou-king speaks of an eclipse of  
the sun1 but  accompanied with          
ridiculous circumstances1 as in all the 
fables of  this kind2 for the whole     
,chinese army1 headed by a general1 is  
made  to march against two astronomers1 
because they had not properly  predicted
 it#baj2 and it is well known that1 more
 than #bjjj years  after1 the ,chinese  
astronomers possessed no means of       
accurately  predicting the eclipses of  

the sun4 ,in #afbi of our era1 at the   
time  of their dispute with the         
,jesuits1 they did not even know how to 
calculate the shadows4    ,the real     
eclipses1 recorded by ,confucius in his 
,chronicle of the  kingdom of ,lou1     
commence only #adjj years after this1 in
 the #ggfth  before ,christ1 and        
scarcely half a century earlier than    
those of the  ,chaldeans related by     
,ptolemy4 ,so true is it1 that the      
nations which  escaped at the same time 
from the general catastrophe1 also      
arrived  about the same period1 when    
their circumstances have been similar1  
at the same degree of civilization4     
,now1 it might be thought1 from  the    
identity of the names of the ,chinese   
astronomers in different  reigns 7they  
appear1 according to the ,chou-king1 to 
have all been  named ,hi and ,ho71 that1
 at this remote epoch1 their profession 
was hereditary in ,china1 as it was in  
,india1 ,egypt1 and ,babylon4    ,the   
only ,chinese observation of any        

antiquity1 which has nothing in  itself 
to prove its want of authenticity1 is   
that of the shadow made  by ,tcheou-kong
 about #aajj years before ,christ2 and  
even it is far  from being correct#baa4 
,hence our readers may conclude1 that   
the inferences drawn from the  alleged  
perfection of astronomical science among
 ancient nations1 is  not more          
conclusive in favour of the excessive   
antiquity of those  nations1 than the   
testimonies which they have adduced in  
reference to  themselves4    ,but had   
this astronomy been more perfect1 what  
would it prove8  ,has the progress been 
calculated which this science ought to  
make  among nations who were not in any 
degree in possession of others2  to whom
 the serenity of the sky1 the           
necessities of the pastoral or          
agricultural life1 and their            
superstitious ideas1 would render the   
stars an object of general attention2   
where colleges1 or societies  of the    
most respectable men among them1 were   

charged with keeping a  register of     
interesting phenomena1 and transmitting 
their memory2 and  where1 from the      
hereditary nature of the profession1 the
 children  were brought up from the     
cradle in the knowledge of facts        
ascertained  by their parents8          
,supposing that1 among the numerous     
individuals of  whom the cultivation of 
astronomy was the sole occupation1 there
  should happen to be one or two        
possessed of extraordinary talents  for 
geometry1 all the knowledge acquired by 
these nations might be  attained in a   
few centuries4    ,since the time of the
 ,chaldeans1 real astronomy has only had
 two  eras1 that of the ,alexandrian    
school1 which lasted #djj years1 and    
that of our own times1 which has not    
existed so long4 ,the learned  period of
 the ,arabians scarcely added any thing 
to it2 and the other  ages have been    
mere blanks with regard to it4 ,three   
hundred years did  not intervene between
 ,copernicus and the author of the      

,mecanique  ,cleste2 and can it be      
believed that the ,indians required     
thousands  of years to arrive at their  
crude theories8          ,the           
,astronomical ,monuments left by the    
,ancients do not bear the  excessively  
remote dates which have been attributed 
to them4      ,recourse has therefore   
been had to arguments of another kind4  
,it  has been pretended that1           
independently of the knowledge which    
these  nations may have acquired1 they  
have left monuments which bear a date   
fixed by the state of the heavens which 
they represent1 and one that  refers to 
a very remote antiquity4 ,the zodiacs   
sculptured in two  temples of ,upper    
,egypt1 are adduced as furnishing proofs
 perfectly  demonstrative of this       
assertion4 ,they present the same       
figures of  the zodiacal constellations 
as are employed at the present day1  but
 distributed in a manner peculiar to    
themselves4 ,the state of  the heavens  
at the period when these monuments were 

delineated1 is  imagined to have been   
represented by this distribution1 and it
 has  been thought that it would be     
possible from it to infer the precise   
period at which the edifices containing 
them were erected#bab4    ,but to arrive
 at the high antiquity which is supposed
 to be deducible  from this1 it must1 in
 the first place1 be supposed1 that     
their  division has a determinate       
relation to a certain state of the      
heavens1 dependent upon the precession  
of the equinoxes1 which causes  the     
colures to make the tour of the zodiac  
in #bf1jjj years2 that  it indicated1   
for example1 the position of the        
solstitial point2  and1 secondly1 that  
the state of the heavens represented was
  precisely that which took place at the
 period when the monument was           
erected1--two suppositions which        
themselves1 as is evident1 suppose  a   
great number of others4    ,in point of 
fact1 are the figures of these zodiacs  
the  constellations1--the true groups of

 stars which at present bear the  same  
names1 or merely what astronomers call  
signs1 that is to say1  divisions of the
 zodiac proceeding from one of the      
colures1 whatever  place this colure    
occupies8 ,is the point at which these  
zodiacs  have been divided into two     
bands1 necessarily that of a solstice8  
,is the division of the side next the   
entrance1 necessarily that of  the      
summer solstice8 ,does this division    
indicate1 even in general1 a  phenomenon
 dependent upon the precession of the   
equinoxes8 ,does it  not refer to some  
period the rotation of which would be   
less2 for  example1 to the moment of the
 tropical year when such or such sacred 
years of the ,egyptians commenced1      
which1 being shorter than the true      
tropical year by nearly six hours1 would
 make the tour of the zodiac  in #aejh  
years8 ,lastly1 whatever signification  
it may have had1 has it  been intended  
by it to mark the time when the zodiac  
was sculptured1  or that when the temple

 was built8 ,has not the object been to 
record  a previous state of the heavens 
at some period which was interesting  in
 a religious point of view1 whether it  
had been actually observed1  or inferred
 from a retrograde calculation8    ,from
 the mere announcement of such          
questions1 it will be perceived  how    
complicated they necessarily are1 how   
much subject to  controversy any        
solution that might be adopted on this  
subject would  be1 and how little       
qualified to serve as a solid proof1 for
 the  solution of another problem1 such 
as the antiquity of the ,egyptian       
nation4 ,and it may be said1 with regard
 to those who have attempted  to infer a
 date from these data1 that there have  
arisen as many  opinions as there have  
been authors4    ,the learned astronomer
 ,mr ,burkhard1 from a first            
examination1 judged  that1 at ,dendera1 
the solstice is marked by the ,lion2    
which would  make it two signs less     
remote than at the present day1 and the 

temple at least #djjj years old#bac4 ,he
 gave1 at the same time an  antiquity of
 #gjjj years to that of ,esne1 although 
it is not known  how he had purposed to 
reconcile these numbers with what we    
know  of the precession of the          
equinoxes4 ,the late ,m4 ,lalande1      
seeing  that the ,cancer was repeated on
 the two bands1 imagined that the       
solstice passed to the middle of that   
constellation2 but as this  was the case
 also in the sphere of ,eudoxus1 he     
concluded that some  ,grecian artist    
might have represented this sphere on   
the ceiling of  an ,egyptian temple1    
without knowing that it represented a   
state of  the heavens which no longer   
existed#bad4 ,this1 as is seen1 was a   
conclusion very different from that of  
,mr ,burkhard4 ,dupuis was the  first   
who thought it necessary to search for  
proofs of the idea1  in some measure    
confidently adopted1 that it was the    
solstice that  was denoted4 ,he found   
them1 with reference to the great zodiac

 of  ,dendera1 in the globe on the top  
of the pyramid1 and in several  emblems 
placed near different signs1 and which  
he imagined1 sometimes  according to the
 opinion of ancient authors1 such as    
,plutarch1 ,horus  ,apollo1 or ,clement 
of ,alexandria1 sometimes according to  
his own  conjectures1 ought to be       
regarded as representing phenomena which
  had been really those of the seasons  
affected at each sign4 ,as for  the     
rest1 he maintained that this state of  
the heavens affords the  date of the    
monument1 and that it is the original1  
and not a copy1 of  the sphere of       
,eudoxus1 that was represented at       
,dendera1 which would  refer it to a    
period of #adfh years before ,christ1 or
 to the reign of  ,sesostris4 ,the      
number of nineteen boats1 however1      
placed under each  band1 furnished him  
with the idea that the solstice might   
probably  have been at the nineteenth   
degree of the sign1 which would make it 
#bhh years older#bae4    ,mr            

,hamilton#baf having remarked1 that1 at 
,dendera1 the ,scarabus  belonging to   
the side of the ascending signs is      
smaller than that of  the other side1 an
 ,english author#bag has concluded from 
this that  the solstice may have been   
nearer its actual point than the middle 
of the ,cancer1 which would carry us    
back to a period of #ajjj or #abjj      
years before ,christ4    ,the late ,m4  
,nouet1 judging that the globe1 the     
rays1 and the horned  head1 or head of  
,isis1 represent the heliacal rising of 
,sirius1  supposed that it was intended 
to mark an epoch of the ,sothian        
period1 but that it was intended to mark
 it by the place which the  solstice    
occupied4 ,now1 in the last but one of  
these periods1 that  which elapsed      
between #bghb and #acbb before ,christ1 
the solstice had  passed from #cj #dh of
 the constellation of the ,lion to #ac  
#cd of  ,cancer4 ,at the middle of this 
period1 it was therefore at #bc #cd of  
cancer4 ,the heliacal rising of ,sirius 

happened then some days after  the      
solstice2 and this is nearly what has   
been indicated1 according  to ,m4       
,nouet1 by the repetition of the        
,scarabus1 and by the figure  of ,sirius
 with the rays of the sun placed at the 
commencement of the  band to the right4 
,calculating upon this basis1 he        
concludes that the  temple of ,dendera  
was built #bjeb years before ,christ1   
and that of  ,esne #dfjjbah4    ,all    
these calculations1 even admitting that 
the division marks the  solstice1 would 
still be susceptible of many            
modifications2 and1 at  first1 it       
appears that their authors have supposed
 the constellations  all of thirty      
degrees like the signs1 and have not    
reflected that  it is far from being the
 case that they are thus equal1 at least
  as they are represented at the present
 day1 and as the ,greeks have           
transmitted them to us4 ,in reality1 the
 solstice1 which is at present  on this 
side of the first stars of the          

constellation of ,gemini1  could only   
have left the first stars of the        
constellation of ,cancer  forty-five    
years before ,christ1 and had left the  
constellation of ,leo  only #abfj years 
before the same era4           99       
99       99       99       99    ,my    
distinguished and learned colleague1 ,m4
 ,delambre1 has favoured me  with the   
following table and remarks1 which      
illustrate what has been  above said4   
,,table of the ,extent of the ,zodiacal 
,constellations1 as they are  designed  
upon our ,globes1 and of the ,times     
required by the ,colures  to traverse   
them4                                   
----------------------------------------
--------------                          
,,aries4                                
----------------------------------------
-----------      ,stars4  ,longitudes in
 #ahjj4,year of the,year of the         
,equinox4   ,solstice4                  
----------------------------------------
-----------              #as   #j #bc   

#dj      -#chi       #fhfi              
#a     #a  #aj  #dj       -#dda         
#fiba                 #a     #d  #eb    
#j       -#gaj       #gaij              
#a     #e  #ah  #ej       -#gdb         
#gbbb          #b      #a     #f  #ad   
#af       -#haj       #gbij             
#a    #ai   #h  #ej      -#agci         
#hbai          tail4  #a    #bj  #ea    
#j      -#ahfb       #hcdb              
----------------------------------------
-----------       ,dur4         #bj  #bg
  #bj       #adgc       #adgc           
----------------------------------------
-----------                             
,,taurus4                               
----------------------------------------
-----------              #as  #ai  #f   
#j     -#agce      -#hbae               
#a    #bg  #ab   #j      -#bcah         
-#hgih                 #b     #f  #ei   
#dj      -#cjbd      -#iejd             
#b    #ai  #dg   #j      -#cidd         
-#ajdbd                 #b    #bb   #j  
#j      -#dajd     -#ajehd        a     

,coch4   #b    #bd  #db  #dj      -#dcjj
     -#ajghj                            
----------------------------------------
-----------       ,dur4         #ce  #cf
  #dj       #befe       #befe           
----------------------------------------
-----------                             
,,gemini4                               
----------------------------------------
-----------      ,propus4  #bs  #bh  #i 
#bj     -#dedg     -#aajbg              
#c     #j  #ci   #j      -#dgbg         
-#aabjg                 #c     #f  #ah  
#dj      -#eacd     -#aafad             
#c    #ae  #dd   #j      -#ehac         
-#abbic         ,castor4  #c    #ag  #bg
  #cj      -#eicg     -#abdag           
,pollux4  #c    #bj  #bh   #i           
-#faed     -#abfcd                 #c   
#bb  #bg  #aj      -#fibf     -#abggf   
----------------------------------------
-----------       ,dur4         #bd  #ag
  #dj       #agdi       #agdi           
----------------------------------------
-----------                             

----------------------------------------
--------------                          
,,cancer4                               
----------------------------------------
-----------      ,stars4  ,longitudes in
 #ahjj4,year of the,year of the         
,equinox4   ,solstice4                  
----------------------------------------
-----------       #a      #cs  #bd #ba  
#ee      #fdge        #de               
#c    #bh  #cb   #j       #fgcd         
-#bed                 #d     #a  #bh    
#bj       #fijf       -#dbf             
#d     #d  #de   #j       #gahb         
-#gjb          #a      #d    #aj  #ah   
#ej       #gehc      -#aajc          #b 
#d    #aj  #ej  #cf       #gfba         
-#aada                 #d    #ac  #bc   
#j       #ghjd      -#acbd              
----------------------------------------
-----------       ,dur4         #ai   #a
   #e       #acfi       #acfi           
----------------------------------------
-----------                             
,,leo4                                  

----------------------------------------
-----------              #ds  #ab #cj   
#j     -#ggdj      -#abfj               
#d    #bg   #c  #aj      -#hghh         
-#aijh                 #e     #h  #cj   
#j      -#ifab      -#cacb              
#e    #ah  #ej  #ee     -#ajceg         
-#chgg          444     44  444 444 444 
44444      44444          444     44    
444 444 444      44444      44444       
----------------------------------------
-----------       ,dur4         #cf  #bj
  #ee       #bfag       #bfag           
----------------------------------------
-----------                             
,,virgo4                                
----------------------------------------
-----------              #es  #ai  #b   
#bb    -#ajcga      -#chia              
#e    #bd  #ai   #j     -#ajgej         
-#dbga                 #f     #b   #b   
#dj     -#aacjg      -#dhbg             
#f     #h  #da  #dj     -#aaghf         
-#ecjf                 #f    #ba   #c   
#ae     -#abfgf      -#faif             

#g     #d   #i  #ej     -#acfbj         
-#gadj                 #g     #g  #ag   
#dj     -#achde      -#gcfe             
----------------------------------------
-----------       ,dur4         #dh  #ae
  #ah       #cdgd       #cdgd           
----------------------------------------
-----------       ,mean                 
,dur4         #cj   #j   #j       #bafj 
----------------------------------------
-----------                             
----------------------------------------
--------------                          
,,libra4                                
----------------------------------------
-----------      ,stars4  ,longitudes in
 #ahjj4,year of the,year of the         
,equinox4  ,solstice4                   
----------------------------------------
-----------       #a      #gs  #aa  #j  
#dd    -#adaac      -#gfcc          #b  
#g    #ab  #ah   #j     -#adbdf         
-#gibf                 #g    #af  #ce   
#j     -#adead      -#hjcd              
#g    #bb  #bj  #cd     -#adibi         

-#hddi         ,scorp4  #g    #bg  #da  
#j     -#aecab      -#hhcb              
#g    #bh  #cj  #ae     -#aecgb         
-#hhib          444     44  444 444 444 
44444      44444                        
----------------------------------------
-----------       ,dur4         #ag  #bi
  #ca        #abei      #abei           
----------------------------------------
-----------                             
,,scorpio4                              
----------------------------------------
-----------       #a      #gs  #bh #ej  
#f    -#aecif      -#hiaf               
#h     #j  #bc  #dh     -#aeejh         
-#ijbh                 #h     #f  #eg   
#ch     -#aeihj      -#iejj             
#h    #ab  #ce  #cj     -#afchg         
-#iijg                 #h    #ba  #dg   
#bg     -#agjdi    -#ajeefi          444
     44  444 444 444      44444         
44444                                   
----------------------------------------
-----------       ,dur4         #bb  #eg
  #ba       #afec       #afec           

----------------------------------------
-----------                             
,,sagittarius4                          
----------------------------------------
-----------              #gs  #bh #bh   
#bj    -#agecj     -#aajej              
#i     #c  #cb  #ef     -#aghie         
-#aadae                 #i    #aj  #ej  
#bh     -#ahdba     -#aaida             
#i    #ad  #ae  #ae     -#ahffg         
-#abahg                 #i    #bc   #b  
#ai     -#aibii     -#abhai          g  
#i    #be  #ci  #be     -#aidhg         
-#acjjg         444      44  444 444 444
      44444      44444                  
----------------------------------------
-----------       ,dur4         #bg  #aa
  #ej       #aieg       #aieg           
----------------------------------------
-----------                             
----------------------------------------
-----------                             
,,capricorn4                            
----------------------------------------
-----------      ,stars4  ,longitudes in

 #ahjj4,year of the,year of the         
,equinox4  ,solstice4                   
----------------------------------------
-----------      #a;er    #is  #bi #ci  
#ae   -#aigge     -#acbie          #b   
#aj     #a   #c  #eh    -#aihgg         
-#accig                 #aj     #a  #ae 
#cj    -#aihia     -#acdaa              
#aj    #ad  #ec  #cj    -#bjhgb         
-#adcib                 #aj    #ah  #ei 
#bh    -#baaff     -#adehf              
#aj    #bc   #a  #ab    -#badeh         
-#adigh                 44   444 444 444
     44444      44444                   
----------------------------------------
-----------       ,dur4          #bc    
#ba  #ag      #afhc      #afhc          
----------------------------------------
-----------                             
,,aquarius4                             
----------------------------------------
-----------              #ajs   #h #ef  
#j   -#bjddd     -#acifd                
#aj    #bj  #cf  #cj    -#babhe         
-#adhje                 #aa     #j  #cd 

#j    -#bbjja     -#aeeba               
#aa     #f   #g   #j    -#bbdjj         
-#aeibj          #b      #aa    #ac  #ef
  #ab    -#bbifc     -#afdhc          #e
      #aa    #ah   #c  #bh    -#bcbfj   
-#afghj                                 
----------------------------------------
-----------       ,dur4          #ci    
#g  #bh      #bhaf       #bhaf          
----------------------------------------
-----------                             
,,pisces4                               
----------------------------------------
-----------              #aas  #ae #di  
#j    #bcjie      #affae                
#aa    #bc  #di   #j     #bcfge         
#agaie                 #ab    #aa  #bb  
#j     #bdici      #ahdei               
#ab    #bd  #bf   #j     #behgi         
#aicii                 #ab    #bf  #cd  
#eh     #bfjcd      #aieed              
444   444 444 444     44444      44444  
444   444 444 444     44444      44444  
----------------------------------------
-----------       ,dur4          #dj    

#de  #eh      #bici       #bici         
----------------------------------------
-----------                             
#j      #bgjs      ,sirius      #c      
#aa  #bj  #aj     -#edhg     -#ahddg    
----------------------------------------
-----------          ,construction and  
,use of the ,table4      8,the          
longitudes of the stars1 for #ahjj1 have
 been taken from the  ,berlin ,tables1  
and are those of ,lacaille1 ,bradley1 or
 ,flamstead4 ,the  first and the last of
 each constellation have been taken1 as 
well as  some of the brightest of the   
intermediate stars4 ,the third column   
indicates the year in which the         
longitude of the star was #j1 that  is  
to say1 that in which the star was in   
the equinoxial colure of  spring4 ,the  
last column indicates the year when the 
star was in the  solstitial colure1     
whether of winter or of summer4    8,for
 ,aries1 ,taurus1 and ,gemini1 the      
winter solstice has been chosen2  for   
the other constellations the summer     

solstice has been chosen1  for the sake 
of not receding into too remote         
antiquity1 and of not  approaching too  
near modern times4 ,it will be easy to  
find the  opposite solstice1 by adding  
the semiperiod of #ab1ifj years4 ,the   
same  rule will serve for finding the   
time when the star has been1 or will    
be1 at the autumnal equinox4    8,the   
sign - indicates the years before our   
era1 the sign  the  year of our era2 and
 the last line1 at the end of each sign 
under  the title of duration1 gives the 
extent of the constellation in  degrees1
 and the time which the equinox1 or the 
solstice1 occupies in  traversing the   
constellation from one end to the other4
    8,the precession of #ej yearly has  
been supposed1 this being the  result of
 the comparison of the catalogue of     
,hipparchus with the  modern catalogues4
 ,we have thus the advantage of round   
numbers1 and a  general accuracy that   
may be relied upon4 ,the entire period  
is thus  #be1ibj years2 the semiperiod1 

#ab1ifj years2 the quarter period1 #fdhj
  years2 the twelfth1 or a sign1 #bafj  
years4    8,it is to be remarked1 that  
the constellations leave empty spaces   
between them1 and that sometimes they   
encroach upon each other4 ,thus1        
between the last star of ,scorpio1 and  
the first of ,sagittarius1  there is an 
interval of #f degrees4 ,on the other   
hand1 the last  of ,capricorn is more   
advanced by #ad in longitude1 than the  
first  of ,aquarius4 ,hence1 even       
independently of the inequality of the  
sun's motion1 the constellations would  
afford a very unequal and  very         
erroneous measure of the year and its   
months4 ,the signs of #cj  furnish a    
more convenient and less defective one4 
,but the signs are  merely a geometrical
 conception2 they can neither be        
distinguished  nor observed2 and they   
are continually changing place from the 
retrogradation of the equinoxial point4 
8,we have at all times been able to     
determine1 in a rough manner1  the      

equinoxes and solstices2 at the long run
 it has been remarked1  that the        
appearance of the heavens was no longer 
exactly the same  that it anciently was 
at the times of the equinoxes and       
solstices4  ,but we have never been able
 to observe exactly the heliacal rising 
of a star1 being always necessarily some
 days wide of it2 and people  frequently
 speak of it1 without possessing a fixed
 datum on which  to count4 ,before      
,hipparchus1 we find nothing1 either in 
books or  in traditions1 that can be    
submitted to calculation2 and it is     
this which has given rise to so many    
systems4 ,controversies have  arisen    
without a sufficient knowledge of the   
subject4 ,those who are  not astronomers
 may form ideas as beautiful as they    
please of the  knowledge of the         
,chaldeans1 ,egyptians1 c42 no real     
inconvenience  will result4 ,the        
enterprise and knowledge of the moderns 
may be lent  to these nations1 but      
nothing can be borrowed from them2 for  

they  have either had nothing1 or they  
have left nothing4 ,astronomers will    
never derive from the ancients any thing
 that can be of the slightest  utility4 
,let us leave to the learned their vain 
conjectures1 and  confess our utter     
ignorance respecting things of little   
use in  themselves1 and of which no     
monument remains4    8,the limits of the
 constellations vary according to the   
authors which  we consult4 ,we find     
these limits extend or contract1 as we  
pass  from ,hipparchus to ,tycho1 from  
,tycho to ,hevelius1 from ,hevelius to  
,flamstead1 ,lacaille1 ,bradley1 or     
,piazzi4    8,i have said elsewhere1 the
 constellations are good for nothing1   
unless at the most to enable us to mark 
the stars with more ease2  whereas the  
stars in particular afford fixed points 
to which we  can refer the motions1     
whether of the colures or of the        
planets4  ,astronomy commenced only at  
the period when ,hipparchus made the    
first  catalogue of the stars1 measured 

the revolution of the sun1 that of  the 
moon1 and their principal inequalities4 
,the rest presents nothing  but         
darkness1 uncertainty1 and gross error4 
,the time would be lost  that were      
occupied in attempting to reduce this   
chaos to order4    8,i have given1 with 
the exception of a few particulars1 the 
whole  of my opinion on this subject4 ,i
 am nowise anxious about making         
converts1 for it gives me little concern
 whether my ideas be adopted  or not2   
but1 if my reasons be compared with the 
reveries of ,newton1  ,herschell1       
,bailly1 and so many others1 it is not  
impossible but that1  in time1 these    
more or less brilliant chimeras will no 
longer be  relished4    8,i have        
attempted to determine the extent of the
 constellations1  according to the      
catasterisms of ,eratosthenes2 but the  
thing is  really impossible4 ,the matter
 would be still worse were we to        
consult ,hygin1 and especially          
,firmicus4 ,the following is what ,i    

have  made out from ,eratosthenes4      
,,constellations4   ,,durations4        
,years4    ,aries1              #agdg   
,taurus1             #ahbf    ,gemini1  
#afcf    ,cancer1             #abjd     
,leo1                #bfag    ,virgo1   
#ccjg    ,the ,talons1         #ajhibai 
,scorpio1            #ahbc              
,sagittarius1        #bach              
,capricorn1          #adaf    ,aquarius1
           #aaif    ,pisces1            
#bicf    8,as to the ,chaldeans1        
,egyptians1 ,chinese1 and ,indians1     
there is no  want of reveries among     
them4 ,one can absolutely make nothing  
of  them4 ,my opinion with regard to    
them may be seen in the preliminary     
discourse of my ,history of the         
,astronomy of the ,middle ,age1 p4 xvii 
and xviii4 ,see also the note affixed to
 the ,report on the ,memoirs of  ,m4 de 
,paravey1 vol4 viii4 of the ,nouvelles  
,annales des ,voyages1 and  republished 
by ,m4 de ,paravey in his ,summary of   
his ,memoirs upon the  ,origin of the   

,sphere1 p4 #bd1 #ca-cf4 ,see further   
the ,analysis of the  ,mathematical     
,labours of the ,academy in #ahbj1 p4   
#gh and #gi4          8,,delambre40     
99       99       99       99       99  
,it would still have to be ascertained  
at what period the observers  ceased to 
place the constellation in which the sun
 entered after the  solstice1 at the    
head of the descending signs1 and       
whether this was  done as soon as the   
solstice had retrograded sufficiently to
 touch  the preceding constellation4    
,thus ,,mm4 ,jollois and                
,devilliers1--to whose unremitting zeal 
we are  indebted for an accurate        
knowledge of these famous monuments1    
always  considering the division towards
 the entrance of the porch as the       
solstice1 and judging that the ,virgin  
must have been regarded as the  first of
 the descending constellations1 insomuch
 as the solstice had  not receded at    
least so far as the middle of the       
constellation of the  ,lion2 and1       

believing that they saw farther1 as we  
have mentioned1  that the ,lion is      
divided in the great zodiac of ,esne1   
have not  given to that zodiac a more   
remote antiquity than #bafj years before
  ,christ4#bbj    ,mr ,hamilton1 who was
 the first that observed this division  
of the  sign of the ,lion1 in the zodiac
 of ,esne1 reduced the distance of  the 
period at which the solstice occurred   
there1 to #adjj years  before ,christ4  
,a great many other opinions have       
appeared on the same  subject4 ,m4      
,rhode1 for example1 has proposed two4  
,the first refers  the zodiac of the    
portico of ,dendera to a period of #eia 
years before  ,christ2 the second1 to   
#abijbba4 ,m4 ,latreille has fixed the  
period  of this zodiac at #fgj years    
before ,christ2 that of the planisphere 
at  #eej2 that of the zodiac of the     
great temple of ,esne at #beej2 and that
  of the small one at #agfj4    ,but a  
difficulty inherent in all the dates1   
which proceed on the  double            

supposition1 that the division marks the
 solstice1 and that  the position of the
 solstice marks the epoch of the        
monument1 is the  unavoidable           
consequence that the zodiac of ,esne    
must have been at  least #bjjj1 and     
perhaps #cjjj1 years#bbb older than that
 of ,dendera1  a consequence which      
evidently involves the supposition in   
ruin2  for no one1 in any degree        
acquainted with the history of the arts1
  could believe1 that two edifices1 so  
similar in their style of  architecture1
 could have been erected at periods so  
remote from each  other4    ,the feeling
 of this impossibility1 joined always to
 the belief that  this division of the  
zodiacs indicates a date1 has given rise
 to  another conjecture1 namely1 that   
the intention had been to mark the      
particular sacred year of the           
,egyptians1 in which the monument had   
been erected4 ,as these sacred years    
consisted only of #cfe days1 if  the    
sun1 at the commencement of one occupied

 the commencement of a  constellation1  
he would be nearly six hours later in   
returning to the  commencement of the   
following year1 and1 after #aba years1  
he would  only be at the commencement of
 the preceding sign4 ,it seems natural  
enough that the builders of a temple    
might wish to indicate about  what      
period of the great1 or ,sothian year1  
it had been erected2 and  the           
indications of the sign1 by which the   
sacred year then commenced1  was a good 
enough means4 ,it will be perceived1    
that1 calculating upon  this assumption1
 there will be an interval of from #abj 
to #aej years  between the temple of    
,esne and that of ,dendera4 ,but1 in his
 mode of  solving the problem1 there    
remained to be determined in which of   
the  great years these buildings had    
been erected1 whether in that which     
ended in the year #ach after1 or in that
 which ended in #acbb before  ,christ1  
or in some other4    ,the late          
,visconti1 who was the first author of  

this hypothesis1  taking the sacred     
year1 whose commencement corresponded   
with the sign  of the ,lion1 and judging
 from the resemblance of the signs1 that
 they  had been represented at a period 
when the opinions of the ,greeks were   
not unknown to the ,egyptians1 was      
naturally led to make choice of the  end
 of the last great year1 or the space   
that elapsed between the  year #ab and  
the year #ach after ,christ#bbc1 which  
appeared to him to  accord with the     
,greek inscription1 of which1 however1  
he knew little  more than that it was   
said to make mention of one of the      
,csars4    ,m4 ,testa1 seeking the date 
of the monument in another order of     
ideas1  went so far as to suppose that  
since the ,virgin is seen at ,esne1 at  
the head of the zodiac1 it was meant    
thereby to represent the era of  the    
battle of ,actium1 such as it had been  
established with regard  to ,egypt1 by a
 decree of the senate1 mentioned by     
,dion ,cassius1  and which commenced in 

the month of ,september1 the day on     
which  ,alexandria was taken by         
,augustus4#bbd    ,m4 de ,paravey       
considered these zodiacs in a new point 
of view1 which  embraced at once both   
the revolution of the equinoxes1 and    
that of  the great year4 ,supposing that
 the circular planisphere of ,dendera   
must have been set to the east1 and that
 the axis from north to  south is the   
line of the solstices1 he found the     
summer solstice at  the second of the   
,twins1 and that of winter at the       
buttock of the  ,sagittary1 while the   
line of the equinoxes would have passed 
through  the ,fishes and the ,virgin1   
from which he obtained for date the     
first  century of our era4    ,according
 to this method1 the division of the    
zodiac of the portico  could no longer  
refer to the colures1 and the mark of   
the solstice  must be sought for        
elsewhere4 ,m4 de ,paravey having       
remarked that  there are between all the
 signs figures of women bearing a star  

upon  their heads1 and marching in the  
same direction1 and observing that  the 
one which comes after the twins1 is     
alone turned in a direction  contrary to
 the others1 judged that it indicates   
the conversion of  the sun or the       
tropic1 and that this zodiac corresponds
 in this way  with the planisphere4     
,by applying the idea of easting to the 
small zodiac of ,esne1 the  solstices   
would be found between the ,twins and   
the ,bull1 and between  the ,scorpion   
and ,sagittary2 they would even be      
marked by the change  of direction of   
the ,bull1 and by the winged ,rams      
placed across at  these two places4 ,in 
the great zodiac of the same city1 the  
marks  would be the cross position of   
the ,bull1 and the reversed one of  the 
,sagittary4 ,there would thus be but a  
portion of a constellation  traversed   
between the dates of ,esne and those of 
,dendera1 but even  this would be still 
too long for buildings so closely       
resembling each  other4    ,an operation

 of the late ,m4 ,delambre upon the     
circular planisphere  appears to confirm
 these conjectures1 detracting from its 
remote  antiquity2 for1 on placing the  
stars upon ,hipparchus's projection1    
according to the theory of that         
astronomer1 and according to the        
positions which he has given them in his
 catalogue2 and augmenting  all the     
longitudes1 so that the solstice might  
pass through the  second of the ,twins1 
he nearly reproduced this planisphere2  
and  8the resemblance10 says he1 8would 
have been still greater1 had  the       
longitudes been adopted such as they are
 in the catalogue of  ,ptolemy1 for the 
year #abc of our era4 ,on the contrary1 
by referring  to twenty-five or         
twenty-six centuries back1 the right    
ascensions and  the declinations will be
 considerably changed1 and the          
projection  will assume quite a         
different figure#bbe4 ,all our          
calculations10  adds this great         
astronomer1 8lead us to this conclusion1

 that the  sculptures are posterior to  
the epoch of ,alexander40    ,in        
reality1 the circular planisphere having
 been brought to ,paris by  the care of 
,,mm4 ,saunier and ,lelorrain1 ,m4      
,biot1 in a work founded  upon precise  
measurements and calculations full of   
ingenuity1 has  determined that it      
represents1 according to an exact       
geometrical  projection1 the state of   
the heavens1 such as it was #gjj years  
before  ,christ2 but he by no means     
concludes that it had been sculptured at
  that period#bbf4    ,in fact1 all     
these efforts of intellect and science1 
in so far as  they concern the epoch of 
the monuments1 have become superfluous1 
since finishing where they should       
naturally have begun1 if the first      
observers had not been blinded by       
prejudice1 people have taken the        
trouble of copying and restoring the    
,greek inscriptions engraved upon  these
 monuments1 and especially since ,m4    
,champollion has discovered  the method 

of decyphering those which are expressed
 in hieroglyphics4    ,it is now        
certain1 and the ,greek inscriptions    
agree with the  hieroglyphical          
inscriptions in proving it1 it is       
certain1 we say1  that the temples in   
which zodiacs have been sculptured1 were
 built  during the time when ,egypt was 
subject to the ,romans4 ,the portico  of
 the temple of ,dendera1 according to   
the ,greek inscription of its           
frontispiece1 is consecrated to the     
safety of ,tiberius#bbg4 ,on the        
planisphere of the same temple we read  
the title of ,autocrator in             
hieroglyphical characters#bbh2 and it is
 probable that it refers to  ,nero4 ,the
 small temple of ,esne1 that of which   
the origin has been  placed on the      
lowest calculation between #bgjj and    
#cjjj years before  ,christ1 has a      
column sculptured and painted in the    
sixth year of  ,antonine1 #adg years    
after ,christ1 and it is painted and    
sculptured in  the same style as the    

zodiac which is near it#bbi4            
,further1 we have a proof that this     
division of the zodiac1 in such  or such
 sign1 has no reference to the          
precession of the equinoxes1  or to the 
displacement of the solstice4 ,a mummy  
case1 lately brought  from ,thebes by   
,m4 ,caillaud1 and containing1 according
 to the very  legible ,greek inscription
 upon it1 the body of a young man who   
died  in the ninth year of ,trajan1 #aaf
 years after ,christ#bcj1 presents a    
zodiac divided at the same point as     
those of ,dendera#bca2 and all  the     
appearances indicate that this division 
marks some astrological  theme relative 
to the individual1 a conclusion which   
may probably  be equally applied to the 
division of the zodiacs contained in the
  temples4 ,it may mark either the      
astrological theme of the time of  their
 erection1 or that of the prince to     
whose safety they had  been consecrated1
 or such another epoch with relation to 
which the  position of the sun would    

have appeared of importance to be       
noticed4    ,thus are dissipated for    
ever the conclusions which people had   
drawn  from some ill explained          
monuments1 against the newness of the   
continents and nations2 and we might    
have dispensed with treating of  them so
 much in detail had they not been so    
recent1 and had they not  made          
sufficient impression still to retain   
their influence over the  minds of some 
individuals4          ,the ,zodiac is   
far from bearing in itself a certain and
 excessively  remote date4      ,but    
there are writers who have maintained   
that the zodiac bears in  itself the    
date of its invention1 because the names
 and figures  given to its              
constellations are an index of the      
position of the  colures at the time    
when it was invented2 and this date1    
according  to several1 is so evident and
 so remote1 that it is quite a matter   
of indifference whether the             
representations which we possess of this

  circle are more or less ancient4      
,they do not attend to the circumstance 
that1 in this sort of  argument1 there  
is a complication of three suppositions 
equally  uncertain3 the country in which
 the zodiac is presumed to have been    
invented1 the signification which is    
supposed to have been given  to the     
constellations which occupy it1 and the 
position in which  the colures were with
 relation to each constellation1 when   
this  signification was attributed to   
it4 ,according as other allegories  have
 been imagined1 or as these allegories  
are admitted to have  referred to the   
constellation of which the sun occupied 
the first  degrees1 or to that of which 
it occupied the middle1 or to that  into
 which it began to enter1 that is to    
say1 of which it occupied  the last     
degrees2 or1 lastly1 to that which was  
opposite to him1  and which rose at     
night2 or according as the invention of 
these  allegories is placed in a        
different climate1 must the date of the 

zodiac also be changed4 ,the possible   
variations in this respect might        
comprehend so much as the half of the   
revolution of the fixed stars1  that is 
to say1 #ac1jjj years1 and even more4   
,in this manner ,pluche1 generalizing   
some indications of the ancients1  has  
imagined1 that the ,ram announces the   
commencement of the sun's  elevation1   
and the vernal equinox2 that the ,cancer
 indicates his  retrogradation to the   
summer solstice2 that the ,balance1 the 
sign of  equality1 marks the autumnal   
equinox#bcb2 and that the ,capricorn1 a 
climbing animal1 indicates the winter   
solstice1 after which the sun  returns  
to us4 ,according to this method1 by    
placing the inventors  of the zodiac in 
a temperate climate1 we should have     
rains under  ,aquarius1 the dropping of 
lambs and kids under the ,gemini1       
violent  heats under the ,lion1         
gathering of the harvest under the      
,virgin1  the time of hunting under the 
,sagittary1 c42 and the emblems would   

be appropriate enough4 ,if we should    
then place the colures at the           
commencement of the constellations1 or  
at least the equinox at the  first stars
 of ,aries1 we should1 in the first     
instance1 arrive at  a period of only   
#chi years before ,christ1 an epoch     
evidently too  modern1 and which would  
render it necessary to recur to a       
complete  equinoxial period1 or #bf1jjj 
years4 ,but if the equinox be supposed  
to  pass through the middle of the      
constellation1 a period of about #ajjj  
or #abjj years higher is obtained1 #afjj
 or #agjj years before ,christ2  and    
this is what several celebrated men have
 believed to be the true  epoch of the  
invention of the zodiac1 the honour of  
which they have1  for other reasons not 
sufficiently weighty1 conferred upon    
,chiron4    ,but ,dupuis1 who required  
for the origin which he endeavoured to  
attribute to all religions1 that        
astronomy1 and1 in particular1 the      
figures of the zodiac should in some    

measure have preceded all other  human  
institutions1 has sought another climate
 for the purpose of  finding other      
explanations for the emblems1 and for   
that of deducing  another epoch from    
them4 ,if1 assuming the ,balance as an  
equinoxial  sign1 but supposing it at   
the vernal equinox1 it be presumed that 
the zodiac has been invented in ,egypt1 
other sufficiently plausible            
explanations might in fact be found for 
the climate of that  country4#bcc ,the  
,capricorn1 an animal with the tail of a
 fish1  would mark the commencement of  
the rise of the ,nile at the summer     
solstice2 the ,aquarius and ,fishes1 the
 progress and diminution of  the        
inundation2 the ,bull1 the time of      
labouring2 the ,virgin1 the  time of    
reaping2 and they would mark them at the
 periods when these  operations actually
 took place4 ,in this system1 the zodiac
 would have  #ae1jjj years#bcd for a sun
 supposed at the first degree of each   
sign1 more than #af1jjj for the middle1 

and #djjj only1 on supposing  that the  
emblem has been given to the sign at the
 opposite of which  the sun was#bce4 ,it
 is to the #ae1jjj years that ,dupuis   
has attached  himself2 and it is upon   
this date that he has founded the whole 
system of his celebrated work4    ,there
 are not wanting those1 however1 who1   
admitting that the zodiac  has been     
invented in ,egypt1 have imagined       
allegories applicable  to later times4  
,thus1 according to ,mr ,hamilton1 the  
,virgin would  represent the land of    
,egypt when not yet fecundated by the   
inundation2 the ,lion1 the season when  
that country is most liable to  be      
overrun by ferocious animals1 and so    
on#bcf4    ,the high antiquity of       
#ae1jjj years would besides induce this 
absurd  consequence1 that the           
,egyptians1 those men who represented   
every  thing by emblems1 and who must   
have attached a great importance to  the
 circumstance that these emblems were   
conformable to the ideas  which they    

were intended to represent1 had         
preserved the signs  of the zodiac      
thousands of years after they no longer 
in any way  corresponded with their     
original signification4    ,the late ,m4
 ,remi ,raige endeavoured to support the
 opinion of ,dupuis  by an argument of  
an entirely new kind#bcg4 ,having       
remarked that  significations more or   
less analogous to the figures of the    
signs of  the zodiac1 might be found for
 the ,egyptian names of the months1 on  
explaining them by the oriental         
languages1 and finding in ,ptolemy  that
 epifi1 which signifies capricorn1      
commences at the #bjth of  ,june1 and   
therefore comes immediately after the   
summer solstice1 he  concluded from     
thence1 that1 at the beginning1         
,capricorn itself was  at the summer    
solstice1 and so of the other signs1 as 
,dupuis had  supposed4    ,but1         
independently of all that there is      
merely conjectural in these             
etymologies1 ,raige did not perceive    

that it was simply by chance  that1 five
 years after the battle of ,actium1 in  
the year #be before  ,christ1 at the    
establishment of the fixed year of      
,alexandria1 the  first day of ,thoth   
was found to correspond with the #bith  
of the  ,julian ,august1 and continued  
to correspond since that time4 ,it is   
only from this epoch that the ,egyptian 
months commenced at fixed days  of the  
,julian year1 and only at ,alexandria3  
even ,ptolemy did not the  less continue
 to employ in his ,almagest the ancient 
,egyptian year  with its vague          
months#bch4    ,why might not the names 
of the signs have been given to the     
months  at some epoch1 or the names of  
the months to the signs1 in the  same   
arbitrary manner in which the ,indians  
have given to their  twenty-seven months
 twelve names1 selected from among those
 of their  lunar houses1 for reasons    
which it is impossible at the present   
day  to determine#bci8 ,the absurdity   
which there would have been in          

preserving for the constellations1      
during #ae1jjj years1 figures and       
symbolical names which no longer        
presented any relation with their       
position1 would have been more evident  
had it been carried so far as  to       
preserve to the months those same names 
which were incessantly in  the mouths of
 the people1 and whose inaptitude would 
be every moment  perceived4    ,and     
what1 besides1 would all these systems  
come to1 had the figures  and the names 
of the zodiacal constellations been     
given to them  without any relation to  
the course of the sun2 as their         
inequality1  the extension of several of
 them beyond the zodiac1 and their      
manifest connection with the            
neighbouring constellations1 seem to    
demonstrate was the case#bdj4    ,what  
would still happen1 if1 as ,macrobius   
expressly says#bda1 each  sign must have
 been an emblem of the sun1 considered  
in some one of  its effects or of its   
general phenomena1 and without reference

 to the  months when it passes1 whether 
into the sign1 or to its opposite8      
,lastly1 ,what if the names had been    
given in an abstract manner  to the     
divisions of space or time1 as they are 
now given by  astronomers to what they  
call the signs1 and had not been applied
  to the constellations or groups of    
stars1 but at a period  determined by   
chance1 so that nothing could be        
concluded from their  signification#bdb8
    ,in these suggestions there is1     
without doubt1 enough to give an        
ingenuous mind a distaste for seeking to
 find in astronomy proofs  of the       
antiquity of the nations4 ,but were     
these alleged proofs as  certain as they
 are vague and destitute of any         
satisfactory result1  what could be     
concluded from them against the great   
catastrophe1  which has left monuments  
amply demonstrative in other respects of
  its existence8 ,all that can be       
admitted in this matter is1 what some   
moderns have thought1 that astronomy was

 among the number of the  sciences      
preserved by those whom this catastrophe
 dispersed4          ,exaggerations     
relative to the ,antiquity of certain   
,mining  ,operations4      ,the         
antiquity of certain mining operations  
has also been much  exaggerated4 ,a very
 late writer has imagined1 that the     
mines of the  island of ,elba1 judging  
from the rubbish carried out of them1   
must  have been wrought for more than   
#dj1jjj years2 but another author1  who 
has also examined this rubbish with     
attention1 has reduced the  period in   
question to a little more than #ejjj    
years1#bdc and this  even on the        
supposition that the ancients did not   
extract annually  more than a fourth    
part of the quantity of ore now wrought4
 ,but what  reason could there be to    
suppose that the ,romans1 for example1  
who  consumed so much iron in their     
armies1 derived so little advantage     
from these mines8 ,moreover1 if these   
mines had been wrought for even  #djjj  

years only1 how should iron have been so
 little known in the  times of remote   
antiquity8          ,general ,conclusion
 relative to the ,period of the last    
,revolution4      ,i agree1 therefore1  
with ,,mm4 ,deluc and ,dolomieu1 in     
thinking1 that  if any thing in geology 
be established1 it is1 that the surface 
of  our globe has undergone a great and 
sudden revolution1 the date of  which   
cannot be referred to a much earlier    
period than five or six  thousand years 
ago2 that this revolution overwhelmed   
and caused to  disappear the countries  
which were previously inhabited by man1 
and  the species of animals now best    
known2 that1 on the other hand1 it  laid
 dry the bottom of the last sea1 and    
formed of it the countries  which are at
 the present day inhabited2 that it is  
since the  occurrence of this revolution
 that the small number of individuals   
dispersed by it have spread and         
propagated over the newly exposed       
lands1 and1 consequently1 that it is    

since this epoch only1 that  human      
societies have assumed a progressive    
march1 that they have  formed           
establishments1 raised monuments1       
collected natural facts1 and  invented  
scientific systems4    ,but the         
countries which are at present          
inhabited1 and which the last           
revolution laid dry1 had already been   
previously inhabited1 if not  by men1 at
 least by land animals1 and1 therefore1 
one preceding  revolution at least had  
put them under water2 and if we may     
judge by  the different orders of       
animals the remains of which are        
observed in  them1 they had perhaps been
 subjected to two or three irruptions of
  the sea4          ,further ,researches
 to be made in ,geology4      ,these    
alternations now appear to me to form   
the problem in geology  that it is of   
most importance to solve1 or rather to  
define and  circumscribe within due     
limits2 for1 in order to resolve it     
satisfactorily1 it would be necessary to

 discover the cause of these            
events1--an undertaking which presents a
 difficulty of quite a  different kind4 
,i repeat it1 we see pretty clearly what
 is going on at the surface  of the     
continents in their present state2 we   
have formed a tolerable  conception of  
the uniform progress and regular        
succession of the  primitive formations1
 but the study of the secondary         
formations has  been little more than   
merely commenced4 ,that wonderful series
 of  unknown zoophytes and marine       
mollusca1 succeeded by reptiles and     
fresh-water fishes equally unknown2 and 
these again replaced1 in  their turn1 by
 other zoophytes and mollusca1 more     
nearly related  to those of the present 
day2 those land animals1 and those      
equally  unknown fresh water mollusca   
and other animals which next occupied   
the surface1 to be again displaced but  
by mollusca and other animals  similar  
to those of our present seas2 the       
relations of these  diversified beings  

to the plants the remains of which      
accompany  theirs1 the connection of    
these two kingdoms with the mineral     
strata in which they are deposited2 the 
greater or less uniformity  existing    
between these different orders of beings
 in the different  basins2--these are   
phenomena which appear to me imperiously
 to demand  the attention of            
philosophers4    ,rendered interesting  
by the variety of the products of the   
partial  or general revolutions of this 
epoch1 and by the abundance of the      
various species that figure alternately 
on the stage1 this study  is divested of
 the dryness of that of the primordial  
formations1  and does not1 like it1     
almost necessarily launch into          
hypotheses4  ,the facts are so direct1  
so curious1 and so evident1 that they   
are  sufficient1 so to speak1 to satisfy
 the most ardent imagination2  and the  
conclusions to which they lead from time
 to time1 however  scrupulous the       
observer may be1 having nothing vague in

 them1 are  equally free of any thing   
arbitrary4 ,in fine1 it is in those     
events  that approach nearer to our own 
times1 that we may hope to find some    
traces of more ancient events1 and of   
their causes2 if1 indeed1 after  so many
 fruitless attempts as have been already
 made1 one may be  permitted to flatter 
himself with such a hope4    ,these     
ideas have haunted1 ,i may almost say   
have tormented me1 during  my researches
 among fossil bones1 the results of     
which ,i have  lately presented to the  
public2 researches which embrace but a  
very  small part of those phenomena of  
the age preceding the last general      
revolution of the globe1 and which are  
yet intimately connected with  all the  
others4 ,it was almost impossible that  
the desire should not  arise of         
investigating the general mass of these 
phenomena1 at least  as they occur in a 
limited space around us4 ,my excellent  
friend1 ,m4  ,brongniart1 in whose mind 
other studies excited the same desire1  

had the complaisance to associate me    
with himself in the task2 and  it is    
thus that we have laid the first        
foundations of our labours  upon the    
environs of ,paris4 ,but this work1     
while it still bears my  name1 has      
become almost entirely that of my       
friend1 from the infinite  attention    
which he has bestowed1 since the first  
conception of our  plan1 and since our  
journeys1 upon the profound             
investigation of  the objects1 and the  
perfecting and arranging of the whole4  
,i have  placed it1 with ,m4            
,brongniart's consent1 in the second    
part of my  8,recherches10 in that in   
which ,i treat of the fossil bones of   
our  neighbourhood4 ,although apparently
 relating only to a rather limited      
extent of country1 it affords numerous  
results1 which are applicable  to       
geology in general1 and1 in this point  
of view1 it may be  considered as       
intimately connected with the present   
discourse2 at the  same time1 that it   

is1 without a doubt1 one of the best    
ornaments of  my work#bdd4    ,in it    
there is presented the history of the   
most recent changes  that have taken    
place in a particular basin1 and it     
descends so  far as the ,chalk          
formation1 the extent of which over the 
globe is  vastly more considerable than 
that of the materials of the basin  of  
,paris4 ,the chalk1 which has been      
considered so modern1 is thus  found to 
be advanced in antiquity among the ages 
of the great period  preceding the last 
catastrophe4 ,it forms a sort of limit  
between the  most recent formations1    
those to which the name of ,tertiary may
  be reserved1 and the formations which 
are named ,secondary1 which  have been  
deposited before the ,chalk1 but after  
the ,primitive and  ,transition         
formations4          ,recapitulation of 
the ,observations upon the ,succession  
of the  ,tertiary ,formations4      ,the
 most superficial strata1 those deposits
 of mud and clayey sand1  mixed with    

rolled pebbles1 that have been          
transported from distant  countries1 and
 filled with bones of land animals1 the 
species of  which are for the most part 
unknown1 or at least foreign to the     
country in which they are found1 seem   
especially to have covered  all the     
plains1 filled the bottom of all the    
caverns1 and choked up  all the fissures
 of rocks that have come in their way4  
,described  with particular care by ,mr 
,buckland1 under the name of diluvium1  
and very different from those other beds
 equally consisting of  transported     
matters1 continually deposited by       
torrents and rivers1  which contain only
 bones of animals that still live in the
 country1  and distinguished by the name
 of alluvium1 the former are now        
considered by all geologists as         
exhibiting the most obvious proof of    
the immense inundation which has been   
the last of the catastrophes of  our    
globe#bde4    ,between this diluvium and
 the chalk1 are the formations          

alternately  filled with fresh water and
 salt water productions1 which mark the 
irruptions and retreatings of the sea1  
to which this part of the  globe has    
been subjected1 since the deposition of 
the chalk-strata3  first1 marls and     
buhrstones1 or cavernous quartz1 filled 
with  fresh-water shells1 similar to    
those of our marshes and pools2 under   
them marls1 sandstones1 and limestones1 
all the shells of which are  marine1    
such as oysters1 c4    ,at a greater    
depth are found fresh water formations  
of an older date1  and particularly     
those famous gypsum deposits of the     
neighbourhood  of ,paris1 which have    
afforded so much facility in ornamenting
 the  buildings of that great city1 and 
in which we have discovered whole       
genera of land-animals1 of which no     
traces had been elsewhere  perceived4   
,they rest upon those not less          
remarkable beds of limestone1 of  which 
our capital is built1 in the more or    
less compact texture of  which the      

patience and sagacity of our            
naturalists1 and of several  ardent     
collectors1 have already detected more  
than #hjj species of  shells1 all of    
them marine1 but the greater part       
unknown in the  presently-existing sea4 
,they also contain only bones of fishes1
 and  of cetacea and other marine       
mammifera4    ,under this marine        
limestone there is another fresh water  
deposit1  formed of clay1 in which there
 are interposed large beds of lignite   
7brown coal71 or that sort of           
fossil-coal which is of more recent     
origin than the common or black coal4   
,among shells1 which are always  of     
fresh water origin1 there are also found
 bones in the deposit2  but1 what is    
remarkable1 bones of reptiles1 and not  
of mammifera4 ,it  is filled with       
crocodiles and tortoises1 but the genera
 of extinct  mammifera which the gypsum 
contains1 are not found in it3 they     
evidently did not exist in the country  
when these clays and lignites  were     

formed4    ,this fresh water formation1 
the oldest which has been distinguished 
in our neighbourhood1 and which supports
 all the formations which we  have just 
enumerated1 is itself supported and     
embraced on all sides  by the chalk1 an 
immense formation1 both as to thickness 
and extent1  which shews itself in very 
distant countries1 such as ,pomerania   
and  ,poland2 but which1 in our         
vicinity1 reigns with a sort of         
continuity  in ,berri1 ,champagne1      
,picardy1 ,upper ,normandy1 and a part  
of ,england1  and thus forms a great    
circle1 or rather a great basin1 in     
which the  deposits of which we have    
been speaking are contained1 but of     
which  they also cover the edges in the 
places where they were less elevated4   
,in fact1 it is not in our basin only   
that these various formations  have been
 deposited4 ,in the other countries     
where the surface of  the chalk         
presented similar cavities for them2 in 
those even where  there was no chalk1   

and where the older formations alone    
presented  themselves as supports1      
circumstances often led to the formation
  of deposits more or less similar to   
ours1 and containing the same  organic  
bodies4    ,our formations containing   
fresh-water shells1 have been seen in   
,england1 in ,spain1 and even so far as 
the confines of ,poland4    ,the marine 
shells interposed between them1 have    
been found along the  whole course of   
the ,appenines4    ,some of the         
quadrupeds of our gypsum deposits1 our  
palotheria1 for  example1 have also left
 their bones in certain gypseous        
formations of  the ,velai1 and in the   
molasse quarries of the south of        
,france4    ,thus the partial           
revolutions which have taken place in   
our  neighbourhood1 between the period  
of the chalk and that of the great      
inundation1 and during which the sea    
threw itself upon our districts  or     
retired from them1 had also taken place 
in a multitude of other  countries4 ,it 

seems as if the globe had undergone a   
long series  of changes by which        
variations were produced1 probably in   
close  succession1 as the deposits which
 they have left nowhere shew much       
thickness or solidity4 ,the chalk has   
been produced by a more tranquil  and   
more continuous sea2 it contains only   
marine productions1 among  which there  
are1 however1 some very remarkable      
vertebrate animals1  but all of the     
class of reptiles and fishes2 large     
tortoises1 vast  lizards1 and other     
similar animals4    ,the formations     
anterior to the chalk1 and in the       
hollows of which the  chalk is itself   
deposited1 as the formations of our     
neighbourhood  are in its hollows1 form 
a great part of ,germany and ,england2  
and the  efforts which the naturalists  
of these two countries have recently    
made according with ours1 and proceeding
 upon the same principles1  combined    
with those which had been previously    
tried by the school of  ,werner1 will   

soon leave nothing to be desired with   
respect to our  knowledge of them4      
,messrs de ,humboldt and de ,bonnard in 
,france and  ,germany1 and ,messrs      
,buckland and ,conybeare in ,england1   
have furnished  the most complete and   
most instructive accounts of them4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,the subjoined table1 in which not only 
the secondary formations have  been     
arranged1 but the whole series of       
strata1 from the oldest known  to the   
most modern and most superficial1 has   
been politely furnished  me by ,m4 de   
,humboldt1 to adorn my work4 ,it may be 
considered as an  epitome of the labours
 of geologists up to the present        
period#bdf4          ,,table of         
,geological ,formations in the order of 
their superposition4  ,by ,m4 ,al4 de   
,humboldt4                              
----------------------------------------
-------                 ,alluvial       
,deposits4                              
----------------------------------------

-----                 ,lacustrine       
,formation with ,buhrstones4            
----------------------------------------
-----                 ,fountainbleau    
sandstone and sand4                     
----------------------------------------
-----                 ,gypsum with      
bones4 ,siliceous ,limestone4           
,tertiary                               
----------------------------------------
-----                 ,coarse           
,limestone4                             
,formations4                 7,london   
,clay47                                 
----------------------------------------
-----                 ,tertiary         
sandstone with lignites4                
----------------------------------------
-----                 7,plastic         
clay1--,molasse1--,nagelfluhe47         
----------------------------------------
-------------------------               
white4                                  
,chalk4       tufaceous4                
,ananchites4                            

chloritic4                              
----------------------------------------
-------------------------               
,green sand4                            
,weald clay4 7,secondary ,sandstone with
 lignites47 ,secondary          ,iron   
,sand4                                  
----------------------------------------
-------------------------               
,ammonites4    ,jura ,limestone4        
,slaty beds with fishes and             
,planulites4                            
crustacea4                              
----------------------------------------
-,coral rag4                            
,quadersandstein1 or white sandstone1   
,dive clay4                             
sometimes above the lias4               
,oolites and ,caen                      
----------------------------------------
-  limestone4                           
,muschelkalk4                           
,marly or calcareous lias               
,ammonites nodosus4                 with
 ,grypha arcuata4                       

----------------------------------------
--------------------------      ,marls  
with fibrous gypsum4   ,saliferous      
variegated sandstone4                   
,arenaceous beds4                       
----------------------------------------
---------------------------             
,productus aculeatus4                   
,magnesian limestone4    ,zechstein4    
7,alpine limestone47                    
,copper slate4                          
----------------------------------------
--------------------------              
,quartziferous  ,co-ordinate formations 
of porphyry1       ,porphyry4       red 
sandstone1 and coal4                    
,formations4                            
----------------------------------------
--------------------------              
,transition ,formations4                
,slates with ,lydian-stone1 greywacke1  
diorites1 euphotides4                   
,limestones with orthoceratis1          
trilobites and euomphalites4            
----------------------------------------

---------------------------             
,primitive ,formations4                 
,clayslates 7,thonschiefer74            
,micaslates4                            
,gneiss4                                
,granites4                              
----------------------------------------
---------------------------    ,under   
the chalk are found deposits of green   
sand1 of which its lower  strata        
contains some organic remains4 ,beneath 
this are ferruginous  sands4 ,in many   
countries both of these deposits are    
agglutinated into  beds of sandstone1 in
 which lignites1 amber1 and remains of  
reptiles1  are also observed4    ,under 
this1 we find the great mass of strata  
which compose the ,jura  chain1 and that
 of the mountains by which it is        
continued into ,suabia  and ,franconia1 
the principal ridges of the ,apennines1 
and multitudes  of beds in ,france and  
,england4 ,it consists of               
limestone-schists1  rich in fishes and  
crustacea2 vast beds of oolites1 or of a

 granular  limestone2 grey marly        
limestones1 with pyrites1 characterised 
by  the presence of ammonites1 of       
oysters with recurvate valves1 named    
,gryph1 and of reptiles1 which are      
remarkable on account of their  forms   
and structures4    ,large beds of sand  
and sandstone1 often presenting         
vegetable  impressions1 support all     
these ,jura deposits1 and are themselves
  supported by a limestone1 the         
innumerable shells and zoophytes        
contained in which induced ,werner to   
give it the much too general  name of   
,shell-limestone1 and which is separated
 by other beds of  sandstone1 of the    
kind denominated variegated sandstone1  
from a  still older limestone1 which has
 been not less improperly called        
,alpine limestone1 because it composes  
the ,high ,alps of the ,tyrol2  but     
which also shews itself at the surface  
in the eastern provinces  of ,france1   
and in the whole southern part of       
,germany4    ,in this shell-limestone   

are deposited great masses of gypsum and
 rich  beds of salt2 and under it are   
found the thin beds of copper-slates  so
 rich in fishes1 among which there are  
also fresh-water reptiles4  ,the        
copper-slate rests upon a red sandstone1
 to the epoch of which  belong those    
famous deposits of coal1 which supply   
the present  inhabitants of the         
civilized countries of ,europe with     
fuel1 and are  the remains of the first 
vegetable productions with which the    
face  of the globe was adorned4 ,we     
learn from the trunks of ferns1 whose   
impressions they have preserved1 how    
different these ancient forests  have   
been from ours4    ,we then quickly come
 to those transition formations1 in     
which  primeval nature1 nature dead and 
purely mineral1 seems to have  disputed 
the empire with organising nature4      
,black limestones1 and  schists which   
present only crustacea and shells of    
kinds now extinct1  alternate with      
remains of primitive formations1 and    

announce our  having arrived at those   
formations1 the oldest with which we are
  acquainted1 those ancient foundations 
of the present envelop of the  globe1   
the marbles and primitive slates1 the   
gneisses1 and1 lastly1  the granites4   
,such is the precise enumeration of the 
successive masses with which  nature has
 enveloped the globe4 ,the positive     
geological information  presented by it1
 has been obtained1 by combining the    
knowledge  furnished by mineralogy with 
that presented by the sciences connected
  with organic existence4 ,this order1  
so new and so interesting  in facts1 has
 only been acquired by geology1 since it
 preferred  positive knowledge1         
furnished by observation1 to fanciful   
systems1  contradictory conjectures     
regarding the first origin of the globe1
  and all those phenomena1 which1 having
 no resemblance to what  actually takes 
place in nature1 could neither find in  
it1 for their  explanation1 materials   
nor touchstone4 ,a few years ago1 the   

greater  number of geologists might have
 been compared to historians1 who1  in  
writing the history of ,france1 should  
have interested themselves  only about  
the events which had taken place among  
the ,gauls before  the time of ,julius  
,cesar4 ,in composing their romances1   
however1 these  historians would have   
taken advantage of their knowledge of   
posterior  facts2 and the geologists of 
whom ,i speak1 absolutely neglected the 
posterior facts1 which could alone have 
reflected some light upon the  darkness 
of preceding times4                     
,enumeration of the ,fossil ,animals    
recognised by the ,author4      ,in     
concluding this discourse1 there only   
remains for me now to  present the      
result of my own researches1 or1 in     
other words1 a  general account of my   
great work4 ,i shall enumerate the      
animals which  ,i have discovered1 in   
the inverse order of that which ,i have 
followed  in my enumeration of the      
formations4 ,by proceeding deeper and   

deeper  into the series of strata1 ,i   
there rose in the series of epochs4 ,i  
shall now take the oldest               
formations1--make known the animals     
which  they contain1--and1 passing from 
one epoch to another1 point out  those  
which successively make their appearance
 in proportion as we  approach the      
present time4    ,we have seen that     
zoophytes1 mollusca1 and certain        
crustacea1 begin  to appear in the      
,transition formations2 perhaps there   
may even at  that period be bones and   
skeletons of fishes2 but we do not by   
any  means observe at so early a period 
remains of animals which live on  land1 
and respire air in its ordinary state4  
,the great beds of coal1 and the trunks 
of palms and ferns of which  they       
preserve the impressions1 although they 
afford evidence of the  existence of dry
 land1 and of a vegetation no longer    
confined to the  waters1 do not yet shew
 bones of quadrupeds1 not even of       
oviparous  quadrupeds4    ,it is only a 

little above this1 in the bituminous    
copper-slates1 that  we see the first   
traces of them2 and1 what is very       
remarkable1 the  first quadrupeds are   
reptiles of the family of lizards1 very 
much  resembling the large monitors     
which live at the present day in the    
torrid zone4 ,several individuals of    
this kind have been found in the  mines 
of ,thuringia#bdg1 among innumerable    
fishes of a genus now  unknown1 but     
which1 from its relations to the genera 
of our days1  appears to have lived in  
fresh water4 ,every body knows that the 
monitors are also fresh water animals4  
,a little higher is the limestone called
 ,alpine1 and resting upon it  the      
shell-limestone1 so rich in entrochites 
and encrinites1 which  forms the basis  
of a great part of ,germany and         
,lorraine4    ,in it have been found    
skeletons of a very large sea-tortoise1 
the  shells of which might have been    
from six to eight feet in length2 and   
those of another oviparous quadruped of 

the family of lizards1 of a  large size1
 and with a very sharp muzzle#bdh4      
,rising still through sandstones1 which 
present only vegetable  impressions of  
large arundinace1 bamboos1 palms1 and   
other  monocotyledonous plants1 we come 
to the different strata of the  deposit 
which has been named the ,jura          
limestone1 on account of its  forming   
the principal nucleus of that chain of  
mountains4    ,it is here that the class
 of ,reptiles assumes its full          
development1  and shews itself under the
 most varied forms and gigantic sizes4  
,the middle part1 which is composed of  
oolites and lias1 or of grey  sandstone 
containing gryphites1 contains the      
remains of two genera1  the most        
extraordinary of all1 which have        
combined the characters of  the class of
 oviparous quadrupeds with organs of    
motion similar to  those of the cetacea4
    ,the ichthyosaurus#bdi1 discovered  
by ,sir ,everard ,home1 has the  head of
 a lizard1 but prolonged into an        

attenuated muzzle1 armed with  conical  
and pointed teeth2 enormous eyes1 the   
sclerotica of which is  strengthened by 
a frame consisting of bony pieces2 a    
spine composed  of flat vertebr1 of a   
depressed circular form1 and concave on 
both  surfaces like those of fishes2    
slender ribs2 a sternum and clavicles   
like those of lizards and ornithorynchi2
 a small and weak pelvis2  and four     
limbs1 of which the humeri and femurs   
are short and thick1  while the other   
bones are flattened1 and closely set    
like the stones  in a pavement1 so as to
 form1 when enveloped with the skin1    
fins of a  single piece1 almost         
incapable of bending2 analogous1 in     
short1 both  as to use and organization1
 to those of cetacea4 ,these reptiles   
have  lived in the sea2 on shore1 they  
could only at most have crept in the    
hobbling manner of seals2 at the same   
time after they have respired  elastic  
air4    ,the remains of four species    
have been found3    ,the most           

extensively distributed 7,i4 communis7  
has blunt conical  teeth2 its length    
sometimes exceeds twenty feet4    ,the  
second 7,i4 platyodon71 which is at     
least as large as the  former1 has      
compressed teeth1 with round and bulging
 roots4    ,the third 7,i4              
tenuirostris71 has slender and pointed  
teeth1 and the  muzzle thin and         
elongated4    ,the fourth 7,i4          
intermedius71 is1 as its name implies1  
intermediate  between the last species  
and the common1 with respect to the form
 of  its teeth4 ,the two latter species 
do not attain half the size of the  two 
first4    ,the plesiosaurus1 discovered 
by ,mr ,conybeare1 must have appeared   
still more monstrous than the           
ichthyosaurus4 ,it had the same limbs1  
but somewhat more elongated and more    
flexible2 its shoulder and  pelvis were 
more robust2 its vertebr had more of the
 forms and  articulations of the        
lizards2 but what distinguished it from 
all  oviparous and viviparous           

quadrupeds1 was a slender neck as long  
as  its body1 composed of thirty and odd
 vertebr1 a number greater than  that of
 the neck of any other animal1 rising   
from the trunk like the  body of a      
serpent1 and terminating in a very small
 head1 in which all  the essential      
characters of that of the lizard family 
are observed4    ,if any thing could    
justify those hydras and other monsters1
 the  figures of which are so often     
presented in the monuments of the       
middle ages1 it would incontestibly be  
this plesiosaurus4#bej    ,five species 
are already known1 of which the most    
generally  distributed 7,p4             
dolichodeirus7 attains a length of more 
than twenty  feet4    ,a second species 
7,p4 recentior71 found in more modern   
strata1 has  the vertebr flatter4    ,a 
third 7,p4 carinatus7 shews a ridge on  
the under surface of its  vertebr4    ,a
 fourth1 and lastly a fifth 7,p4        
pentagonus and ,p4 trigonus71  have the 
ribs marked with five and three         

ridges4#bea    ,these two genera are    
found everywhere in the lias3 they were 
discovered in ,england1 where this rock 
is exposed in cliffs of great  extent2  
but they have also been found since in  
,france and ,germany4    ,along with    
these had lived two species of          
,crocodiles1 the bones  of which are    
also found deposited in the lias1 among 
ammonites1  terebratul1 and other shells
 of that ancient sea4 ,we have skeletons
  of them in our cliffs at ,honfleur1   
where the remains are found1 from  which
 ,i have drawn up their characters4#beb 
,one of these species1 the ,long-beaked 
,gavial1 has the muzzle  longer1 and the
 head more narrow1 than the gavial or   
long-beaked  crocodile of the ,ganges2  
the bodies of its vertebr are convex    
before1 while in our crocodiles of the  
present day they are so  behind4 ,it has
 been found in the lias deposits of     
,franconia1 as well  as in those of     
,france4    ,a second species1 the      
,short-beaked ,gavial1 has the muzzle of

  ordinary length1 less attenuated than 
the gavial of the ,ganges1 but  more so 
than our crocodiles of ,st ,domingo4    
,its vertebr are slightly  concave at   
each of their extremities4    ,but these
 crocodiles are not the only ones which 
have been deposited  in the strata of   
these secondary limestones4    ,the     
beautiful oolite quarries of ,caen have 
presented a very  remarkable one1 the   
muzzle of which is as long and more     
pointed than  that of the long-beaked   
gavial1 and its head more dilated       
behind1  with wider temporal foss4 ,its 
stony scales1 marked with small  round  
cavities1 must have rendered it the best
 defended of all the  crocodiles4#bec   
,its lower teeth are alternately longer 
and shorter4    ,there is still another 
in the oolite of ,england2 but there    
have only  been found some portions of  
its cranium1 which do not suffice to    
afford a complete idea of it4#bed       
,another very remarkable genus of       
reptiles1 the remains of which1         

although they are also found beyond the 
limits of the lias  concretion1 are     
especially abundant in the oolite and   
upper sands1 is  the megalosaurus1      
justly so named1 for1 along with the    
forms of the  lizards1 and particularly 
of the monitors1 of which it has also   
the  sharp-edged and dentated teeth1 it 
presents so enormous a size1 that  if we
 suppose it to have possessed the       
proportions of the monitors1  it must   
have exceeded seventy feet in length4   
,it was1 in fact1 a  lizard of the size 
of a whale4#bee ,it was discovered by   
,mr ,buckland  in ,england2 but we have 
it also in ,france2 and in ,germany     
there are  found bones1 if not of the   
same species1 at least of a species     
which  can be referred to no other      
genus4 ,it is to ,m4 ,smmering that we  
owe  the first description of this last4
 ,he discovered the bones in strata     
lying above the oolite1 in those        
limestone-schists of ,franconia1 long   
celebrated for the numerous fossil      

remains which they furnished to  the    
cabinets of the curious1 and which will 
be still more celebrated  for the       
services which their employment in      
lithography render to the  arts and     
sciences4    ,the crocodiles continue to
 make their appearance in these schists1
  and always of the long-muzzled or     
rostrated kind4 ,m4 de ,smmering  has   
described one 7the ,crocodilus priscus71
 the entire skeleton of  a small        
individual of which was found nearly in 
as good a state of  preservation1 as it 
could have been in our cabinets4#bef ,it
 is one  of those which most resemble   
the present gavial of the ,ganges2 the  
anterior or united part of its lower    
jaw1 however1 is less elongated2  its   
lower teeth are alternately and         
regularly longer and shorter4 ,it  has  
ten vertebr in the tail4    ,but the    
most remarkable animals which these     
limestone slates contain1  are the      
flying lizards1 which ,i have named     
,pterodactyli4    ,they are reptiles    

whose principal characters are1 a very  
short tail1  a very long neck1 the      
muzzle much elongated1 and armed with   
sharp  teeth2 the legs also long1 and   
one of the toes of the anterior         
extremity excessively elongated1 having 
probably served for the  attachment of a
 membrane adapted for supporting them in
 the air1  accompanied with four other  
toes of ordinary size1 terminated by    
hooked claws4 ,one of these strange     
animals1 whose appearance would be      
frightful did they occur alive at the   
present day1 may have been of  the size 
of a thrush#beg1 the other of that of a 
common bat#beh2  but it would appear    
from some fragments that larger species 
had  existed#bei4    ,a little above the
 limestone slates is found the nearly   
homogeneous  limestone of the ,jura     
ridges4 ,it also contains bones1 but    
always of  reptiles1 crocodiles1 and    
fresh-water tortoises1 of which a vast  
quantity is found in particular in the  
neighbourhood of ,soleure4  ,they have  

been very carefully searched for by ,m4 
,hugi2 and1 from the  fragments which he
 has already collected1 it is easy to   
recognise  a considerable number of     
,fresh-water ,tortoises1 or ,emydes1    
which  further discoveries can alone    
determine1 but of which several are     
already distinguished by their size and 
peculiar forms1 from all the  species   
hitherto known#bfj4    ,it is among     
these innumerable oviparous quadrupeds1 
of all sizes and  forms2 in the midst of
 these crocodiles1 tortoises1 flying    
reptiles1  huge megalosauri1 and        
monstrous plesiosauri1 that some small  
,mammifera are said to make their       
appearance for the first time2 and  the 
assertion is so far authenticated by the
 occurrence of jaws1 and  some other    
bones discovered in ,england1 which     
undoubtedly belong to  this class of    
animals1 and particularly to the family 
of ,didelphides1  or to that of the     
,insectivora4    ,it may1 however1 be   
supposed1 that the stoney matters which 

encrust  these bones1 owe their origin  
to some local recomposition1 posterior  
to the original formation of the strata4
 ,however this may be1 it is  still     
found for a long time that the class of 
,reptiles predominates4    ,the         
ferruginous sands1 placed in ,england   
above the chalk1 contain  abundance of  
crocodiles1 tortoises1 megalosauri1 and 
especially a  reptile which presents a  
character quite peculiar1 in as much as 
its  teeth appear worn1 like those of   
our herbivorous mammifera4    ,to ,mr   
,mantell of ,lewes1 in ,sussex1 we are  
indebted for the  discovery of this     
latter animal1 as well as of other large
 reptiles  belonging to the sands lying 
beneath the chalk4 ,he has named it     
,iguanodon#bfa4    ,in the chalk itself 
there are only reptiles to be seen3     
there are  found in it remains of       
tortoises and crocodiles4 ,the famous   
tufaceous  quarries of the mountain of  
,st ,peter1 near ,maestricht1 which     
belong  to the chalk formation1 along   

with very large sea tortoises1 and a    
multitude of marine shells and          
zoophytes1 have afforded a genus of     
lizards not less gigantic than the      
megalosaurus1 which has become          
celebrated by the researches of ,camper1
 and the figures which ,faujas  has     
given of its bones1 in his history of   
that mountain4    ,it was upwards of    
five and twenty feet long2 its large    
jaws were  armed with very strong       
conical teeth1 a little arcuate1 and    
marked  with a ridge1 and it had also   
some of these teeth in the palate4      
,upwards of a hundred and thirty vertebr
 were counted in its spine2  they were  
convex before1 and concave behind4 ,its 
tail was deep and  flat1 and formed a   
large vertical oar 7or organ of         
swimming74#bfb ,mr  ,conybeare has      
recently proposed to name it            
,mosasaurus4    ,the clays and lignites 
which cover the upper part of the chalk1
 ,i  have only found to contain         
crocodiles#bfc2 and ,i have every reason

  to think that the lignites which in   
,switzerland have afforded beaver  and  
mastodon bones1 belong to a later epoch4
 ,nor has it been at an  earlier period 
than that of the coarse limestone which 
rests upon  these clays that ,i have    
begun to find bones of mammifera2 and   
still  do they all belong to marine     
mammifera1 to dolphins of unknown       
species1 lamantins and morses4    ,among
 the dolphins1 there is one1 the muzzle 
of which1 more elongated  than that of  
any known species1 has the lower jaw    
united in a  considerable part of its   
length1 nearly as in a gavial4 ,it was  
found  near ,dax by the late president  
of ,borda#bfd4    ,another species1 from
 the cliffs of the ,department de       
l',orne1 has the  muzzle also long1 but 
somewhat differently shaped#bfe4    ,the
 entire genus of lamantins is at the    
present day confined to  the seas of the
 torrid zone2 and that of the morses1 of
 which only  a single living species is 
known to exist1 is limited to the frozen

  ocean4 ,yet we find skeletons of these
 two genera side by side in the  coarse 
limestone strata of the middle of       
,france2 and this association  of       
species1 the nearest allied to which    
are1 at the present day1  found in      
opposite zones1 will again make its     
appearance more than  once as we        
proceed4    ,our fossil lamantins differ
 from those known to exist at present1  
in  having the head more elongated1 and 
of a different form#bff4 ,their  ribs1  
which are easily recognised by their    
being of a thick and  rounded form1 and 
of dense texture1 are not of rare       
occurrence in our  different provinces4 
,with regard to the fossil morse1 small 
fragments only have as yet  been found  
of it1 which are insufficient for       
characterising the  species#bfg4    ,it 
is only in the strata that have         
succeeded the coarse limestone1  or1 at 
most1 those which may have been of      
contemporaneous formation  with it1 but 
deposited in fresh-water lakes1 that the

 class of land  mammifera begins to shew
 itself in any quantity4    ,i consider 
as belonging to the same period1 and as 
having lived  together1 but perhaps in  
different spots1 the animals whose bones
 are  deposited in the molasse and old  
gravel beds of the south of ,france2  in
 the gypsums mixed with limestone1 such 
as those of ,paris and ,aix2  and in the
 fresh-water marly deposits covered with
 marine beds1 of  ,alsace1 the country  
of ,orleans and of ,berry4    ,this     
animal population possesses a very      
remarkable character in  the abundance  
and variety of certain genera of        
pachydermata1 which  are entirely       
awanting among the quadrupeds of our    
days1 and whose  characters have more or
 less resemblance to those of the       
tapirs1 the  rhinoceroses1 and camels4  
,these genera1 the entire discovery of  
which is my own1 are the  palotheria1   
lophiodonta1 anaplotheria1              
anthracotheria1  cheropotami1 and       
adapis4    ,the ,palotheria have        

resembled the tapirs in their general   
form1  and in that of the head1         
particularly in the shortness of the    
bones  of the nose1 which announces that
 they have had a small proboscis  like  
the tapirs1 and1 lastly1 in their having
 six incisors and two  canine teeth in  
each jaw2 but they have resembled the   
rhinoceros in  their grinders1 of which 
those of the upper jaw have been square1
  with prominent ridges of various      
configuration1 and those of the  lower  
jaw in the form of double crescents1 as 
well as in their feet1  all of which    
have been divided into three toes1 while
 in the tapirs  the fore feet have four4
    ,it is one of the most extensively  
diffused genera and most numerous  in   
species that occur in the deposits of   
this period4    ,our gypsum quarries in 
the neighbourhood of ,paris are full of 
them4  ,bones of seven distinct species 
are found there4 ,the first 7,p4        
magnum7 is as large as a horse4 ,the    
three next are of the size of a  hog1   

but one of them 7,p4 medium7 has narrow 
and long feet1 another  7,p4 crassum7   
has the feet broader1 and a third 7,p4  
latum7 has  them still broader1 and     
especially shorter4 ,the fifth species  
7,p4  curtum71 which is of the size of a
 sheep1 is much lower1 and has  the feet
 still broader and shorter in proportion
 than the last4 ,the  sixth 7,p4 minus7 
is of the size of a small sheep1 and has
 long and  slender feet1 the lateral    
toes of which are shorter than the rest4
  ,the seventh 7,p4 minimum71 which is  
not larger than a hare1 has also  the   
feet slender#bfh4    ,palotheria have   
also been found in other districts of   
,france3 at ,puy  in ,valey1 in strata  
of gypseous marl1 a species 7,p4        
velaunum7#bfi1  much resembling 7,p4    
medium71 but differing from it in the   
form of  its lower jaw2 in the          
neighbourhood of ,orleans1 in strata of 
marly  rock1 a species 7,p4             
aurelianense7#bgj1 which is             
distinguished from  the others by having

 the re-entering angle of the crescent  
of its  lower grinders split into a     
double point1 and by some differences   
in the necks of the upper grinders2 near
 ,issel1 in a bed of gravel  or molasse1
 along the declivities of the ,black    
,mountain1 a species  7,p4              
isselanum7#bga1 which has the same      
characters as the ,orleans  species1 but
 is of smaller size4 ,it is more        
particularly1 however1 in  the molasse  
of the ,department of the ,dordogne1    
that the palotherium  occurs not less   
abundantly than in our gypsum deposits  
in the  neighbourhood of ,paris4    ,the
 ,duke ,decaze has discovered in the    
quarries of a single field1  bones of   
three species which appear different    
from all those of our                   
neighbourhood#bgb4    ,the ,lophiodons  
approach still somewhat nearer to the   
tapirs than  the palotheria do1 inasmuch
 as their lower false grinders have     
transverse necks like those of the      
tapirs4    ,they differ1 however1 from  

these latter1 in having the fore ones   
more  simple1 the backmost of all with  
three necks1 and the upper ones         
rhomboidal1 and marked with ridges very 
much resembling those of the            
rhinoceros4    ,we are still ignorant   
what the form of their snout1 and the   
number  of their toes1 may have been4 ,i
 have discovered not less than twelve   
species of this genus1 all in ,france1  
deposited in marly rocks of  fresh-water
 formation1 and filled with lymne and   
planorbes1 which  are shells peculiar to
 pools and marshes4    ,the largest     
species is found near ,orleans1 in the  
same quarry as the  palotheria2 it      
approaches the rhinoceros4    ,there is 
a smaller species in the same place2 a  
third occurs at  ,montpellier2 a fourth 
near ,laon2 two near ,buchsweiler in    
,alsace2  five near ,argenton in ,berry2
 and one of the three occurs again near 
,issel1 where there are also two others4
 ,there is also a large one  near       
,gannat#bgc4    ,these species differ   

from each other in size1 the smallest   
being  scarcely so large as a lamb of   
three months1 and in various            
circumstances connected with the form of
 their teeth1 which it would  be too    
tedious and minute to detail here4      
,the ,anoplotheria have hitherto been   
discovered nowhere but in  the gypsum   
quarries of the neighbourhood of ,paris4
 ,they have two  characters which are   
observed in no other animal2 feet with  
two  toes1 the metacarpal and metatarsal
 bones of which are separate in  their  
whole length1 and do not unite into a   
single piece1 as in the  ruminantia2 and
 teeth placed in a continuous series    
without any  interruption4 ,man alone   
has the teeth so placed in mutual       
contiguity1  without any interval4      
,those of the anaplotheria consist of   
six  incisors in each jaw1 a canine     
tooth and six grinders on each side1    
both above and below2 their canine teeth
 are short and similar to  the outer    
incisors4 ,the three first grinders are 

compressed2 the  four others are1 in the
 upper jaw1 square1 with transverse     
ridges1  and a small cone between them2 
and1 in the lower jaw1 in the form of  a
 double crescent1 but without neck at   
the base4 ,the last has three           
crescents4 ,their head is of an oblong  
form1 and does not indicate  that the   
muzzle has terminated either in a       
proboscis or a snout4    ,this          
extraordinary genus1 which can be       
compared to nothing in living  nature1  
is subdivided into three subgenera3 the 
,anaplotheria1  properly so called1 the 
anterior molares of which are still     
pretty  thick1 and the posterior ones of
 the lower jaw have their crescents     
with a simple ridge2 the ,xiphodons1 of 
which the anterior molares  are thin and
 sharp on the edges1 and the under      
posterior1 have1  directly opposite the 
concavity of each of their crescents1 a 
point1  which1 on being worn1 also      
assumes the form of a crescent1 so that 
then the crescents are double as in the 

ruminantia2 lastly1 the  ,dichobunes1   
the outer crescents of which are also   
pointed at the  beginning1 and which    
have thus points disposed in pairs upon 
their  lower posterior grinders4    ,the
 most common species in our gypsum      
quarries 7,an4 commune71 is  an animal  
of the height of a boar1 but much more  
elongated1 and  furnished with a very   
long and very thick tail1 so that       
altogether it  has nearly the proportion
 of the otter1 but larger4 ,it is       
probable  that it was well fitted for   
swimming1 and frequented the lakes in   
the  bottom of which its bones have been
 incrusted by the gypsum which was      
deposited there4 ,we have one a little  
smaller1 but in other respects  pretty  
similar 7,an4 secundarium47    ,we are  
as yet acquainted with only one         
xiphodon1 which1 however1  is a very    
remarkable animal3 it is that which ,i  
have named ,an4  gracile4 ,it is        
slender1 and delicately formed1 like the
 prettiest  gazelle4    ,there is one   

dichobune1 nearly of the size of a hare1
 to which  ,i have given the name of    
,an4 leporinum4 ,besides its subgeneric 
characters1 it differs from the         
anaplotheria and xiphodons1 in having   
two small and slender toes on each foot1
 at the sides of the two  large toes4   
,we do not know if these lateral toes   
exist in the two other  dichobunes1     
which are small1 and scarcely exceed in 
size the common  ,guinea pig#bgd4       
,the genus of ,anthracotheria is in some
 degree intermediate between  the       
palotheria1 anaplotheria1 and hogs4 ,i  
have named it so1 because  two of its   
species have been found in the lignites 
of ,cadibona1 near  ,savone4 ,the first 
approached the rhinoceros in size2 the  
second was  much smaller4 ,they have    
also been found in ,alsace1 and in the  
,vlay4  ,their grinders are similar to  
those of the anaplotheria2 but they     
have projecting canine teeth#bge4       
,the genus ,cheropotamus is found in our
 gypsum deposits1 where it  accompanies 

the palotheria and anaplotheria1 but    
where it is of  much rarer occurrence4  
,its posterior grinders are square      
above1  rectangular below1 and have four
 large conical eminences surrounded     
with smaller ones4 ,the anterior molares
 are short cones1 slightly  compressed1 
and with two roots4 ,its canine teeth   
are small4 ,neither  its incisors nor   
its feet are yet known4 ,i possess only 
one species1  which is of the size of a 
,siam hog#bgf4    ,the genus ,adapis has
 also but one species1 which is at most 
of the  size of a rabbit3 it is also    
from our gypsum quarries1 and must have 
been nearly allied to the               
anaplotheria#bgg4    ,we have thus      
nearly forty species of pachydermata    
belonging to genera  now entirely       
extinct1 and presenting forms and       
proportions to which  there is nothing  
that can be compared in the present     
animal kingdom1  excepting two tapirs   
and a daman4    ,this large number of   
pachydermata is so much the more        

remarkable1  that the ruminantia1 which 
are at present so numerous in the genera
  of deer and antelopes1 and which      
attain so great a size in those of  the 
oxen1 giraffes1 and camels1 scarcely    
make their appearance in the  deposits  
of which we are speaking4    ,i have not
 seen the slightest trace of them in our
 gypsum quarries2  and all that has come
 to my hands consists of some fragments 
of a  deer1 of the size of the roe1 but 
of a different species1 collected  among
 the palotheria of ,orleans#bgh2 and of 
one or two other small  fragments1 from 
,switzerland1 which1 however1 are       
perhaps of doubtful  origin4    ,but our
 pachydermata have not for all this been
 the only inhabitants  of the countries 
in which they lived4 ,in our gypsum     
deposits1 at  least1 we find along with 
them carnivora1 glires1 several sorts of
  birds1 crocodiles1 and tortoises2 and 
these two latter genera also  accompany 
them in the molasse sandstones and marly
 deposits of the  middle and south of   

,france4    ,at the head of the         
carnivora1 ,i place a ,bat1 very        
recently  discovered at ,montmartre1 and
 which belongs to the proper genus      
,vespertilio#bgi4 ,the existence of this
 genus1 at an epoch so remote1  is so   
much the more surprising1 that1 neither 
in this formation1 nor  in those which  
have succeeded it1 have ,i seen any     
other trace1 either  of cheiroptera or  
of quadrumana3 no bone or tooth of      
either monkey  or maki has ever         
presented itself to me1 in the course of
 my long  researches4    ,montmartre has
 also furnished the bones of a fox      
different from ours1  and which also    
differs from the jackals1 isatises1 and 
the various  species of foxes peculiar  
to ,america#bhj2 those of a carnivorous 
animal allied to the raccoons and       
coaties1 but larger than any known      
species#bha2 those of a particular      
species of civet#bhb2 and of  two or    
three other carnivora1 which it has not 
been possible to  determine1 from the   

want of tolerably complete portions4    
,what is still more remarkable1 is1 that
 there are skeletons of a  small        
sarigue1 allied to the marmose1 but     
different1 and consequently  of an      
animal belonging to a genus which is at 
the present day  confined to the ,new   
,world#bhc4 ,skeletons of two small     
glires1 of the  genus myoxus#bhd1 and a 
skull belonging to the genus            
sciurus#bhe1  have also been collected4 
,our gypsum deposits are more fertile in
 bones of birds than any  of the other  
strata either anterior or posterior to  
it4 ,entire  skeletons1 and parts of at 
least ten species belonging to all the  
orders1 are found there#bhf4    ,the    
crocodiles of the period in question    
approach our common  crocodiles in the  
form of the head1 while1 in the deposits
 of the  ,jura period1 we find only     
species allied to the gavial4    ,a     
species has been found at ,argenton1    
which is remarkable for its  compressed1
 sharp teeth1 having their edges        

dentated like those of  certain         
monitors#bhg4 ,some remains of it also  
occur in our gypsum  quarries#bhh4      
,the tortoises of this period are all   
fresh-water ones3 some of  them belong  
to the subgenus ,emys2 and there are    
species1 both at  ,montmartre#bhi1 and  
still more especially in the molasse    
sandstones  of the ,dordogne#bij1 which 
are larger than any living species      
known2  the others are ,trionyces or    
soft tortoises#bia4 ,this genus1 which  
is easily distinguished by the          
vermiculate surface of the bones of  its
 shell1 and which at present exists only
 in the rivers of warm  countries1 such 
as the ,nile1 the ,ganges1 and the      
,orinoko1 has  been very abundant in the
 places where the palotheria lived4     
,vast  quantities of its remains are    
found at ,montmartre#bib1 and in the    
molasse sandstones of the ,dordogne1 and
 the other gravel deposits of  the south
 of ,france4    ,the fresh-water lakes1 
around which these various animals have 

lived1  and which had received their    
bones1 nourished1 besides the tortoises 
and crocodiles1 some fishes and         
testaceous mollusca4 ,all that have     
been collected of these two classes of  
animals1 are as foreign to  our climate1
 and even as much unknown in our present
 waters1 as the  palotheria1 and other  
quadrupeds which were coeval with       
them#bic4    ,the fishes have even in   
part belonged to unknown genera4        
,hence1 it cannot be doubted that this  
race of inhabitants1 which  might be    
termed the population of the middle age1
 this first great  production of        
mammifera1 has been entirely destroyed2 
and1 in fact1  in all places where      
remains of them have been discovered1   
there are  great deposits of marine     
formation above them1 so that the sea   
has  overwhelmed the countries which    
these races inhabited1 and has  rested  
upon them during a long period of time4 
,have the countries inundated by it at  
this period been of great  extent8 ,this

 is a question which the examination of 
those ancient  deposits formed in their 
lakes do not enable us to answer4    ,to
 this period ,i refer the gypsum beds of
 ,paris and those of ,aix1  several     
quarries of marly stones1 and the       
molasse sandstones1  at least those of  
the south of ,france4 ,i am of opinion  
that we  should also refer to it the    
portions of the molasse sandstones of   
,switzerland1 and of the lignites of    
,liguria and ,alsace1 in which          
quadrupeds are found of the families    
enumerated above2 but ,i do  not find   
that any of these animals have been also
 found in other  countries4 ,the fossil 
bones of ,germany1 ,england1 and ,italy1
 are all  either older or newer than    
those of which we have been speaking1   
and  belong either to those ancient     
races of reptiles of the juraic and     
copper-slate formations1 or to the      
deposits of the last universal          
inundation1 the diluvial formations4    
,we are1 therefore1 authorised to       

believe1 until the contrary be  proved1 
that at the period when these numerous  
pachydermata lived1  the globe had only 
presented for their habitation a small  
number of  plains sufficiently fertile  
for them to multiply there1 and that    
perhaps these plains were insulated     
regions1 separated by pretty  large     
spaces of elevated chains1 in which we  
do not find that our  animals have left 
any traces of their existence4    ,the  
researches of ,m4 ,adolphe ,brongniart  
have also made known to us  the nature  
of the vegetables which covered those   
countries4 ,in the  same strata with our
 palotheria1 there have been found      
trunks of  palms1 and many others of    
those beautiful plants whose genera now 
only grow in warm climates4 ,palms1     
crocodiles1 and trionyces always  occur 
in greater or less abundance wherever   
our ancient pachydermata  are found#bid4
    ,the sea which had covered these    
lands and destroyed their animals1  left
 large deposits1 which still form at the

 present day1 at no great  depth1 the   
basis of our great plains3 it had then  
retired anew1 and  left immense surfaces
 to a new population1 whose remains are 
found in  the sandy and muddy deposits  
of all countries known4    ,it is to    
this deposition from the sea1 made in a 
state of quiet1  that certain fossil    
cetacea1 very much resembling those of  
our own  days1 should1 in my opinion1 be
 referred2--a dolphin1 allied to  our   
epaulard#bie1 and a whale very like our 
rorquals#bif1 both  discovered in       
,lombardy by ,m4 ,cortesi2 a large head 
of a whale found  within the very       
precincts of ,paris#big1 and described  
by ,lamanon  and ,daubenton2 and an     
entirely new genus1 which ,i have       
discovered  and named ,ziphius1 and     
which already contains three species4   
,it is  allied to the cachalots and     
hyperoodons#bih4    ,in the extinct     
population which fills our alluvial and 
superficial  strata1 and which has lived
 upon the deposit just alluded to1      

there are no longer either palotheria or
 anaplotheria1 or1 in in  fact1 any of  
those singular genera4 ,the             
pachydermata1 however1  still           
predominate2 and these are of a gigantic
 size1 elephants1  rhinoceroses1 and    
hippopotami1 accompanied with           
innumerable horses  and several large   
ruminantia4 ,carnivorous animals of the 
size of  the lion1 tiger1 and hyena1 had
 desolated this new animal kingdom4  ,in
 general1 its character1 even in the    
extreme north1 and on the  edges of the 
present frozen ocean1 was similar to    
that which the  torrid zone alone now   
presents1 and yet there was no species  
in it  absolutely the same as any of    
those which are found alive at the      
present day4    ,the most remarkable of 
these animals is the species of elephant
 named  mammoth by the ,russians 7the   
,elephas primigenius of ,blumenbach71   
which was fifteen or eighteen feet high1
 and was covered with coarse  red wool1 
and long1 stiff1 black hairs1 which     

formed a mane along  its back4 ,its     
enormous tusks were implanted in alveol 
longer than  those of the elephants of  
the present day2 but in other respects  
it  was pretty similar to the ,indian   
elephant#bii4 ,it has left thousands  of
 its carcases from ,spain to the shores 
of ,siberia1 and it has been  found in  
the whole of ,north ,america2 so that it
 had been distributed  on both sides of 
the ,atlantic1 if1 indeed1 that ocean   
had existed  in its time1 in the place  
which it occupies at present4 ,it is    
well  known that its tusks are still so 
well preserved in cold countries1  as to
 be applied to the same uses as fresh   
ivory2 and1 as we have  already         
remarked1 individuals of it have been   
found with their flesh1  skin1 and hair1
 which had remained frozen since the    
last general  catastrophe4 ,the ,tartars
 and ,chinese have imagined it to be an 
animal  which lives under ground1 and   
perishes whenever it perceives the      
light4    ,after the mammoth1 and almost

 its equal in size1 came also in the    
countries which form the two presently  
existing continents1 the  narrow toothed
 mastodon1 which resembled the elephant1
 and was  armed like it with enormous   
tusks1 but with tusks covered with      
enamel1 shorter legs1 and whose         
mamillated grinders1 invested with a    
thick and shining enamel1 have long     
furnished what has been called          
occidental turquoise#cjj4    ,its       
remains1 which are pretty common in the 
temperate parts of  ,europe1 are not so 
much so towards the north2 but it has   
also been  found in the mountains of    
,south ,america1 along with two allied  
species4    ,in ,north ,america immense 
quantities of the remains of the great  
mastodon have been found1 a species     
larger than the preceding1 as  high in  
proportion as the elephant1 with equally
 huge tusks1 and  whose grinders1 which 
are covered over with bristling points1 
made it  long be considered as a        
carnivorous animal#cja4    ,its bones   

were of a large size1 and very solid4   
,even its hoofs  and stomach are said to
 have been found in a sufficient state  
of  preservation to be recognisable2 and
 it is asserted that the stomach  was   
filled with bruised branches of trees4  
,the ,indians imagine that  the whole   
race was destroyed by the gods1 to      
prevent them from  destroying the human 
species4    ,along with these enormous  
pachydermata1 lived the two somewhat    
inferior genera of the rhinoceroses and 
hippopotami4    ,the ,hippopotamus of   
this period was pretty common in the    
countries  which now form ,france1      
,germany and ,england1 and was          
particularly so  in ,italy4 ,it so      
closely resembled the present ,african  
species1 that  it is only by an         
attentive comparison that it can be     
distinguished  from it#cjb4    ,there   
was also at this time a small species of
 hippopotamus of the  size of the wild  
boar1 to which there is nothing similar 
at present  existing4    ,there were at 

least three species of ,rhinoceros of   
large size1 all of  them two-horned4    
,the most common species in ,germany and
 ,england 7my ,rh4  tichorhinus71 and   
which1 like the elephant1 is found even 
to the  shores of the frozen sea1 where 
it has also left entire individuals1    
had the head elongated1 the bones of the
 nose very robust and  supported by an  
osseous and not merely cartilaginous    
septum narium1  and1 lastly1 wanted     
incisors#cjc4    ,another species1 of   
rarer occurrence1 and peculiar to more  
temperate  climates 7,rh4               
incisivus7#cjd1 had incisors like our   
present  rhinoceroses of the ,east      
,indies1 and1 in particular1 resembled  
that  of ,sumatra#cje2 its distinctive  
characters are derived from some        
differences in the form of the head4    
,the third species 7,rh4 leptorhinus7   
had no incisors1 like the first  and    
like the present rhinoceros of the      
,cape2 but it was distinguished  by a   
more pointed muzzle and more slender    

limbs#cjf4 ,the bones of  this species  
have been found more especially in      
,italy1 in the same  strata with those  
of elephants1 mastodons1 and            
hippopotami4    ,there is a fourth      
species still 7,rh4 minutus71 furnished1
 like  the second1 with incisors1 but of
 a much smaller size1 and scarcely      
larger than a hog#cjg4 ,it was          
undoubtedly rare1 for the remains of  it
 have only as yet been found in some    
places in ,france4    ,to those four    
genera of large pachydermata1 is added a
 ,tapir1 which  equalled them in size1  
and was consequently twice1 perhaps     
three  times1 as large in its linear    
dimensions as the ,american ,tapir#cjh4 
,its teeth have been found in several   
parts of ,france and ,germany2  and     
almost always accompanying those of     
rhinoceroses1 mastodons1 or  elephants4 
,along with these there is still        
associated1 but as it would seem in a   
very small number of places1 a large    
pachydermatous animal1 of which  the    

lower jaw alone has been found1 and     
whose teeth are of the form  of double  
crescents1 and undulated4 ,m4 ,fischer1 
who discovered it  among bones from     
,siberia1 has named it                  
,elasmotherium#cji4    ,the ,horse genus
 also existed in those times#caj4 ,its  
teeth accompany  in thousands the       
remains of the animals which we have    
just mentioned1  in almost all their    
localities2 but it is not possible to   
say  whether it was one of the species  
now existing or not1 because the        
skeletons of these species are so like  
each other1 that they cannot  be        
distinguished by the mere comparison of 
isolated fragments4    ,the ,ruminantia 
were now greatly more numerous than at  
the epoch of  the ,palotheria2 their    
numerical proportion must even have     
differed  very little from what it is at
 present2 but we are certain of several 
species which were different4    ,this  
may1 in particular1 be said with much   
certainty of a deer  exceeding even the 

elk in size1 which is common in the marl
 deposits  and peat-bogs of ,ireland and
 ,england1 and of which remains have    
also  been dug up in ,france1 ,germany1 
and ,italy1 where they were found in    
the same strata with bones of elephants4
 ,its wide1 palmated1 and  branched     
horns1 measure so much as twelve or     
fourteen feet from one  point to the    
other1 following the curvatures#caa4    
,the distinction is not so clear with   
regard to the bones of deer  and oxen1  
which have been collected in certain    
caverns1 and in  the fissures of certain
 rocks4 ,they are sometimes1 and        
especially  in the caverns of ,england1 
accompanied with bones of elephants1    
rhinoceroses1 and hippopotami1 and with 
those of a hyena1 which also  occurs in 
several strata of transported matter1   
along with these same  pachydermata4    
,they are consequently of the same age2 
but it remains  not the less difficult  
to say in what respect they differ from 
the  oxen and deer of the present day4  

,the fissures of the rocks of           
,gibraltar1 ,cette1 ,nice1 ,uliveta near
  ,pisa1 and other places on the shores 
of the ,mediterranean1 are  filled with 
a red and hard cement1 which envelopes  
fragments of rock  and fresh-water      
shells1 and numerous bones of           
quadrupeds1 the greater  part fractured4
 ,these concretions are termed osseous  
brecci4 ,the  bones which they contain  
sometimes present characters sufficient 
to  prove that they have belonged to    
unknown animals1 or at least to  animals
 foreign to ,europe4 ,there are found1  
for example1 four species  of deer1     
three of which have characters in their 
teeth1 which are  only observed in the  
deer of the ,indian ,archipelago4       
,there is a fifth near ,verona1 the     
horns of which exceed in magnitude      
those of the ,canadian deer#cab4        
,there also occur1 in certain places1   
along with bones of  rhinoceroses1 and  
other quadrupeds of this period1 those  
of a deer so  much resembling the       

reindeer1 that it would be difficult to 
assign  distinctive characters to it2 a 
circumstance which is so much the  more 
extraordinary1 that the reindeer is at  
the present day confined  to the coldest
 regions of the north1 while the whole  
genus of  rhinoceroses belongs to the   
torrid zone4#cac    ,there exist in the 
strata of which we speak1 remains of a  
species  very similar to the            
fallow-deer1 but a third larger1#cad and
  prodigious quantities of horns1 very  
much resembling those of  our present   
stag#cae1 as well as bones1 very like   
those of the  aurochs#caf and domestic  
ox#cag1 two very distinct species1 which
  had been erroneously confounded by the
 naturalists who preceded us4  ,the     
entire heads1 however1 resembling those 
of these two animals1 as  well as that  
of the musk-ox of ,canada#cah1 which    
have often been  extracted from the     
earth1 do not come from localities      
sufficiently  well determined to enable 
us to assert that these species had been

  contemporaries of the great           
pachydermata1 of which we have made     
mention above4    ,the osseous brecci of
 the shores of the ,mediterranean have  
also  afforded two species of           
,lagomys1#cai animals1 the genus of     
which exists at the present day only in 
,siberia2 two species of  rabbits#cbj1  
lemmings1 and rats of the size of the   
water-rat and  domestic mouse#cba4 ,in  
the caves of ,england two species are   
also  found#cbb4    ,the osseous brecci 
even contain bones of shrew-mice and    
lizards#cbc4    ,in certain sandy strata
 of ,tuscany1 there are teeth of a      
porcupine#cbd1 and in those of ,russia  
heads of a species of beaver1  larger   
than ours1 which ,m4 ,fischer has named 
,trogontherium#cbe4    ,but it is more  
particularly in the class ,edentata that
 these races  of animals belonging to   
the period before the last assume a size
  much superior to that of their present
 congeners1 and even rise to a          
magnitude altogether gigantic4    ,the  

,megatherium unites a part of the       
generic characters of the  armadilloes1 
with some of those of the sloths1 and is
 in size equal  to the largest          
rhinoceros4 ,its claws must have been of
 a monstrous  length1 and prodigious    
strength2 its whole skeleton possesses  
an  excessive solidity4 ,it has only as 
yet been found in the sandy strata  of  
,north ,america#cbf4    ,the ,megalonyx 
has been very similar to it in its      
characters1 but  has been somewhat less2
 its claws much longer and sharper in   
the  edges4 ,some bones and entire toes 
of it have been found in certain  caves 
in ,virginia1 and in an island on the   
coast of ,georgia#cbg4    ,these two    
enormous edentata have only hitherto    
presented their  remains in ,america2   
but ,europe possesses one of the same   
class which  does not yield to them in  
magnitude4 ,it is only known by a single
  terminal joint of a toe1 but this     
fragment is sufficient to assure us     
that it was very similar to a pangolin  

or manis1 but to a pangolin  of nearly  
twenty-four feet in length4 ,it lived in
 the same districts  as the elephants1  
rhinoceroses1 and gigantic tapirs2 for  
its bones  have been found along with   
theirs in a sandy deposit in the county 
of  ,darmstadt1 not far from the        
,rhine#cbh4    ,the osseous brecci also 
contain1 but very rarely1 bones of      
carnivora#cbi1 which are much more      
numerous in caverns1 that is to  say1 in
 cavities wider and more complicated    
than the fissures or  veins containing  
osseous brecci4 ,the ,jura chain in     
particular1 is  celebrated for them in  
the part of it which extends into       
,germany1  where1 for ages past1        
incredible quantities have been removed 
and  destroyed1 on account of certain   
medical virtues which had been          
attributed to them1 and yet there still 
remains enough to fill the  mind with   
astonishment4 ,the principal part of    
these remains consists  of bones of a   
very large species of bear 7,ursus      

spelus71 which  is characterised by a   
more prominent forehead than that of any
 of  our living bears#ccj4 ,along with  
these bones are found those of  two     
other species of bear 7,u4 arctoideus   
and ,u4 priscus7#cca2  those of a hyena 
7,h4 fossilis71 allied to the spotted   
hyena of the  ,cape1 but differing from 
it in the form of its teeth and         
head#ccb2  those of two tigers or       
panthers#ccc1 of a wolf#ccd1 a fox#cce1 
a glutton#ccf1 as well as of weasels1   
viverr1 and other small  carnivora#ccg4 
,here1 also1 may be observed that       
singular association of animals1  the   
species resembling which live at the    
present day in climates so  widely      
separated from each other as the ,cape1 
the country of the  spotted hyena1 and  
,lapland1 the country of our present    
gluttons4 ,in  like manner we have seen 
in a cave in ,france1 a rhinoceros and a
  reindeer by the side of each other4   
,bears are of rare occurrence in        
alluvial strata4 ,remains of the large  

species of the caves 7,u4 spelus71 are  
said1 however1 to have been  found in   
,austria and ,hainaut2 and in ,tuscany  
there are bones of a  particular        
species1 remarkable for its compressed  
canine teeth 7,u4  cultridens7#cch4 ,the
 hyenas are more frequently met with4   
,we have  remains of them in ,france1   
found along with bones of elephants and 
rhinoceroses4 ,a cave has lately been   
discovered in ,england1 which  contained
 prodigious quantities of them1 where   
they were found of  every age1 and of   
which the soil presented even their     
excrements  in a sufficient state of    
preservation to be easily recognised4   
,it  would appear that they had long    
lived there1 and that it had been by    
them that the bones of elephants1       
rhinoceroses1 hippopotami1 horses1      
oxen1 deer1 and various animals of the  
class of glires1 which are  found along 
with them1 and which bear evident marks 
of their teeth1  had been dragged into  
the cave4 ,but what must have been the  

soil of  ,england1 when these enormous  
animals lived upon it1 and constituted  
the prey of ferocious beasts6 ,these    
caves contain also bones of  tigers1    
wolves and foxes2 but the remains of    
bears are of excessively  rare          
occurrence in them#cci4    ,however this
 may be1 we see that1 at the epoch of   
the animal  population which we are now 
passing under review1 the class of      
carnivora was numerous and powerful4 ,it
 reckoned three bears with  round canine
 teeth1 one with compressed canini1 a   
large tiger or  lion1 another feline    
animal1 of the size of the panther1 a   
hyena1 a  wolf1 a fox1 a glutton1 a     
martin or pole-cat1 and a weasel4       
,the class of glires1 composed in       
general of weak and small species1  has 
been little observed by the collectors  
of fossil remains2 and1  in all cases1  
where the bones of these animals have   
been found in  the strata or deposits of
 which we speak1 they also have         
presented  unknown species4 ,such1 in   

particular1 is a species of ,lagomys    
found  in the osseous brecci of ,corsica
 and ,sardinia1 somewhat resembling  the
 ,lagomys alpinus of the high mountains 
of ,siberia3 so true is it  that it is  
not always in the torrid zone only1 that
 we are to seek  for the animals which  
resemble those of this period4    ,these
 are the principal animals1 the remains 
of which have been  found in that mass  
of earth1 sand1 and mud1--that          
,diluvium1 which  everywhere covers our 
large plains1 fills our caverns1 and    
chokes  up the fissures in many of our  
rocks4 ,they incontestibly formed the   
population of the continents1 at the    
epoch of the great catastrophe  which   
has destroyed their races1 and which has
 prepared the soil1 on  which the       
animals of the present day subsist4     
,whatever resemblance certain of these  
species bear to those of our  days1 it  
cannot be disputed that the general mass
 of this population  had a very         
different character1 and that the       

greater part of the  races which        
composed it have been utterly destroyed4
    ,what astonishes us is1 that1 among 
all these mammifera1 the greater  number
 of which have their congeners at the   
present day in the  warm parts of the   
globe1 there has not been a single      
quadrumanous  animal1--that there has   
not been collected a single bone or a   
single  tooth of an ape or monkey1 not  
so much even as a bone or a tooth       
belonging to an extinct species of these
 animals4    ,nor is there any trace of 
man4 ,all the bones of our species that 
have  been found along with those of    
which we have been speaking1 have       
occurred accidentally#cdj1 and their    
number besides is exceedingly  small1   
which assuredly would not have been the 
case1 if men had then  been settled in  
the countries which these animals       
inhabited4    ,where1 then1 was the     
human race at this period8 ,did the last
 and most  perfect of the works of the  
,creator nowhere exist8 ,did the animals

  which now accompany him upon the      
globe1 and of which there are no  traces
 among these fossil remains1 surround   
him8 ,were the countries  in which he   
lived with them swallowed up1 when those
 which he now  inhabits1 and whose      
former population may have been         
destroyed by a  great inundation1 were  
laid dry again8 ,these are questions    
which the  study of fossil remains does 
not enable us to solve1 and in this     
discourse we must not apply for         
information to other sources4    ,this  
much is certain1 that we are now at     
least in the midst of a  fourth         
succession of land animals1--that1 after
 the age of reptiles1  the age of       
palotheria1 the age of mammoths1 and    
that of mastodons  and megatheria1 has  
come the age in which the human species1
 aided  by some domestic animals1       
peaceably governs and fertilizes the    
earth1  and that it is only in the      
deposits formed since the commencement  
of  this age1 in alluvial matters1      

peat-bogs1 and recent concretions1  that
 bones are found in the fossil state1   
which belong all of them to  known and  
still living animals4    ,such are the  
human skeletons of ,guadaloupe1 imbedded
 in a species  of travertine formed of  
land shells1 slate1 and fragments of    
shells  and madrepores of the           
neighbouring sea2 the bones of oxen1    
deer1  roes1 and beavers1 common in     
peat-bogs1 and all the bones of men and 
domestic animals found in the mud and   
sand deposited by rivers1 in  burying   
grounds1 and upon ancient fields of     
battle4    ,none of these remains belong
 either to the great deposit formed at  
the time of the last catastrophe1 nor to
 those of preceding ages4               
,,appendix4          ,,appendix4        
,on the birds to which the name of ,ibis
 was given by the ancient  ,egyptians4  
,every body has heard of the ,ibis1 a   
bird to which the ancient  ,egyptians   
rendered a religious homage2 which they 
reared within the  precincts of their   

temples2 allowed to wander unmolested   
through  their towns2 whose murderer1   
even although he had involuntarily      
become so1 was punished with death#cda2 
which they embalmed with as  much care  
as their parents2--a bird to which they 
attributed a virgin  purity2 an         
inviolable attachment to their country1 
of which it was  the emblem1 an         
attachment so great that it suffered    
itself to die of  hunger when it was    
transported elsewhere2--a bird which    
possessed  instinct enough to know the  
increase and waning of the moon1 and  to
 regulate accordingly the quantity of   
its daily food1 and the  development of 
its young2 which arrested at the        
frontiers of ,egypt  the serpents which 
would otherwise have carried destruction
 into that  sacred land#cdb1 and which  
inspired them with such terror that they
  dreaded its very feathers#cdc2--;a    
bird1 in fine1 whose form the gods      
would have assumed1 had they been forced
 to adopt a mortal figure1  and into    

which ,mercury was really transformed1  
when he had a mind to  traverse the     
earth1 and instruct men in the sciences 
and arts4    ,no other animal could have
 been so easy to recognize as this2 for 
there is no other of which the ancients 
have left us at once1 as  of the ibis1  
excellent descriptions1 accurate and    
even coloured  figures1 and the body    
itself preserved with its feathers1     
under the  triple envelope of a         
preservative bitumen1 thick and close   
folds of  linen1 and solid and well     
varnished vases4 ,and yet1 of all the   
modern  authors who have spoken of the  
ibis1 there is but one1 the celebrated  
,bruce1 a traveller more famous for his 
courage than for the justness  of his   
opinions in natural history1 who has not
 blundered respecting  the true species 
of this bird2 and his ideas with regard 
to this  subject1 however accurate they 
were1 have not even been adopted by     
naturalists#cdd4    ,after several      
changes of opinion respecting the ibis1 

it was  seemingly agreed1 at the period 
when ,i published the first edition  of 
this work1 to give the name of ,ibis to 
a bird a native of ,africa1  almost of  
the size of the stork1 with white       
plumage1 having the  quills black1      
perched upon long red legs1 armed with a
 long arched  beak1 of a pale yellow    
colour1 sharp at its edges1 rounded at  
its  base1 and notched at its point1 and
 whose face is covered with a red  skin 
destitute of feathers1 which do not     
extend farther forward than  the eyes4  
,such is the ,ibis of ,perrault#cde1 the
 ,ibis candida of ,brisson#cdf1  the    
,ibis blanc d',egypte of ,buffon#cdg1   
and the ,tantalus ,ibis of  ,linnus1 in 
his twelfth edition4 ,it was to this    
same bird1 also1 that  ,blumenbach1     
while he avowed that it is of very rare 
occurrence at the  present day1 at least
 in ,lower ,egypt1 asserted that the    
,egyptians  rendered divine honours#cdh2
 and yet this naturalist had possessed  
opportunities of examining bones of the 

true ibis in a mummy which he  opened in
 ,london#cdi4    ,i also participated in
 the error of those celebrated men whom 
,i have  just mentioned1 until the      
moment when ,i was enabled to examine   
some  mummies of the ibis by myself4    
,this pleasure was procured for me1  for
 the first time1 by the late ,m4        
,fourcroy1 to whom ,m4 ,grobert1        
,colonel of ,artillery1 on his return   
from ,egypt1 had given two of  these    
mummies1 both taken from the pits of    
,saccara4 ,on carefully  exposing them1 
we perceived that the bones of the      
embalmed bird  were much smaller than   
those of the ,tantalus ibis of          
naturalists2  that they did not much    
exceed those of the curlew in size1 that
 its  beak resembled that of the latter1
 being only a little shorter in         
proportion to its thickness1 and not at 
all that of the tantalus2  and1 lastly1 
that its plumage was white with the     
quills marked with  black1 as the       
ancients have described it4    ,we are  

therefore convinced1 that the bird which
 the ancient ,egyptians  embalmed1 was  
by no means the ,tantalus ibis of       
naturalists1 that it  was smaller1 and  
that it was to be sought for in the     
curlew genus4 ,we  found1 after some    
inquiries1 that the mummies of the ibis 
which had  been opened before by        
different naturalists1 were similar to  
ours4  ,buffon says expressly that he   
examined several of them2 that the      
birds which they contained had the beak 
and size of curlews2 and yet  he has    
blindly followed ,perrault in taking the
 ,african tantalus for  the ibis4 ,one  
of those mummies opened by ,buffon still
 exists in the  museum2 it is similar to
 those which we have examined4    ,dr   
,shaw1 in the supplement to his         
,travels#cej1 describes and figures     
with care the bones of a similar mummy4 
,the beak1 he says1 was six  ,english   
inches in length1 similar to that of the
 curlew1 c4 ,in a  word1 its description
 agrees entirely with ours4    ,caylus1 

in his ,collection of ,antiquities1 vol4
 vi4 pl4 xl4 fig4 #a41  gives a         
representation of the mummy of an ibis1 
the height of which1  with its bandages1
 is only one foot seven inches four     
lines1 although  he says expressly that 
the bird was placed upon its feet with  
the  head straight out1 and that it had 
no part inflected in its embalment4     
,hasselquist1 who took a small white and
 black heron for the ibis1  gives1 as   
his principal reason1 that the size of  
this bird1 which is  that of a crow1    
corresponds very well with that of the  
mummies of the  ibis#cea4 ,how1 then1   
could ,linnus have given the name of    
ibis to a  bird as large as a stork8    
,how1 especially1 could he have         
considered  this bird to be the same as 
the ,ardea ibis of ,hasselquist1 which1 
besides its smallness1 had the beak     
straight8 ,and how has this latter      
error of synonymy been preserved to this
 very day in the ,systema  ,natur8    ,a
 short time after this examination1     

which was made in the presence  of ,m4  
,fourcroy1 ,m4 ,olivier had the         
politeness to shew us the bones  which  
he had taken from two mummies of the    
ibis1 and to open along  with us two    
others4 ,these bones were found similar 
to those of  ,colonel ,grobert's        
mummies2 one of the four only was       
smaller1 but it  was easy to judge by   
the epiphyses that it had belonged to a 
young  individual4    ,the only figure  
of the beak of an embalmed ibis1 which  
does not  entirely agree with the       
objects which we have had under our     
eyes1  is that of ,edwards 7pl4 cv472 it
 is a ninth part larger1 and yet we  do 
not doubt its accuracy1 for ,m4 ,olivier
 shewed us also a beak an  eighth or a  
ninth longer than the others1 or in the 
proportion of  #ahj to #afe1 which had  
been equally taken from a mummy4 ,this  
beak  only shews that there were among  
the ibises individuals larger than      
others2 but it proves nothing in favour 
of the tantalus1 for it has  not at all 

the form of the beak of that animal4    
,its beak is perfectly  similar to that 
of the curlews2 and besides1 the beak of
 the tantalus  is a third longer than   
that of our largest embalmed ibises1 and
  two-fifths longer than that of the    
smallest4    ,we have ascertained       
further1 that similar variations with   
regard to  the size of the beak exist in
 our ,european curlews1 according to the
  age and sex4 ,they are still more     
strongly marked in the green curlew  of 
,italy1 and in our godwits2 and this    
variation appears to be a  property     
common to most of the species of the    
family of scolopaceous  birds4          
,lastly1 our naturalists returned from  
the expedition to ,egypt with  a rich   
harvest of objects1 as well ancient as  
recent4 ,my learned  friend ,m4         
,geoffroy ,st ,hilaire1 in particular1  
had occupied himself  with the greatest 
care in collecting mummies of all       
descriptions1 and  had brought with him 
a great number of those of the ibis1    

both from  ,saccara and ,thebes4    ,the
 former were in the same state as those 
which ,m4 ,grobert had  brought1 that is
 to say1 their bones had undergone a    
sort of half  burning1 and were without 
consistence2 they broke on the slightest
  touch1 and it was very difficult to   
obtain any entire1 and still more  so to
 detach them for the purpose of making a
 skeleton4    ,the bones of those       
brought from ,thebes were much better   
preserved1  either on account of the    
greater heat of the climate1 or from the
  more efficacious means employed for   
their preparation2 and ,m4  ,geoffroy   
having sacrificed some of them to me1   
,m4 ,rousseau1 my  assistant1 succeeded1
 by dint of patience and address1 and by
 the  employment of ingenious and       
delicate methods of procedure1 in making
  up an entire skeleton1 by stripping   
all the bones1 and connecting  them with
 a very fine wire4 ,this skeleton is    
deposited in the  anatomical galleries  
of the museum1 of which it forms one of 

the  most beautiful ornaments1 and we   
have represented it in ,pl4 iv4    ,it  
is likely that this mummy must have been
 that of a bird kept in a  state of     
domesticity in the temples1 for its left
 humerus has been  broken and joined    
again4 ,it is probable that a wild bird1
 whose wing  had been broken1 would have
 perished before it had healed1 from its
  being unable to pursue its prey1 or to
 escape from its enemies4    ,this      
skeleton puts it in our power to        
determine1 without any  uncertainty1 the
 characters and proportions of the bird4
 ,we see  clearly that it was in all    
points a true curlew1 a little larger   
than  the common curlew of ,europe1 but 
having the beak thicker and shorter4    
,the following is a comparative table of
 the dimensions of the two  birds1      
taken1 for the ibis1 from the skeleton  
of the mummy of ,thebes1  and for the   
curlew1 from a skeleton which previously
 existed in our  anatomical galleries4  
,we have added those of parts of the    

,saccara  ibises1 which we succeeded in 
obtaining entire4                       
----------------------------------------
------------------------                
,skeleton of ,skeleton of ,saccara      
,ibises4             ,parts4         an 
,ibis from the ,curlew4 --------------- 
,thebes4               ,larger4,smaller4
                                        
----------------------------------------
-----------------------    ,head and    
beak together1    #j4baj        #j4bae  
444    444       ,head alone1           
#j4jdg        #j4jdj     444    444     
,the #ad vertebr of         #j4aib      
#j4aej     444    444         the neck  
together1                               
,back1                      #j4jhj      
#j4jef     444    444       ,sacrum1    
#j4jhg        #j4jgj     444    444     
,coccyx1                    #j4jcg      
#j4jce     444    444       ,femur1     
#j4jgh        #j4jfj     444    444     
,tibia1                     #j4aej      
#j4aab     444   #j4jie      ,tarsus1   

#j4ajb        #j4jij     444    444     
,middle-toe1                #j4jig      
#j4jgj     444    444       ,sternum1   
#j4jib        #j4jii     444    444     
,clavicle1                  #j4jee      
#j4jda     444   #j4jd       ,humerus1  
#j4acc        #j4ajf    #j4abd   444    
,fore-arm1                  #j4aec      
#j4aag    #j4add  #j4aad      ,hand1    
#j4abe        #j4ajc     444    444     
----------------------------------------
------------------------    ,it appears 
by this table1 that the animal of       
,thebes was larger than  our curlew2    
that one of the ,saccara ibises was     
intermediate in size  between that of   
,thebes and our common curlew1 and that 
the other was  smaller than this latter 
bird4 ,it is also seen that the         
different  parts of the body of the ibis
 do not observe the same proportions    
between each other1 as those of the     
curlew4 ,the beak of the former1  for   
example1 is in particular shorter1      
although all the other parts  are       

longer1 c4    ,however1 these           
differences of proportions do not exceed
 what might  be expected in species of  
the same genus3 the forms and characters
  which may be considered as generic1   
are absolutely the same4    ,we must    
therefore search for the true ibis1 not 
among those  tantaluses of large size   
and sharp beak1 but among the curlews2  
and1  let it be observed1 that1 by the  
name curlew1 we intend to signify1  not 
the artificial genus formed by ,latham  
and ,gmelin1 of all the  wading birds   
which have the beak curved downwards1   
but a natural  genus1 to which we shall 
give the name of ,numenius1 and which   
will  comprehend all the waders with    
beaks curved downwards1 soft and        
rounded1 whether their head be bare or  
clothed with feathers4 ,it is  the genus
 courlis1 such as ,buffon imagined      
it#ceb4    ,a glance over the collection
 of birds belonging to the royal        
cabinet1  has enabled us to distinguish 
a species1 which is neither named nor   

described in the works of systematic    
writers1 excepting perhaps by  ,dr      
,latham2 and which1 when carefully      
examined1 will be found to  correspond  
with all that the ancients1 the         
monuments and mummies1  indicate as     
characteristic of the ibis4    ,we here 
present a figure of it1 ,plate ,v4 ,it  
is a bird somewhat larger  than the     
curlew2 its beak is arcuate like that of
 the curlew1 but  a little shorter1 and 
sensibly thicker in proportion1 somewhat
  compressed at its base1 and marked on 
each side with a groove1  which1        
proceeding from the nostril1 is         
continued to the extremity2  while1 in  
the curlew1 there is a similar groove1  
which disappears  before arriving at the
 middle of the beak2 the colour of the  
beak is  more or less black2 the head1  
and the two upper thirds of the neck1   
are entirely destitute of feathers1 and 
the skin of these parts is  black4 ,the 
plumage of the body1 wings1 and tail1 is
 white1 with the  exception of the ends 

of the large quills of the wing1 which  
are  black2 the four last secondary     
quills have the barbs singularly long1  
attenuated1 and hanging down over the   
ends of the wings1 when the  latter are 
folded2 their colour is a beautiful     
black1 with violet  reflections4 ,the   
feet are black1 the legs are thicker1   
and the toes  much longer in proportion 
than those of the curlew2 the membranes 
between the bases of the toes are also  
more extended2 the leg is  entirely     
covered with small polygonal1 or what is
 called reticulated  scales1 and the    
base of the toes itself has only similar
 scales2  while1 in the curlew1         
two-thirds of the leg1 and the whole    
length of  the toes1 are scutulate1 that
 is to say1 furnished with transverse   
scales4 ,there is a reddish tint under  
the wing1 toward the top of the  thigh1 
and on the anterior large wing coverts2 
but this tint appears  to be an         
individual character1 or the result of  
an accident1 for  it does not occur in  

other individuals that are in other     
respects  entirely similar4    ,this    
first individual came from the          
collection of the ,stadtholder1  and its
 native country was unknown4 ,the late  
,m4 ,desmoulins1 assistant  naturalist  
to the ,museum1 who had seen two others1
 asserted that  they came from ,senegal2
 one of them must even have been brought
 by  ,m4 ,geoffroy de ,villeneuve3 but  
we shall see1 as we proceed1 that       
,bruce#cec found this species in        
,abyssinia1 where it was named          
,abou-,hannes 7,father ,john72 and that 
,m4 ,savigny saw it in abundance  in    
,lower ,egypt1 where it was called      
,abou-,mengel 7,father of the  ,sickle74
 ,it is probable that the moderns will  
give no credit to the  assertion of the 
ancients1 that the ibis never left      
,egypt without  perishing#ced4 ,this    
assertion would1 besides1 be as contrary
 to the  ,tantalus ,ibis as to our      
common ,curlew2 for the individuals     
which we  have in ,europe came from     

,senegal4 ,it was from thence that ,m4  
,geoffroy  de ,villeneuve had brought   
the individual in the ,museum of        
,natural  ,history4 ,it is even much    
rarer in ,egypt than our curlew2 for1   
since  ,perrault1 nobody mentions having
 seen it there1 or having received  it  
from that country4 ,an individual       
without the reddish tint1 but in  other 
respects perfectly similar to the first1
 was brought home by ,m4  de            
,labillardiere1 in his voyage to        
,australasia made along with ,m4        
d',entrecasteux4    ,we afterwards      
learned1 that1 when young1 these birds  
have the head  and neck furnished with  
feathers in the part which1 as they     
advance  in age1 is to become bare2 and 
that the scapulars are less elongated1  
and of a paler and duller black4 ,it is 
in this state that one was  brought to  
us from ,australasia by the late ,peron1
 which1 in other  respects1 differs from
 ours1 and from that of ,m4             
,labillardiere1  only in having some    

black markings on the alula and first   
large  coverts1 and in which the head   
and upper part of the neck are covered  
with blackish feathers4 ,it was also a  
youngish individual which ,m4  ,savigny 
brought from ,egypt1 and which is       
figured in his memoir upon  the ,ibis1  
,plate ,i42 and in the great work on    
,egypt1 under the head  ,birds1 ,pl4    
,,vii4 ,the feathers of the head and    
back part of the neck  are rather grey  
than black2 those of the fore part of   
the neck are  white4 ,lastly1 ,bruce's  
figure 7,atlas1 ,plate ,,xxxv47 is also 
taken from  a young individual observed 
in ,abyssinia1 and almost similar to    
that  of ,m4 ,savigny4    ,we have      
received from ,pondicherry1 by ,m4      
,leschenault1 an individual  similar to 
that of ,peron1 but in which1 the head  
only1 and a small  part of the back of  
the neck1 are furnished with blackish   
feathers2  all the rest is covered with 
white feathers4 ,but it is not the less 
certain1 that all these birds have the  

head and the neck bare when  they are   
full grown4    ,the late ,m4 ,mac sent  
from ,bengal to the ,museum several     
individuals  of a species very nearly   
allied to this1 which has the beak a    
little  longer1 and less arched1 of     
which the first quill only has a little 
black on the two edges of its point1 and
 of which the secondary  quills are also
 somewhat attenuated1 and slightly      
tinged with reddish4    ,it appears1    
according to ,m4 ,savigny1 p4 #be1 that 
,m4 ,levaillant  observed another still1
 which has the secondary quills         
similarly  elongated1 but of which the  
neck always retains its feathers1 and   
whose face is of a red colour4    ,the  
same ,m4 ,mac also sent us a tantalus1  
very much resembling that  which has    
been regarded by naturalists as the     
ibis1 but of which the  small           
wing-coverts1 and a broad band at the   
lower part of the breast1  are black1   
and speckled with white4 ,the last      
secondary quills are  elongated1 and    

tinged with rose-colour4 ,it is known   
that1 in the  ,tantalus ibis of         
naturalists1 the small wing-coverts are 
speckled  with purplish red1 and that   
the whole under part of the body is     
white4    ,we give here a table of the  
parts of some of these birds1 which     
could  be accurately measured in stuffed
 individuals4 ,by comparing them  with  
those of the skeletons of embalmed      
ibises1 one may judge if  it were       
possible to believe for a single moment 
that these mummies  belonged to the     
tantalus4                               
----------------------------------------
-------------------------               
,length of the beak1 from its commissure
 to                              the    
tip1                                    
,length of the naked part of the leg1   
,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,body4              
,length of the tarsus1                  
,length of the middle                   
toe1                                    
----------------------------------------

-------------------------    ,tantalus  
,ibis of                                
,naturalists4          #j4baj  #j4acj   
#j4aij  #j4aje                   ,mac's 
,indian                                 
,tantalus4             #j4bfe  #j4aej   
#j4bej  #j4aae                          
,numenius ,ibis the true                
,ibis of the ,ancients4 #j4abe  #j4jda  
#j4jhe  #j4jhj                          
,numenius ,ibis1 measured               
by ,m4 ,savigny4        #j4aed  #j4jef  
#j4jig  #j4jib                   ,mac's 
,numenius4        #j4adh  #j4jee  #j4jie
  #j4jhc                                
,labillardiere's                        
,numenius4             #j4afe  #j4jdj   
#j4jhd  #j4jhf                          
,peron's ,numenius4       #j4aca  #j4jcd
  #j4jhj  #j4jgh                        
,leschenault's ,numenius4 #j4acb  #j4jdd
  #j4jic  #j4jhf                        
----------------------------------------
-------------------------    ,let us now
 examine the books of the ancients and  

their monuments2  let us compare what   
they have said of the ibis1 or the      
figures of it  which they have traced1  
with the bird which we have been        
describing2  and we shall see all our   
difficulties vanishing1 and all the     
testimonies according with what is best 
of all for the purpose1 the  body itself
 of the bird preserved in the mummy4    
8,the most common ibises10 says         
,herodotus1 7,euterpe1 ,no4 #gf47 8have 
the head and the fore-part of the neck  
bare1 the plumage white1  excepting on  
the head1 the nape1 the ends of the     
wings and of the  rump1 which are       
black4#cee ,their beak and feet are     
similar to those  of the other ibises40 
,how does it happen that the travellers 
of our times do not make so  good       
descriptions of the birds which they    
observe as that which  ,herodotus has   
made of the ibis8 ,how could this       
description have been  applied to a bird
 which has only the face bare1 and which
 has that  part of a red colour1 to a   

bird which has the rump white1 and not  
covered over at least as ours by the    
black feathers of the wings8    ,and yet
 this latter character was essential to 
the ibis4 ,plutarch 7,de  ,iside et     
,osiride7 says1 that the manner in which
 the white was cut  by the black in the 
plumage of this bird1 presented the form
 of a  lunar crescent4 ,it is1 in fact1 
by the union of the black of the last   
quills1 with that of the two ends of the
 wings1 that there is formed1  in the   
white1 a large semicircular notch1 which
 gives to the white  the figure of a    
crescent4    ,it is more difficult to   
explain what he has intended to say1 in 
averring that the feet of the ibis form 
an equilateral triangle with  its beak4 
,but we can understand the assertion of 
lian1 that when  it draws in its head   
and neck among its feathers1 it         
represents1 in  some measure1 the figure
 of a heart4#cef ,it was on account of  
this1  according to ,horus ,apollo 7c4  
#ce471 the emblem of the human heart4   

,from what ,herodotus says of the       
nakedness of the throat1 and of the     
feathers which covered the upper part of
 the neck1 he appears to have  had under
 his eyes a middle aged individual2 but 
it is not the less  certain1 that the   
,egyptians also knew very well the      
individuals with  the neck entirely     
bare4 ,we see such represented from     
sculptures in  bronze1 in ,caylus's     
,collection of ,egyptian ,antiquities   
7vol4 i4 pl4  x4 no4 #d41 and vol4 v4   
pl4 xi4 no4 #a47 ,this last figure is   
even so  like our bird represented in   
pl4 v41 that it might be said that it   
was taken from it4    ,the paintings of 
,herculaneum no longer leave any doubt  
on the  subject4 ,plates #ach and #adj  
of ,david's edition1 and vol4 ii4 p4    
#cae1  pl4 #ei1 and p4 #cba1 pl4 #fj of 
the original edition1 which represent   
,egyptian ceremonies1 shew several      
ibises walking in the court of  the     
temples4 ,the characteristic blackness  
of the head and neck are  in particular 

recognised1 and it is easily seen from  
the proportion  which their figure bears
 to the persons in the painting1 that it
 must  have been a bird of half a metre 
at the most1 and not of a metre1 or     
thereabouts1 like the ,tantalus ibis4   
,the mosaic of ,palestine1 also presents
 in its middle part several  ibises     
perched upon buildings4 ,they differ in 
nothing from those of  the paintings of 
,herculaneum4 ,a ,sardonyx of ,dr       
,mead's ,collection1  copied by ,shaw1  
,app4 pl4 v41 and representing an ibis1 
seems to be  a miniature of the bird    
which we have described4 ,a medal of    
,adrian1  in large bronze1 represented  
in the ,farnesian ,museum1 vol4 vi4  pl4
 xxviii4 fig4 #af1 and another of the   
same emperor1 in silver1  represented in
 vol4 iii4 pl4 vi4 fig4 #i1 afford      
figures of the ibis1  which1            
notwithstanding their smallness1 are    
pretty like our bird4    ,with regard to
 the figures of the ibis1 sculptured    
upon the plinth  of the statue of the   

,nile1 at ,belvedere1 and upon the copy 
of it at  the garden of the ,tuileries1 
they are not sufficiently finished to   
serve as proofs2 but among the          
hieroglyphics of which the ,institute   
of ,egypt has caused impressions to be  
made upon the spot1 there are  several  
which distinctly represent our bird4 ,in
 plate iii4 fig4  #a1 we give one of    
these impressions which ,m4 ,geoffroy   
has had the  politeness to communicate  
to us4    ,we insist particularly on    
this latter figure1 because it is the   
most  authentic of all1 having been made
 at the time1 and on the spot where  the
 ibis was worshipped1 and being         
cotemporary with its mummies2  while    
those which we have cited above1 having 
been made in ,italy1 and  by artists who
 did not profess the ,egyptian worship1 
might have been  less faithful4    ,we  
owe to ,bruce the justice of saying1    
that he recognised the bird  which he   
describes under the name of             
,abou-,hannes1 as the true  ibis4 ,he   

says expressly1 that this bird appeared 
to him to resemble  that which the mummy
 pitchers contained2 and further1 that  
this  ,abou-,hannes1 or ,father ,john1  
is very common on the banks of the      
,nile1 while he never saw there the bird
 represented by ,buffon1 under  the name
 of the ,white ,ibis of ,egypt4    ,m4  
,savigny1 one of the naturalists of the 
expedition to ,egypt1  equally asserts  
his not having seen the ,tantalus in    
that country1  but he obtained a great  
number of our ,numenius near the ,lake  
,menzale1 in ,lower ,egypt1 and carried 
their skins with him4    ,the           
,abou-,hannes has been placed by        
,latham1 in his ,index  ,ornithologicus1
 under the name of ,tantalus thiopicus2 
but he does  not speak of ,bruce's      
conjecture respecting its identity with 
the  ibis4 ,the travellers before and   
after ,bruce appear to have all been  in
 error4 ,belon thought that the white   
ibis was the stork1 in which  he        
evidently contradicted all testimony on 

that head4 ,no person has  adopted his  
opinion in this matter1 excepting the   
apothecaries1 who  have taken the stork 
for an emblem1 because they have        
confounded it  with the ibis1 to which  
the invention of clysters is            
attributed#ceg4    ,prosper ,alpinus1   
who relates that this invention is due  
to the  ibis1 gives no description of   
this bird in his ,medicine of the       
,egyptians#ceh4 ,in his ,natural        
,history of ,egypt1 he speaks of it only
  after ,herodotus1 to whose account he 
only adds1 without doubt from a  passage
 of ,strabo1 which ,i shall mention     
farther on1 that that bird  resembles   
the stork in size and figure4 ,he       
mentions his having been  informed that 
white and black ones occurred in        
abundance on the edges  of the ,nile2   
but it is evident from his very         
expressions1 that he did  not believe it
 had been seen there#cei4    ,shaw says 
of the ibis1#cfj that it is at the      
present day excessively  rare1 and that 

he has never seen it4 ,his ,emseesy1 or 
ox-bird1 which  ,gmelin very improperly 
refers to the ,tantalus ,ibis1 is of the
 size  of the curlew1 with the body     
white1 and the beak and feet red4 ,it   
frequents the meadows1 where it follows 
the cattle2 its flesh is not  well      
tasted1 and corrupts quickly4 ,it is    
easy to see that this is not  the       
,tantalus1 and still less the ,ibis of  
the ancients4    ,hasselquist was not   
acquainted with the white ,ibis nor with
 the black  one1 his ,ardea ,ibis is a  
small heron1 which has the beak         
straight4  ,linnus had acted very       
properly in placing it among the herons1
 in  his tenth edition2 but he erred1 as
 ,i have said1 in transporting it       
afterwards as a synonym to the genus    
,tantalus4    ,demaillet#cfa conjectures
 that the ibis might be the bird        
peculiar  to ,egypt1 and which was named
 ,pharaoh's ,fowl 7,chapon de ,pharaon71
  and at ,aleppo ,saphan-bacha4 ,it     
devours serpents4 ,there are of them    

white1 and white and black2 and it      
follows1 for more than a hundred        
leagues1 the caravans which go from     
,cairo to ,mecca1 for the purpose  of   
feeding upon the carcases of animals    
which are killed during the  journey1   
while at any other time there is not one
 seen along this  route4 ,but the author
 does not consider this conjecture as   
certain2  he even says1 that we must    
give up understanding the ancients1 when
  they have spoken so as not to be      
understood4 ,he ends with concluding1   
that the ancients have perhaps          
indiscriminately comprehended under  the
 name of ,ibis1 all birds which rendered
 to ,egypt the service of  clearing it  
of the dangerous reptiles which this    
climate produces  in abundance1 such as 
the vulture1 the falcon1 the stork1 the 
sparrowhawk1 c4    ,he had reason not to
 regard his ,pharaoh's fowl as the ibis2
 for1  although its description is very 
imperfect1 and although ,buffon  fancied
 he recognised the ibis in it1 it is    

easy to judge1 as well  as by what      
,pokocke says of it1 that this bird must
 be a carnivorous  one2 and1 in fact1 we
 see from ,bruce's figure 7,vol4 v4 p4  
#aia4 of  the ,french edition71 that    
,pharaoh's fowl is nothing else than the
  rachama or the small white vulture    
with black wings 7,vultur  perenopterus1
 ,linn47--a bird very different from    
what we have proved  above to be the    
ibis4    ,pokocke says that it appears1 
from the descriptions which are given   
of the ibis1 and from the figures which 
he has seen of it in the  temples of    
,upper ,egypt1 that it was a species of 
,crane4 ,i have seen1  he adds1 a number
 of these birds in the islands of the   
,nile2 they  were for the most part     
greyish#cfb4 ,these few words suffice to
 prove  that he did not know the ibis   
better than the others4    ,the learned 
have not been more happy in their       
conjectures than the  travellers4       
,middleton refers to the ibis1 a bronze 
figure of a  bird1 of which the beak is 

arched1 but short1 the neck very long1  
and the head furnished with a small     
crest1 a figure which never had  any    
resemblance to the bird of the          
,egyptians#cfc4 ,this figure is1        
besides1 not at all in the ,egyptian    
style1 and ,middleton himself  agrees   
that it must have been made at ,rome4   
,saumaise upon ,solinus  says nothing   
that relates to the present question4   
,as to the black ibis1 which ,aristotle 
places only near ,pelusium#cfd2  it was 
long thought that ,belon alone had seen 
it#cfe4 ,the bird which  he describes   
under this name is a species of curlew1 
to which he  attributes a head similar  
to that of the cormorant1 that is to    
say1  apparently bald1 a red beak1 and  
feet of the same colour2 but as he  does
 not speak of the ibis in his           
journey#cff1 ,i suppose that it was     
only in ,france that he made this       
reference1 and by comparison with       
mummies of the ,ibis4 ,what is certain  
is1 that this curlew1 with the  beak and

 feet red1 was not known in ,egypt#cfg1 
but that our green  curlew of ,europe   
7,scolopax ,falcinellus1 ,linn4 ,pl4    
,enl4 #hai47 is  seen very commonly     
there1 that it is even more abundant    
than the  white numenius#cfh2 and1 as it
 resembles it in form and size1 and1    
further1 as its plumage may appear      
black1 it can by no means be  doubted   
that it was the true black ibis of the  
ancients4 ,m4 ,savigny  also made a     
drawing of it in ,egypt1 but from a     
young individual  only#cfi4 ,buffon's   
figure is from an adult bird2 but its   
colours are  too pale4    ,the error    
which prevails at present respecting the
 white ibis began  with ,perrault1 who  
was also the first naturalist who made  
known the  ,tantalus ibis of the present
 day4 ,this error1 adopted by ,brisson  
and ,buffon1 passed into the twelfth    
edition of ,linnus1 where it is  blended
 with that of ,hasselquist1 which had   
been inserted in the  tenth1 forming    
with it a compound altogether monstrous4

    ,it was founded on the idea1 that   
the ibis was essentially a bird that    
destroyed serpents1 and upon this very  
natural conclusion1 that1 in  order to  
enable it to devour these reptiles1 it  
was necessary for it  to have a sharp   
beak1 more or less resembling that of   
the heron4 ,this  idea is even the only 
good objection that can be made against 
the  identity of our bird to the ibis4  
,how1 it is urged1 could a bird with  a 
weak bill1 a curlew1 devour those       
dangerous reptiles8    ,it may be       
replied1 that positive proofs1 such     
descriptions1 figures1  and mummies1    
ought always to preponderate over       
accounts of habits  too often imagined  
without any other motive than to justify
 the  different worships rendered to    
animals4 ,it might be added1 the        
serpents from which the ibis delivered  
,egypt1 are represented to  us as very  
venomous1 but not as very large4 ,i have
 even obtained a  direct proof that the 
birds preserved as mummies1 which have  

had a  beak precisely similar to that of
 our bird1 were true serpent eaters2    
for ,i found in one of their mummies the
 still undigested remains  of the skin  
and scales of serpents1 which ,i have   
deposited in our  anatomical galleries4 
,but1 at the present day1 ,m4 ,savigny1 
who has observed1 in a living  state1   
and more than once dissected our white  
numenius1 the bird  which every thing   
concurs to prove to have been the ibis1 
asserts  that it only eats worms1 fresh 
water shells1 and other small animals   
of that sort4 ,supposing this fact to   
have no exception1 all that can  be     
concluded from it is1 that the          
,egyptians1 as has happened more  than  
once to them and others1 had invented a 
false reason for an  absurd worship4 ,it
 is true that ,herodotus says1 he saw1  
in a place  on the borders of the       
desert#cgj1 near ,buto1 a narrow gorge1 
in  which a multitude of bones were     
heaped up1 which he was informed  were  
remains of winged serpents1 that were   

seeking to penetrate into  ,egypt in    
spring1 and that the ibises had arrested
 their passage4 ,but  he does not say   
that he had witnessed their combats1 or 
that he had  seen those winged serpents 
in their entire state4 ,the whole of his
  testimony1 therefore1 reduces itself  
to this1 that he had observed a  heap of
 bones1 which may very well have been   
those of the multitude  of reptiles and 
other animals which the inundation      
destroyed every  year1 and whose bodies 
it would naturally carry to the places  
where  it was stopped1 to the borders of
 the desert1 and which must by          
preference have accumulated in a narrow 
gorge4    ,however1 it is equally from  
this idea of the combats of the ibis    
with  serpents1 that ,cicero gives that 
bird a horny and strong beak#cga4       
,having never been in ,egypt1 he        
imagined that this must have been the   
case by mere analogy4    ,i am aware    
that ,strabo says somewhere1 that the   
ibis resembles the  stork in form and   

size#cgb1 and that this author ought to 
have  known it well1 since he asserts   
that in his time the streets and        
cross-ways of ,alexandria were so filled
 with them1 that they proved a  great   
inconvenience2 but he must have spoken  
of it from memory4 ,his  testimony      
cannot be received when he contradicts  
all the rest1 and  especially when the  
bird itself is there to refute him4     
,in like manner1 ,i shall not trouble   
myself about the passage where  lian#cgc
 relates1 according to the ,egyptian    
embalmers1 that the  intestines of the  
ibis are eighty-six cubits long4 ,the   
,egyptian  priests of all classes have  
been guilty of so many extravagancies   
with regard to ,natural ,history1 that  
no great importance can be  attributed  
to what one of their lowest classes     
might aver4    ,an objection might still
 be drawn against my opinion from the   
long  attenuated and black feathers     
which cover the rump of our bird1  and  
of which some traces also are seen in   

,bruce's figure of the  ,abou-,hannes4  
,the ancients1 it might be said1 do not 
speak of them in  their descriptions1   
and their figures do not exhibit them4  
,but ,i have  more on my side1 in       
respect to this matter1 than a written  
testimony  or a figured representation4 
,i have found precisely the same        
feathers  in one of the ,saccara        
mummies2 ,i kept them carefully as being
 at  once a singular monument of        
antiquity and a peremptory proof of the 
identity of species4 ,these feathers    
having an uncommon form1 and not        
occurring1 ,i believe1 in any other     
curlew1 leave1 in fact1 no doubt        
respecting the accuracy of my opinion4  
,i conclude this memoir with a view of  
its results3    #a4 ,the ,tantalus ,ibis
 of ,linnus ought to constitute a       
separate genus1  along with the         
,tantalus ,loculator4 ,their character  
would be3  ,rostrum lve1 validum1       
arcuatum1 apice utrinque emarginatum4   
#b4 ,the other ,tantali of the last     

editions should form a genus with  the  
common curlews1 to which the name of    
,numenius might be given4  ,the         
character of the genus would be3        
,rostrum teres1 gracile1  arcuatum1     
apice mutico4 ,for the special character
 of the subgenus  of the ,ibises1 there 
should be added3 ,sulco laterali per    
totam  longitudinem exarato4    #c4 ,the
 white ibis of the ancients is not the  
ibis of ,perrault and  ,buffon1 which is
 a ,tantalus2 nor the ibis of           
,hasselquist1 which is  an ,ardea2 nor  
the ibis of ,maillet1 which is a        
,vulture2 but it is  a bird of the genus
 ,numenius1 and of the sub-genus ,ibis1 
which has  hitherto been described and  
figured only by ,bruce1 under the name  
of  ,abou-,hannes4 ,i give it the name  
of ,,numenius ,,ibis1 albus1 capite  et 
collo adulti nudis1 remigum apicibus1   
rostro et pedibus nigris1  remigibus    
secondariis elongatis nigro-violaceis4  
#d4 ,the black ibis of the ancients is  
probably the bird which we  know in     

,europe under the name of ,green        
,curlew1 or the ,scolopax  ,falcinellus 
of ,linnus4 ,it also belongs to the     
genus ,numenius1 and  to the sub-genus  
,ibis4    #e4 ,the ,tantalus ,ibis of   
,linnus1 in the present state of        
synonymy1  comprehends four species of  
three different genera1 namely1    #a4  
,a ,tantalus1 the ibis of ,perrault and 
,buffon2    #b4 ,an ,ardea1 the ibis of 
,hasselquist2    #c4 and #d4 ,two       
,numenii1 the ibis of ,belonius1 and the
 ox-bird of ,shaw4    ,from this        
example1 and so many others1 one may    
judge of the state in  which the        
,systema ,natur still exists1 which it  
would be of so much  advantage to purge 
by degrees of the errors with which it  
abounds1  and which would seem to be    
every day increasing1 by the addition of
  species1 characters1 and synonyms1    
made without selection and without      
critical examination4    ,the general   
conclusion of the whole investigation   
is1 that the ,ibis  still exists in     

,egypt1 as it did in the days of the    
,pharaohs1 and1  that it was owing to   
the inaccuracy of naturalists that the  
species  was for some time thought to be
 extinct1 or to have been altered in    
its forms4          ,,geological        
,,illustrations1    ,,by    ,,professor 
,,jameson4      ,in ,civil ,history     
records are consulted1 medals examined1 
and antique  inscriptions deciphered1 in
 order to determine the epochs of human 
revolutions1 and verify moral events2 so
 in ,natural ,history we must  search   
the archives of the world2 draw from the
 bowels of the earth  the monuments of  
former times2 collect the fragments1 and
 gather into  one body of proofs all the
 indices of physical changes1 which may 
enable us to retrace the different ages 
of nature4 ,it is thus only  that we can
 fix some points in the immensity of    
space1 and mark the  progressive stages 
in the eternal march of time4           
,,illustrations4      ,,note ,a and ,b1 
p4 #i4    ,on the ,subsidence of        

,strata4    ,m4 ,cuvier adopts the      
opinion of ,de ,luc1 that all the older 
strata  of which the crust of the earth 
is composed1 were originally in  an     
horizontal situation1 and have been     
raised into their present               
highly-inclined position1 by subsidences
 that have taken place over  the whole  
surface of the earth4    ,it cannot be  
doubted1 that subsidences1 to a         
considerable extent1  have taken place2 
yet we are not of opinion that these    
have been so  general as maintained by  
these geologists4 ,we are rather        
inclined to  believe1 that the present  
inclined position of strata is in       
general  their original one2--an opinion
 which is countenanced by the known     
mode of connection of strata1 the       
phenomena of veins1 particularly        
contemporaneous veins1 the crystalline  
nature of every species of  older rock1 
and the great regularity in the         
direction of strata  throughout the     
globe4    ,the transition and fltz-rocks

 also are much more of a chemical or    
crystalline nature than has been        
generally imagined4 ,even sandstone1    
one of the most abundant of the         
fltz-rocks1 occasionally occurs in      
masses1 many yards in extent1 which     
individually have a tabular or          
stratified structure2 but1 when viewed  
on the great scale1 appear to  be great 
massive distinct concretions4 ,these    
massive concretions1  with their        
subordinate tabular structures1 if not  
carefully  investigated1 are apt to     
bewilder the mineralogist1 and to force 
him  to have recourse to a general      
system of subsidence or elevation of    
the strata1 in order to explain the     
phenomena they exhibit4      ,,note ,c1 
p4 #ac4    ,,deluge4    ,there are many 
facts1 some of which are recorded in the
 ,bible1 that  are hostile to ,cuvier   
and ,de ,luc's opinions stated in the   
text1  viz4 that the bed of the ocean   
was changed at the flood1 or last  great
 catastrophe2 and that the land1        

formerly occupied by animals1  was      
henceforth given up to fishes and other 
marine tribes4 ,we are  told1 for       
example1 that the dove1 which was sent  
forth from the ark1  found an           
olive-tree1 whence it plucked a leaf1 to
 carry back to the  patriarch1 as a     
proof that the waters of the deluge were
 subsiding2  and we also find that the  
,assyrian rivers1 which originally      
marked  the situation of ,eden1 retained
 the same geographical relations after  
the earth had been repeopled4 ,the      
natural history of the fossil  organic  
remains contained in alluvial deposits1 
is also in opposition  to the opinion of
 ,de ,luc4      ,,note ,d1 p4 #ai4      
,,formation ,,of ,,primitive            
,,mountains4    ,mitscherlich1 in a     
memoir read before the ,royal ,academy  
of ,berlin1  but not yet published1     
enters fully into the illustration of   
the  igneous origin of mountains1       
especially those of the primitive class1
  deducible from his experiments on the 

formation of minerals by  fusion4 ,as   
the view is interesting1 we shall here  
give a short sketch  of it4    ,have the
 primitive mountains of our globe1 whose
 form necessarily  supposes a fluid     
state1 been dissolved in water2 or has  
the  temperature of our earth been      
raised to such a degree1 that the       
substances of which our primitive       
mountains are formed have become  fluid8
 ,this question has been differently    
answered1 and the solutions  given have 
been attempted to be supported in       
proportion as the  observation of       
geological facts1 and the inquiries     
instituted  with reference to the       
chemical combinations which compose the 
earth1 have been developed4 ,new        
observations1 and the discovery of      
unknown laws in chemistry and           
mineralogy1 must1 at the same time1     
open a new field for speculation and    
observation in geology4 ,of  the        
discoveries of our own times1 there     
certainly is none which  has exercised a

 greater influence upon mineralogy than 
that of  determinate proportions1 and   
especially the result of the researches 
of ,berzelius1 that the chemical        
combinations which nature produces1  are
 formed according to the laws which he  
has discovered with regard  to          
artificial combinations2 a result which 
has entirely changed the  aspect of this
 science1 and has elicited a new system 
of mineralogy1  in which the            
natural-chemical combinations are ranked
 with those  which are artificial2 which
 affords a confirmation to the laws of  
crystallography1 as being the same in   
both cases4    ,it has been objected to 
the truth of the position1 that the laws
  of natural combinations are the same  
as those which artificial  combinations 
follow2 that chemistry can decompose    
minerals2 but  that1 in the formation of
 these combinations1 natural laws have  
been in activity1 which art would in    
vain attempt to reproduce3 but  this    
objection is groundless4 ,the chemical  

affinity which acts in  artificial      
combinations is a power of nature1 as   
well as the affinity  which regulates   
the composition of natural combinations3
 chemical  affinity1 in general1 is a   
quality of matter4 ,in this objection1  
modifying circumstances have been       
confounded with laws4 ,the chemist      
would very easily refute the objection1 
if he could compose minerals  of their  
elements1 and produce artificial        
combinations similar in all  their      
characters to minerals themselves4 ,from
 such researches1 there  would1 at the  
same time1 be diffused a new light upon 
geological  investigations4 ,in this    
manner many phenomena would be          
reproduced1  which have taken place at  
the formation of the earth2 geological  
observations would be repeated by       
experiments1 which might be varied  at  
pleasure1 for confirming these          
observations2 and the recurrence  in    
nature itself would be sought of those  
phenomena which have been  produced in  

the laboratory2--inquiries1 which are1  
however1 of great  importance1 because  
they may be arbitrarily disposed and    
arranged  according to the theory in    
view4    ,the importance of such        
attempts shew the value of any          
experiments  that go to prove the       
formation of minerals by artificial     
means2 and  ,mitscherlich has been very 
successful in detecting several mineral 
species formed artificially4            
,berzelius has shown1 in his ,chemical  
,system of ,mineralogy1 that the        
greater part of the chemical            
combinations of which our ,earth is     
composed1 and especially the primitive  
mountains1 are analogous to  salts and  
double salts2 and that1 in these        
combinations1 the silica1  carbonic     
acid1 and oxide of iron1 act the part of
 acids2 the silica  combines with the   
alumina1 lime1 magnesia1 protoxide and  
peroxide  of iron1 protoxide of         
manganese1 potash and soda1 forming1    
with  these bases1 either simple salts1 

or double salts1 in proportions         
determined by the different degrees of  
saturation2 the carbonic acid  is       
combined with the lime and manganese1   
and the peroxide of iron  with the      
protoxide4    ,the object which should  
be proposed in these attempts1 of which 
we  speak1 is to investigate the        
relation of these bases to the three    
acids4 ,we find ourselves fortunately   
seconded in this attempt by  a branch of
 national industry2 for the complete    
extraction of the  greater number of    
metals depends upon the relation of the 
silica to  the above-mentioned bases1   
the degrees of saturation in which the  
silica may occur with them1 the greater 
or less degree of affinity  with which  
these bases combine with the silica1    
and1 lastly1 the  chemical qualities of 
the combination formed4 ,it is necessary
 for  the metallurgist that he          
endeavour1 in order to attain his object
  completely1 to produce1 in proportion 
as the minerals differ1  different      

chemical combinations of the substances 
which compose  these minerals2 but      
always in determinate proportions1      
either by  adding a foreign substance1  
or by regulating the fusion by the      
choice  of minerals4 ,the combinations  
which the metallurgist thus produces1   
are ordinarily minerals which have      
already been found in nature1  sometimes
 even new species4    ,during a journey 
in ,sweden1 ,mitscherlich observed at   
,fahlun1 where  he made inquiries       
regarding the ores1 the scori1 and in   
general  regarding the extraction of    
copper1 in order to form a correct idea 
of this operation1 not only some        
well-formed crystals in the scori2  but 
also found that the whole mass of the   
slag had a crystalline  texture2 and    
that the crystals1 and the joints of the
 slags which had  a lamellar texture1   
remained the same at different periods  
of fusion1  provided only that the      
manner of operating of the metallurgist 
remained the same4 ,the examination of  

the crystalline figure of the  slag     
proved1 that it was that of a mineral   
which has a composition  analogous to   
that of the slag4 ,after having made    
this observation1 he  found in almost   
every foundery which he visited in      
,sweden1 different  crystalline         
combinations1 which resembled minerals4 
,thus he found at  ,fahlun1 silicate and
 bisilicate of protoxide of iron2 at    
,garpenberg1  mica1 and several times   
augite and chrysolite4 ,these           
combinations  have not only the same    
crystalline figures1 but also all the   
other  characters of the corresponding  
minerals4    ,i have pursued these      
inquiries1 says ,mitscherlich1 since my 
return  from ,sweden2 ,i have analysed  
the productions which ,i have found1 and
  the analysis has confirmed what the   
exterior had led to anticipate4 ,i  have
 also augmented my observations by      
journeys in various districts  of       
,germany2 and farther1 ,i have been     
seconded in my researches by my         

friends2 so that ,i now possess upwards 
of forty different species of           
crystallized chemical combinations      
produced by fusion1 the greater  number 
of which are minerals already known2    
some are new species1  which have not   
hitherto been met with in nature4       
,the occurrence of mica1 which forms a  
predominant constituent part of  our    
primitive mountains1 as an artificial   
production1 gave rise to  the following 
geological speculations4    ,the        
artificial production by fusion1 of the 
minerals which compose  our primitive   
rocks1 appears1 according to            
,mitscherlich1 to place  beyond doubt   
the theory that our primitive mountains 
were formerly  a melted mass4 ,such a   
state of fluidity1 he continues1 affords
 an  easy explanation of the figure of  
the ,earth1 of the increase of          
temperature as we proceed into its      
interior1 of hot springs1 and of  many  
other phenomena4 ,with respect to this  
theory1 we may refer to ,m4  ,laplace1  

who is convinced of its plausibility1   
without grounding his  belief upon the  
reasons which chemistry presents4 ,i    
propose1 however1  to make mention of a 
few facts1 in order to shew with what   
facility  many chemical phenomena in    
geology may be explained by following   
this  theory4    ,primitive mountains   
are generally distributed over the      
surface of the  earth3 it necessarily   
follows that the bodies which have      
composed  the surface of the earth have 
participated of the temperature which   
the primitive mountains have had at the 
period when they were in a  fluid state4
 ,the temperature at which water boils  
depends upon the  pressure of the       
atmosphere2 and if the temperature of   
the earth  increases1 we only require to
 diminish the mean height of the sea    
#cb feet1 in order to have a pressure of
 an atmosphere more2 and it  is by this 
pressure that the degree of temperature 
at which water  boils will also be      
raised higher4 ,m4 ,laplace judges from 

the height  of the sea during flowing   
and ebbing1 that the mean depth of the  
sea is about #if1jjj feet4 ,supposing   
three-fourths of this mass of  water    
were converted into vapour1 the pressure
 of this vapour would  be nearly equal  
to #bbej atmospheres2 and this pressure 
would so  augment the degree of heat at 
which water enters into ebullition1     
that the primitive mountains might be in
 a state of fusion1 without  the water  
with which they are covered being heated
 to the boiling  point2 for the water   
which is not converted into vapour1 and 
whose  quantity is a fourth of the whole
 mass of vapour1 according to the       
supposition which we have made1 would   
cover the whole earth1 because  water   
expands in increasing proportion if the 
temperature be raised1  and because the 
expansion of water is much greater than 
that of the  mass of our primitive      
mountains2 and1 consequently1 according 
to  this supposition1 our primitive     
mountains are formed1 covered with  red 

hot water4 ,the great pressure of so    
many atmospheres necessarily  modifies  
the reciprocal affinities of the        
substances which compose  the primitive 
mountains4    ,primitive mountains are  
distinguished from volcanic productions 
in  this1 that the lime and magnesia1   
which in them are combined with         
carbonic acid1 form with the silex      
silicates and bisilicates4 ,it  is      
necessary that the silex1 which1 under  
the ordinary pressure1  and at an       
elevated temperature1 expels the        
carbonic acid1 exercise  no influence   
under the pressure of so many           
atmospheres2 and it is  not surprising  
that crystals of quartz occur in        
,carrara marble4  ,in volcanic          
productions1 this pressure no longer    
exists1 and we  should find among these 
the same phenomena which our            
laboratories  and metallurgic operations
 present4 ,following this theory1 the   
circumstances that primitive mountains  
contain gypsum and carbonates1  and that

 water occurs in quartz1 very readily   
admit of explanation4  ,and with regard 
to this latter phenomenon1 the          
observations detailed  by ,sir ,humphry 
,davy afford an additional confirmation 
of the theory  in question4    ,we may  
explain in the same manner another      
phenomenon1 which is more  in connection
 with the present state of our globe4   
,many observations  shew that the sea   
stood formerly at a much higher level   
than it does  at present4 ,the water of 
the sea expands1 if the temperature be  
elevated more than the land4 ,admitting 
that the surface of the earth  has a    
temperature of #hj of ,reaumur1 and that
 the mean depth of the  sea may be      
#if1jjj feet1 the height of the sea     
would then be #djjj feet  higher than it
 is at present4 ,if we suppose1 as may  
be done without  committing any great   
error1 that the expansion of the        
primitive  mountains is equal to that of
 glass1 and that they have been at a    
temperature of #bjj1 and even at a much 

lower one1 the water of the  sea would  
cover the secondary mountains1 in which 
we find the remains  of marine animals4 
,this explanation of the former height  
of the sea  appears very simple1 because
 the elevated temperature of the earth  
may have resulted either from its       
original state of fluidity1 or from  a  
geological revolution1 which has        
destroyed1 at the same time1 the        
organic beings of a former period4      
,if primitive mountains and volcanic    
formations have been fluid1 and  have   
crystallised on cooling1 it is necessary
 that we should retrace  in them the    
same phenomena and the same laws which  
we still observe  at the present time4  
,if a fluid body become solid by        
cooling1 these  phenomena are           
differently modified1 according to the  
chemical nature  of the bodies1 and     
according to the crystalline forms which
 they  acquire on cooling2 but the laws 
remain always the same4 ,mitscherlich   
says1 ,i am in possession of some       

specimens which explain several  of the 
phenomena so often shewn by basalt and  
volcanic formations4  ,i do not possess 
artificial basalt resembling the natural
 columnar  kind2 yet the slags obtained 
at the furnaces of ,sahla resemble      
basalt  so perfectly1 as to deceive the 
most experienced eye1 especially  as    
their cavities contain crystals of      
augite4 ,but ,i have found at  ,fahlun a
 bisilicate of protoxide of iron1 which 
has in consequence  a composition       
analogous to that of basalt1 and which  
has distinct  joints4 ,in this slag we  
perceive that the joints1 which are     
parallel to the axis of the prism and to
 the lateral planes of the  crystals1   
are always perpendicular to the plane of
 cooling4 ,this is  particularly        
observable in a specimen which was      
obtained by melting  the slag in a      
mould2 on crystallizing it had several  
planes of  cooling1 and the joints are  
parallel to each of these planes4 ,the  
planes of separation in basalt present  

exactly the same phenomenon as  this    
slag4    ,the phenomena which take place
 when a fluid body crystallizes may be  
observed in sulphur1 better than in any 
other body4 ,all fluid bodies1  however1
 and even water1 on freezing1 present   
the same phenomena4    ,if a fluid body 
has cooled to the point at which it     
begins to become  solid1 for example1   
sulphur1 in a round vessel1 a crust of  
sulphur is  not formed upon the surface 
of the cooled vessel1 and another crust 
upon the surface of the sulphur itself1 
as might be expected2 on the  contrary1 
if a crystal be formed upon a point of  
the inner surface of  the vessel1 the   
crystal enlarges by growing in the      
direction of its  axis1 and the mass    
which surrounds the crystal remains     
liquid1 and  sometimes cools1 without   
the molecules arranging themselves in   
the  same manner as the crystal already 
formed4 ,on examining the cooled  mass1 
we observe that it shews a lamellar     
texture where the crystal  was formed1  

and that the mass which surrounded it   
does not shew this  texture in the same 
degree4 ,this explains how veins of     
large-granular  granite traverse a      
small-granular granite1 as well as other
 phenomena  of the same nature4    ,this
 observation also affords an explanation
 of another phenomenon4  ,if the half of
 the liquid mass has become solid1 and  
if the fluid  part be poured off1 we    
obtain isolated crystals1 which have    
been  formed in the fluid mass4 ,if the 
fluid part be not poured off1  and be   
permitted to cool slowly1 it contracts1 
as is the case  with most bodies1 and   
the contraction produces the same effect
 as  the decantation2 small cavities    
will be formed1 and these will be       
traversed and covered over with distinct
 crystals4 ,we also observe  this       
phenomenon in the geodes of primitive   
and volcanic mountains1 in  which the   
crystals they contain are of the same   
minerals as those of  which the         
mountains themselves are composed4      

,,note ,e1 p4 #bc4    ,,on ,,the        
,,distribution ,,of ,,boulder ,,stones  
,,in ,,scotland1 ,,holland1 ,,germany1  
,,switzerland1 ,,and ,,america4         
,numerous large blocks are met with in  
almost every country of ,europe1  and   
frequently far removed from their       
original situations4 ,this is           
frequently the case in ,scotland3 thus1 
in the ,edinburgh district1  we have    
numerous blocks of primitive rocks1 of  
which no fixed rocks  occur nearer than 
in our ,highland mountains4    ,in the  
north of ,holland1 ,germany1 and the    
countries bordering on  the ,baltic1    
enormous fragments of granite and       
syenite are scattered  within certain   
limits4 ,according to ,humboldt1 it     
seems to be now  proved1 that they have 
been carried southward1 with a          
distribution  like that of radii from a 
centre1 from the ,scandinavian          
peninsula1  during some of the ancient  
revolutions of our globe1 and that they 
have not originally belonged to the     

granitic chains of the ,hartz and       
,saxony1 which they approach without1   
however1 actually attaining  their      
basis#cgd4 ,born1 says ,humboldt1 on the
 sandy plains of the  ,baltic1 and until
 the age of eighteen1 not knowing any   
other rock  than these scattered blocks1
 ,i could not but feel curious to know  
whether the new world presented any     
thing of a similar nature4 ,i  was      
surprised not to find a single block of 
this description in the  ,llanos of     
,venezuela1 although the immense plains 
were immediately  bordered to the south 
by a group of mountains entirely        
granitic#cge1  and which presents1 in   
its broken and almost columnar peaks1   
traces  of the most violent action#cgf4 
,towards the north1 the granitic  chain 
of the ,silla of ,caracas and of        
,portocabello is separated from  the    
,llanos1 by a range of mountains which  
are schistose between  ,villa de ,cura  
and ,parapara1 and calcareous between   
the ,bergantin and  ,caripe4 ,i was     

equally struck with the same absence of 
blocks upon the  banks of the ,amazon4  
,la ,condamine had already affirmed1    
that from  the ,pongo of ,manseriche to 
the strait of ,pauxis1 not the smallest 
stone was to be observed4 ,now1 the     
basin of the ,rio ,nigro and of  the    
,amazon is also but a ,llano1 a plain   
like those of ,venezuela and  ,buenos   
,ayres1 the difference consisting only  
in the state of the  vegetation4 ,the   
two ,llanos1 situated at the northern   
and southern  extremities of ,south     
,america1 are covered with gramine2 they
 are  ,savannas destitute of trees4 ,the
 intermediate ,llano1 that of the       
,amazon1 exposed to almost continual    
equatorial rains1 is a thick  forest4 ,i
 do not remember to have heard that the 
,pampas of ,buenos  ,ayres or the       
,savannas of the ,missouri#cgg and ,new 
,mexico contain  granitic blocks4 ,the  
absence of this phenomenon appears      
general in  the new world4 ,it is       
probably equally so in the ,sahara in   

,africa2  for we must not confound rocky
 masses which pierce the soil in the    
midst of the desert1 and of which       
mention has often been made by          
travellers1 with mere scattered         
fragments4 ,these facts seem to prove1  
that the blocks of ,scandinavian        
granite1 which cover the sandy plains   
on the southern side of the ,baltic1 in 
,westphalia1 and in ,holland1  are owing
 to a particular debacle which proceeded
 from the north1  to a purely local     
catastrophe4 ,the old conglomerate 7grs 
rouge71  which covers a great part of   
the ,llanos of ,venezuela and of the    
basin  of the ,amazon1 contains1 without
 doubt1 fragments of those same         
primitive rocks of which the            
neighbouring mountains are composed2    
but the convulsions of which these      
mountains present undoubted  evidences1 
do not seem to have been accompanied    
with circumstances  favourable to the   
transportation of great blocks4 ,this   
geognostic  phenomenon is so much the   

more unexpected1 that nowhere in the    
world  does there exist a plain so      
continuous1 and which is prolonged with 
fewer interruptions to the abrupt       
declivity of a purely granitic          
cordillera4 ,before my departure from   
,europe1 says ,humboldt1 ,i had  already
 been struck with the observation that  
there are no primitive  blocks in       
,lombardy1 nor in the great plain of    
,bavaria1 which is the  bottom of an    
ancient lake1 having an elevation of    
#bej fathoms above  the level of the    
ocean4 ,this plain is bounded on the    
north by the  granites of the ,upper    
,palatinate1 and on the south by the    
alpine  limestones1 transition          
clay-slates1 and mica-slates of the     
,tyrol4    ,boulders1 or loose blocks of
 alpine rocks1 are found in the lower   
part of the ,alpine valleys1 which      
terminate in the great principal  valley
 that stretches between the ,alps and   
the ,jura1 from the ,lake  of ,geneva to
 the ,lake ,constance2 and are also     

found almost every  where in this great 
principal valley4 ,they are sometimes   
met with  #djjj feet above the level of 
the sea1 on the side of the ,jura1      
facing  the ,alps1 and also in          
considerable numbers in many of the     
valleys of  the ,jura itself4 ,these    
blocks occur only on the surface1 never 
in any  solid rock1 and no one ever met 
with them in the subjacent strata of    
sandstone1 marl1 or conglomerate of the 
hills and valleys1 interposed  between  
the ,alps and the ,jura2 but they are   
sometimes found deep in  the soil1 or   
imbedded or surrounded with the debris  
formed by rivers4    ,the traveller is  
often surprised by the enormous         
magnitude of these  loose blocks1 some  
of them being calculated to contain     
#ej1jjj cubic  feet4 ,the smaller masses
 are distinguished from those brought   
down by  rivers1 by their position1 that
 is1 their occurring on heights and     
acclivities1 where no river could ever  
have run4 ,they may also be  confounded 

with blocks from decaying conglomerate2 
hence it is proper  to be on our guard1 
not only to distinguish these blocks    
from those  derived from conglomerate   
rocks1 but also from the rolled masses  
belonging to river courses4    ,the     
height at which they are found does not 
appear to have any  relation to their   
magnitude1 for we often find very large 
blocks at  considerable heights1 and    
also in deep valleys2 and we also meet  
with  small masses as well in the       
bottoms of valleys1 as high up on the   
mountains4    ,they occur sometimes in  
heaps1 or dispersed in single blocks2   
but  these relations have no connection 
with their magnitude1 because we  often 
find large and small masses in the same 
heap1 and single1  large1 and small1    
blocks on mountain summits1 and in the  
bottoms of  valleys4 ,the smaller blocks
 are more or less rounded1 but seldom   
so much so as the boulders of rivers1   
which have been exposed to  long        
continued friction4 ,the larger blocks  

are indeed angular1 but  not sharp      
edged4 ,but in examining this relation1 
we must carefully  distinguish whether  
or not the angles or edges are original1
 or have  been produced by subsequent1  
natural1 or artificial causes4 ,very    
often masses of this description are    
blasted with gunpowder1 either  with the
 view of clearing the fields1 or of     
obtaining stones for  building2 and     
these1 if left on the ground1 may lead  
into error4    ,these blocks vary in    
their nature1 some being of the         
primitive class1  while others belong to
 those of the transition and secondary  
classes4  ,in general1 they appertain to
 rock formations1 situated nearer to the
  central alpine chains than those of   
the places where they are found4  ,thus1
 no rocks of the transition class occur 
in gneiss valleys2 no  alpine limestone 
in transition valleys2 and1 in general1 
nowhere  but in ,jura1 do blocks of     
,jura limestone make their appearance4  
,therefore1 all the loose blocks of     

rocks between the ,jura and the  ,alps1 
belong to the strata of the high chains 
of the ,alps4    ,but these blocks have 
different characters in different       
districts4  ,the loose blocks which     
occur in the river basin of the ,rhone1 
and  the ,lake of ,geneva1 are quite    
different from those which lie strewed  
about in the river basin of the ,rhine4 
,these1 again1 are equally  different   
from the loose blocks of the river basin
 of the ,aare1  as those of the ,aare   
are from the blocks of the ,lake of     
,zurich1  and the valley of ,limmat2 and
 these in their turn are equally well   
distinguished from the great            
accumulations in the valley of the      
,reuss4 ,it rarely happens that         
intermixtures take place among these    
different accumulations of debris1 and  
this is a circumstance which  must be   
attended to in our investigation4    ,it
 results from an accurate comparison of 
these loose blocks with  those mountain 
rocks which occur in extensive chains in

 the high  ,alps2 that the loose blocks 
of every known river basin agree with   
the rocks which form the sides of the   
upper parts of those high  ,alpine      
valleys1 which are in immediate         
connection with these great  water      
basins4 ,thus the loose blocks of the   
water basin of the ,rhine  are similar  
to the rocks of ,bundten4 ,we find in   
the ,lake of ,zurich1  and in the       
,limmat valley1 the rocks of the        
,glarner land in loose  blocks4 ,the    
debris in the basin of the ,reuss       
consists of rocks of the  mountains from
 which the ,reuss takes its rise4 ,the  
loose blocks of  the water basin of the 
,aare are similar to the mountain rocks 
of the  high ,alps of ,bern2 and the    
loose blocks1 found in the course of the
  ,rhone1 occur in fixed rocks in the   
,vallais4    ,it thus appears that the  
loose blocks are by no means irregularly
  dispersed over the great valley       
between the ,alps and the ,jura1 but    
are distributed in the direction of     

distinct water basins4 ,it also         
appears1 that the loose blocks are not  
irregularly distributed in  these       
different basins2 on the contrary1 that1
 in some parts of the  basin1 they are  
accumulated in great numbers2 in other  
places they  are rare1 and in some      
situations none occur4    ,from the     
preceding observations1 we may obtain   
some hints of  importance in respect of 
the cause of this remarkable phenomenon4
  ,these loose blocks already occur in  
the alpine valleys1 which open  into the
 great valley1 between the ,alps and the
 ,jura4 ,they are found  more abundantly
 in the wide parts of valleys           
immediately below the  narrow or        
contracted passes1 and few occur in the 
narrow1 steep1 and  rocky parts of the  
valleys4    ,loose blocks are found1 at 
a greater or less height1 in the smaller
  lateral valleys that open into the    
transverse alpine valleys1 which        
terminate in the great valley between   
the ,alps and the ,jura4 ,if these      

lateral valleys form passes 7which lead 
over into other valleys by  a lowering  
of the high mountain chain71 which are  
not more than  #djjj feet above the     
level of the sea1 loose blocks occur1   
not only  in these passes1 but also more
 or less widely distributed in the      
opposite valleys4 ,in the great         
principal valley which stretches        
between the ,alps and the ,jura1 from   
the ,lake of ,geneva to beyond the      
,lake ,constance1 we find these loose   
blocks dispersed over all the  hills    
whose elevation is not more than #cjjj  
feet above the level of  the sea2 but   
even here the distribution of the blocks
 is not entirely  irregular4 ,the       
largest are found on such hills and     
acclivities as are  opposite the mouths 
of the alpine valleys1 in the great     
principal  valley4 ,the blocks are      
frequently found higher on such         
acclivities1  than on the sides of those
 valleys which may be considered as a   
continuation of the alpine valleys4 ,the

 loose blocks are found every  where on 
that acclivity of the ,jura range which 
is opposite to the  ,alps1 and they are 
found highest and largest in those      
places which  are directly opposite the 
mouths of the alpine valleys4 ,in such  
places1 the blocks again attain an      
elevation of nearly #djjj feet  above   
the level of the sea2 whereas1 in the   
intermediate places1  which are most    
remote from the places opposite the     
mouths of the  alpine valleys1 the      
blocks seldom reach at a height of #bjjj
 feet  above the level of the sea4      
,in those places where the ,jura chain  
branches into the great valley  between 
the ,jura and the ,alps1 loose blocks   
are found in the valleys  behind the    
projecting chains4 ,the ,jura range is  
sometimes intersected  in places        
opposite to the ,alps2 and it is        
remarked1 that loose blocks  are met    
with in the valleys behind these        
intersected portions of  the range2 and 
that1 when loose blocks occur in the    

,jura range1 at  a distance from the    
,alps1 it is only in such places as are 
directly  opposite to the intersected   
portions of the chain opposite to the   
,alps4    ,the circumstance of the      
non-occurrence of these blocks in the   
sandstone1 marl1 and nagelfluh1 which   
occupy the great valley between  the    
,alps and the ,jura1 proves that that   
revolution of our globe1 by  which these
 were dispersed1 took place after the   
formation of these  rocks1 and may      
therefore have belonged to one of the   
latest changes  which have contributed  
to the present form of the earth's      
surface4    ,when we compare the        
relations of the alluvium of the rivers 
in  valleys with those of the loose     
blocks1 their similarity must strike    
every one4 ,thus1 rolled masses are     
seldom deposited in those places  where 
a river forces its way through a narrow 
passage2 but where an  expansion takes  
place1 owing to the distance of the     
banks increasing1  the rolled masses are

 sometimes accumulated in whole banks4  
,the same  loose blocks seldom occur in 
the narrow passages of the transverse   
valleys in the ,alps2 but as soon as    
widenings of the valleys take  place    
below these narrowings1 the blocks occur
 in abundance4    ,if1 during a flood1 a
 rupture takes place in the banks of a  
river1  where it is contracted1 a part  
of the stream will flow out by the      
lateral opening1 and carry along with it
 rolled masses1 even when the  opening  
in the bank does not reach to the bottom
 of the bed of the  river2 for the      
mountain stream1 loaded with boulders1  
carries them  not merely in single      
masses along its bottom1 but the        
flood-water  of the stream generally    
attacks large sandbanks1 or older beds  
of  rolled masses1 and carries along    
with it1 accompanied with a terrible    
noise1 whole masses1 forces them over   
the lower banks1 or through the  chasm  
in the bank1 and often deposites them   
several feet high1 on an  immediately   

succeeding widening of the river's      
course4    ,in the same manner1 we      
observe loose blocks deposited on high  
situations in the lateral valleys of the
 great transverse valleys1  and         
dispersed over the passes into the      
neighbouring valleys4 ,the  height of   
the lateral deposites of loose blocks1  
and their position  in the passes1 and  
their passing into neighbouring valleys1
 are facts  which assist us in judging  
of the extent of the power that may have
  acted during their transportation4    
,the striking agreement observable in   
the phenomena of the  distribution of   
the loose blocks from the interior      
,alpine valleys to  the interior valleys
 of the ,jura1 with those in the rolled 
masses  carried along by rivers1 must   
lead every one1 who reflects on this    
interesting phenomenon1 to the          
hypothesis1 that these blocks may have  
been deposited in their present         
situations by an overwhelming flood1    
which burst from the ,alps4 ,it is true 

that this opinion is liable to  many    
objections2 but still it contains a more
 plausible explanation  of the          
phenomenon than any other with which we 
are acquainted4    ,the loose blocks1 in
 the different river-districts1 being in
 general  separated from each other1 or 
if any intermixture takes place of the  
rolled masses of one valley with that of
 another1 it being only on  their edges1
 it is highly probable that the floods  
which burst from  these valleys1 and    
carried along with them the masses of   
rocks1 may  have been simultaneous1 by  
which the flow of the one basin would   
bound and limit that of the other1 and  
thus prevent the water-flood  of one    
basin flowing into the neighbouring     
ones4    ,the contemporaneous occurrence
 of these different floods from the     
,alpine valleys1 can alone1 on this     
hypothesis1 explain why this  aqueous   
flood was so generally and so highly    
accumulated in the great  valleys       
between the ,alps and the ,jura1 as to  

reach the height of most  of the        
sandstone mountains1 and to a great     
elevation in the ,jura1  where many     
blocks are found deposited4 ,but if the 
contemporaneous  occurrence of these    
floods is proved by the facts already   
enumerated1  to what cause are we to    
refer this simultaneous bursting of     
floods of  water from so many ,alpine   
valleys8    ,we observe1 on the         
north-western side of the chain of the  
,alps1  numerous openings1 which1 by    
their structure1 seem to point out the  
action of violent floods4 ,let us       
suppose the numerous valleys1 in the    
districts already described1 closed at  
their present entrances1 or  openings1  
as would seem from their structure to   
have been formerly  the case2 the       
consequence of this arrangement would be
 the filling  of the ,alpine valleys    
with water1 to the height of the lowest 
passes  among the mountains1 and thus an
 enormous accumulation of water  would  
take place4 ,this great body of water1  

if let loose at once1 by  the bursting  
of the lower extremities of the valleys1
 would form a  flood which would sweep  
across the sandstone mountains1 between 
the  ,alps and the ,jura range1 and even
 ascend high on the ,jura itself4  ,this
 flood of water1 moving1 probably1 at   
the rate of #bjj feet in a  second1 and 
loaded with debris of rocks1 would carry
 masses1 even  these having a magnitude 
of #ej1jjj cubical feet1 some thousand  
feet  high1 on the ,jura range#cgh4     
,geologists maintain1 that the blocks   
or boulders met with in other countries1
 and arranged as those in  ,switzerland1
 have been deposited where we now find  
them1 by the  bursting of lakes2 while  
those found on the shores of the        
,baltic1 are  conjectured to have been  
transported by a great rush of water    
caused  by the sudden elevation of the  
land of ,scandinavia4 ,another opinion  
has its advocates1 which maintains that 
these boulders have been  spread over   
different countries by the waters of the

 deluge4      ,,note ,f1 p4 #bf4    ,,on
 ,,the ,,alluvial ,,land ,,of ,,the     
,,danish ,,islands ,,in ,,the ,,baltic1 
,,and ,,on ,,the  ,,coast ,,of          
,,sleswigh4    ,in this section1 ,cuvier
 gives a clear and distinct account of  
several  kinds of alluvial formations4  
,m4 ,de ,luc1 in the first volume of his
  ,geological ,travels1 describes the   
alluvial formations that cover  and     
bound many of the islands in the        
,baltic1 and upon the coast of          
,denmark1 and gives so interesting an   
account of the modes followed by  the   
inhabitants1 in preserving these        
alluvial deposites1 that we feel        
pleasure in communicating it to our     
readers4      8,during my stay at       
,husum1 ,i had the advantage of passing 
my    evenings very agreeably and       
profitably at the house of ,m4          
,hartz1 with his own family1 and two    
,danish officers1 ,major    ,behmann1   
commandant at ,husum1 and ,captain      
,baron de ,barackow4 ,the               

conversation often turned on the objects
 of my excursions1 and    particularly  
on the natural history of the coasts and
 of the    islands2 respecting which1   
,m4 ,hartz obligingly undertook to      
give me extracts from the chronicles of 
the country4 ,this led    us to speak of
 the ,danish islands2 and those officers
 giving me    such descriptions of them1
 as were very interesting to my object1 
,i begged their permission to write     
down1 in their presence1 the            
principal circumstances which they      
communicated to me4 ,these will    form 
the first addition to my own            
observations2 ,i shall afterwards       
proceed to the information which ,i     
obtained from ,m4 ,hartz4      ,the two 
principal islands of the ,danish        
,archipelago1 those of    ,funen and    
,seeland 7or ,zeeland71 as well as some 
small islands    in the ,kattegate1     
namely1 ,lenoe1 ,anholt1 and ,samsoe1   
are hilly1    and principally composed  
of geest#cgi2 and in these are found    

gravel and blocks of granite1 and of    
other stones of that    class1 exactly  
in the same manner as in the country    
which ,i have    lately described1 and  
its islands in the ,north ,sea4 ,on the 
borders of the two first of these       
,danish islands1 there are also         
blocks in the sea2 but only in front of 
abrupt coasts1 as is    the case with   
the islands of ,poel and ,rugen1 and    
along the coasts    of the ,baltic4 ,the
 lands added to these islands of geest  
are in    most part composed of the sand
 of the sea1 the land-waters there      
being very inconsiderable2 and to the   
south of them have been    formed       
several islands of the same nature1 the 
chief of which are    ,laland and       
,falster1 near ,seeland4 ,these1 like   
the marsh islands    in the ,north ,sea1
 are sand-banks accumulated by the      
waves1 and1    when covered with grass1 
continuing to be farther raised by the  
sediments deposited between its blades4 
,in the ,baltic1 where there    are no  

sensible tides1 such islands may be     
inhabited without dikes1    as well as  
the extensions of the coasts2 because1  
being raised to    the highest level of 
that sea1 while their declivity under   
water    is very small1 and being also  
more firm in their composition1 the     
waves die away on their shores2 and if1 
in any extraordinary case1    the sea   
rises over them1 it leaves on them fresh
 deposits1 which    increase their      
heights4 ,these soils are all perfectly 
horizontal1    like those added to the  
coasts of the ,continent4      ,some of 
these islands approach entirely1 or in  
part1 to the nature    of that of       
,rugen4 ,this island of ,seeland1 on    
that side which is    called ,hedding1  
has a promontory composed of strata of  
chalk    with its flints4 ,the island of
 ,moen 7or ,mona71 on the south of      
the latter1 has a similar promontory    
near ,maglebye and ,mandemark2    and   
the island of ,bornholm1 the easternmost
 of those belonging    to ,denmark1     

contains strata of coal1 covered by     
others of    sandstone4 ,phenomena like 
these1 evident symptoms of the most     
violent catastrophes at the bottom of   
the ancient sea1 proceeding1    as ,i   
think ,i have clearly shewn1 from the   
subsidence and angular    motions of    
large masses of strata1 which must have 
forced out the    interior fluids with  
the utmost impetuosity1 it is not       
surprising    that so many fragments of 
the lowermost strata are found dispersed
    over this great theatre of ruins4   
,i now proceed to the details which ,i  
received from ,m4 ,hartz2    beginning  
by a specific designation of the islands
 dependent on    the province of        
,sleswigh1 such as they are at present1 
belonging    to the three classes       
already defined4 ,to commence from the  
north2    ,fanoe1 ,rom1 ,sylt1 and      
,amrom1 were originally islands of the  
same nature as the neighbouring         
continent1 but have been since          
extended by marsches#chj4 ,the soil of  

these islands1 with its    gravel and   
blocks of primordial stones1 was at     
first barren1 as    the geest is        
naturally every where2 but is become    
fertile by    manure1 of which there has
 been no deficiency1 since those grounds
    have been surrounded with marsch1   
where the cattle are kept in    stables 
during the winter4 ,in the island of    
,sylt1 there are spaces    consisting of
 moor1 but its head of land1 which      
extends on the    south as far as       
,mornum1 is composed entirely of marsch1
 and is    bordered with dunes towards  
the open sea1 because1 the sediments    
of the rivers not reaching any farther1 
the sea-sand impelled    against it by  
the waves remains pure1 and is thus     
raised by the    winds in hillocks on   
the shore4 ,the shallow bottom of the   
sea1    between this island and that of 
,fora1 is of geest3 at low water1    it 
may be passed over on foot2 and there   
are found on it gravel    and blocks of 
granite4 ,but on the same side of ,fora 

there is a    great extent of marsch1   
beginning from ,st ,laurencius4 ,among  
the    islands consisting entirely of   
marsch and surrounded with dikes1    the
 most considerable are ,pellworm and    
,nord ,strand2 and among the            
,halligs1 or those inhabited without    
dikes1 the chief are ,olant1            
,nord-marsh1 ,langne1 ,groode1 and      
,hooge4      ,such are the islands on   
this coast1 in their present state1 now 
rendered permanent by the degree of     
perfection at which the    art of       
dike-making is arrived4 ,but1 in former 
times1 though    the original land was  
never attacked by the sea1 which1 by    
adding to it new lands1 soon formed a   
barrier against its own                 
encroachments1 the latter1 and the      
islands composed of the same            
materials1 were subject to great and    
sudden changes1 very fatal    to those  
who were engaged to settle on them by   
the richness of    their soil1          
comparatively with the continental4 ,the

 inhabitants1    who continued to       
multiply on them during several         
generations1 were    taught1 indeed1 by 
experience1 that they might at last be  
invaded    by the element which was     
incessantly threatening them2 but having
    as yet no knowledge of natural      
causes1 they blindly considered    those
 that endangered them as supernatural1  
and for a long time    used no          
precautions for their own security4     
,they were ignorant of    the dreadful  
effects of a certain association of     
circumstances1    rare indeed1 but1 when
 occurring1 absolutely destructive of   
these    marsches4 ,this association    
consists of an extraordinary elevation  
of the level of the ,north ,sea1 from   
the long continuance of certain    winds
 in the ,atlantic1 with a violent storm 
occurring during the    tides of the new
 or full moon2 for then the sea rises   
above the    level of all the marsches2 
and before they were secured against    
such attacks1 the waves rolling over    

them1 and tearing away the    grass     
which had bound their surface1 they were
 reduced to the state    of mere banks  
of sand and mud1 whence they had been   
drawn1 by the    long course of ordinary
 causes4 ,such were the dreadful        
accidents    to which the first settlers
 on these lands were exposed2 but no    
sooner were they over1 than ordinary    
causes began again to act2 the          
sand-banks rose2 their surface was      
covered with grass2 the coast    was    
thus extended1 and new islands were     
formed2 time effaced the    impression  
of past misfortunes2 and those among the
 inhabitants of    these dangerous      
soils1 who had been able to save        
themselves on the    coast1 ventured to 
return to settle on them again1 and had 
time to    multiply1 before the         
recurrence of the same catastrophes4    
,this has been the general course of    
events on all the coasts of the         
,north ,sea1 and particularly on those  
of the countries of ,sleswigh    and    

,holstein4 ,it is thus that the origin  
and progress of the art    of dikes will
 supply us with a very interesting      
chronometer in    the history of the    
continent and of man1 particularly      
exemplified    in this part of the      
globe4 ,a ,lutheran clergyman1 settled  
in the    island of ,nord ,strand1      
having collected all the particulars of 
this history which the documents of the 
country could afford1    published it in
 #affh1 in a ,german work1 entitled ,the
 ,north ,frisian    ,chronicle4 ,it was 
chiefly from this work1 and from the    
,chronicle    of ,dankwerth1 that ,m4   
,hartz extracted the information which  
he    gave to me1 accompanied by two    
maps1 copied for me1 by one of his      
sons1 from those of ,johannes ,mayerus1 
a mathematician2 they bear    the title 
of ,frisia ,cimbrica2 one of them       
respecting the state of    the islands  
and of the coast1 in #abdj1 as it may be
 traced in    the chronicles1 and the   
other1 as it was in #afea4              

,according to these documents1 the first
 inhabitants of the    marsches were    
,frisii or ,frisians1 designated also   
under    the names of ,cimbri and       
,sicambri3 the latter name1 ,m4         
,hartz conjectures1 might come from the 
ancient ,german words    ,seekampfers1  
i4 e4 ,sea-warriors2 the ,frisians being
 very    warlike4 ,these people appear  
to have had the same origin with        
those1 who1 at a rather earlier period1 
took possession of the    marsches of   
,ost-,frise 7,east-,friesland71 and of  
that ,friesland    which forms one of   
the ,united ,provinces2 but this common 
origin    is very obscure4 ,even at the 
present day1 the inhabitants of the     
marsches1 from near ,husum to ,tondern1 
or ,tunder to the ,north1    though     
themselves unacquainted with it1 speak a
 language which    the other inhabitants
 of the country do not understand1 and  
which    is supposed to be ,frisian4 ,it
 is the same at a village in the        
peninsula of ,bremen1 by which ,i have  

had occasion to pass4      ,the         
,sicambri or ,north ,frisians1 are      
traced back to some    centuries before 
the ,christian era4 ,at the commencement
 of that    era1 they were attacked by  
,frotho1 ,king of ,denmark1 and lost    
a battle1 under their king ,vicho1 near 
the river ,hever4 ,four    centuries    
afterwards they joined the troops of    
,hengist and ,horsa4    ,in the year    
#fib1 their king ,radebot resided in the
 island of    ,heiligeland4 ,charles    
,martel subdued them in #gcb2 and some  
time    afterwards they joined          
,charlemagne against ,gottric1 ,king of 
,denmark4 ,these are some of the        
circumstances of the history of this    
,frisian colony1 recorded in the        
chronicles of which ,i have spoken2     
but the history here interesting to us  
is that of the lands whereon    they    
settled4      ,it appears that these    
people did not arrive here in one body1 
but successively1 in the course of many 
years3 they spread    themselves over   

various parts of the coasts of the      
,north ,sea1 and    even a considerable 
way up the borders of the ,weser and the
 ,elbe2    according to documents which 
,i have mentioned in my ,lettres sur    
l',histoire de la ,terre et de l',homme4
 ,these new settlers found    large     
marsches1 formed1 as well in the wide   
mouths of those    rivers as along the  
coasts1 and around the original islands 
of    geest2 especially that of         
,heiligeland1 the most distant from the 
coast1 and opposite the mouth of the    
,eyder4 ,of this island1 which    is    
steep towards the south1 the original   
mass consists of strata    of sandstone2
 and at that time its marsch extended   
almost to    ,eyderstede3 there were    
marsches likewise around all the other  
original islands2 besides very large    
islands of pure marsch in    the        
intervals of the former4      ,all these
 lands were desert at the arrival of the
 ,frisians2 and    the parts on which   
they established their first            

habitations1 to    take care of their   
breeds of horses and cattle feeding on  
the    marsches1 were the original      
eminences of the islands2 on that of    
,heiligeland they built a temple to     
their great goddess ,phoseta1 or        
,fosta4 ,when they became too numerous  
to confine themselves to the    heights1
 their herds being also greatly         
multiplied1 they ventured    to begin   
inhabiting the marsches2 but afterwards1
 some great    inundations having shewn 
them the dangers of that situation1 they
    adopted the practice followed by    
those who had settled on the    marsches
 of the province of ,groningen1 and     
still continued on the    ,halligs2 that
 of raising artificial mounts called    
werfs1 on which    they built their     
houses1 and whither they could1 upon    
occasion1    withdraw their herds2 and  
it likewise appears1 that1 in the       
winter1 they assembled in greater       
numbers on the spots originally    the  
highest1 in the islands1 as well as on  

some parts of the coasts4      ,things  
continued in this state for several     
centuries2 during which    period1 it is
 probable that the inhabitants of these 
lands were    often1 by various         
catastrophes1 disturbed in the enjoyment
 of them1    though not discouraged4    
,but in #eaf1 by which time these people
 were    become very numerous1 more than
 #fjj of them perished by one of the    
concurrences of fatal circumstances     
already defined4 ,it was then    that   
they undertook the astonishing          
enterprise of enclosing these    lands4 
,they dug ditches around all the        
marsches1 heaping up on    their        
exterior edge the earth which was taken 
out2 and thus they    opposed to the    
sea1 dikes of eight feet in height4     
,after this1    comprehending that      
nothing could contribute more to the    
safety of    their dwellings1 than to   
remove the sea to a greater distance1   
they undertook1 with that view1 to      
exclude it from the intervals    between

 the islands1 by uniting1 as far as     
should be possible1    those islands    
with each other4 ,i will describe the   
process by which    they effected this1 
after ,i shall have recalled to         
attention some    circumstances leading 
to it4      ,from all that ,i have      
already said of the fore-lands1 and of  
the    manner in which they are         
increased1 it may be understood1 that   
the common effects of the waves and of  
the tides is to bring    materials from 
the bottom of the sea towards the       
coasts2 and    that the process         
continues in every state of the sea4    
,the land    winds produce no waves on  
the coasts1 which can carry back to     
the bottom of the sea what has been     
brought thence by the winds    blowing  
against the shore2 and as for the tides1
 it may have    been already            
comprehended 7and shall soon be proved71
 that the    ebb carries back but very  
little of what has been brought by the  
flood4 ,so that1 but for some           

extraordinary circumstances1 the        
materials continually impelled towards  
the shore1 which first form    islands1 
would at last unite against the coast in
 a continuous    soil4 ,the rare events1
 productive of great catastrophes1 do   
not    carry back these materials       
towards the bottom of the sea2 they     
only1 as it has been said before1 ravage
 the surface1 diminishing    the        
heights1 and destroying the effect of   
vegetation4 ,these1 then1    were the   
effects against which it was necessary  
to guard4      ,i now come to the plan  
of uniting the islands1 formed by these 
early inhabitants4 ,they availed        
themselves for that purpose of    all   
such parts of the sand-banks as lay in  
the intervals between    the large      
islands1 and were beginning to produce  
grass4 ,these1    when surrounded with  
dikes1 are what are called ,hoogs2 and  
their effects are to break the waves1   
thus diminishing their    action against
 the dikes of the large islands1 and1 at

 the same    time1 to determine the     
accumulation of the mud in the intervals
    between those islands4 ,in this     
manner a large marsch island1    named  
,everschop1 was already1 in #ihg1 united
 to ,eyderstede by the    point on which
 ,poppenbull is situated2 and in #iie1  
the union of    the same marsches was   
effected by another point1 namely1 that 
of ,tetenbull4 ,lastly1 in the year     
#ajjj1 ,eyderstede received a    new    
increase by the course of the ,hever1   
prolonged between the    sand banks1    
being fixed by a dike2 but the whole    
still remained    an island4 ,this is an
 example of the manner in which the     
marsch islands were united by the hoogs2
 and the chronicle of    the country    
says1 that1 by these labours1 the       
islands were so    considerably enlarged
 in size1 and the intervals between them
 so    much raised1 that1 at low water1 
it was possible to pass on foot    from 
one to the other4 ,the extent of these  
marsches was so great    on the coast of

 ,sleswigh alone1 that they were divided
 into three    provinces1 two of which  
comprehended the islands1 and the third 
comprised the marsches contiguous to the
 coast2 and the same    works were      
carried on upon the marsches of the     
coast of ,holstein4      ,but the       
grounds thus gained from the sand-banks 
were very    insecure2 these people1    
though they had inhabited them more than
    ten centuries1 had not yet          
understood the possibility of that      
combination of fatal circumstances above
 described1 against which    their dikes
 formed but a very feeble rampart2 the  
,north ,sea1 by the    extraordinary    
elevations of its level1 being much more
 formidable    in this respect than the 
ocean1 where the changes of absolute    
level    are much less considerable4 ,i 
shall give an abridged account of the   
particulars extracted by ,m4 ,hartz from
 the chronicle of ,dankwerth1           
relative to the great catastrophes which
 these marsches    successively         

underwent1 previously to the time when  
experience led    to the means necessary
 for their security4      ,in #ajge1 the
 island of ,nord ,strand1 then          
contiguous to the coast1    particularly
 experienced the effect of that unusual 
combination    of destructive causes2   
the sea passing over its dike1 and      
forming    within it large excavations  
like lakes4 ,in #aaad and #aaeh1        
considerable parts of ,eyderstede were  
carried away2 and in #abjd1    the part 
called ,sudhever in the marsch of       
,uthholm was destroyed4    ,all these   
catastrophes were fatal to many of the  
marsch settlers2    but in #abaf1 the   
sea having risen so high that its waves 
passed    over ,nord ,strand1           
,eyderstede1 and ,ditmarsch1 near       
#aj1jjj of their    inhabitants         
perished4 ,again1 in #acjj1 seven       
parishes in ,nord ,strand    and        
,pellworm were destroyed2 and in #acch1 
,ditmarsch experienced a    new         
catastrophe1 which swept away a great   

part of it on the side    next          
,eyderstede3 the dike of the course of  
the ,eyder between the    sand-banks was
 demolished1 and the tides have ever    
since preserved    their course         
throughout that wide space4 ,lastly1 in 
the year #acfb1    the isles of ,fora   
and ,sylt1 then forming but one1 were   
divided1 and    ,nord ,strand1 then a   
marsch united to the coast1 was         
separated    from it4      ,during a    
long time1 the inhabitants who survived 
these    catastrophes1 and their        
successors1 were so much discouraged1   
that they attempted nothing more than to
 surround with dikes    like the former 
such spaces of their meadow-land as     
appeared the    least exposed to these  
ravages1 leaving the rest to its fate4  
,but    the common course of causes     
continually tending to extend and to    
raise the grassy parts of the           
sand-banks1 and no extraordinary        
combination of circumstances having     
interrupted these natural    operations1

 later generations1 farther advanced in 
the arts1    undertook to secure to     
themselves the possession of those new  
grounds4 ,in #aebe1 they turned their   
attention to the indentations    made1  
during the preceding catastrophes1 in   
the borders of the    marsches2 the     
waves1 confined in these narrow spaces1 
sometimes    threatening to cut their   
way into the interior part4 ,in the     
front    of all the creeks of this kind 
they planted stakes1 which they         
interlaced with osiers1 leaving a       
certain space between the lines4    ,the
 waves1 thus broken1 could no longer do 
injury to the marsch2    and their      
sediments being deposited on both sides 
of this open    fence1 very solid       
fore-lands were there formed4 ,in #aeej1
 they    raised the dikes considerably  
higher1 employing wheelbarrows1 the     
use of which was only then introduced4  
,for this purpose1 they much    enlarged
 and deepened the interior canals1 in   
order to obtain more    earth1 not      

merely to add to the height of the      
dikes1 but to extend    their base on   
the outer side4 ,at last they began to  
cover these    dikes with straw-ropes2  
but this great preservative of dikes was
 at    first ill managed2 and the use of
 it was so slowly spread1 that it    was
 not adopted in ,north ,strand and in   
,eyderstede1 till about the    years    
#afaj and #afab4      ,before that time1
 however1 the safety of the extensive   
soil of    the latter marsch had been   
provided for in a different manner4     
,i have said above1 that1 when the isles
 of ,everschop and ,utholm    had been  
united to it1 the whole together still  
formed but one    large island2 now1 in 
this state1 it was in as great danger   
on the side towards the continent1 as on
 that open to the sea2    because two   
small rivers1 the ,trene and the ,nord  
,eyder1 discharging    themselves into  
the interval between it and the land1   
and by    preserving their course to the
 sea1 this interval was thus kept       

open to tempest1 sometimes from the side
 of the ,hever1 sometimes    from that  
of the ,eyder2 and the waves1 beating   
against the geest1    were thence       
repelled upon the marsch4 ,the          
inhabitants1 seeing    that the expence 
of remedying these evils would be       
greater than    they could afford1 while
 at the same time it was indispensable  
to    their safety1 addressed themselves
 to their bishop and to their           
prefect1 of whom they requested         
pecuniary assistance2 and having        
obtained it they first undertook the    
great enterprise of carrying    the     
,trene and the ,nord ,eyder higher up   
into the ,eyder2 keeping    their       
waters1 however1 still separate for a   
certain space1 by a    dam with a       
sluice1 in order to form there a        
reservoir of fresh    water2 the tides  
ascending up the ,eyder above           
,frederickstadt4    ,they were thus     
enabled to carry on the extremities of  
the dike    on both sides to join the   

geest2 and the interval between the     
latter and the marsch was then soon     
filled up1 there being only    left at  
their junction the canal above described
 which receives    the water of the     
geest1 and1 at low water1 discharges    
them from    both its extremities by    
sluices4 ,at the same time1 the islands 
of    ,pellworm and ,nord ,strand were  
united with each other by means of      
eight hoogs2 and the sandy marsches of  
which ,i have spoken1    contiguous to  
the geest1 on the north of that of      
,husum1 were    inclosed with dikes4    
,after the dikes had been thus elevated1
 and their surface    rendered firm by  
the straw ropes1 though the latter were 
not yet    properly fixed1 the          
inhabitants of the marsches for some    
time    enjoyed repose2 but on the #aath
 ,october #afcd1 the sea1 rising    to  
an excessive height1 carried away1      
during a great tempest1    the hoogs    
which had produced the junction between 
,pellworm and    ,nord ,strand1 these   

having ever since continued distinct    
islands2    it also violently attacked  
,ditmarsch2 and its ravages extended    
over the whole coast1 as far as the very
 extensive new lands of    ,jutland4    
,princes then came forward zealously to 
the relief of    their subjects4 ,in    
particular1 ,frederick ,,iii41 ,duke of 
,sleswigh1    seeing that the           
inhabitants of ,nord ,strand were       
deficient both    in the talents and in 
the means necessary for the reparation  
and    future security of that large    
island1 and knowing that the art    of  
dikes had made greater progress in      
,holland1 because of the    opulence of 
the country1 addressed himself to the   
,states-,general1    requesting them to 
send him an engineer of dikes1 with     
workmen    accustomed to repair them2   
and this was granted4 ,the dikes of     
,nord    ,strand were then repaired in  
the most solid manner2 and the ,dutch   
engineer1 seeing the fertility of its   
soil1 advised his sons upon    his      

death-bed1 to purchase lands and settle 
there1 if the ,duke    would grant them 
the free exercise of their religion2    
they being    ,jansenist catholics1 and 
the inhabitants of the island           
,lutherans4    ,the ,duke agreed to     
this1 on condition that they and their  
posterity    should continue to         
superintend the works carried on upon   
the    dikes2 to which they engaged     
themselves4 ,from that time the art of  
dikes1 and particularly that part of it 
which consists in covering    them      
solidly with straw1 has become common to
 all the marsches2    and the ,dutch    
families1 which have contributed to this
 fortunate    change1 continue to       
inhabit the same island1 and to enjoy   
the free    exercise of their religion40
      ,,note ,g1 p4 #bh4    ,,on ,,the  
,,sand-,,flood4    ,in different parts  
of ,scotland1 as in ,aberdeenshire1     
,hebrides1 and  ,shetland ,islands1     
there are examples of the natural       
chronometer  mentioned in the text4 ,in 

,morayshire there is a striking example 
of  the sand-flood1 concerning which the
 following details have been  furnished 
by my young friend the ,rev4 ,mr        
,ritchie4      ,sand-,flood in          
,morayshire4      8,westward from the   
mouth of the river ,findhorn in         
,morayshire1 a    district1 consisting  
of upwards of ten square miles of land1 
which1    owing to its extreme          
fertility1 was once termed the ,granary 
of    ,moray1 has been depopulated and  
rendered utterly unproductive by    the 
sand-flood4 ,this barren waste may be   
characterised as hilly2    the          
accumulations of sand composing these   
hills frequently varying    in their    
height1 and changing their situation4   
,there is historical evidence1 that1 in 
the year #ajig1 the ,moray    ,firth    
overflowed the low country on its       
southern shore1 and threw    out sand4  
,but the destruction of the barony of   
,coubine 7which    includes the greater 
part of the desert mentioned above7 was 

long    subsequent to this1 as might be 
proved from the inscription on a        
tombstone in the church yard of ,dyke4  
,from historical notices1    also1 in   
regard to the ,kinnairds of ,coubine1   
preparing for    publication1 it appears
 that the eruption of sand commenced    
about    the year #afgg2 that its       
progress was gradual2 that1 in #afig1   
not a    vestige was to be seen of the  
manor-place1 orchards1 and offices    of
 ,coubine2 that two-thirds of the barony
 were already ruined1 and    that the   
sand was daily gaining ground4          
,this sand1 which overwhelmed ,coubine1 
came from ,mavieston1    situated on the
 shore1 about seven miles west from the 
mouth of    the ,findhorn1 where1 from  
time immemorial1 there have been large  
accumulations of sand4 ,the sands at    
,mavieston had formerly been    covered 
with vegetation4 ,in an act of the      
,scottish ,parliament1    dated #afth   
,july #afie1 for the preservation of    
lands adjacent to    sand-hills1 it is  

stated1 that the destruction of ,coubine
 8was    occasioned by the bad practice 
of pulling bent and juniper40 ,having   
been thus set at liberty1 the sand moved
 towards the north-east1 as    appears  
from the desolation which marks its     
progress4 ,the moving    cause is the   
wind4 ,i have had opportunities of      
witnessing the    effect of the wind on 
the loose sand4 ,when the breeze is     
moderate    it carries along with it    
successive waves of sand1 each wave 7if 
,i    may be allowed the expression7    
being of a small size1 and moving       
with greater or less velocity1 in       
proportion to the strength of the       
breeze1 and presenting a very beautiful 
appearance4 ,when the wind    is high   
the heavier particles are drifted       
forwards1 the more minute    are raised 
to a considerable height in the         
atmosphere1 occasioning    no small     
inconvenience to the spectator1 who     
finds his ears and    nostrils filled   
with sand4 ,the movements of the sand   

are still    towards the north-east4 ,in
 the winter of #ahaf a large portion of 
,binsness1 the only remaining farm on   
the west side of the ,findhorn1         
situated in the line of the sand's      
progress1 was overwhelmed4    ,since    
that period large accumulations of sand 
have disappeared    altogether1 and rich
 soil1 marked with the plough1 has been 
left    bare1 after having been buried  
for upwards of a century4      ,the very
 minute particles1 which1 as has been   
stated1 the wind    raises to a         
considerable height1 are occasionally   
carried across    the ,bay of ,findhorn4
 ,in the statistical account of ,dyke1  
the parish    in which ,coubine is      
situated1 it is said1 8that1 at the town
 of    ,findern1 in a blowing day1 one  
may feel the sand sharply striking    on
 his face1 from the west side40 ,this   
sand1 of extreme fineness1    is to be  
seen in and around the town of          
,findhorn1 and along the    coast much  
rich land is said to have been covered  

by sand brought    from the west4       
,the greater quantity of the sand is    
drifted into the river1 and its         
effects have been very remarkable4 ,many
 years ago the mouth of the    river    
having become blocked up with sand1 it  
cut out for itself    its present       
channel1 which conducts it1 by a more   
direct course1    to the sea4 ,in       
consequence of this1 the old town of    
,findhorn had    changed its situation1 
from the east to the west side of the   
river1 and its site has since been      
covered by the sea4 ,previous    to     
this1 however1 the inhabitants1 carrying
 with them the stones    of their former
 houses1 had removed across the river1  
and erected    the present village4 ,on 
the retiring of the tide from the bay1  
the river almost disappears1 being      
swallowed up by the sand1 and           
quick-sands are formed4 ,the effect     
resulting from the same cause1    the   
drifting in of the sand is very         
different at high water4 ,in            

consequence of the channel of the river 
having been filled up1 the    bay has   
increased in breadth4 ,the sand         
constantly carried down by    the river 
has formed a bar1 which prevents the    
entrance of large    vessels2 and the   
river1 probably owing to its increased  
breadth1    and this bar depriving it of
 the impetus acquired in the course     
of its descent1 is1 at spring-tides1    
unable to force its way into    the sea1
 when it is made to flow back1 and      
inundate a considerable    extent of    
carse-land situated at the head of the  
bay4 ,it was at one    time proposed to 
render the river navigable by dredging4 
,and it is    proposed to endeavour to  
save the adjoining carse-land1 which is 
of    the richest quality1 from the     
monthly inundation to which it is at    
present subject1 by building a wall     
along the river side4      ,i venture to
 suggest1 that the plan ,nature employs 
for fettering    down sand should first 
be imitated1 and that seeds of the      

,arundo    arenaria1 ,elymus arenarius1 
and other plants1 which grow readily    
in sand1 should be1 from time to time1  
strewed over the ,mavieston    ,hills4  
,the seeds of the ,arundo arenaria are  
not always to be had2    but plants     
might easily be procured in abundance1  
and be dibbled    into the sand-hills4  
,the circumstance of great accumulations
 of    sand having of late disappeared  
from ,coubine1 has given rise    to the 
expectation1 that the barony is at no   
distant period to    become again       
serviceable to man4 ,by cutting off     
fresh supplies    from ,mavieston1 this 
period would be accelerated1 and the    
proposed    improvements rendered       
comparatively easy4      ,there is at   
present little bent on ,coubine4 ,it is 
chiefly confined    to a range of       
knolls1 which forms the southern        
boundary of the    sand1 and protects   
the adjoining cultivated fields from its
    encroachments2 and yet1             
notwithstanding the terrible calamity   

the inhabitants of ,moray brought upon  
themselves1 by the pulling    of bent1  
this 8bad practice0 still prevails2 this
 plant being in    no other district of 
country which ,i have visited so        
generally    employed for thatching     
cottars' houses1 and other economical   
purposes40           99       99        
99       99       99    ,in the ,outer  
,hebrides the effects of the sand-flood 
are also  considerable1 as shewn in the 
following notice communicated by my     
intelligent assistant ,mr ,macgillivray4
      ,sand-,flood in the ,hebrides1 and
 other parts of ,scotland4      8,the   
bottom of the sea1 along the whole west 
coast of the ,outer    ,hebrides1 from  
,barray ,head to the ,butt of the       
,lewis1 appears to    consist of sand4  
,along the shores of these islands this 
sand    appears here and there1 in      
patches of several miles1 separated     
by intervals of rock1 of equal or       
greater extent4 ,in some places    the  
sandy shores are flat1 or very gently   

sloping1 forming what    are here called
 ,fords2 in others1 behind the beach1   
there is an    accumulation of sand to  
the height of from twenty to sixty feet1
    formed into hillocks4 ,this sand is 
constantly drifting2 and in    several  
places islands have been formed by the  
removal of isthmi4    ,the parts        
immediately behind the beach are also   
liable to be    inundated by the sand2  
and in this manner most of the islands  
have    suffered very considerable      
damage4 ,those of ,pabbay and ,berneray 
in    ,harris may be particularised2 in 
the former of which1 a tract of    about
 a mile and a-half long1 by half a mile 
in breadth1 has been    converted into a
 desert of drifting sand2 and in the    
latter a large    plain1 that was       
formerly noted for its fertility1 has   
been entirely    swept away4 ,the sand  
consists almost entirely of comminuted  
shells1    apparently of the species    
which are found in the neighbouring     
seas4    ,it is rather coarse in the    

grain2 but1 during high winds1 by the   
rubbing of its particles upon each      
other1 a sort of dust is formed1        
which1 at a distance1 resembles smoke1  
and which1 in the ,island    of         
,berneray1 ,i have seen driven into the 
sea1 to the distance of    upwards of   
two miles1 appearing like a thin white  
fog4 ,the cure of    sand drift has been
 attempted in these islands in two      
different    ways4 ,mr ,alexander       
,macleod1 surgeon of ,north ,uist1 is   
the inventor    of the most efficacious 
method1 which is that of cutting thin   
square turfs from the neighbouring      
pasture grounds1 and laying them    down
 at intervals of some inches4 ,in the   
course of a very few years    the turfs 
coalesce1 and the stript ground is      
little the worse2 for    the roots      
remaining in it1 a new vegetation       
rapidly springs up4 ,the    other method
 was introduced by ,mr ,macleod of      
,harris1 and tried    extensively upon  
his estate4 ,it consists of planting    

small bundles    of ,arundo arenaria1 at
 distances of about a foot and a-half4  
,these    take root1 and prevent the    
drifting to a certain degree4 ,but often
    vegetation is tardy in establishing 
itself1 and if the turf plan    be not  
considerably more expensive1 it seems   
preferable1 because    it very          
effectually prevents the drift1 and     
moreover1 produces    excellent pasture 
ground2 the former of which indications1
 the    planting system1 does not       
completely effect1 and the latter in a  
very imperfect degree40    ,we may add1 
as this subject is a very interesting   
one1 that further  details1 in regard to
 the moving sands of ,scotland1 will be 
found1  on consulting the ,statistical  
,account of ,scotland1 vol4 xx4 p4 #bbj4
  ,in the ,appendix to the ,account of  
the parish of ,dyke1 vol4 xx4 p4  #bbh4 
et seq4 there is an account of the      
,sand-,hills of ,mavieston1  which      
overwhelmed the barony of ,coubine1 as  
mentioned in ,mr ,ritchie's             

communication4 ,in vol4 xix4 p4 #fbb4 is
 a notice of the shifting of  two hills 
of the ,mavieston ,range #ejj yards in  
twenty years4 ,in vol4  xxi4 p4 #bjg4 is
 a notice of some hundred acres in      
,duffus' parish  covered three feet deep
 by drift sand2 fourteen inches         
accumulating  in one night4 ,in ,neill's
 ,tour in ,orkney and ,shetland #ahjd1  
it is  observed1 that1 in the           
neighbourhood of the ,castle of         
,noltland1  in ,westra1 much havoc has  
been done by the blowing of the sand4   
,no measures are there employed for     
putting a stop to this kind of          
devastation4 ,in the #fth volume of the 
,highland ,society's ,transactions  will
 be found a report of the operations    
carried on in ,harris1 and  alluded to  
in ,mr ,macgillivray's communication4   
,and in ,dr ,walker's  ,account of the  
,hebrides1 and ,mr ,macdonald's ,work on
 the ,hebrides1  farther details may be 
seen4 ,in ,jameson's ,account of the    
,shetland  ,islands1 and in ,shirreff   

and ,fleming's ,reports on these        
islands1  are also facts connected with 
this devastating agent4 ,we may add1    
that ,dr ,oudney1 ,major ,denham1 and   
,captain ,clapperton1 have added  to our
 knowledge of the blowing sands of the  
,african deserts4 ,the  coloured        
engraving of the sand-hills of the      
,african ,desert in ,denham1  ,oudney   
and ,clapperton's ,narrative1 is a      
striking and interesting  representation
 of the form of the moving sand-hills of
 ,africa4      ,the moving ,sands of    
,africa and their effects are thus      
described in  the ,mercure de ,france   
for ,september #ahji1 by ,de ,luc4      
,the sands of the ,lybian desert1 he    
says1 driven by the west winds1  have   
left no lands capable of tillage on any 
parts of the western  banks of the ,nile
 not sheltered by mountains4 ,the       
encroachment of  these sands on soils   
which were formerly inhabited and       
cultivated is  evidently seen4 ,m4      
,denon informs us1 in the account of his

 ,travels  in ,lower and ,upper ,egypt1 
that summits of the ruins of ancient    
cities buried under these sands still   
appear externally2 and that1  but for a 
ridge of mountains called the ,lybian   
chain1 which borders  the left bank of  
the ,nile1 and forms1 in the parts where
 it rises1 a  barrier against the       
invasion of these sands1 the shores of  
the river1  on that side1 would long    
since have ceased to be habitable4      
,nothing  can be more melancholy1 says  
this traveller1 than to walk over       
villages swallowed up by the sand of the
 desert1 to trample under  foot their   
roofs1 to strike against the summits of 
their minarets1  to reflect that yonder 
were cultivated fields1 that there grew 
trees1  that here were even the         
dwellings of men1 and that all has      
vanished4    ,if1 then1 our continents  
were as ancient as has been pretended1  
no  traces of the habitation of men     
would appear on any part of the  western
 bank of the ,nile1 which is exposed to 

this scourge of the  sands of the       
desert4 ,the existence1 therefore1 of   
such monuments  attests the successive  
progress of the encroachments of the    
sand2  and those parts of the bank1     
formerly inhabited1 will for ever       
remain arid and waste4 ,thus the great  
population of ,egypt1 announced  by the 
vast and numerous ruins of its cities1  
was in great part  due to a cause of    
fertility which no longer exists1 and to
 which  sufficient attention has not    
been given4 ,the sands of the desert    
were formerly remote from ,egypt2 the   
,oases1 or habitable spots1  still      
appearing in the midst of the sands1    
being the remains of the  soils formerly
 extending the whole way to the ,nile2  
but these sands1  transported hither by 
the western winds1 have overwhelmed and 
buried  this extensive tract1 and doomed
 to sterility a land which was once     
remarkable for its fruitfulness4    ,it 
is therefore not solely to her          
revolutions and changes of  sovereigns  

that ,egypt owes the loss of her ancient
 splendour2 it is  also to her having   
been thus irrecoverably deprived of a   
tract of  land1 by which1 before the    
sands of the desert had covered it1 and 
caused it to disappear1 her wants had   
been abundantly supplied4 ,now1  if we  
fix our attention on this fact1 and     
reflect on the consequences  which would
 have attended it if thousands1 or only 
some hundreds1 of  centuries had elapsed
 since our continents first existed     
above the  level of the sea1 does it not
 evidently appear that all the country  
on the west of the ,nile would have been
 buried under this sand before  the     
erection of the cities of ancient       
,egypt1 how remote soever that  period  
may be supposed2 and that in a country  
so long afflicted with  sterility1 no   
idea would even have been formed of     
constructing such  vast and numerous    
edifices8 ,when these cities indeed were
 built1  another cause concurred in     
favouring their prosperity4 ,the        

navigation  of the ,red ,sea was not    
then attended with any danger on the    
coasts2  all its ports1 now nearly      
blocked up with reefs of coral1 had  a  
safe and easy access2 the vessels laden 
with merchandize and  provisions could  
enter them and depart without risk of   
being wrecked  on these shoals1 which   
have risen since that time1 and are     
still  increasing in extent4    ,the    
defects of the present government of    
,egypt1 and the discovery of  the       
passage from ,europe to ,india round the
 ,cape of ,good ,hope1 are  therefore   
not the only causes of the present state
 of decline of this  country4 ,if the   
sands of the desert had not invaded the 
bordering  lands on the west1 if the    
work of the sea polypi in the ,red ,sea 
had  not rendered dangerous the access  
to its coasts and to its ports1 and     
even filled up some of the latter1 the  
population of ,egypt and the  adjacent  
countries1 together with their product1 
would alone have  sufficed to maintain  

them in a state of prosperity and       
abundance4  ,but now1 though the passage
 to ,india by the ,cape of ,good ,hope  
should cease to exist1 though the       
political advantages which ,egypt       
enjoyed during the brilliant period of  
,thebes and ,memphis should  be         
re-established1 she could never again   
attain the same degree of  splendour4   
,thus the reefs of coral which had been 
raised in the ,red ,sea on the  east of 
,egypt1 and the sands of the desert     
which invade it on the  west1 concur in 
attesting this truth3 ,that our         
continents are not of  a more remote    
antiquity than has been assigned to them
 by the sacred  historian in the book of
 ,genesis1 from the great era of the    
deluge4      ,,note ,h1 p4 #cj4         
,action of the ,sea upon ,coasts4       
,the ocean1 in its action upon the      
cliffs and banks situated on the  coast1
 breaks them down to a greater or less  
extent1 and either  accumulates the     
debris at their basis in the form of sea

 beaches  of greater or less magnitude1 
or by currents carries it away to be    
deposited upon other shores1 or to give 
rise to sand-banks near the  coast1     
which1 in the course of time1 become    
united to the land1 and  thus secure it 
from the further action of the sea4     
,these destroying  and forming effects  
of the waters of the ocean are to be    
observed  all around the coasts of this 
island2 and beautiful examples of such  
actions are to be seen on the coasts of 
,ireland1 and in many of the  islands   
that lie to the west and north of ,great
 ,britain4 ,in a paper  read before the 
,wernerian ,natural ,history ,society1  
,mr ,stevenson1  engineer1 mentions many
 facts illustrative of the destroying   
effects  of the ocean on our            
coasts4--,thus he informs us that the   
waters  of the sea are wearing away the 
land upon both sides of the ,frith  of  
,forth1 not only in exposed1 but also in
 sheltered situations1  and the solid   
strata1 as well as the looser alluvial  

formations1  which owe their origin to  
the destroying agency of the ocean at a 
former period1 are again yielding to its
 action4 ,at ,saint ,andrew's1  the     
famous castle of ,cardinal ,beaton1     
which is said originally to  have been  
some distance from the sea1 now almost  
overhangs it3  ,from ,st ,andrew's      
northward to ,eden water and the ,river 
,tay1 the  coast presents a sandy beach1
 and is so liable to shift1 that it is  
difficult to trace the change it may    
have undergone4 ,it is certain1         
however1 that1 within this last century1
 the sea has made such an  impression   
upon the sands of ,barray1 on the       
northern side of the  ,tay1 that the    
light-houses at the entrance of the     
river1 which were  formerly erected at  
the southern extremity of ,button-ness1 
have  been from time to time removed    
about a mile and a quarter further      
northward1 on account of the wasting and
 shifting of these sandy  shores1 and   
that the spot on which the outer        

light-house stood in  the #agth century1
 is now two or three fathoms under      
water1 and is at  least three quarters  
of a mile within flood-mark4            
,,note1 p4 #cb4    ,on the growth of    
,coral ,islands4    ,of all the genera  
of lithophytes1 the madrepore is the    
most abundant4  ,it occurs most         
frequently in tropical countries1 and   
decreases  in number and variety as we  
approach the poles4 ,it encircles in    
prodigious rocks and vast reefs many of 
the basaltic and other  rocky islands in
 the ,south ,sea and ,indian ,ocean1    
and1 by its daily  growth1 adds to their
 magnitude4 ,the coasts of the islands  
in  the ,west ,indies1 also those of the
 islands on the east coast of  ,africa1 
and the shores and shoals of the ,red   
,sea1 are encircled  and incrusted with 
rocks of coral4 ,several different      
tribes of  madrepore contribute to form 
these coral reefs2 but by far the most  
abundant are those of the genera        
carophylla1 astrea and meandrina4       

,these lithophytic animals not only add 
to the magnitude of land  already       
existing1 but1 according to some        
naturalists1 they form whole  islands4  
,dr ,forster1 in his ,observations made 
during a ,voyage round  the ,world1     
gives an account of the formation of    
these coral islands  in the ,south ,sea4
    ,all the low isles1 he says1 seem to
 me to be a production of the  sea1 or  
rather its inhabitants1 the polype-like 
animals forming the  lithophytes4 ,these
 animalcules raise their habitation     
gradually  from a small base1 always    
spreading more and more1 in proportion  
as  the structure grows higher4 ,the    
materials are a kind of lime mixed  with
 some animal substances4 ,i have seen   
these large structures in  all stages1  
and of various extent4 ,near ,turtle    
,island1 we found1 at  a few miles      
distance1 and to leeward of it1 a       
considerable large  circular reef1 over 
which the sea broke every where1 and no 
part of  it was above water2 it included

 a large deep lagoon4 ,to the east  and 
north-east of the ,society ,isles1 are a
 great many isles1 which  in some parts 
are above water2 in others1 the elevated
 parts are  connected by reefs1 some of 
which are dry at low water1 and others  
are constantly under water4 ,the        
elevated parts consist of a soil  formed
 by a sand of shells and coral rocks1   
mixed with a light black  mould1        
produced from putrified vegetables1 and 
the dung of sea-fowls2  and are commonly
 covered by cocoa-nut trees and other   
shrubs1 and  a few antiscorbutic plants4
 ,the lower parts have only a few shrubs
  and the above plants2 others still    
lower1 are washed by the sea at         
high-water4 ,all these isles are        
connected1 and include a lagoon in  the 
middle1 which is full of the finest     
fish2 and sometimes there is  an        
opening1 admitting a boat or canoe1 in  
the reef1 but ,i never saw  or heard of 
an opening that would admit a ship4     
,the reef1 or the first origin of these 

isles1 is formed by the  animalcules    
inhabiting the lithophytes4 ,they raise 
their habitation  within a little of the
 surface of the sea1 which gradually    
throws  shells1 weeds1 sand1 small bits 
of corals1 and other things1 on the     
tops of these coral rocks1 and at last  
fairly raises them above  water2 where  
the above things continue to be         
accumulated by the sea1  till by a bird1
 or by the sea1 a few seeds of plants   
that commonly  grow on the sea-shore1   
are thrown up1 and begin to vegetate2   
and  by their annual decay and          
reproduction from seeds1 create a little
  mould1 yearly accumulated by the      
mixture with sand1 increasing the  dry  
spot on every side2 till another sea    
happens to carry a cocoa-nut  hither1   
which preserves its vegetative power a  
long time in the sea1  and therefore    
will soon begin to grow on this soil2   
especially as  it thrives equally in all
 kinds of soil2 and thus may all these  
low  isles have become covered with the 

finest cocoa-nut trees4    ,the         
animalcules forming these reefs want to 
shelter their habitation  from the      
impetuosity of the winds1 and the power 
and rage of the  ocean2 but as1 within  
the tropics1 the winds blow commonly    
from one  quarter1 they1 by instinct1   
endeavour to stretch only a ledge1      
within  which is a lagoon1 which is     
certainly entirely screened against the 
power of both4 ,this1 therefore1 might  
account for the method employed  by the 
animalcules in building only narrow     
ledges of coral rocks1 to  secure in    
their middle a calm and sheltered place2
 and this seems to  me to be the most   
probable cause of the origin of all the 
,tropical  ,low ,isles1 over the whole  
,south ,sea4    ,that excellent         
navigator1 the late ,captain ,flinders1 
gives the  following interesting account
 of the formation of ,coral ,islands1   
particularly of ,half-way ,island on the
 north coast of ,terra  ,australis#cha4 
8,this little island1 or rather the     

surrounding reef1 which is three    or  
four miles long1 affords shelter from   
the south-east winds2    and being at a 
moderate day's run from ,murray's       
,isles1 it forms    a convenient        
anchorage for the night to a ship       
passing through    ,torres' ,strait3 ,i 
named it ,half-way ,island4 ,it is      
scarcely more    than a mile in         
circumference1 but appears to be        
increasing both in    elevation and     
extent4 ,at no very distant period of   
time1 it was one    of those banks      
produced by the washing up of sand and  
broken coral1    of which most reefs    
afford instances1 and those of ,torres' 
,strait a    great many4 ,these banks   
are in different stages of progress3    
some1    like this1 are become islands1 
but not yet habitable2 some are    above
 high-water mark1 but destitute of      
vegetation2 whilst others    are        
overflowed with every returning tide4   
8,it seems to me1 that1 when the        
animalcules which form the corals    at 

the bottom of the ocean cease to live1  
their structures adhere    to each      
other1 by virtue either of the glutinous
 remains within1 or    of some property 
in salt water2 and the interstices being
 gradually    filled up with sand and   
broken pieces of coral washed by the    
sea1    which also adhere1 a mass of    
rock is at length formed4 ,future races 
of these animalcules erect their        
habitations upon the rising bank1    and
 die in their turn1 to increase1 but    
principally to elevate1    this monument
 of their wonderful labours4 ,the care  
taken to work    perpendicularly in the 
early stages1 would mark a surprising   
instinct in these diminutive creatures4 
,their wall of coral1    for the most   
part1 in situations where the winds are 
constant1    being arrived at the       
surface1 affords a shelter1 to leeward  
of    which their infant colonies may be
 safely sent forth2 and to    this1     
their instinctive foresight1 it seems to
 be owing1 that the    windward side of 

a reef exposed to the open sea1 is      
generally1    if not always1 the highest
 part1 and rises almost perpendicular1  
sometimes from the depth of #bjj1 and   
perhaps many more fathoms4 ,to    be    
constantly covered with water1 seems    
necessary to the existence    of the    
animalcules1 for they do not work1      
except in holes upon the    reef1 beyond
 low-water mark2 but the coral1 sand1   
and other broken    remnants thrown up  
by the sea1 adhere to the rock1 and form
 a solid    mass with it1 as high as the
 common tides reach4 ,that elevation    
surpassed1 the future remnants1 being   
rarely covered1 lose their    adhesive  
property2 and remaining in a loose      
state1 form what is    usually called a 
key1 upon the top of the reef4 ,the new 
bank is    not long in being visited by 
sea-birds3 salt plants take root upon   
it1 and a soil begins to be formed2 a   
cocoa-nut1 or the drupe of    a         
pandanus1 is thrown on shore2 land birds
 visit it1 and deposit    the seeds of  

shrubs and trees2 every high tide1 and  
still more    every gale1 adds something
 to the bank2 the form of an island is  
gradually assumed2 and last of all comes
 man to take possession4      8,half-way
 ,island is well advanced in the above  
progressive state2    having been many  
years1 probably some ages1 above the    
reach of    the highest spring tides1 or
 the wash of the surf in the heaviest   
gales4 ,i distinguished1 however1 in the
 rock which forms its basis1    the     
sand1 coral1 and shells1 formerly thrown
 up1 in a more or less    perfect state 
of cohesion4 ,small pieces of wood1     
pumice stone1 and    other extraneous   
bodies which chance had mixed with the  
calcareous    substances when the       
cohesion began1 were inclosed in the    
rock2 and    in some cases were still   
separable from it without much force4   
,the    upper part of the island is a   
mixture of the same substances in    a  
loose state1 with a little vegetable    
soil2 and is covered with    the        

casuarina and a variety of other trees  
and shrubs1 which    give food to       
parroquets1 pigeons1 and some other     
birds2 to whose    ancestors1 it is     
probable1 the island was originally     
indebted for    this vegetation40    ,mr
 ,chamisso1 who accompanied ,kotzebue in
 his voyage1 has published  interesting 
observations on this subject4 ,he       
informs us that the  low islands of the 
,south ,sea and ,indian ,ocean owe their
 origin  principally to the operations  
of several species of coral4 ,their     
situation with respect to each other1 as
 they often form rows1 their  union in  
several places in large groups1 and     
their total absence in  other parts of  
the same seas1 induce us to conclude1   
that the corals  have founded their     
building on shoals of the sea2 or1 to   
speak more  correctly1 on the tops of   
mountains lying under water4 ,on the one
  side1 as they increase1 they continue 
to approach the surface of  the sea1 on 
the other side they enlarge the extent  

of their earth4  ,the larger species of 
corals1 which form blocks1 measuring    
several  fathoms in thickness1 seem to  
prefer the more violent surf on the     
external edge of the reef2 this1 and the
 obstacles opposed to the  continuation 
of their life1 in the middle of a broad 
reef1 by the  amassing of the shells    
abandoned by the animals1 and fragments 
of  corals1 are probably the reason that
 the outer edge of the reef first       
approaches the surface4 ,as soon as it  
has reached such a height1 that  it     
remains almost dry at low water1 the    
corals leave off building  higher2      
sea-shells1 fragments of coral1 shells  
of echini1 and their  broken-off        
prickles1 are united by the burning sun1
 through the  medium of the cementing   
calcareous sand1 which has arisen from  
the pulverization of the above mentioned
 shells into one whole or  solid stone1 
which1 strengthened by the continual    
throwing up of new  materials1 gradually
 increases in thickness till it at last 

becomes  so high1 that it is covered    
only during some seasons of the year by 
the high tides4 ,the heat of the sun so 
penetrates the mass of stone  when it is
 dry1 that it splits in many places1 and
 breaks off in  flakes4 ,these flakes1  
so separated1 are raised one upon       
another by  the waves at the time of    
high water4 ,the always active surf     
throws  blocks of coral1 7frequently of 
a fathom in length1 and three or  four  
feet thick17 and shells of marine       
animals1 between and upon the           
foundation stones2 after this the       
calcareous sand lies undisturbed1  and  
offers to the seeds of trees and plants1
 cast upon it by the  waves1 a soil upon
 which they rapidly grow1 to overshadow 
its  dazzling white surface4 ,entire    
trunks of trees1 which are carried by   
the rivers from other countries and     
islands1 find here1 at length1 a        
resting place after their long          
wanderings2 with them come some small   
animals1 such as lizards and insects1 as

 the first inhabitants4 ,even  before   
the trees form a wood1 the real         
sea-birds nestle here2 strayed          
land-birds take refuge in the bushes2   
and at a much later period1  when the   
work has been long since completed1 man 
also appears1 builds  his hut on the    
fruitful soil formed by the corruption  
of the leaves  of the trees1 and calls  
himself lord and proprietor of this new 
creation4    ,in the preceding account1 
we have seen how the exterior edge of a 
submarine coral edifice first approaches
 the surface of the water1  and how this
 reef gradually assumes the properties  
of land2 the  island1 therefore1        
necessarily has a circular form1 and in 
the  middle of it an inclosed lake4     
,this lake1 however1 is not entirely    
inclosed2 7and it could not be1 for     
without supply from the sea it  would   
soon be dried up by the rays of the     
sun17 but the exterior  wall consists of
 a great number of smaller islands1     
which are  separated from each other by 

sometimes larger1 sometimes smaller     
spaces4 ,the number of these islets     
amounts1 in the larger coral  islands1  
to sixty2 and between them it is not so 
deep but that it  becomes dry at the    
time of ebb4 ,the interior sea has in   
the middle  generally a depth of from   
thirty to five-and-thirty fathoms2 but  
on  all sides towards the land the depth
 gradually increases4 ,in those  seas   
where the constant monsoons prevail1    
where1 consequently1 the  waves beat    
only on one side of the reef or island1 
it is natural  that this side of the    
reef1 exposed to the unremitting fury of
 the  ocean1 should be formed chiefly by
 broken-off blocks of coral1 and        
fragments of shells1 and first rise     
above the elements that created  it4 ,it
 is only these islands respecting the   
formation and nature  of which we       
hitherto know any thing with certainty2 
we are almost  entirely without any     
observations on those in the ,indian and
 ,chinese  ,sea1 which lie in the       

regions of the six months' monsoons4    
,from the  charts given of them1 it is  
to be inferred that every side is       
equally  advanced in formation4 ,the lee
 side of such a coral reef in the       
,pacific ,ocean1 which is governed by   
the constant monsoons1 frequently  does 
not shew itself above the water1 when   
the opposite side1 from  time           
immemorial1 has attained perfection in  
the atmospheric region2  the former reef
 is even interrupted in many places by  
intervals  tolerably broad1 and of the  
same depth as the inner sea1 which have 
been left by nature1 like open gates1   
for the exploring mariner  to enter the 
internal calm and secure harbour4 ,in   
their external  form the coral islands  
do not resemble each other2 but this1   
and  the extent of each1 probably       
depends on the size of the submarine    
mountain tops1 on which their basis is  
founded4 ,those islands which  have more
 length than breadth1 and are opposed in
 their greatest  extent to the winds and

 waves1 are richer in fruitful islets   
than  those whose situation is not so   
adapted to a quick formation4  ,in the  
large island-chains1 there are always   
some single islets  which have the      
appearance of high land2 these lie upon 
an angle  projecting into the sea1 are  
exposed to the surf upon two sides1     
consist therefore almost entirely of    
large blocks of coral1 and are          
destitute of smaller fragments of shells
 and coral sand to fill up  the         
intervals4 ,they are1 therefore1 not    
adapted to support plants  requiring a  
depth of soil1 and only afford a basis  
to high trees1  provided with fibrous   
roots1 7as the ,pisonia1 ,cordia        
,sebastiana1 ,l42  ,morinda citrifolia1 
,l42 and ,pandanus odoratissimus1 ,l471 
which1 at  a distance1 give to these1   
always very small islands1 the form of a
  hill4 ,the inner shores of the island1
 exposed to the surf1 consist  of fine  
sand1 which is washed up by the tide4   
,between the small  islands under their 

protection1 and even in the middle of   
the inner  sea1 are found smaller pieces
 of coral1 which seek a quiet abode1    
form in time1 though very slowly1 banks1
 till they at last reach the  surface of
 the water2 gradually increase in       
extent2 unite with the  islands that    
surround them2 and at length fill up the
 minor seas1  so that what was at first 
a ring of islands1 becomes one connected
  land4 ,the islands which are so far   
formed1 retain in the middle a  flat    
plain1 which is always lower than the   
wall that surrounds them  on the banks2 
for which reason pools of water are     
formed in them1  after a continued      
rain1--the only springs and wells they  
possess4 ,one  of the peculiarities of  
these islands is1 that no dew falls in  
the  evening1 that they cause no        
tempests1 and do not check the course of
  the wind4 ,the very low situation of  
the country sometimes exposes the       
inhabitants to great danger1 and        
threatens their lives when the waves    

roll over their islands1 if it happens  
that the equinox and full  moon fall on 
the same day 7consequently when the     
water has reached  its greatest height71
 and a storm agitates the sea at the    
same time4  ,these islands are said to  
be also shaken by earthquakes4    ,,mm4 
,quoy and ,gaimard1 in a lately         
published memoir1 propose1 #ast1  ,to   
examine how corals raise their          
habitations upon rocks1 and what        
circumstances are favourable or         
unfavourable to their growth4 #b;d1  ,to
 shew that there are no islands of any  
extent1 constantly inhabited  by man1   
which are entirely formed of corals2 and
 that far from  raising from the depths 
of the ocean perpendicular walls1 as has
 been  alleged1 these animals form only 
layers or crusts of a few fathoms       
thickness4    ,the following1 according 
to the ,french naturalists1 is the      
manner in  which this addition or       
superposition of madrepores is effected4
 ,in  the places where the heat is      

constantly intense1 where the land is   
indented by bays containing shallow and 
quiet water1 which is not  liable to be 
agitated by great surges1 or by the     
regular breezes  of the tropics1 there  
also the saxigenous polypi multiply4    
,they  construct their habitations on   
the submarine rocks1 envelope these     
rocks in whole or in part1 but do not   
form them properly speaking4  ,thus1 all
 those reefs1 those girdles of          
madrepore1 which are so  frequently met 
with in the ,south ,sea1 to the leeward 
of islands1  are shoals depending upon  
the conformation of the original ground1
  which will be perceived to belong to  
it when the direction of the  mountains 
and hills has been attentively observed4
 ,it is always where  the slopes are    
gentle1 and the sea shallowest1 that the
 greatest  masses of madrepores are     
found4 ,they sprout up if it is calm2 in
 the  contrary case1 they form only     
scattered tufts1 belonging to species   
which seem to be least affected by the  

agitation of the waters4    ,it has been
 said1 and it is even a matter of       
general belief among  mariners1 say     
,,mm4 ,quoy and ,gaimard1 that there    
occur in the  equatorial seas shoals    
composed of corals1 which rise from the 
greatest depths1 like walls at the      
bottom of which the sounding  line finds
 no ground4 ,the fact certainly does    
exist in so far as  regards the depth   
spoken of2 and it is this very          
circumstance which  is productive of so 
much danger to vessels1 which1 when     
taken in a  calm and carried away by    
currents1 cannot cast anchor in such    
places4  ,but it is not correct to say  
that these reefs are entirety formed of 
madrepores4 ,first1 because the species 
which always form the most  considerable
 banks1 such as some meandrin1 certain  
caryophylle1 but  especially the astre1 
adorned with the most beautiful and     
velvety  colours1 require the influence 
of light to perfect them2 because  they 
are not seen to grow beyond a few yards 

of depth2 and because  they cannot      
consequently be developed at a depth of 
ten or twelve  hundred feet1 as they    
would necessarily be1 did they raise the
 cliffs  in question4 ,besides1 these   
different species of animals would then 
almost exclusively enjoy the privilege  
of living at all depths1  under all     
degrees of pressure1 and1 so to speak1  
in all temperatures4    ,another        
circumstance to which navigators have   
not adverted1 which  corroborates the   
opinion here stated1 is1 that1 in depths
 so great  as those to which we allude1 
the sea1 always agitated at the         
surface1 breaks with force upon these   
reefs1 without requiring for  that      
purpose any additional impulse from the 
winds4 ,and by merely  attending to the 
necessary consequences of the           
observations of these  same navigators1 
who say 7what is very true7 that1       
wherever the waves  are agitated1 the   
lithophytes are unable to go on with    
their work1  because they destroy their 

frail edifices1 we shall acquire the    
moral  certainty that these submarine   
steeps are not produced by these        
animalcules4 ,but1 in these same places1
 let there occur a hollow1 a  sheltered 
spot of some kind1 and then they will   
immediately raise  their habitations1   
and will contribute to diminish the     
little depth  that already exists there4
 ,and this is what may be seen in almost
 all  the places where an elevated      
temperature permits these animals to    
grow in abundance4    ,in the localities
 where the tides are sensible1 their    
currents alone  may sometimes form      
irregular canals between the madrepores1
 without  their ever being encumbered   
with their species1 from the twofold    
cause united1 of the motion and the     
coldness of the water2 while1 on  the   
other hand1 the flexible alcyonia are   
seen to multiply there4    ,when these  
geological dispositions are carefully   
observed1 we see  that the zoophytes    
rise to the surface of the waves1 never 

beyond  it2 after which the generation  
which has attained thus far appears  to 
die4 ,it is destroyed much sooner1 if1  
from the effect of the  tides1 these    
frail animalcules are exposed naked to  
the action of a  burning sun4 ,when     
there occur small hollows in these heaps
 of inert  spoils1 deprived of their    
inhabitants1 which are always covered by
  the water1 several tufts of those     
lithophytes are still remarked1  which1 
having escaped from the almost general  
destruction1 glow with  the most lively 
colours4 ,then1 the families which are  
developed anew1  not being able to build
 on the outside of those reefs on which 
the  sea is constantly breaking1 draw   
nearer and nearer the shore1 where  the 
waves now deadened have scarcely any    
more action upon them1 as in  the ,isle 
of ,france1 at ,timor1 the ,papua1 the  
,marian1 and the ,sandwich  ,islands2   
provided always the waters had not a    
great depth1 as is  the case at ,turtle 
,island1 of which ,cook speaks1 where no

 bottom is  found between the madrepore 
reefs and the island1 notwithstanding   
the  shortness of the space which exists
 between these two points4    ,if we    
examine these animals in the places best
 adapted to their  growth1 we shall see 
their different species1 the forms of   
which1 as  varied as they are elegant1  
become rounded into balls1 spread out   
into fans1 or ramify into trees1        
mingling together1 blending with  each  
other1 and reflecting the varied hues of
 red1 yellow1 blue and  violet4    ,it  
is well known that all these alleged    
walls1 exclusively formed of  corals1   
are intersected with openings through   
which the sea enters  and retires with  
violence2 and every body knows the      
danger which  ,captain ,cook ran on one 
occasion1 on the coast of ,new ,holland1
 when  he had no other resource1 in     
order to save himself from destruction1 
than to take the sudden resolution of   
attempting one of these narrow  passes1 
where one is always sure of finding     

plenty of water4 ,and this  circumstance
 also comes in support of what we have  
advanced2 for1 if  these perpendicular  
walls were entirely composed of         
madrepores1 they  would present no deep 
openings in their continuity1 because it
 is the  property of zoophytes to build 
in masses that have no interruption2    
and because1 again1 could they raise    
themselves from very great  depths1 they
 would end with encumbering and shutting
 up these  passages2 a circumstance     
which does not take place1 and probably 
never will1 from the causes which we    
have related4    ,if these facts prove1 
that madrepores cannot exist at very    
great  depths1 the submarine rocks1     
which they only increase in height1 are 
not1 therefore1 exclusively formed by   
them4    ,we now come to the second part
 of the argument2 and we assert1 that   
there are no islands of any magnitude   
and constantly inhabited by  man1 that  
are formed by corals2 and that the      
layers which they  construct under the  

water1 are not more than a few fathoms  
in  thickness4    ,we shall commence    
with the second part of this question4  
,the  impossibility of penetrating to   
the bottom of the sea to examine  at    
what precise depth the solid zoophytes  
establish themselves1  constrains us to 
confine ourselves to what has taken     
place in former  times2 and the         
monuments which the ancient revolutions 
of the globe  have disclosed to our     
view1 will serve to prove what is going 
on in  our own days4 ,we shall mention  
what has been seen in several places1   
and we shall first speak of the island  
which ,peron took for the  theatre of   
the great works of these polypi1 namely 
the island of  ,timor4    ,the banks of 
coral which the sea has left exposed in 
the land1  as it retired1 are remarkable
 for their uncommon magnitude4 ,the     
whole shores of ,coupang are formed of  
them1 and the low hills in  its vicinity
 are enveloped in them2 but a few       
hundred yards from  the town1 they      

disappear1 when distinct strata of slate
 make their  appearance4 ,the corals    
form a bed over the subjacent rocks from
 #be to  #hj feet thick4    ,every thing
 announces that1 in the ,island of      
,timor1 there exist  no mountains       
exclusively formed of corals4 ,as in all
 extensive  countries1 they are composed
 of various substances4 ,quoy and       
,gaimard  having coasted it for about   
fifty leagues1 sufficiently near to     
enable them to form an idea of its      
geography1 were able to see that  it    
exhibited volcanic appearances in       
several parts4 ,besides it  abounds in  
mines of gold and copper1 which1 in     
conjunction with what  we have already  
mentioned1 shews in a general way the   
nature of the  rocks of which it is     
composed4    ,perhaps1 remarks ,quoy and
 ,gaimard1 the ,bald-,head1 a mountain  
of  ,king ,george's harbour in ,new     
,holland1 which ,vancouver has described
  in passing1 and on the summit of which
 he saw perfectly preserved  branches of

 coral1 might be adduced as a fact in   
opposition to the  opinion here         
advanced4 ,yet the phenomenon exhibited 
there1 is still  precisely the same as  
at ,timor1 and in a thousand other      
places#chb4  ,the zoophytes have built  
upon a basis previously existing1 and   
they occupy only the surface of it4 ,for
 why should this ,bald-,head  differ    
from ,mount ,gardner1 which1 although   
close by it1 is formed of  primitive    
rocks8 ,besides1 ,peron says1 that it   
has the same geological  constitution4  
7,t4 ii4 p4 #acc47    ,at ,rota1 one of 
the ,marian ,isles1 ,m4 ,gaudichaud1    
detached from the  limestone rock1 at   
about a hundred toises above the level  
of the  sea1 branches of true           
madrepores1 in perfect preservation4    
,here are1  then1 three localities in   
which they are found at great heights4  
,we  have observed them1 say the ,french
 naturalists1 at infinitely lower       
elevations in several other places1 as  
at the ,isle of ,france1 where  they    

form a bed more than six feet thick1    
between two streams of  lava2 at ,wahou1
 one of the ,sandwich ,islands1 where   
they have not  a greater elevation1 but 
extend for several hundred toises over  
the surface of the island4 ,in all these
 cases1 it is necessary to  distinguish 
between the lithophytes1 which have1 by 
their living  powers1 formed continuous 
masses1 from those which1 after having  
been  rolled about1 broken down by the  
water1 and mixed with sea shells1       
contribute to form those deposits known 
by the name of madrepore  limestone4    
,the latter sort is nothing but the     
debris of the former4  ,deposits of this
 description occur in the ,marian       
,isles1 and in those  of the ,papous2   
they occur also on the coasts of        
,france1 and in  several other places4  
,it would appear from observations made 
in ,timor and other places1  that the   
species of the genus ,astra which are   
the only ones capable  of covering      
immense extents of surface1 do not      

commence their  operations at a greater 
depth than twenty-five or thirty feet1  
in  order to raise their habitations to 
near the surface of the sea4  ,fragments
 of these species are never obtained1   
either with the  sounding line1 or upon 
the anchors2 nor do we ever see them1   
unless  in places where the water is    
shallow2 while the branched madrepores1 
which do not form thick and continuous  
beds1 either on the elevated  places    
which the ocean has left1 or on the     
shores where they still  exist1 live at 
considerable depths4    ,it is evident1 
then1 that these corals have erected    
their fabrics  on the summits of        
submarine hills and mountains2 and that 
all those  reefs of ,taiti1 the         
,dangerous ,archipelago1 ,navigators'   
,islands1 the  ,friendly ,islands1 c4   
are composed of madrepores only at the  
surface4    ,we thus consider it        
demonstrated1 that the rocks of the     
solid  zoophytes or coral1 are not      
capable of forming the immense bases on 

which the greater number of the islands 
that occur in the ,pacific  ,ocean rest4
    ,there now remains for us to state  
how these animals1 by their  union1 are 
capable of raising small islets4        
,forster1 as already  stated1 has given 
a very good description of the manner in
 which  this is effected4 ,in fact1 when
 these animalcules have raised their    
habitations to the surface of the water1
 under the shelter of the  land1 and    
they remain uncovered during the reflux 
of the tide1 the  hurricanes which      
sometimes supervene1 by the agitation   
which they  produce in those shallow    
waters1 throw up from the bottom sand   
and  mud4 ,these substances are detained
 in the sinuosities and cavities  formed
 between the corals1 and thus serve to  
fix them together1 and  connect them    
into masses4 ,whenever the summit of    
this new island  can remain constantly  
uncovered by the sea1 and the waves can 
no  longer destroy what they themselves 
have contributed to form1 then  its     

extent is enlarged1 and its edges are   
gradually raised by the  successive     
addition of sand4 ,according to the     
direction of the  winds and currents    
they may long remain sterile2 but if the
 seeds  of vegetables be transported to 
them from the neighbouring shores1  by  
the action of these two causes1 then1 in
 latitudes favourable to  their         
development1 we presently see these     
islands becoming covered  with verdure1 
the successively accumulated remains of 
which form  layers of soil1 which       
contribute to the elevation of the      
surface4    ,but1 in order that this    
phenomenon of growth be accomplished1   
the distance from land must not be too  
great1 because then the  vegetables     
cannot get so easily to the islets in   
question1 which  then remain almost     
always bare and sterile4 ,and for this  
reason what  navigators report of those 
madrepore ,islands of the ,great ,ocean1
  which are covered with verdure1 and   
are yet at a great distance  from any   

known land1 has always appeared to us   
extraordinary2 and  that so much the    
more1 that1 in those vast spaces1 the   
violence  of the waves1 which nothing   
can break there1 must disturb the       
operations of the zoophytes4 ,we do not1
 however1 deny the existence  of these  
islands1 which it would be interesting  
carefully to examine  anew2 for1        
whenever navigators meet with low       
islands between the  ,tropics1 they do  
not hesitate1 in compliance with the    
generally  received opinion1 to say that
 they consist of madrepores4 ,yet how   
many islands1 which scarcely rise above 
the surface of the water1  recognise no 
such origin8 ,we may mention1 as an     
example1 the ,island  of ,boni1 situated
 under the equator1 the beautiful       
vegetation of  which rises upon         
limestone4 ,cocoa ,island1 near ,guam1  
is in the same  condition1 being also   
composed of limestone4 ,in general1 if  
they are  inhabited1 consequently they  
have springs or lakes of fresh water1   

we may almost be certain that they are  
not composed of lithophytes1  or are    
only so in part1 because springs could  
not be formed in their  porous          
substances4 ,some of the ,caroline      
,isles are excessively low2 we  supposed
 them encrusted with madrepores2 and as 
they have inhabitants  there must be    
somewhere in them a soil favourable to  
the accumulation  of fresh water#chc4   
,in restraining the power of these      
animalcules1 concludes ,quoy and        
,gaimard1 and in pointing out the limits
 which nature has prescribed  them1 we  
have no other object than to furnish    
more correct data to  the naturalists   
who aspire to great hypothetical        
considerations1  regarding the          
conformation of the globe4 ,on          
reconsidering these  zoophytes with     
greater attention1 they will no longer  
be seen  filling up the basins of the   
seas1 raising islands1 increasing  the  
size of the continents1 threatening     
future generations with a  solid        

equatorial circle formed of their       
spoils4 ,their influence1  with regard  
to the road-steads or harbours1 in which
 they multiply1  is already great       
enough1 without adding more to it4 ,but1
 compared  with the masses on which they
 rest1 what are their layers1 often     
interrupted1 and which must be searched 
for with care1 before they  can be      
recognised1 to the enormous volcanic    
peaks of the ,sandwich  ,islands1 the   
,island of ,bourbon1 the ,moluccas1 the 
,marian ,islands1 the  mountains of     
,timor1 ,new ,guinea1 c4 c48 ,nothing1  
certainly2 and the  solid zoophytes are 
in no degree capable of being compared  
with the  testaceous mollusca1 with     
reference to the materials which they   
have  furnished1 and still continue to  
furnish to the crust of the ,globe4     
,,note ,i1 p4 #cc4    ,,on ,,the ,,level
 ,,of ,,the ,,baltic4    ,about the     
middle of the last century1 a           
controversy took place  among the       
natural philosophers of the north of    

,europe1 regarding  the alleged gradual 
lowering of the level of the sea in     
general1  and of the ,baltic ,sea in    
particular4 ,celsius was the first who  
introduced this idea to notice4 ,he     
generalised it by applying it  to all   
the planets1 and was supported by the   
authority of the  celebrated ,linnus4   
,he soon perceived1 however1 that the   
point could  never be settled by mere   
discussion1 and that facts alone could  
lead to any certain result4 ,observation
 was therefore had recourse  to2 and    
thus the dispute in question had at     
least one good effect1  that of         
directing to the subject the attention  
of men of science1  whose situation     
might enable them to mark the variations
 of level  that take place along the    
coasts of the ,north ,sea4 ,the results 
of  investigations undertaken for this  
purpose1 are now beginning to be        
collected4    ,in the course of #ahbj   
and #ahba1 ,mr ,bruncrona1 assisted by  
the  officers of the ,pilotage          

,establishment1 and other qualified     
persons1  undertook the examination of  
all the authentic measures that had been
  established upon the west coast of the
 ,baltic1 during the last half  century4
 ,the results of this examination are   
given in a short memoir1  inserted in   
the ,swedish ,transactions for #ahbc4   
,the following table  indicates the     
degree to which the level of the sea has
 fallen during  the last forty years1 on
 the coast of ,sweden1 at various       
latitudes4  ,it is proper to remark1    
that1 in some of the places observed1   
the  measures were much older1 and in   
some others much more recent1  than the 
period of forty years4 ,in both these   
cases1 the change of  level that must   
have been effected during this period1  
has been  estimated1 by calculating the 
mean annual depression furnished by the 
observations4                           
----------------------------------------
-----------------------                 
,fall of              ,fall of          

,fall of                  surface       
surface              surface            
,latitude4  in forty  ,latitude4  in    
forty  ,latitude4  in forty             
years4               years4             
years4                                  
----------------------------------------
-----------------------    ,east ,coast4
   ,feet4  ,east ,coast4   ,feet4  ,east
 ,coast4   ,feet4        #fc #ei        
#a4ej     #ei #ag     #b4ag     #ef #aj 
#j4jj         444 444     #b4ej     #eh 
#dd      #a4jj     #ef  #aa      #j4jj  
444 444     #j4ej     #eh  #db          
#a4jh     #ee  #ec      #j4jj           
#fa  #dc      #b4ej     #eh  #de        
#a4ag                               #fa 
#cg      #b4hc     #eh  #ce      #b4jj  
,south-,west ,coast4        #fa  #cb    
#b4ej     #eh  #bh      #j4jg     #ee   
#bc      #j4jj         #fa  #de         
#b4ej     #eh  #aa      #j4hc     #ee   
#bb      #j4jj         #fj  #aa         
#b4cc     #eh   #h      #a4jj     #eg   
#ba      #j4jj         #ei  #df         

#j4ag     #eg  #ej      #a4jj     #eg   
#ec      #a4jj         #ei  #df         
#b4jj     #ef  #da      #j4da           
----------------------------------------
-----------------------    ,of the facts
 collected in the course of this        
investigation1 the  following may be    
mentioned as tending to support the     
opinion of a  fall of level4    #ast1   
,it is generally believed among the     
pilots of the ,baltic1  that the sea has
 become shallower along the course which
 vessels  ordinarily follow2 but1 it is 
added1 that this alteration is more     
sensible in the places where the tide   
collects sand1 detached  pebbles1 and   
sea-weeds1 or in those where the bottom 
is composed  of rocks4 ,the same        
observation has been made in the        
neighbourhood  of some large towns and  
fisheries2 for example1 a hydrographic  
chart made in #agga1 gives six fathoms  
for the mean depth of the sea  opposite 
the harbour of ,landskrona1 whereas1 in 
#ahag1 the sounding  line scarcely gave 

five fathoms at the same point4    #b;d1
 ,according to the oldest and most      
experienced pilots1 the  straits which  
separate the numerous islets scattered  
along the coast  of ,sweden1 from       
,haarparanda to the frontiers of        
,norway1 received  vessels that drew ten
 feet of water2 now they are not        
practicable for  boats that draw more   
than two or three feet4    #c;d1 ,the   
pilots further affirm1 that1 along the  
whole coast of  ,bahusia1 the bottom    
undergoes a diminution1 which becomes   
sensible  every ten years in certain    
places1 where it is composed of rocks4  
,several other parts of the ,baltic may 
be cited1 in which a similar  change has
 been remarked4    ,m4 ,c4 ,p4          
,hallstrom1 in an ,appendix to ,mr      
,bruncrona's ,memoir1 gives  the        
following table of the diminution       
observed in the depth of the  waters of 
the ,gulf of ,bothnia4                  
----------------------------------------
------------------------                

,mean marked in                         
,height of the water reobserved in      
,fall beneath the original              
,,places4                       mark in 
feet4                                   
,number of years4                       
,fall of the water                      
in #ajj years1                          
in feet4                                
----------------------------------------
------------------------    ,raholem1   
parish of       #agjj  #agej  #b4je  #ej
  #d4aj                   ,lower ,kalix1
                 #agge  #b4di  #ge      
#d4cb                 ,stor ,rebben1    
parish      #agea  #aghe  #a4gj  #cd    
#e4jj                   of ,pitea1      
#agif  #a4ij  #de  #d4bb                
,ratan1 parish            #agdi  #aghe  
#b4gj  #cf  #d4gb                   of  
,bygdea1                   #agie  #b4ej 
#df  #e4dc                              
#ahai  #b4fj  #gj  #c4dg                
#aggd  #aghe  #j4ee  #aa  #e4jj         
#agie  #a4af  #ba  #e4eb                

#ahai  #a4fj  #de  #c4eg                
#agie  #ahai  #j4fe  #bd  #b4ga         
,rnnskat1 on the         #agee  #agig   
#a4gj  #db  #d4je                       
coast of ,wasa1               #ahba     
#b4hg  #fe  #d4ce                       
,wargn1 on the           #agee  #aghe   
#a4de  #cj  #d4hc                       
coast of ,wasa1               #agig     
#a4fi  #db  #d4jb                       
#ahba  #b4hg  #fe  #d4ce                
,lgfrundet1 near ,sefle1  #agca  #aghe  
#b4ij  #ed  #e4cg                       
#agif  #b4ag  #fe  #c4cd                
,ulfon1 in ,angermanland1  #agie  #ahbb 
#a4eh  #bg  #e4he                       
----------------------------------------
------------------------    ,it is not  
demonstrated that the numbers of the    
last column represent  exactly the      
lowering of the water in a century2 for 
it has not  yet been sufficiently       
determined if this lowering be uniform1 
or if it vary at different periods1 and 
if it depend upon some  local           

circumstance1--upon the climate1--or    
upon the state of the  atmosphere4 ,nor 
is it properly established1 that this   
lowering1 which  becomes less           
perceptible from the north of the       
,baltic1 until it  disappears entirely  
at the southern extremity1 follows      
precisely the  same law of diminution as
 the latitude4 ,it appears to be uniform
 in  the whole extent of the ,gulf of   
,bothnia1 and it rises about four feet  
and a quarter in that region2 at ,calmar
 7lat4 #eg #ej7 it is only  two feet2   
but it is not yet known whether it      
decreases in a regular  manner between  
these two places4    ,some authors      
consider the facts related by ,,mm4     
,bruncrona and  ,halstrom1 as deciding  
the question in favour of those who     
believe in  a lowering of the level of  
the ,baltic4 ,the editor of the ,annalen
 der  ,physik#chd goes farther1 and     
seems to consider it as confirming the  
opinion of a general lowering of the    
level of the sea4 ,in support  of this  

opinion1 he adduces the traditions and  
observations of the  natives of         
,otaheite and of the ,moluccas and      
,sunda ,islands1 regarding  the retreat 
of the sea in several parts of their    
coast4 ,we are  disposed to stand       
neutral in this matter4 ,the geographers
 who have  collected the greatest number
 of facts relating to the level of the  
inland seas1 and of the ocean in its    
various regions1 find nearly as  many in
 favour of a rise as in favour of a fall
 of level4 ,the very  distribution of   
contrary indications1 leads them to     
believe in a  partial displacement of   
the mass of waters from one region      
towards  another1 and even from the one 
side of an inland sea towards the       
opposite side2 a displacement which     
might be owing to fugitive or  more or  
less durable causes1 such as a variation
 of temperature in  the polar regions1  
the action of winds and of currents1    
modified by  the greater or less        
quantity of water in the rivers that    

feed the  different basins1 upon the    
sides opposed to their direction4       
,are the facts contained in the memoir  
in question of a nature to  overthrow   
this opinion8 ,they do not appear so to 
us4 ,the two series  of observations    
which are adduced1 only shew a fall upon
 the coasts  of ,sweden1 properly so    
called1 that is to say1 upon the west   
coast  of the ,baltic1 and the east     
coast of the ,cattegat4 ,two            
observations  only have been made upon  
the coasts of ,finland1 toward the      
extremity  of the ,gulf of ,bothnia4    
,these facts would perfectly accord with
 the  opinion of those who think that   
the currents determined from the  north 
to the south of the ,baltic by the      
numerous streams which rush  into it1   
push the waters toward the south shore1 
that of ,pomerania1  ,mecklenbourg1 and 
,holstein2 and that the waters          
consequently gain  upon the land on this
 coast1 as numerous historical facts    
attest1  while they retire along the    

northern shores1 those of the ,gulf of  
,bothnia4 ,be this as it may1 the       
question as to the constancy of the     
level of the sea cannot be considered as
 decided1 until a long series  of       
observations shall have been made upon  
authentic and perfectly  fixed measures 
erected upon all the shores of the      
different seas1  and of the different   
regions of the ocean4 ,those which have 
been  published in the ,swedish         
,transactions furnish important         
documents for  this purpose2 and similar
 ones should be begun to be collected in
  other countries4    ,the phenomena    
exhibited by the waters of the ,baltic  
engaged the  attention of two rival     
speculators1 ,playfair and ,deluc2 and  
their  views are often alluded to by    
geologists4 ,we shall here state them in
  their own words4 ,professor ,playfair1
 in his well known and elegant  work on 
the ,huttonian ,theory of the ,earth1   
has the following remarks3      8,if we 
proceed further to the north1 to the    

shores of the ,baltic    for instance1  
we have undoubted evidence of a change  
of level in    the same direction as on 
our own shores4 ,the level of the sea   
has    been represented as lowering at  
so great a rate as forty inches    in a 
century4 ,celsius observed1 that several
 rocks which are now    above the water1
 were not long ago sunken rocks1 and    
dangerous    to navigators2 and he took 
particular notice of one which1 in      
the year #afhj1 was on the surface of   
the water1 and1 in the    year #agca1   
was #bj ,swedish inches above it4 ,from 
an inscription    near ,aspo1 in the    
lake ,melar1 which communicates with the
    ,baltic1 engraved1 as is supposed1  
about five centuries ago1 the    level  
of the sea appears to have sunk in that 
time no less than    thirteen ,swedish  
feet4 ,all these facts1 with many more  
which it is    unnecessary to enumerate1
 make the gradual depression1 not only  
of the ,baltic1 but of the whole        
,northern ,ocean1 a matter of           

certainty40--,playfair's ,illustrations1
 p4 #dde4    ,that indefatigable and    
accurate observer ,de ,luc1 has the     
following  commentary on the preceding  
passage4      8,it would be unnecessary 
to mention even the two inconsiderable  
facts above1 if the depression of the   
level of the seas were    indeed a      
matter of certainty2 for the best       
authenticated and the    least equivocal
 monuments of their change would then   
abound along    all their coasts4 ,but  
proofs are every where found that such a
    change is chimerical3 they may be   
seen in all the vales coming    down to 
these seas1 in which there is no        
perceptible impression of    the action 
of any waters but those of the land1 and
 no vestige1    through their whole     
extent1 of any permanent abode of those 
of the    sea2 and proofs to the same   
effect are equally visible1 along the   
coasts of both these seas1 in all the   
new lands which have been    formed on  
them1 and which1 being perfectly        

horizontal from the    point where their
 formation commenced1 evidently show    
that the    water displaced by them has 
been constantly at the same level4      
,hence appears the necessity of         
multiplying1 as ,i have done1 and       
shall continue to do1 for the subversion
 of a prejudice of such    ancient date1
 the examples of these peremptory proofs
 of its total    want of foundation4    
,the rock mentioned by ,celsius had     
probably been    observed by him at     
times when the level of the sea was     
different2    its known differences much
 exceeding the quantity here specified4 
,as for the inscription near ,aspo1 in a
 country abounding with lakes    as much
 as that which ,i have above described1 
if we are acquainted    with its terms1 
we should probably find it to be1 like  
many which    ,i have seen in various   
places along the course of the ,oder and
 the    ,elbe1 the monument of some     
extraordinary inundation of the land1   
from the sudden melting of the snows in 

the mountains1 at a time    when the    
water had been prevented from running   
off by an equally    extraordinary rise 
of the level of the sea2 of which the   
effects on    low coasts may extend very
 far inland4      8,by this conclusion1 
however1 from these few facts1 contrary 
to    every thing observed on the coasts
 of this sea1 ,mr ,playfair thinks      
himself authorised to maintain1 that the
 gradual depression1 not    only of the 
,baltic1 but of the whole northern      
ocean1 is a matter    of certainty2     
afterwards he examines merely which of  
these two    causes1 the subsidence of  
the sea itself1 or the elevation of the 
land around it1 agrees the best with the
 phenomena2 and he decides    in favour 
of the latter1 pointing out its         
accordance with the    ,huttonian       
,theory40      ,,note ,l1 p4 #aai4      
,,fossil ,,remains ,,of ,,the ,,human   
,,species4    ,from the observations of 
,werner and others1 it appears1 that the
 most  simple animals are those first   

met with in a mineralized state2 that   
these are succeeded by others more      
perfect1 and which are contained  in    
newer formations2 and that the most     
perfect1 as quadrupeds1 occur  only in  
the newest formation4 ,but we naturally 
inquire1 have no  remains of the human  
species been hitherto discovered in any 
of the  formations8 ,judging from the   
arrangement already mentioned1 we would 
naturally expect to meet with remains of
 man in the newest of the  formations4  
,in the writings of ancient authors     
there are descriptions  of              
anthropolithi4 ,in the year #aegg1 ,fel4
 ,plater1 ,professor of  ,anatomy at    
,basle1 described several fossil bones  
of the elephant  found at ,lucerne1 as  
those of a giant at least nineteen feet 
high4  ,the ,lucernese were so perfectly
 satisfied with this discovery1 that    
they caused a painting to be made of the
 giant1 as he must have  appeared when  
alive1 assumed two such giants as the   
supporters of  the city arms1 and had   

the painting hung in their public hall4 
,the  ,landvoigt ,engel1 not satisfied  
with this account of these remains1     
maintained that our planet1 before the  
creation of the present race  of men1   
was inhabited by fallen angels1 and that
 these bones were  part of the skeletons
 of some of those miserable beings4     
,scheuchzer  published an engraving and 
description of a fossil human skeleton1 
which proved to be a gigantic species of
 salamander or proteus4  ,spallanzani   
describes a hill of fossil human bones  
in the island  of ,cerigo2 but this also
 is an error1 as has been satisfactorily
  shewn by ,blumenbach4 ,lately1        
however1 a fossil human skeleton has    
been imported into this country from    
,guadaloupe1 by ,sir ,alexander         
,cochrane4 ,it is imbedded in a block of
 calcareous stone1 composed of          
particles of limestone and coral1 and   
which1 like the aggregations  of shells 
found on the limestone coasts in some   
parts of this  country1 has acquired a  

great degree of hardness4 ,it is        
therefore an  instance of a fossil human
 petrifaction in an alluvial formation4 
,the  engraving here given is copied    
from the ,philosophical ,transactions   
of the ,royal ,society of ,london2 and  
the following description of the  fossil
 remains it exhibits is that of ,mr     
,konig1 which has been drawn  up with   
great care4      8,the situation of the 
skeleton in the block was so            
superficial1    that its presence in the
 rock on the coast had probably been    
indicated by the projection of some of  
the more elevated parts of    the left  
fore-arm4      8,the operation of laying
 the bones open to view1 and of reducing
    the superfluous length of the block 
at its extremities1 being    performed  
with all the care which its excessive   
hardness1 and the    relative softness  
of the bones1 required1 the skeleton    
exhibited    itself in the manner       
represented in the annexed drawing 7,pl4
 ,i47    with which my friend ,mr       

,alexander has been so good as to       
illustrate    this description4         
8,the skull is wanting2 a circumstance  
which is the more to be    regretted1 as
 this characteristic part might possibly
 have thrown    some light on the       
subject under consideration1 or would1  
at least1    have settled the question1 
whether the skeleton is that of a       
,carib1 who used to give the frontal    
bone of the head a particular    shape  
by compression1 which had the effect of 
depressing the upper    and protruding  
the lower edge of the orbits1 so as to  
make the    direction of their opening  
nearly upwards1 or horizontal1 instead  
of vertical#che4      8,the vertebr of  
the neck were lost with the head4 ,the  
bones of    the thorax bear all the     
marks of considerable concussion1 and   
are    completely dislocated4 ,the seven
 true ribs of the left side1 though     
their heads are not in connexion with   
the vertebr1 are complete2    but only  
three of the false ribs are observable4 

,on the right side    only fragments of 
these bones are seen2 but the upper part
 of the    seven true ribs of this side 
are found on the left1 and might at     
first sight be taken for the termination
 of the left ribs2 as may    be seen in 
the drawing4 ,the right ribs must       
therefore have been    violently broken 
and carried over to the left side1      
where1 if this    mode of viewing the   
subject be correct1 the sternum must    
likewise    lie concealed below the     
termination of the ribs4 ,the small bone
    dependent above the upper ribs of   
the left side1 appears to be the        
right clavicle4 ,the right os humeri is 
lost2 of the left nothing    remains    
except the condyles in connexion with   
the fore-arm1 which    is in the state  
of pronation2 the radius of this side   
exists nearly    in its full length1    
while of the ulna the lower part only   
remains1    which is considerably pushed
 upwards4 ,of the two bones of the right
    fore-arm1 the inferior terminations 

are seen4 ,both the rows of the    bones
 of the wrists are lost1 but the whole  
metacarpus of the left    hand is       
displayed1 together with part of the    
bones of the fingers3    the first joint
 of the fore-finger rests on the upper  
ridge of the    os pubis2 the two       
others1 detached from their metacarpal  
bones1 are    propelled downwards1 and  
situated at the inner side of the femur1
    and below the foramen magnum ischii 
of this side4 ,vestiges of three    of  
the fingers of the right hand are       
likewise visible1 considerably    below 
the lower portion of the fore-arm1 and  
close to the upper    extremity of the  
femur4 ,the vertebr may be traced along 
the whole    length of the column1 but  
are in no part of it well defined4 ,of  
the    os sacrum1 the superior portion  
only is distinct3 it is disunited       
from the last vertebra and the ilium1   
and driven upwards4 ,the    left os     
ilium is nearly complete1 but shattered1
 and one of the    fragments depressed  

below the level of the rest2 the ossa   
pubis1    though well defined1 are      
gradually lost in the mass of the stone4
    ,on the right side1 the os          
innominatum is completely shattered1 and
    the fragments are sunk3 but towards 
the acetabulum1 part of its    internal 
cellular structure is discernible4      
8,the thigh-bones1 and the bones of the 
leg of the right side1 are    in good   
preservation1 but being considerably    
turned outwards1 the    fibula lies     
buried in the stone1 and is not seen4   
,the lower part    of the femur of this 
side is indicated only by a bony        
outline1    and appears to have been    
distended by the compact limestone that 
fills the cavities both of the bones of 
the leg and thigh1 and to    the        
expansion of which1 these bones probably
 owe their present    shattered         
condition4 ,the lower end of the left   
thigh-bone appears    to have been      
broken and lost in the operation of     
detaching the    block2 the two bones of

 the leg1 however1 on this side1 are    
nearly    complete2 the tibia was split 
almost the whole of its length a        
little below the external edge1 and the 
fissure being filled up    with         
limestone1 now presents itself as a     
dark-coloured straight    line4 ,the    
portion of the stone which contained    
part of the bones    of the tarsus and  
metatarsus1 was unfortunately broken2   
but the    separate fragments are       
preserved4      8,the whole of the      
bones1 when first laid bare1 had a      
mouldering    appearance1 and the hard  
surrounding stone could not be detached 
without frequently injuring their       
surface2 but after an exposure    for   
some days to the air1 they acquired a   
considerable degree of    hardness4 ,sir
 ,h4 ,davy1 who subjected a small       
portion of them to    chemical analysis1
 found that they contained part of their
 animal    matter1 and all their        
phosphate of lime40      ,,note ,m1 p4  
#abh4    ,account of the ,displacement  

of that part of the ,coast of the       
,adriatic which is occupied by the      
,mouths of the ,po4    ,that portion of 
the shore of the ,adriatic which lies   
between the  lake1 or rather lagune1 of 
,commachio1 and the lagunes of ,venice1 
has undergone considerable alterations  
since ancient times1 as is  attested by 
authors worthy of entire credit1 and as 
is still evinced  by the actual state of
 the soil in the districts near the     
coast2  but it is impossible now to give
 any exact detail of the successive     
progress of these changes1 and more     
especially of their precise  measures   
during the ages which preceded the      
twelfth century of our  era4    ,we are1
 however1 certain1 that the city of     
,hatria1 now called  ,adria1 was        
formerly situated on the edge of the    
coast2 and by this  we attain a known   
fixed point upon the primitive shore1   
whence the  nearest part of the present 
coast1 at the mouth of the ,adige1 is at
  the distance of #be1jjj metres#chf2   

and it will be seen in the  sequel1 that
 the extreme point of the alluvial      
promontory formed by  the ,po1 is       
farther advanced into the sea than the  
mouth of the ,adige  by nearly #aj1jjj  
metres#chg4    ,the inhabitants of      
,adria have formed exaggerated          
pretensions1 in  many respects1 as to   
the high antiquity of their city1 though
 it  is undeniably one of the most      
ancient in ,italy1 as it gave name to   
the sea which once washed its walls4 ,by
 some researches made in  its interior  
and its environs1 a stratum of earth has
 been found  mixed with fragments of    
,etruscan pottery1 and with nothing     
whatever  of ,roman manufacture4        
,etruscan and ,roman pottery are found  
mixed  together in a superior bed1 on   
the top of which the vestiges of  a     
theatre have been discovered4 ,both of  
these beds are far below  the level of  
the present soil4 ,i have seen at ,adria
 very curious  collections1 in which    
these remains of antiquity are          

separately  classed2 and having1 some   
years ago1 observed to the viceroy1 that
  it would be of great importance1 both 
to history and geology1 to  make a      
thorough search into these buried       
remains at ,adria1 carefully  noticing  
the levels in comparison with the sea1  
both of the primitive  soil1 and of the 
successive alluvial beds1 his ,highness 
entered  warmly into my ideas2 but ,i   
know not whether these propositions have
  been since carried into effect4       
,following the coast1 after leaving     
,hatria1 which was situated at  the     
bottom of a small bay or gulf1 we find  
to the south a branch of  the ,athesis  
or ,adige1 and of the ,fossa            
,philistina1 of which the  remaining    
trace corresponds to what might have    
been the ,mincio and  ,tartaro united1  
if the ,po had still run to the south of
 ,ferrara4 ,we  next find the ,delta    
,venetum1 which seems to have occupied  
the place  where the lake or lagune of  
,commachio is now situated4 ,this delta 

was traversed by seven branches of the  
,eridanus or ,po1 formerly  called also 
the ,vadis ,padus or ,podincus2 which   
river1 at the  diramification of these  
seven branches1 and upon its left or    
northern  bank1 had a city named        
,trigoboli1 whose site could not be far 
from  where ,ferrara now stands4 ,seven 
lakes1 inclosed within this delta1  were
 called ,septem ,maria1 and ,hatria was 
sometimes denominated  ,urbs ,septem    
,marium1 or the city of the seven seas  
or lakes4    ,following the coast from  
,hatria to the northwards1 we come to   
the  principal mouth of the ,athesis or 
,adige1 formerly named ,fossa           
,philistina1 and afterwards ,estuarium  
,altini1 an interior sea1  separated by 
a range of small islands from the       
,adriatic ,gulf1 in the  middle of which
 was a cluster of other small isles1    
called ,rialtum1  and upon this         
archipelago the city of ,venice is now  
seated4 ,the  ,estuarium ,altini is what
 is now called the ,lagune of ,venice1  

and no  longer communicates with the    
sea1 except by five passages1 the small 
islands of the ,archipelago having been 
united into a continuous dike4    ,to   
the east of the lagunes1 and north from 
the city of ,este1 we find  the         
,euganian mountains1 or hills1 forming1 
in the midst of a vast  alluvial plain1 
a remarkable isolated group of rounded  
hills1 near  which spot the fable of the
 ancients supposes the fall of ,phton to
  have taken place4 ,some writers have  
supposed that this fable may have       
originated from the fall of some vast   
masses of inflamed matters near  the    
mouths of the ,eridanus1 that had been  
thrown up by a volcanic  explosion2 and 
it is certain that abundance of volcanic
 products are  found in the             
neighbourhood of ,padua and ,verona4    
,the most ancient notices that ,i have  
been able to procure respecting  the    
situation of the shores of the ,adriatic
 at the mouths of the ,po1  only begin  
to be precise in the twelfth century4   

,at that epoch the  whole waters of this
 river flowed to the south of ,ferrara1 
in the ,po  de ,volano and the ,po di   
,primaro1 branches which inclosed the   
space  occupied by the lagune of        
,commachio4 ,the two branches which were
  next formed by an irruption of the    
waters of the ,po to the north of       
,ferraro1 were named the river of       
,corbola1 ,longola1 or ,mazzorno1  and  
the river ,toi4 ,the former1 and more   
northern of these1 received  the        
,tartaro1 or canal bianco1 near the sea1
 and the latter was  joined at ,ariano  
by another branch derived from the ,po1 
called the  ,goro river4 ,the sea-coast 
was evidently directed from south to    
north1 at the distance of ten or eleven 
thousand metres#chh from  the meridian  
of ,adria2 and ,loreo1 to the north of  
,mesola1 was  only about #bjjj          
metres#chi from the coast4    ,towards  
the middle of the twelfth century1 the  
flood-waters of the  ,po were retained  
on their left or northern side by dikes 

near the  small city of ,ficarolo1 which
 is about #ai1jjj metres#cij to  the    
north-west of ,ferrara1 spreading       
themselves southwards over  the northern
 part of the territory of ,ferrara and  
the ,polesine  of ,rovigo1 and flowed   
through the two formerly mentioned      
canals of  ,mazzorno and ,toi4 ,it seems
 perfectly ascertained1 that this       
change in the direction of the waters of
 the ,po had been produced by  the      
effects of human labours2 and the       
historians who have recorded  this      
remarkable fact only differ from each   
other in some of the  more minute       
details4 ,the tendency of the river to  
flow in the new  channels1 which had    
been opened for the more ready discharge
 of its  waters when in flood1          
continually increased2 owing to which   
the  two ancient chief branches1 the    
,volano and ,primaro1 rapidly           
decreased1 and were reduced in less than
 a century to their present             
comparatively insignificant size2 while 

the main direction of the  river was    
established between the mouth of the    
,adige to the north1  and what is now   
called ,porto di ,goro1 on the south4   
,the two  before-mentioned canals of    
,mazzorno and ,toi becoming insufficient
  for the discharge1 others were dug2   
and the principal mouth1 called  ,bocco 
,tramontana1 or the northern mouth1     
having approached the  mouth of the     
,adige1 the ,venetians became alarmed in
 #afjd2 when they  excavated a new canal
 of discharge1 named ,taglio de ,porto  
,viro1 or  ,po delle ,fornaci1 by which 
means the ,bocco ,maestra1 was diverted 
from the ,adige towards the south4      
,during four centuries1 from the end of 
the twelfth to that of the  sixteenth1  
the alluvial formations of the ,po      
gained considerably upon  the sea4 ,the 
northern mouth1 which had usurped the   
situation of the  ,mazzorno canal1      
becoming the ,rama di ,trimontana1 had  
advanced  in #afjj to the distance of   
#bj1jjj metres#cia from the meridian  of

 ,adria2 and the southern mouth1 which  
had taken possession of  the canal of   
,toi1 was then #ag1jjj metres#cib       
advanced beyond  the same point4 ,thus  
the shore had become extended nine or   
ten  thousand metres#cic to the north1  
and six or seven thousand to  the       
south#cid4 ,between these two mouths    
there was formerly a bay1  or a part of 
the coast less advanced than the rest1  
called ,sacca  di ,goro4 ,during the    
same period of four hundred years       
previous to  the commencement of the    
seventeenth century1 the great and      
extensive  embankments of the ,po were  
constructed2 and also1 during the same  
period1 the southern slopes of the ,alps
 began to be cleared and  cultivated4   
,the great canal1 denominated ,taglio di
 ,porto ,viro1 or ,po delle  ,fornaci1  
ascertains the advance of the alluvial  
depositions in the  vast promontory now 
formed by the mouths or delta of the    
,po4 ,in  proportion as their entrances 
into the sea extend from the original   

land1 the yearly quantity of alluvial   
depositions increases in an  alarming   
degree1 owing to the diminished slope of
 the streams1 which  was a necessary    
consequence1 of the prolongation of     
their bed1 to the  confinement of the   
waters between dikes1 and to the        
facility with  which the increased      
cultivation of the ground enabled the   
mountain  torrents which flowed into    
them to carry away the soil4 ,owing to  
these causes1 the bay called ,sacra di  
,goro was very soon filled  up1 and the 
two promontories which had been formed  
by the two former  principal mouths of  
,mazzorno and ,toi1 were united into one
 vast  projecting cape1 the most        
advanced point of which is now #cb1jjj  
or  #cc1jjj metres#cie beyond the       
meridian of ,adria3 so that in the      
course of two hundred years1 the mouths 
or delta of the ,po have  gained about  
#ad1jjj metres#cif upon the sea4        
,from all these facts1 of which ,i have 
given a brief enumeration1 the          

following results are clearly           
established4    ,first1 ,that1 at some  
ancient period1 the precise date of     
which  cannot be now ascertained1 the   
waves of the ,adriatic washed the walls 
of ,adria4    ,secondly1 ,that1 in the  
twelfth century1 before a passage had   
been  opened for the waters of the ,po  
at ,ficarrolo2 on its left or  northern 
bank1 the shore had been already removed
 to the distance of  nine or ten        
thousand metres#cig from ,adria4        
,thirdly1 ,that the extremities of the  
promontories formed by the  two         
principal branches of the ,po1 before   
the excavation of the  ,taglio di ,porto
 ,viro1 had extended1 by the year #afjj1
 or in four  hundred years1 to a medium 
distance of #ah1ejj metres#cih beyond   
,adria2 giving1 from the year #abjj1 an 
average yearly increase of the  alluvial
 land of #be metres#cii4    ,fourthly1  
,that the extreme point of the present  
single promontory1  formed by the       
alluvions of the existing branches1 is  

advanced  to between thirty-two and     
thirty-three thousand metres#djj  beyond
 ,adria2 whence the average yearly      
progress is about seventy  metres#dja   
during the last two hundred years1 being
 a greatly more  rapid proportion than  
in former times4      ,,prony4          
,,note1 p4 #bdd4    ,on the ,universal  
,deluge4    ,mr ,cuvier in the present  
work1 and more recently in a note to ,mr
  ,lemaire's edition of ,ovid's         
,metamorphoses1 enumerates the ,mosaic1 
,grecian1 ,assyrian1 ,persian1 ,indian1 
and ,chinese traditions1  concerning a  
universal deluge2 and concludes from    
them1 that the  surface of the globe1   
five or six thousand years ago1         
underwent a  general and sudden         
revolution1 by which the lands inhabited
 by the  human beings who lived at that 
time1 and by the various species of     
animals known at the present day1 were  
overflowed by the ocean2 out  of which  
emerged the present habitable portions  
of the globe4 ,this  celebrated         

naturalist maintains1 that these regions
 of the earth  were peopled by the few  
individuals who were preserved1 and that
 the  tradition of the catastrophe has  
been preserved among these new races  of
 people1 variously modified by the      
difference of their situation  and their
 social disposition4 ,according to ,mr  
,cuvier1 similar  revolutions of nature 
had taken place1 at periods long        
antecedent  to that of the ,mosaic      
deluge4 ,the dry land was inhabited1 if 
not by  human beings1 at least by land  
animals at an earlier period2 and must  
have been changed from the dry land to  
the bed of the ocean2 and it  might even
 be concluded from the various species  
of animals contained  in it1 that this  
change1 as well as its opposite1 had    
occurred more  than once4    ,this      
opinion being brought forward in a      
geognostic work1 especially  in a work  
abounding in such valuable matters of   
fact1 and stated  as the result of      
geognostic investigation1 we may be     

permitted1 in  this point of view1 to   
examine it2 and to ask1 whether1 from   
the  phenomena exhibited by the present 
condition of the earth's surface1  we   
are entitled to conclude that it owes   
its conformation to such a  universal   
deluge4    ,we know1 from arguments     
suggested by chemistry and the higher   
mechanics1 that the globe was once in a 
state of fluidity2 hence it  might be   
maintained with some appearance of      
probability1 that the  condition of the 
earth1 previous to the existence of     
organic matter1  depended upon fusion2  
and that the primitive rocks are of     
igneous  origin4 ,since1 however1       
granite has been found above rocks of   
various  kinds which contain the remains
 of organic bodies1 we are under no     
necessity of ascribing to primitive     
rocks an origin different from  that of 
subsequent formations2 and1 without     
having recourse to other  arguments1 the
 fact1 that aquatic animals are the most
 abundant of  fossil organic remains    

from the earliest of the transition to  
the  latest of the secondary and        
tertiary formations1 affords evidence   
that they are precipitates from water4  
,notwithstanding the great and daily    
advancement of science1 our  knowledge  
of chemistry is still too imperfect for 
us to arrive at  an adequate knowledge  
of the state of this water1 or rather   
sea1  as1 from its universal expansion1 
it must be denominated4 ,did it  contain
 dissolved in it at the same time all   
the materials from  which the various   
beds of rock were formed2 what were the 
solvents  of those materials which we   
find1 either insoluble in water1 or  at 
least not easily soluble2 by what means 
were the precipitates  produced2 and    
whence came this prodigious mass of     
waters8 ,upon these  unanswered         
questions depend others no less         
important4 ,the aquatic  animals of a   
former world undoubtedly lived in this  
sea2 otherwise1  we must admit of       
another sea free from heterogeneous     

materials4 ,but  did these animals      
continue to live in it during the whole 
process  of precipitation2 and did this 
process proceed so slowly and           
imperceptibly1 that animal life was not 
interrupted by it1 and that  only       
remains of dead animals1 such as the    
skeletons of fishes1 and  the covering  
of shell-fishes1 were enveloped in the  
precipitates8  ,or1 did animal life     
continue only during the state of       
solution2 and  were the myriads of      
aquatic animals found in beds of rocks  
buried in  them alive8 ,many naturalists
 appear to entertain the latter opinion1
  from observing the agonies of death   
depicted in the distorted  position of  
fishes in copper-slate1 or from deriving
 the bituminous  properties of          
stink-stone1 as well as of marl1 from   
the decomposition  of animal bodies1 of 
which such numerous vestiges are extant 
in these  beds8 ,in this way a plausible
 explanation is given of the phenomena  
of a former world that has perished4    

,how1 then1 do they explain the         
constant appearance of so many species1 
which have continued without            
interruption for such an infinite length
 of time8 ,have these species  been     
propagated by individuals who           
accidentally escaped destruction3  or1  
,does a new race continually spring up  
again8 ,but laying aside  the difficulty
 of this explanation1 the violent       
destruction of so  many races of        
animals1 is scarcely consistent with the
 general  order of the universe1        
according to which1 we behold every     
animal  occupying its proper element1   
and fulfilling its particular destiny4  
,we1 therefore1 involuntarily revert to 
the opinion1 that those  creatures1     
whose remains are preserved in beds of  
rocks1 have lived  continually in the   
sea1 out of which the rocks were        
precipitated1 in  the same manner as the
 analogous species now living in the sea
 become  enveloped in deposits still    
taking place1 although on a             

comparatively  small scale4    ,what has
 just been said does not entitle us to  
admit that the various  parts of the    
earth have been1 from time to time1     
overflowed with  water4 ,yet are there  
other appearances which completely      
indicate  such a change1 namely1 beds of
 coal1 and the fossil remains of land   
animals4 ,the carbonisation of roots of 
trees in clefts of rocks1  and of marsh 
plants in peat-bogs1 which takes place1 
as it were1  under our own immediate    
observation2 the transitions of         
bituminous  wood into pitch-coal1 the   
frequent presence of vegetables partly  
converted into coal1 in the             
neighbourhood of beds of coal1 and which
  are more abundant the nearer they are 
to these beds2 and1 finally1  the       
chemical nature of coal1 which is       
similar to that of vegetables1  go to   
prove the vegetable origin of the older 
and independent coal  formation4        
,though some fossil vegetables might    
derive their origin1 by being  floated  

to quarters more or less remote from    
their native soil1 as we  find to be the
 case in many islands of the ,south     
,sea1 and on other  shores2 on the other
 hand1 neither the breadth and extent of
 beds of  coal1 nor the erect position  
in which fossil trees and reed plants   
are not unfrequently found in their     
neighbourhood1 coincide with such  an   
explanation4 ,the plants1 from which    
these beds were formed1 once  stood and 
grew in the place where they were       
buried2 and1 from these  remains1 we    
infer that they were entirely land      
plants1 tree-ferns1  ,lycopodia1 and    
other cryptogamia4 ,it also appears     
undeniable1 that  the land1 being once  
dry1 was1 during a longer or shorter    
time1  covered with luxuriant           
vegetation2 that it was afterwards      
overflowed  with water1 and then became 
dry land again4 ,but1 was this overflow 
of  water produced by a sudden1 violent1
 and universal catastrophe1 such  as we 
consider the deluge8 ,many circumstances

 leave room for opposite  conjecture4   
,if it is probable that the older or    
black coal is of  vegetable origin1 the 
plants from which it has originated1    
must have  suffered an incomparably     
greater change than those of more recent
  coal formations4 ,their composition   
and their texture1 afford evidence  of a
 long operation of the fluid in which   
the changes were produced2  and their   
situation1 proves that the substance of 
the plants1 though  not entirely        
dissolved1 was yet much comminuted1 and 
was kept  floating and swimming1 and    
then precipitated4 ,how can we1 in any  
other way1 account for the layers of    
sandstone and slate-clay1 with  which   
coal regularly alternates1 so that from 
one to sixty alternate  beds have been  
enumerated8 ,how can we explain the     
combination of  mineral coal with       
slate-clay1 or account for the          
appearance of  bituminous shale1 flinty 
slate1 of iron-pyrites and iron-ore1 in 
the  midst of mineral coal itself8 ,we  

do not1 however1 admit of a repeated    
uncovering and covering of the land with
 water1 and of a renewal of  vegetation 
for every particular bed of coal2 far   
from it1 for violent  inundations       
exhibit very different phenomena4 ,these
 formations1 like  pure mineral         
formations1 bear the evident impress of 
a lengthened  operation1 and of gentle  
precipitations2 and whoever still       
entertains  doubts regarding this1 may  
have them completely removed by the     
condition in which vegetable remains are
 frequently found in the  coal          
formations1 by the perfect preservation 
of the most delicately  shaped fern     
leaves1 by the upright position of      
stems1 and by other  appearances of a   
similar character4 ,it is also an       
important objection  against the        
universality of the cover of water1     
notwithstanding the  wide extent of beds
 of coal1 that they are sometimes       
accompanied with  fossil remains of     
fresh-water shells1 from which we are   

entitled to  draw the conclusion1 that  
they must have been deposited in        
inclosed  basins of inland waters4      
,from the beds of coal found in various 
situations among ,alpine  limestone1 as 
well as in other secondary formations1  
under similar  circumstances1 we are at 
liberty to maintain that they are not   
indebted for their origin to any        
universal and sudden revolution4        
,when we proceed to the second division 
of coal formations1 to  brown coal1 or  
to lignite1 the principal difference we 
discover  is1 that the change which the 
vegetables have undergone1 having  taken
 place at a time when the chemical power
 had lost much of its  energy1 was      
incomplete2 and besides1 we observe in  
the different  brown coal formations the
 same repetition of single beds         
alternating  with other beds of rocks1  
the mixture of different minerals1 and  
not unfrequently of upright stems4 ,some
 appear to be derived from  sea plants1 
and others from fresh-water plants2 but 

the greater  proportion from land       
plants4 ,they1 equally with the beds of 
black  coal1 give evidence of a new     
overflow of water1 and the water plants 
themselves1 which never thrive at a     
great depth1 and which frequently       
appear under prodigious beds of rocks1  
must have experienced such a  change4   
,but that change was scarcely of the    
kind which we understand  by a deluge1  
and the frequent repetition of deluges  
indicated1  according to some1 by the   
repeated beds of coal from the          
transition  to the newest tertiary      
periods1 is hardly credible4 ,it may be 
maintained1 with more certainty1 of     
brown coal than of black  coal1 that    
they have been formed in land water1 and
 hence in  limited and isolated basins  
of water1 since fresh-water animals are 
their constant attendants4    ,although 
the beds of coal of our secondary       
formations appear to  have originated in
 a similar way with other mineral       
formations1 and  not by violent         

catastrophes1 it is otherwise with a    
part of those  vegetable remains which  
are met with in alluvial land4          
,subterranean  forests1 whose           
circumference1 in some instances1       
extends about #gj  square leagues1      
partly in a state of good preservation1 
and partly  more or less decomposed1    
afford satisfactory proof of deluges1   
and  have undoubtedly been covered up   
with earth by a violent eruption of     
standing or running water4 ,but these   
are local effects1 similar to  what take
 place in our own day1 but on a larger  
scale4    ,there are abundant fossil    
remains of land animals1 resembling     
those  of water animals1 found in such a
 state of preservation1 that we  cannot 
suppose them to have been brought hither
 from distant places1  and by means of  
currents4 ,their appearing in beds of   
rocks1 or  generally in aqueous         
precipitates1 proves that the soil they 
first  inhabited1 must have been dry    
land1 afterwards overflowed with water4 

,the appearance of what are called fresh
 water shells1 in alternate  beds with  
marine animals1 being sometimes observed
 in newer fltz  rocks in great          
abundance1 seems to indicate a          
reiterated retreat  and return of the   
sea4 ,but however meritorious the       
labours of  naturalists1 through whom   
attention has been directed to the      
subject1 may be in other respects1 we   
are nevertheless disposed  to entertain 
doubts concerning their conclusions4 ,in
 our own seas  and ponds upon the       
coasts1 we observe the same testaceous  
animals  growing equally well in salt   
water1 and in water nearly fresh2 and1  
again1 fresh water animals living in    
salt water#djb4 ,by artificial  means   
the inhabitants of the sea may be       
changed into inhabitants of  fresh      
water2 as fresh-water animals are1 in   
their turn1 converted  into marine      
animals1 so that1 to decide concerning  
the proper  element of each individual  
species is often matter of difficulty4  

,therefore1 other circumstances besides 
that of containing salt  must be taken  
into account4 ,the occasional plenty1   
scarcity1 or  absolute want of food2 the
 soil being sometimes sandy1 slimy1 or  
rocky2 the depth1 extent1 agitation or  
tranquillity of the water2  and1        
finally1 the quality of the air         
contained in it1 may be as  instrumental
 in determining the habitation of these 
animals1 as the  materials which the    
water holds in solution4 ,an excellent  
observer  has indeed very lately shewn  
in a treatise1 which supports the idea  
of fresh-water formations1 that we      
possess no unerring character  for      
distinguishing sea shell-fish from those
 of fresh water2 but  admitted1         
notwithstanding the transition above    
stated1 we can draw  a line of          
distinction between them1 we must not   
forget that this  investigation is      
neither regarding sea shell-fish now    
existing1  nor of our present waters4   
,we indeed draw our conclusion1 and  not

 without reason1 from similar           
conformation1 similar modes of          
existence4 ,but one of two things must  
be2 either that the shell-fish1  whose  
remains are found in beds of rocks1     
lived in the water out  of which these  
beds were precipitated1 or the water in 
which they  lived1 was dislodged by     
other water containing the materials of 
the  precipitations4 ,in the first and  
more generally admitted case1 the  water
 was so different from the present      
water1 whether salt or fresh1  that we  
cannot infer from the inhabitants of the
 latter any thing  concerning the       
inhabitants of the former2 but we can   
confidently  maintain1 that a greater   
resemblance prevails between our sea and
  land water1 than between either the   
one or the other1 and that fluid  which 
was inhabited by the shell-fish4 ,in    
other respects1 there  remains no other 
difference between fresh and salt water 
formations1  but that the bottom upon   
which the former is placed once         

contained  land water2 a fact worthy of 
observation3 but the notion of enclosed 
basins1 and of isolated formations      
originating in them1 the way  in which  
fresh water formations are supposed to  
have taken place1  remained a long time 
unsatisfactory4 ,finally1 we may be     
permitted to  ask1 upon what grounds    
they considered themselves entitled to  
ascribe  to the former sea the continual
 possession of a portion of salt1  while
 the salt precipitates appear only at   
particular intervals1 and  after long   
interruptions8 ,if the sea occasionally 
contained a great1  and sometimes a very
 small1 quantity of salt1 it might      
equally be at  times altogether without 
it4 ,and yet it deserves to be          
remembered1  that the beds of rock1 to  
which the salt formations are most      
nearly  related1 contain no             
petrifactions2 that1 therefore1 the     
so-called  marine animals are wanting in
 those periods during which we have any 
direct evidence of the presence of salt 

water4    ,there is1 however1 a         
geognostic fact1 which1 in preference to
 all  others1 has been cited in evidence
 of violent revolutions and  deluges1   
that is1 the appearance of conglomerates
 or of reproduced  kinds of stone4      
,indeed1 there might still be a wide    
field for  investigation here1 and more 
than one formation1 which now passes    
for sandstone1 might be acknowledged as 
an original and chemical  production2   
without having occasion to go so far as 
,mr ,gerhard does  with greywacke1--that
 is1 to consider them as immediate      
precipitates  from the atmosphere4 ,but 
still conglomerates sufficiently        
genuine1  will remain from the          
transition period through all the       
subsequent  formations1 to serve as     
acknowledged monuments of destruction1  
as  well as of the renovation of what   
was destroyed4 ,these are the  ,codices 
rescripti1 in the archives of the       
,earth1 out of which1 the  antiquarian  
will one day decipher the almost        

obliterated traces of  her former       
condition1 as well as the history of her
 changes4 ,though  these conglomerates  
deviate so much in their nature1 and in 
the  character of their origin1 from    
chemical productions1 they have yet     
among themselves this remarkable and    
common characteristic1 that1  with few  
exceptions1 the older are much less     
varied in character1  and more extensive
 in distribution1 than the newer1 and   
that1 at  length1 the newest            
conglomerates become mere local         
appearances4  ,but1 in reference to the 
main question which engages our         
attention1  we may conjecture that the  
beds of rocks from which the sea had    
never retreated1 might be assailed by   
its floods and currents1  and shattered 
to pieces1 as happens even in our own   
time1 and the  fragments be again       
reunited into solid rocks1 by means of  
the still  remaining dissolved matter in
 the water4 ,but of many conglomerates  
it  is evident that they have been      

deposited on the dry land1 in the same  
way as our gravels4 ,jupiter1 who took  
counsel with himself1 whether  he would 
destroy the sinful world with fire or   
water1 and at length  decided for       
water#djc1 may not be so justly         
considered the author of  these         
appearances1 as ,saturn1 who devoured   
his children4 ,or1 to be  less          
metaphorical in our language1 it may    
perhaps have been with the  origin of   
conglomerates1 as it is in our own day  
with the origin of  fragments of rock   
and boulders1 in which the rock being   
fractured in  various places by the     
alternations of heat and cold1 by the   
influence  of air and atmospheric water1
 falls into pieces of greater or smaller
  magnitude1 which are carried forward  
by the water1 and gradually  rounded in 
their progress1 so that they assume a   
more perfectly  globular shape the      
farther they are removed from their     
original  situation4 ,therefore1 as     
regards the foregoing enquiry1 it is not

 an  unimportant circumstance1 that the 
long but continual rolling of the       
boulders during their rounding1 appears 
to be much more efficacious  than a     
rapid and violent impetus1 and that1 in 
this case1 as in  many other geognostic 
appearances1 time rather than force is  
to be  taken into account4 ,another     
circumstance1 perhaps1 corresponds with 
this1 that the change produced by the   
weather1 not only by the first          
disunion1 but also by the progressive   
disintegration of the rocks1  by the    
blunting of the edges and corners1 by   
the diminution of the  fragments1 and   
generally in the origin of the boulders 
and fragments  of rocks of every        
description1 has just as much influence 
as the  mechanical operation of the     
water2 and that a great part of the land
  called ,alluvial1 generally owes its  
existence to this cause#djd4 ,but  if1  
upon farther consideration1 the         
conglomerates appear to derive  their   
origin in a similar way with rolled     

masses of gravel1 they  afford evidence1
 nevertheless1 of the elevated station  
of the water  in the neighbourhood1 from
 which they had been before removed2 for
  their conglomeration could take place 
only under water2 and1 with few         
exceptions1 they occupy an incomparably 
greater elevation than any of  the coal 
formations1 or any of the beds of rocks 
which enclose the  remains of land      
animals4    ,geognosy certainly contains
 many facts1 which cannot be explained1 
but by a change from dry land to the    
bottom of the sea1 although our         
knowledge of them is still so imperfect1
 that we cannot hazard a  probable      
conjecture respecting the numbers of    
these changes1 whether  they commence at
 the same or at different periods in the
 various  quarters of the world1 and    
whether they are local or universal4    
,these changes appear neither sudden nor
 violent1 such as we consider           
revolutions of the earth1 but at all    
times proceed with silent and  regular  

steps1 and depend upon similar causes1  
concealed it is true  from us1 such as  
the universal retreat of the waters from
 their  original height to the present  
bed of the ocean4 ,we do not belong to  
those geologists who divert the world   
from its axis for the purpose  of       
explaining the inequalities of its      
surface1 at whose command the  ,earth   
sometimes opens her bosom to engulf the 
sea1 and at other times  the floodgates 
of ,heaven are lifted up to pour down   
another ocean4  ,he who reflects on the 
devastation caused by earthquakes1      
inundations  and the fall of mountains1 
even though they are merely local       
appearances confined to particular      
quarters1 cannot help putting  the      
question to himself1 how the order1     
regularity and connection  exhibited by 
strata of rocks1 could in any measure   
exist1 if the same  or similar accidents
 had happened throughout the whole      
world1 and  if mechanical power had     
operated with such energy1 and to such  

an  extent8 ,all our knowledge of the   
structure of the earth1 and of the      
existence of its inhabitants1 declares  
rather a quiet uninterrupted  and       
continually progressive advancement in  
its formation and  development4    ,in  
the lapse of geological epochs1 we      
observe a gradation of rock  formations 
following one another1 in which the     
latter1 however  remotely connected1    
still appear sufficiently similar to the
 earlier  to indicate a common origin1  
till they at length terminate in simple 
formations1 resembling those which are  
presently taking place4 ,when  the      
precipitates were exhausted1 and the    
structure was completed1  nay1 even     
earlier1 its destruction commenced2 not 
that violent  destruction by which lofty
 mountains are torn asunder and         
levelled1  no uproar of nature1 no      
gigantic struggle of the elements1 such 
as  we commonly conceive1 but a         
decomposition of the strata of rocks  to
 a greater or less depth1 caused partly 

by chemical1 partly by  mechanical1 but 
slow operating powers1 what they wanted 
in intensity  being compensated by the  
endurance of their operation4 ,according
  to the common law of nature1          
deficiency of power is supplied by      
duration of time2 for1 of all the       
oracles which have been consulted       
concerning the formation of the earth1  
there is no one which can  make such    
important revelations to us as the      
oracle of the age of  mountains4 ,these 
operations at the earth's surface       
generally appear  to have produced its  
present figure1 and to have designed it 
for the  habitation of numerous organic 
beings4 ,this appears as early as a     
suitable element occurred2 first1 in    
water1 then in land animals2  and1 like 
the formation of rocks1 we observe a    
regular succession of  organic          
formations1 the later always descending 
from the earlier1  down to the present  
inhabitants of the earth1 and to the    
last created  being who was to exercise 

dominion over them4 ,but here occurs    
this  important distinction3 the organic
 world with youthful vigour renews      
itself daily1 and decomposes its        
materials only to reunite them by  fresh
 combinations in uninterrupted          
succession2 while the powers of  the    
inorganic world appear almost           
extinguished4 ,though this course of    
nature is manifest to our own           
observation1 her resources and progress 
are1 on the contrary1 more concealed2   
and we can hardly lift the veil  which  
conceals her1 unless we follow ,bacon's 
advice1 ,turn back from  rash theories1 
and follow observation and experience4  
,we have hitherto endeavoured to shew   
that incontrovertible geognostic  facts 
indicate an alternate rising and falling
 of the water which  covered the earth's
 surface1 but that they were not of a   
kind to  justify the notion of violent  
revolutions1 or of sudden and universal 
eruptions of the sea2 and that1         
therefore1 such deluges as the ,mosaic  

deluge1 recorded in the traditions of   
nations1 were not revolutions  of this  
description4 ,if1 according to the      
supposition of ,cuvier1 the  earth's    
surface inhabited at the commencement of
 the latter deluge  has become the      
present bed of the sea1 and the former  
bed of the  sea has become the present  
dry land1 then1 according to the present
  state of geography1 though only       
conjectural1 we should be able  to point
 out such portions of the earth as were 
overwhelmed by the  catastrophe2 and yet
 we have never heard that any one has   
hazarded  such an experiment4 ,in the   
constitution of the present habitable   
globe1 we find no proofs remaining of   
such a revolution4    ,among these      
revolutions of nature1 we never reckon  
common  inundations1 such as take place 
at present from water overflowing its   
boundaries1 though these also may       
produce devastation whose effects       
remain visible for an hundred years4    
,but1 in mountainous districts1  another

 kind of aqueous eruption makes its     
appearance1 and may be  classed along   
with the traditions of a deluge4 ,we    
very frequently1  for instance1 observe 
the valleys of high mountains forming a 
range  of basins separated from one     
another by shorter or longer defiles1   
and opening through the last defile into
 a wider valley1 or a marsh4  ,the shape
 of these basins1 or cauldrons1 commonly
 lying above one  another like so many  
stories1 and the level surface of their 
water1  leave no doubt of their being   
once enclosed lakes which were formerly 
blocked up by the barriers of the       
defiles1 and which flowed towards  the  
level country1 as soon as the defiles   
were broken down by the  waters4 ,if no 
kind of historical monuments in the west
 of ,europe  bears evidence of those    
events1 which1 at least on a small      
scale1  occur in our own times1 this    
intimates that it was inhabited1 not by 
an original population1 but by a foreign
 or modern race of people2  whereas     

those revolutions extended to remote    
antiquity4 ,the numerous  masses of rock
 found on both sides of the ,alps to the
 height of  #djjj feet1 as well as in   
the plains of the north of ,europe1 at a
  great distance from their original    
position1 and concerning whose  coming  
hither so much light has lately been    
thrown by ,messrs ,buch  and ,escher1   
are a very probable proof of these      
debacles2 while every  circumstance     
renders it evident that these blocks    
were swept along  by the currents thus  
created1 to the place where they are now
 found4  ,the ,greek writers have also  
preserved accounts of such revolutions1 
which1 although not unquestionably      
authenticated1 are yet stamped  with the
 impress of historical testimony4       
,herodotus has the following  passages  
directly relative to the country where  
the ,greeks place  their second or      
,deucalionic deluge4 8,thessaly must    
formerly have  been an inland sea1      
surrounded by high mountains4 ,on the   

east it was  bounded by ,pelios and     
,ossa1 whose bases were united2 on the  
north by  ,olympus2 on the west by      
,pindus2 and on the south by ,othrys4   
,thessaly  lay in the midst of these    
mountains in the form of a basin1 into  
which1 in conjunction with other copious
 streams1 the five well-known  rivers1  
the ,peneus1 the ,apidanus1 the         
,orochomenus1 the ,enipeus1 and  the    
,pamisos1 emptied themselves4 ,these    
rivers1 which are collected in  their   
basin from the mountains which encompass
 ,thessaly1 after their  junction under 
the name of ,peneus1 in which they lose 
their former  appellation1 open towards 
the sea through a narrow valley4        
,according  to tradition1 this valley   
and opening did not formerly exist2 so  
that the rivers and the ,lake ,brebeis1 
which did not formerly bear  these      
names1 having their confluence in this  
place1 rendered the  whole of ,thessaly 
an inland sea4 ,the ,thessalians affirm 
that ,neptune  opened the valley for the

 passage of the river ,peneus1 and they 
may  perhaps be right4 ,if we consider  
,neptune the author of earthquakes1  and
 consider the violent concussion of the 
mountains caused by them  as the work of
 this deity1 we must1 upon surveying    
these regions1  confess that they owe   
their present shape to him2 for the     
separation  of every mountain appears to
 me to have been produced by some       
violent  commotion of the earth40       
,strabo makes mention of this tradition1
  which he thought worthy of belief1 and
 accounts for the origin of the  ,vale  
of ,tempe1 which is the bed of the river
 ,peneus1 and likewise for  the         
separation of ,ossa from ,olympus1 by   
means of an earthquake#dje4  ,in making 
this remark1 we perceive that our       
theories which allow  that earthquakes  
are to operate in forming the surface of
 the earth1  have not even the merit of 
novelty4 ,according to the last writer1 
similar eruptions of water must have    
originated in the lake ,copais in       

,botia#djf1 in the lakes ,bistonis and  
,aphnetis1 in ,thrace1 and have  been   
accompanied with huge devastation#djg4  
,diodorus ,siculus#djh  remembered a    
,samothracian tradition1 according to   
which the ,euxine  ,sea was once shut up
 on all sides4 ,it afterwards burst     
through its  mighty mound of kyanischen 
rocks to the ,hellespont1 and inundated 
a great part of the coast of ,asia1 as  
well as ,samothracia itself4 ,an        
objection started to the possibility of 
such an event is1 that1 from  the       
observations of ,olivier and ,general   
,andreossy1 the shores of the  ,black   
,sea are1 in most places1 lower than    
those of the ,bosphorus2 and  that its  
waters1 therefore1 even if they were    
considerably higher  than they are at   
present1 would more readily overflow the
 former than  the latter4 ,but since    
every rock exposed for such a length of 
time  is daily crumbling down1 it is a  
question1 whether the shore of the      
,black ,sea has undergone any alteration

 since that period2 and we know  that   
the eruptions took their direction1 not 
so much from the low  situation of the  
barrier1 as from the nature of the rock 
of which it  was constructed1 being     
influenced by the weather1 and from the 
rock  itself being rent asunder4 ,be    
that as it may1 the words with which    
,diodorus commences his narrative are   
remarkable1 when he says1 the           
,samothracian deluge happened earlier   
than those of other nations4  ,it at    
least so far preceded others1 that1 in  
the estimation of the  ,greek historian1
 independent of the deluges of ,ogyges  
and ,deucalion1  similar natural        
occurrences more or less authenticated  
were received  as historical facts4     
,finally1 the effects produced by the   
bursting of lakes or debacles  do not   
appear to be out of proportion to the   
devastation mentioned  by the traditions
 of nations4 ,to abide by our former    
example1  floods which could carry along
 with them masses of rock of #ej1jjj    

cubic feet1 were in a situation to bury 
a whole people2 and the few  individuals
 who might be preserved would           
undoubtedly have handed  down the memory
 of such an event to remote posterity4  
,other deluges  may have arisen from    
other causes1 at a time when1 as is     
shewn by  numerous vestiges1 lakes and  
rivers had a much greater elevation     
than at present2 and1 therefore1 every  
overflowing of them must have  produced 
greater and more extensive ravages4     
,from these last local eruptions of     
water1 that is1 from single  limited    
districts1 arose the mechanical         
precipitates known under the            
denomination of ,alluvial ,soil4 ,their 
situation1 as the uppermost  covering of
 the earth1 as well as their origin1    
which takes place  beneath our own      
observation1 furnishes evidence of their
 being the  most recent mineral         
formations2 and it follows from their   
nature and  connection that they were   
not produced by chemical means1 but     

removed  by the mechanical force of     
water4 ,since they1 among other things1 
contain prostrate forests1 and abundant 
remains of land animals1 we  conclude   
that they did not originate in the bed  
of the sea1 but were  floated and       
deposited upon the dry land by an       
overflow of land water4  ,how is it     
conceivable that these precipitates have
 been covered by  the ocean1 since their
 deposition1 and have1 by means of an   
opposite  change1 become the dry land   
they are at present2 and yet it must    
have  been so1 if they are to be        
considered as intimations of the ,mosaic
  deluge4    ,the view now given1 which 
is that of ,henger in his ,beitrge1 is  
also  advocated by other naturalists1   
and has lately been brought forward  in 
an interesting manner in the ,edinburgh 
,philosophical ,journal#dji4  ,we have  
been frequently requested to give the   
two views1 in regard  to the universal  
deluge1 namely1 that which maintains    
that it is  proved by an appeal to the  

phenomena of the mineral kingdom2 the   
other1 which affirms that that great    
event has left no traces of its         
existence on the surface or in the      
interior of the earth4 ,m4 ,cuvier's    
,essay1 and ,professor ,buckland's      
,reliqui1 are the best authorities  for 
the first opinion2 while numerous       
writers have advocated the  second4     
,,note1 p4 #bdd4    ,,on ,,the ,,action 
,,of ,,running ,,waters4    ,a very     
great degree of power has been          
attributed to the waters  which move at 
the surface of the earth1 or in its     
interior4 ,many  geologists have        
advanced the opinion1 that they have    
scooped out the  channels and even the  
valleys in which they flow1 and formed  
the  cliffs whose feet they wash2 and   
many philosophers1 naturalists and  even
 geologists1 still support this opinion1
 not only in some of its  applications1 
but even in its whole extent4    ,in    
order to appreciate it1 it is sufficient
 to observe with care the  different    

modes of action of water set in motion  
by different causes1  and the changes   
which it has operated upon the rocks and
 deposits  upon which it has acted1 from
 the most remote times to which history 
may reach4    ,we must1 in the first    
place1 successively examine the         
different sorts  of action of the       
principal masses of water which are in  
motion at  the surface of the earth1    
that is to say1 the action of torrents1 
of  rivers1 of currents of the sea1 or  
of great lakes1 and that of waves4      
,we shall afterwards see what           
consequences are to be deduced from     
these observations4      #a4 ,action of 
,torrents4    ,torrents have a true     
degrading and scooping action upon the  
earth's surface1 but1 by the necessary  
consequence of the sense  which we      
attach to the word1 this action cannot  
be exercised upon  spaces of great      
extent1 for a torrent is a water-course 
which has a  great declivity4 ,now1 on  
account of the little height which the  

most  elevated summits of the globe have
 in comparison with the extent  of its  
surface1 this action cannot be very     
extensive2 it can only1  therefore1     
produce short and narrow ravines4 ,this 
action1 as all who  have visited high   
mountain chains may have seen1 is only  
often local  and instantaneous2 it      
presents no remarkable effect but upon  
the  heaps of debris which cover the    
declivities of the mountains1 and on    
broken rocks1 partially disintegrated by
 other causes1 and lastly on  moveable  
deposits4 ,the results of this action   
contribute to confine  it within        
narrower limits still1 by heaping up at 
the mouths of  torrents in the valleys  
or plains1 the debris carried down by   
these  torrents4 ,the elevation of the  
soil1 which necessarily follows from    
the accumulation of these debris1       
diminishes with the declivity1 the      
rapidity1 and consequently the power of 
these water-courses4    ,great masses of
 water moving rapidly1 have a marked    

transporting  power4 ,striking examples 
of this power have but too often been   
seen in ,holland1 by the breaking down  
of the dikes1 and in ,alpine  mountains1
 in consequence of extraordinary rains  
during tempests1  or from the rupture of
 some of the natural barriers of lakes4 
,in  these latter times 7in #ahah71 the 
,valle de ,bagne experienced the        
terrible effects of this devastating    
power4 ,masses of ice having  fallen    
towards the upper part of this valley1  
and accumulated  there1 raised a dike   
sufficiently compact and strong to block
 up  the course of the ,dranse4 ,the    
waters of this river1 rapid and pent  up
 in certain parts of its course1 as are 
all those of the high  ,alps1           
accumulated above this barrier of ice1  
and formed a lake which  attained1 at   
its maximum1 #acj metres of mean        
breadth1 from #cjjj to  #djjj metres of 
length1 and #cf of mean depth1 and      
consequently a  volume of water         
estimated at about #bi1jjj1jjj cubic    

metres4 ,although1  by means of         
operations conducted with equal skill   
and courage1  about the third part of   
this volume was let off without danger1 
the  remaining part having suddenly     
broken through the barrier of ice1  was 
precipitated with an almost unexampled  
impetuosity of #aa metres  in the       
second1 into the ,valle de ,bagne4 ,in  
the first part of its  course1 and in   
the space of half an hour which the mass
 of water took  in traversing a league1 
it carried away trees1 dwellings1       
enormous  masses of debris1 and rocks   
already separated from their mass1 as   
,m4 ,escher1 expressly says2 it covered 
all the broad parts of the  valley with 
rubbish1 pebbles and sand1 and carried  
the remainder of  the substances which  
it had swept away1 as well to the       
extremity  of the valley1 towards       
,martigny1 as into the bed of the       
,rhone4 ,the  mass of water took an hour
 and a half in rushing from the glacier 
to  ,martigny4 ,the same event took     

place from the same cause1 and with     
nearly similar results1 in #aeie4       
,torrents may therefore scoop out       
ravines in certain formations1 and      
produce effects which appear            
considerable1 because we judge of them  
by comparison with our own feeble means4
 ,but how diminutive and  circumscribed 
are these changes produced in the       
configuration of  the globe1 compared   
with the long and broad valleys which   
furrow in  vast numbers the immense     
surface of the earth1 and to the        
formation  of which neither the torrents
 nor great rivers which exist at the    
present day have in any way contributed1
 as we shall presently  demonstrate4    
#b4 ,action of ,rivers4    ,the action  
of rivers must be examined under two    
very different  circumstances1 or at two
 different parts of their course4       
,first1 ,when they are compressed       
between mountains1 whether at no  great 
distance from their source1 or even at  
the middle of their  course4            

,secondly1 ,when they have reached broad
 valleys1 whose declivity is  slight1 or
 plains which commonly surround their   
mouth4    ,in the first case1 these     
rivers partake of the impetuosity and   
power  of torrents4 ,they often run with
 rapidity1 and in great quantity1 at    
the bottom of narrow and deep valleys3  
they are as it were inclosed  in        
channels1 whose vertical walls appear as
 if cut by art4 ,the first  idea which  
presents itself to all who have seen    
these appearances  for the first time1  
and who are satisfied with first        
impressions1  is1 that these streams1   
which are pretty powerful and always    
very  impetuous1 have dug these deep    
grooves2 and if sometimes the hardness  
of the rocks and the height of the      
precipices which form their  sides1     
appear too great for those small streams
 that meander at  their feet1 what      
cannot be attributed to their immediate 
power is  attributed to the continued   
action of time4    ,without examining   

how long a series of ages it would be   
necessary  to admit1 before the rivers  
which we have mentioned above1 and the  
water-courses encased in the deep       
valleys of the ,alps1 ,pyrenees1  ,jura1
 ,grampians1 c4 could have scooped their
 valleys1 on which their  present action
 is so slow that no one has yet been    
able to estimate  it2 without examining 
if this long series of ages agrees with 
the  phenomena1 which preclude our      
attributing so remote an antiquity  to  
the actual state of the earth's surface1
 a question of too much  importance to  
be treated indirectly2 it will be       
sufficient to mention  here four sorts  
of observations1 in order to be         
persuaded1 or at  least to suspect1 that
 the present rivers1 even supposing them
 ten  times the size that they are1     
could not have scooped out the deep     
channels at the bottom of which they    
run4    #a4 ,we must recur to the period
 when the ranges of hills which border  
the present valleys were not as yet     

scooped out1 but were united in  such a 
manner as not to leave any hollow       
between them1 or merely a  slight       
original depression4    ,this           
shallowness of the valley would be      
accompanied with an  inconsiderable     
slope of its bottom4 ,if1 then1 we      
suppose the same  mass of water1 it must
 run with less quickness1 and           
consequently  with much less power2 and 
yet a very great force must be          
attributed  to it1 before it could have 
had the power of removing a portion of  
rock nearly represented by a recumbent  
triangular prism1 having often  #ejj    
metres of breadth by a sometimes equal  
and often much greater  vertical        
thickness4 ,if1 in order to get rid of  
this difficulty1 we  admit a volume of  
water incomparably larger than the      
present volume  of the rivers to which  
so great effects are attributed1 we must
 admit  much more elevated and more     
extended mountains1 to give rise to so  
great a volume of water4    ,were we    

only detained by this hypothesis1 and   
did not direct  observation oppose      
itself to the admission of this         
disaggregating  power and its effect1 we
 might pass it over2 but two other      
observations render the hypothesis      
inadmissible4    #b4 ,historical records
 equally concur to prove that the rivers
  possessed of the greatest power which 
can be attributed to them1 have  no     
appreciable corroding action upon the   
rocks on which they move4    ,no one has
 maintained that the greater number of  
the cascades1  cataracts1 or rapids1    
long known and mentioned on account of  
their  celebrity1 have disappeared or   
have even sensibly diminished1 nor      
consequently that the natural dike which
 the water had encountered  in its      
course1 has been worn or even completely
 disrupted4 ,we do  not find that       
cascades have changed into cataracts1   
and these again  into rapids4 ,the      
cataracts of the ,nile have been spoken 
of from time  immemorial1 as always     

opposing an obstacle to the navigation  
of that  river2 the same is the case    
with those of the ,danube1 of the fall  
of  the ,rhine at ,schaffhausen1 c4 ,the
 famous cascades of the ,alps and       
,pyrenees have been cited ever since    
writing was in use2 and among all  these
 examples we can scarcely find two or   
three cascades that have  been lowered1 
or cataracts reduced in their level4    
,the only cascade which we can point out
 as having really diminished  in height1
 is that of ,tungasca in ,siberia4 ,we  
do not1 however1 assert  but that there 
may be others4 ,so many causes different
 from those  of erosion may concur to   
lower a cascade1 or even make it        
disappear  almost entirely1 that we are 
rather astonished at the small number   
of examples mentioned1 than embarrassed 
by the objections which  these examples 
might present to the opinion which we   
are defending3  for the fall of a part  
of the rock which forms the cliff from  
which  the cascade is precipitated2 an  

abundant accumulation of debris at  the 
foot of the cliff2 a real destruction of
 the softer deposits1  forming part of  
the strata of the mountain from which   
they fall1 are  sufficient causes for   
changing the height of waterfalls4      
,these causes  must present themselves  
pretty frequently2 but how different is 
their  action from that of erosion8     
,this1 if it existed1 would extend from 
the source of the river to its mouth1   
and would have a considerable  influence
 upon the configuration of the earth's  
surface4 ,those which  we have mentioned
 have1 on the contrary1 an action so    
limited and so  local1 as to be scarcely
 appreciable4    #c4 ,allowing1 for the 
moment1 that a river1 possessed of a    
vast  erosive or disaggregating power1  
may have scooped out the valley in  the 
bottom of which it at present flows1 in 
a state of feebleness  very different   
from its original state1 we must account
 for the  disposal of a vast mass of    
earth and rock1 which filled up the     

valley  before the river had removed it4
 ,it is not possible to suppose that  it
 has been transported into the sea1     
which is often more than a  hundred     
leagues from the valley2 for we know    
that when rivers1 on  reaching the      
plains1 lose their rapidity1 they allow 
the matters to  be precipitated which   
they held in suspension4 ,besides1 we   
have  shown that many rivers1 on leaving
 the mountains1 traverse lakes1 in      
which they deposit all the earthy       
matters suspended in their waters4      
,this deposition is particularly        
striking in all the considerable        
rivers1 which descend from the ridge of 
the ,alps toward the  north-west and    
south-east of that chain of mountains4  
,these rivers  meet1 at the opening of  
the valleys they flow through1 lakes1   
which  they traverse1 and which seem    
intended for their purification4 ,thus1 
on the northern side1 we see the ,rhone 
traversing the lake of ,geneva2  the    
,aar1 the ,lakes of ,brientz and ,thun2 

the ,reuss1 the ,lake of the  ,four     
,cantons2 the ,linth1 the ,lake of      
,zurich2 the ,rhine1 the ,lake of       
,constance4 ,on the south side1 the ,lac
 ,majeur is traversed by the  ,tessin1  
the ,lake of ,como by the ,adda1 the    
,lake ,disco by the ,oglio2  the ,lake  
of ,guarda by the ,mincio1 c4 ,now1     
these lakes1 which are  only themselves 
deeper parts of the valley1 would have  
been filled up  by the debris conveyed  
to the valley1 if this valley had the   
origin  attributed to it4 ,proceeding   
from one hypothesis to another1 it might
  perhaps be supposed that these lakes  
may have been sufficiently deep  to     
swallow up all the debris of the valley1
 without being chocked up4  ,but1 rather
 than admit such suppositions1 why not  
grant that the same  unknown cause which
 has scooped out the lake1 has also     
scooped out  the valley which is only a 
continuation of it8    #d4 ,but if facts
 had proved that the waters degrade the 
rocks1 scoop  them out1 and perpetually 

remove their debris1 we might perhaps be
  induced to admit that unknown causes1 
of which we are absolutely  ignorant1   
and of which we can form no idea1 have  
given to the  original rivers the means 
of surmounting all these obstacles4     
,now1  observation would seem absolutely
 to prove the contrary4    ,we have     
remarked1 that rapid rivers which1 in   
the bottom of valleys1  fall in         
cascades1 from rock to rock1 which beat 
with violence against  the walls which  
contain them1 do not in any degree alter
 these  rocks1 and that1 far from       
corroding their surface1 they allow it  
to  be covered with a rich coating of   
mosses1 conferv1 c4 which could  neither
 maintain itself1 nor be formed at all1 
were the least portion  of the surface  
of these rocks continually or even only 
frequently  removed4    ,a much more    
striking fact is that which some of the 
great rivers  present1 such as the      
,nile1 the ,orinoco1 c4 which flow in   
the  equatorial regions4    ,these      

powerful rivers1 when they have arrived 
at places where they  are contracted1   
and1 as it were1 jammed in between two  
rocky walls1  form impetuous cataracts4 
,their waters1 endowed by the celerity  
of  this fall with the greatest erosive 
power that can be attributed to  this   
fluid1 must necessarily have corroded1  
or at least worn1 the  rocks which they 
have thus beat against since the        
creation of our  present ,continent4    
,now1 so far from removing the surface1 
they cover  it with a brownish varnish  
of a peculiar nature4    ,it appears1   
therefore1 well established1 that water 
alone does not  scoop those rocks1 whose
 aggregation is complete1 or which are  
solid2  and that it does not wear them  
in any way1 whatever be its quantity  of
 motion4    ,we say water alone2 and we 
must insist on this distinction1 in     
order to make the preceding facts agree 
with other facts1 which might  seem     
contradictory4    ,we often see furrows 
scooped out on the walls that bound the 

narrows  of rivers2 we also see rocks   
rounded1 and entirely destitute of moss4
  ,but let the facts be examined with   
attention1 and we shall find that  this 
erosion always takes place in the parts 
of their course1 where1  on account of  
the nature of the neighbouring soil1 the
 torrents carry  with them1 in their    
risings 7or floods71 debris and detached
 stones  from their banks2 and it is by 
means of these stones that they wear    
the rocks which are in their bed4    ,it
 is very easy to appreciate these       
circumstances4 ,it is remarked1  that   
this erosion has never taken place at   
the sources of powerful  springs4 ,all  
the pebbles which had to be carried off 
have been so  long ago1 and the mosses  
which grow abundantly on the rocks at   
the  level of the water1 and in the bed 
of these torrents1 have nothing  more to
 fear from the destructive action of    
these solid bodies4 ,the  case is the   
same with the parts which immediately   
succeed a lake1 or  a great excavation1 

capable of arresting all the hard bodies
 carried  off by the river4 ,there the  
mosses appear in abundance2 because they
  are not subjected to the action of any
 other substance than of the  water     
alone4    ,the present rivers do not    
therefore appear to have any erosive    
power  upon the rocks which are         
completely aggregated1 when they act by 
themselves1 and when no other cause1    
such as frost1 decomposition1  c4 has   
disintegrated the rock4 ,the absence of 
these foreign  circumstances is proved  
by the vegetation or the enamel which   
then  cover the rocks exposed to the    
action of the water4    ,these rivers1  
in proportion as they remove from the   
rocks in the  neighbourhood of the lofty
 mountains in which they took their     
rise1  often gain in volume what they   
have lost in velocity2 but the power    
dependent upon size rarely compensates  
that which they owed to  rapidity2 and  
although these large rivers still retain
 a transporting  power1 sufficient to   

carry along with them the obstacles     
which oppose  themselves to their       
progress1 they are far from presenting  
results  of action so striking as those 
of torrents4 ,they stir up1 when        
flooded1 or when they change place1 the 
earth and mobile sand which  cover their
 bottom1 especially towards their edges1
 and transport  them to some distance2  
but they scarcely move pebbles larger   
than an  egg1 which occur in their bed1 
and which have been brought there in    
other times1 and under other            
circumstances4 ,on thus transporting the
  comminuted and mobile mineral matters1
 they deposite them again in  places    
where their current is relaxed by some  
cause1 and thus raise  the bottom of    
their bed in these places2 they seek a  
new passage in  the midst of the        
barriers which they have themselves     
constructed4  ,the principal current is 
then borne1 sometimes against one bank1 
and  sometimes against the other2 and   
when it comes to beat upon the foot  of 

a steep part1 composed of moveable soil1
 as the banks commonly  are1 in such    
cases1 they really erode it1 and make it
 fall into  the river2 and transport to 
another part of its course1 the earth   
resulting from the destruction of the   
bank1 and give rise to new  obstacles4  
,hence the new deposites1 which border  
rivers in all points  where their       
current is slackened1 and principally   
toward their mouth4  ,it is sufficient  
for our present purpose to have referred
 to facts  remarkable for their number1 
for the importance which they have had  
in regard to the modern changes of the  
configuration of the globe2  and1       
lastly1 in regard to agriculture and    
civilisation2--facts of  easy           
observation1 and which tend to prove1   
that the action of rivers1  whose fall  
is not sufficiently rapid to entitle    
them to be considered  as torrents1 is  
not to scoop out their bed1 either in   
the valleys or  in the plains through   
which they flow1 but rather to raise    

them1 and  to tend1 consequently1 rather
 to level and flatten the earth than to 
furrow it1 more than it has been since  
the ,continents have assumed  the       
configuration which they now possess4   
,but if we have not been able to        
recognise a real corroding power in  the
 great rivers falling in the form of    
cascades or cataracts1 let  us inquire  
elsewhere1 in circumstances where the   
water seems endowed  with a still       
superior power1 what are the effects of 
this agent8      #c4 ,action of ,waves4 
,it is in the sea1 an enormous mass1    
sometimes acquiring1 from the  action of
 the winds1 an incalculable power1 that 
we must find the  maximum of force of   
the water of the present times4 ,in     
fact1 in  this case1 the power of       
transportation is so prodigious1 that   
the  strongest barriers1 both natural   
and artificial1 are overturned1 and  the
 largest stones1 together with enormous 
fragments of rocks torn  from their     
place1 transported1 and even projected  

to a distance4  ,but it is to these     
effects that this immeasurable power is 
limited4  ,the water1 which displaces   
and transports to a distance these heavy
  masses1 does not abrade the surface   
when it acts by itself4 ,we see  this   
surface1 on rocks and the sides of piers
 and dikes1 perpetually  beaten by the  
waves1 covered with fuci1 conferv1      
byssi1 and other  delicate vegetables1  
without roots1 which the waves have not 
prevented from contracting a first and  
feeble adherence1 and which  they do not
 hinder from growing4 ,but1 if the waves
 carry with them  pebbles1 or even sand1
 it is those hard bodies which act2 the 
surface  of the rocks is abraded1 and   
all vegetation ceases4    ,the same     
effect takes place1 and is even         
augmented by the real  degradation of   
the coasts1 if the sea acts upon friable
 rocks1  capable of mixing with water1  
such as argillaceous or calcareous      
marl1 or chalk1 or upon rocks which are 
hard1 but naturally fissured1  or partly

 disaggregated1 such as certain         
granites2 it then easily  removes the   
crumbled or previously detached parts1  
scoops out the  foot of the rock or     
steep coast1 and causes the upper part1 
which is  deprived of support1 to fall4 
,but1 in consequence of this fall1 it   
forms a slope1 which1 by its            
inclination1 deadens the violence of the
  shock1 and even protects the foot of  
the cliff1 for some time only1  if it be
 friable1 or capable of disintegration2 
and for ever1 if1  being compact1 it    
does not carry in it the causes of      
destruction4 ,the  action of the waves  
ceasing1 the slope is covered with      
vegetation2  and if the coast continues1
 nevertheless1 to be worn1 the changes  
are  then owing to causes unconnected   
with the action of water4    ,such is1  
in few words1 the ordinary action of the
 water of the sea  upon steep coasts1   
and even that of great masses of water  
in a  state of agitation4 ,m4 ,de ,luc1 
in his various works1 has estimated     

this action with a correctness of       
observation and of reasoning1  which is 
remarkable only1 because it has not been
 adopted by all  naturalists2 and few   
have bestowed the unremitting attention 
upon  the subject which this respectable
 geologist has done4 ,he has shewn1     
that the destructive action of the      
waters upon steep shores1 and  other    
coasts or abrupt cliffs1 was            
considerably restrained by the  very    
consequences of this action2 that the   
debris which accumulated  protected the 
lower parts of these coasts from the    
action of the  water1 or gradually      
reduced an abrupt coast to a very       
inclined and  permanent slope4    ,next1
 to torrents1 to rapid and large rivers1
 and to waves1  it is to currents that a
 great influence on the earth's surface 
has been attributed1--an influence which
 a highly gifted naturalist1  ,buffon1  
has employed to explain all the         
inequalities of the earth's  surface4   
,our knowledge of the action of currents

 is less precise than that  which we    
possess of rivers4 ,but if we cannot so 
visibly demonstrate  that1 in no        
circumstance similar to those which we  
have specified1  do they scoop out the  
bottom of the sea into valleys1 nor form
 any  mountains1 we can1 at least1      
conjecture with much probability1 and   
maintain1 that we have no direct and    
constant proof of that action4      #d4 
,action of ,currents4    ,no one doubts 
that currents1 near coasts1 heap up upon
 the beach1  at the mouth of rivers and 
harbours1 pebbles1 sand1 gravel1 mud1 or
  other transportable matters1 whether  
these currents constantly exist1  or    
simply result from the momentary action 
of a predominating wind2  but this      
action1 although already limited to the 
mobile matters which  form the bottom of
 the sea only in some parts1 whether    
this action1  ,i say1 extends to a great
 depth1 that is to several hundred      
yards1  is a question not yet resolved4 
,in the first place1 the observation    

made by mariners1 that1 in the most     
violent tempests1 the sea is only       
agitated towards the coasts1 or on      
shallows1 and that bodies1 sunk  to a   
great depth1 7and still what is this    
depth in comparison with  that of the   
sea17 do not feel the motions of its    
surface1 nor that of  currents2 and1    
secondly1 reasoning1 and even           
calculation1 according  to ,messieurs   
,la ,place and ,poisson1 concur to shew1
 that the violent  motions of the waters
 of the sea are not propagated to a     
great depth4  ,it is therefore probable1
 that all the transportable matters1    
which  are at this depth1 must remain   
nearly in the position in which they    
are1 since our ,continents have assumed 
their present configuration1  unless    
phenomena and motions of the sea take   
place at the bottom1 of  which we are   
ignorant1 and which are foreign to the  
subject which at  present occupies our  
attention4    ,but if we have no        
perfectly certain ideas regarding the   

propagation  of the motions of the sea  
in depth1 we can assert1 that1 whatever 
that extent and that power may be1 the  
submarine currents no more  abrade the  
rocks than rivers do the surface of the 
land4 ,this  proof is always derived    
from the same kind of fact1 namely1 from
  the vegetable and animal bodies which 
constantly cover the rocks1  and which  
are found1 at all times1 by means of    
various sorts of  dredge-fishing4 ,in   
fact1 no one has remarked1 that the     
places in  which oysters1 mussels1      
corals and sponges are fished1 are more 
sheltered from currents than others2 nor
 that these places1 after  violent      
tempests1 have been deprived1 and       
consequently1 as it were1  despoiled of 
those productions1 which1 by covering   
the rocks1  demonstrate that they       
preserve the integrity of their surface4
 ,many  of these bodies1 however1 as    
sponges1 fuci and conferv1 contract but 
a feeble adherence to the bodies upon   
which they are placed4           99     

99       99       99       99    ,it    
therefore appears1 if not completely    
proved1 at least extremely  probable1   
from the facts and reasonings which we  
have related1    #a4 ,that the presently
 existing waters1 that is to say1 in the
 state  of purity in which we are       
acquainted with them1 have no erosive   
action upon rocks1 whatever be the      
nature of these rocks1 when1 #ast1  ,the
 rocks are completely solid1 and when   
they are neither friable  nor           
disintegrated2 #b;d1 ,when these waters 
act by themselves1 that is  to say1 when
 their action is not complicated with   
the really erosive  action of solid     
bodies1 such as pebbles1 sand1 and      
perhaps even  pieces of ice4    #b4     
,that water1 sometimes acquiring1 on    
account of its quality and  velocity1 a 
great transporting power1 may remove    
masses1 already  detached1 and of great 
size1 according to its degree of        
velocity1 and  the bulk of its mass1 and
 so far as it preserves this same power4

    #c4 ,that the presently existing    
waters may have attacked1 undermined1   
and caused to fall down1 portions of    
solid and steep rocks1 by mixing  with  
beds of clay1 marl1 and sand1 interposed
 between their solid  strata2 that they 
may also1 in their rapid falls1 have    
scooped pretty  deep ravines in very    
inclined deposites1 consisting of       
disintegrated  rocks2 but that these    
waters could not have scooped out1      
either  by a violent action1 or by a    
slow one1 however long continued1 any   
of those long and broad longitudinal    
depressions1 which are named  valleys1  
or of those narrow openings1 with almost
 vertical walls1  which are named gorges
 or ravines4    #d4 ,that1 even when the
 deposites1 which border these valleys  
or  these ravines1 are composed of      
transportable matter1 the waters  which 
at present flow in them could not have  
scooped them out1 even  supposing them  
to have been much larger in some than   
they now are2  the declivity of the     

present deposite not being sufficiently 
great to  give to these masses of water 
the rapidity necessary for producing    
this effect1 and a power sufficient for 
carrying off the moveable  matters which
 filled the valley or gorge4    #e4     
,lastly1 that the present running       
waters1 so far from having  contributed 
to form the numerous valleys1 glens1    
gorges and ravines1  continually tend to
 fill them up1 and rather to level the  
surface of  the globe than to furrow it1
 more deeply than it is4      ,vid4     
,brongniart sur l',eau4      ,,note     
,on the ,connection of ,geology with    
,agriculture and ,planting#daj4    ,that
 all sorts of soils are not equally     
adapted to all productions1  is a remark
 of ,virgil's1 the truth of which       
becomes obvious1 when  we consider many 
facts ascertained in ,agriculture and   
,forestry4 ,if1  therefore1 as the poet 
advises1 our object be to determine what
 each  particular region can produce1   
and what it cannot1 our attention  ought

 in the first place to be directed to   
the physical circumstances  which exert 
their influence over vegetation4    ,all
 plants that are the subject of         
cultivation are fixed in the  ground4   
,by one of their parts1 through which   
they derive their  principal            
nourishment1 they penetrate into the    
soil1 which serves  them as a basis1 and
 affords them the means of procuring    
subsistence2  by the other part they    
raise themselves into the atmosphere1   
which  is not only necessary in itself  
for their existence1 but is also the    
medium through which they derive the    
warming and vivifying influence  of the 
solar rays4 ,hence we can understand how
 much the existence of  plants must be  
influenced by differences in the        
condition of the soil  and air4    ,the 
superficial crust of the globe is formed
 of soil capable  of producing          
vegetables4 ,this productive soil1      
however1 is not  everywhere continuous1 
being interrupted on the one hand by the

  watery covering of the earth1 and on  
the other by perennial snow and  bare   
rock4 ,where soil does occur1 it        
separates the solid mass of the  earth  
from the atmosphere1 and is the porous  
medium through which the  gaseous and   
watery parts of the latter may act in a 
greater or less  degree upon the former4
 ,it is very seldom that strata of      
vegetable  soil lie beneath strata of   
other matters2 and where they occur in  
this position1 the overlying strata are 
either of volcanic or of  alluvial      
origin4 ,of the former case1 a very     
remarkable example occurs  in the ,isle 
of ,bourbon1 in which large tracts      
covered with vegetables  and even trees1
 have been laid waste and overwhelmed by
 streams of  lava2 and large rivers in  
their overflowings occasionally leave   
deposits of various characters1 over the
 productive soil containing  remains of 
formerly existing plants4    ,productive
 soil1 as well in regard to its         
situation as to its  constitution1      

depends upon the nature and condition of
 the rocks  which form the solid mass of
 the earth4 ,it is always of secondary  
formation1 compared with the rock on    
which it rests1 its principal  parts    
usually originating from the            
decomposition of this rock4 ,while  the 
forms of the surface of the solid mass  
of the earth1 have much  influence upon 
the action of the atmosphere1 they also 
in some degree  modify that of climate4 
,from these circumstances it would      
appear that  the solid substrata of     
productive soil exert an influence in   
various  ways upon vegetables2 whence it
 follows that1 in order to obtain a     
more intimate knowledge of the          
conditions which operate upon their     
existence1 it is necessary to call in   
geology to our assistance4    ,although 
the scientific study of agriculture has 
made great progress  in our times1 the  
relations which exist between the       
constitution  of the solid crust of the 
earth1 and the formation and nature of  

vegetable soil1 present a wide field for
 investigation4 ,geologists  have       
hitherto too much neglected the         
examination of the productive  covering 
of the earth1 and those who have treated
 scientifically  of agriculture and     
forestry have usually looked upon the   
vegetable  soil in its own simple       
capacity1 without regard to its         
foundation  and origin4 ,to point out   
the way by which we are to proceed in   
our  investigation of the relations     
which exist between the solid crust of  
the earth and the productive soil which 
covers it1 is the principal  object of  
the following observations4    ,bare    
rocks cannot be made subservient to the 
purposes of agriculture4  ,lichens      
indeed1 cover the surface of rocks1     
deriving their chief  nutriment from the
 atmosphere2 mosses draw the water      
necessary for  their subsistence from   
the fissures of stones2 the roots of    
grasses  seek in the chinks of rocks for
 particles of earth sufficient for      

their sustenance2 various shrubs and    
trees penetrate here and there  into    
rocky masses by their roots 7having the 
powerful and continued  action of living
 wedges71 where the cohesion of the     
parts is  smallest1 in order to prepare 
a fixed seat for themselves1 and be     
secure from the pernicious effects of   
the atmosphere4 ,the surface of  the    
earth is always sterile1 however1 when  
it shows a continuity of  naked rock1   
uncovered by vegetable mould4 ,the      
cultivation of fields  and woods1 and   
even the rearing of cattle1 cannot      
therefore find  scope in regions which  
are entirely rocky4 ,abrupt and         
precipitous  mountains being generally  
in this condition are usually barren2   
but  in plains and on declivities1 a    
bare rocky surface is much less         
frequently the cause of sterility than  
an unfavourable proportion  of mould4   
,some rocky and moderately elevated     
regions also occur1  more or less       
destitute of vegetable mould1 whose     

sterility depends  upon volcanic causes4
 ,iceland1 for example1 affords cases of
 this  description4 ,in many parts of   
,sweden1 as in ,westrogothia1 in        
,scotland1 c41 there occur many elevated
 regions1 in which gneiss  and granite  
predominating1 exclude to a great extent
 all kinds of  vegetation excepting     
lichens4 ,in the same districts we      
sometimes meet  with pastures and       
corn-fields interrupted here and there  
by bare  rocks rising but little above  
the surface1 by which the value of  the 
ground is much diminished1 and great    
impediments opposed to its  cultivation4
    ,as bare rocks are incapable of all 
cultivation1 their distance  from the   
under surface of vegetable mould must   
also be of great  importance4 ,in the   
plains of the north of ,germany1 for    
example1 this  distance is often so     
great that a rocky surface is never     
found1  while1 on the contrary1 in other
 countries1 especially such as are      
mountainous1 the roots of plants not    

unfrequently touch the subjacent  rock2 
the variation between these extremes    
being of all degrees4 ,the  effect of   
the distance of the surface of the solid
 rock from the  under surface of        
productive soil may be both direct and  
indirect1  and may vary much1 not only  
with reference to the species of rock1  
but also to the vegetables4    ,the     
surface of the solid strata of the earth
 has a direct influence  upon the       
cultivation of plants1 because it       
terminates the extension  of their      
roots1 and limits the volume of the soil
 necessary for their  sustenance4 ,as   
the length and direction of the roots   
vary exceedingly  in different species1 
the difference of effect with regard to 
their  growth1 and the approximation of 
the rock to the under surface of the    
soil1 must in general be so much the    
less prejudicial in proportion  as the  
roots decline from the perpendicular2   
whence it follows1 that  certain        
grasses1 and some small pasture plants1 

may grow in very  thin layers of soil1  
where the larger grasses and pasture    
plants  with longer roots1 could not    
find subsistence2 and that shrubs and   
trees1 with long perpendicular roots1   
cannot survive in many places1  where   
others with more horizontal roots may   
thrive4 ,these inferences  are proved to
 be correct by observations in          
agriculture and forestry  generally     
known4    ,mountainous regions1 which   
are not so elevated but that corn might 
grow sufficiently well in them1 in so   
far as depends upon the  conditions of  
the air or climate1 are yet frequently  
not adapted for  its cultivation1 on    
account of the too near approach of the 
rock to  the surface1 or shallowness of 
the soil1 and produce nothing but       
grasses1 and some other pasture plants1 
among which1 however1 there  is the     
greatest difference in this respect4    
,trifolium montanum1 for  example1 can  
support itself on rocky mountains1 where
 ,t4 pratense  could not grow4          

,hedysarum onobrychis grows luxuriantly 
on the sunny  declivities of calcareous 
mountains1 where ,medicago sativa       
7,lucern7  does not find a suitable     
station4 ,the cultivation of this       
excellent  pasture plant in some        
mountainous regions1 especially where   
the rocks  are calcareous1 has not      
proved so advantageous as might have    
been  expected1 because the plants have 
died out in the course of a few  years2 
whereas1 in proper places1 where its    
very long roots find a  sufficient depth
 of soil1 they usually last for a great 
length of  time4    ,the vicinity of the
 rock to the under surface of the       
vegetable mould1  or the shallowness of 
the soil1 seems to be the principal     
cause  why the ,beech grows better on   
many calcareous mountains than the      
,oak1 which1 on the other hand1 finds a 
fitter station on mountains  in which   
sandstone predominates1 where the soil  
is usually deeper4  ,it would seem to be
 for a similar reason that the ,beech   

grows in  many rocky districts1 for     
example1 on the ,hartz ,mountains1 at   
pretty  considerable heights1 especially
 on the sides of valleys which run to   
the south1 while these places do not    
admit the ,oak1 which is found  in the  
middle provinces of ,sweden and ,norway2
 while the ,beech1 on the  other hand1  
grows only in the southern parts4 ,from 
the deficiency of  soil1 the ,upper     
,hartz can produce neither the ,pinus   
pinea1 nor ,p4  sylvestris2 the         
horizontal roots1 however1 of the       
,abies1 or ,norway  ,spruce1 are content
 with the small portion of earth which  
covers the  greywacke and slate1        
although they cannot find sufficient    
hold to  protect its lofty trunks from  
being thrown down by the tempest4 ,in   
some parts of the ,forest of ,thuringia1
 where the covering of loose  earth is  
deeper than in the ,hartz1 the ,pinus   
picea1 or pitch pine1  grows            
luxuriantly4 ,the common fir1 ,pinus    
sylvestris1 which attains  a great      

height in proper soil1 on the contrary1 
is stunted and  distorted on rocky      
mountains1 where the roots soon come in 
contact  with the rock4 ,it there loses 
the character of a tree1 and assumes    
that of a shrub1 as in place of a single
 upright stem1 several  branches shoot  
out1 and these1 not unfrequently1 are   
creeping or bent4    ,the different     
conditions of rocks1 especially their   
structure  and their state of cohesion1 
are of some importance in producing     
these effects2 for the surface of rocks 
must be detrimental or  impervious to   
the roots of plants1 in proportion to   
the compactness  of their structure1 and
 the cohesion of their parts4 ,schistose
  rocks1 for example1 afford a more easy
 passage to roots1 than  granular       
crystalline ones2 pure quartz resists   
the roots of plants  in the highest     
degree2 sandstone much less2 and pure   
limestone1 on  account of its           
comparatively small number of fissures1 
is much less  favourable to vegetation  

than marl1 chalk1 or slightly cohering  
calcareous rocks1 the masses of which   
are usually split in all  directions4   
,the direction and inclination of the   
strata have also some influence  in this
 matter2 for1 in proportion as the      
principal fissures of  the strata are1  
from their direction or inclination1    
more readily  presented to the roots of 
vegetables1 the less prejudicial will   
their surface be to vegetation4         
,horizontal strata1 therefore1 are  the 
least favourable to vegetation1         
perpendicular ones the most4 ,in  the   
inclination of strata intermediate in   
some degree between these  positions1   
the roots of vegetables will find a     
greater obstacle on  the side of a hill 
in which the surface of a stratum is    
opposed to  them1 than on the other1 in 
which the principal fissures of the     
strata are open4 ,the effects of this   
circumstance may frequently be  observed
 in mountainous tracts having two       
principal inclinations1 the  state of   

vegetation1 and especially the growth of
 wood1 being more  prosperous on the one
 of these declivities than on the other4
    ,the surface of the solid strata of 
the earth may also have an  indirect    
influence upon the cultivation of       
vegetables4 ,the various  inclinations  
of this surface deserve first to be     
considered1 being  of the greatest      
effect with regard to fixing the fertile
 soil4 ,the  horizontal position of a   
rocky surface is in the highest degree  
favourable to the stability of vegetable
 earth2 and the greater its  angle of   
inclination1 the greater is the danger  
of its losing the  soil upon it4 ,in a  
highly inclined plane1 the imperfect    
support  of the centre of gravity is the
 sole cause of the loss of earth2  in a 
less inclined plane the diminution of   
soil is usually caused  by water1 which 
produces this effect in a greater or    
less degree1  according to the          
difference of inclination4 ,in both     
these modes1 by  which a removal of soil

 is produced1 the effect may be modified
 by  a difference in the condition of   
the loose earth1 as not only its        
stability as to situation1 but also its 
resistance to the power of  water1 vary 
according to the size1 figure1 and      
cohesion of the parts1  as well as their
 adhesion to the surface of the rock4   
,sandy loose  soils1 for example1 are   
more liable to transposition than marly 
or  loamy ones2 and these1 again1 are   
more easily moved than such as are      
clayey and adhesive4    ,whatever be the
 nature of the soil1 a small degree of  
inclination  in the solid rock is       
sufficient to favour its denudation by  
the  removal of the former2 and the     
inclinations of the surfaces of rocks   
having a covering of earth and          
vegetation1 are in reality much less    
considerable than we usually suppose    
them to be1 judging merely by  the eye4 
,the celebrated ,humboldt has published 
observations on this  subject4          
,according to his measurements1 a slope 

of even fifteen  degrees appears steep1 
and a declivity of thirty-seven degrees 
is so  abrupt1 that if it be covered    
with a dense sward1 it can scarcely be  
climbed4 ,the inclination of the        
pastures of the ,alps seldom exceeds  an
 angle of ten or fifteen degrees1 and a 
slope of twenty degrees  is pretty      
steep4 ,at an inclination of forty      
degrees1 the surface  of the rock is    
sometimes covered with earth bearing a  
sward1 but  at a greater inclination the
 rocks are usually destitute of soil    
and vegetation4 ,in the ,upper ,hartz1  
the most common inclination of  the     
declivities of the mountains is         
twenty-five degrees2 nor does  it       
usually exceed thirty-three1 at which   
inclination the beech  and spruce grow4 
,the greatest declivities at which      
ground can be  advantageously cultivated
 have an inclination of thirty degrees4 
,the roots of vegetables1 especially of 
grasses1 shrubs1 and trees1  are of much
 importance in supporting the earth upon

 the declivities  of rocks4 ,care must  
therefore be taken that the declivities 
of  mountains which are covered with    
turf or wood1 be not altogether         
deprived of these coverings1 as         
sometimes happens in consequence of     
loosening the turf for agricultural     
purposes1 or of incautiously            
extirpating the wood4 ,in ,norway1 near 
,roraas1 there occur mountains1         
destitute of all vegetation1 that had   
formerly been covered with  woods1 but  
where now1 from the deficiency of soil1 
no seeds could  take root4 ,the same is 
the case in many parts of the ,alps1    
where1  from the irregular              
long-continued removal of the timber1   
the sides  of mountains which were      
formerly covered with thick woods1 now  
show  nothing but naked rocks4 ,for this
 reason1 in mountainous countries  with 
very steep declivities1 the breeding of 
cattle and planting of  woods are often 
more advantageous than agriculture4 ,in 
,france the  greatest inclination of the

 public roads is limited by law to an   
angle of four degrees and forty-six     
minutes3 a similar restriction  with    
regard to agriculture might not be      
without benefit in certain  mountainous 
countries4    ,the inclinations of the  
surface of the solid crust of the earth 
vary  much1 according to the different  
qualities of the rocks2 some having  a  
tendency to form abrupt precipices1     
others1 again1 to produce  gentle       
declivities4 ,for this reason1 mountains
 consisting of quartz  or porphyry1 for 
example1 very frequently present        
surfaces destitute  of vegetation2      
while1 on the other hand1 those of      
granite1 slate or  sandstone1 are more  
frequently adapted for agriculture and  
planting4  ,in the northern parts of    
,scotland1 quartz rocks1 destitute of   
all  vegetation1 rise in the midst of   
mountains covered with gramineous       
plants1 and sometimes wood4 ,in the most
 fertile part of the south of  ,norway  
porphyritic mountains rise from a       

calcareous and schistose  base1 with    
lofty1 rugged1 and bare cliffs4 ,in the 
southern parts of  the ,tyrol the rocky 
sterility of the abrupt and lofty       
porphyritic  mountains presents a       
striking contrast to the fertility of   
the  neighbouring limestone mountains1  
which are covered with vines1  walnuts  
and chesnuts4    ,the surface of the    
solid strata of the earth has also an   
indirect  influence upon the cultivation
 of plants1 in so far as the water      
which the vegetable mould acquires from 
the atmosphere1 is retained  in the     
soil1 or is drawn off by the subjacent  
rock4 ,different rocks  produce very    
different effects in this respect1      
depending as well  upon their           
constitution as their structure4 ,the   
component parts of  rocks imbibe water  
in different modes and degrees2 and     
different  sorts of rocks not only      
attract water with different celerity1  
but  also imbibe different quantities of
 it4 ,the latter difference depends     

chiefly upon the various substances of  
which rocks are composed1  partly1 also1
 upon their porosity4 ,siliceous rocks  
attract water in  the lowest degree1    
argillaceous ones in the highest1 and   
calcareous  rocks appear to have an     
intermediate action in this respect4    
,compact and granular crystalline rocks 
attract water in a smaller  degree1 and 
more slowly2 friable or crumbled rocks  
imbibe it in  greater quantity1 and with
 more celerity than those which are not 
disintegrated4 ,the condition of rocks  
with regard to the attraction  of water1
 affects1 in a different manner1 the    
humidity of soil2  for1 by this         
attraction1 moisture may as well be     
abstracted from1  as imparted to1 the   
loose earth or soil by which rocks are  
covered4  ,part of the moisture which   
vegetable earth or soil derives from the
  atmosphere passes into the subjacent  
mass of rock1 but this may again  be    
compensated by evaporation2 on which    
account the soil of such  rocks as have 

but a small attraction for water usually
 dries up more  readily than soils whose
 solid substratum attracts and retains  
the  moisture in a greater degree4      
,it is probable that the structure of   
rocks has also a greater1 and  not less1
 diversified influence upon the humidity
 of productive  soil4 ,solid rocks1     
which are not traversed by numerous     
perpendicular  fissures penetrating to a
 considerable depth1 allow the water  to
 remain in the soil2 but columnar and   
schistose rocks1 with  perpendicular    
fissures1 and strata declined from the  
horizontal  position1 draw off the water
 from the soil covering their surface1  
into lower places1 where it often       
re-appears under the form of  springs4  
,in these circumstances1 we find a      
partial explanation of the  great       
difference between the humidity of soil 
covering a surface of  solid granite1   
and that lying upon limestone1 which is 
intersected  by numerous fissures4      
,granitic mountains are often furnished 

with  marshes1 whereas1 on the other    
hand1 the dryness of the soil upon      
calcareous mountains is generally       
excessive#daa1 the cause of  which      
phenomenon is1 in a great measure1 to be
 attributed to the  circumstances above 
mentioned4 ,columella observes1 that    
silex having  a moderate covering of    
earth1 preserves to the latter its      
humidity2  and ,palladius repeats the   
remark4 ,in districts which consist of  
quartzose rocks1 not less than of       
granitic ones1 the surface is often     
covered with marshes4 ,porphyritic      
rocks1 on the contrary1 which have  a   
remarkable segregation of parts1 as well
 as columnar basalt1 let  off the water 
to lower places4 ,springs are very      
frequently found  at the bottom of      
basaltic mountains2 for the atmospheric 
waters  penetrate by the perpendicular  
fissures to the strata on which the     
basalt rests1 and appear at the place   
where the two rocks meet4    ,the effect
 of different rocks upon the            

preservation and diminution  of the     
moisture of fertile soil1 influences    
vegetation in various  degrees4 ,the    
retentive power of the surface of rocks 
is of the  greatest importance1 where   
the soil consists chiefly of sand1      
through  which the water percolates1 and
 passes off entirely1 unless it meets   
with a stratum of such a nature1 as to  
obstruct its passage1 or comes  upon a  
surface of solid rock4 ,the cause of the
 sterility of sandy  plains is not      
merely their sandy nature1 but also the 
great depth  of the mass or rock capable
 of retaining the water4 ,the same sand1
  when covering mountains consisting of 
sandstone1 has a much less  degree of   
sterility than in those plains1 because 
the surface of the  subjacent rock      
impedes the progress of the water1 and  
consequently  retains it in the         
soil#dab4 ,it has been sufficiently     
proved by  experiments1 that plants can 
grow in pure sand1 when furnished  with 
the necessary quantity of water4 ,a     

subjacent rocky surface  has an entirely
 different effect upon soil which is    
very retentive  of moisture1 upon a clay
 soil for example1 as1 in that case1 the
  humidity is increased to a prejudicial
 degree4 ,in land of this  nature1 a    
substratum of rock having the property  
of drawing off the  water would be      
useful4    ,the different conditions of 
rocks with regard to caloric1 may have  
some indirect influence upon the vigour 
of plants4 ,heat1 whether  imparted to  
the vegetable soil by the sun's rays1 or
 generated by  various chemical         
processes in the earth itself1          
penetrates to the  surface of the       
subjacent rocks1 and is more or less    
drawn from it in  a longer or shorter   
time4 ,columella observes1 that rocks in
 the upper  part of the soil are        
prejudicial to vines and trees1 but in  
the lower  part cool them4 ,the heat of 
soil will be more or less drawn from it1
  according to the greater or less      
conducting power of the subjacent  rock4

 ,compact crystalline rocks are probably
 better conductors of  caloric than     
those which are of looser texture2      
siliceous rocks than  argillaceous and  
calcareous ones4 ,the influence of the  
subjacent rock  must be greater in this 
respect1 in proportion to the thinness  
of the  superincumbent soil4 ,the effect
 of the abduction of caloric is more    
particularly sensible1 where the roots  
of cultivated plants touch  the rock1 a 
circumstance which we often see in      
vineyards4 ,the vine  frequently thrives
 remarkably on the declivities of       
mountains1 in  which it sends its roots 
among fragments of stones4 ,experience  
shows1  that the quality of wine is     
influenced by the different conditions  
of the stones1 among which vines are    
planted4 ,albertus ,magnus has          
observed1 that the vine thrives well in 
earth which is mixed with  fragments of 
black roofing slate2 and ,humboldt      
remarks1 that the  vines which grow upon
 the mountains of the valley of the     

,rhine1  consisting of black clay-slate1
 afford an excellent wine4 ,at the ,cape
  of ,good ,hope1 also1 the vine thrives
 well in a soil produced by the         
decomposition of clay-slate1 and mixed  
with fragments of it#dac4  ,it is       
probable1 that the adaptation of this   
sort of soil to the  cultivation of the 
vine1 depends upon its slow conducting  
power1 and  upon its rapidly imbibing   
the rays of the sun1 on account of its  
dark  colour1 and thus increasing the   
heat of the ground4    ,hitherto we have
 only spoken of the proximate influence 
of rocks  upon plants2 but it cannot be 
denied1 that the remote effects which   
they produce1 7inasmuch as vegetable    
soil is derived from them1 and1         
therefore1 the qualities of this soil   
depend in a great measure upon  their   
nature17 are of greater importance4     
,it is from the rocks which constitute  
the crust of the earth1 that  the       
principal portion of productive soil is 
derived4 ,although other  substances    

belonging to the animal and vegetable   
kingdoms1 are  necessary for the        
nourishment of plants1 a soil consisting
 chiefly  of inorganic particles is     
still more necessary1 both for          
sustaining  their roots1 and for        
receiving1 retaining1 and partly also   
preparing  nutrition for them2 for1     
according to accurate observations1 some
  inorganic substances exert an         
influence upon the decomposition of     
animal and vegetable remains4 ,these    
effects vary much according to          
differences in the aggregation and      
chemical nature of the inorganic  parts2
 of which circumstances1 however1 the   
different qualities of  rocks are the   
ultimate cause4    ,two kinds of        
productive soil may be distinguished    
with regard to  their origin4 ,the soil 
has either originated in the place in   
which  it now is from the subjacent     
rock1 or it has been transported to the 
places in which it is now found by some 
power1 especially by that  of water4    

,the first kind may be named            
untransported1 the second  transported  
soil4 ,to the first kind of soil is to  
be referred a  great part of the soil   
which covers the summits and declivities
 of  mountains1 and to the other1 the   
soil which fills the bottoms of         
valleys1 as well as a great part of the 
loose soil of extensive  strata in hilly
 countries and plains4 ,untransported   
soil is generally  thinner than the     
transported2 and of the two the latter  
is that which  most frequently occurs in
 low land4 ,the first kind of soil1 the 
untransported1 is found to be more or   
less similar1 in its principal          
constituent parts1 to the rocks from    
which it has originated2 in the  other  
kind1 the transported soil1 on the      
contrary1 the parts which  were         
originally in connection1 have been     
variously separated and  mixed1 by the  
agency of the powers by which its       
transportation was  effected4    ,the   
quantity and quality of the soil derived

 from the disintegration  of rocks1 must
 depend upon the nature of these rocks2 
its quality  being determined by the    
constituent parts of the rock from which
 it  originated1 and its quantity being 
proportioned to the greater or  less    
degree in which the rock may resist     
decomposition4    ,the disintegration of
 rocks1 and their conversion into loose 
earth1  are partly mechanical1 and      
partly chemical4 ,the principal         
mechanical powers1 by which             
disintegration is effected1 are1 #ast1  
,the weight of the loosened parts2 #b;d1
 ,water1 not merely in its  liquid and  
mobile state1 but also1 and that        
chiefly1 in the state  of ice2 #c;d1    
,the roots of vegetables in general1 and
 especially of  trees4 ,these powers    
usually act more or less in conjunction1
 and the  effects produced by this union
 are in many cases almost incredible4   
,the disintegration of rocks commences  
in those parts where the  power of      
cohesion is least energetic4 ,rents take

 place owing to the  unequal attraction 
of parts1 and also in the direction of  
planes1  in which heterogeneous parts   
are in contact2 and in this manner  the 
original structure of rocks determines  
the first steps of  their               
disintegration4 ,water1 which enters    
into the minute fissures  of rocks1 by  
the power of capillary attraction1 is   
expanded by  congelation1 and thus      
overcomes the cohesion of parts1 and    
produces  rents4 ,the roots of trees    
acting as wedges1 produce the same      
effect in a wonderful degree1 a         
phenomenon which has been so well       
illustrated by ,annus ,seneca1 in his   
,natural ,questions4 8,let us           
consider10 says he1 8how great a power  
is exerted by the most minute  seeds1   
which1 although at first small as they  
are1 can scarcely  find a place in the  
crevices of rocks1 yet at length grow to
 such  a size as to rend asunder vast   
rocks1 overturning crags and cliffs1  by
 the power of their very minute and     

delicate roots40 ,the parts  of rocks   
loosened by these powers1 are entirely  
separated1 and are  carried to a great  
or less distance1 by streams of water1  
and in  the higher regions1 by the power
 of winds4 ,in cliffs and precipices    
which have been formed by the splitting 
of masses of rock1 effected  in the     
manner above described1 the loosened    
parts often lose their  stability2 and1 
following the direction of gravity1 fall
 to the  ground1 an effect which has    
also been described by ,seneca in       
another  place4 8,nor is it alone       
probable10 says he1 8that rocks are     
split  asunder by their mere weight1 but
 also when streams of water are  carried
 over them1 the continual moisture works
 into the joinings of  the rock1 and    
daily takes away a portion of the       
connecting matter1  and1 if ,i may so   
speak1 abrades the skin by which it is  
contained4  ,at length1 in the course of
 ages1 this gradual detrition so much   
diminishes the supporting parts1 that   

they can no longer sustain the  weight4 
,then masses of vast size fall down1 and
 the rock tumbling  from its ancient    
seat1 overwhelms whatever lies below40  
,the cohesion  of some rocks1 especially
 argillaceous ones1 is so slight1 and   
their  porosity so great1 that their    
smallest parts imbibe water1 and are    
sensibly softened by it1 an effect which
 is much assisted by the  freezing of   
the water4 ,this mechanical change is   
experienced by the  different varieties 
of common clay1 slate-clay1 and some    
other rocks4    ,chemical powers often  
act in conjunction with mechanical ones1
 in  breaking down rocks1 the former1   
the chemical1 frequently finishing  what
 had been begun by the latter4          
,mechanical powers only changing  the   
aggregation of rocks1 may break down    
their parts to a certain  size1         
according to their different nature2    
chemical powers1 again1  which change   
the nature of substances1 destroy the   
connection of  the minute parts of      

rocks4 ,when chemical is preceded by    
mechanical  action1 it is much assisted 
by it4 ,the latter has a much more      
general  effect1 as all rocks are       
subjected to its influence2 chemical    
decomposition1 on the other hand1 acts  
only upon some rocks1 and in  these only
 upon certain parts4 ,the chemical      
decomposition of rocks is  chiefly      
effected by the oxygen of atmospheric   
air and of water2 but  we are also      
persuaded1 that certain cryptogamic     
plants1 intimately  attached to the     
surface of stones1 ,lichens namely1     
assist in their  destruction4    ,the   
oxygen of air and water can only affect 
the constituent parts  of rocks1 which  
have a great affinity to it1 such as the
 iron and  sulphur forming pyrites1     
oxydulous iron1 oxydulous manganese1 or 
the same substances mixed with earth or 
carbonic acid1 charcoal and  bitumen4   
,very solid and compact masses of rock1 
such as greenstone1  which are not      
easily affected by other means1 are     

sometimes corroded  by the chemical     
change of the pyrites contained in them1
 by which  it is converted into a       
hydrate of iron#dad4 ,in certain other  
rocks1 which are also readily broken    
down by mechanical agents1  clay-slate  
for instance1 the disintegration is much
 accelerated by  the decomposition of   
the pyrites4 ,the oxydulous iron of     
felspar is  commonly converted by       
decomposition into a hydrate or ochre4  
,the  carbonate of iron1 as well as of  
manganese1 which sometimes occur  in    
rocks1 in limestone rock for example1   
are deprived of carbonic  acid by the   
oxidation of their bases4 ,charcoal and 
bitumen1 which  are sometimes contained 
in rocks1 limestone and argillaceous    
ones  for example1 are dissipated by the
 contact of air1 so that rocks  which   
were originally of a dark colour1 lose  
it1 and become whitish4  ,water1 as a   
chemical agent1 contributes so much to  
the decomposition  of certain rocks1    
that1 either in a pure state1 or in     

combination  with carbonic acid1 it     
dissolves their parts1 of which gypsum  
and  limestone afford examples4 ,in     
certain other minerals1 in felspar  for 
instance1 a separation of the           
constituent parts1 produced by  the     
contact of air and water1 is observed1  
the proximate cause of  which has not   
hitherto been discovered4 ,the mass is  
decomposed1 its  lamellar structure is  
converted into an earthy nature1 the    
alkali  contained in the felspar is     
extracted by the water1 a mineral is    
produced1 to which the ,chinese have    
given the name of ,kaolin1 and  which is
 adapted for the manufacture of         
porcelain4 ,granite and gneiss  occur in
 some districts1 the felspar of which is
 decomposed in this  manner through the 
whole mass1--a circumstance which must  
be of great  importance in regard to the
 formation of productive soil4          
,cryptogamic plants covering the surface
 of rocks1 and thriving well  in this   
situation1 where more perfect vegetables

 could not grow1  seem also destined to 
promote the chemical decomposition of   
rocks1  an effect which they produce    
both directly and indirectly4 ,as they  
imbibe the water of the atmosphere1 and 
retain it like a sponge1  they keep up a
 constant application of this substance 
to the rock1  and in this manner        
contribute indirectly to its            
decomposition4 ,there  are some         
cryptogamic plants also1 which consume  
certain portions of  the rocks with     
which they are in contact1 corrode their
 surface1 and  destroy the cohesion of  
its parts1 effects which may chiefly be 
seen  in certain cryptogamic plants     
attached to calcareous rocks4 ,in this  
manner one sort of vegetation prepares a
 place for another1 and the  most       
imperfect vegetables are subservient to 
the growth of the more  perfect4        
,after premising thus much1 we shall now
 proceed to the examination  of the     
principal rocks1 in so far as regards   
their connection with  the formation of 

productive soil1 beginning with those   
which resist  decomposition in the      
highest degree1 and ending with those   
which are  the most conducive to the    
formation of loose earth and soil4      
,in the first class1 we place those     
rocks which experience no  chemical     
decomposition1 in so far as regards     
their principal mass1  and whose        
cohesion of parts is so great that      
mechanical powers can  only open their  
natural fissures to a greater extent1   
and thus break  them down into          
fragments4 ,of this kind are vitreous   
lava1 pure  quartz1 compact quartz1     
flinty slate1 and porphyry with a       
siliceous basis4 ,on mountains          
consisting of these rocks1 scarcely  any
 productive soil is found1 and          
frequently none at all4 ,they are       
usually characterized by sterile rocks  
and cliffs1 the bases of which  are     
covered with innumerable rough fragments
 of stones1 retaining  their sharp edges
 for a great length of time1 the heaps  

of which  seldom produce any thing else 
than mosses1 which frequently cover the 
interstices of fragments1 occasionally a
 few grasses1 and sometimes  a solitary 
shrub or tree4 ,examples1 ,bennevis1    
,paps of ,jura1 and  ,morven ,hills4 ,of
 all rocks1 vitreous volcanic           
productions are the  least capable of   
contributing to the formation of        
productive soil4  ,their dark coloured  
tracts descend from volcanic mountains  
to the  valleys in frightful sterility1 
the chinks of their rugged masses       
scarcely affording sufficient water for 
the roots of mosses#dae4  ,to the second
 class we refer compact limestone1 a    
rock which  contributes extensively to  
the formation of the solid crust of  the
 globe4 ,in so far as regards its       
principal constituent parts1  it is not 
affected by atmospheric water or air2   
but1 as its parts  have but             
comparatively little cohesion1 and are  
usually separated  in a considerable    
degree by minute fissures1 they are more

 liable  to be broken down and crumbled 
by mechanical powers1 than those  of the
 rocks belonging to the first class4 ,in
 districts where the  fundamental rock  
is limestone1 the layers of loose       
original soil  or subsoil are thin1 and 
filled with numerous fragments4 ,as the 
soil arising from the disintegration of 
limestone contains a great  proportion  
of calcareous matter1 it is neither     
favourable to the  growth of plants in  
general1 nor to that of the greater     
number of  vegetables which are the     
object of cultivation4 ,soil of this    
kind  is too hot1 dry and stony2 hence  
the reason why districts1 in which  pure
 limestone rocks predominate1 are often 
sterile4 ,the case is  different1       
however1 where a portion of clay enters 
as an ingredient  into the composition  
of calcareous rocks1 for here the soil  
is  usually very productive2 or1 where  
rocks of a different nature  alternate  
with masses of pure limestone1 having a 
greater capability  than it of          

contributing to the formation of        
productive soil4 ,when  water1          
containing carbonic acid1 passes through
 limestone rocks1 it  dissolves portions
 of it1 and deposits them in other      
places1 by which  the decomposition of  
the limestone and the formation of loose
 earth  may be in some measure          
accelerated4    ,to the third class     
belong chalk and gypsum2 which1 in so   
far  as regards their decomposition by  
chemical means1 are of a similar  nature
 with compact limestone2 but possessing 
a much slighter  cohesion of parts1 are 
more liable to be broken down by        
mechanical  means4 ,water also dissolves
 gypsum1 and thus assists in its        
disintegration4 ,the soil arising from  
these rocks resembles that  produced by 
compact limestone1 which explains the   
want of fertility1  observable in       
certain gypseous tracts of the ,north of
 ,germany1 and in  the chalk districts  
of ,france4 ,the fertility which we see 
in certain  places where chalk is the   

fundamental rock1 as in the ,isle of    
,wight1  ,island of ,rugen1 c4 is to be 
attributed as well to argillaceous and  
marly strata alternating with the chalk1
 as to the greater humidity  of the     
atmosphere1 by which the dryness and    
heat of the soil are  diminished4    ,in
 the fourth class we place certain      
rocks1 composed of different  minerals1 
but compact in appearance1 which1       
although they resist  mechanical        
disintegration1 are yet subject to      
chemical action1 and  are1 by means of  
it1 converted into a loose1 compound    
productive  soil4 ,of this kind are     
basalt1 and some other rocks very nearly
  allied to it4    ,to the fifth class  
we refer those rocks which have a       
crystalline1  granular1 or slaty        
texture4 ,the mutual adhesion of the    
heterogeneous  parts1 of which they     
consist1 being1 in general1             
inconsiderable1  they are easily broken 
down by mechanical means1 and thus      
contribute  in a high degree to the     

formation of productive soil4 ,the      
felspar  contained in these rocks1 on   
account of the chemical decomposition   
which it readily undergoes1 has a great 
effect not only upon the  quantity1 but 
also the fertility of the soil produced4
 ,the quartz1  on the contrary1 as well 
as the mica and hornblende1 long resist 
chemical decomposition2 they are1       
however1 useful in this respect1  that  
the argillaceous soil arising from the  
felspar1 has its  tenacity diminished2  
and is consequently rendered better     
adapted for  vegetation1 by being       
intermixed with them4 ,granite and      
gneiss1  of all truly granular          
crystalline rocks1 afford the deepest   
and  most fertile soil1 aptly compounded
 of different substances1  sufficiently 
loose in its aggregation1 and capable of
 retaining the  necessary moisture4     
,soil arising from the disintegration of
 granite  is unfavourable to vegetation 
only1 where the rock abounds much in    
quartz1 and where the superfluous water 

cannot run off1 and so gives  rise to   
marshes1 which produce only vegetables  
of inferior quality2  of which we have  
examples in the granite districts of    
,aberdeen4 ,in  such places as these1   
peat is easily generated1 which1        
although of  great use1 is yet much less
 advantageous than wood4 ,syenite1 which
  abounds much in hornblende1 is        
inferior to granite1 with respect to    
the production of fertile soil2 and     
primitive greenstone1 which  resists    
disintegration and decomposition in the 
highest degree1  occupies the last place
 in this class4 ,in the series of slaty 
crystalline rocks1 mica-slate is next to
 gneiss3 but on account of  the small   
proportion of felspar which enters into 
its composition1  it does not afford so 
productive a soil4    ,in the sixth     
class may be placed the slaty rocks1    
whether simple1  or intimately          
compounded1 which do not readily undergo
 chemical  decomposition1 but which     
easily separate at their natural        

fissures1  and are mechanically resolved
 into an earthy mass1 forming a paste   
with water1 circumstances which are     
observed chiefly in clay-slate1  a rock 
of much importance in the formation of  
productive soil1  usually passing into a
 clayey sort of earth4    ,to the       
seventh class belong the conglomerated  
rocks1 whose parts  indeed undergo very 
little1 if any1 chemical change1 but are
 easily  separated by mechanical means1 
and are thus converted into a  gravelly1
 sandy1 or earthy mass4 ,of this kind   
are greywacke1 old  red sandstone1 and  
sandstones of various kinds4 ,much      
diversity is  exhibited by these rocks1 
with regard to the facility with which  
they  undergo disintegration1 as well as
 the nature of the soil arising  from   
them2 circumstances which chiefly depend
 upon the nature of the  cement1 and its
 relation to the parts cemented4 ,the   
disintegration of  these rocks is the   
more easily effected that the cement is 
abundant1  and less intimately connected

 with the other parts1 that is1 the more
  they depart from a crystalline nature2
 on which account greywacke  is less    
easily converted into soil1 than the    
common varieties of  sandstone4 ,by the 
decomposition of greywacke1 a loose and 
fertile  soil is formed1 containing     
particles of quartz and clay in due     
proportion2 on the other hand1 by the   
decomposition of red sandstone1  a soil 
is frequently produced1 abounding in    
argillaceous particles  impregnated with
 iron1 and therefore stiff and cold4    
,the variegated  sandstone1 with a marly
 cement1 not unfrequently affords a     
pretty  fertile soil2 the               
quadersandstein1 on the contrary1       
commonly  presents a sandy and arid     
soil4    ,lastly1 in the eighth class we
 shall place those rocks1 whether       
simple or intimately compounded1 whose  
nature is so loose1 or whose  parts are 
so separated1 that they fall with great 
facility into an  earthy mass1 and are  
also in part mechanically reduced by    

water4 ,to  this class belong the       
different varieties of marl1 slate-clay1
  basaltic and volcanic tuffa4 ,these   
rocks1 many of which are  extensively   
diffused1 are of much importance in the 
formation of  productive soil1 although 
the quality of the earth produced by    
them  varies much1 according to their   
different natures4 ,slate-clay affords  
an argillaceous soil2 in earth produced 
by the decomposition of marl1  the clay 
is diminished in proportion to the      
greater abundance of the  calcareous or 
sandy parts2 while a mixed and very     
fertile soil is  usually generated from 
basaltic and volcanic tufas4    ,the    
various relations which exist in the    
stratification and position  of rocks1  
have much influence in producing a      
diversity in the  soil formed           
immediately from their decomposition4   
,this diversity  cannot be so great when
 different rocks of various ages occur  
in a  determinate order in horizontal   
strata2 in which case1 the uppermost    

bed may exhibit a great extent of       
surface of the same nature4 ,when1  on  
the other hand1 strata of rocks of      
different natures1 forms1  and          
dimensions1 placed at different angles  
of inclination1 and  in different       
directions1 appear at the surface1 it   
will easily  be understood how it may   
happen that the soil produced by their  
decomposition may occur of very         
different qualities1 in places  not very
 distant from each other4 ,the manner in
 which the soil is  influenced by a     
difference in the arrangement and       
position of the  strata1 will become    
evident1 on comparing districts in which
 one  particular sort of rock lies      
beneath the surface in horizontal       
strata1 with others in which the solid  
substratum is composed of  various rocks
 differing in their inclination towards 
the horizon4  ,in districts of the      
former kind1 the qualities of the soil  
vary  in general but little2 in such as 
are of the latter kind1 on the          

contrary1 they are often found extremely
 different4 ,the great  diversity of    
soil seen in ,england1 as well as in    
,germany1 may1  in fact1 be partly      
explained by the circumstance1 that1 in 
those  countries1 the nature and        
position of the strata vary every where4
  ,on the other hand1 the great         
similarity which pervades the soil of   
,southern ,russia1 is without doubt     
produced by a uniformity in the         
position and inclination of the         
limestone which lies immediately  under 
the soil4    ,the nature of the         
principal mass of the strata usually    
exerts a  great degree of influence over
 the qualities of the soil4 ,when the   
solid substratum is sandstone1 its      
effect upon the soil is1 in  general1 as
 evidently seen1 though not perhaps in  
an equal degree1  as when it is marl4   
,exceptions1 however1 to this rule      
sometimes  occur2 as1 for instance1 when
 the principal mass of a rock which     
resists disintegration in a high degree 

contains beds that are  easily reduced  
to earth4 ,this is the case with the    
shell-limestone  7muschelkalkstein7 of  
,germany1 the mountains of which are not
  unfrequently covered with a clayey    
soil1 which has not been produced  by   
the decomposition of the principal      
strata themselves1 but by that  of the  
slate-clay and argillaceous marl        
alternating with them4    ,hitherto we  
have considered untransported soil1 or  
that produced  from the disintegration  
or decomposition of the subjacent rocks 
in  the places where it occurs2 we have 
now to examine the relations  which     
exist between the subjacent rock1 and   
the transported soil  lying upon it4    
,the nature of the rock does not indeed 
influence1  excepting in a more remote  
degree1 the transported soil1 which has 
been carried to a greater or less       
distance from the places of its         
production1 by the agency of moving     
powers1 and again deposited of  various 
forms and compositions4 ,however1 it may

 often be plainly  seen1 that the       
materials of this soil have been derived
 from  particular rocks1 and that these 
rocks have exerted some degree of       
influence over the formation and        
distribution of the transported  soil4  
,the examination of these relations is  
of great importance1  because it is with
 secondary or transported soil that     
agriculture  is principally concerned4  
,the varieties of transported soil      
depend  chiefly upon three              
circumstances3 #ast1 ,the nature of the 
rocks from  which they are derived2     
#b;dly1 ,the quality and effect of the  
moving  powers2 #c;dly1 ,the changes    
which they may have undergone after     
their  formation4    ,the origin of the 
materials which enter into the          
composition of  transported soil1 has   
been already considered4 ,from their    
difference  may be easily explained why 
soil generated from the debris of       
primitive crystalline rocks has         
different qualities from soil which  has

 been derived from strata of sandstone  
or marl4    ,the principal powers which 
contribute to the transportation of     
soil1  are1 ,the weight of loose masses1
 ice1 and water4 ,the weight of loose   
masses is a cause of transportation     
which we frequently see in  operation4  
,by it the huge cones of debris at the  
base and upon the  declivities of       
precipices and mountains1 are gradually 
carried off  toward the bottom of the   
valleys2 a phenomenon which can scarcely
 any  where be better seen than in the  
valleys of the ,alps1 where mountains   
sometimes occur evidently consisting of 
debris1 and clothed with  trees and     
shrubs1 or covered with pastures1 the   
masses of which are  gradually moved1 as
 upon inclined planes1 by the action of 
the water  which percolates through     
them4    ,ice effects the transportation
 of rocks and debris1 with a power      
which nothing can resist4 ,this is no   
where more conspicuous than  among the  
glaciers of the ,alps1 by the falling of

 which great heaps  of stones and       
rubbish are produced4 ,the              
transportation of large  stones by means
 of ice may also be seen in our mountain
 torrents in  winter4 ,huge masses of   
stone1 scattered over the plains of the 
north  of ,germany and the islands of   
,denmark1 and often very prejudicial to 
agriculture1 whose northern origin      
appears to be established1 may  have    
been carried by the same powerful agent 
from ,finland1 ,sweden and  ,norway1    
into those countries1 at a time when the
 plains of northern  ,germany1 with the 
other flat districts along the shores of
 the  ,baltic1 were still covered by the
 waves of the ocean4    ,in the         
formation of transported soil1 water    
usually exerts a great  degree of power4
 ,by means of it1 not only are vast     
masses transported  to the greatest     
distances1 but their parts are at the   
same time  crumbled down and mingled    
together4 ,to these operations are to be
  attributed the various terminations of

 different soils at horizontal          
distances1 as well as the different     
alternations of their strata at         
vertical ones4 ,the power of water in   
the formation of transported  soil      
varies1 not only according to the       
different inclinations of its  channel1 
but also in regard to the form1 size1   
and weight of the  parts carried off by 
it2 for which reason1 in the formation  
of such  soils1 the same phenomena take 
place on a large scale1 that we see  on 
a smaller1 in performing the operations 
of breaking and washing  the ores of    
metals4 ,for the same reason that1 in   
these processes1  the larger particles  
subside1 while the smaller are          
propelled1 from  which again the heavier
 particles of ore are sooner deposited  
than  the lighter2 in plains in the     
vicinity of a mountain1 covered with    
transported soil1 stones and debris are 
usually seen first1 then  earth1 clay1  
and sand mixed together1 and farther on1
 finer sand1  with strata of clay4      

,transported or secondary soil1 produced
 by water1 according to the  mode of its
 formation1 is divided into four        
classes1 viz4--#a4 ,soil of  ,valleys2  
#b4 ,river ,soil2 #c4 ,lake ,soil2 #d4  
,marine ,soil4    #a4 ,soil of          
,valleys4--,it is washed down by rain   
and snow water1  and partly also        
produced by rivulets1 which carry off   
the loose  parts from the declivities of
 mountains to the plains4 ,the nature of
  this soil in general clearly shews the
 nearness of its origin4 ,its  depth is 
always greatest in the bottom of the    
valley1 and gradually  diminishes toward
 the declivities of the mountains4 ,the 
curvature  of the different strata is   
usually accommodated to the irregularity
  of its external form1 so that when a  
section is made of them1 they  exhibit a
 series of parallel curved lines4    #b4
 ,river ,soil1 or the soil found in the 
beds and banks of rivers1  and which is 
produced by the continual propelling    
power of large  rivers4 ,to this class  

belong two different kinds2 #ast1 ,soil 
containing pebbles of various sizes1    
produced by the power of  torrents in   
the vicinity of mountains2 and1 #b;d1   
,earth or mud1  deposited in the beds of
 rivers1 in places at a distance from   
mountains4 ,a peculiarity of river soil 
in general is1 that it is much  extended
 in length1 while its breadth is        
comparatively but small4  ,the different
 layers have neither so much            
irregularity as in the  preceding kind1 
nor are they so precise in arrangement  
as in the  following4    #c4 ,lake      
,soil1 deposited at the bottom of still 
water4 ,to this class  is to be referred
 the soil in the bottoms of valleys1    
which had  formerly been lakes1 either  
separate or connected with rivers4 ,the 
horizontal dimensions of this kind of   
soil are often more or less  equal4     
,sometimes1 indeed1 the length is       
greater than the breadth2  not1 however1
 in the same degree as in soil deposited
 in the bed  of rivers4 ,the surface is 

usually plane1 and the different strata 
alternate in a parallel manner4    #d4  
,marine ,soil1 that is to say1 the mud  
of the ancient ocean4  ,it is the       
greatest of all in its extent1 both in a
 horizontal and  a vertical direction4  
,its surface is more or less undulated1 
very  seldom even4 ,its masses are both 
very thick and very uniform in          
composition4 ,different and alternating 
strata1 however1 do occur1  whose forms 
and dimensions are usually more or less 
regular1 and  which are not unfrequently
 undulated4    ,soil1 after being       
formed1 is acted upon by natural powers 
in various  ways4 ,the atmosphere is    
perpetually modifying it2 rivers1 waves1
 and  winds1 act here and there upon its
 surface1 and alter its external  form2 
water introduces into it the substances 
which it holds in  solution4 ,the       
different constituent parts of soil act 
upon each  other chemically1 and in this
 manner new decompositions and mixtures 
are produced2 and this chemical change  

is increased by the action  of          
vegetables1 as well as of bodies        
deriving their origin from both  organic
 kingdoms4    ,from what has been said  
of the relations existing between the   
masses of which the solid crust of the  
globe is composed1 and the  loose earth 
or soil by which it is covered1 it      
appears evident  enough 7,hausmann      
concludes7 that they have great         
influence over its  formation and       
nature1 and therefore upon the more     
perfect vegetables1  and especially     
those which are the objects of          
cultivation2 and  that although the     
fertility of the soil is much increased 
by these  vegetables themselves1 yet the
 first foundation of their vigour is    
derived from the disintegration and     
decomposition of rocks4 ,if this  be    
correct1 the constitution of the solid  
crust of the earth has a  much more     
extended influence4 ,for1 by preparing a
 habitation for the  greater and most   
important parts of plants1 it also      

exerts a high  degree of influence upon 
the animals which derive their          
sustenance  from them1 and1 at the same 
time1 affords the means of subsistence  
to  man#daf4      ,,note4    ,,account  
,,of ,,the ,,irish ,,elk1 ,,fossil      
,,elephant ,,or ,,mammoth1 ,,and ,,the  
,,mastodon4    ,as the ,irish ,elk1 the 
,fossil ,elephant or ,mammoth1 and the  
,mastodon1  are among the most          
remarkable of the fossil and extinct    
species of  quadrupeds mentioned in the 
preceding pages of this work1 we1 with  
the view of farther gratifying the      
curiosity of our readers1 now lay       
before them the following additional    
details from the writings of  ,cuvier1  
,goldfuss1 and others4      #a4 ,fossil 
,elk of ,ireland1 ,cervus megaceros#dag4
    7,noticed at p4 #bhf47    ,one of   
the most magnificent of the bisulcated  
animals met with in  a fossil state in  
the ,british ,islands is the ,elk of    
,ireland1 the  ,cervus megaceros4 ,bones
 and horns of vast size of this species 

are  almost daily dug out of the bogs   
and marl pits of ,ireland4 ,similar     
remains have been met with in alluvial  
strata in ,britain1 and also in  the    
,isle of ,man4    8,so frequently do    
these remains10 ,mr ,hart remarks1      
8occur in most  parts of ,ireland1 that 
there are very few of the peasantry who 
are  not1 either from personal          
observation or report1 acquainted with  
them by the familiar name of the horns  
of the #8old deer4' ,indeed in  some    
parts of the country they have been     
found so often1 that far  from being    
regarded as objects of any extraordinary
 interest1 they  have been either thrown
 aside as lumber1 or applied to the     
commonest  economical uses#dah4    8,i  
have made diligent but fruitless search 
for an account of the  particular time  
when any of these remains were first    
discovered4 ,as  they generally occur in
 marl1 it is most likely that they did  
not  begin to attract attention until   
the advanced state of agriculture  had  

created an increased demand for that    
mineral as a manure4 ,we can  very      
easily imagine the astonishment which   
the appearance of horns so  large1 and  
of such strange form1 must have excited 
in the minds of  those who discovered   
them for the first time1 and how readily
 they  obtained a place in the hall of  
some adjoining mansion1 where they  were
 deposited as an ornament of great      
curiosity1 from the contrast  which they
 formed with the horns of the species of
 deer known at  present4 ,in this way we
 may account for the preservation of so 
many  specimens as are found in the     
possession of the gentry in different   
parts of this country4    8,very lately 
an entire skeleton of the ,irish ,elk   
was dug up in that  country4 ,the       
following statement of the circumstances
 under which  the bones were found1 with
 their geological position1 was laid    
before  the ,dublin ,society1 in a      
letter from ,archdean ,maunsell to the  
,right  ,hon4 ,george ,knox4            

8,middleton ,lodge1 ,march #h4 #ahbe4   
8,,my ,,dear ,,sir1      8,i deferred   
replying to your letter of the #ast1 as 
it was my    intention to proceed to    
,limerick in a few days1 and ,i was     
anxious    to look over some notes ,i   
had taken1 and which ,i left there1 of  
the circumstances connected with the    
discovery of the fossil    remains which
 the ,royal ,dublin ,society have       
received4 ,as ,i have1    however1 been 
obliged to postpone my departure for    
several days1    ,i can no longer defer 
offering my best thanks for the kind    
manner    in which you have received the
 conjectures which ,i formed upon a     
subject to which my attention was       
directed1 by having fortunately    been 
present before the bones were disturbed 
from the situation in    which they had 
lain during a period which ,i apprehend 
it would not    be easy to define4 ,i am
 sensible that any consideration which  
may    have been attached to my         
observations should be attributed to the

    interest which the subject itself is
 calculated to excite1 rather    than to
 any ability of mine to do it justice4  
,the opinion which    ,i took the       
liberty of communicating to you was     
formed after some    consideration1 and 
although ,i had not the most remote idea
 of its    being worthy of any          
attention1 ,i can have no objection to  
your    making any use of it which you  
may conceive expedient4 ,there is1 ,i   
conceive1 much interesting material for 
speculation1 resulting from    the      
discovery of these fossil remains1 and  
the first that naturally    occurs is   
the manner in which the animals were    
destroyed1 and    the bones so          
singularly preserved4 ,i stated1 in the 
hasty sketch    which ,i gave you of my 
theory upon this point1 that ,i         
apprehended    they must have been      
destroyed by some overwhelming deluge1  
that    they were probably drowned upon 
the hills where they had taken          
refuge1 as the waters rose1 and that1 as

 they subsided1 they were    drawn from 
thence into the valley in which they    
were found2 that    the agitation of the
 waters had occasioned such a dispersion
 of    the bones1 when the ligaments    
dissolved1 as would account for    their
 having been scattered in the way in    
which they were found1    and that the  
deposite of shell marl1 with which ,i   
supposed the    water to have been      
turbid1 had so completely protected them
 from    atmospheric influence as to    
prevent their subsequent decomposition4 
,to enable you to form some estimate of 
the reasonableness of this              
supposition1 it is necessary that ,i    
should endeavour to explain the         
situation1 c4 of the valley and the     
adjoining hills4 ,the valley    in which
 the remains were found contains about  
twenty plantation    acres1 and the soil
 consists of a stratum of peat about a  
foot    thick1 immediately under this a 
stratum of shell-marl1 varying    from  
#a to #b feet in thickness2 in this many

 of the shells retain    their original 
colour and figure1 and are not marine2  
under the    marl there is a bed of     
light blue clay2 through this one of my 
workmen drove an iron rod1 in several   
places1 twelve feet deep1    without    
meeting opposition4 ,most of the bones  
and heads1 eight in    number1 were     
found in the marl2 many of them1        
however1 appeared to    rest on the     
clay1 and to be merely covered by the   
marl4 ,the remains    were disposed in  
such a manner as to prevent the         
possibility of    ascertaining the exact
 component parts of each skeleton2 in   
some    places portions were found      
removed many yards from others1 and in  
no instance were two bones found lying  
close to each other4 ,their    position 
also was singular2 in one place two     
heads were found1 with    the antlers   
entwined in each other1 and immediately 
under them a    large blade-bone2 in    
another1 a very large head was          
discovered1 and    although a most      

diligent search was made1 no part of the
 skeleton    found2 within some hundred 
yards1 in another1 the jaw-bones were   
found1 and not the head4 ,the conclusion
 which1 ,i conceive1 may    fairly be   
deduced from such a position of the     
various parts of    the animals is1 that
 there must have been some powerful     
agent    employed in dispersing them    
after their death2 and as ,i consider   
it impossible that their own gravity    
could have been sufficient to    sink   
them through the various strata1 ,i     
conceive these must have    originated  
subsequently to the dispersion of the   
bones4 ,i also    think1 that1 if they  
had been exposed for any time to        
atmospheric    influence1 they never    
could have been preserved in their      
present    extraordinary perfection4    
8,the hills immediately adjoining this  
valley are composed of    limestone1    
with a covering of rich mould of various
 degrees of    thickness4 ,one of them1 
whose base is about thirty acres1 rises 

directly from the edge of the valley1   
with sides very precipitous1    and in  
one place perfectly perpendicular1 of   
naked limestone4 ,in    every part of   
this hill the superficies comprises as  
much stone as    mould2 on the side     
nearly opposite1 the hill is equally    
high1 but    the sides not so steep1 and
 the covering of mould thicker2 on the  
other sides the ground only rises in    
some degree 7twenty or thirty    feet   
perhaps71 and consists of a thin mould1 
and immediately under    a very hard    
limestone gravel4 ,indeed1 except where 
limestone    forms the substratum1 this 
is the character of all the soil in the 
vicinity except the ,corkasses1 which   
are evidently alluvial4 ,i am    fully  
aware1 that1 assuming the destruction of
 the animals to have    been occasioned 
by a flood1 they would naturally have   
retreated    from the water to the      
hills1 and that1 as they probably met   
their    fate there1 their remains      
should have been discovered on the      

summit    of the hills1 and not in the  
valley1 particularly as one of them     
is perfectly flat on the top1 which     
contains six or seven acres4 ,i         
apprehend that the remains of many of   
them were deposited on the    tops of   
the hills2 but as they have now only a  
slight covering    of mould1 not        
sufficient to cover a small dog1 they   
were formerly    perfectly bare2 and as 
they were thus devoid of the means of   
protecting the remains from the         
atmosphere1 whatever was left there     
soon became decomposed1 and resolved    
into portions of the mould1    which is 
now to be found on the hills4 ,this     
remark ,i conceive also    to be        
applicable to the soil with the         
substratum of limestone    gravel1 which
 affords quite as little material for   
preserving the    bones as the hills do4
      8,it is material that ,i should   
observe1 that of eight heads which    we
 found1 none were without antlers2 the  
variety in character also    was such as

 to induce me to imagine1 that possibly 
the females were    not devoid of these 
appendages4 ,unfortunately1 however1    
from the    difficulty of raising them1 
being saturated with water1 and as soft 
as wet brown paper1 only three were at  
all perfect4      8,having now disposed 
of these antediluvians1 a question      
naturally    arises1 how it happens that
 the fossil remains of no other animals 
were found1 when the same fate probably 
overwhelmed every existing    creature8 
,could deer have been the only living   
beings at that    period8 ,was ,ireland 
part of a great continent when this     
catastrophe    occurred1 and were these 
unfortunates the first emigrants to our 
,isle from that great centre from whence
 the globe was supplied with            
occupants1 and did they perish before   
other animals less influenced    by     
enterprise1 and less endowed with       
physical strength1 could have           
followed their example8 ,these problems 
,i confess myself unable to    solve1   

and shall not presume to obtrude my many
 reveries upon this    and other points1
 which have originated in the discovery 
of a few    bones1 upon those who ,i    
know are so much better competent to    
form a    sound opinion4 ,i shall1 ,i   
hope1 be able to send the antlers1 which
    are very fine1 on the #aeth of this 
month4      8,if you have a desire to   
make any use of this letter1 ,i can only
    say ,i have no objection4 ,i remain1
 dear ,sir1 with feelings of great      
respect1          8,yours most truly1   
8,,william ,w4 ,,maunsell40    ,of this 
skeleton1 the most perfect hitherto     
found1 the following  interesting       
description is given by ,mr ,hart1 in   
his memoir4      8,this magnificent     
skeleton is perfect in every single bone
 of the    framework which contributes  
to form a part of its general outline3  
the spine1 the chest1 the pelvis1 and   
the extremities1 are all    complete in 
this respect2 and1 when surmounted by   
the head1 and    beautifully expanded   

antlers1 which extend out to a distance 
of    nearly six feet on either side1   
forms a splendid display of the         
reliques of the former grandeur of the  
animal kingdom1 and carries    back the 
imagination to a period when whole herds
 of this noble    animal wandered at    
large over the face of the country4     
,to proceed with a description of the   
several parts of this specimen    in    
detail1 ,i shall commence with the      
horns1 which give the animal    its     
chief characteristic feature4      ,the 
horns4--,that the description of these  
may be the more    intelligible1 ,i will
 first explain the terms which ,i mean  
to apply    to their several parts4     
,each horn consists of the socket or    
root1    the burr or coronary circle1   
the beam or shaft1 the palm and the     
antlers4      ,the socket or root is the
 part of the horn which grows out of    
the frontal bone1 and which is never    
shed2 it is smooth1 of a    brown       
colour1 an inch and half in length1 and 

eleven inches three    quarters in      
circumference2 in the animal's lifetime 
it was covered    by the skin4 ,the     
coronary or bead-like circle1 or burr1  
is a ring    of small1 hard1 whitish    
prominences1 resembling a string of     
pearls1    which encircles the junction 
of the socket with the part of the      
horn which falls annually from the heads
 of all deer4      ,the beam or shaft   
extends outwards1 with a curvature whose
    concavity looks downwards1 and      
backwards4 ,this part is nearly         
cylindrical at its root1 and its length 
equals about one-fourth of    that of   
the whole horn2 its outer end is spread 
out and flattened    on its upper       
surface1 and is continuous with the     
palm1 which    expands outwards in a    
fan-like form1 the outer extremity of   
which    measures two feet ten inches   
across1 being its broadest part4        
,where the beam joins the palm the horn 
undergoes a kind of twist1    the effect
 of which on the palm is1 to place its  

edges above and    below1 and its       
surfaces anterior and posterior2 the    
anterior    surface is convex1 and looks
 outwards2 the posterior is concave1    
and its surface looks towards that of   
the opposite palm4 ,such is    the      
position of the horns1 when the head is 
so placed that the    zygomatic arch is 
parallel to the horizon1 as it would be 
during    progression1 or whilst the    
animal stands in an easy posture4       
,the antlers are the long pointed       
processes which project from    the     
horns1 two of which grow from the beam  
anteriorly2 the first    comes off      
immediately from the root1 and is       
directed downwards1    overhanging the  
orbit2 this is called the brow antler1  
which1 in    this specimen1 is divided  
into two points at its extremity#dai4   
,the other antler1 which comes off from 
the beam1 we may call the    sur-antler3
 in this specimen it consists of a broad
 plate or palm1    concave on its upper 
surface1 horizontal in its direction1   

and    forked into two points           
anteriorly1--an appearance which ,i have
 not    observed in any other specimen  
of upwards of forty which ,i have       
seen1 nor do ,i find it marked in any of
 the plates of those bones    extant4   
,there is one antler given off          
posteriorly from the junction of the    
beam with the palm3 it runs directly    
backwards parallel to the               
corresponding one of the opposite horn4 
,the inferior edge of the    palm beyond
 this runs outwards and backwards3 it is
 obtuse and    thick1 and its length is 
two feet six inches4 ,from the anterior 
and external borders of each palm there 
come off six long pointed    antlers4   
,none of these are designated by any    
particular name4 ,the    number of the  
antlers of both sides taken together is 
twenty-two4      ,the surface of the    
horns is of a lightish colour1          
resembling that    of the marl in which 
they were found2 they are rough1 and    
marked    with several arborescent      

grooves1 where the ramifications of the 
arteries by which they had been         
nourished during their growing    state 
were lodged4 ,the horns1 with the head  
attached1 weighed    eighty-seven pounds
 avoirdupois4 ,the distance between     
their extreme    tips in a right line is
 nine feet two inches4      ,head4--,the
 forehead is marked by a raised ridge   
extended between    the roots of the    
horns2 anterior to this1 between the    
orbits and    the root of the nose1 the 
skull is flat2 there is a depression on 
each side in front of the root of the   
horn and over the orbit1    capable of  
lodging the last joint of the thumb1 at 
the bottom of    which is the           
superciliary hole1 large enough to give 
passage to    an artery proportioned to 
the size of the horns4 ,inferior to the 
orbit we have the lachrymatory fossa1   
and the opening left by the             
deficiency of bone common to all deer1  
and remarkable for being    smaller in  
this than in any other species4         

,below the orbits the skull grows       
suddenly narrower1 and the upper        
parts of the nasal bones become         
contracted by a depression on    either 
side1 at the lower part of which is the 
infra-orbitar hole4    ,the opening of  
the nares is oval1 being five inches    
long by three    broad1 the greatest    
breadth being in the centre4 ,from the  
roots of    the horns to the occipital  
spine measures three inches and an half2
    the occiput descends at a right     
angle with this1 being three inches     
deep to the foramen magnum3 the greatest
 breadth of the occiput is    eight     
inches4 ,the temporal foss approach to  
within two inches of    each other      
behind the horns4      ,teeth4--,they do
 not differ from those of animals of the
    ruminating class4 ,the incisors were
 not found1 having dropped out2    there
 is no mark of canine teeth2 the molares
 are not much worn    down1 and are     
twenty-four in number4      ,the        
skeleton measures1 from the end of the  

nose to the tip of    the tail1 ten feet
 ten inches4 ,the spine consists of     
twenty-six    vertebr1 viz4 seven       
cervical1 thirteen dorsal1 and six      
lumbar4 ,the    size of the cervical    
vertebr greatly exceeds that of the     
other    classes1 and the spines of the 
dorsal rise to a foot in height4 ,the   
necessity of these bones being so marked
 is obvious1 considering    the strong  
cervical ligament1 and powerful muscles1
 required for    supporting and moving a
 head which1 at a moderate calculation1 
must    have sustained a weight of three
 quarters of a hundred of solid    bony 
matter4      ,the extremities are in    
proportion to the different parts of the
    trunk1 and present a conformation   
favourable to a combination of    great 
strength with fleetness4      ,it is not
 the least remarkable circumstance      
connected with these    bones1 that they
 are in such a high state of            
preservation as to    present all the   
lines and impressions of the parts which

 had been    attached to them in the    
recent state4 ,indeed1 if we examine    
them    as compared with the bones of an
 animal from which all the softer       
parts have been separated by maceration1
 the only perceptible    differences in 
their physical properties are1 that they
 are a    little heavier1 a degree      
harder1 that their surface is brown1 and
    that they all1 with the exception of
 the horns1 present a polished          
appearance1 which is owing to the       
periosteum having been preserved1    and
 still remaining to cover them1 as was  
discovered when they were    chemically 
examined4      ,the existence of fat or 
adipocire in the shaft of one of the    
bones mentioned by ,archdeacon          
,maunsell1 and which ,i saw in his      
possession1 is a thing for which it is  
extremely difficult to    account1 as it
 occurred but in one solitary instance1 
and it did    not appear that this bone 
was at all differently circumstanced    
from    the rest4 ,those which ,i had an

 opportunity of examining1 by boring    
holes in them1 were hollow1 and         
contained1 for the most part1 only    a 
small quantity of black animal earth4   
,mr ,stokes found1 in a rib of this     
animal1        ,animal matter1          
#db4hg    ,phosphates with some         
,fluates1   #dc4de    ,carb41 ,lime     
#i4ad    ,oxides1                       
#a4jb    ,silica1                       
#a4ad    ,water and loss1               
#b4ch                                   
------                                  
#ajj4jj      ,dr ,apjohn of ,dublin made
 the following observations with regard 
to    the animal matter in the bones3   
#8,the bone was subjected for two days  
to the action of dilute    muriatic     
acid4 ,when examined at the end of this 
period1 it had    become as flexible as 
a recent bone submitted to the action of
    the same solvent4 ,the periosteum   
was in some parts puffed out by         
carbonic acid gas1 disengaged from the  
bone1 and appeared to be in    a state  

of perfect soundness4      #8,to a      
portion of the solution of the bone in  
the muriatic acid some    infusion of   
galls was added1 which caused a copious 
precipitate of    a dun colour4 ,this   
proved to be tannate of gelatine1 mixed 
with a    small portion of the tannate  
and gallate of iron4      #8,the        
cartilage and gelatine1 therefore1 so   
far from being    destroyed1 had not    
been perceptibly altered by time4'0     
,until ,baron ,cuvier published his     
account of these remains#dbj1 they  were
 generally believed to have belonged to 
the same species as the  moose deer or  
elk of ,north ,america1 an opinion which
 appears to have  been first advanced by
 ,dr ,thomas ,molyneux in #afigdba1 and 
which  depends principally on the       
exaggerated description of that animal  
given by ,josselyn in his account of two
 voyages to ,new ,england1  published in
 #afgd1 in which he states that it is   
sometimes twelve  feet high1 with horns 
of two fathoms wide6 ,this was the more 

readily  believed by the learned        
,doctor1 as it tended to confirm him in 
a  favourite theory which he seems to   
have entertained1 that ,ireland had     
once been joined to the ,new ,continent4
    ,but the assertions of ,josselyn    
regarding the size of the ,american     
moose have not been confirmed by the    
testimony of later travellers1  from    
whose observations it is now clearly    
ascertained that the only  large species
 of deer inhabiting the northern parts  
of ,america are  the wapiti or ,canadian
 stag 7,cervus canadensis71 the         
rein-deer 7,c4  ,tarandus71 and the     
moose or elk 7,c4 ,alces74    ,the      
peculiar branching of the brow antlers  
of the rein-deer1 and  the rounded horns
 of the wapiti#dbb1 are characters      
sufficient  to prevent us confounding   
either of these animals with the fossil 
species4    ,the palmate form of the    
horns of the elk gave greater           
probability to  the opinion of its      
specific identity with the fossil       

animal4    ,a little attention1 however1
 to a few circumstances1 will shew a    
most  marked difference between them4   
,first1 as to size1 the difference is   
very remarkable1 it not being  uncommon 
to find the fossil horns ten feet       
between the extreme  tips#dbc1 while the
 largest elk's horns never measure four 
feet4  ,this measurement in a pair in   
the ,museum of the ,royal ,dublin       
,society1  is three feet seven inches3  
the largest pair seen by ,pennant in the
  house of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company1 
measured thirty-four inches#dbd4    ,the
 horn of the elk has two palms1 a lesser
 one which grows forward  from the front
 of the beam1 where the principal palm  
begins to  expand4 ,this is called brow 
antler by ,cuvier1 but it corresponds in
  situation rather to the sur-antler1   
there being1 properly speaking1  no brow
 antler attached to the root of the     
beam4 ,the elk has no  posterior antler 
similar to that of the fossil animal1   
nor does its  beam take a similar arched

 direction1 but runs more directly      
outwards4    ,cuvier remarks1 that the  
palm of the fossil horn increases in    
breadth  as it extends outwardly1 while 
that of the elk is broadest next the    
beam4    ,the palm of the elk's horn is 
directed more backwards1 while the      
fossil one extends more in the lateral  
direction4 ,the antlers of the  elk are 
shorter and more numerous than those of 
the fossil animals4    ,as the horns of 
the fossil animal exceed in size those  
of the elk1  so1 on the contrary1 does  
the skull of the latter exceed in size  
that of the former2 the largest heads of
 the fossil species not  exceeding one  
foot nine inches in length1 while the   
head of the elk  is frequently two feet4
 ,the fossil head is broader in         
proportion2  its length being to its    
breadth as two to one2 in the elk they  
are  as three to one1 according to      
,parkinson4#dbe ,the breadth of the     
skull between the roots of the horns is 
but four inches in the fossil  skulls2  

in that of the elk in the ,society's    
,museum it is #f inches4    ,cuvier     
thinks it probable that the females of  
the fossil species had  horns#dbf1 an   
opinion to which ,i am very much        
disposed to subscribe1  from having     
observed that these parts present       
differences in size and  strength1 which
 appear not to be dependent on          
differences of age4  ,for instance1 the 
teeth of the specimen in ,trinity       
,college are much  more worn down1 and  
the sutures of the skull are more       
effaced than  in the specimen described 
in this paper2 yet the horns of the     
latter  are much more concave1 and more 
expanded1 than those of the former2  and
 on comparing a single horn of each of  
these specimens together1  that         
belonging to the ,society exceeds the   
other by nearly a sixth  in the length1 
and little less than a third in the     
breadth2 it is  not1 therefore1 unlikely
 that the animal whose horns were larger
 and  more curved was a male4 ,something

 similar to this is observed in the     
rein-deer1 both sexes of which have     
horns1 but with this difference1  that  
they are smaller and less branched in   
the female4 ,hence we find  that this   
animal possessed characters of its own  
sufficient to prove  it of a species as 
distinct from the moose or elk as this  
latter  species is from the rein-deer or
 any other4 ,therefore1 it is improper  
to retain the name of elk or moose deer 
any longer3 perhaps it might  be better 
called the ,cervus megaceros1 a name    
merely expressive of  the great size of 
its horns4    ,that this animal shed its
 head furniture periodically1 is proved 
by the occasional occurrence of detached
 horns having the smooth  convex surface
 below the burr1 similar to what is     
observed on the  cast horns of all deer4
 ,specimens of this are to be seen in   
the  ,museum of ,trinity ,college1 and  
,i possess one myself1 of which ,i have 
had a drawing made4 ,as every other     
species of deer shed their horns        

annually1 there is no reason for        
supposing that that process occurred  at
 longer intervals in this4    ,it is a  
popular opinion with the ,indians that  
the elk is subject to  epilepsy1 with   
which he is frequently seized when      
pursued1 and thus  rendered an easy prey
 to the hunters4 ,many naturalists      
affect to  disbelieve this account1     
without1 however1 assigning any         
sufficient  reason4 ,but if it be       
considered1 that1 during the growth of  
the  horns1 there must be a great       
increased determination of blood to     
those parts1 which are supplied by the  
frontal artery1 a branch from  the      
internal carotid1 it is quite           
conformable to well established         
pathological principles1 to suppose1    
that1 after the horns are  perfected1   
and have ceased to receive any more     
blood1 that fluid may  be determined to 
those internal branches of the carotid  
which supply  the brain1 and establish a
 predisposition to such derangements of 

its circulation as would produce        
epilepsy1 or even apoplexy3 if such  an 
effect were produced in consequence of  
the size of the horns in  the elk1 it is
 reasonable to suppose that it prevailed
 in a greater  degree in the fossil     
animal whose horns were so much larger4 
,what could have been the use of these  
immense horns8 ,it is quite  evident    
that they would prevent the animal      
making any progress  through a thickly  
wooded country1 and that the long1      
tapering1  pointed antlers were totally 
unfit for lopping off the branches of   
trees1 a use to which the elk sometimes 
applies his horns#dbg1 and  for which   
they seem well calculated1 by having    
their antlers short  and strong1 and set
 along the edge of the palm1 somewhat   
resembling  the teeth of a saw in their 
arrangement4 ,it would rather appear1   
then1 that they were given the animal as
 weapons for its protection1  a purpose 
for which they seem to have been        
admirably designed2 for  their lateral  

expansion is such1 that should occasion 
require the  animal to use them in his  
defence1 their extreme tips would easily
  reach beyond the remotest parts of his
 body2 and if we consider the  powerful 
muscles for moving the head1 whose      
attachments occupied  the extensive     
surfaces of the cervical vertebr1 with  
the length of  the lever afforded by the
 horns themselves1 we can easily        
conceive  how he could wield them with a
 force and velocity which would deal    
destruction to any enemy having the     
hardihood to venture within their       
range4    ,from the formidable          
appearance of these horns1 then1 we must
 suppose  that their possessor was      
obnoxious to the aggressions of some    
carnivorous animals of ferocious habits2
 and such we know to have  abounded in  
,ireland1 as the wolf1 and the          
celebrated ,irish wolf dog4  ,nor would 
it be surprising if limestone caves     
should be discovered  in this country1  
containing the remains of beasts of prey

 and their  victims1 similar to the     
hynas' dens of ,kirkdale1 and other     
places1  respecting which such          
interesting researches have been lately 
laid  before the public by the          
geologists of this country and the      
,continent4    ,the absence of all      
record1 or even tradition1 respecting   
this  animal#dbh1 naturally leads one to
 inquire whether man inhabited  this    
country during its existence8 ,i think  
there is presumptive  evidence in the   
affirmative of this question1 afforded  
by the  following circumstances4 ,a head
 of this animal described by ,professor 
,goldfuss of ,bonn1 was discovered in   
,germany in the same drain with  several
 urns and stone hatchets2 and in the    
#gth volume of the  ,archologia         
,britannica1 is a letter of the         
,countess of ,moira1 giving  an account 
of a human body found in gravel1 under  
eleven feet of peat  soaked in the bog  
water3 it was in good preservation1 and 
completely  clothed in antique garments 

of hair1 which her ladyship thinks might
  have been that of our fossil animal4  
,but more conclusive evidence  on this  
question is derived from the appearance 
exhibited by a rib1  presented by       
,archdeacon ,maunsell to the ,royal     
,dublin ,society1 in  which ,i          
discovered an oval opening near its     
lower edge1 the long  diameter of which 
is parallel to the length of the rib1   
its margin  is depressed on the outer1  
and raised on the inner surface1 round  
which there is an irregular effusion of 
callus4 ,this opening had  been         
evidently produced by a sharp pointed   
instrument1 which did not  penetrate so 
deep as to cause the animal's death1 but
 which remained  fixed in the opening   
for some length of time afterward2 in   
fact it  was such an effect as would be 
produced by the head of an arrow        
remaining in a wound after the shaft was
 broken off#dbi4    ,it is not          
improbable1 therefore1 that the chace of
 this gigantic  animal once supplied the

 inhabitants of this country with food  
and  clothing4    ,as to the causes     
which led to the extinction of this     
animal1 whether  it was suddenly        
destroyed by the deluge1 or by some     
other great  catastrophe of nature1 or  
whether it was ultimately exterminated  
by the continued and successful         
persecution of its pursuers1 as  has    
nearly been the case with the red deer  
within the recollection  of many of the 
present generation1 ,i profess myself   
unable to form  any decided opinion1    
owing to the limited number of facts as 
yet  collected on the subject4 ,on some 
future occasion ,i may1 perhaps1  be    
induced to revert to so interesting a   
topic1 should ,i have  opportunities of 
discovering any thing worthy of         
communication4      ,the following      
,table exhibits a comparative view of   
the measurements  of different parts of 
the skeletons of the ,cervus ,megaceros 
in  the ,museum of the ,royal ,dublin   
,society1 and in the ,royal ,museum  of 

the ,university of ,edinburgh1 with some
 parts of the ,moose4 ,the  measurements
 of the ,edinburgh specimen are taken   
from ,professor  ,jameson's memoir on   
organic remains1 in the ,supplement to  
the  ,encyclopedia ,britannica4         
,r4 ,d4 ,soc4 ,u4 of ,edin4 ,moose      
,,head4                           ,ft4  
,in4    ,ft4 ,in4    ,ft4 ,in4          
,length of the head1              #a    
#h     #a   #h       ,breadth of the    
skull between                           
the orbits4                    #j  #aj  
#j   #i        ,do4 of skull at the     
occiput1     #j   #h                    
,diameter of the orbit1           #j    
#b     #j   #b       ,distance between  
infra orbitar                           
holes across the skull1        #j   #g  
,length of alveolar processes           
of the upper jaw1              #j   #f  
#j   #f        ,length of lower jaw1    
#a   #e     #j   #c       ,diam4 of     
foramen magnum1         #j   #b         
,,horns4                                

,distance between the extreme           
tips1 measured by the skull1  #aa  #aj  
,ditto1 in a straight line              
across1                        #i   #b  
#f   #h      #c   #g    ,length of each 
horn1             #e   #i      #e   #a  
,greatest breadth of the palm1    #b    
#aj                   ,length of the    
beam1              #a   #i              
#j   #f    ,ditto of brow antler1       
#j   #h                  ,ditto of      
sur-antler1             #a   #d         
,circumference of the beam              
at root of brow antler1        #a   #j  
#j   #g                                 
,,body4                                 
,length of spine1                #aj    
#aj      #i   #h        ,ditto of       
sternum1                #b   #d         
,height to the upper extremity          
of the dorsal spines1          #f   #f  
,ditto to the highest point             
of the tip of the horn1       #aj   #d  
,,extremities4                          
,greatest length of the scapula1  #a    

#f                  ,ditto breadth at   
the base1       #j  #aj                 
,ditto depth of its spine1        #j    
#b                  ,length of the      
humerus1           #a   #d      #a   #c 
,ditto of ulna and radius1        #a    
#h      #a   #f        ,ditto of carpus1
                 #j   #b     #j   #b    
,circumference of do41            #j    
#i                  ,length of          
metacarpus1            #a   #j     #a   
#j       ,length of phalanges1          
#j   #g      #j   #f       ,from        
anterior superior spine                 
of one ileum to that of                 
the other1                     #a   #d  
#a   #f       ,from anterior superior   
spine                               to  
the tuber ischii1           #a   #h     
#a   #i       ,greatest diameter of     
foramen ovale1                 #j   #d  
#j   #c        ,least do4 of do41       
#j   #b     #j   #b       ,length of the
 femur1             #a   #f     #a   #e 
,ditto of tibia1                  #a    

#f      #a   #f        ,length of the   
tarsus1                                 
including the os calcis1       #j   #h  
,ditto of the metatarsus1         #a    
#a     #a   #a         #b4 ,account of  
the ,two ,living ,species of ,elephant1 
and of the ,extinct  ,species of        
,elephant1 or ,mammoth4    #a4 ,,elephas
 ,,africanus4--,the ,elephant with      
rounded skull1 large ears1  grinders1   
having rhomboidal-shaped marks on their 
crown1 which we  call the ,african      
,elephant 7,elephas ,africanus71 is a   
quadruped  which has hitherto been found
 only inhabiting ,africa4 ,there can  be
 no doubt that it is this species which 
lives at the ,cape1 at  ,senegal1 and in
 ,guinea2 there is reason to believe    
that it also  occurs at ,mosambique2 but
 it is not certain that individuals of  
the  following species do not occur in  
this part of ,africa4 ,a sufficient     
number of individuals have not been     
figured or compared1 to know if  this   
species presents remarkable varieties4  

,it is it that produces  the largest    
tusks4 ,both sexes are equally furnished
 with tusks1 at  least at ,senegal4 ,the
 natural number of the hoofs is four    
before1  and three behind4 ,the ear is  
very large1 and covers the shoulder4    
,the skin is of a deep and uniform      
brown4 ,this species has not been       
domesticated in modern times4 ,it       
appears1 however1 to have been tamed  by
 the ancients1 who attributed to it less
 power and courage in  that state than  
to the following species2 but their     
observations do  not appear to have been
 confirmed1 at least in so far as refers
 to  magnitude4 ,its natural manners are
 not perfectly known2 yet judging  of   
them by the notices of travellers1 they 
appear to resemble in  every thing      
essential those of the following        
species4    #b4 ,,elephas               
,,indicus4--,the ,elephant with         
elongated skull1 concave  forehead1     
small ears1 grinders marked with        
undulating bands1 which  we call the    

,indian ,elephant 7,elephas ,indicus71  
is a quadruped  which has only been     
observed with certainty beyond the      
,indus4 ,it  extends from both sides of 
the ,ganges to the ,eastern ,sea and the
  south of ,china4 ,they are also found 
in the ,islands of the ,indian ,sea1  in
 ,ceylon1 ,java1 ,borneo1 ,sumatra1 c4  
,there is still no authentic  proof that
 it exists in any part of ,africa1      
although neither is the  contrary       
absolutely proved4 ,the inhabitants of  
,india having from  time immemorial been
 in the habit of taking this species and
 taming  it1 it has been much better    
observed than the other4 ,varieties have
  been remarked as to size1 lightness of
 form1 the length and direction  of the 
tusks1 and the colours of the skin4 ,the
 females and some of  the males have    
tusks which are always small and        
straight4 ,the tusks  of the other males
 never attain so great a length as in   
the ,african  species#dcj4 ,the natural 
number of the hoofs is five before and  

four behind4 ,the ear is small1         
frequently angular4 ,the skin is        
commonly grey1 spotted with brown4      
,there are individuals entirely  white4 
,the height varies from fifteen to      
sixteen feet4 ,its manners1  the mode of
 taking it1 and of treating it1 have    
been carefully  described by many       
travellers and naturalists1 from        
,aristotle down to  ,mr ,corse ,scott4  
#c4 ,,elephas ,,primigenius1 ,blum1 or  
,,mammoth4--,the ,elephant with         
elongated skull1 concave forehead1 very 
long alveol for the tusks1  the lower   
jaw obtuse1 the grinders broader1       
parallel1 marked with  closer bands1    
which we name the ,fossil ,elephant     
7,elephas  primigenius1 ,blum471 is the 
,mammoth of the ,russians4 ,its bones   
are only found in the fossil state4 ,no 
person has seen in a fresh  state bones 
resembling those by which this species  
is peculiarly  distinguished1 nor have  
the bones of the two preceding species  
been  seen in the fossil state4#dca ,its

 bones are found in great number  in    
many countries1 but in better           
preservation in the north than          
elsewhere4 ,it resembles the ,indian    
more than the ,african species4 ,it     
differs1 however1 from the former in the
 grinders1 in the form of  the lower    
jaw1 and many other bones1 but          
especially in the length  of the alveol 
and tusks4 ,this last character must    
have singularly  modified the figure and
 organisation of its proboscis1 and     
given it a  physiognomy much more       
different from that of the ,indian      
species1 than  might have been expected 
from the similarity of the rest of their
  bones4 ,it appears that its tusks were
 generally large1 frequently  more or   
less spirally arcuate1 and directed     
outwards4 ,there is no  proof that they 
differ much according to differences of 
sex or  race4 ,the size was not much    
greater than that to which the ,indian  
species may attain2 it appears to have  
been still clumsier in its  proportions4

 ,it is already manifest from its       
osseous remains1 that  it was a species 
differing more from the ,indian1 than   
the ass from  the horse1 and the jackal 
and isatis from the wolf and fox4 ,it is
 not  known what had been the size of   
its ears1 or the colour of its skin2    
but it is certain that1 at least1 some  
individuals bore two sorts  of hair1    
namely1 a red1 coarse1 tufted wool1 and 
stiff black hairs1  which1 upon the neck
 and along the dorsal spine1 became long
 enough  to form a sort of mane4 ,thus1 
not only is there nothing impossible  in
 its having been able to support a      
climate which would destroy the  ,indian
 species1 but it is even probable that  
it was so constituted  as to prefer cold
 climates4 ,its bones are generally     
found in the  alluvial and superficial  
strata of the earth1 and most commonly  
in  the deposits which fill up the      
bottom of valleys1 or which border  the 
beds of rivers4 ,they scarcely ever     
occur by themselves1 but are  confusedly

 mingled with bones of other quadrupeds 
of known genera1  such as rhinoceroses1 
oxen1 antelopes1 horses1 and frequently 
with  remains of marine animals1        
particularly conchiferous species1 some 
of  which have even been found adhering 
to them4 ,the positive testimony  of    
,pallas1 ,fortis1 and many others1 does 
not allow us to doubt that  this latter 
circumstance has frequently taken place1
 although it is  not always observed4   
,we ourselves have at this moment under 
our eyes  a portion of a jaw covered    
with millepores and small oysters4      
,the strata which cover the bones of    
elephants are not of very great         
thickness1 and they are scarcely ever of
 a rocky nature4 ,they are  seldom      
petrified1 and there are only one or two
 cases recorded in  which they were     
found imbedded in a shelly or other     
rock4 ,frequently  they are simply      
accompanied with our common fresh water 
shells4 ,the  resemblance1 in this      
latter respect1 as well as with regard  

to the  nature of the soil1 between the 
three places1 of which we have the  most
 detailed accounts1 viz4 ,tonna1        
,cantstadt1 and the ,forest  of ,bondi1 
is very remarkable4 ,every thing1       
therefore1 seems to  announce that the  
cause which has buried them1 is one of  
the most  recent of those that have     
contributed to change the surface of the
  globe4 ,it is nevertheless a physical 
and general cause2 the bones of  fossil 
elephants are so numerous1 and have been
 found in places so  desert and even    
uninhabitable1 that we cannot suppose   
that they had  been conducted there by  
man4 ,the strata which contain them and 
those  which are above them1 shew1 that 
this cause was aqueous1 or that it  was 
water that covered them2 and in many    
places these waters were  nearly the    
same as those of our present sea1 since 
they supported  animals nearly the same4
 ,but1 it was not by these waters that  
they  were transported to the places    
where they now are4 ,bones of this      

description have been found in almost   
every country that has been  examined by
 naturalists4 ,an irruption of the sea  
that might have  brought them from      
places which the ,indian elephant now   
inhabits1  could not have scattered them
 so far1 nor dispersed them so equably4 
,besides1 the inundation which buried   
them has not risen above the  great     
chains of mountains1 since the strata   
which it has deposited1  and which cover
 the bones1 are only found in plains of 
little  elevation4 ,it is not1          
therefore1 seen how the carcases of     
elephants  could have been transported  
into the north1 across the mountains of 
,thibet1 and the ,altaic and ,uralian   
chains4    ,further1 these bones are not
 rolled2 they retain their ridges and   
apophyses2 they have not been worn by   
friction4 ,very frequently the          
epiphyses of those which had not yet    
attained their full growth1 are  still  
attached to them1 although the slightest
 effort would suffice  to detach them4  

,the only alterations that are remarked1
 arise from  the decomposition which    
they have undergone during their abode  
in  the earth4 ,nor can it with more    
reason be represented that the  entire  
carcases had been violently transported4
 ,in this case1 the  bones would indeed 
have remained entire2 but they would    
also have  remained together1 and would 
not have been scattered4 ,the shells1   
millepores1 and other marine productions
 which are attached to some  of these   
bones1 prove besides that they had      
remained at least some  time stripped   
and separated at the bottom of the fluid
 which covered  them4 ,the elephants'   
bones had therefore already been in the 
places  in which they are found1 when   
the fluid covered them4 ,they were      
scattered about in the same manner as in
 our own country the bones  of horses   
and other animals that inhabit it may   
be1 and as the dead  bodies are spread  
in the fields4    ,every circumstance1  
therefore1 renders it extremely         

probable1 that  the elephants which have
 furnished the fossil bones1 dwelt and  
lived in the countries where their bones
 are at present found4 ,they  could     
only1 therefore1 have disappeared by a  
revolution1 which had  destroyed all the
 individuals then living1 or by a change
 of climate1  which prevented them from 
propagating4 ,but whatever this cause   
may  have been1 it must have been       
sudden4 ,the bones and ivory which are  
found in so perfect a state of          
preservation in the plains of ,siberia1 
are only so preserved by the cold which 
congeals them there1 or  which1 in      
general1 arrests the action of the      
elements upon them4 ,if  this cold had  
come on by degrees and slowly1 these    
bones1 and still  more the soft parts   
with which they are still sometimes     
invested1  would have had time to       
decompose1 like those which occur in    
warm and  temperate countries4 ,it would
 especially have been impossible that an
  entire carcase1 like that discovered  

by ,mr ,adams1 could have retained  its 
flesh and skin without corruption1 if it
 had not been immediately  enveloped by 
the ice which preserved it4 ,thus1 all  
the hypotheses of  a gradual cooling of 
the earth1 or of a slow variation1      
whether in  the inclination or in the   
position of the axis of the globe1 fall 
to  be rejected4    ,if the present     
elephants of ,india were the descendants
 of these  ancient elephants1 which have
 been preserved in that climate to  the 
present day1 from their being there     
placed beyond the reach  of the         
catastrophe which destroyed them in the 
others1 it would  be impossible to      
explain why their species has been      
destroyed in  ,america1 where remains   
are still found1 which prove that they  
had  formerly existed there4 ,the vast  
empire of ,mexico presented to them     
heights enough to escape from an        
inundation so little elevated as  that  
which we must suppose to have taken     
place1 and the climate there  is warmer 

than is requisite for their temperament4
    ,the various mastodons1 the         
hippopotamus and the fossil  rhinoceros 
lived in the same countries1 and in the 
same districts1  as the elephants1 since
 their bones are found in the same      
strata  and in the same state4 ,yet     
these animals very assuredly no longer  
exist4 ,every thing therefore1 ,cuvier  
maintains1 concurs to induce a  belief  
that the fossil elephant is1 like them1 
an extinct species1  although it        
resembles more than they one of the     
species at present  existing1 and that  
its extinction has been produced by a   
sudden  cause1 by the same great        
catastrophe which destroyed the species 
of  the same epoch4      #c4 ,on the    
,great ,mastodon1 or ,animal of the     
,ohio4    ,it appears that the ,great   
,mastodon or ,animal of the ,ohio1  was 
very like the elephant in its tusks and 
whole skeleton1 the  grinders excepted2 
that it very probably had a proboscis2  
that  its height did not exceed that of 

the elephant1 but that it was a  little 
more elongated1 and had limbs somewhat  
thicker1 with a more  slender belly4    
,notwithstanding all these points of    
resemblance1 the  peculiar structure of 
its grinders is sufficient to constitute
 it  of a different genus from the      
elephant4 ,it further appears1 that it  
fed much in the same manner as the      
hippopotamus and boar1 choosing  by     
preference the roots and other fleshy   
parts of vegetables2 that  this sort of 
food must have drawn it towards the soft
 and marshy  places2 that1 nevertheless1
 it was not formed for swimming1 and    
living often in the water like the      
hippopotamus1 but that it was a  true   
land animal4 ,its bones are much more   
common in ,north ,america  than any     
where else4 ,they are even perhaps      
exclusively confined to  that country4  
,they are better preserved1 and fresher1
 than any other  fossil bones known2    
and1 nevertheless1 there is not the     
slightest  proof1 the smallest authentic

 testimony1 calculated to impress a     
belief that either in ,america1 or any  
where else1 there is still any  living  
individual1 for the various accounts    
which we have from time  to time read in
 the journals respecting living         
mastodons1 which had  been observed in  
the forests or plains of that vast      
continent1 have  never been confirmed1  
and can only pass for fables4           
,,note    ,,on ,,the ,,caves ,,in       
,,which ,,bones ,,of ,,carnivorous      
,,animals ,,occur ,,in ,,great          
,,quantities4    ,the extraordinary     
accumulations of fossil bones in caves  
and caverns  in different districts1    
especially in those composed of         
limestone1  have for many years engaged 
the attention of inquirers2 and1 of     
late1 have afforded many interesting    
facts to the geologist and  zoologist4  
,in ,england1 as will appear from the   
following details1  many different      
fossil animals have been discovered in  
limestone  caves2 but hitherto the caves

 in ,scotland1 which will probably be   
found to contain interesting documents  
of an ancient population1 have  not been
 examined4 ,as the subject is a curious 
and interesting one1  we shall1 in the  
following pages1 principally from       
,cuvier's great  work1 lay before our   
readers a pretty full account of the    
different  caves1 especially those that 
afford bones of carnivorous animals4    
99       99       99       99       99  
,numerous caves1 brilliantly decorated  
with stalactites of every form1         
succeeding each other to a great depth  
in the interior of mountains1           
communicating together by openings so   
narrow as scarcely to allow a  man to   
enter them crawling1 and which are yet  
found strewed with an  enormous quantity
 of bones of large and small animals1   
are without  dispute among the most     
remarkable phenomena which the history  
of  fossil remains could present to the 
contemplation of the geologist1         
especially when we reflect that this    

phenomenon recurs in a great  number of 
places1 and over a very extended space  
of country4 ,these  caves have been the 
object of research of several           
naturalists1  some of whom have well    
described and figured the bones which   
they  contain2 and even before they were
 explored by the naturalist1 they  were 
celebrated among the common people1 who1
 according to their  custom1 added many 
imaginary prodigies to the natural      
wonders which  are really observed in   
them4 ,the bones which they contain were
 long1  under the name of fossil        
unicorn1 an important article of        
commerce  and materia medica1 on account
 of the powerful virtues which were     
attributed to them2 and it is probable  
that the desire of finding  these bones 
contributed much to the more accurate   
knowledge of these  caves1 and even to  
the discovery of several of them4       
,the most anciently celebrated is the   
cave of ,bauman1 situated in  the       
country of ,blankenburg1 which belongs  

to the ,duke of ,brunswick1  to the     
south of the city of that name1 to the  
east of ,elbingerode1  and to the north 
of the village of ,rubeland1 the nearest
 inhabited  place1 in a hill which forms
 one of the last declivities of the     
,hartz toward the east4 ,it has been    
described by many authors1 among  whom  
we shall particularly mention the great 
,leibnitz1 in his  ,protoga1 pl4 i4 p4  
#ig1 where he gives a map of it1        
borrowed from  the ,acta ,eruditorum    
#agjb1 p4 #cje4    ,its general         
direction is east and west1 but the     
entrance faces the  north4 ,it is very  
narrow1 although it is under a pretty   
large natural  vault4 ,the first cave is
 the largest4 ,from this to the second1 
one  must descend by another narrow     
passage1 at first by creeping1 and      
afterwards by a ladder4 ,the difference 
of level is #cj feet4 ,the  second cave 
is the richest in stalactite of all     
forms4 ,the passage  to the third cave  
is at first the most difficult of all1  

and we have  to climb with hands and    
feet2 but it afterwards enlarges1 and   
the  stalactites of its walls are those 
in which the imagination of the  curious
 has pretended to see the best          
characterized figures4 ,it has  two     
lateral dilatations1 of which the map of
 the ,acta ,eruditorum  makes the third 
and fourth caves4 ,at its extremity1 we 
have still to  ascend1 in order to      
arrive at the real third cave1 which    
forms a sort  of portal4 ,behrens says1 
in his ,hercynia curiosa1 that it cannot
  be reached1 because it would be       
necessary to descend more than #fj      
feet2 but the above mentioned map1 and  
the description of ,von der  ,hardt1    
which accompanies it1 describe this     
third cave under the name  of the       
,fifth1 and place beyond it a narrow    
passage1 terminated by two  small       
grottoes4 ,lastly1 ,silberschlag1 in his
 ,geogony1 adds1 that  one of these     
grottoes leads to a narrow passage1     
which1 descending  much1 leads under the

 other caves1 and terminates in a place 
filled  with water4 ,there are still    
many bones in these remote and little   
frequented parts4 ,most of those bones  
which are in collections from  this     
cave1 or which have been described1 are 
of the bear genus4    ,a second cave1   
nearly as celebrated as the former1 and 
very near1  is that which is named1     
after the unicorn1 ,enihornshle1 at the 
foot of the chateau of ,scharzfels1 in a
 part of the ,electorate  of ,hanover   
which is named the ,dutchy of           
,grubenhagen1 and nearly  upon the last 
southern declivity of the ,hartz4 ,it   
has also been  described by ,leibnitz1  
as well as by ,m4 ,deluc1 in his        
,letters  to the ,queen of ,england4    
,the entrance is #aj feet high1 and #g  
broad4  ,we descend vertically #ae feet 
into a sort of vestibule1 the roof of   
which lowers to such a degree1 that1 at 
the end of #fj feet1 we are  obliged to 
creep4 ,after a long passage1 we come to
 two other caves1  according to         

,leibnitz2 but ,behrens adds three or   
four1 and says1  that1 according to the 
country people1 we might penetrate      
nearly two  leagues4    ,bruckmann1 who 
gives a map of this cavern 7,epistol4   
,itin4 p4  #cd471 represents only five  
caves1 arranged nearly in a straight    
line1  and connected by extremely narrow
 passages4 ,the second is the richest   
in bones2 the third1 which is the most  
irregular1 has two small  lateral caves2
 the fifth is the smallest1 and contains
 a fountain4 ,of  the bones which have  
been taken from it1 some are in the     
possession  of ,m4 ,blumenbach and other
 naturalists2 and others have been      
figured  by ,leibnitz and ,mylius4 ,they
 belong to the bear1 hyena1 and tiger   
or lion genera4    ,the chain of the    
,hartz also presents some other caves of
 less  celebrity1 although of the same  
nature mentioned by ,behrens in his     
,hercynia curiosa1 namely1    ,the cave 
of ,hartzburg1 under the castle of the  
same name1 above  ,goslar to the south4 

,we do not know why ,bsching disputes   
its  existence4 ,it is true that        
,behrens cites ,j4 ,d4 ,horstius        
erroneously1  for having seen bones of  
various animals taken from it2 for      
,horstius  speaks only 7,obs4 ,anat4    
dec4 p4 #aj47 of the cave of            
,scharzfels4    ,the cave of            
,ufftrungen1 in the county of           
,stollberg1 to the south  of the castle 
of that name4 ,it is named in the       
country ,heim-knohle1  or ,hiding-hole4 
,behrens thinks that fossil bones might 
be found in  it4    ,another cave of the
 same neighbourhood1 is named           
,diebsloch1 ,thieves'  ,hole4 ,skulls   
have been found in it1 which were       
supposed to be human4    ,we shall not  
speak here of those caves of the ,hartz 
in which bones  have not been           
discovered4 ,and even those in which    
they have been  found1 are1 at the      
present day1 almost exhausted1 it being 
only by  breaking the stalactite that   
any can be obtained1 so much of them had

  been taken away for selling as        
medicines4    ,the caves of ,hungary    
come after those of the ,hartz1 with    
reference  to the remoteness of the time
 at which they have been known4 ,the    
first notice of them is due to ,paterson
 ,hayn1 7,ephem4 ,nat4  ,cur4 #afgb1    
,obs4 cxxxix4 and cxciv47 ,bruckmann1 a 
physician of  ,wolfenbttel1 afterwards  
described them at length4 7,epistola    
,itineraria1 #gg1 and ,breslauer        
,sammlung1 #agbe1 ,first ,trim4 p4      
#fbh47 ,they are situated in the county 
of ,liptow1 on the southern  declivities
 of the ,carpathian mountains4 ,they are
 known in the  country by the name of   
,dragons' ,caves1 because the people of 
the  neighbourhood attribute to those   
animals the bones which occur in  them1 
and with which they have been acquainted
 from time immemorial2  but all those   
which have been figured by authors      
belong to the ,bear  family1 and to the 
species which is named the ,great ,cave 
,bear  7,grand ,ours des cavernes74     

,the caves of ,germany the richest in   
bones are those of ,franconia1  of which
 ,j4 ,f4 ,esper1 a clergyman of the     
country of ,bayreuth1  has given a very 
detailed description in a work1 printed 
in ,french  and ,german1 entitled1      
,description des ,zoolithes nouvellement
  decouvertes1 c4 ,nuremberg ,knorr4    
#aggd1 folio1 with #ad coloured  plates1
 and in a memoir inserted among those of
 the ,berlin ,society  of ,naturalists1 
vol4 ix4 #aghd1 p4 #ef4 ,another        
description was  afterwards given1 under
 the title of ,objets dignes de remarque
 des  environs de ,muggendorf1 by ,j4   
,c4 ,rosenmller1 folio1 with coloured   
views1 ,berlin1 #ahjd4 ,and more lately1
 ,m4 ,goldfuss1 at present  ,professor  
of ,natural ,history at ,bonn1 and      
,secretary of the ,academia  ,natur     
,curiosorum1 has made them the subject  
of a particular  work printed in #ahaj  
in ,german1 under the title of ,environs
 of  ,muggendorf1 in which he describes 
them with the greatest care1 as  well as

 the surrounding country1 of which he   
gives a very correct  topographical     
chart4 ,a great part of these caves is  
situated in a  small bailiwick1 named   
,streitberg1 which was formerly a       
dependence  upon the country of         
,bayreuth1 but was inclosed in that of  
,bamberg1 and now forms part of the     
kingdom of ,bavaria4 ,the greatest      
number occur in a small peninsula1      
formed by the river of ,wiesent1  which 
falls into the ,pegnetz1 and belongs to 
the basin of the ,main4    ,however1 the
 chief of all these astonishing caves1  
those of  ,gaylenreuth1 are beyond the  
limits of this peninsula1 being on the  
left bank of the ,wiesent1 to the       
north-west of the village from which  it
 derives its name4 ,the entrance is     
perforated in a vertical rock2  it is #g
 feet high1 and faces the east4 ,the    
first cave turns to the  right1 and is  
upwards of #hj feet long4 ,the unequal  
heights of the  vault divide it into    
four parts2 the first three are from #ae

 to #bj  feet high1 the fourth is only  
#d or #e4 ,at the bottom of this latter1
  on the level of the floor1 there is a 
hole #b feet high1 which affords  a     
passage to the second cave3 it has first
 a direction to the south1  over a      
length of #fj feet by #dj in breadth1   
and #ah in height2 it  then turns to the
 west for #gj feet1 becoming lower and  
lower until  at length the height is    
only #e feet4 ,the passage which leads  
to the  third cave is very inconvenient1
 and one has to turn through various    
corridors3 it is #cj feet across1 and   
from #e to #f in height4 ,the  ground in
 it is kneaded with teeth and jaws4     
,near the entrance is a  pit of from #ae
 to #bj feet1 to which one descends by a
 ladder4 ,after  having descended1 we   
come to a vault of #ae feet diameter by 
#cj in  height2 and towards the side at 
which the descent is made there is a    
cave strewed with bones4 ,on still      
descending a little1 a new arcade  is   
met with1 which leads to a cave #dj feet

 long1 and a new pit of  from #ah to #bj
 feet deep4 ,after descending this1 we  
reach a cavern  about #dj feet high1 all
 strewed with bones4 ,a passage1 of #e  
feet by  #g1 leads to a grotto of #be   
feet in length by #ab in breadth4       
,canals1  #bj feet in length1 conduct to
 another grotto of #bj feet in height4  
,lastly1 there is another cave1 #hc feet
 broad and #bd high1 in which  more     
bones are found than in any of the      
others4    ,the sixth cave1 which is the
 last1 has a northerly direction1 so    
that  the whole series of caves and     
passages nearly describes a semicircle4 
,a fissure in the third cave led to the 
discovery1 in #aghd1 of a new  cave1 #ae
 feet long and #d broad1 in which the   
greatest quantities of  hyena and lions'
 bones were found4 ,the aperture was    
much too small  for these animals to    
have passed through it4 ,a particular   
canal which  ended in this small cave   
has afforded an incredible number of    
bones  and large skulls entire4    ,in  

the ,philosophical ,transactions of     
#ahbb1 pl4 xxvi4 there may be  seen a   
profile of this cave1 taken on the spot 
in #ahaf1 by ,professor  ,buckland1 in  
which is to be especially remarked an   
enormous mass1  entirely composed of    
bones enveloped in the stalactite1 and  
thus  forming an osseous breccia1 but of
 quite a different nature from  those   
which occur at ,gibraltar and other     
places#dcb4    ,the cave of ,gaylenreuth
 is one of those the bones of which are 
most  completely known1 by the          
researches which have been made or      
caused to  be made in it for a long time
 back by distinguished naturalists1 such
  as ,,mm4 ,esper1 de ,humboldt1 ,ebel  
of ,bremen1 ,rosenmller1 ,smmering1     
,goldfuss1 c41 and by the numerous and  
rich collections which these  researches
 have produced4 ,according to the       
examination which ,cuvier  has made of  
the principal of these collections1     
three-fourths of  the bones found there 
belong to the ,bear genus1 and to two or

 three  species of that genus4 ,the     
others belong to the hyena1 tiger1 wolf1
  fox1 glutton1 and polecat1 or some    
nearly allied species4 ,there are  also 
found1 although in much smaller number1 
bones of herbivorous  quadrupeds1 and1  
in particular1 deer1 of which fragments 
are in the  possession of ,m4 ,ebel4 ,it
 would even appear from a passage of ,m4
  ,smmering's1 that a parcel of bones   
had been got in it belonging to  an     
elephant's skull#dcc4 ,according to     
,rosenmller1 there were found  in it    
bones of men1 horses1 oxen1 sheep1 deer1
 roes1 mules1 badgers1  dogs1 and foxes1
 but which from the researches made by  
him in the  cave itself1 and from their 
state of preservation1 must have been   
deposited at periods much later than    
those of the bear1 tigers and           
hyenas#dcd4    ,the small peninsula     
situate nearly opposite to this cave1   
presents  several other caves1 as the   
,schnstein1 or ,beautiful ,rock1 which  
contains seven contiguous caverns4 ,the 

,brunnenstein1 or ,fountain  ,rock1 in  
which1 according to ,esper1 there are   
only found bones of  known species1 such
 as badgers1 dogs1 foxes1 hogs1 and     
deer2 but  ,esper had too little        
anatomical knowledge for his testimony  
to be  entirely relied on with respect  
to this4 ,these bones are sometimes     
encrusted with stalactite4 ,it contains 
also the ,holeberg1 or  ,hollow         
,mountain1 in which eight or ten caves  
form a series of #bjj  feet in length1  
with two entrances4 ,bones of the same  
bears as at  ,gaylenreuth1 are found    
here in various lateral depressions2 and
  there are also deer and hogs4--,the   
,wizerloch1 so named from an  ancient   
,sclavonic deity formerly worshipped    
there1 the most dismal  cavern of the   
whole country1 situate in its most      
elevated part1 and  in which some       
vertebr have been found4 ,it is more    
than #bjj feet  long4 ,the ,wunderhhle1 
which takes its name from its           
discoverer1  has been known since #aggc3

 its extent is #afj feet4--,lastly1 the 
,cave of ,klaustein1 consisting of four 
grottoes1 and upwards of  #bjj feet     
deep4 ,bones have been found in the     
third grotto1 and most  abundantly      
towards its extremity4 ,it might be     
supposed that the name  ,klaustein      
signified ,claw-rock1 and it would thus 
accord very well  with a place where1   
without doubt1 as at ,gaylenreuth1 a    
multitude of  ungual phalanges of bears 
and animals of the tiger kind have been 
found4 ,but ,m4 ,goldfuss asserts1 that 
it was called ,klaustein1 or  ,st       
,nicholas's ,rock1 after a chapel of    
this name1 which formerly  stood upon   
it4--,there are still the ,geiss-knok1  
or ,goat ,cave1 and  a cave discovered  
in #agic4 ,m4 ,rosenmller found in them 
two human  skeletons already covered    
with stalactite4    ,the country which  
surrounds this small peninsula has      
itself several  caves1 independently of 
that of ,gaylenreuth1 as those of       
,mockas1  ,rabenstein1 and ,kirch-ahorn1

 three villages1 situate1 the first  to 
the south1 and the other two to the     
north-east of ,gaylenreuth4  ,bones were
 formerly found in the first4 ,the last 
bears in the  country the expressive    
name of ,zahn-loch1 or ,tooth ,cave2 it 
also  bears the name of                 
,hohen-mirschfeld1 a village on whose   
ground it  is situate2 and the country  
people have long been in the habit of   
seeking in it those bones1 which they   
imagined to be medicinal4 ,,mm4         
,rosenmller and ,goldfuss have in fact  
found bear and tiger bones4  ,there are 
two others in the territory of the same 
village1 of which  the one named        
,schneider-loch 7,tailor's ,hole71 is   
said to have  furnished the vertebr of  
an elephant4 ,that of ,zewig1 close upon
  ,waschenfeld1 at the very edge of the 
,wiesent1 is nearly #hj feet  deep2 and 
it is said that skeletons of men and    
wolves were found in  it4    ,all these 
hills1 containing caves in their        
interior1 and situate so  near each     

other1 seem to form a small chain1      
interrupted only by  brooks1 and which  
joins the more elevated chain of the    
,fichtelberg1  in which are the highest 
mountains of ,franconia1 and from which 
flow  the ,main1 the ,saale1 the ,eger1 
the ,naab1 and many small  rivers4 ,m4  
,rosenmller1 and after him1 others      
assert1 that those  which are in the    
hills to the north of the ,wiesent1     
contain not  a single fragment of bone1 
while those to the south are filled with
  them4    ,in #agii1 a cave1 remarkable
 for its situation1 was discovered1     
which connects in some measure those of 
the ,hartz with those of  ,franconia4   
,it is the ,cave of ,glcksbrun1 in the  
bailiwick of  ,altenstein1 in the       
territory of ,meinungen1 on the         
south-western  declivity of the chain of
 the ,thuringerwald 7,blumenb4 ,archol4 
,telluris1 p4 #ae4 ,zach4 ,monate4      
,corresp4 #ahjj1 ,january1 p4 #cj47  ,it
 is the same which ,m4 ,rosenmller names
 ,libenstein1 on account  of its being  

on the road from ,altenstein to this    
latter1 which is  a bathing place4      
,there is a description of it by ,m4    
,kocher1 in the  ,magazin fr            
,mineralogie1 by ,m4 ,c4 ,e4 ,a4 ,de    
,hof1 #ast band4 heft4 iv4  p4 #dbg4    
,the limestone in which it is situate   
rests upon bituminous  schist1 and1     
rising much upwards1 comes to rest upon 
primitive rocks4  ,the limestone varies 
in hardness and in the nature of its    
fracture1  and contains marine          
petrifactions1 such as pectinites1      
echinites1 c4    ,in making a road1     
there was discovered an opening1 from   
which a very  cold air issued1 which    
determined the ,duke of ,saxe-,meinungen
 to have  it farther examined4 ,a narrow
 passage1 of twenty feet in length1 was 
found1 which led to a cave of           
thirty-five feet1 having a breadth of   
from three to twelve1 and a height of   
from six to twelve1 according  to the   
places1 and terminated by a large piece 
of rock1 which was  removed4 ,the labour

 of two years discovered and cleared a  
series  of caves connected together1 and
 of which the bottom rose and fell      
alternately4 ,they terminate in a place 
where water flows2 but various  lateral 
fissures make it probable that there are
 still several caves  which have not    
been opened1 and that they perhaps form 
a sort of  labyrinth4    ,the bottom and
 walls of this cave are furnished with  
the same mud as  the others1 but        
blacker4 ,the bones were pretty         
numerous1 and tinged  with the same     
colour1 but only two tolerably entire   
skulls were  obtained4 ,that of which   
,m4 ,kocher gives a figure1 is the      
species  of bear named ,ursus spelus4   
,there are also caves of this kind  in  
,westphalia4 ,j4 ,es ,silberschlag1 in  
the ,mem4 des ,naturalistes  of ,berlin 
7,schriften1 vol4 vi4 p4 #acb71         
describes the one called  ,kluter-hhle1 
near the village of ,oldenforde1 in the 
county of  ,mark1 on the edge of the    
,milspe and ,ennepe1 two streams which  

fall into the ,ruhr1 and with it into   
the ,rhine4 ,its entrance is  about     
half-way up a hill called ,kluterberg1  
is only three feet  three inches high1  
and faces the south4 ,the cave itself   
forms a true  labyrinth in the interior 
of the mountain4    ,not far from this1 
in the same county1 at ,sundwich1 two   
leagues from  ,iserlohn1 is another     
cave1 which1 for about twenty-five years
 back1  has furnished a very large      
quantity of bones1 part of which has    
been  carried to ,berlin1 and the rest  
has remained in the country in the      
hands of various individuals#dce4    ,if
 we cast a glance upon a general map1 it
 is not difficult to  perceive a certain
 continuity in the mountains in which   
these  singular caves occur4 ,the       
,carpathians join with the mountains of 
,moravia and those of ,bohemia called   
,bhmerwald1 to separate the  basin of   
the ,danube1 from those of the ,vistula1
 ,oder and ,elbe4 ,the  ,fichtelgebirge 
separates the basin of the ,elbe from   

that of the  ,rhine4 ,the ,thuringerwald
 and the ,hartz continue to limit the   
basin of  the ,elbe1 by separating it   
from that of the ,weser4    ,these      
different chains have but slight        
intervals between them4 ,the  caves of  
,westphalia alone are not connected in  
so evident a manner  with the others4   
,very lately1 bones have been discovered
 in a cavern1 which extends  more       
towards the south1 and is even situate  
on the other or ,italian  side of the   
,alps4 ,it is that of ,adelsberg in     
,carniola1 a place  situate on the great
 road from ,laybach to ,trieste1 and    
about half  way between these two       
cities4 ,the whole of this country is   
full of  caverns and grottoes1 which    
have given rise to numerous sinkings of 
the surface1 thus giving a very singular
 appearance to the country4  ,several of
 these caverns have long been celebrated
 among naturalists4  ,that of ,adelsberg
 is generally visited by travellers1 on 
account of  its being near the highway1 

and because a river called the ,piuka   
or ,poike is lost there1 forming a      
subterranean lake1 and emerging  again  
on the north side1 under the name of    
,unz4 ,a hole which the  ,chevalier de  
,lowengreif discovered in #ahaf1 in one 
of its walls1 at  the height of #ad     
fathoms1 conducted him to a series of   
new caves of  vast extent1 and of       
incomparable beauty1 from the lustre and
 variety  of their stalactites4    ,a   
part of these caves was1 however1 known1
 and must be1 or have  been accessible1 
by some other place1 for inscriptions   
were found  in them with dates1 from    
#acic to #afgf1 together with human     
bones1  and entire carcases1 that had   
been buried there4 ,a ,german pamphlet  
was published at ,trieste1 in which are 
described all the windings  of these    
subterranean passages1 their different  
halls1 their  domes1 their columns1 and 
all the other appearances produced by   
their stalactites4 ,we shall not follow 
the author 7,m4 de ,volpi1  ,director of

 the ,school of ,commerce and           
,navigation at ,trieste7 through  this  
immense labyrinth4 ,let it suffice to   
say1 that this zealous  naturalist      
asserts his having proceeded more than  
three leagues1  almost in a straight    
line1 and that he was only stopped by a 
lake  which rendered it impossible to go
 on4 ,it was about two leagues from  the
 entrance that he discovered bones of   
animals1 of which he gives  figures1 and
 which he describes under the name of   
,palotheria4 ,he had  the politeness to 
communicate to me1 says ,cuvier1 his    
drawings the  year before1 but it       
appears my reply did not reach him1 for 
he makes  no mention of it in his book4 
,be this as it may1 his figures clearly 
shewed that the bones in  question      
belonged to the great cave-bear4 ,in    
fact1 several of these  bones having    
been presented to the ,congress of      
,laybach1 ,prince  ,metternich1 whose   
enlightened taste for the advancement of
 knowledge  has already been of so much 

service1 had the goodness to address    
them  to ,cuvier1 who disposed them in  
the ,royal ,cabinet1 where any one may  
satisfy himself as to their species4    
,there are1 without doubt1 caves in many
 other chains1 and several  are known in
 ,france4 ,caves occur in ,suabia1 but  
no bones have been  found in them2 and1 
in general1 it appears1 that1 before the
 last  discoveries1 and especially that 
which has been made in ,yorkshire1  none
 were known but those of ,germany and   
,hungary that were rich in  bones of    
carnivora4 ,in truth1 the rock of       
,fouvent1 and which  contains in one of 
its cavities bones of hyenas1 and at the
 same time  those of elephants1         
rhinoceroses and horses1 might be       
considered as  belonging to this order  
of phenomena2 but as it was not explored
 to  any depth1 it cannot be certain    
that it is so4    ,the case is different
 with the ,kirkdale ,cavern4 ,it having 
been  visited immediately after its     
discovery by several well informed      

persons1 and especially by ,mr          
,buckland1 every thing has been made    
known with respect to it4 ,it is        
situated in the ,east ,riding of the    
county of ,york1 twenty-five miles      
,,nne4 of the city of ,york1 and  at    
about the same distance to the west from
 the sea and the town of  ,scarborough4 
,the small river of ,hodgebeck is lost  
under ground  in the neighbourhood1 much
 in the same way as the ,piuka1 near    
,adelsberg4 ,it is placed in one of the 
limestone hills which form  the northern
 boundary of the vale of ,pickering1 the
 waters of which  fall into the         
,derwent4 ,mr ,buckland compares the    
stone to that of the  last strata of the
 ,alpine limestone1 such as are seen    
near ,aigle and  ,meillene4    ,it was  
in the course of the year #ahba1 that   
some labourers working  at a quarry1    
discovered by chance the opening1 which 
was closed by  rubbish1 covered over    
with earth and turf4 ,it is about #ajj  
feet above  the neighbouring brook4 ,it 

can be entered to the distance of #aej  
or  #bjj feet1 but we can only walk     
erect in some places1 on account of  the
 stalactites4 ,on its sides there are   
seen spines of sea-urchins  and other   
marine remains1 incrusted in the mass of
 the rock2 but it  is on the bottom1 and
 there only1 that there is found the    
stratum of  mud1 of about a foot thick1 
stuck full of bones1 as at ,gaylenreuth4
  ,this mud1 and the bones which it     
contains1 are1 in various places1       
covered or penetrated with stalactite1  
especially near places where  the rock  
has lateral fissures4    ,the discovery 
having acquired much celebrity1 a great 
number of  people procured bones from   
it1 and placed them in various public   
depots4 ,specimens have been deposited  
in the ,york ,institution1 that  of     
,whitby and ,bristol1 the ,british      
,museum1 the ,museum of ,oxford  and    
,cambridge1 and by ,mr ,young of        
,whitby1 in the ,college ,museum of     
,edinburgh2 but the finest collection of

 the bones of ,kirkdale was  presented  
to ,cuvier1 and by him deposited in the 
,royal ,cabinet in  ,paris4 ,the        
greatest number of these bones without  
comparison1 belong  to hyenas of the    
same species as those of the caverns of 
,germany2  but there are also many of   
other large and small animals1 which ,mr
  ,buckland supposes to form twenty-one 
species4 ,from the pieces which  ,i have
 under my eye1 says ,cuvier1 there      
indisputably occur bones of  the        
elephant1 hippopotamus1 horse1 an ox of 
the size of the  common deer1 rabbits1  
field-rats2 also bones of some other    
carnivora1 namely1 of the tiger1 wolf1  
fox1 and weasel4  ,all these bones and  
teeth are accumulated on the ground1    
broken  and gnawed1 and there are even  
seen marks of the teeth which have      
fractured them4 ,there are even         
intermixed with them excrements which   
have been recognized as perfectly       
similar to those of the hyena#dcf4      
,the hills in which these caverns occur 

resemble each other in their            
composition3 they are all of limestone1 
and all produce abundance of            
stalactites4 ,these stalactites line the
 walls1 narrow the passages1  and assume
 a thousand various forms4 ,the bones   
are nearly in the  same state in all    
these caverns3 detached1 scattered1     
partly broken1  but never rolled1 and   
consequently not brought from a distance
 by  water2 a little lighter and less   
solid than recent bones1 but still  in  
their true animal nature1 very little   
decomposed1 containing much  gelatine1  
and not at all petrified4 ,a hardened1  
but still easily  frangible or          
pulverisable earth1 also containing     
animal parts1 and  sometimes blackish1  
forms their natural envelope4 ,it is    
often  impregnated and covered with a   
crust of stalactite4 ,a covering of  the
 same nature invests the bones in       
various places1 penetrates  their       
natural cavities1 and sometimes attaches
 them to the walls of  the cavern4 ,this

 stalactite is often coloured reddish by
 the animal  earth which is mixed with  
it4 ,at other times its surface is      
stained  black2 but it is easy to see   
that these appearances are caused by    
modern occurrences1 and have no         
immediate connection with the cause     
which brought the bones into these      
cavities4 ,we even daily see the        
stalactite increasing and enveloping    
here and there groups of bones  which it
 had formerly respected4    ,this mass  
of earth1 penetrated by animal matter1  
indiscriminately  envelopes the bones of
 all the species2 and1 if we except some
 found  at the surface of the ground1   
and which had been transported there  at
 much later periods1 which may also be  
distinguished by their  being much less 
decomposed1 they must all have been     
interred in the  same manner1 and by the
 same causes4 ,in this mass of earth    
there are  found1 confusedly mingled    
with the bones 7at least in the cave of 
,gaylenreuth71 pieces of a bluish       

marble1 of which all the corners  are   
rounded and blunted1 and which appear to
 have been rolled4 ,they  singularly    
resemble those which form part of the   
osseous brecci of  ,gibraltar and       
,dalmatia4    ,lastly1 what further     
conspires to render this phenomenon very
  striking1 is1 that the most remarkable
 of these bones are the same  in these  
caverns1 over an extent of more than two
 hundred leagues4  ,three-fourths and   
upwards belong to species of bears1     
which are  now extinct4 ,a half1 or     
two-thirds of the remaining fourth1     
belong  to a species of hyena1 which is 
equally unknown at the present  day4 ,a 
smaller number belong to a species of   
the tiger or lion  kind1 and to another 
of the wolf or dog genus2 lastly1 the   
most  diminutive have belonged to       
various small carnivora1 as the fox1    
the polecat1 or at least species very   
nearly allied to them1 c4    ,the       
,kirkdale ,cavern1 however1 forms a     
notable exception1 inasmuch as  none1 or

 very few1 bones of bears are found in  
it1 and in its being  the hyena that    
appears to predominate among the        
carnivora4    ,the species so common in 
the alluvial formations1 the elephants1 
rhinoceroses1 horses1 oxen or aurochs1  
and tapirs1 are  of very rare occurrence
 in the caves of ,germany4 ,there are   
even  some in which no one is said to   
have found them1 and the only  bones of 
herbivora mentioned are remains of deer4
 ,in this point  also1 however1 the     
,kirkdale cave differs much from the    
others1  inasmuch as it abounds almost  
as much in bones of large and small     
herbivora1 as in bones of carnivora4    
,all the great pachydermata of  the     
alluvial formations are seen in it3 the 
elephants1 rhinoceroses  and            
hippopotami4 ,there are also seen in it 
bones of oxen1 deer1 and  even small    
bones of mice and birds4 ,but there are 
no bones of marine  animals of any      
species1 either at ,kirkdale or in      
,germany4 ,those who  have pretended    

that they saw bones of seals1 morses1 or
 other  similar species1 have been led  
into error by the hypothesis which  they
 had previously adopted4    ,these bones
 of carnivora1 so numerous in the caves1
 are rare in the  great alluvial strata2
 the hyena alone has been seen in any   
quantity  at ,canstadt1 near ,aichstedt1
 and in some other places4 ,there have  
also been found some traces of bears in 
,tuscany and ,austria1 but  their       
relative proportion is always infinitely
 less than in the  caves2 and it is     
always sufficiently proved by these     
circumstances1  that these various      
animals have lived together in the same 
countries1  and have belonged to the    
same epoch4    ,cuvier concludes1 there 
can only be imagined three general      
causes  which might have placed these   
bones in such quantity in these vast    
subterranean cavities4 ,either they are 
the remains of animals  which inhabited 
these abodes1 and which died peaceably  
there2 or  inundations and other violent

 causes have carried them into these    
cavities2 or1 lastly1 they had been     
enveloped in rocky strata1 the          
dissolution of which produced these     
caverns1 and they have not been         
dissolved by the agent which carried off
 the matter of the strata4    ,this last
 cause is refuted by the fact1 that the 
strata in which the  caves occur contain
 no bones2 and the second by the        
entireness of  the smallest prominences 
of the bones1 which does not permit us  
to  think that they had been rolled2 for
 if some bones are worn1 as ,mr         
,buckland has remarked1 they are only so
 on one side1 which would only  prove   
that some current has passed over them1 
and in the deposit in  which they are4  
,we are1 therefore1 obliged to have     
recourse to the  first supposition1     
whatever difficulties it presents on its
 part1 and  to say that these caves     
served as a retreat to carnivorous      
animals1  and that these carried there1 
for the purpose of devouring them1 the  

animals which formed their prey1 or the 
parts of these animals4    ,mr ,buckland
 has observed1 that the hyena bones are 
not less broken  and splintered than    
those of the herbivorous animals2 from  
which he  concludes1 that the hyenas had
 devoured the dead bodies of their own  
species1 as those of the present day    
still do4    ,these animals attack each 
other during their life2 for the fossil 
head of a hyena is preserved1 which had 
evidently been wounded and  afterwards  
healed#dcg4    ,this supposition is     
moreover confirmed by the animal nature 
of the  earth in which these bones are  
found#dch4    ,this much is certain1    
that the establishment of these animals 
in the  caves has taken place at a much 
later epoch than that at which the      
great rocky strata have been formed1 not
 only those which compose  the mountains
 in which the caves are situated1 but   
the strata of  much newer origin4 ,no   
permanent inundation has penetrated into
 the  subterranean dens1 and formed a   

regular rocky deposit4 ,the mud  arising
 from the proper decomposition of these 
animals1 and the  stalactites that have 
been filtered through the wall of the   
caves1  are the only matters which cover
 these remains1 and these stalactites   
increase so rapidly1 that ,m4 ,goldfuss 
already found a layer of them  covering 
the names of ,,mm4 ,esper and           
,rosenmller1 whose visits did  not date 
thirty years before his own4 ,the rolled
 stones that are met  with1 and the     
marks of detrition observed on some     
bones1 announce1 at  the very utmost1   
but passing currents4    ,but how have  
so many ferocious animals which peopled 
our forests  been extirpated8 ,all the  
reply we can make is1 that they must    
have  been destroyed at the same time1  
and by the same cause1 as the large     
herbivora1 which1 like them1 also       
peopled these forests1 and of which  no 
traces remain at the present day any    
more than of them4      ,,account ,,of  
,,the ,,cave ,,containing ,,bones ,,at  

,,adelsberg ,,in ,,carniola4    ,the    
following interesting account of the    
cave1 slightly noticed at  pages #ebd   
and #ebe1 is extracted from a memoir by 
,m4 ,bertrand ,geslin1  ,member of the  
,natural ,history ,society of ,paris1   
published in the  number of the ,annales
 des ,sciences ,naturelles for ,april   
#ahbf4      ,m4 ,cuvier1 says ,gesler1  
speaking of the ,adelsberg ,cave1 from  
the    account published by ,m4 ,volpi  
of ,trieste1 says1 that it was nearly   
two leagues from the entrance where he  
discovered bones of animals4            
,having visited this cave myself1 ,i am 
obliged to say that ,m4    ,volpi's     
assertion as to this matter is not very 
correct4 ,on my way    to ,trieste1 in  
,july #ahbc1 before going to ,adelsberg1
 ,i had the    advantage of seeing ,m4  
,volpi4 ,in shewing me the bones        
collected    by him at ,adelsberg1 he   
also assured me that they were found two
    leagues from the entrance of the    
cave1 and only in a very compact        

block of several cubic feet1 from which 
it was not possible to    procure more1 
as he had taken all that he could easily
 remove4      ,notwithstanding this     
discouraging account1 ,i betook myself  
to    ,adelsberg1 in order to see a     
sample of those immense caverns of      
secondary limestone4 ,the entrance of   
the cave is situated in a    white      
compact secondary limestone1 lying in   
great beds inclined    to the           
south-west1 at an angle of from #cj to  
#ce degrees4 ,at fifty    paces from the
 entrance1 we find ourselves as in a    
large apartment1    which crosses the   
torrent of the ,pinka4 ,after passing to
 the left    bank of this torrent1 we   
enter a rather low and not long passage1
    which leads to a second apartment of
 an elongated form4 ,it is here    that 
the line of chambers truly commences4   
,they are of large but    variable      
dimensions1 and are situated nearly upon
 a horizontal    plane4      ,on        
entering this second chamber1 ,i saw    

that the ground was formed    of a      
yellow and reddish clayey mud1 from one 
to two feet thick1    and more or less  
impregnated and covered with crusts of  
yellow    stalagmites4 ,in the places   
where it offered little resistance1 ,i  
dug it up with the point of my hammer1  
and was fortunate enough to    disunite 
some fragments of bone1 although1 from  
what had been said    to me1 ,i ought   
not to have expected to find them4 ,from
 this ,i was    convinced1 that if ,m4  
,volpi had only found bones at a        
distance of    two leagues from the     
entrance1 it was because he had not been
 at    the trouble to search for them   
nearer4 ,i fell to work with more       
ardour1 and succeeded in digging up some
 in good preservation1    such as radii1
 cubiti1 femora1 humeri1 fragments of   
jaws1 calcarea1    toes1 vertebr1 c41   
belonging to bears of different sizes1  
of the    species termed ,ursus spelus4 
,it would appear that the hyena    tribe
 is rather rare here1 for ,i only       

procured a single bone    belonging to  
it4 ,it was particularly in two small   
lateral chambers1    near the narrow    
passage1 that ,i obtained a great       
quantity of these    bones1 the clay    
there having been dug up by the guides1 
in order to    make the floor of the    
great apartment even with it4      ,i   
continued to dig as ,i advanced1 and    
everywhere found bones more    or less  
broken and enveloped in the clayey mud4 
,after proceeding    for half an hour1  
,i fell in with a mass1 in an apartment 
of    considerable dimensions1 which was
 of a conical form1 and composed    of  
blocks of compact white limestone1 of   
all sizes1 mixed with    yellowish      
clayey mud4 ,these blocks had their     
edges as sharp as if    they had only   
been lately broken4 ,the mass1 which    
reached to the    right wall of the     
cave1 might be fifteen feet in height1  
and twenty    in diameter at its base3  
it was covered with stalactite in       
several    places4 ,it was in this mass1

 at about ten feet above the floor of   
the cave1 in the clayey mud that filled 
up the interstices between    the       
blocks1 that ,i found the entire        
skeleton of a young bear1 in a    space 
of two square feet at most4 ,the bones  
which ,i dug out were    the frontal    
part of the head1 the lower jaw of the  
left side1    the seventh cervical and  
eighth dorsal vertebr2 the eighth and   
fourteenth ribs of the right side2 two  
tibia1 femora1 and cubiti1    and two   
large canine teeth of another bear4 ,if 
,i could have raised    up the limestone
 blocks1 between which these bones lay1 
,i might    without doubt have procured 
a great part of this skeleton4 ,there   
are still found here and there in the   
cave some small heaps of    clayey mud1 
with fragments of white secondary       
limestone1 as well    as large isolated 
limestone blocks1 which the guides are  
daily    destroying1 to make the floor  
even for the convenience of visitors4   
,i had only advanced an hour and a      

quarter's progress into the cave1       
always finding bones1 when the oil of my
 lamps beginning to fail1 ,i    was     
obliged to return without reaching the  
block in which ,m4 ,volpi    had found  
the first bones4 ,this block is without 
doubt owing to the    same causes as the
 heap of which ,i have spoken above4    
,the manner in which these heaps exist1 
being composed of blocks of    compact  
white secondary limestone1 similar to   
that which forms the    walls of the    
cave1 with sharp edges1 and piled upon  
each other1    made me imagine that they
 might have fallen from the roof4 ,as ,i
    returned1 ,i examined the ceiling of
 the vaults with attention4 ,as    it   
was all covered over with stalactites1  
,i could not discover any    fissure4   
,from this short excursion in the       
,adelsberg cave1 ,i am induced    to    
believe1 that the bones exist along the 
whole extent of the    cave1 and that   
they occur in two different ways2 #ast1 
scattered    in the clayey mud which    

forms the floor of the chambers2 and1   
#b;dly1 buried in heaps formed of blocks
 of white secondary compact             
limestone1 and yellow clayey mud4       
,the hypothesis which ,m4 ,cuvier admits
 as the most probable for    explaining 
the presence of these bones in the      
caves1 is that which    would make these
 caves to have served as a retreat to   
carnivorous    animals4      ,the       
presence of bones in the clayey mud of  
the floor of the    ,adelsberg cave     
accords well with this hypothesis2 but  
the case    is different with those     
which ,i found in the heaps of limestone
    blocks and clayey mud4 ,the bones   
are not at the surface of the    heap1  
but rather towards its middle part1     
buried among the blocks1    and crushed 
by them4 ,from this position1 and the   
height at which    the skeleton         
mentioned above occurs from the floor of
 the cave1    it cannot be supposed that
 it formed part of the bones with which 
the bottom of the cave is strewed1 nor  

that the blocks had fallen    upon it4  
,the bones contained in the heap in     
question must have been    brought into 
their present position at the same time1
 and by the    same cause as the        
limestone blocks4 ,they could not1      
therefore1 have    belonged to animals  
which inhabited these caves1 and died   
there    peaceably4      ,if it be      
remarked1 that these blocks1 which are  
sometimes very    large1 heaped up above
 one another1 and mixed with clayey mud1
 have    their angles perfectly fresh1  
and are of the same nature as the       
limestone of the walls of the cave1 it  
cannot be admitted that they    have    
been brought from a distance4 ,this mode
 of arrangement could    only have been 
produced by their falling from the roof 
of the cave4      ,the following facts  
also give support to this opinion4 ,in  
the cave    of ,gaylenreuth1 a fissure  
of the third grotto1 was the means1 in  
#aghd1 of disclosing a new one1 fifteen 
feet long and four broad1    where the  

greatest quantity of hyena or lion bones
 were found4    ,the aperture was much  
too small for these animals to have     
passed    through it4      ,in a cave   
discovered in #ahbd1 in the district of 
,lanark in ,upper    ,canada1 ,mr       
,bigsby observed1 that the floor was    
covered with debris    of brown granular
 limestone1 similar to that of the      
walls1 and    that the bones especially 
formed a heap there4 ,he thinks that the
    animal1 whose bones have been found 
in this cave1 was much too    large to  
have got into it alive or               
entire4--,silliman's ,journal1    ,june 
#ahbe1 p4 #ced4      ,it must therefore 
be also admitted here1 either that the  
bones    could only have got into the   
cave in the same manner as the heaps    
of blocks found in the ,adelsberg cave2 
that is to say1 by falling    from the  
roof1 or that the apertures have been   
closed since the    period at which the 
animals were buried4      ,if it be now 
considered1 #ast1 ,that the surface of  

the secondary    limestone mountains of 
,carniola is covered with a layer of    
reddish    clay2 and1 #b;dly1 ,that the 
clayey mud of the heap in the ,adelsberg
    cave is mineralogically the same as 
that which forms the floor    of the    
cave2 may it not be supposed1 that the  
same catastrophe    which produced the  
heaps in the cave may have1 at the same 
time1    introduced into it the reddish 
clayey mud of the surface1 which1 by    
extending itself over the floor of the  
cave1 would have contributed    to cover
 the bones that were lying there8       
,moreover1 may it not have been the     
case1 that1 after the caves    had been 
inhabited by the carnivorous animals1   
the substances    falling from above1   
and coming from the surface of the soil1
 may    have carried along with the     
clayey mud and the bones of bears1 the  
spoils of large herbivorous animals1    
which they may have met with1    and    
which cannot be supposed to have sought 
refuge in these caves    during life4   

,there will1 no doubt1 be objected to   
me1 that opinion which    maintains1    
that the bones of herbivora have been   
dragged into the    caves by the        
carnivorous animals4 ,this might        
certainly have been    the case with    
regard to small species1 but it is not  
probable that    the bones of large     
species could have been introduced in   
the same    manner4      ,admitting as  
certain1 at least with regard to the    
,adelsberg cave1    that the limestone  
blocks and the bear bones which         
accompany them1    have fallen from the 
ceiling1 the phenomenon of caves        
containing    bones would connect itself
 pretty well with that of osseous brecci
    in a geological point of view4 ,as  
,m4 ,cuvier observes1 8,the nature    of
 the rocks which contains the one and   
the other is not very    different2 and1
 besides1 the fissures of caves being   
generally    pretty wide1 the bones     
would not have stuck1 but would have    
fallen    to the bottom1 while those of 

the osseous brecci being much           
narrower1 and not so deep1 would have   
retained the bones at no    great       
distance from the surface of the soil40 
,thus1 from the facts observed in the   
caves of ,germany and ,england1    and  
from that of the ,adelsberg cave1 which 
,i have described above1    we may      
conclude1 #ast1 ,that the presence of   
bones in caves has    been produced at  
two different periods1 which1 without   
doubt1 have    not been very distant    
from each other2 the first1 that when   
the    animals inhabited these caves2   
the other1 that when they had been      
transported there by a somewhat general 
catastrophe2 #b;dly1 ,that    the second
 epoch was contemporaneous with the     
osseous brecci1 and    was produced1    
like them1 by a phenomenon or process of
 filling up4          ,,tabular ,,view  
,,of    ,the ,,genera of ,,fossil       
,,mammifera1 ,,cetacea1 ,,aves1         
,,reptilia1 and ,,insecta1  exhibiting  
their ,geognostical ,number and         

,distribution4                          
----------------------------------------
-------------------------------         
,genera which are found                 
,number of                              
,species4                               
----------------------------------------
---------    ,,names ,,of               
,,genera4,living,living1,fossil,in      
the,in the,in the,in the,in the         
only4 and in only4                      
,strata,strata,strata,living,fossil     
the         ante- of thepost-           
,state4,state4                          
,fossil       rior  ,chalk4erior        
,state4       to the      to the        
,chalk4      ,chalk4                    
----------------------------------------
-------------------------               
,,mammifera4                            
,ursus1                   99            
99           #d       ,mustela1         
99                       99           #b
       ,canis1                   99     
99           #d       ,hyna1            

99                       99           #a
       ,felis1                   99     
99           #b       ,phoca1           
99                       99           #b
       ,didelphis1               99     
99           #b       ,castor1          
99                       99           #a
       ,arvicola1                99     
99           #b       ,lagomys1         
99                       99           #b
       ,lepus1                   99     
99           #b       ,megalonyx1       
99                 99           #a      
,megatherium1             99     99     
99           #a       ,elephas1         
99                       99             
,mastodon1                      99      
99           #f       ,hippopotamus1    
99                       99           #d
       ,sus1                     99     
99           #a       ,anoplotherium1   
99                 99           #b      
,xiphodon1                      99      
99           #a       ,dichobunus1      
99                 99           #c      

,anthracotherium1               99      
99           #b       ,adapis1          
99                 99           #a      
,chropotamus1                  99       
99           #a       ,rhinoceros1      
99                       99           #d
       ,palotherium1                  99
                 99           #h        
,lophiodon1                     99      
99           #e                         
----------------------------------------
-------------------------               
----------------------------------------
-------------------------------         
,genera which are found                 
,number of                              
,species4                               
----------------------------------------
---------    ,,names ,,of               
,,genera4,living,living1,fossil,in      
the,in the,in the,in the,in the         
only4 and in only4                      
,strata,strata,strata,living,fossil     
the         ante- of thepost-           
,state4,state4                          

,fossil       rior  ,chalk4erior        
,state4       to the      to the        
,chalk4      ,chalk4                    
----------------------------------------
-------------------------               
,,mammifera47cont47                     
,tapirus1                 99            
99           #a       ,elasmotherium1   
99                 99           #a      
,equus1                   99            
99           #a       ,mus1             
99                       99           #a
       ,cervus1                  99     
99           #e       ,bos1             
99                       99           #d
       ,myoxus1                  99     
99           #b                         
99                                      
,,cetacea4                              
,manatus1                 99            
99           #a       ,delphinus1       
99                       99           #d
       ,balna1                  99      
99           #c                         
,,aves47a7                              

,sturnus1                 99            
99           #a       ,pelecanus1       
99                       99           #a
       ,charadrius1                     
99           #a                         
,,reptilia4                             
,testudo1                 99            
99           #f       ,crocodilus1      
99                 99                 #f
       ,plesiosaurus1                   
99                             #a       
,ichthyosaurus1                 99      
99                      #d              
,pterodactylus1                 99      
99          99           #c       ,rana1
                    99                  
99           #a       ,mosasaurus1      
99           99                 #a      
,salamandra1              99            
99           #a                         
----------------------------------------
-------------------------               
----------------------------------------
-------------------------------         
,genera which are found                 

,number of                              
,species4                               
----------------------------------------
---------    ,,names ,,of               
,,genera4,living,living1,fossil,in      
the,in the,in the,in the,in the         
only4 and in only4                      
,strata,strata,strata,living,fossil     
the         ante- of thepost-           
,state4,state4                          
,fossil       rior  ,chalk4erior        
,state4       to the      to the        
,chalk4      ,chalk4                    
----------------------------------------
-------------------------               
,,insecta4                              
,silpha17b7               99            
99                   ,curculio17c7      
99                       99             
,scorpio17c7              99            
99                   ,musca17c7         
99                       99             
,blatta17c7               99            
99                   ,tipula17c7        
99                       99             

,aranea17c7               99            
99                   ,ichneumon17c7     
99                       99             
,libellula17d7            99            
99                   ,scarabus17d7      
99                       99             
,scolopendra17d7          99            
99                   ,papilio17d7       
99                       99             
,hemerobia17d7            99            
99                   ,carabus17d7       
99                       99             
----------------------------------------
-------------------------      7a7 ,it  
is extremely difficult to make out the  
genera of the ,birds1    whose remains  
occur in a fossil state1 and there are  
more of them    than those mentioned4   
7b7 ,in the lignite2 the number of      
species cannot be given in the          
insects4      7c7 ,in amber4      7d7   
,in the fossil rocks1 according to the  
old authors4          ,,tabular ,,view  
,,of    ,the ,,classes1 ,,orders1 or    
,,families1 of ,,animals1 occurring in a

 ,living  and ,fossil ,state1 with their
 ,geognostical ,distribution4           
7,,part #a of #b7                       
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
,number of ,genera which are found      
,,names ,,of                            
----------------------------------------
-- ,total     ,,classes1 ,,orders1,in   
the,living ,in the ,in the ,in the ,in  
the  number       ,,or ,,families4      
living  and  ,fossil ,strata ,strata    
,strata    of                           
state ,fossil4state anteriorof          
theposterior,genera4                    
only4        only4  to the ,chalk4 to   
the                                     
,chalk4        ,chalk4                  
----------------------------------------
-------------------------    ,polyparia1
        #bc    #cj     #eb     #dg      
#ai     #cf      #aje      ,stellarid1  
#d                    #b      #d        
#d      ,echinid1          #b     #f    
#c      #g      #h      #e       #aa    

,annulosa1                #b      #a    
#a      #a      #b        #c            
,serpulacea1        #b     #c      #a   
#c      #c      #c        #f            
,cirripeda1         #h     #b           
#a             #b       #aj             
,tubicol1          #a     #c      #b    
#e        #f      ,pholadaria1          
#b                           #b         
#b      ,bivalve shells1   #ah    #fa   
#bd     #dd     #be     #ea      #ajc   
,univalve shells1  #cc    #hg     #bh   
#bg     #af     #ic      #adh           
,genera little                   #d     
#c      #a               #d             
known1                                  
,crustacea1              #ba      #e    
#e      #b      #i       #bh            
,pisces1                 #ed      #f    
#aa      #b     #ee       #fj           
,mammifera              #bd     #ab     
#cf       #cf        ,cetacea1          
,aves17a7                 #c            
#c        #c      ,reptilia1            
#d      #d      #c      #b      #d      

#h      ,insecta1                #ad    
#ad       #ad      ,vegetabilia1        
#ad     #aj     #ab      #a     #ae     
#bd                                     
----------------------------------------
-------------------------               
7,,part #b of #b7                       
-----------------------------           
,number of                              
,species           ,,names ,,of         
------------    ,,classes1 ,,orders1,in 
the,in the      ,,or ,,families4        
livingfossil                            
state4state4                            
----------------------------            
,polyparia1        #ebg   #dad          
,stellarid1        #gf     #d           
,echinid1          #ie   #aab           
,annulosa1          #ag    #bi          
,serpulacea1        #cf    #fi          
,cirripeda1         #ej    #ag          
,tubicol1          #aa    #af           
,pholadaria1        #ab     #d          
,bivalve shells1  #ajji  #aajd          
,univalve shells1 #aide  #aedd          

,genera little             #e           
known1                                  
,crustacea1               #ed           
,pisces1                 #ahc           
,mammifera               #hi            
,cetacea1                      ,aves1   
#c     ,reptilia1                #bc    
,insecta1                               
,vegetabilia1                           
----------------------------      7a7   
,the fossil remains of birds being very 
difficult to be    recognized1 the      
number of genera in that state is       
undoubtably much    more considerable4  
,,the ,,end4      ,,footnotes3    #a    
,see ,note ,a1 at the end of this       
,essay4    #b ,see ,note ,b4    #c ,the 
opinion maintained by some geologists1  
that certain strata  have been formed in
 the inclined position in which they are
 now  found1 admitting it true with     
regard to some particular strata  which 
might have been crystallized1 as ,mr    
,greenough supposes1 like  the deposit  
which encrusts the inside of vessels1 in

 which water  containing gypsum has been
 boiled1 cannot at least apply to those 
which contain shells or rolled stones1  
which could not have waited1  so        
suspended1 the formation of the cement  
by which they were to be  agglutinated4 
#d ,see ,note ,c4    #e ,the conjecture 
of the ,marquis de la ,place1 that the  
materials of  which the globe is        
composed1 have perhaps existed at first 
in the  elastic form1 and have          
successively assumed a liquid           
consistence on  cooling1 and have at    
length been solidified1 is well         
supported by the  recent experiments of 
,m4 ,mitscherlich1 who has composed1 of 
all sorts  of substances1 and           
crystallized by the heat of intense     
furnaces1  several of the mineral       
species which enter into the composition
 of  primitive mountains4--,note ,d4    
#f ,the ,travels of ,saussure and ,deluc
 present a multitude of facts  of this  
description4 ,these geologists imagined1
 that they could  only have been        

produced by enormous eruptions4 ,de     
,buch and ,escher  have recently        
employed themselves upon this subject4  
,the memoir of  the latter1 inserted in 
the ,nouvelle ,alpina of ,steinmller1   
vol4 i4  presents the general results in
 a remarkable manner4 ,the following is 
a comprehensive view of them3 ,such of  
these blocks as are scattered  over the 
low parts of ,switzerland and ,lombardy1
 come from the ,alps1  and have         
descended along their valleys4 ,they    
occur every where1 and  of all sizes1 up
 to #ej1jjj cubic feet1 over the great  
extent of  country which separates the  
,alps from the ,jura mountains2 and they
  rise upon the sides of the latter     
facing the ,alps1 to a height of  #djjj 
feet above the level of the sea4 ,they  
are found at the surface1  or in the    
superficial layers of debris1 but not in
 the strata of  sandstone1 molasse1 or  
conglomerate1 which fill up almost every
 where  the interval in question4 ,they 
are sometimes isolated1 sometimes in    

heaps4 ,the height of their situation is
 not connected with their  magnitude2   
the smaller ones alone appear sometimes 
a little worn1 but  the large ones are  
not so at all4 ,those which belong to   
the basin of  each river are found1 upon
 examination1 to be of the same nature  
as  the mountains of the tops or sides  
of the high valleys in which the        
tributary streams of this river take    
their rise4 ,they are already  seen in  
these upper valleys1 and are            
particularly accumulated at the  places 
which are situated above some of the    
contractions of these  valleys4 ,they   
have passed over the lower hills1 when  
their height  has not been more than    
#djjj feet2 and then they are seen upon 
the  other side of the ridges1 in the   
cantons between the ,alps and ,jura1    
and even upon the latter itself4 ,it is 
opposite the mouths of the  valleys of  
the ,alps that they are seen in the     
greatest quantity1 and  at the greatest 
heights2 those of the intervening spaces

 have not  been carried so high4 ,among 
the chains of the ,jura mountains1 which
  are more remote from the ,alps1 they  
are only found in places which  are     
opposite the openings of the nearer     
chains4    ,from these facts1 the author
 draws the conclusion1 that the         
transportation of these blocks has taken
 place at a period subsequent  to the   
deposition of the sandstones and        
conglomerates1 and has  perhaps been    
occasioned by the last of the           
revolutions which the  globe has        
experienced4 ,he compares the           
transportation in question to  that     
which still takes place from the agency 
of torrents2 but the  objections        
presented by the consideration of the   
great size of the  blocks1 and the deep 
valleys over which they must have       
passed1 appear  to us to militate       
greatly against this part of his        
hypothesis4--,note  ,e4    #g ,regarding
 the changes of the surface of the      
earth1 known from  history or tradition1

 and consequently dependent on causes   
still in  operation1 see the ,german    
work of ,m4 de ,hof1 entitled           
8,geschichte der  ,natrlichen           
,vernderungen der ,erdoberflche10 #b    
vols4 #hvo4 ,goth4 #ahbb  and #ahbd4    
,the facts contained in it are collected
 with equal care and  erudition4    #h  
,note ,f4    #i ,note ,g4    #aj ,voyage
 aux ,terres ,australes1 t4 i4 p4 #afa4 
#aa ,note ,h4    #ab ,it is a common    
opinion in ,sweden1 that the level of   
the sea is  becoming lower1 and that    
many places may even be forded or passed
  dry-shod1 which were formerly         
impracticable4 ,eminent philosophers    
have adopted this popular opinion2 and  
,m4 von ,buch goes so far as  to suppose
 that the whole of ,sweden is gradually 
rising4 ,but it is  singular1 that no   
one has made1 or at least published1 a  
series of  accurate observations1       
calculated to confirm a fact that had   
been  announced so long ago1 and which  
would leave no doubt upon the mind1  if1

 as ,linnus asserts1 this difference of 
level were so much as four  or five feet
 yearly4 ,note ,i4    #ac ,mr           
,stevenson1 in his observations upon the
 bed of the ,german  ,ocean and ,british
 ,channel1 maintains that the level of  
the sea is  continually rising1 and has 
been very sensibly elevated within the  
last three centuries4 ,fortis asserts   
the same of some parts of  the ,adriatic
 sea4 ,but the example of the ,temple of
 ,serapis1 near  ,pouzzola1 proves that 
the margins of that sea are1 in many    
places1  of such a nature as to be      
subject to local risings and fallings4  
,on  the other hand1 there are thousands
 of quays1 roads1 and other works1  made
 along the sea-side by the ,romans1 from
 ,alexandria to ,belgium1  the relative 
level of which has never varied4 ,note  
,k4    #ad ,when ,i formerly mentioned  
this circumstance of the science of     
geology having become ridiculous1 ,i    
only expressed a fact1 to the  truth of 
which every day bears witness2 but in   

this ,i did not profess  to give my own 
opinion1 as some respectable geologists 
seem to have  believed4 ,if their       
mistake has arisen from any thing       
equivocal in my  expressions1 ,i here   
apologize to them4    #ae ,burnet1      
,telluris ,theoria ,sacra4 ,lond4 #afha4
    #af ,woodward1 ,essay towards the   
,natural ,history of the ,earth4 ,lond4 
#agjb4    #ag ,scheuchzer1 ,mm4 de      
l',acad4 #agjh4    #ah ,whiston1 ,new   
,theory of the ,earth4 ,lond4 #agjh4    
#ai ,leibnitz1 ,protoga4 ,act4 ,lips4   
#afhc2 ,gott4 #agdi4    #bj ,telliamed4 
,amsterd4 #agdh4    #ba ,theorie de la  
,terre1 #agdi2 and ,epoques de la       
,nature1 #agge4    #bb ,see ,la         
,physique de ,rodig4 p4 #ajf1 ,leipsic1 
#ahja2 and ,telliamed1  vol4 ii4 p4     
#afi1 as well as a multitude of new     
,german works4 ,m4 de  ,lamarck has of  
late years developed this system to a   
great extent1 in  ,france1 and supported
 it with much ingenuity1 in his         
,hydrogeologie  and ,philosophie        

,zoologique4    #bc ,m4 ,patrin has     
shewn much ingenuity in supporting these
  fantastical ideas1 in several articles
 of the ,nouveau ,dictionnaire          
d',histoire ,naturelle4    #bd ,this    
application of pantheism to geology may 
be best seen in the  works of ,oken and 
,steffens4    #be ,delamtherie1 in his  
8,gologie10 admits crystallization as   
the  principal agent4    #bf ,hutton and
 ,playfair4--,illustrations of the      
,huttonian ,theory of  the ,earth4      
,edin4 #ahjb4    #bg ,lamanon1--in      
various parts of the ,journal de        
,physique1--after  ,michaelis1 and      
several others4    #bh ,dolomieu1 in the
 ,journal de ,physique4    #bi ,,mm4 de 
,marschall1 in their ,researches        
respecting the ,origin and  ,development
 of the present order of the ,world4    
,giessen1 #ahjb4    #cj                 
,bertrand1--,periodical ,renewal of the 
,terrestrial ,continents4  ,hamburgh1   
#agii4    #ca ,my work has1 in fact1    
proved how far this inquiry was yet new 

when ,i commenced it1 notwithstanding   
the excellent labours of ,camper1       
,pallas1 ,blumenbach1 ,merk1 ,smmering1 
,rosenmller1 ,fischer1 ,faujas1  ,home1 
and other learned men1 whose works ,i   
have most scrupulously  cited in such of
 my chapters as their researches are    
connected with4    #cb ,this is more    
particularly noticed in the ,chapter on 
,elephants in  the first volume of      
,professor ,cuvier's ,recherches4    #cc
 ,see the history of the ,rhinoceros in 
the first part of the  second volume of 
,professor ,cuvier's ,recherches4    #cd
 ,see the chapter on the ,hippopotamus1 
in the first volume of  ,recherches4    
#ce ,hist4 ,anim4 ,lib4 ii4 cap4 #a4    
#cf ,jul4 ,capitol41 ,gord4 iii4 cap4   
#bc4    #cg ,antilope ,gnu1 ,gmel4      
#ch ,pliny1 ,lib4 viii4 cap4 #cb42 and  
lian1 ,lib4 vii4 cap4 #e4    #ci lian1  
,anim4 v4 #bg4    #dj ,pliny1 lib4 viii4
 cap4 #ae42 and lib4 xi4 cap4 #cg4      
#da lian1 ,anim4 xiv4 #ad4    #db ,opp4 
,cyneg41 ii4 v4 #dde4 et seq4    #dc    

,pliny1 lib4 viii4 cap4 #ba4    #dd ,see
 the great ,work upon ,egypt1 ,antiq4   
iv4 pl4 #di42 and pl4 #ff4    #de lian1 
,anim4 xv4 #ad4    #df ,idem1 ,anim4    
iii4 #cd4    #dg ,arist4 ,hist4 ,anim4  
lib4 ii4 cap4 #e4    #dh lian1 ii4 #ec4 
#di ,idem1 ii4 #bj4    #ej ,idem1 xv4   
#bd4    #ea ,idem1 xv4 #bd4    #eb      
,idem1 ,anim4 iii4 #c4    #ec ,idem1 iv4
 #cb4    #ed ,this is more particularly 
explained in the chapters upon ,deer    
and ,oxen1 in the fourth volume of      
,professor ,cuvier's ,recherches4    #ee
 ,aurochs is ,bos ,urus1 ,lin41 not the 
,urus of the ancients1 which  latter    
appears now to be extinct4    #ef       
,buffon having read in ,du ,fouilloux a 
mutilated passage of  ,gaston-,phbus1   
,count de ,foix1 in which that prince   
describes the  chase of the rein-deer1  
imagined that1 in the time of ,gaston1  
this  animal lived in the ,pyrenees2 and
 the printed editions of ,gaston  were  
so faulty1 that it was difficult to make
 out1 with certainty1  what the author  

had intended to say2 but having had     
recourse to his  original manuscript1   
which is preserved in the ,royal        
,library1 ,i have  ascertained that it  
was in ,xueden and ,nourvgue1 7,sweden  
and  ,norway71 that he relates having   
seen and hunted the rein-deer4    #eg   
,athenis1 lib4 v4    #eh ,the only error
 committed1 is that of giving it a claw 
too much  to the hind foot4 ,augustus   
exhibited thirty-six of them2 ,dion1    
lib4  lv4    #ei ,caracalla killed one  
of them in the ,circus2 ,dion1 lib4     
lxxvii4  ,consult also ,gisb4 ,cuperi de
 ,eleph4 in nummis obviis1 ex4 ii4 cap4 
vii4    #fj ,see ,lichtenstein1         
,comment4 de ,simiarum quotquot         
veteribus  innotuerunt formis4          
,hamburgh1 #agia4    #fa ,the ,jerboa is
 impressed upon the medals of ,cyrene1  
and indicated  by ,aristotle under the  
name of ,two-legged ,rat4    #fb ,plin4 
viii4 #ca4 ,arist4 lib4 ii4 cap4 #dj4   
,phot4 ,bibl41 ,art4 #gb2  ,ctes4       
,indic4 lian1 ,anim41 iv4 #ba4    #fc   

lian1 ,anim4 iv4 #bg4    #fd lian1 xvi4 
#bj4 ,photius1 ,bibl41 art4 #gb4 ,ctes4 
,indic4    #fe ,see ,corneille ,lebrun1 
,voyage en ,muscovie1 en ,perse et aux  
,indes1  tom4 ii4 ,see also the ,german 
work by ,m4 ,heeren1 on the ,commerce of
  the ,ancients4    #ff ,photius1       
,bibl41 art4 #bej4 ,agatharchid41       
,excerpt4 hist41 cap4  xxxix4 lian1     
,anim4 xvii4 #de4 ,plin4 viii4 #ba4     
#fg ,i have even seen1 in the collection
 of the late ,mr ,addrien  ,camper1 a   
skeleton of a hyena1 in which several of
 the vertebr of  the neck were          
anchylosed4 ,it was probably from seeing
 some similar  individual that the      
character in question was attributed to 
all  hyenas4 ,this animal ought to be   
more subject than any other to such  an 
accident1 on account of the prodigious  
power of the muscles of its  neck1 and  
the frequent use which it makes of them4
 ,when the hyena has  laid hold of any  
thing1 it is easier to drag it along by 
it than to  wrest it from its jaws2 and 

it is this circumstance which has caused
  the ,arabs to consider it as the      
emblem of invincible obstinacy4    #fh  
,it does not in reality change its sex1 
but it has an orifice in  the perineum1 
which might make it be supposed to be   
hermaphrodite4    #fi ,arist4 ,anim4 ii4
 #a4 iii4 #a4 ,plin4 xl4 #df4    #gj    
,herod4 iv4 #aib4    #ga ,oppian1       
,cyneg4 ii4 vers4 #eea4    #gb ,plin4   
viii4 #ec4    #gc ,philostorg4 iii4 #aa4
    #gd ,plin4 viii4 #ba4    #ge        
,onesicrit1 ap4 ,strab4 lib4 xv4 lian1  
xiii4 #db4    #gf ,plin4 viii4 #ca4     
#gg ,barrow's ,voyage to the ,cape1 ,fr4
 transl4 ii4 #agh4    #gh ,oppian1      
,cyneg1 lib4 ,,ii4 v4 #dfh4 and #dga4   
#gi ,de ,anim4 lib4 xv4 cap4 #ad4    #hj
 lian1 ,anim4 iv4 #eb2 ,photius1 ,bibl4 
p4 #aed4    #ha ,i do not intend by this
 remark1 as ,i have already observed on 
a former occasion1 to detract from the  
merit of the observations of  ,camper1  
,pallas1 ,blumenbach1 ,smmering1 ,merk1 
,faugas1 ,rosenmller1  ,home1 c42 but   

their excellent works1 which have been  
very useful  to me1 and which ,i quote  
throughout1 are incomplete2 and several 
of  these works have only been published
 since the first editions of this       
,essay4    #hb ,see ,m4 ,frederick      
,cuvier's memoir upon the varieties of  
dogs1 in  the ,annales du ,museum       
d',histoire ,naturelle1 which he drew up
 at the  request of ,professor ,cuvier1 
from a series of skeletons of all the   
varieties of the dog prepared in the    
,professor's collection4    #hc ,the    
first figure made of it from nature is  
in the ,description  de la ,menagerie1 a
 work composed by ,m4 ,cuvier4 ,it is   
seen perfectly  represented in the great
 work on ,egypt4--,antiq4 t4 iv4 pl4    
xlix4    #hd ,see the ,journal de       
,marseille et des ,bouches-du-,rhne1 of 
the  #bgth ,sept4 #beth ,oct4 and #ast  
,nov4 #ahbj4    #he ,i am confirmed in  
this opinion by the sketches transmitted
 to me  by ,m4 ,cottard1 one of the     
,professors of the ,college of          

,marseilles4    #hf ,these skeletons1   
more or less mutilated1 are found near  
,port  de ,moule1 on the north-west     
coast of the mainland of ,guadaloupe1 in
  a kind of slope resting against the   
steep edges of the island4 ,this  slope 
is1 in a great measure1 covered by the  
sea at high-water1 and  is nothing else 
than a tufa1 formed1 and daily          
augmented1 by the very  small debris of 
shells and corals1 which the waves      
detach from the  rocks1 and the         
accumulated mass of which assumes a     
great degree of  cohesion in the places 
that are most frequently left dry4 ,we  
find1 on  examining them with a lens1   
that several of these fragments have the
  same red tint as a part of the corals 
contained in the reefs of the  island4  
,formations of this kind are common in  
the whole archipelago  of the ,antilles1
 where they are known to the ,negroes   
under the name  of ,maonne-bon-dieu4    
,their augmentation is proportioned to  
the  violence of the surge4 ,they have  

extended the plain of the ,cayes  to ,st
 ,domingo1 the situation of which has   
some resemblance to the  ,plage du      
,moule1 and there are sometimes found in
 it fragments of  earthen vessels1 and  
of other articles of human fabrication1 
at a  depth of twenty feet4 ,a thousand 
conjectures have been made1 and  even   
events imagined1 to account for these   
skeletons of ,guadaloupe4  ,but1 from   
all the circumstances of the case1 ,m4  
,moreau de ,jonns1  correspondent of the
 ,academy of ,sciences1 who has been    
upon the spot1  and to whom ,i am       
indebted for the above details1 thinks  
that they are  merely bodies of persons 
that have perished by shipwreck4 ,they  
were  discovered in #ahje by ,m4 ,manuel
 ,corts y ,campomans1 at that time a    
general officer in the service of the   
colony4 ,general ,ernouf1 the  governor1
 caused one to be extracted with much   
labour1 of which the  head1 and almost  
the whole superior extremities1 were    
wanting4 ,this  had been deposited at   

,guadaloupe1 in the expectation that    
another  and more complete specimen     
would be procured1 in order to send them
  together to ,paris1 when the island   
was taken by the ,english4 ,admiral     
,cochrane having found this skeleton at 
the headquarters1 sent it to  the       
,english ,admiralty1 who presented it to
 the ,british ,museum4 ,it is  still in 
that collection1 and ,m4 ,knig1 ,keeper 
of the ,mineralogical  ,department1 has 
described it in the ,phil4 ,trans4 of   
#ahad1 and there  ,i saw it in #ahah4   
,m4 ,knig observes1 that the stone in   
which it is  imbedded1 has not been cut 
to its present shape1 but that it seems 
to  have been simply inserted1 in the   
form of a distinct nodule1 into the     
surrounding mass4 ,the skeleton is so   
superficial1 that its presence  must    
have been perceived by the projection of
 some of its bones4  ,they still contain
 some of their animal matter1 and the   
whole of  their phosphate of lime4 ,the 
rock being entirely formed of pieces of 

corals1 and of compact limestone1       
readily dissolves in nitric acid4  ,m4  
,knig has detected fragments of         
,millepora miniacea1 of several         
madrepores1 and of shells1 which he     
compares to ,helix acuta and  ,turbo    
pica4 ,this fossil skeleton is          
represented in ,plate ,i4 ,more         
recently1 ,general ,donzelot has caused 
another of these skeletons  to be       
extracted1 which is now in the ,royal   
,cabinet1 and of which a  figure is     
given in ,plate ,,ii4 ,it is a body     
which has the knees bent4  ,a small     
portion of the upper jaw1 the left half 
of the lower1 nearly  the whole of one  
side of the trunk and pelvis1 and a     
large portion of  the left upper and    
lower extremities1 are what remain of   
it4 ,the rock  which contains it1 is    
evidently a travertin1 in which are     
imbedded  shells of the neighbouring    
sea1 and land-shells1 which are still   
found alive in the island1 namely1 the  
,bulimus guadalupensis of  ,ferussac4   

#hg ,see ,m4 de ,schlotheim's ,treatise 
on ,petrifactions1 ,gotha1 #ahbj1  p4   
#eg2 and his ,letter in the ,isis of    
#ahbj1 #hth ,number1 ,no4 #f4 of        
,supplement4    #hh ,it is perhaps      
proper that ,i take notice of those     
fragments of  sandstone1 regarding which
 some noise was attempted to be made    
last  year 7#ahbd71 and in which a man  
and a horse were alleged to have  been  
found petrified4 ,the mere circumstance 
of its being a man and  a horse1 with   
their flesh and skin1 that these        
fragments must have  represented1 might 
have enabled every one to perceive that 
the whole  was a mere lusus natur1 and  
not a true petrifaction4--,note ,l4     
#hi ,fourcroy has given an analysis of  
them in the ,annales du ,museum1  vol4  
x4 p4 #a4    #ij ,journal de ,physique1 
t4 xlii1 p4 #dj4 et seq4    #ia ,herod4 
,euterpe1 v4 and xxv4    #ib ,arist4    
,meteor4 lib4 i4 cap4 #ad4    #ic       
,demaillet1 ,description of ,egypt1 p4  
#ajb-c4    #id ,herod4 ,euterpe1 xiii4  

#ie ,see ,m4 ,girard's ,observations on 
the valley of ,egypt2 and on the        
secular increase of the soil which      
covers it1 in the great work upon       
,egypt1 and ,mod4 ,mem4 t4 ii4 p4 #cdc4 
,on this subject we may further  observe
 that ,dolomieu1 ,shaw1 and other       
respectable authors1 have  estimated    
these secular elevations much higher    
than ,m4 ,girard4 ,it is  to be         
lamented1 that nowhere has it been tried
 to examine the depth  of these deposits
 over the original soil1 or the natural 
rock4    #if ,see ,m4 ,forfait's ,memoir
 on the lagunes of ,venice1 inserted in 
the ,mm4 de la ,classe ,phys4 de        
l',institut1 t4 v4 p4 #bac4    #ig ,note
 ,m4    #ih ,in various parts of the two
 last volumes of his ,letters to the    
,queen of ,england4    #ii ,melpom4     
lxxxvi4    #ajj ,ibid4 lvi4    #aja     
,this supposed diminution of the ,black 
,sea and ,sea of ,asoph1 has  also been 
attributed to the rupture of the        
,bosphorus1 which had taken  place at   

the pretended period of the deluge of   
,deucalion2 and yet1  in order to       
establish the fact itself1 recourse is  
had to successive  diminutions of the   
extent attributed to these seas by      
,herodotus1  ,strabo1 and others4 ,but  
it is very obvious1 that1 if this       
diminution  had arisen from the rupture 
of the ,bosphorus1 it would necessarily 
have been completed long before the time
 of ,herodotus1 and even at  the period 
at which ,deucalion is supposed to have 
lived4    #ajb ,see the ,geography of   
,herodotus by ,m4 ,rennel1 p4 #ef4 et   
seq42  and the ,physical ,geography of  
the ,black ,sea1 c4 by ,m4 ,dureau de   
,lamalle4 ,there is only at present the 
small river of ,kamennoipost1  that     
could represent the ,gerrhus and        
,hypacyris1 such as they are  described 
by ,herodotus4    ,m4 ,dureau1 p4 #agj1 
supposes ,herodotus to have made the    
,borysthenes  and ,hypanis discharge    
themselves into the ,palus ,motis2 but  
,herodotus  7in ,melpom4 liii47 only    

says that these two rivers fall together
  into the same lake1 that is1 into the 
,liman1 as at the present day4          
,herodotus does not carry the ,gerrhus  
and ,hypacyris any farther4    #ajc ,for
 example1 ,m4 ,dureau de ,lamalle1 in   
his ,physical ,geography  of the ,black 
,sea1 quotes ,aristotle 7,meteor4 lib4  
i4 cap4 #ac47 as  8apprising us1 that1  
in his time1 there still existed several
 ancient  periods and peripli1 attesting
 that there had been a canal leading    
from the ,caspian ,sea into the ,palus  
,motis40 ,now1 ,aristotle's words  at   
the place mentioned 7,duval's edition1  
i4 #ede4 ,b47 are merely  these3 8,from 
the ,paropamisus1 descend1 among other  
rivers1 the  ,bactrus1 the ,choaspes1   
and the ,araxis1 from which the ,tanais1
 which  is a branch of it1 takes its    
origin1 into the ,palus ,motis40 ,who   
does  not see that this nonsense1 which 
is neither founded upon peripli  nor    
periods1 is nothing else than the       
strange idea of ,alexander's  soldiers1 

who took the ,jaxartes or ,tanais of the
 ,transoxian for the  ,don or ,tanais of
 ,scythia8 ,arrian and ,pliny           
distinguish these two  rivers from each 
other1 but the distinction does not     
appear to have  been made in the time of
 ,aristotle4 ,how1 then1 could such     
geographers  as these furnish us with   
geological documents8    #ajd ,see the  
,report upon the ,downs of the ,gulf of 
,gascony 7or ,bay of  ,biscay7 by ,m4   
,tassin4--,mont4 de-,marsan1 an x4      
#aje ,memoir on the means of fixing     
,downs1 by ,m4 ,bremontier4    #ajf     
,report of ,m4 ,tassin1 loc4 cit4       
#ajg ,see ,m4 ,bremontier's ,memoir4    
#ajh ,denon1 ,voyage en ,egypte4    #aji
 ,we might cite in confirmation all the 
travellers who have  visited the western
 border of ,egypt4    #aaj ,these       
phenomena are very well treated of in   
,m4 ,deluc's  ,letters to the ,queen of 
,england1 in the parts where he         
describes  the peat-mosses of           
,westphalia2 and in his ,letters to     

,lametherie1  inserted in the ,journal  
de ,physique for #agia1 c4 as well as in
 those  which he has addressed to       
,blumenbach4 ,we may refer also to the  
very  interesting details which are     
given in note ,f1 respecting the islands
  of the west coast of the ,duchy of    
,sleswick1 and the manner in which  they
 have been joined1 whether to one       
another1 or to the continent1  by       
alluvial depositions and peat-mosses1 as
 well as respecting the  irruptions of  
the sea which from time to time have    
destroyed or  separated some of their   
parts4    #aaa ,the period of ,cyrus1   
about #fej years before the ,christian  
era4    #aab ,the period of ,ninus1     
about #bcdh years before ,christ1       
according  to ,ctesias1 and those who   
have followed him2 but only #abej1      
according  to ,volney1 after ,herodotus4
    #aac ,herodotus lived #ddj years    
before ,christ4    #aad ,cadmus1        
,pherecydes1 ,aristus of ,proconnesus1  
,acusilaus1  ,hecatus of ,miletum1      

,charon of ,lampsacus1 c4 ,see ,vossius1
 ,histor4  ,grc4 lib4 i41 and especially
 his fourth book4    #aae ,note ,n4     
#aaf ,the ,septuagint1 #ecde years2 the 
,samaritan text1 #dhfi2 the  ,hebrew    
text1 #dagd4    #aag ,there is a        
difference of several years among       
chronologists  with respect to each of  
these events2 but these migrations form1
  notwithstanding1 the peculiar and very
 remarkable feature of the  fifteenth   
and sixteenth centuries before the      
christian era4 ,thus1  according to the 
calculations of ,usserius1 ,cecrops came
 from ,egypt to  ,athens about #aeef    
years before ,christ2 ,deucalion settled
 on ,parnassus  about #aedh2 ,cadmus    
arrived from ,phenicia at ,thebes about 
#adic2 ,danaus  came to ,argos about    
#adhe2 and ,dardanus established himself
 on the  ,hellespont about #addi4 ,all  
these founders of nations must therefore
  have been nearly contemporary with    
,moses1 whose migration took place  in  
#adia4 ,consult further1 regarding the  

synchronism of ,moses1 ,danaus  and     
,cadmus1 ,diodorus1 lib4 xi2 in         
,photius1 p4 #aaeb4    #aah ,the        
genealogies of ,apollodorus are         
generally known1 and that  portion of   
them upon which ,clavier endeavoured to 
establish a sort of  primitive history  
of ,greece2 but1 when we become         
acquainted with the  genealogies of the 
,arabs1 those of the ,tartars1 and all  
those which  our old chronicling monks  
invented for the different sovereigns of
  ,europe1 and even for individuals1 we 
readily comprehend that ,greek  writers 
must have done for the early periods of 
their nation what has  been done for all
 the other nations1 at periods when     
criticism had  not been used to throw   
light upon history4    #aai #ahef or    
#ahbc years before ,christ1 or other    
dates still1 but  always about #cej     
years before the principal ,phnician or 
,egyptian  colonies4    #abj ,the common
 date of ,ogyges1 according to          
,acusilaus1 followed by  ,eusebius1 is  

#agif years before ,christ1 consequently
 several years  after ,inachus4    #aba 
,varro places the deluge of ,ogyges1    
which he calls the first  deluge1 #djj  
years before ,inachus1 and consequently 
#afjj years  before the first ,olympiad4
 ,this would refer it to a period of    
#bcgf  years before ,christ2 and the    
deluge of ,noah1 according to the       
,hebrew text1 is #bcdi1 there being only
 #bg years of difference4 ,this         
testimony of ,varro is mentioned by     
,censorinus1 ,de ,die ,natali1  cap4    
xxi4 ,in reality1 ,censorinus wrote only
 #bch years after ,christ2  and1 it     
appears1 from ,julius ,africanus1 ap4   
,euseb4 ,prp4 cv4 that  ,acusilaus1 the 
first author who placed a deluge in the 
reign of  ,ogyges1 made this prince     
cotemporary with ,phoronus1 which would 
have  brought him very near the first   
,olympiad4 ,julius ,africanus makes only
  an interval of #ajbj years between the
 two epochs2 and there is even  a       
passage in ,censorinus conformable to   

this opinion4 ,some also read  erogitium
 in place of ogygium1 in the passage of 
,varro1 which  we have quoted above from
 ,censorinus4 ,but what would this be   
but an  ,erogitian ,cataclysm1 of which 
nobody has ever heard8    #abb ,neither 
,homer nor ,hesiod knew any thing of the
 deluge of  ,deucalion1 any more than   
that of ,ogyges4 ,the first author1     
whose  works are extant1 by whom mention
 is made of the former1 is ,pindar      
7,od4 ,olymp4 ix47 ,he speaks of        
,deucalion as landing upon ,parnassus1  
establishing himself in the city of     
,protogene 7first growth or  birth71 and
 re-creating his people from stones2 in 
a word1 he  relates1 but confining it to
 a single nation only1 the fable        
afterwards generalized by ,ovid1 and    
applied to the whole human race4  ,the  
first historians who wrote after        
,pindar1 namely1 ,herodotus1            
,thucydides1 and ,xenophon1 make no     
mention of any deluge1 whether of  the  
time of ,ogyges1 or that of ,deucalion1 

although they speak of the  latter as   
one of the first kings of the ,hellenes4
    ,plato1 in his ,timus1 says only a  
few words of the deluge1 as well  as of 
,deucalion and ,pyrrha1 in order to     
commence the recital of the  great      
catastrophe1 which1 according to the    
priests of ,sais1 destroyed  the        
,atlantis2 but1 in these few words1 he  
speaks of the deluge in the  singular   
number1 as if it had been the only one4 
,he even expressly  mentions farther on1
 that the ,greeks knew only one4 ,he    
places the  name of ,deucalion          
immediately after that of ,phoroneus1   
the first of  the human race1 without   
making mention of ,ogyges4 ,thus1 with  
him1 it  is still a general event1 a    
true universal deluge1 and the only one 
which had happened4 ,he regards it1     
therefore1 as identical with that  of   
,ogyges4    ,aristotle 7,meteor4 i4     
#ad47 seems to be the first who         
considered this  deluge only as a local 
inundation1 which he places near ,dodona

 and  the river ,achelous1 but near the 
,achelous and ,dodona of ,thessaly4     
,apollodorus 7,bibl4 i4  #g47 restores  
to the deluge of ,deucalion all  its    
grandeur and mythological character4    
,according to him1 it took  place at the
 period when the age of brass was       
passing into the age  of iron4          
,deucalion is the son of ,titan         
,prometheus1 the fabricator  of man2 he 
forms anew the human race of stones2 and
 yet ,atlas1 his  uncle1 ,phoroneus1 who
 lived before him1 and several other    
personages  anterior to him1 preserve a 
lengthened posterity4    ,in proportion 
as we advance toward authors who        
approach nearer our  own times1 we find 
circumstances of detail added1 which    
more resemble  those related by ,moses4 
,thus ,apollodorus gives ,deucalion a   
great  chest as a means of safety2      
,plutarch speaks of the pigeons by which
  he sought to find out whether the     
waters had retired2 and ,lucian1 of  the
 animals of every kind which he had     

taken with him1 c4    ,with regard to   
the blending of traditions and          
hypotheses1 by which  it has recently   
been tried to infer the conclusion1 that
 the rupture  of the ,thracian          
,bosphorus was the cause of ,deucalion's
 deluge1  and even of the opening of the
 pillars of ,hercules1 by making the    
waters of the ,euxine ,sea discharge    
themselves into the ,archipelago1       
supposing them to have been much higher 
and more extended than they  have been  
since that event1 it is not necessary   
for us to treat of  it in detail1 since 
it has been determined by the           
observations of ,m4  ,olivier1 that if  
the ,black ,sea had been as high as it  
is imagined  to have been1 it would have
 found several passages for its waters1 
by hills and plains less elevated than  
the present banks of the  ,bosphorus2   
and by those of the ,count ,andreossy1  
that had it one day  fallen suddenly in 
the manner of a cascade by this new     
passage1  the small quantity of water   

that could have flowed at once through  
so narrow an aperture1 would not only be
 diffused over the immense  extent of   
the ,mediterranean1 without occasioning 
a tide of a few  fathoms1 but that the  
mere natural inclination necessary for  
the  flowing of the waters1 would have  
reduced to nothing their excess of      
height above the shores of ,attica4     
,see further on this subject the note   
that ,i have published at the  head of  
the third volume of ,ovid1 of ,m4       
,lemaire's collection4    #abc          
,dionysius of ,halicarnassus1 ,antiq4   
,rom4 lib4 i4 cap4 lxi4    #abd         
,diodorus ,siculus1 lib4 v4 cap4 xlvii4 
#abe ,stephen of ,byzantium1 under the  
word ,iconium2--,zenodotus1 ,prov4      
cent4 vi4 ,no4 #aj42--;and ,suidas1 voce
 ,nannacus4    #abf ,lucian1 ,de ,de    
,syr4    #abg ,arnobius1 ,contra ,gnt4  
lib4 v4 p4 m4 #aeh1 even speaks of a    
rock  in ,phrygia1 from which it was    
pretended that ,deucalion and ,pyrrha   
had  taken their stones4    #abh ,this  

mutual resemblance in their institutions
 is carried to  such an extent as to    
make it very natural to suppose that    
these  nations had a common origin4 ,it 
should not be forgotten1 that many      
ancient authors thought that the        
,egyptian institutions came from        
,ethiopia2 and that ,syncellus1 p4 #aea4
 says positively that the  ,ethiopians  
came from the banks of the ,indus in the
 time of ,king  ,amenophtis4    #abi    
,see ,polier4 ,mythology of the         
,hindoos1 vol4 i4 p4 #hi1 #ia4    #acj  
,see the elaborate ,memoir of ,mr       
,wilfort1 on the chronology of  the     
kings of ,magadha1 and the ,indian      
emperors1 and on the epochs  of         
,vicramaditya or ,bikermadjit1 and      
,salivahanna1 in the ,calcutta          
,memoirs1 vol4 ix4 p4 #hb4 #hvo4 edit4  
#aca ,see ,sir ,william ,jones on the   
chronology of the ,hindoos1  ,calcutta  
,memoirs1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aaa4 ,see also   
,wilfort on the same  subject1 ,ibid4   
vol4 v4 p4 #bda4 and the lists which he 

gives in his  essay cited above1 vol4   
ix4 p4 #aaf4    #acb ,wilfort1 ,calcutta
 ,mem4 #hvo4 vol4 ix4 p4 #acc4    #acc  
,in the ,ayeen-,acbery1 vol4 ii4 p4     
#ach1 of the ,english transl4  ,see also
 ,heeren1 ,commerce of the ,ancients1   
vol4 i4 part ii4 p4 #cbi4    #acd ,see  
,bentley1 on the ,astronomical ,systems 
of the ,hindoos1 and  their ,connection 
with ,history2 ,calcutta ,memoirs1 vol4 
viii4 p4 #bdc4  of the #hvo edition4    
#ace ,see ,mr ,colebrooke's ,memoir on  
the ,vedas1 ,calcutta ,memoirs1 vol4    
viii4 p4 #dic4 #hvo edition4    #acf    
,megasthenes apud ,strabonem1 lib4 xv4  
p4 #gji4 ,almel4    #acg ,the epoch     
which gave birth to the present age1    
,caliyug 7the  earthen age17 #dibg years
 before the present day1 or #cbjj years 
before  ,christ4 ,see ,legentil1 ,voyage
 aux ,indes1 t4 i4 p4 #bec42--;,bentley1
  ,calcutta ,memoirs1 vol4 viii4 of the 
#hvo edition1 p4 #bab4 ,this period  is 
only fifty-nine years farther back than 
the deluge of ,noah1  according to the  

,samaritan text4    #ach ,the person    
named ,satyavrata plays the same part as
 ,noah1 by  saving himself with fourteen
 saints4 ,see ,sir ,w4 ,jones1 ,calcutta
  ,memoirs1 vol4 i4 p4 #bcj4 #hvo       
edition2--also in the ,bagvadam1 or     
,bagavata1 translated by ,fouch         
d',obsonville1 p4 #bab4    #aci         
,cala-,javana1 or1 in common language1  
,cal-,yun1 to whom his  partisans might 
have given the epithet1 deva1 deo1      
7dieu1 god71  having attacked ,chrishna 
7the ,indian ,apollo71 at the head of   
the  northern nations 7the ,scythians1  
of whom was ,deucalion1 according  to   
,lucian71 was repulsed by fire and      
water4 ,his father ,garga had  for one  
of his surnames ,pramathesa             
7,prometheus72 and1 according  to       
another legend1 he was devoured by the  
eagle ,garuda4 ,these  particulars have 
been extracted by ,mr ,wilfort 7in his  
,memoir upon  ,mount ,caucasus1         
,calcutta ,memoirs1 vol4 vi4 p4 #ejg1   
#hvo edition71  from the ,sanscrit      

drama1 entitled ,hari-,vansa4 ,mr       
,charles ,ritter1 in  his ,vestibule of 
the ,history of ,europe before          
,herodotus1 concludes  that the whole   
fable of ,deucalion was of foreign      
origin1 and had  been brought into      
,greece along with the other legends of 
that part  of the ,grecian worship which
 had come from the north1 and which had 
preceded the ,egyptian and ,phenician   
colonies4 ,but if it be true that  the  
constellations of the ,indian sphere    
have also names of persons  celebrated  
in ,greece1 that ,andromeda and ,cepheus
 are represented  under the names of    
,antarmadia and ,capiia1 c4 we should   
perhaps  be induced to draw1 with ,mr   
,wilfort1 a conclusion quite the        
reverse4  ,unfortunately the            
authenticity of the documents referred  
to by this  writer has been doubted     
among the learned4    #adj ,about #djjj 
years before the present time4 ,see     
,bentley1 ,calcutta  ,memoirs1 vol4     
viii4 p4 #bbf4 of the #hvo edition1     

,note4    #ada ,see ,plato's ,timus and 
,critias4    #adb ,euterpe1 chap4 xcix4 
et seq4    #adc ,herodotus thought he   
had discovered relations of figure and  
colour between the ,colchians and       
,egyptians2 but it is infinitely more   
probable that those dark-coloured       
,colchians of which he speaks1 were  an 
,indian colony1 attracted by the        
commerce anciently established  between 
,india and ,europe1 by the ,oxus1 the   
,caspian ,sea1 and the  ,phasis4 ,see   
,ritter1 ,vestibule of ,ancient ,history
 before ,herodotus1  chap4 i4    #add   
,euterpe1 chap4 cxliii4    #ade ,ibid4  
cxliv4    #adf ,euterpe2 cxli4    #adg  
,ibid4 clix41 and in the fourth ,book of
 the ,kings1 chap4 #ai1 or  in the      
second of the ,paral4 chap4 #cb4    #adh
 ,syncell4 p4 #dj4    #adi ,syncell4 p4 
#ea4    #aej ,ibid4 p4 #ia4 et seq4     
#aea ,diod4 ,sic4 lib4 i4 sect4 #b4     
#aeb ,tacit4 ,annal4 lib4 ii4 cap4 #fj4 
,n4 ,b4--,according to the              
interpretation given by ,ammianus1 lib4 

xvii4  cap4 #d41 of the hieroglyphics on
 the obelisk of ,thebes1 which is at    
present in ,rome in the place of ,st    
,john of ,latran1 it appears that a     
,rhamestes was styled1 after the eastern
 manner1 lord of the habitable  earth2  
and that the history told to ,germanicus
 was only a commentary  on this         
inscription4    #aec ,pliny1 lib4 xxxvi4
 cap4 #h1 #i1 #aj1 #aa4    #aed ,that of
 ,ramestes in ,ammian4 loc4 cit4    #aee
 ,stromat4 lib4 vi4 p4 #fcc4    #aef    
,see the 8,precis du ,systeme           
,hieroglyphique des ,anciens            
,egyptiens10 by ,m4 ,champollion the    
younger1 p4 #bde2 and his ,letter to    
the ,duke de ,blacas1 p4 #ae et seq4    
#aeg ,this important bas-relief is      
engraved in the second volume of  ,m4   
,caillaud's ,voyage  ,mero1 ,plate      
xxxii4    #aeh ,syncell1 p4 #ei4    #aei
 ,canon1 p4 #cee4    #afj ,the whole    
ancient mythology of the ,brahmins has  
relation to the  plains or the course of
 the ,ganges1 where their first         

establishments  were evidently formed4  
#afa ,the descriptions of the ancient   
,chaldean monuments have a  strong      
resemblance to what we see of those of  
the ,indians and  ,egyptians2 but these 
monuments are not equally well          
preserved1  because they were only built
 of bricks dried in the sun4    #afb    
,clio1 cap4 xcv4    #afc ,clio1 cap4    
vii4    #afd ,stephen of ,byzantium1 at 
the word ,chaldi4    #afe ,josephus1    
7,contra ,app47 lib4 i4 cap4 xix4       
#aff ,diod4 ,sic4 lib4 ii4    #afg      
,josephus 7contra ,app47 lib4 i4 cap4   
#f2 and ,strabo1 lib4 xv4 p4  #fhg4     
#afh ,see in the ,memoirs of the        
,academy of ,belles ,lettres1 vol4 v4   
the memoir of ,freret on the ,history of
 the ,assyrians4    #afi ,strabo1 lib4  
xi4 p4 #ejg4    #agj ,syncellus1 p4 #ch 
and #ci4    #aga ,n4 ,b4--,it is very   
remarkable that ,herodotus does not     
mention  having seen monuments of       
,sesostris1 except in ,palestine1 and   
does not  speak of those of ,ionia1 but 

upon the authority of others1 adding1 at
  the same time1 that ,sesostris is not 
named in the inscriptions1 and  that    
those who had seen these monuments      
attributed them to ,memnon4  ,see       
,euterpe1 chap4 cvi4    #agb ,justin1   
lib4 i4 cap4 i4 ,vetleius ,paterculus1  
lib4 i4 cap4 #g4    #agc ,see ,moses of 
,chorene1 ,histor4 ,armeniac4 lib4 l4   
cap4 i4    #agd ,see the ,preface of the
 ,brothers ,whiston1 regarding ,moses of
  ,chorene1 p4 #d4    #age ,zendavesta  
of ,anquetil1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ced4    #agf 
,mazoudi1 ap4 ,sacy1 ,,ms4 of the ,royal
 ,library1 vol4 viii4 p4 #afa4    #agg  
,see the preface to the edition of      
,chou-king1 by ,m4 de ,guignes4    #agh 
,chou-king1 ,french translation1 p4 #i4 
#agi ,see the ,yu-kong1 or first chapter
 of the second part of the  ,chou-king1 
pp4 #dc-fj4    #ahj ,see the excellent  
and magnificent work of ,m4 de ,humboldt
 upon  the ,mexican monuments4    #aha  
,geminus1 who was cotemporary with      
,cicero1 explains their  motives at     

length4 ,see ,m4 ,halma's edition at the
 end of the ,ptolome1  p4 #dc4    #ahb  
,the whole of this system is developed  
by ,censorinus1 ,de ,die  ,natali1 cap4 
xviii4 and xxi4    #ahc ,ideler4        
,historical ,researches regarding the   
,astronomical  ,observations of the     
,ancients4 ,m4 ,halma's translation1 at 
the end of  his ,canon de ,ptolome1 p4  
#cb4 et seq4    #ahd ,bainbridge1       
,canicul4    #ahe ,petau1 ,var4 ,dios4  
lib4 v4 cap4 vi4 p4 #ajh4--;,also1 ,la  
,nanze1  ,acad4 de ,bell4 ,lett4 t4 xiv4
 p4 #cdf4    #ahf ,petau4 loc4 cit4 ,m4 
,ideler asserts that this concurrence of
  the heliacal rising of ,sirius also   
took place in #bghb before ,christ4     
7,historical ,researches in ,m4 ,halma's
 ,ptolome1 vol4 iv4 p4 #cg47 ,but  with 
regard to the ,julian year #aeih after  
,christ1 which is also the  last of a   
great year1 ,petau and ,ideler differ   
much from each other4  ,the latter      
refers the heliacal rising of ,sirius to
 the #bb;d ,july2 the  former to the    

#aith or #bjth of ,august4    #ahg ,see1
 in the great work on ,egypt1 ,antiq4   
,memoirs1 vol4 #a4 p4  #hjc4 the        
ingenious ,memoir of ,m4 ,fourier1      
entitled ,recherches sur les  ,sciences 
et le ,gouvernement de l',egypte4       
#ahh ,these are the words of the late   
,m4 ,nouet1 ,astronomer to the          
,expedition to ,egypt4 ,see ,volney1    
,new ,inquiries regarding ,ancient      
,history1 vol4 iii4    #ahi ,delambre1  
,abreg d',astronomie1 p4 #bag2 and in   
his note upon the  ,parantaellons1 in   
his ,history of the ,astronomy of the   
,middle ,age1 p4  lij4    #aij          
,delambre1 ,report upon ,m4 de          
,paravey's ,memoir regarding the        
,sphere1 in the #hth vol4 of the        
,nouvelles ,annales des ,voyages4       
#aia ,ideler1 loc4 cit4 p4 #ch4    #aib 
,see ,laplace1 ,systeme du ,monde1 #c;d 
edition1 p4 #ag2 and the  ,annuaire of  
#ahah4    #aic ,see on the ,inaccuracy  
of the ,determinations of the ,sphere of
  ,eudoxus1 ,m4 ,delambre1 in the first 

volume of his ,history of the           
,astronomy of the ,ancients1 p4 #abj4 et
 seq4    #aid ,see the ,preliminary     
,discourse of the ,history of the       
,astronomy  of the ,middle ,age1 by ,m4 
,delambre1 p4 viii4 et seq4    #aie     
,euterpe1 chap4 iv4    #aif ,diog4      
,laert4 lib4 i4 in ,thalet4    #aig     
,saturnal4 lib4 i4 cap4 xv4    #aih     
,bibl4 lib4 i4 p4 #df4    #aii ,geogr4  
p4 #ahb4    #bjj ,see regarding the     
probable newness of this period the     
excellent  dissertation of ,m4 ,biot1 in
 his ,researches respecting several     
points  of the ,egyptian ,astronomy1 p4 
#adh et seq4    #bja ,see ,m4 ,delambre1
 ,hist4 de l',astronomie1 vol4 i4 p4    
#bab4 ,see  also his analysis of        
,geminus1 ibid4 p4 #baa4 ,compare this  
with ,m4  ,ideler's ,memoirs on the     
,astronomy of the ,chaldeans1 in the    
fourth  volume of ,m4 ,halma's ,ptolemy1
 p4 #aff4    #bjb ,see ,bailly1 ,history
 of ,ancient ,astronomy2 and ,m4        
,delambre1 in  his work on the same     

subject1 vol4 i4 p4 #c4    #bjc ,see    
,laplace1 ,expos du ,systeme du ,monde1 
p4 #ccj2 and the  ,memoir of ,mr ,davis1
 on the ,astronomical ,calculations of  
the  ,indians4--,calcutta ,memoirs1 vol4
 ii4 p4 #bbe1 #hvo4 edition4    #bjd    
,see ,mr ,bentley's ,memoirs on the     
,antiquity of the  ,surya-,siddhanta1   
,calcutta ,memoirs1 vol4 vi4 p4 #edj2   
and on the  ,astronomical ,systems of   
the ,indians1 ibid41 vol4 viii4 p4 #aie4
 of the  #hvo edition4    #bje          
,manuscript ,memoirs of ,m4 de ,paravey1
 on the sphere of ,upper  ,asia4    #bjf
 ,see the profound essay on the         
,astronomy of the ,indians in ,m4       
,delambre's ,histoire de l',astronomie  
ancienne1 vol4 i4 p4 #djj-eef4    #bjg  
,see the ,memoir of ,sir ,william       
,jones1 on the ,antiquity of the        
,indian ,zodiac1 ,calcutta ,memoirs1    
vol4 ii4 p4 #bhi of the #hvo edition4   
#bjh ,the following are ,mr ,wilfort's  
own words1 in his memoir on the         
,testimonies of ,ancient ,hindoo ,books1

 respecting ,egypt and the ,nile1       
,calcutta ,memoirs1 vol4 iii4 p4 #dcc of
 the #hvo edition3    --8,having desired
 my pundit1 who is a learned astronomer1
 to point  out in the heavens the       
constellation of ,antarmada1 he directed
 me  immediately to ,andromeda1 which ,i
 had taken care not to shew him as a    
constellation that ,i knew4 ,he         
afterwards brought me a very rare and   
curious book1 in ,sanscrit1 in which    
there was a particular chapter  on the  
,upanacshatras1 or extra-zodiacal       
constellations1 with figures  of        
,capeya1 of ,casyape1 seated1 and       
holding a lotus-flower in her  hand2 of 
,antarmada1 chained1 with the fish near 
her2 and of ,parasica1  holding the head
 of a monster1 which he had killed1     
dropping blood1  and having snakes for  
hair40    ,who does not recognise in    
this1 ,perseus1 ,cepheus1 and ,cassiope8
 ,but  we must not forget that this     
pundit of ,mr ,wilfort's has become much
  suspected4    #bji ,chou-king1 p4 #f  

and #g4    #baj ,idem1 p4 #ff4 et seq4  
#baa ,see1 in the ,connaissance des     
,temps of #ahji1 p4 #chb1 and in ,m4    
,delambre's ,histoire de l',astronomie  
ancienne1 vol4 i4 p4 #cia1 the  extract 
of a memoir by ,p4 ,gaubil1 on the      
,observations of the ,chinese4    #bab  
,thus at ,dendera1 the ancient          
,tentyris1 a city below ,thebes1  in the
 portico of the great temple1 the       
entrance of which faces the  north1     
there are seen on the ceiling the signs 
of the zodiac marching  in two bands1   
one of which extends along the eastern  
side1 and the  other along the opposite 
one4 ,each of the bands is embraced by  
the  figure of a woman of the same      
length1 the feet of which are toward    
the entrance1 the head and arms toward  
the bottom of the portico2  the feet are
 consequently to the north1 and the     
heads to the south4  7,great ,work on   
,egypt1 ,antiq4 vol4 ix4 pl4 #bj47      
,the ,lion is at the head of the band   
which is on the western side2  his      

direction is toward the north1 or toward
 the feet of the figure  of the woman1  
and his feet are toward the eastern     
wall4 ,the ,virgin1  the ,balance1 the  
,scorpion1 the ,saggittary and the      
,capricorn1 follow  marching in the same
 line4 ,the latter is placed toward the 
bottom of  the portico1 and near the    
hands and head of the large figure of   
the  woman4 ,the signs of the eastern   
band commence at the extremity where    
those of the other band terminate1 and  
are consequently directed  toward the   
bottom of the portico1 or toward the    
arms of the large  figure4 ,they have   
the feet toward the lateral wall of     
their own side1  and the heads in the   
contrary direction to those of the      
opposite  band4 ,the ,aquarius marches  
first1 and is followed by the ,fishes1  
the ,ram1 the ,bull1 and the ,twins4    
,the last of the series1 which is  the  
,crab1 or rather the ,scarabus1 7for    
this insect is substituted  for the crab
 in the zodiacs of ,egypt71 is thrown to

 a side upon the  legs of the large     
figure4 ,in the place which it should   
have occupied  is a globe resting upon  
the summit of a pyramid1 composed of    
small  triangles1 which represent a sort
 of rays1 and before the base of  which 
is a large head of a woman with two     
small horns4 ,a second  scarabus is     
placed awry and cross-wise upon the     
first band1 in the  angle which the feet
 of the large figure form with the body1
 and  before the space in which the     
,lion marches1 which is a little behind4
  ,at the other end of this same band1  
the ,capricorn is very near the  bottom1
 or at the arms of the large figure2    
and1 upon the left band1  the ,aquarius 
is separated to some distance from it4  
,the ,capricorn1  however1 is not       
repeated like the ,crab4 ,the division  
of this zodiac1  from the entrance1 is  
therefore made between the ,lion and the
 ,cancer2  or if it be thought that the 
repetition of the ,scarabus marks a     
division of the sign1 it takes place in 

the ,crab itself2 but that of  the lower
 end is made between the ,capricorn and 
,aquarius4    ,in one of the inner halls
 of the same temple1 there was a        
circular  planisphere inscribed in a    
square1 the same that has been brought  
to  ,paris by ,m4 ,lelorrain1 and which 
is to be seen at the ,royal ,library4   
,in it1 also1 the signs of the zodiac   
are observed among many other  figures  
which appear to represent               
constellations4 7,great ,work on        
,egypt1 ,antiq4 vol4 iv4 pl4 #ba47 ,the 
,lion corresponds to one of the         
diagonals of the square2 the ,virgin1   
which follows1 corresponds to  a        
perpendicular line which is directed    
toward the east2 the other  signs march 
in the usual order1 till we come to the 
,crab1 which1 in  place of completing   
the chain1 by corresponding to the level
 of the  ,lion1 is placed above it1     
nearer the centre of the circle1 in such
 a  manner that the signs are upon a    
somewhat spiral line4 ,this ,crab1 or   

rather ,scarabus1 marches in a contrary 
direction to the other signs4  ,the     
,twins correspond to the north1 the     
,sagittary to the south1 and  the       
,fishes to the east1 but not very       
exactly4 ,at the eastern side of  this  
planisphere is a large figure of a      
woman1 with the head directed  toward   
the south1 and the feet toward the      
north1 like that of the  portico4 ,some 
doubt might therefore also be raised    
regarding the  point at which the series
 of the signs ought to commence4        
,according  as one of the perpendiculars
 or one of the diagonals is taken1 or   
the  place where one part of the series 
passes over the other part1 the         
division will be judged to be at the    
,lion1 or between the ,lion and  the    
,crab2 or lastly at the ,twins4    ,at  
,esne1 the ancient ,latopolis1 a city   
placed above ,thebes1 there  are zodiacs
 on the ceilings of two different       
temples4 ,that of the  great temple1 the
 entrance of which faces the east1 is   

upon two  bands1 which are contiguous   
and parallel to one another1 along the  
south side of the ceiling4 ,the female  
figures which embrace them are  not     
placed in the direction of their length1
 but in that of their  breadth1 so that 
one lies across near the entrance1 or to
 the east1  the head and arms toward the
 north1 and the feet toward the lateral 
wall1 or toward the south1 and the other
 is in the bottom of the  portico1      
equally across1 and looking toward the  
first4 ,the band  nearest the axis of   
the portico1 or the north1 presents     
first1 on  the side of the entrance1 or 
east1 and toward the head of the female 
figure1 the ,lion1 placed a little      
behind1 and marching toward the  bottom1
 the feet directed toward the lateral   
wall4 ,behind the ,lion1  at the        
commencement of the band1 are two       
smaller ,lions4 ,before it is  the      
,scarabus1 and then the ,twins marching 
in the same direction2  then the ,bull  
and the ,ram1 and the ,fishes close to  

each other1  placed across upon the     
middle of the band1 the ,bull having its
 head  toward the lateral wall1 the ram 
toward the axis4 ,the ,aquarius is  more
 distant1 and resumes the same direction
 toward the bottom as  the first signs4 
,on the band nearest the lateral wall   
and the north1  we see first1 but at a  
considerable distance from the wall of  
the  bottom1 or the west1 the           
,capricorn1 which marches in a contrary 
direction to the ,aquarius1 and is      
directed toward the east1 or the        
entrance of the portico1 having the feet
 turned toward the lateral  wall4 ,close
 upon it is the ,sagittarius1 which thus
 corresponds with  the ,fishes and ,ram4
 ,it also marches toward the entrance2  
but its feet  are turned toward the     
axis1 and in a contrary direction to    
those of  the ,capricorn4 ,at a certain 
distance before1 and placed near one    
another1 are the ,scorpion and a woman  
holding the ,balance4 ,lastly1 a  little
 before1 but still at a considerable    

distance from the anterior  or eastern  
extremity1 is the ,virgin which is      
preceded by a sphinx4  ,the ,virgin and 
the woman holding the ,balance1 have    
also their feet  toward the wall1 so    
that the ,sagittary is the only one     
which is  placed with its head contrary 
to the other signs4    ,to the north of 
,esne is a small isolated temple1       
equally facing the  east1 and having a  
zodiac also in its portico 7,great ,work
 on ,egypt1  ,antiquities1 vol4 i4      
,plate #hg47 ,this zodiac is upon two   
lateral and  separated bands4 ,that     
which extends along the south side      
commences  with the ,lion1 which marches
 toward the bottom1 or toward the west1 
the feet turned toward the wall1 or the 
south4 ,it is preceded by  the          
,scarabus1 and the latter by the        
,gemini1 marching in the same           
direction4 ,the ,bull1 on the contrary1 
faces them1 having a direction  toward  
the east4 ,but the ,ram and the ,fishes 
resume the direction  toward the bottom1

 or toward the west4 ,on the band of the
 north  side1 the ,aquarius is near the 
bottom1 or the west1 marching towards   
the entrance or east1 the feet turned   
toward the wall1 preceded by  the       
,capricorn and ,sagittary1 both marching
 in the same direction4  ,the other     
signs are lost2 but it is clear that the
 ,virgin must have  marched at the head 
of this band1 on the side next the      
entrance4  ,among the accessory figures 
of this small zodiac1 must be remarked  
two winged ,rams placed across1 the one 
between the ,bull and the  ,twins1 the  
other between the ,scorpion and         
,sagittary1 and each nearly  in the     
middle of its band2 the second1 however1
 a little more  advanced toward the     
entrance4    ,it was at first thought1  
that1 in the great zodiac of ,esne1 the 
division of the entrance took place     
between the ,virgin and the ,lion1  and 
that of the bottom between the ,fishes  
and the ,aquarius4 ,but ,mr  ,hamilton1 
and ,,mm4 de ,jollois and ,villiers1    

have supposed1 that1 in  the ,sphinx1   
which precedes the ,virgin1 they found a
 repetition of the  ,lion1 analogous to 
that of the ,cancer in the great zodiac 
of ,dendera2  so that1 according to     
them1 the division would be at the      
,lion4 ,in  fact1 without this          
explanation1 there would only be five   
signs on one  side1 while there would be
 seven on the other4    ,with regard to 
the small zodiac of the north of ,esne1 
it is not known  whether some emblem    
analogous to this ,sphinx may have      
occurred in it1  because this part is   
destroyed4--,see ,british ,review1      
,february #ahag1  p4 #acf2 and ,critical
 ,letter on ,zodiacomania1 p4 #cc4      
#bac ,description of the ,pyramids of   
,ghiza1 by ,m4 ,grobert1 p4 #aag4       
#bad ,connaissance des ,temps for the   
year xiv4    #bae ,observations upon the
 zodiac of ,dendera1 in the ,revue      
,philosophique et ,litteraire1 #ahjf1 p4
 #beg1 et seq4    #baf gyptiaca1 p4     
#bab4    #bag ,see in the ,british      

,review of ,february #ahag1 p4 #ac4 et  
seq4  the article ,no4 vi4 upon the     
origin and antiquity of the zodiac4  ,it
 is translated at the end of ,swartz's  
,critical ,letter upon the              
,zodiacomania4    #bah ,see ,m4 ,nouet's
 ,memoir in ,volney's ,new ,inquiries   
regarding  ,ancient ,history1 vol4 iii4 
p4 #cbh-ccf4    #bai ,eratosthenes has  
made but one constellation of the       
,scorpion  and ,talons4 ,he indicates   
the commencement of the latter without  
its  termination2 and as he gives #ahbc 
years to ,scorpio1 properly so  called1 
there remain #ajhi for the other1 on the
 supposition that  there is not an empty
 space between these two constellations4
    #bbj ,see the great work on ,egypt4 
,antiq4 ,mem4 vol4 i4 p4 #dhf4    #bba  
,rhode4 ,essay upon the ,age of the     
,zodiac1 and the ,origin of the         
,constellations1 in ,german4 ,breslau1  
#ahji1 p4 #gh4    #bbb ,according to the
 tables of ,m4 ,delambre's note above1  
the  solstice has remained #cdgd1 or at 

least #ccjg years1 in the  constellation
 of virgo1 the one which occupies the   
greatest space in  the zodiac1 and #bfag
 in that of the ,lion4    #bbc          
,translation of ,herodotus by ,larcher1 
vol4 ii4 p4 #egj4    #bbd ,see the      
,dissertation of the ,abb ,dominique    
,testa1 ,sopra due  ,zodiaci            
novellamente scoperte nell' ,egitto1    
,rome1 #ahjb1 p4 #cd4    #bbe ,delambre4
 ,note at the end of the ,report on the 
,memoir of ,m4 de  ,paravey4 ,this      
report is printed in the ,nouvelles     
,annales des ,voyages1  vol4 viii4      
#bbf ,see the work of ,m4 ,biot1        
entitled1 ,recherches sur plusieurs     
points de l',astronomie ,egyptienne1    
appliques aux monumens  astronomiques   
trouvs en ,egypte2 ,paris1 #ahbc1 #hvo4 
#bbg ,letronne4 ,researches into the    
history of ,egypt during the  domination
 of the ,greeks and ,romans1 p4 #ahj4   
#bbh ,id4 ibid4 p4 xxxviij4    #bbi     
,letronne4 ,ibid4 p4 #def1 and #deg4    
#bcj ,letronne4 ,critical and           

,archological ,observations upon the    
object of the zodiacal representations  
which remain to us of  antiquity1       
occasioned by an ,egyptian zodiac       
painted in a mummy case1  which bears a 
,greek inscription of the time of       
,trajan2 ,paris1 #ahbd1  #hvo1 p4 #cj4  
#bca ,idem1 p4 #dh1 and #di4    #bcb    
,varro1 de ,ling4 ,lat4 lib4 vi4 ,signa1
 quod aliquid significent1  ut libra    
quinoctium2 ,macrob4 ,sat4 lib4 i4 cap4 
xxi4 ,capricornus ab  infernis partibus 
ad superas solem reducens ,capr naturam 
videtur  imitari4    #bcc ,see the      
,memoir on the ,origin of the           
,constellations1 in ,dupuis's  ,origine 
des ,cultes1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cbd4 et seq4 
#bcd ,id4 ibid4 p4 #bfg4    #bce ,dupuis
 himself suggests this second           
hypothesis4 ,ibid4 p4 #cdj4    #bcf     
gyptiaca1 p4 #bae4    #bcg ,see in the  
,great ,work on ,egypt1 ,antiq4 ,mem4   
vol4 i41 the memoir  of ,m4 ,remi ,raige
 upon the nominal and original zodiac of
 the ancient  ,egyptians4 ,see also the 

table of the ,greek1 ,roman1 and        
,alexandrian  months1 in ,m4 ,halma's   
,ptolemy1 vol4 iii4    #bch ,see the    
,historical ,researches regarding the   
,astronomical  ,observations of the     
ancients1 by ,m4 ,ideler1 a translation 
of which  has been inserted by ,m4      
,halma in the third volume of his       
,ptolemy3 and  especially ,m4 ,freret's 
memoir on the opinion of ,lanauze1      
relative  to the establishment of the   
,alexandrian year1 in the memoirs of the
  ,academy of ,belles ,lettres1 vol4    
xvi4 p4 #cjh4    #bci ,see the ,memoir  
of ,sir ,william ,jones on the          
,antiquity of the  ,indian ,zodiac4     
,calcutta ,memoirs1 vol4 ii4    #bdj    
,see the ,zodiac explained1 or          
,researches regarding the ,origin  and  
,signification of the ,constellations of
 the ,greek ,sphere1  translated from   
the ,swedish of ,m4 ,swartz2 ,paris1    
#ahji4    #bda ,saturnalia1 lib4 i4 cap4
 xxi4 sub4 fin4 ,nec solus ,leo1 sed    
signa quoque universa zodiaci ad naturam

 solis jure referuntur1 c4  ,it is only 
in the explanation of the ,lion and     
,capricorn1 that he  has recourse to    
some phenomenon relative to the seasons2
 the ,cancer  itself is explained in a  
general point of view1 and with         
reference to  the obliquity of the sun's
 march4    #bdb ,see the ,memoir of ,m4 
,guignes on the ,zodiacs of the ,eastern
  ,nations1 in the ,memoirs of the      
,academy of ,belles ,lettres1 vol4      
xlvii4    #bdc ,see ,m4 de ,fortia      
d',urban's ,history of ,china before the
 ,deluge  of ,ogyges1 p4 #cc4    #bdd   
,copies have been printed separately1   
under the title of  ,description        
,geologique des ,environs de ,paris1 par
 ,,mm4 ,g4 ,cuvier et  ,al4 ,brongniart4
 ,second edition4 ,paris1 #ahbb1 #dto4  
#bde ,see ,professor ,buckland's work1  
entitled ,reliqui ,diluvian4  ,lond4    
#ahbc1 #dto1 p4 #ahe et seq42 and the   
article ,eau1 by ,m4  ,brongniart1 in   
the #adth volume of the ,dictionnaire   
des ,sciences  ,naturelles4    #bdf ,a  

full view of the arrangement of rocks is
 given in note ,o4    #bdg ,see my      
8,recherches sur les ,ossemens          
,fossiles10 t4 v4 part ii4  p4 #cjj4    
#bdh ,id4 vol4 v4 part ii4 p4 #cee and  
#ebe4    #bdi ,see my 8,recherches10    
vol4 v4 part ii4 p4 #ddg4    #bej       
,researches1 c4 vol4 v4 part ii4 p4     
#dge1 et seq4    #bea ,researches1 vol4 
v4 part ii4 p4 #dhe and #dhf4    #beb   
,researches1 vol4 v4 part ii4 p4 #adc4  
#bec ,researches1 vol4 v4 part ii4 p4   
#abg4    #bed ,we expect a fuller       
knowledge of it from ,m4 ,conybeare's   
researches4    #bee ,researches1 vol4 v4
 part ii4 p4 #cdc4    #bef ,ibid4 p4    
#abj4    #beg ,researches1 vol4 v4 part 
ii4 p4 #ceh4 et seq4    #beh ,ibid4 p4  
#cgf4    #bei ,ibid4 p4 #chj4    #bfj   
,researches1 vol4 v4 part ii4 p4 #bbe4  
#bfa ,researches1 vol4 v4 part ii4 p4   
#afa1 #bcb1 and #cej4    #bfb           
,researches1 vol4 v4 part iv4 p4 #caj1  
et seq4    #bfc ,ibid4 p4 #afc4    #bfd 
,ibid4 p4 #caf4    #bfe ,p4 #cag4       

#bff ,researches1 vol4 v4 part ii4 p4   
#bff4    #bfg ,id4 vol4 v4 part i4 p4   
#bcd2 and part ii4 p4 #eba4    #bfh ,see
 my ,researches1 in the whole of vol4   
iii41 and especially p4  #bej2 and vol4 
v4 part ii4 p4 #eje4    #bfi ,ibid4 vol4
 v4 part ii4 p4 #eje4    #bgj           
,researches1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bed2 and vol4
 iv4 p4 #dih4 and #dii4    #bga ,ibid4  
vol4 iii4 p4 #beh4    #bgb ,ibid4 vol4  
v4 part ii4 p4 #eje4    #bgc ,see my    
,researches1 vol4 ii4 part i4 p4 #agg   
and #bah2 vol4 iii4  p4 #cid2 and vol4  
iv4 p4 #dih4    #bgd ,regarding the     
,anaplotheria1 see the whole of the #c;d
 volume of  my 8,researches10 and       
particularly p4 #bej and #cif4    #bge  
8,researches10 vol4 iii4 p4 #cih and    
#djd2 vol4 iv4 p4 #eja2 vol4  v4 part   
ii4 p4 #ejf4    #bgf 8,researches10 vol4
 iii4 p4 #bfj4    #bgg ,id4 vol4 iii4 p4
 #bfe4    #bgh 8,researches10 vol4 iv4  
p4 #ajc4    #bgi ,i am indebted for the 
knowledge of this animal to the ,count  
de ,bournon2 and as ,i have not         

described it in my great work1 ,i have  
given a figure of it here4 ,see ,plate  
,,ii4 figs4 #a and #b4    #bhj          
8,researches10 vol4 iii4 p4 #bfg4       
#bha ,id4 vol4 iii4 p4 #bfi4    #bhb    
,id4 vol4 iii4 p4 #bgb4    #bhc ,id4    
vol4 iii4 p4 #bhd4    #bhd ,id4 vol4    
iii4 p4 #big and #cjj4    #bhe ,id4 vol4
 v4 part ii4 p4 #ejf4    #bhf           
8,researches10 vol4 iii4 p4 #cjd et seq4
    #bhg ,id4 vol4 v4 part ii4 p4 #aff4 
#bhh ,id4 vol4 iii4 p4 #cce2 vol4 v4    
part ii4 p4 #aff4    #bhi ,id4 vol4 iii4
 p4 #bcc4    #bij ,id4 vol4 v4 p4 #bcb4 
#bia ,id4 vol4 iii4 p4 #cbi2 vol4 v4    
part ii4 p4 #bbb4    #bib 8,researches10
 vol4 v4 part ii4 p4 #bbc and #bbg4     
#bic ,id4 vol4 iii4 p4 #cch4    #bid    
,see my 8,researches10 vol4 iii4 p4     
#cea4 et seq4    #bie ,id4 vol4 v4 part 
i4 p4 #cji4    #bif ,id4 p4 #cij4       
#big 8,researches10 vol4 v4 part i4 p4  
#cic4    #bih ,id4 vol4 v4 part i4 p4   
#ceb4 and #ceg4    #bii 8,researches10  
vol4 i4 p4 #ge1 #aie and #cce2 vol4 iii4

 p4 #cga and  #dje2 vol4 iv4 p4 #dia4   
#cjj 8,researches10 vol4 i4 p4 #bej1    
#bfe and #cce2 vol4 iv4 p4 #dic4    #cja
 ,id4 vol4 i4 p4 #bjf1 #bdi2 vol4 iii4  
p4 #cgf4    #cjb 8,researches10 vol1 i4 
p4 #cjd1 #cbb2 vol1 iii4 p4 #chj2 vol4  
iv4  p4 #dic4    #cjc ,id4 vol4 ii4 part
 i4 p4 #fd2 and vol4 iv4 p4 #dif4       
#cjd 8,researches10 vol4 ii4 part i4 p4 
#hi4 vol4 iii42 p4 #cij2 and  vol4 v4   
part ii4 p4 #ej4    #cje ,id4 vol4 iii4 
p4 #che4    #cjf ,id4 vol4 ii4 part i4  
p4 #ga4    #cjg ,id4 vol4 ii4 part i4 p4
 #hi4    #cjh ,see my 8,researches10    
vol4 part i4 p4 #hi4    #cji ,id4 p4    
#ie4    #caj ,id4 p4 #aji4    #caa ,see 
my 8,researches10 vol4 iv4 p4 #gj4      
#cab 8,researches10 vol4 iv4 p4         
#afh-bbe4    #cac ,id4 p4 #hi4    #cad  
,see my 8,researches10 vol4 iv4 p4 #id4 
#cae ,id4 vol4 iv4 p4 #ih4    #caf ,id4 
vol4 iv4 p4 #adh2 and vol4 v4 part ii4  
p4 #eji4    #cag ,id4 vol4 iv4 p4 #aej2 
vol4 v4 part ii4 p4 #eaj4    #cah ,id4  
vol4 iv4 p4 #aec4    #cai ,id4 vol4 iv4 

p4 #aii-bjd4    #cbj ,id4 vol4 iv4 p4   
#agd1 #agg1 #aif2 vol4 v4 part i4 p4    
#ee4    #cba ,see my 8,researches10 vol4
 iv4 p4 #agh1 #bjb1 and #bjf2 vol4 v4   
part i4 p4 #ed4    #cbb ,id4 vol4 v4    
part i4 p4 #ee4    #cbc ,id4 vol4 iv4 p4
 #bjf4    #cbd ,id4 vol4 v4 part ii4    
#eag4    #cbe ,id4 part i4 p4 #ei4      
#cbf ,id4 p4 #agd2 and part ii4 p4 #eai4
    #cbg ,see my 8,researches10 vol4 v4 
part i4 p4 #afj4    #cbh ,id4 vol4 v4 p4
 #aic4    #cbi ,id4 vol4 iv4 p4 #aic4   
#ccj ,see my 8,researches10 vol4 iv4 p4 
#cea4    #cca ,id4 vol4 iv4 p4 #cef and 
#ceg4    #ccb ,id4 vol4 iv4 p4 #cib1 and
 #ejg4    #ccc ,id4 vol4 iv4 p4 #deb4   
#ccd ,id4 vol4 iv4 p4 #deh4    #cce ,id4
 vol4 iv4 p4 #dfa4    #ccf ,id4 vol4 iv4
 p4 #dge4    #ccg ,id4 vol4 iv4 p4 #dfg4
    #cch ,see my 8,researches10 vol4 iv4
 p4 #cgh and #ejg2 and vol4 v4 part  ii4
 p4 #eaf4    #cci ,see ,mr ,buckland's  
excellent work1 entitled ,reliqui       
,diluvian4    #cdj ,see in the ,reliqui 
,diluvian of ,mr ,buckland the account  

of  the skeleton of a woman found in the
 cave of ,pavyland2 and in my           
,researches1 vol4 iv4 p4 #aic1 that of a
 fragment of a jaw1 found in  the       
osseous brecci of ,nice4    ,m4 de      
,schlotheim collected human bones in    
fissures at ,kstritz1 where  there are  
also bones of rhinoceroses2 but he      
himself expresses his  doubts regarding 
the epoch at which they were deposited4 
#cda ,herodotus1 i4 #b4    #cdb lian1   
lib4 ii4 cap4 #ce and #ch4    #cdc ,id4 
lib4 i4 cap4 #ch4    #cdd ,bruce1       
,french translation1 #hvo4 vol4 viii1 p4
 #bfd2 and ,atlas1  pl4 xxxv41 under the
 name of ,abouhanns4    #cde            
,description d'un ,ibis blanc et de deux
 cicognes1 ,academie des  ,sciences de  
,paris1 t4 iii1 pl4 iii4 p4 #fa4 of the 
#dto edition of  #agcd1 pl4 xiii4 fig4  
#a4 ,the beak is represented as         
truncated at the  end1 but this is a    
fault of the engraver4    #cdf ,numenius
 sordide albo-rufescens1 capite         
anteriore nudo rubro1  lateribus rubro  

purpureo et carneo colore maculatis1    
remigibus  majoribus nigris1 rectricibus
 sordide albo rufescentibus1 rostro in  
exortu dilute luteo1 in extremitate     
aurantio1 pedibus griseis4 ,ibis        
candida1 ,brisson1 ,ornithologia1 t4 v4 
p4 #cdi4    #cdg ,planches ,enlumines1  
,no4 #chi2 ,histoire des ,oiseaux1 t4   
viii4  #dto4 p4 #ad4 pl4 #a4 ,this last 
figure is a copy of that of ,perault1   
with the same fault4    #cdh ,handbuch  
der ,naturgeschichte1 p4 #bjc4 of the   
edition of #agii2  but in the edition of
 #ahjg he has restored the name of ,ibis
 to the  bird to which it belongs4      
#cdi ,philosophical ,transactions for   
#agid4    #cej ,folio edition1 ,oxford  
#agdf1 pl4 v4 and pages #fd-ff4    #cea 
,hasselquist1 ,iter ,palestinum1 p4     
#bdi4 ,magnitudo gallin1 seu  cornicis2 
and1 p4 #bej4 vasa qu in sepulchris     
inveniuntur1 cum  avibus conditis1 hujus
 sunt magnitudinis4    #ceb ,we have    
definitively established this genus in  
our 8,regne  ,animal10 t4 i4 p4 #dhc1   

and it appears to have been adopted by  
naturalists4    #cec ,bruce1 loc4 cit42 
and ,savigny1 8,mem4 sur l',ibis10 p4   
#ab4    #ced lian1 lib4 ii4 cap4 #ch4   
#cee   1    1     1          4          
,larcher1 in his ,french translation of 
,herodotus1 has properly  understood the
 difference of the words 1 the nape1 and
  or   the throat4    #cef lian1 lib4 v4
 cap4 #bi4    #ceg lian1 lib4 ii4 cap4  
xxxv2--,plut4 ,de ,solert4 ,an42 ,cic4  
de ,nat4  ,deor4 lib4 ii42--,phil4 de   
,anim4 prop4 #af4 c4    #ceh ,de ,med4  
gypt4 lib4 i4 fol4 i4 vers4 ,paris      
,edition1 #afdf4    #cei ,rer4 gypt4    
lib4 iv4 cap4 i4 t4 i4 p4 #aii of the   
,leyden ,edition4    #cfj ,see the      
,french ,translation1 vol4 ii4 p4 #afg4 
#cfa ,description de l',egypte1 part ii4
 p4 #bc4    #cfb ,antiq4 ,monum4 ,pl4 x4
 p4 #abi4    #cfc ,hist4 ,anim4 lib4 ix4
 cap4 xxvii4 and lib4 x4 cap4 xxx4      
#cfd ,buffon1 ,histoire ,naturelle des  
,oiseaux1 #dto1 vol4 viii4 p4 #ag4      
#cfe ,belon1 ,nature des ,oiseaux1 p4   

#aei and #bjj2 and ,portraits           
d',oiseaux1 folio #dd1 vers4    #cff    
,observations de plusieurs singularits1 
c4    #cfg ,savigny1 ,mmoire sur        
l',ibis1 p4 #cg4    #cfh ,idem1 ibid4   
#cfi ,see the ,great ,work on ,egypt1   
,natural ,history of ,birds1 pl4 vii4   
fig4 #b4    #cgj ,euterpe1 cap4 lxxv4   
,herodotus says a place in ,arabia1 but 
it  is not seen how a place in ,arabia  
could have been near the city of  ,buto1
 which was in the western part of the   
,delta4    #cga ,avis excelsa1 cruribus 
rigidis1 corneo proceroque rostro4 ,cic4
  de ,nat4 ,deor4 lib4 i4    #cgb       
,strabo1 lib4 xvii4    #cgc lian1 ,anim4
 lib4 x4 cap4 xxix4    #cgd ,leopold de 
,buch1 ,voyage en ,norwege1 t4 i4 p4    
#cj4 of the ,german  edition4    #cge   
,the ,sierra ,parima4    #cgf ,t4 ii4 p4
 #bcc1 #bcf1 #beb1 #bgc1 #bhh1 #chb1    
#eig1 #fbg1 and #fcc4    #cgg ,are there
 any blocks in ,north ,america to the   
north of the ,great  ,lakes8    #cgh ,in
 ,silliman's ,american ,journal there   

are many interesting  details in regard 
to the distribution of boulders in the  
northern  parts of ,north ,america4     
#cgi ,by geest is understood the        
alluvial matter which is spread  over   
the surface both of the hilly and low   
country1 and appears1  according to ,de 
,luc1 to have been formed the last time 
the waters of  the ocean stood over the 
surface of the earth4--,j4    #chj ,by  
marsch1 according to ,de ,luc1 is       
understood the new land  added to the   
coasts since the last retiring of the   
water of the globe  from the surface of 
the earth1 and is formed by the         
sediments of  rivers1 mixed more or less
 with sand from the bottom of the       
sea4--,j4    #cha ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #aad1  
#aae1 #aaf4    #chb ,a remarkable fact  
of this kind is related by ,salt1 in his
  second journey to ,abyssinia4 ,the    
,bay of ,amphila1 in the ,red ,sea1  is 
formed1 he says1 of twelve islands1     
eleven of which are in part  composed of
 alluvial matters1 consisting of        

corallines1 madrepores1  echinites1 and 
a great variety of shells common in that
 sea4 ,the  height of these islands is  
sometimes thirty feet above high water4 
,the small island1 which differs from   
the eleven others1 is composed  of a    
solid limestone rock1 in which veins of 
calcedony are observed4  ,does not this 
small island1 we may ask1 indicate that 
some cause has  prevented the madrepores
 from covering it1 while they           
constructed  their habitations in the   
neighbourhood1 on bases which probably  
must  be of the same nature as those of 
the small island8    #chc ,on glancing  
over the charts of ,kotzebue's voyage1  
we are  struck at seeing several of     
these islands grouped in a circular     
form1 connected with one another by     
reefs which appear to consist of        
madrepores1 and to present1 by this     
arrangement1 a small internal  sea of   
great depth1 to which an entrance is    
afforded by one or more  openings4 ,may 
not this arrangement be owing to        

submarine craters1 on  the edge of which
 the lithophytes have erected their     
habitations8    #chd #ahbd1 ,st4 #ab4 p4
 #ddc4    ,malt ,brun4 ,precis de la    
,geogr4 ,univers4 ,t4 ii4 p4 #dei42     
,catteau  ,calleville1 ,tabl4 de la ,mer
 ,balt4 ,t4 i4 p4 #aeh1 #ahh4    #che   
,see the excellent figures in           
,blumenbach's ,decades4    #chf ,equal  
to #bg1cdj yards and #aj inches ,english
 measure1 or #ae  miles and #fj yards4  
,in these reductions of the             
revolutionary ,french metres to ,english
  measure1 the metre is assumed as      
#ci4cg ,english inches4--,transl4       
#chg ,or #aj1icf yards and #d inches1   
equal to #f miles and nearly a  quarter1
 ,english measure4    ,hence the entire 
advance of the alluvial promontory of   
the ,po appears  to have extended to #ba
 miles #e furlongs and #baf             
yards4--,transl4    #chh ,equal to      
#aj1icf or #ab1jcj yards ,english       
measure4--,transl4    #chi ,or #b1ahf   
yards #b feet ,english4--,transl4       

#cij ,or #bj1ggh yards #a foot #aj      
inches4--,transl4    #cia ,or #ba1hgb   
yards4--,transl4    #cib ,or #ah1eia    
yards4--,transl4    #cic ,equal to      
#i1hdb or #aj1icf yards4--,transl4      
#cid ,equal to #f1efd or #g1fee         
yards4--,transl4    #cie ,from #ai miles
 #g furlongs and #ae yards1 to #bj miles
 #d furlongs  and #i yards1 ,english    
measure4--,transl4    #cif ,or #ae1cff  
yards4--,transl4    #cig ,equal to      
#i1hdb or #aj1icf yards4--,transl4      
#cih #bj1bca yards4--,transl4    #cii   
,exactly #bg yards #a foot and  of an   
inch ,english4--,transl4    #djj        
,already stated at from #ai to #bj      
miles2 or more precisely1  from #cd1iie 
yards #a foot #h inches1 to #cf1jhi     
yards #aj inches ,english               
measure4--,transl4    #dja ,equal to #gf
 yards #a foot #g inches and            
#i_/ajths4--,transl4    #djb ,in the    
salt lakes of ,westphalia1 we find      
,lymna and fresh water  plants in       
abundance4    #djc        8,jamque erat 

in totas sparsurus fulmina terras1      
,tela reponuntur1 manibus fabricata     
,cyclopum3        ,pna placet diversa2  
genus mortale sub undis        ,perdere1
 et ex omni nimbos dimittere clo40      
,,ovid4 ,met4 lib4 i4 v4 #bee4    #djd  
,vide note on the ,non-mechanical       
,action of pure ,water4    #dje ,t4 ix4 
c4 #f4 ,claudian describes this         
occurrence in the  following words3     
8,cum ,thessaliam scopulis inclusa      
teneret        ,peneo stagnante palus1  
et mersa negarent        ,arva coli1    
trifida ,neptunus euspide montes        
,impulit adversos3 tum forti saucius    
ictu        ,dissiluit gelido vertex    
,ossus ,olympo40                        
,de raptu ,proserp4 ,i4 ii4 v4 #agi4    
#djf ,l4 i c4 #c4    #djg ,according to 
,wheeler1 who was on the spot1 it       
appears to have  broken through the     
,mount ,ptous4    #djh ,bibliothec4     
,historic4 l4 v4 c4 #dg4    #dji ,vol4  
xiv4 p4 #bje4    #daj ,the remarks on   
the connection of geology with          

agriculture and  planting1 are inserted 
here as an illustration of some of the  
details  in the body of the work4 ,they 
will1 we think1 be useful to students   
of agriculture and geology1 and         
interesting to the general reader4      
#daa ,the dryness depends chiefly1 if   
not entirely1 on the fissures  or       
divisions in the rocky base of the soil2
 for1 in some parts of  ,sologne in     
,france1 as stated by ,mr ,arthur       
,young1 and in sundry  districts of     
,england1 chalk and limestone bottoms   
are occasionally  observed to be        
retentive and wet4 ,undergrounds1 formed
 of chalk or  limestone1 have frequently
 a thin covering of vegetable mould1    
from  their being1 in some cases1 over  
close and wet1 and in others over  open 
and dry2 the former condition being     
unfriendly to vegetation and  the       
formation of mould1 and the latter too  
readily permitting its  departure when  
formed1 or otherwise favouring the      
decomposition and  waste of that        

material4    #dab ,the reason here      
assigned is confirmed by some           
observations  delivered by one of the   
latest and most intelligent of the      
,english  writers on agriculture4 8,if10
 says ,mr ,marshall1 8the several       
strata0  7viz4 the subsoil and base7    
8are of so loose a texture1 as to permit
  the waters of rains to pass quickly   
downward1 without being in  any         
sufficient degree arrested by the soil1 
the land may be said  to be worthless to
 agriculture40 ,he adds1 8,before we    
suggest any  improvement of lands of the
 latter description1 it will be proper  
to premise1 that many of the light sandy
 soils of ,norfolk1 which  would        
otherwise be uniformly absorbed to a    
great depth1 have a thin  earthy        
substance1 or #8,pan1' which intervenes 
between the soil and the  subsoil1 and  
which is of such a texture1 as to check 
the descent of  rain waters1 and thereby
 retain them the longer in the soil1 as 
well  as to prevent the manure it       

contains from being carried away by     
their  rapid descent2 yet sufficiently  
pervious to prevent a surcharge of      
moisture from injuring the produce4 ,to 
this fortunate circumstance  is         
principally owing the fertility of the  
lands of ,east ,norfolk3  for wherever  
this filter happens to be broken by the 
plough1 or  otherwise1 the soil becomes 
unfertile1 and continues to be so for a 
length of years40--7,see ,norfolk1 vol4 
i4 page #aa47 8,this fact aptly         
suggests the expedient of improving1 or 
fresh forming1 a filter of  this kind2  
seeing how capable it is of producing so
 many valuable  advantages2 the more    
especially1 as it is probably the       
,norfolk pan  owes its origin to        
fortuitous art1 rather than to          
nature40--7,see  ,norfolk1 vol4 i4 page 
#ab47 8,a millstone1 or other heavy     
wheel-shaped  stone1 made to run upon   
its edge1 in the bottom of the          
plough-furrow  7the thickness of its    
edge being equal to the width of the    

furrow71  by the help of an axle and    
wheels1 would greatly compress a light1 
porous subsoil4 ,the idea of forming a  
pan artificially1 struck me  first in   
,norfolk2 and time and experience have  
strengthened it4 ,if  the experiment be 
made on a compressible subsoil1 as sandy
 loam1 or  the soft rubble which        
sometimes intervenes between an         
absorbent soil  and an open rock1 there 
can be little doubt of its success4 ,but
 on  loose open gravel1 which is not    
sufficiently mixed with tenacious  mould
 to sheath it1 and lying on an open     
base1 less utility may be  expected from
 it40    #dac ,vide ,dr ,adam of        
,calcutta's ,remarks on the ,rocks and  
,soil  of ,constantia at the ,cape of   
,good ,hope1 in an early number of the  
,edinburgh ,philosophical ,journal4     
#dad ,the ochre yellow colour of the    
decayed greenstone around  ,edinburgh1  
and in general in many trap districts in
 this country1 is  caused by the        
decomposition of the imbedded iron      

pyrites4    #dae ,the ,streams of       
,obsidian in ,iceland1 ,lipari1 ,peak of
 ,teneriffe1  ,ascension1 and ,mexico1  
afford striking examples of the fact    
stated  above4    #daf ,those who feel  
disposed to examine the connection of   
,geology  and ,agriculture1 will find   
many additional details and views given 
in  ,hausmann's work1 of which the above
 may be considered in some degree  as a 
condensed view4    #dag ,john ,hart1    
,esq4 ,member of the ,royal ,college of 
,surgeons in  ,ireland1 some time ago   
sent to me a copy of a very interesting 
tract entitled 8,a ,description of the  
,skeleton of the ,fossil ,deer  of      
,ireland1 ,cervus megaceros2 drawn up at
 the instance of the  ,committee of     
,natural ,philosophy of the ,royal      
,dublin ,society40  ,the details in the 
text are extracted from ,mr ,hart's     
memoir1 and  the engraving of the ,elk  
is copied from ,mr ,hart's lithographic 
delineation4    #dah ,in a ,report which
 ,mr ,hart made to the ,committee of    

,natural  ,philosophy of the ,royal     
,dublin ,society1 and which was printed 
in  their ,proceedings of ,july #h4     
#ahbd1 he alluded to an instance of a   
pair of these horns having been used as 
a field gate near ,tipperary4  ,since   
that he has learned that a pair had been
 in use for a similar  purpose near     
,newcastle1 county of ,wicklow1 until   
they were decomposed  by the action of  
the weather4 ,there is also a specimen  
in ,charlemont  ,house1 the town        
residence of the ,earl of ,charlemont1  
which is said to  have been used for    
some time as a temporary bridge across a
 rivulet  in the county of ,tyrone4     
#dai ,i have seen this antler divided   
into three points in two  specimens1 one
 at the ,earl of ,besborough's1 county  
,kilkenny 7which  measured eight feet   
four inches between the tips71 the other
 in the  hall of the ,museum of ,trinity
 ,college3 it is single in the greater  
number of specimens1 as in those which  
,cuvier describes4    #dbj ,vide        

,annales du ,museum d',histoire         
,naturelle1 tome xii4 et  ,ossemens     
,fossiles1 tome iv4    #dba             
,philosophical ,transactions1 vol4 xix4 
#dbb ,a fine pair of this species1 male 
and female1 were exhibited  by ,mr      
,bullock in this city a few summers ago4
 ,they did not answer to  any           
description of ,pennant or of ,dr ,shaw1
 but had the characters of  ,c4         
canadensis as given by ,cuvier4    #dbc 
,dr ,percy1 ,bishop of ,dromore1        
describes a pair which measured         
fourteen feet by the skull4 ,archologia 
,brit4 v4 vii4    #dbd ,pennant's       
,zoology1 vol4 i4    #dbe ,organic      
,remains1 vol4 iii4    #dbf ,ossemens   
,fossiles1 tom4 iv4    #dbg ,the elk1   
when pursued in the forests of ,north   
,america1 breaks  off branches of trees 
as thick as a man's thigh4    #dbh ,it  
is evidently not the animal mentioned by
 ,julius ,csar1 under  the name of      
,alces2 vide ,comment4 de ,bello        
,gallico1 vi4 cap4 x42 nor  is it the   

,alces of ,pliny4    #dbi ,i am well    
aware of the occasional existence of    
holes in the  ribs1 a few instances of  
which ,i have seen in the human subject3
 but  they differ essentially in        
character from the opening here         
described1  as they occupy the centre of
 the rib1 mostly in its sternal         
extremity1 and have their margin        
depressed on both sides4    #dcj ,in ,a4
 ,w4 ,schlegel's ,contributions to the  
,history of the  ,elephant1 in the      
,indische ,bibliothek1 i4 #b1 are       
enumerated many facts  not generally    
known regarding the ,african and        
,asiatic ,elephants1 and  the details   
are accompanied with interesting        
inferences4    #dca ,according to       
,schleiermacher1 ,goldfuss and ,von     
,bachr1 fossil  tusks1 resembling those 
of the ,african ,elephant1 have been    
found in  some districts4 ,cuvier1      
however1 questions their being in a true
  fossil state4    #dcb ,this plate     
forms the frontispiece to the present   

work4    #dcc ,smmering ber die         
fossilien ,knocken1 welche in der       
,protoga  ,von ,leibnitz abgebildet     
sind3 eine ,abhandlung in der ,magazin  
fr die  ,naturgeschichte des ,menschen  
von ,c4 ,grosse1 iii4 #agij1 s4 #gc4    
#dcd ,rosenmller1 ,beschreib4 des       
,hhlenbren1 s4 #b4    #dce ,further     
information in regard to these caves    
will be found  in ,leonhard ,taschenb4  
der ,min4 vii4 #b4 ,s4 #dci2 and in     
,nggerath's  ,gebirge in                
,rheinland-,westphalen1 ii4 ,s4 #bg4 and
 iii4 #a4 #ac4    #dcf ,in ,england and 
,wales the following caves have been    
found to  contain fossil bones3    #a4  
,cave in ,duncombe ,park1 not far from  
that of ,kirkdale4 ,it  contains only   
recent bones4    #b4 ,cave of ,hutton1 a
 village in ,somersetshire1 at the foot 
of  the ,mendip ,hills4 ,bones of       
elephants1 horses1 hogs1 of two species 
of deer1 of oxen1 the nearly entire     
skeleton of a fox1 and the  metacarpal  
bone of a large bear1 have been found in

 it4    #c4 ,cave of ,derdham ,down1    
near to ,clifton1 to the westward of    
,bristol4 ,bones of horses were found in
 it4    #d4 ,cave of ,balleye1 near to  
,warksworth1 in ,derbyshire4 ,in #affc1 
teeth of elephants1 some of which are   
still preserved1 were found in  it4     
#e4 ,cave of ,dream1 at the village of  
,callow1 near to ,warksworth4  ,it was  
discovered in the year #ahbb1 by some   
miners in search of  lead-ore4 ,nearly  
all the bones of a rhinoceros1 in a good
 state of  preservation1 were found     
enclosed in a bed of mud in this cave4  
#f4 ,fissures and caves at ,oreston4    
,these are in transition  limestone4    
,bones of the rhinoceros1 hyna1 tiger1  
wolf1 deer1 ox1 and  horse1 have been   
found in them4    #g4 ,cave of          
,nicholaston1 near the coast of         
,glamorgan1 in the ,bay  of ,oxwich4 ,in
 the year #agib1 bones of the elephant1 
rhinoceros1 ox1  deer1 and hyna1 were   
found in it4    #h4 ,caves of ,paveland1
 in the county of ,glamorgan1 between   

the ,bay  of ,oxwich and ,cape ,worms1  
at the entrance of the ,english         
,channel4  ,there are two openings in a 
cliff thirty or forty feet above the    
level of the sea1 which we cannot reach 
but at low water4 ,the  clergyman and   
the surgeon of the neighbouring village 
of ,portinan  found in them a tusk and  
grinder of an elephant2 afterwards other
  bones of the elephant1 rhinoceros1    
horse1 bear1 hyna1 fox1 wolf1  ox1 deer1
 rat1 of birds1 the skeleton of a woman1
 and splinters  of bones1 were also     
found4 ,but many of these bones are     
modern2 and  the diggings made at remote
 and unknown periods have displaced the 
ancient bones1 and mixed them with the  
modern1 and also with shells  of the    
present sea4    ,professor ,goldfuss1 in
 the #aath volume of the ,nova ,acta    
,physico-medica ,academi ,csare         
,leopoldino-,carolin ,natur             
,curiosorum1 published in #ahbc1 gives  
an account of the fossil bones  he met  
with in the caves of ,westphalia and    

,franconia4 ,speaking of the  ,cave of  
,gaylenreuth1 he says1 that ,esper has  
the following remarks on  the quantity  
of bones taken from these caves3    ,on 
first examination1 there were collected1
 in a very short time1  in the dust of  
the floors of these caves1 upwards of   
#bjj different  teeth2 and we may assume
 that1 by the end of the year #aggd1    
some  thousands were collected4 ,it is  
difficult to form a conception of  the  
number of these zoolithes1 and of the   
earth in which they are  contained2 and 
,i do not hesitate in believing1 that1  
at the lowest  estimate1 several hundred
 waggons load would not remove the      
whole4  ,the animal earth1 with         
intermingled bones1 was1 in many places1
 eight  or ten feet deep4 ,esper        
calculated that1 in his time1 #ahj      
skulls had  been taken out of the loose 
animal earth1 the conglomerate not      
having  been broken up for this purpose4
 ,of late years1 the conglomerate       
afforded1 in the space of three years1  

#aej skulls2 and we may  estimate that  
twice as many more were destroyed in    
breaking them  out of the hard          
stalactitic matter4 ,if we add to this  
the pieces of  skulls which occur in    
this repository1 more frequently than   
perfect  skulls1 we may estimate that   
more than a thousand individuals lie    
buried here4    ,these bones occur now1 
as formerly1 irregularly dispersed2 that
 is1  teeth1 cylindrical bones1 cranial 
bones1 and vertebr of different         
species1 and of different individuals of
 different ages1 and of  various sizes1 
occur conglutinated together4 ,we never 
find the under  jaw of the same skull   
near to it1 and rarely the two separated
  portions of the same lower jaw        
together2 the skulls occurring all  in  
the deeper places3 and ,esper found the 
teeth forming a bed by  themselves4 ,the
 bones still possess their sharper      
edges1 and are  neither rubbed nor      
gnawed4    ,if we assume a thousand     
buried individuals1 the proportion of   

the  different species will be1         
according to ,dr ,goldfuss1 as follows3 
#a4 ,hyna spela1        #be    #b4      
,canis spelus1       #ej    #c4 ,felis  
spela1        #be    #d4 ,gulo spelus1  
#cj    #e4 ,ursus priscus1       #aj    
#f4 ,ursus arctoideus1    #fj    #g4    
,ursus spelus1      #hjj    ,the bones  
of small animals1 mentioned by ,esper1  
are now no longer met  with2 and1 in the
 collections of ,esper and ,frischmann1 
,dr ,goldfuss  saw only a few dozen of  
the glutton 7,gulo47 ,the contents of a 
peculiar conglomerate described by      
,esper1 cannot now be determined4  ,it  
consisted of a confused assemblage of   
very small bones1 the  fracture surfaces
 of which were fibrous1 and contained   
also the  thigh-bone and rib of a bird1 
which were conjectured to equal in size 
those of the eagle2 hence ,esper        
inferred that the mass was made up of   
the remains of reptile and fish bones4  
,no remains have hitherto been found in 
these caves2 but in former  times we are

 told that teeth of the elephant were   
found in the  ,zahnloch1 and a vertebra1
 supposed1 of a rhinoceros1 in the      
,schneiderloch4 ,the bones of domestic  
animals1 such as deer1 roes1  foxes1 and
 badgers1 frequently found in the caves1
 shew1 at a glance1  that they have come
 into their present situation           
accidentally1 at a  modern period4      
,the cave at ,mockas formerly contained 
in its deepest fissures1  teeth and     
fragments of bones of bears1 associated 
with rolled stones1  and enveloped in   
earthy marl4 ,the entrance to this cave 
is situated  on the acclivity of a hill4
 ,goldfuss ascended to the entrance of  
it by means of a rope1 and found in its 
interior many narrow1 wide  extended    
hollows1 which are generally so confined
 that we can only  visit them by        
creeping4 ,here and there there are     
small widenings1 and  frequently narrow 
outlets occur in the roof4    ,the      
,zahnloch and the ,schneiderloch1 which 
also contain single  bones of bears1 are

 small vaults1 with wide openings1 into 
which we  can penetrate without         
difficulty4    #dcg ,the fact mentioned 
in the text brings to our recollection  
an  interesting ,memoir of ,professor   
,walther1 entitled1 8,on the ,antiquity 
of diseases in ,bones10 printed in      
,grasse and ,walther's ,journal der     
,chirurgie und ,augenheil ,kunde1 viii4 
,from eleven specimens of bones  of     
cave-bears found in the ,caves of       
,sundwich1 described by ,walther1  a    
proof is obtained1 that the common forms
 of osseous diseases occur  in them1    
just as they are observed at present in 
the human species1  viz4 necrosis1      
anchylosis1 caries1 exostosis1 formation
 of new bony  matter1 thickening1       
thinning1 and arthritic properties of   
diseased  bones4 ,most of those diseases
 are such as would result from violent  
injuries1 and the consequent very       
tedious organo-vital reaction4 ,such    
mechanical injuries would give rise to  
necrosis1 caries1 exostosis1  c4 ,we can

 easily conceive1 says ,walther1 how    
that the rapacious  animals of a former 
world may have been exposed to violent  
mechanical  injuries of their bodies1   
and of single parts of them4 ,it is     
worthy  of remark1 that most of the     
diseased bones are of the lower jaw1 the
  alveolar processes of it and the walls
 of single alveol4 ,during the  combats 
of the cave bears for their prey amongst
 themselves1 or with  other gigantic    
animals1 the jaws and teeth must have   
experienced the  greatest mechanical    
injuries4 ,the necroses of the humeral  
bones are  such as might result from a  
bruising of the bones1 and the caries of
  the upper surface of the bodies of the
 lumbar vertebr1 may have been          
occasioned by external violence4        
,walther is also of opinion1 that  the  
cave-bears suffered from diseases of the
 bones not referrible  to mechanical    
injuries4 ,he remarks of a radius and a 
vertebra1  whose arthritic condition he 
carefully describes1 8,these bones have 

experienced pathological changes1 which 
could only arise from a long  continued 
diseased condition of the nutritive     
process4 ,they are very  light1 have an 
extremely thin crust1 the greater part  
of their mass  is of a spongy1 very     
porous substance1 and are uncommonly    
fragile4  ,such a change could not be   
produced by any external mechanical     
injury1 nor by any slight action of the 
weather2 but must proceed  from a       
tedious constitutional disease1         
connected with a total  change of the   
organo-forming plastic activity1 and    
proceeding from  a peculiar dyscrasia40 
,hence it is probable1 these cave-bears 
even  suffered from gout1 scrophula1 and
 other similar diseases4    #dch        
,according to ,laugier1 in #ajj parts of
 the earth in which  the bones in the   
caves of ,gaylenreuth are imbedded1 he  
found the  following proportional       
quantity of constituent parts3      #a4 
,lime1 with a little magnesia1 in the   
state of carbonate1     #cb4j    #b4    

,carbonic acid and moisture1            
#bd4j    #c4 ,phosphate of lime1        
#ba4e    #d4 ,animal matter and water1  
#aj4j    #e4 ,alumina slightly coloured 
with manganese1                     #d4j
    #f4 ,silica coloured with iron1     
#d4j    #g4 ,oxide of iron1 probably    
combined with phosphoric acid1          
#c4e    #h4 ,loss1                      
#a4j                                    
-----                                   
#ajj4j                   99       99    
99       99       99           99       
99       99       99       99    ,,books
    ,,printed ,,for ,,william           
,,blackwood1 ,,edinburgh2    ,,and ,t4  
,,cadell1 ,,strand1 ,,london4           
,elegantly ,printed1 in #c vols4 royal  
octavo1    ,,exotic ,,flora2            
,containing    ,,figures ,,and          
,,descriptions      ,,of    ,,new1      
,,rare1 ,,or ,,otherwise ,,interesting  
,,exotic ,,plants1      ,especially of  
such as are deserving of being          
,cultivated    in our ,gardens2         

,,together ,,with    ,,remarks ,,upon   
,,their ,,generic ,,and ,,specific      
,,characters1    ,,natural ,,orders1    
,,history1 ,,culture1 ,,time ,,of       
,,flowering1 c4      ,,by ,,william     
,,jackson ,,hooker1 ,,ll4,d4 c4         
,member of the ,imperial ,academy ,natur
 ,curiosorum2 of the ,wernerian         
,natural ,history ,society of           
,edinburgh2 of the ,royal ,botanic      
,society    of ,ratisbon2 of the        
,helvetic ,society of ,natural ,history1
 c4 c4 and    ,regius ,professor of     
,botany in the ,university of ,glasgow4 
,the ,work includes1 under the title of 
,,exotic ,,flora1 ,figures and          
,descriptions of such ,plants1 not      
natives of ,great ,britain1 as are      
,cultivated in our ,gardens1 or1 in     
defect of them1 of such as can    be    
faithfully represented from             
well-preserved specimens in our         
,herbaria4 ,in the selection of         
,species1 preference is1 of course1     
given to such as recommend themselves by

 their beauty1 their    history1        
novelty1 or some remarkable or          
little-known characters in    their     
flowers and fruit4           99       99
       99       99       99        ,in  
one large volume #hvo1 with ,eight      
,plates1 price #aes4      ,,elements    
,,of ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,plants2  
,containing the ,principles of          
,scientific ,botany1 ,nomenclature1     
,theory of ,classification1             
,phytography1 ,anatomy1 ,chemistry1     
,physiology1 ,geography1 and ,diseases  
of ,plants2 with a ,history of    the   
,science1 and ,practical ,illustrations4
      ,by ,a4 ,p4 ,,decandolle1 and ,k4 
,,sprengell4      ,translated from the  
,german4           99       99       99 
99       99        ,in octavo1 price    
#aes4      ,,flora ,,edinensis2         
,,or      ,a ,,description ,,of ,,plants
 ,,growing ,,near ,,edinburgh1          
,arranged according to the ,linnean     
,system2 with a ,concise ,introduction  
to the ,natural ,orders of the ,class   

,cryptogamia1 and ,illustrative         
,plates4      ,by ,,robert ,,kaye       
,,greville1 ,f4,r4,s4  ,f4,a4,s4,e4     
,member of the ,wernerian ,natural      
,history ,society of ,edinburgh1    c4  
c4 c4           99       99       99    
99       99        ,a ,new ,edition1    
entirely re-composed1 in #d large vols4 
#hvo4 ,l4 #c1      ,a ,,system ,,of     
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,,thomson1 ,m4,d4 ,f4,r4,s4 c4 c4       
99       99       99       99       99  
,in one vol4 #hvo4 with ,four ,maps of  
the ,constellations1 and a ,plate    of 
the figures illustrative of the ,work4  
,the ,second ,edition1    corrected and 
improved4 ,price #is4      ,,an         
,,elementary ,,treatise ,,on            
,,astronomy2      ,or1 an ,easy         
,introduction to a ,knowledge of the    
,heavens1      ,intended for the ,use of
 those who are not much conversant in   
,mathematical ,studies4      ,by the    
,,rev4 ,a4 ,,mylne1 ,d4 ,d4             
,minister of ,dollar1 ,honorary ,member 

of the ,royal ,physical ,society1    and
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,antiquaries4           99       99     
99       99       99        ,handsomely 
,printed in #hvo4 the ,second ,edition1 
,price #ads4      ,,werner',s           
,,nomenclature ,,of ,,colours1          
,with ,additions1 so as to render it    
highly useful to the ,arts and          
,sciences1 particularly ,zoology1       
,botany1 ,chemistry1 ,mineralogy1    and
 ,morbid ,anatomy4 ,annexed to which are
 examples selected from    well-known   
objects in the ,animal1 ,vegetable1 and 
,mineral ,kingdoms4      ,by ,,patrick  
,,syme1      ,flower-,painter1          
,edinburgh2 ,painter to the ,wernerian  
and ,caledonian    ,horticultural       
,societies4      8,having the good      
fortune to possess a colour-suite of    
minerals1    made1 under the eye of     
,werner1 by my late friend ,h4 ,meuder  
of    ,freyberg1 and being desirous of  
making this collection as generally     
useful as possible1 ,i mentioned my wish

 to ,mr ,syme1 who readily    undertook 
to make a delineation of all the        
varieties in this    collection4 ,this  
he executed with his usual skill and    
accuracy2    adding1 at the same time1  
to the series several other colours1    
which he has distinguished by           
appropriate names1 and arranged along   
with those in the ,wernerian system4    
,the whole has been published in    a   
series of ,tables1 in a ,treatise which 
ought to be in the hands of    every    
,mineralogist1 and indeed in the        
possession of ,naturalists of    every  
description40--,professor ,,jameson',s  
,characters of ,minerals4           99  
99       99       99       99        ,in
 ,one ,volume large #hvo4 ,price #ads4  
,,historical ,,sketch      ,,of         
,,the ,,progress ,,of ,,discovery1      
,,navigation1    ,,and ,,commerce1      
,from the earliest ,records to the      
beginning of the ,nineteenth ,century4  
,,by ,,william ,,stevenson1 ,,esq4      
,this ,,historical ,,sketch has been    

drawn up with reference to1 and    in   
order to form the #ahth and concluding  
,volume of ,,kerr',s ,,voyages    and   
,,travels4 ,but though drawn up with    
this object1 it is strictly    and      
entirely an independent and separate    
,work4 ,at the conclusion    of the     
,volume is given a ,select ,catalogue of
 ,voyages and ,travels1    which1 it is 
hoped1 will be found generally useful1  
not only in    directing reading and    
inquiry1 but also in the formation of a 
,library4            ,,transcriber',s   
,,note      ,obvious typographical      
errors and punctuation errors have been 
corrected after careful comparison with 
other occurrences within    the text and
 consultation of external sources4      
,there are several references to both   
#8,de ,luc' and #8,deluc'2 these        
refer to the same person1 and have not  
been changed4      ,except for those    
changes noted below1 all misspellings in
 the text1    and inconsistent or       
archaic usage1 have been retained4      

,pg vi3 #8gradual developement' replaced
 by #8gradual development'4    ,pg xxi3 
#8,zodaical' replaced by #8,zodiacal'4  
,pg xxii3 #8,horse1   #bhh' replaced by 
#8,horse1   #bhe'4    ,pg #c3 #8of the  
,peleponnesus' replaced by #8of the     
,peloponnesus'4    ,pg #ba3             
#8formations1 aud' replaced by          
#8formations1 and'4    ,pg #eh3 #8lama1 
the vicuna' replaced by #8llama1 the    
vicuna'4    ,pg #fh3 #8large qradupeds' 
replaced by #8large quadrupeds'4    ,pg 
#gd3 #8,three several' replaced by      
#8,three separate'4    ,pg #gh3 was     
incorrectly labelled as #8#hg' in the   
original book4    ,pg #hj3 #8lama1 the  
vicunna' replaced by #8llama1 the       
vicuna'4    ,pg #hd3 #8corrrespond1 and'
 replaced by #8correspond1 and'4    ,pg 
#aab3 #8that the fosil' replaced by     
#8that the fossil'4    ,pg #ach3 #8by   
the ,phenicians' replaced by #8by the   
,phnicians'4    ,pg #adi3 #8a very      
reremote' replaced by #8a very remote'4 
,pg #aee3 #8the ,bramins1 and' replaced 

by #8the ,brahmins1 and'4    ,pg #agb3  
was incorrectly labelled as #8#adf' in  
the original book4    ,pg #baa3 #8even  
admiting' replaced by #8even admitting'4
    ,pg #bab3 #8,zodaical' replaced by  
#8,zodiacal'4    ,pg #bab3 #8#as'       
7subscript s7 replaced by #8#as'        
7superscript s74    ,pg #bbb3 #8double  
suppositon' replaced by #8double        
supposition'4    ,pg #bbe3 #8found      
bebetween' replaced by #8found between'4
    ,pg #bbg3 missing anchor for        
,footnote #bbf inserted after           
#8at that period'4    ,pg #bdi ,table3  
the duplicate headings #8,transition    
,formations' and            #8,primitive
 ,formations' have been removed from the
 last two            blocks of the      
table4    ,pg #bfc3 #8named it          
,iquanodon' replaced by #8named it      
,iguanodon#84    ,pg #bfc3 missing      
anchor for ,footnote #bfa inserted after
            #8,iguanodon#84    ,pg #bgi3
 #8whereever our ancient' replaced by   
#8wherever our ancient'4    ,pg #bhj3   

#8or anaplothria1' replaced by #8or     
anaplotheria1'4    ,pg #cjb3 #8of       
,bufffon' replaced by #8of ,buffon'4    
,pg #cfj3 #8is very obsure' replaced by 
#8is very obscure'4    ,pg #cfa3        
#8,letters sur l',histoire' replaced by 
#8,lettres sur l',histoire'4    ,pg     
#cfg3 #8islands of ,pelworm' replaced by
 #8islands of ,pellworm'4    ,pg #cgd3  
#8of ,maviston' replaced by #8of        
,mavieston'4    ,pg #cgh3 #8,great      
,britian' replaced by #8,great          
,britain'4    ,pg #cgi3 #8sands of      
,barrey' replaced by #8sands of         
,barray'4    ,pg #che3 #8breaks of in'  
replaced by #8breaks off in'4    ,pg    
#dja3 #8#aggj' replaced by #8#agjj'4    
,pg #dfa3 #8a slop of even' replaced by 
#8a slope of even'4    ,pg #dge3 #8sol d
 crust' replaced by #8solid crust'4     
,pg #dgf3 #8it of contributiug' replaced
 by #8it of contributing'4    ,pg #dic3 
#8with then,palm1' replaced by #8with   
the ,palm'4    ,pg #ejf ,table3 the     
heading #8,,head4' has been inserted at 

the top of            column #a4    ,pg 
#ebb3 #8various corridores' replaced by 
#8various corridors'4    ,pg #eda3      
#8crosses the torent' replaced by       
#8crosses the torrent'4    ,pg #edg     
,table3 this multipage ,table has been  
split into three parts4           ,the  
right-hand column #8,,observations' with
 four entries has           been        
replaced by four ,notes 7a7 to 7d7 below
 the ,table4    ,pg #edi3 ,note 7d72    
#8the fissil rocks' replaced by #8the   
fossil rocks'4    ,pg #eej ,table3 this 
wide ,table has been split into two     
parts4           ,the right-hand column 
#8,,observations' with a single entry   
has           been replaced by a ,note  
7a7 below the ,table4      ,pg #bd      
,footnote #g3 #8,geschechte der         
,natrliche' replaced by                 
#8,geschichte der ,natrlichen'4    ,pg  
#fb ,footnote #cd3 #8on the             
,hippopatamus' replaced by          #8on
 the ,hippopotamus'4    ,pg #fe         
,footnote #ef3 #8describes the chace'   

replaced by          #8describes the    
chase'4    ,pg #acf ,footnote #aaj3     
#8the peat-moses of' replaced by        
#8the peat-mosses of'4    ,pg #add      
,footnote #aai3 #8principal ,phenician' 
replaced by          #8principal        
,phnician'4    ,pg #bia ,footnote #ccd3 
#8#deh' replaced by #8p4 #deh'4    ,pg  
#cea ,footnote #cee3 ,some adjustments  
have been made to the           ,greek  
quotation1 after checking with external 
sources4    ,pg #eaj ,footnote #dca3    
#8been found  some' replaced by         
#8been found in some'4      ,there is a 
reference to #8,note ,k' and #8,note ,n'
 and #8,note ,o'1 but they    do not    
exist4 #8,note ,j' does not exist and   
has no reference to it4